Wims&m WttStSM / 'y/‘‘ „v 0k ' y v Sffgl v !,y V'i Imm '>,, ; 1 U !t. BSH •V-//‘V :ty vfetf i mimim wiwlw T ISBiini ■ liiliil®iiiiS^^^W> ■ ■'. . ■; .. : . ' ■ ' ■ ■ . . .. , : ' ' . ;.. ^ •> 1 /K'! > '"'i(hM'3i/ii > <, Gilbert, 1882). A few fish of this species were examined in the market at Corpus Christi, but we saw none at Gal- veston. 170. Roccus chrysops (Raf.). White Bass. Red River at Fulton, Ark. (Jordan & Gilbert, 1886). 171. Morone interrupta Gill. Yellow Bass. Common in the lower portions of the San Jacinto and Trinity rivers, from which it is brought in considerable numbers to the Houston market. XXXIV.— SFARIDiE. THE SPAROID FISHES. 172. Lutjanus caxis (Bloch & Schneider). Gray Snapper. Brazos Santiago and mouth of Rio Grande (as Neonw.nsis emarginatus, Girard, 1859, pi. ix, figs. 5-8). 173. Lutjanus aya (Bloch). Red Snapper. This important food-fish is brought to the Galveston market from banks not far distant. 174. Rhomboplites aurorubens (C. & V.). Brazos Santiago (as Conodon antillanus, Girard, 1859). 175. Orthopristis chrysopterus (L.). Pigfish; Sailor’s Choice. Indianola and Brazos Santiago (as Ortliopristis duplex types, Girard, 1859, pi. ix, figs. 1-4). Galveston (as Pomadasys fulvomac- ulatns, Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). Three specimens of this were gotten at Corpus Christi, where it is of some value as a food-fish. An example 9 inches long gives the following meas- urements: Head, 3£; depth, 2); eye, 5); D. xn-15; A. in— 13 ; scales, about 55 in length of 116 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. lateral line. A young specimen, 4f inches long, has the head, 3; depth, 2f; D. xin-13 ; A. in— 12 ; scales, about 55 with pores; eye large, 3J in head, and greater than the interorbital width. 176. Lagodon rhomboides (L.). Pinfish; Chopa Spina. Brazos, Indianola, St. Joseph Island, and Brazos Santiago (Girard, 1859, pi. ix, figs. 13-16). Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). Galveston and Corpus Christi, at both of which places it is an abundant species. 177. Archosargus probatocephalus ( Walb. ). Sheepsliead. Indianola and Brazos Santiago (as Sargus ovis, Girard, 1859). Galveston and Corpus Christi. XXXV.— SCIiENIDiE. THE CROAKERS. 178. Aplodinotus grunniens Raf. Fresh-water Drum. Mouth of Rio Grande and Matamoras (as Amblodon neglectus types, Girard, 1859, pi. y, figs. 6-10). Red River at Fulton, Ark., and Rio Colorado at Austin (Jordan & Gilbert, 1886). Numerous specimens seen in the Houston market, from the mouth of the Trinity River. 179. Pogonias chromis (L.). Salt-water Drum. Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). Found by us at Galveston, but not seen at Corpus Christi. Brazos Santiago (as Pogonias fasciatus, Girard, 1859). 180. Stelliferus lanceolatus (Holbrook). St. Joseph Island (as Homoprion lanceolatus, Girard, 1859). 181. Bairdiella chrysura (Lac.). Yellow-tail. Galveston (as Scicena punctata, Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). A dozen specimens were obtained by us at Corpus Christi, where it is an abundant fish. 182. Sciaena ocellata (L.). Bedfish; Channel Bass. Indianola (as Johnius oeellatus, Girard, 1859, pi. viii, figs. 1-4). Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). An abundant and important food- fish at Galveston and Corpus Christi. Specimens 38 and 39 inches in length at Galveston weighed 46 pounds each. In the Houston market this fish was selling at 10 cents a pound. Dickinson Bayou. 183. Leiostomus xanthurus Lac. Spot; Goody. Brazos Santiago and Indianola (as Leiostomus obliquus, Girard, 1859). St. J oseph Island (as Homoprion lanceolatus, Girard, 1859). Brazos Santiago and St. Joseph Island (as Homoprion xanthurus, Girard, 1859). Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). Found by us both at Galveston and Corpus Christi. 184. Larimus fasciatus (Holbrook). Eleven small examples, 2 to 4-J inches long, were obtained at Galveston. 185. Micropogon undulatus (L.). Croaker. Mouth of the Rio Grande, Indianola, St. Joseph Island, and Galveston (Girard, 1859, pi. vn). Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). Taken by us only at Galveston. 186. Menticirrhus littoralis (Holbrook). Surf Whiting. Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). A single small specimen gotten by us at Galveston. 187. Menticirrhus americanus (L.). Whiting. Indianola and Brazos Santiago (as Umbrina phaleena types, Girard, 1859, pi. v, figs. 1-5). Galveston (as Menticirrus alburn us, Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). One specimen in the collection from Galveston. Each of these two species is com- mon, however, at Galveston, and will doubtless be found all along the Texas coast. 188. Cynoscion nothus (Holbrook). Brazos Santiago (as Otolithus nothus, Girard, 1859). 189. Cynoscion nebulosus (C. &V.). Spotted Sea Trout. Brazos Santiago, Brazos, and Indianola (as Otolithus drummondi, Girard, 1859, pi. vi). Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). Corpus Christi and Galveston. Also seen in the Houston market from the mouth of Trinity River. XXXVI.— GERRIDJE. THE GERROIDS. 190. Gerres gula (C. & V.). Brazos Santiago, Brazos, Indianola, and St. Joseph Island (as Kncino- stomus argenleus, Girard, 1859, pi. ix, figs. 9-12). Taken by us only at Corpus Christi. 191. Gerres gracilis (Gill). There are in the present collection fourteen specimens representing Corpus Christi, Galveston, Dickinson Bayou, and Buffalo Bayou at Houston. This last locality is 60 miles from salt water. r FISHES OF TEXAS AND THE EIO GRANDE BASIN. 117 XXXVII. — CICHLIDiE. THE CICHLIDS. 192. Heros cyanoguttatus (B. & G.). Fresh water at Brownsville (as Her os cyanoguttatus types, Baird & Girard, 1854). Lagoon at Fort Brown, Brownsville, Matamoras, San Juan River, and Cadereita, New Leon, and Devil River (as Herichthys cyanoguttatus, Girard, 1859, pi. iv, figs. 9-12). The type of this species (U. S. N. M. No. 851) is about 6 inches in total length and is in excellent condition. It is well described in Jordan & Gilbert’s Synopsis. 193. Heros pavonaceus Garman. Mondova, Coahuila (types, Garman, 1881, and Synopsis). This and the preceding species are the most northern representatives of the Cichlidce, a family represented in Central and South America by many species. XXXVIII.— EPHIPPIDiE. THE ANGEL FISHES. 194. Chastodipterus faber (Broussonet). Angel-fish. Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). Two small specimens obtained by us at Galveston. XXXIX.— GOBIIDiE. THE GOBIES. 195. Gobiomorus dormitator (Bl. & Sch.). Near mouth of the Rio Grande(as Philipnus dormitator, Girard, 1859, pi. xn, fig. 13). 196. Dormitator maculatus (Bloch). Near mouth of the Rio Grande (as Eleotris gyrinus, Girard, 1859, pi. xii, figs. 11 and 12, and Eleotris sumnulentus types, Girard, 1859, pi. xii, figs. 1-3). We obtained two small specimens at Galveston in Galveston' Bay. 197. Gobius lyricus Girard. Brazos Santiago (types, Girard, 1858 and 1859, pi. xii, figs. 4 and 5). Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). Rio Grande (as Euctenogobius lyricus, Synopsis). Taken by us at Galveston. 198. Gobius soporator C. & V. Goby. St. Joseph Island (as Gobius catulus types, Girard, 1859, pi. xii, figs. 9 and 10). St. .Joseph Island (as Evorthodus catulus, Synopsis). 199. Gobius boleosoma J. & G. Goby. Several specimens obtained by us at Galveston, Dickinson Bayou, and at Corpus Christi, from which the following description is taken : Head, 4 to 4| ; depth, 3 to 4 ; D. vi-11 or 12 to vi-13 or 14 ; A. 11 to 13 or 14. Scales 26 to 31, Body slender, compressed. Head moderate ; snout evenly decurved, equal to eye. Eye, 3 to 4 iu head, its diameter about equal to the interorbital space. Mouth moderate; maxillary extending slightly beyond point of orbit. Teeth slender in several rows. Scales moderate, ctenoid, those in front somewhat reduced. Vertical fins low, caudal pointed, nearly as long as head ; pectoral shorter than caudal ; ventral shorter than caudal. Region before dorsal and breast naked ; belly scaly. Color, light olivaceous, faintly mottled with darker ; along the middle of side are four or five oblong dark blotches, the last being at base of caudal; a jet-black spot above gill-opening on side of back ; head faintly marked above with darker ; a dark bar extending from near angle of mouth nearly to edge of preopercle ; also a dark bar from maxillary to lower front of eye; opercle dusky with silvery edge ; vertical fins and caudal barred with darker ; ventral pale, with two dark lines through the middle ; in some cases dark with pale margin ; head and naked areas punctulate with darker. Other specimens with no shoulder spots, no dark punctulations on breast, and ventrals with no dark mark- ings. Spots on the sides of all the specimens range from linear to nearly round. In their review of the Gobiidce, Jordan & Eigenuiann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1886, 490, state that the breast, nape, and belly of this species are naked, but in our specimens, as well as in some other specimens identified by Dr. Jordan, and with which our specimens were compared, the belly is always evidently scaly, as also the belly of' G. stigmaticus, which was said to be naked. The thinness and transparency of the scales on the belly cause it to appear naked in some specimens. 118 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The following table gives measurements of 14 specimens: Head. Depth. Eye. Dorsal. Anal. Scales. Q 51 4 VI-11 or 12 11 30 4 5* 4 VI-11 11 30 or 31 4, 4f 3-i VI-12 or 13 13 or 14 30 or 31 4 4 VI-11 or 12 12 30 or 31 4f 5:1 4 VI-11 or 12 11 or 12 30 or 31 ii 5i 3g VI-11 or 12 13 or 14 5' 4 VI-11 11 30 or 31 4§ 4f 4, nearly. VI-11 11 29 or 30 4f 3f VI-1) 12 30, about- 4+ 54 4 VI-11 11 28 or 29 4 54 4+ VI-11 11 28 or 29 4 5+ 4 VI-11 12 26, about. 4+ 34 VI-11 11 28 4 5i 3+ VI- ? 11 29 or 30 200. Gobius wiirdemanni Grd. Brazos Santiago (types, Girard, 1859, and Synopsis). 201. Gobionellus oceanicus (Pallas). Emerald Fish. St. Joseph Island (as Gobionellus hastatus types, Girard, 1859, pi. xii, figs. 7 and 8). 202. Lepidogobius gulosus (Grd.). Goby. Indianola (as Gobius gulosus types, Girard, 1858 and 1859, and Synopsis) . Taken by ns at Corpus Christi and in Dickinson Bayou near Dickinson . 203. Gobiosoma bosci (Lac.). Goby. Five specimens from Galveston and nineteen from Corpus Christi. 204. Gobiosoma molestum Grd. Goby. Indianola (type, Girard, 1859, pi. xn, fig. 14). Six speci- mens are in our collection from Corpus Christi. XL.- TRIGLIDiE. THE GURNARDS. 205. Prionotus scitulus J. & G. Sea Robin. Taken by us only at Galveston. 206. Prionotus tribulus C. & Y. Sea Robin. Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). Taken by us at Galveston and Corpus Christi. XLI.— GOBIESOCIDiE. 207. Gobiesox virgatulus J. & G. One specimen, If inches long to tip of caudal, taken at Galveston. Head (from tip of snout to edge of gill-cover), about 2f ; width of head, 3J; depth, 7£; D. 10; A. 6. Body slender, head low and broad. Eye small, 4^ in head or 2 jn interorbital width. Cheeks not prominent; opeicle ending in a sharp spine; cleft of mouth extending below front of orbit; teeth of upper jaw in two series, the outer series short, those occupy- ing front of jaw enlarged, four of which are canine-like. Eight middle teeth of lower jaw incisor-like, edges entire. Color, dark olivaceous, indistinctly mottled and finely punctate; under part of head, disk, and ventrals pale and yellowish; dorsal, caudal, and anal dark, barred with paler ; belly yellowish brown. This specimen seems to be G. virgatulus, but the fin rays are fewer than in that species. XLII.— BATRACHIDJE. THE TOADFISHES. 208. Batrachus tau (L.). Toadfish; Oyster-fish. Indianola (Girard, 1859). One example obtained by us at Corpus Christi. 209. Porichthys porosissimus (C. & V.). Galveston (as Poriclithys plectrodon types, Jordan & Gil- bert, 1882). XLIII.— URANOSCOPIDiE. THE STAR-GAZERS. 210. Upsilonphorus y-gisecum (C. & V.). Star-gazer. One specimen of this species was secured by us at Galveston. 211. Astroscopus anoplos (C. & V.). Dogfish. Electric Dogfish. Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882), where they report it as being rather common. FISHES OF TEXAS AND THE RIO GRANDE BASIN. 119 XLIV— BLENNIIDiE. THE BLENNIES. 212. Chasmodes bosquianus (Lac.). Blenny. Three specimens obtained by us at Corpus Christi. 213. Isesthes hentzi (Le S.). Blenny. We collected two specimens at Corpus Christi. 214. Isesthes ionthas J. & G. Blenny. Apparently not common on the Texas coast, as it has not hitherto been reported from that coast and we obtained but a single specimen at Galveston. 215. Isesthes scrutator J. & G. Blenny. Galveston (types, Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). 216. Hypleurochilus geminatus (Wood). Blenny. St. Joseph Island (as Blennius multifilus types, Girard, 1859, pi. xii, fig. 6). XLV.— OPHIDIIDiE. THE OPHIDIOIDS. 217. Ophidion marginatum DeKay. St. Joseph Island (as Oplndion josephi types, Girard, 1859, and Synopsis). XLVI.— PLEURONECTIDiE. THE FLOUNDERS. 218. Citharichthys spilopterus Gunther Flounder. Taken by us at Galveston. 219. Etropus crossotus J. & G. Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). Ten specimens obtained by us at Galveston. 220. Paralichthys lethostigma J. & G. Flounder. A common market fish at Galveston (as Par- alichtliys dentatus, Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). Found by us at Galveston, Dickinson Bayou, and Corpus Christi. 221. Ancylopsetta quadrocellata Gill. We have two small specimens taken at Galveston. 222. Achirus fasciatus Lac. Galveston (as Achirus lincatus broivni, Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). One young individual from Galveston and another from Dickinson Bayou near Dickinson. 223. Symphurus plagiusa (L.). Found by us at Galveston, Dickinsou Bayou, and Corpus Christi. It does not appear at all abundant, as we obtained but four specimens. XL VII. — ANTENNARIID2E. THE FROGFISHES. 224. Pterophryne histrio (L.). Galveston (as Pterophrynoides his trio, Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). One specimen from Galveston, presented to us by Dr. A. Galuy. XL VIII.— MALTHIDiE. THE BATPISHES. 225. Malthe vespertilio (L.). A specimen of this fish was given to Dr. Jordan by- Dr. A. Galny, of Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). XLIX. — OSTRACIIDiE. THE TRUNKFISHES. 226. Ostracion tricorne L. Cowfish. Galveston, one specimen (as Ostracium quadricorne, Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). L. — BALISTIDA3. THE TRIGGER-FISHES. 227. Alutera schcepffi (Walb.). 'Orange Filefish. Through the kindness of Mr. J. A. Singley, of the Texas Geological Survey, we have received a dry skin of this species. Mr. Singley obtained the specimen at Galveston, where it is known as the “ orange filefish.” A young fish, prob- ably of this species, was seen by Dr. Jordan at Galveston (as Alutera sp. incog., Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). LI.— TETRODONTIDiE. THE PUFFERS. 228. Lagocephalus laevigatus (L.). One specimen obtained by Dr. Jordan at Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). 229. Tetrodon nephelus (Goode & Bean). Swellfish ; Puffer. Abundant at Galveston (as Te.tr odon turgidus nephelus, Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). One specimen taken by us at Galveston and one at Corpus Christi. 230. Chilomycterus schcepffi (Walb.). Common about Galveston (Jordan & Gilbert, 1882). 120 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. CLASSIFIED LIST OF LOCALITIES MENTIONED, In the following classified list of streams and localities an attempt has been made to arrange in order all the localities in Texas and the Bio Grande Basin from which any fish has ever been reported, as shown by the literature at our command. Some of the small creeks and springs mentioned in the earlier papers are quite difficult to locate definitely, but it is believed the classification here given is approximately; if not exactly, correct. It has been thought best to include, in a few cases, localities not in the actual limits of this paper, the object of which will be apparent upon an examina tion of the preceding detailed list of species. Isolated waters south of the Eio Grande, but which geographically belong in the Eio Grande Basin, have been included : Arkansas River : Canadian River. Spring Creek near Creswell. Fulton Creek near Creswell. Coal Creek. Headwaters of Canadian River in the Llano Estaeado. Elm Creek. Antelope Creek. Poteau River near Fort Smith, Arkansas. Red River at Fulton, Arkansas. Tributary of Red River at Fort Washita, In- dian Territory. Otter Creek, tributary of North Fork. Gypsum Creek. Sans Bois Creek. Little Wichita River. Turkey Creek. Sabine River at Longview. Neches River near Palestine. Trinity River at Fort Worth, Dallas, Magnolia Point, and at mouth. Long Lake near Magnolia Point. Elm Creek. San Jacinto River at Lynchburg. Buffalo Bayou near Houston. Hunter Creek near Houston. Big White Oak Bayou near Houston. Sims Bayou near Houston. Kilper’s Pond near Houston. Dickinson Bayou at Nicholstone. Brazos River. Clear Creek near Hempstead. Leon River. Lampasas River near Belton. Colorado River, headwaters of. San Saba River at Fort McKavett. Llano River in Kimble County. Johnson Fork, in Kimble County. Comanche Creek in Mason County. San Antonio River at San Antonio. Guadalupe River at New Braunfels. Comal Creek at New Braunfels. Blanco River at San Marcos. San Marcos River at San Marcos. Dry Creek near Victoria. Cibolo Creek. Sutherland Springs. Medina River at Helotes. Tributary of Medina River. Helotes Creek. Wallace Creek in Bandera County, and the upper waters of Medina River. Salado River. San Antonio Springs, San Antonio. San Pedro Creek, San Antonio. Nueces River. Frio River. Sabinal, Leona, and Seco rivers. Upper tributaries of Nueces River. Elm Creek. Turkey Creek. Rio Grande at Alamosa, Loma, Sangre de Christo Pass, and (tributary) at Fort Garland in Colorado ; San Ildefonso, at the mouth of the Hondo -River, Albuquerque, Piedra Painte; (tributary) atOjode Gallo, (trib- utary) between Fort Defiance and Fort Union, (tributary) at Zoquito, and Fort Bliss in New Mexico ; (tributaries) at Buena Vista, Acapulco, and Cuajuco, New Leon; Parras, and spring near Sal- tillo, Coahuila; (lagoon) at Palo Alto, Matamoras, and Boca Grande in Tamau- lipas; Eagle Pass (lagoon), Fort Brown, and Brownsville in Texas. San Felipe Creek. San Felipe Springs. Devil River. Pecos River. Live Oak Creek. Headwaters of Pecos River. Bonito River, New Mexico. Delaware Creek. Limpia River and Springs. Comanche Springs. Leon Springs. Hurrah Creek. Taos River, New Mexico. Costilla Creek, New Mexico. Rio Conejos at Alamosa, Colorado. Chama River. Tributary, at Abiquiu, New Mexico. Brazos River, New Mexico. ( f.) Rio de Acama, New Mexico. Utah Creek. Lake Guzman. Tributaries. Rio Mimbres in Chihuahua. Janos River. Streams of the Sierra Madre. Chihuahua River and tributaries. Rio de las Conchas, Chihuahua. Chihuahua near northern boundaries of Du- rango and Sinaloa. Lago del Muerte, tributaries and springs near Monclova, Coahuila. Nazas River at San Pedro. Rio San Juan at China, and near Monterey, New Leon. Rio San Diego near Cadereita, New Leon. FISHES OF TEXAS AND THE RIO GRANDE BASIN. 121 APPENDIX. While carrying on the investigations for the purpose of selecting a site for a fish- cultural station in Texas in November and December, 1891, aconsiderable collection of mollusks and a small collection of reptiles and batrachians were made. The mollusks were collected almost wholly by Dr. R. R. Gurley, of the XT. S. Fish Commission, and Mr. J. A. Singley, of the Texas geological survey, who accompanied our party during most of the time SDent by us in the State. The large number of species found in the accompanying list attests their skill and enthusiasm as collectors. As many of these mollusks sustain an important relation to the fishes of the region in which they are found, the list may very properly be published here. No special search was made for reptiles and batrachians, but such as we chanced to see were collected and preserved. These were turned over to the National Museum, where they have been studied by Mr. F. C. Test, whose report is herewith presented. ANNOTATED LIST OF THE REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS COLLECTED IN MISSOURI AND TEXAS IN THE FALL OF 1891. [By Frederick C. Test, Aid, Reptile Department, U. S. National Museum.] Texas is well kno wn to abound in reptiles, but nearly all the species had gone into hibernation at the time of this expedition (November and December) and few were therefore seen. The list is of value, however, in that it shows what species of reptiles and batrachians of that region are to be seen so late in the fall. The four turtles collected are very interesting, and, taking everything into consideration, the entire collection, though small, is one of some importance. 1. Malaclemmys kohnii Baur. Four young turtles were captured, and are of especial note. They are different from any other species of this group, even differing in some of the markings on the head from this recently described species to which I have referred them. The slight differ- ences, however, seem to me due to immaturity, and I therefore refer these four specimens to M. kohnii. The find extends the range of the species some little distance to the west of the type locality in southern Louisiana. Museum No. Collector’s No. Locality. Date. 17692 11 ] 17693 12 1 Loug Lake, near Trinity River, 12 miles south- Nov. 25 17694 13 [ west of Palestine, Tex. 17695 14 J 2. Anolis principalis L. One adult female of this so-called “chameleon,” found in abundance in several Southern States, especially the adjoining one of Louisiana, was collected. Museum No. Collector’s No. Locality. 17696 4 Neelies River, 14 miles east of Palestine, Tex 3. Sceloporus undulatus Daudin. This widely spread lizard is represented in the collection by one young individual. Museum No. Collector’s No. Locality. Date. 17697 5 Neches River, 14 miles east of Palestine, Tex 1 Nov. 24 122 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 4. Carphophiops vermis Kenn. One half-grown specimen of this retiring ground snake was obtained in southwestern Missouri. The salmon color of the under surface is particularly bright. Musetim No. Collector’s j No. Locality. | Date, j 17698 TJ. S. Fish Commission Station, Neosho, Mo Oct. 30 5. Storeria dekayi Holbrook. One specimen of this little snake, which seems to be quite commonly found at this time of year about water-courses, in the bottoms of ditches, and similar places, sometimes occurring dozens together, of all ages and sizes. In this individual the ground color is a shade lighter than usual, bringing out clearly the dark spots and markings, noticeably those about the head. Museum Collector’s No. Locality. Date. 17699 3 New Braunfels, Tex . Dec. 2 6. Spelerpes bilineatus Green. One very small specimen was secured, still possessing gills and cirri. It is quite dark. This is the only salamander found. Museum No. Collector’s No. Locality. Date. J 1 17700 J 6 Neelies Eiver, 14 miles east of Palestine, Tex . . . Nov. 24 j 7. Acris gryllus crepitans Baird. Of this common little frog, or “peep,” five specimens were collected. Nos. 17701, 17704, and 17705 are very typically and finely marked, but Nos. 17702 and 17703, in addition to the usual markings, have several small, circular, light spots on the back, giving them an odd, mottled appearance. Museum No. Collector’s No. Locality. Date. 17701 7 Sims Bayou, 10 miles south of Houston, Tex Nov. 18 17702 17703 1} Big White Oak Bayou, 2 miles northwest of Hous- ton, Tex. ^Nov. 17 17704 10 New Braunfels, Tex Dec. 3 17705 19 do Do. 8. Rana pipiens pipiens Schreber. One large specimen of typical proportions, but with unusually dark coloration. The ground color is quite dusky, and the posterior surfaces of the thighs are broadly mottled with black. The throat and front of femurs are flecked with brownish. This phase of coloring, though apparently not common, is paralleled by U. S. N. M. No. 3293, from Brownsville, Tex., collected by Capt. VanVliet. Museum No. Collector's No. Locality. Date. 17706 18 New Braunfels, Tex 1 Dec. 3 9. Rana catesbiana Shaw. One medium-sized, quite dark specimen, with the under surface thor- oughly marbled with dark brown, and nine tadpoles of this species were collected. Museum .. No. Collector’s No. Locality. Date. 17707 15 Neches River, 14 miles east of Palestine, Tex Nov. 24 17708-13 16 Trinity River, at Magnolia Point, 10 miles south- west of Palestine, Tex. Nov. 23 17714-16 17 New Braunfels, Tex Dec. 3 FISHES OF TEXAS AND THE RIO GRANDE BASIN. 123 LIST OF MOLLUSCA COLLECTED IN TEXAS IN 1891. . [By J. A. Singley, Geological Survey of Texas.] The collection of mollusca, of which a list is given below, was made by Dr. R. R. Gurley and the writer, while engaged in investigating the waters of Texas with the view of establishing a fish-cultural station in that State. No new species are described, but a new Cytherea(C. texasiana) has been described by Dr. W. H. Dali from material collected at Galveston during the investigation. The list also includes a number of marine species not heretofore recorded from the State, and gives new localities for several terrestrial and fluviatile species. The arrangement is that of Tryon’s “Struc- tural and Systematic Conchology.” 1. Spirula peronii Lam. Galveston and Corpus Christi. 2. Purpura haemastoma L. Galveston and Corpus Cliristi. It is abundant on the rocks at the Galveston jetty. 3. Pasciolaria gigantea Kien. Corpus Christi. Given on the authority of Dr. Gurley. I have not seen the species. 4. Fulgur perversa L. Corpus Christi and Galveston. Common at both places. 5. Fulgur pyrum Dillwyn. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Not common. 6. Nassa vibex Say. Galveston; heach-worn examples. Abundant, living at Corpus Christi, in Corpus Christi Bay and Laguna Madre. The Texas examples are dwarfed. 7. Nassa acuta Say. Common on Galveston Beach the latter part of November. A few beach- worn examples were found at Corpus Christi. 8. Olivella mutica Say. Beach-worn examples were found at Galveston. 9. Oliva liter ata Lam. A few broken shells found on Galveston Beach. 10. Anachis obesa C. B. Ad. Galveston and Corpus Christi; dead shells, not rare. 11. Astyris lunata Say. Dead and worn shells common on Galveston Beach, abundant living at Shamrock Cove, Corpus Christi Bay. 12. Terebra concava Say. Galveston Beach; not common; dead and worn shells only. 13. Terebra dislocata Say. Galveston Beach; commoner than the preceding and better preserved. 14. Mangilia cerinella Dali. Common at Galveston and Corpus Christi. 15. Natica duplicata Say. Galveston and Corpus Christi. An elevated and a depressed form are found. Common. 16. Natica pusilla Say. Galveston; beach-worn examples only. Not common. 17. Sigaretus perspectivus Say. Common on Galveston Beach. 18. Crepidula fornicata L. Abundant at Corpus Christi. A few found on Galveston Beach. 19. Crepidula plana Say. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Common. 20. Crepidula convexa Say. Corpus Christi. The species is given on the authority of Dr. Gurley. 21. Solarium verrucosum Phil. Galveston Beach, rare. Padre Island, Corpus Christi Bay, common. 22. Scala contorquata Dali. Galveston. Given on the authority of Dr. Gurley. 23. Turbonilla interrupta Totten. Galveston Beach. Not common. 24. Litorina irrorata Say. Abundant along the shore of Galveston Bay near Swan Lake. 25. Modulus lenticularis Chem. Corpus Christi. Given on the authority of Dr. Gurley. 26. Cerithium variabile C. B. Ad. Abundant in Shamrock Cove, Corpus Christi Bay. 27. Bittium varium Pfr. Galveston and Corpus Christi; abundant. 28. Bittium cerithidioides Dali. Galveston (Dr. Gurley). 29. Seila terebralis C. B. Ad. Dead shells found on the beach near Corpus Christi. 30. Groniobasis pleuristriata Say. Comal Creek, New Braunfels. The species is not common. 31. Goniobasis comalensis Pilsbry. Comal Springs and Guadalupe River, New Braunfels; San Marcos Springs and River, San Marcos. Abundant. 32. Hydrobia texana Pilsbry. Comal Creek, New Braunfels. Not common. 33. Pyrgula spinosaCall & Pilsbry. Comal Creek, New Braunfels. Rare. 34. Amicola peracuta Pilsbry & Walker. Comal Creek, New Braunfels; Long Lake, Anderson County. Abundant. 35. Truncatella caribbaensis Sowb. Galveston. 124 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 36. Truncatella pulchella Pfr. Galveston. These two species of Truncatella are listed on the authority of Dr. Gurley. I have not found them in my Galveston material. 37. Helicina orbiculata Say. This species was found abundant at every point visited with the exception of Galveston Island. 38. Fissurella alternata Say. A few bleached and broken examples were found on the beach near Corpus Christi. 39. Actseon punctostriatus C. B. Ad. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Not common. 40. Utriculus canaliculatus Say. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Common. 41. Bulla occidentalis A. Ad. Corpus Christi. Dead shells abundant. 42. Glandina decussata Desh. var. singleyana W. G. Binney. One example found at New Braunfels. 43. Zonites indentatus Say. var. umbilicata. San Marcos, San Antonio, New Braunfels, and Pales- tine. Common. 44. Zonites arboreus Say. Found at same localities as the above, but much more abundant. 45. Zonites fulvus Drap. New Braunfels. Common. 46. Zonites minusculus Binn. New Braunfels. Common. 47. Zonites singleyanus Pilsbry. New Braunfels. Not common. 48. Helix berlandieriana Mor. Houston and Palestine. Common. 49. Helix griseola Pfr. Corpus Christi, San Antonio, and Austin. Abundant. 50. Helix roemeri Pfr. Austin. Abundant. 51. Helix monodon Rack. var. fraterna Say. New Braunfels. Common. 52. Helix texasiana Mor. Palestine, Austin, San Marcos, San Antonio, and Corpus Christi. Abundant. 53. Helix mooreana W. G. Binn. New Braunfels. Abundant. 54. Helix hippocrepis Pfr. New Braunfels. Rare. 55. Helicodiscus lineatus Say. New Braunfels. Not common. 56. Bulimulus alternatua Say. Corpus Christi. Typical alternatua was found west of Corpus Christi, while a variety intermediate between alternatua and schiedeanua was found along the bluffs bordering on Corpus Christi Bay. 57. Bulimulus dealbatus Say. Palestine. Two examples. 58. Bulimulus schiedeanus Pfr. New Braunfels and San Antonio. Common. 59. Bulimulus schiedeanus mooreanus W. G. Binn. San Antonio, New Braunfels, San Marcos, and Austin. Abundant. These so-called “species” of Bulimulua are simply variations of one species. At each of the given localities examples were found that connected two or more forms and could not be satisfactorily referred to any one “species.” 60. Holospira roemeri Pfr. New Braunfels. Very rare. 61. Hblospira goldfussi Menke. New Braunfels. Common. 62. Macroceramus gossei Pfr. New Braunfels. Common. 63. Pupa fallax Say. New Braunfels. Abundant. 64. Pupa procera Gould. New Braunfels. Common. 65. Pupa contracta Say. Palestine, New Braunfels. Common. 66. Pupa pentodon Say. New Braunfels. Common. 67. Pupa curvidens Gould. New Braunfels. Not common. 68. Pupa armifera Say. New Braunfels. Two examples. 69. Succinea grosvenon Lea. Palestine. Rare. 70. Physa forsheyi Lea. Long Lake, Anderson County. Not common. 71. Physa halei Lea. San Antonio Springs and San Marcos springs and river; also in Comal Creek, New Braunfels. Abundant. 72. Limnaea humilis Say. Long Lake, Anderson County. Not common. 73. Limnaea desidiosa Say. San Antonio Springs, San Antonio; San Marcos Springs and River, San Marcos. Not common. 74. Planorbis liebmanni Dunker. Comal Creek, New Braunfels. Common. 75. Planorbis lentus Say. Long Lake, Anderson County; Comal Creek, New Braunfels. Common. 76. Planorbis bicarinatus Say. San Marcos River, San Marcos. Not common. 77. Ancylus excentricus Morelet. Comal Creek, New Braunfels. Very rare. 78. Pholas truncata Say. Corpus Christi. Not common. 79. Pholas costata L. Single valves abundant at Galveston and Corpus Christi. 80. Solen directus Conrad. Corpus Christi. Young shells abundant. No adults were found, 81. Tagelus gibbus Spengler. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Common. 82. Mactra lateralis Say. Corpus Christi and Galveston. Abundant. FISHES OF TEXAS AJSlD THE RIO GRANDE BASIN. 125 83. Mactra braziliana Lam. Corpus Christi (Dr. Gurley). 84. G-nathodon cuneata Con. Corpus Christi and Galveston. Abundant. The Givens Oyster Com- pany, at Corpus Christi, were canning this species and putting it on the market labeled “ Little Neck Clams.” 85. Gnathodon rostrata Petit. Galveston (Dr. Gurley). 86. Labiosa canaliculata Say. Single valves are abundant at Corpus Christi and Galveston. 87. Semele reticulata Gmel. Galveston (Dr. Gurley). 88. Abra sequalis Say. Galveston. Not common. 89. Cumingia tellinoides Con. Corpus Christi. Not common. 90. Tellina alternata Say. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Abundant. 91. Tellina polita Say. Corpus Christi (Dr. Gurley). 92. Macoma constricta Brug. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Not common. 93. Macoma brevifrons Say. Galveston (Dr. Gurley). 94. Donax tumida Retz. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Abundant. 95. Donax roemeri Pfr. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Not common. 96. Petricola pholadiformis Lam. Single valves were found at Galveston and Corpus Christi. 97. Venus cancellata L. Dead shells are very abundant on the beach at Corpus Christi. A few beach-worn shells found at Galveston. 98. Venus mercenaria L. Corpus Christi (Dr. Gurley). 99. Venus mercenaria L. var. mortoni Con. Galveston ana Corpus Christi. Common. 100. Venus rostrata Sowb. Corpus Christi. Common. 101. Cytherea texasiana Dali. Galveston. Single valves are not uncommon on Galveston beach. 102. Cytherea gigantea Gmel. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Common. 103. Dosinia discus Reeve. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Common. 104. Pisidium compressum Prime. Comal Creek, New Braunfels. Common. 105. Sphaerium singleyi Pilsbry. White Oak Bayou, Houston; Guadalupe River, New Braunfels. Not common. * 106. Cardium musicatum L. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Single valves are common. 107. Cardium magnum Born. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Abundant. 108. Laevicardium mortoni Con. Abundant, living in Corpus Christi Bay. Single valves only found at Galveston. 109. Lucina crenulata Con. Single valves abundant in the beach drift at Corpus Christi. 110. Unio undulatus Barnes. San Antonio River at the waterworks station, San Antonio. Two odd valves only were found. 111. Unio asper Lea. Long Lake, Anderson County. Abundant. 112. Unio texasensis Lea. Long Lake, Anderson County. Common. 113. Anodonta stewartiana Lea. Long Lake, Anderson County. A number of fine examples of this species were taken. 114. Leda concentrica Say. Single valves common at Galveston and Corpus Christi. 115. Area ponderosa Say. Beach- worn valves are common at Galveston and Corpus Christi. 116. Area transversa Say. Single valves common at Galveston and Corpus Christi. 117. Area incongrua Say. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Abundant. 118. Area pexata Say. A few valves found at Galveston. 119- Area americana Gray. Corpus Christi (Dr. Gurley). 120. Mytilus cubitus Say. Corpus Christi. Common on oysters. 121. Mytilus hamatus Say. Galveston and Corpus Christi. Very abundant on oyster reefs. 122. Modiola plicatula semicostata Conrad. A fine large example was taken in Galveston Bay (near the bayou connecting Swan Lake with the bay) while seining in shallow water there. 123. Pinna muricata L. A few valves found at Corpus Christi. 124. Plicatula ramosa Lam. Galveston (Dr. Gurley). 125. Pecten irradians Lam. Beach-worn valves are common at Galveston and Corpus Christi. 126. Pecten irradians dislocatus Say. Same distribution and abundance as P. irradians. I found it living in Corpus Christi Bay. 127. Anomia simplex Orb igny. Single valves are washed up on the beach at Galveston. A number were found living at Corpus Christi. 128. Ostrea virginica Gmel. The most common mollusk on the Texas coast. For a discussion of the commercial phase of the oyster industry on the Texas coast, see Mr. C. H. Stevenson’s paper in the report of the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1889-91. 126 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. I EXPLANATION OF PLATES. The 50 plates which follow give illustrations of 107 of the 230 species of fishes now known to occur in the waters of Texas and the Rio Grande basin. The species are arranged substantially in the order in which they come in the text. Under each illustration are given: (1) the scientific name; (2) the common name, the more generally accepted in italics, those of local use in roman; (3) the locality, when known, from which the specimen drawn was obtained; (4) the name of the artist who made the original drawing. Many of these drawings were made several years ago by Mr. H. L. Todd. A few others were made by Mr. William Haines, Miss M. Smith, and Mr. S. F. Denton. The remaining 17 species were drawn by Mr. A. II. Baldwin especially for this paper. Plate No. X. Pristis pectinatus. Sawfish. Scaphirhynclius platyrhynchus. Shovel-nosed , Sturgeon. Lepisosteus platystomus. Short-nosed Gar. XI. Noturus nocturnus. Leptops olivaris . Tellow Cat; Mud Cat. Ameiurus melas. Bullhead. XII. Ameiurus nebulosus catulus. . Ameiurus natalis. Yellow Oat. Ameiurus lupus. XIII. Ictdlurus furcatus. (From typo of Pimelodus affinis Grd.) Chuckle-head Cat; Blue Cat. Ictdlurus punctatus. Channel Cat; Eel Cat. Tachysurusfelis. Sea Qatfish. XIV. Felichthys marinus. Gaff-topsail. Ictiobus cyprinella. Common Buffalo-fish. Garpiodes carpio . Carp Sucker. XV. Catostomus teres. Common White Sucker. Enmyzon succtta. Chub Sucker; Creek Sucker. Minytrema mclanops. Striped Sucker. XVI. Moxostoma congestum. Campostoma anomalum. Stone-roller. Notropis cayuga atrocaudalis. Type. XVII. Notropis nux. Type. Notropis nocomis. Type. Notropis swaini. XVin. Notropis fumeus. Type. Notropis notemigonoides. Type. Rliinichthys dulcis. Dace. XIX. Hybopsis cestivalis marconis. Semotilus atromaculatus. Horned Dace. Opsopceodus oscula. Type. XX. Notemigonus chrysoleucus. Bream . Megalops atlanticus. Tarpon . Glupea chrysochloris. Skipjack. XXI. Brevoortia ty rannus patronus. Gulf Menhaden. Dorosoma cepedianum. Gizzard Shad. Sy nodus fattens . Lizard-fish. XXII. Salmo mykiss spilurus. Rio Grande Trout. Gyprinodon variegatus. Variegated Minnows. XXIII. Fundulus pallidus. Type. Fundulus zcbrmus. Fundulus diaphanus, Spring Minnow. XXIV. Zygonectes funduloides. Type. Zygonectes pulvereus . Type . Zygonectes jenkinsi. Type. Zygonectes notatus. Top Minnow. XXV. Lucania parva. Gambusia affinis. Lucius vermiculgtus . Little Pickerel. XXVI. Gymnothorax ocellatus nigromarginatus. Type. Anguilla clirysypa. Common Eel. XXVII. Hemirhamplius unifasciatus.- Half-beak. Mugil ccplialus. Common Mullet. Polynemus octonemus Threadfin. Plate No. XXVIII. Tomer setipinnis. Moonfish. Helene vomer. Silver Moonfish. XXIX. Caranx hippos. Horse Crevalle. Ohloroscombrus chrysurus. Bumper. XXX. Trachynotus carolinus.- Pompano. Aphredoderus say anus. Pirate Perch. XXXI. Pomoxis. annularis. Crappie. Pomoxis sparoides. Calico Bass. XXXII. Ghcenobryttus gulosus. Warmouth. Lepomis symmetricus. XXXIII. Lepomis meg alotis, Large-eared Sunfish. Lepomis pallidus. Blue Sunfish; Blue-gill. XXXIV. Micropterussalmoides. Large-mouthed BlackBass. Etheostoma pellucidum clarum. Sand Darter. Etheostoma chlorosoma. XXX V Etheostoma micropterus. Etheostoma caprodes. Log Perch. Etheostoma lepidogenys. Type. XXXVI. Etheostoma shumardi. Etheostoma jessice. Etheostoma fusiforme. Etheostoma fonticola. XXXVII. Gentropomus undecimalis. Eobalo. Moroneintcrrupta. Yellow Bass. Roccus clirysops.. White Bass. XXXVIII. Lutjanus caxis. Gray Snapper. Lutjanus aya. Red Snapper. XXXIX. Rhomboplites aurorubens. Mangrove Snapper. Orthopnstis chrysopterus. Hogfish. XL. Arehosargus probatocephalus. Sheepsliead. XLI. Lagodon rhomboides. Pinfisli. Aplodinotus grunniens. Fresh-water Drum. XLII. Pogonias chromis. Drum. Bairdiclla chrysura. Yellow -tail. XLIII. Scicena ocellata. Red Drum; Redfish. Micropogon undulatus. Croaker. Mcnticirrihus americanus. Whiting. XLIV. Leiostomus xanthurus. Spot. Gynoscion nothus. Gynoscion nebulosus. Spotted Sea Trout. XLV. Ghcetodypterus faber. Angel-fish. Gobionellus occahicus. Emerald-fish. XL VI. Prionotus scitulus. Sea Robin. Vpsilonphorus y-grcecum. Star-gazer. Astroscopus anoplos. Electric Dogfish. XLVII. Isesthes ionthas. Blenny. Ophidion marginatum. Etropus crossotus. XLVIII. Paraliclithys lethostigma. Southern Flounder Ancylopsetta quadrocellata. XLIX. Ostracion tricorne. Cowfish. Alutera schoepffi. Orange I'ilefish. Lagocephalus Icevigatus. Smooth Puffer. L. Tetrodon nephelus. Swellfish; Puffer. Ohilomycterus schoepffi. Swelltoad; Burrfish. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate X. SCAPHIRHYNCHUS PLATYRHYNCHUS (Rafinesque). Sliovel-nosed Sturgeon. Mount Carmel, Illinois. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Regie (To face page 126.) Plate XI. NOTURUS NOCTU R N US Jordan & Gilbert. Type. Sabine River, Belton, Arkansas. H. L. Todd del. LEPTOPS OLIVARIS (Rafinesque). Yellow Cat; Mud Cat. Illinois River. H. L. Todd del, AM E! U RUS M ELAS (Rafinesque). Bullhead. Aux Plaines River, Illinois. H. L. Todd del. Plate XII. Bull. U S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) AMEtURUS N EBULOSUS CATULUS (Girard). Barton Spring, Austin, Texas. Wm. Haines del. AMEIURUS NATALIS (Le Sueur). Yellow Cat. Huntsville, Alabama. H. L. Todd del. El'MRUS LU PUS (Girard). Pecos River, Texas. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XIII. ICTALURUS FURCATUS (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Chuckle-heacl Cat; Channel Cat; Blue Cat. Brownsville, Texas. Miss M. Smith clel. ICTALURUS PUNCTATUS (Rafinesque). Channel Cat; Eel Cat. H. L. Todd del. TACHYSURUS FEUS (Linnasus), Sea Catfish. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U S. F. C 1892. Fishes of Texas and1 the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) CTIOBUS CYPRI N ELLA (Cuvier & Valenciennes), Common Buffalo-fish. Missouri River. H. L. Todd del. CARPIODES CARPIO (Rafinesque). Carp Sucker. Bull. U. S„ F. C. 1 892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region, (To face page 126.) Plate XV. ERIMYZON SUCETTA (Lacepede). Chub Sucker; Greek Sucker. Ogechee Ponds. Savannah, Georgia. Miss M. Smith del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (T< page 126.) Plate XVI. MOXOSTOMA CONGESTUM (Baird & Girard). Lampasas River, Belton, Texas. H. L. Todd del. CAMPOSTOMA ANO M ALU M (Rafinesque), Stone-roller. White River, Eureka Springs, Arkansas. Wm. Haines del. NOTROPIS CAYUGA ATROCAUDALIS Evermann, Type. Neches River, Palestine, Texas. A. H. Baldwin del. I. U. S. F, C. 1892. Fis Plate XVII. shes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) NOTROPIS NUX Evermann, Type. Neches River, Palestine, Texas. A. H. Baldwin del. NOTROPIS NOCOMIS Evermann. Type. Trinity River, Magnolia Point, Texas. A. H. Baldwin del. NOTROPIS SWAI N I Jordan & Gilbert. San Marcos River, San Marcos, Texas. A. H. Baldwin del. Bull, U. S. F. C. 1 892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region, (To face page 1 26.) Plate XVIII. NOTROPIS FUMEUS Evermann. Type. Hunter Creek, Houston, Texas. A. H. Baldwin del. NOTROPIS NOTEMIGONOIDES Evermann. Type. Neches River, Palestine, Texas. A. H. Baldwin del. Plate XIX. Bull. U. S F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) HYBOPSIS /CSTIVALIS MARCONI IS Jordan & Gilbert. About twice natural size. San Marcos Kiver, San Marcos, Texas. A. H. Baldwin del. mWmwmm WlimmB wMWMWmm OPSOPCEODUS OSCULA Evermann, Type. Buffalo Bayou, Houston, Texas. A. H. Baldwin del. Bull, U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region, (To face page 126.) Plate XX. NOTEM1GONUS CHRYSOLEUCUS (Mitchill). Bream. Hackensack River, New Jersey. H. L. Todd del. MEGALOPS ATLANTICUS (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Tarpon; Tarpum. H. L. Todd del. CLUPEA CHRYSOCHLORIS (Rafinesque). Skipjack. Pensacola, Florida. H. L. Todd del. Plate XXI. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) BREVOORTIA TYRANNUS PATRONUS Goode. Gulf Menhaden. Brazos Santiago, Texas. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XXII. CYPRINODON VARIEGATUS Lacepede. Variegated Minnow. Male. Twice natural size. A. H. Baldwin del. CYPRINODON VARIEGATUS Lacepede. Variegated Minnow. Young. Six times natural size. A. H. Baldwin del. Plate XXIII. Bull. U. S. F C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.^ FUNDULUS PALLIDUS Evermann. Type. About three times natural size. Galveston Bay, Texas. A. H. Baldwin del. FUNDULUS ZEBRINUS Jordan & Gilbert Ellis, Kansas. H. L. Todd del. FUNDULUS DIAPHANUS LeSueur, Spring Minnow. Female. One and one-fifth times natural size. A. H. Baldwin del. FUNDULUS DIAPHANUS LeSueur. Spring Minnow. Male. One and one-fifth times natural t Plate XXIV. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126 1 ZYGON ECTES FUN DU LO IDES Evermann. About three and a half times natural size. Dickinson Bayou, Dickinson, Texas. A. H. Baldwin del. ZYGONECTES PULVEREUS Evermann. About three times natural size. Dickinson Bayou, Dickinson, Texas. A. IT. Baldwin del. ZYGON ECTES JEN KINSI Evermann. About three times natural size. Galveston Bay, Galveston, Texas. A. H. Baldwin del. ZYGONECTES NOTATUS (Rafinesque). Top Minnow. White River, Eureka Springs, Arkansas. H. L. Todd del. Plate XXV. .Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) LUCANIA PARVA (Baird & Girard). Wm. Haines del. LUCIUS VERMICULATUS (Le Sueur). Little Pickerel. New Orleans, Louisiana. Wm. Haines del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Te and -the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.] Plate XXVI. GYMNOTHORAX OCELLATUS N IGROM ARGI N ATUS (Girardj. Fromtype. St. Joseph Island, Texas. ANGUILLA CHRYSYPA Rafinesque. Common Eel. Holyoke, Massachusetts. H. L. Todd del. C. 1 832. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XXVII. MUGIL CEPHALUS Linnasus, Common Mullet; Striped Mullet. H. L. Todd del. POLYNEMUS OCTONEMUS Girard, Thrcadfin. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XXVIII. VOMER SETIPINNIS (Mitch ill). Blunt-nosed Shiner; Moonfisli. H. L. Todd del. SELENE VOMER (Linnaeus). Silver Moonfisli. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XXIX. CARANX H I PPOS (Linnasus). Horse Crevalle. H. L. Todd del. CHLOROSCOM BRUS CH RYSURUS (Linnaeus). Bumper. St. Johns River, Florida. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1 892. i-ishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XXX. TRACHYNOTUS CAROLI N US (Linnaeus). Common Pompano. H. L. Todd del, APHREDODERUS SAYANUS (Gilliams). Pirate Perch. Illinois River. H. L. Todd del. Plate XXXI. Bull. U, S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) POMOXIS ANNULARIS Rafinesque. Crappie; Sac-a-lait. H. L. Todd del. POMOXIS SPAROIDES (Lacepede). Calico Bass; Sac-a-lait. H. L. Todd del. PLATE XXXII. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) CH/ENOBRYTTUS GU LOSUS (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Warmouth. IT. L. Todd del. Plate XXXIII. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. \To face page 126.) LEPOMIS MEGALOTIS (Rafinesque). Large-eared, Sunfish. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XXXIV. MICROPTbRUS SALMOIDES (Lacepfcde). Large-mouthed Black Bass. Trout. H. L. Todd del. ETHEOSTOMA PELLUCIDUM CLARUM (Jordan & Meek). Sand Darter. Des Moines River, Ottumwa, Iowa. II. L. Todd del. ETHEOSTOMA CHLOROSOMA Hay. Illinois Kiver. H. L. Todd del. ' Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Te Plate XXXV. i and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.; ETHEOSTOMA MICROPTERUS Gilbert. Chihuahua, Mexico. H. L. Todd del. ETHEOSTOMA CAPRODES (Rafinesque). Log Perch. Ticking River Reservoir, Ohio. H. L. Todd del. ETHEOSTOMA LEP I DOG EN YS sp. Type. Comal Spring, New Braunfels, Te H. Baldwin del. Bull. U. S F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126 Plate XXXVI. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126) Plate XXXVII. ROCCUS CHRYSOPS (Rafinesque.) White Bass. H. L. Topd del. Buli. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XXXVIII. LUTJANUS CAXIS (Bloch & Schneider). The Schoolmaster; Gray Snapper. H. L. Toclcl del. LUTJANUS AYA (Bloch). Red Snapper. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XXXIX. RHOMBOPLITES AURORUBENS Cuvier & Valenciennes. Mangrove Snapper. H. L. Todd del. ORTHOPRISTIS CHRYSOPTERUS (Linnaeus). Hogflsh; Grunt; Pigflsh. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XL. ARCHOSARGUS PROBATOCEPH ALUS (Walbaum). Sheepshead. Young. H. L. Todd del. ARCHOSARGUS PROBATOCEPH ALUS (Walbaum). Sheepshead. Adult. H. L. Todd del. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XLI. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892 LAGODON RHOMBOIDES (Linnaeus). Sailor's Choice; Bream; Pinfish. H. L. Todd del. APLODINOTUS GRUNNIENS Rafinesque. Fresh-water Drum. H. L. Todd del. U. S. F. C. 1 892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 1 26.) BAIRDIELLA CHRVSURA (Lacepede). Yellow-tail. H. L. Todd del. Plate XLIII. Bull. U. S. F, C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) SCI/ENA OCELLATA (Linnaeus). Red Drum,; Redfish. H.L. Todd del. MICROPOGON UNDULATUS (Linnaeus). Croaker. H. L. Todd del. MENTICIRRHUS AMERICANUS (Linnaeus). Whiting. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XLIV. LEIOSTOMUS XANTHURUS LacepSde. Spot. H. L. Todd del. CYNOSCION NOTHUS (Holbrook). Trinidad, West Indies. H. L. Todd del. CYNOSCION NEBULOSUS (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Spotted Sea Trout. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) / GOBIONELLUS OCEAN ICUS (Pallas), Emerald Fish. Key West, Florida. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C, 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XLVI. ASTROSCOPUS ANOPLOS (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Electric Dog-fish. Norfolk, Virginia. H. L. Todd del. Plate XLVII. Bull. U. S. F. C, 1892. Fishes of T exes and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) ETROPUS CROSSOTUS Jordan & Gilbert Cedar Keys, Florida. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 1 26 ) PLATE XLVI1I. PARALICHTH YS LETHOSTIGMA Jordan & Gilbert. Southern Flounder. H. L. Todd del. ANCYLOPSETTA QU ADROCELLATA Gill. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126.) Plate XLIX. OSTRACION TRICORNE Linnaeus. Cowfish. Charleston, South Carolina. H. L. Todd del. ALUTERA SCHCEPFFI (Walbaum). Orange Filefish. Cedar Keys, Florida. H. L. Todd del. LAGOCEPHALUS L/EVIGATUS (Linnaeus). Smooth Puffer. H. L. Todd del. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande Region. (To face page 126 ) Plate L. CH I LOM YCTERUS SCHCEPFFI (Walbaum). Swell-toad; Burrfish. Side and dorsal views. Noank, Connecticut. H. L. Todd del. TETRODON NEPHELUS (Goode & Bean). Swellfish: Puffer. Indian River, Florida. H. L. Todd del. i 4 -SUMMARY OF THE FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS CONDUCTED IN THE NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN AND BERING SEA FROM JULY 1, 1888, TO JULY 1, 1892, BY THE U. S. FISH COMMISSION STEAMER ALBATROSS. BY RICHARD RATHBUN. INTRODUCTION. The building, in 1882, of a staunch sea-going steamer, thoroughly equipped for the purposes of the U. S. Fish Commission, alforded, for the first time, the proper means for studying the extensive ocean fishing- grounds adjacent to the Atlantic sea- coast of the United States. During the five years following her completion the steamer A Ibatross was actively employed, and with marked success, in this special field of work, the region covered by her operations extending from off Newfoundland to the northern shores of South America. The interest aroused by these investiga- tions, the utility of which had been fully demonstrated, led to a demand for the trans- fer of the Albatross to the North Pacific Ocean, a proposition which met the approval of the late Commissioner of Fisheries, Prof. Spencer F. Baird, and was later sanc- tioned by Congress. Extensive arrangements were necessary in preparation for so long a cruise, but they were satisfactorily completed in the fall of 1887, and on November 21 of that year the ship left Norfolk, Va., for San Francisco. The first systematic researches bearing upon the economic marine fishes of the western coast of North America were conducted in 1879 and 1880, by Dr. David S. Jordan and Prof. Charles H. Gilbert, for Washington, Oregon, and California, and by Dr. Tarleton H. Bean, for Alaska. Not having suitable facilities for investigating the fishing-grounds, the work of these naturalists was chiefly limited to collecting and studying the fishes obtainable along the shores and from the fishermen, but, neverthe- less, exceedingly important results were accomplished by them. These have been published in the reports of the Fish Commission and in the Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, the series of volumes entitled the Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States containing full accounts of their observations relative to fishery matters, as well as a complete review of this entire subject down to 1882. The same information has also been summarized in the Bulletin of the Fish Commission for 1888, in connection with the first report upon the explorations of the Albatross in the North Pacific Ocean. A reference to these papers shows that, while a few cod- fishing vessels were accustomed to resort to certain places in Bering Sea and off the south side of the Alaska Peninsula, very little was then known regarding the extent and charac- teristics of the Alaskan fishing grounds, only a comparatively few soundings had been made to ascertain the depths of water at any distance from the land, and the limits of the continental platform were almost wholly undetermined. Respecting the coasts 128 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. of Washington, Oregon, and California even less information was at hand, Dr. Jordan stating that — Except the salmon fisheries of the Sacramento and the Columbia and the ocean fisheries in the im- mediate vicinity of San Francisco, the fisheries of the Pacific coast exist only as possibilities. For the most part only shore fishing on the smallest scale is done, and no attempt is made to discover offshore hanks, or to develop them when discovered. Being specially equipped for hydrographic as well as fishery inquiries, the Alba- tross was well adapted to undertake the investigation of this practically new region, in which, at the outset, the delineation of the bottom was fully as important as the determination of its food resources. She is an iron, twin-screw propeller of 1,000 tons displacement, measures 234 feet in total length, and is rigged as a brigantine. The hull is modeled with reference to the peculiar character of her movements, and she is provided throughout with the most approved appliances for the different branches of research in which she is expected to engage, many of them being a direct outgrowth of the Fish Commission work. Sounding is carried on by means of fine piano wire, operated by a Sigsbee steam and a Tanner hand machine, both working on the princi- ple first demonstrated by Sir William Thomson. Iron rope is employed for dredging, the machinery used in connection with it consisting of a heavy hoisting engine on the spar deck forward, and a reeling engine on the berth deck underneath, together with all the necessary auxiliary apparatus to insure its smooth running. The outfit supplied for physical and fishery observations comprises the means of studying the temperature, density, etc., and of collecting animals in all depths of water, the latter including a large assortment of dredges, beam trawls, and tangles, as well as all the ordinary forms of fishing gear. The program arranged for the steamer Albatross contemplated, in the beginning, a somewhat rapid survey or reconnoissance along the entire western coast line, with the object of ascertaining the contour and condition of the bottom wherever the depths were suitable for fishing, the positions and outlines of all distinctive fishing-groundsr and the character and abundance of the food resources. Such an investigation could not fail to yield immediate results, by supplying early information to the fishermen to guide them in seeking favorable localities for the prosecution of their work, and it would also serve as the basis for the more complete development of important regions or of special branches of fishing. The Albatross reached San Francisco in May, 1888, and within three years from that time she had completed these preliminary surveys from San Diego to the Strait of Juan de Fuca; along the southern side of the Alaska Peninsula, from Middleton Island to Unalaska; and in the southeastern partof Bering Sea, from Unalaska to the head of Bristol Bay and Cape Newenham. Since June, 1891, she has been detailed to study certain problems respecting the habits of the fur seals in the North Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea, and to make the survey for a cable route between California and the Hawaiian Islands, neither of which subjects, however, is discussed in this paper. The width of the area covered by the fishery explorations of the Albatross has been regulated mainly by the depth of water, having extended from the shallow soundings close along the shore to the abrupt outer margin of the continental plat- form. The object has been to carry the examinations over the entire surface of this platform, into depths of 100 and 200 fathoms, but in order to locate these curves with accuracy it has been necessary to extend the lines of soundings into somewhat deeper water, with the result of contributing very important data of general hydro- FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 129 graphic interest. Bottom fishing is rarely carried on beyond a depth of 200 fathoms, and in a new region it will be limited for many years to much shallower water. The sounding work, as indicating the general contour of the bottom, has, therefore, been suffi- ciently extensive for this purpose over the area so far explored, but more detailed surveys will be required in some localities, especially where the bottom is irregular and the fishery resources are rich enough to call for additional information of that character. The summary of the operations of the Albatross herewith presented gives, in geographical sequence, the principal information of interest to the fishermen, which has been gathered during the several cruises iu the North Pacific Ocean and to Bering Sea. It is based mainly upon the narrative reports of the commanding officer and his civilian assistants, but is necessarily very incomplete, as only a comparatively small part of the extensive, natural- history collections obtained has yet been studied and described. It is considered, however, that the more essential practical results of the explorations have been sufficiently well worked out to warrant placing them before the public in this preliminary paper. The fishes, which comprise the most important group of animals from an economic standpoint, have been placed in the hands of Prof. Charles H. Gilbert, of the Leland Stanford Junior University, who also accom- panied the Albatross on several trips, and while a number of papers descriptive of the new species secured have been published by him, a discussion of the ichthyological results must be deferred until the completion of his final reports. Much progress has also been made in the working up of the crustaceans and mollusks, which next to the fishes offer the most forms of commercial value. It has been the practice of the Fish Commission to transmit to the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Hydrographic Office of the Navy all of the hydrographic data obtained by the Albatross at the end of each cruise. This information has been incorporated from time to time in the charts issued by those bureaus, and, as their publications can readily be obtained at all of the principal ports of the United States, it has not been considered expedient for the Fish Commission to duplicate this work. A few charts have, however, been published by the Commission for early distribution among the fishermen, and those relating to the Alaskan fishing-grounds are still the most desirable for the regions covered, being upon a larger scale and containing more details than any others. The five small maps which accompany this paper are intended mainly to show the positions of the principal fishing-grounds; they illustrate only a very small proportion of the work accomplished. At the- end of the paper is given a list of the publications of the Fish Commission, the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Hydrographic Office of the Navy, which relate directly to the investigations of the Albatross, or contain data derived from them, and may be regarded as supplementing the information given in this summary. The titles of a few earlier papers by the Fish Commission are also cited because of their important bearing upon the questions here discussed. The charts of the Coast Survey and Fish Commission will be found most useful by the fishermen, those of the Hydrographic Office covering the coasts of the United States being usually upon a small scale. Where referred to in the body of the paper they are designated by the numbers which accompany them. It should be understood, however, that this list is very far from complete as regards the literature which now exists relative to the fishes of theNorth Pacific Ocean, and manypublished papers respecting the scientific results of the Albatross are here omitted, as they do not immediately concern the question of the practical fisheries. F. C. B. 1892—9 130 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The explorations which the Albatross has been conducting on the Pacific coast, and which it is intended shall be continued to the extent of making known at least all the more important fishery resources of that region within the limits of the United States, are especially noteworthy from the fact that they constitute an innovation in the support given by government to the development of this particular industry. No foreign nation has ever attempted, on more than a very limited scale, to enlighten the fishermen respecting the character, distribution, and abundance along its coasts of the aquatic forms of life which are the objects of their pursuit. The United States was the first to institute systematic inquiries of this nature, in connection with the work of the Fish Commission along the Atlantic coast, and, although the fisheries had been carried on there assiduously for several centuries, the value of scientific research in extending the areas of productive fishing-grounds was conclusively established. In the new field presented by the North Pacific Ocean, however, so little information had previously been collected that it was necessary to begin at the very rudiments of the problem, as explained before, and the investigations have been of the most searching and comprehensive character. The conduct of these inquiries have been in charge of Commander Z. L. Tanner, U. S. N., the commanding officer of the Albatross , whose long connection with the Fish Commission especially qualified him for this important task. Having been closely identified with all of the oceanic work since 1879, and thoroughly appreciating the objects to be attained, his services have been invaluable. In the hydrographic and physical observations he has had the assistance of the naval officers detailed to the ship. On the voyage from Norfolk to San Francisco, the civilian scientific staff consisted of Prof. Leslie A. Lee, of Bowdoin College (in charge), Mr. Charles H. Townsend, Mr. Thomas Lee, and Mr. Dennis M. Cole. Since that time, however, Mr. Charles H. Townsend has acted as resident naturalist, Mr. A. B. Alexander as fishery expert, and Mr. N. B. Miller as assistant naturalist. Prof. Charles H. Gilbert, now of the Leland Stanford Junior University, also accompanied the Albatross, as ichthyologist and chief naturalist, from January to August, 1889, and during the Bering Sea cruise of 1890. The movements of the Albatross. — Leaving Norfolk, Va., on November 21, 1887, the Albatross began the voyage to San Francisco, which terminated on May 11, 1888. Agreeably to the plans proposed by Prof. Baird before his death, the commanding officer was directed to make occasional dredgings, and hydrographic examinations on the way, and to afford such opportunities as time permitted for studying the local fisheries and other matters of scientific interest at each port of call, as well as at the Galapagos Islands off the coast of Ecuador. On the Atlantic side stops were made at Santa Lucia, one of the West Indies, Bahia, Brazil, and Montevideo, Uruguay. Scientific observations were conducted at frequent intervals during the passage through the Strait of Magellan, and the ship proceeded thence to Lota, Chile, and Panama. From the latter place the Galapagos Islands were visited, and subse- quently Guaymas and La Paz, Mexico. Having perfected the arrangements for a northern cruise, the Albatross sailed from San Francisco on July 4, 1888, for the Alaskan coast, where, during two months, the fishing-banks south of the Alaska Peninsula and adjacent islands, between Una- laska and Middleton Island, were made the subject of careful study. The balance of this season was spent on the coasts of Washington and Oregon. The local fisheries in the neighborhood of Seattle were investigated during the early part of FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 131 September, after which the survey was carried down the outer coast from Barclay Sound, Vancouver Island, and the halibut bank off Cape Flattery, to the vicinity of Tillamook Rock, just south of the Columbia River. The ship reached San Francisco from this Cruise on October 21. After refitting at this place, the months of January and February, 1889, were spent on the coast of California between Point Conception and the Mexican boundary line, the investigations being carried seaward to include all of the outlying islands, as well as Cortes and Tanner banks, the latter bank having been discovered by the Albatross during this trip. A line of hydrographic stations was then run to Guade- loupe Island, the Alijos Rocks, and the Revillagigedo Islands, after which a series of examinations was conducted through the Gulf of California as far as the mouth of the Colorado River at its upper end. This last inquiry was undertaken for the purpose of ascertaining the relations of the Colorado River to the waters of the Gulf, and observations were also made upon the oyster deposits of the region, which, it was conjectured, might afford a source of seed in the event of oyster-cultural operations being started in southern California. Starting from La Paz on April 7, several stops were made along the outer coast of Lower California, the Albatross returning to San Francisco on the 27th of the same month, but leaving there again on May 21 to resume the work off Washington and Oregon, which was continued until July 1, 1889. From July 8 until July 28, 1889, the ship was used by the IT. S. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs for the purpose of visiting the Indian settlements in southeastern Alaska. Subsequently the investigations were again taken up on the coast of Oregon and were carried southward, terminating October 14 at Cape Mendocino, California. The coast of California, between Point Arena and the Santa Barbara Islands, was examined during March and April, 1890, and on May 5 following the Albatross left San Francisco for Alaska, where the summer was occupied in developing the fishing-grounds in the southeastern part of Bering Sea, and determining the western extension of the continental platform on which the Pribilof Islands are located. The hydrographic results obtained on this cruise were of more than usual interest. During the trip south in the fall, some additional observations were made on the fishing-banks off the southern side of the Alaska Peninsula, a line of deep-sea soundings was run in the direction of the Queen Charlotte Islands, and the survey of the continental platform was completed from Cape Mendocino to Point Arena, California. On January 30, 1891, the Albatross sailed from San Francisco on a special expedi- tion, authorized by the President of the United States, to investigate the hydrographic and biological features over an extensive area off the western coast of Mexico, Central and South America, between Lower California and the latitude of the Galapagos Islands. Mr. Alexander Agassiz, director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard University, was in charge of the scientific work, which yielded results of great importance. The cruise terminated the last of April. During the summer of 1891, the Albatross was employed to convey the United States seal commissioners, Dr. T. C. Mendenhall and Dr. C. Hart Merriam, to Bering Sea. During the following fall and winter she was engaged in surveying forthe cable route between California and the Hawaiian Islands, under the direction of the Secre- tary of the Navy. Again during the late spring and summer of 1892 she was detailed to participate in the sealing investigations in the North Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea, taking an active part in the extensive inquiries directed from the State Department. 132 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. BERING SEA. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. Itinerary of the investigations. — The general survey of Bering Sea by the Albatross was conducted during the summer of 1890, but in 1888, while engaged in a study of the fishing-grounds south of the Alaska Peninsula, a few observations were made in Iliuliuk Harbor and in the passes between TJnalaska Island and Unimak Island, and during the summers of 1891 and 1892 some additional inquiries were also prosecuted in connection with the sealing investigations. The principal object of the cruise of 1890 was to determine the positions and characteristics of the more important cod-fishing grounds, but the examinations were extended over the entire southeastern part of Bering Sea to a line some distance beyond the submerged continental border. The Albatross entered Bering Sea by way of Unimak Pass in the latter part of May, and carried a line of soundings in a north- erly and easterly direction, a distance of about 80 miles, when stormy weather made it necessary to proceed to Unalaska, the soundings and dredgings being continued on the way. Leaving the latter place on May 28, the ship began a reconnoissance of the shore line of Bristol Bay, which was extended first along the north side of the Alaska Peninsula to Kvichak Biver, and thence to Kuskokwim River. From Cape Newenham a line of stations was run in the direction of the Northwest Cape of Unimak. On June 23 investigations were commenced on Slime Bank, and were carried thence over Baird Bank to the head of Bristol Bay and the Kulukak ground. Two visits were paid to Port Moller and Herendeen Bay, where a coal mine had recently been opened, and partial surveys of both of those inlets were made, which define their entrance and the channel leading to Coal Harbor. During the first part of August a line of soundings was run from off Cape Cheerful, Unalaska, to Bogosloff Island, from the latter place in a westerly and northerly direction, and subsequently in a southerly direction, for the purpose of developing the 100-fathom curve along the western edge of the broad plateau occupying the eastern part of Bering Sea. The remainder of the season was spent in the vicinity of Unalaska, mainly in determining the resources of the fishing-grounds lying off the northern side of that island. The Albatross left Bering Sea for the south on August 25. General features of the region examined. — The entire eastern and northern part of Bering Sea is occupied by a broad extension of the continental platform, which, for convenience of definition, may be said to terminate abruptly at a depth of about 100 fathoms. On the Siberian side the position of the 100-fathom curve is still undeter- mined, and previous to 1890 no observations had been made respecting the topography of the intervening deeper area, except in the immediate vicinity of the Aleutian chain of islands, where an important line of soundings was run by the U. S. S. Tus- carora in 1874. On the eastern side of Bering Sea the 100-fathom curve extends from off the northern entrance to Unimak Pass in the direction of Cape Navarin, Siberia, form- ing a sinuous line approximately parallel with the coast line of the Alaskan mainland to the east, from which it is distant from 260 to 325 miles. The location of this curve, and therefore of the western border of the platform (as yet only approximately defined in most places), was largely established through the investigations of the Albatross in Note. — All bearings are true unless otherwise stated. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 133 1890, the observations being carried by that vessel to 58° 43' IN. latitude, or about 168 miles northwesterly from St. Paul Island of the Pribilof group. From this point, in 144 fathoms, a line of soundings was run southward in the direction of Atka Island, developing a least depth of 977 fathoms and a maximum depth of 2,147 fathoms. A second line, farther to the eastward, extending from latitude 56° 12; N., longitude 172° 07' W., toward Uliaga Island, immediately to the west of Umnak Island, shows depths of 1,033 to 1,818 fathoms. Additional deep-sea soundings were made by the Albatross to the north of Unalaska Island, and several dredging stations were also occupied in depths between 100 and 1,625 fathoms. In the deeper waters the bottom was composed principally of green ooze, the absence of foraminifera, according to Capt. Tanner, being a marked feature of this region. The location of the Pribilof Islands near the outer edge of this platform, with the interesting problems respecting the habits of the fur seals suggested by the contro- versy now in progress, makes it very important that the physical and biological features of the surrounding area should be thoroughly studied ; but, although some progress in this direction has already been made, it is not intended to touch upon the subject in this connection, the remarks which follow having reference chiefly to the fishing- grounds for cod and halibut. The fishing-banks investigated by the Albatross in 1890 are mostly situated to the eastward of a line connecting Cape NT ewenham with the northwest cape of Unimak and off the northern side of Unalaska Island, no extensive cod banks having yet been recorded from outside of these limits in the eastern part of Bering Sea. Capt. Tanner has extended the application of the name Bristol Bay so as to cover all of that region first defined above, but, as generally accepted by geographers, it is restricted to the much smaller area bounded on the north, east, and south by the mainland of Alaska, and not extending farther westward than an imaginary line drawn from Cape Ue wen- ham to Cape Seniavin on the peninsula, or to thfe neighborhood of Port Moller. In the region occupied by these fishing-grounds the depths seldom exceed 50 fathoms, and the bottom is, for the most part, quite uniform in character, consisting mainly of fine sand, occasionally of coarse sand, and often having an admixture of gravel or pebbles. Cod were found to be quite generally distributed over this area, but the examinations were not sufficiently complete to define the outlines of the indi- vidual grounds in all particulars. Three separate banks have been recognized by Capt. Tanner— Slime Bank and Baird Bank, skirting the northern side of Unimak Island and the Alaska Peninsula, and Kulukak ground in the northern part of Bristol Bay; but from the information now at hand it can not be affirmed that these banks are entirely distinct and separate from one another. Slime Bank begins at the northern entrance to Unimak Pass. Its western end is more or less defined by the adjacent deep water which occurs in that locality, and its northern margin is limited to some extent by a muddy bottom. The somewhat barren ground which surrounds Amak Island also serves to break its continuity with Baird Bank, which, however, possesses the same character of bottom, and may be connected with it to the north of Amak Island. The latter bank extends northward as far as Cape Chichagof, and while the practical fishing operations which have been conducted upon it have been chiefly limited to within a comparatively short distance of the land, it is apparently connected with the Kulukak ground off the Walrus Islands, the intermediate bottom not differing essentially in its characteristics and being rich in cod. 134 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. All of Bristol Bay, except near tlie mouths of rivers and in certain other localities to be defined hereafter, is, therefore, practically a continuous fishing -ground, but further investigations are required to determine its extension westward, the area of good fishing being probably larger than is indicated by the present surveys. The combined length of Slime and Baird banks, from the Northwest Cape of Unimak to Cape Chichagof, is about 340 miles, and their total extent within the limits by which they have so far been defined is about 10,645 square miles. These banks, therefore, together with the remaining area within the boundaries of Bristol Bay, where cod and halibut occur, constitute one of the very largest fishing-grounds in either the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean, being exceeded, in fact, only by the Grand Bank of Newfoundland. On this Bering Sea ground, however, the halibut seem to be mostly of small size, and it is chiefly important for its cod. It has been resorted to during a number of years past by one or more fishing vessels every season, but it remains for the future to fully appreciate and utilize its resources. The weather in this part of Bering Sea, according to Capt. Tanner, is usually pleasanter than to the south of the peninsula. The principal grounds, moreover, have a weather shore with the prevailing summer winds, and a well-found vessel may anchor anywhere and ride out the usual gales at that season without much risk or discomfort. Preliminary to the fishery investigations, and as a basis for the hydrographic work, a partial reconuoissance of the coast was made from Unimak Island to the head of Bristol Bay, and thence to Cape Newenham. This survey was rendered necessary by the fact that little dependence could be placed upon the existing charts with respect to the shore features, which have thus been referred to by Capt. Tanner : The shore lines are usually low and without distinctive features, -hut high mountain ranges and volcanic cones extend along the central parts of Unimak and the Alaskan Peninsula. These rugged, snow-covered mountains and lofty peaks would serve as unmistakable landmarks were they not obscured by the almost constant fogs which prevail in that region during the summer months. In fact, they were so seldom visible during the season of 1890 that the officers of the Albatross made no pretense of using them as landmarks. The shore line and objects near the sea level were often seen beneath the fog when the higher lands were obscured, and, therefore, most of the available landmarks were found on or near the beach. Partial surveys were also made of Port Moller and Herendeen Bay, and of the lower part of Nushagak Biver. FISHING-GROUNDS NORTHEAST OF UNIMAK PASS. Slime Bank. — Slime Bank is the first of the larger fishing-grounds to be reached after entering Bering Sea through Unimak Pass. As delineated by the steamer Albatross, it begins directly olf the Northwest Cape-of Unimak Island, is elongate in shape, and follows approximately the trend of the adjacent coast to within a few miles of Amak Island, its inner margin lying only a short distance oif the land. It is about 85 miles in length and 17 miles in average width, broadening somewhat at the eastern end; its total area is estimated at about 1,445 square miles. The depths range from 20 to 50 fathoms, while the bottom consists generally of black sand and gravel, frequently intermingled with pebbles, and sometimes of gray and yellow sand, rocks also occurring near the shore. At its western end the bank is bordered by the deeper water lying off the north- ern entrance to Unimak Pass, 70 fathoms being found near the margin of the bank, and depths exceeding 100 fathoms a short distance farther away. Off its northern FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 135 edge the depths determined by four soundings range from 53 to 62 fathoms, with muddy bottom at three of them. Toward the eastern end, however, on the northern side, sand and gravel occur, and in this locality the precise limits of the bank are still undefined. This bank derives its name from the presence of immense numbers of a large jelly-fish, brownish or rusty in color, measuring from 6 to 18 inches across the disk, and provided with long, slender tentacles, having great stinging powers. These animals, it is said, have never been observed upon the surface of the sea, but seem to occupy an intermediate zone toward the bottom, where they occasion much annoy- ance to the fishermen by becoming entangled about their fishing gear, and in this way often being hauled up. It is also claimed that they sometimes.interfere with the hooks reaching bottom, and by covering the bait and lines they render the former unattractive to the cod and the latter very uncomfortable to handle. Mr. Alexander states that up to the middle or latter part of June this so-called slime is not sufficiently abundant to give much trouble, but by July 1 it becomes so thick as to render it almost useless to remain upon the bauk, and other localities, farther north, are then resorted to. Should the fishing be continued late, however, the fishermen profess to keep their hooks above the layer of slime, not allowing them to reach bottom. After leaving the Akutan and Unimak grounds the fishermen anchor next on the western part of Slime Bank, gradually working to the eastward. The advantages for fishing on this bank, except for the unusual prevalence of jelly-fishes, are described as excellent, and cod are plentiful enough to supply all immediate demands. The largest and best cod taken by the Albatross were obtained some 6 or 8 miles from shore, those captured nearer laud having been inferior in size and quality. From the results of this investigation and from information derived from other sources it would appear, however, that cod of fair size are pretty generally distributed over the bank, and are almost everywhere abundant. The examinations by the Albatross were begun on June 24, 1890. Five beam- trawl stations (Nos. 3259-3262, 3264) were made on the western end of the bank, and three (Nos. 3265-3267) on the eastern end. The bottom fauna was found to be very rich, affording good feeding- ground for fishes. Hand-line fishing was carried on at each of the dredging stations and also in connection with some of the soundings. Seven trials were made on the western part of the bank, from off the Northwest Cape to off Cape Lapin, in depths of 13 to 43 fathoms. The trials occupied from 10 to 15 minutes each and aggregated 96 minutes, from 9 to 12 lines being employed. The total number of fish taken was 132, ranging in length from 23 to 37 inches, the average size for each catch ranging from 26§ to 32£ inches. The combined weight of all the fish was 1,528 pounds, making their average weight about 11£ pounds apiece. One halibut, weighing 5 pounds, was also taken in this region, and in 62 fathoms, muddy bottom, just outside the bank, 7 cod were captured averaging 12 pounds in weight and 30f inches in length. Nineteen cod, averaging 27 inches in length, were secured in Shaw Bay, in a depth of 6 fathoms, sandy bottom, the trial lasting one hour. Five trials, with 8 to 10 hand lines and aggregating 79 minutes, were made at the eastern end of the bank in depths of 26 to 44 fathoms. The catch amounted to 53 cod, ranging in size from 20£ to 36 inches, and in average size for each trial from 24§ to 31£ inches. Their aggregate weight was 574 pounds, an average of about 10 £ pounds each. One halibut, weighing 8 pounds, was also taken in 32 fathoms. 136 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. A few attempts have been made to employ cod trawls on Slime Bank, but they were not attended with satisfactory results, as the jelly-fishes interpose too great an obstacle to this kind of fishing. This bank, moreover, is otherwise better suited to the use of hand lines, on account of the shallow water and the abundant supply of fish. There are no available harbors along the adjacent coast, although excellent protection may be found in Shaw Bay during southeast to southwest winds. Winter fishing would, therefore, be attended with much danger from the heavy storms which then prevail, and the season is chiefly limited to the summer months, when omy occasional moderate blows occur. It is the opinion of Captain Tanner that a well- found fishing schooner could anchor anywhere on Slime Bank between May and September, with an even chance of being able to ride out any gale she would encounter. Amak Island. — Amak Island lies about 11 miles off Izenbek Bay, and, as indicated by the dredging work, seems to be surrounded by a comparatively barren region, some 18 to 20 miles in width, which may be regarded as separating Slime Bank from Baird Bank. How far seaward these conditions hold was not determined, as all of the dredging and fishing stations were within a short distance of the island. Beam trawling was carried on in five different positions5^ stations Nos. 3269-3272), but with poor results, the bottom fauna being far from rich. Nine trials were made with hand lines in depths of 10 to 35 fathoms. Two of these proved entirely unsuccessful, while at the remainder the total catch amounted to 33 cod, weighing only 260 pounds, an average weight of about 7.9 pounds apiece. The average length for the several trials ranged from 23 to 29§ inches. So. far as the evidence goes, therefore, fish are less abundant and of smaller size in this region than on the adjacent banks. This may be due in part to the presence of numerous sea lions, which haul out upon Amak Island, Sea Lion Rocks, and the neighboring coast, but it is probable that some other cause must also be held accountable for this condi- tion of affairs, especially as regards the scarcity of invertebrates and the relatively smaller size of the cod. Walruses are likewise plentiful in this region, but they are not fish-feeders. Amak Island affords fairly good protection on its southeast and southwest sides, and can easily be reached from the contiguous parts of both Slime and Baird banks. Baird Bank. — Baird Bank, generally known to the fishermen, in part at least, as Port Moller bank or ground, was named by Oapt. Tanner in honor of the late Prof. Spencer F. Baird, the first TJ. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. It is the largest of the fishing- grounds yet discovered on the Alaskan coast. As described and charted by Capt. Tanner, it commences a few miles east of Amak Island and extends northeast- ward, off the northern side of the Alaska Peninsula, to the vicinity of Cape Chichagof, at the mouth of the TJgaguk River, a distance of about 230 miles. It has an average width of about 40 miles and an extreme width of 58 miles, its total area being esti- mated at about 9,200 square miles, which is 2,400 miles more than that of Portlock Bank, off Kadiak Island, and some 800 miles more than that of Georges Bank, in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is doubtful, however, if the limits of this bank should be so restricted, as several lines of stations connecting it with Kulukak ground and the region off Cape Peirce show the extension in that direction of essentially the same depths of water and char- acter of bottom, good fishing also having been obtained at nearly every trial. This would make of Bristol Bay in its restricted sense (inside of a line drawn from Cape Newenham to Cape Seniavin) a practically continuous fishing ground, except at the FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 137 mouths of the larger rivers and in some other places as explained below. Outside of Bristol Bay the observations were not carried beyond the limits of the bank as defined by Oapt. Tanner, and the entire width of its western portion still remains to be deter- mined. It is not impossible that some connection may be found to exist between Baird and Slime banks to the north of Amak Island. A line of stations from Cape Newen- kam to the Northwest Cape of Unimak Island, however, showed good fishing only in the vicinity of land. The examination of Baird Bank was begun at the western or southern end of the bank on June 27. The soundings were generally conducted along regular lines, approximately at right angles to the coast, but to the west of Cape Seniavin they were not carried beyond a maximum distance of about 48 miles from land. Inside of this point, however, they were run practically from shore to shore. Thirty-two dredging stations (Nos. 3235-3238, 3273-3299, and 3303) were occupied within the limits of Baird Bank as originally defined; 4 stations (Nos. 3288-3290, 3295) between the bank and the shores- of the peninsula; 7 stations (Nos. 3228-3234) at the extreme head of the bay, in the broad mouth of the Kvichak River; and 14 stations (Nos. 3239-3246, 3300-3302, 3304-3306) between the bank and the northern shores of Bristol Bay. Fishing trials with hand lines were made at all dredging stations and at the majority of sounding stations. The inner margin of Baird Bank has been made to correspond approximately with the 15-fathom line. A maximum depth of 53 fathoms was discovered about 37 miles off Lagoon Point, to the westward of Port Moller. West of Cape Seniavin, however, the depths range mostly from 30 to 45 fathoms, while to the eastward of that point they gradually diminish toward the head of Bristol Bay, the soundings at the extreme end of the bank in that direction indicating depths of 11 to 20 fathoms. In the direc- tion of Kulukak Bay and Cape Peirce the depths also decrease gradually, becoming reduced to 15 and 17 fathoms on the Kulukak ground. The bottom consists mainly of fine gray sand, with areas of black sand, black sand and gravel, and occasionally rocky patches near the shores. The bottom fauna over the main part of the bank was discovered to be rich and varied, in most places corresponding with that of Slime Bank. According to Capt. Tanner, the conditions improved with each line of stations until off Port Moller, where the most productive fishing-ground was found. Cod were taken on nearly every trial with the hand lines, but their abundance and quality varied in different localities. They were smaller and in poorer condition near the land, the best results having been obtained some 15 to 20 miles offshore, in depths of 25 to 40 fathoms. In shallow water the bottom was often covered with sponges, mussels, and large clustered barnacles adhering to the rocks, the cutting edges of the latter soon tearing the nets to pieces. The results of hand-line fishing may be summarized as follows, with respect to the general grouping of the stations on the bank : Two trials only were made at the extreme southwestern end of the bank, in depths of 26 and 39 fathoms, respectively, the catch consisting of 9 cod, having an average weight of about 10 pounds and an average length of about 27 inches. A few pollock and sculpins were also taken at the same time. Off Lagoon Point, in an area covering a length of about 25 miles and extending 48 miles from land, 13 trials were made in depths of 18 to 53 fathoms. The total catch amounted to 56 cod, an average of 4£ to each trial, the average length of the 138 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. trials having been 14 minutes. The average weight of the fish was 9J pounds and their average length 27£ inches. In some places, however, a large proportion of the fish ranged from 28 to 35 inches in length. Three trials were located directly off Port Moller, at distances of 16 to 33 miles from land, in depths of 25 to 39 fathoms. At these stations 65 cod were obtained during an aggregate period of 60 minutes, the average weight of the fish being 13 pounds and their average length about 30f inches; the range in length was from 19 to 39 inches. Off Cape Seniavin, within an area 23 miles long, extending 44 miles from shore, 9 trials, averaging about30 minutes each, yielded 102 cod, or an average of 111.- to a trial. The average weight of the fish was lOf pounds, their average length 29^ inches, and their range in length from 20 to 36 inches. The average length of the trials was much increased in this region by the fact that at one of the stations, about 12 miles off the cape, fishing was continued for 2£ hours. Forty-one cod were taken at this station in a depth of 20 fathom s, and 33 cod about 23 miles farther to the eastward, in 30 fathoms. Another important group of stations occurs off Port Haiden and between there and Cape Menchikof, covering a length of 28 miles and a width of 67 miles from shore. Eleven trials were made, averaging 14i minutes in length, the total catch amounting to 210 fish, an average of about 19£ fisb to a trial. The average weight was lOf pounds, the range in length from 18 to 36 inches, and the average length 29§ inches. From off Cape Menchikof to the northern extremity of the bank, a distance of some 40 miles, seven trials were made in depths of 11 to 24 fathoms, the average dura- tion of each trial having been about 13 £ minutes. The total catch was 75 cod, an average of about 10-f to each trial. The average weight of the fish was 12 pounds, their range in length from 26 to 34 inches, and their average length 30£ inches. A comparison of the results obtained at each of the groups of stations above dis- cussed furnishes some interesting facts respecting the value as fishing-grounds of different parts of Baird Bank, but they are not to be considered as entirely conclusive, owing to the relatively short duration of the fishing trials. For many reasons, how- ever, such a comparison is important, especially as directing the attention of the fish- ermen to localities which they have not visited. The relative abundance of the cod in the different areas may be expressed by the proportion of fish to the length of time occupied in making the trials, which, reduced to minutes, shows that the best results in this respect were obtained off Port Haiden, the remaining areas coming in the following order: North of Cape Menchi- kof, off Port Moller, off Cape Seniavin, and off Lagoon Point. A comparison of the groups of stations with reference to the average weight and the average length of the cod necessitates a somewhat different arrangement from that above given, the area off Port Moller (13 pounds, 30§ inches) taking precedence, followed by u north of Cape Menchikof” (12 pounds, 30f inches), “ off Port Haiden” (lOf pounds, 29f inches), “off Cape Seniavin” (lOf pounds, 29^ inches), u off Lagoon Point” (9J pounds, 27^ inches). Many additional observations are required, however, before passing finally upon the relative values of the different parts of the bank, and this is all the more evident when it is considered that the examinations by the Albatross were restricted to a very brief period during one summer. The distribution of cod, moreover, is greatly influenced during some seasons by the movements of certain migratory fishes which they seek as food, such as the capelin, herring, and sand lance, but at present scarcely FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 139 anything is known regarding the habits of these species on the Alaskan coast. The fishermen consider that good fares are most certain to be obtained off Port Moller, although successful trips have been made farther north. During the progress of the investigations, the schooner Vanderbilt , of San Fran- cisco, Capt. A. W. Smith, was observed at anchor on the Port Moller ground about 20 miles offshore, where she had been a little over a month. Owing to the excellent fishing obtained, only a single berth had been made. About 43,000 cod had been taken up to the time of the visit of the Albatross , and the trip was subse- quently completed with a fare of about 48,500 count fish, each measuring 28 inches and over, and several thousand small fish. Capt. Smith regards the Port Moller ground as superior to any other in Bering Sea, not that the fish are larger or of better quality than on Slime Bank, but the bottom is cleaner and jelly-fishes are not troublesome. He states that halibut weighing about 25 pounds are seldom taken, but individuals of smaller size are abundant during some seasons, and when obtained are used as bait. During the past season they had been scarce. From June 11 to 21, 1890, heavy winds prevailed and prevented fishing. Stormy weather seems to scatter or drive the cod from the fishing-spots, and at such times it is thought they seek deeper water. Between the inner edge of Baird Bank and the adjacent mainland eight trials were made with hand lines in depths of 8^ to 16 fathoms, but cod were taken at only three of them. The total number so captured was 19; 4 near Nelson Lagoon, measur- ing from 28 to 32 inches; 10 off Port Moller, measuring from 26 to 32 inches; and 5 near Port Haiden, measuring from 28 to 33 inches. The good fishing-spots found at the extreme northern end of Baird Bank are located a short distance outside of the extensive shoals surrounding Cape Constantine, but the head of Bristol Bay, to the northward of a line drawn from the mouth of the Ugaguk River to Cape Constantine, has no value as a codfishing-ground, and only a few fish, in poor condition, were captured here and there. The water is not only too fresh for this species, but, owing to the strong currents produced by the immense discharge from several rivers and by the tides, an unusual amount of sand and mud is constantly held in suspension. An examination of the stomachs of those captured showed that they had been feeding upon salmon, and they had evidently been attracted to these unsuitable waters by the presence of the latter fish. Farther south, on the same bank, their food embraced a great variety of bottom life, such as crusta- ceans of several species, holothurians, starfishes, ophiurans, sea-anemones, and other forms of invertebrates, as well as fishes. Small pebbles and even stones of relatively large size were not infrequently found in their stomachs, as has so often been recorded in connection with the fishing banks of the North Atlantic, but their presence may readily be explained by the fact that the sea-anemones and some other animals used as food by the cod grow firmly attached to such objects, which would naturally be swallowed with them. The conditions of weather on Baird Bank are practically the same as on Slime Bank. The adjacent peninsula affords a weather shore during southeast winds. Port Moller and Herendeen Bay will be resorted to when they are better known, and Port Haiden may also become available for shelter after it has been surveyed. According to Mr. Alexander, southerly and westerly winds cause no inconvenience on the bank, but a strong breeze from the northwest or southwest is immediately followed by a disagreeable choppy sea. 140 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Four lines of stations were run from tlie outer margin of Baird Bank as defined by Oapt. Tanner, in tbe direction of the northern coast of Bristol Bay, which show that the bank should probably be extended as far as the shoaler water of Kulukak Bay and off Cape Peirce. On the westernmost line, reaching a distance of about 70 miles, 5 trials were made in depths of 23 to 33 fathoms, the catch consisting of 25 cod, measuring from 23 to 33 inches. On the second line, extending about 58 miles, with depths of 22 to 31 fathoms, the number of trials was 4, the total number of cod 30, measuring from 26 to 36 inches. The two eastern lines were both much shorter and connected Baird Bank with Kulukak ground, as described farther on. Five trials were made in depths of 15 to 30 fathoms, resulting in the capture of 46 cod, measuring from 21 to 34 inches. The better portions of Kulukak ground are included in this area. The size of the fish varied considerably in different parts of the region, but without reference to the dept h of water or character of bottom. The general results may be summarized as follows : Aggregate time consumed in making the trials 230 minutes, total number of cod taken 101, average weight of the cod lOf pounds, average length 29J inches. These results correspond approximately with those obtained off Cape Seniavin and off Port Haiden, but the extent of the area is too great to make such general deductions and comparisons of much value. Good and profitable fishing could, however, undoubtedly be found in some places. Kulukak Bay. — Kulukak Bay occupies a large part of the region included between Cape Coustantine and Cape Newenham, aud contains Hagemeister Island and the Walrus group. Within this area codfish are found in isolated spots, scarcely entitled to the name of banks, but for convenience sake the title of Kulukak ground has been used by Capt. Tanner to designate them. Extensive shoals occur off Hagemeister and the Walrus islands, 6 fathoms being found about 15 miles to the southward of the latter. The principal fishing-spots are outside of these shoals, as well as to the eastward and westward of them, in depths of 12 to 25 fathoms, the bottom consisting generally of sand, with some mud and gravel, and the fauna being essentially the same as on Baird and Slime banks. These outer grounds have already been referred to under the heading of Baird Bank. They were formerly resorted to at times by fishing vessels, but they are said not to be at present. The fishermen have called attention to a small ground, called Gravel Bank, situated about 16 miles SSW. from the southern end of Hagemeister Island, where large cod are reported to be abundant. It has depths of 16 to 20 fathoms, but its size is inconsiderable. It is stated that small fish predominate among the islands of the Walrus group, but that larger ones may be taken in some of the indentations and on some of the rocky patches, although such places are not numerous. Between these islands and the mainland the bottom was found by the Albatross to be exceed- ingly barren, black mud being frequently encountered. Out of 7 trials made near the shore between Cape Constantine and Cape Peirce, cod were captured only twice. One specimen, weighing 17 pounds, was secured in 11 J fathoms about 18 miles west of Cape Constantine, while 8 specimens, averaging 13 pounds in weight and 33 £ inches in length, were taken off the east side of Walrus Island. Cod are said to be abundant in the neighborhood of Cape Peirce, but none were taken by the Albatross in the immediate vicinity of either Cape Peirce or Cape Kewenham. Eleven miles southwesterly from the latter cape 2 specimens were obtained, measuring 29 and 32 inches respectively, and 22 miles farther in the same FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 141 direction a total catch of 15 cod was made, but their average size was only 27f inches. The examinations of the Albatross were not carried north of Gape Newenliam, but cod are reported to occur in greater or less numbers as far north as the ice line; but how extensive the banks or how profitable the fishing may be in this region can only be ascertained by a detailed and careful examination. Condition of the cod in Bering Sea. — Attempts have been made to compare the abundance, size, and condition of the cod inhabiting Bering Sea with those taken on the fishing-grounds in the North Atlantic Ocean, but up to the present time sufficient data have not been obtained to justify conclusions in this respect. The trials made by the Albatross have all been of short duration, very rarely exceeding 20 minutes, and in the majority of cases not more than 15 minutes.' At the same time, moreover, the ship was generally drifting with the wind and current, the hooks being thereby dragged along over the bottom. The fishermen consider that a berth has usually to be occupied for some time before the best fishing begins or the larger fish appear in the greatest numbers. It is recorded as the experience of fishing vessels on Baird Bank that better results are obtained after the lapse of two or three days than when first anchoring, and the supply has tended to increase rather than diminish by the end of a week. The bait which falls from the hooks or otherwise reaches the bottom probably serves to tole the fish about the spot, and thus contributes to their greater abundance. The total number of trials made by the Albatross with hand lines in Bristol Bay was 110, and the aggregate amount of time spent in this work was 1,907 minutes, an average of about 17 minutes to each trial. Two of the trials, however, were long ones, occupying 2£ and 3 hours, respectively. If these be deducted it reduces the aggregate time to 1,540 minutes, and the average time to between 13 and 14 minutes. The total number of cod taken during these trials was 922, an average of 83- fish to a trial. From 8 to 12 lines were generally employed. Limiting the calculations to what have been designated above as the banks proper in Bristol Bay, we find that the total number of trials was 74, the aggregate time 1,374 minutes (including one trial of 2J hours), and the average time 18£ minutes. A total of 832 cod were captured on these trials, being an average of 11 fish to each trial. All of the cod secured were weighed and measured, and the average of weight and length was calculated for each trial. The smallest fish measured 9 inches, the largest 39 inches. In a number of trials, as before mentioned, nothing was obtained, and in some others only a few fish of small size were taken. At 75 stations, however, the average size ranged from 24 inches to 324 inches, distributed as follows : 3 stations, 24 to 26 inches; 19 stations, 26 to 28 inches; 25 stations, 28 to 30 inches; 28 stations, 30 to 324 inches. Considering all the circumstances attendant upon the trials, the results obtained by the Albatross must therefore be regarded as exceedingly favorable and indicative of an abundant supply of good, marketable fish. The range in weight of the cod taken in Bristol Bay was from 2£ to 27J pounds, the average weight about 104 pounds. The highest average obtained at any one station was 15£ pounds, on Slime Bank; and the next highest 15£ pounds, on the Port Moller ground of Baird Bank. The average of several catches on these two banks reached 15 pounds, and it must therefore be considered that the run of fish is about the same on both. 1 142 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. A marked difference exists in the size and quality of the fish in different locali- ties, as elsewhere explained, hut after sufficient experience has been acquired a judicious discrimination in the choice of grounds will be possible, and the few fishing vessels which resort to this region already have their favorite spots, where they find no trouble in securing full fares. In any consideration of this general subject, however, it should be borne in mind that the only information on which to base conclusions has been obtained during a few summer months of each year, while the great banks on the Atlantic coast have been visited by multitudes of fishing vessels for several centuries. Mr. Alexander reports a large proportion of diseased fish in the shallow water along the coasts, due in part at least to parasitism, but the proportion decreases as the water deepens, and at 8 or 10 miles from shore the average is very good. Capt. Tanner also refers to the occurrence of many wounded cod, particularly in the spring and fall, after the passage of the seals into and out of Bering Sea. They have been chiefly observed near the passes between the Aleutian Islands. Halibut and flounders in Bristol Bay. — Only three specimens of halibut were taken by the Albatross within the limits of Bristol Bay, and they were all small, their combined weight amounting to only 42 pounds. As mentioned elsewhere, Oapt. A. W. Smith, of the schooner Vanderbilt, informed Mr. Alexander that, according to his experience, halibut weighing above 25 pounds are seldom captured in this region, although individuals of smaller size are abundant during some seasons. He had also found them scarce during the season of 1890. The specimens taken by the fishing vessels are generally used as bait for the cod. Flounders of several species, some of which were of excellent food quality, were captured in the beam trawl at nearly every station. Port Moller and Herendeen Bay. — From their proximity to the better fishing- grounds on Baird Bank, these two bays may be regarded as affording convenient shelter for fishing vessels during stormy weather. Hitherto they have seldom, if ever, been used for this purpose, owing to the lack of information respecting their hydrog- raphy, but this desideratum has been in part supplied through the agency of the Albatross. Their channels, however, have not yet been buoyed, nor are they likely to be for some time, and access to them must, for the present, be considered as rather difficult. Both bays are shallow and elongate, cutting more than halfway through the Alaska Peninsula and opening close together on its northern side, the principal passage into Herendeen Bay leading through Port Moller entrance. A detailed account of the survey made in 1890, together with sailing directions, will be found in Commander Tanner’s reports (F. C. 9, pp. 281-283, and F. C. 10). The former contains a chart suitable for navigation purposes. It shows the entrance to Port Moller, the channel from Entrance Point to Point Divide, called Hague Channel, the narrow and intricate passageway from the latter point to Marble Point, named Johnston Channel, after the officer who surveyed it, and the general contour of the upper part of Heren- deen Bay, including Mine Harbor, the headquarters and shipping station of the coal company. According to Capt. Tanner, “the entrance to Port Moller is guarded by banks and shoals over which the tide sweeps with great force, making the channel difficult and dangerous, its ill repute having, in fact, caused the great bay and its tributaries to remain almost a terra incognita to the navigator.” The survey of the Albatross will render these harbors available hereafter, but the chart should be used with caution FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 143 until it is ascertained whether the banks about the entrance are permanent or shitting. There is an excellent beach at Mine Harbor for hauling a schooner out, if necessary. The rise and fall Exceeds 15 feet, and would give several hours each tide to examine or make repairs on a vessel’s bottom. Should the coal mine be developed, as seems probable, the place would afford some facilities for repairing and refitting; water is easily procured and fuel can be had in any quantity. There is no settlement at present on either bay. The coal mine above referred to is situated about 1J miles from the waterfront, to the eastward of Mine Harbor, transportation to the landing being effected by means of a tramway operated by a small steam motor. The mine was opened just previous to the visit of the Albatross , which took the first output of coal. The latter was used with satisfactory results, but owing to the lack of proper screening facilities much fine material and dirt was delivered with it, and it was found necessary to burn from 20 to 25 per cent more in quantity to obtain the same results as with a fair quality of Wellington coal. For a full account of its steaming qualities, see report of Passed Assistant Engineer O. R. Roelker, IT. S. Navy (F. 0. 10, pp. 282, 283). Capt. Tanner states, however, that, “considering that it was taken from a vein near the surface, the extra amount required to furnish the same quantity of steam will not seem excessive. It was shown that the coal possesses merit, and it will doubtless improve with the development of the deeper veins.” Salmon fishery on the Nushagak River. — While the Albatross was anchored in the Nushagak River, at the head of Bristol Bay, many important facts respecting the salmon fishery and canning industry which has recently sprung up in that locality were obtained by Mr. Alexander, whose discussion of the subject is contained in the appendix to the report of the Fish Commission for 1889-1891. The following statements from this source relate mainly to matters of scientific interest : The first salmon cannery on the Nushagak was built in 1884 by the Arctic Canning Company. Three similar establishments have been added since that time, all being located between the mouth of Wood River and Clark Point. The salmon first make their appearance about June 1, and remain from forty-five to sixty days. As the sea- son is short, full preparations are made in advance and great activity prevails during the continuance of the run. The king salmon appear earliest and are present about a fortnight, being first sought for off Coffee Point, a high promontory situated on the west side of the river. They are followed by the red salmon, and the latter closely by the silver salmon. During the season of 1890 the first salmon were taken on the morning of June 3, after which several days elapsed before other fish were seen. The presence of ice retards their movements; they will not enter the river until it has disappeared and the temperature of the water has moderated to some extent. When the salmon are late in arriving, they proceed immediately upstream to Lakes Nushagak and Aleknagik, where they spawn; but if the season is an open one, they move more leisurely, and furnish better opportunities for fishing. In the spring of 1890 the river was blockaded with ice until May 20, and the run was late in conse- quence. The fishermen believe that the salmon spawn about a month after entering the river, and the superintendent of the Bristol Bay Canning Company, who has had much experience in this region, states that from the first of August until October the young are passing down the river and into the sea in immense numbers. It takes on an average six of the red salmon, and the same number of silver 144 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. salmon, to make a case of the canned goods. Two and one-half of the king salmon are equivalent to the same amount. Each cannery has hitherto maintained from one to five traps for capturing salmon, hut the yield by this means has not warranted the expense of keeping them in repair. The main body of the trap is made of twine, but the leaders are constructed of galvanized wire netting, which is better adapted to withstand the pressure of drift material brought down by the current. Notwithstanding every precaution, however, they are frequently swept away. Gill nets have now been adopted by all the canneries, as affording the best results. Two sizes are in use. The one for king salmon measures 100 fathoms long by 23§ feet deep, and has a 9^-inch mesh; the other, for red and silver salmon, is 70 fathoms long by 13 feet deep, and has a 6^-inch mesh. They seldom last more than a single season, as they are subject to very hard usage. The salmon are sometimes most abundant a considerable distance above the canneries, or from 40 to 50 miles from the mouth of the river; At such times the fish- ermen are carried to the fishing-grounds, where they live on board of the scow lighters ordinarily employed for discharging and loading vessels, a steam launch being used to tow the latter. Under instructions received from the Secretary of the Treasury, Oapt. Tanner inspected the site of a proposed large fish-trap on Wood River, a tributary of the Nushagak River, which, it had been reported, would prove an obstruction to the movements of salmon within the intent of the law of Congress approved March 2, 1889. He found that a double trap was being built about 20 miles above the mouth of the river and 40 miles from the Nushagak cannery. The Wood River at this point is a swift running stream of clear, cold water, between 700 and 800 feet wide, and 10 to 14 feet deep. Operations had not progressed sufficiently to indicate the character and extent of the work, but the plans contemplated an opening in midstream 100 feet wide, flanked on each side by a trap 40 feet square, with wings extending from the traps to the shores. The Secretary of the Treasury has decided that such a construc- tion would be illegal. UN ALASKA ISLAND AND VICINITY. This island has been visited several times by the Albatross in the course of the Alas- kan investigations, from 1888 to 1892, principally for the purpose of coaling or repair- ing, but much valuable information has been secured regarding the fishery resources of the contiguous waters and the hydrography of the neighboring region. On approaching the Aleutian Chain, at the beginning of the season of 1888, a line of soundings was carried inshore to a depth of 28 fathoms, off Kiliuliuk Bay, on the southern side of the island. Subsequently the Albatross proceeded into Bering Sea through Unimak Pass and entered Unalaska Harbor from the north, the return trip to the Pacific Ocean being made by way of Unalga Pass. The hydrographic obser- vations obtained during these two passages, sailing directions, and a general account of the fishery resources and native industries of Unalaska Harbor have been pub- lished in the Bulletin for 1888 (F. C. 8, pp. 19-22) and in the appendix to the Com- missioner’s report for the same year (F. C. 7, pp. 397-400). During the summer of 1890 a general reconnoissance was made of the submerged platform off the entire northern and western sides of the island. Akutan Pass was FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 145 used by the Albatross on leaving Bering Sea, in August of the same year, the trip through being referred to by Capt. Tanner as follows : The atmosphere was usually clear, and as we had never used Akutan Pass we availed ourselves of the favorable opportunity of passing through and examining it. There is a clear channel two miles or more in width between Cape Morgan and four small islets lying off Unalga Island, free from dangers except near the shores, with 26 fathoms, rocky bottom, in the narrowest part of the pass. Unalaslca Harbor and adjacent ivaters. — During the summer of 1888 collecting was extensively carried on in this harbor and in the waters adjacent to it. Seining proved everywhere successful within the limits of the harbor, but the few hauls made at or near its mouth were unproductive, owing probably to the fact that the water there deepens rapidly from the shore outwards. The natives, however, take cod in these exposed positions. The Oncorliynchus gorbusclia (humpback salmon), 0. lteta (dog salmon), and 0. nerTca were seined abundantly both in the main harbor and in Captain Harbor at its head. The red-spotted trout ( Salvelinus malma) was also plenti- ful in the harbor and in the fresh water lake. Other common species obtainedwere the Pleuronectes stellatus (starry flounder), Lepidopsetta bilineata , Hemilepidotus jordani , and Clupea mirabilis (herring). The advantages offered by Unalaska for the establish- ment of fishing stations and the preparation of dried salmon or ultali by the natives have been discussed in the Fish Commission reports last referred to above. The investigations were continued in Unalaska Harbor at intervals during the summer of 1890, and late in the season they were carried along the Bering Sea side of the island from Priest Bock, in the east, to Umnak Island, in the west. Begarding the vicinity of Unalaska Harbor, Mr. Alexander states that the fishing-grounds extend only a short distance from the shore, the width of bottom over which cod may be expected to occur ranging from 3 to 6 miles. The fishing-spots consist of rocky and muddy patches of variable extent, on which sand, gravel, and shells also occur in small quantities. The rocks are generally sharp and would prove destructive to fishing gear. Cod are frequently caught from the wharf and beach in Unalaska Harbor, and there are certain places in Captain Harbor where this species is suffi- ciently abundant to supply the local demands during the entire year. The fish taken in such localities, however, are inferior in quality to those captured farther off shore, but as salmon form the principal diet of the natives a large stock of cod is never secured at one time. The latter species is almost invariably eaten fresh, but small quantities may be dried in the same manner as the salmon. According to Capt. Tanner: Rumor placed valuable cod banks in the outer bay, but no one seemed to know their exact locality or extent. Such a resource at the doors of a populous settlement would be of inestimable value. Availing ourselves of the opportunity offered by a clear day, we ran several lines of soundings across the bay, making frequent hauls of the trawl and trials with the tisliing lines, extending the examination to the 100-fathom line outside of Cape Kalekhta, or Priest Point, and Cape Cheerful, without finding indications of even ordinarily good fishing-ground. In fact, nearly every sounding inside of the capes gave muddy bottom. Spots were discovered, however, near the shore line where cod were plentiful. At a subsequent time “the search for cod banks in Unalaska Bay was resumed. The region from Ulakta Head to Elder Point was carefully examined, and the exami- nation was extended to Broad and Hateekin Bays, without developing anything that could be called a fishing-bank. Hear the shores, however, particularly on the west side of the bay, cod were plentiful and halibut were fairly abundant.” F. C. B. 1892—10 146 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Mr. Alexander reports that the trials made in close proximity to Cape Cheerful indicated the presence of cod in considerable numbers, those captured having an average weight of about 11 pounds. In the vicinity of Priest Point the fishing was less successful, but a diligent search might disclose good bottom here and there, which had been overlooked in the hurried investigations of the Albatross. Although halibut have never been found here in abundance, they have not at any time been specially sought for, and it is therefore possible that they may be plentiful in some places. The bays, harbors, and streams in all parts of the island are well filled with salmon during the proper season, but the run is not sufficiently large to induce the establish- ment of canneries, as on Kadiak Island and in some other parts of the territory. Cape Cheerful to Makushin Bay. — The 100-fathom curve lies about 4 miles from shore at Cape Cheerful, but it draws in abruptly to about a mile or less until up with Cape Makushin, where the platform again widens out. From the latter cape a line of soundings was run to Makushin Bay, a large and secure harbor, containing a village of the same name, which consists, however, of only a small frame church, a store belonging to the Alaska Commercial Company, and a dozen barabaras, or native earth huts. As a rule, very poor success attended the trials for fish along this section of the coast, but this may have been due in part to the unfavorable weather which pre- vailed. In some places cod were fairly abundant, the largest catches being made near shore, although the fish were smaller in such positions than in deeper water. Excel- lent results were obtained at the entrance to a small indentation or bay, 11 miles east of Cape Makushin, both cod and halibut being secured, three specimens of the latter weighing 6£, 8, and 15 pounds, respectively. By means of the drag seine, large numbers of humpback salmon, trout, young cod, and flounders were captured in Makushin Bay. The beaches are smooth and well adapted to this method of fishing. Two small streams enter the bay near the settle- ment. The larger of these brings down considerable quantities of sediment, but this, apparently, does not prevent the salmon from ascending it to the same extent that they do the clear stream. Makushin Bay to Umnak Island. — At Cape Makushin the coast falls away abruptly toward the south, the entire western part of Unalaska being very narrow, and, together with the adjacent shores of Umnak Island and the coast between Makushin cape and bay, encircling a bay some 32 miles in greatest width. Within these limits the 100-fathom line lies from 12 to 23 mdes offshore, furnishing an area of consider- able extent, over which the bottom seemed favorable for cod and halibut, the fauna generally resembling that on Baird and Slime banks. Very few fish were obtained, however, until the ship had reached the neighborhood of Chernoffsky, although a more thorough search might show them to be equally abundant to the eastward. The beam trawl was used successfully in the vicinity of Makushin Bay and Cape Hague, but only 5 cod were secured in as many trials with hand lines. Halibut are also reported from these localities, but nothing was learned respecting their abundance. Excellent cod-fishing was obtained at nearly every station made directly off Chernoffsky Bay, but less success was met with toward and to the west of Umnak Pass, although practically the same character of bottom was observed throughout the entire area. These differences in the abundance of fish were probably only temporary, due to the state of the tide or to other conditions changing from time to time. In one trial off Chernoffsky, in 42 fathoms, 53 cod and 5 halibut were taken on the hand lines FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 147 in half an hour. Vessels of small tonnage could undoubtedly conduct a profitable business in this region. But few halibut were secured near the outer edge of the platform, the bottom being, apparently, better adapted to them a short distance farther in. This species occurs near the shores during the summer months, but invariably seeks deeper water on the approach of winter. It is sufficiently abundant to support a small fishery, but in the absence of local markets the catch could not be disposed of. The specimens taken by the Albatross were all of the white variety, which is also said to be the more com- mon one throughout the Alaskan waters, as well as on the coasts of British Columbia and Washington. The average weight in this region was about 10 or 12 pounds. Mr. Banken, the agent of the Alaska Commercial Company, states that the best hali- but grounds on this section of the coast are located in a small bay some 6 or 8 miles to the westward of Chernoffsky. Herring and other fishes suitable for bait school in large numbers about this part of the island. There is a fine smooth beach at Chernoffsky, well suited to the hauling of drag seines, and gill nets could also be employed there to good advantage. In this region, as elsewhere on the fishing-banks in Bering Sea, hand lines are preferable to trawl lines, for the reasons previously explained. Moreover, the resources are not sufficiently extensive to yield a profitable return to the larger class of vessels, and in the event of the establishment of fishing operations, it would be preferable to employ smacks of rather small size, with local stations where the catch could receive preliminary treatment before shipment to the south. The total number of trials with hand lines made between Priest Rock, at the entrance to Unalaska Harbor and Umnak Island, was 37, of which 14 gave no results. The remaining 23 trials yielded 177 cod weighing 1,834 pounds, and 21 halibut weigh- ing 292J pounds. The average weight of the cod was, therefore, about 10£ pounds, and of the halibut about 14 pounds. The cod ranged in length from 19£ to 37 inches, the average length for the combined catch having been about 29£ inches. The coast from Cape Makushin to Chernoffsky is broken by a succession of deep bays, some of which almost bisect the island, and this region is, therefore, well sup- plied with safe and convenient harbors. Chernoffsky Bay is one of the most secure harbors in Bering Sea; it is easy of approach, and in entering it is only necessary to keep a mid-channel course. The village of the same name is situated on a narrow neck of land between the harbor and the sea, and is conspicuous in passing along the coast. The native population consists of 46 persons living in barabaras, in addition to which there is a Greek church and a store and residence of the agent of the Alaska Commercial Company, all frame structures. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. Fishing vessels in Bering Sea. — According to Mr. Alexander, from one to four ves- sels have fished each year on the cod banks in Bering Sea, and, as a rule, with good success. Small vessels are regarded as best suited to the region, owing to the fact that they do not have to change their ground so often as the large ones. The expe- rience of the schooner Vanderbilt , described above under Baird Bank, will serve to illustrate this point. Vessels entering Bering Sea sometimes make trials in the vicinity of Unimak 148 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Pass and off the Northwest Cape of Unimak Island, near the western end of Slime Bank. In the spring they not infrequently obtain moderately good fishing off the islands of Akutan, Akuu , Tigaldi, and Avatanak, between Unimak and Unalaska. These places compare favorably with the banks in Bristol Bay as to the size and quality of the cod, bi\t, as the fish are much less abundant, full fares are not taken there. The natives, however, have no trouble in securing, about these islands, all the cod, flounders, etc., needed for their own use. Trawl lines are not employed in Bering Sea, although they have been tried there, the depth of water and character of the bottom making it more convenient and profit- able to resort to dory hand-line fishing. Additional notes on the vessel fishery in Bering Sea will be found in thecU. S. Fish Commission Bulletin for 1888, pages 22, 23. Bait. — The vessels depend chiefly for their bait upon the fresh fish taken on the hooks during the progress of their fishing operations, and there is seldom any diffi- culty in obtaining all that is required for that purpose, and even much more. The fishes so employed, according to Mr. Alexander, consist principally of sculpins, floun- ders, halibut, when they can be secured, and several other small species. The small halibut are said to make an excellent bait, being second only to the squid in that respect. A small quantity of salt salmon and herring is usually taken along to serve for the first baitings. Meteorological conditions. — Capt. Tanner summarizes as follows the observations made upon the wind and weather in Bering Sea from the last of May to September 1, 1890: Southwest winds prevailed, hut we had them frequently from southeast to northwest. It was boisterous weather nearly half the time, but seldom rough enough to interfere with our work. We had several summer gales of moderate force, but no severe storms. Fog and mist prevailed, and a clear day was the rare exception. The tidal currents were strongest in the vicinity of Unimak Pass and at the head of the bay ; they were greatly affected, however, by the winds. The flood stream set to the northward and slightly inshore along the coasts of Unimak and the peninsula, the ebb to the southward and offshore. The former was invariably the stronger, and probably found an outlet by sweeping past Cape Constantine in the direction of Cape Newenham. There has been no systematic study of the currents of Bering Sea, and the almost constant fogs prevent the navigator from adding much to our meager knowledge concerning them. The daily meteorological observations for the same period have been published in the Fish Commission Beport for 1890-91. Bogoslof Island and Volcano. — On the afternoon of August 2, 1890, the Albatross passed within three-fourths of a mile of Bogoslof island and volcano, of both of which good photographs were obtained. The day was unusually clear, Makushin and the high lands of Umnak being distinctly visible. Regarding the observations made in this interesting locality, Capt. Tanner reports as follows : Sail Rock had fallen, its original position being marked by. the dCbris. New Bogoslof was envel- oped in smoke so dense that its outline could not be accurately determined, but its altitude was not far from 400 feet. There were no outlying dangers visible, and a couple of soundings, taken 2 miles from the old cone on different bearings, gave 649 and 578 fathoms, the latter being on the reef marked on old charts as extending from Bogoslof to the north end of Umnak. It is needless to say that this reef does not exist. Myriads of guillemots were seen on the island and for 15 miles or more around it, and a portion of the beach was occupied by a rookery of very large sea lions. Old Bogoslof is rap- idly crumbling away, and will, like Sail Rock, eventually disappear. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 149 OFF THE SOUTHERN SIDE OF THE ALASKA PENINSULA. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. The first investigations made by the steamer Albatross in the North Pacific Ocean were conducted during the summer of 1888 off the southern side of the Alaska Peninsula and the easternmost of the Aleutian Islands, between Unalaska Island, in the west, and Middleton Island, in the east. The examinations covered the entire width of the submerged continental platform within these limits, including the best- known of the Alaskan fishing- grounds for cod, the greatest amount of time being spent in those localities which promised the most important practical results. A complete review of the work accomplished on this survey has been published in the Bulletin of the Fish Commission for 1888 (pp. 1-92), together with a large chart suit- able for navigation purposes, making it unnecessary, in this connection, to give more than a general summary of the observations. The ship left San Francisco, Cal., on this expedition, July 4, 1888. After coaling at Departure Bay, British Columbia, and making the passage inside of Vancouver Island, a course was laid in the direction of the Shumagin Islands, off which a line of deep-sea soundings was begun on July 19, being carried thence to the vicinity of Kiliuliuk Bay, Unalaska. The fishery investigations were commenced off the latter island, and were continued northeasterly along the coast. Ten or eleven days were spent in the vicinity of Unalaska and Unimak Islands, including Davidson Bank. Soundings were carried through Unimak Pass and off the northern side of Akun and Akutan Islands to Iliuliuk Harbor, Unalaska, where a supply of coal was obtained, and where opportunity was given to study the fisheries and the inshore fishing-grounds of the region. The reported positions of Lenard Bock and Anderson Bock, south of the Sannak Islands, were examined July 30, and on the following day the steamer arrived at Humboldt Harbor, Popoff, one of the Shumagin Islands. At this place the services of Capt. Paul M. Pavloff, a well-known pilot of the coast, were secured. Subsequently, Eagle Harbor, Hagai Island, and Yukon Harbor, Big Koniushi Island, were visited. About six days were spent in the region between the Sannak Islands and the Shumagins, and on Shumagin Bank, the explora- tion of which was completed August 6. From the Shumagin Islands soundings were carried to Mitrofania island and bay on the mainland, and thence to Light-house Bocks, Ohirikoff Island, and the Trinity Islands, the Albatross arriving at Old Harbor, on the southern side of Kadiak Island, August 10. The development of Albatross Bank occupied five days, and on the 14th the harbor of St. Paul, the eastern end of Kadiak Island was reached. The steamer was detained here until the 20th in coaling and in studying the fisheries and shore fishing- grounds, beginning the investi- gation of Portlock Bank August 21. On the afternoon of the 24th an anchorage was made off Middleton Island, which was visited the next day for the purpose of deter- mining its precise position and the character of its surroundings. From this point the Albatross proceeded to one of the reported positions of Pamplona Bocks, in lat. 59° 03' N., long. 142° 40' W., where a thorough search was made for these supposed dangers to navigation, but no trace of them was found within 20 miles of this locality. Having finished this examination a course was laid down the coast for Seattle, Wash. Although much foggy weather was encountered during the summer, making it difficult at times to locate the sounding stations with accuracy, the work was prose- cuted without serious delays, and very successful results were accomplished. The 150 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. occasional detentions in port, moreover, afforded excellent opportunities for studying the inshore fishery resources and the fishery methods of the region, respecting both of which subjects important information was obtained. The five banks whose positions were indicated by older surveys, namely, David- son, Sannak, Shnmagin, Albatross, and Portlock Banks, were more thoroughly exam- ined than were the intervening areas, some of which, however, may, upon further examination, prove to contain fishing-banks of equal value, and not inferior in size to at least the smaller of those mentioned. Good fishing was obtained at nearly all localities where trials were made with hand lines, whether upon defined banks or upon the more level grounds between them, and it is natural to infer that the entire sub- merged plateau from off Unalaska Island to Fairweather ground is one immense fishing- ground, limited upon the outer side only by the abrupt slope, which may be said to begin about the 100-fathom curve. Equally good fishing can not be expected to exist in all parts of this area, some places being more favorable for the feeding and spawning of the cod and halibut than others, and as a rule the larger fish have to be sought for in deeper waters. This important tract can best be compared with the suc- cession of well-known banks which skirt the southern border of the British Provinces on the eastern coast of North America from the Gulf of Maine to beyond Newfound- land, but its total area is much less. If considered as a single and continuous bank, however, it has more than twice the area of the fishing-grounds of Bering Sea, previ- ously described in this paper. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE FISHING-GROUNDS. Vicinity of Unalaska. — One line of soundings was made in approaching Kiliuliuk Bay from the south, and another from the same bay in a southeasterly direction to the 100-fathom curve, which was traced eastward to Davidson Bank. A third line was also carried eastward along the inner edge of the plateau, from the entrance to Akutan Pass. These soundings were not sufficient to demonstrate the existence of a defined bank in this region, but it was estimated that an area of about 2,000 square geographical miles to the westward of Davidson Bank was suitable for fishing. The width of the plateau here varies from 15 to 24 miles inside of the 100-fathom curve. Beyond this line the bottom drops off very suddenly here as elsewhere along this part of the Alaskan coast, a depth of 1,961 fathoms being found within 34 miles of Unalaska. Davidson Bank. — This bank was discovered over twenty years ago by Prof. George Davidson, of the IT. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, who made a number of soundings upon it in depths of about 50 fathoms, and found cod abundant in some places. Its outline and surface contour were established by the Albatross with considerable accuracy. The bank lies south of Unimak Island, and extends westward from the neighborhood of the Sannak Islands to about the longitude of the southern entrance to Unimak Pass (about longitude 164° 40' W.). Its eastern end is continuous with the shoal water surrounding the Sannak Islands; its area was estimated at about 1,600 square miles. The greatest width of the submerged plateau off Unimak Island is 45 to 50 miles. Depths less than 50 fathoms were found over a large part of the bank, 41 fathoms being the shoalest water discovered. Between the shallow area and the islands to the north and northwest of it, deptlis of 50 to 72 fathoms occur. Sannak Bank. — The shoal water at the eastern end of Davidson Bank was traced some distance eastward along the southern edge of the Sannak Islands, and between FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS 151 those islands and the reported positions of Lenard and Anderson Rocks ; but still farther eastward on the same line of soundings (longitude 162° 22' W.) a depth of 60 fathoms was found. Sannak Bank begins immediately to the northeastward of this position, and covers an estimated area of about 1,300 square miles. It lies to the east and southeast of the islands of the same name, is somewhat elongated in shape, and trends in a general way northeast and southwest. A small area, having depths of 30 to 37 fathoms, occurs near the center of the bank. A depth of 63 fathoms was found between it and the Sannak Islands, and depths of 75 to 82 fathoms exist off the northern edge in the direction of the Sandman Reefs. Between Sannak Bank and the Shumagin Islands. — In this area about 1,800 square miles, more or less adapted to fishing, were partly surveyed, the depths ranging from 38 to 74 fathoms. This region is free from the hidden dangers which render Sannak Bank unsafe to those not well acquainted with its surroundings. Shumagin Bank. — This bank lies to the south and southeast of the Shumagin Islands, and its outer margin follows approximately the trend of the coast line formed by the adjacent islands. It has been traced westward to about longitude 159° 52' W., but probably extends farther in that direction. East of the Shumagin Islands it reaches north to the latitude of Big Koniushi Island. Its width inside of the 100- fathom curve varies from 15 to 35 miles, while its area has been estimated at about 1,800 square miles. The depths over a large part of the bank are less than 50 fathoms, the bank not being separated from the islands by deep water. Shumagin Islands to Kadiak Island. — Only a single series of soundings was carried across this wide area to the eastward of Shumagin Bank, with a double line extending from the neighborhood of Light-house Rocks to Mitrofania Bay. These soundings were insufficient to demonstrate the full value of this region, but they indicated the existence of several fishing-banks, the outlines and characteristics of which must be left for future investigations. The extent of the area thus partly developed was estimated at about 4,400 square miles. Albatross Bank. — This bank lies off the southeastern side of Kadiak Island and extends the entire length of that island as well as in front of the Trinity Islands. At the eastern end it is practically continuous with Portlock Bank. Along some portions of the coast, as in the neighborhood of Sitkalidak Island, the bank is separated from the land by comparatively deep water, while in other places shoal water intervenes. The 100-fathom curve is distant 25 to 45 miles from the land, inside of which limit there is an estimated area of 3,700 square miles. The existence of this bank was predicted by Prof. George Davidson upon the evidence of a few isolated soundings, which were the only ones that had been made previous to the investigations of the steamer Albatross , from which it has derived its name. Portlock Bank. — This is the largest single bank south of the Alaska peninsula, its area inside of the 100-fathom curve being about 6,800 square miles, or only 1,600 miles less than that of Georges Bank, the second largest of the great banks of the western Atlantic Ocean. It extends northeastward from Kadiak Island, in the direction of Middleton Island, a distance of about 120 miles, and is irregular in shape. Isolated soundings of 68 to 81 fathoms occur near Kadiak Island, at the western end of the bank, but there are no indications of a marked or extensive depression between the bank and the land. Prom Portlock Bank the soundings were carried to Middleton Island, the position of which was ascertained by a careful series of observations on a clear day. The 152 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. reported position of Pamplona Rocks in lat. 59° 03' N., long. 142° 40' W., was next visited, but only deep water was found within a radius of 20 miles of this locality. Character of the bottom on the banks. — Sand was the predominant material com- posing the bottom on these several banks, a gray sand being the most common. This was combined in many places with pebbles, gravel, or broken shells, which were also recorded separately in some localities. Mud rarely occurred upon the banks or any- where inside of the 100-fathom line. Rocks were not found upon Davidson Bank, but on Sanuak Bank they compose a large part of the bottom, even in the deeper sound- ings. Rocky patches are numerous on Shumagin and Albatross banks, but were observed only at the extreme western eud of Portlock Bank near Kadiak Island. In the region between Sannak Bank and the Shumagin Islands the bottom consists of sand, mud, pebbles, gravel, and rocks, but the last-mentioned material occurs only in the neighborhood of the islands and Sannak Bank. In the corresponding area between the Shumagin Islands and Kadiak Island fine sand was most abundant in depths less than 100 fathoms, with the admixture in places of pebbles, gravel, and broken shells, and occasional patches of mud and coarse sand. Green and blue mud usually com- posed the bottom in depths over 100 fathoms, but sand and rocks were also recorded. Off Ilnalaska sand was traced down to a depth of .228 fathoms, with mud at 261 fathoms. Black sand was found in»342 fathoms just off Davidson Bank, while mud occurred in 435 fathoms off Sannak Bank, with rocky patches at depths of 265 and 464 fathoms. Sand and rocks composed the bottom off Shumagin Bank in 105 to 119 fathoms. Off Albatross and Portlock banks gray sand was discovered in 298 fathoms and black sand in 594 fathoms. Muddy bottom occurs, however, in places close to the 100-fathom line, but in the pocket which indents the southwestern end of the latter bank, with depths of 102 to 166 fathoms, the bottom consists entirely of sand. A rocky spot was found off Albatross Bank in a depth of 485 fathoms. Dredging trials. — The beam trawl and naturalists7 dredge were frequently used upon the banks, resulting in the collection of a large amount of natural-history mate- rial. As was to be expected, the assemblage of forms strongly recalls the fauna of the great fishing-banks of eastern North America, and many of the species from these two northern regions are closely related to one another, some also probably being identical. The most conspicuous features in the hauls were the fishes, crustaceans, mollusks, and echinoderms. Edible fishes, crabs, and shrimps were frequently taken, the last mentioned often in great numbers. The dredging operations were entirely subordinated to those of sounding, as it was considered most important to determine first the outlines and contours of the banks, but the results were ample to prove the exceeding richness of the grounds with respect to the lower forms of animal life, upon which their value for fishing is mainly dependent. Trials for fish. — The trials for fish on these banks and other offshore grounds were made entirely with hand lines. Cod and halibut were the principal species taken, and are the only ones to which we need refer in this connection. Six to nine lines were generally used at each trial, which occupied from fifteen minutes to something over an hour each, according to circumstances. Salt clams and salmon were chiefly employed as bait, and pollock, sculpins, and cod occasionally. The depth at which the fishing was done ranged from 27 to 84 fathoms, and every variety of bottom observed upon the banks was tried. The trials made by the Albatross, as before explained, do not furnish conclusive results with respect to the average size of the fish inhabiting the banks. It is said FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 153 that the larger cod are least quickly attracted by the bait, but as time was too valua- ble to permit of long stops at any single position, the records showing the size of fish taken by the Albatross are less gratifying than might otherwise have been expected. A length of 28 inches is taken as the standard size for large fish on the Atlantic coast, and all under this size bring a lower price in the markets. Out of 20 captures of cod recorded by the Albatross , the average size of the fish attained this standard in only six instances; it was rarely below 24 inches, and generally above 25 inches. The trials were usually made during the progress of or subsequent to a sounding or dredging haul, the steamer often drifting with the tide and changing the ground before the lines had touched bottom. By anchoring, and especially by remaining some time in each position, much better results would undoubtedly have been obtained. Halibut were secured at nearly every station. In four trials made off Unalaslta Island, aggregating eighty-five minutes, 22 cod were taken, averaging for the several trials from 21 to 28| inches in length ; in one instance, on Davidson Bank, 25 cod averaged 28 inches, and in another, 21 cod, 24£ inches; 18 cod captured on Sannak Bank averaged 23 £ to 25 inches in length. The cod taken off Unga, one of the Shumagin Islands, had an average length of 30 inches; on Shumagin Bank of 26£ inches, and near the Chirikof Island of 23f inches. Sev- eral trials were made on Albatross Bank, two of which were unusually successful. One was off Tugidak, the westernmost of the Trinity Islands, in 37 fathoms, where 47 cod were captured in 38 minutes, and the other off Dangerous Cape, Kadiak, in 39 fathoms, where the capture amounted to 69 cod in 50 minutes. At the former locality the fish averaged 28£ inches in length and at the latter 30f inches, in both instances being above the eastern standard. Pair after pair of cod were hauled up in quick succession at each of these localities, and they were seizing the bait as actively at the close of the trials as at the beginning. Only one large catch of cod was made on Portlock Bank, in a depth of 36 fathoms, where 30 individuals, averaging 27 inches in length, were taken in the course of 18 minutes. Bait. — Bait is as readily obtained in this region as in Bering Sea, and the same custom prevails of fitting out with only a small quantity of salted fish or clams, for which fresh material is substituted as soon as the fishing work actively begins. Miscellaneous observations. — Besides the fishery investigations summarized above, many other important observations were also made bearing more or less directly on the same subject. These have been discussed in full in the reports previously referred to. They relate to the hydrography and meteorology of the region, the availability of harbors, etc. Corrected positions were obtained for some of the rocks and islands of the Sandman Beefs, which had been inaccurately located on the published charts. An unsuccessful search was made for two reported dangers south of the Sannak Islands, namely, Lenard and Anderson rocks, without, however, disproving their existence. Much valuable information was secured regarding the different islands visited and the mainland at Mitrofania Bay. A partial list of the harbors and anchor- ages situated between TTnalaska and Kadiak was compiled, and sailing directions were also prepared for entering some of the more important ports. While approaching the Alaskan coast in May, 1890, a second attempt was made to locate the position of Anderson Bock, respecting which Capt. Tanner has reported as follows : The high land of Sannak Island was sighted on the morning of May 21, and a line of soundings and dredgings, commenced in 483 fathoms, was carried over the position assigned to Anderson Rock, 154 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. and tlience to the westward of the islands through Unimak Pass into Bering Sea. The weather was squally and misty at times while working in the region of Anderson Rock, hut there were frequent intervals when it was quite clear, and from the masthead we commanded a view of the horizon for 10 miles or more in every direction, but without detecting any surface signs of rocks or shoals ; neither did the soundings indicate anything of the kind. Our observations do not prove the non-existence of the danger referred to, but simply show that it does not lie in the position indicated. The evidence seems so conclusive as to the existence of rocks somewhere in that vicinity that I am inclined to the belief that they will eventually be found and located properly. Our investigations are gradually narrowing the limits in which they may be searched for. A few dredging and fishing trials were also made south of the Alaska Peninsula during the summer of 1890, but they add no information of material importance for this brief review. DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS AND DREDGINGS IN THE NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN, OFF THE ALASKAN COAST. On approaching the Alaskan coast in July, 1888, soundings were begun in a depth of 2,550 fathoms, latitude 52° 15' N., longitude 156° 37' W. This was the first of a series of ten stations extending H. 88° W., 390 miles, and made to ascertain whether a marked depression in the bottom, observed farther to the eastward by the U. S. S. Tuscarora in 1874, was more than local in its character. The soundings of the Tuscarora revealed a depression simply, but from them geologists had predicted the existence of a submarine trough, running parallel to the coast of the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands, and extending probably along the entire length of the latter islands to the sounding of 4,037 fathoms made by the Tuscarora off Attn Island. The Albatross soundings, supplementing those of Capt. Belknap, developed this predicted trough a distance of 400 miles. Its direction, where determined, was S. 65° W. and N. 65° E., nearly parallel with the trend of the coast line, the center being 60 miles from the Shuraagins and 100 miles from the southwestern extremity of TTnalaska. It is about 30 miles in width between the 3,000-fathom lines, with a maximum depth of 3,820 fathoms in latitude 52° 20' N., longitude 165° W. In August, 1890, after leaving Bering Sea, another similar line of soundings was run across the same region, but some distance to the eastward of the Tuscarora series. The results have been described by Capt. Tanner as follows: Departure was taken off tbe Trinity Islands in latitude 56° 02' N., longitude 153° 52' W. Run- ning E. 3° S. true, 11 miles, we found 207 fathoms ; then east true, with intervals of 20 miles, the following depths were found across the line of the great submarine trough which extends along the Aleutian Islands, viz : 1,152, 2,197, 2,620, 2,935, and 2,925 fathoms. Increasing the interval to 30 miles, we found 2,776 fathoms, and a farther distance of 62 miles gave us 2,414 fathoms. The maximum depth was found in latitude 56° 02' N. , longitude 151° 12' W. It will be observed that while the depths are less than those found farther west, they are at least 800 fathoms greater than the normal, showing that the easterly extension of the depression reaches that point. The line of soundings was extended to the Queen Charlotte Islands, where a successful haul of the trawl was made in 1,588 fathoms. This depression has therefore now been traced a distance of nearly 600 miles. After completing the investigations off Middleton Island and Pamplona Bocks, in August, 1888, a line of ten sounding and dredging stations was carried southward, nearly parallel with the coast line of Alaska and British Columbia, to the north end of Vancouver Island. At the first six stations the depths ranged from 1,433 to 1,815 fathoms, but they subsequently decreased to 876, 204, 83, and 52 fathoms. The foregoing deep-sea soundings and dredgings, as well as those of lesser depth, made to determine the contour of the bottom along the margin of the continental platform off the coast of the Alaska Peninsula, are represented on U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey charts S and T. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 155 SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA. Practically nothing has yet been done toward investigating the fishery resources of southeastern Alaska, all of the time suitable and available for* work in northern latitudes since the Albatross arrived in the North Pacific Ocean having been spent off the southern coast of the Alaska Peninsula, in Bering Sea, and in the sealing inves- tigations of 1891 and 1892. During July, 1889, however, a trip was made through the inland passages of the southeastern part of the territory as far as Juneau, with several members of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, who were desirous of inspecting the principal Indian settlements of that region. The steamer left Tacoma « on July 8, and returned on the 28th of the same month. Stops were made at Fort Tongass, Port Chester, Karta Bay, Fort Wrangell, Sitka, Pavloff Harbor, Hoonyah Bay, Portage Bay, Chilkat, and Juneau. Several important fishing stations and canneries were visited, and some investigations were also made by means of the beam trawl and other kinds of fishing apparatus. BRITISH COLUMBIA. On the voyages to and from Alaska the Albatross has generally made use of the inland passage inside of Vancouver Island; she has also often coaled at Departure Bay, and has made occasional visits to Victoria and to other parts of the same island. Opportunities have therefore been afforded, from time to time, to observe the fishery resources of the British Columbian coast, but comparatively little information has been obtained in regard to them. This subject will be discussed in part in connection with the State of Washington, the following notes referring mainly to the inland passage: Departure Bay. — The results of collecting work during July 10 and 11, 1888, together with notes upon the fisheries, are recorded in the Bulletin for the same year, pp. 51, 52. According to Mr. Alexander, the white fishermen of Departure Bay are exclusively Italians, whose chief occupation during the winter months is the capture of dogfish for their oil. Herring are also very abundant, but they are taken only in small quantities for the benefit of the local trade. The salmon fishery is likewise very limited, being followed by only a few Indians to supply their own wants and the small market at Nanaimo. Cod sometimes enter the bay, but they are said to be more plentiful in deeper water outside. They are described as small fish, averaging about 5 pounds each in weight, and are not often fished for. A visit to the same place, beginning May 25, 1889, is thus described by Mr. Alexander: During the stay in port I was occupied in obtaining additional information respecting the fish- eries of the region. A visit was paid to Mr. Vozza, an Italian fisherman, who conducts a small fishing business on one of the islands in the bay. He said that the past winter had been exceptionally mild and consequently the fishing for dogfish much poorer than usual. These fish would visit the bay in large numbers during cold spells, but every time the weather moderated they immediately sought deeper water. It is not probable that the temperature had a direct effect upon the dogfish, but it influenced the presence of the herring on which they feed. The herring usually resort to Departure Bay during the winter in incredible numbers, and the dogfish follow them about from place to place. Several thousand herring were smoked by Mr. Vozza during the preceding winter, but he found no demand for them in Nanaimo or elsewhere. Three thousand gallons of dogfish oil were put up between December 1 and the last of March by two men. The usual yield for the same time is about 5,000 gallons. Mr. Vozza says that the spring run of salmon strikes the Fraser River in March and remains there until the latter part of June. In July the suk-kegh salmon enter the river and con- tinue in it until sometime in August, after which the spring salmon return and are plentiful for three 156 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. or four weeks. A form called “ cohoes ” by the natives predominates during September, and in Octo- ber there are several species running. There are now fifteen canneries on the river, three having been built during the present season. The sizes of mesh in the salmon nets are 6, 7f , and 8 inches. The 6-inch mesh is used for the suk-kegh salmon. About 2,000 men are engaged in the fishery this year. On May 13, 1890, while on the passage to Alaska, Oapt. Tanner notes that “ schools of herring were seen in the Gulf of Georgia during the eyening, pursued by sharks and porpoises. Among the latter several were observed with peculiar markings, the head, back, and sides being black or very dark; belly, tips of fins, and tip of tail, white.” Alert Bay. — Stops were made at this place both going and coming in 1888. There is an Indian village here and also a salmon cannery, where, up to September, 46,000 cases had been put up. Salmon are sometimes very abundant about the bay and neighboring islands, being chiefly fished for by means of seines and gill nets. A large number of suk-kegh salmon (O. nerka) were observed at the cannery on July 11. The Indians of the village are mainly occupied in fishing for the cannery. Fort Rupert. — The Albatross stopped at Fort Rupert, or Beaver Harbor, on July 12, 1888, for the purpose of obtaining a supply of clams for use as bait on the Alaskan fishing-grounds. Clams are unusually plentiful in this locality, and with a force of fifteen sailors 10 bushels were secured during a single low tide. Three species are said to occur here in about equal abundance. The large gaper clam ( Schizothcerus ) burrows deeply in the bottom at very low tide level, while the Saxidomus nuttallii (quahog) and the smaller Tapes staminea are usually only 6 or 8 inches below the surface, and may be found anywhere between high and low water mark. During unfavorable seasons for salmon the cannery at Alert Bay has preserved clams, obtain- ing its supplies from Fort Rupert. Dredgings. — On the way south through the inland passage, in September, 1888, dredging stations were made in Queen Charlotte Sound, off the southern entrance to Goletas Channel, depth 238 fathoms (No. 2862) ; and in the Gulf of Georgia, off Fraser River, depth 67 fathoms (No. 2863). Black-cod. — Much information was obtained at Victoria respecting the black-cod and the attempts made to establish a regular fishery for this highly prized species. References to this subject will be found in the several reports of Capt. Tanner and Mr. Alexander. In October, 1888, the schooner Theresa , of Victoria, completed a success- ful trip, having secured about 3,000 of these fish, many of which weighed from 20 to 25 pounds apiece. They were taken principally in a depth of 210 fathoms, about 5 miles off the Queen Charlotte Islands, trawl lines being used for their capture. A part of the cargo, however, was purchased from the Indians. According to Mr. Alexander, the great depth at which these fish generally live, 150 to 200 fathoms, has undoubtedly had much to do with hindering the establishment of this industry, as the north- western coast fishermen had never been obliged to go beyond a depth of 50 fathoms for their cod and halibut, and are totally unused to deep-water fishing. In June, 1889, Mr. Alexander wrote that he had received information of only one trip subsequent to that mentioned above off the coast of the Queen Charlotte Islands. The fish were caught in the vicinity of Gold Harbor, in a depth of 250 fathoms. He takes exception to the customary manner of dressing the fish, by splitting them down the back and leaving the head and backbone attached, which he thinks causes them to rust very quickly, and considers that if prepared like the true cod, or even mess mackerel, they would be in much greater demand. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 157 WASHINGTON AND OREGON. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. The coasts of Washington and Oregon, from Cape Flattery to the California boundary line, have a total length, due north and south, of about 383 nautical miles, reaching, therefore, through nearly 6£ degrees of latitude. The examination of this region by the steamer Albatross was begun in September, 1888, and was continued at intervals until in October, 1889, when it was practically completed. Since that time, however, some additional observations have been made. As in the Alaskan region, it has been necessary to spend most time in determining the contour and general characteristics of the bottom, as very few soundings had previously been made beyond a depth of 50 fathoms, and only comparatively limited areas in more shallow water had been surveyed. The regular hydrographic work of the Albatross consisted in running parallel lines of soundings seaward from the coast, at intervals of 5 to 10 miles, and generally into depths of 200 or more fathoms, thus serving to develop the entire width of the Continental platform to its abrupt outer edge. As the bottom fishing-grounds are mostly confined within a depth of 100 fathoms and rarely extend beyond a depth of 200 fathoms, the survey made here by the Albatross has been sufficiently comprehensive to meet all the requirements of the fishery interests in that respect, although in some places more detailed examinations would be desirable. Wherever the nature of the bottom or previous information indicated the occurrence of fishing-grounds, the sounding stations were run more closely together, and the amount of time spent in determining their contours and conditions was proportioned to their importance. The width of the continental platform varies considerably at different places along the coast. At Cape Flattery the 100-fathom line is 40 miles from shore, while at Cape Johnson, 26 miles further south, it is distant only 18 miles. Off Grays Harbor the distance is 30 miles; off Willapa Bay, 20 miles; off Cape Disappointment, at the mouth of the Columbia River, 3 5 miles ; at Tillamook Rock, Oregon, 27 miles, and at Cape Lookout 11 miles. From this point the platform gradually broadens out, attaining a width of 35 miles off the Siuslaw River, in the region of Heceta Bank, immediately south of which it is abruptly constricted to about 14 miles, becoming reduced to 7 miles at Orford Reef and 12 miles at the California State line. The superficial area of this platform within the 100-fathom line has been estimated at about 3,700 square miles for the coast of Washington and about 4,750 square miles for the coast of Oregon. The soundings off Cape Flattery were irregular and suggest the existence of submarine ridges lying parallel with the coast. A very elongate crescent-shaped depression, having depths of 100 to 200 fathoms, extends southward from the mouth of the Strait of Fuca a distance of some 20 or more miles, being distant from the coast from 8 to 12 miles. Thence to Yaquina Head, Oregon, the slope is regular, except in the region of the rocky bank off Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay, where elevations of a few fathoms were found. Below Yaquina Head the platform attains its greatest width south of Cape Flattery , the somewhat triangular area which occurs there being occupied at its southwestern extremity by Heceta Bank. Further south the soundings are regular, but the depths increase more rapidly from the shore outward. The bottom consists generally of fine sand in the shallower water, changing 158 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. to mud farther offshore, although sand was also found at times in considerable depths. On the fishing-banks its character is variable, as described elsewhere. Dredging and fishing trials were made at frequent intervals down the coast as far as Orford Reef, Oregon, leaving a distance of about 48 miles between that place and the State line, over which no fishery investigations have yet been made; but the continental platform is there very narrow. There are very few defined fishing- grounds on the coasts of Washington and Oregon, and those which occur are of small extent. The largest and most important one lies about 11 miles northwesterly from Cape Flattery, and has a total area of about 1,100 square miles. Another, covering only about 110 square miles, is situated off the coast between Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay. A still smaller bank or rocky patch is located about 19 miles southwesterly from Yaquina Head; its area has been estimated at 40 square miles. Heceta Bank, lying off the Siuslaw River, is next in importance to Flattery Bank, having an extent of about 600 square miles. The small extent of the banks, however, does not indicate a scarcity of fishery resources, as fishes of excellent food quality were found to be pretty generally dis- tributed over the surface of the platform throughout a large part of the region, as described further on. In the immediate vicinity of exposed rocks lying near the coast, which are inhabited by sea lions, fishes were noticed to be rare if not entirely absent in most cases, Orford Reef, however, presenting a notable exception in this respect. The halibut and the true cod ( Oadus morrhua ) are the species which have been most eagerly sought for by the fishermen along these coasts, but no traces of the latter were discovered by the Albatross. The halibut, however, ranges as far south as Monterey, Cal., although it has nowhere been found sufficiently abundant to afford the basis for a special fishery except on Flattery Bank. Scattering specimens were taken by the Albatross off Flattery Rocks, off Tillamook Rock, and on Heceta Bank, but the resources of this bank have not yet been fully tested. The species has also been recorded from off Cape Mendocino. The fact that the Indians south of Cape Flattery do not include the halibut among their supplies of food may be regarded as additional evidence that this fish will not be found in any numbers, near the shore at least, within this region. Several species of rockfish (Sebastodes) were abundant upon the banks as well as upon the sandy bottom of the platform. Flounders were taken everywhere, but were most plentiful between depths of 50 and 100 fathoms. A number of species were discovered, some of which are of excellent food quality, and they will offer strong inducements for the introduction of beam-trawl fishing whenever a market has been established for them. Cultus-cod ( Ophiodon elongatus) were obtained on all the banks and on Orford Reef. Black-cod (Anoplopoma fimbria) of good size inhabit the deeper waters, while smaller individuals, together with the ling or Pacific whiting ( Merlucius productus), occur in moderate depths. Large red edibles hrimps were also frequently captured in the beam trawl; they are distributed through a considerable depth of water. The principal obstacle at present to the development of extensive sea fisheries on the outer coast of Washington and the coast of Oregon is the lack of markets for dis- posing of the catch. The scarcity of good harbors is also a very serious inconven- ience, and as those which do exist are encumbered with bars, they can be entered in bad weather only with much difficulty. Although gales are of rare occurrence during FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 159 the summer, still the coast winds blow constantly from the northward, maintaining a boisterous sea and strong currents. During the winter southeasterly storms are frequent. List of the more abundant food-fishes taken by the Albatross on the coasts of Washington and Oregon tvith the beam trawl and hand lines. [Prepared by Charles H. Townsend.] Hippoglossus hippoglossus, Halibut. Atheresthes stomias, Halibut-flounder. Microstomas pacificus, Deep-sea sole. Glyptocephalus zachirus, Long-finned sole. Citharichthys sordidus, Flounder. Hippoglossoides jordani, Flounder. Hippoglossoides exilis, Flounder. Psettichthys melanostictus, Flounder. Parophrys vetulus, Flounder. Isopsetta isolepis, Flounder. Lepidopsetia bilineata, Flounder. Sebastodes ruber, Red rockfish. Sebastodes pinniger, Orange rockfish. Sebastodes flavidus, Yellow-tail rockfish. Sebastodes rosaceus, Rockfish. Sebastodes elongatus, Rockfish. Sebastodes melanops, Rockfish. Sebastodes paucispinis, Rockfish. Sebastodes nebulosus, Rockfish, and other smaller species of the same genus. Anoplopoma fimbria, Black-cod. Ophiodon elongatus, Cultus-cod. Merlucius productus, Whiting. Microgadus proximus, Tomcod. Large rays and skates, of several edible species, were common. Anchovies and smelts were taken in the beam trawl when used near shore, while in the deeper water beyond the margin ofthe platform theredfish ( Sebastolohus ) was dredged in abundance. The flesh of the last-named species is rather soft, but edible. WASHINGTON. The Straits of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound. — Only incidental observations have been made in these waters, either while passing through or while in port. Brief accounts of the fisheries in the vicinity of Seattle, Port Townsend, and Victoria will be found in the Fish Commission Report and Bulletin for 1888 (F. C. 7, 8, 16). The beam trawl has been used at only four stations, two (Nos. 2864, 2865) in the extreme eastern part of the straits, and two (Nos. 3067 and 3068) off Dwamish Head, near the city of Seattle. The former trials were made on September 6, 1888, in depths of 40 and 48 fathoms, but no fishes of economic value were secured. The latter were made on June 8, 1889, in depths of 82 and 135 fathoms, the bottom consisting of green mud. Among the specimens obtained were three species of flounders, hake, skates, several ratfishes ( Ghimcera ), shrimps, starfishes, and sea-anemones, but not many of any kind. In the evening of September 24, 1888, the halibut trawl was set off Kaihsla Point, outside of Neah Bay, the inner end being in 20, the outer in 25 fathoms. It was allowed to remain down until the following morning, but on being hauled 24 dogfish and 2 skates comprised the entire catch. Halibut and black-cod are sometimes taken in close proximity to Neah Bay earlier in the season. The latter species is never abundant there, but during some years it is sufficiently common in the spring to furnish the Indians of the vicinity with a considerable supply of food. On October 19, following, a cod trawl was set for half an hour in a depth of 101 fathoms, off Race Island, at the southeastern end of Vancouver Island, for the purpose of discovering the presence of beshowe, or black-cod, which had been reported to occur there, but only dogfish were captured, about 40 specimens in all. 160 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Mr. Alexander states that — There are a few fishermen about Port Townsend and Victoria who fish for halibut and dogfish the greater part of the year. One of these, Mr. Isaac Bakman, with whom I conversed, stated that he did not think that halibut were ever abundant enough in the Straits of Fuca to warrant vessels of large size engaging in the business. In April, 1888, Mr. Bakman secured in different parts of the straits 4,500 pounds of halibut, for which he received from 2 to 3 cents per pound. These spring fish have been very scarce, and not enough have been caught to pay expenses. During the winter of 1888-89, three men were fishing for cod in Puget Sound with gill nets and trawl lines. No large quantities of these fish were caught, but many flounders and a few halibut were taken on the trawls. The cod are obtained in all depths from 5 fathoms downwards, the deepest water in which gill nets have been set being 150 fathoms, off Quartermaster Harbor, near the head of Puget Sound. In this region both the Gadus morrhua and the cultus-cod ( Ophiodon elongatus) are known under the name of cod. Flattery Bank . — This bank, which constitutes one of the most important fishing- grounds on the Pacific coast south of British Columbia, is located to the northwest- ward of Cape Flattery, on the northern side of the deep-water area (from 100 to 200 fathoms) at the entrance to the Strait of Juan de Fuca. It is mostly confined within the 50-fathom curve adjacent to the coast of Vancouver Island, and lies directly off the entrance to Nitinat Lake, but it is also continuous with that part of the continental platform inside of the 100-fathom curve which skirts the outer coast of Washington, although depths of nearly 100 fathoms intervene. Flattery Bank has long been resorted to by the Indians, but, while large quantities of halibut and of other fishes have been taken from it in times past, the first extensive commercial fishery there was attempted about 1888. As the hydrography of the bank had previously been determined with sufficient accuracy for fishery purposes, the investigations of the Albatross were limited for the most part to dredging and fishing trials. The first visit was paid to it in September, 1888, the inquiries being begun on the southeastern part of the bank, nearest Cape Flattery, and being carried thence to the neighborhood of Barclay Sound, Vancouver Island. The second and last examination was made in June, 1889. The entire area of the bank has not yet been surveyed and its extreme limits are, therefore, still unknown. The depths may be said to range from 27 to about 75 fathoms. The bottom varies exceedingly in character, consisting of rocks, sand, mud, and shells, and in some places being very rough and irregular. It supports a very rich fauna, which fits it especially as a feeding-ground for fishes. Capt. Tanner assigns to this bank a total areaof about 1, LOO square miles. The least depth of water, 27 fathoms, was found at its southeastern extremity, 11 miles W. by N. (magnetic) from Cape Flattery light house. Halibut occur most abundantly on the same part of the bank, over an exceedingly rough, rocky bottom, having an area of about 35 square miles. From early in the spring until the middle of June this species can be obtained on Flattery Bank in paying quantities, but later in the season dogfish and sharks strike in, driving a majority of the edible fishes away. The dredging and fishing trials by the Albatross were as follows: Three dredging stations (2873 to 2875, inclusive) were made on September 24, 1888, at distances of 10 to 12 miles northwesterly from Cape Flattery, the depths ranging from 27 to 40 fathoms, and all varieties of bottom being found. The first trial was with the beam trawl in 40 fathoms, but it caught upon the bottom and was badly FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 161 wrecked. The tangles were then used successively in depths of 27 hnd 40 fathoms, with good results^ A trawl line, baited with salt salmon and red rock fish, was set for -three hours in about the same position on rocky bottom, depth 40 fathoms, the catch consisting of 4 halibut, 2 sharks, 4 red rockfish, and 2 starfishes. The average weight of the halibut was 47| pounds; three were females and one was a male; they were all white. It is said that gray halibut are seldom found in these waters. On September 25 work was continued in nearly the same locality as on the previous day. The beam trawl was cast at station No. 2876, 2 or 3 miles northeasterly from stations 2873 to 2875, and the trawl line, baited with salmon, red rockfish, and fresh halibut, was set at the same time. The depth was 59 fathoms, and the bottom con- sisted of black sand and mud. The beam trawl dragged but a few yards, when it caught on a rocky patch, parted the bridle stops, and came up tail first. It was, how- ever, a successful haul, and many specimens were found in the net. The tangles were subsequently hauled over the same ground (station 2877) with good results, giving evidence of the richness of the bottom. The towing net, which was frequently used in this region, however, gave very little evidence of surface life. The halibut trawl remained on the bottom three hours, and the catch consisted of 2 halibut, 1 red rock- fish, and 9 dogfish, the average weight of the halibut being 55 pounds. On the afternoon of September 25 the trawl line was set and the dredge lowered in 66 fathoms, gravel and pebbles (station 2878), S. 48° W., 16 miles from Cape Beale light-house, on the southern side of the entrance to Barclay Sound, Yancouver Island. The contents of the dredge, consisting for the most part of small mollusks, did not bear evidence of a rich bottom. The same bait was used upon the trawl line as in the previous trial, and the capture after two hours’ time consisted of 2 black-cod, 15 dogfish, 2 common sharks, and 2 ground sharks. Only a small quantity of surface organisms was taken in the tow nets. Early on the following day two dredge hauls were made at stations 2879 and 2880, 27 miles N. 79° W. from Cape Beale, in 34 fathoms, rocky bottom, with about the same results as at station 2878, the bottom not being rich so far as the contents of the dredge indicated. A trial with the halibut trawl in the same locality, lasting about three hours, afforded 1 halibut weighing 25 pounds, 2 sharks, and 3 dogfish. At station 2881, in the same neighborhood, but much nearer the coast, Cape Beale bearing S. 26° E., distant 26 miles,, the dredge was cast in 24 fathoms, on a rough bottom, with fine gray sand in places. The results were not favorable to good fishing. The trawl line set in the same position took 1 halibut weighing 15 pounds, 5 dogfish, 1 shark, and 1 skete. The trawl, when it came up, was covered with 11 slime,” which was contrary to expectations, as the dredging which preceded it indicated clean bottom. September 27 and 28 were spent in Barclay Sound, and the following day a skate of halibut trawl was set in 60 fathoms of water, sandy and rocky bottom, 22 miles S. 14° E. from Cape Beale. The trawl was kept down about two hours, with the result of capturing 16 dogfish, 1 beshowe or black-cod, 1 cultus-cod, and 3 small halibut. This spot would probably be a good one for halibut earlier in the season, before the dogfish set in, and is convenient to the Straits of Fuca. It requires examination in the spring or winter to determine its merits. On June 14, 1889, the trawl line was set on Flattery Bank, in a depth of 31 fath- oms, Cape Flattery bearing E. by S. J S. and Cape Beale NW. by W. The bottom consisted of gravel, broken shells, and rocks. The tide was running ebb, but not F. c. B., 1892—11 162 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. strong, and a dense fog prevailed. The trawl was left down about three hours, at the end of which time the following fish were taken from the hooks : 8 halibut, aver- aging 35 pounds each; 10 red rockfish, averaging 10 pounds each ; 2 orange rockfish; 1 sea trout; 1 cultus-cod, weighing 19 pounds; 1 skate, and 45 dogfish. The bottom was so rough that many of the hooks caught upon it while hauling, and toward the end the ground line parted, but none of the gear was lost. One small halibut and about a dozen dogfish were caught with hand lines from the small boats tending the trawl, and during the same time one halibut weighing 93 pounds and several red rock- fish were taken by the same means from the deck of the Albatross. A native canoe with four Indians, which came alongside during the day, contained 15 small halibut which had been captured with the primitive wooden hooks. Barclay Sound , Vancouver Island. — On September 26, 1888, the Albatross anchored in Barclay Sound, where she was detained by fog for two days, enabling the natural- ists to make some interesting observations upon the natural history of the region. A rich and diversified fauna was discovered, and many specimens were collected. There are not many beaches adapted to seining, but some were found on which a large variety of shore fishes was obtained. Salmon were seen darting about in every direc- tion. They are said to be very plentiful at the head waters of the sound, where they enter the creeks and inlets to spawn. A few large specimens were caught by trolling. A cod trawl, baited with halibut and salmon, was also set one evening in a depth of 17 fathoms, and allowed to remain down over night. The next morning 28 dogfish and 1 red rockfish were found upon the hooks. Notes on the Halibut Fishery. — The following notes on the halibut fisheries located off the coast of Washington or tributary to its ports are such only as have been furnished through the medium of the Albatross, and are here given to illustrate in a practical manner the resources of the grounds. For further information on the same subject reference should be made to the Bulletin for 1888, pp. 62-64, and the Annual Beport for 1888, pp. 260-266. Until within a few years the halibut fisheries of Washington have been almost exclusively the property of the Indians resident upon certain portions of the coast. Beginning in 1888, however, strenuous efforts have been made to establish an extensive commercial fishery, the final outcome of which is still to be decided. The promoters of this enterprise have, unfortunately, encountered many obstacles in the matter of obtaining ice and of shipping their catch to market, which, tending to restrict their operations, has prevented a thorough testing of the grounds; and yet, within certain limits, good results have already been accomplished. The Indians of Neah Bay visit Flattery Bank daily during the halibut season, whenever the weather permits, and also fish on less important grounds closer at hand ; they bring in considerable quantities of halibut, cultus-cod, and red rockfish; herring, smelt, and squid, as well as halibut and red rockfish, are used as bait. The first vessel fishery appears to have been started in 1888 by two well-equipped schooners, the Mollie Adams and the Oscar and Hattie, which had recently arrived from Gloucester, Mass. After completing a successful sealing voyage in the spring of that year, the Mollie Adams made four trips in quick succession to Flattery Bank, securing, in all, 145,000 pounds of halibut, which were landed at Seattle. The stock amounted to $3,000, the crew receiving shares of $75 each. The expenses were high, however, $15 per ton having been paid for ice on the first trip, although the price was subsequently reduced to $8. During the same season the Oscar and Hattie obtained FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 163 one fare of 50,000 pounds of halibut on Flattery Bank ; the fish were landed at Ta- coma. But little or nothing was realized from the trip. In the fall of 1888, several fishermen, well equipped with (lories, trawls, etc., es- tablished a camp in the vicinity of Neah Bay, and fished continuously throughout the following winter on Flattery Bank and directly off Cape Flattery. Mr. Moor, one of the members of this party, who came to the Pacific coast in the schooner Mollie Adams , has furnished a synopsis of the winter fishing. They first set trawls on November 23, 1888, and from that date up to January 7, 1889, succeeded in landing 2,076 pounds of halibut and 244 pounds of cultus-cod. The average weight of the halibut was 37 pounds, and of the cultus-cod 24 pounds. After January 7 little was done, owing to the scarcity of fish and bait and the prevalence of stormy weather. Mr. Moor does not think it advisable to send vessels to Flattery Bank earlier than the 1st of March nor later than the 1st of September. He thinks that halibut are abundant from March to June, but they do not occur in the incredible numbers which have been reported from time to time. In November, 1888, Capt. Silas Calder, then of the Mollie Adams, made a series of trials for halibut on Flattery Bank, without, however, securing a single specimen. He is of the opinion that vessels could obtain good fares during a few months of each year, and might find the business profitable if there were a market for the catch. The yacht C. 77. White, of San Francisco, chartered in the fall of 1888 by Messrs. Louch and Johnson, of Seattle, obtained 100,000 pounds of halibut during three trips to the same bank. About 60,000 pounds were shipped fresh to New York, the re- mainder being smoked. Several interesting trips at different seasons of the year have also been made farther north than Flattery Bank. While the results accomplished in that direction are not sufficient to serve as a basis for positive conclusions regarding the abundance of halibut in the places visited, which undoubtedly varies at different times of the year, they are at least suggestive and worthy of notice in this connection. On July 24, 1888, the Mollie Adams left Seattle with the object of testing the bottom along the coast of British Columbia. Trials were made in several localities, but few halibut were captured until the schooner arrived off the southern extremity of the Queen Charlotte Islands, where they were found in greater abundance and of larger size than on Flattery Bank. A few of those obtained were estimated to weigh over 300 pounds apiece. Fishing was carried on in depths of only 30 to 45 fathoms, the fish taking the bait so rapidly that the trawls were left down only during the day time. The work continued until September 8, with slight intermissions on account of stormy weather. About half the halibut secured were large enough for fletching, the remainder being used as bait or thrown away. The total fare carried to Seattle amounted to 150,000 pounds. After deducting all expenses the crew received $175 each, or at the rate of $9 a day for 19 days’ fishing. On January 3, 1889, the schooner Oscar and Hattie sailed from Port Townsend on a similar errand, but proceeded directly to Sitka, Alaska, and began fishing on the inshore grounds adjacent to Baranof Island, where halibut had been reported as very abundant. Work was continued, as the weather permitted, until March 1, but not enough fish were taken to keep the hooks baited. The vessel was subsequently shifted to deeper water off shore, but without securing any better success. Early in March she proceeded down the coast, fishing until June 1 in the neighborhood of the Queen Charlotte Islands, Cape Scott, and Hecate Channel. Halibut were more com- 164 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. mon in these localities, but nowhere abundant, and it was often necessary to shift position twice a day. A fare of 140,000 pounds was finally secured. The fish aver- aged about 65 pounds feach in weight, and on the British Columbian coast none were captured in greater depths than 45 fathoms. Capt. Calder, of the Oscar and Hattie , states that while off Sitka he encountered many heavy gales, which did much damage to the rigging and fishing gear, but there was no snow or ice to contend with, as would have been the case on the North Atlantic coast at the same season. The schooner Bose Oleson , of Astoria, chartered by parties in Port Townsend, made one trip to the vicinity of Cape Scott, at the northern end of Vancouver Island, beginning the cruise during the first part of April. She was gone five weeks, and obtained a fare of 15,000 pounds. Cape Flattery to Grays Harbor. — The hydrographic examinations along the coast of Washington were begun off Cape Flattery on September 19, 1888, and were com- pleted in the latitude of Columbia River on the 13th of October following. Dredging and fishing trials were made in the same connection and also at subsequent periods. The first line of stations was commenced in 82 fathoms, 10 miles S., 68° W., from Cape Flattery light, and was carried 65 miles S., 68° W., soundings being made at intervals of 5 miles to develop banks reported to exist 60 and 75 miles froni the cape. The depths were irregular for 30 miles, then increased uniformly to 768 fathoms at the former and 1,239 fathoms at the latter position. The occurrence of the banks in the places indicated was therefore disproved. Three dredgings, all with the beam trawl, were made in the vicinity of Flattery Rocks and between there and Cape Flattery on September 20 and 24, 1888. The first was at station No. 2866, 19 miles S., 40° W., from Flattery light-house, 171 fathoms, gray sand; the second at station 2867, 17 miles S., 23° W., from Flattery light, 37 fathoms, fine sand; the third at station 2872, 8 miles S., 40° W., from the same light- house, 38 fathoms, gray sand. Near station 2867 the halibut trawl, baited with .salt salmon, was set at 3 p. m. and hauled at 5 p. m., securing 8 sharks, 2 dogfish, and 1 halibut, the latter weighing 140 pounds and measuring 5 feet 9 inches in length. A few hand lines were also tried in the same locality, 1 red rockfish and several dogfish being taken by that means. A skate of halibut trawl, baited with salt salmon and red rockfish, was likewise set in the position of dredging station 2872, but only 2 sharks and 1 starfish were obtained. In the spring the Indians fish for halibut in this locality, but no satisfactory informa- tion regarding their abundance there has yet been obtained. On September 21, 1888, the beam trawl was used at station No. 2868, off Cape Johnson, and station No. 2869, off Destruction Island, in depths of 31 and 32 fathoms, respectively, the bottom consisting of sand. At the former station tomcod, flounders, red rockfish, and 1 black-cod were taken in the beam trawl. A trawl line, baited with salt salmon and clams, was set in the same position, but very few of the baits were disturbed, only 2 red rockfish, 3 dogfish, and 1 skate being captured. Trial lines from the deck of the steamer afforded no results. The following June dredging operations were conducted off this part of the coast, to the west and southwest of Destruction Island, in depths of 178 to 877 fathoms. That work has been reported upon by Capt. Tanner as follows: . Passing Cape Flattery we steamed offshore until 7 :45 a.m., on June 28, 1889, when the trawl was cast in 760 fathoms (station 3069), green mud. A heavy westerly swell caused the ship to tumble about so much that it was difficult to carry on our work, and finally resulted in parting the bridle FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 165 stops, causing the net to come up tail first, and practically empty. There were, however, a few pen- natulas, starfish, holothurians, etc., adhering to the net. Four more hauls were made during the day in 636, 685, 584, and 477 fathoms (stations 3070, 3071, 3072, 3073), the bottom being uniformly of green mud. The wind and sea increased with heavy rain squalls, making it necessary to use the small trawl the latter part of the day, the weather being too boisterous to handle the large one with safety. The results were very satisfactory and, it being practically new ground, many unrecognized specimens were taken besides others that were familiar, among them being several species of flounders, deep- sea sole, deep-water redfish (Sebastolobus) , red rockfish, macruri, chimseras, and hagfish. Among the invertebrates were shrimp, hermit-crabs, annelids, sea-urchins, holothurians, ophiurans, starfish, sea- anemones, crinoids, pennatulas, etc. The weather was partially overcast on the 29th, with moderate winds and heavy westerly swells. Three hauls of the trawl were made in 877, 859, and 178 fathoms (stations 3074, 3075, 3076), green mud, with excellent results. Among the fishes recognized were the deep-water redfish, flounders, sole, red rockfish, and a single specimen of black-cod taken in 859 fathoms, the greatest depth in which they have heen found. Among the invertebrates were holothurians, sea-urchins, starfish, ophiurans, sea-anemones, pennatulas, hermit-crabs, shrimp, annelids, an octopus, etc., the greatest amount of life being found in about 200 fathoms. The stations occupied on the 28th and 29th extended our explorations from the shore to 877 fathoms, and gave us a very good representation of the marine fauna occupying the various depths. A notable feature in the hauls made during the trip was the absence of mud in the trawl net when it reached the surface, although soft green mud was reported at every station. This would seem to indicate that the bottom was composed largely of very fine sand, rather than mud, or at least the absence of clay. A few whales were seen, but with this exception no surface life was observed. The black-footed albatross or gony and an occasional petrel were the only birds seen, except near the land, where gulls were plentiful. Beam trawl stations No. 3343 (516 fathoms) and 3344 (831 fathoms) were also made in the same region as the above, on September 21, 1890. Grays Harbor to the Columbia River. — A report of Indian origin having indicated the exislence of a small bank off the coast of Washington between Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay, a careful examination of the region was made during the progress of the hydrographic, work in September and October, 1888. Such a bank was discov- ered and its principal features have been defined $ it has been named Willapa Bank. It is about 20 miles long, northeast and southwest, and about 12 miles in extreme width, having a total area of about ltO square miles. Its eastern extremity, on which there is 42 fathoms, rocky bottom, lies 16 miles southwest (magnetic) from Point Chehalis, on the southern side of the entrance to Grays Harbor, and 23 miles W. by S. (magnetic) from Toke Point light-house at the northern end of Willapa Bay. The soundings are quite regular, but the bottom alternates in character between rocks, gray sand, and mud. The dredgings and trials for fish on this bank proved more successful than any previously made south of Gape Flattery, and there is little doubt that at the proper season good fishing would be found in this locality. On September 23, 1888, the beam trawl was used at station 2870, on the southern edge of the bank, in 58 fathoms, rocky bottom. A very rich fauna was discovered, black-cod, red rockfish, tomcod, and shrimps also being taken by this means. On a trawl line set in the same position 10 red rockfish, 2 black-cod, and 4 sharks were captured. Three red rockfish were likewise caught with hand lines from the ship at the same time. The last-mentioned species was the most abundant one at this season. Hand lines were subsequently tried for 15 minutes about 10£ miles off Cape Shoal- water, but without success. On the same day station 2871, with the beam trawl, was made about 45 miles off the entrance to Grays Harbor, in a depth of 559 fathoms, brown ooze, with the result of obtaining many deep-water forms. 166 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The investigations on this bank were resumed on June 7, 1889, the day being spent in dredging and fishing trials. Stations 3046, 3047, and 3048, in 48 to 52 fathoms, were made with the beam trawl, the bottom consisting of rocks in some places and in others of fine gray sand, and flounders, tomcod, and shrimps being thus secured. A trawl line was set for two hours at the last station, one end being in 52 fathoms, the other extending into 60 fathoms, but on being hauled only 4 red rockfish, 4 dogfish, 2 skates, and several starfish were found upon the hooks. The tide was running too strong to employ hand lines successfully from the small boat, but a few rockfish were taken by that means from the steamer. Beam-trawl station 3049 was in 43 fathoms, fine sandy bottom, about 1 3 miles to the southwestward of the entrance to Willapa Bay, the catch comprising flounders, tomcod, and shrimps, as on the bank farther north. On June 13, 1889, the beam trawl (No. 3066) was again used about 7 miles south of the above station in a depth of 55 fathoms, sand and mud, flounders and skates being the only fishes taken. OREGON. Columbia River. — The fisheries of the Columbia River have been discussed in the Fish Commission Report and Bulletin for 1888 (F. C. 7, 8, 16). Off the Columbia River. — The region off the mouth of the Columbia River was examined chiefly in October, 1888. On the 13th of that month three nearly parallel lines of soundings were made between the latitude of Cape Disappointment and that of Tillamook Rock, extending offshore distances of 32 to 36 miles, and into an extreme depth of 601 fathoms. The northernmost line, which was directly off the mouth of the Columbia River, showed depths two or three times greater than in corre- sponding positions on adjacent lines 7 or 8 miles distant, both to the north and south, the submarine trough thus indicated being probably the ancient bed of the Colum bia River. Trials were made with the beam trawl and trawl line at station No. 2882, about 27 miles off- the mouth of the river, in a depth of 68 fathoms, gray sandy bot- tom. By means of the former a number of flounders, red rockfish, and black-cod were secured, but only 1 black-cod and 4 dogfish were taken upon the latter. Southwest of Cape Disappointment station 3065 was occupied on June 13, 1889, the depth being 27 fathoms and the bottom consisting of fine black sand. Flounders, tomcod, and shrimps were captured in the beam trawl, but nothing was obtained by the use of hand lines. The existence of fishing-banks from 50 to 60 miles off this part of the coast, which had been reported in Astoria, was entirely disproved by the investigations of the Albatross , very deep water occurring in the positions indicated. It is possible that this rumor had its origin in Heceta Bank, which, however, is located very much farther south. According to Capt. Tanner : The sea fisheries off the Columbia were commenced a few years since with a small schooner, which operated a 40-foot beam trawl over the ground between Cape Disappointment and Shoalwater Bay. The vessel being found unfit for the purpose, the steamer Dolphin was built and made 40 trips between April and October, 1887, but she also proved a failure. Her catch was fairly good, and had she been able to market her fish promptly the venture would have turned out profitably. The various fish taken by the Dolphin were classified as sole, flounders, hake, cod, rock-cod, and halibut. The “ cod” mentioned were probably not the Gadus morrhua. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 167 Off Tillamook Bock. — This rock is situated off Tillamook Head, about 16 or 17 miles south of the mouth of the Columbia Eiver. As halibut had been reported from the adjacent watery, a careful examination was made of its surroundings, one visit having been paid to the region in October, 1888, and another in June, 1889. On the first visit the bottom was tested in several places off the northern side of the rock, in depths of 29 to 30 fathoms, by means of the dredge. It consisted of hard gray sand, but only a comparatively small amount of life was obtained. At the same time a trawl line was set near the can-buoy off the northern end of the rock, one end lying in 18 fathoms, the other in 25 fathoms, the bottom being rocky. The total catch consisted of only 7 dogfish. This experience, together with the results of subsequent trials during the same season, showed that, in the fall, the coast of Oregon, like that of Washington, is seriously infested with sharks and dogfish, which greatly interfere with successful fishing. Somewhat better success was met with the following June, when the Albatross proceeded to Tillamook Itock in company with the light house steamer Manzanita. Acting upon the advice of the commander of the Manzanita , the trawl line was set so as to cover as much as possible of the ground from which the capture of halibut had been reported, one end being placed close to Tillamook Eock and the other near the shore of the mainland. After remaining down two hours, the catch comprised 1 hali- but weighing 25 pounds, 1 large skate, and 1 red rockfish. Hundreds of starfishes were also attached to the hooks and proved a great annoyance. In the meantime the Manzanita , at her moorings alongside the rock, obtained 3 halibut and 2 ground- sharks by means of hand lines, but with the same appliances only a few red rockfish were taken by the Albatross , although trials were made in numerous places. Four beam-trawl stations (Nos. 3060-3063) were occupied in different positions about the rock, during the same day, in depths of 23 to 44 fathoms. The bottom consisted of mud at one station in 28 fathoms, and of fine sand at the others. Among the specimens secured were 8 species of flounders, hake, tomcod, sculpins, shrimp, smelt, crabs, and an octopus. The grounds about Tillamook Rock to which halibut are likely to resort appear to cover a very limited area, which may be regarded as suitable for boat fishing with hand lines. Scattering halibut will probably be found there during a large part of the year. The grounds are too small, however, and the fish too scarce to offer any inducements for vessel fishing or the use of trawl lines. Many of the so-called halibut recorded from this region are said to be a very different kind of flatfish, the Atheresihes stomias , which also goes by the name of “turbot” in Astoria. Beam-trawl station No. 3064 was about 9 miles northwest from Tillamook Eock, in 46 fathoms, fine gray sand and gravel. Although the same character of bottom fauna as occurs in corresponding depths about the rock was discovered in this position, trials with hand lines proved entirely unsuccessful. Off Cape Falcon. — Cape Falcon, or False Tillamook, is about 11 miles south of Tillamook Head. Several soundings were made in the vicinity of Falcon Rock on September 7, 1889, and hand lines were tried in the same connection. A fine salmon and 2 orange rockfish were the only specimens taken. The work was continued at short intervals down the coast, but the ground was not found to be especially produc- tive for hook-and-line fishing. A strong tide was running at the time and it is pos- sible that this circumstance may partly account for the scarcity of fish, as is known to be the case elsewhere. On many of the spots over which the vessel drifted flounders 168 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. were captured on the hand lines, indicating that the beam trawl could be used successfully in this region. At station 3089, about 5 miles south of the cape, in a depth of 20 fathoms, fine gray sand, the beam trawl brought up between 800 and 900 flounders, besides 12 tomcod and a quantity of shrimps. Eleven orange rockfish and 2 flounders were taken with hand lines in the same locality. The beam trawl was also used at station 3090, about 8£ miles southeasterly from the cape, in a depth of 62 fathoms, fine gray sand. The catch included 3 species of flounders, rockfish, whiting, and shrimps. Station 3345 was in a depth of 759 fathoms, a little south of east of Cape Falcon. Off Cape Meares. — In approaching this cape, which lies about 16£ miles south of Cape Falcon, a cast of the beam trawl was made at station 3091, about 15 miles west of the cape, in a depth of 87 fathoms, green mud. Five red rockfish, 4 species of flounders, represented by about 100 specimens, half a dozen squid, and a peck of prawns were secured. Station 3092, also with the beam trawl, was about 4 miles off the cape, in the same direction, depth 46 fathoms, the bottom consisting of broken shells, 4 species of flounders and several crabs being obtained. By the use of hand lines, 1 red rockfish was taken in the same position ; 14 red rockfish were quickly captured nearer the cape in a depth of 25 fathoms; and 24 rockfish of several species, together with 1 cultus-cod, were secured in 18 fathoms in the vicinity of Arched Bock, about 6J miles north of the cape. A series of trials with hand lines was made from the dory about Three Arch Bocks, some 2 miles south of Cape Meares, while the Albatross was employed farther offshore, but although the work was conducted with as much thoroughness as the time per- mitted, the fishermen met with no success. The first trials were on the northern side of the rocks, but after shifting to the southern side, the cause of the scarcity of life in the immediate vicinity of the rocks was apparently discovered in the abundance of sea lions, hundreds of which were hauled out in all sheltered places where they could receive the warmth of the sun’s rays. About 1£ miles southwesterly from these rocks, in a depth of 21 fathoms, rocky bottom, 1 red rockfish and 1 cultus-cod were taken on the lines; and again, 3£ miles farther south, or 2§ miles north of Cape Lookout, in a depth of 18 fathoms, sandy bottom, 1 flounder was taken by the same means. Beam-trawl station 3346 was west of Cape Meares, in a depth of 786 fathoms. Off Cape LooTcout — A thorough search of the bottom was made close inshore in the vicinity of Cape Lookout, beginning about 3 miles north of the cape and ending some 3 or 4 miles south of it, but, although the hand lines were tried in 15 different positions, not a single fish was taken. About 2 miles southwest of the cape, however, in a depth of 39 fathoms, 2 orange rockfish, 1 salmon, and 1 flounder were secured. Beam-trawl station 3093 was about 4J miles west of the cape, in a depth of 57 fathoms, fine gray sand, but only negative results were obtained there as regards the capture of fish, either in the net or with the hand lines. The abundance of sea lions along the coast might account for the scarcity of fishes in close proximity to the shore, but not in deeper water. N'estuggah Bay to Siletz Bay. — Attention having been called to a supposed bank off N'estuggah, Oregon, where the genuine cod was reported to abound, a careful search of the region was made by the Albatross in the early part of September, 1889. It was said to be located about 10 miles from land and to have a depth of 12 fathoms. Soundings made at frequent intervals off the bay, and for some distance to the north FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 169 and south, showed 15 fathoms about 1 mile from shore, from which point the depths increased regularly to 70 fathoms, at a distance of 8 to 10 miles, or in the position of the alleged bank. The bottom consisted of fine gray sand, from which the customary varieties of coast fishes were obtained, but no specimens of cod. A depth of 12 fathoms will be found nowhere in this region except within a fraction of a mile of the land and well within the sound of the surf. Thirteen trials with hand lines were made between Cape Lookout and Siletz Bay on September 9, 1889, with the result of finding food-fishes abundant in some local- ities. The slight depths of water near the shore and the generally smooth bottom render fishing easy, and it may be regarded as comparatively good. The tidal cur- rents are somewhat strong at times, but not sufficiently so as to greatly inconven- ience operations. Many black-cod were taken on the hand lines off Nestuggah Bay and off Cascade Head, the other fishes consisting mainly of different varieties of rockfish, with an occasional flounder. The black-cod from these shallow waters are smaller and are also said to have a poorer flavor than those obtained from the deeper waters offshore and farther north. The beam trawl was used at station 3059 (June 9, 1889), about 8 miles off Siletz Bay, depth 77 fathoms, muddy bottom; and at station 3347 (September 22, 1889), off Nestuggah Bay, in a depth of 345 fathoms, muddy bottom. In the former haul many flounders were secured, and also one herring and several specimens of Octopus. Off Yaquina Head. — Investigations were conducted in the vicinity of Yaquina Head (latitude 44° 40' N.) in June, August, and September, 1889. Leaving Heceta Bank at dark on June 8, 1889, a line of soundings was run to Yaquina Head, develop- ing a maximum depth of 78 fathoms. Early the next morning the beam trawl was hauled twice (stations 3055, 3056) in a depth of 28 fathoms, fine gray sand, about 3 miles west (magnetic) from Yaquina Head, taking an abundance of several species of flounders, besides crabs and shrimps. Trials with hand lines in the same position gave negative results, but the wind was blowing fresh at the time, causing the small boat to pitch about considerably, and possibly being accountable for the poor fishing. A station (No. 3057) was then occupied 13 miles from the head in the same direc- tion, depth 43 fathoms, coarse gray sand. Large numbers of flounders, red rockfish and shrimps were taken in the beam trawl, and 20 orange rockfish on the hand lines. Specimens of rockfish weighing 7 and 8 pounds apiece were fairly abundant. The wind and sea having greatly increased during the morning, the Albatross ran in and anchored under the head, a boat party being sent out to examine the shore to the leeward of the rocks. They met with no success, however, and fishing from the steamer also proved a failure. In the afternoon of the same day the beam trawl was used at station No. 3058, 13J miles northwesterly from Yaquina Head, and 4 miles offshore, in a depth of 38 fathoms, coarse gray sand and shells. Several species of flounders were taken in the beam trawl, but nothing was secured by means of hand lines. On August 30, 1889, while proceeding down the coast, a trial with hand lines was made in a depth of 28 fathoms, fine gray sand, about 12 miles southwest of Yaquina Head, and 5£ miles in the same general direction from the mouth of Yaquina Bay. The only fishes obtained were one red rockfish and two ling or whiting ( Merlucius productus). The wind at this time was blowing fresh, however, causing the ship to drift rapidly, and making it difficult to keep the lines on the bottom. 170 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The vessel returned to the same region on September 3, 1889, and continued the investigations to the southwest of Yaquina Head at varying distances from the land. In addition to four hauls made with the beam trawl, hand-line fishing was carried on in very many places. An exception to the customary smooth, sandy bottom was discovered in a small bank or rocky patch lying SSW. J W. (magnetic), 19 miles from the head, £.nd almost directly off the entrance to Alseya Bay, from which it is distant about 14£ miles. It has been designated as Yaquina Bank. The center of the ground, so far as it has been surveyed, is in about latitude 44° 27' 30" IN., longi- tude 124° 25' W. It covers an area of about 40 square miles, the least depth discov- ered being 42 fathoms, and the bottom being composed of clay and mud, with frequent rocky or stony patches. Several specimens of the rock were brought up in the beam trawl. They consisted of waterworn bowlders of blue limestone, weighing from 50 to 200 pounds apiece, and evidently belonged to a drift deposit. Their surfaces were honeycombed by boring animals, and they were thickly covered with living organisms, including small cup corals, sponges, brachiopods, mollusks, annelids, ophiurans, etc. Dredging stations Nos. 3087 and 3088 were on this bank, and trials with hand lines were also made, resulting in the capture of orange rockfish and flounders, but the prevalence of stormy weather prevented entirely satisfactory results. The various species of rockfish will doubtless be found here in great abundance. At different positions between the bank and Yaquina Head, the bottom, in depths of 28 to 46 fathoms, consisted generally of fine sand, from which many black- cod and orange rockfish, and a few specimens of whiting, flounders, etc., were secured. Floun- ders and prawns were taken in the beam trawl at stations 3085 and 3086, in depths of 42 and 46 fathoms, respectively, the former being about 14 the latter about 11 miles southwesterly from the head. Thirty-seven specimens of black-cod were obtained during a single drift, in a depth of 44 fathoms, about 8 miles SW. £ S. from the head. The best fishing-grounds inside of the bank were found at distances of 6 to 8 miles offshore. Cape Perpetua to Umpqua River. — On September 2, 1889, the beam trawl was cast in 46 fathoms, fine gray sand, at station 3084 (latitude 44° 12' 31" N., longitude 124° 19' W.), about 15 miles southwesterly from Cape Perpetua, securing many flounders. By means of hand lines, 10 black-cod and 9 whiting were obtained in the same position, in the course of 45 minutes. Between this locality and Cape Perpetua, and to the northward of the cape as far as latitude 44° 20', the hand lines were frequently employed in depths of 12 to 31 fathoms, and generally with goodresults, the catch con- sisting of red rockfish, black-cod, whiting, and flounders. One trial of 45 minutes in a depth of 31 fathoms yielded 24 whiting, 14 rockfish, and 2 flounders Specimens of the whiting were eaten by the mess and they were pronounced to be of as good quality as the red rockfish. The region about Cape Perpetua affords good advantages for small-boat fishing, the depths being slight and the bottom smooth. About 600 pounds of edible fish were obtained by the Albatross on the trials made during this day. A single trial with the hand lines in 29 fathoms, off Heceta Head, on August 31, 1889, was entirely unsuccessful. On September 10, 1889, several orange rockfish were taken on the hand lines north- westerly from the mouth of the Siuslaw Biver (latitude 44° N.), at distances of 3 and 11 miles from land, in depths of 30 and 42 fathoms, fine sand bottom. Beam-trawl stations 3081 and 3083 were also made off this river on September 1 and 2, in depths of FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 171 61 and 32 fathoms, respectively. An abundance of fishes, including several species of flounders and of rockfish, 2 black cod, and a quantity of crabs and shrimps, were secured at the former, and many flounders at the latter. Nine red rockfish and 2 whiting were captured with hand lines in the last position. Two and two-thirds miles off the Siuslaw River, in a depth of 18 fathoms, fine gray sand, 52 black rockfish ( Sebastodes melanops) were taken with hand lines, on the latter date, in a trial lasting one hour. In 24 fathoms, yellow sand bottom, about 1£ miles farther north, the catch consisted of 5 black-cod and 8 orange rockfish. This locality is very favorable for hand-line fishing, large captures being possible in com- paratively shallow water and in close proximity to the shore. Beam trawl station 3082, on September 2, was located 4 miles from land, directly off the mouth of Ten Mile Creek which drains Tsiltcoos Lake, in latitude 43° 52' N., 43 fathoms, fine gray sand. Several flounders were taken in the net, but nothing was caught on hand lines used in the same connection. Several trials were made with hand lines, on September 10, between the latitude of Siuslaw River and that of Umpqua River, with the following results : In 13 fathoms, just to the north of Ten Mile Creek, nothing; in 36 fathoms, about 24 miles off Tak- henitch Creek, 1 red rockfish ; in 13 fathoms, immediately south of the mouth of this creek, nothing; in 28 fathoms, about 2£ miles northwesterly from the mouth of Umpqua River, 27 red rockfish ; about 2£ miles directly west of the mouth of the same river, 1 red rockfish. The duration of these trials was from 8 to 30 minutes each. Heceta Bank. — Off Cascade Head, a short distance north of the parallel of 45° N. latitude, the 100-fathom curve is distant only about 13 miles from shore, but south- ward from this point the platform broadens regularly, attaining a width of 35 miles in latitude 44° N. A few miles farther south, however, it is abruptly constricted to a width of 18 or 19 miles. The • southwestern part of this elongated triangular area is occupied by Heceta Bank, the only important distinctive offshore fishing-ground on the coast of Oregon. Its southern and western borders are defined by the abrupt sloping margins of the platform, but on the northern and eastern sides the bank is practically continuous with the general surface of the platform, and in those direc- tions its precise limits have not yet been determined. The total area of the bank probably does not exceed 300 square miles. The depths range from 41 to 95 or more fathoms, and in some places they vary abruptly. Two small areas with depths between 41 and 46 fathoms occur on the extreme southwestern part of the bank, but as a rule the depths exceed 55 fathoms. A considerable part of the bank has a rocky bottom, alternating with patches of clay, pebbles, and gravel, but sand and mud are also found in places. Halibut occur on this ground, but they are not known to be abundant. Heceta Bank was visited by the Albatross on October 19, 1888, June 8, 1889, and September 1, 1889, and its contour and principal characteristics have been pretty well determined. Ten dredging stations have been occupied in depths of 41 to 68 fath- oms, but owing to the very rough character of the bottom the beam trawl was seldom used successfully, most reliance being placed upon the dredge and tangles, especially the latter, for obtaining specimens of the bottom life. A very rich fauna was dis- covered, fully equal to that of Flattery Bank, the large collection of invertebrates secured containing a great diversity of forms, among which were gorgonian, hydroid, and actinian corals, sponges, comatulse, ophiurans, starfishes, sea-urchins, bryozoans, 172 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. ascidians, etc. In this respect the region presents every requisite for an excellent fishing-bank, which it will undoubtedly prove to be when it has been more thoroughly developed. Fishing operations were actively carried on during each visit, by means of the beam trawl where possible, and with trawl lines and hand lines, the latter being gen- erally employed and with the best success. The variety of food-fishes obtained was quite large, including halibut, black-cod, cultus-cod, sea trout, whiting, red rockfish, and several other species of the latter group. On October 19, 1888, the catch was small, containing only 1 halibut, weighing 10£ pounds, in addition to several specimens of rockfish and black-cod, 1 shark and 1 dogfish. Stations 2886, 2887, 2888, 2889, and 2890 were made on this day, the last one being off the southern end of the bank, in a depth of 277 fathoms. During the morning of June 8, 1889, a trawl line baited with fresh rockfish and salt herring was set for something over two hours in the position of stations 3050, 3051, and 3052, 46 to 48 fathoms, rough rocky bottom, the tide running strongly ebb toward the southeast. Eleven red rockfish, 1 orange rockfish and 1 sea trout were taken by this means, while with hand lines from the ship the catch was much larger, consisting of 26 red rockfish, 2 orange rockfish, 4 yellow- tails, and 1 cultus-cod. In the afternoon of the same day three small boats were lowered to test the bottom with hand lines in as many places at the same time. They were anchored within half a mile of each other, in a depth of about 43 fathoms, and at the end of an hour had secured 22 red rockfish, weighing 192 pounds. Twelve additional specimens were captured from the deck of the Albatross during the same interval with the aid of only three lines. Just before sunset, a trial with 11 lines was made at station 3054, depth 53 fathoms, rocky bottom, on the northern part of the bank, but only 1 yellow-tail was caught. The trials made during this day seemed to indicate that better results could be obtained with the hand lines by drifting than by anchoring, the fish apparently congregating on detached rocky spots. Good fishing would continue for a time and then suddenly cease, making it necessary to seek a new ground. September 1, 1889, was a clear day with comparatively smooth sea, and thereby offered an excellent opportunity for continuing the work. Much time was spent in attempting to determine the area of the shoaler part of the bank, between depths of 41 and 50 fathoms. It was found to be very limited. The beam trawl and tangles were used successfully at stations 3078 and 3079, the former in 68 fathoms, muddy bottom, the latter in 55 fathoms, rocky bottom. Hand-line fishing was carried on at different times during the day, both from the ship and from small boats, with varying results, only a few fish being taken in some places, while at others, often close at hand, the catch would be large. The best success was met with in 52 fathoms, rocky bottom, where 24 specimens of the red and orange rockfish ( Sebastodes ruber and pinniger) were obtained. The only halibut taken by the Albatross on Heceta Bank was captured in the fall of 1888, and weighed 10J pounds. Mr. Alexander states, however, that the schooner George H. Chance , of Portland, Oregon, anchored on the southern part of this bank in the evening of August 7, 1889, and in the course of a short time had captured several small individuals of this species. On a trawl line set over night the heads of 11 halibut were found the next morning, the bodies, apparently, having been destroyed by sharks and dogfish. The trip was finally abandoned owingto the annoyance caused by these pests. Further investigations are required to determine the value of Heceta Bank for FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 173 halibut fishing, but the observations thus far made are not encouraging in that respect. The abundance of several other species, however, especially of the red rockfish, will furnish sufficient inducement to fishing vessels, whenever they can be assured of a ready market for their catch. The use of the beam trawl and of trawl lines on the rougher parts of the bank is impracticable, hand lines being most serviceable in such localities. Inside of Heceta Bank. — After leaving Heceta Bank on September 1, 1889, the investigations with the beam trawl were extended to the muddy and sandy bottom lying between there and the mainland. Station No. 3080 was made a few miles to the eastward of the bank, in a depth of 93 fathoms, green mud, and disclosed a great wealth of fish life, the catch including about 100 flounders, representing several species, many rockfish, 1 black-cod, and 1 cultus-cod. Station No. 3081 was still nearer to the land, in about the same latitude, the depth being 61 fathoms, and the bottom consisting of green mud and sand. In this position 200 flounders were captured, besides an abundance of several other species. As the duration of these hauls did not exceed 20 minutes each, the value of this region as a beam-trawl fishing-ground must be conceded. Umpqua River to Gape Blanco. — The observations were carried southward from the Umpqua River on September 12, 1889. Four miles south of the river, in a depth of 53 fathoms, 3 orange and 1 black rockfish were taken on the hand lines in the course of 15 minutes. A second trial, about 3 miles farther south, in a depth of 40 fathoms and lasting 25 minutes, afforded 22 orange rockfish. From this point, however, to the Coquille River, a distance of 28 miles, no fishes of any kind were captured, although stations were made in 8 different places. In 25 fathoms, rocky bottom, directly off the mouth of the Coquille River, 1 orange rockfish and 1 cultus-cod were secured; but from here to Cape Blanco all of the fishing trials again proved unsuccessful. Dredging station No. 3094 was in this region, about 11£ miles south of Coquille Point, depth 35 fathoms. Orford Reef. — The fishery investigations on the coast of Oregon terminated at Orford Reef on September 12, 1889, although the hydrographic observations were con- tinued to the California State line. Reaching the vicinity of the reef during the after- noon, Mr. Alexander was detailed to examine the shallow waters in one of the small boats, while the Albatross worked farther off shore. Only 2 dredging stations, Nos. 3095 and 3096, were made here, both with the tangles. They were located just to the south and southeastward of the reef, in depths of 33 and 42 fathoms, the bottom being very rich in animal life. The exposed part of Orford Reef consists of several very rough ridges which rise abruptly from the sea. They are covered in places with sea lions, but, notwithstand- ing this fact the surrounding waters contain an abundance of food-fishes of several varieties. By far the best fishing was obtained on the south side of the reef, in 6 to 8 fathoms, hard and very irregular bottom. As it generally proved very difficult to release the anchor, it was found most expedient to lay to and drift with the wind and tide, although there was constant danger of losing the hooks and leads by their catch- ing upon the rocks. A very large and interesting assortment of fishes was collected, including red and orange rockfish, vermilion rockfish ( Sebastodes miniatus ), cultus-cod, one black-cod, and several large sculpins. The cultus-cod were especially abundant. Equal success was obtained by the use of hand lines from the ship south and west of the reef. 174 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. CALIFORNIA. NORTHERN BOUNDARY LINE TO POINT REYES. Boundary line to Point Arena. — On October 12 to 14, 1889, the investigations which had previously been conducted on the coast of Oregon were continued down the coast of California as far as Cape Mendocino. Operations, however, were entirely restricted to sounding, with the object of defining the contour of the bottom on the continental platform from the shore line into depths of about 200 fathoms. In Sep tember, 1890, on the return trip from Alaska to San Francisco, the sounding work was resumed off Cape Mendocino and was carried thence southward as far as Point Arena. A line of five stations with the beam trawl (Nos. 3348-3352), begun off Point Arena, in a depth of 455 fathoms, was extended inshore just to the north of this point, but no trials either with hand lines or trawl lines were made within these limits. The continental platform is relatively narrow along this entire stretch of coast. Off' Point St. George, near Crescent City, it has a width, within the 200-fathom curve, of about 9 miles. Off Klamath River this width increases to 17 miles, but it becomes reduced again to 8 miles at Trinidad Head, and is very much less at Cape Mendocino. In the vicinity of Point Arena the platform attains a maximum width of 10 to 12 miles. There are no fishing-banks, properly so called, in any part of this region, but the usual coast fishes will undoubtedly be found in spots along the shore. The beam trawl may be used in the neighborhood of Point Arena, but there are some rocky places to be avoided. The captain of the steam fishing schooner George H. Chance , of Portland, Oregon, reports the capture of several halibut close to Cape Mendocino, in a depth of 40 fathoms. It is not probable, however, that this species can be taken there in paying quantities. Point Arena to Point Beyes. — This region was examined between March 24 and 29, 1890, sounding work chiefly being carried on. As before mentioned, the 200-fathom curve is about 12 miles from shore at Point Arena, whence it follows the direction of the coast line as far as Salt Point. From this point, however, the platform broadens out, attaining a width of 20 miles off Russian River, of 26 miles off Tomales Point, and of 21 miles off Point Reyes. The bottom is smooth and is composed of alter- nating stretches of black sand and mud, the latter almost invariably occupying the slope between 100 and 200 fathoms. Stony patches also occur occasionally, usually between depths of 40 and 70 fathoms. The beam trawl was used at only five stations north of Point Reyes. Stations 3171 and 3172 were off Russian River, in depths of 76 and 62 fathoms, respectively, the former on sandy and rocky, the latter on sandy bottom. The remaining positions were as follows: No. 3173, about 7 miles west of Bodega Head, 62 fathoms, mud; No. 3174, about 8 miles southwesterly from the same head, 65 fathoms, green mud; No. 3175, 11£ miles northwesterly from Point Reyes, 57 fathoms, brown mud. The bottom was found to be especially rich in the various species of flatfishes which belong to this coast, and several other edible kinds were also taken with them. The Italian and Greek fishermen of San Francisco operate during the entire year as far north as Point Arena. They fish mainly with hand lines in depths of 10 to 30 fathoms, or within 2 to 3 miles of the shore, and as good fares are generally obtained in these positions they seldom venture into deeper water. The principal species taken FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 175 are the red rockfish, which are especially abundant off Bodega Head, Tomales Point, and Point Reyes. Cultus-cod of extra large size are also found off the latter point. Fishing is carried on in Tomales Bay and Bodega Bay throughout the year. From 30 to 40 fishermen restrict their operations exclusively to the former bay, using drag seines and trammel nets. Their catch is shipped to San Francisco by rail. The species secured here are red rockfish, perch, flounders, smelts, sea bass, herring, and anchovies. Hand lines and drag seines are employed in Bodega Bay, in which the catch consists chiefly of red rockfish, tomcod, and flounders. POINT REYES TO POINT CONCEPTION. Point Reyes to Monterey Bay. — Fishing and dredging operations were actively prosecuted by the Albatross on this part of the California coast between March 10 and April 13, 1890, affording very satisfactory results of a preliminary nature. As the contour and character of the bottom had been pretty thoroughly determined by pre- vious surveys, the sounding work was mainly limited to special places in connection with the fishing and dredging trials, and to locating with greater care the positions of the 100 and 200 fathom curves along the outer border of the platform. Just north of the latitude of Point Reyes these curves bend abruptly outwards to include Cordell Bank and the Farallon Islands. The 200-fathom curve lies 21 miles off Point Reyes, and maintains about the same distance from the coast line until south of Pillar Point, passing within about 3 miles of Noonday Rock, 4 miles of the North Farallones, and 5 miles of the South Farallon. From about 25 miles off Pillar Point, however, the curve approaches to within 16 miles of Pigeon Point, bends abruptly inward at Point Ano Nuevo, and at El J arrow Point is only 8 miles from shore, retaining the same distance until off Santa Cruz in Monterey Bay. This broad stretch of platform presents a generally uniform character of bottom. Between the Golden Gate, Pillar Point, the Farallones, and Point Reyes the bottom is sandy and free from rocks and stony patches, except in the immediate vicinity of the islands and of the shore line. Southward from Pillar Point rocky patches are frequently found near the shore, with fine gray sand farther off, finally merging into green mud at varying distances from land. Stony patches, apparently the result of drift, also occur between depths of 30 and 70 fathoms, on sandy or muddy bottom. The green mud has a stroug odor which is occasionally offensive. In view of the relatively short time spent in this region, it maybe considered that the bottom was quite thoroughly tested with respect to its fishery resources, the beam trawl and hand lines being used for this purpose; but observations at other seasons would greatly increase the value of the results. Between the region off Point Reyes and the latitude of Pillar Point 26 dredging stations were made beside those on the defined banks which are elsewhere referred to. Twenty- four of these stations (Nos. 3099-3101, 3103, 3150-3157, 3163-3167, 3176-3182) were inside of the 100-fathom curve, while two (Nos. 3161 and 3162) were in depths of 191 and 552 fathoms. From the latitude of Pillar Point to the entrance to Monterey Bay 19 stations (Nos. 3106- 3111, 3113-3122, 3147-3149) were occupied in depths less than 100 fathoms, and 9 stations (Nos. 3104, 3105, 3112, 3204-3209) in depths of 108 to 391 fathoms. Some parts of the bottom were found to be much richer in life than others, and muddy depressions occur on which no food-fishes were obtained. As a result of the 176 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. trials with, the beam trawl it was observed that the shoaler water species were quite regularly distributed, flatfishes being the principal feature of every haul. Small specimens of the “deep-sea sole” were secured in depths of 50 fathoms and less. The “long-finned sole” was traced from near the shore into depths of 100 fathoms, the finest specimens occurring in the deeper water. These two species approach more nearly to the European sole than any others on the Pacific coast, the flesh of mature individuals being white, gelatinous, and exceedingly delicate in flavor. From experi- ments made on board the Albatross they were found, when kept on ice, to improve until the fourth day, but deteriorated after the seventh day. They can be captured only with the beam trawl or other form of drag net. Large specimens of the deep-sea sole seldom, if ever, reach the San Francisco market, as the fishermen restrict their operations to water too shallow for them. In consequence of this fact, no doubt, the fishermenhavealso had no incentive to increase the size of their fishing boats in this region, or to improve their character.' While many of these boats, hailing from San Francisco as well as from Santa Cruz and Monterey, are stable and seaworthy, and often good sailers, they are lacking in accommodations and especially in comfortable quarters for the crew. The variety of fishes taken during this investigation was quite large, but a dis- cussion of them must be deferred until the completion of Prof. Gilbert’s report upon the subject. Among them were a number of important food species, some of which occur in great abundance. The following list of the principal forms obtained has been prepared by Mr. Townsend. The remarks upon the relative abundance of the species are based entirely upon the observations of the Albatross. List of the principal fishes obtained by the steamer Albatross between Point Reyes and Monterey Bay, March and April, 1890. [Between the shore and the 50-fathom line.] Scientific name. Common name. Relative abundance. Citharichthys sordidus stigmseus Microstomus pacificus Atheresthes stomias Eopsetta jordani Hippoglossoides exilis Psettichthys melanostictus Pleuronichthys decurrens.. Parophrys vetulus Grlyptocephalus zachirus . . . Microgacfus proximus Porichthys porosissimus . . . Sehastodes ruber pinniger flavidus miniatus elongatus auriculatus goodei chlorostictus ... (3 new species) . (1 new species) . Zaniolepis latipinnis Ophiodon elongatus Abeona Genyonemus lineatus Atherinopsis Stolephorus Chimeera colliei Myxine glutinosa Flounder do “ Deep-sea sole ” ... Flounder do do do do do Long-finned sole ” Tomcod Midshipman Red rockfish Orange rockfish Yellow-tail rockfish Vermilion rockfish . Rockfish do do do do do Cultus-cod. Perch Roncador . . Smelt Anchovy . . Ratfish Hag eel — Abundant. Rare. Few small ones. Rare. Common. Abundant. Common. Do. Abundant. Do. Few. Very abundant. Common. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Rare. Do. Very abundant. Rare. Common. Few. Common. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 177 List of the principal fishes obtained by the steamer Albatross between Point Reyes and Monterey Ray, March and April, 1890 — Continued. [In depths greater than 50 fathoms.] Scientific name. Common name. Relative abundance. Microstomus pacificus • Atheresthes stomias Glyptocephalus zachirus Sebastodes (3 new species) Sebastolobus “Deep-sea sole ” “Halibut’' (flounder) “Long- finned sole” Rockfish Redfish Abundant in 200 fathoms. Bare. Common in 100 fathoms. Abundant. Do. Common. Few. Bare. Abundant. Few. Do. Common. Few. Anoplopoma fimbria Macrurus (3 species) .... Black cod, Beshowe Grenadier Lycodidae (large species) j Careproctus Chanliodus Myctophum townsendi Alepocephalus Eel pouts Viper-fish The invertebrate fauna occupying this region is rich and diversified, the greatest variety of forms having been secured between depths of 100 and 600 fathoms. Inside of the 100-fathom curve the species differ essentially from those found on the coasts of Oregon and Washington. Shrimps and prawns, some of very large size, were obtained occasionally in depths of 50 fathoms and over. The common large edible crab ( Cancer magister) was abundant, while Cancer antennarius and Cancer productus , both also edible, were common along the shores. The surface, however, was found to be practically barren of life, very little material being taken in the tow nets, but this may have been due to the season of the year. The Farallon Islands. — The fishing-grounds adjacent to the Farallon Islands are among the most important on the coast of California. The fishing season lasts from September to May, and during this period work is actively carried on by means of trawls and hand lines. The principal anchorage is on the south side of the South Farallon, and the grounds surrounding this island are, as a rule, more productive than those about the North and Middle Farallones. The bottom is exceedingly rough and rocky, and very destructive to the fishing gear. Dredging station No. 3102, with the beam trawl, was off the Southeast Farallon, 27 fathoms, the bottom consisting of corals and broken shells. The principal edible fishes obtained by the Albatross around the Farallon Islands were flounders of several species, including two species of sole, and red rockfish. Fanny Shoal is a small spot of fishing-ground, the center of which lies about 3£ miles northwesterly from the North Farallon. Large catches are sometimes made there. This locality was thoroughly examined by means of the dredge, tangles, and hand lines, stations 3158, 3159, and 3160 having been made in depths of 27 to 39 fathoms, rocky bottom. In the vicinity of Noonday Rock, flounders, soles, anchovies, tomcod, and other species were obtained in the beam trawl, but only red rockfish were taken on the hand lines. Cordell Bank is located at the outer margin of the continental platform, about 21 miles northwesterly from the North Farallon, the shoaler part of the ground being between 19 and 20 miles due west from Point Reyes (latitude 38° N.). It was exam- ined on March 24, 1890. The soundings showed numerous rocky patches extending over a somewhat larger area than is indicated on the published charts, but in a westerly F. C. B. 1892—12 178 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. direction the depths increase rapidly with a bottom of green mud. The area of the bank, so far as it has been determined, amounts to about 20 square miles, according to Capt. Tanner, the bottom consisting of rocks, sand, and shells, intermixed with mud. The least depth discovered is 25 fathoms. The tangles were used occasionally, and trials with hand lines were made from time to time, but the swell and strong current which prevailed rendered it difficult to keep the latter on the bottom. A cod trawl was set on the western part of the bank, and was allowed to remain down seven hours, the catch comprising 47 red rockfish and 2 cultus-cod. The former averaged 64 pounds in weight, while the latter weighed 18 and 20 pounds, respectively. One orange rook- fish, 2 yellow-tails, and 2 cultus-cod were taken with hand lines during a drift of about three-quarters of an hour. Subsequent trials, however, farther to the south, both with hand lines and with the trawl line, proved less successful. Mr. Alexander considers that a small vessel with 6 to 8 dories might, under favorable conditions, obtain 4,000 or 5,000 pounds of fish a day, but a satisfactory esti- mate of the value of the bank can not be based upon the investigations thus far made. During the winter months a few large boats from San Francisco fish on Cordell Bank for red rockfish and cultus-cod, but the Italian and Greek fishermen who engage in this business take little pains to extend their knowledge of the ground beyond the few spots with which they have accidentally become acquainted. Drake Bay furnishes the first important inshore fishing-ground south of Point Reyes. Drag seines only are employed here by the fishermen, who make use of large boats, which generally go in companies of three to five, each taking its turn in carrying the catch to market. The Albatross visited this locality twice during March and April, 1890, but met with no success, either in the bay or about Point Reyes. The bottom was thoroughly tested with hand lines, and trials were also made with crab nets. A cod trawl was set for six hours across a rocky patch of ground on the northern side of the bay, but only 2 small flounders were secured. In summer rockfish are said to frequent this ridge, but never in great numbers. At a beam-trawl station off the entrance to Drake Bay the catch consisted of 100 flounders, representing several species, half a dozen anchovies, a few herring, and several red rockfish and tomcod. Ballenas Bay, situated not far northward from the Golden Gate, is a favorite locality for fishing with trammel nets. The principal species obtained there are red rockfish, sea bass, and cultus-cod. Two beam-trawl stations, Nos. 3181 and 3182, were made off the entrance to this bay. The former was located 4 miles SW. by W. from Duxbury Point, in 16 fathoms, the catch comprising 20 flounders of three species, 50 anchovies, 3 tomcod, 1 smelt, 6 perch, and a large quantity of other forms. The latter was 1 mile WNW. from the northern edge of Four Fathom Bank, in 11 fathoms, flounders, anchovies, soles, and shrimps being obtained. The sole inhabiting these shallow waters are smaller than those taken farther offshore. Coast line south of the Golden Gate. — Directly south of the Golden Gate, between Point Lobos and Point San Pedro, a distance of about 11 miles, the waters close inshore are said to be comparatively barren of food-fishes. From May to September trawl and hand-line fishing is carried on between Point San Pedro and Point Auo Nuevo, red rockfish being the species chiefly sought for. The San Francisco fisher- men do not venture beyond the latter point, but others, beginning there, follow this calling farther to the southward. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 179 Monterey Bay and vicinity. — Monterey Bay has an extreme length, north and south, of about 22 miles, and is open to the ocean for nearly this entire distance. The greater part of the bay has depths less than 100 fathoms, but directly off the mouth of Salinas River begins a deep trough or valley, which extends westward, with irreg ular margins at the 100-fathom line, and widens somewhat rapidly until it opens into the deeper parts of the adjacent ocean. A maximum depth of something over 400 fathoms is found within the limits of the bay. Two visits were paid to Monterey Bay by the steamer Albatross , the first between March 12 and 15, the second on April 10 and 11, 1890, and much sounding and dredg- ing work was accomplished. A continuous series of dredging stations, outside of the limits of the bay, was run in a curved line from off Sand Hill Bluff, in the north (latitude 36° 57' N., longitude 122° 10' W.), to off Point Pinos, in the south, as fol- lows: Ho. 3123, 37 fathoms; No. 3125, 65 fathoms; No. 3146, 62 fathoms; No. 3126, 456 fathoms; No. 3127,418 fathoms; No. 3128, 627 fathoms, and No. 3129, 204 fathoms. Stations 3124 and 3136 to 3144, inclusive, were in the northern part of the bay, on a small bank off Santa Cruz and in the region adjacent to it; stations 3130 to 3135, inclusive, and 3145 were in different parts of the bay, in depths of 9 to 56 fathoms; and 3202 and 3203 in the submarine valley off the Salinas River, in depths of 382 and 138 fathoms, respectively. This bay is regarded as one of the most productive fishing-grounds on the coast of California, but during the winter of 1889-90, when these investigations were made, fishes of all kinds were unusually scarce, owing, it is supposed, to the phenomenal rainfall which had taken place. Within 24 hours after a heavy, rain the surface becomes covered with muddy water, which is said to have the effect of driving the fishes from the shallow grounds, and continued stormy weather has a tendency to keep them from such places. The small bank off Santa Cruz, above referred to, is a rocky ground, the center of which lies about 2 miles SSW. from the light house. It has an area of about 14 square miles, the depths ranging from 8 to 20 fathoms. The Coast Survey chart gave no indication of the rocky bottom, and the attention of the Albatross was attracted to it by the number of boats engaged in fishing there. The bank is resorted to both summer and winter. During the latter season the Monterey fishermen work mainly on grounds in the southern part of the bay near the entrance. Drag seines and gill nets are also employed on the smooth bottoms and sandy beaches throughout the region. Fishing operations were diligently prosecuted by the Albatross during both visits, the trials being made chiefly with the beam trawl, seines, and hand lines. The tabular list of fishes given previously belongs also in part to this region, especially the outer or more exposed portion. Along the beaches perch and smelts were secured in large quantities by means of the drag seine. A small striped bass ( Boccus lineatus) was also taken in the same manner, this being the most southern locality from which it has so far been recorded. It is not native to California, but has been introduced from the Atlantic coast. Gill nets and a trawl line were set about 1J miles from the harbor anchorage at Monterey, one barracuda being captured in the former but nothing in the latter. The winter fishing- grounds are some 5 or 6 miles farther offshore, but, during fine weather red rockfish are frequently caught close to the head of the bay. 180 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Monterey Bay to Point Conception. — The examination of this region was begun on April 3, 1890, off Cypress Point, just south of Monterey Bay, and was carried thence southward, the beam trawl being frequently used in connection with the sounding operations. A depth of 245 fathoms was found within a mile and a half of Cypress Point, below which place the 200-fathom curve gradually leaves the coast until west of Point Sur, where it is distant between 9 and 10 miles from shore. Five miles south- west from this point, however, a depth of 293 fathoms was' indicated by the lead, with 36 fathoms a little more than a mile inside. Thence to Lopez Bock the shore is exceedingly bold, the 200-fathom curve approaching within 2 miles or less. Subse- quently it diverges slightly until off Piedras Blancas, where it is between 6 and 7 miles from the point. The coast from Carmel Point to Piedras Blancas is entirely open and exposed to the full force of the ocean swell, which causes a tremendous surf, even with the ordinary coast winds. Slight protection may be found under Point Sur, but even that can not be depended on in bad weather. Southward from Piedras Blancas the character of the coast line changes materially, and there are various points where fairly good anchorage may be found, San Simeon Bay affording the best protection north of San Luis Obispo. As the shore line becomes less abrupt, shoal water extends farther seaward, 200 fathoms being found 7 miles off San Simeon Point, about 10 miles off Point Esteros and Point Buchon, and between 13 and 14 miles off Point San Luis. Then sweeping a little seaward, off Points Sal and Purisima, it approaches within about 8 miles of the bold headland of Point Arguello and 10 miles from Point Conception. Stations 3183 to 3197, with the beam trawl, were made between Monterey Bay and Point Conception, in depths of 41 to 328 fathoms, the bottom consisting chiefly of sand and mud, with rocks in some places. Poor success attended the trials with the beam trawl and hand lines off Cypress Point. The fishermen do not resort to this locality in the winter, but fish are said to be abundant there during the summer months. Very large “ deep-sea sole” ( Microstomus pacificus) were taken in considerable numbers in deep water off the entrance to Monterey Bay, while the same and other species of flatfish, together with black-cod, red rockfish, whiting, etc., were obtained at most of the beam-trawl stations southward from the bay. Large quantities were never captured at a time, but these forms were found to range over an extensive area. Windy weather, unfortunately, prevented successful work with the hand lines. A cod trawl was set off the northern entrance to San Simeon Bay, on a sharp, rocky patch of ground, and seining was carried on along the beaches, but neither mode of fishing gave satisfactory results. San Simeon Bay has been for many years one of the principal whaling stations on the Pacific coast, and very little attention is paid to other kinds of fishing. During the winter of 1889-90 ten boxes of smelts, weighing 160 pounds each, were caught in gill nets by one man. This iS the largest catch recorded for a single season in this locality. Seven whales were captured during 1888 and the same number during 1889. The former yielded 180 barrels of oil, the latter 260 barrels, this difference being chiefly due to a difference in their size. December, January, and February are the principal .months during which whales frequent this locality, but sometimes a few are seen as late as the middle of March. During these months they are making the “down run,” and they are then said to contain about 50 per cent more oil than during the return FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 181 or “up run,” which is, as a rule, of shorter duration, lasting only from four to six weeks. Twenty-one men and nine boats are employed at this station during the whaling season. POINT CONCEPTION TO THE MEXICAN BOUNDARY LINE. This region was examined during January and February, 1889, but a few obser- vations were also made at other times — in the course of the voyage from Norfolk to San Francisco, in 1888, and during the cruise southward from the latter place in March and April, 1890. Along this portion of the coast the continental platform, as defined by the 100-fathom curve, is everywhere narrow and yet quite irregular in its width, being sometimes less than a mile wide, and attaining a maximum breadth of about 1.3 miles off Santa Barbara. Notwithstanding this fact, however, the several islands surrounded by shallow water which occur off the land, and the two small but impor- tant banks farther south, combine with the surface of the platform to offer exceptional advantages for fishing, which can never be fully utilized until larger markets shall have been established within convenient distances. The most important hydrographic work accomplished by the A Ibatross was in connection with the deeper soundings between the outer islands and the mainland, and with those made on Cortes and Tanner banks and in the adjacent waters. Dredging and fishing operations were carried on extensively and with good success. Santa Barbara Channel begins directly to the south of Point Conception and has a general east and west trend, being included between the mainland, on the one hand, and the islands of San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Anacapa, on the other, the distance of these islands from the coast varying from 10J to 25 miles. The channel is largely occupied by water over 100 fathoms deep, the maximum depth recorded being 366 fathoms. Santa Catalina Island is situated about 18 miles off Point Fermin, from which it is separated by San Pedro Channel, having a greatest depth of 422 fathoms. The Gulf of Santa Catalina lies southeasterly of the island of the same name and between San Clemente Island and the mainland, the least distance between the two being about 50 miles. The intervening depths exceed 600 fathoms in some places. Santa Barbara Island is about 22 miles west of Santa Catalina Island, and San Nicolas Island about 24 miles farther in a southwesterly direction, the latter being- distant about 54 miles from Point Mugu, the nearest point upon the coast. Cortes and Tanner banks are about 95 miles due westerly from San Diego. The total area adjacent to the coast of California south of Point Conception investigated by the Albatross may be estimated at about 11,000 square geographical miles. Capt. Andrea Larco, the principal fisherman of Santa Barbara, with eighteen years’ experience along this section of the coast, accompanied the Albatross on several of the trips, and his thorough acquaintance with the region greatly increased the value of the fishing trials. Santa Barbara Channel. — This channel, as already stated, has a varying width of about 10£ to 25 miles, being narrowest at the eastern end, between Anacapa and the mainland. On the northern side, between Point Conception and Goleta Point, the 100- fathom curve is generally from 3 to 4 miles from shore, but off Santa Barbara it bends abruptly outward to a distance of about 13 miles, so as to form an extensive area at 182 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. the eastern end of the ehannel with depths less than 100 fathoms. On the southern side the same curve approaches within about 5 miles of the nearest point, of San Miguel Island (Harris Point), somewhat closer to the corresponding projection on Santa Eosa, and within 3 miles and less of Santa Cruz and Anacapa. South of this group the distances are somewhat less, the 100-fathom curve lying from 2| to 44 miles off San Miguel, and about 2 miles off Santa Eosa and Santa Cruz, with some exceptions to be explained below. In the western half of Santa Barbara Channel the area of deep water (exceeding 100 fathoms) has, therefore, a relatively great width, occupying in the main about two- thirds of the entire breadth of the channel; but at the eastern end it becomes reduced in places to less than one-fourth the breadth. The bottom consists chiefly of mud, and this same material extends more or less into shoaler water. The greatest depth recorded is 366 fathoms, about midway of the channel. Several dredgings with the beam trawl have served to indicate the principal features of this deeper area. Station 2840 was made during the voyage to San Francisco in the spring of 1888, and was north of San Miguel Passage, in a depth of 276 fathoms, the bottom consisting of green mud. The season of 1889 was begun at station 2891, about 12 miles west of Point Conception, where 1 black-cod, 7 red rockfish, and an abundance of deep-sea soles, together with two specimens of octopus, were obtained in 233 fathoms, mud bottom. Stations 2892 and 2893 were directly in the western entrance of the channel, in depths of 284 and 145 fathoms, respectively, yellow mud and fine gray sand and mud. Five other stations in the deeper water were subsequently occupied during the same season, as follows: No. 2903 (322 fathoms), No. 2904 (314 fathoms), and No. 2909 (205 fathoms), north of Santa Eosa Island; No. 2910, off Goleta Point, 229 fathoms; No. 2960, north of San Miguel Passage, 267 fathoms. Comparatively little life was discovered on the bottom at any of these positions, but at station 2960 several black-cod were secured. In April, 1890, four stations (3198-3201) were made through the center of the channel from off Point Conception to off Goleta Point, in depths of 233 to 280 fathoms, green mud. No surface organisms were taken in this region. Eegarding this subject Capt. Tanner states: The total absence of life on the surface was notable, and it would seem that the season alone is not sufficient to account for it. The presence of petroleum, which may usually he seen forming a thin film over the surface waters of the channel, may have something to do with it. Mr. Alexander describes the oil as sometimes occurring in small patches, and at others covering large areas, in the region off Santa Barbara light, at a few miles from shore. .Its prevalence, he thinks, u probably prevents migratory fishes from schooling in this part of the channel, and possibly may tend to influence their movements over a considerable distance both up and down the channel.” It is not unlikely that the barrenness of much of the bottom may also be due to this cause. Vicinity of Point Conception. — On January 8, 1889, a trawl line was set in 20 fathoms of water, rocky bottom, about 7 miles east of Point Conception, hand lines also being used from the ship and from a small boat at the same time, but no fishes of any kind were taken. Four stations (2905-2908) with the beam trawl and tangles were then made in a short line running off from this position, the depths ranging from 31 to 96 fathoms, and the bottom being exceedingly variable in character. A consid- 183 FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. erable number of invertebrates was secured, but nothing indicating a good fishing- ground. Off Santa Barbara. — The examination of the fishing-grounds oft this place, conducted on February 11, 1889, was described by Gapt. Tanner as follows: We left our anchorage at 7 a. m. on the 11th, and, piloted hy Capt. Larco, examined a fishing- bank, the center of which lies E. N. (magnetic) about 3 miles from Santa Barbara light-house. It is about a mile in length NE. and SW., hy half a mile in width, soundings regular, with depths from 12 to 20 fathoms, fine black sand, with frequent stony patches or spots, on which there is a live bottom. Another bank was examined and found to he between 2 and 3 miles in length, E. hy S. and W. hy N. (magnetic), and almost 1 mile in width, its center being 5 miles ESE. from the light-house. The soundings were regular with depths from 26 to 29 fathoms, which agreed closely with the Coast Survey chart, as did those on the hank previously examined. The bottom was sandy, with frequent stony patches, as before described. The stones were composed of hardened clay, filled with holes, easily crumbled in the hand, and strongly resembling the tosca of South American coasts. It was covered with kelp, sponges, bryo- zoans, and other marine growths. The lead did not give the true character of the bottom, and it was ascertained by dragging the trawl or tangles between stations, stony patches, some of them very small, being encountered every two or three ship’s lengths. Kelp was found growing on all of them, much of it being brought up by the trawl, the roots still adhering to their stony ballast. It seemed to be a young growth, as none of it reached the surface. According to Capt. Larco, these hanks were at one time alive with fish, hut being so near the harbor they were soon fished out, and are visited now only by rowboats or sailing craft too small to go to the islands. There are no indications of these rocky or stony patches on the Coast Survey charts. Later in the day, a small rocky patch, marked on the chart 4 miles south (magnetic) from the light-house, was partially examined, and muddy bottom, with rocks and coral patches, was found in from 50 to 60 fathoms. It was not known to the fishermen of Santa Barbara, hut Capt. Larco was confident that it was a spot on which, many years ago, an old Indian used to fill his canoe when others failed to catch anything on the known hanks. Eleven stations (2961-2971) with the beam trawl and tangles were made in the vicinity of the first-mentioned grounds, in depths of 20 to 31 fathoms, and three stations (2972-2974) outside of the last and the deeper ground, in depths of 61 to 73 fathoms, green mud. Viviparous perch were the principal fishes obtained by seining on the beach at Santa Barbara during a visit made early in April, 1890. Vicinity of San Miguel Island. — Investigations were conducted in the neighbor- hood of Richardson Rock, and between there and San Miguel Island, on January 5, and again on February 8, 1889. Stations Ho. 2894 and 2895, with the dredge and tangles, were made on the former date, in a depth of 53 fathoms, sand and broken shells, about a mile and a half to the westward of the rock, but the bottom, so far as could be determined, was very barren. In nearly the same position a trawl line was set for about an hour and hand lines were also employed. Four red rockfish were caught upon the former, but nothing with the latter, and the baits generally remained untouched. On February 9 a line of fishing stations was occupied between Richardson Rock and the northern side of San Miguel Island, by way of Wilson Rock, and a party was sent out under the direction of Capt. Larco to investigate localities inaccessible to the ship. The fishing trials are thus described by Mr. Alexander: The first fishing was done in 44 fathoms, Richardson Rock hearing WSW. I W. (magnetic), dis- tant 1£ miles. Ten red rock-cod and 10 yellow-tails were caught in a few minutes’ time. The next berth was in 41 fathoms, Wilson Rock bearing E. by S. (magnetic) 2.3 miles distant, only one small 184 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. flounder being taken during a 10-minute trial. The last trial made between Richardson and Wilson rocks was in 36 fathoms, the latter rock bearing ESE. (magnetic), distant 1.6 miles; 4 red rock-cod and 3 rock bass were captured. From the above station the ship ran E. ■£■ S. 1.2 miles and hove to in 42 fathoms, Wilson Rock bearing S. by E. i E. and close to. Fifteen lines were soon over the ship’s side and fishing began. Mr. Larco and the writer went out in the dingey to try for fish around the rock. Seven or eight trials were made in depths varying from 25 to 35 fathoms, but we did not meet with as' good success as was expected by Mr. Larco. He had frequently anchored over the same ground where we were fishing and had loaded his boat in a few hours, but this was late in the season. Many trials were also made to the southward of the rock, where large numbers of whitefish generally feed in summer, and still our efforts were only poorly rewarded. The total catch was 4 red rock-cod, 3 whitefish, 1 cultus-cod, 1 sculpin, 1 rock bass, 1 scorpion, and 1 black rock-cod. On returning to the ship we found the deck covered with fish. It had drifted but a few minutes when they were encountered in great abundance, every line hooking at once and those who particinated had keen enjoyment for 2 hours. Fishing began in 34 fathoms and was continued into 23 fathoms. The total number of fish taken was 555, viz : 481 yellow-tail rockfish (Sebastodes flavidns) , 49 red rock-cod, 1 cultus-cod, and other species. Yellow-tail fishing very much resembles pollock fishing on the New Eugland coast. The former species will invariably follow the Hues to the surface, and frequently bites at the hook just before reaching the ship’s side. Another peculiarity in which these fish resemble the pollock is that as soon as they begin to bite they swim up in the water, and more can be caught on short lines than on the bottom. After a few have been taken they will rise to within a few fathoms of the surface and dart in schools at the lines. They then immediately disappear, soon to repeat the same performance. On the afternoon of the same day, while on the way to Santa Barbara, three dredging stations were made to the northward of the eastern end of San Miguel Island. The first two (Nos. 2957, 2958) were only a short distance from the shore, in the vicinity of Prince Island, the depth being 26 fathoms and the bottom consisting of gray sand and rocks. The dredge and beam trawl were used and a rich bottom was discovered. Station No. 2959 was about 4£ miles north of this end of the island, in a depth of 55 fathoms, sand, mud, and broken shells. Several black- cod were taken in the beam trawl. The beam trawl and tangles were employed on January 6,1889, to the west and southwest of the island, at distances of about 1 to 6£ miles from shore. Station 2899 was nearest the island, off Wyckoff Ledge, in a depth of 44 fathoms, gray sand and broken shells, but the net caught on some projecting rocks and was wrecked. At station 2897, Point Bennett, on San Miguel Island, bearing NE. by N. £ N., 3^ miles, 197 fathoms, rocky bottom, the tangles were used and a trawl line was set for about an hour, securing 4 black-cod, 1 red rockfish, and 2 ratfish ( Chimcera). This and other similar localities along this portion of the coast may possibly offer good advantages for a fishery for the black-cod, but further trials are necessary to determine that fact. Station 2898 was near 2897, in a depth of 158 fathoms, while No. 2896 was in 376 fathoms, yellow mud. A rich fauna was found at both of these places. On February 8 a beam-trawl station (No. 2956) was occupied off the southern entrance to San Miguel Passage, about 3J miles from the eastern end of the island of the same name, depth 52 fathoms, the bottom consisting of fine gray sand and rocks. Later, on the same day, the Albatross anchored off the southern side of the island, and a fishing party was rowed close inshore among the rocks and kelp, where, in a short time, 28 specimens of red rockfish, whitefish, and rock bass were taken. Fishing trials from the ship proved ineffectual. During the summer the salt-water crayfish (. Panulirus ) is abundant about the shores of San Miguel Island, and large numbers are obtained there both for bait and for the market. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 185 Vicinity of Santa Rosa Island. — In the evening of January 6, 1889, a trawl line was set in the outer part of Becher Bay, at the eastern end of this island, the depth being 20 fathoms. It was allowed to remain down over night, but in the morning only 1 puffer shark (Cephaloscyllium ventricosum ), 3 sea-anemones, and 1 crab were found on the hooks. Shore collections were also made at this place, but the surf was too heavy to permit of seining. The small dredge was then hauled in the bay at station No. 2900, 13 fathoms, sandy bottom, and subsequently two beam- trawl stations (Nos. 2901, 2902) were made about 4 miles north of Beacon Reef, in depths of 48 and 53 fathoms, many interesting specimens being obtained. On the morning of February 8, a line of dredging and fishing stations was run through Santa Cruz channel, and thence several miles southward along the crest of a ridge which extends in the direction of San Nicolas Island, but the full extent of this shadow water was not determined. Subsequently the work was continued off the southern side ol Santa Rosa Island as far as San Miguel Island. The bottom consisted of clean hard sand, with frequent sharp rock projections. The following dredging stations were made during the day, namely : No. 2950, in Becher Bay, 21 fathoms; No. 2949, 155 fathoms, and No. 2951, 48 fathoms, at the southern entrance to Santa Cruz Channel; No. 2952, 57 fathoms, No. 2953, 82 fathoms, No. 2954, 65 fathoms, and No. 2955, 121 fathoms, on the ridge extending south from Santa Rosa Island. The following account of the fishing trials is from Mr. Alexan- der’s report : At station 2953, latitude 33° 47' N., longitude 110° 58' 15" W., depth 82 fathoms, the dingey was lowered for the purpose of testing the bottom with hand lines. A short distance from the above station the bottom suddenly dropped off into 100 fathoms and a fair trial failed to give us any results. We shifted our berth several times in the direction of the shore, gradually shoaling the water to 60 fathoms, in which depth we obtained 2 red rock-cod. The position where we left the ship was about 10 miles from Santa Rosa Island. In changing berths we probably worked a mile in towards shore. Adding this to the distance steamed by the ship in going over this ground and we have a rocky ledge about 5 miles long and with a depth of 65 to 90 fathoms developed during the morning, on which red rock-cod, whitefish, and fat-heads will probably be abundant at certain seasons. The extent of the ledge, however, may be much greater. The results of dredging indicate a rich bottom. Off the south side of Santa Cruz Island. — The beam trawl was used on February 7, 1889, in two positions not far apart off the southern side of Santa Cruz Island. The results obtained have been described as follows by Capt. Tanner : Two of the hauls of the afternoon, Nos. 2947 and 2948, in 269 and 266 fathoms, were among the richest of the cruise, a great variety of specimens, including 4 black-cod, being obtained. The latter were rather under the medium size, but their flesh was excellent in flavor, nearly, if not quite, equal to those taken off the^Oregon and Washington coasts. The deep-water sole is another excellent fish found here, and ranks among the best sea fishes on the Pacific coast, far superior to any that reach the Santa Barbara or San Diego markets. The “deep-water sole” referred to is the G'lyptocephalus zachirus, a relative of the pole flounder of the North Atlantic Ocean. It could be taken only in the beam trawl or some similar bottom drag net. The black-cod, however, is an active fish, which could best be captured by hook and line, and the fact that 4 specimens were secured in the beam trawl may possibly indicate its presence here in considerable numbers. 186 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Anacapa Passage and Island. — Investigations were made in this region on Feb- ruary 6 and 12, 1889. On the former date dredging stations No. 2943, 2944, and 2945 were made directly in the passage, in depths of 30 to 31 fathoms, rocky and pebbly bottoms; while station No. 2946 was to the southward of Smuggler Cove, Santa Cruz Island, in a depth of 150 fathoms, coarse gray sand. It was found that the eastern or Anacapa side of the passage has a live bottom, and is a favorite fishiug-ground, while on the opposite side the bottom consists of clean sand with little or no life. The following account of the fishing operations is by Mr. Alexander : We commenced fishing in 30 fathoms, the SE. end of Anacapa Island bearing E. by N. £ N., San Pedro Point NW. f W. After remaining there about fifteen minutes we shifted to the south and west into 27 fathoms, the above-mentioned points bearing E. by N. f N. and NW. | W., respectively. In these two drifts of short duration, 20 red rockfish and fat-heads were captured. Two other trials were subsequently made on the following bearings : In 28 fathoms, San Pedro Point NW. by W £ W. ; south and eastern end of Anacapa Island, E. by N. In 27 fathoms, the former point bearing NW., the latter ENE. The result of these trials was as follows: 22 whitefish ( Caulolatilus princeps), 4 fat-heads ( Trochocopus pulcher), 26 red rockfish, 8 black rockfish ( Sebastodes mystinus). A short distance to the eastward of Anacapa Passage the bottom is sandy and compara- tively barren. Early in the evening an anchorage was made by the ship in Smuggler Cove, where a large- mesh gill net was set for two hours among the rocks and kelp close by the shore. This was done about dark, a little too late to expect a large catch, such species as are generally taken in a gill net usually meshing just before dark or before sunrise. Only one crayfish was secured. The next morning the net was set in the same place, and at the time several sea lions were observed upon the rocks. The net was hauled after breakfast and contained 90 fish, of which the greater number were viviparous perch. The sea lions had been there before us, however, as was made manifest by the number of large holes in the net caused by their efforts to steal the fish. Sea lions are still found scattered about the Santa Barbara Islands, where they greatly annoy the fishermen, not only by devouring the fish taken but also by injuring and often entirely destroying their nets. The remainder of the morning was spent in seining along the sandy beach of Smuggler Cove, an excellent locality for that purpose, as there are no sharp rocks or other obstacles in the way. Not- withstanding its advantages, however, only a few*perch, sharks, etc., were collected. On February 12 the following dredgings were made entirely with the beam trawl : No. 2975, 36 fathoms, in Anacapa Passage; No. 2976, 31 fathoms; No. 2977, 45 fathoms, and No. 2978, 46 fathoms, directly off the south side of Anacapa Island; No. 2979, 388 fathoms, about 4 miles south of Anacapa Island, and No. 2980, 603 fathoms, about 11 miles south of Anacapa Island. At the last two stations the bottom consisted of green mud; at the preceding ones of sand, gravel, pebbles, and broken shells. Mr. Alexander describes the results of fishing trials as follows : On the morning of February 12 many hauls were made with the beam trawl in Anacapa Passage and off the southern end of Anacapa Island. A haul 11 miles south of the island in 603 fathoms (station 2980) was one of the richest made in this region. Two trials were also made for bottom fish on the southern side of Anacapa. The first was in 52 fathoms, 11 miles south of Arch rock ; the second was in 36 fathoms, 1 mile north of the same rock. Six red rockfish were captured. A strong breeze was blowing at the time, which caused the ship to drift rapidly, and consequently a large catch could not be expected, but a sufficient number were secured to demonstrate the presence of fish in this position, and they might have been taken in abundance under more favorable circumstances. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 187 List of the principal food-fishes obtained in the vicinity of the Santa Barbara Islands. [Prepared by Charles H. Townsend.] Serranus clathratus, Rock bass. nebulifer, Bass. Sphyrcena argentea, Barracuda. Abeona minima, Perch, Shiner. Micrometru8 aggregatus, Shiner, Sparada. rosaceus. Amphisticus argenteus, Surf-fish. Trocliocopus pulcher , Fat-head. Caulolatilus princeps, Whitefish. Anoplopoma fimbria, Black -cod, Beshowe. Only obtained in the deeper water and taken only in the beam trawl. Sebastodes vex illaris, Rockfish. chlorostictus, Rockfish, Vermilion fish. Sebastodes miniatus, Vermilion rockfish. elongatus, Rockfish. prorig er, Rockfish . entomelas, Rockfish. flavidus, Yellow-tail rockfish. crassus, Rockfish. notospilotus, Rockfish. Sebastolobus, Rockfish. Taken only in deep water. Parophrys vetulus, Flounder. Citharichthys sordidus, Flounder. Hippoglossoides exilis, Flounder. Microstomas pacificus, “Deep-sea sole.” Glyptocephalus zacliirws, “Long-finned sole.” Pleuronichthys verticalis, Flounder. Notes on the fisheries of the Santa Barbara region. — The following notes on the fisheries of this region are extracted from the report of Mr. Alexander made in 1889 : Mackerel “Strike in at the Santa Barbara Islands and Channel about the 1st of March and remain until October. Mr. Larco has never seen any fat mackerel on the coast and doubts if they ever become fat. They sometimes school in small “pods” during the summer months in Santa Barbara Channel, but he has never seen them school in the vicinity of San Pedro or farther south. They are caught by trolling and in gill nets, but chiefly by the former method. The herring accompany the mackerel, but remain much longer in this region. Strong westerly winds drive them offshore, where they remain until the wind changes. They are taken in gill nets and drag seines. Sardines ( Clupea saga x) are found here the year round in considerable numbers, and are captured in gill nets and drag seines, chiefly for bait. They are affected by westerly winds in the same manner a a the herring. Fat-heads, yellow-tails, red rockfish, black rockfish, and whitefish are similar in their habits to the shore cod and pollock of the Atlantic coast. Rock-lobsters or crayfish, sardines, and herring make the best bait, although whitefish and perch are very good. Squid are sometimes caught in great numbers in nets and drag seines, but it is said that the fish will not bite at them. Sea bass, of which no specimens were taken by the Albatross, are said by Mr. Larco to be first seen some time in March. After remaining upon the coast about two months they suddenly leave, reappearing in July and August. They have been known to strike the coast three times during a season, but as a rule they appear only twice. The customary method of fishing for them is with gill nets. The net is 40 fathoms long and 3 fathoms deep, with a 6-inch mesh. A southeast wind causes them to seek deeper water and very few are taken at such times. Sharks and dogfish give the fishermen much trouble in the summer, when they are very abun- dant, playing sad havoc with the nets and all other kinds of fishing appliances. There are many excellent places on the Santa Barbara Islands where try works could be built at slight expense in localities where these fishes might be captured in large numbers within half a mile of the shore. During January, February, and March only hand-line fishing is resorted to. Through the four succeeding months no attempt is made to catch any fish but barracuda and mackerel. During the last months of summer but little attention is given to fishing of any kind, there being little demand for this kind of food. The poor demand for fish at that season arises from the fact that the fishermen have not the means of preserving and marketing their catch in suitable condition. The price of ice is so high that its use would increase the cost of fish beyond the means of the majority of the people. Most of the fish are now sold at from 10 to 15 cents per pound in the Santa Barbara market, but 18 cents is sometimes paid for fat-heads, whitefish, red rockfish, and yellow-tails. 