Ge A A VE se ih Bie: TI MeSad a orae aa LEK 1B a weedeal hi J Henny) batt bipeiiigone abate + Ke i i} Tiel ee nh EB eal) SOARES A abate atiis Mi Jaetoee Gaede ed #4 Hye aie ct oo yh nan i chien ie $5) bi Alesis eas hed a Ha Aaa: : pie ie Oia neh 3) My a if nah Hh aa a4 ie ity oa ty siete me oe le hea ce ra ee Bit } pu 2 witty ue pial Pe HE 8 fei rial ie Se irish ht aleve aia Ha betes hd a fg i th iat 2 ke S ne aie a Sin sis ae eta uy ih i Pati a sh i eas yur ia) Hi} a ii ont AULLF st Rat a aie }) A fe ae deen ns it Weta ; mi ig Aenea Hy a AQ ate si an a a S S ee ta ih cS he ; i Win mee i f 4 RAT yi i Ett viel Stal tis ges Sa ite ee aaa Lae ae | af | : Fe na eau Pan a et sisi feet mit a Rae a) Aiton hie it} a ae ae ed taae \ rie ing on pie a iit oe fe ee neat at ik ay iyhig? ni . i aie aoe iy oe i oo tt a ioe i It ine i S i ny i fi ft ran a ts HME a aa ¥ fists ee eines) OF itt a i a ne | 3. ih re take a H ai oH Ht va Uti Ni ih ign é = aoe ne SS Sear ge es mae ee ty 4 + bran) al eae ee oe ae i i i Bs a oo a Aa pe it ae PHM ee ict alte ehass yt ail tt sia Sasha eas It alee a Haake i uti twfct i ) ries ae i a tA ate = a a ae ce te ae Hh en as HG ee ee a ae ee ot Behe ne F i at ite f ul Bie a iM So Sires ae P Hi mas iit Hit aan fie Hid earnest: ath ith be) ray sai eet a 28 eas i ee ayes feb thay Say rs iN +H toi tet ea pre) hy ii taatesaa area et hy ce ifie ie Hehe iH in A shed re Haat of fab pela bg jaded , Hy jatee ey in Chetty fa en rae +} ; ) ‘en +4 “fh tit aM Dea tsig Hg HE! ithe } 4 pit Baton ils i ) 2 ie a ae Het ui a patitise ot aa ty uate ee i A iat hist with hy : aH a a sitiseiat ei ais ial y Aaa ce i I) fate) yr abd ald “nt oe seg Hh tee ant eae eBay e Po Lele r Marner ae ieee ean bd a4 he ne it se rae | Tae a, f f ths th as rhs Ranhettag Sse peneara nde 280 aad Ay FA Piabaspany ards “it fst Sikes FUT bs if 4 Med Btw Meee 4 FO, ia if Wate “inh but sd okat M } 7a oe ve sy eee e? Fi 4 tile 5 al 4 ny Punter ea Hao aaina Paetet Ady} Teitilaresite nti erie an salt fyi} ce ) f ly i anh ; aad oa tt sf fie yead) itis t bss He ae 3 false ih ibe ai ts Bteiedeh 640d nf atep eo Hei ts std Piet nt it vinta sieaie tha badd #9508 aes tan ili ah asd Ha ab p's Hib an esas 135 Hee C BR Ary Lb oH 954 rire ee Lay MytaL Me BAe Red RULER bie ag ol tbe nied ie eines Te) shen 46) sal apnitety Hi His Ww 1O16 sgh blasted ath if i yeti td ryt win an ee Fhe aie dyighiaie Wale + SOO ATE i ‘ (aks a , MR ap ed pe arrest yy. if 1 fa u 11 yo Saeasiesanid teat iid 44 Netesh hid Pvneetrharyyen i sie iriies nite Hin ate Eee poee he a thvesie UA ys aah ed or8 “iH. Buin ary sree Sons giFon we he a +4 et sunwreyiinnd pas bubendy Prlore ees oon way seu ola oft mt OF es He po mpinnded rl off Sagi eay seb Bie tany Aer see ent » Pils voted bby wih Waa Later he peice eet sneezs ¥ “er at ie soe aerate ng she! meet enh ref pegabareenresserest ver , HERI iy fhee pe 4 4h tp 08 Mam ih re Prip se seals nae Cte da dion re ‘es nt reantiy iy 8 eb ane aiaeyteert % a ae aS whee 45 prbsintbaaaes ibe saiseh oe ite ah fe rb oe et see eeiteteny } Ap salnd wi PAN wrshw pty th PAB nett |FOR THE PEOPLE| FO RAEMIVIG ATION LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY —— U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Department Bulletins Nos. 1026-1050, WITH CONTENTS AND INDEX. Trepared in the Office of Editorial Work. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1923. agua «a. y MUS EUN WAQERS NA YROTEI IAAU TAL 40 hy AA MASE SLICES NS AS 1 f e 10f) CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BuLLEeTIN No. 1026.—IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO: Vso hOUC AC TOY TA eres al yet ek Bee pM SPAN ee Nek Ue Led A eeu oan oe a Uae Cachenlagmourdres Valley rs 00 ak I LE ADA AME TOR A eaet es SCT ao IMM HE OT ONO Cay SUE Ne Ce wi ZUNU ee aaa es MEINE AU A, el NS LAR SOM 5: = 2 2 5 SPAN a IEEE APS NER SE EMA Se LI SL Ab a i ale puny lade a NEeWAte pe uUnM ee es NO ey a Ne el heme lb MARDER Sa Rn RN EES ay SRE RAIMA SS COM METOTUS HE Le aisles a aye ca le ee AR ta OW al eee gl nN le nF Exchange of water..... GA RANGES NBIC AU MY 8S ANS oy a ne NR aa i a NUS/ GENE TETATAN ONESIES ne Oo NTI Se RAMU Se Rn US NN DIS tralloMEOMMTOMATVeTs cs) se yee meen an SOE iil OAM Ler a Se jag LD NGAISY: ONE HANG) TEIN STEEP REE, REL NDT VER TYRE eR LS AME PAE (GarmaWaR bela ghar eyes c Zonas ee SLRs Ue NLR DRE AMUSO BDL CRS RR en RIM T Sp UB Grossgauibytoreanal se 5 slee tee sas Gee A EEN SERA MAPUTO EE ME AAT NE Elansrnpinstel SA tLOMeen atts lec a hy PHN Cas es ean SG EYRS ha ay until Fay Bh ONE ENED VED Na Re Nan Recs NSB TAVONTS Geir Tere cu ks kt SNR Ny LPAI Oy EAR ann ed od ol Year RU SUmimanvgand conclusions. 2h: 2s see2 shee Vee siac sees eee ee oe ae DEPARTMENT BuLuETIN No. 1027.—Porsonous METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES: ME POSe KOMI VEStIPA TION. 24 dn i Lela ope on MEL BSED De ResullisiolpxrevadoOusimVvestilatlon ae eee) seve ai see ost Ua ie Sala on Sevan a Expermmentaliwork so o214. 256. peeks e. oe Sp IMB ac eg ta a LS Ae Resmiaspolcexperimental works: 5 ay te Weel ke SU en SAS SURO TET 22 eR UPON So Ar IRS, TEL AOA MLAs ea AAMC toa Hea te NPG TAUREN CULE: ors 5. 505255 215) shy se pepe OE MRR SAAN PCA Ae Oe DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 1028.—APANTELES MELANOSCELUS, AN IMPORTED PARASITE OF THE Gipsy MorTu:. Limits OYS NOK CLTOL Nae ee URL Ae PD UR RAEN aa YM le Ash bust Part I— —Description and life Ratony SSC ey eS TA aa Mel cae JE TIGHRO TE alee tlt Ne GER ta arp ah aR lt ee io ep as er A Distribution in 1 DAO 0 SX SRE MESA 3h Aa AEST RAMS us G CS i UL ah aN at Description. of species: 5.22 AAO Oy Ns FS NEUEN) aid BERNER Methods;used/in) biological works 22.) 54925 be eR es eo WEIR CIS TOR V i GG OO reac: OU) Ua cies a eA oa BEAR cosh Seasonal Iistoryicn cele s on ee ee Poe SEO OTEE MODE AEN ae Feeding of parasitized larvee versus nonparasitized larvee............. Woneevaity eX periments .44 25 seiis 5 5 sie Sa ER a RN At EA EVO sts) Of 24's melanoscelies ares sane. 5 m5 LS See ee A Wo Re Bro peamy WORK seo Pa snow > AP TD eae EEE TORRENS A aR Somparison of seasonal history in Sicily and New England.........- mpundance of Al, melanoscelus Ime Sicily: ese ioe Sean 1) et aa Secondary parasitism) im Sicily. c5-< 2 soaks Ss Ga a ee Colonization in, New, England nonce, Been ahh Sy eae ee Ped, Success of colonies and distribution of A. melanoscelus......-.-.------ HTD TSE T STO TN eH AVN AER, Ski ee OR i Pv AN MMU tcp coy ah as en ENERO Secondary parasitigmiess) Sou aber ae BU UN TEC a re OE ee LECT pe: The value of A. melanoscelus as a xipsy-moth parasite..........-.---- Abundance of A. melanoscelus in New England..........--..-------- OMCI STO TNE ie Hh aa ea Tecre tire iar ero p alls a eR eee SUmnO EE, Bec EU Ane al Ly a ESR 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 1026-1050. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 1029.—SEED. TREATMENT AND RAINFALL IN RE- LATION TO THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACKLEG: Imtroducthions.:.0h isco) 2 re Ng eee. eRe ee Teel ee A ee Effect of fungicidal treatment in the laboratory upon seed and the seed- borne fungus ee sles te) Sao gk 2 RNS | I bo ec LN Leet Heat and desiccation. 4). Wel. | I 0 enh ieee Formaldehyde solution. « ...:2jr .<.yasasyes. ss. oslo sede ee Hot yee sanclafe cid ste etapa ules: sic SRM eS aeyepere ooo ere ne ee Suscmary of laboratory seed-treatment experiments..............-.-- Wield trials with. treated seeds/.<...... 202.) Development of the disease in seed bed Relation of rainfall to the development of the disease.............- Importance of spread in the seed bed as compared with dissemination im the field. ins SoC G8 ol. Osan Ss oe 8 Seed-bed trials at Madison, Wis., 131919... Se eee Results with treated seeds in commercial fields: 22.3 027. Be RS Importance of disease-free seeds..--... 2-2 -202c222200c0¢02 +00 see eRe SUMMATY <2 os set wee oe co cidkee ccc eeebls ss aves} coe. sa. literature cited 2222.2. 2s cd Pees OR oe ee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 1030.—MEADE Corton, AN UpLAND LONG-STAPLE VARIETY REPLACING SEA ISLAND: Need of replacing sea-island cotton-....2..2-.----.2+-+-0222.0050 eee Decline of the sea-island industry..........-.- <2 .s....+ -44ne So ee Value of Meade cotton as a substitute for sea-island demonstrated. ......- Origin of the Meade variety .). 005 ...24...2040 2.00. 0.4. 5 eee Description of the variety... ....s<+-- 4 snce2.-oe- 2550s nl ae see ee Meade cotton adapted to sea-island conditions. .............. Se hE 2 eae Increasing seed’ supplies imy 19182. 2 40RI boa fol, Ra ee Experiments with Meade cotton in 1917 and 1918................2.-... Ea Work with Meade cotton 1m 1919.22.00... Jo... s20. uals eee Extending the cultivation of Meade cotton in 1920...............2..-.-- Production of Meade cotton in 1920. 22... sscecee ness .. 2% ease sh eo Sapeli, identification key, and description...........-..---.-.-- Sap-stain— control— in green vehicle stock, and control of mold and decay, bulletin by Nathaniel O. Howard.........-...--...--- description, kinds *catises* etes: 22s seen os. = eee eens vehicle woods, loss from and economic importance........-.-- Bulletin No. 1049 1049 1049 1049 1049 1027 1049 1049 1029 1038 1031 1031 1031 1031 1031 1043 1042 1035 1026 1032 1043 1045 1035 1038 1038 1038 1038 1038 1038 1038 1038 1041 1048 1045 1046 1045 1039 1039 1039 1031 1050 1037 1037 1037 1037 Page. 35 35 INDEX. Scilothrips sexcmaculatus, enemy of avocado red spider........---- Scymnus— sordidus, enemy of citrophilus mealybug........2..2..052--.- spp., black ladybirds, enemies of the avocado red spider..... Sea-island cotton, replacement with Meade cotton, bulletin by GaseMelowmand iG:B Doyles 225 Seer UM Ne SL ape eee See also Cotton, sea-island. Seasommeaumiberdimethodsy sash Cini iane de) she Eee Lacs. St ee Seed— cabbage— blackleg control in, relation of treatment and rainfall, oulletinijbyyJ2/C.Waliker 9012, Uo SRS caine ie tebe sources and importance of freedom from disease ......... treatment for control-of blackleg.................-2------ Meade cotton— Department supply to cotton growers, conditions .......- Belechlone distrib UtloM Meta lyst e an mney al yc NN sunflower— areas in United States, location, and crop......-.......- production, yield jamd) Uses 08 fe LSA See Says tea volliivom: digestibility, 205 2s) 5 see ee 2 ees Wa a Watermelon oll irom! digestibility i Jj: eee ie ah ere sh Ne Seeding— cereals rates and dates, Belle Fourche Experiment Farm. ... grains, rates, and dates for dry-land and irrigation farming. . . So suniiowers, date, rate, and methods.)))\.5 2 2) 04 lyse 1 ee Seedlings, wheat, inoculation with rust spores, experiments....-. Seeds— disease-free, importance in cabbage growing..........-.----- testing to insure against loss from seed failure. .....---..---- Seepage, return from irrigation, Colorado, amount and uses.-.-..-. Self-service— plan for retailing food products, bulletin by F. HE. Chaffee anduMcHall) Kerbeyei 2 sue se BO a et Leila poe, Ghee retailing of food products, advantages and disadvantages. ..-- Selling— food products at retail, self-service plan, bulletin by F. E. @haiieetand Mic Mali Werbeys ssi Ne ue a oa Bape al vas SENN, NIcHOLAS, citation on value of recreation for health ....-- SHaw, R. H., work on sunflower composition. -..-...--.--..-.--- Sheep— feeding, sunflower silage, experiments and results. ......-..- mountain, enumeration and value...................-...-- Sueets, E. W., and R. H. Tuckwitier, bulletin on ‘‘Effect of winter rations on pasture gains of calves”.....---.-.---------- ISLORCONS DON OCCURTEMCE: ELC sere ttc tea Mere eli RAN U Nae tie pa Shorebirds, protection, hunting regulations..................-.-- Shrinkage, food products, considerations in retail business....-..- ee source of supply of Apanteles melanoscelus and work there. ilage— | composition, comparison of sunflower, corn, and sorghum. ... corn) reed) valuentor calves Wie iy san URI ae) Hee kiat vobertson mixtures testsye ni eeu hs Male Gra TMA Rakai sunflower— seed value, palatability, color, odor, acidity, etc.......-. uses bulletin ahlNi Vaal eerie Weve SEC Aes aS OL TE yields, comparison with corn and sorgo.........-...---- RISE 7OM MAMAS L/L Re UII tel TNO ali SEN GLO TIRE RA Ey CMRI Silos— milling wath sunilowers) (Gantiom 4/1). svat kei ones elie strengthening with iron bands. ....................-...-.-. Bulletin No. Page. 1035 9 1040 19 1035 10 1030 1-24 1037-25-27 1029 1-27 1029 23-25 1029 393 1030 6-9 1030 7,11-14,23 1045 3 1045 13 1033 6-7 1033 7-8 1039 12 12-13, 17- 20, 23-25, 1039/31-32, 35, 39, 50-51, 56 104593 Alot 1046 5-6, 14-16 1029-23-25 1043 14 1026{20-12, 6 1044 1-52 1044 2-13 1044 1-52 1049 2) aoa ods ots 1045 +—-27-29 1049 «24, 25 1042 Tei 1050. « wa9 1049 ~—«-27-28 TOA 4349 1028 14-16 1045-20-21 1042 7-W1 1045 eh 1045 ~+—-19-29 Oss wan 30 1045 ©) aeag 1031 71 TO AE Ie Petey 1045 17 18 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 1026—1050, Sirup, sweet potato, manufacture! :ice 2oo.2bssows ta Yieess Smut, citrus, cause by citrophilus mealybug...................- Soapweed, feeding to cows on range..-....---......2.25.--2-0-2 Sodium— carbonate and bicarbonate, timber preservation experiments. fluorid, timber preservation experiments................---- sulphate, spray for avocado red spider, experiment......-..-- Soil, Pierre clay, nature and occurrence in South Dakota........ Sollinescrans -suntlowersy vale 4 ss aess ae eae eee ee Soils, Colorado, Cache la Poudre Valley, descriptions............ Sorghums, grain, growing— experiments, Belle Fourche Farm... ...-....12918)9: 223318 on dry land, experiments in South Dakota....-...-.. berate i Sorgo, silage yields, comparison with sunflower. ........-.------ South— agricultural problems, business analysis of farms in southern Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, climatic conditions.... Custer County game refuge, description and work........ hail insurance on crops..-.----------- se Gins so ETE MS ape loamjof State funds to, farmers..<.. ...2.. 22 ide ba aent | Newell, climatic conditions, 1908-1919 ......-......-... Newell, experiments with cereals at Belle Fourche Ex- periment Farm, bulletin by John H. Martin.......... Wind Cave National Park, purchase and cost..........- Southwest, range and cattle management during drought condi- THOUS EG OUP, Notes (Am Se Sd Sale ABN ass 4 casas cbausneeal vane ren ianderaiaia ere Spelt, growing in South Dakota, experiments. .................- Spider, red avocado— bulletiniby. G. I; Mozettesasiens occas bee ee else ECOHOMIGHIMPORtAN CEM eA eee es ee ee ee en eee life; history and biological data sic od sss aici sted ase iiacer nature of injury by, host plants, distribution, etc. ......-.--- Spike disease— description, occurrence, ete: Shudles: 9 foes 24 sence. fen see pPecanttrees descrip tloniess snes... 1. Neen Wen eiepiene ee Spinning, tests of sea-island and Meade cottons.............----- Spoilage, grocery stock in self-service stores........-.-...-------- Spokes, vehicle, treatment of green timber for prevention of sap- Starmkan dein oldie ies see yOer maneeite we ny TR NAt ge cose sel ents Spraying— apparatus— descniption:s. 222222: RUSE OPO Ot Sa Capo ate ea FOTMANV.OCADO STOVER sere aaa eer. iL eee Se Nias creme avocado red spider, experiments. ..-............2.0..+----- citrus orchards for control of mealybugs. .....-......------- cranberry bogs for control of blackhead fireworm....-.....-- Sprays— cranberry formulas! an dinisespee ti) =12 pe ea epg pany oly era mealybug, control on citrus, formulas, and cost...-....--.---- poisonous— metal deposits on fruits and vegetables. .............--- residues on fruits and vegetables, investigations. .......- Stains— chemical, of wood, description, causes, and injuries. ....---.- fungus, source in sap-stain fungi in woods. ..-....-.-.------ Starch— contentMsweet-potatoswanawonke.- J2) 2) pee esemeee seers SWweet-potaio,mamntita chunresaasms sees cee ae ett oe tere State funds, farm mortgage loans, systems ....-.-.....---- Keak Steaming, lumber, for fungicontrol, experiments..........--.-.-- Bulletin No. Page. 1041 6, 33 1040 3 1031 69-70 1037 35-36 1037 36-37 1035 12 1039 f 1045 29 1026 5-6 1039 40-41, 71 1039 40-41 1045 18 1034 3-97 1039 4-1] 1049 47 1043 16 1047 23 1039 5-11, 70 1039 1-72 1049 45, 46 1031 4-84 1039 36, 60 1035 1-15 1035 1-2 1035 4-9 1034 2-4 1038 7-8 1038 7-8 1030 20-22, 24 1044 38-39 1037 38-45: 1032 28-34, 35— 1035 13 1035 11-13 13-15, 16, 1040 18 1032 34-41 22-28, 33, 10324 34-35, 39— 41 1040 13-16, 18 1027 18-49 1027 1-49 1037 4-6 1037 6-10 1041 5 1041 6, 33 1047 5 1087 28-32, 51 INDEX. 19 Bulletin No. Page. Steam-rust™ wheat,epidemics, note...2-2 0. 0.52.222222220.+-- 3. 1046 4 Stilpnotia salicis, host of gipsy-moth parasite........-.---.------ 1028 12-13 Stipa comata, occurrence in South Dakota. ..--...-------------- 1039 4 Sitoresweelicsenvace, types... 2 ee a ao. ste ie ee ASR 1044 2-4 Sulphur dust, spray for avocado red spider, experiment. ......-. 1035 11-13 Sunflower— rust-resistant, breeding work in Russia. .......-..---------- 1045 30 silage— crops oulletimaby ElcNi Vamallite se succes ee 1045 1-32 feed value, palatability, color, odor, acidity, etc.....--- 1045 19-29 varieties, description of seed, yields, etc...................-- 1045 7-9 Sunflowers— composition at various stages of growth ...........-....-.--- 1045 14 cmthimerscime andi methods ck. ses tee Bee ae ta ee 1045 13-15 growing— ROTSINAC GR Ceeun sci ei tls eel sauoeende AEP eens ATA fede eten Pte Lie 1045 9-15 in United States, tests and experiments. ...........---- 1045 2-9 IMpectrenemies- 22.2640 ee ae pts Lie ene ey Nees 1045 31 resistancertotrost: joie. seeees2) Hua abd Ah ony 1045 5 secaimenidate, method, and rate. 3500 6s). jee ye st 1045 10-11 BOLMMCAGrOE Sas cere eee kerees 3 SAUNT A BU EE bre aes 1045 29 Avaluenimusenmanrid TeplONs. 4.0.5.0 2. ees ae ole Melee aes 1045 5-7 Susquehanna Flats, public hunting grounds, regulations.......... 1049 29-30 Sweet potato— rOOdaValmerald USES =. chee ee aN de ee Oe 1041 1-3 growth habits, food value, economic importance, etc......... 1041 1-3 Sweet potatoes— canned— Consisteneyior Varletles! 05. yee Ns seis kiaaja selva apts 1041 16-23 JOR YCIS OE IUD A Denes oe PA EIEN ee ee eh eae ears 248 mS 1041 1 canning quality of different varieties, study, bulletin by C. A. Macoonmand Caw: Culpepper.2: 226 2222 Mess sc sss 1041 1-34 chremicalitcamuposition: 0.2 228/04)... Jeera ana ie Le ei eer 1041 3-6 Giscoloratlonuimy camming’ soi). oa coe re ae ee 1041 15-16 Swietenia spp. See Mahogany. Tabebuia donnell-smithit, identification key and description... . .. 1050 4,16 anguilevispecies; Occurrence, 6t@.../: 2 acess Ube ee ee 1050 11-12 Tar— coal— 0 production, apparatus used, and description............. 1036 11-16 PLOGMeton Me TOOL= TONE a 2 ee es ee ee 1036 18 coke-ovien production, W909) 24520-2652. 2... ancigsae yen gee 1036 23 Gas HOUSE PrOdUCtLOM mlLOO Gt apse es crete eee eee ee 1036 23 use as creosote diluent, properties, value, etc. .......--..--- 1036 79-83 water-gas— OROGMCtION s se yeaa Boosie Mk ay. athe aes 1036 18, 23 source and production method......................---- 1036 16-18 A use With zinc chloride, specifications............--+.---- 1036 104-105 ars— coal, sources and nature. . 222.202.2220. 352 52-c- eeceoe ston bs 1036 4-5 coke-oven, specific gravity and carbon content.............-- 1036 23-25 composition and manufacture...................--.---+------ 1036 7-18 distillation, apparatusiand methods, 225.))25-22..-5 452.4. 1036 27-34 oil souncesjand mature (22868 1 ites see eee ie 1036 5-6 Tea-seed oil, digestibility, experiments.........................- 1033 6-7 Tenures, farm lands, southern Georgia, comparison of white and coloredjoperators: 3.2 eee? Sega Behe ae ie as rs 1034 8-97 Tetranychus yothersi. See Spider, red, on avocado. Thievery, danger in self-service stores, losses and Te get 10444 11-13, HIM CAS UNOS Sree i PS eee ay ale Sa OD dens Sar A a aa Se 31 a 31-33 Thrips— black, enemy of avocado red spider............--.---+------ 1035 10 six-spotted, enemy of avocado red spider..........---------- 1035 9 Tillage, preparation of irrigated land for spring grains............ 1039 69-70 20 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 1026-1050. Timber— cutting— and: handling for, vehicle stock: 20! fruit se Veg ON effection fungi control yi 5) | eR Ont Oe eA STs green, mill storage or handling in ‘tramsit...........2.20.2050444 preservatives, for fungi control, experiments............--.. Tobacco— losses from specified causes in various localities, 1909-1918 . .. Mosaic disease symptoms. ss yy ck ie eat eo We epaale Tobosa grass, value on New Mexico pastures......-.........-.--- Tomatoes, sprayed, poisonous residue at picking time, investiga- FG) OY enh est i LONE Een Ene eR Ge RPA VA On Toon, identification key and description.....................204 Transportation, vehicle stock, handling in transit. .............. Tree, banding for control of citrophilus mealybug................ Truck, crop area and requirements in south Georgia.............. TuckKWILLeR, R. H., and E. W. SxHeers, bulletin on ‘‘Effect of winter rations on pasture gains of calves’’...................2 TurNEY, C. T., range rights to Jornada Range Reserve........... Union Colony, development of irrigation in Colorado............. VALGREN V. N.— and EumMEr ENGELBERT— bulletin on ‘‘Farm mortgage loans by banks, insurance companies; ‘and other agencies?!" ves ak bulletin on ‘‘Bank loans to farmers on personal and col- lateralsecurity 7) seh Nis ES Dita es ee an Goal l t bulletin on ‘‘Crop insurance: Risks, losses, and principles of PROLE CHO MEU. een dene inne eens cn aes e aiaey sretahal crus. force meeel eS Vegetables— handling in self-service'’stores: 1). ¢. 2.22002 ene ace ote sprayed, poisonous residue at harvest time.............-...-- Vehicle stock, control of sap-stain, mold, and decay in green wood, bulletinsby Nathaniel: @. Howard). ool.) ee Ventilation, lumber cars, meed 2/70) elas he i ea ae a Vermont— deer— kalling 897-1920 jrecords 23) ese ea reintroduction and conservation prior to 1897.....-..-.--- game value, estimate by State officials... ....-......--..--- Vinatt, H. N., bulletin on ‘‘The sunflower as a silage crop”...-- Vireiniacamelalling.:records:im 1920 £2 0°) 2s) 2S eee Vitamin Av occurrence in codliver iol Oe as a es Wairs, M. B., W. D. Lyneu, C. C. McDonnELL, J. K. HAaywoop, and A. L. QuaAINTANCE, bulletin on ‘‘Poisonous metals on sprayed fruitsiand vegetables”? -<5 noes -222..-0 228 OU Be Waker, J. C., bulletin on ‘‘Seed treatment and rainfall in rela- tion to control of cabbage blackleg”.......-.-.--------+----- Wardens, game, cost and organization of service. Washington, cranberry industry, and occurrence of blackhead Fr ewOntH PROB Hon bel a Galleys neice. e's ELL Na Rae OU Water— irrigation, exchange practice in Colorado.......-.......----- range, development, and distribution 2225 42S o ee RL ae eee rights, Colorado, Cache la Poudre Valley canals, comparison - Waterfowl, distribution, sale restrictions, numbers killed, and estimated vali 0 Sues cot ee OUR OT COTTE Ram Water-gas tar, source and production method..........-.-...-.-- See also Tar, water-gas. Watermelon-seed oil, digestibility, experiments...........----..- Weeds, western South Dakota, kind and abundance.........-..- West Virginia Experiment Station— calf-feeding experiments s:4 ssa he SOM SO Bese ee work ontsunflowen/slagercse cise cieceee eee cnee cetecilelcersic a Bulletin No. Page:. 1037 21-25. 1037 21-22 1037 49-50 1037 32-48 1043.6, 8, 11 1038 8 ni(9, 10, 24 1031{ 25,33 1027-24, 48 1050 © 3, 7-8 1037-23-32 1040 11-13, 16 1034 16. 1042 115. LOS eetOLTI 1026 1,3: 1047 1-23 1048 1-26 1043 1-27 1044-35-39 24-25, 1027{ ab 1037 1 1035-23-24 1049 «19, 38 1049 3738 1049 14 1045 1-32 1049 20-22 1033 3 4 1027 1-66 1029 1-27 104900" 4al45 1032 2-6 1026-12-13 1031 «52, 67 1026-13-19 1049 a 1036 16-18 1033 7-8 1039 4-5 1042 3-15 INDEX. Wheat— growing— on dry land, experiments in South Dakota.........-.-.- under irrigation, experiments in South Dakota.....-..-- inoculation with Puccinia graminis tritici, experiments, re- SHOUTS] 2s NN ees ee a ON SU Se aS eg inmgatioman, Colorado clOLG say. is Me eI Kanred— AEROMOMMTC VALU Ras a eevee cou rrat arses Su a eral Cas i aptay varieties resistant to rust, experiments. .......----...--- losses from specified causes in various localities, 1909-1918. - . rust-resistance— experiments) with varieties 3.2. 03 sNn a el eee i 8 in winter varieties, bulletin by Leo E. Melchers and John SI are kere pee ear VS eed ye Ae MEE RUNS ae MUL Ans A rust-resistant varieties, studies, historical notes, etc.......-. seeding dates and rates, Belle Fourche Farm.........-...--- seeding rates and dates, dry-land and wrigation farming, FSKO NUIT IDE Loy sea ey aS AMER NO cet AN Loa Cae Sn varmetres|resistant to leafirusts 2s. .c2seae en. oe yak le Wheat-grass, western, occurrence and importance in South Da- PROUR |G og SSH NE SSN ele ar ogee SARUM IL Sa A Re A a A Wheats, “resistance to rust, literature concerning. . . Wind, velocity at Belle Fourche Farm, April "September, “1908— OD 2 EE ONE atc OU Tr A el Winds, hot, losses caused by, 1909-1918..........--.-..--.--.--- Wintering, calves, effect of rations on pasture gains, bulletin by BaWersheetsiandvR: He: Muckwalller.( va. Gybe ew Th ee io Wisconsin, cabbage seeds, testing for blackleg infection . Woe.uM, R. Sas and A. D. BorpDEN, bulletin on ‘Control of the citrophilus mealybug” Bees Seer lactate Un ean COO 2h 21 Ve Ae al Wood— chemical treatment for fungi control... 2.22.02 2228. green, chemical treatment for control of sap-stain and mold. preservative treatment, re tance of industry preservatives— bibliography.-.......... PESTS eee er rE DE CARNES Bh ML 2 coal-tar and water-gas tar, properties and testing methods, bulletin by Ernest Bateman a0 aM nen tar creosotes, properties and testlng..............---.... protection by oil solutions, theory and mechanism........... stained or molded, durability SIA Asi st rat nae nce a enn Sy eae treating plants, crecsotes used rah UN AL nly Woods— green, control of sap-stain, mold and decay in vehicle stock, bulletin, by, Nathaniel’ ©! Howard $43) 594 soe bad ene BUSCEPUIDIlTty LO sap-sbari tum ode: epee eee ee il Wricat, P. A., work on sunflower composition. . Wyoming— Elk Refuge, Jackson Hole, purchase and cost...........--- Teton Game Reservation, location and boundaries. ......... Yellow— Jersey sweet potato, description, canning quality, etc........ Strasburg sweet potato, description, canning value, etc. ...-. Yellows, peach, causes, symptoms, and transmission. Ean Yellowstone National Park, purchase and cost Yields, crops in south Georgia. . wee cece ee ee em ee ee ee oor e eco ese eee as Bulletin No. Page. 1039-13-27 1039 46-52 1046 4-24 1026 63-64, 84 1046-26-27 1046 24-96 1043 6,8, 10 Va ale 1046 ane 1046 1-32 1045 2-39 1039 20-26, 70-71 12, 17-19, 1039) 23-24” 50-51 1046 26 1039 4 1046 2-3, 30-32 1039 9 6, 7,8, 9, 10434 Hee 1042 1-15 1029-18-28 1040 1-20 1037 32-48, 51 1037-32-41 1036 3 1036 112-114 10360) 114 1036) 9) Soin 1036 84-86 1037 17 1036 22 1037 1-55 1037 10-11, 51 1045 9) Weis 1049 45, 46 1049 32 1041{ 8, 11, 29, 8, 11, 13, 1041 nee 1038 6-7 1049 46 1034 «17-21 3, BULLETIN No. 1026 ¥g ASS V, \ aks EN ze Contribution from the Bureau of Public Roads THOS. H. MACDONALD, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv May 16, 1922 IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. By Ropert G. HEMPHILL, Irrigation Engineer. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Introduction 2222225 Sse eens TSEWater .rightst See ee ee eee ee ee 13 Cache la Poudre Valley_-_-------~- 2 Distribution) from sriver. 22s 19 INTE O TO) O Gaya ase ce eiteeen ak aa 3} MDDS IOre TK ee A 24 SOUS TS DE Ee SS ee oS SukCanaliisystems/ 22222) eee 26 Valter besOuUnces== 22 = ee 6) | Gross® duty. for (canals2 = sees 42 Secnaeemre hur ses 2 2 Nene We Oe ele 1OF Harm arrizabion 2222s) eee Bill Dramases conditions = 222-22 eee LDA RESET VOLTS soe eis eee UG yas 69 Exchange ofswater.-22— 2 2 12 | Summary and conclusions. _________ 79 INTRODUCTION. Prior to the establishment of the Union Colony at Greeley, Colo., in 1870, only a few primitive attempts at irrigation farming had been made along the route of the Overland Trail in that State. The small acreage of less than 1,000 acres which was then irrigated for the purpose of raising native hay, vegetables, and grain for the mining camps has increased in the half century which has since elapsed to over 3,000,000 acres, yielding an annual revenue at cur- rent prices of over $100,000,000. This great increase in acreage has carried with it a corresponding development in irrigation practice and in the customs and laws relating to irrigation. In fact, Colorado, while maintaining a ranking in irrigation development second only to that of California, has established laws and customs and standarized practice to such an extent that the people of the State have become in many respects the leaders in such development throughout the Rocky Mountain region. In the aridity of its cli- mate, elevation above sea level, topography, soils, and crops Colorado bears a close resemblance to several neighboring mountain States. Tt is not surprising, therefore, to find that the methods of preparing land and applying water as well as the laws and administrative sys- tems of the State have been adopted by other States having somewhat similar physical conditions. The results of an irrigation investiga- 74464°—22- 4 y BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, tion carried on for a number of years in the valley of the Cache la Poudre River in northern Colorado are herein presented in the hope that they will afford an opportunity for other communities possess- ing less experience to benefit by the principles and practice so success- fully worked out in the Poudre River basin. The investigation was carried on under a cooperative agreement between the Agricultural Experiment Station of Colorado and the Bureau of Public Roads, each party contributing equal amounts to the undertaking. At first the investigation was in direct charge of V. M. Cone, irrigation engineer, who, under the general diree- tion and supervision of Samuel Fortier, Chief of the Division of Irrigation Investigations, planned and carried out the work during the years 1916 and 1917. Mr. Cone resigned to enter private prac- tice in February, 1918, and Ralph L. Parshall succeeded him as the representative of the bureau in Colorado. Since the writer, however, had been intimately connected with the investigation from the be- ginning, it fell to his lot to complete the work and write the report. CACHE LA POUDRE VALLEY. The Cache la Poudre River drains an area of approximately 1,900 square miles in north-central Colorado. The main stream heads in Chambers Lake, a few miles east of the crest of the Medicine Bow Range, and flows in a fairly straight line to its junction with the South Platte River, 60 miles southeast. With its tributaries it drains slopes of the Laramie, Medicine Bow, and Snowy Mountains. About 30 miles east of Chambers Lake the river breaks through the last line of foothills and flows out on the plains. This line of foothills forms a natural division and breaks the basin into two distinct parts. West of the foothills the country is all rough and mountainous and lies at an altitude of from 6,000 to 14,000 feet. Irrigation in this sec- tion of the basin is confined almost entirely to forage crops in nar- row strips along the streams. East of the foothills the valley proper rarely exceeds a mile or two in width and is 50 to 100 feet below the level of the adjacent land. In this section, and south of the river, the bluffs are rather abrupt and are only a short distance from the divide between the Cache la Poudre and Big Thompson basins, thus limiting irrigation to the river bottoms and a small area of bench land southwest of Fort Collins. North: of the river a rolling prairie, rising gradually from the first bench, extends northward to the Wyoming line, and in this sec- tion are located the larger canals and at least 80 per cent of the irri- gated land in the basin. The altitude of the eastern division of the basin ranges from 4,500 to 5,500 feet, IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 3 In 1870 occurred two events of great importance in the develop- ment of the valley. The first was the completion of the Denver Pa- cific Railroad from Cheyenne to Denver, which afforded a safe and quick means of travel from the East and solved, to a great extent, the problem of supples. The second was the establishment of the Union Colony in the vicinity of the present town of Greeley. The first work of this colony was the construction of the Greeley Canal No. 3 to water the town site and the lands adjoining.’ In the fall of 1870 work on the Greeley Canal No. 2 was started, and water was carried in the canal the following spring. The Greeley Canal No. 2 is notable for the fact that it is the first large canal built by community effort in Colorado and also the first built to water ex- tensive areas of bench land. Mistakes were made in the design and construction of these canals and the cost was many times the esti- mated amount, but the colonists kept fighting against disheartening odds and were finally rewarded by success. The success of the Greeley colony in canal building was such that construction by corporations or community effort soon almost entirely supplanted individual effort, and by 1882 practically all the large canals of the valley had been built. ‘Since 1882 the development has consisted of extensions of canals already constructed, the construction of ditches to bring water across from other drainage basins, and the building of the reservoir systems of the valley made necessary by the diversification of crops to include those requiring late irrigation. METEOROLOGY. Meteorological records have been taken at the State Agricultural College at Fort Collins for many years and are complete beginning with 1887. (Fig. 1.) While there is a slight variation in climatic conditions over the valley proper, due to a gradual transition from a plains to a foothill climate, this difference is so small as to be of no significance so far as irrigation is concerned, and the Fort Collins records may be taken as representative of the whole valley. They show the chief characteristics of the climate to be a light rainfall, with correspondingly few stormy days and much.sunshine, a wide range in daily and seasonal temperature, low relative humidity, a moder- ately high wind movement, and a comparatively low rate of evapora- tion. In Table 1 is given a summary of 31 years of the Fort Collins records. 1See Second Biennial Report, State Engineer of Colorado, 1883—84, by Col. H. S. Nettleton. Also History of Greeley and the Union Colony, by David Boyd. Also History of Larimer County, by Ansel Watrous. Also University of Colorado Historical Collec- tions: The Union Colony at Greeley, 1869-1871, by James F. Willard. 4 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 1—Summary of meteorological records at Fort Collins, Colo., 1887-1917. ~_ Rainfall Temperature Wind (ntiles per | & Evaporation (inches). GE): hour). 3° (inches). Sig : ® <8 SES Monthly E = Monthly | >& rad |r AGntte mean. E E mean. =e SI 5 4 S| £2 do. | ¢ rs a aleue Ti (as alee ps) De Alo We a so ae FB lee Helge Ed a= fers ee ep he hp gE)? gS) ee eS | 3 KH | ‘¢ S B D a ay al el ees 3 | = | @ 3 45 S) 2 2 to) OS: aaibe ey >) 3 = Vereen etre = = < < = a rer es aS |e = | | ae | | January?s..8- 5-22 | 0.35 | 2.32 | 0.01 | 25.9 | 71.0 | —31.4| 6.4] 10.1 | 4.0 | 71.3 | 1.23 | 2.64| 0.68 Bebruary.. 22) <<: -62 | 1.65] .03 | 26.7 | 70.0 | —38.4 |} 6.9) 10.4) 4.4 | 72.5 | 1.45 |°3223 - 58 Marchieige soso. soos 1.05 | 3.35.) .00 | 35.7 | 80.3 | —24.6| 7.9] 11.9 | 4.7 | 67.1 | 2.63 | 4.60 .57 JADLUE FFs Fea he ee 2.16 110.56} .05) 46.1 | 91.0 5. 1 8.41 12.3] 5.9) 59.7) 4.21 | 617] 2.24 Ma yo tes ee | 3.06 | 7.47 | .60 | 53.9 | -90.0 12.1 6.9} 10.9 | 4.7} 63.4] 4.68 | 6.63 | 3.49 JUNCAt se Sek ete 1.48 | 3.65] .03 | 63.1 4.2 31.2 | 6:01" 9.651" 425 [635 98o: 420 era 3.97 Uutlye ses soe eos 1.82 | 4.95 | .17 | 68.1 | 99.9 36.0] 4.8] 7.0) 3.1] 66.8] 5.59 | 7.32} 4.26 INUpUSH Sc eeat 1.23 | 3.14 .16 | 67.2 | 99.6 31.7 | 407 | 6.4°| > 351 |-67. 25) 5207 W6sa7 83579 September?<. 5-2 <= | 1.29 | 3.08 | .00]| 59.2 | 95.0 22.0] 5.1 7.2 | 3.5)| 67.2,| 4.30 | 5.57 | 3.14 October 32222 55-=- DAZ 3223 |S. lee: 47.7 | 88.0) — 8.0] 5.7] 9.1] 3.3 | 67.9 | 3.28 | 4.64] 2.17 November. ....--.-- 403 MIRSOSeeeeee 36.0 | 78.0 | —21.1 6.0} 9.4] 2.8] 69.8] 1.56 | 2.81 - 62 DWecentberecesa-eee 46 | °4)08.)...2 2: | 28.0] 68.0] —31.0] 6.5] 10.2) 3.4] 72.3] 1.17] 1.88 - 26 ica a) — Year......../15.04 |22.49 | 7.11 | 46.5 | 99.9 | —38.4 | 6.3 | 9.3 4.7 | 67.4 |40.59 |47.30 | 34.24 | | | | | a Ali meteorological records pertaining to Fort Collins were taken from Colorado Ex- periment Station Bulletin No. 245. Colorado Climatology, by Robert E. Trimble, 1918. 6 From tanks 3 by 3 feet deep. Water surface about 2 inches above ground. Approximately two-thirds of the rainfall comes during the grow- ing season, from April 15 to September 15. An average of 74 days of the year shows precipitation, mostly in the form of light showers and snows, though rains of more than 0.5 inch usually occur several times during the season. Heavy local rains or cloudbursts occasion- ally do some damage to crops and canals, but in general they are rather a benefit, as they flood the streams and afford additional water for irrigation and storage. At Greely? the average rainfall is about 2 inches less than at Fort Collins, but the seasonal distribution is about the same. In the mountainous section of the Cache la Poudre drainage area the rainfall is heavier and averages perhaps 22 inches annually. There isa rather notable range of temperature in the valley. At Greeley temperatures of 103° above and 45° below zero have been recorded, giving an absolute range at that point of 148°. At Fort Collins the mean temperatures for January and for July differ by 40°, and the daily range is approximately 30°, but warm chinooks from the west or cold waves from the north often produce a change of as much as 40° within 2 or 3 hours. In general, the extremes of tem- perature last only a short time, and the impression of the climate which remains is one of crisp dry air, clear skies, and warm sunlight. At Fort Collins the average period between killing frosts is 144 days, 1 Meteorological records for Greeley were furnished by F. H. Brandenburgm, U. S. Weather Bureau, Denver. ; IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 5 or from May 5 to September 26, while at Greeley the period is 9 days longer, from May 1 to October 1. In spite of low relative humidity and moderately high wind move- ment, the average annual evaporation from a water surface is com- paratively low at Fort Collins. The average for the year is reduced by the small amount for the winter months. During the summer months, when water is held in reservoirs for future irrigation, the evaporation is heavy. Weather conditions dur- RAINFALL —- INCHES ing the period of investiga- | [z/gis{x]£/2/s{8 [3s] ile gyg}s SSSI Sg tion varied from the aver- age only to a small extent. Figure 1 is given to show the rainfall, temperature, and evaporation at Fort |‘ giitaeig. WL Collins during 1916 and |_ be 1917 as compared with the average for a period of 31 years. SOILS.’ A soil survey including the Cache la Poudre Valley [lglg was made in 1904 by the |/"RRRRRRRRERAE REE EE HT Bureau of Soils, United eee eee: States Department of Agriculture, and 10 soil types were found and mapped. Those occurring most extensively in the valley were designated as Colorado fine sandy loam, o - © wa gia v ttt 10 WHR ie 2 Se Bal | ie Ss: es MEAN 1687-I917 L aur e 1 sandy loam, and ANNUAL — 40.59 INCHES ANNUAL — 44.50 INCHES ANNUAL — ave ii Fort Collins loam. Frc. 1.—Meteorological conditions at Fort Collins during the period of the investigation compared ‘ The Coiorado fine sandy ror heehee toe loam covers a large area north of the river between Fort Collins and Greeley. It is a residual soil, ight to dark brown in color, extends to an average depth of about 3 feet, and is underlain by a loam or a heavy fine sandy loam to a depth of 6 feet or more. The silt and clay content increases with the depth. The loose texture of this soil affords good drainage and, except in draws or depressions where seepage comes to the surface, there is 3 Soil Survey of the Greeley Area, Colorado, by J. Garnett Holmes and N. P. Neill. Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1904. 6 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. not enough alkali to injure crops. This soil is especially well adapted to grain, alfalfa, and potatoes. The Laurel sandy loam is an alluvial soil and occurs in a strip one-half to 1 mile wide in the river bottoms. It ranges in depth from 2 to 5 feet, and is dark brown to black in color. The soil be- comes more sandy with depth, passing gradually into coarse sand and water-worn gravel. This soil is not very well drained and the water table is near the surface the greater part of the year. Only small areas, however, are affected by alkali. This soil is particularly well adapted to cabbages, onions, and sugar beets. The Fort Collins loam occurs in small areas north of Greeley and in the vicinity of Fort Collins. It consists of a reddish to a very dark brown light loam, from 4 inches to 1 foot in thickness, under- lain by a layer of heavy loam from 1 to 4 feet in thickness. Below this layer of loam the subsoil grades again into a light loam extend- ing to a depth of 6 feet or more. The soil is very sticky when wet and bakes badly. It is fairly well drained, is affected by alkali in small areas only, and is adapted to fruits, grain, potatoes, alfalfa, and sugar beets. 5; WATER RESOURCES. Water for irrigation in the Cache la Poudre Valley is obtained from the river and its tributaries; from supply ditches collecting run-off from the high slopes of the drainage systems of the Grand, Michigan, and Laramie Rivers; from shallow pumped wells; and from seepage from canals, reservoirs, and irrigated lands which re- turns to the river or its tributary channels. A station for gaging the river has been maintained since 1884 at the mouth of the canyon, above all canal headings but the North Poudre and Poudre Valley, and because of the permanence of the channel section there the continuous automatic record of stage, the frequent ratings to check the discharge curve, and the length of the period covered, the records of discharge at that point are particu- larly complete and accurate. As the river is fed principally by melting snow, characteristic marked variations in yearly, seasonal, and daily discharge are to be expected. The discharge varies from year to year with the fall and winter temperatures and the amount of precipitation cn the upper slopes of the basin, the greatest discharge coming after a fall and winter which pack the deep gulches with snow and ice. The annual dis- charge at the canyon station averages 320,000 acre-feet, but has varied from a minimum of 169,000 acre-feet in 1888 to a maximum of 689,000 acre-feet in 1884. IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. a The wide seasonal variation is due to the spring flood produced by rapid melting of snow in the hills. Its duration and intensity de- pend on the amount of snow to be melted and the temperature, a con- tinued high temperature producing a rapid rise, a high crest early in the season, and a subsequent rapid fall, and a low temperature pro- ducing a more gradual rise and fall with comparatively low and late crest. The average date of the crest is June 10, but it has come as early as May 17 and as late as June 28. The discharge at the crest has varied from a mean of 1,550 second-feet on June 19, 1888, to a mean of 5,800 second-feet on June 23, 1917. The lowest dis- charge is about 30 second-feet and occurs in winter after severe cold weather has frozen most of the stream. The daily rise and fall is pronounced only during the spring flood, when alternate freezing and thawing of snow on the high slopes of the basin produce a variation of several hundred second-feet at the gaging station, the maximum recorded being 1,500 second-feet. Sud- den floods, due to storms, are common and there are records showing a rise of more than 5 feet in less than 30 minutes, caused by cloud- bursts in narrow branch canyons with steep slopes. Records of discharge of the river from 1884 to 1917, inclusive, are given in Table 2. During the winter months ice conditions at the gaging station are such that automatic records are of little value, and such as were available were discarded. Estimates of the flow from November to March, inclusive, were furnished by John Arm- strong, water commissioner for the stream, who has handled the di- vision of the winter flow for over 25 years. To arrive at the annual discharge, Mr. Armstrong’s estimates for the winter months were combined with available figures for other months, and then, if April or October records were partly missing, they were interpolated in the proportion of the percentages shown in the table. The winter flow is so small that this method of estimating could not produce an error of as much as 5 per cent. Data included in the table are from the original records of the Colorado Experiment Station and from reports of the State engineer. In considering this table it should be noted that the North Poudre and Poudre Valley Canals divert about 40,000 acre-feet above the gaging station annually, and that part of the water passing the station is foreign water from other drainage basins. 8 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF. AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 2.—Discharge of the Cache la Poudre River at gaging station at mouth of canyon. Discharge in second-feet. Year. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. Nov.| Dec. | in acre- Average dis charge, | sec.-ft.1.| 50 55 55 192 | 1,147 | 2,087 911 347 189 | 127 83 60 320, 090 Equiva- | lent dis- | charge, acre-feet|/3, 070 |3,050 |8,375 |11,405 (70,405 |123, 970 |55, 920 |21,300 |11,225 (7,795 |4,930 3,685 320, 130 Per cents 120)} 70:94 ott 3.6 | 22.0 38.7 | 17.5 6.7 254) | PASS Hae 100.0 1 The figures in this line are not averages of the preceding figures but were obtained by combining the daily averages foreach month. By this method records for only a part of a month which could not be shown as a monthly average could be included in the general average. Figure 2 shows the discharge of the river from April to September, inclusive, during 1916 and 1917, the period of the investigation, as compared with the average for a period of 34 years. It will be noticed that the discharge for 1916 was very nearly normal, but that for 1917 was far above normal. The small creeks tributary to the Cache la Poudre River below the canyon furnish only a small percentage of the total water supply of the valley. Rainstorms flood these creeks for a day or two, brt ordinarily they are dry or nearly so, except where a flow of a few second-feet is produced by seepage. Records of flow of the more im- portant of these tributaries, together with estimates for the smaller streams, show that the supply from this source is about 40,000 acre- feet in average years, of which 15,000 acre-feet may be classed as IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 9 normal run-off and 25,000 acre-feet as returned seepage. The greater part of this flow is intercepted by canals and reservoirs before it reaches the river. The foreign water turned into the Cache la Poudre River has averaged 35,000 acre-feet for a number of years. The Grand River ditches of the Water MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPT... 10 10 20 10 20 10 20 10 20 Supply & Storage Co. bring over about 11,500 acre-feet from the Grand River drainage area. Ditches of the Water Supply & Storage Co. and the North Poudre Ivri- gation Co. draw about 3,500 acre- feet from the Mich- igan River drainage area. The remain- der, 20,000 acre- feet, is brought over from the La- ramie River drain- age area by the Skyline Ditch of the Water Supply & Storage Co., the Greeley-Poudre ir- rigation district’s tunnel, the Sand Creek feeder of the Worster Reservoir, and others. The a eater Ig art of this Tig. 2.—Discharge of the Cache la Poudre River at the rat- fo relgn water is ing station at the mouth of the canyon during the period of diverted by the in, spre neste? compared with the average fOr approxi- North Poudre Val- ley, and the Larimer County Canals. The Greeley-Poudre district, - having no land under irrigation, usually sells the tunnel water to the highest bidder. The record of discharge of the river at the canyon rating station includes all foreign water passing that point. The amount of water obtained by pumping from wells does not exceed 5,000 acre-feet annually and is generally used late in the - SECOND-FEET 10 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. season instead of reservoir water to provide for an irrigation after canal supphes fail. The total amount of seepage return to the river, exclusive of that coming through regular channels, is about 110,000 acre-feet annually. During the winter months only the return above the intake of the Cache la Poudre Reservoir may be used, and this is estimated to be about 8,000 acre-feet. During the summer months canals on the lower reaches of the river depend to a considerable extent on this return flow to satisfy their rights, and it is estimated that during these months 51,000 acre-feet are available for their use. Combined, the total available flow for the year is 59,000 acre-feet. To summarize, the water supply of the valley includes a normal run-off of 340,000 acre-feet in the river and its tributaries, 35,000 acre-feet of foreign water, 5,000 acre-feet pumped from wells, and available seepage to the amount of 84,000 acre-feet, a total supply of 464,000 acre-feet. This supply in the course of time will be in- creased slightly by pumping and by a greater return of seepage, but any material increase seems improbable. With the exception of very short periods during high floods, the entire available flow of the stream is taken on rights which have been in existence for years. There is an occasional surplus subject to storage, but because of the uncertainty attaching to it and the probable high cost of developing it, the feasibility of such a supply is highly questionable. The demand on the river in June the month of maximum flow, is close to 120,000 acre-feet, which is equivalent to an average flow of approximately 2,100 second-feet. From Table 2 it appears that the river has failed to reach that discharge in 18 of the 33 years covered by the records. To produce a surplus of 20,000 to 25,000 acre-feet a discharge of at least 2,500 second-feet would be required during June, and such a discharge occurred in only 9 of the 33 years covered by the records. From this it is clear than any further storage projects would have to depend on a surplus which would be of considerable size only about once in 3 or 4 years. The amount available annually for use from such a supply would be very small and very costly. SEEPAGE RETURN. One of the questions of particular interest now in many irrigated valleys is that of seepage return to streams. It is a well-known fact that, with the extension of irrigation, this return has so increased that canals on the lower reaches of the rivers, which once suffered seriously because their rights would not be satisfied, are now plenti- fully supplied with water. In the Cache la Poudre Valley the effect of the seepage return is very marked. Late in the season it is often the case that the river is dry in several places, yet a number of 4See Tables 7 and 8. IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 11 the lower canals may be drawing their full appropriations from the supply developed by seepage return. Prof. L. G. Carpenter, for a number of' years director of the Colorado Experiment Station, made one or more measurements of the Cache la Poudre River each year, for more than 20 years, to determine the seepage return to the stream. These determinations were spot measurements, good only for the conditions at the time of the observation, but the large number of observations and the care with which they were made establishes their dependability. The average of the measurements, made in the spring and fall at low stages of the river, shows a return between the canyon and the mouth of the river of 153 second-feet, which included seepage intercepted by canals near the river. The rating stations maintained during 1916 and 1917 on the river, its tributaries, and the canals diverting from it, provided continuous records from which the seepage return shown in Table 3 -was de- termined. These figures show the net return to the river from the canyon to the mouth, but do not include seepage entering through the channels of the various tributaries below the canyon. To arrive at these figures the total supply from all sources was determined by adding the discharge of the river at the lower rating station and the discharge of all canals, less the water returned to the river through sluices and wasteways. The supply available from the normal flow of the stream was then obtained by adding the discharges of the North Poudre and Poudre Valley Canals, the river discharge at the canyon station, and the inflow to the river from the tributaries entering below the canyon. The supply available from the normal flow of the stream was then subtracted from the total supply, the difference being the amount of seepage return. Results obtained in this manner will contain a certain amount of run-off from rains and irrigation which reaches the river directly instead of passing through the tributary channels on which measurements were made. The amount is small, however, and may be neglected. TABLE 3.—Seepage return to the Cache la Poudre River in 1916 and 1917. Jan, | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May.|June. | July. | Aug.|Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Total. Return in 1916 (acre-feet). ......| 4,600] 4,150] 4,667} 6, 297/11, 328) 9, 491/13, 801/13, 324/10, 233/11, 412/10, 615] 7, 465|)........ Return in 1917 (acre-feet). ...... 6, 604| 6,094) 7,875) 7,727) (@) (1) |14, 584/14, 322} 9, 880} 8, 586]10, 186] 6, 386).....-.- Average in acre-feet| 5,602) 5, 122| 6,271) 7, 012/11, 328) 9, 491/14, 167]13, 823'10, 032] 9, 999]10, 400] 6, 925] 110, 172 Average in second- CTS he Sie A Sa ete 91 92) 102} 118) 184) 160) 231) 225) 169) 163) 175) 113 152 1 The figures for May and June, 1917, are omitted on account of their probable inaccuracy. Records at the station near the mouth of the river were interrupted for a week or ten day when the discharge was over 2,000 second-feet. Results obtained by interpolation are subject to too great an error at thatstage of the river, Seepage which reaches the tributaries and then flows into the river is approximately 15,000 acre-feet yearly. There are many other streams of seepage and runoff from irrigated fields which are 12 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. intercepted for direct use or for storage. A conservative estimate of the amount of this seepage would be 12,000 acre-feet. Added to- gether, these give a total seepage return for the valley of approxi- mately 137,000 acre-feet annually, which is equivalent to a constant flow of 190 second-feet. The average annual water supply of the valley, exclusive of seepage, is 380,000 acre-feet, and the seepage re- turn as estimated above is slightly over 36 per cent of that supply.® DRAINAGE CONDITIONS. From the preceding section on seepage return the natural pre- sumption would be that drainage must be one of the important prob- lems of the valley, but such is not the case. As is to be expected in any irrigated area, for many years wet spots have developed, but these spots rarely exceeded 40 to 80 acres in extent and were usu- ally drained as soon as the condition became bad. Because of the rolling topography, the sandy character of the soil, and the many natural channels, the construction of the required small systems of tile drains presented no difficulties. It is estimated that close to 10 per cent of the irrigated land of the valley is underlain by drains. Land needing drainage at present is in scattered spots and in only two instances is there as much as 500 acres in one body. KXCHANGE OF WATER. In order to utilize sites which could be developed cheaply and at the same time to save the cost of intake canals, 12 reservoirs of the Cache la Poudre Valley, with an aggregate capacity of about 50,000 acre-feet, were built below the distributing canals of the com- panies owning them. The problem of making the water stored in these reservoirs available for use in the distributing canals above has been solved by the development of a very complicated system of exchange of water. In 1916, an average year, the operation of the exchange system made available for use on higher land about 55,000 acre-feet of water stored in low reservoirs, or 14 per cent of the total supply used by all the canals of the valley. The principal exchange system of the valley involves the 4 largest canals, and to understand it clearly a few facts must be kept in mind. Beginning at the lower end of the river and going upstream, the Greeley Canal No. 2, the Larimer and Weld Canal, and the Larimer County Canal of the Water Supply & Storage Co. head in the order named. Next above and diverting from the North Fork is the North Poudre Canal. The principal water rights of these canals stand in the same order of priority, the Greeley Canal No. 2 coming first with an appropriation dating 1870 and the North Poudre Canal com- ing last with an appropriation dating 1881. Reservoirs No. 5 and No. 6 of the North Poudre Co. are too low to supply directly any land under the canal, and their outlet empties into the Larimer County 5 This does not include seepage from Poudre Vailey land entering directly into the South Platte. IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 13 Canal. With the exception of Black Hollow, the reservoirs of the Water Supply & Storage Co. below the canyon are also low and their outlets are arranged so that water from them may be turned into the Larimer and Weld Canal or the river. Below the Larimer and Weld Canal is the Windsor Reservoir, which has a capacity of 17,000 acre-feet and discharges into the Greeley Canal No. 2. A few of the rights in this reservoir are held under the Greeley Canal No. 2, but the great majority are owned by farmers under the Larimer and Weld Canal. The exchange is operated by taking advantage of all these conditions. Except during high-flood periods the rights of the Greeley Canal No. 2 may entitle it to practically the entire flow of the North Fork, but instead of allowing this water to flow down the channel of the river to be taken directly by the canal, the water commissioner per- mits the North Poudre Canal to divert it for use, and directs that an equal amount be turned from the Windsor Reservoir to the Greeley Canal No. 2 when the drop in the river reaches that canal. If, for instance, a flow of 100 second-feet has been taken for 10 days, the North Poudre Co. then owes the Windsor Reservoir 1,985 acre-feet, or 87,000,000 cubic feet, as it is expressed locally, and to secure the debt that amount of water is held in the North Poudre Reservoir No. 6. In other words, Windsor Reservoir water to the amount of 1,985 acre-feet has been transferred upstream for delivery to rights under the Larimer and Weld Canal, and the North Poudre Co. has been able to use in its main canal 1,985 acre-feet of the water stored in its low reservoirs. While channels are available through which the water in Reservoir No. 6 could be delivered direct to the Larimer and Weld Canal, this is never done. Instead, the water is delivered to the Larimer County Canal Co. at any time on demand of the Water Supply & Storage Co., and in exchange this company holds sufficient water in its low reservoirs to deliver 1,985 acre-feet to the Larimer and Weld Canal to supply the demands of the holders of Windsor Reservoir rights. It will be noted that while the Greeley Canal No. 2 has been left undisturbed in its rights, the use of 1,985 acre-feet of its appropriation has served to exchange nearly 6,000 acre-feet of water stored in low reservoirs. WATER RIGHTS. The development of irrigation was so rapid in the Cache la Poudre basin that the problem of an equitable division of the water in the stream arose earlier than in any other section of the State. The need became pressing with the construction of large canals in the late seventies, and the efforts of the people of the valley to solve the problem resulted in the inauguration in 1879-1881 of the present system of water administration. The first general adjudication of water rights in the Cache la Poudre and its tributaries was held immediately after, and with few exceptions the rights decreed then 14 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are now in force and unimpaired. In Table 4 the rights of the prin- cipal canals of the valley are listed, with notes to show how they were acquired or changed. Ninety per cent of the direct irrigation rights of the stream are included, those omitted being chiefly rights of small ditches above the canyon or at the head of tributaries enter- ing below the canyon. TABLE 4.—Water rights of the principal canals of the Cache la Poudre Valley. Pri- ority Amount ae Date (sec.-ft.). Remarks. ber. North Poudre Canal.-........ 2|June 1,1861 0.72 | Transferred from Watrous, Whedbee & Secord Ditch. 17 | Apr. 15,1866 4.77 | Transferred from Taylor and Gill Ditch. 19} July 1,1866 2.16 | Transferred from Watrous, Whedbee & Secord Ditch. 29 | June 1,1868 2.16 Do. = 40 | May 1,1871 4.00 | Transferred from Wm. Calloway Ditch No. 1; use limited to certain land. Z 52 | July 20,1872 15.00 | Transferred from Arthur Ditch. 60 | July 1,1873 7.20 | Transferred from Aquila Morgan Ditch. a6 Us oe ee Goes 9.38 | Transferred from Brown Ditch No. 1. 63 | Aug. 15,1873 3.32 | Transferred fromBrown Ditch No. 2. 66 | Sept. 1,1873 11.00 | Transferred from Arthur Ditch. _ 69 | May 15,1874 3.32 | Transferred from Brown Ditch No. 3. 77 | May 1,1875 6.72 | Transferred from Brown Ditch No. 4. 79| Jan. 1,1876 6.72 | Transferred from Brown Ditch No. 5. 80 | June 1,1876 6.72 | Transferred from Brown Ditch No. 6. 82|June 1,187 2.85 | Transferred from Brown Ditch No. 7. 97 | Feb. 1,1880 315.00 | Original appropriation: by court decree subsequently made inferior to priority Tofalies toes eee pete pert 401. 04 No. 100 of the Larimer County Canal. Poudre Valley Canal-....-_- | 28] Mar. 15,1868 1. 63 Transferred from Canyon Ditch. | 56} Mar. 20,1873 24. 44 Do. Total eosete. es ese esr hea] I ek ri A a 26. 07 Pleasant Valley and Lake 4| Sept. 1,1861 10.97 | Original appropriation. Canal. 11 | June 10,1864 29. 63 51 | July 10,1872 16. 50 92 | Aug. 18,1879 80. 83 otal 24. 23s tseacerl ees. 2 | bea eee 137. 93 Larimer County Canal. --... 5 | Mar. 1,1862 10.77 | Transferred from Pioneer Ditch. 12 | Sept. 15, 1864 13. 89 oO. 28 | Mar. 15, 1868 4.66 | Transferred from Canyon Ditch. 56 | Mar. 20,1873 4.00 One ‘ | 84] Apr. 1,1878 7.23 | Appropriation of Smith Ditch acquired with right of way. 100 | Apr. 25,1881 | 463. 00 Original appropiate: by court decree sub- | | sequently made superior to preity, No. MNotaley esse al) ee ee 503. 55 97 of the North Poudre Canal. Jackson Ditchi tse 3 | June 10,1861 11. 67 | Original appropriation. 36 | Oct. 21,1870 14. 42 67 | Sept. 15, 1873 12.13 91 | July 15,1879 12.71 Motels ee lea ee a RR ee ars ee? ci 50. 92 Little Cache la Poudre 31 | May 1,1869 62. 08 Do. Ditch. 58 | May 1,1873 20. 42 Ae Y ait eee aula ect (pi peal Ue Wee ar ee 82. 50 Taylor and Gill Ditch...___. 17 | Apr. 15,1866 12.15 | Of the original appropriation of 18.48 sec- ; ond-feet, 4.77 second-feet transferred to North Poudre Canal] and 1.56 second-feet returned to river to protect it from loss on account of transfer. Larimer County Canal No.2.) 14} May 1, 1865 4.00 | Transferred from John R. Brown Ditch. 57) Apr. 1, 1873 175.00 | Original appropriation. BO) Ne I al | ere | be) ee 179. 00 1 The appropriations of the Brown Ditches are not owned by the company but are carried in the canal under a perpetual contract. wth} esi IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 15 Taste 4—Water rights of the principal canals of the Cache la Poudre Valley— Continued. Pri- ority = Amount sifeReae Date.- (sec.-ft.). Remarks. ber. New Mercer Cattal ......-.-- 25 | Oct. 1, 1867 7.03 | Transferred from Josh Ames Ditch (in liti- gation). 33 | Sept. 1, 1869 4.17 | Original appropriation. 47 | Oct. 10,1871 8. 33 49 | July 1,1872 15. 00 99 | Feb. 15,1880 136. 00 ANCL a aie poy Seat UN (Ne See le a 170. 53 ATtRUn Ditches 4g scsce 2| June 1,1861 72 | Transferred from Watrous, Whedbee & Secord Ditch. 19] July 1, 1866 2.16 Do. 29! June 1,1868 2.16 Do. 32 | June 1,1869 1.67 | Original appropriation. 38 | Apr. 1, 1871 31.67 ; 52 | July 20,1872 18.33 | Remainder ofappropriation of 33.33 second- : feet transferred to North Poudre Canal. 66 | Sept. 1, 1873 52. 28 | Remainder of appropriation of 63.28 second- feet transferred to North Poudre Canal. ANGE Cs i Ni RE a a a | [eae oer rt 108. 99 Larimer and Weld Canal. 10 | June 1,1864 3.00 | Original appropriation of No. 10 ditch. 21) Apr. 1,1867 16. 67 45 | Sept. 20, 1871 75. 00 73 | Jan. 15,1875 54. 33 pe 88 | Sept. —, 1878 571.00 | Original appropriation of Larimer and Weld Canal. TOR dee aS oR GSSe sar SeeHee Bene eeeemnae see 720. 00 Josh Ames Ditch.......-:-.: 25 | Oct. 1,1867 17.97 | Remainder of appropriation of 35.92 second- feet returned to river by courts or trans- ferred (in litigation). MakeCanal: see 54 | Nov. 1, 1872 158.35 | Original appropriation. CoypDitGh oe ees see be 13 | Apr. 10,1865 31. 63 Do. Chatiee Ditches <1 222s. 48 ar. 10,1872 22. 38 Do. POxe der DIGCHI. 2-2-5 52 15 | Mar. 1, 1866 32. 50 Do. 23 | May 25, 1867 8. 33 30 | July 41,1868 11. 93 INO TERN ek SOs SU ety MAE era RO Se er eee 52. 76 Greeley Canal No. 2.......-. 37 | Oct. 25,1870 110. 00 Do. 44 | Sept. 15,1871 | 170. 00 72 | Nov. 10,1874 184. 00 83 | Sept. 15, 1877 121. 00 INC) eee Seat Ae ie ener ete [et oeritis eae ae 585. 00 Whitney Ditch.............. 7 | Sept. 1, 1862 48. 23 Do. 43 | Sept. 10, 1871 12. 95 PB Ot a ecsme ee ete cyeser oie Le aah re eee oae 61. 18 B. H. Eaton Ditch.......-.. 9| Apr. 1,1864 29. 10 Do. 18| June 1,1866 3.33 53 | July 25,1872 9. 27 PINGS LS en pa ei el ley ee ara eee 41. 70 Wones Diteh: <2. 2....5222 022 24) Sept. 1, 1867 15. 52 Do. Greeley Canal No. 3......... 35 | Apr. 1,1870 52. 00 Do. 46 | Oct. 1,1871 41. 00 50 | July 15,1872 63. 13 59 | May 15, 1873 16. 66 Mat ays Ghee on! Weel Nee al ee See ae 172.79 Boyd and Freeman Ditch 6 | Mar. 15, 1862 66. 05° Do. 20 | July 15, 1866 9. 00 62 | Aug. 1,1873 24. 23 MNO habe ee ras es ee IR aC NU Scena 99. 28 Orilyy Ditches. 2 2820 ko ok July 21,1881 57.60 | Original appropriation; juntor to all rights of the first adjudication. 16 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The court, in arriving at the decree of 1882, had little definite in- formation regarding the water requirements of various soils and crops to guide it, nor were there available any accurate measurements of the capacities of the canals, whose rights were being adjudicated ; and it was human for the claimants to give themselves the benefit of the doubt. The result was that many of the canals were given decrees for appropriations in excess of their capacities or of their requirements for years to come. Enlargement and extension of the area irrigated by most of these canals have brought them to the point where their capacities, amounts diverted, and amounts used are well balanced. In the case of others no enlargement has taken place, but part of the excess appropriation has been transferred to other canals. Still others retain their excessive rights, but have in- sufficient capacity to carry them or else serve such a small acreage that only a part of the appropriation can be used properly. In Table 5 a comparison is made between the total rights of each canal and its capacity, as shown by its maximum discharge during 1916 and 1917. The maximum discharges noted, which covered periods of at least two hours, are believed to represent with fair ac- curacy the maximum capacities of the canals. The fact that records were being taken by disinterested agencies seemed to appeal to some canal men as affording an opportunity of establishing a record of the capacity of their canals. In 1917 a number were crowded to their limit for short or long periods when the water might more profitably have been allowed to pass on down the river. In 1916 conditions were different and maximum discharges were carried that year be- cause the water was actually needed. If the Poudre Valley Canal be omitted, which is warranted by the fact that its capacity is primarily for carrying water for storage, the canals show an average capacity nearly 10 per cent in excess of their rights. TABLE 5.—Comparison between water rights and capacities of canals of the Cache la Poudre Valley. Max- Max- Total | imum Total | imum rights | dis- Ratio |) rights is- Ratio (sec- | charge} (per || (sec- | charge| (per ond- (sec- cent.) ond- (sec- | cent.) feet) ond- feet) ond- | feet) feet) | | | North Poudre Canal...... 401 201 50 || Larimer and Weld Canal. 720 754 | 105 Poudre Valley Canal....-. 26 297 1,142 |! Josh Ames Ditch......... 18 120 111 Pleasant Valley and Lake | ake@anal: 2 sic. 3.b 28 158 185 117 Canala reise see ere 138 157 114 |i Coy Ditch ease escorsc 32 118 56 Larimer County Canal... 504 597 118 |: Chaffee Ditch.....-...... 22 121 95 JACKSONEDILCH ees ee eae 51 52 102 |) Boxelder Ditch.......... 53 121 228 Little Cache la Poudre Greeley Canal No. 2.....-. 585 558 95 . Ditches Vea 82 137 167 || Whitney Ditch........... 61 61 100 Taylor and Gill Ditch.... 12 22 183 || B. H. Eaton Ditch....... 42 123 55 Larimer County Canal | dones 1th =e eee 16 1 29 181 INOS Deas vine Rewer Seas 179 186 104 || Greeley Canal No. 3....... 173 102 59 New Mercer Canal........ 171 112 65 || Boydand Freeman Ditch 99 124 24 Arthur Ditches see oeee 109 51 47 || Ogilvy Ditch............- 58 122 210 1 These figures are based on daily gage readings. The remainder are from continuous automatic records of gage heights. IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 17 So many varying factors determine the time any right may draw from the river that it is impossible to make any statement in this re- gard which will not be inaccurate under certain combinations of cir- cumstances. It is generally true, however, that appropriations up to and including priority No. 25 are satisfied throughout the season, while .the original appropriations of the Larimer County and North Poudre Canals, priorities No. 100 and No. 97, draw only from 1 to 3 weeks during June. Between these two extremes are a large number of appropriations which fail chiefly in August. Several con- ditions tend to increase the length of time the later appropriations may draw. Usually there is plenty of rain in the early spring to get the crops started and the older appropriators call for their water only when it is really needed, thus permitting the later rights to draw the available supply. Later in the season some of the oldest ap- propriators may cut back to the river a part of their supply, or it may be taken in at the head but wasted back to the river through lower wasteways. When the Pleasant Valley and Lake Canal has an excess of 10 to 20 second-feet which it will not need for 24 hours it is usually cut back to the river at the Bingham Hill waste, though it might be carried on through the canal and tailed into Fossil Creek to reach the river again through the outlet of Fossil Creek Reservoir. The return water of the stream is of great importance in stretching the period during which the later rights may draw. During the sum- mer this return is sufficient to supply a considerable part of the de- mand below the Larimer and Weld Canal, which permits a corre- sponding amount to be drawn from the river by later rights above. This return is of especial benefit to the Ogilvy Ditch, which is the lowest on the river. Its right is junior to practically every other right on the river, but the return water to the stream affords it a suf- ficient supply for the greater part of the season in average years. The year 1916 was nearly normal and the dates on which the various rights failed that year may be assumed to be close to the average. Ordinarily it would be expected that on a small stream like the Cache la Poudre the fiow of the stream at the head of the irrigated area would bear some close relation to the aggregate of the rights prior to the right cut-off, but this does not hold true. The return of seepage, water wasted back from canals, foreign water carried, ex- change water turned into the river, low demand, and excessive de- crees all upset any calculation along this line. The appropriation of the Larimer County Canal, priority No. 100, was cut on June 29 when the river at the canyon station was carrying approximately 1,480 second-feet. The rights senior to the right of the Larimer County Canal aggregate 3,600 second-feet. 74464°—22-_2 18 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On July 6 the appropriation of the Larimer County Canal No. 2, priority No. 57, was cut when the river was carrying approximately 1,000 second-feet. Rights prior to this appropriation aggregate 1,800 second feet. On August 1 the appropriation of the Lake Canal, priority No. 54, was cut when the river was carrying approximately 700 second-feet. Rights prior to this appropriation aggregate 1,600 second feet. On August 17 the Greeley Canal No. 2 was cut when the river was carrying 325 second-feet. The priority number of the first right is 87 and prior rights aggregate approximately 700 second- feet. On August 23 the Josh Ames Ditch, priority No. 25, was cut when the river was carrying 250 second-feet. Prior rights aggregate 500 second-feet. From the preceding list of rights it will be noted that there have been many transfers of appropriations from one canal to another. Whether these transfers are of benefit or harmful to a community de- pends on whether the rights transferred are bona fide rights which have been properly used or whether they belong to the large class of excessive decrees given before conditions were well understood. Where a canal has a small excess of water which has developed from a better use of water or the waterlogging of land which has been irri- gated, the transfer of this water does not damage any other right, yet extends the area irrigated and tends to increase the general pros- perity of the community. On the other hand, where an appropriation has never been used except for the sole purpose of establishing a so- called right to it, its transfer is bound to affect adversely all rights subsequent to it, and, therefore, to be distinctly harmful to the com- munity asa whole. To illustrate: The Boyd and Freeman Ditch has decrees for appropriations aggregating 99 second-feet, but its capacity is only 25 second-feet. It irrigates 650 acres and, considering the character of the soil, it is evident that 25 second-feet is much more than sufficient to supply all the water needed. In fact, at least 60 second-feet of its first appropriation, priority No. 6, could be sold without impairing in the least the chance of the ditch for full satis- faction throughout the season. If it were possible, and this 60 second- feet right were transferred to the Poudre Valley Canal, for instance, every right subsequent to priority No. 6 would be adversely affected. As the Boyd and Freeman Ditch has never, in fact, used the water, a transfer would be equivalent to taking the water away from subse- quent appropriators whose rights would, thereupon, fail a week to three weeks earlier than they do at present. Some idea of the money value of water rights in the river is given by the cost of water transferred, though it must be understood that these transfers were made some years ago. Parts of priorities No. 2,19, and 29 were acquired by the North Poudre Irrigation Co. at the IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 19 rate of $3,000 a second-foot, and a part of priority No. 17 was ac- quired by the same company for $2,500 a second-foot. But parts of priorities No, 52 and 66, which were transferred to the North Poudre Canal, cost only $150 a second-foot. Just recently the right of the Macon and Hottel mill race was abandoned to the river on payment of $2,000 per second-foot by the interested canals. The holding of direct irrigation water in small farm reservoirs: is an accepted, well-established custom, due to the recognized economy of time and water the practice San ies, The extension of this custom to regulator reservoirs for the benefit of the whole stream would have a most beneficial effect, but any extension to large reservoirs of indi- vidual companies raises the question of where the line should be drawn. In permitting the transfer of 26 second-feet of priorities No. 52 and No. 66 to the North Poudre Canal the court decreed : That petitioner (the North Poudre Irrigation Company) may, in times of scarcity of water, and for the purpose of making a more economical usé of ‘said water, and at times when other water is not being run in its ditch in sufficient quantity, use Halligan Dam and Reservoir, located on the North Fork of the Cache la Poudre, a short distance above headgate of petitioner’s ditch, for. the * purpose of temporarily catching up said water and obtaining a sufficient head, thenee to turn the same into the headgate of the said North Fork ditch without injuriously affecting the vested rights of said respondents or other water users in district No. 3. In the adjudication of 1882, Warren Lake, which was then hardly more than a fishpond, was given a decree permitting it to draw ap- proximately 15 second-feet of the appropriation of the Larimer County Canal No. 2, but there was no general adjudication of reser- voir rights until a decree was handed down by the district court in 1909. By this decree 43 reservoirs were given 57 appropriations on first constructions and enlargements aggregating about 6,000,000,000 cubic feet, or 150,000 acre-feet. Because of inaccurate surveys or lack of surveys, there are many inconsistencies in these decrees, and very few of the decreed appropriations agree with the actual capacity of the reservoir as shown by later careful surveys or by measuring the inflow or outflow. Only a few transfers of reservoir rights have been made. When the North Poudre Irrigation Co. disposed of its interest in Douglass Reservoir the appropriation was retained and transferred to Reservoirs No. 5 and No. 6 to permit these reservoirs to fill from the main river through the Poudre Valley Canal. The appropriation of No. 6 in the North Fork was then transferred to Halligan and No. 15 Reservoirs. DISTRIBUTION FROM RIVER. The Cache la Poudre basin is water district No. 3, and to the water commissioner of the district is delegated the duty of turning the water in the stream to the various canals in accordance with the quality, 20 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. quantity, and priority of their appropriations. The distribution of the normal flow alone would be a difficult problem, in view of the great daily fluctuation, but the problem is further complicated by the ex- changes made, the foreign water and reservoir water carried in the natural channels of the basin, and the seepage return to the stream. The present incumbent ® has been water commissioner of the district for more than 25 years; and his long experience, good judgment, fear- lessness, and unquestioned honesty insure a just distribution of the water in the stream. He receives each day by telephone reports of all activities within the district, including the flow of the river at various points, changes in demands of the various canals, exchanges desired, and foreign and reservoir water turned into the river for carriage or exchange. With this information before him and his knowledge of the amount of seepage return he is able to determine the amount each canal may properly divert. If the flow in any canal must be increased or decreased he telephones early in the morning to the headgate man of the canal and gives him a new gage height at which the canal must be run until further notice. With the object of keeping the gain or loss properly placed as the river rises or falls, the order is sometimes reversed and the headgate man is instructed to hold the river below his canal at a certain stage and to divert the remainder of the flow. For instance, when the river reaches the stage at which the appropriation of the Larimer County Canal for 463 second-feet is entitled to draw, the commissioner will direct the headgate man of the canal to pass enough water to keep the river up to a gage of 3.7 at Shipp’s bridge just below and to take the remainder into the canal. By holding the Shipp’s bridge gage at that point enough water is sent down to supply all prior rights below, and the rise and fall of the canal coincides with the varying ‘supply in the river to which the canal is entitled by that appropria- tion. TABLE 6.—Diversions, in acre-feet, from the Cache la Poudre River in 1916. For storage. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June. | uly. Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. ‘Total. | | North Poudre Canal.| 0 0 |3, 472 |1, 712 0 z= 0 0 |1,620 |1,080 | 310 | 8,194 Poudre Valley Canala 0 0 0 0 0 2,230 1, 400 0 0}; 0°) 3,630 Pleasant Valley and | | Lake Canal.......- 0 0 0 437 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 QO} 1437 Larimer County | Canal er sxe 0 0 0 370 bat 2,421 /1,990 0 (2,746 |2, 812 0 0 (12,214 Jackson Ditch ¢...... 0 0 0 0 | j 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a Storage of foreign water and Windsor Reservoir exchange. Direct flow chiefly foreign water to lands under North Poudre Canal. » Storage practically all foreign water. ¢ Larimer County water held temporarily in Long Pond and then exchanged for river water. ® John Armstrong. IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 21 TABLE 6.—Diversions, in acre-feet, from the Cache la Poudre River in 1916—Con. For storage. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. |June.|Julv.| Aub.|Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. |Total. Little Cache la Pou- dre Ditch 4......... 0| 522] 180 50 | 300 0 [1,176 0 41 | 898 |1,972 | 420 | 5,559 Taylor and Gill Ditch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Larimer County Canal No. 2........ 0 0 0 |1,057 | 533] 200 0 0 0 0 0 0 | 1,790 New Mercer Canal... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Arthur Ditch,....... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Larimer and Weld Canales wyou ss Sh. 1, 410 |1, 236 0} 630 | 900 0 0 0} 935] 902] 718] 690) 7,421 ela 3] 8} 8) fg) 8} S$] 8] st a) at 8 Lake Cana 0 0 Coy Ditch........... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cache la Poudre B Heseyvoun feeder... 0 0 0 #80 0 0 0 0 0 2,610 3, 240 2 ey 9, 250 haffee Ditch........ 0 0 0 Boxelder Ditch.-..... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fossil Creek Reser- arscpieaiscce] 3P%3% 8] $) 8) $1 8) at] woo) 8) SRS reeley Canal No. 2. 0 Whitney Ditch...... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B.H. Eaton Ditch. . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Jones Ditch.......... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 preeley canst No. 3. 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Boyd and Freeman TO Which sete, Be aera ah 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ogilvy Ditch........ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mopalepeees kien 1,410 |3,250 |5,254 |5,236 3,608 |4,851 |4, 566 0 |4,142 |9, 342 |7,010 |3, 840 |52, 509 For direct irrigation. Grand total. Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Total. North Poudre Canal......... 1,223 | 7,097 | 8,592] 8,365 | 3,236] 1,396 0 | 29,909 | 38,103 Poudre Valley Canal}. ._.... 0 697 | 1,540] 1,946 | 1,398 0| 5,581} 9,211 Pleasant Valley and Lake OBIE) soo se eel ea 1,357 | 3,253 | 4,341] 3,543] 3,080] 1,902 0 | 17,476 | 17,913 Larimer County Canal?2_.... 0 | 6,887 | 22,671 | 17,680 | 10,691 | 3,729 0 | 61,658 | 73,872 Jackson Ditch 3.............. 77| 1,219} 2,349] 1,598| 1,059 548 0} 6,850] 6,850 Little Cachela Poudre Ditch‘ 0 959 | 1,472) 2,008] 1,751 21 0| 6,211) 11,770 Baylor aud ae pen re i 365 466 ae 786 740 590 276 ie oe 4, wy arimer County Canal No. 2. 154 | 3,562 | 4,455) 2,327 755 68 0 | il 13 New Mercer Canal........... 31| 2)016 | 2)147] 2059] 1,387| 414 0| 8,054] 8,054 Arthur Ditch................ 491 | 1,663 | 1,264] 1,703 737 200 79 | 6,137| 6,137 Larimer and Weld Canal....| 1,237 | 13,344 | 33,334 | 6,908] 3,715 | 2,993 0 | 61,531 | 68,952 Josh Ames Ditch............ 28 43 451 576 368 17 0} 1,483 1, 483 Beale Canalo. 4). 22... 504 0| 4,035| 5,116} 1,992 304 0 O| 11,447 | 11,447 posep itch. Scr nch nepeae ee 0 105 114 366 164 0 0 749 749 ache la Poudre Reservoir Reed et pres. so eeis 6 ye 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9, 250 Chaffee Ditch................ 0 277 64 351 255 0 0 947 947 Boxelder Ditch.............. 0 514 | 1,042 948 371 40 0} 2,915 2,915 Fossil Creek Reservoir feeder. 0 0 a) 0 0 0 0 i 3) 094 Greeley Canal No.2......... 1,681 | 16,431 | 19,174 | 4,690] 4,045] 2,342 0 | 48,363 | 49,283 Whitney Ditch.............. 109 451 | 1,086 | 1,743 | 1,587 984 64| 6,024] 6,024 B. H. Halon Witeh .. 22.2. 169 277 579 | 1,115 at 278 0 2 rh 7 829 ies Diteh ss 4555.68 f 2 0 23 312 455 56 94 0 0 540 Greeley Canal No.3......... 1,691 | 2,973) 3,958] 4,812] 3,714] 3,624] 438 | 21,210 | 21,210 Boyd and Freeman Ditch... 0 408 421 382 168 0] 1,379 1,379 Ogilvy Ditch.........2..2... 607 | 2,554 | 1,618] 2,071] 2,266| 1,372 0.| 10,488 | 10,488 Above Oe age sean ed 9, 220 | 68, 846 |116, 881 | 68, 463 | 43,072 | 20,780 857 |328, 119 | 380,628 — 1 Storage of foreign water and Windsor Reservoir exchange. Direct flow chiefly foreign water to lands under North Poudre Canal. 2 Storage practically all foreign water. ® Larimer County water held temporarily in Long Pond and then exchanged for river water. 4 July storage chiefly Windsor Reservoir exchange. 29 BULLETIN 1026, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 7.—Diversions, in acre-feet, from the Cache la Poudre River in igs For storage. Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May. |June.| July.) Aug. |Sept.} Oct. | Nov.| Dec. |Total. North Poudre Canal. 0 0] 495 |3, 402 |6,400 | 530 0 0 0 10 0 0 |10, 827 Poudre Valley Canal. 0 0 0 {1,476 |13,127 |2, 050 0 0 0 0 0 0 /16, 653 Pleasant Valley and Lake Canal........ 0 0 0} 460 56 0 0 0 0} 120} 412 0 | 1,048 Larimer County Canalssrb aso 0 0 0 |5, 137 |4,415 | 514 954 0 |4,920 | 554 0 0 |16, 494 Jackson Ditch....... 0 0 0 0 131 383 0 0 0 0 0 514 Little Cache la Pou- dre Ditch.......... 6 0| 294] 668 |2,850; 125} 316 0 58 |2,300 |1,704 | 486 | 8, 801 Taylor and Gill Ditch 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Larimer County Ca- MaliNio32 sews 0 0 0 0 |1, 732 129 73 0 0 0 0 0 | 1,934 New Mercer Canal... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Arthur, Ditchs: 2222 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Larimer and Weld Canales pee tee 406 |1, 260 |2,212 | 700 |7, 220 0 0 0 0 0 |1, 400 0 |13, 198 Josh Ames Diteh-... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lake Canal.......... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Coy; Ditche oss ae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cache la Poudre Res- ervoir feeder....... 0 0 | 686 11, 260 0 0 0 0 O !2,140 |2, 212 11,720 | 8,018 Chaffe Ditch......... 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 Boxelder Ditch...... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fossil Creek Reser- 5 voir feeder... 52 2,568 |2, 164 |1, 358 0 0 0 0 0 0 0} 588 0 | 6,678 Greeley Canal No. 2-. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0| 360} 280 0 0 640 Whitney Ditch...... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B. H. Eaton Ditch. - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Jones Ditch....-.... 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Greeley Canal No.3-. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Boyd and Freeman Ditcheeves = as ees 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Osilvy, Ditch=- e222 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 MT otalascessecss 2, 974 [3,424 |5,045 |13,103 35,931) 3, 731\1, 343 0 |5, 338 |5, 394 ° 315 |2,205 |84, 805 if 1141 acre-feet from Halligan carried for storage in Stuchel Lake for Wellington water supply. For direct irrigation. Grand totai Apr. | May. | June. | July Aug Sept Oct. | Total North Poudre Canal.....-... 0 118 | 8,198 | 12,369 | 10,895 | 2,149 0 | 33,729 | 44,555 Poudre Valley Canal........ 0 0 662 | 2,475 358 51 OR Sa 20, 199 Pleasant Valley and Lake ERAT Hoar a se ees Soe gee rata ee 453 202 | 4,945] 6,171] 3,495 | 1,945 0} 17,211 | 18,259 Larimer County Canal....... 0 | 8,087 | 22,626 | 27,897 | 10,557 | 1,813 0 | 70,980 | 87,474 Jackson Ditchesss--= see 0 86 | 1,261 | 2,391 | 1,254 666 15 | 5,673 6, 187 Little Cache la Poudre Ditch. 0 0} 1,855 | 1,977 | 1,548 204 0} 5,579] 14,380 Taylor and Gill Ditch..-.... 264 231 560 810 784 560 0-| 3,209 3, 209 Larimer County Canal No. 2. 0 0| 4,096 | 6,795 396 121 0} 11,408 | 13,342 New Mercer Canal........... 0 47} 3,075 | 3,592] 1,214 243, 0} 8,171 8,171 PAT thor Ditch iets) Uae 0 281 | 1,495 | 2,241 3 73 0} 4,543 4, 543 Larimer and Weld Canal.-.. 587 | 2,013 | 30,910 | 25,923 | 3,322 | 4,480 0 | 67,235 | 80, 433 Josh Ames Ditch............ 0 0 178 698 532 0; 1,408 1, 408 Lake Canal...... : 0 213 | 5,454] 6,156 158 0 0 | 11,981 | 11,981 CoyaDitche a ee ee 0 0 204 363 41 0 608 608 Cache la Poudre Reservoir ys iB Se See a reeeen scar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8,018 Chaffee Ditch................ 0 0 286 514 198 0 0 998 998 Boxelder Ditch. ............. 0 0} 1,272] 1,255 | 1,645 991 0; 5,163 5, 163 Fossil Creek Reservoir feeder 0 0 0 0 0 0 6, 678 Greeley Canal No. 2......... 0} 2,164 | 18,349 | 25,064 | 3,442] 1,581 0 | 50,600 | 51,240 Whitney Ditch:.........2... 0 0 843 | 1,478} 1,635 997 0} 4,953 4,953 B. H. Eaton Ditch.......... 0 329} 1,071} 1,261 989 477 21} 4,148 4,148 WOneSyDitchs ese eee 0 85 29 381 457 0 952 952 Greeley Canal No. 3........- 275 945 | 2,899] 4,544] 4,191 | 3,046 0} 15,901 | 15,901 Boyd and Freeman Ditch... 0 96 134 354 538 254 0} 1,376 1,376 OgilvyaDitchs 2 ee eee 0 686 | 2,145 | 2,892) 3,161] 1,881 11 | 10,776 | 10,776 Tota lessee see erate 1,579 15, 499 pa, 399 |137, 090 | 51, 540 | 22, 030 47 | 340,148) 424, 953 IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 23 Almost without exception the distribution is made in strict ac- cordance with appropriations and priorities. Little attention is paid to the small ditches above the mouth of the canyon or at the head of tributaries entering below the canyon. The general feeling is that irrigation from these small ditches does not affect to any great ex- tent the total supply of water available below, except possibly in very dry years, and that the trouble and expense of keeping track of them would more than counterbalance any good which might result. Below the canyon on the main stream a few small ditches divert prac- tically at will on early excessive decrees, but the greater part of this water is wasted directly back to the river and the total supply is diminished by only a small amount. Another exception is the prac- tice of allowing some canals to “ accumulate ” water for a few days. For instance, the appropriation of 175 second-feet of the Larimer County Canal No. 2 usually fails about July 10, and instead of al- lowing the canal to draw a varying and dwindling head for perhaps 10 days, it is permitted to draw a good head for 3 or 4 days and is then cut off entirely. By general consent certain exceptions which work out to the best advantage are made in the case of reservoirs. The Cache la Poudre and the Fossil Creek Reservoirs have first call on the water which heretofore passed through the Mason and Hottel mill race and they may be filled slowly with the assurance that they can be topped out when the spring flood comes down. The filling of Claymore Lake may also be delayed with the assurance that it can be completely filled in a week during the flood period. So during a part of the storage season water which might be demanded by these reservoirs may be diverted ‘to others which have less chance of filling either on account of late priorities or small intakes. DIVERSIONS FROM THE RIVER IN 1916 AND 1917. Diversions from the river for the 2 years of the investigation are shown in Tables 7 and 8 and figure 3. The ratio of diversions for storage to the total diversion was 14 per cent in 1916 and 20 per cent in 1917, but’ in neither year was the total available storage capacity used. These figures do not include storage in the mountain reservoirs of the basin, but were these included the figures would not be changed greatly. Diversions for direct irrigation begin in April and continue until the first part of October, though the greater part of the demand is from April 15 to September 15. Water for storage is drawn through- out the year except in August, but practically all the water stored be- tween June 15 and the end of the season is foreign water or “ Wind- sor exchange.” The large amount of storage in April and May, 1917, is accounted for by a high river and heavy rains which decreased the demand for water for direct irrigation. 24 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DUTY OF THE RIVER. The average available supply of water in the Cache la Poudre amounts to 375,000 acre-feet, which includes the normal flow of the river and its tributaries and 35,000 acre-feet of foreign water, but does not include the seepage return to the river. Applied to the 225,000 acres irrigated in the valley it gives for the stream, as a whole, a duty of 1.67 acre-feet per acre; or, expressed differently, each second-foot of the average annual discharge irrigates 434 acres. This high general duty is made possible only by the large percentage of the flow held in storage for use at critical times and by the large amount of return seepage which is used several times over again. k u Ww in 1 ul x 0) < STORAGE OIRECT STORAGE OIRECT Fic. 3.—Diversions from the Cache la Poudre River for storage and for direct irrigation compared for the 2 years of the investigation. THE CONSUMPTIVE DUTY. The water actually consumed, or the consumptive duty, may be arrived at by considering in addition the water which passes into the South Platte River from the Cache la Poudre River, Lone Tree Creek, and various canal wasteways dumping into the South Platte or Crow Creek. In 1916 the available supply exclusive of seepage return was 336,000 acre-feet, and 79,000 acre-feet passed out of the valley. The net consumption of 257,000 acre-feet on the 218,000 acres irrigated that year gives a duty of 1.18 acre-feet per acre. In 1917 the supply was 608,000 acre-feet, and 309,0007 acre-feet passed into the South Platte. The net consumption of 299,000 acre-feet on the 925,000 acres irrigated that year gives a duty of 1.88 acre-feet per acre. Ags the water supply during 1916 was slightly below normal 7 Partly estimated. IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 25 and in 1917 was far above normal, it seems reasonable to assume that the average consumptive duty is approximately 1.25 acre-feet per acre.® NONPRODUCTIVE AND WASTE LAND. With the object of determining how the farm land of the valley is utilized and the proportion of nonproductive and waste land, careful surveys were made of 7} sections of land at different points in the valley. A summary of the data obtained by these surveys is contained in Table 8. TABLE 8.—Utilization of farm land in the Cache la Poudre Valley. 3 sections near Greeley | 3 sections northeast of | 14 sections northeast of (per cent). Fort Collins (per cent). | Fort Collins (per cent). Aver- | Maxi-| Mini- | Aver- | Maxi-| Mini- | Aver- | Maxi-| Mini- age. | mum.|mum.| age. |mum.|mum.| age. | mum. | mum. Cuitivated esse ss 89. 2 92.8 84.5 81.4 90. 7 57.2 CAL Dah esr Seneect Set Nast Irrigated but not cultivated. .4 2.4 .0 4.4 19.7 .0 SHOU RE RES a eee ea Puplicmoadsss ye se 2.3 2.4 1.9 25k 2.4 1.1- US Gi eo pees | aes ag Private roads..............-. .5 1.0 .0 .3 1.0 .0 1 Oe ee cleared Railroad right of way........ 9 2.6 .0 .0 0 .0 A eos Boe [oe seseee Harmstead@assi2- 2 ee fe Pats Ppl 3.1 1.4 2.0 3.7 .8 Ae Orly eas tals sol eae IWioodilotssee ee ee .0 .0 .0 .4 1.9 x) SW et AEE eon cr @analst ph. he: .3 1.6 .0 Rf, 3.6 .0 2304 e case Field laterals... 3.0 4.9 2.0 2.9 5.4 1.1 PED es see High land...... -0 .0 .0 1.6 16.8 .0 AUIS SA: A Seepage land....... eae .0 .0 .0 2.7 14,1 .0 UTC eerie [eretene c Marginal waste............-- 1.3 285 .3 1.5 4.6 .6 SP FRA ee Saas Fe The 3 sections near Greeley include some of the most highly de- veloped land of the valley, with prices ranging from $300 to $400 per acre. It is smooth, gently sloping land, easy to cultivate and irrigate. The water rights supplying it are excellent, and wet spots which developed after years of irrigation have been drained. On this land the‘nonproductive area is at a minimum. The 3 sections near Fort Collins are less valuable, ranging in price from $150 to $200 per acre. The land is more rolling and includes some high spots or knolls not reached by the ditches and some wet spots which have not yet*been drained. The section and a half northwest of Fort Collins has been farmed by tenants for some years and shows the result of neglect. A low percentage of the land is cultivated and the marginal waste is particularly high. The high percentage of land included under the head of farmstead was in this case due to a number of pens for sheep feeding. The best farm practice requires that the percentage of land de- voted to nonproductive use be reduced to a minimum, and that there be no real waste of land. Public roads will require 2.3 per cent of the area of farms in a section. Private roads should not require more than 0.5 per cent. At present the roads are 12 feet wide and 8This calculation does not take into account return seepage from Poudre Valley land going directly into the South Platte. Taking this into account would reduce slightly the quantity of water actually consumed. 26 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. generally unimproved, but might profitably be widened and made permanent by grading and systematic maintenance work. Farm- steads should not be held to a minimum and considerations of com- fort and health should govern their size. For field laterals not more than 2.5 to 3 per cent should be required, the percentage varying with the crop, the slope of the land, and other conditions. Marginal waste should not exceed 1 per cent. In general, not more than 2 feet is required at the side of a field and at the end not more than 6 to 8 feet. CANAL SYSTEMS. In the section of the Cache la Poudre Valley under investigation there are about 25 irrigation canals diverting from the river. Two or three of these irrigate only a few acres each, but 23 were consid- ered of sufficient importance to be included in the investigation. Beginning at the head of the stream and listing them in the order in which they head these canals are: North Poudre Canal or North Fork Ditch; Poudre Valley Canal; Pleasant Valley and Lake Canal or Highline; Larimer County Canal; Water Supply & Storage Co. Canal or Ditch; Jackson Ditch or Dry Creek Ditch; Little Cache la Poudre Ditch; Taylor and Gill Ditch; Larimer County Canal No. 2; New Mercer Canal; Arthur Ditch, Tom Ditch, or Fort Collins Canal; Larimer and Weld Canal or Eaton Ditch; Josh Ames Ditch; Lake Canal; Coy Ditch; Chaffee Ditch; Boxelder Ditch; Greeley Canal No. 2, or Union Colony Canal No. 2, or Cache la Poudre Canal; Whitney Ditch; B. H. Eaton Ditch; Jones Ditch; Greeley Canal No. 3, or Union Colony Canal No. 3; Boyd and Freeman Ditch; and Ogilvy Ditch. The areas irrigated by the more important of these canals in 1916 are shown in Plates X to XIII. Excepting many small ditches which are owned by individuals, the canals of the valley are organized in some cooperative form. There are two irrigation districts and a number of informal partner- ships, but the great majority are joint-stock companies. ~ The development of irrigation in the valley was so rapid that nearly all the canal systems had been successfully completed before financing by irrigation districts became necessary. For this reason there are only two districts in the valley, the Park Creek and the Greeley-Poudre. The Park Creek district includes a few sections under the North Poudre Canal and receives its water from that canal and from rights in Fish Creek. The Greeley-Poudre district covers a large area between Greeley and Carr, but financial and legal diffi- culties several years ago caused a suspension of activities after only a part of its construction program had been carried out. The partnerships are rarely formally organized, but operate in accordance with customs which have to a certain extent been crystal- lized in the laws of the State. Often each partner does an amount IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. oT of cleaning and other maintenance work in proportion to his interest in the ditch, though he is required by law to do only his share from the headgate to the point at which his lateral diverts. For the dis- tribution of water in the ditch, division boxes or weirs are used very generally and a continuous flow is delivered until the supply falls short or the demand decreases. A short supply is usually rotated among the partners, each receiving an even amount of water for a time proportionate to his interest. Many laterals of canals are handled in this manner. Many of the cooperative companies were originally organized as such, the capital stock being placed at the cost of construction of the canal and sold for cash or issued to the builders in proportion to the work done by each. Others were controlled originally by corpora- tions organized to build canals and to derive profits from the sale of water rights, but, in accordance with terms commonly contained in the water right contracts, cooperative companies were organized by the owners of water rights to take over the systems after a certain number of rights had been sold. In such cases shares were issued in proportion to the water rights held. In general, a share of stock of a cooperative company represents a proportionate part of the water supply of the ditch at any time and this water may be used on any land served by the system, subject, of course, to due notice of a desire to change the point of delivery. Holdings of stock are not restricted in any manner and vary with the water requirements or finances of the individual. This, together with variations in supply and demand due to wet and dry seasons and crop changes in rotation systems, has given rise to the common practice of renting-shares or water for a season or less. The organization of the cooperative companies shows no unusual features. The stockholders elect a board of directors who in turn elect officers to conduct the business of the company. These include always a president, secretary, treasurer, and superintendent. Riders, headgate men, and gangs for repair and maintenance work are em- ployed by either the superintendent, president, or the directors. Engineers, hydrographers, and office help are employed only for special work or for short periods. The ordinary expenses of the cooperative companies are met by levying annual assessments on the capital stock. These assessments vary from a few cents to a dollar or two an acre, but the average is close to 25 cents. Several canals of the valley in their capacity as common carriers of reservoir water make their charges for this service high enough to defray most of their expenses. In the case of the Greeley Canal No. 2 the income from carrying reservoir water is sufficient to meet all ordinary expenses and assessments are levied only on special occasions. However, the money comes out of the ' 28 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. farmer’s pocket whether it is in the form of an assessment or a car- riage charge. The canal structures of the valley show various designs and types of construction, but in general permanent structures of reinforced concrete are replacing the old timber structures. Diversion dams are rock and brush, timber, or concrete. Rock and brush dams are used by only a few of the small ditches on the lower reaches of the river. The majority of the dams are simple structures consist- ing of piles of rock cribs topped by heavy timber decks on which there are permanent crests or standards for flashboards. Wings may be of masonry, concrete, or timber and seepage underneath is usually cut off by a row of sheet piling. A dam of this type is shown in Plate IT, figure 1. The majority of the newer dams are of rein- forced concrete set on piles or rock crib, and having well-designed overflow lips and suitable sluices to scour the channels past the canal intakes. A dam of this type is shown in Plate I, figure 1. The crest of the Larimer County Dam (PI. I, fig. 1) was found to be too low for certain stages of the river and was raised 12 inches with 3 by 12 planks fastened to iron pins sunk in the crest. In Plate I, figure 2, is shown another type of concrete dam in which the water is held up by flashboards. The drift guard at the head of the Larimer and Weld Canal, shown in Plate II, figure 2, is of the same general design as others in the valley. The structure itself and the individual] timbers of the grating are placed at such an angle that the drift tends to slide downstream instead of lodging. A few canals depend on booms of logs chained end to end and anchored so that they swing out in front of the gates. Headgates are made of timber, concrete, or stone and are fitted with wooden or iron gates raised by some combination of screw and lever, or rack and pinion. A type of gate and lifting device is shown in Plate III, figure 1. Wasteways and sand sluices are of similar design. Some of the canals use an adaptation of the Land sand gate with diagonal ducts to cut out the greater part of the sand near the bottom of the canal. In the construction of the canals of the valley flumes are avoided even at great expense as is evidenced by the construction shown in Plate III, figure 2. Some of those which were built are being elimi- nated by the construction of tunnels or inverted syphons, the longest in the valley, a half-mile flume along the side of the canon at the head of the North Poudre Canal, being replaced by a tunnel 1,600 feet in length through solid rock. There still remain a number of timber or concrete flumes for crossings of less than 200 feet, and one of these is shown in Plate IV, figure 1. Rating flumes at the head of canals are usually of concrete or timber, though a few of masonry Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE lI. 4 - oad ee Fic. |.—DIVERSION DAM OF THE LARIMER COUNTY CANAL. Yj LST FIG. 2.—DIVERSION DAM OF THE B. H. EATON DITCH. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. Fic. I.—DIVERSION DAM OF THE GREELEY CANAL No. 2. Fic. 2.—DRIFT GUARD AT HEAD OF LARIMER AND WELD CANAL. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fic. |1.—HEADGATE OF THE GREELEY CANAL NO. 2. Fic. 2,—LINE OF THE POUDRE VALLEY CANAL ROUNDING A ROCK BLUFF. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, PLATE SINe Fic. |.—FLUME CARRYING TAIL OF LITTLE CACHE LA POUDRE DITCH OVER DRY CREEK. Fic. 2.—FLUME OR CHUTE CARRYING LONG POND WATER TO THE LARIMER AND WELD CANAL AND LINDENMEIER LAKE. IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 29 are found. Almost without exception they are designed or installed so that accurate measurements in them are almost impossible. In Plate IV, figure 2, is shown a flume or chute carrying water from Long Pond to the Larimer and Weld Canal and Lindenmeier Lake. In the original construction of the canals of the valley contours were followed closely and only a few drops were necessary. These are generally of fair design and well constructed. A drop on the North Poudre system is shown in Plate V, figure 1, and in Plate V, figure 2, is shown a drop-at the tail of a south-side ditch. Some of the canals with slightly. excessive grades have been corrected by the construction of timber or concrete checks, in which part of the con- trol is by flashboards. A typical check is shown in Plate VI, figure 1. Laterals receive their supply from the main ditch through lines of tile ranging in diameter up to 24 inches. The upper end of the tile is set in a concrete bulkhead, and the flow through the pipe is controlled by an iron gate sliding in grooves in an iron framework which fits over the end of the tile. The gate stem is threaded, and the regulation is by one or two wheels working on these threads and against crosspieces. This gate is the Powell gate, so-called after its designer, B. F. Powell, of Rocky Ford.° The most common device for measuring water to laterals is the rectangular weir which is found in sizes ranging from 14 to 10 feet in length of crest. The installation of these weirs is usually faulty, and the most accurate measurements can not be obtained with them. Bottom and end constructions are usually deficient, and entrance velocities are almost invariably too high. A combined weir and drop on a lateral of the Larimer County Canal is shown in Plate VI, figure 2. Division boxes are also very common for the distribution of water in small canals and laterals. Where an overfall is pro- vided the division is fairly good, but otherwise it may or may not be. Typical division boxes are shown in Plate VII. The device used by the Pleasant Valley and Lake Canal for measuring water to users is shown in Plate VIII, figure 1. The crest of the weir is 4 inches above the bottom of the box, and the depth over the crest is measured on a plug about a foot back from the weir. The slots in the sides are intended for 2 by 12 inch planks, which are supposed to float in the slots and act as baffles. With few exceptions, all lateral headgates and measuring devices are under the exclusive control of the canal company. Deliveries are made at the head of the lateral, and the canal company disclaims all responsibility for the distribution of water from the lateral and for the maintenance of the lateral. A continuous delivery of a prorata part of the flow is the method in common use on the majority of the ®A drawing of this gate appears on page 39 of O. HE. S. Bulletin No. 229. 30 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. canals, but when the supply becomes short some system of rotation between sections of the canal is instituted. The exception is the North Poudre Canal, which delivers on demand an allotment of water made at the beginning of the season. Under certain restric- tions, reservoir water handled by ditches as carriers only is delivered on demand. Descriptions of some of the delivery systems of the canals of the valley are given in later sections of this report. Maintenance problems in the valley present no new difficulties and on the whole give less trouble than might be expected. The Cache la Poudre is comparatively free from silt and sand, and deposits in canals are usually limited to short stretches at the head and at curves. These deposits are removed with scrapers in the spring or fall. Canal grades which were proper for the original canals were too heavy when these canals were enlarged, and at one time there was much erosion of banks and bottoms, but this condition has been cor- rected by the construction of checks or drops at proper points. For local erosion brush mattresses and rock riprapping are used, as shown in Plate VIII, figure 2. For river protection, rock riprap or rock-filled cribs, as shown in Plate LX, figure 1, are used. Breaks occur occasionally and are repaired in the ordinary manner with scrapers, care being taken to secure a good bond between the old and new material, to pack the new material carefully, and to raise the water on the new section as slowly as the necessity for water will warrant. The clear water and hot sunshine are favorable to the growth of moss, and by the first of July it begins to cause trouble on many of the canals. A moss-filled ditch is shown in Plate IX, figure 2. So far no successful method has been devised to prevent its growth or to remove it. Generally it is allowed to grow until it almost chokes the canal. The water is then cut out of the canal and the moss allowed to dry for two or three days. This helps to a cer- tain extent, but is not a solution of the problem. Winter conditions have to be contended with by only two or three canals carrying water for storage in reservoirs. The winter supply rarely exceeds 100 second-feet, and little trouble is experienced in handling it. LARIMER & WELD CANAL. Early in 1879 the Larimer & Weld Irrigation Co. was incorporated with a capital stock of $200,000 to take over the construction of the Larimer & Weld Canal, on which construction work had been begun in 1878, and to sell water rights. The water-right contracts pro- vided that when rights to the capacity of the canal had been sold, 4 shares of the capital stock of the company were to be turned over to the holder of each right so that control of the company would pass to the owners of rights. After 366 rights had been disposed of the owners of rights felt that the capacity of the canal had been IRRIGATION. IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 81 reached and, upon applying to the courts, were upheld in their con- tention. At present the company is on a mutual basis with 1,423 shares of a par value of $100 outstanding. The water rights sold by the company called for the delivery of a continuous flow of 1.44 second-feet throughout the irrigation season when it was available from the river. At first one right was con- sidered sufficient for 80 acres, but at present the average area served by a right, or 4 shares, is 160 acres. In 1880 rights, or the equivalent share, sold for $400; in 1882, $1,000; in 1887, $1,200; and in 1917, $4,500. Their present high value is due to the fact that there is still considerable land under the canal susceptible of irrigation, while the water supply is lhmited. The expenses of the company are met by assessments levied on the capital stock and tolls collected for carrying reservoir water. In 1916 and 1917 the assessments were, respectively, $5 and $12.50 per share, the higher assessment being for the purpose of retiring some of the outstanding obligations of the company. For carrying water to fill Windsor Reservoir and others about $1,350 was received each year. For carrying and distributing reservoir water about $7,000 was received each year. Current expenses average about $15,000 each year, or at the rate of approxunately, 35 cents per acre irrigated. The canal heads just north of Fort Collins in section 34, township 8 north, range 69 west, and tails in Long Draw, a tributary of Crow Creek. Excluding the 16-mile extension beyond Owl Creek, the main canal is 40 miles long. The bottom width at the head is 30 feet and the slope of the sides is 14 to 1. The grade is 3 feet per mile for the first 3 miles, 2 feet per mile for the next 32 miles, and 14 feet per mile at the end. Its capacity is 750 second-feet. There are about 75 miles of main laterals operated by lateral companies and several hundred miles of small laterals and sublaterals. In the tabulation shown on page 15 will be found a statement of the water rights of the canal. In acquiring the right to enlarge the old No. 10 ditch it was necessary for the company to give the original owners a free, unlimited, perpeteual right to as much water as they could use on the lands they had previously irrigated, as long as the canal was drawing from the river. For this reason the first two appropriations are available for general use only when not required by the No. 10 rights. The distribution from the canal of water received on direct ap- propriations presents no notable features. The company controls only the main canal and its responsibility ends with the delivery of the water to the laterals which are all owned and controlled by separate companies or individuals. The canal is in three sections, each of which is handled by a ditch rider. Diversions from the a2 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. canal are made through Powell gates which are kept locked so that they may be raised or lowered only by the ditch rider. The water delivered is measured over a rectangular weir, the depth over the weir being determined from tables carried by the rider, which show the depth to be carried over any crest length from 1 foot to 12 feet for any number of rights from } to 68. In general, the water supply from the river is prorated among the users in accordance with the number of shares of stock which they hold, and to get the water to which he is entitled the user has only to notify the rider of the main ditch, or else the rider of the lateral from which he gets his supply, who will in turn notify the rider of the main canal. In times of very short supply a system of rotation of the supply between sections of the canal is instituted to avoid the wasteful practice of prorating a small supply. The company recognizes and encourages the practice of rotation of water among users, and the stockholders may have their water delivered to any lateral upon request. No records are kept of the delivery of water received on direct appro- priations. Reservoir water and water received on direct appropria- tions are not run at the same time, and usually after the running of reservoir water is started the small amount received on appropria- tions from the river goes to make up losses in the canal or to pay for water advanced to the canal earlier in the season by the Windsor Reservoir. Considerable care is used in the distribution of reservoir water, and complete records are kept by the secretary of the company. Before any water is delivered all carriage charges must be paid and credit entered on the books of the secretary. The delivery record of each user occupies one large sheet, 8 by 27 inches, of a loose-leaf book. Heading each sheet is the name of the owner, with a space in which may be entered the name of the tenant. At the left of the sheet there are blanks opposite the names of the various reservoirs in which may be entered the total number of rights of each with which the user is credited. Below are columns in which any debits or credits may be entered during the season. The right side of the sheet is devoted to records of delivery, with columns for every day from July 15 to September 15 and others in which are entered the name of the person ordering the water delivered and the lateral to which it was delivered. Under the dates are entered the numbers of “ rights” delivered on that date. While this form of record is too large to be handled conveniently, the advantage of having the entire record on one sheet is obvious. Deliveries and credits may be compared at a glance for the benefit of users who inquire as to the standing of their accounts, and in addition there is little chance of any user exceeding his credit. ‘6 (ON IWNVOD ALNNOD YAWIYV] SHL AO “OO NOILVSIYH|] SAYGNOd HLYON S3HL 4O YIOAYHASSY TIVE AHL LV HSSYD TVIAA) OL SLNHO GNV doyYq—'Z ‘DIA WaaYO WOOD SHL OL LAIN| AHL NO dOYq ALSYONOD—'| ‘DI PLATE V. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. Fig. |.—CHECK IN THE LARIMER AND WELD CANAL. Fic. 2.—WEIR AND DROP AT THE HEAD : OF THE CULVER-BARTELS LATERAL OF THE LARIMER COUNTY CANAL. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. Fic. |.—COMMON TYPE OF DIVISION BOX IN WHICH THE DIVIDING BOARD iS MOVABLE AND IS HELD IN PLACE BY A CHAIN HOOKED OVER NAILS IN A Cross PIECE. Fig. 2.—DIVISION BOX ON THE ROBERTS LATERAL OF THE LARIMES AND WELD CANAL. THE DIVID- ING BOARD IS CONTROLLED BY WHEELS WORK- ING ON THREADED RODS FASTENED TO THE BOARD. — Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. Fic. |.—DEVICE FOR MEASURING WATER DELIVERED TO THE LATERALS OF THE PLEASANT VALLEY CANAL. FIG. 2.—BRUSH MATTRESS BELOW OUTLET OF KLUVER LAKE TO STOP EROSION FROM BACKWASH. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. Fic. |1.—ROCK-FILLED CRIBS USED AS RIVER PROTECTION AT THE HEAD OF THE ARTHUR DITCH. Fic. 2.—Moss IN THE OUTLET OF THE ROCKY RIDGE RESERVOIR. IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 33 The company rules provide that reservoir water will be carried when 250 rights are called for, but that the water will be cut. off when the demand drops below 200 rights. Water is carried for $10 per right and rights of other reservoirs must be made equal to those of Terry Lake or Windsor Reservoir, which range from a 16 to a 22 day run of 14 second-feet. Single day runs are carried at a minimum charge of $1. On each right carried by the canal there is delivered to the lateral of the owner of the right 0.72 second- foot. To supply this 0.72 second-foot at the head of the lateral the company requires that there be delivered to the canal 1.25 second-feet, the difference taking care of losses in transit and inaccuracies and inequalities in distribution. Under a fairly constant demand and with better wire installations this margin of safety could no doubt be cut by 0.15 second-foot. Demands for water are usually made by phone or in person to the secretary, who enters on.a card provided for the purpose the name of the owner of the water, the name of the person ordering the water, the number of rights to be run, the lateral to which the water is to be delivered, and the period for which it is to be delivered. On account of the length of the canal, two days’ notice is required for water to be delivered or cut off. Thus, to secure delivery Wednes- day morning, water must be ordered before 1 o’clock Monday after- noon. At 1 o’clock each day the secretary begins the preparation of a list of the demands for the second day following, by revising the sheet of the preceding day. Orders which have expired are scratched off and new orders are entered, after which typewritten copies are made for the superintendent and the various ditch riders. The sheet is in the form shown below. Sixteenth run, Saturday, Aug. 17, 1918. Rights from Terry Mataral Rights | Rights | or other BNL ; Owner or'renter: f resenvoire to which water Period ae is to be to be run. indicated diverted. in last e- from manded. | Windsor. column. PAI ELSOM sre eee ccm ce emenes cee 2 Pil eseseeer aa Owl Creek... - "Anderson, L.Ge.s<.ce 252 2 ecee je cerlerec UR isecdagdose 14| Lucas......... 15th to 19th. Beard & Anderson.................-.---- 2 1] 1 | Decker........ WVGDEL; FLCMIY = A.c . =e; neuf | na Re Of anf t VA == othoagq Sap) " ‘ | GNWYTHAOT HOLIQe AAISO il HOLIQ 3344VHS ‘ ae ‘, ¢:' ANY 3yv1 ONY AINIWA LNYSW3Id WN SS \% anam GRO CEERI aNqoaT ‘NOW N6tL Baer * Creel ae Powe \ \ (¢ \ 4 “NOL “MWS9°a M393 MA L9'3 mMesy 4 Bec a Moz t\ | PLATE Xl. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bulletin 1026, U. "HOLIG NOLVS 'H ‘'G SHL GNV Z@ 'ON TIWNVO ALNNOO YAWIYV] SHL Ad QIGI NI GHLVDIeNY] SVAYY | (LiD0 = C “o,, @ Vt AA lL @ ANwWTAAOT ! pee e ° é I, e A = f) HOLIO NOiv3'H Ss mn 2'ON AYNYS ALNNOSD Y3NIbW> 7) NYS ALNNOD BaWiBV? ‘ANOADAT PLATE XI}. a Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "HOLIG SSAWYW HSOf AHL GNV ‘HOLIG NOSHOV( SHL 'HOLIG YNHLYY AHL ‘'S ‘ON IVNVD AS1SSY SHL Ad 916] NI GalvOluYy}| Svauy HOLIG sawy HsSOO Cn HOLIQ NOSHSUP Z HOLIQ YNHLEY =| 2ON INYO ABNS38D IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 37 as potatoes and sugar beets. At times of extreme shortage runs of 5 to 8 days are made, at intervals of 5 to 8 days, and 20 to 30 inches are delivered to the share. Records kept. include frequent readings of all reservoir gauges, from which the available supply may be determined; records of dis- charge of the main canal at the head and of the various mountain ditches of the system; records of water delivered to each stockholder, and records of all water received or delivered in exchange. The records of delivery are on cards and show for each user each day of _ the season the number of shares he drew water on, the rate in inches per share, and the depth over the weir. GREELEY CANAL NO. 2. The Greeley Canal No. 2, known also as the Union Colony Canal No. 2, or the Cache la Poudre Canal, was built by the Union Colony at Greeley. Preliminary work was done in 1870 and the first con- struction was completed in 1871. Enlargements were made in 1874 and 1877. In 1878 the Cache la Poudre Irrigation Co. was organized by the farmers under the canal to take over control from the colony, and a large sum was spent in improving the headworks and in better- ing the alignment of the canal. The present company, the New Cache la Poudre Irrigation Co., was organized in 1890 to undertake various improvements of the system. The company has a capital stock of $100,000 divided into 2,500 shares of a par value of $40, of which 2,496 have been issued. Each of the original rights is represented by 8 shares of the present company. In 1916 rights sold for $2,800, which is equivalent to an increase of 900 per cent in value. The entire cost of operation and ordinary maintenance of the canal has lately been met by charges of the company for carrying reservoir water, and assessments were levied on the stock only for special expenses. -Thus in 1916 current expenses were $6,736, while tolls for carrying reservoir water amounted to $7,961. The average cost of operation and maintenance is at the rate of approximately 20 cents per acre irrigated. The main canal heads in section 11, T. 6 N., R. 68 W., and ends 26 miles below at Lone Tree Creek, but an 18-mile extension tails in Crow Creek. At the head of the canal it is 34 feet wide on the bot- tom, carries water to a depth of 4 feet, and is on a grade of 3.2 feet per mile. The maximum head carried during 1916 and 1917 was 558 second-feet. There are 40 companies owning and operating the larger laterals and the total length of laterals is estimated to exceed 300 miles. The water rights of the company are shown in the tabulation on page 15, and the area irrigated in 1916 in Plate XIT. 38 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The distribution of both river and reservoir water from the Greeley Canal No. 2 is handled in much the same manner as from the Lari- mer and Weld Canal. The company controls only the main canal and its responsibility ends when the water is delivered to the lateral. Because of its short length the canal is divided into two sections only, each of which is handled by a ditch rider under the direction of the superintendent. Diversions from the canal are made through Powell gates, which may be raised or lowered only by the ditch rider, and the water delivered is measured over weirs. Before the delivery of reservoir water is begun the user may get his pro rata share of. the water in the canal by applying to either the rider on the main ditch or the rider on his lateral. After the canal begins carrying reservoir water the small amount of river water received is used to supply reservoir demands and an equivalent credit is accumulated in either the Windsor Reservoir or the Cache la Poudre Reservoir. , When a sufficient credit has been accumulated to supply a day’s rua to each right, each stockholder under the canal is credited with his pro rata share, which will be delivered to him on demand. Reservoir water is delivered by the company on demand of the user a day in advance, orders received before 1 p. m. being filled the fol- lowing morning. The unit used is 1 second-foot for a day, and the company charge for carriage is $1. The secretary of the company is required to keep a record of the reservoir water handled and for this purpose he has a journal, order book, and ledger. All credits of water reported are first entered in the journal, after which they are posted in the ledger. The order book page is designed for a period of 10 days and is divided into columns in which are entered the date, name of user, page of ledger containing his account, a nota- tion to show whether the order was received by telephone or other- wise, name of person giving order, units or “ rights” ordered, lateral to which water was to be delivered, and character of order, whether open or for a definite period, after which are 10 columns for noting the units delivered each day. These records are also posted in the ledger, which is in the form below: Form of reservoir water accounts, Greeley Canal No. 2. HERMAN SANDERS. Debit. Credit. ATIE 6295-2 Beets. lye yes Se 68) 42800 GAng5£3..No: 2: 2508 3: ° -- eee eas 99 16.50 BE Raises violet pista ere eee eoslae ne 68 2.00 15:) Windsor- 23 ee sneer eee 98 25.50 * * * * * * * * * * * * Septs Sa ce sce ce citescemeeaccoee niece 68 2.00 25. WindSOr: - 222 see esses ee 105 25.50 Laie porn Se Ln chain nice ae See eine 68 1.50 (W. Lang) Pt NEO a bela eee ed aan IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 89 On the debit side the number in the second column refers to the page in the order book, and the third column shows the number of units carried. On the credit side the second column shows the source of the water, the last two credits being Windsor Reservoir water rented from W. Lang. The third column carries references to pages in the journal. The last column shows the units credited, and as the charge per unit is $1, also dollars paid for carriage. At 1 o’clock each day the secretary begins the preparation of a list of demands for the following day, showing the name of the user, the rights or units ordered, and the lateral to which the water is to be delivered. A copy is furnished to each rider and from it he figures out the amount which he must turn to each lateral the following morning. As in the case of the Larimer and Weld Canal the reser- voir from which the supply for a particular day is drawn will depend not so much on the demands for its rights as upon the requirements for the most satisfactory operation of the canal. THE NORTH POUDRE CANAL. Surveys of canals to irrigate the territory now covered by the North Poudre Canal were made in 1878 and 1879 by local men, but they could not raise the funds necessary to carry their projects forward, and nothing came of their efforts. In 1881, F. L. Carter-Cotton and others organized the North Poudre Land, Canal, & Reservoir Co., secured the financial support of the Travelers’ Insurance Co., and began work on the canal. By 1884 construction had been completed to Boxelder Creek, but no water could be obtained from the river that year and very little in the 2 years following. In 1887 the promoters quit and control was assumed by the insurance company. This com- pany operated the system until 1896, when it sold out to F. C. Grable. In 1901 the system passed into the possession of the present owner, the North Poudre Irrigation Co. This company was originally capitalized at $400,000, but in 1913, to absorb the Mountain Supply _ Ditch Co., the capital was increased to $500,000, divided into 10,000 shares of a par value of $50. In 1916 these shares were selling at $112. Both land and water rights were sold by the company, and with each 80-acre right went 25 shares of the company. Holdings now vary widely and range from 10 to 35 shares for 80 acres. The company has outstanding over $500,000 in bonds and short- time obligations of from $25,000 to $50,000 have lately been carried from year to year. Regular assessments are levied on the capital stock at the rate of $5 per share and occasionally an extra assessment is levied for some special purpose. In 1917 the cost of operation and maintenance was about $27,000, or close to 80 cents per acre irrigated. 40 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The original water supply of the canal was of practically no value and the constant endeavor of the company to build up a reliable supply has resulted in the acquisition of various reservoirs, canals, and rights. The main canal of the system heads in the North Fork of the Cache la Poudre in section 12, T. 10 N., R. 71 W., and is about 25 miles long, including 4 or 5 miles of natural channel in Campbell Draw. The bottom width at the head is 22 feet, the maximum depth of water carried is 3.3 feet, and the maximum capacity is 200 second-feet. There is comparatively little irrigation from this canal, but it sup- plies the lower reservoirs of the system from which the distributing laterals extend. The Scurvin Ditch leaves the main canal a short distance above Campbell Draw and supplies a large area along the Boxelder but above the main canal. It also serves as an intake canal for Reservoir No. 15. The company is also interested in the Poudre Valley Canal to the extent of a first right to the use of the canal as a carrier both to store water in Reservoirs No. 5 and No. 6 and for direct irrigation of lands just north of Fort Collins. In addition, the company owns the Michigan Ditch, which diverts water from tributaries of the Michigan River into the Cache la Poudre. Water from this ditch may be used directly through the Poudre Valley canal or in the main canal by exchange. The total storage capacity available for the system is close to 53,000 acre-feet, as is shown by the accompanying list of the com- pany’s reservoirs. The most valuable reservoir of the company is Halligan, which is in the bed of the North Fork several miles above the head of the main canal. In addition to commanding all the land irrigated by the system “temporary” storage of direct flow rights in it is permitted by court decree. Reservoir No. 15 derives its value from the fact that it also is above the main canal and commands a large part of the total acreage of the system. Water stored in Reservoirs No. 5, and No. 6, Fossil Creek Reservoir, and Portner Reservoir can be used only by exchange, but they are essential features of the system. The available supply for the Fos- sil Creek Reservoir has been such that its filling was practically as- sured each year. The rights of the North Poudre company in this reservoir are subject, however, to the prior satisfaction of preferred rights aggregating 150,000,000 cubic feet or 3,444 acre feet. The company is part owner of the Boxelder Ditch & Reservoir Co. and secures several hundred acre-feet of stored water from this source each year. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII. TON, Lr3N. Rwy 3 ® © a AREA IRRIGATED IN 1916 BY WATER OF THE NORTH POUDRE IRRIGATION CO. AND BY WATER ON PREFERRED RIGHTS IN FOSSIL CREEK RESERVOIR. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE CIV: Z i) : ees os é z z RK > a E S Z Zi Zz Q @ a E E E R.64W, RW y ERR SX AR. ow, R.67W,. LOVELAND . 1916. IRRIGATED ACREAGE ON WHICH SEEPAGE WAS THE MAIN WATER SUPPLY IN IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 41 Under an old agreement with B. G. Eaton for carrying water from Worster for certain of his lands under the North Poudre Canal the company secures 160 acre-feet of stored water from that reservoir. Reservoirs of the North Poudre Irrigation Co. Capac- || Capac- Roservoir. Gas | Reservoir. its feet) feet) Wry Weep so ey hey a el ae ee te ASS NPANOTT OV saree errs Ne eee Meee ee ec ae eee es Se 345 WO, Donate ce cesS ad ae eRe nea: mers Fee ee tees 3,880 || Mountain Supply No. 2....---..-- “eee 150 INO, Siodéclacse tds Saas Seen E BEES AAS A Cees 27870) || ABU De sem ote cet oe Sole ee cine nae 225 INOW AEE ree ieee Ui Se pease ee 29s A@AMeLONGEASSS apes eee Saas ee ese ING Doce cS cece eee ae Spa seater Sains CAO T EAC am ss see mers ke tse scl erse ste ere a ciao ejece 6, 428 INI@, Ques aab cbc Sau bese Pe ae Cen CaeatEE seas LO; 205-0. Mo sccack 8 eae ees pee ease oe 5,510 C leased GSES SRoHiee BERBER Naa ReeE snes WOR HOSSIN Onecare nes nasa eer eee eee ee 12,050 PSL MICIO LS pa a a ee oo ee 17 Op lp: POrtners sees eey. saw ael- abe eee ee yee @ogiCnee kee wm Ait. PASSE MONE 4,095 The water rights of the company are shown in the tabulations on pages 14and16. The area irrigated in 1916 is shown on Plate XIII. No dependence could be placed in the original appropriation of the canal and the necessity for a more reliable supply accounts for the large number of transferred rights. With the exception of the William Calloway right and the rights of the Brown ditches, these appropriations are owned outright by the company. The former is limited in use to a certain tract and the latter are carried for the use of individuals under a perpetual contract. To permit a better use the transferred rights owned by the company may be stored temporarily in Halligan Reservoir until a sufficient amount has been accumulated for an economical head for the main canal. The system of water delivery under the North Poudre Canal is different from that of any other canal in the valley. At the beginning of the season the superintendent determines the amount of water in storage and estimates the amount in sight on direct appropriations. On this basis an allotment is:made which in average years is close to 125,000 cubic feet per share. This water is delivered upon demand at any time during the season and at any rate, subject of course to certain requirements of operation. To discourage extensive growing of crops requiring late irrigation, heavy deductions of credits are made for absorption losses as the season progresses. Water credits remaining on June 1 are reduced by 10 per cent; those remaining on July 1 are reduced by 25 per cent, and on August 1 a reduction of 50 per cent is made. Under this system, if the farmer starts the season with an allotment of 100,000 cubic feet per share and uses no water until August 1, he will then be entitled to only 33,700 cubic feet per share. When the farmer wishes to draw water he notifies the ditch rider or the office of the company in Wellington the day before and states 42 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the size of the head he desires turned out. The riders meet every morning at the office, list the demands, and compare them with the credits remaining. Then they cover their “ beats ” and set the various gates to deliver the amounts demanded. The water is measured over wooden rectangular weirs and the proper depth over the weir is de- termined from tables which show for each size of weir the discharge in Colorado statute inches, cubic feet per hour, and cubic feet per 24 hours. The rider’s records include a daily report and a separate delivery account for each user. The daily report of deliveries shows the name of the farmer drawing; size of weir; depth over weir; hours run and total cubic feet delivered during the day, the day being reckoned from midnight to midnight. In the record of delivery kept by the rider each user is given a separate account in which is entered a complete record of all water drawn. In addition there is kept at the office at Wellington a water ledger containing a record of all credits and of all deliveries as compiled from the daily reports of ditch riders. From this ledger the state of any account can be de- termined at a glance. GROSS DUTY FOR CANALS. To serve as a basis for computing the duty of water measured at the heads of canals of the valley, the total area and the crops irrigated by each canal in 1916 and 1917 are shown in Table 9. Each canal is credited with all the land and crops irrigated by it, either alone or in combination with other canals. Overlapping of areas served by two or more canals, is the cause of considerable duplication of acreage in the table. The effect of the war may be noted in the large increase in food crops as well as in the appreciable increase in the total acreage irrigated. In Tables 10 and 11 the water used by the canals of the valley in 1916 and 1917 is shown with a proper segregation of direct flow and stored water. Under the head of direct flow has been included water on direct appropriations, foreign water not stored, and certain ex- change water. Thus, Windsor Reservoir water delivered to Greeley Canal No. 2 in payment for No. 2 water taken above in exchange is classed as direct flow. On the other hand river water taken by the Larimer County Canal in exchange for water in Lindenmeijer Lake is classed as stored water. IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 43 TABLE 9. Total acreage and crops irrigated by the canals of the valley in 1916 and 1917. 1916. é 7 . 6 3 a Lo} bB fo) 8 cf aes aril Canal. Bs : a 3 o ag | ‘o eles : = A 3 8 q | eR NGehelpl es t=) s 3 Be. Ni fabs 68 hoy eB gE Bae Pago] goe |) eranllas < o nN 4 Q 6) my | a 4 a | a North Poudre Canal}....-. 12,932) 9,281) 3,687 105] 1,441 281) 103} 175); 348) 751) 488/29, 592 Poudre Valley Canal2..--- 340 118 WSSaeaoelanosee AL ee 6] 74) =: 120).. 2... 665 Pleasant Valley and Lake @analt 2 ee eee 3,590) 1, 293 966) o25.-28lo <3 =... 178|..... 321); 127, 359) 82) 6,916 Larimer County Canal. .-..- 19,305] 10, 247| 7,377) 4,216) 1,978) 867) 607) 97) 91) 1,849} 522/47, 156 Jackson Ditech. .---..--2..- 917 577) PLAS ESSE eB Ace Ut icode 98 4| 326 11) 2,257 Little Cache La Poudre MIG CHS sso see. cies ese | 405 285, AB) oe ce)as 4 Tesi 13! 32) 155) 195) 1,568 Taylor and Gill Ditch...... 120 27 IeMiigsse seo beasas Gleseee 18 \seee 49 8| 423 Larimer County Canal No.2, 3,549) 1,028 1,564)....... tO eee TG Wes es 146} 35) 6,589 New Mercer Canal-..-....- 2, 924 670(¢ 15 085). e Ae oe. 103]....- 203 2} 160) 36) 5,183 Arthur Ditch...-......---- 1, 203 455 442) 2. 3s 6 71a ees 62/2. ee 42) 33) 2,245 Larimer and Weld Canal..-.| 21,510) 10,376} 10,805} 6,254} 3,821) 531] 441).....|....- 1,329) 877|55, 944 Josh Ames Ditch.....-.-.- 270 124 Be eaeeane 20 | wiek cael ee aen Aye hoe 111} 71) 987 Pioneer Ditch. .....-.--.--. ID ba s= 265 Seascaellassn seule ese Bho eel acc slmenoe 3i|saeee 167 Makei Canaan Sas ces. sau. Se 2,868} 1,054) 2,217 39} 162 6} 40 (Heme 870} 57) 7,319 CoyeDit cheep reset ees ccn 98 24 AN ees Sele PO eA aeiees| Seaoe Sis] aeese 222 Chaffee Ditch............-- 125 92 CHS SuSE ho heal GaRSEe becoal Seema mmaee 144)..... 453 Boxelder Ditch.-........-- 661 361 ASO Ween es Sera 28 | See es liancee Oise 168} 15] 1,704 Greeley Canal No. 2...-....] 12,365) 4,239) 8,054) 2,174) 3,372) 940] 939) 193/...-. 1,116) 779)33, 978 Whitney Ditch....-......- 744 683) 1,062)... ..... 82 49} 44)..... 241} 963) 39) 3,907 B. H. Eaton Ditch......... 166 175 439) eyes Oaleeeeine DT aera etre 453 9} 1, 292 AROS IDM HON =o Sees eae 53 164 GI eee esr 66)...... 29 FES Pave Td ae S| eel liam Od Greeley Canal No.3...--..- 615 S02 |p M19 eae 248 144) 55) cess snr ae 482) 211) 3,427 Boyd and Freeman Ditch. . 62 44 290|.552--5 1G eeeere A esis it Pale es se 610 Ogilvy Ditch’. =. 2.--2- 223) 1,006 294 365 Sill SBR Co ceellacoaullescodlbcoace 21| 2,482 Seepagen sie sees ect ccc ed 5,001) 2,415) 3,476 996 | el Vb 74 1123 26 ee see 909} 806)15, 161 1917 North Poudre Canal!.-..... 13, 807; 10,985) 3,941 214] 2,833) 867|..... 155' 184) 221) 348/33, 550 Poudre Valley Canal 2..... 326 175 Pe eee Al..... 6, 74 AS lee cae 665 Pleasant Valley and Lake Canh ee ae acscd 3,437} 2,049 S37 ae eee 25 Larimer County Canal. --..| 17,012) 10,194) 5,221) 7,227) 5,048 Jackson Ditch......--...-- 765 744 247|......- 7 Little Cache La Poudre Di Gchisereaeeee sctiee os 389 366 420]. .....- 18 Taylor and Gill Ditch 93 40 140) Seas seeeee 23 Larimer County Canal No.2) 3,564) 1,077) 1,583 3 17 New Mercer Canal.....-.-.. 2,615) 1,043) 1, 104 1 27 -ATEMUTEDILGDE Soc oh ce necs s 1, 215 471 420|b ous oe Raseee Larimer and Weld Canal...| 18,902) 10, 884) 7,175) 10, 888) 6, 569 Josh Ames Ditch........-- 230 282 262|beeeeee Pioneer Ditch.-......---.-- 1 711) parietal (ees arco @amalenp eases 4 2,672 1,484| 1,876] 148] 145 CoyeDitch esos ooo soe 102 4 ReRBAeH Bameas Chaffee Ditch.........-.-.- 166 70 TG See sl eas Boxelder Ditch..-...-....- 760 383 Coiiscaceos 21 Greeley Canal No. 2..-.....| 10,996) 5,563) 4,379) 5,158} 5, 262 Whitney Ditch.....-...... 778 780) 518 260} = 287 B. H. Eaton Ditch........-. 200 271 77 30} 122 Jones Ditch.....-.. See 60 130) 123 71 104 Greeley Canal No. 3...-...- 633 360 695 201; 441 Boyd and Freeman Ditch. . 70 94 105 32 46 OsilvyyeWitehs 242 45-56). 938 308 256 218} 538 SUB ORINDS = Se sorieacceanscacse 4,740] 3,232) 2,440) 1,963) 1,949 1 The acreage here given includes only that under the main canal. The total area irrigated wholly or in part by water of the North Poudre Irrigation Co. (including preferred rights in Fossil Creek Reservoir), was 46,222 acres in 1916 and 50,203 acres in 1917. 2 Part of the stock of this ditch is owned by the Larimer and Weld Reservoir Co., and the water repre- sented is rented to the Larimer and Weld Irrigation Co. through Dry Creek and is applied to all lands under that canal. The area covered by this water is not included here. It is taken into the Larimer and Weld Canal 8 The acreage given does not include lands north of Fort Collins irrigated from laterals of the North Poudre Canal with water brought through this canal. a es 44 BULLETIN 1026, I. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 10.—Water, in acre-feet, used by the canals of the valley in 1916. DIRECT FLOW. Apr.| May. | June. | July. | Aug | Sept. | Oct. | Total North Poudre Canals: reso ose neces 870 | 1,760} 6,583} 4,001 | 2,245 710 0} 16,169 PoudreiWValley: Canal 22 = Ses 422222202. 0 697 585 486 748 0 0 2,516 Pleasant Valley and Lake Canal. ......-- 1,357 | 3,253 | 4,341] 2,977] 2,874] 1,885 0 | 16,687 Larimer County Canal...........-..---.-- 0} 5,398 | 22,147 | 11,971 | 8,482 | 1,878 0| 49,876 Jackson Ditch. oe Fee seis bose cen 77 788 | 1,158} 1,305 680 374 0 4,382 Little Cache la Poudre Ditch..........-.- 0 359 737 | 1,058 922 0 0 3,076 Taylorand Gill Ditches yates yee eee 365 466 794 786 740 590 | 276 4,017 Larimer County Canal No. 2..........--- 154 | 3,562] 4,455 | 2,179 691 29 0} 11,070 New Mercer Canal - 37. te 2 oh. te } 1, 296 342 0 7, 891 Arthur Ditches ek oe ON eae 737 177 79 6,114 Larimer and Weld Canal...........-.--.. 4,439 805 0} 67,166 JoshvAmes*Ditch:s 2 ck ee 368 17 0 1, 483 Lake Canal...........- ofa herbaria fava oie mre 304 0 0] 11,447 CoysDitche ees ae eee ee ee eee 164 0 0 749 Chaffee Ditch sss sisk oe ase ee 255 0 0 947 iBoxelder Ditch {assets en eke 371 40 0 2,915 Greeley Canal Nos2- 22/5: oe ee 3,136} 2,449 0} 54,908 Whitney Ditch ss 2 see) tee ee , 745 1,587 984 64 6, 024 Bebebaton Ditch ee ee aces 411 278 0 2.829 Jones Diteht gis. esl ae ah oS ee 656 94 0 1,540 Greeley Canal No.3. 2-....22-2.es02222% 55 | 3,130] 3,215 | 438] 19,960 Boydand Freeman Ditch 0 3 382 168 0 1,379 Ogilvy Ditch: ). i. ee eee a 720 | 2,495} 2,256) 2,197] 2,307] 1,497 O| 11,472 Total csc sases et couture ae sie 9,163 } 62,290 ]115, 089 | 64,761 | 36,925 | 15,532] 857 | 304, 617 STORAGE. Apr. | May.|June.} July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. |Total. Grand North Poudre Canal...............--..--- 353 [5,387 |5, 147 |10, 334 | 3,331 686 0 |25,188 | 41,357 PoudrenValley;Canalis: (3:25 t see oe 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,516 Pleasant Valley and Lake Canal........- 0 0 0 598 206 17 0 821 | 17,508 LarimerCounty Canal............-.----- 0 |1, 489 |1, 366 | 6,310 | 7,598 | 5,348 0 |22,111 | 71, 987 JacksonsDitcheets yes voce ae ee see 0 0 0 0- 0 0 0 0 4,382 Little Cache la Poudre Ditch............ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3,076 Tayloriang:Gill Mitch? s.2 2st Fit see 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,017 Larimer County Canal No. 2............. 0 0 0 148 64 39 0 Pail! rial New Mercer Canal.............--..------ 0 0 0 0 91 72 0 163 8, 054 Arthur Ditches eye ee ane oe cee oe cate 0 0 0 0 0 23 0 23 6, 137 Larimer and Weld Canal...........---.- 0 O} 126 | 5,482 12,117 | 6,251 0 |23,926 | 91,092 JoshvAmes Ditches 2. scenes Sees le = 0 0 0 0 0 0 1, 483 Make Wan alee cee se csee cick ce ee cae 0 0 0 564 | 1,190 830 0 | 2,584 | 14,031 Coy Mitch ssee ioe spemec oe ae see 0 0 0 0 0 0 749 ChafleewDitehs sage eee gs SS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 947 Boxelder Ditches ee saree Oe ee aes 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,915 Greeley Canal No. 2 0 0 0 | 3,169 | 6,747 | 3,542 0 /13,458 | 68, 366 Whitney Ditch. 02.23.2220: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6, 024 Be EehatonDitche mets ese eee aeesee 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2, 829 JONCSSEDIT CH seas iee Ce eo naee setae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,540 GreeleyiCanaliNogse ee eee 0 0 0 257 584 409 01} 1,250] 21,210 Boyd and Freeman Ditch.....-......... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,379 Ogilvy/Ditcho. i aes tose oe calee 0} 152 0 286 221 156 0 815 | 12,287 UNG hae gt eeeah tds SA teeny le bs 353 |6, 978 |6, 639 |27, 098 |32, 149 |17,373 0 |90,590 | 395, 207 IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 45 TABLE 11.—Water in acre-feet used by the canals of the valley in 1917. DIRECT FLOW. | Octo- : - Sep- April.| May. | June, | July. |August. rember! bar Total. North Poudre Canal..........--..-------- 0 318 | 8,588 |; 10,069] 1,370 400 0] 20,745 Poudre Valley Canal..............2.-.--- 0 0 472) 1,165 88 51 0 1,776 Pleasant Valley and LakeCanal. ....-..-... 453 202 | 4,945] 6,171] 3,119] 1,669 0} 16,559 Larimer County Canal, .............----- 9| 8,087 | 22,626 | 25,386 | 6,672] 1,921 0| 64,692 WBCKSONPD ULC ese cetcel= cclee eile te eleise 0 86} 1,261] 1,645) 1,079 558 15 4,644 Little Cache la Poudre Ditch}........... 0 0} 1,026 505 893 204 0 2, 628 Maylorand GulyDiteh eso ess. 5. os ele oie 264 231 560 810 784 560 0 3, 209 Larimer County Canal No. 2..-....-...--- 0 0} 4,096 | 6,795 288 43 Os ete 222 New Mercer Canal........-.----.-22..--.- 0 47 | 3,075) 3,592} 1,214 42 0 7, 970 A hursDiL Chee cess occ see sicisere 0 281 | 1,495 | 2,241 453 56 0 4, 526 Larimer and Weld Canal 2 762 | 2,188 | 31,957 | 28,983 | 2,996 1, 003 0} 67,889 Josh Ames Ditch........-.. 0 178 698 532 0 0 1, 408 Wake @anales oscces socc es -' ait 0 213 | 5,454] 6,156 158 0 0} 11,981 Ooiy IDI sosqososoSococubERdEobObBeEsons 0 0 204 363 41 0 608 Chae itch tense sececescctiecise sci ss- 0 0 286 514 198 0 0 998 BoxeldeniDitene is i- seins + site als Soja 0 0; 1,272} 1,255] 1,645 991 0 5, 163 Greeley Canal No. 2......-..--...----.--- 0} 2,164 | 18,349 | 27,1382 | 4,687] 1,051 0} 53,383 Whitmore Ditches nse Sane cc ce - colo Sela- 0 0 843 | 1,478} 1,635 997 0 4,953 Bebebaton itches s.24-.--.seese. = cle Sac. 0 329 | 1,071} 1,261 989 477 21 4,148 Jones tDifehwer en eececehece os cee 2 sents tei 0 0 85 29 381 457 0 952 Greeley Canal No. 3....-......--.----.-- 275 946 | 2,899) 4,544} 3,170} 2,653 0} 14,487 Boyd and Freeman Ditch...-....-.-...-- 0 96 134 304 538 254 0 1,376 OSilivyA Ditches ae. SS es ee 0 686 | 2,297] 3,284] 3,212) 2,090 11 | 11,580 Motalees: Sy er See eae Pe 1,754 | 15, 874 |112, 969 |134, 271 | 36,464 | 15,518 47 | 316, 897 STORAGE. Aprit| May. |Tune.| July. | A¥= | fore | Octo otai,| Grand Ds lance lacs Y- | gust ber. |. D8 total North Poudre Canal...........-------+-- 0} 182 1,250 | 9,512 |13,192 | 4,818 0 |28,954 | 49,699 Poudre Valley Canal...........--.------- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,776 Pleasant Valley and Lake Canal.....-..- 0 0 0 0 376 276 0 652 | 17,211 Larimer County Canal 0 0 |1, 108 | 2,511 |13, 883 | 1,772 0 |19,274 | 83,966 Jackson Ditch....--......-.---- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4, 644 Little Cache la Poudre Ditch!..........-. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,628 Taylor and Gill Ditch.--.....-..- Bedgerect jo 60 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3, 209 Larimer County Canal No. 2.....-.-.---- een) 0 0 0 108 78 0 186} 11,408 New Mereerni@anal-< 2 ..5.-----2 552-5. 28 0 0 0 0 0 191 0 191 8, 161 Ari TPDIteheee ewok ccc cnc se ccece testes 0 0 0 0 0 17 0 17 4, 543 Larimer and Weld Canal?.............-- 0 0 0 | 1,607 |20,676 | 7,264 0 |29, 547 | 97, 436 JoshyAmeseDitche "25500. he. 5.800 2.228 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1, 408 Make Canalees Na sie ee LS 0 0 0 0 | 1,538 510 0 | 2,048 | 14,029 (Chays/ IOI oat SS eer eee eee ean 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 608 Cha ileepDitchee soca e Swe sae cine oek 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 998 iBOxXe Gen Ditchys. 5-6. ose ees ttcee nee 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5, 163 Greeley Canal No. 2....--:-------------- 0 0 0 0 | 9,141 | 5,476 0 |14,617 | 68,000 Wyehiney Mitch an ss. uci eee a eel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4, 953 Bete MatonyDiteh5-c-+-+-csn5 nce ce 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,148 ONESPD Ith es eee Sais Se keciee es teeee eee 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 952 Greeley Canal No.3. ..---.-------------- 0 9 0 0 | 1,021 393 0} 1,414] 15,901 Boyd and Freeman Ditch............... 0 ») 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,376 Orly vaDiiChep sence st ooo. k see nee 0 0 0 83 289 95 0 467 | 12,047 Motaleetee ccc so sak core sen veeee 0 | 182 |2,358 |13, 713 |60, 224 |20, 890 0 197, 367 | 414, 264 1 Use under Little Cache la Poudre does not include amount delivered to Dry Creek on rights owned by Larimer & Weld Reservoir Co. 2 Reservoir water used in July by Larimer and Weld Canal was advanced to canal by Windsor Reservoir to be paid from direct flow later. The gross duty for the canals of the valley by months and for the year, for both direct flow and storage as shown in Tables 12 and 13, ig derived from Tables 9, 10, and 11. The lowest duty is shown by the ditches with old rights watering the bottoms along the river. However, a considerable part of the water carried by them is wasted directly back into the river by laterals and the actual require- 46 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ments of the land under them are much less than the duty shown would indicate. The apparent high duty under the North Poudre Canal in 1916 was due to a short supply, the original allotment of 125,000 cubic feet’ per share for that year being reduced to 100,000 cubic feet in the latter part of the season. In the majority of cases, however, the duty fairly indicates the requirements of the land under the canal under the present system of cropping. TABLE 12.—MUonthly and annual gross duty of water in acre-feet per acre under canals of the valley ir 1916. DIRECT FLOW. Apr. | May. | June.| July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Total North Poudre Canal. - 3.61331... eI Se! 0.03 | 0.06] 0.22] 0.14] 0.08] 0.02 {0.00 Oe Poudre Valley: Canali: 22.2 - See BSS -00} 1.05 -88 «73-| 112 00 Fs FB00: Bois Pleasant Valley & Lake Canal..-.--.......-.- - 20 47 -63 - 43 42) .27 -00 2.4) Harimer County Canali220.-. 2 | S00)|) 2 -47]. £25) .18] .04. | .00 1.05 Jackson: Ditch-t-wil.- 22a: eee Rees eee \ra20s03 -30 51 -58 -30| .17 | .00 1.94 Little Cache la Poudre Ditch.......-......-...- | .00 23 -47 67 -59; .00 | .00 1.95 Taylorand Gill Ditch 3-3-2. - =. fae 2 SEs. -86} 1.10] 1.88] 1.86) 1.75} 1.39 65 9. 5u Larimer County CanalNo.2.............-...- - 02 - 54 -68 -33 -10} .00+/) .00 1.68 INew-Mercer. Canali sateseeersence eee se arc: 39 41 - 40 Bil ec Uo) 1.52 Arthur-Ditch 223s we 32 Fee ee ee 22 74 - 56 -76 33 08 04 2.72 Larimer and Weld Canal...................--- - 03 26 63 18 08 01 90 1. 20 oshvAm eS itCheascem seen sane eee eee ese | .03 - 04 - 46 58 37 02 00 1.50 ake Canale epee a seca en eee rea ee | .00 -55 -70 27 04 00 00 1.56 CoysDitchesss sees ase ete enee eee ene | .00 -47 -ol} 1.65 74 00 00 3.37 Chafice*Ditch cessseccec oo tae sore eco OD - 61 14 oid. 56 00 00 2.09 Boxelder Ditch. ... -00 .30 61 - 56 22 02 00 1.71 Greeley Canal No. 2-. 05 48 . 59 -33 a9 07 00 1.62 Whitney Ditch...... 03 12 28 . 45 41 25 02 1.54 B. H. Eaton Ditch... She oc! Beet 74) ~45 . 86 -32| .22 | .00 2.19 Jones Ditches eciseeee staf 00 - 03 46 -67 -97]) .14 | .00 2.27 Greeley Canal No. 3......-- So eu) ~87 | 1.15) 1.33 -91| .94 | .13 5. 82 Boyd and Freeman Ditch...............--..-- | = .00 - 00 67 . 69 -63 |> .28 | .00 2. 26 OstivyeDiten ke ee ee tonnes ose (2 SOF SOL -91} .89} .93] -60 | .00 4.62 (Averareles iit. tose, s eel) PAC Sas | .04| .30| .55 | .31| 2.18] 07 | 00+] 1.45 | | 1 Based on a total area of approximately 210,000 acres irrigated by the canalslisted. STORED WATER. Apr. | May.| June.| July.| Aug.} Sept.} Oct. |Total. eae North: Poudre\Canalic2:ac: 2-2 fade ce cece cee 0.01 | 0.18 0.17 | 0.35 /0.11 |0.02 | 0.00 | 0.85 1.40 oudre) Valley Canals 452°. <2 bs. feel s35s.. ook -00 |} .00] .00 -00 | .00 | .00 -00; .00 3.78 Pleasant Valley & Lake Canal................ -00| .00/.00 | . 09} .03 | .00+] .00| .12 2. 53 Larimer County Canal...............-...----- -00 |} .03} .03 StSileG | eoptl -00| .47 1.53 Jackson Ditchisst sa-2 3 setae ot eee ta cetiee see -00| .00].00 | .00!.00 | .00 -00 .00 1.94 Little Cache la Poudre Ditch................. .00! .00 | .00 00} .00 | .00 -00 .00 1.96 Maylonand: GilliDitch= 24. 5 -t pees eee at .00 | .00].00 | .00}.00 | .00 - 00 | - 00 9. 50 Larimer County Canal No. 2.............-.--- -00 | .00].00 | .02] .01—] .01—} .00] .04 1.72 New, MercerCanal..-- 5 san-s22 essen eee ee -00 | .00/ .00 -00 | .02 | .O1 -00 | .03 1.55 Arthur Ditch...... Saga steels brs serciaisie Sayre -00 | .00/ .00 -00 | .00 | .O1 -00 | .O1 2.73 Larimer and Weld Canal..................... | - 00 00 | .00+~ .10} .22 | 11 -00:} .43) 1.63 Josh Ames! Ditch. 1.32 0 7.59 ‘Larimer County Canal No. 2...........---.--- 0 ot) -62 | 1.02 04 01 0 1.69 News Mercer: Camels a8 sG.8 680 ee ee 0 OL -59 . 69 «23 01 (0) 1.52 AGENT TLC DE eee arse ene SR eee Es 0 -12 - 64 - 96 -19 .02 0 1.94 Larimer and Weld Canal.--.........-.-------- OL 04 -55 - 50 05 . 02 0 1.17 asheAumeswDit chee: - shee 52 cee essoecen 0 0 salt) 14 -57 0 0 1.50 Wake analerertanse sete: = sb ee elec aaetine 0 - 03 AUC . 87 - 02 0 0 1.69 (Choy IDI eo eeocena sen ocoaaEbeseeoaceeaeer 0 0 0 -91 1.63 -18 0 2.73 @lafieomitehe seer ho eerste so eee cocetee 0 0 -63 | 1.13 44 0 0 2. 20 Boxcl Ger DiChee ees eiate cee oe cee nec 0 0 ~715 74 .97 .58 0 3. 03 Greeley; CanaliNion2 5.222) keh oa 0 - 06 53 719 .14 03 0 1.55 Whatever CO secon oye bee e ees cre eles 0 0 ByAl .37 Al 25 0 1.24 Berean atonMbiteheeee a eee ose eaten 0 - 26 . 84 - 98 5 Ue Sexe |) 50 3. 24 OGG IONKOh é 35355 See Se eee ae Satpeee ser aeeeees 0 0 -13 . 04 56 . 68 0 1.41 GrecleyaCanaleNo:3ic-3--52---22 22-222 - ce ees 08 28 .86 | 1.34 94 . 78 0 4,27 Boyd and Freeman Ditch..............-.----- 0 15 21 - 54 - 83 39 0 2.11 Os yBDILC SE ape ma nse eke ee Pas 0 «27 -92 | 1.31 1. 28 . 83 0 4.61 Rrra ones CP al ela. Lot 01 | .07 | 52 |. 62, |» ty | toy |e son eeieae STORED WATER. Apr. | May. | June.| July.) Aug. | Sept.| Oct. |Total. Grand INortheBoudreCanalet ise s2sce hone oe ee oe 0 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.28 | 0.39 | 0.14 0 | 0.86 1.48 RoudrewWalley, Canales e233. oe - as ese yea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2. 67 Pleasant Valley and Lake Canal.........-..-. 0 0 0 0} .05} .04 0} .09 2. 34 Larimer County Canal...........-...--.--.--- 0 1 502) 1) 2305 le 29) 304 0| .40 1.76 JACKSONSD INL CEE ace is sok Sia Saeeee aaer 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.05 Little Cache la Poudre Ditch.-..-.-.-.-.-.--. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.70 MaylonandiGill Ditch 525 .tees22. 25-6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.59 Larimer County Canal No. 2.......-.-.: ea 0 0 0 0} .02} .O1 0} .03 1.71 IN@we Mercen!@analt ss 22252 eee yee 0 0 0 0 0] .04 0} .04 1.56 AT GhuTEDitChy sets! AEE GL eee 0 0 0 0 0; .01 0] .O1 1.96 Larimer and Weld Canal.-............-------- 0 0 0; .03} .35] .13 0) .51 1.68 JoshvAmes (Ditches sssest LE Se tee 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.50 RE AKONG arial eee eae ys a iz eee cate 0 0 0 0) |, -. 22) ),07, 0} .29 1.98 CoyaDitchasmass2h 2b. ges Lk EE SD 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.73 WiTafiCeRD LCS tae secre kre ye See 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2. 20 Boxeldenep itches: os ers ae ae CEES 8 A a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3. 03 GnreclevsCanalNon2 sien eet E ee ee eS 0 0 0 Oe 2iell yeh6 0| .42 1.97 WintineyDitelet cys 225 $22 a ee See. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1. 24 Be bes atone itchica- = 22-18! eae eens eee 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3. 24 JOneSyD itches eos g ey AF ee eee 28k 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.41 GreeleyiCanaUNOloscs isc oe bao eos Sees eee 0 0 0 0| .30| .12 0) .42 4.69 Boyd and Freeman Ditch-..................-- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.11 (Cre ay DAN Rol a 5 5 Be eis oS ee a ea Se eee es 0 0 0.) .03}) .12| .04 0) .19 4.80 PSWVOTAC Gaeta Le tuk Lk eT rik ea a 0 Ou ZOE 20652. S28. le ves10 0) .45 1.91 1 Based on a total area of approximately 217,000 acres irrigated by the canals listed. 48 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 14.—Duty measured at the heads of laterals. 1916. Acre- Dave Acres | Acre- | Acre- /feet per Lateral. Canal. net irri- feet |feet per] acre, |Ratio. * | gated. | used. | acre. | entire | canal | Cactus Hill......-. North Poudre: Canals). - 255-22 -1.620-2-|S2022-|oc- 202 22|=oec 2-3 SO Cee eee No.'2 Outlet... 204). 052 LO ee Sia ays Mee ie sien ee change 129 | 2,935] 2,745 0 93 1.40 66 Cranes: Sees See Parmer County Canals fers sae cee 81} 1,219) 1,273 1.04 1.53 67 C@rosscut Pos VOSS oes CO Ole tacos SNE See ae ee E. 104 | 2,170] 3,791 1.75 1.53 114 Bliss. - Jae tee Pierce: Lateralof LarimerCountyCanal.!| 105 | 1,123) 1,151 1.03 1.53 67 Jacksom'.t Sse ami cie = ceeeine steerer cles 126 444 | 1,128 2. 54 1.94 131 Mitchell 2: /.)44 Little Cache la Poudre.............--- 28 | 129 79 61 1.96 31 Dixon Canyon....| Larimer County Canal, No. 2......--..|.-.--- Bebenebe Secsbesa seeks Ses5-sc\-sbese Towns oe. Se. Tariaee end WeldjCanali ae ese. 106 | 4,092 | 7,678 1. 87 1.63 115 Lake Canali: ooo cao cc tetas cite sejeisiee «Rcicicisel| Sele wis eiersl| signe else ee eal See ee Total wand tat Res RSE ees Boa fons otal cree neeitoaee nen ees 12,112 | 17, 845 1. 47 1.58 93 average. 1917. , Cactus Hill......-. North Poudre Canal.................-- 108 | 1,870 | 2,667 1. 43 1. 48 97 INos2; Outlets si 45|eoo02 GOP ge SS SE ee 110 | 2,935 | 3,579 1, 22 1,48 82 Crane. 32 se 25352. Latimer County. Canal... 3-2 -222 106 | 1,210} 1,850 1.53 1.76 87 CrOsscutses ss cees | ee GOL es Aen s kk Roos 115 | 2,169 | 4,634 2.12 1.76 120 IBlisSi:-tsseen2 hese Pieres) Lateralof Larimer County Canal.| 115 | 1,163 | 2,017 1.73 1.76 98 JACKSON Seccs cose ses fee cee ete See ee 113 444 | 1,233 2.78 2.05 136 Mitchells. 205222 little'Cachela Poudres 225-202. 27 83 58 .70 1.70 41 Dixon Canyon .-.-.| Larimer County Canal, No. 2-.......-- 44} 1,066 | 1,484 1.39 1.71 81 TOWN: s3sc25selsoce Larimer and Weld Canal.........-.--- 105 | 4,166 | 9,519 2. 29 1.68 136 WakeiCanalsrastecacmscee en senseee ean 74 575 | 1, 234 2.15 1.98 109 Totalinfan dyes tees. 7 AU Sco ee PE NEE he ee eae Nee oye 15,681 | 28, 275 1. 80 1.68 107 average. DUTY AT HEADS OF LATERALS. During the investigation, records of discharge and acreage irri- gated were obtained for a number of laterals to afford a comparison of the duty measured at the head of the lateral with the duty meas- ured at the head of the canal. The results of the measurements, to- gether with the comparisons, are shown in Table 14. These erratic variations may be occasioned by a number of conditions. There are no restrictions on holdings of shares of ditch stock with reference to the acreage irrigated, and under a single lateral the ratio between the two may be as much as 20 per cent above or below the average ratio for the entire canal. Such a lateral would be entitled on its shares to an amount of water 20 per cent above the average for the entire canal. What is true of canal shares is true to a greater degree of reservoir rights carried in the canals which act as common carriers, for water from this source is limited only by the number of rights which can not be bought, rented, or borrowed. A considerable part of the variation may be attributed to systems of distribution to laterals. A few of the canals, including the Little Cache la Poudre and the Jackson ditches, have no measuring devices for distribution < Fa, ee », Pe save IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 49 and depend on the judgment of the rider to make a fair division. No man’s judgment is infallible, and it is to be expected that considerable errors must result. Even where weirs are used the installation is often faulty enough to produce a difference of 25 per cent between the amount supposed to be delivered and the amount actually de- livered. In addition the kinds of crops grown no doubt account for some of the variation. Because of high prices and war needs the acreage of potatoes under 2 or 3 laterals in 1917 was increased at a much greater rate than for the entire canal. This resulted in a proportionately lower duty for the lateral. Under other laterals the switch was from alfalfa to wheat, and in these cases the duty was correspondingly higher. ABSORPTION LOSSES IN CANALS. Conditions are such in the Cache la Poudre Valley that there are few canals in which sections suitable for measuring absorption losses may be found. The quantities to be determined are small and the methods of measurement have their limitations, so conditions are best when the loss may be determined for a uniform head for a long period over a stretch of canal into which there is no drainage and from which there is no outflow. Almost without exception, dis- tributing canals could not be used on account of the many diversions, beginning almost at the headgate. Canals carrying water for storage were usually unsatisfactory on account of fluctuating heads, uncer- tain supply, or ice conditions. However, fairly satisfactory meas- urements were obtained on the Poudre Valley, North Poudre, and Larimer and Weld Canals. The measurement on the Poudre Valley Canal was made in the latter part of May, 1917, and included a section of the canal from the head to a station a short distance above the Dry Creek crossing, a distance of 10.6 miles. For the 36-hour period observed, the aver- age flow at the upper station was 232.4 second-feet and at the lower station 220.0 second-feet, giving a total loss of 12.4 second-feet. ‘This is equivalent to 1.17 second-feet per mile or 0.5 per cent of the total flow. Expressed in different terms, the loss per day per square foot of wetted area was 0.41 cubic foot. The measurement of the North Poudre Canal was made from July 6 to 9, 1916, and covered a period of 58 hours. The section. in- cluded extended from the rating station at the head of the canal to a station near Waverly, a distance of approximately 16 miles. During the observation there was a small inflow from Reservoir No. 15 and from a small spring a mile above the mouth of Camp- 74464°—22—_4, = 50 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. bells Draw. Diversions included a small amount delivered to the Ripple ranch and a large head taken by the Scurvin Ditch. The average discharge at the head was 172 second-feet and the loss was 20.6 second-feet. This is at the rate of 1.29 second-feet per mile or 0.75 per cent of the total fiow. The section measured includes a stretch of natural channel and for that reason the loss per square foot of wetted area can not be determined with any degree of accuracy. Two measurements were secured on the Larimer and Weld Canal in 1917 while water was being carried for storage in the Windsor Reservoir. The section measured included a stretch 12 miles long with a 380-foot bottom between the head of the canal and Lake Lee. The first observation included a period of 12 days between March 29 and April 9 when the average discharge at the head of the canal was 63 second-feet. The loss during the period was 0.92 second- foot per mile or 1.5 per cent of the total fiow which is equivalent to a loss of 0.81 cubic foot per day per square foot of wetted area. The second measurement included a period of 14 days between May 2 and 16 when the average discharge at the head was 242 second-feet. During this period this loss was 1.33 second-feet per mile or 0.5 per cent of the total flow which is equivalent to a loss of 0.64 cubic feot per day per square foot of wetted area. — When the investigation was undertaken it was believed that the difference between the duty at the head of canals and the duty at the head of representative laterals would give a fair approximation of the average loss in main canals and that the difference between the duty at the head of the lateral and at the farm would give the approximate loss in the laterals. On this assumption, if the aver- ages shown in Table 14 are applicable to the entire valley, there was in main canals in 1916 a loss of 7 per cent and in 1917 a gain of 7 per cent. However, the data shown in the table are too meager to warrant the acceptance of these figures, but similar results are obtained by comparing the duty at the farm with the duty at the head of canals. In Tables 10 and 11 the total supply of water of the canals listed is shown to have been 395,000 acre-feet in 1916 and 414,000 acre-feet in 1917. By applying to the acreage of the various crops the figures representing duties, the majority of which are shown in Tables 9 to 14 and 18 to 27 it is possible to determine the total demand for each year under the canals listed. Duties for corn, peas, and other crops occupying less than 10 per cent of the acreage may be estimated without introducing a considerable error. The demand for 1916 determined in this manner was 354,000 acre-feet and to satisfy this demand there was a supply of 395,000 acre-feet, the IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 51 difference indicating a loss of 41,000 acre-feet, ur approximately 10 per cent of the supply. In 1917 a demand of 435,000 acre-feet deter- mined in a like manner was satisfied with a supply of 414,000 acre- feet, the difference indicating a gain of approximately 5 per cent. In view of the heavy rainfall of May, 1917, and the very large heads carried by all the canals in June and July of that year, it is believed that these approximations are in substantial accord with the facts. Conditions in 1916 were nearly normal and for that reason the as- sumption may be safely made that the average net loss in the canals between the head and the farm lateral is close to 10 per cent of the supply. This low figure is probably accounted for by the location of the canals one above another with the consequent inflow of seepage to counteract a part of the loss. These figures indicate that absorption losses account for only a small part of the tare for losses charged by some of the common- carrier canals of the valley, and that most of it must go to make up inequalities of distribution. Under the present system each user receives at least his share after the tare has been deducted; but to take care of the inequalities of distribution and operation difficulties there is practically always a surplus in the canal which must go to some one to prevent its waste. It is possible that by spending a few thousand dollars for hire of extra riders and reducing the “ beat” to a distance which will permit 2 or 3 visits every day to all gates and weirs to keep them clean and delivering the proper head, at least one day’s run and perhaps two or three might be added each season to each reservoir right. SEEPAGE SUPPLIES. Practically the entire acreage irrigated in the valley is supplied to some extent with seepage water which has been collected in a reser- voir or has returned to some channel, but the land dependent on seepage as its main supply is limited to the areas shown in Plate XIV. FARM IRRIGATION. While there are some exceptions, the trend of irrigation practice in the valley now is toward a frequent, rapid irrigation, which gives an even watering, minimizes percolation losses and end waste, perinits the use of a large head with a consequent economy of time, and keeps the crops growing under moisture conditions with a minimum varia- tion from the optimum. Only two methods of irrigation are practiced. Alfalfa and grains are irrigated by flooding from field laterals. Sugar beets, potatoes, 52 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and other row crops are irrigated by furrows between the rows. The method of flooding from field laterals, used on nearly two-thirds of the total irrigated area of the valley, does not vary essentially from the general practice. Supply ditches are located at the margin of the field; small laterals from these extend into the field; and through openings in these field laterals the water flows out over the land. In general, the effort is so to fit the layout of the supply ditches and field laterals to conditions of soil and topography that with a head LEE a la TT ta rap enna Aes ia Sa PE 24- eau Fig. 4.—Relation between the head, used and the area irrigated per 24-hour day for flood and furrow irrigation. of from 2 to 3 second-feet a thorough irrigation may be secured with a minimum expenditure of time and work. For this reason the details of practice vary almost with the number of fields. Supply ditches are carried along the margin of the field or follow ridges, the former location being preferred if conditions are at all suitable as less space is required and cultivating and harvesting may be carried on with less difficulty. Practically all these ditches are IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 53 equipped with concrete or wooden turnouts to supply the field laterals. For alfalfa the field laterals are permanent, but for annual crops they are made each spring with a ditching plow, and after irrigation is completed they are plowed flat again so that harvesting machinery APRIL MAY J AUGUST SEPTEMBER Oe 0 0 (e) 2 10 20 10 20 n __el a a a SECOND -FEET : is ARES na op ee ef mel —“ ay =e a = Tae ee Wig. 5.—Irrigation of alfalfa. Water requirements of 988 acres in 1916 and of 686 acres in 1917. may pass over them without difficulty. If the field to be irrigated is smooth and has a uniform slope, the field laterals are made parallel, 75 to 200 feet apart, and oblique to the main slope of the land. In this case the water from one lateral irrigates the field down to the 54 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. next. If the land is rolling, the laterals are spaced to follow the ridges and water is turned down both slopes. On very uneven land it is customary to build the field laterals to high points where the water is turned out to be directed here and there by temporary dikes thrown up with a shovel. To get the water from the lateral to the field cuts are made in the banks at intervals of from 5 to 20 feet and the water is forced through by checking the lateral farther down with a canvas, metal, or dirt dam. APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER ie) 10 20 Ker) SECOND -FEET Fic. 6.—Irrigation of grain. Water requirements of 622 acres in 1916 and of 429 acres in 1917. By far the greater part of the area irrigated by the furrow method is in sugar beets and potatoes, but corn, beans, peas, and truck are also irrigated in this manner. In the valley irrigation by this method consists in plowing furrows between the rows and running water down these furrows from notches cut in a ditch at the head of the field. Furrows are made in each middle with a shovel or other suit- able plow and are especially deep for potatoes. To secure an even, fast irrigation, furrows are usually about 500 feet long, but the type of soil, slope of land, and amount of water available will cause a wide IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 55 variation in this particular. The general practice is to run water in each furrow, but some farmers use every other furrow and altenate for each irrigation the set used. Permanent head ditches are often fitted with concrete or wooden checks to hold the water up to the notches cut in the bank; otherwise canvas or metal dams are used. Where head ditches are necessary in the middle of a field they are APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER 1020 10 20 10 20 10. 20 10 20 NORSEZO SECOND -FEET ik 1h i Fig. 7.— Irrigation of sugar beets. Water requirements of 584 acres in 1916 and 376 acres in 1917. plowed cut in the usual manner and dragged with a “ V ” to smooth _and pack the sides. For turning the water from the head ditch to the furrows a notch may be made for each furrow or the water from a single cut may supply several furrows. Under small canals with good water rights, when the farmer finishes his day of irrigating he goes to the head of his supply ditch and cuts off the water there for the night. But under large canals 56 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. conditions are different and when water is plentiful the safe opera- tion of the canal requires that the user take his supply of water from the canal day and night until he orders it cut off by the ditch rider. When water is scarce the user takes it eagerly, day or night. Tt is necessity in these forms, rather than any virtue in its practice in the Cache la Poudre Valley, which is responsible for night irri- gation there. Row crops are not often irrigated at night and mat- ters are usually so arranged that the supply may be turned for the night on alfalfa or pasture land where a small excess of water will do no harm, APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER 10 0 2 10 20 10 20 SECOND -FEET So. i . fez] aaeenee| | 0 See Fic. 8.—Irrigation of potatoes. Water requirements of 157 acres in 1916 and 285 acres in 1917. It is seldom possible to apply enough water to a field for a uniform, thorough irrigation without having a certain run-off at the lower end. The amount of this run-off was determined for a num- ber of fields of alfalfa and grain and was found to range from 2 to 18 per cent, with an average slightly under 6 per cent. In the majority of cases this can be called waste only with reference to the particular field from which it comes as the general practice is to collect it in ditches and use it on lower fields. In figure 4 the relation between the head used and the area irri- gated per 24-hour day is shown by curves for both flood and furrow irrigation. The curve for flood irrigation is based on 284 irriga- tions of fields of aiialfa and grain, while the curve for furrow iri- IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 57 gation is based on 324 irrigations of sugar beets, potatoes, and other row crops. The location and trend of the curve for furrow irriga- tion is influenced to a great extent by very rapid, alternate, furrow irrigation as practiced frequently on many of the farms of the valley. In order to secure reliable data on farm irrigation a careful record was kept of the water used on about 25 farms during the period of the investigation. These farms were selected at widely scattered points and represent fairly the various conditions of soil, water rights, and irrigation practice encountered in the valley. In Table 15 each farm is listed with its location, general type of soil, and the kinds of water with which it is supplied. TasLe 15.—Farms selected for the investigation of farm irrigation. Water. Location. Farm. R i Soil. ec- | Town- tion. | ship. Range. R. D. Hughes...---..-- 20 7 65 | Fine sandy loam...... Wilson-Campbell...... 36 7 G6n leone OSes cekee ees ake John A. Mair.........- 10 7 68a eeae GOs US Se eene ans C.\A. Bartels -:.-.-.--.: 28 8 (GMa Sas do. is Serre @57A. Culver... ) 5 S “ Farm. g ra) Ss Fa < 1916. Wilson-Campbell. . C. A. Bartels... .. C. A. Culver......- Charles F. Mason.. IACNIEBCCn.o to on Frank Wells..-..-.-. Totale ys. .ss2 AWETAZe2 (225k fax s= 4 scoot Wikiernealors 6 Bona Beiesoaes 1917. Wilson-Campbell..} 10.10 Shafer-Uhrick..-.-. 33. 30 AYE. Bees. 3:22:52 12. 50 Farmers’ National Bank-Page..--.. 14. 60 Charles F. Mason.. 8. 90 Frank Wells... ..-- &. 54 C. A. Dunean.....} 11.60 Michie Brothers. - - 5. 20 Minor-Miller....... 9. 61 otaleeee ee 114. 34 AVerage sc. oe. 12.71 Maxdimitm anon een oe nae Man YM Wie mete eee Number of irriga- tions. es Depth applied each ir-| S| rigation (feet). (ene || Sho | s . So : : | = ells {|eis ral cele SED ee = [o>] oS S) = nN a a 421510 Sap Ye Ok Mae ae 2.01 S70 se hee Ales. lee. .70 Kop isk. [es aoe 60 1 eee ese bee 1.10 4296 P18 en | 2 44 ett 7¢ eRe Rees. ee oe 1.07 1528 |) 4, 09-leceek fea 2.37 TRL) ae i MRT BC 1.67 ENERO Rea | [iter .66 jae a | | a ee wee eee jRereion (eras ee ee TOBA 7G" bee gee Latta "1.23 RE Tot NONE aer RISES beh 2. 44 | een eek ll .69 feet. Acres irrigation per 24-hour day. 4.70 | 1.50 | 2.80 | 5.61 3.19 | 1.00 | 2.04 | 5.79 2.00 | 1.39 | 1.90 | 6.25 3 : 2. u 3 c 2. 5. 3 : 1 2. 2 < 2. 3. 6. 5. 2 2. : iF 7 SBENNB : a Ba cs] 5 5 yp |e e a <8 2 Flow in second- | 2 i | q 5 = AES = feet. Seats BS & on Boq a es =) 3 Pa E 2o8 pe =i) SS cae 4S) 4 A Ss 3S a3 : . ton | 9 O-= c & 23 g | a2 Sal x a 2 s eo] 5 5 roy eye eae | a 3 ro) a ue} S| = on a eo) Qy 2 =s =| = rs 5 Ss ax | OG | wo St Ge] SE Ses || fs | see ees a =I al 3 ts} a = > (S) So | a < Z, = wn & = = < < SPH ae meee | | 20.39 | 2 2.18 | .63 | 2.81 | 6.50] .30]| 2.27 | 3.20! .30 33. 00 15.36 | 1 oy fel oe 17 | 3.03 | .62 | 1.54 |17.54| .71 | 51.30 7.39 | 1 USBOR esas 1.30 | 4.32] .08] 1.96] 3.00] .54 | 50.30 315.92) hh eeclloee otrohs = tee lee | ceee [oe seco | poses aeeeee eee Hs a 19:74 | 1527°| 87 65) POS; eee Rees 2.13 | 5.20] '.55 | 25.39 2 | SSeS ees 2 Ski)| 4505 |e cate ne 4.59 |17.54| .85 | 51.30 A Lekota eesti eel bees Ft et ly (pl es once -08 | 1.16 | 2.27 | .22) 9,40 11.93 | 1 TOOK E 1.00 | 2.16 | 2.16 | 2.16 | 4.281 .31 34.00 ‘ 2 5 -89 | 3.40} .40 | 1.60 |10.74) .40| ? 1 . 82 | 7.34 | 1.75 | 3.71 | 8.99 88 | 22.00 1 -98 | 2.42 | 1.09 | 1.79 | 3.62 63 | 33.30 1 1.07 | 3.92 | .18 | 1.21 | 2.22] -57 | 40:00 1 1.03 | 3.60 | 1.65 , 2.72 | 5.26 | .57 | 43.60 1 - 84 | 1.76 | 1.08] 1.39 | 3.28! .50 | 29.30 1 1.63 | 2.16 | 1.89 | 2.06 | 2.51 -45 | 37.00 1 2.04: |-3..53) lel 95 Sel Bul ae2e eae. 40 1 -83 | 5.10 | 3.78 | 4.01 | 9.57 | .75 46.70 ree EE eee a Gen epans ie 5 Sel bee ee 4.01 |10.74 | .88 | 46.70 eres 18 | 1.21 iE 7A nat pee '‘m [+3] as Pa So ° n 29 ies oo uD ae ong 1 lone leet kd: 2 Sadisue Poss Spb! om [a=] | 70. 00 20. 80 | 72.90 | 65.20 | 53. 30 | 42.90 52. 50 | 72.90 | 20.80 . 88 | 61.00 65 | 23.20 . 67 | 28. 00 .59 | 29.70 .47 | 77.80 58 | 76.50° .33 | 62.60 82 | 70.40 1.00 | 56.70 weeeee Jewcene 61 | 44.90 1.00 | 77.80 33 | 23.20 PLATE XV. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “YS1VAA GAYOLS UNV MO14 LOAYIG Ad GalvOldd| VaYY AHL GNV MOT14 LOAYIG Ad GSLVOINY| VAYY AHL 4O NOSIYVdNOD Mead <> ewe 2 - Now Na at "NOW il NAL ] é ————E EE "NeW ee | N 6°1) "NOML | . OE wit sheng i. A mM 1 Hilt 1 Mid i | LRT AAT TT | 6 M i H b iit ) i | Hf Ht oD 3 n e . a = we 3) om bP ne 3 & \ ee Ne n (ke NS [oN 2 3 A: o nace SS CAE ee Lt \) \ . \ NG \ Nae | "AAS ASIA ML9°9 quam mete) Fen, MBEod 7A ay oA "M69 OVYOLEG ONW MO14 193010 Hh MO14d 103010 ‘GND T Cec Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVI. Fic. |1.—HALLIGAN DAM OF THE NORTH POUDRE SYSTEM. DEPTH OF 14 FEET ON THE SPILLWAY. Fic. 2.—EFFECT OF WAVE ACTION ON THE INNER SLOPE OF THE DAM OF NORTH POUDRE RESERVOIR No. 15. IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 65 TABLE 22.—Irrigation of barley in 1916 and 1917. ° ; oO q | Depth each irri- 3 Flow in second- | § us) H “a S gation (feet). | , feet. a Basso) o ~ Q, eg S 3} & cos} uo) 8 3 = ae aS g 5 | 25/53 Farm. us} aS, =O : : 0.8 3 5 rel ® iS) ie BO] 36 Z| Cea] ft Fe co it q q oO dal | Gaelic 5 a, Do nol oD ts} S00 hohe Seal elbeie ia |e | 8 | & lee lseis Sa sey Seo els ieee be les ee |S 4 aoc |[ ctv ody opel: debe AME Eels alibi] ae ta lke fin 1916. Re Diiurhess.- 62 | 35.20 | 1 OSB OR Eee alae see 0.36 | 2.92 | 1/81 | 2. 