188 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FlbH COMMISSION. Nearly every spot about the Santa Barbara Islands where rocky bottom is found may be consid- ered a fishing-ground. Red rockfish and fat-heads are found from close to the rocks out into depths of 90 fathoms, but they are most abundant where the water is from 15 to 25 fathoms deep. Some places are much more favorably regarded than others. Anacapa Passage is one of the best grounds, and can generally be relied on throughout the entire year. In the vicinity of Kichardson Rock is another good ground, and Wilson Rock is considered the most prolific spot about the islands during the first three months of the year. Between these rocks and the northern end of San Miguel Island red rockfish, fat-heads, and whitefish occur in considerable numbers in the summer, but during winter these species are more abundant about the rocky patches off the shores of Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Anacapa. The best ground for yellow-tails is in close proximity to Wilson Rock. The best season for fishing is during the winter months, when the winds are variable and gentle. In summer the northwest trades sweep down the coast, often with great velocity. At such times the fishermen resort to the northern end of the group, thereby receiving the benefit of a fair wind to Santa Barbara when a full load has been secured. Rainy weather affects the movements of both surface and bottom fish. Mr. Larco states that he seldom finds anything in his nets during a rainy spell, and long experience has taught him to resort to some other method of fishing during such times. The salt-water crayfish ( Panulirus interruptus) is caught in trammel nets and in small net traps. The latter are very much like the traps used by the boat fishermen along the shores of Long Island Sound and Massachusetts Bay for catching cunners. They are somewhat smaller, however, and have two iron hoops instead of one, to which the net is fastened. One is at the top and measures about 2 feet in diameter, while the second, at the bottom, is only 10 inches across. They are placed 2| feet apart, that being the length of the trap. A wire cage about the size of a saucer is attached at the b >ttom and serves to hold the bait. The bridle, to which the line for lowering and hauling the trap is fastened, consists of four lines tied to the upper hoop. These lines are rove through a small piece of wood which acts as a float to prevent their settling down over the cage and covering the bait. When resting on the bottom the top hoop falls in such a manner as to fully disclose the bait. Mr. Larco’s boats are all carvel-built and with keels; they are open and have a wash rail, small deck forward, and lateen rig. They are about 25 feet long, 7 feet wide, have a straight stem and sharp stern, with the rudder hung outside. The accommodations for sleeping and cooking, as in all other boats of this class, are very poor. The fish are thrown into the bottom of the boat as soon as caught, and covered with seaweed to protect them from the sun. San Pedro region. — After completing a line of soundings and dredgings between San Diego and Point Fermin, February 4, 1889, search was made for a reported shoal off the latter place, but, apparently, it does not exist. Subsequently an examination was made of South Bank, which is described as follows by Capt. Tanner : It extends about 10 miles SE. by E. (magnetic) from San Pedro light-house, and is from 3 to miles in width. The depths increased regularly to 20 fathoms 2 miles from the point, and to 29 fathoms at the outer extremity. The soundings correspond generally with those of the Coast Survey chart, and the bottom was usually the same dark-gray sand; hut putting the trawl over, it frequently dragged over stony patches, on which kelp, sponges, bryozoans, etc., were growing. Beam-trawl stations Nos. 2938 to 2942, inclusive, were on and about this bank at distances of 6 to 11 miles from Point Fermin, in depths of 20 to 47 fathoms. Mr. Alexander has reported as follows concerning Soutli Bank and the fisheries generally of this region : This bank is 3f miles wide and covers an area of about 30 square miles ; the good fishing-spots are confined to a much smaller area, however, being generally in depths of 20 to 28 fathoms. About twenty- five small fishing boats are engaged in fishing on this bank the year round. Flounders, red rockfish (called groupers locally), herring, bonito, mackerel, aud smelt are caught in their proper seasons. Red rockfish are taken during the entire year and are in greatest demand. Herring, mackerel, and smelt are caught in gill nets and drag seines, and frequent chiefly the shoaler water close to the shore. Mackerel are often trolled for, as in the San Diego region. Los Angeles is the principal market for all fish taken on this bank, a uniform price of 5 cents per pound being paid for all the species, except mackerel. The price of the latter fluctuates, according to the supply and demand ; 200 pounds of fish is considered a fair day’s work with hand lines. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 189 The fishing for red rockfish is carried on in a manner not unlike that for grouper in the Gulf of Mexico. When the ground is reached, the boat is luffed up into the wind and a sounding made with a baited hook attached to the lead. If no fish are found on two trials, the boat is again given head- way, and a new berth taken a short distance from the first one.' This operation is repeated until a place is found where the fish are abundant, when the jib is hauled down, the main boom guyed out, and the boat allowed to drift a short distance. If the fish continue to bite, the anchor is lowered. The fish feed upon small spots and ridges covered with kelp, and, as they can not he tolled away from their feeding-ground, an anchorage has to he made as nearly as possible over these localities; other- wise very poor results may he expected. Fishing is actively continued until the place is exhausted, when a new berth must he sounded out. Frequently one or two boats will have excellent fishing while a dozen or more may meet with no success. These fish appear to move about from place to place, and the good fishing-grounds of one day may he entirely deserted the next. Most of the boats belonging to San Pedro that fish on South Bank and vicinity are sloop-rigged and keeled. They average 20 feet long, and 6-J to 7 feet wide. Their accommodations are as good as could he expected on boats of their size, and are far better than on similar boats farther south. Herring and salt-water crayfish or rock-lobster (• Panulirus ) are used for bait. The fishermen of San Pedro and adjacent places are mostly Scandinavians, Portuguese, and Ital- ians, the Scandinavians being in the majority. Many of the Italians fish about San Clemente and Santa Catalina Islands, while those of other nationalities pay little attention to those islands, resort- ing chiefly to South Bank. The Italians have .a few fish-houses and a flake-yard on Santa Catalina, where they dry fish in summer. No attempt is made to split and dry fish in the winter, and during that season the fishermen remain mostly on the inshore grounds. A favorite spot for summer fishing lies H miles from the eastern end of Santa Catalina Island. Large quantities of red rockfish are taken there, and also whitefish (Caulolatilus princeps) and fat-heads ( Trochocopus pulcher) at certain seasons. Hand lines only are used for bottom fishing in this region. Trawl lines would be of little service on the rocky patches, as the fishing areas are of small extent and much of the trawl would he spread out over barren ground. The gear is rigged in the same manner as that of the hand-line fishermen of San Diego. The San Pedro fishermen state that bonito strike this part of the coast the first of March and mackerel a month later. The method of catching them here, as previously explained, is by means of troll lines and gill nets. The fishermen also affirm that they have never seen mackerel schooling in the vicinity of South Bank, although herring and sea bass frequently school in large bodies. This is however, the region from which most of the schools of mackerel have been reported by passing vessels. These reports are not unnatural, in view of the fact that even an experienced eye is often deceived in attempting to distinguish between schools of mackerel and herring, and it is sometimes impossible to determine the species until specimens have actually been taken in the nets. Alamitos Bay and Newport Harbor. — These two inlets were examined by Prof. C. H. Gilbert on January 12 and 13, 1889, with reference to their adaptability for oyster- raising, the density and temperature of the water being carefully determined.* Santa Catalina Island. — This island was visited by the Albatross on February 14 1889, but unfavorable weather prevented an investigation of the fishing-grounds. The fisheries in its vicinity, however, have been referred to in the last extract given above, from the report of Mr. Alexander. Santa Barbara Island. — The only dredge haul made in this vicinity was at station No. 2982, about 5£ miles southwesterly from Santa Barbara Island, depth 178 fathoms, the bottom consisting of sand, gravel, and mud. Mr. Alexander describes the fishing trials close by the island as follows : An anchorage was made in the afternoon on the northern and eastern side of Santa Barbara Island, where the naturalists were landed. A crab net, baited with fresh whitefish, was put over the side, but nothing was captured in it. The hand lines did better, although during the first hour no *Report upon certain investigations relating to the planting of oysters in southern California. By Charles H. Gilbert. Bull. U. S. F. C., ix, 1889, pp. 95-98, 3 maps, 1 plate. 190 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. bites were felt. Towards evening, however, a school of red rockfish and whitefish passed under the ship, and between 40 and 50 of them were caught. The longer we fished the more plentiful they seemed to become. The dingey, with Capt. Tanner and the writer, was rowed to a point about half a mile to the westward of a reef of sharp rocks which makes off from the shore, where we fished for about an hour, making several changes in our position during that time. The catch consisted of three red rockfish and one fat-head. One large flounder ( Paralichthys calif ornicus) , of the kind called halibut by the fishermen of San Diego, was hauled to the surface of the water, but, owing to its being “lip- hooked,” it managed to free itself, greatly to our disappointment. San Nicolas Island. — This island was visited on January 18 and February 13, 1889, but stormy weather prevented extensive observations on both occasions. On the former date seining only was carried on, two hauls being made at the eastern end of the island. Abalone shells occur here in great abundance, and are collected for the market. A Chinese boat, in search of these mollusks, reached the island at about the same time as the Albatross. A small amount of fishing with hand lines was done during the morning of February 13. Two trials were made before good grounds were discovered. The third position was 2 miles WSW. from the island, in a depth of 21 fathoms, 17 red rockfish, 3 whitefish, 2 yellow-tails, 1 fat-head, 1 cultus-cod, and 4 jacks (Sebastodes paucispinis) being captured in the course of ten minutes. The boat then drifted into deeper water, where no fish could be obtained, but on returning to a depth of 22£ fathoms good fishing was again secured, the same species being taken, but in smaller quantities. Lines of deep-sea soundings have been run, connecting San Nicolas Island with Tanner Bank at the south and San Clemente Island at the east, and defining the contour of the bottom for some distance to the north of San Nicolas Island. Cortes and Tanner Banks. — These two banks, which are located about 95 miles due west of the coast end of the boundary line between the United States and Mex- ico, constitute the most important offshore fishing- grounds on the coast of California south of San Francisco. They are only a few miles apart, but are separated by depths of 100 to something over 200 fathoms. Coast and Geodetic Survey chart No. 5000 represents them on a very small scale, with their outlines defined by the 100- fathom curve. A more detailed chart is given in the report of Capt. Tanner, contained in the Annual Report of the Fish Commission for 1888-89. They are here outlined by the 50-fathom curve as inclosing that portion of each bank which has been most thoroughly surveyed and fished over, especially in the case of Cortes Bank, the larger of the two. Capt. Tanner’s account of the examination of Cortes Bank is as follows : Arriving at the hank the following morning (January 16), we commenced investigations by sounding, dredging, and the use of hand lines. The sea was breaking heavily over Bishop Rock, which made an excellent landmark, enabling us to locate ourselves on any part of the bank with certainty and without loss of time. The examination was completed on the evening of the 17th, and the general results may be stated as follows : The charts are on scales entirely too small to admit of details being shown. Bishop Rock, on which there is but 10 or 12 feet, is the shoalest part of the bank The sea breaks over it heavily during moderate weather; but with a smooth sea, when facing the sun, it can not be seen at any distance and is at such times very dangerous. The depths corre- spond generally with those on the charts, with the exception of a 6-fathom spot which was found about a mile south and east of Bishop Rock. This might have led to a less depth, but there was a heavy swell at the time, which induced us to seek deeper water. Our soundings extended the area of the bank in a southwest direction, where it requires further examination. The bottom was composed of sand, shells, coral, and rock, the latter cropping out at short intervals over the entire surface. The fauna was very rich and varied. Fish were swarming over the bank in great numbers, and, in fact, it was found to be the richest ground we have found in the Pacific. The trawl line was set and quite a number of fish taken, but the bottom was too rough for that method of fishing. Dan- FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 191 gerous seas will be encountered on the bank in stormy weather, and heavy swells with moderate winds, but it is of small extent, and with the deep water - surrounding it is not an unusually dangerous fishing-ground. Starting from the northern end of the bank a little after dark on the evening of the 17th, we ran a line of soundings in the direction of San Nicolas Island for 12 miles, in depths less than 200 fathoms, 59 fathoms being found at 18 miles (Tanner Bank). This we marked for future investigation and continued our course to the island. Tanner Bank, so named by the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, was not examined until the 24th of January. The following brief description is by Capt. Tanner : Its greatest length inside of the 50-fathom curve is 8 miles east and west (magnetic) by 2 miles in width at its eastern extremity, narrowing to 1£ miles at the western end. The center of the bank, on which was found 48 fathoms, is in latitude 32° 43' N., longitude 119° 10' W., and the least water, 28 fathoms, was found near the eastern end, in latitude 32° 42' 30" N., longitude 119° 07' 15" W. The bottom is composed of sand and Shells, with numerous rocky patches, on which the fauna was found to be identical with that of Cortes Bank in similar depths. The 50-fathom curve on the east end lies north (true) 16 miles from Bishop’s Rock, both being on the same submarine plateau, with intervening depths of less than 300 fathoms. The same species of fish found on Cortes were taken on this bank, and it may be considered a valuable addition to the fishing-grounds of the Pacific coast. The fishing trials on Cortes Bank are thus described by Mr. Alexander : January 16 we sounded in 60 fathoms on Cortes Bank (dredging station No. 2911, latitude 32° 27' 30" N., longitude 119° 05' W.) where hand lines were put over, taking 2 red rockfish and 1 whitefisk (Gaulolatilus princeps) in the course of about fifteen minutes. A second trial was made soon after at hydrographic station 1621, latitude 32° 25' 30" N., longitude 119° 05' W., depth 17 fathoms, bottom rocky. Fishing was carried on with hand lines for forty-five minutes, during which time the vessel drifted into 5 fathoms of water. The results were as follows : 17 fat-heads ( Trochocopus pulcher), 10 yellow-tails (Sebastodes flavidus), and 2 sea bass ( Serranus clathrdtus) . The strong and sharp teeth of the fat-heads played sad havoc with hooks and gangings, stripping the former from the snoods nearly as fast as they could be put on. These fish would be very destructive to trawl lines set across the rocky patches which they frequent. The yellow-tail rockfish would follow to the surface any struggling captive at the end of a line, their movements somewhat resembling those of the Atlantic coast pollock. Having baited a trawl while the hand-line fishing was going on, we set it at 12:40 p. m., in 26 fathoms, hard bottom. It was allowed to remain down one hour, after which no little difficulty was experienced in hauling it, because many of the hooks caught on the bottom and it was necessary to break the hooks or part the gangings to recover it. When within about 10 fathoms of the end the ground line broke, and we were obliged to haul the remainder of the trawl from the other buoy. The result of the trial was 18 fish, as follows: 2 red rockfish, 3 whitefish, 1 treefish ( Sebastodes serriceps), and 12 fat-heads. We arrived on board the steamer at 3 :55 p. m. While the trawl was down, dredging and hand-line fishing were carried on from the ship, the following species being taken by the latter means : 39 fat-heads, 37 yellow-tails, 1 whitefish, 3 red rockfish, 2 black rockfish ( Sebastodes mysiinus), 1 scorpion ( Scorpcena guttata), and 2 jewfish ( Stereolepis gigas). The two specimens of the last-named species weighed 155 and 190 pounds respectively. The fat-heads averaged 10 pounds each in weight. Fishing began in 25 fathoms and was carried into fathoms. January 17, sounding, dredging, and fishing were carried on continuously over Cortes Bank. Seven trials with the hand lines, from a quarter to half an hour each in duration, were made during the day, resulting in the capture of 95 fish. The first was at hydrographic station 1631, 47 fathoms, where 1 whitefish and 1 yellow-tail were caught. The second was at hydrographic station 1632, 26 fathoms, where 15 whitefish, 5 red rockfish, and 2 fat-heads were taken. One cultus-cod, 1 yellow-tail, 2 red rockfish, and 1 whitefish were the total results of about twenty minutes’ fishing at hydrographic station 1633, depth 43 fathoms. The fish took the bait less eagerly than on the preceding trials, and we observed that the vessel had drifted from places where we were haulingthem “ pair and pair ” into others where not a single bite would be felt. The bank seemed to have many spots or ridges where all the species mentioned occurred in great abundance, but on leaving these places good fishing stopped. The fishing greatly resembled that for red snappers in the Gulf of Mexico. 192 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. At hydrographic station 1636, 45 fathoms, no fish were taken. We were possibly drifting in a little gully, and a slight change of position to either side might have brought us over good ground. Twenty- two whitefish, 11 red rockfish, and 3 fat-heads were subsequently secured in twenty minutes at hydro- graphic station 1639, 30 fathoms ; and 11 fat-heads, 4 yellow-tails, 1 black rockfish, and 1 scorpion (Scorpwna guttata) in a few minutes, at hydrographic station 1640, 11 fathoms. The last trial of the day was made shortly after dark at hydrographic station 1641, 51 fathoms, for the purpose of deter- mining the effects of darkness upon the fishing. The results seemed to prove that the fish will not bite after dark, as we were in a good locality and could feel the fish constantly striking against our leads and lines, but not a single specimen was taken on the hooks. Cortes Bank was found to be the most promising offshore fishing-ground on the California coast south of San Francisco. It has an area of 51 square miles, with depths less than 50 fathoms. The deeper parts of the bank have been surveyed to a slight extent only, but it is probable that good fishing will also be found outside of the 50-fathom limit. The shoal part of the bank is about 15 miles long (WNW. and ESE.), its center being in about latitude 32° 26' 30" N., longitude 119° 08' W. Bishop’s Rock, which reaches to within 2$ fathoms of the surface, lies in latitude 32° 25' 40" N., lon- gitude 119° 06' 30" W. A fishing vessel at anchor on the bank to windward of this rock would prob- ably find it extremely uncomfortable if caught out in a heavy gale ; but as the rock is small, a staunch schooner could work out by it into deep water, if not anchored too near it when the storm began. Previous to the investigations of the Albatross nothing was known respecting the food-fishes inhabiting this bank. The demand for fish along this part of the coast is so limited at present that the fishermen do not find it necessary to venture outside of a few headlands in search of new grounds. They can give but little authentic information respecting the fishing-grounds 25 to 30 miles off the coast. The fishing areas adjacent to San Diego and Santa Barbara are sufficient for the immediate requirements of those places, but with a considerable increase in population, more distant and deeper grounds will have to be sought for, necessitating the building of a larger and better class of fishing boats. Small vessels patterned after the eastern well or smack boats could make quick and safe passages to and from Cortes Bank. A week or a fortnight could be spent, if necessary, in obtain- ing a fare, and by the end of that time fish would still be iu good preservation, whereas the present methods compel the fishermen to market their fish daily to prevent their becoming unfit for sale. Twelve stations were made on and about Cortes Bank with the dredges, tangles, and beam trawb They are as follows: No. 2911, 60 fathoms; No. 2912, 10 fathoms; No. 2913, 26 fathoms; No. 2914, 26 fathoms; No. 2915, 55 fathoms; No. 2916, 93 fathoms; No. 2917, 99 fathoms ; No. 2918, 67 fathoms; No. 2919, 984 fathoms (about 12£ miles southwest of Bishop Bock); No. 2920, 87 fathoms; No. 2921, 145 fathoms; No. 2922, 47 fathoms. Deep-sea soundings were run from Tanner Bank to San Nicolas Island and to the southern end of San Clemente Island. A third line connects Cortes Bank with the region off Point Loma. The latter developed a series of elevations and depressions over which the depths varied from 211 to 1,047 fathoms. The following are the principal food-fishes obtained on Cortes Bank by the use of hand lines : Serranus clathratus, Rock bass. Stereolepis gigas, Jewfish. Trochocopus pulcher, Fat-head. Caulolatilus princeps, Whitefish. Ophiodon elongatus , Cultus-cod. Sebastodes paucispinis, Jack. flavidm, Yellow-tail rockfish. melanops, Black rockfish. mystinus, Black rockfish. Sebastodes miniatus, Vermilion rockfish. constellatus, Rockfish. rosaeeus, Corsair. chlorostictus, Rockfish. vexillaris, Rockfish. serriceps, Treefish. Scorpcena guttata, Sculpin. Citharichthys sordidus, Flatfish. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 193 Vicinity of San Clemente Island. — While passing up the coast on the voyage to San Francisco, in May, 1888, a short stop was made in Smuggler Oove at the south- eastern end of San Clemente Island, but only shore collecting was attempted. Sub- sequently the beam trawl was hauled successfully in a depth of 414 fathoms, gray sand bottom, about 7 miles off the northern end of the same island (station 2839). The region was again visited on January 23 and 25, 1889. In the evening on the former date, a gill net- was set in Smuggler Cove, and was allowed to remain down over night, but, although a school of fish, supposed to be herring, was seen at the surface, nothing at all was captured. The exceeding phosphorescence of the water, which imparted a glow to the entire net, may have been accountable for their failure to mesh. On the 25th a party was landed at the southeastern end of the island, where they found an excellent beach for seining, although the surf was running some- what heavily at the time. Repeated hauls were made with the net, securing a good representation of the shore fishes, among which were large numbers of viviparous perch (Amphisticus argenteus) and a few smelts. Several fishermen belonging to a San Diego sloop were encamped on the island. They made use of hand lines, fishing in depths of 30 to 40 fathoms, and obtaining fat- heads, rockfish, whitefish, etc., which were split and salted. Short trawl lines were also employed at times, and traps were set for capturing salt-water crayfish. The sloop visited the island once every week or ten days and carried the catch to San Diego. Gulf of Santa Catalina and the region off San Diego. — Two lines of deep-water soundings, including a few dredging-stations, were run through the Gulf of Santa Catalina from off Point Loma, one in the direction of Point Fermin, the other extend- ing through che passageway between Santa Catalina and San Clemente Island. A third line extends from off Point Loma to Cortes Bank, as explained above. In addi- tion to these a number of dredging and fishing trials were made directly off San Diego and about Los Coronados. The dredging stations were distributed as follows : No. 2937, 359 fathoms, near the center of the Gulf of Santa Catalina; No. 2923, 822 fathoms; No. 2924, 455 fathoms; No. 2925, 339 fathoms; No. 2926, 69 fathoms ; No. 2929, 623 fathoms ; No. 2934, 36 fathoms; No. 2935, 124 fathoms, and No. 2936, 359 fathoms, off San Diego, within a maximum distance of 15J miles from land; No. 2930, 60 fathoms; No. 2931, 34 fathoms; No. 2932, 20 fathoms, and No. 2933, 36 fathoms, in close proximity to Los Coronados; No. 2927, 313 fathoms, and No. 2928, 417 fathoms, between San Diego and San Clemente Island. Los Coronados are located just south of the boundary line between California and Lower California. Important fishing-grounds exist in their immediate vicinity, and, lying very near to San Diego, they are much resorted to. The following account of investigations made in this locality on January 26, 1889, is from the report of Mr. Alexander : On the morning of January 26 investigations were begun in the vicinity of Los Coronados Islands. The first trial for fish was made with hand lines at hydrographic station 1706, latitude 32° 25' N., longitude 117° 18' W., 51 fathoms, 5 red rockfish and 1 fat-head being takeu. The next fishing was done at dredging station 2931, 34 fathoms, latitude 32° 25' 30" N., longitude 117° 16' 45" W., and was a failure. These stations were between the North and South Coronados. A small Italian fisliing boat was anchored close by where the last trial was made. She was on a favorite spot, but had met with poor success, the catch for the previous twenty-four hours having amounted to only about 50 pounds of red rockfish, whitefish, and fat-heads. During the summer months these species are sometimes very abundant. F. C. B., 1892—13 194 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Such fish as are taken in the vicinity of Los Coronados and San Diego bring from 3 to 4| cents per pound. Very few are salted by the Italian fishermen, the salt-fish trade being monopolized by the Chinese. The Italians fish with both hand lines and line trawls, but chiefly with the former on account of their cheapness. Trammel nets are frequently used among the rocks close inshore, and fish that will not readily take the hook are often caught with them. A trammel net 30 fathoms long and 21 fathoms or 40 meshes deep costs $25. A trawl of 500 hooks, completely rigged, and including tho basket in which it is coiled, is valued at $5. Baskets are used on this coast for the storage of the trawls in preference to the tubs of the Atlantic coast. The trawl hooks used by these fishermen are the same as those employed by the French fishermen on the Grand Bank and by the fishermen on the coast of Spain. * * * The best fishing about the islands is found between the Northern and Southern Coronados in 25 fathoms. Close to the southern side of the northern island the water is deeper, having an average depth of 45 fathoms. In this latter place red rockfish are the principal species taken. About 5 miles south of the southern island is a small shoal ground sometimes resorted to by San Diego fishermen. These two “spots” are the only offshore fishing-grounds known in the immediate vicinity of San Diego. The Italian fishing boat previously referred to was a primitive affair about 18 feet long, 7 feet wide, and 2 feet deep, with a flat bottom. * * * The hand lines employed were as rudely con- structed as some of those made by the Alaskan Indians. Many sizes of lines were noticed with pieces of lead attached. Each line is generally provided with from 3 to 5 hooks, fastened to short snoods arranged one above the other about 18 inches apart. This style of gear is found about Kadiak, Alaska. Demijohns of various sizes, tied to the buoy lines by their handles, serve in place of keg buoys. The reason for using the former, as well as many other inconvenient devices, is their greater cheapness. Mr. Alexander also furnishes the following notes respecting the mackerel, barra- cuda, and bonito in this region : While in San Diego several fishermen were consulted who were more or less acquainted with the habits of the species of mackerel belonging to that part of the coast. According to their statements these fish strike the coast in the vicinity of San Diego in April and May on their way north. They are invariably poor at that season, and, in fact, during most if not all of the year, although some claim to have seen a few fat mackerel in October. Their migratory habits are similar to those of the Atlantic mackerel. The fishermen assert that they have seldom seen them schooling at the surface, notwithstanding the many reports of steamers and other vessels respecting large schools of mackerel along the coast. It is probable that many of the schools of fish so reported are not mackerel, hut herring, the appearance of these two species, when at a distance, being readily confounded by those who are not familiar with them. It is very doubtful if mackerel approach this coast in sufficient numbers to warrant the fitting out of vessels for their capture, after the manner followed on the New England coast. Many persons have thought that it would he a paying investment to do so, in order to compete with the New England fishermen for the Pacific coast markets, supplying both the salt and fresh fish. Any such venture would be precarious, however, until the habits and abundance of the species have been posi- tively determined, and certainly not more than two vessels should he fitted out in the beginning. All the evidence goes to prove, moreover, that the Pacific mackerel ( Scomber colias) is greatly inferior in quality to its Atlantic relative ( Scomber scombrus), and those eaten on the Albatross were pro- nounced insipid. The fishermen of San Diego, Santa Barbara, and San Pedro resort almost wholly to trolling for the capture of mackerel. The practice of heaving to and raising them with troll bait seems to be unknown in this region. A few are caught in gill nets, but large quantities are never taken at a time by either method. The greater part of the catch is sold in San Francisco. During the summer barracuda are abundant about San Diego and along the coast toward Santa Barbara, hut after September they become scarce, although scattering individuals are taken the year round. Ten or 12 schooners and sloops, of from 10 to 28 tons each, belonging to San Diego, follow down the coast of Lower California a distance of about 170 miles in search of both barracuda and bonito. The latter species is also sometimes called Spanish mackerel. They are caught by trolling, and, after being split down the hack like mackerel, are salted in bulk in the hold of the vessel, the same as codfish. The catch is chiefly landed in San Diego, where the fish are dried on flakes and then shipped to the Sandwich Islands and China by way of San Francisco. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 195 INVESTIGATIONS SOUTH OF CALIFORNIA. During the several trips made by the Albatross southward from California very important fishery, biological, and hydrographic information has been obtained, but it is not intended to make more than a brief reference to these investigations in this con- nection. On the voyage from Norfolk, Va., to San Francisco, in the winter of 1887-88, observations were continued during the entire cruise, and after leaving the coasts of South America stops were made at the Galapagos Islands, Panama, Acapulco, La Paz, and several places along the outer shores of Lower California. During the early spring of 1889 a visit was paid to the Gulf of California, and from January to April, 1891, the ship was engaged upon a special scientific investigation, under the direction of Prof. Alexander Agassiz, off the coast of Mexico, Central America, and Ecuador, including the region about the Galapagos Islands. OUTER COAST OF LOWER CALIFORNIA. 9 After completing the investigations on the coast of California, in February, 1889, the Albatross proceeded southward en route for the Gulf of California, but in order to examine certain reported dangers to navigation off Lower California the cruise was not made direct. Aline of soundings was carried first to Guadeloupe Island, and thence to the Alijos Bocks, in latitude 24° 58' N., longitude 115° 52' 36" W., and to the Eevillagigedo group, of which Clarion, Socorro, and San Benedicto islands were visited in the order named. Important collections of fishes and other marine animals were obtained at each of these places and also by dredging in the intervening deeper waters. Interesting observations upon the physical and natural-history features of the different islands were likewise made and have been published in the annual report for 1888-89, pp. 432-436, 466-468. The hydrographic results have been summarized as follows by Oapt. Tanner : Reports of islands, rocks, and reefs in the regions recently traversed by the Albatross have been current from time immemorial. The U. S. S. Narragansett’ s investigations resulted in their being expunged from the charts, but she gave us no information regarding the contour of the ocean bed, ■which is the only sure method of deciding the existence or non-existence of submarine elevations. This gap has been filled by the soundings of the Albatross, which prove definitely that these vigi as do not exist in the positions assigned them. Another important problem has been solved. The chain of islands commencing with Guade- loupe and extending to Los Alijos and the Reviliagigedo group have been considered as a submerged mountain range, extending parallel with the peninsula, connected with it by a submarine ridge at one extremity, and previous to the submergence inclosing a gulf similar to the Gulf of California. The Albatross soundings not only show this to be an error, but demonstrate the fact that the several islands are isolated volcanic elevations, entirely independent of the continent and of each other, the sea reaching its normal depth between each of them and also between them and the peninsula. The observations directly along the outer coast of Lower California, both in 1888 and 1889, were carried northward from Cape St. Lucas, and they will be referred to in the same geographical order. Only one dredge haul (No. 2829) has been made in the vicinity of Cape St. Lucas, the tangles having been used in a depth of 31 fathoms, rocky bottom, off the Frailes. Station No. 2830 was in 66 fathoms, fine sand, latitude 23° 33' N. Yisits were paid to Magdalena Bay in both years, and considerable collecting was done in that vicinity by means of the dredging appliances, nets, etc. Food-fishes were 196 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED -STATES FISH COMMISSION. found to be abundant, many specimens of mullet, perch, anchovies, smelts, and floun- ders being captured in the seines and beam trawl. Several schools of mackerel were observed off the entrance to the bay on April 9, 1889; they were working northward. Excellent oysters had been reported from this locality, and a search was made for them, but without success. Mangrove oysters, however, were discovered about 40 miles farther north, near Boca del Soledad. On May 4, 1888, several dredge hauls were made in the shallow waters about Abreojos Point, and on April 11, 1889, numerous fishing trials were conducted in San Bartolome Bay (latitude 27° 40' N.) by means of seines and hand lines. This bay has been reported to be an excellent tishing-ground, but nothing was captured on the hand lines, which were used in several places among the submerged rocks and ledges off the mouth of the harbor, although mullet, smelts, anchovies, and flounders were plentiful along the beaches. The U. S. S. Banger arrived at the bay at about the same time as the Albatross , and, making use of a very large seine, secured 167 green turtles, besides two or three dozen fishes, of several species, in a single haul. Some of the turtles were of very large size. Cerros Island was visited on May o, 1888, and again on April 12 of the next year, several dredging stations being occupied about the island, while the shore fishes were collected by seining. Subsequently, in 1889, seine hauls were made in San Quentin Bay and on the shores of San Martin Island. GULF OF CALIFORNIA. On the voyage north in April, 1888, a stop was made at La Paz, Lower California, for the purpose of coaling, and advantage was taken of the opportunity to dredge at several stations in La Paz Bay, in San Lorenzo Channel, and between Cerrabro Island and the mainland, off Point Gorda. In 1889 the investigations were carried to the extreme head of the gulf, the main object of the cruise having been to ascertain the principal characteristics of this sheet of water in their relations to the Colorado River, in which plantings of shad had pre- viously been made by the Fish Commission. The course of the ship was from La Paz to San Josef Island, Carmen Island, Conception Bay, Guaymas, San Pedro Holasco Island, Angel de la Guardia Island, Georges Island and Bay, Consag Rock, and the mouth of the Colorado River. Thence it returned to Guaymas and La Paz, making several stops on the way. Sounding and dredging operations, together with fishing trials and observations of temperature and density, were continued throughout the cruise, much valuable and interesting information being obtained. An account of the work accomplished is contained in the Annual Report for 1888-89, pp. 436-443, 468-471. The shallow waters at the mouth of the Colorado River were found to be very barren of life, and the conditions generally seemed unfavorable to the successful stocking of that river with shad or other anadromous fishes. The gulf itself, however, has many important fishery resources, some of which have been developed to a limited extent, while others must await the demands of future markets. While in the neighborhood of Guaymas an examination was made of the exten- sive oyster beds occurring in Algodones Lagoon, the introduction of this southern species on the coast of California having been suggested. This oyster is of excellent quality and closely resembles the Atlantic coast species of the United States. It was FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. 197 formerly marketed in San Francisco, and is still transported to other places not so far distant from the grounds. Beds of oysters are quite widely distributed through the gulf, but comparatively little is known about them except in this vicinity. The beds of Algodones Lagoon have been discussed by Prof. Charles H. Gilbert and Mr. Charles H. Townsend. (F. C. 14, 15.) THE SOUTHERN CRUISE OF 1891. This important expedition, under the scientific direction of Prof. Alexander Agas- siz, occupied the three months from February to May, 1891, the area covered by the investigations lying off the western coast of Mexico and of Central and South America, between Cape San Francisco in the south and Guaymas in the north, and extending seaward to include the region about the Galapagos Islands. The biological and physical features of this region, as well as the contour and character of the bottom, except in the vicinity of the coast, were then almost entirely unknown, the Albatross having made only a few observations there during the voyage from Washington to San Francisco, while H. M. S. Challenger , during her famous expedition around the world, sailed directly from the Sandwich Islands to Chile and thence into the Atlantic Ocean. The inquiry, as planned, had reference mainly to the natural history and temperature of the deeper waters off the coast, at the bottom and surface, and also at intermediate depths. Beginning off Cape Mala near Panama, a line of stations was carried to Cocos Island, and then, with some deviation toward the south, to Malpelo Island, and back to Panama, while several short lines were run immediately outside of the 100-fathom curve. On the second cruise the steamer proceeded first to the vicinity of Cape San Francisco, thence to the Galapagos Islands, and from there to Acapulco. Subse- quently dredgings were made from off Cape Corrientes to Guaymas, in the Gulf of California. The greatest depth of water explored was 2,232 fathoms. Short stops were also made at the different islands lying in the course of the expedition for the purpose of studying the land and shallow-water animals and plants. While it was observed that the marine fauna of this region is not so rich as that occupying the corresponding waters off the east side of the continent, very large collections were secured, and the general results obtained are of great importance. One of the most important outcomes of the expedition has been the determination by Prof. Agassiz, through the instrumentality of a new form of intermediate towing net devised by Capt. Tanner, of the vertical distribution of the surface pelagic fauna, which he considers to descend only to a depth of about 200 fathoms. Some forms among the bottom animals may work up a distance of several fathoms, but between these levels in the open sea he found no evidences of life. Regarding this subject there are still some differences of opinion among explorers, and further investigations will be awaited with much interest. As a solution of the problem will probably have some bearing upon the study of the habits of pelagic fishes, the practical importance of continuing the experiments can readily be appreciated. Detailed accounts of this expedition have been given by Commander Tanner and Prof. Agassiz (F. C. 9, 17 and 18). 198 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. LIST OF CHARTS AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS BEARING UPON THE FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STEAMER ALBATROSS. The Fish Commission publications here enumerated include only the reports descriptive of the hydrographic and fishery in vestigations of the Albatross , and a few papers from the u Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States,” which con- tain a complete review of all that was known respecting the marine fisheries and fishing-grounds of the Pacific coast down to 1882. The charts of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and Hydrographic Office o'f the Navy are those on which the soundings of the Albatross have been plotted, and they also otherwise illustrate the regions over which her work has been extended. The most useful charts for the Alaskan coast, in connection with this subject, are Fish Commission Nos. 19,20,21,22; Coast Survey, S and T, together with the several harbor charts, and Hydrographic Office chart 68. The general coast charts of the Coast Survey, on a scale of 1 : 200,000, constitute a uniform series covering the entire coast line of Washington, Oregon, and California, and contain a sufficient amount of detail to answer for most fishing purposes. For the work accomplished south of California, the Hydrographic Office charts and Fish Commission No. 25 should be consulted. REPORTS AND CHARTS OF THE U. S. FISH COMMISSION. REPOKTS. 1. The fishery resources and fishing-grounds of Alaska. Indicating the Areas on w hich Tonging, Dredgingand Scraping Are respectively authorized. Stcse 1\u~rriis7becl/ by t/o /< ’ AS'. Cocast arucU Geodetic Sum.* Scale of Statute Miles 1893 A' A < / M C yf: * y C H J s1” i ^ f R L e? s''\ i fl TT^i . I 5.— THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. INTRODUCTORY NOTE. Among the fishery industries of the United States the oyster fishery ranks first in importance, and of the States engaging in this fishery Maryland occupies the most prominent position. The attention given to oyster fishing and oyster cultivation in recent years has been one of the most prominent features of the fishery industries, and has resulted in a great and growing demand for practical literature on the subject, which it has been the aim of the U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries to supply. The present paper is one of a series of special articles relating to the oyster industry which this Commission has issued or has in course of preparation. From a very early period in its history, the Commission has constantly had in view the impor- tance of the oyster as a food product and has carried on inquiries addressed to the biological, physical, economical, and statistical aspects of the industry. The previous reports presented by the Commission are very numerous and cover almost every phase of the subject. Among the recently issued papers the following relating to the Atlantic coast may be mentioned: “Notes on the Oyster Industry of Connecticut,” “The Physical and Biological Characteristics of the Natural Oyster-Grounds of South Carolina,” “An Investigation of the Coast Waters of South Carolina with reference to Oyster-Culture,” and “ Report on the Coast Fisheries of Texas.” In addition to the work represented by the foregoing reports, biological and topo- graphical surveys have been conducted in Long Island Sound, Chesapeake Bay, and Galveston Bay, full accounts of which have not yet been printed. The oyster fishery of the west coast has been dealt with in two special papers, “Report upon Certain Investigations relating to the Planting of Oysters in Southern California” and a “Report of Observations respecting the Oyster Resources and Oyster Fishery of the Pacific Coast of the United States.” For the purpose of instituting comparisons and affording opportunity to apply the methods of cultivation employed in other countries so far as they may be applicable to the United States, inquiries have also been conducted in all the countries of Europe having oyster fisheries, and two reports based on these studies have been printed, one entitled “The Present Methods of Oyster-Culture in France,” the other a “Report on the European Methods of Oyster- Culture.” In the regular descriptive and statistical fishery reports of the Commis- sion relating to the different geographical coast sections of the country, the oyster fishery has also received due notice. This article is a contribution to the economic phase of the oyster industry. It emanates from the Division of Statistics and Methods of the Fisheries of this Com- mission and is based largely on the personal observations and inquiries of the author, 203 204 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Mr. Charles H. Stevenson. The report consists of a history of the oyster industry of Maryland from early times, a review of the legislation by which the fishery has been regulated, a description of the oyster-grounds of the State, a detailed account of the methods employed in taking oysters, a notice of the progress of oyster-culture in Maryland, a history of the State oyster police and of the oyster-revenue services, statistical tables showing by counties the extent of the industry in recent years, and a discussion of the transporting, packing, and marketing trades. The extent of the oyster industry of Maryland in the season of 1891-92, as deter- mined by the investigations carried on by this office, may be summarized as follows : The number of persons engaged in various capacities was 33,388; of these, 10,813 were employed in tonging oysters, 5,059 in dredging, 3,757 in scraping, 1,651 in trans- porting only, and 12,108 as shore and factory hands. The vessels employed numbered 1,624; the number of boats used was 6,554; the vessels and boats, with their outfit and apparatus, were worth $2,618,745. The capital invested in the shore and accessory property devoted to the packing and marketing trades was $4,650,500. The total investment in the industry was therefore $7,269,245. The quantity of oysters taken and sold was 11,632,730 bushels, for which the fishermen received $5,866,120. The report is accompanied by 15 plates illustrating fishing methods and appli- ances and a chart showing the location of the oyster- grounds and indicating the respec- tive areas on which tonging, scraping, and dredging are authorized. Marshall McDonald, U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. Washington, D. 0., November 29, 1893. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. BY CHARLES H. STEVENSON. INTRODUCTION. Few branches of the American fisheries have been the subject of so much discus- sion and are so little understood as the oyster industry of the State of Maryland. For fully eighty years this fishery, by reason of its condition and importance, has demanded the attention of the tide- water residents of that State, and at nearly every session of the Maryland general assembly since 1820 it has been one of the most fruitful subjects for legislative enactments; yet a system of regulation satisfactory either to the oystermen or to the State at large has not been established, and at no previous time in the history of the fishery has it received the amount of attention as at present. A discussion of this industry is especially interesting because it is the most extensive and valuable oyster fishery in the world. In European countries and in the majority of the oyster-producing States of America the food market receives the greater portion of its supplies from private grounds, the regulations governing the common or free fisheries being largely subsidiary to the needs of the industry on the private areas. Maryland, however, has persistently refused to encourage an extensive development of private oyster fisheries, devoting instead all its energies toward con- serving and protecting the free fishery on the public domain. The purpose of this paper is to discuss all branches of the oyster industry of Maryland, from the operations of the oystermen to the preparation of the marketable products, the investigation being chiefly from an industrial point of view. Brief but complete notice is taken of the regulations that have surrounded the industry since its inception, as it exhibits the constant efforts made by a people during a period of seventy years to preserve the prosperity of a common fishery. Reference is made for the first time to the planting or bedding operations conducted in the Sinepuxent Bay, and the small business done in this line in other portions of the State. Only the actual and relative conditions of the industry in its various branches are discussed, and no attempt is made to add to the interest or volume of the paper by describing the -many unique and novel methods and customs prevalent in certain localities, unless the same have some bearing upon the prosperity of the industry. Probably no State in the Union has for its area so great an inland water-surface as Maryland. Of the twenty-three counties in this State, the oyster fishery is prose- cuted from eleven, in which, because of the innumerable tributaries of the Chesa- peake extending into the land, there are few localities removed a greater distance than 6 miles from navigable water, thus bringing all the residents into close contact with the fisheries. The total population in 1890 of these eleven counties was 219,307, and 205 206 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. the oyster industry is by far the principal means of support. This does not include the city of Baltimore with its extensive dredging, transporting, and marketing interests, giving direct employment to 11,000 persons and support to many times that number. The dependence of a large proportion of the citizens of Maryland upon this fishery for a livelihood, and the immense resources it furnishes for the profitable employment of capital and labor, demand that the fullest inquiry be made into its needs and conditions, and should cause everyone interested either in the welfare of Maryland or in the fisheries of America to be extremely solicitous that no permanent injury to it should be permitted and that every available means be utilized toward main- taining and, if practicable, increasing the productive capacity. Neither is the interest in this industry limited to the State of Maryland, for nearly every locality in America is to some extent dependent for the abundance and cheapness of its oyster supply on the product of the Chesapeake, and this interest is also shared by the foreign consumer of the canned product. In every region of the world where the oyster industry has assumed any commer- cial importance it has passed, or is apparently passing, through the following four stages : First, the natural reefs in their primitive condition and furnishing the entire supply of oysters ; second, those reefs somewhat depleted and producing small oysters, many of which are transplanted to private grounds and under individual protection permitted to mature; third, the public beds so far depleted that the supply available is very irregular and uncertain and consists almost entirely of small oysters which are transplanted to private areas; fourth, the entire dependence of the industry on areas of ground under individual ownership or protection. In Europe the greater number of the oyster -producing localities are in the con- dition of the fourth stage. In America, with apparently a more hardy oyster, the natural advantages greater, and the fisheries not so long continued, the industry still depends largely on the public reefs. But were it not for the supply of seed oysters obtained from more southern waters all those States north of Connecticut would be practically in the condition of the fourth stage, the public reefs in that region being almost totally destroyed. Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Delaware, while obtaining large quantities of small oysters from the Chesapeake and other localities, are rapidly passing from the third to the fourth condition. The oyster industry of Chesapeake Bay, both in Maryland and Virginia, is in the second stage, but the history of the fishery in other States and countries excites grave fears as to its long continuance in this condition. In Maryland the oyster industry is at present almost totally dependent on the public reefs, and there are two great interests in the fishery which, for nearly a century, have been antagonistic to each other, viz, the tongmen and the dredgers with their allies the scrapemen, and these three unitedly wage common war on the planters. The dispute between the tongmen and dredgers is of economic origin, being due to the improved machinery of the latter surpassing that of their rivals. The common objec- tion to the planters is founded in the belief that their operations constitute an encroachment upon the public customs, and that the free fishery on the public reefs may thereby be seriously restricted. These class feelings have had much to do with preventing a satisfactory understanding of the fishery and its regulation in a manner acceptable to the State at large. In studying this fishery in Maryland and comparing its needs and conditions THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 207 with those of this industry in other localities, consideration must be taken of the enor- mous extent to which, during the last twenty-five years, it has been prosecuted. The water area of Maryland is the greatest oyster-producing region in the world, and the output of the industry is fully equal in value to one- sixth of the product of all the fisheries of the United States combined and gives employment to one-fifth of the persons engaged therein. For purposes of comparison the following tabular statement is submitted, show- ing either approximately or by latest returns the catch of oysters from public and private areas in each of the various States of America and the principal foreign oyster-producing countries : Table showing the oyster product of the world. State or country. No. of bushels. Value. Year. Massachusetts 58,007 $81, 938 1892 Rhode Island 172, 945 241, 978 1892 Connecticut 1, 940, 174 1, 426, 244 1892 New York 2, 611, 062 2, 748, 509 1891 New Jersey 2, 632, 117 1, 746, 930 1892 Pennsylvania 132, 380 101, 850 1892 Delaware 175, 332 73, 863 1892 Maryland 11,632,730 5, 866, 120 1892 Virginia 5, 984, 636 2, 487, 638 1891 North Carolina 807, 260 175, 567 1890 South Carolina 63, 150 23, 204 1890 Georgia 224, 355 40, 520 1890 Florida 468, 431 93, 692 1890 Alabama 481, 070 107, 812 1890 Mississippi 806, 478 166, 672 1890 Louisiana 841, 585 299, 896 1890 Texas 440, 800 127, 990 1890 Washington 142, 730 127, 000 1892 Oregon 2, 500 3, 125 1892 California 178, 645 698, 257 1892 Total for United States 29, 796, 387 16, 638, 805 Canada 152, 580 183, 846 1891 British Isles 2, 760, 000 6, 200, 000 Approx. France 2, 000, 000 5, 000, 000 Do. Holland 70, 000 440, 000 Do. Italy 65, 000 200, 000 Do. Germany 13, 000 75, 000 Do. Miscellaneous 400, 000 600, 000 Do. Total for foreign countries 5, 460, 580 12,698,846 Grand total 35, 256, 967 29, 337, 651 It is thus observed that the quantity of oysters produced in Maryland is one- third of the total product of the world and more than twice as great as that of all foreign countries combined. This report is largely the result of observations and inquiries made by the writer, as an agent of the U. S. Fish Commission, during extended trips through the tide- water counties of Maryland and of examinations of the voluminous State and county records. Liberal and valuable assistance has been accorded the work by the State and county officials and many other persons in positions to be informed respecting the oyster industry. Especial acknowledgment is made to Gen. Joseph B. Seth, sometime com- mander of the State fishery force, to Mr. William D. Platt, an extensive oyster-dealer of Baltimore, Marion deK. Smith, esq., comptroller of the State treasury, Col. Thomas S. Hodson, and Conway W. Sams, esq. Acknowledgment is also due Mr. Daniel Bendann, of Baltimore, for the use of an excellent series of photographs illustrating the various phases of the oyster industry of Maryland. 208 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. GENERAL HISTORICAL NOTES. In order that the present condition of the oyster industry of this State may be properly presented and understood, it is necessary to review its conditions and methods of prosecution in former years. There have been three great eras in the history of the oyster industry in Maryland, viz: First, from the settlement of the State to 1820, during which the fishery was in its infancy, subject to no restrictions or regulations whatever except those of nature and market demands, the product being very small; second, from 1821 to 1864, during which the use of dredges in catching oysters was interdicted and the wholesale shucking trade was established and considerably devel- oped; third, from 1865 to the present date, in which a license system has been operative, authorizing the use of tongs, dredges, and scrapes under certain regulations, the places and times of their employment being restricted. Prior to 1820. — The heaps of oyster shells found in some places along the shores of the Chesapeake indicate that these mollusks had for a long time been utilized for food purposes by the Indians ; and the writings of the early settlers of and travelers to this part of the country make reference to the fact that the aborigines at times furnished them with oysters in exchange for trinkets and other commodities. The Chesapeake colonists appear to have given little attention to them. An explanation for this is probably found in John Smith’s “Advertisements for Unexperienced Planters,” published in 1631, in which he explains the reasons why the early settlers of the Chesapeake did not engage in fishing by stating: “Now although there be * * * Fish in the rivers * * *, yet the rivers are so broad * * * and we so unskillful to catch them, we little troubled them nor they us.” There are many reasons for the belief that, for years after the settlement of Maryland, oysters were regarded as of little value for food purposes. Diligent search among the early colonial records has resulted in the finding of but one reference to this product. This reference, which is certainly depreciatory, occurs in the depositions made in the famous Claiborne suit of about 1680, in which the “Kent Islanders” cited, among their grievances and the hardships which they had to endure, that their supply of provisions becoming exhausted it was necessary for them, in order to keep from starvation, to eat the oysters taken from along the shores. As no further mention of them is found among the voluminous colonial papers, it is reasonable to suppose that after the settlement of Maryland a long time elapsed before oysters entered largely into the food supplies of the inhabitants, hence there was little object in catching them. During the war of 1812, occasional reference was made in the newspapers of that period to the part played by the oystermen of the Chesapeake in harassing the British fleet in the bay, from which it is evident that at that time the fishery was of some consequence. It appears from records and traditions that a large portion if not the greater quantity of theoysters then caught were transported by vessels to Northern markets, a considerable demand for them having been developed in the New England States; and, beginning about 1808, a number of vessels each season transported several car- goes to Fair Haven, Conn. The vessels resorted to the reefs situated in the lower part of the bay, and obtained cargoes either by dredging or by purchasing from the tongmen living along the shores, who oystered especially for those vessels. It was THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OE MARYLAND. 209 by the transporters that the use of dredges was largely extended in Maryland waters, this being to some extent necessary for the transportation trade, when the State of Virginia, by act dated January 9, 1811 (Laws, Va., 1810-11, ch. xvii), interdicted the use of these implements within the waters of that State. Ho wholesale markets existed along the shores of the Chesapeake for the handling of oysters, and it is probable that the local consumption was very small. From 1820 to 1864. — The quantity of oysters for the Northern markets, while not large in view of the present knowledge regarding the productiveness of these reefs, was sufficient to alarm the oystermen of that time lest their industry should thereby become totally destroyed. These apprehensions resulted, in 1820 (L. 1820-21, ch. 24), in the earliest enactment of the general assembly of Maryland regulating or affecting the oyster industry, the annual product of the State at that time scarcely exceeding, if it equaled, 500,000 bushels. Because of the insight it offers into the fishery as it then existed, the preamble to this enactment is here given : Whereas it is represented to the general assembly that a great number of large vessels from the Northern and Middle States frequent our waters for the purpose of transporting oysters to those States; and whereas well-grounded apprehensions are entertained of the utter extinction of oysters in the State, as well in consequence of the immense quantity thereof exported as the destructive implements used in catching them : Therefore, etc. This enactment prohibited, under penalty of a fine of $20 or sixty days’ impris- onment, the use of any implements in catching oysters within the State other than the ordinary tongs, and also the transportation of oysters out of the State in vessels not owned wholly for the preceding twelve months by a citizen of the State, or placing oysters on board any such vessel to be transported. Because of the great expanse of water territory, and the difficulty of enforcing the law without competent physical force upon the bay, this enactment did not fully prevent the continuation of the trade by Horthern vessels. During the next session of the general assembly an exception was made (L. 1821-22, ch. 107) to the law of 1820, and permission was given to each citizen of the State of Delaware living within 3 miles of the northeast branch of the Hanticoke River to catch oysters from that branch of said river in quantities not exceeding 30 bushels per day; a privilege which they enjoyed for many years and to which maybe due in some respects the extensive oyster-shucking trade now prosecuted at Seaford. This is one of the very few instances in which a State has, by legislative enactment, authorized non-residents to take fishery products from within its borders. On February 16, 1830 (L. 1829-30, ch. 87), an important enactment was made embodying almost the first oyster-planting law operative in America. This act author- ized citizens of the State to preempt, under certain regulations, an acre of ground naturally unproductive of oysters, for the purpose of planting and growing oysters and other shellfish thereon. It also granted to the owner of lands bordering a creek less than 100 yards in width at its mouth the exclusive right to the use of the same for a similar purpose. The productiveness of the natural reefs, having apparently continued to decrease since the enactment of 1820, this act further interdicted the use of tongs having more than six teeth on a side; but this restriction, so far as it applied to the waters of the Eastern Shore, was repealed at the same session of the legislature, the prohibition of their use on the Western Shore remaining until 1834. The act also provided that no persons other than citizens of the county or counties bordering on any river or bay should catch oysters within 300 yards of low- water mark F, C. B., 1892—14 210 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. of either shore of said river or bay. In this provision originated the distinction between “ county waters” and “ State waters,” the latter being such areas as are open for the use of any resident of the State — a distinction which, though modified and changed to a considerable extent, has remained to the present day. Some difficulty was experienced in enforcing this enactment, and at the next legislative session (L. 1831-32, ch. 249) more easily applied penalties and court regula- tions were provided for its enforcement in the waters of the Eastern Shore, and in the following year the same provisions were applied to the Western Shore (L. 1832-33, ch. 265). The necessity for these provisions was intimated in the preamble to the first one, as follows : Whereas the protection of oysters in the waters of this State is a subject in which the citizens thereof are deeply concerned, and the legislature of Maryland by sundry laws passed for that purpose have sought to secure the advantages resulting from that article of trade, which have fallen short of the object they were designed to accomplish; and Whereas the citizens of this and other States infesting said waters have continued to take and carry away oysters in violation of the laws upon this subject enacted; Eind it is justly apprehended that oysters in the waters of the State will be destroyed, not less by the immense number carried away than by the destructive implements used in taking them ; and Whereas the navigation of many creeks has been obstructed by the .citizens of this and other States by means of the heaps of the refuse thrown into the waters of said creeks in the process of picking [culling] the oysters for market, to the great injury of the good people of this State. * * * During the twenty -four years following 1830 few important changes were made in the regulations of the fishery, but it was an era of great development in the extent of the industry. The opposition to the transportation of oysters out of the State and the cost of doing so when that opposition was overcome induced a number of oyster marketmen from New England to establish shucking-houses in Baltimore for shipment of the Chesapeake stock throughout the country, and the increased demand naturally led to an extension of the fishery. The first of these houses was established in 1836 and others were started within a few years. In 1840 it was estimated that the quantity of oysters used by the shucking trade during the previous season amounted to 710,000 bushels, and there was a large addi- tional quantity consumed along the shores. During the years immediately following 1840 many of the large reefs in the Tangier region were discovered, resulting in a greater development of the fishery in that section. About 1846 the canning of oysters was begun and the extension of this branch of the trade rapidly increased the demand for the product of the reefs. In the meanwhile, however, additional restrictions were placed on the fishery, of which the following were the most important. In 1836 (L. 1835-36, ch. 216 and ch. 260) the catching or burning of oysters for purposes of fertilizing land was prohibited in portions of Dorchester and St. Mary counties, and in 1840 (L. 1839-40, ch. 103) the same practice was prohibited in Somerset County. By act of 1837-38, ch. 310, it was made unlawful for any person other than residents of the counties bordering on the same to catch oysters within 500 yards of low- water mark in any waters of the State, and in cases in which a creek or river is the divisional line between two counties the privilege of taking oysters therefrom belonged to the residents of those counties in common and to none others. By act of 1845-46, ch. 240, the catching of oysters in the waters of Worcester County between April 13 and September 1 of any year was interdicted, this being the first close season operative in Maryland and one of the earliest in America. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 211 In 1852 (ch. 57) the removal of empty shells from any oyster reefs in Worcester County for any purpose whatever was prohibited. These shells were generally manu- factured into lime. The quantity of small oysters and shells used from 1810 to 1860 for fertilizing purposes after being burned, or without that treatment, is surprisingly large. The oysters together with the empty shells and debris, or the “run of the rock,” could be purchased in large quantities for 2 to 4 cents per bushel, a tongman being able to catch from 40 to 100 bushels per day. The stock was of the same grade as now sells for 10 to 20 cents per bushel for planting purposes. The lime was worth from 3 to 8 cents per bushel, and was spread over the land sometimes as plentifully as 75 or 100 bushels to the acre. By this method of treatment large areas of land that produced nothing but June grass were made very productive by further cultivation. The use of oysters for this purpose continued in some localities of Maryland even as late as 1875, and it is stated on reliable authority that in 1873 oysters were sold at 2 cents per bushel in Talbot County for this use. In 1854 (L. 1854, ch. 4) a material change was effected in the fishery, and the use of the reefs of the State by the tongmen exclusively was modified by it being made lawful for citizens of Somerset County to take oysters with small dredges or scrapes in any of the waters of that county not part of a creek and not within 200 yards of the shore and not less than 21 feet deep. Before engaging in. scraping (as this form of oystering when prosecuted within the limits of a county is now designated) each vessel was required to obtain a license at a cost of $15, the revenue derived therefrom being applied to the school fund of the county. This was the first oyster license law operative in Maryland, and almost the first in America. The military operations in Maryland and Virginia from 1861 to 1865, and the consequent disorganization of the oyster trade, put a temporary check on the advance of the fishery. But the market demand for oysters increased, being due largely to the extension of the canning trade during that period, and consequently the prices ruled high, the average received by the oystermen in 1863-64 and 1864-65 being about 70 cents per bushel. This resulted in great prosperity to those fishermen who were successful in continuing their operations. From 1865 to 1893. — This period practically covers the time in which the industry has been of great extent and importance. The discontent among the oystermen of other counties at the special privilege enjoyed by the residents of Somerset under the act of 1854 (ch. 4), the high rate at which oysters were selling by reason of the recent military operations and the fact that (by means of tongs) oysters in depths of water greater than 23 feet could not readily be obtained, together with the great diffi- culty in enforcing the law then existing, led in 1865 (ch. 181) to a repeal of the entire body of the general law affecting the oyster industry and the enactment of another in lieu thereof, the general features of which have remained to the present time. The principal changes effected by the new law were as follows : It required that no person should engage in catching oysters within the waters of the State for pur- poses of sale with any implement whatever without first having obtained an annual license for the boat or vessel employed. For every boat engaged in tonging, the owner thereof was required to pay a license fee of $5. The fee for dredging was at the rate of $5 for each ton of measurement of the vessel employed, and the use of dredges was authorized only from September 1 to June 1, and within specified portions of the Chesapeake Bay. All license fees were to be paid into the State treasury, and no steamboat or steam machinery was permitted to be used in catching oysters. 212 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The scraping law previously operative in Somerset County was not affected by this enactment. The principal change effected in the provision of law authorizing the preemption of ground for the purpose of planting oysters or other shellfish was in increasing the limit of area obtainable by each individual owning land along the fore- shores from 1 to 5 acres. No provision was made for the preemption of planting lots by other persons, but this was remedied two years later. The procedures for the enforcement of the law afid the penalties for violations were fully defined. Among the former may be mentioned the granting of full powers of sheriff in enforcing the law to all persons employed on licensed vessels. During the first season in which, the license system was operative, 1865-66, the number of tonging boats licensed was 1,658, and of dredging vessels and boats 391. In that season, according to data furnished by the late Mr. C. S. Maltby, the catch by tongs amounted to 1,216,375 bushels, and by dredges and scrapes 3,663,125 bushels, making a total of 4,879,500 bushels. Since the license enactment of 1865 frequent changes have been made in the times, places, and methods in which the various branches of the fishery might be prosecuted, as well as in the amount of license fees required to be paid; - but detailed reference to these changes will be found in the discussion of the various branches of the oyster industry. The difficulty experienced in compelling some of the dredgers to obtain licenses and in preventing them from operating on interdicted areas led, in 1868, to the organ- ization of the State fishery force, consisting of a number of vessels, suitably armed and equipped with officers and men, to patrol the bay and tributaries in search of viola- tors of the oyster law and to arrest the same when found. The act providing for this force also prohibited the catching of oysters on Sunday, and in 1870 (ch. 364) the taking of oysters at night — that is, between sunset and sunrise — was also interdicted. But it was for many years difficult to prohibit this practice. In 1870 the use of scrapes was authorized, under very restricted conditions, in certain waters on the southern shore of Dorchester County, and in 1874 they were per- mitted on the northern shore of that county and in certain waters of Talbot County. By act of 1872 (ch. 131) an exception was made to the general license system of the State, and residents of Worcester County were exempted from its provisions; but in 1874 (ch. 77) the tongmen in that county were again required to obtain license, each man paying $3 therefor, the revenue thereby derived to be devoted to the purchase of seed oysters, to be planted in Sinepuxent Bay. In the last-named year (L. 1874, ch. 181) the first general close season on tonging was established, the exempted time being from May 1 to September 1. During several seasons following 1870 the catch of oysters ranged between 9,000,000 and 14,000,000 bushels. But from 1876 until 1881 the fishery was not so prosperous, either as regards the number of persons employed or the quantity and value of the products, the latter amounting in 1879-80 to 10,600,000 bushels, valued at $3,869,000. From 1882 until 1886 the fishery again increased largely in extent; but less pros- perous years following led, in 1890 (ch. 602), to the adoption of the famous “cull law,” which is generally admitted to be one of the best protective measures ever enacted, if properly enforced. Although cull laws have prevailed in portions of Europe, notably the English Channel, almost continuously since 1839, this has never been a popular THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 213 protective measure iu America, and iu ouly one or two States is a provision of this kind operative, Maryland being almost the first to attempt the enforcement of such a regulation; indeed, restrictions as to the size of the oysters to be taken are not now very popular abroad. The reason for this is that in most ot the other American States that have given attention to the oyster industry, as well as in the oyster- producing countries of Europe, the present regulations of the common fishery are auxiliary to the needs of the private or several fisheries, and the public-reef fishermen make no complaint, for they are thus enabled to market their small oysters among the planters. As even the smallest oysters caught in Maryland could be utilized in the steaming- houses of that State, or sold for bedding in other localities, the fishermen found a market for all they took from the water and did not attempt to carefully cull and return the small ones to the beds to increase in size for another season. A 1^-inch cull law had been enacted in 1886 (ch. 569) for the waters of Somers.et County, but the difficulty in enforcing a local law of this nature rendered it almost inoperative. The general cull law as operative at present is as follows : All oysters taken from any of the waters of this State (either with scoops, dredges, or any similar instruments, or tongs or rakes) shall be culled upon their natural bed or bar as taken, and all oyster shells, and oysters whose shells measure less than two and one-half inches in length, measuring from hinge to mouth, shall be included iu said culling and replaced upon said bed or bar as taken. This regulation required such a change in the practices of the oystermen who had been accustomed to market oysters of all sizes that it was at first regarded as a great hardship, and much difficulty was experienced in its enforcement, notwithstanding the fact that everyone recognized its value. In a letter to the Maryland Board of Public Works, which controls the State fishery force, the commander of that force wrote, under date of December 31, 1890, in reference to the cull law, as follows: At the last session of the legislature a hill was prepared and introduced, under the direction of the governor, which provided for a system of culling, so-as to have the young oysters left on the bars to furnish seed for a future supply, and this act is now about the only law which tends at all to relieve the bars from complete destruction. But the hill had a rider put upon it in the shape of an amendment that has about broken it down . The amendment provides for the ascertainment of the quantity of marketable oysters in a cargo by dumping 1 bushel in every 50, and in the end culling this “dump,” finding the percentage of shells and small oysters, and deducting this percentage from the full cargo. This percentage is never taken out; but, on the contrary, goes into the bins of the packers as so much clear gain to them. By this section the packers are in position of greatest benefit when the oysters are not culled, as they get all the culls free, and these have, in some instances, amounted to 300 bushels in a cargo of 1,200 bushels. I find all classes to agree with me in saying that the cull law should he vigorously enforced, and all as unanimous in both violating it and trying to screen violators from arrest by the fishery force. An attempt was made by act of 1892 (ch.. 278) to remedy the defects in the regula- tion of this provision, and, as it can be effectively enforced only at the oyster markets, provision was made for the appointment by the governor of one inspector at each of the wholesale ports, whose duty it is to properly enforce the cull law in his respective district. Their compensation, limited to $600 per annum, was to be derived from the imposition of a tax of one-tenth of 1 cent per bushel oh all oysters purchased by every wholesale or retail dealer. Many of the dealers, however, refused to pay this tax, alleging that it is irregular, and only about $2,500 was paid in 1892-93, notwith- standing the fact that 10,000,000 bushels of oysters were handled. But each year the 214 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. cull law is becoming more popular and better observed, and it is now considered more valuable as a protection to tbe common fishery than any other, if not all other oyster regulations of this State. The total oyster product of Maryland during the present century, not including such as have been used for lime, etc., or those caught by citizens of other States, has probably amounted to about 395,000,000 bushels, for which the oystermen have received about $125,000,000, but the value of which after passing through the hands of the marketmen, transportation agencies, etc., has probably been $250,000,000 or more, over four times as great as the total present valuation of taxable property in all the counties from which the fishery is prosecuted, not including the city of Baltimore. The largest catch during any one season was probably made in 1884-85, in which, according to the best estimates, the quantity obtained amounted to about 15,000,000 bushels. This large product was due to an excellent set obtained in 1883, the reefs in nearly all portions of the State being abundantly supplied. Judging from the records of a few oystermen and marketmen and from the number of men at work, as indicated by the license lists, there is reason to believe that the catch in 1874-75 was but little less than that of 1884-85, and, as the number of men oystering during that season was considerably less, the average catch per man was, of course, very much greater than in 1884-85. During the seasons 1885-86 and 1888-89 large catches were made, probably falling little short of the foregoing. The season 1890-91 showed a large decrease in the quantity of oysters taken, the dredging fleet suffering most. The oysters were scarce and the prices high, the profits to both oystermen and marketmen being small. The decrease may have been to some extent due to the destruction effected by the great freshets in 1889. Those beds near the mouths of rivers draining large areas are reported as having exhibited the greatest depletion. The Virginia reefs were in fairly good condition, so that, taking the high prices into consideration, the oystermen of that State reported it as one of the most profitable seasons they had enjoyed for many years. In 1891-92 the yield in Maryland was much better, the catch being 11,632,730 bushels, an increase of nearly 1,700,000 over the preceding season. This increased production was generally attributed to the effects of the cull law adopted in 1890 and the gradual recovery of the reefs from the destruction effected by the freshets of 1889. In 1892-93, except that the dredging fleet again fared badly, the fishery seemed to be in much the same condition as during the previous season. The oysters were larger and fatter, but scarce. Up to December 31 the receipts at Baltimore were 3,022,170 bushels, as against 3,013,600 bushels in 1891-92 and 2,349,140 bushels in 1890-91. During January and February unusually cold weather prevailed in the Chesa- peake region and the oyster fishery was almost stopped thereby. Thousands of boats and vessels were u frozen up” in the harbors and nearly all the shucking- houses were idle. The price for oysters in Baltimore ran up to $1.50 per bushel, this being higher than was ever before known at that port for standard-grade oysters. But as soon as the freeze was over the oystermen went to work and the season closed with a total catch of about 10,142,500 bushels, 1,490,230 bushels less than that of the preceding season. THE OYSTEE INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 215 THE OYSTER-GROUNDS. Tidal-water areas. — By numerous acts of the general assembly the tidal-water areas of Maryland have been divided into two classes, viz, those situated within the Small bays, sounds, rivers, and creeks, and known as the inshore or “county waters,” and those areas located in the Chesapeake Bay and Potomac River outside of the smaller bays and rivers and designated in this report the “State waters.” Of the 2,359 square miles * of tidal- water area of Maryland, 1,025 are situated within the limits of the counties, 976 in the Chesapeake Bay, and the remaining 358 square miles in the Potomac River, thus giving the “county waters” an area of 1,025 and the “ State waters” 1,334 square miles. The distinction between “county waters” and “State waters” is of much importance to those persons desirous of understanding the condition of affairs in Maryland, not only because different methods of oystering are prosecuted in each, but also because persons are not permitted to oyster in the waters of a county unless they are residents of that county, while citizens of any portion of the State may resort to the State grounds. The counties, however, have no title to the water area situated within their limits that would prevail against the State. Tonging, dredging, and scraping constitute the various methods of catching oysters practiced in Maryland. Excepting a few reserved areas of small extent on which no form of oyster fishery is permitted, tonging is authorized under certain restrictions and regulations as to persons, times, and methods in all Maryland waters. Dredging is permitted in the “State waters” only, and the use of a few shoal re’efs located therein is reserved from the dredgers for the use of the tongmen. Scraping, which is a modified form of dredging, is authorized only in portions of the waters of Somerset, Dorchester, and Talbot counties. Thus, of the 1,334 square miles of “ State waters,” 35, containing some of the best oyster reefs, are reserved for the tongmen, leaving 1,299 for the dredgers. And of the 1,025 square miles of “county waters,” 748 are reserved for the tongmen and 277 may be used by both tongmen and scrapemen. While the men using tongs are permitted under certain regulations to work on all the reefs in the State, yet the other methods of catching oysters are so much more successful that in most localities the permit is scarcely a privilege, and generally tongs are used only on reefs where dredges and scrapes may not be employed. The location of the boundary lines separating the “State waters” from the “county waters” has occupied much of the time of the general assembly and of the courts of the State. The distinction between these waters originated in an act of 1830 (L. 1829-30, ch. 87), which prohibited citizens of one county from catching oysters within 300 yards of low- water mark of either shore of any river or bay situated within the limits of another county. The original distinction has been repeatedly modified and amended since then, both by general and local enactments, but it would require too much space to give here a history of the location of these boundaries, and the accompanying chart fully indicates them as they exist at present. The following table exhibits in detail the tidal- water area of the State and the area on which each form of fishery may be prosecuted, the unit of measurement being the square statute mile. As tonging is authorized in all waters of the State, only such All miles referred to in this report are statute miles unless otherwise indicated. 216 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. areas are given under that caption as are exclusively reserved for that form of fishery. For purposes of comparison the land area of each of the 14 tide- water counties is noted in the last column. Tidal-water area of Maryland and area on which each form of fishery is authorized. * Prior to November, 1893, the scrapemen licensed to oyster in tbe waters of Talbot County claimed and exercised a right in common with the dredgers licensed by the State to catch oysters lying along the west side of Talbot County, between Black Walnut Point and Tilghman Point and extending to the middle of Chesapeake Bay and Eastern Bay along said line, excepting the waters in Poplar Island Narrows reserved for the tongmen. A decision of the circuit court for Anne Arundel County, made in October, 1893, restricts them, however, to the waters lying between Wade Point and Tilghman Point. An appeal has been taken to the court of appeals, in which the decision of the Anne Arundel court will be reviewed. In the above table the conditions prevailing at the present time have been considered. Natural reefs. — In the general acceptance of the term, natural oyster-ground is a place where oysters grow without special assistance from man and in sufficiently large quantities to induce the public to resort there for a living, but not a place where oysters have not during a term of years, usually accepted as ten, occurred in sufficient quantities to make it profitable to catch them, although they may there be planted and grown. The reason for so long a period of years is that occasionally, because of the fatalities of nature or on account of overfishing, certain areas may for several years be so impoverished that they can not be profitably worked, yet after a period of time they may, by the operations of nature, recover their former productiveness. The locations of oyster reefs are determined by physical conditions — the salinity of the water, the character of the bottom, and the food resources, all exercising important influences in qualifying a locality for the growth of these mollusks. In four-fifths of the water area of Maryland the salinity of the water and the food resources are adapted to the growth of oysters, but under natural conditions only a portion of the bottom of this area is suitable to sustain them. Hence, in this State, the condition of the bottom is a more prominent factor in determining the adaptability of a locality to the support of oyster beds than the saline constituents of the water. The oyster reefs at present existing in Maryland occur mainly on the sides of fhe channels in the Chesapeake Bay as well as its tributaries, and extend 'usually in the direction of the current. They are in greatest abundance at the mouths of estuaries THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 217 and in places where there are sadden changes in the depth of bottom, but are found in all depths of water from a few inches to 15 or more fathoms, and most plentifully where the depth is from 5 to 30 feet. The reefs extend in the Chesapeake Bay from the Virginia State line to Worton Point in Kent County, a distance of 110 miles; in the Potomac Biver from the mouth thereof to Maryland Point, in Charles County, a dis- tance of 65 miles, and in the tributary bays and rivers as far up as salt water flows. There are probably some oyster reefs in Maryland not yet known. The oystermen have no time to spend in search for them, and discoveries are made only by chance. Some of the known beds are not generally fished on, either because the oysters are too small, too much scattered, or because other and more accessible reefs produce the necessary supplies. Sometimes for a year or more a prominent reef is left almost untouched. Barely in recent years have any of the oystermen resorted to the reefs situated about Pool Island and north of Swan Point. The large reefs lying off Smith Island and Kedges Strait were not generally worked prior to 1880. Many localities in Maryland which were formerly productive are now barren; on the con- trary many places but recently barren are now producing in abundance. It was formerly stated that the Baltimore dredgers did “not know the way down the bay” in pleasantly referring to their obtaining the greater portion of their oysters above the Choptank Biver, while now the catch is obtained mostly from below that point. It has been frequently stated in newspapers and other publications that the oyster beds of Maryland are practically exhausted. The product during the last few years does not indicate that this is the case, nor do the beds appear to be in extreme danger of soon becoming exhausted. It is astonishing that they have for many years yielded so abundantly and yet are in such good condition as at present. Nevertheless the reefs are undoubtedly being fished to their fullest productive capacity under present regu- lations, except possibly those situated in tonging areas, but too deep for utilization by those implements, Compared with the condition of thirty- five years ago the area of the reefs has been very largely increased, but because of the very vigorous fishery to which they have been subjected the size of the oysters brought to market is less and the number left on the beds at the end of each season has very materially diminished. Occasional references are made to the former abundance of oysters around and even above Pool Island, where few are now caught, and to their occurring at the mouth of the Susquehanna Biver, where no oysters are now known to exist, as well as in many other places in the Chesapeake and tributaries, and their disappearance is pop- ularly attributed to the extensive and vigorous fishery prosecuted in those waters. But the true cause for the greater part of this destruction is probably the changes in the quantity of fresh water flowing into the bay and the increased volume of the spring freshets. Forty years and more ago the farms along the tributaries of the Ches- apeake were not so thoroughly cultivated as they are now, and the river and creek bottom lands were covered with timber. The more thorough cultivation of the farms, with the attendant system of ditching practiced in this section of the country and the clearing away of the timber, has caused a more rapid flow of the rain water and melted snow into the rivers and bays, which at times during the spring has freshened the water to a point beyond the endurance of the oysters. This is but one of the many adverse agencies with which oysters have to contend. No complete survey has yet been made of the oyster reefs of the State of Mary- land, in the absence of which the general understanding of the fishery can not be otherwise than imperfect and unsatisfactory, and very erroneous impressions exist as 218 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. to the extent, location, and condition of these reefs. In the attempt to supply to some extent this much-needed information, the writer, with the assistance of many persons engaged in the various branches of the oyster fishery and the able cooperation of Gen. Joseph B. Seth, sometime commander of the State fishery force, has ventured to approximate the area of the reefs known at present and to map their general location, the result of this work appearing in an appended table and on the chart accompanying this report. The total area of natural oyster-ground as developed by this review approximates 355 square miles, 144 being situated in “ State waters” and 211 square miles within “county waters”; but the total area covered with compact reefs probably does not exceed 135 square miles, the remaining part being more or less covered with scattered oysters. In 1870 Mr. Hunter Davidson, then in command of the fishery force of the State, estimated the area of the natural oyster-ground to be 373 square miles. It must not be understood, however, because the present approximation is 18 square miles less than that made 23 years ago, that a decrease in the area of the reefs has actually occurred, for tbe contrary is probably the case, and the apparent error is either in one of the estimates or because he adopted a different definition for natural beds than that herein accepted. Persons familiar with the difficulties encountered in the survey of natural oyster-grounds can readily understand why these estimates should differ, if the same definition of natural oyster- grounds has been accepted. It is extremely dif- ficult and almost impracticable to determine definitely and with accuracy the outlines and limits of the beds when the oysters are much scattered, as they frequently are on the outside borders of the bed, and arbitrary limits must be adopted. Should two thoroughly impartial and careful surveys be made, with suitable instruments, but a year apart, it is quite possible and even probable that a greater discrepancy would exist between them than is found in the present instance. Tbe Maryland oyster commission of 1884 approximated the area of the natural oyster- grounds at 193 square miles, not including the area situated within the Poto- mac Biver. But in their approximation the area in the Pocomoke and Tangier sound regions was estimated at 28 square miles, notwithstanding the fact that a careful sur- vey of those grounds made in 1878 and 1879 by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey disclosed the area to be at least 85 square (statute) miles. If this change be made in the figures for the Tangier and Pocomoke regions and the area of the beds in the Potomac Biver be added, it will give, according to the estimates of the Maryland com- mission, nearly 300 square miles as the area of the natural oyster-grounds of the State. The following table exhibits in detail, according to the present approximation, the area in square miles of the natural oyster-ground and the area in which each form of fishery may be prosecuted. As tonging is authorized on all the natural reefs in the State, only such area is here presented under that caption as is exclusively reserved for that form of fishery. The percentage of natural beds in both the tonging and dredging areas is very much reduced by there being several hundred square miles of area in each in which the salinity of the water is not adapted to the growth of oysters. As scraping is authorized only in three of the most productive estuaries, the percentage is naturally much higher than where the other forms of fishery are prosecuted. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 219 Natural oyster reefs of Maryland and area on which each form of fishery is authorized. No data are at hand to exhibit the extent to which these beds are at present stocked with oysters. The method by which information of this nature has usually been obtaiued has been to dredge over the reefs and compare the number of oysters secured with the area over which the dredge has passed. It is not a satisfactory pro- cess, the quantity of oysters obtained thereby fluctuating according to the condition of the weather and bottom, the form and speed of the vessel, length of drag rope, construction and general manipulation of the dredge, and the ability and conscientious accuracy of the person conducting the examination; and under no circumstances does the dredge catch all the oysters in its path. The report of the Maryland oyster commission of 1884 indicated as a result of their examinations in 1882 an average of 0.267 oysters to the square yard. But the catch during the following season is generally admitted to have amounted to at least 8,000,000 bushels or 2,000,000,000 oysters, an average of 1.89 oysters to the square yard, or according to the area of reefs as reported by that commission (193 miles), an average of 3.34. Probably less than 50 per cent of the number of oysters on the beds were caught during that season, indicating an average of at least 3.78 (or 6.68 if the area as reported by the Maryland commission be accepted) to the square yard. No recent examinations have been made for the entire bay to discover the number of oysters on the beds. While this is an excellent method for learning the prospects of a good fishery during the ensuing season, yet the number of oysters on the reefs is so dependent upon seasonal conditions and the attachment of “sets” during the two preceding summers that unless the examination be continued over a period of years it is not of great value for determining the condition of the industry. As will be seen on the accompanying chart, a very large portion of the oyster reefs in Maryland are situated on the Eastern Shore in the four great indentations, Tan- gier region, Clioptank River, Eastern Bay, and Chester River. On the Western Shore the prominent oyster localities are the Potomac and Patuxent rivers, and the “ West- ern Shore Bay grounds,” or those on the western bank of the Chesapeake from Pool 220 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Island to Point Lookout, including the Anne Arundel shore. The “ Eastern Shore Bay grounds,” which occur ou the eastern bank of the Chesapeake, and the Sinepux- ent or Chincoteague Bay grounds, located within the waters of Worcester County, complete the enumeration of the oyster-producing regions of the State. These localities differ in physical characteristics and produce oysters in some respects peculiar to themselves, which are readily recognized in the markets and com- mand varying prices; and while all, excepting the last named, are under the same general laws and regulations, certain local regulations affect each, and the industry in each differs to some extent from that of the others. Tangier and Pocomolce regions. — Because of their having been resorted to more extensively and for a greater length of time, the oyster reefs of Tangier and Pocomoke sounds are better known than those of any other part of the State. It was there that dredges were first extensively used in Maryland, which, according to the most reliable accounts, wasabout the beginning of the present century. And after the interdiction of that form of oystering in Maryland in 1820, the use of those implements was permitted in a large portion of those sounds eleven years before they were authorized in the “ State waters.” Tangier Sound extends north and south from the head of Fishing Bay to Watts Island, a distance of 40 miles, but only 32 miles of its length are situated within Mary- land limits. Including its tributaries, Annemessex, Manokin, Wicomico, FTanticoke, and smaller streams, and all the u county waters ” on the southern shore of Dorches- ter County, as well as the tributary channels, it covers within Maryland limits an area approximating 300 square miles, all of which is situated within the limits of Somerset, Wicomico, and Dorchester counties. The greatest recorded depth of water is 17 fathoms. In the channel it averages 9 fathoms and on the oyster beds it ranges from 3 to 40 feet. Almost throughout its length each side of the channel is lined with oyster reefs of greater or less extent. These reefs, somewhat scattered, extend through Hooper, Holland, and Kedges straits and between Smith and Tangier islands, as well as up the tributaries as far as the salinity of the water will permit. The area of the natural oyster-grounds in the Tangier region, including all the “county waters” on the southern shore of Dorchester, approximates 84 square miles, and the average annual product during the last five seasons was 3,400,000 bushels, valued at $1,625,000, this being an average of 40,476 bushels and $19,345 to the square mile. It is probable that fully three-fourths of this catch was obtained from the “ solid reefs,” which scarcely exceed 35 square miles in area, making an average product for that area of 72,857 bushels and $34,821 per square mile. From the origin of the fishery to the present time the total product of some areas situated in this region lias doubtless exceeded 3,000,000 bushels of oysters to the square mile. The Tangier oysters are ranked among the best obtained in Maryland. The shells are round and deep, but frequently exhibit the effects of the boring sponges. The oysters are usually fat, and many of them are marketed at fancy prices. The average size of those brought to market, however, is much less than it was twenty years ago. Scraping is authorized in the open waters of this region within portions of Som- erset and Dorchester counties, while the tributaries are reserved for the use of the tongmen. The area used by the scrapemen approximates 198 square miles and that reserved for the tongmen 102 square miles. The Pocomoke Sound oysters differ little from those of Tangier Sound. Prior to THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 221 the establishment of the boundary line between Maryland and Virginia in 1877, the Maryland oystermen worked as far south as Watts Island; but by the award of the boundary commission of the year noted only about 23 square miles of the area of this sound was left within Maryland limits, all of which is situated within Somerset County. The area of the natural oyster-grounds in the Maryland portion of this sound approximates 8 square miles and the annual product is about 250,000 bushels, valued at $ 150,000. Tonging is the only form of fishery authorized, scraping having been interdicted in 1880. The reefs extend up the Pocomoke Eiver a short distance beyond Old John Creek; while numerous, they are mostly of small area. In general the bottom is of mud, with sand or gravel near inshore. Apes Hole Creek, a tribu- tary of this sound, is a favorite locality for the planting of oysters, a practice which prevails to a limited extent in certain parts of Maryland. A- right to oyster in common in the “Pocomoke Eiver” exists between the citizens of Maryland and Virginia, this being admitted by both States. But a question exists as to where the river terminates and the sound begins. Citizens of Maryland claim that the mouth of the river is at the lower end of Sikes Island, but Virginians con- tend that it is at Williams Point, several miles above, and exercise exclusive jurisdic- tion to that point, leaving but a small area of reefs in common. Unfortunately this contention has not been without loss of life, and is still unsettled: The following interesting statements were made by Lieut. Francis Winslow, in writing of the general condition of the oyster reefs of Tangier and Pocomoke sounds after making an examination in 1878 and 1879: The general opinion [among the oystermen] is that about twenty or twenty-five years ago, with the improved appliances in use at present, one-third more oysters could haye been taken in the northern part of Tangier Sound than at present, from two to five times as many about Crisfield, and in Pocomoke Sound nearly seven times as many as at the present day ; that without any of the modern contrivances it was possible then for either tongers or dredgers to take many more in a day than at present. The general opinion of all persons in or about the sounds, with a very few exceptions, is that the beds are being worked much beyond their capacity and the majority are in favor of extending the close time” as a remedy for the deterioration. Many think that a resting time of a year or more would be beneficial. After tbe writing of tbe foregoing the fishery in each of these sounds continued to decrease until 1884-85, when the excellent set obtained in 1883 enabled the oystermen to gather a rich harvest. During that season and the one following, tongmen made during some days from $8 to $12. But much destruction was effected by thousands of bushels of oysters, having from 1 to 50 young ones attached to each individual, being sold at the shucking-houses. The reefs yielded very well again in 1891-92, but during the last season the oysters have been less abundant. Crisfield, Vienna, Whitehaven, Seaford (Delaware), and several smaller oyster- marketing ports, all combined utilizing aunually about 1,600,000 bushels, derive their chief supply from this region. GhoptanTc River. — This river is situated within Dorchester and Talbot counties, and, together with its tributaries, covers an area of 165 square miles. The depth of water ranges from a few inches to 13 fathoms, and averages from 10 to 40 feet. The bottom is mainly hard yellow and gray sand, with occasional layers of blue mud and sometimes clay, only a small portion of it being soft. The area of natural oyster- grounds situated in this river and its tributaries approximates 40 square miles, on 18 square miles of which the use of scrapes is authorized, the remaining area being reserved exclusively for the tongmen. 222 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The annual oyster product of the river and tributaries during the last five seasons has averaged about 1,750,000 bushels, for which the fishermen have received 1740,000, an average of 43,750 bushels and $18,500 to the square mile. The average quantity per square mile obtained in this region is greater than that of any other locality in Maryland, but the average value of the product per square mile is surpassed by the yield in the Patuxent and Tangier regions. The Choptank oysters are much smaller than those from the Tangier region and are among the cheapest obtained in Maryland. Large quantities of them are transported north each spring for planting purposes ; and it is reported that as late as 1879 vessels loaded with planting stock from this river at a cost not exceeding 5 cents per bushel, the oysters being, of course, unculled. The citizens of Dorchester and Talbot counties enjoy the exclusive use of the Choptank Eiver reefs in common, but those of the former county engage more extensively in oystering. The use of scrapes was first authorized in 1870, and since then a very great increase has taken place in the area of the oyster beds, and the shape of the oysters has become more uniform, rendering them more valuable from an economic standpoint. Two large oyster-marketing ports, Cambridge and Oxford, utilizing annually about 600,000 and 300,000 bushels, respectively, are located on this river. Eastern Bay. — Eastern Bay is situated largely within the counties of Talbot and Queen Anne, the remaining portion being a part of the “ State waters.” The area situated within “ county waters” approximates 73 square miles; and, of that portion situated within the limits of Talbot County, about 7 square miles are utilized by a scraping fleet, the remaining area being reserved for tonging. The greatest depth of water is about 10 fathoms, the average being from 12 to 20 feet. The area more or less thickly covered with natural oyster- grounds, which are much scattered, is about 26 square miles. The average annual product of that portion within “ county waters” is about 500,000 bushels, for which the oystermen receive about $250,000, an average of 19,230 bushels and $9,615 per square mile. The Eastern Bay oysters are somewhat larger than the Choptauks and are sold at almost as high a price as the Tangiers. The only wholesale oyster ports on the shore of this bay are St. Michael and Claiborne, which handle annually about 225,000 and 35,000 bushels, respectively, nearly all the rest of the catch going to Baltimore. Chester River. — This river, the northernmost and smallest of the four large coastal indentations on the Eastern Shore, is situated entirely within the counties of Kent and Queen Anne. The area approximates 68 square miles, being but little smaller than the “county water” area of Eastern Bay, and the area of the natural oyster- beds is about 17 square miles. While in one or two places in this river the depth of water is about 11 fathoms, few oyster- reefs exist where the depth is greater than 23 feet ; or if they exist they are little known and are of no value, as tonging only is authorized. As the oyster fishery in this estuary had not been sufficiently developed to warrant the use of dredges prior to the anti-dredging regulation of 1820, this form of oystering has never been legally prosecuted in these waters, but it has, during recent years, been a favorite locality for the operations of those dredgers willing to run risks in encroaching upon the areas reserved for the tongmen. The annual oyster product of the Chester Eiver approximates 450,000 bushels, for which the oystermen receive about $235,000, an average of 26,470 bushels and $13,823 for each square mile of reefs. There are no large wholesale oyster markets on the shores of this river and the catch is marketed mostly at Baltimore. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 223 Patuxent River. — In tlie Patuxent River the oyster reefs extend from the mouth to the southern border of Prince George County, a distance of 24 miles. It is reported that 25 years ago the reefs extended much further up the river than at present, and fossil shells have been found 45 miles from the mouth of the river, but it is reported that no oysters are now caught along the shores of Prince George County, although a few were taken in 1885 and 1886. The water in this river varies from a slight depth to 22 or more fathoms, the deepest water of the Chesapeake region occurring in this stream. Oysters are found in all depths wherever the bottom is suitable for their attachment. Dredging is not permitted in the Patuxent, and as the shaft tongs are not available for obtaining oysters from depths greater than 24 feet, a large number of “ deep-water tongs” are in use here, since the introduction of which the annual product from this river has increased. The water area of the Patuxent is about 46 square miles and the area of the natural oyster-grounds approximates 12 square miles, all of which are situated within the counties of Calvert, St. Mary, and Charles. The annual product of the reefs is about 500,000 bushels, for which the oystermen receive about $235,000, an average of 41,666 bushels and $19,583 to the square mile. The average value per square mile of the products from this river during the last five years has been greater than in any other tributary in the State, and the average quantity has been surpassed only by that from the Choptank River. These oysters are usually large and fat and are marketed at a price fully equal to the average for the State, nearly all of them being sold in Baltimore at prices ranging from 10 to 15 cents more than received by the fishermen. The practice of “laying down” oysters to await a favorable market prevails here more extensively than in any other part of the Chesapeake. Potomac River — The oyster fishery in this nveris more complicated, and presents more intricate problems for solution than that of any other locality in the State. The Maryland-Virginia boundary line has for over two hundred years been a subject for dispute between the two States. In 1877 this was settled by a board of arbitration so far as the boundary along the Potomac River is concerned; and in accordance with this settlement the southern border of Maryland extends not merely to the middle of the channel of the river separating the two States, but to the extreme low-water mark on the Virginia side of the main body of the river and from headland to headland at the mouths of creeks along the same shore. In 1785, while the boundary question was in dispute and before the adoption of the American Constitution, the States of Maryland and Virginia entered into articles of agreement for the regulation of commerce, navigation, and other industries of mutual interest. The fisheries were at that time of sufficient importance to receive consideration in this agreement, and one of the articles of the compact provided for a right of fishery in common to the citizens of the two States in the Potomac River and that in the regulation thereof neither State should enforce any law not approved by the other.* * A condition somewhat similar exists in the English Channel outside of the 3-mile limit, in the once important oyster fishery prosecuted by fishermen from France and England. Ever since 1839 con- vention acts have existed between those two countries regulating the fishery so far as the operations of their respective oystermen were concerned, but that fishery is prosecuted in the free sea, in which neither of those two countries has jurisdiction exclusive of others. 224 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The situation at present is as follows: Both Maryland and Virginia oystermen pursue their calling in any and every part of the river that they may choose outside of the tributaries. Even though operating side by side, the Maryland oystermen are supposed to work in accordance with Maryland laws, and those of Virginia comply with the statutes of that State, this being in accordance with the convention act of 1884 (ch. 76), which is now operative. The one pays $3 per ton license fee and the' other $1 per ton.* The one is expected to cull out and return all oysters under 2£ inches in length, while the other may take all he can catch, without regard to size. The result is that there is practically no culling regulation in the Potomac; and this has had a bad effect upon the enforcement of the cull law in other portions of Mary- land. This condition of affairs in the Potomac constitutes a serious obstacle to the proper enforcement of the oyster laws of the State. The license laws and the close- season regulations, however, are very generally observed in the Potomac. The area of this river from its mouth to the southern border of Prince George County is 358 square miles. In addition to this, the tributaries situated in the limits of St. Mary and Charles counties have an area of 37 and 21 square miles, respect- ively, in which only the tongmen of those respective counties are authorized to oyster, giving a total of 416 square miles. The area of oyster reefs approximates 42 square miles in the “State waters” and 7 in the tributaries situated within the “county waters.” The average annual product of these reefs is about 1,600,000 bushels, valued at $700,000, of which about 500,000 bushels are obtained by the oystermen of Virginia. About 150,000 bushels of these oysters are annually marketed at Washington, D. C., but the majority are sold at Baltimore. From this river come the famous “Kettle Bottoms,” the largest oysters produced in Maryland. “ Bay -shore grounds .” — The Bay-shore grounds are situated on each side of the Chesapeake Bay outside of the tributaries previously mentioned, and extend from Pool Island to the Potomac River on the Western Shore, and from Worton Point to Smith Island on the Eastern Shore. The reefs are found in all depths of water up to 45 feet, and are almost continuous along the shore, excepting in the northern portion of the bay, and in some places are 1| miles in width. The total area of these reefs approximates 116 square miles, of which 14 are situated within the county limits of Anne Arundel, which, together with 23 square miles located about Tally Point, Sandy Point, Hackett Point, Thomas Point, Holland Island Bar, Swan Point Bar, Plum Point, and Poplar Island, are reserved for the tongmen, leaving 79 square miles for the use of the dredgers. The annual product from these grounds during the last five seasons has averaged about 3,025,000 bushels, valued at $1,522,000, of which about 1,850,000 bushels, valued at $940,000, were obtained by the dredgers, and 1,175,000 bushels, valued at $582,500, by the tongmen. The oysters obtained from these reefs, particularly those caught by dredges from the Anne Arundel shore to Point Lookout, are among the finest in Maryland, and are usually sold at the highest market price, being nearly always large and fat. The product from the bay shores has fluctuated very much during the last eight years, during some seasons the quantity obtained being almost twice that of the succeeding year. This was true of the seasons 1888-89 and 1889-90, and the quantity obtained since the former season has been very light compared with the extent previously. Because of the depth of water and the extent of the area along the bay shores, the * The dredging license fee in Virginia is 50 cents per ton per month, but vessels in that State usually dredge only about two months each season. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 225 probabilities are greater for the discovery of new reefs there than in other parts of Maryland. Every few years new reefs of small extent are discovered and added to the productive area. Sinepuxent oyster-grounds. — These grounds, are situated on the ocean side of the State and within the limits of Worcester County. At present their area does not exceed 3 square miles, the annual product of which during recent years has averaged about 75,000 bushels. These oysters are rather small and are used mostly for planting purposes, nearly all of them being again bedded on the private areas in that county. At one time this bay was one of the important oyster-producing regions of Maryland, but at present the percentage of natural reefs to the total water area is less than in any other oyster-producing county in the State, being only about 3 per cent. The conditions of the oyster fishery in this county are totally different from those in the other counties in Maryland, no part of the regulations of the oyster industry of the Chesapeake Bay and tributaries applying to the waters of the Sinepuxent Bay. The history of the fishery here is unique and interesting. Dredges have never been used to any noticeable extent, if at all. From 1820 to 1844 the oysters were so abundant that many persons engaged in catching them to be burned into lime, which sold at from 4 to 8 cents per bushel. At present the only outlet into the ocean possessed by this bay is through Chincoteague Inlet, at the extreme lower end of Chin- coteague Bay. But during the period mentioned another and more convenient outlet existed. This was closed by natural causes about 1844, and the water in the bay gradually became so fresh and the bottom so covered with vegetable growth that the oysters were almost entirely destroyed except in the most favorable localities. Many efforts were made to retard the decrease by restricting the fishery. In 1846 a close time was established in the county from April 13 to September 1. In 1852 the removal of empty shells from the reefs for any purpose whatever was prohibited, and in 1861 it was required that only 10 bushels of oysters should be taken in any one week by each man, but this provision was operative only one year. The great scarcity continued until 1868, when a severe storm occurred in this region, producing an inlet in a narrow portion of the sand beach. The ocean water also flowed over the beach in other places and raised the water in the bay several feet, thus thoroughly scouring the bay by reason of its being very shallow. During the year following the one in which the storm occurred an excellent set of oysters was obtained. At the end of two years these were marketable and hundreds of persons were employed in tonging them, some making at times as much as $100 and over per week. Difficulty was experienced in obtaining farm hands all along the shores of the bay because of the great number employed in catching oysters. The carpenters left houses unfinished, the farmers their fields, and the country merchants their counters, to engage in obtaining a share of the bountiful harvest. It is probable that during some of the years following 1870 the product of the common fishery in this bay amounted to 800,000 or more bushels, ranging in value from 50 cents to $1 per bushel. At one time in 1872 over 40 vessels loading for northern markets were counted within sight of one point in the bay. But the inlet made by the storm closed up and the oysters gradually decreased in abundance. From 1881 to 1884 the oysters were again somewhat plentiful, but not by any means so abundant as in 1872. Since 1884 the quantity obtained annually from the public reefs has been small, the extensive trade now prosecuted in that bay being dependent on the planting business, which has been conducted there F. C. B., 1892—15 more 226 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. or less extensively since 1842. It seems probable that the opening of a new outlet for Sinepuxent Bay, which is now in contemplation, will have a beneficial effect on the productiveness of the natural oyster reefs. The data relative to the area and average annual product of these various locali- ties during the last five seasons are here summarized: Localities. Area. Average anu lual product. Average prod act per square jmile. Square miles. Bushels. Value. Bushels. Value. Pocomoke Sound 7 250, 000 $150, 000 31, 250 $18, 750 Tangier region 84 3, 400, 000 1. 625, 000 40, 476 19, 345 Choptank region 40 1, 750, 000 740, 000 43, 750 18, 500 Eastern Bay 26 500, 000 . 250, 000 19, 230 9, 615 Cheater River 17 450, 000 235, 000 26, 470 13, 823 Patuxent River 12 500, 000 235, 000 41, 666 19, 583 Potomac River 49 *1, 600, 000 700, 000 32, 653 14, 285 Bay shores 116 3, 025, 000 1, 522, 500 26, 077 13, 120 Sinepuxent Bay 3 175, 000 43, 500 25, 000 14, 500 Total Average 355 *11, 550, 000 5, 501, 000 32, 535 15, 495 *500,000 bushels obtained by Virginia oystermen. t In addition to this, 96,000 bushels, valued at $87,500, were marketed from the private areas in this hay. Of this oyster product, 4,850,000 bushels were obtained from tonging areas, 2,950,000 from dredging areas, and 3,250,000 bushels from scraping areas, not includ- ing the catch by Virginia oystermen. About 500,000 bushels ot the above-mentioned catch on scraping- grounds were obtained by dr edging- vessels working temporarily under a scraping license. TONGING. Historical notes. — During the early history of the industry in Maryland citizens of any county were permitted at their pleasure and without restriction to tong oysters in any waters situated within the State. While this branch of the fishery has con- tinued uninterruptedly from the origin of the industry until the present date, the places, times, and methods of its prosecution have been frequently modified. When the oystermen of 1820 were so much alarmed at a temporary decrease in the productiveness of the reefs that they interdicted in any part of the State the use of dredges, an increase naturally followed in the number of tongs employed. The apparent decrease in the productiveness of the reefs continuing, the general assembly enacted in 1830 (L. 1829-30, ch. 87) that the use of these implements having more than six teeth on a side should be prohibited, except in the deep waters of the Chesapeake Bay. But at the same session this act was repealed so far as it affected the waters of the Eastern Shore of the State (L. 1829-30, ch. 58), the restrictions against their use on the Western Shore remaining operative until 1834, although some difficulty was experienced in enforcing it during the two or three years immediately preceding its repeal. The enactments of 1829-30 (ch. 87) and 1835-36 (ch. 260) making a distinction between “county waters” and “State waters,” and prohibiting the citizens of one county from oystering in the waters of another county, affected to some extent the tonging industry by confining it closely to those counties having extensive reefs within their limits, THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 227 By act of 1845-46 (ch. 240) it was made unlawful for any person thereafter to tong oysters in the waters of Worcester County between April 13 and September 1 of any year, this being the first close season operative in any part of Maryland. In 1861 (ch. 57) this local close season was changed to May 1-September 1 ; and it was fur- ther required that before any person should engage in tonging in the said county he should obtain a written permit from all the acting justices of the peace in the district bordering Sinepuxent Bay, said permit to expire on April 30, annually, and to limit the quantity of oysters to be taken by any one man to 10 bushels per week; but at the following session this act was repealed (L. 1861-62, ch. 48). As tonging was the only method of catching oysters authorized from 1820 to 1854, the development in extent of this branch of the fishery is practically represented by the statistics of the early oyster industry as herein presented. The license system adopted in 1865 modified all tonging regulations and required, under a penalty of from $20 to $100, that before any person should engage in tonging oysters he should obtain from the clerk of the circuit court of the county of which he was a resident, and at a cost of $5, a license for each boat employed, the proceeds from the issuing of such licenses being paid into the treasury of the State. The license authorized the use of tongs from June 1 in any year to June 1 following and was to be renewed annually. It was further required that each boat licensed should be so numbered as to be readily identified. During 1865-66, the first season in which this act was operative, 1,658 boats were licensed, the amount of revenue derived by the State therefrom being $8,290, and the estimated quantity of oysters taken by these implements amounted to about 1,250,000 bushels. At the next session of the general assembly (L. 1867, ch. 184) the license fee for tonging was reduced from $5 to $4 per boat; and in 1868 (L. 1868, ch. 406) a graded rate was substituted as follows: Boats measuring 20 feet or less in length, $4; from 20 to 25 feet, $6; from 25 to 30 f et, $8; and all over 30 feet, $10 each. But in 1872 (ch. 167) the general fee was again changed, being reduced to exactly one-half of the preceding rates, and the new rates remained operative until 1892. A report relative to the extent of the tonging industry, made in 1870 by the com- mander of the fishery force, shows that in the season 1868-69 the number of boats licensed to tong was 1,907, and the catch amounted to 1,735,370 bushels, for which the oystermen received $607,380; and a similar report, made by the same officer in 1871, shows that in the season 1869-70 the number of boats was 1,647, the number of men operating them was 3,410, and the catch amounted to 2.043,075 bushels, valued at $715,076. From 1870 until 1875 this branch of the oyster industry was very pros- perous and good prices prevailed, the number of boats employed in 1872-73 being 950 more than in 1869-70. But following 1875 there was a large decrease in the extent of the fishery, both the quantity and value of the products being reduced. In the meanwhile the legal seasons and the methods of fishery were further restricted, the following being the more important of the regulations adopted: In 1870 (ch. 364) it was required that no license to take oysters with tongs should be issued in any part of the State to any boat or vessel licensed to catch oysters with dredges, scrapes, or similar instruments.' Prior to this enactment a number of boats obtained both dredging and tonging licenses with the purpose of using the dredges on areas on which those implements were unauthorized, it being difficult to prove, 228 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. even when a boat was apprehended on interdicted areas with wet oysters, that the same were not obtained by means of tongs. By act of 1872 (ch. 241) it was made unlawful for any person to remove oysters from the limits of Wicomico County between May 15 and September 1 of each year, and at the same session a new close season was established on the natural reefs in Worcester County, this time from June 1 to September 15 of each year, but the act requiring the tongmen in this county to obt ain license was at the same time repealed. But in 1874 (ch. 77) the tongmen of Worcester were again required to obtain licenses, the rate being fixed at $3 per man, which in 1876 was reduced to $1 per man, the revenue derived therefrom to be expended by the county commissioners in the pur- chase of seed oysters to be planted in the waters of that county. This act also changed the close season on the natural reefs in Worcester from June 1-September 15 to May 1- October 1 of each year; but this was again changed in 1880 to May 1-September 1, this being the present close season operative in that county. By act of 1874 (ch. 181) persons were prohibited from tonging oysters except for private use, or for the purpose of replanting or bedding in the State, or for sale to citizens of the county wherein they are caught or of the county next adjoining, between May 1 and September 1 in each year, this being the first attempt at estab- lishing a general close time on this branch of the industry. This act also required that all fees derived from issuing tonging licenses, except in Worcester County, should be devoted to the public schools of the respective counties wherein the licenses were issued, the sum received from white owners of licensed boats going to the support of the white schools and the sum from the colored owners to the colored schools. In 1880 (ch. 198) the general close time was increased fifteen days, being changed to April 15-September 1. As the close time established in 1874 did not interdict the taking of oysters for sale in the county where caught or in the adjoining county, the close time provided for in 1880 was practically the first general one operative on the tonging branch of the fishery. But this act permitted the taking of oysters during the interdicted time in quantities not exceeding 5 bushels per day for private use or for planting purposes, and when the courts were called upon to interpret this pro- vision they rendered decisions permitting the taking of unlimited quantities, so that the provision was effective only during a portion of one season. The proper remedy, however, was applied at the next session of the general assembly, and in 1886 (ch. 296) the length of the general close time was decreased for the first time since the adoption of the system, being changed from April 15-September 1 to April 24-September 1. Before the enforcement of the general close season on tonging, the men engaged in this fishery had a great advantage in the privilege to catch and bed oysters during the summer months and thus have a supply on hand for the winter markets. This privilege, however, was little appreciated and few persons took advantage of it. About this time there was introduced in Maryland an apparatus for catching oys- ters, commonly called “deep-water tongs,” of which there are a number of varieties. They all differ from the ordinary tongs in being much larger and heavier and have no shafts, being lifted by means of ropes and winders. They are much more injurious to the reefs than the ordinary tongs, but are employed with much success in places having too great a depth of water to permit the use of shaft tongs, the latter being the more effective implements in depths less than 24 feet. In 1888 (ch. 394) the use of these implements was prohibited in the waters of Talbot, Queen Anne, Dorchester, and THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 229 Anne Arundel counties, but numbers of them are yet employed in Calvert, St. Mary, and Somerset counties. In 1890 (eh. 333) an act local to Talbot, Queen Anne, and Kent counties was passed, providing that in those counties each man engaged in tonging or culling should be licensed, and not the boat, as was formerly the case, the fee being placed at $4 per man. The licensing of the tongmen instead of the boats had been practiced in Worcester County since 1874. This method worked so well in the three counties named, both in increasing the revenue and in enforcing the regulations of the fishery, that in 1892 (ch. 278) it was applied to all the counties of the State except Worcester, which retained its local license system of 1874. The new license fee was placed at $3.50 for each person engaged either in tonging or culling, of which 50 cents should go to the clerk of the circuit court by whom the license was issued, 30 cents to the oyster fund of the State, and the remaining $2.70 to the public schools of the county in which the license was granted; provided that boys under 15 years of age should not be required to obtain license, and that the county commissioners of any county should be authorized to give special permission to any women who have no visible means of support to take and catch oysters without further license. It must not be understood from the last-mentioned provision that a large number of women engage in tonging oysters in Maryland. On the contrary, there are not more than two or three it\ the entire State, and no special demand existed for this exception to the license regulations. The number of u boys under 15 years of age” employed on the tonging boats is quite large, there probably being an average of one to every six men. The boys cull the oysters as they are tonged ; this work is quite light and easily performed, except in cold or rough weather. The effect in the change in the license system and rate has been to double the revenue derived therefrom, as will be observed from the following table exhibiting by counties the revenue from this source during each of the last five seasons. The full effect is observed by comparing the total revenue in 1888-89 or 1889-90 with that in 1892-93, the seasons 1890-91 and 1891-92 not presenting a proper comparison, as the new system was then operative in only three counties, viz, Talbot, Queen Anne, and Kent. This great increase in the revenue has been effected notwithstanding a decrease in the number of men engaged in this branch of the fishery. Table exhibiting by counties the revenue received during the last Jive seasons from issuing tonging licenses. Counties. 1888-89. 1889-90. 1890-91. 1891-92. 1892-93. Total. Somerset $577. 00 $560. 00 $1, 158. 00 $1, 140. 00 $1, 911. 00 $5, 346. 50 Wicomico 1. 301. 00 1,399. 00 1, 530. 00 2, 271. 50 7, 861. 50 Dorchester 2, 835. 00 'S, 694. 00 3, 306. 00 - 2,799.00 5, 596. 50 18, 230. 50 Talbot 1, 626. 00 1,861. 00 4, 948. 00 2, 908. 00 4, 196. 50 15, 539. 50 Queen Anne 868. 00 1,129. 00 4, 148. 00 4, 256. 00 3, 286. 50 13, 687. 50 Kent 911. 50 1, 091. 00 3, 076. 00 3, 688. 00 3, 593. 50 12, 390. 00 Anne Arundel 1, 926. 00 1, 931. 00 2, 140. 00 1, 953. 00 3, 895. 50 11, 845. 50 Calvert 1, 527. 00 1, 666. 00 1, 863. 00 1, 891. 00 2, 828. 00 9, 775. 00 St. Mary 1, 638. 00 1, 828. 00 2. 180. 00 2, 192. 00 3, 944. 50 11, 782. 50 Charles 462. 00 476. 00 542. 00 431. 00 658. 00 2, 569. 00 Worcester* 110. 00 145! 00 183. 00 100. 00 172. 00 710. 00 Total 13, 811. 50 15, 741. 00 24, 943. 00 22,888.00 32,353.50 109,737.50 * License system unaffected by the general law. 230 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. By the aforementioned act of 1892 the general close time on tonging was chauged from April 21-September 1 to April 21-September 14. This increase in the length of the close season has been beneficial chiefly to the agricultural interests of the counties bordering the bay, due to the fact that an early opening of the oyster season makes it difficult to obtain laborers to assist in harvesting the farm produce. The following table exhibits in a condensed form the various geueral close times operative in the tonging branch of the oyster fishery since the adoption of the first one in 1874: Years operative. Close time. 1874-1879 May 1-Sept. 1. Apr. 15-Sept. 1. Apr. 24-Sept. 1. Apr. 21-Sept. 1. Apr. 21-Sept. 14. 1880-1885.. .. 1886-1889 1890-91 1892- In addition to the general close seasons, certain localities have had local close times differing therefrom as follows : Localities. Years operative. Close time. Worcester County 1846-1860.. Apr. 13-Sept. 1. 1861 May 1-Sept. 1. 1862-1871.. Apr. 13-Sept. 1. 1872-1873.. June 1-Sept. 15. 1874-1879.. May 1-Oet. 1. 1880- May 1-Sept. 1. Wicomico County 1872-1879.. May 15-Sept. 1. 1880-1885.. May 1-Sept. 30. 1886- Apr. 15-Sept. 30. Patuxent River 1870-1872.. Apr. 20-Oct. 10. Potomac River 1880-1884.. Apr. 1- Aug. 31. 1884- Apr. 15-Aug. 31. The present regulations respecting the licensing of tongmen are as follows: Any resident of this State desiring to catch or take oysters with rakes or tongs, for sale, in any of the waters of this State, shall first obtain, by application to the clerk of the circuit court for the county wherein he may reside, a license therefor, and such license shall have effect from the fifteenth day of September in any year in which it may have been obtained to the twentieth day of April, inclusive, next succeeding ; provided that such license shall not authorize the taking or catching of oysters in any creek, cove, river, inlet, bay, or sound within the limits of any county other than that wherein the license shall have been granted, and that the boundaries of the counties bordering on navi- gable waters shall be strictly construed so as not to permit the residents of either county to take or catch oysters beyond the middle of the dividing channel; provided that nothing in this section shall be so construed as to prevent the citizens of Queen Anne and Kent counties from using the waters of the Chester Eiver in common, or the citizens of Dorchester and Wicomico counties from using the waters of Nanticoke River in common, or the citizens of Queen Anne and Talbot counties from using the waters of Wye River and the mouth thereof in common, or the citizens of Dorchester and Talbot counties from using the waters of the Choptank River in common. Provided, however, that the county commissioners shall be authorized to give special permission to any woman who has no visible means of support to take and catch oysters without license. Provided also, that boys under fifteen years of age shall not be required to license. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 2B1 Each and every license to take or catch oysters for sale, with rakes or tongs, shall state the name, age, and residence of the person to whom the same is to be granted, the number, and the county in which the same is to be used, and every applicant for such license shall pay to the clerk of the court when such license may be granted and before the issuing and delivery of the same, the sum of $3, and also the sum of 50 cents as a fee to the clerk for issuing the same. Nine-tenths of the amount received from tongiug licenses shall be paid by the clerk to the school commissioners for the public schools in the respective counties where such licenses are issued ; the sum received from white tongers to go to the white schools, and the sum received from the colored tongers to go to the colored schools. Every applicant, for license to take or catch oysters with rakes or tongs shall be required to make oath or affirmation before the clerk authorized to issue the same, or some justice of the peace, on whose certificate of the taking of such oath or affirmation the clerk shall issue said license, that the facts set forth in said license are strictly true ; that he has been a bona-fide resident of the county for twelve months next preceding his application for said license; that he desires and intends to use said license in the county in which he resides, or the waters used in common, as hereinbefore provided in this article, and that he will comply with and obey all the laws of this State regulating the taking or catching of oysters. The comptroller of the treasury shall cause to be printed and delivered to the clerk of the circuit courts for the several counties the requisite number of such blank licenses and take receipts for the same as for other licenses furnished; and said clerk shall, on the first Monday of March and Decem- ber of each year, return to the comptroller a list and account of such licenses issued by them, and at the end of each tonging season shall return all unused licenses to him, and shall pay over to the comptroller one-tenth of the amount received by him for such licenses, which amount the said comptroller shall place to the credit of the “ oyster fund; ” and no license to take or catch oysters with rake or tong shall be used on any boat or vessel which is licensed to take or catch oysters with scoop, drag, dredge, or similar instrument, during the season for which such boat or vessel is licensed, and all licenses shall expire at the end of the season. If any person shall use any canoe or boat not licensed as required by the preceding sections of this article in taking or catching oysters with rakes or tongs, he shall, upon conviction thereof before a justice of the peace for the county wherein the offense has been committed, be fined not less than $20 nor more than $100 ; and in case of refusing to pay the said fine, said party shall be confined in the house of correction for a period of not less than three months nor more than one year, and in any such case the boat or vessel shall be forfeited, and may be condemned, in the discretion of the judge or justice of the peace. Making a careful calculation, it is found that the total product of the tonging branch of the common fishery since the beginning of the present century, not including the small stock used for lime or fertilizing purposes or those obtained by the citizens of other States, approximates 160,000,000 bushels, for which the tongmen have received about $47,000,000. Of this amount the estimated product since the adoption of the license system in 1865 is 100,000,000 bushels, valued at $32,000,000, leaving 60,000,000, valued at $15,000,000, as the catch from 1801 to 1864. The largest catch by means of tongs during any one season was doubtless in 1884^85, when 4,741 boats were licensed in the Chesapeake region alone, the product, according to the best estimates, amounting to about 6,500,000 bushels, valued at $2,375,000. But as the number of men oystering during that season was greater than ever before or since, the average catch per man was very much less than during some previous years. The total revenue derived from the issuing of tonging licenses since 1865 and to the close of the fiscal year 1893 amounts to $319,175.65 ; of this sum $173,316.50 has been received during the last ten years and $109,737.50 during the last five years. The following table exhibits the number of tonging licenses issued in each of the counties up to present date. It is proper to state that during certain seasons since 1876 many of the tongmen of Somerset County have refused to license. This has been due chiefly to the contention as to the right of oystering in common with the citizens of Virginia in the Pocomoke, and the Somerset tongmen, when feeling themselves especially aggrieved, have refused to pay the license fees. 232 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Table showing the number of longing licenses issued in Maryland during each season since 1865. [Figures in bold-face type indicate that licenses were issued to the men, in other instances the boats were licensed.] Tears. Somerset. Wicomico. P Talbot. Queen Anne. Kent. Anne Arundel. Calvert. St. Mary. Charles. £ Total number of boats. Total number of j men. 1865-66 267 89 243 212 116 117 162 1 139 229 19 65 1,658 1866-67 263 86 251 234 103 98 193 157 220 15 64 1,684 1867-68 234 92 220 241 146 84 218 183 284 21 80 1, 803 1868-69 246 110 • 257 246 105 93 222 189 336 22 81 1,907 1869-70 128 115 210 202 67 77 223 1 180 309 16 120 1, 647 1870-71 178 112 331 199 115 103 234 145 267 g (*) 1,692 1871-72 252 106 441 184 119 96 240 ' 146 220 12 (*) 1,816 1872-73 245 195 575 274 178 95 300 324 362 48 (*) 2, 596 1873-74 125 125 405 280 183 109 421 380 307 22 (*> 2, 357 1874-75 329 172 472 294 210 120 314 237 50 291 2, 523 291 1875-76 239 98 280 276 172 101 396 207 272 49 241 2, 090 241 1876-77 72 88 212 254 146 101 250 186 244 28 193 1, 581 193 1877-78 59 133 182 217 139 106 348 198 197 23 170 1, 602 170 1878-79 2 108 142 258 144 122 343 243 212 30 211 1, 604 211 1879-80 2 134 199 281 145 123 301 312 183 41 106 1, 721 106 1880-81 37 173 291 386 391 137 310 306 297 101 237 2, 429 237 1881-82 17 171 317 371 389 114 342 314 350 118 300 2, 503 360 1882-83 25 197 353 294 511 138 364’ 269 386 93 333 2, 630 333 1883-84 106 183 387 260 501 181 358 259 366 180 336 2,781 336 1884-85 756 296 696 457 648 250 407 392 663 176 153 4, 741 153 1885-86 536 300 736 453 263 267 456 367 618 136 62 4, 132 62 1886-87 317 344 742 430 248 245 472 317 610 130 97 3, 855 97 1887-88 207 340 839 450 251 262 512 359 582 112 126 3,914 126 1888-89 191 289 861 490 284 267 560 423 558 132 110 4, 055 110 1889-90 176 297 948 559 364 316 607 461 626 136 145 4, 490 145 1890-91 355 304 1, 003 1,237 1.112 769 650 521 757 155 1S3 3, 745 3,301 1891-92 330 333 933 727 1,004 862 615 531 759 122 100 3, 623 2.753 1892-93 546 649 1,699 1,199 939 741 1,113 808 1,127 188 172 9,081 *Tongmen exempt from license system. Area and location of grounds. — The water area within the county limits of Mary- land approximates 1,025 square miles. Tonging is permitted on all of this area except certain small places reserved for private use, yet as scraping is authorized in Som- erset, Dorchester, and Talbot counties on 112, 118, and 47 square miles, respectively, and as the tongmen do not usually work on grounds frequented by men using more effective apparatus, only 748 square miles of water area are devoted exclusively to their use. Of this the area more or less covered with natural oyster reefs approxi- mates 131 square miles. Of the 1,334 square miles of “ State grounds,” 35 square miles containing some of the best reefs are reserved for the tongmen, 23 miles of this area being covered with natural reefs. This gives a total of 154 square miles of oyster beds on which tonging alone is authorized. The average annual product from this area during the last five seasons has approximated 4,850,000 bushels, for wh oh the oystermen have received $2,200,000, an average of 31,493 bushels and $14,269 to the square mile. The reefs situated within the tonging areas are usually smaller in extent and not so continuous as those in the dredging and scraping areas. The ground is not so level, the oysters occurring more in heaps. These reefs are located principally along the Anne Arundel shore, in the Patuxent Eiver, Chester Eiver, Eastern Bay, and the small tributary waters of Choptank Eiver and Tangier Sound. They are all close in shore where the water is shallow, usually not exceeding 26 feet in depth, and averag- ing from 10 to 22 feet. In a few localities, however, as in the Patuxent Eiver, much greater depths are found; but in those places a form of tongs suitable for deep water is employed to some extent. Bull. U S. F. C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland. (To face page 233.) Plate LVII. 2=±= ' Feet CHESAPEAKE BAY CANOE. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 233 As the tonging reefs are situated in the inshore waters, where the dredging ves- sels harbor at night, and in the mouths of rivers and inlets directly in the path of navigation, the opportunities for dredging thereon without detection are great. On account of the exposed position of the dredging-grounds, situated in the deep waters off shore, the rough weather prevalent during the latter half of the oyster season prevents the dredging vessels from working more than three or four days in the week, and when not able to dredge they seek shelter in the coves and rivers with every temptation to take the oysters directly under them, resulting in the tonging reefs being not entirely free from their depredations. And at times, during periods of scarcity on the “State grounds,” certain “county grounds” have been openly and defiantly used by the dredgers, this being particularly noticeable in 1888 and 1889. However, these occurrences are not so common as is generally supposed, and during the last three or four years the quantity of oysters taken in this manner has prob- ably not been very large. It is proper to state that Maryland’s experience with the difficulties encountered in protecting reserved areas has not been peculiar, nearly all the extensive oyster-producing localities having suffered in this respect. Boats and apparatus. — Tonging is prosecuted with many forms of boats varying in size from 45 feet in length to such as are scarcely sufficient to float one man with a few bushels of oysters. The principal forms of craft employed are canoes, skiffs, bateaux, brogans, and sloops. These are built mostly on the shores of the Chesapeake and tributaries, the greater number being constructed by the oystermen who use them. Canoes are by far the most plentiful, and in some parts of Maryland the words canoe and tonging boat are synonymous. In the. early part of the present century, because of the cheapness of its manufacture, this was almost the only type of boat employed by the people of Maryland in the oyster industry ; and they had been in extensive use by the Indians before the settlement of the State. In reference to the canoes observed on the occasion of his visit to the Chesapeake Bay in 1609, John Smith says, in his well-known “Travels and Adventures”: Their fishing is much in Boats. These they make of one tree, by burning and scratching away the ceales with stones and shels till they have it in forme of a Trough. Some of them are an eln deep and fortie or fiftie foot in length, and some will beare 40 men, but the most ordinary are smaller, and will beare 10, 20, or 30, according to their bignesse. Instead of Oares, they use Paddles and sticks, with which they will row faster than our Barges. Canoes were originally made of pitch pine from a single log and were straight in the bow and pointed at both ends. The average size at present is about 20 feet in length, 4 feet wide across the gunwales, and 18 inches deep on the inside. Formerly large ones, 30 feet and more in length and 5 or 6 feet wide, were also made from one log. But as the number of large pitch-pine trees decreased, the size of the canoes was necessarily lessened. This finally led to the use of three, five, and seven logs in one boat, the different logs being joined to each other by wooden keys or iron bolts driven in edgewise. When three logs are used one forms the keel and the others form the sides. The large canoes generally have a short length of decking in the bow and sometimes a small house and usually a centerboard. The smaller ones carry only one mast with a triangular sail ; the larger ones have two masts with triangular sails and sometimes a jib. The cost of these canoes ranges from $60 to $600 each. Some of them last a very great length of time. The Martha Washington , 10.84 tons, was built in 1827 and is still doing service. The dimensions of this vessel are: length, 39 feet; breadth, 13.5 feet; depth, 4.8 feet. The number of skiffs, bateaux, brogans, and 234 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. sloops employed in tonging is not large; and as these boats are not peculiar to the oyster industry of the Chesapeake, but are of the same type as employed in the fish- eries of other localities, a description of them is unnecessary in this connection. The average number of vessels and boats employed in tonging during the last five seasons has been about 5,000, with a total valuation of $410,000. Of these, 60, valued at $30,000, measure over 5 tons. Generally the tonging boats are owned by the men using them; but in some instances a large number are owned by oyster marketmen and others who hire them at so much per day to the fishermen. The license system of 1892 has had a beneficial effect in encouraging the tongmen to own their boats. The oyster regulations do not authorize the issuing of tonging licenses to those boats having a scraping or dredging license. The tongs used in Maryland are probably larger than those employed elsewhere in America, excepting in the adjoiniug State, Yirginia. They have from ten to eighteen teeth on each side and the shafts are from 12 to 28 feetin length. The large ones are some- times improperly designated “rakes.” The tongs hold from one-half peck to three- fourths of a bushel of material, but as a large quantity of the rubbish of the oyster beds is also taken up at the same time, the number of oysters obtained at each lift is usually very much smaller. In the limits of Somerset, Calvert, and St. Mary counties, and along the bay shores, a number of “deep-water tongs” are employed. These have no shafts, but are much like two dredges joined together as shaft tongs are. They are hauled by ropes, the labor being generally lightened by the use of a small winder attached to the mast. These implements have been employed to a large extent only about eight years. The tongmen. — The crew of a boat engaged in tonging consists of from one to three persons, one of whom is frequently a boy, whose duty it is to attend to the culling, throwing the shells and small oysters back into the water. The total number of per- sons employed in this branch of the oyster fishery duringthe last five years has averaged about 11,000, of whom about 1,500 were boys. Usually the men in one boat work on shares, while the boys are employed on wages varying from 50 cents to $1.25 per day. One effect of the present or “ 1892 license regulation” has been to decrease the average number of persons tonging from one boat and to increase the number of boys employed in the fishery. The tongmen live near the shores adjacent to the reefs and are all citizens of Maryland, non-residents not being permitted to engage in this branch of the fishery. They are also mostly natives of the State, there probably not being 100 tongmen in the whole State not born and raised there, and about one-fourth of them are colored. All are not entirely dependent on oystering for support, the greater number engaging also in agricultural pursuits, while many of the remaining find occasional employment in the various industries of the bay counties. Most of them own small homes and an acre or so of ground, which constitutes a garden. There are few workmen in America more independent than these. At almost any time during the season a toiigman can in a good working day catch from 4 to 12 bushels of oysters, for which there is always a demand almost at his door. Then having suf- ficient to supply his temporary needs he usually takes things easy. While some are indolent and work only when compelled by necessity, yet as a class they compare favorably in industry and morals with any other body of men similarly situated. The annual incomes of the tongmen range from $100 to $800, averaging about THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 235 $225. They sell their catch to the neighboring market-houses or to the transportation vessels. Usually the men engaging in this fishery do not work therein more than about 125 or 140 days during the season, the rough weather interfering with their operations during the rest of the time. During September, October, and November, which are particularly pleasant months on the Chesapeake, they average about 20 days each month; but in January and February they work only about 5 to 15 days each, and occasionally during those two months they are compelled to remain ashore for weeks at a time. DREDGING. Historical notes. — The use of dredges in the oyster fishery of Maryland originated about the beginning of the present century. In the early history of the industry the small quantity of oysters required to supply local markets did not warrant the pur- chase of these implements, but as the demand increased the more efficient apparatus was brought into use, and dredges were soon employed in all the waters of the State in which oysters were obtained in large quantities for commercial purposes, this being confined mostly to the lower portions of the bay. But their use had long been regarded as destructive to the reefs, and the opposition to them dated from their intro- duction into these waters. The first oyster law of Maryland (L. 1820-21, ch. 24), passed December 22, 1820, was enacted to prohibit their employment in any part of the State, this enactment being preceded by the preamble given on page 209, which sets forth the reasons for adopting this extreme protective measure. This regulation, however, on account of the extensive area of water to be protected, could not be fully enforced. In the attempt to enforce compliance with its provisions each tide- water county took the matter in hand, and the sheriffs with their deputies and the posse comitatus frequently sallied forth, impressing sail and steam vessels into their service to arrest the offenders, but without accomplishing the desired result. The law, however, was frequently reenacted or amended with increased or more easily applied penalties, and from 1820 to 1865 the use of any form of dredges in catching oysters in Maryland waters was unlawful, except as affected by a local regulation enacted in 1854 authorizing the use of scrapes in the waters of Somerset County by the citizens thereof. The difficulty experienced in wholly preventing this mode of oystering and the doubt entertained by many persons as to the good policy and utility of such a pro- cedure, together with the need of revenue in the State treasury, led to the compromise of 1865 and the adoption of the license system. This system provided in reference to dredging as follows : The comptroller of the State treasury was required to issue a license to any applicant who had been for the twelve months immediately preceding a resident of the State, said license authoriz- ing him to use a vessel owned by him in catching oysters by means of dredges from September 1 to June 1 following, in each year, u within the waters of the Chesapeake Bay, and not within any other bay, river, creek, strait, or sound, and not on any oyster bed or rock on or about Tally Point, Sandy Point, Hackett Point, Thomas Point, or Three Sisters, on the western side of the Chesapeake Bay, and not within the Chesapeake Bay where the water is less than 15 feet deep.” The fee for the license was placed at $5 per ton, the license to be renewed annually. Steam was not per- mitted to be used in any manner in the catching of oysters, and all licensed vessels 236 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. were required to carry printed numbers on their sails in a particular manner so that they might thereby be easily identified. The State records show that during the first season after the adoption of this reg- ulation, the number of dredging licenses issued was 391, the amount of license money paid for these being $43,862.40. The first license to dredge oysters issued by the State was granted on August 1, 1865, to the Baltimore schooner Alice , 37.41 tons measurement. According to records furnished by the late Mr. 0. S. Maltby, the quantity of oysters taken by the dredging vessels amounted during that season to 3,663,125 bushels, including the catch made by the scraping vessels of Somerset County, which during that season was very small. As the scraping regulations of Somerset County, which had then been operative eleven years, had encouraged the building of a large number of vessels suitable for using dredges, a greater number of licenses were issued to residents of that county than any other. Almost an equal number of vessels owned at Baltimore, and which had been engaged in transporting oysters and farm produce, were also licensed. The vessels from Somerset County, having been built for use in Tangier Sound, were smaller than those from Baltimore, the average tonnage from the two places being 20.10 and 25.36, respectively, and the total number of vessels licensed in those two localities 189 and 154, respectively. The number of vessels licensed in that season from the other counties was only 48, with an average tonnage of 22.34 tons, making a total of 391 vessels and 8,772.48 tons. At the next session of the general assembly (L. 1867, ch. 184) the dredging regu- lations were somewhat modified, the principal changes consisting in a reduction in the license fee from $5 to $2 per ton and the adoption of other methods of enforcing the penalties for violations. By this act, in addition to the reefs mentioned in the act of 1865, the dredgers were prohibited from working on or about Holland Point bar and Plum Point; but the restriction against dredging in the Chesapeake Bay (the “State waters”) where the water is less than 15 feet deep was removed. In 1868 the license rate was again changed (L. 1868, ch. 406), this time to $3 per ton, at which it has remained to the present time. By this act, in addition to the reefs heretofore mentioned, Swan Point reefs were reserved from the dredgers. According to estimates furnished by Mr. Hunter Davidson, the commander of the fishery force from 1868 to 1872, the quantity of oysters taken by the dredgers and scrapemen combined in 1868-69 was 6,305,600 bushels; in 1869-70, 7,190,400 bushels; in 1870-71, 6,686,400 bushels, for which the fishermen received $2,216,960, $2,516,640, and $2,240,240, respectively. In 1870 (ch. 364) the close season on dredging was increased thirty days, being changed from June 1-August 31 to May 15-September 15; and by the act of 1874 (ch. 181) this was again increased thirty days, being placed at May 1-September 30. By the latter act the dredgers were further prohibited from working within one-fourth mile west of Poplar Island or on the valuable reefs between that island and the mainland, but as a concession the lower portion of Eastern Bay was thrown open to their use. By act of 1880 (ch. 198) the close time on dredging was increased forty-five days, being changed to April 1 -October 14, this being the close season operative at present, except that the close time in the Potomac River is from April 1 to October 31. In 1884 (ch. 518) it was required that the dredging license should expire at the end of the season instead of running for a year after date of issue, as was previously the case; and in 1886 vessels were permitted’ to obtain a license after the beginning of THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 237 the season at the rate of 50 cents per ton per month for the remainder of the season. The latter provision, however, was repealed in 1892. The regulations now governing the licensing of dredging vessels are as follows: The comptroller of the treasury shall, upon application of any person who has been a resident of this State for twelve consecutive months next preceding such application, issue a license to such resident, and to no other person, to employ such boat in taking or catching oysters with scoop, dredge, or similar instrument, within the waters of Chesapeake Bay, Potomac River, and in Eastern Bay, outside of a line drawn from the southwest corner of Kent Point to Wade Point ; Provided, That noth- ing herein contained shall authorize the taking or catching of oysters with scoop, dredge, or similar instrument, on any oyster bar within one and a half miles of Talley Point, Sandy Point, Hackett Point, Thomas Point, Holland Island Bar, and Three Sisters, nor within one and one-half miles of Holland Point Bar; nor of Swan Point Bar; nor between Poplar Island and the mainland of Talbot County, south of a line drawn from the north point of Poplar Island to Louis Point, on the mainland; nor north of a line drawn from the end of the south bar of Poplar Island to Paw Paw Cave, on Tilghman Island ; nor within one-fourth of a mile west of Poplar Island ; nor within one-half of a mile of 'Plum Point; nor within the boundary lines of any county, unless herein otherwise specified; which licenses shall hold good for one season only, and shall only authorize the catching of oysters between the fifteenth day of October and the first day of April, on which day the dredging season shall end and the license expire. The owner of such boat shall make oath before the comptroller, or his clerk, or if the owner be a resident of Baltimore City, he may make oath before the clerk of the court of common pleas, or if a resident of a county, he may make oath before the clerk of the circuit court -for said county, that he is the bona-fide owner of such boat, to be described in the license ; that he has been a resident of the Sta'te for the time hereinbefore prescribed ; that there is no lien on said boat held by a non-resident, directly or indirectly, and that the said boat is not held or shall not knowingly be used with an intention to violate or evade the provisions of this law; and such applicant shall produce before the comptroller at the time of making such application the certificate of the taking of such oath and the custom-house tonnage, which tonnage the owner shall swear to. The master of such boat shall also make oath before the comptroller, or his clerk, or, if a resident of Baltimore City, before the clerk of the court of common pleas, or before the clerk of the circuit court for the county wherein he may reside, that he has been a resident of this State for twelve months next preceding the time of taking such oath. Before granting such license the comptroller shall receive for it from the applicant at the rate of $3 per ton for every ton the boat may measure, and the license shall be exhibited whenever called for by any officer of this State. The comptroller shall have painted, in black figures on white canvas, two sets of numbers corre- sponding to the license to catch oysters with dredge or any other similar instrument ; each figure shall be 22 inches in length and of proportionate width, and the figures at least 6 inches apart ; and he shall give to each person taking out such license two numbers thereof, one of which shall be securely sewed upon the starboard side and in the middle of that part of the mainsail which is above the close-reef, and the other number on the port side in the middle part of the jib, which is above the bonnet and reef; these numbers shall be placed in an upright position, and worn at all times during the dredging season, and returned at the end of the season, and shall not be canceled or defaced; and no other number shall be exposed to view or used than that which is furnished by the comptroller. The penalties, which are fully defined in the statutes, are ample for the satisfac- tory enforcement of the regulations, dredging without license or on forbidden areas being punished with imprisonment of the captain from three to twelve months and a fine of $100 to $500 on the vessel employed. The use of steam vessels has never been permitted on the public reefs in Mary- land, and while at present there is no interdiction against the use of vessels pro- pelled by other artificial force, as electricity, etc., such a regulation would doubtless be adopted as soon as practicable were the use of such vessels attempted. At no time has there been in Maryland a restriction on the size of the vessels or the weight of the dredges used in the “State waters.” 238 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The close seasons operative in this branch of the fishery since 1865 are shown in the following condensed statement: Years. Close season. 1865-1869 June 1 to Aug. 31 May 15 to Sept. 15 May 1 to Sept. 30 April 1 to Oot. 14 1870-1873 1874-1879 1880 The following table exhibits, according to the State records, the number of dredging licenses issued in Maryland since the adoption of the license system: Table showing number of dredging licenses issued in Maryland. It will be observed that from 1878 to 1881 the number of licenses issued was much less than during the seasons immediately preceding and following. While it is true that a decrease did take place in the number of vessels dredging, yet it was scarcely so great as is indicated by the license list, and the decrease in the number of licenses issued was due to failure on the part of a number of the vessels to comply with the license regulations. This was largely due to the difficulty-of convicting illegal dredgers. Under the law of 1878, the wet oysters and ropes lying on deck were not sufficient to convict offenders, but it was necessary therefor that sworn statements should be made that the dredges were hauled and that oysters, and uot rocks or stones, were brought up thereby; but in 1880 this defect in the regulations was remedied. The largest annual product from this branch of the oyster fishery was probably obtained in 1873-74 or 1875-76, with 1884-85 and 1888-89 following close behind. The dredging-grounds. — The water area in Maryland on which this branch of the fishery is at present authorized approximates 1,300 squafe miles, of which about 121 square miles are covered more or less abundantly with natural oyster-reefs. The most valuable of these are located between Plum Point and Point Lookout on the Western Shore, on the Eastern Shore along Kent, Sharp, and Hooper islands, and on each side of the Potomac River. . In the early part of the season the dredging vessels usually work off Kent and Sharp islands, and later, as the oysters on those reefs become less plentiful, the beds lower down the bay are resorted to. The depth of water over the reefs varies from that scarcely sufficient to float the vessels down to 60 or more feet, but the average depth is from 15 to 30 feet. The mount of empty shells and debris on the beds amounts to something less than 1 bushel to every bushel of oysters. About 42 square miles of the natural reefs are located in the Potomac River, and are resorted to also by the oystermen of Virginia, who take therefrom about 500,000 bushels annually. The annual product obtained by Maryland oystermen from all the dredge reefs situated in “State waters” Bull. U. S. F. C 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland. (To face page 239. Plate LVIII. t$c.ezX& ™Fcct. CHESAPEAKE BAY BUG-EYE. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 239 during the last five seasons has averaged 2,950,000 bushels, valued at $1,450,000, an average of 24,386 bushels and $11,990 to the square mile. About 200 of the dredging vessels work also under the scraping law in the “ county waters” of Somerset, Dor- chester, and Talbot counties, and catch therein annually about 500,000 bushels in addi- tion to the foregoing. The oysters obtained by the dredging vessels are generally larger and command better prices than those obtained from the tonging or scraping areas. But the condi- tion of the dredging-ground during the last four years has not been as satisfactory as that of the tonging and scraping grounds. The implements and vessels are more effective, and the quantity of oysters left on the reefs has been growing smaller each year. On a number of the once prominent reefs profitable oystering has not been found for several years. This is true of the Western Shore from the “Steps” down to Cove Point, and to some extent of the “Lumps” and the Kent shore. The boundaries of the dredging areas as defined by law must necessarily consist of imaginary lines, for the great extent of the water area of Maryland has up to the present time rendered a resort to buoying or similar indications too expensive for adoption. This fact, together with the frequent necessity for the dredging vessels to enter the small tributaries for harbor protection and other purposes, makes it prac- ticable for the vessels, particularly upon dark nights or foggy days, to take oysters from areas outside of their authorized limits. It is quite difficult to convict offenders and even then suitable punishment is not always certain. The number of the dredging captains, however, who make a practice of oystering outside of their prescribed limits is small; but as long as the inducements to dredge on forbidden grounds is greater than the punishment therefor, some of the dredgers can not be prohibited from catch- ing oysters from such reefs as yield them the greatest returns. Dredging vessels and boats. — Distinct and peculiar classes of vessels and boats, long celebrated for their speed and beauty, have been evolved in the Chesapeake Bay for use in dredging. These range in size from the smallest craft barely able to carry two men with the small quantity of oysters they may catch in one day to large schooners 75 feet in length and measuring 70 tons, with a carrying capacity of 3,000 bushels. The value ranges from $80 to $7,000 each, and averages about $900, the tonnage averaging 20.76 in 1892-93. The largest vessel that has engaged in dredging during the last two or three seasons is the A. H. Shultz , of Baltimore, the length of which is 74.4 feet, breadth 23.5 feet, depth 7.4 feet, and tonnage 71.20, with a crew of 12 men. The types of vessels employed in this branch of the oyster industry consist of bug-eyes, schooners, pungies, and large canoes and sloops. The bug-eye, which is peculiar to the Chesapeake, is a development of the canoe, from which it differs chiefly in having a sharp prow, from a peculiar feature of which it derives its name, and in being decked over from end to end with suitable hatchways and without bulwarks. The large bug-eyes can not be made of logs, but must be framed and planked. They range in length from 25 to 75 feet and in cost from $300 to $2,500, and carry from 50 to 1,800 bushels of oysters. The schooners and large sloops do not differ materially from those employed along other portions of the Atlantic coast. Pungies are similar to the schooners, the chief difference being in the former having a fuller bow and sharper stern than the latter, facilitating the rapid tackings desirable in dredging across the oyster reefs. During the summer many of these vessels find employment in transporting farm produce and other commodities obtained or utilized along the shores of the bay. 240 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The following exhibit shows the number of the various types of vessels and boats employed in dredging during the season 1892-93 : Types. No. Sloops ! 32 Canoes, etc 91 Bug-eyes, schooners, and pungies 596 Total 719 The vessels and boats hailing from the Eastern Shore are generally in part or entirely owned by their respective captains, but the greater number of the Baltimore vessels are owned by merchants, commission sellers, etc. Of the 719 vessels and boats engaged in dredging during the last season, 1892-93, 324 were owned in whole or in large part by the captains in command of them. The following tabular statement exhibits the number of owners of the vessels licensed to dredge in 1892-93, with their respective holdings : Classification of owners. No. of No. of vessels. Men owning 1 vessel 296 296 2 vessels 76 152 3 vessels 34 102 4 vessels 18 72 5 vessels 7 35 6 vessels ' 3 18 9 vessels 1 10 vessels - - 1 10 12 vessels 1 12 13 vessels 1 13 Totals 438 j 719 j This statement shows that 4 men own 44 vessels, or one-sixteenth of the total number; 66 men own 271, or three-eighths of the total; and 142 men own 423, or tliree-flfths of the total dredging vessels and boats employed. The following table, exhibiting for each county the number of dredging vessels and boats in each tonnage grade, is of interest, especially to persons desirous of effecting a tonnage limit on the vessels operating in the u State waters.7’ Table exhibiting by counties the tonnage grade of vessels engaged in dredging in 1891-92. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 241 The average ‘‘length of life” of a dredging vessel is about thirty-live years. As this braneh of the oyster fishery has been prosecuted less than that time, and as the number of vessels built each year indicates in a general way the prosperity of the fishery, the following table is presented, showing the years in which were built the vessels and boats employed in 1891-92 : Table showing the years in which were built the vessels dredging in 1891-92. This table shows that from 1875 to 1879 and from 1885 to 1892 the inducements to build dredging vessels and boats were much less than during the periods immediately preceding, the number built during these thirteen years being an average of 16 per year, while from 1870 to 1874 and from 1880 to 1884 the average number each year was 29. In 1890-91 the oldest vessel engaged in dredging was the Intrepid, 32.16 tons, which was built in 1810 and is doubtless the oldest vessel in America. The Juvenile , 32.39 tons, the Halcyon , 17.02 tons, and the William Washington , 18.98, built, respect- ively, in 1827, 1835, and .1836, ranked next in the order of age. During the next season the Intrepid left the business to younger and more speedy boats, but the Juvenile and Halcyon remained in the fishery during that season and also in 1892-93. For the purpose of exhibiting the distribution of the dredging vessels and boats the following table is presented, showing the number hailing from each county during the seasons noted : F. C. B. 1892—16 242 BULLETIN OE THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Apparatus and methods. — Each vessel engaged in dredging oysters in Maryland is provided with two dredges and two “winders” or windlasses for hauling the same, excepting that the very small boats employed have only one dredge and one windlass. The average weight of the dredge is about 100 pounds, no restriction on the size having ever been made in this State. They range in width from 2 to 4 feet, with from 8 to 18 teeth, the greater number of them being 3 feet wide, with 12 to 14 teeth. The “winders” are securely fastened to the deck of the vessel about midship, one being located on each side. Opposite these and on the gunwales are placed rollers 3 or 4 feet in length to facilitate the lifting of the dredges. The average value of the dredges, winders, rollers, chains, and lines on each vessel is about $100. The winders employed on the better class of the vessels in the Chesapeake are so constructed that if the dredge should catch on some obstruction on the bottom the drum is automatically thrown out of gearing and the dredge rope allowed to run out. The vessel is controlled by the captain, who remains aft in order to attend to the steering and manage the sails; the mate, when one is carried, stands midship direct- ing the manipulations of the dredges, which are lifted by the winders, operated by the common hands. The vessel is usually worked with the wind, and may dredge length- wise or across the reefs. It requires from one to four weeks to obtain a load of oysters, the catch averaging from 20 to 80 bushels per day. Most of the vessels transport their catch to market, but some remain down the bay for months and sell their catch to the “buy” or transportation vessels. As they move from reef to reef, according to the condition and abundance of the oysters, frequently from 50 to 200 vessels may be sighted at work in a single locality. It is reported that the provisions used on the vessels are much better now than formerly, both in quantity and quality. The cost for an average-size vessel is now about $40 for a trip lasting three weeks. Probably no question of ecouomic importance connected with the fisheries has led to more dispute or to a wider difference of opinion among rival theorists and practical fishermen both of America and Europe than that relative to the effects of dredging upon oyster beds. The use of these implements beyond the productive powers of the reefs, when no provision is made for replacing breeding oysters thereon, is injurious ; but the same is true of any other form of apparatus. Dredges may also injure some of the oys- THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 243 ters by tearing them open or crushing them, but the number thus destroyed is probably not large on those beds operated on year after year. The oyster-culturists of New York and Connecticut find it to their advantage to use dredges many times the weight of those employed in Maryland. The use of these implements merely to stir up the oyster beds j ust prior to the spawning season, and thus to some extent clean the shells on the bed for the ‘ attachment of spat, is of much value. But after the spawning season the use of heavy implements is certainly injurious until the shells of the young- oysters have acquired sufficient strength to resist being crushed by their action. Men on dredging vessels. — The crew of a dredging vessel usually consists of the captain, mate, cook, and from two to nine common hands, according to the size of the craft. The captains are all citizens of the State, and the greater number of them are married and have homes in Baltimore or “down the bay.” They are usually possessed of a little means and have a social standing in their local communities. Many of those residing in the counties have farms, to which their attention is devoted when not afloat. Others during the close season engage in the transportation of wood, farm produce, etc. Away from the Chesapeake the Maryland dredging captains are regarded as a reckless and lawless class of men. This does these men a great injustice; they are as peacefully disposed as the generality of mankind, engaged in a lawful and useful occupation, and obey the statutes as fully as the oystermen of any other State. But it is not surprising that out of 800 dredging captains there should be a few reckless and unprincipled persons, for this is generally the case in every other vocation. The mate or chief assistant is generally a man younger than the captain, from the same locality, and usually expects within a few years to be in full command of an oyster vessel. As to the remaining members of the crew, some small vessels from the counties obtain men from the localities in which the vessels are owned or in which the captains live; but the great majority of vessels employ an entirely different class of men, who are in no sense baymen and to whom the dredging of oysters is frequently an episode rather than a pursuit. They have no peculiar knowledge oftlie business, being required merely to turn the winders that lift the dredges and to cull the oysters after they are brought on deck. So great discredit has been brought upon this branch of labor that none but the most destitute persons can be induced to do the work, and in order to man some of the vessels at times it is necessary to resort to means that strongly resemble impressment and violence. Very few of these men have homes ; they come to Maryland at the opening of the dredging season from all parts of the country, without money and almost without clothes, being driven to the city to seek work by reason of the stress of weather. They usually hire out by the trip, which may last from ten to forty days, at a rate varying from $8 to $18 and provisions. The captain of the vessel does not bargain with the men and frequently does not know of whom his crew consists until he is ready to proceed on the trip. There are persons in Baltimore who make a business of furnishing men for the vessels. They have small rooms in which are quartered the men seeking the work or whom they may have induced to accept of it. When these labor brokers receive an order to fur- nish a vessel with a certain number of men, they see that the men are properly on board, and for this service collect $2 for each man obtained, this fee being paid by the captain and afterwards deducted from the compensation of the laborer. The laborers are advanced a small sum of money, usually about one-fourth of the total wages, for 244 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. the purchase of clothing, especially oilskins, and such other things as they may desire. Less than 12 per cent of these common hands are natives of Maryland, and many are unable to speak the English language. From the statements given by each man at the offices of the shipping commissioners in Baltimore, in 1892, I have learned the nativity of 2.438 of them, this being exhibited in the following tabular statement: Nativity of common hands on Maryland dredging vessels in 1892. United States. No. of men. ; Foreign countries. No. of Maryland 292 Germany 461 Pennsylvania 257 Ireland 427 New York 226 England 112 Virginia 89 Poland 62 Massachusetts 66 Russia 46 New Jersey 42 Scotland 45 Connecticut 34 Austria 36 Illinois 23 British Provinces 18 District of Columbia 14 Sweden 17 Ohio 13 France 15 Georgia 10 Switzerland 14 Delaware Denmark 11 Michigan 7 Spain 8 Rhode Island 6 Norway 8 California 5 Africa 5 Wisconsin 5 Italy 3 Alabama 5 2 Maine 4 Holland 2 Kentucky 4 Wales 2 North Carolina 3 “At sea” 1 New Hampshire 3 Texas Vermont 1 South Carolina 1 Tennessee 1 Colorado 1 West Virginia 1 Total, United States 1, 143 Total, foreign countries 1,295 While this does not exhibit the total number of men shipped during that season, yet the total proportionate representation from the various States and countries does not materially differ from that here presented. The fact is here disclosed that less than one-half of these men are natives of the United States and less than 12 per cent are natives of Maryland, each of two foreign countries supplying many more men than that State. It should be observed that while it required only 1,964 persons to man the 221 vessels hailing from Baltimore city in 1891-92, yet the number of men shipped on those vessels during that season was much greater. This is due to the fact that many men made only one trip and others but two or three. Prior to going on a trip these men are required to sign articles of agreement before certain officers, and from these papers it has been learned that out of a total of 992 men shipped during one month in 1 892 only 413, or 43 per cent, were able to write their names. Of those born in America only 25 per cent were able to write, and of the foreign-born 55 per cent were similarly situated. The reason for the proportion of illiterate men being so much greater among Americans than among those of foreign birth is that many immigrants of fair education readily accept of this labor, while as a rule only the most destitute Americans resort to it. During the same season one vessel was manned by a crew of 9 men, representing 6 nationalities, and not one of the persons on board, including .the captain, was born in America, only 3 were able to converse in English, and not one Avas able to read or write in any language. This, however, was very exceptional. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 245 The following data, furnished by Surgeon-General Wyman of the XT. S. Marine Hospital Service, showing the nature and extent of the accidents to which these men are subjected, are here presented. In estimating the value of these figures it should be remembered that Baltimore is but one of many ports of relief for Chesapeake Bay, and that if records were obtained from Crisfield, Cambridge, Oxford, Annapolis, Washington, and other points, the figures would be much larger. Only surgical cases are included in the list, no computation having been made of the number of cases of pneumonia, pleurisy, and rheumatism brought into hospital from the oyster vessels. Summary of surgical cases from oyster vessels treated in hospital by the U. S. Marine Hospital Service at Baltimore, Md., in winters of 1882-83 and of 1883-84. Character of injuries. Fractures caused by crank handles of winders foreign bodies falls on slippery decks, etc Dislocation caused by crank handle Frozen extremities “ Oyster-shell hands ” Wounds contused and lacerated caused by falls foreign bodies . - crank handles . . 20 7 14 1 50 30 16 19 15 Total fractures, 41 cases with 72 broken bones. Total surgical cases treated in hospital, 193. In addition to the foregoing a large number of cases were treated at the dispensary without being sent to hospital. The ‘ 1 oyster-shell hand ” is a severe inflammation caused by wound and poisoning from the oyster shells. The hand appears as if affected by a huge felon, and deep and free lancing is necessary in its treatment. The tendons and bones are often exposed and loss of one or more fingers sometimes results. Much has been said about the brutality of the dredging captains and the severe treatment to which they subject their crews. But the captains are not wholly respon- sible for the sufferings of these men; as a rule they, as most other employers of labor, are humane and considerate of those in their service. Proof of this is found in the fact that when the men get in trouble on shore they frequently send to the captain of a vessel for relief, and some men return year after year to seek employment on the vessels. While in the aggregate the number of cases of harsh treatment may seem large, yet such is not the case when consideration is taken of the number of men employed and their entire unsuitability for the work. They are so unaccustomed to discipline that the exercise of that authority necessary on board of a vessel unavoid- ably produces some unpleasantness between the captain and the men. The very nature of the occupation, working upon slippery decks in freezing weather, together with the unskilled ability of these men, results in much suffering, for which the cap- tain is in no sense blamable and for which, because of the financial interests involved if nothing else, his regret is second only to that of the unfortunate member of his crew. And when one investigates the life of these men when on shore and compares it with that led while on a dredging trip the natural inference is that in many instances the latter is the more comfortable, and that not infrequently the men are better off when on the bay than they are in the city. The vessel-owners recognize the injury that the employment of this class of labor is doing to the reputation of their business and they would gladly welcome a change in the grade of men they employ. The payment of higher wages would of course secure better men, but the present profits of the fishery and the active competition with one another, which have produced this condition, will not admit of a few paying higher wages without concerted action, and that seems impracticable. Many methods 246 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. of State regulations for effecting tlie desired result have been suggested, few of which have been considered of sufficient practical value for adoption. The most noticeable effort to improve the condition of these men was made by act of 1888 (ch. 513), which provides for the appointment by the governor of a number of “ shipping commissioners” in Baltimore and the large ports down the bay, whose duty it is to supervise the engaging of employes on vessels measuring over 10 tons, except such men as work on shares and residents of the county where the crew is shipped, the word “county” not applying to Baltimore City. These men are required to super- intend both the engagement and discharge of the laborers, drawing up the contracts and seeing that they are fully complied with, receiving therefor a fee of 50 cents for each man shipped and 25 cents for each man discharged, one-half of these fees being deducted from the wages of the laborer and the remaining half being paid by the captain. Financial results. — The profitableness of the dredging industry varies much from year to year, according to the prices of oysters and their abundance on the beds to which this branch of the fishery is confined. In general it is not so profitable now as it was twenty years ago. On account of the large number of vessels engaged the marketable oysters are mostly secured during the first few months of the season, and the vessels do not find it profitable to work as late in the year as they formerly did, a large number of them during the last few seasons leaving this branch of the business about Christmas. The length of time now required to obtain a cargo is also greater than formerly, this now being fifteen to twenty-five days, whereas eighteen and twenty years ago a cargo could usually be secured in a week or ten days. This, of course, reduces the profits very materially, and the books of the vessel-owners indicate that after paying all expenses, including wear and tear on the vessels, the profits are not very great, and vessel property of this class is now comparatively cheap in the Chesapeake. If the vessel be not owned by the captain, the latter, with very few exceptions, runs it on shares, the arrangement being sometimes as follows : Out of the bill of sale are paid the wages, food bill, expenses of sale of oysters, etc., and from what is left the captain receives 40 per cent and the vessel-owner 60 per cent. A more frequent method is for the owner of the vessel to receive one-third of the value of the catch and the captain to take the balance and pay all expenses. Many other forms of agreement exist. These ordinarily net the captain from $35 to $85 per montli, according to the abundance and prices of oysters. The mate and the cook ship on wages, varying from $15 to $25 per month, with board. The common hands are usually paid by the trip at rates varying from $8 to $18, according to the abundance of employes and the ability of the men secured. The number of men available for this work appears to be smaller each year, and as a consequence the wages are increasing somewhat. In 1890-91 the average per trip was $13.69, and in 1891-92 it was $14.43, these figures representing the condition for the fleet. The better class of common hands ship by the month, at rates varying from $12 to $25, but the number of such men is small. On a few vessels from the counties the laborers work on shares, the agreements usually being as follows : The provision bill, commission sellers’ charges, and similar expenses are first paid, then the owner of the vessel receives one-third of the balance and the captain receives a bonus of $15 to $25, after which the captain and members of the crew share alike. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 247 SCRAPING. Historical notes. — The expression “scraping” is here applied to the taking or catching of oysters by means of a scrape or dredge within the waters of a county, “dredging” being applied to the same form of fishery when prosecuted in the “State waters.” It is termed scraping from the fact that the vessels used are generally much smaller than those employed in the “ State waters,” and consequently must employ lighter dredges, which are known as scrapes. This branch of the oyster industry is prosecuted only in certain portions of three counties of the State, viz, Somerset, Dorchester, and Talbot. It originated in Somerset in 1854, eleven years before dredg- ing was authorized in “ State waters.” Sixteen years later the use of scrapes was authorized on the southern shore of Dorchester County, and in 1874 on the northern shore of that county and in portions of Talbot. The regulations permitting the use of scrapes in Somerset (L. 1854, ch. 4) author- ized any citizen of that county, after obtaining a license therefor, to use a vessel owned in the county to “catch oysters with a scrape or drag in any of the waters of said county, not parcel of any creek or river, not within 200 yards distance from the shore, and in waters not less than 21 feet deep.” The license, which was issued by the clerk of the circuit court, was operative for one year without close season, and cost $15 for each vessel, all moneys arising therefrom being paid into the school fund of the county, excepting 50 cents for each license, which went to the issuing clerk as his fee. As a large portion of Tangier Sound is situated within the limits of Somerset, this act opened to the use of the scrapemen a large area of very valuable oyster-ground. By the act of 1867 (ch. 129) the restriction against scraping in Somerset within less than 200 yards of the shore and in waters less than 21 feet deep was removed, and the license fee was reduced from $15 to $10. But this act also required that before receiving a license to scrape oysters the applicant should obtain from the comptroller of the State treasury a dredging license, in accordance with the general license law of the State, which had then been in force for two years, and it was made unlawful for anyone to scrape for oysters in any creek, cove, or inlet, or during the period in which dredging was interdicted in the bay, viz, June 1-September 1. Prior to 1877 the oystermen of Somerset enjoyed the privilege of scraping in a large portion of Pocomoke Sound, but after the award of the boundary commission of that year their operations were confined to the Maryland side of the new line, giving them only 23 square miles of area on the Pocomoke side of the county. In 1880 (ch. 445) the use of scrapes in this portion of the Pocomoke Sound was prohibited. In 1884 the annual rate required to be paid for scraping licenses in this county was changed from $10 each vessel to $2 per ton of measurement, and it was further required that only such vessels as measured over 10 tons should obtain a State license before being licensed to use scrapes. In 1886 (ch. 489) the scraping license fee was reduced to $1 per ton and in the same year the close time was changed to April 1- September 30. By act of 1890 (ch. 629) the general assembly authorized an election to be held on May 13 of that year, in certain districts of Somerset, to decide whether to prohibit scraping in the waters of that county. The vote was favorable to the interdiction, but the courts decided that the procedure.was irregular. The scraping law operative on the southern shore of Dorchester County originated in 1870 (ch. 129), sixteen years after the privilege was first enjoyed in Somerset County. 248 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. This law required the clerk of the circuit court of Dorchester to issue licenses to boats and vessels owned by citizens of that county, authorizing them to use scrapes in certain waters on the southern shore thereof between October 1 and April 30 in each year. It was required that the licensed boat should not exceed 5 tons measurement, and the license fees were established as follows : For every boat measuring less than 20 feet in length the sum of $5; from 20 to 25 feet, the sum of $8; from 25 to 30 feet, $10, and all over 30 feet in length the sum of $20, the revenue derived therefrom being- paid into the State treasury. In 1872 (ch. 181) it was required that the license fees thereafter should be paid into the treasury of the county school fund. In 1874 (ch. 214) the scraping law for southern Dorchester was modified, the principal changes being in raising the limit of measurement of the craft employed from 5 to 10 tons, changing the license fee to $3 per ton, and in not permitting scraping within 200 yards of the shore, nor from May 1 to September 14. But in 1878 the license fee was reduced to $2 per ton, and soon thereafter all boats measuring under 5 tons were required to pay a fee of $8 each, without regard to their actual measure- ment. In 1882 (ch. 327) the close time for scraping in these waters was changed from May 1-September 14 to April 1-September 30, and in 1892 (ch. 278) it was again changed to March 1-September 30. The law authorizing scraping within certain limits of Talbot County, and which is common to that county and the northern shore of Dorchester County, originated in an act of 1874 (ch. 437) authorizing any twelve-month resident of either county to obtain a license permitting him to catch oysters from September 15 to April 30, by means of scrapes, in certain waters of those two counties. The license was obtainable from the clerk of the circuit court for the county of which the applicant was a resi- dent, and no provision was made for licensing vessels measuring over 10 tons. The fee was placed at $3 per ton, the revenue derived therefrom being devoted to the school fund of the county in which the license was issued. In 1876 (eh. 405) the scraping season was changed to September 15-May 31, and in 1878 (ch. 359) the license fee was reduced to $2 per ton. By act of 1884 (ch. 468) all boats measuring less than 5 tons were required to pay $8 license fee, without reference to their actual measure- ment, and the scraping season in the waters referred to was changed to October 1- March 31, it being again changed in 1892 (ch. 278) to October 1-March 1. The following statement exhibits in a condensed form the close seasons that have been operative in scraping in each of the three counties in which this form of fishery is authorized : Somerset. Dorchester, southern shore. Dorchester, northern shore, and Talbot. Years. Close seasons. Years. Close seasons. Years. Close seasons. 1854-66 1870-73 May 1-Sept. 30 j May 1-Sept. 15 Apr. 1-Sept. 30 Mar. 1-Oct. 30 1874-75 May 1-Sept. 14 June 1-Sept. 14 Apr. 1-Sept. 30 Mar. l-Sept. 30 1867 85 1886-93 June l-Sept. 1 Apr. 1-Sept. 30 1 1874-81 1882 91 1 1892-93 1876 83 1884-91 1892-93 The following table shows, so far as practicable, the number of scraping licenses issued in each county since the origin of this branch of the fishery. Much search THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 249 has been made to find the record for Somerset from 1854 to 1869, but without success. With this exception, the list is complete: Table showing number of scraping licenses issued in Maryland. Season. Somer- set. Dor- chester. Talbot. Total. Season. Somer- set. Dor- chester. Talbot. Total. isfio no 283 283 1881-82 173 153 83 409 1870-71 359 125 484 278 177 64 519 1871-72 453 130 583 1883 84 218 64 544 1872-73 276 132 408 1884-85 469 310 100 879 1873-74 224 106 330 370 402 897 1874-75 322 149 59 530 1 428 334 93 855 1875-76 209 180 40 429 1887 88 337 373 85 795 1876-77 165 142 47 354 1888 89 262 433 85 780 1877-78 59 142 27 1889 90 356 502 105 963 1878-70 151 157 34 342 1890-93 632 550 116 1,298 1879-80... . 57 134 29 220 1891-92 640 582 78 1, 300 1880-81 292 148 30 470 1892-93 647 483 102 1,232 Owing to a defect in the law operative at that time, a number of Somerset scrape- men from 1877 to 1880 engaged in this fishery without a license, and while the fore- going figures embrace all the licensed boats and vessels, it does not for those years include all that engaged in scraping. The defect was remedied in 1880, and since then there has been little, if any, difference between the number of boats licensed and the number actually at work. The following table exhibits, by counties, the amount of fees paid for scraping licenses during each of the last five seasons : License fees paid for scraping from 1889 to 1893. Seasons. Somerset. Dorchester. Talbot. Total. 1888-89 $1,807. 31 $5, 222. 52 $1, 344. 46 $8, 374. 29 1889-90 2, 540. 83 6, 211. 26 1, 688. 34 10, 440. 43 1890-91 6. 786. 20 6, 584. 75 1, 806. 00 15, 176. 95 1891-92 4, 463. 01 7? 937. 00 1, 267. 92 13, 667. 93 1892-93 5, 205. 22 6, 468. 30 1, 660. 22 13,333.74 Total 20, 802. 57 32, 423. 83 7, 766. 94 60, 993. 34 Annual average 4, 160. 51 6, 484. 76 1, 553. 39 12, 198. 67 Grounds , area, etc. — The total water area of the counties in which scraping is authorized is 510 square miles, and the area used by the scrapemen 277, of which the area more or less covered with natural oyster-ground approximates 80 square miles. The following tabular statement exhibits these data for each of the three counties : Counties. Water area. Scraping area. Reefs in scraping Somerset Sq. miles . 183 207 120 Sq. miles. 112 118 47 Sq. miles. 39 26 15 Dorchester Talbot Total 510 277 80 The depth of water over these reefs averages about 32 feet, although in isolated places it may attain 100 feet. The general condition of the reefs in the three estuaries in which this fishery is prosecuted, viz, Tangier Sound, Choptank Eiver, and Eastern Bay, has already been noted (see pp. 220-226). During the last five seasons the scraping 250 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. areas have been in much better condition than the dredging-grounds, this being par- ticularly true of the Choptank River, and they are naturally more productive than the tonging areas. During the last eight years no branch of the oyster fishery has been more prosperous than this, and its extent during the last four seasons has been far greater than ever before. The average annual product of all the scraping-grounds of the State during the last five seasons has been about 3,250,000 bushels, an average of 40,625 bushels to the square mile. Of this amount about 500,000 or more bushels annually have been obtained by dredging vessels working at the time under scraping licenses. Boats and vessels. — The boats and vessels employed in scraping number about 1,250, all of which are propelled by means of sail. They comprise the various types utilized in the tonging and dredging branches of the oyster fishery. As a general thing they are larger than those used in tonging and smaller than those engaged in dredging. The total value of those in use in 1892-93 approximated $650,000. In Talbot and Dorchester counties no vessels measuring over 10 tons are permitted to engage in this branch of the oyster industry, while in Somerset no restrictions are placed upon the size of the vessels employed, and nearly one-fifth are over 10 tons measurement. The average size of the craft in the two former counties is about 7 tons, and in Somerset it is 8.07 tons. The number of vessels engaged in scraping in this county in 1892-93 and measuring over 10 tons was 119, the tonnage of which was 2,087.23, an average of 17.53 to the vessel; and the number under 10 tons was 528, the tonnage of which was 3,117.99, an average of 5.91. Each one of the vessels measuring over 10 tons was required to obtain license to dredge in “ State waters,” in addition to their county scraping license, before being authorized to scrape in the waters of Som- erset. The largest vessel engaged in this branch of the fishery in that county in 1892-93 was the Edna Earl, which measured 40.76 tons. The limit on the size of the vessels permitted to scrape in Dorchester and Talbot counties has had a peculiar effect on the size and model of those employed, the dimen. sions, which largely increase *the tonnage of the vessel under the present form of measurement, as depth and breadth, being reduced as much as practicable. And it is stated that' resort is also had to “dunnage” and other methods for reducing the measurement within the legal limit, and that vessels are employed in those counties which if built upon ordinary lines and models would measure 12 or even 15 tons. The same complaint with respect to “dunnage,” etc., prevails to a certain extent in Somerset, for while no limit is placed upon the size of the vessels permitted to be used in that county, yet if the vessel measures over 10 tons it is required to obtain, in addition to the scraping license, a State dredging license at the rate of $3 per ton. This, however, gives them also the privilege of dredging in the “State waters,” which is of value when the reefs therein are producing more abundantly than the county reefs. In order to dredge in the “State waters” a number of the scraping vessels under 10 tons also during certain seasons obtain a dredging license. In 1891-92 the number of vessels doing this from Somerset v as 80, from Dorchester 22, and from Talbot 9. These, together with the Somerset vessels measuring over 10 tons, make a total of about 220 of the 1,250 scraping boats and vessels employed also in dredging. The scrapemen. — Except on the large vessels owned in Somerset County, the men employed on the boats and vessels engaged in the scraping branch of the oyster fishery are quite similar in characteristics and social standing to the tongmen. They mostly reside in houses along the shores of the waters where they operate. Some THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 251 of them during the close seasons engage also in farming or in other industries pros- ecuted in their native counties, which give opportunity for a few days’ employment at odd times. They usually return to their homes every night and their boats do not frequently leave the waters in which they work, the catch being either delivered at the adjacent marketing houses or sold to the transporting vessels. The men employed on the large vessels from Somerset County differ in little respect from those engaged in dredging, and are subject to the same regulations with reference to employment as provided by act of 1888. ch. 513. OYSTER-CULTURE IN MARYLAND. Historical notes. — The various modes by which the natural oyster-reefs in Mary- land are being utilized have been discussed, and the attempts that have been made to utilize the barren areas now remain to be described. Little in this line has been done in Maryland, and that little has been almost entirely confined to the bedding or plant- ing of small oysters on a few restricted areas and with much uncertainty of harvesting a crop. Innumerable efforts have been made to enact a system of regulations prop- erly authorizing and encouraging ostreiculture, but these efforts have fallen far short of their aim. The experience in Maryland in this respect has not been peculiar, for the course of ostreiculture has never run smooth. The very first operations in this line of which we have any knowledge met with opposition from persons who considered them an encroachment upon public customs. These operations were prosecuted iu Borne about two thousand years ago, and Pliny, who wrote much concerning oysters, makes the following reference to them : The first person who formed artificial oyster beds ( ostrearium vivoria) was Sergius Orata, who established them at Baiae in the time of L. Crassus, the orator, just before the Marsia war ( oir . B. C. 95). This was done by him, not for the gratification of gastronomy, but of avarice, as he contrived to make a large income by this exercise of his ingenuity. * * * jje was the first to adjudge the preeminence for delicacy of flavor to the oysters of Lake Lucrinus, for every kind of aquatic animal is superior in one place to what it is in another. * * * The British shores had not as yet sent their supplies at the time when Orata thus ennobled the Lucrine oysters. At a later period, however, it was thought worth while to transport oysters all the way from Brundisium, at the very extremity of Italy ; and in order that there might exist no rivalry between the two flavors a plan has been recently hit upon of feeding the oysters of Brundisium in Lake Lucrinus, famished as they must naturally be after so long a journey. * A certain Gonsidius thought, however, that Orata was encroaching too much on public property in his operations on the shores of the lake, and the latter was com- pelled to resort to the courts to defend his created industry. It is apparent that the early legislators of Maryland had some conception of the possibilities of extending the oyster industry by encouraging private enterprise in planting, for the legislation on this subject dates back to 1830, this being the third State of the Union to recognize private ownership in planted oysters. This recogni- tion was provided in an act dated February 16, 1830 (L. 1829-30, ch. 87). This act, the groundwork of all subsequent legislation in Maryland on this sub- ject, was in substance as follows :« Any citizen of the State was authorized under cer- tain regulations to appropriate in any of the bays or creeks situated within the county of which he was a resident an area or areas, not exceeding 1 acre in extent, for his exclusive use in planting or growing oysters or other shellfish, the said location to * Nat. Hist., vol. vi, p. 469, ed. Bolin. 252 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. be not an oyster bed and to be distinctly defined by stakes or other proper marks, and to be described under oath, said description to be recorded in the office of the clerk of the circuit court of the county. The right to the location ceased on the failure of the preemptor to each year deposit thereon “ sufficient oysters or other shellfish to preserve the growth of the bed.” The owner of lands bordering a creek not exceeding 100 yards in width was also given exclusive right to use the same for a similar pur- pose; and the unauthorized removal of oysters from any of these preempted areas was declared a misdemeanor. While New Jersey and Rhode Island were in point of time ahead of Maryland in authorizing the planting of oysters, yet the regulations adopted by the latter conform more to the present recognition of the needs of a planting industry. The following list of dates showing the time of the recognition or granting by legislative enactment in each of the United States of some form of private right in planted oysters is of interest : Rank. State. Date. Reference. 1 i New Jersey 1820, June 9 L. 1820. 2 Rhode Island 1827, October l! 1827,' ch. 5. 3 Maryland 1830, February 16 L. 1829-30, ch. 87. 4 Connecticut 1842, June 10 L. 1842, ch. 38. 5 Massachusetts 1845, March 17 Private L. 1845, ch. 138. 6 South Carolina 1847, December 17 ... . L. 1847-48, ch. 3024. 7 Delaware 1849, February 28 L. 1849, ch. 414. 8 Virginia 1849, March 16 L. 1848-49, ch. 125. 9 Maine 1849, August 15 L. 1849, ch. 142. 10 California 1852, April 28 L. 1851-52, ch. 117. 11 Georgia 1856, February 18 L. 1855-56, ch. 8. 12 Mississippi 1856, March 11 L. 1856-57, ch. 95. 13 New York 1859, April 18 L. 1859, ch. 468. 14 Oregon 1862, September 27 L. 1862. 15 Alabama 1872, February 28 L. 1871-72, ch. 28. 16 Washington 1873, November 5 L. 1873. 17 Texas 1879, March 8 L. 1879, ch. 28. 18 Florida 1881, January 29 L. 1881, ch. 3615. 19 North Carolina 1 1883, March 9 L. 1883, ch. 332, 20 Louisiana 1886’ JUly8 L. 1886, ch. 106. There are official records in many of the Maryland counties, and particularly in Somerset, indicating that some of the residents immediately availed themselves of the privilege of preempting planting-grounds, but no data exist to show that the planting attained any commercial extent. In 1842 (L. 1841-42, ch. 270) further provision was made for oyster-planting in this State, and citizens owning lands lying on any navigable waters, the lines of which included any cove or portion of such waters not navigable by licensed vessels, were given absolute right to all deposits of oysters or other shellfish that might be made by them thereon, and by act of 1846 the provisions of this law were extended so as to cover navigable waters similarly situated. In 1843 (L. 1842-43, ch. 4) an act local to Worcester County was passed authorizing any resident of that county to preempt 2 acres of ground in Parker Bay, situated within the limits of Worcester County, and after having said area properly surveyed and the notice of preemption recorded among the county records, to hold the same for planting oysters or other shellfish for a period of five years from the date of the act; and persons unlawfully removing oysters from such preempted areas were guilty of theft. But in 1845 (L. 1844-45, ch. 163) the foregoing act was repealed and in 1846 (L. 1845-46, ch. 40) an enactment was passed identical to the one of 1843, except that the limit of preemption was fixed at one acre instead of two. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 253 The act of 1865 (ch. 161), by which was adopted the oyster-license system, affected to some extent the planting' regulations by increasing the limit of preemption to 5 acres, but it required the preemptor to be a resident land-owner. Thus each of the three provisions authorizing persons to plant oysters required the preemptor to be the owner of lands on the foreshores. But in 1867 the provision authorizing the pre- emption of 5-acre lots was extended (taking effect January 1, 1868) to any citizen without reference to his ownership of lands bordering the water. As the regulations expressly forbade the preemption of natural reefs, many loca- tions after being planted on at much expense were, even after a lapse of two or three years, claimed by the oystermen to be natural beds, and were thereupon thrown open for the use of the public. This resulted in some hardships and in much ill-feeling between the planters and the neighboring oystermen. In order to remedy this the general assembly provided in 1874 (ch. 181) that six months’ peaceable and legal possession should constitute a good and sufficient title to the ground so far as was authorized by previous enactments, even though such location should be a natural reef, and in 1884 peaceable possession for twelve months was required. By act of 1876 (ch. 277) an exception was made to the general planting law and each citizen of Worcester County was authorized to preempt of the barren grounds within the waters of that county an area not exceeding 5 acres for oyster-planting purposes, and to hold the location by keeping it plainly marked with bushes, stakes, or buoys, without being required to record a description thereof. The act of 1890 (ch. 269) provided an elaborate planting law for Somerset County, in which the appointment was authorized of a body to be known as u oyster commis- sioners,” who should, when requested so to do, examine and determine whether a desired location is a natural oyster-reef. Further provision was made in reference to fees to be paid, transfer of title, etc., also the following: “It shall not be lawful for any person or persons to locate or appropriate any water or bottom thereunder for the purposes set forth in this act, where the said bottoms are grassy or suitable for the catching of crabs.” But this entire act was repealed at the next session of the general assembly (L. 1892, ch. 662) and the general planting law was reestablished in that county. It was provided by act of 1888 (ch. 505) that in case of the death of the pre- emptor of a lot his executors or administrators should have exclusive use of the loca- tion for three years. Prior to that enactment the lot and the oysters thereon reverted to the public immediately on the death of the owner, so far as the law was concerned, but in practice more liberality prevailed. A regulation local to Kent and Queen Anne counties was enacted in 1890 (ch. 333) permitting a preemptor in case of insolvency to assign his lot for a period of three years. Except under one of these two provisions no authority at present exists for a transfer of title to an oyster-planting lot in Maryland. From a perusal of the foregoing it is observed that the only changes of material value made in the planting regulations of this State since the original enactment of sixty-three years ago is an extension of the preemption limit from 1 to 5 acres. Except in Worcester County, in which the previously mentioned local enactment of 1876 is in force, the oyster-planting law now operative in Maryland is as follows : The owner of any land bordering" on any of the navigable waters of this State, the lines of which extend into and are covered by said waters, shall have the exclusive privilege of using the same for protecting, sowing, bedding, or depositing oysters or other shellfish within the lines of his own land; and any owner of land lying and bordering upon any of the waters of this State shall have 254 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. power to locate and appropriate in any of the waters adjoining his lands one lot of 5 acres for .the purpose of protecting, preserving, depositing, bedding, or sowing' oysters or other shellfish; any male citizen of fall age of this State shall have power to locate and appropriate and hold one lot of 5 acres, and no more, in any waters in this State not located or appropriated : Provided, Thirty days’ notice, in writing, shall be given the owner or occupant of land bordering on said waters proposed to be located, that the owner or occupant may have priority of claim ; and if such owner or occupant shall fail to locate or appropriate the water mentioned in said notice within thirty days after receiv- ing the same, then it shall be open and free to anyone, under the provisions of this section : Provided, also, That the said location or appropriation shall be described by stakes, bashes, and with the name of the owner on a board fastened to a pole or stake on or within the appropriated oyster land, or by other proper and visible metes and bounds, which description shall be reduced to writing, under the oath of some competent surveyor, and recorded at the expense of the party locating or appropriating the same, in the office of the clerk of the circuit court for the county wherein such land may be located: And provided also, That such location and appropriation shall not injure, obstruct, or impede the free navigation of said waters : And provided, That no natural bar or bed of oysters shall be so located or appropriated, and that twelve months’ peaceable possession of all locations of oyster-grounds under the laws of this State shall constitute a good and sufficient title thereto; but should anyone within twelve months be charged with locating or appropriating any natural bed or bar hereinbefore prohibited, the question may be at once submitted by any person interested to the judge of the circuit court for the county where such question shall arise, who, after having given notice to the parties interested, shall proceed to hear the testimony and decide the case ; and if his decision be in favor of the party locating said 5 acres, said decision shall be recorded with the original record of said 5 acres, and shall in all cases be conclusive evidence of title thereto : Provided also, That if any stakes or bushes used as bounds shall be removed by accident or design itshallnot excuse any person from wrongfully taking such oysters if he knew the grounds to have been located and appropriated; but any title or pretended title to more than 5 acres, or otherwise contrary to this section, held or claimed by any person is hereby declared to be fraudulent and void: Provided, That no non-resident of this State shall be entitled to avail himself of the provisions of this section, whether he be sole or part owner of any land in this State; and in case of the death of any citizen who may have located and appropriated any lot under the provisions of this section his executors or administrators shall have the exclusive use, possession, and control of such lot as fully as the person so dying had for the purpose of protecting, cultivating, and removing the oysters planted on said lot for the period of three years from the date of the death of the person appropriating such lot ; and any person committing a trespass upon said lot, Or taking oysters bedded thereon, without the consent of such executor or administrator, shall be liable to the penalties imposed by this article for takiug bedded oysters. If any creek, cove, or inlet, not exceeding 100 yards at low water in breadth at its mouth, make into the lands, or if any creek, cove, or inlet of greater width than 100 yards at low-water mark, make into the lands, the owner or other lawful occupant shall have the exclusive right to use such creek, cove, or inlet when the mouth of said creek, cove, or inlet' is 100 yards or less in width ; and when the said creek, cove, or inlet is more than 100 yards in width at its mouth at low water, the said owner or other lawful occupant shall have exclusive right to use such creek, cove, or inlet so soon as said creek, cove, or inlet in making into said land or lands shall become 100 yards in width at low water, for preserving, depositing, bedding, or sowing oysters or other shellfish, although such cove, creek, or inlet may not be included in the lines of any patent ; and in all such cases such right of the riparian proprietor shall extend to the middle of such creek, cove, or inlet. That it shall be unlawful, without authority from the owner, for any person or persons to take or catch planted or bedded oysters, knowing them to be so planted or bedded, or to remove, break off, destroy, or otherwise injure or alter any stakes, bounds, marks, buoys, or other designation of any said beds; any person or persons violating the provisions of this section shall be guilty of a misde- meanor, and on conviction before a circuit court or a justice of the peace for the county where the oysters were bedded, shall be fined not less than $10 nor more than $200, or be sentenced to the house of correction for a term of not less than three months nor more than one year, at the discretion of the judge or justice trying the same. Planting lots preempted. — Prior to tlie enactment of 1867 comparatively few pre- emptions of lots had been made either under the 1-acre law of 1830 or the 5-acre law of 1865, and the title to most of those had been permitted to lapse. It is doubtful if more than 350 acres had been located in the State at the time of the aforementioned THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 255 enactment. Some of tlie lots were located as early as 1830, this being the case in Som erset County particularly, while in Worcester County the greater number of the pre- emptions were made between 1840 and 1850. Immediately following the adoption of the 5-acre regulation of 1867, and each year thereafter, a number of locations were and have been made. The following. table, compiled from the various county records, exhibits the area of ground preempted during each year in each of the counties of the State: Table exhibiting by counties the number of acres of oyster-planting ground preempted annually in Maryland. * Records of Calvert County prior to 1882 were destroyed by fire, t About S, 300 acres field under law of 1876, ch. 277, without filing papers. Notwithstanding all this ground was ostensibly preempted for the planting of oysters, only a small part of it is now in actual use for that purpose. In fact, a large portion of it has never been used for planting purposes and was not appropriated with that object in view, many lots being located by the owners of the adjacent estates in order to prevent outsiders from operating on the margin of their property. Some of the lots have, through error or otherwise, been located two or more times, and the descriptions filed are not always such as would give a surveyor a correct understanding of their locations, they frequently surrounding the lots with almost every impossible engineering description. The scene of the most extensive oyster-planting in Maryland is not in the Chesa- peake region, but on the shores of Worcester County in the Sinepuxent Bay. This is the only water area in Maryland not tributary to the Chesapeake, being on the ocean side of the Eastern Shore or “Mavirdel” peninsula, and emptying directly into the ocean. The planting of oysters in these waters originated on a small scale in 1842; but the extent on which it was then conducted was almost insignificant, the product being utilized entirely in the local trade. About 1875 the rapidly diminishing product of the public beds in these waters led to an extension of the planting industry, which quickly increased until 1880, which was probably the most successful season known in the planting industry of the county as regards the profits of the persons engaged. From that time the industry decreased 256 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. in extent because of the increasing mortality each year among the oysters planted. This may to some extent have been due to their overcrowded condition and a lack of sufficient food, but more likely to the malaerated condition of the water and the large amount of vegetable and mineral sediment in the bay. The industry is still prosperous and conducted with as much energy, although probably not with so much care, as in any of the Northern States. The seed oysters are obtained from the natural reefs in this county, the ocean shore of the counties of Accomac and N orthampton, V irginia, and the tributaries of the Chesapeake. The cost delivered on the grounds ranges from 15 to 45 cents per bushel, according to the qual- ity and the locality whence obtained. About 250 to 550 bushels are planted to the acre, and they are permitted to remain from one to three years. While each person is authorized to preempt only 5 acres of ground, yet a number of the members of a family or of a community unite and obtain a sufficient area for engaging in the industry on a profitable scale. The annual product of that part of the bay situated in Maryland has averaged during the last six years about 135,000 bushels annually, at 90 cents per bushel clear. The extent of the product varies much from season to season, and in 1887-88 and 1889-90 was more than twice the average, the product during each of the two seasons named being about 200,000 bushels at $1 per bushel. In 1891-92 the yield was 86,000 bushels, and in 1892-93 it was 105,600 bushels. These oysters usually go upon the markets as “ Chincoteagues ” or “ Parker Bays.” There exists a regulation local to Worcester County in respect to the preemption of planting areas that is, I believe, without a parallel in any part of the world. This regulation is in substance as follows : If through ignorance or mistake the locator of a planting lot should preempt a natural oyster-reef, the county commissioners are required, upon sworn information thereof being presented to them, to appoint three disinterested men to go with the locator, examine the lot, and report under oath rela- tive to the same. If in the preempted area a reef more than 20 feet square in any one place be found they shall value the same and the locator shall pay the valuation to the county and also the expenses of the examining committee, the latter not to exceed $10; but if no reef more than 20 feet square be found the expenses of the committee shall be paid by the informer. The utmost harmony, however, prevails among the oystermen of that region, and their operations are guided as much by public sentiment as by the statutes ; hence no advantage has been taken of the opportunity here presented by collusion with one another for obtaining the natural reefs of that county. In the Chesapeake region of Maryland, bedding is practiced more extensively in the Patuxent River than elsewhere. The “plants” are obtained from the public reefs in that river and are permitted to remain on the private areas for a few weeks or months, being deposited during a dull season and taken up when the oyster market is strong. Occasionally, however, they may remain oil the private grounds for a year or more. The object in bedding is not so much to increase the size or condition of the oysters as to obtain a better market; and the expressions “ storing” and “dumping,” sometimes heard in the Chesapeake, express better than “bedding” the operations in this river. The quantity removed from these areas may approximate 100,000 bushels annually, but this is a product of the public reefs rather than of the planting lots. While the preemption of oyster-planting grounds in the Tangier and Pocomoke THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND 257 regions dates back to 1830, yet the bedding of oysters has never been vigorously or extensively conducted there, and what has been done was on an experimental rather than an industrial scale. In Fishing Bay, on the southern shore of Dorchester County, the bedding has been of noticeable extent since 1871. The seed oysters, which are obtained from Tangier Sound and tributaries, cost from 10 to 20 cents per bushel and are permitted to remain one or two years. There is much complaint, however, that the risks from loss by unauthorized removal are very great, and there is little doubt that this practice has been of extreme detriment to an extension of the business. Preemptions were made in Somerset County as early as 1830, and occasionally oysters would be bedded on the areas located, but usually for only a few weeks. From 1870 to 1875 a number of persons were sufficiently interested in the subject of oyster - planting to attempt to make more extensive use of their lots, but little resulted from it. In 1884 and 1885 the subject was again revived in this county, and scores of lots were located. Those persons making use of their reservations planted the small oysters of Tangier Sound, costing, delivered on the beds, 10 or 15 cents per bushel, the size of the oysters ranging from that of a twenty- five-cent piece up to a silver dollar, but, being the “run of the rock,” were mixed with considerable shells and d6bris. Col. T. S. Hodson, of Maryland, has furnished the following data in reference to these operations : By October 1, 1885, the small oysters bedded in March of that year had become sufficiently large for shucking purposes, ranking as “straight-up^,” with from one- fourth to one-third “selects” among them, worth 30 cents per bushel on the ground, while the quantity had increased threefold. Could they have remained another year, so as to acquire their full size, the profits to those who had planted them would have been very great. But an organization had been formed which determined to put an end to this new source of labor and profit. Some persons went in a body upon John H. Whealton’s bed and began to take the oysters, but he opened on them with a shot- gun, and the attempt soon ended. They took a few of the oysters bedded by James C. Nelson, who begged them to desist, which they soon did. A suit was instituted to vacate a certain lot as a natural oyster bed, on the ground that wherever scatter- ing oysters could be found it was a natural bed. The court, however, found that there were less than 100 bushels on the 5 acres, and dismissed the suit. As a consequence to the hostility thus exhibited, the planters determined to immediately realize on the oysters they had bedded, instead of waiting for a larger profit during the second season. They therefore hired men to take them up, paying 10 cents per bushel therefor, thus employing much labor that would otherwise have been idle. Some of the planters did very well. Mr. Green took up 1,700 bushels in December, and sold them for 62 cents per bushel. Mr. James C. Nelson and Mr. R. N. Horsey, using a portion of 10 acres in Pocomoke Sound, have furnished the follow- ing statement of financial operations on that area in 1885-86 : Amount paid for 5,500 bushels seed oysters planted March, 1885, at 10 cents per bushei delivered $550. 00 Paid for taking up and marketing oysters in 1885-86 630. 00 Total 1, 180. 00 Received from oysters sold in December, 1885 1, 403. 50 Received from oysters sold in spring, 1886 277. 00 Total 1,680.50 Profit in 12 months=$500. 50. F. C. B. 1892—17 258 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. After the oysters were sold in Crisfield, about $ 600 was paid for shucking them, and as all public-reef oysters obtainable were then being purchased to fill orders, this $600 was so much that the laboring class would never have received had these men not planted an oyster. Thus, from a little lot of $550 worth of oysters, the labor around Somerset County received for oysters planted, $550; for taking up oysters, $630; for shucking, etc., $600; total, $1,780. Since then fewer persons have planted oysters, and the majority of those have lost so heavily by depredations, during the daytime as well as at night, that they are almost discouraged. An interesting attempt was made in 1890 by Messrs. C. A. DnBois & Co., oyster- dealers of Annapolis, to grow oysters on 10 acres of very muddy ground situated in the Severn River in Anne Arundel County, and during June of that year about 5,000 bushels of oyster shells were planted at a cost of $250. A set was obtained on these shells during the ensuing spawning season, and in the winter of 1891-92 about 3,000 bushels of oysters were taken from this area and marketed at 45 cents per bushel, and about 500 bushels were left on the bed to be removed later. In 1891, 5,000 bushels of shells and in 1892 10,000 bushels were planted on this area, but the set obtained was very poor. The areas of ground situated within creeks less than 100 yards wide or within the lines of other property along the foreshores is exceedingly small, and the bedding of oysters in those areas is sc insignificant in extent when compared with the extensive common oyster fishery of the State as to scarcely merit attention. A few such areas are situated in St. Mary and Calvert counties, and probably some in Talbot, Dorches- ter, and Somerset counties; but the quantity of oysters marketed from those private holdings scarcely exceeds 25,000 bushels annually, and nearly all of that was origi- nally obtained from the public reefs. It is thus observed that, except what is done in Dorchester County, even the simplest and most primitive modes of oyster-culture, the planting or bedding of small oysters, is an almost entirely undeveloped resource in Maryland; and in no sense of the word as used at present is the small bedding done in the Chesapeake a cultivation, and the expression “storing” or “dumping” well illustrates it. A farmer may as well plant his corn without first having prepared the ground and then without further care or attention or protection from birds or other animals expect to gather a harvest. He will be fortunate if able to gather as much corn as he planted, and so may the oyster- man if able to take up as many oysters as he deposited. Among the factors that have retarded the development of oyster-culture in this State might be mentioned the following : The area that a person is permitted to hold is so small that under the most favorable conditions the planter can afford to devote only a small portion of his time to it ; the tenure is very uncertain and liable to be affected without notice by a change in the law or the administration thereof; the distinction between a natural reef and a barren bottom is so indefinite that after much attention has been paid to a lot, it is likely to be declared a natural reef, and as long as this condition of the ground is debatable planting thereon is an enterprise of great risk. It requires an investment of energy and labor to properly engage in oyster-culture, and these hesitate to touch the lots under the present impossibilities of enlargement and the insecurity of tenure. The uncertainty as to what are natural grounds has also encouraged certain persons to attempt to locate areas popularly supposed to THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 259 come within that classification, in the hopes that under cover of the general sympathy being aroused in favor of the planters their scheme may prove successful. What is desired is that the general assembly directly or indirectly determine specifically and precisely by metes and bounds what areas are open for location, per- mit the preemption of sufficient area to justify a person in devoting his attention to it, and settle the tenure for a specified period of time. But there is a trouble greater than all the foregoing factors combined, and that is the lack of protection to the oysters from being removed by persons refusing to recognize private ownership in bedded oysters. The lots are so small that they do not warrant the expense of the watchmen employed in other planting localities. Prac- tically all the oysters may be removed from a lot in one night, and it is almost impos- sible to convict the offenders, it not being possible to identify the stolen goods. If apprehended and arrested and the removal of the oysters proven, a question then arises as to the location being a natural reef. But even if the offender be convicted, which is not usual, he is guilty only of a misdemeanor and may escape with a fine of from $20 to $200, while the value of the property obtained may have been many times that amount. Confronted by these conditions, the oystermen who would otherwise engage in planting prefer to sell their small oysters for whatever they may bring rather than risk the uncertainties of harvesting a planted crop and endure the accompanying contentions with their neighbors. The planting law of Worcester County is quite similar to that operative in the Chesapeake region. The area of preemption is limited to 5 acres, the planters have no security of tenure, and they do not locate natural reefs. But there is this dis- tinctive difference: the person unlawfully removing oysters from private areas in that county is guilty of felony, punishable with imprisonment in the penitentiary for from one to two years; and under the good influence of this provision, backed by a popu- lar sentiment favorable to the planters, much of the bedding resources of the waters of that county are utilized, notwithstanding the small encouragement given by the general assembly. The State as an oyster farmer. — The feeling is current among certain classes in Maryland that if the cultivation of oysters within the waters of that State be practica- ble the work should be undertaken by the State at large or by counties for the benefit either of the people of the State in general or of the counties respectively. Giving practice to this theory, a number of procedures have been authorized by the general assembly for improving the productiveness or increasing the area of the public beds. The first attempt in this line was made in 1874 (ch. 77), when the county commis- sioners of Worcester County were authorized to expend all the revenue derived from the issuing of tonging licenses in that county in the purchase of seed oysters to be planted in the Sinepuxent Bay. The total amount of revenue derived from this source up to the present time has amounted to $4,690, but only a portion of it has been devoted directly to the purposes noted, and this mainly for planting small seed or the “ run of the oyster rocks ” during those years immediately following the enactment, the county commissioners being merely authorized and not required to purchase the seed oysters. During recent years few oysters or shells have been bedded on the public reefs by that county, the money being expended indirectly for the benefit of the oyster industry, as in cutting a canal, the building of necessary landing facilities, etc. 260 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The revenue from this source is a sort of a contingent fund upon which to draw when special public expenditures are deemed necessary for the good of the oystermen. By act of 1884 (ch. 255) the county commissioners of Somerset County were author- ized (but not required) to utilize the revenue derived from the issuing of scraping licenses in that county to vessels measuring over 10 tons in the purchase and planting of shells on the public grounds within the county limits. The said commissioners were also empowered to make such regulations as might be necessary to protect the areas so improved; and it was further provided that “in case the general assembly shall provide for the sale or lease of oyster-grounds for the propagation of oysters the said county commissioners may buy or lease the said waters of said county for the use of the people thereof.” This was a very ambitious undertaking, and except the very small operations in Sinepuxent Bay during those years immediately following 1874, as just noted, but which do not furnish a comparison, it was and is yet without a parallel in any part of the world — the annual expenditure of a large sum of public money in the cultivation of oysters on the public domain for the use of a common fishery. The sum available for this purpose then amounted to about $4,000 annually, but was rapidly increasing, and the area of the ground upon which operation was authorized approx- imated 180 square miles, covered with 60 square miles of oyster beds. The authority given the county commissioners at their discretion to permit or interdict oystering on the improved reefs is particularly noticeable, especially when it is considered that that is the principal oyster region of the greatest oyster-producing estuary in the world, and that in no other locality in America are the inherited privileges or customs of the common fishery more zealously guarded. An effort was made by the county officials to properly enforce the intentions of the enactment. Quantities of shells were planted and a special police was provided for protecting the areas improved. But within a few months the county court expressed an obiter dictum that the provision for excluding the oystermen from those areas was not sufficiently explicit, and the police protection was withdrawn. At the next session of the general assembly (1886) the law was amended so as to meet the views expressed by the court; but iu the meantime a change had been effected in the personnel of the county commissioners, and the new board, using their discretion in the matter as the law permitted, failed to exercise the authority given them. In 1888 the regulations, which had then been inoperative for three years, were repealed by the assembly. By act of 1886 (ch. 314) an appropriation of $5,000 was made to be used by the commander of the State fishery force in the purchase and depositing of shells in May and June of that year in such places in the Chesapeake as that official might deem suitable for the purpose of obtaining thereon a “ set” of oysters. For some cause the planting was delayed until the latter part of June, and as the spawning season was then almost over the undertaking was not a success. Indeed, had the shells been planted earlier the result might have been practically the same, for the set obt ained in other portions of the bay during that year was not abundant. This was intended only as an experiment and not as the inauguration of a State policy. A similar experiment made by the State of Delaware in 1891, at an expense of $2,000, has, it - is reported, resulted very satisfactorily. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 261 TRANSPORTING. History , etc. — The centering of the oyster trade for convenience of labor, shipment, etc., at Baltimore or other populous or railroad points, the location of the reefs many miles distant in the lower and tributary waters of the bay, and the necessary use of many small boats in the fishery, require the employment of a large number of vessels for transporting the catch from the reefs to the marketing-houses. As the State has exercised no supervision over these vessels, the data at hand for exhibiting the extent of this branch of the oyster industry are incomplete. As no license and no peculiar facilities other than those enjoyed by vessels engaged in general coasting trade are required, a number of vessels engage in transporting oysters for only a short time during the busy part of the season, and estimates are therefore likely to differ considerably. In 1880 Mr. R. H. Edmonds, whose report has already been referred to, estimated that 200 vessels, employing 800 men, were engaged in transporting oysters in Maryland. But this was probably very much less than the actual number, as will be seen from the following incident: In 1884 (ch. 518) a law was enacted requiring all vessels engaged in transporting oysters to obtain a license on the same terms and conditions and at the same rate ($3 per ton) as was required of the vessels engaged in dredg- ing, and a tax of 3 cents per barrel was imposed on all steamers carrying oysters while engaged in a regular freighting business. Of the transporting vessels 353, not engaged in dredging, paid the fees in order to continue the trade. A few vessels, however, opposed the payment of the tax, and their case being taken to the courts the law was declared unconstitutional, and the fees paid by other transporters, amounting to $27,644.15, were refunded. This indicates that there were about 400 transporting vessels during that season. The increasing number of market-houses at the ports down the bay and near the reefs, competing with and naturally decreasing the oyster trade of Baltimore, has during the last eight or ten years resulted in a corresponding decrease in the number of transporting vessels. But during the last three years the decreasing extent of the dredging industry, together with the large quantity of oysters taken by the tongmen and scrapemen, has resulted in an increase in the number of the transporting vessels. In 1889-90 the number was 351, the tonnage of which was 11,801.43. In 1890-91 this was increased to 399, with a tonnage of 13,111.45, and in 1891-92 it was further increased to 456, with a tonnage of 15,067.29, nearly equaling the tonnage employed in dredging. The vessels. — The transporting vessels differ little from those employed in dredg- ing. There are no very small craft among them, and their average measurement is much greater than that of the dredging vessels, the tonnage of the former being about 33.5 tons, and of the latter about 22 tons. The largest of the transporters are the E. 8. Johnson, 85.7 tons, built in 1882, and the Clemmie Traverse , 81.05 tons, built in 1885. The average value of the transporting vessels is about $1,500; the original cost, how- ever, was about twice that amount. During the summer the greater number of these vessels are engaged in transporting farm produce and general freight to and from vari- ous points along the shores of the bay and tributaries. The fluctuations from year to year in the number of vessels transporting oysters is to some extent governed by the prosperity of the dredging industry. If that branch of the oyster fishery gives indica- tions of being profitable during a certain season, a large number of vessels obtain a 262 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. license and engage in dredging; if the contrary be the case, the vessels are confined to transporting. The men. — The men employed on the transporting vessels are usually residents of the State, and in most cases depend upon the freighting trade of the Chesapeake Bay for a living. The captain is usually on shares, and clears about $40 to $80 per month, while the laborers are on wages, receiving from $20 to $30 per month and board. The transporting vessels are successful in obtaining much better crews than the dredging vessels. Profits and extent. — The captains of the transporting vessels purchase the oysters outright from the men catching them. The “ buy boats ” lie at anchor near the fishing fleet, with a basket at the masthead, or some other signal to indicate that oysters are being purchased, the latter being delivered as the oystermen finish their day’s work. The profits made in transporting oysters are quite irregular, depending on the ability of the captains in striking a poor market u down the bay ” and a good one in the city. During the cold weather in January, 1893, several vessels purchased oysters at 70 cents, and by paying heavy towage fees to Baltimore succeeded in obtaining $1.45 per bushel. But this was very exceptional, the gross profits throughout the season averaging 12 to 15 cents per bushel, an average for the fleet of about $900 per vessel. The following table exhibits the extent to which vessels have engaged in trans- porting during certain recent seasons: Years. - Vessels. Outfit. No. of men. Gross profits * No. I Tonnage. Value. 1889 90 351 | 11,801.43 $536, 135 $53, 793 1,260 $350, 000 1890 91 399 13,111.45 569, 000 59, 190 1,444 370, 000 1891-92 456 1 15,067.29 653, 235 72, 290 1,651 400, 000 * This represents the enhancement in value of the oysters transported. Transporting trade with other States. — The preceding data relative to the trans- porting branch of the oyster industry do not include the large number of vessels owned elsewhere than in Maryland but engaging in transporting oysters from the waters of that State to other markets and to planting-grounds. From 1840 to 1870 this trade was very extensive, Cape Ood and Connecticut vessels being the principal ones interested, but vessels from Philadelphia, N ew York, and elsewhere were also employed. Barnstable and Wellfleet, Mass., alone had about fifty vessels engaged in this trade. They cost about $6,000, and carried about 2,500 bushels of oysters, four to eight voyages being made each spring. The transportation charges were about 15 cents per bushel, but during the civil war it went up to 25 cents. It is reported that one Cape Cod captain made 138 oyster trips to the Chesapeake before he was 40 years of age. This trade purchased oysters in Virginia as well as in Maryland. These vessels now probably number sixty, averaging about 50 tons in measure- ment and $3,000 in value, with five men to each. They are usually employed but a few weeks in the spring, and the number is not half of what it was fifteen or twenty years ago, as the extensive development of private oyster beds in Northern States and the constantly increasing prices of the Chesapeake oysters are rendering their north- ern planting unsuccessful from a financial point of view. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 263 Some of these transporting vessels go around Cape Charles, and the remaining pass through the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. No reliable data are available to show the extent of the trade through the u capes,” but by courtesy of Mr. T. J. Cleaver, collector of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Company, I am enabled to present the following tabular statement, exhibiting for a period of years the quantity of oysters passing through that canal : Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, east-bound shipments. Year. Bushels. Year. Bushels. 1880 939, 600 485, 385 650, 100 552, 227 1890 60, 340 129, 660 228, 055 252, 423 1881 1891 1882 1892 1883 1893 About one half of these oysters pass through the canal during the last four or five weeks of the spring fishing. While a few of them go at once into the food markets, by far the greater portion are planted on the private grounds in Delaware Bay. Their average cost in Maryland probably does not exceed 25 cents per bushel, and at times it is very much lower than that, many vessels loading at 15 and 20 cents per bushel. After remaining planted in the Delaware Bay one or two years they are marketed at 75 cents to $1 per bushel. As oysters can not be safely transplanted during cold weather their movement is delayed until spring, and the date of the beginning of the close season determines largely the quantity transported for planting, this being very much greater before the adoption of the close season on tonging than at present. Capt. Samuel M. Travers, formerly commander of the fishery force, submits the following as an exhibit of the quantity of oysters shipped North for planting purposes during the spring of 1879: Shipped from — Bushels. Tangier Sound and tributaries 353, 750 125, 000 125, 000 375. 000 62, 500 250. 000 112, 500 150, 000 625, 000 Nanticoke River and Fishing Bay Little Choptank River Great Choptank River Eastern Bay Chester River Anne Arundel shore Patuxent River and tributaries Potomac River and tributaries Total 2, 178, 750 The average price paid is reported by him to have been 7 cents per bushel. In 1880 the beginning of the close season was changed to April 15 so as to restrict this trade, with the result of reducing it during the ensuing season to about 1,000,000 bushels. One of the chief objects of the present close time in the spring is the restriction it places upon this transporting of seed oysters from the State. 264 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. THE OYSTER MARKETS. General notes. — This branch of the oyster industry employs more capital than the fishery and about one-half as many persons. Baltimore is not only the most extensive oyster market in the State, but also in the world. About thirty years ago the trade in the Chesapeake was almost exclusively centered in that city, but the increased rail road facilities at the smaller ports along the bay shores have led to the establishment of many markets nearer the reefs. Crisfield, although handling scarcely one-fourth so many as Baltimore, now ranks second in extent, and following in order are Cam- bridge, Oxford, Annapolis, St. Michael, and many smaller places. Large quantities of oysters are also landed at other cities and towns situated on the tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay and there sold to retail dealers and consumers without passing through large shucking-houses. Among these places may be mentioned Washington, D. C., Alexandria, Va., Easton, Port Deposit, Chestertowu, Salisbury, and Pocomolre, Md. The marketing trade is divided into three branches, viz, the shell-oyster or barrel trade, the raw-shucking trade, and the steaming trade. Of these the raw-shncking branch is the most important, both as regards the quantity of oysters handled and the number of persons employed. Next in extent ranks the steaming trade, which is located entirely at Baltimore, at which place is prepared over nine-tenths of the world’s product of steam-canned oysters. Occasionally small steaming-houses have been operated at other ports in Maryland, but their product has never been extensive, and during the last four or five years Baltimore has had the exclusive enjoyment of this branch of the trade in Maryland. The marketing of shell or barrel stock oysters is comparatively small in Maryland, and usually no established wholesale houses devote themselves exclusively to this branch of the business. One of the most fruitful sources of trouble in connection with the oyster-marketing trade is the system of measuring the oysters as they are delivered at the markets. The shucking trade is extensive, but conducted on a small profit by reason of the great competition, and during some seasons a slight variation in the size of the bushel measure used may determine whether a firm may gain or lose by the season’s work. As early as 1860 regulations were made to prevent frauds in the measurement, but these were frequently amended or changed, and about the only heritage the industry now has from those enacted prior to 1884 are the regulations for the bushel measure and the provision for licensed measurers. The bushel measure is now required to be an iron tub of the following dimensions : Inside diameter at bottom, 16£ inches; inside diameter at top, 18, and 21 inches diagonal from the inside chime to the top, the same to be even or struck measure. The licensed measurers, each of whom pays $10 annually as license fee, are required to measure all oysters sold in the various ports, receiving for their services the sum of £ cent per bushel, to be paid equally by buyer and seller. Each dealer may designate such measurer as he desires, as the number authorized is unlimited, and he usually has some one in his employ obtain license and attend to the work, thus saving the measuring fee. In 1884 (ch. 299) the governor was required thereafter, at each session of the general assembly, to appoint five persons for Baltimore and one person for each of the other oyster ports in the State, who should be kuown as general measurers of oysters, and whose duty it should be to see that the licensed measurers properly attended to their duty, and that all laws in respect to oyster measuring should be complied with, receiving as compensation 5 cents on each 100 bushels of oysters received, the same to be paid by the seller. This fee was changed in 1886 to 10 cents per 100 bushels. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 265 THE BALTIMORE MARKETS. Annual receipts. — Baltimore is the principal oyster market of the world. Each year there is handled in that city a quantity about equal to the annual oyster product of all the countries of Europe and one-fifth as many as are handled in all the rest of the world combined. The following table exhibits for a period of years the quantity received during each season : Table showing oyster receipts at Baltimore. Season. No. of bushels. Authority. Season. of bushels. Authority. 1849-50 1, 350, 000 2, 610, 000 3. 860, 000 5, 000, 000 6, 459, 292 6, 273, 118 6, 909, 963 C. S, Maltbv. Hunter Davidson. R. H. Edmonds. General measurers. Do. 1886-87 6, 115, 275 5, 695, 304 5, 589, 360 5, 925. 400 4, 393, 600 5, 354, 320 4, 765, 270 General measurers. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. 1856-57 1887-88 1865-66 1869-70 1879-80 1889- 90 1890- 91 1884- 85 1885- 86 1891-92 1892-93 In comparing the receipts as noted in the foregoing statement it is proper, because of the effects of the cull law, to add about 8 per cent to the receipts for 1890-91 and 11 per cent to those for 1891-92 and 1892-93. In addition to the foregoing there have been landed in Baltimore during each season by the bay steamers about 50,000 barrels of oysters consigned direct to the retail dealers and consumers. Neither do the above figures include several thousand bushels of high-grade oysters purchased annually from Northern planters. Of the oysters landed at Baltimore in 1890-91 about one-fifth were received from Virginia waters and from Virginia vessels oysteringin the Potomac River. The quan- tity from this source during that season was exceptionally large; generally it is not more than one-seventh or one-eighth of the total receipts. During the last three or four seasons about 25,000 bushels have annually come from North Carolina. Those are about the cheapest oysters transported to Baltimore, selling for 30 to 35 cents per bushel. In addition to the seasonal variations, the quantity of oysters landed in Balti- more varies much from month to month and even from week to week according to the weather, the most favorable being clear and sufficiently cold to prevent catching oys- ters in more northerly States, but not so cold as to prevent working in the Chesapeake. The following table shows for each week during the last three seasons the receipts of oysters in Baltimore, except the small quantity of barrel stock landed by steamers : Table showing weehly receipts of oysters at Baltimore during certain seasons. Month. Week of season. 1890-91. 1891-92. 1892-93. Month. Week of season. 1890-91. 1891-92. 1892-93. September October... November December First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Ninth Tenth Eleventh Twelfth Thirteenth . . . Fourteenth . . . Fifteenth Sixteenth Seventeenth .. 35, 740 34, 750 51, 280 76, 760 70, 130 123, 140 151.170 132. 170 227, 820 145, 490 192, 710 147, 100 204, 030 226, 390 174, 200 174, 210 182, 050 18, 150 27^ 080 32, 320 43, 720 80, 830 129, 980 202, 050 240, 270 279, 010 324, 020 309, 090 241, 650 283, 190 271, 350 295, 610 209, 200 12, 620 26, 470 45, 010 54, 910 114, 970 171, 500 230, 870 326, 290 300, 050 190, 210 269, 020 202, 560 190, 290 286, 580 230, 350 242, 780 127, 690 January.. February . March.... April May Eighteenth Nineteenth Twentieth Twenty -first Twenty-second. . Twenty -third . . . Twenty-fourth . . Twenty-fifth Twenty -sixth... T wenty-seventh . Twenty -eighth.. Twenty -ninth... Thirtieth Thirty-first Thirty-second .. Thirty-third Thirty-fourth . . . Thirty-fifth Total 137, 940 122, 450 185, 820 106, 410 174, 090 156, 250 137, 980 124, 220 118, 430 70, 470 72, 450 108, 260 100, 280 149, 620 93, 060 99, 960 77, 150 9,620 212, 080 198, 940 120, 110 140, 370 120. 090 125, 610 204, 050 165, 910 127, 190 111, 110 154, 480 107, 350 108, 130 171.090 154, 530 77, 580 39, 200 3,300 146, 500 96, 220 40, 620 20,110 36,790 39, 540 100, 230 100, 600 125, 220 205, 160 186, 810 187, 500 176, 290 149, 530 71, 480 56, 150 4, 350 4,393,600 5,354,320 4, 765, 270 266 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. During the last eight years the largest quantity received at Baltimore during any one week was 408,940 bushels, which arrived during the week ending November 17, 1888. The smallest quantity during the busy part of the season for the same period was 20,110 bushels, in the week ending January 21, 1893. The receipts from the 19th to the 25th week were ve$y much less in 1892-93 than for the same period of time for many years, this being due to the exceptionally cold weather restricting the catch, thousands of boats and vessels being “frozen up.” Had the receipts during those weeks been equal to those of the corresponding period in the previous season the quantity landed at this port during 1892-93 would have exceeded that of 1891-92 by over 1,000,000 bushels. The commission sellers. — Practically all the oysters delivered at Baltimore in bulk are handled by men known as commission sellers, who control the sales of nearly all the oyster vessels arriving in that port, and most of whom have been oystermen at some time in their careers. They attend to the financial dealings of the captains in the city, the bargaining and sale of the oysters^ and advance money to the oystermen when desired. For their services they charge 1£ cents per bushel, but prior to the season 1891-92 they received 1 cent per bushel of oysters handled. They usually work in companies of 2 or 3 men each, the number of companies being 15, consisting of 34 men and using property valued at $65,000, with cash or credit capital approximating $260,000. By these men the oysters are sold to the various branches of the trade. Raio-shucking trade. — During the early prosecution of the oyster industry such oysters as were landed at Baltimore and not needed or intended for local consumption were sent by wagons and cars to the neighboring towns in the shell. The first whole- sale shucking-house was opened here about 1830, but met with indifferent success and soon abandoned the business. At that time the oyster trade of the country centered about New York City and Fair Haven, Conn., particularly the latter place, at which were marketed native Connecticut oysters as well as the stock obtained by vessels from the Chesapeake. The continued decrease in the native supply in that State, and the consequent increase in cost, indicated that the trade could be more profitably carried on in Baltimore than in Fair Haven, and induced Mr. C. S. Maltby of the latter place to move to Baltimore in 1836 and establish a shucking-house on the plan of those operating in his native town. His trade increased rapidly and, the success being noted, other persons engaged in the business, and within a few years regular lines of oyster wagons were operated, running from Baltimore to the neighboring cities. Those oysters intended for shipment to distant points were shucked and sealed in tin cans or very small wooden kegs, and with care could be preserved for a few weeks, this depending on their temperature. The general use of these small packages, how- ever, was long ago discontinued, and the shipment is now almost entirely in large tubs or kegs holding several gallons. It is reported that in 1846-47 there were six houses in this trade, utilizing about 250,000 bushels annually. In 1865-66 the oysters utilized in the raw-shucking trade amounted to 1,875,000 bushels. From that time until 1874 the trade rapidly increased in extent, but since the last-named date, on account of the increasing competition with other markets along the bay shores, little variation has existed in the quantity of oysters handled by this branch of the trade at Baltimore. The following table shows the quantity utilized in the raw-shucking trade of that city during a number of sea- sons. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 267 Baltimore raw-shucking trade receipts. Season. No. of bushels. Season. No. of bushels. 1846-47 250,000 1887-88 2, 893, 755 1865-66 1, 875, 000 1888-89 2,809,120 1879-80..'. 3, 769, 353 | 1889-90 3, 206, 177 1884-85... 3,255,095 I 1890-91 2, 331, 228 1885-86 3, 549, 873 j 1891-92... 2, 736, 342 1886-87 2,975,385 1892-93 2, 698, 126 At present the number of Baltimore houses engaged in shucking oysters for the raw trade is 58, with property valued at $1,330,000 ; 10 of these houses, worth $615,000, engage also in handling steamed oysters. One or two of them with the wharf prop- erty attached are worth $175,000 and are capable of handling 7,000 bushels of oysters in a day. The number of persons employed in the raw trade is about 3,650, of whom about 3,200 are engaged in shucking. The latter are mostly men, but in some of the establishments large numbers of women find employment. The work is fatiguing and requires strength as well as skill. The men are usually able to shuck more than the women ; and while an able male shucker working 12 hours can make $2.25 per day, yet because of the irregular employment the shuckers do not average more than $1.25 throughout the season. The price paid for this labor is 20 cents per u gallon cup,” this, as provided by the statutes (L. 1886, ch. 537), holding 9 pints wine measure. The other employes in the raw-shucking trade, numbering about 450 men, are on weekly wages, ranging from $6 to $20 per week, and amounting to about $115,000 during an average season. In addition to labor items, large expenditures are made for ice, tubs, etc., making the total cost of handling the oysters in the shucking houses about 25 cents per bushel. The total value of the output of the raw-shucking houses of Baltimore dur- ing each of the last four seasons has been $2,662,076, $2,373,526, $2,482,000, and $2,625,000, or an average for each bushel of oysters received of $0.83, $1.02, $0.90, and $0.97, respectively. The steaming trade. — The preserving of prepared foods in hermetically sealed tin cans was begun in this country about 1844, salmon and lobsters being among the first products so prepared. About 1848 a modification of the process employed was extended to the preserving of oysters, they being first cooked in kettles. This is said to have been originated by Mr. Thomas Kensett, of Baltimore, but the trade was developed by Messrs. A. Field & Co., of that city. About 1860 Mr. Lew McMurry began scalding the oysters, and the product of his house enjoyed a high reputation.* The present method of steaming began about 1864, the procedure then adopted differing from the present in that the oysters were placed in baskets holding about 3 pecks each, and these to the number of about 200 were placed in a large box and there steamed. From the beginning of this trade up to the present time it has been prosecuted almost entirely at Baltimore, probably not 5 per cent of the total quantity of oysters steam-canned in America since 1848 having been prepared in houses outside of that city. From 1860 up to 1875 the steaming business was prosperous, but from 1875 to 1880 reputable firms engaged in this branch of the oyster industry suffered consid- erably from the operations of certain unscrupulous packers, who by putting up “ light weights” injured the reputation of the Baltimore product. Mutual cooperation * In 1852 a canning house was started by Messrs. Piper and Stetson near Stockton, in Worcester county, but closed after working a few months. 268 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. among tlie packers resulted in a dec rease in the fraudulent practice, but it was not entirely broken up until 1884, when the general assembly required (L. 1884, ch. 257) that all persons engaged in steaming oysters should cause to be stamped on each can the true weight of the solid oysters therein, all sales of unstamped oysters to be void. Provision was made for the appointment by the governor of two persons as examiners of the oysters packed, who should see that the law relative to “ light weights” was properly enforced. Each person or company engaging in the canning of steamed oysters, as a condition on which they were permitted to carry on the business, was required, at the end of each month, to make a sworn statement to the comptroller of the State treasury of the quantity of oysters steamed, at the same time paying into the State treasury one-tenth of 1 cent per bushel for all so used. The following statement is presented exhibiting for a perio d of years the quantity of oysters utilized in the steaming trade at Baltimore : Baltimore steaming trade receipts. Season. No. of j bushels. Season. No. of bushels. 1865 66 1 965,000 1888-89 2, 570, 217 1879-80 1 2, 689, 939 1889-90 2, 491, 088 1884-85 ! 2,745,923 1890-91 1, 860, 792 1885 86 ! 3,074,770 1891-92 2, 396, 763 1886 87 1887 88 \ 2, 909, 761 1 2,591,402 1892-93 1, 826, 428 The number of houses in Baltimore engaged in steaming oysters is 20, valued at $1,255,000 ; of these, 10 valued at $630,000 engage in handling raw oysters as well as steamed. These houses are all located along the shores of the harbor, and, together with the ground occupied, range in value from $6,000 to $185,000. The quantity of oysters handled by each house varies from a few hundred bushels to 650,000. The smallest quantity handled by any one house in 1889-90 was 631 bushels; in 1890-91, 3,866 bushels; in 1891-92, 7,918 bushels; and in 1892-93, 2,014 bushels. The largest quantity handled by any one house during the same seasons was 551,771, 5 60,815, 557,984, and 505,100, respectively. On several occasions a single house has steamed over 170,000 bushels in one month. The following table exhibits by months the quantity of oysters steam-canned at Baltimore during certain seasons : Months. 1884^85. 1885-86. 1889-90. 1890-El. Bushels. 6, 244 390, 257 586, 370 459, 460 83, 005 290, 980 269, 372 311,075 1892-93. Bushels. 10, 677 490, 608 348, 395 178, 830 14, 0*2 39, 134 346, 910 397, 832 September October November December January February March April May . . , Bushels. 61, 623 268, 180 474, 826 485, 062 255, 424 274, 921 543, 523 382, 364 Bushels. 67, 281 564, 023 769, 265 516, 052 129, 004 247, 289 575, 364 206, 492 JBushels. 354, 241 549, 817 299, 218 141, 459 301, 352 385, 996 457, 820 1, 185 Bushels. 20, 524 207, 436 396, 728 307, 183 165, 312 308, 709 157, 329 295, 203 2, 368 Total 2,745,923 3,074,770 1 2, 491, 088 1, 860, 792 2, 396, 763 1, 826, 428 The following is a description of the methods employed in steaming-houses: The oysters are taken from the vessels and placed in cars of iron frame-work, 6 or 8 feet long. These cars run on a light iron track, which is laid from the wharf through the “steam chest” or THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 269 “steam box,” to the shucking shed. As soon as a car is filled with oysters (in the shell) it is run into the steam chest, a rectangular oak box, 15 to 20 feet long, lined with sheet iron, and fitted with appli- ances for turning on steam ; the doors, which work vertically and shut closely, are let down, the steam admitted, and the oysters left for ten or fifteen minutes. The chest is then opened and the car run into the shucking room, its place in the chest being immediately occupied by another car. In the shucking sheds the cars are surrounded by the shuckers, each provided with a knife and a can arranged so as to hook to the upper bar of the iron frame- work of the car. The steaming having caused the oyster shells to open more or less widely, there is no difficulty in getting out the meats, and the cars are very rapidly emptied. The oysters are then washed in ice water and transferred to the “fillers’ table.” The cans are filled, packed in a cylindrical iron crate or basket, and lowered into a large cylin- drical kettle, called the “process kettle,” or “tub,” where they are again steamed ; after this they are placed, crate and all, in the “cooling tub,” and when sufficiently cool to be handled the cans are taken to the soldering table and there “capped” — that is, hermetically closed. From the “cappers” they are transported to another department, labeled, and packed in boxes for shipment. The whole steaming process will not occupy more than an hour from the time the oysters leave the vessel until they are ready for shipment. Tlie shuckers usually work in gangs of 6 or 8 persons, comprising sometimes whole families of men, women, and children. They number about 4,000, ranging in ages from 12 to 60 years, and are mostly women and children, the work being light and peculiarly adapted to them. They are mainly of foreign parentage, Germans and Austrians predominating. Few scenes are more interesting than those observed on a visit to the shucking room of any one of the large canning-houses. At one end the cars of steaming-hot oysters are received ; and as these are arranged in long rows covering the length of the room the shuckers, to the number of 600 or more in some houses, dressed in their peculiar ways, surround the cars and with rapidly working knives and skill born of long experience they hastily remove the yet-steaming oysters. While the air is full of the hubbub of foreign tongues as each shucker discusses with her neighbor the petty ambitions or jealousies entertained, or relates the latest bit of domestic gossip, nothing is allowed even for a moment to stop the rapid working of their knives. Sometimes during the busy season, even before daylight, these employes may be seen surrounding the doors of the canning-houses, waiting for the day’s work to commence. They are extremely industrious, and hundreds of small dwelling-houses have been purchased in Baltimore with money obtained by the women and children at work in the oyster-houses. The shucking is done into a tin cup, known legally as the “ oyster gallon cup,” which holds 9 pints wine measure. The shuckers are paid at the rate of 6 cents per “cup,” averaging about 65 cents per day, the total wages paid them amounting to about $80,000 annually. About 600 other persons are employed about the canning-houses, of whom about three-flfths are men. These employes are paid from $5 to $25 per week, the total wages amounting to about $90,000 annually. The largest item of expense in the canning-houses outside of the cost of the oysters is the purchase of tin, labels, etc., this amounting to about $315,000 annually. The incidental expenses amount to about $25,000 annually. These items make the total cost of handling a bushel of oysters in the canning-houses about 29 cents, which is about 4 cents per bushel more than the expense of handling them in the raw-shucking establishments. The cost of the oysters for the canning trade has averaged during each of the last four seasons 43, 55, 48, and 54 cents, respectively. Each bushel produces about 50 ounces of “solid meats.” These are packed in 1-pound and 2-pound cans and cans of miscellaneous sizes, most of the latter being a trifle larger than the 1-pound 270 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. cans, which contain about 5 ounces of solid meats, the 2-pound cans containing 10 ounces. The price received during the last four or five years for the 1-pound and 2-pound cans has averaged about 85 cents and $1.60, respectively, per dozen. The value of the output of the canning trade during each of the last four seasons has been $1,728,985, $1,612,572, $1,856,510, and $1,505,940, an average for each bushel of oysters handled of about 69, 86, 77, and 84 cents, respectively. During the summer these houses and employes are also engaged in canning fruits and vegetables. Through the valuable assistance of many persons connected with the oyster trade of Baltimore, I am enabled to exhibit, with much detail, the extent of the trade in that city during recent seasons, these data being presented in the following table: Statistics of Baltimore oyster trade. Items. 1889-90. 1890-91. 1891-92. Items. 1889-90. 1890-91. 1891-92. No. of establishments : Raw trade only Raw and steaming trade combined . . . Steaming trade only . Commission sellers . . 51 9 10 14 49 9 10 15 48 10 10 15 Raw-shucking trade : Oysters rec’d, bush. . . Expenses : Cost of oysters Wages paid to shuckers Wages paid to others 3, 206, 177 $1, 899, 660 425, 909 . 2, 331, 228 $1, 806, 129 302, 164 2, 736, 342 $1, 810, 120 366, 430 128, 247 89, 752 109, 365 Incidental ex- penses Property invested, value: 67, 330 45, 760 60, 000 $734, 600 $715, 500 $715, 000 Raw and steaming trade combined . . - Steaming trade only. Commission sellers. . Total 2, 521, 146 2, 243, 805 2, 345, 915 610, 000 645, 000 55, 000 595. 000 639. 000 63, 600 615. 000 640. 000 65, 000 Products : Extra selects— 83, 361 $134,062 48, 475 $82, 184 52, 120 $75, 180 Total 2, 044, 600 2, 013, 100 2, 035, 000 Value Selects — Gallons Cash or credit capital : 589, 724 $768, 260 1,947, 636 $1, 759, 754 452, 266 $682, 287 1, 362, 640 $1,608, 055 520, 610 $724, 050 1,654, 350 $1, 682, 770 $650, 000 1, 045, 000 240, 000 $570, 000 930, 000 255, 000 $620, 000 1, 170, 000 260, 000 Value Steaming trade Commission sellers.. Standards— Gallons Value Total 1, 935, 000 1, 755, 000 2, 050, 000 Total gallons 2, 620, 721 1, 863, 381 2, 227, 080 Persons engaged (pro- Total value $2' 662* 076 $2! 373j 526 $2’, 482*, 000 prietors and clerks) . 139 130 132 Steaming trade • Raw and steaming Oysters rec’d, bush. . 2, 491,088 1, 860, 792 2, 396, 763 Steaming trade only . Commission sellers. . 46 40 46 43 47 43 Expenses : Cost of oysters . . Wages paid to shuckers $1, 071, 168 $1, 023, 436 $1, 201, 600 Total 267 261 266 74, 320 61, 074 73, 680 Shuckers : Rtiw trade. .... others 98, 765 74, 160 97, 500 3,284 4, 256 3, 014 3, 194 4, 203 Cost of tin cans, labels, etc Incidental ex- penses Steaming trade 3, 763 319,022 310, 370 320, 000 Totfil 7,540 6, 777 7, 397 24, 950 18, 900 25, 000 Other employes : 320 560 278 514 306 554 Total 1, 588, 225 1, 487, 940 1, 717, 780 Raw trade Steaming trade Products : 5-ounce cans, pre- pared— Total 880 792 860 9, 569, 160 $723, 027 7, 890, 632 $632, 741 9 388 650 Grand total of persons ~ Value $764! 