41 ]13.25 | 0.89 | 39.80 OTT ACS Mires tom pees sos 17.46} 1 US ye tek sade Ses 1.18 | 2.09 | 1.26} 1.86 | 3.13 - 89 | 38.10 CHA Ciera 10.73 | 1 GOB aces ses ee . 70 | 2.95 | 2.95 | 2.95 | 8.32] .68 | 36.80 Shafer-Haines..........-. 13.85 | 1 Oa estes creas Peer ete 54 | 2.75 | 2.75 | 2.75 |10. 07 a7} 6. 40 Farmers’ National Bank- | 14.63 | 2 96 } 1.28 )...... 2.24 | 2.32) 1.38 | 1.92 | 3.39] .57] 18.50 Page. Ca ehiek anne BRAK ees 16.60 | 2 EO (para SB lemon a6 2.33 | 3.56 | 1.02 | 1.50 | 2.52] .71 | 14.30 Jackson-Alles..........-- 9.40 | 2 POSE eae son eee 3.96 | 3.60 | 2.65 | 3.39 | 3.39 65 | 54.50 C. A. Johnson. ....-....-. 7.43 | 1 a bsgeY-ta Kenda entail eae 1.82 | 3.80] .87] 2.20] 2.92] .74]| 17.20 UAC ATU NE COue ol erwin SA 19.40 | 1 ee tal aetatssen Reena 14 | 3.25 | 2.25 | 2.30 (31.04 | .27 | 13.30 rank Wiellss 2222325202 * 10.34 | 1 TSCOY. 8) hae SEE as 1.04 | 1.64 | 1.30] 1.48 | 2.82 -63 | 15.00 Frank J. Barle..........- 21.00 | 1 TEU Lal eae ae bee es 1.11 | 2.91 | 2.53 | 2.62 | 4.67] .41 | 59.50 9.56} 1 I Tesco WH betes ses Ve ecg 1.33 | 2.31 | 2.16 | 2.20 | 3.27 ~30 | 33.50 3.14) 1 ES On stays |e 1.30 | 2.91 | 2.91 | 2,91 | 4.43 71 | 47.80 Michie Brothers. ........- 9.36 | 1 SP eZAS ea trag | eee 1.43 | 3.43 | 2.95 | 3.24] 4.49 74 | 41.45 Minor-Wilson.........--- 25.50 | 1 Parhovl ea eta ie eae - 78 | 2.13 | 1.85 | 2.02] 5.14] .70]| 66.00 UNGUE cas Skee eae POLL ee aellnadaes ae heals 2 o5c5loesasulSsacode |Seasoa beece lssuacolsocscelucsoss PARVICT APC Marte cements ne 14.02 | 1.18 Gt ils Bilis bs Sse Ups) esoocdlooaec 2.16 | 4.39 66 | 35. 47 Mib-ahabhiileee See eeeeea kel aa neeee 7) lence a esis gerd 5 ic i Dee 329641 3580lien-- = 3.39 131. 04 89 | 66.00 MUTIIMUM tee eo eel See ns I aad oe Sa teas eal ane 14s | bese -87 | 1.48 | 2.52 27 | 6.40 1917. iohmvAcs Maire jens 2 ots 9.28} 1 OO le eeere| eicelaie 68 | 1.44] 1.385] 1.42] 4.12; .93 | 62.20 Shafer-Uhrick............ 5.43 | 1 TE) eee eesllecanes 1.00] .99] .99 99 | 1.95 31 5. 50 Carpenter-Lyning........ 5.83 | 1 EO Mile ses |ascees -97 | 1.60] 1.60} 1.60] 5.83] .50] 40.00 (Ok Johnson. 22222225 12.64] 1 1 Leas ee iio I W..25.;| 4. 00-2. 10) | 25:33) 3. 701 2 16H ee. Farmers’ National Bank- 7.81 | 2 2A O Reel OMG ere ees 3.11 | 3.40 73 | 1.96 | 2.50 51 | 39. 70 Page. 3.03 | 2 olialMs ellosodec 1.65 | 1.35 53 | 1.13 | 2.74 66 | 33.30 7.68 | 2 AQ Ba CON mteee iets 2.20 | 4.10 | 1.07 | 3.12} 5.50 75 | 18.20 PAU BOGE» os cet SS 5.00 | 1 TOS SGel ls Sage 1.98 | 1.90} 1.09 | 1.40} 1.39 37 | 46.00 Frank Wells..........--- 15.30} 1 ceil scooedlcaaecc -85} 2.47] .72] 1.73] 4.04] .75 1] 63.00 Frank J. Earle........... 21.00 | 1 IMG) lena occas 1.15 | 3.30} 1.44 | 2.27] 3.91 39 | 60.00 9.49 | 2 OST 46 eeeece 1.00 | 1.92 | 1.22 |}. 1.35 | 5.33 53 | 56. 90 Michie Brothers. .......-.. 7.39 | 1 SASS coe nsaare .87 | 4.02} 3.78 | 3.971 9.10 41 | 46.30 9.36] 1 OS eee is rss 1.08 | 4.02 | 3.48 | 3.94] 7.24 64 | 46. 40 5.90 | 2 Li a PS SABES 1.42 | 5.53 | 3.94 | 5.22 114. 52 87 | 46. 40 Minor-Miiler............. 4.51 | 2 Aa er 2 On| eee 8 -76 | 1.36 75 | 1.14] 6.00} 1.00 | 61.40 Wilson-Bass...........-. 10.40 | 3 19 19 | .62] 1.00 | 2.07 | 1.94 | 2.06 }11. 99 81 | 52.80 PROG csr ee es NeO3(05) jlSncgacllscdess|asoceolescconlsscaocieseacallaccaus|ine Bice Gnas Berean BEaoas PAWVET AB ONS So. b ccc. 2528 &. 75 | 1.42 938} .64 G25 lyon eee eee 2.00 | 4.52 55 | 49.16 SPRIMINUETIA Vs tet ky Bi Bees el es [toe Sell Sean | eeeeee §. 22 114.52 | 1.00 | 63.00 Miriam peeee es eo) St: as agi rateres nl Pore ee Is Aes o(HS) ecuose -53 | .99)1.39| .16] 5.50 TABLE 23.—Irrigation of sugar beets in 1916. : ie) 2 be : f a Water applied each |.® Flowin |3 |¥ > ® oj irrigation (feet). |¢@, | second-feet. .|2 g g £|8 a EEGal S ss 3 | & a3 S488] 8 Jrarm. eo | 5 Bel gt - 2si55| 8 gq |e oo/ ei] ./88iac] . Ge Ko} 5 3 o r iso] 2 Cre lia 3g). | a hee ala |@l efor) & Sls Hifi /8/88 |elei sie S33 fe o/H|8 a 5 | 4 |S a |. PE |S 3 Ay 4 (14i/elal/ebl/eleh |SslSsialea ie | & R. D. iishes! Sie ee ee esa se oe 13.50) 3/0. 90/0.60)0. 17)... .|...-|1. 64/2. 80/1. 34/2. 12) 7.-57)0. 89)12. 40 Wilson-Campbell peti ey Eien: 17.10) 3) .39) .30) .61/.._-|..../1. 30/4. 05) . 75/2. 65)12. 13'1. 00,10. 30 CURIA NSS ag a a ge ce 32.54) 3] .67| . 55) .08)..../..../1. 30/1. 59) . 54/1. 01) 4.65] . 77/10. 97 7.65 3} 90} . 86 1. 12)_._./..../2. 88/1. 44) . 68/1. 20) 2. 47) . 76,10. 85 Beaerbarcelss. (62.8 oc. loi) leon 24,68) 3/1. 46) .87)1.49)....)..../3. 82/4. 97/4. 10/4. 47) 6.97) .68)17. 11 33.60; 3] .78/1.17) .78|....|..../2. 73/5. 15]1. 00/4. 69) 8.90) . 89/15. 81 74464°—22 — = BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 23.—Irrigation of sugar beets in 1916—Continued. 66 SSREBLALSBBZARBASSRD {(guo9) oxow aed porn | ZOCBBABBSRHSORAARKROASKRAANNSAORD | tae anos )eieod PALE | al ASR SSTSA GESTS SESE E SES ESS ieipotie : dgcdositin sd ee aaa cao “and smoy 0} po Heese SSSSi0S HHRSRABLRGSSRLSSAS RSs “uma sinoy 0} po rs | S258 SRESRRRSLARSSS -puoyyesinoyjoomery | cata oe ee we we . oe ee we ew we we ee te NOME -pue}@ sinoy Jo Oey Ceci a tame tet a yt SRY eS Sa “AUP NOY-HZ TELENSgIE NBASASBHSRASLSRAGSBSA BRE “ a ST OS t toe ‘ : i Tags ved ‘ : FAIA aIO H ‘ : : : ‘ ‘ : ‘ ‘ ‘ : ‘ ‘ 5 Benn ‘ ‘ i O20". wn 5 ‘ paontgno N PANN eagle : ie i ers ' ia : ere rel oo an DO : ' Pao e nadie Nth hen t trae vet : Pitts (Siu ea a esti tie ean Maa ae Hees s ete wes egiestp ome = baw Su aap RS O) 5 Teale atlas Rosey Data ier Gd Deon: 0 ; PPM mec OR trate hi ecteer age THES uae . een) ’ ’ :¢ Armco nit oe . . Dessau neti onguaate 8 4 EN Se nr : te bjs han Ran ate a ee ry feet A EAE roe patos] 26 {Mee 4 4 Bee adie creates ceueane tale cae Pooh 0 j TN aigh Sanne ANON eNO ro E : ae ing Gets ee ns ase Op ae Pichi: 8 E Me arbemerietatienwen fe Ftp rer ‘ ' ' ’ ’ ' ’ ' ’ ’ ' ‘ ’ ’ ' ’ ’ ’ . C 5 : . . ‘ : ‘ fi ‘ ; FA Boog) caueacs op utgiyts | Maney te rghit A eRe ose ST in : is Syetiots| Bite tg ian alee ia daa ae NER fe E rig ied 5 3 . vars ' 2 Ometyn 30 » MES gor ‘ = geo gst giak g: € 8 totam oo; sage © 8 ia a3 Bete See, See (bale 2 ee aa. Egsg H gaa & a Om , ) Fuh ws! Se 3 fe) : [o} 5 Te gst pee Seles of emer FO S gH avs 228 9 Sac As oO nH 8 S43 =a) An Omey Ei 80 Tee BAS 8 n Soe hei mace ove al oe Stee aes S848 4 Gag 2 tape ee Coee cock doc ce eee gta <3 12) as 6 836 Hate de 2 & ae RES BOOS 5 Ode OS IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 67 TABLE 24.—Irrigation of sugar beets in 1917—Continued. & wy is) a u " : & | Depth of water ap- |® - a [3S “A ~ S) A peg = Flow in =| ata n oad plied each irriga- 6, ee q g 3 tion (feet). a second-feet. one 35 S & ‘a : us) re nul o _ aes SoiSs| & Farm. He! om pas Co : S,|/55| 3 Bese o=| ai¢4 ws tad) ss bali la o-| 3/53 /13/8Sla'o] & ‘a Ss ; ro si a q | 2p oat S| OD fey e|HIZISiBil\se |elelisl2 2s Ry RSE Weel lie lect le | ecs ll rsni lei |G lopli ee 4 IZ4Z/SBio/Slel/e3e |alalsi4 ie |e MichrevBrotherss 42222)... 255 c22 ci 3 - 6. 69/3 Wal c als Pane = 5 AS Ld|n2| oO Farm. Se oe SUD alias al awe Sy jes] ag q ro) Be oe aS) 3 to ke ‘ Ks) a q g 6 |/8Slec4| 32 Coheed he ete ee Basal eal ca i= * — He 4 1Z2/e/al/e/Sl]elale |Slaiai|4 |e |e se eyes pte roses 25.10/3 —‘|0. 41/0. 52/0. 11)... .]...-].---] 1. 04/2. 90/1. 80/2. 68/15. 31/0. 99/271. 00 15. 20/4 . 66] . 39} . 36/0 38)... .|---- 1. 79/2. 90/1. 55/2. 18)10. 36} . 75)3809. 20 cr ear a a 11. 81/4 . 24) .32] .33] .42/....]....] 1.31/2. 70}1. 00/2. 00)12. 12} . 50}235. 00 43. 45/3 Side ae sse essa) ese 1. 69|5. 00} . 70/2. 04) 7. 24) . 54/235. 00 Bim ore siete chats pater 22. 40/3 . 69} .63] .42)....]....]....] 1. 74/3. 56] . 15/2.00} 7.00} .68)153. 00 3. 69/3 Hae) | Ieee eS collescal bass 1.08] .68} .55] .58} 3.20} .60/154. 00 Farmers’ National Bank-Page-.| 11.805 - 33] .31} .51] .62/0.56]-..-| 2.33/2.00) .50]1.04| 4.60] . 72/204. 00 LAS Grkocksc) ‘und soy 04 popudyye siMoy 0198 8 -pz dod poyeslsi1y SOLOW ZIBSORS 1 OS O19 HOV OD RRO ONE an Ae ANANAANAMA AAA CO WSSSRSH ANBSASA second-feet. Flow AQ rN > 00 OD H pordde yydop [e4O1, 1. 4 10)... 30)... 7 88)2. 6: 16}... HROMD oO Ora tear . 76) .62 10 12 43 31)4 36 81 Bl) Bowe ee 17 19 97)|4 22)1 47 76 shige ettothre! ve, ikeyigenate vieul ie 86/1 O1)1 67 20 irrigation (feet). Viheupenee peloton Me live Water applied each o *SUOTICSTIIT JO LOU N | viva ntveveljews) 6 lense 09.109 69119 COI ID OIigdAig AIA GICDA *(sotov) PLOY JO Bory TABLE 26.—Irrigation of potatoes in 1917—Continued. fez g--- Farm. BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lynin Charlesand Henry Rassmussen -| Carpenter-MeMurray - - Charles:F. Mason--2:-22..-.---:| Jackson-Alles......----- Frank Wells. .-- C arpenter-. 68 OoOnmoc mA “und SANOY 0} popuey ZAOSSSH BARSASLS } ABD INOU-P% Jod payed solv SSABAARB 1, 75/12. 68 1, 20/3. 82}... .|3. 17/31. 52:1 1. 22] 6. 72 i. nr ond-feet. BRSRARRSRA EDO RG Se ears A A 1 09 09 09 99.05 09 09 SoA OOO Ho WOR AR AH co COO POs i) > GIR IE CO Flow in sec- - 68)... - poydde yidep [e101 - 20|...-|1. ai] be <= 14) .37 eu 8)... 229) . 26 Gesoclincss)|s slid. 2h) sae - 20|---= 5: - 16 12) .11 "puod0s | | us | Depth applied each irrigation (feet). 0.20.0. 37/0. 2 2) .36|... 08}... - 2 4 3 2 48) .61)...-|..--|---- 44 ~28) .23 +19 62 134). 21 281 Hosa Rood bose) Base 38).. 2 oc Oo} 40 12. 46|2. 78| . 28| . 26| . 18 *(Ssodov) ploy jo vary ry) Bee Irrigation of beans in 1916 and 191 11.38)3.6 _.e ++] 12..64)2, 49 Sess | leo) = ' ’ ' ' ‘ ‘ ‘ oS) 1917. TABLE Tea D S15 ie acha aes Es ose toe 1916. Farm. Motalseoses eee ae eee Total. . - lest). Masone.---+-e-mae-s-----| PAWVETAP Osa cena aemas soe enter-McMurray.- --- Minor-Wilson.-....-.----- Farmers’ National Bank-Page- Carpenter-Lyning.......---------- Wilson-Campbell. - - --- Shafer-Uhrick..-....--.- Maximum: =.=: ---- Wilson-Campbell.......-------- Shafer-Haines-.....-..-.------- IAVCTASC =e esae ose Maximum? ses-2-5--t---4--=- Minor-Millenis- 2222 cse ss oe nesicns John Stroh..-. Carp Char IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 69 RESERVOIRS. The settlement of the Cache la Poudre Valley proceeded very rapidly after 1870 and the consequent extension of irrigation soon brought out the necessity for reservoirs.. The stream was over-ap- propriated and as the irrigated area under early canals increased, the later canals suffered more and more from shortage of water. Con- ditions under the older canals became acute when continuous grain cropping had exhausted the land and the farmers were compelled to turn their attention to more profitable crops such as alfalfa, po- tatoes, and later, sugar beets. These crops required irrigation later in the season when water was available for only a few small ditches with early priorities. To meet these conditions the construction of reservoirs became general and has continued until nearly all the culti- vated land of the valley is supplied to some extent with stored water. This is clearly shown in Plate XV, given to afford a comparison between the total area irrigated in 1916 and the area which received reservoir water that year. With reference to organization, the reservoirs of the valley may be divided into 3 classes. The largest class is made up of small private reservoirs built by the individual to make the best use of a small head, to free himself from the limitations imposed by rotation periods, or to save a few acre-feet for a late irrigation. The second class includes the reservoirs which are owned as a part of a canal system and store water to be distributed as a part of the general supply. The majority of the reservoirs of this class belong to either the North Poudre Irrigation Co. or the Water Supply & Storage Co. The canals owned by these companies were constructed in 1881 and 1882 and as it was realized from the start that a sufficient supply of water could not be obtained by direct appropriation the construction of reservoirs was begun immediately. The third class includes the reser- voirs owned by cooperative companies and supplying water to stock- holders under canals which act as common carriers. Usually there is no legal connection between the reservoir company and the canal company, but in many cases a majority of the stockholders of the two companies are identical. Reservoirs in the valley are supplied by natural streams; by seep- age from canals, irrigated land, and other reservoirs; and by run- off from some normally dry catchment area during torrential rains. The great majority of the larger reservoirs take their supply from the Cache la Poudre and its tributaries, but a number are also sup- lied wholly or in part with foreign water. With the extension of irrigation, seepage from canals, reservoirs, and irrigated lands be- comes important as a source of supply and many small reservoirs are now almost wholly dependent upon it. Only a few reservoirs are de- 70 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pendent on the direct run-off from torrential rains, but most of this run-ofi is caught and stored. The majority of reservoir sites were natural depressions or basins on bench land which were developed by putting the outlet in a cut, throwing up an embankment along the lowest rim, and constructing short inlet and outlet canals, connecting with distributing canals. These sites were the most satisfactory to be found, and were de- veloped at a very low cost, running in one instance to $1.09 per acre- foot of capacity. Sites developed by the construction of a dam across a drainage channel which carries regularly little or no water are al- most as numerous. They differ from the ordinary stream-bed reser- voir in that they are filled from some nearby source through an inlet canal and their dams are rarely protected with spillways. Reservoirs in the channels of flowing streams are few in number, because more satisfactory and cheaper sites are usually available elsewhere. The majority of the sites developed were small, with rather steep slopes, the average capacity per foot of depth being close to 130 acre-feet. Bottoms vary from light soils through which there is considerable seepage to a compact clay loam which is practically impervious. The dams are, almost without exception, earth fills, varying in height from 10 to 40 feet, set on earth foundations. In general the site of the dam was first cleared of all brush, roots, and stones, and then plowed, after which the material was put on in layers, levelled, sprinkled, packed, and then harrowed to form a bond with the layer above. Some of the first dams were carried up in layers as thick as 5 feet, but as the practice improved the layers were reduced to a foot in thickness. The travel of the teams was depended upon, usually, to do the packing. An exception to the common type of dam in the valley is the Halligan Dam of the North Poudre Irrigation Co. shown in Plate XVI, figure 1. This is an arched concrete structure which im- pounds 6,428 acre-feet of water in the bed of the North Fork. Its length at the top is 350 feet and at the bottom 235 feet. The thick- ness ranges from 30 feet at the bottom to 3 feet at the top. The total height of the structure is 94 feet, and the depth of water stored is 69.8 feet. A spillway is located in the middle of the dam. It is 110 feet wide, 10 feet below the top, and has a curved lip designed to prevent the overflow from leaving the face of the dam under any- thing less than an 8-foot head. The lower 67 feet of the dam is cyclopean masonry, rock masses not exceeding 2 cubic yards in volume being imbedded in a 1:3:5 concrete, reinforced with steel bars. Because of the poor quality of the rock available the upper 27 feet of the dam is of straight 1:3:6 concrete reinforced with bars. The total cost of the damy was $230,000, which is at the rate of ap- proximately $36 per acre-foot of capacity. IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. Wl The earth embankments are of various dimensions. Crests are from 8 to 16 feet wide and usually carry a roadway. Outer slopes range between 2 to 1 and 4 to 1. Inner slopes are steep or flat, de- pending on whether they are well protected against wave action. The slopes paved with concrete are usually 1 to 1 or 14 to 1, while slopes with no protection are often as flat as 4 or 5 to 1. The free- board maintained on the dams ranges from 1 to 15 feet and is usually a compromise between water requirements and safety. When possible it is the custom to fill the reservoirs only partly full in the early spring to permit them to pass through the period of high winds with a safe freeboard. After the danger from high winds is past they are topped out and the water is raised to a point on the dam which would be decidedly unsafe under a continued high wind. The erosive action of waves on earth embankments, illustrated in Plate XVI, figure 2, is so destructive that some sort of protection is always provided if possible. A few of the smaller dams are protected by brush laid on the slope and held by stakes and wire. Many are protected by a loose rock riprap laid on the upper part of the slope, where wave action is most destructive. On the whele, this protection seems to give as much satisfaction as any. Its chief fault is that the rock is continually settling and slipping down the slope, making it necessary to add more rock until a condition of stability has been reached. In the case of the Cache la Poudre Reservoir more or less rock has been dumped on the slope every year for 20 or 25 years and a condition of strict stability has not yet been attained. A few slopes are protected by a rock riprap hand laid on a cushion of gravel. This type is also subject to dislodging and settling, and requires con- siderable repair work to keep it in good shape. A number of dams are protected by concrete pavements about 6 inches in thickness and reinforced with wire mesh or iron rods. Some of these are laid on in sheets without joints, but the majority are in strips running from toe to crest. A few are supported by ribs running up and down the slope at intervals. Owing perhaps to the short slopes covered, there have been no total failures of this type so far, but local failures are common. These failures start with cracks opened by expansion and contraction through which the waiter is able to dig a cavity in the slope under the pavement. After these cavities are formed it is supposed that the force of the waves either smashes in the unsup- ported pavement over the cavity or compresses the air in the cavity sufficiently to produce an outward bulge of the pavement and con- sequent failure. Plate X VII, figure 1, shows a break in the pavement of Terry Lake resulting from a crack. As the great majority of the reservoirs in the valley are supplied through canals and with few exceptions the drainage area immedi- ately above develops only a small amount of water, wasteways are D BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. not considered necessary. The few that have been provided are simple makeshifts, usually depressions a foot or two above high water line which are left without embankment. The few dams in stream beds are of course properly equipped with spillways. Outlets are either lines of tile or iron pipe or conduits of masonry or concrete. The pipe lines are ali laid in concrete and are provided with concrete collars to cut off seepage. The masonry conduits are generally embedded in concrete and rest on solid foundations of concrete or masonry and concrete from 14 to 5 feet in thickness. Gate wells are ordinarily at the top of the inner slope, as gates set either at the upper or lower end of the conduit have proved to be less satisfactory. Plate XVII, figure 2, shows the gate tower of the North Poudre Reservoir No. 15 blasted out after it had been replaced by a well within the dam as shown. The was done as a matter of precaution upon order of the State engineer after a similar structure in Lake Loveland had been destroyed by ice pressure. Many of the reservoirs have no gate wells, the gate stem being brought up through the dam in 4 or 6 inch cast iron pipe. Gates are of various types, including iron-strapped wooden gates, sliding iron gates, and other more pretentious valves. Lifting devices are all some standard combination of screw and lever. The total capacity of the reservoirs of the valley is over 150,000 acre-feet. The largest is the Windsor Reservoir, which holds be- tween 17,000 and 18,000 acre-feet, and from this size they range dcwn- ward to many which hold less than 5 acre-feet. Some have never been surveyed to determine their capacities, and little dependence can be placed in the capacity tables of a majority of those which have been surveyed. The work was often done in such a manner that errors show on the face of the table, indicating in one case that the reservoir for a few feet of its depth took the shape of an hour- glass. It is believed that accurate capacity tables based on reliable surveys would aid materially in the operation of the canals carry- ing reservoir water and would eliminate to a great extent in- equalities in exchanges and in the distribution as well. The very low first cost of the majority of reservoirs in the valley is indicated by the figures shown in Table 28, which, with the exception of the average, are reproduced from a bulletin by C. E. Tait, issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1903.1° The Fossil Creek and Cache la Poudre Reservoirs run much above the average for the reason that each required a high and long dam across a valley. The sites of North Poudre No. 2, North Poudre No. 3, and Coal Creek Reservoir were developed at such a low cost because they were natural basins requiring only an outlet in a cut 12 Storage of Water on Cache la Poudre and Big Thompson Rivers, by C. E. Tait, U. 8S. Dept. Agri., O. E. S. Bul. 134. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVII. Fic. |1.—CLOSE VIEW OF BREAK IN THE PAVEMENT OF TERRY LAKE. Fic. 2.—GATE TOWER BLASTED OUT AND REPLACED BY A WELL WITHIN THE DAM. NORTH POUDRE RESERVOIR No. I5. ‘SHV YOSGNIAA GNV YIOAYSSSY YOSGNIAA AHL Ad QI6I NI GaSAYSS svauy { ’ ¢ Uae A, rs SWAG iD Lee NR iiss SWLOAGT tau i om <4 Ww < (al. BMV HOSONIM SYIOAU3SS3yH YOSONIA\ 4 ‘ Z { 4 G 2s ‘INaDAT = ~~ SHE alee & a a L 3 fre 3 oO .e tay) << rr tel ri] a Cb) a ” =) oO Q QO S = o = a AADL \ PLATE XIX. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "NOL ‘AyV] AYYAL Ad QI6I NI GSAYSS svayV ay 25}- y 608 — cre? MPD PLATE XX. culture, pt. of Agric a Sa) Bulletin 1026, U. “HIOAYASSAY SYGNOd W1 AHOVOD AHL Ad QIGI NI GAAY4AS VAYW ree GNVTAHAOT Fe -@" || | i | Wi iil Ii Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXl. | Zz ° F « 5 zZ z Z E : é e bt) bn 5 Le F FE is | c I [e) > o iit] on Wi iH am i o } 2 | - oO Hill a | Q | Hi! a Hi z | < | y | < =) HI Zz uw } | < Hill > | ve) | co) i a Hy z I} a Wt Hh il > Ti | rm) | 2) @ | Ww o < en a A 5 i Z WY rT WY ¢ | 3 Y z WN. s t 2 PLATE XXII. of Agriculture. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. "AAV SGOOM ANV YHIOAYRSSAY AVY) AHL Ad QI6I NI GSAYRS SvayVy Pan TO, ct | SCS See § % wi MR eee SHIOANIS3H = AVY “ANGADAT N64 "NOME Meso MSo "os Moo ‘ML9°8 MARI s \ PLATE XXIII. Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “HIOAYASAY YSLSHOMA SHL Ad QIGI NI GSAuSS vaHVy t ona eo @ fee Xr 8 GNWTAACT Te joule & @e e , ni? pA IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 73 and a small embankment. Some of these reservoirs have been en- larged since 1903 and the cost to date would give a lower unit cost than is shown by the table. TABLE 28.—First cost of reservoirs of the valley. Capacity : : ” | Cost per Reservoir. Cost. Ee ane acre-foot. | WacheiayeowdremNon2 ses eee ee sek seca as PM coe Se $105, 000 8, 035 $12. 07 Mernnyebake: (uanimenand Weld) 2-- 26 45-Gcccc - aac sce coe oe se esos see 70, 000 6, 887 10.16 EWA GSOMBRICSCLV Olle Scioscia ne hoe Soe loose ates co cin che sate oe ceciee eee oe 50, 000 11,708 4.27 VOC KVM EVI ORC ese a eae selon tioic in gmich acisctc oes ereapalatzinelawinte » sagem ciseysiggrerasls 12,000 4,726 2.54 LOUIS MEROM Cate eateeisttie see Nes oe clays sa Sea aes emis GRRE Soe Aspe eee lcite 12,000 3, 922 3.06 North; RoudreyNow tes ...2 22 2. 3, 000 674 4.45 North Poudre No. 2.........-..-- 7, 500 5, 000 1.50 North Poudre No. 3 eis tee he 5, 000 2,550 1.96 NOE HMR OUGTERNONA Ee Mihm ce nsec oes ssn teee ose sea means emeum see cu eee 5, 000 1,074 4.66 Coal Creek (Clark's IVAIKES) Byes ns ek re ae eS ly ope eek a ee 6, 000 4,477 1.34 Hassilh@reekspec er ceen ce cess se seen eaees dec cae Jone ae ge bese ses 160, 000 11,478 13. 94 WOUP TASS Heer pens oe soci cbse eee heae eae cece Sone eee ee SE 50, 000 10, 547 4.74 WW ATI SOLr Wake Nee ewe ca ciiians cecmeccwee Geter eo senhee Me caer Riera OTe 1,000 918 1.09 ESTEE a aoc eSBs SA OOEC OBIS Be HOSPICE Reese Rens #1 coe ef Lee a eee Kee ch 620 6.75 The sale of reservoir water and the rental of rights for a season is a common practice in the valley. Many reservoirs are owned by in- dividuals and were built expressly for the purpose of selling the water stored in them, while others are owned by cocperative companies which impose no restrictions as to where the water may be used. Many farmers own an excess of rights in these reservoirs, and others have an excess when their scheme of rotation of crops brings them around to a year in which they have a preponderance of crops re- quiring only early irrigation. To offset this supply there is always more or less demand from farmers who have not quite enough water for ordinary conditions and who suffer from a real shortage in dry weather, or from farmers who have a sufficient supply in average years but who are growing a large acreage of crops requiring heavy late irrigation. In ordinary years under the Greeley Canal No. 2, a second-foot for 24 hours will sell for $5, and there will be an addi- tional charge of $1 for carriage in the canal, but in dry years the price may be as much as $16 per second-foot for a day. Rights in Terry Lake, carrying between 45 and 50 acre-feet per season, have rented for from $40 to $300, but the average charge is close to $75. North Poudre shares, carrying 14 to 24 acre-feet, average about $10 per season. It is natural that under these conditions there should be a certain amount of speculation. In the early spring the speculator buys water or rents rights to be held and later rented or sold to others. Whether he makes or losses depends chiefly on the dryness of the season. Water for which he paid $2 an acre-foot may sell for $8 or $10, or there may be no market at all for it. The land served in 1916 by the more important independent reser- voirs of the valley is shown in Plates XVIII to XXIII, inclusive. 74 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Water stored in reservoirs owned by canal companies is used on the same land as the direct flow of the canals, and these areas are shown in another section of this report. An estimate of the acreage actually irrigated by the independent reservoirs is given in Table 29. TABLE 29.—EHstimate of acreages actually irrigated by independent reservoirs of the valley im 1916 and 1917. 1916 | 1917 | Loa n 1 Load wn | 1 a |¢4] 8 i | 2 | ad | Sa] 8 , |S = Wo cS S) = = ws = a of = << |m Ay (coca ePa yell tere lbareed= |p tee A Qi | ae | Windsor Reservoir......... 18,663] 9,741) 5,443] 4,096)...... 137, 943/14, 647| 5,227] 9,182] 5,734|.2...- 34, 790 Perry Lake #1t.i.2 11s 9,740] 4, 252| 3;519| 1,655|......119, 166| 7, 358| 2,323] 5; 022} 2,395]... 17, 098 Cache la Poudre Reservoir - 10, 511} 7,1 1, 83 22? 070 9, 818) 4,324) 4,078) 3,993 40/22, 253 Douglass Reservoir...... 0 2 1 8, 600 oh 358} 816) 1,136} 791)... -.- 5,101 Warren Lake........ 2, 037 i 485 656 2 4 19) 2, 166 Gray Reservoirs..... me 3, 136) it, 696} 1,161 76 78 2) 3,013 Worster Reservoir......... 5, ” 951 3, 807) 1,503) 2,344) 1, 233)...... | 8,887 Woods Lake............... 740| °252| °198| °229| 793 15°93 Windsor Wakess sss a eecse- 655). 152) + 303 23 348i nae 512 Dowdy Reservoir.......... 5 183} 3 156} 206) «154/25... 22 | ~880 Hour Glass Reservoir... .... 236] 155 ite7/ Bessa Badese basse caHoe=||tos~== Sean Zimmerman Reservoir. .... 106} 111 269) AALS OS Ss jeSe ae 3 ane ees Greeley-Poudre Water..... 536] 238) 104; 324).-.-..- lade 202) 376 65} _ 232) 63) Eee 936 Fossil Creek Reservoir... .. 2,920) 2,063} 700) 1,155).-...-. 6, 1838) 2, 2,794) 1,178) 1, 472) if st ce ea aes 7, 023 Stored water is used for irrigation during every month of the sea- son, but the greater part of it is used from July 20 to September 10, as the supply received on direct apprepriations falls off. The amount of stored water used in 1916 and 1917 is shown in Table 30, which is taken from Tables 10 and 11 on pages 44 and 45. The large amount used in August, ace was due to a supply greatly in excess of the normal. TABLE 30.—Reservoir water used by canals of the valley in 1916 and 1917. 1916 1917 Amount Amount used Per cent used Per cent (acre- of total. ekg of total. feet). eet). 353)) boos. SOLES. Sa eset 6,978 8 USOM Mee eee 5 639 8 2,358 2 27,098 30 13, 713 14 32, 149 35 60, 224 63 17,373 19] 20,890 fei 90, 590 100 97, 367 100 ABSORPTION LOSSES. In arriving at the absorption loss for reservoirs of the valley, re- liable records of the following were used: Windsor Reservoir, Doug- lass Reservoir, Cache la Poudre Reservoir, Terry Lake, North IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 75 Poudre Reservoir No. 15, Woods Lake, Kluver Lake, Curtis Lake, Claymore Lake, Water Supply and Storage Co. Reservoir No. 4, and Dealy Reservoir. ‘These reservoirs afforded a range in surface area up to 1,000 acres, in depth up to 40 feet, and in volume up to 17,500 acre-feet. Records were kept of the operation of all the more important reservoirs of the valley, but many of these records were not suitable for computing absorption losses and were discarded. No capacity tables were available for a number, and time could be found to survey only a few of these. Other records covering periods of inflow and outflow were discarded on account of the poor condi- tions at the measuring stations on the inlet and outlet canals. Thus in the case of Terry Lake the rating stations on both inlet and outlet were subject to backwater conditions and for that reason the only records of Terry Lake used in computing losses were those made during periods of no inflow nor outflow. Table 31 is given to show the method used in computing the loss, and practically explains itself. In estimating the increase in the reservoir by rainfall it was necessary to use the rainfall records at Fort Collins, which is as much as 15 miles from some of the reservoirs, together with the area at the high water line and the probable run-off from the drainage area above. For this reason some of the periods overlap, the shorter excluding rains which show in the longer period and serving as a check. The average absorption loss is shown by curves in figures 14, 15, and 16, in which the loss in acre-feet per day is plotted against the depth, area, and volume. The curves are based on more than 200 points, each of which represents the loss in a single reservoir for a period of from 3 to 30 days during the spring and summer months. TABLE 31.—Absorption losses from Claymore Lake. ‘ 3 1 tos) =I mS ; rt zp ; e PS 4 3 3 Absorption losses. 2 Silas Sg 4 & = 2 3 QO 6 . Bg : d => i BS: Peal aes eae le besals | eu) Sle sie Soo 4 a Balsa $s 2 2 = 2) “ pol = Period. se| s ey IS Se | em See ce) est ce Se Sil ES, Mell aos joe PPS dee pork Bao Se li 18-18" Bre a iS} wa 3 c= om) ro) 2) Silos! 8 8 a & “28 oe pea eae (ase ol nce ect oleh alee) aad eae gsi an Seger Ware awe PLS a ‘Ss B s Sy S ® o ra ro) = mg |Ssn] So m ss an i) oO oO = pa) i“ ics Pa Qos] gq 3 o oO e > = & g iS = iS) 8 |s2al o A | ia] q |< < n a a n a 1S) Ay 1916. June 1-28..... 27.31) 14.54] 13.77) 14.16) 79.0] 8938.3/923.6 4.2) 927.8) 862.9) 64.9) 2.38) 0.030] 0.266 June 14-28... .| 13.98) 14.21] 13.77) 13.99} 78.6) 880.3'897.6 |...... 897.6] 862.9) 34.7) 2.48] .032] .282 1917, : May 8-26...... 18.00] 14. 78] 14.65) 14.70} 80.3) 936.2) 939.8) 18.5) 958.3] 932.6) 25.7} 1.48) .018) .153 May 12-19... 7.00) 14.66} 14.53) 14.60} 80.0) 928.1) 933.4)...... -4) 922.8) 10.6) 1.51 019) 163 June 2-30..... 28.00) 14. 70} 14.08) 14.39} 79.6) 912.0} 936.6)...... 936.6] 887.3) 49.3) 1.76) .022 193 July 4-28...... 24.00) 13.99] 13.50! 13.75} 78.1) 861.0} 880.3 6.0} 886.3] 841.7) 44.6) 1.86) .024 216 uy 11-21... 9.85} 13.91] 13.64] 13.78] 78.1] 863.4) 874.0)...... 874. 0} 852. 7 21.3) 2.16) .028) 250 Aug. 1-11..... 10. 04) 13.38) 13.11) 13.24) 76.9] 822.2) 832.5 .2) 832.7] 811.9, 20.8) 2.07) .027, 252 : i | 76 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The amount of storage required for any particular canal depends on the amount of water produced by the direct flow rights at various times throughout the season and on the kinds of crops grown. This is Shown by data for 1916 and 1917 for the four largest canals of the valley in Table 32. The comparatively small amount of stored Sa PEEP EE EE Ralambwicomsmleumeeme ob: | PREC E ee eae Pe ee SRB ge ee 10000 IN ACRE-FEET ‘GL Se Rene = 8000] 6000 VOLUME STORED nae Ee ae a ib aa LOSS HA 2ee RSE lene Bae eae: IN ACRE -FEET = DAY Vig. 14.—Absorption losses in reservoirs. Relation between the volume stored and the loss. water required by the Larimer County Canal is due to the fact that the greater part of its deficiency on direct appropriations is made up by foreign water. In the case of the North Poudre Canal the supply was short and more reservoir water could have been used to advantage. IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 17 TABLE 32.—Comparison of stored and direct flow water used by four of the largest canals of the valley in 1916 and 1917. Canal. 1916. Greceleya@analiNowas ont so Noe Ges ek UY ae ae Se artnmenrandowield\ Canales. 0 oss scene seo cke codecae sadocegoceace Larimer County Canal. --.. Soe ara nase eae yes ERR Ra ne a ae INTO alsa BLOONS HEY OF Naver ees Set ele SO RDN I ee ee ete 1917. Greeleng@ana NO naecs cece seeks ate cme He ematon sisalenee cal a Warimenandiwreld Canales. 22 5 2 joo oe name gece donc oe Warimen CountyiCanalec ste. s. boc bes ead eae gee et eseoees NorihePoumne@anale ct 22s 3540500. ue winatebee s Sa-c wees Priority No. of principal appro- priation. Water used. pineel Storage acre-feet. acre-feet. 54, 908 13, 458 67, 166 23, 926 49, 876 22,111 16, 169 25, 188 53, 383 14, 617 67,889} 29, 547 64, 692 19, 274 20, 745 28, 954 IN FEET DEPTH Ae, ESE pi |v 240 | fio ait oxida vole.) 1 IN ACRE-FEET = Fic. 15.—Absorption losses in reservoirs. Relation between the depth and the loss. FARM RESERVOIRS. Storage as per cent of total. A large number of reservoirs of the valley may be properly classed as farra reservoirs. They are owned by the individual farmer and are used by him to hold temporarily his supply of water from some 78 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. canal or to collect some small seepage stream to make it available for irrigation. A typical reservoir of this class is owned by M. W. Dealy and sup- plies a part of his farm 7 miles northwest of Fort Collins. It is 8.6 feet in depth, covers 7.6 acres at the high-water line, and has a ca- . pacity of 26.6 acre-feet. The outlet gate of the reservoir is shown in Plate XXIV, figure 1. The dam is several hundred feet long, 8.5 feet PRR ERERR EERE? SROREGRGRRRRRORERH/ (BE eee LCE RERE RRR RRER ee HP EE eae - AT a ee VY 00 Z| EMA DAE TTR Sid EEE AaERRRRRRnnan Poe eee Tia Ls: ZAG menenehas Sai. Fie. 16.—Absorption losses in reservoirs. Relation between the sur- ace area and the loss. high, and 10.5 feet above the outlet. The inner slope is riprapped with loose rock extending 5 feet below the high-water line. The outlet is 12-inch vitrified pipe set in a concrete bulkhead at each end. The gate is a common type of sliding iron gate. The reservoir was built in 1908 and cost $930, or at the rate of $35 per acre-foot of capacity. Its water supply comes from the Larimer County Canal. A part of the Dealy farm is served by the Jackson Ditch, but a part lies above this ditch and is commanded only by the Larimer County Canal IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 79 of the Water Supply & Storage Co. In order to get a water supply for it, Dealy entered into a contract with the Water Supply & Stor- age Co. by the terms of which the company acquired half a share of stock of the Jackson Ditch from Dealy and Dealy acquired the right to a certain amount of water from the Larimer County Canal from April 15 to September 15 of each year. The contract provides that the amount delivered shall be approximately 17 per cent less than the amount per half share delivered by the Jackson Ditch the same day. When the Jackson Ditch draws all its appropriations a share represents 120 statute inches; therefore, the maximum amount Dealy is entitled to draw is 50 inches. Shortly after Dealy finished his reservoir the owner of an adjoining farm made a similar contract with the Water Supply & Storage Co. and purchased from Dealy a right to carry his water through the Dealy ditches. This water is carried directly through the reservoir. During the season 1916, from May 8 to September 7, the Larimer County Canal delivered to the reservoir 211 acre-feet at a rate not exceeding 2.12 second-feet. This was sufficient to fill the reservoir eight times. The loss in the reservoir during the season was 39 acre- feet, or about 18 per cent of the total supply, including 4 acre-feet of rainfall! and run-off. During the season 176 acre-feet were drawn from the reservoir for the irrigation of 99.3 acres of grain and al- falia. ‘The rate of use ran as high as 9.20 second-feet but averaged 5.44 second-feet for alfalfa and 3.25 second-feet for grain. The difference in inflow and outflow noted above and illustrated in Plate XXIV, figures 1 and 2, reveals the chief benefit derived from these small reservoirs. A very high duty is obtained by storing streams of ditch and seepage water entirely too small for practical use and when the water is needed turning it'out in large heads for effective and economical irrigation. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. The characteristics of the climate of the valley are a light rainfall, a wide range in daily and seasonal temperature, low relative humid- ity, moderately high wind movement, and a comparatively low rate of evaporation. The heaviest rainfall occurs in the spring and is usually sufficient to start the crops growing under natural conditions without resorting to irrigation to bring up the crops. The prevailing type of soil is a light sandy loam, which is generally well drained. Excepting local phases, the texture of this soil is such that it is easily irrigated and at the same time it retains mois- ture well. The average depth of water applied for an irrigation is close to .75 foot, but the average is raised somewhat by the heavier irrigations applied when direct flow water is available in order to reduce the later requirements of stored water. Considering the soil 80 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. alone, best results would be obtained by quick irrigation to a depth of 0.4 to 0.6 foot. The water supply of the valley averages 464,000 acre-feet, which includes 340,000 acre-feet of normal run-off in the river and its tribu- taries, 35,000 acre-feet of foreign water, 5,000 acre-feet pumped from wells, and available seepage return to the amount of 84,000 acre-feet. Practically the whole supply is taken; and further projects, either for direct flow or for storage, are probably not feasible. The regimen of the river largely controls the cropping system of the valley. The flood stage of the stream occurs at such a time that the irrigation of at least a third of the acreage in crops, chiefly grain, may be completed with water drawn directly from the river. This leaves the stored water to be used for maturing such valuable crops as sugar beets, potatoes, etc. The foreign water brought into the valley from other drainage basins is collected from the highest slopes of the mountains, and it therefore comes down after the peak of the flood has passed. This supply is comparatively small but it is very vital to both the North Poudre and Larimer County canals. It becomes available shortly before their main appropriations are cut off and makes it possible to delay for from one to three weeks the time when almost the whole demand must be met with stored water. 7 The total seepage return in the valley is 137,000 acre-feet, which is approximately 36 per cent of the normal water supply (exclusive of seepage). The topography is such that a large proportion of this seepage return is available for use, and it plays an important part in irrigation in the valley. The high percentage of return indicates that when the return reaches the maximum on other streams many water rights, both direct and storage, which are now not dependable, will become good. The certainty and uniformity of this supply will produce results comparable to those produced by stored water. Drainage is not a serious problem in the valley. Only local areas have become too wet, and corrective measures have always been promptly applied. By the system of exchange of water developed in the valley 50,000 acre-feet of stored water is made available for use in canals above the reservoirs. ‘To this system may be attributed the use of a number of sites capable of cheap development. Incidentally, as perfected in the valley, the system promotes a better distribution from the river and vastly improves conditions under which the canals operate by largely confining the daily fluctuation of the river to one of the larger canals where it can be “smoothed down” by the use of reser- voirs as regulators. In addition, the pooling of interests required by the exchange has brought about a better understanding between the canal men of the valley and there is now a tendency to get to- Bulletin 1026, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIV. Fic. |.—WEIR ON THE OUTLET OF THE DEALY RESERVOIR. AVERAGE OUTFLOW. FIG. 2.—WEIR ON THE INLET OF THE DEALY RESERVOIR. TRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 81 gether and talk over differences before resorting to the law. There is no doubt that the practice of exchanging water had its effect in getting the canal men of the valley in the habit of measuring water. While conditions of which the system is an outgrowth will probably never be duplicated, the principles and methods involved might be advantageously applied for a solution of problems elsewhere. The majority of direct flow rights of canals were established by decree of the district court in 1882 and these rights remain prac- tically unchanged. Storage rights were fixed by decree in 1909. There can be no question that the early fixing of rights had a strong influence on the later development of irrigation. The canal owners whose decreed rights were good went ahead with their development and expansion secure in the feeling that they would be protected in their rights. The two late appropriators of large amounts were clearly shown the inadequacy of their rights and lost no time in devising means of supplementing their supplies. This led at once to the construction of reservoirs and later to the development of supplies of foreign water. In the aggregate, capacities of the canals exceed by 10 per cent their appropriations. The extension of land irrigated has been such that the originally excessive decrees of the larger canals are now utilized. Excessive rights are still held by several small ditches along the river bottoms. These ditches divert a comparatively small amount, of which a great part returns directly to the river and is diverted below by canals with early rights. Many transfers of appropriations from one canal to another have been made, but the amounts transferred, especially of the earliest rights, were small. These transfers have in general resulted in Jit- tle damage to other appropriators and in much benefit to the canal to which the transfer was made. Almost without exception distribution from the river is made in accordance with decreed priorities. The exceptions to the rule are recognized as legitimate by the canal men of the valley. Besides fearlessness and tact, the distribution of water from a stream requires an intimate knowledge of the handling of water in general and of the peculiarities of the particular stream itself. The water commis- sioner’s handling of the Cache la Poudre for more than a score of years is most convincing evidence that the administrator of a stream should not be subject to the fortunes of a political party and that when a good man is secured he should be kept in office. It is folly to expect an inexperienced man to handle satisfactorily the problems of distribution which constantly arise, especially as complicated by return water and private water carried in natural channels. The obvious remedy is a study of the streams of the State by experienced 74464°—22—_6 82 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. engineers and hydrographers to determine losses and gains in the streams, the return flow, characteristics of flow peculiar to each stream in flood and at low stages, and other pertinent facts. With this information at the disposal of the administrator a fairly satis- factory distribution would be possible immediately upon his taking office and not after 2 or 3 years of painstaking and perhaps costly experimenting. The duty of water figured for the river as a whole is 1.67 acre-feet per acre; or, expressed differently, each second-foot of the average annual discharge irrigates 434 acres. This very high duty is made possible only by the reservoirs of the valley. To attain a duty as high without stored water, the crops grown would have to be limited to the grains. The consumptive duty for the valley is estimated not to exceed 1.25 acre-feet per acre. Nonproductive and waste land averages approximately 15 per cent of the area under irrigation. The areas irrigated by the various canals lie in very compact bodies, which promotes to a pronounced extent the efficient use of the water supply. The area actually irrigated in the valley proper in 1916 was 218,000 acres; in 1917, 225,700 acres. Any marked extension of the area irri- gated is improbable. The majority of the canals of the valley are cooperative enter- prises and present no unusual features of organization. The fact that the majority were cooperative from the beginning has an im- portant bearing on the development of the valley. Such systems were run for the mutual benefit of water users and there was very little of the paralysis of development caused elsewhere by overpro- motion for profit. The great majority of laterals serving more than 2 or 3 users are controlled by incorporated cooperative stock companies, and this form of organization for laterals is to be recommended. By it the delin- quent water user can, in an impersonal way, be made to live up to his obligations. Canal structures follow common designs and concrete is replacing wood for construction purposes. The systems of the valley have long since passed the stage of development where cheap construction was permissible in order to reduce first costs, to keep down interest charges, and to permit expansion. Future construction should be of © the most substantial character. The rating flumes of the canals are generally most unsatisfactory and should be replaced by structures better suited for the purpose. They should be of the same cross section as the canal and should neither constrict nor widen the channel. They should be on grade IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 83 and in a straight section of canal with no curves for some distance either above or below. ‘The velocity through them should be suffi- cient to prevent the deposit of silt, but not high enough to produce waves. There should be no drop immediately below to produce standing waves. They should not be subject to backwater from mov- able checks, and they should not be placed close below gates which either do, or may be made to, discharge under pressure. Maintenance problems are at a minimum. However, more atten- tion should be paid to protecting canal banks from erosion, installing effective sand traps, and keeping delivery weirs in better order. The distribution within the canal system of direct flow water is either by continuous delivery of a prorata part of the flow or by some system of rotation when the supply is short. The latter system is by far the most effective in producing a maximum benefit from a given supply. The other system is almost invariably a source of waste. Reservoir water is delivered as a prorata part of the flow carried, or in rotation, or on demand. Delivery on demand produces the most effective use but at times the advantages must be weighed against difficulties of canal operation. Many canals act as common carriers for reservoir water owned or rented by their stockholders. By a system of pooling of interests and switching of credits this water is delivered on demand of the individual. Weirs are used for measuring water to the user but there is much room for improvement in their installation and maintenance. The average gross duty of water measured at the head of all the canals of the valley was 1.88 acre-feet per acre in 1916 and 1.91 acre- feet per acre in 1917. Taken in connection with the consumptive duty of 1.25 acre-feet per acre, this indicates a total loss exclusive of evaporation of only a third of the supply. The absorption loss in the canals of the valley between the head- gate and the farm lateral is estimated to average 10 per cent of the supply. This low figure is accounted for in part by the topography of the country and the location of the canals one above another. A considerable part of the gross loss is compensated by the inflow of seepage. : Seepage water is used to some extent on nearly the entire irrigated acreage of the valley; but the land dependent on it as a main supply is rather limited, unless we include that lying under the ditches which divert it after it has returned to the channel of the river. Furrow irrigation and flooding from field laterals are the only methods of irrigation practiced. Best results are obtained by a fast irrigation to a depth of .4 to .6 foot. The layout of the field should be such that a thorough even watering is obtained, that there is a minimum of run-off at the lower end of the field, and that the depth 84 BULLETIN 1026, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. applied is light enough to prevent an undue loss by deep percolation. The head used should be governed by the conditions above and the soul. Large heads should be used when possible, as they save both time and water if handled properly. The run-off from the lower end of the field averages 6 per cent of the amount appled. This is a very low average, but there are many farms where much improvement could be made along this line. The average number of irrigations applied on the fields under investigation ranged from 1.21 for wheat to 3.79 for potatoes. The average head used by one irrigator ranged from a minimum of 1.85 second-feet for sugar beets to a maximum of 2.59 second-feet for alfalfa. The number of acres irrigated per day by one person ranged from an average of 4.45 for barley to 6.78 for potatoes. Beans were in an entirely different class with an average of 15.63 acres per day per man. The average duty in acre-feet per acre, measured at the head of the farm lateral, was: Alfalfa, 2.57; wheat, 1.04; oats, 1.35; barley, 1.19; sugar beets, 1.86; potatoes, 2.20; beans, 0.69. Reservoirs are by far the most important factor govering the good use of water in the valley. By their use water is made available when and only when needed. Without them an entirely different type of development would have resulted in the valley. The large number of reservoirs was made possible by natural basins which could be developed with a minimum of trouble and expense. For thirteen of these reservoirs with an aggregate capac- ity of 72,000 acre-feet the average cost of development was $6.75 per acre-foot of capacity. The majority of reservoir dams are low earth fills, and slopes are protected against erosion by rock riprap or concrete pavements. For these comparatively short slopes both types of protection have given satisfaction. Gate wells are now placed in the dam at the top of the inner slope. Locating them either at the upper or lower end of the outlet was found to be unsatisfactory and at times dangerous. Outlet conduits are generally of stone or concrete and are often in cuts through the rim of the natural basin forming the bottom of the reservoir. The aggregate capacity of reservoirs with decreed rights from the main river is now in excess of the normal available supply and further new projects of that type are not feasible. Storage develop- ment in the future should be along the line of flood-control reser- voirs high up on the stream by which the flow of the stream below could be made to conform to actual current irrigation requirements, IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO. 85 rather than as a matter of necessity making irrigation practice con- form to the flow of the stream and future as well as current needs. Were the Cache la Poudre Valley alone concerned this could be ac- complished by a general pooling of interests as in the case of the exchange, but no doubt appropriators on the South Platte below would object strenuously to such a radical departure from custom unless they could be shown that no invasion of their rights would result. The system of independent ownership of reservoirs and the re- sulting scale and rental of rights which may be used at any point affords a better distribution and a certain elasticity of supply which is on the whole very beneficial. The amount of irrigation after September 15 in the Cache la Poudre Valley is negligible, and considering this valley alone, storage of the supply in the river should begin at that time. Under the system of diversified crops common in the valley a relatively small amount of stored water is required. For prac- tically the entire acreage under irrigation in 1916 and 1917 less than 25 per cent of the supply used was stored water. The many farm reservoirs holding a few acre-feet play an impor- tant part in promoting a good use of water and their construction is recommended to secure a maximum benefit from a small flow, either constant or intermittent. Absorption losses are relatively highest in small shallow reser- voirs and the proportion decreases markedly with the increase in the volume of water stored. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 25 CENTS PER COPY V Cit (eek t. Hit AU PUL GUL eee es a Va ae SS ee oe ; Bh Burgio) aca thaphlaiee «ET OR ee, Page 5° Chee ol Ki, bed es t04, pe i nie HN UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF one & y BULLETIN No. 1027 § XA Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry W. G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief Washington, D. C. vy April 17, 1922 POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. By W. D. Lyne, Assistant Chemist, ©. C. McDonNneE tL, Chief, Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory, and J. K. Haywoop, Chief, Miscellaneous Division, Bureau of Chemistry; A. L. Quatntance, Entomologist in Charge, Fruit Investigations, Bureau of Entomology; and M. B. Waire, Pathologist in Charge, Frwit-Disease Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry." CONTENTS. Page. Page Puyposeiotimwestigation22-..02. 0... S 22.222 1 | Results of experimental work.......-.......; is Results of previous investigations...........- EA 5S WATT TY Soe ar ne eae Hp nD Pa a ED 58 Expenimtentalywonk- ss Pease ste ek | Sei oe VG Mberabure7e1 ted assis arcu iak cea ae ee aye 58 PURPOSE OF INVESTIGATION. In the spring of 1915 a cooperative study was undertaken in the United States Department of Agriculture to ascertain the amounts of arsenic, lead, and copper remaining on fruits and vegetables treated with poisonous sprays. The spraying was done under the direction of the Bureau of Entomology and the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the chemical work by the Bureau of Chemistry. The plan was to spray various fruit trees and vegetables according to accepted schedules, and also with excessive amounts of material to determine how much of the metals may be present under adverse conditions. In case the investigation showed that poisonous metals remained on the fruit in amounts which might prove injurious to the consumer, the results would constitute a basis for so changing or regulating the spraying schedules as to eliminate this danger. RESULTS OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. Arsenical compounds first appeared as insecticides in the United States (63)? about 1860, when Paris green was used to check the 1 Credit is due to John G. Fairchild and Wilbur A. Gersdorff for assistance in the analytical work re- ported in this paper. 4 Figures in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, pp. 58 to 66. 72638—22—Bull. 1027——1 9 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ravages of the Colorado potato beetle. In 1872 Le Baron (70) sug- gested the application of Paris green to fruit trees to combat the spring cankerworm, but Lodeman (75) states that only a few of the most progressive orchardists adopted arsenical spraying against the codling moth until after the establishment of the State agri- cultural experiment stations resulting from the passage of the Hatch Act in 1887. The question soon arose as to the possible danger to the consumer from the use of potatoes the vines of which had been treated with a poisonous compound, such as Paris green. One of the first in- vestigators of this subject, Kedzie, in 1872 (64) and 1875 (65), con- cluded ‘‘that there is but very little danger of the potato tuber being poisoned so as to endanger the health of the consumer. Ar- senic is equally deleterious to the vegetable as well as the animal system. If added in dangerous quantity to the plant, the plant dies, no potatoes are formed.’ McMurtrie (78) detected no arsenic in potatoes which had been subjected to applications of Paris green. Lodeman (75) states that London purple was recommended as an insecticide in 1877. Cook (26), who sprayed apple trees on May 25 and June 20, 1880, at the rate of 1 pound of London purple to 100 gallons of water, reported that 100 blossom ends cut from the sprayed trees on August 19 showed no trace of arsenic. He proved also (27) that it took but a very small amount of the arsenites to kill potato beetles, currant slugs, and cabbage caterpillars, and discovered that the poison was retained on plants sheltered from rain for 10 to 20 days. He concluded that it was safe to use Paris green or London purple on trees the fruit from which would not be eaten for four or five weeks after the application. Wheeler (132), 1n 1888, reported that it was safe in California, where rainless summers prevail, to spray vines with Paris green. When the vines were sprayed with 1 pound of Paris green to 16 gallons of water, ‘“‘ten times as strong as the solution recommended for general use,” Rising (114), the State analyst, found only traces of arsenic on the grapes and none in the wine made therefrom. Objection was offered to the use of arsenicals, on the ground that they frequently caused more or less injury to the foliage. Gillette (58), however, found that “lime added to London purple or Paris green in water greatly lessens the injury that these poisons would otherwise do to foliage.’ Weed (129) recommended applying insecticides and fungicides together, and Gillette (58) showed that. London purple can be used at least eight or ten times as strong without injury to foliage if applied in common Bordeaux mixture instead of in water. Gillette (59) stated, in 1891, that a mixture of 1 ounce of Paris green to 100 ounces of flour was the most effectual POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 3 remedy against the cabbage worm, applying “just enough to make a slight show of dust upon the leaves.”’ These discoveries were quickly adopted in practice, and arsenicals were generally accepted as the best destroyers of external chewing insects. The most important insecticides recommended, other than Paris green and London purple, were Scheele’s green (113) in 1875, white arsenic plus lime (67) in 1891, and lead arsenate (40) in 1893. Until recently Paris green and lead arsenate have been the most extensively used, but calcium arsenate, now on the market, promises to become one of the leading arsenical insecticides. The use of Bordeaux mixture originated in France near the city of Medoc. Viticulturists noticed that the vines near the highways, which had been sprinkled with a paste of milk of lime and copper sulphate to prevent thieving, did not suffer from, mildew. Prof. Millardet, in 1882, attributed the beneficial action to copper, and later proposed a mixture of copper sulphate, lime, and water, since known as © Bordeaux mixture (88) (89). The mixture was immediately accepted not only in France but in the United States, where F. Lamson Scribner (116) was probably the first to publish a formula for it as a result of the work in France. Its use has been extended to the preven- tion of so many plant diseases that to-day it is perhaps the most important fungicide. When copper compounds were recommended as fungicides, the question arose as to whether or not spraying with them would leave a dangerous amount of copper on the grapes or in the wine. Perrett (107) stated, in 1885, that there would be no danger of introducing copper into wine made from grapes sprayed with copper salts, because the hydrogen sulphid formed during fermentation would precipitate the copper as the insoluble sulphid. Quantin (111), in 1886, concluded that the reduction of the sulphate of copper by the ferments was sufficient to effect the total elimination of the copper in wine, but that aeration of the lees which inclosed the precipitated sulphid of copper should be avoided. Chuard (23) announced in 1887 that the copper was present in the must as copper malate, but that it was precipitated during fermentation as the sulphid and tartrate. In October, 1885, Millardet and Gayon (90) obtained the following amounts of copper from vines that had been sprayed with Bordeaux mixture in July: mecineshuleaves (mig. jer ikom). oc veg dG ous. MR ad ety, Miia 2s ey 0 19. 1-95. 5 Bavmevbranches|\(messperkora.). 4.4 se eee Tie ae eS ee 5. 8 eiciMe stalks (mag sNper Kiem.) oot) Ske sey tea oS APA ONO AON NS 15. 0-18. 6: PP Ueaec es (HATE TO EMIT NI) yyy ey ene oi 0). IMME I LES PRO aN AGUSTIN 11. 1-21. 9 AMTJISUIS) (tines ores a Tey a) as Re A Meine LL SION ey UA a a a a T.0- 2.2 Wines (mg. per liter), from doubtful traces to less than............--.---- 0. 2 4. BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The same authors, in 1886, report (56) the following amounts of copper at vintage from vines treated with various copper mixtures: Grapes'(migs per Komi). 2800 cee eo an eae Bye ce, an ate eh 0. 2-12. 6 Must: (mg. "per liter) 20s 52 500, ae se PLC RS NaS) A ae . 0-11. 8 Wane (me. spergliter)! 2 iat: cols meme eats tel) a EE Tea tae 2 AR ee Fraction. Examination of wines from different places in the southwest of France showed the presence of copper in the following amounts: First wines: Wihite (me:.per later), less theme! 2. 2 ee ee 0. 01-1. 0 Red ‘(meg.-per ter), less’than: 02022: See ee Dee . 01-2. 8 Second ‘wines (sweet 'wimes) (mp: per‘liter) 200 S22) 224.201 seve MOUS 3 Press swine! (me.;per literiesssor tes 13 ae Sie Se ha ed Ae .05-1.7 Piquettes: Normal mp !perJater)y: 20s. ci See 0-0. 75 Sour Gnevper liter), lessithame. 52. 02285- 2/2 82 ue es .O1- 1.6 They attributed the absence of copper in wine to the action of the fermentation, the tannin and sulphur added to the wines before fermentation favoring the purification of the wine. Crolas and Raulin (28) determined the amount of copper in the products of vines that had been treated six weeks to two months before vintage with different preparations containing copper, and found copper in the following amounts: Grapesi(mes;perlcom) jo se Meee e ees celal l Me alae) a Nels bya jal aie enh A Os as Miaresi(meuperikoms) S850 js i es ies ec cs Dre Dsl EAs) Tees i (mre cp erin) ey Waly NSIS saa eT ARM MVE i al 8 Sac sans ee eee 49. 0-130. 0 Pique ttes (me. speriliter) sucess ccc k eee MMe ewes 2g ice ea .0O-, .14 Wanies! Gure hp ertlite nr) ines miUiee A RO RAS Ur. RRR ES AL 2 eee eee AUS ae sto0 Other investigators who have determined the amount of copper in wine (8) (16) (25) (29) (86) (41) (42) (45) (79) (104) (108) (118) (134) agree that the amount found in every instance was too small to be harmful. C. L. Penny (105) reported, in 1889, 2.4 and 6.2 parts of copper per million for grapes that had been sprayed with Bordeaux mixture and 1 to 1.3 parts of copper per million for unsprayed grapes. These amounts were less than those found in some common articles of food. In 1890 (106) grapes so heavily sprayed that “ either the appearance or the taste of the fruit would have condemned it on the market” were shown by Penny to contain about 47 parts of copper per million, ‘less than has been found in some articles of food admitted to be healthful, as beef liver.’’ In order to determine ‘‘whether there is any danger to be appre-— bended from eating grapes which have been sprayed with the Bor- deaux mixture and other copper solutions,” Galloway and Fairchild (47) gathered grapes from a plat which had been sprayed eight times with Bordeaux mixture. ‘‘The last spraying was made on these POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 5 vines July 30, and between that date and August 28, the date of harvest, only a few slight rains had fallen. The fruit showed the mixture plainly, more pronouncedly in fact than any treated grapes seen in the market. One kilogram of the clusters (24 pounds), includ- ing the stems, which appeared to have the greater part of the copper, * * * yielded 0.005 gram (0.077 grain) of metallic copper,” on analysis, about 0.035 grain of copper per pound of grapes. In September, 1891, the Board of Health of New York City seized a quantity of grapes some of which had been heavily oversprayed with Bordeaux mixture (46). The following results of analysis of the most heavily sprayed bunches of grapes obtainable from the vineyards from which the grapes seized had come were reported (128) : (1) The amount of copper, estimated as metallic copper, found on the berries was very constant in the different samples, averaging 1/120 grain for each pound of fruit (berries and stems). (2) The amount of copper, estimated as metallic copper, found on the stems varied from 1/90 to 1/14 grain for each pound of fruit (berries and stems), and averaged 1/30 grain. (3) If the copper were on the berries in the form of sulphate of copper, each pound of berries would contain about 1/30 grain of copper sulphate. (4) As a matter of fact, copper, when found upon sprayed grapes in New York State. exists, not in the form of asulphate, but in the form of a carbonate or hydroxid, both of which are not readily soluble and would, therefore, be even léss dangerous than if present in the form of sulphate of copper. Most of the copper found was on the stems, and the rest of the copper was on the outside of the skin of the berries, which most people do not eat. (5) The results obtained from estimating by chemical analysis the amount of copper on grapes, which were selected as being the worst sprayed that could be found, there- fore, seem to justify the assertion that it is simply an absolute impossibility for a person to get enough copper from eating grapes to exert upon the health any injurious effect whatever. According to Popenoe and Mason (109), ‘‘as much of the fruit (grapes) at the time of ripening showed a greenish-blue discoloration from the deposit of lime and copper, which had been applied twice since a rain had fallen, some persons feared that it might be poison- ous.’ Analysis of those grapes showing the heaviest deposit gave for combined stems and berries 0.00188 per cent copper, or 0.52 grain of copper sulphate per pound of grapes. ‘A short time after this sample was taken a heavy shower washed off so much of the deposit that little of the remaining fruit was injured in appearance.’ Wheeler (131) found only slight traces of copper on grapes that had been sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. Alwood (6) reported no copper, or only traces, on grapes that had been sprayed with copper mixtures, and concluded “‘that these fungicides are perfectly harmless to con- sumers of the treated fruit.”’ Maynard (84) reported that only 0.002 per cent of copper oxid was found on grapes which had been so heavily sprayed with Bordeaux as to be badly disfigured and that no 6 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. trace of copper could be found on grapes which had been properly sprayed with copper mixtures. From this it would seem ‘that even under the most careless use of the copper solutions, no injurious effects need be feared, and that when properly applied there will not be a trace of copper left upon the fruit at harvesting.” In 1892 the United States Department of Agriculture (9) published the following: We take the ground that fruit sprayed with the copper compounds in accordance with the directions of the department is harmless. * * * For five years the copper compounds have been used by hundreds and thousands of fruit growers in every part of the United States, yet in all that time not a single authenticated case of poisoning, so far as we are aware, has been brought to light. * * * Accepting, then, 0.5 gram as the maximum amount of copper in any of the forms discussed that may with safety be daily absorbed, * * * that grapessprayed intelligently rarely contain more than 5 milligrams (0.005 gram) of copper per kilogram, the average be- ing from 24 to 3 milligrams per kilogram, * * * anadult may eat from 300 to 500 pounds of sprayed grapes per day without fear of ill effects from the copper. This shows how ridiculously absurd are the statements that fruits properly sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture or any other copper compound are poisonous. * * * According to numerous analyses, wheat may contain from 4 to 10 milligrams of cop- per per kilogram. * * * We do not see how any foreign country can logically object to American fruits on the ground that they coatain copper without also ob- jecting to wheat. Wheat, however, does not contain anything like as much copper as some other foods and drinks. Beef liver and sheep liver, according to reliable and repeated analyses, contain, respectively, from 56 to 58 and 35 to 41 milligrams of metallic copper per kilo- gram of fresh substance, while in chocolate the enormous amount of 125 milligrams to the kilogram has been found. In conclusion, it is o~!v necessary to call attention to one other matter to,show how unjust and,discriminating it would be to condemn American fruits on the ground that they contain copper in unwholesome quantities. Analyses of vegetables that have been regreened by the copper process show that they may contain from two to sixty times as much of the metal as sprayed grapes. In this connection the presence of copper reported in various foodstuffs in the following amounts is of interest: From 4 to 10 milligrams per kilogram in wheat (43); 56 to 58 milligrams per kilo- gram in beef liver (105); about 40 milligrams per kilogram in sheep liver (35) (100); from 5.6 to 20.8 (44) and from 5 to 125 (31) milligrams per kilogram in chocolate; from 11.2 to 29.2 (44) and from 9 to 40 (31) milligrams per kilogram in cocoa; from 35 to 250 milligrams per kilogram in cocoa shells (31). Instances are cited (77) where as much as 270 milligrams of copper per kilo was found in French peas that had been sub- jected to the regreening process. Tschirch stated (127) that copper is widely distrib- uted in plant and animal bodies, always, however, in small amounts; that it enters the animal bodies through food and dust; but that the presence of copper in the bodies of man and other higher animals is not to be considered as ‘‘normal.’’ He stated further that plants absorb only small amounts of copper from the ground; that no danger to health need be expected from the consumption of wine from sprayed grapes or of potatoes from sprayed fields, and that even the must of coppered grapes may be eaten and the skins (containing 0.006 gram of copper per kilo) used as fodder; that spraying with copper against fungous diseases might be continued without fear of harm; that only very small quantities of the copper compounds entering the mouth POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 7 are taken up by the blood, and poisoning can occur only if the necessary quantity enters the circulation; and that to forbid copper in foods and drinks is to forbid those plants which take it up from the ground, and also to designate the use of bread and chocolate as dangerous to the health. Lehmann reported the following amounts of copper per kilogram in various plant and animal substances: In wheat, 7.5 milligrams; in cherries, 1.5 milligrams; in pears, 0.5 milligram; and in beef liver, from 6.4 to 59 milligrams (71) (73). He stated (72) that the species of the plant had far less influence than the quantity of the copper in the soil on the amount taken up by the plant. In 1891 objections to the use of American apples because of the presence on them of arsenic were made in certain British journals. However, Maynard (85), Munson (97), and Fletcher (38) proved that the objection had no basis in fact, and later (10) (103) (126) it became apparent that such objections to sprayed fruit in England were neither very general nor very deep-seated. Table 1 shows the amount of arsenic and copper found by R. C. Kedzie (66) on fruit sprayed with Bordeaux mixture and London purple in 1892 and 1893. Taste 1.—Arsenic and copper on fruit sprayed in 1892 and 1893 with Bordeaux mixture and London purple (Kedzie). | Fruit. Date sprayed. Sel Spray used. As,O3. | CuSO..5H20. 1892. 1892. Grains per pound. Strawhberries.......| June 18, 23....| June 24 | 6-4-32 Bordeaux, 1 pound Lon- 0. 0440 4.37 d don purple, 200 gallons water. TD Yo) tec ae ie es CISA csc dove. 2-13-32 Bordeaux, 1 pound . 0298 1.821 London purple, 200 gallons water. Red cherries.....-. June 18, 30..-.| July 6 | 6-4-32 Bordeaux, 1 pound Lon- . 0882 . 390 don purple, 200 gallons water. LDXO NES ar Nes Sie ea doe asad onsets 2-13-32 Bordeaux, 1 pound . 0250 252 London purple, 200 gallons yas FR water. White cherries.....) June 30........| July 1 | 6-4-32 Bordeaux, 1 pound Lon- SIGH BegeseGeyasoes : don purple, 200 gallons water. Red currants..-... Maye, H une | July. 8 | London purple...-...:2..--2...- ODO ese eiel= «later iara'= , ? o Raspberries........ June 6, 28,} Juiy 20 | 2-14-32 Bordeaux, 1 pound - 0098 | . 028 July 8. London purple, 200 gallons water. -Gooseberries......- June 18, 29,| Aug. 2 | 64-32 Bordeaux, 1 pound Lon- . 0233 . 601 July 8, 22 don purple, 200 gallons water. TDG) aS ae eee ea ees GOs EERIE On eeed ee Oma ate Ate OCR Re RE Rp es . 0372 362 IRQS Seen caates June 15, July | Sept. 6|..... LORE Be ene ia ten . 0088 . 0738 7, 2U, Aug. 7. | 1893. IDO See Hearne Majy, ol 5 edu ei) | eee No London purple, 2-2-32 Bor- |......---- . 100 q ; i 12, July 10. deaux. Russian cherries...| May 14, June |........-- | First 3 dates, 2-2-32 Bordeaux; |...-....--- . 147 ay; 18, July last date, ‘‘eauceleste.”’ oO. | | IPibEe boo Su gaara CG YP tS 6 0 a (Bees GUC Gb RS ar eetlg dt atc he aie be Le he ae es RE . 200 The skins from 1 pound of the sprayed pears gave 0.106 grain and the flesh gave 0.071 grain of copper sulphate, ‘‘showing that while - most of the copper salt adheres to the surface, a portion finds its _ way into the body of the fruits.” 8 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In 1893 Davis (30) reported the determinations of arsenic on eelery that had been sprayed with Paris green at the rate of 1 pound to 175 gallons of water. The results, obtained on the celery washed without separating the stalks and prepared as for market, were as follows: Sprayed once, 0.0244 grain of arsenious oxid per pound of celery; sprayed twice, 0.0368 grain of arsenious oxid per pound of celery. In 1893 Beach reported (12) the presence of from 0.00042 to 0.001 per cent of copper in celery that had been sprayed with Bordeaux or ammoniacal copper carbonate solution, and 0.00081 per cent in unsprayed celery, concluding that ‘these investigations show that when this sprayed celery was stripped and ready for market the sprayed plants were no more poisonous than the unsprayed.” In 1894 Kinney (68) stated that the skins and stems of pears which had been sprayed five times with Bordeaux mixture (6 pounds of copper sulphate, 4 pounds of lime, and 22 gallons of water), and upon which the spray was still visible at harvest contained only 0.016 grain of copper oxid per pear, for which reason no serious objection to this treatment could be raised from a hygienic stand- point. In 1894 Garman reported (49) that the skins and ends of six apples from a tree that had been sprayed once with London purple and five times with Paris green at the rate of 1 pound to 160 gallons of water showed on analysis no arsenic and only an unweighable amount of copper. The flesh and cores of these apples gave no reaction for arsenic or copper. He reported also (50) that cured tobacco which had been sprayed with arsenites, at the rate of 1 pound to 160 gallons of water, gave on analysis 0.077 grain of arsenious oxid and 0.042 erain of copper oxid per pound with one spraying with Paris green; 0.133, 0.259, and 0.329 grain of arsenious oxid and 0.126, 0.210, and 0.322 grain of copper oxid per pound with two sprayings with Paris ereen; and 0.245 grain of arsenious oxid per pound with two spray- ings with London purple. Later (1904) this author stated (51) that arsenites such as Paris green can be used on cabbage without leaving a trace sufficient for recognition by the chemist. In 1901, cabbages which had been sprayed with Paris green or lead arsenate showed on analysis ‘‘traces of poison present.’ In 1902, and again in 1903, - sprayed cabbages were analyzed, but the chemist ‘‘was unable to find a trace of poison present.” In 1897 Teyxeira (123) found from 20 to 40 milligrams of copper | in 1 kilogram of juice from tomatoes that had been sprayed with copper sulphate, and none after treatment with Bordeaux, unless the skin was cracked. He stated that the copper sulphate penetrates the skin into the flesh, but that the copper-lime mixture does not. POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 9 In 1898 Hoffmann reported (62) the presence of from 0.0046 to 0.0128 gram of copper per liter in wines, but failed to give the history of the samples. Later he reported 0.00096 and 0.0058 gram of copper per liter in wine, 0.0028 and 0.0056 gram of copper per liter in must, 0.0027 and 0.0045 gram of copper per liter in grape-skin wine, and 0.053 gram of copper per 100 grams in the grape skins. Selby found (117) 0.0004 gram of copper per 100 grams of grapes to be the maximum amount on the samples he examined. To show that sprayed grapes can be safely used for making wine he cites Kriiger (69), “that in the different musts different amounts of copper, at the beginning of fermentation, or just before the beginning, enter into an insoluble and consequently an inert (copper) compound, in consequence of the presence of greater or less amounts of organic acids. From this condition it is likely that the copper of the must, arising from the spraying of the grapes, is without any importance. for the wine.” Gibbs and James (57) reported that 292 of 352 samples of wine examined contained no arsenic, 58 contained from a trace to 1 part in 8,000,000, 1 contained 1 part in 5,000,000, and another 1 part in 2,500,000. They stated also that of 200 samples of wine examined by C.S. Ash the three highest in arsenic contained 1 part in 6,000,000, 1 part in 8,000,000, and 1 part in 14,000,000. ‘The most probable sources of the major part of that found are arsenical sprays when used upon the vines, sulphur burned for the purpose of sulphuring the wines and receptacles, and perhaps to some extent the lead shot used in cleaning the bottles.’ A sample of sulphur from a California winery was found to contain arsenic in the proportion of 1 part in 5,000. It is not stated whether these wines were the product of sprayed vines. In 1906 Roger Marés (82) reported that he found no trace of arsenic in wine from a vine treated a month before grape gathering with a copper-arsenical mixture, and he accordingly continued to recommend this combined mixture as a spray for the vines in Algiers. The same year Von der Heide (61) reported the results shown in Table 2 on products of vines that had been sprayed with lead arse- nate. TABLE 2.— Metals on products of vines sprayed with lead arsenate (Von der Heide). Arsenic. | Lead. | Copper. Grapes (bunches) (milligrams per 100 grams)............-.-------- Me 0.3 Oe 7a eae eas Grapes (individual) (milligrams per 100 grams)...............------------ 59} | AN Slee dit Stems (mullicrams perl OOjerams) ass. wena NA: eRe NUL NO NL aa Tae TOL6 a sae Leaves (milligrams per 100 grams) ....... 2-22.22 22 c2 ee eee cece cece cceeeeeee 16.0 oe 27 ae .4- .6 | .8 \ BASE InIIoe 3 SS rae eh 50) ROLE ee ail OIA a ace AVA 3.0 Ee ceo eoooes Pry lees (milligrams per 100 grams).........-.242.. 52.222 2- cs eee eee eee 12.9 201 TA ane ae i 72638—22—Bull. 1027 9 hod 10 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The German Imperial Health Commission was opposed to the use of lead arsenate in the spraying of grapes because arsenic and lead were found in the wine. In 1907 Szameitat (121) (122) reported the following results of analyses of musts, wines, and grapes from vines sprayed with arsenic compounds: From a trace to 0.9 milligram of arsenic in 300 grams of erapes; none to 0.14 milligram of arsenic in 300 cubic centimeters of must; none or only a trace in 300 cubic centimeters of wine. Of 38 samples of German wine examined, 24 showed small amounts of arse- nic, the largest amount being 0.05 milligram in 100 cubic centimeters of wine. The source of arsenic was not identified. The use of arsenic compounds for the destruction of insects that devastated vines having become more or less general in central France, in spite of the fact that the French ordinance of 1846 pro- hibited the use of arsenic for the destruction of insects, the question arose as to the danger of such use. In 1907 Bertin-Sans and Ros (14), who were among the first in France to publish an answer to this question, found less than 0.001 milligram of arsenic in 145 grams of unripe grapes gathered one month after spraying with sodium arsenate, and 0.002, 0.001, 0.030, and 0.040 milligram of arsenic per liter in wine from arsenical treated vines. These investigators stated that as sheep and cows were not admitted to the sprayed vines and were not fed the sprayed fohage until after harvest there was no danger to these animals, but that rabbits and snails might be poisoned by eating sprayed foliage, and, since snails can tolerate a fairly large amount of arsenic, persons should refrain from eating them during the spraying season. As lead is a cumulative poison, it was considered more prudent to use arsen- icals other than lead arsenate, although no data existed to show that there was danger in the use of lead arsenate as an insecticide. Bertin- Sans and Ros believed that the chief danger in the use of arsenicals arose from mistakes due to carelessness and that if suitable regula- tions were enforced no danger was to be feared. Since the ordinance of 1846 was a dead letter, it seemed to them much better to have the arsenicals handled under definite regulations. In 1908 (15) they stated that as they had found only traces of arsenic in wine from vines sprayed with arsenicals, there was no ground for the fear that the arsenic would pass into the wine if the vines had been sprayed before the grapes were in bloom. In 1909 Truelle (125) (126) concluded that the advantages of. arsenical spraying were so great that its use under regulation should be authorized in France. F ; Cazeneuve (21), thinking that the use of arsenical insecticides was a serious menace to the public health, asked (1908) for the strict en- forcement of the ordinance of 1846. ‘Riche (112) and Gautier (52), POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 11 on the other hand, believed that the use of arsenicals, with the ex- ception of lead arsenate, should be permitted m agriculture, but only under proper regulation. In 1909, a committee appointed by the Academy of Medicine (1) (21) (112) to study this question recommended (96) the strict en- forcement of the ordinance, thus causing a very lively discussion. Weiss (130), believing that the committee did not have sufficient evidence to substantiate its recommendation, proposed a medical investigation, this proposal being adopted (2) and sent to the min- - ister of the interior as the advice of the academy. A year later the academy asked (32) that a new investigation, essentially medical, be carried on for two years, and, to avoid accidents, recommended _ strict regulations in the use of arsenicals and the complete exclusion of lead arsenate. The direction of the investigation was to be in- trusted to the councils of hygiene and the sanitary commissions of each department, after consultation with the professors of agricul- ture (33). In 1911, dissatisfied with the lack of enforcement of its suggestions, the academy decided (34) to recall to the public powers the conditions they had recommended as to the use of arsenicals in agriculture. Malvy, undersecretary of state, stated (80) that since the investigation conducted by the minister of the interior had dis- closed no accident, either among the workers who handled the ar- senicals or among the consumers, to prohibit the use of lead arsenate would be to impose useless annoyances on merchants and viticul- turists. In 1913 the minister of the interior submitted to the Acade- my of Medicine a draft of a decree carrying modifications of the ordi- nance of 1846, permitting the use of insoluble arsenicals in agri- culture (3). After much discussion (5) (22) (53) (54) (76), articles 9 and 10 of the draft, authorizing the use of arsenicals in agriculture under speci- fied regulations, were adopted by the academy (4) (5), with the recom- mendation that the order of the minister of agriculture dealing with the precautions to be taken in their use should apply to all arsenicals and not merely to lead arsenate, and article 11, which prohibited the sale and use of soluble arsenic salts, was amended to permit their sale when “‘denatured”’ (5). The academy also voted (5) that the public powers be requested to take every means to inform the public of these reguiations and to impose penalties for their infraction, and that the Government be requested to encourage researches to find substitutes for arsenicals. The French decree authorizing the use of insoluble arsenicals in agriculture, under regulation (81), and the minister of agriculture’s instructions for the sale and use of these -arsenical compounds were published in 1916 (86). The sale and use of soluble arsenicals as insecticides were prohibited. Breteau (17) analyzed 15 samples of wine from vines sprayed with _ arsenicals, finding from none to 0.04 milligram of arsenic per liter in 12 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 12 of the samples and 0.1, 0.1, and 0.2 milligram of arsenic per liter in the other three. He attributed the higher content of arsenic in the last three samples to the fact that the wines had been sulphured. If, as held by Gautier and Clausmann (55), a normal wine contains about 0.01 milligram of arsenic, he felt that the arsenical treatment of vines will introduce into the wine less than 0.03 milligram of arsenic per liter. Mestrezat (87) considered that the only danger from the use in viticulture of arsenical insecticides occurs when they are placed near other substances which resemble them so closely as to be easily mistaken for them. In 1906 Forbes (39) reported 36.6 and 32.9 parts of arsenious oxid per million in peelings of apples sprayed the preceding day with lead arsenate and 40.1 parts of arsenious oxid per million in peelings of apples gathered two months after being sprayed heavily with lead arsenate. He considered that lead arsenate could be substituted for the more common insecticide sprays if discretion were exercised in its use. In 1910 Giinther (60) reported the results given in Table 3 on fruits that had been sprayed once with a mixture containing 300 grams of sodium arsenite and 425 grams of lead acetate per 100 liters. TaBLe 3.—Residue on fruits sprayed once with mixture containing 300 grams of sodium arsenite and 425 grams of lead acetate per 100 liters (Giinther). . : Days | | | .elapsed | , art. ; afterspray-| Arsenic. Lead. | ing. | Milligrams per 100 grams (OOSEDErTIGS it ae eine einen eens fears ase eee ates 2s ERE at dase 39 | 1. 000 | 2.16 Canmants rep e 522) 5 eee AEC peso ROE EN hohe, ogame eos rapes 39 | 7.140 | 16. 70 MBSE SE ae ee i SI re Ie Se ER Ue 80-106 | 120 be asse eer AT PLESA a PN aa? S Vem EIN NM Pk re CERT ADE BAR Reta) Metre es i Mee ieee tet | 80-106 | 074 Trace Oo epee ae tent Sie Se Cems a Sep eb Mrs onsen ok 5 PMNS eae ee Veta 80-106 | 057 0. 017 He reported the results given in Table 4 on fruits dusted once with a mixture consisting of 2 parts of freshly slaked lime, 4 partse of sulphur, and 1 part of Paris green. TABLE 4.—Residue on fruits dusted once with a mixture consisting of 2 parts of freshly slaked lime, 4 parts of sulphur, and 1 part of Paris green (Giinther). | | - Days | elapsed r F | after dust- Arsenic. Copper. ing. | Milligrams per 100 | qrams z GooSebernies res ka. 5 ee eS har Se een 39 0. 8300 | 0. 560 ECA RS Seeeciaiea let aaa beer dian tein Saeed ts ince — 5 MR se os 39 2.1200 930 CUTAN tse pct Se es Se ce idee oo le AR oT ete 39 1.6100 oe ease os BO) atts eae iil, Ose oat ak eae Ma tc Nak Lei. ae AI: asians 39 1. 5300 870 Pears hata g vies he SO ie lh a en ee ear a2! sink aie 80-105 . 0720 240 Feiyoy 0) Cassese seco atx alae cl aceh RS Er wal heehee Rr a re ay a sh bl 80-106 . 0420 067 Oe h ree gat USER A UU a Re ee eB ie i os 80-106 . 0084 095 LX ee ea od OU NY 0 all ts aa he IN 80-106 . 0420 O11 Sweeticherries 220 chs Stel Sada ese eee Fy) ea i MN ei ae eee 24 . 2000 - 160 SOUTICHELDIOS oooh Se ae eaten eta ee ante e Se eee bo MTS ee oct are 24 - 3200 . 250 Bhs: Sysescare ces Bayes hie sea tery Sega er ee ew oes) eel 24 . 5000 Trace. POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 13 In 1910 Bedini (13) reported from 0.2 to 0.4 milligram of arsenious oxid per kilogram in the skins of pears that had been sprayed with arsenate of iron, and only a trace of arsenic in the pulp. The same year Porchet (110) reported that pears sprayed with lead arsenate contained:as much as 0.3 milligram of arsenious oxid per kilogram in both the pulp and the skin; that the skins of unsprayed pears contained 0.035 milligram of arsenious oxid per kilogram of fruit; that sprayed grapes contained traces of arsenic, apparently the same in the interior as on the exterior of the fruit, the highest amount obtained being 0.2 milligram per kilogram of grapes; and that the traces of arsenic passed from the grapes into the must, but that the arsenic was precipitated as sulphid during the fermentation. Chuard (24) also found that the arsenic in the must was precipitated as sulphid during the fermentation. Fetel (37), in 1910, reported that 10 samples of grapes bought on the market in Algeria on August 8 and 25, September 1 and 19, and October 3 contained an average of 0.038 milligram of arsenic per kilogram, while unsprayed grapes, collected on August 8 and September 1 and 8, contained no arsenic. Grapes sprayed twice ‘before blossoming, with a Bordeaux-sodium-arsenate mixture, and gathered on August 10 and 25 and September 5 and 22, contained, respectively, 0.185, 0.083, 0.074, and 0.074 milligram of arsenic per kilogram. Grapes sprayed twice before flowering with arsenious acid and on July 24 with Bordeaux-arsenious-acid mixtures, and gathered on July 24 before and after this last spraying, on August 22, and on September 15, contained, respectively, 0.056, 0.467, 0.149, and 0.112 milligram of arsenic per kilogram. In 1909 and 1910 Brioux and Griffon (18) found 0.001, 0.001, and 0.004 milligram of arsenic per kilogram in three lots of pears that had been sprayed with a Bordeaux-lead-arsenate mixture. They also reported that, although apples which had been sprayed with lead arsenate on June 8 and June 22, 1910, contained when ex- amined in July 1.3 milligrams of arsenic and 14.2 milligrams of lead per kilogram, yet in September, at harvest time, the apples and the cider contained no lead and only traces of arsenic. Moreau and Vinet (92), in 1910, reported that grapes sprayed with lead arsenate on May 27 and June 6 contained, respectively, on June 22 and September 14, about 2 and 0.28 milligrams of lead arse- nate per bunch, and that 165 grams of moist lees contained 1.38 milli- grams of lead arsenate, but that the wines contained no lead or arsenic. They found (93) that only 1 per cent of the lead arsenate which they had applied on May 31 was retained by the grapes, 0.58 milligram per bunch, and that with the development of the grapes a second spraying was necessary on June 14 to control the first generation of the cochylis larva. They also found that a spraying on August 6 to control the 14 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. second generation of this insect adhered mostly to the stems. They concluded from other experiments (94) that, since grapes sprayed twice with lead arsenate before flowering, on May 31 and June 14, showed no lead or arsenic at harvest time, October 15, there would be no danger in consuming grapes sprayed so early, but that, since grapes sprayed after the flowering period, on August 6, showed 0.40 milligram of lead arsenate per 100 grams of grapes at harvest time, October 27, there might be danger in consuming grapes sprayed so late in the season. They reported further (95) that wines from vines treated before the flowering period with lead arsenate could be con- sumed without danger, since only faint traces of lead and arsenic were found in wines from such vines and that the lead and arsenic were eliminated during the process of the making of the wine, being found principally in the mare and in small amounts in the lees. In 1911 Ampola and Tommasi (7) stated that foodstuffs derived from plants treated with arsenical compounds always contain arsenic, usually in traces, but sometimes as much as 2 milligrams or even more per kilogram in fruits and 1.5 milligrams per liter in wine, amounts greater than that allowed by the Royal Commission on Arsenical Poisoning in England (11) (115). In 1912 Muttelet and Touplain (99) reported that the grapes, mares, wines, piquettes, and lees which came from vines treated with lead arsenate contained about the same amount of arsenic as was found in the products from vines not treated, that the wines and piquettes contained no lead, but that the lees in certain cases contained an appreciable quantity of lead, in which cases there was danger in the consumption of wine or piquette before the deposition oi the lees. and that grapes sometimes retained on their surface a quantity of lead which rendered dangerous their consumption in a natural state. The same year Carles and Barthe (20) reported that the wines from vines sprayed before the formation of the fruit with excess of lead arsenate contained only negligible traces of arsenic and lead and that those from vines normally treated with lead arsenate contained neither arsenic nor lead, but that the lees contained 0.0028 and 0.0004 gram of arsenic per liter and traces of lead. According to Mathieu (83), unsprayed grapes and wines made from them contain only traces of arsenic, grapes from vines sprayed with arsenicals before flowering contain not more than 0.05 milligram of arsenic per kilogram, even in a dry year, red wine made from grapes treated with arsenicals in a year of abundant rain contains only a little more » arsenic than wine made from unsprayed grapes, the amount being less than 0.06 milligram per liter, and part of the arsenic in the grapes remains in the mare in making red wines, which wines, however, should not contain more than 0.05 milligram per liter. In 1914 Garino (48) stated that the amounts of arsenic met in analyses of oo POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 15 wines from grapes subjected to cupro-arsenical treatment are very small, being less than the minimum therapeutic dose of 5 milligrams, and therefore need cause no alarm. In 1913 Spallino (120) found in three samples of snuff 0.16, 0.40, and 0.34 milligram of arsenic per 100 grams of dried snuff, and in four samples of smoking tobacco 0.08, 1.02, 0.30, and 0.64 milligrams of arsenic per 100 grams of dry tobacco. Sonntag (119), in 1914, concluded from the results he obtained on ripe fruits and leaves treated in 1907 and 1908 with arsenical mix- tures that the arsenical sprays or dusts applied to fruit trees and bushes adhere to the fruits and are retained by them for a. long time, in many cases even until the ripening of the fruit. O’Gara (101) stated that the skin of apples sprayed with lead arsenate may occasionally absorb some arsenic. In such cases the skin is likely to develop red or black spots. Analysis of such spotted apple skins showed the presence of fractions of a milligram of arsenic. Woods (133) reported that apples sprayed with lead arsenate during the first week in August, 1913, carried upon their surface, about two months after spraying, from one-eighth to one-third milligram of lead arsenate per apple. He concludes that ‘‘midsummer spray- ing with lead arsenate is an effective way of combating the brown- tail moth,” and “the amount of arsenic or of lead that will remain at harvest upon the apples that are sprayed in midsummer with arsenate of lead is so-slight as to have no practical bearing.”’ In 1916 Trofimenko and Obiedoff (124) reported that grapes treated with wet arsenical mixtures under conditions most favorable for the continuance of the arsenical salts, both on the grapes and in the must, yielded unobjectionable wines. No arsenic was found in white wine and only 0.0002 gram of arsenious oxid per liter in red wine. The lees might be used for extracting the tartar, washing being enough to remove the arsenates. Muttelet (98) stated that the wine and piquette from vines treated with copper sulphate and lead arsenate, even after the formation of the grapes, contained no lead or copper, and no more than traces of arsenic. The pomace wine con- tained no lead, traces of copper, and 5 milligrams of arsenic per hectoliter. The lees contained 500 milligrams of lead, 10 milligrams of arsenic, and traces of copper per liter. The air-dried marc con- tained 200 milligrams of lead, 0.1 milligram of arsenic, and traces of copper per kilogram. Liberi, Cusmano, Marsiglia, and Zay (74) found copper in the fruit of tomatoes in amounts varying from 0.14 to 2.10 milligrams per kilogram of juice and pulp, and from 3.8 to 19.5 milligrams per kilogram of dry matter. The soils upon which the tomatoes were grown contained copper up to 110 milligrams per kilogram. These ‘investigators stated that the spraying with copper mixtures had no 16 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. effect upon the copper content of the tomatoes. It appeared that the copper found in the tomatoes came from the soil, whence the plants assimilated it in different proportions, according to the nature of the soil or under the influence of other factors. _In 1917 Carles (19) stated that copper occurs in small amounts in agricultural products and in larger amounts in calf liver and beef liver. O'Kane, Hadley, and Osgood (102) reported the following amounts of arsenic (calculated as As,O,) on fruits and vegetables that had been sprayed with dry lead arsenate equivalent to 3 pounds of lead arsenate paste to 50 gallons of water: Apples picked at intervals ranging from 3 to 91 days after spraying, 0.08 to 0.77 milligram per apple when picked carefully, 0.02 to 0.50 milligram when picked in the ordinary way, 0.10 to.0.21 milligram when picked with cotton gloves, and 0.08 to 0.18 milligram when picked with cotton gloves and wiped; strawberries picked 2 and 6 days after spraying, from 8.6 to 34.2 milligrams per quart; currants picked 3, 6, and 8 days after spraying, from 6.8 to 10.2 milligrams per quart; blackberries picked on the day they were sprayed, from 3.8 to 11.2 milligrams per quart; cabbage gathered 2 and 8 days after spraying, from 43.5 to 51.4 milligrams per head; and lettuce gathered 1 and 6 days after spraying, from 1.6 to 10.6 milligrams per head. The maximum amount of lead arsenate spray that would adhere to an apple, when sprayed directly, was found to be an amount equivalent to 4 milligrams of arsenious oxid. Such fruit gave evidence of spray material on its surface. EXPERIMENTAL WORK. The investigation conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture included experiments on peaches, cherries, plums, apples, pears, grapes, cranberries, tomatoes, celery, and cucumbers. The spraying schedules are shown in Tables 5 to 14. METHODS OF ANALYSIS. The following methods of analysis were employed: Of the whole fruit and pulp, dry 200 to 300 grams of sample on the steam bath in glass dishes, and report loss as “loss on drying.”’ (For the determinations on the skins, use parings from 4 apples; for the calyx and stem end determinations, use 12 apples and corresponding amounts in the case of other fruits.) Transfer the dried residues to casseroles and add 100 to 200 ce. nitric acid. Heat the mixture, if neces- sary, to start action, and when violent action is over cautiously add 20 cc. sulphuric acid. Heat on hot plate, removing at intervals to add small amounts (3 to 5 cc.) of- nitric acid (do not allow the solution to become } lack), and when the oxidation is complete evaporate until sulphuric acid fumes are given off. Cool, dilute with water, and again evaporate to sulphuric acid fumes. Cool, dilute with al out 100 cc. of 50 per cent alcohol, and let stand over night. Filter and wash with 80 per cent alcohol. Save sulphate precipitate for lead determination. The copper and arsenic are deter- mined in the filtrate. Evaporate the filtrate to small volume on steam } ath to remove alcohol. Make to volume. POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 17 Arsenic.—Determine arsenic in an aliquot by the Gutzeit method (Bur. Chem. Circ. 102), modified as follows: The aliquot should contain less than 0.08 mg. arsenic. Dilute to 50 ce. Add strong sulphuric acid so as to have 10 ce. present Add 1 gram sodium chlorid to the aliquot in a small Erlenmeyer flask, heat on steam bath to about 90° C., then add 1 cc. of a stannous chlorid solution containing 0.5 gram dissolved in hydro- chloric acid, and leave on steam bath for about 5 minutes (temperature near 90° C.). Remove from steam bath, transfer to the 4-ounce generating bottle, dilute to 100 cc., and cool to room temperature. This generating bottle is connected by a rubber stopper with an upright tube 8 cm. long, 1 cm. diameter, containing lead acetate paper. This tube is connected by a rubber stopper with a similar tube containing cotton moistened with 5 per cent lead acetate solution. Connected by a rubber stopper with thistube isa capillary tube 3mm.in diameter, 12 cm. in length, carrying the strip of mercuric bromid paper. Prepare these strips as follows: Cut heavy, close- textured drafting paper into strips 2mm. by 12 cm.; then soak them for an hour in 5 per.cent alcoholic mercuric bromid solution, take out, rapidly squeeze off excess of solution, separate on glass rods, and allow to dry. Place three pieces of stick zine (about 10 grams) in the generating bottle and joinit immediately to the apparatus tubes. Allow the determination to run for 14 hours, keeping the temperature down to room temperature by placing the bottle in cool water. From standards plot a curve showing milligrams of arsenic to millimetersin length. As high as 0.08 milli- gram of arsenic can be read ona paper. Determine the larger quantities of arsenic by passing the arsine into a mercuric chlorid solution and either weigh the mercurous chliorid or titrate the arsenious oxid. (Bur. Chem. Circ. 102, p. 5.) Copper.—Introduce an aliquot into a 100 ec. Erlenmeyer flask. Neutralize the acid with ammonia, add 2 to 3 cc. hydrochloric acid for every 50 cc. of solution, and saturate the solution with hydrogen sulphid. Stopper flask and let stand over night. Filter off the copper sulphid and wash with hydrogen sulphid water. Place the filter paper containing the copper sulphid in a 50 cc. casserole, burn off the paper, dissolve residue in 5 cc. (1:1) nitric acid, evaporate to dryness, add water and 1 drop ammonia, make faintly acid with acetic acid, and add a few drops of a 2 per cent potassium ferrocyanide solution. Compare with standards. Lead.—Dissolve the sulphate précipitate, previously referred to, in hot 10 per cent ammonium acetate solution, add 2 cc. (0.1 per cent solution) gum arabic, and make to volume with hydrogen sulphid water in 50 cc. (or 100 cc.) Nessler tubes. Com- pare the tubes thus prepared with standards made up similarly with gum arabic, ammonium acetate, known amounts of lead, and hydrogen sulphid water. Where copper alone is to be determined, heat the dried sample cautiously over a Bunsen burner and finally ash at the mouth of the electric-muffle furnace. Add 5 cc. (1:1) nitric acid to the ash, evaporate almost to dryness on steam bath, dilute, and make alkaline with ammonia. Filter off precipitate and wash. Dissolve precipitate, reprecipitate with ammonia, and wash. Evaporate the united filtrates to dryness, add water and one drop ammonia, make slightly acid with acetic acid, and add a few drops 2 per cent potassium ferrocyanide solution. Compare with standards. The presence of between 0.02 and 0.24 milligram of copper can be determined by this method. Larger amounts may be determined by taking an aA uot; by comparing in ammoniacal solutions, or p by slawireliaete The presence of from 0.02 to 0.24 milligram of lead can be read in the 50 cubic centimeter Nessler tubes, larger amounts by using 100 cubic centimeter Nessler tubes or by taking a smaller aliquot. 72638—22—Bull. 1027——3 18 BULLETIN. 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The whole and pulp of apples were fumed in 7-inch casseroles and the skins were fumed in 5-inch casseroles, all being transferred to 4-inch casseroles before final fuming. Casseroles were covered until final fuming. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK. The results of the chemical analyses appear in Tables 5 to 15, inclusive. TaBLE 5.—Arsenic and lead remaining on sprayed peaches at picking time. i wo | 5 Arsenic(As).| Lead (Pb). is aA | os | 3 Sam- | Date Determi- -) = 3 ple Spray material used.) |. veq, | nations | s ZU cs) TOI IRO g 2 oO No. | Sprayed. | madeon.| £3 | °8/.88 | 2s | 2 5 So | ae Ms jos | tos | -as o Me 2 Ba Paap Peep ee |e =| a ® é @ io) a Oo” }A < A Se Mg. per 1915. Parts per million peach P.ct.| Gr. 23196 2 | 48 lbs. hydratedlime,2 | May 93) Whole 4.| 0.13 | 0.90 | 0.40 | 2.7 |0.014 |0.042 | 85.3 | 105.3 Ibs. lead arsenate | Pulp.-...| .06 | .40] .20] 1.4] .005 | .016 | 85.8 (powder). Skin....} .42 | 2.60) 1.20} 7.3 | .009 | .026 | 83.6 2 lbs. lead arsenate(pow- | May 26 der), 32 lbs-hydrated lime, 16 lbs. sulphur. 16 lbs. sulphur, 34 lbs. | July 10 hydrated lime. | 231972 | 46 ibs. hydrated lime, | May 93) Whole‘.) .18 | 1.30; .40| 2.8 | .018 | .040 | 85.7 | 100.5 4 lbs. lead. arsenate Pulpa.S3|9-.08"|- 2607 2210 .7 | .006 | .008 | 86.0 | (powder). Skin....}| .61 | 4.00 | 1.60 | 10.4 | .012 | .032 | 84.6 32 lbs. sulphur, 4 lbs... May 26 1 lead arsenate (powder), | 14 lbs. hydrated lime. | 32 lbs. sulphur, 18 lbs. | July 10 hydrated lime. 23198 2} 44 lbs. hydrated lime, | May 93) Whole‘.| .25 | 1.80} .80] 5.7 | .024 | .076 | 85.9! 95.2 6 lbs. lead arsenate Pulp.-.-..) .08 -60] .20 1.4 | .006 | .015 | 86.1 A (powder). Skin....| .90 | 6.10 | 3.00 | 20.4 | .018 | .061 | 85.3 ! 44 Ibs. sulphur, 6 Ibs. | May 26 lead arsenate (powder). Sulphur alone.......... July 10 | 231992 | 11b. lead arsenate (pow-| May 9 | Whole4.)/ .20] 1.50) .30]| 2.2} .020/} .029 | 86.2! 98.0 der), 50 galls. water. Pulp se ieO8s ss 603) 710 -8 | .007 | .008 | 86.7 | 50 galls. self-boiledlime- | May 26 | Skin....| .66 | 4.20] 1.10} 7.0} .013 | .021 | 84.2. sulphur, 1 1b. lead ar- | | senate (powder). | | Self-boiled lime-sulphur.| July 10 | 232002 | Check (unsprayed).....|-.-------- Whole ‘.} .12| .90 0 0} .010 | .0 86.7); 83.6 Pulp: .-2\ 2074) 250 0 0| .005 | .0 87.0 Skin....} .29 | 2.00 0 0 | .005 | .0 85.3 232012 | 78 lbs. terraalba,32lbs.| May 93} Whole4.| .13 | 1.00 .0 0} .012 | .0 86.5 | 92.2 sulphur. Pulp....| .02 . 20 a0 0} .001 | .0 87.0 DO eects «-..-| May 26] Skin....| .63 | 4.00 .0 0|.011 | .0 84.3 DDO en rena nietivine July 10 232022 | 78 lbs. hydrated lime,} May 93] Whole‘.| .10 - 80 0 0} .009 | .0 86.7 | 88:4 32 Ibs. sulphur. Pulp?!) a e09))} v0 0 0 | .006 | .0 87.1 Do essere 5. St May 26 | Skin....| .14 . 90 0 0 | .003 | .0 85.0 IDO Sasa ee enn July 10 232032 | 10 lbs. lead arsenate | May 93] Whole4.| .13 . 90 30!) 2.1] .013 ! .030 | 85.4 | 101.8 (powder), 90 lbs. hy- Pulp....| .08 |} .60 | .20]| 1.4 | .007 | .017 | 85.8 drated lime. Skin....]/ .35 | 2.10 -70 | 4.4 | .006 | .013 | 84.2 DOS ADE Soe. May 26 232042 | 8lbs.sulphur,3ozs. glue | May 93] Whole4.| .10| .70}] .30}| 2.0] .009 | .025 | 85.1] 86.0 (used in water to wet Pulp...-| .04 | .30]| .10 .7 | .003 | .007 | 85.4 sulphur), 8 Ibs. hy- Skin....} .34 ) 2.10 | 1.00] 6.3 | .006 | .018 | 84.1 drated lime, 11b.lead arsenate (powder), 50 galls. water. DOS ee aoe cea ee May 26 8 lbs.sulphur,3o0zs. glue | July 10 (used in water to wet sulphur), 8 lbs. hy- drated lime, 50 galls. water. 1 Where no mention is made of water in the formula the material was applied as dust. £ Delaware variety, harvested Aug. 12-18, Berlin, Md. 8 As shucks fell. 4 Without stones. POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 19 TABLE 5.—Arsenic and lead remaining on sprayed peaches at picking time—Continued, 2 Delaware variety, harvested Aug. 12-18, Berlin, Md. 3 As shucks fell. 4 Without stones. 5 Delaware variety, harvested Aug. 12-18, Springfield, W. Va. ° ~_ Arsenic(As).| Lead (Pb). a | ‘ by os Sam- Date Dever mn = a = is 8 7 ES 2 oO o ple Spray material used. sprayed. ane aan Ee Sue Be Ske . B be ; &S |) 08 oo ve | B g 2 oS Chie haan a < 4 5 < Mq. per 1915. Parts per million. | peach. P.c!.| Gr 232052 | Sprayed lightly with I | May 93) Whole‘.| 0.16 | 1.20 | 0.30 |. 2.2 (0.013 0.025 | 86.1 | 84.1 Ib. lead arsenate Pulp....| .04} .30/ .10 .7 | .003-| .007 | 86.3 (powder), 50 galls. Skin....| .60 | 4.10 | 1.00 | 6.8 | .010 | .018 | 85.3 water. 8 lbs. sulphur, 8 lbs. | May 26 stonelime, 50galls.wa- ter (self-boiled lime- sulphur), 1 lb. lead arsenate (powder). ‘ Self-boiledlime-sulphur. | July 10 232062 | Sprayed heavily with1 | May 93! Whole‘.| .30/1.90| .70| 4.4 | .021 | .049 | 84.0] 69.5 lb. lead arsenate Pulp....; .06| .40; .30] 1.9, .003 | .016 ! 84.2 (powder), 50 galls. Skin.. ..| 1/30 | 7.80 | 2.50 | 15.1 | .018 | .033 | 83.4 water. | 8 Ibs. sulphur, 8 Ibs. | May 26 stone lime, 50galls.wa- ter (self-boiled lime- sulphur), 1 lb. lead arsenate (powder). Self-boiled lime-sulphur.| July 10 23207? | Commercially sprayed | May 93) Whole?..) .23 | 1.50] .60] 4.0] .019 |] .050 | 85.0] 83.4 with 1 lb. lead arse- Pulp... eos . 30 . 20 1.3 | .002 | .013 | 85.1 nate (powder), 50 Skin....| .96 | 6.30 | 2.10 | 13.7 | .017 | .037 | 84.7 galls. water. 8 Ibs. sulphur, 8 Ibs. | May 26 stone lime,59galls.wa- ter (self-boiled lime- sulphur), 1 lb. lead arsenate (powder). Self-boiled lime-sulphur.| July 10 23208° | -48 lbs. hydrated lime, | May 93) Whole‘.| .10| .60| .40} 2.6] .008 | .035 | 84.5] g81.2 2 Ibs. lead arsenate Pulp...-| .03 | .20|) .20] 1.3 | .002 | .013 | 84.6 (powder). Skin....| .36 | 2.30 | 1.40 8.8 | .006 | .022 | 84.0 2 Ibs. lead arsenate | May 26 | : (powder), 32 Ibs. hy- drated lime, 16 lbs. sulphur. 16 Ibs. sulphur, 34 lbs. | July 10 hydratedlime. 23209° | 46 Ibs. hydrated lime, | May 93/ Whole‘.| .21| 1.40] .70| 4.8] .014 | .045 | 85.3 | 65.8 : 4 Ibs. lead arsenate Pulp....| .08 | .50| .40} 2.7 | .004 | .020 | 85.4 (powder). Skin..-.) .70 | 4.60 | 1.70 | 11.2 | .010 | .025 | 84.8 32 lbs. sulphur, 4 Ibs. | May 26 lead arsenate (pow- der), 141bs. hydrated lime. 32 Ibs. sulphur, 18 Ibs. | July 10 hydrated lime. 232105 | 44 Ibs. hydrated lime, | May 9% Whole‘.| .67 | 4.40 | 1.40 | 9.1 | .040 | .083 | 84.6 | 59.3 6 lbs. lead arsenate Pulp....| .09 | .60) .20/ 1.3 | .004] .009 | 84.8 (powder). Skin....| 2.50 |15.40 | 5.10 | 31.5 | .036 | .074 | 83.8 44 lbs. sulphur, 6 lbs. | May. 26 lead arsenate (pow- der). Sulphur, with 5 per/ July 10 cent hydrated lime added. 232115 | 1lb.lead arsenate (pow-| May 93! Whole‘.| .30 | 2.00 | 1.20 7.9 | .018 | .070 | 84.8 58.7 der), 50 galls. water. Pulp....| -10| .70] .20| 1.4 | .004 | .007 | 85.2 Skin..-.} 1.00 ; 6.10 | 4.30 | 26.1 | .014 ! .063 | 83.5 50 galls. self-boiled lime- | May 26 sulphur, 1 1b. lead ar- senate (powder). : Self-boiled lime-sulphur.| July 10 232125 | Check (umsprayed)...../........-- Whole #.| .02| .13] .0 -0 | .001 | .0 84.4 | 67.4 1A Gea) os OO Nosy aes .0 -0 | .000 | .0 84.8 Skin....| .05 - 30 .0 -0 | .001 | .0 82.9 232135 | 78 lbs. terra alba, 32lbs.| May 93] Whole‘.| .06| .40]| .0 .0'| .003 | .0 85.1) 55.8 sulphur. Pulp....| .02| .14! .0 -0 | .001 | .0 85.6 Day Beata ee ea May 26] Skin....| .15| .90{ .0 .0 | .002 | .0 83.4 IDO eva Meme sem tnan July 10 20 BULLETIN 1027, U. S.-DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie 5.—Arsenic and lead remaining on sprayed peaches at picking time—Continued. | |Arsenic(As)., Lead (Pb). a = | om Sam- | Date Determi- | Ss a2) os ple Spray materialused. | ..;5yeq,| Dations | 3 eS ics se} 3 a oo No. | Sprayed. | made on.| 24 Seah) Hest | Sesh |) t= =s So 1 bP | |e | oe | BE TE | eae eau aS | Afg. per 1915, Parts per million. Ane. IPECE: || “Gir 232145 | 78 lbs. hvdrated lime, | May 93) Whole#.| 0.03 | 0.20 | 9.0 | 0.0 |0.002 |0.0 85. 0 Beak 32 Ibs. sulphur. | Pulp. .../|.3-03:)".220 | 0 )) 20s) 0015 R50 85.5 D ee 5 Skins ses 06u| 98621 920) 0| .001 | .0 83.2 | D Olas Siscesee ee | May 2 | TD) Obs tee ia Se | July 10 | | 232155 | 10 lbs. lead arsenate | May 93 Whole‘./ .12 .70 | .40 |} 2.4 .007 | .024 | 83.4] 56.3 (pewder), 90 Ibs. hy- | Pulp....| .06| .40| .20] 1.2..003'] .009\ | 83:5 | Grate’ lime. ui oA Skin....) .40 | 2.40) 1.40] 8.2 | -004 | .015 | 83.0 OMe cieieeeeisies | May ; | | | 232165 | 8 lbs. sulphur, 3 ozs. | May 93! Whole?‘ .| .17 | 1.10 | -40 | 2.6) .009 | .024 | 84.9 54.6 glue (used in water to | Pulp..-:|,.05:)— 30] -.20 | dc4@sl92002) 00M 118583") wet sulphur), 8 Ibs. | Skin...) .58:1-3.50 | 1.20 | -7:3:) .007 |. 013} 83.5 hydrated lime, 1 Ib. | | lead arsenate (pow- | | der), 50 galls. water. | | 1D Yo puetiae eta Se nena |! May 26 8 lbs. sulphur, 3 ozs. | July 10 | | glue (used in water to | | wet sulphur), 8 Ibs. | | hydrated lime, 50 | galls. water. | | | 234406 | Sprayed lightly with 2} June 1) Whole#.} .18/ 1.80 | .70| 6.9] .017 | .062 | 89.8 | 95.0 Ibs. lead arsenate Pulp ...2| .04) .40] .20] 2.1 | /003¥|-<012)190"4)) on peste), 2 ape ; Skin....| .72 | 5.80] 2.50 | 20.0 | .014 | .050 | 87.5 | stone lime, 50 galls. | water. | | | 2 lbs. lead arsenate | June 19 | | (com. paste), 50 galls. | | self-boiled lime-sul- phur (8-8-50). | | Self-boiled lime-sulphur | July 29 (8-8-50). | 234416 | Same as.No. 23440, but | Sameas | Whole ‘4.| .36 | 3.70 .90 | 9.2] .032 | .077 | 90.3! 89.3 heavier applications. | No. 23440 Da foe nee Bian | 2.1] .005 | .014 |} 90.8 | hob} is - 80 -20 | 27.6 | .027 | .063 | 88.4 234426 | 4 Ibs. lead arsenate | June 1} Whole4.} .30 | 2.90 .80 | 7.8] .028 | .076 | 89.7 | 95:1 (com. paste), 4 Ibs. Pulp...-|/-.06°| .60:) ~20)|* 250) | 3004, | }013) 290515) sone lime, 50 galls. Skin....} 1.20 |10.30 | 3.10 | 26.5 | .024 | .063 | 88.3 water. | 4 lbs. lead arsenate | June 19 f (com. paste), self- boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50). | | Self-boiled lime-sulphur | July 29 | (8-8-50). | . 23443614 lbs. lead arsenate | May 30) Whole!..| .36 | 3.10 | 1.40 | 12.0} .040 | .155 | 88.3 | 110.9 (powder), 96 lbs. hy- Pulp. 2-2) 2108-) 270.) 2.200) 1.75)" S007) AOU Ta Ress drated lime. Skin....| 1.50 /11.90 | 6.30 | 50.0 | .033 | .138 | 87.4 4 lbs. lead arsenate | June 19 (powder), 32 Ibs. sul- phur (200-mesh fine), 64 1bs. hydrated lime. 32 lbs. sulphur (200- | July 29 mesh fine), 68 lbs. hy- drated lime. 334446 | 8 Ibs. lead arsenate, | May 30/] Whole‘-| .67 | 5.60) 2.00) 16.8 | .070 | .209 | 88.1) 104.5 (powder), 92 lbs. hy- Pulp....| .10] .90} .20} 1.8] .008] .OL7 | 88.8 drated lime. Skin....| 2.90 |20.00 | 9.00 | 62.1 | .062 | .192 | 85.5 j 8 Ibs. lead arsenate | June 19 (powder), 32 lbs. sul- | | phur (200-mesh fine), 60 lbs. hydrated lime. | 64 Ibs. sulphur (200- | July 29 | mesh fine), 36 Ibs. | hydrated lime. +> As shucks fell. 4 Without stones. 5 Delaware variety, harvested Aug. 12-18, Springfield, W. Va. 5 Elberta variety, harvested Sept. 13, Benton Harbor, Mich. POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. Q] TaBLE 5.—Arsenic and lead remaining on sprayed peaches at picking time—Continued. if ° | 5 tet) » | |Arsenic(As).| Lead (Pb). aI as Sam- Date | Determi- ; oe S ple Spray material used. | . d nations | 3 se) 3 a) aS) q @ ® No. DrSVCCS made ore |) esp ess alee ieee ts Sh Bates See | See |e 3 RB | RS Brel & Bic=| a ie | oD) 36 © ST WSs how Sy Sena eran (hea 1 Mg. per | 1915. | Parts per million. peach. P.ct.| Gr 234456 | 12 lbs. lead arsenate | May 30 | Whole4 _| 0.80 | 7.10 { 2.60 | 23.0 |0. 091 [0.297 | 88.7 | 114.3 (powder), 88 lbs. hy- Pulps sl anon -60} .20/ 1.8) .006 | .013 | 89.0 drated lime. Skin. ...| 3.50 27.80 /11.60 | 92.1 | .085 | .284 | 87.4 12 lbs. lead arsenate | June 19 (powder), 88 Ibs. sul- phur (200-mesh fine). x | 100 lbs. sulphur (200- | July 29 mesh fine). | 234466 | 2 lbs. lead arsenate | May 30| Whole?‘.| .42 | 4.00] 1.10 | 10.4 | .044 | .115 | 89.4 | 104.7 (com. paste), 2 Ibs. Pulp....) .10} 1.00} .20; 2.0) .008 | .016 ; 89.8 stone lime, 50 galls. | Skin. ...| 1.50 |12.50 | 4.10 | 34.2 | .036 | .099 | 88.0 water. | | | 2 Ibs. lead arsenate) June 19 | (com. paste), self- | boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50) | | Self-boiled lime- “sulphur | July 29 | (8-8-50). | | | 234476 | 68 lbs. terra .alba, | May 30}! Whole‘.| .20}| 1.80} .34) 3.0] .020 | .034 | 88.8 | 100.5 32 Ibs. sulphur (200- | Parlp 2 23a lON S907 10 -9 | .008 | .010 | 89.1 mesh fine). i Skin....| .60) 4.90] 1.20] 9.8 | .012 | .024 | 87.8 I OMSE eter ce sesh ' June 19 | DOME SS u eee | July 29 | 234488 | 68 lbs. hydrated lime, | May 30] Whole4.) .24 | 2.30] .60)| 5.7 | .026 | .065 | 89.4 | 107.5 Ni) 32 Ibs. sulphur (200- Ue eee Odile GO |g 20 1.9 | .006 | .020 | 89.8 | mesh fine). Skin....} 1.10 | 8.70 | 2.50 | 19.7 | .020 | .045 | 87.3 June 19 | July 29 j 234496 | 10 Ibs. lead arsenate | May 30| Whole‘.| .94 | 8.00 | 2.40 | 20.5 | .115 | .295 | 88.3 | 122.8 | (powder), 90 Ibs. hy- Pulp....| .14 | 1.20] .20 1.7 | .014 | .020 | 88.5 drated lime. Skin....} 4.50 |35. 40 |12.20 | 96.1 | .101 | .275 | 87.3 DOs s5050n6aenaarcs June 19 | 234506 | Check plat (unsprayed).|.....:-... Whole‘.| .23 | 2.00} .40] 3.4] .026 | .046/ 88.3 | 114.2 Pulp at sa\eelOne 90h 4 1.2] .009 | .013 | 88.5 | Skin....| .77 | 6.10} 1.50 | 11.9 | .017 | .033 | 87.4 1916. | 256377 | Check plat (unsprayed).|.......... Whole#.| .04) .30] .40} 2.7] .005 | .052 | 85.1 | 129.4 | { ‘ Pulp. -25| OU 10) 330) e252 001s e031) 58654 Skin....| .20|) 1.20} .90) 5.3] .004 | .021 | 83.0 | 256387 | Self-boiled lime-sulphur|} A bout | Whole4-| .05 | .30} .50| 3.4] .005 | .045 | 85.4 | 90.9 ($-8-50), 2 Ibs. lead | May 14 Pulp....| .01]| .10] .40| 2.9] .001 | .028 | 86.2 arsenate. Skin....| .20/ 1.10] .90} 5.2] .004 | .017 | 82.6 256397 | 2 Ibs. lead arsenate, 50 |...do.....| Whole+.| .05 | .30} .50) 3.5] .005| .051 | 85.7 | 102.3 galls. water. Pulp. :22) 01 | -10') .30)) 2:1 |. 001 | .025 | 85.9 é Skin....} .20! 1.20] 1.30 | 7.7] .004 | .026 | 83.1 5 Ibs. “soluble sulphur | 3 weeks compd.,’’ 3 lbs. lime, later 50 galls. water, 2 lbs. lead arsenate. 4 lbs. ‘soluble sulphur | A bout compd.,’’ 4 lbs. lime, | July 15 50 galls. water. 257088 | Check plat (unsprayed)-)....--.... Whole‘.|- .06 | .40} .40) 2.7 | .005 | .034 | 85.3 85. 5 Pal 2s 03 . 20 - 30 2.2 | .002 | .021 | 86.4 Skin....| .20) 1.20] .90/] 5.6] .003 | .013 | 83.9 257098 | 1 Ib. lead arsenate | May 29-| Whole‘.| .08) .70] .40| 3.7] .008 | .042 | 89.1] 105.6 : i (powder), 2lbs. stone | May 30] Pulp....| .03 |) .30] .30]| 2.9] .002 | .025 | 89.5 , 1 | lime, 50 galls. water. Skin....}| .30] 2.20} .90} 6.6] .006 | .017/ 86.3 | 1 lb. lead arsenate | June 20- i] (powder), self-boiled | June 21 | lime-sulphur (8-8-50). Self-boiled lime-sulphur | Aug. 1- (8-8-50). Aug. 2 | 3 As shucks fell. 4 Without stones. 6 Elberta variety, harvested Sept. 13, Benton Harbor, Mich. 1 Elberta variety, harvested Aug. 21, Springfield, W. Va. 8 Elberta variety, harvested Sept. 16, "Benton Harbor, Mich. 22 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 5.—Arsenic and lead remaining on sprayed peaches at picking time—Continued. Spray material used. 279359 27936 9 27937 9 79389 ie.) Ly lb: 50 galls. water. 8 Ibs. sulphur, 8 Ibs. hydrated lime, 3 ozs. glue, 1 lb. lead arse- (powder), 50 nate galls. water. hydrate glue, 50 galls. water. Check (unsprayed) - . -- 10 Ibs. lead arsenate (powder), 90 lbs. hy- drated lime. Fure:sulphur...-...-.: Commercial preparation} Apr. 4 containing 50 per cent sulphur and 50 per cent lead arsenate. lead arsenate (powder), 241bs. lime, Ibs. sulphur, 8 Ibs. lime, 3 ozs. ep ~~ Arsenic(As).| Lead (Pb). ieliea | een bm | a. Date Determi- |— = 3 53 qd,| nations | 3 so] Gayl] (ole os 9 q od sprayec.|madeon.| 4 | 24 | 88 | e4 | 2 o | am FE|EE|HE| 2 | 2 glee [o) a ° =) Sprayed medium with 4-4-50 Bordeaux, 2 Ibs. resin fish-oil soap (normal spray for re- gion). Sprayed lightly with 44-50 Bordeaux, 2 lbs. resin fish-oil soap. > Check (unsprayed) Baa Commercially sprayed with 3-3-50 Bordeaux, 2 lbs. resin fish-oil soap. § 1 Karly Black. _° Harvested Sept. 18, 1915, Brown Mills, N. J. fish-oil | Arsenic Copper (As). Lead (Pb). (Cu). ee Date Condition on sprayed of fruit . . . dry- "| analyzed. | Orig-| nrieq| OTI8-| Driea| OTF" | Dried| ing inal fruit inal fruit inal fruit ; fruit. *| fruit. ‘| fruit. P | 1915. Parts per million. P.ct. June 24, July) Unwashed.|......|......[......|-.-.-. 7.4 | 62.7] 88.2 26 Aug AS aWia Sede e555) ie a ees ca eee 7.1 | 60.2 | 88.2 28. | Lrg dows s-2. Un washedis | 223552. eeeieyalerae sclemos Ol pooe OI ln SS) IW ashe gees eyiaycs | aie is eeca unin (eevee 2.3 | 20.0] 88.5 nad dos... 3.| Unwashed |. seo. 2 s/o heal ole 1021 66205), S885) Wrashedissan ies sisc sap Sal ccs a ire 4.8 | 41.7] 88.5 June 10, July} Unwashed .|......]......|......|-...-- 33.3 [268.5 | 87.6 1031, Aug.) Washedi3iis|5 05 ssiog2 of) |ss5acclae sack 16. 2 [180.6 | 87.6 16. June 19, July | Unwashed .|......|...-..|--:---|---.-- 2.0] 15.0] 86.7 Q7e Auge V2s/5Washed iss ss|o = ele ee esas leone 1.7] 12.8] 86.7 are a dows. sum washed\al ssc. alee ea see ee eee salman Onl alas se SOsnl Wiasheduaten: fhe a |e cn pee ene 1.8 | 12.9 | 86.1 Sees CO s555 54h Wawel eo oe eas coclescsadlacosss| 2EQH/ 760 | eEa® WWE NGG! B.cilosscoslecscosllsaseadleacacs 2.4 | 16.5] 85.5 icp Raved Vet Serene en aN me SHE sa) Slices Geese Mae eal Doe Aca Pad ARIS 9 7.1 87.4 1916. June 26, July | Unwashed .|......|....--|------|------ 7,2 | 62.1] 88.4 iy, Auigs (5+) Wiashediies 2 ies. al ees ace|se-) 2 3.0 | 25.9] 88.4 25. 3 Washed by holding the berries in running tap water. 4 Howe. 5 Harvested Oct. 16, 1915, Brown Mills, N. J. 6 Harvested Sept. 18, 1916, Brown Mills, N. J. : f 7 Washed by soaking berries in water for a short time, pouring off th repeating operation three times. 72638—22 4 e water, adding more water, and 26 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 11.—Arsenic, lead, and copper remaining on sprayed cranberries at picking time— Continued. F | Arsenic ) Copper (As). Lead (Pb). | (Gu). Pe Sam- Condition Aus ple | Spray material used. ed of fruit z aed No. ; analyzed. | orig. Dried one Dri ied ue: Dried ing. fats fruit. feGaes| | fruit. “fruit. | fruit. } | i 1916. Parts per million. Pe Ck. 26166 | Sprayed lightly with | Aug. 1, 24. | Unwashed.) 1.2/ 87] 4.8| 34.8) 5.5 | 39.8] 86.2 44.50 Bordeaux, 2 Washed 7.5]°— £8-) 5:8 | -275-| 18M ons atonal a 86n2 lbs. resin fish-oil soap, | | 2 Ibs. lead arsenate (powder). § | 26167 | Sprayed normally with |__... dosces= Unwashed .| 1.3] 9.4] 5.7/| 41.3] 6.7] 48.6] 86.2 44-50 Bordeaux, 2 Washed'?:..) 1.0)| 7.2 | - 225 | T81eSeSe le Ro2s ha R6e2 ibs. resin fish-oil soap, 2 Ibs. lead arsenate | | 1 (powder). § 26168 | Sprayed heavily with |__..-. do......| Unwashed .| 1.7 | 12.8] 7.4 | 55.6 | 10.0! 75.2] 86.7 44-50 Bordeaux, 2 Washed 7...) 1.0] 7.5] 3.8 | 28.6) 46 | 34.6] 86.7 lbs. resin fish-oil soap, | 2 Ibs. lead arsenate | (powder). 8 | 26169 | Oversprayed with 4-4 | Aug. 2, 24. | Unwashed .| 2.5 | 19.1) 9.2 | 70.2 | 11.4 | 87.0 | 989.9 50 Bordeaux, 2 Ibs. Washed 7...) 1.0) 7.6! 4.4] 33.6! 3.7 | 28.2] 86.6 arsenate (powder), 2 lbs. resin fish-oil soap.§ - 26170 | Check (unsprayed).8..-|.............. Unwashed -) Washed 7... 27337 1 | 4-5-50 Bordeaux, 21bs. | June24, Aug.) Unwashed . : resin fish-oil soap. $ ae | Washed 7...}....-. 27338)¢ | 10 lbs. lead arsenate | July 22. Unwashed - ol (paste), 50 galls. Washed 7... Bal water. !1 | 2733910 | 10 Ibs. lead arsenate | July 22, 24. | Unwashed -| 2 ; (paste), 2lbs. laundry | Washed 7... .2 K soap, 50 galls. water. | 273401] 5 Ibs. lead arsenate | June28, Aug.) Unwashed -| 3.9 | 30.7 | 19.1 |150.4}......|-....- 87.3 (powder), 50 galls. 1. Washed: 7. .:| 15°") 6/8) 10.52) <30)| 153085 1.33) 7550p sro ee Oso eter 3-3-50 Bordeaux (used trailers with fine nozzle).7 26016 8 | 4-83-50 Bordeaux (me- | June 15 Unwashed .| .15)| .60 Se 280) 240 n| saat madase dium set nozzle).9 Washed 3...| .15 | .60 wel ae Qe OR e calieredia | igre satan | eee 26017 8 | 4-38-50 Bordeaux (me- |....- do...... Unwashed .| 1.80 | 7.30} 5.1 | 20.7) 2.7} 11.6] 75.4 dium set nozzle). ( Washedis= =| 570) |.2:80)|) 250) |) 875i |eelSoneO see > lbs. lead arsenate | June 28 (powder), 2 lbs. laun- dry soap, 3-3-50 Bor- deaux (sprayed with trailer, fine nozzle). 2; lbs. lead arsenate | Aug. 4 (powder), 1 1b. resin soap, 3-3-50 Bor- deaux (sprayed with trailer, fine nozzle).9 26018 8 | 4-3-50 Bordeaux (me- | June 15. Unwashed .| 3.70 |16.30 | 10.4 | 45.8} 3.4 | 15.0) 77.3 dium set nozzle). Washedis=2)" 290)! 4500), Si 15) 03a leas ose leer 2 lbs. lead arsenate | June 28. (powder), 2 lbs. laun- dry soap, 3-3-50 Bor- deaux (sprayed with trailer, coarse nozzle). 2k lbs. lead arsenate | Aug. 4. (powder), 1 Ib. resin soap, 3-3-50 Bor- deaux (sprayed with trailer, coarse nozzle). 1 Concord. 1 Harvested Oct. 6, 1916, North East, Pa. 3 Samples washed in running tap water. » Harvested Oct. 27, 1915, North East, Pa. § Harvested Sept. 30, 1916, Benton Harbor, Mich. 8 Catawba. 9 Harvested Oct. 13, 1916, Sandusky, Ohio. POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 29 TABLE 12.—Copper, lead, and arsenic remaining on sprayed grapes at picking time— Continued. Arsenic (As). : Condition Date i of samples sprayed. analyzed. Lead (Pb). Sam- ple No. Spray material used. : Orig- inal ‘| fruit. Dried} ; fruit. 1916. June 15. 12.6 4.9 51.3 19.9 Unwashed . Washed 3... 26019 8 | 4-3-50 Bordeaux (sprayed with me- dium set nozzle). 24 Ibs. lead arsenate | June 28. (powder), 2 lbs. laun- | dry soap, 3-3-50 Bor- | deaux (oversprayed | 4 | with trailer, coarse i nozzle). 2} Ibs. lead arsenate | Aug. 4. (powder), 1 lb. resin soap, 3-3-50 Bor- deaux (oversprayed with trailer, coarse nozzle).9 4-3-50° Bordeaux Unwashed . (sprayed with me- Washed 3...| | r dium set nozzle). | \ ea 2} Ibs. lead arsenate | June 28, July | (powder), 2 lbs. laun- 12. é dry soap, 3-3-50 Bor- deaux (sprayed with trailer, medium noz- zle).9 4-3-50 Bordeaux (sprayed with me- dium set nozzle). 23 lbs. lead arsenate (powder), 2 Ibs. laun- dry soap, 3-3-50 Bor- | deaux (sprayed with | 26020 8 June 15. ae ows ai eb Ye toh 3é g 61.0 21.1 4. 60 Sho} lendeos | 2. 70 Unwashed . Washed 3... 26021 8 June 15. = iS _ S Dey ENaC) Fe ae Om June 28, July 12. | t 23 lbs. lead arsenate | Aug. 2. (powder), 1 lb. resin soap, 2-3-50 Bor- deaux.9 3-3-50 Bordeaux (set nozzle). 13 lbs. lead. arsenate (powder), 1 Ib. resin fish-oil soap, 2-3-50 Bordeaux (trailer, medium nozzle) (schedule recommend- ed for this region). 3-3-50 Bordeaux nozzle). 14 lbs. lead arsenate (powder), 1 lb. resin fish-oil soap, 2-3-59 Bordeaux (trailer, 1917. | | | June 18. Unwashed . 13.5 28881 8 | Washed 10. | LOSOn Ree i 29 90 Ie H oO ous won on July 2-4, 24- | | 25. | | 35. 50 18. 00 17.6 11.3 Unwashed . Washed 10 . June 18-20. July 2-4, 24- 25, Aug. 14. | 288828 (set 3. 60 288838 medium nozzle). 3-3-50 Bordeaux (set nozzle). 14 lbs. lead arsenate (powder), 1 lb. resin fish-oil’ soap, 2-38-50 Bordeaux (sprayed with trailer, medium | nozzle). 23 lbs. lead arsenate (powder), 1 lb. resin fish-oil soap, 2-3-50 Bordeaux (sprayed with trailer, medium nozzle).u June 18-20. July 2-4. Tuly 24-25. 3 Samples washed in running tap water. 8 Catawba. k * Harvested Oct. 13, 1916, Sandusky, Ohio. é f 10 Samples washed by soaking the grapes in water for 5 minutes, pouring off the water, and then washing Unwashed - Washed 10__ 6. 20 3. 30 30. 10 16. 00 Dor rw = I water. in running ta ; Oct. 27, 1917, Sandusky, Ohio. 11 Harveste 30 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tas_e 12.—Cupper, lead, and arsenic remaining on sprayed grapes at picking time— Continued. | | |. Arsenic {i747 = Copper | (As). | Lead (=b). (Cu). nae | Condition } ple Spray materia! used. sora | of samples ra Leeaeate (ae | ace Ny analyzed. /Crig-| pried] 9T!8| Dried) 978 Dried| ing. it.| fruit. | fruits fruit. fruit.| fruit. 1917. H Parts per million. Bact: 288842 | 3-3-50 Bordeaux | June 18-20. | Unwashed. 5.70 31.10] 13.0 { 71.0) 4. (sprayed with set Washed 10__) 4.40 24.00 | 12.0 | 65.6! 3.3 nozzle). | 24 Ibs. lead arsenate | July 2-4, 24 | | | } ; (powder), 1 ]b. resin 25. | | | fish-oil soap, 2-3-40 | | | | | | Bordeaux, (sprayed | | with trailer, medium : HOV — ess ou | nozzie).13 | 28ssés | 3-3-50 Bordeaux | June 18-20. | Unwashed .| (sprayed with set Washed 10__| nozzle). 14 lbs. lead arsenate| July 2-4, | } | (powder), 1 Ib. resin Aug. 14. | | fish-oil soap, 2-3-50 eet | | Bordeaux (sprayed | with trailer, medium | nozzle).1 | | 288872 | 3-3-50 Bordeaux |} Junel8. ; Unwashed -.| 4.60 24.30 ....-. jaa 2 6.4 | 33.8] 81.1 | (sprayed with set | Washed 10. -| 1.80)! 9550) |-2eee2 eee ADE S2252) | Pee aes nozzle). | | 1 lb. calcium arsenate | July 2-4, 24 | (powder), 1 lb. resin 20s fish-oil soap, 2-3-50 | | Bordeaux (sprayed | | | with trailer, medium | | } | nozzle).13 } | 288885 | 3-3-50 Bordeaux | June 18-20. | Unwashed.) .08| .40 9 (sprayed with set | Washed_.| .08 | .40 -9 nozzle). | | 288892 | 3-3-50 Bordeaux | June 18-20. | Unwashed-| .08/| .40 (sprayed with set | Washed 10 | .08]| .40 nozzle).13 | | | 90 30.30 | 14.8 | :30 | 6.70; 3.9 mor ow ee | So bt eh et wor ow =I wo 8 Catawba. 10 Samples washed by soaking the grapes in water for 5 minutes, pouring off the water, and then wash- ing in running tap water. 3 ll Harvested Oct. 27, 1917, Sandusky, Ohio. 13 Tves. 1a Harvested Oct. 18, 1917, Sandusky, Ohio. WEATHER CONDITIONS. Nos. 23565-57: Ideal for spraying during both applications; all foliage and fruit were covered. Nos ae and 23688-90: Heavy rain on July 8, which seemed to wash off a large amount of the spray material. Nos. 25836-38 and 25903-07: No abnormal weather conditions reported. Nos. 26016-21: Dry, hot, clear: season unusually dry. Nos. 28881-89: Rainfall normal; in no case did rain interfere with the spraying, nor did rain fall before material was well dried. The Michigan samples and the Pennsylvania samples mentioned in Table 12 that were sprayed according to normal schedule showed very little spray residue at harvest. Grapes sprayed in Sandusky, Ohio, according to the schedule formerly used in that region showed a decided spray residue on their surface at harvest. As this spray residue was no doubt due mainly to late spraying, the Bureau of Entomology has recommended a new schedule which is given under Sample 28881. 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J 1 6°¢8 09 °8 “¢ Spud le} 9 "FS O0nIG |\Beesss ¢ XATB) F '€8 (te AI eeeees ¢ ULYS 6 $8 OO"st |° Spueweis | “IZ-8T “sny “FZ 8 °%8 (OO Cialis eae xAyT@) | -1% Atme ‘0Z-8T re (“SQ] 62z ‘eanssoid) 1938 ‘sT[Bd FES OGRE aes | essere ulyg | oung ‘TE-6% ABIN | 0G ‘(1apmod) 97BUOSIB WINIseUsBUL “SqT $1 Z'88 GOs Sees ding “(Sq 092-92 ‘eansseid) 1098M ‘sTTe# (OSGI) Eee ee eR ERE SSS OOT ° Z°28 9s" “777 e7OUM ‘01-8 ABW | 0G ‘(tepmod) ojeuesIB WUNIseUsBUL “sq] FT | OEE neReog0 O8t* | ¢20° GUS jt} O°OOST | 0'06T | 0°009 | 00'9L |e Spus THO4g pee CLO: 1 0g0" |e78 |i 2274-2222 = =| O08 | 019: | OrOST | OO"FS | 2 xATEO BR BSOSS (OS Zier OO eg e PA CS al teaetaneioniea leercee a a OLCS O'sl | OTE | 00°¢ | °"*eulys “TZ-8T #2" SQ] 622 ‘oansse1d) 1098 pepe es <5 0e9° =| OFZ 9°28 [7777/7777 77) O'O0FF | 0°0SE | O*OOLT | CO ‘OTS | “Spue wEIg | “Bny ‘FZ-1e Ane | “sTIes OG ‘(depmod) oyeuEsIB PBOT ‘ST & ieee Ost’ | 890 88 ff] OOSL «=| O'OZE | O00 | 00°6F |° 77° **>xATRD "9% ‘TT ra" Sql 92% ‘ainsseid) 1878M EROS OOo9'T | OTS’ | 9°E8 [ott | OO8F =| 0°08 =| O16 =| OO'ST «| UES | eung ‘Te-6z2 ABW | “STIes 0G “(4opmod) oyeUeSIv PRET “q] T pe ee OLN es VO: SO yLG 2 eee es ae | OSE alert 6° IT tal ene een Ter ve (SQT0S8-S2% ‘ornssoid) 1048M (ORGS ae 00¢°% | Osc" TOS een O‘OIT | O°ST 36) O24 Pseee= aTou M 1(1- 8 Avy | ‘st1e3 0¢ “‘(apmod) O}BUESIV PBET “GI T | 6LEEE ete 03° =| 8s0° | 9°%8 |--°*7"*|7-77777*| O'00ST | O'%S% | 0068 | 00°89 |e Spue MIA49 Pisa LOSS a |ES90)s S68 san hae eee O‘OOLT | 0°26% | O'OLF | 00'S |7 7s XATBO page Oso OA’ | Otay are er ser AONE Oe OA? ON 2 ee omnes I ‘IS-81 ‘Sny : Pasi Ole’ | Ooms’ | 6°78 |777-7-77|°°777** "| O'00S% | O'TZF | 0°000% | 00'8zE | ~ Spue UIEIg | ‘F2-12 ATNL ‘OZ-8T | pa) oh aamnssoid) 1078. eas ts oor’ J} ost’ ‘| e7ss t--777 cc ]o-7 7777] 00002 | O'8ze | O'09L | OO'LZZT | °--~--xATBD | oun ‘Te-6% AB | ‘SITBs OG ‘(tepMod) oJBUESIB PBET “Sq, £ 48 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Several spray schedules are represented by the samples shown in Table 14. Very little spray residue was present on the apples, except Samples 23598, 33378, and 33379, which were purposely heavily sprayed, and the apples from Grand Junction, Colo. ples from Grand Junction showed so much more residue than the apples from other districts that the spraying schedule was changed in 1916 and 1917, with the result that much less spray residue was found on the fruit. The 1915 sam- TaBLE 15.—Arsenic, lead, and copper remaining on fruits and vegetables sprayed with poisonous sprays (summary). ? Arsenic (As). Lead (Pb). Copper (Cu). Determi- Ie Product. nations ; ; | made on. Crete Dry basis. eal | Dry basis. Cniginal | Dry basis. Ranches: Parts per million. Sprayed..... Whole: .2. -- 0.02- 0.94 0. 10- 8..0/ O08= 2.6] °2.0= ' (2340/2 sks aoe ce ae Pulp ese 00-14, .00- 12) od) 48) = Bie Glic 25 Se St | ee ete Shinai seee O4— 44.50) .20= 830..4(0 ~.7—) 1202) | Al a= | OG Tae ee eee | een ae eee Unsprayed...| Whole....... 00- .23) .00- 2:10| es O— 56) Os 420) oc oem eee ene Pulp etake . 0O- 10} .00- Ola crO—? 2-4 |e = 2 Bln Ss eis eee tose ene fou artatede va aees . 00- 77| .00- Gel OF 27 Qe yy SOF Sete erie [gener ece ee Cherries: | Sprayed....- Wiholeso eee - 04— 35) . 20- 2.3} .6- 1.3} 2.8- 8.1). 2.0— 3.2) 11.95 15.2 / 2 ps ee oe ees | Be 1 =) 1S ee Oa as ONG Unsprayed. - 6 NOH eT 2e8= DGS -5- 1.4) 4.0- 8.3 ums: Sprayed..... 2 ° 7.6) 16- Bal 0-2) 24— 6.8 Does) |= 2.9 aces SAS Rm eal ee diame 1.2- 1.4] 25.5= 28.6 DEP Ua ae ey ae ea Se tee ete ear a ape | ae S| eet Se ash SRR Us pe Gerth ot SOU epee so Ta [ a asseosseaaee 2.5- 2.8] 38.5- 44.4 Oho oN Rele all ANNO Wess callings cobes| Eeaeeercasnaul ecseeeneeel b Re caaoHoscot 62322 S| SE See 2 JeAbI TO See i ani aa atl eum obo tae Me SAS ak ec St Som Colles soe Secrest is aa There | IL <2 apa ne, Ne 0 S0= see (in eee Cranberries: Sprayed..... Who!le....... 0.10— 3.90} 0.80— 30.7) 0.6- 19.1] 4.9- 150.4) 1.3- 33.3) 10.6-— 268.5 Whole!l..... -09- 1.50 70— «- 11.8} = .6- 12.4) 4.9- 97. 7) 1..0— 16. 2| 7.8-— 130.6 Unsprayed..| Whole....... O1- =-.10} =~. 08- aa .4— 9 97) ~2..9— 5.6 -6- 1.0) 4.8- 7.4 Grapes: Sprayed..... Whole 05=. 17. 10) 426— 293555) .5— 17.6) -2s5= 2 S8i0| Se sG=sosd nO sass Whole Ll... .. -02- 4.40 10- 24.0 .3- 12.0) 1.5- 65.6 -3- 4.2) 1.4— 22.2 Unsprayed..| Whole....... .00- —-.07}_—. 00- we4! 5-1. 1 2x6= Gye BZ Ol) Mile 4.7 Pears: Sprayed..... Whole 10-. .32) +=.50- Pa A 3- 1.0} 1-6- 6.7) 1.5- 3.0; 10.0 14.5 Pulp eae 102— =. 10) +=. 10- -& 2- =~. 2) ~«+21.0- Uo -7— 1.0) 4.9- Lyall Skin. 30— 1.00! 1. 20- 4.3 .8— 3.2! 3.1-. 13.7) 4.5= 16.2! 19.3— 54.5 Calves ass 1.20— 6.40} 4.80- 27.7] 4.2- 21.3] 16.7— 92.2) 12.1- 21.9 52.4- 68.9 Skini2a oes 30- —-. 90} 1. 20- 4.0 8- 3.0} 3.1- 13.4) 2.1- 12.4) 9.0- 41.8 Calyx 2... ._. 1.20— 6.4() 4.80- 27.7) 4.2- 21.3] 16.7— 92.2) 7.8— 8.2) 25.8-— 33.8 Unsprayed..| Whole.. 05- 10} .30- 6 2- -.3) ~ 1.0- 1.5) .38- .9| 1.7 4.5 Apples: | Sprayed....-. Whole. .03— 5.50 20— 40.0 3— 17.0) 2.2- 130.0} -4-— 5.2) 2.4—- 24.2 Piles -02-—.—-. 40) —-. 10- Do) 2- 1.8) 1.3- 15.0) .3- =. S| 1.8 4.2 Skin ....|: .10- 25.70) .50- 180.0 7— 80.0} 3.3- 480.0) .6— 28.5) 2.8— 111.3 Calva ase - 70-127. 00} 3.50- 760.0} 2. 2-328. 0} 11. 6-2,000.0; 2.5- 29.5} 12.4— 149.0 Stem ends...| . 40-328. 00} 2. 70-2,000.0| 2. 8-550.0) 17. 7-4, 400.0! 2.7— 29.4] 15.3- 136.1 Nihal Pe aye -10— 22.70) .50- 92.3 -5- 63.0; 2.4—- 256.1 .G- 28.5} 2.8-— 111.3 Calyx 2.22... . 70= 838.00) 3.50— 470.0) 2. 2-297. 0) 11. 6-1, 700.0) 2.5- 14.7) 12.4— 74.2 Stem ends2.| .40- 76.00) 2.70- 600.0) 2.8-252.0) 17.7-1,500.0) 2.7— 21.2] 15.3- 98.1 Unsprayed..} Whole....... .04—- 44} 12 - PPA VS ale aye Pals Be 9:3] 3) .8= 2 = 4.3 { POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 49 TaBLE 15.—Arsenic, lead, and copper remaining on fruits and vegetables sprayed with poisonous sprays (summary)—Continued. Determi- | Product. nation Arsenic in each fruit. Lead in each fruit. Copper in each fruit. made on. Peaches: Mg. Grains. Mg. Grains. Mg. Grains. Sprayed..| Who!e.../0. 002-0. 115/0. 000031-0. 00180,0. 024-0. 2970. 00037-0. 00460]. ........--|.--------------- Pulp..-.| .000- .014| .000000- . 00022) .007— .062) .90011- .00095|........---).-----...-2.-.-- Skin - .001- .101) .000015— .00160) .013- . 284) .00020- .00440].........-.|..---2222222- +e. Unsp:ayed.| Whole . 000— .026} .000000— . 00040) .000- .057) .00000- . 00088).......-.--)------2--2---2-- Pulp - 000- .009} . 000000— . 00014! .000- . 032] .00000— .00049|.........--).--------.------ Skin..... -000— .017| .000000— . 00026) .000— . 033) .00000— .00051)............).---.---2-2.2--- Pears: | : Sprayed..| Whole...| .013- .049} .000200— .00075| .039- . 151} .000000— . 00230)0. 227-0. 411)0. 003500-0. 00630 Pulp.-...} .003- .010} .000046— .00015| .015— .029} .000230— .00045} .095- . 120} .001500- ..00180 Skin .-..} .005- .023} .000077— .00035| .012- .073} .000180- .00110) .102— . 261) .001600- . 00400 Calyx...| .002- .016) .000031- .00025) .005— .053) . 000077— . 00082} .030— .030) .000460— . 00046 Skin 2...] .005— .014) .000077— .00022} .012— .054} .000180— . 00083} .049- . 200} .000750- . 00310 Calyx 2 .! .002— .016) .000031— .00025) .005- .053] .000077— . 00082! .011— . 020} .000170— . 00031 Unsorayed.| Whole...| .006— .013} .000092— .00020| .022— . 037] . 000340- . 00057) .033- .113} .000510— . 00170 Apples: ; Sprayed..}| Whole...) .004— .900) .000062— .01400) . 035-2. 800} . 000550-— . 04300) .054— . 380} .000830- . 00590 2 Pulp...-} .002— .042) .000031— .00035) .015- . 230) .000230- . 00350} .035-— .072| .000540— . 00110 Skin. ...} .002- .442) .000031- .00680| .010-1. 600} .000150-— .02500| .010— . 273] .000150— .00420 cee: - 001— . 154} .000015— . 00240) .003— . 400} .000046- . 00520) .003- .032) .000046— . 00049 tem ends ..| .001-— .310} .000015— . 00480) .003- . 768} .000046- .01200} .003- .035] .000046- . 00054 Skin 2...} .002— .345} .000031— .00530, .007— . 958} .000110- .01500| .010- . 273] .000150- . 00420 cals 2_.| .001— .127| .000015— . 00200) . 003- . 332] .000046— .00510} . 003— .016} .000046— . 00025 tem ends 2.| .001— .170| .000015— . 00260) .003— . 524) .000046- .00810) .003- .025) .000046- . 00039 Unsprayed .| Whole. .| .005— .051) .000077— .00079) .019-— .178] .000290— .00270) .024— .093| .000370— .00140 1 Washed. 2 Wiped. TaBLE 16.—Precipitation reports for sections where samples analyzed were harvested. BERLIN, MD., SECTION. Bate, | BERETS | opr, | ERIE nig) EE ig, |) Seale 1915. Inches. 1915 Inches. 1915. Inches. 1915. Inches. May 3.. Trace |) June 1... 0.02 || July 2.... 0.58 || Aug. 6... £35 4.. 0.08 Pe 1.75 4.. BP) 8... . 20 Bye 233 3. 1.20 Oe . 80 lee 25) M2. . 63 ios Ol She . 07 10.. . 20 13.. Trace. 6... . 08 11... oO PA . 28 15... Trace. NWR oe . 07 Re - 58 14... . 04 16_. . 44 WB 13 Wer . 48 21. 01 Wo. Trace. 14.. 05 20.. 2. 20 BP. .O1 20... . 02 16.. - 02 Pall Ae - 10 20. Trace. 21. . 20 Was .70 28. .53 24an) . 67 18_. Trace. 6.10 29_. O01 26... 22 19... . 58 13.17 30). Aili 29a. 47 220 - O01 —— — 30... _- 382 Noe 22 || Aug. 1.._.. Trace. 3. 94 | 30... Trace Dee 0.15 15.12 3.38 — —_— Boos . 60 5 13.26 4,84 ya 1. 20 | 13,84 Dae Trace. 1 Normal. 50 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 16.—Precipitation reports for sections where samples analyzed were harvested— Continued. ~ SPRINGFIELD, W. VA., SECTION. P | i| | Precipita- || | Precipita- || | Precipita- || Precipita- Date nioit Date. | tion } Date. an: Date fori 1] ] | 1915 Inches. 1915. | Inches. | 1916. | Inches. 1916. Inches. May 3 0.21 || June 1... Trace. || May 2....| 0.06 || June 3.. 0.38 le 15 || oF, 1.46 |, 32 2ue -13 (zeal . 30 12 «15 one . 05 | eaoe| - 07 ta 3) 1G6esee 1.05 (Bes -21 | hezey| 38 9s . 20 ay eae . 20 || Teel Trace. || Saree Trace. 10.. SPA 20854 .21 || 1oaee . 37 || 13a Trace. 15a B32 > ee 103 || tase 134 |] (6c 1.02 (ge 1.36 223 AtiY 16_. - 06 || 232A 42 | 19_. -12 24.. Trace. Va Rae . 06 |) 2622-7| slSal PALS .31 29... ~42 26.. 06 | 29... =| - 30 | 255 . 30 30... . 67 30... . 35 |} 30....| - 50 | 31. 05 | | 3.87 2.96 | 3.01 | 13.86 4.31 | 13. 86. |] 13.69 | 13.69 || | H Aig Gees .32 ApS oT -10 |i July 2....| <31 | Gees 1.05 July 4.. 35. |} Zee 1.05 || 10:3 23 lipee Trace. Lyse - 13. || a eared 1.10 12: . - 05. || Sep -10 8.. 1 ts eee - 30° |} a eee || - 15 || Bie 11 bh ee 79 | ae 18 14_. - 20: |] T3222: 34 12:: .14,] Pe 2 = LEyz! AGe sal .32 | Taree 14 15: .07 | 12). 1331 U7 wel 21 | Zia Trace. 16%. 05. | i by eater - 40) 18_.::| . 23 || 22% Trace. 19_. Trace. Zi 42°] 7 ee Bes - 40 28. - 60 20%: eal | 74 (ae Trace. | 25...) -60— PASS . 08 | 2a here a ly A}] | 2. 66 Dee Trace. | } | | 2.70.-| 13. 88 PEED Tel 5.58 || | 13. 57 || 20 ie . 64 | 13.88 || | 3.32 | | | 13.57 | !| | FORT VALLEY, GA., SECTION. l 1917 | 1917 1917. 1917. Apri gees | 0.62 || May 12..... Trace. || June 25.... Trace. || July 14... Trace. Ae see Trace. Zoseeee . 82 || 2622 - Trace. 16552 -18 Lideoregees es 2523 20 Secs Trace. || 27. < Trace. WR Sene Trace. Bees £33 23828 - 63 |] 29/3. . 20 13seoes .53 LB. Trace. | 30R=E: -10 19S - 23 ae ee | . 23 2.91 20e2e 1.03 PV AM ee Trace 13.11 1. 34 212-3 - 10 PAG soe | Trace | 14.21 22 ee Trace. June 4.. Trace. 23eeee Trace. 3.41 1D S253 Trace. || July 4...... 0. 96 24.. GAG 14,28 145224 0.10 Huse -10 2beeene Trace. = 1 eae - 50 se Trace. 2655 -10 May 42.2.2 0. 30 22... Trace. Updease Trace 27. Trace. ie hanee - 61 Bie 0. 44 Sees Trace (ee ~45 24.. Trace. 122s Trace 4.79 8e25o-2 0.10 15.87 abe Trace. WENATCHEE, WASH., SECTION. 1916. 1916. | 1916. 1916. May 5.--..- 0.09 || May31.. .. 0.04 |) June 24.... 0.06 || July 2...... 0.99 6E--C ae - 02 | Zoe ace Trace. 8 Trace. Ucecasa Trace. noe 26.22) sly Trace. Sane -10 } 1.86 Dlimrcce| - 22 - 52 aes Trace. 285 < - 06 Trace. 16ieeee- S013) June:s2e. = Trace. 29... Trace. 20 Trace. Seer Trace. | 30s 04 | 1.51 Nae Trace. 20 eee 17 1.38 Ver nd -O1 Ppp mine Trace. 1.04 | 30 haan - 05 Pane «32 1,96 | PO TABLE 16 ISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 51 .—Precipitation reports for sections where samples analyzed were harvested— Continued. HART, MICH., SECTION. Dateien ees ||| Date, | Teele || Dateg er | eCBMe |||, Date... || F recinite: 1916. Inches. 1916. Inches. 1916. Inches. 1916. Inches. May 1-. 0.75 || June 8..... 0.72 |} July 31..... Trace. || Sept. 7..... 0.65 Bee Trace Gas . 28 _—_—————_ Pease | 05 6.- 15 ae - 95 3. 26 eeASHS 14 Sane 27 lie hteeya as -45 12.92 a ra Trace LOSE 1.27 18 shee 04 == 15 eee 04 Hae SS 30 23ers .25 || Aug. 3 . 85 Goh 18 15 ee 18 26se ee Trace. 42eee -13 Vices 14 Se 06 Osea s* .97 OSAR: - 53 2ae se": 17 225 28 625 ee -10 22 ene 07 OA es 05 4.94 102552 -16 2625203. 16 Pls 07 12.39 AS es -10 PH te 40 29. 45 a 26.2555. .38 28 eee 14 July 8..-... Trace. 30a 25 3. 83 Lemar. -15 3.11 13.76 16... PLOY! 2. 50 13.00 20... - 53 12.42 June 2..... 70 22750 04 Seyler 58 25.- 27 || Sept. 5..... 97 CAMDEN, N. J., SECTION. 1915. | 1915. | 1915. 1915 July 1... 0.19 || July 21..... 0.20 || Aug. 7... Trace. || Sept. 7 Trace Qe ten . 53 ones Trace. 8... 1.05 12. 0.08 Boosen Trace. 26e5-6 Trace. | ges: - 20 ile 29 4.. - 08 PX ease - 28 | 12 - 53 18. Trace Bos Trace. OW scene 1.00 | 13 -O1 19 09 Upoeee Trace. el)ssea5 -O1 | 15 - 05 21 40 Bisa . 67 | | 17 Trace. 26 Trace ty See Trace. 4.62 | 21. Trace. Boone . 64 1 4.30 | 25. 07 A 86 M4 sec. | -3d | 28 eee - 03 13.74 Wi Weee 5 \ Trace. || Aug. 1.. 13 29... 1.05 Besos 227 2a 02 | 30.. 74 Wheres aes 15 3). Soon| ee saall Trace. 4.. 2.10 | 6. 61 192250): | 125 Boo Trace. | 14.59 20 eee Trace. 6.. -31 | ARLINGTON, VA., SECTION. 1916 1916 1916. 1916 July 2..... 0.01 | Aug. 4 0.13 || Sept. 6-. 0.06 || Oct. 6... Trace WN) @ocoes Trace 1. 46 ee Trace. 9 0.03 Oi aeen 34 8 17 8.. 31 10 01 NOo2s6c 73 9 Trace 9.. Trace. Bose, 09 WHscess 04 MBeaan -19 14. Trace. oGes 02 16.. Trace 16 - 30 Ge 1.17 16..... 04 Misses 03 23 - 05 18.. -18 ese Trace 1 eae 09 27 -45 PP 5 - 46 18 05 20.2... Trace 28... - 08 23... Trace TQES Ss 1.24 22 ee 1.67 30 Trace 29... PV SSb66 02 Dae ne 15 Sle 26 cone 1.85 2. 83 2.57 26ers 02 14.40 13.59 1.76 DB reais 04 SS SSS = ——————— 13.09 Sept. 2.... -O1 |} Oct. 5.-... Trace. 4.97 14.65 2 SALEM, N. J., SECTION. 1916. 1916. 1916. ; 1916. July 10.-... 1.60 || Aug. 1...-. 0.05 || Sept. 2.... Trace. || Sept. 19...- 0. 20 Reese - 34 Sacek . 30 Gra 0. 20 295. . 52 20.---- . 48 ll... -18 Cian 22 SS OA heres . 02 13ee Trace. Baeee 37 1. 83 Po emesis 1.80 14.. - 08 15.. 32 13.81 Pesos - 05 PH bras 42 | Biscs56 - 90 28. . 20 26.. - 05 1. 23 5.24 14,74 14,43 1 Normal. 52 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 16.—Precipitat’on reports for sections where samples analyzed were harvested— Continued. NORTH LIBERTY, IND., SECTION. Precipita- Precipita- Precipita- || Precipita- Date tion. Date. tion. Date. tion. | _ Date ea 1915. Inches. 1915. Inches. 1915. Inches. 1917 Inches. Ag S22. 22: 0.70 |} Sept. 7... OSOLF| VOC. 0:.035)|/* Oct anes Trace. RSAEee BPR} 105 222 PQ ee -10 || Suter 0.13 CEE. -05 ieee - 02 aren ssl LOM ols Dees OL Ase Trace. 19 42 Pe sii) (See . 02 16222 . 74 ee ee 2 eee - 05 Uae . 40 igs 330 1917. | UW aesec Trace. 5 Tee 1.49 13 -- .32 || Sept. 2.. 04 |! Ae See: - 03 1s . 04 20... «D4 pean Trace. || GE aes L 1. 23 16s aoe - 08 26. 1.12 | (es .69 113 eee 1.20 A hy eee Trace. || Qe .09 | bss - 55 19s . 29 20th so: . 09 4.21 Ste Trace. PAs 07 Pals pee 1B! 1 3. 03 14.. -05 23 ssoe% .38 DAs eile) ee 20... 105 20enere -63 4.54 Octawlen ss - 10 27. . 04 Die . 14 1396 Wee 56 47 Doles .68 ———— Oz oe Bilp} 13.03 30 ecee - 06 Sept. 4.. Trace. || Qissana 40 — 31hee= Trace. Dae - 25 ae OLA EKO Cts a a= 215] 5.31 6 sisi) | ye re | 12.42 PLYMOUTH, IND., SECTION. 1916. 1916. 1916. | | 1916. July. 2.2... Trace. || Aug: 7... Old Septy, (1... 7] Trace. || Sept. 26.. 0.02 se 0.05 10... . O04 eel 0.19 || PX ber 1.73 ie eee - ot TH. . Us sy. Ge eall 2.01 28.. 18 VAaae 02 15_. Trace. | 65. 1.09 — LQwEes -4L 16... . 02 Beall Trace. Dea 18: . as Te Trace. 13.27 -99 Dies 232i) | i 13.38 | 2.73 Ae aes .38 13.49 EAST WAREHAM, MASS., SECTION. s Precipita- Precipita- S Precipita- Precipita- Date tion. Date tion. Date. tion. Date tion. 1916. 1916. 1916. 1917. June 4.. 0.40 || Aug. 8... OFA 7a MOCty2l--2* 0.39 || Aug. 3... 0. 06 Sas 18 9.. 24 2655298 mod De: 203 Gis - 96 10... . 60 9.. - 07 ORs a2; L2e wit 2.85 || 10_. - 43 Le 19 Ney . 29 |! 14.18 16. -38 PAS .67 24... Trace. Ws eccl| -95 LS Rees 18 26 Trace. 1917. les - 10 Nea .68 Dia -20 || June 2.. - 08 OB ys. -07 18.. BPA 28. .22 Gee . 28 24.. - 03 Qe Trace. ese 2.00 Do auae .44 22. : .3D 2.19 Zee 1.42 295: - 04 26. .65 | 13.26 Le - 05 a0) . 70 29. 37 1655 - 62 — Sept. 2....| 12h IB 1.69 3.30 5.17 6... otek A 23 |) 1 3.26 12.68 Uae Trace. Dike op layat| Ourk ~12 PS eee -13 | Sept. 8-.- 18 Sule satese -78 Wiesel - 50 —_——_— ] | 18... 1. 87 Aea ne - 08 1628 07 | 6.65 |! 20E" . 24 See 12 LOR: -10 | 12.68 24.. - 02 NOS 1.33 23)... salou : S=—= 28... .44 14..... 52 25... 05 | July 1.....! Trace. | 30.. - 10 Wesouts ALD, 30... .67 ee -o2 || ies . 10 eer P79 2. 85 PAN .78 2.47 eee Trace. || 13.56 23. 4.13 13.56 eee 08 |) — DAE ene ~15 |} DOGS Swi OO ts aes sec 25. 02 20 ee ee -49 || Oct. 9..:.. 09 Py fae ees 1.23 || 14.18 aleciciets .16 sees 27 | | oles Al iV (ase Sil 2.23 || See Trace. 13.10 |; 9.09 a | 13°10 20: ee Nee | i ! Normal. 2 Total; daily data not reported. POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 53 TaBLE 16.—Precipitation reports for sections where samples analyzed were harvested— Continued. NORTH EAST, PA., SECTION. Precipita- LS aa Trace = Wasaec . 04 22.. 01 —- Sept. 2 Trace. elie 03 aoe 09 Trace. | Oe AYA 27. OL PY 0) 1.40 gia O01 PAlncos OL peasy OL a Oe aa8 oii 29... . 08 2G ue MOS MMW Osea Trace. . pees Trace. 30M Hh} JOUER Trace. GES Trace. | Domest OL See 32 _———— COA 20 | PR yaee Trace. See SS NOL Qe eets Trace. | —_— 1.45 17.04 14iye wars VOL 50 1,92 = - Tose .O1 | 1.95 = 1 Normal. POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 57 Taste 16.—Precipitation reports for sections where samples analyzed were harvested— Continued. GRAND JUNCTION, COLO., SECTION—Continued. Date. Precipita- Date. Precipita- Date. Precipita- | Date. | Precipita- tion. tion. tion. | tion. | i i | Ry LOMA Null inches: 1917. Inches. 1917. Inches. 1917 | Inches. Aube The eee Trace. |, July 28... Trace. |) Aug. 26. 0:01 |; Sept. 12. -. | 0.15 AN ai 0. 01 PAD a 0.07 |) aie Trace. 22) .10 TO pees Trace. BOs ues aval 2o5aNs .03 PaaS . 02 Pala Trace. Sil Trace PADI 02 — 2 28>)| — 308s Trace 01 1,50 || 38 || | — 1.40 | 14.04 1.00 =A Al Trace. || | 1,95 SVE Sess Trace. De Trace."|/ Sept. 2:22 Trace. | (Ree Trace. Oe 09 || Ashiaee OTE AO CEN Trace TKO) tee Trace. PAB .02 | Ona Trace. 17 Trace Zedaae Trace. 13... 22 || One - 04 24 Trace 24... Trace. aia Trace. || Sie OL | === Zo eee Trace. Wie Trace. || Oui Os! Trace. PA ae Trace. 18.2 01 ] TO . 64 1.91 I] GREENWOOD, VA., SECTION 1917. 1917 1917. | 1917 Apr. 5. 2.33 || June 1 0.43 || July 16... 0:16: ||-Sept., 25-22 0.05 See -30 Py aes SPH Wf 14 @s/- 23 ig ye es 44 bys 03 | Bees - O01 es .58 18. Trace. OR 1.40 || Palate - 05 8.. . 36 PALS -08 LOR ~22 | D2ee -07 9.. . 04 24. . -05 1s 403) DAs .35 Los 19 Die & 5) 1D OL 2508 48 16.. .05 lore . 06 14.. .38 | 26.. -10 Pals -O1 2820 - 43 Lowe OL Qe .77 202 ~12 3.78 3.81 Zoey ..64 | 14.89 2.28 Waeo2 Dose .18 14.18 —— = 26eae2 .02 || Aug. 2.. 46 Nite an gas ; 03 Diemer .38 Uae -O1 4 sau. 718 28 ee 1.37 8.. 1.08 WESaee .38 9. 2.21 itor gals} 5.49 14:. -O1 sdelese ry e Trace. 15.48 Tee Trace. DON .02 IBAAoe 213 26 aee Trace. || July 2.. 36 | PRE 2.80 Deas -65 Bee 07 | 2a a3 2Be eee - 68 (estes 28 | 30... - 60 Bees 81 Slee .08 2.67 TORRE Ao 14,62 ae aa pals} 8.11 4 wea -02 15.00 ayy Trace. || YAKIMA, WASH., SECTION. "1919 1919. : 1919. 1919. Miajyi Aeenen 0.04 || July 5... Trace. || Sept. 4. Tracers |lWOCt less. « 0.12 phot 18 6.. Trace. i. 0.05 Types Trace. TN psa Trace. LOGS ne - 03 6.. 01 Pe es Trace. eso oe .03 ee ass Trace. 8... .09 22 Trace. L628: Trace. Pao Ho Trace OE Trace. Doe Trace. 2OEe Sie .33 US Trace anes 44 PAR esr Trace. ies -OL Lae Trace. .58 03 Dias 02 1.83 1.25 Dou OL -12 30... 06 151 dune OE: Trace. || Aug. .3.. Trace. ORs eas Trace. SOR Ee Trace. - 69 hes Trace. alse .08 1.48 Home - 04 08 . 04 Wel 1.52 1 Normal. SS wa 58 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY. The amounts of arsenic, lead, and copper remaining on mature fruits and vegetables which have been sprayed according to various schedules were determined in the Bureau of Chemistry. Table 15 gives the maximum and minimum results. Because of overspraying or late spraying, comparatively large quantities of spray residues were found in some cases. This em- phasizes the importance of spraying according to the schedules rec- ommended by the Bureaus of Entomology and Plant Industry. The extent of the reduction of spray residues on the mature fruit _and vegetables by washing and wiping them was determined by a series of analyses before and after such treatment. When peeled, sprayed fruits and vegetables contain essentially the same amounts of arsenic, lead, and copper as the unsprayed products, indicating that practically all of the spray residues can be removed by peeling. From the results reported in this bulletin it is evident that when fruits and vegetables are sprayed in accordance with the schedules recommended by the Bureaus of Entomology and Plant Industry, but little of the material used remains on the fruit or vegetable at har- vest time. LITERATURE CITED. (1) ACADEMY OF MeEDICINE (FRANCE). Proc. Acad. Med., Feb. 18, 1908. Bull. acad. med., 3 ser., 59 (1908): 246. (2) Proc. Acad. Med., Feb. 2, 1909. Bull. acad. med., 3 ser., 61 (1909): 194. (3) Sur un projet de décret portant modification de l’ordonnance de 1846 relative 4 la vente des substances vénéneuses. Bull. acad. med., 3 ser., 70 (1913): 152. (4) Proc. Acad. Med.,, Nov. 11, 1913. Bull. acad. med., 3 ser., 70 (1913): 368, 369. (5) Proc. Acad. Med., Mar. 3, 1914. Bull. acad. med., 3 ser., 71 (1914): 324, 325, 326. (6) Atwoop, W. B. Treatment of diseases of the grape. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 15 (1892): 41. (7) Ampoua, G., and Tommasi, G. I composti di arsenico in agricoltura. Ann. staz. chim. agrar. sper. Roma, 2 ser., 5 (1911): 241; J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 31 (1912): 891; Chem. Abst., 7 (1913): 1255; Exp. Sta. Rec., 30 (1914): 130. (8) ANDOUARD, A. Le cuivre dans les vins provenant de vignes traitées par le sulfate de cuivre. Compt. rend., 104 (1887): 195; Bull. soc. nat. agr. (France), 47 (1887): 40; J. pharm. chim., 5 ser., 15 (1887): 290. POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 59 (9) ANONYMOUS. Spraying fruits€for insect pests and fungous diseases. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bull: 7 (1892): 17-20. (10) Fruit spraying. J. Roy. Hort. Soc., 18 (1895): 185. G(ibpBaxnr. J. 1, A résumé of the report minutes of evidence and appendices of the Royal Commission on Arsenical Poisoning. J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 23 (1904): 168. (12) Brac, 8S. A. Some celery diseases. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 51, n. ser. (1893): 146; Exp. Sta. Rec., 4 (1892-93): 926. (13) Beprnt, R. T sali arsenicali in frutticultura. L’istria agricola, 3 yr. (1910): 538. (14) Bertin-Sans, H., and Ros, V. L’emploi de lV’arsenic en agriculture ses dangers. Rev. hyg. pol. sanit., 29 yr. (1907): 193. (15) A propos de l'utilisation des composés arsenicaux en agriculture. Rev. hyg. pol. sanit., 30 yr. (1908): 281; Exp. Sta. Rec., 20 (1908-09): 459. (16) Bourrarp, M. % La présence du cuivre métallique dans les vins provenant des vignes _ traitées au sulfate de cuivre. Bull. ministére agr. 8 (1887): 832. (17) Brereau, P. Sur la teneur en arsenic des vins provenant de vignes traitées par les com- posés de l’arsenic. J. pharm. chim., 6 ser., 28 (1908): 154; Chem. Abst., 2 (1908): 3257. (18) Brioux and GRIFFON. Les traitements arsenicaux en arboriculture fruitiére. Bull. soc. nat. agr. (France), 70 (1910): 864. (19) Caruzs, P. A propos du cuivre dans les tomates. Répert. pharm., 3 ser., 28 (1917): 193; Rev. sci., 55 yr. (1917): 183; Chem. Abst., 12 (1918): 192; Exp. Sta. Rec., 37 (1917): 263. and Bartue, L. Recherche de l’arsenic de plomb dans des vins, des lies et des pépins provenant de vignes traitées 4 l’arséniate de plomb. Bull. soc. chim., 4 ser., 11 (1912): 413; Chem. Abst., 6 (1912): 1805; Exp. Sta. Rec., 27 (1912): 243. (21) CazENEUVE, P. Sur les dangers de l’emploi des insecticides & base arsenicale en agriculture au point de vue de l’hygiéne publique. Bull acad. med., 3 ser., 59 (1908): 133, 234. (20) (22) Proc. Acad. Med., Nov. 18, 1913. Bull. acad. med., 3 ser., 70 (1913): 415. (23) CHuarp, E. Observations concernant le mécanisme de introduction et de |’élimina- tion du cuivre dans les vins provenant de vignes traitées par les com- binaisons cuivriques. Compt. rend., 105 (1887): 1196. (24) Présence et l’élimination de l’arsenic des yins. Tray. chim. alim. hyg. bur. sanit. fed., 1, (1910): 82. 60 BULLETIN 1027, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (25) ComBont, E. Chemische Untersuchungen iiber die Weine aus Trauben, die mit kupfer- haltigen Schutzmitteln gegen die Peronospora behandelt worden waren. Nuova Rassegna Vitic., 2: 209; through Chem. Centr., 3 ser.,-19 yr. (1888): 875. (26) Cook, A. J. Two new uses of important insecticides. Proc. 29 Meeting Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. (1880) : 669. (27) Experiments with insecticides. Proc. 2 Ann. Meeting Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci. (1881) :112. (28) Crovas and Ravtin. Traitement de la vigne par les sels de cuivre contre le mildew. Compt. rend., 103 (1886) :1068; J. pharm. chim., 5 ser., 15 (1887) : 156. (29) CuaInt, 'G. Ueber die Bekampfung der Peronospora Viticula und den Einfluss der Mittel auf die Zusammensetzung des Mostes und Weines. Nat. Bot. Kongr. Parma, 1 (1887): 5, through Chem. Centr., 3 ser., 19 yr. (1888) : 532. (30) Davis, G. C. Celery insects. Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 102 (1893) : 44. (31) Ductaux, E. 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Rec., 4 (1892-93) : 437. (39) Forsss, 8. A. Spraying apples for the plum curculio. Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 108 (1906) : 279; Exp. Sta. Rec. 18 (1906-7) : 160. (40) Forsusu, E. H. On the work of extermination of the gypsy moth. Mass. Bd. Agr. 41. Ann. Rpt. (1893):. 282. (41) FrecHov. Le black-rot et les vins des vignes traitées. J. agr. (Barral), 24 yr. (1889): 649. POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 61 (42) Friinavr, T., and Ursic, G. Die Bestimmung sehr geringer Mengen Kupfer. Bol. soc. Adriatica sc. nat. Trieste, 10:103; through Chem. Centr., 3 ser., 19 yr. (1888) :198; Staz. sper. agrar. ital. (1888):704; through J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 8 (1889) : 206. (43) GALIPPE. Sur la présence du cuivre dans les céréales, la farine, le pain et diverses autre substances alimentaires. Compt. rend. soc. biol., 7 ser., 4 (1882): 726; Rev. hyg. pol. sanit., 5 yr. (1883) : 23. (44) Sur la présence du cuivre dans le cacao et dans le chocolat. 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (61) Herpz, C. Von DER. Analytische Befunde von Mosten und Weinen aus Trauben der mit Blei- arseniat bespritzten Reben. Ber. Kgl. Lehranst. Wein-, Obst- u. Gar- tenbau, Geisenheim (1906): 228; Chem. Abst., 3 (1909) : 2338. (62) HorrmMann, M. Ein Beitrag zur Translokation des Kupfers beim Keltern gekupferter Trauben. Centr. Bakt. Parasitenk, part 2, 4 (1898) : 369, 422. (63) Howarp, L. O. Progress in economic entomology. U.S. Dept. Agr. 1899 Yearbook, p. 146. (64) Kepztp, R. C. Influence of Paris green on the potato. Michigan Farmer, June 6, 1872. (65) The use of poisons in agriculture. Mich. Bd. Health, 3 Ann. Rpt. (1875):11. (66) Mineral residues in sprayed fruits. Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 101 (1893): 19; Exp. Sta. Rec., 5 (1893-94) : 793. * (67) Krucore, B. W. On the cause and prevention of the injury to foliage by arsenites, together with a new and cheap arsenite, and experiments on combining arsenites with some fungicides. N.C. Agr. Exp. Sta. 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(124) TrorimEenko, M., and Osreporr, 8. Le vin des raisins traités aux arseniates. Prog. agr. vit., 65 (1916): 331; Bull. Agr. Intelligence, 7 yr. (1916): 1023; Chem. Abst., 11 (1917): 2383. 66 BULLETIN 1027, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE; (125) TruE ue, A.- L’emploi des composés arsenicaux en arboriculture aux Etats-Unis. Bull. soc. nat. agr., 69 (1909): 99. (126) L’emploi des insecticides arsenicaux en Angleterre. J. agr. prat., n. ser., 17 (1909): 268. (127) Tscuircu, A. Das Kupfer, p. 133. Ferdinand Enke, Stuttgart (1893). (128) Van Stryke, L. L. Analyses of sprayed grapes. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 41 (1892): 56; Exp. Sta. Rec., 4 (1892-93): 55. (129) WEED, C. M. The combination of insecticides and fungicides. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., Vol. 2, No. 7, 2 ser., No. 14, (1889): 186; Agr. Science, 3 (1889): 263. (130) Werss, M. Sur Pemploi des composés arsenicaux en agriculture, considéré au point de vue de l’hygiéne publique. Bull. acad. med., 3 ser., 61, (1909): 140. (131) WHEELER, H. J. Grapes sprayed with Bordeaux. R. I. Agr. Exp. Sta. 4 Ann. Rpt. (1892): 84; Exp. Sta. Rec., 4 (1892-93): 242. (132) WHEELER, J. H. Some pests and diseases of the vine, with remedies. Rpt. 6 Ann. Calii- State Vit. Conven. (1888): 63. (133) Woops, C. D. Analyses for poison of apples sprayed with arsenate of lead in mid-summer. Maine Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 224 (1914): 46; Exp. Sta. Rec., 31 (1914): 141; Chem. Abst.. 9 (1915): 503. (1384) Zecowini and Ravizza. Copper in wine. Staz. sper. agrar. ital. 16 (1889): 73; through J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 8 (1889): 910. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY VY ee UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE i, BULLETIN No. 1028 ¢ Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology y L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 13, 1922 APANTELES MELANOSCELUS, AN IMPORTED PARASITE OF THE GIPSY MOTH. By S. S. Crossman,’ Hntomological Assistant, Gipsy Moth and Brown-Tail Moth Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Imitroductionetso8 5 bai 1 | Part II.—Introduction and_ estab- Part I.—Description and life his- lishment—Continued. COTA gerard INN Ou Mal 2 2 Abundance of A. melanoscelus IMIS tOTyg eee tema SEE 2 Am SiC yA wt a 15 Distribution in Europe________ 3 Secondary parasitism in Sicily_ 16 Description of species_________ 3 Colonization in New England__ 16 Methods used in biological work_ 4 Methods used to obtain material TAS Laue 2S Se a 5 forjcolonization a entes nai aa 18 Seadsonalvhistornyess 228 Us 11 Success of colonies and distribu- Feeding of parasitized larve tion of A. melanoscelus______ 21 versus nonparasitized larve__ 12 DIS PETS Om see es ee ee eee 22 Longevity experiments ________ 12 Secondary parasitism _________ 23 Hosts of A. melanoscelus______ 12 The value of A. melanoscelus as Part II.—Introduction and _ estab- a gipsy moth parasite.______ 23 Lis inten eee EA CNN MOE SE 14 Abundance of A. melanoscelus in HuLopeannworke saw 8 14 WEyy ‘alkanol ss ee 24 Comparison of seasonal history @onGhiSio nye 52 See eae a NO 25 in Sicily and New England__ 15 INTRODUCTION. From the year 1905 to December 1, 1911, the State of Massachu- setts and the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, shared the expenses involved in carrying on an investi- gation of the natural insect enemies of the gipsy moth (Porthetria dispar Li.) and the brown-tail moth (Huproctis chrysorrhoea L.) in Kurope and of the introduction of parasites of these insects from +The writer wishes to acknowledge the efforts of all those who have been connected with the Gipsy Moth Laboratory during the period covered by this report, who have assisted at various times in gathering and recording some of the data from which this bulletin has been prepared. H. A. Preston and C. E. Hood took most of the photographs and W. N. Dovener made the drawing of the adult Apanteles. He wishes especially at this time to express his appreciation and thanks to A. F. Burgess, who has general direction of the work, for his help and suggestions. 73070°—22—— -1 2 BULLETIN 1028, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. their native homes to New England. A comprehensive report? of this work from its beginnings through 1910 has been published in Bulletin 91 of the Bureau of Entomology. Among the imported parasites which are now established is Apanteles melanoscelus Ratz., a double-brooded parasite of the gipsy moth. The following report has been prepared in two parts: Part I contains the description of the species and its life history, and Part I] takes up its introduction and establishment. PART I.—DESCRIPTION AND LIFE HISTORY. HISTORY. The insect was described by Ratzeburg® in 1844 very briefly as follows (translation) : Microgaster melanoscelus is so similar to solitarius that, since it also has the same mode of life, one might regard it as merely a variety of that species; but it is distinguished not only by the very black femora. .. but also by the third abdominal segment being scarcely rugose, only coarsely punctate at base. Pits at the base of the scutel very narrow. The one male which I possess is only one line long. In 1852 Ratzeburg* again mentions this species and gives a record of its being reared from Porthetria dispar L. and Stilpnotia salicis L. Reinhard ® writes in 1880 as follows: The specimens called by Ratzeburg (Ich. der Forstinsect. III) Apenteles melanoscelus, bred from Liparis salicis, are beyond all doubt this species. Reinhard is here speaking of A. solitarius and believes the two to be synonymous. In the same article he places Ratzeburg’s type of A, melanoscelus in A. difficilis (Nees) Reinh. This is undoubtedly incorrect, as the biology of the two parasites is very different. Marshall ° writes in part as follows of A. déficilis: Common. The cocoons are flesh-colored or buff ...; a few, by some accident, are more yellow. The maggots, on leaving the body of their victim, make separate naked cases, without clustering together. From 1 to 20 issue from a Single caterpillar, according to its size. Dalla Torre’ in 1898 also considered melanoscelus synonymous with A. difficilis (Nees) Reinh. *Howarpb, L. O., and FISKE, W. Ff. THE IMPORTATION INTO THE UNITED STATES OF THE PARASITES OF THE GIPSY MOTH AND THE BROWN-TAIL MOTH. U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bul. 91. 344 p., 74 figs., 27 pl. (1 col.). 1911. 3 RATZEBURG, JULIUS THEODOR CHRISTIAN. DIE ICHNEUMONEN DBR FORSTINSECTEN, v. 1, p. 74, no. 21. 1844, 4RATZEBURG, JULIUS THEODOR CHRISTIAN. DIE ICHNEUMONEN DER FORSTINSECTEN, Vso DOO MO ol oul oogs 5 REINHARD, H, BHITRAGE ZUR KENNTNIS EINIGER BRACONIDEN-GATTUNGEN. Jn Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr., jhrg. 24, heft 2, p. 352-370. 1880. 6 MARSHALL, T. A. MONOGRAPH OF BRITISH BRACONIDAE, Pt, 1. Jn ‘Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1885, p. 163. 7DaLuLA TorRE, C. G. DE. CATALOGUS HYMENOPTERORUM, V. 4, BRACONIDAD, p. 168, 1898. APANTELES MELANOSCELUS—GIPSY-MOTH PARASITE. 3 DISTRIBUTION IN EUROPE. Apanteles melanoscelus is probably present over most of Europe. Specimens have been received at the Gipsy Moth Laboratory from Vienna, Austria; Sicily, Italy; Bendery, Russia; and from Saxony, Brandenburg, Pomerania, and Rhenish Prussia, Germany. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES. It is evident that solitarius and melanoscelus are closely related, and in time it may be shown that they are the same. If such should prove to be the case, the name melanoscelus would have to go, as solitarius has the priority. For the present they are to be considered as distinct species, and as Ratzeburg’s* description of A. melanoscelus is very meager, the following new description has been prepared.® FEMALE. Length 3 mm. Face feebly shagreened and strongly shiny, with a weak median welt below insertion of antenne ; vertex, temples, and cheeks shagreened, pilose, shiny ; mesoscutum shallowly, sometimes indistinctly punctate and shiny ; scutellum with the disk very slightly convex, smooth, and polished ; mesopleurze smooth and highly polished, with only a few punctures anteriorly and below, and a conspicuous weakly crenulate depression posteriorly ; propodeum rugose.- except at base, strongly shiny, and with a prominent median longitudinal carina ; forewing with stigma large and with the radius very distinctly longer than the transverse cubitus; posterior coxe large, smooth, and shiny, with a conspicuous flattened area on outer edge at base; spurs of posterior tibize equal in length and about half as long as the metatarsus. Abdomen stout; entirely shiny; first tergite broader at apex than at base, rugose punctate; second broad, rectangu- lar, more or less roughened, without distinct lateral membranous margins; third tergite with the rugosity usually confined to the extreme base; remainder of abdomen polished; ovipositor hardly exserted; hypopygium not extending beyond apex of last dorsal segment. Black; antennez entirely black; tegule black; wings hyaline, the stigma dark brown; all coxe and trochanters black, except Sometimes apex of the latter; base of fore femora usually, basal half of middle femora, and most of the posterior femora black or blackish; apical ' fourth of hind tibize and the hind tarsi dusky ; sides and venter of the abdomen black. (PI. I, A.) MALE. Hssentially as in the female. Differs only in the longer antenne, in the usually darker legs, and in the basal abdominal tergites being less roughened. The species is exceedingly close to A. solitarius Ratzeburg, but apparently the differences are sufficiently well marked and sufficiently - constant to justify holding the two forms distinct. In A. solitardus the antenne are brownish testaceous toward base, the legs, with the exception of the coxe and the basal trochanters, are practically en- “ RaTZEBURG, JULIUS THEODOR CHRISTIAN. OP. CIT. 1844. i 9 The description and translations of references Nos. 3 and 5 were made by Mr. C. F. W. Muesebeck. 4 BULLETIN 1028, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE tirely stramineous, and the three basal abdominal tergites are more coarsely rugose, the roughening on the third tergite extending well toward the posterior margin medially; the narrow lateral mem- branous margins on the apical fourth of the first abdominal tergite are testaceous in A. solitarius, while they are piceous black in A. melanoscelus. METHODS USED IN BIOLOGICAL WORK. As this species hibernates as a maggot within its cocoon, it is a simple matter to gather material during the fall and winter for study in the spring. The cocoons were kept in the laboratory yard during . the winter, in cylindrical cages 3 by 8 inches, made of very fine copper netting. Occasionally during the winter a few cocoons were dis- sected to ascertain the condition of the maggots and to note any changes which might have taken place. As spring approached, the cocoons were iso- lated, being placed in small gelatin capsules, or small glass vials 13 inches by $inch. It is nec- essary to isolate each of the cocoons at this time of the year for two reasons: First, so that one may know the exact Fic. 1.—Tray with glass top used in life-history experiments age of the adults with Apanteles melanoscelus. (After Culver.) with which he is working and keep the males and females separate; second, to pre- vent any secondary parasites which may issue from the cocoons during the spring from ruining the rest of the Apanteles material. As soon as the Apanteles issued they were removed from their con- tainers and placed in glass tubes or glass-covered trays (fig. 1), where they were fed a mixture of equal parts of water and honey. A con- venient method of feeding is to dampen a small piece of clean sponge with the food and place it in the tube or tray containing the Apan- teles. The sponge should be washed out every day or so and damp- ened again with a fresh mixture of honey and water. Parasite-free gipsy-moth larvee were obtained by rearing them from eggs, and a supply was kept in trays protected from parasites ready for use at all times. Two sizes of glass tubes were found convenient, a small one 4 inches by 1 inch for isolated individuals, and a larger size, 8 by 2 APANTELES MELANOSCELUS—GIPSY-MOTH PARASITE. 5 inches, for confining several. As the Apanteles are usually active and soon exhaust themselves if allowed to remain in the light, the tubes or cages containing them were kept dark when not in use. Records of oviposition were obtained in the following manner: A glass tube containing a single female was brought into the light and a parasite-free gipsy-moth larva was introduced on the point of a small camel’s-hair brush. As soon as the parasite oviposited in the caterpillar, the larva was removed to a can for rearing. This pro- cedure was continued as long as a female would oviposit readily. As soon as she began to show a lack of interest in the gipsy-moth larvee, she was returned to the dark to rest and a fresh female given an opportunity to oviposit. After the first female had rested for an hour or two she was again brought into the light and presented with gipsy-moth larve as before. This process was continued with several females throughout their life. The parasitized larvae were kept isolated in cylindrical cans, which measured 24 by 2 inches, there fed, and kept for future study. The structure and length of the various larval instars were determined by daily dissections of these parasitized caterpillars. LIFE HISTORY. Apanteles melanoscelus hibernates as a third-stage maggot within its tough sulphur-yellow cocoon. Under field conditions the adults emerge from their cocoons over a period of about three weeks. Emer- gence is at its height when the gipsy-moth egg hatching is at its maximum, usually during the second week in May. The period of — emergence of adults from cocoons kept at the laboratory where all of the cocoons are held under the same conditions is five or six days. ‘The majority of the males emerge during the first four days; the females, beginning to emerge on the second day, continue emerging for four or five days, the bulk of emergence being on the third day after the first appearance of either sex. The adult escapes through a circular hole which it cuts at the anterior end of the cocoon. Females of A. melanoscelus are ready for mating or for oviposi- tion within two or three hours after issuing. They oviposit just as freely whether they have been fertilized or not, and, as is the case avith many parasitic Hymenoptera, they often reproduce partheno- - genetically. | This species does not copulate readily when enclosed in glass vials or small cages, but was often observed in coition in the large breeding chamber (Pl. V, C). The male approaches the female in the usual state of excitement with its antenna and wings constantly vibrating. The act of copulation is a matter of a few seconds. 6 BULLETIN 1028, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OVIPOSITION, The act of oviposition takes about one second. The female may alight upon a gipsy-moth larva from flight or walk up to one. In either case the ovipositor is inserted and withdrawn very quickly and practically always an individual egg is deposited. Many larve have been dissected after apparent oviposition had been observed and in no case has more than one egg been found from a single oviposition and only rarely have dissections been made which failed to show the presence of an egg. Often the larva attacked thrashes about so violently that it and the parasite fall, but rarely does the parasite fail in its object. After ovipositing in a larva the female usually proceeds to another victim, but occasionally will oviposit a second time before leaving the caterpillar. She apparently does not examine a prospective host but attacks it whether it has previously been parasitized or not. This practice of occasionally placing an egg in a parasitized caterpillar is unfortunate as only very excep- tionally will more than one maggot develop within a single host. The parasite favors the posterior half of the caterpillar for oviposi- tion, but will oviposit in any segment of the body. The females of A. melanoscelus which issue from hibernating cocoons prefer to parasitize the first and second stage gipsy-moth larvee but will oviposit successfully in third-stage larve if they are present. When the next or summer generation of adults appear, most of the gipsy-moth larvee are in the third stage. This is the stage most heavily attacked by this generation, although many fourth-stage caterpillars are successfully parasitized. Apanteles females of this generation often attempt oviposition in fifth and sixth stage larvee but are not so successful, for they are hindered by the long hairs of large larve. There was considerable variation in the number of ovipositions different individuals would make. Between 200 and 300 oviposi- tions per female were often obtained in these experiments. The greatest number of ovipositions secured by a single female of A. melanoscelus was 535. She actually had gipsy-moth larve before her for 510 minutes, making these ovipositions a little faster than one a minute.’? The parasite was allowed several oviposition periods each day and she would parasitize the gipsy-moth larve as fast as they were introduced for from 30 to 60 minutes. The first day the periods of oviposition were a little longer than during the follow- ing days. This female issued May 23 from its hibernating cocoon, but was not given an opportunity to oviposit until May 27, when ” This is about as fast as larve can be introduced and withdrawn by the process used. Under more natural conditions, as found in the large breeding chamber, the females were often observed to oviposit 6 or 7 times a minute. APANTELES MELANOSCELUS—GIPSY-MOTH PARASITE: 7 the first gipsy-moth larva was introduced. She worked actively every time she was allowed to do so each day to and including June 2. On the morning of June 3 she was found dead in the tube. A. dissec- tion showed that her ovaries still contained about 150 mature eggs and about 200 eggs in different stages of development. From this and other records, together with notes made from dis- sections of mature females of A. melanoscelus, it seems safe to as- sume that under natural conditions each female is capable of de- positing in the vicinity of 1,000 eggs. Ecc. The egg at time of deposition averages 0.55 mm. in length and 0.1 mm. in width. It (Pl. I, B) is deposited singly in the body cavity just beneath the skin of the host. It is transparent, with the cephalic end rounded, the caudal end, which is slightly narrowed, bearing a short stock. The chorion appears to be entirely without ornamenta- tion. Development within the egg is rapid and the embryo begins to show form after 15 to 20 hours (Pl. I, C). By this time the egg has widened a little and is slightly shorter than when first deposited. Many eggs have hatched 48 hours after deposition. Just before hatching, the fully developed embryo is plainly seen, often in the po- sition illustrated in Plate I, D. At this time the egg measures 0.7 mm. in length and is greatly swollen around the area which incloses the head. On one occasion an egg, which was ready to hatch, burst while under observation and the larva floated out as illustrated in Plate I, E, after which the eggshell shriveled up considerably. The length of the egg stage is from 48 to 72 hours, depending on the temperature. If the weather is warm, the majority of the eggs hatch in about two days. LARVA. FIRST-STAGE LARVA. The following measurements are the average for newly-hatched larve: Total length, 0.7 mm.; width of head, 0.2 mm.; width of body, 0.1 mm.; length of caudal horn, 0.1 mm. The freshly-hatched larva (Pl. I, F) is found free in the body cavity. Directly after hatching it may be found in almost any part of the cavity, depending on the point of deposition of the egg. After a few hours it works its way to the dorsal part of the posterior third - of the host and usually remains in that area until about ready to issue as a third-stage maggot. The larva is transparent and extremely delicate, with a large head which is twice the width of the body. The head is composed of a single segment. The labium, labrum, and maxille are present. The 8 BULLETIN 1028, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sickle-shaped mandibles (PI. I, J), which are well fitted for tearing, are plainly seen, being in motion much of the time, as the maggot feeds on the lymph and fat bodies of its host. They are 0.08 mm. long, are chitinized throughout, but more heavily so at the tips, and form a good character for distinguishing this stage from the follow- ing ones. The body is made up of ten segments at this period, but later has eleven after the tenth segment divides. On the dorsum the maggot has a systematic arrangement of short, rather stiff, back- ward pointing spines. The spines are located as follows: Two each on the second and third segments, four on the fourth segment, six each on the fifth to ninth segments inclusive, and eight on the tenth segment. It seems likely that these spines assist the maggot in working itseway to the caudal end of the host. The anal vesicle, which is common to the microgasterine larvee, is prominent and the caudal horn is seen just beneath the evaginated anal vesicle. As the larva matures, the heart, nervous system, and silk glands can be distinguished, but no evidence of the tracheal system is ap- parent. When ready to molt the larva has increased in length to nearly 2mm. and the body has widened in proportion, except the head, which remains about the same width throughout the stage. The larva remains in this stage from two to three days in the spring generation and from six to eight days in the summer genera- tion. SECOND-STAGE LARVA. In molting the head skin of the first-stage maggot is split off and is occasionally found in the body cavity of the host, closely associated with the cephalic region of the second-stage larva. The remainder of the molt skin is worked back to the last body segment (Pl. I, G at M). The second-stage maggot is usually found dorsally in the caudal end of the host in the body cavity, its head toward the posterior end of the caterpillar and its body resting longitudinally. When first molted it measures about 2.75 mm. in length and 0.55 mm. in width, the head and body being approximately the same width. In contrast to the first-stage maggot the body is entirely destitute of spines and the mouthparts are poorly developed. The mandibles (Pl. I, K) are not fitted for tearing or biting, but are soft, fleshy forms without chitin and are very difficult to locate. The anal vesicle is still present and is more prominent than in the previous stage (Pl. I, G at A). The caudal horn is present but has not grown with the developing maggot and appears very small in comparison with the size of the larva (PI. 1, G at P). Bul, 1028, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. APANTELES MELANOSCELUS. A, adult female; B, eee, dissected from female; C, egg, after 15 to 20 hours in host; D, egg, after 48 hours in host; #, first-stage larva_and shriveled eggshell from which it came, 50 hours after oviposition; F’,, first-stage larva; G,second-stage larva; m,molted skin, p, caudal horn, a,anal vesicle; H, third-stage larva, dissected from host; a, anal vesicle; J, third-stage larva, hibernating form, dissected from cocoon; J, first-stage larval mandible; A, second-stage larval mandible; L, third-stage larval mandible. All much enlarged. Pul. 1028, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. APANTELES MELANOSCELUS. A, Hibernating cocoons on board found in Melrose, Mass., 1917; £, first-generation cocoons on branch collected at Quincy, Mass., 1920; C, first-generation cocoons on branch collected at Mel- rose, Mass., 1916; D, first-generation cocoons on branch collected at Quincy, Mass., 1920; E, third-stage maggot two-thirds of its way out of fourth-stage gipsy-moth larva; F’, third-stage maggot dissected from host, anal vesicle still evaginated. | Bul. 1028, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. oe tee | APANTELES MELANOSCELUS. A, Hibernating cocoons on underside of vessel collected at Weymouth, Mass., 1920; B, hiber- nating cocoons on underside of bark collected at West Boylston, Mass., 1920; C, hibernating coceons on underside of branch collected at Hingham, Mass., 1920; D, hibernating cocoons on stump collected at Melrose, Mass., 1916. APANTELES MELANOSCELUS—GIPSY-MOTH PARASITE. 9 The heart, nervous system, and silk glands are more pronounced, especially the latter, which are coiled and recoiled and appear to fill much of the body cavity. Traces of the trachea] system are observed during the last part of the stage. Development is rapid and in two or three days the maggot has increased in size to 4.5 mm. long and 1 mm. wide. The average period spent in this stage by the first-generation larva is from two to three days and for the second generation from five to seven days. Just before molting the mandibles of the third-stage maggot can be seen. THIRD-STAGE LARVA. The period spent by the third-stage maggot (Pl. I, H) within its host varies from a few hours to two days with the spring generation and as long as three days with the summer generation. When a second-stage maggot is about ready to molt it usually works its way to the central part of its host and molts there, although occasionally third-stage larvee are found in the caudal end of the caterpillar. Just before issuing the maggot is 5 to 7 mm. long, is slender, and tapers toward the anterior end; it is dull white and dorsally is sparsely cov- ered with very fine, inconspicuous hairs. At the caudal end of the. _ body the anal vesicle is still evaginated (Pl. 1, H at A; Pl. II, F). t The body is apparently filled with the silk glands and has a well- _ developed tracheal system, with eight pairs of spiracles visible. There is a pair on the second segment and a pair on each of segments 4 to 10, inclusive. The spiracles are very tiny and difficult to determine, the last seven pairs being associated with laterally protruding areas. On the eleventh segment there is a slight protruding area laterally which may contain a spiracle, but one was not observed on this seg- ment. The mouthparts are plainly visible, consisting of labium, labial palpi, labrum, maxille, maxillary palpi, and mandibles. The mandibles (Pl. I, L.), which are 0.26 mm. long, are strong and well fitted for tearing. They are slightly curved anteriorly. The tip is divided into two sharp teeth. The anterior third of the mandible appears to be double with two biting edges, each edge armed with several teeth. There are dorsally on this part of the mandible two elevations which appear to strengthen the organ. The tips and points of the teeth are more heavily chitinized than the rest of the mandible. When ready to issue the maggot tears a hole in the side of the caterpillar, usually in the fifth or sixth segment. When it has issued to about two-thirds its length it begins to form its cocoon (PI. I, E). By the time the larva is entirely out, the anal vesicle has been in- vaginated. If the larva is of the spring generation, it voids the accumulated waste material of the larval stages after 18 to 20 _ hours in the cocoon. In about two days after completion of the 73070° —22——2 10 BULLETIN 1028, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cocoon the maggot pupates and casts its larval skin, which is pushed back to the posterior end of the cocoon over the previously voided material. The third-stage maggot (Pl. I, 1) of the summer generation has quite a different cycle. After having completed its cocoon, in which it is to hibernate, it becomes shorter and stouter, measuring about 4 mm. in length. It is a pale lemon yellow, and remains quiescent until the following spring. About the time when the first gipsy moth eggs hatch, the maggot resumes activity, first voiding the ac- cumulated waste in the caudal end of the cocoon. Two or three days later pupation takes place, and the larval skin is cast and pushed to the caudal end of the cocoon, as in the spring generation. PUPA. The pupal stage lasts from five to nine days. About two days after the completion of the cocoon the larval skin is cast. The pupa is whitish with long appendages and has a movable abdomen. The eyes soon begin to darken, the ocelli are distinguishable, and the thoracic and abdominal segments take form. The mouth parts, an- _tenne, legs, and recurved ovipositor are plainly seen. In three or more days the development is complete. The whole is now dark, nearly black. The pupal skin is cast and the adult lifts the cocoon cap, having cut around its base, which was left weak by the spinning larva. Cocoon. When the third-stage maggot is about two-thirds of its way out of the host, it begins to construct its cocoon. The first few threads seem to be attached ventrally to the maggot itself on the last seg- ment which is outside of the caterpillar. After making an attach- ment at this point the maggot straightens out horizontally, then swings back underneath itself again and makes another attachment. Tt continues this process laterally and dorsally, spinning all the while and forming loops which it gradually fastens securely in a similar manner. As the outer loose cocoon is developed, the maggot must break away from the original attachments and gradually work itself entirely free from its host. The maggot reverses its position several times during the construction of the cocoon. When com- pleted, the cocoon is about 5mm. long and is composed of an outer loose covering of fine threads, some of which are attached to the host or any object on which it may rest. Just within this is a tough, tightly woven envelope, which encases a very fine smooth inner sac next to the maggot. The cocoon is slightly flattened on its ventral. surface and convex laterally and dorsally. The anterior end is rather flat. The cap, which is thinner along its base, is at the ante- rior end. The posterior end is slightly pointed. It takes the spring- APANTELES MELANOSCELUS—GIPSY-MOTH PARASITE. 11 generation maggot about two hours to form its cocoon and the sum- mer maggot three to four hours to complete the cocoon in which it is to hibernate. The cocoon made by the spring-generation maggot is pale yellow- ish white, a little smaller and rather delicate as compared with the hibernating cocoon, which is a light sulphur yellow and very tough. LOCATION OF COCOONS. The cocoons of the spring generation are found singly or in clusters, depending upon the degree of gipsy moth infestation and the abundance of Apanteles. In low growth the cocoons are very apt to be found on the foliage and often on the débris on the ground, as well as along the trunk and small branches. On large trees a few cocoons are found on the foliage, but if abundant the majority are located at the junction of the smaller branches on the underside. The cocoons are attached lghtly, often on top of others and in- variably a dead second-stage gipsy moth larva is found with each cocoon (PI. II, B,C, D). After the adults have issued these cocoons are easily washed or blown from the trees and are seldom found the next spring. The second-generation cocoons are found securely attached scat- teringly over the tree trunk and in clusters under the larger limbs where the gipsy-moth larve congregate. These cocoons are not often found on the foliage. The gipsy-moth larve, when parasitized by the second generation of Apanteles melanoscelus, have a tendency to crawl to protected and out-of-the-way places just before the issuance of the parasite maggots. The cocoons are often associated with the gipsy-moth pupe and larger caterpillars. They are found behind billboards and signs, attached to trees (Pl. III, D), on the undersides of boards on the ground (PI. II, A), under fence rails or rocks, under loose bark, and on rough surfaces on the underside of limbs (PI. III, B, C). Plate III, A, shows a tin vessel found during the sum- mer of 1920 in a dump at Weymouth, Mass., and illustrates the habit of parasitized larvee of crawling to hidden places. There are a few over 100 cocoons on the bottom of this vessel, and there is a cluster of 25 cocoons on one side of the vessel not shown in the ‘photograph. SEASONAL HISTORY. The seasonal history varies considerably with the season. The is- suance of adults of Apanteles melanoscelus from their hibernating cocoons begins about the time of maximum hatch of the gipsy-moth egos, which is usually near the middle of the second week in May. During such a season most of the Apanteles will have issued by May 20. Under field conditions females of Apanteles melanoscelus do not 12 BULLETIN 1028, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. begin to oviposit immediately, for the bulk of issuance of the spring generation parasite maggots is around June 12. The adults which develop from these maggots will be found issuing from 7 to 11 days later. Cocoons of the second generation, or those in which the para- ‘site is to pass the winter, begin to appear about the fourth of July, but usually not in abundance until the second week in July. FEEDING OF PARASITIZED LARVAE VERSUS NONPARASITIZED LARVA. Several feeding records were kept of gipsy-moth larvee which were known to be parasite-free as checks against similar feeding records of larvee in which A. melanoscelus had oviposited. The records show that healthy gipsy-moth larve eat from two to three times as much as those which contain parasite maggots. These data were obtained from feeding records made during the period between oviposition in the caterpillar and issuance of the parasite maggot and the checks were kept only for a similar number of days. The gipsy-moth larva from which a maggot of A. melanoscelus has issued eats no more, al- though it may live a few hours or as long as two weeks, the average being seven days. LONGEVITY EXPERIMENTS. The tray shown in figure 1 (p. 4) was found most satisfactory for the longevity experiments although glass tubes 8 by 2 inches were used successfully for small numbers of parasites. The adults were fed on an equal mixture of honey and waiter, sprayed on small pieces of sponge. It is important that the sponges should be kept clean by thoroughly washing every other day. Nothing but the food was inclosed in the trays with the adults, but in the tubes they did better if a crumpled bit of paper was present on which the parasites might rest and clean themselves. A. melanos- celus in the tubes and trays, if kept in the light, lived for about one week. When the containers were kept darkened by means of black paper, the parasites remained rather inactive much of the time, and lived considerably longer. In several experiments with adults issuing in spring and summer, males and females lived for 30 to 32 days. In one case a female of the summer issuing generation lived 35 days. There was very little difference in the length of life of the adults, the females living slightly longer than the males. Without food they were able to live only a few days. | HOSTS OF A. MELANOSCELUS. Ratzeburg “ gives as hosts in Europe Porthetria dispar L. and Stilpnotia salicis L. From field-collected material in this country A. melanoscelus has been reared only from the gipsy moth. S. salicis, the satin moth. 11 RATZEBURG, JULIUS THEODOR CHRISTIAN. OP CIT. 1852. APANTELES MELANOSCELUS—GIPSY-MOTH PARASITE. 13 recorded as a host of this parasite in Europe, was not found in America until the latter part of June, 1920, when a heavy infestation was discovered at Medford, Mass. When the infestation was found the larvee were from half to full grown and rather too large to be expected to harbor A. melanoscelus maggots. Collections of larve were made immediately, but no A. melanoscelus were reared. On several occasions, however, cocoons of this species were found on tree trunks closely associated with belated larve of Stilpnotia salicis, and there is very little doubt that these cocoons were spun by A. mela- noscelus maggots which had issued from the near-by small and inactive larvee of S. salicis. It is known that with the gipsy moth the larve from which A. melanoscelus maggots issue do not die for several days. They are rather inactive and often do not move far from the place where they were when the parasite issued. In August, 1920, an outbreak of Hemerocampa leucostigma S. & A. was located in a small area in Somerville, Mass. This is the first time since A. melanoscelus has been established that larve of the white-marked tussock moth could be collected in eastern Massachu- setts, except very sparingly. The season was too far advanced to expect to rear A. melanoscelus from collected material, and none were recovered from larve brought to the laboratory. It was apparent, however, from observations made at the infestation, that this parasite had been responsible for the untimely death of very many tussock- moth larvee, for the cocoons of A. melanoscelus were abundant on the sheathing of near-by houses where the tussock-moth larvee had gathered in large numbers:and were spinning their cocoons. Several experiments were tried confining adults of A. melanoscelus with various larve. Reproduction was successful with J/alacosoma americana Fab., WM. disstria Hiibn., Hemerocampa leucostigma S. & A., Olene basiflava Pack., and Luproctis chrysorrhoea lL. The female attacked all but the last eagerly. Oviposition apparently took place in Charidryas nycteis D. & H., Hemileuca maia Dru., Pteronus ribestt Scop., and in a species of tortricid. All of these larve died and were dissected. Several maggots of A. melanoscelus were found in the larve of C. nycteis, but no evidence of parasitism was found in the other larvee. Several larve of Siena salicis were presented to females of A. melanoscelus. No oviposition was recorded. This was late in the season and the larve had matured much beyond an attractive stage for oviposition by this parasite. Some six or seven species of smooth-skinned or hairless larvee have been confined with females of A. melanoscelus but rarely have they shown any attention to them. This parasite evidently will attack quite a number of small hairy lepidopterous larvee when the oppor- 73070°—22—_3 4 14 BULLETIN 1028, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tunity presents itself, but shows very little interest in large hairy caterpillars or in larvee which are destitute of hair or only sparsely covered. PART II.—INTRODUCTION AND ESTABLISHMENT. EUROPEAN WORK. In January, 1911, Mr. W. F. Fiske, who was at that time in charge of the parasite work under the direction of Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of Bureau, sailed for Italy to investigate the parasite situation. The main object at that time was to make a study of conditions there and to attempt to introduce on a large scale Chalcis flavipes Panz., a pupal parasite of the gipsy moth. Headquarters were located at Naples and a vacant building was rented and fitted up for use as a laboratory near the School of Agriculture at Portici. Early in February, 1911, Mr. Fiske visited several places in Sicily to ascertain the field conditions and degrees of gipsy moth infesta- tion preliminary to obtaining the Chalcis material. While there he discovered that cocoons of a species of Apanteles were present in “countless thousands.” This came very much as a surprise, and he determined to put most of his energies, even at the expense of pre- vious plans, into an effort to send this parasite to America in as large numbers as possible. The localities, a forest at San Pietro, Caltagirone, and the forests back of Barcellona, in Sicily, were situated where the gipsy-moth larve and cocoons were sufficiently abundant to warrant the collec- tion of either in large numbers. Both places were some distance from a railroad, and the location which gave more promise was the less accessible of the two. As soon as the gipsy-moth larve had hatched and were of sufficient size to have been parasitized, collections of larvee were begun. A foreman and crew were located at each place, and the collections of larve were started. The first larval collection arrived from Caltagirone at Portici on May 14, and a few cocoons were present at that time. When the collections arrived at Portici they were placed in trays in the house which was rented for that purpose. About a dozen Italian girls took care of the trays—that is, fed the caterpillars, removed the parasite cocoons daily, and kept the trays - clean. These girls were very adept at this work, being familiar with the care of silkworms and having assisted in handling alfalfa weevil parasite material for shipment to America. As soon as the cocoons were removed from the trays they were placed in cold storage to prevent the further development of the parasites. % The part of this report pertaining to Duropean work is based on the correspondence of Mr. W. I. Fiske while in Hurope. 4 APANTELES MELANOSCELUS—GIPSY-MOTH PARASITE. 15 The tray work was supplemented by collections of the cocoons in the field and these had to be iced to prevent as much as possible any issuance of secondary parasites, as well as to retard the development of the maggots of Apanteles melanoscelus. When the cocoons arrived at Portici they were usually picked over and repacked, although it was not possible to do this in all cases. The shipments depended largely on the supply of parasite material on hand and the dates of departure of vessels to America; but the policy followed was to ship as often as possible. Several types of containers were used for transporting the cocoons, all of which came in the vessels’ cold storage and all proved quite satisfactory. One type of refrigerator was so made that the small packages of cocoons of Apanteles in the inner chamber were entirely surrounded by ice. This refrigerator was a double-walled affair and rather expensive to construct. It was inclosed in a box of sawdust. Another type was a sort of ice-cream freezer arrangement consisting of two metal water-tight cylinders, one within the other, with the cocoons in containers packed in sawdust within the inner cylinder. Ice was packed between the two cylinders and the whole was packed in sawdust in a large wooden box. At the bottom of the outer cylin- der was a small pipe which went through the box and allowed the water to drain off. On some occasions the containers were repacked with ice in New York before being forwarded to Melrose. A few shipments of cocoons which were merely packed in boxes, and kept in cold storage for as much of the trip.as possible, came through in good condition. COMPARISON OF SEASONAL HISTORY IN SICILY AND NEW ENGLAND. The spring of 1911 was cold, rainy, and rather backward in Sicily. By May 15, however, parasite maggots had begun to issue from the gipsy-moth larve. The earliest record for issuance of maggots for New England is May 22. It is likely that during many seasons in Sicily maggots issue by May 7, whereas the New England record re- ferred to is an early one, issuance of maggots usually beginning the last of May. This would make the season in Sicily about three weeks earlier than at Melrose Highlands, Mass. The second-generation cocoons were being collected in Sicily by June 10, 1911, but June 23 is the earliest record of the presence of this generation in New Eng- land. ABUNDANCE OF A. MELANOSCELUS IN SICILY. The parasite cocoons were very abundant in places as indicated in notes and correspondence received from Mr. Fiske. Apanteles killed more caterpillars than all of the other parasites put together. Cocoons average 1,000 to a tree, not counting the smaller trees. 16 BULLETIN 1028, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Notes made at another place state: Apanteles exceedingly common. Estimate 75 per cent control on average and higher in some places. Estimate 10,000 cocoons on one large tree. To illustrate the abundance of cocoons, those present on an area the size of a man’s hand were counted and the number found was 187. Mr. Fiske states that there were more over a similar area high up on the tree. The same day he visited another place and found conditions similar. SECONDARY PARASITISM IN SICILY. Apparently the first-generation cocoons are not attacked seriously by secondaries, probably less than 10 per cent being killed. Second- ary parasitism of the hibernating cocoons is very heavy, and one note was found referring to a location where it was feared that it would almost exterminate the parasite. Sometimes as high as 75 per cent of the cocoons from Sicily received at the laboratory and wintered were killed by secondaries. COLONIZATION IN NEW ENGLAND. During the rush of the season’s work it was supposed that two or three species of Apanteles were represented and the importation and colonizations were recorded in correspondence and in the notes as A. solitarius and Apanteles [1 and III. The confusion was not at all surprising for there were two and possibly three species repre- sented, but the fact of the matter, as it appears at the present time, is that the adults liberated during June, 1911, at North Saugus, Mass, from cocoons imported from Sicily as A. solitarius, were adults of the first generation of A. melanoscelus,; and that the cocoons received later in the summers of 1911 and 1912, which were hibernated at the laboratory, and the adults from which were liberated at Melrose during the springs of 1912 and 1913, were cocoons of the second generation of A. melanoscelus. During June, 1911, about 125,000 cocoons of the first generation were received from Europe, and every precaution was taken to pre- vent the escape of any secondaries which might be present. As soon as they were received at the laboratory they were taken to North Saugus, Mass., and immediately placed in darkened containers from which nothing could escape except by entering glass tubes, where they were inspected, the good allowed to escape and the bad de- stroyed. In this manner 23,000 adults were liberated during June and July, 1911. During the months of July and August, 1911, nearly 17,000 hiberating cocoons were received. These were iso- lated at the Melrose Highlands laboratory, each one being placed in a small gelatin capsule and then wintered under outdoor conditions. Sead oNnd ie pl ee T| =ACLAN ¥ qe J e, oy Dirac © re e oA VAR ca ie Maa as Ja 8 e) ’ 1% s AAT RAR TY pA CG PO ae CR EERE TR ELLERY EN ETE RN POSES BI ONES IISA TEI TESTE EIDE o , fae nor PS y Sia Sete fae foe THE PRESENT DISPERSION OF THE GIPSY MOTH AND NI APANTELES MELANOSCELUS IN NEW ENGLAND 1920 THE INNER LINE IS THE APANTELES DISPERSION LINE. @SHOW TOWNS IN WHICH APANTELES MELANOSCELUS HAVE BEEN PLACED, ESS eal al i} Cg : siete pane: oa eae pas Races eens ieee ae Pe a sal = i Sires APANTELES MELANOSCELUS—-GIPSY-MOTH PARASITE. 17 During the spring of 1912 the adults which issued from these cocoons were liberated near the laboratory. Early in 1912 Mr. Fiske again went to Italy, this time with several assistants. As one of the results of this trip, 22,000 cocoons of the second generation of dA. melanoscelus were received during the summer of 1912. These cocoons were collected in the forest of San Pietro, near Caltagirone, Sicily, during the week beginning June 15. They were shipped to Naples in cold storage on June 22 and held there in cold storage until all had been isolated in gelatin capsules. Early in July they were sent to America in cold storage and hiber- nated at the laboratory. The adults which issued in the spring of 1913 were liberated at Melrose. Table 1 shows the number of individuals of A. melanoscelus that have been liberated in New England. The colonizations of 1911, 1912, and 1913 were adults which issued from cocoons received from Sicily ; the rest of the colonization material was obtained by rearing and breeding New England material. Tasle 1.—Numober of A. melanoscelus liberated in New England, 1911-1920. | i Number | Cocoons | Number | Number ~_.| Number of adults |colonized,|of colonies OF COl0M1eS oF colonies ee etal Year. liberated,,| New | placedin|! ew | Placed in By ch Hamp- ape colonies. shire. Sicilian | England] Massa- material. material. | chusetts. | } | | 1 Dsl Lid Shh t a A 1 |e a nn as 1 2 i | Sip 3 TAQIIG). ses Sasa RS a ON a pea 5, 541 HL] eg LE itt THI ows eet ee Ra a ee 3, 500 7 oy aos 5M Cee ll 7 TIO 3 ws chs SOSA ERA ND Pek Ur A aati 8 8, 100 9 isl nama Nazi 16 UBUD 2 nasa sce ceca se IRM rR ae eee ee annee 930 ON sete ai olde eee 2 TEED es 8s a a a ea = 10, 100 rm 9 1 21 OTNGy REL eR UI SO 23,476 | 29, 671 45 17 1 63 As will be seen from a study of the figures in Table 1, very few adults were liberated in 1912 from the 17,000 cocoons received in 1911, and in 1913 from the 22,000 cocoons received in 1912. The poor issuance from these imported cocoons was due to several factors. Fifty to seventy-five per cent were killed by secondaries and a few were injured while being collected. These cocoons were kept in gelatin capsules from the middle of the summer until the adults issued the following spring. Subsequent experiments have shown that the mortality of hibernating larvee of Apanteles melanoscelus was not so high when the cocoons were isolated in small glass vials plugged with cotton batting as when they were kept in gelatin cap- sules. An examination of dead maggots of A. melanoscelus, which had been isolated in gelatin capsules, showed that the maggots were 18 BULLETIN 1028, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. very dry and shriveled, and indicated that death might have been due to lack of moisture within the capsules. No colonies were liberated in 1914, as no importations were made and the parasite had not been sufficiently well established to furnish colonization material. All Apanteles melanoscelus liberated since 1913 have been put out while in the cocoon and have been of the summer-issuing generation. Most of these colonies have contained 500 cocoons. In liberating a colony the cocoons are taken to the field and emptied into a small cylindrical can, which is then nailed to a tree in an in- conspicuous place. A cover is placed on the can to protect the cocoons from rain and birds. The adults escape through three 4-inch holes punched in the can near the top. The size of the can is not especially important, but a convenient can used at the laboratory is 3 inches in height and 2 inches in diaméter. It 1s necessary to place a band of tree-banding material entirely around the can to prevent ants from destroying the colony. In selecting sites for colonies, woodland areas with a light to medium gipsy-moth infestation are preferable. Heavily infested ter- ritory which is apt to be stripped of its foliage should be avoided. After the colony has been liberated a roadside tree is marked in white paint with an arrow pointing to the colony and the letters A. M. In the woodland near the exact spot of the colony a tree is banded with white paint. These field marks are made so that the place can be found later if desired. At the same time a numbered note is written for the laboratory files which explains the condition at the colony site and gives directions for finding the colony. The colonies have been placed in groups of towns, one colony in each town, as shown in the accompanying map (Pl. IV). This method of liberating colonies was used because the parasite disperses rapidly and there was considerable chance that smail colonies would not become established if they were placed singly at widely separated locations. In this way several rather large areas, from which the parasite can spread to the surrounding .towns, have become well stocked. METHODS USED TO OBTAIN MATERIAL FOR COLONIZATION. The story of the introduction of A. melanoscelus and the colonies liberated from the imported material has been recorded earlier in this paper. Two methods have been used to get material for coloniza- tion since the establishment of the parasite in New England—first, by rearing the parasite from field-collected gipsy-moth larve, and, sec- ond, by breeding the parasite at the laboratory. - The first method consists merely of making collections of large numbers of second-stage gipsy-moth larvee from locations where the parasite is present in sufficient numbers to warrant such collections, APANTELES MELANOSCELUS—GIPSY-MOTH PARASITE. 19 These larvee are placed in trays and fed until the parasite maggots issue. The maggots, upon issuing, spin their cocoons, usually attached to the caterpillar or to the object on which the host was resting at time of issuance. Each day the gipsy-moth larvae are fed, the trays cleaned out, and all of the parasite cocoons removed. The cocoons are put up in lots of 500 and kept in a refrigerator until they are placed in the field. They are colonized as soon after removal from the trays as possible, usually on the following day. Occasionally it has been necessary to keep the cocoons in the ice chest five or six days, and this has been done without any apparent injury to the parasite. The second method of securing material for colonization may be divided into two parts, namely, the fall work which consists of gathering and caring for the hibernating cocoons, and the actual breeding work which is carried on in the spring. There is a great mortality of wintering A. melanoscelus, largely due to secondary parasitism, and a large number of cocoons must be gathered in order to have a few adults of Apanteles in the spring to start the breeding work. The cocoons are collected as soon as possible after they have been found, in an endeavor to get them before the secondaries or ants do. From 10,000 to 20,000 cocoons are collected during July from places where the parasite is abundant. Some of the secondaries present at this time hibernate within the cocoon, but there are many which have one or more generations during the early fall. For a number of years these cocoons were isolated in gelatin capsules as soon as they arrived at the laboratory. This prevented the issuing secondaries from doing any further damage, but it was found that the spring issuance of A. melanoscelus from apparently good cocoons was exceedingly small. This was due partly to sec- ondaries which hibernate within the cocoons, partly to injury while handling, and considerably to the drying of the maggots of A. melanoscelus in the cocoons. The last two years the cocoons have not been isolated, with the result that a better spring issuance has been obtained. Instead of isolating the cocoons they were separated into lots of 100 each and placed in glass tubes 1 by 4 inches, which were plugged with cotton batting. These tubes were then placed on a background of white in a warm bright place where they could be watched and the secondaries were removed as fast as they issued. Most of the secondaries issuing in the summer leave the cocoons with- in two weeks after collection, although a few continue to issue for two weeks longer. After the secondaries have stopped issuing the cocoons are picked over and the empty ones and those showing ex- ternal injury are discarded. Many of the cocoons which contain hibernating secondaries at this time can be distinguished by a slight discolored spot on the cocoon; such cocoons also are destroyed. The 20 BULLETIN 1028, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. remaining cocoons are placed in bulk in a fine copper-wire cage which is nailed in a protected place in the yard until spring. The spring work begins during the last of April when the cocoons are removed from their hibernating cage and isolated for a short period in capsules. They are isolated at this time for convenience in handling the adults of Apanteles and destroying the wintering second- aries which issue. The cocoons are isolated in the capsules less than two weeks before A. melanoscelus begins issuing, and this short period of confinement does not have a detrimental effect. As the adults emerge they are removed hourly from the capsules and placed in glass tubes 8 by 2 inches. The sexes are kept separate. A sponge dampened with a mixture of equal parts of honey and water is placed in each tube. The tubes are then placed in a cool, dark place until ready for use. Several different types of cages and trays have been tried as breed- ing chambers with varying degrees of success. A. melanoscelus, like most hymenopterous parasites, is extremely heliotropic and indi- viduals are found resting on the sides or top of the container or ex- hausting themselves flying about the source of ight. During the past summer a breeding chamber was devised which eliminated the unsat- isfactory light conditions of previous cages (Pl. V, A, B, C). This type of breeding chamber should prove of value in breeding work with other parasites. The empty chamber is shown in Plate V, A, resting on one side. It is merely a wooden case with a glass bottom and top, with an opening left in one end, through which the tray containing the larve to be parasitized is admitted. The opening is just wide enough to allow the introduction of the tray and is about 2 inches deeper than the tray. Cleats on which the tray is to rest are arranged inside the chamber about 2 inches from the bottom. The tray should fit closely to the sides and ends of the chamber, but not tightly enough to bind when being introduced or removed. After the tray has been put in place the opening in the end of the cage is closed with a tightly fitting board CREWE vat Xo). When the chamber is to be stocked with the parasites it is placed on a flat surface which has previously been covered with black paper (Pl. V, B). A piece of black paper is laid over the top, covering all but 6 or 7 inches of the glass at the end of the chamber facing the sun (Pl. V, B at L). The parasites are liberated in the cage and fly to the uncovered part of the cham- ber where they gather on the glass top. The tray containing the small caterpillars is slid into place and is shown, part way in, in Plate V, B at T. The open end of the chamber is now closed and the whole thing is removed to two wooden horses, as shown in Plate V, C. A piece of black paper is now placed over the entire top. Bul. 1028, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. APANTELES MELANOSCELUS. A, Breeding chamber resting on its side; x, Board to close open end: B, Chamber ready to st ock with parasites and gipsy-moth larvae. Tray containing gipsy-moth larvae shown at ¢, part way in; the light is admitted at 1. OC, chamber resting on horses, with light entering from bottom only. APANTELES MELANOSCELUS—GIPSY-MOTH PARASITE. All With this arrangement all of the light entering the chamber comes from beneath, through the glass bottom of the chamber and through the cloth-covered bottom of the tray. Five minutes after the cham- ber is in this position practically all of the Apanteles have left the top of the chamber and are found dispersed over the bottom of the tray, where the gipsy-moth larve are feeding and crawling. The parasites begin ovipositing in the caterpillars immediately after they have been attracted to the bottom of the tray. When the caterpillars have been exposed to Apanteles melano- scelus for a sufficient period the operations are reversed; the cham- ber is placed on a black-covered surface with the end of the cham- ber opposite the end where the tray is to be removed, facing the sun. Light is now admitted by removing the black paper over a space of 6 or 7 inches, as shown in Plate V, B at L. In a few minutes most of the parasites will congregate in the top of the chamber at the light end. The opposite end of the chamber can now be opened without danger of any of the parasites escaping. The tray is with- drawn slowly, care being taken that all of the Apanteles have left it. If any still remain, they will fly to the light end of the chamber when disturbed by touching them with a small camel’s-hair brush. As soon as the tray has been removed another one is introduced and the process is repeated as long as the supply of A panteles melanoscelus lasts. The larve parasitized in this manner are fed in the trays until the parasite maggots issue. The resulting cocoons are removed each day for colonization. A breeding chamber stocked with 300 adults of Apanteles melan- oscelus, with the sexes equally divided, can be used about one week. Fach tray should contain about 10,000 first-stage gipsy-moth larve. The period of exposure of the larvee to the parasites varies with the temperature and time of day. The parasites are most active during the middle of the day. The larve were enclosed in the chamber about two hours during this part of the day. Earlier in the morning and later in the afternoon the larvee were exposed for about three hours. An average of about 1,000 parasite cocoons were removed from each tray. Undoubtedly many more than a thousand larve were para- sitized in each tray, but there is always a certain amount of unavoid- able mortality of first-stage larve in feeding trays. Many of the larvee are weak and do not get to the food and many are injured when the trays are cleaned and the larvee fed. SUCCESS OF COLONIES AND DISTRIBUTION OF A. MELANOSCELUS. Records of the success or establishment of colonies liberated and — of the distribution of the parasite are obtained by collecting host material from the field and rearing the parasite from these larvee at the laboratory, or by collecting the cocoons of the parasite in the field. 22 BULLETIN 1028, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Often the parasite is recovered the year following colonization. A. melanoscelus has been recovered from all but one of the colonies liberated previous to 1918. It has been recovered from half of the colonies put out in 1918 and from both of the colonies liberated in 1919. Recoveries of the parasite were made late in the summer of 1920 in a few of the towns which were colonized during June of that year. DISPERSION. The inner black line on the map (Pl. IV) shows the present known distribution of the parasite in New England, it having been recovered from practically every town within this line. It is probable that in some cases A. melanoscelus has spread beyond the line indicated, for many of the towns just outside of the dispersion line have not been scouted. It is rather difficult to determine the exact distance the parasite will spread in a year, for when the parasite is scarce its recovery is largely a matter of chance. The number of host larve which it is practical to collect in an endeavor to rear the parasite for disper- sion records is infinitesimal when compared with the larve present in a town. Scouting for the cocoons is more satisfactory, but this is not infallible, and the fact that a town may have been scouted and no cocoons found does not prove that the parasite is not present. The recovery records show that the greatest spread of this species has been to the north and northeast, similar to the dispersion of the gipsy and brown-tail moths. The data obtained indicate a spread of about 25 miles a year in this direction. During the summer of 1918 there were two recoveries made which because of their loca- tions are of special interest. One of these recoveries was made at Provincetown, which is 25 miles northeast of Harwich, where the nearest colony of A. melanoscelus was liberated in 1915. The other recovery was made on the island of Nantucket, which is 25 miles south of the Harwich colony. In 1915 a colony of A. melanescelus was liberated in Middleboro, about 33 miles southwest of Prov- incetown. The colonies at Harwich and Middleboro were the only ones that had been liberated in that part of the State. These recov- ery records can not be taken as absolute proof of a flight of 25 miles for the insect, as it is possible that cocoons of the parasite were taken to Provincetown and Nantucket on cordwood or other material. This does not seem likely, however, for the parasite was not recovered from any of the other towns in southeastern Massachusetts until 1919. The number of cocoons taken at Provincetown and Nantucket in 1918 indicated that the parasite had been present in both places for 1 year at least. APANTELES MELANOSCELUS—GIPSY-MOTH PARASITR. - 93 SECONDARY PARASITISM. Cocoons of the first generation are not seriously attacked by sec- ondary insects. Small collections of cocoons of this generation are made each year over a considerable area and rarely are they para- sitized over 10 per cent; more often not more than 2 or 3 per cent are killed by secondaries. Unfortunately it is a different story with the hibernating brood, for approximately 75 per cent are killed annually by native secondary insects and ants. This seriously handicaps the increase of A. melan- oscelus. Among the insects which have been reared from the hibernat- ing cocoons are at least three Ichneumonidae, and members of the > Pteromalidae, Elasmidae, Eurytomidae, Entedontidae, and Eupel- midae. In this complex there are secondary, tertiary, and possibly quaternary and quinquenary insects. An investigation of the life histories and host relationships of these insects has received consid- erable attention at the laboratory, but has not been completed. Some of these insects have several generations during the early fall and then hibernate within the cocoons of A. melanoscelus. THE VALUE OF A. MELANOSCELUS AS A GIPSY MOTH PARASITE. The problem of obtaining the actual percentage of parasitism of the gipsy moth by A. melanoscelus or by any of the other introduced parasites, except the egg parasites, is a difficult and complicated mat- ter involving many factors. Records at the Gipsy Moth Laboratory show that larvee picked promiscuously from tree trunks and foliage to-day may give 30 per cent parasitism, while to-morrow the same number of larve, collected by the same individual, in the same man- ner, and in the same locality, may not even show the presence of the parasite. For a number of years collections of gipsy-moth larve have been made daily through the entire larval period at Melrose and Stone- ham, in an attempt to learn the true status of the parasites in that section. Each collection contained 100 larvee all of the same stage. The collections of each stage were continued as long as that particular stage could be found, and collections of the next stage were started as soon as 100 larvee of the next stage could be found. As there is quite an overlapping of stages, there were very often two collections on the same date at the same place. All of the collections were kept separate and the larvee were fed in trays until all of the parasites had issued. The trays were examined each day and any parasites which issued were removed and recorded. Individual collections, con- taining 100 caterpillars each, gave from nothing to as high as 40 per cent parasitism of second-stage gipsy-moth larvee for the spring 24 BULLETIN 1028, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a generation of the parasite. The records of parasitism secured from fourth-stage caterpillars which represent the second or summer gen- eration of A. melanoscelus were about the same. The second and fourth stages of the gipsy-moth larve usually showed the highest percentage of parasitism, but a considerable num- ber of the individuals of the other stages were killed by the parasite. Occasionally collections were made which gave as high as 15 per cent parasitism, for each of the other larval stages. In large collections of larve where all the caterpillars in sight were collected, the parasit- ism obtained averaged around 10 per cent for each generation. The collections from which these figures were secured contained from 5,000 to 20,000 larvee. The figures obtained from the foregoing collections should not be taken as representing the value of the parasite. There are a great many parasitized gipsy-moth larve which die in the field before the parasite maggot has had time to develop. The parasitized larvee do not eat so much as nonparasitized larvee and are inclined to crawl to out-of-the-way places and often are not seen by the collector. On the other hand, if one should search for the hidden larvee the collection would not be representative of conditions as they truly exist. There is each year a high percentage of mortality of the gipsy moth, which occurs whether insect parasites are present or not. This mortality varies from year to year depending upon the conditions which influence the contributing factors, but the average percentage of mortality (barring insect parasites) for any period of years is the same as for any other similar period of years, if the periods include a sufficient number of years to make the average a fair one. This average mortality is not sufficient to prevent the increase of the gipsy moth, nor is the parasitism by A. melanoscelus great enough to prevent the increase of this pest. Although the exact percentage of parasitism of the gipsy moth by this parasite can not be stated, it is evident that it has a very important place as a part of the sequence of parasites which in conjunction with the other natural agencies retards the increase of this injurious insect. ABUNDANCE OF A. MELANOSCELUS IN NEW ENGLAND. Apanteles melanoscelus, like some of the other introduced parasites of the gipsy moth, is found abundantly in rather small areas. Each year since the parasite has been established these areas of abundance have been found more often and over considerably more territory. Until the summer of 1916 the parasite was not found in any appre- ciable numbers excepting at local points in and around Melrose High- lands. During the summer of that year a location at Beverly, Mass., was found where A. melanoscelus was very common. During the APANTELES MELANOSCELUS—GIPSY-MOTH PARASITE. 25 same summer some interesting data were obtained from a medium- sized oak tree near the Gipsy Moth Laboratory at Melrose Highlands. This tree had many gipsy-moth egg clusters on it which had not been creosoted during the winter, so that on this particular tree there was a much heavier infestation of gipsy-moth larve than on any of the other trees in the vicinity. As the summer progressed, cocoons of A. melanoscelus began to appear in surprisingly large numbers. When most of the first-generation maggots had issued and spun their cocoons, the underside of nearly every crotch on the tree was covered with Apanteles cocoons (PI. LI, C). There were 5,140 first-generation cocoons collected from this tree. A few cocoons could not be reached and some had blown away before the collection was made. Later in the season 511 second-generation cocoons were taken from the tree, making a total of 5,651 cocoons of A. melanoscelus removed from this tree. Although heavily infested the foliage on the tree was not damaged much by the feeding of the gipsy moth larve and very few gipsy-moth pup were found on the tree. These data are not given as a sample of the condition of the trees in Melrose Highlands in 1916, but the figures are interesting and show what happens under some conditions. Occasionally large oak trees have been seen in other towns on which it was estimated there were from 6,000 to 10,000 cocoons. In 1918 this parasite was found in large numbers over an area of several acres of woodland in Cohasset. In 1919 and 1920 it was found abundantly in small areas in Hampton, N. H., and in the following towns in Massachusetts: Beverly, Quincy, Weymouth, Cohasset, Scituate, Marshfield, and West Boylston. CONCLUSION. Apanteles melanoscelus has been present in New England since 1911 and is now firmly established. It is spreading rapidly from the colonies which have been liberated and is increasing in spite of its being heavily parasitized by secondaries. The fact that A. melanoscelus is able to complete its life cycle on several native insects adds considerably to its value as an introduced parasite and makes its permanent establishment more certain than if the gipsy moth were its only host. This parasite has two generations each year on the gipsy moth and is very abundant in many small areas. It gives promise of becoming one of the most valuable of the imported parasites. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V 4, BULLETIN No. 1029 &@ ‘ Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief PROFESSIONAL PAPER Washington, D. C. March 28, 1922 SEED TREATMENT AND RAINFALL IN RELATION TO THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. By J. C. WALKER, Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin, and Pathologist, Office of Cotton, Truck, and Forage Crop Disease Investigations.’ CONTENTS. Page. Page. TONEFOCUCtLO Myre eee hw SE see 1 | Field trials with treated seeds—Con. Effect of fungicidal treatment in the Relation of rainfall to the de- laboratory upon seed and the seed: velopment of the disease____ 14 DOTMC URIS Seer ee 3 Importance of spread in the Heat and desiccation__________ 5 seed bed as compared with Formaldehyde solution________ 7 dissemination in the field___ 17 EVO tear herman ek ES es 9 Seed-bed trials at Madison, Wis., Mercuric-chlorid solution______ 10 TT 1 O11 Bae Bie eins eas ee Aa oe 18 Summary of laboratory seed- Results with treated seeds in treatment experiments______ 12 commercial fields___________ 20 Field trials with treated seeds_____ 13 | Importance of disease-free seeds___ 7a Development of the disease in SS URN ey a ee 25 the seed bed______________=_ oy leiteraturen (Clledes=— anaes 27 INTRODUCTION. The black-leg of cabbage, first noted as occurring in America by Manns (7),? has become one of the most serious and widespread maladies of this crop. Henderson (3), who, on the basis of his ear- her studies in Wisconsin, has given the most complete treatise on the disease, demonstrated that cabbage seeds which had been invaded by the causal fungus, Phoma lingam (Tode) Desm., were a common 1 The major portion of the work reported upon herewith was carried on at the labora- 3 tory of plant pathology of the University of Wisconsin as a cooperative project between the university and the United States Department of Agriculture. Along with this, the writer has had opportunity for field studies in some of the chief cabbage-growing sections in the Hastern, Western, and Southern States. The writer wishes to express his appre- ciation to Prof. L. R. Jones for the helpful advice and criticisms received during the course of the investigation and to Dr. W. B. Tisdale and Miss Ruth Tillotson for assist- ance in part of the field observations and laboratory experiments. 2The serial numbers (italic) in parentheses refer to ‘‘ Literature cited” at the end of this bulletin. 73603°—22—Bull. 1029——_1 2 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. source of primary inoculum the following year. As he pointed out, it has been the experience of many growers that the appearance of this disease in epiphytotic form in a given locality is usually asso- ciated with a certain lot of cabbage seed. Observations by the writer have strengthened the belief that infected seed is the chief cause of heavy losses from black-leg. Henderson (3) found that naked pycnospores of Phoma lingam were killed within two or three minutes by 1:200 formaldehyde or 1:1,000 mercuric-chlorid solutions. Spores within pycnidia em- bedded in soft cortical tissues of the host were killed after 21 minutes by the formaldehyde solution, while with the other fungicide a few spores were still viable after this length of treatment. Henderson’s study was limited by the small number of infected seeds available. It was found, however, that after treatment in 1:200 formaldehyde solution for 21 minutes or in 1:1,000 mercuric-chlorid solution for 10 minutes, infected seeds still yielded pure cultures of Phoma lingam. In 1917 a crop of the yellows-resistant Wisconsin Hoijlander seed was grown at Racine, Wis. A scattering of Phoma lingam developed on the seed plants, and a very small percentage of the pods became infected. All of this seed (approximately 25 pounds) was treated with a 1: 256 solution of formaldehyde, and most of it was planted in the same locality the following season. Black-leg developed in epiphytotic form in most of the seed beds, resulting in heavy crop losses where such plants were set in the field. A typical field from this lot of seed as it appeared at the end of the season is shown in Plate I, A. The uniformity with which the disease developed in beds from the lot of seed in question and the fact that many of these beds were on soil which had not grown cabbage for many years left no doubt that the fungus carried over in the seed was the source of in- fection. Moreover, it was evident that despite seed treatment the parasite had spread from comparatively few centers to a large per- centage of the plants during their growth in the seed bed. This situation raised the important question as to how much re- liance is to be placed upon seed treatment as a means of control for black-leg. Experiments and observations reported later in this paper show that a very small percentage of infected seeds may under cer- tain environmental conditions cause almost a total loss of the crop. Moreover, the detection of such infected seeds is very difficult, even by an expert. Since a very large portion of the cabbage seed used in this country is grown in a few restricted areas in America and © abroad, the average grower uses seed concerning the history of which he knows very little, and this fact makes it the more necessary either that seed treatment be entirely effective or that the production of Phoma-free seed be insured. THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. 3 It was upon the basis of these facts that the present investigation was begun. It was necessary, first of all, to determine more definitely the limitations of seed treatment with the common disinfectants, both upon commercial cabbage seed and upon the black-leg fungus within infected seeds. Following this, the relation of certain en- vironmental factors to the development and spread of the disease, especially in the seed bed, and their influence upon the ultimate success of seed treatment were studied. This paper is a progress re- port upon the work along these lines. EFFECT OF FUNGICIDAL TREATMENT IN THE LABORATORY UPON SEED AND THE SEED-BORNE FUNGUS. Because of its practical bearing upon the efficacy of seed treatment, an extensive study was made of the resistance of the fungus within infected seeds to heat, desiccation, and chemical fungicides, and, as a necessary corollary, experiments on the effect of the same treat- ments upon normal cabbage seeds were performed. Early experi- ments showed that it would be impossible completely to disinfect seed without producing some detrimental effect upon its vitality. From the standpoint of practical cabbage culture, however, seed treatment can be carried somewhat beyond the point of first injury with profit if sufficient benefit is to be derived from fungicidal action. Moreover, as will be pointed out later, where it is desirable to rid small quantities of “mother seed” of the black-leg fungus before introducing the seed into a new locality, quite severe treatment may be desirable with the aim of complete eradication of the parasitic organism. For these reasons, in the laboratory experiments treat- ment with disinfectants was usually prolonged to the point where complete eradication was attained, and the effect upon commercial seeds up to that point was determined. Four types of treatment were used: (1) Mercuric chlorid, (2) for- maldehyde, (8) hot water, and (4) desiccation at moderate and high temperatures. For the study of the effect of treatment upon the fungus, seeds directly beneath or very close to pod lesions were col- lected shortly before maturity. Two such lots were used, one (No. 4-18) secured in a field of the Wisconsin Hollander variety at Racine, Wis., in July and August, 1918, and the second (No. 1-19) collected by Mr. E. E. Clayton from a field (variety not determined) at Matti- tuck, Long Island, N. Y., in July, 1919. The earlier and more ex- tensive experiments were performed with the former lot, and the stronger treatments were repeated or ee for the first time with the latter. The seeds were exposed to the various treatments and placed on | potato-agar plates. They were kept at room temperature for two. to four weeks, within which time the fungus, if viable, was identi- fied by its erowth on the medium. 4 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Histological studies to trace the course of the mycelium within and beneath the seed coat have not been made. It became evident, however, as a result of cultural studies, that the effect on diseased seeds may vary from little or no change in normal color and little shriveling to very marked shrinkage and entire loss of vitality, de- pendent upon the extent of invasion by the fungus. That the infec- tion may be confined to the seed coat 1s shown by one instance where a seed which had been treated with 1:1,000 mercuric chlorid to kill organisms on the surface was placed on a potato-agar plate. Normal germination occurred and the hypocotyl as it developed became attached to the agar about half an inch away from the seed coat. As growth proceeded the young seedling was drawn entirely away from contact with the testa and was later removed to a tube of agar, where it remained sterile. Subsequently, however, a pure culture of Phoma lingam developed from the seed coat, proving that the fungus was present in this portion of the seed without having invaded the cotyledons. In the study of the effect of fungicides upon germination and subsequent development of seedlings from normal cabbage seed, most of the work was done with two lots (Nos. 2-18 and 3-18) of the Wisconsin Hollander variety grown at Racine, Wis., in 1918. In general, one lot (No. 2-18) showed more injury from disinfectants than the other, in spite of the fact that a high percentage of the untreated seeds germinated and produced vigorous seedlings. This may have been due to improper curing, since the seed plants after being harvested were piled indoors before the seed was thrashed and the circulation of air provided was insufficient for rapid and thor- ough curing. A portion of lot No. 2-18 was stored in a cloth sack in the laboratory, and certain of the treatments were repeated in the second year (winter of 1919-20). After the general limits of injury with these two lots of seed had been determined, the effect of stronger treatments was usually extended to several other lots of various ages and from different sources. In a few of the early experiments germination tests were made in Petri dishes lined with moistened filter paper. It was found that numerous treated seeds often gave evidence of germination by throw- ing off the testa and starting growth of the hypocotyl, but develop- ment ceased at this point. When parallel tests were made in soil in the greenhouse, most of such seedlings never appeared above ground. Consequently, in order to secure a more definite index of the capacity of various lots of seed for producing vigorous seedlings after treat- ment, the Petri dish method was discarded. All results reported on the effect of fungicides upon commercial seeds are from tests made in silt-loam soil in the greenhouse. The final estimate of the amount of injury was supplemented in the case of the stronger treatments THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. 5 by seed-bed trials on silt-loam garden soil at Madison and on sandy soil at Racine, Wis. In rinsing seed after treatment with mercuric-chlorid or formalde- hyde solution one thorough washing in clean tap water was made. As pointed out by Robinson (9), who showed that a slight amount of the former fungicide was present in the fourth wash water after treatment of pea, bean, vetch, and barley seeds, it is probable that this one rinsing was insufficient completely to remove the fungicides. HEAT AND DESICCATION. Atanasoff and Johnson (7) have given a summary of previous work on the relation of high temperatures to the viability of various seeds. They studied further the effect of dry heat upon barley, wheat, rye, and oat seeds and upon a number of seed-borne organ- isms. It was concluded that the bacteria causing blights of barley (Bacterium translucens) and of oats (Pseudomonas avenae) could be successfully eradicated from infected seeds by dry heat, while several fungous parasites of cereals were either eliminated or markedly reduced by the same treatment. Harrington and Crocker (2) found that the percentage of germination of wheat, barley, Sudan grass, Kentucky bluegrass, and Johnson grass was not mate- rially changed when the moisture content was reduced to less than 1 per cent by drying over calcium oxid or sulphuric acid at room temperature. Waggoner (10), by drying radish seeds first at 60° C. and then at 100° C., reduced the moisture content from 4 per cent at normal air-dry condition to 0.4 per cent without reduction of germi- nation. In the experiments reported here several lots of cabbage seed, varying in age from a few months to 7 years, were reduced to con- stant weight at 100° C. In these lots the moisture content of the air-dry seeds, untreated, remained around 6 or 7 per cent of the dry weight. The results given in Table I show that at 85° C. the moisture content dropped rapidly during the first 6 hours and then became nearly constant after 48 hours. Seed treated with mer- curic-chlorid solution became adjusted to its original air-dry mois- ture content within a few weeks. All of the drying experiments reported were carried out in a Freas constant-temperature electric oven. Seeds were placed for this pur- pose in thin layers in small paper containers, so as to avoid direct contact with substances of high specific heat. Desiccation at high temperatures (85° to 95° C.) caused a gradual reduction in viability, which was accompanied by retardation in germination and growth. The plants might outgrow the effects of mild treatments, but severe injury was usually permanent. In the early experiments, in which No. 3-18 seed was used, only slight in- 6 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. jury to the seed was caused at 96 hours; therefore this method gave some promise as a practical means of control. When it was extended to other seed lots, however, the deleterious effects of the treatment became evident at a much shorter exposure. This was most notice- able in the case of No. 2-18 seed when treated in the second year. TasLeE I.—EHffect of desiccation and heat upon commercial cabbage seeds and upon the black-leg fungus within infected seeds. Effect upon in- fected seeds. Effect upon commercial seeds. 3 lq g Two-year- ¢ 5 One-year-old seed. Cldiceed: a tf) a Ae 3 |8 | Lot3-18.¢ | Lot 419.0 Lot LOE Lot 2- | + ot 9-18.4 n n b 18.4 Treatment and length of Saalisa exposure. A ehcalits| eee Bie ie isas | lect | le | see BS jorlesls ale Bale = KS) =H KS) a \avlaag|2e ney eerie |als jal |ala jo Ja Untreated: Pe eeNO.OXPOSULCs 2ehece see 4-18) 130/75. 3/22. 3)....).-.- Pe Ae aaa eer ocr aa Spa beaslboeclssonllsouc alate 1-19] 24/66.6] 0 |6.38/ 97) © 6.9 | 92) O | 93) CO | 92) © j7.11) 77) O Exposed at constant tem- perature: At 85° C.— | MMMoure sss ee ec S| Pega aPC bpm (mney bears met KPa LY lv dB o> Ye eh Pee SIS eI Gl). Sui Se QMOUESZaeetcc teens ssc]sceelse cc [osee|seos|esss|s ss sl2097| 4641 (Goes | es ee ee ee Deo dine sS | eet ANNOUTS ye cannons doweleccs|oodeleced |. docleccs feces eile 691-799) |Per alse Sere See 2e25 oe et GIHOUTSE sass. eee eS |4-18] 22/40.9] O /1.27) 95] © 1.51} 62) = |....]...-] 94; © j212) 33) + ZINOULSS se gee e ae 4-18} 49/32.6) 6.1/1.27) 97) © {1.42} 67) + 87} O | 88) © |1. 85} 29) + 2S HOurS HS 2s.2 2 eee 4-18] 45/17. 7) 8.8|1.02) 95) © {1.22} 54) + 88] O | 85) © /1.85) 20) + S0ihourses f: 418]. 49/20; 4| 0 ~|'.85| 95). © ios. |2e.-|2see|een alae alee G0 © ees eee ees SO MOULTSHaces eeeeesee 418) 46) 4.3) 0 | .85) 96) © /1.29) 63) + |....|....1 84) © |1.92] 32) + ASINOUILSS eee eee oe |4-18} 25:36. 0/16. 0] .72) 95) © 1.15) 42) + 71) + 74| + (1.63) 22) + M2 OUTS abel ieee Soe 4-18] 44] 9.0} 2.2) .93} 96) © | .73) 31) + 58) + 55| + {1.32} 13) + OGthours sae sce see 4-18} 49/0 |0 | .78) 87) © j1. 22) 25) + 17, + 53) + (1.63) 14) + ID NOW aaa oan easel Bees ee bate | Wa be les}. 10| 07] eos Soe eee see 1.60) 12) + 24/25. 0) 0 eee Ooi @ | ae eae 25| 4.0/0 |....| 63| © |.. ae 24| 4.1] 0 es et CY Ape lars Roba 48} 4.1] 0 |. 10)\-++ |.. 5d65 24/0 |0 SEI asa sa Bdc6 M2MOUTS Hace ee eee 4-18) 47;0 |; 0 }....; 3) + ]-. S050 At 95° C.— AWE) OURT ee ee ate esha by ae i cat .---|2 06] 86} © |....} 46) + 53 Qhours eee eee oe o5 Geeeloase .-.-|1.40] 80; © |....; 58) + 09 AN OUTSSOes seeee elas Al eseel esekol eee 1.02} 85} © |- 55] + 1.85 Gihours see oe oe aoe Oneal ..-| .68] 88] © ]....| 56] + |occoile 74 MZAVOUTS Sesto 4-18] 35) 2.810 | .72| 87) © |. 53) + + = {1.85 SihouTsSeeeeteeenee 418} 23/0 |0 asic |serete eel Bes SS isla] we'ale log cr] eee el Mtoe | ese Sees eee eee Za NOULSP eee oeeeneee 418) 24/0 |0 | .48) 77) © |.---| 21) + 8 + 9) + (1.76) 2)++ VOINOUTS es eseeneeeeee 418] 20}0 |0 | .36) 21) + 35] + 2) + O|..../1. 75 1j++ ARINOUNSEEEE ceeeeees AASB RASS ese Sea orB) Olds 1 Poe bosalinccellosoalsasst6G8)) Rete 2 DLOUTS== eee eal sce Boab baseless) oul; eicg O] lk ecec [oe enlsee 74) 10)4--- 96th OUTS Sass acre eceerel Socl boca Boda bece 27| _ O}- Re BERS Ber ooollsacallseds Bad) See cia Dried at 37° to 50° C. 5 days, at 73° 3 days, then at 100° C.: ONhouregeemet cee. =o te Bl Sec apa eet 1.31}. 90) © ne Cees ateel Seer Sa Pm be baa LAN OULS set secon e ce aaciall aeteis!| seers See ae 74 bec el peers acclesoe|oose|seanl Seosleee Shien ash OULSHeemereeeericn |e eel Srecsiell Pretorcl ey statel| states O/ESee AiSeleeee se Jalseenis ere ate cts SOIMOLITS Seeeee eet elle eal ateisel acta Seis [sie s Shas |. Ae eee Beale onal Mees a Wisconsin Hollander variety > All Seasons variety grown at ¢ Wisconsin All Seasons variety grown a @d Symbols used: O=Noinjury; G=slight; +—medium; +=severe; +-+=very severe. own at Racine, Wis., in 1918. a Conner, Wash t Racin ., in 1919. e, Wis., in 1918. THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. i Tt will not be necessary to consider in detail the data obtained when the seeds were exposed at 90° and 95° C., as listed in Table I. Lot No. 3-18 again proved to be the most resistant, while the remaining lots, as a rule, received marked injury at these temperatures. Parallel treatments of highly infected seeds showed that the fungus had been killed within 18 hours at 95° C. and within 96 hours at 85° C. Both of these treatments might, therefore, be of practical use with lot No. 3-18, but would be very injurious to the other lots. A quantity of No. 3-18 seed was dried first at 37° to 50° C. for five days, then at 73° C. for three days, by which means the moisture con- tent was reduced to 1.31 per cent. The seed was then placed in an incubator running at 100° C. The results (Table I) showed that in spite of the reduced water content the ability to resist this high tem- perature was not increased. Agar-plate tests with badly infected seed similarly treated were not made. However, a sample dried at 40° to 50° C. for 19 days and then at 85° C. for one day, the moisture content being reduced to 1.44 per cent of the dry weight, yielded almost as much disease as untreated seed in seed-bed trials. This fact indicates that prolonged drying at moderate temperatures does not materially affect the fungus. It is evident from the foregoing data that cabbage seed is not uni- formly resistant to desiccation at high temperatures. Moreover, the fungus within or beneath the testa is so resistant to this treatment that complete eradication of it from infected seed by baking is im- possible without considerable injury to the seed. These facts, to- gether with the difficulty of applying this treatment on a large scale, give doubtful value to this method for commercial use with cabbage seed. FORMALDEHYDE SOLUTION. In the trials with formaldehyde solution use was made of formalde- hyde, standard strength of approximately 40 per cent, diluted with distilled water. Aside from one treatment with a 1:256 solution for 37 minutes, which was approximately the same as the formula used on a commercial scale in 1918, the stronger concentration (1:128) was used throughout the experiments with formaldehyde. Unless other- wise noted the solutions were used at room temperature, approxi- mately 20° C. Certain of the lots were rinsed in clean water; others were not rinsed. All were spread out in thin layers after treatment and allowed to dry under laboratory conditions. As will be seen from the results given in Table I, the latter treatment always produced greater injury than resulted in the case of corresponding rinsed lots. The deleterious effect of formaldehyde upon cabbage seed becomes evident both as reduction in percentage of seed germination and as injury to the seedlings. The data in Table II show a progressive decline in the percentage of germination of commercial seeds with the 8 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. increase in length of formaldehyde treatment. Injury to the seedlings is evident first from delayed germination and later from various degrees of retardation of growth. A slight check at the outset may be overcome within a few days, but increase in the severity of treatment results in permanent stunting. Accompanying the latter there is usually definite injury to the cotyledons, which remain dwarfed and become distorted in shape. Oftentimes with milder treatments this injury is confined to that cotyledon adjacent to the seed coat, while the other develops normally. TABLE I1.—Hffect of formaldehyde solution upon the black-leg fungus within in- fected cabbage seeds and upon commercial seeds. Effect upon infected seeds. | Effect upon com- mercial seeds. Length | of ee Seeds | Seeds | Germina- i ; = Strength and temperature of Salas Subsequent wath ¥ a EoenOs solution. tion | Teatment. Num- Nise gh | EES Seed Seed [ber of| {4ngus | fungus |__| jin (min- after | and sats utes). lot. sues treat- |germin-| go4 | seed liury.d m | tment. | stim) Toes cae eee cent). | cent). 2-18.4/3-18.¢ Untreatedeenes tee ot ee rae feeaiess | wer eneceee 4-18; 130 | 75.3-) 22.3 |= 931|/= 978 © mironethyletoi25be sess sco. ee ke aloe sas saeoee anes 1-19 24 66.6 0 (sistas See eee At room temperature.......... 30 | Rinsed....; 1-19 10 50.0 L050) eee Sees ee WD) OMe raens ses 2 eke ce once 37 =GOrsso-28 4-18 24 Strength 1 to 128: 1 33.3 0 92 98! O At room temperature.......... T5eles-d0secee es 4-18 25 16. 0 0 90)) | 22a O WD Ob powers aes Fes aickenle 30 dores2 = 4-18 25 16.0 8.0 85 96 eC 5 D0) se ae a 30 dozses= 1-19 15 60. 0 13.3% | 2 5e 25 | Sees ees FL) Oe ee eee ee she 30 | Unrinsed -| 1-19 23% (51340 0 66 80; + ID) Oe ees ae ota Saisisig cee 45 | Rinsed....| 4-18 25 24.0 4.0 791 8d = WD) One eee se ae ee 60 GO!-c2e5< 418 | 25 16.0 4.0 78 88) + SD) OS erat nod oecioiceieec eck 60 | Unrinsed .| 4-18 25 0 0 57 69 | ++ DD Otte oats esse aeptcinice 120 | Rinsed.. 1-19 24 8.3 0 AS s| 15 sae SSR ID) OMe eee ee ee oe 120 | Unrinsed .| 4-18 25 0 0 462 |-22e32 SSF INE EBL OPR SARE ee ae eee eee eS OSseas BH eee Seeeicemclsconcdes 45 ls cues SSF ID) Osmace rece sne ce aeceaee p Fall eee 0 Ko heen Ieee perl rama | ees iS 46 Noa. Se SF 10) 5S eS SSS CAS Se Sea Coes bryan Vos ceerel amer | eietael Fa rtreses ea aac 235 |Seeeee ++ NEGO SC Sneath Ie ie ser (ose eel epee Meese aaa /Eo eos 325/25 oo IDO) sGacdsSdauuceessbepessna 23 bac dOvsee ec Sece-t. |oeisea|seeseces BASE 227, | eee ++ DONOR eae aie re saa | Be ardor sane | Bees [eed cs [Seecae ae | so eetee | wp Desh ++ s Wisconsin Hollander variety grown at Racine, Wis., in 1918. b Symbols used: O= Noinjury; G=slight; +—medium; +=severe; ++ —=very severe. Table II shows that severe injury with 1: 128 formaldehyde solution resulted with one hour of treatment when the seed was subsequently rinsed and with 30 minutes when the seed was dried without rinsing. It is also shown that, although materially reduced, the fungus had not been completely eradicated from infected seeds by either of these treat- ments. Complete disinfection was not attained with rinsed seed even after two hours of treatment and only after one hour with unrinsed seed. It is worthy of note that the infected seeds were killed some- what earlier than the invading fungus, and this in practice might reduce somewhat the number of primary infections. It will be shown later, however, that infected seeds although incapable of germination THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. 9 may serve as sources of subterranean infection of near-by seedlings. Treatments with solutions heated to 55° and 60° C. for the very short periods of 1 to 5 minutes were so injurious that their effect upon infected seeds was not given further consideration. It was thus very evident that complete disinfection of infected seeds with a formalde- hyde solution is impossible without material injury to the subsequent development of the plants. Moreover, the fact that protracted treat- ment with this fungicide results in very serious injury to the host plant precludes its use even in those special cases where complete eradication of the parasite is so much desired that moderate seedling injury would be tolerated. | HOT WATER. ~ The use of hot-water treatment for the control of cabbage black- leg was first suggested by Norton (8). He treated cabbage seed for 5 minutes at 60°, 10 minutes at 56°, 15 minutes at 56°, and 20 minutes at 54° C. without injuring it, while spores of the fungus were killed at somewhat lower temperatures. The effect of these treatments upon the fungus within infected seeds was not determined, however. TABLE III1.—Effect of hot-water treatment upon the black-leg fungus within infected cabbage seeds and upon commercial seeds. Effect uponinfected seeds. Effect upon commercial seeds. eee One-year-old seed. Tuc yer Length Seeds | with of ex- RIE viable Temperature. posure Num- fungus {ngus Lot 2-18.¢ | Lot 4-19.5 | Lot 2-i8.a (min- | Seed: |ber of Breen and utes). | lot. sce arene, | Som Pee Ta ees used. minat- it = z (pet | (per | tion | ing |'ti ling [a ling cent). | cent) (per |, 22- Ce in- to mn in- cent). JUFY- cent), JUZY-| cent) |JUry-° MUR ROALC Osis Sime ae male oeeae 4-18 | 130 | 75.3} 22.3 93 O 97 ©) 67 O age BS ee Sac ar BS a 1-19 24 | 66.6 0 yee | Alon | AS gl [Eevee | ders a | Nea ace LN AOR OS Ba ae 30 | 1-19 15 0 0 86 S 91 O 66 = Oa oes Ueesit 60 | 1-19 20 0 0 8} CG 82} © 46) = INP GGE OAS a eee ee ee 5 | 1-19 24) 29.1 One 81 > 8} © 51 > JO SERR soos eee 10 | 1-19 35 | 14.2 0 80 Ss) 8%) 6 48 + pe DER PNP cr cra SS SSE 15 |} 4-18 17 0 0 67 + 82 ‘S) 33 — Lorene PRE ee Eee 15°} 1-19 35 2.8 0 67 POs al fee ee ee oe el ee ae At 56 aa Ei OL Oe eas eee a 20 | 4-18 23 0 Obes sa aeesa Sy sa ciate lesieseic|ecire ae eee ee ODM OMS eee ser ie -aaecnee le 30 | 1-19 24 0 0 52 > 39 +: 18 + NIB UE Oe ae errs te eee eae Bie aan ead ae seeeeel eae 59 feel LE lfc aes Pend Ne | @ Wisconsin Hollander variety grown at Racine, Wis.,in 1918. _b All Seasons variety grown at La Conner, Wash., in 1919. : enue ©O=Noinjury; G=slight; += medium; +=severe. © a The effect. of hot water held at 50°, BBS, and 60° C. both upon commercial and infected seeds has bon determined by the writer, and the results of the tests are given in Table GOES Treatment for 30 minutes at 55° C. evisey pridiencd the fungus, but considerable 73603 ° —22—Bull. 1029 10 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. injury resulted to commercial seed held at this temperature for as short a time as 5 minutes. At 50° C. the fungus was killed in 30 minutes with the small number of seeds used, but here, again, some detrimental effect upon commercial seed occurred; in fact, seed injury was evident in somewhat milder treatments than those reported by Norton (&). This is probably due to differences in the suscepti- bility of individual seed lots. Soaking the seed in water before treat- ment did not appear to be of any distinct advantage. At present, hot-water treatment does not appear to be sufficiently superior to the mercuric-chlorid treatment described later to warrant its recom- mendation for general use. Further comparative trials, however, should be made. MERCURIC-CHLORID SOLUTION. Solutions of mercuric chlorid were made by dissolving the chemi- cally pure salt in distilled water. The treatments were all conducted at room temperature, about 20° C. Four methods were used: (1) Soaking the cabbage seed in the disinfectant without previous treat- ment and rinsing once in clean water after removal; (2) soaking in the disinfectant without previous treatment and allowing the seed to dry without subsequent rinsing; (3) soaking in water for one to four hours before placing in the disinfectant and rinsing once in clean water after treatment; (4) dipping the seed first in alcohol for two minutes, then transferring to the disinfectant for the desired time, and finally rinsing in clean water. Mercuric chlorid caused a gradual reduction in the percentage of germination of seeds propor- tionate to the length of soaking and the concentration of the solu- tion. Injury to the germinating seedlings was characterized by tem- porary or permanent stunting of growth and varied amounts of necrotic tissue extending back from the margins of the cotyledons. The results of experiments with mercuric-chlorid solutions are pre- sented in Table IV. With the first method (soaking in the disinfectant and rinsing in water) little injury resulted from a 30-minute treatment with the 1:500 solution, and practically none from less severe treatments. In the case of one lot of imported cabbage seed of rather low vitality (not cited in Table IV), considerable injury resulted from the 30- minute 1:500 treatment, indicating that treatments as severe as this should be used with caution. In the case of most lots of cabbage seed, however, the soaking may be prolonged to one or two hours with only slight injury, and at three hours only medium retardation may be expected. These stronger treatments completely eradicated the fungus in the case of the No. 4-18 seed. The fungus in the No. 1-19 lot appeared to be much more resistant to this chemical. THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. list TasBLE 1V.—Effect of mercuric-chlorid solution upon the black-leg fungus within infected cabbage seeds and upon commercial seeds. Effect upon inrectediscod: Effect upon commercial seeds. a Jos Ke) 2B 3 sg Two- $ aes One-year-old seed. year-old A Ee ad seed. is a leolag Method 2 of treatment and strength | { 9 eee e ot Tet TL Ta ot of the solution. = = ae 22) 37185 4-19.c | 5-19.d | 2-18.b | 2-18.5 ie iP) oF ag 6 so eee ol alee «| 2 e|_|sigbeclse@ Set Eee Ea ee oe Rapes toss ai) a= fe ~~ KA ~ lo | 8 (SsiS6| £8 Sse Sea /8 SIS SIS SIS SIE SISE A/S | 5 (SSles| FS (BS SSISSRSSERSSSIES ES Slalale jo lo~ ie lo aA 6 la jo la Io fe Winiinemfiedl 0: ss eeee asso eceepares| Sees 4-18] 130/75. 3/22. 3/95-100) © | 96) O| 92) O| 921 O]} 80/0 TD Yuan TT ie pe ene 1-19] 24|66.6) 0 -|.-...-|-.- | acsre I S eae a ae ea le Faas Method 1: 10/4-18] 25|56.0] 4.0) 99] © |....|-..- BE beste [set ss ses 20/4-18] 25/20. 0| 0 On Onlescalbsee Fs eee ee eel a Strength 1 to 1,000.........-.--- 30\4-18} 24/16.6] 4.1 O91 @) ewe| tone eee a|oose 92\2@> |e | ee 40/4-18] 25/12. 0] 0 NO) Wegealgace Hel Gee sellese nls ss 60|4-18) 25]12. 0] 0 99|KS) SRS: as |2s aes | Se eee 10/4-18] 25/20.0/12.0! 99] © |..../..-- ate nee ene a aenleeaelssce 20/4=18] 25136, 0/°8..0| = 981 © jac 2 lee 22 eid We a a egietal ieee f20/1-19) 1020.0) 0 |-..... Sia aeia eeca paealeauals Ee eel eee 30/418] 25/12.0] 4.0} 981 ©] 93) OO} 9440] 8810] 85-0 eos 10|50. 0/20. 0]... --.. Bal cael ae as bea See eee 0)4-18) 25)12.0) 4.0 CHINE) eegalicase esa este ene aes Strength 1 to 500.......-.--.-. 60/4-18] 39]12.8] 2.5} 93] S 98} O | 90} 0} 81] 6 | 8210 Ae 22/6346 |plaO|eeecen Zales See SA eas pales 0\4-18] 24,0 |0 |..-... .| 85| QO | 77| 63 71 120/119 [P25 |\450| On| Se see ees eee Cree = ee ©. a 2 180|4-18] 25|0 |0 |...... Sa SE OES ied sy = 180|1-19] 28/285] 0 |..-.-. a on a ee ee aie Alnecclane Method 2: | rae 13/1543 ee a SV leessiiesce suealbodal: GAVE) bsdellocee | 18! 2510 10 | | ees | Rea ses allSeaoa ree (5 etiam 8 1 WO BAbUe aoe casse | 60|1-19| 25] 8.0] 8.0]... Se es es, 120 [Ese ees | ee a Rie roe. Peete PERE ees z 53/6 3 Method 3: NO ee alse [see Beata tel pha Be Taleo ene 2 181" © DOE er aa Baas edict eS Ea Gia ea Re eS GIST eS) Strength 1 to 500....-.......-. 3 |T=—19 || DONS SHS | ee yee ee (Pa ta A Ia) (10) bese lle WE Reale ee eo || Rea es ee, | eps es |S Rs ees 4 eras WTO) lta Pal ISIC ea | POSFAES aes lees =| 13)-F3- Method 4: TN sees Seta as aM SE See a COVA a I es 20 eS WL S| es |B ei (he OF Oye sanisesalledad Hi sess Strength 1 to 500--..-........- BO | eee | Sees | BE re [ogee ig OO) Nesbalbsselsces i 601-19] 9 50/62, 0) 2: 0)..-..-|2-22] 83] © |iceefl cece... Alaa nA) Fe pe [cereal AT ae TE Bill). [esoalessaleess i a Method 1=not soaked previous to treatment, rinsed after treatment; method 2—not soaked previous totreatment, not rinsed after treatment; method 3=soaked in water previous to treatment, rinsed after treatment; method 4= dipped in 70 per cent alcohol previous to treatment, rinsed after treatment. b Wisconsin Hollander variety grown at Racine Wis., in 1918. c Ali Seasons variety grown at La Conner, Wash., 1919. d Jersey Wakefield variety grown at La Conner, Wash., 1919. e Symbols used: O= No injury; G=slight; +=medium; +=severe; ++ =very severe. f Disinfected by seed grower. g Dipped in 95 per centinstead of 70 per cent alcohol. With the second method of treatment (soaking in the disinfectant without rinsing in water), seedling injury occurred after a shorter period, evidently as a result of the prolonged action of the disinfectant. No advantage of this over the first method was found, however, since the action upon the fungus was no more rapid than upon the host. 12 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. E A limiting factor in the use of mercuric-chlorid solution is the fact that complete contact with the seed coats is usually prevented by the presence of small air bubbles. To overcome this difficulty Hutchinson and Miller (4) conducted their seed treatments in partial vacuum, but with only limited success. Since two trials with infected seed by this treatment in 1:500 mercuric chlorid gave no better results than parallel experiments at atmospheric pressure, the method was aban- doned (see Table IV). In order to overcome this damealey in another way the seed was soaked in water previous to treatment (method 3). The action of the fungicide on the seeds was more rapid than with the unsoaked seed, marked injury resulting from treatments of more than 30 min- utes’ duration. At this point, however, the disinfection of diseased seed was no more complete than with similar exposures of unsoaked seed. In the fourth method of treatment, where seeds were rinsed in alcohol before exposure to the mercuric-chlorid solution, the action of the disinfectant was hastened somewhat, injury to the seed being pronounced after a treatment of one hour (see lot No. 4-19, Table IV). The method appears to be no more effective than the first, how- ever, in eradicating the fungus from infected seeds. The results with mercuric chlorid may be summarized as follows: With most lots of seed used a soaking of one hour in a 1:500 solution followed by rinsing in water caused very slight seed injury. One lot, however, was injured considerably by this treatment. Treatment was necessary for two hours for complete eradication of the fungus in the case of one lot of infected seed, and in another iot treatment for three hours was insufficient to attain this result. Other methods used with mercuric-chlorid solution—(1) soaking in the disinfectant without rinsing after treatment, (2) presoaking in water before treat- — ment, (3) dipping in alcohol before treatment, and (4) treatment in partial vacuum—did not appear to be superior to the first. For general use soaking for 30 minutes in a 1:1,000 solution, followed by rinsing in water, is advisable. Most lots of seed will stand a 1:500 solution for a somewhat longer time, but preliminary trials should be made before this stronger treatment is applied. SUMMARY OF LABORATORY SEED-TREATMENT EXPERIMENTS. The data presented justify the conclusion that no known method of cabbage-seed disinfection can be relied upon for the complete eradication of the black-leg fungus, Phoma lingam, without severe injury to the seed. It is also evident that different lots of seed vary widely in their relative susceptibility to injury from seed treatment. This forces one to be the more conservative in recommendations for general practice. The results of experiments lead the writer to THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. 13 doubt whether dry heat can be used successfully on a commercial basis because of the wide range of susceptibility te injury in different lots of seed and because of the difficulty of application. The experi- ments conducted with hot water have not shown it to be superior to the chemical fungicides; so in view of the awkwardness of its appli- cation it is not at present considered suitable for general use. Fur- ther comparative trials, however, should be made. With the chemical fungicides, treatment stronger than a 1:256 or 1:240 solution of for- maldehyde and a 1:1,000 solution of mercuric chlorid for 30 minutes, followed by rinsing, i is unsafe for general use. Of these two treat- ments the mercuric chlorid seems to be slightly superior in eradi- eating the fungus. It is true, however, that many lots of seed will stand much more severe treatment, especially with mercuric chlorid, but in the event of such treatment preliminary tests should always be made. FIELD TRIALS WITH TREATED SEEDS. The results from seed treatment showed that complete elimination of seed infection is impracticable. It was evident, however, that the more effective treatments, such as 1:1,000 and 1:500 mercuric-chlorid solution and 1:256 formaldehyde solution for 30 minutes destroyed or inhibited so much of the Phoma as greatly to reduce the percent- age of seedling infection. The question arose, therefore, as to | whether any of the foregoing treatments would control the disease for practical purposes. In general, infected seeds were less resistant than the fungus within them. It was reasonable to expect, then, that treatment of commercial seed bearing an ordinary amount of infec- tion would reduce the number of germinable diseased seeds to a very low percentage. Field observations have shown that the rapidity with which the disease develops and spreads from primary centers in the seed bed varies greatly from year to year. Comparison of climatic conditions with the occurrence of the disease in different localities and in the same locality in successive years has indicated that the amount of rainfall and the atmospheric humidity are the chief factors in caus- ing these variations. McAlpine (6) has pointed out that the disease in Australia thrives best in wet weather followed by heat or when the plants are forced by excessive watering. This view is further strengthened by the fact that a good supply of moisture is necessary to bring about the discharge of pycnospores of Phoma lingam and that they are at the same time best adapted to dissemination by spat- tering rain or surface drainage water. DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISEASE IN THE SEED BED. As described by Henderson (3), primary infection of germinating seedlings takes place at some point on the cotyledon or at the base 73603 °—22—Bull. 1029 14 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the hypocotyl. In the first case invasion by the fungus takes place before or during germination. In rare cases the testa remains at- tached to one of the cotyledons, and delayed infection may thus occur. The disease appears as shriveling of the infected tissue of the cotyle- don without much loss of color, beginning usually at the margin and progressing toward the petiole. Pycnidia later appear in the shrunken tissue, their development being materially hastened in humid environments. Infection at the base of the hypocotyl usually takes place after germination, inoculum coming from the fungus within the seed coat, which ordinarily remains below ground, closely © adjacent to the crown. In the same way nongerminable infected seeds may be the source of inoculum for near-by healthy seedlings. This has been shown to take place by planting such seeds alternately in the furrow with healthy viable ones. In the case of hypocotyl infection, the disease appears above ground. as a gradual shrinkage of the suc- culent tissue, progressing upward and ultimately causing a collapse of the plant. As in the case of cotyledon infection, pycnidia later appear in the shrunken tissue, their development likewise being en- hanced by moist environment. Under greenhouse conditions where a temperature of 70° to 75° F. and a relative humidity of about 60 to 70 per cent were maintained, the first signs of disease usually ap- peared in 8 to 10 days after planting, and other primary lesions con- tinued to develop for three to five weeks. Asa rule, cotyledon lesions appeared first and hypocotyl infections a few days later. Out of doors, where there is a greater range in environmental conditions, the progress of the disease may be delayed. RELATION OF RAINFALL TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISEASE. A study of the effect of variation in the depth of rainfall on the development of the disease in the seed bed was made during the spring and summer of 1919 at Madison, Wis. Untreated seed of the Wisconsin Hollander variety, lot No. 2-18 previously referred to, was sown on May 14. A small percentage of the pods from which this seed was taken had shown black-leg lesions, and in greenhouse tests about 2 per cent of the seedlings had developed primary hypo- cotyl infections. The seed bed was divided into four plats, which were, respectively, handled as follows: Plat 1, exposed to natural weather conditions; plat 2, exposed as plat 1 and sprinkled several times each week during dry weather; plat 3, covered with a cold- frame during rains; plat 4, covered every evening and during rainy weather. The last treatment was devised to reduce the amount of dew which might form upon the plants. As a matter of fact, how- ever, under the climatic conditions which prevailed during the trial, this artificial inclosure led to a greater accumulation of moisture upon these plants in plat 4 than upon those in plat 3. The protected THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. 15 plats (Nos. 3 and 4) were watered artificially, care being taken to avoid splashing and the distribution of pycnospores. A few infection centers appeared in all plats on or shortly after June 9. Following this date the appearance of new centers and sub- sequent spread was greatest in plat 2 and nearly as rapid in plat 1, MAY JUNE JULY AUGUOT SEPTEMBER 5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 25 op (01520525 5 40 15 20 25 D2) LORS 20N25) 1.0 FACIE, WIS. 1918 a | 5D — | 20 | A : | || RACINE, W/S.19/9 | q} T ] q 1.0 SIs 3 LI 7 50 | 20 JESS SE ste MALIN, WIS.1919 1.0 ECA 05 - 4+ | MENASHA,WIS.1919 1.0 a | + 4 50 =H 1 25 tp WwW i | Wy *: x |WEW LONDON, Wis 1919 So me KO) Gam N y 50 ‘ari S 2 =H ns 5 10 15 2025 Dd) 10) 13.20.29 5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 25 MAY JUNE JULY - AUGUST | SEPTEMBER Fic. 1.—Precipitation records made by the United States Weather Bureau at Racine, Wis., in 1918 and 1919 and at Menasha, Wis. (nearest station to Appleton), and New Lon- don, Wis. (nearest station to Shiocton), in 1919. while in the protected plats very little spread took place. The rain- fall which occurred at Madison during the experiment is recorded in figure 1. The beds were kept under observation until August 4, which is about four weeks beyond the normal date for transplanting. The final estimate of the extent of the disease made at this time is presented in Table V. It is clear that where the splashing action of 16 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rain was eliminated the spread of the disease was completely checked, while it was enhanced where artificial sprinkling was done. AI- though plat 3 was exposed to numerous heavy dews, these were ap- parently insufficient for the dissemination of spores for any appre- clable distance. TABLE V.—E#jffect of variation in rainfall on the development of black-leg on cab- bages in the seed bed at Madison, Wis., in 1919. | Extent of disease at | the end of the ex- | periment. Plat. Treatment. | ae Diseased | = er | ae cent). INO RilSE ee eeem Hxposed to maturalirainfall = 222 oes sees eee ee ee ee 425 | 28.7 INOS2=Os ss Artificially sprinkled 2,222 aoseee soos eee Sees ae a eee 174 37.9 INO%S 22252 s0= = Covered*during: rains =< 26 ae see no eee eee yea Ge 359 | ats IN‘OF 42-25 522 Covered every evening and during rains - 25-222 22= eee =e eee 369 | 2.9 This experiment was repeated in 1920. ‘Two lots of seed, one heavily infected (No. 2-19) and one mildly infected (No. 7-19), were planted in clean soil on May 12. Part of the plat was protected from rains during the growth of the plants, water being supplied arti- ficially, with care to avoid splashing. After the first appearance of the disease on May 22, primary infections continued to develop on the cotyledons and at the base of the hypocotyl with about eqpal rapidity in the protected and unprotected portions of the plat. Pyc- nidia in these lesions were first noted on May 25. By June 14 prac- tically all the primarily infected plants were dead, and each bore many mature pycnidia. The first secondary infections were noted on June 17, and from that time on the disease developed rapidly on leaves and stems of the plants in the unprotected portion of the plat. In an adjoining plat healthy plants were sprayed with a suspension of -spores taken directly from lesions on infected plants. The disease appeared on these plants about 15 days later. It is thus to be expected that even under favorable conditions for dissemination and infection the appearance of secondary lesions would not ordinarily take place until two or three weeks after pycnidia appeared on plants infected . from the seed. The plants in the plat were large enough for trans- planting by the end of June, when they were pulled and examined for the presence of the disease. The results are given in Table VI. In spite of the fact that primary infections were very numerous in the case of the No. 2-19 seed very little spread to the aerial portions of surrounding plants occurred where the splashing of rain was avoided. Likewise, with the No. 7-19 seed the extent of the dissemination was Bul. 1029, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE lI. CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. A .—Total loss of crop due to black-leg in spite of seed treatment with a 1:256 formaldehyde solution for 30 minutes. This field is typical of the epiphytotic of black-leg which developed in the Racine, Wis., districtin 1918. B.—The importance of seed-bed infection as influencing the subsequent development of black- leg in the field. The major portion of this field was planted from a healthy seed bed, but occasional lots of plants were used from a diseased bed. The row in the center of the illus- tration was planted with the latter. Note that practically every plant has wilted, while there is no evidence of damage by spread of the fungus from these plants to the adjacent rows. Photographed at Racine, Wis., September 30, 1917, about 12 weeks after transplanting and shortly before harvest. Bul. 1029, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. RELATION OF SPREAD IN THE SEED BED TO SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENT IN THE FIELD. These illustrations show the wide difference in destructiveness of the disease in plantings from the same seed bed made on different dates and in two neighboring fields. The seed was treated by the grower with 1:1,000 mercuric chlorid for 30 minutes before sowing. When the first planting was made, on June 11, practically no black-leg was noted in the seed bed, while on July 1, when the second planting was made, the disease had become widespread in the bed. Photographed at Racine, Wis., September 27, 1919, shortly before harvest. A.—Planting of June ll. Of these plants 31 per cent were affected with black-leg, but only 4 per cent were prevented from heading by the disease. (See Table IX, field No. 1.) B.—Planting of July 1in the foreground. Of these plants 97 per cent were diseased and 60 per cent were prevented from heading by black-leg. The portion of the field in the background is an earlier planting from a different seed bed. (See Table IX, field No. 2.) THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. ys very small in the protected portion of the plat as compared with that in the portion exposed to natural rainfall. TasLE V1.—EHffect of variation in rainfall on the development of black-leg on cabbages in the seed bed at Madison, Wis., in 1920. | Extent of disease at the end of the ex- periment. Seed lot. Treatment. Number of plants | Diseased exam- |(percent). ined. No. 2-19. ..-.- Woverededuninenaln Sano se ces oe oie ae ae mean ae Se eee 94 PAI No. 2-19....-- IDSqOOS eal (Rojsaehnbidey Weewbabes WN ls er See A Se ee ao oe ee aaceneece 117 81.1 Neen Oe messes COVELCO:CUrIN g TAINS 9 osetia oo oe see ae See ces octane ee 135 4.4 No. 7-19...-..- EEXpOscdebomatunalraimt all espe ee sem ene ee em ene ee | 355 49.8 It is, therefore, undoubtedly true that in regions where cabbage plants are grown in open seed beds, variation in the rainfall which prevails during the period between the appearance of primary pyc- nidia and transplanting has a very great influence upon the develop- ment of black-leg. This fact should also be of value in checking the disease by avoiding the splashing of water where the plants are grown in covered coldframes or in greenhouses. IMPORTANCE OF SPREAD IN THE SEED BED AS COMPARED WITH DISSEMINATION IN THE FIELD. The question of the importance of the spread in the seed bed as com- pared with that in the field is, of course, to be considered in inter- preting the development of the disease in midseason or later. It is natural to expect that the greatest amount of dissemination of the fungus from plant to plant takes place under the crowded condition in the seed bed and during the process of pulling and setting plants. Henderson (3) found that when plants showing no visible signs of the disease were taken from an infected seed bed and set into clean soul, a high percentage of them developed typical black-leg lesions on stems and roots within a few weeks. An instance is cited later in this paper (see fields 1 and 2 in Table IX; also Pl. II) where early and late planting from the same seed bed resulted in a wide difference in the destructiveness of the disease, due to the dissemination of the fungus after the first plants were removed. Numerous field observa- tions have been made where black-leg wilt affected alternate plants in a row, as a result of the fact that one of the two droppers on the transplanting machine* had set diseased plants. Many cases have $’The machine referred to is the transplanter commonly used in many sections for setting out cabbage, tobacco, and tomato seedlings. The setting is done by two persons, who place the plants alternately in the furrow, coincident with the release of a small quantity of water from a supply tank. One row is planted at a time. 18 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. been observed where alternate rows or groups of rows in the main field, from two different seed beds, resulted in one lot of plants wilt- ing badly from black-leg, while the other was not affected. An in- stance of this is shown in Plate I, &. Thus, although exact experi- mental data have not been obtained, these general field observations indicate that, under Wisconsin conditions at least, the spread of the disease in the main field is not nearly so important as that in the seed bed or during transplanting. SEED-BED TRIALS AT MADISON, WIS., IN 1919. In order to supplement experiments performed in the laboratory, treated samples of seed from lots.Nos. 2-18 and 3-18 were sown out of doors. Each of these lots contained a small percentage of infected seed. A level strip of silt-loam soil was selected, which had not grown cabbage for at least seven years. Single-row plats 7 feet long and 18 inches apart were used. Two-gram samples of each treat- -ment were planted on May 10 and 12. The various treatments in- cluded with the final results obtained are given in Table VII. In the check plats of untreated seed which were sown on May 14 the disease appeared on June 9 and was fairly well advanced by July 1, the normal time for transplanting. In all the treated plats the ap- pearance of the disease was materially checked. On June 20 four centers of disease were found, one in each of the 12, 24, and 48 hour treatments of lot No. 2-18 with dry heat at 85° C., and one in the 24-hour dry-heat treatment of lot No. 3-18 at the same temperature. In the last case the disease had spread to 15 adjoining plants and to one of the adjoining plants in the case of another center. On June 27 one infected plant each was found in the formaldehyde 1:256 30- minute and the 1:128 1-hour plats. Thus, up to that date very little disease had developed, and had the plants been set in the field at this time, which would have been the normal time for transplant- ing, the disease would probably have been very successfully con- trolled. In order to give the parasite all possible opportunity to develop in the plats, however, the plants were not disturbed until July 31, when they were all pulled and examined for black-leg. The data given in Table VII show that the disease continued to develop and spread from primary centers during July. Very few plats were en- tirely free from the disease, which is in general accord with the re- sult of laboratory experiments. THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. 19 TABLE VII.—Development of black-leg in cabbage seed-bed plats sown with 2- gram samples of treated seed at Madison, Wis., in 1919. Effect upon slightly infected commercial seeds. Effect upon ane iets padly Lot 2-18.) Lot 3-18.) infected} seeds— Type of treatment and tempera- | Length of | viable Plants Plants ture or concentration. exposure. | fungus infected infected after | Germi- at the | Gormi- at the treat- | nation Seed- | end of aT Seed- | end of TREY Geer nies cl e3 oe (per ne c experi er Jury.°| experi- » zs ee cent). went | cent). Fone (per (per SS cent). cent). Wirainea ted eee ee aa ease tech ooe es 153 92 O 29 96 ‘© u Mercurie chlorid: Strength 1 to 1,000.---.......- 30 minutes, 16.6 92 O 16 | ase a le eases |e-cesee- rinsed. | 30 minutes, 12.0 88 O 62+) osc eeul ase i ecalasa sees rinsed. Strength ito 500: sas. -2-5-4- 30minutes, 15.3 72 ‘S) QD OES. Seales ae aaa nape unrinsed.| . 1eetours |e a8 aS IP aaa an eae I es rinsed. | Formaldehyde, not rinsed after | treatment: | Shaccrarey Rat IL 10) Ais) eee eaee eos 30 minutes|........ 92 O 30 minutes} 21.7 70 ar Strength 1 tol28. 225/22... 1 hour..-.. 0 73 | ++ 2 hours.... 0 46) ++ Hot, 1 to 128 formaldehyde: demoINUte za eee 45} ++ INTE GIS Os BEE aia a ie eS 2 minutes . 46} ++ 5 minutes .|_. 28} ++ 1 minute--|.. 32} ++ PN TAGO AO Bixee en cc << oiaincciclee = 2 minutes - 22) ++ 5 minutes - 20} ++ Hot water: 10 minutes}_....... 83 @ ° 20 minutes}........ 81 O 2D US OS OnEoee erates is minutes|........ 36| O hours 0 85 O : 5 minutes-} 20.0 81 Ss ANTS SS CE SP eae nei ee 15 minutes 4.0 67 + ; 30 minutes 0 52 > S minutest|s. -= 59 + UNTER OL A Ses Sa eee 10 minutes}..._.... 34 + e 15 minutes|........ 11 aP Dry heat: 12hours..-| 32.6 88 © 24 hours...) 17.7 85 O PATE SO peer alates COR LCR ci 48 hours-..-| 36.0 74 + 72 hours... 9.0 55 + 96 hours... 0 53 + -|{12hours..-| 25.0 78 + INTIOO RC room eiisa'c Gas ees wats bale 24 hours... 4.0 29 = 36 hours... 4.1 30 + 12 hours... 2.8 66 + INR OG OF Gas ans ee ae 18 hours... 0 33 + 2 24 hours... 0 9 + 3 65 = 0 @ Data summarized from Tables I to IV, lots Nos. 4-18 and 1-19. b Wisconsin Hollander variety, grown in 1918. ¢ Symbols used: O=No injury; G=slight; +—medium; +—=severe; ++ =very severe. It is evident from these trials that complete disinfection of cab- bage seed infected with Phoma lingam without material reduction in germination is not to be hoped for. It is possible that some of the stronger treatments may be used with certain lots of seed, but their recommendation for general use is out of the question. Moreover, it is unsafe to assume that treatment, even if carried to the point where reduction in germination and seedling injury begins, can 20 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. always be relied upon to yield successful control. This point will be emphasized further by data from commercial trials presented in the following pages. RESULTS WITH TREATED SEEDS IN COMMERCIAL FIELDS. To determine the practical value of cabbage-seed treatment, several lots of commercially grown seed, varying in weight from 2 to 400 pounds, were treated before distribution in 1918 and 1919. All the seed except lot No. 14-18 was grown in the vicinity of Racine, Wis., and most of it was kept under the writer’s observation. Varying amounts of black-leg prevailed on the seed plants, but in no case was a high percentage of pods infected. As noted before, the most seri- ously diseased lot, No. 2-18, when tested in the greenhouse showed primary infections on approximately 2 per cent of the plants. Un- less otherwise stated, the seed was disinfected by the writer. It should be noted that in the cabbage sections where these observations were made, seed is sown in open beds about the first week of May, while transplanting is done as a rule between June 15 and July 5. Where possible, a survey of the seed beds was made before transplanting was begun, and final notes were taken in representative fields at the end of the season. RESULTS IN 1918. All of the fields under observation in 1918 were located at Racine, Wis., and were grown from seed which had been treated with a 1:256 formaldehyde solution for 30 minutes. Seed beds were sown about April 25. When a survey of the beds was made on June 14 the dis- ease was already quite prevalent. Most of the transplanting was done between June 15 and June 30. There was no reason to believe that infection had originated otherwise than by way of the seed, since most of the beds were on soil new to cabbage or on which the crop had not been grown for several years. The rainfall records for this section (fig. 1) show that previous to June 14 the weather had been favorable for the rapid spread of the disease from primary centers. As a result of the early spread of the fungus in the seed bed, the disease became very destructive as the season progressed. This de- velopment was confined largely to the home-grown seed, in spite of the fact that this had all been treated. A summary of the amount of disease in five representative fields at the end of the season is given in Table VIII. A typical field grown from this seed as it appeared at the end of the season is Shown in Plate I, A. It was clear from this season’s results that treatment with a 1:256 formaldehyde solu- tion does not successfully control the disease when sufficient rainy weather prevails to bring about the dissemination of the fungus in the seed bed. THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. 91 TasLE VIII.—Development of cabbage black-leg in commercial fields planted with treated seeds in the Racine, Wis., district in 1918. Diseased plants. 2 , Date of Seed lot. Treatment. Hold Pre- obser- * Infected. vonted vation. heading. Per cent. | Per cent. ICs PAeeaboee 1:256 formaldehyde, 30 minutes, rinsed ...-.......- 2 7 Nov. 2 No. 3-17 @...../....- CL Uae is SE SS aaa apap oe ero eer 3 99 Do. INOS Cay/ Gee eeallasaee ClO EES IS CE SIESEC OE OSE Ae eae aan AN eILrear ees 1 99 91 Nov. 5 No. 4-17@.....)..... BOS SS See TENCE ro eso ee 1 74 14 Do. IN@S GA oes sed|sooae LO erate a Mors HSE Hu S are) aes Sina eS See ote 4 37 52 Oct. 30 INOS Gi Sececa|secod (GUase es ese ca ge ee ai ei 5 83 65 Nov. 1 PAW OLAS OM AVOMTOl Sern taiclecins isis Selo ciclo Me ete Nolecs onl eer ela eociots 79.8 (YAN) \Soecoodde a Treated by seed grower. RESULTS IN 1919. The observations were continued at Racine in 1919 and were ex- tended to the Appleton and Shiocton districts in east-central Wis- consin, where certain quantities of the No. 2-18 and No. 3-18 lots of seed had been distributed. Most of the seed in all of these sections was sown about May 9. Because of the poor showing made with.the formaldehyde solution in 1918, treatment with a 1:500 solution of mercuric chlorid for 30 minutes was recommended for general use in the spring of 1919. A small quantity of untreated No. 2-18 seed was sown in the Racine district on May 9. As already noted in the experiments conducted at Madison, the disease developed first and most rapidly from the untreated seed. When the beds at Ra- cine were examined on June 12, black-leg had become widespread in the plant. 1g of untreated No. 2-18 seed. From the treated seed, how- ever, very little of the fungus had developed at this date. Most of the transplanting was done within the next two weeks, and the disease was effectively checked in most fields, as shown by the re- sults of a survey at the end of the season (Table IX). This was un- doubtedly due to the fact that the development of primary infec- tions was retarded and the number reduced by mercuric-chlorid treatment coupled with the fact that only two rainy periods occurred during the remainder of the month—one on June 13-16 and the other on June 24. (See fig. 1.) . In one bed under observation, where practically no black-leg was noted on June 11, the disease had become widespread by July 1. Two plantings were made from this bed, the first (field 1, Table TX) about June 12 and the second (field 2, Table IX) about July 2. A comparison of the two fields at the end of the season, as given in _ Table IX and illustrated in Plate II, brings out the effect of extensive spread of the disease in the seed bed previous to transplanting. In 22 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. general, however, the disease was not very prevalent in Racine fields at the end of the season. Where the mercuric-chlorid and dry-heat treatments were combined, very little disease developed, but since mercuric chlorid alone controlled the disease as well in this locality, the superiority of the double treatment was not demonstrated. TABLE IX.—Development of cabbage black-leg in commercial fields grown from treated seeds in Wisconsin in 1919. Diseased plants. eta Date = ie 0: Locality and seed lot. Treatment. Not Prevents ioheoren: Affected.| edfrom | tion. heading. Racine: Per cent. | Per cent. 15-18 @..... -| 1 to 1,000 HgC1, 30 minutes, rinsed - - 1 31.0 4 Sept. 19 do 2 97.0 60 Do. 3°) 2 SSeteee 11 Oct. 12 3! | Seersteeee 3 Do. 4 25 25 Oct. 13 5 2 2 Do. 6 11 11 Do. 7 4 4 Oct. 11 Sh) Ste soete 1 Sept. 19 9 2 2 Oct. 13 10 1 1 Do. Sel Bisel oes sistas Me 1 to 1 ;000 HgCl2 20 minutes, rinsed, 11 1.2 1.2 Do. plus’ dry heat 85° C. for 72 hours. SaLO erates eee ey uuaie 1 to 1,000 HgCl, 20 minutes, rinsed, 12 (0) (5) Do. plus dry heat 90° C. for 36 hours. Dol Beier eee eae werden 1 to 1,000 HgCle 20 minutes, rinsed, i3 nob) S25) Do! plus dry heat 95° C. for 12 hours. Average, 5 fields, | 1 to 500 HgCl2 30 minutes, rinsed....../.....-.- 10.5 910) |Babeaense lot No. 2-18. Average, 3 fields, |_.... WOE STAN ASE Ira) cache os es = aa Peds toe 1.0 Aye om ects: lot No. 3-18. Appleton: DENSE ee eee Rinceee comer 1tol 2000 HgCi, 30 minutes, rinsed . - 14 100 90 Oct. 10 De L OMe eee eee | gaeaie OSs Sos Ae caja einen Wee coaisemrter 15 100 68 Do BS SA SUH SEES Seasons 1to 500 HegCl. 30 minutes, rinsed.....-. 15 92 63 Do Average, 3 fields, | 1 to 1,000 HgCi: 30 minutes, rinsed ....|........|..--.-..--|.-.-..2---|---- cece lot No. 2-18. 1 to 500 HgCl2 30 minutes, rinsed......)..-..... 97.3 LESOE |e ssSS5505e Shiocton SAIS Oe aaeronsen eel Ceece (LOS e Ne aS Sioa a ieee oo Tees ee 16 | 50to90] 50to 90} Oct. 11 ad aS Agha i ary a | De Olas Soa sie See 17 | 50to090] 50to090] Do. B= 18 GCN re ae Se ae (oa eg RO Ar sea a ae a 18 | 50t090! 50to90] Do. VERS ae eas 1 to 256 HCHO 30 minutes, rinsed..-.. LORE ee eee 90} Do. Average, 3 fields, | 1 to 500 HgCl. 30 minutes, rinsed..-.-..).-..---- 50 to 90 |} 50 to 90 |.--.-.... lot No. 3-18. a Disinfected by seed grower. b One diseased plant found in a 3-acre field. Conditions were decidedly different in the Appleton and Shiocton districts. A survey showed that the disease had developed into a uniformly severe epiphytotic in fields of both localities grown from Nos. 2-18 and 3-18 seed (Table IX). Unfortunately the seed beds were not examined, but the even distribution and advanced stage of the disease left no doubt that the fungus had become widespread be- fore transplanting. In one field at Shiocton where the formalde- hyde treatment was used the disease was not controlled. A com- parison of precipitation records (fig. 1) taken at Menasha (near THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. 23 Appleton) and at New London (near Shiocton) with those taken at Racine shows that the rainy periods from May 15 to June 15 were more numerous and as a rule of longer duration in the first two localities. It may be inferred from this that there was more oppor- tunity for pycnospore dissemination and subsequent infection at Appleton and Shiocton than at Racine. In view of the evidence already presented as to the importance of rainfall in this connection, it is not improbable that this factor was the critical one in deter- mining the difference in development of the disease in the three localities mentioned. These field trials justify the conclusion, as did those made in the laboratory, that neither formaldehyde nor mercuric-chlorid treatment of cabbage seed, even if carried to the point where seed injury occurs, is a sure preventive of black-leg. Such seed treatment does, however, greatly reduce the development of primary infection. This result, if coupled with favorably dry weather during the seed-bed period, may suffice to give practical disease control, but with more abundant rains during this period the disease may develop to a serious extent. It should be recalled in this connection that seed treatment with corro- sive sublimate is also a successful preventive of seed-borne black-rot organisms (72). Since cabbage-seed treatment is a useful precaution in these two possible directions and is so simple and inexpensive, it is strongly recommended. In the light of our present knowledge, soaking in a 1:1,000 mercuric-chlorid solution for 30 minutes fol- lowed by rinsing in clean water is safest for general use. IMPORTANCE OF DISEASE-FREE SEEDS. The fact has been brought out that in spite of any practicable seed treatment abundant rainfall may cause sufficient spread of the black- leg fungus from the few primary infections appearing in the seed bed to produce an epiphytotic. Since, therefore, in practice one can not rely with confidence upon cabbage-seed treatment for the sure elimination of the black-leg organism from infected seed, it is obvi- ously important to give increased attention to the securing of seed free from Phoma infection. Experience in Wisconsin has shown that to accomplish this the crop must be kept clean from the outset; in other words, disease-free “mother seed” must be used on clean soil. A large percentage of American cabbage seed is now grown in two sections, eastern Long Island, N. Y., and in the Puget Sound region of western Washington. In the latter section “mother seed” is usually obtained from another locality, most commonly from Long Island, Denmark, or England. In the Long Island section local or foreign grown “mother seed” is used. In either case the danger of introducing black-leg into the seed crop through infected seed is very great, since practically none of the growers practice seed treatment. 24 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This was brought very forcibly to the attention of the writer in August, 1920, when such a case was described by a seed contractor in one of the mentioned localities. Stock “mother seed” of a given variety which later was proved to be infected with Phoma was dis- tributed among several seed growers in 1919. A trial row was planted in 1920 by the contractor, and when examined in August by the writer the plants showed a high percentage of black-leg. One of the 1919 plantings for seed examined in 1920 showed black-leg infec- tion on 25 per cent of the seed plants, while the several other fields from the same “mother seed” were undoubtedly infected. Thus, approximately 2,000 pounds of commercial seed became infected as a result of the introduction of the parasite on a small quantity of stock seed. Much of such seed infection can be prevented by growing stock seed from seed heads carefully selected for freedom from dis- ease followed by careful inspection during the following season. By applying this method in Wisconsin black-leg has been successfully avoided and comparatively large quantities of disease-free “ mother seed” have been produced. Black-leg has not as yet been reported from the Puget Sound region, and an inspection of more than 30 seed fields in that region in June, 1919, yielded no sign of the disease. Inasmuch as most of these seed fields are started from “mother seed” grown in the East or abroad and none of the growers practice seed treatment, it is inevitable that some infected seed is sown. It would seem from comparison with our Wisconsin experience that this absence of the disease, as noted in the seed fields, must therefore be attributed to local climatic conditions restrictive to the development of the fungus. This was rendered the more probable by the results previously re- corded (17) with some Wisconsin-grown seed known to be infected with Phoma. This was seed No. 2-18, which, as used in Wisconsin, resulted in high percentages of infection before the end of the season (see Tables VII and IX). Of this, 2 pounds were sent to the Puget Sound section for propagation after treatment for 30 minutes with mercuric chlorid. This was sown at Mount Vernon, Wash., about May 25, and when it was inspected seven weeks later, July 14, only four infected seedlings were found in the entire bed. These were evidently cases of primary infection with no spread whatever to the adjacent plants. In 1920, samples from two lots of badly infected seed were sown in this locality and portions of the same lots sown at Madison, Wis. In the latter region the fungus appeared in numerous primary infections within two weeks, and the disease had become widespread by transplanting time (see Table VI). Since *The writer is indebted to Mr. I. H. Vogel, of Cornell University, for information re- garding this field. THE CONTROL OF CABBAGE BLACK-LEG. 25 personal inspection by the writer of the western plantings was impossible, notes were taken by a careful grower, aided by pre- served specimens of the disease forwarded to him. Although the plantings were kept under observation until October, he noted no development of the disease, thus apparently confirming the observa- tions of the previous season.® It is possible that the dry weather which usually prevails in western Washington from about June 10 to September 1 (5) may account for the lack of development of black-leg. This matter should, therefore, be kept under observa- tion for a period of years, since it is obvious that relatively minor variations in amount and date of rainfall from season to season may materially affect the development of the disease. In any case, this experience emphasizes the necessity of greater attention than has heretofore been given to the importance and practicability of secur- ing cabbage seed free from black-leg infection. 3 . SUMMARY. (1) Cabbage black-leg is a disease of increasing economic impor- tance, and its appearance in epiphytotic form has been generally associated with the use of infected seed. (2) Experimental treatments of infected and commercial seeds with formaldehyde solution, mercuric-chlorid solution, hot water, and dry heat have shown that the fungus can not be entirely eradi- cated from infected seeds by any of these fungicides without ma- terially reducing germination and causing injury to seedlings. (3) When infected seed is used primary lesions appear as a rule on a small percentage of seedlings in the seed bed 10 days to several weeks after planting. (4) The subsequent dissemination and development of the fungus are favored by spattering water and atmospheric humidity. Con- sequently, where the seed bed is located in the open, spread from such primary centers to surrounding plants is dependent upon the amount of rainfall and of humid weather which prevails during the seedling stage. (5) The dissemination of the fungus in the seed bed or during transplanting appears to be of much greater importance than its spread in the main field. (6) Seed-bed trials showed that the disease was checked by seed treatment, but was not completely controlled even when the treat- ment was carried beyond the point where seed injury resulted. (7) In 1918 an epiphytotic of black-leg developed at Racine, Wis., from seed treated with a 1:256 formaldehyde solution for 30 min- 5 Comparative trials in Wisconsin, at Mount Vernon and Madison, were continued in 1921 with confirming results. (See Walker, J. C., and Tisdale, W. B. Further notes on the occurrence of cabbage black leg Abstracts of papers presented at the Toronto meet- ing of the American Phytopathological Society, Dec., 1921. In Phytopathology, v. 12.) 26 BULLETIN 1029, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. utes. This occurred under weather conditions favorable to the disease, owing to frequent rains. (8) In 1919, in the same locality, under dry weather conditions, the disease was quite effectively controlled by seed treatment, soak- ing in 1:500 mercuric chlorid for 30 minutes, followed by rinsing in clean water. At Shiocton and Appleton, Wis., where longer and more frequent rainy periods prevailed between the appearance of primary centers and transplanting, serious epiphytotics developed from the same lots of seed as used in the Racine district. It was thus shown that even this strong treatment was insufficient to con- trol the disease effectively when climatic conditions favored the rapid spread of the fungus from primary centers. (9) Since treatment reduces the number of primary centers and retards their development somewhat and since it is also a preven- tive against seed-borne black-rot organisms, it should be recom- mended. The limitations to success in the control of black-leg, how- ever, should be recognized. (10) Trials have developed the fact that different lots of cabbage seed may vary considerably in their relative susceptibility to injury from seed-disinfection treatments. Stronger treatment than a 1: 256 or 1: 240 solution of formaldehyde or a 1: 1,000 solution of mercuric chlorid for 30 minutes followed by rinsing is unsafe for general use. Of these two treatments, the mercuric chlorid seems to be slightly superior in eradicating the fungus. It is true, however, that many lots of seed will stand much more severe treatment, especially with mercuric chlorid, but in the event of such treatment preliminary tests should always be made. (11) In view of the limitations of treatment in controlling black- leg special attention should be given to securing disease-free seed. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) LITERATURE CITED. ATANASOFF, DIMITAR, and JOHNSON, A. G. 1920. Treatment of cereal seeds by dry heat. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 18, no. 7, p. 379-390, pl. 48-49. Literature cited, p. 388-391. HARRINGTON, GEORGE T., and CROCKER, WILLIAM. 1918. Resistance of seeds to desiccation. In Jour. Agr. Research, v. 14, no. 12, p. 525-532. HENDERSON, M. P. 1918. The black-leg disease of cabbage caused by Phoma lingam (Tode) Desmaz. In Phytopathology, v. 8, no. 8, p. 379-431, 10 fig. Literature cited, p. 481. HutcuHinson, H. B., and Miter, N. H. J. 1909. Direct assimilation of ammonium salts by plants. In Jour. Agr. Sci., v. 3, pt. 2, p. 179-194, 2 fig., pl. 14. References, p. 193-194. KINCER, JOSEPH BURTON. 1919. Seasonal distribution of precipitation and its frequency and intensity in the United States. In Mo. Weather Rev., v. 47, no. 9, p. 624-631, 17 fig. McALPINE, DANIEL. 1901. Fungus Diseases of Cabbage and Cauliflower in Victoria, and Their Treatment. 38 p., 11 pl. (1-6 col.). Melbourne. Manns, T. F. 1911. Black-leg or Phoma wilt of cabbage. Jn Phytopathology, v. 1, no. 1, p. 28-81, 2 pl. Norton, J. B. 8S. 1919. Hot water seed treatment for black leg of cabbage. (Abstract.) In Phytopathology, v. 9, no. 1, p. 50-51. ROBINSON, T. R. 1910. Seed sterilization and its effect upon seed inoculation. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cire. 67, 11 p. WAGGONER, H. D. 1917. The viability of radish seeds (Raphanus sativus L.) as affected by high temperatures and water content. Jn Amer. Jour. Bot., v. 4, no. 5, p. 299-3138, 1 fig. Literature cited, p. 312-313. WALKER, J. C. 1920. Occurrence and control of black leg of cabbage. (Abstract.) In Phytopathology, v. 10, no. 1, p. 64. and TISDALE, W. B. 1920. Observations on seed transmission of the cabbage black rot organism. Jn Phytopathology, v. 10, no. 3, p. 175-177. 27 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Joint Contribution from the Bureau of Markets and Crop Estimates, H. C. TAYLOR, Chief, and the Bu- reau of Plant Industry, WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D.C. V March 10, 1922 MEADE COTTON, AN UPLAND LONG-STAPLE a VARIETY REPLACING SEA’ ISLAND. By G. S. Metoy, Bureau of Markets, and C. B. Doris, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Need of replacing Sea Island cotton_ 1 | Extending the cultivation of Meade Pecline of the Sea Island industry__ 2 COLCOMMINE TD 2 OSG Rae ie se 11 Value of Meade cotton as a substi- Production of Meade cotton in 1920_ 14 tute for Sea Island demonstrated_ 2 Cultivation of Meade cotton _______ 15 Origin of the Meade variety___--_~- 3 | Closer spacing with Meade cotton__ 16 Description of the variety_______-_ 4 | Problem of seed supply of Meade Meade cotton adapted to Sea Island CO CE OTM ata Sih naar es bial Bieta Li odie 18 CONG IEOM Sew Ss a eb Vea 4 | Selection necessary to maintain uni- Increasing seed supplies in 1918____ 6 fi © TET tay ese ele soe Mis SRN se 19 Experiments with Meade cotton in Spinning tests of Meade cotton_____ 20 OP PALO Sew E eee en tee bie 9 Conieluslonsf Pees TOPE Ney) eaaol ayes 23 Work with Meade cotton in 1919___ 10/5) Whiteratures Cited ws: sei eee ee 24 NEED OF REPLACING SEA ISLAND COTTON. Since the arrival of the boll weevil in the Sea Island cotton dis- tricts of the southeastern United States the production of this valu- able fiber has been rapidly declining. The large growth of the | plants and the late maturity of the crop render Sea Island cotton particularly susceptible to injury by the weevil. From an average _ yearly production of 90,000 bales in the 10 years before 1917, less than 2,000 bales have been reported from the 1920 crop. For several years before the boll weevil reached the Atlantic sea- board it was evident that this insect was likely to destroy the Sea | Island cotton industry. Efforts were made to develop earlier strains | of the Sea Island type in the hope that production might be continued, | but in this direction no practical results have been obtained. During _the same period experimental plantings of Meade cotton, a new va- “riety of the Upland type developed in northeastern Texas, gave indi- ' cations of being adapted to the southeastern conditions al showed "promise of success as a substitute for Sea Island cotton. Meade cot- /ton is an early-maturing long-staple Upland variety producing a 74463°—22 1 i ; 2 BULLETIN 1030, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fiber under favorable conditions 14% inches long, of fine texture and quality, and remarkably like the Sea Island cotton. Moreover, on account of its nearly smooth seeds Meade cotton can be handled on the regular Sea Island gins. DECLINE OF THE SEA ISLAND INDUSTRY. The spread of the boll weevil to include the entire Sea Island sec- tion of the Southeastern States was foreseen several years ago, and it was generally conceded that the rank-growing, late-fruiting habits of the Sea Island cotton would make it particularly susceptible to injury from this pest. That this prediction is being rapidly fulfilled and that the complete destruction of the Sea Island industry is threatened are indicated by the rapid decline in the production of this fiber, as follows: Bales. Bales. LO SG Se eS LT DOOR | elOlO eae 3 ie ee 6, 916 WIS EY (eed eitoccer ce Dechy a Nae: ee RO 925619. | 19202422 ee ee 1, 868 EL OAS Sa eetE Ae aS TNA 52, 208 With the increasing demand for high-grade fiber for war purposes the situation became acute, and efforts to preserve the industry were made by the United States Department of Agriculture in coopera- tion with the State agricultural experiment stations in the Sea Island belt. Only two avenues of approach seemed open—either the devel- opment of an early strain of Sea Island cotton, from which profitable crops could be grown in the presence of the boll weevil, or the substi- tution of an Upland variety that combined the superior cultural features of this type with a fiber comparable in length and fineness to the Sea Island. VALUE OF MEADE COTTON AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR SEA ISLAND DEMONSTRATED. The favorable results from the first experimental plantings in 1916 with Meade cotton on the Sea Islands around Charleston, S. C., led to small commercial plantings the following season at several points in Georgia. Since 1917 the area devoted to Meade cotton has been steadily increasing, but not so rapidly as was at first expected, owing to the failure of many farmers to appreciate the necessity of separating the fields of Meade from other cotton and ginning the crop on a clean gin. The consequent mixing and loss of purity of the stock have prevented the rapid increase in supplies of pure seed that would have been possible if the necessary precautions had been taken. During the five years that Meade cotton has been grown in the © Southeastern States it has continued to demonstrate its value as a substitute for the Sea Island. Where definite comparisons have been possible it has produced at least twice as much as the Sea Island MEADE COTTON REPLACING SEA ISLAND. 3 cotton and not less than the short-staple cotton varieties under the same conditions. The price relation of Meade fiber to the fiber of short-staple varieties may be expected to be at least two to one in favor of the Meade, whatever the price of short cotton may be. ORIGIN OF THE MEADE VARIETY. The Meade cotton originated from a selection made in 1912 at Clarksville, Tex., in a field of a variety locally called Blackseed, or Black Rattler, but not the same as the varieties that have carried these names in other parts of the cotton belt (74, 1918, p. 3; 1919, p. 26; 1920, p. 4).1 The possibility of producing from this stock an Upland variety that would rival the Sea Island cotton in length and fineness of staple and at the same time possess the cultural advantages of an Upland cotton appealed very strongly to Mr. Rowland M. Meade, at that time an assistant in cotton breeding in the Bureau of Plant Industry. Three generations of progenies from select individuals had been grown, and a superior stock had been separated before the sudden death of Mr. Meade in 1916. The new variety was named for Mr. Meade as a tribute of the personal regard of his associates and to commemorate his services as a plant breeder.? MEADE COTTON NOT A HYBRID. Unauthorized statements have appeared in newspapers and agri- cultural journals referring to Meade cotton as a new early Sea Island variety or as a hybrid between the Upland and Sea Island types, but such accounts are erroneous. Meade cotton was not produced by hybridization, but is the result of the discovery and continued selec- tion of a superior type. It has been assumed that a variety like the Meade must be a hybrid because the plant is like Upland and the lint like Sea Island, but this reasoning is not in accord with the facts. Many attempts have been made to combine the superior fiber of the Sea Island or Egyptian types of cotton with the desirable cultural characters of the Upland varieties. While crossing is readily accom- plished and the results frequently appear promising in the first generation, no hybrid stock has yet been developed that was suf- ficiently uniform to justify commercial planting. Meade cotton is a separate and distinct variety that combines the superior cultural fea- tures of the Upland type with a long and silky fiber like that of the Sea Island. The uniformity of Meade cotton at once places it in a - different class from any stocks known to have a direct hybrid origin. 1The serial numbers (italic) in parentheses refer to ‘‘ Literature cited’ at the end of this bulletin. 2This paragraph and a few others are adapted with slight revision from an article by O. F. Cook (5), 4 BULLETIN 1030, U. 5S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIETY. The following description of the Meade variety has been published (8) in connection with the distribution of seeds: Plant erect, of average height, with regular internodes of medium length on both the main stalk and on the vegetative branches. Internodes of the fruiting branches rather long, with little tendency to take the shortened “ cluster ” form. Leaves of medium size and rather thin texture, not deeply cut, a larger pro- portion with only three lobes than in most varieties. Involucral bracts of medium size, not exceeding the bolis, with 10 slender teeth. Bolls medium size, with a thin bur, opening readily even under humid conditions. Seeds large, about 3,000 to the pound, nearly naked after the lint has been removed, brownish black, slightly tufted at either end. Lint 13 to 14§ inches in length, uniform, with good luster, slightly heavier bodied than Sea Island cotton, scarcely dis- tinguishable from Sea Island when properly ginned. Lint percentage, 26; lint index, 5.5. VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS LIKE SHORT-STAPLE COTTON. Though not without distinctive plant characters, Meade cotton has the general appearance and behavior of many of the Upland long- staple and short-staple varieties; for the shape of the plant, the character of the leaves, the earliness in fruiting, and the size of the bolls are very similar to the ordinary Upland sorts, The fiber, how- ever, is so long and fine that when ginned on a roller gin it is freely accepted on the Sea Island markets on a par with the true Sea Island cotton. As grown in the Southeastern States, Meade cotton or the “long short cotton,” as it is sometimes called by the farmers, produces a fiber from 14 to 12 inches in length under favorable conditions, sel- dom falling below 1; and sometimes attaining 12 inches. (PI. 1.) The fiber on the seed of the Meade variety shows little tendency to “butterfly,” that is, to shorten the fibers at the base of the seed, which was one of the undesirable traits of the older Upland iong- staple varieties, such as the Floradora, Sunflower, and Allen. The seeds are large and brownish black, naked on the sides, like Sea Island and Egyptian, with a small tuft of white fuzz at either end. (Pls. I and I1.) MEADE COTTON ADAPTED TO SEA ISLAND CONDITIONS. With its early, quick-fruiting habits, long and silky fiber, and smooth seeds, permitting the use of roller gins, the new Meade va- riety seemed to be the only Upland cotton promising any measure of success as a substitute for Sea Island cotton, and with these facts in view work was begun five years ago to adjust the new variety to the local conditions on the Sea Islands of South Carolina. In 1916 small experimental plantings of the Meade cotton were made on these islands for the purpose of studying the behavior of the variety under eastern conditions. Promising results were se- Bul. 1030, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. COMBED LINT AND SEEDS OF SEA ISLAND AND MEADE COTTON. (Natural size.) Bul. 1030, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. COMBED LINT AND SEEDS OF SIX SUPERIOR VARIETIES OF COTTON. In order from top these varieties are Sea Island, Egyptian (Pima), Meade, Durango, Acala, and Lone Star. All ofthese varieties excepting the Sea Island have been developed by the United States Department of Agriculture and are being extensively grown in different parts ofthe American cotton belt. (Natural size.) MEADE COTTON REPLACING SHA ISLAND. 5 cured, and in 1917 the experimental plantings were extended throughout the Sea Island district of Georgia in order to ascertain the behavior of this cotton under boll-weevil conditions in compari- son with that of the Sea Island type. That these preliminary plant- ings showed additional promise for the variety is shown by the results obtained. At Thomasville, Ga., under conditions of extreme boll-weevil in- festation, 1 acre of Sea Island and Meade cotton was planted in alter- nate blocks of four rows. The Meade yielded at the rate of 1,499 pounds of seed cotton per acre and the Sea Island at 501 pounds. At Valdosta, Ga., only small plantings were made to ascertain the comparative earliness of the two types. By September 13 the Meade test rows had yielded 230 pounds of seed cotton, but it was not until September 28 that 117 pounds of seed cotton were secured from the Sea Island rows. In addition to the difference in earliness and yield shown in this test, Table 1 presents the results obtained in a compari- son of Meade and Sea Island bolls. TABLE 1.—Comparison of Meade and Sea Island bolls grown in alternate rows - at Valdosta, Ga., in 1917. Weight of 10 4 =| Number of 4-locked i ae med biolhsh| bolls to— Weight 4 Bercent-| Tint Vaan Variety. | aren Me index. Ba bale of oo | : oun 500- cotton Total. | int of seed a ound pound |(pounds). | y: cotton. * | pale. IMC a emit tli rad eh 6 i) 2 65. 70 17.6 26.8 5. 45 69 257 128, 500 1,365 feces Island.) 4s 35. 75 10.9 30.7 4.93 126 412 206, 000 1,111 if This experiment shows that it required 57 more bolls of Sea Island than of Meade cotton to make a pound of seed cotton, 155 more bolls of Sea Island to make a pound of fiber, and 77,500 more bolls of Sea Island to make a 500-pound bale. (PI. III.) While the ratio of fiber to seed in the Sea Island was 30.7 per cent and in the Meade 26.8, the actual weight of the fiber from 10 four- locked bolls of each was much greater for the Meade on account of the larger size of the Meade seed. In addition to these advantages of the Meade over the Sea Island, it should be remembered that a large percentage of the Sea Island bolls have only three locks, while most of the Meade bolls have four locks and a fair percentage have five locks. At Statesboro, Ga., 5 bushels of Meade seed were used to plant a block of 8 acres. The cooperator was a prominent Sea Island cotton grower, producing that year some 40 bales of this fiber. The 8 acres of Meade cotton produced 6 bales of fiber, and both the Sea Island and Meade crops were ginned on the same gin and baled in the same 6 BULLETIN 1030, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. manner. Both crops were shipped to Savannah, and samples were submitted to Sea Island cotton buyers with a note that this cotton was offered as a substitute for the Sea Island. It was stapled at 12 inches and sold for 734 cents a pound, which was one-half cent a pound premium over the prevailing price for the best Georgia Sea Island on that day. The report of this sale naturally attracted the attention of cotton growers throughout the Sea Island belt, and the United States De- partment of Agriculture received many requests for seed of the Meade variety. At that time the supply of this seed was very small, and no general distribution could be made, but it was hoped to produce from the 1918 plantings enough seed for a large acreage in 1919. INCREASING SEED SUPPLIES IN 1918. The preliminary experiments having shown much promise for the Meade variety as a practical substitute for the Sea Island cotton, plans were laid for a rapid increase in the seed supply from the 1918 plantings. Several reliable farmers scattered throughout the Sea Island dis- trict of Georgia and South Carolina were willing to cooperate with the United States Department of Agriculture in its efforts to pro- vide an adequate supply of pure seed. Sufficient seed was fur- nished by the department to plant from 5 to 75 acres, under an agreement that to prevent possible crossing with other varieties the plantings would be made in isolated fields at least 300 yards from any other kind of cotton; or if this was not practicable, 50 or 60 rows of corn should be grown between the Meade and any other variety. Representatives of the department were to visit the plant- ings during the season for the purpose of roguing the fields or pull- ing up the off-type plants and furnishing information in the methods of seed selection. The department was to receive one-third of the seed grown from the crop, while the farmer retained the lint and the remaining two-thirds of the seed for his own use or to sell to his neighbors and thus make it possible to establish community pro- duction of Meade cotton and maintain adequate supphes of pure seed. FARMERS FAIL TO ISOLATE PLANTINGS. An inspection of these plantings in June of that year showed that while some of the farmers had observed the precaution of isolating the Meade field many of the plantings were not separated from other cotton and on that account were useless for pure-seed purposes. Some of the plantings were close to Sea Island fields and others to short-staple Upland varieties or mixed stocks. In several cases where poor stands of the Meade had been secured replanting had been done with Sea Island seed. In one instance 26 acres of Meade cotton had been flanked on one side with a field of Sea Island and on the other by short cotton. MEADE COTTON REPLACING SEA ISLAND. 7 SMALL ACREAGE OF PURE SEED IN 1918. While not more than 250 acres, all told, of the Meade plantings in 1918 had been sufficiently separated from other kinds cf cotton to insure their freedom from possible hybridization, it was thought that with careful handling sufficient seed of good quality would be available for a large acreage in 1919. With the assistance of the farmers these fields were carefully inspected and all hybrids and off-type plants were destroyed. Though familiarity with Meade cotton is usually necessary to dis- tinguish some of the off-type plants, the hybrids between the Sea Island and Meade cottons are easily recognized by their larger and deeper cut leaves, in which they resemble the true Sea Island. Once these plants are pointed out and their contrasting features noted they are easily recognized, even by those who have not done any special breeding work. (Pls. IV and V.) SELECTION WORK CONTINUED IN THRE HARVEST SEASON. During the harvest season the plantings that had been sufficiently isolated were again visited for the purpose of instructing the farm- ers in the methods of seed selection for breeding stocks. From 100 to 200 plants that conformed to the Meade type were selected from each of the isolated fields for separate picking and ginning, the seed of which was to be used for a seed-increase block the following sea- son. In addition to this bulk selection, a number of especially desir- able plants were selected for progeny-row planting at each point. The bulk of the Meade crop was to be ginned on the regular com- mercial Sea Island gins most convenient to the plantings, except in an experiment near Sylvester, Ga., where a new roller gin had been installed for ginning only Meade cotton. The farmers were warned against the danger of the Meade seed becoming mixed with that of the Sea Island at the gins unless special care were taken to have the gins thoroughly cleaned before the Meade cotton was put through. GINNING COMPLAINTS FROM MEADE GROWERS. During the ginning season complaints were received from some of the Meade cotton growers that the Sea Island ginners were ob- jecting to Meade cotton on account of the large size of the seed, which failed to pass through the seed grids (manufactured especially for the small Sea Island seed) as rapidly as the seed of the Sea ‘Island and consequently slowing down the ginning process. ’This difficulty in ginning was subsequently met by one of the manufacturers of roller gins, who put a new seed board or grid upon the market designed especially for ginning Meade cotton. (Pl. VI.) This seed board has fingers instead of ribs, doing away with the edge that formerly prevented the passage of seed near the stripper or : hacker bar. The fingers are also farther apart than the ribs in the seed board used for Sea Island ginning. It has since been--ascertained that moving the ordinary seed — grid back from the stripper bar from one-half to three-quarters of an inch permits the Meade seed to fall through without difficulty. 8 BULLETIN 1030, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There was no objection to ginning the Meade cotton in the early part of the ginning season, before the Sea Island crop began to come in, but when the latter cotton arrived the Meade was either held up for a lull in the Sea Island ginning or the ginners insisted upon holding the Meade until after the disposal of the Sea Island crop. On account of such difficulties, many of the farmers who took the trouble to go to the gins personally still failed to carry out the in- structions for clean ginning. With the exception of the few bales that were put through before the arrival of the Sea Island crop much of the Meade crop was ginned at intervals between the opera- tions for Sea Island cotton, and no adequate precautions were taken to have the gins cleaned. RESULTS IN 1918 IN SEA ISLAND DISTRICTS. Though tne failure of the ginners and farmers to cooperate at the gins restricted the quantity of pure Meade seed available for planting in 1919, the results that were secured in the field continued to be encouraging. At Statesboro, Ga., the same cooperator who had produced 6 bales of Meade cotton on 8 acres in 1917 produced 42 bales of this cotton from a planting of 46 acres in 1918. This cotton was sold on the Sea Island market at Savannah at a premium over the Sea Island quotations, several of the buyers pronouncing the fiber both stronger and of finer texture than the general Sea Island crop of the season. Near Sylvester, Ga., nine bales of Meade cotton were produced and sold in the spring of 1919 at a slight premium over the prevailing price for Sea Island cotton of similar grade. At Cobbtown, Ga., five bales of Meade cotton were produced from a planting of 9 acres. These bales were sent to Savannah along with several bales of Sea Island cotton, the whole shipment being marketed as Sea Island cotton. On Little Edisto Island, S. C., 5 acres were planted to Meade cotton. The field selected by the cooperator was known to be badly infected with the cotton-wilt fungus and had produced a few years before only 192 pounds of Sea Island lint. While a considerable number of Meade plants were badly affected, a large percentage was vigorous and healthy. Three bales of Meade cotton were harvested from this field and were subsequently sold at a premium of 2 cents per pound over the Sea Island cotton on the Charleston market in March, 1919. The earliness of the Meade cotton in comparison with the Sea — Island was also demonstrated in this planting. The cooperator re- ported that the entire crop of Meade cotton had been harvested by Bul. 1030, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. MEADE AND SEA ISLAND COTTON BOLLS. One boll of Meade cotton (top) yields as much as two bolls of Sea Island (bottom). (Natural size.) PLATE IV. Bul. 1030, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “PURIST BOS Oly OY SUTPQUIOSAI ‘praqAy oY Jo SoAvaT poyxtog ATA9IP OY OJON *spyoy DPVOF JO [MO poNsod Of 0} ST PUL O[AVATSOPUN ST FYSM oY} 7C UMOYS PULIS] VO PU OpRaJY JO PUGAYoUL ‘IYoTou7 7B UMOYs ST ULI aprayy [voIdsy V “SLNV1Id NOLLOD GIYdAH GNVIS| VAS-3dvVaI GNV 3qval Bul. 1030, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. FORMS OF COTTON LEAVES. Typical Meade leaves are shown at the top, Sea Island leaves at the bottom, and leaves ofa hybrid between Meade and Sea Island in the center. The two deeply cleft forms of leaves are to be distinguished from those of Meade cotton in roguing. (Reduced.) Bul. 1030, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. REGULAR SEA ISLAND SEED GRID AND SPECIAL GRID FOR MEADE COTTON. The seed grid ofthe regular Sea Island gin isshownin the upper figure. The new grid without bar at the tips of the fingers and a wider space between them to allow the passage of large-sized Meade seed is represented by the lower figure. Setting the regular grid back from the hacker bar three-quarters of an inch also permits Meade seed to pass through without difficulty. MEADE COTTON REPLACING SEA ISLAND. 9 the first of November, while less than 70 per cent of his Sea Island crop had matured at that date. EXPERIMENTS WITH MEADE COTTON IN 1917 AND 1918. During the 1918 season additional data were acquired on the relative earliness of the Meade compared with other varieties that showed this cotton to be not only much earlier than the Sea Island, but as early as any of the short-staple varieties now being grown in the Southeastern States. At the Bureau of Entomology station near Madison, Fla., in a district of heavy weevil infestation, tests were conducted under the direction of Mr. G. D. Smith with several varieties of cotton, in- cluding the Meade, King, Express, Webber, and others, besides several strains of Sea Island cotton that had been bred especially for earliness. Flower counts were made daily from June 11, the date of the first flower which appeared on that day in both the Meade and King rows, until August 5, when flowering had practically ceased on all varieties. The results showed that the Meade variety was as early in produc- ing flowers as any of the short-staple varieties and much earlier than any of the long staples, including the early Sea Island strains. Mr. Smith also reported high yields for the Meade and superiority in both length and abundance of fiber over all the long staples, in- cluding the special Sea Island strains. At Brooksville, Fla., a count was made of the flowers produced each day from June 24 to July 3 on eight rows of Sea Island and eight rows of Meade, each 150 feet long. The Sea Island rows aver- aged 78.7 flowers and the Meade 153.3 flowers per row per day. The Sea Island yielded 10.3 pounds of seed cotton and the Meade 28.3 pounds per row. Prof. Loy E. Rast, of the Georgia State College of Agriculture, ob- tained some very interesting data in 1917 and 1918 on the comparative yields of Sea Island and Meade cotton (9). A review of the more im- portant data reported by Prof. Rast may be summarized as follows: The Meade cotton was planted along with 37 other varieties at the station in 1917 and ranked No. 1 when the total value of both seed and lint were con- sidered, on a basis of 2,039 pounds of seed cotton per acre, or 693 pounds of lint, worth $509.35, and 1,346 pounds of seed, containing 24.27 per cent of oil, making it worth $84.34 per ton, or $56.76 for the seed produced. The total value of the crop, therefore, was $566.11 per acre. A similar test. conducted in 1918 by Prof. Rast showed that this variety again ranked first among 388 varieties tested, the total yield of seed cotton being 1,604 pounds, which gave 465 pounds of lint, valued at that time at: 70 cents a pound, or $325.50. The 1,189 pounds of seed contained 23.13 per cent of oil, making it worth $81.31 per ton, or $46.80 per acre. The total value of the cotton and seed, therefore, was $371.80 per acre. 74463 ° —22 2 10 BULLETIN 1030, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. WORK WITH MEADE COTTON IN 1919. Though adequate supplies of pure seed were not available for general planting in 1919, the stock was sufficient for a wide distri- bution of small experimental quantities of seed, besides a number of additional larger plantings in other sections of the Sea Island belt. On account of the failure of many of the Meade cotton growers of 1918 to avoid the contamination of their seed at the gins, it was anticipated that a large quantity of alleged Meade seed that contained a mixture of the Sea Island seed would be sold and planted in 1919. In view of the danger that the reputation for uniformity of the variety might suffer, efforts were made to determine the extent of mixture that actually occurred. Accordingly the names of those farmers who had purchased large quantities of Meade seed were learned, in order that their fields might be inspected. A visit to a number of these fields in the early season confirmed the suspicion that a mixture of seed had taken place at the gins, for it was found that with only one or two exceptions they contained a large percentage of pure Sea Island plants and practically no hybrids. These farmers were warned that their stock was not pure, that their crop would be a mixture of Sea Island and Meade cotton, and they were advised that, unless all the Sea Island plants were pulled up before flowering, they should dispose of their seed to oil mills at the end of the season. In striking contrast to these mixed fields was a planting of about 100 acres of Meade cotton near Sylvester, Ga., where the 1918 crop had been ginned on a clean gin. Not a single pure Sea Island plant and not more than a dozen hybrid plants were found in the roguing of the entire acreage. The field was extremely uniform and demon- strated in a most satisfactory manner the possibilities of the va- riety under conditions of isolation and careful handling. TABLE 2.—Yields of Meade and Sea Island cottons in comparable fields of 12 acres each on Little Edisto Island, 8. C., in 1919. Meade cotton. Sea Island cotton. Pickings. aa Date Yield Date Yield ™* \(pounds). (pounds), Rirst ypoickcin osu wakes abe ate cai rte eras SiS 10 2 Sal is Mie Magets tuo Aug. 22 302 | Aug. 25 190 Secondipickan peer ay NaS eee arse ee eyavetene/ tal So eke ta Rat Aug. 30 1,040 | Sept. 5 607 AW aviie by oF (el chal eA RCO So MAE el ae Nest aati, Sekt erie ee Sept. 7 1,253 | Sept. 15 733 Mourthypickin gaa see ne semteearaeeinrsnint ees aiellnraercre tte eteieee Sept. 17 1,487 | Sept. 29 349 BifthipickiT ser ee ee Repetto fe aos Mote Soe Och 47 2,657 | Oct. 3 769 Sixth PICk Mg eco eae a eR ee eel oe a a aS ag Oct. 31 1,200 | Oct. 31 100 On Little Edisto Island, S$. C., two fields of cotton, each of 12 acres, were planted. One of the fields was planted to Meade and MEADE COTTON REPLACING SEA ISLAND. 11 the other to Sea Island cotton, and the conditions under which the plantings were made were as nearly alike as possible. The 1919 season was marked by almost continuous rains in this section during July and August, accompanied by a heavy infestation of boll weevils. The yields from these plantings are shown in Table 2. The relative earliness of the Meade can be seen by a comparison of the yields on the several picking dates. RESULTS FROM 1919 PLANTINGS. While something like 3,000 acres had been planted to Meade cotton in 1919, not more than 500 acres had been given the required isolation to prevent possible hybridization with other varieties in adjacent fields. With such a small acreage for the production of pure seed it was evident that the expectations of developing a large supply for the 1920 plantings were not to be realized. It was also expected that from the remaining 2,500 acres of this cotton a large quantity of mixed fiber and seed would appear on the market and that the fiber and the seed as well might be sold as Meade, with further damage to the reputation for uniformity of the variety. To prevent this as far as possible brief statements were issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, summarizing the work that had been done with Meade cotton and advising buyers and manufacturers of the existence of the mixed stocks, so that the variety might not be condemned unjustly if mixed fiber was encountered (10). While the net results from the 1919 plantings were again disap- pointing from the standpoint of producing a large increase in the supplies of pure seed, the behavior of the crop continued to-demon- strate the practicability of the use of Meade cotton as a substitute for the Sea Island variety under beoll-weevil conditions. The prob- lem of replacing Sea Island with Meade cotton was dependent, how- ever, upon the extent of cooperation that could be developed among the farmers and ginners to provide the necessary facilities for pro- ducing and maintaining an adequate supply of pure seed. EXTENDING THE CULTIVATION OF MEADE COTTON IN 1920. With the supply of pure seed still small, the distribution of small lots for experimental plantings was discontinued in 1920. Seed was sent out only to those localities in the Sea Island belt where good results had already been secured and to responsible farmers who could guarantee isolation for planting and the clean ginning of the crop. : In addition to these precautions, most of the successful coopera- tors of 1919 agreed to confine as far as possible the sale of their - seed to their own immediate locality and to those farmers who could 12 BULLETIN 1030, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. provide the proper facilities for growing’ and handling the crop. In this way it was hoped that communities might be organized for growing only the Meade cotton. STOCKS OF MEADE SEED SCATTERED IN 1920. The attention that Meade cotton had attracted in Georgia and South Carolina led to numerous inquiries for seed from other sec- tions of the cotton belt, particularly Arkansas and Texas, and in order to ascertain the amount purchased in other sections a list of the names and addresses of farmers to whom Meade seed had been sold and the quantity purchased by each was obtained from the cooperators who had supplies for sale. It was found that while a few of the growers had confined their sales to their own locality, a number had sold seed to farmers in Arkansas and Texas and even to Haiti in the West Indies, where a sufficient quantity had been sent to plant about 2,500 acres. Numerous plantings of the Meade variety have been made in Texas, Arkansas, Arizona, and California, but the results generally do not encourage growing it in these States on a commercial scale. Favorable local conditions may be found, but Meade cotton, hke all other extra long-staple varieties, is subject to injury from drought, such as is likely to occur in either Arkansas or Texas. Drought weakens the fiber and withers the bolls, causing them to split immaturely. Even in favorable seasons it still is necessary to gin the Meade cotton on roller gins, not generally available, and farmers are advised not to attempt to introduce this variety in short-staple Upland districts. Disregarding such warnings, several hundred bushels of Meade seed were purchased and planted in both Texas and Arkansas. In one county alone in the western part of the latter State about 200 acres were grown.* The absence of roller gins made it certain that the production from these fields would be ginned on a saw gin and probably marketed as Meade cotton. To prevent further damaging criticism of the variety, a warning statement was issued to buyers and manu- facturers against the probable appearance on the market of this gin-cut cotton (77). PLANTINGS IN SOUTH CAROLINA IN 1920. Although not more than 500 acres of Meade cotton were found to be sufficiently isolated in South Carolina to warrant roguing, more interest in the variety was found among some of the Sea Island cot- ton growers who had for many years been producing the finest grades of Sea Island fiber. 4It was subsequently ascertained that the crop from these 200 acres was ginned on a saw gin and badly gin cut. While the injury to the fiber was recognized by the farmers, the yariety did so well in other respects that 6,000 acres were planted in 1921. MEADE COTTON REPLACING SEA ISLAND. 13 INSPECTION OF MEADE FIELDS IN GEORGIA. In cooperation with the extension division of the Georgia State College of Agriculture, arrangements were made in the spring of 1920 to inspect all the Meade plantings in Georgia, in order to locate the fields sufficiently isolated from other cotton to warrant roguing and to ascertain approximately the total acreage devoted to this crop in that State. It was found that while more than 5,000 acres had been planted to Meade cotton, fully half of this acreage had been planted either in the same field with short cotton or so close to other varieties that mixing was certain. The remaining 2,500 acres were well isolated, and with promises of being properly ginned the fields were carefully inspected by either representatives of the State College or of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the off-type plants removed. The largest single acreages of Meade cotton were in Worth County, where about 400 acres had been planted on one farm and close to 200 acres on another in the immediate vicinity. Both of these plantings were well isolated, and on account of extreme care in growing this va- riety through three previous seasons not more than 30 hybrids or off- type plants were removed from both fields. (Pl. VII, figs. 1 and 2.) ENCOURAGEMENT OF MEADE COTTON IN GEORGIA. During the 1920 season, a publicity campaign for Meade cotton was carried through by the State and local interests in Georgia (7) that did much to increase the popularity of the variety. A leaflet entitled ““Meade Cotton” (6) was published by the Georgia Breeders’ Association®, containing 10 brief pointed para- graphs on the origin of the variety and the history of its develop- ment in Georgia, as well as information on the comparative merits of the Meade and the Sea Island fiber for spinning purposes. The pamphlet announced that “ Meade cotton from a large proportion of the acreage that was planted from pure seed is being concentrated in three warehouses in Georgia, so that spinners may have the ad- vantage of knowing where they can get Meade cotton in quantity.” The following statement from the same leaflet explains the method of tracing impure stocks of seed, in the hope that these inferior stocks might be eliminated: ; It is possible that some Meade cotton grown in areas contiguous to short-staple cotton may be of inferior staple and may not be eliminated in the warehouses. If spinners should get bales of mixed or inferior staple they will please notify the warehouse from which the cotton came, or notify the secretary of the Georgia Breeders’ Association, at Athens, Ga. This information will be used in checking against impure seed, and standardization will be accomplished the more rapidly. 5 The secretary of the Association is R. R. Childs, Athens, Ga. 14 BULLETIN 1030, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Under the auspices of the division of agronomy of the Georgia State College® a farmers’ meeting was held in Worth County on a farm which had been devoted to the growing of Meade cotton for three successive years. September 9, 1920, was extensively adver- tised as “Meade Day,” and all farmers and others interested in Meade cotton were invited to help inspect the variety growing in the fields and see a demonstration of the value of selection to main- tain uniformity and also a demonstration of the proper methods of ginning and baling the crop. (Pl. VIII.) Farmers from all over the State attended, as well as officials of the Georgia State College, the Georgia Breeders’ Association, county agents, and representa- tives of the United States Department of Agriculture. PRODUCTION OF MEADE COTTON IN 1920. It has been difficult to obtain accurate data on the total produc- tion of Meade cotton for the 1920 season. It is reasonably certain, however, that fully 2,000 bales of this variety were produced, some of which probably has been marketed as Sea Island cotton and is in- cluded in the less than 2,000 bales so far reported for that crop. With very few exceptions the several crops of Meade cotton grown | by cooperators have been placed on the market and sold on their own merits as Meade, but a large percentage of the bales produced by other farmers have been offered as Sea Island and have been accepted on the market as such without question. Since the merits of the Meade variety have now been established, however, there appears to be no reason why the cotton should not be marked with its own name. The United States Department of Agriculture received many re- quests during the winter and early spring of 1921 for information and for seed of the Meade variety. It is significant that all of the old Meade growers are planting this variety again and increasing their acreage, while a number of new cooperators are growing Meade cotton on a large scale. Among these are several growers who have been for years producing the finest grades of Sea Island cotton. These men kncwy how to maintain the purity and uniformity of a superior cotton and should be able to develop the Meade variety to the same high standard that they reached with the Sea Island. In order to encourage the community production of Meade cotton the Georgia State authorities selected 10 localities scattered through- out the State in which special efforts would be made to persuade the . farmers to grow only Meade cotton in 1921. 6~{his division has the following staff: J. R. Fain, professor of agronomy; R. R. Childs, in charge of cotton industry; and F. C. Ward, cotton specialist, assisted by IDEM Gs Westbrook. MEADE COTTON REPLACING SEA ISLAND. 15 CULTIVATION OF MEADE COTTON. _ There has been a general feeling among farmers that Meade cotton requires some special method of cultivation to secure the best results. No special treatment is necessary for this variety other than that pro- vided for short cotton except that more continuously good growing conditions need to be provided and more care is needed in harvest- ing and ginning the crop. Failure to provide these conditions affects the length, abundance, and quality of the fiber. The first essential step to be taken by the farmer intending to grow Meade cotton on a commercial scale is to obtain a good stock of seed. Even at the high price of $5 to $6 a bushel good seed is cheap com- pared to poor seed at $2 a bushel, because good seed produces larger and more uniform crops of cotton that command a premium on the market, while poor seed yields small crops of mixed fiber which, if detected in the bales, is either unsalable or heavily penalized." With a stock of good seed the next important consideration is proper isclation for the planting on a well-drained piece of land. Tf there is any idea of saving the seed to use for planting, the fields should be at least 300 yards distant from any other cotton—the far- ther away the better. Where a sufficient distance can not be obtained, separation by fields of corn or sorghum may increase the element of safety, since everything depends upon the activity of the insects that visit the flowers. The cotton pollen grains are sticky and are not carried by the wind. With the proper isolation provided and thorough preparation of the land before planting, from three-fourths of a bushel to a bushel of seed to the acre should be used, depending upon the type of soil, the heavier soils requiring the larger quantity. The quantity of fertilizer that should be used as well as the pro- portion of the elements of which it is composed varies in the different localities, but the requirements of Meade cotton will not differ from the local varieties.® The only special requirement for the production of long-staple cot- ton is that the plants be not forced into overrank growth or checked by drought or other unfavorable conditions. In other words, uni- form, equable conditions are required, without extremes on either side to interfere with the gradual, normal development of the crop. During the growing season the soil about the plants should be kept in good condition by frequent and shallow cultivations. Before flowering time the fields should be carefully inspected in order that 7 Wither the Georgia State College at “Athens or the Federal Department of Agriculture at Washington will be pleased to put farmers in touch with stocks of good seed. 8 Hach State agricultural experiment station or State college of agriculture is familiar with local conditions and can advise Gikectly regarding fertilizers and the best time for . their application. 16 BULLETIN 1030, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. all hybrids or off-type plants may be removed, to prevent cross-polli- nation im the field. Later on in the season inferior plants producing off-type bolls may still be found, and these plants also should be re- moved. Like all long-staple cottons the Meade variety must be picked with extreme care to keep the fiber as clean as possible.® The seed cotton must be thoroughly and uniformly dried before ginning. There are a number of ways by which this may be accomplished, such as the use of protected platforms, or the lofts of the gin houses, or, if the weather permits, the seed cotton may be spread upon straw mats upon the ground. The cotton must not be more than a few inches in depth and should be turned frequently to allow uniform drying. It is the belief among farmers that cotton is ready for ginning when the seed cracks between the teeth. Under favorable conditions from two to three weeks should be sufficient, although many of the old Sea Island growers, after thoroughly drying their cotton, store it away until January or February before ginning. By so doing it is claimed that the fiber is given greater luster and strength. Meade cotton must be ginned on a roller gin and the fiber given complete protection in the bale. (PI. VIII.) CLOSER SPACING WITH MEADE COTTON. It has already been demonstrated that profitable crops of Meade cotton can be produced in the presence of the boll weevil and under the usual methods of growing cotton as practiced in the Southeast ; but in order to produce the largest possible yields, as well as to induce the plants to set a crop from 10 days to two weeks earlier, the new single-stalk method of culture is being applied to Meade cotton on a farm in southern Georgia. The new method of culture is based upon the fact that the cotton plant has two kinds of branches, the vegetative branches, usually called “wood limbs” in the Southeastern States, and the fruiting branches that bear the flowers and fruits. The wood limbs are lke the central stalk, bearing no bolls directly, the bolls being borne on fruiting branches which are later than those of the main stalk. By chopping the cotton a little later and leaving the plants closer to- gether in the rows the wood limbs are suppressed, thus allowing — more plants to stand in the rows without crowding and allowing more fruiting branches to develop and mature an early crop(4). Grow- ers of Meade cotton will be interested in the following summary (12) of the single-stalk method and the results that are being obtained. Twenty-five to 100 per cent increase in yield is reported by cotton growers who have adopted the new close-spacing system of cotton culture, introduced 2 Bales of long-staple cotton containing dirt or trash are more heavily penalized in the market than bales of short cotton. Bul. 1030, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. FIG. |.—IDENTIFYING HYBRIDS AND OFF-TYPE PLANTS. Plants to be destroyed can be easily distinguished in general field roguing from a slight elevation, as afforded by a horse or mule. A boy can be brought along to pull up the undesirable plants. FiG. 2,-MORE INTENSIVE ROGUING OF A SELECTED FIELD OF MEADE COTTON IN WORTH COUNTY, GA., 1921. FIELDS OF MEADE COTTON AT THE TIME OF ROGUING. PLATE VIII. of Agriculture. deping Suos Aq po.laroo A “1oqy. OU} IOJ [OWT AuLOd ST OTB epva| 9D uoroo}oad oyopduroo Surproye snyy ‘u13 oyy 4v uoyeq opdures Wo pos pue “UO}YOo WAOYS JO oTeq punod-go¢ Tensn oy} YIM poreduroo ‘spuuod OOP SUIYSIOM (FYB 4v) 104409 OpvoTY JO o[eq V ‘NOLLOD ACVAIN) GNV 3A1dVLS-LYOHS AO SA1IVG Bul. 1030, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |X. (CRI Or LOWPIL OE AMI DLS kb POI? SAMPLES OF LINT, SHOWING THE EFFECT OF SELECTION ON THE UNIFORMITY OF MEADE COTTON. The two center rows show combed lint from consecutive plants in the original unselected stock. The two outside rows show combed lint from consecutive plants in selected stock. Note the uniformity of fiber and seed in the selected stock as compared with the irregularity of both fiber and seed in the unselected stock. (One-fourth natural size.) MEADE COTTON REPLACING SEA ISLAND. 17 8 or 10 years ago by the United States Department of Agriculture. Reports coming directly to the department and to southern agricultural journals which have interested themselves in encouraging the new system show that farmers throughout the cotton regions of the country are rapidly turning to the plan. Increased yield, less labor and expense for the same crop, and a lessening of boll-weevil damage are among the benefits recited in hundreds of letters written by farmers in various parts of the South. Indications are that the system will be adopted far more widely the coming season. SPACE PLANTS A HOE WIDTH APART. The close spacing, more commonly known as the single-staik method of cotton culture, consists primarily in spacing the cotton plants so close in the row—a hoe width apart—that the lower or vegetative branches do not develop, and the growth of the plant goes directly into the upper or fruiting branches, permit- ting them to begin the development of blossoms and bolls earlier and giving them more nourishment and more light. The cultural ideal under the new system is a cotton plant with only the single, erect, central stalk bearing numerous well-developed fruiting branches, but none of the vegetative branches or secondary stalks. The suppression of the vegetative branches is easily accomplished by leaving the young plants close together in the rows. Thinning is deferred until the plants are some 6 to 8 inches high, or even later under conditions of rank growth. If the young plants stand less than 6 inches during these early stages of growth, more of them will not produce many vegetative branches, but will have only the upright central stalk and the horizontal fruiting branches. The distance between the plants is regulated with reference to local condi- tions and the habit of growth of different varieties, the range being between 6 and 12 inches. The plants then have a narrow upright form and can be left closer together in the rows. Even with the plants only 8 or 4 inches apart in the rows there may be less injurious crowding than with large many-stalked plants 3 feet apart in the rows. The distance between the rows, usually 34 feet, can also be varied with reference to local conditions, but crowding the rows together so that the sun does not reach the ground is undesirable, especially under weevil conditions. SMALL PLANTS MAY OUTYIELD LARGE ONES. In the way of production two distinct advantages are gained: The smaller single-stalked plants, free from any large unproductive offshoots, proceed at once to the development of the branches which produce cotton bolls, and in many cases these small plants produce almost as many bolis and a better quality of lint than large many-stalked plants occupying the space of three of the smaller. The bolls also are produced much earlier on the small plants and are more likely to escape injury by the boll weevil. The Egyptian cotton industry of the Southwest, which was established as a result of the work of the Department of Agriculture and has added $20,000,000 a year to the annual agricultural income of the country, could not have been accomplished, in the opinion of department specialists, without the new close-spacing system for controlling the vegetative branches. The benefits to the $2,000,000,000 cotton crop of the country at large, with continued extension of the new method, can only be faintly estimated. 18 ‘BULLETIN 1030, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PROBLEM OF SEED SUPPLY OF MEADE COTTON. The successful substitution of Meade cotton for Sea Island will- depend largely upon the extent of cooperation developed between the farmers and ginners to establish and maintain a supply of pure seed. The purity of a stock can not be maintained if more than one variety is grown in the same or in an adjacent field, for hybridization by insects that visit the flowers is sure to follow. The failure of the Sea Island growers to appreciate the importance of complete isola- tion and clean ginning for their cotton has been responsible for the popular idea that varieties are bound to run out and that new seed must be secured every few years. They have failed to appreciate the fact that the growers of fine Sea Island cotton on the islands off the coast of South Carolina, from whom their new supplies of seed were obtained, maintained the purity of their stocks by growing only one variety, selecting their seed for planting each year and ginning their crop on their own private gins. The present flourishing Egyp- tian cotton industry in Arizona owes its success to an early apprecia- tion of the fact that the purity and high quality of the product could not be maintained if more than one variety of cotton were grown in the same community. The demand for seed of Meade cotton is becoming increasingly large, and efforts are being made to develop an adequate supply of pure seed as soon as possible. Progress has been slower than was anticipated, however, because of the lack of cooperation between the growers and ginners, resulting from the failure of the farmers to appreciate the necessity for clean ginning and of the ginners to appreciate their responsibility to the community in assisting in the maintenance of pure stocks of seed. With the decrease of Sea Island cotton production these ginning difficulties are likely to be less serious, but there will still remain the necessity for the constant selection and complete isolation of Meade cotton from which seed for planting is to be obtained. Hybrids between the Sea Island and Meade cottons are easily detected and can be rogued out in the early part of the season, but crosses between the Meade and short cotton can be distinguished only with great difficulty before the fiber and seed can be examined, and then the damage by cross-pollination has already been done. SELECTION NECESSARY TO MAINTAIN UNIFORMITY. No matter how well selected the Meade stock may be, continuous selection will be necessary to maintain uniformity in the fiber. In the most carefully selected stocks inferior plants will appear; and if these are permitted to remain in the field, insects that visit the flowers carry the pollen from the bad plants to the good ones, and the seed produced by such plants is generally of inferior quality. MEADE COTTON REPLACING SEA ISLAND. 19 The following paragraphs on seed selection appear in a pamphlet sent out by the United States Department of Agriculture (8) with the distribution of seed: Unless selection is continued, the value of a variety is sure to decline. A well-bred variety is superior to ordinary unselected cotton not only in having better plants, but in having the plants more nearly alike. Whether selection has any power to make better plants is a question, but there can be no doubt of the power of selection to keep the plants alike. Even in the best and most carefully selected stocks inferior plants will appear, and if these are allowed to multiply and cross with the others the stock is sure to deteriorate. The pollen from the flowers of inferior plants is carried about by bees and other insects, and the seeds developed from such pollen transmit the characters of the inferior parent. Even if they do not come into expression in the first generation they are likely to appear in the second generation. To grow cotton from unselected seed involves the same kind of losses as in an orchard planted with unselected seedling apple trees. Less cotton is produced and the quality is also inferior. The higher the quality of the cotton the more stringent is the requirement of a uniform staple. Unless the fibers have the same length and strength they can not be spun into fine threads or woven into strong fabrics. (Pl. IX.) PRESERVATION OF VARIETIES BY SELECTION. The method of selection to be followed in preserving a variety from deteriora- tion is entirely different from that employed in the development of new varieties. The breeder of new varieties seeks for exceptional individuals and prefers those that are unlike any variety previously known. If the selection is being carried on to preserve a variety, the object is not to secure seed from the peculiar plants, but: to reject all that deviate from the characters of the variety. The first qualification for such selection is a familiarity with the habits of growth and other characters of the variety, to enable the farmer or breeder to confine his selection to the plants that adhere to the form or type of the variety and to re- ject all that vary from the type. Most of the latter would prove to be very inferior and at the same time would increase the diversity of the variety and hasten its degeneration. IMPROVED METHODS OF FIELD SELECTION. No matter how good a new variety may be or how carefully it may have been bred and selected, inferior plants are likely to appear, especially when it is grown under new and unaccustomed conditions. A special effort is being made to limit the distribution to seed from uniform fields of cotton, but selec- tion is necessary to keep any variety from deterioration, and it is inadvisable to wait until the deterioration becomes serious before beginning the selection. If proper attention be paid to the roguing out of inferior plants in the first season there may be much less variation in the second, the variety becoming better adjusted to the new conditions. Ag uniformity is one of the first essentials of value in a variety, the behav- ior of a new variety in this respect is one of the first things to be noted. Do not wait till the crop matures, but watch the plants in the early part of the season. Hven before the time of flowering it is possible to distinguish “‘ freak ” plants by differences in their habits of growth or the characters of their stems and leaves. Whenever such variations can be detected the plants should be pulled out at once in order to prevent the crossing of the good plants with infe- 20 BULLETIN 1030, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, rior pollen. After the bolls begin to reach mature size it is well to go through the plat again and pull out all plants that show by the small size or other pe- culiarities of the bolls that there has been a variation from the standards of the variety. These preliminary selections greatly simplify the final selection in the fall, when attention can be limited to the yield and to the characters of the lint and seeds (2,3). (Pls. X and NI.) USE OF PROGENY ROWS IN SELECTION. Selection can be made still more efficient by the use of progeny rows. The seed of select individual plants is picked separately into paper bags and planted the next season in adjacent rows, in order to test the behavior of the progenies of the different individuals. An inferior progeny can be rejected as a whole and selection limited to the best rows. It often happens that a very good plant produces a comparatively inferior progeny, which would not be excluded from the stock unless the progeny-row test were made. Nevertheless, the use of progeny rows is no substitute for skill and care in making the selection, for if the selected plants are not all of the true type of the variety, admixture by cross-pollination will occur in the progeny rows the same as in a mixed planting. Protection against the danger of crossing be- tween different progenies can be secured by holding over a part of the seed of the select individuals used to plant the progeny rows. The remainder of the seed that produced the best progeny row can be planted in an isolated breed- ing plat in the year following the progeny test. In this way a special strain is developed from a single superior plant. _SPINNING TESTS OF MEADE COTTON. That interest in the new Meade variety was being manifested by New England manufacturers was shown by the purchase of several bales of this fiber in 1918 for the purpose of conducting comparative spinning tests with the Sea Island and Egyptian cottons. The results of one of these tests comparing the Meade and the Egyptian Sakellari- dis cottons are shown in Table 3. Commenting on the general merits of the variety, the officers of the company making the tests reported in Table 3 state: The Meade cotton ran equally as well in all processes, and the only material difference was the lessening of twist in the speed frames to an extent of 20 per cent. We consider the Meade to be a very desirable cotton and would suggest the encouragement of its growth on as large a scale as possible. Comparative tests of Sea Island and Meade cotton conducted by the Bureau of Markets were summarized in the annual report of that bureau for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1920 (73, p. 20-21). These spinning tests were conducted at the New Bedford Textile School and consisted in spinning the various cottons into different numbers of yarns to determine the comparative waste content of the cotton and the tensile strength of the yarn. The tensile-strength tests were made in the cotton-testing laboratory in Washington, D. C., under 65 per cent relative humidity. PLATE X. Iture. ericu Bul. 1030, U. S. Dept. of A “MONO9JOS JOYJANJ 1OJ PUB PIS Poos Jo Yoo}s oy} osvesoUT 0} UMOIS “RH “IaySaATAS Avou ‘RISOJIV JV PdoS Pozd0]Jas WO] 10409 apray Jo PHY poyejost uy ‘G45 daL0214S WOU4 VIDYO3SS NI NOLLOD SAqvVAWN Bul. 1030, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PEATES.per cent.; 30.22 | 29.61 | 26.94 | 21.29] 28.05] 30.16 23. 