450 8,687 7, 830 8, 523 10-ounce cans pre- pared- Number Value Trade of commission sellers : Oysters rec’d from transporters, bush. Value received by transporters Value received by commission sellers . 4, 579, 356 $632, 138 23, 361, 850 $373, 820 3, 995, 521 $621, 146 19, 720, 840 $358, 685 4, 643, 822 $725, 515 22, 635, 000 $366, 545 5, 925, 400 $3, 084, 075 4, 393, 600 $2, 967, 051 5, 354, 320 $3, 108, 390 Miscellaneous cans, prepared — Ounces Value 3, 143, 329 3, 010, 987 3, 188, 650 Total ounces . . Total value 117,001,210 $1, 728, 985 99, 129, 210 $1, 612, 572 116,016,470 $1, 856, 510 THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 271 THE COUNTY MARKETS. The shucking-houses situated at the smaller ports along the bay shores have greatly increased both in number and capacity during the last ten years. These are usually well-built structures, and while none equal the size of the large houses in Baltimore, yet they compare well with the general run of them. They are devoted entirely to the handling of raw oysters and the business conducted by them is similar to that of Baltimore, but being nearer the reefs they are able to purchase more cheaply and frequently handle a lower grade of oysters than is utilized by the large houses in that city. All have been established since 1860, and most of them have been prom- inent markets only during the last fifteen years. The following notes are in refer- ence to the most important of these markets : Somerset County. — Amsterdam, built on herring bones, has its American counter- part in Crisfield, built on oyster shells. The center -and business portion of the town is now situated where in the beginning of the oyster industry of Somerset County and even as late as 1868 vessels were accustomed to dredge for oysters or to lie in harbor. And not only does the town itself but its business and prosperity rest upon the product of the oyster reefs. This port is situated in one of the most productive oyster regions of the Chesapeake and vast quantities of these mollusks are caught within sight of the shucking-houses. Somerset has more persons engaged in catching and transporting fishery products than any other county in America, over one-half of the wage-earners thereof being engaged in the various branches of the fisheries. The shucking trade was established at Crisfield in 1870, in competition with that of Salisbury and Seaford (Delaware), and within ten years it had grown to 700,000 bushels a year. It gradually extended beyond the limits of the town, and many shucking-houses are now situated at various points in the neig hborhood convenient to the Crisfield branch of the New York, Philadelphia and Norfolk Railroad. The oysters handled are nearly all the product of Tangier and Pocomoke sounds, a quan- tity coming from those portions of these sounds situated within the State of Virginia. In this locality are found 28 houses, valued at $125,000, and employing 1,500 persons. The latter are mostly colored, only a few white persons being employed except in posi- tions of responsibility. The wages paid are about the same grade as in Baltimore and approximate $175,000 annually. Dorchester County. — Cambridge is the most extensive oyster market in this county. The importance of this port as an oyster center is of more recent development than that of Crisfield. The trade began here about 1871, but its greatest development has occurred during the last 10 years. Including the one or two small markets in other portions of the county, the trade now numbers 19 shucking-houses, valued at $50,000, and gives employment to 750 persons, disbursing about $90,000 in wages annually. Most of the oysters are obtained from the Choptank River. The annual product of the shucking-houses represents about 600,000 bushels, the cost of handling which is about 25 cents per bushel. Talbot County. — Talbot has three wholesale oyster ports, Oxford, St. Michael, and Claiborne. Oxford is located on the Choptank River across from and competing with Cambridge. St. Michael and Claiborne are situated on the shores of Eastern Bay. The shucking trade at the latter port is of recent origin and comparatively light, but the industry at St. Michael and Oxford dates back to about 1865. Little difference exists in the trade conducted at these two ports, either in the method or quantity of oysters handled. There are at present in Talbot County 13 shucking- 272 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. houses, valued at $50,000, and employing 700 persons, who receive nearly $100,000 in wages anuually. The quantity of oysters handled by these houses approximates 650,000 bushels annually and consists mostly of “Choptanks” and “Eastern Bays.” Anne Arundel County. — Excepting Baltimore, Annapolis is the only wholesale oyster market on the Western Shore of Maryland. The business was established here about 1866 and, together with the oyster fishery, at present constitutes the most important commercial source of revenue in the “Ancient City.” Nearly all of the oysters handled are the product of the tonging-grounds along the shores of Anne Arundel County, with occasional cargoes from Eastern Bay and Chester River. The quantity received at this market annually amounts to about 300,000 bushels, and the persons employed in the 10 houses, which are valued at $35,000, number 400, who receive $40,000 a year in wages, the cost of handling the oysters being about $75,000. Other ports. — Several small markets exist in Wicomico and Queen Anne counties, giving employment to about 125 persons and utilizing about 110,000 bushels of oysters annually. The shucking-houses in Wicomico County are located at Whitehaven, on the Wicomico River. Salisbury, in that county, formerly handled a large quantity of oysters and was the first wholesale market established in Maryland outside of Balti- more, but the more favorable location of Orisfield attracted the trade of Salisbury as soon as the former port obtained railroad facilities. The oyster trade at Seaford, Delaware, located on a branch of the Nanticoke River, is entirely dependent on the product of the fishery in Maryland, nearly all of its supply being obtained from the Tangier Sound and tributaries. This was the first of the down-the-bay oyster markets, the industry being started here in 1859 by Messrs. Platt and Mallory, from Connecticut. From 1860 to 1868 a large business was done in canning raw oysters. At present there are 5 shucking-houses at Seaford, valued at $19,000, employing 415 persons, and handling about 250,000 bushels of oysters annually. The following tables exhibit with much detail the extent of the shucking trade at the county markets during certain seasons : The county oyster markets. 1889-90. Counties. Number of firms. 1 Number of per- sons engaged. Value of property. Cash or credit cap- ital. Wages paid. Oysters > received. Oysters sold. Enhancement in value. Average cost per bushel. Average value received per bushel. Average enhance- mentin value per bushel. Bushels. Value paid. Gallons. Value re- ceived. Somerset Wicomico Dorchester Talbot Queen A nne Anne Arundel . . Total 27 18 14 2 10 1, 436 63 789 716 37 403 $115, 750 3, 300 49, 430 47, 975 1, 750 34, 500 $112, 950 5, 000 76, 500 37, 200 1,300 40, 000 $165, 886 4, 925 94, 440 102, 976 ' 5, 31C 56, 500 1, 140, 753 46, 500 674, 200 709, 970 35, 000 387, 941 $513, 138 20, 925 303, 390 333, 925 14, 500 139, 680 771, 558 31, 500 . 451,254 484, 595 23, 700 271, 620 $780, 376 33, 560 456, 558 505, 976 23, 751 231, 860 $267, 238 12, 635 153, 168 172, 051 9, 251 92, 180 $0.45 .45 .45 .47 .41 .36 $0. 68 .72 .68 .71 .67 .60 $0.23 .27 .23 .24 .26 .24 72 3, 444 252, 705 272, 950 430, 037 2, 994, 364 1, 325, 558 2, 034, 227 2, 032, 081 706, 523 .44 .67 .24 1890-91. Somerset 28 1, 545 119, 075 123, 250 181, 675 1, 259, 040 570, 969 848, 206 834, 034 263, 065 .46 .66 .20 Wicomico 2 123 8, 800 11, 500 11, 633 110, 500 55, 250 74, 950 77, 680 22, 430 .50 .70 .20 Dorchester 19 745 50, 850 75, 100 83, 910 583, 783 294, 526 398, 935 407, 954 113, 428 .50 .70 .20 Talbot 13 632 49, 450 35, 200 80, 735 562, 446 277, 297 382, 170 386, 892 109, 595 .49 .69 .20 Queen Anno 2 32 1, 750 1, 300 5, 050 33, 000 16, 500 22, 400 22, 530 6, 030 .50 .69 .19 Anne Arundel . . 9 386 33, 000 39, 500 34, 800 261, 523 136, 240 201, 064 187, 910 51, 670 .50 .70 .20 Total 73 3,463 262, 925 285, 850 397, 803 2, 810, 292 1, 350, 782 1,927, 725 1, 917, 000 566, 218 .48 .69 .20 THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 273 The following tabular statement exhibits in a comparative form the total extent of the shucking trade during a number of seasons. The increase in the county markets at the expense of the trade at Baltimore is particularly noticeable : Table showing total extent of the oyster-shueJcing trade in Maryland. Items. 1879-80. • 1889-90. Baltimore. Counties. Total. Baltimore. Counties. Total. Number of persona 6, 627 2, 012 8, 639 8, 687 3, 444 12, 131 Value of property $1,360, 966 $75, 060 $1. 436, 026 $2, 044, 600 . $252, 705 $2, 297, 305 Cash capital $2, 338, 300 $154, 050 $2, 497, 350 $1, 935, 000 $272, 950 $2, 207, 950 Wages paid $602, 427 $175, 352 $777, 779 $727, 241 $430, 037 $1, 157, 278. $497, 541 $126, 190 $523, 731 $411, 302 Oysters shucked : Raw, bushel 3, 769, 353 1, 160, 948 4, 930, 301 3,206,177 2, 994, 364 6, 200, 541 Value paid $1, 448, 040 $300. 420 $1, 748, 460 $1, 899. 660 $1, 325, 558 $3, 225, 218 Value received $2, 272, 240 $453, 497 $2, 725, 737 $2, 662, 076 $2, 032, 081 $4, 694, 157 Oysters canned : Bushels 2, 689, 939 2, 723, 191 2, 491, 088 2, 491, 088 Vain© paid. $811, 208 $818,488 $1, 071, 168 $1,071,168 V alue received .... $1,244, 609 $23’, 403 $1, 268, 112 $1, 728, 985 $1,728, 985 Total oysters handled : Bushels 6, 459, 292 1, 194, 200 7, 653, 492 5, 697, 265 2, 994, 364 8, 691, 629 Value paid $2, 259, 248 $307, 600 $2, 566, 848 $2, 970, 828 $1, 325, 558 $4, 296, 386 Value received $3, 517, 349 $476, 499 $3. 993, 848 $4, 391, 061 $2, 032, 081 $6, 423, 142 Enhancement in value $1, 258, 101 $168, 899 $1, 427, 000 $1, 420, 233 $706, 523 $2, 126, 756 1890-91. 1891-92. Items. Baltimore. Counties. Total. Baltimore. Counties. Total. Number of persons 7, 830 3, 463 11, 293 8, 523 3, 585 12, 108 Value of property $2, 013,100 $262, 525 $2, 275, 625 $2, 035, 000 $270, 500 $2, 305, 500 Cash capital $1, 755, 000 $285, 850 $2, 040, 850 $2, 050, 000 $295, 000 $2, 245, 000 Wages paid $527, 150 $397, 803 $924, 953 $646, 975 $456, 350 $1,103,325 Other expenses $375, 030 $405, 000 Oysters shucked : Raw, bushel 2, 331, 228 2, 810, 292 5, 141, 520 2, 736, 342 3, 362, 480 6, 098, 822 Value paid $1, 806, 129 $1, 350, 782 $3, 156, 911 $1, 810, 120 $1, 544, 610 $3, 354, 730 Value received $2, 373, 526 $1, 917, 000 $4, 290, 526 2, 482, 000 $2, 368, 130 $4, 850, 130 Oysters canned: Bushels 1, 860, 792 1, 860, 792 2, 396, 763 2, 396, 763 Value oaid $1, 023, 436 $1,023, 436 $1, 201, 600 $1, 201, 600 Value received $1, 612, 572 $1, 612r572 $1, 856, 510 $1, 856, 510 Total oysters handled: Bushels 4, 192, 020 2, 810, 292 7, 002, 312 5, 133, 105 3, 362, 480 8, 495, 585 Value paid . $2. 829, 565 $1, 350, 782 $4, 180, 347 $3, 011, 720 $1, 544, 610 $4, 556, 330 Value received $3, 986, 101 $1, 917, 000 $5, 903, 101 $4, 338, 000 $2, 368, 130 $6, 706, 130 Enhancement in value $566, 218 $1, 722, 754 $1, 326, 280 $823, 520 $2, 149, 800 The oyster shells. — The disposition of the shells has always been an important item for consideration in connection with the marketing of oysters. As several hundred vessels are constantly employed during seven months of each year in trans- porting oysters to the markets, and as 1,000 bushels of oysters produce about 1,100 bushels of shells, it can be imagined how rapidly these accumulate about the shucking- houses. The quantity of shells landed on the Maryland shores during the last ninety years approximates nearly 400,000,000 bushels, or 12,000,000 tons, twice sufficient to overload and sink every sail and steam vessel and barge and canal boat of America, and greater than the combined tonnage of all the sail vessels of the world. As three- fourths of the composition of the shell is carbonate of lime, the question that the Fool asked of King Lear — how the oyster makes its shell — appears almost unanswerable. Until the last two or three years the shells were usually given away without cost to the recipient and even then it was so difficult to become relieved of them that those marketmen with very limited areas attached to their shucking-houses spent thousands of dollars annually in having the shells removed. But the demand for them so greatly increased that they are now a considerable source of profit. It is estimated that in F. C. B. 1892—18 274 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 1889-90 the Baltimore marketmen in the aggregate paid $20,000 to be relieved of the shells; in 1890-91 some paid to have the shells removed, some succeeded in giving them away, while others were enabled to sell, this depending on the storing facilities of the respective market-houses, and probably the trade came out even. In 1891-92 and 1892-93 nearly all the marketmen sold their shells at prices ranging from £ to 1£ cents per bushel, the trade receiving each season about $25,000 therefrom. A similar condition prevailed at the smaller ports of the State. The uses to which these shells are applied are numerous and constantly increasing, the principal ones being here enumerated in the order of their extent : 1. For country-road making and filling in hollows, chiefly in Maryland, but during the last three years the Southern States bordering the coast have used large quantities for this purpose. 2. For conversion into lime for use in coal-gas making and other purposes in Maryland and adjacent States. 3. In the cultivation of oysters, mostly in Virginia, but also in Connecticut and' elsewhere. In 1891-92 and 1892-93 about 750,000 bushels were each year used in this manner. The Chesapeake oyster shells are not so desirable for “ cultch ” as those of New York and Connecticut, because of their being thicker and flatter. 4. For the beds of railroads. While not so endurable or steady as rock, yet they answer the purpose very well. Examples of their use in this manner may be found along the Baltimore and Eastern Shore railroad, the New York, Philadelphia and Norfolk railroad between Salisbury and King Creek, the Sparrow Point road, all in Maryland, and on the Southern Pacific railroad near Morgan City, La. 5. For chicken food. This product is very well known, the shells being merely crushed into small particles. Its popularity is increasing, but the quantity of shells ■utilized is small. 6. In the manufacture of certain special grades of iron. The shells are used because of their being so largely composed of carbonate of lime. STATISTICAL SUMMARY. Early extent of the industry. — Little reliable data exist with which to exhibit the extent of the oyster industry of Maryland prior to 1865. Careful search has been made through such Maryland publications of that time as would be likely to make reference to this subject, and although this search has not been rewarded with grati- fying results the following data have been obtained. An official report of the State, made in 1840, estimated the quantity of oysters used by the trade during the previous season at 710,000 bushels, the raw-shucking trade having been established in 1836; and in 1850 one of the daily papers of the State cal- culated that the annual consumption by the trade was then about 1,350,000 bushels, the steaming trade having been established four years previously. A writer in the Baltimore American in 1857 stated that the quantity of oysters marketed in the shell during the preceding season, 1856-57, was 950,000 bushels, while the shucking-houses of the State utilized 1,660,000 bushels, a total of 2,610,000 bushels. The Merchants’ Magazine and Commercial Review, of New York, estimated in 1859 the Maryland crop for the season 1858-59 to have been 3,500,000 bushels. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 275 Lieut. Paul de Broca, who visited this country in 1862 to study the oyster industry in the interests of the French Government, reported the following as the extent of the Maryland industry in 1861 : * Maryland oyster fishery in 1861. 3, ooo, ooo $1, 050, ooo 500 3,000 $1,800, 000 $3, 000, 000 Bushels of oysters caught Value of same Number of vessels and boats employed. . Number of persons. Capital invested Commercial value of marketed products. .No data exist to verify or dispute any of these statements, and it is supposed that they fairly represent the extent of the industry during the periods for which they were respectively recorded. Beginning with 1865, the record of the number of tonging, dredging, and scraping licenses issued, as exhibited on other pages of this report, is a good index to the growth and prosperity of each branch of the fishery. The data relative to the quan- tity of oysters obtained since then are also more voluminous and reliable than for the preceding period. During the first season in which the general license system was operative, 1865-66, according to Mr. O. S. Maltby, the catch by tongs amounted to 1,216,375 bushels and by dredges and scrapes 3,663,125, a total of 4,879,500 bushels. For the seasons 1868-69, 1869-70, and 1870-71 the following statistics have been presented by Mr. Hunter Davidson, who was then in command of the fishery force: Maryland oyster fishery in 1868-69, 1869-70, and 1870-71. Items. 1868-09. 1869-70. 1870-71. Vessels dredging and scraping: Number 563 12, 660 $449, 400 1,907 $143, 025 3, 560 6, 305! 600 1, 735, 379 642 14, 436 $513, 600 1, 647 $123,525 4, 060 3,410 7, 190, 400 2, 043, 075 637 14, 425 $509, 600 1, 792 $134, 400 3, 775 3, 807 2’, 26l! 403 Tonnage*.. Value Boats tonging: Number Value Men dredging and scraping Men tonging Catch, dredging and scraping bushels.. Catch, tonging Total bushels.. Value 8, 040, 970 $2, 814, 340 9, 233, 475 $3, 231, 716 8, 947, 803 $3, 031, 731 The following data were reported in 1880 by the IT. S. Fish Commission, as repre- senting the extent of the industry in 1879-80: Maryland oyster fishery in 1879-80. Branches of the industry. No of boats and vessels. Value of boats and vessels. No of persons employed. Dredging 700 $1, 050, 000 5, 600 Scraping 550 440, 000 2,200 Tonging 1,825 182, 500 5,148 Transporting 200 300, 000 800 Total 3,275 1, 972, 500 13, 748 Oysters caught, number of bushels = 10,600,000. Etude sur l’lndustrie Huitri&re des fitats-Unis. Paris, 1865. 276 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Present extent of the industry. — The following tables compiled for this report exhibit by counties the extent of the various branches of the oyster industry for the seasons 1890-91 and 1891-92: TONGING, 1890-91. Counties. No. of men. Vessels tonging. Boats tonging. Total vessels and boats. Value of tongs. Total catch. No. Ton- nage. Value. Value of outfit. ■No. Value. No. Value. Bushels. Value. Somerset Wicomico Dorchester Talbot Queen Anne . . Kent Anne Arundel Calvert St. Mary Charles Worcester Total.... 1,405 850 1, 443 1,237 1,112 769 1, 957 1,077 1, 380 192 192 9 3 440. 85 75.92 12. 85 20. 62 $25, 790 5, 345 750 1, 150 $5, 250 750 90 923 344 1,003 656 488 410 595 512 756 155 112 $67, 105 31, 925 60, 180 44,090 30, 086 19, 609 45, 500 25, 016 43, 125 5, 673 6, 480 923 344 1,003 656 410 650 521 757 155 115 $67, 105 31, 925 60, 180 44, 090 30, 086 19, 609 71, 290 30, 361 - 43, 875 5,673 7, 630 $9, 216 5,670 7,498 7, 918 5, 065 4j 305 12, 442 10, 770 10, 410 1, 020 795 1, 094, 935 353, 500 409, 660 402, 000 367, 375 236, 500 591, 505 264, 730 463, 967 54, 518 115, 143 $522, 774 176, 621 205, 292 201,000 204, 374 141, 388 321, 530 146, 677 267, 241 93| 070 11, 614 ti8 550. 24 33, 035 6,175 5, 954 378, 789 6, 022 411. 824 75, 109 4, 353, 833 2, 307, 816 TONGING, 1891-92. Counties. No. of men. Vessels tonging Boats tonging. 1 Total vessels and boats. Value of tongs. Total catch. No. Ton- nage. Value. Value of outfit. No. Value. No. Value. Bushels. Value. Somerset Wicomico Dorchester Talbot Queen Anne . . Kent Anne Arundel Calvert St. Mary Charles Worcester Total .... 1,355 830 1, 352 727 1,064 862 1,834 1,102 1, 394 167 126 41 i . 326. 70 70. 18 $19, 865 5,200 $4, 300 710 890 333 933 512 564 510 574 523 759 122 $65, 220 31,025 59,480 36, 070 37, 590 29, 480 44, 210 28, 350 43, 990 5, 105 5,370 890 333 933 512 564 510 615 531 759 122 $65, 220 31, 025 59. 480 36, 070 37, 590 29. 480 64, 075 33, 550 43, 990 5, 105 5, 370 $8, 860 4, 830 7,015 4, 835 5, 180 4, 965 11, 625 11, 010 11, 015 940 525 1, 065, 530 370, 825 450, 720 324, 650 420, 160 345, 820 667, 295 334, 640 487, 675 44, 500 94, 520 $486, 230 175, 320 212, 805 159, 180 209, 615 174, 130 328, 9”5 173, 9' 5 274, 210 21, 840 80, 640 10, 813 49 396. 88 25, 065 5, 010 |5, 809 385, 890 5, 858 410, 955 70, 800 4, 606, 385 2, 296, 860 The extent of the bedding or planting industry is here included. This is so small, amounting to about one-seventieth of the extent of the tonging fishery, that this arrangement does not preclude the use of the foregoing figures as an exposi- tion of the extent of the common fishery as prosecuted by means of tongs. DREDGING, 1890-91. Counties. No. of men. Vessels dredging. Boats dredging. Total vessels and boats. Value of appa- ratus. Total catch. No. Tonnage. Value. Value of outfit. No. Value. No. Value. Bushels. Value. Somerset 2,453 88 78 11 2, 015 40 119 208 412 31 18 235 11 19 18 7, 338. 63 305. 41 649. 10 170. 37 31. 45 7, 591. 44 121.16 410. 70 215. 90 $329, 420 14, 225 30, 215 8,420 1, 075 228, 645 9, 615 22, 805 12, 475 $124, 060 4, 815 10, 640 4, 220 352 84, 694 1, 505 3,035 2,400 13 $2, 610 425 13 31 18 2 235 11 23 63 $332, 030 14, 225 30, 215 8, 420 1, 075 228, 645 9, 615 23, 485 16, 295 $37, 745 1,742 3,620 1, 820 125 21, 150 550 1,445 2, 350 1, 823, 030 42, 190 84, 500 46, 160 2, 800 767, 046 23,900 56, 550 63, 106 $913, 080 22, 085 43, 300 24, 235 2. 150 554, 231 16, 300 36, 300 34, 224 VV i p.nm i r.n Dorchester Talbot Kent Baltimore 4 45 68o" 1 3,820 Anne Arundel Calvert St. Mary Total 5, 215 759 16, 834. 16 656, 895 235,721 1 62 7,110 821 664, 005 70,547 2,909,282 1, 645, 905 Of the foregoing, 183 vessels (2,648.23 tons) and 13 boats from Somerset, 16 vessels (156.31 tons) from Dorchester, and 9 vessels (81.24 tons) from Talbot, engaged in scraping within the limits of those counties, catching 465,000, 20.000 and 8,000 bushels respectively, reducing the catch in “ State waters” to 2,416,282 bushels, with a value of $1,405,905. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 277 DREDGING, 1891-92. Counties. No. of men. Vessels dredging. Boats dredging. Total vessels and boats. Value of appa- ratus. Total catch. No. Tonnage. Value. Value of outfit. No. Value. No. Value. Bushels. Value. Somerset Wicomico Dorchester Talbot Kent Baltimore Anne Arundel Calvert St. Mary Charles Total 2, 225 283 54 14 1. 964 114 167 204 351 5 42 2 221 25 20 19 6, 739. 37 94. 05 799. 44 121. 53 52.04 6, 992. 34 333. 42 257! 56 42.42 $306, 145 4, 975 37, 620 6, 100 2, 100 221, 670 24,210 15, 850 13, 440 2, 600 $116, 750 2, 200 2’ 650 380 84, 875 5,400 3, 100 3,500 300 20 39 $2, 890 450 3,425 362 5 42 12 2 221 26 40 58 2 $309, 035 4, 975 37, 620 6, 100 2, 100 221, 670 24, 660 19, 275 16, 070 2, 600 $32, 575 585 4, 060 965 210 20, 480 1, 710 2, 255 2, 430 160 1, 993, 220 19, 350 165, 085 44, 130 1, 123^ 715 86, 280 109, 850 102, 500 5, 600 $864, 195 9, 680 70. 120 18, 885 4, 300 38) 350 56, 100 54. 120 3, 100 5,059 699 15, 660. 39 634, 710 233, 835 71 9,395 770 644, 105 65, 430 3, 657, 965 1, 740, 310 Of the foregoing, 178 vessels (2,385.60 tons) and 11 boats from Somerset, 16 vessels (153.70 tons) from Dorchester, and 4 vessels (36.20 tons) from Talbot County engaged in scraping within the limits of those counties, catching 500,000, 20,000, and 4,000 bushels, respectively, reducing the catch by dredging in “ State waters ” to 3,133,965 bushels, with a value at first hands of $1,502,310. SCRAPING, 1890-91. Counties. No. of men. Vessels. Boats. Total vessels and boats. Value of appara- tus. Catch. No. Ton' | nage. Value. Value of outfit. No. Value. No. Value. Bushels. V alue. Somerset 1, 416 105 931.30 $47, 185 $26, 225 331 $78, 210 436 $125, 395 $20, 509 1, 319, 317 $663, 498 Dorchester 1, 806 268 459.59 129, 935 53, 447 266 34, 580 534 155, 515 23, 051 1, 157, 786 577, 390 Talbot 383 23 2,196.79 10, 455 4,090 79 18, 160 102 28, 615 3, 410 204, 840 101, 257 Total 3,605 396 3,587.68 187, 575 83, 762 676 130, 950 1, 072 309, 525 46, 970 2, 681, 943 1, 342, 145 In addition to the foregoing, 183 dredging vessels (2,648.23 tons) and 13 boats from Somerset, 16 dredging vessels (156.31 tons) from Dorchester, and 9 dredging vessels (81.24 tons) from Talbot engaged in scraping within the limits of those counties, catching therein 465,000, 20,000, and 8,000 bushels, respectively, thus increasing the catch on scraping areas to 3,174,943 bushels, with a value to the oystermen of $1,582,145. SCRAPING, 1891-92. Counties. Vessels. No. of Boats. Total vessels and boats. Value of Catch. men. No. Ton- nage. Value. Value of outfit. No. Value. No. Value. appara- tus. Bushels. Value. Somerset -Dorchester Talbot Total 1,514 116 1,952 286 291 18 3,757 420 1,036.42 2,602.38 145.82 3,784.62 $53, 015 131, 420 8, 875 $27, 960 56, 975 3,640 338 280 56 $79, 685 37, 590 14, 520 454 566 74 $132, 700 169, 010 23, 395 $21, 620 25, 050 2, 735 1, 472, 630 1, 715, 450 180, 300 $651, 280 701, 060 76, 610 193, 310 88, 575 674 131, 795 1, 094 325, 105 49, 405 3, 368, 380 1, 428, 950 In addition to the foregoing, 178 vessels (2,385.60 tons) and 11 dredging boats from Somerset, 16 dredging vessels (153.70 tons) from Dorchester, and 4 dredging vessels (36.20 tons) from Talbot engaged in scraping within the limits of those counties, catching 500,000, 20,000, and 4,000 bushels, respectively, thus increasing the catch on scraping areas to 3,892,380 bushels, with a value of $1,666,950. It should be observed that those vessels and boats engaged both in dred ging and scraping are reported only under the former caption, in order to avoid a duplication of the property and men employed in the fishery. Many estimates here- tofore made on the extent of this industry failing to note this duplication have thereby reported 225 vessels and boats, 1,.000 men, and a catch sometimes amounting to over 1,000,000 bushels more than was actually the case. 278 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. TRANSPORTING. No. Tonnage. Value. Value of outfit. O . Ol men. No. 1 Tonnage. Value. Value of outfit. no. or men. Somerset 60 2, 005. 24 $91, 150 $13,822 266 78 2, 399. 48 $120, 360 $17, 100 331 Wicomico 10 383. 65 19, 500 2, 495 46 15 1 564. 17 30, 260 3,600 63 Dorchester 45 1, 981. 84 98, 100 10, 735 198 41 1, 956. 10 92, 850 9,650 179 Talbot 3 100. 94 5,200 590 11 5 138. 50 7] 350 980 20 Queen Anne 18 344. 95 15, 150 2, 336 48 19 367. 84 17, 200 2, 800 59 Kent 40 637. 02 20, 350 3, 873 87 39 620. 05 : 20, 100 3, 950 85 Baltimore 152 5, 741. 73 219, 675 16, 899 552 194 J 7, 266. 83 269, 375 25, 820 693 Anne Arundel .• 28 492. 32 27, 050 2, 233 78 22 352. 84 22, 625 1, 840 62 Calvert 22 894. 07 49, 175 3, 465 84 21 865. 13 47, 875 3, 400 81 St. Mary 21 529. 69 23, 650 2, 742 74 22 536. 29 25, 240 3,150 78 Total 399 13, 111. 45 569, 000 59, 190 1,444 456 15, 067. 29 653, 235 72,290 1,651 Condensed tables exhibiting the extent of the various branches of the fishery. Items. Persons Vessels-and boats. Value of Value of i Total capital ; invested. Products. engaged. No. Value. appa- ratus. outfit. Bushels. Value. Tonging Dredging Scraping Transporting 11, 614 5,215 3,605 1,444 6, 022 82] 1,072 399 $411, 824 664, 005 309, 525 569, 000 $75, 109 70, 547 46, 970 $6, 175 235, 721 83, 762 59, 190 $493, 108 970,273 ! - 440, 257 ; 628, 190 4, 353, 833 2, 909, 282 2, 681, 943 $2, 307, 816 1, 645, 905 1, 342, 145 *370, 000 Total 21, 878 8, 314 1, 954, 354 192, 626 384, 848 2,531,828 I 9, 945, 058 5, 665, 866 Tonging Dredging Scraping Transporting . 10, 813 5, 059 3, 757 1,651 5,858 770 1, 094 456 410, 955 644. 105 325. 105 653, 235 70, 800 65, 430 49, 405 5, 010 233, 835 88, 575 72, 290 486, 765 943, 370 463, 085 725, 525 4, 606, 385 3, 657, 965 3, 368, 380 2, 296, 860 1,740,310 1,428, 950 *400, 000 21, 280 8,178 2, 033, 400 185, 635 399, 710 2, 618, 745 11,632, 730 5, 866, 120 * Enhancement in value of oysters transported. Noth. — Sufficient data are not at hand to exhibit similar tables for 1892-93, hut the information from the various oystering centers indicates that the yield during that season was about 10,142,500 bushels, for which the oystermen and transporters received $5,500,000. Of this amount 4,432,500 bushels were obtained by tongmen, 3,100,000 by dredgers, and 2,610,000 by scrapemen, the total number of men employed approximating 21,200. GRAND SUMMARY. 1890-91. Personsen- gaged. Amount of capital employed. 1891-92. Persons en- gaged. Amount of capital employed. Oystering and transporting Marketing 21, 878 11, 293 $2, 531, 828 4, 316, 475 Oystering and transporting Marketing 21, 280 12, 108 $2, 618, 745 4, 650, 500 Total Total 33, 171 6, 848, 303 33, 388 7, 269, 245 THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 279 The total extent to which Maryland is dependent on the oyster fishery is not fully indicated in the foregoing tables. The amount of money received by the oyster- men for their product poorly represents the value of this industry. In the eleven counties in which the fishery is prosecuted it is the mainstay of the people, and the prosperity of nearly all business therein is regulated by it. As four-fifths of the oysters are sent out of the State through wholesale markets, etc., and as the value of the product after it has passed through these markets and transportation agencies averages about 90 cents for each bushel originally represented, it is reasonable to assume that for each bushel of oysters caught in Maryland about 70 cents is brought into the State. During the last ten years this would amount to about $80,000,000 received by the oystermen, marketmen, transportation agencies, etc., which would not have been brought into the State were it not for the oyster fishery, and this does not include the value of the 'millions of bushels of oysters consumed within the State. This sum is much greater than the total taxable value of all property located in the counties in which this fishery is prosecuted, not including the city of Baltimore. At least 95 per cent of this revenue is received by men whose wages or incomes amount to less than $1,000 a year. In this class are included all the oystermen and nearly all the employes of the shucking-houses and transportation agencies. Then, when consideration is taken of the large number of persons engaged in other voca- tions, but dependent on the patronage of these men to a greater or less extent, such as vessel builders and repairers, sail-makers, blacksmiths, house carpenters, grocerymen, merchants, even the physicians, lawyers, etc., the enormous value of the industry is apparent, and it is observed how vitally important to the people of the State is the continued prosperity of the fishery. A careful survey of the extent of the oyster product of Maryland from the begin- ning of the present century develops the following as an approximation of the product during each decade, not including those taken by non-residents or those used for fertilizing purposes: Period. No. of bushels. Period. No. of bushels. 1800-1810.... 2, 500, 000 4, 000, 000 5, 000, 000 8, 000, 000 15, 000, 000 1860-1870 63, 000, 000 114. 000. 000 116. 000. 000 31, 720, 000 1810-1820 1870-1880 1820-1830 1880-1890 1830 1840 1890-1893 1 840-1 fiso 1850-1860 34, 000! 000 Tota | 393, 220, 000 To exhibit the comparative value of this product, the following tabular statement is submitted showing the average prices received at Baltimore during the seasons indicated for u straight up” or standard stock. These figures are a trifle higher than the average for the product of the State : Season. Average price per bushel. Season. Average price per bushel. 1850-51 Gents. 30 1880-81 Gents. 40 1855-56 30 1885 86 45 1860-61 35 1889-90 53 1865-66 *70 1890-91 69 1870-71 35 1891-92 62 1875-76 33 1892-93 66 * War prices. 280 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. STATE REVENUE AND FISHERY FORCE. The State as a landlord. — Let us now view the oyster industry from another stand- point, and, remembering that the extensive areas of reefs are the properties not of the oystermen but of the State at large, examine Maryland’s record as a financier in controlling these properties, omitting consideration for the time being of her position as legislator and patron of the industries within her limits. Comparatively few of the United States have considered it expedient to burden any branch of the fisheries with a special tax; on the contrary the fishermen have at times been the recipients of assistance in the form of relief from certain general taxes or in the granting of bounties. But there is a growing tendency to consider the taking of oysters different from the ordinary fisheries and to cause it to bear some special part in paying the expenses of the State aside from the ordinary taxation of the property engaged in the business. Maryland was among the first of the States to impose a tax upon the catching of oysters, this being in 1854. when the local scraping license for Somerset County was authorized, followed in 1865 by the adoption of the general license system. Since 1854 and up to the close of the fiscal year 1893 the revenue received from the issuing of oystering licenses by this State has amounted to $1,781,520.61, not including the revenue from fines imposed for violating the oyster laws, as this can not be considered a tax on the fishery. This is a greater amount than all the remaining States of America have received by special taxation from all branches of their free and private fisheries combined. All of this money has not been paid directly into the treasury of the State, a portion of it being devoted to the purposes of the counties in the waters of which the licenses authorized oystering; nevertheless it is public revenue, collected by authority of the general assembly and subject to disposition thereby. The following table exhibits by fiscal years (October 1-September 30) the license fees received from each branch of the fishery, the rate of fees required during each season having been exhibited on the preceding pages: Table exhibiting the license revenue daring each fiscal year from the various branches of the oyster fishery. Years. ToDging. Dredging. Scraping. Total. ! Years. Tonging. Dredging. Scraping. Total. 1854-64 T 1879-80 $7, 025. 00 $18, 606. 50 $2, 689. 40 $28, 320. 90 1864-65.... $1, 919. 10 $12, 111. 20 1880-81.... 8, 182. 35 40, 589. 98 3, 986. 14 52, 7o8. 47 1865-66... 48,463.221 $51. 380. 00 $252,582.52 1881-82 8, 422. Q0 52, 582. 05 4, 108. 85 65, 112. 90 1866-67.... (i, 183.’ 44 22, 515. 29 f 1 1882-83 8, 752. 00 48, 841. 64 5, 241. 00 62, 834. 64 1867-68.... 11, 669. 20 32, 535. 90 1883-84.... 9, 161. 00 45, 127. 65 5, 730. 62 60, 019. 27 1868-69 10, 905. 56 46, 800. 86] 1884-85 15, 627. 00 69, 528. 72 6, 489. 94 91, 645. 66 1869-70. . . . 9, 409. 80 38,675.80 2, 830. 00 50, 915. 60 1885-86.... 13, 083. 00 49, 631. 59 9, 752. 08 72. 466. 67 1870-71.... 7, 900. 00 41, 587. 46 5, 172. 00 54, 659. 46 1886-87.... 12, 626. 00 52, 411. 68 9, 620. 64 74, 658. 42 1871-72.... 8, 790. 45 39, 039. 62 5, 776. 00 53, 606. 07 1887-88 13, 082. 00 48, 675. 54 8, 321. 34 70, 078. 88 1872-73.... 8, 969. 00 54, 159. 46 4, 954. 00 68, 082. 46 1888-89 13, 812: 00 57, 928. 72 8, 374. 29 80,115.01 1873-74.... 7, 420. 50 30, 227. 77 4, 206. 00 41, 854. 27 1889-90 15, 741.00 52, 945. 27 10. 440. 43 79, 127. 70 1874-75.... 7, 454. 00 42, 355. 58 4, 923. 42 54, 733. 00 j 1890-91.... 24, 943. 00 50, 275. 03 15, 176. 95 90, 394. 98 1875-76.... 6, 797. 00 48, 468. 68 4,418. 04 59, 683. 72 ! 1891-92 22, 888. 00 44. 744.73 13,667. 93 81, 290. 66 1876-77.... 6, 382. 00 49, 837. 46 3, 625. 65 59, 845. 11 1892-93 32, 353. 50 44, 781. 72 13, 333. 74 90, 468. 98 1877-78. . . . 5, 504. 00 37, 408. 39 2, 623. 20 45, 535. 59 1878-79. . . . 6, 075. 00 31, 173. 29 3, 472. 50 40, 720. 79 Total . . . 319, 175. 65 1, 252, 030. 80 210, 314. 16 1, 781, 320. 61 From the foregoing table it is observed that during the last five years the revenue from tonging, dredging, and scraping has been $109,737.50, $250,675.47, and $60,993.34, respectively, or an annual average of $21,947.50, $50,135.09, and $12,198.67. The area THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 281 of the natural reefs on which these three forms of fishery are prosecuted has been found to be about 154, 121, and 80 square miles, respectively, and the average annual product during the last five years, 4,850,000, 3,450,000, and 2,750,000 bushels. These data form the basis of the following- tabular statement: form of fishery. Area, square miles. Product, bushels. Annual revenue, average for five years. Average revenue. Per square mile. Per 1,000 bushels. [ Tonging Dredging Scraping Total 154 *121 4. 850. 000 3. 450. 000 2, 750, 000 $21, 947. 50 50, 135. 09 12, 198. 67 f $142. 51 414. 33 152. 48 $4. 52 14. 53 4. 43 355 11, 050, 000 84, 281. 26 Average 237. 41 7.62 * Of this area 42 square miles are used also by Virginia oystermen. The foregoing table exhibits the annual average rate of revenue for the last five years, but as the license fees for tonging were increased in 1892 it does not properly exhibit the extent of the tax which that branch of the fishery is now paying, and the following table is submitted for this purpose, showing the condition of the license- revenue receipts for the season 1892-93 : License-revenue receipts for 1892-93. Area, Product, bushels. .annual revenue. Average revenue. Form of fishery. square miles. Per square Per 1,000 bushels. Tonffifip - 154 4, 432, 500 3. 100. 000 2. 610. 000 $32, 353. 50 44, 781. 72 $210. 09 370. 14 $7. 30 14. 44 Th’ftd o-ing 121 Scraping 80 13, 333. 74 166. 67 5.10 Total 355 10, 142, 500 90, 468. 96 A vftrago 254. 84 8. 92 The fact that about 200 vessels and boats work Tinder both a dredging- and a scraping license complicates somewhat the consideration of the proportionate revenue per square mile or per 1,000 bushels for those two forms of fishing. In the two fore- going tables the catch made by these craft has been noted entirely under dredging. Were it practicable to exhibit with greater accuracy these average items for the two branches of fishery indicated the average revenue from dredging per square mile would be slightly decreased and the revenue per 1,000 bushels would be slightly increased and an opposite effect would be produced in these two items for the scraping branch of the fishery, but the change effected would -not be material. It is thus observed that during the last season the dredgers have paid twice as much revenue or tax per 1,000 bushels as the tongmen and nearly three times as much as the scrapemen. The total revenue during that season' averaged $8.92 per 1,000 bushels, or $254.84 per square mile, or 40 cents per acre. As the oystermen received about $5,500,000 for their catch, the State revenue was at the rate of over $16 per $1,000 worth of oysters. The total revenue since the adoption of the license system being $1,781,520.61, and the area of the reefs approximating 355 square miles, the State has up to the 282 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. present time received from the reefs, in the form of license fees, an average of $5,018.36 per square mile or $7.84 per acre. As we can judge of the ability of one financier only by comparing his operations with those of others, let us examine what has been done by other States so far as deriving a revenue from the public oyster reefs is concerned. The following oyster- producing States derive no revenue from this source : Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Texas, California, Oregon, Washington. Prior to 1893 Connecticut did not tax her oy stermen for working on the public reefs, but in that year adopted a license system on the following basis : For each boat or vessel working on the public reefs the owner thereof is required to pay annually the sum of $2 if the boat or vessel measures less than 5 tons, but if it measures over 5 tons he is required to pay 50 cents for each additional ton. In New Jersey the only public-reef oystermen subjected to special taxation are those who gather oysters from the waters of Cumberland County in Delaware Bay. These men are required to obtain a license at the rate of $5 on all craft not over 5 tons, and $1 per ton, custom house measurement, on all boats and vessels exceeding that tonnage. The total revenue amounts to about $5,000 annually, while the catch is about 1,300,000 bushels valued at $400,000, the area of the natural beds being about 60,000 acres. But this revenue is not so much a tax on the public-reef oystermen as upon the planting operations of that region, for the license also permits without further cost the preemption of sufficient area of ground in Delaware Bay for planting the oysters obtained from the public reefs, this area being about 10,000 acres. Within the limits of Pennsylvania there are no oyster beds whatever, either public or private. The oysters usually credited to that State are gathered from the beds situated within New Jersey and Delaware and are obtained in accordance with the regulations of those States. In Delaware each tongman, with a few minor exceptions, is required to obtain an annual license, costing $5. The number of men licensed during each of the last six seasons has been as follows: 1887, 61; 1888, 67; 1889, 68; 1890, 80; 1891, 48; 1892 (September 1, 1892, to March 31, 1893), 68. The catch amounts to about 120,000 bush- els annually, valued at $32,000. The dredging regulations in Delaware are quite similar to those operative in Cumberland County, N. J., the license authorizing the preemption of ground for planting purposes in addition to permitting the gath- ering of oysters from the public reefs. The fee is $3 per ton, and the revenue amounts to about $600 annually. The area of reefs on which the dredgers operate is about 4,500 acres, and the annual catch is about 85,000 bushels, valued at $20,000. In Virginia dredging vessels are required to pay a license fee of 50 cents per ton for each month in which they are engaged, and each tongman is required to pay annually the sum of $2 and an additional fee of 50 cents for each boat used. The con- stitution of the State interdicts the taxing of tongs used on oyster reefs ; but conflict with this is avoided by providing, under an elaborate system, for a tax on the quantity of oysters caught and permitting the tongmen to pay an annual fee of $2 in lieu thereof. From 1880 to 1891, inclusive, the Virginia receipts from all forms of oyster-license tax in the State amounted to $120,153.83 and the disbursements for the oyster police force? etc., were $163,197.43. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 283 The present license system became operative in 1884, and the annual receipts and disbursements since then have been as shown in the following tabular statement : Virginia oyster fund. Fiscal year. Receipts. Disburse- ments. 1884 $919. 93 $18, 907. 97 1885 26, 476. 93 27, 025. 66 1886 22, 949. 89 22, 574. 25 1887 13, 329. 21 13, 755. 89 16, 712. 35 1888 18, 922. 82 1889 12, 455. 56 17, 190. 94 1890 12, 817. 53 19, 561. 73 1891 14, 114. 83 21, 683. 92 Total 116, 819. 77 162, 579. 64 These figures include a small revenue from taxing the private planting-grounds ; this, however, is so small that for the purposes of the present discussion they may be considered as representing only the revenue from the public reefs. In Louisiana, the remaining State which provides for taxing public-reef oyster- men, tonging is the only form of oystering permitted, and the license system regulat- ing it is based on that of Virginia, even to the adoption of the complicated system which the latter State provided in order to avoid conflict with its constitution. The fee in Louisiana is at the rate of 50 cents annually for each boat employed, and an ad- ditional 50 cents every three months for each man engaged. Difficulty, however, has been experienced in collecting the revenue and the regulation is practically inoperative. An approximation, for the last year for which data are at hand, of the product of the natural or public oyster reefs of each of the United States and the license receipts therefrom is contained in the following table: Product of public oyster reefs and State revenue therefrom. State. Public oyster reefs. Revenue. Year. Massachusetts Bushels. 25, 000 Value. $15, 000 Rhode Island 16, 865 1892 Connecticut 211,090 68,’ 589 1892 New York 810, 629 485, 730 1891 Neiy Jersey 1, 300, 000 400, 000 $5, 200 1892 Delaware 205. 272 51, 872 940 1892 Virginia 5, 690, 700 2, 290, 850 14, 115 1891 North Carolina 807, 260 175, 567 1890 South Carolina 63, 150 23, 204 1890 Georgia 224, 357 40, 520 1890 Florida 468, 431 108, 542 1890 Alabama 481, 070 107, 812 1890 Mississippi 806, 478 166, 672 1890 Louisiana 820, 000 260, 000 1890 Texas 440, 800 127, 990 1890 Washington 142. 730 127, 000 1892 Oregon 2,500 3, 125 1892 Total ... 12, 516, 332 4, 460, 331 20, 255 Maryland 10, 142, 500 5, 500, 000 90, 469 1893 Of the Maryland revenue, all of the dredging fees have been paid into the State treasury and the greater portion of the tonging and scraping fees into the treasuries 284 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. of the counties wherein the licenses were respectively issued. Prior to 1874-75 all of the tonging fees, amounting to $8 L, 266.25, were paid into the State treasury, and the receipts from this branch of the fishery in 1892-93, under the new license system, amounted to $2,672.70, making a total of $83,938.95 that has been paid into the treas- ury of the State out of the $319,175.65 revenue from tonging licenses. Of the revenue from scraping licenses, nothing was paid into the State treasury prior to 1892-93 except the revenue in Dorchester County in 1870-71 and 1871-72, which amounted to $3,008. In 1892 it was required that 10 per cent of the revenue from scraping licenses, after deducting 5 per cent for collection, should be paid into the State treasury. The revenue from the latter source in 1892-93 was $1,266.63, making a total of $4,274.63 received into the State treasury out of a total of $210,314.16 received in fees from this branch of the fishery. These figures form the basis of the following table: Total revenue received from oyster licenses in Maryland. Depository. Tonging. Dredging. Scraping. Total. State treasury County treasuries $83, 938. 95 235, 236. 70 $1, 252, 030. 80 $4, 274. 63 206, 039. 53 $1, 340 244. 38 441,276. 23 Total 319, 175. 65 1, 252, 030. 80 210, 314. 16 1, 781, 520. 61 In addition to the foregoing items the State treasury has received since 1884 one- tenth of a cent for every bushel of oysters used at the steaming-houses, this amounting to $22,461.20 to the present date; also since 1865 from oyster measurers, fines, and other sources, $89,807.25; and the counties have collected about $55,000 from the imposing of oyster fines, etc. This makes a grand total of $1,948,789.04 collected from all branches of the oyster industry since the establishment of the license system. Of this revenue, $1,452,512.83 has been paid into the State treasury to the credit of the “ oyster fund,” and “packers’ fund,” and $496,276.23 has been received into the treas- uries of the tide water counties. The revenue paid into the county treasuries has been devoted mostly to public- school purposes, a very small portion being used for enforcing the oyster regulations in certain counties, and in Worcester and Somerset counties in the planting of oyster shells for the extension and improvement of the oyster reefs. In 1892-93 the clerks of the circuit courts received $5,264.18 for issuing the tonging and scraping licenses, but prior to that season they received nothing. The “oyster fund” of the State treasury has been used chiefly in equipping and maintaining the fishery force, about $1,200,000 having been devoted to that purpose up to the close of the fiscal year 1893. Numerous other items have assisted iu dimin- ishing this fund, among which may be mentioned the refunding of transportation license fees collected in 1884 and 1885, amounting to $27,644.15; the expenditure of $4,892.35 in an experiment in planting oyster shells; the expenses of various State commissions or legislative committees appointed to investigate certain features of the industry; painting numbers for the dredging vessels ; court procedures, etc. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 285 The following table exhibits by fiscal years the receipts and disbursements of the State “oyster fund” since the origin of the general license system: Receipts and disbursements of the State oyster f und, since the origin of the general license system. Fiscal year ending Sept. 30. Receipts from dredging. Total re- ceipts. Disburse- ments. Balances. Fiscal year ending Sept. 30. Receipts from dredging. Total receipts. Disburse- ments. Balances. 1865 $12, 111. 20 $14, 030. 20 $14, 030. 20 1881.... $40, 589. 98 $44, 925. 71 $38, 403. 62 $219, 304. 75 1866. . . . 48, 463. 22 22, 515. 29 56, 561. 97 70, 592. 17 1882.... 52, 582. 05 57, 751. 05 39, 070. 59 237, 985. 21 1867.... 28, 778. 65 $80.* 85* 99, 289. 97 1883. ... 48, 841. 64 56, 075. 32 54, 114. 13 239, 946. 40 1868 32,535.90 45, 326. 87 21, 321. 91 123, 294. 93 1884.... 45, 127. 65 67, 650. 78 62, 704. 83 244, 892. 35 1869 46, 800. 86 61, 301. 49 28, 186. 80 156, 409. 62 1885.... 69, 528. 72 79, 704. 17 127, 089. 56 197, 506. 96 1870.... 38, 675. 80 50, 098. 74 32, 381. 79 174, 126. 57 1886.... 49, 631. 59 51, 057. 74 106, 600. 62 141, 964. 08 1871.... 41, 587. 46 53,136. 96 23, 675. 29 203, 588. 24 1887 52, 411. 68 55, 561. 73 67, 221. 88 130, 303. 93 1872.... 39, 039. 62 50, 782. 27 23, 076. 17 231, 294. 34 1888.... 48) 675) 54 53, 236. 69 67, 913. 13 115, 627. 49 1873.... 54, 159. 46 65,490. 55- 24, 770. 75 272, 014. 14 1889.... 57, 928. 72 61, 562. 08 63, 306. 09 113, 883. 48 1874. . . . 30, 227. 77 36, 278. 65 36, 882. 97 271, 409. 82 1890.... 52, 945. 27 58, 178. 67 70, 955. 91 101, 106. 24 1875.... 42, 355. 58 43, 560. 53 67, 484. 87 247, 485. 48 1891.... 50, 275. 03 52, 260. 33 73, 645. 81 79, 665. 11 79, 720. 76 1876.... 48, 468. 68 50, 764. 78 48, 368. 00 249, 882. 26 1892 44, 744. 73 46, 652. 83 46, 708. 48 1877 ... 1878.... 49, 837. 46 37, 408. 39 51, 078. 76 38, 426. 83 50, 136. 76 41, 683. 86 250, 824. 26 247, 567. 23 1893.... 44, 781. 72 48, 437. 12 91, 302. 03 3, 847. 57 1879. . . . 1880.. .. 31,173. 29 18,606.50 31. 969. 12 19, 411.04 44, 379. 76 41, 784. 97 235, 156. 59 212, 782. 66 Total . 1, 252, 030. 80 1, 430, 051. 63 1, 426, 204. 06 The State fishery force. — Prior to 1865 the enforcement of the oyster regulations was left to the care of the sheriffs and constables with the assistance of the posse com- itatus and such vessels or steamers as they might desire to impress into their tem- porary service, the same being at the risk and expense of the State. When the license system was adopted in 1865 all captains and employes of licensed vessels and boats were constituted officers of the State, with full powers of sheriffs in the enforcement of the oyster laws. In 1867 (ch. 184) the comptroller of the treasury was authorized, at such times as he might think the interests of the State required, to charter a steamer properly manned and equipped to cruise in the bay for special periods of time not exceeding ten days, to overhaul and examine the vessels engaged in oystering, and to arrest offenders. All of these methods proved so ineffectual that in 1868 (ch.406) provision was made for an “oyster police force, ” now officially designated the “State fishery force,” but popularly known as the oyster navy; and an appropriation was made for the purchase of one steamer and two sail vessels to be kept constantly cruising in the waters of the State where violations of the oyster regulations might be expected. The control of this force was vested in the “ board of public works,” consisting of the governor and certain other officials of the State. This board was authorized to properly equip and provision the vessels and supply them with com- petent officers and men. The fleet obtained consisted of one steamer of 113 tons burden and two fast-sailing- vessels well equipped with boats and with 5 men each. Both steamer and sail vessels were supplied with cannon and ammunition, which they were authorized to use in enforcing the oyster regulations. One of the sailing vessels patrolled the Chesapeake and tributaries above the Patuxent and the other one below that point, while the steamer was kept cruising over the entire bay and tributaries. In 1874 six addi- . tional vessels were added to the force, at a cost of 120,000; in 1882, 1883, and 1884 additional vessels were added, and in 1885 two steamers were obtained at a cost of $62,000. In 1888 the old steamer was disposed of and additional sail vessels added. 286 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. At present the force consists of 2 steamers, 9 schooners, 2 sloops, and 8 smaller and “local” boats. The latter are employed for six months only and are provided by certain counties to enforce the oyster regulations within their respective limits, yet are under the direction of the commander of the State force. They carry 3 or 4 men each and are armed with rifles. Of the State vessels, the steamers each have a crew numbering 12 men, and the schooners and sloops have 6 men each, all vessels being- furnished with one cannon and a number of rifles. This makes a total of 120 men in the force, and the cost of maintaining the fleet, including all salaries, provisions, ammunition, repairs, etc., has during the last five years averaged about $65,000 annually. One of the sail vessels patrols the Chester River including Swan Point; one the Eastern Bay and tributaries and the waters of Talbot County as far down as Black Walnut Point; one the Choptank Elver and tributaries, one the Little Choptank Eiver; one the waters of Fishing Bay, Honga Eiver, Tar Bay, Hooper Straits, and Holland Straits ; one the waters of Wicomico County, one the waters of Somerset County ; two the waters of Anne Arundel, and two the waters of Calvert, St. Mary and Charles counties, while the steamers cruise throughout the State except in the Sinepuxent Bay. The principal duties of the force are to see that no one engages in oystering with- out obtaining a license, to prevent the dredgers from oystering on the reefs used by the scrapemen, and to prevent both dredgers and scrapemen from resorting to the areas reserved for the tongmen, to enforce the close season, the cull law, and the various minor regulations of the oyster industry, as well as the fish and water-fowl laws of the State. While during certain years this fleet has not succeeded In accomplishing as much as some persons expected of it, yet considering the extensive area of wg,ter to be guarded and the thousands of oyster boats and vessels at work, it is not surpris- ing that violations of the regulations occur. The most noticeable violations of the regulations are made by the dredgers in frequenting areas reserved for the tongmen. These became especially prominent in the fall of 1888. The police vessels were not so well armed then as at present and the oystermen lost confidence in the ability of the force, in the fights occurring, the former being frequently routed by the dredgers. On several occasions during that year a number of dredging vessels combined and openly defied the fishery force. This aroused popular attention; the fleet was better provided with arms and ammunition, its personnel reorganized, several dredging vessels were suuk, and a few men killed. Since then the oystermen have had greater respect for the law, and while at times a dredger may trespass on forbidden areas it is usually done under cover of darkness or fog, and such violations are not by any means so frequent as formerly. Prior to 1880 the members of the crew as well as the captain of the vessel were held liable for violations of the oyster laws, and the vessel was allowed to go free. When caught, the captain and crew were placed in jail, but the former was usually bailed out and his fine paid if the case ultimately went against him. The crew being penni- less and without friends frequently remained in jail for months, imposing an expense on the county. Many of these men were foreigners and very few of them were famil- iar with the laws regulating the fishery, and it was manifestly unjust to make them suffer for obeying the orders of their captains. This has since been remedied, and the penalty for violating the oyster laws is now properly shared by the vessel. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 287 CONCLUSION. The common fishery. — From the data presented on the preceding pages is obtained the following tabular statement, exhibiting for a period of years the total number of persons employed in the oyster fishery of Maryland and the total quantity and value of the products : Season. No. of men. Bushels of oysters. Value. Season. No. of men. Bushels of oysters. Value. 1860-61 3, 000 6, 885 7,470 7, 582 13, 748 3, 000, 000 8, 040, 970 9, 233, 475 8,947,803 10, 600, 000 $1, 050, 000 2, 814, 340 3, 231, 716 3, 031, 731 3, 869, 000 1889- 90 1890- 91 . . . 20, 481 21, 878 21, 280 21, 200 10, 450, 087 9, 945, 058 11, 632, 730 10, 142, 500' $5, 204, 456 5, 665, 866 5, 866, 120 5, 500, 000 1868-69 1869 70 1891-92 1870 71 1892 93 1879 80 * It is surprising and contrary to what might be expected from observations in other States and countries that the oyster reefs of Maryland have continued so long to pro- duce oysters in such abundance, notwithstanding the vigorous fishery to which they have been subjected. But it will be observed that while little variation has existed during the last twenty-five years in the quantity of oysters obtained annually, there has been a very large increase in the number of persons, vessels, and boats employed, indicating a decrease in the average catch per man and necessitating an increase in the price of the oysters. The following table exhibits for a number of seasons the average catch of oysters and the average gross income for each man engaged in the fishery: Average per man. Average per man. Season. Bushels of oysters. Gross income. Season. Bushels of oysters. Gross income. 1860 61* 1,000 $350 409 1889-90 510 $254 259 275 1868 69 1,168 1, 236 1890-91 455 i 547 1869 70 432 1891-92 1870-71 1, 180 399 1892-93 478 259 1879-80 771 281 * No dredging. It is thus observed that according to the data at hand the present average catch per man is less than one-half of what it was twenty-three years ago, and only two- thirds of what it was thirteen years ago, notwithstanding the fact that the boats and apparatus of capture used at present are far more costly and effective, and because of the higher prices the fishery is more vigorously prosecuted than was formerly the case; also the gross incomes of the oystermen are constantly decreasing, being now less than two-thirds of what they were in 1870, notwithstanding the greater expenses which they incur. In the meantime another and more serious change has taken place. The fishery being more extensively followed year after year, sufficient time is not given the oysters to attain their full growth, resulting naturally in a decrease in the average size of those brought to market. This decrease has been very noticeable, and the following tabular statement is presented, exhibiting for a . period of years the proportion of “extra selects” among the Chesapeake oysters handled by Messrs. Platt & Co., one 288 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. of the largest raw-shucking firms in Baltimore, this probably being an average for all the dealers in that city : 1 Season. Proportion of extra selects to total quantity. 1 [ Season. Proportion of extra selects to total | quantity. 1883-84 1888-89 & 1884-85 1889-90 1 1885-86 1890 91 .. 33 1886-87 55 bV 1891-92 50 1887-88 53 BO No statistics are available with which to exhibit the comparative sizes of the oysters caught prior to 1883 ; but if the very general complaints prevalent throughout the Chesapeake during the last decade in reference to the decreased size of the oysters are well grounded, it is evident that the decrease since 1870 has been very great. This decrease in the size of the oysters is of more consequence than its effect on the markets or on Maryland’s prestige as a producer of superior-grade oysters. It is a principle in the economy of nature that a species should be reproduced by the best developed and hardiest of its kind. On this principle the progeny of a colony of oysters not yet attained mature development can scarcely be expected to be so vigorous and capable of combating the many adverse agencies to which these mol- lusks are subjected as those of a well-stocked reef of large brood-oysters. The condi- tion of the industry, as indicated by this decreasing abundance and reduced size of the mollusks, the decreasing incomes of the fishermen and increasing prices of the oysters, demands the serious consideration of every well-minded citizen of Maryland, whether he be actively engaged therein or not. Already the price of the Chesapeake oysters is so high and the size so small that a number of Baltimore marketmen are required to purchase largely from other coastal regions, one firm alone in one year purchasing $70,000 worth of large oysters in Northern States. The general assembly of Maryland has not permitted this condition to come about without endeavoring to prevent it; and the opinion, existing to some extent, that this State has exercised no care toward conserving and preserving her natural oyster beds, is without foundation in fact, for she has expended more effort than any other Amer- ican State toward protecting and preserving the public reefs, to which may be due the fact that they are now in better condition than those in most other States. I believe that there has not been a single protective or restorative measure, giving assurance of benefit to the free or common fishery, adopted by any government in America or Europe, that has not at some time been operative in whole or in part of Maryland. From 1820, when “well-grounded apprehensions were entertained of the utter extinc- tion of oysters in the State,” up to the present time, by means of close seasons, inter- diction of supposed injurious modes of fishery, and other restrictive measures, the State has constantly endeavored to conserve and protect the common fishery. The stationary life of oysters, tending to facilitate their removal from the beds, is resulting in a depreciation of the free fishery in all civilized countries, notwith- standing severe protective laws, no community having yet learned the secret of preserv- ing undiminished the prosperity of the public beds. It is to be regretted that no data are available by which to compare the extent of the common and private oyster fish- THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 289 eries. The growth of the latter during the last twenty years has been marvelous. At present scarcely one-half of the world’s product of oysters is marketed directly from the public reefs, the quantity going upon the food market from Maryland being greater than that from all the remaining public beds of the world combined. Witnessing the continued depletion of their public reefs in spite of their protective laws, States and countries have grown weary of their task of attempting to preserve them and have encouraged the investment of private enterprise on barren grounds, making the reg- ulations of the common fishery subsidiary thereto.* In Maryland, however, there are so many thousands of persons dependent on the common fishery, and its pros- perity is so important a factor in the wealth of the State, that it has received every safeguard that presented a possibility of benefit, so far as the leaders in State legis- lation could conceive and carry out. And the regulations and sentiment that now surround the industry in Maryland are such that if ever the common oyster fishery on the public reefs becomes a thing of the past in America, I feel confident that its last battle ground will be along the shores of the Chesapeake. The great trouble with the present methods and regulations is not with the close seasons or with the implements employed, but, as in other States, the oystermen take no individual interest in the preservation and development of the reefs on which they work, their sole object being to obtain at the moment all the oysters possible, without reference to the future supply. Individual interests clash with the public good. While it is the public or general interest of all that each oysterman should refrain from taking, the small and poor oysters, take few during bad markets, and give attention to removing enemies and leaving the reefs in the best condition for further reproduction and growth, it is his individual but temporary interest to take all he can get, big and little, fat and poor, in good markets and in bad markets, and with the least possible expenditure of time. As with other men, the individual gain of to-day outweighs the public good of to-morrow. An instance of the manner in which the public interest suffers at the hands of individual benefit may be cited in the cull law enacted in 1890, which required that all oysters measuring less than 2£ inches in length should, when caught, be returned at once to the water. It is generally admitted throughout the Chesapeake that could this regulation be enforced it would be more beneficial to the public reefs than any other oyster enactment ever made by the State. But as these small oysters, measur- ing from 1 to 2 J- inches, are worth about 20 cents per bushel it is the temporary interest- of each oysterman to sell them at the shucking-houses or for plantiug in other States, and as there are over 8,000 vessels and boats at work, it is obviously difficult for the fishery fleet to thoroughly enforce the law. *Many quotations similar to the following might he made from official reports: “We find that the supply of oysters has very greatly fallen off during the last three or four years. That this decrease has not arisen from overfishing, nor from any causes oyer which man has direct control, but from the very general failure of the spat, or young of the oyster, which appears, during the years in question, to have been destroyed soon after it was produced. A similar failure of spat has frequently happened before, and probably will often happen again. That the best mode of pro- viding against these periodical failures of the spat is to facilitate the proceedings of those individuals or companies who may desire to acquire so much property in favorably situated portions of the sea bottom as may suffice to enable them safely to invest capital in preparing and preserving these por- tions of the sea bottom for oyster-culture. * * * That no regulations or restrictions upon oyster fishing, beyond such as may be needed for the object just defined, have had, or are likely to have, any beneficial effect upon the supply of the oysters.” — Report of the commissioners appointed to inquire into the sea fisheries of the United Kingdom, 1866. F. C. B. 1892—19 290 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Under the present regulations of the fishery the number of very small oysters (under 1 inch in length) destroyed frequently equals the number of large ones util- ized. Attached to the shells of the large oysters will occasionally be found many small ones from 3 to 6 months old. As many as sixty of these young oysters have been found attached to the shell of a single mature one. This number, however, is very unusual, but the proportion for the entire bay might certainly be expected to average during most spawning seasons at least one or two young oysters for every mature one. These small oysters can not be utilized in the market-houses, and when delivered there are thrown upon the shell heaps. They have already passed through the most precarious period of their existence. Their shells have become sufficiently hard and stout to resist many of their enemies, and while some of them would doubt- less perish if permitted to remain on the reefs, yet the mortality among them would scarcely be much greater than occurs among mature oysters. The remedy for their protection is not apparent. A careful oyster-culturist would doubtless postpone the taking of the mature oysters until the young ones were sufficiently developed to be safely removed from their attachment, but this course is scarcely practicable on the public domain without temporary close time on the reefs. With respect to close seasons, which for forty years have been the most popular forms of protection in America, the close time in the fall is of value because of the protection it affords the small oysters from injury from the source above noted. But the opinion is growing among the best-informed persons that the spring close time is generally of little value to the reefs ; in fact, under some circumstances it would be better for the oystermen to continue their operations to within a week or so of the spawning time. Their work would render the reefs more nearly free from sediment, vegetable growth, etc., thus facilitating the attachment of the spat. The general opinion that the disturbing of mature oysters immediately prior to the spawning time greatly injures them has little foundation. To be sure, if oysters are removed from the reefs there are so many less to perform their reproductive func- tions, but the same applies equally to those removed eight months before. The action of the dredges themselves is not materially injurious to those oysters left on the beds. Naturalists are well aware that the most delicate ascidians are frequently roughly dredged, and if placed in a bucket of sea water may be examined in perfect health an hour or two afterwards; and it is scarcely probable that so hardy a mollusk as an oyster, capable of being kept barreled for weeks, shipped thousands of miles, and then bedded with perfect safety, would suffer so much injury from being jostled by the dredge as to fail in performing its usual functions. However, the spring close season in Maryland is deemed valuable because of its restricting the spring trade in small oysters for bedding purposes in other States, which, however, could be effected by the complete enforcement of the cull law. It is also of benefit to the agricultural interests along the shores in making labor more abundant. There are other conditions that encourage a depreciation of the free fishery and for which the individual oystermen are not blamable. Among these might be men- tioned an entire lack of care to leave the grounds or the small oysters in a condition suitable for the growth of the latter, and an absence of any attempt to prepare the beds for the attachment of a “set” during the spawning season. But everyone will recognize the extreme difficulty of devising a system for remedying the latter evil suitable for application over large areas of the public domain. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 291 These two provisions — protection of small oysters and placing the reefs in the best possible condition for the attachment of a “set” — are the key-notes to the proper gov- ernment of the fishery on the public beds, and any system of regulation that has not these for its objects can not be expected to be of great value. It has been proposed that certain portions of the bay — half, for instance — be closed for two or three years in order that the oysters now thereon may have time to mature, and when this area is thrown open the other be closed for a similar period, the system of open and closed districts being continued indefinitely. But there are many objections to such a procedure. When the southern half is closed it works a hard- ship to persons living along the shores thereof, and when the fishery is interdicted in the northern half the residents in that vicinity would consider themselves aggrieved. If, in order to avoid this objection, the size of the districts be reduced and the number of them be multiplied, it would be quite difficult to prohibit the fishery in the closed ones. Also, it has been shown that the operations of the oystermen improve the beds for spat-collecting purposes, and a stoppage of the fishery might to a material extent affect the attachment of a “ set.” It seems that the only good result of such a regulation would be a restriction in the removal of small oysters, but this would be secured under present regulations by a complete enforcement of the cull law. Were the system to be adopted, the enforce- ment of the cull law would still be necessary, and it would increase local jealousies, already too numerous, add another to the many regulations now difficult of enforce- ment, and yet be of questionable value. If there were adopted a regulation for obtaining a “ set,” having among its features the return to the water of a portion of the shells accumulating about the shucking- liouses, it seems possible that special benefit might result from this particular feature. When one considers that, as a component part of the oyster shells, 200,000 tons of car- bonate of lime are annually removed from the Chesapeake, the question naturally arises as to the continuation of the supply. When returned to the water the shells rapidly disintegrate, furnishing material for the shells of other oysters. The benefits, if any, to be derived from such provision, however, rests entirely upon speculation. An opinion is quite current that the proper regulation of the oyster fishery in Maryland is for the State to lease or sell the natural reefs and leave to the individ ual owners the question of protection or improvement of their respective holdings. Under the present condition of the industry and its environments it seems that such a procedure would be detrimental to the welfare and interests of those persons dependent on that industry for support, as well as to the peace and good order prevailing in the tide- water regions of Maryland. I believe that no American State, and certainly none in which the fishery is of great consequence, has ever deemed it expedient to dispose of the public interest in any natural oyster beds. The fishery in Maryland is not, as frequently supposed, a haphazard undertaking conducted by a class of men depending for success on violations of the State laws, but is on a firm, orderly basis, any sudden, revolutionary change in which would work great hardship and distress to the thousands of citizens depending on it for a livelihood If the cull law be vigorously and thoroughly enforced, increasing the minimum limit to 3 inches as soon as the condition of the fishery may warrant, and a proper system be adopted for preparing the reefs for the attachment of spat during the spawning season, it is not probable that an extreme disaster to the industry will early eifsue. 292 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Barren bottoms. — It is claimed by many that the utilization for oyster-culture of extensive areas of ground now unproductive would add largely to tlie extent and revenue of the oyster industry in Maryland. Of the water area of Maryland about 2,000 square miles is now unproductive of oysters. In 400 square miles of this the salinity of the water is probably not sufficient for the growth of these mollusks A very large area of the remaining 1,600 square miles is covered with grass, thick mud, sand, or is otherwise incapable of utilization with profit under present financial conditions. The area of such ground is a very uncertain quantity. In Connecticut the experience has been that only one-fifth of the water area can be profitably utilized. But three-fourths of the unused ground is in the eastern half, where the barren condition is caused by heavy storms. Should a culti- vating law be adopted in Maryland the crabbing interests would doubtless demand consideration and thus further reduce the possible area. All of these restrictions would probably limit it to from 400 to 1,000 square miles, if the conditions in other States are trustworthy guides. It is unnecessary in the present paper to discuss the practicability of oyster-cul- ture on areas not provided by nature with those mollusks, for this is no longer a living question, it having been answered years ago in many practical ways and in innumera- ble waters of varying physical and biological characteristics. Already only one-half of the world’s product of oysters is marketed directly from the public reefs. At present the trade in high-grade oysters is dependent on the product of private areas, notwithstanding the slight encouragements received. Nearly every celebrated variety on the American market is the product of private grounds ; among these might be mentioned the “ Providence Bivers,” “Norwalks,” “Blue Points,” “Maurice Coves,” “Parker Bays,” “ Chincoteagues, ” “Cherrystones,” “Lynn Haven Bays,” “Hamp- ton Bars,” “Stone Bays,” “Bayou Cooks,” etc. Inhundredsof sheltered coves, andinmuchof the deep waters of Maryland where the bottom is muddy or grassy, or other conditions have heretofore prevented a growth of oysters, the difficulties might be overcome and the cultivation thereof be made prof- itable. The harvest is not always certain, but the chances are greatly in its favor, and the profits are sufficiently large to have merited more encouragement than has heretofore been accorded the industry. The situation of the Chesapeake, between the cold waters of the North and the warm waters of the South, protecting it from great extremes in temperature, is favorable to oyster-culture. Except in the extreme south- ern portion, this bay is also comparatively free from the severe storms and predaceous enemies that effect such enormous destruction on the oyster beds of Northern States. Localities favorable to the development of oysters are not always best adapted to their reproduction, and places where oysters breed rapidly are sometimes not favorable to their growth. Generally the growth of oysters is practicable in waters having less saline constituents than appears necessary for breeding purposes. There is probably no locality of equal area in America, if in the world, in which oysters are produced in such numbers as on the flats on the sea side of Accomac and Northampton counties, Virginia; yet, if left on their native grounds, they scarcely ever exceed 2J inches in length. The famous “ Kettle Bottom ” oysters of the Potomac Biver are of great size, but do not breed in abundance there. Under the present regulations in Maryland grounds suitable for the growth of oysters, but not adapted to their reproduction, are idle and barren, but under a planting system might be utilized with profit. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 293 Suitable regulations for ostreiculture could be adopted which, without working change or injury to the present free fishery on the public reefs, would permit the devel- opment of this industry for the employment of the idle labor of the State. They should meet with the approval and have the encouragement of the present oystermen of the Chesapeake. The cultivating systems here outlined are by no means antagonistic to their interests; on the contrary, they more than any others are to reap the benefits. These men are familiar with the bay; they are familiar with the character of the grounds and with the methods of handling oysters; they are already fitted out with boats and implements for engaging in the business. They could acquire an area of ground which they could take pride in cultivating and improving, in adding to from year to year, and something on which they might depend in their old age. There should be no fear of outside capitalists, monopolies, etc. There has proba- bly never been an instance in which, after a State has adopted a cultivating law, the trade has been controlled by men from other States, if any attempt has been made to prevent it. On the contrary, in New Jersey, New York, and Connecticut many of the men who at present own the large oyster farms, the fleets of vessels, and employ the greatest number of men, were formerly public-reef tongmen and dredgers. The mem- bers of a certain firm in Connecticut, who in six weeks gathered from its beds 160,000 bushels of oysters valued at $110,000, were public-reef oystermen eighteen years ago. There is no warrant for concluding that the most extreme protective or restora- tive regulations that the State could adopt would preserve the common fishery from depletion to such an extent that there will be scarcely a subsistence for the men engaged therein. Numerous acts of assembly exist for protecting the oyster fishery on the public reefs of the United States coast north of Cape Cod, but not an acre of oyster-ground now remains to give operation to those regulations. The fishery from Cape Henlopen to Cape Cod has had even further restrictions, but at present scarcely one-twentieth of the 7,000,000 bushels of oysters produced annually in that region are marketed directly from the public reefs. France has witnessed the depletion of certain of her valuable reefs even when the fishery thereon was restricted to fourteen days in the year and three hours in the day. Already distress exists at times in several iso- lated localities in Maryland, because of the decrease in prosperity of this industry, and this is possibly a foreshadow of what will, in course of time, prevail in every tide- water region of the State if the present unfavorable conditions of the fishery continue without the possibility being given the oystermen for adding to their incomes by the investment of individual enterprise. Other than this no prospect appears for a great improvement in the condition of the fishermen, and the only heritage they now have to leave their sons is contained in their small boats and a training for engaging in a voca- tion already barely affording a livelihood and with a prospect of continued decrease. But the benefits to be derived from a proper system of private oyster-culture would not be confined to those persons engaging in it or to those handling the pro- ducts of the private areas, or to the increased amount of money disbursed along the shores. If the common fishery were still properly protected and regulated, private ostreiculture on present barren bottoms would, it seems, be of benefit to the public reefs and to the men operating thereon, even though the latter should never engage in growing oysters for themselves. The foundations for this statement are here cited: 1. It is well known that the removal of medium-sized oysters to more favorable feeding-grounds on which they may remain several months greatly increases their 294 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. market value, and if a planting industry were established the small or poor oysters would find a much better market among the planters than at the shucking-houses. The oysters referred to are those measuring 2J inches and over, for it is assumed that no change will occur in the present regulations of the common fishery so far as the cull law is concerned. 2. The cultivators would doubtless remove predaceous enemies from their areas and this would decrease the number left to feed on the public reefs. 3. If by reason of fishery or natural effects the oysters on a public reef should be so fully removed or destroyed as to not leave sufficient for breeding purposes, the proximity of private oyster beds would supply the deficiency in spat. 4. By engaging the attention of a number of the oystermen it would to some extent relieve the public reefs of the extensive fishery to which they are now being subjected and leave a greater quantity of oysters for those persons continuing to resort to those areas. Ostreiculture in some States has to contend with an adverse movement brought on by its supposed friends rather than its enemies. The profits of few vocations have been so extravagantly represented as those of the one under discussion. The enthu- siastic amateur agriculturist who writes on u 5 acres enough,” has his counterpart in the field of ostreiculture. Reports evidencing great labor in preparation have gravely predicted an average annual product in Maryland of hundreds of millions of bushels of oysters under a wise system of regulations. The adoption of a system of oyster- culture dependent for its success upon the realization of such expectations would doubtless result in failure. The conditions of aquiculture in this country, or in any other country, do not warrant such anticipations, and they have done much to retard the adoption of a practicable system of regulation for private oyster-culture in many States. These extravagant ideas of production are not understood by the bay men, and their acceptance by persons unfamiliar with the growth of oysters leads to a difference of opinion which can be reconciled only when the truth of the subject is understood. It has resulted in the development of the feeling that the present barren bottoms are of enormous value, and should be parted with only at prices so high that persons of small resources can not obtain them, and renders the development of exten- sive ostreiculture thereon impracticable. It is questionable whether there is a single square mile of water area in America that has produced annually during the last ten years 400 bushels to the acre. It is true that there are many planting areas from which even 1,000 or more bushels to the acre are annually removed. But the oysters are not produced there; being obtained elsewhere, they are bedded in the spring and are taken up during the succeeding winter. They are little more the produce of those areas than are cattle slaughtered in abattoirs the product of the few acres of grazing land attached thereto. The system of private oyster-culture at present practiced in Connecticut is admired by every one familiar with it. It has resulted in creating a new industry for the employment of capital and labor, in distributing $1,000,000 annually among the workmen along the shore of that State, and extending and cheapening the food resources of the country. Yet the average annual yield of the 60,000 acres held by. individuals is only 25 bushels per acre. About one-half of this area, however, is not utilized, and the cultivated portion yields annually about 50 bushels per acre. The tax imposed by that State is about 10 cents per acre, and should this be increased to THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 295 the figures proposed for adoption in some States, it would doubtless at once result in a great reduction in the extent of the industry, notwithstanding the fact that it is now on a well-established basis. Frequent reference has been made to what is being accomplished in Ehode Island in the collection of an annual rental of $10 per acre from certain sea bottoms, and this is used as a basis for the valuation of similar areas situated elsewhere. There are about 600 acres of ground in that State rented at this rate. They do not produce oysters but are used for planting purposes, the oysters being bedded in the spring and removed during the succeeding winters. Because of the high rental, little attempt is made towards the production of oysters, the plants being purchased from other States, and even the extent of the bedding trade is said to be curtailed thereby, it now being less than one-half as extensive as it was in 1880. It is true that the State treasury has received about $6,000 annually, but if the taxes on the ground had been more reasonable Ehode Island might at present have sufficient oyster-producing farms to keep within that State the $150,000 annually paid by the planters therein to the oyster-growers of other States, and to cause the receipts of the State treasury to equal those of the present. The imposing of high taxes on oyster-grounds renders it financially impracticable to utilize them for any purpose other than the bedding of oysters, shifting them from one locality to another, which is not true oyster-culture. In an address delivered at Baltimore January 18, 1891, the following expression of opinion was made by Hon. Marshall McDonald, United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, who has given close attention to aquiculture in all its branches : In the case of that broad area of sea bottom which at present yields nothing to production, it would, in my judgment, he wise on the part of the State to permit its entry under conditions similar to those which are prescribed for the public lands of the State above tide. The man engaged in oyster production should he harassed by no imposts or special supervision. He should he treated as is the farmer, protected in his rights of property, and his investment required to hear equally with the lands above tide the burdens of taxation. The State should seek to derive its revenue not from any special tax or from extravagant prices for sales or entry, hut from the vastly increased valuation which would be given to these lands when the opportunity for their improvement is afforded. There is a greater area of sea bottom in the United States suitable, if properly prepared, for the growth of oysters than any probable market demand can utilize. The Atlantic coast States are wealthy in barren sea bottoms available for the culture of oysters, but most of these States are so neglectful of giving proper encouragement to the development of them that only in few places are they of great financial value. A broad system of ostreiculture demands more facilities than a restriction to 5 or 10 acres along the shore at high rental and with temporary tenure. Not only does successful ostreiculture require sufficient areas on which to operate, but it must be surrounded with favorable market . and financial conditions. Texas, with its characteristic generosity, authorizes each citizen of the State to preempt for oyster culture 60 acres of sea bottom without cost and without taxes, yet not one- hundredth of its bay bottoms are being so utilized. In 1889 North Carolina threw open to her citizens 800,000 acres of barren ground under favorable preemption conditions, yet only one-thirtieth of this area has been located. The condition in Georgia is much the same. The Middle and New England States, with long-established oyster trades, 296 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. have been more successful in haying their sea bottoms preempted and successfully utilized. The physical, financial, and market conditions in Maryland are such that judi- cious encouragement could almost at once place her in the head ranks of oyster- cultivating States ; order and industry would spring up where there is now but a barren waste; thousands of men now almost idle could be given employment; relieving the labor market of this surplusage would benefit the laboring classes in all industries of the State; while the oystermen at work on the public reefs, without being in any respect molested in their present occupation, would have an opportunity for building up a kindred industry to add to the support obtained from the common fishery. CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF PUBLICATIONS RELATIVE TO THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 1858 — Oyster trade of the Chesapeake. De Bow’s Commercial Review, pp. 259-260, vo!T24. 1865 — Etude sur l’industrie liuitri&re des Etats-Unis. Par M. P. de Broca. Paris, Challamel, 1865. 12mo, 266 pp. Translated in part on pp. 271-319 of Report of the U. S. Fish Commission for 1873-74 and 1874-75. Washington, 1876. 1869 — Oysters of the Chesapeake — their propagation and culture, pp. 341-347 of Report of the Com- missioner of Agriculture for 1868. Washington, 1869. 1870 — Report upon the oyster resources of Maryland to the general assembly. By Hunter Davidson, esq., commander State oyster police force. Annapolis, 1870. 8vo, 20 pp. 1872 — Report on the oyster fisheries, Potomac River shad and herring fisheries, and the water fowl oi Maryland, to his excellency the governor and other commissioners of the State oyster police force, January, 1872. Annapolis, 1872 . 8vo, 48 pp. 1873 — Report of the commander of the oyster fisheries and water fowl of Maryland to his excellency the governor and the commissioners of the State oyster police force, January 1, 1874. William E. Timmons, commander. Annapolis, 1873. 8vo, 11 pp. 1878 — Oyster beds of the Chesapeake. Nature, New York, vol. xvm, October 17, 1878, page 653. 1880 — Report of the commissioners of fisheries of Maryland, January, 1880. Annapolis, 1880. 8vo, lxxviii pp. Constituting an appendix to the preceding are the following tivo articles: Development of the American oyster. By Dr. W. K. Brooks. 104 pp., with 10 plates. Extracts from report of Francis Winslow on investigations of oyster beds in Tangier and Pocomoke sounds and parts of the Chesapeake Bay. pp. 105-219. 1881 — The history and present condition of the fishery industries : Tenth Census of the United States. The oyster industry. By Ernest Ingersoll. Washington, 1881. 4vo, 252 pp., 22 plates. 1881 — Deterioration of American oyster beds. By Francis Winslow. Popular Science Monthly, New York. Vol. xx, pp. 29-43, 145-156. 1881 — An account of experiments in oyster- culture, and observations relating thereto, made at St. Jerome Creek, Maryland, during the summer of 1880. pp. 1-66 of appendix to report of the Maryland fish commission. Hagerstown, Md., 1881. 1882 — Report on the oyster beds of the James River, Virginia, and of Tangier and Pocomoke sounds, Maryland and Virginia. By Francis Winslow. Appendix No. 11. Report for 1881, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Washington, 1882. 4vo, 87 pp., with plates and chart. 1883 — Chesapeake oyster beds. Science, T7ew York, vol. 2, 1883, page 440. 1884 — Present condition and future prospects of the oyster industry. By Francis Winslow, pp. 148-163 of Transactions of the American Fish-Cultural Association; thirteenth annual meet- ing. New York, 1884. 1884 — Report of the oyster commission of the State of Maryland. January, 1884. Annapolis, 1884. 4vo, 183 pp., 13 plates, 4 charts. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. 297 1884 — Report of the oyster commission of the State of Maryland. January, 1884. Baltimore, 1884. 4vo, 193 pp., 13 plates, 4 charts. [A reprint of the foregoing.] 1885 — Report of operations at St. Jerome 'Station in laying out oyster ponds by the steamer Fish Eaivh in 1883. pp. 1153-1156 of Report of U. S. Pish Commission for 1883. Washington, 1885. 1887 — The oyster industry. By Ernest Ingersoll. pp. 507-565 of sec. v, vol. n, of the Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, by George Brown Goode and associates. Washing- ton, 1887. 1891 — The oyster. By W. K. Brooks, 12mo, 230 pp. Baltimore, 1891. 1892 — Fourth biennial report of the bureau of industrial statistics and information of Maryland. Thomas C. Weeks, chief of bureau ; 1890-91. Annapolis, 1892. 'The oyster industry, pp. 11-194. 1892 — Annual report of the commander of the Maryland State fishery force to the hoard of public works, for the year 1891. Joseph B. Seth, commander. Annapolis, 1892. 8vo, 13 pp., 4 plates. 1893 — First annual report of the bureau of industrial statistics of Maryland. A. B. Howard, jr., chief of bureau. 1893. Baltimore, 1893. The oyster industry, pp. 113-142. 1893 — Record of licenses issued to take oysters in the State of Maryland and the several counties thereof during season of 1892-93, and licenses to take oysters with scrape and dredge, issued by the comptroller of the treasury. Baltimore, 1893. 8vo, pp. 135. 1893 — Maryland — its resources, industries, and institutions. Prepared for the board of World’s Fair managers of Maryland by members of Johns Hopkins University and others. Baltimore, 1893. The oyster and the oyster industry, pp. 264-312. 1893 — “Oysters and roads.” Address delivered by B. Howard Haman before the Maryland conven- tion for good roads, held at Baltimore on January 12, 1893. Printed by order of the Maryland road league. 8vo, 24 pp., with chart. OYSTER VESSELS AND BOATS FROZEN-UP AT Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland. (To face page 298.) Plate LIX. Bull. U. S. F, C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland. (To face page 298 Plate LX. CHESAPEAKE BAY T0NG1NG CANOE. CHESAPEAKE BAY TONGING BUG-EYE, WITH SHAFT TONGS. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. C yster Industry of Maryland. (To face page 298.) Plate LXI. ING BUG-EYE, WITH DEEP-WATER TONGS. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland. (To face page 298.) Plate LXII. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland. (To face page 298.) Plate LXIII. DREDGING VESSEL WORKING OUT OF ICE-BOUND HARBOR. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland. (To face page 298.) Plate LX IV. apsis* OYSTER-SHUCKING ESTABLISHMENT AT ONE OF THE “ DOW N-TH E-BAY " MARKETING PORTS. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland. (To face page 298.) PLATE LXV. INTERIOR VIEW OF A " DOWN-THE-BAY " SHUCKING ESTABLISHMENT. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland. (To face page 298.) Plate LXVI. OYSTER-MARKETING ESTABLISHMENT AT BALTIMORE. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland. (To face page 298.) Plate LXVII. SHUCKING ROOM OF A BALTIMORE MARKETING HOUSE IN THE RAW TRADE. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland. (To face paeje 298.) PLATE LXVI1I. SHUCKING ROOM OF A BALT Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland. (To face page 298.) Plate LXIX PROCESSING ROOM OF Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland, (lo face page 298.) Plate LXX. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Oyster Industry of Maryland (To face page 298.) Plate LXXI. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 299.) Plate LXXII. BROOK FYKE; DROP FYKE; “PIKE NET." DELAWARE RIVER. 6 -THE FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES, WITH NOTES ON THE FYKE NETS OF OTHER COUNTRIES. BY HUGH M. SMITH, M. D. DEFINITION OF THE FYKE NET. The inquirer who goes to the standard books of reference with a view to learn the distinguishing features of the fyke net will be disappointed at the meager definitions given by the few authorities who make any mention of it. Although the fyke net is one of the most important forms of fishing apparatus employed in the United States and is used in a more or less modified form in nearly every country in the world, no reference is made to it in the Encyclopedia Britannica, Chamber’s Encyclopedia, Appleton’s (American) Encyclopedia, or in any other similar works to which the writer has had access. The dictionary of Worcester, under the word ‘-fyke,” says: “A bow net for catching shad. [Local, U. S.]” Aside from the facts that the name is anything but local in the United States and that the net is used in the capture of a hundred aquatic animals besides shad, the name bow net Is seldom, if ever, applied to it and should be restricted to other forms of nets that are properly and commonly so called. The definition of “bow net” in the same work — “a net made of twigs bowed” — indicates that the nature of the fyke net was not understood. In Webster’s dictionary a somewhat better, though far from exact or complete, idea of the net is given: “A long bag net distended by hoops, into which a fish can pass easily, without being able to return.” The fullest account of a fyke net which has been met with is contained in the Century dictionary; it is as follows: A kind of fish trap, consisting of a bag net distended by boops ; a bow net. The trap is set in water about 10 feet deep at high tide. The fish coining from either direction are led to the trap by a leader running from the shore. The outer openings are formed on a hoop from 3 to 6 feet in diameter ; they have two or three funnels, similar to those of an eel or lobster pot, and gradually decrease in size. The whole trap is about 10 feet long. It is largely used in New York and Connecticut waters. This definition, if not incorrect, is, considering the recognized authority of its source, disappointing. So far as it may be intended to apply to one special form of fyke net it is satisfactory, but there are dozens of types to which it would have no appli- cation. In the first place, there is no reasonable limit to the depth of water in which fykes may be set. Some, operated like lobster pots, are dropped from the side of a vessel or boat into 20 or 50 feet of water ; others are set in water only a few feet deep. It is not every fyke that fish may enter from either direction, many being so constructed that the entrance of fish is possible from only one point. The leader is an unessential part of a fyke, and there are many types of such a net having no leader. Some fykes 299 300 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. are provided with one or two wings, which may he used with or without leaders. When a leader is used it very often does not extend from the shore. The reference to “outer openings ” in the definition quoted is not clear; a typical fyke net has only one outer opening, and the hoop on which it is formed may he from 1 to 15 feet in diameter. There is no limit to the number of funnels, from one to five often being used. All the hoops may be of the same size. As a result of the researches made by the writer and a study of the forms of fyke nets used in this and other countries, the conclusion has been reached that the designation fyke net should be reserved for that form of fish trap characterized by a bag-shaped inclosure, made of netting, distended at its mouth by a hoop, the opening into which consists of a funnel-shaped aperture; that all other features are secondary and do not determine whether a given apparatus is or is not a fyke net, although a style so simple as that defined is rare. The forms of apparatus to which the fyke net is related are various. On the one hand are some types of lobster and eel pots, baskets, and other similar traps pro- vided with a funnel-shaped entrance, but usually made of laths, splints, or casks and having no accessory leader or wings, and on the other hand are varieties of trawl nets, bag nets, and similar closed nets that may be distended by means of one or more hoops but have no funnel-like aperture. An examination of any of these nets will usually show the essential features by which they are distinguished from the fyke. The intergradations, however, between fyke nets and some types of pots and traps are such that it is not always possible to properly characterize some of the more aberrant forms. In the present paper it has been considered desirable to class as fykes certain nets that are ordinarily designated pots. NAMES OF THE FYKE NET. This net is generally known throughout the United States as the fyke or fyke net. The name appears to have arisen from the Dutch word fuik , and was doubtless intro- duced by colonists from the Netherlands, where it is or was applied to a form of net constructed of hoops or of bowed twigs. The usual spelling of the word in early writings is “ like.” The name “hoop net” is also used in parts of this country — most frequently in the Great Lake region. In Great Britain this is the designation generally employed. “Stationary hoop net” also appears to have had a local usage in New York in the early part of this century, but has not recently been met with. In the Hudson, Delaware, Potomac, and other rivers of the East Coast fishermen often refer to the fyke as a “pike net.” Although the pike ( Lucius reticulatus ) is often caught in this way, it seems probable that the name is a corruption. A number of other names with a more or less circumscribed habitat have been met with, and there are doubtless others that have not been recorded. “Buckdart” and “sink net” are heard in certain parts of Chesapeake Bay. In Saginaw Biver, Michi- gan, fyke nets are known as “gobblers.” Nets that resemble pound nets in having leaders and curved wings are in parts of Virginia called “funnel-mouthed pounds.” The name bow net, of which fyke net is said in the dictionaries to be a synonym, has not been met with in this country, although it may nevertheless be used. The name bow net, as employed in the fisheries of the United States, is, so far as known, applied only to the dip net and the skim net. FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 301 Various qualifying names are applied to fykes in different localities, depending on peculiarities of construction, the fish and other products caught, etc., as “ pound fyke,” “ drop fyke,” “ shad fyke,” “eel fyke,” “terrapin fyke,” and other designations which will be referred to under each State. This net is usually known as the hoop net in Upper Canada and as the fyke net in Lower Canada; by the French inhabitants of Canada it is called the verveux. In the countries of northern continental Europe the name applied to the fyke net is the equivalent of the English word rush, and refers to the material of whicji this or similar nets were originally constructed. The word can evidently be traced to the Goths, in whose language it appeared as raus , while in Anglo-Saxon it was risk, and in modern times it exists as reuse and fischreuse in German, ruse in Low German, ruse in Danish and Norwegian, rysja in Swedish, rysa or ryssa in Finnish, and versha in Russian. These names are used alone or in connection with other descriptive words. In Prussia the name fisclisack is applied to a typical fyke net having wings. In the fisheries of the Adriatic sea the fyke net is known as the cogolo, and forms an essential part of a number of fishing devices, some operated like seines or beam trawls and others stationary. The Portuguese name for fyke net is botirdo. A form of fyke resembling an eel pot is called a muzuar. Fykes in France are known by a number of names. The most commonly used designation is verveux or vervier , equivalent to the English hoop net; guideau is a modified fyke ; among other local names are loup, renurd, quinqueporte, queue, manche, sac, and cache. THE PRINCIPLE OF THE FYKE NET. The fyke net, as used in this country, is a passive form of apparatus of capture, the principle of whose action depends on the funnel-shaped entrance. The fish, led to the mouth of the net by various devices, pass through the funnel into the body of the net, and are usually unable to escape, owing to the narrowness and position of the aperture. In the efforts to escape, the fish go through the remaining funnel or funnels and ultimately congregate in the last pocket, from which they are taken at intervals. The fyke net has been aptly compared in its action with one of the common mouse or rat traps in which the animals caught are retained alive. The principle has a wide application and at the present time is extensively employed in nets used for the cap- ture of various animals. In the fisheries it is seen in the pound net, lobster pot, eel pot, trap net, some forms of weirs, etc. It finds a varied representation in the fishing devices of many countries, particularly in China, where it is applied to a great variety of nets, some constructed of twine, others of bamboo splints. The action of the fyke net is facilitated by the well-known habits of most fishes when in a confined space — an apparent aversion to make a sharp turn and a tendency to wander around with their heads closely applied to the netting, by which they are led into the succeeding funnels and seldom brought near the only possible way of escape suspended in the middle of the compartment. 302 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF FYKE NETS. There is perhaps no type of fishery apparatus employed in the United States that presents more varied shapes and peculiarities than the fyke net; and a collection of fyke nets drawn from the various countries of the world would perhaps be the most heterogeneous aggregation of related fishing appliances that could be brought together. The differences in form arise from variations in the shape of the individual parts and in the arrangement of the parts with reference to each other. Among the principal causes which have produced the widely divergent styles the following may be mentioned : (1) The nature of the fishing-ground, the depth of the water, the character of the bottom, the direction of the tide or current, and the contour or structure of the shore are modifying influences. (2) The kinds of fish or other animals sought. A net adapted to the capture of one fish is often of little service in taking another species. (3) The idiosyncrasy of the fishermen. Being a comparatively cheap and uncom- plicated form of apparatus, the ingenuity and inventive genius of the fishermen have an opportunity to assert themselves and are no doubt to be credited with many of the peculiar types in local use. In the accompanying descriptions, the following parts of fyke nets will be men- tioned, which may here be briefly defined : The net proper. — This includes all the essential parts of a fyke, and is referred to in contradistinction to the accessory parts, such as the leader, wings, lines, authors, etc. It is variously known as the bag, pocket, bowl, and pot. The names pot and bowl are sometimes restricted to the final apartment of the fyke in which the fish usually congregate and from which they are taken; this is also called the tail. It is usually closed by means of a cord known as the purse string or puckering string. The hoops. — These constitute the framework of the bag. They are usually made of flat wooden strips, but are sometimes of iron. They are generally round, but are sometimes elliptical; in some forms of nets one or more semicircular hoops are used, and in a rare style of fyke the part which corresponds with the first hoop is rectan- gular. The number of hoops used in this country varies from 2 to 15, the most com- mon numbers being 3 to 6. The first hoop is usually larger than the others, but in some nets all are of the same size. There is a great variation in the sizes, the extremes being 8 inches and 15 feet; a large majority, however, are from 2 to 6 feet in diameter. They are held in place by being included within the meshes of the bag. The funnels. — These, known also as throats or valves, are the characteristic parts of a fyke. They consist simply of cones of netting, one end of which is attached to the hoops while the other end is suspended from them. The size of the funnels bears a close relation to that of the hoops; the entrance into the funnel is usually the same size as the hoop; the small end of the funnel varies from a few inches to a foot in diameter, depending on the kinds of products taken as well as on the general size of the net. The number of funnels varies; some fykes have a funnel to each hoop; in some there is a funnel for every alternate hoop, while a single funnel is found in a few nets. The purpose of the fuunel is to prevent the escape of the fish, and the greater the number of funnels the less the chances are that an animal will find its way out of the net. The length of the funnels usually corresponds with. the distance which the hoops are apart; in some types, however, the funnels extend through 3 to 5 hoops. FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 303 The leader. — The leader* hedging, or fence, as it is variously called, is employed for the purpose of intercepting the passage of fish and of directing them into the net. It is generally constructed of netting, but is sometimes made of brush, stakes, slats, or wire. When of netting, the mesh is larger than that used in the pocket. The length of the leader varies with circumstances, and may be from 10 to 500 feet. It usually extends, in a straight line from a point on or near the shore, at right angles to the supposed direction taken by the fish. When the leader is constructed of netting it is usually provided with floats and sinkers to keep it in an upright position, and is further supported by being attached to one or more poles, the number depending on the length of the leader. The leader may terminate before reaching the fyke proper; in nets provided with wings, this is generally the case. It may also be attached to the top and bottom of the first hoop. In some nets, for instance those used in Germany, the leader extends a considerable distance within the cavity of the net. The wings. — The wings are usually two in number, but in some nets there is only a single wing. They are attached to the first hoop, each wing being fastened to half the circumference of the hoop. In some cases the wings are joined together at the top and bottom for a short distance in front of the bag, forming a kind of cylindrical entrance. When used alone they serve the same purpose as the leader; when em- ployed in connection with the latter, their action is supplemental to it. They are similar to a leader in construction. Their shape varies; straight, angular, curved, and irregular shapes exist. A clearer idea of the variations in the styles of fyke nets employed in the United States is conveyed by the accompanying plates than could be imparted by text descriptions. Nevertheless, mention of certain details of construction, cost, etc., is necessary in order to properly cover the subject, and a number of forms not figured are described. For the purposes of this paper, fyke nets may be classified into (1) nets having no leader or wings, (2) nets having only a leader, (3) nets having only wings, (4) nets having both leader and wings, and (5) double nets and irregular forms. FYKE NETS WITHOUT LEADER OR WINGS. The simplest form of fyke which would be covered by the definition given is the Chinese net illustrated in fig. 1, plate xci. It consists only of a bag, a single hoop, and a funnel. No fyke so simple as this has been met with in this country. Fyke nets not provided with a leader or wings are not widely used in the United States ; in fact, they seem to be almost restricted to the Middle Atlantic States, where they are known as drop fykes, brook fykes, or pike nets, and are extensively used in the upper waters of the principal rivers. In this class are also to be included certain pot-like fykes, mostly intended for eels, and fished in various parts of the country, but mostly in the New England and Middle States. A form of brook or drop fyke used in the Delaware Eiver has 11 to 14 hoops, varying from 14 to 18 inches in diameter and placed in the bag at intervals of 6 to 8 inches. It is provided with two long funnels, one extending from the first hoop to the fourth or sixth hoop, the other beginning where the first ends and running through about half or two-thirds of the remaining hoops. The funnels do not terminate in round apertures, but in four points, from which as many strings pass through the 304 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. remaining part of the net and are collected and held taut outside the last pocket. The fish are taken from the nets by first unfastening the funnel lines at the end of the net and then raising the fyke perpendicularly, when the funnels will be reversed and the fish will fall out. This net is inexpensive, costing only from $3 to $5. It is fished singly or in strings containing 25 or more nets, which are placed at distances of 6 to 40 feet. Plate lxxiii, fig. 1, gives an idea of one of these nets and the method of weighting it with stones. Another drop fyke, or “pike net,” as it is locally called, fished in the Delaware Eiver, has a semicircular entrance instead of a circular one; in other respects it is similar to those already described. One form has only one funnel, or “ throat,” however. The bar forming the bottom of the first hoop projects a few inches on either side for the reception of a stone, by which the net is kept upright, after being braced at the small end. The value is the same as the others, viz, $3 to $5. Plate lxxii is a representation of this net. The specimen from which the drawing was made came from Burlington County, 1ST. J., and, is nowin the possession of the writer. It has 8 hoops and 2 funnels. The first funnel extends from the second hoop a short distance within the third hoop, where it terminates in four points which are kept open by means of double strings running to the fifth hoop. The second funnel extends from the fifth hoop into the space between the sixth and seventh hoops; it ends in the same way, and the four cords which hold the mouth of the funnel open are brought together outside the pocket. The net presents the following additional features: Extreme length inches . . Height of entrance do Width of entrance at base do Diameter of second hoop do Diameter of last (eighth) lioop do Size of mesh between first and second hoops do Size of mesh in hag and funnels do Diameter of mouth of first funnel do Diameter of mouth of second funnel do W eight of net pounds . . Large fykes of this class are reported to be used in the rivers, creeks, and bayous of the southwestern States for bulfalo-fish. These fish have regular “runs,” and the nets are placed so as to intercept them in their movements. One of the most novel forms of fyke nets of this class which has been met with is a device patented in 1844. It is shown in plate lxxiii, fig. 3. It consists of 17 hoops and 4 funnels, and has two small suspended compartments in which live bait is placed to lure the fish. It is not known that the net was ever employed for commercial fishing, and it seems to have been more of a curiosity than a practical device. The descrip- tion furnished by the inventors is as follows : The nature of our invention consists in dividing a cylindrical net into different compartments and furnishing each with a bait hag, the bait being suited to the different kinds of fish, and the large fish being prevented from entering the compartment of the smaller ones. Its construction is as follows : A cylindrical net is formed in the ordinary way and of the required length. The first compartment, A, is formed of large meshes. It is distended with a series of circular hoops, a a, the first one, a1, being a X)-shaped one for the entrance into the net, within the mouth of which, from the second hoop backward, there is a funnel-shaped gorge, 6, which gradually contracts toward the inner end conically, where it terminates in a small aperture, which is kept dis- tended by cords, c. Within this there is a similar-shaped entrance, d, and at the termination of the first division there is a division, e, stretched across, of the same large-size meshes as those of the net, and attached to the hoop, a-. Between the second funnel, d, and the division, e, there is a small cylin- FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 305 drical net, /, distended with hoops and having very small meshes. This is closed at both ends and is fastened in the center of the largo net. It is for the purpose of containing bait, which can he kept alive therein. From the partition, c, the net is continued on, and kept distended similar to the first compartment, forming another compartment, B, which, after reaching the first hoop, a3, is made with smaller meshes. At this point it has a funnel, g, similar to those in the first compartment, and behind it is a second bait hag, h, in all respects like the first. The compartment, B, is terminated by a partition, i. The same-sized mesh, or larger, is continued on to another hoop, a1, from which the meshes are fine enough to hold small fish for bait, and this part, C, is furnished with the usual funnel-shaped mouth, k, and its end is terminated by a cord, l. A net constructed after the above plan will serve to catch salmon, etc., in the first compartment, from which eels and smaller fish will be driven out; but they have free access to the next compart-- ment, where they are caught, while bait fish enough to supply the two first may be obtained by the last compartment, in which something may be placed to attract them. Having thus fully described our improvement, what we claim therein as new and desire to secure by letters patent, is — 1. The combination of a series of compartments in the manner and for the purpose described. 2. The combination therewith of the bait bags, as herein specified.* Several forms of small cone-shaped nets, used chiefly for eels, are to be classed with the foregoing fykes. Plate lxxiv, fig. 1, represents an eel fyke employed on the Atlantic coast. Itis con- structed partly of wire and seems to be a simple fyke of this class. The body is made of fine wire, supported by two broad flat wooden hoops at either end of the net. A twine funnel guards the mouth of the net, and another one begins about the middle of the barrel; four stout cords proceed from the ends of the funnels to the sides of the net, the place of their insertion being reenforced by an extra wire. The end of the trap from which the catch is taken also consists of netting provided with a pursing string. This fyke is 3 feet long and 10 inches wide. It is known as an u eel bait pot,” in allusion to the fact that it is baited for the purpose of attracting the eels. Several forms of nets of this character not provided with leader or wings have been ascertained to exist in other countries. They will be referred to ip some detail in the chapter on foreign fyke nets and need only be briefly mentioned in this place. One style of pot-like fyke has 3 hoops of equal size and a straight funnel extending from each end occupying about three-fourths of the length of each half of the net. The specimen figured (plate lxxxix, fig. 2) represents such a net used in Prussia, where it is called a bollreuse (round fyke). A somewhat similar trap used in France, with the funnels extending obliquely into the bag and reaching beyond the middle of the net, is shown in plate lxxxiv, fig. 2. A Portuguese net, with 5 hoops supporting a bag of the shape of a truncated cone, having a single funnel at the entrance and ter- minating in a door, through which the fish are extracted, is exhibited in plate lxxxix, fig. 3. Similar nets of this class that partake more of the typical nature of a fyke are employed in Portugal and France. FYKE NETS WITH LEADER. Very few fyke nets having only leaders are used in this country. The form is much less efficient than that provided with wings alone, or with both leader and wings, and probably this fact, as much as anything else, accounts for the scarcity of this style, both in number and variety. * Invented by John Carr, Jackson Shannon, and William Carr, of Sunbury, Pa. Letters patent No. 3741, dated September 14, 1844. F. C. B. 1892 20 306 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Fyke nets with leaders and without wings are usually set in pairs at the ends of a common leader, the entrances to the nets facing each other. Such an arrangement has been met with in the James and York rivers, Virginia, and is considered very satis- factory in the capture of striped bass. The nets are usually placed parallel with the shore, often off the mouth of a creek or cove. The nets observed have three hoops, the first of which is 4 to 6 feet in diameter, the last feet in width ; there are two funnels. * The length of each bag is about 12 feet.- The bag and funnels are made of netting with a 1 inch mesh. The leader is from 25 to 40 fathoms in length. A set of two nets, with the intervening leader, is worth from $30 to $50. Two nets of this class employed in Europe are figured (plate xc, fig. 1, and plate lxxxix, fig. 1). One, used in Portugal, consists of a simple bag, with one hoop and one funnel weighted and buoyed; the leader is relatively short and extends from an abrupt wall. The other, a Norwegian net, resembles the form already mentioned set in the United States, consisting of a net at each end of a common leader ; it has 3 iron hoops of uniform size (2J feet in diameter) and 2 funnels provided with wire apertures. Similar nets, with 5 wooden hoops of unequal sizes and 2 funnels arising from the first and third hoops, are also met with in Norway. The leader in examples inspected is about 50 feet long and is provided with cork floats and earthenware sinkers; it pro- jects for a short distance within the cavity of the first funnel. FYKE NETS WITH WINGS. Fykes provided only with wings are somewhat common in certain parts of the country. This is the form usually supplied by the net companies, and, according to Mr. W. S. Shepard, of the American Net and Twine Company, Boston, Mass., is sold ready-made in a great variety of sizes, the diameter of the first hoop varying from 1 to 8 feet. The following table of descriptions and prices of nets having one and two funnels is extracted from the catalogue of the net company named; the prices include two 12 foot wings. Mr. Shepard, who has courteously furnished some interesting notes and : ’ etches of fyke nets, remarks of those under consideration that u they are used in taking aC kinds of fresh- water fish in rivers and fresh- water ponds and lakes, and are also largely used in shore fishing both on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts for fish that follow along close to the shore.” A winged fyke, used in considerable numbers for taking eels, especially in Mas- sachusetts, is illustrated in plate lxxiv, fig. 2. The barrel of the net is about 18 inches in diameter at its mouth and is set at the bottom of the junction of two diverging wings which are 6 to 8 feet deep. FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 307 An extensively ased winged flounder fyke is peculiar in having elliptical hoops, four in number, with a single funnel. The long diameter of the first hoop is usually 36 inches and the short diameter 18 inches. A fyke net of this class, used on the eastern shore of Maryland and elsewhere in Chesapeake Bay, is known by various names, and applied to the capture of various products. A common form, in use in Dorchester County, Md., and fished for terrapin, striped bass, and perch, consists of a bag 18 feet long, distended by three hoops, 6 feet apart; the first hoop being 8 feet in diameter, the second 6 feet, and the third 4 feet. Funnels proceed from the first and second hoops. The wings (locally called leaders or hedgings) are 30 to 60 feet long. A similar type, with wings 18 feet long, is known as a “sink net,” on the Nanticoke River and elsewhere, and is set under the ice for striped bass and perch. Another style, with three funnels, shown in plate lxxiii, fig. 2, is called a “ buckdart, ” in Fishing Bay, Md., and is there employed exclusively for terrapin. A fyke net with three semicircii’ar hoops and two funnels and two short wings, known as a drop or brook fyke, is repc ted to have been recently used in tne Delaware River, in shallow water. It had a valu V of $5 to $10. FYKE NETS WITH LEADER AND WINGS. Fykes of this class are among the most numerous, varied, elaborate, and efficient nets employed in our fisheries. The simplest fyke of this style has an ordinary leader and two straight wings, as shown in plate lxxv, fig. 2. It is a common net in many places, and in certain parts of the Chesapeake Bay is the predominant one. The example figured, from Queen Anne County, Md., may be described as follows: The length of the net proper is 12 feet. There are five hoops, with two funnels extending from the first and third hoops; the first hoop is from 5 to 8 feet in diameter. The wings are 36 feet long, and the hedging is 40 yards long. The value of such a net is $8 to $15, depending on the newness of the materials used. Similar nets in the same region are 14 to 18 feet long, with leader from 40 to 100 yards in length. Rarely the hedging is constructed of laths nailed on crosspieces supported by uprights. These nets are adapted to the capture of striped bass, yellow perch, catfish, alewives, pike, and terrapin. Numerous fykes of this class are employed in the Hudson River and on Long Island. They have rather short leaders (called “ fences ”) and wings, and from two to four hoops. They are designated two-hoop, three hoop, and four-hoop fykes. They are adapted to the capture of all kinds of river and shore fish. The approximate measurements and cost of the various kinds are as follows : Kind of net. Length of leader. Length of wings. Diameter of hoops. Cost. First. Second. Third. Fourth. Two-hoop fyke Three-hoop fyke Four-hoop fyke Feet. 10 to 15 10 to 25 15 to 50 Feet. 4 to 6 0 to 8 8 to 10 Feet. 2 to 3 3 4 Feet. 1£ to 2 2 to 2i 34 Feet. 1J to 2 3 Feet. 24 Dollars. 5 to 10 15 to 20 25 to 30 A modification in the shape of the wings leads to the type of net usually desig- nated as the “pound fyke,” in which the wings are so disposed as to form a compart- ment answering the purposes of the “ forebay ” of a pound.net. In some nets the wings are evenly curved, in others they are angular. Two of these nets are exhibited in plate lxxvi. 308 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. A fyke net with curved wings like those of a pound is used in Queen Anne and other counties on the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay, and is illustrated in plate lxxvi, fig. 2. A net thus constructed is often considerably larger than the kind with straight wings used in the same region. The hoops, four or five in number, have two funnels. The entrance hoop is 4 to 9 feet in diameter. The bag or pocket is 15 to 20 feet long. The hedging is from 40 to 100 yards in length. The “ forebays” are from 5 to 30 yards long. The average value of such nets is about $15, although many, con- structed of old twine and set in shallow water, cost only $8 or $10. In some localities, as, for instance, the Chester River, nearly all the fykes employed are of this class. The fyke net illustrated in plate lxxvi, fig. 1, characterized by angular wings, is the form commonly in use in the Great Lake region, where various sizes are employed. The length of the fyke proper, here called the “ bowl” or “ pot,” varies from 10 to 20 feet; the first hoop is from 3 to 8 feet in diameter; the leader, with a mesh of 2 or 24 inches, bar measure, is 150 to 400 feet long; the wings or hearts contain from 20 to 90 feet of netting with a 14- or 2-inch mesh; the value is from $15 to $50. Such nets are often fished under the ice. All the fish common to the lake waters are caught. In Saginaw Bay and River, Michigan, where a large number of these nets are fished, they are known as “ gobblers.” A modification of this fyke is used at Sandusky and elsewhere in the Great Lakes. The plan and elevation are shown in plate lxxvii, figs. 1 and 2. Between the bowl or pound part of the net and the fyke proper there is a section known as the tunnel, which comes to the surface at the point where it joins the bowl. The net is usually set in 12 to 15 feet of water. The barrel of the net is square, and its size is usually 4 by 15 feet. The dimensions of this style of net are given in the figure. The largest and most elaborate of the ‘‘pound” fykes, which is represented in plate lxxviii, is, so far as known, confined to Monmouth County, 1ST. J., where it is used in the Raritan River, Sandy Hook Bay at Port Monmouth, and elsewhere within Sandy Hook. Briefly described, it is a modern pound net, having leader and hearts, with an ordinary five-hoop fyke taking the place of the pocket. The style shown in the figure is used at Port Monmouth, and presents the following features : The leader is 170 feet long, and is supported by stakes driven at distances of 10 feet. The outer heart has gently curving sides, 52 feet long, with stakes at intervals of 10 feet, except at the ends, where there are two poles 6 feet apart. A supplement- ary piece of netting 10 feet long, on either side of the entrance of the outer heart, serves the purpose of a wing. The distance between the end of the leader and the first pole of the heart on either side is 5 feet. The outer heart projects a distance of 6 feet into the inclosure of the inner, an interval of 2 feet being left between the ends of the two sides. The inner heart is formed by the projecting ends of the outer com- partment and two 10-foot pieces of netting on either side, joining each other at right angles, the inner section on each side being connected with the first hoop of the fyke by means of a special piece of netting 6 feet long, known as an apron. The first hoop is 44 feet in diameter ; the others, four in number, are 4 feet wide. An interval of 24 feet separates the first and second and the second and third hoops, while the third and fourth and the fourth and fifth hoops are 4 feet apart. The final segment, called the tail, is about 3 feet long, and is attached by a rope to a stake by means of which the net is kept extended. A funnel extends from the first to the third hoop and is attached to the latter by means of radiating cords; a second funnel passes from the fourth to the fifth hoop. FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 309 The variations in this kind of fyke consist in an elongation or shortening of the leader and sides of the hearts, in modifications of the shape of the hearts, and in a narrowing or widening of the entrances into the latter. The value varies from $20 to $50, depending on the newness of the twine and other materials employed; the average value is about $40. This style of net is set in salt and fresh water and takes all the forms of fish occurring in the region, including shad, alewives, striped bass, squeteague, flounders, etc. DOUBLE AND IRREGULAR FORMS OF FYKE NETS. The nets included in this division are, for the most part, elaborated combinations and variations of the forms already described. They constitute a numerous and important class of fykes, employed chiefly in the Middle Atlantic region, where, in some places, they are the principal kinds in use. For convenience they may be considered under the head of double or symmetrical fykes and unilateral or irregular forms. The double nets, as here regarded, consist of two simple fykes placed opposite each other, with a common leader, with or without wings, and connected on one side by a short piece of netting. The fykes are, in most types, set at right angles to the leader, but in some cases they diverge, forming an obtuse angle with the leader. An example of a simple form of double net is shown in plate lxxix, fig. 1 ; it is used in the Nanticoke Eiver and elsewhere in Chesapeake Bay, and is there usually called a u set of fykes.” It consists of two bags set facing each other, connected on one side by a curved piece of netting; from the other side a leader extends from the shore to a point opposite the entrances of the nets. The bags are 18 feet long and are separated from each other by a distance of 10 or 12 feet. There are 5 or 6 hoops and 2 or 3 funnels. The first hoop is 5 or 5.] feet in diameter, and each succeeding hoop is smaller by about 3 inches. The leader, or hedging, is 75 to 120 feet long, and con- sists of netting with a 3J-inch mesh. The improvements made in this style of fyke consist in the addition of wings of various shapes and sizes, some of which are illustrated in plates lxxix, lxxx and lxxxi. The form of net represented in plate lxxx, fig. 1, is a type of several similar styles employed in northern FTew Jersey, in Monmouth and Hudson counties, and used chiefly in the capture of shad. It is generally known as a shad fyke. Such nets are often set in strings containing three, four, or more nets. They are separated by lead- ers from 15 to 40 feet in length. The leaders are usually made wholly of twine, but in places where along line of nets would interfere with navigation that part of the leader which joins the back of a net is often made of brush, over which vessels and boats may sail without having their course impeded and without damaging the net. A set of three nets thus placed is exhibited in plate lxxxii. These fykes have a bag 15 to 20 feet long, with 5 hoops and with 2 funnels proceeding from the first and third hoops. A similar fyke, constructed on a smaller scale, is employed in the same region for striped bass. In Baltimore County, Md., a net of this class is in use, which is locally called a hedging fyke. The pocket is 5 to 10 feet long and has hoops from 3£ to 6 feet in diameter; as many as 9 hoops are sometimes inserted, but the usual number is less. The mouth of the bag is sometimes square. It is represented in plate lxxx, fig. 2. 310 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. One of tlie most noteworthy of these double forms is shown in plate lxxix, fig. 2. It is used in Wicomico, Dorchester, Caroline, Talbot, and other counties in Maryland, and is designated a u set of fykes.” It is the prevalent form in Wicomico County. Striped bass, perch, alewives, catfish, eels, pike, terrapins, and snapping turtles are caught. The fykes proper, here called pockets, are from 12 to 18 feet long, with a 2|- or 3-inch mesh. The hoops number 5 or 6; the largest is 5£ or 6 feet wide, and each succeeding hoop drops about 3 inches. There are usually two funnels, which proceed from the first and third hoops. The leader, called the hedging, is from 50 to 75 yards long and has a 3£-incli mesh. The wings are of variable length, but are usually from 20 to 50 feet; they are straight and form an angle of about 45 degrees with the leader. A double fyke, in which the pockets are placed obliquely with reference to the leader, is employed in Hudson County, N. J., and is chiefly fished for striped bass, in the capture of which it is quite efficient. In other respects the net presents no pecu- liar features. A typical example has pockets 20 feet long, 5 hoops, the largest 5 feet and the smallest 4 feet in diameter, short rectangular wings, the long side of which is 10 feet long and the short side 3 feet, and a leader 75 feet in length. The average cost is $20. Plate lxxxi, fig. 1, is an illustration of this style of fyke. Each of the double nets figured in plate lxxx, figs. 1 and 2, plate lxxxi, fig. 1, and plate lxxxii, has its prototype in unilateral nets fished in the same place, two of which are shown in plate lxxxi, fig. 2, and plate lxxxiii. THE FYKE NET IN LAW. From a very early date the use of the fyke net in the United States has been sub- ject to legal restrictions. Its effectiveness was early recognized, and the possibility of much damage resulting from its unrestrained employment was appreciated in many of the coast States. Except in a few cases this net has not seemed to require special legislation — that is, it has not been liable to regulations that were not directed to other forms of apparatus, but has usually been included with seines, gill nets, pound nets, etc., in legislative enactments. Whatever injurious results may attend the employment of the net, it is evident that these will be more pronounced the more circumscribed the body of water in which the fishing is done. Hence fyke-net fishing on the coast and in large rivers has been less subject to legal regulation than similar fishing in lakes and smaller streams or in the upper courses of rivers. The restrictions that have been placed on the fyke have consisted for the most part of a limitation of the size of the mesh that may be used, the prohibition of its employ- ment at certain seasons, and the determination of the waters in which it may be set. The following enactment of the New Jersey legislature in 1870 (chapter 262), restricting the use of fykes (and weirs) on oyster beds, is perhaps the only case in which the existence of private oyster- grounds has been permitted to affect the capture of fish : It shall not he lawful for any person to erect stakes or any other artificial means for the purpose of using wares or fike nets (sic) for the taking of fish upon the bottom of North Shrewsbury River, where oysters are planted by any person or persons, without first obtaining permission in writing of the person or persons so occupying the same. FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 311 GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW OF THE FYKE-NET FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. GENERAL IMPORTANCE AND EXTENT. The fyke net is one of the most important means of capture employed in the fisheries of the United States. It is more or less extensively used in nearly every coast and lake State, and a very large part of the food-fish consumed in the country is caught in this form of net. In point of productiveness it is of less importance than such passive kinds of apparatus as the pound net and weir, but in proportion to the cost of construction and operation it compares favorably with these forms. The fyke net is used in greatest numbers in the Middle Atlantic region and on the Great Lakes. It is not extensively employed in New England, except in Connecticut; it is only sparingly used in the South Atlantic States; it is entirely absent from the coastal regions of the Gulf States, and on the Pacific coast it is found only in Cali- fornia, where there is an unimportant fishery. The State having the largest number of fyke nets is Maryland, but the most important fishery is in New York, after which come Maryland, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, and New Jersey. The magnitude of the fyke-net fisheries of the United States is perhaps not fully appreciated, nor is their importance as a source of food supply fully understood. The following tables will therefore prove instructive; they show, for each State, the number of fyke-net fishermen, the number and value of fyke nets and boats employed, and the quantity and value of products taken. It will of course be under- stood that all of the fishermen shown do not depend on fykeTnet fishing for a liveli- hood; many of them operate fyke nets in connection with other fisheries; with many fishing of any kind is only a secondary consideration, and only a few maybe regarded as professional fyke-net fishermen. The same applies to the boats, which bear about the same relation to the fishery that the fishermen do. The figures relate to the years 1891 or 1892, except in the New England States, statistics for which are not available for a later year than 1889. The information contained in the tables is based on personal inquiries conducted by the field agents of theU. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries. The first table shows that in the year named 2,304 persons were engaged in fyke- net fishing in 16 coast and lake States: of these, 1,699 were on the Atlantic coast, 32 on the Pacific coast, and 573 on the Great Lakes. From the second table it is seen that 25,715 fyke nets, valued at $224,300, and 1,774 boats, valued at $60,552, were employed, the total capital devoted to the industry being $284,852; of the nets, 22,698 were set on the Atlantic seaboard, 49 in the waters of the Pacific coast, and 2,968 in the Great Lakes. The catch, as given in the third table, amounted to 12,268,975 pounds, for which the fishermen received $302,441; of this quantity, 5,827,432 pounds, valued at $176,919, were caught on the Atlantic coast, 194,647 pounds, worth $5,116, on the Pacific coast, and 6,246,896 pounds, having a value of $120,406, in the lake region. 312 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Fishermen employed in the f yke-net fisheries of the United States. Nets and boats employed in the fyke-net fisheries of the United States. States. Tyke nets. Boats. j Total investment. No. Value. No. Value. Atlantic Coast: Maine 134 $550 42 $1, 810 $2, 360 Massachusetts 15 100 6 200 300 Rhode Island 376 2, 680 21 595 3,275 Connecticut 440 2, 230 51 1, 530 3, 760 New York 6, 246 55. 465 502 16, 002 71, 467 New Jersey 1, 562 14, 191 137 4,155 18, 346 Pennsylvania • 2, 534 5, 264 59 1,604 6, 868 Delaware 567 1, 261 25 425 1, 686 Maryland 10, 398 38. 114 460 7,171 45, 285 Virginia 379 5, 930 73 1, 330 7, 260 North Carolina 36 384 4 60 444 Georgia 11 285 5 70 355 Total 22, 698 126, 454 1,385 34, 952 161, 406 Pacific coast : California 49 980 16 1,050 2, 030 Great Lakes : New York 684 9, 822 66 2,318 12, 140 Ohio 1, 110 63, 650 139 14, 045 77, 695 Michigan 446 12, 030 102 2,257 14, 287 Wisconsin 728 11, 364 66 5, 930 17, 294 Total 2, 968 96, 866 373 24, 550 121, 416 Grand total 25,715 224, 300 1,774 60, 552 284, 852 Products of the fyke-net fisheries of the United States. States. Pounds. Value. States. Pounds. Value. Atlantic Coast: Maine Massachusetts Ill, 000 44,655 114, 250 458, 307 2, 382, 882 591, 684 146, 695 45, 091 1. 552. 432 335, 361 24, 885 20, 190 5.827.432 $1, 380 1,400 3, 045 10, 039 48, 899 25, 750 6, 659 2, 591 62, 115 13, 627 716 176, 919 Pacific coast : California Great Lakes : New York Ohio Michigan Wisconsin Total Grand total 194, 647 $5, 116 Rhode Island Connecticut New York N ew J ersey Pennsylvania 899, 527 2, 420, 650 1,605,474 1, 321, 245 22, 561 40, 373 31, 271 26, 201 Maryland 6, 246, 896 120, 406 "Vi rginia North Carolina Georgia Total 12, 268, 975 302, 441 FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 313 Considering tlie entire country, it appears that the average number of nets in each of the States named is 1,601; the average value of the nets is about $9; the average number of nets to a man is 11; the average number of pounds of fish to a net is 477 ; the average stock per net is $12; the average stock per man is $131, and the average price of the products is 2£ cents per pound. The fyke net is adapted to the capture of almost every free-swimming aquatic animal found on the coasts, in the rivers, or in the lakes of the United States. The following table exhibits the quantities and values of all the principal fishes represented in the fyke-net catch. Among the numerous economic species the most valuable are the flounders and catfishes, each of which yielded products worth over $42,000. Other specially important fishes are pike, pike perch, yellow perch, flounders, eels, striped bass, suckers, and shad. On the Atlantic coast the flatfishes are the first in impor- tance, in the Pacific region catfish are the most valuable products, while in the Great Lakes the pike and pike perch take first rank, followed by the yellow perch. Owing to the misapplication of names on the part of the lake fishermen, satisfactory separate figures for the pike and pike perch can not be furnished. Quantity and value of the principal products constituting the fyke-net catch of the United States. Species. Pounds . Value. | 391, 245 $3,144 1 1, 675 208 | 29, 350 1, 184 J 48, 850 880 . 5, 800 359 567, 982 23,133 351, 040 17,534 1, 744, 830 42,211 77, 100 J, 842 246, 558 13, 763 278, 232 11, 165 108, 744 7, 418 743, 667 1, 238 72, 065 1, 759 244, 453 10, 296 53, 705 2, 090 209, 769 6, 672 183, 757 15, 160 138, 217 6, 120 33, 665 1,549 167, 108 5,981 97, 200 243 20, 000 125 12, 420 2, 845 5, 827, 432 176, 919 Species. Atlantic coast : Ale wives Bass Bluefish Butter-fish Carp Catfish Eels Flounders and flatfish Frostfish or tomcod . . Perch, white Perch, yellow Pike Menhaden Scup Shaa Spots and croakers . . . Squeteague Striped bass Suckers Tautog and cunners.. Other fish Refuse fish King crabs Terrapins Total Pacific coast: Carp Catfish Other fish Total Great Lakes: Bass Catfish Eels Herring Perch Pike and pike perch Suckers Trout Whitefish Other fish Turtles Total Grand total... 42, 115 114, 575 37, 957 183, 481 789, 623 56, 336 333, 650 1, 716, 311 1, 075, 085 779, 285 15, 480 $1, 374 2, 870 872 4, 446 25, 679 37, 161 11, 994 645 465 10, 601 514 6, 246, 896 12, 268, 975 120, 406 302, 441 The typical fresh -water fishes constitute much more than half the product of the fyke-net fishery; of these 8,006,013 pounds, valued at $195,898, are given in the pre- ceding table. Of the salt-water products, 3,119,849 pounds, valued at $62,338, were obtained. Anadromous fishes yielded 1,143,113 pounds, valued at $44,205. 314 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The following table is a classification of the products of this industry, based on the nature of the water in which caught. The table is not entirely satisfactory, however, owing to the fact that the catfish and eels, which are classed as fresh-water fishes, are in small part taken in salt and brackish water, but can not be separately shown. Classification of the products of the fyke-net fisheries. Species. Pounds. Value. Salt-water products : Bluefish Butter-fish Flounders and flatfish . Menhaden Scup - 29,350 48, 850 1, 744, 830 743, 667 72, 065 53, 705 209, 769 33, 665 54, 328 97, 200 20, 000 12, 420 $1,184 880 42, 211 1, 759 2, 090 6, 672 1,549 1, 542 243 125 2, 845 Spots and croakers Squeteague Tautog and ounners... Other fish Refuse fish King crabs Terrapins Total 62, 338 Anadromous fish : Alewives Frostfish or tomcod . . . Perch, white Shad 391, 245 77, 100 246, 558- 244, 453 183, 757 3,144 1,842 13,763 10, 296 15, 160 Striped bass Total 1, 143, 113 44, 205 Species. Pounds. Value. Fresh-water products : Bass Carp Catfish Eels Herring (lake) Perch, yellow Pike and pike perch... Suckers Trout (lake) Whitefish Other fish Turtles 112, 803 47, 915 1, 472, 180 407, 376 333, 650 1, 994, 543 1, 183, 829 917, 502 15, 480 9, 685 1,485, 345 25, 705 $6, 551 1,733 44, 539 19, 711 4, 446 36, 844 44, 579 18, 114 645 465 17, 757 514 Total 8, 006, 013 195, 898 Grand total 12, 268, 975 ~ 302, 441 FISHING SEASON, METHODS, MARKETS, ETC. The fishing season for fyke nets varies somewhat with the locality and with the fish taken, but in most places it continues throughout the spring, summer, and fall months. In the Great Lakes, Maine, Rhode Island, Chesapeake Bay, and elsewhere, consider- able fishing is also done under the ice. Fyke nets are usually tended in boats, but in a few localities the physical features are such that the fishermen can wade out to their nets and lift them. In some places the nets are lifted daily, in others only two or three times a week, the frequency depending on the abundance of fish, the state of the weather, the condition of the market, and, to a certain extent, on the kinds of fish taken. Most fykes are so con- structed as to provide for the removal of the fish from the final compartment, the end of which is closed by means of a purse string. The end of the net, being detached from the stake or anchor which holds it in position, is drawn into the boat and the contents are taken out without the necessity of loosening the entire net. Small nets, however, like the drop fykes in the Middle Atlantic States, are drawn bodily into the boat. When fykes are set under the ice, the pocket is reached and the fish are extracted through a hole in the ice, the body of the net remaining undisturbed, as in ordinary fishing. Nothing of special application can be said regarding the methods of handling the fish caught in fyke nets, the lines of distribution, the markets, etc. These vary with the locality and do not differ from the cases of other fisheries in the same regions. Fykes are often employed in conjunction with other apparatus, the catch in the differ- ent nets being shipped together. FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 315 THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. The fyke-net fishery of the New England States is not of great importance and is completely overshadowed by many other fisheries. Nets are found in all the States except New Hampshire, are most numerous in Connecticut, and least so in Massachu- setts, and the fishery increases in value from north to south. The nets are inexpensive, having an average value of less than $6; they are cheapest in Maine and have the highest value in Rhode Island. Only a few kinds of fish are caught, and only flounders are taken in any considerable quantities and in every State; the other fish obtained are frostfish, butter-fish, tautog, cunners, menhaden, scup, striped bass, and smelt. The following condensed table shows the condition of the fyke-net fisheries of the New England States. More detailed figures for the products will appear in the dis- cussion for each State. Summary of the fyke-net fishery of the New England States. States. No. of fisher- men. Fyke nets. Boats. Products. No. V alue. No. Value. Pounds. Value. Maine 44 134 $550 42 $1, 810 liirooo $1, 380 Massachusetts G 15 100 6 200 44, 655 1,400 Rhode Island.... 43 376 2, 680 21 595 114, 2o0 3,0*5 Connecticut 52 440 2, 230. 51 1,530 455, 250 8, 759 Total 145 965 5, 560 120 4, 135 725, 155 14, 584 MAINE. The fyke net is not very popular in this State, and the fishery with this apparatus is almost lost sight of in comparison with other very extensive river fisheries. It is probable that fyke nets in addition to those shown in the tables are used in the inte- rior or more remote coastal sections; inquiries carried on by the Fish Commission, however, covered all fyke-net fishing of importance in the coast rivers. The employment of fyke nets as an economic pursuit is to be noted in only three coastal counties, namely Lincoln, Sagadahoc, and Cumberland, the last-named hav- ing the most important interests; of the 134 nets used in 1889, 101 were credited to this county, although fewer men and boats are employed than in Lincoln County, owing to differences in methods. Three species comprise all the marketable fishtak 311; these are flounders, frostfish or tomcod, and smelt. The flounders are by far the most important, as shown in the following table. The aggregate catch in Cumberland County is much larger than in the two other counties combined, amounting to 82,000 pounds, valued at $1,050 and comprising practically only flounders, while in Lincoln County the yield was 25,000 pounds of flounders, valued at $230, and in Sagadahoc the output consisted of 4,000 pounds of frostfish and smelt, with a value of $100. Products of the fyke-net fishery of Maine. Species. Pounds. Value. Flounders Frostfish 107, 000 2,500 1, 500 $1, 280 10 90 Smelt Total 111, 000 1,380 | 316 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Mr. 0. G. Atkins, of the G. S. Fish. Commission, in a report* on the river fisheries of Maine, speaks of the fyke nets used in the smelt fishery as “ double bag nets, the large open-mouthed net in front leading by a narrow opening at its apex into a smaller one, termed the ‘pocket,’ from which, as from a weir, fish escape with difficulty. The fish are taken out by drawing up the 1 pocket,’ through a separate hole in the ice, and unlacing an opening at the bottom, the main part of the fyke remaining under water for weeks or months.” Mr. Atkins further says that “ the fyke has been used in various parts of the State, but does not appear to have given entire satisfaction. There is complaint of its being more difficult to clean of rubbish, anchor ice, etc., than the plain bag net, which has in some cases superseded it.” In the Wescongus or Pleasant River it was reported in 1880 that most of the smelt nets were fykes. “ They are set by attaching them to poles, which are planted through the ice into mud in a location where the water is 8 feet deep at low tide. The nets are set both on the flood and ebb tide, and hauled at both high and low water. Fishing begins as soon as the ice will bear, which is generally about December 10 or 15, and continues till near April 1, the limit fixed by law.” In the Kennebec River, the introduction of small fykes was accomplished in 1851. They were used in the river for many years, but the fykes have gradually been supplanted by the bag nets, introduced at the same time. MASSACHUSETTS. Fyke nets are used for commercial fishing in Essex, Barnstable, and Bristol coun- ties, in this State. They are most numerous and important in the last-named county, but, considering the entire State, are among the least productive of the forms of fishing apparatus there used. Only six persons were engaged in tending these nets in the last year covered by the inquiries of the Fish Commission, only fifteen typical nets were employed, and the product was less than 45,000 pounds. The fishes entering into the catch are chiefly scup, flounders, butter-fish, and cunners, of which the scup are the most important. The catch consisted of 44,655 pounds, valued at $1,400, of which 39,165 pounds, worth $1,098, were taken in Bristol County. The quantities of each species were as follows : Products of the fyke-net fishery of Massachusetts. Species. Pounds. Value. Butter-fish 2, 650 $82 Cunners 2, 340 10, 200 29, 465 210 Flounders 264 Scup 844 Total 44, 655 1,400 It may be stated that there are also used in parts of Massachusetts numbers of pot-like nets, as represented in plate lxxiv, fig. 1, which have been regarded as forms of fykes by the writer but were classed as pots in the canvass of the fisheries by the agents of the Fish Commission. * The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, section V, vol. i. History and Methods, p. 692. FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 317 RHODE ISLAND. Considering the length of its eoast line, Bhode Island has a rather extensive fyke- net fishery compared with the other States of this region. Nets are set in three coast counties, between 100 and 200 nets being operated in each county. The nets employed in Bhode Island present the same general features of construction and shape as those in New York, although some types peculiar to the State are used. The fykes are most valuable in Washington County, most numerous and productive in Kent County, and relatively the most important in Newport County. The 43 fisherman have ou an average 9 nets each, with a boat to each 18 nets and each 2 men. The average catch to a net is about 305 pounds, worth $8. The fishery at the present time is essentially a flounder fishery, flounders being the only commercial fish taken. Of the 114,250 pounds secured, about 50,000 pounds, valued at $1,200, were caught in Kent County; 35,000 pounds, worth $1,050, in Newport County, and 29,250 pounds, valued at $795, in Washington County. Most of the fishing is done in winter under the ice. Compared with 1 880, the fyke-net fishery of Bhode Island has undergone a notice- able decline as well a marked change in methods and in the fish taken. In that year, 865 nets, valued at $7,530, were set in the waters of the State. Of Little Narragansett Bay and Pawcatuck Biver it was stated: There are fully fifty fyke nets employed. They are set thus : At the center of one side of the heart of a pound net a hoop fyke is attached, opening into the heart; when the net is lifted, instead of “hunting” the net toward the further end of the howl and then hailing the fish out, as is usually done, they are driven into one of the hearts, and thence into the fyke; the end of this is lifted into a hoat into which the fish are emptied. The mesh in these fykes is very fine. Fyke-nets are also set all along the shore in shallow water, and catch chiefly hass, flounders, and perch. * The most numerous and generally distributed fyke net now employed in the State has two diverging wings and a leader, as represented in plate lxxv, fig. 2. The wings are 18 to 20 feet long, and the leader is 50 to 100 feet long, depending on the nature of the locality in which the net is set. About 5 stakes are usually required to support the leader, which is 3 to 4 feet deep. The wings are kept in position by a single stake at their outer ends, the inner end being attached to the first hoop. The bag is about 15 feet long or less and is distended by 3 or 4 hoops, the first being 3i to 4 feet in diame- ter, each succeeding hoop decreasing in size by 6 or 8 inches. Some nets have 1 funnel and some 2 funnels. The net is kept in place by a painter or stayline attached to the end of the pocket and made fast by a half hitch to a stake driven in the bottom. The cost ol such a net is $6 to $10. The manner of rigging the nets is often varied somewhat by different fishermen. In Little Narragansett Bay, for instance, a fyke has recently been used with a square entrance and a prism- shaped funnel leading into the cavity of the net. This feature the fishermen think is an advantage over the ordinary circular entrance in the case of large fykes set in comparatively deep water. The nets are usually set in shoal water. In somedocalities tautog, in addition to flatfish, are now caught. The fishing season is fall and winter. Fishing under the ice is considered more profitable than in the open water and is the customary method pursued, owing to the fact that the products then command a much higher price than during the season of open water. A peculiar form of apparatus used at Apponaug during the past three years for taking flatfish resembles in some respects both the fyke net and the pot, but seems more * Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, section ii, p. 310. 318 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. nearly related to the former and is regarded by fishermen as a type of fyke. The apparatus consists of ten or more individual traps set in one line and connected by leaders. Bach trap is composed of two bowed pieces of wood, forming the ends, over which the netting is placed. It is flat on the bottom, and is 3 feet long, 18 inches deep, and 2 feet wide at the base. A funnel is placed in one end of the trap. Two such nets are set facing each other at the ends of a leader 15 feet in length, and four or more with their entrances in the same direction as the first net are added to each end, with short leaders intervening. The entire string is kept in position by being anchored at the two ends with stone weights. Such nets are usually set in shallow water, but a buoy is used to mark their position. They are reputed to be very effective in the capture of flatfish. A series of ten nets when new is worth $15. The principal reason assigned for the decrease in the number of fykes used in this State in recent years is the scarcity of the fish sought. As the fishery entails considerable exposure to cold and inclement weather, there is little inducement to continue the business if fish are not reasonably abundant. The scarcity of ice for a number of years prior to 1892-93 was also unfavorable to the development of this fishery. The increase in pound nets, which has been marked, has also tended to diminish fishing with related forms of apparatus. CONNECTICUT. As already shown, the fyke-net fishery of Connecticut is more important than that of any other Hew England State. Compared with 1880, the fishery seems to have about doubled in extent, judging by the number of nets used, although there are no data for 1880 on which to base a comparison of the catch and stock. The average value of the nets, however, seems to have decreased. In 1880, the number of fykes reported for the State was 255, valued at $2,480; in 1889 the number was 440, worth $2,230. Fyke-net fishing is carried on along most parts of the coast of this State. All the prominent towns have more or less fishing of this kind. The largest number of nets is found in Ston'ington, Quiambog, Mystic, Hoank, and Hew London. The distribu- tion of the fykes in 1S89 was as follows : Towns. No. of nets. Towns. No. of nets. Ston on 64 Branford 7 Quiambog 110 Milford 10 Mystic 32 Stratford 20 Noank 68 Southport Poquonoc 21 Norwalk 5 Now London 54 7 Niantic 15 Stamford 5 Saybrook 21 1 The fish now taken in the fyke nets of Connecticut are principally flounders, frostfish, tautog, menhaden, and striped bass. In a few places terrapin are taken, and in Stratford these are much more valuable than the remaining part of the catch. In 1880 the species reported to be caught in fyke nets were sea bass, cod, bluefish, eels, weakfish, flounders, herring, shad, and occasionally sturgeon. At Mystic the nets are set about February 1 and taken up about March 31 ; they are again set about October 1 and remain down until December 31. Flatfish and frostfish are taken. At Hoank, the nets are fished from the first of February to the last of April, and FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 319 from tlie first of Oct "'ter to the middle of December. The principal fishing, however, is done in the spring. The nets are placed in water 6 to 15 feet deep. In Groton the fykes are operated at the mouths of the rivers during June and July, and within the rivers during the rest of the year ; flounders and frostflsh are secured. The largest catch is made in Quiambog, where the greatest number of nets is used. Here nearly 140,000 pounds of flounders, frostflsh, and tautog, valued at $2,550, were obtained in 1889. Seven nets at Branford were fished for menhaden; about 100,000 fish were taken in the year named. The fyke-net fishery of Connecticut in 1889 resulted in the capture of 455,250 pounds of fish, valued at $8,759, and 1,019 terrapin, worth $1,280. The quantities of the different fishes were as follows : Products of the fyke-net fishery of Connecticut. Species , Pounds, j Value. Flounders 347, 400 $6, 899 Frostflsh 26, 000 660 Menhaden 66, 500 375 Striped bass 7, 350 475 Tautog rr. . 8,000 350 Total 455,250 I 8, 759 THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. The Middle Atlantic region, as here considered, includes the States of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. From every point of view this is the most important fyke-net section of the country. More persons are here employed in fishing fykes, more nets are set, more products are taken, and more money accrues to the fishermen than in any other region. The statistics of this fishery in 1891, specified by States, are exhibited in the following table. It appears that 1,517 persons were engaged in tending fykes, that 21,686 nets, valued at $120,225, were used, and that 5,056,145 pounds of fish and other products, valued at $159,341, were taken. The fishermen and nets are most numerous and the value of the fishery is greatest in Maryland ; the amount invested in fykes and boats, the number of boats, and the quantity of fish taken are greatest in New York. Pennsylvania and Delaware have the least important fisheries. Fyke-net fishing of the Middle Atlantic States. States. Number of fish- ermen. Fyke nets. Boats. Products. Number. V alue. Number. V alue. Pounds. Yalue. New York 577 6,246 $55, 465 502 $16, 002 2, 382, 882 $48, 899 New Jersey 160 1,562 14, 191 137 4,155 593, 684 25, 450 Pennsylvania 60 2, 534 5,264 59 1,604 146, 695 6, 659 Delaware 27 567 1,261 25 425 45, 091 2,591 Maryland 595 10, 398 38, 114 460 7,171 1 1, 552, 432 62, 115 Virginia 98 379 5, 930 73 1,330 335, 361 13, 627 Total 1, 517 21, 686 120, 225 1,256 30,687 5, 056, 145 159, 341 320 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. NEW YORK. In the value of its fyke-net fishery, New York ranks before any other State, sur- passing Maryland, the next important State, by about ten thousand dollars’ worth of products. In the waters of the State tributary to the Atlantic Ocean, however, the extent of the fishery is less than in Maryland. The physical features of this State naturally fall for discussion under three general heads: Long Island, Staten Island, and the Hudson Eiver. Consideration of the fyke-net fishery in the Great Lakes on which the State has a frontage will be taken up in the chapter on the lake region. The extent of this fishery in each of these regions in 1891 was as follows : Sections. Fisher- No. of nets. Value of catch. Staten Island 18 215 $1, 450 42, 459 4,990 Long Island * 483 Hudson River 76 h 148 Total 577 6,246 48,899 * Including part of Westchester County bordering on Long Island Sound. The principal fishes taken in the Long Island region are flounders and flatfishes, so called; these constitute two-thirds of the value of the catch and are particularly important in Suffolk County. Other fish which have some prominence are sque- teague, bluefish, shad, butter-fish, tomcod, and menhaden. This is one of the sections in which terrapins have been taken in fykes, although, the present scarcity of these animals, as compared with earlier times, reduces the importance of the fishery to a minimum, and in the last year for which statistics are available it would seem that no terrapin were caught in this way. In 1889, however, in parts of Queens County small numbers were taken. At Bayville these were caught by means of fykes set across a stream, and resting on the bottom. The season began about July 20 and closed September 1. The fykes were set well up the stream and only remained about forty-eight hours, when they were changed to another stream. There were only about one-half as many terrapin caught as there were ten years ago. In 1872, in one night, four fykes caught 212 terrapin. After they were caught, the practice was to keep them in a pen until prospects were favorable for a good market. When in confinement they were fed on “fiddlers” up to within 10 days of the time of marketing them, when they were given corn meal. One man with the aid of a boy could make $8 per day at this fishery. These terrapin brought from 15 cents to $1.25 apiece, averaging about 80 cents. On the northern shore of Long Island Sound, in Westchester County, from thirty to fifty fykes have been set annually during recent years. They have an average value of $25, and catch mostly tomcod, flounders, striped bass, and tautog or blackfish. A fyke (plate lxxv, fig.l) used at New Rochelle and elsewhere along this shore consists of the ordinary 5-hooped bag, with two funnels and two asymmetrical wings. One of the wings, made of seven pieces of netting each 9 feet long, extends from the shore in the form of a bow and joins the side of the first hoop; the other consists of three short sections, 12, 5, and 4 feet long, respectively, the longest arm extending from the net toward the shore and joining the middle piece, which runs parallel with the FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 321 shore and makes an acute angle with the free end, which projects toward the mouth of the net, the whole forming a pocket from which the fish are led into the net. A few interesting early references to fyke-net Ashing on the shores of Staten Island have been met with. In a paper on “Agriculture in Richmond County,” con- tained in the New York State Agricultural Report for 1842, the following statement occurs under the head of “spring and fall like fishing”: There are also other inhabitants of the ocean frequenting the southern shores of the island which divert attention from farming. In the cool weather of spring and autuipn small likes are set, extending but a short distance into the water, for taking the smaller kinds of fish which run with the tides close along shore, and furnish a domestic supply. Among them, however, are sometimes fish of a larger size, and such as are taken with the hook and line in deeper waters. In these likes are taken: Blackfish ( Labrus tautoga), striped bass (Perea mitchilli), weakfish ( Labrus squeteague), kingfish ( Sciwna nebulosa), tomcod or frostfish ( Gadus tomcodus), flounder (Pleuronectes planus), the scientific names being from Mitchill’s New York Fishes. The same paper has this additional reference to fyke nets: On Staten Island the seine or draw net is sometimes employed in taking shad, but the like or stationary hoop net is principally used to capture- them. Along the southern and eastern shore of the island, every person who has a farm fronting -on the water where the shad run, has his like or likes prepared in due season, and set at a proper distance from the shore. The like is lifted at every low tide and the fish taken out. If the proprietor takes more than is required for his own consumption, the surplus is sent to the New York market. Occasionally, in some situations, the fishery is more pro- ductive than the farm. But in the memory of the writer the run of shad has very much diminished. At the present time the principal species taken in this region are alewives, catfish, eels, white pet A, shad, and striped bass, the most valuable being catfish, eels, and shad. In ten counties on the Hudson River fyke nets are employed in greater or less quantities. They are most numerous and important in Albany, Rensselaer, Orange, and Rockland counties. They are mostly simple two-lioop, three-hoop, and four-hoop nets, with short wings and leader, such as are referred to on page 307. In the lower part of the river they are set in water 40 to fiO feet deep, but in the upper course of the stream they are mostly placed in 10 to 20 feet of water. The chief fishes taken are catfish, perch, striped bass, and suckers. From the following tables the extent of the fyke-net fishery in each county can be seen. After Suffolk County, which has the most important fishery, the principal counties are Kings, Queens, and Westchester, in each of which the value of the prod- ucts is more than $2,000. Fishermen. Counties. Number. Albany 5 Columbia 10 Dutchess 5 Greene 4 Kings 23 Orange 7 Putnam 2 Queens 25 Rensselaer Richmond 18 Rockland 17 Suffolk 424 Ulster 5 Westchester 24 Total 577 F. C. B. 1892 21 322 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Nets and boats. Counties. Fyke nets. Boats. | No. Value. No. Value. Albany 295 $1, 565 5 $460 Columbia . 71 495 10 185 Dutchess 136 840 6 115 Greene 52 290 4 65 Kings 205 1, 860 26 720 Orange - 156 933 g 155 17 102 2 40 Queens 213 2,340 26 1, 235 Rensselaer 161 885 5 95 Richmond 215 2, 150 25 500 Rockland 125 1,525 30 1,150 Suffolk 4, 430 40, 515 324 9, 882 Ulster 72 400 5 80 Westchester 98 1, 565 26 1,-320 Total 6,246 55, 465 502 16, 002 Products. Species. Albany. Columbia. Dutchess. Greene. Kings. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. 6,530 $327 6,280 $299 3, 600 $180 2, 750 $138 9, 300 10, 857 10, 240 2, 950 23, 360 4, 970 4, 000 $360 570 280 1, 550 124 2, 850 232 1, 375 110 1,125 90 110 1,460 240 Striped Bass 125 15 255 31 65 g 75 9 520 Suckers 3,360 160 168 1,618 320 89 1, 800 85 100 780 38 Other fish.' 8 16 5 100 5, 818 160 Total 11, 725 642 11, 323 667 6, 925 403 4,830 281 71, 495 3,700 Species. Orange. Putnam. Queens. Rensselaer. Richmond. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. 1 Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Alewives | 6, 400 $80 235 280 Catfish .... 4, 820 $241 2,050 $102 1 7, 835 9, 143 $260 480 6,000 $289 5,980 5, 330 Eels Flounders and flatfish 1 57, 240 1, 431 Perch, white 1, 775 142 525 42 1,750 140 1, 980 7,080 1, 525 80 Shad 495 Striped bass 95 13 76 75 g 520 64 85 10 183 Suckers 1,350 150 500 28 2.475 142 Other fish 85 5 5,086 150 75 4 3, 235 97 Total 8, 190 480 3, 235 186 | 79, 824 2,385 10, 385 585 31, 530 1, 450 Species. Rockland. Suffolk. Ulster. Westchester. Total. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Alewives 25, 920 28, 350 43, 200 12, 150 6,090 986, 700 $324 1, 134 648 32, 320 $404 1,134 648 Bluefish 28, 350 43, 200 77, 945 31, 420 1, 064, 180 265 Butter-fish Catfish Eels 3, 600 $180 243 320 4, 600 $221 2, 450 $123 3, 198 ■ 1,650 26, 488 Flounders and flat fish 24, 277 40 io, ooo 500 Kingfish Menhaden Perch, white 40 648, 000 810 648, 000 810 i, 775 142 1, 850 148 1, 050 84 20, 555 1,444 40, 500 8, 100 810 40, 500 8, 100 810 Sea^bass 405 405 Sha‘1 1, 550 78 | 800 40 32, 790 2, 073 3, 480 Squeteague Striped bass Sturgeon Suckers Tautog Tomcod - Other fish 108, 000 1, 650 3, 240 | 112, 970 i, 650 1,050 1,875 142 200 85 j 10 6, 100 650 732 26 16, 305 1.700 2, 000 68 110 1,050 68 1, 900 76 16, 708 18, 125 895 10, 125 40, 600 27, 360 405 8, 000 400 805 772 8, 000 275 400 48, 600 1,172 1, 132 750 45 603 150 9 16 43, 649 97, 200 243 97, 200 243 Total , 12, 250 793 2, 084, 210 34, 474 7,735 456 | 39, 225 2, 397 2, 382, 882 48, 899 1 FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 323 NEW JERSEY. This State holds the third place in this region as regards the extent of its fyke-net fishery. It has a large variety of localities adapted to the use of this apparatus; two important rivers, the Hudson and Delaware, as well as many smaller streams, afford an abundance of anadromous and fresh water fish, and the numerous large and small bays on the coast yield salt-water and also anadromous species in great quanti- ties. In few other States is a greater variety of fyke nets found nor are more expen- sive forms in use. The most elaborate style that has been met with, shown in plate lxxviii, is here employed. The largest numbers of nets are used in the Delaware Eiver, but the most expen- sive and efficient forms are fished in that part of the State within Sandy Hook; only a few nets are operated on the outer shore, although some of these are of large size and catch considerable quantities of fish. In Hudson County and some other parts of northern Hew Jersey, the principal fish taken in fyke nets is the shad, in the capture of which special types of nets are employed known as shad fykes; these have already been described and are figured in plates lxxx, fig. 1, lxxxii, and lxxxiii. The shad fykes are set doubly or singly, according to the locality, conditions of the shore and bottom, and the whim of the fish ermen. When set singly, shad fykes in Hudson County are always so placed that the mouth of the net faces the outgoing tide ; a net so set is called a u flood fyke.” When placed double, one net faces the incoming tide and is termed an u ebb fyke.” The fishing season is usually from April 1 to May 20, during which time small quantities of white perch, alewives, and eels, in addition to shad, are caught. In late years, a few salmon ( Salmo salar) have also been taken. The nets are tended in sail and row boats, and about ten nets are set by each man. These fykes, complete with leaders, cost $1 5 to $20 each. The shad fykes in that part of Hudson County between Jersey City and Bergen Point took the following quantities of shad in each of the years named : Years. Pounds. Value. 1889 184, 000 166, 000 124, 000 130, 000 $5, 520 6, 225 4,960 5, 850 1890 1891 1892 Evolution of the fylce net in Monmouth County. — Prior to the spring of 1870 all of the fyke nets employed in the vicinity of Port Monmouth were similar in construction to the style indicated in plate lxxv, fig. 2, that is, they were provided with a leader and two wings. In the year mentioned improvements were inaugurated by two parties of fishermen. One company advocated and adopted a form of double fyke net (plate lxxx, fig. 1), with a common leader, a wing to each net, and a back piece of netting extend- ing between the first hoops, and was opposed to the more elaborate type (plate lxxviii), introduced and operated by Mr. Martin C. Lohsen, consisting of a leader, wings, and two hearts, like a modern pound net. A fair trial showed that the latter form was so much more successful that it gradually displaced the others and is now the only kind used at Port Monmouth. While the simpler fyke nets took only or principally floun- 324 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION. ders, the improved style catches shad, striped bass, weakfish, eels, and other fish in large quantities. This type of fyke net, designated a “ pound fyke,” has been described. It is set singly, in pairs, or in strings containing from three to six nets, and has a value of $30. The “pound fyke” is used at various other places in northern New Jersey. It is always essentially similar to the Port Monmouth type, the variatioxis in construction being of minor importance. The restrictions which in recent years have been placed on fyke nets in the Dela- ware Eiver have considerably reduced the visible or apparent extent of the fishery and made difficult the study of the subject. Practically all of the fishing is done at night, at the risk of fine, imprisonment, and the confiscation of apparatus. The darker the night and the more stormy the weather the better it suits the fishermen. The principal forms of fykes used in the Delaware are the “ drop fykes” or “brook fykes,” sometimes locally called “pike nets.” These are usually set in shallow water. Sometimes twenty to twenty-five nets are fastened together, the small end of one net being attached by a line to the bottom of the first hoop of the next net. A line with a buoy is fastened to the small end of the first net. Sometimes the buoy line is carried to the shore and tied to a twig in an inconspicuous place in order to avoid the watchful eye of the fish warden, who often- sails directly over a long string of nets without knowing of their presence. In some instances the strings of nets are set without buoy lines or shore lines ; “marks” or “ranges” are then taken by one man on shore while the other is setting the nets. A long pole or boathook is then required to haul up the nets. When set singly, as the brook fykes often are, they are placed as shown in plates lxxii and lxxiii, fig. 1, that is, they are kept in position by means of stones. The extent of this fishery in 1891 was as follows, the figures being shown by counties : Fishermen. Nets and boats,. Counties. Fyke nets. Boats. No. V alue. No. Value. Atlantic 12 $36 1 $25 Burlington 1,055 3, 755 49 980 Cape May 3 150 50 Hudson 210 3, 750 16 1,450 Middlosox 22 990 2 225 Monmouth 213 4, 430 52 1, 131 Ocean 47 1,080 16 294 Total 1, 562 14, 191 137 4, 155 FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 325 Products. Pounds. Value. Burlington. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value Alewives Black bass Carp Cattish Eels Shad Striped bass Suckers Sunfish Weak fish White perch Yellow perch Miscellaneous fish . Terrapin Total Alewives Black bass Bluefish Butter-fish Carp Catfish Eels Flounders Menhaden Scup Sea bass Shad Spots Striped bass Suckers Sunfish Tautog Weaktish White perch Yellow perch Miscellaneous fish King crabs Terrapin 96, 550 1, 000 2, 000 21, 340 13, 855 3,750 4,785 27, 675 6,475 $483 140 160 1,707 970 3,750 ’ i ,’ 666 $250 ”"70’ 1, 000 124, 000 2, 700 13, 050 11, 680 2,200 130, 959 5,-206 Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value, Total . 12, 500 "2,400 500 30 17,400 850 29. 167 2, 100 1, 100 4, 000 2.900 6, 000 4.900 Pounds. Value. 1, 500 2,300 5,000 1,400 Pounds. Value 97, 350 1,000 1,000 3, 000 2, 000 21,340 66, 255 85, 900 29, 167 2, 100 1, 100 144, 250 6,500 14, 935 27, 675 6, 475 5, 200 12, 500 26, 009 11, 680 4,400 20, 000 1,848 591, 684 1,367 3,487 53 1,641 2, 214 518 184 PENNSYLVANIA. This State abuts on two important rivers tributary to Delaware and Chesapeake bays/respectively, and on one of the Great Lakes, and fishing with fyke nets is or has been prosecuted in each of these three bodies of water. The river fishery will be con- sidered in this place, and the lake fishery in the chapter relating to the Great Lake basin. Pennsylvania ranks fifth among the States of this region as regards the extent of its fyke-net fishery; although a large number of nets are used, they are mostly of small size and the average catch per net is low. The fishery in the Delaware River is much more important than that in the Susquehanna; more men are employed, more nets are operated, and more fish are caught. In the Susquehanna, however, the nets are more costly and the average yield is greater. The principal kind of fyke used in this State, in the Delaware River, is the drop fyke, which has already been described. It is particularly numerous in Philadelphia County, where the fishery is triore important than that in any other county. The fykes are usually set from skiffs carrying one or two men, and are generally placed, about 16 feet apart, in strings. The outfit of a boat is from 10 to 100 nets. Almost the 326 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. entire catch consists of catfish, which are sold dressed at 8 cents a pound. The fish lose about half their weight in dressing. The season extends from May 1 to October 20, during which time the nets are lifted once, twice, three times, or more frequently each week. Many of the fishermen lift only once a week. The average stock to a net in Philadelphia County is about $1.84. The fishery in the vicinity of Philadelphia owes its importance to the fact that the numerous vessels plying on the river would prevent the use of seines and gill nets. In the falls of the Delaware River, below Lambertville, N. J., about a dozen fykes, each provided with a pair of long wings built of stones, were fished some years ago by four fishermen from ISfew Hope, Pa. Catfish was the principal species taken. In the Susquehanna River this fishery is much less important than it was some years ago. In 1880, 3,000 fyke nets were reported to be fished in summer, in the Sus- quehanna River between Havre de Grace and Columbia, for perch, rock, and catfish, but at the present time, owing to legal restrictions, the number fished commercially is less than 100, and the principal fish taken are carp, eels, and suckers. The extent of the fyke-net fishery of Pennsylvania in 1891 is shown by counties in the following tables : Fishermen. Counties. Fyke nets. Boats. Ijo. Value. No. | Value. Bucks 380 $1,330 25 $585 Delaware 70 140 3 60 Laneastei 43 260 7 84 Philadelphia 2, 026 3, 444 21 1 840 York 15 90 3 35 Total 2, 534 5,264 59 1, 604 Products. Species. Bucks. Delaware. 1 Lancaster. Philadelphia. York. Total. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. V alue. Pounds. Value. . 5,075 300 5,025 3, 100 675 475 12, 750 970 1, 625 2, 225 2, 125 8R0 $26 24 ! 352 1 218 68 25 1 811 1 96 98 135 122 44 5,075 3, 800 82, 025 27, 400 675 475 19, 450 970 1,625 2, 225 2, 125 850 $26 199 3,482 68 25 978 98 135 122 44 Tarp 2, 625 $131 875 $44 flatfish 5.000 1.000 $250 55 72, 000 19, 000 $2, 880 855 Eels 3, 225 194 1,075 64 Shad 5, 025 125 1,675 42 siSpOfLbVefi Siinnsh Yellow^pereh Other fish Total 35,195 | 2,019 6, 000 305 10, 875 450 91,000 , 3, 735 3, 625 150 146, 695 6, 659 FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 327 DELAWARE. In proportion to the extent of the general fisheries, the fyke-net fishery of Dela- ware is of considerable importance, although very small as compared with that of adjoining States. It is carried on from the Delaware Bay and ocean sides of the State and also from that part drained by streams flowing into Chesapeake Bay. The nets employed are generally of small size, of the style already designated as drop fykes ; the average value is only a little over $2. The fish taken in greatest numbers are catfish, white and yellow perch, and eels. The average catch to a net is only about 80 pounds, and the average stock is only $4, many of the nets being used irregularly and for a short period each year. Drop fykes, with a large bow-shaped mouth, are fished at some places from September 1 to June 1, chiefly for catfish, which are sold mostly in Philadelphia and are usually dressed before shipment. A few years ago, at Bombay Hook, 15 fykes, with an entrance 15 feet wide, were fished by two men for snapping turtles. The annual stock was $200, which represented 2,000 pounds of turtles. The latter weighed from 4 to 80 pounds, having an average weight of 12 pounds. They were sold in Philadelphia. In the Nanticoke Biver, in Sus- sex County, fykes 12 feet long, with the first hoop 6 feet in diameter and with 3 or 4 funnels, are used for shad, herring, perch, suckers, pike, and striped bass. In the Indian River, which drains into the Atlantic south of Cape Henlopen, a number of fykes are used during the colder months, when they are lifted three times a week. The catch consists largely of perch. In 1891 the fyke-net fishery of Delaware had the following extent: Fishermen. Nets and boats. Counties. e nets. Boats. No. V alue. No. Value. Kent 112 $259 8 $120 Newcastle 400 800 9 225 Sussex 55 202 8 80 Total 567 1,261 25 425 Products. Species. Kent. Newcastle. Sussex. Total. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Catfish 6, 500 2, 760 $390 13, 700 $822 175 2, 000 $100 22, 200 6, 200 $1, 312 337 61 Eels . . . 162 3, 500 Shad Stripec bass Suckers White perch Yellow perch Other iisli 1, 001 300 61 1, 001 240 200 32 900 90 45 1,440 200 9, 200 2, 470 2, 380 167 1,700 89 2, 500 125 5,000 2,47 2, 380 310 .123 524 123 59 59 Total 11, 340 681 20, 600 1,212 13, 151 698 45, 091 2,591 328 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. MARYLAND. In the preceding general tables and discussion, the importance of the fyke net in this State has been shown. While New York has a larger aggregate catch on the coast and in Lake Ontario, the extent of the fishery, on the Atlantic seaboard and coast rivers is much less than in Maryland. This is the fyke-net State par excellence. More nets are here employed, the nets are more generally used and distributed, and a larger variety of forms is met with than in any other State. Fykes are found in fourteen counties in this State. They are most extensively employed in Baltimore, Cecil, Dorchester, Harford, and Somerset counties, which have over 1,000 nets each. The catch is most valuable in Kent and Cecil counties, where products worth over $10,000 are taken with this apparatus. The most promi- nent species taken are catfish, eels, white perch, yellow perch, pike, and striped bass, but a number of others have considerable importance. The full extent of this fishery in 1891 is shown in the following series of tables. The figures for the individual counties are shown separately. Fishermen. Counties. Number. Anne Arundel 4 Baltimore 55 Caroline 18 Cecil 91 Charles 6 Dorchester Harford 32 Kent 88 Prince George i Queen Anne 28 Somerset 45 Talbot 83 Wicomico 73 Worcester 16 Total 595 Nets and boats. Counties. Fyke nets. Boats. No. Value. No. Value. Anne Arundel 22 $396 3 $60 Baltimore 1,781 6,113 48 648 Caroline 239 2, 374 15 225 Cecil 2, 923 5,626 61 915 Charles 24 96 3 75 Dorchester 1,470 4, 153 37 666 Harford 1,140 4, 010 31 620 Kent 211 3, 856 66 1,122 Prince George 16 64 2 50 Queen Anne 74 1,435 21 336 Somerset 1, 179 3, 525 34 680 Talbot 579 2, 888 69 966 Wicomico 708 3,467 61 733 Worcester .32 111 9 75 Total 10, 398 38, 114 460 7, 171 FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 329 Products. Species. Anne Arundel. Baltimore. Caroline. Cecil. Charles. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Alewives Cattish $50 116 9, 200 $88~ 45, 800 61, 125 66, 600 $329 2, 445 3, 280 1,486 149 3, 870 35, 860 $1, 669 452 5, 500 6, 625 3, 200 1, 313 120 1,020 300 $41 24 Pike Shad Striped bass Suckers White perch Yellow perch Other fish Terrapins 286 20 27, 875 1, 657 192 47 21, 228 4, 361 3, 525 7,400 35, 100 49, 335 10, 350 1, 500 180 3,800 1,520 128 4, 643 4, 600 325 282 138 1, 080 43 2, 039 1,627 265 1, 500 90 1,925 360 54 3, 325 2,900 100 58, 350 8, 500 4, 750 1,760 90 1, 480 310 1,440 115 240 50 750 178, 388 7, 837 43, 091 1,407 304, 824 11, 908 5, 940 507 Species. Dorchester. Harford. Kent. Prince George. Queen Anne. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Alow;™. 23, 400 7,430 $117 79, 100 40, 260 $760 1, 208 35 5,600 27, 200 $55 854 Catfish 48, 000 28. 600 $1, 800 1, 430 790 680 $27 16 Eels 29, 700 1,188 224 1, LOO 200 Pike 5, 400 3,220 23, 300 6, 041 1, 550 1,814 245 1, 000 120 4,005 365 Shad. 120 Spots and croakers 77 3,995 9, 433 1,800 280 3, 560 5, 667 320 3, 500 210 16, 890 1,520 Suckers 258 170 75 720 29 White perch - 14, 909 820 27! 000 66, 650 1, 650 240 22, 900 26, 600 2, 550 6,815 1, 144 Yellow perch 6,430 225 14, 625 585 ’413 960 77 943 Other fish 5, 020 150 9, 135 274 10, 150 110 Terrapins 160 34 1,020 Total 95* 828 2, 912 135, 782 6, 189 261, 151 10, 055 3,960 339 112, 560 6,011 Species. Somerset. Talbot. Wicomico. Worcester. Total. Pounds Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Alewives 17, 400 3, 470 $87 173 14, 300 14, 400 10, 200 1, 964 $71 360 32, 900 66, 1 10 $159 2,650 1,548 | 210 240, 200 314, 925 219, 765 108, 744 $1, 716 11, 723 9, 794 7,418 Eels 21, 500 2, 800 2, 541 1,560 860 408 38, 700 7, 200 1, 400 $288 84 Pike 168 108 3, 500 Shad 87 7, 441 255 3, 570 120 28, 487 3, 110 1, 023 147 Spots and croakers 70 2, 450 2,450 101, 633 50, 900 157, 632 254, 057 63, 314 7,215 98 Striped *1)ass 3, 200 160 17, 500 8, 700 9, 580 1, 050 1 250 39, 500 2,765 7, 420 1, 469 8,577 3,200 1, 300 94 7,600 4, 800 9, 610 7, 684 190 W kite perch 52 383 ! 240 900 54 Yellow perch 4,800 2,400 144 6, 182 185 335 1, 000 50 9, 524 2, 102 1, 104 Other fish 72 2, 065 62 270 ; 800 40 errap' Total 66, 621 2, 065 92, 332 3, 132 213, 974 8, 487 11, 300 516 1,552,432 62,115 Compared with 1880, the fyke-net fishery of this State seems to have greatly increased. In that year only 4,050 fykes, pots, and baskets, valued at $6,600, were employed, no separate figures for fykes being available. As has been seen, 10,398 fykes were used in 1891, having a value of $38,114. While some forms of nets and methods of fishing are common to almost the entire State, others are more or less peculiar to different sections or counties. In a previous chapter descriptions of some of the fykes used have been given, and illustrations of a number of forms are presented. Some further references to the types of nets employed in this State and to the fishery in some of the important counties will be given. In many places in Caroline, Dorchester, Talbot, and other counties, the name “fyke” seems to be understood as applying only to each hoop and the netting and funnel connected therewith, and is not generally used, the net being called a “set of fykes.” The fyke proper is also known as the “pocket” in some localities — Talbot 330 BULLETIN OE THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. County, for instance. When a leader is used it is commonly called “hedging,” and the curved wings are usually designated “bays,” or “fore bays,” in allusion to the corresponding parts of a pound net. Among the simplest fykes used in Maryland are those called drop fykes, perch fykes, and eel fykes. Drop fykes are named in allusion to the practice of dropping them from the side of a boat and buoying them like a lobster pot, instead of staking them, as is done with the more elaborate nets. Perch and eel fykes are so- called because of the principal fish taken in them. Drop fykes, such as are used in Cecil County, are worth from $1 to $2 each ; they are 3 feet across the mouth, have 5 hoops and 2 funnels, and take yellow perch (called “ yellow neds”), catfish, pike, suckers, eels, and a few flounders. Each net is weighted with a stone, and has a bridle which is buoyed by a cork ; it is left down for a day or two and then pulled up by the bridle to be relieved of the fish. The season extends from February 1 to May 30 and from September 15 to December 15. In Cecil County a form of net called a “perch fyke” is principally set for white perch and yellow perch, but also takes catfish, pike, and eels. It is usually provided with an arched entrance, instead of a circular one, and has a 2-foot opening, 4 or 5 hoops, and 2 or 3 funnels; the length of the net is 5 feet. The value is $1 to $3. In some places they are set only at intervals during the year, but in others they are fished the year round, being left under the ice in winter and tended through holes cut in the ice. They are often set in strings containiug 25 or 30 nets at intervals of 25 feet; each net is kept in position by a stone weighing about 3 pounds. Perch fykes are also known as “gumbo fykes,” or “jumbo fykes.” A form of fyke set especially for eels, and called an “eel fyke,” is employed in some numbers in Cecil County. Catfish constitute a prominent part of the catch, for which reason the net is known in places as a “cattie fyke.” The net consists of 4 or 5 hoops, usually has 2 funnels, but sometimes 3, and is 2£ to 5 feet long; the mesh is 2£ inches stretch measure ; the material used is No. 9 cotton twine; the entrance, which is bowed, is 12 inches high and 18 inches wide. The eel fyke is fished mostly in spring and fall. It isbaited with suckers (called “mullet”) and menhaden (called “ bugfish”). One of the simplest fykes met with is used in Dorchester and other counties on the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay. It consists of three hoops, 8, 6, and 4 feet in diameter, with a funnel extending from the first and second hoops. The hoops are about 6 feet apart, so that the fyke proper is about 18 feet long. It is provided with two wings, each from 30 to 60 feet long. Terrapin, striped bass, and perch are taken. A similar net, observed on the Nanticoke River, has wings only 18 feet long and is there called a “ sink net”; it is fished under the ice in winter and catches principally striped bass and perch. A form of fyke (plate lxxiii, fig. 2) made on this prin- ciple, but with a funnel in each hoop, is used in Fishing Bay, where it is known as a “buekdart,” and is set wholly for terrapin. Such nets are valued at $10 to $25 each. They are placed in a creek or cove so that the wings reach the shores. The season begins April 1 and ends June 1, and reopens September 1 and continues till November 1. In 1887 13 such fykes set on Taylor Island took $500 worth of terrapin, which sold for $20 a dozen. Crabs also are caught, but are usually not saved. Con- siderable quantities of wild ducks are sometimes secured and add to the income of the fishermen. Perhaps the most elaborate style of fyke net used in this State is shown in plate lxxix, fig. 2. It is employed in Dorchester, Wicomico, and other counties and in some FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 331 places is the prevalent form. It is usually known as a “ set of fykes.” It consists of two separate bags arranged with the openings opposite each other and connected on one side by netting, while from the other side wings and leader diverge. Each bag is 18 feet long and has 6 hoops and 2 funnels, the largest hoop being 5£ feet in diameter, the smallest 4 feet, the gradation between the hoops being about 3 inches. The leader; made of netting with a 3^-inch mesh, is 120 feet long; the wings are about half that length or less. Striped bass, perch, shad, herring, catfish, eels, and pike are secured. In Caroline County a fyke net made of wire bagging and net wings was used some years ago. The nets in this county are mostly the “ set of fykes” just described. The “set of fykes” is also used in Talbot County, where the fykes proper are called “pockets”; they are 12 to 18 feet long, with a 2| or 3 inch mesh; there are 5 hoops, from 3 to 6 feet in diameter, and usually two funnels; the hedging is 50 to 75 yards long. In the Wye Eiver region, small single fykes, 8 feet long and 2 feet in diameter, are used for herring. In Queen Anne County fykes with a leader and straight or curved wings are the commonest form in use. In the Chester Eiver the fykes are almost always set like pound nets, with “forebays” and “hedging.” At Centerville a net with straight wings, a leader, and 5 hoops, is called a “set of fykes.” The catch in this county consists chiefly of striped bass, yellow perch, catfish, herring, and pike; pike are said to very frequently escape after being caught. The fykes set in the Potomac Eiver are mostly similar to the ordinary winged nets of the eastern shore of Maryland, which have already been described. They are set in water 4 to 6 feet deep, usually in creeks, with the mouth toward the incoming- tide. They are also sometimes set in strings across the bed of a creek or at the mouth of an inlet. Five to 8 nets are arranged side by side in a straight row, with about 25 feet of netting between each adjoining pair, and with a wing from 60 to 120 feet long extending from each end net, forming an obtuse angle with the line of nets and having an inward turn at the end. The nets employed in this river are set during the fall and winter and catch chiefly pike, catfish, eels, yellow perch, white perch, and suckers; terrapin or “sliders” are also caught in small numbers. VIRGINIA. The close proximity to Maryland, the similar topographical conditions, and the similarity of the fishes taken would seem to insure to Virginia a fyke-net fishery of similar importance and extent to that existing in the adjoining State. Such, however, is not the case ; on the contrary, the number of these nets found in Vinginia is only one- thirtieth that used in Maryland and the catch is correspondingly less. The principal feature regarding the fykes of Virginia is their relatively high value and large stock as compared with Maryland. While the average value of the nets in the latter State is less than $4, in the former it is about $17 ; and while the average value of the catch in Maryland is only $6 per net, in Virginia it is nearly $40. Fykes are employed in 14 counties in this State bordering on the Chesapeake Bay and the numerous tributary rivers and bays. They are most numerous and most pro- ductive in York County, although Gloucester, James City, and Northampton counties have rather important fisheries. The nets used are in great part similar to those found in Maryland, and need not again be described. The prominent species taken are squeteague, striped bass, spots, croakers, shad, white perch, and catfish. 332 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Referen.ee lias elsewhere been made to a method followed in this State of setting simple fykes at each end of a leader. Such an arrangement is found in the James and York rivers and elsewhere. In the lower James River fykes thus placed are fished for striped bass in the fall. In the York River they are set from September 1 to May 1, and are taken up three times a week. The leader or hedging varies from 10 to 40 fathoms in length and is 3 to 8 feet deep. The first hoop is 4 to 6 feet in diameter, and the last 1£ to 3 feet; the number of hoops is 3 to 5. The value of two such nets, with the connecting leader, is $30 to $50. An unique style of trap, apparently peculiar to this State, is illustrated in plate lxxvii, fig. 3; it consists in the substitution of a tyke for the usual form of entrance to the pot of a pound net. Capt. N. Raynor, of Hampton, Va., in a recent personal communication to the writer regarding the fykes employed in that part of the Chesa- peake, refers as follows to this form of net : In addition to the regular fykes, some of the fishermen use what they term a funnel-mouth pound ; that is to say, a pound with a square head, but with the regular fyke funnels instead of the perpendicu- lar [square] mouth usual to pounds. This style prevails in Back River. The size is much smaller than the pound net for shad, etc. The fishermen claim it will hold the fish much better. The cost of this trap, “rock” size, is from $30 to $50. The three tables which follow indicate the extent to which the various counties were interested in the fyke-net fishery in 1891 : Fishermen. Counties. Number. Accomac 2 Elizabeth City 2 Essex 3 Fairfax 8 Gloucester 11 Isle of Wight 14 James City 21 King ami Queen 3 Nansemond 6 New Kent 6 Northampton 8 Prince William 2 Richmond 3 York 9 Total 98 Nets and boats. Counties. Fyke nets. Boats. No. Value. No. Value. Accomac 3 $60 $15 Elizabeth City 4 200 2 30 Essex 18 270 3 50 Fairfax 32 128 4 100 Gloucester 38 475 9 100 Isle of Wight 28 420 14 195 James City 66 675 12 175 King and Queen 18 225 3 60 Nansemond 8 400 3 75 New Kent 10 125 3 60 Northampton 16 7 280 Prince William 8 32 1 25 Richmond 6 90 3 25 York 1 124 1, 550 8 140 Total 379 5, 930 ■73 1,330 FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHEKIES. 333 Products. Counties. Alewives. Catfish. Flounders. White perch. Yellow perch. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Accomac Elizabeth City Essex Fairfax Gloucester Isle of Wight James City King and Queen Nansemond New Kent, Prince William Richmond York Total m ""■(rm 4, 000 $8' 35’ ’’"126’ 1, 500 $30 3.500 4. 500 3.000 400 2,900 2. 000 8,025 3, 672 800 2, 040 100 $105 135 150 60 116 120 307 110 32 61 15 1, 500 1, 200 5,400 4, 500 5, 753 7,956 4,423 300 8, 000 $90 48 162 200 176 229 133 12 320 200 4,* 200 8 ’ " ’ 2io 300 2,080 520 $9 166 42 10.000 j 500 8, 300 163 39, 032 1, 370 15,-900 748 30,937 1 1,211 2, 900 217 Shad. Spots and croakers. Squeteague. 1 Striped bass. Comities. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. A cnoina.fi 500 $20 Elizabeth City . . . 5,500 $165 5,000 $150 1,050 $27 90 2, 800 1, 650 3, 000 8, 559 1, 836 196 Gloucester 3, 500 10, 500 315 7, 500 225 165 Isle of Wight 300 James City 7, 995 318 8,199 327 855 King and Queen 184 N ansemond 700 36 10, 000 400 ■ 10, 000 400 6, 000 1, 019 480 102 Northampton 7, 700 330 9,450 38, 000 283 8, 100 3, 350 405 York 24, 500 700 10, 100 480 1, 120 335 Total 37, 450 1,183 44, 095 1,678 78,149 2, 505 36, 814 3, 042 Suckers. Other fish. Terrapin. Total. Counties. Pounds. Yalue. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Accomac 1,000 3.000 1.000 1, 600 $30 6,500 18, 000 $185 510 Elizabeth City 60 30 700 $21 237 11, 350 7, 600 35, 650 14, 500 39, 587 16, 632 31, 500 9, 242 33, 850 1,900 539 625 1, 283 700 Fairfax. 64 2, 080 240 $50 Gloucester Isle of Wight 1,500 45 James City 1,056 3, 168 32 2, 015 618 King and Queen 95 Nansemond 1,468 349 1,190 157 1, 760 53 North ampt on 8, 600 172 Prince VV illiam . .. 400 16 520 59 60 13 Richmond 4,000 11, 100 200 12, 000 520 York 333 97, 050 3, 468 Total 12,984 380 28, 500 1, 067 300 63 335, 361 13, 627 THE SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES. The fyke-net fishery of this region is less important than in any other coast section, except the Gulf States where no fykes are employed. This is especially striking in view of the almost unlimited fishing-grounds to which this apparatus is adapted. In a recent report by the writer on the fisheries of the South Atlantic States attention was directed to the almost complete absence of fyke nets (and pound nets) from these States in the following words : A consideration of the forms of apparatus employed in the food-fish fisheries of the South Atlantic States shows that the use of seines and gill nets is so much more extensive than that of any other form, except in North Carolina, that all other apparatus is unimportant by comparispn, and that some types which in other regions constitute a very prominent means of captime are entirely absent or only sparingly used in the greater part of the South Atlantic region. The pound net, for instance, is 334 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. found practically only in one State, and the fyke net is employed only in very small numbers and in isolated localities. The possibility of introducing new forms which will develop the fishing resources, increase the income of the fishermen, and at the same time mitigate their labors, seems worthy of serious attention. Both the pound and fyke nets are adapted to the capture of almost every species of marine, fresh-water, and anadromous fish occurring in the region, and the topography of the shores is extremely favorable to their employment. Their inexpensiveness, as compared with seines, recom- mends them, and the possibility of employing them in connection with seine, gill-net, and other fish- eries without special increase in the working force is an important consideration. (Report on the Fisheries of the South Atlantic States. Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission, xi, 1891.) Fyke nets are at present found in only two of the South Atlantic States, viz, North Carolina and Georgia. They are more numerous and take larger quantities of fish in the former State, but yield the greater money returns in Georgia, as shown in the following statement of the extent of the fyke-net fisheries of this section in 1890: Fyke-net fishery of the South Atlantic States. States. No. of Fyke nets. Boats. Products . fisher- men. No. Value. No. Value. Pounds. Value. North Carolina '. 27 36 $384 4 $60 24 885 $716 Georgia 10 li 285 5 70 20| 190 898 Total 37 47 669 9 130 45, 075 1,614 NORTH CAROLINA. Fykes are used in this State in only Dare and Sampson counties, and in these in very small numbers. The nets are of simple types and have a value of $5 to $25. The forms met with have from 2 to 5 hoops and have wings and leaders, or only wings. In Dare County the nets are fished from Eoanoke Island, and the catch consists chiefly of striped bass, squeteague, and mullet. The nets have an average value of $17. The fykes proper are from 4 to 7 feet long, have 5 hoops, and usually have leaders about 50 yards long. In Sampson County the nets are set in a branch of the Cape Fear River, and only fresh-water fish are caught. No boats are used, as owing to the shallow water the fishermen are able to set and lift the nets by wading. The nets are cheaper than those used in Dare County, having an average value of only $5. The yield is made up of perch, suckers, and catfish. Of the 27 fyke-net fishermen reported in this State in 1890, 19 were in Sampson County, where 19 of the 36 nets were set. The fishery represented an investment of $444, while the catch was valued at $716. The quantities and values of the principal species taken were as follows : Products of the fyke-net fishery of North Carolina in 1890, specified by species and counties. Species. Dare. Sampson. Toti a. Pounds. V alue. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Catfish 3,000 $90 3. 000 6, 300 5. 000 275 $90 36 245 11 Mullet Perch Sheepshead Squeteaguo Striped bass Suckers Other fish 6, 300 $36 5, 000 245 275 11 3, 700 74 3, 700 74 1,310 79 1, 310 79 4,000 140 4, 000 1, 300 140 1, 300 41 41 Tot^l 12,885 241 12, 000 475 24 885 716 FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 335 GEORGIA. Fyke nets are used in this State only in Chatham and Bryan counties, in the Savannah and Ogeechee rivers. Those in Chatham County are provided with leaders and wings, and have an average value of $34. In Bryan County the nets are smaller, with a value of only $5. The principal fish taken are alewives, catfish, and striped bass. The 8 nets used in Cha tham County in 1890 were valued at $270, were operated with 4 boats, and were tended by 8 men; the catch was 16,000 pounds, which yielded the fishermen $743. In Bryan County the 3 nets were worth $5, and were fished in one boat by 2 men; 4,190 pounds of fish were taken, worth $155. The table shows the extent to which the several species and the two counties were represented in the catch. Fyke-net catch of Georgia in 1890. Species. Chatham. Bryan. Total. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. A ]ftwi Vflft 8, 000 5.000 3.000 $340 163 240 8,000 7, 515 3, 000 1,675 $340 251 240 67 Catfish 2,515 $88 Striped bass Other fish 1,675 67 Total 16, 000 743 4, 190 155 20, 190 898 THE PACIFIC STATES. Fyke nets are uncommon on the Pacific coast. They are not used in the fisheries of Washington and Oregon, and in California are restricted to two rivers emptying into San Francisco Bay. The scarcity of these nets in the Pacific States may be explained by the facts, (1) that they are less adapted to the capture of salmon, sturgeon, and other large fish, to the pursuit of which the energies of the fishermen have chiefly been directed, than are the wheels, seines, and gill nets; (2) that the general demand for small fish is as yet so limited that no special apparatus or atten- tion has been devoted to it. With the increase in population in the coastal regions of the Pacific States fyke nets are likely to come into extensive use. CALIFORNIA. Fyke nets have been in use in this State for a great many years. The history of their introduction is unknown to the writer, but it would seem that they must have been taken in very soon after, if not coincident with, the advent of the gold-seekers in 1849, for their use is recorded as early as 1852. Twenty years ago more nets were employed, but it is doubtful if the fishery has ever been more productive than at the present time. Fyke nets are fished only in the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers; in the lat- ter stream their use dates at least as far back as 1852, as has been noted, but in the former river their advent has apparently been recent. All the nets are operated by fishermen who are engaged in taking fish by other means. The nets are described as having 4 hoops, being provided with wings, and resembling the kind figured in plate lxxiii, fig. 2; their value is about $20 each. Of the 49 used in 1892, 24 were fished in BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 336 the San Joaquin River at or near Jersey Landing, in Contra Costa County, and at Black Diamond, near its mouth, in the same county; the others were set in the Sac- ramento River, in the vicinity of the city of the same name and elsewhere along the course of the stream. The San Joaquin River fishermen represent three countries — Greece, Italy, and the United States — although the Greeks and one Italian have become citizens of this country; in the Sacramento River the fishermen are all China- men. Sailboats are used to lift the nets in the San Joaquin River and rowboats in the Sacramento River. The fishes taken in the fyke nets in the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers represent a variety of species, among which the following may be mentioned, the common names given being those used by the fishermen: Carp ( Gyprinus carpio ), introduced; catfish (Ameiurus nebulosus ), introduced; chub ( Myloclieilus caurinus) ; hardhead (? Mylopliarodon conocephalus) ; perch ( Archoplites interruptus and Hystero- carpus trasM) ; split-tail (. Pogonichthys macrolepidotus). In addition to the foregoing, the following fish were, a number of years ago, reported to be taken in fyke nets in the Sacramento River: Sacramento pik e (Ptychocheilus oregonensis and P. harfordi)-, in recent years these may have been returned under the name “ chub,” which is more appropriate than “pike;” sucker ( Catostomus occidentalis) ; sturgeon (Acipenser trans- montanus ); herring ( '? Clupea mirabilis). The yield of the California fyke nets is relatively large, the average per net being much greater than in most of the other States. In the San Joaquin Rfver the average catch per net is 1,893 pounds, valued at $55; in the Sacramento it is 5,824 pounds, worth $150. It is interesting to observe that at the present time about three-fourths of the output of the State consist of two introduced fish, the carp and the catfish, which make up the entire catch in the San Joaquin. Twelve men engaged in this fishery in Contra Costa County and 20 in Sacramento County. They used 16 boats, valued at $1,050, of which 6, worth $900, were used in the former county. The 49 nets operated had a value of $980; 24 of these, worth $480, were set in Contra Costa County. The aggregate catch amounted to 194,647 pounds, for which the fishermen received $5,116. The extent to which the different species are represented in each county is as follows : Product of the fyke-net fishery of California in 1892, specified hy species and counties. Species. Contra Costa. Sacramento. Total. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. f!prp 19, 955 29, 596 $599 745 22, 160 84, 979 1, 054 17, 512 2, 834 16, 557 $775 2, 125 21 350 170 331 42, 115 114, 575 1,054 17, 512 2, 834 16, 557 *1, 374 2, 870 21 350 170 331 Cattish ........... Chub : Hardhead Split-tail Total 49, 551 1, 344 145, 096 3,772 194, 647 5,116 FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 537 The fyke-net fishery during the past few years shows a small general increase annually. The product has advanced from 146,309 pounds in 1889 to 194,647 pounds in 1892, this increase being made up almost wholly of carp and catfish. The following table exhibits the yearly fluctuations in the catch of the different species : Comparative table showing the fyke-net catch of Calif ornia from 1889 to 189 8, inclusive. Species. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. Pounds. V alue. Pounds. | Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Carp 31, 614 $1, 049 34,722 $1,158 36, 662 $1, 183 42, 115 $1, 374 Cattish 79, 937 2, 015 87, 744 2, 193 97, 399 2,442 114, 575 2,870 Chub 1, 265 25 906 18 1, 230 25 1,054 21 Hardhead 14, 440 289 16, 160 323 16, 736 335 17, 512 350 Perch 1,941 116 2,745 165 2, 149 129 2, 834 170 Split-tail 17, 112 342 14,559 291 15, 660 313 16, 557 331 Total 146, 309 3,836 156, 836 ] 4, 148 168, 836 4,427 194, 647 5,116 Writing on the fyke-net fishery of the Sacramento River in 1873,* Mr. Livingstone Stone makes the following remarks, which are interesting in themselves and for the opportunity afforded for comparison with recent years : The fyke nets have a mesh of 2| inches. There were in the winter of 1872-73 85 fyke nets on the Sacramento at Rio Vista. They are stationary, of course, and are examined every twenty-four hours. All the kinds offish that are found in the river are caught in these nets. Mr. JohnD. Ingersoll, a prominent fyke fisherman of Rio Vista, informed me that the daily catch for 20 nets is now about 75 pounds offish. They include chubs, herring, perch, viviparous perch, sturgeons, hardheads, split-tails, Sacramento pike, suckers, crabs. Of these the perch, pike, and sturgeon are the best food-fishes, though all the species named are sold in the market. There has been a vast decrease in the returns of the fyke nets during the last twenty years. In 1852 and 1853 they used to catch 700 or 800 pounds a day in one fyke net. An average of 250 pounds a day for one net at Sacramento City was usually expected in those times. The present catch of 75 pounds a day in 20 nets certainly presents an alarming contrast. The fyke-net fishing is done wholly by white men, I believe, the Chinese fishermen being ruled, out by force of public sentiment. The fyke nets- are usually visited early in the morning of each day, and the catch is sent down to San Francisco by the noon boat. The fyke-net fishing begins in November and is continued until May. The best fishing is when a rise in the water drives the fish inshore, where the fyke nets are placed. During the summer months the water is warmer, the fish are poor, and the fishing is dis- continued. On the 27th of February, 1873, 1 went the rounds of Mr. Ingersoll’s set of fyke nets with him. We visited 20 nets, but as some of them had not been examined for over twenty-four hours the yield was supposed to be equivalent to one day’s fishing for 30 nets. The nets had four hoops each and 14-foot wings. We took out about 120 pounds of fish in all. Hardheads were the most numerous, and the Sacramento pike next. Mr. Ingersoll said that perch used to rank second in abundance in fyke-net fishing, the average for 30 nets being 200 or 300 pounds a day, but the perch were quite insignificant in numbers on this day. We found in the nets 7 small viviparous perch and 2 small sturgeon. I learned also that mink, beaver, and otters are sometimes caught in the nets. In 1872 Mr. Ingersoll caught 8 minks, 2 beavers, and 1 otter in his fyke nets. "Report of Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, 1873-74 and 1874-75, pp. 383-384. F. C. B. 1892 22 338 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. THE GREAT LAKES. In the States bordering on the Great Lakes the fyke net is one of the most important means of capture, and, taking the entire region into consideration, yields larger quantities of fish than any other geographical section except the Middle Atlantic States. The fishery is most extensive in Ohio, the shores of which State are especially well adapted to the use of fykes; the order of importance of the other States is Mich- igan, Wisconsin, and New York. Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, and Pennsylvania have no commercial fisheries carried on with this form of apparatus. The features of the Great Lakes which render the region well adapted to fyke-net fishing and have resulted in the extensive fishery of this kind there prosecuted are an abundance of fish in the shore waters and the existence of numerous coves, bays, creeks, etc., along the borders of the lakes especially suited to fyke nets because of the shallow water and the pro- tection afforded from storms. The extent of the fyke-net fishery of the Great Lakes specified by States is shown in the following tables relating to the year 1890 : Fishermen. States. Number. Michigan 231 New York 74 Ohio 156 Wisconsin 112 Total 573 Nets and boats. States. Fyk e nets. Boats. No. Value. 1 No. Value. Michigan 446 $12,030 102 $2, 257 New York 684 9,822 66 2, 318 Ohio 1,110 63,650 139 14, 045 W isconsin 728 11,364 66 5,930 Total 2, 968 96,866 373 24, 550 Products. Species. Michigan. New York. Ohio. j Wisconsin. j Total. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Bass Catfish Eels . . . 11, 233 43, 100 $949 1,132 72, 353 400, 273 56, 336 $1, 845 10, 484 82, 085 346, 250 $4, 504 6, 920 17, 810 $890 183, 481 789, 623 56, 336 333, 650 1,716,311 1, 075, 085 779, 285 15,480 9,685 1, 262, 255 25, 705 $8, 188 18, 536 2, 177 4,446 25, 679 37, 161 11, 994 645 465 10, 601 514 1,100 843, 096 170, 240 367, 555 1, 000 3, 400 164, 750 12 11, 490 8, 563 7, 051 40 150 1, 884 332, 550 418, 900 155, 060 335, 410 14, 480 6. 285 40, 750 4, 434 8, 838 6, 213 3,887 605 315 1,019 Perch Pike and pike perch Suckers Trout 170, 645 73, 770 76, 320 3,111 3, 340 1,056 283, 670 676, 015 2, 240 19, 045 TV hitefish Other fish Turtles 49,830 548 1, 006, 925 25, 705 7,150 514 Total 1,605, 474 31, 271 899, 527 22, 561 2, 420, 650 40, 373 1,321,245 26, 201 6, 246, 896 120, 406 FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 339 Owing to the fact that both Michigan and Wisconsin have a frontage on more than one of the Great Lakes, and that the conditions differ somewhat in each lake, a con- sideration of the subject by lakes presents greater interest than the preceding arrange- ments, and is, besides, the more natural way in which to discuss the matter. The fyke-net fishery of Lake Erie is very much more important than that of any of the other lakes; 173 fishermen were here employed in 1890, 1,175 nets were used, 2,507,650 pounds of fish were taken, and $41,893 resulted from the sale of the fish. The fyke-net fishery of Lake Michigan is second in extent, with 113 fishermen, 731 nets, and 1,311,045 pounds of fish, worth $25,558. Lake Huron ranks third, and in the year named was ascertained to have 81 fishermen and 221 nets, and to have yielded 1,088,- 751 pounds of fish, valued at $23,156. Following Lake Huron is Lake Ontario, with 74 fishermen, 684 nets, and 899,527 pounds of fish, which sold for $22,561. Lake St. Clair, with the two rivers connected with it, had 124 fishermen and 148 nets, which yielded 415,348 pounds of fish, for which $6,068 was received. The least important fishery of this kind is found in Lake Superior, which had only 8 fishermen and 9 nets, while the catch was only 24,575 pounds, valued at $1,170. The following series of tables shows, by States, the extent of the fyke-net fishery of each lake : Fishermen. Lakes. Fyke nets. Michigan. New York. Ohio. Wisconsin. Total. No. Value. No. Value. No. Value. No. [ Value. No. Value. Superior 4 8 221 148 65 $80 285 6,385 4, 480 800 5 723 $333 11,031 731 221 148 1, 175 684 $413 11, 316 6, 385 4, 480 64, 450 96, 866 Michigan St. Clair Erie 1, 110 $63, 650 Ontario $9, 822 Total 446 12, 030 684 9, 822 1, 110 63, 650 728 11, 364 2,968 Lakes. Boats. Total invest- ment. Michigan. New York. Ohio. Wisconsin. Total. No. Value. No. Value. No. V alue. No. Value. No. Value. Superior Michigan Huron St. Clair Erie Ontario 3 3 62 24 10 $250 70 1, 202 510 225 4 62 $180 5, 750 7 l 149 66 $430 lj 202 510 14, 270 2,318 $843 17, 136 7,587 4, 990 78, 720 12, 140 66 $2, 318 139 $14, 045 Total 102 2,257 66 2,318 139 14,045 06 5, 930 373 24, 550 121, 416 340 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Products. LAKE SUPERIOR. The fyke has never attained any prominence as a means of capture in this lake, and is now the least important form of apparatus there employed. As shown in a previous table, only 9 fyke nets were used in the entire lake in 1890; of these, 5 were set in Ashland County, Wis., and 4 in Houghton and Ontonagon counties, Mich. In 1891 the number of nets employed in Wisconsin was increased to 11, valued at $710. Fykes have at times been used in other parts of this lake, but their use has never been extensive. In 1883 some nets were experimentally used in Baraga County, Mich., for herring, but they were not effective and the fishery was discontinued. In 1885 a few fykes were fished for wall-eyed pike and pickerel in Keweenaw Bay at the mouth of Portage River, but appear to have been abandoned in recent years. The chief fish now caught in the fykes is the pike perch, which, in 1890, constituted more than half the yield. Trout and whitefish are also taken in small quantities in Wis- consin. The result of this fishery in 1890 was as follows: Products of the fyke-net fishery of Lake Superior. Species. I Pounds. Value. Pike perch \~ 13, 200 3, 500 4,000 3, 875 $660 175 200 135 Trout Whitefish 7 Other fish Total 24, 575 1, 170 LAKE MICHIGAN. The fyke-net fishery of Lake Michigan ranks next to that of Lake Erie in impor- tance. The nets are set in small numbers on the eastern side of the lake, but their use there is very limited, and the fishery appears to be decreasing; on the western shore they constitute a prominent means of capture, being especially important in Green Bay and vicinity. Some localities in which fykes were reported in 1885 appear to have given up that method of fishing as a commercial enterprise in 1890, while in others nets have been introduced. The meager references to this fishery in 1880 found in the report on “The Fish- eries and Fishery Industries of the United States” indicate a much less extensive use of fyke nets than in 1885 or 1890. In 1885 there were 362 fyke nets, valued at $6,105, set in the waters of this lake. These were most numerous in the Green Bay region, where about five-sixths of the number mentioned were employed. What was written regarding the fyke net in this lake in 1885 applies in great part to the present time FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 341 and maybe appropriately quoted, both for the information conveyed and the oppor- tunity offered for making comparison with present conditions. The u Review of the Fisheries of the Great Lakes ” contains the following references to this lake : Fyke fishing in Lake Michigan is confined largely to the waters at the southern end of Green Bay, in the vicinity of the city of that name, where they are fished extensively in the shoal waters and along the borders of the marshy flats. They are used to a small extent in other localities, but not in sufficient numbers to render the fishery important. Sixteen of the twenty-seven fykes owned in Oconto County belong at Pensaukee, and the remainder, with two exceptions, at Little Suamico. The kind used has a hoop 5 feet in diameter with wings 82 feet long and a 165 -foot leader. They are set in 6 to 10 feet of water in winter and in still shoaler water in summer. They are fished from the late winter to the early summer for perch, suckers, black bass, pike, and pickerel. The fyke net was first introduced into the fisheries of the region between Suamico and Green Bay City, Brown County, Wis., about twenty years ago, although prior to 1880 it was a rare occurrence for anyone to make a business of fishing with such apparatus. Scores of them are now in use, belonging usually to the gill-net or seine fishermen, though in some cases their owners are persons who do no other fishing. Occasionally single fykes are fished for pleasure or home supply. Those now used are from 4 to 6 feet in diameter at the mouth and have two funnels. The hearts contain 24 to 30 feet of netting each, and the leaders are 200 feet long, with a 4-inch mesh. Although the cost of a new one is $30 or $35, the average value of those actually in use can not be placed higher than $15 or $20. A small scow, 15 feet long, with a 4-foot beam, is usually employed in setting and lifting the nets. It is 3 feet wide at the bow and 24 feet at the stern. It has a centerboard, with a box 3f feet long, nine knees, a bottom rounding up at stem and stern, and a place to step mast forward. It is worth $12 or $15 when new. In those cases in which fykes are owned by pound-net fishermen they are fished from ordinary pound boats. They are set particularly in the mouth of Duck Creek, but also in the Fox River and the intervening sloughs along the bay shore. Each man fishes his own nets, without needing anyone to assist him. If the weather is bad he tends half his nets each day, but otherwise he lifts the whole number, usually about ten. The season extends through- out the entire year, with the exception of July and part of August. In winter the fykes are fished through holes cut in the ice. All the species common to the region are taken. The most successful fisherman obtained in 1884 nearly $600 worth of fish in twelve fykes. Between Bay Settlement, in Brown County, and Namur, in Door County, Wis., twenty fyke nets are fished throughout the year, on the shore between Green Bay and Wequiock, by four professional fishermen, each of whom operates five nets. The nets are about 104 feet long, with three or four hoops from 3 to 8 feet in diameter. The catch consisted of about 30,000 pounds of perch, pike, pickerel, herring, and suckers, valued at $500. At Little Sturgeon, in Door County, eight men, who gave their principal attention to the pound- net and gill-net fisheries, fished eighteen fyke nets, worth $350, from six weeks to two months in the spring, and occasionally in the summer and fall. Most of the nets are 20 feet long, with hoops 3 to 34 feet in diameter and a 3-inch mesh. They are set close to the shore, the stakes being driven in 6 feet of water. The catch in 1885 consisted of 24,900 pounds of perch, whitefish, suckers, bass, catfish, and pike, valued at $630. There were only ten fyke nets owned along the shore of Door County between Death’s Door and Sturgeon Bay in 1885, six of which were at Ephraim and four near Egg Harbor. The framework of these nets is composed of two or three iron hoops and a rectangular iron frame called the door. This is covered with netting, which is extended to form two long wings or leaders, one on each side, and there is a tunnel inside the door through which the fish are conducted into the interior. In a speci- men from which measurements were taken the dimensions of the door were 5 by 2 feet and the wings were each 83 feet long. There were two hoops about 4 feet iu diameter, and one 34 feet, with a wooden ring 1 foot in diameter at the inner end of the tunnel. The mesh was 44 inches in the wings and 24 inches in the body of the trap. The other fyke nets are of different sizes, some smaller than the above and some much larger. The fishery is of very little importance, and in the summer and fall of 1885 no more than four of the nets were used. Two of the fyke-net crews from Little Sturgeon fish during a portion of the year from Hat Island, off Egg Harbor. The catch consisted exclusively of bass and perch and amounted to 1,900 pounds, valued at $95. Although formerly of considerable importance in Milwaukee County, Wis., this fishery has of late deteriorated, chiefly on account of the polluted condition of the water flowing from the river, at the 342 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. mouth of which the nets were -set. In 1885 a few small fykes, with 4-foot hoops, were fished under the ice by men engaged at other times in more profitable fishing. In 1866 an attempt was made to employ a fyke net far out in the lake at the end of a gang of gill nets. The results were unsatisfac- tory, owing, it is thought, to the fact that the net had no wings. There seems no reason to doubt that fykes provided with wings and properly weighted to maintain the hoops in a vertical position could he profitably employed on all the lakes in connection with the offshore gill-net fisheries. The fyke-net fishery of this lake In 1890 was carried on by 113 men; 731 nets, valued at $11,316, were set; 65 boats, worth $5,820, were used, and products to the value of $25,558 were obtained. Brown County, Wis., has the most important fishery of this kind in the lake; in the items of persons employed, number of nets used, quantity and value of catch, it surpasses the combined interests of all the remaining counties. The extent of the fishery, specified by counties, is shown in the following table : Fyke-net fishery of Lake Michigan. 1 No. of Fykes. Boats. Products. States and counties. fisher- men. No. Value. No. Value. Pounds. Value. Michigan : Manistee 3 $225 60 2 $60 10 6, 200 4,300 949, 340 119, 500 16, 005 215, 700 $238 154 Muskegon 2 6 Wisconsin : Brown 58 524 8,060 31 3, 125 18, 430 2, 592 310 31 96 1,340 116 17 1,810 Marinette 6 5 240 Oconto 13 95 1,515 575 3,834 Total 113 731 11, 316 65 5, 820 1, 311, 045 25, 558 The principal fish taken in fykes in this lake is the yellow perch, which consti- tutes about one-third of the yield. Pike, pike perch, herring, and suckers are also prominent factors in the catch. Bass are taken in considerable quantities, and trout and whitefish are secured in small numbers in suitable situations. The output of the different species is as follows : Products of the fyke-net fishery of Lake Michigan. Michig ;an. Wisconsin. Total. Species. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Bass 1,500 $60 17, 810 $890 19, 310 $950 Herring 100 2 332, 550 4, 434 332, 650 4, 436 8, 862 Perch 800 24 418, 900 8, 838 419, 700 Pike and pickerel Suckers 100 4 141, 860 335, 410 10, 980 5, 553 3, 887 141,960 335, 410 11, 980 5, 557 3, 887 470 Trout 1, 000 40 430 Whitefish 3,000 ■ 120 2, 285 115 5, 285 235 Other fish 4,000 142 40, 750 1, 019 44, 750 1, 161 Total 10, 500 392 1, 300, 545 25, 166 1,311,045 25, 558 LAKE HURON. In this lake fyke nets are employed only in Saginaw Bay and River, where they are an important form of apparatus. From an early period the fyke has been used in this locality, and, with the seine, it antedated the pound net by a number of years, the latter net having been introduced in 1860. In 1885, 499 fyke nets, valued at $22,910, were ascertained to be fished in the bay and river, and in 1890 the number was 221, worth $6,385. The principal fishing now done in the river is carried on with fykes, called “gobblers.” These nets are also set in some numbers in the bay at the mouths FYKE NETS AND FYKE NET FISHERIES. 343 of tne several small riversentering it. The nets are made after the model of the Lake Erie pound net, the difference being that the bowl of the pound is replaced by the pot of the fyke. They are mostly used by men who also have pound nets. The fishing season extends from October 15 to April 15, during the whole of which time greater or less quantities of the different fishes are taken; but the largest catch of perch is made during the winter, while the pickerel and suckers, which are the next important species, occur in greatest abundance in the spring, about the time when navigation is resumed. The other species comprised in the fyke-net catch are black bass, catfish, and pike perch. Eighty-one men tended the fyke nets used in Lake Huron in 1890; 62 boats, valued at $1,202, were employed, and the catch consisted of 1,088,751 pounds of fish, valued at $23,156, apportioned among the various species as follows : Products of the fyke-net fishery of Lake Huron. Species. Pounds. Value. Black bass 7,650 $765 Catfish 5, 100 153 Herring 1,000 10 Perch 558, 446 8, 021 Pike and pickerel 108, 000 6, 330 Suckers 367, 555 7,051 Whitefish 200 10 Other fish 40, 800 816 Total 1, 088, 751 23, 156 LAKE ST. CLAIR. This large, shallow dilatation of the St. Clair River, lying between Michigan and Canada, with its extensive grassy flats and its great abundance of small fishes, to the capture of which the fyke net is specially adapted, has a fyke-net fishery whose impor- tance is relatively great in comparison with the size of the lake, the extent of the other fisheries, and the small number of nets used. The lake is no doubt capable of sustain- ing a much larger fishery of this kind, and in future many more of the cheap but efficient fyke nets will probably be employed. The fishery in 1890 was less extensive than in 1885. The table which follows shows various phases of its extent in the first-named year, the figures being given separately for the two counties in Michigan in which the fishery is carried on. Fyke-net fishery of Lake St. Clair. No. of Counties. fisher- men. Fykes. Boats. Products. No. Value. No. Value. Pounds. Value. Macomb ^ 116 St.Clair.. 8 133 15 $4, 010 470 16 ■ $350 160 369, 850 45, 498 $5, 256 812 Total | 124 148 4, 480 24 510 415, 348 6, 068 The principal species taken are yellow perch, pike, pike perch, and catfish. More than half the quantity and value of the yield is made up of perch. A small quantity of black bass and whitefish is caught. Other minor species entering into the produc- tion are suckers and suufish. 344 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Products of the fyke-net fishery of Lake St. Clair. Species. Pounds. 1 Value. Black bass 1,583 8, 000 263, 850 50, 640 200 91,075 $94 229 3, 245 1,814 20 666 Catfish Perch . Pik and pike perch Whitehall Other fish Total 415,348 6, 068 LAKE ERIE. The general shoalness of this lake, especially in the western part, makes the water very well adapted to fyke net fishing, and is the cguse of the prominence which the fyke net has attained as a means of capture. The lake has also an abundance of bottom fishes, such as pike and bullheads, to the capture of which the fyke is well suited. At times the fishery has been prosecuted in all the States bordering on the lake, but at present it is confined to Michigan and Ohio. In 1885 a small fishery was reported in Pennsylvania, and at an earlier period fyke nets were used in New York, but their use has never been extensive in these States. Even in Michigan the fishery is comparatively unimportant, and it is only in Ohio that it is conspicuous among the other fisheries, and, as already stated, is more prominent than in any other lake State. The fyke-net fishery of this lake in 1890, specified by States and counties, is shown in detail in the following table: Fyke-net fishery of Lake Erie. States and counties. No. of fisher- men. Fyke nets. Boats. Products. No. Value. No. Value. Pounds. Value. Michigan : Monroe 65 10 $225 13, 570 325 87, 000 $1, 520 Ohio: Erie 118 915 58, 850 117 2, 100, 150 100, 500 220, 000 32, 948 20 50 1, 800 3, 000 12 1, 525 Ottawa 18 145 10 150 5, 900 Total 173 1, 175 64, 450 149 14, 270 2,507, 650 41, 893 The most important fish taken in fyke nets in this lake is the pike or pickerel, locally called the grass pike. It finds congenial quarters in the shoal, grassy bays and shores in the western part of the lake and is there taken in larger quantities than in any other lake. The next valuable products in their order are catfish, saugers, black bass, and yellow perch. A large amount of cheap, miscellaneous fish, consisting of suckers, sheepshead, rock bass, etc., is secured, but need not be considered in this connection. Turtles are also taken in Erie County, Ohio. FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 345 The following table gives the quantity and value of the principal fishes taken in Lake Erie in 1890 : Products of the fyke-net fishery of Lake Erie. Species. Michigan. Ohio. Total. Pounds. V alue. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Black bass Catlish Perch Pike Saucers Wall eyed pike ; Other fish . Turtles .... 500 30. 000 20. 000 1, 980 8, 000 1,520 25, 000 $30 750 200 99 240 76 125 82, 085 346, 250 283, 670 314, 440 360, 855 720 1, 006, 925 25, 705 $4, 504 2’, 240 15, 193 3, 816 36 7, 150 514 82, 585 376 250 303, 670 316, 420 368, 855 2, 240 1, 031, 925 25, 705 $4, 534 7,670 2,440 15, 292 4. 056 112 7, 275 514 Total 87, 000 1,520 2, 420, 650 40, 373 2, 507, 650 41, 893 The fyke-net fishery of Lake Erie is more extensive than at any previous time. While no figures exist for making detailed comparisons between its present and past importance, some notes relating to the years 1880 and 1885 can be presented, and for the latter year the number and value of nets can be shown. Of Maumee Bay it was stated in 1880 that “a few fyke nets are in use for catch- ing‘panfish,’ but their products are of no considerable extent.” On the shore of Monroe County, in the same year, there were 14 fishermen using 35 fykes. Only 50 nets were reported in the Sandusky region. Between Locust Point and Ottawa 30 nets were in use, and at Huron 20 were noted. In 1885, when a comprehensive investigation of the methods and statistics of the fisheries of this lake was made by the U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, the num- ber of fyke nets employed was 1,069, valued at $62,148, distributed as follows: Fyke nets employed-in Lake Erie in 1885. Sections. No. of nets. Monroe County, Mich 43 39 76 893 12 5 Maumee Bay, Ohio Locust Point to Port Clinton, Ohio Sandusky Bay and the outlying islands, Ohio Cuyahoga County, Ohio Lake and Ashtabula counties, Ohio Erie County, Pa Total .■ 1, 069 Of the 1,021 nets credited to Ohio, 893 were set in Sandusky Bay and around the islands lying off that region. The following notes on the fisheries of the principal regions are taken from the report* already quoted. Beferring to Monroe County, Mich., which occupies the extreme western end of the lake, it was stated that — Between October 15 and April 15 a number of fyke nets are fished for the same species as are taken in the seines [bullheads, black bass, rock bass, perch, pike perch, grass pike, suckers, and herring]. They are located as follows: Six in Huron River near its mouth, 16 within the mouth of Swan Creek, and 15 in Plum Creek and Pleasant Bay. Each fyke consists of two staked and anchored funnels of netting, each 12 feet long, one opening into the other, and a 190-foot leader. The first funnel has a mouth 4 feet in diameter and an opening at the small end of the diameter of 1£ * Review of the Fisheries of the Great Lakes. 346 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. feet. The second funnel has an aperture of 3 feet at one end, and is closed at the other. Some of the fykes have wings 12 feet long on each side of the mouth, extending at an angle of 45 degrees. The size of mesh in the funnels is 14 inches, and in the leader and wings 3 inches. The fish are removed by lifting the small end of the second funnel, which is closed with a puckering string, and taking them out with a dip net. In the winter the nets are set at some distance below the surface, in order that they may not.be frozen in. There are 7 fyke-net fishermen, whose 5 boats are worth $50, their 43 fykes $382, and their minor apparatus and accessories $30. The products amounted to about 85,000 pounds, worth $2,400. The fishery in Maumee Bay was referred to as follows : The fyke nets of Maumee Bay are much larger and better than those about Monroe. They are somewhat similar to the small pound nets and are quite as effective. Instead of wings they have a a leader and set of hearts. The leader is 30 to 70 fathoms long, the hearts 8 to 14 fathoms long, and the bowl or pocket 12 to 14 feet long. The mesh is 4 to 5 inches in the leader, 3 inches in the hearts, and 2£ inches in the bowl. Their value ranges from $25 to $50 each. The total number in Maumee Bay was 39, worth $1,710. There is none in the river or along this part of the coast. They are fished in the spring and fall, and occasionally in winter. It was recorded of the fyke-net fishery of Ottawa County, Ohio, that — Three dozen fyke nets are fished in the mouth of Toussaint Creek in winter by the fishermen of that vicinity. The fykes proper are 14 feet long, the hearts 27 feet, and the leaders 165 feet. The size of mesh is 3 inches in the leader and hearts, and 2 inches in the fyke or bowl. In Portage River 40 fyke nets are used near the seining beaches, sometimes in winter but usually during the spring and fall, by men who give most of their time to other fisheries. The following reference was made to the important fishing region embracing Sandusky Bay, the peninsula, and the Bass and other islands: On the outer shores of the peninsula and of Cedar Point and about the islands the most abundant species are whitefish and herring, but in the bay these do not occur, and the objects of pursuit are principally perch, saugers, bass, bullheads, and other species characteristic of the bays and river mouths. Pound' nets are the most popular form of apparatus in the .former section, where their number exceeds 300, though thousands of gill nets are fishing in the vicinity of the islands, and eight steam tugs and a large number of sailboats are devoted to this branch of the industry. All the fishing of the bay, with the exception of a little seining at the western end, is by means of fykes and small pound nets, which dot its shallow waters to the number of nine or ten hundred. Several seines are fished from the peninsula, both on the lake and the bay sides, and the fyke nets so numerous in the bay are also found in considerable numbers on the lake shore, though not used to any extent upon the islands. On the northern part of the peninsula, in the crotch between its two arms, are three marshy inlets with a total area of several thousand acres, which for about fifteen years have supported fyke-net fisheries of some importance. At present 107 nets are fished here by eight fishermen from the beginning of September to the 1st of May. The catch consists principally of bullheads and sunfish in fall, of bass in winter, and of grass pike in spring, with a large mixture of perch at all seasons. The fyke nets of the island region are mostly made of second-hand twine. The fyke proper, or pot, is 20 feet long, the hearts are 48 feet long, and the leaders, from 150 to 300 feet long. The size of the mesh is 4-J inches in the leader, 4 inches in the hearts, and 24 inches in the’pot. LAKE ONTARIO. In proportion to the extent of its general fisheries, there is no lake in which the fyke net is of greater importance than in Lake Ontario. An investigation* of the fisheries of this lake, conducted by the writer in 1891, disclosed the fact that the products of the entire industry in 1890 amounted to 3,446,448 pounds, valued at $124,786, while, as has been stated, the fyke-net catch alone was 899,527 pounds, having a value of $22,561; more than a-fourth of the quantity and nearly a fifth of the value of the catch thus represented the output of the fykes. * Report on an Investigation of the Fisheries of Lake Ontario. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission, 1890. FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 347 As compared with 1880, the present status of the fyke-net fishery of this lake is more important than it was then; but since 1885 there has been a decrease in this fishery, as in the industry in general. An account* of the fisheries of this lake in 1885 stated that fyke nets had been employed for some years along various portions of the coast where the shore is low and swampy, or in bays where there are extensive mud flats, and were fished chiefly for bullheads, though small quantities of bass, yellow pike, eels, and perch were also secured. More than a thousand were said to be at that time fished with more or less regularity in the waters of the lake, most of them being owned by farmers living along the shore. The extent of the fyke-net fishery decreases from east to west'. In Jefferson County, which occupies the eastern part of the lake, more than two-thirds of the nets used in the entire lake are fished; and in Oswego County, which lies west of Jefferson, more than half the remaining nets are employed. The number of fishermen and the number and value of the fykes set in each county in 1890 were as follows : Fyke-net fishery of Lake Ontario. Counties. No. of fisher- Fykes. Boats. No.' | Value. No. Value. Jefferson 42 458 $6 850 37 $1,582 Oswego 18 140 2, 100 17- 506 Cayuga 3 26 315 3 85 Wayne 39 365 4 80 Monroe - 5 21 192 5 65 Total 74 684 9, 822 66 2,318 Catfish enter most conspicuously into the catch and constitute nearly half the quantity and value of the yield. Next in point of value are pike, yellow perch, eels, and suckers, although the order of importance based on the quantity taken is perch, suckers, pike, and eels. The minor fish taken include sheepshead and rock bass. The fyke-net fishery of this lake in 1890 resulted as follows: Products of the fyke-net fishery of Lake Ontario. Species. Pounds. Value. Bass 72, 353 $1, 845 Catfish 400, 273 10,484 Eel 56, 336 2, 177 Perch 170, 645 3, 111 Pike 73,770 3, 340 Suckers 76, 320 1, 056 Other fish: 49, 830 548 Total 899,527 22, 561 * Review of the Fisheries of the Great Lakes. 348 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. THE FYKE NET IN OTHER COUNTRIES. Information is lacking on which to base a satisfactory account of the fyke-net fisheries of other countries. While it is known that the fyke net constitutes a more or less prominent type of apparatus in most of the principal waters of Europe and Asia, and doubtless other grand divisions, it is possible at this time to do little more than describe a few styles that have been met with in reports, museums, and exposi- tions. While some of these are similar to and identical with nets employed in the United States, others represent widely divergent forms. Aside from the general interest which a study of the different types of fykes pos- sesses, descriptions of the fykes of other nations and illustrations of the forms peculiar to them may not be without practical value to our fishermen. Fykes are used only to a limited extent in Canada. They are most numerous in the district of Montreal, in the St. Lawrence River, and in Lake Ontario. They are not found on the coast. The fishery is not very important and is mostly carried on by farmers whose lands abut on the waters in which the nets are set. The catch con- sists chiefly of sunfish, perch, catfish, and suckers, and other “ soft fish ” ( poissons mou). Black bass are taken, but they are said not to remain in the nets when caught, and the yield is small. In Upper Canada the name u hoop net” is usually given to this form of apparatus ; in lower Canada it is known as the fyke net. Among the French population it .bears the same designation as in France — verveux. Its introduction into Canada can be traced to the early French colonists. The fishery regulations operative in Canada requiring the issuance of a license for each device employed and limiting the number or quantity of apparatus that may be set by one person applies to fyke nets as well as to pound nets, trap nets, and other sedentary appliances, so called. The practice of setting fyke nets end to end, as is done in parts of the United States, is not permitted in Canada. Not more than one net may be set in a line, and the number that may be used by one person is lim- ited to five. A license fee of $2 or $3 per net is charged. The most common forms of fykes used in Canada have from 4 to 6 hoops, are usually provided with wings, and often have, also, a leader; they do not differ from similar nets psed in the United States. One special type, however, seems to be peculiar; instead of opening into a regular pocket or bag, the last funnel enters and terminates in a large rectangular compartment like the bovrl of a pound net or the crib of a floating trap. This style of fyke is employed only in the Richelieu River, which drains Lake Champlain.* The fyke net is employed in a number of minor fisheries in Great Britain, where, as has already been stated, it is known as the hoop net. It is not a popular form of apparatus, and shares with the pound net and similar devices the disapprobation in which such sedentary fisheries are held in the British Isles. An English writer on fishing nets, referring to this apparatus at a time when machine-made nets were unknown and unthought of, gives the following curious detailed instructions for its manufacture : The hoop net consists of two parts, the body and the valve or funnel, which are united in the manner hereafter to he described. Begin with the body at its lower or pointed end and work up to its mouth thus : Net 37 loops round on a 4-inch spool, one row; take a 2-inch spool and net 20 rows * For the foregoing' in formation on the fyke nets of Canada the writer is indebted to Dr. William Wakeham, of the fisheries department of Canada. FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 349 of dead net; in the next row set in 5 false meshes equidistantly ; then 20 rows of dead net; then a row with 5 false meshes; then 20 rows of dead net; then 5 false meshes in the next row; then 36 rows of dead net; net the thirty-seventh row in double twine. This done, cut off both threads, leaving ends, and fill a needle with single twine, but the last row you have netted being in double string, you have an upper and a lower row; to the end proceeding from this lower row, where the double thread was cut off and from which the valve is to issue, tie the twine you have on the needle and work as follows, taking care to pick up only the loops of the lower row on the needle as you go round : Net 14 rows of dead net, then, at equal distances in the circumference, make in the fifteenth row 8 stole meshes, i. e., take 2 loops up at once 8 times in that row; then 2 rows of dead net; in the next row 8 stole meshes, and so on as before for 3 times more. After you have for the fifth time put in 8 stole meshes, net a row of plain netting; then lay aside your 2-inch spool and take a 12-inch, on which net 1 row. The funnel or valve is now finished and must be reflected inward to gain its right position. You now take your needle, charged with single twine, and join on to that other row which was left before and where the funnel issued from the body of the net. Net 11 rows of dead netting on your 2-inch spool; in the next row set in 5 false meshes, at equal distances from each other, and continue to set in 5 false meshes at every fourth row for 7 times, leaving 3 rows of dead netting between. After you have set in your false meshes for the seventh time, make 7 rows of dead netting, then one row on a 4-inch spool. This last row is strung on to a length of wood about 6 inches long and bent in a bow ; a piece of stout string keeps the two extremities bent, answering to the string of an archer’s bow, and the last meshes of the net’s mouth are strung on to this string as well as on the bow. A moderate weight is generally attached to the bow at its extremities. Four hoops are placed round the net through the meshes of twenty-first, forty-second, sixty-third, and One hundredth rows (reckoning from the pointed end). The hoops are made larger as they proceed from the point toward the mouth, and all are made of much slighter wood than the bow. The diameter of the first or smallest hoop is about 1 foot 5 inches ; the next about 1 foot 7 inches ; the third about 1 foot 10 inches ; and the fourth about 2 feet. The hoops are bound to the meshes by twine after they have been passed, and this, of course, is done before the ends of the hoops are lashed together. In some hoop nets more than one funnel is inserted, but many fisherman prefer only one.* In the various parts of Germany a number of different forms of the fykes are used, and it appears to be a rather common means of fishing both on the coast and in the interior waters. Some of the nets closely resemble kinds used in the United States, which in all probability have been introduced by German emigrants, but most of the styles observed differ in some slight features from types employed in this country. One common form consists of 8 iron hoops and 2 wings 6 feet in length ; the first hoop is 16 inches in diameter, the last 6 inches, the hoops being from 10 to 18 inches apart. There are 3 funnels, which terminate in a square opening, from the corners of which lines pass to the adjacent hoops for the purpose of keeping the end of the funnel in proper position. The funnels are peculiar in that they do not originate from the hoops but several inches in advance of the hoops to which they would ordinarily be attached. The net described is such as is employed for eels. Similar nets, with 4 to 6 hoops made of iron or wood, are also used for both eels and fish. One style with 4 hoops, 2 funnels, and wings about 20 feet in length, employed in the vicinity of Memel, in East Prussia, on the Baltic Sea, is known as the neunaugen reuse , in allusion to the lampreys ( neunaugen ) taken. Another type, practically iden- tical with this, but set for fish, is called a Jischsack. A double fyke, with wings and leader, such as is found in the Middle Atlantic States and shown in plate lxxx, fig. 1, is also used in parts of Prussia; each bag has 4 hoops and 2 funnels, the latter arising from the netting in front of the hoops, as already mentioned. A very interesting fyke, analogous to an eelpot and probably set for eels, is found in northern Germany. It is known as a bollreuse (round fyke) and is peculiar in * Notes on Nets. By Charles Bathurst. Lonilon, 1838. 350 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. having 3 hoops of equal size and an opening at each end guarded by a funnel. In a model of this net, which has been seen by the writer and on which the figure (plate lxxxix, fig. 2) is based, the hoops were 6 inches in diameter and were placed 6 inches apart in the bag; the funnels were 6 inches long and their ends were kept in position by lines passing from one to the other. The full diameter of the hoops is probably from 12 to 24 inches. A study of the fyke nets of Norway discloses the existence of a number of inter- esting forms operated in fresh and in salt water. The numerous fiords, coves, bays, and rivers and the generally irregular coast line which characterize that country would seem to favor the extensive use of fyke nets and contribute to the evolution of peculiarities in form and use depending on the different physical conditions prevailing and the various kinds of fishes taken. One of the simplest and commonest types found in Norway is characterized by 4 hoops, 2 funnels proceeding from the first and third hoops, and 2 straight wings. An example of this style with unusually large hoops has been seen by the writer, the first hoop being 5J feet in diameter, and the fourth 4 feet wide; the hoops consisted of rough, undressed saplings; the length of the net is about 20 feet. The wings are 25 feet long, are supported by two stakes, and join each other above and below about 2 feet in front of the first hoop, forming a kind of funnel-shaped entrance. The setting of two simple nets at the ends of a common leader, which is an uncommon practice in the United States, appears to be frequent in Norway. One such arrangement has the following features: Length of nets, 9 feet; 3 iron hoops, 2£ feet in diameter; 2 funnels, from the first and second hoops, terminating in a circular orifice kept open by a wire ring; leader, 50 feet long, extending 1 foot into the first funnel of each net, supported by flat corks, 3 inches long, placed at intervals of 6 feet, weighted by earthenware sinkers 3 inches long and 6 feet apart. (See plate lxxxix, fig. 1.) Similar nets with 5 wooden hoops (the first 2J feet in diameter) and two funnels are also employed. A single net at the end of a leader is also fished in some parts of this country. One form is 8 feet long and has 8 hoops, the first 20 inches in diameter, the last 8 inches; the first and second hoops are 20 inches apart, all others 10 inches; there are 4 funnels, arising from every alternate hoop ; the leader is continued well into the first hoop. Larger nets of this type, with the first hoop 3£ feet wide, are also employed. On either side of the lower part of the first hoop rather heavy lead weights are placed in order to keep the net in an upright position. Such a fyke is usually set in salt water. A curious Norwegian fyke, entirely unlike any that has been ascertained to exist in any other country, is illustrated in plate lxxxvix. The bag is 10 feet long and is sup- ported on 7 arches made of stout, rough strips bent into the shape of a semicircle and fastened to broad wooden crosspieces. Funnels extend from the second and fourth arches. The first arch is 3J feet wide at the base; the last bow is 6 inches high and 8 inches wide. A small anchor keeps the end of the net in place, and a strong rope runs the length of the fyke along the top and ends of each bow to add to the strength. Two 6-foot wings and a 10-foot leader are added, each supported at its distal end by a stake; they are buoyed by wooden blocks 10 inches long, about an inch wide, and half an inch thick. Another form of net that appears to be peculiar to the Scandinavian peninsula is represented in plate lxxxviii. The peculiarity is in the construction of the bag and the expansion of the final apartments. It consists of 7 hoops; the first is 2£ or 3 feet in FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 351 diameter, and the others decrease in size until the fourth is reached, which is 6 or 8 inches wide ; the fifth is the same size as the fourth and is separated from it by 2 inches of netting; the sixth and seventh hoops are about 10 and 12 inches wide, respectively. There are three funnels, which originate from the netting several inches from the first, second, and fifth hoops, as in the German fykes elsewhere mentioned. The entire net is about 8 feet long. Two wings 6 feet long, supported by stakes, diverge from the sides of the first hoop. The smaller end is anchored. In the lan- guage of the Norwegian fisherman, this net is designated ruse til saltvands fish (fyke for salt-water fish). In the rivers tributary to the Baltic Sea, the Gulf of Finland, and the Gulf of Bothnia, in Finland, fyke nets are used in large numbers. They are chiefly set for whitefish ( Coregonus oxyrhynchus), herring ( Clupea harengus), and salmon ( Salmo trutta). The principal fisheries are in the rivers at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia. Some fykes with the first hoop 2£ or 3 fathoms in diameter are used in the Baltic Sea, Ladoga Lake, and Yuoksen Biver. A form which is most common in the latter stream has 4 to 7 hoops, each provided with a funnel; they are placed in sets of three or more on one side of a common leader, similar to the shad fyke used in Hudson County, N. J., with the funnels directed downstream, so as to intercept the fish migrat- ing upstream. Another style of net which finds its prototype in the United States consists of two simple fykes set facing each other at the ends of a common leader; wings are sometimes added to this bind of net. It is generally set for small river fish. In the Gulf of Bothnia a net provided with curved wings and a leader extend- ing to the shore is in use; it closely resembles some kinds of “pound” fykes in our waters. Another kind, with straight wings and a leader, is also in extensive use.* A form of fyke which has been ascertained to be used only in Russia is repre- sented in plate lxxxvi, fig. 2. A model which has been examined by the writer and on which the plate is based consists of a 4-foot bag of netting distended by 5 hoops of uniform size (2£ feet in diameter) ; the bag terminates at a circular block perfo- rated with holes about half an inch wide, doubtless for the purpose of permitting the escape of small fishes that have been led into the net. The chief peculiarity of this fyke is in the funnels ; these are two in number, extend between the first and second, and third and fourth hoops, and have rectangular orifices supported on a stout frame- work, as shown in the figure ; the first opening is 2 inches wide and 16 inches high, the second is 2 inches wide and 8 inches high. The net is provided with a pair of short, straight wings. It is used in the River Don, and is known as the vanda. The best account of the fyke nets of France which has been found is contained in a work published in Paris in 1769-1772.t This treatise has a very complete account of the different forms of nets employed in France and devotes considerable space to the particular kind of net under discussion. A large number of illustra- tions is given, some of which have been reproduced for this paper. So far as the information at hand goes, the French fishermen seem to have a greater variety of fyke nets than exists in any other country of Europe. Two general types of nets, recognized in France by different names, appear to belong to the general class of fykes : these are the guideaux and verveux or verviers, so called. The former are very long cylindrical-shaped bags, distended with one or * For these notes on the fyke nets of Finland acknowledgments are due to Dr. Oscar Nordqvist, government inspector of fisheries in Finland. t Traitd G6n6ral des Pesches, et Histoire des Poissons. Par M. Duhamel du Monceau. 5 vols. 352 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. more hoops; the simplest guideaux seem to lack a funnel, and therefore not to be true fykes, the escape of the fish being prevented by the folds of the long, tapering sack. The verveux differ from the guideaux in being shorter and in always having one or more funnels. As defined in the work referred to, the verveux are like the guideaux , but “in order to prevent the fish from escaping one adds at the entrance and inside a net large in the mouth and terminating in a point, called the goulet .” Besides the synonym verviers already given, a number of other names are applied to fykes in different parts of the country, among which are loup (wolf), renard (fox), and quinque portes, the latter designation being for an arrangement of five fykes such as is fig- ured in plate lxxxiv, fig. 4. Fykes used on parts of the seacoast are variously called queues , munches , sacs , and caches. Of the many kinds of fyke nets used in France and the various methods of setting them it is necessary to refer to only a few that present especially striking features. Some of these are figured in plates lxxxiv, lxxxv, and lxxxvi, fig. 1. Simple nets, with numerous hoops and without leader or wings, are common. The entrance is usually arched. Some are set singly and others are placed close together side by side, so as to more completely cover a stream or section of coast. Three nets of this class are illustrated. In one the fish are finally led into a wicker compartment similar to that seen in oriental fishing devices. A curious cylindrical net formed on three hoops of uniform size and having an entrance at each end consisting of a long funnel extending obliquely toward the top of one hoop and toward the bottom of the other is figured in plate lxxxiv, fig. 2. Poles are attached along four sides for the purpose of strengthening the net and to afford support to the buoy, weights, and ropes required in setting and hauling the net. Methods of setting fyke nets with wings and three ways of constructing the wings are shown in plate lxxxv. The wings are termed haies , arrets , hrayes , or tonnelles, according to the locality. Such nets are usually placed in localities in which the tide goes out rapidly and leaves them bare or nearly exposed, as at the mouths of small streams or bays. The net is pointed towards the water at right angles to the shore. These nets, besides the manner shown in the plates, are sometimes set in zigzag series, so that they will take fish swimming in either direction, each single wing being a part of two nets which face in opposite directions. Nets provided with wings are also in use in parts of France. Those found in print consist of 5 to 7 hoops, with as many funnels. The wings are corked and weighted and tied to large stones at their ends. The net is kept in position by being attached to a large stone and by having individual weights tied to the sides of each hoop. The method of combining a fyke net with the leader and heart of a pound net, as is done in the United States, is exhibited in plate lxxxvi, fig. 1. At a comparatively early period in France the fyke net seems to have received its due share of legislative attention and to have caused in some localities a marked diminution in the supply of fish ascending streams. Referring to the type of net figured in plate lxxxiv, fig. 4, it is stated that — Following the ordinance, an interval of 15 brasses should be left between each net. The fish- ermen arrange the nets so that what escapes one set of nets is caught by the other; or, altogether contrary to law, they set them close together, and in placing enough to occupy a great part of the river in this manner they catch all the little fishes which are swimming upstream and were destined to people the river with big fishes. The fishermen, who can not get any good out of these, throw them on the bank, where they infect the air ; and the result is that fisheries which twenty years ago were worth a thousand livres are now worth not more than 200 livres, and the fishermen are ruined. — (Traitd G6n6ral des Peaches, et Histoire des Poissons. 1769-1772.) 353 -$YKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. The fyke is not absent from the waters of Southern Europe. The fishermen of the Adriatic Sea employ a number of forms of this net, which is in some instances combined with seines and trawls. The form of net called the cogolo seems to correspond very closely with the simpler fykes in this country and is the essential feature of the more elaborate nets. The cogolo is described* as a hempen net made in the shape of a long conical bag, narrowing by degrees to the tail end, and held open by successive hoops ( cercliietti ). It is composed of different parts: the first, called chiara , is large-meshed; the second is the busto , and is made of smaller meshes; the third is the mezzana , made of still smaller meshes; last comes the pillela or piela, the purse, made of very coarse and strong twine and very small-meshed, into which the fish enter through a kind of very narrow funnel called enca. Once inside, they become packed, and are unable to turn back. It is also used for catching eels in the fishing ponds ( valli cliiuse). A form of apparatus consisting of a seine combined with a cogolo is known as bragagna among the Adriatic fishermen and is fished from a boat called braganella. The boat, having previously cast anchor at a short distance off, hauls in the anchor chain on a roller ( molinello ), thus drawing the net in its wake. The net has no floats to keep up the head, but is held stretched in the water by a series of sticks fixed verti- cally along the two wings and around the mouth of the bag. At the end of each of the wings there is a small cogolo with three hoops, with the opening in an opposite direction to that of the middle bag. It is well weighted at the foot ( ima ) to keep it down, and the drag-rope ends are attached to the bows and the poop, the boat moving broadside on (in fianco), the net grazing the ground; it is worked by day or night, on muddy beds, in shallow water, in creeks and lagoons, chiefly for gobies and small shore fish. Length, 20 in.; depth, 4 m.; mesh, cm.; price, 60 florins. Another net in which the fyke principle is an essential feature is operated in the Adriatic Sea. It is known as the cocchia or coccia, and is used exclusively by the Cliioggiotti. It is drawn by two boats ( brogazzi ) under sail, each boat running par- allel to the other and drawing one end of the net, which is held by drag ropes (alzana) 40 to 50 fathoms in length. It is worked, by preference, against the current, over muddy grounds by day, the mud raised by the passage of the net clouding the water and shutting out the light, which renders the fish confused and motionless, whereby they become an easy prey. At night it is worked over rocky beds. The depth of water in which operated varies from 20 to 50 fathoms. The structure of this net differs from that of the seine ( tratta ) in the shape of the bag ( sacco or pctnza), which in this case is conical, measuring 5 to 6 fathoms across at the opening and narrowing by degrees to 8 to 10 feet in diameter. Here commences a kind of funnel, which is kept open by means of hoops and ends in a purse, the opening of which measures 5 feet across, and the ends of which are gathered and secured by a rope. This has simply to be undone when the net is hauled on deck and the fish fall out at the end. The funnel and purse are known as the cogolo and form about one-half of the total depth of the bag, which is 6 fathoms. The cogolo is gener- ally inclosed in a second net of coarse string in order to protect it against the friction with the bed and the depredations of the dolphins, which are apt at times to injure the net. The length of the wings or arms is often as much as 30 fathoms each, the depth * The Fisheries of the Adriatic. By G. L. Faber. London, 1883. F. C. B. 1892 23 354 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. being 10 feet at the ends and 20 feet towards the middle, where the bag commences. The bag is small-meshed (1£ to 2 centimeters) and well corked at the head to keep it well open whilst in motion. It is also extra weighted at the foot, so that it falls quickly to the bottom and is thus trawled along the ground, the boats being under full sail, the faster the better, the Italian fishermen fishing in almost all kinds of weather. Two pieces of wood are fastened longitudinally to the under side of the bag to protect it from friction with the ground and to enable it to slide along with greater facility. The value of the cocchia is about 100 florins. This mode of fishing was prohibited by the Venetian Republic in former times and by the Austrian Government by the enact- ment of 1835; but the want of organized inspection rendered it impossible to enforce the prohibition, and it is once more recognized under the Austro-Hungarian and Italian treaties of commerce of 1867 and 1878.* A stationary form of fyke net is used in the Venetian lagoons and the head waters of the Adriatic Sea. The fish are led into the fykes ( cogoli ) by means of con- verging screens or hedges ( serragli ) constructed of netting or reeds. As the tide recedes, the fish which may be inclosed within the hedges find their way into the cogoli , which are drawn up by means of a float to which they are attached, and are emptied of their contents. In Spain and Portugal some of the fykes resemble the nets of northern Europe; some are similar to those of Italy and Austria; and some appear to be more or less peculiar to this part of Europe. Representations of some nets used in Portugal are shown in plates lxxxix and xc, the illustrations being copied from a report t on the fisheries of that country. The typical fyke is known in Portugal as the botirao , which is described in the work referred to as a “ trap ( armadilha ) made of bows and netting, with a pyramidal or prismatic form, having a funnel-shaped opening through which the fish enter.” The forms recognized are the movable or set fyke ( botirao de deitar ), the hand fyke (botirao de mao), and the stationary fyke ( botirao fixo). One of the most extensively used is the first named, shown in plate lxxxix, fig. 4. It has an arched entrance and 4 hoops, the second of which is largest, a short funnel arising from the second hoop. Connected with either side of the arch and extending backward along the hoops is a pole, which enters the cavity of the net at the third hoop, proceeds through the end of the final compartment, joins its fellow, and is finally fastened at a stake driven into the bottom a short dist jm the net. A heavy stone is placed in the arched entrance and another is tie : ;o the united side poles beyond the end of the net. From the top of the last hoop a piece of bait is suspended within the net. Two other forms of fykes, with only a single hoop, are represented in plate xc. One has a square entrance, supported by stakes, occupying the anterior third of the length of the net, the hoop, funnel, and bag constituting the remaining part. The other style has a leader, somewhat longer than the net proper, proceeding from the shore, the entire net being weighted and buoyed. Another form of Portuguese fyke, having the general appearance of a pot, is shown in plate lxxxix, fig. 3. It is called a muzuar , and consists of four broad bands of metal supporting a short bag; there is one funnel, and the end of the net is closed by a round door on a hinge, as is well exhibited in the figure. This net is employed principally in the capture of lampreys. * The Fisheries of the Adriatic. tEstado Actual das Pescas em Portugal. Por A. A. Baldaque da Silva. Lishoa, 1892. FYKE NETS AND FYKE-NET FISHERIES. 355 The ingenuity of the oriental mind has produced a marvelous variety of fishing apparatus ; especially in China and Japan is there a bewildering multiplication of forms of nets, among which the fyke is well represented, either as a simple type or in combi nation with other kinds of apparatus. Bamboo is the material from which a great many nets, especially the more primitive ones, are constructed, but twine is also in common use in most localities. The absence of printed information in the English tongue precludes more than the mere mention of a few facts on this subject that have been incidentally collected. A form of beam trawl employed in Japan for the capture of lobsters has, for the most essential part, a simple fyke net. The entire trawl is about 30 feet long, of which the fyke proper constitutes somewhat less than half. The mouth of the trawl, which is about 10 feet wide, opens into a compartment formed by netting above and on the sides and by the bottom of the sea below; the upper edge of this inclosure is buoyed by corks or wooden floats; and the sides are kept on the bottom by means of weights. The compartment tapers until it becomes 5 or 6 feet wide, when it joins the hoop of a fyke net. The fyke consists of a single hoop, a funnel, and a bag which tapers to a rather sharp point. The hoop is iron below, a break in its continuity being supplied by a large weight retained by a rope. The funnel terminates in a square aperture, kept open by lines running to the bag. Figures of three forms of Chinese fykes are given (plate xci). These are selected from a large number of illustrations to show the different applications made of the fyke principle. The simplest form has already been referred to (page 303). It con- sists of a bag-shaped net distended by one hoop and provided with a single funnel (fig. 1). The combination of three such simple nets, with the addition of certain acces- sory parts, constituting a kind of fyke entirely peculiar to this country, is represented in fig. 2. This is called by the Chinese san-yen-Mo. It is described as follows: The san-yen-kao is composed of 3 fyke nets, having an opening of 3 feet in diameter and a length from 4 to 5 feet; there are iron weights holding the ends of these pock ts, which open into a thread net with rather large meshes. This latter is held up by two stakes from 5 to 10 feet in diameter and 4 to 5 inches in thickness, which are driven into the ground at a distance of 12 to 14 feet from each other. On these two supports and above the thread net is fixed a plank 3 feet wide, covered with a white varnish and half submerged in the water. On the sides of this apparatus are two trellised inclosures in bamboo, which are used to prevent the fishes from escaping at the sides. The san-yen-kao is placed in rivers or in lakes, in pairs not far from each other, and is visited several times each day. — (La Pisciculture et la Peche en Chine. Par P. Darby de Thiersant. Pan' An example of a style of fyke used in falls, in swift currents, or i.,- $ae mouths of lagoons or rivers left partly dry by the tide, appears in fig. 3. The bag is long, narrow, and fusiform, and has a small entrance g uarded by a funnel. Wings of various shapes and materials are provided, and serve to direct the current of water and with it the fish. The bag is kept distended by the force of the current. The particular style figured is known as a tcna-Tcao , and is placed at the mouths of lagoons and lakes. - ' Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) Plate LXXIII. Fig. 2. TERRAPIN FYKE; "BUCKDART." MARYLAND. Fig. 3, "FISHNET.” PATENTED IN 1844. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) Plate LXXIV. Fig, 1, EEL FYKE; EEL BAIT-POT, EASTERN UNITED STATES. Fig. 2. EEL FYKE. EW ENGLAND STATES. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fyks (To face page 356 ) Plate LXXV. Fig. 2. FYKE WITH LEADER ID STRAIGHT WINGS. UNITED STATES, GENERAL. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) Plate LXXVI. Fig. 2. POUND FYKE, WITH CURVED WINGS. MARYLAND. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1832. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) PLATE LXXVII. Fig. 2. POUND FYKE— SIDE VIEW. GREAT LAKES. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) PLATE LXXVIII. Bull. U. S F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) Plate LXXIX. Fig. 1. DOUBLE FYKE; "SET OF FYKES," MARYLAND. Fig. 2. DOUBLE FYKE; "SETOF FYKES." MARYLAND. Bull. U. 5. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets, (To face page 356.) Plate LXXX. Fig, 1. DOUBLE FYKE; "SHAD FYKE." NEW JERSEY. Fig. 2. DOUBLE FYKE, WITH SQUARE ENTRANCE; "HEDGING FYKE." BALTIMORE COUNTY, MARYLAND. Bull, U. S. F. C. 1 892. Fyke Nets (To face page 356./ Plate LXXXI. Fig 2. UNILATERAL FYKE. MARYLAND. Bull. U, S. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.1 Plate LXXXII. METHOD OF SETTING DOUBLE FYKE NETS FOR SHAD; LEADERS OF TWINE AND BRUSH. HUDSON COUNTY, Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) Plate LXXXIII. COUNTY, NEW JERSE' Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) Plate LXXXIV. TYPES OF FRENCH FYKE NETS. METHODS OF SETTING FYKES ON PARTS OF THE FRENCH COAST, SHOWING THE DIFFERENT MATERIALS OF WHICH THE WINGS ARE CONSTRUCTED. Fig. 2. FYKE (VANDA) USED RIVER DON, RUSSIA. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) Plate LXXXVII. FYKE (RUSE). NORWAY. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892, Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) PLATE LXXXVIII. FYKE (RUSE) EMPLOYED IN SALT-WATER FISHERIES OF Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) Plate LXXXIX. Fig. 4. SET FYKE (BOTIRAO DE DEITAR). PORTUGAL. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) Fig. 1. BUOYED AND WEIGHTED FYKE (BOTIR&O). PORTUGAL. Fig. 2. STAKED FYKE (BOTIRAO FIXO). PORTUGAL. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Fyke Nets. (To face page 356.) Plate XCI. Fig. 1. SIMPLE FYKE (KAO). Fig. 3, TCHA-KAO, SET IN CURRENTS AND FALLS. THREE TYPES OF CHINESE FYKE NETS. 7 -LIST OF FISHES COLLECTED AT SEA ISLE CITY, NEW JERSEY. DURING THE SUMMER OF 1892. BY H. F. MOORE. In the summer of 1892 the writer was attached to the Marine Biological Labora- tory of the University of Pennsylvania, at Sea Isle City, N. J. During the period from June 25 to September 1 all fish taken at the laboratory passed through his hr nds, and the notes made thereon are embodied in the present paper. Sea Isle City is located upon Ludlam Beach, an island about 10 miles south of Great Egg Harbor Bay, where observations upon the fishes were made by Prof. Baird in 1854 and by Dr. Bean during the summer of 1887. In 1871 Prof. Yerrill published, in the American Naturalist, a short list of the fishes observed in Great Egg Harbor Bay, with notes upon their food. Most of the species enumerated in the present list were taken in the pound net which the laboratory established in Ludlam Bay, a shallow body of salt water (its salin- ity being about 5 degrees less than in the ocean on the other side of the island), several square miles in extent, communicating with Corson Inlet at the north and Townsend Inlet at the south end of the island. The depth of water is, in most places, not over 3 feet at low water, and a large area of mud flat is left bare by the tide. The tide rises about 5 feet in the bay, being one hour later than in the ocean, and the temper- ature of the water is several degrees warmer than in the ocean. The thoroughfares are tortuous channels with low-lying banks and rapid tidal currents. Zostera grows luxuriantly over a large part of the bay, and TJlva, Fucus, and other algse abound. The bottom is a vile-smelling mud containing much organic matter. Worms, crustaceans, etc., furnish an abundant food supply in the bay. The notes which follow relate to marine fishes only, no effort having been made to investigate the fauna of the adjacent mainland. Sixty-one species are enumerated and of these about thirty-five species are represented by young. A systematic inves- tigation would doubtless reveal a number of forms not included in this list but found by Dr. Bean at Great Egg Harbor Bay. The following species, recorded by neither Prof. Baird nor Dr. Bean, were taken by the writer : Carcharias littoralis , Clupea sapidissima , Fcheneis naucrates, Decapterus punetatus, Caranx chrysos , Vomer setipinnis, Mullus surmuletus auratus , and Balistes carolinensis. Two of these, Clupea sapidissima and Mullus surmuletus auratus , are of considerable interest. 