42 - Size of yarn (3.50 twist multiplier used): NOFA OUR SAE SR UE aaa ONS POUNGSc | Meine See es ee 60. 1 6958.22) sie eee ee INO N28 SUD See aA Pe 38 2 do....| 129.7 144.7 109, 2 128.7 103.8 | 107.69 122.6 INO: 402 Ss SA AS RL Pee Shs LUE EALE [ERAS cS PR ae [xe eee 54.6 | 53.5 58.5 INOS GO Seas ete aD cai 0 Ti NR a Ro Gos so eee e PBS se ah | 35.4 39. 4 BENT 30.7 34.8 INOs80 sea Rea are” DNA SS Ca Lo Ph cage pale edad 24.1 25.9 22.6 19.6 22.3 INOS LODE ye TiS neta Pa al LAs, ene Gor. 52 17.4 16.3 17.6 15.5 12.8 15.6 a Based on the net weight fed to the respective machines. b Based on the net weight fed to the opener picker. ec Per skein of 120 yards. The results of these tests are summarized in the bulletin cited, as follows: The grade and staple of the Meade and Sea Island cottons tested were practically equal for the seasons of 1916-17 and 1918-19, but were unavoidably different for the season of 1919-20. The cotton was run under as nearly identical conditions as possible. Averaging the visible waste for the three seasons, it was found that the Meade cotton was 3.50.per cent more wasty than the Sea Island. Comparing the breaking strength of the Meade and Sea Island yarns for the three seasons, a difference of 17.2 pounds was found in favor of the Sea Island for the 23’s yarn and 1.68 pounds for the 100’s yarn. Under the adverse weather conditions during the growing season of 1919-20, the breaking strength of the sandy-soil Meade was equal to that of the Sea Island for the finer numbers of yarn. CONCLUSIONS. Experiments with Meade cotton through several years under a variety of soil and climatic conditions in the Sea Island belt have demonstrated that this variety can be substituted for Sea Island 11 Copies of this bulletin may be obtained without cost upon application to the United States Department of Agriculture, MEADE COTTON REPLACING SEA ISLAND. 23 without disturbing the conditions under which that cotton was pro- duced and marketed. The harvesting and ginning of Meade cotton should be done with the same care and in the same manner as for Sea Island cotton if com- parable returns are to be expected. When so harvested and ginned the Meade cotton causes no change in the customs of the Sea Island markets and is readily accepted on a par with Sea Island cotton. So closely does the Meade fiber resemble the Sea Island that it can not be distinguished except by experts, and it has been sold on the regular Sea Island markets at a premium over the Sea Island fiber. Profitable crops of Meade cotton have been produced in the presence of the boil weevil, and comparative experiments indicate that this new long-staple variety is as early and as prolific as the short-staple cottons that are now being grown in the South Atlantic coast districts. Some difficulty has been experienced with the ginning of Meade cotton because of the failure of the large seeds of this variety to pass through the seed grids of the Sea Island gins as rapidly as the Sea Island seeds, consequently slowing down the ginning process. To meet this difficulty a new seed grid has been manufactured and placed on the market, designed especially to handle the large Meade seeds. This grid can be adjusted to the regular Sea Island gins. It is also possible to use the old grids successfully by moving them back from the hacker bar one-half to three-fourths of an inch. The production and maintenance of an adequate supply of pure seed is the most acute problem confronting the growers of Meade cotton at this time. Communities of farmers are being encouraged to organize for the purpose of growing cnly Meade cotton and to keep up the standard of the variety by continued selection and care- ful ginning on a locally controlled gin. Such organizations can mar- ket their crops more directly in large lots of uniform fiber, and better prices can be obtained. Communities organized to grow Meade cot- ton are more necessary than with Sea Island because Upland hy- brids can be easily recognized in Sea Island cotton while Upland hybrids in Meade cotton are difficult to distinguish, so that the pre- caution of isolating the fields from any possible contamination with short cotton is even more important than when the Sea Island cot- ton was grown. The only other solution of the problem seems to lie along the lines that have been followed for years in connection with the Sea Island industry; that is, a few of the more intelligent farmers with private ginning equipment must produce sufficient seed to supply the whole — section. Until the organization of communities is effected the latter method seems to offer the better prospects of success, for several of the larger growers of Meade cotton have already installed or intend to install complete ginning equipment for the exclusive handling of this variety. | 94 BULLETIN 1030, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Spinning and manufacturing tests of the Meade fiber in compari- son with both the Sea Island and Egyptian cottons have shown that the difference between these fibers, especially in the finer yarns, is so slight as to be practically negligible. Although the percentage of waste for Meade fiber is somewhat higher with the same organization of the spinning machinery, such waste may be reduced, if not avoided altogether, by slight changes of adjustment that would be made for the regular spinning of Meade cotton. LITERATURE CITED. (1) ANONYMOUS. 19206. Experts inspect test zrowing of Meade Cotton. Jn Albany (Ga.) Herald, v. 29, no. 170, Ds o- (2) Coox, O. F. 1909. Local adjustment of cotton varieties. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 159, 75 p. (3) 1910. Cotton selection on the farm by the characters of the stalks, leaves, and bolls. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cire. 66, 23 p. (4) 1914. Single-stalk cotton culture. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. [Mise. Pub:] 1130, 11 p., 12 fig. (5) 1918. Meade cotten. Jn Science, n. s., v. 48, no. 1227, p. 11-12. (6) GEORGIA BREEDERS’ ASSOCIATION. [1920]. ‘‘ Meade” cotton. 4p., 1 fig. (7) Merapows, WILLIAM R., and BLaArr, W. G. 1921. Comparative spinning tests of Meade and Sea Island ponuons: U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 946, 5 p. (8) Oakey, R. A. 1920. Distribution of cotton seed in 1921. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cire. 151, 16 p. (9) Rast, Loy E. 1918. Meade cotton. Ga. State Col. Agr. Circ. 80, 8 p., 5 fig. (10) U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1919. Develops good substitute for Sea Island cotton. In U. 8. Dept. Agr. Weekly News Letter,’v. 7, no. 12, p. 4. (11) 1920. Meade cotton should be roller ginned—Fear saw ginning may hurt reputation. In U. S. Dept. Agr. Weekly News Letter, Vi-8,) NOVO, p! 6: (12) 1921. Single-stalk method of cotton culture gains favor. In U. S. Dept. Agr. Weekly News Letter, v. 8, no. 43, p. 1, 8. (18) BUREAU OF MARKETS. 1920. Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Markets, 1919/20. 37 p. Washington, D. C. (14) BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. 1918-1920. Report of the Chief, 1917/18-1919/20. Washington. D. C. 4 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1922 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1031 ¢ Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester Washington, D. C. May 15, 1922 RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. By James T. JARDINE, Inspector of Grazing, and CLARENCE L. ForsLine, Grazing Hxraminer. CONTENTS. Page. ; Page. The problem of drought and cattle Adjustments necessary, etc.—Contd. TOTEO CHUN Cts] TNs oa ME ea 1 Breeding herd should be limited Jornada Range Reserve-_--------- 4 to grazing capacity of the Types of vegetation __________ 5 range during drought_______ 43 Use of the area prior to reser- Surplus stock should vary with SUPE COs i ls AN lea A 10 range forage production and Recurrence of drought___-___-____ 11 with the market ___________ 46 Variation in forage production_____ 18 Range management to obtain Variation due to drought_____ 19 maximum forage production Variation due to grazing______ 25 and proper use_____________ 49 Forage production conclusions_ 33 | Improvements necessary to meet in- Grazincenca pacity wes Die uieey an 34 crease in cost of cattle production_ 538 Yearlong or winter range_____ 35 Improvements in grade of stock_ 54 Summer range ____________ 40 Increasing calf crop___________ 58 Adjustments necessary in cattle man- Decreasing losses of cattle_____ 65 faye Sra nVES aS AE RIVE DO A 41 Increasing growth of young Southern New Mexico a cattle- SEO CH wire lea eS ae aE UU breeding section____________ Ay liv SULIT cy yoo seas een eer nies 79 THE PROBLEM OF DROUGHT AND CATTLE PRODUCTION. Cattle production on ranges of the Southwest in the past has been a business of “ups and downs,” with prosperity or adversity gov- erned by climatic conditions, which brought seasons of plenty in range forage and stock water followed by seasons of restricted forage growth and scarcity of water. Soon after the cattle business became established on the open public range of the Southwest the herds were built up during a period of good years until the developed ranges were stocked fully or beyond the number that they could carry even in good years. Then, at in- 74514°—22- Bull. 1031_—_1 1 2 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tervals, came dry periods, series of dry years, with much less forage produced than was required by the stock on the range and with heavy losses from starvation. During the early days, before all the ranges had been opened up, there was opportunity to develop new range in such an emergency and thus relieve the situation to some extent. Such possibilities diminished more and more, however, as practically all the range came into use, until there was little oppor- tunity of this nature during the drought that ended in 1910, and practically none in the drought of 1916 to 1918. The setback to the live-stock industry, caused by this combination of unfavorable climatic conditions and unwise range practice, comes about mainly through heavy losses of stock, low calf crop, interfer- ence with improvement of breeding herds, retarded growth of young stock, and range deterioration. During the last drought, 1916 to 1918, according to estimates based on the best data obtainable, losses were at an average rate of 20 per cent annually for the three-year period and reached as high as 35 per cent in 1918, the worst year of the drought. Individual losses were as high as 50 per cent. The large reduction in calf crop is probably next in importance to losses. The natural increase is the main source of income, and if greatly reduced at a time when expenses are high the result is serious. The calf crop for some of the ranges affected by the last drought was estimated at 35 per cent in 1917, 25 per cent in 1918, and 35 per cent in 1919, the three years most influenced by the drought. These fig- ures are probably not far from representing the true situation. Drought also has been a prime factor in retarding improvement in the grade of stock. Heavy losses and forced sales might wipe out years of effort in building up the herd or reduce the numbers to an extent that culling and selection necessary to maintain quality would not be consistent with the importance of increasing the herd to take advantage of good years, or the set-back might be such that it left the stockman financially unable to purchase the right kind of bulls. Retarded growth and development of young stock is a consequence of the poor forage on the range in time of drought. This results in further decreased returns from the industry, due to lower prices being paid for stock taken, many steers being rejected by buyers and left on the range when they should have been removed to make as much range available as possible for cows, and heifers being stunted and thus requiring another year’s growth before they would breed. Range deterioration, or actual killing out of a part of the valuable forage plants, is one of the bad effects of drought which requires several good years to overcome. The extent of range deterioration RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 3 depends upon the duration of the drought and the manner of grazing. A study on the Jornada Range Reserve in southern New Mexico dur- ing the dry years of 1916 to 1918 showed that ungrazed range depreciated approximately 40 per cent as a result of natural condi- tions alone. The depreciation on grazed areas was according to the grazing. Range grazed heavily throughout the year deteriorated from 62 to 70 per cent in the stand of the best forage plants, while ranges not grazed heavily during the main growing season deterio- rated as much as 45 per cent. Many of the best ranges in the Southwest at the close of the last drought were 75 to 80 per cent below their original carrying capacity and will require several years of light stocking and careful manage- ment to restore them to even a reasonable condition as regards their carrylng capacity. If the production of live stock is to continue profitably over the vast area of the southwestern ranges the hazard of drought must be minimized. Ranges must not be allowed to deeacionats as they have in the past because of improvident grazing management, and measures for their restoration after drought must be provided for. The present losses of cattle must be cut down and the calf crops in- creased to more nearly what they should be. The breeding herds | must be safeguarded against sacrifice sale and loss in time of drought, and young stock must be kept growing. The solution of the problem of stabilizing the production and reducing the hazards must take into consideration all these phases, and at the same time be capable of practical application to the every-day needs of the business. Stockmen of this region realize that existing conditions are un- satisfactory. In a majority of cases, however, they are not in a position to apply the remedy, since they do not own the lands and can not regulate grazing upon them. If an individual stockman reduces his herd to save feed for emergency, the surplus grass tempts some one else to move his stock in and graze it. Supplemental feeding as a remedy is limited because of prohibitive cost. Live-stock production in the southwest is dependent upon the range forage as the primary source of feed, and any remedy for existing conditions must, therefore, include a more conservative and wiser use of the range. The first requirement is centralized control which will regulate use of the range and prevent over- stocking as well as insist upon better management plans for drought periods. Supplemental feeding can then be undertaken as far as good business will permit, and there will be opportunity for im- provement of both stock and range. The need for changes in the management of both range and stock, with adjustment especially to meet the trying conditions inca periods of drought, led to the establishment in 1912 of the J: vend 4 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Range Reserve ' for a study of the problems involved. Investigations started soon afterwards are still in progress. Preliminary results were published in 1917.2, The object of this publication is to present results to date, with special reference to the period of drought in 1916 to 1918, inclusive, and to outline the management and investi- gations proposed for the reserve in future based upon results and experience for 8 years, beginning in 1912. JORNADA RANGE RESERVE. The Jornada Range Reserve is an area of approximately 202,000 acres of typical semidesert range lying in a basin adjacent to the Rio Grande Valley in Dona Ana County, N. Mex., about 50 miles north of the Mexican boundary. The major portion of the area is a flat to slightly rolling plain varying in elevation from about 4,100 to 4,700 feet, with a small mass of igneous mountains, the Dona Anas, at the southwest corner. The eastern portion of the re- serve, about one-fourth of the total, includes the western slope of the San Andres Mountains. The locality is one of the most arid in the Southwest. Records for 57 years, at State College, N. Mex., about 15 miles south of the reserve, Show an average annual precipitation of 8.60 inches, with precipitation for individual years as high as 17 inches and as low as 3.50 inches. The main rainy season occurs in July, August, and September, with an average of 4.50 inches during these three months. Temperature as high as 106° is common in summer, with almost con- tinuous high winds, low humidity, and consequently high evapora- tion. On the plains and foothills the soil 2“ shows an almost entire absence of humus, and there is no change in texture with depth, except such as may be purely geological. The lime content is very high, and a highly limy layer or “ caliche” is characteristic. The development of this caliche layer is greatest under sandy or gravelly soils and least under the heavier clay soils. On the plains light-textured soils, principally redish sand loams, loamy sand, and loose incoherent wind-blown soils predominate. On the rolling plain near the foothills of the mountains, areas of coarse gravelly soils are found, and in the center there are flats of 1The Jornada Range Reserve was created by Executive Order May 38, 1912, at the request of the Department of Agriculture, with the idea of securing a complete range unit for conducting experiments and demonstrations in range management under con- ditions existing in southern New Mexico and similar country in adjoining States. The boundaries were slightly modified by Executive Order Apr. 24, 1916, and at present include about 202,000 acres. Since May 1, 1915, the investigations have been made by the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture. 2 Jardine, James T., and Hurtt, L. C., Increased Cattle Production on Southwestern Ranges, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 588, 1917. 24 Classification of soils on the reserve made by U. S. Bureau of Soils. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 5: compact tight clay or “adobe.” 'There is very little alkali land, ex- cept in the adobe lake beds, where water often stands until it evap- orates. The only water originally on the lands now within the reserve consisted of a number of mountain springs and intermittent lakes or flat depressions in the bottom of the valley. Water for stock on plains range, both on the reserve and on adjacent range lands, is now pumped from deep wells by windmills and engines or is sup- plied by pipe lines carrying water from springs in the mountains and by tanks which catch and store flood waters. The reserve is now well watered, watering places for the most part being not more than 5 miles apart. TYPES OF VEGETATION. The greater part of the forage, perhaps 80 per cent, is furnished by perennial grasses, of which the most important are black grama, red three-awn or needlegrass, tobosa, dropseed, muhlenbergia, burro- grass, and alkali sacaton or saltgrass. Various brush species, among which mesquite, blackbrush, creosote bush, shadscale, sagebrush, and _ Mormon tea predominate, are found on the mesa or plain.* Many species of both perennial and annual weeds, as well as various annual or “six-weeks” grass species, occur during the rainy season, but their duration is short and they do not furnish a great amount of forage.° 3 The Jornada del Muerto plain, upon which the reserve is located, slopes gently toward a central depression or bolson with no drainage out. 4 Black grama—Bouteloua eriopoda. Red three-awn grasses—=Aristida longiseta, A. pansa, A. purpurea. Tobosa grass—Hilaria mutica. Dropseed grass—Sporobolus cryptendrus, S. fleruosus, 8. wrightii, S. auriculatus. Ring mubhlenbergia—= Wuhienbergia gracillima. Bush grass—Muhlenbergia porteri. Alkali sacaton or saltgrass=Sporobolus airoides. Burro-grass—=Scleropogon brevifolius. Low tridens—Tridens pulchellus. Mesquite—Prosopis glandulosa. Blackbrush=Flourensia cernua. Creosote bush—Covillea glutinosa. Snakeweed—Gutierrezia furfuracea. Shadscale—A triplex canescens. Sagebrush—Artemisia filifolia. Mormon tea—LEphedra torreyana 5 Some of the most important of these are as follows: Perennials— Baileya—Baileya multiradiata. Spurge—Chamaesyce spp. i Leatherweed=Ovoten corymbulosus. Spectacle-pod=Dithyraea wislizeni. Evolvulus—LZvolvulus pilosus. Hoffmanseggia—Hoffmanseggia spp. Hymenopappus—HAymenopappus robustus. Yellowbush—Psilostrophe tagetinae. Bushy senecio—Senecio filifolius. Silvery nightshade—Solanum elaeagnifolium. Whitestem—Mentzelia multifiora (mostly biennial). (Footnote continued on page 8.) 6 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. \ | i i Crawford § pring 12 1 r LY y rz SPRL I, ZS me News wel SH GV S N Lore g WG Yo . Vv 2 a g 8 2: ~ \ YX PAs PE I ee te \N - a> i : e{sfefal>|e] Ss * 2 5 a “3 8 M Wi Bes inl! yam = ZC Iii NVIGQIYSAW WWdIONIYd 7 RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. ‘aAIOSOY WSuULY Vpeulor JO deW—T ‘DI © ri + [ cies t f) Coad . . seu SanIw 40 31vos a IGE 37yY paam-ayeus - Ysng 94050949 pu Yysnig-yoER/gG KQQ 90 oe se oe ze ic of $2 ¢o 29 ze 12 ae Sse to 2c sseup-pany =] ‘ : ayinbsayw EZ * usnaqedes ZZ ed 92 Zz ez | ez oc | sz CH ZEN Ce Zz 82 peo El 3 Bems Sg 7 = sses3-ewes9 [im z Z. 12 e8uipioy payuosey $2 o2 22 IZ oz | 6 +2 £2 rd WEE © Zz Yequnn eunysey gy “SIZ iL « = -- se0uay eunjtsey = Send a Us spasodoudiel ay # 7] cy] Zl or £/ #/ se +1 $l 9 “a 8) Im ea§ueys auaym Ayepunog 4uasesg === & mee (pesodosy) eAsasey yo Asepunog —= =——s jS35 yan anazorn z/ u o} 6 9 Z 2/ Ml < " or 6 9 Z iss ‘acu : | Bane ‘3+y / z ¢ + s 9 / Zz 3 9 / zie = 6 5 oo eo iva) eo as) 92 gf = : 12 of se ee eo ze 1 W i" SN oL $2 92 22 e2 62 or e HAMANN £2 zz le 02 6/ "S071 x g “i o/ e Z Wee Z m < Y, = N ULL . HY YY | ; | Y < sz | anang3 og32n7 coun oz | of sz j mi ae Sa hip alco var, ai; ! Y x r3sn0n |e al |isee [oe Arrus, mR g Up 8 _| nem zslous? |__yed 4 SES 1 : 8 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The vegetation is more or less grouped into types. Figure 1 shows the vegetation classified into these range types for the plains of the reserve. Table 1 gives the acreage of each type by pastures of the reserve. TABLE 1.—Acreage by types and pastures of the plains area of the Jornada Range Reserve. | | G Snake- |Mesquite| _S Mixed |llbrusne rrama-| Snake- | Mesquite age- r : ixe Trush— Pasture. grass. | weed. |sandhill.| brush. Weed.; |. Swag grass. | creosote Total. | bush. Wieow. Sowancatceees Acres. | Acres. | Acres. | Acres. | Acres. | Acres. | Acres. | Acres. | Acres. sees sicedsaacceeee 3, 416 1,438 | 31,730 8 894 5,393 | 25,472 26, 363 74, 714 Sie suscse eee sects 14, 473 4, 834 5, 922 423 721 15.658: 72 6.5145] Rees 34, 545 ie) AS peadsoasEeac 541 963 486 50 82 168 2120 eec eee 2,410 Ud ites te eerete sees 407 tone te (Al eetceccee 461 286 ZAQT eee ae 2,815 eee A Rare MN H33y |e ce tecce eRepaps SS F, SER (IS e eeg 3 408 509 1, 450 Qee a aceesiaciasian tee, BISii|ee jects [Eareis maibeelemme ous acters oe oe 33 | 31,255 2,427 4,030: OMe see ewe tesaetes |e seca ssia| aneee eae oosoonce bea eanaad baStesstic 138 3 401 245 784 dU SRS Tce agate ee en 4, 292 aU a bares Sek OS pre ER VSS bea ae a St |i W35253 3 Beaman 4, 805 WD ee see Do otacaree (EAS near HECOBAOCH Maem Sree Ser sssctos 68 3 52 6, 183 7, 049 OEE force tintew'sints sateen ible Bencaecad pasocusod Becssecacl 45 398 | 32,401 | 12,619 17,001 Motal=soeysess 27,351 | 7,495 | 38,212 481 | 2,203] 8,142] 17,373 | 48,346 | 149,603 1 Pasture No. 11 is not included. This is an area of approximately 52,317 acres of mixed grasses and browse types in the San Andres Mountains. 2 Mixed-grass type in this pasture mainly grama, three-awn, and drop-seed grasses. 3 Mixed-grass type in this pasture mainly burro, tobosa, and salt grasses. Because of the time of the year during which the forage in the various types is palatable to cattle and the growth habits of the main forage species, the several types are divided into yearlong or winter range, and summer range. The grama-grass type, mixed grama, three-awn, and dropseed-grass type, snakeweed type, and mesquite-sandhill type constitute the yearlong or winter range, and the swag type, mixed tobosa, burro, and salt-grass type, and black- brush-creosote bush type make up the summer range. YEARLONG OR WINTER-RANGE TYPES. The grama-grass type (PI. I, fig. 1) is the most important of the several yearlong or winter-range types. Black grama grass is the predominating plant species in this type, but other grasses, such as three-awn and dropseed occur to some extent. Soapweed ° is the most conspicuous species next to the grama grass and is nearly always found in this type. Occasionally three-awn and dropseed grasses are more abundant than the grama grass, and in such cases form a mixed- Footnote continued from page 5: Annual weeds— Boerhaavia—Boerhaavia torreyana. Mouse ear—Tidestromia lanuginosa. Eriogonum—LHriogonum. spp. Glandleaf=Pectis angustifolia. Caltrops=Tribulus terrestris. Six-weeks grasses— Aristida bromoides, Bouteloua aristidoides, B. barbata, B. parryi. 6 Soapweed— Yucca elata. Bul. 1031, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. F-36842-A Fic. I.—BLACK GRAMA-GRASS RANGE IN SOUTHERN NEW Mexico. In good years there is abundant feed on this kind of range, but in time ofdrought the carrying capacity may be reduced as much as 50 per cent or more. Reduction of grazing 30 to 50 per cent of the year-long rate during the growing season is the main requirement for maintenance of grama-grass range. F-43195-A FIG. 2.—TOBOSA-GRASS RANGE ON THE JORNADA RANGE RESERVE. The growth habits, compact soil it occupies, and low forage value after the growing season adapt this type ofrange to summer grazing. Itis not easily killed out but carrying capacity is very low in time of drought. : PLATE II. 1031, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bul. ‘aon sit BUTYyR1 O18 ‘poamoxeus AT]eIOodso ‘spoaa Sso[TJIOM PUL PoT[Py Udeq svy ssBis ysoq oty7 JO YONUL ‘sivad JO LOGUINU VB AOJ SUOLAVOA POZBAS ATIABOY UV9Y svYL IWS oy) UO JUL “IBIA YOR UOSBOS SULMOAS OY) JO} [UN pozBis JOU sv yJo, UO BsUBYy “((LHOIY) SONVY AGISLNO GANV ‘(1455) OL SYNLSVd Le6 191-4 ~~). “sats “shi y % 3 evar RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 9 erass type. The grama grass occupies the more compact sandy soils, and this phase of the mixed-grass type the slightly looser soils. The snakeweed type, although of minor importance, resembles the grama-grass and mixed-grass types in composition of forage plants, with the difference that snakeweed is the predominating species. There are also more weed species in this type, probably because the soil is a little looser than in the two types just discussed. Snake- weed is often an indicator. of overgrazing, especially when it comes in on areas of better soil, but it also occupies a natural habitat of its own on the loose soils. The mesquite-sandhill type has a very low density of palatable vegetation. It occupies more area than any other type on the plains areas of the reserve. Mesquite is the predominating plant species in the type, occurring in clumps which serve to catch blowing sand and thus to form the mounds or small sandhills. Other browse species occurring with the mesquite are shadscale and sagebrush, the sage- brush sometimes predominating on small areas to an extent that a distinct sagebrush type is formed. Both these species of brush are good forage for cattle, especially in winter. Grama grass, red three- awn, and dropseed grasses are the most important grasses found here, and, although they ordinarily occur sparsely, furnish the bulk of the feed in the type. A scattered stand of soapweed is characteristic of this type. Drifting of the soil occurs during high winds, and this makes it difficult for vegetation to become established from seed. In all four of these types black grama grass is the most important forage species. The three-awn grasses and the various browse spe- cles are next in importance. These grasses are good forage when they are green, and they cure on the stalk on the range. The dry for- age is readily eaten by stock. The various browse species in the mesquite type are grazed mainly during winter and spring. Conse- quently the grama-grass type and the other types in which grama grass or browse are the predominating forage species are important for winter and spring grazing, when there is little new growth, and the demand upon them for these seasons should be given first consid- eration. Also, since grama grass is the principal forage species in all of these types, their management should be based upon the growth requirements of grama grass. SUMMER RANGE TYPES. The swag or swale type (PI. I, fig. 2) occurs on the low flat places of tight soils that are flooded from run-off in time of rains. Tobosa grass and burro grass are the only species of importance in this type. Bordering on the swag type and on somewhat similar situations is a mixed-grass type in which occur mainly tobosa grass, burro grass, and galtgrass (given in the order of their importance). 10 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The blackbrush-creosote bush type, composed mainly of a stand of these two brush species with an under cover of grass, occupies the level to slightly rolling area where clay to gravelly loam soils predominate. This type varies from the blackbrush phase with an under cover of tobosa grass, burro grass, and saltgrass on the more compact clay soil to the creosote-bush phase with bush grass, grama grass, and low tridens on the drier, more gravelly slopes and ridges. Although the latter are yearlong range grasses, the occurrence of this phase of the blackbrush-creosote bush type is too limited to segregate it from the summer range for grazing. Tobosa grass is the most important forage plant in the three sum- mer types, since it is the most palatable and abundant of the grasses and the brush species are worthless as forage. Soon after the grow- ing season this grass becomes dry and unpalatable to cattle, and if not grazed before that time most of it is wasted. In fact fairly close grazing of this species is essential during the growing season; other- wise the dead material remaining interferes with utilization of new growth the following year. Close grazing during the growing season does not easily injure tobosa grass because of its underground method of revegetation, the compact soil it occupies, and the rapidity and rankness of its growth. The burro grass begins growth early and has its main value as forage before other vegetation has greened; after that time it is grazed but little. The saltgrass is another early feed, but, like tobosa grass, is of little value after it stops growth. These conditions and the high carrying capacity of the tobosa grass type make these three types ideal for summer grazing in the South- west. USE OF THE AREA PRIOR TO RESERVATION. Prior to 1912 a number of individuals had attempted to develop water in wells and establish ranches on the land now within the re- serve. The difficulty and cost of sinking deep wells, the prevalence of droughts, and severe losses discouraged the small owners and their range rights were eventually purchased by a single owner.’ This 7 The range rights on this area were purchased previous to 1911 by Mr. C. T. Turney, who is cooperating with the Forest Service in carrying on the studies. At the time of the creation of the reserve the 200,J00-acre range unit was conceded to Mr. Turney by neighboring stockmen under common or range rights established by the purchase of prior rights and improvements of other owners and the construction of watering places on unused range. He leases all State lands and owns private lands around most of the wells. The Government furnishes the public lands under reservation. The experiments are planned by the Government and the stockman, and carried out according to agreement. All fencing, water development, and other construction work, as well as extra labor in handling stock for experimental purposes, are paid by the cooperator in lieu of grazing fees on the Government land. The Government furnishes the men to keep proper records of all experiments, to aid in the planning of new investigations, and to see that the work is properly conducted. Prior to the coming of Mr. Turney to this part of the county there had been no successful wells put down on the Jornada del Muerto plain except one very shallow well near Aleman, N. Mex. This broad expanse of dry plain even won RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 11 owner, who is the cooperator with the Department of Agriculture in the experiments, occupied part of the present area of the Reserve as open range and developed the first substantial permanent wells in the vicinity in 1904. With the exception of slightly better watering facilities due to development of several more wells and tanks on the area than on the average open range of the same size, the area was handled much the same as the average open range prior to the crea- tion of the reserve, May 3, 1912. Stock grazed any part of the range yearlong, there was no provision for drought or to prevent overgraz- ing, losses and calf crop were about the same as elsewhere, and any attempts to improve the grade of stock were discouraging. During the drought of 1908-1910 the experiences on the area now included in the reserve were similar to those that occurred on many other open ranges in that drought and in the drought of 1916-1918. Several good years had preceded the drought and in 1908 there were about 5,000 head of cattle on the 200,000 acres. In 1911, when the drought was over, only 600 head of cattle remained. The rest had starved to death or had been moved out to where range forage was available but the expense of returning them was not warranted. This is in contrast to the results presented in this bulletin for the same range under as bad or worse drought conditions, when the area was being handled under methods adjusted in part, at least, te pre- serve permanence in the industry through drought periods. RECURRENCE OF DROUGHT. The effect on the cattle business of the combined factors which together constitute what is generally understood as a “ drought ” has been outlined. The heavy losses, retarded growth of stock, low calf crop, heavy expense, range depreciation, and worry to the owners during such a period obviously warrant maximum effort to anticipate the recurrence of drought periods and the consequent reduction in range forage production. Records covering a period long enough to do this with certainty are not available, but an analysis of the rain- fall and other records at hand and of past experience helps in ex- plaining management later suggested to meet drought conditions, Precipitation data for two stations—E] Paso, Tex., and State College, N. Mex.—From 1886 to 1919, inclusive, except records which are lacking for State College in 1890 and 1891, are given in Table 2.° These data include the annual precipitation and the amount received the name of Jornada del Muerto (the journey of Death) from the Spaniards in the early days because of the many people who had died of thirst in traveling over the area. It is here that the old Santa Fe trail came out on the plain, leaving the valley of the Rio Grande near Fort Selden because of the narrow, rocky gorge of the river farther north, and ran some 99 miles over the dry plain to a point just south of San Marcial, N. Mex. 8 Data from Reports of the U. S. Weather Bureau and Bulletin 113, New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanie Arts, Climate in Relation to Crop Adaptation in New Mexico, by Charles E. Linney and Fabian Garcia, 1918. 12 BULLETIN 1031, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BERHEHERSREXURESSEUU) De TT ae ete bell SURVGaecannn ite Zee aha ele | mele fiat od at = hal Se EEA aoe —| = Fae Baies eee | =| ES 02 Fig. 2,—Annual and seasonal precipitation, State College, N. Mex., and El Paso, Tex nS S 0) Y) 8 aS ls oe S HB & 1S * : > 8 SINE ORO MAMAN, Q NSS nN 2 Soe ula Is ae wast is icici iad HS 88 a 13 NEES fF OLK K eels ~S 8) Qv Qa Gas & & Se) oS PS 8) ter Se) RS eo N eNO 8 ey Ht . & SOAs —F sy es Lees oe Cv go 9 Ee RBHEASERSGAII: 0 4 D i Ae) SAHIN/ during the main growing months—July, August, and September— and the departure above or below average for each year and season. Figure 2 shows these data graphically. : RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 13 TABLE 2.—Average annual and seasonal (July, August, and September) pre- cipitation for two stations (El Paso, Tex., and State College, N. Mex.), and departures from normal. Depar- I) Depar- Depar- Depar- Annual| ture sae ture Annual ture Sea- ture Year. rain- from aka from Year. rain- from sonal from fall.1 aver- fall. aver- fall.1 aver- rain- aver- age.2 " age.2 age? fall. age.2 Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Inches. Inches. | Inched.| Inches. | Inches. 1886.......-- 9.50 0. 48 4.60 0.34 || 1904.......-- 10. 71 1.69 6.47 1.53 WSS Tes ccrcis cee: 7.09 1.93 4.34 .60 || 1905.......-. 17.44 8.42 5.88 94 WSS. st 8.94 .08 5.91 AS/all Wikies Beeaaase 11.89 2.87 5.13 .19 a eae aacce 7.08 1.94 3.87 1.07 || 1907......... 7.41 1.61 3.57 1.37 1890........- 38.49 58 | 5.41 NATO NMIGOSE ee cieseeec 6.45 2.57 3.98 .96 no) eae 32.99 6.80 | 3.42 AP 524 GOO eas ae a 4.63 4.39 2.73 2.21 VSO2e eo yee 5. 92 3.10 1.73 Se AGIOM a aeee 4.02 5.00 2.40 2.54 A8O8% o. Se cen < 10. 80 1.78 7.97 380351 OL 8.34 .68 | 3.78 1.16 1894......... 4.36 4.66 2.65 2.29 || 1912. 9.67 65 5.96 1.02 TBO5 Ree cee 9.83 -81 | 5.47 BOSe|| pL OVO Ae seis se 9.41 .39 3.28 1.66 L896. cys 8.89 13 | 4.75 2D) | RUO VE Ae tee 14. 43 5.41 5.90 . 96 WS97e foe eee 10. 68 1.66 | 6.87 ORS Noy Uae alee 8.81 21 5.58 . 64 AOS. ee 8.68 04 | 4.65 ZO AGUNG gaia creer 4.97 1.05 3.34 1.60 1899........- 8.48 54 | 5.87 Soi LO MTs eevee 6.038 | 2.99 | 5. 23 .29 AGOO | 22s Sees 8.17 -85 | 4.60 Poy: Bills Ko ES papers 7.72 1.30) 2.95 1.99 C0) ee See 10.32 1.30 | 3.52 aD IOTOS ee See: 8.96 .06 5.04 .10 19025 eb eee 10.52 1.50 | 8.56 3.62 — 19035 3... 3 2 10.96 1.94 5.67 BU Average. CUP Nawaeshoagc AL O42 sees es | | 1 Bold-faced figures represent years below average. 2 Bold-faced figures for amount below average; other figures for amount above average. 8 Data for State College lacking. D 4H ee Annual, Precipitation fff cl ea pe va Ne Mean Annual Frecipitation isd es Ra ST ae aa Seasonal Precipitation uy, , Aug.and Sept) aaa aaa 20 | or p= — Mean Seasonal Frecipitation (July, Aug.and Sept, El { Se a eB Ey I }-f—t-.- | mh a Ei Fa) CN ais pare ea 3] | fp pe ft CS eae ee eC no eo ee A ee Oe x OG (1 Rs et Pe e Ss a re Sa mince y a fie aay EL TEEN GAS ZA SI DS a) FR Sra Pe A (3 SSeS RN i eae 0 FW SU a AG | ob ke eek EN BAT AH fe S Sa 7 EN SS (ES) EI aE TS aS FG FS OIYP OC OS BESEE EERE EE EEE REE EEE eee ea ea | Wa i] ah gw ee [ae a || ee |e | sf he | 1895 96 97 98 99 19000! 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 I 12°13 14 15 16 17 Fig. 3.—Annual and seasonal precipitation in southern New Mexico. Owing to local variation in precipitation, figure 2, based upon records of two stations, represents only the general characteristics of southern New Mexico. Figure 3, based upon 24 years’ (1895 to 1919, inclusive) records from seven stations (Table 3), although for a shorter period, covers slightly wider territory and is perhaps more representative of the semidesert ranges in New Mexico.’ ® Data from Reports of U. S. Weather Bureau and Bulletin No. 113, New Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Climate in Relation to COD Adaptation in New Mexico, by Charles E. Linney and Fabian Garcia, 1918. 14 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 3.—Annual and seasonal (July, August, and September) precipitation for seven stations in southern New Mexico and vicinity with departure from the normal. ‘Coleen Alamagordo. Hisphaut El] Paso, Tex. Lordsburg. Year. - aes ihe An- Sea- An- Sea- An- Sea- An- Sea- An- Sea- nual.! | sonal.1| nual.) | sonal.t} nual.! | sonal.! | nual.1 | sonal.! | nual.t | sonal.1 Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. 1 ane eae 9. 47 GL [ES Ses yt see ee 9.11 6.47 | 10.20 4.797 5.44 2.51 AROG ES ee ee ee 7.99 QO Ro ees ae Ree 10. 84 6. 04 9.79 5230513955 5. 76 W897 2.22 oe ses botte 8. 96 sD [icctratecere lars ate ete 16. 89 10. 40 12. 41 8.19 13e33 9.70 PROS 2 2 Te ee ie 11.21 6.35 19, 23 12. 60 14.38 8.75 6.16 2.96 6.13 2.63 ASQQ RAE Stamens cute 9. 67 1 fi OTe ae eee (pene 7.12 4,27 7.30 4.63 5.73 4.80 GODS S22 ae ieea ay a Sh 8.40 A DN Ee etal etree cee 6.03 3.97 7.95 4.99 6.99 4.34 1G) ESE ee ens rk eee 11.96 4.83 | 11.47 3.79 8.49 3.54 8.68 2.21 7.41 3.23 AGO De ue bisa at ie 10. 90 9.15 7.25 5.30 6.19 5.36 10.15 7.98 5.87 3.80 NGOS Mise Seats Sie roe 10.29 | 4.90 6.95 3.47 6. 76 1.50 | 11.63 6. 44 4.04 2.08 ! 6. 62 8.95 ASOD oo sores 8.80 | 11.30 6.33 8.07 5.30 6.39 19. 25 DON WEsccecel taecee: 17. 80 5.37 19. 50 5.61 2.97 | 11.16 53 (755 (ee ee ry | 14.99; 7.30 9.58 3.49 3.33 | 10.88 GATE ote ies, oI ey tee tne 8.41 3.81 12.15 6. 25 3.35 | 12.11 SOQ tetas Heme 6.94 4.62 8. 66 3.23. 2.74 6.85 3.64 6. 68 5.33 4.33 2.73 | 10.18 Une 2.79 8.65 5.04 5.79 2.70 4.03 2.02 4.95 2.96. 2.68 12.69 5.65 IB REY! 6. 84 10. 88 4.88 L773 3.54 6. 22 9. 61 5.33 10. 95 5.82 10. 14 Al 14.15 6. 33. 4.30 | 12.38 3.93 | 12.27 4.40 7.09 2.27 | 11.69 2.51 4.48 19. 03 7.43 15.12 7.68 17. 02 (ev) 19. 70 7.69 4.67 | 14.00 8.08 | 13.87 7.96 | 10.26 6.50 | 10.91 4.77 2.47 | 12.46 5.08 | 13.73 5.77 7.77 pa Ta eee Ee 4.91 5.20 3.97 3.53 2.85 6.49 | 5.56 8.28 4,57 2.71 | 11.47 2:73 | 10.76 4.95 82217), SLSR es eee . 90 4.20 P5102) P7525 11. 64 5.15 9.87 || > bs89nle ses ee \Seecauss 44.81 |511.48 | 55.49 /610.18 | 66.13 | 79.53 | 75.07 | 89.28 9 4.47 Socorro. Deming Mean annual. | Mean seasonal. Year. & An- Sea- An- Sea- | Rain- | Depar-} Rain- | Depar- nual.! | sonal.t} nual.! | sonal.!| fall.2 | ture.? | fall.2 | ture.? Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches.| Inches. | Inches. SS ask Apr Med 8.23 5.58 8.49 1.52 5.10 0.09 Sesh hid 657-8) 12.70 8.25 10. 97 . 96 5.79 - 60 10. 61 5752 10. 21 6.17 12. 07 2.06 7.59 2.40 Ha SS ate |e eee 7.42 4.25 | 10.76 so 6. 25 1. 16. 7.71 4.36 5. 74 5.24 7.31 | 2.70 4.99 -20 7.05 2.70 7.41 5.28 7.3 2.71 4.25 94 10.06 5. 22 5.37 1.93 9.06 | .95 3.53 1. 66. Lee Sse ye a 4.66 2.87 7.50 | 2.51 5. 74 sas es AU ek AEN, Seat 9.09 3.25 8.12 1.89 3.61 1.58 ge i AR a) We 12. 53 (Gen 10. 20 19 6. 54 1.35 2.40 | 10.12, 17.59 4.89 | 18.98 8. 97 6. 24 1.05. 11.60 4.31 | 10.79 5.60 | 11.15 1.14 4.45 74 17.85 9.10 |} 11.69 Tabs |nuleps} 1.22 6.07 . 88 6.29 2.63 4.50 2.19 7.41 2.60 3.94 1.25 8.11 4.13 6.01 2.86 6. 73 3.28 4.13 1.06 7.62 2.84 3.42 2.78 5.50 4.51 3.02 2.17 16. 12 5. 53 15. 10 9. 20 12. 26 2.25 5. 47 - 28 8.01 3.20 | 11.13 6.04 | 10.45 44 Fab .33 8.10 2.37 | 11.44 6.18 | 10.67 . 66 3.71 1.48 17.81 8.71 17. 55 8.81 16. 87 6. 86 7.44 OAs 16. 57 10. 34 11. 88 7.85 12.12 Dei Lil! 7.17 1.98 16. 38 5. 61 15. 28 8.38 12. 23 2,22 5. 24 05 4.69 3.02 3.40 2.30 5.31 4.70 3.88 1.31 12. 22 3.69 5.49 2.70 9.23 78 2.92 2.47 16. 31 6. 02 4.78 3.75 | 11.44) 1.48 PASI: -18 1011.28 | 114.96 | 129.77 | 125.46 LOS OL a|Reasacce ALO) eee eee 1 Bold-faced figures for years below average; others average or above. 2 Bold-faced figures for amounts below normal; other amounts above normal. 356 years’ records. 457 years’ records. 5 22 years’ records. 6 26 years’ records. 7 41 years’ records. 8 35 years’ records. 9 36 years’ records. 10 23 years’ records. 11 26 years’ records. 12 42 years’ records. RANGE AND GATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 15 The period from 1904 to 1907 is remembered by stockmen of southern New Mexico as exceptionally favorable for the cattle busi- ness, and there was prosperity during the period from 1911.to 1916. They are still talking about the severe drought of 1908 to 1910, in- clusive, and live-stock production has not yet recovered from the OR AY Dy @ lotus 0 COLFAX Eas --— VALENCIA \BERNALILLO A Rol ZO Nea L Tipe 2G AES =e ee | ee 4 al ' ed plamegcnde /- icy ; YORNADA RANGE DONA ANA SE eee oe 1 re fle | ! | | @ . Deming | | se a ae --—J-—-- ee Paso l TEXAS Fig. 4.—Map. of New Mexico showing location of Jornada Range Reserve and rainfall stations. | drought of 1916-1918. Figures 2 and 3 show that the periods of prosperity in the business correspond to periods of approximately average or above in both seasonal and annual precipitation, and years of adversity to those below average. Figure 3 shows:a similar dry period, from 1899 to 1903, inclusive, while figure 2 shows this dry period as from 1898 to 1901, inclusive. This difference is prob- ably due to local variation in rainfall. Another similarly dry 16 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. period, 1889 to 1892, inclusive, with approximately average years back to 1886 is also shown in figure 2, and further records from the El] Paso Station show exceptional precipitation in 1880 and 1884. Further analysis of the precipitation data shows that for the years 1889 to 1892 the average annual precipitation was 34.1 per cent below the mean for the period 1886 to 1919; for 1899 to 1903 the departure below mean was 21.5 per cent; for 1908 to 1910, 34.6 per cent; and for 1916 to 1918, 10.9 per cent. During these same periods the average for the season July, August, and September was below the mean for these months for the whole period, 1886 to 1919, by 42.1 per cent in 1889 to 1892; 14.9 per cent in 1899 to 1903; 28.9 per cent in 1908 to 1910; and 22.8 per cent in 1916 to 1918. Over 50 per cent of the mean annual precipitation falls during July, August, and September,.and since the bulk of the range forage is produced primarily by perennial grasses which make their main growth during*these months, it is not improbable that departure from mean precipitation for this growing season has a greater pro- portionate effect.on the volume of forage produced and upon range maintenance than departure from mean annual precipitation. The effect of deficient precipitation during this period on the vegetation on the Jornada Range Reserve as later brought out seems to war- rant this assumption. For the present the main tentative deduction which seems war- ranted is that in cycles of 8 to 10 years there may occur 3 to 4 con- secutive years during which precipitation is enough below the mean for the period to result in conditions considered by stockmen as drought. If future investigations can more definitely define the occurrence, duration, and intensity of these drought periods and the influence of seasonal precipitation, a big fundamental step will be made toward possible elimination of hazard connected with live- stock production in this region. PRECIPITATION ON THE JORNADA RANGE RESERVE. Table 4 shows the precipitation by months, from 1914 to 1919, inclusive, with the exception of some data lacking in 1914 and 1915, for one station located at the headquarters ranch on the Jornada Range Reserve. Although rainfall in 1916 was slightly above the average for the year, there was a deficiency of 2.17 inches or 45.6 per cent departure from the average amount received during July, August, and September, the main growing season. The heavy rain- fall occurring in October was too late for much benefit. During 1917 not only seasonal but annual precipitation as well was very de- ficient. In 1918 the amount of precipitation for the period of July, August, and September was not greatly below average for the region, RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 17 but the precipitation occurred in a few torrential rains during the latter part of July and early August, so that the moisture largely ran off and did not penetrate the soil to any great extent. Although vegetative growth started as a result of this precipitation, no more rains followed later in August or September, and a condition of drought actually existed until October over a large part of the re- serve, as far as growing conditions were concerned. TABLE 4.—Monthly and annual precipitation for headquarters ranch station, Jornada Range Reserve, with departure from annual and seasonal (July, August, and September) average at State College, N. Mex. [Bold-face figures indicate amount below average. T=trace.] Year. January. |February.| March. April. May. | June. | July. August. Inches Inches Inches. | Inches Inches Inches Inches Inches TG We Ratapes s E eSr (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) 2.98 2.99 0. 49 ARE TiS) ta ae eet aos ea 0.49 1.12 0.95 0.09 (?) T 1.40 1.91 TROT Sy es A rar 25 47 79 | -05 1.45 00 90 96 TREN AneeS aCe COU A 47 T T 02 39 05 57 1.52 DONS Mee Ge el issn 78 09 T | AT 05 09 1.53 2.88 TT ee ab aise BAS ele 00 00 1.50 | . 83 28 11 3.13 2.52 Depar- i i Total, eee Total : ture from Septem- ovem- ecem- | annua seasonal | seasona Year. ber. | October. | “per. ber. | precipi- Bn Site precipi- | average tation. Colle a tation. | at State. ge. College. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. TTS RNa ee Ae 0.61 0. 44 0. 40 Se OR a Re Re Wl ne ee aps 4.09 —0. 66 OT SOR a Laan fa 1.55 -00 -00 (EDS Ae aNen IE HE se oe 4. 86 + .11 OT Gee eee Usa 12 2.63 47 219 8.88 +0. 30 2.58 —2.17 TZ es BM BRATS 9 Be Oe 25 cali! .16 00 3. 54 —5.05 2.34 —2.41 GIS ere oe ey 00 - 96 1.71 -67 8.76 + .22 4.41 — .34 VELOUR Aven Spine d dh 2.55 - 64 5?) - 50 12.78 +4. 20 8.20 +8.45 1 Data at Jornada Range Reserve station are compared with average at State College, since sufficient years’ data are not available at Jornada Range Reserve for obtaining a reliable average over a period of years. The State College station is only 17 miles south of the reserve station, and about 300 feet lower in elevation, so that conditions are considered sufficiently similar to use the State College figures for com- parison. 2 Data lacking. Average annual precipitation at State College, N. Mex. (59 years records)=8.58 inches; average seasonal precipitation at State College, N. Mex. (59 years, records)=4.75 inches. The conditions as shown by the rainfall data at the one station on the reserve are fairly representative for the reserve as a whole. Some parts, however, received more rainfall during the growing season and others received less. Uneven rainfall—wWithin the territory represented by any of the stations for which precipitation records are given there may be great variation in the amount of precipitation on different portions of a single large range unit, or on different range units in any year or during the period of a drought. This variation results in a minor factor of uncertainty in anticipating what forage production may be expected on any given area, and necessitates a flexible general 74514°—22-—Bull. 1031——2 18 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plan of management in order to avoid local overstocking to the detriment of stock and range. The possible extent of this local variation in precipitation is ap- parent from observations at the Jornada Range Reserve and vicinity from 1915 to 1919. In 1918 four additional rain-measuring stations were established on the reserve at distances of 7 to 13 miles apart. Table 5 shows precipitation at these stations in addition to the head- quarters and State College stations. TABLE 5.—Annual and seasonal (July, August, and September) precipitation for New Mexico State Agricultural College and five rain stations on the Jornada Range Reserve, showing variation in amount within comparatively short distances. icul 1 ad q - r r TA | A ganna Headquar- | south Well. | Red Lake. | West Well. | Ropes Spring. Year. An- | Sea- | An- | Sea- | An- | Sea- | An- | Sea- | An- | Sea- | An- | Sea- nual. | sonal.| nual. | sonal. | nual. | sonal.| nual. | sonal.| nua!. | sonal.| nual. | sonal Inches.| Inches.| Inches.| Inches.| Inches.| Inches.| Inches.| Inches.| Inches.| Inches.| Inches.| Inches 5 Ke) bapa ee Te STA |W 6 Tal tae Ut |e 4986) Sees sae | sen ae el ees te ea cee LOTG RSE Peer ee cy 7.78 2.47 8.88 PAGES 1 Feeaeie reeked (ester oP be Pees aaa Ines peed baanesed daccosdibaces oe b CY) Ly GN Sy DOOM 4s OL 3. 54 2S Sky sere sel emg) teenie see ee SAREE Oee esa aococtic so sa5bc TOTS hes fee) eins 1323 2.71 8.76 4.41 5.47 2.39 7.06 3. 88 5. 87 3. 16 8. 89 3.70 TQUQ Meee ie 8. 05 4.20 | 12.78 8.20 |* 7. 72 4.67 | 11.52 6. 42 7.91 4.96 | 16.37 5. 85 | 1 Approximate. Although no precipitation records are available, it is known from observations that the range unit adjoining the reserve on the south received more precipitation during 1917, a year of the recent drought, than fell on the reserve. In 1919, however, it probably received less precipitation than the reserve by an amount sufficient to make a dif- ference in the current year’s forage and in recuperation of range. The range unit north of the reserve received earlier rains and a greater total precipitation than the reserve in 1918 and 1919, a dif- ference of sufficient importance to warrant a change from the pre- arranged plan of grazing the unit. This possible variation is pointed out merely as one of many warnings against too heavy stocking of a range unit as a whole or a plan of management which is not reasonably flexible to meet such a situation by shifting stock from a local dry area to one of more abundant rainfall without disarranging the whole plan. VARIATION IN FORAGE PRODUCTION. Some measure of the volume of range forage which may be figured on seasonally, annually, and over a period of years, and the main factors responsible for variation, are fundamental in deciding the classes, numbers, and management of live stock. Drought and im- RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 19 proper grazing will be agreed to readily as the major factors re- sponsible for variation in forage production. Other factors, such as “spotted” rainfall, soil, and character of vegetation necessitate ad- justments in any general program of production. These adjustments are of little purpose, however, unless they are part of a compre- hensive plan calculated to meet the conditions resulting from drought and from grazing use. VARIATION DUE TO DROUGHT. It is somewhat difficult to determine from, data available the per- centage of depreciation of the range as a direct result of drought, because records of changes in vegetation on areas protected against grazing have been collected only for the period 1915 to 1919, in- clusive, and because part of the protected areas being studied were rendered unreliable by sand blowing on them in amounts sufficient to create unnatural conditions. However, the data available are im- portant because they show, at least approximately, the changes which occurred in the main vegetation types during the drought of 1916 to 1918, and indicate the changes which will probably occur during a similar period in future years. WINTER OR YEARLONG RANGE, For the winter or yearlong type of range figure 5 indicates the annual change in density of good perennial forage grasses during the period 1915 to 1919, inclusive, with the annual precipitation for the same period. The actual amounts of good perennial forage grasses, inferior perennial grasses, long-lived weed” vegetation, and short-lived plants per unit of area are given in Table 6. Only the good perennial forage grasses, mainly black grama and red three- awn, are used in establishing the curve indicating the change in con- dition of the vegetation, since these species represent the main graz- ing values of the range and are the ones most important to maintain. The vegetation curve is based upon quadrat chartings and observa- tions on two representative areas of grama grass range, one pro- tected against grazing from, 1913 to 1919 and one protected from 1916 to 1919, inclusive. The protected areas were examined frequently each year, and quadrats were charted twice annually in 1915 to 1919, except 1918, when only one charting was made because of lack of vegetative growth early in the year. 10“ Weeds” as used in.this publication mean all herbaceous vegetation other than grasses or grasslike plants. 20 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 6.—Amount and class of vegetation on inclosures protected from grazing and percentage of maxinum stand, 1915 to 1919 inclusive (gramna grass type). Good perennial | Inferior perennial Short- forage grasses. forage grasses. L lived ong- = lived cess 19! Perea) annua 7 vegeta- Year. Square | per cent-| S442Fe | per cent- mee portal f age tiga : age meters - | meters . P per Che per peel Number | Number square Sane square Span plants? | plants 2 meter. fi meter. 4 per per square | square meter. meter. NO losses cere ca Aka cet cee ees ae hns 511 87.6 7 80 2.6 44.4 UOT GEE tihd a ied Me PAC ok ent ee aeng 2 OLD 583 100. 0 8 90 3.0 33. 0 OU eee Soc aiset tte a Main cee anna ata eimaa ee 5 3 537 92. 1 uf 80 V8 61.5 TOI U Kae Meee crete Agee ape. Sey ene ge Ay 511 87.6 9 100 2.0 82.5 LO LQ roi sais ae pbb cjeitie ster aisha scars tics Sa ewe oes 347 59. 5 8 90 0.0 31.5 1 Actual measurement of area of grass tufts in square centimeters 1inch above the ground on each square meter. (The metric system, with area expressed in square centimeters per square meter instead of with feet and inches, was used for convenience in the study because a unit of measure less than a squareinch was ie Aptaaledant of number of individual plants per square meter. 3 Actual measurement showed 699 square centimeters but contained a considerable amount of dead forage ae dpi with Heine De eetatien: dead forage was estimated from best method of determination to be Change in density of the grasses did not conform immediately to change in the rainfall. The main reason for this is the fact that the vegetation is dependent more directly upon available soil moisture than upon current precipitation, and the soil did not dry out to such a degree that it affected the growth so materially the first year of drought. In addition, however, the vegetation gradually decreased in vigor and resistance to unfavorable conditions, and further, there was difficulty in determining the percentage or total of dead grass until 1919. By 1917, the second year of the drought, the soil was becoming quite dry and the vigor of the grass had been considerably reduced. In 1918 the soil was so dry that a more nearly average rainfall occurring over a short period during the middle of the grow- ing season did not materially improve growing conditions, and the weakened vegetation continued to die. In 1919 soil moisture was materially increased, but in the 1919 examinations considerable grass was found to be dead which had been classed as living in previous examinations. There was difficulty in determining the grass actually dead in 1918 on account of the absence of green growth and per- sistence of dry growth from previous years. In 1919, however, the dead growth had largely disappeared and the records are considered a reliable index of living vegetation. The vegetation appeared to have reached its low point prior to the 1919 examination. Comparison of the conditions in 1919 with those of 1916, therefore, give the extent of range deterioration as a result of the drought on grama-grass areas not grazed. This depre- RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 21 ciation, amounting to 40.5 per cent, is believed to be approximately representative of the average depreciation of grama-grass range on 100 LA pO EAN INCHES 75° LEGEND — Density of good perennia/ torage Grasses percent. ——Annual precip/tation inches. ----fraintall July, Aug.and Sepr,inches. | | ie UI/S MoS ” (GAT WE —st—=<‘i«‘«‘« Fig. 5.—Density of good perennial forage grasses, on protected grama-grass range com- pared with annual and seasonal precipitation at the reserve. the Jornada Range Reserve due to drought, although there is con- siderable variation. Plate II shows how this grass was killed out. 22 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. © Areas of loose sandy soil dried out more quickly and were subject to greater injury than areas of the more compact finer textured soils. The difference was increased by the action of wind as well as differ- ence in soil and moisture. Local areas of loose sandy soil were re- duced to wind-blown wastes. Because of the small amount of inferior grasses and long-lived perennial weeds on the two areas under study a conclusion as to the behavior of such vegetation is not warranted. This class of forage is not of great value except during wet springs, when it furnishes considerable early feed. Vegetation of the character that usually lasts but a single year is not so materially affected by drought, because the plants depend upon the surface soil for their moisture, which might be supplied by showers at the proper season of the year, even during drought. The largest number of such plants occurred during 1917 and 1918, the driest years of the drought. This might easily occur, since the high winds increased dissemination and planting of the seeds, the rain that fell was sufficient to moisten the surface soil to promote growth, and competition by the main grasses had diminished. The volume of forage furnished by this kind of vegetation on range used in winter is negligible, however, since the plants dry up and blow away soon after the growing season. Aside from the reduction in density of the forage stand due to drought, there was also a reduction in the height and foliage growth which further reduced the volume of forage. In 1917 the average height growth of ungrazed grama-grass was 13 inches, in 1918 it was only 8.6 inches, while in 1919, a year of more moisture, the average height growth reached 16 inches. It was difficult to measure in actual terms of quantity the difference in volume of forage produced due to variation in height and foliage growth on the ungrazed plots, because the previous year’s fohhage was not removed and the dryness of the plants made it difficult to determine the amount that was actually dead. Careful estimates, however, placed this reduction in 1917 and 1918 in volume of forage produced per unit area of vege- tative stand at not less than 20 per cent of the amount produced under average condition. More nearly average height growth and foliage production was reached in 1919 by the plants that survived the drought. From the grama-grass range under protection against grazing the data and estimates indicate a reduction in the stand of the most important forage plants of 8 per cent in 1917, 12.4 per cent in 1918, and 40.5 per cent in 1919, as compared with the stand in 1916. One of the plots observed had been under protection since 1913, the other since 1915, so that the stand in 1916 was probably near the maximum for the two sites which were chosen as representative of this type of RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 23 range. The figures for 1917, and especially for 1918, however, may be too low, because of the difficulty of determining under the dry con- “\ > SS ~ ~ & ®& a aa s /00 \ | Mee : | oo INCHES : & q LOZ PERCENT 5O LEGEND aus Volume of forage percent ee a Al/tua/ : enane SeaSO/7a/ Precipitation, inches,at Reserve (k July, A ug,Sep7) x (9.02) Average Annual Precipitation At State | O 494) Average Seasonal College, NM. Precipitation, (July, Aug.and Sept}and E/ Paso Texas. 251 RE REGS = =f IFS, 1916 1917 HE (HP Fig. 6.—Volume of forage on tobosa grass, summer range, compared with precipitation. ditions prevailing just what plants were dead; but the reduction to 59.5 per cent of the original stand in 1919 is believed to represent the 24 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. actual amount of living forage. It is undoubtedly true, however, that depreciation is much greater in the third year of drought than in either the first or second year, on account of the increased desicca- tion of the soil and lowered vitality of the vegetation. Adding to this depreciation in stand the estimated 20 per cent decrease in vol- ume due to decrease in height and number of leaves produced per living plant in 1917 and 1918, the volume of forage by years was about 100 per cent in 1916, 73.6 per cent in 1917, 70.0 per cent in ~ 1918 and 59.5 per cent in 1919. Summer range.—Table 7 and figure 6 show what occurred in the density of vegetation on the main summer range type during the drought on a representative area protected from grazing during the summer and fall of each year. Since at other times of the year for- age on this type is of low palatability and therefore but lghtly grazed, the area used is representative of yearlong protection. The quadrat on this area was charted and observations made annually, with the exception of 1917, when the vegetation was too dry to chart and only observations were made. TABLE 7.—Amount of vegetation, percentage of maximum stand, ané percentage of maximum volume of forage on tobosa-grass range, 1915 to 1919. ount Volume of of grasses | Percentage} forage pro- Meat (square of duced,in s centimeter)| maximum | percentage per square year. cf maxi- meter. mum year. OT Sees Se eeeae alae ee oe aes esata Sas coe yaw sone seen seat 928 100. 0 1 AQU QE e eee eos aac Boece sncaun's sss seas oe efe cee sieeee acm eaes 928 100. 0 100. 0 TSO SC he Seen S Sree BOBO are CODEC EES EEA Ca HaBeSREs Saad’ GSSrSeeeneacs 930 100. 0 45.0 RS oe) BOS Se SSS ROR Cabs JOOS So Se SReEC poe eTor eae aac ee eeaaeeaeas 935 100. 0 55. 0 TE CSE CHORE OORT OGEHUE HORE HOR CO OBB OE DanU SEE BE Se Gone aeHere 656 70. 1 70 The density of the forage on the tobosa-grass range remained practically stationary during 1916, 1917, and 1918, so far as it was possible to determine. During 1919, as the result of the accumulated effect of the drought, it decreased 30 per cent. It is probable that part of the 30 per cent died prior to 1919, although final removal of dead grass did not occur until 1919. Height growth and foliage production were reduced about 55 per cent in 1917 and 45 per cent in 1918, but were approximately average in 1919. Considering the voiume of forage in 1916 as 100 per cent, the estimated volume in 1917 was 45 per cent; in 1918, 55 per cent; and in 1919, 70.1 per cent. The results from the study of the tobosa or summer-range type show a greater reduction in volume of forage produced in dry years as compared with protected grama-grass range, but density of the RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 25 stand in the tobosa type is not decreased nearly so much in time of continued drought as in the grama-grass type. Furthermore, im- provement of the tobosa type is likely to occur immediately with the first wet year, while in the case of the grama-grass type several years will probably be required for this recovery. The great reduction in volume of forage produced in the tobosa-grass type in a dry year appears to be due to a greater moisture requirement for growth than in the case of the grama type species. The lesser reduction in den- sity of the stand in the tobosa type in time of prolonged drought is evidently due to the ability of these species to he dormant longer without moisture before dying than is grama-grass, and to a finer- textured and more compact soil which has a greater air-dry moisture content than the looser sandy soils of the grama-grass type. Al- though tobosa-grass probably has a greater drought resistance, the volume of forage produced is affected more directly by the amount of moisture that falls. Studies of tobosa-grass areas fully grazed during summer showed approximately the same depreciation on these as on areas not grazed, which indicates that this type of range can be grazed fully during the growing season without injury in time of drought as well as in good years. The main difficulty with this type in time of drought is the big decrease in foliage production rather than killing out of the range, as shown in figure 6. VARIATION DUE TO GRAZING. The preceding discussion is intended to bring out the amount and variation in forage production on certain areas of the Jornada Range Reserve protected against grazing. This measure of natural pro- duction indicates the maximum forage which will probably be avail- able for use over a period of years under natural conditions, and is a standard with which to compare production on similar ranges under different grazing use so as to adjust grazing in a way which will maintain the range and support the maximum stock over a period of years, including drought. A comparison of this nature has been made for the period 1915 to 1919, inclusive. The conditions studied include ranges where grazing has been excessive yearlong for a period of years, where grazing has not been too heavy for the year as a whole but only during the main growing season, and where grazing has been heavy for the year as a whole but much lighter than average during the main growing season. A description of the areas and how they were grazed, with the results and conclusions, is here pre- sented. 26 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OUTSIDE RANGE, Adjoining the Jornada Range Reserve on the west is an area of about 98,530 acres, of which about 66,485 acres are the grama-grass type. The remainder is primarily of mixed-grass type of less grazing value than the grama grass. This area is controlled by private indi- viduals and was used to study unregulated grazing as compared with regulated grazing on the reserve. Potentially, this range is as good as the protected plots on the reserve or better, as is indicated by the density and kind of vegetation at points so remote from water that stock have rarely ever more than lightly grazed it. In 1915 this outside range supported on the average only 45.4 per cent as much good forage grasses as similar range in about maximum condition under complete protection against grazing. Of inferior grass forage, however, the outside range had 14 times as much as the. protected area. The amount of other vegetation did not differ greatly. As a whole, the outside range was considered in condition about 50 per cent of the maximum under average growing conditions, when the drought began in 1916. This state of depletion was attrib- uted to yearlong overstocking, over a period of years previous to 1916.7* Heavy yearlong grazing was continued on this area during 1916- 17 and the early part of 1918. In the spring of 1918 and during 1919, however, it was almost completely protected against grazing during the main growing season, July 1 to October 1, and the forage was fully utilized during the remainder of each year, but the area was not overstocked. PASTURE 2 OF THE JORNADA RANGE RESERVE. Pasture 2 of the reserve contains about 34,545 acres adjoining the outside range described on the east. It is primarily grama-grass range. This pasture had been lightly grazed during the main grow- ing season and slightly undergrazed for the year as a whole, for three years prior to July 1, 1916, as shown by Table 8, and under this management had improved about 50 per cent as compared with similar range grazed year long. In 1915 pasture 2 was considered slightly better in amount of forage per unit of area than the pro- tected areas, and almost as good as the maximum later reached by the protected areas. 11 Fully discussed in Department of Agriculture Bulletin 588. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 27 Taste 8.—Rate of stocking during year, percentage of reduction of stocking during growing season, percentage of utilization of forage, and reduction in forage stand in pasture 2, 1913 to 1919. Percentage e decrease ercentage | or increase Actual reduction | in grazing percent aes acres |inaverage| during Aer ah Year. per cow yearly growing | Sy a Bes year stocking season ORCuATIn long. from 1913 | compared Beet 8 rate. with s yearly average. BV GIN| AML LN OA —35.3 100 47.0 43.5 —62.1 57 33.1 19.8 —30. 8 80 43.9 39.3 02.6 90 44.3 40.1 44.6 125 90.2 M5 36. 1 90 182,900 pounds of,cottonseed cake were fed to stock in this pasture in the spring of 1918. While this feeding served largely to keep cattle from getting too poor it allowed utilization approximately 25 per cent above estimated proper rate of stocking. Table 8 shows that this pasture was stocked at approximately the annual yearlong rate during the growing season of 1916, but that during 1917 and 1918 stocking was considerably heavier during the growing period at this season than for the year as a whole. PASTURE 5 OF THE JORNADA RANGE RESERVE, Pasture 5 of the reserve is an area of 2,815 acres primarily of good grama-grass range. In the spring of 1915 this area was about 44 per cent below what it should have been, and deterioration was at- tributed largely to overstocking during the main growing season for several years previous. In 1916 the average number of stock in this pasture was reduced 35.5 per cent, with a slightly greater reduction during the growing season; in 1917 the average number of stock was reduced 33.8 per cent from the rate during 1915, and 54 per cent during the growing season; in 1918 the average for the year was again heavier than the 1915 stocking, but during the growing season grazing was less than 50 per cent of the average for the year. RESULTS OF THE VARIOUS DEGREES AND PERIODS OF GRAZING. The effects of the condition of drought prevailing and different time and degrees of grazing practiced on the various areas are shown in Table 9 and compared graphically in figure 7. Under the conditions of drought and grazing prevailing during 1916 the outside range about held its own as compared with 1915, but it deteriorated 21.5 per cent in 1917 and 39.9 per cent further in 1918. In 1919 there was a slight but real gain in conditions, so that the total deterioration during the drought period was about 60 per cent as compared with the condition of this range in 1916. The 28 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. slight improvement in 1919 is attributed to the protection from graz- ing during the growing season in 1918 and 1919. As compared with 600 G S FIIGTET ERS PER SQOUANL MWALIETL. y S LIEGLIV QD STofecved TQNGE ——-— /Sesvure £ “ S | —-— “esrvure 5 SQUARE CEN OD Ire SaRGE /QIS- SIE IW7, SIE “HP Fic. 7.—Comparison of density of good grass forage on outside range, pasture 2, pasture 5, and protected range, 1915-1919. Norr.—Pasture 2 was in good condition in 1915 as a result of protection during main growing seasons of 1913-1915. Grazing was not reduced during main growing seasons 1916-1919. Pasture 5 was run down in 1915 as a result of previous improper grazing. It received light grazing during main growing seasons 1916-1919 with full use rest of the year. Outside range was badly run down in 1915 as a result of previous improper grazing. Heavy yearlong grazing continued till 1918. Light grazing prevailed during growing seasons 1918-19. the amount of forage on the protected areas in 1915 the outside range was only 45.4 per cent as good that year and only 17.6 per cent as RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 29 good in 1918. The shght improvement of this range during 1919 and continued deterioration of the protected areas made the former 27.1 per cent as good as the latter that year. This difference in ac- tion on the two areas in 1919 is attributed to the fact that the pro- tected areas with over 80 per cent of a maximum stand had more vegetation than the available moisture would support, and the result was heavy depreciation. On the other hand, the outside range, with less than 30 per cent of a maximum stand and approximately equal average moisture conditions, made improvement when protected dur- ing the main growing season for two years. ported by the records given later for pasture 5. This conclusion is sup- TABLE 9.—Variation in density of grama grass on protected areas, outside range, pasture 2 19) and pasture 5, ~ areas, 1915 to 1919, inclusive. and comparison of grazed ranges with protected Outside range.—| Pasture 2— Pasture 5— Range heavily | Range grazed | Reduced grazing Protected grazed yearlong | yearlong with- | during growing | Percentage of forage on areas—Range | until1918; very | out overgrazing,| seasonsince grazed range as com- protected from light grazing but no reduc- 1915 but fully pared to _ protected grazing yearlong.| during growing | tionin grazing | utilized during range each year. seasonin 1918 | during growing | the rest of the and 1919. season after 1915. year. Year. | Amount Amount Amount Amount| of grass,| Per- |ofgrass,| Per- |ofgrass,| Per- | ofgrass,| Per- square | centage} square | centage} square |centage| square | centage A centi- of .| centi- of centi- of | -centi- Gut a Bee. meters | maxi- | meters | maxi- | meters | maxi-} meters | maxi-| "70, oy ioe per mum per mum per mum per mum Be. : : square | year. | square | year. | square | year. | square | year. meter. meter. meter. meter. 1915 eee 511 87.6 232 99. 6 553 | 100.0 326 71.2 45.4 | 108.2 63.8 LOIG Re 583 100. 0 233 100. 0 421 76. 1 405 88. 4 39.9 72. 2 | 69.4 ii See 537 92.1 183 78.5 269 48.6 444 96. 9 34.0 50.0 | 82.6 LOTS eee 511 87.6 90 38. 6 177 32.0 458 | 100.0 17.6 34. 6 | 89.6 OLS S as 347 59.5 94 40.3 165 29.8 343 74.8 27.0 47.5 | 98. 8 | Pasture 2 showed steady depreciation from its maximum stand in 1915 to 32 per cent of this stand in 1918 and 29.8 per cent in 1919. As compared with the amount of forage on the protected areas the pasture was 27.8 per cent lower in 1916, 50 per cent in 1917, and 65.4 per cent in 1918. Granting that the figures for the protected- area curve are too high for 1917 and 1918, because of difficulty in determining the amount of dead grass, as explained on page 20, and that the 1919 curve point more nearly represents the depreciation due to the drought factor, there is still a difference of 52.4 per cent in favor of the protected areas as compared with pasture 2 range. The greater loss in pasture 2 is attributed primarily to the heavy grazing during the main growing season in 1916-17 and in 1918, and approximately full stocking the rest of the year, as shown in Table 8. The soil in pasture 2 is not as compact as that in the protected areas or in pasture 5, and consequently dried out more quickly. In addi- tion, the area was slightly overgrazed in 1917, but this slight over- 30 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. grazing and difference in soil could hardly account for more than a small amount of the difference in depletion had the area not been grazed, or had grazing been greatly reduced during July, August, and September. The low point of the pasture 2 curve in 1918 and 1919 as compared with the curve for similar range protected from grazing would indicate that the lack of available moisture for the existing stand of vegetation was not a prime factor in depreciation had the area not been heavily grazed during the growing season. This view seems warranted from the further facts brought out in the study of changes in the outside range when given protection during the growing seasons of 1918 and 1919, and because pasture 2 itself showed marked improvement under hght grazing during the grow- ing seasons of 1913 to 1915, inclusive. Table 9 and figure 7 show that the stand of geod grass forage in pasture 5 continued to increase up to 1918, when it reached its maxi- mum for the period, but dropped 25.2 per cent in 1919 and showed practically the same amount of forage per unit of area as the pro- tected areas at that time. Although these results differ from those on other areas under study, they appear warranted when all facts are considered. Soil conditions are slightly more favorable in this pasture than for the average grama-grass type, and the area received a few more light showers and slightly greater total rainfall than the average for the type in 1916 and 1918. In addition, the poor condi- tion of the pasture in 1915 made availabie much opportunity for improvement. These advantages, combined with reduction in graz- ing during the main growing season, especially the latter, are thought to account for the steady increase up to 1918. Plate II compares the results of heavy yearlong grazing with reduction of grazing during the growing season. ' The drop in condition in 1919 is partly explained by the average overgrazing during 1918, but was probably due more to the fact that the density of the vegetation had reached a point where it was greater than the available moisture would support and, consequently many of the young plants died late in 1918 and early in 1919 before the rainy season began. The study shows that the stand of good forage grass in pasture 5 at all times during the period was less than on the range totally protected against grazing. It is apparent, therefore, that except for the effect of grazing the pasture would support the increase in vegetation shown. The drop from 1918 to 1919 is consist- ent with the depletion on the area under protection and indicated that both of these areas had deteriorated to about the maximum stand that available moisture of 1918 would support. The lack of improvement in 1919, which was a wet year, on these two areas indi- cated further that abundant moisture alone is not sufficient for improvement after drought; at least one good year following drought RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 31 is necessary for the grama grass to recuperate in strength sufficiently to set about any material increase in density on ranges that have been maintained as high as available moisture would support dur- ing drought. OVERSTOCKING. That depreciation of the range will result from overstocking under any system of use is obvious, and too much emphasis can not be given to necessity for care, first in adjusting grazing use so as to give the main forage plants as much chance to grow as possible. consistent with good management of the stock, and then to avoid putting more stock on any area than it will carry under the plan of use decided upon. The occurrence on the outside range (Table 9 and fig. 7) illus- trates what may happen to a grama-grass range where care is not exercised. The only system of use possible on this area up to 1918 was yearlong grazing. No real effort was made properly to limit the number of stock to what the range would carry, and as a con- sequence, the range was only 45 per cent of what it should have been in 1915. Asa result of the continued overgrazing it had depreciated to 17 per cent of what it should have been in 1918, near the end of the drought. As a direct consequence losses of live stock were ex- cessive and the calf crop was greatly reduced. Furthermore, many of the more valuable forage plants were replaced by less valuable or worthless ones. The condition of pasture 5 of the Jornada Range Reserve in 1915 showed also the results of overgrazing. Grazing for the year ended June 30, 1916, was considered 25 per cent too heavy, and indications were that the area had been overstocked previous to June, 1915. As a consequence the range in this pasture in 1915 was 41 per cent poorer in density of stand than that of pasture 2 adjoining, where both seasonal and annual grazing were more nearly correct. Depreciation in pasture 2 of the reserve during the period 1917 to 1919, as shown in figure 7, is greater than is warranted even in time of drought. This depreciation most probably could have been reduced by lighter stocking during the main growing season with- out materially lowering the average for the year. Since this was difficult to arrange because of shortage of forage elsewhere, the aver- age for the year should have been lower, or at least provision should have been made for the necessary reduction in stocking during another drought. Indications of overgrazing—Without careful records of grazing and range conditions covering a long period of years it is difficult to decide exactly the maximum stocking which will probably be possi- ble without range depreciation. The result is likely to be slight 32 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. understocking with some loss of forage, or overstocking and conse- quent injury to the range. Although it would be far better and cause less loss of forage in the long run to understock slightly each year, the tendency in the past has been toward overstocking. Until the proper rate of stocking has been determined, however, careful observation of range and stock should make possible the detection of deterioration in time to provide for recuperation in a few seasons. Overgrazing on grama-grass range in the Southwest may be recog- nized to some extent in its first year by observations of the degree of cropping of the grass. Ordinarily grama grass should not be cropped closer in any year than will leave the lower joints of a few grass stalks on each tuft. This will provide a means of revegetation under favorable conditions the next year. Black grama grass reproduces mainly by stolons. A number of the mature flower-stalks of each plant bend to the ground, sending forth a crown of leaves at each node or “joint” which takes root when it strikes the soil. Eventually as the little plants become es- tablished the connecting part dies and an independent plant is thus formed. If the grass is grazed so closely that no nodes are left there is no opportunity to revegetate by this method. In loose soil overstocking results in the trampling and loosening of the surface soil so that the roots of the grasses are exposed and wind erosion begins. If the stock grazing an area fall off in con- dition faster than other causes warrant, overstocking is no doubt occurring. Following the first year of overgrazing unpalatable annual grasses and weeds and short-lived perennial plants usually increase along with a reduction in number of leaves and height of the grass and in the number of flowering stalks and stolons. These secondary species increase with continued overgrazing and deterioration of the range until they are the only vegetation present. ‘This is the case within a radius of one-half mile around some stock-watering places in the Southwest. The main plants indicating the first stages of deteriora- tion in the grama-grass range of southern New Mexico are such annuals and short-lived perennial plants as tall eriogonum, sixweeeks grasses, spectacle-pod, whitestem, and yellow caltrops. The best indicators of later stages of deterioration are dropseed grasses, leatherweed, silvery nightshade, and yellowbush, followed by snakeweed, and finally the mesquite-sandhill type if overgrazing and wind erosion is allowed to continue too long. Where overgrazing has reached the stage where mesquite sandhills are being formed it will be difficult to restore the range. Effort should be made to detect the breaking down of the range much earlier, or as soon as the annuals and short-lived perennials begin to increase and the good grasses to decrease. Figures 1 and 2, Bul. 1031, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. F-46456-A Fic. |.—SNAKEWEED IS ONE OF THE Most COMMON PLANTS FIRST TO ““TAKE THE RANGE’? WHEN OVERGRAZING OCCURS TO THE EXTENT THAT THE BETTER FORAGE GRASSES ARE KILLED OUT. F-38571-A FIG. 2.—THE ULTIMATE RESULT OF INJUDICIOUS GRAZING MAY BE A TRANS- FORMATION OF A GRAMA-GRASS RANGE TO THE MESQUITE-SAND-HILL TYPE. BREAKING DOWN OF THE RANGE SHOULD BE DETECTED LONG BEFORE THIS STAGE AND STEPS TAKEN TO REPAIR IT. Bul.1031, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATESINV. F-35175-A Fic. I.—A BADLY CONGESTED WATERING PLACE ON THE OPEN RANGE WHERE THE DISTANCE BETWEEN WATERING PLACES IS 7 TO [2 MILES. The result of great distances between waters is overgrazing and killing out of the best forage near water, with under-utilization beyond a distance of 4 miles on level range. F-48713-A FIG. 2.—WHEN WATERING PLACES ARE NOT MORE THAN 5 MILES APART ON LEVEL RANGE AND THERE IS NO OVERSTOCKING, STOCK SECURE EVEN UTILIZATION OF THE RANGE AND THE VEGETATION EXTENDS ALMOST UP TO THE WATER. Contrast with fig. 1 where there is very little good forage within a mile of water. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. oo Plate III, illustrate the successive stages of the effects of over- grazing. FORAGE PRODUCTION CONCLUSIONS. Conclusions from the forage-production data obtained thus far may have to be changed when data from observations through an- other drought period are available. These tentative conclusions point the way, however, toward certain essentials in determining the grazing capacity of the range and are a basis for adjusting graz- ing management and use preparatory to the next drought. The main points indicated by the study so far are: (1) Grama-grass range similar to that on the Jornada Range Re- serve begins to die out the second year of drought, and when a drought lasts three years the stand of forage on ungrazed range may be reduced as much as 40 per cent. The volume of forage produced per unit of area is further reduced by decreased height growth and foliage production during dry years. The vigor of the grass is affected to such an extent that at least one good year following drought is necessary before the range will begin to improve in density. In the case of tobosa-grass range there is less dying out of the grass, amounting to only 30 per cent in the third year of drought, but the volume of forage produced per unit of area is affected more directly by the amount of moisture received. The actual reduction in the amount of forage produced at the worst of the drought, tak- ing into consideration both reduction in density and reduction in foliage production is about 50 per cent of the amount produced in good years on both grama-grass and tobosa-grass range. (2) The depreciation of grama-grass range is greater as over- grazing increases and especially under too heavy grazing during the main growing months—July, August, and September. If grazing on it is reduced approximately one-half the year-long rate during July, August, and September, and if it is not too heavy the rest of the year, grazed range may be maintained in about the same condition as ungrazed and run-down range may improve to approximately the same condition. Apparently tobosa-grass range may be grazed heav- ily during the growing season, whether or not there is drought, with- out affecting it materially. (3) Overgrazing a range results in a decrease in the best forage species on the range and their replacement by plant species of less forage value. (4) In time of drought so great a reduction as 50 per cent of the volume of forage produced in more nearly average years may be ex- pected and should be prepared for. Grazing should be reduced on grama-grass range during the main growing season, July, August, 74514°—22—Bull. 1031——3 34 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and September, but grazing at that time does not seem to affect tobosa-grass range, so that the latter should be used for summer range and the former at other times. Should grama-grass range be overgrazed this fact may be detected by the various plant species that come in on the range and steps should be taken to reduce graz- ing and protect the range during the growing season. GRAZING CAPACITY. The effect of drought and time of grazing upon the grazing capac- ity of the range is of prime importance in working out a plan of management to secure maximum maintained cattle production on southwestern ranges. The summary given in the last few pages shows that there is a great reduction in amount of forage produced — per unit of area due to drought and considerable variation due to difference in the time and extent to which the grama-grass range is grazed. The data show also that the reduction increases with each year of drought. Should the first few years following drought be favorable an increase in forage production toward the maximum will undoubtedly occur. To determine approximately what these changes mean in number of stock or percentage of stock, from year to year throughout a cycle including a drought and the good years following, is a problem that must be solved if similar conditions are to be prepared for in advance and the “ downs” of cattle production on ranges of the Southwest be reduced or eliminated. By grazing capacity is meant amount of grazing that may be se- cured per unit area. Usually this amount is expressed, however, in acreage per head of stock on any given range for the period the range is used. On most of the southern New Mexico ranges the stock are grazed yearlong. Grazing capacity is therefore expressed in terms of acres per head for the yearlong period, or, in other words, acreage required to furnish a year’s grazing for one animal, although graz- ing may be lighter than average during part of the year. True grazing capacity obviously is the acreage of a given range required to support one animal of a given class over a period of years without injury to the range. This ideal is difficult to attain on any range and is especially so on ranges of southern New Mexico, which are subject to the changes and variable factors briefly discussed in preceding pages. It is hoped, however, by careful records and adjustments over a period of years to approach the ideal closely enough to avoid unwarranted waste of forage through nonuse and certainly to avoid the serious overstocking common in the past. Im- provement in grade of stock and comparatively higher prices for better stock in thrifty condition will aid in approaching the ideal by making it profitable to insure proper care of the stock through RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 35 sufficient tange forage and supplemental feeding. Rapid advance- ment in this respect has already taken place in the past few years. Along with the records of change in vegetation under protection against grazing and undergrazing over the period 1915 to 1919, in- clusive, daily records have been kept of the animal days feed fur- nished by each of the pastures on the Jornada Range Reserve, and approximate figures by seasons for adjoining and nearby unfenced ranges have been obtained. YEARLONG OR WINTER RANGE. The main portion of the yearlong or winter range, consisting of the pure grama. grass, part of the mixed grass, the snakeweed, and the mesquite-sandhill types on the Jornada Range Reserve occurs in pastures 2,5,and 10. Carrying-capacity data for these pastures and for similar outside range grazed yearling (Tables 10, 11, 12, and 13) show the reduction in carrying capacity during drought and the effect of the time and degree of grazing. In the tables condition of the range, in each case, with the ex- ception of pasture 10, is compared with the protected areas for each year when such data were available, to eliminate approximately the factor of moisture and get at the influence of grazing alone in caus- ing range depreciation. TABLE 10.— Grazing capacity of pasture 2, 1913 to 1919. [Area of pasture, 34,545 acres.] Condition of range in per cent of condition on pro- tected area. Average | Estimated | Estimated s acres percent of| grazing Period, July 1 to June 30. per head | available | capacity per year forage in acres, (365 days).| utilized. | per head. TOG Ae ope sc do dobo aa godeuovecaddebos Cop bbeEeeoanepebee 26. 6 100 2656) ees eee IMME coco bdeeeddobbedeenudeauosoedets doubbobecrseeee 47.0 57 20, 0) reheat IRV GANG. ec one sob edgotmaasoae nsesda 76 dee soaaocecuse ees 33.1 80 26. 5 108. 0 IGNGN ceo ea ckdeoaddoce $8eGsbede Bee Le aes cabs SbENESaESdoee 43.9 90 39. 5 72. 2 TOO SUE oe oe SAMO Ab Se eoes COOH EEOCCOGORE HE Ba ME HEE SHEE 42.6 1125 53. 2 50. 0 Iie). Soc osookes po eHeRue Hoek oHeSbedosousadepeoceseae 93. 6 90 81. 2 34. 6 MOTOS 20 E Sees Me ree Ce UNS NS ara ae Se ee Neb ee ie pk ea 47.5 1 80,900 pounds of cottonseed-cake fed in this pasture during the spring of 1918, which increased utiliza- tion 25 per cent. TABLE 11.—Grazing capacity of pasture 5, 1915 to 1919. [Area of pasture, 2,815 acres.] Average | Estimated | Estimated Gonditions acres | percent of| grazing oe ae t of Period, July 1 to June 30. per head | available | capacity e Beaton per year forage in acres Rane | (865 days).| utilized. | per head. D | tected area. ee Se SS SEAS RIs ABEL E LSC Se ieTes orth is cea ee Se 23.1 125 28.1 63. 8 TS ZA Foe ee A a ye IR Dec A | 36. 0 100 36. 0 | 69. 5 ONT US Ser ert ora) re inl lati ees ma abana cf ie oe 35. 2 100 30. 2 82. 7 LG ea ME at pe al ee Ss a a fe ee ae 2 a 22.3 | 125 27.9 89.6 TORT we eA OB GOb SRE ROOM abe Eee cis GABA ESA i cl Gelert lee Bias eu Ee OH ent oS Saaraéoeodisr 98. 8 36 TABLE 12.—Grazing capacity of pasture 10, 1915 to 1919. [Area of pasture, 4,805 acres.] BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average | Estimated | Estimated Condition acres |percentof| grazing | 0 Tans’ oe Period, July 1 to June 30. per head | available | capacity | P& iti 9 per year forage in pores ten Beet (365 days). | utilized. per head. nectedtareas HOUR S16 be iete a lease ns iacteen sete 2 ae se ciccaceeaeae as 32.5 85 ZION eee see. LOT GHD ie serserse Gemnd cans Sopa step ode one Seine oa neebel Qeoee 43. 2 90 395 0 ee DOV 1B ee ode ati cecil des oS asec Sets are See eee i a 20.1 1183 Blbitshl ese sooleoeee LOTS 1 Qe 2 Serie tes A Res OOM RS AR em ene coe guts Sen 33.5 100 2 3855u| Uaae omen Ee 164,500 pounds of cottonseed cake were fed in this pasture during winter and spring of 1918, which in- creased utilization 83 per cent. 2 Mostly short-age yearlings in the pasture. TABLE 13.—EHstimated grazing capacity of outside range, 1914 to 1919. Average | Estimated | Estimated Condition acres |percentof| grazing | 2° spon ot Period, July 1 to June 30. per head | available | capacity | P&€ dition per year forage in acres, on nae (365 days).| utilized. | per head. tected. enn pL) I: Os ecco Se 26.3 125 S249) [Fa e See, ON SIG oes ecient eee te Merton ees isms cecrstare ihre aieterms eis ayers 26. 3 125 32.9 45. 4 NOU GT foe he ee ih Ge A ie See 10 hd oe paul ra ales ye 32.8 125 41.0 40.0 MOLT Se oe eete a et nae yet Sital se spyaemetere chee cee es 81.1 125 101. 4 34.2 TAY RoI? oe teach Sa Ware Be Sale gee Sk es i tee aS ee oR ee ee ae 8.5 100 98.5 17.6 OL GR 20 Sate Se ie teen Mee sina cS etein stele aes seeiae stciee all erateee = © a clalaiai ere terateiets eiereicre | cremate teeters 27.1 A comparison of these tables shows that estimated carrying ca- pacity of the four areas was approximately the same for the annual period ending June 30, 1916. Pastures 2 and 10, with an average of 27 acres per head per year, were probably at their maximum aver- age carrying capacity in 1915-16, having had the opportunity to reach this condition through very light grazing during the grow- ing period for several seasons previous. Pasture 5 and the outside range were slightly below their maximum on account of overstock- ing yearlong with no opportunity for recuperation during the growing season for several years previous. Table 10 shows that the average grazing for each year in pasture 2 exceeded the estimated grazing capacity for the respective year only in 1918, and that the excess in 1918 was due mainly to the feeding of 80,900 pounds of cottonseed cake to stock in the pasture. It is prob- able that the average grazing for the year was slightly in excess of the amount of forage. This slight excess, however, does not account for the depreciation of pasture 2 from 108 per cent of the pro- tected areas in 1915-16 to 34.6 per cent of the same protected areas in 1918-19. As pointed out in the last chapter this seemingly un- warranted depreciation was attributed primarily to the failure to reduce grazing during the growing season, July to October. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 37 Table 11 shows that, although pasture 5 was grazed more heavily on an average each year than pasture 2, the range improved in pro- duction of the main forage grasses and increased slightly in carrying capacity each year after 1916-17. The pasture was considered over- stocked only in 1915-16 and 1918-19, and stocked about right the other years. Although heavily stocked the pasture held up well, probably as a result of reduction in grazing during the main grow- ing season. Comparison of pastures 2 and 5 indicates that it was not overgrazing but heavy grazing during the growing season that was responsible for deterioration of pasture 2, and that the pasture would have sustained as an average for each year the number of stock actually grazed if grazing during the growing season had been more judicious. Pasture 10 (Table 12) agrees rather closely with pasture 5 in esti- mated grazing capacity for the period. The actual difference was perhaps a little greater than shown in the tables in favor of pasture 5, as the drought was more severe in pasture 10 and in 1918 mainly short-age yearlings were grazed in the pasture, this class of animals requiring less range per head than cows. As in pasture 5, the prime factor in keeping this pasture up in carrying capacity was reduction in grazing during the main growing season. Table 13 shows that the average grazing on the outside range ex- ceeded the estimated grazing capacity each year with the exception of 1918-19, and that, except in 1918-19, the grazing capacity as well as the condition of the outside range in comparison with the pro- tected areas continued to decline up to 1919-20. The overgrazing during the whole year no doubt contributed a great deal to the de- cline in productivity of the range, but the overgrazing during the growing season, as brought out in the last chapter, was mainly responsible for the heavy reduction in the condition of the forage and grazing capacity. The slight increase in the grazing capacity in 1918-19 and the improvement in condition of the range in 1919-20 is largely due to the reduction in number of stock to more nearly what it should be, and hight grazing during the main growing sea- sons of 1918 and 1919. The information obtained on yearlong winter range to date indicates that, while decreased grazing capacity will result during drought, the reduction may not be greater than the amount due to drought alone if the range is correctly managed. The main con- sideration is to handle the range so that grazing will be light over as much of this class of range as possible during the main growing season—July to October. Without this provision the range will deteriorate faster during time of drought, varying with the time and intensity of grazing. ~ Zé BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The estimated grazing-capacity figures in Tables 10, 11, and 12 are computed from careful observations and estimates in each pasture by years on the basis of rather full use of available forage each year without knowledge or special consideration of what conditions would be the succeeding year. This method was followed because there was hittle chance for change except to increase supplemental feeding while the drought was on, and it was desired to have a close estimate of total grazing capacity by individual years as a basis for the pro- gressive adjustments for a similar period in the future. While the stock on the reserve was carried over the drought with a maximum annual loss of 3.5 per cent as compared with a maximum annual loss of about 35 per cent for the surrounding country, without more feéd- ing than will probably be profitable during another similar period, and without injury to the range other than caused by drought alone, except in pasture 2, the experience during 1916 to 1919 warrants a greater margin of safety even than would be provided by the esti- mated grazing-capacity figures given. This conclusion seems war- ranted considering the great worry and strenuous effort to prevent losses, the rather large reduction in calf crop, and the lack of satis- factory growth of young animals, especially during 1917 and 1918. Had the drought continued another six months the expense of feed- ing would probably have been almost prohibitive. RATE OF STOCKING TO PROVIDE FOR DROUGHT. r Using as a basis the amount of forage produced on the protected areas during the drought, the results in maintaining the condition of the forage comparable to the protected areas in pastures 5 and 10 under the system of grazing used there, and the difficulties encoun- tered in carrying the stock through the drought on the reserve, it is possible to decide upon a guide for the proper rate of stocking during drought in future. Considering 1915-16 as about the maximum average condition which can be expected for the yearlong or winter range of the re- serve, or for similar range, the maximum stocking should not exceed the estimated average required per head in pastures 2 and 10 in 1915-16, or an average of 27 acres per cow for yearlong grazing, and should only be this heavy when it can be controlled so as to reduce grazing 30 to 50 per cent from average during the growing season—July to September, inclusive. The forage produced in 1916-17, the first years of drought, as shown by the protected areas, would not necessitate much reduction in grazing that year; but with the prospects of further dry years to follow, it is considered best to reduce grazing about 15 per cent the first year of drought and save the surplus grass for succeeding years. A summary of the estimated RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 839 carrying capacity of pastures 5 and 10 in 1917-18, the second year of drought, as given in Tables 11 and 12 shows an estimated reduc- tion of about 35 per cent from maximum in an average year. From the difficulties encountered in 1917-18, however, it is believed that 100 _ewz : oe ce Ly © eeaieye 00! ba : -—+- LEGEND : —— lensity of forage on protected plots 4 in percent of maximus. | Carrying capacity in percent of J is Maxinius, | IWS 191 6 1917 12 13 IWF Fig. 8.—Estimated carrying capacity of grama-grass range in time of drought. during the second year of drought there should be a reduction in noaaleat of stock grazed of at least 40 per cent from maximum esti- mated grazing capacity and a further reduction of 10 per cent in the third year. 40 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The basis decided upon as a guide on the reserve in the future dur- ing drought, therefore, is shown in Table 14. TaBLeE 14.—Rate of stocking recommended for grama-grass range, Jornada Range Reserve, during period of drought as compared with maaimum graz- ing capacity. Rate of Rate of stocking in | stocking in ° acres per | per cent o Period. head for | maximum 365 days’ grazing grazing. capacity. Wear before Groughtes 224 ees aie aii) ice eae NS ZY SEINE ACE UE NS Ay ra ese a ave any oh 27.0 100.0 HITSE VeaLOLarough ts,-W sect ee sens cre Stic spre a toe cmecictletise a seen eRe eee 32.2 85.0 HECOUGL yea OTGTOURLE wre et cee coe nce cle ee fee a ane Net rea ane ae ee| 45.7 60.0 Rhirdsyear. Of Grout wake jel stacee a bss ccc ern eee enter ois tesa ee SOR ne ee bere 54.0 50.0 H OULD Year OL Grou ihs fee es A ee Ne a ile «Basen seein el | 54.0 50.0 | 1 This estimate is for the drought of 1916-1919. Should drought continue throughout the fourth year or longer, a greater reduction would be necessary depending upon existing conditions’ Intensity of grazing on this basis is shown in comparison with the changes in condition of representative grama-grass range pro- tected against grazing prior to and throughout the drought which ended in 1919. In connection with figure 5, page 21, the probability of this curve (density of vegetation) being too high for 1917 and 1918 was pointed out. The points for 1915 and 1919, however, can be relied upon. Figure 8 shows a more rapid and greater total re- duction in proposed intensity of grazing than in depreciation of range due to drought alone. The difference should make possible the maintenance of the range somewhere near the condition of pro- tected areas. Just what further reduction in stock would be neces- sary in case of prolonged drought is problematical. It is hoped, however, that a maximum reduction of about 50 per cent and supple- mental feeding will take care of the stock during droughts which may occur in the future on the range reserve. SUMMER RANGE. Tables 15 and 16 show grazing capacity data for pastures 13 and 1, respectively. Pasture 13 is the most nearly representative of the range suitable. primarily for summer grazing, but was not so badly affected by drought, receiving more rainfall than any other part of the reserve. Pasture 1 was representative as to drought, although there is a large area of mesquite-sandhill and grama-grass types in addition to the summer range. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 41 TABLE 15.—Rate of stocking and estimated carrying capacity, Pasture 18, 1915 to 1919. [Area of pasture 17,001 acres. ] Estimated sever ane Estimated | grazing Period, July 1 to June 30. head for Bet cont of| capacity 365 days’ y age acres per piie utilized. jhead for 365 gr =i? days. 1915-16... 42.3 100 42.3 1916-17... 64.5 80 51.6 1917-18. 65.1 90 58.6 TTS TI a its Si eel SS RED aU Re LP DS a A 114.4 50 57.2 TABLE 16.—Rate of stocking and estimated grazing capacity of Pasture 1, 1915 to 1919. [Area 74,714 acres. ] Estimated geet nae Estimated | grazing Period, July 1 to June 30. head for a con a papery 365 days’ orage acres per opin utilized. {head for 365 8 8 days. 1915-16...... 48.6 100 48.6 1916-17... 48.2 100 48.2 1917-18... 85.3 100 85.3 MOUS. aE a ea a hike Se bens RN eas a Si ise ic eke gs AM 71.3 80 57.0 These tables show that the carrying capacity of the summer range has varied from 42.3 acres per head in good years to 85.3 acres per head in time of drought, a reduction of 50 per cent. Extent of graz- ing during the growing season does not affect this type materially, although the amount of forage produced and consequently grazing capacity are greatly influenced by precipitation. If the 1916-18 dry period is a fair measure of the possible severity of drought, and it probably is, the number of stock dependent on such range for sum- mer grazing should be reduced approximately 50 per cent in the third dry year, with some reductions necessary the first and second years. This corresponds to the reductions recommended for the grama-grass range. It is believed that the reduction in stock during drought, as proposed in Table 14, will apply to both the erama-grass and tobosa-grass range and therefore to the Jornada Range Reserve as a unit or to other range units under similar man- agement in southern New Mexico. ADJUSTMENTS. NECESSARY IN CATTLE MANAGEMENT. The great reduction in the volume of forage produced during drought and its effect on the grazing capacity or percentage of stock erazed, and the impracticability of extensive feeding to meet the de- 42 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mands of such a situation, make it seem obvious that the character and extent of livestock production in the section where these condi- tions prevail should be carefully adjusted to the supply of range forage as the primary source of feed. This is at least so until such time as agricultural development and economic conditions change in a way to supply other feeds in amount and at a price compared with the value of stock which make extensive feeding profitable. The number of stock grazed must either be confined at all times to the number that the range will carry over periods of drought, or pro- vision be made to reduce the number of stock when drought begins and increase them again with the improvement of range following drought. To limit the number of stock in good years to the number that can be carried over in drought would entail the loss of a great amount of forage, amounting in good years to as much as 50 per cent or more of the carrying capacity in normal years. The situation calls for an adjustment in the business that will permit obtaining the maximum use of the forage produced in good years, but at the same time will permit orderly reduction in the number of stock in time of drought without loss. : Using as a basis the data on the volume of range forage which may reasonably be expected annually over a period of years including a drought and the effect of this variation upon grazing capacity or percentage of stock grazed each year, as arrived at in the preceding chapters, it remains to decide upon the class of stock and their num- bers and management annually and for a period of years including a drought. SOUTHERN NEW MEXICO A CATTLE-BREEDING SECTION. All stockmen may not agree that the ranges of southern New Mexico are essentially a cattle-breeding ground. The facts, however, appear to warrant this statement. One alternative would be to ob- tain steers at an early age and grow them to 2, 3, or 4 years of age for shipment to northern and middle western pastures and feed lots to be finished for beef. The difficulty of this practice is to obtain the steers. In times past large numbers were obtained from Mexico. As a future practice this has but doubtful possibilities, since it will be some time before Mexico has any certain surplus of steers for export. The best permanent interests of the section will be served by de- veloping the industry to produce calves and steers and surplus cows, at least as long as present conditions prevail. In working out live- stock production on this basis obviously the foundation is the breed- ing herd, with variation in the number and ages of steers to conform to variation in supply of range forage and market conditions. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 43 BREEDING HERD SHOULD BE LIMITED TO GRAZING CAPACITY OF THE RANGE : DURING DROUGHT. The tendency has been to increase the breeding herd during good years to the limit of range capacity and in many instances beyond this hmit. When drought came on, anything for which there was a market was sold, and thus years of effort in improving the herd were lost, at least in part, while losses from starvation were excessive. The increasing cost of producing the individual animal and the growing importance of improving the average grade of stock, to meet the demand from the feed lots, both argue against continuation of this old practice. The alternative is to limit the breeding stock to the number that can be taken care of during periods of drought. BREEDING HERD ON THE JORNADA RANGE RESERVE. In attacking this problem on the Jornada Range Reserve the original plan was to keep two-thirds of the normal grazing capacity of the entire range for breeding cows, young heifers to replace culls from the breeding herd, bulls, saddle horses, and a few brood mares. Table 17 shows the number of these classes of stock carried each year through the period 1915 to 1919, including a drought, the per- centage of the range used for each class of stock, and the amount of forage crop produced each year in percentage of the 1915-16 crop, which is considered about maximum for the reserve. TABLE 17.—Number by classes of stock making up permanent herd on Jornada Range Reserve, each class in percentage of total grazing capacity of the reserve in 1915-16, and estimated forage production in terms of 1915-16 crop. e Hille Heller 1 year ows of calving old and up not RM ctin eet Bulls. setalacedtir Horses. net A breeding herd. Total | forage in per-| “Gro cent- aa age of |Produc- ican Per- Per- Per- Per- total on, : cent- cent- cent- cent |) (2c. || RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 51 division of winter and summer range by fencing for the 500-head herd. Future plans provide for the division of this pasture into summer and winter range. The benefits to the stock of this system of dividing the range and grazing it have been to carry them through the spring in much better condition and with less loss than on un- controlled range, and it has had a desirable influence on the calf crop. Where a range is not under control and is used yearlong, stock naturally graze the range more closely within the first mile or two of water first. Then later on, during winter and spring when the stock was poorest, they have to travel farthest from feed to water, this condition has often contributed to the heavy losses from star- vation in the Southwest, especially where the distance between watering places is over 5 miles. This was largely overcome on the Jornada reserve by having a supply of fresh forage available near water for use by stock during the critical part of the year. Handling the cattle so that the more needy cows were placed on the winter range first gave them the further advantage of not having to com- pete with stronger stock. The latter were then left on the summer range until later to utilize completely any forage that still re- mained. The small winter-range pastures were held in reserve for use later in the spring by the most needy cows, especially cows to ealve. Confining the breeding herd to less range during the main breeding season facilitates distribution of bulls among the cows, which is an important factor in increasing the calf crop. As is later pointed out, this has had material influence in securing lerger calf crops in the special herd on the Jornada Range Reserve. The principle is equally applicable on ranges where there is less pure summer range in proportion to the amount of winter or year- long range available. Should a unit have a considerable amount of purely summer range but not enough to carry all the stock during the season, grazing may be planned so that such range may be fully used during the summer season and thereby reduce grazing on the winter range sufficiently to allow the 30 to 50 per cent decrease in stocking during the growing season for part of the winter or year- long range each year. Following complete use of the summer range the stock should all be shifted to the yearlong range, with a suffi- cient amount held in reserve. for use by needy stock during winter and spring. On a range unit that is all pure grama-grass or similar winter or yearlong range, the desired purpose may be obtained by use of the deferred and rotation system of grazing. Under this system the range is divided into three or more parts and grazing reduced at least 30 to 50 per cent of the yearlong rate during the growing season on one or more parts for two years in succession, or until the area 52 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. has had ample opportunity to recover to its proper stand of forage. As soon as one portion has been built up the same treatment should be given another part of the range and the process rotated so that the entire range will receive the benefits of the treatment every few years. Since part of the range is being more heavily grazed than the yearlong rate during the growing season, however, care should be exercised to see that this part is not injured before it receives an opportunity to be protected during the growing season. DISTRIBUTION OF STOCK ON THE RANGE. Full and even utilization of the forage, more especially on the larger subdivisions or units of range, is an important factor if best results are to be expected from a system of range management. On the Jornada Range Reserve, besides proper number and distribution of watering places, it has been found that other measures are very often necessary to secure the best results. When cattle are shifted from one part of a range to another there is a natural tendency for them to drift back toward their former range. Cattle are often slow to drift from the vicinity of water where grazing is quite close to another part of the pasture or range where there is more feed. Fenc- ing in such instances may not be economical, but proper salting and range riding have been found of material benefit. Distribution of water for stock.—Proper number and distribution of watering places are essential to avoid overstocking around water and secure full utilization of an entire range. It was pointed out” that permanent watering places on the plains and mesa range of the Southwest should not be more than 5 miles apart wherever the carrying capacity of the range and the cost of water development will warrant. As the distance increases beyond 5 miles there will be rapid increase in local overgrazing near the water and in uneven utilization beyond 214 miles from water, with poorer condition and heavier losses among stock. Plate IV, figures 1 and 2, shows the effects of too great distances between waterings on the range and of proper distances. It was also pointed out** that one permanent watering place to each 500 head of cattle is justified, and that where the conditions are favorable tanks should be constructed to catch flood waters to sup- plement the permanent watering places. Such tanks are of necessity limited to areas of suitable drainage, no tanks being possible on flat areas or those with extremely sandy soil. The southwest portion of the plains area of the Jornada reserve is well suited to tanking, and 14 surface tanks have been constructed to supplement the five perma- 13 Department of Agriculture Bulletin 588. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 53 nent waters on this part of the reserve. These tanks aid materially in securing the use of more green feed and in making it possible to relieve the range near the permanent waters a portion of each year. Riding and salting.—The economical limits of water distribution at best will be such that there may be considerable overstocking and consequent range depreciation around water. This can be materially reduced by handling the stock to get better distribution than will naturally result when cattle are allowed to follow their own inclina- tions. The practice found most effective on the Jornada Range Reserve in getting better distribution of the stock when first moved to fresh range has been to divide the herd into small bunches and place each bunch at a different water. If all were turned loose at a single water they would be slow in working out to the other waters, and over- grazing of a portion of the range would result. Salting is one of the most effective means of attracting stock to a range, and, if sufficiently salted, stock will be less likely to drift away. Stock should have all the salt they wish at all times and care should be exercised to see that the supply never becomes ex- hausted. Salting only at or near those watering places on the range where it is desired that stock should go, and refraining from salting at or adjacent to water around which the forage is already fully grazed or where there is overgrazing, will aid materially in proper distribu- tion of stock. Salting on areas away from water that for some rea- son or other cattle might not be using has been found effective in getting better use of such areas. There are times, however, when locating cattle in small bunches at the various waters and even proper salting will not prevent ex- cessive numbers of stock around a single water. This is often the case around home waters where stock are frequently worked or around waters where a large number of stock have become located. In such cases it may be necessary occasionally to close the water en- tirely until the stock have become accustomed to go elsewhere to drink. Riding after the cattle and keeping them turned back toward their proper range will also help in reducing the stocking on run- down range, and riding to see that no cattle suffer from lack of water is essential where a permanent water is temporarily closed up. IMPROVEMENTS NECESSARY TO MEET INCREASE IN COST OF CATTLE PRODUCTION. Stockmen of southern New Mexico and of other similar sections realize that increasing value of range and costs of feed, labor, and general supplies call for readjustment of production methods, espe- cially for greater assurance against heavy losses. Any change, how- 54 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ever, must bring increased benefits commensurate with or greater than the extra costs incident to the change. Such benefits may be in the form of greater stability with less hazard, which will improve the credit of the industry both as to obtaining of loans and rate of interest, or in the form of increased net returns on the total invest- ment over a period of years. The two will usually go together. The existing difficulty in obtaining long-time loans at low rate of interest on breeding stock is due in part to the uncertainty of drought and of heavy losses accompanying it. This makes difficult the hold- ing of stock until market conditions are right for the purchase of equipment and feed for proper care of the stock. Greater stability in the business will lead to the establishment of range live stock, and especially breeding stock, as better credit for securing of longer- time loans at a lower rate of interest. : The most direct and greatest benefits, however, must come from improving the grade of stock, increasing the average percentage of calves, reducing the loss in all classes of stock, and increasing the growth of young stock. Determining the possibilities of improve- ment along these lines has been an important feature of the investi- gations at the Jornada Range Reserve since 1915. A report of prog- ress was published in 1917.% Data are now available through a period of drought. IMPROVEMENT IN GRADE OF STOCK. The plan of investigation and demonstration in improving the gerade of stock provided for the selection and segregation of 500 of the best bred cows with Hereford characteristics, the improve- ment of the remainder of the herd by selling off-colored and poor- grade cows as rapidly as market conditions and natural increase in the breeding herd would warrant, and the purchase and use of pure- bred Hereford bulls. The purchase of pure-bred or better grade females was considered inadvisable. Twenty of the best bulls of each lot purchased were to be used with the selected 500 cows, to be replaced by better bulls as rapidly as additional purchases were made. THE SPECIAL HERD OF 500 HEAD, The special herd of 500 head was selected from the total of 1,950 cows of breeding age on the reserve during the summer of 1915. They were largely grade Herefords and generally showed the char- acteristics of the breed as indicated by the accompanying illustra- tions. (PI. VII, fig. 2.) The ages in this herd varied from 3-year- old heifers to cows 10 to 12 years old. After selection the cows 1% Jardine, James T., and Hurtt, L. C., Increased Cattle Production on Southwestern Ranges, U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 588, 1917. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 55 were branded with a special brand for the herd, dehorned, and placed in a separate pasture. Tn order to improve the grade of the herd as rapidly as possible the plan was to cull 10 to 15 per cent of the least desirable cows each year and replace them with good young heifers. Sixty-nine head were culled in the fall of 1917. These included a few cripples and two barren cows, while the rest were light-boned or otherwise lack- ing in desirable qualities or were past 11 years of age. They were replaced by an equal number of the best two and three year old heifers on the reserve, partly selected from the 1915 calf crop of this herd. It was thought best not to cull more heavily because of the possibility of decreasing the calf crop through introducing too many heifers. Sixty additional cows were culled in 1918, but no replacement was made at the time because of forage shortage and the prevalence of drought. THE MAIN HERD. After the selection of the 590 special cows, the remainder of the breeding herd consisted mainly of native or common stock and grades. (Pl. V, fig. 1.) No less than 600 head, however, were off-color and Mexico stock.17 Following the selection of the 500 head the main herd was worked over and 325 of the off-color and otherwise undesirable cows were cut out and marketed. In 1916, 101 head, and in 1917, 318 head of the least desirable cows were disposed of. These were replaced each year by 2-year-old heifers from the natural in- crease of the two herds. No culling was done in the fall of 1918 on account of interference with plans by an outbreak of scabies and the possible demand for breeding cows to restock ranges after the drought. Average culling for the three years 1915 to 1917, inclusive, was at. the rate of 12.6 head per hundred cows annually. By 1918, culling at this rate had resulted in marked improvement in grade and type of stock in the main breeding herd, aside from the improvement due to adding 2 and 3 year-old heifers. All the Mexico stock had been removed, as well as other off-colored, extremely light-boned, or otherwise undesirable cows. Approximately half of the herd con- sisted of white-faced stock, characteristically Hereford, the breed de- sired, and the rest were red and red-mottled-faced. 16“ Common” or “ native” stock, as here used, is applied to offspring whose parents were of very poor breeding and uncertain origin. In “grade’’ one of the parents was pure bred and the other common or native; or both parents were well bred, so that off- spring had over 50 per cent pure blood of a single breed. 17 “* Mexico stock,” the long-legged, long-faced, slim-bodied, various colored stock com- ing originally from Mexico and the onetime characteristic range animal for northern Mexico. 56 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Most of the bulls in the herd in 1910 were grade Hereford and Shorthorn, with a few pure-bred bulls. All of the Shorthorns were disposed of by 1914. After 1910 more registered Herefords and a few grades were purchased, and since 1915 none but registered Here- fords have been procured. A lot obtained in the fall of 1916 came from breeders in the Panhandle of Texas, but since that time all bulls for the reserve have been purchased from breeders in eastern and central Kansas. Effort has been made to buy slightly better bred bulls each year in order to continue improvement through bulls as well as in selection of cows. The best bulls in each lot have been used with the special 500 herd. Plate VI shows.a number of the bulls used in this herd in 1918. Twenty head from the first lot of 26 head purchased in Kansas were placed in the herd in 1917. In 1918 the best from a lot of 89 head were selected to replace the poorest ones in the 20 originally placed in the herd. Sixty-eight of the best bulls from a lot of 88 head pur- chased in 1919 were selected for use on the reserve during 1920, and the best of these will be used to replace a few of the poorest in the special herd. RESULTS OF THE SELECTION OF COWS AND USE OF GOOD BULLS. The results of the selection of breeding cows and the use of good bulls are shown in the offspring. Over 96 per cent of the calves from the special breeding herd since 1915 have had good Hereford color and markings and for the most part good backs, straight tops and underlines, and have shown good beef conformation in general. Yearlings and 2-year-old steers have sold for from $2.50 to $5 more per head than the average in that vicinity, partly on account of im- provement in grade, and fewer steers have been rejected by buyers because of poor grade or lack of uniformity. Plate VII, figures 1 and 2, shows the changes in type and grade of steers turned off the reserve following the improved breeding methods. The accompanying photograph of yearling heifers (Pl. VIII, fig. 2), most of which are offspring of the selected herd, shows the grade of animal that is being produced. These heifers at 15 to 16 months of age averaged 534 pounds in weight before watering and after they had been off of feed for 24 hours. They showed much heavier bone, deeper bodies, wider backs, better developed loin and hind quarters than the average of either original herd, and approached more nearly the class of stock desired by the feeder. RESELECTION OF HERDS IN 1919. The net results from the work in improving the breeding stock from 1915 to 1919, especially the results from the special herd of 500 head, were so encouraging that during the summer of 1919, Bul. 1031, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. F-22689-A Fic. |1.—AN AVERAGE LOT OF THE BREEDING HERD ON THE JORNADA RANGE RESERVE IN 1915 BEFORE SPECIAL EFFORT HAD BEEN MADE TO IMPROVE THE GRADE OF STOCK. The herd at that time was characterized by many light-boned and off-color cows. F-36761-A FIG. 2.—PART OF THE 500-HEAD HERD OF Cows SELECTED FROM THE MAIN HERD OF APPROXIMATELY 2,000 HEAD ON THE JORNADA RANGE RESERVE IN 1915 FOR SPECIAL BREEDING TESTS. PLATE VI. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1031, Bul. “ADNVY AHL NO AILLVOD 4O 3GVYH AHL ONIAOUdW| HOS SISsvq AHL 3YvV STING GOO “AAYASSY SONVY VGVNYOP AHL NO MOOLS 4O 3GVYH ADNVYSAY AHL SNIAOYdW| NI 3SM HOS GASVHOENd STING GYOsaYyaH V-GeLle-4 As, Disa eh Nc Ee Riper aa qgsyuq 3yund RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 57 following the drought, the cooperator, Mr. C. T. Turney, decided to make a careful selection of breeding stock for both herds. From a total of 3,458 head of breeding cows and excess yearlings and 2-year-old heifers which had accumulated, 1,750 of the best cows and heifers were selected as the total breeding herd for the reserve. Of these, 387 head 20 months old and up were selected for the special _ herd, and 95 head of the best yearling heifers for a special test in breeding. The 1,263 head remaining at that time constituted the main breeding herd. The cows and heifers for the special herd were selected with the object of securing the best individuals from the standpoint of breed- ing, conformation, and Hereford markings, regardless of whether they were offspring from the special 500 herd or the main herd of the reserve. The exact number of cows and heifers selected from the two herds for the new special herd was as follows: Cows retained from original 500 herd inclusive of re- placement SOS aD a Pe Oe JES I a 67 head=17.3 per cent Heifers, offspring from the 500 herd______ ce __ 174 head=45. 0 per cent Heifers, offspring from the main herd of approxi- mately 1,200 head_____ ny _--__________-__ 146 head=87.7 per cent The total heifer branding in the experimental herd during the years 1916 and 1917 was 354 head and in the main herd 836 head, so that 49.1 per cent of the calves from the former were selected, while only 17.4 per cent of the latter were chosen. This is approximately 3 to 1 in favor of the herd in which greatest effort had been made to improve the grade. At the same time 95 of the yearling heifers were selected for a special test. The best individuals were chosen regardless of the herd they originated in. Out of the 95 head, 69 were from the 200 heifers branded in the 500 herd in 1918. The remaining 26 head were from 302 heifers branded in the main herd in 1918. The ratio of selection is approximately 4 to 1 in favor of the offspring of the selected 500 COWS. In comparison with the original 500 special herd, the cows in the reorganized herd of 387 head are all as good or better grade individ- uals than the best of the former herd. The young cows show heavier bone, better development of loin and hindquarters, and greater beef conformation in general. Uniformity in grade and color is especially striking. The general herd of 1,263 head are all characteristically Hereford, comparing favorably with the original 500 herd. As compared to the original main herd, all indications of common blood have been eliminated, with a decided improvement in bone and beef conforma- tion. The greatest single mark of improvement is the elimination of 58 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. all off-color stock and the consequent striking uniformity of color and markings. It is planned to continue building up these two herds as rapidly as possible from the offspring to a total of approximately 2,000 head. The plan will be to replace the poorest individuals in both herds with the offspring from the special herd and the best offspring from the main herd, with minimum interference with the calf crop from the introduction of too many young cows in the breeding herd at any one time. INCREASING CALF CROP. Where live-stock production is managed primarily on a breeding basis, as recommended for southern New Mexico, the ratio of cows maintained over a period of years to calves produced to selling age is of the first importance. If the average calf crop is 50 per cent or less, as it frequently is in this locality, an increase of 5 calves from every 100 cows may mean a decrease of 10 per cent in the cost of producing the average calf to weaning age. Management require- ments of the stock on southwestern ranges, to avoid drought, warrant such effort as will most economically secure the greatest number of calves possible. In connection with a study of live-stock production in the 11 Western States during 1914, data relative to calf crop over a period of years were obtained from stockmen for all of the western States, including the Southwest."® Table 20 shows, by States, the average number of calves for each hundred cows, as well as the number of bulls for each 100 cows, as given by the schedules from stockmen. TABLE 20.—Average number of bulls for each 100 cows and average number of calves from each 100 cows. State. Bulls. | Calves. | State. Bulls. | Calves. PASTHZ, OME his teppei a | 6 57 Ne wy Me xi conn sn 6 eae yar 5 66 California se ee se ee esen( 3 CY I KO) REY Xa) Oe a ea I ei ae | 4.04 (ONCE Colorad ore ee eae 4.16 GORS Hil Uta oe a eis ie Oe eee 4 69 dah ores Asian war wi us tiene pee | 4 75 WiaShingtonsesenseseer esse cosas lame tee 79. 48 Moomba ae soe eis ee Oh SES ee 3. 44 Lone e| Way. OLNUN a)sey has eee eee none eee O2 73.2 INC Vie eee ie ee arate ed NG une eee ey EN ats Ion Hv The average calf crop for southern New Mexico over a period of years does not exceed 50 per cent. Table 21 gives the records of calf crop each year in southern New Mexico, estimated in connection with the investigations at the Jornada Range Reserve since 1916, and similar data for the whole 18 Barnes, Will C., and Jardine, James T., Livestock Production in the Eleven Far Western Range States, U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of the Secretary, Report No. 110, Part II, 1916. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 59 State since 1917, obtained from the Cattle Sanitary Board of New Mexico. TABLE 21.—Average number of calves for each 100 cows. Southern Year. New hele TOTG ec aaa a EoSa area ns | (esa Ae TAL Ty eee ees tes 35 133 TC Sea sts eed 25 30 LOG Seer Nae eee ae 35 25 Average.......... 37.5 | 29. 1 150 per cent of usual calf crop. The results obtained on the Jornada Range Reserve up to 1915 were no exception to the other ranges of New Mexico. The calf crop on the reserve in 1913 was approximately 48 calves per 100 cows; in 1914, 62; and in 1915, 52. The period 1913 to 1915 includes three good years, so that the average for the reserve prior to 1916, when a period of drought is included, did not, in all probability, reach above 50 calves per 100 cows. Breeding stock on Arizona and New Mexico ranges are, tor the most part, handled on the open range or in large pastures, making proper bull! service difficult. Little or no effort has been made in the past to care for stock during the winter and spring, and cows very often go into the breeding season in poor condition. In the other States breeding stock are handled in smaller herds, thus facilitating bull service. Breeding stock are fed during winter and early spring and go into the breeding season in good condition. These differences in methods of handling stock in the Southwest and in other States are, no doubt, largely responsible for the yearly average of 16 calves less per hundred cows in Arizona, 23 less for the southern part of New Mexico, and 7 less for the whole State than the average for the other nine States. CALF CROP ON THE JORNADA RANGE RESERVE SINCE 1915. Investigations into the possibility of increasing the calf crop have been an important feature of the studies at the Jornada Range Re- serve since 1915. The original plan was to study the comparative calf crop from a herd of approximately 1,500 cows run together, a herd of 500, and a herd of 42, all three under fence on the reserve, and the calf crop from range herds on similar range under prevail- ing open-range practice. The 500-head special herd and the 1,500- head herd were the same used in the general investigations, as well as in the demonstrations in improving the grade of stock, and have already been discussed under the latter heading. The large herd 60 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. consisted mainly of native stock from 2 to 12 years of age. The special herd was much the same in so far as age limits were con- cerned, but the cows were more nearly uniform grade Herefords. The 42 cows in the small herd were from 4 to 12 years of age, and were about the same as the special herd in grade. The drought in 1916 to 1918 interfered somewhat with the control of the separate herds, especially the herd of 42 head for which only one year’s record is available. The results of calf crop obtained in the various herds on the Jornada Range Reserve and comparison with the estimated calf crop for outside range with average for the four-year period are shown in Table 22. TABLE 22.—Number of calves per hundred cows on open southern New Mesico- range and on the Jornada Range Reserve. | Jornada Range Reserve. 7 Outside MEER | range. 1,500- | 500-head | 45 noag head special he eral Average. | herd. herd. 5 | HOU Gre See Nase re caters too Sh se ois ne PEL Bars i AY 55 69. 2 81. Oi eo eee 72.0 Aig uA TS, Moe Sues ee net Sendo ate en ae | 35 52.7 68.217 ee 64.1 AONB Sees le a Sees Vs ae oi RRS Se fe 25 50. 8 80. 0 97.6 58.8 NOLO sper be Sc tra cin aie ae es. PRE ets cee ele, ropa 35 41.4 52.0 Bosscokss= 43.7 BN fo) 7 Xs i aie a Rs Fe aa ne le, Re 37.5 55.2 (0533|scseeeeeee 59. 6 The larger calf crops of the Jornada reserve, as shown in the table, are the results of the methods of handling the stock in practice. These involve condition of the cows and bulls, number and distribu- tion of bulls among the cows, and the segregation of nonbreeding stock from the breeding herd. Condition of cows.—To insure the cows in the special herd being in thrifty condition for breeding and calving, grama-grass range was reserved for use by the herd during the winter and spring and supplemental feed was provided, as is shown in Table 23. In addi- tion, the calves were weaned early, which gave the cows the advan- tage of being dry several months before the next calving time. TABLE 23.—Cottonseed cake fed and cost of feeding to cows in 500-head herd. Percent- 7 Amount| Total Cost per Number | age of 2 ; t July 1 to June 30— of cows total yo f roe d Costner heady podat = fed. | breeding! cake. | feeding. herd. cows. | Pounds. Wis 164: BHP tyites 1371 52| 25,650 | $534.00] $1.44! — gi.o7 |{Feb-7 to Apr.28 OIG Sip eke eG 220 44| 22,585 | 649.32 2.95 1.60 | Dec. 9 toSept.7 AOU —1B EEL aaa ree 500 100 64, 500 | 1,935. 00 3. 87 | 3.87 | Feb. 1to June 15 IE YRS See yS4 s5c6- ae Boebass Pod beasSedS Eb Ss ooh Pec scnceolbobdso teed base score: aes scacsesceses: | | 1 Includes 20 bulls. 2 No feeding. Bul. 1031, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. F-37733 -4 Fic. |.—A 5-YEAR-OLD NATIVE STEER. THE OFFSPRING OF SCRUB PARENTS IS A PooR BEEF ANIMAL THAT BRINGS A POOR PRICE. F-25901-A Fic. 2.—A 2-YEAR-OLD GRADE HEREFORD STEER RAISED ON THE JORNADA RANGE RESERVE, THE RESULT OF EFFORT TO IMPROVE THE GRADE OF STOCK. Note in general better beef characteristics as compared with Fig. 1. This type of animal is better suited to fattening for beef, and brings a higher price to the producer. Bul. 1031, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. F-35690-A Fig. |.—A GROUP OF CULLS FROM THE MAIN HERD IN IQIT7. F-42381-A Fic. 2.—A GROUP OF YEARLING HEIFERS FROM THE 1918 CALF CROP, MAINLY FROM THE 500-HEAD HERD. Disposing of the off color, poor grade, and otherwise undesirable cows and replacing them with the best 2-year-old heifers, the result of the use of pure-bred bulls, is the second step in the improvement of grade of cattle on the range. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 61 Asa result of the care given this herd, with but few exceptions the cows were in good, thrifty condition throughout the year. In the fall of 1916 some of the cows were not moved to winter range quite early enough and feeding them cottonseed cake was reduced early in 1917, so that they were somewhat under the condition they should have been in at that time. This is believed to account in part for the low calf crop in this herd in 1917. No feeding was considered neces- sary in the winter and spring of 1918-19, as the cows entered the winter in excellent shape and had an excess of good range forage during the whole period. With the exception of the fall and winter of 1916-17, 95 per cent of the cows were in good, thrifty condition at all times of the year. The main herd on the reserve, of approximately 1,500 head, was given some special attention to maintain the cows in good physical condition, but not so much as was given the special herd. In the spring of 1916, 5.1 per cent of the cows were fed at the rate of 8 cents per head for the whole herd, 13.1 per cent at the rate of 32 cents per head in 1917, and 85.4 per cent at the rate of $3.03 per head in 1918. Calves were weaned when from 8 to 10 months of age, except in 1917, when all calves down to 4 months of age were weaned in October. Range was reserved for only the poorest cows during the winter and spring of each year. The feeding and other care given the cows in this herd was primarily for the purpose of avoid- ing loss from starvation rather than of increasing the calf crop. The cows not fed, therefore, varied from those that were very poor but would probably pull through on the range without feeding until green grass came to dry cows that were in thrifty condition. Those that were not in thrifty condition included some not being fed as well as those on feed, and the number of unthrifty stock varied with the intensity of the drought. The drought and lateness of the season in 1917 resulted in many of the cows in this herd not getting into condition to breed that year. The small amount of forage produced resulted further in a scarcity - of range feed for the winter and spring, so that over 85 per cent of the cows had to be fed te keep them alive. The drought did not break until August of 1918. Therefore, a large percentage of the cows did not get into condition to breed for the 1919 calf crop before the severe winter set in. Although the drought was over before 1919, the calf crop that year was smaller than the previous year because the cows were in weaker condition and fewer were bred’in 1918 than in 1917. The difference in condition of the cows in this herd as compared with the special herd probably accounts in a large measure for the difference in the calf crop in the two herds. However, the care and feed given the large herd to prevent loss from starvation had its advantage, since the calf crops obtained were 62 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. larger than in outside herds where little or no special attention was given to avoid loss from starvation. Bulls, number and distribution—Four bulls per 100 cows have been used in both these herds each year. All were strong, vigorous bulls, ranging from 2 to 7 years of age, and all those brought from other States were acclimated to the range for six to nine months before being turned into the herd. Each winter and spring all bulis not in gdod condition were fed cottonseed cake, with pasturage and other feed if necessary, to have them in what was considered good breeding condition for the main season. The amount of feed varied with the condition of each animal, but an average of 14 to 3 pounds of cottonseed cake per day was fed each bull for five or six months while on good dry pasturage. The main breeding season.occurs from late in July until October, and all the bulls were with the cows during this period. At cther times cf the year, however, a few of the more thrifty were left with the breeding herd. There is some question as to the advisability of leaving bulls with the cows yearlong, especially as more feed and better care in general is given the breeding herd; but there has been less question in the past, since stockmen operating under old methods felt that the growing seasons were too erratic to confine the breed- ing season to any one period of the year. Except in 1918, special attention was given to distribution of bulls among the cows in the special herd. During the breeding season of the other years the 500 head of cows and 20 bulls were run by them- selves in a pasture of 17,000 acres where there were four watering places. Besides being in this comparatively small pasture, a cowboy spent about three-fourths of his time during the main breeding sea- son seeing to it that there was the proper number of bulls in propor- tion to the number of cows at each watering place. The drought interfered with the regular procedure in handling this herd during the breeding season of 1918. The cows were moved to a brushy pasture of 74,714 acres, and no effort was made to keep the bulls distributed by riding after them. To this poor bull distribu- tion is attributed the exceedingly low calf crop in this herd in 1919, for the cows were in excellent condition at all times and other factors were favorable. The large herd was kept in a large, brushy pasture of 74,714 acres during the breeding season of each year except in 1918, when, owing to drought, they were removed to a much larger area of outside range. No effort was made at any time to keep bulls distributed by riding, and with 12 watering places in the pasture and more on the outside range, bull distribution was not as good as it might have been. Plate IX, figure 1, shows what may happen if no effort is made to keep bulls distributed. At that, however, there was some advantage in y RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. Oe) having the cattle in the pasture as compared with outside range where stock were scattered over much larger areas with only four bulls per hundred cows. This poor bull distribution and difference in condition of the cows at critical times as compared to the special herd are mainly responsible for the difference in calf crop in the two herds. The 42-head herd—The drought interfered with the handling of the 42-head herd, but the results of one year have great significance in the possibilities of increasing the calf crop. The cows in this lot were run by themselves during the main breeding season of 1917 in a fairly large pasture with but one bull, but all came to a single watering place every day or every other day, so that the bull came in contact with all of them. The condition of these cows was about the same as in the 500-head herd, the 42 cows being fed during the winter as part of the special herd. All but one of the 42 cows brought calves in 1918. While it is not safe to draw conclusions from a single trial, the results in this herd of cows indicated the possibility of securing large returns in calf crop when efficient bull service is assured and the cows are kept in good condition. CALF PRODUCTION SUMMARY. The calf crop for all the herds on the Jornada Range Reserve for the period 1916 to 1919, inclusive, shows an average of 22 calves more per 100 cows, or 60 per cent greater production than the average in herds on other range in the vicinity where little or no attention is paid to condition of breeding stock, distribution of bulls, and other influencing factors. The average in the special herd is 32.8 calves more per 100 cows, or 87 per cent bigger calf crop. The greatest variation is 80 calves per 100 cows in the special herd on the reserve in 1918, as compared with 25 calves for the same number of cows on outside range. ‘These results are due mainly to provision of sufficient winter range and supplemental feeding during the critical period of the year and greater care in the distribution of the bulls. Compari- sons of the results in different years in the various herds on the reserve further emphasizes the importance of these factors. The largest calf crop has been obtained each year in the special herd, with the exception of the one year’s record for the 42-head herd. In the special herd, however, there was a marked drop in 1917, when the cows were allowed to get poor for a short period during the latter part of the breeding season of 1916. Again, in 1919, 28 calves less per 100 cows than the maximum average of 80.5 calves for 1916 and 1918 is thought to be due entirely to the lack of a sufficient num- ber of bulls for the size of pasture the herd was in and the lack of riding to keep the bulls properly distributed during 1918. 64 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Constant use of the better methods should result in a calf crop of not less than 70, or more nearly 80, calves per 100 cows each year on the ranges of the Southwest, instead of the usual 50 or 60 calves under present: methods. So great an amount as $3.87 per cow per year for feed and provision of adequate winter and spring range, as well as the small additional expense for proper bull distribution, are warranted when they affect calf crops so materially. Four bulls per 100 cows are insufficient unless stock are handled in small lots during the breeding season, and bull distribution is attended to by range riding on large ranges. With expensive, high-class bulls, fencing to control stock on small areas and riding to distribute bulls will doubtless be found more economical than the use of more bulls. Segregation of breeding stock from nonbreeding stock is of im- portance in obtaining better bull service and should not be lost sight of in efforts to obtain more calves per 100 cows. In addition, it is probable that heifers*under 20 months of age should not be bred under southwestern range conditions, as they usually skip the fol- lowing year or require additional feed to prevent stunting. After a cow passes 11 or 12 years of age she usually begins to decline in productiveness and there is danger of heavy expense in feeding her through the spring, so that it is best to dispose of cows when they reach this age. FUTURE PLANS FOR INCREASING THE CALF CROP ON THE JORNADA RANGE RESERVE. The results to date on the Jornada Range Reserve justify con- tinuing the methods of management and even intensifying them. In the future it is planned to increase feeding in the various herds to where all stock will be in better breeding condition, and also eventually to divide the range for the main herd so that the cows will be confined in a smaller area during the main breeding season, and in this way insure better bull service, as well as provide fresh range for winter. The herd of approximately 500 head will be handled much the same as previously, with more riding to keep bulls distributed. The herd of less than a hundred head will be continued in order to secure more conclusive data on the value of small herds. To determine the effect of breeding heifers to calve at 2 years of age, 95 yearling heifers were placed in a separate pasture and bred in 1919. Careful records will be made of the number of calves dropped, rate of growth of calves and heifers, and cost of feeding each year. They will be compared with a number of heifers not bred to calve until 3 years of age. Records for the two herds will be maintained long enough to obtain data as to the effect over a period of breeding heifers to calve at 2 years, compared to breeding them to calve at 3 years of age. Bul. 1031, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. F-35687-A Fic. |.—SEVEN BULLS AT A SINGLE WATERING PLACE WITH ONLY 45 Cows. THIS ILLUSTRATES WHAT MAY HAPPEN IF MEASURES ARE NOT TAKEN TO KEEP BULLS DISTRIBUTED ON THE RANGE. Good results may be obtained with 1 hull per 25 cows on level range if bulls are kept well distributed by riders. F-45573-A FIG. 2.—Cows, AND ESPECIALLY HEIFERS WITH YOUNG CALVES, LIKE THESE, CAN PROFITABLY BE FED A SMALL AMOUNT OF COTTONSEED-CAKE DURING THE SPRING BEFORE GREEN FEED OCCURS IN ORDER TO MAINTAIN MILK FLOW AND HAVE THE COW IN CONDITION TO BREED AND BRING A CALF THE FOLLOWING YEAR. Bul. 1031, U. S. Dept. Agriculture. PLATE X. F-152750 Fig. |.—FEEDING EARLY WEANED CALVES A SMALL AMOUNT OF CONCENTRATED FEED TO SUPPLEMENT THE RANGE FORAGE WILL MAINTAIN THEM IN BETTER CONDITION THAN IF THEY FOLLOW THE COW THROUGH THE WINTER. There is less danger of loss among the cows and they will be inbetter condition to calve the next year. F-37743-A Fic. 2.—FEEDING CHOPPED SOAPWEED WITH COTTONSEED MEAL TO POOR STOCK ON THE VERGE OF STARVATION IN TIME OF DROUGHT. When drought is prolonged and the reserve supply of range is nearing exhaustion, feeding of some roughage may be advisable. Soavweed ( Yucca elata) is of value as emergency feed over large areas of the Southwest. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 65 DECREASING LOSSES OF CATTLE. The average annual losses of range cattle in New Mexico for the entire State for a series of years are approximately 7.3 per cent;” for southern New Mexico, about 10 per cent. The New Mexico Cattle Sanitary Board” estimated the total loss of cattle in New Mexico during the drought of 1916-1918 and the hard winter of 1918-19 as 25 per cent of all cattle in the State, “the heaviest loss on record in a similar period.” This loss was in spite of heavier shipments of cattle from the State during 1917 and 1918 than for any two years previous. Losses for range similar to the Jornada reserve and in the same lo- ‘cality are estimated at 12 per cent in 1916, 15 per cent in 1917, and 35 per cent in 1918. Analysis of these losses will show that they are due mainly to starvation, directly or indirectly, disease, poisonous plants, and predatory animals—all more or less preventable. Obvi- ously, reduction of the heavy losses on southern New Mexico and similar range is a necessity if live-stock production is going to be profitable under increased value of stock and range, large expendi- tures for range improvements, and increased labor costs. The prob- lem of reducing losses has been attacked vigorously within limits of economy at the Jornada Range Reserve and the results are considered exceptionally encouraging, considering the large unit under manage- ment and the many problems encountered. REDUCTION IN LOSS FROM STARVATION, Starvation due to forage shortage, especially in time of drought, has been the main cause of losses among cattle on the Southwestern ranges in the past. As the forage supply on range is reduced in amount or becomes low in nutritive value during winter and spring before the rainy season begins, cattle, especially breeding cows, slowly lose flesh until they become so emaciated that they very often die. In their weakened state they often get stuck in bog holes or die calv- ing, and all such losses are indirectly chargeable to. starvation. Occasionally, but very rarely except in the high mountain country, heavy snows may occur that cause injury to stock. Sometimes losses are caused by stock thirsting for water, when well equipment breaks down or springs or water holes go dry unexpectedly. Losses from lack of water usually indicate failure to keep equipment in good shape, to move cattle before the water holes dry up, or poor 19 Barnes, Will C., and Jardine, James T., Livestock Production in the Hleven Far Western Range States, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Office of the Secretary, Report 110, Part II, 1916. 20 Wrom extracts from Report of Secretary of the New Mexico Cattle Sanitary Board for year ending Dec. 1, 1919, to the Governor of New Mexico, printed in El Paso Livestock Journal, Mar. 1, 1920. 74514°—22—Bull. 10831——5 66 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. business foresight in not keeping a supply of water ahead of the daily requirement for use in an emergency. Adjusting livestock production to the amount of forage produced over a period of years, as already discussed in preceding chapters, is expected to guard against the serious losses in time of extended drought. Within each year, however, from February or March to the beginning of the summer rains, is a period when there is great danger of loss from starvation. The available dry forage is low in nutritive value and the point of full utilization of the year’s supply is being neared. Stock are normally in their poorest condition at this time of the year. In any herd on a fully stocked range there: will always be a number of unthrifty cows among which losses will be heavy unless steps are taken to prevent it. Measures to prevent such losses are essential in addition to the plan for maintaining the permanent herd over a period of years, and constitute a secondary step in the whole plan to guard against losses from starvation. The principal measures taken to avoid loss from starvation on the Jornada _Range Reserve have been reserving a supply of range forage for use by needy stock during the critical period of the year, proper distribu- tion of water, early weaning of calves, supplemental feeding, and care in handling stock. Reserved range feed—The first step in providing for the critical period of the year has been to reserve a sufficient portion of range that is suitable for winter use for poor stock during the period January to July, as previously stated. Pastures 3 and 8 and part of pasture 7, all of which are principally grama grass and browse range, are held until winter and then used by poor stock from the main breeding herd. Pasture 2 is held for use by the main breed- ing herd in time of drought, and also for needy cows in this herd during spring. The animals in the large pasture are watched dur- ing winter and spring, and needy ones transferred to the small pas- tures where there is better forage. In the springs of 1916 and 1917 about 4 per cent of the cows in the main herd were transferred to these pastures. During the same period in 1918, the worst of the drought, these pastures were utilized for carrying the poorest stock. Having this supply of reserve forage available for use by the poorest stock played an important part in reducing losses in this herd. The special herd on the reserve is provided for in pasture 13 dur- ing summer and fall. Beginning in early fall, the cows were care- fully watched, and as soon as one began to get poor she was trans- ferred to the winter range in pastures 10 or 7. This gave the poor cows the advantage of having fresh range and shorter distance to travel to water, which avoided much of the danger of loss. Com- plete utilization of the summer range by the stronger cattle was then obtained. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. OF Water development.—Proper number and distribution of watering places plays an important part in keeping cattle in condition that will prevent losses. Naturally, where the distance between waters is great the feed near water is utilized first; then, later on, when the stock are poorest, they are compelled to travel great distances from water to feed, so that much time and energy are wasted. Losses on the outside range adjoining the reserve on the west, where watering places are 7 to 12 miles apart, were heavy in 1916, 1917, and 1918, largely on account of the weak stock having to travel so far from water to feed. As they grew weaker they were unable to travel out to where feed was good, and soon became so weak that they died. Having the watering places 5 miles or less apart will secure more even utilization of the range and weak stock will not have to travel so far to water. Early weaning and feeding of calves —Obviously, a cow will not do as well on the range when she is suckling a calf as when she has only herself to provide for. Weaning calves as soon as they are old enough, therefore, should be a decided advantage in maintaining cows in better condition on the range. The practice on the Jornada Range Reserve in the average year has been to wean the calves during early winter when they are from 6 to 10 months of age. Plate X, figure 1, shows a number of calves on feed. In 1917, during the drought, all calves down to 4 months of age were weaned in October. When the calves were weaned the cows were turned back on the range, and fewer of them required feed or additional care than would otherwise have been necessary. Early weaning of calves, even down to 4 months of age, has been made possible by feeding. Ordinarily, calves are weaned at 6 to 10 months of age. The earlier weaning has been limited to calves from a small percentage of cows, except in 1917. The number of calves fed, the amount and character of feed, and cost of feeding are given in Table 24. TABLE 24.—Numober of calves fed, character and amount of feed, and cost of feeding. Number | Cost of Cost Year. of calves | Characterand amount offeed.; feed and per fed. feeding. head. 37.2 tonscottonseed cake....| $1,722.10). ¢. ONG. - 2.22.2. - 22-222 e eee eee esses eee +700 4.5 tonsalfalfa..............- | ”"72. 50 f $2. 56 = 52.5 tons cottonseed cake... 3, 018. O1 CS a ee URAC \eois eotisedailasenena) ik | "7495. 50 } aa {488 tonsensilage.---.---.--- 3, 466. 00 TOT ser SG he Ee MLE MI ne Oe Seale 873 |548.9 tonscottonseed meal....! 2, 935. 00 9.14 Valley pasturage......-..--- » 1, 577.00 1 Includes half heifers and halfsteers. The feeding of cottonseed cake to older calves in 1916 and 1917 was largely to prevent them from becoming stunted. Although they 68 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. did not make much growth from the time of weaning until green grass came the next spring, the small amount of cottonseed cake kept them in condition to respond readily when green feed came and pre- vented loss from weakness or starvation. Calves under 6 months of age were fed corn and cane ensilage and cottonseed meal at the rate of 14 pounds of ensilage and three-fourths pound of meal per day. The extra feed was given the young calves to avoid the danger of stunting by leaving them on the range when weaned so young. The feeding of cottonseed cake only would not have been sufficient to prevent stunting. This feeding cost an average of $9.14 per head in the fall and winter of 1917-18. _ There is little question that feeding at the rate of $2.56 per head or even $4.71 is a good business investment, as was apparent in the sales of a part of the steer calves fed. In May, 1916, 100 head of long yearlings from the 350 steers out of the total of 700 heifers and steers weaned early in the previous winter and fed, were placed with the two-year-old steers and sold at regular two-year-old prices. At that time there was $10 difference between the prices of a yearling and a two-year-old steer. In the spring of 1917, about 40 head were sold in the same manner, and 100 head were sold at two-year-old prices in the fall of 1917 when 18 months old. However, a part of this is also to be attributed to improvement of grade. Heifer calves, fed, made similar gain, showing the advantage to the calf of feed and extra care. Even so great an expenditure as $9.14 per head in 1917-18 is not thought unwarranted when everything is considered. The calves fed were all heifers, and no sales were made, but they made normal gain and were up to the average weight for yearlings in June, 1918, while calves that followed the cows on the range were 25 per cent underweight at that date. A great advantage is given a cow when she is allowed the benefit of being dry several months previous to and during the most critical part of the year, and no small part of the success in keeping down the losses on the Jornada Range Reserve since 1915 is attributed directly to early weaning of the calves. Supplemental feeding—In any herd, no matter how much dry winter forage is available, there will always be at least a few un- thrifty cows that may be lost if left to shift for themselves on the range. There might also be times when reserve forage or other measures may be insufficient to meet the demands for keeping down losses. Under these circumstances the use of supplemental feeding, in so far as it is economical, will assist in keeping down loss. Feeding of cottonseed cake to poor cows—When cows have become very poor and weak and the dry winter forage is too low in nutritive value to save them from starvation, a small amount of concentrated feed to supplement the range forage will make a better balanced RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 69 maintenance ration. Cottonseed cake has been used to supplement the range forage each year on the Jornada Range Reserve. Table 25 shows the actual number and per cent of total herd, amount of cottonseed cake fed to supplement range forage, and cost of feeding, for the main breeding herd of approximately 1,500 head on the Jornada Range Reserve, 1915 to 1918. TABLE 25.—Records of supplemental feeding of cottonseed cake with range for- age to cows from the main herd of approximately 1,500 head. Amount} Total Cost per Per cent Cost per Number cotton- | cost of head Period of Year, cows fed. oncows seed | feed and nee entire feeding. eake. feeding. : her Pounds. TSN GEN Gig WU Pee UD re 174 5.1 5,900 | $118.00 $1.59 $0.08 | Feb. 1-Apr. 26, UGS e ESE SUNTAN EIEN 1200 13.1 16, 885 485.45 2.42 .32 | Dec. 18-Aug. 7. OTT Se a Sey 21,296 85.4 59,424 | 1,772.72 1.39 1.19 | Jan. 1-July 31. TOS NOB. as esc ti aS Ste paaNes| AER eseapS a eesta RS les Bi lias | Haseltine dr Uc eA Pa at Da aria 1 Includes some bulls. 2 Includes only breeding cows. 3 No feeding. ‘The number of stock, amount of feed, length of feeding period, and cost of feed will depend largely upon the year and feed prices. In the spring of 1916 the period was comparatively short, because of rains in April and May. The years 1917 and 1918 were very dry years and the feeding period was longer. In 1918 the ranges were considerably overstocked, which accounts in part for the excessive feeding that year. As pointed out under increasing the calf crop, the 500-head herd was fed to maintain them in thrifty condition for breeding. When the herd is kept in this condition there is, obviously, less danger of loss from starvation. Feeding of roughage.—In case of prolonged drought the supply of range feed may near depletion or become entirely exhausted. To meet such emergencies some supply of roughage will be of advan- tage. Such a supply of forage is limited to (1) native forage plants that are unusable in their native state but may be prepared into feed; (2) forage crops raised under irrigation; (3) dry-land forage crops raised during wet years and stored for emergency purposes. Of these, feeding prepared from native forage plants offers the best possibility thus far. Feeding of soapweed—rThe use of soapweed as emergency feed (Pl. X, fig. 2) was first started on the Jornada Range Reserve in 1915 by making ensilage out of the tops of the plants." When fed in 1916, 1917, and 1918 this ensilage gave very satisfactory results. During the fall of 1917 machinery for cutting soapweed was developed, and 21 Jardine, James T., and Hurtt, L. C., Increased Cattle Production on Southwestern Ranges, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bul. 588, 1917, p. 26. 70 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. extensive use was made of this plant as feed in the spring of 1918. Complete details for handling and feeding this plant are given in another bulletin.” . A total of 353 tons of chopped soapweed and 47,090 pounds of cot- tonseed meal was fed in feeds of 15 to 20 pounds of soapweed and 1. to 14 pounds’of meal per day, to a total number of 845 head of cows from the main breeding herd between January 20 and June 11, 1918. Some of the stock were on feed the entire period, and others were fed only a part of the time. Poor cattle fed this amount of soap- weed and cottonseed meal daily were maintained with very little loss, and part of the stock gained slightly. The cost of feeding soapweed and meal was $3.23 per head actually fed, or $1.84 per head when the entire main herd is considered. The cost of preparing the soapweed was $3.72 per ton,?* and cottonseed meal, including labor in feeding, cost $60 per ton. The average daily ration of prepared soapweed and cottonseed meal cost approximately 7 cents per day. The slow growth of this plant and the time required to replace a stand of soapweed, once it has been cut, however, warrants its use only as an emergency ration, at least until more definite informa- tion is available to determine the actual time required for replace- ment. The use of forage from irrigated farms will depend upon the availability of such forage and the cost of feeding. During 1918, 873 weaned heifer calves were fed ensilage on a farm in the Rio Grande Valley, adjacent to the reserve, at the rate of 14.3 pounds of ensilage and 0.8 pound of cottonseed meal per day for a period of approximately 85 days. The ensilage cost $7 and the cottonseed cake $60 per ton. This was at the rate of $2.22 per month for a calf. A grown cow would require at least 17 to 20 pounds of ensilage and a pound of cottonseed meal per day, which would cost $2.70 to $3 per month for feed alone, on the basis of prevailing prices of ensilage and cottonseed meal in 1918. Under southwestern range conditions, such high prices for feed are warranted only in case of extreme emergency and for short periods. Dry-farming forage crops have been raised under conditions of slightly better rainfall than prevails in southern New Mexico, but little or no success has been obtained where the average annual rainfall is as low as at the Jornada Range Reserve. Raising forage crops in southern New Mexico in the average year is a possibility 22 Vorsling, C. L., Chopped Soapweed as Emergency Feed for Cattle on Southwestern Ranges, U. S. Dept. of Agv., Bul. 745, January, 1919. 22 The cost of converting soapweed into fecd was $2.27 per ton in 1918, when equipment and labor were operating satisfactorily. On account of imperfection and difficulty in ob- taining skilled Jabor there were often long delays and loss of time which resulied in an rrey average cost of $3.72 per ton. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. fal only under better methods of nonirrigated farming than are now known. However, in the wettest years over most of the Southwest there is sufficient moisture to raise a fodder crop, especially on areas flooded by the run-off from nearby hills. Fodder raised in these years and cut green and stored in a silo, if in sufficient quantity, would constitute a valuable supply of reserve feed. Crops of the sorghum group were raised successfully in the vicinity of the Jor- nada Range Reserve in 1913 and 1914. A pit silo with a capacity of 250 tons was constructed at a cost of $300 on the reserve in 1915 for storing soapweed. Such a silo could also be used for storing ensilage, and several of them located at strategic places on the range and filled with feed would be an excellent assurance against losses during drought. Feeding of roughages at best is an expensive proposition, and re- quires care in order that costs may not become excessive. The great- est care, perhaps, may be exercised in judicious planning to begin feeding a small portion of the stock early enough to relieve the range somewhat and thus avoid the necessity of feeding a large number of stock later. A smaller number can be handled for a long period much more economically than a larger number for a short time. Handling poor cattle—A great deal of the success and economy in the results from measures taken to avoid losses depends upon the way the cattle in poor condition are handled. Good results can not be expected where poor cattle are left to compete with stronger individuals for feed and water. Unwarranted rounding up, rough handling, and constant moving are detrimental to cattle and should be avoided; but, as some handling is necessary in getting the animals to feed and in grouping them for feeding, it should be done slowly and carefully. The best results have been obtained on the Jornada Range Reserve when the poor cows were segregated from the stronger stock and fed according to their requirements. In the spring of 1918 the poor cattle were divided into several different lots, varying from very poor cattle almost “on the lift” to stronger dry cows that subsisted on dry range forage alone. Each, lot was carefully watched and weaker cows placed where they would receive more feed, or stronger cows removed from the feed lot, as the case might be. This was accom- plished by slow, careful working of the stock when they were at watering places, thus avoiding rounding up or running them. When it was necessary to move poor stock any distance it was done by slow, careful handling with minimum ill effect. They would be moved only short distances each day and then allowed to rest and graze, or were fed. Constant riding and looking after stock made it possible, in most cases, to note the condition of poor individuals in sufficient G2, BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. time to get them on feed before there was danger of their starving to death. Riding among and handling range cattle may have a slight tendency to disturb and annoy them, so that they may not do so well at first. This has even led some stockmen to the opinion that it is best to disturb them as little as possible. Experience has shown, however, that this is true to a slight extent only with the native cat- tle, and that the better grades which have practically replaced the native stock have now become accustomed to handling and are not injured by it, providing it is slowly and carefully done. Even timid cattle soon learn to come to feed, and if carefully handled receive the full benefit from it. Comparison of starvation losses —The measure of results from the steps taken to avoid losses from starvation is shown by a compari- son of the losses of stock that have occurred on the Jornada Range Reserve since the problem was attacked, and losses under open range conditions in southern New Mexico for the same period. Such a comparison is made in Table 26. TABLE 26.—Losses of live stock from starvation on the Jornada Range Reserve and on open southern New Mexico ranges. Jornada Range Reserve. Year. een Entire State.1 Main | 500spe- ; herd. |cialherd. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent AGU GR ered fake APs RMN RUNS DS SISOS OE Ee | 3 0.0 | 12 ae Sas FABIEN A Ea | 10 + te 25 per cent of all stock 1015 MERE Sr in Py iG air Sus RECT ee | 21.0 “0 | 5 |f inthe State.8 Se BE ASS ESE Soot eee eee nL ae > sa mers Otic | IATA rele yee Pe boas, amar an 3 1.2 | xD 16.7 | eee surah by. Gaile peulary Board of New Mexico. Losses heavier in northern part of State 2 Herd on the reserve only part ofthe year, but figure applies to whole year. 2 Although this figure includes some losses from other causes, losses are mainly due to starvation. Records for losses on the Jornada Range Reserve are made from actual observations of stock that died. Since poorest stock are handled in small pastures and around feed, lots, and the entire range covered by riders many times during each year during round-ups and on other occasions, very few dead stock are missed. The records for the outside are compiled from careful estimates from observation by stockmen and others connected with the livestock industry, and are considered reliable. The comparatively low losses on the Jornada Range Reserve in the main herd are attributed directly to the method of management to provide for needy stock during the period from January until rains occur in the summer, and to reducing the number of stock on the range in time of drought. The additional cost for feed was not RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. te excessive. So great an expense as $3.03 per head is not unwarranted so long as losses are kept down and the calf crop is more nearly that in average years. There was practically no feeding in 1919, when the breeding herd was scattered over an adjoining open range where there was a reason- able amount of winter forage. The 1 per cent loss which occurred would largely have been avoided had the few poor cows been picked up and placed on feed. The cows in the special herd were fed and given better care than other stock on the reserve, the cost of feed amounting to $3.87 per head in 1918. Care was exercised not to overstock the range and to provide reserve range for winter and spring use. These cows were maintained in thrifty condition for breeding, and the calf crop was materially increased. Maintaining them in this condition has resulted in reducing the loss from starvation to less than one per cent in four years. There is no doubt as to the justification of the additional care taken and feeding which has been done in the main herd on the Jornada Range Reserve. The saving in the reduction of losses alone, as com- pared to losses on open range, will more than pay for the feed and care, to say nothing of a shght increase in calf crop. The part which even greater feeding of stock has played in increasing the calf crop 10 to 20 calves per 100 cows and alinost eliminating losses from starvation in the special herd indicates that even greatly increased feeding in the main herd would be warranted. The amount of feed- ing and care that will be more than paid for in decrease of loss and in increase of calf crop has not been exceeded even in the special herd, and it is doubtful whether it has even been reached. Reserving range with an adequate water supply for use during winter and spring may be considered the basis of management, and handling stock to avoid losses from starvation with the other steps as supplemental. Without such a supply of forage the cost of feed- ing becomes excessive, and other measures have less value. With the range forage available supplemental feeding is practical; but with- out it feeding must include the use of roughage as well, and such feed at a reasonable price is extremely limited in the semidesert country. The principal requirement of the range to be reserved for winter use is that it contain a suitable class of forage, such as grasses that cure on the range and make good winter feed, and palatable browse, with an adequate water supply. Black grama and other grama grasses are the principal grasses valuable for this purpose in the Southwest. Where other grasses are present they should be used for summer range. 14 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REDUCTION IN LOSS FROM DISEASES AND PARASITES. Blackleg.—In the past blackleg has been the main cause of losses from disease. In May, 1915, for example, 50 head of yearling steers died of blackleg in one herd of about 1,000 head. AIl yearlings were vaccinated immediately and losses stopped. Systematic vaccination of all stock between the approximate ages of 5 months and 20 months was started in the fall of 1915, and has been continued since. The, Government. blackleg vaccine was used the first two years, with special care to secure proper preparation and administration. All stock of the more susceptible age ** were vaccinated twice and sometimes three times a year, usually during fall branding and once or twice in the spring. The experience with the Government vaccine has been that a high per cent of immunity resulted from vaccination, but that the period of immunity was short, usually from 3 to 6 months. The loss attributed to blackleg on the Jornada Range Reserve among calves vaccinated with the Government vaccine in 1916 and again in 1917 was approximately 1 per cent for stock 5 to 20 months of age. These results are very good as compared with the 5 per cent loss in one month in 1915, before vaccination was started. The Gov- ernment vaccine requires rather frequent administration, however, and the cost of rounding up and jamming the cattle incident to vac- cination two or three times a year is no smal] item. Since the fall of 1917, all calves have been vaccinated with a germ-free serum developed at the experiment station of the Kansas Aericultural College. This vaccine has been administered to calves 4 to 5 months of age and up, during fall branding and during wean- ing time in winter. Each calf vaccinated is marked by “bushing” its tail to distinguish it from those that have not been vaccinated. Where calves are not weaned but left on the range good results have been obtained by working the stock at watering places for several days, vaccinating the calves and yearlings and turning them back on the range. Since 1917, in so far is it has been possible to determine, no calves or yearlings treated with this vaccine have died from blackleg. A few losses attributed to blackleg occurred when the work was de- layed and some calves reached the susceptible age before being vaccinated. Undoubtedly some deaths occurred also among™ calves that were missed. The loss from this disease has been reduced to less than 0.1 per cent of stock of susceptible age with the use of the improved vaccine. Systematic vaccination is possible under open-range conditions, and the good results obtained from both the Government vaccine and “4 Caivces 5 to 20 months of age are considered more commonly susceptible to blackleg, but stock both older and younzcr lave been known to die from the disease, RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 75 the germ-free vaccine when properly and carefully administered cer- tainly warrant the attention of all stockmen in eliminating the losses from this disease. Scabies—An outbreak of scabies in the herds on the reserve in 1919 contributed materially to the poor condition of the stock that year. ‘The disease caused stock to fall off in flesh rapidly, causing danger of loss from starvation. The infestation of stock on the Jornada Range Reserve was cleaned up in a single dipping campaign of two dippings in lime-and-sulphur dip at intervals of 11 to 14 days, under the direction of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry. A detailed description of the disease and treatment is given in Farm- ers’ Bulletin 1017.75 Parasites.—The two most common parasites on cattle on south- western ranges are the louse and the spinose ear tick. They are most prevalent during winter and spring months, when stocks are in the poorest condition. While these parasites do not cause death directly, they lower the vitality of the stock by drawing nourishment from the blood of the host and detracting from quiet grazing through constant irritation, thus contributing indirectly to losses by star- vation. Both long-nosed and short-nosed ox lice are common on South- western ranges. These parasites spread rapidly where cattle are handled on feeding grounds. Dipping in arsenical or nicotine dip is recommended by the Bureau of Animal Industry for control of lice on range cattle. A single dipping of year-old stock in low-_ strength arsenical dip just before they were removed to summer range on the Jornada Range: Reserve in 1917 was effective in checking the lice infestation, thus giving the stock additional advantage on the range. As many as 110 ear ticks have been taken from the ears of one yearling heifer on the Jornada Reserve. The injury caused by these ticks in drawing blood from their host and the constant irritation contribute in no small degree toward weakening a poor animal. A mixture of two parts pine-tar and one part cottonseed oil, in doses of about one-half ounce, applied to the ears of the infected animal, as recommended by the United States Bureau of Animal Industry to check the ear tick, has been used to some extent on stock on the Jornada Range Reserve. Treated animals were rid of the pest for a sufficient period to be of value in improving their condition, but reinfestation usually occurred in from 2 to 7 weeks. The ticks live apart from their host for long periods, and stock pick them up around watering places, corrals, etc. # 25 Imes, Marion, Cattle Scab and Methods of Contro! and Eradication; U. 8. Dept. Agri., Farmers’ Bul. 1017, December, 1918. 76 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ‘More complete information will be found on both lice and ear ticks in publications by the United States Bureau of Animal In- dustry.*© REDUCTION IN LOSS FROM POISONOUS PLANTS. There are a number of poisonous plants on the semidesert ranges of southern New Mexico. Among these may be mentioned two sus- pected species of Astragalus, rattle-weed loco and blue woolly loco,? which occur on and in the vicinity of the Jornada Range Reserve. Heavy losses among both cattle and horses on range adjacent to the Jornada Range Reserve were attributed to the rattle-weed dur- ing the winter and spring of both 1917 and 1918. The range was so closely grazed that there was little other forage available, and both classes of stock ate the rattle-weed freely. The same species occurs to a considerable extent on the Jornada Reserve, but other forage was always available, and no losses were experienced from it under these conditions. This leads to the assumption that cattle do not begin to eat the rattle-weed as long as there is sufficient other forage on the range. The most effective means of avoiding losses from rattle-weed, unless eradication is practicable, appear to be to avoid grazing the range too closely and to feed susceptible stock. OTHER CAUSES OF LOSS OF STOCK ON THE RANGE. Some other causes which contribute to the aggregate losses on _ southern New Mexico ranges are predatory animals, accidents which may or may not be avoided, and grazing horses Sl mules on the same range with cattle. Covotes cause occasional loss among young ates but such losses occur mainly when cows are too weak to protect their calves. An occasional lobo wolf or mountain lion may cause some loss. The work of the Biological Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture in eradicating these animals has been a very important factor in decreasing losses from this cause, and with continued activi- ties of this bureau such losses should eventually become negligible. Weak cows are sometimes lost in spring from getting stuck in bog holes. ‘Such places should be fenced or watched to see that weal cattle are kept away and that any cows that may have become bogged down are pulled out. Horses and mules will often stampede around watering places and run over and injure weak cattle and sometimes kill young calves. If it can be avoided, this class of stock should not be allowed among weak cows or those with young calves. 26 Tmes, Marion, “ Cattle Lice and How to Eradicate Them,” U. 8S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 909, February, 1918. Also, ‘‘The Spinose Ear Tick and Methods of Treating In- fested Animals,’ U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 980, May, 1918. 27 Rattle-weed loco—Astragalus allochrous ; blue woolly loco=Astragalus bigelovii. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. Ul TOTAL LOSSES ON THE JORNADA RANGE RESERVE. Losses from all causes among all classes of stock on the Jornada Range Reserve since July 1, 1915, were 1.9 per cent on a basis of the full year up to December 31, 1915, 1.5 per cent in 1916, 1.8 per cent in 1917, 3.5 per cent in 1918, and 1.5 per cent in 1919, or an average annual loss of 1.9 per cent. Reports received from stockmen in connection with the investiga- tions of live-stock production in the 11 far western States in 1914 showed avarage annual losses for New Mexico as follows: Calves up to 12 months of age, 10.6 per cent; yearlings, 5.6 per cent; stock over 2 years old, 5.8 per cent; an average of 7.2 per cent from all causes.” The estimated losses for southern New Mexico since 1914 were: 10 per cent in 1915, 12 per cent in 1916, 15 per cent in 1917, 35 per cent in 1918, and 5 per cent in 1919, or an average annual loss of 16.7 per cent for the 5-year period. The Cattle Sanitary Board of New Mexico estimates the losses for the whole State to have been 25 per cent of all the cattle in the State during the drought and severe winter of 1918-19. While these figures include some losses from other causes, they are principally due to starvation. The results on the Jornada Range Reserve to date in reducing losses from starvation, blackleg, and other causes justify the serious consideration of stockmen. This is especially true under the existing conditions of increased cost of range, labor, equipment, and supplies, and poor credit with high rate of interest on loans to finance the business. INCREASING GROWTH OF YOUNG STOCK. Young stock do not make much gain in weight on southern New Mexico and similar ranges from December until the time green grass comes in the following summer. Successive weighing of steers in November and December, when they are 18 months of age, and in May or June, at 24 months of age, show little or no gain in weight during the six-months period. This stunting makes young stock slow to respond in growth when green grass comes. As a result, yearling or two-year-old steers from these ranges are not fit to go to the feeders, but find their market mainly as stockers to go to north- ern pastures for one. or two years’ maturity. As stockers for this purpose they do not bring a very high price in comparison with prices received for stock of the same age from other sections. The stunting of young stock is even more pronounced during drought. As has already been stated, yearlings from southern New Mexico during the drought of 1916-1918 were often 100 pounds under their average weight, resulting in heavy “cut back” by 28 Barnes, Will C., and Jardine, James T., Meat Situation in the U. S., Part II, U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Sec. Rept. 110. 78 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. buyers and lower prices for those taken. This cut-back in 1917 and 1918 varied from 10 to as high as 50 per cent of yearlings offered for sale. Prices paid for yearling steers have not advanced in New Mexico since 1916, in spite of some improvement in grade, while there was marked advance in prices paid for this class of stock elsewhere from 1916 to 1919. According to information furnished by the Cattle Sanitary Board of New Mexico, the maximum average high price has been $40 since 1915, while the average minimum price has dropped from $39 per head in 1916 to $25 in 1918 and 1919. This lack of increase in price is traceable to the lack of growth in young stock in time of drought. Young heifers, too, did not. make normal growth, and while fewer of these are sold, they are often set back so that they are not in fair breeding condition. Eliminating the period of no growth, or having young stock in condition to respond quickly and make more rapid growth after feed comes, would mean a higher price for the steers to go as stock- ers to northern pastures, and possibly would produce a steer that would go direct to the feeder. Improvement along this line is im- portant to obtain maximum returns from the attention and expense required to grow better-grade stock. SELLING STEERS AND SURPLUS HEIFERS AS CALVES. Selling steers and surplus heifers as calves in the fall would elimi- nate carrying them over the most expensive period of the year. The better grade of stock similar to that now being raised on the Jornada Range Reserve should find a ready market as calves among feeders in the farming States. This practice will be largely limited by two factors—lack of uniformity in age of calves in the fall and the necessity of holding over stock to consume surplus forage not needed by the breeding herd. The breeding season on Southwestern ranges is ordinarily con- sidered yearlong, and as a result, calves are dropped throughout the year, although mainly from March to July. Consequently, a large number of calves too young to sell in the fall must be carried through the winter and sold the following year. Restricting the breeding season to a certain period of the year would result in more uniformity in size of offspring at time of sale. Selling most of the steers and surplus weiter as calves, however, will not leave sufficient stock on a range to consume sieht forage in good years, an essential part of range management where drought occurs. In such cases the practicability of selling calves will depend upon the grade of stock being raised. If the greatest profit from good grade stock may be obtained by marketing the product as calves it may be advisable to sell the calves raised each year and in good years when there is surplus forage purchase cheaper steers. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 79 In either case, whether selling as calves or holding over until year- lings, there will be a number of young stock, including heifers re- tained to replace culls in the breeding herd, which will be carried over the dry period from November until July the next year. Main- taining the growth of such stock over this period, or at least having them in condition so that they will respond quickly when the green grass comes, should make such stock grow out better and heifers mature earlier for the breeding herd. SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDING OF YOUNG STOCK. Feeding the young stock a small amount of cottonseed-cake or meal to supplement the native forage and make it a better growing ration from late fall until rains occur the following spring or sum- mer should result in eliminating the dormant period in growth of calves and yearlings at this time. At least, the young stock should be in condition to start growth sooner and make more rapid gains when green feed does come. The benefits from feeding early weaned calves a small ration of cottonseed cake during this period on the Jornada Range Reserve in 1916, 1917, and 1918 have demonstrated that it is a practicable undertaking with that class of stock. Feed- ing a number of two and three-year-old steers several pounds of cottonseed cake per day while on grass in 1914 and 1915 indicated that it was not practicable to try fattening steers for the market in this way; for bringing them into condition suitable for feeders it was considered a success. As better grades of stock are raised this procedure may be practiced with even greater success, and the South- western breeder will eventually establish a better market for his product than is now available. FUTURE PLANS FOR THE JORNADA RANGE RESERVE. Plans for the future on the Jornada Range Reserve include selling the best steer calves in the fall to feeders in the corn belt, if possible, and feeding all young stock retained three-fourths to 1 pound of cottonseed cake per day for 90 to 120 days in the spring to keep them growing during this period. Results to date in feeding seem to justify such practice. With the increased cost of handling and producing stock in general every opportunity for increasing the profit is worthy of consideration and trial. In choosing the most desirable plan, the main object and one that Southwestern producers should bear in mind, however, is to pro- duce the kind of animal for which there is greatest demand and that the best range and feeding facilities will permit. SUMMARY. Periodic droughts causing heavy losses, low calf crops, and inter- ference with building up of herds are the chief set-backs to the cattle 80 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. industry in the Southwest at present, and one of the biggest problems of the industry to-day is to overcome these unfavorable conditions. Rainfall records over a long period of years and experience of stock- men during the past two or three decades indicate that droughts of 3 to 4 years’ duration may occur in each cycle of 8 to 10 years. A study made in southern New Mexico showed that on grama- grass range drought alone if prolonged beyend the second year killed 40 per cent of the best grazing plants and reduced the quantity of for- age produced approximately 50 per cent. Grazing tends to increase the effect of drought to a degree varying with the time and amount of use, but when limited during the main growing season—July, August, and September—to from 30 to 50 per cent of the proper yearly rate, it has no harmful effect. The reduction in grazing at that time does not interfere with full use of the range, since the grass cures and is valuable for winter range. To restore damaged grama-grass range to its former condition of productivity will prob- ably require several years of judicious handling. In the case of tobosa grass or similar range there is less dying out of the forage but the amount of feed produced varies more directly with the amount of rainfall, so that the reduction in time of drought is about the same as for grama grass. Tobosa grass is not easily injured by grazing during the growing season and is of little value for grazing after it dries up, so that it is well adapted to summer grazing. - Drought has a direct influence upon the carrying capacity of the range. Data obtained thus far indicate that range with a grazing capacity of 27 acres per cow per year will only carry stock at the rate of 32 acres per head the first year of drought, 45 acres the sec- ond, 54 acres the third, and 54 the fourth. Cattle raising, to be successful under such conditions, must be adjusted so that the number of animals will conform to the carrying capacity of the range in time of drought. In other words, there should be a reduction to 85 per cent of the original number the first year, to 60 per cent the second, and to 50 per cent the third. Since the Southwest is primarily a breeding section, and it is diffi- cult to dispose of breeding cows upon short notice, the breeding herd should be confined to what the range will carry in poor years or to 50 per cent of the carrying capacity during good years. The surplus forage in good years may be utilized profitably by holding over or buying young steers or heifers to be disposed of in time of drought to make all range available for the breeding cows. The age, number, and class of such stock to carry will depend upon the forage not needed for the breeding cows and the market. Division of grama-grass and tobosa-grass types of range, when the two occur together on a range unit, and using the former in winter RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 81 and the latter in summer will serve the twofold purpose of giving the grama grass the opportunity it requires to maintain itself on the range and of securing the maximum use of the tobosa-grass range. At the same time, it reserves a supply of range for use by the stock during late winter and until rains occur in the early summer, a period when stock on the range are always poorest. Where a range is all grama grass or similar type of range, the desired result may be ob- tained by deferring grazing on a portion of the range during the growing season and using it late in the year, and then rotating the system to each part of the range successively. Proper distribution of stock for full and even utilization of the range may best be secured by adequate watering facilities, proper salting of stock, and riding. Permanent watering places should not be more than 5 miles apart on the range where the carrying capacity of the range will justify it. Stock should have plenty of salt at all times, and the salt should be placed where it is desired the stock should graze. Riding after stock to keep them on the proper range assists further in good distribution. Increased cost of production will best be offset and returns from the industry increased through improving the grade of stock, raising a larger percentage of calves, and reducing the losses from the various causes. The grade of stock may best be improved by use of purebred bulls, culling the poorer grade cows, and replacing them with the best grade heifers obtained as a result of the use of good bulls. Slightly better bulls should be epaied every few years to continue building up the herd. Twenty-two to thirty- hres more calves per 100 cows than the present average for southwestern range conditions have been ob- tained over a period of four years here better care and attention were given the breeding herd. Keeping cows and bulls in good breeding condition, adequate distribution of bulls, segregation of nonbreeding stock, especially during the breeding season, and breed- ing no cows under 20 months or over 12 years of age, are mainly responsible for the good results. Of these, the condition of the cows and distribution of bulls are by far the more important. Having a sufficient amount of winter range, supplemented with three-fourths to one and a half pounds of cottonseed cake per day from approxi- mately February until.spring or summer rains occur, will keep cows in shape to mother their calves properly and to breed again the fol- lowing summer. Early weaning of her calf gives the cow the ad- vantage of being dry longer before dropping the next calf. Employment of range riders to keep bulls distributed among the cows is essential to secure proper bull service when stock are in com- paratively large pastures. One rider can easily keep the bulls dis- 74514°—22—Bull. 1031——6 $2 BULLETIN 1031, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tributed among 500 cows when range is not rough and 4 bulls per 100 cows are used. A few cows with a single bull in a small pasture also secures efficient bull service. The heavy losses from starvation in time of drought may be avoided by adjusting the number of stock to what the range will carry. The heavy loss during the usual critical period of the year may be prevented by reserving a supply of winter range for use during that period, avoiding long distances between feed and water, and feeding a small percentage of the poorest cows. Supplementing the range forage with a small amount of some concentrated feed, such as cottonseed cake, will usually save the weak cows that aineunice would perish. Chopped soapweed may be fed to advantage when the forage i is getting short. Early weaning of calves and careful handling of stock, including segregation of the weakest cows, are also important points in reduc- ing losses. The extra care and feed will pay for itself in cattle saved. Losses from blackleg may be made almost negligible by prompt vaccination. Dipping is effective in keeping stock free of scabies and lice. The low price received for steers from the Southwest as compared with those from other localities is due mainly to the stunting in growth when the feed on the range is dry, from early winter until rains the following summer. Feeding a small amount of cottonseed cake or some such feed should aid materially in keeping the young stock growing over this period and cause them to respond quickly to green grass when it comes. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO THIS SUBJECT (ARRANGED CHRONOLOGICALLY). Div. Agros. Bull. 16, Grazing Problems in the Southwest, by J. G. Smith. 1899. Bur. Plant Indus. Bull. 4, Range Improvement in Arizona, by David Griffiths. 1901. Bur. Plant Indus. Bull. 67, Range Investigations in Arizona, by David Grif- fiths. 1904. Bur, Plant Indus. Bull. 117, The Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pastures, by David Griffiths. 1907. N. Mex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 66, The Range Problem in New Mexico, by EH. O. Wooton. 1908. Bur. Plant Indus. Bull. 177, A Protected Stock Range in Arizona, by David Griffiths. 1910. Ariz. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 65, The Geuze Ranges of Arizona, by J. J. Thornber. 1910. Proc. Soc. Amer. For. VII: 160-7, 1912. Range Improvement and Improved Methods of Handling Stock in National Forests, by J. T. Jardine. RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT. 83 N. Mex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 81, The Grasses and Grasslike Plants of New Mexico, by E. O. Wooton and P. C. Standley. pp. 176, 1912 (iss. December, 1911). Farmers’ Bulletin 578, The Making and Feeding of Silage, by T. E. Wood- ward et al. Revised 1920. Farmers’ Bulletin 592, Stock-Watering Places on Western Grazing Lands, by Will C. Barnes. 1914. Journ. Agr. Res. iii: 98-147. 1914 (Nov. 16). Natural Revegetation of Range Lands Based upon Growth Requirements and Life History of the Vege- tation, by A. W. Sampson. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 211, Factors Affecting Range Management in Ne Mexico, by E. O. Wooton. 1915. i The National Wool Grower for Oct., 1915. Deferred and Rotation Graz- ing, by L. H. Douglas. Bur. An. Indus. Cire. 31 (6th rev.), Blackleg: Its Nature, Cause, and Pre- vention, by V. A. Norgaard and J. R. Mohler. 1915. U. S. Dept. Agr. Y. B. Sep. 678, Improvement and Management of Native Pastures of the West, by J T. Jardine. 1916 (from 1915 Yearbook). U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 367, Carrying Capacity of Grazing Ranges in Southern Arizona, by E. O. Wooton. 1916. U. 8S. Dept. Agr., Sec. Rept. 110, Meat Situation in the U. S., Part II. Live Stock Production in the Eleven Far Western Range States, by Will C. Barnes and James T. Jardine. 1916. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 588, Increased Cattle Production on Southwestern Ranges, by James T. Jardine and L. C. Hurtt. 1917. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 700, Climate and Plant Growth in Certain Vegetative Associations, by Arthur W. Sampson. 1918. N. Mex. Col. Agr. and Mech. Arts, Bull. 113, Climate in Relation to Crop Adaptation in New Mexico, by Charles E. Linney and Fabian Garcia. 1918. Farmers’ Bulletin 980, The Spinose Ear Tick and Methods of Treating In- fested Animals, by Marion Imes. 1918. Farmers’ Bulletin 909, Cattle Lice and How to Eradicate Them, by Marion Imes. 1918. : Farmers’ Bulletin 1017, Cattle Scab and Methods of Control and Eradication, by Marion Imes. 1918. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bull. 1017, Cattle Scab and Methods of Control and Eradication, by Marion Imes. 1918. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 745, Chopped Soapweed as Emergency Feed for Cattle on Southwestern Ranges, by Clarence L. Forsling. 1919. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 790, Range Management on the National Forests, by James T Jardine and Mark Anderson. 1919. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 791, Plant Succession in Relation to Range Manage- ment, by Arthur W. Sampson. 1919. Farmers’ Bulletin 1179, Feeding Cottonseed Products to Live Stock, by E. W. Sheets and E. H. Thompson. 1920. (Some references to feeding in the Southwest. ) Farmers’ Bulletin 724, Feeding Grain Sorghum to Live Stock, by G. A. Scott. Revised 1921. Farmers’ Bulletin 1167, Essentials of Animal Breeding, by George N. Rommel. 1920. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 905, Principles of Live-Stock Breeding, by Sewall Wright. 1920. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 827, The Cut-over Pine Lands of the South for Beef- cattle Production, by F. W. Farley and 8. W. Greene. 1921. 2 Ee 84 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 20 CENTS PER COPY Vv UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. 4 April 25, 1922 THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM?: OF CRANBERRY ON THE PACIFIC COAST. By H. K. PLank,’ Scientific Assistant, Fruit Insect Investigations, in cooperation with the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. (With technical description by Cart Hernericu, Bureau of Entomology..) CONTENTS. ‘ Page Page Introductions 2) {wei eee eee 1 | Description of stages and habits—Con. Importance of the blackhead BeXC6 WN y eee aac eee ee eae A NC 16 SRE CNY eC) 610 01 Le ne 2 Seasonal is tormysc see eee) eas 19 The cranberry industry on the Natural fenem ies ieee aegis See enue ban 20 IBA CHTC RCO AS Eee Se ee 2 Parasites mie ties suey venevona ina 20 Features of bog management__ 3 Predacious enemies___________ 21 Phenology of the cranberry on Control experiments ______________ D2 the Pacific coast_________-__ 3 Miscellaneous spraying experi- Introduction of the blackhead fire- Lag =8 oN rhs ec el Na ee NE SN 22 worm into the Northwest_______ 4 Demonstration spraying experi- iSO Tee aN 5 POM 2) 0 oh Ae RN ce Mae a 26 Hood tenants ey Wuan ee ee i a 5 | Recommendations for control ______ 34 Destructiveness __-___________ abel 5 EVOL WALT yo asa AUN TLR oP) 34 Number of generations____________ 6 SOTA AMSRaeee apme eR 34 Description of stages and habits____ 7 | Summary and conclusions_________ 37 SRDSaf ee SR Ro A UN 7 | Systematic description of Rhopobota WAV aera. oa Raabe AAA Be 9 naevana Hiibner________ WUE sia 42 TBD OEE) Ss oe RSIS are Wena aT el 14 |! Explanation of plategs_____________ 45 INTRODUCTION. Numerous complaints from Washington cranberry growers, re- ceived by the Bureau of Entomology and the State College of Wash- ington, led the two institutions to make a cooperative investigation of cranberry pests in the Pacific Northwest in 1918 and 1919. In this joint undertaking the writer represented the Bureau of Ento- 1 Rhopobota naevana Hiibner; order Lepidoptera, family Olethreutidae. Determined by Carl Heinrich, of the Bureau of Hntomology. ‘ 2 Appointed Collaborator, Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Insect Investigations, July 1, 1920. 74890°—22 1 2 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mology and, successively, A. Spuler, Miss Orilla Miner, and Miss Flora A. Friese the State College of Washington. IMPORTANCE OF THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM. The blackhead fireworm proved to be the most important cran- berry pest of western bogs, and at the time the ravages of this insect were first observed by the writer it was causing an estimated loss of approximately 40 per cent of the combined crops of Washington and Oregon. In 1918 this loss was reduced to approximately 15 per cent and in 1919 to approximately 5 per cent, principally as a result of a better knowledge of the life history and habits of the insect and more general adoption of effective methods of control. This bulletin reports the results of an investigation of the life history and habits of the blackhead fireworm in the States of Wash- ington and Oregon which was conducted during the years 1918 and 1919 from laboratory headquarters at Seaview, Wash. During this period various methods of control were studied and thoroughly tested under actual bog conditions. THE CRANBERRY INDUSTRY ON THE PACIFIC COAST. The town of Seaview, Wash., is located practically in the center of the cranberry-growing district on the Pacific coast. In the State of Washington this district comprises most of the peninsula of Pacific County, in-the southwestern corner of the State, directly north of the mouth of the Columbia River. Here the industry was started on a commercial scale in the early eighties by a French gardener named Chebot, who set out about 35 acres to the McFarlin, Native Jersey, Early Black, and Cape Cod Beauty varieties. Cuttings of most of these varieties were brought in from Wisconsin, New Jersey, and Massachusetts bogs. Some cuttings, especially of the McFarlin variety, were doubtless brought in from Marshfield, Oreg., where a Mr. McFarlin had started a bog 10 years previously with his own selection of vines from the East, which bear his name. Extensive planting, however, did not take place until 1912, from which time up to 1915 large areas in southwestern Washington were drained, cleared, and made available for cranberry culture. Approximately 700 acres of cranberries are now in bearing in southwestern Washington, with about 1,500 acres of peat land still available for cranberry culture. In Oregon and the remainder of Washington there is possibly a total of 1,500 additional acres of cranberry land, about 300 acres of which in Oregon (in Clatsop and _— Coos Counties) are now in bearing. Practically all the bogs of the Pacific coast are sphagnum peat of various ages and thicknesses, THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. 3 found generally in swales between shore-sand ridges of shght ele- vation. FEATURES OF BOG MANAGEMENT. Although considerable water sometimes collects on the Pacific coast bogs, especially during winter, as a result of the heavy rains from September or October to April, flooding as a distinct part of cranberry bog management is rarely practiced in that section of the country. Few bogs on the Pacific coast have a good supply of water suitable for flooding purposes, and the mild winter climate in the principal cranberry-growing region seems to obviate the necessity of protecting the vines from winter injury. Principally is this true in southwestern Washington. As a consequence many terminal — buds, especially on the warmer bogs, start to unfold shortly after. the vines reach maturity in September and October and a certain amount of growth usually takes place during the warmer periods of the winter. It rarely happens, however, that any material damage is done by frost. Covering the bog with water, usually from about November 15 to March 1, is practiced only to a limited extent in Oregon, but where ‘this procedure is followed good results are usually secured. In the southern sections of the State it is almost necessary to cover the bogs with water during this period in order to keep the terminal buds from pushing forth during the warmer periods of the winter and meeting probable damage from frost during the late winter and spring. The application of sand once every few years, as practiced on many eastern cranberry bogs, is not practiced on the coast, but prob- ably could be employed with benefit. Inasmuch as the majority of the bogs are located between sand ridges, an abundant supply of good sand is readily available should its use become desirable. PHENOLOGY OF THE CRANBERRY ON THE PACIFIC COAST. The growth of the cranberry vine on the Pacific coast bogs 1s exceedingly variable, as will be borne out by the data presented in Table 1. This is probably because these bogs are for the most part managed as dry bogs. The relatively variable weather in that sec- tion of the country is also doubtless reflected in the early growth, blooming, and fruiting of the cranberry. It is for these reasons chiefly that no exact dates can be given for the various stages in the phenology of the cranberry in that region. 4 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. An attempt has been made, however, after a long series of fre- quent observations, to determine as closely as possible the approxi- mate dates when these stages occur in their greatest abundance. These dates are presented, therefore, in Table 1 for the earliest grow- ing varieties, such as Early Black and McFarlin, and for the latest- growing varieties, such as Howe. There seems to be considerable variation in the growth of the varieties belonging to these two classes, the height of each stage in the growth of the latest varieties gen- erally coming a month after that of the earliest varieties. TasreE 1.—Phenology of the cranberry on unflowed bogs on the Pacific coast, based on observations at Seaview, Wash., 1918 and 1919. Approximate date of occurrence of the height of each stage on— Stage of development. The la- test va- Tieties. The ear- liest va- rieties. if Buds breaking and new growth beginning to push forth.....................2.-.-.-- Apr. 6] May 7 New upright growth 4inch to 2inch long.-.--..............-...- Fe ae nS oe Apr. 10| May 14 IBlossomsiin't Shook: Stage v2.2.2 Pose se ee ye OE 5 Dae oes May 12} June 14 Vines in full bloom...........--. Se Te a ORL Se tee eee June 9June 30 IBiossomsHallin san dberries Sel tin e=sse seen a sees ee eee nee ee eee June 30/| July 30 Such local influencing conditions as depth of vines, depth of the underlying peat, or protection from the strong northwest wind which commonly blows during much of the early growing season will, of course, cause wider local variations than those here given. The limits of each phenological stage are even more variable than the height, it being not uncommon, for instance, to find blossoms on some vines as early as May 12 and on others, many not yet fully opened, by July 15. An early spring, too, would have the effect of somewhat advancing the dates given in this table and a late one would prob- ably delay the early stages a little, but the later stages, such as bloom- ing and setting of berries, would probably be delayed to a less extent. INTRODUCTION OF THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM INTO THE NORTHWEST. Although the blackhead fireworm is found on the wild cranberry * as far as 2 miles from any cultivated vines, the severest infestations” in Washington and Oregon are on bogs planted originally with vines from Wisconsin, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. A study of the history of the cranberry industry on the Pacific coast and of the 2 Specimens growing wild in southwestern Washington were submitted to Dr. F. L. Pickett, of the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station and were determined by him as the common western cranberry, Orycoccus (oxrycoccus) intermedius, with the following note: ‘‘This is a little coarser than the small cranberry of the East, and bears slightly larger berries.” THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY, 5 origin of the cuttings used furnishes convincing evidence that large numbers of the eggs of this pest were brought into this region on the leaves of cuttings from bogs in these three States. These cuttings, principally from Massachusetts bogs, were used extensively in plant- ing a large number of bogs set out in Washington and Oregon between 1912 and 1915, which was about the time the blackhead fireworm became a pest of considerable importance in the regions from which these cuttings were imported. After the newly planted bogs had made sufficient growth, it was the practice to mow them and use the cuttings thus obtained to plant other areas, as these cuttings could, of course, be obtained at less cost and in better condition than those from the East. So, helped in this way, the blackhead fireworm spread over practically the entire region. Once established on a bog it was a matter of only a few seasons until this pest had overrun nearly every part of it and caused considerable damage almost before the owner was aware of its presence. DISTRIBUTION. The blackhead fireworm is found on nearly every cranberry bog on the Pacific coast. It has long been a pest of the cranberry in New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Wisconsin, where it now causes as much damage as any other cranberry pest and often more. According to Fernald,* it has also been found on the cranberry in New York and California. FOOD PLANTS. Numerous small larve resembling very closely in appearance those of Rhopobota naevana were found feeding on some common bog plants, such as “buck brush”*® and “sweet gale.”® None of these proved to be the blackhead fireworm; and, so far as known on the Pacific coast, Rhopobota naevana feeds only on the cranberry, both native’ and cultivated.® DESTRUCTIVENESS. The injury to the cranberry by the blackhead fireworm is caused by the feeding of the larve, or worms, on the buds, foliage, blos- soms, and fruit throughout the growing season. It is, very charac- teristic and quite unmistakable; there is no other pest of the cran- berry on the Pacific coast the work of which is similar in all respects *¥Fernald, C. H. A Synonymical Catalogue of the Described Tortricidae of North America North of Mexico, Jin Trans. Amer. Ent. Scc., v. 10, p. 48. 1882. 5 Specimens of this plant were identified as Spiraea douglasii by Dr. F. L. Pickett, of the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. 6 Also identified by Dr. Pickett as Myrica gale. “It belongs to the bayberry group.” 7 Oxycoccus (oxycoccus) intermedius, the common western cranberry. ® Oxryaoccus macrocarpus, the common cultivated cranberry. 6 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to that of the blackhead fireworm, nor has the cranberry there any other pest which annually destroys so much as this one. The young larve start to feed on the newly growing tips shortly after they hatch, in the months of April and May, and continue their work throughout the growing season, attacking in greater or less severity the buds, blossoms, and later the berries, injuring the berries by boring into them and causing them to shrivel and dry and often to fall from the vines. The most noticeable feature of the attack of the fireworm during the middle or latter part of the summer is the burnt appearance of the vines which results from the work of this insect, suggesting the name fireworm. Since the terminals are most affected, few if any fruit buds are set when the vines are badly infested, and as a result nearly all the crops of the current season and of the following year are destroyed by the feeding of the larve during a single season. The vines, while never completely killed, are very much stunted and by the end of the summer are left stripped of the majority of the leaves. They are often brittle, and in the case of long-standing infestation are short and scrubby with numerous short and crooked branches as a result of being prevented from making a natural terminal growth. From this condition they do not usually return to their normal produc- tiveness until good control work has been in force for several years. NUMBER OF GENERATIONS. By rearing the insect from the winter egg stage in an outdoor shelter it was found that it passes through two generations and sometimes a partial third. For example, the hatching of the winter eggs starts the first generation, and the resulting larvee which change into pupe and moths also belong to the first generation. The eggs that these moths lay start the second generation. Con- trary to the behavior of this pest in the East, only about four-fifths of these eggs hatched to form a second generation the same season in which they were deposited. The remaining one-fifth did not hatch until the following spring. All the eggs deposited by the moths resulting from the second set of individuals are known as the eggs of the third generation. So far as is known, in eastern cranberry regions the eggs of this genera- tion do not hatch until the following spring. On the Pacific coast, however, it was found that about one-third of the eggs of this gen- eration hatched late in the summer, forming a third generation of larvee. Because of adverse weather conditions toward the latter part of the season, none of these larvee developed into pupe and moths. This generation is therefore called a partial or incomplete generation. waa eee eee THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. " DESCRIPTION OF STAGES AND HABITS. THE EGG. The egg of the blackhead fireworm is smooth, slightly elliptical, with the center partially raised and rounded. It measures approxi- mately 0.65 millimeter wide, or about the size of the head of a very smal] pin. When first laid it has a slight opalescent sheen and a light lemon-yellow color which changes to a deeper yellow in about two weeks. The hatched egg is more inconspicuous, being trans- parent and appearing much like a small drop of albumin which has dried on the leaf. (Fig. 1.) Fic. 1.—Hggs of the blackhead fireworm moth on the undersides of the cranberry leaves, _ enlarged 7.5 times: a, Winter eggs; b, eggs in the ‘** black-spot”’ or first stage of devel- opment ; c, hatched eggs. HIBERNATION, The eggs are laid by the parent moth singly or in groups on the underside of the cranberry leaves; rarely, a few eggs will be found deposited on the upper surface of the leaves. On the badly infested bogs as many as 10 or 12 eges may be found on the underside of a single leaf. The majority of the wintering eggs are usually deposited on the leaves on the lower portions of the vines, the short, low up- rights near the ground generally containing the greatest number of eggs. During picking season and the following winter, many of these leaves are dislodged from the vines, and it is not an uncom- mon thing to find them on the bog floor bearing numerous eggs.. An infestation may easily be distributed from one part of a bog to 8 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. another by these leaves drifting from place to place over the bog in and on the water which sometimes collects during the winter time. Instances were noted in which numerous egg-bearing leaves had been washed into a corner of a bog, where they almost covered the vines. These eggs, being the first affected by rising temperatures, were the first to hatch in the spring, and the young larve had almost com- pletely destroyed the surrounding uprights before eggs elsewhere in the bog had hatched. INCUBATION AND HATCHING. The first signs of incubation are noted as the black head and tho- racic shield of the developing larva begin to show through the chor- ion or eggshell. As development progresses the young larva may be seen to move within the egg and finally, as it grows in vigor, to rup- ture the egg wall at a point over its mandibles and gradually escape by means of a wriggling sidewise motion through this slitlike open- ing, which is near the top of the upper surface of the egg. (Fig. 1, b,¢.) It usually takes from about 3 to 5 minutes for the larva to free itself entirely from the eggshell. Factors INFLUENCING HATCHING AND DEVELOPMENT. (a) Temperature—Temperature has the greatest influence on the fireworm eggs as well as on the other stages. This varies more than is generally supposed among different bogs, depending upon location. (6) Depth of vines—Another very important factor which tends to retard or hasten development of fireworm eggs is the depth of the vines in which they are deposited. A bog with thin vines will warm up more readily in the spring and maintain a higher temperature generally throughout the season than a bog with rather thick vines. Observations show, for instance, that on bogs with thin vines, hatch- ing generally starts during the first warm days of spring (sometimes late in March or in early or mid-April), reaches its maximum early (say towards the latter part of April), and produces moths in maxi- mum numbers in the middle or late part of June. Ona thickly vined bog, in the same locality, however, and under similar conditions of temperature and moisture, hatching, while it may start about the same time as it does on the thinly vined bog, will be only desultory until the vines have warmed up considerably. Hatching in maximum numbers may not take place then until the middle or latter part of May. This in the absence of a winter flooding distributes hatching, on bogs with a medium or heavy growth of vines, over a considerable period. (c) Drainage——During the winter or rainy season more or less water usually accumulates on the majority of the cranberry bogs THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. 9 on the Pacific coast. On those which are not quickly and easily drained this winter water remaining on the bog late in the spring causes the vines and the fireworm eggs to be rather slow in de- veloping, with a consequent grouping of the hatching and develop- ment of the first generation of larve. THE LARVA. The newly-hatched larva of the blackhead fireworm (fig. 2, a) is about 0.1 mm., or a little over one-thirty-second of an inch in length; at first it has a pale yellow color which turns to a darker yellow with age, and has a relatively large dark brown or black head, accentuated by the thoracic shield, the first segment back of the head, which is nearly as dark as the head; hence the name “ blackhead.” Fie. 2.—The blackhead fireworm: Views of the larva, enlarged 7.5 times: a, Newly hatched larvie: b, dorsal, lateral, and ventral views of full-grown larve. When fully grown (fig. 2, 6) the larvee measure about 6.5 mm., or about one-fourth inch in length, and are dark greenish yellow with a coat of darker olive green above. The head and thoracic shield are black. The larvee are very active from the time they are about one- fifth to one-fourth grown and vigorously wriggle from their gal- leries when disturbed, falling to the ground and quickly concealing themselves among the trash and leaves beneath the vines by a char- acteristic sidewise and backward movement of the body. They are provided with three pairs of thoracic legs, four pairs of abdominal legs, and one pair of anal legs: Depending upon the weather and the time of the season, the blackhead fireworm spends from 10 to about 75 days in the larva state, 74890°—22 2 10 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FEEDING HABITS. A newly hatched larva begins feeding shortly after it leaves the egg, but may wander about for from 15 minutes to half an hour be- fore taking any food. It usually starts feeding on the underside of the leaves, generally near the eggshell from which it has just emerged. At first it bites into the epidermis of the leaf, and, mix- ing the nibblings with the thread of silk which it spins continuously from several points beneath its lower lip. soon covers itself with a Fie. 3.—The blackhead fireworm: Characteristic work of the newly hatched larve on the underside of cranberry leaves. greenish brown material which has the appearance of fine sawdust. For a time it continues to chew into the leaf, feeding principally be- tween the upper and lower surfaces, acting in many respects like aleaf-miner. (See fig. 3.) This is particularly characteristic of the early-hatched larve of the first generation. The larve of this gen- eration which hatch later, and usually those of later generations hatched in warmer weather after the new growth is weil out, pro- ceed almost directly to the tip, spending very little time as leaf- miners. THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. il Depending upon the prevailing temperature and the condition of the weather at this time, the young larva in a somewhat dormant con- dition spends two weeks, more or less, in its burrow, feeding only when the weather is warm and favorable. If the weather is warm it will be quite active and may stay in its burrow only two or three days. On badly infested bogs it is a common thing to find the underside of the lower leaves on the vines badly chewed and full of burrows. The majority of instances of this type of injury are doubtless caused by the larva hatching early in the spring before the bogs have become sufficiently warm to permit active feeding, and also by those hatching late in the fall, as is often the case on account of the bogs being ex- posed to the weather the year round. At the approach of warm weather, or after the young larva has grown larger and stronger, it leaves its burrow and proceeds toward the tip of the upright. Here, if the weather should turn cool, it starts to feed in the whorl of leaves about the terminal fruit bud and incloses itself in a loosely constructed web of frass and silk, either between two terminal leaves or between the bud and the adjoining leaf, where it awaits more favorable conditions which may cause the terminal bud to break and grow. As these conditions become intensi- fied the larva proceeds to web up the unfolding leaves as it feeds on and skeletonizes them from within. From about the latter part of May or the beginning of June this injury is noticeable to the casual observer, many of the short, new uprights assuming a withered and bent-over appearance at the tip, similar to those shown in the accompanying illustration (fig. 4). As the weather becomes ‘warmer and the vine growth increases the fireworms, the majority of which at this time (about early June) may be nearly one-half to three-fourths of an inch long, feed rapidly on the leaves in their web galleries, gradually extending them or moving to an adjacent tip or upright as new food is needed. The vines gradually assume the characteristic dried, light yellow-brown appearance, and as feeding continues the bog begins to look as though a fire had swept over it, scorching the tips of the vines, which by midsummer are dry, reddish brown, and often nearly leafless; whence the name “ fireworm.” On a vigorously growing bog the late-hatched larve of the first generation often feed upon the unfolding blossoms and newly formed berries, sometimes causing them to drop from the vines. In their feeding the young larve frequently burrow into the blossoms at a point near the base of the petals and feed on the floral organs within, or they may bore into the ovary directly from the outside. This feeding is first noticed about the time when the blossoms are in the “hook stage” or about the beginning of June on the early bogs. At this time a few very small larve usually may be seen eat- 12 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing into the blossoms or berries, as described above; later on, both large and small larve may attack the berries, eating into them where the berries touch one another or the leaves or an adjoining upright. (See fig. 5.) The second generation of worms makes its appearance in consid- erable numbers the latter part of July. These larve not only feed upon the foliage, like those of the first generation, but they also web it up more, feed longer, and move from place to place much oftener than do the larve of the first generation. Especially on bogs Wie. 4.—-The blackhead fireworm. Early work of the larve in the tips: a, Entire new tip destroyed; 6b, showing how the tip leaves are webbed together; c, an uninjured upright. making little new growth they may extend their feeding to the old foliage, including many of the old uprights in. their webs. In addition, many of them may also feed extensively throughout the remainder of the season on berries of all sizes. It does not seem to make much difference whether the berries are webbed up or not; in fact, the majority of the berries attacked are not webbed up at all. (See fig. 5.) The injury done by the second generation of larve is, therefore, very striking. The third generation of worms is not very distinct from the second and not quite so numerous; but occurring THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY, 13 later in the season, when the vines are maturing, these larve feed principally on the berries, and therefore do more immediate damage to the crop if any remains on the vines. The result of the work on all three generations is not only the de- struction of the current season’s crop or its material reduction but also the loss of a considerable proportion of the crop the following year, the setting of fruit buds being largely prevented by the attack of the larve on the terminals. It will thus be seen that the fireworm in one season can -very materially reduce the cranberry crop of two seasons. Fie. 5.—The blackhead fireworm: Injury of the larve to the berries. The large berry on the upright is uninjured. PLACE OF PUPATION. After the larvee have reached their full growth they usually leave the webbed uprights and descend to the trash and leaves beneath the vines, where they inclose themselves between several old leaves in more or less loosely constructed cocoons, typical specimens of which are shown in figure 6. Sometimes, however, especially in the case of the larvee of the first generation, some may spin themselves up within a thin cocoon in the tips of the uprights, as shown in figure 7. Very 14 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. often some larvee, after feeding in a cluster of berries, will spin their cocoons and also pupate on the inside of one of them, or they may fasten their cocoons between the berries, mixing their silk with frass and any skeletonized leaves available. This is commonly true of the larvee of the second generation. It is not very unusual, therefore, to find some berries with the empty pupa cases protruding from a hole in the side. The great majority of the larve of all generations, how- ever, descend to the ground to pupate. THE Cocoon. As previously referred to, the cocoon of the blackhead fireworm is composed of strands of silk which the larva fastens to any surround- ing objects, as frass, leaves, or berries, and more or less loosely draws Hig. 6.—The blackhead fireworm: Typical cocoons formed out of dead cranberry leaves beneath the vines. The ones in the top row have been opened to show the interior; those in the lower row show the empty pupa cases protruding. All slightly enlarged. about itself preparatory to pupation. The interior of the cocoon is shown in figures 6,7, and 8. It is in cocoons similar to these that the larvee pass through a resting period followed by a final molting of the larval skin. This resting and molting, during which the pupa or chrysalis is formed, is called pupation. THE PUPA. The pupa or chrysalis of the fireworm is about 5.5 mm. or a little less than one-fourth inch long by 1.5 mm. or about one-sixteenth inch wide, and of a light amber yellow color immediately after casting the larval skin. This color soon changes to a deeper amber brown, and in pups about to change to adults the color is a very deep amber approaching almost black. The pup are not usually encountered without a rather close examination of the leaves and trash beneath THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY, 15 the vines in which, as already mentioned, most of the individuals of all generations pupate. (See fig. 8.) The pupe wriggle considerably when first picked up, moving the end of the abdomen in a circular motion, but they have no power of locomotion such as the larve have. Just before the moth is ready to emerge, and in order that it may do so without hindrance, the pupa, Wie. 7.—The blackhead fireworm: Pupa in cocoon spun in a tip of a cranberry upright. Enlarged 6 times. by means of this wriggling motion and with the aid of a number of small backwardly directed spines arranged in double rows around the back of each segment of the abdomen, forves itself out through the end of its loosely spun cocoon until the thorax and the tips of the wing pads are free of the edge of the cocoon. (See last. specimen at right in lower row of fig. 6.) 16 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The duration of the pupa stage varivs from 10 to about 65 days, depending upon the weather and the tinie of the season. THE ADULT. The adults, or moths, of the blackhead fireworm are conspicuous because of their habits of flight; when disturbed they often rise in very large numbers. Upon close examination they are found to be small in size, measuring in length from the tip of the head to the tip of the wing on the average about 6 or 7 mm., a little over one- fourth of an inch, or about the same length as the mature larve. With the wings spread they measure about 10 mm. across, or a little over three-eighths of an inch. The moths (fig. 9) differ somewhat in color, seeming to vary espe- cially according to age. The first pair of wings of freshly emerged Fic. 8.—The blackhead fireworm: View of pupa and interior of cocoon. Enlarged about 7.5 times. and unrubbed specimens have a ground color above of deep silver gray, with irregular markings of brown, which often give them a golden-brown sheen. Characteristic markings of a single row of short alternating brown and silver-gray bars running diagonally to the front margin are found on the first or upper pair of wings. The second or lower pair of wings of the female are without characteristic markings; those of the male have an irregular dark spot on the under- side near the front margin. The second or lower pair of wings of both male and female have a fringe of long, bristlelike scales extend- ing from near the tip along the back margin to the body. The abdo- men is medium and slender, depending on the sex, female specimens having a somewhat broader and shorter abdomen than the males. The abdomen and the legs are covered with dark silver-gray scales, which THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY, 17 often have a light golden-brown sheen. The antennz are about one- half the length of the body and more or less bristlelike. The adults live from 3 to 33 days after they emerge, and during this time eat little or nothing, except, perhaps, a little nectar from the blossoms, or water in the form of-dew or rain. HABITS oF FLIGHT. After the moth emerges from the pupal case it rests for a short time, - during which the wings are spread and dried. It then starts to fly — and moves rather swiftly in a short, jerky, darting motion, making usually only short flights from place to place over the vines. Par- ticularly on heavily infested bogs the moths are very conspicuous for their habits of flight. —— They will often be seen to rise in large numbers when disturbed, as by spraying or by a person walking through the vines on a warm after- noon, suggesting to some the appearance of a cloud. PERIODS oF ACTIVITY. A few moths may generally be seen flying from tip to tip almost every hour of the day from the time of their first appearance in June Fig. 9.—The adult or moth at rest on a eranberry up- E 5 right. Enlarged about 6 times. until late in September and October, but the time of day they are most active is from apout 3 o'clock in the afternoon until after dusk. During this period, especially if the weather is warm, they may be seen to rise in the air for a few feet, making their characteristic short, jerky flights. MIGRATION. It is in the moth stage principally that the blackhead fireworm spreads itself over the bog or invades an adjoining one. The moth, however, flying only short distances, would not naturally migrate more than several yards from its original region of activity; but, helped by the wind, it is possible for it to be carried as far as several 74890°—-22 3 18 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. hundred feet in one flight, and it is thus that bogs neighboring badly infested ones, especially to the leeward, may become badly infested in a few seasons. Other ways in which the fireworm is disseminated over a bog have been mentioned, namely, in the egg state, on leaves floating over the bog in the winter water (p. 7-8), and also on cuttings (p. 4-5). PROPORTION OF SEXES. In 1918, of 158 moths of the first generation emerging in the in- sectary, 81, or 51 per cent, were males, and 77, or 49 per cent, were females; of 59 moths of the second generation, 24, or 41 per cent, were males, and 35, or 59 per cent, were females. In 1919, of 101 moths of the first generation emerging in the insectary 53, or about 52 per cent, were males, and 48, or about 48 per cent, were females; of 52 moths of the second generation 24, or 46 per cent, were males, and 28, or 54 per cent, were females. This shows a slight predomi- nance of males over females in the first generation and the opposite in the second generation. COPULATION. Copulation usually occurs shortly after emergence. Of those pairs observed in the rearing shelter, one was found copulating the same day it emerged, two the day after emergence, and one pair did not copulate until 7 days after emergence. The same pair was never seen to copulate more than once. The period of copulation varies in length, the minimum: period observed being 1 hour and 26 minutes and the maximum 26 hours and 55 minutes. The male of one pair observed was noted dead and still attached to the female 3 days after copulation was first observed. OVIPOSITION. Egg-laying commences shortly after copulation, usually within a few days. During oviposition the female rather quickly pushes the egg out through the tip of the abdomen, which she holds very close to the underside of the leaf. Here the egg, a soft, plastic drop, settles over the surface and soon assumes its ordinary flat, oval shape. The outermost covering, which is rather moist when the egg is first laid, dries and cements the egg to the leaf and gives it its appearance of being glued on. (See fig. 1, a.) TIME OF DAy WHEN OVIPOSITION OCCURS. Eggs may be laid at almost any hour of the day and evening when the weather is warm and fair. However, in order to determine the time of day when the moths were depositing eggs. in largest numbers, THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. 19 32 males and 42 females of the first generation were collected from a cranberry bog on July 15, 1918, and immediately confined as follows in three battery jars 9 inches high by 5 inches wide: Jar No. 1 con- tained 12 males and 12 females; jar No. 2, 10 males and 12 females; jar No. 3, 10 males and 18 females. Each jar was provided with a few inches of slightly moist sand on the bottom, an abundance of clean cranberry uprights, and a sponge moistened with a weak solu- tion of sugar and water for food and moisture, Every 3 hours from 2 a. m. to 9 p. m. daily until July 20 the up- rights in each jar were replaced with fresh ones and the eggs on them and on the side of the jar counted and recorded. The sponge was also moistened daily. The number of eggs found deposited at each examination is sum- marized in Table 2. As will be noted therein, eggs were laid during every period between examinations, but the largest number of eggs was deposited between 3 p. m. and 9 p. m., 663, or 39.6 per cent of the total, being deposited between 3 and 6 p. m., and 650, or 38.8 per cent, between 6 and 9 p.m. The smallest numbers were deposited in the 12-hour period between 9 p.m. and 9 a.m. It will be noted fur- ther that the time of day during which eggs were deposited in largest numbers is also the period of greatest activity on the bog. TABLE 2.—Numober of eggs of blackhead fireworm moth deposited every 3 hours from 6 a..m. to 9 p. m. by moths of the first generation confined in battery jars; Seaview, Wash., July 15 to 20, 1918. Number | Per cent Number | Per cent Period of deposition. of eggs of total Period of deposition. ofeggs | of total deposited.| deposited. deposited.|deposited, SOK Wal, 0) Hels wl anne bee 78 4.6 || 3p.m.to6p.m.............. 663 39.6 6a.m.to9a.m-.-.--......._.. 2183 70) || O)p= Im COO ype mm=shs ose sees 650 38.8 9a.m.to12noon............. 67 4.0 12 noon to3p.m.......-.-... 209 12.5 Totaly eee ee es 1, 675 100.0 The number of eggs found deposited at each examination is shown in graphic form in figure 10, together with a curve showing the hourly temperature during the period of the experiment. Attention is here drawn to the influence of the temperature on egg-laying. It will be noted that the largest number was deposited between 3 and 6 p. m. on July 16, a few hours after the highest temperature, namely, 75° F., was recorded. SEASONAL HISTORY. It was noted that larvee of the first generation appeared in greatest abundance on the bogs about the latter part of May, the pup toward the middle of June, and the moths about the first or second week in July. 20 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Because of the overlapping of the generations, one can scarcely do more than speculate as to the date of occurrence of the stages of the second and third generations on the bogs; and the latest dates of the occurrence, particularly of the moths of the first generation and all the stages of the second and third generations, could only be obtained, therefore, by rearing methods. NATURAL ENEMIES. PARASITES. INSECTS. Although numerous very small wasplike insects (members of the order Hymenoptera) can be seen flying over the tops of the vines on | in | | g ENHE/ Te a N 8 N N & GQ a o 8 WOWLLY TEMPERATURE WW CEGREES FHA NUMEER OF ECCS CEFPOS/TED. 8 % \ fea 1 oles 1 realty 1 peace jal pene reseh peste LST fos (2) SNES 6 GI2D CRMIC PIF 6 BQLMT FI 6 GPIZ2ZF 6 QHEMI G6 G23 6 GFEMTZAO FDIZ23 6 GamTG E697 E 2472 C, Bee a ECR SE SULLY IS UULY IE UILY 17 UULY1E ULV IG Wily 20 Hy 2 Fic. 10.—Egg deposition by blackhead fireworm moths of the first generation. Records every three hours from July 15 to 20; Seaview, Wash., 1918. badly infested bogs on warm, clear days, none of these could be reared from collections of the eggs and larve of Rhopobota naevana from various bogs. Circumstances indicate very strongly, however, that the blackhead fireworm on the Pacific coast is parasitized, to a certain ex- tent at least, although not as much as on some dry cranberry bogs in the East. Funcous DISEASE OF THE PUPZ. From about the beginning or middle of August it is very common ’ to find, especially on the older and more badly infested cranberry bogs, areas of 3 to 5 inches or more in diameter of old leaves beneath the vines which have the appearance of being smeared with a floury- white substance. Closer examination of these areas will show that this whitish appearance is due to the fruiting growth of a para- sitic fungus,? which attacks and kills the pup concealed in their cocoons in these old leaves. This fungus is shown growing from the ° Determined by Dr. A. T. Speare, of the Bureau of Entomology, as a species of Spicaria. Ss THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. Al cocoon in the lower row of specimens in figure 11. The specimens in the top row have been dissected from the loosely constructed cocoons and show the fungous disease growing on the pupe. While this disease certainly causes the death of a large number of pupz on bogs where it is prevalent, not too much reliance should be placed on it in the control of the fireworm, since the greatest part of the damage by the fireworm is done to the vines before the time when the fungous disease is growing rapidly. The weather also may or may not be favorable to its rapid growth, and hence its killing power and spread are likely to vary considerably from one season to another. Fig, 11.—Fungous disease, a species of Spicaria, growing from the blackhead fireworm pupe in their cocoons. Slightly enlarged. PREDACIOUS ENEMIES. SPIDERS. On the cranberry bogs of the Pacific coast spiders of various kinds are found in very large numbers and doubtless devour many fire- worm larve and moths. 4 INSECTS. A large number of “ladybugs” are also seen on cranberry bogs, and their presence there sometimes causes alarm to a grower who is not familiar with their habits. One species, the California red ladybird beetle,?° is very common, and both larvee and beetles can be seen actively walking over the tips of the cranberry uprights any 10 Specimens determined by Mr. E. A. Schwarz, of the Bureau of Entomology, as _ Coccinella californica Mann. 29 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. time throughout the summer. The ladybird beetles, with few excep- tions, are beneficial insects; the adults of this species have been observed to feed readily on the larve of the blackhead fireworm in captivity, and in the field doubtless consume large numbers of this insect. CONTROL EXPERIMENTS. Since most of the eranberry bogs on the Pacific coast can not be provided with a sufficient supply of water for use in control work, insect pests on these bogs should be combated largely by the applica- tion of insecticides in the form of a liquid spray. This method seems especially desirable against the fireworm after a study of its habits and methods of feeding. It may also be necessary to do more or less spraying for certain fungous diseases at various times throughout the season, and some of the dates for these applications may corre- spond to a great extent with the time of application in the control of the fireworm. The grower, therefore, can combine the materials used for the control of the fireworm with those necessary for fungous diseases whenever the times for these two applications coincide, and thus save the expense of separate applications. All the contro] experiments against the blackhead fireworm were arranged, therefore, so as to include tests under actual bog conditions of several methods of spraying the eggs, larve, and adults with a number of promising insecticides, both with and without spreaders, at various times throughout the season. These sprays were applied by the types of nozzles shown in figures 12, 18, and 14, all the tests being so planned as to shed some light on questions concerning the number of applications, the best materials to be used, the amount of spray material which should be used per acre, and the most effective manner of applying it. MISCELLANEOUS SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. In Table 3 is given an outline and the results of the miscellaneous spraying experiments conducted on Howe vines on the Portland-Sea- ~ view Cranberry Co. bog at Seaview, Wash., in 1919. Very similar experiments were performed on this bog in 1918, but the severe infes- tations previous to that season had so reduced the bearing power of the vines that few blossoms were set in 1918, and the results therefore were not wholly dependable. They showed, however, a decided in- crease in control by the use of insecticides combined with spreaders, such as soap or glue, as compared with the same insecticides applied without the addition of these wetting agents. They also suggested that a solution of 40 per cent nicotine sulphate, used at the rate of 1 part to 1,000 parts of water, with the addition of fish-oil soap at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons and applied at the rate of about 300 THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY, ea gallons per acre, might be just as effective as the same kind of a solu- tion in which the nicotine was used at the rate of 1 part to 800 parts of water and applied at the rate of about 200 to 250 gallons per acre. The miscellaneous spraying experiments conducted on this bog in 1919 were therefore planned in the hght of the results of the pre- vious season. a TIME AND NUMBER OF APPLICATIONS. The odd-numbered plats, I to XV inclusive, received 3 applica- tions on the dates shown in Table 3. The first application (May 13 and 14) was made to catch the largest possible number of small larvee in and near the tips of the uprights before they had a chance to web up the new unfolding leaves. The new growth at this time was ap- proximately three-fourths of an inch long. The second application, June 12, was made to kill the next lot of larve hatching after the first application and came about the time when the majority of the blos- soms were in the “hook stage.” In order to catch the late-hatching -larvee the third spraying was made July 1 and 2 as the vines were ap- proaching full bloom. The even-numbered plats, from II to XVI inclusive, and plat XVII, received in addition to these applications just described one more application (July 16 and 17) about the time the moths were flying on this bog in greatest abundance. The pur- pose of this fourth application was to kill these moths and also any larvee which had moved into the tips at this time. While the frosts of May 4, 5, and 6 somewhat reduced the crop on nearly all the plats, the comparative results, as obtained by the ex- amination of the berries from 3 circular areas of about 100 square inches, each picked at random over each of the plats, strengthen the observations made of these plats at various times throughout the season. TABLE 3.—Outline of miscellaneous spraying experiments in the control of the blackhead fireworm on the Portland-Seaview Cranberry Co. bog at Seaview, Wash., 1919. Number of gallons used calculated per acre per application. Total Total number | number Gain Plat | Spray materials, dosage, of ber- | of ber- | 32er No. etc. Aver- ries | riesfree Check May 13 Taner July 1 | July 16; age per| exam- from : x and 14. ‘} and 2, |and17.| appli- | ined. | injury. cation. Mibkanbwe 40 per cent nicotine sul- phate, 1-1,000+fish-oil Per cent.) Per cent. _ Soap, 2-50..........5.... 380 300 3204 | ae 333 388 92.52 15. 50 II.....| 40 per cent nicotine sul- phate, 1-1,000-+ fish-oil soap, 2-50.............-- 380 300 320 480 370 402 95. 52 18.50 Til....| 40 per cent nicotine sul- phate, 1-800 + fish-oil es i Soap 2=50 uae eee 330 280 ND) hcg sacs 297 735 | 93.74 16.72 IV ....| 40 per cent nicotine sul- 2 phate, 1-800 + fish-oil Soap, 2-50 eee 330 280 280 480 342 737 97.42 20. 40 94 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 3.—Outline of miscellaneous spraying experiments, etc —Continued. Number of gallons used calculated per Hi acre per application. Total Total number} number Gai Plat | Spray materials, dosage, of ber- | of ber- Se No. etc. Aver- ries ries free aes May 13 Tanai July 1 | July 16}age per| exam- from 2 and 14. “| and 2: |and17.| appli- | ined. | injury. | cation. | Waite aa: 40 per cent nicotine sul- | phate, 1-600 + fish-oil ke | Per cent.| Per cent. SOAD 2-00 eee eects 295 270 PX AVA aes ou 278 820 91.21 14.19 VI....| 40 per cent nicotine sul- phate, 1-600 + fish-oil Soap) 2-00. s fess. cece 295 270 270 500 333 485 94. 22 17.20 VII...| Powdered arsenate oflead, 24-50-+ fish-oilsoap, 2-50_! 340 300 PAN) ee 300 401 83.04 6.02 VIII.-.) Powderedarsenate oflead, 23-50-+ fish-oilsoap, 2-50. 340 300 260 450 337 172 76.16 -96 IX....| Nicotine oleate, 1-300... -. 295 270 2OR See ee 278 433 91.45 14. 43 Dubie Nicotine oleate, 1-300..... 295 270 270 320 289 862 91.99 14.97 XI....| 40 per cent nicotine sul- phate, 1-800+glue, 1-200. 290 280 3108 Waa ee 293 703 | 83.64 6.62 XIT...| 40 per cent nicotine sul- phate, 1-800+ glue, 1-200. 290 280 310 620 375 600, 86.16 9.14 XIII. .| Nicotine oleate, 1-400..... 300 320 SO0E Sse ae 323 1,012 92.29 GRAY; XIV ..| Nicotine oleate, 1-400... _. 300 320 350 660 407 1,061 91.42 14. 40 XV ..-.| Nicotine oleate, 1-500... _. 330 380 BYAN I ee eae 343 793 87. 64 10. 62 XVI-..| Nicotine oleate, 1-500... _. 330 380 320 600 407 827 92.38 15.35 XVII.| ‘‘Phenolecompound”’ No. Dsl 500 Are ela set eet 420 | 560 320 560 460 628 73.56 3.46 XV IEE Check, untreated ss!..2. 25/2252. 2. [eprops e| Racdslc eee [hacia Sacre | Selah linea 74 MODE Reece as | | Note.—Mist nozzles as shown in figure 13 used for all applications, with hand barrelspray pump giving _ pressure of 50 to 100 pounds. NICOTINE SULPHATE. The conclusions drawn by Scammell™ regarding the effectiveness — and safety of 40 per cent nicotine sulphate in the contro] of the blackhead fireworm were borne out in the work on the Pacific coast. Of the various strengths used, 1 part to 800 parts of water with 2 pounds of fish-oil soap to each 50 gallons of solution, applied 4 times, seemed to give the highest percentage of cranberries free from fire- worm injury; it will be noted in Table 3, however, that 4 applica- tions of this material, used 1 to 1,000, gave nearly as great a gain over the check. The fact that it gave a higher percentage of clean fruit than 1 to 600 was probably due to the fact that there was a larger setting of fruit on this plat and perhaps a somewhat lighter infestation than on the one treated with the solution of the strength of 1 to 600. - NICOTINE OLEATE. Nicotine oleate was made by stirring together the proportions of a 40 per cent solution of free nicotine and oleic acid according to the directions given by Moore? as follows: u Scammell, H. B. A New Method of Controlling the Blackhead Fireworm. Jn Proce. 47th Ann. Cony. Amer. Cranberry Growers’ Assn. (Aug. 26, 1916), p. 8-12; Cranberry Insect Problems and Suggestions for Solving Them, U. 8. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 860, p. 4-9, 1917. 2 Moore, William. A Promising New Contact Insecticide. Jn Journ. Econ. Ent., y. 11, no. 3, p. 341-342, 1918. THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY, 25 Two and one-half parts of a 40 per cent nicotine solution unites with 12 parts of commercial oleic acid or red oil. Four and one- fourth parts of this soap will then contain 1 part of nicotine or will equal 24 parts of the 40 per cent nicotine solution. It will thus be seen that nicotine oleate is a nicotine soap made from a fatty acid and nicotine; as such it has the spreading properties of a soap and in addition it is a contact insecticide which can gener- ally be used in place of the ordinary 40 per cent nicotine sulphate and soap solution for cranberry spraying. It could not be mixed, however, with hard water or combined with Bordeaux mixture or any other alkaline solutions; and since it takes 44 parts of the nicotine oleate to equal in nicotine content 25 parts of the 40 per cent nicotine solution, about twice as much nicotine oleate as 40 per cent nicotine sulphate had to be used to equal one part of the latter. A spray material of this character, which has combined in it both soap and nicotine, would greatly facilitate the control of the fireworm, if not materially reduce the cost, wherever its use 1s prac- ticable. Solutions of the strengths used seemed to spread equally well over the cranberry foliage. As shown in Table 3, it was used at the rate of 1 part to 300 parts of water, 1 to 400, and 1 to 500, about equal, respectively, to 1 to 600, 1 to 800, and 1 to 1,000 of the 40 per cent nicotine sulphate formulas. Both three and four appli- cations were made of each strength. The largest percentage of _ fruit free from fireworm injury seemed to be obtained where nicotine oleate was used at the rate of 1 to 500 and applied four times. There is very little difference between the results of this plat (plat XVI) and those secured on plat XIII where nicotine oleate 1 to 400 was applied three times. This is partly explained by the fact that the fireworm infestation was more thinly scattered over the former plat than over the latter. The results where nicotine oleate was used at the rate of 1 to 300, while apparently very satisfactory, are not so good, considering all factors, as where it was used at the rate of 1 to 400. ARSENATE OF L®AD. As in 1918, arsenate of lead proved to be of little or no value in ‘the control of the fireworm, the foliage being badly eaten and nearly all the berries destroyed by the worms, even where four applications were made with the addition of soap. WETTING AGENTS OR ‘“‘ SPREADERS.” That the presence in the spray liquid of some material like soap, which will make it wet-or spread over the smooth, waxy foliage of the cranberry, seems to make considerable difference in the control 26 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. results obtained was plainly shown by the preliminary experiments of 1918 previously referred to. In 1919, therefore, a comparison of the kinds of spreaders was made and in these tests glue, 1 pound to 200 gallons, and nicotine oleate at the strengths mentioned above were checked against fish-oil soap, 2 pounds to 50 gallons. As will be observed in Table 3, the use of glue gave the poorest control of the three groups of plats III and IV, XI and XII, and XIII and XIV, in all of which the strength of the nicotine was approximately the same; nicotine oleate was next; and fish-oil soap, 2 to 50, gave the best results. . Observations made immediately after these spreaders were ap- plied showed that glue spread the solution fairly well over the old foliage, but failed to carry it into the small, new leaves at the tip, the region of greatest activity of the young larve; nicotine oleate spread very satisfactorily over both old and new foliage, but did not seem to go as far into the unfolding buds and leaves as did the solu- tion containing fish-oil soap, which, moreover, might be one reason for the superior contro] secured where fish-oil soap was used as a spreader. It was observed that fish-oil soap used at this strength would often carry the solution containing it into the very center of the group of small unfolding leaves at the tip of the upright and enable the solution to find its way into the loose web of any small larvee which might be working therein. ‘“ PHENOL COMPOUND No. 1.” A proprietary compound used primarily as a disinfectant and containing a large amount of crude carbolic acid was tested against the fireworm. This material mixes in all proportions with water, making a milky white solution which gives off a strong, characteris- tic carbolic-acid odor. It was used at the rate of 1 part to 500 parts of water and sprayed directly into the tips of the vines, as on the other plats. As will be noted in Table 3, little or no control was secured. DEMONSTRATION SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. The results of a series of demonstration spraying experiments, conducted on the bogs belonging to H. M. Williams & Sons, at Ilwaco Junction, Wash., in 1919, are presented in Table 4. The ma- terial found most effective in previous tests, namely, 40 per cent nicotine sulphate, 1 to 800, with soap 2 to 50, was used in all these experiments. THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. ON TABLE 4.—Outline of spraying experiments in the control of the blackhead fire- worm on the H. M. Williams & Son’s bog at Ilwaco Junction, Wash., 1919. a : ad Number gallons used per | 3 Betries tree & acre per application. ~ <3 | worm injury. 2 ® ; S q rd > Spray materials, dosage =| oO. 5 a; 3 3 ° nozzle, and variety of | |@ |g |B |s&8 2a eh ts S 5 ns cranberry. SON le pera eewret le slSii aS qd 56 i iB 2 g al 4 ~| islo8 = os go 2 S a iS lo | las |s&s| FS (B45) 8 | 6 ea | 4 ‘ Bp ESER Be sb ee ees) eet Gy a a da} |e eh Ss peat tS Fas| 62 3 & 3 4 & |n |e |e |< a i a o va S Per ct.) Per ct.| Per ct.| Bush.| Bush. A....| 40 per cent nicotine sul- | 378 | 378 | 418 |..--- 391 | 1,071 | 54.44 | 89.35 | 30.27 | 31.32 | 18.52 phate, 1-800 + fish-oil soap, 2-50, mist nozzle, Howe variety. B....| 40 per cent nicotine sul- | 457 | 666 | 444 |..-..- 522 | 1,355 | 58.67 | 89.74 | 30.66 | 46.98 | 34.18 phate, 1-800 + fish-oil | soap, 2-50, Bordeaux nozzle, Howe variety. Cries 40 per cent nicotine sul- | 300 | 389 | 257 | 417 | 341 | 1, 238 | 62.52 | 93.05 | 38.10 | 56.99 | 40.88 phate, 1-800 + fish-oil soap, 2-50, ‘‘spray gun,” Howe variety. D....| 40 per cent nicotine sul- | 300 | 389 | 257 |..... 315 | 1,499 | 54.30 | 84.25 | 29.30 | 75.06 | 58.95 phate, 1-800 + fish-oil soap,2-50,‘‘spray gun,”’ Howe variety. E....| 40 per cent nicotine sul- | 300 | 327 | 267 | 268 | 290 | 1,075 | 45.30 | 87.72 | 46.16 |176.88 | 161.85 phate, 1-800 + fish-oil soap, 2-50,‘‘spray gun,”’ McFarlin variety. F....| 40 per cent nicotine sul- | 300 | 327 | 267 |....- 298 | 1,162 | 41.22 | 77.45 | 35.89 |124.65 | 109.62 phate, 1-800 + fish-oil soap, 2-50,‘‘spray gun,”’ McFarlin variety. G....| 40 per cent nicotine sul- | 563 | 697 | 884 | 643 | 697 | 1,345 | 69.00 | 91.97 | 50.41 |168. 84 | 153. 81 phate, 1-800 + fish-oil soap, 2-50, Bordeaux | nouee McFarlin vari- aes ety. | H....| 40 per cent nicotine sul- | 499 | 388 | 499 | 554 | 485 | 2,343 | 56.50 | 93.81 | 52.25 |364. 26 | 349. 23 phate, 1-800 + fish-oil soap, 2-50, mist nozzle, McFarlin variety. aero Check on lee of plats A |.....|.....|.....|-.---|-.--- 479 | 44.88 | 59.08 4......- WIR essogoc and B, Howe variety, , untreated (for check on plats A and B). (eeane Check on lee of plats C |.....|.....)....-|...-. aSeiss 626 | 43.93 | 54.95 |....... TG SAS erercyesre and D, Howe variety, untreated (for check on - plats C and D). 3...--| Check on lee of plats F |.....|).....)...../..---|..-.- 474 | 33.55 | 41.56 |..-..-. USSR osoeace and H, McFarlin vari- ety, untreated (for check on plats E, F, G, H). | | Here an effort was made to test the three types of nozzles, namely, the Bordeaux, the mist type, and the spray gun, on as large a scale as possible, and to approach commercial spraying conditions. The plats selected ranged in approximate size from one-fourth to one-half acre and included the Howe and McFarlin varieties. These were previously badly infested with the fireworm and yielded few or no berries in 1918. Figures 12, 18, and 14 show these three types in actual use, and Table 4 shows the number of gallons per acre used in spraying with each type of nozzle, with a pressure of about 250 pounds at the tank. A stationary power outfit was used for all the applications, pipes being used to convey the spray liquid from the pump to the plats. 28 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Plats A and B constituted one section, containing about an acre of vines, C and D another to the south, and E, F, G, and H a third to the east of C and D. Since the infestation of these three sections varied somewhat it was thought advisable to have a check plat meas- uring 1 by 2 rods for each section. As noted in Table 4, they were placed to leeward of the plats of which they acted as checks to pre- vent the unnatural spread of moths over the plats. These were num- bered 1,2, and 3, respectively. The percentages of berries free from fireworm injury, as shown in Table 4, were obtained from an examination of the berries picked at harvest time from five circular areas of approximately 100 square inches each, selected at random on each sprayed plat. Berries were examined from three such areas on each of the check plats. The yield of each plat was obtained by measuring its entire crop as picked at harvest time. Plats A, B, C, and D were picked with a scoop, and plats EK, F, G, and H were picked by hand. The first four plats included vines of the Howe variety and the last four, vines of the McFarlin variety, all of which had reached the age of normal bearing. TIME AND NUMBER OF APPLICATIONS. The first three applications were made at practically the same time for aii plats, since the growth of the two varieties on these plats was very much the same. The first application was made on May 2 to 6, about the time when the largest number of buds were pushing forth but had not exceeded a growth of approximately three-fourths of an inch. This was the time when the young larve were appearing in very large numbers but before many of them had got beyond reach of the spray. The second application was made May 20 and 21, when many blos- soms were in the hook stage, and was timed so as to catch the next lot of larve before they could conceal themselves in the new growth. The third came June 13 to 17, when the vines were nearly in full bloom. It was designed to kill any late-hatching larve of the first generation which might have been injuring the blossoms and newly forming berries. Plats C, E, G, and H received a fourth application on July 9 and 10 at about the time many berries were already set. This applica- tion was intended to kill any very late-hatching larve and the moths which appeared on the bogs in largest numbers about this time. THE BordEAUX NOZZLE. The Bordeaux nozzle is modeled so as to deliver a forceful, driving spray in the shape of a fan. The nozzle is so arranged that the in- tensity of the fan-shaped spray can be regulated as desired. In THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. 99 Fig. 12.—Bordeaux nozzle equipment used in spraying experimental plats: a, Nozzles : held to show delivery of fan-shaped spray on a horizontal plane; b, nozzles held in proper position for delivering spray to vines. 30 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. spraying plats B and G with this type of nozzle, an effort was made . to hit on a nearly horizontal plane the underside of all the leaves, as well as to penetrate the vines.and wet thoroughly with the spray solu- tion all parts of the uprights, including the tips, by directing a force- ful stream of spray, as shown in figure 12 6. The main idea was to wet the eggs and also to catch the young larve in their burrows on the under ues of the lower leaves, as well as to wet any larve in the tips at the time. As will be observed in Table 4, three applications wie bes nozzle on Howe vines in plat B at an average rate of 522 gallons per acre resulted in a gain in yield of 34.18 bushels per acre over the un- treated plat; 89.74 per cent of the berries examined from this plat were free from injury by the fireworm. On the McFarlin vines in plat G four applications at an average rate of 697 gallons per acre, with this type of nozzle, produced a gain of 153.81 bushels per acre over the check and 91.97 per cent of the sample berries were free from fireworm injury. The small yields of plats A and B were due largely to the fact that since the vines in this section had been very badly infested the previous season, they produced very scanty bloom, and they also appeared to suffer more from frost on May 4, 5, and 6 than the other plats. THE Mist Nozze. The mist nozzle used was of the eddy-chamber or whirlpool-disk type. somewhat larger than the Vermorel and without the center- cleaning punch of the latter. It is so constructed internally as to throw a medium fine mist in the form of a hollow cone of spray which, depending upon the pressure of the liquid, measures from 12 to 18 inches in diameter about a foot from the nozzle. The outfit, as shown in figure 13, was made from galvanized iron pipe one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch in diameter on which four nozzles were placed 11 inches apart and the whole attached to the end of an ordi- nary 8 or 10 foot bamboo spray pole. The first nozzle on the end was set close to the pipe and each succeeding one was set 1 inch farther away than the preceding so that all would be the same distance from the vines when the rod was held by the operator in proper position for spraying. The applications with this type of nozzle on plats A and H were made with the primary idea of filling the terminal whorl of old leaves and the new unfolding leaves at the tip of the upright with the nico- tine sulphate and soap solution. As will be seen in figure 13, this spray was delivered on a more or less vertical plane, and no special effort was made to hit the underside of the leaves, entire dependence being placed on a thorough soaking of the tips of the uprights, which was quickly and easily done with this type of nozzle. THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. SL: On the Howe vines in plat A, three applications, at an average rate of 391 gallons per acre, with the mist nozzle produced a gain in yield of 18.52 bushels per acre over the check; 89.35 per cent of the berries picked from sample areas were free from fireworm injury. On the other hand, the same type of nozzle used on McFarlin vines in plat H, with four applications at the rate of 485 gallons per acre, produced a gain over the untreated vines in this section of 349.23 bushels per acre, 93.81 per cent of the berries examined being free from fireworm injury. 3 Vig. 13.—Mist nozzle equipment used in spraying experimental plats. THE Spray GUN. The spray gun (fig. 14) comprises usually a very large nozzle of the eddy-chamber type attached to a piece of tubing of varying length, fitted with a device for regulating at will the size and volume of the spray delivered through the nozzle. It is of larger capacity than the ordinary mist nozzle of the eddy-chamber type and is intended to be used only on power outfits where the pressure can be maintained at 200 pounds or over. In these experiments this type of nozzle was used at full-capacity opening with a medium-sized disk and threw a stream of spray about 15 to 20 feet long, which broke up into a medium fine mist before it reached the vines. In the use of the spray gun on plats C, D, E, and F an effort was made to fill the tips of the uprights with the spray liquid and also to hit the undersides of the leaves by holding the nozzle close enough to the vines so that the liquid would be delivered on a nearly horizontal 82 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plane. In this position the uprights would be bent over slightly and the tips as well as some of the lower leaves given a thorough wetting. As seen in Table 4, three applications with this type of nozzle on the Howe variety (plat D) resulted in an increase of 58.95 bushels per acre over check, and 84.25 per cent of the berries examined were free from fireworm injury. Four applications on the same variety. on the adjoining plat (plat C) resulted in a gain in yield of only 40.88 bushels over the check, doubtless because of the thin setting of blossoms on this plat, but 93.05 per cent of the fruit examined from the sample areas was free from fireworm injury. Fic. 14.—Spray-gun used in spraying experimental plats. Shows size of stream of spray used, with medium-sized disk at full capacity. On the McFarlin variety (plat F) three applications gave a gain of 109.62 bushels per acre over the untreated vines, 77.45 per cent of the examined fruit being free from fireworm injury. Four applications (plat E) gave better results, a gain of 161.85 bushels over the un- treated vines, 87.72 per cent of the examined fruit being sound. THE THREE TYPES OF NOzzLES COMPARED AS TO ECONOMY OF TIME AND MATERTAL. With the Bordeaux outfit (fig. 12) it took about 14 hours to spray an acre, an average of 609 gallons being necessary for a thorough application. It was necessary to walk about 24 times across the acre, which was in the form of a square. With the mist outfit (fig. 13), it took about 1 hour to spray an acre, 438 being the average THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. oo number of gallons used for a thorough application. Approximately 12 trips were necessary across an acre with this outfit. In point of time and material the spray gun was the most economical, requiring only 35 or 40 minutes to spray an acre, with an average of 875 gallons for an application. It was necessary to make only 6 to 8 trips with one spray gun across an acre. EFFECT OF THE NICOTINE-SULPHATE-AND-SOAP SOLUTION ON THE CRANBERRY PLANT. Although 40 per cent nicotine sulphate in the proportion of 1 part | to 800 parts of water with fish-o1l soap at the rate of 2 pounds to each 50 gallons of solution was applied to the vines when they were almost in full bloom, no decided decrease in the setting and maturity of the berries seemed to occur on those plats on which the spray was not applied forcefully or on a nearly horizgntal plane. It will be noted, however, in Table 4 that the percentage of unfertilized and immature berries, 1. e., the very small, dried, and undeveloped ones, but which were free from fireworm injury, was slightly, and in some cases considerably, increased in all the sprayed plats except F as compared with the respective untreated ones, the three plats with the highest percentage of berries of this kind being plats B, C, and G. Some explanation of this may possibly be found in the fact that in two of these plats, namely, B and G, the spray was applied forcefully with the Bordeaux nozzle on a nearly horizontal plane, which prob- ably could have seriously affected the fertility of the blossoms, as in some cases they were almost blown from the uprights. Plat C re- ceived four rather forceful applications with the spray gun, and this also may in a measure account for the high percentage of unfertilized berries picked from this plat. It is generally recognized among cranberry growers and others familiar with cranberry culture that the presence of a large amount of wet weather during the blooming period sometimes results in a small crop of berries. Whether or not the wet weather causes a de- creased crop by preventing the ordinary pollenization by insects or by destroying the fertility of some blossoms still seems to be a matter of conjecture. Since all the plats were affected by the same set of natural conditions, however, it would seem logical to suppose that the spraying of the vines while the blossoms were open with a type of nozzle which delivered a forceful spray on a more or less hori- zontal plane, and which thus thoroughly wet the floral organs, might have caused the comparatively small crop on the plats thus treated, by the sterilization and mechanical destruction of the blossoms. On the other hand, a certain rather beneficial effect in addition to the control of the fireworm was observed from the use of the nicotine- sulphate-and-soap solution, especially on the McFarlin variety. On 84 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plats E, F, G, and H, but particularly on H, it was noticed that the berries were generally much larger and the vines of a brighter green than those on the other plats. Wherever this spray solution was used it seemed to have a fertilizing or stimulating effect on the vines, making them grow more luxuriantly and produce larger sized berries than they otherwise would have done. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONTROL. REFLOWING. As recommended by Scammel,'* reflowing, where it is possible to do it properly, will doubtless be as effective in controlling the black- head fireworm on the Pacific coast as elsewhere. While no experi- ments were performed along this line on the Pacific coast, yet for the benefit of those growers who may be able to equip their bogs for reflowing and wish to employ this method of control, it might be stated that the proper time to reflow for the fireworm is when the majority of the larve of the first brood are about full grown, as at this time they can be more easily and quickly killed than in any other stage.“* On the bogs in the vicinity of Seaview, Wash., the majority of the larve of the first brood are full grown near the middle or latter part of May, but if the bog is winter flowed, i. e., covered with water in the wintertime, this date would vary according to the date this winter flood was drawn from the bog. In reflowing, the water should completely cover the vines and be held there for at least 48 hours in order to kill the greatest number of larvee. Any grass or other objects projecting above the surface should be removed so that the larvee can not crawl up to the tops and thus escape the flood. SPRAYING. Spraying with a solution of 40 per cent nicotine sulphate and water, with soap as a spreader, has been found to be the most effec- tive method of controlling the blackhead fireworm on the Pacific coast. How To PREPARE THE NICOTINE SULPHATE SPRAY. Any nicotine solution containing 40 per cent of nicotine sulphate is suitable in the preparation of this spray, and any kind of soap free from uncombined oils or greases may be used as a spreader. The proportions found most effective against the fireworm are: One part of 40 per cent nicotine sulphate to 800 parts of water, with 2 pounds of soap to each 50 gallons of the liquid. Solutions containing a greater proportion of nicotine sulphate than 1 to 800 will do no “’Scammel, H. B. Cranberry Insect Problems and Suggestions for Solving Them. U.S. Dept. of Agr., Farmers’ Bulletin 860, p. 7-8. 1917. 14 Ibid, p. 8. THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. Boe 5) harm, but on the other hand will give no better control, and if used at the rate of 1 part to 1,000 parts of water with the above proportion of soap, about one-third to one-half more gallons per acre should be used and then only on light infestations. To make 200 gallons of this material the tank should be run about three-fourths full of water while washing through the sieve 8 pounds of the soap, which should be previously broken up in warm water or otherwise thoroughly softened. One quart of the 40 per cent nicotine sulphate should then be poured slowly into the tank with the remainder of the water necessary to make up the 200 gallons while the whole solution is being thoroughly agitated to insure proper mix- ing of the ingredients. It is then ready to be applied to the vines. The nicotine sulphate is added last and in a diluted form to pre- vent the precipitate which forms when concentrated solutions of nicotine sulphate and soap are brought together and which decreases the effectiveness of the spray solution. If these materials are to be combined with Bordeaux mixture, the proportions of nicotine sulphate and soap and the process of mixing is the same as though water were used to make the solution as described above. Nicotine sulphate can be mixed with lime-sul- phur solutions in all the usual proportions, but no soap should be added to a solution containing lime-sulphur or any other similar compound, else a disintegration of the ingredients will take place which will not only weaken the effectiveness of the combination but also may cause severe injury to the cranberry vines. THE AMOUNT TO BE USED PER ACRE. Depending.on the severity of the infestation, not less than 250 to 300 gallons of this solution should be used in spraying an acre of vines, as good control can not usually be secured with a less amount than this. If it is preferred to use 40 per cent nicotine sulphate at the rate of 1 to 1,000, rather heavy applications will have to be made, less than 400 or 500 gallons per acre never being used. TYPE OF NOZZLE. The use of a nozzle, preferably of the large eddy-chamber type shown in figure 13, equipped with a disk, throwing a medium-fine mist which will quickly and easily wet the terminal whorl of leaves on the tip of the uprights, is to be recommended. The Vermorel type of nozzle is too small and throws too fine a mist (fig. 15), most of which is driven away by the wind and thus fails to give the de- sired results. The spray gun should be used only on very large and thinly infested bogs and then great care must be taken to see that no uprights are missed and that a uniform application is made with the pressure at the tank never less than 200 pounds per square inch. 36 ~ BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PRESSURE. The pressure need not be higher than about 200 or 250 pounds at the tank, depending upon the size and length of pipe or hose through which the liquid has to be forced and the number and kind of noz- zles used. TIME AND NUMBER OF APPLICATIONS. For vines which are only lightly infested three applications are recommended. The fist of these should come when the new upright. growth is from one-half to three-fourths of an inch long; that is, Fic. 15.—A spray boom for holding 10 Vermorel nozzles. Note the unevenness of the Spray cone and the necessity of considerable walking and dragging of hose over vines ° in spraying. Not a good type of outfit to use. when large numbers of the young larve are proceeding to and some working in or near the new unfolding leaves at the tips of the up- rights. The second should be applied shortly after the first blos- soms appear, or, in other words, at the early “hook stage.” This may come from 10 days to 3 weeks after the first application, de- pending on the weather; it is designed to kill the next group of larvee before they conceal themselves in the new growth. The third application should be made when the vines are in full bloom, or about 2 weeks after the second application, the object being to keep the young larve from destroying blossoms and newly forming berries. 4 7a a THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. 37 Vines which are rather heavily infested will require the first year all three applications, as outlined above, and an additional fourth application, which should be made during the first two weeks of July. This last spray is designed to give protection, both to the berries and to the upright tips in which the fruit buds for the fol- lowing year’s crop are forming, against late hatching larve of the first generation and the first larve of the second generation. It is also designed to kill many of the moths of the first generation, and it should, therefore, be timed so as to come within the limits men- tioned, as it is about this time that the moths are flying in largest numbers. By careful spraying with an outfit like that shown in fig- ure 13, one application at this time will clean a bog of fireworm moths and thus prevent a large number of the eggs of the second generation from being deposited. KIKXIND OF EQUIPMENT. A 50-gallon wheel-barrel outfit, with a strong pump, will usually be found sufficiently large for bogs up to several acres in extent. For larger bogs the power outfits of various sizes will be most economical, and in order to avoid dangerous delays at spraying time one should be sure that the parts are not only durable but easily accessible and replaceable as well. Any arrangement of nozzles and manner of spraying the bog that will insure thorough application of the spray as previously outlined and at the same time cause a minimum injury to the vines from walk- ing or dragging the hose over them will be satisfactory. After a consideration of the factors which influence the hatching and development of the blackhead fireworm (see pages 8-9), it would seem reasonable to suppose that a covering of water held over the vines until late in the spring, say until about April 10 to 15, together with the thinning out of thickly vined bogs, would have a very bene- ficial effect. It would also facilitate good control work by grouping the hatching of the larve. In view of the fact that it is also con- sidered a good horticultural practice on the Pacific coast, this method of bog management in connection with spraying is to be recommended wherever it is practicable, especially on bogs which are badly in- fested with fireworms. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. The blackhead fireworm (hopobota naevana Hiibner) is the most important pest of the cranberry on Pacific coast bogs. It is found also on native cranberry vines well isolated from cultivated bogs, but was doubtless introduced on these cultivated bogs on cuttings from eastern cranberry districts. So far as known on the Pacific coast, it feeds only on the cranberry. 38 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The phenology of the cranberry in that locality is quite vari- able. Usually on the earliest varieties, such as the McFarlin and Early Black, buds begin to break and the new growth begins to push forth about the beginning of April. The new upright growth is about three-fourths of an inch long by the middle of April, the blossoms are in the “hook stage” in about a month more, and full bloom comes about the beginning of June. The late varieties, such as the Howe, are more variable, but the new growth starts the beginning of May and attains three-fourths of an inch in about a week. The majority of the blossoms are in the “ hook stage ” about the middle of June and fully opened by the latter part of June or early July. Almost none of the bogs on the Pacific coast are ever completely covered with water, and the seasonal temperature is comparatively equable. ‘These conditions, coupled with the small number of para- sites, enable this pest to be very destructive, the larve feeding on the buds, foliage, blossoms, and fruit throughout the growing season. The insect passes the winter in the egg stage. The eggs are quite small, smooth, and slightly oval, with the center shghtly raised or rounded. They are lemon and orange yellow and are deposited singly or in small irregular groups on the undersides of the cranberry leaves. The young larva on hatching leaves the egg through a rent near the edge of the upper side and then feeds for a few days on the leaf or leaves near by. Later it proceeds to the tip of the upright, there feeding on the unfolding buds and blossoms. By rearing the insect from the egg stage in an outdoor shelter where conditions were maintained which approached those natu- rally found on the cranberry bog, it was found that there are annually two full generations and sometimes a partial third. Temperature, depth of vines, and drainage are the three most important factors in the hatching and development of the fireworm. The mature larva is very active, is about one-fourth of an inch long, dark greenish yellow, with a coat of dark olive-green above, and with head and thoracic shield varying from lhght brown to black. The ravages of the larve result in a burnt appearance of the vines, as if a fire had swept over the bog. Hence the common name “blackhead fireworm.” Nearly ail the larvee change to pupz in loosely constructed cocoons in old leaves and trash beneath the vines. The pupa is a little less than one-fourth of an inch long and of a brownish amber color. The adult or moth moves in quick, jerky flights, is about the same length as the mature larva, and has characteristic markings of a single row of short, alternating brownish and silver-gray bars running diagonally to the front margin of the first pair of wings. The males have an irregular dark area near the front margin on the underside of the second or lower pair of wings. THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. 39 Naturally the moths do not migrate more than a few yards, but, helped by a strong wind, it is possible for them to be carried as far as several hundred feet at a flight. Im the egg stage, the fireworm can be disseminated over a bog in two other ways—namely, on leaves floating on the water which naturally gathers on the bog in the winter time and on leaves on cuttings used in planting. Egg laying usually commences from one to several days after copu- lation and closely follows the temperature, the largest number being deposited between 3 and 9 p. m. The larve of the first generation appear on the bogs in greatest abundance about the latter part of May, the pupe toward the middle of June, and the moths about the first or second week in July. A fungous disease which attacks the pupz in their cocoons in the old leaves beneath the vines is responsible for the death of a large number, especially on old and badly infested bogs. Spiders and ladybird beetles also kill a large number of the fireworm moths and larvee. Control experiments seeking to establish the best kind of spray materials, the proper number of applications, and the most effective manner of applying them, were conducted on small and large scales under natural bog conditions. Forty per cent nicotine sulphate at the rate of 1 part to 800 parts of water, with the addition of fish-oil soap at the rate of 2 pounds to every 50 gallons, used at the rate of about 300 gallons to the acre, was found to be the most effective spray material against the fireworm. Forty per cent nicotine sulphate, used at the rate of 1 part to 1,000 parts of water with the addition of fish-oil soap, 2 pounds to every 50 gallons, was nearly as effective. Nicotine oleate made by mixing 23 parts of a solution containing 40 per cent free nicotine with 1% parts of commercial oleic acid, or red oil, and used at the rate of 1 part to 400 parts of water, applied three times at the rate of about 300 to 400 gallons per acre, was found nearly as effective as 40 per cent nicotine sulphate 1 to 800 with fish- oil soap 2 to 50, applied three times at the minimum rate per acre. Arsenate of lead proved of little or no value in the control of the fireworm. T[ish-oil soap, 2 pounds to 50 gallons of solution, was a much better spreader for spray solutions on cranberry foliage than glue, which was used at the rate of 1 pound to 200 gallons. One com- pound containing a high percentage of crude carbolic acid and usually employed as a disinfectant gave little or no control. Demonstration spraying experiments were conducted in which 40 per cent nicotine sulphate 1 to 800, with fish-o1l soap 2 pounds to 50 _ gallons, was used. Four applications on McFarlin vines, in which the eddy-chamber mist type of nozzle was used, gave the best results, producing the largest yield of berries and the highest percentage of berries free from fireworm injury. 40 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The spray gun, used in spraying McFarlin vines four times, gave the next highest yield, but the third highest percentage of uninfested fruit of this variety. The results of four applications with the Bordeaux type of nozzle on the McFarlin variety ranked third in yield and second in per- centage of uninfested McFarlin berries. No very definite conclusions based on yield can be drawn from the experiments of spraying on the Howe variety on account of injury by the fireworm on the plats in 1918 and frost in the spring of 1919. Of the Howe plats receiving three applications, however, the one sprayed with the Bordeaux type of nozzle resulted in the highest percentage of fruit free from fireworm injury, that sprayed with the mist type of nozzle was second, and that with the spray gun was third. Four applications with the spray gun on the Howe variety gave the highest percentage of uninfested fruit of all the plats on which the spray gun was used. Generally speaking, four applications gave better results than three. On bogs that can be reflowed, a complete covering of the vines with water for not less than 48 hours during the middle or latter part of May is recommended as a help in the control of the fireworm. Since most of the bogs on the Pacific coast, however, are managed as dry bogs, spraying with 40 per cent nicotine sulphate 1 to 800, with the addition of fish-oil soap at the rate of 2 pounds to every 50 gallons, is recommended as the most feasible method of control of the black- head fireworm in that locality. Between 250 and 300 gallons of this material should be used per acre. In making up the nicotine sulphate spray, the fish-oil soap should be mixed with about half the quantity of water and the re- quired amount of nicotine sulphate added with the remainder of the water to prevent the formation of a precipitate which decreases the effectiveness of the spray solution and which might also clog the nozzles and possibly injure the vines. This spray solution can be com- bined with Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur in the usual propor- tions, in which case the process of mixing is the same as though water were used. Vo soap, however, should be added if the mixture contains lime-sulphur. The large eddy-chamber type of nozzle, throwing a medium fine mist, at a pressure of about 200 pounds at the tank, should be used; other types of nozzles may not only give unsatisfactory re- sults but may also injure the blossoms. The spray gun should be em- ployed only on lightly infested bogs. Vines which are lightly infested should have three applications of the nicotine sulphate spray, the first one when the new upright growth has reached a length of about three-fourths of an inch, the second when the blossoms are in the early “ hook stage,” and the third when the vines are in full bloom. THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. 41 Heavily infested vines should have all of these three applications at the times mentioned and an additional fourth application during the first two weeks of July. In the application of this last spray an effort should be made to hit as many moths as possible with the spray solution. A 50-gallon barrel outfit on wheels, with a strong pump, will be found desirable for small bogs. For bogs larger than several acres in area, power outfits should be used. In making the applications great care should always be exercised to prevent injury to the vines. SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF RHOPOBOTA NAEVANA HUBNER. By Cart Hetnricn, Bureau of Hntomology. SYNONYMY. Tortrix naevana Hiibner, in Samm. Eur. Schmett., v. 5, TFort., pl. 41, fig. 261, 1814. Tortrix unipunctana Haworth, in Lep. Brit., p. 454, 1812. Lithographia geminana Stephens, in List Brit. Mus., Pt. X, Lep., p. 99, 1852.2 ? Sciaphila luctiferana Walker, in Cat. Brit. Mus., Lep., ser. 6, pt. 28, p. 342, 1863. Anchylopera vacciniana Packard, in Guide Stud. Ins., p. 338, 1869. Rhopobota naevana Staudinger and Rebel, in Cat. Lepidop., aufl. 3, theil 2, p. 127, 1901. Eudemis vacciniana Dyar, in List No. Amer. Lepidop., p. 466, no, 5238, 1902. Rhopobota naevana Dampt, in Iris, bd. 21, p. 304-829, 1908. GENERAL CHARACTEES. ADULT. Plate: J, Aer Plate i A BG: Thorax smooth. Forewing smooth; termen deeply concaved between veins 4 and 6; apex pointed but not faleate; 12 veins; 7 and 8 stalked; 10 from eel! midway between 9 and 11; 9 approximate to 8; 11 from cell at or just before middle of cell; upper internal vein of cell nearly obsolete, when distinguishable, from between 9 and 10; 3, 4, and 5 closely approximate at termen; 2 bent up slightly at outer third; costal fold in male absent. Hindwing with 8 veins; 6 and 7 approximate toward base; 3 and 4 stalked; male with a shading of coarse black scales on underside of wing along upper vein of cell. Male genitalia as figured; harpes undivided, with rudimentary clasper present and on outer surface just above lower margin a row of rather long, stout spines; uncus present, bifurcate, arms widely separated, rather short, weakly chitinized and slipper shaped; gnathos reduced and fusing with socii; socii greatly developed, porrected, extremities meeting in hairy knoblike projection; nedoeagus straight, moderately long, fairly stout. PUPA. Plate nib aC: Slender, abdominal segments gradually tapering; a double row of spines on dorsum of abdominal segments 3 to 6 inclusive, a single row on abdominal segments 2, 7, 8, 9, and 10; first abdominal segment smooth; wings extending to or slightly beyond ventro-caudal margin of fourth abdominal segment; cephalic end bluntly rounded; vertex distinct, as broad as prothorax; labrum, mandibles, and maxillary palpi well developed; maxillary palpi extending to proximo-lateral angles of maxillze; maxille less than half the wing length; labial palpi half the length of maxilize; prothoracic femora and mesothoracic 42 Sk ot & THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. 43 coxe exposed; antennz and mesothoracic legs not reaching to end of wings; several strong setz on tenth abdominal segment; a pair of stout setze on each side of anal rise; anal rise unarmed; body set otherwise weak and hardly distinguishable; spiracles slightly reduced; anal and genital openings Sslitlike in both sexes; cremaster absent. LARVA. Plate II, D; Plate III, A-C, E-G. Cylindrical, slender, very slightly tapering at caudal end. No secondary hair. Legs and prolegs normal. Crochets uniordinal, in a complete circle. Anal fork present, reduced. -Prothoracic shield broad, divided. Spiracles round, moderate; that on eighth abdominal segment slightly higher than those on abdominal segments 1 to 7, not over one and one-half times as large, same size as that on prothorax. Skin evenly and appreciably scobinate. Body sets moderately long; tubercles broadly chit‘nized; IV and V on abdominal segments 1 to 8 under the spiracle and approximate; prespiracular shield of prothorax elongate, large, bearing three sete (III, IV, and V) ina longitudinal line; group VI bisetose on prothorax, unisetose on mesothorax and metathorax, greatly reduced and closely approximate to IV and V on abdominal segment 9; III antero-ventrad of the spiracle on eighth abdominal segment, directly over the spiracle on abdominal segments 1 to 7; IIIa not distin- guishable; on thoracic segments 6 sete in group VII; VII bisetose on abdominal segments 7, 8, and 9; ninth abdominal segment with 9 sete in a nearly vertical line, paired sete of group II close together on same chitinization on dorsum, I and III closely approximate; on abdominal segments 1 to 8 II latero-caudad of I; prothorax with II" slightly higher than I*, closer to II” than to I*, II? above the level of puncture z; I° nearer to puncture z than to I‘, II° about equi- distant from I” and I‘, puncture y directly caudad of I*, puncture x dorso- ecaudad of [2 and on the level of IT@. Head capsule spherical, nearly square in outline viewed from above; slightly wider than long; greatest width well back of middle of head; incision of dorsal hind margin slight, about one-fourth the width of the head; distance between dorsal extremities of hind margin about half the width of the head. Frons broad, triangular, longer-than wide, reaching beyond middle of the head. Adfrontal sutures extending to incision of dorsal hind margin. Longitudinal ridge very short, less than one-third the length of the frons. Ocelli six; lenses well defined. Hpistoma normal. Frontal punctures close together; well forward of frontal sete; distance from frontal seta (F") to first adfrontal seta (Adf*) about equal to distance separating adfrontal setw# (Adf and Adf?) ; Adf? anterior to beginning of longi- tudinal ridge; puncture Adf*? between and about equidistant from Adf’ and Adf?. Epicranium with the normal primary sete and punctures and with a row of three ultraposterior sete and one puncture. Anterior sete (A’*, A’, and A*) in a line with lateral sete (1*); anterior puncture (A*) closely approximate to and posterodorsad of A’. Posterior sete (P* and P*) and puncture (P”) in a line with first adfrontal seta (Adf'); P* about middle of head, on the level of adfrontal puncture and lateral seta (L*); P? between and about equi- distant from P* and P’; puncture P* lying between P* and L’, approximate to the latter. Lateral puncture directly posterior to L', remote. Ocellar sete {O0%, 07, 0°) well separated, forming a right. angle; O* lying below and between ocelli II and III; 0? postero-ventrad of ocellus I, in a line with ocelli 1 and IT 44 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and seta A*; O* ventrad of O*, remote; ocellar puncture not distinguishable. Subocellar setz (SO*, SO’, and SO*) triangularly placed; puncture SO* ap- proximate to and equidistant from SO? and SO*. Genal puncture (G*) anterior to the seta (G*). Labrum with median incision broadly triangular, rather shallow; median sete (M’*, M’, M’) triangularly placed; M’ postero-laterad of M* and closer to M’* than to M’*; La’ directly posterior of and approximate to La’, behind the level of M’; La’ on the level of M*; La* and M®* on the same level near anterior margin of labrum; puncture approximate and posterior to M’. Epipharyngeal shield narrowly bordering the median incision, not sharply defined. Epipharyngeal sete triangularly grouped, rather close together, nar- row, moderately long. Epipharyngeal rods indicated only by their short posterior projections. Eaecs. Plate III, D. Oval, flat, scale-like, iridescent ; deposited singly. SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION. ADULT. Palpi brownish on outer sides, grayish white on inner and upper sides. Face and head grayish, more or less suffused with fuscous. Thorax fuscous. Fore- wings grayish, cross-marked with fuscous or, in some specimens, dark reddish brown; the brown area forming an outwardly angulated basal patch some- what marked with gray or whitish scales and covering the basal third of the wing; a similar brown suffusion forming an ill-defined fascia extending from just beyond middle of costa to tornus, considerably wider on dorsum than on costa; a narrow brown terminal line, following the contour of termen and broadening at apex to a distinct brown spot; a fainter angulate brown line from costa dividing the ocellus; on costa six or seven pairs of short, somewhat obscure, white geminate marks separated by distinctly brownish shadings; ocellus metallic gray with longitudinal markings. Hindwings fuscous. Legs fuscous with inner sides white or grayish and tarsi annulated with white- Alar expanse, 9-14 mm. PUPA. Length, 5-6 mm.; yellow or yellowish brown, not appreciably .darker at extremities but with sutures and caudal margins of abdominal segments brown; dorsal abdominal spines brown, arranged as shown in Plate I, C. LARVA. When full grown, 10-11 mm. long by 1 mm. broad. Body sordid white; the seobination blackish, giving the entire iarva a pale smoky fuscous color ; chitinized areas about body tubercles white except on prothorax where they are dark brown, in some specimens almost black; thoracic shield brown or blackish brown; median dividing line pale yellow; chitinized parts of thoracic legs black or blackish brown; anal shield yellowish; anal fork two-pronged, small and easily overlooked; body hairs brown; crochets 36-42, brown, weaker at the cephalic end of the circle and increasing in length toward the caudal margin where the longest are over twice as long as the shortest at the anterior margin (Pl. III, C). Head yellow, more or less suffused with dark brown, especially on ventral side; a distinct brownish patch at posterior lateral angle of epi- cranium; chitinized parts of trophi black or blackish brown; ocellar pigment black, continuous under the ocelli; lenses white. aula THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. A5 Kaa. Shining grayish white; entire surface finely and evenly faceted, smooth. This species has appeared in our economic literature and lists under the name vacciniana Packard, and has been held to be an American species distinct from the European naevana Hiibner, although the synonymy has been long suspected. A careful comparison of the genitalia and external characters of the two shows them to be one species. Another American species, /'pinotia ilicifoliana Kearfott, also should be referred to the genus Rhopobota as a variety of R. naevana. In genitalia it is identical but differs somewhat in pat- tern. Dampf, in a very excellent study of their genitalia, has shown the synonymy of the two European forms naevana Hiibner and geminana Stephens. The larva of Rhopobota naevana is easily confused with another cranberry feeder, Peronea minuta Robinson, which it superficially re- sembles. The latter, however, can be at once distinguished by the ar- rangement of sete I, II, and III on the ninth abdominal segment and its different anal fork. In 2. naevana I and III are closely approxi- mated and on a single chitinization and the anal fork is two-pronged and very small; whereas in ?. méinuta I is well separated from ITI, about equidistant from both IT and III, and both I and III are on separate chitinizations and the anal fork is five or six pronged, large, and rather conspicuous. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE I. ‘Rhopobota naevana: A.—Adult. C.—Pupa, dorsal view. B.—Pupa, ventral view. Explanation of symbols applied to pupa. a = antenna. l* = metathoracic leg. ao = anal opening. Ip = labial palpi. at = invaginations for anterior md = mandible. arms of tentorium. mp = maxillary palpus. ex’ = coxa of mesothoracie leg. ms = mesothorax. es = epicranial suture. mt = metathorax. f = femur of prothoracic leg. mx — maxilla. ge = glazed eyepiece. p = prothorax. go = genital opening. se = sculptured eyepiece. Ib = labrum. v = vertex. I = prothoracie leg. 1 to 10 = abdominal segments 1 to 10. 1? = mesothoracic leg. Puate ITI. Rhopobota naevana: A.—Denuded forewing of female moth, showing venation. B.—Denuded hindwing of female moth, showing venation. C.—Male genitalia of moth; ventral view of organs spread. D.—Setal map of first and second thoracic, and third, eighth, and ninth abdomi- nal segments of larva, showing arrangement of body sete. 46 BULLETIN 1032, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Explanation of symbols applied to genitalia. Ae = edeeagus. Hp = harpe. An = anellus. Si = socii. Cl = clasper. U = uncus. Cn = cornuti (spines on penis). Vm = vinculum, Gn = gnathos. PuateE ITI. Rhopobota naevana: A.—Dorsal view of head capsule of larva, showing setal arrangement. B.—Lateral view of head capsule of larva, showing setal arrangement. C.—Arrangement of crochets of abdominal proleg of larva. D.—Hegeg, greatly magnified. E.— Ventral view of tenth abdominal segment of larva, showing anal_fork. F.—Labrum of larva. G.—Epipharynx of larva. Explanation of symbols applied to larva. At, A’, A’, A*=setee and puncture of anterior group of epicranium. Adf’, Adf’?, Adf@=adfrontal setze and puncture of epicranium. ADFR=adfrontal ridge of larval head. ADFS=—adfrontal suture of larval head. Af=anal fork. E', E?=epistomal sete. ER =epipharyngeal rod. ES =epipharyngeal shield. ET=epipharyngeal sete. I’, F*=frontal seta and puncture of epicranium. FR=frons of epicranium. G’, G'=genal seta and puncture of epicranium. L’, L?=seta and puncture of lateral group of epicranium. La’, La’, La*=lateral sete of labrum. Lp=labral puncture. LR=longitudinal ridge of epicranium. M*, M’, M’=median sete of labrum. 0’, O?, O’=setx of ocellar group of epicranium. Pp’, P’, P*, P?=setze and punctures of posterior group of epicranium. SO’, SO’, SO*, SO*=setz and puncture of subocellar group of epicranium. X=ultraposterior sete and puncture of epicranium. Drawings on Plates I, II (except C), and III were made under the author’s supervision by Miss E. Edmonston, of the Bureau of Entomology. The male genitalia (Pl. II, C) were drawn by Miss Ada F. Ineale, formerly of the Bu- reau of Entomology. Bul, 1032, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Ayes 3 [ \ 7 é LU Rts A wf ord y pea 4 by 28 Tal © my (38 THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. Bul. 1032, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. Bul. 1032, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Aaf? Aat® Aat? ye ie Lat [2 ye THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY. ost UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE vy. BULLETIN No. 1033 ee Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 27, 1922: DIGESTIBILITY OF COD-LIVER, JAVA-ALMOND, TEA- SEED, AND WATERMELON-SEED OILS, DEER FAT, AND SOME BLENDED HYDROGENATED FATS. By Harry J. Deve, Jr., formerly junior chemist, and ArTtHuR D. HoLMss, formerly specialist in charge of nutrition experiments, Office of Home Hconomics, States Relations Service. CONTENTS. - Page. Page. Purpose of investigations ______ aly 1 Hxperiments—Continued. Experimental method______-_-____ 2 Watermelon-seed oil__-----~__ UG HM xpenimentse apa Tl Bee A 3 DG errs ofa alias as TeatN eee Re aetna 8 CSodslaivenk one Sess ssi se a 3 Blended hydrogenated fats ____ 9 ava Almond Ol! Ss ese ES eS Di aSummeanive cts TeSUltS aoe ee ras eae 15 PR EES Cs Cy a a es NERS 6 PURPOSE OF INVESTIGATIONS. An abundant supply of fat is of major importance in the consider- ation of nutrition, whether of the individual or the nation. Not only are fats wholesome, palatable, and most useful in cooking, but many also carry fat-soluble vitamin A. Our older ideas regarding the indispensable role of fat in the diet must be somewhat modified if we accept the results of certain recent studies. Osborne and Mendel? conclude from experiments on rats that “if true fats are essential for nutrition during growth, the mini- mum necessary must be exceedingly small” and Drummond,? on the basis of similar studies, states that unless minute amounts of fat play as important a role in metabolism as do minute quantities of vitamins, it is reasonable to suggest that pure fats are dispensable constituents of the diet. Such findings, however, do not greatly lessen the importance of fats as a foodstuff. During the recent war, in the countries where the fat supply was far below normal, great. discomfort and a serious lowering of health and of resistance to 1 Jour. Biol. Chem., 45 (1920), No. 1, pp. 145-152. 2 Jour. Physiol., 54 (1920), No. 4, p. XXX. 105934—22 yi BULLETIN 1033, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. disease were common and physiologists generally believe that this was due, to some extent at least, to a lack of vitamin A. It should also be remembered that fats and oils represent the most concen- trated source of body fuel, a fact that has an important bearing on the food transportation problem and on the cost of food to the con- sumer. An adequate national food policy therefore requires that an abundant fat supply be maintained during peace times as well as during war, and there is justification for the efforts made to find new sources of food fats and to make better use of those we now have. For such reasons the Department of Agriculture has outlined a broad program for the study of edible fats, which includes investiga- tion of the source of supply, methods of production and rectification, the relation of feed to fat production in farm animals, including the cost at which fat is produced at different ages, and the relation of this to the production of meat and dairy products. It also in- cludes studies of the economical use of fat in cookery and its rela- tion to the quality of the cooked product and of the thoroughness of digestion of fats and oils and the tolerance of the body to dif- ferent kinds. These latter aspects of the problem have been for some years under investigation in the Office of Home Economics of the States Relations Service, cooperation with other bureaus being se- cured whenever this has seemed desirable. The digestibility of 60 or more different fats and oils, some of animal and some of vegetable origin, has been tested in the Office of Home Economics. In a few cases, fish oil and avocado fat for in- stance, the fat was not extracted but was eaten as it occurs in these foods as ordinarily served. In most cases, however, the fat was rendered or otherwise freed from the tissue in which it occurs, and if necessary, further purified. These studies have been reported from time to time in publications of this department and in pro- fessional journals.? This bulletin reports two groups of studies, one with a variety of fats and oils regarding which information ‘was needed for special reasons, and one with blended hydrogenated fats such as are now in common use. : EXPERIMENTAL METHOD. The method followed in these experiments was the same as that developed in the previous digestion experiments of this office. No method has yet been devised by which the proportion of nutrients actually digested from any one food material in a mixed diet can be directly measured, and all the methods now in use admit of at least 2U. S. Dept. Agr. Buls. 310 (1915), 505 (1917), 507 (1917), 630 (1918), 687 (1918), 613 (1919), 781 (1919); Jour. Biol. Chem., 41 (920), No. 2, pp. 227-235; Anier. Jour. Physiol., 54 (1921), No. 3, pp 479-488 DIGESTIBILITY OF OILS AND FATS. 3 slight chances of error through the assumptions made regarding such factors as metabolic products and the digestibility of the nutrients in the basal diet. The procedure here adopted is believed to give as nearly correct results as any with which this office is familiar, and since it has been consistently followed in all the experiments in this laboratory, the results can be confidently said to show the relative digestibility of the various food materials thus studied. In compar- ing the results of studies conducted by one method with those by another, due allowance should be made for differences in procedure and calculation, and such allowance will frequently be found to lessen apparent conflicts or discrepancies in the findings which different investigators have obtained from experiments with similar materials. The subjects in the present experiments were young men appar- ently in normal health, most of them students in a local university. They were familiar with this type of work, having served as sub- jects in previous experiments, and were entirely trustworthy. Each experiment was carried on for three days and included nine meals. The methods for separation of the feces, analyses, etc., were those usually followed. In each experiment the special fat to be studied was incorporated in a cornstarch blanc-mange or pudding. This was eaten along with a basal ration which consisted of commercial wheat biscuit, oranges, and sugar and which supplied a very small amount of fat in com- parison with that in the blanc-mange. Clear tea or coffee was in- cluded when desired. The reports of the individual experiments are here presented in condensed form, but full data are on file in the Office of Home Economics. EXPERIMENTS. COD-LIVER OIL. Though long and favorably known in medicine, especially in the treatment of tuberculosis and other wasting diseases, cod-liver oil has had no general use for food purposes. It has, however, entered into the diet to some extent, both the cod livers and the oil finding some use as food. Dr. Vivia Appleton, who has studied diet in Labrador, has stated in personal communications that cod livers are there con- sidered a delicacy and she believes them to be a valuable source of vitamin A. Fishermen from points north of Boston are said to take the crude oil from cod livers and eat it spread on bread. The short- age of fat and particularly milk fat, ordinarily the most important source of vitamin A in child feeding, led Chick and Dalyell* to use * Brit. Med. Jour. No. 3109 (1920), pp. 151-154, 4 BULLETIN 1033, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. — cod-liver oil extensively as a food fat in the relief work with children in Vienna after the war. The success of this makes it clear that cod- liver oil can be relied on for such a purpose whenever circumstances make this desirable. Many experimental studies of cod-liver oi] have been reported in medical literature. Some of the most interesting are those dealing with its iodin content, which Andrés, quoted by Lewkowitsch, reports as 0.02 for pale oil and 0.03 per cent® for yellow oil, and to which its therapeutic value has been attributed by some. Osborne and Mendel first noted the remarkable potency of cod- liver oil in vitamin A. More recently Zilva and Miura have shown by new quantitative methods that crude cod-liver oil is in some cases two hundred and fifty times as potent as butter fat and refined cod- liver oil many times superior to butter in this respect.*? This has naturally aroused much interest in the relation between its vitamin content and its therapeutic value. Such investigations, together with its successful use in the treatment of malnutrition in Vienna, can hardly fail to bring about a more general use of cod-liver oil as food fat. It is interesting to note that cod-liver oil has been studied in animal feeding, specifically its effect on milk production when used as a supplement to other fat in the ration of dairy cows. Hart, Steenbock, and Hoppert report’ that the daily addition ef from 5 to 10 cubic centimeters of cod-liver oil to the diet of dry and milk- ing goats consistently changed negative calcium balances to positive, showing that some factor affecting calcium assimilation is present in cod-liver oil. The digestibility of cod-liver oil by man has been studied by Wells,? who fed 100 grams per day to human subjects and found that it was well assimilated. No significant difference was noted between the emulsified and the unemulsified oil, the coefficients of digestibility being respectively 96 and 97 per cent. Judging by the results ob- tained, the cod-liver 01! shghtly increased the thoroughness of diges- tion of the other fats present in the experimental ration. In the experiments made in this laboratory no difficulty was experi- enced in feeding the cod-liver oil, the flavor being well masked by the ‘caramel and yanilla extract used in the cornstarch pudding which served as a vehicle for the fat. The results of four experiments are summarized in Table 1. 5 Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oil, Fats, and Waxes. 1909, 4 ed., vol. 2, p. 361. 6 Jour. Biol. Chem., 17 (1914), No. 3, pp. 401-408. 7 Lancet [London], 200 (1921), No. 5085, p. 328. § Jour. Biol. Chem., 48 (1921), pp. 33-50. °’ Brit. Med. Jour. No. 2181 (1902), pp. 1222-1224. DIGESTIBILITY OF OILS AND FATS. 5 Taste 1—Summary of digestion experiments with cod-liver oil in a simple mixed diet. | Digestibility of entire ration. | Digesti Experiment No. Subject. ae ee Protein. Fat. eee Ash. | oil alone. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. gear eee ey Oi, Cees, a | areal 91.3 96. 4 62.0 97.2 aaa REISE Heia Git Seen) 65.6 96.5 96.6 70.4} 100.0 TIM sss, Se EMIS | SAL 12.8 88.9 95.9 32,5 | OF, 2 Ts ee ee fy ie ecco ee 59.2 93.8 66.6 47.5 | 98. 4 PR erapcmemey ial reget rors be aes a | MERS0L5 | Son%6 96. 4 53. 1 97.7 The food eaten per man per day provided on an average 16 grams of protein, 47 grams of fat, and 310 grams of carbohydrate, and its fuel value averaged 1,740 calories. The maximum amount of cod- liver oil consumed by any subject was 53 grams per day. The co- efficient of digestibility was high in every case, and the average fig- ure, 97.7 per cent, indicates a very complete utilization. Except that all the subjects were somewhat constipated, no physiological dis- turbance was noted. In thoroughness of digestion, cod-liver oil agrees closely with the majority of fats and oils that have a melting point at or below body temperature. JAVA-ALMOND OIL. The digestibility of this oil is of interest not only because the nut is valued highly in Java, but also because the finely ground kernels mixed with water to a kind of emulsion and added to milk find there a special use in infant feeding with, it is believed, good results. The Java almonds (Canariwm commune) needed for this experi- ment were obtained from Java by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry. The nut resembles somewhat a small-sized pecan in shape, and the kernels are much like a small almond in appearance and have a very agreeable flavor. In the present work a small-sized laboratory oil press was used to express the oil, which was of clear yellow color and bland in flavor. The supply available was sufficient for only two tests. The results are Summarized in Table 2. TABLE 2.—Summary of digestion experiments with Java-almond oil in a simple mired diet. Digestibility of entire ration. | Digesti- bility of Experiment No. Subject. | Java- Carbo- | almond trove Bat. || ydrate |) ) "=> |loilalone: Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. TUS SU ae aR a aoa ae Le fa bpd Oe Seal eae 52.2 95. 5 96. 2 66.3 99.4 MOE ie ia= rare ata nei Se dD idl aia Sess ile as 30. 5 89.0 96.5 36.6 94.5 PASVICT AG Ob ats eee eile ais eye os eee Rie eis nis 41.4 92. 2 96. 4 51.4 | 97.0 } 6 BULLETIN 1033, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The food eaten per man per day provided on an average 15 grams of protein, 61 grams of fat, and 311 grams of carbohydrate and its fuel value averaged 1,860 calories. The average coefficient of digesti- bility of the Java-almond oil, which made up over 98 per cent of the total fat of the diet, was 97 per cent. So far as may be judged by the continued good condition of the subjects, the palatability of the oil, and its high digestibility, there is good reason to conclude that it compares favorably with other nut oils used in this laboratory. TEA-SEED OIL. The best grades of tea-seed oil are used to some extent for food purposes in China and have been found as an adulterant of cabbage oil. The Chinese use poorer grades for burning and for soap making. That used in the tests here reported was a commercial product of a pale yellow color and bland flavor. The fitness of this by-product oil for food has been questioned on the ground that, as saponin has been found in it, it may be harmful. Hooper *° reports 9 per cent saponin in tea seed and states that some is always dissolved by the oil. Weil™ states that oil made by extrac- tion contains no saponin. The oil used in the present experiments was examined for saponin in the Pharmacological Laboratory, Bu- reau of Chemistry, with negative results. The experiment was begun with three subjects, who ate some 40 to 50 grams of the oil per man per day. Owing to the accidental loss of some of the feces in the case of two subjects, complete data are available from only one person. The available results are summarized in Table 3. TABLE 3.—Data of digestion experiments with tea-seed oil in a simple mixed diet. | Digestibility of entire ration. | Digesti- Experiment No. Subject. | aed Protein. | Fat. Woe Ash. | oil alone. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. OP ee eat aie eee De EN) Oe tea a i eee 47,2 88. 2 98. 4 42,1 91.2 The daily food of the subject for whom the experimental data are complete, provided on an average 9 grams of protein, 50 grams of fat, and 204 grams of carbohydrate, and its fuel value averaged 1,300 calories. The average amount of tea-seed oil eaten daily was 49 grams. The subject remained in his usual good health and suf- fered no noticeable physiological disturbances. This was equally 10 Pharm. Jour..and Trans. [London], 3. ser., 25 (1895), No. 1282, p. 605. m1 Arch, Pharm., 239 (1901), No. 5, pp. 365. DIGESTIBILITY OF OILS AND FATS. eat true for the two other subjects, both of whom ate the experimental diet for three days. The coefficient of digestibility, 91.2 per cent, obtained in the one complete test is somewhat lower than is usual with oils liquid at body temperature, but the data are too limited to be taken as conclusive. All that can fairly be said on the basis of the work here reported: is that tea-seed oil appeared to be well tolerated and over 90 per cent digested. WATERMELON-SEED OIL. Watermelon-seed oil is at present made only for experimental purposes, but its possible economic and commercial importance is suggested by the fact that another cucurbit fat previously studied, pumpkin-seed oil, is well known as a food product. It was there- fore included in the present series of tests. Watermelon-seed oil is easily expressed from the seed which, ac- cording to Lewkowitsch !” will yield 40.8 per cent. It is hght brown in color and pleasing in flavor. That used in the experiments here reported was obtained through the courtesy of F. Rabak, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The quantity available was limited and so the amount supplied per day to the subjects was less than usual in such experiments. Tests were made with three subjects. The results are summarized in Table 4. TABLE 4.—Summary of digestion experiments with watermelon-seed oil in a simple mixed diet. Digestibility of entire ration. Digesti- 5 bility of Experiment No. Subject. waters : Carbo- ee Protein. Fat. : | Ash. seed oil . | hydrate. Pai | ; Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. GOO MENA LAD yas Sues dived 4 Ons Se aaa aan ae ee 66.9 89. 4 98. 6 | 53.7 | 92.5 MOQ Meek fae m vay cia ice (sje GS 8 SINS ee IU Re 41.6 88. 5 97.0 29.7 93.9 OSE eres Cone Seen IW O7 Oe ea eae eae 62.2 94. 2 98.0 | 27.8 97.9 BAVIOTIAP Cae 1 hace Lie wth hy ealic ice MES 56. 9 90. 7 97.9 Bie lua| 94.8 } The total food consumed per man per day supplied on an average 9 grams of protein, 32 grams of fat of which nearly 30 grams were watermelon-seed oil, and 215 grams of carbohydrate, and its fuel value averaged 1,190 calories. No special physiological effects were noted and the coefficient of digestibility, 94.8 per cent, was rela- tively high. In general it can be said that watermelon-seed oi] re- sembles the two other cucurbit-seed oils previously studied, canta- loup and pumpkin-seed oils, both of which had a coefficient of diges- ia Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats, and Waxes. 1909, 4. ed., vol. 2, p. 126. d 8 BULLETIN 1033, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tibility of 98.2 per cent.4? Like these oils it was well tolerated and so far as can be judged would be useful for food purposes if avail- able commercially. DEER FAT. While the fat of the various species of deer is not a commercial product in the United States, in some localities it is a constituent of the human dietary, especially during the open season. In this con- nection it 1s interesting to recall that in Alaska the carcass as well as the milk of the reindeer is used for food and reindeer fat forms no inconsiderable part of the diet. The importance of caribou fat in the diet of natives and others in the Arctic region is well brought out in accounts of such travelers and explorers as Stefansson.* For the experiments reported below two shipments of fat from white-tailed Virginia deer were obtained through the courtesy of John B. Burnham, president of the American Game Protective and Propagation Association. The crude deer fat was taken from a num- ber of animals shot in New England and New York during late fall and early winter. No information was available concerning the part of the body from which the fat -was taken, but in general ap- pearance the crude fat resembled somewhat the “leaf” or kidney fat of mutton. The various lots received were rendered together and the product is believed to be typical of deer fat. Its melting point was found to be 51.4° C. This is net unlike the figures quoted by Lewkowitsch,” which show that the melting points of fat from different species of deer vary between 49° C. and 54° C. Only three experiments were made as the available supply of deer fat was limited. The results are summarized in Table 5. TABLE 5.—Summary of digestion experiments with deer fat in a simple mined diet. | Digestibility of entire ration. | oa r | : | Digesti- Seas | | bility of Experiment No. Subject. | Reaaey | dean tae | Protein. Fat. | hydrate. Ash. alone. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Y YO ae AE 9 0 Se a Dee) CORA EG ea ree ts <1 Das Das LA 2 08 | 59.5 71.5 95.4 47.0 | 78.0 (by isis Ses BEES EASE APE CEI Foes bem mes 2 TS eee | 65.3 73.9 95.8 45.4 | 81.2 WOde ee eee ee IN BALE SS ane P ees nd de Bee | 31.9 75. 4 | 95.6 41.0) 85.8 Averagesk sss iy ies RIM EULA Se Ny Shee | 52.2 73.6 95.0 44.5 81.7 } The food eaten per man per day provided on an average 20 grams of protein, 46 grams of fat, and 311 grams of carbohydrate, and its fuel value averaged 1.760 calories. The diet as a whole was well w%U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 781 (1919). 14 My Life with the Hskimo. 1913. 16 Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats, and Waxes. 1909, 4. ed., vol. 2, pp. 723, 724. DIGHSTIBILITY OF OILS AND FATS. 9 assimilated, no physiological disturbance was noted, and the deer fat, though its melting point is rather high as compared with common food fats, did not lower the digestibility of the other ingredients of the diet. The average figure reported for digestibility of deer fat, 81.7 per cent, is considerably lower than that found in most of the experi- ments made in this laboratory with fats. The only exceptions were hydrogenated peanut oil which had a melting point of 52.4° C. and showed practically the same coefficient of digestibility,’® 79 per cent, and oleo stearin which was 80.1 per cent digested.17 Though the amount of deer fat eaten per man per day is small compared with other fics previously studied in this laboratory, it constituted the major portion of the total fat eaten in all three tests and there seems no reason to doubt the accuracy of the results. The average results of the experiments with cod-liver, Java- almond, tea-seed, and watermelon-seed oils and deer fats are sum- marizd in Table 6. TABLE 6.—Summary of results of digestion experiments with certain miscel- laneous oils and fat in a mixed diet. Digestibility of entire ration. 4 } Digesti- : a : bility of Material tested. | Ay ol oilounat Protein. | Fat. area Ash. alone. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. COoblbivear Cll Use se SuB Nes ae aea aa eatn ame aee 3 ammmntie 50.5 | 92.6 96.4 53.1 97.7 Jeine-elbmavosanel Gills Sa Se ae ee i aaa eemaaos 41.4 | 92.2 96. 4 51.4 97.0 PREA-SECUROl eae re nai. x ken Ea Ua eto 47,2 >| 88. 2 98. 4 42.1 91.2 Wiacenmelon=seedioilen esse in Sy eae ee ee 56.9 | 90.7 97.9 Olen 94.8 IDRC bs Gado s Aten a a OCD EEE RE EIS eer a iene 3 52.2 | 73.6 96.0 44.5 81.7 BLENDED HYDROGENATED FATS. During the last 10 or 15 years the hydrogenation process has come prominently into use for the preparation of solid fats from liquid oils. This procedure, although limited in general use to those oils which have a fairly large amount of unsaturated fatty acids, finds applica- tion in the hardening of a number of vegetable and animal oils that are produced in quantity. There are two general methods for the preparation of hydrogenated fats. In one, all the oil is subjected to the hydrogenation process until a fat of the desired melting point is obtained. In the other, part of the oil is hydrogenated until a fat with a very high melting point is obtained, which is then mixed with a sufficient amount of the un- treated oil to give a fat of the desired melting point. In the discus- 16 Amer. Jour. Physiol., 54 (1921), No. 8, pp. 479-488. 7U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 613 (1919). 10 BULLETIN 1033, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sion which follows such fats are designated “blended fats” in con- trast to the “ hydrogenated oils” made by hydrogenating the entire quantity of oil. It has been claimed that this blended fat is inferior in keeping quali- ties to that produced by hydrogenation alone.1® The blending method is, however, generally given preference because of the larger produc- tion possible with a given equipment. Moreover, the blended fat may supply vitamins, if any were present in the oil that is blended with the hardened fat. A previous paper from this laboratory reported a series of 44 experiments on corn, cottonseed, and peanut oils hydrogenated to dif- ferent degrees of hardness.1® It was found that with the exception of hydrogenated peanut oil melting at 52.4° C., which was 79 per cent digested, and corn oil melting at 50° C., which was 88.5 per cent di- gested, the hydrogenated oils studied had coefficients of digestibility of 92 per cent or higher. No one of them caused any observed diges- tive disturbance nor was a decrease in the digestibility of the experi- mental diet as a whole noted in any case. In general, the results showed that as the melting point of the hydrogenated oil increased the digestibility decreased, the decrease being much more marked with those melting at over 46° C. To determine whether or not blended fats have the same digesti- bility as hydrogenated oils made from the same kinds of oils and hav- ing approximately the same melting point, such blended fats were used in the experiments here reported. They were made for the pur- pose from the same lots of corn, cottonseed, and peanut oils used in the earlier experiments with hydrogenated oils.?° The hard fats used in the preparation of the majority of the blended fats were prepared in the laboratory of Carleton Ellis by one of the authors (H. J. D.) of this bulletin assisted by J. R. Kuhn. The oils were completely saturated with hydrogen at 180° C. and had a melting point, in every case, of approximately 60° C. In the case of the two blended cottonseed fats, with melting points of 41.3° C. and 50° C., cotton stearin obtained from the Bureau of Ani- mal Industry was mixed with a good grade of commercial edible cottonseed 01] obtained from the Bureau of Chemistry. The melting points, iodin numbers, and proportions of hardened and untreated oil in the fats used are shown in Table 10, page 13. These blended fats were white, solid or practically so at room temperature, and without any characteristic odor or taste. When melted, their color was yellow, resembling that of tallow. If allowed 18 Rogers, A. Manual of Industrial Chemistry. 1915, 2. ed., p. 601. 19 Holmes, A. D., and Deuel, H. J., jr.. Amer. Jour. Physiol., 54 (1921), No. 3, pp. 479-488. 20 Amer. Jour Physiol., 54 (1921), No. 8, pp. 479-488. DIGESTIBILITY OF OILS AND FATS. 11 to cool slowly, the stearin separated out leaving a liquid layer on top of it. When cooled quickly with continued stirring, a homogen- ous, white compound was obtained which resembled lard. Blended corn fats—Ten digestion experiments were conducted with blended corn fat, four with fat melting at 39° C. and three each with fats melting at 49° C. and 54° C. The results are sum- marized in Table 7. TABLE 7.—Summary of digestion experiments with blended corn fats in a simple mixed diet. Digestibility of entire ration. | Digesti- Melting ne | bility of Experiment No. point Subject. | ee blended of fat . Yarbo- | corn fat SERN liek ets | hydrate. | alone. BC: Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 55.3 94.4 96.7 97.2 67.1 94.9 | 97.0 97.4 13.0 90.5 96.8 94.4 54.9 88.5 96. 2 91.9: 47.8 92.1 96.7 95. 2 67.4 91.7 | 95.6 94.9 59.9 92.4 | 98.0 94.7 58. 4 87.0 96.5 90. 2 61.9 90.4 | 96.7 93.3 lee, 65.3 89.7 | 95.8 93. 0 E. L. 29.1 83.5 | 96. 1 88. 5: DIG HSe ee Seep ees er. GA aa tS epee EAE aon on Soe 64. 2 90.1 | 96.8 | - 92.9 VANVICTAE Obes apa Pay SLE Clie es Weta) Lice eae eas 52.9 87.8 96. 6 91.5 The average amount of blended corn fat eaten per man per day was 102.9 grams for the fat melting at 39°C., 105.4 grams for the fat melting at 49° C., and 92.5 grams for the fat melting at 54° C. The maximum amounts eaten per day were 121.2 grams of fat melting at. 39° C. in experiment No. 1117, 126.2 grams of fat melting at 49° C. in experiment No. 1130, and 103.7 grams of fat melting at 54° C. in experiment No. 1134. The digestibility of the blended corn fat was on an average 95.2 per cent for the 39° fat, 93.3 per cent for the 49° fat, and 91.5 per cent for the 54° fat. The subjects experienced no physiological disturbances during the three-day experimental! periods. The blended fat melting at 54° was somewhat better digested than the hydrogenated corn oil melting at 50° used in the earlier experi- ments, although the blended fat was eaten on an average in twice as large amounts as the hydrogenated fat. Blended cottonseed fats——Thirteen experiments are reported with blended cottonseed fat, two each with the fat melting at 41.3° C., 45.8° C., and 48.1° C., three with the fat melting at 50° C., and four with the fat melting at 47.8° C. The results are summarized in. Table 8. 19 BULLETIN 1033, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 8.—Summary of digestion experiments with blended cottonseed fats in a simple mixed diet. | Digestibility of entire ration. | Digesti- : | bility of Melting : Experiment No. | point Subject. | | blenged of fat. mives| : Carboy sce ae Protein. | Fat. ; | seed fat | hydrate. | marie’ | | S bs Cs Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. AO ae ens sapre eet fy 418313) eee Rea Ge ces See eee 57.7 | 92.8 94.8 97.8 AQUA IG, SES. SE 3 41 >3/3| PKA, 5. mae = he ee 76.8 91.9 96.8 | 95.4 NGC) 2 {ape eR | ei Pe Se [eo or EE Re 672: 92.4 95.8 95. 6 1149 ERS hoa ed eam 45 dol BST nee a rm es (aia le 90.5 97.5 ? 94.6 TTSOseseE Ec OR He Te ASLO WORE eee.) eee eis mk 56.4 | 93.8 96. 7 | 98. 2 PAVGLAGCH ras tof 2 cero Saal pocorn neces Meee 7! 66.6 | 85.4 93.5) 90.0 TDG Sk eee Aes ed || ATRS°| SEV. Gigs 2), mepee esce at 58.8 | 92.0 96.0 | 95.3 MS fees OS oon ee eran AT585|, Wola: | iS Sigemean'= 2 49.3 | 91.2 96.7 | 94.5 SUE Tate aan, Sena AT SOR TE He Ocean Ue 75.4 94.0 | 97.9 96.1 Averages. sc ecsalsexsee- ts [eececn a Meera: 2 Daneman ee 62.5 90.7] 96.8 | 94.2 LPG 2 2721 aR he a as ARS Ta lihr. Mii Ms seeceees steceee snare 61.8 90.2 97.5 | 93.7 NOSE eee ee ote hee ASN Jers Oise sec Aantal 40.0 89.5 95.8 | 95.0 PN Vera gern ts 7. 2 Wer ice de Sac ec deen Taal org neo 50.9 80.8 | 96.6 | 94.4 AD ee cecil ete oe GLE Wh: i 6 Meares ao eee 55.7 76.3 | 96.7 | 82.6 Ase keer orn one HOt phkvelact cement. | Saar ree re 64.8 85.6 97.5 | 89.9 Os Og AG ee cE 50. GOv HerS\ cesar ss: Bea hee 61.5 |), 840 97.5 | 88.4 Average tA on iaa veririsst [ee ot, Rees: soeen eRe =D 60.72/47 8280 97.2 | 87.0 The subjects ate on an average per man per day 62.3 grams of the fat melting at 41.3° C., 52.6 grams of the fat melting at 45.8° C., 76.3 grams of the fat melting at 47.8° C., 49.4 grams of the fat melting at 48.1° C., and 56.9 grams of the fat melting at 50° C. The maximum eaten per day was 63.3 grams of the 41.3° C. fat, 52.8 grams of the 45.8° C. fat, 98.1 grams of the 47.8° C. fat, 53.3 grams of the 48.1° C. fat, and 62.7 grams of the 50° C. fat. The average coefficients of digestibility found were 96.6 per cent for the 41.3° C. fat, 96.4 per cent for the 45.8° C. fat, 94.2 per cent for the 47.8° C. fat, 94.4 per cent for the 48.1° C. fat, and 87 per cent for the 50° C. fat. The subjects remained in normal health except for the experiments with fat melting at 50° C. In the reports of their condition in this case the subjects mentioned a feeling of nausea and headache. Such conditions were not noted in the other experiments with hydrogenated fats of high melting point and may not be directly as@ribable to the fat ingested. Similar effects had been noted in earlier experi- ments in which cocoa fat?4 and cupuasst fat? were eaten in large quantities. Blended peanut fats—Thirteen experiments were conducted with blended peanut fat, five with fat melting at 43° C. and four each with fats melting at 48.2° C. and 51.1° C. The results are summarized in Table 9. 21U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 505 (1917). 22 Jour. Biol. Chem., 41 (1920), No. 2, pp. 227-235. Cupuasst fat is expressed from the seed of the fruit of the cupuassu tree (Theobroma grandiflora Schum). ® DIGESTIBILITY OF OILS AND FATS. NS: TABLE 9.—Summary of digestion experiments with blended peanut fats in a simple mixed det. | Digestibility of entire ration. | Digesti- : Melting | bility of Experiment No. | point of Subject. [fete ae blended fat. | : , Carbo- peanut | Erotein. Fat. hydrate. | fat alone. Gh | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. OSS eee arava yee src ie fa a8 43 BBS Co SA i Dc aly 63.3 94.2 96 2 98.4 ORO eae ponte Sach a! 43 RTA ONY cull eas reper pmee ae 8 &, T 71.0 91.5 98 3 94.5 ODO Ramis ape ry Sevesn toy ik 43 TET Gia ees ao SIREN ec 53.4 91.5 96.1 96.0: HN VR ig sek ea es win A 43 HEA Ut Re elena ee Oe 61.5 93 0 97.1 96. 4 TIS Pes hel AO i aR 43 ROH Sree ea) dA Uae te 63.4 938.1 96 3 97.6 LNA REETE cis ch CS A 62.5 92 7 96.8 96.6 LOGS Sue aU oA i (a Se Taha eer Oss Ne ie SOM A so ose 78.0 95.7 97.2 98.4 HG Aarne os te elt ASD iG WAV TO) Yenc cs env 76.7 97.0 98.7 99.3 NOD Geen UE a Le 43.2 HAG oes ae etn es i a 66.9 93.4 96.6 96.7 TIO ee See Sia a Cae aria EON Ld rod Shea ea ao Ue 52.4 91.3 96.8 95.2 ANRTETEN TOSS es heal eh ta res UE es a eS 68.5 94.4 97.3 97.4 TIES. CS, Sd MPC ae reel) ot Me 58.4 91.8| 97.5 94.3) HLS LCOY) cs eree epee ete rt CSPI Fate hie Gel Bnei ran en me Mane a ath ate 61.5 89.4 97.1 92 8 STING) Ne pia De asees eaethe Sls s| ee SNM yo eA Os 56.0 87,2 97.3 90.8 NINN) Zee ae My rate ae dat tia TAV l Favad ANE ee Re eae NO SN a 75 8 90.8 97.7 93.2 sprees 0 UNNI ae SIS Re a eg NOI 0 62.9 89.8 97.4 92.8 The subjects ate on an average per man per day 73.8 grams of the fat melting at 43° C., 79.7 grams of the fat melting at 43.2° C., and 90.3 grams of the fat melting at 51.1° C. The maximum amount of blended peanut fat eaten per man per day was 78.4 grams of the 48° C. fat, 100.1 grams of the 43.2° C. fat, and 109.6 grams of the 51.1° C. fat. The average coefficients of digestibility were 96.6 per cent for the 43° C. fat, 97.4 per cent for the 43.2° C. fat, and 92.8 per cent for the 51.1° C. fat. The subjects remained in apparently normal health and suffered no physiological disturbances. IMscussion.—A summary of the results obtained from these experi- ments with blended fats of different melting points prepared out of corn, cottonseed, and peanut oil is given in Table 10. TABLE 10.—Summary of digestion experiments with blended vegetable fats in « simple mixed diet. { Aue ; Fats in blend. ae er oO : igest- F Melting fe soma : experi- Kind of fat oint of Todin ibility of ments . ig number. blended cone fat. Hatdened Uptetes Apalodel ducted. Bo : HEE Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. BLA (Ohare aes aicsen ae SSPE eR en eee baa AC 39 89.7 9.1 90.9 95.2 Be lhacsean LORE Set RST URE REM NS UO Ma 49 84.8 25.0 75.0 93.3 hl See (Go ie ee I OI ie CAR ha aR aS 54 85.8 30.8 69.2 91.5 al eCOGUOMSe GWE Mees NMS NEI) AAI 2 EIU B Mheesn bees Steal Ni Brie MI ed |e Gua 96.6 2D Nese CO ose eH SI oa i SAREE te 45.8 84.8 DED) 87.5 96.4 Are Ss oh OH A EE LOB ENTIRE AT 47.8 82.4 18.8 81.2 94.2 lieve CLO ISB at ON Gene Sy LUA MR SLY AN, 48.1 80.0 23.5 76.5 94.4 3a Par eae LOSS A Sh Gis Sart isl emer al LAN BOAO esas ee 22.1 77.9 87.0: EisANTd eXekaya ab h pextreses ees sty te ea ate mn Ont WU Dea TRO 43.0 80.9 6.2 93.8 96.6 AM clos OTe eo aioe ana AUN Bae Sepa ead 43.2 82.4 9.1 90.9 97.4 Aes CG Ko at ey VS Ove at LORIE NEALUN 52, Mini) Me avcat 51.1 EDD) 33.3 66.7 92.8 14 BULLETIN 1033, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The fats studied showed coefficients of digestibility ranging from 91.5 to 97.4 per cent, except in blended cottonseed fat melting at 50° C., which gave a coefficient of digestibility of 57 per cent. It is interesting to note that the blended fat with the highest melting point, namely, corn fat melting at 54° C., was 91.5 per cent di- gested, while straight hydrogenated peanut fat with a melting point of 52.4° C. was found to be only 79 per cent digested. A comparison between Table 10 and Table 11, adapted from the report ?* of earlier work with hydrogenated oils of the same origin as those used in blended form, gives an idea of the relative effect of the two methods of preparation upon digestibility. : TABLE 11.—Summary of digestion experiments with hydrogenated vegetable oils in a simple diet. Aa Digestibility of entire ration. | piel ber o : ility o = | Melting . experi- . : Todin hydro- nents Kind of fat. pen of | number. | Carbo- | senated con- ats | Protein.| Fat. | yvarate vegetable ducted. yerate. | oil alone. mace | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Di Cottonseed emi sec e5-c2 eens ss | 35 89.6 69. 2 | 93.6 96.9 96. 8 Soeae (6 Ko eee ae SOE ee eee ys -ao me 38: 67h see eee 69.5 92.7 97.3] 95.5 Baca GO Sh Sa hes os aioe ee 46 72.8 TLL. 92.7 97.6 94.9 Sal Reanutarecteereote dds Boe ee. 37 81.3 69. 1 95.0 96.9 98.1 Eset GO esse enema gn ae etiasiows 39 S| Saeen ees 74.0 93.3 97.6 95.9 Om eee GOs es S52 Th seSs see se 45 78. 8 | 73.8 93.5 96.8 96.5 qlee eae COs a see ta ecte se sees eee 50 58.5 68. 6 88.1 97.6 92.0 Saas Gon ss Hoses esses ete 52a see oe Bee 55.9 73.8 97. 2 | 79.0 See COTM eee ete ee ene asl Neate a ener 33 89.0 72.0 91.7 97.4 | 94.7 Buloose Colo pee pepe eta eae ree 3 74.9 | 76.3 91.8 | 97.0 95. 4 Oereias ce (6 Kae eects ae cranes as eae 50 55. 4 69. 6 83. 2 | 97.3 88.5 | The blended fats seem to be, as a rule, slightly better utilized than the straight hydrogenated oils melting at the same temperature. While no definite data are available regarding the cause of higher digestibility for blended fats, it is not without interest to suggest, as was done in an earlier paper, that in the process of digestion saponification may take place only on the exterior of the particles of hardened fat (1. e., for those melting at temperatures considerably above that of the human body), which decrease in size as the process of digestion continues. If surface area be thus a factor, then the rate of digestion and possibly the extent of digestion of a hydrogenated fat having a high melting point is governed to some extent by the size of the particles of hydrogenated fat ingested. If this hypothesis be tenable, it follows that particles of blended fat which are honey- combed with veins of a low melting fat would, after they had come to the temperature of the body, present greater surface area than par- ticles of straight hydrogenated oil, which present only an exterior surface to the action of the digestive juices. 2 Amer. Jour. Physiol., 54 (1921), No. 3, pp. 479-488. DIGESTIBILITY OF OILS AND FATS. 15 The blended fats were eaten in relatively large quantities and caused no apparent physiological disturbances. While the number of experiments here reported is small, it is believed the data are sufficient to permit the conclusion that the digestibility of these blended fats compares favorably with that of the natural fats of corresponding melting points. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. For purposes of general comparison the average results of the preceding experiments on the digestibility of oils and fats are sum- marized in Table 12. TABLE 12.—Average digestibility of oils and fats in a mixed diet. é : | Melting | Digesti- is é | Melting | Digesti- Kind of oil or fat. | point. bility. Kind of oil or fat. | point. bility. 26h Per cent. || °C. | Percent Codzliveniollaass seem ses heal. eae. 97.7 || Blended hydrogenated fats: Nava-olmondloiles sess se sccsn| leech. oar 97.0 Cottonseed fat --.-.-...-.. 41.3 96.6 Mea=Scedholse ey soe ee | peer pe 9122 DO Fee ee es eer ae 45.8 96. 4 Watermelon-seed oil......---. eepouesens 94,8 lOO Raat acesnosoaacos 47.8 94,2 ID Cepia teres oe sone necaseese 51.4 81.7 DONS NS es ousine 48.1 94.4 Blended hydrogenated fats: Deane eae eee 50. 0 87.0 CormifaGaee eee ens: 39. 0 95, 2 IPeanutpates seer: 43.0 96.6 ORs Sema se oe 49.0 93. 3 IDO Seem cece eee 43.2 97.4 iD) ORR i ae 54.0 91.5 DD Oss ce aos ae eat ae 51.1 92.8 In general the results obtained in these studies agree with those reported in the other investigations made by this office on the diges- tibility of fats and oils. ——SS—S—S—S—=—=—===[=—===—=—==a ADDITIONAL COPIES OF ‘THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY v UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Office of Farm Management and Farm Economics G. W. FORSTER, Acting Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER June 28, 1922 FARM MANAGEMENT AND FARM ORGANIZATION IN SUMTER COUNTY, GA. AN ANALYSIS OF THE BUSINESS OF 534 FARMS IN 1913, AND 550 FARMS IN 1918. By H. W. HawtHorne, Assistant Farm Economist; H. M. Drxon, Associate Farm Economist; and FRANK MontTcoMEry, Assistant Farm Hconomist. CONTENTS. Page. Page. MEO GEO Eas co nye ea So 2S 1 Farm organization and _ business Summary of results______________ 3 analysis of farms—Continued. Areas studied 2-1-2 ea es 5 Harm. .earnings=2-* es 81 Utilization of the land____=-_____ 7 Ram uliyse Pane Sea erate aa 38 Farm organization and _ business Choice of enterprises_____________ 43 analysis of farms—___________-- SY SLD Vy OLS Eye eee a OE itd 46 SIZE MO Pe RATING ee eae eae 10 | Factors affecting successful opera- Crops grown and yields_______ 11 tion of these farms_____________ 50 VE CCID ES eee eS a ee ene 21 | Bearing of farm organization on IE) CIS 6 Spee eet Sa dye SC 25 eost of producing cotton______-_ 58 (HY oy eu 2S tel Ee ne eae SSS 28). | SA ppengdpxt Bats eae Taree Bees ee 72 » INTRODUCTION. “HIS BULLETIN presents! data regarding organization, pro- duction, expenses, and returns of farms operated by owners and tenants (renters), both white and colored. The studies were made to determine the significant factors that make for success or failure in the management of representative farms in southern Georgia. They bring out the bearing of such factors as size of business and yield per acre upon profits and the cost of producing cotton, and are believed to be of special significance in that the repetition of the farm business analysis has made possible 1 The method used in this business analysis study is described in Farmer’s Bulletin 1139, 74881°—22 1 2 BULLETIN 1034, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. comparisons that show the changes that have taken place in organiza- tion and management of the farms during the five-year period.” The conclusions reached concerning the organization and farming practice best suited to the conditions of this region will undoubtedly apply to a much wider area than that for which they are directly drawn, in short, to practically all localities where similar conditions prevail. The first year of the study, 1913, was a representative prewar year. The farms included reported an average of 38 bales of cotton per farm, 258 pounds of lint per acre, selling at 12.2 cents per pound. In 1918, although the farms were slightly larger than in 1913, they produced an average of 26 bales of cotton per farm, 234 pounds of lint per acre, selling at 29.2 cents per pound. Between 1913 and 1918, Sumter County farmers had to face con- ditions that made desirable important changes in the organization of farms. In 1915 the boll-weevil appeared in the county, and though it did not work such disaster as in many other sections, the farmers were alert to the seriousness of the situation, and having the benefit of the experience of farmers in areas previously infested, they imme- diately began changes in their farm organization and operation to meet the new condition. They could do this the more readily because there had been changes in prices, and an increasing demand for farm products other than cotton had arisen. A meat-packing industry was being developed, increased facilities for preparing the peanut and its products for the market were being installed, and increased or improved facilities were being provided for the preparation and marketing of many other products. The data for 1918, as compared with those for 1913, show the ex- tent to which changes had taken place in the area since the earlier survey. While the acreage in cotton was decreased, the total acreage in crops was maintained by planting more corn, wheat, and peanuts. This represents a better farm practice, making a more even distribu- tion of labor demands throughout the year. Furthermore, the rais- 2A report of the business analysis of the 534 farms for 1913 is found in Department Bulletin 492, “An Economic Study of Farming in Sumter County, Georgia.” The 1913 material reworked to accord with present-day methods is embodied in this report. The data for 1918 were obtained in cooperation with the Georgia State College of Agriculture. Acknowledgment is due to the farmers of Sumter County, who cooperated in obtaining the data presented herein; to Messrs. 8. H. Starr, De F. Hungerford and G. V. Cunning- ham, of Georgia Agricultural College, and Messrs. C. L. Goodrich, J. 8. Ball, A. P. Brodell, M. R. Cooper, M. A. Crosby, W. C. Funk, BE. S. Haskell, H. B. McClure, Bruce McKinley, A. D. McNair, Ms B. Oates, F. H. Shelledy, F. D. Stevens, and R. 8S. Washburn, of the Office of Farm Management and Farm Economics, who assisted either one or both years in obtaining the data; and to Dr. G. F. Warren, of Cornell University, and Prof. J. R. Fain, of Georgia Agricultural College. Acknowledgement is also due Miss Mabel G, Darcey and staff of clerical assistants for compilation of these data. FARM MANAGEMENT IN SUMTER COUNTY, GA. 3 ing of more legumes, and the practice of following a definite rota- tion became well-established upon many of the farms. More cow- peas, velvet beans, and peanuts were planted with corn, and more cowpeas followed the small grain crops. The production of HOES and peanuts for market was substantially increased. By carrying the business analysis of farms operated by white owners and tenants and by colored owners and tenants separately in the tables that follow, an opportunity for comparisons that serve to throw light on certain important economic problems of southern agriculture was presented. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. White owners operated about half of both the 534 farms studied in 1913 and the 550 studied in 1918, these farms representing more than two-thirds of the total crop acreage reported, and producing almost three-fourths of the cotton. Colored tenants were the most numerous of the other classes, operating one-third of all farms, handling one- sixth of the crop acreage, and producing almost one-sixth of the cotton. The farms ranged in size from less than 50 acres to over 1,000, and yields of lint cotton from less than 100 pounds to over 500 per acre. Outstanding changes in farm organization disclosed as having taken place between 1913 and 1918 (white-owner farms) were as follows: Cotton acreage 2G ae decreased one-third— 1913 toes (57 per cent crop acreage. ) 1918 eee ( 37 per cent.) Corn acreage ee fill at about equaled cotton acreage— 1913 oes (28 per cent of crop acreage.) 1918 pees «(37 per cent.) W heat eames SP rereenyas 1913, almost none. 1918, wheat grown on about two-thirds of farms. Peanut acreage increased— 1913 (2 per cent of crop acreage.) 1918 sommeses (10 per cent.) Applications of fertilizer decreased 37 per cent— 1913, 390 pounds per acre. 1918, 244 pounds per acre. Introduction of the velvet bean (usually interplanted with corn). Increase in live-stock production (particularly hogs). Increase mn nea of legumes (velvet beans, cowpeas, and pea- nuts). Wider utilization of land for second and interplanted crops. Tendency of share-cropper labor to supplant wage labor. 4 BULLETIN 1034, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. These changes occurred to a greater extent on farms operated by white owners than on those of other classes of farmers. The colored operators tend to stick closer to cotton than do the white operators. Farm earnings were much higher in 1918 than in 1913, apparently owing altogether to higher prices of farm products, increased pro- duction being a negligible factor. Average farm income — 1913. 1918. White owners__-_ $1,665 $3,711 White tenants__-_- 564 om 1,353 om Colored owners_- 805 =m 1,778 oe Colored tenants__ 323 m= 843 om Average labor income— 1913. 1918. White owners___- $474 am $1,813 comes White tenants_-_-. 505 om 1,232 mem Colored owners-_- 263 = 1,058 comm Colored tenants__ | 290 m 768 Average per cent return on capital— 1913. 1918. ‘White "owmersicdi 22a) tier aerh t hha'e ry coat i ys Colored: owners)UG! Rsk seat manhattan sett 7 jsiaie lbandlords of white. tenants 22 5 eee 6. 4 9.4 Landlords of colored tenants_________2______~_ 8.6 14.1 Estimated value of family living from farm (ipod. fuel, sheltex) , 1918. (No data for 1913)— Wihite. owners isis. bmivibls vent as $716 mem IWilnite “tenia mt sict 9) camselaapeanicepseyegieee ey pecans ~ 560 ms Colored owners? 202 #626 SEY eect renyoen tm 597 meme Colored wtemants s\n sent wade Se WUE Ses oe 434 ws Between 1913 and 1918 the average estimated value of real estate on the white-owner farms increased from $34 per acre to $53; the estimated farm capital from $17,020 per farm to $27,118; the farm receipts from $4,793 to $8,415; the farm expenses from $3,128 to $4,704, and the estimated value of the farmer’s own labor from $476 to $644. For the colored tenants, the estimated capital increased from $475 to $1,065; receipts from $922 to $1,842; expenses from $599 to $999; and the value of the farmer’s own labor from $198 to $367. The estimated capital of the landlord of the colored tenant increased from $2,719 per farm to $4,991, and his annual expense per tenant farm from $34 to $86. On farms of approximately the same size, and with approximately the same yield of cotton per acre, farm earnings were highest where the percentage of crop land in cotton was highest. FARM MANAGEMENT IN SUMTER COUNTY, Ga. 5 The farmers who used the most man labor and the most mule - labor per acre, and who applied the most fertilizer, as a rule got the highest yields and the largest net earnings. Average cost of producing cotton (per pound of lint) ; Cash, 7.5 cents. BS etl cents | Other, 4.3 cents. Cash, 14.3 cents. Other, 8.9 cents. On farms of a given class or tenure, the cost of producing cotton per pound of lint decreased with increase of size of farm and yield per acre. : at POLES Bearers SOUL VEIN | Pasnen mtd ger a enentrs 1 eT 2S OLS e-== Qo. 2 cents| : wi Px Monte emery Sy KS rae >| Oe, ae \ a ug I'rg. 1.—Map showing location of Sumter County, Ga., where an analysis of the business of 534 farms was made for 1913 and of 550 farms for 1918. On farms with high yields, the cost of cotton per pound was gen- erally lower than on farms with low yields, though the cost per acre was higher. AREA STUDIED. Sumter County is in the southwestern part of Georgia (see fig. 1). Americus, the county seat, situated near the center of the county, is about 150 miles south of Atlanta, 185 miles west of Savannah, and 95 miles north of the Florida State line. The county was laid out in 1831 from part of Lee County. The first inhabitants came mostly from the older districts of the State. 