357 358 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Three species noted by Prof. Baird, but not by Dr. Bean, are to be recorded from Sea Isle City, namely : Ophidion marginatum , Pogonias cromis, and Opisthonema ogli- num. Two specimens of the former were taken during the summer; Prof. Baird’s specimen was taken in winter. Most of the notes from Avalon were made by J. Percy Moore. 1. Raia eglanteria Lac^pede. Brier Bay. This is the common ray here and is frequently caught by fishing parties in the inlets. Specimens are occasionally found upon the beach and seined in the surf. One was taken in the pound net in Ludlam Bay 2. Raia laevis Mitchill. Barndoor Skate. A small individual of this species was seen at Avalon June 26. No other speci- mens were found. 3. Dasyatis centrums (Mitchill). Stingray. This species is exceedingly abundant and was taken in the pound net in numbers throughout June, July, and August. After about August 20 all the specimens taken were young of the year, the adults apparently deserting the bay after bringing forth their progeny. Two broods of young, one of four, the other of five, were bor-n in the aquarium August 10 and 15, respectively. In neither case did the mother survive the birth more than a few hours. The parents measured about 2 feet across the “ wings;” the young were about 5 to 6 inches. The “ uterus ” of the mother was clothed internally by a dense mat of vascular villosities, which by some means convey nutritive material to the developing young. 4. Galeus canis (Mitchill). Dogfish. This shark is very abundant, usually appearing in packs to the great annoyance of fishermen. It was caught daily, in the pound net, throughout the summer, but greatly increased in abundance during the latter part of August. 5. Carcharhinus obscurus (Le Sueur). Man-eater. Several sharks of this species were taken in the pound net during the latter part of July. Seen on Five Fathom Bank August 8. A “large shark 10 feet long,” prob ably this species, was seen in Ludlam Bay August 18. 6. Carcharias littoralis (Mitchill). Sand Shark. Three specimens, about 5 feet long, lived for some time in the aquaria. Two of these were caught in Ludlam Bay early in June; the third about July 10. They all showed a very ferocious disposition. 7. Etrumeus sadina (Mitchill). Round Herring. This species was found in pools on the beach above the laboratory. Large num- bers became stranded along shore during the first week in August, when bluefish were abundant off the coast. 8. Clupea sapidissima Wilson. Common Shad. A number of specimens, about 6 inches long, were taken in the pound net during the middle of August. Great Egg Harbor Biver, 10 miles north of Ludlam Bay, is the nearest stream in which they are known to breed. The captures extended over a period of eight or ten days and but two or three specimens were taken at a time. But little is known of the shad from the time it leaves its native waters at the end of FISHES COLLECTED AT SEA ISLE CITY, NEW JERSEY. 359 its first summer until it returns as an adult fish intent upon the propagation of its kind. Dr. Bean writes : Young shad measuring 5 to 7 inches in length have been seen in the Potomac in company with the adults in spring. Mr. Worth caught many specimens several years ago at Fort Washington. We have occasionally found shad measuring 5 or 6 inches in length in the fall of the year, before the time for their descent to the sea. Whether or not they are the young of the year is unknown to me. According to -Dr. G. Brown Goode, at the time the young fish are leaving the waters in which they were hatched they are said to he from 2 to 3 inches long. If this be true, as my observations upon the herring lead me to believe, the specimens under discussion are from eggs hatched during the spring of the preceding year, per- haps some time in April, and are consequently fifteen or sixteen months old. They have increased but 3 to 4 inches in length during eight or ten months. It would be interesting to determine whether shad of this size regularly occur in the almost landlocked waters of the shallow bays along the coast of southern New Jersey. It seems improbable that they so occur in numbers. This question might, perhaps, prove of economic importance. 9. Clupea pseudoharengus Wilson. “Herring.” Young specimens, 5 inches long, frequently taken in Ludlam Bay during August. Captured in pound net. An active species abundant in ditches communicating with Ludlam Bay. Occasionally infested with Lerneonema radiata. 10. Clupea aestivalis Mitchill. Glut Herring. Several specimens, 5 to 6 inches long, taken during the middle and latter part of August. 11. Opisthonema oglinum (Le Sueur). Thread Herring. Several specimens were taken in pound net. 12. Brevoortia tyrannus (Latrobe). Menhaden. The most abundant fish in the bay throughout July and August. Adults caught in great numbers in pound net. Young ones, from 3 to 4 inches long, very plentiful during August. Adults almost without exception infested with Lerneonema radiata , some bearing ten or twelve of these conspicuous parasites. None of the young were parasitized. 13. Stolephorus browni (Gmelin). Anchovy. Found in the tide pools along the beach. Several specimens, 5 to 6 inches long, were taken in pound net about August 20. 14. Stolephorus mitchilli (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Seen in the pools along the beach with Menidia notata. Large numbers driven ashore at Avalon, August 6, by bluefish. 15. Synodus foetens (Linnaeus), Lizard-fish; “Frostfish.” A specimen about 8 inches long was taken in the pound net August 25. Said by fishermen to be common in the fall during the cool weather, whence its local name. It is said that at that season it takes the bait intended for nobler game, and is thus a source of annoyance to fishermen. 16. Cyprinodon variegatus Lac^pede. Yery abundant in the ditches and about the shores of Ludlam Bay and the com- municating thoroughfares. Found associated with Fundulus lieteroclitus , F. majalis , and Menidia notata. 360 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 17. Fundulus majalis (Walbaum). Killifish. The young are very abundant in the ditches; the adults are more frequently found amongst the Zostera of the tide-water flats. The species is sluggish and stupid, and full-grown specimens may often be caught in the hand. 18. Fundulus heteroclitus (Linnaeus ). Mummichog. Very abundant. Found with the preceding. 19. Anguilla chrysypa Rafinesque. Eel. Yery abundant in ditches, inlets, and bay. Very many caught in pound net. Seined in numbers at Corson Inlet. Taken on hand lines. The writer on July 1, 1886, saw many hundreds of large eels lying dead or dying upon sand flats in the meadows back of Ocean City, N. J. A high tide during the night had flooded the meadows and presumably carried the eels upon the flats, As the tide went out the fish became stranded and were seemingly unable to again reach the sluices, many of them lying helpless upon the very verge of the waterways. This occurrence seems remarkable. Why should a creature gifted with the eel’s reputed capacity for terrestrial migration submit to slow desiccation and eventual death with water but a few feet away1? 20. Tylosurus marinus (Bloch & Schneider). Gar; Silver Gar. Specimens half grown frequently taken in pound net during July. None taken during August. Young, from 3 to 6 inches in length, taken in Ludlam Bay during the latter part of July and abundantly throughout the month of August. 21. Mugil curema (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Abundant in Ludlam Bay. Many specimens, 2 to 3 inches long, were taken in pound net during August. No larger ones were seen. Usually in company of Menidia notata. 22. Mugil cephalus Linnaeus. Striped Mullet. Two specimens, 5 to 6 inches long, were taken in pound not August 10. Several others taken later in August. All about the same size. This and the preceding are hardy fish, living well in confinement. 23. Menidia notata (Mitchill). Silversides. Yery abundant along the beach and swarming in the bay. Young taken. 24. Apeltes quadracus (Mitchill). Three-spined Stickleback. Yery abundant on the mud flats in Ludlam Bay. An active species, always flocking about when the muddy bottom is disturbed. Taken throughout July and August. 25. Siphostoma fuscum (Storer). Pipefish. Abundant in the eelgrass of Ludlam Bay. Specimens, from 3 to 6 inches long, taken during July and August. 26. Hippocampus hudsonius De Kay. Sea-horse. One specimen taken in pound net August 5. 27. Echeneis naucrates Linnaeus. Suckfish. A specimen about 15 inches long was brought to the laboratory August 8. It was found upon the beach. 28. Scomber colias Gmelin. Chub Mackerel. One specimen taken in pound net August 15. 29. Sarda sarda (Bloch). One specimen taken in pound net July 1. Another found upon the beach at Avalon. FISHES COLLECTED AT SEA ISLE CITY, NEW JERSEY. 361 30. Decapterus punctatus (Agassiz). Scad; Bound Bolin. Several young specimens were taken at Avalon August 7 and 8, during a bluefish foray upon the coast. 31. Caranx chrysos (Mitchill). Two specimens, about 8 inches long, were taken in pound net early in August. 32. Caranx hippos (Linnaeus). Young specimens exceedingly abundant in the bay and along the beach during the latter part of July and throughout August. None over 4 or 5 inches long. 33. Vomer setipinnis (Mitchill). Moonfish. Several specimens, 3 inches long, taken in pound net about August 26, with the succeeding species. 34. Selene vomer (Linnaeus). Dollar-fish. A specimen 2£ inches long was taken in pound net July 20. Another was seined in the surf July 29. During August the young became very abundant in the bay and entered the pound net in schools. They are quite voracious and when kept in con- finement gradually relieve one another of filamentous rays and caudal fins. No adults were taken. 35. Trachinotus carolinus (Linnaeus). Pompano. A specimen about three-fourths of an inch long was taken during the first week in July. Several others were afterwards caught, and several small bunches of 10 or 12 each were seen about the wharf in the bay during August. None of these was over an inch long. Like the following species, they swim at or near the surface. 36. Seriola zonata (Mitchill). Pilot-fish. During the first week in July a specimen 5 inches long was taken in the pound net. They are common about the piling of bridges across the inlets. They commonly swim with the dorsal fin just breaking the surface of the water. 37. Pomatomus saltatrix (Linnaeus). Bluefish. A young bluefish was taken in the pound net during the last week in July and the first school was reported at about the same time. August 4 a school came close inshore in pursuit of butter-fish and other species which were frequently stranded in numbers in endeavoring to escape their voracious pursuers. Henceforward the species was common and many were taken by fishing parties. During August great numbers of young, from 4 to 8 inches long, appeared in the bay. 38. Stromateus triacanthus Peck. Butter-hsli. First appeared August 4, when numbers were found on the beach and captured by bathers in the surf. A few days later they became abundant in the bay, being driven there by the bluefish. They continued to be caught throughout the month. 39. Roccus lineatus (Bloch). Striped Bass; “Bock.” A small specimen taken in pound during the first week in July. Two fine speci- mens were caught in the surf at Avalon by Charles Sutton August 9. Others were reported caught on lines at Townsend Inlet during August. 40. Centropristis striatus (Linnaeus). Sea Bass; Black Bass. Great numbers of this species, from 1 to 2\ inches long, were caught in the Zostera (“eel grass”) of Ludlarn Bay August 20. We dredged specimens of the same size in 3 fathoms, shelly and muddy bottom, in Great Channel and Townsend Inlet. Specimens about 6 inches long are taken on hand lines and frequently enter the pound net. Larger ones, up to 3 pounds in weight, are very abundant on Five Fathom 362 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Bank, biting voraciously on clam bait. They live well in captivity, spending most of their time on the bottom of the aquaria, resting, tripod-like, on the ventral and anal fins. 41. Stenotomus chrysops (Linnaeus). Scup ; Porgy. Six or eight specimens, from 6 to 8 inches long, were taken in Ludlam Bay at various times during July and August. Very abundant on Five Fathom Bank, where many fine ones are taken by hook and line. 42. Archosaigus probatocephalus (Walbaum). Sheepsliead. One taken in seine at Avalon in July. Several caught by fishermen at Townsend Inlet July 30. 43. Mullus surmuletus auratus Jordan & Gilbert. Bed mullet. A specimen of this much-prized fish was taken in the pound net July 26. Another specimen was captured by the same means August 10. Both were young fish, the first captured bei ng 2£ inches from snout to base of caudal fin ; the second was a little longer, about 2f inches. The color was red, becoming pale below and in the living fish having a nebulous or cloud-like arrangement, particularly in the head and pectoral region. Below the lateral line the sides were traversed by four narrow longitudinal yellow stripes, the upper two running from head to tail, the inferior two extending from behind the pectoral fin to the level of the middle of anal. Dorsal and caudal fins yellow, crossed by irregular dusky bands; the other fins plain. Eye, 3§ in head. Head, 3£ in length. Depth, 3| in length. Lateral line, 34. Barbels, 1£ in head, reaching beyond lower angle of opercle. These specimens are, the writer believes, the only recorded captures of young red mullets on our coast. That they are young of the year seems probable, but apparently nothing is known of the rate of growth and breeding of this fish, even in Europe, where they are commercially important. They are supposed to spawn at sea, but even this is uncertain. The red mullets are bottom fish, and in the aquaria spent most of their time resting upon their anal and ventral fins, like the sea bass, or moving slowly about exploring the bottom with their barbels. This species is recorded from Woods Holl, Hew York, and Pensacola. Prof. Jordan writes that seven or eight specimens have been taken on our coast, all of which were adults. 44. Pogonias cronus (Linnaeus). Drumfish. One specimen, 44 inches long, was caught in pound net June 27. Ten or twelve large parasitic worms were removed from the muscles of the body and tail. The gill filaments were also swarming with lerneans and other parasites. A second rather smaller specimen was taken July 15. These fish appear very stupid, and when caught in the net roll over on one side and permit themselves to be picked up without a struggle. 45. Bairdiella chrysura (Lac6pfede). “ White Perch.” One specimen caught in pound July 15. 46. Leiostomus xanthurus Lac6ptde. Spot; Porgy. Young, 3 to 5 inches long, abundant in the bay and alongshore throughout July and August. 47. Menticirrhus saxatilis (Bloch). Kingfish; “Hake.” Several, about 12 inches long, were taken in pound net during July and August. It was frequently caught by fishing parties in the inlets. FISHES COLLECTED AT SEA ISLE CITY, NEW JERSEY. 363 48. Cynoscion regalis fBloch & Schneider). Weakfish. A very abundant food-fish. Many were taken in pound net in Ludlam Bay during July and August. The catch was irregular, some days fifty or sixty being taken and then for several days succeeding perhaps none. Many were caught by fishing parties in the inlets, and during August they were successfully fished for in Ludlam Bay. At the same time the young, 2 to 3 inches long, were common. 49. Tautoga onitis (Linnaeus). Tautog; “Sea-tog.” A single sea-tog was taken in a seine upon the beach at Avalon August 4. No other noted during the summer. 50. Gobiosoma bosci (Lac^pfede). Many specimens were drawn in a dredge from a shell bottom in Great Channel. Depth, 3 to 4 fathoms. Abundant throughout the summer in Ludlam Bay. All speci- mens taken were about 1£ inches long. 51. Batrachus tau (Linnaeus). Toadfisli; “Oyster-fish.” A very common fish in Ludlam Bay and frequently taken in pound net. Takes the hook freely. It delights to lie in the pools on the mud flats at low water, often barely covered by the tide. Its color and general appearance is in such excellent mimicry of its surroundings that it is by no means readily detected as it lies midst decaying TJlva and other algae. Eggs about hatching were found during the first week of July, attached in patches of 50 to 100 to the under side of logs and clumps of turf lying near low-water mark. The young, after hatching, remain for some time fixed upside down by the yolk sac to the attached base of the egg “ shell.” The male guards the eggs and newly-hatched young, savagely resenting any intrusion. These fish are extremely tenacious of life, and specimens were kept alive without water for sixteen to eighteen hours. 52. Ophidion marginatum De Kay. Two specimens taken at Townsend Inlet; one, about 3 inches long, lying dead on sand bar, the other, 8 inches long, buried in sand of beach near low-water mark. 53. Pleuronectes maculatus Mitchill. A specimen, 6 inches long, was taken in pound net. 54. Paralichthys dentatus (Linnaeus). Common Flounder. Common. Frequently taken in pound net and with hook and line. Young, 4 to 5 inches long, abundant in Ludlam Bay in August. One weighing over 5 pounds captured with hook and line in the thoroughfare at Avalon August 6. Valued as a “pan” fish. 55. Acliirus fasciatus Lacdpede. Sole. A specimen, about 6 inches long, taken in pound net August 1. This fish swims close to the bottom, stirring up the mud and effectually masking its movements. 56. Balistes carolinensis Gmelin. Trigger-fish. One taken on line at Townsend Inlet August 4, 57. Alutera schcepffi (Walbaum). “Sunfish.” One taken in pound net. Two others found on beach. Others seen upon several occasions at Townsend Inlet. All adults. A young specimen, 6 inches long, of this or an allied species was found on the beach in August. 58. Orbidus maculatus (Bloch & Schneider). Swellfish. One specimen, about 3 inches long, was taken in pound net August 2. 364 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 59. Chilomycterus schcepffi (Walbaum). Burrfish. Common during July, a number of specimens being taken in pound net during that month. All adults. None seen during August. 60. Prionotus carolinus (Linnaeus). Sea Robin; Flying-fish. Very common during July and August in Ludlam Bay. Specimens mostly 8 to 10 inches long, none longer. Young, 3 to 4 inches long, taken in August. 61. Prionotus strigatus Cuvier & Valenciennes. Flying-fish. Specimens about 4 inches long common in Ludlam Bay during latter part of July and throughout August. No adults taken. 8 -ECONOMIC AND NATURAL-HISTORY NOTES ON FISHES OF THE NORTHERN COAST OF NEW JERSEY. BY HUGH M. SMITH, M. D. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE FISHERIES. On few parts of the Atlantic coast of the United States are the fisheries of more importance than on the ocean shore of New Jersey. Not only are the commercial fisheries of the region of great value, but pleasure fishing is carried on very exten- sively; and the antagonism which for many years has existed between the professional fishermen and the sportsmen attracts much public attention and often excites very acrimonious discussion in the public press and the most active rivalry in and before the State legislature. It is not within the province of this paper to discuss the merits of the opposition to various forms of net fishing, or to attempt any settlement of the differences of opinion which prevail as to the propriety of certain branches of the economic fisheries. The few notes that are presented are intended simply to exhibit certain facts relative to the abundance, movements, importance, etc.,*of some of the most valuable fishes of the coast. This paper is based on personal observations made on the New Jersey coast by the writer during parts of the years 1886, 1888, 1892, and 1893, while investigating the commercial fisheries in the service of the U. S. Fish Commission, and largely repre- sents a study of the pound-net fisheries of the northern part of the coast. A much greater variety of fish is taken in the pound nets than with any other form of apparatus, larger quantities of products are thus secured than with any other kinds of nets, and the fishery is the most important one prosecuted with nets on this coast. A small number of pound nets are operated on the outer shore of New Jersey in Monmouth and Ocean counties, to which the fishery is restricted. In Sandy Hook and Delaware bays, however, a large number of nets are set, chiefly for shad and king crabs. From many points of view the nets on the ocean shore are more important, and it is only with them and the results of their use that this paper has to deal. Pound nets have been set in limited numbers on this coast for many years, but of late the number has been greatly augmented, and the fishery is now more important than ever before, both on account of its increased extent and because of the growing attention which all forms of net fishing, especially that for game fish, so called, are receiving at the hands of sportsmen and legislators. 366 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The early history of the pound-net fishery on this coast is interesting. It is recorded * that pound nets were first introduced into this region about 1855, by Mr. George Snediker, of Gravesend, Long Island. The first nets were of small size, and were set in Sandy Hook Bay for protection from storms. It was not until 1873 that pound nets came into general use, and it was about that year that they were first operated on the outer shore. Twenty-three pound nets, located between Mantoloking on the south and Galilee on the north, were in use in 1892. Twelve nets were operated in 1891, 7 in 1890, and 8 in 1889. The principal increase in the later years has been in the region south of Asbury Park. Most of the nets are set singly or in twos, but at Galilee in 1892 there were two stands containing three nets each. The nets have an average value of about $2,500, and require the services of 7 to 9 men. The 23 nets operated in 1892 had an aggregate value of $57,140; the 33 boats used were worth $5,545 ; the accessory and shore property required to conduct the fishery was valued at $20, 8H ; and 167 fish- ermen found employment. In 1889 the 8 nets took fish worth $51,625 ; the following year 7 nets stocked $50,141; the value of the catch in 12 nets in 1891 was $84,927; and in 1892 $169,949 accrued from the yield of 23 nets. These sums represent the gross value of the fish as received by the fishermen. The quantities and values of each of the prominent fishes taken in 1891 and 1892 are shown in the table. The great abundance and importance of the weakfish are well illustrated, about two-thirds of the proceeds from the pound- net fishery representing this fish. The next important species are Spanish mackerel, flounders, butter-fish, sea bass, bluefish, sheepshead, shad, bonito, and mackerel. Products of the pound-net fishery of the Northern Coast of Neiv Jersey in 1891 and 1892 Species. 1891. 1892. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. Albacore 1,176 $40 4,010 $136 Blackfish 12, 437 261 4, 435 91 Bluefish 75, 999 2, 847 99, 313 3, 898 Bonito 54, 733 2, 141 68, 318 2, 737 Butter-fish 110, 052 2, 721 256, 142 7, 231 Cero 847 38 3, 610 172 2, 294 64 4, 659 110 Flounders 177, 267 3, 961 513| 247 10, 814 Kingfish . 2, 247 278 2, 503 366 25, 017 2, 304 22, 307 2, 660 Menhaden 28, 510 74 37, 665 113 Sea bass 29, 188 946 142, 715 5, 947 Scup 12, 982 311 36, 900 1,125 46, 863 3, 208 Sheepshead 17 j 240 2, 629 25, 737 3, 774 Spanish mackerel 33,781 4, 525 71, 663 9, 767 Spot 1, 080 21 3, 482 39 Sturgeon 11,430 204 35, 312 729 W eakfish 2, 694, 299 59, 326 5, 446, 390 116, 377 Miscellaneous 23, 501 414 40, 878 655 Total 3, 344, 048 84, 927 6, 866, 149 169, 949 As bearing on the abundance or scarcity of fish, the following averages possess considerable interest. Assuming that there is only a limited supply of fish on this part of the coast each year and that a given number of nets take a certain quantity of fish, it might be supposed that a very marked increase in the number of nets operated The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, section ii, p. 389. FISHES OF THE NORTHERN COAST OF NEW JERSEY. 367 would result in a diminution in the average catch per net. In 1880, when there were 11 pound nets set on this shore, the average stock was somewhat greater than in recent years, although the average quantity of fish taken was a little less. Comparing 1889 with 1892, it appears that, although the number of nets in the latter year was about three times the number in the former, the average catch and stock were greater. Tears. No. of nets. Average catch per pound net. Average stock per net. 11 Pounds. 248, 980 247, 270 $7,980 6, 453 7, 167 1889 1890 7 281, 160 1891 12 278, 670 7, 076 298, 525 7, 389 I1892 The influence of pound nets on the abundance and movements of fishes is a question which can not be answered off hand and which involves a comprehensive knowledge and careful study of the natural conditions determining the migrations and periods of abundance and scarcity of our fishes. Probably the time is not far distant when it will become an obvious necessity in some States to place more strin- gent regulations on the use of pound and other nets in certain situations, as, for instance, in the mouths of rivers, where the decrease in the catch of shad, sturgeon, salmon, etc., may often be clearly traced to the taking of fish on their way to the spawning-grounds in such numbers that the reproductive process is practically inhib- ited; but it is a well-recognized fact that pound and other nets which are set in the open waters of the ocean and take chiefly free-swimming marine fishes are the least likely to do serious damage and afford the least ground for apprehension. Perhaps the most valid and forceful objection that has been made against the pound nets on this coast is that there is a large destruction of immature and small fish that are unmarketable. This criticism is applicable to most of the pound fish- ing in this country. It is not generally denied by the pound- fishermen that many fish too large to go through the meshes of the nets and too small to be marketed are caught and, by the nature of the fishery, necessarily sacrificed. The same objection is justly advanced against much of the seine fishing on our coast. Ho entirely satis- factory remedy has as yet been suggested for this condition. The enlargement of the mesh in the bowl of the pound nets will not completely overcome present objec- tions and will introduce elements of expense and trouble which the fishermen wish to avoid. The fishermen say that, unless the size of the mesh is made so large that many of the marketable fish will escape, the fish sought to be preserved will be gilled, and thus as effectually destroyed as with a small mesh, while the time and labor required to clear the net of the gilled fish would make the prosecution of the business almost impracticable. The remedy which seems to afford the most relief is to require the pound operators to lift the nets more frequently than is usually done, to liberate all small fish, and bring to the shore only such fish as are market- able. The principal species of which large numbers of small individuals are destroyed on the Hew Jersey coast is the butter-fish. The fish is naturally a small one, rarely exceeding half a pound in weight and averaging only one-third of a pound. The great relative depth of the body of the fish makes it impossible for even very young 368 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. ones, in which this feature is intensified, to go through the meshes of the pocket. The destruction of immature bluefish, weakfish, and other fish by pound nets on this coast is insignificant. NOTES ON THE FISHES OF THE REGION. The following remarks on the abundance, movements, etc., of some of the fishes found on the New Jersey coast relate more particularly to the region north of Barnegat Inlet, and, as has been stated, are chiefly based on a study of the pound-net fishery. Only the common names heard in the region are given. 1. Raia eglanteria Lac6pede. Possum; Sea Possum; Bob-tailed Skate. Large numbers are caught in pound nets. They are valueless, and are a source of annoyance to the fishermen. Other more desirable fish are usually absent or scarce when skates are abundant on the shores. On July 8, 1892, not less than 10,000 pounds were turned out of one net at Bradley Beach. The fish weigh from 1 to 5 pounds. Some sport fishing is afforded by these fish along parts of the coast, the hook being baited with crab, clam, or fish. At times the fish move close inshore, and num- bers are often caught from the piers. In the trawl-fishing carried on from parts of this coast in winter considerable quan- tities of skates are caught in company with cod and conger eels. The broad, fleshy “wings” are cut off and sold under thename “ saddles,” the price received being about 5 cents a pound. Some of these saddles weigh 10 pounds or more. From descrip- tions furnished by the fishermen it appears that the skate taken in greatest numbers in this fishery is the barn-door skate ( Raia Icevis), which reaches a larger size than any other skate found on our shores. 2. Dasyatis centrums (Mitchill). Stingray; Stingaree; Pigeon Stingray. Common. Examples weighing 150 pounds are taken in the pound nets, but such large specimens are not very common. An example, the body of which was 3 feet wide, was observed July 11 at Bradley Beach. The fishermen always handle this fish with great care, and some of them usually break off the caudal spine with an oar before returning the fish to the water. Stories are told of ugly wounds inflicted by the fish in the feet, legs, and hands of incautious fishermen. 3. Acipenser sturio oxyrhynchus (Mitchill). Sturgeon; Moose. Occurs on the coast from April to October, and is taken in pound nets in small quantities during the seven months of the pound-net season. It is most common in May and June. It is shipped to market in a dressed condition, and usually brings from 3 to 5 cents a pound. Small fish, called “ moose,” are sold whole; the name appears to be a corruption of “ mammoose,” which is current in Delaware Bay, and is applied to young fish that are too small to dress and are usually sold whole. 4. Clupea mediocris Mitchill. Shadine; Herring. Small quantities are taken in the pound nets during the run of shad. They are sold at 5 to 12 cents apiece. The name shadine is in common use in many places. 5. Clupea pseudoharengus Wilson. Herring. 6. Clupea sestivalis Mitchill. Herring. Limited quantities of these two fishes are caught in spring in pound nets. They have little value, however, hardly pay the expenses of shipment, and are usually lib- FISHES OF THE NORTHERN COAST OF NEW JERSEY. 369 erated when caught. In 1892 there was a small run of herring in the pound nets in September, October, and November. 7. Clupea sapidissima Wilson. Shad; Jack. The shad occurs regularly, but not abundantly, on the outer shore in spring, and is caught in the pound nets at that season. The largest numbers are taken in April and May, as shown by the following table, giving the catch at a pound-net fishery in Monmouth County. Stragglers, however, occur through the summer, and on October 9, 1891, a ripe roe shad was caught in a pound net in Ocean County. Months. 1891 (1 net). 1892 (2 nets). Number. 13 856 49 2 Number. 370 78 50 2 Mav J uly . . . August Total 921 500 Young male shad are called “ jacks” at a number of places on the coast. The fish are mostly shipped to New York, where the bucks bring 8 to 20 cents each and the roes 15 to 50 cents. 8. Brevoortia tyrannus (Latrobe). Bunker; Mosshunker; Mosshanker. Yery scarce on this shore in 1891 and 1892. Two pound nets in about the middle of the pound-net section had, up to the end of August, 1892, caught only 7 bushels of menhaden. The fish appeared in good-sized bodies in the spring of 1892, but they were driven off by the bluefish and weakfish and only stragglers were caught through the summer. The professional line fishermen are dependent on menhaden for their bait supply, and have to undergo considerable additional expense when the fish are scarce. 9. Stolephorus mitchilli (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Sperlin. Exceedingly abundant at times and having an important relation to the occur- rence of other fish which feed upon them. When weakfish have been scarce the advent of large schools of u sperlin ” is regarded by the fishermen as an auspicious circumstance and they look for the early arrival of the weakfish. Large schools were often observed in and around the pound nets, where they were doubtless attracted by the presence of food. Two other species of anchovy ( S . browni and S. eurystole) occur in abundance on this coast under the same conditions as S. mitchilli. 10. Anguilla chrysypa Rafinesque. Eel. Some very large examples are often caught by the line fishermen when fishing for bluefish, sea bass, etc. 11. Conger conger (Linnaeus). Conger Eel; Sea Eel. Small numbers are taken in the pound nets, chiefly in April and May. They weigh 5 to 7 pounds and have a value of about 2 cents a pound. They are also taken in some quantities in the trawl fisheries for cod, carried on in winter. 12. Tylosurus marinus (Bloch & Schneider). Billfisli ; Gar. Large schools of fish from 8 to 12 inches long were often observed in the pound nets, which they enter in search of food. When the nets are lifted they go through the meshes and are seldom caught. F. C. B. 1892 24 370 BULLETIN1 OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 13. Exoccetus sp. Flying fish. Flying-fish, probably E. heterurus , are occasionally taken in the pound nets, mostly in July. The fish weigh from one-fourth to one-half a pound and have no economic value. 14. Scomberomoius regalis (Bloch). Cero; Sier; Sieving; Searer. Not common ; irregular in appearance, and apparently little more than a strag- gler in the pound nets. About twelve or fifteen fish are usually taken annually in each pound net. They range in weight from a few pounds to upward of 40 pounds, the average being probably 10 pounds. On August 22, 1892, an example weighing 36 pounds was taken at Long Branch, and the same day another weighing 25£ pounds was caught at Bradley Beach. The fish arrives in June, and remains on the coast into October. It is usually most common in August, as is shown by the following record of the number of fish taken in two pound nets in 1892: Months. Number of fish caught. June ] July August "e> 1 September October Total 27 The average price received in' 1892 was 50 cents for each fish, or 5 cents a pound. At times, however, and in some places where the fish are sold locally, as at Long Branch, from 12 to 15 cents a pound is the price received. 15. Scomberomorus maculatus (Mitchill). Spanish Mackerel; Spaniard. Next to the weakfish this is the most important fish taken in the pound nets set on the ocean shore of the State. The fish does not occur regularly, but goes in -scat- tered bodies. Sometimes several weeks may elapse before a given net will catch any; then schools may strike on and fish be taken at each lift for quite a while. One particular net set off Monmouth County in 1887 secured 2,500 pounds of Spanish mack- erel on the first and second days of August, but none was taken at any other time during that season. The fish, taken in this State have an average weight of nearly 3 pounds. The monthly variations in the catch in 1891 and 1892 are shown in the following summary: Months. 1891 (1 net). 1892 | (2 nets), j July Pounds. 336 Pounds. 5 1, 803 1,598 3, 280 September - . 4, 030 October 51 Total 3, 788 7, 315 In 1887 7 pound nets on this coast took 17,500 pounds of Spanish mackerel, an average of 2,500 pounds to each net. The following year the same nets took about 35,000 pounds, an average of 5,000 pounds each. In 1891 12 nets secured 33,781 pounds, giving an average of 2,815 pounds to a net. The 23 nets employed in 1892 obtained 71,663 pounds, the average catch to a net being 3,115 pounds. FISHES OF THE NORTHERN COAST OF NEW JERSEY. 371 16. Sarda sarda (Bloch). Bonito ; Bonejack ; B one- eater ; Skipjack. While a common fish on the New Jersey coast, the bonito is of irregular occurrence. It usually arrives in May and is found in the inshore waters till the latter part of September, when it leaves with the bluefish and Spanish mackerel. In 1892 a few fish were taken as early as April 28, and good lifts were made in October. The largest quantities are taken in pound nets, but occasionally good catches are made with gill nets, especially in the fall, when the fish are running south and are close inshore. The usual number secured in a pound net is only three or four at a lift, but sometimes schools of 200 or 300 fish “strike on” at a particular place and are caught, while only stragglers will be taken in any other locality on that day. The fish have the habit of splashing the water, like bluefish and Spanish mackerel; at times they were observed very near, and even in, the line of breakers and then created much visible and audible commotion. On August 21, 1892, small schools were noticed close inshore off Ocean Grove and a few examples were caught by trolling from small sailing skiffs. They are also occasionally taken from the piers at Ocean Grove, Long Branch, and other places. The variations in the abundance of the fish are shown, by months, in the following table, which represents the catch of one pound net in 1891 and two nets in 1892, set off Monmouth County, in the middle of the pound-net section : Months. 1891. 1892. Pounds. Pounds. OO May 8 June 3, 315 410 July 4, 355 4 August 1,497 3,736 September 98 122 October 409 Total 9, 273 4, 709 The smallest example observed was taken in a pound net at Ocean Grove on July 11, 1892; it was 8 inches long and was the only one taken at that lift of the net. Five pounds is the average weight of the fish caught. 17. Gymnosarda alletterata (Rafinesgue). Apple-core; Albacore. Rather scarce in pound nets in summer. The few caught weigh 6 or 8 pounds. Small quantities are also taken with lines while fishing for bluefish and sea bass. Mr. Barton A. Bean, of the U. S. National Museum, communicates the following note on this fish to the issue of Forest and Stream for December 22, 1892 : Mr. W. C. KencLall tells us of the movements of a very large school of tunny or little horse-mackerel off Barnegat. Last summer (about July 27) as the Fish Commission schooner Grampus was cruising along slowly, these fish made their appearance and surrounded the vessel. The school was a mile or more in diameter and consisted of fish about 3 feet in length. They schooled close up together, similar to the common mackerel. Ordinarily they would merely flirt their tails out of the water, but at other times they would, leap clear out ; then again they would swim alongside the schooner quietly, scarcely making a ripple. The boat was sailing very slowly. Lines were gotten out and an effort made to catch some of the tunnies, hut without success. A white rag was the only lure offered them. 372 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 18. Scomber scombrus Linnaeus. Boston Mackerel. Occurs regularly in spring, and is one of the most important species taken in the pouud nets at that season. Stragglers occur throughout the summer, and at times good catches have been made in August. Small numbers are sometimes taken in October, as the fish are withdrawing from the coast. In spring they arrive in schools and appear to come from the south, as shown by their capture first in the southernmost pound nets and in the others in regular order. They migrate slowly, both when in large schools and when in small bunches. In good weather they swim at the rate of 6 to 10 miles a day and seem to be leisurely feeding; in stormy weather, however, the runs appear to pass the pound nets more rapidly. In spring, mackerel and shad are taken at the same time. It often happens that a large run of the two species is coincident. In 1891, in one week, about the 1st of May, 1,500 mackerel were taken in one net in Monmouth County, and during the same time 1,200 shad were caught. Exeptionally large lifts of mackerel are seldom made, for the reason that the schools usually keep well off the shore and the pound nets may be regarded as securing only the stragglers. The largest single catch of mackerel along this shore in recent years was 1,100 fish, caught in the pound net of Mr. Herbert Johnson at Galilee in May, 1891. The monthly catch of mackerel in one net in 1891 and two nets in 1892, set off the shore of Monmouth County, was as follows : Months. 1891. 1892. April - Number. ^ 4 Number. 190 492 12 2 14 June July August 31 Total 1,909 710 A great proportion of the mackerel caught are large, weighing 2£ to 3 pounds. They bring good prices in the New York market, to which place nearly the entire catch is shipped. The average wholesale price was about 26 cents in 1891 and 33 cents in 1892. The testimony of the fishermen as to the spawning condition of the mackerel is unanimously to the effect that the fish are not ripe when they arrive on this coast in spring. While the fish are nearly all shipped round and the fishermen do not have the best opportunities for determining the actual condition of the reproductive organs, the eggs and milt have never been observed to run from the fish when caught or when thrown into the boats; and the fishermen who have at times dressed considerable numbers of the fish state that the ova have always appeared hard and immature. Opinion is divided as to the probable effect of the resumption of the southern mackerel fishery on the abundance of fish on the New Jersey coast. Some fishermen who have been in the pound-net fishery for many years think that the suspension of the capture of mackerel in the southern waters resulted in an appreciable increase in the supply in New Jersey. They state that ten years ago and prior thereto very few mackerel were caught, and that in the last three or four years there have been more than ever. Others, however, with equal experience, think that the mackerel are no FISHES OF THE NORTHERN COAST OF NEW JERSEY. 373 more abundant now than formerly. These divergent views represent the two theories which prevail as to the direction from which the mackerel approach the shores: (1) That there is a coastwise migration and that the fish caught in New Jersey are first found off Cape Hatteras; (2) that the fish come in to shore directly from the ocean and that the littoral movement is only local. Unfortunately, no records are available for early years showing the catch of mackerel in the pound or other nets of this coast. 19. Scomber colias Gmelin. Thimble-eye Mackerel. This fish has been exceedingly rare on the New Jersey coast for about six years, prior to which time some very good catches were often made in pound nets. As many as 2,000 or 3,000 pounds have been taken at one lift. The fish usually weighed § or 1 pound, but examples weighing 2 to 3 pounds were also caught. Very few were taken in 1892. The only example observed by the writer was obtained in a pound net near Ocean Grove on September 10. It was 7 inches long. Mr. L. C. Thompson, of Spring Lake, reported that a number were secured in his net at intervals during the summer, and it is probable that stragglers were also taken in other nets. 20. Selene vomer (LinnaBUs). An example of this fish, 2J inches long, was forwarded to the Fish Commission for identification by Mr. O. B. Coit, of Spring Lake, N. J., on August 22, 1892, and was examined by Dr. Tarleton H. Bean. Mr. Coit wrote that the fish was very rare in that locality. 21. Trachinotus carolinus (Linn*us). Pompano. Occurs sparingly on the New Jersey coast and every season is taken in small numbers in some of the pound nets. Mr. L. C. Thompson, of Spring Lake, took about 25 pompanos, weighing from J to pounds, in 1892. 22. Seriola zonata (Mitchill). Pilot-fish. Occurs irregularly and in small numbers throughout the warmer months. Some 6 to 8 inches long were observed in pound nets in Monmouth County in September. Fish 2 feet in length are sometimes caught. At several places on the New Jersey coast this fish is called “ pilot-fish,” doubtless because of its resemblance to the species that is properly so called {Naucrates ductor). 23. Seriola dumerili lalandi (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Jenny Lind. This amber -fish occurs throughout the summer, but is not abundant and is never taken in such numbers in this region as to indicate that it is gregarious. It is called “jenny lind ” at several places in the pound-net section. This is the only common name heard for it; its origin could not be ascertained. Numerous examples were observed by the writer in Monmouth County in 1892. Mr. W. H. Gant, of Bradley Beach, has caught specimens that weighed 40 pounds. The usual weight, however, is a pound or a little less, and all the examples seen by the writer were under 2 pounds. In 1891 two fish weighing 10 pounds each were caught in a net near Ocean Grove. On August 21, 1892, Mr. W. Scott Pierce, of Lake Como, N. J., sent to the U. S. Fish Commission for identification a specimen of this fish which had been taken in a pound net at that place, and stated that it appeared to be new to that part of the coast. A number of these had been caught up to that time. Mr. Samuel Ludlow, of North Spring Lake, reported a catch of 300 pounds in his pound net in 1892, and it is probable that 5,000 pounds were taken in all the nets in that year. 374 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 24. Pomatomus saltatrix (Linnseus). Bluefisli; Snapper; Snapping Mackerel; Mackerel. This is the most important marine species taken in the fisheries of New Jersey. In the line fisheries it is the principal fish, and larger quantities are taken with the hook than in all other ways. In the gill net fisheries it is also the chief product, and in the seine fisheries it ranks next to the squeteague. While important in the pound nets, it now has much less economic value than a number of other species. The well-known irregularity in movements and abundance to which the bluefisli is subject is often observed on this coast and was well illustrated by the pound-net catch in 1892. During the early part of the season the bluefisli was very scarce, and up to August 1 some of the nets had taken less than 100 pounds of the fish. There was a fair catch in August and October, but the total yearly yield In some of the nets was less than half that in the previous year. The monthly catch in 1891 and 1892 at a pound fishery in Monmouth County was as follows : Months. 1891 (1 net). 1892 (2 nets). Pounds. Pounds. May 405 Juno 773 69 July 3,434 208- August 3,185 2, 527 September 840 105 October 517 5, 906 Total 9, 154 8, 815 25. Leirus perciformis (Mitchill). On August 21, 1892, Mr. W. Scott Pierce, a pound-net fisherman of Lake Como, N. J., sent a black rudder-fish to the IT. S. Fish Commission for identification; he re- ported it as new to that coast. The specimen was examined by Dr. Bean. 26. Stromateus triacanthus Peck. Butter-fish; Dollar-fish. One of the most abundant pound-net fish on the coast. It occurs from April to October, and at times constitutes the bulk of the catch in pounds. The fish are usually very small, the average weight being one-third of a pound. The largest weigh only half a pound. On September 7, 1892, the pound nets near Ocean Grove contained enormous quantities of small butter-fish; very few were over 4 inches long. The fish swim in rather compact schools, and are easily distinguished when in the water by their blackish tails. Butter-fish are said by the fishermen to be a favorite food of the weakfish. The appearance of an abundance of butter-fish is shortly fol- lowed by the advent of weakfish. . Following is a statement of the quantities of marketable butter-fish taken in 1891 and 1S92 at a pound-net fishery off Monmouth County: PISHES OF THE NORTHERN COAST OF NEW JERSEY. 375 The fishermen speak of the “ genuine butter-fish,” which is of a yellow color, is very scarce, and weighs about one-fourth of a pound. _ It is doubtless a pompano ( Trachinotus). 27. Centropristis striatus (Linnaeus). Sea Bass. This fish is taken in the pound nets early in the season, May being the month in which the largest lifts are made. As the water becomes warmer the fish begins to move offshore; in June the yield is much reduced, and after that time the fish is rarely taken in nets. It approaches the shores again in the cold months, after the nets are taken up, and remains in the inshore waters until the following spring. The sea bass is one of the best fish caught in pound nets early in the season, and the prices received are usually high, often reaching 8 cents a pound and rarely getting below 3 cents. Next to the bluefish, the sea bass is the most important fish taken in the line fish- eries of this coast. Menhaden is the principal bait used by the commercial fishermen, but in sport fishing clams, crabs, and minnows are also employed. There is a certain relation between the abundance of bluefish and the scarcity of sea bass on this coast. Both species occur at the same season and are taken on the same grounds with the same apparatus. In 1890 bluefish were abundant and sea bass were scarce, more than three-fourths of the catch consisting of the former species; in 1892 there was a scarcity of bluefish and an abundance of sea bass, and in some localities up to the last of August almost the entire catch was sea bass. The monthly catch of sea bass in one pound net in 1891 and two nets in 1892, set off Monmouth County, was as follows: Months. 1891 (1 net). 1892 (2 nets). April Pounds. 35 Pounds. 50 May 1,443 4, 195 June 48 288 July 29 Total 1, 526 4,562 | 28. Roccus lineatus (Bloch). Striped bass; Rockfish; Rock. Rarely taken in the pound nets, but common iu the bays and rivers, where it is caught with gill nets and seines. 29. Lutjanus blackfordt Goode & Beau. Red Snapper. This fish is casually taken in the pound nets. In 1892 Mr. L. C. Thompson, of Spring Lake, secured four or five weighiug about 1£ pounds each. Mr. Thompson had previously caught this fish in Florida and was familiar with it. 30. Archosargus probatocephalus (Walbaum). Sheepshead. A very highly esteemed but not especially abundant species. In the pound nets the largest numbers are taken in June and about the 20th of that month. Very large lifts are rarely made, as the fish do not appear to go in extensive schools. Fifty fish were taken at one lift in June, 1891, at Bradley Beach, which was considered a very large catch, although as many as 150 fish have been occasionally taken. The yield 376 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. to a net varies from 100 to 1,000 fish annually, 200 or 300 probably being the average. The monthly catch of one net in 1891 and two nets in 1892 was as follows : Months. 1891. 1892. June Pounds. 823 1 Pounds. 1,122 773 364 July September 6 October 184 2, 443 Total 1, 098 The yield in 1891 in the one net referred to represented 147 fish, with an average weight of pounds each. Some years ago the reprehensible practice of killing sheepshead by means of dynamite exploded over sunken wrecks, to which the fish habitually resort, was not uncommon in certain of the bays on the outer shore of New Jersey. The writer saw 33 fish destroyed at one discharge in Great Egg Harbor Bay. 31. Stenotomus chrysops (Linnaeus). Porgy. Occurs on the shore in considerable numbers between April and July, and is caught in pound nets during that period. The largest quantities are taken in June; in July the fish begin to work off shore, going east, and in the latter part of the sum- mer and in fall only stragglers are taken. The average annual catch to a net is from 1,000 to 2,000 pounds, valued at about 3 cents a pound. The fish weigh from Jto2 pounds, the average being about 1 pound. The following note on the abundance of porgies in 1890 and 1891 has been com municated by Capt. 1). T. Church, of Tiverton, B. I.: During May, 1890, the largest crop of small scup ever seen on our coast appeared from Barnegat to Hyannis. At the time of their appearance it took 25 fish, hy actual count, to weigh a pound; when they left the coast their weight was one-fourth of a pound. On their return in the spring they were about the same size as when they left in the fall. This fall [1891] their weight is half a pound. Probably within a year or so there will he present on the coast the greatest body of scup ever known. When the small scup made their appearance in the spring near Seaconnet a large school of cod was with them. We found them gorged with small scup, one cod examined containing 17 fish. After the cod left squeteague took their place, and their destruction [of scup] was enormous, and it was going on from Sandy Hook to Hyannis. 32. Cynoscion regalis (Bloch & Schneider). Weakfish. This is tbe most abundaut aud important fish taken in pound nets on the ocean front of New Jersey; next to the bluefish, it is the most valuable species captured on the coast of that State, and, considering the fisheries of the entire State, it is sur- passed in importance only by the shad and bluefish. According to many fishermen, the weakfish was more abundant in 1891 and 1892 than for ten years previously. Notwithstanding the enormous quantities taken, it is not apparent that the supply is being reduced, and some hauls now made are fully as large as any in the history of the fishery. In Monmouth County, during one day in the second week in August, 1891, fully 100,000 pounds of weakfish were caught in one pound net, and 81,800 pounds were taken out and sold. On July 11, 1892, two other nets in the same county yielded 60,000 pounds at one lift, but adjacent nets took only small quantities. FISHES OF THE NORTHERN COAST OF NEW JERSEY. 377 The ordinary size of the fish taken in the pound nets is 2 or 3 pounds, the individ- uals composing the schools usually being of uniform size. Sometimes, though rarely, fish weighing 10 pounds are taken. Small weakfish under 9 inches in length are called “bay weakflsh”; they frequent the bays and are taken in the pound nets only in very small quantities. The princi- pal run begins about July 1 and the fish continue to be caught in large numbers till October 1. They go in schools at all times. The following statement, giving the catch of weakflsh at a pound-net fishery in Monmouth County in 1891 and 1892, shows the monthly fluctuations in the abundance of the fish : Months. 1891 (1 net). 1892 (2 nets). Pounds. Pounds. April 300 May 3, 886 2,S31 June 31, 040 11,644 July - 35, 680 124, 763 August 114, 423 200, 367 September 34, 829 79, 863 October 933 69, 471 November ' 23, 677 Total 220,791 512, 916 33. Cynoscion nebulosus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Not observed. According to the fishermen it is taken in the pound nets only at rare intervals. 34. Sciaena ocellata (Linnaeus). Red Drum. This fish is in most places considered a nuisance by the pound-net fishermen, and only a very small percentage of the catch is sold, the price received being about 50 cents per fish. Large lifts are made at times. At Spring Lake 250 large drum were caught during one day in 1892, all of which were liberated. 35. Leiostomus xanthurus Lac6pe.de. Spot; Goody; Cape May Goody. Not a common fish in the pound nets, but abundant in the bays of this coast, where it is taken with seines and gill nets. 36. Menticirrhus saxatilis (Bloch & Schneider). Kingfish; Barb; Hake. In the pound-net fishery this is an uncommon and valued food-fish. It is most abundant in May, when more are taken than in all the other months combined. The average weight of those caught in pound nets is 1^ pounds. The price received by the net fishermen ranges from 5 to 30 cents each, the average probably being 15 or 20 cents. The general scarcity of the fish is well illustrated by the accompanying state- ment, showing the monthly catch at a pound-net fishery in Monmouth County : Months 1891 (1 net). 1892 (2 nets). May Number. 164 Number. 101 2 5 July August 2 September 25 October 14 Total 169 144 378 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The name “king-fish” is in common use in the pound-net region ; in BarnegatBay and vicinity “barb” is the current appellation; and “hake ” is heard at various points. 37. Pogonias cromis (Linnaeus). Gray Drum ; Black Drum. Less common than the red drum in the pound nets and has about the same com- mercial value. The adult fish, by some called gray drum, weigh about 20 pounds. The young, which are banded and are known as black drum in some places, are at times sold to summer visitors under the name of sheepshead. 38. Ctenolabrus adspersus (Walbaum). Gall. In the pound-net region this fish is found throughout the fishing season, although it is taken only iu small numbers. The largest examples weigh 1J pounds. The name “gall,” which was heard for this fish in Ocean and Monmouth counties, is evidently a corruption of burgall, a designation employed in New York and other places. Small examples were abundant in the dense vegetable growth which adheres to pound-net poles, ropes, anchors, etc. At Bradley Beach an old rope, covered with Ulva lactuca lactuca and U. enteromorpha compressa, when pulled up had hundreds of small cunners on it, which were landed in the boat. Small crabs and shrimp were also found in the same situation. The immature fish differ greatly from the adults in coloration, as may be judged from the following description of specimens taken at Bradley Beach September 9, 1892 : The largest specimens were 2 inches long. The general color in life is dark pinkish, the body being marked by seven or eight more or less distinct dark-brown crossbars. Beneath yellowish, -the color being especially bright anteriorly. Eye and operculum lustrous golden. Vent bluish. A black spot at the junction of the spinous and soft dorsal fins. Some examples, probably females, are without crossbars, and are uniformly pinkish. Head iu length, 3f ; depth in length, 3£. These small fish are not recognized by the fishermen, although most of them distinguish the full- grown fish from the tautog. 39. Tautoga onitis (Linnaeus). Blackfish. This fish is caught in small quantities in the pound nets in April and May. The catch varies from year to year, depending on the time when the nets are first set. Other things being equal, the earlier the pound fishing begins the larger the yield of blackfish. They occur in abundance on the rocky ledges off various parts of this shore, as, for instance, .on the Shrewsbury Rocks off Long Branch, and considerable quantities are taken in such situations by professional line fishermen. Examples weighing 10 pounds are sometimes caught, but the fish do not average more than 1 or 2 pounds. 40. Prionotus strigatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Pigfish ; Sand Pigfish ; Sea Robin. Yery abundant. Taken in pound nets in enormous quantities throughout the summer. At times practically the entire catch consists of them. A few are utilized for lobster bait, but most of them are turned back into the water. During the hauling of the pound nets and after being dipped into the boats this fish emits a peculiar grunting sound, which gives rise to the name “pigfish.” When out of the water it has a curious habit, when disturbed, of opening its mouth and giving a sudden short jump, at the same time uttering a loud croak. Some of the fishermen in Monmouth County call this species the “ sand pigfish” to distinguish it from P. palmipes, which is often known as the “rock pigfish.” The name “ sea robin ” ig also in use. FISHES OF THE NORTHERN COAST OF NEW JERSEY. 379 41. Prionotus palmipes (Mitchill). Pigjish; Bock Pigfish; Sea Bobin. Not so abundant during the summer months as P. strigatus , but more numerous in the fall. Prof. Baird, in his report on the fishes of Great Egg Harbor N. J., makes the following remarks on this species : When caught, this fish commences a loud croaking or harking, the sound apparently produced in the abdominal region. This is so loud and constant that in hauling a large seine the presence in the net of a single specimen of this gurnard, however small, could generally he determined by the peculiar sound emitted. For this reason it is sometimes called pigfish by the inhabitants. 42. Phycis chuss (Walhaum). Hake; Ling; Thimble-eyed Ling. 43. Phycis tenuis (Mitchill). Hake; Ling; Thimble-eyed Ling . Both of these fish occur off the New Jersey coast and are taken chiefly in winter on trawls set for cod. At times seven or eight fish are caught daily by one boat. In some places they have little value, bringing only J or 1 cent a pound, but in other localities they command the same price as cod. They weigh from 5 to 10 pounds each. 44. Melanogrammus seglifinus (Linnaeus). Haddock. Not common. A few are caught in the line fishery for cod carried on from Sea- bright and other places. The fish arrive on the shores later than the cod. They have about the same market value as cod. 45. Pollachius virens (Linnaeus). Pollack. Occurs sparingly in spring, and is caught in small numbers in pound nets in April and May. On July 1, 1892, a fish weighing 5 pounds was taken in a pound net at Bradley Beach. The average weight of the fish taken is 12 or 13 pounds. 46. Gadus morrhua Linnaeus. Cod. The cod approaches the shores of the northern part of the New Jersey coast about November 5 to 8, and remains in the region until the first of May. When it first arrives it undergoes the spawning process, in the opinion of the fishermen, although an examination of some of the first arrivals showed that some had already spawned, some had immature eggs, and some were about ripe. They weigh from 5 to 25 pounds, the average being 9 or 10 pounds. Hand lines, trawl lines, pound nets, and gill nets are used in their capture, the largest quantities being taken with lines. Cod are taken in the pound nets when they are first set jn April, in company with sea bass, mackerel, flounders, pollack, shad, etc.; a few are also occasionally caught early in May. The yield is always small and uncertain, however, and 100 pounds would probably be a large average catch to a net. One of the most interesting features of the important fisheries at Seabright is the recent introduction of gill nets in the cod fishery. The nets were first used in 1891 and have not yet become firmly established, although the first experiments were considered satisfactory. The nets are 70 fathoms in length and are set close inshore. In 1891 five nets were operated from two boats ; from 500 to 1,800 pounds of fish were taken daily in three of the nets. 47. Paralichthys dentatus (Linnaeus). Flounder ; Fluke; Splaice. This is the most important flatfish in the fisheries of this State. It is taken in large quantities with pound nets and lines. The common names given are by some fishermen used indifferently, while others make a distinction, based on size, which is not clear. The same names are also applied to other flounders. The most widely used common name in the pound-net region is splaice, an evident corruption of plaice, 380 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. which was not heard. The only other species of flounder occurring in the commercial fisheries is the winter flounder ( Pseudopleuronectes americanus). It is less abundant and important than the summer flounder, and the catch can not be separated from that of the latter. Flounders are taken in the pound nets throughout the fishing sea- son, but the largest quantities are secured in May and June, as shown by the following table : Months. 1891 (1 net). 1892 (2 nets;. April Pounds. 229 21, 876 11, 725 1,644 663 1,694 6, 143 1,062 Pounds. 820 8, 953 3, 376 1,854 591 1, 326 June July August - September October Nnvfimbfir _ _ Total 45, 036 16, 928 These figures well illustrate the variations in abundance to which marine fish are liable. One net in 1891 took nearly three times the quantity of fish obtained by two nets in the following year. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 381.) Plate; XCII. 1. DAMALICHTHYS ARGYROSOMUS Girard. Male. Friendly Cove, British Columbia. 2. RHACOCHILUS TOXOTES Agassiz, Female. Monterey, California 9 -ON THE VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST OF NORTH AMERICA. BY CARL H. EIGENMANN, Professor of Zoology, Indiana University. INTRODUCTION. During a stay of nearly three years on the coast of California at San Francisco and San Diego, viviparous fishes were daily seen in the markets and a large amount of material illustrating their development was collected. Few adult specimens of Embio- tocidce were preserved, since they were already well represented in most museums. The revision of this family is largely based on collections made by Drs. Jordan and Gilbert. Of the Scorpcenidae, more specimens were collected, since many new forms were discov- ered. On the other hand, the embryology of this family is of much less interest than that of the Embiotocidce, in which among teleosts viviparity has been carried to the greatest extreme. The present paper gives a review of the E mbiotocidce, a bibliography of the viviparous fishes, and a detailed account, as far as my material permits, of the develop- ment of Cymatogaster from fertilization to hatching and the details of the development of the intestine and of Kupffer’s vesicle. Outlines of the postembryonic development are also presented, but the details of the anatomy of the various postembryonic stages will be reserved for a future paper. It is the intention of the writer to complete as rapidly as possible the following additional chapters: The development of the skeleton; the circulatory system, and especially the development of the sexual organs from the time of the segregation of the sex cells till sexual maturity (for which practically all the necessary material has been collected) ; and a revision of the Scorpcenidce. Several of these chapters have been sketched out and many of the drawings for them have been prepared. Points in the embryology of Cymatogaster , which, on account of the scarcity of material have not been made out as fully as desired, are, the first formation of the embryo, its relation to the blastopore, and the development from the closing of the blastopore till three protovertebrse are completed. I have given full particulars as to when and where eggs are to be obtained with the hope that others will fill these gaps. I am indebted to the San Francisco Microscopical Society for the use of its library and for many other courtesies. I am under many obligations to Dr. Theodore Gill, of the Smithsonian Institution. Several years ago he showed me an unpublished and abandoned work on west coast fishes, which, among other things, contained the various accounts of the early observers on the viviparity of Embiotoeidce. When, later, I was preparing the historical portion of this paper, Dr. Gill sent me the whole of this mate- rial so far as it related to the Embiotoeidce as well as all of his manuscript notes, accompanied by the following remarks: “Make such use of them as you wish and 381 382 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. keep them as long as you need them. You can use them as copy and thus avoid the task of transcribing.” The synonymy of the Embiotocidce in the following review to 186S is Dr. Gill’s, with only slight alterations. The etymology of the generic names is also reproduced here as given in his unpublished work. Such other portions as I have incorporated in the paper, I have indicated by quotation marks, also giving direct credit for the same. I wish to express my thanks to Dr. Silas M. Mouser, of San Francisco, in whose laboratory the sections necessary for the part of the work here presented were made. I wish also to acknowledge my indebtedness to ex-Governor (now United States Senator) G. C. Perkins, of San Francisco, for enabling me to visit various parts of the coast of California. I am under similar obligations to Mr. A. R. Towne, of the Southern Pacific Railroad Company. Dr. Howard Ayres kindly furnished me with references to the bibliography bearing on some of the points. Finally, Mrs. Eigenmanu assisted me in all the stages of securing and preserving the material, rendered much assistance in preparing the paper, and corrected all the proofs. A REVIEW OF THE EMBIOTOCIDCE [By Carl H. Eigenmann and Albert B. Ulrey.] The writers have attempted in this paper to collate the various references to the species of Embiotocidce and to present a synopsis of the genera, together with brief descriptions of the species. Most of the American species have been examined by us, and in order to deter mine the number of valid genera skeletons have been prepared. These show that the earlier authors have been more fortunate in their opinions concerning genera of Embiotocidce than the more recent ones. The genus Ditrema has been admitted on second-hand knowledge. As yet no one has given any very lucid characterization of this genus as distinct from Embiotoca and external differences seem to be wanting. EMBIOTOCIDCE. Holconoti or Embiotocoidce Agassiz, Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts (2), v. 16, 383, 1853. Holconoti seu Embiotocoidce Troschel, Arcliiv fur Naturgescliichte, 20. Jalirg., B. 1, 167, 1854. Holconoti or Embiotocoidce Agassiz, Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts (2), v. 17, May, 1854. Holconoti Troschel, Archiv. fiir Naturgescliichte, 21. Jahrg., B. 1,347, 1855. (Synopsis of genera.) Holconoti Canestrini, Verhandlungen der K. K. Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, Jahrgang 1860. Holconotoidei Bleeker, Enum. Sp. Piscium Archipel. Indico, xvm, 1859. Holconotidai Eigenmann, Report State Board Fish Commissioners, California, 1890, 64. Embiotocidce Richardson, Encycl. Brit., 8th ed., v. 12, 268, 1856. Embiotocoidce Girard, Expl. and Surv. for R. R. Route to Pacific, v. 10, Fishes, 164, 1858. Embiotocidce Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., v. 4, 244, 1862. Embiotocoidce Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1862 [v. 14], 274. Embiotocidce Cope, Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1872, v. 20, 343. Embiotocidce Jordan & Gilbert, Syn. Fish. N. A., 586, 1883. Jordan, Cat. Fish. N. A., 96, 1885. Ditremata Fitzinger, Sitzungsber. K. Akad. der Wissensch. (Wien), B. 67, 1 Abth., 30, 1872. Dilremidce Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. 1890, 2d ser., vol. in, 9. Menidce gen., Temm. & Schlegel, Bleeker (1858). Labroidce gen., Gibbons, 1854, Van der Hoeven. Scombridce gen., Gunther, 1860. Habitat: Coasts of California and Japan, Sacramento Valley. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 383 Description of family of Embiotocidce. — Viviparous teleosts with united lower pharyngeals; paired nasal openings; dorsal tin single, with 8 to 18 spines; a sheath of scales along the base of part of the dorsal, separated from the scales of the sides by a naked line; anal with three spines, its form differing in the sexes of some species; ventral fins thoracic, I, 5. No teeth on vomer or palatines; teeth in jaws small, some of those on pharyngeals larger, conical or paved. Pseudobranchiaj. No pyloric coeca. Oviduct opening behind the vent. Common characters. — Body compressed, oblong. Cheeks, operculum, and inter- operculum scaly; scales mostly cycloid. Lateral line arched, continuous. Mouth small, terminal; upper jaw protractile. Maxillary without supplemental bone. Gill membranes free from the isthmus. ANALYSIS OF THE GENERA OF EMBIOTOCIDCE. a. Dorsal spines 8-1 1 ; anal spines graduated (Embiotocince.) 6. Abdominal vertebrae 17; caudal 19; anal basis much shorter than the abdomen; A. in, 23; lips large, lower lip with a frenum ; gill-rakers slender, short (7 — (- 13 ) ; anterior and lateral teeth of pharyngeals.small, bluntly conic; a triangular posterior patch of larger teeth, all but the posterior row truncate, the posterior row conic. Hypsurus, 1. 66. Abdominal vertebras 13-15 ; anal basis equaling, or longer than, the abdomen, c. Teeth entire, usually bluntly conic. d. Dentiferous surface of lower pharyngeals arched, the anterior teeth much worn, the posterior not at all, the cutting surface of the anterior teeth flattened, that of the poste- rior teeth not faced. Teeth of the upper pharyngeals similar to those of the lower pharyngeals, but the posterior teeth of the upper pharyngeal applied to the an- terior of the lower pharyngeal; the posterior teeth of the upper pharyngeals thus resemble the anterior of the lower pharyngeals and the anterior of the upper the posterior of the lower Damalichthys, 2. dd. Dentiferous surface of lower pharyngeals flat or concave. e. Teeth in two -series in each jaw. Male with one of the anterior rays of the anal transformed into a triangular plate ; anal basis forming a decided angle at this point ; the rays in front of this point with a thick covering of skin ; pharyngeal teeth mostly small, conic, only a few in the last two series enlarged, some of which are some- times truncate molars. /. Vertebrae 33-35; lower lip without a frenum; gill-rakers very long, slender, and tapering, 23 to 29; anal basis below 12-14 caudal vertebrae Hyperprosopon, 3. ff. Vertebrae 32 (14 + 18) ; lower lip without a frenum; gill-rakers moderate, stout, blunt, 6 + 11 ; anal basis below 11 caudal vertebrae Holconotus, 4. fff. Vertebrae 29 (13 + 16); lower lip with a broad frenum; gill-rakers short, stout, hlunt, 5 + 11; anal basis below 10 caudal vertebrae Amphistichus, 5. ee. Teeth none, or in a single series in each jaw, anterior and lateral pharyngeal teeth small, conic, the median and posterior ones large, truncate, molars ; males with a gland on some of the anterior anal rays, the anal basis without angle, none of the rays modified to form a definite plate. g. Teeth none, lips thin; jaws greatly protractile Neoditrema, 7. gg. Teeth in both jaws. 6. Dower lip very thick, lobed, without a frenum ; gill-rakers long Rhacochilus, 6. lih. Lower lip thin, normal, entire, with a frenum. i. Scales small, 60-75 in lateral line. j. The characters of Ditrema should he added fiere. No examination of internal organs has as yet been made Ditrema, 8. k. Vertebrae 14 + 18 or 19, anal basis below 9 caudal vertebrae; first haemal spine small, applied to the second Embiotoca, 9. 384 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. kk. Vertebras 14 or 15 -j- 21 to 24; anal basis below 11 or more caudal vertebra} ; first haemal spine as large as second, sometimes approximated with the second. Phanf.rodon, 10. ii. Scales large, 40-50 in lateral line ; vertebrie 13 + 21 or 15 -f- 19 ; gill-rakers short, blunt, wide set, 6 + 12; anal basis ( rosacews ) below 9 caudal vertebra}. Brachyistius, 11. hhh. Lower lip thin, without a frenum ; vertebrae, 14+20 ; scales large, less than 40 in lateral line; gill-rakers long, slender, 10+21 ; anal basis below 12 caudal verte- brae ; pharyngeal teeth as in Brachyistius, the central and posterior ones blunt molars Cymatogaster, 12. cc. Teeth incisor- like, trilobed; vertebraB, 14+20; scales, large; outer series of pharyngeal teeth small, conic ; the rest (about 32) large molars closely appressed ; anal basis below 7 caudal vertebrae ; gill-rakers long, slender, 6+14 ; sixth dorsal spine highest ; male with a deep depression at the base of the anterior anal rays, a gland below the middle of the depression Abeona, 13. aa. Dorsal spines 16-18, the sixth or seventh highest; second anal spine largest; vertebrae, 14+20; about 12 of the median posterior teeth of pharyngeals large, all but the median three of these obliquely truncate molars, the remainder small ; gill-rakers short, slender, 6+12; teeth in a single series; lower lip without frenum. ( Hysterocarpinae ), Hysterocarpus, 14. 1. HYPSURUS* A. Agassiz. Embiotoca sp. Agassiz, Am. Journ. Sci. & Art, 1853, 389 (sp.). Hypsurus A. Agassiz, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, 1861, 133 ( caryi ). Type: Embiotoca caryi L. Agassiz. 1. HYPSURUS CARYI Agassiz. Embiotoca caryi Agassiz, Am. Journ. Sci. & Art (2), v. 16, 389, 1853 (San Francisco); Agassiz, Am. Journ. Sci. & Art (2), v. 17, 366, 1854; id., Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, 21. Jahrg., B. 1, 32, 1855; A. Agassiz, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 8, 126, 1861. Hypsurus caryi A. Agassiz, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 8, 133, 1861 ; Cooper, Nat. Wealth Cal. by Cronise, 489, 1868; Jordan & Gilbert, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1880, 456 (San Fran- cisco to Santa Barbara, Cal.); Rosa Smith, A List of the Fishes of San Diego, Cal., Nov., 1880; Jordan & Jouy, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1881, 11 (Monterey, San Francisco, Santa Barbara, Cal.); Jordan & Gilbert, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1881, 11 (Tomales to Santa Bar- bara, Cal.); Jordan & Gilbert, Syn. Fish. N. A., 593, 1883 (Santa Barbara to San Francisco); Jordan, Cat. Fish. N. A., 96, 1885; E. & E., Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., vi, June, 1892 (Santa Barbara to San Francisco). Ditrema caryi Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., iv, 247, 1862 (San Francisco). Holconotus gibbonsii, Cal. Acad. Sci., MSS., 1854; Gibbons, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1854, v. 7, 122; Archiv fiir Naturg., 21. Jahrg., B. 1, 333, 1855. Habitat : Coast of California from San Diego to San Francisco. This species is but rarely found at San Diego, only one or two specimens having been seen there. It is, however, one of the commonest species of Embiotocidce in the San Francisco markets. Body elliptical, ventral profile much straighter than dorsal; caudal peduncle slender, head considerably depressed above the eye ; lower jaw included ; rays of dorsal fin equaling or higher than spines. The maxillary reaches about eight-ninths distance to front of orbit, included under the orbital; premaxillaries anteriorly about on a level with lower rim of pupil. The anal fin very short, placed far back, the rays closely crowded together and spines small; fourth to sixth dorsal spines highest. Head, 3£; depth, 2£; D. x, 23; A. in, 24; Lat. line, 71. 'Tipi, high, and ovpa, tail. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 385 2. DAMALICHTHYS* Girard. Damalichthys Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1855, 321 ( vacca ) ; id. Pacific R. R. Survey, x, 181, 1859; Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1855, 321; Jordan & Gilbert, Syn. Fish. N. Am., 597, 1883. Embiotoca Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1855, 136 (sp.). Ditrema Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., iv, 1862 (sp.). Type: Damalichthys vacca Gira,r&=argyrosomus. 2. DAMALICHTHYS ARGYROSOMUS Girard. (Plate xcii, fig. 1.) Embiotoca argyrosomus Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat Sci. Phila. 1855, vxi, 136 (San Francisco); id. Pacific R. R. Survey, vi, 25, 1857; id. Pacific R. R. Survey, x, 180, 1859 (San Fran- cisco); A. Agassiz, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vm, 127, 1861; Cooper, Nat. Wealth Cal. by Cronise, 489. Phanerodon argyrosoma Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila,., v. 14, 274 (note). Damalichthys argyrosomus Jordan & Gilbert, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1880, 456 (Puget Sound to San Pedro, Cal.) ; Jordan & Jouy, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1881, 11 (Puget Sound, Monterey, Santa Barbara, Cal. ) ; Jordan & Gilbert, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1881, 49 (San Pedro to Puget Sound) ; Bean, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1881, 265 (Puget Sound, Vancouver Island) ; Bean, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1883, 360 (Departure Bay, B. C.); Jordan & Gilbert, Syn. Fish. N. A., 597, 1883 (Pacific coast north to Vancouver Island); Jordan, Cat. Fish. N. A., 97, 1885 (name); Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., 2d ser., vol. hi, 9, 1890 (San Diego); id. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vi, June, 1892 (San Diego, San Pedro to San Francisco, Puget Sound). Damalichthys vacca Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., v. 7, 321, 1855 (Puget Sound); Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, 21. Jahrg., B. 1, 318, 1855; Girard, Expl. and Surv. for R. R. Route to Pac., V. 10, Fishes, 182, 'pi. xxxm, 1858; Suckley, Expl. and Surv. forR. R. Route to Pac., v. 12, Stevens’ Report, book 2, 358, 1859; Agassiz, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 8, 127, 1861; Cooper, Nat. Wealth Cal. by Cronise, 489, 1868; Lockington, Rpt. Comm. Fisheries California, 30, 1879. Ditrema vacca Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., iv, 246, 1862 ( San Francisco). Habitat: Pacific coast, from San Diego to Vancouver Island. This species is not uncommon at San Diego and is quite abundant in the San Francisco markets. Body ovate, dorsal and ventral profile nearly equally curved, tapering abruptly into a long slender caudal peduncle. Head rather large, occipital region little depressed ; lower jaw included; maxillary reaching nearly to the front of the orbit. Bye large, a little longer than the snout. Teeth few, conical, bluntish, in one series. Gill-rakers slender, 7 +13. Spines of dorsal fin stout, shorter than longest rays. Pec- torals long, reaching beyond the ventrals. Color soiled white, with silvery luster ; three or four obscure dusky bars, most distinct in the young : fins nearly plain, dusky. * fiau.a.Auj, calf; i\ti if, fish, in allusion to its viviparity. F. C. B. 1892—25 386 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 3. HYPERPROSOPON * Gibbons. Hyperprosopon Gibbons, Daily Placer Times and Transcript, May 18, 1854 ; Proe. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1854, v. 7, 124 ( argenteus ); A. Agassiz, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 8, 132,1861. Ennichthys t Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1855, v. 7, 322 {megalops). Hyperprosodon t Troschel, Archiv f. Naturg., 21. Jahrg., Band 1, 338-344. Bramopsi8 § Agassiz, mss. (fide A. Agassiz) {men to). Hypocritichthys || Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1862, v. 14, 275 {analis). Amphistichus Jordan & Gilbert, Syn. Fish. N. Am., 590, 1883 (sp.). Holconotus Jordan, Cat. Fish. N. Am., 96, 1885 (sp.). Type: Hyperprosodon argenteus Gibbons. We have not been able to examine H. analis A. Agassiz, which oay constitute a genus distinct from Hyperprosopon. The latter is distinguished from Holconotus by the characters indicated in the key to the genera.** ANALYSIS OF SPECIES OF HYPERPROSOPON. a. Anal fin, ill, 23. {Hypocritichthys Gill.) h. Body comparatively elongate ; upper anterior profile nearly straight, depressed above the eyes. Snout sharp. Mouth large, very oblique, the tip of the lower jaw on a line with the upper profile of the snout; maxillary reaching front of orbit. Dorsal spines high and slender, longer than the soft rays, the middle longest; anal spines small; caudal fin short, not widely forked ; pectorals short and broad, four-fifths the length of head. Eye, five- fourths the length of snout; Head, 3-J-; depth, 2^; D. ix, 22; A. in, 23; lat. l.,63. Color silvery ; an inky blotch on the middle of the anal, and a fainter blotch on the spinous dorsal; front of anal yellow; fins otherwise plain. Axil black. (Jordan & Gilbert.) Analis, 3. aa. Anal fin, in, 29-32. Interorbital region rather abruptly depresse d at the nape. Eye large. {Hyperprosopon Gibbons.) Ventral fins broadly tipped with black; anal plain or with dusky margin, in, 33; D. ix, 27; lat. l.j 72-74. Eye, 3. Body ovate, the ventral profile somewhat more curved than the dorsal. Snout very short, considerably shorter than the eye. Maxillary not included under the orbital, reaching almost to the front of the orbit; mouth oblique, the low'er jaw projecting. Dorsal fin with middle spines higher than the last or than the soft rays ; anal low, spines slender. Head, 3-J ; depth, 2. “Color, bluish black above; sides bright silvery, sometimes faintly barred.” Argenteus, 4. cc. Ventral fins plain; anal blackish anteriorly, m, 30; D. ix, 25; lat. 1., 60-65. . Eye, 3f. Body elliptic ovate, the dorsal outline not curved as much as the ventral; snout very short, much shorter than the eye ; maxillary not included under the orbital, reaching nearly to the front of the orbit; mouth oblique, the lower jaw projecting. Sixth dorsal spine highest, higher than the soft rays ; anal low, the spines weak. Head, 3-J ; depth, 2. Color, “ greenish olive above, sides bright silvery ; 5 or 6 short blackish vertical bars on the sides, these sometimes obsolete; caudal reddish, dusky at tip.” Agassizii, 5. * Hyperprosopon : 'Y nip, above, and irpoaunov, face; alluding to the production upward of the facial outline and snout. t Ennichthys: Contracted from 'Evveoaoeinj, to hatch, and l\Qv ?, fish; in allusion to the viviparity, t Hyperprosodon: Probably due to a misapprehension of the etymology of Hyperprosopon, and perhaps supposed to have been derived from vn ip, quasi, excessively, and npboodop, sexual intercourse. $ Bramopsis: Brania, type of a peculiar family of Acanthopterygian fishes, and otinp, form; in allusion to a superficial resemblance of the genus to Brama. || Hypocritichthys: ’YkokoItt/c, hypocrite, and ixOv (, fish ; alluding to the deceptive nature of the external appearance, the genus having much superficial resemblance to Cymatogaster in form as well as size, disguising in a measure its close affinity to Hyperprosopon . Type, H. analis. ** Dr. Gill informs us that on the basis of the classification adopted the genus Hypocritichthys is valid and distinct from Hyperprosopon. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 387 3. HYPERPROSOPON ANALIS A. Agassiz. Hyperprosopon analis A. Agassiz, Proc. Boston Soo. Nat. Hist., vm, 133, 1861 (name only); Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vi, June, 1892 (Port Harford and Monterey). Hypocritichthys analis Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1862, v. 14, 275 (California); Cooper, Nat. Wealth Cal. by Cronise, 489, 1868. Ditrema anale Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., iv, 250, 1862 (California). Holconotus analis Jordan & Gilbert, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1880, 456 (Monterey Bay, California); Jordan & Jouy, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1881, 10 (Monterey, California) ; Jordan & Gilbert, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1881, 51 (San Francisco to San Luis Obispo, California) ; Jordan, Cat. Fish. N. Am., 996, 1885. Amphistichus analis, Jordan & Gilbert, Syn. Fish. N. Am., 591, 1883. Habitat: Port Harford to San Francisco. Rare. 4. HYPERPROSOPON ARGENTEUS Gibbons. Hyperprosopon argenteum Gibbons, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1854, v. 7, 105 (San Francisco) ; 1. c. 125; id., Archiv. fur. Naturg., 21. Jahrg., B. 1,338, 1855; A. Agassiz, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 8, 132, 1861 ; Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1862, v. 14, 276 (California) ; Cooper, Nat. Wealth Cal. by Cronise, 489, 1868; Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vi, June, 1892 (San Diego, San Pedro to San Francisco). Holconotus argenteus Rosa Smith, A List of the Fishes of San Diego, California, 1880, Nov. ; Jor- dan & Gilbert, Proc. TJ. S.N. M. 1880, 456 (San Francisco to San Diego, California); Jordan, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1881, 10 (Monterey, San Francisco, Santa Barbara, and San Diego, California) ; Jordan & Gilbert, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1881, 50 (Tomales to San Diego, California); Rosa Smith, West Am Scientist, 1885, June; Jordan, Cat. Fish. N. A., 96, 1885 (name). Hyperprosopon argenteum punctatum Gibbons, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1854, v. 7, 106 (fide Gill). Hyperprosopon arcuatus Gibbons, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1854, v. 7, 125; Archiv. f. Naturg. 1855, B. 1, 339; Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1862, v. 14, 275 (California); Cooper, Nat. Wealth Cal. by Cronise, 489, 1868; Jordan & Gilbert, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1880, 28 (San Diego, California). Ditrema arcuatwm Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., iv, 249, 1862 (San Francisco). Amphistichus arcuatus Jordan & Gilbert, Syn. Fish. N. A., 591, 1885 (Cape Mendocino and south- ward). Holconotus megalops Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1854, v. 7, 152. Ennichthys megalops Girard, 1. c., 323; Archiv. f. Naturg.~1855, B. 1, 351; Girard, Pacific R* R. Survey, v. 6, 26; id., 1. c., v. 10, 197, pi. xxxvn and xxvi, fig. 10 (Presidio, Humboldt Bay, Astoria). Ditrema megalops Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., iv, 249, 1862. Habitat : Astoria to Ensenada. 5. HYPERPROSOPON AGASSIZI Gill. Hijperprosopon arcuatum A. Agassiz, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 8,133, 1861 (not of Gib- bons). Hyperprosopon agassizi Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat, Sci. Phila., v. 14, 276, 1862 (California) ; Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vi, June, 1892 (Santa Barbara to San Francisco). Ditrema agassizi Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., iv, 250, 1862 (San Francisco). Holconotus agassizi Jordan & Gilbert, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1880, 456 (San Francisco to Santa Bar- bara, Cal.); Jordan & Jouy, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1881,10 (Monterey and San Francisco, Cal.); Jordan & Gilbert, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1881, 50 (Tomales to Santa Barbara, Cal.); Jordan, Cat. Fish. N. Am., 96, 1885 (name only). Amphistichus agassizi Jordan & Gilbert, Syn. Fish. N. A., 592, 1883 (California). Hyperprosopon punctatum Cooper, Nat. Wealth Cal. by Cronise, 486, 1868. Habitat : Santa Barbara to San Francisco. 388 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 4. HOLCONOTUS* Agassiz. Holconotus Agassiz, Am. Journ. Science and Art, y. 17, 367, May, 1854 ( rhodoterus ). Cymatogaster Gibbons, Daily Placer Times aud Transcript, June 21, 1854 (not Cymatog aster, 1. c., May 18, 1854) ; Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1854, v. 7, 123. As here understood, this geuus is composed of but a single species. 6. HOLCONOTUS RHODOTERUS Agassiz. Holconotus rhodoterus Agassiz, 1. c. (San Francisco) ; Archiv. f. Naturg. 1855, B. 1, 34; A. Agas- siz, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., voi. 8, 132, 1861; Cooper, in Cronise Nat. Wealth Cal., 489, 1868; Jordan & Gilbert, )Proc. U. S. N. M. 1880, 456 (San Francisco to Santa Bar- bara); Jordan & Jouy, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1881, 10 (Monterey, San Francisco and Santa Barbara) ; Jordan & Gilbert, Proc. U. S. N. M. 1880, 50 (Tomales to Santa Barbara, Cali- fornia); Jordan Cat. Fish. N. A., 96, 1885; Eigenmann & Eigenmann, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., June, 1892 (San Diego, Santa Barbara, Monterey, San Francisco). Ditrema rhodoterum Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., iv, 250, 1862 (San Francisco). Amphistichus rhodoterus Jordan & Gilbert, Syn. Fish. N. A., 592, 1883 (California); Eigenmann '& Eigenmann, Proc, Cal. Acad. Sci., 2d ser., iii, 9, 1890 (San Diego). Cymatogaster pulchellus Gibbons, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., v. 8, 123, July, 1854; Archiv fur Naturg., 21. Jahrg., B. 1, 335, 1855. Holconotus pulchellus A. Agassiz, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 8, 132, 1862 ; Cooper, Nat- Wealth Cal. by Cronise, 489, 1868. Cymatogaster larkinsii Gibbons, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1854, 123 (San Francisco); Archiv f. Naturg. 1855, B. 1, 335. Cymatogaster ellipticus Gibbons, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1854, 124 (San Francisco); Archiv f. Naturg. 1855, B. 1, 336. Habitat : Coast of California from San Francisco to San Diego. Body ovate, dorsal and ventral outlines nearly equally curved. Profile above the eye little depressed ; the snout a little longer than the eye. Mouth quite oblique, the lower jaw not projecting; maxillary not included under the orbital, reaching to the front of the pupil. Fifth dorsal spine highest, considerably higher than the soft rays; pectorals falcate, not reaching the tips of ventrals; color, “greenish above; sides sil- very, profusely covered with spots and blotches of light orange-brown or coppery red, these mostly in the form of interrupted vertical bars; caudal, anal, and ventral fins bright reddish without black spots or markings” (Jordan & Gilbert). Head, 3£; depth, 2^. D. ix or x, 26; A. in, 29; Lat. line, 69. 5. AMPHISTICHUS Agassiz. Amphistichusi Agassiz, Am. Journ. Science and Art, (2) v. 17, 367, May, 1854 ( argenteus ). Mytilophagust Gibbons, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1854, 125 (fasciatus— argenteus) . Type : Amphistichus argenteus Agassiz. * '0/U6f, furrow, and yurof, back ; referring to the dorsal furrows common to all the species of the family. t Amphistichus: 'A.gall. There is never a continuous layer of protoplasm at the base of the blastoderm. In fig. 51 , of an egg sectioned horizontally, there are 10 periblast nuclei, one of them dividing and all of them lying just below the marginal cells of the blastoderm. This egg is near the end of the ninth segmentation, containing about 450 nuclei. Up to this stage the nuclei retain their spherical outline, but from this on they increase in volume and lose their regular contours and the surrounding protoplasm is greatly reduced or disappears entirely (figs. 38, 40, 41, etc.). The fact that the nuclei are very frequently in pairs would indicate that they undergo division, and indeed some sections show this to be the case. It is, however, doubtful if more than two generations of nuclei are produced in this manner. At the end of cleavage (fig. 29) there are several series of flat cells covering the greater part of the yolk. Beneath them the periblast nuclei lie. In Ctenolabrus , at the end of cleavage, the periblast forms a wreath of flattened cells. The exact number of nuclei arising directly by a change of the cells containing them I was unable to determine, but their ultimate number rarely, if ever, reaches 20. Reduced to such simple conditions and differing as the nuclei do from the nuclei of the blastoderm even before they are entirely free, I can state with the greatest confi- dence that these nuclei have no share whatever in forming the embryo or in giving rise to even a single cell of the embryo. The number of periblast nuclei probably remains the same from the closing of the blastopore to the final disappearance of the 440 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. yolk. In larvae 7 mm. long all there remains of the yolk and periblast is a small nodule scarcely larger than the combined bulk of the periblast nuclei which are now all hud- dled together (figsl 53 to 54). There is no evidence that these cells had any share in forming the blood corpus- cles. The yolk at this late stage is almost entirely surrounded by the liver (fig. 54), but I think it is erroneous to suppose, as Wilson has done, that the liver finally absorbs the yolk. It is still in contact with the sinus venosus and the final absorp- tion is accomplished by the blood as truly as the earlier stages of its absorption before the liver is formed. In this late stage the yolk no longer shows the yolk cells, which are still evident in larvae 5 mm. long. Yolk nucleus. — The appearance of this structure at the time of maturity was de- scribed under the head of u the mature egg.” In sections of stages with 60 and 72 nuclei the yolk nucleus consists of a central denser (more deeply stained) portion which is surrounded by a thinner substance. In other sections of about the same stage the mass is not so divided. In some there are spherical (yolk) bodies scattered through it. The appearance in many of the stages resembles that of the germinal vesicle of the green eggs. In vertical sections the margin is seen to correspond to the sur- rounding yolk spheres. Cross-sections of the deeper portions show the same. In a somewhat older stage (fig. 32) the outer part of the mass is continued as a thin layer over the yolk. A peculiar condition is represented by figure 41, in which there is a large mass corresponding to the original mass, in which there are scattered larger yolk granules. Surrounding this on the yolk side is a deep layer of lighter- stained proto- plasm. About the time of the closing of the blastopore the yolk nucleus disappears. In several eggs in which the blastopore is not yet closed no trace of it can be found, while in one egg stained with fuchsine a number of granules are collected in the region where this mass of protoplasm was situated. These granules are similar to others arranged about the periphery of the yolk, and it is doubtful whether they represent a portion of this mass. The absorption of this protoplasm must be very rapid, for in but slightly younger stages the whole mass is still present. Since the above was written, about three years ago, this body, so prominent during the early stages of development of the egg, has been identified by one of my students, Mr. J. W. Hubbard, with the yolk nucleus, which is a conspicuous body in the ovarian eggs from the time they measure 20 ,« to maturity. The yolk nucleus originates as an extrusion from the germinal vesicle and reaches the entodermic pole at the time of maturity, when the yolk becomes collected about it. It was found that during the extrusion of the yolk nucleus the germinal vesicle is reduced in size and amount equal to that of the newly formed yolk nucleus. The extrusion of nuclear matter which takes place here lends weight to the supposition of De Vries and Weismann that definite particles may be extruded from the nucleus into the morphoplasm and coutrol it. The functions the yolk nucleus possessed before extrusion are retained some time after extrusion in large- yolked eggs, and according to the recent theories its functions need not be lost at once, even in those in which its VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 441 constituent biopbors are scattered* at the time or soon after its extrusion from the germinal vesicle. Significance of the yolk nucleus. — A yolk nucleus, metanucleus, Nebenkern, of one description or another, has been observed in the eggs of all groups of metazoa exclusive of those of the Porifera and of the Echinoderms. While it has been observed in such a variety of animals, the explanations it has received have not been commensurate with its distribution. It is true that a yolk nucleus has not been observed in species whose near relatives have this structure well distinguishable. It very frequently disappears soon after its formation, and we need only go a step farther to a condition when it is distributed through the cytoplasm during its formation, and from this condition there is but a step to the separate extrusion of its constituent parts. This may explain its absence in species whose near relatives have it. While in many eggs it appears early, in others ( Forskalia ) it is not formed till the time of maturation. In all cases in which its formation has been traced it originates from the nucleus as something cast out without the usual formalities of cell division. Its function has been supposed to be that of yolk formation, but it is found in some eggs in which yolk is never formed or, after all the functions of the egg as a cell, aside from its hereditary functions, have disappeared. It has been supposed to give rise to the follicle, but it sometimes does not appear till the follicle has begun to degenerate. It has been supposed to represent the male element in the egg, and in the case of parthenogenetic ova to replace the spermatozoon, and thus has been attributed with the function later assigned to the second polar globule. This last explanation may have a grain of truth in it, but it is far from being satisfactory. Moreover, while attempts have been made to homologize every other structure or action of the egg with a structure or action in the spermatozoon, I am not aware that this body has received the same distinction. And yet there arises in the spermatozoon a body called by the same name (Nebenkern) in very much the same manner. * While the theory of the germplasm is admirably delineated, some objections to the ideas of a biophor as described by Weismann (The Germplasm, Am. Ed. 1893) may be added here. These objec- tions may be answered by the statement that Weismann is not endeavoring an explanation of life. But it is fair to insist that the definition of the theoretical units should not exclude the possibility of life. ■ The biophor is said to be the smallest unit which exhibits the primary vital forces, viz, assimila- tion and metabolism, growth and reproduction by fission. The difference between biophors of various kinds “depends on either the absolute relative number of molecules, their chemical constitu- tion (isomerism included), or their grouping.” Both suppositions can not hold. For instance, a par- ticular biophor may be composed of 7 (or any other number) of molecules, 3 of one sort, 3 of another, and 1 of a third sort. It would be impossible for such a biophor to give rise by division to another biophor containing the same number of molecules of the same sort arranged in the same manner. We must imagine that this biophor during growth appropriates molecules like those composing it until double the original number are present of each particular sort of molecules. Adivision into two similar halves would thus be made possible, but the character of the biophor, according to the sen- tence quoted above, would have been changed with each molecule added. Or, we must imagine that all the molecules necessary for the formation of a new biophor are appropriated simultaneously, in which case the biophor would suddenly enlarge to double its normal size. This sudden growth might indeed be the agent causing fission. This last alternative verges dangerously near forbidden ground — i. e., the formation of new biophors outside of the original biophor through the simple presence of the latter, after the manner Nageli supposed new micellae to arise. 442 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The Uebenkern has, among other things, been supposed to be homologous with the polar globules. I consider it the homologue of the yolk nucleus. It, like the yolk nucleus, arises from the nucleus not by any cell division, although closely associated with it. However we may homologize the reducing division in the male and in the female, or spermatozoon and egg, it is clear that in both cases the Nebenkern arises from the nucleus after the sex cell has assumed its final role of egg or spermatozoon. I wish here to point out the close resemblance of the yolk nucleus in Cymatogaster to the macronucleus of ciliate infusoria. Plate xcm will make the resemblance clearer. The resemblance of the different processes of conjugation of these protozoa to the processes of maturation of fertilization in metazoa has been pointed out by others, but I wish to carry this resemblance several steps further. It will be of advantage to give a brief review of the results which have been obtained recently in the study of the conjugation of ciliate infusoria. For plate xcm and its explana- tion, see page 446. The infusoria contain two nuclei : First, a large macronucleus which presides over nutrition and growth, repairs injury, and by its division enables the protozoon to multiply for a certain number of generations. If the micronucleus disappears through senescence, the macronucleus may still divide and enable the protozoon to multiply for a certain length of time, but afterward it loses this power and the individual containing it perishes. Its functions are all ontogenetic, of use to the race only in so far as they are of use to the individual. It may be looked upon as the somatic portion of the nucleoplasm of the protozoon, which, by simple divisions, builds a large number of individuals which collectively are comparable to the metazoon soma. It divides directly. Second, a smaller micronucleus, which divides indirectly, but whose division and indeed whose presence is not essential to the life and multiplication of the individual. It presides over the preservation of the race, and its function must come into play during a time corresponding^ to the period of maturity of metazoa. If it does not come into play at this time, it disintegrates and the individuals containing it are doomed to ultimate destruction. If it does come into play, the individuals containing it may continue to divide. It is of use to the individual only through its use to the race. It is of no direct use to the individual containing it. Its functions are all phylogenetic. In short, the macronucleus under any and all conditions is doomed to-destruction ; the micro nucleus may live forever under favorable circumstances. The macronucleus is dissolved at the time of or shortly after conjugation. A new one is formed from the segmentation nucleus. W e are now prepared to observe the similarities and the differences between these conditions and those obtaining in metazoa. The segmentation nucleus of metazoa contains, as in the infusorian, both micro and macro nuclear elements, but these are retained in varying proportions in its descend- ants, i. e., in the cells of the adult organism. Through a process of division of labor the power of rejuvenescence becomes restricted to comparatively few of the cells derived from the segmentation nucleus. The fate of all the remaining cells is final death. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 443 Those cells which under certain conditions have the power to reconstruct the whole organism are the sex cells. But it was seen that in the infusorian the macronucleus has its function suspended soon after preparations are made for conjugation and that it entirely disappears after conjugation. The macronuclear functions of the sex cells ought therefore also to become suspended if the comparison between the two organisms is to be complete. This suspension must take place the moment of the ulti- mate division of the germinal epithelial cell or soon after, and the egg has become irrevocably an egg or the spermatozoon irrevocably a spermatozoon. A partial sus- pension of these functions is evidenced by the absence of further divisions except during the formation of the polar globules, which in the infusorian are seen to be formed from the micronucleus. The formation of the polar cells may therefore be looked upon as products of the micronuclear elements of the germinal vesicle and do not vitiate the supposed suspension of macronuclear divisions. The macronuclear element of the germinal vesicle is eliminated as the yolk nucleus in eggs, and as the Nebenkern in spermatozoa. In eggs without yolk (ForsJcalia), and whose ovarian his- tory is consequently short, it is eliminated just before maturation, as the metanucleus. In eggs developing a large amount of yolk and whose ovarian history is prolonged it arises at a time corresponding to the maturation of non-yolked species, i. e., at the beginning of yolk formation as the yolk nucleus. In those in which it appears com- paratively late ( ForsJcalia , Cymatogaster) it may remain during some of the early stages of development. In those species in which it appears early it is lost in the yolk long before maturation. I have explained why it may be present in one species and absent in another closely related one. Its suspension of activity need not be sudden, and it is not unlikely that it retains some of its functions in some eggs even after it is expelled from the germinal vesicle, and it may then be active and entirely used up in the building up of the yolk, as has been suggested by a number of observers. That its functions are in some way connected with the yolk is certain from the close associa- tion between yolk and yolk nucleus, which has given it its name in eggs.* The direct nuclear division frequently seen in degenerate tissues extends the possibility of comparison between protozoa and metazoa. Such cells may be compared with infusoria which have passed the period of maturity and in which the micronuclear element, which is always accompanied by indirect division, has been lost. The reason for the complicated process of cell division seen in karyokinesis is evident in all cases where an exact distribution of the halved chromosomes is essen- tial. In cases like the macronucleus in protozoa and the degenerate cells of metazoa where an exact division can be of no advantage, direct division takes place. I do not mean by this to insist that there is a further comparison than the above between the direct division of the macronucleus and that of degenerate cells of metazoa. The former is primitive. * The above account of the yolk nucleus was. written before the appearance of Weismann’s “ The Germplasm.” In the phraseology used in this theory I hold that each cell (except the degenerate ones in which direct nuclear division takes place) contains germplasm aside from ids from which all the determinates but those controlling the cell have been removed in carrying the cell to its final des- tination. All cells, the reproductive cells included, are controlled by determinants which are not directly derived from the ids of germplasm contained in the nucleus but from ids which have been simplified during ontogeny. These simplified ids are removed as the yolk nucleus. 444 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Karyokinesis is an adaptation to insure the exact division necessitated by phy- togeny; the direct division of gland cells et al. is a reversion or a degeneration to a primitive semblance.* * While reading the proof of these pages I obtained two papers bearing on this subject. “Con- tributions a l’histoire de la constitution de l’ceuf” by Ch. Van Bambeke and “Le corps vitellin de Balbiani dans I’ceuf des vert6br6s”, by L. F. Henneguy. In its explanation of the yolk nucleus, the latter paper corresponds almost exactly with the views presented here. Since this theory of the mac- ronuclear nature of the yolk nucleus was arrived at independently, it is but just both to Mr. Henneguy and myself that his considerations should be presented here. He says, p. 32: “On sait que dans un infusoire cilid il existe deux sortes de noyaux: le noyau proprement dit, ou macronucl6us, et un autre noyau plus petit, improprement appeld nucl&de, ou micronucldus, ou encore endoplastule. Le premier tient sous sa ddpendance les phenomenes de la vie organique de l’infu- soire, le second intervient pendant la conjugation, veritable reproduction sexuelle; aussi Biitschli le d6signe-t-il sousle nom de noyau sexuel (Geschlechtskern). Dans les cellules qui constituent les dif- f^rents tissus des animaux et des vdgdtaux, il n’existe qu’un seul dldment nucl^aire, le noyau, qui regit it la fois les phenomenes vitaux de la cellule, et les phenomenes reproducteurs, lesquels ont tou- jours lieu par division ou gemmation, c’est a dire par voie non sexuelle. Ce noyau renferme deux sortes d’ elements figures bien distincts, le reseau chromatique forme de microsomes et les nucl6oles. Ceux-ci ont 6te considers comme des materiaux de reserve pour le noyau (Strasburger, Carnoy), mais leur r61e dans la physiologie de la cellule est encore inconnu. Ils ne paraissent pas prendre une part active a la cytodierese et cessent d’etre visible quand se prepare la division indirecte du noyau. Dans la vesicule germinative de l’oeuf des animaux, il existe toujours un ou plusieurs gros nucieoles, situ6s a la pdrepherie de la vesicule, plus rapproches par consequent du protoplasma ovulaire que le l-eseau chromatique qui occupe gdneralement le centre du noyau, surtout dans les ovules voisins de la maturitc. Ces taches germinatives disparaissent quand les vesicule germinative se transforme en globule polaises et en noyau femelle; elles sont resorbdes soit dans la v6sicule germinative, soit dans le vitellus apres y avoir pen6tre lorsque la membrane de la vesicule germinative a disparu. “Si, avec la plupart des embryogdnistes, on considere l’ceuf comme representant le stade proto- zoaire des Metazoaires, et les phenomenes de la fecondation comme correspondant aux phdnomenes de conjugation des Infusoires, on doit se demander ce qui, dans l’oeuf, est l’homologue du macronucleus et du micronucieus des cilies. “De meme que chez les Infusoires cilies le micronucleus intervient seul dans la conjugation, le macronucldus disparaissent par resorption, de meme dans la fecondation, le reseau chromatique de la vesicule germinative entre seul en jeu, les taches germinatives etant resorbees. De meme que dans les Infusoires conjuguds, il y a fusion d’un micronucleus de l’un des individus avec un micronucleus provenant de l’autre individu, pour donner naissance a un nouveau noyau, qui se dddouble en macro- nucleus et micronucieus ; de meme, dans l’oeuf, le noyau femelle s’unit au noyau male, pour former un nouveau noyau qui jouera simultanement dans les cellules, provenant de la division de l’oeuf, le role de macronucleus et de micronucieus. “Dans les cellules ordinaires le macronucleus, represente par le nucieole, et le micronucieus, rep- resente par le reseau chromatique, sont confondus dans un meme element ; il en est de meme dans l’oeuf Cependant le corps reproducteur femelle se rapprochant plus dutype ancestral infusoire que les autres elements cellulaires de l’organisme, on confoit qu’il puisse manifester une tendance h la disjonction des deux elements nucldaires de l’lnfusoire. Cette tendance se traduit. au moment ou la cellule g6ni- tale prend le caractere ovulaire et s’accrolt sans se multiplier, par la sortie d’une portion de la substance nucieolaire, sous forme d’un corps vitellin de Balbiani. Celui-ci tantdt continue h jouer dans le plasma ovulaire le rdle d’un macronucleus, dirige les phenomenes d’assimilation des materiaux nutri - tils aceumules dans l’oeuf, et devientle centre de formation du germe, ainsi que l’a constate M. Balbiani chez beaucoup d’animaux; tantot il n’a qu’une existence tout a fait transitoire et clisparait peut de temps apres sa formation, par resorption et degenerescence ; tantdt enlin, comme cela s’observe sou vent dans l’ontogenie des animaux, il y a acceleration des phenomenes embryogeniques, certaines phases de revolution sont supprim6es : dans l’ceuf, le corps vitellin, organe ancestral, n’apparalt a aucune phase de l’oogenese.” In a foot-note he adds : “S’il existe dans l’oeuf un element representant le macronucleus des infusoires, cet element doit se retrouver dgalement dans la cellule male ou la spermatide. La presence, dans la cellule de devel- oppement du spermatozoide, d’un noyau accessoire (Nebenkern), dont l’aspect et les reactions rapel- lent ceux du corps vitellin, justifie cette maniere de voir.” Henneguy’s comparison of the yolk nucleus and nebenkern of the reproductive cells with the macronucleus of ciliate infusoria agrees with my comparison, with this exception : Henneguy sup- poses the yolk nucleus to be homologous with the macronucleus. I hold that a genetic connection between macronucleus and yolknucleus has not and can not be shown, and that the two structures are due to similar causes acting on similar material. He locates the macronuclear element in the nucleoli. I hold that this is erroneous, as is shown by the formation of the yolk nucleus in Cymato- gaater without the intervention of nucleoli. The same has heen shown in the paper quoted above by VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 445 Balbiani has suggested that the yolk nucleus supplies the place of the sperma- tozoa in the case of the parthenogenetic eggs. I do uot know whether it has been found in parthenogenetic eggs or not, but will venture a suggestion.* If, as I sup- pose, this yolk-nuclear element corresponds to the macronucleus of protozoa, we may imagine a condition in some eggs in which the macronuclear elements or ontogenetic elements, and the micronuclear element or the phylogenetic elements are evenly bal anced. In such eggs the macronuclear element (the ontogenetic element) could provide for continued growth and division which in eggs in which the micronuclear element predominates is only provided by the union with the male. The micronuclear element, on the other hand, could provide for the building up of the ancestral form. This explanation seems sufficient to account for parthenogenetic eggs. It is desirable now to reexamine parthenogenetic eggs with this hypothesis in mind. The notices of this body in literature have been mostly at haphazard. This or that author says: “I have seen it,” and another has given its origin in one egg, while another has endeavored to explain its function in still another. While the literature bearing on this subject is largely incidental, enough has been said to show its presence in such a variety of animals that only a deep rooted explanation is sufficient. That the yolk nucleus is the lineal descendant of the macronucleus may be doubted. Both are probably similar results due to similar causes. It is certain that the germinal epithelial cells contain both the functions of the micro and the macro nucleus. How have the nuclear substances presiding over these different functions become united in a single nucleus in metazoa* 1? The answer seems evident. Both micro and macro nuclei are derived from a single nucleus. In protozoa they are the product of the second segmentation of the conjugation nucleus. We have here a single segmentation between copulation and macronucleus, whereas in metazoa a large number of segmentations intervene, and in this lies the chief difference. (Two more segmentations intervene in the case of spermatozoa than in the case of ova.) Macro and micro nuclear substances are both found in the germinal epithelial cells because the substances have not yet been separated. Which of the two second generation nuclei becomes the micro, which the macro nucleus is determined by their position anterior or posterior in the new infusorian. Bambeke in Scorpcena scrofa L. There are other minor points of difference that will appear on reading the two accounts. I have given this full statement of Henneguy’s theory to avoid any possible claim of injustice on my part to the propounder of a theory, which in so many points agrees with mine. S-pace and time do not permit me to consider Bambeke’s paper and one by Dr. O. Jordan, 1893. It seems, however, that Jordan has entirely underestimated the significance of the yolk nucleus. It may be true that structures in certain eggs have been described as yolk nuclei, which were not homologous with the yolk nucleus of Cymatogaster and of other fishes, or of Batrachians. But this does not warrant the sweeping statement that “ the various structures usually grouped together under the name Dotter- kern have nothing but the name in common.” This seems but trifling with facts. I have explained why the yolk nucleus may not become visible in one species and be present in another closely allied species. The absence is apparent rather than real. But supposing its absence should be real in some cases, that would not in the slightest vitiate the importance of a structure whose wide distribu- tion in metazoa is admitted. “Certain fishes do not have ventral fins, and some mammals do not possess posterior limbs, but these facts do not destroy the homology of ventral fins of fishes which do possess them with the posterior limbs of mammals which have these structures. The three papers mentioned in this note give a very complete history of the literature bearing on the yolk nucleus. * Balbiani’s yolk nucleus is not homologous with the structure here considered, and his view is, therefore, not identical with the one here given. 446 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Their structure must therefore be the same at the time of segmeutatiou. We have here a differentiation due to external conditions similar to those found in the differ- entiation of sex from like cells by external conditions. While in infusoria this dif- ferentiation into macro and micro nuclear elements takes place after the division of a whole into two equal halves, the differentiation takes place before division in metazoa. Comparison beticeen the processes of conjugation in ciliate infusoria ( modified from Weismann after Maupas) and of maturation and segmentation in Cymatogaster aggre- gatus. — The modifications of the male cells are purely theoretical, and modified from the conditions often observed in a number of invertebrates. Nothing is yet known of spermogenesis of Cymatogaster. The black circles represent micro or germ nuclei, the blank circles the polar nuclei, the shaded parts the macronuclear elements. Note well that between stages H and A of protozoa there intervenes a large number of genera- tions of nuclei-individuals, and that a similar number of generations of nuclei, all of which collectively represent an individual, intervene between I and a= A in metazoa. In series I the macronuclear elements disappear in stage G, while in series in they do not disappear till much later than stage I. Usually in metazoa they disappear in stage A 2, i. e., before the nucleus from which they have been derived loses its entity. While in series i the macronuclear elements are segregated in stage F or at the begin- ning of the series of daughter nuclei, in series hi this process does not take place till stage A 2 is reached or the end of the series of daughter nuclei or concomitantly with the production of a new mother nucleus; in all the intervening stages between i and A 2 macro and micro nuclear elements are united in the same nucleus. Formation of the mesoderm. — Dr. Minot has said (Am. Nat., 1890, 877) : “Scarcely an embryologist can be found who has not published opinions on this question (origin of the mesoderm) considerably at variance with those of most authors.” To these already numerous accounts I must add that of Cymatogaster. Without question the mesoderm arises here from the entoderm, as has been observed in a number of other fishes by various authors. Instead, however, of being restricted to and arising from a narrow space, it is split off from the entoderm and forms a layer over the whole entoderm, exclusive of the axial line, or the region occupied by the chorda. Hertwig states, p. 119 : Bei kinem Wirbelthiere entstehen die Keimblatter durch Abspaltung, sei es vom auseren, sei es vom inneren Grenzblatt, da sie von beiden mit Ausnahme eines sehr beschrankten Keimbezirks iiberall durch einen Spaltraume scharf abgegrenzt werden. I have nowhere seen any figures in Cymatogaster which favor Hertwig’s view of the origin of the mesoderm, and since it apparently appears simultaneously over the whole entoderm exclusive of the middle line, and is closely applied to the eutoderm when it usually is widely separate from it, the only explanation tenable seems to be that the mesoderm is split off from the entoderm every where except at the median line. In all cases I have been able to examine the entoderm formed a layer beneath the chorda, but I am not positive whether a layer is always present beneath the chorda at the time the latter structure is differentiated, or whether the whole central portion of the entoderm is differentiated into notochord, and a new layer of entoderm is formed beneath this by ingrowth from the sides. The former seems the more probable view. The development of the chorda and of the mesoderm is still obscure, since I obtained but one or two marked stages between the closing of the blastopore and embryos with three proto vertebrae. On reconsideration 1 am not so certain as to what Buli. U. S. F. C. 1892. /iparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 446.) Plate XCIII. I- n. m. tv: VIVIPAROUS PISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 447 relation the cephalic end of the embryo bears to the blastopore as I was formerly, but I am inclined to think that in my paper on sex cells I mistook the primitive streak for the head. I am sure that in the embryo with three protovertebrse thus described I mistook the head for the tail. This misconstruction does not affect the results as to the early segregation of the sex cells, but changes their place of origin. The needed corrections to be made in the account of the sex cells will be made in the chapter bearing on this subject. At the closing of the blastopore the embryo usually consists of two layers — the ectoderm and the primitive entoderm. Each of these is several cells deep, and they both extend over the entire yolk, merging into each other at the blastopore. Just before the closing of the blastopore the entoderm is but one cell deep in all places but the axial line. Immediately after the blastopore closes cells are heaped up, probably in the region of the closed blastopore, certainly in the caudal region of the body. With this heaping up of cells the lower and upper layers become merged into a solid mass (figs. 55 to 59). Shortly afterward the mesoderm is split off from the entoderm over the whole of the egg except along this region (figs. 58 to 59). In some eggs (fig. 43) the mesoderm is not definitely separated from the entoderm after the closing of the blastopore. In others, on the other hand, the mesoderm is at least partly separated even before the closing of the blastopore. In all the sections the mesoderm is seen to be intimately associated with the entoderm, so there can be no doubt as to the source from which it is derived, although the ectoderm at this time is quite thick. Two eggs cut in nearly the same planes and representing the earliest and latest stages found between the closing of the blastopore and the three- protovertebrse stage may be described in some detail. The sections are at right angles to the median plane of the embryo and the first in each of the two embryos is tangential to the primitive streak or thickened caudal mass. Fig. 55 is the sixth section of the early stage and the first that cuts the yolk. The ectoderm is here several cells deep, being cut obliquely. The outer layer of cells is much lighter than the deeper layer — a fact due to the absorption of the surrounding ovarian fluid. The entoderm is also several cells deep, and at this place no distinction between entoderm and mesoderm can be made out. At the axis the entoderm is much thicker and so intimately joined to the ectoderm that but a very faint line of division is perceptible. The ectoderm at this point is reduced in thickness. Fig. 56 is the eighth section of the series. The relation of the parts to each other is very much as in the preceding figure. The axial entoderm forms, however, a more rounded mass. Fig. 57 is the tenth section of the series. This section, being more median, differ- entiates the parts much better. Over the ventral half the outer layer of ectodermal cells is enlarged and much less densely stained ; over the dorsal half no such differ- entiation is seen. Laterally the entoderm is thinner than ventrally and, in places at least, a distinct dividing line can now be seen between mesoderm and entoderm. The axial primitive entoderm is still as important a structure as in the preceding section. Fig. 58, which represents the twelfth section, differs little from the tenth. The primitive entoderm is still thinner laterally and the distinction between entoderm and ectoderm is still harder to make. Fig. 59 represents the fifteenth section. All the sections following this are dam- aged along the axial line. In this section some of the entoderm cells have evidently been misplaced at the embryonic axis, where it is impossible to detect any line sepa- 448 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. rating entoderm from ectoderm. There are in ail twenty-six sections in this egg (ovary 23); maximum diameter of egg, -272 mm. Of the second stage I have obtained several fair series of sections. The chorda is now well marked off for some distance and the mesoblast is split off from over the entire entoderm except at the caudal mass, where it is not possible to distinguish the three layers from each other. In all other regions the ectoderm is separated from the mesoderm by a large segmentation cavity. The sections, figs. 60 to 63, are parallel to a tangential over the caudal mass. Fig. 60 is the sixth section of the series and has not yet reached the yolk. The mesoblast is not distinguishable from the entoderm, owing to the fact, perhaps, that near the margin of the section the plane of the section is oblique to the plane sepa- rating mesoblast from entoderm. The embryonic region is indicated by the strand of cells between ectoderm and entoderm, and, in fact, by the whole of the central mass of cells. The grouping of the sex cells in this region is as usual in this stage (ovary 31). Fig. 61 is the eighth section of the series and the first which cuts tbe yolk. The entire outline of the notochord is evident at this place. The dividing line between •nesoderm and entoderm is not yet evident. Fig. 62 is the twelfth section of the series, and therefore near the middle of the egg. The greatest diameter of the egg is 3 mm. The line separating mesoblast from entoderm is here evident over the whole yolk; the chorda is a little thicker than the mesoblast on either side and touches the slightly thickened ectoderm above. The mesoderm is about two cells deep. Fig. 63 is the eighteenth section of the series. The thickness of both chorda and mesoblast is reduced. The ectoderm consists of an outer layer of flattened cells and an inner irregular layer of semicolumnar cells ; it also does in other sections, but the fact is not so apparent. It is not thickened over the chorda as far forward as this section. The chorda extends some distance farther, and appears finally to merge into the indifferent mesoblast seen along its sides in other regions. As far forward as I can trace it the entoderm forms a layer below it. It is very probable that the cells forming it are separated from the entoderm with the mesoderm by delamination. In that case a layer of entoderm cells would always be found below it. The chorda is formed some distance farther forward in another egg from the same ovary. In this egg the entoderm extends under the chorda as far as that structure can be followed, but near its end the sections become tangential again and the boundaries between tissues are not well marked. Fig. 65 is a section from the anterior portion of the chorda of this egg. The lower layer of ectoderm cells is in contact or approximated with the chorda for its entire length, and in the section figured the ectoderm is thickened and slightly depressed just over the chorda, the cells being somewhat radially .arranged. As stated above, in the caudal region the three layers merge into each other so they can not be separated (64). Another characteristic of the caudal region in all the eggs of this stage is the presence of numerous large sex cells. In the caudal region the neurula in eggs of this stage consists of the previously described thickened mass. In front of the caudal mass it rapidly narrows to a thickening about as wide as the chorda and immediately overlying it. The region above it is depressed into a perceptible shallow groove. Its lower surface (fig. 62) remains for some distance in contact with the chorda after quite a space is found VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 449 between the mesoderm and ectoderm. In the anterior region the cells of the neurula (fig. 65) are seen to radiate from the dorsal depression. The ectoderm is everywhere about three cells deep. The outermost layer is dif- ferentiated into a flattened epithelium. While the relation of the head end of the embryo to the blastopore can not be certainly decided, it seems probable that at this period the embryo encircles consid- erably more than half a circumference of the yolk. The length of the embryo is now increased, chiefly at the expense of the caudal mass of cells. Anatomy of an embryo with three yrotovertebrce. — Of this stage I have two good series of sections. One of the embryos was cut in the sagittal plane, the other at right angles to it. The former was figured (figs. 5, 6) in my account of the sex cells, but the anterior was mistaken for the posterior. The entoderm in this stage forms a layer over nearly the entire yolk. The only region where it could not be distinguished was over the small portion of yolk between the caudal mass of cells and the head of the embryo. In the anterior region it grad- ually merges into the one-cell-deep mesoderm. Along the axial line, beneath the notochord, the entoderm is about two cells deep. Just to one side of this median line the entoderm is three or four cells deep; at the sides of the yolk it dwindles to an attenuated layer but one cell deep (figs 72, 73), and along the ventral line it is merged with the mesoderm. In longitudinal sections the entoderm is still evident, even in this region (fig. 67). Just in front of the caudal region, where the three layers merge into each other, the entoderm has a columnar arrangement and is raised some distance from the yolk (fig. 68 kv). This is the first indication of Kupffer’s vesicle. In cross-section the raised regionis seen to be quite wide, with the outer angle projecting upward and outward (fig. 73). The further development of Kupffer’s vesicle will be described in another chapter. The principal difference between the entoderm of Cymatogaster and other teleosts during this stage lies in the fact that it is composed of several layers of cells and that it covers the greater part if not the whole of the yolk. The notochord is well formed and has assumed its final outline back to the neuren- teric region, where its outlines merge into the general mass. In front it tapers to a point. The notochordal cells are as yet but little different from the cells of the other structures. The outlines of the nuclei and of the cell itself are a little more prominent and the cells are anteroposteriorly compressed. This gives their nuclei in the sag- gittal section (67) vertical oval outlines and gives the impression that the cells have a vertical columnar arrangement which they do not in reality have. The mesoderm consists of a single layer of cells in the anterior cephalic region (fig. 71). It rapidly thickens backward on either side of the notochord and neural ridge (fig. 70). The cephalic region, or the region in front of the first protovertebrae, is about the third of the entire length. There is no cavity in the protovertebrae, but the nuclei are arranged in an epithelial manner around a central region. The three proto vertebrae extend over one-fifth of the length of the embryo. In the embryo cut in a sagittal direction the mesoderm just behind the third protovertebra contains numerous sex cells; behind these the mesoderm disappears as a distinct layer. From the thickened masses along the notochord the mesoderm extends over the yolk in all directions, thinning out to two and further laterally to a single layer of cells, the two sheets meeting along the ventral line of the embryo. It is only in cross- sections F. C. B. 1892 29 450 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. through the caudal mass (fig. 74) that the mesoderm can not be distinguished over the whole yolk. The ectoderm forms a layer two to three cells deep over the whole egg. The outer layer of cells is in places well separated from the inner layers, the nuclei are slightly larger than those of the inner layers, and the cytoplasm stains lighter. The neural thickening consists of a solid ridge of cells extending down from the ectoderm to the notochord. From the sections it would appear that there is little difference between different points along this region. The ridge appears deeper just in front of the noto- chord than elsewhere, and here the lower layer of cells has a columnar arrangement. The diameters of these embryos are respectively 0-27 mm. and 0-3 mm. The embryo has grown till it fills the shell and with but a slight further increase it hatches, the membrane bursting with the further expansion of the embryo. In other teleosts the hatching process is largely due to the muscular efforts of the embryo, while in this case the muscle cells can scarcely, if at all, be distinguished from other cells at the time of hatching. The yolk measures 158 p to 200 jj. I have not been able to secure stages between this and the embryo with six ( ?) or more protovertebrse, which, is hatched. General development of the larvae. — At the time of hatching, the tail has not begun to bud out. The larva encircles the entire yolk and is so transparent that it can only be found with a lens. Groups of spermatozoa are found attached to its surface. No lumen has appeared in the intestine and muscles have not begun to be differentiated, so that the larva is entirely incapable of motion. Shortly after hatching, the head and tail, exteriorly almost identical, sometimes overlap, the body being bent over the yolk (fig. 83). However, the larva rapidly straightens itself if this overlapping is normal at all. The lumen of the intestine appears when 10 protovertebrse have been formed (fig. 77) and Kupffer’s vesicle has become enormously enlarged. The muscle cells have now become somewhat elongate, though motion is probably not yet possible. The tail is not yet free and the larvse measure about 0-6 mm. By the time the larva has reached a length of 0-8 mm. the tail forms a thick blunt projection beyond the yolk and the intestine has a continuous lumen from near the anterior end of the notochord back to the future anus (figs. 78 and 84). The heart is represented by a large mass of cells below the head and about 12 proto- vertebrse have been formed. A swelling is evident in the gill region and shortly after- wards (by the time the larva is 0-9 mm. long) the first gill-slit is opened. The eye and auditory organs now become more prominent, but no otoliths are formed as yet. About 14 protovertebrse are present in larvse 0-9 mm. long. Spermatozoa are now found in the intestine, which they reach through the first gill- slit. If larvse are examined from this stage till the mouth is formed a stream of the ovarian fluid is usually seen entering the gill-slit and escaping through the anus. This stream is kept in motion by very active cilia in the gullet. When the larva has reached 1 mm. in length, the tail is formed to a considerable extent and terminates in a blunt lobe. The hypertrophy of the hind gut has begun and reaches some distance beyond the yolk-sack. One of the most peculiar structures of the larva, the enormous yolk-sack, has now become well developed. The yolk is quite minute and lies at the posterior end of this cavity, and all the remaining yolk- sack is utilized as a pericardium (figs. 88 and 90.) The heart is now a simple, slender VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 451 tube extending from the posterior wall of the pericardium upward and forward; the yolk lies in the sinus venosus. About 22 protovertebrae are formed. There is little change in general outlines for some time after a length of 1 mm. is reached. The tail elongates and fin folds are developed. One striking feature is that the fin-fold is very narrow at the tip of the tail, while the dorsal and caudal portion may be well developed. The segmentation of the hind brain (fig. 93) becomes very prominent when the larva has reached a length of 2 mm. and remains so till the larva is 5 or more mm. long. During this period the hind brain (figs. 91, 93, 96) is divided by lines which are con- spicuous during life, and quite evident in preserved specimens. In larvae 5 mm. long (figs. 94 and 95) the notochord extends to the tip of the tail, and a caudal fin-fold proper is not developed; the dorsal and anal folds are present. The posterior part of the anal fold shows a thickening where the caudal is finally formed. The pectoral has also made its appearance as a small flap on the shoulder. The liver has become well developed and fills a part of the space formerly occupied by the yolk, some of which still remains. The heart is still a simple tube without any differentiations. The intestine has become much enlarged, and in the protruding hind gut, which is distinctly differentiated, ridges have been formed on the inner side, which later become transformed to villi. The whole tube is still simple at this time without any loops. The circulatory system (fig. 92) consists of an arch extending upward and forward from the heart, thence abruptly backward to beyond the middle of the tail, forward to near the anus, downward to the lower surface of the intestine, along which it extends till before reaching the yolk it bends upxvard around the intestine and then down over the yolk and into the heart. Shortly afterwards the intestine bends down at the vascular loop and forms the familiar sigmoid curve (figs. 96-100). By this means the portal vein runs straight forward along the ventral surface of the hind gut and then directly to the liver. The succeeding changes in the relative size and the curves of the various parts of the intestine may be gathered from figs. 93a to 93e. Concomitant with the changes in the intestine the simple tube of the heart is transformed into auricle, ventricle, and bulbus arteriosus. While it is a simple tube it arises from the sinus venosus near the bottom. This origin is translocated upward till it arises from the top of the sinus. At the same time the tube has beeu lengthened and two constrictions have appeared. The posterior section comes to lie over the middle section; finally the upper is moved forward, and by the elongation of the bulbus the middle section is pushed backward so that the relation obtaining in figs. 96-99 results. The definite fins appear when the larva has reached a length of about 9 mm. (fig. 99). The further externally visible changes maybe gathered from the accom- panying figures (101-108). Pigment does not make its appearance till very late, and then only sparingly, except in the eye. Formation of the intestine. — The fundament of the intestine can first be distin- guished in my sections when three protovertebrae are formed and several others are out- lined (figs. 67-74). The conditions are similar in a number of embryos sectioned, and 1 have selected for description one sectioned longitudinally and another transversely. In a section in the sagittal plane (fig. 67) the line separating the chorda from the neural thickening is well marked. The line separating the chorda from the under- lying hypoblast is quite distinct in the anterior part of the embryo where the chorda 452 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. cells have become very different from the hypoblast beneath and have become re- arranged. In the caudal swelling- the two structures are not separated by any distinct line, and the difference between the cells of the future chorda and the gut are not so well differentiated. In the head the hypoblast underlying the chorda is quite thin; caudad it becomes gradually thicker and finally columnar in arrangement. This columnar region stains darker than the surrounding cells. In the posterior part of this region the columnar hypoblast is raised from the yolk to form a distinct arch, or rather, as is seen in transverse section, a transverse fold raised from the yolk (fig. 73). The outer edges of this fold are raised a little higher than the median portion, and it extends and gradually disappears backward. The floor of this arch is very largely formed by the yolk, its posterior extension entirely so. Below the arch there are a few cells which are very probably derived from its own roof, from which several cells project (figs. 68-73). This space is the first observed condition of Kupffer’s vesicle. Gross-sections show that at this time the hypoblast extends over the greater part of the yolk, if not entirely over it (figs. 71-74; hypoblast cells have nucleoli indicated). Near the middle it is several (5) cells deep over nearly half tbe circum- ference of the yolk. It is columnar only below and a short distance on either side of the chorda; latterly it becomes thicker, but thins out again to a thickness of one cell (fig. 72). The section extending through Kupffer’s vesicle shows that at its outer margins it extends as short pockets toward the ectoderm. In this fact it resembles very closely the conditions found later in the region of the forming gills, which arise as similar outward extensions from the alimentary tract. In an embryo just freed from the zona radiata, and which still greatly resembles the stage just described, nine protovertebrse are formed, and the development of the intestine has made great progress. The anterior part of the chorda is well formed, and the hypoblast below it is but one cell deep. Caudad the thickness of the hypo- blast increases till it is about five cells deep (fig. 75). In the anterior part, where the hypoblast is but one cell deep, evaginations extend upward and outward toward a point below the fundaments of the ear. These folds are of considerable cephalo- caudad extension, reaching in one embryo through nineteen cross-sections (figs. 109, 115). These outpushings are for the most part solid at this stage. The peripheral cells of this structure (the gills) are columnar. The outer layer of cells extends some distance over the yolk. Immediately behind the gill region the method of the forma- tion of the floor of the intestine becomes evident (fig. 110). The upper cells of the hypoblast have a dorsoventral columnar arrangement. The lower cells, on the other hand, have the longer axes of their nuclei in a horizontal position, the edges of the hypoblast having become turned in. No space is at first evident between this lower and the upper layers, the infolding resulting in a solid bilateral mass of cells. The lateral extent of the hypoblast is no longer as great as it was in the preceding stage (figs. 110-112). Farther back, where the ingrowth to form the potential floor of the intestine does not take place until some time later, and where the intestine, as will be seen later, is very wide from the beginning, the hypoblast still extends over a considerable portion of the yolk (figs. 112, 113). The same process of forming the intestine takes place in this region later, i. e., the hypoblast becomes columnar and cells grow from the margin inward to form a layer between the yolk and the main mass of hypoblast cells without at once forming a lumen. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 453 Some of the cells of the floor of the intestine may be derived from the roof directly. If so, such cells are derived from the region just below the chorda (fig. 127) and dem- onstrate the bilateral condition of the enter on. The same bilateral condition becomes still more evident later, when frequently two lumina make their appearance, especially in the anterior region (fig. 122). Kupffer’s vesicle has now become much larger (figs. 75, 110, 113), but since it is such a striking feature of the stages succeeding the one under consideration it will be dealt with in a separate chapter. In a slightly older larva (fig. 76), which differs from the one just described in being straightened out, the hypoblast presents in a sagittal section the same appearance seen in the preceding stage. But a layer of horizontal cells is now present between the yolk and the main mass of hypoblast (figs. 117, 125, 126, 127). In other words, the ingrowth of hypoblast has now reached the median line, and the floor of the enteron has been completed. Transverse sections demonstrate the completion of the floor in the whole of the postcephalic region exclusive of Kupffer’s vesicle, which is now a very large cavity (fig. 76). Soon after the completion of the floor as far as just described, the lumen appears both anteriorly and posteriorly (fig. 77). It is formed by the separation of the two layers of cells already formed. The separation usually begins laterally and grows towards the middle line. This is especially true of the cephalic portion (figs. 121, 122, 127, 130). In the front part of the body the hypoblast is about as high as wide (figs. 23, 130, 131), while in the posterior region it is many times as wide as high, encircling the whole of this portion of the yolk, and the lumen formed here is a A-shaped slit with very long arms, and occasionally an upward extension at the median line (figs. 124, 133, 134). The posterior lumen is, therefore, from the first potentially very wide, for as soon as the lower layer is separated from the upper to its full extent the intestine is relatively very large in this region. As stated above, the lumen is formed in front and behind simultaneously. The gullet or middle region remains a solid rod (figs. 77, 131, 132). This appearance led me at first to suppose that the posterior intestine is precociously developed; but, as we have seen, the floor of the entire intestine is formed continuously from before backward, and the solid mass is the result of the retardation of the formation of the lumen between the two layers of the hypoblast, after such a separation has taken place in front and behind. I am not aware that a similar condition has been found in other teleosts more than once before. A similar condition is, however, described by Balfour (Elasmobranch Fishes, p. 217) for elasmobranchs. In elasmobranchs the oesophagus has a well-developed lumen like the remainder of the alimentary tract, but “its lumen becomes smaller and finally vanishes, and the original tube is replaced by a solid rod of uniform and somewhat polygonal cells.” Although a lumen does not at first appear in Cymatogaster , its equivalent does, if we bear in mind that the floor is formed after the exact method used in elasmobranchs to form a lumen, i. e., by the ingrowth below of the marginal cells of the hypoblast. What morphological significance this retrogressive development of the part of the intestine in elasmo- branchs and in teleosts has I am unable to suspect, unless indeed Balfour’s conjecture (II, 61) may be correct. He has found a solid oesophagus in the salmon (sp.) long after hatching. “ It appears not impossible that this feature in the (esophagus may be connected with the fact that in the ancestors of the present types the oesophagus was perforated by gill-slits; and that in the process of embryonic abbreviation the 454 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. stage with the perforated oesophagus became replaced by a stage with a cord of indifferent cells (the oesophagus being in the embryo quite functionless) out of which the nonperforated oesophagus was directly formed.” The extent of the gill-pouches in the stage figured in 76 is seen in figs. 115 and 116. A large part of the gill-pouches lies in front ot the auditory thickenings. A little later the two layers composing the rudiments are beginning to separate and touch the ectoderm (fig. 128). An opening does not exist. The hypoblast grows out and up till it reaches the ectoderm, when its distal cells separate. Later the ectoderm also gives way and the first gill-slit, the hyobranchial, is formed in front and below the auditory capsule. I have never found the spiracular opening which some authors (Hoffmann) claim to be the first opened. The hypoblast of the spiracle extends out to . the epiblast, but a canal is never formed in Cymatogaster and the ectoderm never parts. The remaining gill- slits are not formed till much later. The hyobranchial is functional as soon as opened, the ovarian fluid entering the intestine through it. Its early formation is another of the precocious features of Cymatogaster due to its vivi- parity. The fact that the hyobranchial is formed by an upper outward growth makes it resemble the formation of the spiracular slit in the fish described by Hoffmann. In the stage with 12 protovertebrse (fig. 78) the intestinal lunpen is continuous from a little ways behind the origin of the chorda to Kupffer’s vesicle, part of which now forms a dilation of the intestine at the posterior end. An anus has not been formed. As will be seen in the chapter on Kupffer’s vesicle, this structure has separated into three parts, only the middle one of which remains connected with the intestine. By an ingrowth of cells similar to that found in the formation of the floor of the anterior part of the intestine, a floor has been formed to Kupflfer’s vesicle and the depression in the yolk separated from the upper parts. A new roof has also been formed for this part of the intestine, separating a dorsal, dome-shaped upper part from the median portion which remains permanently as part of the intestine (fig. 38). The walls of the intestine at this 12-proto vertebrae stage are everywhere two or more cells thick. The lumen does not grow forward to form the mouth until much later, and the cephalic portion with the development of the gills will be described in another chapter. I shall here continue the description of the postcephalic portion, to which growth is mostly restricted at this time. An outline of a larva about 0-9 mm. long, with 15 protovertebrse, is represented in fig. 5. Spermatozoa are now found in large numbers in the intestine, to the walls of which they are seen to cling by their heads. Their tails at this time are fetill very mobile. Large numbers are seen in cross-sections. They have gained entrance through the hyomandibular gill-slit. The anus is probably formed at this time, though I was unable to determine this in living specimens. In a stage with only one addi- tional protovertebra (20) it is certainly open (figs. 86r 136). The thickness of the walls has been reduced to a single layer of cells, except in the region of the gullet, where two layers are frequently found. The cells are highest behind the yolk, and here the nuclei of the cells are nearer the bases of the cells than in other regions (figs. 136, 141, 142). Over the yolk the cells are lower and have the nuclei nearer their center. In the gullet, where the walls are largely two cells deep, the inner layer of cells has become ciliated (not shown in figures). This ciliated region remains an important structure, as will be seen in later stages. In life the cilia are so active that they can not be seen, nor are they very evident in sections. When particles of food VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 455 come in contact with them they are whirled about so that the presence of cilia becomes very evident, in later stages they become conspicuous in sections and smaller cilia seem also to be formed in the wider parts of the intestine, but I have not been able to demonstrate them in sections. Cilia have recently been described in the intestine of fishes by McIntosh and Prince, 1891, p. 772 : “ Many preparations show a lining apparently of cilia, and there is thus great probability that the enteric tract — the oesophageal portion at least — of young teleosteans is ciliated.” The intestine is now a single tube from the hyobranchial slit to the anus, with four well-defined regions : the gill-cavity into which the gill-slit opens, the ciliated gullet, a narrow indifferent region (the future stomach), and the wide hind gut with high columnar cells. Bo far none of the glands to be derived from the enteron have appeared. The liver and air-bladder appear in the stages immediately succeeding the one described in the third region enumerated. The hypophysis and the thyroid gland are derived still later from the lining of the buccal cavity and the hypoblast extending forward from this region. Before describing the further development of the alimentary tract it will be nec- essary to go back and follow the modifications of Kupflfer’s vesicle which, at the last stage described, has disappeared. Historical on alimentary canal. — Hoffmann, 1882, p. 5, found the hypoblast to con- sist of a single layer of spindle-shaped cells whose lateral extent was not equal to that of the mesoderm. He found the tube to be formed from in front backward. In the head region the hypoblast has a great lateral extent, and it is here that two lateral infoldings occur. The second or lower layers so formed grow toward each other till they meet. The two layers lie close upon each other, so that a lumen is not evident from the first. The gills are formed by a still further outgrowth in definite regions and are developed from in front backward. He considers the formation in the region of the ear-capsule peculiar, since the hypoblast which is here folded first of all extends upward so that it lies close to the auditory vesicle. These outpushings move forward later when the gill formation has begun and finally break through to the outside and form a larval spiracle. It soon disappears. In the trunk the intestine is formed by two infoldings, as in the head, but the hypoblast is much more restricted laterally and the intestine consequently much narrower. A lumen does not appear at once, and this is formed in the hind gut first. Agassiz and Whitman, 1884, found the secondary entoderm one cell deep. This is divided into two masses by the chorda, but the two parts unite below the chorda later. About the time the blastopore closes the strip beneath the chorda becomes two or three cells deep. This thickened mass gives rise to the alimentary canal, but how the tube is formed they were unable to say. Henneguy, 1884, found in the trout ( Salmo fario) that at the time of the differen- tiation of the secondary entoderm it is composed of one or two layers of cells. (Later, p. 122, he says three or four.) During a stage with from 12 to 18 protovertebrae, when Kupffer’s vesicle is well formed, the entoderm begins to become infolded below the anterior end of the notochord to form the intestine. The entoderm at this time extends forward to in front of the auditory vesicle. It is raised on each side of a median line, below the auditory vesicle, and it is here that the first infolding becomes evident. The infolding at this time does not extend beyond the anterior third of the 456 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. embryo. The lumen in this region appears when the embryo is 3-2 mm. long and has about 22 somites. In the formation of the gill the hypoblast extends out to the epi blast without any invagination of the latter. The intestine in the anterior portion is formed as I have described it for Gymatogaster. Towards the middle the intestine is said to be formed in a different manner, the hypoblast being raised in the middle line to form a canal bounded below by the periblast. McIntosh and Prince find that in the embryo whose optic vesicles are in process of formation the hypoblast is a thin sheet over the entire ventral surface save at the posterior extremity. Later it becomes a massive cylinder and the oral tract a wide flattened sheet of hypoblast, the pharynx being a separate and later formation than the mesenteron proper. They consider Kupffer’s vesicle as the first indication of the alimentary tube, and it is only in this region that the alimentary tract is ever open to the yolk below. The hypoblast reaches as far as the cardiac region, where it thins out. With the thickening of the hypoblast the embryo is raised from the yolk. Beneath the eyes the hypoblast becomes thickened as two longitudinal ridges. The ventral wall is formed by hypoblast cells pushed in from the side, or of periblast cells. They seem to think that the periblast contributes in some degree to budd up the entire mesenteron. The mid and fore portions are said to form a dense cord, in which a lumen appears later by a forward extension of the posterior enteric chamber. In other words, the lumen is formed from behind forward, the mouth and anus being the last parts formed. The oesophageal portion they found ciliated in later stages. On the thirteenth day the alimentary tract of the gurnard is differentiated into the following- regions: (1) Oral chamber large, but depressed. (2) A wide (esophagus, the lumen of which is a horizontal fissure; from this part the pneumatic duct is given off. (3) An enlarged stomach with the hepatic mass below. (4) A pyloric portion into which the ductus choledochus passes. (5) The intestine. Wilson, 1890, found that the alimentary canal was formed u by a process of folding, essentially akin to that- found in amniota. After the formation of the notochord the entoderm is one cell thick, the cells being uniform. In the trunk region the cells become thicker and a fold rises up at this point, the two sides being separated by a slight slit. In the anterior region there is a fold on each side which grows up and forms the embryonic gill-slits. In the posterior part of the trunk the entoderm becomes thick- ened along the median line” but is not raised up in a fold ; this region is transformed into the postanal gut. Kupffer’s vesicle. — Kupffer’s vesicle, as has been hinted in the preceding pages, has a remarkable history in Gymatogaster. It arises as an up-pushing of the hypo- blast which has previously become columnar, in the posterior part of the embryo when about three protovertebrae have been formed (figs. 67, 68, 70, 73). It later devel ops a floor of hypoblast as usual among fishes. But here comparison must stop. While in teleosts in general it is quite a minute structure* and entirely disappears behind the region of the anus in some teleosts, in Gymatogaster it becomes frequently half the length of the yolk into which it" pushes or eats a large pit and finally is divided into three dis- tinct vesicles, each one of which is larger than the ordinary Kupffer’s vesicle, and each of which has a different history and fate. The middle one remains as an enlargement *In Ctenolabrus it measures 0-03 mm. during its largest stage. In Cymatogaster it reaches a length of 0T3 mm., which is about half the length of the yolk. Its maximum height, exclusive of the depres- sion formed in the yolk, is about 0-05 mm. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 457 of the hind gut, which, however extends even further in later stages, the anus forming some distance behind the original place of the vesicle. The lower one remains for some time as a space in the yolk and the upper one is pushed upward and disappears through a proliferation of the cells of its wall when about fifteen pro tovertebrae have been formed. I will describe the successive phases of this structure as they could be made out by my material. The conditions described by Henneguy for the trout approach nearer those of the middle vesicle of Cymatogaster than any others made known so far. As stated above, Kupffer’s vesicle makes its appearance early ; when three proto- vertebrae have been formed it is a well-defined structure. Before this stage it has not been seen. At this time it is a broad, short, low space between the yolk and the hypoblast, a short distance behind the end of the notochord. The hypoblast cells form- ing its roof are high columnar. The greater part of the floor is composed of the yolk, but in a few places cells are also found on the floor of the vesicle, but these are not regularly arranged. (Longitudinal sections 67, 68, 70; cross-section, fig. 73.) The columnar arrangement of the hypoblast cells is continued forward for some distance in front of the vesicle. The antero posterior extent of the vesicle is much less than its lateral extent. The outer angles of the vesicle are pushed slightly upward and out- ward, giving the roof an angular appearance and greatly resembling the conditions of the gills in slightly older larvae. For these reasons I at first considered this stage of Kupffer’s vesicle as the first indication of the lumen of the alimentary canal in the region of the gills. In a larva with ten protovertebrae it has become a large shallow subcircular cavity in the entoderm and is still floored by the yolk. From its roof a small dome- shaped cavity extends still deeper into the indifferent or hypoblastic mass of cells forming this part-of the larva. The contour of the yolk is not affected by the vesicle (fig. 75). The cells in the tail of this larva are somewhat disarranged, so that the relations of the vesicle with the surrounding structure can not be definitely made out. It is, however, only in this region that the entoderm and yolk are not in close contact. The lumen of the intestine has nowhere appeared as yet. The larva at this time forms an almost complete circle around the yolk. As the larva is straightened out and the lumen of the intestine is formed, and even before any lumen appears (fig. 76), Kupfifer’s vesicle enlarges rapidly. The arrangement of the entoderm cells in front of the vesicle shows that it is from the first an enlarged por- tion of the alimentary tract, which remains without a floor long after a floor is formed in all other parts. At this time the vesicles differ greatly in shape in different speci- mens, but all the larvae examined show the following structure: First. A low cavity in the entoderm with considerable lateral extent. Its dorsal wall of columnar hypoblast is a direct continuation of the roof of the alimentary tract. Second. A dome-shaped cavity usually in the anterior half of the vesicle extending dorsad (figs. 76, 77, 144). This dome-shaped portion, which was evident in the earlier stage, forms, as will be seen later, the lower half of the neurenteric canal. Up to this stage the vesicle is formed exclusively at the expense of the entoderm which surrounds it above and on the sides, and frequently forms a floor at the margin of the vesicle. The contour of the yolk has not been affected. Over the center of the dome the cells are usually somewhat irregularly placed as compared with those of its sides, but a neurenteric canal I have not been able to find in this stage. 458 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. With the further growth of the vesicle the yolk is usually infringed upon (fig. 145). Whether this is accomplished by the absorption of a part of the yolk, or whether it is simply crowded down, I am not able to say. I am inclined to believe that it is pushed down by the contents of the vesicle; otherwise the rearrangement of the yolk particles would soon fill up the gap made by absorption. However, in later stages of yolk absorption (fig. 136) the yolk is frequently eaten into in very much the same way without any apparent rearrangement of its parts. After the vesicle has reached its largest size it acquires a cellular floor which corresponds with the original outline of the yolk (fig. 146). The vesicle is thus cut in two, a larger yolk vesicle and an upper vesicle which forms the enlarged portion of the hind end of the intestine. The cellular floor seems to be formed by an ingrowth from all sides. Both sagittal and transverse sections show that in earlier stages hypoblast cells extend in below the margin of the vesicle. These would simply have to extend still further centripetally to form a floor for the whole vesicle. The depres- sion in the yolk is at the same, time converted into a spherical vesicle, which may be termed the yolk vesicle. It is sometimes partially filled with a brightly staining sub- stance, and as it is quite evident in entire specimens (figs. 84 to 86) I supposed it to be the yolk nucleus before I examined sections and learned the fate of that structure. In one larva the yolk vesicle was found at the ventral side of the yolk (fig. 85). The yolk vesicle remains longer than Kupfifer’s vesicle, and in fact the intestine extends some distance beyond it before it disappears. There seems to be no regularity in its disappearance, and probably no importance attaches to it after it is separated from the main vesicle. The cellular floor of the vesicle rapidly thickens as the tail begins to grow out, while its communication with the alimentary canal is maintained (fig. 147). The dome-shaped part is probably constricted off at this time (12 protovertebrae), and the remainder of the vesicle is reduced to the caliber of the rest of the alimentary tract. My sections tell conflicting stories about the exact processes. Figure 78 shows an irreg- ular cavity at the end of the mesenteron, which I consider the remains of the main vesicle. This cavity is connected by an area of disconnected cells with a vesicle lying dorsad of it. Figure 148, on the other hand, in which the tail is not as long as in figure 78, shows a dilation of the intestine dorsad, at the end of which lies a triangular cavity. It would appear that a part of the body of the original vesicle had been con- stricted off with the dome. The same appears to be true of figure 149. In both these larvae the cells below this cavity are disarranged. The connection of this dorsal cavity, or vesicle, with the alimentary canal is now represented by the disarranged cells only. The two different structures, vesicle and disarranged cells, may, however, be harmonized. The dorsal vesicle disappears by the proliferation of cells from its wall into its cavity. These cells would at first be expected to be arranged somewhat differently from those in the older structure. In figure 78, which represents the older condition, the process has gone far enough to obliterate all of the body of the vesicle which had remained with the dome. Neurenteric canal. — Several of the larvae described above leave no doubt as to the meaning of the dome-shaped structure of Kupfifer’s vesicle. It is part of the neurenteric canal. In all late stages, as in figure 148, there are fewer cells above the neurenteric canal than in neighboring regions, and in several cases a tubular connec- tion undoubtedly exists between the remains of the dorsal vesicle and the neural region. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 459 In three cases (78, 148, 149) the dorsal portion is wholly or partly filled with cells. This is especially well seen in fig. 78, where the boundaries of the dorsal half of the canal are as well marked as those of the ventral half, but in which the dorsal half contains cells. The same is true of another larva (fig. 148), but in this instance the walls of the dorsal half are not so well defined. In another larva (fig. 149) a narrow but well-defined canal extends from the remains of the vesicle upward and then curves forward. This is probably only the posterior wall of the neurenteric canal. More or less well-defined lines extend from the anterior portion of the dome upward. The same condition can be traced in series of transverse sections. There seems then to be but little room for doubt about this structure. All the evidence indicates that in part at least it is the neurenteric canal.* Kupffer’s vesicle in general. — Kupffer’s vesicle is evidently a rudimentary struc- ture, without function in the majority of fishes. Several quite distinct views have been held as to the significance of this structure. Kupffer, who first described it, and recently Henneguy, considered it to be the allantois of higher vertebrates. Balfour homologized it with the postanal vesicle of elasmobranchs. Cunningham, Ziegler, McIntosh and Prince, consider it to represent the invagi- nated gastrula (archenteron) of cyclostomes and plagiostomes. Kowalewski holds in the main to the same opinion. Henneguy formerly considered it the homologue of the primitive intestine of cyclostomes and amphibians. Many others who have seen the structure are non- committal as to its significance. The variety of opinions may in part be due to the variation of this structure in different fishes, for there is no doubt about the variability of the vesicle. It is difficult to see how a waning structure can represent a condition that has not appeared before phylogenetically and does not appear till in much higher vertebrates. I can not see how it can represent the allantois. Cunningham’s theory is based on the presence of a canal between the vesicle and the blastopore. This canal is certainly not present in Cymatogaster , where the vesicle does not appear till long after the blastopore is closed. Wilson considers the early stages homologous with the terminal part of the archen- teron of amphibians and the later stages homologous with the postanal vesicle of elasmobranchs. The fact that in the majority of fishes it arises long before the alimentary canal and disappears, or at least diminishes, before the alimentary canal is formed argues against its homology with the postanal vesicle of elasmobranchs. It must be con- ceded, however, that in fishes the alimentary canal is late in making its appearance as compared with elasmobranchs. The alimentary tract is retarded in teleosts for some reason or other. The caudal vesicle is functionless in elasmobranchs and the * I want to point out here the possibility that the neurenteric vesicle alone represents the caudal vesicle of other teleosts, and that its connection with the lower oart of the vesicle which is converted into the hind gut is after all due to the precocious development of the hind gut, which thus extends past the region of the original Kupffer’s vesicle before the growth of the tail has carried the latter farther hack. In that case the postanal gut would be represented by the dorsal wall of the hind gut; i. e., the region between the hind gut and the neurenteric vesicle. This would account for the fact that I have not been able to find any other structure which might be homologized with the postanal gut frequently described for teleosts. The lower or main part of the vesicle may then be looked upon as the arclientei’ic cavity. 460 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. causes which brought about a retardation of the functional intestine would not neces- sarily affect the functionless postanal section. It thus happens that the postanal vesicle in teleosts appears as Kupffer’s vesicle before any lumen is formed in the intestine. In Serranus , at least, it lies at the end of a postanal gut. In the trout, according to Henneguy, and in Cymatogaster it is at least in part incorporated in the intestine. Kupffer’s vesicle is, moreover, the only part of the intestine raised from the yolk before a floor is acquired. [In Serranus (Wilson, 1890) this raised portion is not con- fined to Kupffer’s vesicle.] Kupffer’s vesicle, in Cymatogaster at least, is more than the postanal vesicle of elasmobranchs. The archenteron, the postanal vesicle, and neurenteric canal all seem represented by it. In Cymatogaster it is seen that a part of this vesicle is for a time the direct con- tinuation of the alimentary tube and that during this time a narrow slit (neurenteric canal) extends upward from its anterior half. This upward extension is formed in Ctenolabrus , according to Agassiz and Whitman, at the closing of the blastopore. But the condition described by them I have never been able to see in any of the pelagic eggs examined by me. If we consider a part of the vesicle the homologue of the postanal vesicle of elasrao- branchs it remains to be shown why in Cymatogaster it forms part of the permanent intestine. The cause is not far to seek. The embryo, in the first place, is shortened on account of the small yolk at the periphery of which it is formed, the tail being repre- sented by a large knob of undifferentiated cells. On the other hand, the alimentary canal is precociously developed, owing to viviparity, and the whole of the hypoblastic area is utilized in forming the permanent alimentary tract. Agassiz and Whitman (1884) traced Kupffer’s vesicle in several species of pelagic eggs. In the formation they found what Kingsley and Conn had already well described. It u arises by the fusion or confluence of a cluster of granules. * * * In Ctenolabrus the granules appear soon after the embryonic ring passes the equator, when the length of the embryo is about four-fifths of the diameter of the ovum. Its maximum diameter when fully formed is seldom more than 0-03 mm. During its formation, till it reaches its maximum size, it lies beneath the chorda and the entodermic stratum and has no sort of relation with any tubular structure whatever. * * Yentrally and laterally it is bounded by periblast material. * * * It grows smaller after the closure of the blasto- pore, and during this period in a number of species it rises from the periblast into the entoderm, where it vanishes.” Behind this they have found a variable number of secondary caudal vesicles. Henneguy (1889) describes some of the distinguishing phases of Kupffer’s vesicle in the trout (Salmo fario.) (He first described it as early as 1880.) The first indications of a modification in the region of the future vesicle were noticed very early and the vesicle itself was quite large when but two or three protovertebrae had been formed. The cells in this region are larger than the others and are undergoing division. There are but few of these cylindrical cells, and they are in contact with the periblast, and later one sees’ “une invagination se produise dans l’embryon pour former la vesicule.” This mass of cells is the first indication of Kupffer’s vesicle. Its growth must be quite rapid, for it is 0T1 mm. long and 0-09 wide when but two or three protovertebrae are formed, and occupies u la place de la corde dorsale,” i. e., it is entirely surrounded by hypoblast. It lies just in front of the caudal swelling “au point ou commence a se differencier le mesoderm.” He points out that it differs in its position in the entoderm VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 461 -from the condition usually prevailing in fishes where it projects into the vitellus. He then states that this difference is of no importance (1881), for in a later stage the vesicle “peut faire saillie hors de I’embryon” and thus become as in other fishes. In other words, the process described by Agassiz and Whitman is here said to be inverted. In a stage with twenty-two protovertebrae it is figured as the enlarged posterior end of the alimentary canal. It would here, then, permanently form a part of the intestine, and in this respect agree with the middle vesicle in Cymatogaster. It elongates antero- posteriorly and becomes pyriform. It comes directly in contact with the nervous thickening above. It is only the first indication of the digestive tube. It is important on account of its relation with the nervous system and the notochord and the region corresponds to the region of the neurenteric canal of other vertebrates. He has never found a canal leading to the exterior. He considers the opinion of Kingsley and Conn, Agassiz and Whitman, Cunningham, Ziegler, that the vesicle lies between the periblast and the hypoblast, to be based on an error of observation. Frequently there exists below the vesicle or in its neighborhood a hemispherical depression in the surface of the vitellus. (It is possible that in this case the vesicle divides into two, a yolk vesicle and the intestinal vesicle seen in Cymatogaster.) He thinks the original opinion of Kupffer may still be defended when one considers that it is the first indication of the alimentary canal in the neurenteric region and that the allantois of higher vertebrates is but a diverticulum of the intestine appearing very early in front of the neurenteric canal. In Serranus, according to Wilson, the vesicle appears as an up-pushing of the hypoblast, which had previously become colummar, and a down-pushing of the periblast. It disappears by the proliferation of cells from its own walls. It is formed some distance behind the future anus and lies in the postanal gut. In this respect it greatly resembles the postanal vesicle of elasmobranchs, with which it is homologous. “Before Kupffer’s vesicle is folded off it represents the terminal dilatation of the archenteron itself, and in this phase is to be compared with the dilated posterior extremity of the archenteron in certain amphibian gastrulas.” McIntosh and Prince (1890) observed the vesicleiu a number of species. They find that it arises, as Kingsley and Conn have described, by the union of a number of granules or small vesicles. They found secondary vesicles quite frequently, some- times extending “all along the ventral line almost to the pectoral region.” Its contents are usually homogeneous and clear, though granules are occasionally present. They claim to have traced a neurenteric canal from the vesicle to the blastopore at the time the latter closes. Formation of liver and air bladder , mouth , thyroid gland , and hypophysis.— In a preceding chapter the intestine was described from its first appearance until, in larvae 1 mm. long, it forms a simple tube from the hyobranchial gill-slit to the anus. In the stages succeeding that the rudiments of the liver and of the air-bladder make their appearance. Parts of the tract are at the same time otherwise modified. In larvae 1-8 mm. long (figs. 150, 156, 157) the intestine is broad and depressed just behind the hyobranchial slit, and its walls are composed of ciliated cells 18 p high. In the roof the nuclei of the cells are slightly nearer the free ends of the cells and nearly all are on the same level. In the floor there are besides this layer of cells a few scattered ones among the bases of the others (figs. 156, 157). Towards the back part of the gullet the lumen 462 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. becomes narrower and higher, and the cells at the same time lose their great height and their cilia; just behind the gill swelling the lumen is subcircular or horizontally oval. Its walls are composed of a single layer of cells but 5 pi high. Still farther back the lumen becomes vertically oval, and the cells of the floor lose their columnar nature and multiply so that a thickened floor is formed. The change in shape of the lumen (159 and 160) is due to a longitudinal groove, shallow in front, becoming deeper behind, abruptly stopping still farther back just in front of the hind gut. Behind this place the lumen is again contracted. This ventral groove and thickening of the floor is the rudiment of the liver. The region through which this groove extends is quite extensive, reaching through 19 sections of the 85, making up the entire length of the intestine, or through almost the entire region from the ciliated gullet to the hind gut (fig. 162). A short distance behind the pronephros another thickening appears in the walls of the intestine, this time in the roof, which is at the same time extended later- ally (fig. 160). This upper thickening is not so extensive, reaching through 10 sec- tions and extending in the early condition as far back as the lower mass. This upper thickening is the rudiment of the air bladder. The mesoderm surrounding the ali- mentary tract in these regions is also considerably thicker than in other regions. At the beginning of the ventral groove the lumen of the intestine has a diameter of 45//, the cells a height of 9 //, At the end of the groove the lumen has a diameter of 68 ju, and the cells lining it have a height of 13//. Just behind the groove the height of the lumen is again reduced to 45/./. From this point the intestine rapidly widens till it reaches a diameter of 160// (fig. 161). The cells lining this portion are 22// high. Just in front of the anus the lumen becomes a vertical slit and the inner layer of the ectoderm becomes reinforced along the ventral line to form a keel. For four sections the anus is a vertical slit, the sides of which flare outward below. Behind the slit it is continued as a median groove with equally flaring sides, on the crests of which the nephridial ducts empty. On either side of the vertical portion of the intestine, just in front of the anus, the splanchnic and the somatic mesoblast are united in a solid mass in which the sex cells are embedded. Behind the anus a short, solid cord of hypoblast extends into the tail, between the aorta and the caudal vein. In older larvae the ridges behind the anus meet in the median line and the segmental ducts thus come to empty in the median line. The relations of the liver to the air-bladder in older larvae may be gathered from figs. 162 and 163. Their further development in a larva 2v5 mm. long is shown in fig. 165, where the gall-bladder has begun to develop. In larvae a little over 3 mm. long, the thyroid gland aud the hypophysis are well along in their development. These larvae measured 3-2 mm. after hardening, and were probably longer in life. The intestine (figs. 166 to 174) has not changed much except in the regions of the gills. The lumen extends forward to in front of the thyroid gland. Anterior to this point the two layers of hypoblast cells are still in contact with each other. The mouth has, however, become evident laterally, as will be seen from fig. 169. The anterior opening of the intestine is still the hyobranchial gill-slit. The ciliated gullet has now reached its full development. In the entire gill region the intestine is depressed; its width decreases in this region from 181// to 112. Behind the gullet it dwindles to a diameter of but 22//; in the hind gut it reaches 136. In the anterior gill region the walls of the enteron are less than 4// thick aud consist of a layer of pavement cells unquestionably of hypoblast origin and of a layer of very thin cells (fig. 172). This thinner layer I take to be ectodermal cells VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 463 migrated in through the gill-slit. In the ciliated gullet the cells are 22/u high. On the roof this tract extends farther caudad than on the floor, where it does not extend beyond the gill thickenings. The walls of the mid gut are again of a low epithelial nature, while the cells lining the hind gut are of quite another nature. They are high and the small nucleus is situated near the base of the cells, where the contents are slightly granular. The center of the cells is a large unstainable space very variable in size. The free ends of the cells are again granular. Some of these cells contain deeply stained bodies similar to those found in the lumen, and it seems very probable that these bodies have been swallowed by the cell and are in process of reduction by intracellular digestion. At the anus the epithelium of the roof of the intestine is continuous with that of the floor of the combined segmental ducts. The cells of the floor of the intestine are continuous with those of the ventral surface. The segmental duct empties just behind the anus and not into a cloaca or iuto the intestine. In an earlier stage it was noticed that the mouth was first indicated just behind the eye. The conditions obtaining in larvae of this stage are shown in figs. 167 to 171 (3-2 mm.); the mouth is essentially like the other gills, especially the spiracular, and agrees in all major points with the condition described by Dohrn. That is, the mouth is further developed laterally than medially and some distance behind the point where it attains its full development. In the larvae 1mm. long I was unable to trace the hypoblast cells much beyond the notochord. In other words the alimentary tract begins in the hyobranchial region in those larvae. It soon extends forward in the median line and, as far as I could determine, the outgrowth of hypoblast to form the hyomandibular slit takes place later than that to form the hyobranchial. In larvae 1-8 mm. long the hypoblast extends outward to the ectoderm just behind the eye. This I have identified as the first indication of the future mouth (figs. 154, 181). In these larvae the hypoblast does not yet extend to the anterior end, and the mouth is a strictly bilateral structure. The hyomandibular evagination is separated from the mouth evagination by a more restricted region of hypoblast (fig. 153). This evagina- tion does not differ materially from the mouth evagination. In each case the ectoderm is two layers thick where the hypoblast touches it. But one of the gill evaginations has been completed and the second is in process of formation (figs. 150 and 151). The details of the completion of the mouth have not been traced. It is not functional when the larvte are 4 mm. long and in fact the lumen does not extend forward any farther than in the 3 mm. larvae. The mouth is completed shortly after the larvae have reached 4 mm. This late- ness of the appearance of the mouth seems to me to be one of the most remarkable circumstances connected with the development of the alimentary tract. Thus while the intestine becomes functional when the larvae have reached a length of 1 mm. the mouth is not formed till they are over 4 mm. long — not in fact till the liver has long been functional, the air-bladder well developed — not till all the glands derived from the hypoblast are well developed. Not only is the mouth late in appearing but the whole canal from the gill-cavity forward is also late in forming. While this may be due to retardation, since ingress to the canal is had through the first gill-cleft, the conditions impress one with the suggestion of Dohrn that the present mouth of verte- brates is not the original mouth, but is of comparatively late origin. How one struc- ture may replace another as a mouth is well illustrated by Cymatogaster , where a new structure, the hyobranchial gill-cleft, functions as a mouth for a long time. It would 464 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. need but continued conditions, such as exist in the ovary for the hyobranchial cleft, to entirely replace the present mouth. To discover where the primitive mouth was is quite another question. We may assume that it opened into, the gill-cavity in the region of the first gill-slit, since here a lumen exists long before it is formed forward. In this connection a strand of hypoblast cells extending up from the wall of the intestine in the median line just in front of the chorda becomes of great interest. It is indicated quite early (fig. 152), or as soon as the lumen is continuous from the .gill- slit to the anus, and it is still striking in larvae over 3 mm. long (fig. 166), after which it gradually disappears. This structure is not connected with the gills nor have I been able to connect it with the history of any other structure. This strand of hypoblast cells may indeed be the vestige of the primitive gullet. I have so far not been able to trace it through or even into the brain. The thyroid gland and the hypophysis make their appearance when the larvae are about 1-8 mm. long. The thyroid appears as a thickening in the ventral layer of hypoblast just in front of the anterior end of the heart (figs. 1716 and 171c). The hypophysis is somewhat different from the start. The cells of the roof become columnar and several layers thick and a refold is formed. This condition is well demonstrated in fig. 166. Shortly afterward the infolded cells are constricted off from the rest of the hypoblast and lie as an independent structure at the base of the brain (fig. 177). Gills. — The formation of the first gill-slit has been described in connection with the intestine, and the hyomandibular and mandibular slits have also been considered. It remains now to trace the formation of the posterior slits. Soon after the formation of the hyobranchial a thickened mass is formed behind it; this mass extends out beyond the outline of the body of the embryo, and owing to its well-defined limits is con- spicuous in the living larva (figs. 83-91) as well as in sections. (Figs. 137, 139, 150-157, 172 to 174.) This mass is largely composed of mesoblastic cells. It grows very rapidly and from it are derived the skeleton and the soft parts of the gill-arches. The gill-clefts arise as pouches extending out from the entoderm. These may be met by shallow ingrowths of ectoderm (fig. 150, hr. 8). The pouches are formed from the hyobranchial backward. They seem to be somewhat irregular at first and hollow (figs. 151 and 156), but later the layers of hypoblast forming them are closely appressed, all the space between them having disappeared. The second is forming when the larva is about 1 mm. long (figs. 136 and 137); the third when it has reached a length of 1-8 mm. These measurements are after hardening; the living larvm were probably somewhat longer. The fifth slit is nearly completed at 2-5 mm. Though the slits are potentially completed so early, the t«svo layers of hypoblast composing them are not separated from each other till the larvae have attained twice this length. They are seen to be sepa- rating in a larva 4 mm. (fig. 137). The slits are not vertical, but extend downward and forward. In the early stages the thickened mass containing the rudiments of the gills are entirely lateral. Below there is but a single layer of mesoderm (139). After the potential slits have been formed the mesoderm between them grows downward and forward till it reaches neai'ly the median line in larvm a little over 3 mm. long. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 465 SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS. 1. Copulation takes place in June or early July. This statement is based on the fact that the testes of the male are very much enlarged at this time and on the fact that the ovaries from now on are filled with spermatozoa. The act of copulation has not been observed. 2. The secondary sexual differences are considerable — among them may be men- tioned a small gland or bag on either side of the anal of the male. From it extends a papilla forward to beyond the anterior margin of the fin. 3. The spermatozoa have a long rod-shaped head in place of the globular one usual in fishes. 4. The spermatozoa remain dormant in the ovary till December, when they become exceedingly active. 5. The eggs mature and are fertilized between November 1 and February 1, the largest fishes maturing the eggs earliest, the next in size a little later, and the smallest individuals last. 6. Those spermatozoa not utilized in fertilization remain in the ovary for several weeks longer. They are finally eaten by the larvae when the digestive tract of the latter has been sufficiently developed. 7. During the early stages of gestation the females remain in shallow water; males are then rarely seen. Later they become scarce, but near the time the young are freed and shortly afterwards they are again found in shallow water. 8. The largest ovarian eggs measure about 0-3 mm. in diameter. During the process of maturation the egg contents shrink to a diameter of 0*2 mm., or to less than one-third of its maximum size. 9. The egg of this fish ( Cymatogaster aggregatus) is 130 times smaller than the normal fish egg, which has an average diameter of 1 mm. 10. This small size is largely if not entirely due to the nouformation of deutoplasm. 11. The egg is fertilized while still in the follicle. Some sections show the extru- sion of the second polar globule and the presence of the male pronucleus in an egg still surrounded by the cells of the follicle. The latter have begun to degenerate. 12. The development begins after the egg has been freed from the follicle. Eggs with 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 cells, as well as many later stages, were found free in the ovary. 13. Neither the developing eggs nor the young are in later stages at any time con- nected with the parent, nor is the position of these in relation to the ovarian structures a fixed one. 14. The duration of gestation is probably five months and the number of young from 3 to 20, according to the size of the parent. In less than a year after birth the young are gravid. % 15. The food of the young is supplied by the epithelium of the ovary. The cells enlarge and become clear, when they collapse, their contents are emptied into the lumen of the ovary, and the framework of the cells soon follows. When the intestine begins its work the spermatozoa serve as part of the food. The ovary at no time was observed to contain more fluids than the peritoneal cavity. (In other species con- siderable fluid is sometimes present.) Before the development of the alimentary tract the ovarian fluid is probably appropriated by a process of iutracellular digestion on the part of the epidermal cells. F. C. B. 1892 30 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 466 10. The yolk is a waning structure aud can scarcely be taken into consideration in accounting for the growth of early stages. 17. During the whole of gestation respiration is carried on by the osmotic action between the general surface aud the closely applied ovarian structures. When the alimentary tract is opened a current is kept flowing through it and aeration is, in all probability, effected by the alimentary tract. In later stages the fins become highly vascular aud doubtless serve both for purposes of aeration aud food absorption. 18. There is present in the eutodermic pole of the developing egg a body the like of which has not beeu observed in any other egg. It consists of a mass of protoplasm imbedded in the yolk. It is dissolved near the time of the closing of the blastopore. Mr. J. W. Hubbard, one of my students, has connected its history with that of the yolk nucleus, which is a conspicuous structure in the ovaries of adult fishes in eggs from 20 /< up to maturity. It is a general extrusion from the nucleus of the young ovum, and probably represents the histogeuetic or somatic portion of the nucleus, and this in part at least corresponds to the macronucleus of ciliate infusoria. 19. Before segmentation begins the whole of the germ is separated from the deuto- plasm. The first cleavage plane extends entirely through the germ to the yolk before the second cleavage begins. 20. A segmentation cavity is not formed during segmentation, but appears later by a separation of the ectoderm and entoderm. 21. The third cleavage plane is not parallel with the first, as is usual in fishes, but is semiequatorial. This has nothing to do with the horizontal cleavage claimed to have been seen by Hoffmann and by Brook. It is taken to be a pseudoreversion to primitive methods of segmentation, with the reservation that this condition is not perfectly homologous with the third segmentation of the frog or Branchiostoma and would not be, had the yolk entirely disappeared. 22. The periblast is formed from a few of the marginal cells. Like the yolk it is a waning structure. Only about 12 cells are ever formed. They take no part whatever in the formation of the embryo. All of them persist as long as a trace of the yolk is left. It, with the final part of the yolk, is absorbed by the blood of the sinus venosus. The liver has nothing to do with its final absorption, as Wilson has claimed, but simply mechanically incloses the nuclei above and behind. 23. During an early stage of segmentation some of the marginal cells of the blas- toderm creep over the yolk till they nearly, if not entirely, cover it. 24. Before gastrulation the yolk sinks into the mass of the blastoderm, the cells of which rearrange themselves about it and nearly inclose it. 25. The gastrula is finally formed by a process of delamination of entoderm from ectoderm and is completely diplastic and symmetrical, the blastopore closing at the entodermic pole of the e^g. 26. Before any other organs become evident the sex cells become conspicuous. Their fate I have discussed elsewhere. 27. The earliest stages of the formation of the embryo have not been clearly made out with the material at hand. It is, however, certain that in one of the figures published by me in the “Journal of Morphology,” I mistook the tail for the head. The conditions are extremely similar to those found in the mammalian embryos, except that the central cavity is filled with yolk instead of fluid. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 467 28. The mesoderm is formed by a process of delamination from the entoderm. It is formed as two sheets and over the whole of the entoderm exclusive of the axial line. 29. The young fish is freed from its membrane in a very immature condition. It completely encircles the yolk ; in fact the head and the tail overlap. It is incapable of motion at this time and indeed the cells which will form the muscles have scarcely become differentiated. The hatching process is due to the growth of the embryo and not to its activity, as is usually the case. The fin-folds do not appear till much later. 30. Kupffer’s vesicle appears very early and is very large. It consists when fully formed of a dome-shaped roof over a large cavity surrounded on the sides by entoderm. It at first rests on the yolk, but soon the yolk is forced down and presents a deep impression just beneath the vesicle. Later the vesicle is divided into three distinct cavities. The upper dome-shaped portion persists for some time and probably repre- sents parts of the neurenteric canal. The middle portion remains for some time as an enlarged part of the intestine. The lowest portion is the cavity formed in the yolk. It has acquired a roof by the ingrowth of the entoderm cells to form the floor of the intestine. This cavity usually remains for a considerable time. 31. The entoderm at first extends over the entire yolk. It later becomes restricted to a comparatively narrow strip along the axial line. 32. The floor of the alimentary canal is formed by the ingrowth below of the mar- ginal cells of the entoderm. The ingrowth progresses from in front back. A lumen is not formed at once. The lumen is formed in the hind gut and in the gill region at the same time and gives abundant evidence that the alimentary tract is bilateral. The middle anterior part remains a solid mass of cells after the lumen has appeared both in front and behind this tract. 33. The anterior opening of the alimentary canal to the exterior is through the gill-slit in larvae 1 mm. in length, i. e., long before the mouth is formed. The first food enters through this gill-slit. The food current before the fish can swallow is kept up by a very highly ciliated gullet which extends from behind the gill region to near the hind gut. 34. The mouth does not appear till the larva has increased 3 mm., i. e., to a length of about 4 mm., and during all this time the hyobranchial gill-slit functions as mouth. There is here found a condition similar to the one supposed by Dohrn to explain the replacement of the annelid mouth by a gill mouth. 35. Just in front of the notochord and near the region of the hyobranchial slit a strand of hypoblast cells extends up from the median portion of the alimentary tract to above the notochord. This strand of hypoblast cells lies in the region where Dohrn supposes the annelid oesophagus to have disappeared. 36. The hind gut soon becomes enormously enlarged and later a large number of long villi are developed. 37. The larvae retain as an ancestral trait a large yolk sack, the yolk being quite minute. The sack is largely taken up by the large pericardium through which the long tubular heart extends from below and behind, upward and forward. 38. In conclusion: The fish in almost all its stages has become highly specialized. Many stages resemble very closely primitive conditions, but the conditions can prob- ably in but few cases be looked upon as a simple reversion. Its development has, on the other hand, become extremely ichthyized and its egg stands at the end of the chain of eggs in which the BrancMostoma egg, the Elasmobrancli egg, and the norma 7 fish egg form links. 468 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE VIVIPAROUS FISHES. Below is given a list of all the papers which have a direct bearing on the vivip- arous fishes of California, together with such others as directly or indirectly relate to their embryology : Agassiz, Alexander, 1861. Notes on the described species of Holconoti, found on the western coast of North America. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v.'8, 122-134, 1861. Agassiz, A., & Whitman, C. O., 1884. On thb development of some pelagic fish eggs. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., v. xx, 23-75, •pi. I. Agassiz, L., 1853. Extraordinary fishes from California, constituting a new family. Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts, vol. xvi, 2d series, Nov., 1853, and Archiv Naturg., 1853, B. 1, 149-162. 1854. Notice of a collection of fishes from the southern bend of the Tennessee River, in the State of Alabama. Appendix, Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts, vol. xvn, 365-369, May, 1854, and Archiv Naturg., 1855, B. 1, 30-34. 1855. On a Viviparous Fish from Japan. Proc. Am. Acad.- Arts aDd Sci., v. 3, 2fct, 1855. Ayers, William O., 1854. Description of two new species of Sebastes. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., v. i, 5, 6, 1854. 1854a. Description of new species of fish. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., v. i, 7,8, 1854. 18546. New species of California fishes. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 5, 94-103, Dec., 1854, and Feb., 1855. 1859. On new fishes of the California coast. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., v. 2, 25-32, 1859. 1863. Statement in regard to Sebastodes rosaceus, S. ruber. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., v. 2, 207, Jan., 1863. 1863a. Description of fishes believed to he new. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., v. 2, 209-211, Jan., 1863. 18636. . Remarks in relation to the fishes of California which are included in Cuvier’s genus Sebastes. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., v. 2, 211-218, 1863. 1863c. Notes on the Sebastoid fishes occurring on the coast of California. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1863, 390-402. Balfour, Francis M., 1885. A treatise on comparative embryology. London, 1885. Van Bambeke, Ch., 1883. Contributions k l’histoire de la constitution de l’ceuf. Bull. Acad. Bolg. 52e ann€e, 3e sdrie, tome VI, No. 12. 1893. Contributions a l’histoire de la constitution de l’oeuf, ii, 1. c., OS'" annde, 3e serie, tome xxv, No. 4. Bean, Tarleton H., 1883. Notes on a collection of fishes made in 1882-1883, by Capt. Henry E. Nichols, U. S. N., in Alaska and British Columbia, etc. Proc. U. S. N. M. 1883, vol. 6, 353-361. Blake, James, 1867. On the nourishment of the foetus in the Embiotocoid fishes. Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci., v. 3, 314-317, 1867. 1867a. On the organs of copulation in the male of the Embiotocoid fishes. Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci., v. 3, 371, 372, 1868: 1868. Nourishment of the foetus in Embiotocoid fishes. Journ. Anat. and Physiol., v. 2, 280-282. 1868a. On the anal fin appendage of Embiotocoid fishes. Journ. Anat. and Physiol., v. 3, 30-32, pi. 2, figs.'l and 2, 1868. Brevoort, James Carson, 1856. Notes on some figures of Japanese fish, taken from recent specimens by the artists of the U. S. Japan Expedition. 33d Congress, 2d session, House of Representatives, Ex. Doc. No. 97, 1856. Brook, 1886. The Formation of the Germinal Layers in TeleosteA. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh. Bumpus, H. C. 1891. The embryology of the American lobster. Journal of Morphology, v. Clapp, Cornelia M. Some points in the development of the toadfish. Journal of Morphology, vol. v, p. 494. Cooper, J. G., 1868. The Natural Wealth of California. Chapter vii, 487-498, San Francisco, 1868 Dohrn, Anton. Studien zur Urgescliichte des Wirbelthierkorpers, i-xvi. Duvernoy, 1844. Ann. des Sc. Nat., t. i, 3d ser., p. 313. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 469 Eigenmann, C. H. and R. S., 1888. Notes on some California fishes. Proc. U. S. N. M., v. 11, 363-466. 1889. Contributions from the San Diego Biological Laboratory. West Amer. Scientist, June, 1889. 1889a. Notes from the San Diego Biological Laboratory, i. The fishes of Cortes Banks. West Amer. Scientist, October. 1889. 18896. Notes from the San Diego Biological Laboratory, n. a. Additions to the fauna of Cortes Bank. 6. Additions to the fauna of San Diego, with notes on some rare species. 1. c., Nov., 1889. 1890. Notes from the San Diego Biological Laboratory, hi. Additions to the Fauna of San Diego. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., 2d ser., v. hi, 1-24. Eigenmann, C. H., 1889. On the development of California food-fishes. Am. Naturalist, March, 1889. 1890. The Development of Micrometrus aggregatus, one of the viviparous surf perches. Read at a meeting of the San Diego Medical Society, reported for the San Diego Union, and reprinted in Am. Nat., October, 1889 (published March 12, 1890). 1892. On the precocious segregation of the sex cells in Micrometrus aggregatus Gibbons. Journal of Morphology, v. 481-492, pi. xxi, Feb., 1892. 1892a. A catalogue of the fishes of the West Coast of North America, north of Cerros Island. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., June 13, 1892. 18926. The Fishes of San Diego. Proc. U. S. N. M., June, 1892. Gage, S. H. Life-history of the vermilion-spotted newt. Amer. Naturalist, Dec., 1891. Gibbons, W. P., 1854. Description of four new species of viviparous fishes from Sacramento River and the Bay of San Francisco. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., v. 7, 105, 106, 1854. 1854a. Description of new species of viviparous marine and fresh-water fishes from the Bay of San Francisco and from the river and lagoons of the Sacramento. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., v. 7, 122-126, July, 1854, and Archiv. Naturg., 1855, B. 1, 331-341. Gill, Theodore, 1861. Notes on some genera of fishes of the Western Coast of North America. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1861, v. 13, 164-168. 1862. On the limits and arrangement of the family of Scombroids. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1862, 124-127. 1862a. Notice of a collection of the fishes of California, presented to the Smithsonian Institution by Mr. Samuel Hubbard. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1862, 274-282. 1863. On an unnamed generic type allied to Sebastes (Sebastoplus Gill). Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1863, 207-209. 1864. Description of a new labroid genus allied to Trochocopus Gthr. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.Phila. 1864, v. 16, 57-59. 1864a. Critical remarks on the genera Sebastes and Sebastodes of Ayres. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1864, v. 16, 145-147. Girard, Charles, 1854. Description of new fishes, collected by Dr. D. L. Heermann, naturalist attached to the survey of the Pacific Railroad route, under Lieut. R. S. Williamson, U. S. A. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1854, v. 7, 129-140. 1854a. Observations upon a collection of fishes made on the Pacific Coast of the United States, by Lieut. W. P. Trowbridge, U. S. A., for the museum of the Smithsonian Institution, Aug. 29, 1854. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1854, v. 7, 142-156. 1855. Notice upon the viviparous fishes inhabiting the Pacific Coast of North America, with an enumeration of the species observed. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1855, v. 7, 318-323, and Archiv. Naturg., 1855, B. 1, 342-354. 1856. Contributions to the ichthyology of the Western Coast of the United States, from specimens in the museum of Smithsonian Institution. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1855, v. 8, 131-137. 1859. Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad Route from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. Fishes. Thirty-third Congress, 2d session, Senate Ex. Doc. No. 78. 1859. 1890. Les poissons vivipares de la cote Amdricaine de l’Occan Pacifique. Le Naturaliste, No. 69, 24, 25 ; No. 70, 39 ; No. 72, 61, 62 (figs. ) . Paris, 1890. Gunther, Albert, 1862. Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum, iv, 1862. 1880. An introduction to the Study of fishes. Edinburgh, 1880. HAECKEL, E., 1875. Die Gastrula und die Eifurchung der Thiere. Jena Zeitschrift, IX, 402. 1875. 470 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISII COMMISSION. H ALLOC K, Charles, 1879. Viviparous perch. Forest and Stream, v. 11, 512. 1879. Hf.nneguy, L. F. Rdcherches sur le Developpement dans Poissons osseux. Anat. et Phys. 1888. 1893. Le Corps vitellin de Balbiani dans l’oeuf des vertebres, J. Anat. et Phys. 1893. Hoffmann, C. K., 1891. Zur Ontogenie der Knoehenfische. Natuurk. verh. der Koninkl. Akademie. Deel. xxi, 1881, and xxm, 1883. 1888. Ursprung und Bedeutung sog. freien Kerne im Nahrungsdotter bei den Knochenfischeu. Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 1888, 517. Hubbard, J. W., 1894. The yolk nucleus iu Cymatogaster aggregatus. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., Dec., 1893. Jordan, David Starr, 1879. Notes on a collection of fishes from the Rio Grande, at Brownsville, Texas. Bull. U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr., v. 4, 1879. Jordan, D. S., & Gilbert, C. H., 1880. Notes on a collection of fishes from San Diego, California. Proc. U. S. N. M. 1880, v. 3, 23. 1880a. Description of a new species of "rock cod,” “Sebastichthys serriceps,” from the coast of California, 1. c., 38. 18806. Description of a new species of Sebasticlithys ( Sebastichthys miniatus) from Monterey, 1. c., 70. 1880c. Description of a now species of rockfish ( Sebastichthys carnatus) from the coast of Cali- fornia, 1. c., 73. 1880d. Description of two new species of Sebastichthys ( Sebastichthys entomelas and Sebastichthys rhodochloris) from Monterey Bay, California, 1. c. 1880e. Description of sevennew species of Sebastoid fishes, from the coast of California, 1. c.,287. 1880/. Description of a new Embiotocoid ( Abeona aurora) from Monterey, Cal., with notes on related species, 1. e., 299. I88O/7. Description of a new Embiotocoid fish ( Ditrema atripes) from the coast of California, 1. c., 320. 18806. Description of a new Scorpaenoid fish ( Sebastichthys maliger) from the coast of California, 1. c., 322. 1880i. Description of a new Scorpaenoid fish ( Sebastichthys proriger) from Monterey Bay, California, l.c., 327. 1880/. Description of a new species of rockfish ( Sebastichthys clirysomelas) from the coast of Cali- fornia. 1881. Notes on the fishes of the Pacific coast of the United States. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., v. 4, 1881, 29-70. 1881a. Description of Sebastichthys mystinus, 1. c., 70-72. 1882. Description of two new species of fishes ( Sebastichthys umbrosus ) collected at Santa Barbara, Cal., by Andrea Larco. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1882, v. 5, 410-412. Jordan, D. S., and Henshaw, H. W., 1878. Report upon the fishes collected during the years 1875, 1876, and 1877, in California and Nevada. Forty-fifth Congress, 3d session, House of Represen- tatives, Ex. Doc. I, pt. 2, vol. 2. Jordan, E. O., 1891. The spermatdphores of Diemyctylus. Journal of Morphology, vol. v, 263-270, 1893. The habits and development of the newt. Journal of Morphology, vol. vni, 269-358, pi. XIV-XVIII. Kingsley, J. S. and Conn, H. W., 1883. Some observations on the Embryology of the Teleosts. Memoirs Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 1883. Kowalewsici, M., 1883. Uber die ersten Entwickelungsprocesse der Knoehenfische. Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 1883. 434, pi. xvii. List, J. H., 1887. Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Knoehenfische (Labriden) i. Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, vol. xvl, p. 595, pi. xxxi and xxxm. Lockington, W. N., 1876. Remarks on the various fishes known as rock-cod. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., v. 7, 79-82. 1880. Notes on new and rare fishes of the Pacific coast. Am. Nat., vol. xiv, No. 8, 595-600, 1880. Lord, John Keast, 1866. The naturalist in V ancouver Island and British Columbia (naturalist to the British North AmericanBoundaryCommission). London, 1866, vol. i, chapter iv, viviparous fishes ; chapter v, rock-cod. McIntosh, W. C., and Prince, Ei E., 1890. On the development and life-histories of the telcostean food and other fishes. Trans. Royal Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xxxv, part ill, 1890. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST 471 Rathke, 1883. Bildungs und Entwickelungsgeschichte des Blennins viviparns oder des Schleim- fisches. Abhandl. zur Entwickelungsg. Zweiter Theil, Erste Abh., pp. 1-68, pis. 5. Leipsig, 1833. Ryder, John A., 1884. A contribution to the erabryograpliy of osseous fishes, with special reference to the development of the cod ( Gadus morrhm). Rept. U. S. Fish Commission, 1882. 1885. On the position of the yolk-blastopore as determined by the size of the vitellus. Am. Nat., April, 1885, 411-415. 1885a. On the development of viviparous osseous fishes, and of the Atlantic salmon. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 128-162, pi. vi-xii. 1886. On the development of osseous fishes including marine and fresh-water forms. Report U. S. Fish Comm. 1885. 1887. On the development of osseous fishes. Report U. S. F. C. for 1885. 1889. The acquisition and loss of food-yolk, and origin of the calcareous eggshell. American Naturalist, October, 1889, 928-933. Smith, Rosa, 1883. Notes on the fishes of Todos Santos Bay, Lower California. Proc. U. S. N. M. 1882, 232-236. Stuhlmann, Franz, 1887. Zur Kenntuis des Ovariums der Aalmutter ( Zoarces viviparns Cuv.). Wenckebach, K. F., 1886. Beitriige zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Knochenfische. Archiv. fiir Microscopische Anatomie, xxvm, p. 225, pi. xvi-xvii. Wilson, Henry V., 1891. The embryology of the sea bass ( Serranm atrarius). Bull. IT. S. F. C., ix, 1889, 209-277, pis. lxxxviii-cvii. Wyman, Jeffries, 1854. Observations on the development of Anableps gronovii, a viviparous fish from Surinam. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 5, 80-81, Dec., 1854, and Boston Journ.Nat. Hist., v. 6, 432-443, Nov., 1854. 1856. Account of some observations on the development of Anableps gronovii, as compared with that of the Embiotocas of California. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 6, p. 294, Jan., 1858. 1859. On some unusual modes of gestation in batrachians and fishes. Am. J. Sci. and Arts, (2), v. 27, pp. 5-13, Jan., 1859. Yarrow, H. C., 1876. Viviparous perch. Forest and Stream, v. 6, 132, 1876. 1876a. A viviparous perch. Editorial, Forest and Stream, 180, 1876. 472 BULLETIN OE THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. All the tigure9 except those of plate xcn and 108a and 1086 were drawn by the author with the aid of the Abbe camera, either from living specimens or from balsam preparations. al. Alimentary tract. an. Anus. ao. Dorsal aorta. au. Auditory capsule. aur. Auricle. au. v. Auditory vesicle. br. 1, 1 First, second, etc., br. 2, etc. 5 gill-slit. ca. v. Cardinal vein. cer. Cerebrum. c6. Cerebellum. ch. Notochord. ep. Epiblast. fb. Fore brain. hb. Hind brain. ht. Heart. hy. Hypoblast. hyp. Hypophysis. K. r. Kupfi'er s vesicle. 1. Liver. mes. Mesoblast. n. Spinal chord. nc. Neural canal. ne. c. Neurenteric canal. nl.per. Periblast nuclei. ol. Olfactory organs. ■ op. Optic vesicle or stalk. per. Periblast. pi. Pectoral. vo. Sex cells. pro. Protovertebra. s. c. Segmentation cavity. 8. d. Segmental duct. so. Somatic mesoblast. sp. Splanchnic mesoblast. spi. Spiracular slit. spn. Spermatozoa. thy. Thyroid. v. ao. Ventral aorta. ven. Ventricle. yk. Yolk. yk.pr. Yolk protoplasm=yol k nucleus. yk. v. Yolk vesicle. Plate XCII. Fig. 1. Damalichthy8 argyrosomus Girard, $ • Friendly Cove, British Columbia. Fig. 2. Bhacochilm toxotes Agassiz, 9 • Monterey, California. Fig. 3. Cymatogaster aggregates Gibbons, 9 . Fort Wrangel, Alaska. Fig. 4. Anal fin of the male of a Hyper prosopon. Plate XCIII. Diagram showing the process of maturation, conjugation, and segmentation in Protozoa and Metazoa and the segregation of the macronuclear substance. See p. 446. Plate XCIV. Fig. 1. Surface view of a living egg at the completion of the first segmentation. Fig. 2. A living egg at the end of the second segmentation, seen from the entodermic pole. The four blastomeres are seen to project beyond the yolk, which is represented as a transparent object. The yolk nucleus yk. pr. shows projections which extend in between the yolk particles. Fig. 3. Another egg from the same ovary, showing resting nuclei. Fig. 4. Cross-section (somewhat oblique to the dividing plane) of a two-celled egg showing amphiaster of second division. Fig. 5. Another section from the same egg showing the complete division of. the germ from the yolk and the total segmentation of the germ. Only the germinal portion shaded. Fig. 6. Living egg with 8 cells. Supposed sequence of cleavage planes indicated by Nos. 1, 2, 3. Fig. 7. A diagrammatic cross-section of a similar egg from a section of a wax model constructed from oblique sections. Fig. 8. A diagrammatic representation of the surface lines of the cleavage planes at the end of the third cleavage, viewed from the ectodermic pole, constructed from fig. 6 and from the wax model mentioned under 7. Fig. 8a. Diagram of ordinary teleost germ at end of third segmentation. Fig. 9. Section of an 8-cell egg. The probable plane of the section is indicated in fig. 6, x-y. The egg was cut into thirteen sections, of which this is the fifth, x 4. Fig. 10. Another sectiou, the tenth, from the same egg, indicated by x'y'. Figs. 11-14. A series of optic sections of an egg with 16 cells; the planes of the sections pass through the resting nuclei. (Figs. 13 and 14 are on the next plate.) Plate XCV. Figs. 13, 14. Optical sections of an egg with 16 cells. Fig. 15. Surface view of early stage of segmentation from a living egg. Fig. 16. Slightly later stage, surface view from a living egg. Fig. 17. Surface view of another egg. Fig. 18. Section of an egg with about 32 cells. Fig. 19. Median vertical section of an egg with 32 to 64 cells. Fig. 20. Two sections toward the margin from fig. 19. Fig. 21. Section slightly oblique from the horizontal from an egg with 32 to 64 cells. Fig. 22. Section slightly oblique to horizontal of an egg with about 50 nuclei. Upper portion of sec- tion touches yolk. The probable first and second cleavage planes indicated by heavy lines. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 473 Fig. 23. Horizontal section of another egg. Fig. 24. Section of an egg at the end of the eighth segmentation, with about 278 nuclei. Fig. 24a. Outline of Agassiz & Whitman’s figure of the ninth segmentation, more than 250 nuclei of Ctenolabrua. Plate XCVI. Fig, 25. Section, median, vertical, of another egg, from the ovary from which the egg figured in 24 was taken, showing a periblast nucleus and the yo.lk nucleus. Fig. 26. Surface view of an egg in an advanced stage of segmentation. Fig. 27. Median vertical section of an egg probably near the end of the ninth segmentation. Fig. 28. Oblique section of another egg from same ovary, plane of the section indicated in fig. 27. Fig. 29. Median vertical section of an egg during the eleventh segmentation (with 730 nuclei). The yolk nucleus has spread over the yolk and meets the layer of epiblast cells. Fig. 30. Oblique vertical section of another egg in about the same stage as fig. 29. Fig. 30a. Outline of Agassiz & Whitman’s figure, representing a section of an egg with amphiasters of the thirteenth segmentation, or with between 4,000 and 8,000 cells. Fig. 31. Diagram of an egg during the eleventh segmentation, showing the directions of the planes of figs. 32, 33, and 34. Figs. 32, 33, 34 are from an egg during the eleventh segmentation (with about 1,700 nuclei). The egg is cut into 21 sections; fig. 32 is the 7th section; fig. 3:3, the 10th; fig. 34, the 13th. Figs. 35, 36. Sections through early gastrula and blastopore. Egg contained about 3,000 nuclei ; 12th segmentation. Egg was cut into 17 sections, of which fig. 35 represents 10th and fig. 36 a portion of 11th. The sections cut through the embryonic axis obliquely. The entoderm is well separated from the ectoderm and contains smaller cells. The outermost layer of cells is continued beyond underlying layers, and nearly covers yolk nucleus: Plate XCVII. Fig. 37. The ninth section through the same egg shown in figs. 35 and 36. Fig. 38. A section through another gastrula of the twelfth segmentation, slightly older than the one figured in 37. The yolk nucleus, yk.pr, is brightly stained. It is bluntly conical, forming a plug in the blastopore. Fig. 39. A section through the blastopore of an egg from ovary 26. Fig. 40. A section through the blastopore of another egg from the same ovary (26). Figs. 41, 42. Sections from an egg during the twelfth segmentation (containing about 3,100 nuclei). The yolk nucleus forms .a large plug in the blastopore, and has a decided purple tinge, while the blastoderm cells have been colored blue by haematoxyliu. Some of the peripheral cells are distended and very lightly stained. Fig. 41 represents a section through the middle of the blastopore ; fig. 42 is a few sections removed from fig. 41. Fig. 43. Section of an egg shortly after the closing of the blastopore. The division between ento- derm and ectoderm is indicated by a heavy line. Some of the outer cells, as in fig. 41, are faintly stained with an alcoholic solution of fuchsine. A mass of dark granules are col- lected near the blastopore, and probably represent the remnant of the yolk nucleus. Plate XCVIII. Figs. 44-54 illustrate the formation and fate of the periblast. Fig. 44. Section through the margin of a blastoderm with about 120 cells. Fig. 45. Portion of a cross-section of an egg with about 220 cells; nucleus 11 /i in diameter. Fio-. 46. Section through margin of blastoderm of egg with about 450 cells; nucleus 9 p in diameter. Figs. 47, 48, 49. Three successive sections from the same egg. There are about 11 periblast nuclei in this egg. The nuclei are about 10 n in diameter. Fig. 50. The second section of the egg from which figs. 47-49 were drawn. The nuclei in this section, as in fig. 6, are in pairs near the margin of the blastoderm. The egg from which figs. 46-50 are drawn contains 5 pairs of such nuclei. The fact that they are in pairs is probably due to the recent division of the nuclei. Paired nuclei were also found in the egg from which fig. 45 is taken, at end of ninth segmentation. Fig. 51. Section slightly inclined from the horizontal of an egg in the same stage as figs. 47-50, show- ing the grouping of the periblast nuclei and the relation of the periblast protoplasm (shaded) to the blastoderm and to the yolk. 474 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Fig. 52. The yolk of a recently hatched larva as a transparent object, showing the position of the peri- blast nuclei. Fig. 53. Longitudinal sagittal section through the yolk of a larva 5 nun. long. It lies beneath the anterior part of the liver. There are still yolk bodies present. Fig. 54. Longitudinal horizontal section through yolk of larva 7 mm. long. Yolk cells have dis- appeared. The yolk has been reduced to a granular mass surrounded by the liver, except at anterior margin which faces the sinus venosus. There are 11 nuclei in yolk of this larva. Figs. 55-59. Origin of the mesoderm and embryonic axis. Five sections through an egg of ovary (23) in some eggs, of which theblastopore was not yet closed. Sections are parallel to tangential of anterior end of embryo. The whole egg was cut into 25 sections, of which fig. 55 rep- resents the sixth from anterior end ; fig. 56, the eighth ; fig. 57, the tenth ; fig. 58, the twelfth; fig. 59, the fifteenth. Figs. 57-59 on plate xcix. Plate XCIX. Figs. 57-59. Three sections of an egg about the closing of the blastopore. See explanation of fig. 55. Figs. 60-63. The sixth, eighth, twelfth, and portion of the eighteenth sections of an egg cut into 33 sections, the first of which is tangential to a point over the anterior part of the head. Plate C. Portion of a section through the posterior part of an egg cut in a plane about at right angles to that of the preceding egg. Section near the head of an embryo of the same stage, the plane at right angles to that of the first egg. The sixth section further back of the same egg. Sagittal section of an embryo with three proto vertebra;. A portion of a section to one side of 67, through Kupffer’s vesicle. Portion of another section from same embryo, showing position of the sex cells in the head. A section to one side of fig. 67 and parallel with it, to show the position of the protovertebra; and sex cells. -74. Four sections of another larva from the same ovary as figs. 67-70, but at right angles to those figures. The planes of the sections are indicated in 67. In fig. 71 the section passes through the anterior end of the notochord and through the median portion of the body. The lower portion of fig. 72 passes through the region just in front of the head, while the upper portion passes through the posterior region of the notochord. Fig. 73 passes through Kupffer’s vesicle. In this section the entoderm can no longer be traced over the whole yolk, but merges into the mesoderm. Fig. 74 passes through the caudal thickening, where the germinal layers are merged. (Figs. 73 and 74 are on plate ci.) Plate CI. Fig. 73. Sections through a larva at the region of Kupffer’s vesicle. For details see under fig. 71. Fig. 74. Section through the caudal thickening of the same larva. Fig. 75. Sagittal section of a newly-hatched larva reconstructed from a number of slightly oblique sections. Fig. 76. Sagittal section of an older larva about 0-45 mm. long. Plate CII. Fig. 77. Sagittal section of a larva 063 mm. long. Fig. 78. Sagittal section of a slightly older larva. Plate CIII. Fig. 79-108. Illustrate general changes of larva from time of hatching till shortly after birth. Fig. 79, 80, 81. Three views of a living larva just before hatching. Fig. 82. Usual appearance of the larva at hatching. Fig. 83. A larva shortly .after hatching, the tail and head in contact, encircling the entire yolk. Fig. 84. Outlines of a larva 0'8 mm. long, showing the three divisions of the original Kupffer’s vesicle. Reconstructed from a series of sections. Fig. 85, A slightly older larva; the eye has now become evident. Fig. 64. Fig. 65. Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. Figs. 71- VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 475 Fig. 86. A larva 0'85 mm. long, showing the thick caudal lobe. The yolk vesicle is evident in the posterior end of the yolk. Fig. 87. A larva IT mm. long; the heart is now formed. Fig. 88. A larva 1-2 mm. long, showing the first gill-slit, through which the nourishment is now taken. Fig. 89. Outline of the circulation in the head of a larva older than fig. 91. Fig, 90. A larva l-8 mm. long, showing the enormous yolk sack, of which the yolk occupies but a very small part. The posterior wall of the pericardial chamber is here pushed much too far forward, a condition due to partial asphyxiation. Plate UIV. Fig. 91. Enlarged head of a slightly older larva than that of fig. 90, in which the liver l has been partly formed and the aegmentation of the hind brain has become very conspicuous. Fig. 92. Outlines of the circulation in a larva about 2 mm. long. Fig. 93. A larva 4 mm. long; the liver is well formed and the yolk yk lies at its lower anterior angle. The segmentation of the hind brain is evident; Canada balsam preparation. Fig. 93a. Relation of liver to intestine in a larva 32 mm. long. Fig. 936. The relative size of the fore and hind guts in the same larva. This difference is reduced during the growth of the next 5 mm, in length, larva} 37 mm. long, showing the condition seen in larvae 45 mm. long. Fig. 93c. The intestine in a fish 45 mm. long. Fig. 93d. The same in a fish 62 mm. long. Fig. 93c. Diagram of the loops of the intestine of the largest fish observed, 160 mm., in which an extra dorsal loop had developed. Fig. 93/. One of the villi of the hind gut, much enlarged, from a living specimen 10 mm. long; showing the vascular loop. Fig. 94. A larva 5 mm. long ; the pectoral is formed ; long ridges have appeared on the inner surface of the hind gut ; these are later transformed into papilla}. A fin fold runs along the tail, above and below; the pericardial chamber has been greatly reduced. Fig. 95. The tail of another larva more enlarged, showing the tip of the notochord and the first indi- cations of the caudal fin. _ Plate CV. Fig. 96. An older larva. The tubular heart of fig. 94 has been transformed into the three-chambered auricle, ventricle, and bulbus arteriosus. Figs. 97 and 98. Slightly older larvse than fig. 96. Fig. 99. A larva 8 mm. long; the definitive fins of the adult have begun to develop. Fig. 100. Another larva younger than fig. 99. Fig. 101. A larva 10 mm. long. Fig. 102. A larva 11 mm. long. Fig. 103. A larva 12 mm. long. Fig. 104. A larva 13 mm. long. Fig. 105. A larva 16 mm. long. Plate CVI. Fig. 106. A larva 23 mm. long. Fig. 107. A larva 22 mm. long. . Fig. 108. A larva 34 mm. long, shortly after birth. Fig. 108a. Adult female of Cymatogaster aggregates. Fig. 1085. Adult male of Cymatogaster aggregates. Plate CVII. Figs. 109, 110, 111, 112. Four sections, slightly oblique, of a larva but little more advanced than the stage figured in 75, and taken from the same ovary. The larva is straighter than 75, and the sections can not be represented as parallel planes in that figure. The embryo was cut into 42 sections. Fig. 109 is 4 sections behind the origin of the notochord or the 14th from in front backward. Fig. 10 is the 22d section, fig. Ill the 29th, and fig. 112 the 30th section of the same series. This series represents the extent of the hypoblast in different regions of the body and the character of the evaginations to form the gills. This evagiuation extends through 19 sections in this series. Hypoblast shaded. 476 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION Fig. 113. Outlines of another larva of the same ovary showing Kupffer’s vesicle. Fig. 114. Outlines of a median section of another larva of the same stage. Plate CVIII. Figs. 115-118. Sections further illustrating the hypoblastic areas of the stage represented in fig. 76. Hypoblast shaded. Fig. 115 is a section parallel to fig. 15, and much more lateral in its position, showing the relation of the hypoblast (shaded) to the auditory thickening. Fig. 116. A cross-section passing just above the anterior end of the chorda. It cuts the auditory thickening at “an” and the lateral gill-pouches. See aa' in fig. 76. Fig. 117. Another section of the same series through the middle of the body, showing the floor cells of the alimentary tract. See W jn fig. 76. Fig. 118. Another section through Kupffer’s vesicle. See cc' in fig. 76. Figs. 119-124. Outlines of 6 sections from a larva slightly older than fig. 76. The larva was cut into 46 sections. Fig. 119 represents the 36th section from behind; fig. 120, the 35th; fig. 121, the 34th ; fig. 122, the 31st ; fig. 123, the 18th ; and fig. 124, the 13th section. The lumen of the intestine is just forming. Figs. 119-122 represent the gill region, the remainder the posterior region ; fig. 124 showing especially well the wide potential slit of the intestine just in front of Kupffer’s vesicle. Figs. 125-127. Three sections of the intestine of another larva from the same ovary between the regions represented by figs. 122 and 123. Plate CIX. Figs. 128-135. Eight cross-sections of a larva in the stage represented by fig. 77. The larva was cut into 59 sections. The figures represent the following sections from in front backward. Figures. i Section. 128 12 129 17 130 18 131 22 132 24 133 41 134 46 135 53 The sections are somewhat oblique, so that the dextral half of the figures are further forward than the sinistral. Figs. 129, 132, and 133 are magnified less than the others. Fig. 128. The section passes through the left hyobranchial slit, the auditory thickening, and the heart, which is still a solid mass of mesoblast cells. Fig. 129. The alimentary canal just behind the gill invagination. Fig. 130. The next section, the sinistral half of the alimentary tract, solid. Fig. 131. A section through the solid oesophagus, the floor cells distinct from the roof cells Fig. 132. Outlines of a section a little farther back. Fig. 133. Outlines of the intestine much farther back. Fig. 134. Section through the widest part of the intestine and through Kupffer’s vesicle. Fig. 135. Section through the neurenteric portion of Kupflfer’s vesicle. Plate CX. Fig. 136. Sagittal section of a larva about 1 mm. long and with about twenty protovertebrae ; some- what diagrammatic, from a number of sections. The heart is shortened and the pericardial chamber reduced by reagents. A large number of spermatozoa are seen in the intestine. The yolk has been eaten into. The auditory capsule is much nearer the surface and has been added to show the relation of the parts at this time. Fig. 137. Details of the gill region near the side of a similar larva. VIVIPAROUS FISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST 477 Plate CXI. Figs. 138-143. A series of six sections through a similar larva as that represented in fig. 136. Fig. 138. Through the auditory vesicle and first gill-slit. Fig. 139. Through the posterior part of the branchial region. Fig. 140. Through the middle of the yolk. Fig. 141. Through the posterior part of the yolk and the yolk vesicle. Fig. 142. Between the yolk and. the anus. Fig. 143. Through the anus. Plate CXII. -149. Sections showing Kupffer’s vesicle. Sagittal section through the end of a larva in which the neurenteric canal persists, ending in a small vesicle in the neural chord. There is apparently an anterior and a posterior canal. These probably represent the anterior and posterior margins of the primitive canal, thj space having become partly filled with cells. Sagittal section, showing continuation of endothelium of intestine over Kupffer’s vesicle. A later stage, showing Kupffer’s vesicle in connection with the alimentary canal, the neu- renteric canal, and the yolk vesicle. Kupffer’s vesicle reduced by the formation of a thick cellular floor. Sagittal section through the tail of a larva 0-85 inch long. The vesicle has been reduced. In the region it formerly covered the cells are much more loosely arranged than elsewhere. The space in which cells or nuclei are seen in neighboring sections has a sharp outline. A canal extends from the remains of Kupffer’s vesicle upward to the neural canal. The vesicle has been greatly reduced. Plate CXIII. Figs. 150-154. A series of horizontal sections of a larva, 1-8 mm. long, the region in front of the chorda being bent nearly at right angles to the main axis ; the sections in front of this region are cross-sections. The hypoblast is shaded. Fig. 150 passes just above tho opening of the hyobranchial slit. The chorda is cut obliquely. Fig. 151 passes through the hyobranchial slit and also through the spiracle ( spi ) or hyomandibular slit, which is seen to greatly resemble the bars and slits behind the hyobranchial. Fig. 152 passes through the anterior end of the notochord, and the hypoblast is seen to extend up at this place so that it is in contact with the chorda. Laterally, the section passes through the spiracle and the hyobranchial slit. A layer of flat epiblast cells is seen to extend into the opening for some distance. Fig. 153 is four sections farther forward and shows the restricted hypoblast. Fig 154 is two sections farther forward and passes through the posterior portion of the right eye. Just beneath it the hypoblast is seen to extend out to the epiblast, and this is the fundament of the right half of the mouth. The similarity between this and the spiracular hypoblast of fig. 153 is very striking. In neither case is there any evident ingrowth of epiblast. Plate CXIV. Figs. 155-160a represent a series of cross-sections of a larva 1-8 mm long. Fig. 155. The section passes through the upper posterior part of the hyobranchial slit and the lower anterior part of the second branchial slit. The section is at right angles to the one repre- sented in fig. 151 at the point br 1. Fig. 156. Three sections farther back, through the first and second gill-slit on the left, through the third on the right. Fig. 157. Behind the third gill-slit on the left, near the end of the gill-thickening on the right. Fig. 158. A short distance behind the pronephros, the liver forming below, the air bladder above; the pectoral plates are noticed on the sides. Fig. 159. Through the alimentary canal at the rudiments of the liver. Fig. 160. The same farther back. Fig. 161. Through the hind gut of another larva in the same stage of development. Fig. 161a. Outline of a section through the anus not so highly magnified. Figs. 144- Fig. 144. Fig. 145. Fig. 146. Fig. 147. Fig. 148. Fig. 149. 478 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Plate CXV. Fig. 162. Outlines of ;i sagittal section of a larva about 1’9 nun. long, to show the relative positions of the liver, air-bladder, and yolk. Fig. 163. Cross-section of a similar larva through the .air- bladder. Fig. 161. Another section a little farther back. Fig. 165. Sagittal section through the midgut of a larva 2'5 mm. long. The yolk is reduced and the liver much more highly developed. The bile sac is just forming. Fig. 165a. An enlarged sagittal section through the anus and nephridial opening of a larva 3'2 mni. long. The rudiments of the reproductive organs are seen in po. Fig. 166. Sagittal section of alimentary tract of larva 3-2 ium. long. Posterior part on right below. Fig. 166a and b. Some of the cells of the hind-gut enlarged. Plate CXYI. Fig. 167-171. A series of sections from the same larva as fig. 166. The sections are successively nearer the lateral surface of the embryo. These sections show the relation of the liypoblastic evaginations to each other at varying distances from median plane. The gill-structures do not yet meet below and are not visible in iig. 166. Fig. 167. Several sections removed from 166. Fig. 168. The next section, showing the mandibular, spiracular, and three gill evaginations. Fig. 169. The next section, the mandibular, spiracular, and hyobrauchial not connected by hypoblast laterally. Fig. 170. Two sections removed from 169. Fig. 171. Two sections removed from 170. Figs. 171a-174a. Cross-sections through the thyroid and gill regions of a larva 3-2 mm. long. (Figs. 173, 174 are on plate cxvii.) Fig. 171a. Cross-section of the thyroid gland. Fig. 1715. Through the same one section behind 171a. Showing connection with hypoblast cells. Fig. 172. Oblique section through spiracle on left and just behind hyobrauchial on right. Plate CXVII. Figs. 171a- 174a. Cross-sections through the thyroid and gill regions of a larva 3-2 mm. long. (Figs. 171a, 172 are on plate cxvi.) Fig. 173. Six sections behind 172; the right through the posterior part of the auditory capsule, the left through the hyobrauchial . Fig. 174. Through the posterior part of the gill region ; the left through the upper (posterior) part of a gill pocket, the right through the anterior (lower) of another. Ciliated region of the gullet. Fig. 174a. Lateral margin of the gullet, two sections farther back. Fig. 175. Right half of a horizontal section of a larva 2-5 mm. long. All the gill-slits potentially complete. Figs. 176-178. Three parallel sections; 176, sagittal of a larva 4 mm. long; the mouth not yet open; some of the posterior gill-slits open. The ciliated gullet highly differentiated from the other alimentary region. Plate CXVIII. Figs. 179-183. Development of gills as seen in living larv;e viewed as transparent objects. Fig. 179. Larva, 0-9 mm. long. Fig. 180. Gill region of a larva 2'5 mm. long. Fig. 181. A little older larva, showing the mandibular and hyomandibular slits and their relations to the hyobranchial and succeeding slits. Fig. 182. Gill region of a larva 4-l mm. long. X 2. Fig. 183. Gill region of an older larva in which the conditions seen in figs. 94-100 are approached. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478, j Plate XCIV. gull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Wishes of the Pacific Coast, (to face page 478.) Plate XCV. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate XCVI. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Oviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) PLATE XCVII. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate XCVIII. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate XCIX. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate C. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) PLATE Cl. Bull. U, S, F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. CTo faoo d7« , Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate Clll. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate CIV. Bull. U. S. F C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate CV. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478. J Bull. U. S. P. C. 1802. Viviparous Pishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate CVII. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate CVIII. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate CX. i Bull. U, S. F. C. 1 892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478) Plate CXI. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate CXII. Bull. U S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate CXIII. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate CXIV. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of -the Pacific Coast (To face page 478.) PLATE CXV. Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face pag^e 478.) Plate CXVL Bull. U. S. F. C. 1892. Viviparous Fishes of the Pacific Coast. (To face page 478.) Plate CXVIII. INDEX REPORT ON THE SALMON FISHERIES OF ALASKA. Page. Agreement of salmon-canners 10 Alaska salmon pack, 1883-1890, tabular statement. . 3 Alaska salmon fisheries, act for protection of 2 origin and development of. 1-3 Albatross, steamer 4, 5, 8, 23 Apparatus and methods of the fisheries 11-12 Batcheller, Geo. S., letter of 5 Bean, Dr. T. H., letter of 7-8 the life-history of the salmon 21-38 Board of managers of Alaska canning companies 11 Karluk canning companies . . 11 Bibliography of the Salmonid® of Alaska and adja- cent regions 39-49 Close season during September and October 14 Genera and species referred to : Clinostomus tmnia 35 Coregonus kennicotti 21 laurettse 22 nelsoni 22 pusillus 22 quadrilaterals 22 richardsoni 21 Gasterosteus 32 Lamna cornubica 33 Oncorhynchus chouiclia.- 12, 18, 26-27 gorbuscha 12, 18, 28-30 keta 12,18,27-28 kisutch 12, 18, 28 nerka 12,18,30-33 Salmo gairdneri 12, 18, 23, 33-34 irideus 36 mykiss ' 23,34-36 salar 33 virginalis 34 Salvelinus malma 12, 18, 23, 32, 37-38 namaycush 23, 36, 37 Thymallus signifer 22 Uranidea 32 Life-history of the salmon 21-38 Dog salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) 27-28 King salmon (Oncorhynchus chouicha) 26-27 Humpback salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) . . 28-30 Red salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) 30-33 Silver salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) 28 Steelhead (Salmo gairdneri) 33-34 Red-throated trout (Salmo mykiss) 34-36 Rainbow trout (Salmo irideus) 36 Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) 36-37 Dolly Yarden trout (Salvelinus malma) 37-38 Limitation of salmon catch by agreement of canners . 9-11 Page. McDonald, Marshall, letters of 8-9 National Salmon Park, paper by Livingston Stone. . 14-19 National Salmon Park, establishment of 14 Obstructions in the rivers 4-8 Persons referred to or quoted : Baker, Marcus 39 Batcheller, Geo. S 4,5 Bean, Dr. T. H 1,8,9,12 Bean, Dr. T. H., the life-history of the salmon.. 21-38 Beardslee, Capt. L. A 23,36 Booth, Mr 30 Bradford, D. F Brommage, W. H Campbell, J. B Clark, J. W Dali, Dr. W. H Dawson, Dr. G. M Dowell, E. F Forbes, Prof. S. A Gill, Dr. Theodore Green, Loren Herendeen, Capt. E. P Hirsch, Chas Hume, Geo. W Hubbard, W. F Johnson, P. H Jordan, Prof. I). S Kennicott, Robt Lansburg, Capt Larsen, L. P Linton, Prof. Edwin Lewis, Robert E McDonald, Marshall McIntyre, B. G Madsen, Peter Maison, LOon Milner, J. W Morton, Levi P Nelson, E. W. Richardson, Dr Sloss, L6on Spaulding, O. F Stone, Livingston Tanner, Lieut. Commander Z. L. Thompson, Hugh S Townsend, C. H Turner, L. M Washburn, Mr Yarrow, Dr. H. C Present condition of the fisheries . - . 27.28,32 11 6, 28 36 39 36 21 28 26, 28 11 21,37 37 11 14, 30 4,5, 6, 7, 8,9 5 ... 27,28,29 27, 28, 31, 38 34 4-11 479 480 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. REPORT ON THE SALMON FISHERIES OF ALASKA— Continued, Page. Prohibition of capture of salmon 20 Protective regulation of the fisheries 13-20 Reproduction as related to methods . 13 Statistics of the fisheries 3-4 Species of salmon of economic value : Dog salmon 13 Humpback salmon 13 Page. Species of salmon of economic value — Continued. King salmon 12 Red salmon 12 Silver salmon 12 Tanner, Z. L., letters of 5, 6, 7 Thompson, Hugh S., letter of 5 DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SUCKER (PANTOSTEUS JORDANI). Acomus guzmaniensis 54 generosus 55 Catostomus (Acomus) guzmaniensis 55 generosus 54 ardens 53 Catostomus catostomus 52, 53, 56 Catostomus discobolus 51, 52, 155, 56 Catostomus ? generosus 55 griseus 53 guzmaniensis 54 guzmaniense 55 latipinnis 52, 53, 55 nigricans 51 plebeius 54 teres 51 Minomus bardus 53, 55 Minomus delphinus 53, 55 jarrovii 55 platyrhynchus 55 54 Pantosteus, list of specimens in U. S. National Museum 56 Pantosteus delphinus „ 52,54,55 dolphinus 55 discobolus 52, 53, 54, 55, 56 generosus 52, 53, 54, 55, 56 guzmaniensis 53 jarrovii 54,55,56 jordani 51-56 platyrhynchus 55 plebeius 52, 53, 54, 5fi virescens 51, 53, 54 Aiken, C.E Anderson, W. W Appendix Baird & Girard v, . . 66, 67, Bigelow, Dr. J. M Black-prairie region Carrington, Campbell Central region Clark, John H Classified list of localities mentioned. Climate Coast-plain region Coate, Orland Couch, Lieut. D. N Cope, Edward D Cope & Yarrow Dali, Dr. W. H Dawes, C. M Drainage Earll, R. Edward Eigenmann, C. H Emory, Maj. W. H Evermann, Barton W Explanation of plates Fishes known from Texas and the basin of the Rio Grande - Fishes known only from Texas and the Rio Grande Basin Fishes of the Mexican portion of the Rio Grande Basin Fishes represented in the Texan and Rio Grande fauna, list showing the species of each family 82-85 Garman, Samuel 65,79 Geographical distribution of fishes in Texas and the Rio Grande Basin 91-94 Geography of Texas 57-65 65, 81 Girard, Charles 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76 Goode, G. Brown 77 Graham, J. D 65,07,68 Gurley, Dr. R. R 121, 123 Henshaw, H. W 76 Historical and bibliographical 65-82 Introduction 57 Jordan, David S 65, 77, 80, 81 Jordan &Meek 79 Jordan & Gilbert 65, 79, 80, 95 Kennerly, C. B. R -. 65, 68, 71 Kumlein, Ludwig 79 Llano Estacado 58-59 Localities mentioned, classified list 120 Loew, Dr. Oscar 76 Marcy, Capt. R. B 65, 66, 67 Marshall, Lieut. L. H 70 Marshall, Lieut. W. L 76 McClellan, Capt. Geo. B 65, 66, 67 McDonald, Marshall 57 Mollhausen, H. B 68, 71 Mollusks collected 123-125 Nominal species described from Texan or Rio Grande localities, list of 85-88 Pope, Capt. John 68, 70, 71 Potts, John 68,70 Reptiles andbatrachians collected, annotated list of. . 121, 122 Rothrock, Dr. J. T 76 Shedd, W. G 76 Shumard, Dr. G. C 65, 67, 68, 70 Singley, J.A 121,123 Species found both in the Wabash River and Rio Grande basins 90 Species of fishes : Achirus fasciatus 79, 85, 94, 119 THE FISHES OF TEXAS AND THE RIO GRANDE BASIN. Gilbert, Charles H 79 ' 121-125 65, 68 120 58-60 65, 68 65, 76, 78 67, 68 66,82 126 INDEX. 481 Actinia multifaspiata 76, 83, 87, 89, 92, 106 Aetobatis freminvillei 82, 90, 91, 96 Agosia oscula 83, 87, 89, 92, 104 yarrowi 77, 83, 87, 89, 90, 92, 104 Alutera scboepffi 79, 85, 90, 94, 119 Ameiurus lupus 72, 78, 82, 85, 89, 91 , 97 melas 78,82,85,91,96 natalis 72, 77, 82, 85, 90, 91, 96 natalis bolli 78, 82, 85, 89, 90, 91, 97 nebulosus catulus 78, 80, 82, 85, 89, 91, 96 Aneylopsetta quadrocellata 85, 90, 94, 119 Anguilla chrysypa 75, 77, 84, 88, 90, 92, 108 anguilla rostrata 81 Aphredoderus sayan us 84, 93, 110 Aplodinotus grunniens 74, 81, 84, 88, 89, 90, 93, 116 Archosargus probatocephalus 74, 79, 84, 93, 116 Astroscopus anoplos 79, 85, 90, 94, 118 Bairdiella chrysura 79, 84, 93, 116 Batrachustau 74,85,94,118 Brevoortia tyrannies patronus 79, 83, 87, 92, 105 Campostoma anomalum ... 69, 75, 78, 80, 83, 86, 89, 90, 91, 98 | formosulum 69,75,77,83,86,89,91,98 I ornatum 69, 75, 83, 86, 89, 90, 91, 98 Caranx hippos - 74, 84, 88, 90, 93, 110 Carcharhinus platyodon 79, 82, 90, 91, 95 Carpiodes carpio . 80, 82, 91, 97 velifer 80, 82, 90, 91, 97 velifer tumidus 68, 69, 74, 77, 78, 80, 82, 85, 89, 91, 97 Catostomus teres 83, 90, 91, 98 Centropomus undecimalis 79, 84, 93, 115 Chfenobryttus gulosus 70, 81, 84, 88, 93, 111 Chaetodipterus faber 79, 84, 90, 93, 117 Chasmodes bosquianus 85, 90, 94, 119 Chilomycterus sohcEpffi 79, 85, 90, 94, 119 Chloroscombrus chrysurus 74, 84, 88, 93, 110 Cithariehthys spilopterus 85, 90, 94 Cliola vigilax 67, 69, 73, 75, 80, 83, 86, 91, 100 Clupea chrysochloris : 79, 81, 83, 92, 105 Cochlognathus ornatus 69, 75, 78, 83, 86, 89, 91, 100 Cynoscion nebulosus 74, 79, 84, 93, 116 nothus 74, 84, 90, 93, 116 Cyprinodon elegans 66, 75, 83, 87, 92, 106 latifasoiatus 78, 83, 87, 89, 90, 92, 106 variegatus 66, 75, 79, 83, 87, 89, 92, 106 Dasabatis sayi - 82, 90, 91, 95 Dionda amara 69, 75, 77, 83, 86, 89, 91, 99 episcopa 69,72,78,80,83,86,89,91,99 fluviatilis 69, 75, 83, 86, 89, 90, 91, 99 melanops 69, 75, 83, 86, 89, 91, 99 punctifer 78, 83, 86, 89, 90, 91, 99 serena 69, 72, 75, 77, 78, 83, 86, 89, 91, 99 Dormitator maoulatus 74, 84, 88, 89, 94, 117 Dorosoma cepedianum 79, 81, 83, 92, 105 Etheostoma australe 84, 88, 89, 93, 115 cap rod es 66, 74, 78, 81, 84, 88, 93, 113 chlorosoma 84, 93, 113 fasciatus 76,84,88,89,90,93,113 fonticola 81, 84, 88, 89, 93, 115 fusiforme 76, 81, 84, 88, 93, 115 jessiae 81,84,90,93^115 lateralis 76, 84, 88, 89, 90, 93, 115 lepidogenys 84,88,89,90,93,114 lepidum 66, 74, 76, 77, 81, 84, 88, 89, 93, 114 F. C. B. 1892 31 Species of fishes — Continued. Etheostoma micropterus 81, 84, 88, 89, 90, 93, 115 pellucidum clarum 81, 84, 93, 113 phlox 78,84,88,89,90,93,113 sciemm serrula 81, 84, 88, 93, 113 scovelli 81 shumardi 81 , 84, 90, 93, 113 vivax ’ 81,84,90,93,113 whipplei 76 Etropus crossotus 79, 85, 90, 94, 119 Erimyzon sucetta 69, 72, 74, 83, 86, 90, 91 , 98 Eelichthys marinus . . 2 68, 74,-79, 82, 91, 97 Fundulus diaphanus 83, 90, 92, 106 heteroclitus grandis . . 66, 75, 79, 83, 87, 89, 92, 107 pallidus - 83, 87, 89, 90, 92, 106 similis 66,. 75, 77, 79, 83,87, 89, 92, 106 zebrinus 76, 77, 83, 89, 92, 106 Gambusia afiinis ... 66, 75, 76, 78, 79, 81, 83, 87, 89, 90, 92, 107 Gerres gracilis 84, 93, 116 gula 74,84,93,116 Gobiesox virgatulus 85, 90, 94, 118 Gobiomorus dormitator . 74, 84, 89, 90, 93, 117 Gobionellus oceanicus 74, 85, 88, 90, 94, 118 Gobiosoma bosci 85, 94, 1 18 molestum 74,85,88,94,118 Gobius boleosoma 84, 94, 117 lyrietts 74, 79, 84, 88, 89, 94, 117 soporator 74,84,88,90,94,117 wiirdemanni 74, 85, 88, 90, 94, 118 Gy mnothorax oeellatus nigromargiuatus 75, 84, 88, 90, 92, 108 Harengula arcuata 83, 92, 105 Hemirhamphus unifaseiatus 79, 84, 90, 92, 108 Heros cyanoguttatus 68, 74, 84, 88, 89, 93, 117 pavonaceus , 78, 84, 88, 89, 90, 93, 117 Hiodon alosoides . 81, 83, 90, 92, 105 Hybognathus nucbalis 77, 80, 83, 90, 91, 99 Hybopsis storerianus 80, 83, 90, 92, 104 aestivalis 69, 75, 77, 81, 83, 87, 89, 92, 104 aestivalis marconis 81, 83, 89, 92, 104 Hypleurochilus geminatus 74, 85, 88, 90, 94, 119 Ictalurus furcatus 68, 74, 82, 85, 89, 90, 91, 97 punctatus 74, 78, 80, 82, 85, 89, 90, 91, 97 Ictiobus bubalus 80, 82, 91, 97 , cyprinella 82, 91, 97 Isestnes hentzi 85, 90, 94, 119 ionthas 85, 90,94,119 scrutator 79, 85, 88, 90, 94; 119 Labidesthes sicculus. . ‘. 84, 90, 93, 109 Lagocephalus lsevigatus 79, 85, 90, 94, 119 Lagodon rhomboides 74, 79, 84, 93, 116 Larimus fasciatus 84, 90, 93, 116 Leiostomus xanthurus - - 74, 79, 84, 93, 116 Lepidogobius gulosus 74, 85, 88, 94, 118 Lepomis albulus 70, 72, 84, 88, 90, 93, 113 cyanellus 66, 67, 68, 70, 72 73, 77, 78, 81, 84, 88, 90, 93, 111 heros 68, 72, 73, 84, 89, 90, 93, 112 humilis 72, 78, 81, 84, 88, 93, 112 megalotis 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 77 78,81,84,88,90,93,112 miniatus 84, 93, 112 pallidus 68,72,73,77,78 81, 84, 88, 89, 90, 93, 112 84, 90, 93, 111 Species of fishes— Conti THE FISHES OF TEXAS AND THE RIO GRANDE BASIN— Continued. Page. symmetricus . BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. THE FISHES OF TEXAS AND THE RIO GRANDE BASIN— Contiuu jcies of fishes— Continued. Lepisosteus osseus platystomus tristcechus Leptops oli varis Leuciscus conspersus puloher. 68, 69, Lucania parva. - - venusta Lucius vermiculatus Lutjanus aya ' caxis Malthe vespertilio Megalops atlanticus Menticirrhus americanus littoralis Menidia peninsulas vagrans Micro'pogon undulatus Micropterus salmoides 68, 72, Minytrema melanops Mollienesia latipinna Morone interrupta Moxostoma congestum 68 pcecilurum Mugil cephalus Myrophis punctatus Neoconger mucronatus Notemigonus chrysoleucus. . Notropis amabilis bubalinus cayuga atrocaudalis chihuahua deliciosus dilectus forraosus /uraeus garmani lepidus .' leoninus lutrensis. . 67, 69; 73, macrostomus . . . nitidus nocomis notatus notemigonoides . ornatus . . simus socius swaini texanus umbratilis . . . venustus Noturus nocturnus Oligoplites saurus Ophidion marginatum. Opisthoneiua thrissa. . Opsopceodus oscula Rage. 80,82,90,91,96 . . 73, 77, 82, 85, 90, 91, 96 73,82,85,89,91,96 .. 78,80,82,89,90,91,96 . ... 78,83,87,89,92,105 7. 78, 81, 83, 87, 89, 92, 104 ... 83, 92, 107 ,73,7 , 69, 73, 6, 83, 87, 89, 92, 107 84,92,108 84, 93, 115 .... 74,84,93,115 79,85,90, 94,119 79 83, 90, 92, 105 74, 79, 84, 88, 93, 116 79, 84, 90, 93, 116 84,93,109 79. 84, 90, 93, 109 74. 79. 84, 93, 116 ,78,81,84,88,89,90,93,113 i . . . . 69, 74, 83, 86, 90, 91, 98 75, 76, 79, 84, 87, 89, 92, 107 84,93,115 3, 83, 86, 89, 91, 98 . 80,83,90,91,98 74, 79, 84, 88, 93, 109 79, 84, 88, 92, 108 84, 88, 90, 92, 108 83, 87, 90, 92, 105 69, 75, 83, 87, 89, 90, 92, 103 7, 83, 89, 92, 102 89, 91 , 100 83,86,89,90,91,101 69, 73, 77, 80, 83, 86, 91, 100 73, 77, 80, 83, 87. 90, 92, 103 69. 75. 83, 86, 89, 90, 92, 102 83, 87, 89, 90, 92, 103 . . 78, 83, 86, 89, 90, 92, 102 69, 73, 83, 86,89, 90, 92,102 69, 73, 75, 83, 86, 89, 91, 101 77.78.80.83, 86,89, 91,101 . . 69, 75, 83, 86, 89, 92, 102 69,75, 83,86, 89,90, 91,100 83,89,91,100 69, 73, 80, 83, 86, 89, 92, 103 83,87,89,92,103 83,89,91,100 69. 75. 83, 86, 89, 90, 91, 101 .. 69,75,83,86,89,91,102 80,83,86,90,91,100 ... 77, 83, 86, S9, 90, 91, 100 69, 75, 83, 87, 89, 92, 103 69, 75, 78, 80, 83, 87, 89, 92, 103 . . . 69, 75, 80, 83, 86, 89, 92, 103 69, 73, 83, 87, 92, 103 69, 75, 78, 80, 83, 86, 89, 92, 102 80, 82, 85, 91, 96 74, 84, 88, 93, 110 . . 74, 85, 88, 90, 94, 119 .... 79, 83, 90, 92, 105 83, 87, 89, 92, 105 Page. Species of fishes— Continued. Orthopristis chrysopterus 74, 79, 84, 88, 93, 115 Ostracion tricorne 79, 85, 90, 94, 119 Pantosteus plebeius. . 68, 69, 75, 77, 78, 81, 83, 85, 89, 91,98 Paralichthys lethostigma 79, 85, 94, 119 Phenacobius mirabilis 77, 81, 83, 89, 92, 103 Pimephales notatus 69, 72, 80, 83, 86, 91, 100 promelas confertus . 69, 72, 77, 83, 86, 89, 91, 100 Polynemus octonemus 74, 84, 88, 93, 110 Poecilia couchiana 76, 84, 87, 89, 92, 108 Pogonias chromis 74, 79, 84, 93, 116 Pomoxis annularis 84, 93, 111 sparoides 81, 84, 93, 111 Porichthys porosissinms 79, 85, 88, 90, 94, 118 Prionotus scitulus - 85, 90, 94, 118 tribulus 79, 85, 94, 118 Pristis pectinatus 79, 82, 90, 91, 95 Pterophryne histrio 79, 85, 90, 94, 119 Rhinichthys dulcis 77, 81, 83, 87, 89, 92, 103 Rhomboplites aurorubens 74, 84, 90, 93, 115 Roccus chrysops 81, 84, 90, 93, 115 Salmo mykiss spilurus 73, 77, 81, 83, 87, 89, 92, 106 Scaphirhynchus platyrbynchus. 77, 80, 82, 90, 91, 96, 119 Scioena ocellata 74, 79, 84, 93, 116 Selene vomer 74, 84, 90, 93, 110 Semotilus atromaculatus 69, 73, 83, 87, 92, 104 Siphostoma florid® 84. 90, 92, 108 fuscum 84, 90, 92, 109 louisian® 84, 92, 109 Stelliferus lanceolatus 84, 90, 93, 116 Stolephorus browni 83, 90, 92, 105 mitchilli 79, 83, 92, 105 Stypodon signifer 78, 83, 87, 89, 90, 92, 104 Sympburus plagiusa 85, 94, 119 Synodus fcetens 75, 83, 92, 106 Tachysurus fells 68, 74, 79, 82, 85, 91, 97 Tetragonopterus argentatus 68, 75, 78, 83, 87, 89, 92, 105 Tetrodon nephelus 79, 85, 94, 119 Trachynotus carolinus 74, 84, 93, 110 Trichiurus lepturus 74, 79, 84, 93, 110 Trigon sabina 79, 82, 90, 91, 95 Tylosurus longirostris 74, 79, 84, 88, 92, 108 Upsilonphorus y-gnecum 85, 90, 94, 118 Vomer setipinnis 74, 84, 93, 110 Zophendum plumbeum 69, 72, 83, 85, 86, 89, 91, 99 Zygonectes escambi® 78, 83, 90, 92, 107 funduloides 83, 87, 89, 90, 92, 107 jenkinsi 83, 87, 89, 92, 107 notatus 78, 81, 83, 92, 107 pulvereus 83, 87, 89, 92, 107 Stevenson, C. H 126 Test, Frederick C 121 Trans-Pecos Region ... 59-60 Van Vliet, Capt 68 Vegetation 60-61 Wheeler, Lieut. G. M 76 Whipple, Lieut. A. W 68,70,71 Wilkinson, E 81 Woolman, A. J 81 Yarrow, Dr. H. C 65-76 INDEX. 483 Akutan Pass Alamitos Bay Alaskan Coast, Deep-Sea Soundings and Dredgings in the North Pacific Ocean Alaska Peninsula, off the southern side of Alaska, southeastern Albatross Bank Albatross , building and employment of Albatross, movements of Alert Bay Amak Island Anacapa Passage and Island Anderson Bock Baird Bank Bait Ballenas Bay Barclay Sound, Vancouver Island Beaver Harbor Bering Sea Black- cod Bodega Head Bogoslof Island and Volcano Bottom on the Banks, character of British Columbia Broad Bay California California boundary line to Point Arena California, investigations south of Cape Blanco . . t ; Cape Cheerful to Makushin Bay Cape Falcon Cape Flattery to Grays Harbor Cape Lookout -- Cage Meares Cape Perpetua to Umpqua Kiver Cerros Island Charts and other publications, list of Charts and reports of U. S. Fish Commission Charts of U. S. Hydrographic Office ChernoffskyBay Coal mine at Mine Harbor Coast line south of Golden Gate Coast pilots and charts of the U . S. Coast and Geo- detic Survey Cod in Bering Sea Columbia Biver Continental platform Cordell Bank Cortes Bank Davidson Bank Departure Bay Dogfish Drake Bay Dredgings Elder Point Fanny Shoal - Farallon Islands - Fisheries of the Santa Barbara region Fishes obtained by Albatross between Point Beyes and Monterey Bay , Fishing-grounds northeast of Unimak Pass Fishing vessels in Bering Sea Fish trap on "Wood Biver Flounders in Bristol Bay 142 Page. Food-fishes obtained in vicinity of Santa Barbara Islands, list of 187 Food-fishes obtained on Cortes Bank 192 Food-fishes taken on Coasts of Washington and Oregon, list of 159 FortBupert- 156 General features of region examined 132-134 Grays Harbor to Columbia Biver 165-166 Gulf of California 196-197 Hagemeister Island 140 Hague Channel 142 Halibut fishery 162-164 Halibut in Bristol Bay 142 Heceta Bank 171-173 Herendeen Bay 142-143 Introduction 127-131 Itinerary of investigations 132 Johnston Channel 142 Kiliuliuk Bay 144 Kulukak Bay 140-141 La Paz Bay 196 LenardBock 153 Los Coronados 193 Lower California, outer coast of 195-196 Magdalena Bay 195 Makushin Bay to Umnak Island 146-147 Mangrove oysters 196 Middleton Island 154 Mine Harbor 142-143 Mitrofania Bay 153 Monterey Bay 175-177 Monterey Bay and vicinity 179 Monterey Bay to Point Conception 180 Nateekin Bay 145 Nestuggah Bay 168 Newport Harbor 189 North Pacific Ocean, deep-sea soundings and dredg- ings off the Alaskan coast 154 Nushagak Biver, salmon fishery on 143-144 Oregon 166-173 Oregon and Washington 157-173 Orford Beef 173 Oyster beds in Algodones Lagoon 196 Pamplona Bocks 154 Point Arena to Point Beyes 174-175 Point Conception 182 .Point Beyes 174 Point Beyes to Monterey Bay 175-177 Portlock Bank 151 I Port Moller 142-143 I Pribilof Islands 133 [ Priest Point 146 Beports and charts of U. S. Fish Commission 198-199 Bevillagigedo Group 195 I Salmon fishery on Nushagak Biver 143-144 Salmon, movements of 143 San Clemente Island 181-193 San Diego, region off of 193 San Lorenzo Channel 196 San Miguel Island 183-184 Sannak Bank 150 Sannak Bank and Shumagin Islands 151 San Nicolas Island 181-190 San Pedro Channel 181 FISHEEV INVESTIGATIONS OF THE ALBATBOSS, 1888-92. 154 149-154 127-131 130-131 156 136 186 153 136-140 148-153 178 162 156 132-148 156 175 148 152 155, 156 145 174-195 174 195-197 173 146 167 164 168 198-201 198, 199 201 146-147 142, 143 178 200-2 141, 142 177-178 190-192 178 152-156 145 177 177 187-188 176-177 134-144 484 BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION. FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS OF THE ALBATROSS, 1888-92— Continued. Page. San Pedro Region 188-189 Santa Barbara 183 Santa Barbara Channel 181 Santa Barbara Island 189 Santa Catalina Gulf 193-194 Santa Catalina Island 181-189 Santa Cruz Island 185 Santa Rosa Island 185 Shumagin Bank 151 Shumagin Islands to Kadiak Island 151 Siletz Bay 168 Slime Bank 133, 134, 136 Southeastern Alaska 155 Southern cruise of 1891 * 197 Straits of Juan de Euca and Puget Sound 159-162 Striped bass .. 179 Tanner Bank 190-192 Tillamook Rock 167 Tomales Point 175 Trials for lish 152, 153 Page. Trinity Islands 154 Umnak Island 146, 147 Unalaska 150 Unalaska Harbor 144,145,146 Unalaska Island and vicinity 144-147 UnalgaPass 144 Unimak Pass, fishing-grounds northeast of 134-144 Ulakta Head 145 Umpqua River 170-171 Umpqua River to Cape Blanco 173 U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, coast pilots and charts of 200, 201 U. S. Fish Commission, reports and charts of 198, 199 U. S. Hydrographic Office charts 201 W alrus Group L40 Washington 159-166 Washington and Oregon 157-173 Weather in Bering Sea 134 Wood River 144 Yaquina Head 169, 170 THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND. Alabama, oyster product of 207, 283 oyster revenue in 282 planting law adopted 252 Alexandria, Y a., oyster trade of 264 Annapolis, hospital service at 245 oyster markets at 264, 272 Anne Arundel County, oyster markets in 272 planting in 258 police protection in 286 Baltimore, dredging vessels 236,243 hospital service ■ 245 markets 214,222,223,265-270 Barren grounds 292-296 Bay-shore grounds 224 Bendann, Daniel 207 Boats and vessels, dredging 239-241 scraping 250 tonging 233, 234 transporting 261 Boys, tonging 229 British Isles, oyster product of 207 Broca, Paul de 275 Bug-eyes 239 Bushel measure, size of 264 California, oyster product of 207 oyster revenue in 282 planting law adopted 252 Calvert County, oyster grounds in 223, 258 police protection in 286 Cambridge, hospital service 245 markets 222,264,271 Canada, oyster product of 207 Canningtrade 210,211,213,267 Canoes 233 Charles County, oyster grounds in 223, 224 police protection 286 Chesapeake and Delaware Canal 263 Chester River, oyster grounds and product 222, 263 police protection 286 Chestertown, oyster trade at 264 Choptank River, oyster grounds and product 221, 263 police protection 286 Claiborne, oyster markets 222, 271 Cleaver, T. J 263 Clerks of circuit courts 229, 247, 284 Close season, dredging 235, 238 general, adoption of 210 effect of 263,290 scraping 247, 248 tonging 212, 227, 228, 230 Commission sellers 266 Connecticut, oyster culture in 294 oyster product of 206, 207, 283 oyster revenue in 282 planting law adopted 252 County commissioners 229, 256, 259, 260 County treasuries 211, 284 County waters 210, 21 5-226, 239, 247 Crisfield, hospital service 245 markets 221, 258, 264, 271 Cull law 212-214,289-291 Davidson, Hunter 218, 275 Delaware, oyster planting in 252,260 oyster product of 206, 207, 283 oyster revenue in 282 oystermen of 209 Dorchester County, oyster grounds 220, 221 oyster markets 271 planting operations 257, 258 scraping in 212, 247-250 tonging 228 Dredgers 206, 243-246 Dredges 209,241-243,290 Dredging 209, 215, 235-246 effects of 242, 290 grounds 218, 224, 238 revenue from 280 statistics 276 Du Bois, C. A., & Co 258 Eastern Bay, oyster grounds and product of 222, 236. 263 police protection 286 Easton, oyster trade at, 264 Edmonds, R. H 261 Europe, cull laws 212 oyster product of 205, 206 Fishing bay 257, 263, 286 INDEX. 485 THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND-Continued. , Page. Florida, oyster product of 207, 283 oyster revenue in 282 planting law adopted 252 France, oyster product of 207 General measurers 264 Georgia, oyster product of 207, 283 oyster revenue in . 282 plan ting law 252, 295 Germany, oyster product of 207 Governor 213,246,264,285 Historical notes, dredging 235-238 general 208-214 marketing 266, 267 oyster culture 251-253 scraping 247-249 tonging 226-232 Historical notes, transporting 261 Hodson, Thomas S 207, 257 Holland, oyster 'product of 207 Illiteracy of dredgers 244 Incomes of dredgers 246 oyster planters 256, 257 shuckers 269 tongmen 234 transporters 262 Italy, oyster product of 207 Kent County 222, 229 Laws, dredging 237 planting 253, 256, 259 scraping 247, 248 tonging 230, 231 License regulations, dredging 235, 236, 237 general 211 measuring 264 scraping 247 tonging 227,229,230 transporting . 261 Licensed measurers 264 Licenses, number of dredging 238 scraping 249 tonging 232 Louisiana, oyster product of 207, 283 oyster revenue in 282 planting law adopted 252 McDonald, Marshall 295 Maine, planting law adopted 232 Maltb'y, C. S 212, 236, 266, 275 Markets, Baltimore 265-270 county 271-273 general 213,221-224,264-274 canning trade 210, 211, 213, 267 raw-shucking trade 210,266 Maryland oyster commission 218, 219 Massachusetts, oyster product of 207, 283 oyster revenue in 282 planting law adopted 252 Mississippi, oyster product of 207, 283 oyster revenue in 282 planting law adopted 252 Nanticoke River 209 Nativity of dredgers 244 Natural oyster ground, area and location of 206, 216, 219, 233, 238, 249 condition of 206, 216. 219, 233,238,249, 287,293 Rage. 216 217, 289 291 Natural oyster ground, definition of depletion of 209, 214, improvement of lease or sale of New Jersey, oyster product of 206, oyster revenue in planting law adopted New York, oyster product of 206, oyster revenue in planting law adopted North Carolina, oyster product of 207, oyster revenue in planting law adopted Open and closed districts Oregon, oyster product of oyster revenue in planting law adopted Owners of dredging vessels Oxford, oyster markets 222, hospital service Oyster commissioners, Somerset County Oyster culture 251-260, Oyster fund 229, Packers’ fund Patuxent River Pennsylvania, oyster product of Planters, oyster 206, Planting, oyster 205, 209, 228, grounds 252,254- Platt, William D Pocomoke City, oyster trade of Pocomoke River, boundary question Pocomoke Sound 218, 220, Port Deposit, oyster trade of Potomac River 217,218,223, Price of oysters 211, 214, 239, 257, 263, 267, 269, Prince George County Products, oyster . . 207, 209, 212, 214, 226, 231, 239, 274-279, Protection to oyster beds Pungies - Queen Anne County 222, Restrictions, night fishing quantity of oysters steamers Sunday fishing Also see Close season and cull laws. Revenue, State 229,249,261,280-285,294 Rhode Island, oyster product of 207,283 oyster revenue in 282 planting law adopted 252 Sams, Conway W 207 St. Mary County 210, 223, 224, 258, 286 St. Michael, oyster trade of 222,264,271 Salisbury, oyster trade of 264,271,272 School fun d r. 211, 229, 284 Scrapemen 206, 250 Scraping 211, 215, 247-251 grounds 216, 219-222, 249 revenue 249, 280 statistics 277 Seaford, Del., oyster trade of 209, 221, 271 Seed oysters 228, 256, 257, 259, 263, 290 Seth, Joseph B 207, 218 “Set” of oysters 219, 221, 258, 260, 290 Shells oyster 208, 211, 225, 259, 260, 273, 284, 291 291 207, 283 282 252 207, 283 282 252 265, 283 252, 295 291 207, 283 282 252 240 264. 271 .245 253 292-296 284, 285 284 223, 263 207. 282 255-259 251-260 259, 292 207 264 221 247, 257 264 224, 263 279, 288 223 281.283 259 239 229. 272 212 209, 225 211,237 212 486 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. THE OYSTER INDUSTRY OF MARYLAND— Continued. Page. Shipping commissioners 244,246 Shuckers 267,269,271 Shucking trade 210,266 Sinepuxent Bay 212, 225, 255, 259, 286 Size of oysters 288 Smith, Marion de K 207 Somerset County 210, 211, 212, 213, 220, 231, 236, 247, 250, 253, 257, 260, 271, 286 South Carolina, oyster product of 207, 283 oyster revenue in 282 planting law adopted 252 State as an oyster farmer 259 State fishery force 212, 260, 285, 286 State treasury 211, 227, 229, 248, 283-285 State waters 210, 215, 218, 222, 226, 238, 247 Statistical summary 274-278 Surgical cases from dredging vessels 245 Survey of oyster reefs 217 Susquehanna River 217 Talbot County 212, 221, 229, 247, 250, 258, 271, 287 Tangier Sound 210, 218, 220, 247, 263 Texas, oyster product of 207, 283 planting law adopted 252,295 Tidal- water area 215, 216 Tonging 209, 215, 226-235 grounds . . ; 219-224, 232 revenue 229, 280 statistics 276 Tongmen 206, 215, 229, 234 Tongs deep-water Tonnage grade of dredging vessels. Transporters Transporting statistics with other States Travers, Samuel M U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey . . . Vienna, oyster trade of Violations of oyster laws Virginia, boundary dredging interdicted oyster jiroduct of planting law adopted Page. . ... 209,234 . . . . 223, 228 240 - .. 262 209, 261-263 263 218 221 212, 213, 233, 239, 286, 289 221,223,231 252 Washington, D. C 224, 245, 264 Washington, State of, oyster product 207, 283 oyster revenue in 282 planting law adopted 252 Whitehaven, markets 221 Wicomico County 220, 228, 272, 286 Winslow, Francis 221 Women tonging 229 shucking 267,269 Worcester County 210, 211, 212, 225, 227, 228, 229, 252, 253,255, 259 Wyman, Surgeon -Genera) . FYKE NUTS, AND THE FYKE NET FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. Bollreuse, German name for fyke net 305, 349 Botirao, Portuguese name for fyke net 301, 354 Bow net, improper name for fyke net 299, 300 Brook fyke 303,307,324 Buckdart, name for fyke net 300, 307, 330 Cache, French name for fyke net 301, 352 California, fyke-net fishery of 335 Canada, fyke-net fishery of .. r 348 Cattie fyke 330 Century Dictionary, quoted 299 China, fyke-net fishery of 355 Classification of fyke nets 302 Cogolo, Italian name for fyke net 301, 353, 354 Connecticut, fyke-net fishery of 318 Definition of fyke net 299 Delaware, fyke-net fishery of 327 Description of fyke nets 302 Drop fyke 301, 303, 304, 307, 324, 325, 327, 330 Eel bait-pot 305 fyke 301,305,330 Extent of fyke-net fisheries 311 Fike, name for fyke not 300, 321 Finland, fyke-net fishery of 351 Fischreuse, German name for fyke net 301 Fiscbsack, German name for fyke net 301, 349 Fishing season for fyke nets 314 France, fyke-net fishery of 351 Fuik, Dutch name for fyke net 300 Funnel-mouth pound, name for fyke net 300, 332 Fyke net, classification 302 definition 299 description 302 in California 335 •Fyke net, in Canada 348 China 355 Connecticut 318 Delaware 327 Finland 351 France -v 351 Georgia 335 Germany 349 Great Britain 348 Great Lakes 338 Japan 355 law 310 Maine 315 Maryland 328 Massachusetts 316 Middle Atlantic States 319 New England States 315 New Jersey 323 New York 320 North Carolina 334 Norway 350 Pacific States 335 Pennsylvania 325 Portugal 354 Rhode Island 317 Russia 351 South Atlantic States 333 southern Europe 353 Spain 354 Virginia 331 names of 300 principle of 301 Fyke-net fishery, California 335 INDEX. 487 FYKE NETS, AND THE FYKE-NET FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES-Continued. Page. Fyke-net fishery, Canada 348 China 355 Connecticut 318 Delaware 327 extent 311 Finland 351 fishermen employed 312 fishing season 314 France 351 geographical review 311 Georgia 335 Germany 349 Great Britain 348 Great Lakes 338 importance 311 Japan 355 Lake Erie 344 Huron 342 Michigan 340 Ontario 346 St. Clair 343 Superior 340 Maine 315 Maryland 328 Massachusetts 316 methods 314 Middle Atlantic States 319 nets and boats employed 312 New England States 315 New Jersey 323 New York...... 320 North Carolina 334 Norway 350 Pacific States 335 - Pennsylvania 325 Portugal 354 products 312, 313, ‘314 Rhode Island 317 Russia 351 South Atlantic States 333 Spain 354 statistics, general 312,313,314 United States 311 Virginia 331 Geographical review of fyke-net fishery 311 Georgia, fyke-net fishery of 335 Germany, fyke-net fishery of 349 Gobbler, name for fyke net 300, 308, 342 Great Britain, fyke-net fishery of 348 Great Lakes, fyke-net fishery of 338 Guideauj French name for fyke net 301, 351, 352 Gumbo fyke 330 Hedging fyke ". 309 Hoop net, name for fyke net 300, 348 Importance of fyke-net fishery 311 Japan, fyke-net fishery of 355 Jumbo fyke 330 Lake Erie, fyke-net fishery of 344 Huron fyke-net fishery of 342 Michigan, fyke-net fishery of 340 Ontario, fyke-net fishery of 346 St. Clair, fyke-net fishery of 343 Superior, fyke net fishery of 340 Loup, French name for fyke net 301, 352 Page. Maine, fyke-net fishery of 315 Manche, French name for fyke net 301, 352 Maryland, fyke-net fishery of ' 328 Massachusetts, fyke-net, fishery of 316 Methods of fyke-net fishing 314 Middle Atlantic States, fyke-net fishery of 319 Muzuar, Portuguese name for pot-like fyke 301, 354 Names of fyke net 300 Neunaugen reuse, German name for fyke net 349 New England States, fyke-net fishery of 315 New Jersey, fyke-net fishery of 323 New York, fyke-net fishery of 320 North Carolina, fyke-net fishery of 334 Norway, fyke-net fishery of 350 Pacific States, fyke-net fishery of 335 Pennsylvania, fyke-net fishery of 325 Perch fyke 330 Persons referred to or quoted : Bathurst, Charles 349 Faber, G. L 353 Ingersoll, John D 337 Lohsen, Martin C 323 Monceau, Duhamell du 351 Nordqvist-, Dr. Oscar 351 Raynor, N 332 Shepard, W. S 306 Silva, A. A. Baldaque da 354 Stone, Livingston- 337 Thiersant, Darby de 355 Wakeham, Dr. William 348 Pike net, name for fyke net 300, 303, 304, 324 Portugal, fyke-net fishery of 354 Pound fyke 301, 307, 308, 324 Principle of fyke net 301 Queue, French name for fyke net 301, 352 Quinqueporte, French name for fyke net 301, 352 Raus, Gothic name for fyke net 301 Renard, French name for fyke net 301, 352 Reuse, German name for fyke net 301 Rhode Island, fyke-net fishery of 317 Risk, Anglo-Saxon name for fyke net 301 Ruse, Danish and Norwegian name for fyke net 301 Russia, fyke-net fishery of 351 Rysa, Finnish name for fyke net 301 Rysja, Swedish name for fyke net 301 Sac, French namo for fyke net 301, 352 San-yen-kao, Chinese name for fyke net 355 Set of fykes 309, 310, 329, 331 Shad fyke 301,309,323 Sink net, name for fyke net 300, 307, 330 South Atlantic States, fyke-net fishery of 333 Southern Europe, fyke-net fishery of 353 Spain, fyke-net fishery of 354 Stationary hoop net, name for fyke net 300, 321 Statistics of fyke-net fishery 312,313,314 Teha-kao, Chinese name for fyke net 355 Terrapin fyke 301 United States, fyke-net fishery of 311 Vanda, Russian name for fyke net 351 Yersha, Russian name for fyke net 301 Verveux, French name for fyke net 301, 348, 351, 352 Virginia, fyke-net fishery of 331 Webster’s Dictionary, quoted 299 Worcester’s Dictionary, quoted 299 488 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. FISHES COLLECTED AT SEA ISLE CITY, NEW JERSEY. Page. Acbirus fasciatus 363 Alutera schoBpffi 363 Anguilla chrysypa 360 Apelles quadracus 360 Archosargus probatocephalus 362 Bairdiella chrysura 362 Balistes carolinensis 357, 363 Batrachustau 363 Brevoortia tyrannus 359 Caranx chrysos 357, 361 hippos 361 Chrcbarias littoralis 357,358 Carcharhinus obscurus 358 Centropristis striatus 361 Cbilomycterus schoepffi 364 Clupea sestivalis 359 pseudoharengus 359 sapidissima 357, 358 Cynosoion regalis 363 Cyprinodon variegatus 359 Dasyatis centrums 358 Decapterus punctatus 357, 361 Eoheneisnaucrates 357,360 Etrumeus sadina 358 Fundulus heteroclitus 359, 300 majalis 359, 360 Galeuscanis 358 Gobiosoma bosoi 363 Hippocampus hudsonius 360 Leiostomus xanthurus , 362 Menidia notata 359, 360 Menticirrhus saxatilis Mugil curema cepbalus Mullus surmuletus auratus Ophidion marginatum Opisthonema ogUnum Orbidus maculatus Paralicbthys dentatus Pleuronectes maculatus Pogonias cromis Pomatomus saltatrix Prionotus carolinus strigatus Raia eglanteria Raia laevis Roccus lineatus Sarda sarda Scomber colias Selene vomer Seriola zonata Siphostoma fuscum Stenotomus cbrysops Stolephorus browni Stolephorus mitchilli Stromateus triacanthus Synodus foetens Tautoga onitis Trachinotus carolinus Tylosurus marinus Vomer setipinnis Page. 362 360 360 357,362 358,363 358,359 363 358, 362 361 364 364 358 358 361 360 361 361 359 359 361 359 361 360 357, 361 FISHES OF THE NORTHERN COAST OF NEW JERSEY. Acipenser sturio oxyrhynchus , Anguilla chrysypa Archosargus probatocephalus . Brevoortia tyrannus Centropristis striatus Clupea sestivalis mediocris pseudoharengus sapidissima Conger conger Ctenolabrus adspersus Cy noscion nebulosus regalis Dasyatis centrums Exoccetus sp Gadusmorrhua Gymnosarda alletterata Leiostomus xanthurus Leirus perciformis Lutyanus blackfordi Melanogramraus seglifinus Menticirrhus saxatilis Naucrates ductor Paralichthys dentatus Pliycis chuss tenuis Pogonias cromis 369 369 378 377 376 370 379 371 377 375 379 377 373 379 379 379 378 Pollachius virens — Pomatomus saltatrix. Pound nets ou the New Jersey coast Prionotus strigatus palmipes Pseudopleuronectes americanus . Raia eglanteria lrevis Roccus lineatus Sarda sarda Scia?na ocellata Scomber colias seombrus Scomberomorus maculatus regalis Selene vomer Seriola zonata dumerili lalandi Stenotomus chrysops Stolephorus browni eurystole mitchilli Stromateus triacanthus Tautoga onitis Trachinotus carolinus Tylosurus marinus 379 374 365. 366, 367 . . . . 378, 379 .... 378,379 368 375 371 377 373 372 370 370 373 373 373 376 374 378 373 369 INDEX. 489 VIVIPAROUS PISHES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. Page. Introductory note 401 Viviparous fish of the Pacific Coast 401 Types of viviparity in Teleosts 404 Historical notice of Embiotocidce 405 Cymatog aster aggregatus Gibbons 412 Breeding habits 412 Methods of studying living eggs 412 Methods of studying living larvse 413 Connection of the developing egg and larva with the ovarian structures 413 Position of larvae in the ovary 413 Intraovarian food 414 Intraovarian respiration 415 Duration of gestation and adolescence and num- ber of young 415 The ovary 418 Secondary sexual characters in Oymatogaster 419 Copulation 419 Development of ovarian eggs 421 The mature egg 421 Segmentation 424 Gastrulation 428 Page. Gymatogaster aggregatus — Continued. Explanations of figures and diagrams 436 Periblast 437 Yolk nucleus 440 Significance of the yolk nucleus 441 Comparison between the processes of conjugation in ciliate infusoria (modified from Weismann after Maupas) and of maturation and segmenta- tion in Gymatogaeter aggregatus 446 Formation of the mesoderm 446 Anatomy of an embryo with three protrovertebrse 449 General development of the larva.' 450 Formation of the intestine 451 Kupffer’s vesicle 456 N eurenteric canal 458 Kupffer’s vesicle in general 459 Formation of liver and air-bladder, mouth, thyroid gland, and hypophysi s 461 Gills 464 Summary of conclusions 465 Bibliography 468 Explanations of plates 472 I