6 BULLETIN 1034, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The population in 1910 was 29,092, of which 7,849 were white and 21,243 were colored. In 1920 it was 29,640, of which 9,778 were white and 19,862 colored. The county in 1909 contained 291,840 acres, of which 276,834 were in farms. There were 92,822 acres of cotton grown in the county in 1909 and 70,448 acres in 1919. The land was originally owned in very large tracts, but during recent decades many of these large plantations have been cut up, so that there now exist many small and medium-sized farms. The county is served by two railroads, which furnish very good transportation facilities. Practically all the main wagon roads of the county are in excellent condition. fF ===-- ZL. 35 YEAR AN. RAINFALL 4788 IN, rn AK. S35 YRAN.GROW/NG SEASON 227 DAYS RAINFALL) KAONTHLY RAINFALL AMERICUS, GA. 1913 AND 1918 i] IN INCHES - ; 1913 Y ANNUAL RAINFALL 45.06 IN. F Do AN. GROWING SEASON 227 DAYS oF WYy—_| ZF 1 35 LEAR Y/Y ; _s H GROW/N A st U AVERAGE GROWING SEASON FOR 39 YEARS =227 DAYS....! Fie. 2.—Monthly and annual rainfall at Americus, Ga., for 1913 and 1918, and the 35-year average. Also the growing season in days from the last killing frost in the spring to the first killing frost in the fall. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY. Sumter County lies wholly within the Coastal Plain, its northern boundary being 28 miles south of the Piedmont line. The soils of greatest importance to agriculture include those de- rived from material washed down from the Piedmont Plateau and from soft limestone underlying all parts of the county. These soils represent 88.7 per cent of the land area of the county; and while ranging from light sands to heavy clays, are predominantly sandy. Some of these sand soils are of higher value than most sands, as they have retentive subsoils and produce good yields of many of the crops grown in the county.® 8 Soil Survey, Sumter County, Ga., U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1910. FARM MANAGEMENT IN SUMTER COUNTY, GA. i The topography of the county varies from very rolling in the northern part of the county to gently rolling or flat in the southern part. CLIMATE. | The climate is characterized by short, mild winters and long sum- mers with rather high humidity, but not extremely hot. The rainfall as recorded at Americus by the United States Weather Bureau was 45.06 inches in 1913 and 48.86 inches in 1918, with an average of 47.88 inches for the 35-year period from 1884 to 1918, inclusive. The length of growing season from last killing frost in spring to first UTILIZATION OF THE FARM LAND ON FARMS OPERATED BY WHITE OWNERS ‘SUMTER CO.,GEORGIA; 1913 AND 1918 =| CROP LAND ( 1. 56 |.222.42.|. 28.922 ee Gapital peniarm sss. s stole sess s $17,020 |$27,118 | $5,642 | $9,775 | $847 | $1,738 | $4,795 | $8,037 Per cent of capital in— Manes poe wees ease wa eats sek 67.9 | 69.4 69.4 67.8} bocce) Se cee 81.7 | 82.4 Miwellings-ps cles eset ent 5.8 | 5.8 8.0 bin] = tcaracrcre ro) eee 9.4 | 9.2 enantNOUSCSs+scss5sccecee eee 5.4 | 5.4 3.9 3.8) |Fhesc2es|2aoteene 4.6: 4.6 Other buildings................-. 4315.5 2356 3.3 31 | Av: Ss |Ga ee 3.8 | 3.8 Total realestate: 2as..0222 2522 83.2 84.2 84.6 $2.2: | 2 s.ss 8. |oaeeenes 99.5 100.0 Workstock...-.----2-----2------ | le6| -a71 76i| 5.9°/; 49.1| 33.0 ry oe Other livestock...........1....7. \ ti0l~ 280 1k) 1.9 8.95} 20/6: lssse-tas eae Machinery a7. s2nasmecienceae eeeente | 204 1.8 203 Le, 15s 2e 9.7 Ee Beesaasee Feed and supplies...............- | -—--4-3-|—- 4) 4 3.6 5.4 22-8 |---30!2 th) bias Soe AST eee Resale Scare Saws we nesecee 2.6 2.9 .6 2.9 4.00) -167bs\S2 222 eee seeeeeee Total working capital.......... 16.8 | 15.8 15.4 17.8 | 100.0} 100.0 BY | bane t65 Value of real estate per acre......-.-- $34 | $53 $34 SE EES Pommremes (serra S'\55 sae COLORED FARMERS. Numberjofiarms:: 3552 seeee wen se | 31 48 | 186 166.2) 52.22 233] oedema eooeae ase ee @apitalipertarms 23 -2-csne she oenee | $7,749 |$10, 283 | $3,194 | $6,056 | $475 | $1,065 | $2,719 | $4,991 Per cent of capital in— ane Oe AeAee odo cos ec aissciatie ae | 73.6 69.8 77.4 18004| 5) 2. ae eel 91.0 88.6 Mwellingvesstsss--- 5.8. t ee ie tcl umes © Ol a en a a Ue |W 6.1 6.4 Tenant NOUsess aoc e ee ate ccs 3.4 4.2 ak 1.9 | ~ Lgetea ts be eheas 5 23 Other buildings....- 2/42 -..-- 2.2: 4.2 2.6 2.0 25 ee eeeeee cee eee 2.4 2.6 | | a fe i Totalrealiestates-“--- +. . esse ee | 86. 6 83.0 85. 1 82.3 | aw eows loool 100. 0 99.9 Workistocks=.-45..-28 2. 2-4-20-c \ > 1658 6.1 7.7 6.3 | | 51.63] Sosa eee Otherlive stockie2 se SS. | Bal 1.9 1.4 2.2 9.0 ge ese oe 1 Machinery sir ecaene cece caeeaeee 1.8 157 1.9 1.8 13.2 hth ener Ses ee: oe Feed and supplies..............-- | 3.0 5.1 BYB} 5.9 23.3 33. 34| bs) Seine ASD ep eace Soe ea ay eee asc ene Ati 2.2 4 1.5 2.9 8.-7.\oe ee Total working capital........-.. | 13.4 17.0 14.9 17.7 | $100:.0) || 1000 232 | wal Value of real estate per acre......-... | $30 $41 $30 S50 eee oes See less Fg) Sb eee | | 1 Tenant’s and landlord’s capital combined. RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM TO CAPITAL. The increase in the value of these farms and equipment had an appreciable effect upon the size of business one could undertake with a given amount of capital in 1918 as compared with 1913. (See Table 11.) In 1913, there were 30 owners with less than $3,000, and they worked an average of 38 tilled acres per farm, but in 1918 the 17 own- ers in this same capital class had an average of only 31 tilled acres. The owners with $50,000 to $100,000 in 1913 operated on the average 837 acres of tilled land, but the men in this same capital class in 1918 operated only 535 acres. Thus it was necessary for those beginning FARM MANAGEMENT IN SUMTER COUNTY, GA. 31 farming in 1918 to have more capital tied up in a given sized business than would have been necessary in 1913. Similarly, the tenant with a given amount of capital could not operate as much land in 1918 as in 1913. FARM EARNINGS. The farm earnings for this area have been computed as follows: 1. Farm income.—The combined earnings for the farm capital and for the farmer’s labor and management, found by deducting the farm expenses from the farm receipts. 2. Labor mcome.—The earnings of the farmer’s labor and management after allowing a fair rate of interest for the use of the farm capital. The labor in- come for this area is found by deducting from the farm income 7 per cent inter- est on the capital. 3. Per cent return on capital.—The earnings for the farm capital after allow- ing for the farmer’s labor and management. This is found by deducting the value of the farmer’s labor and management from the farm income, and express- ing the remainder as a per cent of the capital. TABLE 11.—Relation of size of farm to capital, Sumter County, Ga. N White owners. Colored tenants. LT Average num- Average num- Operator’s capital. Nuke oe ber ot tilled Numb: of ber of tilled wi acres. =: acres. 1913 1918 1913 1918 1913 1918 1913 1918 SSOQOMICSS Rye jee obs as See oto ecinee Isecooqoullboasacon|loacuaseollosocnads 131 33 44 38 CO HO GIL). ace escsoedasoseooseucus | 39 52 79 51 CLOUT S000. oka sepsuoe seco ooRoeee | 30 17 38 31 14 66 124 91 D2 OOM GOs OO0 Mas same a hes se ee | 2 11 214 131 $33- Cl HOSa O00 Soop eaeanas ssesessnueee 37 28 69 Houlecsics ae A ears es eS 181 SIOOMEO SI OOO ees eee eS 48 48 103 pS) FS Be oo ae kU EO ee i a $9}001 Go $14,000... 222-5. c.2 ese. 59 37 154 Cee e oe See nace wsealcsobocallaeenes ce SIL OOM OS25O00R Sees tS! ee 41 63 222 WOS" | Sees ee | oaee | Genes Se et | eo ee S2D, 00M FORO; 0002 2-2 koe ce | 37 47 460 PERIL ea fs) ap | ea S| ee ce Sa $50,001 to $100,000......... NSD 2 ee 3 taal'S 26 837 DOSER. ale tee eke oe he aN Ee Ree aE pe Over glOO 000M be haa ae | 3 TUE ste va aks asp | gene | SE ye 4. Family income.—The combined earnings of the farmer and of his family. This is found by deducting the farm expenses (excluding value of family labor) from the farm receipts. The family income represents the resources available to the farm family at the end of the year for living expenses, interest on indebted- ness, and savings, in addition to house rent, food products, and fuel furnished by the farm. 5. Family living from the farm—The value of food products, fuel, and house rent furnished directly by the farm toward the family living. This form of income is in addition to farm income, family income, and labor income. Table 12 shows the average farm earnings of the farms in question for 1913 and 1918. The white farmers, operating larger farms and practicing the better methods of management, made the higher earn- ings, both per farm and per acre. The returns.in 1918 were much higher than in 1913, owing primarily to higher prices of farm prod- ucts. Expenses did not increase so rapidly as receipts. However, the decreased purchasing power of the dollar in 1918 as com- pared with 1913 made the increase in farm earnings for 1918 more apparent than real. Also, considering the cost of labor and fer- 32 BULLETIN 1034, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tilizer and the yields and prices of cotton in 1920 and 1921, the earnings for these latter years must have been apparently less than in 1918. FARM INCOME. The farm income was more than twice as much in 1918 as in 1913. Farm income, representing the combined earnings of farm capital and the farmer’s labor and management, is some indication of the size of business conducted and of the prosperity of groups of farmers. The average farm income for white-tenant farms and colored-owner farms was about one-half that for white-owner farms, and for col- ored-tenant farms the total farm income was only about one-third that of the farms operated by white owners. In the case of farms operated by tenants the farm income must be divided between the tenants and the landlords, the tenants in Sumter County getting about 60 per cent (ranging from an average of 55 per cent in 1913 to an average of 65 per cent in 1918) of the total farm income, and the land- lords about 40 per cent. The farm income of the white tenants was about one-third and of the colored tenants about one-fifth that of the white owners. The distribution of farms by the amount of farm income for these different classes of farms is shown in Table 13. Over 50 per cent of the white-owner farms and 90 per cent of the colored-tenant farms returned farm incomes of $1,000 or under, and in 1918 over 50 per cent of the white-owner farms and 75 per cent. of the colored-tenant farms returned farm incomes of $2,000 or under. The average farm income for the white owners was $1,665 in 1913, with about 25 per cent $2,000 or over, and in 1918 the average was $3,711, with about 25 per cent about $4,000. About 50 per cent of them made farm in- comes below $1,000 in 1913, and about the same percentage below $2,000 in 1918. Similar comparisons for the other groups shown in Table 13 indicate that but few farms returned nig farm incomes, while many returned low farm incomes. For both white and colored tenant farms shown in Table 13, after the total farm income is divided between tenant and landlord, the farm income of the tenant was rarely very large. LABOR INCOME. The labor income, representing the returns for the farmer’s labor and management (after deducting 7 per cent interest for the use of the farm capital from the farm income) averaged from three to four times as much in 1918 as in 1913. The wide variations in the labor incomes for the various farms under study in this area are shown in figure 6. This chart shows the tendency toward higher incomes in 1918. Table 14 shows the proportion of farms falling within specified labor-income groups. In 1913 from 65 to 83 per cent of the various FARM MANAGEMENT IN SUMTER COUNTY, GA. 33 groups of farms shown in the table did not return over $500 labor income, and a number of these returned no labor income. TABLE 12.—Farm earnings, Sumter County, Ga., 5384 farms in 1913 and 550 in 1918 Owner farms. Tenant farms. Farm. Tenant. Landlord. 1913 1918 1913 1918 1913 1918 1913 1918 WHITE FARMERS. Number offarms.........-.-----.--- 268 280 49 56 49 56 49 56 Menmbincomoss 96.8 k oe. $1,665 | $3,711 | $872 | $2,113 | $564 | $1,353 | $308| $759 Interest on capital, at 7 per cent... ... 1,191 | 1,898 395 684 59 NPA SRR Ba Ae amet Mabonincomere sa. iu. eel CATALIN 813 lien VAT lel O9 OBI 105.5 ee nina eae anaes Operator’slabor.....-.--.-------.---- [te 4476 644 289 46 289 4693 | Coat Tea RES Per centreturn on capital...........- 7.0 11.3 10.3 16.9 32. 5 50. 9 6.4 9.4 Unpaid family labor............-.--- 42 67 56 1 56 OBES BdSeallesacoddd Heronilysimcomete eee 6s ess :| 1,707 | 3,778 928 | 2,219 GYD Se Gy ee sa 8 Interest on indebtedness..-........--. 126 106 (4) Q) 9 (Ch) See Sashacanlensuscos Family living from farm.-....-......)...-..-- MGsimaeeece Salt) | bocacoas Wid Eaasesoolecasoode COLORED FARMERS. Number of farms................-:--- 31 48| 186} 166| 186) 166] 186 166 arm ancome sacncaescnscceecseesees = $805 | $1,778 $556 | $1, 546 $323 $843 $233 $703 Interest on capital, at 7 per cent... -.-. 542 720 224 424 33 UBS Gshesnaallssasdeae aDOnINCOMOM Ht esa-cec sess cece 263 | 1,058 332 | 1,122 290 Uae eeaceees Baceeas Operator’slabor......--...--.------- 263 367 198 367 198 Bl: Gadasasallbdeocanc Per cent return on capital............ 7.0 13.7 11.2 19.5 26.3 44.7 8.6 14.1 Unpaid family labor...............-- 198 353 168 307 168 SUC Se SAS esac a Hamiliyaimicomescs. sass esos cece eines. 1,003 | 2,131 724 | 1,853 AOU VV SOM eee wiers|asicicteciee Interest on indebtedness........-..-- 10: 4 (4) @) Qh EN oe beeen eee Family living from farm....-......-.|..------ DO acagaecs ABE Roce 43a Ne saceiace| ane oscies 1 No report on landlord’s mortgages. 21 Less than $1. (For a clear interpretation of the earnings of these groups of farms see the tables previously discussed regarding crop area, capital, yields, receipts, and expenses for these same groups.) In 1918 the percentage of farmers making low labor incomes was decreased, there being but 36 to 45 per cent with labor incomes of $500 or under. In 1913 less than 10 per cent of the farmers in any tenure made over $2,000 labor income, while in 1918 26 per cent of the white owners, 21.5 per cent of the white tenants, 17 per cent of the colored owners, and 7 per cent of the colored tenants made over $2,000 labor income. Considering all farms in 1913, 72 per cent failed to make over $500 labor income and only 5 per cent made over $2,000. In 1918 only 43 per cent failed to make over $500, and 19 per cent made over $2,000. Tt should be borne in mind that in this area there are a number of farms with a very large business. There were 71 farms with over 250 acres of crops in 1913 and 76 in 1918. There were 38 farms making 100 bales or more of cotton in 1913 and 23 in 1918. Three farms were found in 1913 with over $100,000 capital and 14 in 1918. These farms represented very large businesses and their earnings were much higher than those of smaller farms. Of 26 farmers mak- 74881°— 228 34 BULLETIN 1034, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing over $2,000 labor income in 1918, 19 had over 250 acres of crops, and of the 104 in 1918 43 had over 250 acres of crops. (See Tables 28 and 29 (p. 51) for the average earnings of different sized white owner and colored tenant farms.) PER CENT RETURN ON CAPITAL, he return on capital was over one-half more for each tenure in 1918 than in 1913. (See Table 12.) The landlords contribute mainly capital to the farming business, and their earnings are measured by per cent returned on capital. The landlords renting to white operators had an average capital of $4,795 per tenant in 1913, returning 6.4 per cent, and of $8,037 per tenant in 1918, returning 9.4 per cent. Landlords renting to colored operators had an average capital of $2,719 per tenant in 1918, return- ing 8.6 per cent, and of $4,991 per tenant in 1918, returning 14.1 per cent. TaBLeE 13.—The distribution of farms by the amount of farm income, Sumter County, Ga., 534 farms in 19138 and 550 in 1918. Tenant farms. Owner farms. | 7 Total tenant Tenant’s Landlord’s Farm income. farms. share. share. a Se ee 1913 1918 1913 1918 1913 1918 1913 1918 WHITE FARMERS. INumbenoifarms- 524. co siesce aasceeee 268 280 49 56 49 56 49 56 Perict.,|--Perct.-| Pen ct.) Per. cté.| Per.ct|, Per, ct Pencéa Benict: Oviert$20/ 000s enw can cob eae coe eee scocs BuO) Saw cocachec ecw ee Mle ccioe ces] = Re eeen eee eee eee $10;001-¢0/$20;000s 5 32£ ode test 0.7 BC ooaosae BOSSE Hes Caennocd Boner nue] poucs sails scccece STEOVItO SIOO00 Es eemcec cee ceceeeceee 2.2 Ode | aiscvereye TSB) |F ooo cscs eee eae |citeeerine | ceemeeee $5: 00 IG O97,, 200 Sees = cena inter ok 3.7 6:1 2a OFOPOst. ace 3:65) 23%. a] Se SHOOMNGO G5, 000M Se eset cot cote e eee ean 3.0 6.8 2.0 LON Se eenoce Bi irs oa 8 $3: 00160;$45 000 See het Se cSecehe 4.1 6.4 2.0 1 Reseronc Collegiate 3.6 S2 O01 TOSS OO0RSE eect coca ace see ces 4.5 5.4 2.0 3.6 2.0 SONlaaetenee 3.6 S$2'00NKG0;$2* 5002 son SS Sa 5 saa reeet a2 6.3 8.5 4.1 1.2 4.1 tdnlccocttstheeeeets SIESOMC OS 2 000t eae eeecne se acase eos 7.5 9.6 6.1 16.1 2.1 c/a Cee nee 3.6 STOOL GOjSU; 500 5 2s Sweep ace seeeeencl: 17.2 13.2 14.3 16.1 6.1 21.4 2.0 8.9 SHOTS Ss ee ote ee race ecco 19.8 17.5 22,5 17.6 26.5 16.1 24.5 37.5 SIL GO; SOOO ee ee tse eee cee 28.0] .12.1 47.0 16.1 ipeal 23. 2 73.5 41.0 SO CO SO00 Re ae Dose eee ee 3.0 1 el aac Pom ates 6.1 Toe See 1.8 —— SHU GOL— 1) O00 seen ease ore he arte | MnloB ectatel| cre ae Sl aise al eee orcpem [aes rece] a 7 Pees om Sos Scns COLORED FARMERS. Numpberiofiarms eeececeoscccccsee 31 48 186 166 186 | 166 186 166 Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct So OOUTOIST S00 Rey eee Seatac es dese onee Shou Peers O56) | Rese ees OE eect Secec ost SHOOT OD O00 eae ere etciae macis| eel meie 7158 WR one 2.4 Nan oc eaje| Sece ec | Sopa Loe Eee $3 0G TO st 000 aera sense |-seecees Sxck|eeeees ee QL es. Seas oO. ifoscs Sho ee $2;501 COi$35000- oon ww ciesenrietesecees 3.2 4,2 0.5 | yaa hoes aes by | ae ain 1,2 PUD OE PG 0 eco Soba adiabobSooocoada PoouEcdd lbpaonded oa) 6365 EEE Foes 4.81. S22 $1, 50Ut0ie2; 000 bee tence seer cbercce< 9.7 22.9 3.8 14.5 ial GF lon ee Se 4.8 S-00E CO/S1, 5003 eee eee ee 25. 8 12.5 7.0 24.7 4,8 1629 Aas see 15.1 S5OLTOSL O00 LE ees acs. Naciinieaincminie(e 19. 4 20. 8 32.8 OEY 13. 4 31.9 4.8 40.4 Sito $500 eee oie oN ; 20.9 53. 8 7.8 72.6 2 38.5 $0 to —$500 1,6 1.2 8.1 : — $501 to —$1,000 FARM MANAGEMENT IN SUMTER COUNTY, GA. 35 The earnings of landlords in this region vary considerably from year to year, and almost directly as the price of cotton varies. With - but very few exceptions, the landlords rented for a specified amount of lint cotton. Ordinarily the rent is based upon the number of mules necessary to operate the farm, and ranges from 2 to 3 bales per mule. The earnings returned to landlords on many of these farms are not comparable with the earnings of landlords in the northern States. More or less supervision is given many of these tenants. The land- lord in many cases gives security for tenants’ credit or gives orders on stores for provisions and other supplies, settling with the tenants when the cotton is sold. TABLE 14.—The distribution of farms by the amount of labor income, Sumter County, Ga., 5384 farms in 1913 and 550 in 1918. Per cent of total farms. White- f A lored- 5 White- te-tenant farms Colored! Colored-tenant farms Labor income. owner a | a owner farms. Farm.1 Tenant. farms. Farm.1 Tenant. 1913 | 1918 | 1913 | 1918 } 1913 | 1918 | 1913 | 1918 | 1913 | 1918 | 1913 | 1918 More than $10,000..........]....-- BBs Sosa Geese sos S66 Sostco asaoee rapecd mecaie emaase aoe saa ayste $5,001 to $10,000.........--- ORT AOML |G Joss oe ae AON | Beane a Mia ate O59 S6S565 0.6 $4,001 to $5,000... 2.22222. 4 DEL lapeeeeye 974 Se ES el eyes PAS LR aa ected jen orl aia $3,001 to $4,000............. 3.7 ea seks OS esos Osan ee C5744 SSE IE acoad .6 $2,501 to $3,000............. PASO MELB SSO SS PLO ate lecsees Pda eee iy tel Sean 1.2 $2,001 to $2,500. .-_... 22... Tisai pat Bh ort lle BPs Chal lboyeelgaaose G325 HORDE entero |p 4.2 $1,501 to $2,000.28 ilo. 2. 7 aligec: ey (eee ee Su ORE Gea esuese Deel elena ee Seor panlepl: 7.2 $1,001 to $1,500........ 2... 7.8 8.6 4.1 | 14.3 8.2 | 19.6 | 12.9 | 20.8 5.4 | 20.5 4.3 13.3 $501 to $1,000. ..........-.-- 14.2 | 16.1) 24.5 | 19.6 | 20.4 | 16.1) 19.4 | 16.7) 14.0 | 32.5 | 11.8 Bone SL TOGSOO Nc ees ok 82.5-| 28.9 | 49.0} 21.4 | 57.1 | 21.4 | 32.3 | 35.4 | 67.2 | 21.7 | 72.0] 32.5 —$0 to —$500..............- 24.6 | 89] 16.3] 8.9] 8.2) 12.5 | 29 8.3} 11.8] 1.8] 10.8 6.6 — $501 to —$1,000.........-- AeA | 4b 64s cect tee ele Li8-|aece| soo cet lo Senes | Seeeleesaee 6 —$1,001 to —$1,500....._... PAs SYel Wie HAG ie rt BE EO Deal sie lk el KOE: BH Psa Sey ol RS baa — $1,501 to —$2,000-< 052...) 2440 LD Jeeell |... lle [aera be tse kee tetas [ater mie incre cl lecpnee gel iecaauees — $2100 TO $2500 ste i, £8 Wee Sk ROR HS pe lide ane | real e aleyaay aie lpera ee —$2,501 to —$3,000..-...... 24 Hit 1 kath a el Ape |e 2 SAPS See el ecto: Ul aka 2 tas me es sc —$3,001 to —$4,000.........]...... ES es an (ta in pea ch ea Ah a | eM a Leah PR Totalnumber offarms.} 268 | 280 49 56 49 56 31 48 | 186] 166] 186 166 1 Tenant’s and landlord’s labor income combined. FAMILY INCOME. The family income, as previously stated, is discussed from the standpoint of the net returns available to pay living expenses, in- terest on indebtedness, and provide savings. Farms with large capi- tal may show relatively low labor incomes or low per cent return on capital, and yet, if free from debt, have relatively high incomes. From the standpoint of the operators of small farms, and especially that of most of the colored operators, many of whom have rather large families that do a large amount of the farm work, the family income is the item of most concern to the family welfare. For these reasons it is desirable to show the family income. (See Table 12.) Further data on family income are shown in Tables 30 and 31, pages 52 and 53. 36 BULLETIN 1034, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The wide differences shown between family incomes and labor in- comes on white-owner farms are attributable largely to the interest charge on relatively large capital and not to large amounts of family labor. The family labor on these farms amounted to only $42 per farm in 1913 and $67 in 1918, while where family labor was highest, on the colored-tenant farms, it averaged $168 in 1913 and $307 in 1918, as against labor incomes of $290 and $768 for the respective years. FAMILY LIVING FROM THE FARM. Unlike many other businesses, in farming a very significant pro- portion of the farmer’s living comes directly from his farm. His residence is usually located on and is a part of his farm, and partly used in the operation of his business; he frequently obtains fuel in the form of wood from his farm, and usually the greater part of his food is produced on his farm. The value of all items so used may well be considered as part of the earnings of the farm business, and in many areas, especially where the farm business is comparatively small, the value of these items frequently exceeds the labor income. (See Table 15.) Taste 15.—Distribution of family living from the farm, 550 farms, Sumter County, Ga., 1918. White owners, White tenants, | Colored owners, | Colored tenants, (280 farms). (56 farms). (48 farms). (166 farms.) Number of persons per farm over 16 years........ 3.5 3.5 4.3 4.1 Number of persons per farm under 16 years...... 1.3 1.8 3.1 2.5 Adult equivalent per farm. 4.4 4.8 6.4 5.8 Sig]. SsZ Ss_l . Ss4 > Sigel abs Ss Db Pes | b S Items furnished by the| # hls! ee p= erie 25 b= ye 25 Det Allis 2s farm for family use. gq 3 |ogs| g 3 |°s3| § 3 |oas, g 3 jos 5 | @ |S>$| 3 | S |5>s] 3 | S [BPs] B | S [SPS C ees (ee Se | pea ebay > Aa =| oe > a ™ ASSESSES Sas Soeeeniaeld eel seaweed (ea er lpia | Pm fd a fae | —— Cornsbushels: ee sccccccsnee 16} $27| 5.7 18 | $31) 7.3 31 | $56 | 12.1 27) $47] 13.5 Wheat, bushels............ 17 39 | 8.2 11 24) 5.7 12 30 | 6.5 6 14 4.0 Sirup, sugar cane and sor- ghum, gallons............ 23 25 | 5.2 18 19} 4.5 32 34 | 7.3 21 23 6.6 Potatoes, bushels....-...... 30 30 | 6.3 26 26) 6.1 34 34] 7.3 27 27 7.8 Fruit and garden...........|.....- 44.) 49.2 Indore SO ee Se: Sis] Sia.s ons Gli Hey Gites | aoeeae 24 6.9 Miscellaneous. -sscce= cece nsec se Saba Osean 3 (hal Pesos DF) La Sees 5 1.4 Butter, pounds............. 90 33 | 6.9 | 102 34; 8.0 hes 25) 5.4 61 18 5.2 Whole milk, gallons........ 121 32 | 6.7 97 25) 5.9 90 21) 4.5 92 22 6.3 Skim milk and butter milk, Pallonsesececser -| 151 16} 3.3] 130. 15] 3.5] 141 16 | 3.5] 105 12 3.5 Beef, pounds. : 5 1} @) 4 1] 0.2 14 3] 0.6 8 1 -3 Eggs, dozen... $3) 25> b22)) see | 19.) 45 58°] 7 irra ease | toe eee Poultry, head 56 30} 6.3 41 21 {| 5.0 34 AAA OE ¢ 24 12 3.4 Pork, pounds. 896 | 172 | 36.0 | 889] 171} 40.3] 880] 169} 36.5] 692] 131] 37.7 Honey, pounds. ZAG) @)) less Selec ang.|- aac: 2} (), 1° @) Ue) eG) Totalsfoode 22-7553 {el -2 2 5- 477 |100.0 |...... 424 |100.0 |...... 463 |100.0 |...... 348 | 100.0 Wood) CordStrrscecncsece ss 16 ge 13 Sy ssaaee 15 Ag eaos 12 35 |.-.--- Wseyoihouses! 2255 -eee 2. a|ees aes 1959) oe Fn dl eee OU SE Bea Sesees LO eee ts See ol eee: Waluciofallatemses ss 52520 s\eeeeoe ec al Pes as) Be Li Yel aes [ae ae 5977 SEs ae 434 ee Value per adult equivaient.|...... Hyd Wee eee al acoer: 11S sos olsen O35 eaaetseleeeeers (ouleeeeee 1 Less than $1. 2 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. FARM MANAGEMENT IN SUMTER COUNTY, GA. 37 The average value of these items on the farms visited in this study in 1918 was equivalent to 9 per cent of the receipts on farms operated by white owners, 14 per cent on farms operated by white tenants, 16 per cent on farms operated by colored owners, and 17 per cent on farms operated by colored tenants. Of the items of food supplied directly from the farms, pork is first in value, amounting to almost 40 per cent. Dairy products ranked second, and these two made up over 50 per cent of the value of the food supplied by the farm. The combined value of the items of food, fuel, and house rent furnished by the farm averaged $716 for the white-owner farms and $560 for the white tenants, $597 for the colored owners and $4384 for the colored tenants. The average value of these items per adult equivalent was $162 for the white owners, $118 for the white tenants, $93 for the colored owners, and $75 for the colored tenants.°® The value of these products on individual farms ranges from less than $250 to over $1,000. Table 16 shows the range in value of the family living on these farms in 1918. Only 3 per cent of the white owners and 2 per cent of the white tenants realized less than $250 toward their family living from the farm, as against 11 per cent of the colored owners and 19 per cent of the colored tenants. Seven- teen per cent of the white owners obtained over $1,000 toward their family living direct from the farm, as against only 6 per cent of the colored owners and 2 per cent of the colored tenants. TABLE 16.—Percentage distribution of farms according to family living from the farm, 550 farms, Sumter County, Ga., 1918. White owners. White tenants. Colored owners. Colored tenants. Value of family Number Number Number Number livingfromfarm. | Pet emt | oraduit | Pet cent) of adult | Percent | of aduit | Pet cent | of adult of total uiva- | Cftotal | goniva. | Of total | equiva. | Cf total | couiy number lents per numb lens er number ents er number Tents ce offarms. Foe of farms. f a of farms. f aan of farms. f a Over $1,000........... 17 OOF EPO Ae pat intra PS Oe 6 13.0 2 6.2 $751 to $1,000......... 22 5.0 14 6.6 17 7.3 6 9.5 $501 to $750.........-- 34 4,2 43 5.1 35 6.7 24 6.6 $251 to $500..........- 24 3.3 41 3.9 31 4.7 49 5.6 $250 and less......... 3 2.0 2 2.0 11 5.0 19 3.8 About one-fourth of the white owners and two-thirds of the colored tenants got less than $500 family living direct from the farm, while almost 40 per cent of the white owners and less than 10 per cent of the colored tenants got over $750. ®The results of studies on what the farm contributes toward the family living in sev- eral sections of the United States are published in Department Bulletin No. 410, ‘“ Value to Farm Families of Food, Fuel, and Use of House,’’ and Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1082. ““Home Supplies Furnished by the Farm.” 38 BULLETIN 1034, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RELATION OF CAPITAL TO FARM INCOME AND LABOR INCOME. The average-owner farm with less than $5,000 capital in this area returns a very small farm income or labor income. (See Table 17.) Owner farms with capital of $25,000 or more are on the average re- turning very good profits, The tenant beginning farming with less than $500 capital has little chance to make more than hired man’s wages, but with $1,000 or over he makes on the average much above hired man’s wages. For farmers with little capital the possibilities are much greater in renting than in owning farms. TABLE 17.—Relation of capital to farm income and labor income, white owners and colored tenants, Sumter County, Ga. White owners. Capital. Farm income. Labor income. p 1913 1918 1913 1918 $500 ang less fon. th 0. decccams Moen ee. St eae bre hk oc. REE ES pep css OULD rae ee eae ema ser $222 $359 $67 $210 5 000 3-0 bn. den eek aeagt sockepeaset. apne anal S200 FGO'$3 O00E SS eectins cece nce ceases. oo case soso sn tee ne meee $3°001 [60 $5,000 S85 5 Ai cagsecece oc ce eet m ccs Aes ene ee 464 663 193 382 SOOO OO OOO ae ee ect Sete os Soe onod Sis ere Souter. Serine 813 1,115 365 645 $9 OOL COSTA OOO oie t.c) Sesh cee acted mck cael Stes deems ceersite 1,210 1, 806 417 1, 035 STA OOLGOGS25 O00 mare phe cil ee oe cee alk eure cee secientente 1,682 2, 400 435 1, 093 S25 O0L COS SO000 se hc heel Be ae een a he kee pastes c coretee Seat 3, 265 4, 636 902 2,251 SHOOOLC OSLO 000K se cate te ce Sec bees cece nec ccieee ae manos 5, 940 9, 766 1, 154 4, 806 Over$100,000ss. ct 305.062 oF Beeps oe ne ee, ME 15,025 | 19, 364 3, 189 8, 895 Colored tenants. Capital. Farm income. Labor income. 1913 1918 1913 1918 SHOOIATTOR ES Se Rese WSR heute fey une Ol Ry aii ive cpap el lus NE 223 $300 $202 $278 SOOTHE OBIVOOOS eae See TS RRR ye hd 498 580 449 533 STOOL OSZ OOO eee Oo Terie eh ees aS ea Ry kya ae 576 1,053 482 959 $2001 OSS: OOOR EM BP oN uderlak Pe SOUS e OY CN eh sce Se Od 1, 759 1,942 1, 598 1,774 $3,001 to $5,000........2..2...- Bias aleesired cai BLT avec ae) ch SMR Ney Abe PRORY WINER oo 1, 958 S500 LE OS9? 000 ee eee ere REE EEC cca Al) RRR AUST ISS | lc | eee SD; OO VG OBUS: OOO es Bee TES RR SG UN oe EE a= OS A SR Se a | SUSFOOLEO}G25; 000 Sos a a eae eat eee ral ee pose aera | eens at fe | Peeps ee an | ee S25SOOT FOS HOLO0O ss seas eee eae eet eR Dery eA (et esl <1 2 | ate de | $505 001stOS100 5000 ws ose Le eee ie Se ee Ae ee Tpke 2S a eee | ee Over: SlOO OOO see eye Se Nae pen ea real 2 SRA A A ep lag Al ee | FAMILY FARMS. Family farms, those operated with the labor of the farmer and his family, are of such interest generally that the organization and earnings of the family farms included in this study may well be briefly discussed separately. Usually the size of these farms are such as require from 12 to 24 months of man labor per year. Fewer acres of crops can be operated with the labor of the farmer and his family in Sumter County than in FARM MANAGEMENT IN SUMTER COUNTY, GA. 39 many other areas, because the type of farming followed (cotton) is more intensive than many other types. For comparison, a group of white-owner farms in Sumter County, averaging about 73 acres of crops, required 388 months of man labor per farm; a group of dairy farms in Dane County, Wis., averaging 81 acres of crops, required 22 months, and a group of grain and live-stock farms in Clinton County, Ind., averaging 93 acres of crops, required only 19 months of labor. Only 10 per cent of the white-owner farms in 1913 and 13 per cent in 1918 were operated as family farms, while 72 per cent of the colored-tenant farms in 1913 and 66 per cent of those in 1918 were operated as such. (See Table 18.) TABLE 18.—Summary of the farm business on farms operated by the farmer and his family, Sumter County, Ga. White owners. | White tenants. | Colored owners.|Colored tenants. 1913 | 1918 1913 1918 1913 1918 1913 1918 Number of family farms. 26 36 18 16 8 22 134 110 Per cent of totalfarms..... 10 13 37 29 26 46 72 66 Average number in family...... Je 5 5 5 6 7 7 6 7 Number infamily under 16 years.... 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 mFCROPSEMee mise vaceeemece cscs: acres. . 34 37 37 49 63 61 47 53 IMC OUCOM aaryasteeeioee sees do.... 15 11 22 17 39 28 30 27 MECORMA ess ijro- 2 ena dows? 14 17 12 24 18 25 13 20 Imvothencropsssis-scs-s--- 5... do. .-. 5 9 3 8 6 8 4 6 Cotton per acre..-...... pounds. .lint. - 258 176 187 164 182 149 198 178 Corn) per acre. 2.2.22... 2. bushels. - 11 11 9 10 8 9 8 10 Months offamily labor............... 8 7 6 5 15 17 13 14 Number of work stock. ..........-..-- 1.6 17 1.8 1.6 2.2 2.5 1.6 1.9 Capitaliperftarm se a kee eee $3,055 | $4, 117 $416 $978 | $3,268 | $4,759 $518 $755 ea eStateker er jose ceiscincee cece 25484) | 3424) |e ose oslo se PME! Bh UGS) | Pace send seoouaes Working capital....-...........-- 571 876 416 978 564 996 518 755 Receiptspertarm 9 joss. 62.2.2) ee 663 | 1,055 506 897 | 1,091 | 1,596 678 1, 204 Expenses perfarm.....-...........6- 404 507 335 489 566 795 441 660 HATA COMIC Heer ees a anos Sete 259 548 171 408 525 801 237 544 Hab omim comes ee eee Moses cctoeee o 45 260 142 340 296 468 212 491 Unpaid family labor................- 117 145 86 109 203 340 160 280 Family income....................-.- 376 693 257 517 728 1,141 397 824 Interest on indebtedness. ...-.-...-.- 5 3 psi Gnome re 45 10 8 1 Family living from farm.............]......-- O14) en eee PRY eee eee ASS) |e cars 392 Number of farms mortgaged.......--- 4 2 Hiegodescd 5 3 50 3 Cost of cotton per pound.......-lint..| $0. 154 | $0.323 | $0. 133 | $0. 305 | $0. 106 | $0. 252 | $0.116 | $0. 232 Cost of cotton per acre........--.----- 43.35 | 65.96 | 21.01 | 35.80] 21.77 | 44.72] 19.57 33. 73 Comparing figures on organization and operation of these family farms with the other farms, the family farms do not make as good a showing. They have lower yields, lower returns, and provide less for the family living from the farm than the farms of other classes. FARM MORTGAGES. In 1913 37 per cent of the farms operated by white owners were mortgaged, while in 1918 the percentage had been reduced to 23, in spite of the fact that a few changes in ownership brought into the 1918 group men whose mortgages tended to offset the general reduction in indebtedness. (See Table 19.) At the same time the interest rate 40 BULLETIN 1034, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. decreased slightly, from 6.8 per cent in 1913 to 6.6 per cent in 1918. The interest rate averaged highest for the farms getting the smaller loans. About one-third of the colored tenants had mortgage loans in 1913 and only 2 per cent in 1918. Ninety-seven per cent had yearly loans in 1913 and 80 per cent in 1918. The yearly loan interest rate was decreased 1 per cent in 1918 under that of 1913 for the colored tenants. Another good measure of the increased prosperity of these farmers is shown by a comparison of the amount of money borrowed for carry- ing on the year’s business in 1913 and 1918. It has long been the custom for many farmers in this area to borrow money necessary each year to conduct the business. (See Table 20.) For example, in 1913, .60 per cent of the white owners borrowed all or part of the cash required for farm expenses, while in 1918 only 44 per cent borrowed. The colored tenants showed a similar improvement. In 1913 91 per cent borrowed all their cash and only 3 per cent did not borrow any, while in 1918 only 60 per cent borrowed all, and 22 per cent not any. TABLE 19.—Farm loans and interest rates on white owner and colored tenant farms, Sumter County, Ga., 1913-1918. WHITE OWNERS. 1913 7918 150 'actes | Over is0|. (All: »| >0.86res ig versa: 7 saat Maier acres. farms. manger acres. farms. Number offarms reporting mortgageloans. 52 48 100 27 38 65 Per cent of total number offarms....-. 33 43 37 16 33 23 Amount ofloan per farm reporting...-| $1, 488 $8,795 $4,995 $1,848 | $10,503 $6,908 Interestrate (per cent)..:...-..-2.--.- Tarts 6.6 6.8 7.0 6.5 6.6 Number of farmsreporting yearly loans - -. 84 76 160 65 58 123 Per cent of total number offarms....-. 54 68 60 40 50 44 Amount ofloan per farm reporting... -- $309 $1, 646 $940 $322 $1,927 $1,078 Interest rate\(per/cent).-=:22 4-522. - <4 7.6 6.9 7.0 7.8 tet 7.0 COLORED TENANTS. 50 actes' | (Over 50:|'\) all’ 4/0 8CKeS Soyer 50) | MOAT TAGS acres farms anager acres farms, Number offarms reporting mortgage loans. 33 28 (ail Ra ores Se 4 4 Per cent of total number offarms...... 34 31 Sh BERLE See 4 2 Amount ofloan per farm reporting. -- . $168 $418 $250):|2 Seeteee $360 $360 Interest rate\(per'cent)®: 33.2. --2-2---- 10. 2 10. 3 1082) Ee scree 9.6 9. 6 Number of farms reporting yearly loans - -. 92 88 180 49 83 132 Per cent of total number offarms...... 96 98 97 79 80 80 Amount ofloan per farm reporting. - - . $104 $205 $153 $117 $211 $176 Interest,rate (per, cent) 2. -ee 2 eo 3 10.7 10. 6 10.7 10.1 9.6 9.7 Al FARM MANAGEMENT IN SUMTER COUNTY, GA. ce 6S (a6 9€ €F 102 "18103 JO | ‘surIeyjo yueo Jog | lequinN oot CES oF G6 09 OFTs 9090 | Tae goed e2v10A VY *SULICJ ITV 9% 174 9¢ LST 81 6F "18404 JO | ‘suite jo qu00 Jog | JEqUNnN oot L¥e ‘T c9 LL 8E PLPr$ T9470 | Sena #99 Jed | o3e10ay “SUIIV) [TV quo Jog “T2404 Jo quod Jog "18104 JO yuo 19g “18404 JO 400 Jeg °$010B OCT JOAO "18303 Jo “$0108 O¢T ISAO ch €% vas Or 81 €I ZI 9 9 “-*-Joye19do Aq peystusmy yied pue pemois0g eg iK4 Ka ST g 9 4 4 ¥ Viitiiicn! goss Poy eRe eee ST a ioye10do Aq poystusiny [TW 8e es && 18 Z91 G8 92 06 98 ete om TY oe UMC ne ee SMa RC ToS peMmosIog [TV W1v]J 3u1}7e19d0 10} Yseo Jo Seomnog *sUIIeJ JO | "12402 JO | *SuIIBJ JO} *[230}JO | “suIIRJ JO} “12302 JO | “suIVyJO| “7109 JoO | suTIey JO JquUINN | }Ue0 Jog | JaquINN | 3u900 Jog | JoquINN | }Ued Jog | JoquinN | jus0 Jeg | JoquInN 682 coo) § 8&8T OOT o9T oot €2Z 00T COD: Paes Petia Goo Bae eee Stee ee seas omen [C1 OW, OZT €€ oF 6 ia Or &% ¢ g shoo SsneabRdbossboseScbe pe Jojze10do Aq poystum 7 69T8 L9 c6$ 16 Shs 06 008$ c6 (UO) E peeeted pete = Sn pe eR eae ei erue a Oy PeMOIIO | sey BuTZeV19d0 IO} YSBQ ‘miejied| . ‘mIej ied} . ‘miej ied | . ‘mrIvyjied| . ‘uriej 10d gunouze | ,1810930 | yumoure | {190939 | gunoure | {10239 | gunoure | ,1°9095° | yunoure OZBIOAY eseIOAV esB1OAV O3B1OAV OsB1OAV *IopuN pus soi0e 0G *SUII®) [TV *S9I0B 0G IOAQ *I9pUN PU Sede 0G 8I6I e161 ‘SEUNVNGL GHUOTOO 1g 1 eh 1G Lg 9% 66 81 8% “*--10je10do Aq peystuiny yed pu pomosog eq 6S 09 86 OF 801 Tg ce * LP Oi a na ea shes ga eee Joye1edo Aq poystuiny [Ty 1ké &I (46 68 £01 &F 8F ce cg autem see sacs etre SS Se PeMmosIog [TV ‘ SUI] 3U1}e19d0 10} YSeo Jo seommog *STIIVJJO | "12102 JO | “SUIIeJJO) [8107 JO | “sTAIeJJO| “[e10 Jo | ‘suIvJJO| “72104 JO | ‘suIIeJJO JOqUINN | JUe0 Jeg | JequNN | }U90 Jog | JequInN | JU9d Jeg | JoquinN | JU9d Jeg | IOqUINN 60F ‘Z| ‘OOT a7 Oot St0‘T 00T 986 ‘T oor (sisiaetu Beer Se Se ees 1240 OoF‘T 69 ¥8Z ad 6rF oP 618, 2g es poet eae eer Joyerodo Aq poystainy sc6s ats 8ZI$ 9¢ 99c$ 8g LIL T$ 8F LOTS et =: eee ge ee Ea me. egal (abs ee PEMOTIO F > UdIey 3UTYVI9d0 10} YsSBO ‘miey Jod| ._. ‘mej sod | . ‘mej 0d | . *mIej 10d | . “mie 1od yunowme aes yunome akon tee yunoue wees yunoue weed junome esB10A VY d esel0AV eseloA VY d OseIOAV d OsBIOAY *‘JOpUN pus S910 IST *SULIC} [TV *s010B 0ST JOAQ ‘| -JOpUN pueseaioe OCT e e161 : SI6r “SUUNMO ZLIB M *SI6I-SI6I “vp ‘fyunog wajywng ‘swuinfjzunua) pa10joo pun laumo anyn uo wif ay? buryoiado sof ysog—'0Z ATAVL, 42 BULLETIN 1034, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. NUMBER OF WORK STOCK AND MONTHS OF MAN LABOR. The number of work stock on these farms was practically the same for the two periods, but in 1918 a smaller acreage of cotton was worked per mule and an increased acreage of other crops. (See Table 21.) This applies to both owner and tenant farms, although the change was more pronounced on the white-owner farms, owing to the fact that they devoted a larger proportion of the crop area to crops other than cotton, and also because they utilized a large amount of the crop area for second crops and interplanted crops, yet the full significance of the difference in work-stock and man-labor utilization on these groups of farms the yields returned should also be consid- ered. (See Table 4.) The number of work stock and the amount of labor required for operating a farm are two indications of the size of business. The most labor and the most work stock was used on the white-owner farms and the least on the colored-tenant farms. The wide variations in the amount of labor and work stock used under the different ten- ures were largely due to the difference in average crop area. Com- paring 1913 and 1918, the white owners decreased the months of labor slightly, while the other groups showed an increase. The white ten- ants and colored owners used about one-half as much labor per farm as the white owners, and the colored tenants about one-third as much. TABLE 21.—Work stock and amount of labor, Sumter County, Ga., 534 farms in 1913 and 550 in 1918. i White owners. | White tenants. | Colored owners.| Colored tenants. 1913 1918 1913 1918 1913 1918 1913 1918 Number offarmsy. sis s-seb erin 268 280 49 56 31 48 186 166 PATCHES MCEOPS te seo tes cee ciate ie 179 181 85 102 107 lil 59 72 Acresin cotton... atte 102 69 54 45 67 53 39 38 Acres second crop.. 12 18 9 6 5 7 1 4 Acresinterplanted........-. 9 SaaS 23 | 9 25 2 10 Number work stock per farm 6.6 6.5 2.9 3.2 3.9 4.0 | Pil 2.6 Acres of cotton per mule... .- 15 11 19 14 | 17 13 | 19 15 Acres of other crops per mule 1 Box 13 20 14 20 | 12 16 10 15 Total months’ labor per farm........ 95 91 40 44 53 55 | 31 36 Total labor represented by: Wage labor (per cent).-..--:.-...- 35 30 28 20 1s 18 10 11 Share cropper labor (per cent)... - 49 54 33 41 33 29 10 13 Total hired labor (per cent)-..-..-.--- 84 84 61 61 51 47 20 24 Acres of cotton per man.......-- jeagee 13 9 16 12 15 12 15 13 Acres of other crops per man 2........ 11 17 12 17 10 14 8 13 Unpaid family labor (per cent)......- 3 3 9 12 26 31 42 43 Farmer’s labor (per cent)..--...-..-- 13 13 30 27 23 22 38 34 Total unpaid labor (percent). ....-.- 16 16 39 39 49 53 80 7 Cost of hired labor per month: Wie labore. sn5-> Ss ccae neces $18 $25 $17 $25 $17 $26 $18 $24 Share cropper labor. ..,......---- 20 40 19 43 13 30 16 32 Value ofunpaid labor permonth: Unpaid family labor..--.....-.--| $16 $24 $15 $20 $14 $21 $13 $20 Hanmer Silabons ..- se settee stele 40 54 24 39 22 31 16 31 1 Includes acreage used for second crops but not the acreage of interplanted crops with the main crop. 2 Total months of labor divided by 12. FARM MANAGEMENT IN SUMTER COUNTY, GA. 43 Practically the same amount of labor was used per crop acre under each tenure but the white farmers, and especially the white owners, got higher yields than did the colored farmers. The white farmers hired 84 per cent of their labor each year; the white tenants, 61 per cent; colored owners about 50 per cent, and the colored renters only 20 per cent. The cost of hired labor, family labor, and the farmer’s own labor increased in about the same proportions, being about 40 to 50 per cent higher in 1918 than in 1913. Cropper labor in 1918, owing to the increased price of cotton, was double the cost in 1913. The share-croppers working under the supervision of white opera- tors received higher returns than those working under the super- vision of colored operators, owing mainly to the difference in yields. CHOICE OF ENTERPRISES. When conditions affecting the agriculture of a region remain stable for a long period, local agricultural practice in the long run tends to become approximately what it should be to insure the best results, though the practice which gives the best immediate returns sometimes unfavorably affects soil fertility. When conditions change so that change in farm organization is warranted, farmers ultimately adapt | their farm business to the new conditions. In a study of the analysis of the farming business in Sumter County for the two periods 1913 and 1918 we have seen that farmers have been confronted with conditions that have made necessary some change in farm organization and farm practice, though not in type of farming, since cotton is still the leading enterprise of the area, and from all indications undoubtedly will continue to be. While the other enterprises which the farmers were stressing more in 1918 than 1913 may be distinctly profitable when occupying a minor position in the business, there is likelihood of their becoming distinctly un- profitable if made major enterprises on many farms. In this connec- tion it is of interest to consider data regarding production per farm, prices, and diversity. PRODUCTION PER FARM. While it is important that a farm business be so organized as to contribute directly to the farmer’s living, a farm can not be consid- ered profitable until it is yielding enough products for sale to main- tain itself adequately as a business organization. By this is meant that farm receipts must be sufficient not only to cover the yearly cash outlay, but to pay for the labor and supervision of the farmer and members of his family, as well as interest on capital. Table 22 shows wide differences existing among the different classes of farmers in Sumter County in production per farm, owing 44 BULLETIN 1034, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to differences in method of operation, size of business conducted, and yields. In 1913 the farms operated by white owners averaged 57 bales of cotton, as compared with 26 bales for the farms operated by colored owners, 25 bales for the farms operated by white tenants, and 16 bales for those operated by colored tenants. Of the 25 bales produced on the white-tenant farms, the tenant received 18 bales and the landlord 7; and of the 16 bales produced on the colored-tenant farms the tenant received 12 and the landlord 4. TABLE 22.—Amount of products sold per farm on white and colored owner and tenants farms, Sumter County, Ga., 1913 and 1918. White-tenant Colored-tenant White farms. Colored farms. owner owner farms. farms. Tenant. |Landlord. Tenant. |Landlord. SSMS ce Noes ee eeaemie bales aide Stewie se eelslete tee tons. eseres bushels Suber ehh doz. Pee Sie ei anne do... SUR eet te, dozer See ear On Sia mee ea do... Hoeeeweleneectees teen bs 8 tons. LESS ECG has Srekrs Mee re oerete aicraielaye do..-2 Drie Gl se. 2 4 Pan seer be gallons. : Sweet potatoes a... 2. asses. bushels. - 3 Cattler sn Seen ater Ss as number; A 1 LA) ee eS 1 @eralBo eee eet 18 Fat se oc ee OS ee Pi ER ig Na Fe Wis Meese ced | eo Cured pork 163 254 faaee a2 NO DSP ys | ae ae ee eee Amount sold Cotton 36 Cotton seed 14 OVW Pe Bec ecek nocache cise 287 Oatsee Pe Mis Sa ace Se eee ae 28 Wheat 28 Riyee sores sc 2 Cowpea seed 5 Eesti ae 2 Peanuts Be 3 Sint Ree ae stant nee serena gallons. z 63 Sweet potatoes........-...-- bushels. . 21 Catteries ee A ee ee a NE number. . 2 MLO SS Pasi ye aede Saunas econ aepee do.... 9 Cured DORK rae eee ees pounds. . 850 1 Less than one-half a unit. This table emphasizes the changes in the farm organization for the two years. Cotton and oats were the crops with a decrease in acreage in 1918 over 1913. In 1918 there was increased production of corn, wheat, cowpea seed, peanuts, sweet potatoes, cattle, and hogs, espe- cially on the farms operated by white owners. It would seem that the change in production that has taken place, by virtue of which the farms have become more self-sustaining, not only as to food and feed production, but as to soil fertility maintenance as well, is an important improvement in the business management of these farms. SELLING PRICES. The prices received for farm products have an important bearing upon the farm earnings. (See Table 23.) The prices received by the FARM MANAGEMENT IN SUMTER COUNTY, GA. 45 different classes of farmers are fairly constant, but the prices of different commodities show wide variation. Cotton and cotton seed were over 100 per cent higher in 1918 than in 1913, while prices of corn, oats, cowpeas, and hogs increased considerably less. TABLE 23.—Average prices received for products sold, Sumter County, Ga., 534 farms in 1913 and 550 in 1918. White-tenant Colored-tenant White farms. Colored farms. OWTLET | aes ears ete 9 OV INOD ih | eta emcee farms. farms. Tenant. |Landlord. Tenant. |Landlord. | 1913 Selling price: Coton ees scese ec ecs eee per pound..| $0. 123 $0. 123 $0. 123 $0. 119 $0. 120 $0. 120 Cotton seed........2......--- per ton..| 26.25 292593) |Memeeeeee 23. 09 PAG BYE See snse 45 CORR er ee per bushel. . 94 © Gn peodcoeosss - 98 OS agli ORG See eee ecto Neca ditiscicitie do.... . 70 Was RAS ees fal Man cate Wek doc croisle see ectemen conte Wheaten a es Pa wcities feces LOE a fee aid nc at |e age ae a aT ips asis | Sree ae Pe IRV OS Ge Ga RaSe SO aCe RSE do... De G4 asl i, RE Ea Sparel at are ree eee ect a om | a Cowpea seed? 2.2.05.....202202 2. do. PA Yan irae 8S 1. 56 ates | Pee elise AY 4 y ee oe 3G 7 be 0K § 4 "TO at ae 8L8 £98 a 1) aaa 6'TT. 69g oc ; Ges GL9 oy e160 008 0¢ OF eS 12a L8b 7 | G81 oz 899 Tg8 ‘ 2) (neat 00°6 8 S lz ers h O1z ozg 6 008 a a5 169 ESP gs 00 "8? o1 oils --|308, OSF Bus ee a" O81 ae 7aaltags 0L6 ea boreal ir alll cs ‘% | LST . \% 868 OLG$ Osh wie ie OZ 0Z ee £96 ez oe t loco | 000% | 2st 00 L LLP rE 7 009s TE oY Oph oe ae 9S cen ‘G : +z~—«|| 0S ‘OF es ai Be altos |GET ana tiectewe ita eraualaces | 291 £96 | LOT Bye ol Gacee » a “Ae BRee REGU NSBR oer Re oeet eat ooor | 82° 4 Tuo n eQinrraet a vi ee 00 06 00°95 i aaet SUTAY “TUB cranial 00 ‘9F =) our} A 2 WO . < , 31AVO AQ [eIOL anid 3 Uta Sea | stare wo IOdeTs |i: = OULOOUT ATTULR YT ee el Cia ety nS eee Thedited ee *s}d 1000. d out PUG yy NOK ay rT TIT “xo OTOL |"SFATOoO.L | * 1v q “O18 IOQUT }U09 19 I XO) ll 3 11040 an [BUA | *0}BI89 aqoe Jad | “Wo TROL YHOO | [Ro | 1wWyO cae m10})00 a 09"|=-seao8 jo peta | soroy | POUL 74 ‘ponulyuoj—g76r “ } I S DE) “hyur ( 167 “DH ‘hyunoy saywngy ‘swmunf dauno-apryn O86 ft ) ( LYM O86 JO Yyova WO ssw ; ssauisng Ulf ay? fe ( AD O ADWUNI— VL AIA L ‘ON WIB IT 75 FARM MANAGEMENT IN SUMTER COUNTY, GA. 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Commercial coal-tar ereosote—Dotted line. Commercial coal-tar ereosote—Dotted line. [Experimental coal-tar creosote—Sozid line. Experimental coal-tar creosote—So id line. produced from tar No. 2, and figure 17 shows the indices or refraction of two other pairs of creosotes made from tars No. 3 and 4, respec- tively. These figures show that creosotes can be produced from tars in the laboratory in such a way as to duplicate commercial condi- tions, and can be made as nearly identical as two analyses of the same oil. In view of the fact, however, that not all tar distillers use air in their operation, it was decided that all work on authentic tars should COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 37 be carried out with the use of air under a pressure of 7 inches of water until all the moisture had been expelled from the tar. The rest of the distillation was completed without the use of air. The data thus obtained represent creosote oils that any manufacturer could obtain from the same tar. If there is any difference, the oils are lower in index of refrac- tion and specific gravity, and higher insulphonation residue than they would have been with the use of air. In other words, any specification that might result from this investi- gation would be on the safe side and would work no hard- ship on the manufacturer of creosote oil. It was a somewhat difficult matter to cut the distillates from the tar in such a manner that an oil could be obtained having a distillation range similar to that of a commer- cial creosote. In _ practice, therefore, no attempt was made to separate the light oils from the creosote oils in the distillation from the tar still. The only separation made was the fraction con- taining the water and the more volatile of the light oils. The total distillate above this point was collected in one con- tainer and subsequently dis- tilled from an ordinary flask. Alloil coming over below 205° C. was discarded. That boil- ing from 205° to 235° C. was collected separately. The residue above 235° C. was 163 162 /61 a je) INDEX OF REFRACTION AT 60 °%. 158 BaO 260 2G0 300 TEMPERATURE (NOT CORRECTED) °C fia. 17.—Index of refraction values of coal-tar creosotes pro- duced from tars No. 3 and No. 4. Commercial coal-tar creosotes—Dotted lines. Experimental coal-tar ereosotes—Solid lines. weighed, and to this was added 25 per cent of its weight of the frac- tion boiling between 205° and 235°C. In this way the creosotes were made to conform to specification No. 1 of the American, Railway Engi- neering Association so far as distillation limits were concerned. CHAPTER III. RESULTS OF THE TESTS. The results obtained by the various tests are given chiefly in the form of curves, which show graphically the similarity or dissimilarity of the creosotes examined. The data are given in tables in the Appendix. COAL-TAR CREOSOTES. Figures 18a, 19a, and 20a show the indices of refraction, the spe- cific gravities, and the sulphonation residues, respectively, of the various fractions of creosotes obtained from horizontal retort tars. The data from which these curves are drawn are given in Tables 39, 40, 41, and 42. Particular attention is directed to the narrowness of the ranges of specific gravity, index of refraction, and sul- phonation residue of these creosotes. Figures 18B, 19B, and 208 show the indices of re- fraction, the specific gravities, and sulphonation residue of the fractions obtained from creosotes from inclined retort tars and from one vertical fi Uti 6retort tar, the latter bemg ¢ SR es aL) plotted in a dotted line. Fig- ’ Fiq. 18,—Index of refraction values of fractions of wyres 18¢, 19¢c, and 20c show authentic coal-tar creosotes. A. Horizontal retort-tar creosotes. the Sane. for Semet- B. Inclined retort-tar creosotes. Dotted line ver- Solvay tar creosote, and figures tical retort-tar creosote. INDEX OF REFRACTION AT 60 °C C. Semet-Solvay tar creosotes. h D. Otto-tar creosotes. Dotted line—Koppers-tar 18D, 19D, and 20D show the creosote. curves for other by-product tar creosotes. In these figures the dotted lines are for Koppers tar creosote and the other lines are for Otto tar creosotes. Figure 21 shows summaries of the same results for each type of measure- ment. The 80° lines represent the range for coke-oven tar creosotes, the 45° lines represent the range of horizontal retort tar creosotes, and the 20° lines represent the range for the inclined retort and verti- cal retort tar creosotes. Particular attention is called to figures 204, 20B, 20c, and 20D, which represent the sulphonation residue of the various fractions. It will be noted that most of the maximum sulphonation residues are 38 \ COAL-TAR AND WA'TER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 89 obtained in the fractions boiling between 280° and 290° C., but some- times not under 300° C. Above and below these points the sulphona- tion residues decrease. The results shown in these figures seem to indicate that the kind of coal from which the tar is manufactured BESS ns | fea ld yim 1.040) 7 : es 1.02 y | £ sont o b s - = 1.000! B = A z G1 ia : Eee , & 9 1.080) & 1.071 —— e 1.060; 1.0: 1.0 1,03 i 1.01 Goo 240 260 280 300 320 240, 260 260 300 3320 c TEMPERATURE = C D Fia. 19.—Specific gravities of fractions of authentic coal-tar creosotes. A. Horizontal-retort tar creosotes. B. Inclined-retort tar creosotes. Dotted line—Vertical-retort tar creosote. C. Semet-Solvay tar creosotes. D. Otto tar creosotes. Dotted line—Koppers tar creosote. has at best only a slight influence on the quality of the creosote pro- duced from coal tar, since in the range shown for horizontal retorts (figs. 184, 194, and 20a) Westmoreland, Youghiogheny, Alabama, and Tennessee coals were used, as well as mixtures of unknown or local coals with the above. The wide variation in the properties of coal- 40 BULLETIN 1036, U.-S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. _tar creosotes indicated by figures 18 to 20 must, therefore, be due either to the type of retort or to the temperature of coking. Figure 22 shows two coal-tar creosotes produced from tars from the same mixture of coal and operated under the same management, and as nearly as possible at the same temperature, although one tar was produced in an inclined retort and the other in « horizontal El te AZAN \i e [al TAY a SHAN ia i © PERCENT OF SULPHONATION RESIDUE : EERSZEGARSE bal) 220 240 260 260 300 320 220, 240 260 280 300 486320 c TEMPERATURE — C 3 Fic. 20.—Sulphonation residues of fractions of authentic coa‘-tar creosotes. A. Horizontal-retort tar creosoces. B. Inclined-retort tar creosotes. Dotted line—Vertica!-retort tar creosoe. C. Semet-Solvay tar creosotes. D. Otto tarcreosotes. Dotted line—K oppers t ar creosotes. retort. Figure 23 shows two coal-tar creosotes obtained from the same mixture of coal at different by-product plants which were at the timé producing coke in approximately the same length of time, but which employ different types of oven—the Otto-Hoffman and the Semet-Solvay. These figures show the effect of different types of retort when the other two variables are practically the same. It is noted that the results are nearly identical, or, at least, that there ee eRe COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. eS pad is less difference in the results from using different types of retort or oven than is often shown in the use of different ovens or retorts of the same type. In other words, if the coal and the temperature of coking are the same, the type of retort or oven seems to have little or no effect. This seems to indicate that the producing of highly aromatic coal-tar creosotes is dependent upon the temperature of coking. If this is true, then the method of applying the heat to the retort may have some effect upon the quality of the coal-tar creosote. According to some researches at the University of Wisconsin (14) on producer gas, tar is formed from coals at comparatively low temperatures, ranging from 200° to 600° C. This is far below the 1.560 - 1.090 Payee be is EE eceai geal ee Ea + | __f at 1.630 1.080 5+—+—++ fee) pi no ozo 8 UPPER LIMIT DF [ INCLINED RETORT, 3 | 1.63 1.060) a 7 e) 4 rH 4 Vs *) © 1.620 ©, 1.050} ~~ z6 | & ps i Pe @ iss < UPPER Aaa = 1.610 21.040 _+_ o5 _, NYE COKE OVEN > a : eee | § ass i . a \ 131.600 1.031 m4! pe Ic 2) ° w ie - a S 3 f z ; UPRER [LIMIT O Hi1.s90 & 1.020 23 ie ONTAL RE “ 2 1S (CAR TAB 7 4 NL 1.580) 1.010) 2 let | \ rs eee VL be 4 ale ot. 1.570} 1.000 1 a Swe PETE | L INCLINED/ RETOR’ | 220 240 260 260 300 320 "220 ab 260 280 3 3 TEMPERATURE °C 4 B i Cc Fig. 21.—Summaries of the physical and chemical measurements of fractions of all authentic coal-tar creosotes. A. Index of refraction values. B. Specific gravity values. 1. Horizontal-retort tar creosotes. 2. Coke-oven tar creosotes. 3. Inclined and vertical retort tar creosotes. C. Sulphonation residues. temperature of coking in both the by-product and gas-house retorts. Table 8 shows that the temperature of coking in the by-product oven rarely goes below 900° C. and that the average is about 1,000°C. If tars are produced at temperatures as low as 200° C. and are com- pletely given off from the coal at 600° C., and if the retort is heated to a point as high as 1,000° C., the tar vapor, as it rises from the coal, must come into contact to a certain extent with a surface heated far above its temperature of formation, when it may, and probably does, undergo a chemical change. It is well known that paraffin-like oils may be obtained if coal is coked at low temperatures. It is also significant to note that in this work the tars produced at the highest temperatures yielded either no coal-tar creosotes at all or else one of 49 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. high physical properties and having no sulphonation residues; but that those subjected to lower temperatures yielded coal-tar creosotes ~ having lower index of refraction values and higher sulphonation residues. The inclined-retort tar creosotes were higher in sulphona- tion residues, and it seems to be almost universally true that, when this type of retort is discharged, there is a small amount of uncoked coal in the charge. In-the vertical retort there is less chance for the ERR E Es Hee A (INDEX OF REFRACTION PERCENT OF SULPH- ONATION RESIDUE ro) —_ o ~ ‘o a AT 60° C' SPECIFIC GRAVITY ee 220 240 260 .280 300 320 220, 240 260 280 300 320 TEMPERATURE °C Fic. 22.—Physical and chemical constants of Fic. 23.—Physical and chemical constants creosotes obtained from tar produced from of creosotes obtained from tar produced thesame mixture of coal at the same tem- from the samemixture of coal atthesame perature but in different types of retort. temperature but in different typesof oven. 1. Horizontal-retort tar creosote. 1. Semet-Solvay tar creosote. 2. Inclined-retort tar creosote. 2. Otto-Hofiman tar creosote. gases to come in contact with the heated wails of the chamber unless a fixing chamber is left above the charge. In the by-product ovens the vertically heated ovens usually have a hotter roof than those heated horizontally. Of the six vertically heated by-product ovens only two produced coal-tar creosotes having a measurable amount of sulphonation residue. Of five coal-tar creosotes from horizontally heated ovens all but one had a measurable sulphonation residue. Of the four that had sulphonation residue the oldest plant produced the coal-tar creosotes having the highest sulphonation residue and the COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 43 next oldest the next greatest residue. Only one by-product tar creosote exceeded 2 per cent sulphonation residue in any of its fractions. WATER-GAS-TAR CREOSOTES. The data obtained on the water-gas-tar creosotes examined are shown in figure 24. In figure 24c attention is again directed toward the fractions from 260° to 300° C., the sulphonation residues being greater in general than in any other fractions obtained in distillation. This is the same as the indication on coal-tar creosotes. Very few data were obtained on the temperatures at which these tars were produced. It is, however, to be noted that the oils showing the highest indices of refraction, the highest specific gravities, and the lowest sulphonation residues were produced at the highest tem- o w 646 1.08 20, ial en ie | 1.070- L | ig} ta + HH 1.060) 16¢-—— Ll ee ila ica Sal 1.950) + 1 SA + | aEp 1,040) i 12} Sea = — N b nN 2 XPT N ’ INDEX OF REFRACTION AT 60°C . SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 60°C Lo ONG 8 9 an PERCENT OF SULPHONATION RESIDUE NAAM LAN PS o ° b — a 5 : 4 .980- | ol 740. 260 280 300 9320 240 260 280 300 220 220. 240. 260 280 300 320 TEMPERATURE °C A B c Fic. 24.—Physical and chemical measurements of fractions of all authentic water-gas tar creosote. A. Index of refraction values. B. Specific gravity values. C. Sulphonation residues. peratures, and in one or two instances the temperature is given at between 1300° and 1400° F., equivalent to 700° to 750° C. Out of 19 water-gas tars 5, or approximately one-quarter, produced creosotes having 2 per cent or less of sulphonation residue. Hight produced creosotes having 5 per cent sulphonation residue. All of these tars were manufactured in plants that are using temperature regulation in the operation. In this age of scientific management a closer control of manufacturing operations may reasonably be expected, which will result in a probable increase in water-gas tar haying a low sulphonation residue. Statistics on the annual production of water-gas tar are given in Table 6. In 1912 the total production was nearly one-half of the - total production of coal tar. The amount sold, however, was only one-quarter of the amount of coal tar sold. CHAPTER IV. COMPARISON OF THE PROPERTIES OF AUTHENTIC COAL- TAR CREOSOTES WITH THOSE OF AUTHENTIC WATER-GAS-TAR CREOSOTES. The following curves show the similarities and dissimilarities of the physical properties of all coal-tar creosotes and all water-gas-tar creosotes tested. Figure 254 shows the index of refraction plotted against temperature, in which the lines sloping to the left represent water-gas-tar oils and the lines sloping to the right represent coal-tar 1.045 1.035} INDEX OF REFRACTION AT 60°C am : co o 240 960-200 30 TEMPERATURE °C A B c Fic. 25.—Comparison of the physical and chemical properties of the fractions of authentic coal-tar creasotes and authentic water-gas tar creosotes. A. Index of refraction values. B. Specific gravity values. C. Sulphonation values. 1. Ranges of coal-tar creosotes. 2. Ranges of water-gas tar creosotes. creosotes. Figure 258 shows the same thing for specific gravity, and figure 25c represents the sulphonation residues (but the lines in this case are reversed). It is apparent from these curves that there is no sharp line of demarcation between the physical constants of coal-tar creosotes and of water-gas-tar creosotes. It is to be noted, however, that, whereas the larger number of coal-tar creosotes have a sulphonation residue of less than 3 per cent (see p. 20), the larger number of water-gas-tar creosotes have more than 3 per cent sulphona- tion residue in one or more of their fractions. Figure 26 shows the index of refraction values of the fraction 285° to 295° C. taken from 17 coal-tar creosotes and 14 water-gas-tar creosotes, plotted against percentage of sulphonation residue for the 44 COAL-TAR’ AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 45 same fractions. The dots represent water-gas-tar creosotes, and the circles represent coal-tar creosotes. Here it is seen that, although in a general way the water-gas-tar creosotes are Scahat lower than the coal-tar creosotes, yet they intermingle to a degree so great that no differentiation could be obtained by this method. Furthermore, the figure indicates very strongly that the sulphonation residues and the index of refraction values are proportional to each other in some inverse ratio. In other words, index of refraction values could be obtained in a very general way by the sulphonation test. Figures 274, 278, 27c, and 27p show the results of plotting specific gravity against fedex of refraction for the various fractions. Here the anette eravities of water-gas- tar creosotes are lower for the same el Tel I i 1 | index of refraction values than are 1.630 ede those of the coal-tar creosotes, and real there seems to be a somewhat defi- Leen nite line of demarcation between the two. However, the range of coal-tar creosotes and the range of water-gas-tar creosotes are each so much wider than the difference be- ~ tween the two ranges that mixtures of a high-grade water-gas-tar creo- sote and a high-grade coal-tar ,s7_| creosote would probably be classed . as a coal-tar product, and mixtures —56e" "4, | enrce oe 10 of a low-grade coal-tar creosote and ap eae eae io aon he toeed a low-grade water-gas-tar oil would §F1¢-26.—The relation between the index of refrac: tion valuesand theamount of sulphonation residues probably be classed as a water-gas- of fractions of authentic creosotes. Circles—Coal-tar creosotes. Home product. -in other words al= 4)-Detss.Wateress tn creosutes: though it is possible by this method to obtain figures showing a difference between pure water-gas-tar products and pure coal-tar products, it would be extremely difficult to say with any degree of authority that a given sample of oil was or was not a mixture of water-gas-tar and coal-tar products. This method of plotting specific gravity against index of refraction for the individual fractions is the only one that has been found at the Forest Products Laboratory for differentiating water-gas-tar creosotes of low-sulphonation residues from coal-tar creosotes which can be recorded numerically. In addition to this, the odor of water-gas-tar products is characteristic. The recording of this odor, however, involves a large personal equation and is of value to the expert only. It is also well known that water-gas-tar products contain no tar acids or, at any rate, only a small amount, and practically no tar 2 > — HESE IES INDEX OF REFRACTIO AT 60°C vl oS So a (0) +e Se |e Ole fo) Sie es seen) sel 46 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. bases. . These may easily be added to a water-gas-tar product at slight cost, however, and for this reason their presence is not proof positive that the creosote in which they are found is of coal-tar origin. It was supposed at one time that the color of the fractions was an g SREeeeeoccee oe fe Ps 2 Pe = 1.560 z A B a rae 27 bine eae ra ee & 7 eee nee Sennen nese Seen eee se earner Sa Se a sees eeeeneee oo SSRSGERERQ008 PO ee : seeeeSEaaUGE re He GREE ee Pees ey ease Bie oe eae else 5 lid 560 al 96 .98 £00 102 104 £06 TY AT Go°c 296 98 1,00 1.02 104 1.06 1.08 SPECIFIC GRAWI e Do Fic. 27.—Relation between theindex ofrefraction values and the specific gravity of thefractions of creosotes. Circles—Coal-tar creosotes. i Dots—Water-gas-tar creosotes. A. Fraction distilling between 255° and 265° C. B. Fraction distilling betwwen 265° and 275° C, C. Fraction distilling between 275° and 285°C. —— D. Fraction distilling between 285° and 295° C. indication of a mixture of water-gas-tar oils with coal-tar creosotes. This investigation has shown that the supposed characteristic green color of certain of the fractions is common to all creosotes or oils having a high sulphonation residue, and that this color, therefore, does not indicate a mixture of the two kinds of oil. PART Ill. PROPERTIES OF CREOSOTES. CHAPTER I. COMPOSITION: AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF COAL-TAR CREOSOTE. COMPOSITION OF COAL-TAR CREOSOTES. The heavy oils of coal tar that are usually known to the trade as creosote oil and carbolineums are in general composed of compounds of the aromatic series and are usually somewhat complex in their chemical structure. The hydrocarbons, that is, those compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen, are represented by members of at least six subdivisions of the aromatic series. The simplest of these is the benzene series, in which fall such com- pounds as benzene, toluene, and xylene. These are mainly low- boilmg compounds—boiling below 200° C.—and are lighter than water, but, on account of the difficulty in separating these com- pounds from members of other series having higher boiling points, they may be found in the oils that are heavier than water.! The next higher series is probably the indenes. These also are low boiling, that is, they boil below 200° C., but in all probability they are found in coal-tar creosote. The naphthalenes, of which naphthalene itself is the most impor- tant member so far as creosote oil is concerned, have boiling points between 200° and 270° C. when they are in the pure state. Some of this series are liquid at room temperature, but naphthalene, the parent of the series, is solid at ordinary temperatures, and, if it is pure, melts at 80° C. and boils at 218° C. Naphthalene may be present in almost any proportion in commercial oils. Samples of creosote, examined by the author, have contained as high as 75 per cent of oil boiling below 225° C., of which fully 75 per cent was naphthalene. On the other hand, oils such as the carbolineums con- tain practically no naphthalene. Acenaphthene might be termed a derivative of naphthalene. It has a somewhat higher boiling point, namely, 275° C. In the pure state this compound is a beautifully crystallized white material, melting at 95° C. It is characterized by its great solubility in hydrocarbon oils, especially those found in creosote; hence it rarely, if ever, crystallizes out from the mother liquor. Experiments at the Forest Products Laboratory seem to indicate that the-golden yellow oil, which occurs above the naphtha- 1 Huntley, in a master’s thesis offered at the University of Wisconsin, has shown that oils boiling as low as 137° C. may be obtained from a supposedly high-boiling (295° to 320° C.) fraction of coal-tar creosote. These oils, although smallin amount, were in all probability a mixture of xylenes and other of the higher homologues. 47 48 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lene fraction of creosote oil, is composed chiefly of this compound, mixed with sufficient quantities of other compounds to render it liquid at room temperature. The highest fractions of creosote are composed chiefly of com- pounds of the fluorene and anthracene series. The compounds of these series boil from 270° C. to above 400° C. The members of these series that are found in the largest quantity in creosote oil are phenanthrene, anthracene, and fluorene. All of these will crystal- lize from the creosote oil on standing. The heavy solid matter crys- tallizing from foreign oils is a mixture of these three compounds with other hydrocarbons and bases. Anthracene is used to a considerable extent in the manufacture of dyes; some of the foreign creosotes may therefore have been robbed of this constituent. Besides the hydrocarbons, which constitute by far the greater proportion of creosotes, there are a number of compounds containing oxygen which are collectively known as tar acids. These are not true acids in a chemical sense, but are phenols. They have some of the properties that are usually ascribed to acids, but also some of the properties that are characteristic of the alcohols. They are characterized by being extremely toxic to bacteria and fungi as well as to higher organisms. The higher homologues of phenol—the cresols and the xylenols—which are found in creosote, are as destruc- tive as phenol to living organisms, if not more so. As the phenols, cresols, and xylenols may be considered the alcohols or tar acids of benzene, toluene, and xylene, so also in creosote are found com- pounds of an alcoholic nature known as naphthols, which are derived from the members of the naphthalene series. These, too, are used in medicine, as bactericides and antiseptics. At the present time the total amount of tar acids in creosote oil does not exceed 10 per cent and is usually less than 5 per cent. Coal-tar creosotes contain also a number of compounds haying nitrogen as one of their component parts. These are collectively known in this connection as tar bases. Just as it may be considered that the phenols are obtained from the hydrocarbons by the addition of an alcohol group, so it may be considered that one type of these tar bases is derived from the same hydrocarbons by the addition of an ammonia group. Aniline and the toluidenes are examples of this type of tar base derived from benzene and toluene, respectively. In general, however, this type of nitrogen compound is so low boiling that it is not found to any great extent in coal-tar creosotes. Another type of nitrogen compound contains this element in a much more: stable condition. Compounds of this type may be termed cyclic nitrogen compounds, and are represented in coal-tar creosote by the pyridenes, the quinolines, and the acridines. These compounds bear the same relation to one another as benzene, naphthalene, and COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 49 anthracene do to one another. In general, the tar bases, particu- larly the cyclic compounds, are toxic to bacteria and fungi, and have been used as antiseptics in medicine. So far as the author is aware, no systematic tests have ever been made on the amount of tar bases which might be expected in coal-tar creosote. It probably does not, however, exceed the amount of phenols or tar acids. In addition to the various hydrocarbons, tar acids, and tar bases, smaller amounts of compounds containing sulphur have been found in coal tar. According to Lunge (10), the following sulphur com- pounds have been found in coal tar, and in all probability are present in the creosote oil: thioxene, trimethyithiophene, tetramethylthio- phene, biophene, dithienyl, trithienyl, thionaphthene, thiophthene. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF COAL-TAR CREOSOTES. A comprehensive treatment of the chemical properties of the individual compounds found in creosote is outside the scope of this work, and reference is made for this information to the various text- books on advanced organic chemistry. A few remarks, however, on the general reactions of creosote oil are desirable. In general, the reactions of the various reagents which may be applied to creosote oil are those expected of the aromatic hydrocarbons. Practically all of the hydrocarbons in coal-tar creosote have the capacity of forming beautifully crystallized addition compounds with picric acid. All the aromatic hydrocarbons are attacked by fuming sul- phuric acid, and some of them by ordinary sulphuric acid with the consequent production of sulphonic acids, which are soluble in water. The tar acids are characterized by their solubility in caustic soda, in which they form sodium salts that are more soluble in water than in oil. The phenols themselves can be reprecipitated from the aqueous solution of the sodium salt by the addition of an acid, carbon dioxide being sufficiently strong to accomplish this result. The tar bases, as a rule, form addition products with the mineral acids at ordinary temperatures, and these addition products are soluble in water. These bases are also characterized in general by the formation of insoluble compounds with the noble metals and with mercury. 79536°—22——_4 CHAPTER If. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COAL-TAR CREOSOTES. SOLUBILITY. The solubility of creosote in some solvents may be considered as a physical property; in other solvents a chemical reaction is involved. Usually, coal-tar creosote is completely soluble in chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, carbon bisulphide, ether, and absolute alcohol, although the individual constituents that go to make up the creosotes are frequently not soluble in some of these solvents. The influence of soluble constituents in increasing the solubility of those that usually are not soluble in the oil is well known to chemists. As an instance of this, it may be cited that, in the purification of anthracene from a mixture of phenanthrene and anthracene, the original material is quite soluble in warm 95 per cent alcohol. On cooling, a considerable amount of very impure anthracene crystallizes. A greater amount of alcohol is now required to dissolve this anthracene than was required to dissolve the original material, although it has been reduced to a smaller amount. Each time the crystallization is effected, the material becomes somewhat purer, and finally the anthracene is scarcely soluble in absolute alcohol. All aromatic hydrocarbons are soluble in dimethyl sulphate, but the aliphatic hydrocarbons are not soluble in it. As a rule, therefore, coal-tar creosote is completely soluble in this reagent; but, if paraffin com- pounds are present, it can not be expected that they would be sepa- rated quantitatively by the use of this solvent alone. COLOR AND ODOR. The color of coal-tar creosote is usually a deep yellow to a dark brown, depending somewhat upon its age. When first distilled, it is a clear yellow oil with a greenish cast, which rapidly changes to brown on contact with the air. The odor is rather difficult to describe. If naphthalene is present in considerable quantities, this odor predominates, but in general the odor can be described only as “tarry.” FLASH AND BURNING POINTS. It is usual in stating the physical properties of oils to give some idea of their flash and burning points. The composition of creosote oil varies so greatly, however, that the determination of the flash and burning points is of very little value. One might place the flash point at not less than 70° or 75° C., and the oil may be expected to flash at 80° C. under almost any conditions. The burning point is between 90° and 100° C. 50 COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES, 51 VAPOR PRESSURE. In the course of some experimental runs made by the Forest Service in a wood-preserving plant of light design, an explosion occurred which resulted in the rupture of the cylinder. It was thought at the time that, if the vapor pressure of the creosote oil were found to be sufficiently great, it might be an important factor in determining the design of treating plants. Experiments were therefore made to ascertain this vapor pressure at least approximately. Table 15 shows the average results obtained in experiments with two creosotes of different characteristics. TaBLE 15.— Vapor pressure of coal-tar creosotes. Vapor pressure. Vapor pressure. Temper-|__ CSS, Tem per- ature ature (degrees | Inches | Pounds |} (degrees| Inches | Pounds C.). of per C.). of per mercury.| sq. in. mercury.| sq. in. 50 2.0. 1.0 110 7.4 3.7 60 2.8 1.4 120 8.2 4.1 70 3.6 1.8 130 9.0 4.5 80 4.6 2.3 _ 140 9.8 4.9 90 5.6 2.8 150 10.6 5.3 100 6.4 3:2 | | | This vapor pressure is not sufficient to do any material harm, since it is always less than the atmospheric pressures at ordinary temperatures and elevations. If, however, the creosote contains water, the vapor pressure under this condition will be the sum of the vapor pressures of creosote and water. The vapor pressure of the mixture will be as shown in Table 16 if the vapor pressure of creosote, as given above, is used: 3 Tasie 16.— Vapor pressure of mixtures of coal-tar creosote and water. Vapor pressure. Vapor pressure. Temper- Temper- ature ature (degrees | Inches | Pounds || (degrees |} Inches | Pounds C.). of per C.). of per mercury.| sq. in. miercury.| sq. in. 40 3.0 1.5 80 18.6 9.3 50 3.5 2.7 90 26.2 13.1 60 8.6 4.3 100 36.4 18.2 70’ 12.8 6.4 Tn this case, even at 100° C., the vapor pressure in excess of atmos- pheric pressure (15 pounds a square inch) is only 3.2 pounds a square inch, which is a pressure so small that it need not be taken into consideration in designing treating plants. ™ SPECIFIC HEAT. It is frequently desiranle to know the specific heat of creosote in order that allowance may be made for sufficient coils to heat the 52 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tanks and cylinders in an economical manner. The average specific heat over a range from 15° to 90° ©. has been roughly determined in the Forest Products Laboratory. The results given in Table 17 are not absolute specific-heat data, but include also the latent heat of fusion if the creosote is solid at room temperature. They are, there- fore, somewhat greater than true specific-heat values. The specific heat of nine creosotes are shown in Table 17. ; TaBLE 17.—Specific heat of coal-tar creosotes. Creosote | Specific || Creosote | Specific No eat. vf 614 0.337 679 0.373 636 353 680 349 8 332 687 1,443, 641 -323 740 307 677 339 2 This creosote contained large quantities ofnaphthalene. It was practically solid at room temperature. The figure is high because of latent heat of fusion. The specific heat of creosotes may therefore be assumed to range between 0.30 and 0.45. If water is added, the mixture has a higher specific heat than creosote oil, and the rise in specific heat is in direct proportion to the amount of water present. Therefore, if treating plants are designed to handle aqueous solutions, ample provision will be made for the heating of creosotes. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The specific gravity of a material is a physical property that is easily measured. Because of this fact, it is used to a large extent in industry to determine such factors as the strength of solution or the quality of oil. The specific gravity of straight distilled coal-tar creosotes may vary from 1.01 to 1.08 or more. The usual temperature at which specific- gravity determinations are made is 38° C. and referred to water at 15° C. Practically the same result is obtained if the determination is made at 60° C. and referred to water at 60° C. It is sometimes convenient to measure the specific gravity at some temperature other than the ones shown above. The change in specific gravity with change in temperature is 0.00077 per degree centigrade, or 0.00043 per degree Fahrenheit. This correction factor may be added to the determined value if the tempertaure is above the standard, or subtracted if it is below. COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION. The factor usually termed the coefficient of expansion is the amount of change per unit volume if an oib is heated through 1 degree. This factor changes with the temperature and also with the different COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 53 eravities of oils, and at best the coefficient of expansion can be only a rough average of the various coefficients of expansion at different temperatures for different oils. In practice, it is usual to say that the change in volume is 1 per cent of the original volume for every 22.5° F. of temperature change. This factor is approximately accurate and is based on the fact that creosote oil changes its specific gravity roughtly 0.0008 per degree centigrade, or 0.00044 per degree Fahrenheit. For commercial work over a short range of tempera- ture, this factor is probably sufficiently accurate; but for refined work, such as the experimental determination of absorption of creosote by wood, the figure of the next decimal place should be known. ~ Some work at the Forest Products Laboratory shows that the figure derived from the change of gravity per degree centigrade lies between 0.00077 and 0.00078, and between 0.000428 and 0.000433, with an average of 0.000430 per degree Fahrenheit. This work also shows that the actual change in gravity is independent of the initial gravity, provided the initial gravity at 10° C. is between 1.01 and 1.05; therefore a change in volume is dependent upon the initial gravity of the oil; that is, an oil with a specific gravity of 1.01, when heated through 100° F., will not have the same increase in volume as will an oil of 1.05 specific gravity heated through the same temperature difference. The volume, however, may be calculated by the use of the formula GV V a ee OOO Or where 7 and T”’ are temperatures in degrees centigrade; or by the use of the formula GV V=G—(T_T" 0.00043 where 7 and T’ are the temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit. In these formule, V’ is the volume at the temperature 7’, V is the volume at temperature 7, and G@ is the specific gravity at temper- ature T. VISCOSITY. Viscosity is a measure of the inner friction of liquids, that is, the friction produced by the liquid moving on itself. There are no instruments in commercial practice that measure this property directly. Most commercial viscosimeters are so constructed that the rate of flow of the liquid through an orifice of definite diameter under a definite head may be accurately measured. This does not give true viscosity, but does give an empirical measure of that property. Nearly all instruments are standardized by water at a fixed tempera- ture. The efflux time in seconds of the liquid under examination divided by the efflux time of water at the standard temperature, is 54 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sometimes known as “relative viscosity” or “specific viscosity,” but more correctly as “Engler number” or ‘Saybolt number,” as the case may be. Although there are a large number of viscosi- meters on the market, no two makes will give exactly the same result because of the fact that these instruments work under a different head of liquid and have slightly different sizes of orifice. Results ob- tained by one make of instrument are, therefore, not directly com- parable numerically with those obtained by another make. For that reason it is necessary to give the name of the instrument when viscosity readings are published. The instrument which seems to be in most general use in this country for measuring the viscosity of oils is a that known as the Engler viscosi- meter. The efflux time of water at 20° C., the standard temperature, is generally between 50 to 51 seconds. The Engler viscosimeter used at the Forest Products Laboratory has an efflux time of 50.8 seconds with water at 20° C. Tables have (15), how- ever, been worked out by which re- sults obtained in the Saybolt, Engler, and Redwood viscosimeters may now be converted to absolute viscosities, and hence from the readings of one instrument to those of another. The viscosity of coal-tar creosote varies somewhat with the percent- 66 ~— age Of the higher-boiling constituents Fic. 28.—The change in viscosity of coal-tar dis- present. Those which have be large tillates with change in temperature. proportion of the higher-boiling oils 1. A high-boiling creosote. are, of course, more viscous than 2. A carbolineum. f those having a small percentage of these oils. The extremes are represented by low-boiling creosotes on the one hand and by carbolineums on the other. The viscosities of creosote as well as of all other oils vary also with the temperature. In general, the higher the temperature the less the viscosity. This is not, however, a straight-line relation. Figure 28 shows the change in absolute viscosity with the change in temperature for an average coal-tar creosote and for a carbolineum. The change in viscosity of creosote or carbolineums may be cal- culated from two or three determinations at different temperatures LYVSCOENTY DYNES FER SQ. C14. P=) 290 F WO GIO LECKLES ABSOLUTE by the use of the formula V= where V is the absolute viscosity COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 55 in dynes per square centimeter, 7’ the absolute temperature in degrees centigrade and A and A constants for the oil. When the viscosity is determined at the two temperatures, 7, and T,, then Vas log Va log at Verte loo I Sloe ioe substitute the value of A in the first equation and solve for K. The equation thus obtained will give the values of V at any temperature, providing the original determinations were accurate. ‘The equations : .54(10)#8 for the two curves shown in figure 28 are yee a for the creo- 30 sote and V= ior the carbolineum. The viscosity of oil is supposed to have an effect on its penetrance into wood, and it seems reasonable to suppose that a limpid fluid would be easier to inject than a more viscous one. Weiss (/6) stated that penetrance is some inverse function, of the viscosity. Bond (17) showed that, in the different mixtures of creosote and carbon-free tars tested, there was no apparent relation between the viscosities of the creosotes and the penetration obtained. He also showed that the same thing was true when mixtures of normal tar and creosote were used. | Later, Teesdale and MacLean (18) stated that there was no appar- ent relation between the viscosity and the penetrance of the tar mixtures used. Their statements are, however, based on the vis- cosity as determined by the Engler viscosimeter. Since then their data have been recalculated to absolute viscosity and show that a very definite relation exists between absolute viscosity and pene- trance, and that this relationship is capable of mathematical treat- ment. However, the data are not as yet sufficiently extensive to show the relationship of other variables which enter into the pene- trance. _ Figures 29 and 30 show the relationship between longitudinal pene- tration and absolute viscosity of various oils, including creosote oils, tar mixtures, tars, and asphaltic oils into noble fir and long-leaf pine. The equations given in the figures are of value only when the other conditions used in the test are held constant. Other factors which may influence the penetration are the time of treatment, the pressure used, and the mositure content in the wood. In all probability a full equation should read M, P, T, XY=K,, where WM is some function of the moisture content, P some function of the pressure used in treatment, 7’ some function of the time of pressure, Y the absolute viscosity, X the longitudinal penetration, and K, a con- stant. In these experiments the moisture content, pressure of treat- S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BULLETIN 1036, U. , 56 Ea Ss a 2 Ea OEE BEaE res on i=} a HB aS Ea is] oO Ea eee se q © Brod Ley Bel q s Ble Bae iS o HOM Sm = "wb beh Lt | NS Soest eary | eye Rr e a BoP Bi iS « 2 SHH BB tt Re Sas i NS yj ral: Hod I » 8 SB big Ae Na wa ess Be rN ne KH My £2 S 3 ina y 8 o nyu) =z el] | || Ba N e EER REREREes REESE RHE 3 BERERP eas 3 =| o — ° a0 OES ‘B S ££ 8 a o 3 qd n Lt &, 4 BEERS P EES See eSeahEbeeBebea HBA a B, BREE SHEER Reese SRebeeeekE te wes 4 Bet Bes z so a 1H SSE ia BSE E BREE BESEEE Seah ESeeEs Raa “Bb ae | VA latte! LAA hada AAbeetet TT fo} am 1 J an g ale | Sg Als Seach & Ei Bee LONGI TYOINAL PENETRATION Mixtures of coal tar and coal tar creosote into longleaf pine. itudinal penetration. §: Fie. 30.—Lon COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 57 ment, and time of treatment were held constant. The equation is simplified by dividing through by these numbers, but it must not be lost sight of that they belong in the equation, and that the equation AX Y = K holds only when M, P, and T are constant. VOLATILITY. _ There is, perhaps, no physical property of coal-tar creosote that is of greater interest to the wood-preserving industry as a whole than its volatility, because the permanence of the treatment is largely dependent upon the volatility of the creosote. Alleman (79), Von Schrenk (20), Bateman (2/), Ridgway (22), Rhodes and Hosford (23), and Mattos (57) in this country have shown that the oils present in piling, ties, and poles, after long use, have contained large amounts of the higher-boiling fractions of creosote. The loss was restricted chiefly to that portion of the creosote which distilled below 245° C., although there was also an appreciable loss in the portion distilling between 245° C. and 270° C. Above 270° C., however, the oil seemed to be fairly permanent. It has been shown by the Forest Products Laboratory that, if the assumption is made that there is no loss above 270° C., then the loss by evaporation may be calculated from an analysis of the original creosote and of the creosote extracted from wood that had been in service a long time. The correctness of this assumption is shown by the fact that calculations made from analyses of oil before and after use in open-tank treatment showed a loss of 41 per cent. A record of the amount of creosote in the timber after treatment and the amount used during treatment showed that there had been at least 38 per cent of loss, or practically the same figure as calculated from the analyses. Instead of the residue about 270° C., some investigators had used the pitch residue, that is, the residue above 315°C. Although it is probable that, if the oils boiling above 270° C. are practically nonvolatile, then the pitch residues should possess this property to an even greater degree, yet, on account of the size of the fraction, calculations based on the pitch residue are more hable to error than those based on the residue above 270° C. ‘This is because there is about the same accuracy in determining the pitch residue by weight as there is in determining the residue above 270° C. As the latter fraction is usually two and sometimes three or four times as great as the former, an error in determining the residue above 270°C. is only half as great on a percentage basis as would be the same error in determining the amount of pitch. This is shown very well by the following calculations. Creosote was allowed to evaporate in a pan and its loss was accurately determined. The analysis of this creosote before and after evaporation is given in Table 18. 58 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 18.—Distillation of oil before and after evaporation. Creosote | Creosote Temperature] before after (degrees C.). | evapo- | evapo- ration. | ration. Per cent. | Per cent. Up to 210. . 2.2 0.2 210 to 235... 23.3 0.8 235 to 270... 24.1 14,1 210: tosl5-2. LTD 32.0 315 to 355... LE 27.3 Residue. ... L735 25.6 The actual loss produced by evaporation was 41.5 per cent. The loss calculated from the pitch residue was 43.2 per cent. The loss calculated from the residue above 270° C. was 41.1 per cent. By the pitch-residue method, the maximum difference is 1.7 per cent, and the maximum difference by residue above 270° C. is 0.4 per cent. As the data used in both cases were the same, these differences are due to the method of calculation rather than to any error in analysis. In most cases it is impossible to obtain records of any kind that will show the composition of the creosote used in the treatment of old timbers. Two such records are furnished by the pole lines of the American Telephone & Telegraph Co. This company has a number of analyses of the original oils used, from which a fair average may be obtained. One line, the Washington-Norfolk line, was erected in 1897; the other, the Montgomery-New Orleans line, was erected in 1899. Five poijes in the Washineton-Norfolk line were removed in 1906 and one in 1908 for analysis. One pole from the Montgomery-New Orleans line was removed in 1908 for analysis. The analysis of the creosote before treatment was obtained from the American Telephone & Telegraph Co., which makes the following report: The original reports of the analysis are in our files and from which we have prepared the following table as indicating the average of the oil used in the treatment of the poles for that line. It is, of course, impossible to associate the poles under test with any particular analysis of oil. ~~ TaBLeE 19.—Average of tests of dead oil of coal tar used in treating poles. DISTILLATES. Per cent. oss. water etett iON 5. eee ee te NEN he eee il 70° GOZO HOTELES leo Se cog eel Sevag TEENS MPa > Tae eee 2 DQODSEO) ZNO Sworn Leys vaicayel ip MB ary So Rae Ae aa pl be 4 PN OCRTOMI SDE so. 5 5.5 Skorcccseyc tose cae tee Deepa oy eae ST ais he 45 DH CLEORD A cae ete fae oats re IESE ee ee ee ae ee ae op ae ee 7 QAO CONZT Ome naeiete hick a at opie paren a I neds eed cre oy nha ee 16 DO cPtO aN Ole Aare ke CARE TSN OIA A SEAT eae. gt Sees ues ee oe ee 9 Residieaboversle>s sss sheer a EE ee Uae eee 16 100 Twenty-eight analyses were available for the above average. GOAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 59 For the distillate between 205° and 235° C., Per cent. lovanalyisestaveravedsabout: 2 e278 ee ewes eee me eae ese 45 Slanalysesaveraged\ between.) 2. .o. 22.3 20S 50 and 55 Zanalyses averaged betweenl:: 2. ..j5.: 8.202.222.5642 .58 55 and 60 4 analyses averaged between................--22+-2-2-25---- 60 and 65 The analyses of the creosotes extracted from five of the poles from the Washington-Norfolk line were published by Von Schrenk, Fulks, and Reamierat (20). Later, Rhodes and Hosford (23) published independent analyses of the creosotes from the same poles and, in addition, of one other creosote from the same line and of one from the Montgomery-New Orleans line. The records of both series of investigations are given in table 20. TABLE 20.—Analyses of creosotes extracted from telephone poles. Top. Butt. Pole No. and fraction. V.8., F., [Rhodes and] V.S., F., [Rhodes and and ae Hosford, and K., Hosford, per cent. | percent. | percent. | percent. Pole No. 10749. Belo wee Om eee toa he aaa e aie saan Bear 0.0 1.8 0.0 2.3 DANO TOPRESS (OLE 3556 ey Sera pu Rel Coen i a ate Meee aI 6.7 6.5 37.4 42.5 PEAK (0) PHA Orserce ieee ee ocr ye eae aaa ag ees 31.0 23.9 26.9 22.5 BOS WO) SEIS Oh S She ee ae a eo aie ae 8 ee | 21 Ohl eerste eee TA 2iae caeee ene ESIC Omar er eee ese oe nee ices cae sl een hese eeee 41.0 67.8 20.4 SPL Pole No. 1425. Below 2 LOC Meee sea okie Naa as eR a 8.6 7.9 0.0 1.9 QO PLOMBHS CREA Hea ye er Vea eae Ree ee 29.7 32.0 45.0 39.6 PER io) GAO (Oh AI ae I ee ey ee tery eet lie Clete as 19.4 23.0 PBS Uf PYKIE ho) SUBS? (OP aR cmeee ee bc 53 Bene tues 55 858 Noa BP Aa I) ices secs cds TSG emcee acer HVESTCUMO Re rceyeree enya Ea ea cise terse Me nae Msiereeeisnne 29.6 40.7 16.1 34.8 Pole No. 9709. Belo waz lOO mee cote ee ek Bu sap ee ee oe 0.0 3.1 0.0 2.4 D1 Ost OResopd OR Aeren sg: a43 Ue. BSAA SUSE SU 1.0 6.7 12.9 15.6 PRS 1a) PO Css aes sh aoe e Berean Sone ae mee eae 8.2 18.2 25.7 24.8 PORE OPA oly Osea Shea ee ne obras TR se ee Pe BY 034 BSE Ace a aan TSSONE RRS Ss sanas HVESIGUM OES ecaee cee scigae so ccce pet a Mae oe SA a 58.6 71.9 42.5 57.2 Pole No. 29. WS ClO wae LONG eras fi 2 rare sane I a se 0.0 3.2 1.0 0.5 210° to 235° C f 40.7 21.4 47.1 44.3 235° to 270° C..-. 19.0 24.2 19.2 25.7 270° to 315° C PHAN eee ana eas IPT) leSaaoaceadoc PRUCSTCLUG He tetera oyole cerns Sar ane seers mae nites 28.8 51.2 19.4 29.5 Pole No. 2931. Below 210° C... 0.0 1.7 0.0 2.3 210° to 235° C..:. 31.7 22. 4 40.6 35.8 235° to 270° C. 20.4 14.1 22.3 16.4 270° to 315° C TAMER CR RES Bae TQFO pI SSS ee PUCSIC UCase apgetsite als Beecher eects aire ee ereyo ats ate ee 39.9 61.8 24.7 45.5 Rhodes and Hosford, Rhodes and Hosford, pole 5348. pole 10272. Fraction. Above | Below eRe pee ground | ground groun grounc Top. line, per | line, per Top. line, per | line, per cent. cent. cent. cent. Below eZ ORi Ce re esse ee a a ed 1.9 1.2 2a 0.6 0.3 4.0 LO SELO ao Osea EE eet he. Pee ores 4.0 4.4 14.4 Sr oth 9.4 Qo cut One Os © sere nis a aes scissile isp ein aE te 6.6 21.5 29.9 2.9 Sell 21.6 PRESIGUIC Sais Sracielecctecles see eee ee ees 87.5 72.9 54.6 95.8 95.9 65. 0 60 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Messrs. Von Schrenk, Fulks, and Kammerer, using the pitch residue of the average creosote before treatment and the pitch residue of the individual creosotes after treatment, estimate the loss by volatilization to be as shown in Table 21. TaBLe 21.—Loss of creosote by volatilization from telegraph poles. | 1 Section Loss, | 1 Section Loss, Pole No.| of pole. | per cent. | Pole No.} of pole. | per cent. | | | 10,749 | Top. | 59.0 || 1,425 | Butt 2.7 10,749 | Butt. | 20.8 2,931 Top. 58. 0 29 | Top. 42.4 | 2,931 Butt. 32. 8 29 | Butt. | 16.4 || 9,709 | Top. 70.8 1,425 | Top. | 43.3 || 9,709 | Butt 60.3 The same investigators analyzed the oils extracted from the north and south sides of two poles; but, on account of lack of concordance in results, they could not state definitely whether there was any difference in evaporation corresponding to the difference in these two points of the compass. They also made a few analyses to determine the difference in evaporation near the surface and in the interior of the treated portions. Their results show a slight but gradual in- crease in the volatility of the creosote extracted from the center over that obtained from the outer portions; but the investigators state that more analyses should be made. Even an average analysis of the creosote is not usually available. If, therefore, it is desired to determine the loss by volatilization, another assumption must be made. Much of the treated wood examined after long service is pilmg. In a pile there are three different parts that represent three different conditions of exposure— first, that part of the pile exposed to the air, or the air section; second, that part of the pile that is in the water, or the water section; and, third, the point of the pile, which is in the mud, er the mud section. The mud section is less likely to change than either of the other two, since the loss by evaporation and the loss by solution are both nearly negligible. The assumption that there is no appreciable loss of the creosote in the point seems, therefore, to be justifiable; at any rate, the figures obtained by using this assumption would be less instead of greater than the actual loss, even if the assumption is liable to be considerably in error. Basing calculations on these two assumptions, namely, that the fractions above 270° C. do not disappear appre- ciably, and that the creosote in the point is the same as the original creosote, the calculations shown in Tables 22 and 23 have been made to show the losses occurring from piling that has been in service for different lengths of time under different conditions. COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR. CREOSOTES, Tasur 22.—Analyses and calculated losses of creosote from treated piling. 61 Character of oils. Loss. Length . Below water Above water | Below water | Above water of Tn point. ~ line. line. line. line. Observer. service, years. Upto | Upto} Upto | Upto} Upto] Upto} To- | Aver-| To- | Aver- 245° C. | 270° C. | 245° C. | 270° C. | 245° C.| 270° C.} tal. | age tal. age. IP Gis | kod OSG HEA Wed Bn Cin P. ct. IPG PAC alleRACh sn el Chea| Se Clee ecb: 38. . 37.8 5202: 2no 41.9 20. 4 puis 17.0 | 0.42 30.0] 0.79 | Ridgway (22). Bienes 39.5 DUS Ossie sniccic| Sosa 16.8 OR Sues esers laces 31. 4 83 0. 20... 59. 9 69. 6 59. 8 69. 3 57.7 65. 9 1.0 -05 11.0 . 54 Do. 20Ee 61.1 70.9 wT 6325) 48. 4 58.5] 20.0 1.0 30. 0 RE) Do. O10) sory Suet 60. 4 68. 5 49. 9 tates fled be Maney ei (is Bata eae BEY fal ln Dlg ey vey eres ents een Gc Do. Seg esse 41.8 48. 2 33.3 40. 4 10. 2 30. 5 13.0 4 26. 0 8 Bateman (21). 30. 9. 4 OA By gear sey 4.6 5.8 IL} Peat of 6 10.0 sa) Do. Upto | Upto] Upto | Upto | Upto | Upto 235° C. o70° C: | 235° C. | 270° C. | 235° C. | 270°C DORs: 42. 0 53. 2 54.0 73.4 33. 3 Oe Oe ee aca Sac ace | esc toa ee Se Mattos (57). DO ee gles 7.6 B28 4.1 20. 5 5.2 PDS BA te soe ese eel ame meee iee ae Do. DR sida clans 6.9 28. 6 1.8 QANOU | Sete e SAS [fahren | Ngee Svs cee tes |e erane Do. DD 16. 1 38. 5 4,1 28. 8 12 (OOF: Nae aa eee a aerate ee ric we) [ke Sree Do. PR eee 11.5 41.6 552 46.1 15.4 COS) Li Res | PA i Si ate Recess Do. TABLE 23.—Analyses of creosotes extracted from old timbers after various lengths of service. Distillation of extracted oil. Creo- Sery-| Sote Tar Sample. ice oe 205° | 245° | 270° | azo° | Resi- acids. cubic} To t t t t due Total foot. | 205° 2 on bs 0, | above pet 245°. | 270°. | 320 420 420° Yrs.| Lbs. | Per ct.| Per ct.) Per ct.) Per ct.| Per ct.) Per ct.| Per ct.| Cm(3.) MicwNOMl0Gsseetemscs cs. koe G3 x45 OG) | abet 16.32 | 13.24 | 20.15 | 24.10 | 25.93 | 99.74 @.- 51 UBG.INI OV IOV Meee Reser seeecedneas WS Ae2%s legosees 9.37 | 18.17 | 27.54 | 21.38 | 23.01 | 99.47 -36 FEVE RING SES ee AES ek LSE eS Ols eee 9.75 | 18.54] 24.96 | 22.42 | 24.07 | 99.74 a3 DIG NOOO R ee es eee eee ie NG | yO Roacacs 7.08 | 12.45 | 16.68] 40.84 | 22.52 | 99.57 74 i LUO Ne This) tee aa soe 19.92 | 17.58] 20.62 | 14.48 | 27.11 | 99.71 g CW) Ae AL Nee eaeae 9.45 | 12.30 | 27.56 | 33.48 | 17.87 |100.66 - 96 Was) ea Oss|peaseos 6.83.) 10.16 | 26:11 | 32°17 | 23.91 | 99.18 |}... ..- LO) ARO ee ee 17.78 | 11.88 | 21.26 | 14.64 | 34.01 | 99.57 ~ 26 19 | 13.84 ]---.... 18.23 | 16.61 | 23.01 | 12.78 | 29.11 | 99.74 . 68 Paving blocks Nos. 88 and 89... 20 el eal TeLO) es 20.13 | 10.27 | 12.18 | 27.46 | 29.78 | 99.82 1.19 METS) UNCC a LA: ee esc ee ee a SOF Pome Alles eae se 15,44] 7.44] 15.68 | 44.96 | 16.14 | 99.66 237 Paving blocks Nos. 90and 91...) 11) 14.37 )-...... 21.03 | 24.45 | 7.68} 25.06 | 21.78 |100. 00 87 Tie INORMORT Bese a. 5s et: 7B Os WEN eeoease 10.59 | 12.61 | 28.56 | 20.32 | 27.87 | 99.95 .62 AAD GRBs ls ososce 15.78 | 8.04) 27.80] 18.12} 29.81 | 99.55 76 PAO) A OCB} |e Sea 10.15 | 16.32 | 20.54 | 12.63 | 40.02 | 99.66 . 54 OPAPP TG) |Ssa55 oe 10.46 | 20.34 | 22.63 | 16.32 | 29.83 | 99.58 1.14 DAG A AGA ene Sore 8.32 | 26.36 | 23.42 | 29.58 | 11.86 | 99.54 38 PAL b> Gh, WS) ee eeeos 18.24 | 12.16 | 28.92 | 22.76 | 17.35 | 99. 43 21 14) 7.21} 0.47 | 7.65] 8.03 | 17.58 | 38.88 | 27.97 |100. 58 1623 46) 8.42 )....... 9.44 | 16.92 | 29.68 | 32.08 | 11.03 | 99.15 ]...--.. 46) 8.07} 2.76 ; 19.53 | 14.61 } 18.15 | 17.23 | 27.03 | 99.31 |...--.- AGO asa ayers 22.20 | 20.10 | 24.30 | 16.24] 16.84 | 99.68 |....... 46 | 12.61 }......- 16.87 | 12.15 | 13.25 | 25.37 | 32.30 | 99.94 1.07 PAG UG) aoce s 13.56 | 10.52 | 20.34 | 31.24 | 23.92 | 99.58 1.78 CPP I PAG) ase 5 9.03 | 15.21 } 29.45 | 13.35 | 32.91 |} 99.96 1.37 NG) Oh 2 eeeoace 6.39 | 10.38 | 27.75 | 31.86 | 23.51 | 99.89 ibs ali) LTS US SS Aa Ee Si 38.88 | 13.76 | 13.12 | 10.08 | 24.02 | 99.86 |......- Ze ONT cease 61.50 | 12.35} 3.74 | 11.61 | 21.03 |100. 23 |_...... AD ABest ee 3 13.56 | 15.78 | 14.49:) 19.77 | 36.13 | 99.83 |...-.-. Uh eis all lane 8 19.07 | 12.39 | 12.32] 17.58 | 38.14 | 99.50 |.....-- ere al Nos 22.53 | 13.47 | 22.63 | 18.58 | 22.37 | 99.58 |....... 3 29 | 17.63 |) 1.26 |. 27.60 | 22.43) 31.22 | 12.02) 5.13'| 99.66 |.-.---- puleeNiosoIe EE GOs e OI es 29°} 17.08} 2.18 | 31.06 | 18.21 | 36.04] 8.17] 4.13 | 99.79 |....... Paving block No. 52........---- 34 | 18.81 .48 | 26.61 | 32.06 | 17.52 | 8.47 | 14.42 | 99.56 |.-..--. Paving block No. 53...-..------ 29) 12.44 68 | 17.57 | 18.78 | 37.52-| 16.62) 8.56 | 99.73 |-.----- Paving blocks Nos. 54and55...| 29 |{55"44 |} 9.62 | 14.41 | 19.27 | 41.74 | 11.23] 3.40 | 99.67 |... Conduit pipe No. 67...........- 14) 8.74) 5.08 | 27.23 | 10.46 | 27.68 | 19.03 | 9.93 | 99.41 |....- 1 Twenty years as a tie and 13 years as a fence post. 2 Treated with creosote and resin. Not analyzed. 3 Center. 4 Under rail. 5 Paving block No. 54. 6 Paving block No, 55 62 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. From a comparison of Table 21 with Table 22 it will be seen that the loss from piling is much less than the loss from poles, although in some of the piling there was a greater percentage of creosote distilling below 245° than there was in the poles, the loss from the butt in the poles being on an average somewhat greater than the loss from the air section in the piles, and considerably greater when it is considered on an average yearly basis. Table 23 shows the analyses of creosote extracted from woods that have been subjected to different lengths of service. No estimate of the loss on this material can be made, but attention is called to the fact that, in spite of the very heavy loss that was probably experienced (see Tables 21 and 22), the fractions dis- tillmg below 245° have not disappeared entirely. These fractions are the ones that usually contain the tar acids and the tar bases, both of which are known to be very toxic. Not all the investigators made determinations for tar acids, but in 65 per cent of the analyses that were made the acids were found. The absence of tar acids does not necessarily indicate that these compounds have volatilized, because it is possible for them to undergo chemical changes, as pointed out by S. Cabot (24), or for them to attack the cellulose or wood substance in such a way as to produce materials resembling bakelite, or for them to be dissolved in the water contained in the wood, and a part of them at least to penetrate into the apparently untreated por- tion of the wood. In any one of these conditions the tar acids would prabably be missed by the investigator. No short test is known to the writer that will give the volatility of creosote in any but a comparative way. For this purpose an examination of the percentage of distillate would probably serve as well as any other test. A number of tests have, however, been made both by evaporation from open dishes or pans and by evapora- tion from the treated wood. Figure 314 shows the loss of creosote by evaporation from open pans or dishes under two conditions of heating, and the percentage distillmg at 270° C. The points fall roughly in a straight line. Figure 318 shows the same kind of relation between the amount distilling at 270° C. and the loss from creosoted wood. The relation here is represented by a nearly straight lne, but the slope is much steeper than before. Furthermore, the maximum loss is less than half that in the dish test, although the oils were much lighter in character. Von Schrenk and Kammerer (25) have reported a number of tests on six creosotes under three sets of conditions; that is, evaporation from open pans at room temperature for 304 days, evaporation for the same length of time from maple blocks, and evaporation from pine blocks. Using this length of time, the investigator shows that the loss by evaporation from the open pan is practically the same as the loss by evaporation from wood under the same conditions for COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 63 the creosotes tested. Beyond the time of 304 days the blocks gained in weight, probably because of the absorption of moisture. The results of these tests are plotted in figure 3lc, in which the ordi- nates are the percentages distilling at 270° C. and the abscisse are PERCENT DISTILLING AT 270°C 10 30 5 ° PERCENTAGE LOSS Fic. 31.—Relation between the loss by evaporation and the per cent of the oil volatile below 270° C. A. Loss of coal-tar creosote by evaporation from open pans. B. Loss of coal-tar creosote by evaporation from creosoted wood. C. Loss of coal-tar creosote by evaporation from pans and creosoted wood. Dots—Open pans. Circles—Maple blocks. Double circles—Pine blocks. D. Loss of water-gas tar creosote by evaporation from open pans. the percentages of loss by evaporation. The three points lying in the lines parallel to the abscisse are obtained by using the same creosote in the three different methods of test. 64 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Recently Bateman and Town (26) have shown that the loss of creosote by weight because of evaporation in laboratory open-tank treatments 1s in direct proportion to the area of the surface of the oil, and is also dependent upon the volatility of the creosote. They give the equation log L =0.0165 V—0.347 as the daily loss per square foot of exposed surface, when the temperature of the bath is 195° F. In this equation log LZ is the logarithm of the loss and V is the percentage of creosote distilling below 270° C. The constants 0.0165 and 0.347 will vary if any of the conditions are used except those under which the experiment was carried out. Figure 32 gives a curve of the above equation, with the experimental data plotted upon it. 70__80_90 Per cent of otf aisttiiing below 70°C. 20 _J0_-40 50 60 oF Loss ~ founds per sgvare fool per Jay Fig. 32.—Relation between the volatility and the loss by evaporation of creosotes from open tanks. Calculations show that it is very likely there is a mathematical relation between the rate of loss of creosote from treated wood and the amount and character of the creosote injected. The general form of the equation, as obtained from preliminary calculations, is KA*(1 ane ws y2 cis Y p= iy Paar 5 where KX is a constant for the location, A is the weight of creosote injected per cubic foot of wood, & the percentage of creosote dis- tillimg below 270° C., Y the loss by evaporation, and X the time required. Figure 33 gives two curves in which the above equation has been used on two different creosoted sticks which had different grades of creosotes and different absorptions per cubic foot. In one curve the amount of oil distillmg below 270° C. was 92 per cent, in the other curve 49 per cent. ‘The amounts of oil injected per cubic foot were oid Fe 1159" Ail he le eS Jechhning hiloe than it tion of ic <: @faties) uae sale y-light 2 datself y anide2oe | eee wnand — | Tapiun 24.—Service records of creosoted ties treated by pressure treatments from 1872 to 1908. y | eo ] Results of inspection. ae Analyses of creosote used. ata | Treat- |- 7 obtained Remarks Date | Number Railroad. Location. A " arks, placed.| in test. SHEEES) ) ment. Date, | Serv- Remoy- Bversee Cause of removal. from. ppecife Ae Ht) Hs, ve) Het) wp) He Up to 355° C. Tar acids. “| ice. c 5 : 2 5 . = Years.| Per cent.| Years. ¥ Per cent. Percent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. 1872 | G.,R.1., & P.........| Chicago, Il. Santee 1882 10 50-70 4 Rail-cut and decay... $115, 1876 | C/R.R. of N.J ‘| Bound Brook, N a Ses y Hd |) BoE Bell al pexaee ‘food 1866; records lost 1878 BCE. Rail-cut and spike-killed g 1879 ----do. - c ine . - 1879 Shortleaf ste {| GBBekOaslad F Probably similar to Silcock oil of 1890, (See d HO) | oes exter (CHE 2 ee in service in 1916. Avast tis oO 1880 | 150,000 | Pine....- eC Or acer |r eaae Sas aan a 20.0 | Rail-cut: not rotten: one t b es 1880 400 | Hemlock iY, N-H., & H.-.-) Midway, Mass. fence post in 1912. 1884 -| Yellow pun Grand Central Yards.| New York City. Relaid, 1900... 1886 .| Oak an L.V..... «|-ne-o----enceee- eet ee|------------| WOODS | 22 |------.---| ss +s -- = |e pee ne 7 i .| Rail-cut and decay; remaining eo Lode leatpiney badly rail-cut but sound. .Y.N.H., &H.... st, Mass... Pcie "6 500 Beutel RN: Vena Hlighiands mice | -| Most removed 1907, balance 1910. 1894 6,000 Pine. . .| Fairhaven tunnd, -| 26 ties still sound 1896 76,100 | Various. peel cee Saran a Be ey ie Start to failin 1911. -| IN. L. T. 1.03 | N. L. 'T. 50 per cent naph- | N.L. 7.20 perceni,| N. M. T. 90 yu N.M.T. 8 | Liquid at 100° F, thalene. anthracene. cent above 3: 1904 Rueping.-| 1917 13 -| 1.5 per cent decay; 3.2 wear. 14.9 364.3 |. 488.0 |-- -| -do 1917 13 Bho 335 & 1917 8 Lb e + 1917 bo 1905 1917 12 2.6 percent decay; 10.9 wear; 30.3 1.04 to 1.10 Liquid at 100° FP, switch ties. Me Sawed s. y. pine. Argonia, Kans. 1917 12) 4.2 per cent decay; 33.5 wear Hewed s. y. pine Sutton, Kans 1917 12 f i Garnet, Kans 1917 12 6 | Baye io and San} Full cell..| 1917 12 eon, Pex. aI $ | Naphthalene 26 per cent. 55.7 36.2 -| 31.2 Th Mo. -do......| 1917 12 13.3 ‘Rueping.. -| 1917 12 10.0 -| St. Clair, Mo. .do. -| 1917 abt 19.5 er cent decay; 11.1 wear -do--.2--| 1917 i 14.3 er cent decay; 6.5 wear. : 1 Salis, ria. Full cell: | 1917 1 aly) Naphthalene 26 per Lafayette and Scott._ 1917 eent. -| Fairhaven tunnel Ottowa cut-off... 1916 Rueping. - =| 1917 1.04to1.10| N.M. TMT. Sale ale +) Liquid at 100° F. N. M. T. 4 per ; ent at high tem. 1907 | HAGE, Kans- seg sa sour Ha 2.8 1.3 per cent decay; 1.5 wear- cent at high : -do. Ke | ities, Kans ..do 1917 10 -| Union Point, Ga. Full cell 1016 9 : Batre Ga... -di 1916 Ch BRI bases ced been Bs -| Sheridan, Wyo. 1917 10 -| Solid naphthal. eh ine. +L, | Scio, Ohio... 1919 10 or specication ae one ‘leafpine. Saki ING Bae Dast of Gre 1916 9 : | i : : SApiewan tunnel 1916 1) poem Seled |oo-s6-cne4 bacoesa6 -| Paules, A: 1917 MW) TGP | boneseccad| WANS) anal .| Summer, Was Lowry....| 1917 9 Bs i | 5 en cent varias realle Lines east............] Full eell..| 1917 b0) eect peeecooocd i oer , ; Pal ere ae 57.7 65.2 Naphthalene 145. IN. L. T.=Not less than, 2.N. M. T.=Not more than, 3 Up to 240° () 23 ‘Up to 200° C. TaBiE 25.—Service records of creosoted telephone poles treated by pressure treatments. Analysis of oil used. Fe Tateult ames ; ie Number | Decayed | Total Distillation. i o ofpoles | to point placed. | placed. Location. Species. spected.| Service. ie Geneon ee i ; = spected. |struction.) decay. | Average of— Up to— Specific gravity. 210°C. | 235°C. | 270°C. | 316°C. 1897 9,975 | Washington-Norfoll-line Yellow Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. |' Per cent. 809 | vege | yy osnington-Norfolk line... . pine...| 1914 17 1,696 2.7 a ySi )2 y. 1899 7,644 | Montgomery-New Orleans. ..|__._. Tosser 1915 16 1, 558 5.3 abd a Bee Hf 7.08 u oo ie it 75536°—22. (Face p. 65.) COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 65 10.48 pounds and 18.79 pounds, respectively. The value of 4 in these experiments was oe. The equations for the two curves are 3 (a) ep ee 11.68(1— Y)*— ¥? 92— Y =X, and 49— Y =X, respectively. The curves and data are plotted independently. It would appear, however, notwithstanding the great loss which must certainly have occurred, that the effect of this loss upon the 70 GO LAS S-PLIPCENTAGE TVIVE-OAYVS Fig. 33.—Therelation between the volatility and loss by evapoartion of creosotes from treated wood with-time. life of the treated timber may have been given more weight than it really deserved, particularly as to its effect upon the prevention of decay. Bateman (27) has shown that in all service records of ties and telephone poles, many of which were treated with very light creosote, the failures are due to mechanical failure of the wood itself and not to the failure of the creosote to protect. Tables 24 and 25 show the service records from which these conclusions are drawn and the analyses of the oils used. 75536 °—22——_5 CHAPTER Ii. TOXIC PROPERTIES OF COAL-TAR CREOSOTES. To. be an efficient wood preservative, any oil must have at least two properties: It must be toxic; that is, able to destroy or to inhibit. the growth of the organisms that cause the destruction of timber, and it must be as nearly permanent as possible. In addition to these two, it may have other properties, such, for example, as that of waterproofing, which would aid in the retardation of fungous growth. The most efficient wood-preserving oils, therefore, must possess a high degree of toxicity combined with a high degree of permanence. The long service of timbers treated with coal-tar creosote shows conclusively that coal-tar creosote possesses these properties to a marked degree. 3 Toxicity tests may be divided into three groups or classes: (1) tests on timber-destroying fungi; (2) tests on marine borers; and (3) tests on insect borers. The first two are of the greatest importance to the wood-preserving industry at the present time. The tests on fungi may be conducted in at least three ways: (1) by Petri-dish tests, which require only a short time for their completion; (2) by fungus- pit tests, requiring a somewhat longer time; and (3) by service tests, requiring from 4 to 10 years to obtain the results. The last is, of course, the most conclusive proof of the preserving value of any wood-preserving oil, but requires an exceedingly long time, and is, moreover, a test that combines permanence and toxicity. Further- more, in such tests not infrequently the wood fails mechanically before the usefulness of the preservative is ended. The first and second are only comparative tests and show what might be expected of any wood preservative when compared with some other material of known value. In these two tests the factor of permanence is largely but not completely eliminated; it is, therefore, possible that a material which under tests promises to be a very effective pre- servative may not prove to give good service because of its lack of permanence. FUNGUS-PIT TESTS. | Fungus-pit tests have been started by the Forest Products Lab- oratory, by Chapman (28), of Westinghouse, Church, Kerr & Co., and by Hosford, of the American Telephone & Telegraph Co., and probably by others. At the Forest Products Laboratory the tests consisted of placing blocks treated with various preservatives in a concrete pit in which the humidity and temperature could be 66 COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES, 67 controlled, and of inoculating these blocks with timber-destroying fungi. The test at the laboratory has not been successful in des- troying the treated wood. In the light of present knowledge only negative results could be expected from such tests. Chapman (28) brush-treated his test specimens and set them in sheep manure. Experiments with brush-treated fence posts and telephone poles show that such a test will not be a test of the pre- servative, but that the wood will decay because checks and cracks develop and permit the entrance of fungi into the untreated section long before the treated portion has lost its resistance to decay. The original conception of the fungus-pit test was that the life of a preservative could be determined in a shorter time than by service tests, but the tests so far carried out have failed to obtain this result. The reason has been either that specimens which have decayed were not treated in such a manner as to give the preservative life of the creosote; or that the conditions in the fungus-pit were such that the creosote did not lose its vitality as it does under exposure. PETRI-DISH TESTS. There are various ways of making Petri-dish tests, which vary with different operators. Objections or criticisms can probably be brought against any one of the systems now in use. The general principles of the tests, however, are the same. A nutrient medium is prepared, in which the fungi can thrive under certain known conditions. To this medium, which usually consists of agar agar mixed with some nutrient such as beef broth, are added known amounts of the preservative, and the whole is poured into shallow covered glass dishes known as Petri dishes. After the agar agar has solidified to a jelly, it is inoculated with the fungus or other organ- isms to be used in the test. The organisms that have been used in testing wood preservatives include molds, yeast, timber-destroying fungi, and bacteria. The objection to the use of molds, yeasts, and bacteria for testing wood preservatives is that the killing points for these organisms might be entirely different from that for timber- destroying fungi, and it is already known that timber-destroying fungi differ among themselves in their resistance to certain wood preservatives. The chief advantage is that the test can be made in a few days instead of the weeks necessary when timber-destroying fungi are used. Although this difference in behavior in the various kinds of low organisms tested must be recognized, the information obtained from these comparative tests performed with such cultures - is not entirely without value; for the experiments give very quickly some general idea of the relative toxicity, and approximately indi- cate the order in which the toxicity may reasonably be expected to fall when the preservatives are tested against timber-destroying fungi. 68 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Humphrey and Fleming (29), of the Forest Products Laboratory, and Dean and Downes (30), of the Sheffield Scientific School, have put this work on safer ground by using the timber-destroying fungi in their tests. The former, who have done by far the greatest amount of work and have used chiefly the fungi Fomes annosus and F. pinicola, place the toxic point of coal-tar creosote between 0.2 and 0.5 per cent. If this is the true toxic point, then one-fifth of a pound of creosote per cubic foot of wood, provided it were prop- erly distributed, would be sufficient to stop the growth of the fungi. CAUSE OF TOXICITY OF CREOSOTE. There is now little or no data on what compound or compounds in coal-tar creosote are responsible for its toxic effect, because few of the constituents have been isolated and subjected to tests. In general, the constituents of coal-tar creosotes may be divided into three groups—the hydrocarbon oils, the tar acids, and the tar bases. Of the hydrocarbons that are found in coal-tar creosote, naphthalene and anthracene, according to the methods used by J. M. Weiss (31), seem to have very little toxic action against bacteria, yeast, and penicilium. Russell and Pendleton (32) have shown that benzene and toluene are capable of destroying certain undesirable (or harm- ful) soil protozoa, bacteria, and fungi, but do not act on certain other soil bacteria that are desirable. Naphthalene and crude oil, when tested in the same way, gave asimilar but slighter action. Weiss (31), Charitschkow (33), and Dean and Downes (30) have shown that the “neutral oils” —those oils that have been freed from tar acids and tar bases by being washed with caustic soda and sulphuric acid— still possess a considerable toxic property. Weiss (31) and Charitsch- kow (33) state that the toxicity of the neutral oils is nearly as great as the toxicity of the original creosotes from which they were obtained. Dean and Downes (30) show that the acid-free oil is more toxic than the original, but that the neutral oil (free from both acids and bases) is only about two-thirds as toxic as the original. The same sort of evidence has been obtained in the Forest Products Laboratory by Huntley (34), except that in his tests the toxicity of the neutral oils exceeded the toxicity of the original creosote. There is, of course, the possibility that the methods used to remove the tar acids and tar bases were such that there were traces of these materials or their salts still remaining in the oil, and that the increased toxicity of the tar-acid free oil of Dean and Downes and of the neutral oil of Huntley was due to the small amounts of tar-acid salts, which are somewhat more soluble in the agar medium than are the acids themselves. However, the weight of evidence now available seems to show that the neutral oils of coal-tar creosote are themselves very toxic, and that this toxicity is due to the lower-boiling hydrocarbons. COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 69 Of the tar acids and other oxygenated compounds found in coal- tar creosote, perhaps the best known is phenol, or carbolic acid. Phenol is recognized in medicine as being extremely toxic to practi- cally all kinds of living organisms. It is used as a standard in the determination of the killing power of antiseptics and bactericides. The higher homologues of phenol, the cresols, are from two to four times as effective toward bacteria as is phenol, and the naphthols are also extremely toxic compounds which have been used as anti- septics and germicides. Weiss (3/) has shown that the tar acids (all the tar acids extracted with caustic soda) are about as toxic as pure carbolic acid to penicillium, bacteria, and yeast, and that pure cresol is much stronger, requiring only a trace, whereas pure carbolic acid requires 0.15 per cent. Trillat (35) in 1892 mentioned phenol and alpha and beta naphthol as powerful antiseptics. Adiasiewietsch (36), in 1897, in experimenting with petroleum products, added tar acids among other things to increase the utilization of petroleum for wood preservation. Bokany (37) compared the efficiency of phenol with other antiseptics, and Schneider (38) has prepared powerful antiseptics from the alpha and beta naphthols as well as from the cresols. Russell and Pendleton (32) have shown that both the phenols and cresols are valuable for soil sterilization, although these operators found certain bacteria which apparently lived upon them. Morgan and Cooper (39), in 1912, showed that against the Bactervum typhosum the tar acids in general increase in toxicity with increase in molecular weight; and that in the same series of compounds, an increase in molecular weight is always accompanied by a rise in boiling point. They also show that the dihydroxynaphthalenes (2, 3, hydroxynaphthalenes and 2, 7, hydroxynaphthalenes), that is, naphthols having two phenolic groups, are between three and five times as toxic as phenols. It will be noted that the references given here are to comparatively recent experiments, some of which were directly connected with the wood-preserving industries. The refer- ences have been given to show that there are a number of investi- gators in wood preservatives who believe that coal-tar creosote owes its antiseptic properties, in a large measure at least, to phenols or tar acids. The nitrogen bodies, that is, the pyridines, quinolines, and some others, have not been investigated so thoroughly as the phenols, Trillat (35) placed both quinoline and pyridine in the list of powerful antiseptics. Weiss (31) has shown that quinoline has decided anti- septic properties, being somewhat stronger than the phenols against the organisms tested. Morgan and Cooper (39) showed that the amines, that is, those compounds containing an NH, group, are, in general, toxic to the Bactervum typhosum, although not so toxic as the corresponding phenols. Here again, in the same series of com- 70 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pounds, the toxicity increases with molecular weight and with rise in boiling point. Russell and Pendleton (32) have shown that both pyridine and quinoline are valuable for soil sterilization. It is realized that these tests on the various constituents of coal-tar creosotes are not conclusive proof of the antiseptic action of these materials when they are applied to timber-destroying fungi. The tests do at least point out the way in which it is most probable that creosote produces its toxic effect, and it might reasonably be assumed that the various classesof compounds, when applied to fungi, will behave in much the same way as they did in the tests in which they were applied to various other lower organisms. This will be the more probable if the general conclusion can be substantiated by a consider- able amount of data. Certain tests now being made at the Forest Products Laboratory show that the tar acids are extremely toxic to timber-destroying fungi; that the tar bases are as toxic to these fungi, if not more so; and that the higher hydrocarbons under test have at best aslight toxicity. It seems, therefore, that the conclusion is justified that creosote oil in a large measure owes its toxicity against timber-destroying fungi to the tar acids and tar bases which form a small part of its composition, the rest of the toxic effects being caused by the light oil. The heavier oils have but little toxic value for this purpose. This conclusion is further brought out by the curve (fig. 36) showing the toxicity of coal-tar creosote plotted against its volatility at 275° C. TESTS ON MARINE BORERS. Practically the only work of this nature on the toxicity of creosote and its constituents toward the marine borer that has been published is that of Dr. Shackell (40). He showed that the phenols were extremely poisonous to the Xylotrya, but that the hydrocarbons, naphthalene, and anthracene could apparently be taken in and ejected from the body of this marine borer with no ill effects upon the animal. In conformity with this result, he found that the lower fractions of creosote are more toxic, and that, as the boiling points of the fractions increase, the toxicities decrease. COMPARISON WITH SERVICE TESTS. It is of considerable interest to compare the results of toxicity tests with service tests on the same material. Fortunately, there is in the Forest Products Laboratory a series of fractions of coal-tar creosotes which have been tested by the Petri-dish tests for fungi, by laboratory tests for Xylotrya, and by service tests as piling. Table 26 shows such a comparison. COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES, fat TABLE 26.—Comparison of laboratory toxicity tests and service tests on fractions of coul-tar creosote. Helative Relative | Relative Materi see ; d posit10n | position | position aterial. Boiling point at the still. against against ain ‘omes | : DEA, Xylotrya.| service. INR GIO a Shapenaebubscoana oe Below-205 2.025 2. Beye eo SSeS Ss | 2 11 26 PTACTIOMEZ ey yeas eae se QOS S56 0;250 ee ae em ey tee as 1] 2 5 PEMACTLOMRO Reet sce cis een 25 ORF OV2I Ole © gee re amare a pe een EP : 3| 3and4 4 BHACTIOMEA Epa Ns ges sheesh rene 2952 CO S20 Si Chae eae Le argue als peepee = 5 5 2and 3 TACHI ONPD Me reece se tea ae Ress above 3202) Cx sae ee eae ecencine s | 26 26 1] Coal-tar creosote L-54...-.....-.- Average creosote <2 25-2 535522822252 -| 4|} 3and4 2and 3 1 The figure 1 indicates the greatest toxicity or service. 2 The figure 6indicates the least toxicity or service. Table 26 shows that the toxicity and length of service of the materials tested are almost completely reversed—that is, the highest toxicity gave the least service, and the least toxic substance gave the best service. The discrepancy between these two results is, however, easily explained. In order to exert its effect upon Xylotrya, the toxic principle must be soluble in the body fluids of this organism, In a state of purity these toxic principles would have a great and immediate toxic effect, but this effect would not be permanent, because the toxic principle is taken out by the continual leaching of the water. If, however, these toxic principles are mixed with oils in which they are more soluble than they are in water, it becomes increasingly harder to leach them, because of the retarding action of the oil. If, then, the toxic principles of coal-tar creosotes are con- sidered to be chiefly the lower-boiling oils, it would be expected that in the Petri-dish tests, which are conducted with only a small amount of water, the fractions would arrange themselves in the order 1, 2, 3, 4. 5. But in service tests a greater loss would be expected from fraction 1 than from fraction 2, and a greater loss from fraction 8 than from fraction 4, and so on. The character of the residual oil in fraction 1 would tend to approach the character of the oil in fraction 5, and in the end the oils would be much the same in compo- sition; fraction 1 would contain the least, and fraction 5 the most- preservative, and the service tests would be expected to show the order 5, 4, 3, 2, 1. This was the actual arrangement in the service tests. The separation of the fractions sharply into those indicated in Table 26 is by no means complete. Present knowledge of the action of complex mixtures upon distillation indicates that fraction 1 might be expected to contain considerable material which should have been included in fraction 2, a smaller amount which should have been included in fraction 3, and perhaps a small amount of fractions 4 and 5. Fraction 2 might be expected to contain considerable amounts of fractions 1 and 3, and smaller amounts of fractions 4 and 5. The truth of these statements is illustrated in Table 27, which r Sy (2 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. shows the percentage distilling from each fraction within the limits of the other fractions. TABLE 27.—Relative composition of fractions of coal-tar creosotes when redistilled by Hempel flask (30). Amount distilling within the limits of— Fraction | l No. Fraction Fraction | Fraction | Fraction | Fraction ie iP | oe EBS ie aby | | | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | "63 a 11 | | las epoca AOSSe ESS See ee ee 2 | 10 72 | 26 | 25... -s\ tose ee |S nee aa 22 | 52 20 6 Aes Wace Suess 1 22 31 46 Fe ee ae eS ye See 3 21 76 A more refined analysis would, of course, increase the distillation range. Huntley has shown that on the redistillation of fraction 4 the following initial boiling points were obtained, the initial boiling point at the still having been 295° C. (GE Initial boiling point of second distillation...............--.-------. 270 Initial boiling point of third distillation=.-+... .- 2-2-2222 - scence 210 Initial boiling point of fourth distillation,.............-..---------- 140 Initial boiling point of fifth distillation..............--.--...---.-- 137 In other words, although the initial boiling point at the still was 295° C., this fraction contained a small amount of material boiling below 200° C. This amount was found to contain approximately 20 per cent of tar acids, and the amount boiling from 200° to 235° C., contained considerable quantities of tar bases. Both of these are very toxic materials and in the pure state are soluble in water; when mixed with oils in which they are soluble their extraction with water would take a very long time. The two factors that govern the preserving value of any wood preservative are permanence and toxicity, but these two factors seem to be diametrically opposite. The relation between them is shown in figure 34. es DIS ee |e le hahaa ee a Pe Ree ctl eT en dent oferbantes] TFT TT 0 C) PERCENT REQUIRED TO KILL PERCENT DISTILLING BELOW 275C Fic. 34.—R3lation between the volatility and toxicity of coal-tar creosotes. CHAPTER IV. COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF WATER-GAS-TAR CREOSOTES. COMPOSITION OF WATER-GAS-TAR-CREOSOTES. The distillate oils of water-gas tar boiling above 200° C. and as high, sometimes, as 400° C. are referred to as water-gas-tar creosotes. Like the coal-tar creosotes, they are extremely complex mixtures, composed chiefly of compounds of the aromatic series. They usually contain compounds of the aliphatic series, but this is by no means a characteristic of all water-gas-tar creosotes. The amounts may vary from nothing to as high as 20 or 25 per cent, depending chiefly on the temperature of formation of the mother liquor, tar. The results of much less research work have been published on water-gas tar and its products than on coal tar; consequently much less is publicly known about this material. The similarity of water-gas-tar creosote and coal-tar creosote makes it seem very probable that in general the hydrocarbons found in the highly aromatic water-gas tars are the same as those found in coal tars. Benzol, toluol, xylol, naphthalene, phenanthrene,.and methyl anthracene have been identified. The most notable difference be- tween coal-tar creosotes and water-gas-tar creosotes is the nearly total absence of tar acids and tar bases in the latter and their presence in considerable amounts in the former. On account of the lack of these materials the odor of water-gas-tar creosotes is more oily than the odor of coal-tar creosotes. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER-GAS-TAR CREOSOTES. The chemical properties of water-gas-tar creosotes are in general the same as those of coal-tar creosotes from which the tar acids and tar bases have been removed. Only a very small proportion is re- acted upon by caustic soda or dilute mineral acids. Concentrated sulphuric acid forms many sulphonic acids which are identical with the sulphonic acids produced from coal-tar creosotes. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER-GAS-TAR CREOSOTES. Because of the great similarity between water-gas-tar creosotes and coal-tar creosotes, the physical properties of one material would in general be the same as those of the other. The same solvents can be used for both. In general, the color of water-gas-tar creosote is somewhat more greenish, although this does not always hold true. The specific gravity of water-gas-tar creosotes is somewhat lower than the specific gravity of coal-tar creosote, varying between 1 and 1.07 at room temperature. 73 74 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. VOLATILITY. The volatility of three water-gas-tar creosotes is shown in figure 31p. Here the loss by volatilization is plotted against the percentage distilling at 270° C. These data were obtained from hemlock treated with water-gas-tar creosotes and held under test for 80 days at a temperature of 40° C. The conditions of these tests were the same as those described in connection with figure 318, for coal-tar creosotes. The same general result is obtained from these creosotes as from coal-tar creosote, namely, that the volatility increases in some direct ratio to the percentage distilling below 270° C. The character of the test, whether from open pan or from treated wood, whether of short or long exposure, and the temperature of heating will, of course, affect the volatility in the same general manner as in coal-tar creosote. Different results would probably also be obtained if dif- ferent species of wood were used. A comparison of the two curves, which are comparable as far as treatment, wood, temperature of heating, and length of exposure are concerned, reveals the fact that the volatility of water-gas-tar creo- sote is the same as that of coal- tar creosote having the same per- centage of distillate below 270° C. It follows, therefore, that the dis- cussion of the volatility of coal- tar creosotes will apply equally DEGREES ABSOLUTE well to water-gas-tar creosotes. VISCOSITY DYNES PER Sa, Ci. Fig. 35.—Changein viscosity of water-gas-tar creosotes with change in temperature. 1. Very high boiling oil. 2. Similar toahigh- boiling creosote. 3. Low-boiling oil. VISCOSITY. — The change in viscosity with a rise in temperature for three water- gas-tar creosotes of widely different characteristics is shown in figure 35. The creosotes are pure distilled products without the addition of any tar. The change in viscosity of water-gas-tar creo- sotes with change in temperature can be calculated in the same manner as that of coal-tar creosotes according to the equation. > R= K, where V is the absolute viscosity, 7 the absolute temperature, and K and A are constants depending upon the oil. The equations, COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES., 15 for the three curves in figure 35 are, 6.02(10)3 3.4(10)* ar a TOXIC PROPERTIES OF WATER-GAS-TAR CREOSOTES. 8.94(10)?? (1) V= T7838 (2): V= (3) V= One might expect that the toxicity of water-gas-tar creosotes would be somewhat less than the toxicity of coal-tar creosotes because of the absence of tar acids and tar bases. This, in general seems to be true. The killing points of a few authentic water-gas-tar creosotes produced in the Forest Products Laboratory vary from 0.3 per cent to approximately 1 per cent against the timber-destroying fungus Homes annosus. Dean and Downes (30) have investigated water-gas-tar creosotes and compared them with coal-tar creosotes. Their investigations with the timber-destroying fungus Polystictus versicolor show that the water-gas-tar creosotes used in their tests were about as toxic as the coal-tar creosotes which they used. These investigations also showed that the coal-tar cresosote, after being freed from tar acids and tar bases, was only two-thirds as toxic as the original creosote or the water-gas-tar creosotes with which they compared it. The water-gas-tar creosotes were about twice as toxic as the high-boiling anthracene oils obtained from coal tar. J. M. Weiss (31) has shown that water-gas-tar creosotes are not so toxic against yeast, molds, and bacteria as the coal-tar creosotes which he tested. The work of these investigators may be criticised not only because of their method of determining the toxicity, but also because they did not compare creosotes of similar boiling points. Dean and Downes, for instance, compared the toxicity of creosotes having the distilla- tion limits shown in Table 28. TaBLE 28.—Comparison of the percentages of distillates of the creosotes whose toxicities were compared by Dean and Downes. Coal-tar | Water-gas- Fraction. creosote. |tar creosote. Per cent.| Per cent. 6.5 10. Up to 205° C... . 0 Up to 240° C... 37. 2 45.5 Up to 300° C... 58. 5 78. 0 Up to 320° C... 67.6 84.0 The water-gas-tar creosote has a much lower boiling point than has the coal-tar creosote, and, consequently, it should be more toxic than the neutral oil of the coal-tar creosote. Weiss compared the oils as shown in Table 29. 76 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 29.—Comparison of the percentages of distillates of the creosotes whose toxicities were compared by Weiss. - fi ane Net Water- | Water- traig coal-tar gas-tar gas-tar Fraction. coal-tar tenance creosote | creosote | creosote creosote. gr sp.gr. | s creosote. 1.037 1.024. | 1.053 Upto: 200° CL 7.52 srr tee Nae er peer 656: |tsisbe. oe 1.8 tattle cee Y= WD LO 235 SCA see Soe ee ee reas Mee Sia me hn em 60. 3 33. 2 30.6 18.9 GHB S UD tO 2709: Coe ate Rae a ee a haps Cy Fa a 76.5 60. 5 63. 4 50. 2 24:3 UDO SLES C sae sae > ae es een mena ee ae Seat 86. 2 78.0 87.2 81.4 49.0 All the coal-tar creosotes, even the neutral creosote, had lower boiling points than the water-gas creosotes, and consequentte they should be more toxic than the water-gas-tar creosotes. Tests made at the Forest Products Laboratory indicate that water- gas-tar creosotes, particularly the lower boiling ones, have a con- siderable degree of toxicity. A relation of toxicity to volatility similar to that found in coal-tar creosotes holds in the case of water- gas-tar creosotes also, except that the latter are not as toxic as the former, particularly so in the higher boiling oils that are analagous to carbolineums. The relation between toxicity of water-gas-tar creosotes and their volatility is shown in figure 36. C7ES S S iS Meilcelocs acsle-lesatl caliced| lesb Me ele [esc esc | cle |e ne Nahe PRAM | Te rege A RBa eee elo e SPR PURROSCERta dan, ces 5 SRS ER 8 : PERCENT REQUIRED TO TOKILL Fic. 36.—Therelation between volatility and toxicity of water-gas-tar creosotes. FERCENT Zs ING BELLOW CHAPTER V.—COMPARISON OF THE PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL COAL-TAR CREOSOTES AND COMMERCIAL WATER-GAS-TAR CREO- SOTES. It is believed that a short comparison of the properties of com- mercial oils will be of value, notwithstanding the fact that they have been discussed at some length in the preceding chapters. Table 30 shows the similarities and dissimilarities of coal-tar creosotes and water-gas-tar creosotes. — TaBLe 30.—Comparison of the properties of commercial coal-tar creosotes and commercial water-gas-tar creosotes. 3 Water-gas-tar Coal-tar creosote. erensare Specific gravity of original creosote...............---.2---+-- ul Ol andiupsieen eee 1.00 and up. LAS EPO teeter en eee eee PRET ee en Po 70° C.andup......... 70° C. and up. IB UTMINSEPOUt meee see a koe see ceca chale Je acess fe dlewae 90° C. and ups, stelcameae 90° C. and up. Dusillingmaneess seit cuit ee LEAN iG ets eS ed 170 ot 400° C.. ---| 170 to 400° C. Change in specific gravity per degree C._..........-......-.. O000TS ies sa aes 0.00078. Sulphonation residue of fractions 275° to 285° C.............. 0 to ee per cent=s..----- 0 to : per cent. pL AT-ACIGICONLEN tae eee ciaes accu ox weiner nietecicte smcwisiomate scence Up tp 10 per cent...... Non Character of hydrocarbons.) oo. ee ee Chietly aromatic. P Chietly aromatic, Ratio of specie gravity to index of refraction of the fraction | 1.8i_..................- 275° to 285° C. ANGE HAY Gas SOS GOO OTS RSE are cael ene ere ieees | Shown in fig. 37....... PERCENT DISTILLING BELOW 275 C PERCENT REQUIRED TO KILL Fic. 37.—Comparison of the toxicities of coal-tar creosotes and water-gas-tar creosotes. The chief difference between these two classes of creosote are a total lack of tar acids and bases in the water-gas-tar creosotes, a higher general average of the sulphonation residues in water-gas-tar creosotes than in coal-tar creosotes, and a lower toxicity. (Fig. 37.) The only methods known at the forest products laboratory for differentiating between two classes of oils are the determination of Ti 78 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the tar-acid and tar-base contents, the determination of the ratio of the specific gravities to the indices of refraction values of the various fractions, and the testing of the toxicity of the creosotes. The absence of tar acids or tar bases is proof that the oil under test is not a distillate of coal tar. Part of the tar acids or tar bases may be removed from coal-tar creosote by chemical methods, but it is not likely that all the tar acids and all the tar bases would be taken out by such means. On the other hand, the presence of tar acids or tar bases or both classes of compounds does not mean that the oil under examination is a pure coal-tar distillate. It may be a water- gas-tar oil which has been mixed with a coal-tar creosote containing large amounts of tar acids and bases, or these materials may have been added directly to water-gas-tar creosote. The determination of the ratio of the specific gravities of the fractions to their index of refraction values is of use only if it is known that the distillates are pure oils, either water-gas-tar or coal-tar distillates. Unknown mixtures of the two can not be differentiated with certainty by this method. The toxicity test is of value only in high-boiling oils similar to carbolineum. In lower-boiling ous the fraction similar to car- bolineum might be tested, but because of the fact that six weeks are required for its completion this test is of little value for commercial purposes. CHAPTER VI. TAR-CREOSOTE SOLUTIONS. Within the last few years tar-creosote solutions have been used more and more in wood preservation. Various claims have been put forward in favor of tar: First, that, as it is the mother liquor of creosote, it contains all the toxic principles of creosote; second, that. it retards the evaporation of creosote when mixed with it; third, that it does not reduce penetration into the wood; and fourth, that it is cheaper than coal-tar creosote. In answer to these arguments it may be said that, although tar is the mother liquor and contains all the toxic principles of coal-tar creosote, the concentration of the toxic elements 1n coal tar is only about one-fourth of that in coal-tar creosote, because coal-tar creosote is only about one-fourth of the volume of the coal tar from which it is distilled and contains prac- tically all the toxic principles. It has also been shown in this bulletin that coal tar does not retard the evaporation of creosote mixed with it. Furthermore, Bond (/7), and Teesdale and MacLean (18) have demonstrated that it is more difficult to penetrate wood with coal- tar solutions than it is with creosote. TAR AS A DILUENT. The chief value of tar is as a diluent of creosote, although it may have a retarding influence on the rate of solution of the toxic princi- ples into the wood. The use of a diluent in wood preservation is no new thing. In the treatment of wood with zinc chloride a strength of solution is used that will insure a thorough penetration. If the wood is difficult to penetrate, a relatively strong solution is used; but, if it is easy to penetrate, a more dilute solution is used, and more solution is put in, thus insuring a more thorough treatment. In other words, the amount of water or solvent is varied, but the amount of zinc chloride is kept constant. With zinc chloride the factor of safety is only about 2; with creosote it is in the neighborhood of 50. The reason for this great difference is that by diluting zine chloride with water a depth of penetration as great as possible is obtained, and still only a small amount of zinc is used. On the other hand, it is impossible to give a deep oil penetration without using large quantities of oil. However, the usual oil penetration could be obtained, and at the same time creosote could be saved if it were diluted with some other oil, and this would have an effect analogous to that of the water in a zinc-chloride solution. As any good solvent of creosote would serve as well as another for this purpose, the main 79 80 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. thing is to obtain the cheapest material that will meet the conditions. Benzene and chloroform would answer the requirements so far as physical and chemical conditions are concerned, and on drying they would evaporate just as water does; but their use is, of course, out of the question on_account of their great cost. Wood-preservers are practically confined by cost to such crude raw oils as crude petroleum, coal-tar, or water-gas tar. Of these three, coal-tar and water-gas tar are better solvents of creosote than is crude petroleum. Of the two tars, water-gas tar seems for the following reasons to fulfill more nearly all the requirements of a diluent: (1) It contains an exceedingly small amount of suspended matter, whereas coal tar, as a minimum, has about 3 or 4 per cent. The viscosity of water-gas tar is usually less than that of coal tar. A mixture of water-gas tar and creosote may, therefore, be expected to penetrate more rapidly than an equal mixture of coal tar and coal-tar creosote. (2) It may be used in its raw state when it is free from water. Coal tar containing ammonia was found by Bolton to be injurious to wood; therefore it must be refined in order to remove the ammonia (3) Crude water-gas tar, water free, is cheaper than refined coal tar. ei Inasmuch as service records (27) show that the failures so far experienced in ties, poles, and other timbers have been the result of mechanical wear, checking, and similar causes, and not of the failure of the preservative, it is apparent that the limit of the life of coal-tar creosote has not been reached in this kind of service. In other words, the factor of safety is probably very much larger than it need be. It would seem justifiable in such conditions to dilute the creosote with some cheaper material, such as tar, to make the life of the preservative and the mechanical life of the wood more nearly equal. The best kind of oil to use for dilution under such conditions would be the low-boiling creosotes, because these contain the greatest amount of toxic materials. If the theory of the mechanism of pre- servative action suggested in this bulletin is correct, these low- boiling creosotes probably need more high-boiling materials to retard their too rapid solution. PROPERTIES OF TAR-CREOSOTE SOLUTIONS. But little can be said about the properties of tar-creosote solutions except that they should be intermediate between the same properties of creosote and tar. A small amount of work has, however, been done and the results of it are given below: SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The addition of a heavier substance, such as tar to creosote will, of course, increase the average specific gravity of the solution. This COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 81 increase in gravity appears to be a straight-line relation depending upon the gravity of the oil, the gravity of the tar, and the proportion of each in the mixture. The gravity of any solution may, therefore, be calculated from the gravity of its two eomponents by the follow- ing formula: Specific gravity solution = per cent tar (specific gravity tar) + per cent creosote (specific gravity creosote). Figure 38 shows the change in specific gravity of a creosote with the addition of various amounts of a tar. The curve is drawn from the equation: the points are from experimental data. COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION. No data are available on the coefficient of expansion of tar solu- tions; but it would seem probable that the factor could be calculated from the known values for the change in the specific gravities of creosote and tar, respectively, on the assump- tion that the factor will be in direct proportion to the percentages of each of the two components in the mix- ture. J. M. Weiss (15) has ° published the results of in- vestigations on the coeffi- cient of expansion of tars from various sources, and shows that the average co- efficient of expansion from pos, 30 : 60° F. to 140° F. varies from PERCENTAGE CRLOSOTE 0.00027 to 0.000375 per de- Fi. 38.—The changein specific gravity of tar solution. gree Fahrenheit, the former being for a tar having a specific gravity of 1.296 and the latter for a tar having a specific gravity of 1.073. If these data be recalculated to a change in specific gravity per degree Fahrenheit, the factor will vary between 0.00035 and 0.00040, with an average of 0.000375. Hi, then, this factor be taken for the change in specific gravity of tar, and the factor 0.00043 be taken for the change in the specific gravity of creosote oil, the factors shown in Table 31 will be the change in specific gravities of tar mixtures, and should give results close enough to the true value for all commercial purposes. 75035°—22——6 ° 60 speciric GRA ity °° 82 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 31.—Change in specific gravity of different mixtures of tar and coal-tar creosote. Mixture contains— Change OB A ta peg nemde | BIT SPECINC aavily pet egree Fah-) Tar. Creosote. eanhicits Per cent. | Per cent. | 10 90 0.00042 | 20 80 - 00042 30 70 . 00042 40 6) - - 00041 50 50 - 00040 VOLATILITY. The question has been raised whether or not evaporation can be partially prevented by the addition of some such nonvolatile material as tar, the tar having some sort of binding or holding property which would prevent the creosote from evaporating as rapidly as if it were used alone. In one of their papers, Von Schrenk and Kammerer (25) give a number of curves showing the loss by evaporation of creosote, tar, and creosote-tar mixtures. The tests extended over a long period of time, namely, 1,000 days, or nearly 3 years. The curves show that the tar is less volatile than the creosote-tar mixtures, and that the latter are less volatile than the creosote. If, however, the results are plotted in the same way as those of the creosote test (fig. 31), the same relation between volatility and percentage of distillate up to 270° C. will be shown. Furthermore, the volatility of the creosote-tar mixture can be calculated from the known vola- tility of the creosote and tar. The calculation is extremely simple and consists in multiplying the volatility of each constituent by the percentage used in the mixture and taking the sum of the two products as the volatility of the mixtures. Calculations made in this manner show the results given in Table 32. TABLE 32. —Comparison of actual and calculated losses due to evaporation of tar and coal-tar creosote mixtures. Trassiote letascare| | Teta encree OSS O OSS O: . ate ctua: creosote. | tar. Tar mixtures. loss of loss. mixtures. Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. 48.8 9.0 | 70 p. ct. C., 30 p. ct. T. 37.0 38.0 46.2 9.0 | 80p. ct. 20 p. ct. 38.8 40.4 46.2 9.0 | 70p.ct. 30 p. ct. 35.0 37.8 65.0 6.0 | 80 p. ct. 20 p. ct. 53.2 51.8 50.8 5.6 | 80p.ct. 20p. ct. 41.8 41.8 59.6 10.9 | 80p.ct. 20p. ct. 49.8 48.6 Table 32 shows that the actual loss and the calculated loss are practically identical. In other words, the effect of the tar is simply to reduce the quantity of creosote in the test, and the percentage COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 83 loss is based on an increased weight resulting from the addition of tar. The same general conclusion that the volatility of the creosote itself is practically not affected by the addition of the tar has been reached by Fredendoll (42) with respect to high-boiling petroleum oils. VISCOSITY. The addition of tar to coal-tar creosote of course increases the viscosity. The increase is not, however, in direct proportion to the amount of tar added. Up to about 50 per cent of tar the increase is relatively small, but beyond that point the viscosity increases very rapidly. Figure 39 shows the effect upon the viscosity of adding i ia Fee Savio FA Aaa ae a ig he OYNES PER SQ. EV. 8 EA WERCENTHGE CREOSOTE Fig. 39..—Changein viscosity of tar solutions with different amounts of tar at various temperatures. 1—At 40° C. 2—At 50°C. 3—At 70° C. 4—At 90° C. tar to creosote at different temperatures. The viscosity of any solu- tion of coal tar and creosote may be calculated from the viscosity of the tar and the viscosity of the creosote at the same temperature by the aid of the formula Vm=(y-X Vitek ) where V,, = viscosity of the solution, V;=viscosity of the tar, V.=viscosity of the creosote, P=percentage tar used expressed as a decimal. In figure 39 the value of a 50 per cent solution of tar and creosote at 90° C. is obtained from the equation V.= (0.31°°) (0.025°"). CHAPTER VII. A THEORY OF THE MECHANISM OF THE PROTECTION OF WOOD BY OIL SOLUTIONS. The author has recently proposed a theory of the mechanism of the protection of wood by preservatives, which is based on the two ideas, first, that any material in order to be toxic must be soluble in the body fluids of the organism it is intended to inhibit, and second, that, as the body fluids of timber-destroying organisms are chiefly water, the material must be soluble in water, at least sufficiently so to pro- duce a solution of lethal concentration. For the purposes of this theory all the constituents of creosote oil may be divided into two classes. The first class comprises those materials that are sufficiently soluble in water to render them poisonous. These may be called toxic oils. They may be hydrocarbons, such as benzene, toluene, xylene, naphthalene, etc.; or tar acids, such as cresols, naphtols, etc.; or tar bases, such as quinoline, isoquinoline, etc.; or a combination of all three. Their chief characteristic is that they are sufficiently soluble in water to render their water solution capable of killing the wood-destroying organism. The second class of compounds com- prises those that are not sufficiently soluble to render their water solutions toxic. This class of oils may be composed of the same types of compounds as those previously enumerated, and these oils differ from those of the other class only in their relative solubility. They may even be soluble to a slight extent, and in all probability they are. This class may be called nontoxic oils. The toxic oils are completely soluble in the nontoxic oils and are partially soluble in water. When creosote comes in contact with water, these toxic oils will so divide themselves between the water and the nontoxic oils that their concentrations in water and in the nontoxic oil will be nearly in proportion to their solubility in the two mediums. This is known as the solubility partition. For the sake of argument, a toxic oil may be assumed which is fifty times as soluble in the nontoxic oil as it is in water, and it may be assumed that a 10 per cent solution of this toxic oil is used in the nontoxic oil. When such a solution comes in contact with an equal volume of water, the concentration of the water solution will be 0.2 per cent. If now the toxic limit of this water solution is only 0.05 per cent, then the water solution will be four times as toxic as is necessary to kill. It may be assumed that this water is now withdrawn and an equal amount added, which in turn takes up its proportion of toxic oil and is ren- dered poisonous. This change of water can take place seventy times 84 COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES, 85 before the concentration of the water is below the killing point, and even then the water solution would still be very poisonous, though not sufficiently strong to kill, for at least 30 more changes of water. In actual practice this change may take place either rapidly or slowly, depending upon the location of the treated timber. If the timber is alternately exposed to wetting and drying, as is true of piling between high and low tide, a very high rate of solution with rapid depletion of the preservative material would be expected. In timber located in dry places, as, for instance, telephone poles, a very much slower rate of solution would be expected. The idea here is simply that one part of the creosote oil prevents the rapid solution of the other part of the creosote oil which is toxic and which acts as the preservative. The information in support of this theory is as yet incomplete in respect to creosote oil; but what information there is confirms the theory. Historically, perhaps the first data available on the solu- bility partition was furnished by Boulton in the Appendix of his Antiseptic Treatment of Timber, in which he showed that tar acids could be washed out of creosote by water. This, of course, is true, and according to the theory here proposed it is necessary if pro- tection is to be afforded by tar acids. Boulton does not, however, make a point of showing that, although he used only 20 ounces of oil, it required 32 washings and the use of three times as much water as oil, or a total of 1,920 ounces, to reduce the tar-acid con- tent of the oil from 10 per cent to 1.5 per cent in one case, and from 17.5 per cent to 3.5 per cent in the other case. In other words, he used 96 times as much water as he did oil, and even then he did not remove all of the tar acids. The attack of the teredo on treated piling after long service, during which the creosote acted as a pre- servative, is certainly a sure indication that the action of the water had dissolved out certain portions of the oil that were toxic. If this had not been so, the teredo would have begun its attack imme- diately. The very fact that creosote oil protected for a time and then failed to protect is sufficient indication that the toxic element had been removed. A better proof of the theory is shown by some recent investiga- tions at the Forest Products Laboratory. In the course of a certain study it was necessary to extract the creosote from a few telephone poles that had been im service about 20 years. One of these poles was so checked at the ground line as to permit the entrance of fungi, and the entire center of the pole at the ground line was completely decayed. None of the wood that contained creosote was decayed; in fact, it was very noticeable that there was a ring of from one- fourth to one-half inch in the untreated wood just inside the treated portion which was in a perfectly sound condition. This ring of 86 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. wood had been preserved from the fungus attack in some way or other, although it apparently contained no creosote. Sections of this untreated but preserved wood were taken, and any portions that showed signs of containing creosote were carefully removed. The remainder of the wood was then reduced to sawdust. A portion of this was extracted with water in a Soxhlet extractor in such a way as to retain the tar acids, if any were present, in the water. Another portion treated in the same manner was extracted, but in such a way as to retain the tar bases, if any were present. The solu- tions thus obtained, upon being neutralized, gave odors similar to those obtained from tar acids in the one case and from tar bases in the other. A second extraction with benzol of the wood previously extracted with water gave a residue of perfectly clear rosin, im which there was not the least sign of creosote odor. From this it seems apparent that this inner ring of untreated material had been pre- served by the water-soluble material that came from the creosote and had been diffused through the wood. On the other hand, from coal-tar creosote a high-boiling oil has been isolated, which is prob- ably a mixture of anthracene, phenanthrene, acenaphthene, and their hydrides. This oil is practically nontoxic, for fungus grows on agar agar containing 20 per cent of the oil. The theory assumes that any toxic material which is more soluble in oil than it is in water will be less toxic at the start if oil is present than it would be in its absence. That is, if it takes 0.05 per cent of some material in water alone to kill an organism, it might take as much as 2 per cent if the material were dissolved in oil. On the other hand, any reserve material would not be removed so rapidly by leaching in the presence of oil as in its absence. Under similar conditions the speed at which creosote will be rendered nontoxic by leaching will depend on two things—the relative solubility of the toxic oils in the nontoxic oils and in water and the proportion of non- toxic oils present. If too little of the nontoxic oils is present, then the toxic material will be washed away very rapidly, because there would be little or no retaining influence exerted by the nontoxic oils. On the other hand, if there is too large an amount of non- toxic oil, the toxic oils will be prevented from going into solution in the water in a sufficient concentration to kill the attacking organism, and consequently these oils would not act as preservative. PART IV. METHODS OF TESTING CREOSOTES AND OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR CREOSOTE. CHAPTER I. PRACTICAL METHODS OF TESTING CREOSOTES. A number of tests have been proposed for creosote which, in gen- eral, are of considerable service when materials of known source are to be examined. The j~——— tests fail, however, if an attempt is made to deter- mine whether the creo- sote under test meets the requirements for purity. S The following tests have & been proposed and used. Rccusasleasocsccarestess >| SPECIFIC-GRAVITY TEST. Practically all specifi- cations for creosote re- quire that it shall have a certain range of specific gravity; sometimes it is stated that the specific gravity shall not be less than 1.03 or more than 1.08, and sometimes that it shall not be less than 1.03. The specific-gravi- ty determination is effec- tive only when straight distilled oils are used. Water-gas-tar oils have practicaily the same range. An oil of low specific gravity may be made to pass the specifications for coal-tar creosote by the addition of tar. This would also raise the distillation limits. The specific-gravity test, although it is an exceedingly useful one when used with creosotes of known origin, does not identify the oil or exclude tar. Any approved method of determining specific gravity will answer. An ordinary hydro- meter is generally used. The dimensions of the hydrometer and cylinder, and the details of the test adopted as standard by the American Society for Testing Materials, the American Railway Engi- 87 300 mm Pe corny Cee So: Fic. 40.—Hydrometer and cylinder used for specific-gravity test. 88 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. neering Association, and the American Wood Preservers’ Association are as follows: SpEcIFIC GRAVITY. (a) Hydrometer.—The hydrometer shall be of the form shown in figure 40. It shall have the following dimensions: Length of stem... #320232: 125 mm.; permissible variation. ...-- 12.5 mm. ensth-ot bulbt::o55-s<-- 105 mm.; permissible variation... ..- 10.5 mm. Length of scale. ........-: 80 mm.; permissible variation. ..... 8.0 mm. Diameter of stem........- 6 mm.; permissible variation. ..... 0. 5 mm. Diameter of bulb. --....-- 22 mm.; permissible variation. ..... 2.0 mm. A set of two hydrometers with ranges 1.00 to 1.08 and 1.07 to 1.15 will suffice. (b) Cylinder.—The cylinder shall be of the form shown in figure 40. It shall have the following dimensions: rerio teases 2s is 300 mm.; permissible variation. ...-- 30 mm. Diam eteraeraece aoe ee 32 mm.; permissible variation. ..... 3 mm. The oil shall be brought to a temperature of 38° C. (100° F.), and the determination shall be made at the temperature unless the oil is not entirely liquid at 38° C. In case the oil requires to be brought to a higher temperature than 38° C. in order to render it completely fluid, it shall be tested at the lowest temperature at which it is completely fluid, and a correction made by adding 0.0008 to the observed specific gravity for each degree centigrade above 38° C. at which the test is made. This cor- rection factor does not apply with equal accuracy to all oils, but serious error due to its use will be avoided if the foregoing precaution is observed with respect to avoiding unnecessarily high temperature. Before taking the specific gravity the oil in the cylinder should be stirred thoroughly with a glass rod, and this rod when withdrawn from the liquid should show no solid particles at the instant of withdrawal. Care should be taken that the hydrometer does not touch the sides or bottom of the cylinder when the reading is taken, and that the oil surface is free from froth and bubbles. FREE-CARBON TEST. The determination of free carbon or insoluble matter was supposed to be a measure of the amount of tar that might be present. When tar was obtained chiefly from gas houses this test did, in a rough way, give an indication of the amount of coal tar present in creosote. If 5 per cent of the tar containing 20 per cent of the free carbon were mixed with a pure distilled creosote, then the mixture would contain about 1 per cent of free carbon. In modern coke-oven practice tars may run as low as 4 per cent free carbon. Twenty-five per cent of such tar could be mixed with creosote and the mixture would still have only 1 per cent of free carbon. Furthermore, water-gas tar containing no free carbon could be added in any proportion without being identified by the free-carbon test. The free-carbon test has been conducted by a number of different methods. In general it depends on the solubility of the oils in some COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES, 89 such substances as carbon bisulphide, chloroform, benzol, or toluol. Different results are obtained by the use of different solvents because the hydrocarbons of creosote or tar are not uniformly soluble in these solvents. This is particularly true of the bitumens in the pitches. _ J.M. Weiss has conducted a number of tests on tar with different solvents. His method of procedure was to allow tar to digest with cold solvent for a number of hours and then to filter off the undis- solved portion and extract it with the boiling solvent. When benzol, \ : i \ fe | a La ra | a \ ee L i Sani : fee) Hf ur K eal NG : Ea Ef PERCENTAGE INSOLUBLE RESIDUE et Pose ee EES SIS wae PEN 160 Fic. 41.—Changein apparent free-carbon content of a tar with change in time of digestion with different solvents. 20 40 * 60 80 100 120 140 TIME—HOURS 1. Insolublein benzol. - 5. Insolublein aniline. 2. Insolublein benzol and toluol. 6. Insolublein pyridine. 3. Insoluble in chloroform. 7. Insolublein glacial acetic acid. 4. Insoluble in carbon bisulphide. benzol and toluol, chloroform, or carbon bisulphide was used as the cold extractive the same material served as the hot extractive; but when he used aniline, pyridine, or glacial acetic acid as a cold extrac- tive he followed them with benzol as a hot extractive. The data obtained have been plotted in figure 41. From these curves it is apparent that the insoluble matter in this tar after one-half hour’s digestion varied from 5 to 6.6 per cent, but that after 144 hours’ digestion it varied from 4.6 to 9.3 per cent. With the exception of 90 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the method in which glacial acetic acid was employed, that in which benzol was used as a solvent gave the highest results. All the solvents except aniline gave higher results with longer digestions. With the use of aniline the insoluble matter decreased from 5 per cent after one-half hour to 4.6 per cent after 144 hours, and this was the lowest result obtained. Weiss further showed that the insoluble residue, after digestion with chloroform, contained noticeable amounts of chlorine. Sulphur was also found in the residue resulting from the digestion with carbon bisulphide. Monroe and Broderson (45) investigated the action of benzol and chloroform on the free-carbon content of three classes of tar. The results of their work are plotted in figure 42. Here again they found that benzol yields a greater insoluble residue than does chloroform, not- withstanding the fact that consid- erable quantities of chlorine were found in the residue. This amount increased with the time of digestion. From the above it is apparent that, if this test is designed to deter- mine the free carbon in tars, a di- gestion with aniline would give the more nearly correct result. But if a purely empirical determination is o 0 20 30 40 60 60 70 e0 80 0 all that is desired, then any one of ! ao the solvents is satisfactory provided RESIDUE w PERCENTAGE ry INSOLUBLE » w Fic. 42.—Changein apparent free carbon content of tars with changein time of digestion. - that the test is made standard and Numbers represent tars No. 1,2,and3. the conditions of the test are defined X. Extractions made with benzol. and rigidly adhered to. O. Extractions made with chloroform. The method adopted as standard by the American Society for Testing Materials, the American Rail- way Engineering Association, and the American Wood Preservers’ Association is as follows: Apparatus.—(A) Extractor may be of the form shown in figure 43 or similar form in which the oil is subjected to direct washing by the boiling vapors of the solvent. (B) Filtering medium may be either two thicknesses of S. and S. No. 575 or What- man No. 5 hardened filter paper, 15 cm. in diameter, arranged in cup shape by folding symmetrically; or alundum thimbles, flat bottom, 3080 RA 98. Ii filter papers are used they shall be soaked in benzol prior to using to remove grease, dried in a steam oven, and kept in a desiccator until ready to be used. The filter-paper cup may be suspended in the extractor flask by a wire basket hung from two small hooks on the under surface of the metal cover of the flask. If the alundum thimble is used it may be supported by making two perforations in the top of the thimble and suspending from the cover by German silver or platinum Wires. COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 91 Method.—Weigh 10 grams of dry creosote in 100 cc. beaker. Add about 50 cc. of pure benzol and transfer at once tothe filter cup. The filter cup or thimble is previously weighed, and the paper cup shall always be kept in a weighing bottle until ready for use. Wash out the beaker with benzol, passing all washings through the filter cup and place the latter at once in the extraction apparatus. Extractor shall contain a suitable quantity of pure benzol. Sufficient heat to boil the solvent shall be provided by means of an electric heater or a steam bath. Continue the extraction until the descending solvent is practically colorless and remove the filter cup and dry in steam oven until all solvent is driven off; cool in desiccator and weigh. The balance used for this purpose should be accurate to 0.5 mg. Worer Ourler DAVIS SPOT TEST. Worer /nler. T. H. Davis (46), in 1909, pro- SG {ook ro supporrwire posed a test, which he called the AN 2 sae spot test, for the preliminary =| C 3 —— Condenser testing of creosote oil for free | — carbon. This test has been used for a long time by distillers, and consists in placing 6 drops of the oil on blotting paper and noting wre support the character of the spots which remain. Iffree carbon is present it will manifest itself by a ring of free carbon the same size as the spot, but the oil will spread out into a ring 1 to 2 or 24:inches in diameter. This test is ex- ceedingly delicate and shows the presence of very minute quan- tities of carbon; for this reason it is of small value for deter- 56 Fic. 43.—Type of extractor recommended for ‘free mining the amount of free carbon carbon” test. in creosotes. It will, however, show whether the regular free-carbon determinations should be made, and is of value as a preliminary test for this purpose. The test itself has not been given by creosote chemists the attention it deserves. H. Cloukey (47) shows that the test may be applied for a preliminary examination and will give a good indication to the analyst of what he may expect to find in the creosote under examination. When the color, character, and size of the spot are taken into consideration remarkable approximations may be made, provided a large number of authentic spots are available. Pure coal-tar creosote, pure water- gas-tar creosote, coal tar, water-gas tar, wood tar, wood-tar creosote, and petroleum oils all give spots that are characteristic of themselves and different from the others. Mixtures of creosote with tars also give characteristic spots. O Cop of silfer poper or Alundum wore ( a fea \ Filrer Cup 2-No, 575 585 Papers Flash 92 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COKE TEST. The coke test was proposed by the National Electric Light Asso- ciation (48) for the determination of the amount of admixed tar, and was later adepted by the American Wood Preservers’ Associa- tion and the American Society for Testing Materials. It depends upon the amount of coke residue left after all the volatile matter has been driven off. The coke residue in itself gives only a rough approximation of the amount of tar that has been added, for the coke residues of coal tars may vary anywhere from 26 to 57 per cent, while those of water-gas tars vary from 18 to 28 per cent. As usually applied, this test favors the use of water-gas tar in tar solutions in vreference to coal tar. If, however, the free-carbon content (matter insoluble in benzine) is subtracted from the coke residue the resulting figure, which may be termed the ‘‘bituminous-coke residue,’ is fairly constant for both water-gas tar and coal tar, as is shown in Table 33. TABLE 33.—Free-carbon content, coke residues, and bituminous-coke residues of various tars (49). Free- a . | Bitumi- Kind of tar. Tar No. | carbon Poke eSl"| nous-coke: content. eb residue. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. High‘or medium’ iree-carbomtars so... ocinccmnicetoedasecorwe 1 37. 52 20.1 2 18.6 43.5 24.9: 3 16.2 42.9 26.7 4 15.4 34.4 19.0 Mow-carbonicoalstanses vacua owes cee te see eee a seiceieeeeitisienioes 5 7.6 26.8 19.2 6 ants C. 27.0 20.3 7 5.4 28.4 23.0 8 5.2 30.6 25.4 9 4.4 29.4 25.0 Wiater-casitanaenscssciiseseccninerescee seectee seo) cineliaeesctla sie 10 1.3 25.3 24.0 ; 11 1.1 28.1 27.0 12 oak 23.2 23.1 133 eee es 18.2 18.2 | The method of conducting the coke test, as recommended by the three societies, is as follows: The bulb shall be of hard glass, as shown in figure 44, and shall have the following approximate dimensions: Mm Diameter, of, bulbs 3 5-2-8 ese a ee 15 Length) of, verticalimeck.- fe cee 5s 10 Length of horizontal neck....-.. “Yk is ee 20 Diameter of orifice 222s: 2a. 2 eee 1 Fic. 44.—Bulb used in making coke test. Warm the bulb slightly to drive off all mositure, cool ina desiccator, and weigh. Again heat the bulb by placing it momentarily in an open Bunsen flame, and place the tubular underneath the surface of the oil to be tested, and allow the bulb to cool until sufficient oil is sucked in to fill the bulb about two-thirds full. Any globules of oil sticking to the inside of the tubular should be drawn, into the bulb by shaking or expelled by slightly heating it, and the outer surface should be COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 98 carefully wiped off and the bulb reweighed. This procedure will give about 1 g. of oil. Cut a strip of thin asbestos paper about one-fourth inch wide and about 1 inch long, place it around the neck of the bulb, and catch the two free ends close up to the neck with a pair of crucible tongs. The oil should then be distilled off as in making ordi- nary oil distillation, starting with a very low flame and conducting the distillation as fast as can be maintained without spurting. When oil ceases to come over, the heat should be increased until the highest tem- perature of the Bunsen flame is attained, the whole bulb being heated red hot until evolution of gas ceases, and any carbon sticking to the outside of the tubular is com- pletely burned off. The bulb should then be cooled in a desiccator and weighed and the percentage of coke residue calculated to water-free oil. DISTILLATION TEST. This test has been used nearly as long as specifications have been written for creosote. It is without value for the determination of the source of the oil, because coal-tar creosote, water-gas-tar creosote, blast-furnace oil, certain crude petroleums, shale oils, candle oils, acid residues, and certain others have practically the same range of boiling points. The only value of the distillation test alone is to determine whether an oil of known source meets the requirements of the specification so far as boiling points are concerned. The type of distilling vessel has a considerable influence on the percentage of distillate obtained in any fraction from a given creosote. Because of the exceeding complexity of the mixture, no single distillation can secure an absolutely true apportionment of the oil, no matter how refined the apparatus may be. Therefore, to get concordant results from different operators, it is necessary that the standard form of the distilling vessel should be accurately fixed, that the position of the thermometer should always be the same, that the rate of dis- tillation should be uniform, and that thermometers having prac- tically the same dimensions should be used. The types of vessel that have been proposed for this test are the 8-ounce retort, the ordinary distilling flask, the Lunge trap flask, and the Hempel flask. The first three are used for ordinary commercial work and the last for a more refined test. The first three, when used under standard conditions, will give practically the same average results. The choice of one of the three vessels for such an empirical operation as the dis- tillation test rests, therefore, on the ability of the apparatus to duplicate results. The ability to do this depends on the exact repro- duction of the form, shape, and size of the apparatus. As the retorts are blown by hand in the form of a long pear-shaped glass and then bent down in a flame, the shapes and sizes can not be kept uniform. As a result, a so-called 8-ounce retort may hold anywhere from 4 to 12 ounces, depending on the carefulness of the assortment. On the other hand, as flasks of glass are now blown in a mold, the shapes and sizes are practically uniform. One would, for this reason, 94 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. expect the flasks to give more concordant results than the retorts, and this, in general, is true. The Forest Products Laboratory has shown (50) that, although there is no practical difference between the average numerical results obtained by the use of the flask and retort, the flask gives a somewhat sharper separation than the retort and is therefore to be preferred to the retort. The argument advanced in favor of the retort is that it has been used up to this time and should be continued. The argument against it is that it does not give as concordant results as the flask, and that the flask gives practically the same numerical value. Two associations—the National Electric Light Association (51) and the American Railway Engineering Association (52)—have made tests on the comparative checking value of the flask and the retort. The data obtained by them are published in their proceedings. A careful survey of these data shows that, after the elimination of what are evidently experimental errors, the ordinary flask is superior to the retort in checking value. OFFICIAL SPECIFICATIONS OF FOUR SOCIETIES. The specifications for the distillation tests adopted as standard by the American Wood Preservers’ Association (1917), the American Railway Engineering Association (1917), the American Society for Testing Materials (1918), and the National Electric Light Asso- ciation (1921), are as follows: ; Retort.—This shall be a tubulated glass retort of the form and approximate dimen- sions shown in figure 45 with a capacity of 250 to 290 c. c. The capacity shall be measured by placing the retort with the bottom of the bulb and the end of the off- take in the same horizontal plane, and pouring water into the bulb through the tubu- lature until it overflows the offtake. The amount remaining in the bulb shall be considered its capacity. Condenser tube.—The condenser tube shall be a suitable form of tapered glass tubing of the following dimensions: Diameter of small end.............- 12.5 mm.; permissible variation...... 1.5 mm. Diameter of large end.............. 28.5 mm.; permissible variation. ..... 3.0 mm. Tem oon eee Nea oe are ny vores 360.0 mm.; permissible variation...... 4.0 mm. Shield.—An asbestos shield of the form shown in figure 45 shall be used to protect the retort from air currents and to prevent radiation. This may be covered with galvanized iron, as such an arrangement is more convenient and more permanent. Receivers.—Erlenmeyer flasks of 50 to 100 c. c. capacity are the most convenient form. -Thermometer.—The thermometer shall conform to the following requirements: The thermometer shall be made of thermometric glass of a quality equivalent to suitable grades of Jena or Corning make. Itshall be thoroughly annealed. Itshall be filled above the mercury with inert gas which wil] not act chemically on or contami- nate the mercury. The pressure of the gas shall be sufficient to prevent separation of the mercury column at al! temperatures of the scale. There shall be a reservoir COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 95 above the final graduation large enough so that the pressure will not: become excessive at the highest temperature. The thermometer shall be finished at the top with a small glass ring or button suitable for attaching a tag. Each thermometer shall have for identification the maker’s name, a serial number, and the letters ‘A. S. T. M. distillation.’’ The thermometer shall be graduated from 0 to 400° C. at intervals of 1° C. Every fifth graduation shall be longer than the intermediate ones, and every tenth gradua- tion beginning at zero shall be numbered. The graduation marks and number shall be clear-cut and distinct. The thermometer shall conform to the following dimensions: Total length, maximum...___... 385 mm. Diameter of stem..-.......222.-- 7 mm.; permissible variation........ 0.5 mm. Diameter of bulb, minimum..... 5 mm.; and shall not exceed diameter of stem. Wengthvot bullbts<. 27. 0222S 12.5 mm.; permissible variation. ..... 2.5 mm. Distance, 0° to bottom of bulb... 30 mm.; permissible variation....... 5 mm. Distance, 0° to 400°............. 295 mm.; permissible variation....... 10 mm. Thermomerer Wire gouze (54/5 ¢M. Asbesros Poper Cover for Rerorr Bunsen Burner Fig. 45.—Arrangement of distilling apparatus recommended by American Wood Preservers’ Association American Railway Engineering Association, and American Society for Testing Materials. The accuracy of the thermometer when delivered to the purchaser shall be such that when tested at full immersion the maximum error shall not exceed the following: Oh MO LEGO! 2 OOL2 C2 Sia eee DROME ROVER ER ERE OCI EDT LG danas Wig 0.5 EromuZ00CsborsO0S.Gee ye ease oe atin ht ye a te ye See 1.0 Brom S007 sOL3 (0.7, Cee beats at: ee eegeeieepy on. shee bee) tesa 1.5 The sensitiveness of the thermometer shall be such that when cooled to a tempera- ture of 74° C. below the boiling point of water, at the barometric pressure at the time of test and plunged into free flow of steam, the meniscus shall pass the point 10° C. below the boiling point of water in not more than six seconds. The retort shall be supported on a tripod or rings over two sheets of 20-mesh gauze, 6 inches square. It shall be connected to the condenser tube by a tight cork joint. The thermometer shall be inserted through a cork in the tubulature with the bottom 96 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the bulb one-half inch from the surface of the oil in tae retort. The exact location of the thermometer bulb shall be determined by placing a vertical rule graduated in divisions not exceeding one-sixteenth inch back of the retort when the latter is in position for the test, and sighting the level of the liquid and the point for the bottom of the thermometer bulb. The distance from the bulb of the thermometer to the outlet end of the condenser tube shall be not more than 24 or less than 20 inches. The burner should be protected from drafts by a suitable shield or chimney. Exactly 100 g. of oil shall be weighed into the retort, the apparatus assembled, and heat applied. The distillation shall be conducted at the rate of at least one drop and not more than two drops per second, and the distillate collected in weighed receivers. The condenser tube shall be warmed whenever necessary to prevent accumulation of solid distillates. Fractions shall be collected at the following points: 210°, 235°, 270°, 315°, and 355° C. The receivers shall be changed as the mercury passes the dividing temperature for each fraction. When the temperature reaches 355°, the flame shall be removed from the retort, and any oil which has condensed in the off- take shall be drained in the 355° fraction. The residue shall remain in the retort with the cork and the thermometer in position until no vapors are visible; it shall then be weighed. If the residue is to be further tested, it shall then be poured directly into the brass collar used in the float test, or into a tin box, and covered and allowed to cool to air temperature. If the residue becomes so cool that it can not be poured readily from the retort, it shall be reheated by holding the bulb of the retort in hot water or steam, and not by the application of flame. For weighing the receivers and fractions, a balance accurate to at least 0.05 g. shall be used. During the progress of the distillation the thermometer shall remain in its original position. No correction shall be made for the emergent stem of the thermometer. When any measurable amount of water is present in the distillate it shall be separated as nearly as possible and reported separately, all results being calculated on a basis of dry oil. When more than 2 per cent of water is present, water-free oil shall be obtained by separately distilling a larger quantity of oil, returning to the oil any oil carried over with the water, and using dried oil for the final distillation. A more refined test, in which the Hempel flask is used, is given in Part II. MOISTURE IN CREOSOTE TEST. It sometimes happens that it is necessary to make a determina- tion of the moistures in creosote. If the moisture content is small (less than 2 per cent), this can readily be done in conjunction with the distillation test. If, however, the water exceeds 2 per cent, or if there is difficulty in carrying out the distillation test on account of the spattering, the following method should be used. It has been adopted as standard by the American Wood Preservers’ Association, the American Railway Engineering Association, and the American Society for Testing Materials. WATER. Still_—A vertical, cylindrical copper still with removable flanged top and yoke of the form and approximate dimensions shown in figure 46 shall be used. Thermometer.—The standard distillation thermometer as specified under ‘‘Distil- lation,’’ shall be used. COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES, 97 Condenser.—A copper trough condenser shall be used with straight-walled glass tube, having approximately the form and dimensions shown in figure 46. Separatory funnel.—A separatory funnel of the form shown in figure 46 shall be used, having a total capacity of 120 c.c., and the outlet graduated in fifths of a cubic centimeter. The apparatus shall be set up as shown in the figure. When any measurable amount of water is present in the distillate below 210° C. on testing in accordance with the distillation, the oil and water in this fraction shall be separated, if possible, and measured separately. If more than 2 per cent of water is present, or if the water is apparently present to an extent in excess of 2 per cent, but an accurate separation is impossible, the percentage of water present shall be deter- mined by the following method, and the water-free oil so obtained shall be used in the distillation test: Measure 200 c.c. of oil in graduated cylinder, and pour into copper still, allowing — the cylinder to drain into the still for several minutes. Attach lid and clamp, using Thermomerer Sepororory Funnel ~ 637cm. Fic. 46.—Apparatus for determining moisture content of cersote oil. a paper gasket slightly wet with oil around the flange of the still. Apply heat by means of the ring burner, which shall be placed just above the level of the oil in the still at the beginning of the test, and gradually lowered when most of the water has distilled over. Continue the distillation until the vapor temperature, indicated by the ther- mometer with the bulb opposite the offtake of the connecting tube, reaches 205° C. Collect distillate in separatory funnel. When the distillation is completed, and a clear separation of water and oil in the funnel has taken place, read the water by volume and draw off; and return any light oil distilled over with the water to the oil in the still. The dehydrated oil from the still shall be used for the distillation test. TEST OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF THE FRACTIONS. The test of the specific gravity of the fractions has been adopted by the American Wood Preservers’ Association, the American Society for Testing Materials, and the American Railway Engineering Asso- ciation. Tests that may be applied to the fractions obtained in the 75536 °—22—_7 98 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. distillation of creosote are much more likely to eliminate admix- tures than tests performed on the whole sample. Therefore, too much importance can not be attributed to this test. The specific gravity of the fractions, according to the latest specifications, is taken at 38° C. and referred to water at 15°C. In general, the same result would be obtained by determining the specific gravity at 60° C. and referring to water at 60° C. The data on specific gravity and index of refraction given in the part of this bulletin describing the experimental comparison of creosotes were all taken at 60° C., and referred to water at the same temperature. The present specifi- cations require the specific gravity of two large portions 235° to 315°C. and 315° to 355° C.; and, whereas the results obtained by these two fractions seem to be very good, a closer control is obtained by the use of more fractions. On account of the fact that tars and creo- sotes having very different boiling points are sometimes mixed to- gether, the failure of either fraction to fulfill the requirements of the specification should be sufficient cause for the rejection of the mate- rial under that specification. The specific-gravity values of three pure coal-tar creosotes are given in Table 34. TaBLE 34.—S pecific gravities of fractions of three pure coal-tar creosotes. Fraction | Fraction 235° to | 315° to Slomee ahiy (Op Type of creosote. Sp. gr. | Sp. gr. 38. 38. 15 15 I gh-sravity Creosote. Sa ehe aes e ee tac igen eases e aS eee oe ese eee eee eee eee 1. 047 1.145 AVerace-pravitynCheOSOtem- 2 msec econ eee one hs Dae ae ee ea oc aee ae Sacre een 1.036 1.112 | 1.025 1.108 LOW-LTAaVvitysCreOSOte. 2-2 eee cs ote seein big Se nye Howe Ree ee eles caee oe ee eee (Very exceptional cases.) | | The examples from the report of the Committee on Preservatives of the American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1917, given in Table 35, show the necessity of requiring both specific gravities to conform to the specification. TABLE 35.—Specific gravities of fractions of maxtures of coa.-tar creosote, coal tar, and Composition of mixture. | Fraction) Fraction Composition of mixture. | Fraction|Fraction 235° to | 315° to 235° to} 315° to N AS ae eal olonGaa 3500 C: No [See Sa ay C. se C. NO: Sp. gr.| Sp. gr. | p. gr. | Sp. gr. Water- 38 38 Water- 38 38 Creosote.| Coal tar. gas tar. 5° 5 Creosote.| Coal] tar. gas tar 7B 3 Per cent.| Per cent.) Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. 1 65 25 10 11.028 1. 102 7 655 | Sears 35 1. 042 1.120 2 Wels eee 10 1. 033 11.088 || 8 ee paonae 45 | 1.038 1.112 3 65 20 15 1.031 11.090 9 65 20 15 1.041 1.112 4 | 65 20 15 1. 033 11.085 10 65 10 25 1. 038 1. 106 5 60 25 15 11.028 1.101 || 11 Gon ees eee 35 1.038 1.104 6 | 55 22.5 22.5) 11.025 1.100 | a COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 99 Out of 28 tar solutions whose content of water-gas tar ranged from 10 to 45 per cent, 16 were rejected because both fractions were low in gravity, and 7 because one fraction was low; 5 passed both tests. Of these last, 1 was eliminated on account of both float and coke tests, 1 failed to pass the float test, and 1 failed in the coke test; but 2 passed all tests. Of these last, 1 contained 65 per cent of creosote, 20 per cent of coal tar, and 15 per cent of water-gas tar; and the other contained 65 per cent of creosote and 35 per cent of water-gas tar. The method of determining specific gravity of the fractions rec- ommended by the American Society for Testing Materials, the American Wood Preservers’ Association, and the American Railway Engineering Association is as follows: As specific gravity is an absolute physical determina- tion, any recognized method which can be applied to the quantity and quality of material at hand to be tested must be considered satisfactory. The following methods are convenient and accurate means for the rel- atively small amounts of oil available in determining specific gravity of fractions to be tested. Liquid fractions.—The Westphal balance may be used. If the fraction to be tested is liquid at a temperature / not exceeding 60° C., the Westphal balance can be used with convenience and rapidity. A special type | of Westphal balance is obtainable, designed for testing i a aes very small quantities. However, the ordinary type of Westphal balance can be adapted to testing small frac- Kk: 2-5¢m. a tions by the use of a special plummet. When using the ordinary balance with the special plummet, extra care is needed that the adjustment of the balance be accurately made. The plummet can readily be made in the laboratory from a piece of ordinary glass tubing 7 mm. outside diameter, sealed at the end, and by melting into the glass where sealed, a short platinum wire. !! Seer for determining After cooling, place 9 to 10 g. of mercury in the tube, PR Ue atencee aire making a column 35 to 40 mm. high. Seal off the tube within 20 mm. of the top of the mercury column with blow pipe flame. The plum- met shall have a length of about 55 to 60 mm. over all, and shall weigh between 10 and 12 ¢. Solid and semi-solid fractions.—A pan of the form shown in figure 47 having the fol- lowing approximate dimensions, may be used: tOGISM-) Diameter Ol basee meee een tee tee PPIs. eee ea 20 mm. Wrameten-oltOp 4: Sears ae tests. toe ee ey i kee See be 25 mm IDYS DUDS SS GR Se Soe we Bhi Coane DER eee) aa id ie a ne ee 12 mm MIAME Leo wanes olen ue en Na leule crite ewan 1mm MO temteweel otitis gee ey 0s ko Na yse este adic gh Roce Me apy MY oy oy ie ee 7g The pan and wires are made of platinum or nickel. Solid or semisolid fractions of oil which can not be readily liquified can be rapidly and accurately tested in this apparatus by the usual method of weighing in air and in 100 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. water. The usual precautions of igniting the pan before use, and avoiding the enclos- ure of air or water in the sample, should be observed. Nota.—The method for liquid fractions is usually applicable to the fractions 235° to 315° ©. and the method for solid and semisolid fractions to the fraction 315° to eee eta FLOAT TEST. The float test is used for the detection and limitation of the amount of tar in creosote or creosote-tar solutions. It has been adopted by the American Wood Preservers’ Association, the American Railway Engineering Association, and the American Society for Testing Materials. The apparatus consists of an asphalt viscosimeter made of a float or saucer of aluminum and two conical brass collars. In making the test a brass collar is filled with the residue left after dis- tillation of the oil up to 355° C. It is then immersed in ice water for te 8 89em ea we) [--<-2322¢0n70-- => Fic. 48.—Apparatus used in float test. a time sufficient to chill it thoroughly, after which it is fitted into the saucer and floated on water that is heated to the temperature of the test. The time in seconds, taken from the time the saucer is placed in the warm water to the time when it breaks through the plug of tar is a measure of the viscosity of the residue at the selected tempera- ture and hence a measure of the amount of pitch or tar contained in the sample under test. This test can not be relied upon absolutely because of the variability in the amount of residue above 355° C. The chances are, however, that some other test, such as the free- carbon test, or the coke-residue test, or the test of the specific gravity of the fractions, would eliminate such oils, although in many cases 45 per cent or more of tar may be accepted under a specification per- mitting only 35 per cent. The method of conducting the float test recommended by the three societies is as follows: Float or saucer.—The float or saucer shall be made of aluminum, and shall be of the form and dimensions shown in figure 48. COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES, 101 Conical collar.—The conical collar shall be made of brass, and shall be of the form and dimensions shown in figure 48. Place the brass collar with the small end on the brass plate, which has been pre- viously amalgamated with mercury by first rubbing it with dilute solution of mercuric chloride or nitrate and then with mercury. Pour the residue to be tested into the collar direct from the retort, as described in the paragraph on “Distillation” or heat it in a tin box on water or steam bath, not by direct application of flame, and then pour into the collar in any convenient way until slightly more than level with the top. The surplus may be removed after the material has cooled to room temperature by means of spatula or steel knife which has been slightly heated. Then place the collar and plate in one of the tin cups containing ice water maintained at 5° C., and leave in this bath for at least 15 minutes. Meanwhile, fill the other cup about three-fourths full of water and place on the tripod; heat the water to any desired temperature at which the test is to be made. This temperature should be accurately maintained, and should at no time throughout the entire test be allowed to vary more than 0.5° C. from the temperature specified. After the material to be tested has been kept in the ice water for at least 15 minutes, and not more than 30 minutes, remove the collar with its contents from the plate and screw into the aluminum float, which is then immediately floated in the warmed bath. As the plug of residue becomes warm and fluid, it is forced upward and out of the collar until the water gains entrance to the saucer and causes it to sink. The time in seconds between placing the apparatus on the water and when the water breaks through the residue shall be determined by means of a stop watch, and shall be taken as a measure of the consistency of the material under examination. TAR-ACID CONTENT TEST. Of late years the tar-acid test has not been applied to creosote to so great an extent-as formerly. It can not be used for identification purposes, because tar acids may easily be added to products that do not contain them, and such adulterations can not now be de- tected. A mixture of 15 per cent of blast-furnace oil with 85 per cent of certain water-gas-tar crecsotes will pass the tar-acid test, the specific-gravity test, and the distillation test for coal-tar creosotes. ‘The method of determining the tar acids adopted by the National Electric Light Association (51) is as follows: One hundred cubic centimeters (100 c. c.) of the total distillate to three hundred and fifteen degrees (315° C.) to which forty cubic centimeters (40 c. c.) of a solution of sodium hydroxide having a specific gravity of one and fifteen hundredths (1.15) is added, is warmed slightly and placed in a separatory funnel. The mixture is vigor- ously shaken, allowed to stand until the oil and soda solutions separate, and the soda solution containing most of the tar acids drawn off. A second and third extraction is then made in the same manner, using thirty (30) and twenty (20) cubic centimeters of the soda solution, respectively. The three alkaline extracts are united in a two- hundred cubic centimeter (200 c. c.) graduated cylinder, and acidified with dilute sulphuric acid. The mixture is then allowed to cool and the volume of tar acids noted. The results should be calculated to percentage of original oil. NAPHTHALENE TEST. The naphthalene test described by Mann (53) is not, so far as is known at the Forest Products Laboratory, used in this country to any great extent. It consists in determining the melting point of 102 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the naphthalene fraction. It may, however, be used by some of the manufacturers under the name of the limpid-point test. It gives some idea of the naphthalene content, especially that which will solidify in cooling. The Forest Garite described (50) a test for solids which included naphthalene and anthracene solids. A test somewhat similar (54) was afterwards adopted by the American Railway Engineering Asso- ciation. So far as the author is aware neither of these tests is now used to any great extent. VISCOSITY TEST. The viscosity test has been proposed chiefly in connection with tar mixtures (25). It consists of a determination of the viscosity by the use of an Engler viscosimeter. This gives but little information as to the amount of tar present. Probably an estimate of the tar con- tent fully as accurate may be made by one familiar with analyses of creosote by noticing the character and percentage of residue above a certain fixed point, as, for instance, 320° C. The latter procedure is applicable to water-gas tar, but the former is not. This test has now been dropped from specifications. It is believed, however, in the light of the relationship that exists between the penetration of oils and their absolute viscosity, that it would be a very desirable test to make for this purpose alone. INDEX OF REFRACTION TEST. A description of the apparatus used and the method of making the index of refraction test is given on page —. SULPHONATION TEST. A description of the sulphonation test and directions for making it are given on page —. DIMETHYL-SULPHATE TEST. The dimethyl-sulphate test was designed chiefly for use in light creosotes and as sheep dips. Chapin (55) claims that it gives more satisfactory results than the sulphonation test which it replaces. At the Forest Products Laboratory, however, with creosotes such as are used by wood preservers, the sulphonation tests have given the better results. Neither test apparently can be relied upon to differentiate water-gas tar products from coal-tar products. CHAPTER II.—SPECIFICATIONS NOW IN FORCE BY VARIOUS ASSOCIA- TIONS. : During the last few years a concerted effort has been made in this country by various societies interested in wood preservation to adopt uniform specifications for wood-preserving cils. Such specifications have been adopted or have been proposed by several societies. In addition to these, other specifications are still in force which do not require all the latest tests. It is believed, however, that enough of the more modern specifications are given in Table 36 to answer most purposes; but, for the sake of simplification, only those are in- cluded which apply to different types of oil. No claim is made for the superiority of any of these oils. They differ only in boiling points. Although it has been generally believed that the higher-boiling oils are the most permanent, it has been shown that oils lighter than those of specification No. 3,if used ina proper manner, have outlasted the mechanical life of ties and poles. For land work, therefore, it seems to be largely a matter of personal opinion as to which of these oils is the best. It must be remembered that these specifications are for materials of known origin and are in addition to the requirement that the creosote shall be a coal-tar product. However, the tests given in these specifications do not guarantee a pure coal-tar product. Cer- tain selected materials which are not derived from coal tar may pass all the tests; but the tests, if rigidly enforced, considerably reduce the amount of such materials. At the same time, certain pure coal- tar products are eliminated. The specification is intended to insure the type of oil which has proved of benefit. Until other materials have proved to be of value, or until our knowledge of the mechanism of protection by creosote has been enlarged, it is deemed advisable to exclude such materials from the best grade of oil, even though they are coal-tar products. | : . COAL-TAR SOLUTIONS. As already stated, tar solutions can not be considered so good pre- servatives as pure coal-tar creosotes. They have not been in use sufficiently long for their worth to be conclusively proved. It seems reasonable, however, to expect that a mixture of coal tar and coal-tar creosote will eventually be obtained that will preserve wood up to the limit of its mechanical life. Just what proportion of creosote and tar such a mixture will contain is problematical. Table 37 gives the specifications for tar solutions now in force. 103 eo 104 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 36.—S pecifications for coal-tar creosotes. [All creosotes listed must be a distillate of coal-gas or coke-oven tar, and, in addition, must fulfill these requirements.] Specification. Requirement. a Now: No. 2. No. 3. No. 4 | ea aes Moisture:content:< 2.222122. 55223.5 225% N.M. 3p. ct.1.| N.M.3p.ct..) N. M.3 p.ct..| N.M.3 p-.ct. Imsolublein benzole sees sees cite ticle M. 0.5 p.ct.| N.M.5p.ct..| N.M.5p.ct..| N. M.5p. ct. Specific gravity at 38° C. referred to | wateratlolouC) ie toe aes sce fae mora tOS 255-0 Ne aes bs OSDir ae Nie Ts Osea N. L. 1.06. Distillates up to 210° C222 225... 2525-22. N.M.5p.ct..) N.M.8p.ct..| N.M.10p.ct.| N.M.5p. ct. Distillates up to'235° ©: 22-2: eset N.M. 25p. ct.) N. M.35p. ct.| N.M. 40 p. ct.| N. M. 15 p. ct. Specific gravity of fractions at 38° C. referred to w ater atilb:b2 C3 Hraction:235° to 3157 2 fas anos INE EOS tues e Nevis 203e 22° IN Led 03ee ee N. L. 1.03 Hraction 315°.t0 305° \ C2 of. gs. Ne el ORS s ee Ne elles ce Nei 1l0 se N. L. 1.10 The float test must not exceed 50 sec- onds at 70° C. if the residue at 355° C. OXCOCOUS Sea maleisre semester cle cttee eis eee OED ACUsssciasiasis O;PaClseeweeee 5p. Chase nee 5:p: ct. . Coke\residue sesasece ccimiannssecotereeres N.M.2p.ct..| N. wr 2p. ct. | Pat 2p. ct. 1) N. M. 2p. et. Specification No. 1= Grade 1, A. os creosote for ties and structural timber of A. W. P. A. Specification No. 2= Grade 2, A: Specification No. 3= Grade 3, A. R. Specification No. 4= Distillate oil for paving blocks, A. W. P. A. and A.S.M.I. 1N. M.=Not more than. 2N. L.=Not less than. BE. A.; E.A. E.A. TABLE 37.—Specifications for coal-tar solutions. Requirements. Specification No. 1. Specification No. 2. Composition of solution 2.252... 2..5.223.4- 80 per cent distillate of coal- 65 per cent distillate of coal- gas or coke-oven tar; 20! gas or coke-oven tar; 35 per cent filtered orrefined | per cent filtered or refined coal-gas or coke-oven tar. | coal-gas or coke-oven tar. Watericontent ax as. a. sonst sen sees necieee ING Mie Sper Cent) sajsaec ase) N. M. 3 per cent. Insolubleinibenzolees se so ee ssc esate INS M2 percent 22 625-2 5002 N. M. 2 per cent. Specific gravity at 38° C. referred to water {N. Lae Ie pata Pee aoe els N. L. 1.03. De MO Dya Cees ee cie seels ere teeters as (aiate KINI MECUSL 22 emcee see men eee N. M. 1.14. Distillates up Weal (WenasencconaserasHaLace lj NeJMid.pericent..- 225. sas. N. M. 5 per cent. Distillates Up to 2357 CO eee esate ees esate HANS Mie 25¢ perCeltesaa seen ce ce N. M. 25 per cent. Specific gravity of fractions at 38° C. Teferred | to water at 15. 5° C.: MTrAactlomi 235 wtOsloCaee ae see ease se eleul: Ne 033s Fraction 315° to 355° C ped Dale L. 1.10. Float test must not exceed 50 seconds at 70° C. if the distillation residue at 355° C. OxCeedS sere. er eee s eee eeeCniteeaeee 26 perjeentiswi. ese cia 35 per cent. Cokeinesiduetereesnsnae tee eeaee ee cc eeene IN MG percent jens ese N. M. 10 per cent. Specification No. 1= Tar solution for ties and Ret eaten of A.R. E. A. ana SARSUNVis ccs Specification No. 2= Tar solution for paving blocks of A. W. P. A.and A.S.M.1I. 1N. M.= Not more than. 2N. L.=Not less than. WATER-GAS TAR. Up to the present time no specifications have been adopted for either water-gas tar or water-gas-tar creosotes to be used alone as a wood preservative. The American Railway Engineering Association adopted in 1920 a specification for water-gas tar distillate and a spec- ification for water-gas tar solution to be used in conjunction with zine chloride by any of the preserving processes employing both zine chloride and oil. The requirements of these specifications are given in Table 38. COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 105 TABLE 38.—Specifications for water-gas tar products to be used with zine chloride. Requirements. Distillate oil Water-gas-tar solution. Composition emesis sa sreeeeesne etic sarees weil A pure distillate of water- | 60 per cent distillate of water- gas tar. gas tar; 40 per cent refined or filtered water-gas tar. Wiatermcontentereecn sccscsmectiactac cass ccm: N32 Mi, 3 Per Centwe se seen. N.M.3 per cent. Insoluble in benzol....-.-.-- Preece A aetcas es INEM... 0-5:pericenten cae. N. M. 2 per cent. Specific gravity at 38° C. referred to water at \n L. 1.022 {nN L. 1.03. 15.5° C. AGATE Teta RR a) CEST RGA N.M. 1.07. DiStillatesnap tolOlCsc5.2 252 se se5 -. =< o INE ME. bipericents--eaenee see: N.M. 8 per cent. IDistillateswupwto 235" Oe ees ee IN. M. 25 per'cent-.-..222.4.2 N. M. 20 per cent. Distillateswipntoros One eee Oks) ee oe Ne Le. 80; percents. 252 sik Ss N. L. 60 per cent. Specific gravity of fraction at 38° C. referred to water at 18.5: Fraction 235° to 315° C...........----.-- iN ioe aes Bi es Float test must not exceed 50 seconds at 70° | 5 per cent........--.-.-..... 5 per cent. C. if the distillation residue at 355° C. ex- ceeds. | Cokemesiduenerrre ss eene ea spon eee eee 2 aocoN. Me 2pericent ose 5 - nsec on. | N. M. 10 per cent. N. M.=Not more than. 2N. L.=Not less than. Fraction limits. APPENDIX. TABLE 39.—Distillation of authentic coal-tar creosotes. HORIZONTAL-RETORT TAR CREOSOTES. | | | Tar Gaon Re woee | HOHOHN OIeNm~ HO 0 ANON MHORS : Oy ee) a0 et al ep a hie hep th eto Seige elses ll A) lhe ema pee Sade ar ee . . co . * . . . . =f Sxiod 106 RUBS Eafe eal tect Sie ae SSS SS aS a Same SARAS : ; its) Ra NCOSWOS tnHnoOd oo NICD OICI.00 aa Dron AOAAN + ies LSS SS GS vidas S665 wi id Hod oN oi sd Bosed od Gidasmias | Eo) 3 j ; pala i ; : i iI) Vas pHOACOH AMO HOM HHO 691M OO 01D oo ~rnmor~ HHNOM : 19 to SRsedakedesatedoses iii ixtodes HN Haid Hod oo 19 6 69 68 ddissia | Std cs) i H e i 2 a eke ae i So RgONMOOWONAHH iainmwacn DAROHAN or) aHHo SCNDNS: 19 to SE Sides dad diviwid Poids Sid wii sod di iid a) 5 AN ; ‘ go Ry HHA aA a i woowrmo HH OOon - oon OOnmr : bs Bye cis ws lameersis cane caluyni estate sre aa enatynl |(M Noah Ua dawnt Vanes areata Piped Iie rita eee me NNR amen inet enon OT. as A STARAa Pass AAS SSS cies Helin taad =] Se eae eyecare 8 Ag ‘ : fie) Rn wgOONSHNOHO 1OMMNAOH ARROW nN COON CAMHS: ; See iek gros venues ie oan Sanaa bear Vast seal | ath ee aca aa Pea oP ee lees aoe Ber tc a a : Ba | in pogtaacata isesese oS gf odo of d soles sogsed | A : : So ens LOH OBONH HO NOHOOND POH RWID o oon; WOMrocd : 1919 SRssSrsssdd Idris did AAS od K HS ics Hisadisd + an 8 ; ae : 3 ; Os : = SA : re) SPASM II OOAAMIAH i HOMANS Doo on tH nt M0010 oor4000000 | 29 AY YMwWesededsteiriod srigied "ed o9 Wada 06 or soni: RA 3 4 ' 6 AAO WIDORnRDRONAM HIS haeonA o Higdon Qonnast 7 Teas SoAAAA a AAGAA AMM OD KOPPERS TAR CREOSOTES. 106 1 Nocreosote could be produced. Too much free carbon and nothing else but water. » COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES, 107 TaBLE 40.—IJndices of refraction at 60° C. of fractions of coal-tar creosotes. HORIZONTAL-RETORT TAR CREOSOTES, Fraction limits. Tar l No. | 235 to 245 to 255 to 265 to 275 to 285to | 295to | 305to 315 to 245° C. 255° C. 265° C. 275° C. 285° C. 295°C. | 305°C. 315° C. | 330°C. | No. No. No No. No. No. No No 1) 1.5944 1. 5963 1.5980 1.6020 1. 607 1.6142 1.6213 6283 | N. Ll 2 1. 5892 1.5933 1.5964 1.5995 1.6048 1.6108 1.6173 1.6250 | N. L. 3 1.5935 1. 5937 1. 5953 1.5978 1.6027 1.6085 1.6155 1.6228 | N. L. 4 1.5965 1. 5923 1.5938 1.5969 1.6012 1.6080 1.6150 1.6223 | N. L. oD 1.5923 1.5924 1.5945 1. 5988 1.6035 1.6092 1.6190 1.6263 | N. L. 6 1.5895 1.5919 1.5946 1.5975 1.6022 1.6093 | 1.6157 1.6237 | N. L. 7 1. 5930 1. 5936 1.5948 1.5979 1.6028 1.6090 1.6163 1.6230 | N. L. 8 1.5950 1.5952 1.5958 1.5985 1.6041 1.6118 | 1.6195 1.6269 | N. L. 9 1.5931 1.5945 1.5960 1.5995 1.6050 1.6108 1.6178 | 1.6258 | N. L. OM eee | araeet einia > [ates Cinatciceitie aewoiocls Sec |occane cast |S exajocous cltemmadeeeed Se ee el 11 1.5971 1.5873 1.5984 1.6003 1.6050 1.6122 1.6182 | 1.6257 | N. L. 12 1.5813 1.5892 1.5913 1.5940 1.5983 1. 6087 | 1.6108 1.6166 | N. L. 13 1. 5882 1. 5898 1.5907 1.5940 1.5985 1.6048 | 1.6120 N.L. 14 1. 5920 1.5930 1.5942 1.5965 1.6010 1.6060 1.6140 1.6205 | N. L. 15 1.5869 1.5900 1.5918 1.5947 1.5997 1.6046 1.6118 1.6197 | N. L. 16 1.5915 1.5923 1.5932 1. 5963 1.6013 1.6075 | 1.6100 | ING Le NEL: | INCLINED-RETORT TAR CREOSOTES. 17 1.5792 1.5795 1.5802 1. 5822 1. 5862 1.5922 1.5988 1.6052 | N. L. 18 1.5843 1. 5821 1.5816 1.5836 1.5875 1.5943 1.6010 1.6078 | N. L. 19 1.5800 1. 5824 1.5840 1.5868 1.5919 1.5980 1.6040 1.6113 | N. L. 20 1.5830 1.5852 1.5868 1.5892 1.5925 1.5993 1.6023 1.6083 | N. L. 21 1.5745 1.5758 1.5773 1.5796 1.5890 1.5888 1.5942 1.5988 | N. L. 22 1 5925 1.5926 1.5931 1. 5963 1.6003 1.6078 1.6147 1.6230 | N. L. VERTICAL-RETORT FAR CREOSOTES. 23 | 1.5716 | 1.5754 | 1.5776 1.5810 1.5843 1.5904 1.5971 | 1.6047 | N. L. | Otto TAR CREOSOTES. . 6021 1. 6028 1.6041 1.6071 1. 6132 1.6208 1.6273 N.L.| N.L - 5936 1.5949 1.5970 1.5994 1.6032 1.6100 1.6165 1.6245 | N. L . 5998 1. 6003 1.6018 1.6042 1.6105 1.6160 1.6229 N.L.| N.L 1.6004 1.6015 1.6021 1.6051 1.6098 1.6160 1.6230 N.L. | N. L SEMET-SOLVAY -TAR CREOSOTES. 29 1.5915 1.5928 1.5937 1.5968 1.6011 1.6073 1.6122 1.6192 | N. L 30 1.5918 1. 5933 1.5950 1. 5983 1.6031 1.6098 1.6170 1.6243 | N. L 31 1.5979 1. 5983 1.5993 1.6532 1. 6090: 1.6170 1.6232 N.L.}| N.L 32 1.5996 1.6000 1.6018 1. 6046 1.6103 1.6170 1.6240 N.L.| N.L 33 1.5880 1. 5878 1. 5883 1.5901 1.5941 1.6012 1.6080 1.6183 | N. L BR Le ee is ea | Re ae ae ATS or ee we Oa i aa ree aS aoe Sp Ecea Meo aoe mere sarsnoe reas KOpPPERS TAR CREOSOTES. 35 1.6031 1.6056 1.6071 | 1.6122 | 1.6182 | 1.6251 | 1.6322 | N.L | N.L { | | \ ’ Not liquid at 60° C. Ranier = 108 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. : ee . 0 TABLE 41.—Specific gravities of fractions of coal-tar creosotes (sp. Gr. - . HORIZONTAL-RETORT TAR CREOSOTES. Fraction limits. | Tar No. 235 245 255 265 275 285 295 | 305 315 to to to to to to to to to 245 C2 ie 255°C 265° C Zid ae 285°C. | 295°C. | 305° Co |) 3152 @SaIess0e Sp. gr. SD. gr. Sp. gr Sp. gr. Sp. gr. Sp. gr. Sp. gr. Sp. gr. ae 1.018 1.022 1.029 1.039 1.050 | 1.065 1.077 Fi O86 N. L. TS Soe ee te 1.021 1.025 1.033 1. 037 1. 050 TOG 76|22---s0ee 1.084 | N. L. Suse Nee 1.015 1.020 1.026 1. 034 1.045 1.058 1.073 N. L. ZS are ee 1.017 1.021 1.027 1. 036 1. 086 1.060 15068)| S52 N. L. [veep eens 1.014 1.018 1.029 1.037 1.048 | 1.060 102 |= eee N. L. Gontoraa te 1.017 1.022 | 1. 027 1.035 1. 047 | 1.061 1.072 1.080] N. L. ee 1.016 1021 | 1.028 1. 036 1.047 1. 062 1.073 1.079 | N. L. pees eee ee 1.019 1.020 | 1.027 1. 036 1.044 1.063 1.077 N.L. Qo oars: PS O17. 1.022 1.027 1.040 1.049 1. 063 12073)|Soseenees N.L. Se7030' 1.049 |" 1.066 | 1.075 {2.2 ee Ne, . 032 1.041 10534 1. 062 1.067 | N. L. 1.043 1.056 1. 068 N. L. 1. 034 1.045 | 1.054 1. 065 | 1.073 | N. L. 1.033 1.044 | 1.052 1 064:\—. seh Scee IESE 1.035 1.048 | 1.062 1.072 N. L. | N. L. INCLINED-RETORT TAR CREOSOTES. 7a Het | 4.007| 1.009| 1.015| 1.020/ 1.029] 1.038| - 1.047| 1.054| N.L. LS ees sae 1. 006 1. 007 1.009 1.016 1.027 1.040 15050 |Eoe ee Ne 19 ees 1. 008 1.005 1.026 1.034 1.044 1.053 1.060 | N. L. ZO wwe ee 1.010 1.013 | 1.018 1.024 1.032 1.041 1.050 1.056 | N. L. OF serge apres 1.005 1.009 | 1.013 1.020 1.028 1.035 1.043 1.049 | N. L. Dy asa ae aes | 1.017 1.022 | 1.025 1.035 1.045 1.058 1. 067 N. L. | N. L. } VERTICAL-RETORT TAR CREOSOTES. Tec eee 1.003 1. 007 1.013 | 1.020 | 1.032 1.038 | 1.049 | Se see ING ibs | | OTTO TAR CREOSOTES. l = | 24 ere res 4 1.020 1.040 1.055 TOTS =: eee N. L. | N. iL. VAG lameness 1.017 1.020 1.031 | 15040) |Baeeeen one 1. 061 1.077 N. L. 20s 2s ee 1.020 1.025 1. 035 1.053 1.067 1.075 N. L. | N. L. alee 1.025 1.030 1. 039 | 1.052 1.062 1.075 N.L. | N. L. PSSA RAO SECS e ea boneaeseoe baeossoase ECCECSGee Gane soos Be aeeetaBe Sees Sees aa a. ee | | | SEMET-SOLVAY TAR CREOSOTES. | | u 7 1 tng Nese 1.013 1.024 1. 033 1.046 1. 060 1.075 N. L. 30 a 1.013 1.017 1.021 1.031 1.043 1.057 | 1.070 | 1.078 | N. L. ai 1.014 1.018 1.022 1. 037 1.048 1.064 | 1.076 | N. L. | N. L. B2ee aa Ee 1.020 1.022 1. 039 1. 039 1.054 1.069 1.083 N. L. | N. L. 5 ee oD) 2 1.010 1.013 1.017 1.024 1.033 | 1.048 | 1.061 N. L. By Ca eee (oe Seon) ee Sn el ea Sear ee ara SASiesesac Score aoe eaccoooos Ise cooneid ssstcccces | | | Koprers TAR CREOSOTES. | | DO sons ccs 1.027 | Bane S28 1.041 1. 065 | 1. 082 1.089 | N. L. N. L. | 1 Not liquid at 60° C. COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES, X TaBLE 42.—Sulphonation residues of fractions of coal-tar creosotes. HORIZONTAL-RETORT TAR CREOSOTES. 109 Fraction limits. Tar SPE No. 215 to 225 to 235 to 245 to 255 to 265 to 275 to 285 to | 295 to | 305 to | 315 to 995° ©. | 235° C. | 245° C. | 255° C. | 265° C. | 275° C. | 285° C. | 295° C..| 305° C. | 315°C. | 330° C. Per ct Per ct Per ct (Pencheial) Weer Ck | Pen: Chae Cri Che ER CTCk. «een Ces WP eTaCh. || er. CE: Tis Cisine See el ees ee eee tr tr: tr. tr. tr. th. LB co (a a ees . Ty | | el eee ecg eae tr. UD aac ny Seas eae ise eto LE ee os cee = 3 tr 0.1 0.2 0. 4 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.3 4 0:1 -1 4 .6 1.0 152 1.4 1.6 1.4 Vary aya 5 32 22 .4 .6 -8 .8 .8 .4 .4 | tr. 6 (es tr. |_ Sil <3 50) 8 ef .6 9 -9 | oil 7 tr. tr. oi 4 .6 8 eid .8 .6 4 4 8 tr. tr. gal .4 4 .8 1.0 1.0 0.8 .6 9 tr tr. ail 2 4 6 ad sil’ 5) 6 a2 TO) || esc bccn eabcccsualbaceseaas| ee aoeccog baecosead de ded 3a SeRPRSsNe hercess as Hee: soe eomcoculs seeseno 11 LE tr. oil -3 4 .6 8 8 oP .4 4 1% az4 <2 673 atl 1.0 152 1.6 1.8 2.0 | 2.0 2.0 13 4 .8 a2 1.6 2.0 3.0 2.4 1.8 .6 14 By, ED, 583 8 Ty?) 1.4 1.8 1.8 252 ib? 2.2 15 =} 4 4 8 1.0 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.0 1.2 6 16 onl: ol 72 Be) 4 .6 bx ott 4 4 .8 INCLINED-RETORT TAR CREOSOTES. 17 he 252, 3.4 4.4 6.4 | 6.8 Wee 4.8 2.0 2.0 2.0 18 eed 1.6 2.8 4.4 6.2 6.4 7.0 7.6 4.6 4.0 Bb 7 19 2 Heed, 1B?) 2.6 2.4 5.0 3.6 4.2 3.0 6.0 20 .8 1.0 ih, 1.6 22 2.8 3.0 4.0 4.6 4.8 5.8 21 1.8 22 2.8 3.6 4.6 One, 5a8 6.8 6G 8.0 8.2 2 6 4 6 1.0 1.2 2.0 2.2 2.8 1.6 1.6 158 VERTICAL-RETORT TAR CREOSOTES | | | 23 | | 5.6 10 5.0 52 | 5.6 | 6.4 5.4 5.2 4.6 | & 2 Otto TAR CREOSOTES | | if 7) a See i es rote | yo Mee. 2 2 See 2 oes oo ener oss eeaesaeccal GeAaeobeoc mos aro se Be ea IE Ree 2Dn | Rasen | eee as. = tr. tr. | tie (HPs 1 1 tr. bie tr. 26 itr: tr. brs 4) 6 .6 6 4 58) .4 Die |e ee ee = 2 ai) A 8 ia RS, Sees cael Sem ems ess les8s60dce|sbaéerosclbscecose|boeseeus|scagecce S| eee ae ae 4 | Epis a ee IE ae Mies 88 We aay 45-8 ar eS SN Deg ! Ay, SEMET-SOLVAY TAR CREOSOTES. 29 32) 4 6 1.2 8 1.2 1.8 168 2.0 .8 30 oat oil bal etl oil aH) ail tr. |- Bil tr. Ara 31 tE. tr. tr. tr. tr. tr. tr (Aes 8 -6 all G7 ere Sees eee ure tr. (rs tk tr tr. [ital eae se neem 5H ih 1.6 2.8 3.6 4,2 4.8 one, 4.8 3.4 4.0 Ae | eee ee ee casas cictna see a |e ite Ser tees | Mace cline Greece es 110 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 43.— Distillation of water-gas-tar creosotes (Hempel flask). Fraction limits. Tar | | No. |Up toj205 to)215 tol225 t0|235 to0/245 to 255 to/265 to|275 to|285 to 295 to 305 to 205° | 215° | 225° | 235° | 245° | 255° | 265° | 275° | 285° | 295° | 305° | 315° | 330° | Res. C. C. C. C. C. C. Cc. Cc. C, Cc, C. C, Cc. Per. | Per | Per | Per)|! Per | Per.) Per \> Per.) ‘Ber || Per) Per): Rereleres Per cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent.| cent. 87 | 1258 320 Je 8263) 15554522 | 12) 926) 655.) 2505) 409%) -S22s Seay eA cA sen Ges! 88 | 3.3] 2.4] 11.0] 15.2] 9.1] 6.4] 8.4] 6.7] 6.8) 45] 3.8] 3.3] 3.8] 14.9 39. | 2.47) 3.7 )) 1278-)518.4 14055 -) 6806.9 | 6.4.) 15.8) 654) S54 | S18 Gate er ss5) AQ P2252) 1 2:00) 54a QEOn F142 seb 4s Lee Oeil eee | On Ol tid. lel eaeoe| Geos 8.7 40 82205 257) Sls Be 729) | A722) 886" |e 831625 1 724 Sale bios soden amen) 42 -2.4.). 2.4) 17.'8s) 14521) 627.) 356 | 73.6.) 3.0712)259)) 3235+ 3.6) | te S ae ee 2 7erl 43 |'--3.10 | 3.2 |. 80>] 19:9:| --8:6°) 758) 6.2 | 93.7) 622.1 5.2) > 3.1 |e 3k 7a\= SiGnipedos9) 44 | 2.2°)° 423°) 1408+) 1426-| 09-758 |. 3259;| 3.6 |°-5.95) (5:1 )2 824) ~3.831 4° Sh9" | oy Alieo1859 45 | 2.4)" 2.2°) 14.6-| 11.8 [21053 |: 2:7] - 6:56 [> 6.6.) 4240): 7525] «4. To Bi 6 22e |e Ge 2) 46] 2.9] 2.8) 10.4] 13.8] 9.5] 7.0] 6.8] 5.1] 4.8) 4.0) 2.3] 3.6] 6.0] 21.2 47 | 1.9) 825. |. 92-1712. 5))12-6)) 5:'0)) 922 | -8:5°) 5:0-1 5.6/4.0 1 PasOnle Geis et 256 48]. 2.2 | 2:9 | 13.0'| 12.1 i)" 8.7 | 629%) 5.6 |'- 4:3 | 620°) 5.0) 7.6) 9454) 1624s tGSt 49) 2054 25.2) | 138.2513 289 1Oe8a Te 7 246-|* 86°) (2512) VasGas S04 eel fee KOs ae 2ONG 50 |---2:6 4. 2:4 | 16.2:| 21:6) 27202) 6262) 4276) 3.6.) 7555") 4.6: 2 2590) S851" fafa la 51 | 3.38.18 228 | 745) 14.05 )21225 | 754 2509 fe 8.21 6.7) be 2 227 I) Sela aie leetass 5217.6 |. 5-0] 5.3)-6.9 | 11.8 | 9/0) 85 1 6.7) 7.8) 6.3:)- 4.4) ):255))° 4.95) 249259 23 6 fs 12 17201) 16:93) Feke| Aa BSE by4et 650) 45 el Ae Oe SaGn to Snel ONG) HAN Meas AGU. 7) L5s8all oul 4105e3e2: |= ssdclerb2 0) f20l) GAs Sale r48 3 eG onl eae end TaBLE 44.—Indices of refraction of fractions of water-gas-tar creosotes. Fraction limits. Tar = = : 235 to 245 to 255 to 265 to 275 to 285 to 295 to 305 to 315 to 25S Cy || -255°.C. || 2652... 275° ©. . ||P 2853 Cn 4 2952. C; | 805° C2 Bb Ca a3304 No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. 37 1. 5728 1. 5728 1. 5734 1. 5742 1. 5748 1. 5780 1. 5818 1. 5880 1. 6032 38 1. 5875 1. 5853 1. 5842 1. 5828 1. 5833 1. 5861 1. 5893 ln 5990 N. L. 39 1. 5873 1. 5854 1. 5831 1. 5828 1. 5838 1. 5870 1. 5912 1. 5980 N. L. 40 1. 5798 1. 5812 1. 5817 1. 5811 1. 5817 1. 5814 1. 5832 1, 5872 1. 5988 41 1, 5574 1. 5612 1. 5625 1. 5636 1. 5635 1. 5645 1. 5662 1. 5696 1. 0812 42 1. 5931 1. 5915 1. 5904 1. 5891 1. 5901 1. 5923 1. 5954 1. 5996 1. 6097 43 1. 5922 1. 5928 1. 5932 1. 5935 1, 5968 1. 6007 1. 6068 1.6134 {| 1.6282 44 1. 5938 1. 5925 1. 5931 1. 5952 1, 5973 1. 6022 1. 6070 1. 6160 N.L. 45 1. 5848 1. 5808 1. 5786 1. 5778 1. 5780 1. 5804 1. 5827 1.5890 | 1.5985 46 1. 5886 1. 5884 1. 5880 1. 5875 1. 5878 1. 5902 1. 5940 1.5990 | 1.6108 47 1. 5760 1.5775 1. 5778 1. 5786 1. 5798 1. 5819 1. 5858 1.5915 | 1.5988 48 1. 5790 1. 5772 1. 5742 1. 5720 1.5715 1, 5722 1, 5732 1.5782 | 1.5868 49 1. 5820 1.5770 1. 5731 1. 5735 1. 5753 1. 5753 1. 5826 1.5944 | N.L. 50 1. 5982 1. 5982 1. 5985 1. 6006 1. 6052 1. 6106 1. 6185 1.6264 | N.L. 51 1. 5868 1. 5864 1. 5866 1. 5878 1. 5898 1.5941 1. 5996 1.6080 | 1.6240 52 1. 5640 1. 5698 1. 5739 1.5770 1. 5792 1. 5825 1. 5878 1.5948 1.6060 53 1. 5972 1. 5960 1. 5974 1. 0025 1. 6064 1. 6142 1. 6212 1.6295 | N.L. 54 1. 5975 1. 5980 1. 5996 1. 6019 1. 6082 1.6148 1. 6218 1.6303 | N.L. 1 Not liquid at 60° C. COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES, intel TABLE 45.—S pecific gravities of fractions of water-gas tar creosotes. Distillation limits. Tar | 235 to 245 to 255 to 265 te 275 to 285 to 295 to 305 to INOW 52452 ©. 162552 C. | 265° .C. | 275° C: | 285° .G: |. 295° C.| 305° C. | 315°C. | 2 i p. gr. | Sp.gr. | Sp.gr.| Sp.gr. | Sp. gr. | Sp.gr. | Sp. gr. Dp. gi 37 0. 986 0. 986 0. 986 0-989 f 9, 996 ae f 1.009 38 . 997 - 996 1.001 1.000 1. 006 ISCO estat ae [agate rata pei as 39 1. 002 1.001 -998 992 | 1.001 1.015 1.018 40 - 987 - 988 - 989 - 989 . 989 . 992 1.000 1 41 - 960 - 962 - 964 - 966 . 967 -972 975 - 984 42 1.006 1.003 1.006 PROD Desi eg eee 43 1.000 - 999 TAOOSiE eect mee 1.014 1.021 1.041 44 1.006 1. 007 1.013 1.024 1.029 1.044 45 MOOG Er alsaie ies . 994 - 995 1.000 1.007 1.015 46 . 998 . 997 - 997 1.000 1.003 LOLS ain aes Seeetsatee 47 - 987 - 987 .993 | .996 . 998 1.002 1.016 48 - 992 - 993 . 986 - 984 . 986 - 989 1992) - [Leslee 49 - 995 - 992 OOS as eine > apn ESE see Ps 005:34, sei leeseeeoee 50 1.008 1.009 1.014 1.029 1.039 | 1.071 51 - 996 . 996 - 998 1.004 1.009 1.020 | 1.040 52 971 -979 984 - 989 - 995 NACOO MeO ep beeasede 53 1.010 1.015 1. 027 1.041 TE OGS Seri Weare 54 1.009 1.018 1.032 1.047 PEQEO eye eee 1N t liquid at 60° C. TaBLE 46.—Sulphonation residues of fractions of water-gas tar creosotes. Fraction limits. Tar | 205 to} 225to | 285to | 245to}] 255to | 265to | 275 to | 285 to No. | 225° C. | 235° C. | 245°C. | 255° C. | 265° C. | 275° C.| 285° C. | 295° C. Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent cent. cent 37 8.6 8.4 8.0 8.2 8.8 10.0 10.8 38 1.4 1.6 2.0 4.2 4.4 6.0 Ona lRerseeae 39 1.0 8 2.4 3.2 4.4 5.4 7.0 7.6 40 1.6 1.4 2.4 ahs 2) 4.2 4.8 6.0 7.6 41 10.0 9.8 10.0 11.0 12.2 12.8 13.6 14.4 42 Tr. 4 1.2 2.4 5.2 7. 43 Tr. 2 3 4 6 1.0 1.6 2.0 44 4 4 6 a etl ag ae 2.4 2.8 3.0 45 2.0 2.0 3. 4 4.0 6.0 8.1 9.4 10.0 46 Tr. 4 4 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.2 4, 47 3.8 5.0 4.8 5.4 5.6 6.6 7.0 8.0 48 2.8 3.2 5.2 7.4 8.8 10.8 13.6 15.8 49 Tr. Tr. 2 8 7 Tae ah a tall Ss ears 4 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 51 152 1.4 2.0 PAP 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.8 52 9.2 9. 4 8.4 8.4 6.6 4.6 6.4 7.0 53 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tr. 54 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tr. 295to | 305to} 315 to 305° C. | 315° C. | 330°C. Per Per Per cent. cent. cent. 11.2 8.6 7.8 8.0 8.4 7:4 8.8 7.4 16.4 17.2 16.4 1594 1.6 1.4 3.0 2.8 10.6 12.2 0 SAG le eters 9.0 8.4 16.8 17.6 15.0 sr Hale aura) Pk ea 4.2 0 0 0 2.4 1.6 7.4 6.0 4.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 rae BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. HetpHenstineE, R. K., Jr. Consumption of Wood Preservatives. (In Proceed- co bo nS Ui 18. 19: 20. Ale ings of American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1919, p. 274.) . Lewes, V. B. Carbonization of Coal. . Husparp, P. Coke-oven Tars of the United States (U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Office of Public Roads Circular No. 99.) . Futwemer, W. H. Water-gas. (In Rogers and Auber’s Industrial Chemistry, chap. xx1, p. 447.) . Parker, E.W. Production of Gas, Coke, Tar, and Ammonia, 1908. (In Mineral Resources of the U. S., 1908, U. S. Geological Survey). . Parker, E. W. Production of Gas, Coke, Tar, and Ammonia, 1912. (In Mineral Resources of the U. S., 1912, U. S. Geological Survey). . U. S. Geotocica, Survey. Artificial Gas and By-products in 1917. (Press bulletin. ) . Private communications from the Geological Survey. . Parker, E. W. Produetion of Gas, Coke, Tar, and Ammonia, 1905. (In Mineral Resources of the U. S., 1905, U. S. Geological Survey.) . LunGE, Georce. Coal Tarand Ammonia. (5th ed., N. Y., Van Nostrand, 1916.) . Warnes, A. R. Distillation of Coal Tar. (N. Y., Van Nostrand, 1914.) . Dean, A. L., and Bateman, E. Analysis and Grading of Coal-tar Creosote. (U.S. Forest Service Circular No. 112). . THEISEN-SCHEEL and DresseLHorst. (Van Nostrand Chemical Annual, 1909.) . Berry, O. C. Tar-forming Temperatures of American Coals. (University of Wisconsin Bulletin No. 635.) . American Society for Testing Materials, Proceedings, 1917, p. 621. . Weiss, H. F. Tests to Determine the Commercial Value of Wood Preservatives. (In Proceedings of Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 1912.) Bonn, F. M. The Effect upon Absorption and Penetration of Mixing Tar with Creosote. (In Proceedings of American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1913, pp. 216-274.) TEESDALE, OC. H., and MacLean, J. D. Tests of the Absorption and Penetration of Coal Tar and Creosote in Longleaf Pine. (U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin, No. 607.) AutemMAN, G. Quantity and Quality of Creosote in Well-preserved Timbers. (U.S. Forest Service Circular No, 88.) Von Scurenk, H., and others. Changes which Take Place in Coal-Tar Creosote during Exposure. (In Proceedings of American Railway Engineering Asso- ciation, 1908, pp. 738-764). Barreman, E. Quantity and Quality of Creosote Found in Two Treated Piles after Long Service. (U.S. Forest Service Circular No. 199.) . Rmeway, F. B. Report on Creosoted Piling in Galveston Bay Bridge on the Santa Fe Railroad. (In Proceedings of American Wood Preservers’ Associa- tion, 1914, pp. 194-215.) 2HopES, F. L., and Hosrorp, R. F. Recent Results Obtained from the Preserv- ative Treatment of Telephone Poles. (In Proceedings of American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 1915.) 112 24. 20. 26. 30. ol. 33. 34, 30. 36. Be 38. 39. 40. COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES. 113 Casot, S. Value of Higher Phenols in Wood-preservative Oils; Apparent Dis- appearance of the Higher-Boiling Phenols in Creosoted Wood. (In Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 1912.) Von Scurenk, H., and Kammerer, A. L. The Use of Refined Coal-tar in the Creosoting Industry. (In Proceedings of American Railway Engineering Association, 1914, pp. 635-681.) Bateman, E., and Town, G. G. Loss by Evaporation of Creosote from Open- tank Treatments. (In Proceedings of American Wood Preservers’ Associa- tion, 1920.) : . Bateman, E. What Light Oils Have Done in Wood Preservation. (In Pro- ceedings of American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1920.) . Coapman, ©. M. A Fungus-bed Test for Wood Preservatives. (In Proceedings of American Society for Testing Materials, 1915.) . HumpuHrey, ©. J.,and Fuemine, R. M. Toxicity of Various Wood Preservatives. (In Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 1914-1915.) Tests of Wood Preservatives. (U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 145.) f Dean, A. L., and Downes, C. R. Antiseptic Properties of Wood-preserving Oils. (In Proceedings of Eighth International Congress of Applied Chem- istry, 1912.) Weiss, J. M. The Action of Oils and Tar in Preventing Mould Growth; The Antiseptic Effect of Creosote Oil and Other Wood-preserving Materials. (In Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1911, vol. 30, No. 4, p. 190.) 2. RussEuu, E. J., and PENpLEToN, W. The Action of Antiseptics in Increasing the Growth of Cropsin Soils. (In Journal of the Society of Chemical Indus- try, 1913, vol. 32, No. 24, pp. 1137, 1138.) CHARITSCHKOW, K. W. Antiseptic Properties of Creosote. (In Journal of the Russian Chemical Society, 1912.) Huntuey, H. W. Identification and Toxic Action of Some Compounds in Coal- tar Creosote. (Unpublished Manuscript at U. 8S. Forest Products Labora- tory, 1915.) Trittat, A. Antiseptic and Medicinal Properties Derived from Coal-tar. (In Monitur Scientific, 1892.) ADIASIEWIETSCH, A. W. Treatment of Wood with Antiseptics Prepared from Coal Tar. (Abstract, Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1897.) Boxorny, Efficiency of Phenol as a Disinfectant Compared with Other Poison. (Chemiker Zeitung, 1906.) ScHNEIDER, H. Disinfectants from Naphthols. (Chemiker Cent., 1906.) Morean, G. F., and Cooper, KE. A. Germicidal Power of Organic Hydroxy Compounds and Amines. (In Proceedings of Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 1912.) SHackeELL, L. F. Comparative Toxicity of Coal-tar Creosote and Creosote Dis- tillates for the Marine Wood Borer, Xylotrya. (In Proceedings of American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1915, pp. 233-252.) . Bareman, E. A Theory on the Mechanism of Protection by Wood Preserva- tives. (In Proceedings of American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1920.) . FREDENDOLL, P. F. Evaporation of Creosote and Crude Oils. (In Proceedings of American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1912, pp. 107-117. . Bateman, E. The Relation Between Viscosity and Penetrance of Creosote into Wood. (In Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, 1920.) . Weiss, J. M. Free Carbon: Its Nature and Determination in Tar Products. (In Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 1914.) 75536°—22—8 114 BULLETIN 1036, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 45 46. A 55 56 57 . Monroe, G. S., and BropEerson, H. J. Some Effects of Certain Solvents on Tars in Free-carbon Determination. (In Journal of Industrial and Engi- neering Chemistry, 1918.) Davis, T. H. The Examination of Creosote. (In Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter. 1909.) . CLouKEy, H. The Application of the Davis Spot Test in the Preliminary Exam- ination of Creosote. (In Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 1915.) . National Electric Light Association, Proceedings, 1911. . Bateman, E. Discussion on Paving-block Specifications. (In Proceedings of American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1917.) . Dean, A. L., and BarEman, E. The Fractional Distillation of Coal-tar Creosote, (U. 8. Forest Service Circular No. 80.) . National Electric Light Association, Proceedings, 1911. . American Railway Engineering Association, Proceedings, 1913. . Mann, J.C. The Testing of Coal-tar Creosote. (In Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, 1910.) .-American Railway Engineering Association, Proceedings, 1908. . CHapin, R. M. The Analysis of Coal-tar Creosote and Cresylic Acid Sheep Dip- (U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 107.) . FuLwerer, W.H. Report on Water Gas Tar. (In Proceedings of American Wood Preservers’ Association, 1921.) . Matros, F. D. Long Wharf Piles. (In Proceedings of American Wood Pre- servers’ Association, 1920.) ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 20 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief. Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER August 19, 1922 THE CONTROL OF SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND INCIP- IENT DECAY IN GREEN WOOD, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO VEHICLE STOCK.’ By NATHANIEL O. Howarp, Pathologist, Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology. (In cooperation with the, Forest Products Laboratory of the United States Forest Serv- ice, Madison, Wis.) CONTENTS. Page. Page. VIVO Ey eCOXG hu KEN Cay 0 ae Ea 1 | Durability of stained or molded PSE ASHER Ts i i agg 3 WOO Ghee aE ie he sacs RE Cane lt a i HCG Other fungous organisms causing Losses due to sap-stain or mold____ 18 surface discolorations in green tim- Controlmeasures=) 2s sls Ras Sa 21 YORE ack a oi DBP set SHI ay 809 yt OR iat ath cea 50 Factors which favor the growth of Literature cited _2-~) 2 252s sles 52 sap-stain and mold fungi________ 14 INTRODUCTION. During periods of transit and storage, previous to its ultimate manufacture, green timber containing a high percentage of sapwood often suffers considerable damage. This is particularly true during the late spring and summer months when deterioration brought about mainly through a discoloration of the sapwood, known as sap-stain, sometimes necessitates degrading on a large scale. This staining of timber has occasioned severe losses in Europe as well as in the United States, and many expensive investigations have been made to determine the nature of the stain and to discover a satisfactory remedy. 1 The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Mr. C. J. Humphrey, in charge of the Laboratory of Forest Pathology, Bureau of Plant Industry, in cooperation with the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis., for facilities and for advice in ‘outlining the work; to Dr. Charles Thom and Miss Margaret B. Church, of the Bureau of Chem- istry, for the identification of mold fungi; to Mr. H. D. Tiemann, physicist and specialist in kiln drying, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis., for the loan of photographs ; to Mr. Joseph Ashcroft, of Poplar Bluff, Mo., for cooperation in the experimental dipping of spokes; and to all others who, by information, suggestion, or criticism, have con- tributed to the preparation of the manuscript of this bulletin. 75579°—22——_1 2 BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The molding of green timber has frequently been confused with sap-stain as well as with incipient decay. However, in so far as the production of permanent stain or the effect upon the durability of the wood is concerned, molding is of comparatively little importance. Incipient decay caused by true wood-destroying fungi, on the other hand, is of great importance. Early in the year 1918 the attention of the Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology was called to staining and molding occurring in green raw material by the wood-stock committee representing the National Implement and Vehicle Association and other vehicle and vehicle parts manufacturers through the Forest Products Labora- tory of the United States Forest Service, Madison, Wis. The pres- ent investigation arose in connection with raw hardwood stock used in the manufacture of escort wagons and artillery carriages. A large quantity of this material was at that time being sawed or turned, largely from green instead of seasoned stock and shipped green from the saw. In some cases it was found necessary to cull severely such stock at destination, owing to the presence of mold, stain, or incipient decay which had developed during transit and while in.storage. In cooperation with the Forest Products Labora- tory and the wood-stock committee, a questionnaire* was sent to a number of the contractors for Army vehicles and parts and to pro- ducers of wood stock. Personal investigations were also made of the conditions existing at 45 mills and factories engaged in the saw- ing of timber, dimension stock, and veneer, or in the manufacture of airplanes, furniture, flooring, handles, vehicles, and vehicle parts. Most of these mills were located in the central and southern portions of the United States and were directly concerned in the production of war material. The object of both questionnaire and personal investigations was to gain information concerning the general sani- tary conditions existing in the woods, railway cars, sheds, ware- houses, and kilns; the details of manufacture of many vehicle parts; the extent of deterioration occurring in green raw material; the finan- cial losses oceasioned thereby; and, particularly, any practical meth- ods of handling green wood stock that would prevent the develop- ment of stain and mold therein. The investigations showed that many of the firms had experienced considerable pecuniary losses, which were due to the necessity of using a high percentage of green stock; to a shortage of cars, re- sulting in the congestion of material in the woods and railroad 2National Implement and Vehicle Association and other Vehicle and Vehicle Parts Manufacturers. Information Division of the Wagon and Vchicte Committee and the Wheel Manufacturers’ War Service Committee. Wood Stock Committee. Sap-stain and mold in grecn lumber. Nat. Implement and Vehicle Assoc., ete., Bul. 24, 2 p., 1 fig. 1918. A. B. Thielens, chairman. Multigraphed. SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. 3 yards; to lack of time for the proper air seasoning or kiln drying preparatory to shipment; and, finally, in some cases to a failure to understand the conditions necessary to safeguard the stock while in storage or in transit. Many of these losses due to emergency will be considerably reduced upon return to normal conditions. Some manufacturers consider it important that, in order to over- come losses due to checking, certain kinds of stock produced at many of the smaller mills be shipped te them in a green rather than in a partly seasoned condition. They claim that these mills, not being equipped for the proper drying of stock preliminary to shipment, make it necessary for the manufacturer to insist that material from such sources be shipped in a green condition to the factory, where suitable means for storage and drying are maintained. Close atten- tion must be paid to the handling of this material in transit or in storage if deterioration due to fungi is to be prevented. The necessity for a careful conservation of timber in the United State is becoming more and more apparent (53.2 544). Measures, then, that will assist in preventing or reducing losses due to fungous attacks are of importance. 5 This bulletin presents a brief review of our knowledge of sap- stain and mold, a consideration of the causal organisms responsible for such deterioration in green wood stock, the results of the new investigations, and finally a summary of some of the important meth- ods of control. SAP-STAIN. The “bluing,” or sap-stain, of pine timber has been observed in -Europe for many years. Both Hartig (77, 7S) and Frank (//) refer to it in their investigations of plant diseases. Rudeloff (36) studied the effect of blue stain on the strength of pine wood. Miinch (31) not only examined the properties of blued coniferous wood but also investigated the causal organisms and determined the optimum conditions for their development in the wood. Inthe United States considerable attention has been given to the subject by such investi- gators as Von Schrenk (4/, 42, 43), Hedgecock (19, 20), Rumbold 37, 38), Weiss and Barnum (46, 57), and Bailey (5). Many of the investigations have been made in connection with the sap-stain of hardwoods as well as conifers. 3 The serial numbers (italic) in parentheses refer to ‘‘ Literature cited” at the end of : this bulletin. : =e su 4'hese two reports on Senate Resolution No. 311 by the Forest Service of the United - States Department of Agriculture may be obtained from the Superintendent of Deeu- ments, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 25 cents and 5 cents, respec- tively, per copy. = epi 4 ' BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DEFINITION OF-SAP-STAIN. The term “ sap-stain ” refers to the blue, green, brown, or red dis- coloration which often may be observed in the sapwood of timber derived from several kinds of broad-leaved and coniferous trees. It must not be confused, however, with the superficial discolorations produced mechanically, 1. e., by collections of dirt and coal dust, by deposits from the drip in leaky cars and sheds, or from the condensed moisture in kilns. Such deposits may occur upon heartwood as well as sapwood. Neither should it be confused with the common blue- purple stain apparent when rusty saws are used on certain green wood, such as oak. This stain results from the reaction between the tannic acids of the wood and the iron compounds from the saw. Finally, it must not be confounded with the variously colored super- ficial growths of molds or the more or less deep seated sap-rot, with its brown to bleached appearance and its tendency to produce a punky consistency of the sapwood itself. There are two quite generally recognized classes of sap-stain: (1) The chemical stain, said to be produced by chemical reactions brought about through the agency of certain oxidizing enzyms present in the wood itself; and (2) fungous stains known to be caused by several species of fungi. CHEMICAL STAINS. Chemical stains due to enzyms cause discolorations in both the sap- wood and the heartwood of sugar pine and hard maple (Tiemann, 51, p. 185; also Pratt, 34, p. 305-807). Such stains develop during air drying, particularly under warm and humid conditions, or in the kiln, and give more or less permanent discolorations to the wood, to wit, a brown stain in sugar pine (fig. 1) and a cherry color in hard maple. These defects cause degrading (34) and often result in financial losses. According to Bailey (5), when freshly cut sapwood of alder, birch, cherry, or red gum is exposed to the air during ex- tremely warm and humid weather, chemical reactions often take place and within a few hours produce colored substances in the wood. Bailey (5) states that the microscopic examination of sections of such wood indicates that the colored substance develops particularly within the pith rays and the parenchyma cells. He states that certain seluble enzyms which assist in the oxidation of organic compounds and are of prime importance in the nutrition and growth of living organ- . isms are widely distributed in plants and animals and may also pro- duce post-mortem discolorations of certain organic compounds (see also Clark 8,9). Yoshida (59) discovered in 1883 that an oxidizing ferment is responsible for the oxidation of the latex in certain species of Rhus and the formation thereby of black varnish, or lacquer. Investigations have also shown that discolorations in fruit juices, SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. 5 vegetables, cereals, mushrooms, and various soft plant tissues are brought about through the agency of certain oxidizing ferments, the oxidases and the peroxidases (Aso 7, 2, 3; Clark, 8, 9; Kastle, 27). These ferments are sometimes distinguished by the production of a strong blue color in a tincture of guaiacum when used in the presence of oxygen or hydrogen peroxid (Haas and Hill, 76, p. 383). | Bailey (4) states that the ac- tivity of these oxidizing enzyms increases with the rise in tem- perature to a certain point, which may be called the opti- mum, and then decreases as the temperature is raised above this point. In almost every case, ae- cording to the same authority, the activity is entirely destroyed before a temperature of 100° C. (212° F.) is reached. He also states that the activity of these oxidizing ferments is dimin- ished or destroyed by certain antiseptics and by other chemi- cal substances. According to Aso (1,:2), such: substances as tannin, sodium fluorid, and so- dium silicofluorid, interfere with the color reactions nor- mally produced by oxidases. Bailey (5) notes the strong similarity existing between the oxidizing activities of these en- Zyms and the chemical reactions F': 1.—Board of sugar pine, showing . 3 chemical stain. The unstained area in Hesponsivle tor certain kinds of ts iecee fait GF ine uidetmGon mat! sap- al ei cates the position of a crosser during the Pp oe “e namely, post mortem kiln treatment. The crosser afforded pro- oxidation with change of color tection from oxidation, Photographed by produced by solutions in con- ™ D- Tiemann. tact with the air and the similar variations in the activity of the discoloring agency in relation to variations in temperature. If discolorations in sapwood are due to the activity of oxidizing enzyms, which, as has been shown, are rendered inactive by exposure to a temperature of 100° C. (212° F-.), a logical prophylactic measure would be the submersion of timber in boiling water. Bailey (5), during the spring of 1910, performed certain dipping experiments. 6 BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. He found that when 1 by 3 by 6 inch boards of alder (Alnus incana Moench), white or gray birch (Betula populifolia Marsh), paper birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh), and various trees belonging to the rose family (Rosacee) were immersed in boiling water and then stacked under cover they would remain unchanged in color. Those boards which had been immersed in the boiling water and then placed in the most unfavorable conditions of high humidity and temperature in the open and exposed to the direct rays of the sun scorched on the surface. With the exception of this superficial scorching, no discoloration of the wood took place. On the other hand, untreated boards that had been cut from the same portion of the tree and subjected to similar conditions of temperature and humidity stained rapidly. Bailey (5) found that the rapidity and the depth to which the stain penetrates the wood varies with the temperature and the moisture, hot and humid weather being espe- cially favorable for the production of stain. From a consideration of the results obtained, he concludes that sap-stain caused by oxidiz- ing enzyms can be readily prevented by dipping the timber for a few minutes in boiling water. Though chemical stains give more or less trouble in kiln-dried maple flooring and sugar-pine lumber, the discolorations may be prevented to an extent by the use of comparatively low temperatures (120° to 125° F.) and correspondingly low humidities (50 to 70 per cent; Tiemann, 5/7, p. 185). Because of their limited distribution and the fact that they do not impair the strength or durability of the timber, chemical stains in general can hardly be considered as having very great economic importance. FUNGOUS STAINS. The second class of stains is produced by fungi. These fungi are disseminated by means of minute bodies known as spores. The spores may be produced in countless numbers and are blown about by the wind, washed along by the rain, or carried by animals, particularly insects. When, under favorable humidity and tem- perature conditions, they happen to lodge upon a substratum, such as the moist green sapwood of woods that contain the requisite food material, the spores may germinate and give rise to a mass of fine, usually septate threads, sometimes colorless at first, but often becom- ing darkened with age. This vegetative portion of the fungus is known as the mycelium, and the individual threads are called hyphe. In some cases the hyphe probably penetrate the wood but little, growing for the most part over the surface; in others, they may enter the sapwood through the medullary or pith rays. This does not result in the disintegration of the walls of the wood cells to any appreciable SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. (i extent. The starches, sugars, and oils stored in the sapwood and pith rays, together with the contained air and water, probably exert an influence upon the advancing hyphe and limit largely the growth of the fungus to the sapwood and the pith rays, where the sap-stain is mainly to be found. Practically no invasion of the heartwood takes place (Von Schrenk, 47, p.19). (PI. I, fig. 3.) THE SAP-STAIN FUNGI. The relation of a fungus to the bluing of wood was first noted by Hartig (77, 18). He describes the organism which causes the so- called “bluing” of conifers, especially dead or dying pine that has been injured by caterpillars, as Ceratostoma piliferum. He notes that it may also appear in damp firewood. According to Hartig, the brown mycelium very quickly penetrates the trunk through the medullary rays. He states that probably on account of the de- ficiency in moisture content the heartwood is avoided by the mycelium. whereas the sapwood often becomes quickly invaded and decomposed. Although described by Fries (73; see also Berkeley, 6), who placed it in the genus Sphaeria, the fungus was later transferred by Fiickel (74; see also Ellis and Everhart, /0) to the genus Ceratostoma. Sac- eardo (39) still later divided the genus Ceratostoma and placed those species which possess colorless spores in a new genus, Ceratostomella. Winter (5S) ,in a subsequent revision of the family included the fungus as Ceratostomella pilifera Fries under the new genus. It is now known as Ceratostomella pilijera (Fries) Winter (Engler and Prantl, 29). Dome 2 illustrates the fruiting bodies of this fungus. With the aid of a magnifying glass one may often see them clearly as stiff black hairs, approximately 1 millimeter (1/25th of an inch) in length,’ swolien at the bases, and forming, en masse, a dark hairy covering on the ends and tangential surfaces of stained sapwood. These growths when well developed are sometimes referred to by lumbermen as “ whiskers.” Many species of Ceratostomella have been listed by Saccardo (40). Though no reference is made to the fact, it is probable that a number of these stain wood. The life histories of many species of Ceratostomella found on stained wood have been worked out by Von Schrenk (4/7), Hedgcock (19), and Rumbold (37) in this country and by Miinch (37) in Europe. In connection with the study of several chromogenic fungi which discolor wood, Hedgcock developed in culture a conidial stage of Ceratostomella superficially resembling Cephalosporium. Miinch and Rumbold associated a Graphium stage with the development of 5In some species the length may exceed 2 millimeters. 8 BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Ceratostomella. During the extensive culture work of Hedgcock, however, extending over a period of four or five years and involving Fie. 2.—Mycelium and fruiting bodies of “ bluestain’”’ fun- gus: 1, Tangential section of ‘blue’? wood; 2, cross sec- tion of ‘“‘blue’’ wood; 3, cross section of pith ray; 4, young fruiting body of the “ blue-stain’’ fungus (Cerato- stomella pilifera) ; 5, mature fruiting bodies of the ‘“ blue stain’ fungus; 6, two fruiting bodies of the ‘ blue-stain ”’ fungus; 7, two spore sacs with spores of the “ blue-stain ”’ fungus; 8, spores of the “ blue-stain” fungus; 9, top of beak of fruiting body of Ceratostomella pilifera just after the discharge of the spore mass. (After Von Schrenk (32), pl. 7.) a number of species of Ceratostomella from a variety of sources, no Graphium stage of this fungus was ever reported. Bul. 1037, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. } | ! EXAMPLES OF WooD INFECTION.—lI. Fig. 1.—Radial section of bull pine, showing hyphe of the blue-stain fungus growing in the pith rays. Fic. 2.—Tangential section of the same, showing many small hyphe growing into the adjoining cells. Fica.3.—Log of southern yellow pine containing sap-stain. Fic. 4.— Mycelium of mold growing between hard-maple boards ina kiln. Fra. 5.—Mold on the end of a sawed red-oak billet. Fra.6.—Manle billet containing sap-rot, a condition brought about through the agency of wood-destroying fungi. The surface has been polished to show more clearly the bleached and disorganized condition of the sapwood. (Figs. 1 and 2 are from Von Schrenk (41), pl. 8; fig. 4 is from a photograph by H. D. Tiemann.) Bul, 1037, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. EXAMPLES OF WOOD INFECTION.—II. Fic. 1.—Artificially infected blocks of red oak and white oak in the tile chamber ready for the steaming experiments performed at the Madison laboratory. The large white areas of mycelium on the ends of the blocks in the upper four rows are wood-destroying fungi and probably developed as a result of infection in the log. Fic. 2.—Sawed felloes of oak (species not known). Note the abundant growth of mold which had developed in the material during shipment and while in storage. Photographed by H. D. Tiemann. SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. 9 Hedgecock (19) identified the following species of Ceratostomella as responsible for the discolorations produced in certain woods: C. pilifera (Fr.) Wint., in the sapwood of several species of pine (Pinus), fir (Abies), oak (Quercus), and ash (Fraxinus). C. schrenkiana n. sp., in short-leaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.). C. echineila BE. and E., in freshly cut heartwood and sapwood of beech (Fagus atropunicea (Marsh) Sudworth). C. capillifera n. sp., in wood of red gum (Liquidamber styraciflua L.). C. pluriannulata n. sp., in blue sapwood of red oak (Quercus rubra L.). C. minor n. sp., in Arizona pine (Pinus arizonica Eng.). C. exigua n. sp., in dead and dying trees of scrub pine (Pinus virginiana Mill.). C. moniliformis n. sp., in red gum (ZLiquidambar styracifilua L.). Miinch (37) split up Ceratostomella pilifera Fries into a series of new species, as follows: 1 Ceratostomella pini, the important blue-stain fungus of pine. 2. The pilifera group, distinguished by the secondary fruiting bodies: (a) C. piceae, with an associated Graphium stage, possibly Graphium penicillioides Corda, in species of pine and fir. (6) C. cana, with an associated but unclassified Graphium stage. This species he also found in pine wood. (e) C. coerulea, having no associated Graphium stage. With these species of Ceratostomella Miinch includes two unrelated fungi, E'ndoconidiophora coerulescens and Cladosporium sp., as causing discolorations in coniferous timber.°® Von Schrenk (47), in his studies of the “ blue wood” in dead and dying stands of the western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa Laws.), found that the spores of Ceratostomella blown about by wind or carried by insects are often deposited in the exposed ends left by the breaking of branches or in the holes made by the bark and wood boring beetles. There, under the favorable conditions which usually prevail, they germinate and readily produce in a short time many colorless, branching hyphe. The hyphe grow into the bark tissues, then into the cambium, and from there into the medullary rays. With age the hyphe take on a brown hue. According to Von Schrenk (4/7. pp. 18, 19), “ one of the first effects seen after the hyphe have entered the medullary ray cells is the grad- ual solution of the walls separating the medullary ray cells from one another (fig. 2, 7, 2, 3). The walls which separate the ray cells from the neighboring wood cells may become very thin, as shown in the middle ray (fig. 2, 7), but they are rarely dissolved entirely. The intermediate walls, on the other hand, entirely disappear. This ®In a recent publication, C. J. Humphrey (23) describes a fungus, Lasiosphaeria pezizula (B. and C.) Sace., as the cause of a blue-black stain in certain hardwoods, par- ticularly beech and red gum. More detailed information concerning this fungus, as well as certain species of Ceratostcmella, is given by E. E. Hubert (21). 75579 °—22__2 10 BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. leaves a tube, with a cross section having the shape of the cross sec- tion of the ray, extending into the trunk from the bark. This tube is sometimes filled entirely with a mass of brown hyphe, the larger number of which extend in the direction of the ray (PI. I, figs. 1 and 2). From the ray cells some hyphe make their way into adja- cent wood cells (fig. 2, 2; Pl. I, figs. 1 and 2).7. They grow along these, both up and down (fig. 2, 7), giving off branches to other wood cells. In this manner the whole wood body becomes penetrated by the brown hyphe in a very short time after the first infection. The number of hyphe in the wood cells proper, excluding the medullary ray cells and the cells of the wood parenchyma, is very small indeed. This is probably due to the fact that the fungus finds scant material upon which to live in the wood cells. The hyphe are apparently able to puncture the unlignified walls here and there, but they stop at that point. The writer was not able to demonstrate that the hyphe could attack the hgnifed walls. In other words, the ‘blue’ fungus is one which confines its attack to the food sub-tances contained in the storing cells of the trunk and to the slightly lignified walls of these storing cells.” According to the same authority (4/, p. 19), the resin ducts may be attacked in like manner (fig. 2, 3; Pl. I, fig. 2). In the case of sawed timber it is quite probable that the fungous spores falling upon the surface of the sapwood find there the mois- ture and food material necessary for germination. Subsequently they give rise to a mass of mycelium, many of whose hyphe enter the wood through the exposed medullary or pith rays and then probably invade the surrounding tissue, as explained by Von Schrenk. SUSCEPTIBILITY OF VARIOUS WOODS TO SAP-STAIN FUNGI. The sapwoods of many kinds of timber are susceptible to sap-stain, though the degree of susceptibility varies considerably. Among the conifers southern yellow pine, western yellow pine, sugar pine, and the spruces seem to be readily stained and in the case of the broad- leaved trees, red gum, red oak, white oak, and hackberry seem to be particularly susceptible. Often there is a considerable difference between a species when grown on the dry uplands and the same species when grown under the moist conditions characteristic of the lowlands (Von Schrenk and Spaulding, 44). This difference in woods of the same species may be even more marked when grown in essentially different climates (Spaulding, 48). It seems to be the opinion of many lumbermen that timber grown in the South is more susceptible to fungous attacks than timber grown in the North. If differences in susceptibility do 7. E. Hubert (21) observed in the wood of scrub pine and northern white cedar hypbe of Ccratostomella sp., which had penetrated tracheids and wood fibers for a dis- tance of several cells from the medullary rays. SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. 11 exist in such woods it is difficult to state whether they are due to dissimilarities in mechanical structure, to the relative proportions of contained air and water, or to the variety and amounts of stored food present in the wood parenchyma and medullary rays. It is probable that differences in environmental conditions, 1. e., temperature and hu- midity as affecting the growth of the fungi, are important factors directly responsible (Roth, 35, p. 55-56). STRENGTH OF “BLUED” WOOD. Since the wood fibers are not appreciably impaired by the growth of the blue-stain fungus, there should be no apparent loss in the strength of the invaded wood. Rudeloff (36) found that the compres- sion strength of pine is not affected by the presence of bluing fungi. Tests on the stained wood of western yellow pine conducted at Wash- ington University, St. Louis, Mo. (Von \Schrenk, 47) and later at the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis. (Weiss, 56; Weiss and Barnum, 47) proved that there is practically no diminution in the end compression or cross-breaking strength and hardness of the stained as compared with the unstained wood. In the case of heavily stained shortleaf pine, however, tested at the latter institution, there was found to be a slight decrease in the strength, toughness, and hardness as compared with unstained wood having the same moisture content. It may be safely stated that blued wood is practically as strong as unstained wood. CAUSE OF THE COLOR IN “BLUED’” WOOD. The cause of the blue color in the wood has never been satisfac- torily explained. R. Hartig (/7, p. 66) ascertained that it arises from the presence of the brown fungous hyphe in the intercellular spaces. According to Von Schrenk (4/, p. 18, 25-26), it appears in the wood when the colorless mycelium begins to take on the brown hue characteristic of the mature fungus. Microscopic examination of the wood fibers taken from the blued wood reveals no indication of a blue color. While extracts of the blue wood with alcohol, ether, benzol, chloroform, alkalis, and acids differ in appearance from those obtained from clear wood, yet no blue tinge is apparent. Von Schrenk (41, p. 26) suggests that possibly “there is some pigment with a blue element in the ‘blue’ wood which is so faint that its de- tection in thin microscopic sections becomes almost impossible.” Hedgecock (79, p. 110-111) states that “ the brown color of the fungus apparently contains traces of a blue pigment whose color is trans-— mitted by the wood cells of the pine more readily than the brown color.” Miinch (37, p. 3) concludes that the color is due to the ar- rangement of the mycelial threads in the wood. He cites, as some- * 12 BULLETIN. 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. what similar examples, the blue color of thin milk, cigarette smoke, and the clear sky, wherein very fine particles are held in suspension in a transparent medium. OTHER FUNGOUS ORGANISMS CAUSING SURFACE DISCOLORA- TIONS IN GREEN TIMBER. In addition to the blue-stain fungi, there is another group, the molds, which commonly occur upon the freshly cut surfaces of green timber when stored under moist, warm, and stagnant conditions (PI. I, fig. 5; Pl. I, figs. 1 and 2). Molds are occasionally found growing vigorously upon timber in kilns (PI. I, fig. 4). This is especially noticeable when the atmosphere of the kiln is exceedingly moist or saturated and the temperature ranges from 90° to 110° F.$ or from 110° to 130° F. (Tiemann, 5/, p. 186-187). Hedgecock (19) showed that the blackening and browning so common in the green sapwood of pine (Pinus sp.), poplar (Populus sp.), tulip (Liri- odendron sp.), red gum (Liquidambar sp.), oak (Quercus sp.), maple (Acer sp.), and several other woods can often be traced to species of Graph- ium. He cites: G. ambrosiigerum n. sp., on Arizona pine {Pinus arizonica Eng.). G. eumorphum Sace., on wild red rasp- berry (Rubus strigosus) and related species. G. atrovirens n. sp., on red gum (Liquid- ambar styracijlua L.). P G. smaragdinum (A. and 8.) Sace., on red gum (Liquidambar styracifiua L.). G. rigidum (Pers.) Saecc., on red oak (Quercus rubra L.). G. aureum n. sp., on wh te pine (Pinus strobus L.). G. album (Corda) Saece., on beech (Fagus atropunicea (Marsh) Sudworth). Fic. 3.—Fruiting body of Graphium sp. (After Miineh, 37.) Graphium spp. are perhaps best known by the upright, cylindrical, occasionally branched fruiting bodies 1 to 3 millimeters in height (fig. 3). These are often brown to black in color and bear at the tips comparatively large and, in many cases, confluent globules com- posed of masses of spores embedded in a mucuslike substance. ‘These — spore masses, though usually cream color, vary somewhat in hue, and in some species are tinged with gray, brown, green, yellow, or red. While these are the organs of fructification commonly observed, other types less conspicuous and bearing the so-called secondary conidia have been demonstrated in culture by Hedgecock (19). : 8 Information from the section of timber physics, Forest Products Laboratory, Macison, Wis. SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. 13 Other fungi mentioned by Hedgcock (79) as blackening wood are: _ Alternaria tenuis Nees., Stachybotrys alternans Bon., Aspergillus niger, Chaetomium sp., Stemonitis sp., Gliocladium sp., Hormoden- dron sp., Hormiscium sp., and Cladosporium sp. The apparent dis- coloration in these cases is due either to the presence of colored hyphe in or upon the surface of the wood or to a luxuriant super- ficial growth of colored spore masses. In no Case is it due to the secretion of any pigment which is absorbed by the wood. Hedgecock (7/9) names three other species—Penicillium awrewm. Corda, Penicillium roseum, and a Fusarium sp. formerly included under Husarium rosewum—which, due to the secretion of soluble pig- ments, actually stain the wood red, purple, or yellow, according to the alkalinity or acidity of the medium. These stains are superficial, however, and readily dress off when the lumber is planed. Many other molds grow readily upon green sapwood and give the timber a displeasing appearance, though they cause no deterioration in the strength of the wood. From the material collected by the writer and sent to the Madison laboratory there have been isolated over 40 distinct species of fungi. With the exception of species of Ceratosto- mella and Graphium, together with a species of Fusarium which was identified by Dr. Mabel M. Brown, graduate student at the Uni- versity of Wisconsin, as /’. arthrosporioides, this number consists of fungi popularly known.as molds. The determination of the molds was made by Dr. Charles Thom and Miss Margaret B. Church, of the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture. They are listed below: Aspergillus flavus series. Penicillium asperulum or puberulum. Aspergillus niger. Penicillium brevicaule series. Aspergillus repens. Penicillium commune. Aspergillus versicolor group. Penicillium divaricatum. Cephalothecium roseum. Penicillium lilacinum. : Citromyces sp. Penicillium luteum. Cladosporium sp. ~ Penicillium purpurogenum. Clonostachys sp. Penicillium roqueforti. Gliocladium. sp. i Penicillium, rugulosum. Haplographium sp. Penicillium solitum. Monlia sitophila. Syncephalastrum sp. Mucor sp. ; Trichoderma sp. Oidium sp. The great variety of genera and species here noted contains many earth dwellers and indicates that the molds commonly found upon green timber, especially during storage and transit, are for the most part soil forms whose spores have by accident fallen upon the moist surfaces of the sapwood and there found the conditions favor- able for development. It has generally been supposed that the growth of mold on wood is confined mainly to the surface or, at the most, to the superficial 14 BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. layers, perhaps a few cells in thickness. H. Marshall Ward (55), however, in connection with certain experiments upon spruce blocks which had been artificially infected with Penicillium sp., notes that the examination of sections from cultures 3 months old showed that the hyphe of this fungus had entered the starch-bearing cells in the medullary rays of the sapwood and had consumed the starch. The hyphex were observed deep in the wood extending from tracheid to tracheid through the bordered pits. Miss A. L. Smith (46) notes the presence of a dark-brown hyphomycete in decaying timber. This mycelium had invaded the woody tissue and had apparently brought about a partial destruction of the medullary rays (see also Free- man, 12).° During a series of experiments by the writer, cultures were taken from various points within red-oak blocks 24 by 24 by 10 inches Jong which had been cut from green sapwood and then artificially infected with 15 different fungi including 13 of the common molds.” The results obtained seem to confirm Ward’s experiments, for posi- tive mold cultures were secured even from the center of these blocks. However, as far as known, the molds do not cause any serious disin- tegration of the cell walls in green timber and thus do not impair the strength of the wood to any appreciable extent. As in the case of the blue-stain fungus, it is the stored food within the cells that is the object of attack. The principal objection to the presence of mold lies in the dis- coloration due to the masses of mycelium and the luxuriant clusters of fruiting bodies which often develop upon green sapwood, and sometimes the heartwood, under conditions of high humidity and temperature resulting from poor ventilation. However, these super- ficial growths are readily removed during sanding or-planing opera- tions. In many cases they can be readily brushed off. This is par- ticularly true of material which has become surface dried. An inspection of a carload of moldy timber is quite likely to pro- duce an impression that is liable to react unfavorably upon the shipper. Moreover, the presence of much mold or sap-stain in timber indicates the existence of conditions which are favorable to the development of decay. Such material, then, should be viewed with suspicion, but not of necessity with unfavorable discrimination. FACTORS WHICH FAVOR THE GROWTH OF SAP-STAIN AND MOLD FUNGI. The development of fungi is dependent upon four factors—a sup- ply of air, containing the essential element oxygen; the requisite ° McBeth and Scales (30) list a considerable number of molds that are apparently able to destroy cellulose, though they act differently toward different kinds of cellulose. 1” See page 29 for the list of fungi used in this experiment. SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. 15 amount of moisture; a temperature range within certain limits; and the necessary food substances. Air—F ungi require oxygen for their growth. This is suppled as one of the constitutents of ordinary air: Even under storage con- ditions the supply is ample. Stagnant air containing a considerable amount of moisture is favorable to the growth of fungi in the timber, in that it prevents the drying of the wood. Timber entirely sub- merged in water is practically immune from fungous attacks, since the supply of oxygen is cut off. Moisture—The extent of the growth of sap-stain and mold fungi is largely dependent upon the amount of moisture present in the substratum. This moisture content in green timbers of different species as well as in the sapwood and heartwood of a particular species may vary considerably. Thus, according to Tiemann (5/, p- 106; 33, tables), the green sapwood of conifers may contain from 100 to 150 per cent moisture,'t while the heartwood, probably being near its fiber saturation point, contains about 30 per cent. In the case of the hardwoods, both heartwood and sapwood may contain from 60 to over 200 per cent moisture. Frequently, however, there is pres- ent a greater quantity of free water in the sapwood than in the heart- wood (Tiemann, 5/). In air-dried timber the amount of moisture may be reduced to anywhere from 8 to 18 per cent, according to the climate. In kiln-dried material it may be reduced to 3 to 15 per cent moisture, depending upon requirement and uses. This will explain why mold and sap-stain, so frequently found in green timber, are absent in thoroughly air-seasoned or kiln-dried stock. Air cur- rents will often surface-dry the timber to an extent that will make it practically impossible for fungi to grow thereon. The relative quantities of water and air found in the wood, accord- ing to Von Schrenk (43), are the most important factors in the con- trol of the rate of growth and spread of the sap-stain fungus. He cites Miinch’s experiments (32) on artificially inoculated pine blocks,'” differing only in the relative amounts of contained water and air. These experiments seem to indicate that the growth of the fungus is inhibited when the normal winter water content of the wood is raised to an amount that will insure a consequent reduction in the volume of contained air to at least 15 per cent, based on the volume of the fresh wood. According to Miinch (32) an air content of 42 per cent, brought about through a reduction of the normal winter water con- tent of the wood; is the optimum for development of the fungus in the wood. Miinch (37, p. 59-62) states that the sap-stain fungus at- 1 Unless otherwise stated, all percentages of moisture content are based upon oven- dry weight. - 2 The blocks in this case. were artificially inoculated with the conidia of Ceratosto- mella coerulea. 16 BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tacks recently felled trees, but does not penetrate deeply, owing to the high water content of the wood. He also states that the mycelium of the fungus readily penetrates throughout the sapwood of winter- felled wood when the loss in water content amounts to 10 to 20 per cent. Moreover, the growth in moist wood takes place for the most part in the older layers of the sapwood, or those in proximity to the heartwood. Finally, Miinch concludes that the sap-stain fungus is capable of infecting the living tree, thus becoming parasitic, provided the fungous spores find entrance to the sapwood through injuries to the bark, such as those produced by bark-boring beetles; and that con- ditions favorable for fungous growth, namely, a reduction in the water content and a corresponding increase in the air content of the sapwood, are brought about through disturbances in the root system of the tree. In this connection certain investigations by Snell (47) on the rela- tion of the amount of decay to the density of the wood should be men- tioned. Five fungi which had been found to cause the rotting of structural timber in New England cotton mills were grown upon blocks of loblolly-pine sapwood and Sitka spruce. Several series of these blocks, each series containing a different percentage of moisture, were used in these experiments. The results obtained with loblolly pine agreed in the main with those of Miinch (32) upon Scotch pine, a2 wood of abeut the same density. In the case of Sitka spruce, a wood of considerably less density, however, it was found that the limits of moisture content favorable for fungous growth were raised. In other words, “the values representing the upper limits for decay will vary inversely with the density of the wood.” Temperature.—It has been clearly demonstrated in a number of temperature tests ’* upon some of the molds derived from infected timber that these fungi grow readily between certain limiting tem- peratures. Beyond these, they cease to show any signs of activity. The optimum temperatures are commonly those which obtain during the late spring and summer months in certain parts of the country, particularly in the South, i. e., 80° to 85° F. It is probable, how- ever, that each species has its own characteristic range. Food.—Sap-staining fungi and molds have been shown in cultures to live upon quite a variety of foods. Being devoid of chlorophyll they can not, like the higher plants, manufacture their own food, but must depend upon that already available. The medullary rays and wood parenchyma of green sapwood often contain certain starches, sugars, and oils which represent the stored food of the tree. These are the substances upon which sap-staining fungi probably depend for their existence. 13These tests were conducted at the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, by Mrs. Rose Harsch Lynwalter. SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. I) When supplied with the essentials necessary for growth, fungi develop rapidly and often reproduce abundantly. Deprived of any or all of these factors, however, the vegetative portion, 1. e.. mycelium, ceases to grow and eventually dies. In some cases, as, for instance, certain molds, the spores may retain their vitality for long periods under extremely unfavorable circumstances. When favorable con- ditions return, these spores soon germinate and often develop an abundant growth of mycelium within a few days. Fruiting bodies, sometimes bearing countless spores, may then make their appearance, and the life cycle is repeated. The ideal conditions for growth are often to be found in green timber containing a high percentage of sapwood when exposed to the stagnant atmosphere of the woods, poorly ventilated sheds, warehouses, and cars during warm, sultry, or rainy weather. Under such circumstances the sapwood may be- come thoroughly infected within a few days. Sap-stain may thus appear soon after infection with spores or mycelium of the sap-stain fungi. Wood-rotting fungi may also get a good hold upon timber under such conditions, and symptoms of incipient decay later be- come apparent (PI. I, fig. 6). DURABILITY OF STAINED OR MOLDED WOOD. _ Since the blue stain and mold fungi cause little or no dissolution of the wood fibers, they do not affect directly the durability of the timber. If properly piled and dried, stained or moldy wood stock free from decay should not deteriorate further from the action of the fungi. However, the conditions which favor the development of sap-stain, mold, and sap-rot are much the same, namely, the presence of spores or mycelium of the particular fungi capable of producing these defects in wood, a substratum containing the requisite food material, moisture, and a high relative humidity (75 to 100 per cent), a temperature of 70° to 100° F., and a lack of circu- lation of the air, or stagnation, which retards or prevents the proper drying of the timber. There seems to exist among many lumbermen a false notion that mold and sap-stain represent early stages in the development of sap-rot, or “ dote,” as it is commonly called. While the presence of an abundant growth of mold or sap-stain in green stock indicates conditions which are likely to favor the growth of rot, it is well known that the rot is caused by a distinct group of true wood-destroying fungi which develop independently. Molds in general develop rapidly. Hence, they may be often found growing profusely on green timber already infected with rot- producing fungi long before the latter have exhibited any notice- able evidence of their presence. It is possible, however, for wood destroyers to infect and bring about the disintegration of wood which contains no trace of mold or any other organisms. | T5579 ° —22 3 18 BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LOSSES DUE TO SAP-STAIN OR MOLD. INSANITARY PRACTICES IN THE HANDLING OF GREEN WOOD STOCK. As a result of investigations in the woods, inspections of many car- loads of green timber and dimension stock upon arrival at the mill, examinations of green and seasoned manufactured stock upon ar- rival at the vehicle factory, and talks with practical millmen and lumbermen, the writer is convinced that a considerable amount of the damage to vehicle stock, due to fungi, is brought about through the use of infected raw material. Many of the infections take place in the woods, as a result of insanitary practices in the handling of logs, bolts, and split billets. Im many instances, during warm and humid weather logs and bolts have been allowed to he in the woods for weeks. Under such conditions sap-stain is almost certain to fol- low. Moreover, the lability to attack by wood-destroying fung? is greatly increased. Split billets, instead of being cross piled on dry foundations, are sometimes thrown carelessly about the stump and left until a con- venient time for hauling arrives. Under favorable circumstances it takes but a few days for certain fungi to gain a good hold on such stock, and unless later checked or destroyed by some process such as kiln drying, they may produce a permanent stain or decay in the sapwood. It is quite probable that a serious shortage of cars suitable for handling the logs, bolts, and billets may prevent at times the rapid movement of raw stock to the mills. This results in the accumula- tion of material in the woods and railroad yards and contributes to conditions in many cases favorable to the development of the fung!. Frequently box cars are used where in normal times the more open and consequently better ventilated types of car would be employed. Failure to observe proper measures during storage, such as the use of dry foundations for logs and bolts, the cross piling or strip- ping of billets on dry foundations sufficiently high to give suitable ventilation from beneath, and the storage of stock in properly venti- lated sheds, has furnished conditions suitable for the development of mold, sap-stain, and decay in such material. A few millmen seem to have the mistaken idea that an abundant growth of mold on green stock serves to protect it from checking by preventing evaporation from the surface of the wood and actually absorbing, or possibly condensing, moisture from the surrounding atmosphere and then transmitting it to the wood. The fungus de- rives its moisture from the wood, not the air. Its presence, however, often indicates a high humidity in the immediate vicinity, a condition which prevents the drying of the wood and thus favors the growth of fungi. It is quite probable that the phenomenon known as gutta- SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. 19 tion, i. e., the collection of minute drops of excreted water upon the fungous growth, is responsible for the misconception. In some instances split billets upon being unloaded from the cars are thrown in a pile beside the track, sometimes upon damp soil, there to remain for perhaps a month or until opportunity can be found for removal to storage sheds. Losses due to fungi are a natural conse- quence of such treatment. It has taken time for those unaccustomed to the handling of green stock to work out satisfactory methods which would provide proper ventilation of dimension, sawed, or turned stock during transit. Meantime, many shipments have been seriously damaged. Of the different forms of stock, the sawed billet, the rim strip, and plank have given the most trouble. Losses are not confined to such stock, however, for turned spokes and hubs, unless properly safeguarded during transit, are lable to stain and mold. Sawed billets often arrive at the factory in a badly stained con- dition. It is probable that material containing fungous infections sometimes finds its way into their manufacture. The squared surfaces lend themselves to close piling and thus to the formation of masses wherein sufficient ventilation is impossible. Rimstripsalso frequently become badly stained while in transit, as a result of the same causes, together with the fact that some manufacturers require such -stock to be close piled in closed box cars and even sprayed with water to prevent checking. It is unfortunate that the conditions necessary for the prevention of checking in green stock are as a general rule favorable to the growth of fungi, and vice versa. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. The presence of much sap-stain and even mold in timber is con- sidered by some lumbermen as a defect. Therefore, degrading of material thus affected, with consequent loss in monetary value, may result. Such unfavorable discrimination is due to the notion that stained or moldy material is not as sound as clear stock. In the case of molds, it is an easy matter to remove the surface blemish by the simple process of sanding or planing. With sap-stain, however, the removal of the discoloration depends entirely upon the depth to which the mycelium has penetrated. In some cases the stain may extend to the heartwood. It is evident that it can not under such circum- stances be removed by the processes referred to. ‘The presence of much stain will prevent the use of timber for pur- poses where color, texture, and clearness of grain are of prime importance. Basket and box veneer, interior finish, flooring, and furniture stock which are to have no protecting coat of paint must be free from stain. Discrimination, however, should not be made 20 BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. against sap-stained or moldy stock that is to be covered, provided there is no incipient decay associated with it. The reduction in the value of stained lumber sometimes amounts to $2 or more per 1,000 feet, board measure, and perhaps one-fourth of the annual mill cut of the United States is attacked. In one year it was estimated that the total losses from sap-stain amounted to be- tween 8 and 9 million dollars (Weiss, 56; Weiss and Barnum, 57; see also Pratt, 34). The amount in any locality, however, depends upon the climate, the season, and several other factors. Weather conditions have a marked influence upon the amount of damage to freshly cut timber in the woods or to green stock in storage and in transit. During warm and moist weather such stock will sometimes stain badly and in a short time, unless it is properly safe- guarded. This, of course, is due to the fact that the warm and humid conditions stimulate the development of the fungi. It follows, then, that the greater losses from sap-stain, sap-rot, or mold should be ex- pected during the warmer months, and especially during those months in which both high temperatures and high humidity nor- mally prevail. As a matter of fact, this is the case. In the months of April, May, June, July, and sometimes August and even Septem- ber, depending upon climatic conditions, the greatest damage occurs. In the South, owing to the prevailing high temperatures and relative humidities, the losses are often extremely severe. The greatest losses occur in low-grade coniferous lumber, especially the southern pines, owing partly to the high percentage of sapwood and partly to the fact that the low-grade lumber is seldom kiln dried, but is stacked in the yard to air season. Under such circumstances, unless unusual precautions are observed, it is very lable to the attacks of the sap- stain fungi. From replies to the questionnaires sent out by the wood-stock com- mittee to contractors and producers of wood stock regarding sap- stain and mold in vehicle stock and from the data derived from the personal investigations of the writer, it was learned that these losses are dependent largely upon the manner in which the stock is piled in the cars and sheds during transit or storage. The losses average less than 10 per cent, but may reach from 25 to 75 per cent. The writer was informed that because of such damage to green spokes during the summer of 1918, sometimes as many as 50 per cent in a carload lot were culled. When turned spokes were selling at $150 per 1,000 feet b. m., the loss on a carload containing perhaps 12,000 escort. spokes, 24 by 24 by 27 inches, was evidently considerable, perhaps amounting to hundreds of dollars. One firm reported that it had knowledge of entire carloads being destroyed. In some instances cars had gone astray and had finally reached their proper destina- \ SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. 21 tion after one or two months on the road. Losses in those cases were often practically complete. Sixteen different firms reported that for the year 1917 their individual losses due to “heating in transit,” as staining is sometimes explained by lumbermen, varied from $100 to $5,000. One company reported the losses as varying from $25,000 to over $75,000 in different years.* CONTROL MEASURES. A great many attempts have been made to devise measures for the control of sap-stain and mold in green timber. With the excep- tion of kiln drying, however, none of these has proved entirely satis- factory. When tried under circumstances unfavorable to the growth of fungi, some of these measures have met with considerable success, but when put to the test under conditions which stimulate fungous development, they have often failed. For the most part they have been prophylactic rather than curative in nature. However, it is believed that many of the following measures, although not entirely effective, will assist materially in reducing losses due to sap-stain, mold, and incipient decay in green stock. HANDLING IN THE WOODS. AUTUMN AND WINTER CUTTING. Many lumbermen (75) think that, where possible, timber should be cut in the autumn and winter. While this is probably true, the reason often given is incorrect. The statement is usually made that winter cutting is better because the “sap is down.” It has been shown by T. Hartig (33, tables; Janka, 26) that during the spring when the growth is most active the treesometimes contains less water than in the winter. It is probable that the changes in moisture content which do take place are confined mainly to the sapwood. It is true that the movement of Sap is much more rapid at the time of active growth and that there are important chemical changes which take place therein during the different seasons of the year. In the winter, insoluble starches and gums are stored in the sapwood. During the spring these are changed to soluble sugars and are borne through the living tissues. The sapwood of summer-cut logs, therefore, contains soluble foods which render it extremely susceptible to attacks by fungi during the warm months when these organisms are most active. Winter-cut logs, on the other hand, have an opportunity to season under conditions less favorable for fungous growth and by the time warm weather 14 National Implement and Vehicle Association and other Vehicle and Vehicle Parts Manufacturers. Information Division of the Wagon and Vehicle Committee and the Wheel Manufacturers’ War Service Committee. Wood Stock Committee. Sap-stain and mold in transit. Nat. Implement and Vehicle Assoc., etc., Bul. 30, 5 p. 1918. A. B. Thielens, chairman. Typewritten. 22, BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. arrives will have dried to a degree which will render them less sus- ceptible to fungi (Roth, 35, p. 57). . In the bottom lands of the South, however, autumn and winter cutting may not always be feasible owing to the wet and muddy conditions then prevailing, which make hauling difficult, if not im- possible. Incidentally, leaf seasoning (Tiemann, 5/), 1. e., girdling trees while in full leaf and then allowing them to remain, often for years or until the leaves have entirely shriveled up, with the idea that much of the free water in the sapwood will be drawn off by transpiration through the leaf surfaces and thus prevent sap-stain, does not seem to be practiced in the regions visited by the writer. Although this method is said to be common in the seasoning of teak in India and has been advocated by some as applicable to gum in this country, yet it does not. seem to meet. with general approval, because it exposes the timber to the ravages of insects and to fungi causing decay. RAPID HAULING. One of the precautionary measures to be observed, especially dur- ing the late spring and summer, is that of hauling timber immedi- ately after felling. Raw stock can not be gotten out of the woods and to the saw too rapidly. It is possible for fungous infections to take place at all times of the year on the exposed surfaces of freshly cut timber. These develop more rapidly, however, during warm, humid weather, and especially under the conditions which obtain in the woods. STORAGE IN THE WOODS. If it is found necessary to allow logs and bolts to remain in the woods, they should be so separated that the ends are left several inches apart. If the sawed ends remain in contact, fungi are liable to develop between them. Some have recommended that logs that are to remain in the woods during the summer be painted on the exposed ends with creosote (Von Schrenk, 42). It has been con- sidered advantageous by some (Von Schrenk, 42; see also Hartig, 15) to remove the bark from logs that must of necessity be left in the woods for an extended period. Advocates of such treatment state: that the peeled surfaces soon become air-dried and consequently provide insufficient moisture for the germination of any fungous spores that may fall thereon. In order to keep such logs off the damp ground and thus assist in the air-drying process measures must be taken to provide some sort of temporary foundation free from stain, mold, or rot. When it becomes necessary to store split billets in the woods, they should be piled with only two billets in a course and should rest upon SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. 23 a foundation located on dry ground and consisting, where possible, of billets of split heartwood free from rot. HANDLING RAW STOCK IN TRANSIT. TYPES OF CARS. In shipping green stock to be used in the manufacture of vehicles, etc., the following types of cars have been preferred: TIGA 5(CEN SHEE pee a Re Mees oe SEY ee eB jogs (fig. 4). Gondolas or stock cars___-__--__- bolts (fig. 5). Stoek or vegetable cars____-______. split billets or dimension stock. Ventilated box cars______________. lumber or dimension stock. Fic. 4.—Unloading logs from a flat car. This is the type of car usually used for the shipment of logs. PROVISIONS FOR THE PROPER VENTILATION OF STOCK IN TRANSIT. Well-ventilated types of cars should be selected where possible, if staining and molding are to be prevented (figs. 4 to 10). Prepara- tory to use, these cars should be thoroughly swept free from rubbish, damp sawdust, lime, or manure. In the case of box cars, it is important that the roofs be carefully inspected to make sure that they are water-tight. If it becomes necessary to use box cars for the transportation of split billets during the late spring and summer months, it is suggested that the billets be ricked and that strips or occasional crossers of the same stock at intervals of 12 to 16 inches be used to assist in the ventilation of the pile. Side doors should be open and both doorways boarded up, leaving at least 14- inch spaces between the boards. If box cars are equipped with small 24 BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. end doors of the ventilating type, these doors should be left open and the doorways cleated to prevent the stock from working out during transit. Lumber shipped in box cars must be stripped. HANDLING RAW STOCK IN THE YARDS. STORAGE OF LOGS AND BOLTS. When piling or cording logs and bolts in the yard for storage, it is important that they be kept off the ground by the use of clean skids or permanent foundations of seasoned fungus-free planks, stone, or cement. Such foundations should be placed on well-drained soil free from underbrush or weeds that might interfere with proper ven- tilation from beneath. Fic. 5.—Bolts loaded in a gondola car. Gondolas, stock, or vegetable cars are best adapted to the transportation of this type of raw stock. STORAGE OF BILLETS. Billets that are not turned at once should be stored upon dry foundations and in properly ventilated sheds (fig. 11). When suf- ficient storage space is available, the method of piling used by one of the large wheel manufacturers in the North, shown in figure 12, is recommended. STORAGE OF GREEN LUMBER. The methods of piling lumber are pretty well understood and need little explanation here (7).1° In general, it is well to select a location 18 For information concerning this point, the reader is referred to Bulletin No. 552, United States Department of Agriculture (7), copies of which may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents per copy. SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. 25 on well-drained soil free from weeds and one which will allow the prevailing winds to blow through the sides rather than upon the ends of the stacks. Care should be taken to provide suitable foundations consisting of metal or well-seasoned heart stock, preferably creosoted and resting upon piers of creosoted wood or, better, of stone, brick, concrete, or metal. All foundations should be sufficiently high to allow for ventilation vertically through the stacks. Moreover, there should be ample space between the stacks to permit a free circulation of the air around them. Finally, it is impor- tant that narrow strips, perhaps 1 inch wide and at least 1 inch thick, of well- seasoned, kiln-dried, or chemically treated wood be used between all courses and that they be carefully placed in vertical alignment to prevent warping of the stock.16 HANDLING AT THE MILL. EARLY MANUFACTURE. Logs, bolts, and split billets should be Fic. 6—Bolts piled in a box car. Note the débris on the $ g : floor of the car. Bolts are likely to suffer from fungous Saw q ed nto dimension attacks when shipped in box cars with the doors closed. stock or planks and manufactured as soon as possible. This will do much toward safe- guarding the material by reducing the time in storage. AIR SEASONING. Provided kilns are not available, the dimension stock should be seasoned from six months to a year or more, depending upon the 16The general sanitation of lumber yards and the proper methods to be observed in the piling of timber to prevent or reduce losses in storage due to fungi, together with a consideration of the more common rot-producing organisms, are clearly described by Humphrey (22), in Bulletin No. 510, United States Department of Agriculture. Copies may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 20 cents per copy. 75579°—_22 4 26 BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. size and kind of material.17 When sufficiently dry, shipments in closed box cars will suffer little or no loss from sap-stain or mold. In all cases where air seasoning is resorted to, unless great care is exercised in providing for ample circulation of air through the stock by such means as open piling, fungous and insect troubles are likely to develop. It is absolutely necessary to strip or cross pile the stock upon dry foundations. For purposes of stripping, kiln-dried or chemically treated strips 1 inch wide and at least 1 inch thick should be used between courses. All sheds for the storage of this material should be dry and well ven- tilated. KILN DRYING. By far the most effective and quickest method of treating green stock, as a pro- phylactic measure, to destroy fungi or in- sects and to reduce shipping weight, is to subject the ma- terial to proper kiln drying. When pro- ducers are equipped Fic. 7.—Split billets piled in a box car. When occasional billets are used as crossers and the doors of the car are : cleated open this type of spoke stock suffers but little with, or have aecess while in transit. to modern - S op- ) kiln erated on a scientific basis and are so situated that stock can be moved rapidly, less concern need be given to fungous troubles. Kiln- dried spokes can be bundled or close piled in dry warehouses or in ordinary box cars and shipped without loss. Material kiln dried directly from the saw has been shown to be just as good as air-seasoned stock (Tiemann, 5/, p. 300) and in many cases much better as far as strength, toughness, and freedom from defects are concerned. Moreover, the time necessary for seasoning can often be reduced from one year to three weeks or from three to five years to as many months. 17 The reader is again referred to Department Bulletin No. 552 (7) for information con- cerning the seasoning of wood. SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. 27 Kiln drying reduces shipping weight; makes the lumber fit for almost immediate use; eliminates or reduces losses due to insects,* or to checking, rotting, staining, or molding; improves the quality of the lumber; reduces the amount of yard space; and saves the tying up of capital and carrying costs (Tiemann, 4/, p. 4, 5). It is possible that where several producers are located within a few miles of one another, a battery of modern dry kilns, operated according to the most approved methods (possibly on the community plan) might solve the problem of cost of installation and operation. In dry kilns, stripping or cross piling the stock and providing means to prevent stagnation of the confined air are absolutely neces- sary if the develop- ment of mold is to be avoided. The water spray kiln devised at the Forests Products Laboratory represents one of the latest de- velopments in the tem- perature and humidity- controlled type of kiln.® During the first few weeks of kiln drying, when the humidity is Fig. 8.—Split billets loosely piled in the areaway between i the doors of a box car. The doorways are loosely high and the tempera- boarded up to allow for ventilation of the car and at the same time prevent the stock from working out ; fo) ture ranges from 80 while in transit. to 105° F., an abundant growth of white mycelium occasionally forms between the courses and interferes more or less with the circulation of the air in the kiln. This is due to the presence of mold fungi, and it usually indicates stagnation in the kiln (PI. I, fig. 4). Steaming for one hour at a temperature of 160° to 180° F. has been found effective in destroy- ing or at least checking the growth of this mold (Tiemann (5/), [Oo JUSTO) 18 Powder-post beetles, however, are said to cause considerable damage at times in Seasoned stock ; in fact, these beetles do not work in green stock. 72 A complete description of this kiln is given in Bulletin No. 509,.United States Denart- ment of Agriculture (52), a copy of which may be procured from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., for 5 cents. Further infor- mation concerning the design and installation of this kiln is given in Bulletin No. 894, United States Department of Agriculture (40), to be procured from the same source at 10 cents a copy. 28 BULLETIN 1037, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. STEAMING GREEN STOCK AS A CONTROL MEASURE. METHODS COMMERCIALLY EMPLOYED. Steaming certain kinds of stock (green gum lumber, birch hubs, spokes, and sawed felloes of red or white oak) is sometimes resorted to as a means of reducing shipping weight-by hastening drying or to even up the color and reveal defects in the wood. In the steaming of green gum lumber a large steel tank, or pre- parator, is employed. The lumber loaded upon trucks is run into this preparator and steamed for perhaps 15 to 30 minutes at pres- sures of 20 to 80 pounds (figs. 18 and 14). Provided this lumber is then carefully open piled, it remains clean. When close piled or when exposed to ad- verse weather condi- tions, however, it may mold almost as readily as untreated green lumber. Hubs, sawed felloes, and turned spokes green from the saw are sometimes steamed at atmospheric pressure. Fic. 9.—A box car loaded with split billets upon its At one plant visited arrival at the spoke mill. The method of loosely 3 a boarding the doorway, as shown in figure &, is prefer- S2reen birch hubs were able in that there is less danger of the stock working gtacked in large cement out while in transit. When, however, the masses of = billets are held in position by supports, or when ver- boxes and subjected to tical boards are nailed a few inches back of the cleats, exhaust steam for DA this method may be used. Both provide for the venti- e lation of the stock. to 36 hours, depending upon the size of the hub. At the end of that time the steam was shut off and the hubs were allowed to cool for perhaps 10 hours. The hubs were then carried to a ventilated warehouse and stacked, zigzag fashion, to provide for ample circulation of the air through the inside as well as around them. In this manner an even drying was secured. Two to three weeks was considered a sufficient length of time for the necessary air drying previous to shipping. During the warmer months, stock cars were used as means of transportation. The steaming of gum and birch is a comparatively simple process. But in the case of woods that check readily, such as oak, this treat- ment requires considerable care. SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND DECAY IN GREEN WOOD. 29 THD EXPERIMENTAL STEAMING OF RED-OAK AND WHITE-OAK BLOCKS AT THE LABORATORY OF FOREST PATHOLOGY, MADISON, WIS. During the spring of 1919 the writer performed several series of experiments at the Madison laboratory to determine the efficiency of steam at atmospheric pressure in destroying mold and sap-stain fungi in artificially infected red or white oak blocks 24 by 24 by 10 inches, Incidentally the rate of drying and the amount of checking were noted in connection with the steaming. The blocks were sawed from the sap- wood of summer-cut logs, weighed, and then sprayed with a water suspension of spores taken from cultures of mold fungi originally de- rived from infected material sent in by the writer. 540. B.—Vertical section of a pecan leaflet, show- ing a calcium oxalate crystal aggregate. 420. C.—Vertical section of a young pecan leaflet collected just after emergence from the bud, showing the differentiation of the palisade tissue at this early stage of development. Killed in Carnoy’s fluid; Fleming’s triple stain used. 540. D.—Horizontal section of spongy parenchyma at the margin of a yellow spot, secondary stage, stained with iodin to show the presence of starch in the green periphery but a smaller quantity OF total absence of starch toward the center of the yellow area. xX 540. Photomicrographs by e writer. Bul. 1038, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. VERTICAL SECTIONS OF NORMAL AND MOTTLED PECAN LEAFLETS, FROTSCHER VARIETY. Collected in August, 1919, at Thomasville, Ga. Killed with Carnoy’s fluid; Fleming’s triple stain used. X 540. A.—Section of normal leaflet. B.—Green portion of mottled leaflet, showing the enlargement of the cells, the reduction in size of the intercellular spaces in the spongy parenchyma, and the unevenness in the arrangement of the pa‘isade cells. Photomicrographs by the writer. Bul. 1038, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |X. HORIZONTAL SECTIONS OF NORMAL AND MOTTLED PECAN LEAFLETS. A and B.—Horizontal sections through the palisade tissue illustrated in figures A and B of Plate VIII, showing the enlargement of the short diameter of the palisade cells in the mottled leaflet (B). C and D.—Horizontal sections through the spongy parenchyma illustrated in figures A and B of Plate VIII, showing the enlargement of the cells and the reduction in size of intercellular spaces in the green area surrounding a yellow spot in the mottled leaflet (D). All figures X 540. Photo- micrographs by the writer. PECAN ROSETTE. | 21 cells than rounded leaves of the same plant, but the narrower form of such leaves is due to a larger number of cell divisions with spin- dles parallel to the long axis. In pecan rosette the general shape of the leaf seems to follow this rule, depending upon the orientation of the cell divisions rather than upon differences in the size or the shape of the cells. That is, the linear shape is not due to the development of cells elongated parallel to the midrib, but to a difference in the number of cell divisions in the two axes; nor are reduction in both length and breadth of leaf caused by a decrease in the size of the cells, but rather to a decrease _ in the number of cell divisions in both axes. On the other hand, there is often a large and localized change in both the size and the shape of the diseased cells, but not as related to leaf shape nor neces- sarily to leaf diameter. In the linear type of leaf the cells are as . likely to be enlarged parallel to the short as to the long axis of the blade, and in portions of leaves profoundly reduced in both length and breadth the palisade and the spongy cells are at the same time often considerably enlarged in all three dimensions. As a result of a considerable number of measurements of the thickness of leaves from healthy and rosetted trees of like age and variety, striking differences were found associated with the disease. (Table II.) Comparisons were made between leaves collected from the north and from the south sides of trees, but no constant differ- ences were found which could be referred to situation, since all leaves were taken from the lower, outstanding branches, and under these conditions those on the north received nearly or quite as much light as those on the south periphery. In each case the figures are based on 10 to 15 measurements of the thickness of each of several sections from comparable parts of each of 10 or more leaves. From such mesurements it was found that the average variation from the greatest thickness in normal, individual leaves was 18 per cent, with extremes varying between 10 and 22 per cent. In the various types of rosetted leaves the ex- treme differences in thickness varied between 11 and 62 per cent of the greatest thickness. The least variation was found in the nonmottled linear or aborted leaves, while the greatest differences occurred in mottled leaves. Extreme variations in thickness of normal leaves of the Frotscher variety were 131 to 187 microns, while in diseased leaves of the same variety the range was from 70 to 234 microns. The smallest measurements were taken at the thin places in the leaves where tissue differentiation was lacking. The Van Deman specimens examined had slightly thicker leaves, but the same relations in thickness were found to hold between the healthy and the rosetted leaves of this and several other varieties. 76289°—22——4 oe BULLETIN 1038, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tas_e I1.—Variation in the thickness of normal and rosetted pecan leaves, using the thickest part of each leaf as the standard of comparison. Measurements of thickness. Description of material. | ut ‘ Variation Average.| Extremes. average. NORMAL LEAVES. Frotscher variety, Thomasville, Ga.: Microns. Microns. | Per cent. INOREH SIM SIOREREO Nase SEN ser es ede ern rare Dea aN OL Eas 162 131-187 18 South side ottree. 2. ees Ph eee POT Te ES ler 147 122-173 18 Var Demanuvariety, Cairo Graver ws == va, 40aa eee aie tata aeiis mite ened 168 154-187 18 ROSETTED LEAVES. Frotscher variety, Thomasville, Ga.: Mottled leaves, about half size— North side 158 108-206 38 South side 167 80-210 37 Much-aborted leaves, south side— ANKe) ah ea Yoy rr (eve Us Re deer De ye Nala aed ale A eR 152 70-215 26 CG ered CEG NS eae Ee a acai er 158 72-229 42 Linear leaves, south side— aN (CG al oa oY Fh X= Sean eg ae aCe eR 118 103-141 26 - WMOttledigeweii ssc he Baa ete ale thy Oe es Or toe ape ae eae 113 70-173 50 Mottled leaves, about half size, northeast side.......-...-..-..---- 139 75-234 55 Variety not stated, Cairo, Ga.: Mottled, red-brown stage, about halfsize----........-.-.-.-.----- 151 94-187 50 Van Deman variety: Mottled aboutitwllisize saa een. eee ie eS ee ee eee 198 140-281 45 Mottled inearae sss aces) Bale seals aii Sis ee BN See esa ee 140 78-195 47 The average thickness of linear leaves was always less than that of healthy or of ether types of rosetted leaves. That this difference is not normally related to leaf size was shown by measurements comparing the thickness of the large juvenile leaves of normal young seedlings with that of the first type leaves above and that of large tip leaflets with small basal leaflets on single juvenile leaves. (Table TIt.) In the case of large juvenile leaves as compared with type leaves above there was a 67 per cent variation in the area of the lamine:, but only a 7 per cent variation in thickness. In the vascular portion of the large side veins, however, a 72 per cent variation in the area of the cross section was correlated with this increase in leaf size. (Table IV.) Leaf thickness and vein diameter as related to size in normal young pecan seedlings. TasLe II. Leaf variation (per Thickness (microns). cent) Description of material. Leaf | Leafex-| Large | Thick- ions average. | tremes. | Veins. ness. ; i argeyjuvenileleaves= -- 2s. ececnie= sec siriein sieiel-ene 103 | 94 to 117 515 \ First typeleaves above. ...........s2--s2seseceeeeee- 96 | 89 to 103 388 @ 67 Large juvenile tip leaflets.........---..-------------- 112 | 98 to 126 538 \ 10 94 Smalljuvenile basalleaflets on same leaves--..-..--- 101 | 98 to 112 243 a EEE En Tena PECAN ROSETTE. De In the large and small leaflets of single leaves a 94 per cent varia- tion in leaf area gave only 10 per cent variation in leaf thickness; but here again there was a 92 per cent variation in the area of the eross section of the vascular tissue, corresponding to the 94 per cent increase in the area of the leaf blade. (Table TV.) It will be readily seen that the differences in leaf thickness are at the lower range of variation found in normal] leaves. In these juvenile leaves the varia- tion in area of the total cross section of veins was high, but not quite as great as the difference in leaf area; the area of the vascular part, however, increased in direct proportion with the size of the leaf, as would be necessary to carry an adequate supply of water and nutrients to and from the larger leaf blade. In these leaves very little variation was to be found in the vertical diameter of either palisade or spongy tissue. TABLE IV.—Tissue measurements as related to size in normal young pecan seedlings. Thickness of | Diameter of rene lures Variationin | Area of tissue. large side veins.| “ Mathews, O. R. Water penetration in the gumbo soils of the Belle Fourche Reclama- tion Project. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 447, 12 p., 4 fig. 1916. 6 Adapted from U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 297, p. 3. 1915. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 5 difficulty of eradicating it in cultivated fields. This plant commonly is called gumbo weed in this locality because it is found usually on the ~ more impervious soils of the Pierre clay type. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. PRECIPITATION. The precipitation at Newell is very similar to that of most of the northern: and western portion of the Great Plains, and especially western North Dakota and South Dakota. Within the Black Hills region the climate is more mild and moist than on the Plains, and FRECIPITATION IN INCHES, oO ST 10 15 20 2S /308 Ti 3 AWWW 1909 pee PIKWN 19/0 ee AY 191 / —-—Wiii IW 2 EI CUEeECK SHB NW GG 19/14 a \ | 1 S eS ee AQ.CWW He” ee. CK 1H/17 ees ——NN ~~ 19/8 En es fie aes a SSS 1919 (77 WK WERICE Ge WW GK ~~ Fig. 2—Diagram showing the annual and seasonal precipitation at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm for the 12-year period from 1908 to 1919, inclusive. The solid portion of each bar shows the seasonal precipitation, while the total length of the bar shows the annual precipitation. the average annual precipitation ranges from 18 to 22 inches. The Black Hills modify the climate of the immediately surrounding country to a great extent, mainly by increasing the precipitation. This effect extends several miles beyond the outlying foothills. The Belle Fourche Experiment Farm is situated about 25 miles from the foothills and, so far as known, is not influenced to any extent by proximity to the Black Hills. The total annual precipitation at Newell varied from 6.64 inches in- 1911 to 21.02 inches in 1915. The average annual precipitation during the 12 years from 1908 to 1919, inclusive, was 14.31 inches. This is believed to be about the normal for the region around Newell. An average of 8.57 inches, or nearly 60 per cent of the total, occurred during the five months from March to July, inclusive. This is ap- 6 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. proximately the growing period for the cereals on dry land at Newell. The seasonal precipitation was a prominent factor affecting the yields of grain. The monthly, seasonal, and annual precipitation recorded in inches at the Belle Fourche Farm from 1908 to 1919, inclusive, is shown in Table I. The seasonal and annual precipitation is also shown graphically in figure 2. TasiEe I1.—Jlonthly, seasonal, and annual precipitation at the Belle Fourche Haperiment Farm, 1908 to 1919, inclusive, [Depth of precipitation in inches. T=trace.] | | | | | | | | Year. | Jan. Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. |June.| July. | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.}| Dec. | July, |Total. } 65 3.95 | 1.47 | 1.26.) 0.62 | 0.52 j@2.10 |a0.20 |a0.91 | 9.49 | 14. 23 L909 Feri eas a,17 | a 23 | a.19 84 | 3.87 | 5.59 | 2.45 | 55 | 1.07] .76 73 |-1.28 | 12.94 | 17.73 O10 Sea = are | .73) .70| .93| 1.57 | 1.26 | 1.51 | 1.42.) 1.03 |. 2.92) .27 11 10 | 6.69 | 12.55 HOUT Sse sete |} museLey's|Meeei0 1 01109 17| .45| .50 80 | 1. 86 92] .39 98 30} 2.01 | 6.64 AQT 2M see e }.24] .10] .71 | 2.32 | 2:26 | .29 | 3.20 | 2.80) 3.49} .51 04 13} 8.78 | 16.09 1G eee Ae wD tale 29) 6-99) 25 | 1.98 | 3.10 35. | .26] 2.38 | 1.86} .10 45 | 6.67 | 12.58 LOU eiseasees T | 1.00] .29] 1.09 | 2.22 | 2.09 | 1.34 | 1.12 35 | 1.77 0 43} 7.03 | 11.70 LUG Sete hse 92} 1.01 | .16 | 2.58 | 2.32 | 4.74 | 5.74 44 | 1.26 | 1.25 43 | .17 | 15.54 | 21.02 LOLG Se Sees sae 36 23 | .98| 64) 3.17 | 2.19 | 2.01 | 2.02 20} -.99 33} .28] 8,99 | 13.40 ON ems emeese 92 TAN 20 | 25bLs Bel SOF 80 | 1.67 35 | .46 T} .92] 8.26} 13.32 LOLS eee Sees 199 64 | .81 | 2.40} 1.60 | 1.17 | 3.41 | 2.99 | 3.08] .22] .15] .85] 9.39] 18.31 NO19S eee 04 57) .87} 2.14] 1.14] .35 | 2.59 | 1.02 | 1.20 | 2.49] 1.22) .62}) 7.09 | 14. 25. Average....| .44] .48| .66 | 1.47 | 2.33 | 2.00 | 2.11 | 1.37] 1.48] 1.09] .386]) .54] 8.57 | 14.31 | | } @ From records of the United States Weather Bureau at Vale and Orman, S. Dak. RELATION OF PRECIPITATION TO YIELDS OF GRAIN. The limiting factor in crop production at Newell usually has been the moisture supply. Winter grains have been subject to cold in- jury, so that the yields may depend on several factors. The yields of spring grains, however, are closely associated with the amount and distribution of the rainfall. The precipitation during the grow- ing period is the most important. The amounts and distribution of this seasonal precipitation have largely determined the yields of spring grain on the dry land at Newell. In some seasons, as that of 1912, the rains came too late to benefit the early varieties of grain. In 1910, 1917, and 1919 the lack of moisture during the heading and ripening period caused low yields. A rain of less than 0.3 inch during the growing season, unless followed or preceded by other rains within 24 hours is of almost no value to grain crops in this section. The moisture from light rains does not penetrate far into the soil and is soon evaporated. In 1911 there was a total precipitation of 2.01 inches during the growing season, March to July, inclusive, but this came in such small and scattered showers that it was useless for crop production. Conse- quently all grains were a failure that year. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 7 In figure 3 are shown graphically the “ useful ” seasonal precipita- tion and the yields of Kubanka durum spring wheat (C. I. No. 1516) during the 12 years from 1908 to 1919, inclusive. The “ useful ” precipitation shown is the total precipitation in rains of 0.3 inch or more during the period between the emergence and ripening of the Kubanka wheat each year. When the rains occurred during a period of two, three, or four consecutive days the total amounts for the pecgaes 101) 12 181? IS516 17 1B 19 ya aeewee USEFUL SEASONAL PRECIPITATION WELD PER ACRE Clee UAT S ON, INCHES SPALL LL LAL PA AL EAAAT Es CLAUENE EN TY UNL Fig. 3.—Diagram showing the relation between the annual useful seasonal precipitation and the yields per acre of Kubanka durum spring wheat on dry land at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm for the 12-year period from 1908 to 1919, inclusive. The broken line shows the useful precipitation and the solid line the yields of Kubanka wheat. period were included even though less than 0.3 inch fell on some of these days. The Kubanka variety of wheat was selected be- cause it was the leading variety, was grown each year, and was not seriously affected by rust. In figure 3 it will be seen that the yields of Kubanka wheat are closely associated with the useful seasonal precipitation during most of the years. In 1909 and 1914 the wheat was on poorer soil than usual. In 1912 most of the rains came just before the wheat was ripe and too late to be of benefit. The crop was a complete failure in 8 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. both 1911 and 1912. The 1913 crop was probably benefited by the abundant late rains in 1912. EVAPORATION. The seasonal evaporation probably ranks next in importance to seasonal precipitation among the factors which influence the growth of crops at Newell. The daily evaporation has been recorded at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, and the total depth in inches by months from April to September is shown in Table II. The record of evaporation was not kept for the month of March, but at Newell crops ordinarily make little growth during that month and hence this omission is not of importance. The evaporation is determined from a free water surface, the method being that employed at all of the stations where the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry has been cooperating.’ TABLE IIl.—Monthly evaporation from a free water surface at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm from April to September of each year, 1908 to 1919, in- clusive. [Evaporation and precipitation data in inches, ] | Precipitation. Year. Apr. | May. | June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Total. tones Ratio [sae to ‘tember | incln--| CVaPO- ration. | sive. 5.917 | 6.821] 8,081 745 | 40.965 | 8.98 | 7.866 | 6.7 1:4.6 6.413 | 5.859 | 7.698 | 8.243] 5.001 | 36.871 | 14.37 1:2.6 5.306 | 8.975 | 10.429 | 7.295 | 4.302 | 41.715 Oeil 1:4.3 8.302 | 10.241 | 10.714 | 6.682] 6.113 | 46. 701 4,70 Sy) 6.423 | 8.175 | 7.980 | 6.604 | 3.713 | 37.744] 14.36 1:2.6 4.302 | 7.046 | 8.2385 | 8.144] 4.707 | 37.139 8. 32 1:4.5 5.133 | 6.712 | 8.737 | 6.966 | 4.194 | 35.111 8, 21 1:4.3 3.970 | 4.612] 5.352 | 5.113] 3.956 | 27.457 | 17.08 1:1.6 5.269 | 5.188 | 7.519] 5.488] 5.429 | 32.482] 10.28 1:3. 2 4.704] 6.271 | 9.536 | 6.983] 5.307 | 34.819 | 10.01 1:3.5 5.171 | 6.555 | 6.482} 7.129 | 3.951 | 32.566 | 14.65 1:2. 2 6.769 | 8.904] 9.564] 8.224] 5.122 | 42.102 8. 44 1:5.0 = & oO 5. 640 | 7.109 | 8.361 | 7.057 | 4.878 | 37.139 | 10.76 | The average evaporation for the six months from April to Sep- tember, inclusive, for the 12 years from 1908 to 1919 was 37.1389 inches. The lowest total evaporation, 27.457 inches, was recorded in 1915, the year of the greatest rainfall during the same months. The highest total evaporation, 46.701: inches, was recorded in 1911, the year of the lowest seasonal rainfall. Thus the evaporation usually varies inversely with the precipitation, though this is not always the case, 7 Briggs, L. J., and Belz, J. O. Dry farming in relation to rainfall and evaporation. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 188, p. 16-20. 1911. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 9 The ratio of precipitation to evaporation, also given in Table II, shows the evaporation for the 12 years to be 3.5 times the precipi- tation. In 1915 the ratio was the narrowest, the evaporation for that year being only 1.6 times the precipitation. In 1911 the ratio was the widest, the evaporation being 9.9 times the precipitation. The ratio of precipitation to evaporation is a fair indication of the seasonal moisture conditions as related to crop yields. WIND. The record of wind measurement has been taken at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm during the growing season since May, 1909. The anemometer stands near the evaporation tank at a height of about 2 feet from the surface of the ground. The average wind velocities in miles per hour during the six months from April to Sep- tember for the years 1908 to 1919, inclusive, are presented in Table III. TABLE III.—Average wind velocity at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm for the six months from April to September, during the 12-year period from 1908 to 1919, inclusive. [Data in miles per hour. ] | Nl | Month. 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 ae AGS A AUR BER sag ee QUAN ODP 022510. | Gs ine BL Qnlh GuBAlin TeSi ls 776 Sal Or Qua A 7e ulm Se2 yee aS CS, Bsus tal 82 lee GT h SeOMN a TaTAlie 7e4y |) USeT ll Seva Gaon a3) | eee Save Wee eS TAD N52 | OSs) B76 V6. 8aneGura| 62 |e 73: |e Geo) | 485" | are Zale endew Jol gaeciaeare eee ON OO CA EOI CAO MRSS SON ESO Goibles bee LONE GL) AG INTRA Bis sae eee none GSN) GAGS GME VER GRO obs iI | Mie || ZUR ey OL obs By Gt September........... al Gasp Gers OP eo, 2S | CO ROW GOS) Oo Be BS AVerage. -.-c-28. << GSE TES OO CS Chee | OS EO POG Be | oO | GW |) GS The average wind velocity during this period was 6.8 miles per hour. The highest average wind velocity, 8.8 miles per hour, was recorded in 1911, while the lowest, 4.9 miles per hour, was observed. in 1918. The velocity during April, May, and June was consider- ably higher than in July, August, and September. The velocity of the wind has a decided influence upon the crops. The evaporation from the surface of the soil or plant is greatly increased by wind. Hot winds, such as occurred in 1914 and 1917, caused the cereal plants to be prematurely ripened or deadened before the grain was fully developed. Winter wheat was injured somewhat nearly every spring by the blowing of the soil before the spring rains had mois- tened it. In 1916 some of the spring grains had to be resown be- cause of being blown out after emergence. Owing to the high wind velocity in the early spring, together with the tendency of the soil to blow at that time, it was necessary practically to discontinue sum- mer fallowing as a preparation for grain crops. T7754°—22 2 10 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TEMPERATURE. The temperatures at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm are re- corded daily throughout the year by means of maximum and mini- mum thermometers. During the growing season a thermograph was also used. The mean monthly temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit from 1908 to 1919, inclusive, are shown in Table IV. TABLE IV.—Jlean monthly temperatures (in degrees F.) at the Belle Fourche Earperiment Farm during the 12-year period from 1908 to 1919, inclusive. Month. | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 ie | January nse esessee |e TAI seri eer 208 |e Ae lent Nee Bull 13 9} 29 16 Re DEUaTy eee tee ees |e maue 23 Se 22 in O47) Sta 19) 2094 ert aOR emis 18 MATCH te: Be eee one eee B27 Pee G4lieS0i) es19)| Ost aes Sal me Ta sd 51 ~40|- 31 31 EAoriletee Salona ken 48| 381) 51.) 43:1) -47 |-)-48. 1 - 43'|, °5a1 © 497|> = 40 ees ears 45, iNT ch yer crcean umn are a 52) 52). 52| 58 | —55.|; 58) °.55. 51 |. 52)|>- 50s baleene 53 taTiOs cen ae pta eee eS ee 68:|\* 66-1. <68'|- = 73:1. 466.| - -66| ~65.| 58 |=~ 60") 962)|n=r608|een70 66 ky eee 73|. 7051 76.) 7-| 70 70: 76) 64.) — 74 e297) |MetoOn eames 72 INTIBUStLeme seca eee 68} 751 681 -65/+ 68|-74| 69| 66| 67|-.-67) 70)|> 71 69 September.........-. 64] 61] 59} 59/ 52] 59] 62] 56] 58| 60| 56] 61 59 October= s-sealee 45) 46) 51 | 43) < 45-)- 42 | 49. | 50°|-2 43 |) 49) sOl eee 45. November........... 37. |= 31). 3h |. 25+). 381437 le 139 84) 23071h medrese eos 33 December.........-. 99) 10°) 625) 20-1282 23) a54) 125) |) “133s edo alpestonn| emeslat 19 Averacowetem: einen |aeasee 43) 46) 45) 44) 44) 46) 43 | 42 | 42| 45 | 44 44 The average annual mean temperature was 44°. The absolute mini- mum during this period was —37° F. in January, 1916, and the abso- lute maximum was 109° F. in July, 1910. The temperature has not been a limiting factor in the yields of most of the spring grains. The grain sorghums and late varieties of proso, however, usually were frosted before fully mature. Winter wheat suffered some injury from low temperatures nearly every year and during the winter of 1917-18 was almost completely destroyed. TABLE V.—Dates of killing frosts, the last in spring dnd the first in autumn, at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, for each year from 1908 to 1919, inclusive. Last frost in First frost in | || Last frost in First frost in spring. fall. || spring. fall. | Frost- || | Frost- Year. free || Year. free Tem- Tem-| period. |) Tem- Tem-|period. Date. |pera-| Date. | pera- | | Date. |pera-| Date. | pera- ture. tute. \| ture. ture. | | | y | SoBe °F. | Days. || Sets °F. | Days. LS08eaeere | May 20 29 | Sept. 26 22 | 129 ELOTOS ee May 21 32 | Sept. 14 31 115 1909. .._.- May 17 26 | Sept. 23 31 | 1287] | MLOIG Re aes May 16 31 | Sept. 14 28 121 1910 eee May 23 31 | Aug. 25 32 | O35 PLONE May 31 30)|ROCthoat 20 145 Ils ed. ae May 11 30 | Aug. 27 32 107 | LOS May 21 31 | Sept. 18 28 120 NOL2 Tees May 4 32 | Sept. 23 32 141 || 1919...... June 1 32 | Oct. 9 12 130 1913 Ea ess | May 6 32 | Sept. 24 29 140 | LO TAS eer May 13 30 | Oct. 5 28 | 144 || Average.| May 18 | 30.5 | Sept. 21 28 126 | The dates and minimum temperature of the last spring and first autumn frosts each year are shown in Table V. The latest spring CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 11 frost was recorded in 1919 on June 1, while the earliest autumn frost was observed in 1910 on August 25. The average frost-free period was 126 days, but this has varied from 93 days in 1910 to 145 days in 1917. The frost-free period is long enough to permit full maturity of all adapted varieties of small grains at Newell. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. PREPARATION OF THE LAND. Most of the cereals on dry land were sown on either summer fallow or corn ground. Stubble land was usually plowed 6 to 8 inches deep with a disk plow in the fall and left rough over winter. Corn ground was not disturbed until spring, when it usually was double disked and harrowed before seeding. The fall-plowed fallow was not cultivated in the spring until weeds and volunteer grains began to grow, but after this time was kept bare throughout the season by the use of the disk or spring-tooth harrow. Owing to the tend- ency toward soil blowing early in the spring, which seemed to in- crease each year after the virgin sod had decayed, it became neces- sary to conduct most of the experiments on cornland. Yields of grain on summer-fallowed land were more certain and somewhat higher than with other methods of preparation, but were less profit- able than on corn ground because of the larger expense for tillage. All of the experiments with winter wheat on the dry land were con- ducted on fallow. PLAT EXPERIMENTS. Nearly all experiments except those in the breeding nurseries and the preliminary varietal experiments were conducted in field plats. These plats in 1908, 1909, and most of them in 1910 were 2 by 8 rods in size, containing one-tenth of an acre. The plats were separated by 5-foot alleys, and the road between each series of plats and the next was either 16.5 or 20 feet wide. _ Most of the experiments in 1911 and all of those in 1912 and there- after were in plats made by sowing a single drill width across an 8-rod series. As the drill was 6 feet wide, this gave a plat of one fifty-fifth of an acre in area. The alleys between these plats have been 19.2 inches in width. By the use of plats and alleys of these dimensions it was possible to sow five plats within the area formerly occupied by a tenth-acre plat. As the plants draw considerable mois- ture and plant food from the alleys, it has been thought fair to con- sider these =,-acre plats as fiftieth-acre plats in computing acre yields. REPLICATION OF PLATS. In 1908, 1909, and 1910, when the experiments were conducted on tenth-acre plats, there was only a single plat of each variety. Checlx aL) BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plats of standard varieties of each cereal were sown at regular inter- vals in 1909 and 1910, and in most of the experiments in 1908. As this method did not appear to be entirely satisfactory, a change was made in 1911 in some of the experiments and in all those conducted from 1912 to 1919. The size of the plats was reduced, as stated in the preceding paragraph, and the experiments were replicated. In the varietal experiments, three to five plats of each variety were grown. In rate-of-seeding and date-of-seeding experiments it has been considered sufficient to grow three plats of each rate or date, as there is a correlation between the different parts of the experiment which is not found in the varietal experiments. Some of the date- of-seeding experiments were sown only in duplicate. RATES AND DATES OF SEEDING. The usual rates of seeding of the grains in the varietal and date-of- seeding experiments on both dry and irrigated land are shown in Table VI. Taste VI.—Rates of seeding of the grains in varictal and date-of-seeding experiments on dry and on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, Rate of seeding per Rate of seeding per acre. acre. Crop. aa SS Crop. | Dry | Irrigated Dry | Irrigated land. land. | land. | land. Winter wheat. .......- pecks. . 3 | AWN 3 or] eye tigs Sier Oc ee pecks. .| 5 | 6 Spring wheat-.........- dos: 4 Dik] | Lt eas eee ene ee Te nee pounds. _ | 22.5 | 30 IWATITCREYCS, cence ay do-_.: 4 Ope TOSO neces see mes eee doves 22.5 30 Obtstseeeck orereaeret dois 6 10 || é | Spring grains have been sown as early as seemed practicable. During wet spring weather the seeding has sometimes been con- siderably delayed. In a few seasons some of the grains have been sown in March, but usually the spring grains were sown between April 1 and May 10. Winter grains were usually sown between September 15 and October 1, which appeared to be the most favor- able time for fall sowing. NURSERY EXPERIMENTS. NATURE OF THE WORK. The nursery experiments at Newell have included varieties newly introduced, those of which there was not sufficient seed for sowing in the field plats, and also pure-line selections from the better commercial CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 13 varieties. The last has been the most important feature of the nursery work. The chief objects sought in the pure-line selections were: (1) To obtain high-yielding and drought-resistant strains of wheat, oats, and barley; (2) to obtain a more winter-hardy and high-yielding winter wheat; and (3) to obtain a high-yielding awnless variety of hard red winter wheat. NURSERY METHODS. Single heads were selected from the field plats, the aim being to obtain as many types as possible. Each head was described care- fully before it was thrashed. The seeds from each head were sown in a 5-foot row, 25 seeds usually being sown in each row. The dates of sowing, emergence, heading, and ripening were recorded, as were such other notes on. hardiness, yield, etc., as appeared desirable. Most of the selections were retained and sown in longer rows in the following years. From 1910 to 1915, inclusive, most of the nursery rows were 60 feet long. These rows were sown with the grain drill. Since 1915 most of the nursery experiments were conducted in 16-foot or 17-foot rows, although some of the best strains were tested in 60-foot rows, making possible a more rapid increase of seed. In most cases the nursery experiments were replicated from two to four or occasionally six times, depending on the supply of seed and the area of land available. Yields of grain and straw were recorded, and when the yield of grain was sufficient the weight per bushel also was determined. The better strains and varieties grown in the nursery were later sown in the field plats. A number of pure-line selections of wheat and oats made at Newell have been tested in field plats for two to seven years. EXPERIMENTS ON DRY LAND. EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEAT. The experiments with wheat at Newell on dry land have included plat and nursery experiments with both spring and winter varieties. These were chiefly varietal, rate-of-seeding, and date-of-seeding ex- periments, although considerable effort was devoted to the improve- ment of varieties by selection. Wheat is the most important small- grain crop in the northern Great Plains. Consequently, the experi- ments with wheat at Newell have been much more extensive than with any other grain. 14 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE VII.—Yields of the varieties of spring wheat grown on dry land on the Belle Fourche Haperiment Farm, 1908 to 1919, inclusive. Class, group, and variety. Yields per acre (bushels). COMMON. Fife: Marquis Ghirka Spring Glyndon Kitchener Power Ruby Rysting Bluestem: ETA OS.: Sones Soe eeeees Preston: Preston Ladoga: Chanegli Huron Ladoga (Spring Turkey). Laramie Miscellaneous: Preludeses skeen ee Regenerated Defiance... DURUM. Kubanka: EN CIMEI CR Soe eye k a aca IAC Tn Tayo i SEA AT A A Kkubanka Selection No. U2 eae Wes Se yy ye Kubanka Selection No. 715 Peliss: IRGLISS 2 kta Pk aE Red Durum: -5 CL | Average No.@ ee 1908 1909) 1910)1914)1912) 1913) 1914}1915)1916| 1917 |1918 1919 1908 1913 1917 | to | to | to | 1919 |1919|1919 | DPS G4IL oe rel =eretel| er arell sere 3. 8/16.8 8. 0/50. 9) 8.1) 8.3) 29.3) 6.7|...2- 18. 3/14. 8 1517/16. 2/11. 7/12. 9 0 1. 9/16. 3)... ./40. 2 B59] cl belli eee Palcoce|ssenlsane QSTBh i ceslerecloesefoe set Q! (156 816.:38/895 8) 4 al) FO: ds rose es eee | eee | ee A800 fees Secale salececliee al eco ase oce sito parse c30. 9} 8.5)... - ees yee d 3697/18. 5|17. 3/10. 6 0} O |16. 6) 5. 1/43. 4] 6. 5) 10. 2) 30.0) 6.3} 13. 7/16. 9115.5 GOAT sal ercicrcil see ee ieee] tiara eee eee 639] 2 ses | ees ae 3022/19. 3/15. 0/10. 3 0} 0 15. 0, 5.114056) 4.41) -8.8)eeacleece|eeeeeleeee Ser 2874|....)..--|..--|.---] 0 |14. 2] 4. 7/42. 0] 5.6) 8.0) 26.9) 5. 0)e12. 3/15. 2113. 3 3020/18. 3/13. 8} 9.0 C0) FC Ont a: Uta ee ereeleosbe eels pAGllesax SOQLIL Ti Ol Se |S icra] eee alt ek Sees ac SA vce eavsellle occ so eee rete Il ears | eee | ee eee 3081 -|.0 119.5) 7..2/46. 91 5. 8) 8.5) 22: 7] Sa8|2. 2 2 16. 6/12. 2 3087 30) LOO MGNGIA 72 se eee eee Bre eee EIS 4324 5 tee |ecen| ce |4004/06..21 (OED) 245 Ol 5:12 | sae | eet 12.8 2911 w--|----{11. 7/14. 6/12. 2/43. 8) 8.0) 14. 4)....- lasao|losoee aan 4935 dec | esa ae eealen aol ss bs al | GAGS 2elon Ol Rereer 14.8 4154 Sepa Ga ltetes9 | oar |e erale se el eee sed| eee ae 6255 les ay epee Selon] Meta lie socal vere ae lie eran ie ota | eee Ueleocoe Woe Saae f 2492/16. 2/16. 0/12. 8) O| 4. 5/17. 1) 7. 8)45. 6]12. 9} 12. 2) 24.2) 6.9) 14. 7/18. 1/14. 4 pe 7 ie sar eee bse Beast a ecole We | Tedllescos Be Aces 4323 Hee /B5V AN Be 1125162 ani ieseel | eee 14.5 3703}. : (Ci0) Hees eee iseeaeilsstos Bes sectors ae HOSA aul ee el ee al Meal ese on Papal sana OSC Stal Os 7 asccc .../18.6 OSU ees es eee |e Np Wee aaa oa 8 ae edo eee Be sees Sel es 1493]22. 3/22. 6) 8.3 0) O j17.1) 9. 5/54. 9/14. 8) 11.0) 34.9) 9.4) 17. 0/21. 5/18. 1 1530 R S| OM OW eeoe las ace cael oer |stats ee Denice aie ee 1547/21. 3/22. 0} 9.2) 0] 0 |.. A Sets Sate Seer sooee Gadleeeeals Bohl eaee AQ GA [tered | NSA IE bs aoe | al .|56. 2/10. 3) 138.1} 34.2) 9.9).....].... 19.1 EsY2A0 1 ae eres TTS emer (EL ess Me ecsesllocacs hellssose eye 1354/24. 8/19. 5) 4.0) 0} O |..-. Use| Biko Ee en ae Bs eis loons| |- 2u5 1440]24. 9/21. 4) 7.4 0} O 115.6)... .|54. 4/13. 8) 11.3] 34.5) 8. 7).....]. -2 118.2 1516]23. 8/22. 6) 5.3) 0] O 119.1) 9. 6)54. 5/19. 7; 11.8] 34.9) 8.9) 17. 5/22. 6/18. 5 PALS Wake allanosletoa asoullaasalassalle Bes RBA salisoos sealeocbeleeee ee PASSE AREY? ol gueallaooer| Goel bpcalbacells Ap See eoadal |snosolladosliocucc jocctfese- 4063]....)....]. BBBIE CO Bene bebalssos Spools hi GhGES Sse, sols os Semtleee : IRD) a Gadel bagel Sood basclbase ‘ fi c12. 5] 35. 8) 8. 6}... 3)... 19.0 1516]. AB al ebioel HEE eee ents letra Aan Rass Ps abesha) CSO osssiecos 18.3 PND Salada pecs baad masdlaaocl|s AAA toS ace banoallaooce tot) ero d IsSoolls = ShY0 Beag tena ooeelscositade ness oie al=eclelacas)|| die\G1233.6]/ 69 5rd) ee cers eer 18.3 1350)22. 5/23. 2) 5.2) O] O |16.7| 9. 8/58.2)13, 7/....-]....- Be eeeoo sccolsoos AUGS eeee el aidicia liste ois opisielemeee Saralonda Beta aco 3653](COnd|eemee | eeerleeere 1444/22. 7/20. 9} 5.0) TSG Roe ee SESE BaGcoloscce|aodiloosdlbcoclasos 1G}ch! Pal 7A aeleese eGodlooonlaaccllasaqlc Ba sees Heel soooal eco losce|aocs| cad BBY AP Se ollS Adal Bail escalldecsltconllnosn Sous Poe LUSSINS 249 N SiG | aes eee 17.8 TONGS eecleoaalBoee ppoclloooclooeele Gaallscodllbaes c10. 4) 35. 3) 8.6)....-]-..- 18.1 * Cereal Investigations number. > Marquis, C. I. No. 3276, grown 1912 to 1916, inclusive. ¢ One plat only. 4 Power, C. I. No. 3025, grown 1908 to 1916, inclusive. ¢ Average of Haynes, C. I. No. 3020, from 1908 to 1911, inclusive, from 1912 to 1919, inclusive. i ‘Manchuria Selection No, 2492-38, grown in 1918 and 1919. and C. I. No. 2874, CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. Ly SPRING WHEAT. VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS. The varieties of spring wheat grown in the plat experiments on dry land are mostly those included in two main classes, the durum wheats and the com- mon hard red spring wheats.® Other types of spring wheat were poorly adapted and were grown only in nurs- ery rows or in pre- liminary plat ex- periments. A. total of 44 varieties was grown in plats dur- ing the 12-year period. In some cases several lots of wheat under the same name but from different sources or different introduc- tions have been in- cluded, so that the actual number of distinct varieties is somewhat less than 44. The annual and average yields for all varieties and strains are shown in Table VII. As shown in Table VII, good yields of spring wheat were produced in 1908, Fic. 4.—Heads and glumes of two important varieties of 1909, IQs. and spring wheat grown on the Belle Fourche Experiment 1918, fair yields in Lee 1, Marquis common wheat; 2, Kubanka durum 1913, poor yields in 1910, 1914, 1916, 1917, and 1919, and failures of practically all varie- ties in 1911 and 1912. These yields depended largely upon the 8 For a more complete discussion of the history and growing of these varieties of wheat, see Clark, J. Allen, Martin, John H., and Smith, Ralph W. Varietal experiments with spring wheat on the northern Great Plains. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 878, 47 p., 3 pl., 2 fig. 1920. 16 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. amounts and distribution of the seasonal precipitation. The yields of the durum wheats were considerably reduced in 1910, on account of hot winds at flowering time which prevented fertilization. In 1911 the wheat sown in the spring did not emerge until August. The failure in 1912 was caused by a deficient supply of soil moisture in the spring, together with the low precipitation during May and June. In 1916 the wheat was badly injured by rust. The durum varieties have outyielded the common varieties in nearly all seasons. This was due only in part to the greater resistance of durum wheat to rust and drought, for the durum varieties have given the highest yields in the most favorable seasons. The Kubanka variety, C, I, No, 1516, has the highest average yield during the en- YIELD PER ACRE COMMON: cl 2 FIFE: MARQUIS POWER BLUESTEM: HAYNES PRESTON FRESTON LAD0GA: MANCH UPA QURUM RRNAUTKA AUVBANKA Fic. 5.—Diagram showing the average yields, in bushels per acre, of seven varieties of spring wheat on dry land at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm during the 7-year period from 1913 to 1919, inclusive. tire 12 years and also during the 7-year period, 1913 to 1919, inclu- sive. This variety appears to be slightly more productive than the Kubanka strain, C. I. No. 1440, and is slightly different in appearance. A head of Kubanka wheat is shown in figure 4. Several other durum wheat varieties yielded about as much as or even more than Kubanka during the three years 1917, 1918, and 1919. These small differences probably are not significant. Marquis is the highest yielding variety of common wheat. During the period from 1913 to 1919, inclusive, it outyielded all other com- mon-wheat varieties. A head of Marquis wheat is shown in figure 4. Manchuria, the second highest yielding common wheat, is a soft wheat of low milling and baking value. The Power, Haynes, and Preston varieties show average yields since 1913 considerably below that of Marquis. The yields of the leading varieties grown since 1913 are shown graphically in figure 6, CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. EG. Only five varieties were grown during the entire 12-year period. Of these only two, Arnautka, C. I. No. 1493, and Kubanka, C. I. No. 1516, were grown continuously from the same original strain, In order to have the experiments coordinated with other experiments with wheat in the northern Great Plains, seed of Power and Haynes wheat having different C. I. numbers than those previously grown was used in the later years. In 1918 and 1919 a selection of Man- churia was substituted for the parent variety in the experiments. Table VIII shows the average dates of heading and ripening, the average height, the average percentage of stem-rust infection, the average weight per bushel, and the average yields of grain and straw of the five varieties of spring wheat grown during each of the 12 years from 1908 to 1919, inclusive. The durum varieties shown have higher yields of grain and straw, a heavier weight per bushel, and a lower stem-rust infection. The Manchuria variety is considerably earlier and the Haynes much later than the other varieties shown. Taste VIII.—Agronomic data for five varieties of spring wheat grown on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1919, inclusive. Date of— | ieee Yields per acre. | eight Group and variety. - a ae co Height.a Siem * per : ead- Matu- ; ushel.a : ing.a rity.a . Grain. | Straw.a Fife: Inches. | Per cent.| Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. BOWE le pene c 3697 | July 84 | July 31 28 35.0 | 57.3 13.7 1, 837 Bluestem: PLayMeSe awa ee ol Se e 2874 | Julyll¢@| Aug. 2 29 42.5 53. 7 12.3 1, 815 Ladoga: Manchuria........- 2492 | July 11] July 27 31 24. 0 56.0 14,7 1, 699 Durum: ATMA kas -\e--- 5 < 1493 | July 4] July 30 33 10.5 59. 8 17.0 1, 877 Kubanka.......... POUCH eIulya sO) pee dosee = 30 7.0 60. 3 17.5 1, 930 @ Average for 9 years (1908 to 1910, 1913 to 1917, and 1919). b Average for 2 years (1915 and 1916). c Power, C. I. No. 3025, grown from 1908 to 1916, inclusive. 4d Date of heading computed in 1914. ¢ Haynes,C. 1. No. 3020, grown from 1908 to 1912, inclusive. RATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENTS, A rate-of-seeding experiment with Kubanka durum wheat, C. I. No. 1440, was conducted during the 9-year period 1909 to 1917, inclusive. The wheat was not sown in 1911, and the crop failed in 1912 on account of drought. The yields were too low to be of much significance in 1910 and 1914. In 1915 the yields were exceedingly large. The experiment was conducted on single tenth-acre plats in 1909 and 1910, but in triplicate fiftieth-acre plats in all other years. The rates of seeding ranged by 1-peck intervals from 2 to 8 pecks per acre, but the wheat was not sown at all of these rates during all years of the experiment. The annual and average yields obtained in the rate-of-seeding experiment are shown in Table IX. 17154°—22 3 18 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE IX.—Yields of Kubanka durum spring wheat grown in rate-of-seeding experiments on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1909, 1910, and 1913 to 1917, inclusive. | Yields per acre (bushels). | | Average. 1909 | 1910 | 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 ae: | 1909 to | 1913 to 1917 1917 DID OCKS see oe ese se eeieeimecte 12.5 Safi creamer | Sejeicie Srefe | etaictesaim sini w wfojatmtatoter| syaseetetetal | atelafeterere fall opateeetatetahe SIDOCKS a esse eck Hees hae He Peary Ute [hen (icposis 9.3 | 2.2 616.) 2812 124 Sesser 19.3 A MOCKS aso aea nm kee ee aeees 14. 4 5:5" | 9.8 | 2.0 60. 1 10.7 12.4 16.4 19.0 DAPCCKS ace taps ee ee 16.8 2.8 10. 4 250 61.4 11.2 11.6 16.6 19.4 GipeckseSitersa a isseemecce cece 17,2 1.8 9.9 2.0 59.2] 10.9 1a} 16.2 18.9 WAP OCKS 2 Fates. Sale Aoeaiane swicki p eect ee seas 10. 3 2.0 57.4 11.5 L2F4 ol Seat 18.7 SipeCk Sse See see ee 17.9 | 3. 4 | 1026°| 1G slay Ss a ae | cee | ae Several interesting facts are brought out by the data shown in Table IX: (1) The net yields were not increased by sowing at a rate in excess of 8 pecks per acre; (2) thin seeding will not ma- terially increase the yields nor prevent failure in dry seasons; and (3) thick seeding reduced the yields only slightly below those of the medium and thin seedings. It has commonly been assumed that durum wheat should be sown at the rate of 4 to 5 pecks per acre on dry. land, as compared with 3 pecks of common wheat, because of the large size of the durum kernels and also because durum wheat tillers less freely than com- mon wheat. Apparently this is offset by other characters of durum wheat, such as the large size of spikes and kernels produced. The above experiment was always conducted on well-prepared land. On a rough seed bed a higher rate of seeding than 3 pecks per acre might be necessary. The shght differences in yield shown above from the different rates of seeding are not significant. In Table X are shown the average number of days from emergence to maturity, the average height, weight per bushel, and yields of grain and straw of the wheat sown at each rate during the period from 1913 to 1917, inclusive. The average stands recorded during the years 1915 to 1917, inclusive, in thousands of plants per acre, also are shown. The proportion of straw to grain was slightly higher in the plats sown at the higher rates. The plats sown at 3 pecks per acre ma- tured about one day later than the others. In most years it was observed that the plats sown at the higher rates matured first, but this was not true in all seasons. The wheat from the plats sown at 6 and 7 pecks per acre was an inch shorter than that on the other plats. The weight per bushel of the grain from the thicker sown plats is slightly less than from the plats sown at 3 to 4 pecks per acre. ic, CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 19 TaBLE X.—Average agronomic data for Kubanka durum spring wheat grown in rate-of-seeding experiments on dry land on the Belle Fourche Haperiment Farm, 1913 to 1917, inclusive. | C5 | . r re. Emer- | Weight | stand Yields per acre Rate of seeding, per acre. | gence to | Height. per areca ; ‘maturity. bushel. | P A GRAIG A StrAR | | | | | | ; | | Days. | Inches. | Pounds. | Plants. | Pounds. |.Pounds. SID OCKS See ye oy aslia tls sccwsbcrinis a oe | 94 | 30 58.6 | 382, 000 1, 158 2, 458 ASD CCKStae ee ern aos eee a Seat | 93 | 30 58.7 | 428, 000 1, 140 2, 421 BIMeCKS ee peem een igs Ne ee | 93 30 58.3 | 517, 000 1, 164 2, 649 Gincckc Meer estate tp eet 93 29 58.3 | 604, 000 1, 134 2, 500 PED EC Soe eee oe ia a A I aE - 93 29 58.2 | 678, 000 1, 122 2, 479 a Average for 3 years, 1915, 1916, and 1917. DATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENTS. A date-of-seeding experiment with Kubanka spring wheat was conducted in 1912, 1915, and 1916. In 1912 the crop was a failure except on the late-sown plats, because of drought during June. In 1915 and 1916 the yields from the early sowing were highest, with the later sowings yielding considerably less. The yield from the earliest sowing in 1916 is not shown, because the wheat was sown on land where soil blowing was unusually severe. The yields from the date-of-seeding experiment are shown in Table XI. TABLE XI.—Yields of Kubanka durum spring wheat grown in date-of-seeding experiments on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1912, 1915, and 1916. Yields per acre (bushels). Date sown. 1912 1915 1916 Average. Sarl) 0) Bees Pees SAIS RES ee EI eI ap Earl) AO 0 52.5 14.2 22. 2 Ear AG) QESES Bae RAO SBOE ene CCRC HSC Ses aaeer emma nenS ety kent 0. 37. 2 12.3 16.5 Meiyal iC OL2Oes sateen rotons sacra ae ce ene een ae ae 13.5 27.3 4,9 15. 2 As shown in Table XI, the early-sown wheat yielded an average of 22.2 bushels per acre, the plats from the second sowing yielded 16.5 bushels, while those sown last yielded only 15.2 bushels per acre. This was in accordance with the usual experience with spring wheat, oats, and barley at Newell, viz, the earlier the sowing the higher the yield. NURSERY EXPERIMENTS. Many varieties of spring wheat were grown in rows, but because of their apparent lack of adaptability were not sown in plats. A considerable number of foreign varieties were thus tested in a pre- liminary way and later discarded. Most of the nursery experiments with spring wheat consisted in the testing of pure-line selections made at Newell from both durum and common spring wheats. Selec- 20 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tions from the Kubanka variety appeared to be most promising. Three of these, designated as Nos. 1440-735, 1516-712, and 1516-715, gave the highest average yields and were grown in plats in the varietal experiments during 1917, 1918, and 1919. The yields in the plat experiments, as shown in Table VII, were not higher than other durum varieties, however, so that nothing of value was ob- tained from the nursery experiments with spring wheats. A selec- tion of the Manchuria variety, designated as No. 2492-38, proved to be a high-yielding strain in dry seasons. In 1918 and 1919 it was substituted for the parent bulk Manchuria in the varietal experiments in plats. Because this selection is inferior in both yield and quality to several other varieties, it is not considered to be of any particular value. WINTER WHEAT. Experiments with winter wheat on dry land have included tests of varieties and selections and of rates and dates of seeding. | Straw.¢ | Variety. | % as Height.a per | Inches. | Pounds. | Bushels. ; Pounds. IG OrsOnl seesaw ee ace | 459 | July 2] July 23 24 30. 4 29.7 1,131 SiwedishiSelectsasese-e ee cena = | 134] July 11} Aug. 3 28 29. 8 24.7 1,330 iWihifesRUsslans nesses oe.) 551 | July 19} Aug. 10 28 31.3 | 23. 0 1,492 a Average for 9 years (1908 to 1910, 1912, 1913, 1915 to 1917, and 1919). b Average for 12 years, 1908 to 1919, inclusive. c Average for 10 years, 1908 to 1913, 1915 to 1917, and 1919. NURSERY EXPERIMENTS. The growing of head selections of oats was begun on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1908, from selections made at the Highmore (S. Dak.) substation in 1907. Other selections were added later, so that a considerable number have been tested. The two most promising selections made at Highmore were included in the plat experiments at Newell in 1912, one of which, No. 165-566, has been continued in the plats each year. As the average yield of this strain is slightly less than that of the parent variety, it is apparent that nothing was accomplished in the improvement of oats by selection. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 31 Many varieties also were grown in nursery rows. Of these, an unnamed variety, designated as C. I. No. 357, outyielded all other varieties and strains during a period of several years. This variety was being increased for plat experiments in 1918, but was never grown in plats at Newell. RATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENTS. A rate-of-seeding experiment with oats was conducted on dry land during six seasons. Good yields were obtained in all years except 1910 and 1912. These rates of seeding varied by 2-peck intervals from 2 to 12 pecks per acre, but only four different rates were sown during all of the years. The varieties used in the experiment were Kherson, C. I. No. 459, in 1909 and 1910; Sixty-Day, C. I. No. 165, in 1912 and 1913; and Sixty-Day selection, No. 165-566, in 1915 and 1916. As these varieties are of very similar character, the data are practically as uniform as if the same variety had been grown through- out the entire experiment. The yields are shown in Table XX. The highest average yields were obtained from sowing the oats at the rate of 6 pecks per acre, with a gradual decrease if sown at higher or lower rates of seeding. The results were so strikingly in favor of the 6-peck rate that the experiment was discontinued in 1916. TABLE XX.—Yields obtained in rate-of-seeding experiments with oat varieties 4 on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1909 to 1916, inclusive. Yields per acre (bushels). Rate of seeding per acre. 1 1909 1910 1912 1913 1915 1916 Average. ADWECKSH eae es oecen anne otnios 73} pee ceaesacleaocDUscad| hoaaneseoosoduaeacad boobecasaal banaoosace JS OO Sian at at Shine ClCE Gea eeaeee 30. 2 11,9 8.9 28. 2 120. 0 40. 0 39. 8 GiCCKSR eee tiene. eater i 32. 8 12.5 10.3 27.3 118, 2 42.5 40. 6 SMECKS eer meses Sosa Ral t 35. 3 10. 3 9. 2 27.3 104. 8 40.6 37.9 NODECKSBBerecce as eelesescece 35. 9 4.1 Che 28. 1 109. 6 36. 1 37.2 IPA OXO Sangdenee- ep Ban nososeres||GuoEsetocs 3.4 9.1 Pe ete Shas omeeSases Raaaconnod a Ktherson, C. I. No. 459, grown in 1909 and 1910; Sixty-Day, C. I. No. 165, in 1912 and 1913; and Sixty- Day selection, 165-566, in 1915 and 1916. : Table X XI shows the average number of days from emergence to maturity, the height, weight per bushel, stand of plants per acre, and yields in pounds per acre of grain and straw of the oats in the rate-of-seeding experiments. The data are shown for only four rates of seeding, viz, 4, 6, 8, and 10 pecks per acre. The period of maturity and the height of the plants decrease with the increase in the rate of seeding. The weights per bushel are slightly higher from the heavier rates of seeding. The number of plants per acre is not quite proportional to the rate of seeding. This is due largely ‘to the error in counting the plants in the thicker seedings where the on BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plants are too close together to be separated. There is also some apparent crowding out of weak plants. The number of plants counted per peck of seed sown ranged from 80,500 in the 10-peck seeding to 98,500 in the 4-peck seeding. The ratio of grain to straw was almost 1 to 1 except in the 8-peck seeding. TABLE NNI.—Average agronomic data for oats grown in the rate-of-seeding experiments on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1909, 1910, 1912, 19138, 1915, and 1916. Yields per acre. Emer- ‘ Weight | Stand Rate of seeding per acre. gence to | Height. per per maturity. bushel.¢ | acre.? Grain. Straw. | Days. Inches. Founas: | Plants. | Pounds. | Pounds. ART OC KS oti tee ioscan Lo ea LS Bie Rican ieebrd ctor 83 26 394, 000 1,273 1,275 OlpeCkS oes or an eee a Domenie ans 82 26 30 1 525, 000 1, 298 1,315 Specks ohe. Sic Sue SS einai cee ees 81 25 32.7 | 672,000 1, 213 1,319 1 Ospeckss ss ae ces She ee eles ee 80 23 32.8 | 805, 000 1,190 1,213 a Average for 4 years, 1909, 1913, 1915, and 1916. b Average for 3 years, 1909, 1915, and 1916. EXPERIMENTS WITH BARLEY. The yields of the best varieties of barley in pounds per acre on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm have been nearly as large as those of oats and spring wheat. Most varieties of barley mature more quickly than oats or wheat, and the crop can thus be sown at a later YIELD PER ACRE oO 5 10 1S 20 25. 0 SIX-ROWLD HULLED- ODESSA GATAM. / S-ROWED, Zs Fig. 11.—Diagram showing the average yields, in bushels per acre, of the leading varieties of barley on dry land at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm for the 8-year period from 1912 to 1919, inclusive. date. Barley grown on the dry lands of western South Dakota. is used almost exclusively as a feed crop and its market value is of minor importance there. Winter barley has been sown several years, but has never survived the winter at Newell. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 33 ~ = VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS. Since 1908 25 varieties and strains of barley have been grown in the varietal experiments. entire period, but 4 varieties were grown continuously from 1909 to 1919, inclu- sive. The yields are shown in Table XXII. The average yields of 6 varieties of barley are also shown graphically in figure 11. In Table XXII it can be seen that high yields of barley were obtained in 1915, and fair yields in 1908, 1909, 1916, 1917, and 1918. During the other seasons the yields either were small or else almost complete failures. These differences were chiefly influ- enced by the seasonal precipitation. In general the 2- rowed varieties have produced the highest yields. Of the two leading 2-rowed vari- eties, White Smyrna has given the highest average yield. Be- cause of its earliness this variety has yield- ed well in dry seasons, but the Hannchen va- riety yielded best in Only 1 variety has been grown during the NSE EAS ‘ it 2 : Hh iq ‘3 r ey. ‘ i j a ders he Be | % i s ea, Ay ey 3 { A ie Be f ; ‘y ny $: 8 > % Ce te 3 a f : : ies a ‘ ¥ ty . ee ee ee a Pe ie : Fic. 12.—Heads of the two leading varieties of barley grown on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment arm: 7, Hannchen; 2, White Smyrna. favorable seasons. Heads of Hannchen and White Smyrna barley are shown in figure 12. The Odessa is the highest yielding 6-rowed T7754 °—22__5 34 BULLETIN 1089, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. variety which has been grown for a long period, but the Coast variety has a higher average yield during the years it has been grown. The Gatami variety yields well in dry seasons, but not especially well in favorable seasons. It has further objections in having black glumes and a very brittle peduncle. The Manchuria, which is the leading variety of barley in North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota and Wisconsin, has not yielded well at Newell. Three strains of this variety have been grown. TABLE XXII.—Yields of varieties of barley grown on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1919, inclusive. Yields per acre (bushels). : C.I Average. Group and variety. No. | | | July 22 24 42.4 15.3 1,048 Six-rowed, naked, hooded: N epal. (White Hull-less). ....- 595 | July . 3c) July 24 21 57. 4 10. 8 1, 053 Two-rowed, hulled: Vann Ghenewae secsinecscsescesse 531 | July 13d) July 24¢ e2i €45,1 18.0 1, 254. @ Average for 9 years, 1909, 1910, 1912 to 1917, and 1919. b Average for 8 years, 1909, 1910, 1912, 1913, 1915 to 1917, and 1919. ¢ Average for § years, 1909, 1910, and 1912 to 1917. d Average for 4 years, 1909 ‘and 1915 to 1917. e Average for 8 years, 1909, 1910, 1913 to 1917, and 1919. NURSERY EXPERIMENTS. The nursery experiments with barley consisted almost entirely of tests of varieties. No promising varieties not already being grown in plats were observed in the nursery experiments. Progenies from a few natural hybrids of barley found in the plats at Newell were grown for observation. The strains isolated were not as promising as other varieties previously mentioned. RATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENTS. Rate-of-seeding experiments with White Smyrna barley, C. I. No. 658, were begun in 1917 and conducted for three years. The barley was sown at four different rates, ranging from 4 to 10 pecks per acre. The data are not entirely conclusive, but are of considerable interest. The yields are shown in Table XXIV. The highest average yield was obtained from the plats sown at the rate of 4 pecks per acre. In 1917, however, the 8-peck rate gave the highest yield. The barley in the varietal experiments usually has been sown at the rate of 5 pecks per acre, and from the average re- sults shown in Table XXIV this rate appears to be ample. On a well-prepared seed bed the sowing of 4 pecks of clean barley seed per acre apparently is sufficient. TasLeE XXIV.—Yields of White Smyrna barley grown in rate-of-seeding experi- ments on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1917 to 1919, in- clusive. Yields per acre (bushels). Rate of seeding per acre. 1917 1918 1919 Average. LUT OSI) fa Bi aan OU a ee eh ares eS ah wee i RR UIC a Bea Sie de 28.7 25.7 9.7 21,4 Bipeckseres ss es Noite lee, aoe hake ole Neve eaten eA oe BR eas En 31.3 20. 9 9.4 20. 5 SHE C IGS Ss fe See UE a MAS Lie ay 2s Cake ee alt 0 | Ao eR a | 33.3 18. 0 8.7 20. 0 VAY [SELON Pee gt a a CANE es Al ie ke Re EO 28. 2 19. 3 8.0 18.5 36 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPERIMENTS WITH MINOR CEREALS. The cereals of minor importance which were grown in experiments on dry land at Newell are proso, rye, emmer, spelt, buckwheat, and the grain sorghums. The work with these, with the exception of proso, has not been very extensive. SPRING EMMER. One variety of spring emmer, Vernal (White Spring), has been grown on dry land each year since 1908. No crop was produced in 1911, 1912, and 1914. The highest yield, 3,513 pounds per acre, was obtained in 1915. Emmer is severely injured by extreme drought and under such conditions it yields considerably less than adapted varieties of barley. Table XXIX (p. 41), showing a comparison of yields of the various grain crops, presents the yields of Vernal emmer in pounds per acre for five years from 1913 to 1917, inclusive. Vernal emmer yielded an average of 1,179 pounds per acre, compared with yields of 1,378, 1,415, and 1,405 pounds per acre, respectively, for Kubanka wheat, Kherson oats, and Hannchen barley.. Under conditions at Newell the better varieties of oats and barley may be expected to yield considerably more grain per acre than emmer. WINTER EMMER AND SPELT. Winter emmer has been grown in both the plat and nursery experi- ments on dry land. Black Winter emmer, C. I. No. 2337, was grown in plats in 1909, but only 1 per cent of the plants survived the winter. It has been grown in the nursery for several seasons since then, but the yields and winter survival were always low. Buffum Improved Black Winter emmer, C. I. No. 3331, was grown in plats from 1913 to 1917, inclusive. The crop was entirely winterkilled in 1917, and the spring survival was low in the other seasons, not more than one- third of the plants surviving even the mildest winters. The yields of Buffum Improved Black Winter emmer are shown in Table X XIX (p. 41). The average yield for the 5-year period from 1913 to 1917, inclusive, was 639 pounds per acre, compared with 1,800 pounds of Kharkof winter wheat. Considering the low market and feeding value and the low winter survival and yield of the winter emmer, it can not be recommended for growing in western South Dakota. A single variety of winter spelt was grown in 1917. This was a brown winter spelt, the seed of which had been imported from Switzerland, about 1913, by a farmer in the vicinity. Although this was slightly hardier than winter emmer, it was much inferior to winter wheat in both yield and value. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 37 RYE. Spring rye has not been grown at Newell except in 1908 and the crop was not very successful, Winter rye is considered much more promising. Winter rye was grown from 1913 to 1917, in- elusive. Only one variety, Swedish (Minn. No. 2), C. I. No. 187, has been grown in plats on dry land. In 1913 this was injured at flowering time by hot winds, which caused considerable floret sterility and also before maturity by a hailstorm which shattered much of the grain. The 1914 and 1917 crops were reduced by drought, the 1915 crop was slightly injured by rust, and the 1916 crop by both drought and rust. The yields ranged from 5.3 bushels in 1913 to 44.5 bushels per acre in 1915. The 5-year yield is 20.6 bushels per acre. The yield of Swedish winter rye in pounds per acre in comparison with winter wheat and several spring grains is shown in Table XXIX (p. 41). The rye has yielded less than winter wheat, spring wheat, oats, and barley, and is consequently considered a less profitable crop to grow. However, it is hardier and more certain than winter wheat and can be sown later. The greater hardiness of winter rye is shown in figure 8. Rye may be drilled in small grain stubble in the fall, with fair chances of obtaining a crop of grain or hay. Two other varieties of winter rye have been grown in nursery experiments. One of these, North Dakota No. 959, is very hardy, but neither this nor the other variety, known as C. I. No, 178, yielded as well as the Swedish variety. BUCKWHEAT. The growing of buckwheat on dry land was attempted only in 1908. Noseed was matured. Apparently buckwheat is not adapted to growing under the dry conditions which usually prevail at Newell. PROSO. Proso,’ or hog millet, is an early maturing millet the seed of which is used for grain. It is best adapted to the northern Great Plains and prairie sections, where it is grown to a limited extent as a catch crop. It is well suited to the climatic conditions in South Dakota. Other spring cereals on the average produce more grain per acre than proso, but in some seasons proso has outyielded all-other spring grain crops. It can be sown even as late as July 1 and still mature seed. VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS. _ Varietal experiments with proso were begun in 1908, when a few _ varieties were grown in plats and several others in rows. From 1909 °For further information concerning proso, see Farmers’ Bulletin 1162, “ Proso, or hog millet,’’ by John H. Martin, 15 p., 4 fig. 1920. 38 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to 1915, inclusive, because of the minor importance of the crop, the proso varieties were grown only in rows. These rows usually were 60 feet long and replicated two or three times. During this period the highest average yields were obtained from the Turghai and Red Russian varieties. In 1916 a few of the leading varieties of proso from the nursery row experiments were sown in plats. These were continued for three years more and several additional varieties also were grown in 1917 and 1919. The Dakota Kursk, a millet of the foxtail group, was included in both the nursery and plat experiments for compari- son with the prosos. The yields of the varieties are shown in Table XXYV. TABLE XXV.—Yields of proso varieties grown on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1916 to 1919, inclusive. Yields per acre (bushels). Group and variety. oe j ; ; 1916 1917 1918 1919 Average. Spreading, white seeded: White! U ral 2 sss2 sh re ee rs) 4 24,1 23.7 | 44.3 5.5 24.4 BOA Wits eS soe oe pee ES a See AN 783 ee A198 :| 322 oe 5280 |2- eee Hansen = os: ase8 sae ee cae sees sees 179 27.2 18.8 33.6 | 9.7 22.3 Spreading, red seeded: | Redihussians= 459. St. eee ee Se 61 25.0 17.5 55.4 | 13.2 27.8 Tar oN al: Betis oes oe ee Se a at 31 21.4 18.2; |Soecoscers Se Ie Res aeec Loose, yellow seeded: ellowaMantlobasseeee =o een eee 1018/3232 1554: |S essen oe | nh BS} ees ee a Loose, black seeded: | BlacksViOLonez hs ssc eect aaecia Nea eee 27) 423.5 16:4 38. 8 | 14.0 23.2 Compact, red seeded: | RedeVioronezn wae ss hale eee seer eee | iN eer Ae ae 154l | oo esse se 8 9;| Se Sess Cllows Sale pta ieee no eeiae eee BSee | Tiileecessaee | TBH Bseasacnes G32) Pen eeice Foxtail millet: DAkotakursks-ey ss ee ee epee | ane ee |aeee ee 6135|: See ee gato he Pee 1 ‘ ! 6 Grown in a spacing test adjoining other varieties. As shown in Table XX XVI, the Red Russian variety produced the highest average yield during the 4-year period. The White Ural, the next highest yielding variety, produced 3.4 bushels per acre less than Red Russian. Both the Black Voronezh and the Hansen yielded less than the White Ural. The Turghai was the highest yielding variety in the nursery experiments, but it did not yield as well as Red Russian in the plat experiments. It was not grown in plats in 1918, however. Average agronomic data for the proso varieties grown in 1917 and 1919 are shown in Table XXVI. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 39 TABLE XXVI.—Average-agronomic data for the proso varieties grown in plats on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1917 and 1919. ne Date of— Weight Yields per acre. Group and variety. <8 — Heading. | Maturity. ushel. | Seed. | Straw. Spreading, white seeded: Inches. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. iWihitenWralen sas eane 28 4| Aug. 8 | Aug. 22 18 53. 6 817 1, 212 ETAMS@ mere sesso ocis acc cles 179 }...do....} Aug. 23 23 54.1 797 1, 012 Spreading, red seeded: RedeRussiantes esos. ccs scces 61 | Aug. 9} Aug. 24 24 55. 7 861 1, 300 GNU TES sess Gage es 31 | Aug. 11 | Aug. 29 25 55. 8 876 1, 762 Loose, yellow seeded: Yellow Manitoba.............- 101 does |aa5 doses: 29 SOLD 748 1, 300 Loose, black seeded: Black Voronezh.......-...-.-. 27 | Aug. 12} Aug. 31 29 57.0 851 1, 533 Compact, red seeded: RedaVioronezhe eh secon see ees 26 | Aug. 10} Aug. 26 20 55. 8 681 1, 037 iellowsSareptassccsecte acco: <= alee COs. | eAupee 20 20 56. 2 639 937 Foxtail millet: DAKO ayRUITSke eae ceesice ance aeceees Aug. 26 | Sept. 16 20 52. 2 535 1, 180 RATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENTS. A rate-of-seeding experiment with Hansen proso was conducted on dry land in 1917. The experiment was sown at three different rates, in triplicate, on June 19. The plats sown at 15 pounds per acre ylelded an average of 20.3 bushels, those sown at 22.5 pounds yielded 22.3 bushels, while those sown at 30 pounds yielded 23.0 bushels per acre. It is thus seen that the 30-pound rate gave a slightly higher net yield than the 22.5-pound rate. Under con- ditions of earlier seeding or late drought a thinner seeding might have given the highest. yield. Conclusions can not be drawn from a 1-year experiment, but apparently not less than 25 to 30 pounds of proso should be sown per acre for best results under the conditions at Newell. SPACING EXPERIMENTS. Black Voronezh proso was grown in an experiment in 1916 and 1917 to determine the distance between drill rows which would pro- duce maximum yields. The seed was sown with the grain drill in rows 7, 14, and 21 inches apart in triplicated plats. The drill was set in the same notch for all spacings, so that the plats having rows 7 inches apart were sown at the rate of about 28 pounds per acre, those with rows 14 inches apart at the rate of 14 pounds per acre, and those in rows 21 inches apart at about 8.5 pounds per acre. The yields from the experiment are shown in Table X XVII. 40 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XXVII.—Yields of Black Voronezh proso grown in spacing experiments on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1916. and 1917. Yields per acre, bushels. Distance between rows. 1916 1917 Average. EITIGIGS Boge 2 oe ae Be Ge Sa te Aer aloe Siha Rene ds toga SEN ee eee eet an 26.1 24, 4 Be PA ATICT OSs be Se) oe arm atte eres Satie eee ol enn tes a ee eed Re Sen AO 23.5 20.9 22.2 PUNCHES ss Passes Pee aoe tates os oe sicle bop soe ces See eee ES acne 16.0 16.7 16.3. The average yield from the plats sown in the regular 7-inch drill rows was 25.2 bushels, from the 14-inch rows 22.2 bushels, and from the 21-inch rows 16.3 bushels per acre. Proso has rather coarse stems and spreading branches, and it was thought that the wider spacing raight show a slight advantage. The yields, however, were strongly in favor of the thick spacing. Unfortunately, the rates of seeding were different with each spacing, but the results obtained in this and the rate-of-seeding experiment previously described seem to indicate that proso should be sown in drill rows about 7 or 8 inches apart ata rate not less than 25 to 80 pounds per acre, EXPERIMENT WITH GRAIN SORGHUMS. One or more varieties of grain sorghum were sown at Newell each year from 1908 to 1917, except in 1911, when the soil was too dry for the seed to germinate. Most types did not produce seed and did not always form heads because of the cool weather. The only varieties which matured seed were extremely early, and included Manchu Brown kaoliang, Dwarf milo, and Freed sorgo. The Dwarf milo pro- duced seed only in 1913. The yields of the leading grain-sorghum varieties are shown in Table XXVIII. TapLeE NNVIII.— Yields of the leading varieties and strains of grain sorghun groun on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1917, inclusive. Yield per acre (bushels). | | a Group and variety. ni a : ie | 1908¢ | 1909b | 1910@ | 1912 | 1913b]1914¢]1915¢}1916¢| 1917@| 1909 to 1917. Kaoliang: i 0 Manehtmibrowileccceauccesee NFL 2209), | vee eal 0 5.0] 4.6 0 Manchu Brown Selection 3-1.} 261 |.....- LSE OU eae 0 6.2} 3.5 0 Manchu Brown Selection 3-5. PIN IE A ae 13524| L252 0 4.6] 1.5 0 Manchu Brown Selection4...} 261 |.....- 12.3 | 11:6 0 652) ]) 2. Sel 0 ManchukBrowm:ncnceese sca BAS | raralerte 9.4 | 8.0 0 4.2] 6.6 0 Milo: DD WAT ees eee eee ee Cte pare Sella ere Coco aeat rninenel | Steere 5.0 0 0 Olea ete bee x Sorgo Doyo Yo [panies Me he ce ods NL ee a ge La eS ee 5.8 | 6.0 0 Oo este eles eee « Yield calculated from that of an 80-foot row. c Yield calculated from that of two 132-foot rows. » Yield calculated from that of a 132-foot row. d Yield calculated from that of a tenth-acre plat. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 41 Strains of Manchu Brown kaoliang produced the highest yields during all of the years from 1909 to 1916, inclusive. Complete fail- ures were recorded in 1912, 1915, and 1916, on account of early frosts which killed the plants before the grain was ripe. Drought and frost caused low yields in all other years except 1917, when a yield of 23.6 bushels of nearly mature kaoliang was obtained. The grain sorghums have yielded less than any of the other grains at Newell and are not adapted to the prevailing climatic conditions. COMPARISON OF GRAIN CROPS. A comparison of the yields in pounds per acre of all grains on the dry land at Newell are shown in Table XXIX. The yields shown are for the 5-year period from 1913 to 1917, inclusive, when nearly all of the small grains were being grown in plats. For the entire period of the cereal experiments at Newell the comparative yields of the crops would be somewhat different. The crops were not all grown under comparable conditions each year. However, the rye, winter emmer, and spelt were sown in the same series and on the same date as the winter wheat. The yields of spring wheat shown were obtained from replicated plats sown in the winter-wheat series each spring. The spring emmer was grown along with the barley varieties. The oats usually were sown in the same series with barley. The proso and kaoliang usually were sown on the same date and on adjoining land. TABLE XXIX.—Yields of the leading varieties of different grain crops grown on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm from 1918 to 1917, in- clusive. Yields per acre (pounds). Crop, group, and variety. | a sy - | 4913 1914 1915 1916 1917 | Average. Crimean winter wheat: GHA KOR eee see ees essa a 1442 2,316 1,722 3, 828 852 282 1, 800 Durum spring wheat: eulpaikcaye ares Wess yon ciate 1440 1, 074 1,014 2, 940 1,014 846 1,378 Winter emmer: Buffum Black Winter.-.....-- 3331 1,085 1, 248 848 625 0 639 Spring emmer: _ Vernal (White Spring).....- 1524 500 0 3, 513 1,100 781 1,179 Winter spelt: _ BIRO Ad! WME PS comcocondinos |lobocoo55 bocadadeod |saocccdocd|looaecooquallasssaedase LOOM eee eas Winter rye: Swedish (Minn. No. 2).....-- 137 296 890 2,497 1,116 980 1,156 Spring oats: ‘ i NGHETSOMS eee Soca nee ee 459 700 442 3, 547 1,305 1, 081 1, 415 Spring barley: IBID NSA soooucdesancosaoee 531 609 321 4,123 1, 133 840 1, 405 Proso: Red Russian......-.-.------- 61 0 a704 | 21,368 1, 400 980 890 Kaoliang: Manchu Brown.......- sige ae 328 244 383 0 0 1, 368 399 « Yielas from two 60-foot rows. 49 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The average yield of Kharkof winter wheat during the five years was 1,800 pounds per acre. Kherson oats yielded at the rate of 1,415 pounds per acre, Hannchen barley 1,405 pounds, and Kubanka spring wheat at the rate of 1,378 pounds per acre. Other cereal crops yielded less than the spring wheat. The period from 1913 to 1917 was usually favorable for winter wheat, but this crop, although rather uncertain, may be expected to yield more than other cereals on the average. The yields in pounds per acre of well-adapted varieties of spring wheat, oats, and barley are nearly the same. The Manchu Brown kaoliang, because of its resistance to early drought, outyielded all other crops in 1917. In 1916 the Red Rus- sian proso produced more grain than the other crops. This was YIELD PER ACRE oO a 10 15 EUROPEAN SEEDY DANONT-------- RESERVE------—-} N.DAK, RESISTANT NOE2% SORT FIBER: NOP RESISTANT WO. 114 PRINIOST=----- --E Fic. 13.—Diagram showing the average yields, in bushels per acre, of the leading varieties of flax on dry land at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm for the 6-year period from 1914 to 1919, inclusive. partly because the kaoliang was frosted, while the other crops were injured by rust, soil blowing, or drought. EXPERIMENTS WITH FLAX. Flax is a crop usually grown on new sod land. However, when grown in rotation on land fairly free from weeds it can be grown successfully on land which has been previously cropped. The yields of flax at Newell have compared rather favorably with the small grains when the value of the crop is considered. Flax is less certain than the small grains, as it is more easily injured by drought, frost, and soil blowing. VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS. The varietal experiments with flax were begun in 1912. Twelve varieties have been grown in plats on dry land during the period CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 43 of the experiments, but only three varieties were grown all of the seasons. Good yields of flax were obtained in 1912, 1915, and 1918, fair yields in 1916 and 1917, and poor yields in 1913 and 1914, while the crop was a complete failure in 1919. The yields depended chiefly upon the seasonal precipitation. Very little injury from diseases was observed. The yields are shown in Table XXX. Tt will be observed (Table XXX) that the Damont variety, C. I. No. 3, gave the highest average yields during both the 6-year and 8-year periods. The next highest yields were obtained from the Reserve variety, C. I. No. 19. This variety was formerly known as Russian and North Dakota No. 155. The wilt-resistant varieties, North Dakota Resistant Nos. 52 and 114, have not yielded as well as the other varieties. None of the varieties has been reduced in yield by wilt injury. The average yields of the flax varieties from 1914 to 1919, inclusive, are shown in figure 13. TasBLE XXX.—Yields of flax varieties grown on dry land on the Belle Fourche Haperiment Farm, 1912 to 1919, inclusive. Yields per acre (bushels). ; CI | Average. Group and variety. N a | | | 1912 | 1912 | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 | yo49 | yo14 | to to | 1919, | 1919. | ce EEF eet | 7 cc | aR af [Scalia | Dae Re | eh aI European seed: Select Russian (N. Dak. No. 6.0.8) ey ae iteisterie aa peears TE ORO Ea kein [arb ea cell ae sollaerrac Scosea asdocd bacosd BonsaG Select Riga (N. Dak. No. 1214) Qe LON6s|Sece. soseac|acucss||scdocsl|lseocas Sseoscal sasaan|dodaca bsocoa Damont (N. Dak. No. 1215). . BF 2125.6, 7 | 23.6) 7.6] 7.2} 13.1] 0 8.6 8.7 Kazan (N. Dak. No. 1329). -... AsV Sai dis lesciars sie] Senora eieesiera ans oa eee tore ook ele eyraseral| mie orl crane nel reba ete Stepan (N. Dak. No. 1340)...-. 5 Ure Besar beoSes| epcinos Sarees bor cca saeeddl Boece Bassnel besnae IDirOmIBIGTE (ING IDEN, INOS ei) ees SIU ABW lbanes4 booaselGedocolacsecclosodoclcocoscdlloocons|doooud aabocs Reserve... -. eS ee lee 19| 8.9] 5.2 -8/ 22.0} 7.7] 6.9) 11.6] 0 7.9 8.2 N. Dak. Resistant No. 52..... Siyleeniins 4.5] 2.4 ja12.3) 7.1) 6.2)12.9| O |...... 6.8 Short fiber: N. Dak. Resistant No. 114....} 13 |......|...... 1.5 | 16.7] 5.8] 63)10.12) O |...... 6.7 Primost (Minn. No. 25)......- 12) 9.1] 4.8} 1.7) 17.8] 6.2] 6.9]12.4) 0 7.4 7.5 Turkish: Munkisheecsaakcc aces cescis coe CC eel De A | AIDS neat ao | arte eae athe oes) | ickc rel she are | ce | eal ba STMT Qyarsrenta cencion citi seestecears SOS Beara tise aoe | eases MU SBI ee, Qe ecto (a res Is 2 mts a Reseeded, first seeding failed to emerge. RATE-OF SEEDING EXPERIMENTS. Rate-of-seeding experiments with flax on dry land were conducted in 1912 and again from 1915 to 1918, inclusive. The variety used was “common” flax in 1912, Primost in 1915 and 1916, and Damont in 1917 and 1918. Except in 1912, sowings were made at three rates, viz, 15, 22.5, and 30 pounds per acre. The highest average yields were obtained from the plats sown at the rate of 30 pounds per acre. During the five years, 1912 and 1915 to 1918, inclusive, the 30-pound rate gave an average yield of 0.8 bushel per acre more than the 15- 44 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pound rate. The net increase for the 30-pound rate is only about 0.5 bushel, which probably is not significant. However, these experi- ments were all conducted on a well-prepared seed bed, and probably the results from the 15-pound rate are better than would be obtained under ordinary seed-bed conditions. The best rate of sowing for flax on dry land at Newell probably is about 2 pecks (28 pounds) per acre. The data from the rate-of-seeding experiments are shown in Table XX XI. TABLE XXXI.— Yields of flax” grown in rate-of-seeding experiments on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1912 and from 1915 to 1918, inclusive. Yields per acre (bushels). | | Average. Rate of seeding per acre. | 1912 1915 1916 1917 1918 | 1915 fo | Wenaud | 1918 L5pPOUNS a se eec ate eee ees. 9.6 23.6 8.2 7.8 9. 2 12.2 11.7 ZAP MPOUNGS Sea see see eee Ree ee 25.6 8.4 7.8 7.9 TQ Uae ees SOMPOUNCSSe aeecese ee one eee 11.2 27.0 7.2 7.4 9.5 12.8 12.5 a Common flax used in 1912; Primost, C. I. No. 12, in 1915 and 1916; and Damont, C. I. No.3, in 1917 and 18. TABLE XXXII.—YVields of flax grown in date-of-seeding experiments on dry land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1912, 1913, and 1915 to 1919, inclusive. Yields per acre (bushels). Date of seeding. r Average, 1912 1913 1915 1916 1917 1918 1917 to 1918. PAS TIN ZOMG Ors ens cmy tee enero ine | eum cmienal Bicteieties rete | Sees einer (a) 5.8 9.2 7.5 Mave2ntOl Sea clo tas secs se siecie| sine weeeeci 7.7 20.0 6.3 5.3 10.8 8.0 Mango tor20 eee ae aeeaeoecen ees CBai laacakoea sh bride sAccallacenoadcas 5.5 11.4 8.4 Maye 20IGOl25 seaniee cite mass nee steel Se ete mtero 4.8 21.5 Ga Quiles esse | Meise ee ees | aeseeeieers JUMEWO LOS Ss eee aie aeicisicle nets s oe 10.6 | 3.0 (2) etal sepeeoees 4.2 6.5 5.4 a Karly seeding blown out. b Did not emerge. DATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENTS. Date-of-seeding experiments with flax were conducted in 1912, 1913, and 1915 to 1918, inclusive. The Primost variety (C. I. No. 12) was grown in 1912, 1913, and 1915 and Damont (C. I. No..3) in 1916, 1917, and 1918. Sowings were made on two, three, or four dates each season. The dates of seeding were not the same each year, because the soil frequently was too wet when the sowings should have been made. Because of the variable seasons and the irregularities in the experiment it is difficult properly to summarize CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 45 the yield data. In 1913 and 1917 the earliest dates of seeding gave the highest yields; in 1912, 1915, and 1916 the latest dates gave the highest yields, while in 1918 the medium dates were most favorable. The flax in the last sowing in 1915 did not emerge and that from the earliest sowing of 1916 was blown out. Late summer rains in 1912 favored late sowing of flax, but in general the yields from flax sown after May 20 were comparatively low. The best date of seed- ing for flax on dry land at Newell, although undetermined, prob- ably occurs between April 15 and May 15. The data are shown in Table XXXII. EXPERIMENTS ON IRRIGATED LAND. In 1912 a large part of the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm was placed under irrigation, and experiments with cereals on the irrigated land were begun at that time. A few varieties of spring wheat, oats, barley, and flax were sown on irrigated land in 1912, 1913, and 1914. In 1915 the number of plats was increased to include experiments with winter wheat and grain mixtures, and in 1916 and thereafter a number of additional experiments were in progress. The irrigated plats were one twenty-fifth of an acre each in 1912 and 1913, but in 1914 and thereafter nearly all experiments were conducted in triph- cated fiftieth-acre plats. Most of the cereals grown under irrigation were sown on land which had produced an intertilled crop, such as corn, potatoes, roots, or sunflowers, the previous year. The land was double disked and harrowed or “ floated” before seeding. The cereal crops received two and sometimes three irrigations during the season. The time of irri- gation was gauged by the condition of the soil rather than by the stage of growth of the grain, because it was practically useless to irrigate until the surface soil was sufficiently dry and cracked to take up water. The quantity of water applied was not measured, but was approximately 4 or 5 acre-inches at each application. Water was ap- plied by flooding from field ditches, which usually were constructed along the ends of the plats. The average yields from the irrigated land are not greatly in excess of those from the same crops grown on the dry land. In 1915 the yields on dry land were much higher than on irrigated land. From 1912 to 1915, inclusive, the irrigation experiments were con- ducted on rather unfavorable soil, while in 1916 most of the crops were damaged by soil blowing and rust. The irrigated grains were sown on previously cropped land following either small grain or an intertilled crop, while many of the dry-land experiments were con- ducted on summer fallow. In most seasons the grains were sown on the dry land earlier than on the irrigated land, chiefly because the 46 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soil was dry enough to be in condition for seeding before the irrigated land. This favored higher yields from the dry land. On the whole, the yields from the cereal plats on irrigated land are considerably higher than the average for the region, where the condi- tions, as on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, usually are not favorable for maximum grain yields. EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEAT. SPRING WHEAT. VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS. Ten varieties of spring wheat have been grown in the experiments on irrigated land. Three of these were grown during the entire period from 1912 to 1919. The experiments were on rather poor soil from 1912 to 1915. The seeding was late in 1915. In 1916 the wheat 2s 3O COMMON FIFE* ye ROUIE POWER HAYNES QURUM Fie, 14._Diagram showing the average yields, in bushels per acre, of the leading varieties of spring wheat on irrigated land at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm for the 6-year period from 1914 to 1919, inclusive. was damaged by soil blowing and also was severely attacked by rust. Good yields of most varieties of spring wheat were obtained in 1917, 1918, and 1919. The yields of the spring-wheat varieties on irrigated land are shown in Table XX XIII. The average yields for six years also are shown in figure 14. The average yield of the Kubanka variety during the 8-year period, 1912 to 1919, inclusive, was 25.2 bushels per acre. During this same period Power yielded 20.8 bushels and Haynes Bluestem 18.6 bushels per acre. During the 6-year period, 1914 to 1919, in- clusive, Kubanka yielded an average of 27 bushels per acre. The next highest yielding variety was Champlain, which produced 22 bushels per acre. Marquis during this period yielded only 20 bushels per acre. This was partly due to poor growth in 1917 and 1919. In 1917 the Marquis was sown at 4 pecks per acre, by mistake, while the other varieties were sown at the rate of 5 pecks per acre. The CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. A” average yield of Power is 1.6 bushels per acre higher than Marquis, but because of the irregularities just mentioned this difference may not be significant. Marquis is the leading variety of wheat in the vicinity of Newell and, because of its high quality, earliness, and short, strong straw, is probably to be preferred to other common wheats for growing on irrigated land. The Kubanka, a durum wheat, has outyielded all other varieties to such an extent as to make it the most profitable variety. Even at the lower price obtained for irrigated durum wheat, the net_return doubtless will be higher than from any of the common wheats. Taste XXXIII.—Yields of the varieties of spring wheat grown on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1912 to 1919, inclusive. Yields per acre (bushels). lC.1 | Average. Class, group, and variety. lene | | | i 1912a | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 1912 | 1914 | to to | 1919 | 1919 COMMON. Fife: | WMIGTROWUGS o Coa oo sos oobdescoued Pern Basese | 18.3 | 18.3 | 18.0 5410200 15 1735..08 |p On 4s eas 20. 0 POwWere epee nels: 19.5 | 17.0 | 17.0} 14.7] 8.4] 27.3 | 35.0 | 27.5 | 20.8 | 21.6 Saskatchewan Fife. apr | Rena | cares ger eS VAT AOR re esc reteset tien src eee aren lived cera ee aa Ghirka Spring........--.-.... OR OR eece eres es cbcoS4 peeeoa acetal laeanra Shanna messca iabeas Bluestem: Haynes Bluestem....-........ 22.0 | 14.2 | 15.4] 11.5] 7.3 | 19.8 | 30.7 | 27.5 | 18.6] 18.7 Preston: Champ laine yao eee see ees |U 4S ae eal eine LOS O23 On5n (229. Or lodeOn|-2ioeleceisce 22.0 Unclassified: j Regenerated Defiance....-.... 3703 |...-.. Seats) £0 |) sea aacoclloSsaccslcasooclosescalnosson MD ICKLOW eee crs eee sine BOOS He Saeoau les crak [Severe mia enlerciaisere Sac cisalcieecios NRO Sal aes Saamer DURUM EA CTING Se mame une a mm en 02S a Rte Es YtsY. ia te cael gra ate Late I a Oe an bee ae BOYZ booed ete | eee TES] ope a ee Pe Ae a 1440 | 20.8 | 18.6 | 22.8 | 22.0 | 20.6 | 25.2 | 41.7 | 29.7 | 25.2 | 27.0 a Grown in single plats in 1912. b Sown at a lower rate. _ The Haynes Bluestem variety is late, easily injured by rust, easily shattered when ripe, and a rather poor yielder. The average yield of this variety during the 8-year period is 6.6 bushels per acre less than Kubanka. The Champlain variety, also called Pringle’s Champion, is an awned variety having semihard to hard red kernels. This wheat is apparently of lower quality than Marquis, Power, or Haynes Blue- stem. Two varieties of white wheats have been grown, but without much success. The Regenerated Defiance was severely injured by rust in both 1915 and 1916 and was discontinued from the experiments. The Dicklow variety, a soft white wheat extensively grown under irriga- tion in Idaho, was included in the experiments in 1919 only. It was outyielded by all varieties except Marquis, which yielded the same. 48 BULLETIN 1039, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Acme variety, a rust-resistant durum wheat originated at the Highmore (S. Dak.) substation, has not yielded as well as Kubanka under irrigation. TABLE XXXIV.—Average agronomic data for five varieties of spring wheat grown on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1914 io 1917, inclusive, and in 1919. Date of— Yields per acre. ae ge Weight pe Class, group, and variety. Nth | en aE eames ELelehts per Heading. | Maturity. bushel. | Grain. | Straw. COMMON. Fife: Inches. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. IMAT QUIS! sae eee oer nee 3276 | July 13} Aug. 8 29 58. 3 17.0 1, 409 RO Wer scte sone te ee ene 3025 | July 15 | Aug. 10 31 58. 6 19.0 1,729 Bluestem: Haynes Bluestem. acc saee 2874 | July 17 | Aug. 14 35 56. 0 16.3 1, 666 Preston: Champlainee lee c-2 cee See 4872 | July 14} Aug. 10 33 57.7 18.9 1,511 DURUM. Kubanksss sesso) Gaeta ae | 1440 | July 12] Aug. 11 35 62.3 24.1 1, 708 tt Table X X-XIV shows the average dates of heading and maturity, the average height, weight per bushel, and yields of grain and straw of five of the varieties of spring wheat grown from 1914 to 1917, inclusive, and in 1919. The Marquis variety is the earliest and shortest. The Haynes Bluestem averaged six days later in maturity than Marquis and gave the lowest weight per bushel of any of the varieties. Kubanka, a durum wheat, had an average weight per bushel of 62.3 pounds. NURSERY EXPERIMENTS. The nursery experiments with spring wheat on the irrigated land consisted in the growing of a considerable number of foreign varieties in preliminary row tests. Nothing of unusual value was observed in the experiments. WINTER WHEAT. VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS. The varietal experiments with winter wheat under irrigation were begun in the fall of 1914, when seven varieties and strains were sown. The wheat was sown on land which had been both irrigated and summer-fallowed and was thus in excellent condition for pro- ducing a crop. The resulting yields were quite large, but this was partly due to the very favorable season of 1915. In 1916 and 1918 the winter-wheat varieties were sown on corn- land which was irrigated, disked, and harrowed before seeding. Figure 15 shows construction of a ditch to irrigate the cornland before sowing winter wheat. The 1916 crop was greatly reduced by CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 49 stem rust. The wheat did not fully emerge in the fall of 1917. The 1917 crop was sown on beet land which had previously produced alfalfa. The wheat was partly destroyed by an accidental flooding late in the fall. Although the stands were thin the yields were fairly high in 1917. The annual and average yields are shown in Table XXXYV. Fig. 15.—Constructing an irrigation ditch on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm. The corn ground is irrigated before sowing it to winter wheat. TABLE XXXYV.—Yields of varieties of winter wheat grown on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1915 to 1918, inclusive. Yields per acre (bushels). Group and variety. C. 1. No. | 1915 1916 1917 1918 Average. 5 H Crimean: | Beloglinate sel ee 5.8 ae eee 1667 @ 52.1 8.7 30.7 24.0 28.9 RGN ANK Of esa sie eS eee aa eS EE 1583 66. 3 11.3 29.5 23.4 32.6 | ID Os gacaa ewe cures ie a neon 4207 (Br ee ae ee cl ey anes ae Fae ee ees ate fen} || Miankeyo eee 5 oo e ere Sela oko a en SWE) Ilonaaccaces 8.7 26.7 PACS Ne ee ee es | “ fukeyaSelechl Onmemserse a e eee eee 3055-159 66. 6 11.5 31.0 26. 5 33. 9 Alton: Alton (Ghirka Winter)..........-... 14385 |e 8.8 TON ee ae See ete INFO SATO HON oo acconesacceeccusue 5297 59. 1 5.2 28. 5 26.5 29. 8 AD) OMe reer No Oe Neg Remar ecm e 5298 NGS | Stes eas a sae e cata eae genase WEE Se ratoe ST) at eR Sh ar foe Pe 1437-394 ION Reema ye Gee eae Beha se ee nee eencas | | | a One plat only. In Table XXXV it will be observed that the Turkey selection, No. 3055-159, produced the highest yield each year. This strain ] 50 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. averaged 1.3 bushels per acre more than Kharkof, C. I. No. 1583, and also considerably outyielded the parent variety, Turkey, C. I. No. 3055, during the three years the latter was grown. The Be- loghina yielded nearly as much as the other Crimean strains except in 1915, when only a single plat of that variety was grown, this being in an unfavorable location. The awnless strains of the Alton (Ghirka Winter) group yielded . less than the awned varieties of the Crimean group. The Alton variety was grown only in 1916 and 1917 and did not appear prom- ising. ‘Three other strains or selections of a type similar to Alton have been grown. Only one, C. I. No. 5297, an awnless selection or separation from Kharkof, was grown during each of the four years. Although this variety yielded somewhat less than Kharkof, it has the advantage of being awnless and is probably nearly equal to Kharkof in quality. RATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENTS. Rate-of-seeding experiments with Kharkof wheat, C. I. No. 1442, were begun in the fall of 1915. The wheat was sown in triplicated fiftieth-acre plats at the rates of 3, 4, 5, and 6 pecks per acre. Re- sults were obtained during three seasons. The wheat was badly rusted in 1916, under which conditions the highest yields were obtained from the thickly sown plats. In 1917 and 1918 emergence was late and the stands of wheat were thin in the spring. The wheat was sown rather late during each of the three seasons, because of having to wait for the removal of the corn or root crop before preparing the land for wheat. The yields are shown in Table XXXVI. TABLE XXXVI.—Yields of Kharkof winter wheat grown in rate-of-seeding experiments on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1916 to 1918, inclusive. Yields per acre (bushels). Rate of seeding per acre. 1916 1917 1918 Average. BHO CEE Se SOG SSA SRA Ges aan ml aa eRe Sunt nil oer me 8.3 33. 1 23.6 21.7 ATC CKSE Sere eo pe ETS eke ER eee ecciat one atte ate re SER SN 10. 1 34.0 28. 0 24.0 SSD OCS Senses etcetera ee etree tee eee eset Os ae ole CURE eros 10. 2 33. 5 31.4 25.0 Gi DECKS ae aren nea eee acta rata (eterna hac ere Snr eevRSS TS | 10.7 31.6 29.7 24.0 The highest average yield was obtained from the plats sown at the rate of 5 pecks per acre. The 6-peck rate gave the highest yield in 1916, the 4-peck rate in 1917, and the 5-peck rate in 1918. When the wheat is sown late the rate of seeding should be 5 pecks per acre. A seeding of less than 4 pecks per acre may be expected to cause reduced yields. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. Hill DEPTH-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENTS. Depth-of-seeding experiments with Kharkof winter wheats were conducted on irrigated land in 1917 and 1918. Only one fiftieth-acre plat was sown at each depth in 1917, but in 1918 the experiment was triplicated. The yields are shown in Table XX XVII. TasLeE XXXVII.—Yields of Kharkof winter wheat grown in depth-of-seeding experiments on irrigated land in 1917 and 1918. Yields per acre (bushels). Depth of seeding. 1917 | 1918 | Average. ITH Se es ea ai ens oi OE en eee ear beta re an Ce ane 24.5 35.9 30. 2 TUS TTA) VSS 55S GE SS cl ye eg ie ee a oe REN a cA oa San 30. 0 34. 2 32.1 PE MAGNONS SSS Ge as Gee ale ae eae ek NR LV Dap ne Ee oe 4G = lad es 28. 5 32.3 30. 4 In 1917 the seeding at a depth of 14 inches gave the highest yield, while in 1918 the highest average yield was obtained from seeding at a depth of 1 inch. The 14-inch depth of seeding gave the highest average yield for the two years and, although the results are not very conclusive, this appears to be the most favorable depth. COMPARISON OF SPRING AND WINTER WHEATS. In 1916, 1917, and 1918, three plats of Kubanka durum spring wheat were sown in the spring in the same series with the winter- wheat varieties for comparison. During each of these years Ku- banka considerably outyielded all of the winter-wheat varieties. In 1915 the winter wheat was sown under very favorable soil conditions and the yield was unusually high. The 4-year average yield of Kharkof, C. I. No. 1583, winter wheat was 32.6 bushels per acre, while Kubanka spring wheat yielded an average of 27.3 ‘bushels. Because of the conditions in 1915, however, these yields are not quite comparable. In the irrigated rotation experiments on the Belle Fourche Ex- periment Farm, conducted by the Office of Western Irrigation Agri- culture, spring and winter wheat have been grown in continuous culture in adjoining plats each year since 1913. Since 1915 this test has been duplicated in another part of the rotation field on better soil. The yields on this good soil have been nearly twice as high as on the poorer soil. The average yields from the good and poor plats are used for comparison from 1915 to 1919, inclusive. The same variety of spring wheat was not used during all seasons. From 1913 to 1915, inclusive, Regenerated Defiance, C. I. No. 3703, was the variety used. In 1916 Marquis, C. I. No. 3276, was sown, but since 1917 Kubanka durum spring wheat was used. Because of the 52 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. greater yielding power and rust resistance of Kubanka, the yields of spring wheat doubtless would have been much higher had this variety been sown in the earlier years of the experiment. _ The annual and average yields of spring and winter wheat in these experiments are shown in Table XX XVIII. TABLE XNXVIII.—Yields of winter and spring wheat varieties grown continu- ously in adjoining plats on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1913 to 1919, inclusive.® Yields per acre (bushels). Group. | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 ae | | Wirtens che cswoe corer oh en tmeee 7.7 |. 29.4) . 32:7) 10-9 |) *18.1)| <. 1952)) IDEAS eects princi sit tert apen eee rues 15:5] 19,2 a 8.61. 24:5 |. 1774" eat eas eestOnO | «Data from rotation experiments of the Office of Western Irrigation Agriculture. + Single plats in 1913 and 1914; average of two plats, 1915 to 1919, inclusive. ¢ Regenerated Defiance, C. I. No. 3703, in 1913, 1914, and 1915; Marquis, C. I., No. 3276, in 1916; and Kubanka, C. I., No. 1440, in 1917, 1918, and 1919. Winter wheat outyielded spring wheat in these experiments in four out of seven years. The 7-year average yield of Turkey winter wheat was 18.6 bushels per acre. The adjoining plats of spring wheat produced an average yield of 16.9 bushels during the same period. In general, winter wheat may be slightly more productive than spring wheat under irrigation, but in many seasons the reverse is true. Winter wheat is not as well suited to growing under irriga- tion as spring wheat because of the rotation scheme. Wheat on irrigated land is usually sown after an intertilled crop, such as corn, roots, or potatoes. These crops are usually not removed from the ground until rather late for sowing winter wheat. When winter wheat is sown following a small-grain crop, it is necessary to plow and irrigate the land rather promptly after the previous crop is thrashed. Spring wheat also is a more convenient nurse crop for alfalfa, sweet clover, or grasses, which frequently are sown with the grain. EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS. VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS. The experiments with oat varieties under irrigation were begun in 1912. Fifteen varieties have been grown in plats, but only four of these were grown during all of the eight years. Fair or good crops were obtained each season, but the yields are not large. The crop was almost free from diseases or other injury, so that the yields were chiefly limited by the character of the growing season, seed bed, and soil fertility. The yields of the oat varieties are shown in Table XXXIX. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 53 During the 8-year period, 1912 to 1919, inclusive, the White Russian variety averaged 51.7 bushels per acre. This was higher than any of the other varieties grown during the period. The aver- age yield of White Russian during the 5-year period, 1915 to 1919, in- clusive, was 57.9 bushels per acre. A panicle and spikelets of the White Russian oat _ . are shown in figure 16. During this same period the Sil- vermine variety av- eraged 58.2 bushels per acre. Panicles and spikelets of the Silvermine and Swedish Select vari- eties are shown in meoune be. “lhe Sixty-Day variety averaged only 47.3 bushels. These yields are shown graphically in fig- ure 18. Early oats do not appear to be well adapted to the ir- rigated land at Newell. The Sixty-Day oat is a small, short- strawed, yellow va- riety which matures very early. It ma- tures too early to make the best use of the irrigation water supply, but is well adapted to the dry land. Because of its slow maturity the White Russian, a late side or horse-mane oat, is able to utilize the soil moisture and to occupy more of the growing season. Of the midseason varieties, Silvermine has given the highest yields and is perhaps the best variety for the irrigated lands. Several other midseason varieties, such as Cana- dian and Swedish Select, produce large, plump grains, but the average yields have been less than White Russian and Silvermine. Fic. 16.—Panicle and spikelets of the White Russian oat. 54 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fic. 17.—Panicles and spikelets of oats, two varieties ; 1, Silvermine; 2, Swedish Select. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERI Tas MENT’ FARM. 55 TABLE XXXIX.—Yields of the oat varieties grown on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Hxperiment Farm, 1912 to 1917, inclusive. Yields per acre (bushels). . | | Aver- Group and variety. Car: age | 1915 No. 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 | 1912 | to to |1919. 1919 Early: | SiRGyeD tyeeeee acc sess ose cc 165 | 25.0 | 47.1 | 32.5 | 34.0 | 28.8 | 51.5] 75.0 | 47.2 | 42.6 | 47.3 ah ersOmesee nie ee 459°) 30.42). 222 .- | espe freee asl evetarserall Marat oe | eyelets aral oan SC Lae Albion (Iowa No.108)..-...- (EAE SB acl abones Neen Sl Sacece UE leas coalnacadelsadcos|ucsooa|seuude Richland(IowaNo.105)....| 787 |......|...-:-).---- Rees TRS Re a csese easeesesd eee ns ce NE Wal Do Midseason: Swedish Select.............. 134 | 35.2 | 33.0 | 41.6 | 46.5 | 39.6 | 54.6 | 77.9 | 52.1 | 47.2 | 54.1 @Wanadiamee een eee 444 | 31.2 | 39.3 | 42.4 | 44.7 | 25.9 | 65.8 | 85.2] 50.5] 48.1) 54.4 MIM COlmesee eee ecu marcisoueke ASIC Peace ee alae SOR AWS Ose | Ooe Si lind aacoil| eaters | sce [ieee Silviermine sins ecicens sete CRSP A Resta asin i as EE GC 52.3 | 41.6 | 61.1 | 79.2} 56.8 ]_....- 58. 2 Pete Edwardsa............. CLASSE aa ee 50.7 | 51.8 | 37.4) 57.8 | 73.7] 61.0 ].....- 56. 3 Aipundancel sc ce. sc. c- se cee PSO} |Salad wo (Paes SOON RO Moi OS Petiaeudinl miners | eau neers (CIA IDEN 6c SoSBeeocepesbod Seneese Seaeee emer Keb sslanocoallaseons (aSoaes Sera leroscoltaccess ene sce New White Danish..........|......-. I echeiaeiat| ese eicesleccaae ta leis meee Oba Oh eeaterees teeter | tera eee | epee Late: | Mammoth Cluster..........- UD Saeed eanhe AS wines ee OY. ears merce a erat een al Lae White Russian.............. 551 | 41.4 | 33.7 | 48.6 | 52.8 | 42.1 | 56.2 | 75.3 | 63.0 | 51.7 57.9 White Tartarian............. SOOT AOS Sialic iS aii ahead | oes is ee ROR le | Ap a A local variety of the Swedish Select type. LARLY: SIXTY DAY WWOSERISON-: SWEDISH SELECT CANAOIANM SMVERWUINE LATE SIDE: WHITE RUSSIAIN YIELO PER ACRE r=) GO FO Fig. 18.—Diagram showing the average yields, in bushels per acre, of five varieties of oats on irrigated land at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm for the 5-year period from 1915 to 1919, inclusive. TABLE XL:—Average agronomic data of oat varieties grown on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1912 to 1917, inclusive, and in 1919. Group and variety. re t Early yellow: : SIV ave ete sates ae 165 Midseason white: Maayan ees eee eee ae 444 Swedish Select....-............ 134 Late side: White Russian..............- Sle cook Date of— Weight Yields per acre. Height. per Heading.|Maturity. bushel. | Grain. | Straw. Inches. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. July 41] July 26 2 By Air/ 38.0 1, 035. July 13 | Aug. 2 33 36.3 42.7 1,498 July 14) Aug. 5 31 34.9 42.8 1, 408 July 19 | Aug. 13 33 33.7 48.3 1,793 Table XL shows the average dates of heading and maturity, height, weight per bushel, and yields of grain and straw of the four oat 56 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. varieties grown from 1912 to 1919, inclusive. The results for 1918 are not included. During this period the Sixty-Day variety matured 7 days earlier than Canadian, 10 days earlier than Swedish Select, and 18 days earlier than White Russian. The Sixty-Day oat was also shorter and had a lower weight per bushel than the other varieties. RATE-OF-SEEDING EXPERIMENTS. Silvermine. oats were grown in rate-of-seeding experiments at Newell in 1918 and 1919. The seed was sown at four different rates, viz, 6, 8, 10, and 12 pecks per acre, in triplicated fiftieth-acre plats. The yields are shown in Table XLI. TABLE XLI.—Yields of Silvermine oats grown in rate-of-seeding experiments on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1918 and 1919. Yields per acre (bushels). Rate of seeding per acre. 7 1918 _|1919 Average. OSPOCKS |e eres a oer me See oon Rete Se ee eee i a ee ee Ne see sen 77.1 | 58.5 | 67.8 SAPD OCIS es ae SE tee apt et alee cha cate Neer Teen aie he ences SEE ANS ea 79.9 | 61.7 70.8 OMeCKS Sst see Sess Sie een lee me Senate Serene e edo tee eee eee 73.2 | 64.6 | 68.9 DI ZID OCIS Bee Saree erate pe Se Se eee ere 69.6 | €3.3 66.5 The 8-peck seeding gave the highest yield in 1918 and the 10-peck seeding in 1919. The yields were good and quite uniform in both seasons. The average yield from the 8-peck seeding was 70.8 bushels and from the 10-peck seeding 68.9 bushels per acre, with the 6-peck and 12-peck seedings yielding slightly less. At Newell 8 pecks per acre seems to be sufficient seed for Silvermine oats, but for greater certainty of crop the seeding of 10 pecks per acre would be desirable. EXPERIMENTS WITH BARLEY. VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS. Eleven varieties of barley have been grown on irrigated land at Newell. None of these were grown during all of the eight years from 1912 to 1919, but four varieties were grown continuously for six years. The yields i general were not very large, but good crops were harvested in 1915, 1917, and 1918. The yields are shown in Table XLII. The Chevalier II variety produced the highest average yield, 38.5 bushels per acre, from 1914 to 1919, inclusive. This variety also gave the highest yield during the three years 1917 to 1919. A head of Chevalier II barley is shown in figure 19. The Trebi variety yielded nearly as well. The former is a late 2-rowed barley which is able to develop fully in the presence of sufficient soil moisture. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM, The Hannchen variety, which was grown during four of the eight years from 1 Rito 1919. is slightly earlier than the Chevalier IJ, and it probably will yield nearly as well. The Chevalier II is a selected strain of the Chevalier, de- veloped at the Svalof Ex- periment Station in Swe- den. A field of Chevalier being irrigated is shown in figure 20. The Trebi is the latest and also the highest yielding of the 6-rowed varieties grown. This variety is also well _ adapted to the irrigated sec- tions of Idaho. The Coast- variety yielded an average of 43 bushels per acre. This variety has strong persist- ent awns, which make it harder to thrash and _ less desirable for feeding than the other varieties. The erain has a bluish appear- ance. The different strains of Manchuria do not seem to be well adapted to the irri- gated land at Newell, as the yields are less than from the other varieties. The Man- churia barley is the one most commonly grown throughout the Dakotas and Minnesota. The Himalaya (or Guy Mayle) is a blue hull-less variety, having awned spikes. When the amount of hull on the hulled varie- — ties is considered the Hima- laya has yielded about as well as any of the 6-rowed Fig. 19.—Heads of two varicties of barley: Chevalier; 2, Nepal. 57 1, 58 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. varieties with the exception of Trebi. The Nepal (White Hull-less) variety has not given good yields, its only advantage appearing to be the lack of awns. A head of Nepal barley is shown in figure 19. Fic. 20.—Irrigating a field of Chevalier barley on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, TABLE XLII.—Yields of varieties of barley grown on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1912 to 1919, inclusive. Group and variety. ni A Six-rowed, hulled: Coasts se eee eee eee 690 Manchuria (Wis. No. 13)-..-...- 905 Manchuria (Minn. No. 6)-.... 638 Manchuria (Minn. No. 105)--.| 354 Odessa’ Dasschecnneee eee 182 Treble. sos se iese acoso en hasoeae 936 Two-rowed, hulled: Chevaliers 3s tees pence 1162 Chevalier asc -pea eee eeeee 530 Fann chenteeeese cece 531 Six-rowed, naked: Himalaya (Guy Mayle)....... 620 Six-rowed hooded, naked: Nepal(White Hull-less).....- 595 Yields per acre (bushels). | | Average. | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 | j944 | 3917 | to to | | . | 1919 | 1919 | | | ae ts beeen oe | 23.0] 15.2 | 37.9 | 65.6 | 25.4 |.....-] 43.0 potas 25.8 | 21.8 | 20.9 | 14.7 | 23.9 | 66.7 | 17.7 | 27-6 | 36.1 16:9 Veeco acct leo ce -| Seca. |e cce| se ee ee ee ee eee OE Eye [Atte ene eee i EE esse lsecaoe LT. 42) = 2282 arte ca] on coed] oes oel eons S| eee eee Eee eee Mico (2 || Mia eee 38.0 | 75.9 | 28.8|......| 47.6 | a | eee 96.8 |(37.2) | 23.2) |o22.. |Lceee| ee ee ee 13501 seen 23.0 | 39.2 | 23.9 | 38.5 | 74.3 | 32.0] 38.5 | 48.3 19.8 | 32.9 | 15.0 |...-..| 25.1 |:40,-7:|- Sees | ae ae eee 20 3 96.6 | 23.4 | 17.5 | 23.7 | 62.7.1 17.5 | 28.6] 346 Orr] ue t 19.2 | 20.4 | 14.9 | 22.3 | 51.6 | 18.4 | 24.5] 30.8 Table XLIIT shows the average dates of heading and maturity, height, weight per bushel, and yields of grain and straw of four varieties of barley grown from 1914 to 1917, inclusive, and 1919. The average yields of these four varieties are also shown in figure 21. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 59 The Chevalier II is taller, later, and produces much higher yields than the other varieties. Taste XLIII.—Average agronomic data of four varieties of barley grown on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1914 to 1917, inclusive, and in 1919. : Date of— Weight Yields per acre. : C.I : ¢ Group and variety. exited | coeiaracasra ray emaeaERRREE RL Cl Gl bs per p No. Head- Matur- bushel. meta ity. Grain. Straw. Inches. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds. 26 47.7 Man Chuniasseenesciicsece ssc: 905 | July 10] Aug. 7 19.8 1,145 Two-rowed, hulled: Chevalier Mee eee ne 530 | July 17] Aug. 17 27 50. 1 31.3 1, 472 Six-rowed, naked: sli AEN céosascecondeaenaoeae 620] July 9] Aug. 4 23 60. 0 21.7 995 Six-rowed, hooded, naked: Nee lloes chesdoassoesHeaseeseoe 595 | July 10] Aug. 6 25 60.3 19.0 917 a Average for four years, 1915, 1916, 1917, and 1919. NURSERY EXPERIMENTS. About 35 varieties of barley, representing a wide range of types, were grown in 17-foot rows under irrigation in 1917 and 1919. The YIELD PER ACRE a SIX-ROWED HULLEO: MANCHU ARIA 7WO0-ROWED HULLED: CHEVALIER IT 81X-ROWED NAKED: HIMALAYA SYX-ROWED HOOLED, NAKED: NEPAL ieee Fig. 21.—Diagram showing the average yields, in bushels per acre, of four varieties of barley on irrigated land at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm for the 6-year period from 1914 to 1919, inclusive. object was to observe the behavior of the varieties under irrigated conditions. In general the late varieties produced the highest yields, which was in accordance with the results from the plat experiments. Further tests would be necessary to determine definitely the yields in comparison with the varieties grown in plats. EXPERIMENTS WITH MINOR CEREALS. SPRING EMMER. One variety of spring emmer, Vernal (White Spring), has been grown under irrigation each year in comparison with either the barley or oat varieties. The soil and preparation have been the same each year for both oats and barley, and usually spring wheat also, so that these crops can be compared directly with the emmer. 60 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - The yields of emmer have ranged from 24.5 bushels in 1912 to 88 bushels per acre in 1918, with an average of 48.1 bushels of 32 pounds each per acre. ‘The yields of Vernal emmer in pounds per acre for the five years from 1915 to 1919, inclusive, are shown in Table XLVIII (p. 65), which gives a comparison of the yields of the grain crops. During this period Vernal emmer yielded an average of 1,911 pounds per acre, Kubanka wheat 1,667 pounds, Chevalier IT barley 2,016 pounds, and White Russian oats 1,852 pounds. Emmer is used as a feed crop and thus competes only with barley and oats. The results obtained at Newell on irrigated land show that barley is a more profitable feed crop than emmer, and it also has a higher feeding value. WINTER EMMER AND SPELT. One variety of emmer (Buffum Black Winter) and one of spelt (Brown Winter) were grown on irrigated land along with the winter- wheat varieties in 1916 and 1917. Single plats of each were sown. During the winter of 1915-16 a part of these crops was winterkilled, so that the stands were thin. The emmer yielded at the rate of 425 pounds and the spelt 100 pounds per acre. Kharkof winter wheat in the same series yielded 678 pounds per acre. The winter of 1916— 17 was more severe, and both the emmer and spelt were almost en- tirely winterkilled. The plats were disked to destroy weeds. Kharkof winter wheat in the same series yielded 1.394 pounds per acre. Neither winter emmer nor winter spelt are sufficiently hardy to be safely grown in western South Dakota. They yield less and are also less valuable than winter wheat. RYE. Two varieties of winter rye were grown in the experiments along with the winter-wheat varieties on irrigated land from 1915 to 1918, inclusive. The rye was sown at the rate of 5 pecks per acre. Winter rye is more hardy and consequently more certain than winter wheat. The yields obtained from the rye were less in pounds per acre than the wheat yields in all years. The average acre yield of the Swedish rye during the four years was 23.6 bushels of 56 pounds each, while Kharkof wheat during the same period averaged 32.6 bushels of 60 pounds each. The North Dakota No. 959 rye averaged only 0.9 bushel per acre less than the Swedish. This was partly due to the former being on poorer land in 1915. The North Dakota No. 959 rye is probably the hardier, but both are sufficiently hardy for the climate at Newell. The yields of rye in comparison with Kharkof winter wheat are shown in Table XLIV. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 61 TABLE XLIV.—Comparison of the yields of two varieties of winter rye and of Kharkof winter wheat on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1915 to 1918, inclusive. [Yields of wheat computed at 60 pounds per bushel, rye at 56 pounds per bushel. ] — Yields per acre (bushels). Crop and variety. C.1. No. 1915 1916 1917 1918 | Average. | ia ei ea Rye: Swwedishe@Mamm=NiO:'2) ic: en. - cet cee 137 44.6 10.8 2153 aly fas) | 23.6 ING IDEN INOS OR Ses aa soe eeeaneseeasric 175 a 38.8 M7 / 25.4 14.8 22.7 Winter wheat: | IOIRIAR OE OL Rae eae eee rE 1583 66.3 11.3 29. 5 DBHAN| bn: 32N6 a One plat only. BUCKWHEAT. Buckwheat was grown only in 1916 and 1917 on irrigated land. In 1916 a plat of about 0.15 acre was sown to buckwheat on May 31 at the rate of 6 pecks per acre. The seed was of the Japanese type obtained locally. The plants were in full bloom during the hottest weather and many of the flowers were blasted. Although consider- able plant growth was made, the plat yielded at the rate of only 21.1 bushels per acre. In 1917 a plat containing about 0.9 acre was sown to buckwheat on June 16. The land was sloping and the buckwheat was injured by the soil washing at the first irrigation. The land also contained a considerable growth of volunteer barley, alfalfa, and weeds, which the buckwheat failed to check. The yield was 12.7 bushels per acre. Buckwheat is not as productive as other grain crops at Newell. PROSO. Proso-was grown only in 1918 and 1919 on irrigated land. It is not well suited to irrigated conditions, and many other late sown crops doubtless are more profitable. The yields were not large dur- ing either season, and in 1919 the crop was damaged considerably by birds. Four varieties of proso were grown under irrigation, the yields of which are shown in Table XLV. TABLE XLV.—Yields of four varieties of proso grown on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1918 and 1919. Yields per acre (bushels). Variety. neo 1918 1919a | Average. \dii® Wels bane Seo ee eh Ss ses ced soce soo sedan scceeesenasdeseacs) 4 21.4 5.9 13.7 TEORGIN Soe SBE sSudeene tase nes oSabos oad caus SedeceeEsesddosrsashacecs 179 1525) BR 10.6 VCO SEUSS Ma ease setae eyes eee rae Dafa ele ata & ni bra SoA seats 61 27.1 16.5 21.8 BlackaViOrone Zhe ere e ee eile soar rer HdSHede rob bacenenade 27 25.9 11.6 18. 8 a Damaged by birds in 1919. 62 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Red Russian variety gave an average yield of 21.8 bushels per acre. while the next highest variety, Black Voronezh, yielded 18.8 bushels per acre. The Hansen variety gave the lowest yields during both seasons. EXPERIMENTS WITH GRAIN MIXTURES. WHEAT, OATS, AND BARLEY MIXTURES. Mixtures of grains, chiefly of barley and oats, have occasionally been grown by farmers. The mixtures are often referred to as “succotash.” An experiment to determine the value of this practice of growing mixed grains on irrigated land was begun at Newell in 1915 and continued for three years, after which further experiments seemed to be unnecessary. The varieties selected were the Chevalier II barley, Swedish Se- lect oats, and Kubanka wheat. From past observations these varieties were known to mature at practically the same time if sown on the same date. This proved to be the case in these experiments. These varieties were well adapted to growing under irrigation, were not easily. shattered at maturity, and were not subject to severe rust injury. . In the plats sown to the single grains the barley was sown at the rate of 6 pecks, the oats at 10 pecks, and the wheat at 5 pecks per acre. The grains were sown with a disk drill which, when set to sow the above quantities, was found from calibration tests to sow the proper measured quantity regardless of bushel weight. In prepar- ing the mixtures the weights per bushel of the grain were first de- termined. The mixtures of two grains contained seed of each to sow half of the quantity of seed used for each grain when sown alone. The mixture of barley, oats, and wheat contained one-third of the quantity of seed used for each grain sown alone. The drill was cali- brated for each mixture so as to sow the proper quantities of mixed grain. The proportions of each grain in the thrashed crop were not determined. The yields of the mixed grains, the grains grown alone, and the average yields of the two or three grains grown alone are shown in Table XLVI. Good yields of all grains were obtained in 1915 and 1917, but the yields in 1916 were reduced somewhat by soil blowing and rust. In 1915 about 10 per cent of the grain from the grains and mixtures was shattered by hail while standing in the shock. The barley had been thrashed before the hail, however, so the yield shown for 1915 has been reduced 10 per cent to make it comparable with the other grains. CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 63 TaBLE XLVI.—Yields.of wheat, oats, and barley, separately and mixtures of these crops, grown on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1915 to 1917, inclusive. Yields per acre (pounds). Crop and mixture. 1915 1916 1917 Average. IB ATI CV pte nee ace sisiel= oS wicicreic nic eae ree sieeaic ae ate nie eieiawletrcts 1, 830 1,108 2,516 1,818 Oats eran rare esticnistecicca Gn see one eciosisans Soci duis sleeps 1, 825 1, 300 2, 325 1, 816 Wiha teeeeeneea Rane lech eek Gilet 3 oh deme 1, 641 1, 083 2,391 1, 705 Barleygandloatseee sme ns sae he se Soke cee Ne ceeens ke ee 1, 950 1, 300 2, 516 1, 922 Barley and wheat..........----.-- Shas an SHES oe ener ees Sones 1,775 1, 083 2, 300 1,719 @atstamdswhea teecer ceciciene ac cis aciee aeiecin se nesta as caer see 1,750 1, 333 2, 225 1,769 BanleyOauswanGawheat: soem scs sac cn Seco ese ase ae moon See 1, 930 1, 283 2, 108 1, 774 Averages of crops grown alone: ; Banleyandloatsra isan. saiacigle Su aisshe eeseneesee med sees 1, 828 1, 204 2, 420 1,817 BarleygamduwiheaGescsc cue cccemsin seeds cse aceon esee eee 1,735 1,095 2, 453 1, 761 Oatsfandhwheatiewee sy eacene Na ck ile Sans tai 1, 733 1,191:| 2,358} 1,760 Barley Oats and WMea bose ciisici= cee\cicis els sclelsinre ain 5)e ie se ersioiete 1,765 1, 164 | 2,411 1, 780 In 1915 all of the mixtures and in 1916 all of the mixtures except the barley and wheat showed higher yields than the averages of the crops grown alone. In 1917 the barley and wheat, oats and wheat, and the barley, oats, and wheat mixtures yielded less than the aver- ages in the grains sown alone. The 3-year average yields show very little advantage in growing the grain mixtures. The barley and oats mixture yielded 105 pounds per acre more than the average of the two crops grown alone, but the other three mixtures yielded nearly the same as the averages of the same grains grown alone. Under the conditions of the experiment the growing of grain mixtures would not be advisable. If the varieties of the different crops had very different habits or periods of growth, increased yields from mixtures might be expected, but this would be offset by the difficulties and losses in harvesting. WHEAT AND FLAX MIXTURES. The experiments with mixtures of wheat and flax were begun in 1916. After the crops had emerged the severe soil blowing early in May destroyed nearly all of the flax plants, both in the mixtures and where sown alone. Most of the wheat plants survived, but the mix- ture experiment was of no value. The mixtures of wheat and flax were again sown in 1917 and 1918. The flax, Damont, C. I. No. 3, was sown at the rate of 15 pounds per acre, whether mixed with wheat or sown alone. The wheat, Marquis, C. I. No. 3641, was sown at the rates of 37 pounds and 75 pounds per acre alone and mixed with flax. The almost total absence of weeds from the plats made the experiment of less value, because the object of the mixture of wheat and flax is to overcome or replace weeds. The relative quantities of wheat and flax produced in the mixtures were determined only in 1917. et 64 BULLETIN 1039, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The yields of the wheat, flax, and the mixtures of both are shown in Table XLVILI. TABLE NLVII.—Yields of far and wheat separately and mixtures of these crops groun on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1917 and 1918. Rates of seeding and yields per acre (pounds). orCE: rields. Seeding. 1917 1918 Average. WB lees de doe oe eves de hc. 2 SR ce 15 941 867 904 : BM ook ts ss So a ee ig is Oo eee oes as = Mixtiire| Oni eikae 1)a7 eeeee | 37} 1.150] 1,408 1,279 Wheatepiecs 22% icc 2iSescee eG. =n tee 37| 1,100| 1,308 1, 204 | - Wax ot 25. oS see Ve ee Se eee ee | 15 | = Minute nay oo ei eee Lees \ 1,425) 1,467] 1,448 Wheat eck. 0:.5.5 2.2 02 ANS, eee Pe, ee | 75| 1,300|° 1,442 1,371 Larger total yields of wheat and flax were obtained from the mix- tures than from either crop grown alone. Wheat predominated in the mixtures. - The value of the practice of growing the mixture of wheat and flax will depend on the relative prices and yields of the two crops. The cost of separating the thrashed crop must also be considered. It was necessary to let the wheat stand for some time after it was ripe before the flax could be harvested, and it was also rather difficult to thrash the flaxseed without cracking many of the wheat grains. COMPARISON OF GRAIN CROPS. In 1912, 1913, and 1914 the only small grains grown in the cereal experiments under irrigation were spring varieties of wheat, oats, barley, and emmer. In 1915 and since several additional grains have been grown. The annual and average yields of the leading varieties of each of the grains grown in 1915 and later are shown in Table XLVIII. Winter wheat and winter rye were grown during only four of the five years from 1915 to 1919, inclusive, while winter spelt, winter emmer, proso, and buckwheat were grown only two years each. In terms of pounds of grain per acre, winter wheat gave the highest yield in 1915, oats in 1916 and 1919, spring wheat in 1917, and barley in 1918. Chevalier II barley has outyielded all other grains during both the 4-year and the 5-year periods, for which the average yields are shown in Table XLVIII. Vernal spring emmer and White Rus- sian oats gave the next highest yields of grain. Winter emmer, win- CEREALS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM. 65 ter spelt, proso, and buckwheat produced rather low yields and are not well adapted to growing at Newell under irrigation, and none of these four crops except proso are at all adapted to the dry-land con- ditions there. TABLE XLVIII.—Yields of the leading varieties of different grain crops grown on irrigated land on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1915 to 1919, inclusive. Yields per acre (pounds). Average. Group and variety. No 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1915 1915 to fo) 1918 1919 Kharkof winter wheat...........-.- 1583 |@ 3,976 G18E |S ASTZ0O5 15394.) 0. eee IDCs eossodec Swedish (Minn. No.2) winter rye... 137 |@ 2, 496 655 | 1,192 980) |S eeeene 1 SSIS | Pees Buffum Black Winter emmer.......- CRB bel Sa aoe 425 Qa ye sre ferciotal| creates etal eet re | Berean Vernal spring emmer...........---.- 1524 | 1,855 | 1,141] 1,845] 2,816] 1,900; 1,914 1,911 Kubanka durum spring wheat.....-. 1440 | 1,320} 1,248) 1,968} 2,016) 1,782] 1,638 1, 667 BrOWMEWANtEMSpelias sacs csc occ ceecccce|sccieeces 100 CU) Fah cee Preps ae [Enea oes acral es A Chevalier Il barley.:.-...--...------- 530 | 1,881 | 1,150] 1,848] 3,567] 1,536) 2,112 2,016 White Russian oats............------ 551 | 1,690| 1,347] 1,798| 2,410] 2,016] 1,811] 1,852 Red Russian proso..............----- iE ee eee Bneeiaaa maceaetic 1,518 O24: aoe Ber aa Japanese buckwheat..............--. | Soee eae resect 1, 042 (1h aeeeeess nenaacee |eicraratoe es epseteeite a Not comparable with spring grains; grown on better soil. EXPERIMENTS WITH FLAX. Flax has been a fairly successful crop on irrigated land. It also is an excellent nurse crop for alfalfa. The yields obtained at Newell YIELD PER ACRE Ss _ £0 1S 20 EUROPEAN SEED? DAM ONT=-----—= RESERLL = 2-2 = === N.DAK. RESISTANT NO52 SHORT FIBER: N.ORK. RESISTANT NO.119- PRIM O08 T~ == 22 === Fic. 22.—Diagram showing the average yields, in bushels per acre, of the leading varieties of flax on irrigated land at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm for the 6-year period from 1914 to 1919, inclusive. were fairly good except in 1913 when the flax was grown on poor land. Some infection of wilt and canker has been observed in the experiments, but the injury usually was very slight. . 133 TPA eon eal oats Naoussa eI Oct. 5 Overrentinerared.s: \ cvtammemaaria pees ncn Bates eli RES I Ral a oe apa Marr24b on Bate. Gy ale epee Bis |S oe ip Repent TNS BNE Os ya Apr. 9 Onlyzonstreesi with ants scams: Co ee ee La eS ESE lenis seen nilteomie ee BN 0) OO )Sserea| eae a NA 648 PAONA L270 ay eave SAL a ob TE Re June 17 Only on trees with ants. MUO ed ees oe 642 | Gel Bl ahcrekte | AR imental | Nazca ea 2 LARS oa SE Coal as erate eae tec ume 29 esses TZ Pease ral ate pares ae SY 2d pmtemrarey | meee cots lias SUA De UIUece Scat ol ie save al Nee cc | DEMONSTRATION PLOT, SECOND 10 ACRES, 676 TREES Sppt-23.0:\o-2082 2... 2 157 266 107 CS: 9 23-20 24 Nov. 5 On 600 trees. Trap nest under 76 trees. Mars 203i sere 391 119 61 | 15 14 8 | Be aeeee Es 19 | 23 26 Apr. 1 COsaV OOH CY eRe cy Cr INR SS a eee eG ie |exsteereyae aodasou BACT Tc tar ital ye esst ea Svs ener eseenttas 5 (tokio oo [Re On 76 trees. Aprs0es2|2. oe | 546 39 10 4 1 57 13 5 | 0 PUNE le | 577 18 5 0 0 75 1 0 | 0 0 QUIN) AR). Elles es eqaere | 593 7 0 0 0 76 0 0 | 0 0 BuRLAP BANDING. Although by winter the ants were controlled and early the follow- ing spring were almost completely eradicated, the mealybugs con- tinued in severe infestations and during the latter part of March were noted to begin descending the tree trunks. The descent continued to increase in April and no large number of natural enemies appeared as was anticipated. It soon appeared that elimination of the ant was not alone sufficient to bring about control of the citrophilus mealy- bug, as had proved the case for the common mealybug. The citro- philus mealybug species was not attacked by either numerous or effective natural enemies. The necessity of artificial means of con- trol to supplement ant eradication was thus at once apparent. A study of the habits of this mealybug showed a spring migration to the trunk and rough places on the main branches where egg masses for the succeeding generation are deposited. The accumula- tion of insects and egg masses in cases of severe infestations, as pre- viously pointed out, became so great as frequently to present the ap- pearance of large tufts of cotton. This massing on the trunk and lower branches presented a favorable point of attack and the spray- ing of these masses with an effective insecticide promised a great re- duction of the total insects present. It was noted, in the case of some trees which had been banded with cotton bands by an orchardist at Upland in 1915, that these acted to attract the ovipositing females beneath them in great masses. Since cotton bands were scattered by the winds and birds, it was decided to substitute burlap and ac- 12 BULLETIN 1040, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fic. 7.—Trunk of lemon tree with burlap band removed showing masses of ovipositing females of the citrophilus mealybug collected under band. cordingly in the spring of 1918 the trees in the demonstration orchard were thus banded. (Fig. 6.) A band of burlap about 6 inches wide was wound around the trunk just below the main branches and caught at each end with a finishing nail. The migrating females CONTROL OF THE CITROPHILUS MEALYBUG. 13 readily collected under the bands preparatory to oviposition. (Ue 9) The success of burlap bands as used on the demonstration plot led the growers throughout the infested area to adopt the practice. This necessitated a large supply of burlap bands and the problem was solved by buying the burlap of 30-inch width in bolts of about 100 yards. The bolts were cut at a printing office under a large paper knife into six rolls, 5 inches in width, which could readily be carried into the orchard and cut in appropriate lengths for individual trees. The ends of each band were fastened over a 4d finishing nail driven into the trunk of the tree. The average orchard of 900 trees was banded with one full bolt of burlap. The average cost in 1919 was as follows: 1 roll burlap (100 yards). NC eee $12. 60 CUNT Sa a es ny ce ea 1. 00 eee ee ee 15 lmahor: (ale itan: je dae) se ee A AC Ie Sa Ro 3. 00 16. 75 Cost per tree, approximately $0.02. During April and May insects continued to descend in great numbers, the burlap bands proving a center of attraction. In cases of light infestation the majority of the descending insects would set- tle beneath the band, and this was particularly true on smooth- barked orange trees. (Fig. 8.) Lemon trees with the more irregu- lar trunks and depressions where the main branches join the trunks offered favored places for the mealybugs to settle, although even these seemed less favored by them than the bands. By the latter part of May hatching started, following which the larve migrated back to the foliage and fruit on the tree. Before this happened the bands were removed and dipped in an effective insecticide, usually pure petroleum distillate, and the trunks were then sprayed. SPRAYING. Spraying operations on the first 10 acres were conducted on May 23 and 24, and on June 6 and 7 on the second 10 acres. Only the main limbs and trunks were sprayed and for this a petroleum dis- tillate-soap emulsion applied with a power sprayer at 150 pounds pressure proved most satisfactory. Two leads of hose with angled Bordeaux nozzles were used. The burlap bands were removed and thoroughly sprayed as the trunks were being sprayed. The formula used was as follows: IONS Hille: DSO ino: RO? Tee ae eros al) Sal =O wi Cl ete aca al! aeons a NOUNS eran 20 A YAVACSTU BES RLU O ae TIES) ce se Cae Tee __gallons__ 200 Tf a lighter oil, as stove distillate, is used, the amount should be increased to 15 gallons. A good agitator is necessary in mixing the spray. After a few 14 BULLETIN 1040, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mM inches of water are in the bottom of the tank, the soap powder is sifted in as the tank is being filled and the agitator is running. The oil is added last before the tank is full. Fic. 8.—Three burlap bands from the trunks of orange trees following spring migration of the citrophilus mealybug. It was felt that the spraying of the bands was not entirely satis- factory unless the greatest care was used, so in subsequent work it was decided to dip them just before spraying. The application, to CONTROL OF THE CITROPHILUS MEALYBUG. 15 be effective, must be thorough and to accomplish this it is necessary to go beneath the tree. The most satisfactory work was done when the nozzle was connected directly to the hose, allowing free manipu- lation in any direction. A long rod should never be used as it does not allow the ready manipulation necessary on heavily branched trees to spray from any direction. The trees on the demonstration plot were of an open type with smooth trunks and high headed, so they could be entered with ease and quickly and thoroughly covered with spray. It required only 34 tanks of spray to cover each of the 10 acres. The cost (1918) is summarized herewith: 35 gallons distillate, at $0.05 per gallon____________________ $1. 75 70 pounds soap powder, at $0.05 per pound__________---___ _ 3. 50 Team and teamster for 14 days_______ catia Mates tne sauna eo) aa) Two men spraying for 14 days_____________ “ Dial sees OS ()()) Gasoline and oil-_________ “3 (AU RSS INS Be i ert Ma aN LS As 2265) Eo baie eter suo BESS a A eae 24. 50 Cost per tree, $0.036. The time, 13 days, included considerable engine trouble. Fifty- two trees were sprayed in 30 minutes. A tank of spray (200 gallons) covered approximately 200 trees. Several days after the spraying the burlap bands, now dry, were replaced on the tree trunks and left for a year. At no time were insects noted under the bands except an occasional one, which the natural enemies destroyed before oviposition was completed. Throughout the following fall and winter (1918-19) it was very difficult to find even individual mealybugs, and the packing house handling the fruit reported it to be cleaner than any that had been turned in during the five preceding years, with an increase of grade amounting to from 30 to 40 per cent. During the spring of 1919 an inspection was made of the demon- stration plot and very few mealybugs and no ants were found. Under the old bands not more than 10 to 12 insects were found on any one tree. The grove was sprayed again by the owner in June of 1919, as outlined above. An inspection in May, 1920, showed a practically clean grove, not more than 5 insects being found under the bands of any tree, and most of the trees were entirely free of mealybugs. EXPERIMENT NO. 2. FARLOW GROVE, 888 TREES. In the summer of 1919 a second demonstration plot was employed which consisted of 10 acres of heavily infested oranges. Ant control and banding had been carried on the previous spring, and the ants were greatly reduced at the time of spraying. In this grove, as in the former, a power sprayer with two leads of hose and Bordeaux 16 BULLETIN 1040, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. nozzles were used. Distillate-soap powder emulsion, soap powder, and water were used, as shown in Table 2, and data were gathered on the efficiency of the different solutions. Before the spraying started a man was sent through to remove the heavily infested bands, dip them in pure distillate, wring them out, and place them to one side to dry. TABLE 2.—Summary of spray operations against the citrophilus mealybug. | | | Average | Average | Average | pot: number | spray Bee | Effective- Spray. | “x. | of trees time | .. | ness of of trees per per | gallons | spray sprayed. agin : [9 perees| 3 tank. tank. | tree. | Min | 5 per cent distillate-soap powder emulsion.-......-- riiital| 59 58 | 3.4 | Excellent. NAVE SD ea er a RS a 69 | 34 85 | 5.7 | Poor. 40 pounds soap to 200 gallons water.............-. | 42 | 42 45 | 4.8| Do. | f Both the water and soap-powder treatments were discontinued, as it was found to be impractical in application to get athorough clean- up of the egg masses. The distillate-soap emulsion was quicker in application and more effective. The bands were replaced shortly after the completion of the spray work, and field observations made from time to time throughout the following year. Though some mealybugs appeared under the bands following the spraying, they were completely controlled by natural enemies and required no further treatment. Throughout the fall and winter no mealybugs were apparent, and in the spring of 1920 so few mealybugs appeared under the bands that hand treatment was all that - was required. The grove is now commercially clean, and there has been a marked increase in the grade of the fruit. The data obtained in this experiment not only demonstrated the practicability and efficiency of the distillate-soap emulsion but also demonstrated the advisability of proper pruning before spraying. The trees on this grove were low on the ground and it was difficult to treat the trunks owing to low branching and inside growth. In consequence of this condition it took much more material and a longer time to make the application. The cost of spraying was as follows: Removing and dipping bands, 1 man, 1 day___=___-=__ = $3. 00 164 tanks spray: 330 pounds soap powder, at $0.07 per pound______-______ 23. 10 165 gallons distillate, at $0.07 per gallon____________ iil, 5355 AM oplanOoe Gie 634! jayeye Gy) Clay eee 16. 00 Meams at: $4sperkdays2) GHySl. oS ae eee 8. 00 Gasoline-andyaili2’ day Sis = 2. eee 2 ee ee 2. 50 2 Da i Lea eS” | 3 Sa dt Oe Oe he 64. 15 Cost of $0.072 per tree. CONTROL OF THE CITROPHILUS MEALYBUG. JL HAND-TREATMENT METHOD. In a 5-acre citrus orchard, comparatively lightly infested with mealybugs and banded early in the spring of 1919, the hand-treat- ment method was effectively employed. This consisted of removing the bands and dipping them in a bucket of 25 per cent distillate- soap emulsion, wringing the bands out dry, scrubbing the trunks with a suitable brush, and replacing the bands. Different strengths of the emulsion were tried with results as shown in Table 3. : TABLE 3.—Results of hand-treatment method against the citrophilus mealybug. Effectiveness— Strength of solution. On adults. | On egg masses. | : | PPDEIRCETUME Em: Were linc His Seles EOS) 2a ee Poor killing........- fees | No effect. OR DCTACCIN Ese tite eee ee eee serie Seo sige 50 per cent killing........... Poor. 24 JOG? GENS ioe Se RO oS ECS es See et elt are se e atf 100 per cent killing.......... | Excellent. The 25 per cent solution is prepared as follows: Place 6 quarts of water in a bucket and thoroughly dissolve $ pound of soap powder. To this slowly add 2 quarts (30° Baumé) distillate while constantly Stirring. Attach the bucket pump and pump the solution back into the bucket through a mist nozzle until a perfect emulsion, free of oil globules, is obtained. The emulsion should be used soon after preparation. Fic. 9.—Adult of Chrysopa californica. Much enlarged. Several growers have used this method successfully on light in- festations, where followed up at intervals of about every two weeks from the middle of May to the latter part of June, at a cost of 2 cents per tree for each treatment. It is as important to effect ant eradi- cation when this method is employed as it is with the regular trunk- spray method. CONTROL WORK—UPLAND DISTRICT, 1919. The great success of the demonstration work of 1917 and 1918 led to the general adoption of the control methods by the growers throughout the infested area. (Fig. 5.) Up to and including 1919 ant control was practiced on 630 acres. The entire mealybug-infested 18 BULLETIN 1040, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. acreage was banded with burlap in the spring of 1919. Of the area infested with the mealybug in that section all but 10 acres were sprayed according to the methods outlined, with excellent results throughout. The 10-acre orchard was left as a check for control by natural enemies. The ant control was handled partly by the growers themselves, partly by the citrus associations of which the orchardists were mem- bers, and partly by contract operators. The sirup was for the most part prepared by the citrus associ- ations, or purchased from druggists at a cost. of $1.50 to $2 a gallon. The spice tin was the _ pre- ferred container. The average cost to the grower for ant control, including refilling where nec- essary, was 4 to 6 cents per tree. The cost of burlap band- Fic. 10.—Adult of Leucopis bella. Greatly enlarged. ing averaged 2 eents per tree. The cost of trunk spraying varied. On dense, unpruned lemon trees, headed low, spraying proved somewhat difficult and slow. The amount of material used on such trees was also greatest. High-headed orange trees with smooth trunks were most easily and effectively sprayed. These spray operations were conducted by the growers and com- mercial outfits and an average of 10 acres a day was covered at a cost approximating the figures given for the two demonstration plots, the cost being more or less proportional to whether the trees were well pruned and open or unpruned and difficult to spray. Work carried out by the owners themselves was for the most part thoroughly done. A few orchards were trunk-treated by hand. The general results of the control campaign of 1919 at Upland were very gratifying. Orchards which had shown severe infesta- tions in the spring of 1919 were commercially clean in the spring of 1920. The reduction in grade or total loss of fruit from mealy- bugs had been reduced to a negligible factor. Packing-house man- agers and growers were convinced that the citrophilus mealybug was no longer a menace to their orchards and that the control of. CONTROL OF THE CITROPHILUS MEALYBUG. 19 this insect was on such an effective commercial basis that timely future attention would effectively hold it in check. NATURAL ENEMIES. Though the ant control, banding, and trunk spraying have given excellent control of the citrophilus mealybug, the importance of its natural enemies in conjunction with this artificial means of con- trol needs emphasis. The nat- ural enemies are very effective against light infestations, if the ants are not present, and even in heavier infestations are impor- tant in assisting to destroy the insects on the foliage and trunks following spray treatment. The most effective natural enemies present in the groves are all predators and appear to rank in order of importance as fol- lows: Chrysopa spp. (fig. 9), Leuco pis bella Loew (fig. 10), Fic. atl of Slemipinats sordidus. and Scymnus sordidus Horn ae ee (fig. 11). They breed freely in the cottony mass of ovipositing fe- males on the trunks, although by no means noticeably reducing the mealybug on heavily infested trees. It is, however, following the migration of the mealybug larve to the tender fruit and foliage that the effectiveness of these nat- ural predators is most felt. Here they search out and destroy the young mealy- ~ bugs, and in the case of light infestations frequently prevent the development in- creasing to severe proportions. Chrysopa and Leucopis are usually most numerous during the late spring and summer, while Scymnus is most effective during the early abel The natural predators of primary im- portance in controlling the common mealy- Fic. 12—Larva of Cryptolae. bug, namely, Sympherobius spp. and pee Much en- Hyperaspis lateralis Muls., are of very secondary value against the citrophilus mealybug. Cryptolaemus montrouzterit Muls. (figs. 12, 13), however, is very effective against either species. This predator was first tried against the citrophilus species by the writers at Alhambra during 20 BULLETIN 1040, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1916 and proved so effective that several hundred were distributed beneath a tented citrus tree at Upland during the autumn of 1917. Some specimens successfully passed the winter and started breeding freely the following spring. The Insectary Branch of the California State Commission of Horticulture followed the writers’ lead and has since distributed many thousands over the Upland district, with such successful returns that the work should be supported and continued. SUMMARY. (1) Ant control. This is most effectively accomplhshed by the use of a special arsenical poisoned sirup in small containers. one to each tree. Best results follow dis- tribution during the autumn or spring. (2) Trunk banding. Strips of burlap about 5 inches wide should be placed around each tree trunk, from February to April, to attract ovipositing fe- male mealybugs. (3) Removal and dipping of burlap bands in distillate. This should precede the trunk spray- ing. The bands should be dry when replaced after the trunk treatment. (4) Trunk treatment. Spray thoroughly with distillate-soap powder emulsion after the mealybugs have massed on the trunks and just before the eggs begin to hatch. This is usually during the latter part of May. (5) The propagation and distribution of Cryptolaemus montrou- ziert, Leucopis bella, Chrysopa spp., and Scymnus sordidus are to be recommended. Fie. 13.—Adult of Cryptolaemus mon- trouzieri. Much enlarged. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution frem the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D.C. W January 11, 1922 A STUDY OF SWEET-POTATO VARIETIES, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THEIR CANNING QUALITY. By C. A. Magoon and C. W. CuLPEpprEr, Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Inproductiony2 =e 2 eek Ly ||; Consistency 22s ae eee 16 Chemical composition of sweet po- Varieties and strains of sweet pota- tatoes sh ke Jee ik ee 3 toes used in these testS_--__--__ a, 23 Hxperimental canning tests___----_ Ge sSUM Mair ya a 30 MIS COlORAL ONE et ss ee iUeieq| Oslieacy abn e CorhyeKel 33 Heat penetration and sterilization__— 16 INTRODUCTION. To the people of the Southern States the sweet potato constitutes one of the most important food crops. Owing, however, to its highly perishable nature in the raw state, the shipment of this crop to dis- — tant markets is attended with considerable risk. The introduction of modern methods of preservation is overcoming some of these difficulties, and the sweet potato is rapidly coming into its own as an important addition to the dietary of the American people, North as well as South. In 1917 the total pack of canned sweet potatoes, according to figures compiled by the United States Food Adminis- tration, amounted to 238,250 cases of cans of all sizes; in 1920 the pack, according to the best figures obtainable, was 473,384 cases (all sizes being reduced to No. 3 cans). For a number of reasons it is important that the canning of sweet potatoes and the wider use of the product by the housewife should be encouraged. The sweet potato, as shown by analysis and by the experience of its users, is very high in food value; it is adapted to a wide variety of culinary uses; and a greater market for the canned product only awaits development. att 2 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) belongs to the same family bo- tanically as the common morning-glory (Convolvulacew). Although it frequently blossoms and even produces seed in the extreme south- ern portions of our country, propagation as practiced is not by the use of seed but of slips and vine cuttings which are set in the field. In vine and leaf characters considerable differences are observed among the varieties, some forming long trailing vines, while in others the trailing habit is greatly restricted or almost entirely absent. The shape and size of the leaves also differ widely, varying from the small entire heart-shaped leaves, which closely resemble those of the morning-glory, to large, shouldered, and even deeply cleft forms, which bear little resemblance to those of their close relative. Con- siderable variations both in size and shape often may be observed upon the same plant. The edible portions of the plant are produced underground as modified and greatly enlarged roots. True tubers, as found in the case of the Irish potato, are never formed. Among varieties these enlarged roots vary greatly in size, shape, color of the skin and of the flesh, in sugar content, and in cooking and table qualities. In contrast to the sweet potatoes usually seen in markets and retail stores the edible roots in certain varieties may attain a length of 18 to 24 inches; in shape they vary all the way from long, cylindrical, root- like forms to spindle-shaped and more or less globoid individuais; and while in certain of the varieties the shape is more or less uniform, in others wide differences are observed in the same plant. The size is variable also, and in some instances individual roots may attain a diameter of 4 to 6 inches, weighing from 5 to 6 pounds. The surface may be smooth and regular, veined, or even deeply grooved. The color of the skin passes through all gradations from almost white to cream, warm buff, cinnamon buff, and light Corinthian red to dark vinaceous; and the flesh among the different varieties may vary from almost white to carrot red in color. When freshly cooked, still further differences are observed. The color of the flesh, which in the raw potato is more or less unevenly distributed, appears more uniformly dispersed in the cooked potato, which may assume cream, buff, empire yellow, orange, or other inter- mediate colors, depending upon the varieties concerned. In some there is a marked tendency to darken on exposure to the air, while in others this is shown to a much less extent. The consistency, texture, flavor, and sweetness also show wide vari- ations. These differences among the varieties, together with their difference in behavior in storage, make the selection of suitable varieties for table use, for the manufacture of numerous sweet-potato products, for commercial storage and shipment, and for the produc- A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. 3 tion of attractive and desirable canned goods of very great impor- tance. The investigations reported upon in this paper were made possible by the presence at the Arlington Experimental Farm, where this work was done, of variety test plats, where upward of 40 varieties and strains of sweet potatoes have been under study for a number of years. J. H. Beattie and C. J. Hunn, of the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, have these varieties under observation, furnished much of the raw material, and otherwise facilitated the work. No claim is made that all varieties are embraced in this study, but all those generally con- sidered as important are included. There has been much confusion in the variety names of sweet potatoes, and it is hoped that. the studies now in progress in the Office of Horticultural and Pomo- logical Investigations will make clear the relationship of the numer- ous strains. It is possible that under different climatic and soil conditions the same varieties might have given slightly different results from those here reported. Comparative canning tests upon potatoes from other sections of the country have not been made, though these would have been of interest. The potatoes used were handled under caretully controlled conditions, and the uniform treatment which they received makes possible a direct comparison of the merits of the different varieties. This has been the object of the work, and it is believed that the information presented will be found of service not only to those interested in the canning of this product but also to those fol- lowing other methods of sweet-potato utilization. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SWEET POTATOES. In entering upon a study of this sort it is necessary to know some-- thing of the chemical composition of the material under consideration. Table 1, taken from the work of Atwater and Bryant (7), shows the chemical composition of both the fresh sweet potato and the canned product. TABLE 1.—Chemical composition and calorific value of fresh and of canned sweet potatoes. Constituents (per cent). Condition. ~ Total Fuel CaEDO- value per Water. | Protein.| Fat. | hydrate | Fiber. Ash. een (inelud- Pt I ing fiber). (calories). HEGEL AW Se cis callers oe icin nicle mere 69.0 1.8 0.7 27.4 ios) ilsak 570 Canned ee bs she Sete ee 55. 2 1.9 4 41.4 .8 sal 820 1 Serial numbers in parentheses (#ialic) refer to “ Literature cited”’ at the end of this bulletin. | 4 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It will be seen from Table 1 that the sweet potato has a low mois- ture content; it is high in total carbohydrates and low in fat, fiber, and protein. ‘The protein content is slightly lower than that of the Irish potato; but about half of the total nitrogen calculated as’ pro- tein in the Irish potato is really in the form of amids, whereas in the sweet potato, as shown by Keitt (77), no amids are present. The low crude-fiber content indicates high digestibility, and the fuel value is also seen to be high. From the standpoint of the canner the acidity of the sweet potato is of considerable importance, since it affects the transformations which take place within the can both during and after processing and likewise has an important bearing upon sterilization. Published data upon this subject, however, are meager. Bigelow and Cath- cart (2) approached the subject from the standpoint of the hydrogen- ion concentration and give the results of six determinations upon canned sweet potatoes from different sources packed in No. 24 and No. 3 cans and processed at different temperatures for variable lengths of time. Their determinations place the P,, value for sweet potatoes at between 5.27 and 5.56, with an average of 5.39. According to the findings of these authors the hydrogen-ion concentration of the canned sweet potatoes is a little lower than string beans and green peppers and shghtly higher than spinach. Lima beans, peas, and corn show a considerably less hydrogen-ion concentration, and pump- kins and carrots somewhat more. In the present investigations the titratable acidity was determined upon the canned material of each of the varieties and strains under study. The material examined was in the form of pie stock, which was packed dry into No.2 tin cans and processed for 45 minutes at 116° C. Samples of 10 grams each were shaken up in 100 c. c. of distilled water, boiled one minute to expel carbon dioxid, and titrated with N/10 NaOH, using phenolphthalein as an indicator. From 3.2 to 7.8 c. c. of the standard alkali were required to neutralize the acidity of these 10-gram samples. These figures represent the extremes, the average of the 48 varieties and strains being 4.5 ¢. c., which shows that the sweet potato is quite low in acidity. The average titratable acidity was slightly higher in samples packed in 1920 than those packed in 1919, but this fact is not considered significant, as in some varieties the acidity was higher in 1919 than in 1920. The differences in acidity among the varieties were small, and in these tests they could not be correlated with keeping qualities, discoloration, or any other significant quality. They therefore seem to be too small to be of importance. The most important constituents of sweet potatoes are the carbo- hydrates, and since the nature and relative proportions of these fundamentally affect the physical character and quality of the A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. 5) canned product it is extremely desirable to know something about them. Shiver (18), McDonnell (75), and Keitt (77, 12, 13) have shown that the sweet potato has a high starch content, with some- what variable quantities of cane sugar and dextrose. The analyses of these writers show the content of starch to vary between about 10 and 29 per cent in the freshly dug potatoes, the average being approximately 20 per cent. Considerable differences in this respect are noted in the varieties at the time of digging. Keitt (72, 13) has given special attention to the moisture content and to the pro- portions of the various carbohydrates in sweet potatoes when dug at different stages of maturity. He notes that in the small potatoes the moisture content is comparatively low, while the starch and sugar are high; then comes a period of rapid growth, during which the water increases and the starch and sugars decrease; and as the potatoes approach maturity the tendency is for the starch to in- crease and the total sugars and water to decrease. The relative proportions of cane sugar and dextrose are shown to vary greatly, dependent apparently upon meteorological conditions. The total sugars during the periods of the tests varied between about 2 and 6 per cent. During the curing process and in storage physiological changes take place which transform part of the starch to sugars and inter- mediate products. ‘These transformations have been followed care- fully by several investigators. Harrington (7) was the first in- vestigator, apparently, to note these changes. In a study of 16 varieties, covering a period of a little more than four months, this worker found that the average water content decreased from 71.35 to 63.5 per cent, the invert sugar increased from 3.17 to 4.63 per cent, and the total sugars increased from 6.27 to 12.31 per cent. Taking as the cane-sugar content the difference between the total sugars and the invert sugar, it is found that the cane sugar increased from 3.1 to 7.68 per cent during this period. Shiver (/S) obtained similar results, but noted a slight increase in the moisture content during storage. He showed, however, that there may be either an increase or a decrease in the moisture content, depending upon the storage conditions. Hasselbring and Hawkins (8, 70) have studied the chemical changes taking place when sweet potatoes are stored at different temperatures. They find a very great decrease in the starch and dextrose and a very great increase in the cane sugar when the potatoes are stored at low temperatures. These authors (9) have also measured the respiration of sweet potatoes during storage and have found some loss in reducing sugars through this cause. Miyaki (77), in studies upon the nature of the sugars found in sweet potatoes, concluded that the reducing sugars consisted of both 6 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. dextrose and levulose and the nonreducing sugar of sucrose. The presence of pentose, galactose, mannose, and maltose was excluded by his tests. No reference has been found in the literature relative to the nature of the coloring substances found in sweet potatoes. The possible relation of some of these to the discoloration of the canned potato makes it of interest to know something of their nature. Qualitative tests made during the course of the present studies strongly indicated that the chief coloring substances in the flesh of the deep-colored varieties belong to the carotinoid group of chemical compounds. ¥’. M. Schertz, of the Office of Soil-Fertility Investigations, kindly made for the writers analyses of material prepared from the Gold Skin potato and reported a finding of about 0.0078 per cent of carotin and a much smaller amount of xanthophyll. In several varieties a deep-purple pigment is present in the skin and cortex. The solu- bility of this pigment together with its chemical characteristics strongly indicates that it is an anthocyan, but isolation of it in pure form was not attempted. It has appeared to be associated to some extent with the discoloration of the canned potato. The gummy latex present in the sweet potato is another substance of considerable interest. ‘There is no published work upon its chemi- cal nature. Carver (4) reported the preparation of a rubber com- pound which was probably made from some constituent of the latex. Whether there is present a true rubber hydrocarbon is not known. — The latex is of interest here because in those varieties showing an abundance of it the tendency of the canned product to discolor is more pronounced. The various strains differ considerably in the apparent quantity of latex which is present. The sweet potato as raw material for the manufacture of numerous products has received considerable attention from several workers. Carver (5) has reported, in addition to the rubber compound men- tioned above, the preparation from it of starch, flour, ink, and adhe- sive. Gore (6) has announced a method of preparing a palatable sirup from the sweet potato. Mangels and Prescott (16) have reported the results of investiga- tions upon the manufacture of sweet-potato flour by the “ flake” process. In books upon canning, the sweet potato is often spoken of and directions given for handling the product, but no comprehensive study of canning problems seems to have been made. EXPERIMENTAL CANNING TESTS. The experimental work upon the problem of canning sweet pota- toes was begun in the fall of 1918. Surplus stocks from variety and A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. tf storage tests were made available, and work was undertaken with the view to determining what varieties were best suited for canning purposes. From preliminary investigations it soon became evident that a satisfactory comparison of the different varieties could be made only after inquiry into a number of problems which presented themselves. What should be the methods used in the preliminary handling of the potatoes before placing them in the cans? What was the nature of the discoloration which occurred, and how could it be avoided? And, from the standpoint of appearance and flavor of the product, what temperatures and time periods should be adopted in the processing of the material in the cans? These were matters which received first attention. As the work progressed new facts and conditions were brought to light, so that it was found necessary to continue the studies over a period of three successive seasons. The problems involved in the canning of sweet potatoes have by no means been exhausted, but it is felt that enough has been done to warrant the presentation of the results so far obtained. These will be considered in the order of their sequence. WORK IN 1918. The sweet potatoes were received at the time of or shortly after digging and were not cured. On the other hand, they were held in open crates in the floor space of a large well-ventilated building, with - no attempt made to control the temperature other than to prevent freezing during the latter part of the season. Experiments were begun at once and continued up to about the middle of December. The tendency of the material to darken on exposure to the air was encountered at the outset of the work. Examination of the potatoes showed that the cortex contained the larger part of the substance causing the darkening, and it was thought that a complete removal of the cortex would greatly diminish the trouble from this cause. Since the entire cortex could not be removed satisfactorily after cooking, it was decided to peel the potatoes before cooking. Consequently, the potatoes were peeled raw and then placed immediately in water until ready for cooking. This excluded the air from them more or less and they turned brown only after long standing in the water. Brine was tried in the place of water, but it proved only slightly more effective than the water alone. Dilute citric acid was very effective, but it gave an undesirable acid taste to the product. The following pro- cedure seemed to offer promise of avoiding most of the difficulties, and it was temporarily adopted : (1) Peeling the potatoes raw, after washing to remove dirt, and cutting the larger potatoes into pieces to facilitate cooking. (2) Rinsing the potatoes in cold water, placing them at once in a steam re- tort, and cooking for 10 minutes at a steam pressure of 10 pounds. 8 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (3) Placing the cooked potatoes at once into No. 3 sanitary tin cans, using a wooden plunger to pack closely and firmly. (4) Placing cans thus filled in the cooker and steaming in flowing steam for 15 minutes. (5) Crimping on the covers, thus tightly sealing. (6) Processing for 70 minutes at a steam pressure of 15 pounds and cooling by placing cans in tiers on the floor of the laboratory. The varieties and strains used in these tests included the Florida, Belmont, General Grant, White “ Yam,” Pierson, Miles, Early Caro- lina, Yellow Strasburg, Early Red Carolina, Red Brazil, Yellow “Yam,” Purple “Yam,” Dooley, Triumph, Porto Rico, Mullihan, Norton, Haiti, Gold Skin, Japanese “ Yam,” Ballinger’s Pride, Big- Stem Jersey, Catawba White, Catawba Yellow, Nancy Hall, Southern Queen, and a number of unnamed strains. Upon opening the canned material for examination the product from all the varieties was found to be quite firm. The so-called moist types were somewhat softer than the dry mealy varieties, but these differences were not very marked. As will be shown later, this was in striking contrast to the findings upon potatoes canned after curing . and storage. On the basis of observations made at this time the Miles appeared to be the best among the light-colored varieties, while the Dooley, Nancy Hall, and Mullihan were best among those with deep- yellow flesh. The Early Red Carolina was best among those inter- mediate in color. ; The necessity of a full pack and a thorough exhaust was made evi- dent by these tests. Cans which were slack filled and processed with the others showed upon opening a marked oxidation of the exposed surface and the materia] immediately underlying it. Those portions from which the air was excluded remained bright, as did also that in the cans properly filled and exhausted. Upon storage the contents of those cans insufficiently exhausted became in most instances entirely black, accompanied with very marked corrosion of the cans. Close comparison of the canning quality of the varieties could not be made from this material, since the processing, which was found too severe, had caramelized some of the sugar, causing a distinct brown- ing in the normally light-fleshed varieties and imparting to all of them a somewhat undesirable caramel flavor. Sweet potatoes packed in glass jars and processed in boiling water for one hour on each of three successive days gave a product far superior to that just de- scribed. It was apparent, therefore, that the matter of the length and temperature of processing would have to be more thoroughly investi- gated before much progress could be made. In the intermittent test just mentioned it was observed that the dis- coloration of the cooked potatoes when exposed to the air promptly disappeared when they were packed in glass jars, partially sealed, and processed in boiling water. Exposure to air, as when an imper- A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. 9 fect seal allowed the air to enter the jar during cooling, resulted in a reappearance of the discoloration; whereas in jars in which the seal was perfect the material remained bright for an indefinite period. It was therefore apparent that peeling while raw had no advantage, and in all subsequent experiments the potatoes were cooked in the skin and peeled afterwards. In order to determine the processing temperature and time periods which would yield the desired quality from the standpoint of appear- ance and flavor, the following experiments were carried out. Potatoes of the three varieties, Nancy Hall, Big-Stem Jersey, and Southern Queen, were washed, placed on trays in a steam chamber, and subjected to flowing steam for 30 minutes. At the end of this time they were removed from the chamber, rapidly peeled by hand, and then passed through a food chopper. This gave uniform material for the tests. One lot of No. 2 and No. 3 cans of each variety was sealed at temperatures ranging from 70° to 80° C., and then another lot was allowed to cool to room temperature and then processed. From each of these lots a series of cans was treated as follows: (1) 1, 2, 8, 4, 5, and 6 hours continuously in boiling water. (2) 1% hours in boiling water on each of three successive days. (3) 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, and 120 minutes in the steam retort at 109° C. (steam pressure about 5 pounds). (4) 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, and 120 minutes at 116° C. (steam pressure about 10 pounds). (5) 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, and 120 minutes at 121° C. (steam pressure about 15 pounds). Examination of the contents of these cans showed that for the present needs the most satisfactory results could be obtained under the conditions described with No. 2 cans processed at 116° C. for 45 minutes and with No. 3 cans treated similarly for one hour. Satis- factory results as to quality were likewise obtained both by the inter- mittent processing in boiling water for 14 hours and by continuous boiling in the water bath for three to four hours. The supply of many of the varieties available for this work hay- ing been exhausted, it was impossible during this first season to carry out complete comparative tests based upon the data thus far obtained. Such material as did remain, however, was canned, and comparisons were made with that handled earlier in the season. The method of preparation of this material was essentially as described under the last experiment, special care being taken that the cans were properly filled with the hot material and sealed at once. No. 2 cans were employed and processing was done in the steam retort at 10 pounds’ steam pressure for 45 minutes. On opening these cans for the examination of the contents it was found that the potato was bright and attractive in color, no caramel- 78646—22 2 10 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ization was apparent to the taste or sight, and the results in general were satisfactory. Comparison of this material with that canned immediately after digging showed it to be far superior in quality, due to the first lot being overprocessed, and a marked difference in the consistency was noted. As before stated, those potatoes canned early in the season were firm and fairly dry, but in these the con- sistency was much less firm, and in such varieties as the Nancy Hall, Porto Rico, and Southern Queen the material was very soft and moist. The work of the earlier investigators upon the transforma- tions in the starch of the sweet potato during storage suggested the possible cause of this difference in the consistency of freshly dug and of stored potatoes, but it was necessary to postpone investiga- tions of this problem until some later date. All canned potatoes not already opened were stored for later comparisons. WORK IN 1919. The work of 1918 showed that sweet potatoes undergo changes in storage which greatly alter the firmness of the canned product and also that these changes differ with varieties. Since a rather com- plete record was secured upon the potatoes canned immediately after digging, it was thought advisable to get also a complete record of their canning qualities after the usual curing and storage.? For this purpose 38 varieties and strains were provided. They were dug on October 1, put into open slatted. crates, and placed at once in the curing rooms. Here the temperature was maintained at about 85° F. for 10 days. At the end of this time they were transferred to the storage room, where the temperature ranged from 55° to 65° F., and were held there until used. The canning tests were made November 19 to 21. The procedure of handling was about the same as that followed during the latter part of the preceding season. The potatoes were washed, cooked in flowing steam for 30 to 40 minutes, peeled rapidly by hand, and passed directly through a food grinder into No. 2 plain sanitary cans. Sealing was done immediately, and the tem- perature of the material averaged 70° to 80° C. The processing was carried out at once, one lot of each variety being given the inter- mittent treatment in boiling water (14 hours on each of three suc- cessive days) and the other being processed in the steam retort at 116° C. for 45 minutes. At the end of the processing periods all cans were removed and cooled in air. Only slight differences in quality could be noted in the material processed according to the two methods mentioned, it being judged *® For information upon curing and storing sweet potatoes, see Farmers’ Bulletin 970, entitled ‘‘ Sweet-Potato Storage.” A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. 11 that the potatoes processed intermittently in boiling water were per- haps slightly superior. The differences, however, were too slight to warrant the use of the more time-consuming and inconvenient in- termittent treatment. On November 26 a series of cans of these potatoes was opened before a committee of judges composed of representatives from the States Relations Service of the United States Department of Agri- culture, the Research Laboratory of the National Canners’ Associa- tion, and the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investiga- tions of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of - Agriculture. In passing judgment upon these samples the committee was requested to consider the following points: (1) Appearance, noting degree of color, brightness of material (or darkening if present), and general attractiveness of the product, having in mind the point of view of the housewife. (2) Quality, noting the consistency, whether firm or soft, moist or dry, etc., the grain or texture of the product, presence of fiber, etc. (3) Taste, noting the degree of sweetness, caramelization if evident, and distinctive flavors. While individual opinions differed somewhat as to the qualities of the various samples, first place was unanimously awarded to the Gold Skin. Others that received favorable comment were Dooley, Porto Rico, Mullihan, Big-Stem Jersey, Yellow Jersey, Belmont, Yellow Strasburg, Early Red Carolina, Vineless Pumpkin “ Yam,” Dahomey, Pumpkin “ Yam,” and Southern Queen. It should be remembered that this exhibit took into account only the quality of the canned product without regard to other important considerations. From the standpoint of the practical canner several matters in addition to the quality of the canned product must be taken into account, such as the yield per acre from any particular variety, the size and shape of the potatoes, and their ease of peeling. As was to be expected, this test showed great differences in the firmness of the canned product. Some varieties, such as the Early Red Carolina and Big-Stem Jersey, were quite firm, while the Nancy Hall, Porto Rico, and some others were very soft. All degrees of firmness were represented among the varieties. This makes it ap- parent that, even with the cured and stored potatoes, by the selection of the proper varieties one may obtain a relatively dry firm pack or a moist one as desired, thus meeting all market demands. Surplus stocks of these canned varieties were stored for com- parison with later packs and to determine the keeping quality of the product. Farther on in the text will be found a descriptive list of the varieties and strains of sweet potatoes used in these studies, and under each will be given a brief summary of the nature of the raw potatoes, iy BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. their yields, canning qualities, and other characters. These descrip- tions may be found of value in choosing the variety or varieties best suited for any particular purpose. CGMPARATIVE CANNING TESTS IN 1920. There remained to be determined the comparative qualities of the different varieties when canned as whole potatoes, and certain of the preblems connected with the canning of sweet potatoes required further investigation. Moreover, several additional varieties were made available for use. It was decided, therefore, to continue the studies for another season in order to make the work as complete as possible. Forty-three varieties and strains were grown especially for this purpose. They were dug on October 14 and 15 and the main portion of each cured and stored, as in 1919. From the Porto Rico, Nancy Hall, Big-Stem Jersey, and Southern Queen varieties a sample was canned immediately; another at the end of 10 days’ curing, when it was transferred to storage; a third sample after 10 days in storage; and a final sample after 20 days in storage. This was done to deter- mine just what effect curing and storage have upon the canning qualities of different types of sweet potatoes. These results will be considered under the heading of “ Consistency ” (see page 16). The main variety canning tests were made from November 26 to December 6. The handling of the potatoes differed from that ot the 1919 season in that they were packed in two forms, as pie stock and as whole potatoes. For packing whole the potatoes were washed, the largest roots cut into smaller sizes to facilitate cooking, when _ hecessary; placed on trays in a steam chamber; and cooked in steam at 100° C. for 30 to 40 minutes, or until done. They were peeled rapidly by hand while still very hot, a towel being used to protect the hands, the hot potatoes packed into No. 3 sanitary cans, and sealed immediately. The potatoes being very hot and the cans well filled, no exhaust was found necessary. The cans thus prepared were then processed at 116° C. for one hour, at the end of which time they were removed from the retort and cooled in air. The va- rieties canned as pie stock were handled as during the 1919 season, the materia] after passing through the food grinder going directly into No. 2 sanitary cans, then sealed at once, and processed imme- diately at 116° C. for 45 minutes. On December 10 these samples of canned sweet potatoes, both in the form of pie stock and as whole potatoes, were submitted to a committee of judges, as in 1919. This committee was made up of representatives from the Research Laboratory of the National Can- ners’ Association and of the States Relations Service, the Office of A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. 13 Home Economics, and the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations of the Department of Agriculture. The results of this exhibit were entirely similar to those of 1919. The Gold Skin was again unanimously awarded first place, and the Porto Rico, Nancy Hall, and Vineless Pumpkin “ Yam” of the moist-fleshed group and the Big-Stem Jersey, Improved Big Stem, Yellow Stras- burg, and Triumph of the firmer fleshed types, in about the order given, received favorable comment. It is almost certain that dif- ferent conditions as regards time of digging, curing, and storage would have altered the results somewhat, but it is of interest to note that out of the first dozen selected as best varieties for canning six were selected both seasons. Differences in the quality of the whole-potato product as com- pared with the pie stock were too small to be significant. This ex- hibit demonstrated again that a highly desirable canned product of either the dry firm type or the moist-type may be secured even in the cured potatoes by the selection of the proper varieties. DISCOLORATION. The greatest difficulty encountered in the canning of sweet pota- toes is to overcome the tendency of the product to discolor or darken when exposed to the air. When the raw potatoes are peeled by hand they turn brownish or dark-colored irregularly over the surface. This discoloration is much more pronounced in the region of the cortex, but it 1s apparent to a lesser extent throughout the potato. When the potatoes are cooked and then exposed to the air they oxidize somewhat and become darker. When exposed to the air for a few hours and then reheated in the absence of oxygen, this dis- coloration almost entirely disappears, but it promptly reappears on exposure to the air. There is an oxidase present in the sweet potato which would explain its behavior in the raw state, but this enzym does not account for the discoloration after cooking, since the dark- ening takes place even after the exposure of the potato to a tempera- ture of 116° C. for one hour in the autoclave. Oxygen appears to be necessary, for this darkening does not occur in cans of sweet potatoes which have been properly exhausted. The substance which is first formed in this discoloration seems to be very unstable. It is destroyed or changed on reheating in steam. but forms again in air. Tron or iron salts have a very marked effect upon the discoloration, causing an intensification of it and rendering it very much more per- manent. Acids tend to inhibit it and alkalis to intensify it. If sec- tions of raw sweet potato are placed in ammonia a yellowish color at first appears, which on standing becomes green. This occurs first in the cortex and may appear throughout the entire section. Lime 14 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. water, potassium hydroxid, and sodium hydroxid all give a yellowish coloration at first, which on oxidation turns brown. If the sweet potato is cooked in steam in such a way as to eliminate the possibility of the introduction of iron, the discoloration on ex- posure to air is small in extent. If to some of the material cooked in this way there is added ferric chlorid, a greenish coloration is obtained. If a quantity is mixed with iron filings and exposed to the air the whole mass soon turns black. When a quantity is treated in the same way with tin or zinc no effect is noted. Certain substances have been extracted from the sweet potato which give reactions very similar to those above described. One of the chief substances is soluble in acetone, glacial acetic acid, 70 per cent ethyl alcohol, and in water. These substances appear to be hydroxy compounds belonging to the aromatic series. The different varieties of sweet potatoes show considerable varia- tion in their tendency to discolor. The Jersey group, including the Gold Skin, Big-Stem Jersey, and Early Red Carolina, show it the least of those tested, and members of the Spanish group, including the Triumph and the deeply pigmented varieties, such as the Purple “Yam,” Japanese “ Yam,” and Dahomey, show it the most. It would seem that there might be some correlation between this pig- ment and the discoloration. All the varieties and strains here tested. have shown these phenomena to a greater or less extent. In the light- fleshed individuals the discoloration is more apparent than in the more deeply colored varieties, though this may be due to the partial masking of it by the deep-yellow color. If in packing sweet potatoes the cans are sealed without exhaust- ing—that is, if air is left in the can—the product will darken. After some time in storage the metal of the container becomes badly cor- roded and the potato contained in it turns black. This darkening begins at the top of the can; that is, the portion exposed to the air in the can turns brown and those portions exposed to both the air and the metal of the can turn black. However, as the oxygen and the iron become diffused into the material the whole becomes black. ‘Those portions in actual contact with the metal of the cans, if the air is excluded, remain bright throughout. ‘These findings are entirely contradictory to the report of Kohman (14), in which it is stated that the darkening begins at the bottom of the can where the material is in direct contact with the metal of the container. If the can is filled quite full with the potatoes at a temperature of 80° C. or above, sealed immediately, and processed, very little action upon the metal of the container is apparent and the material remains bright. The writers have kept cans of sweet potatoes handled in this way for three years under ordinary storage conditions with no discoloration taking place. A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. oD Numerous experiments were made to see whether the tendency to darken could be prevented by treatment of the potatoes with dif- ferent substances. Acetic, tartaric, and sulphurous acids were found to reduce the extent of the discoloration to a minimum, but they gave an undesirable flavor to the product. Sodium chlorid in various con- centrations was also tried. It was found that if whole sweet potatoes were placed in the can without packing closely and a 10 per cent salt solution was added to fill the air spaces, the discoloration was prevented. Water alone was just as effective in so far as it excluded the oxygen from the material. Some tests were made by dipping the potatoes in a 10 per cent salt solution and then filling into the can. It did not prevent discoloration in the presence of oxygen. Camp- bell (4) states that discoloration may be prevented by the use of sodium chlorid, but in these tests the salt was not effective if the ex- haust was insufficient, and when the exhaust was sufficient no salt was necessary. Proper exhausting is likewise essential to prevent the loss of the bright orange or yellow color which occurs when the caroti- noids that give this color are oxidized in the presence of air. The most effective way of preventing discoloration in the can and preserving the natural bright color is to handle the potatoes so that the material after cooking is exposed to the air for the shortest pos- sible time, filling the potatoes into the can at a temperature not below 70° C., filling the can so that there is but a very small head space, and sealing at once. i Sweet potatoes which have been properly handled during the can- ning operations will usually darken somewhat on exposure to the air, though ordinarily this is not sufficient to be objectionable. The amount of this discoloration depends largely upon the particular variety of potato used and especially upon the length of time the canned prod- uct has been held in storage. During these studies it was repeatedly demonstrated that whereas the canned potatoes opened and exposed to the air 10 days after packing showed discoloration on standing, the same varieties handled in the same way when opened one year after packing remained bright. This was found to hold true for all the varieties tested, but the explanation of the phenomenon can not yet be given. This fact may be of considerable practical significance. Of particular importance is the relation of sweet-potato diseases to discoloration. Even in potatoes which are only slightly affected by fungous disease the tendency to darken is very greatly increased, and discoloration can scarcely be prevented in such material. Moreover, the discoloration arising from this cause is more permanent and can not be destroyed by any simple means. In the canned product the af- fected portions become brown or black in color and give a very un- desirable appearance to the potatoes. In canning practice, therefore, all affected tissue must be carefully and completely removed. It has 16 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. been found necessary even to remove considerable tissue in advance of the fungous growth. There is another type of discoloration met with in the canning of sweet potatoes which is due to the influence of heat. At very high temperatures, even in well-exhausted cans, the potatoes turn reddish brown in color; but it is more marked if oxygen is present. The con- dition is due to carmelization of the sugars and to changes in other constituents of the product. It is also accompanied by an alteration of flavor. Discoloration of this type is easily avoided by carefully adjusting the time and temperature of processing. HEAT PENETRATION AND STERILIZATION. The rate of temperature changes in sweet potatoes during canning and the influence which initial temperatures have upon it have been fully considered by the writers in United States Department of Agriculture Bulletins Nos. 956 and 1022. Extended discussion of it here, therefore, is unnecessary. Sweet potatoes have a heavy con- sistency, and the penetration of heat into a can of such material is very slow. If the potatoes are introduced into the can after they have cooled considerably a much longer time is required for process- ing and the danger of spoilage is increased. For the same reason short heating in the exhaust box is ineffective in producing a proper vacuum. No attempt was made rn these studies to determine the processing temperatures and time periods necessary to effect com- plete sterilization. Though the statement of Weinzirl (20) that the sweet potato offers an unusual test of sterilization would lead one to think that it is very difficult to can successfully, three years of observation and study of sweet-potato canning lead the writers to the conclusion that this product is very easily preserved. Rigorous processing, such as is demanded by some of our standard food prod- ucts, seems not to be essential to satisfactory results with sweet pota- -toes. Packing the potatoes into the cans at a temperature not below 70° C. and processing at 116° C. for a length of time sufficient to bring the material at the center of the can somewhat above 100° C. has given uniformly good results in the work here recorded. Differences in the rate of heat penetration in the “dry” firm varieties and in those which are soft and “moist” have been found too slight to be of any practical significance. Modifications in the processing due to any varietal differences in potatoes, therefore, ap- pear unnecessary. CONSISTENCY. The behavior of different varieties of sweet potatoes on cooking is extremely variable. Some remain quite dry and mealy and are firm A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. 17 in consistency, while others become very soft and moist. Their be- havior in canning is entirely similar. The first season in which these studies were carried on the canning of the potatoes was done shortly after digging. All the varieties studied gave a product which was quite firm, though the representa- tives of the Jersey group were somewhat firmer than those of the other groups. The Vineless Pumpkin “ Yam” and one or two others were considerably less firm. The following season the potatoes were cured after digging and then placed in storage for a time before the canning tests were made, and the results obtained were very dif- ferent. All were sweeter and somewhat softer in consistency than those canned the preceding year. The Nancy Hall, Dooley, Porto Rico, and Vineless Pumpkin “ Yam” yielded a very soft moist prod- uct; many others were of medium consistency, and a few, including the Big-Stem Jersey, Early Red Carolina, and Gold Skin, remained relatively firm. This matter of firmness or softness of a variety on cooking is held of much importance, because the soft moist type is in greatest favor in the South while the dry firm type has been con- sidered most desirable for the northern market. Since the work of . the two preceding years had shown that the varieties differed among themselves with respect to this property and that changes also oc- curred after digging, the extent of which differed with varieties, it was thought advisable to make a somewhat more detailed study, in order to determine the amount and rate of these changes and their effect upon the quality of the canned potatoes. It was impracticable to carry on such a detailed study of all of the forty-odd varieties and strains under investigation, so the third season four representatives were chosen from the list for this work. The others were cured, stored, and canned as previously set forth. In addition to their use for comparative-quality judging and for exhibi- tion purposes these were all submitted to consistency tests made ac- cording to the method which will be described presently in the con- sideration of the four selected varieties. The results of these tests will be found in a later table. The four varieties used in the detailed studies were Big-Stem Jersey, Southern Queen, Porto Rico, and Nancy Hall. The Big-Stem Jersey was selected as the representative of the dry, firm group, the Porto Rico and Nancy Hall as representatives of the soft, moist varieties, and the Southern Queen as representative of the inter- mediate group. One lot from each of these varieties was canned im- mediately after digging ; another after curing for 10 days at the aver- age temperature of about 85° F.; a third lot after 10 days in storage at 55° to 60° F. following curing; and a fourth lot after 20 days in storage. Representative cans for each stage in the handling of the 78646—22——_3 18 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. four varieties were opened and physical tests made to determine their relative plasticity. Not having available a suitable plastometer, the resistance of the material to pressure was measured by a simple device constructed and employed as follows: To the upper end of a plunger made from a piece of polished brass rod half a square centimeter in cross section a small weight pan of sheet tin was attached by means of a drop of solder. At just 2 centimeters from the other end of the plunger, which was.carefully squared off perpendicularly to the axis, a file mark was made. This plunger, which was held in a vertical position by a glass sleeve supported in a ring stand clamp, was so arranged that the test can of material could be placed under it and the end of the plunger lowered to the surface of the material. To carry out the test the entire end of the can was removed, the plunger lowered to the surface of the test material, and weights added to the weight pan until the plunger penetrated the material. The sum of all the weights (weight of the plunger plus the added weights) , expressed in grams, required to push the plunger into the test ma- terial up to the file mark in just 1 minute was taken as the factor expressing the relative plasticity of the samples. Table 2 gives the figures thus obtained. They represent averages of many tests made upon both ends of the cans of material tested. TABLE 2.—Relative plasticity of sweet potatoes canned in the form of pie stock during the various stages of handling. Plasticity factor (grams). | | After curing for 10 days at 85°F. Variety. Subs iod a Par a Subsequent perio Freshly | of storage at 55° dug. | Nostor-| {065° F. age period 10 days. | 20 days. s ee : : | IBig-Slertie CISeVereees Meee ce et na eee. roe eee eee te | 230 | 94 87 85 Bauibern Queen aakas LN ati Lees ee. Shier nates ey | a ss 2 BUCY SE al ac eae es oe eerie eee eee een a aoe ben eemae se 2 | BOrEOP RIC ORS: Seay AR YG a hee EES RSs. SRE ees 216 | 20 | 25 | 31 From the above it will be seen that at the time of digging all four varieties gave a relatively firm product. The Big-Stem Jersey and Porto Rico were especially firm. The Nancy Hall was somewhat softer, but still quite firm, while the Southern Queen ranked slightly lower. The figures obtained at the other stages of handling are very interesting. After curing, the Big-Stem Jersey lost much of its firmness but was still quite resistant to penetration. During the storage period there was a slight gradual decline, but this was not A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. 19 ‘sufficient to alter the plasticity to any marked extent. The Southern Queen changed less rapidly than any of the others during curing, but lost its firmness rapidly in storage, arriving at the end of -the ‘test period in a very soft condition. Very marked changes took place in the Nancy Hall and the Porto Rico during the curing period. At the end of this time both were very soft. A continuous loss in the case of the Nancy Hall and a slight increase in the Porto Rico are noted, but they have no practical significance probably, as both varieties had become very soft. All the different potatoes studied have been found to vary in some- what the same way, as is shown in the examples just given. Though, as has been pointed out, some variations have been noted in the con- sistency at the time of digging, all when freshly dug yield a com- paratively firm product. Table 3 shows the results of consistency tests upon these varieties made after curing and storage. The tests were carried out in the same manner as in the tests just described. ‘The varieties are arranged in the order of their firmness as found in these tests. TABLE 3.—Relative plasticity of different varieties of sweet potatoes canned in the form of pie stock after curing and storage. Variety. Grams. | Variety. Grams. Variety. Grams. | Early Red Carolina..... PANO IN Kosai E ea Sos oS ocesHaee LI INI@s CBESB Cobo scusaanosas 42 INOWM28GRee ese Soe. IPs ||PAbalbnihlessopsuosaosoces AWN WAKO VAWVICS Tees eeie errors 35 Big-Stem Jersey......--. 1589|| NOs T0650 sre a eke ras sctsisi= o Sill Miles te ee ars sre eeye ae iayel st 34 INGO VORaossanoseaseas 1S Till peel eT SOM Payee eres 647 || Dooley-ss- cress cree 34 INI@s. 20 U sseceee papeeHonns 1254 ME LOnid aac eee eee eee 62 || Southern Queen......... 30 Yellow Jersey....-..---- 108 || Early Carolina.......... 60 || Ballinger’s Pride ....... 30 Yellow Strasburg.....-.. 105 || Gros Grandia............ 60 || Golden Beauty...-...... 29 Improved Big Stem..... TOSS | we Mirullha neers een 58) mWalniGe cen vsenny en) foeireers 29 General Grant.......-.- Oia Redes razilteeerasre see PAM COne@ bac Sas oedasecousadas 28 ANT OREL Oa ee ae e o 95 || Red Bermuda........... 50) ME OTLOBRACO Sees seer se 28 Wahomeyeeeeee seen ce 89 || Catawba White........- 50 |) Vineless Pumpkin Catawba Yellow......-- 85 || Yellow Belmont.......- 46 CC YASUI 2 2 erate atopy yacrcle 25 CO Matis ssssogeonedooe CPA) INGOs IPs e oe oc ouoMcobds CM iNew 12 Mle ee bodsas 20 LEH cae soupemor one eneee 81 || Vineless..... Re maceoceee 45 || NO S4 OTE Saree OES ae Ue) {|| INI@bZZESVGacsodeodcousens 45 It will be seen that after curing and storage the plasticity varies all the way from quite firm to very soft, all degrees of plasticity being found. These observed changes in consistency during curing and storage at once raised the question as to the cause, and the samples were sub- mitted to chemical analysis to determine what substances were in- volved. The analyses were carried out in the following way: Duplh- cate samples of 100 grams were weighed out from the thoroughly mixed material and enough 95 per cent alcohol added to give an 80 per cent mixture. This was thoroughly stirred, and after standing for several hours the alcohol was decanted through an extraction cup into a flask and more 95 per cent alcohol added to the material. This was repeated three or four times. After decanting for the last time 20 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the residue was transferred to the extraction cup and the extraction: completed in a Soxhlet. The greater part of the extraction, there- fore, was done in the cold, and the Soxhlet cup was used merely to: remove the last traces of sugars. This procedure eliminated as far as possible any change during extraction. Determination of sugars in the extract was made according to the methods of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, and the total polysaccharids in the residue were also determined by these methods. It seemed desirable to know something of the nature of the poly- saccharid content. In preliminary tests the residues from the firm lots. gave a blue color with iodin, while the residues from the soft samples gave a red color. This seemed to indicate the presence of dextrin in. the latter samples and suggested that the plasticity of the canned. sweet potato might depend on whether starch or dextrin was pres- ent. The observation appeared so significant that further tests were made to determine more definitely the identity of the substance. It. was found to be precipitated by alcohol; upon hydrolysis it yielded: reducing sugars; it was not precipitated by basic lead acetate, gave a. red coloration with iodin, and possessed adhesive properties. It was. evident, therefore, that during cooking the starch had been gelatinized: and that insoluble starch, soluble starch, and dextrin possibly ex- isted in various proportions in the samples. An effort was then made to determine the amount of dextrin present. There was no very satisfactory method for the determination of dextrin in the presence of soluble starch, but the following method was finally adopted for its estimation: 1 gram of the dried residue from the extraction was ground thoroughly with 10 to 15 c. c. of dis- tilled water. After grinding, more water was added and the whole transferred to a 100 c. c. volumetric flask. The volume was brought to about 90 c. c. and the solution allowed to stand for 30 minutes with frequent shaking. At the end of this time 2 c. c. of a basic lead-acetate solution was added to precipitate the soluble starch and the volume then made up to 100 c.c. After shaking thoroughly it was passed through a dry filter and the rotation of the filtrate taken. The deter- mination of dextrin from the polariscope readings was calculated by the formula given by: Browne (3). It must be understood that the figures obtained are but rough approximations of the real dextrin content of the samples. For making the polariscope readings and assisting in the interpretation of the results the writers are indebted to Dr. S. F. Sherwood, of the Office of Sugar-Plant Investigations. Table 4 shows the results of the chemical analyses of samples of four varieties of sweet potatoes canned at intervals of 10 days during curing and storage. A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. a TABLE 4.—Results of chemical analyses of samples of four varieties of sweet potatoes canned at intervals of 10 days during curing and storage. Constitutents (per cent). Sugar content (calculated Total Sample. | as invert): polysac- Mois- DEY, | ete Dextrin ture. | weight. asl cascu- : ? (osteo) Xone: | rota, | 829.38 | version). | ducing. | starch). Big-Stem Jersey: | | | | Freshly GhiKe Coca d ae ae aera | 72. 63 27. 37 6. 50 | 2.15 |} 8.65 | 10.85 0 After curing 10 days........| 71.51 28. 49 | 5.65: | 4.15 9. 80 10.31 | 0.41 After storage— iOidanyss- sete tefe2 sare s | 71. 23 28.77 | 6.03 | 4.59 10. 62 LOSS OP | Shee eee 21) CN BscccuubeseEeeenee| 70. 40 29. 60 | 6.11 | 4.51 | 10. 62 10.36 46 Nancy Hall: h | | MresHysdugee ss oes. osc... 66. 80 33:20) |e nou 1.89 11.06 11.02 . 32 After curing 10 days........ 66. 80 33. 20 9. 76 4, 23 | 13.99 8.51 4.78 After storage— 10 GRaVSes supe aoe eel 64. 60 35. 40 10. 57 4.51 | 15.08 | 9. 21 5. 18: ZOD AY Sees Os tae mOosstl 34. 89 10.38 4.65 | 15. 03 9.14 5. 11 Southern Queen: | Freshly Gls cones seanaeEses 71. 09 28. 91 7. 67 1.38 9. 05 10. 64 ole After curing 10 days........ 68. 62 | 31.38 8.18 | 3. 74 11. 92 9. 53 1. 33 After storage— | NOK ay SHES < 485. SEIS SES 68. 55 31.45 9.08 | 3. 02 12.10 | 10. 14 4.73 DOA See ae eee 68. 57 | 31. 43 8. 39 3. 70 12. 09 9. 06 3. 78 Porto Rico: | Freshly dug CUS SS CEA COuEOnoS 70. 03 29. 97 6. 75 | 1.83 8. 58 | 11.06 0 After curing 10 days........ 69.15 30. 85 8. 90 4. 88 13.78 7. 65 3.92 After storage— HOA Se See et rae 5 22 | 68.78 31.22 8.29 | 5. 34 13. 63 8. 44 3.88. Dilley smensen ccs. hah 68.20 31.80 Ba86) meereasoulme taza 9.13 3.66 From Table 4 it will be seen that the moisture content of the canned product is highest in the lots canned immediately after digging, those: canned at the end of the storage period of 20: days showing a loss of from 1.6 to 2.5 per cent. The total sugar content increases in the succeeding tests and the total polysaccharids, calculated as starch, decrease, but these changes seem insufficient to account for the enormous change in plasticity. The dextrin content of the samples is of interest. Inthe Big-Stem Jersey none was found in the material canned from freshly dug potatoes, and only a relatively small amount in any of the lots canned subsequently. In the Nancy Hall there was a small amount of dex- trin in the material from the freshly dug potatoes and this quantity greatly increased in the material from the cured and from the stored potatoes. The Southern Queen showed a small dextrin content in the lot from the freshly dug roots, a larger amount in material cured for 10 days, though less than is formed in the corresponding lots of Nancy Hall and Porto Rico, and a considerable amount in the lots from stored potatoes. The figures for the Porto Rico are similar to those for the Nancy Hall except that no dextrin is found in ma- terial from the freshly dug potatoes and the figures in the succeeding lots are somewhat lower. From qualitative tests made in connection with these studies but not recorded here it seems almost certain that Oo BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the percentage of dextrin is considerably higher than the figures indicate. These figures are of especial significance when they are correlated with those for the plasticity of samples given in Table 2. Themarked increase in dextrin content corresponds exactly in point of its ap- pearance with the softening of the potato. In the Nancy Hall and Porto Rico this occurs after 10 days’ curing of the potatoes, while in the Southern Queen the marked increase is found in the lot canned after 10 days’ storage following curing. The marked firmness of the Big-Stem Jersey canned at the end of 20 days of storage likewise coincides with the low dextrin content found. Considering the fact that both in the determination of the plasticity and in the determina- tion of the dextrin the methods used were crude, the relatively close correlation of the two sets of figures appears significant. Samples of the Porto Rico variety canned immediately after dig- ging gave a blue coloration with iodin, characteristic of starch, but the same variety after 10 days of curing gave a reddish color with iodin. The Big-Stem Jersey, on the other hand, gave a blue colora- tion with iodin at each of the stages of curing and storage. It seems, therefore, that after cooking the soft potatoes contain dextrin instead of starch as the chief polysaccharid, while the firmer ones contain starch largely. It appears, therefore, that the plasticity of the sweet potato after cooking is dependent upon the ratio of starch to water present. During curing and storage, transformations take place which on cooking result in the change of starch to variable proportions of sugar, dextrin, and probably all the intermediate products, depending upon the particular variety of sweet potato used. This work suggests that the differences in the cooking quality of varieties of the Irish potato may be due to causes of a similar nature. In making sweet-potato flour by the flake process Mangels and Prescott (16) state that there developed hygroscopic and gummy substances which interfered with the success of the process. These workers used the Porto Rico, Nancy Hall, and Southern - Queen varieties, and the experiments were made in the late winter. Their results are not surprising, therefore, for their material must certainly have contained a large percentage of dextrin. The chances of suc- cess would have been much better if the firm-fleshed varieties or freshly dug potatoes had been used. It is shown by these tests that in some varieties the changes that cause the loss of firmness occur rather quickly after digging. At this point attention should be drawn perhaps to the fact brought out in the work of some of the earlier investigators (72) that changes occurring in sweet potatoes begin to some extent even before digging. It is probable, therefore, that the firmness varies somewhat with A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. 23 the time of digging. It has not been possible for the writers as yet to test the different varieties in this respect. In considering the table qualities of the sweet potatoes canned im- mediately after digging and of those canned after the usual curing and storage, preferences, so far as it has been possible to obtain them, seem to favor the latter, since in the curing and subsequent storage the sweetness increases and the distinctive flavors become more fully developed. For certain culinary uses, however, the firmer product from the freshly dug potatoes would be more adapt- able; and those persons favoring a dry potato would doubtless find that the physical qualities obtained would more than offset the added sweetness and flavor. When canned after curing and storage, the soft-fleshed varieties, like the Nancy Hall, Porto Rico, etc., yield during the canning process a liquid which is quite sweet. ‘This is what gives to these varieties their moist appearance. The presence of this liquid does not signify a high moisture content, however, for in these varieties the moisture may be actually lower than in that of the Big-Stem Jersey and others of the firm types. The proportion of starch pres- - ent seems to account largely for this condition. VARIETIES AND STRAINS OF SWEET POTATOES USED IN THESE TESTS. The following brief descriptive list of the varieties and strains of sweet potatoes used in these studies is given not for its taxonomic value but to assist the practical worker in the selection of suitable varieties to meet particular needs. Those interested in the classifi- cation of the sweet-potato varieties should consult the work of Thompson and Beattie (79). The statements regarding vine and root characters are based upon the work of the above authors, confirmed by field observations. The productiveness of varieties and strains is indicated by terms descriptive of results obtained at the Arlington Experimental Farm, it being recognized that yields vary considerably under different climatic and soil conditions. The terms defining the color of the skin, flesh, and cooked potato are taken from the work of Ridgway,’ with the colored plates of which the writers have made direct comparisons. Skin colors may vary with different soils. The colored plates found at the end of this bulletin (Pls. I to III) show the shades of color of the canned product of the different varieties here listed. . Firmness and softness of the canned product have been graded under the heads “very firm,” “firm,” “medium firm,” “ medium Pea TMi alec a tS AN 2 i I Na a 3 Ridgway, Robert. Color Standards and Color Nomenclature. 43 p., 53 pl. (col.). Washington, D.C. 1912. 24 BULLETIN 1041, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soit,” “soft,” and “very soft.” An idea of the values attached to these grades may be gained by taking the product of the freshly dug Big-Stem Jersey as “very firm” and that of the cured and stored Nancy Hall as “ very soft.” The “ peeling quality” indicates the relative ease with which the cooked potatoes are peeled by hand. The quality of the canned product is graded as “very good,” “good,” “fair,” “ poor,’ and “very poor,” which terms are self- explanatory. The canning quality ascribed to the varieties and strains is based upon the results of comparative canning tests and quality judging for three seasons. Certain potatoes in the list bear numbers only. These are unnamed strains under study at the Arlington Experimental Farm which were canned along with the named varieties. DESCRIPTIVE LIST. Ballinger’s Pride (a strain of Southern Queen). Vines large and vigorous, long, 6 to 12 feet. Roots medium to large in size, fusiform, smooth, and regular. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, cream color. Color of flesh. mmassicot yellow to ivory yellow. Peeling quality, poor. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (PI. I, fig. 1). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, very soft. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. Belmont. Vines low, long trailing. Roots medium in size, fusiform in shape, smooth. Color of skin, cream buff, frequently mottled with pinkish buff. Color of flesh, uniform ivory yellow. Cortex splashed with flesh color. Peeling quality. fair to good. Color of cooked potato, apricot yellow (PI. I, fig. 2). Consistency of freshly dug potato, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium soft. Tendency to darken, rather pronounced. Can- ning quality, poor to fair. . ; Big-Stem Jersey. Vines moderately large growing, long, 6 to 12 feet. Roots small to large in size, long fusiform in shape, smooth or veined, regular. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, cinnamon buff. Color of flesh, amber vellow to straw yellow, mottled with flesh color. Peeling quality, fair to poor. Color of cooked potato, deep chrome to apricot yellow (Pl. I, fig. 8). Consistency of freshly dug potato, very firm. Consistency after curing and storage, firm. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, good. Catawba White (a strain of Scuthern Queen).-. Vines large and vigorous, long, G to 12 feet. Roots medium to large in size, fusiform, globoid or ovoid in shape, smooth and regular. Yields, light to medium. Color of skin, cream buff. Color of flesh. ivory yellow. Peeling quality, fair. Color of cooked potato, apricot yellow to light orange yellow (PI. I, fig. 4). Consistency of freshly dug potato, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium soft. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. Catawba Yellow (a strain of Southern Queen). Vines large and vigorous, long, 6 to 12 feet. Roots medium to large in size, fusiform, globular or oyoid in shape, smooth and regular. Yields, light. Color of skin, cream buff. Color of flesh, fairly uniform ivory yellow. Peeling quality, fair. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow (PI. I, fig. 5). Consistency of freshly dug potato, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tend- ency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. 25 Creola. Vines vigorous, long to very long, 8 to 20 feet. Roots medium to large in size, oblong to fusiform in shape, regular and smooth. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, flesh color to salmon color. Color of flesh, uniformly straw yellow. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, apricot yellow to empire yellow (Pl. J, fig. 6). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, very soft. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, fair. Dahomey. Vines medium to long, 6 to 10 feet. Roots long cylindrical in shape. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, neutral red. Color of flesh, mar- guerite yellow. Peeling quality, poor. Color of cooked potato, straw yellow (Pl. I, fig. 7). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm. Con- sistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. Dooley. Vines long to very long, 10 to 15 feet. Roots large in circumference, short fusiform in shape. Yields, heavy. Color of skin, light ochraceous buff with cream-buff veins. Color of flesh, flesh color interspersed with straw yellow. Cortex, ochraceous salmon. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, orange (PI. I, fig. 8). Consistency of freshly dug potato, firm to medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, soft to very soft. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, good. Early Carolina (a strain of Yellow Jersey). Vines medium long trailing. Roots medium in size, fusiform in shape, regular. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, cinnamon buff. Color of flesh, colonial buff with considerable salmon coler especially prominent near the cortex. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (PI. I, fig. 9). Consistency of freshly dug potato, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. Early Red Carolina (probably same as Red Jersey). Vines medium long, low trailing. Roots medium:-to small, fusiform to globoid in shape, smooth and regular. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, deep Corinthian red. Color of flesh, massicot yellow, with small areas of flesh color. Somewhat variable. Peeling quality, rather poor. Color of cooked potato, apricot yellow to empire yellow (Pl. I, fig. 10). Consistency of freshly dug potato, very firm. Consistency after curing and storage, firm. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, good. Florida. Vines large, vigorous, medium in Jength, 4 to 9 feet. Roots medium in size, long fusiform in shape, fairly smooth and regular. Yields, medium heavy. Peeling quality, poor. Color of cooked potato, buff yellow (PI. I, g. 11). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm. Consistency after cur- ing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, poor. General Grant. Vines medium to large, vigorous, medium in length, 4 to 10 feet. Roots medium in size, short fusiform to long fusiform in shape, smooth and regular. Yields, light to medium. Color of skin, cream buff frequently mottled with pale cinnamon pink. Color of flesh, flesh to straw yellow grading to almost white, mottled with pale cinnamon pink. Peeling quality, poor. Color of cooked potato, buff yellow (Pl. I, fig. 12). Con- sistency of freshly dug potato, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, poor. Golden Beauty (same as Porto Rico). Vines vigorous, medium long, spreading. Roots medium to large in size, fusiform to globular and irregular in shape, smooth. Yields, heavy. Color of skin, flesh color to Japan rose. Color 26 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, of flesh, carrot red to flesh color, irregularly mixed with buff yellow. Peel- ing quality, good. Color of cooked potato, orange (PI. I, fig. 13). Con- sistency of freshly dug potato, very firm. Consistency after curing and storage, very soft. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, very good. Gold Skin. Vines medium to long, slender, 6 to 10 feet. Roots, small to medium, fusiform in shape, smooth and regular. Yields, medium to heavy. Color of skin, ochraceous buff. Color of flesh, salmon buff with streaks of straw yellow. Cortex, maize yellow. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, deep chrome (PI. I, fig. 14). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, very firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, little or none. Canning quality, very good. Gros Grandia. Vines short to vineless, 14 to 3 feet, stems very coarse. Roots cylindrical, veins slightly raised. Yields, light to.medium. Color of skin,. light Corinthian red to dark vinaceous. Color of flesh, almost white. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, cream (PI. I, fig. 15). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, poor. Haiti. Vines quite vigorous, spreading. Roots medium to very large in size, irregular, grooved. Yields, medium to heavy. Color of skin, deep hel- lebore red. Color of flesh, ivory yellow with traces of flesh color. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (PL II, fig. 1). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. ‘Tendency to darken, little. Can- ning quality, fair. Improved Big Stem (same as Big-Stem Jersey). Vines medium vigorous, long, low trailing. Roots medium in size, fusiform in shape. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, cinnamon buff. Color of flesh, amber yellow to straw yellow, mottled with flesh color. Somewhat variable. Peeling quality,. poor. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (Pl. II, fig. 2). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, very firm. Consistency after euring and storage, firm. Tendency to darken,. pronounced. Canning quality, fair to good. Japanese “ Yam.” Vines vigorous, medium long. Roots elongated, cylindrical, irregular. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, deep hellebore red to neu- tral red. Color of flesh, fairly uniform ivory yellow. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, amber yellow (PI. II, fig. 3). Consistency of freshly dug potato, firm to medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, soft. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, poor to fair. Key West. Vines medium to long, 4 to 10 feet, stems coarse. Roots medium to: large, medium to long, cylindrical in shape. Yields, medium to heavy. Color of skin, buff pink, slightly deeper around the eyes. Color of flesh, straw yellow. Peeling quality, fair. Color of cooked potato, apricot yellow to empire yellow (PI. II, fig. 4). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, soft. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. Miles (a strain of Southern Queen). Vines vigorous, rather coarse. Roots medium sized, fusiform in shape, smooth and regular. Yields heavy. Color of skin, massicot yellow. Color of flesh, massicot yellow grading to nearly white. Peeling quality, poor. Color of cooked potato, empire yel- low to apricot yellow (PI. II, fig. 5). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm to medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, soft. Ten- dency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. 27 Mullihan (a strain of Nancy Hall). Vines vigorous, stems rather coarse. Roots medium sized, fusiform in shape, smooth, regular. Color of skin, warm buff more or less suffused with light ochraceous salmon. Color of flesh, straw color intermixed with flesh color. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, cadmium yellow to capucine yellow (PI. II, fig. 6). Con- sistency of freshly dug potato, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, soft. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, good. Nancy Hall. Vines medium in length, vigorous, 4 to 8 feet. Roots medium to . large in size, fusiform in shape, veined or smooth and regular. Yields heavy. Color of skin, warm buff, more or less suffused with light ochraceous salmon. Color of flesh, straw color intermixed with flesh color. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, cadmium yellow to capucine yellow (Pi. II, fig. 7). Consistency of freshly dug potato, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, very soft. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, good. Pierson. Vines large, vigorous, long creeping, 6 to 15 feet. Rootsmedium to very large in size, fusiform and ovoid in shape, strongly ribbed and veined, very rough. Yields heavy. Color of skin, cream buff. Color of flesh, colonial buff to massicot yellow. Peeling quality, poor. Color of cooked potato, apricot yellow to empire yellow (Pl. II, fig. 8). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, medium firm to firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, poor. Porto Rico. Vines medium to long, 5 to 10 feet, stems coarse. Roots medium to large in size, fusiform to globular and irregular in shape, smooth. Yields heavy. Color of skin, flesh color to Japan rose. Color of flesh, earrot red to flesh color, irregularly mixed with buff yellow. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, orange (Pl. II, fig. 9). Consist- ency of freshly dug potatoes, firm to very firm. Consistency after curing and storage, very soft. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, very good. , Pumpkin “ Yam.” Vines moderately large growing, long, 6 to 12 feet. Roots medium in size, fusiform in shape, mostly reguiar with few veins. Yields, medium to heavy. Color of skin, pinkish cinnamon. Color of flesh, carrot red to salmon color with irregular areas of ivory yellow. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, orange (Pl. II, fig. 10). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm to medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, very soft. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, good. Purple “Yam” (“ Nigger Choker”). Vines long and vigorous, 5 to 16 feet. Roots long cylindrical, regular or irregular in shape, medium to large in size, smooth. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, neutral red. Color of flesh, almost white with occasional magenta purple stains. Cortex, dull magenta purple. Peeling quality, poor. Color of cooked potato, cream buff. (Pl. II, fig. 11). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, very firm. Con- sistency -after curing and storage, firm. 'Tendeney to darken, very pro- nounced. Canning quality, poor. _ Red Bermuda. Vines large and vigorous, long creeping, 6 to 12 feet. Roots medium to large, short fusiform, globular, or ovoid in shape, irregular, and strongly ribbed and veined. Yields heavy. Color of skin, irregular, principally Indian lake with warm buff interspersed. Color of flesh, cream. Peeling quality, fair. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (PI. II, fig. 12). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to ee pronounced. Canning quality, fair to good. 28 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Red Brazil. Vines long to very long, 6 to 20 feet, vigorous, stems inedium coarse. Roots large, globular, ribbed and irregular, surface smooth. Color of skin, light Corinthian red. Color of flesh, massicot yellow. Cortex, colonial buff. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (PI. II, fig. 13). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair to good. Red Jersey. Vines long, medium vigorous, low trailing. Roots medium to small, fusiform in shape, regular and smooth. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, Indian lake. Color of flesh, cream with areas of mustard yellow, especially below cortex, and small stains of carrot red. Somewhat variable. Peeling quality, fair. Color of cooked potato, apricot yellow to empire yellow (PI. II, fig. 14). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, very firm. Consistency after curing and storage, firm. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, good. Southern Queen. Vines large and vigorous, 6 to 12 feet. Roots medium to large, fusiform globular, or ovoid in shape, somewhat veined or smooth, regular. Yields heavy. Color of skin, cream buff, frequently mottled with pale cinnamon pink. Color of flesh, massicot yellow. Peeling quality, fair. Color of cooked potato, apricot yellow to empire yellow (PI. II, fig. 15). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm to medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, soft. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. z Triumph. Vines coarse and vigorous, short, 2 to 4 feet, bushy. Roots medium to large in size, medium to long cylindrical in shape. Yields heavy. Color of skin, chamois. Color of flesh, uniform ivory yellow. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, pinard yellow to buff yellow (Pi. III, fig. 1). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, fair to good. Vineless Pumpkin “ Yam.’’ Vines medium in length, 4 to 8 feet. Roots medium in size, fusiform to ovoid or cylindrical in shape with few low veins. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, light ochraceous buff. Also has fine netted appearance. Color of flesh, flesh ocher, intermixed with straw yellow. Somewhat variable. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked po- tato, orange to cadmium (PI. III, fig. 2). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm to medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, very soft. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, good. Vineless ‘‘ Yam.”’ Vines fairly vigorous, compact, dense, bushy. Roots me- dium in size, fusiform in shape, smooth. Yields light. Color of skin, cinnamon buff. Color of flesh, ivory yellow suffused with pale pinkish cinnamon. Peeling quality, poor. Color of cooked potato, apricot yellow to empire yellow (PI. III, fig. 3). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, soft. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. White “Yam.’’ Vines medium in length and vigor. Roots medium in size, fusiform, regular. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, cream buff. Color of flesh, massicot yellow. Peeling quality, very poor. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (PI. III, fig. 4). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm to medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, very soft. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. 29 Yellow Jersey. Vines small, slender, long, 6 to 12 feet. Roots small to medium in size, long or short fusiform to globular or ovoid in shape, smooth or veined. Yields, medium to heavy. Color of skin, cinnamon buff. Color of flesh, colonial buff interspersed with salmon color. Peeling quality, fair. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (Pl. III, fig. 5). Consistency after curing and storage, firm. Tendency to darken, little or none. Canning quality, good. Yellow Strasburg. Vines large and vigorous, long, creeping, 6 to 15 feet. Roots medium to large in size, ovoid or globular in shape, fairly smooth and regular or quite irregular. Yields, very heavy, heaviest of varieties under study. Color of skin, cream buff. Color of flesh, uniformly massicot yellow, Cortex, straw yellow. Peeling quality, fair. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (Pl. III, fig. 6). Consistency of freshly dug pota- toes, very firm. Consistency after curing and storage, firm. Tendency to darken, little. Canning quality, good. Yellow “ Yam.’’ Vines low and slender, long creeping, 6 to 12 feet. Roots No. ° medium in size, fusiform in shape, low veins, regular. Yields, medium to heavy. Color of skin; cream buff. Color of flesh, nearly uniform ivory yellow with occasional flecks of flesh color in the cortex. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, apricot yellow to light orange yellow (PI. Ill, fig. 7). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium soft. Tendency to darken, little. Janning quality, fair. : 10412. Vines vigorous, long, spreading. Roots medium to very large, somewhat ribbed, fairly smooth. Yields, medium to heavy. Color of skin, dark vinaceous. Color of flesh, uniform straw yellow. Peeling quality, fair. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (PI. III, fig. 8). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, very pronounced. Canning quality, fair. 10650. Vines vigorous, long, spreading. Roots medium to very large, fusiform to globular in shape, ribbed, and irregular. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, dark vinaceous to slightly lighter shade, irregular. Color of flesh, uniform straw yellow. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (PI. III, fig. 9). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. 11284. Vines vigorous, long, spreading. Roots medium to large in size, irregular, ribbed. Yields light. Color of skin, dark vinaceous. Color of flesh, fairly uniform straw yellow. Peeling quality, fair. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow (PI. III. fig. 10). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. 11285. Vines vigorous, spreading. Roots medium to very large, irregular, ribbed. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, cream color. Color of flesh, straw yellow. Peeling quality, fair. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (Pl. Ill, fig. 11). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm to medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium soft. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, poor. 12686. Vines medium vigorous, long, low, spreading. Roots medium to large, irregular, ribbed. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, dark vinaceous to slightly lighter shade, irregular. Color of flesh, uniform straw yellow. Peeling quality, fair. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to 30 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. apricot yellow (Pl. III, fig. 12). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm to medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, soft. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. No. 39833. Vines vigorous, stalky, somewhat bunchy. Roots medium to very large in size, elongated, irregular. Yields, medium heavy. Color of skin, light buff. Color of flesh, baryta yellow. Peeling quality, good. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow (Pl. III, fig. 18). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm to medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, soft. Tendency to darken, very pronounced. Canning quality, fair. No. 49711. Vines vigorous, spreading. Roots medium to large, fusiform in shape, smooth. Yields, medium heavy. Peeling quality, fair. Color of skin, light buff. Color of flesh, baryta yellow. Color of cooked potato, empire yellow to apricot yellow (PI. III, fig. 14). Consistency of freshly dug potatoes, firm to medium firm. Consistency after curing and storage, medium firm. Tendency to darken, pronounced. Canning quality, fair. SUMMARY. (1) In the comparative tests of the canning qualities of sweet- potato varieties and strains grown at the Arlington Experimental Farm the Gold Skin was awarded first place for two consecutive seasons by the committee judging the quality of the product. Of the other varieties the Yellow Jersey, Early Red Carolina, and Big- Stem Jersey represent the best of the dry firm types; the Dooley, Porto Rico, Nancy Hall, Mullihan, and Vineless Pumpkin “ yam” the deep-colored moist group; and the Belmont, Miles, and Yeliow Strasburg the lighter fleshed medium moist type. (2) In determining the value of any variety for canning pur- poses there are many things to be considered, such as size, shape, ease of peeling, and yield per acre. Several varieties that are satisfactory on these points vary greatly in firmness, color, sweetness, and flavor. The final choice depends upon what is desired in the finished product. The Porto Rico, Dooley, and Vineless Pumpkin “ Yam” are deep- colored sweet varieties, but they have a tendency to become very soft in storage. The Triumph, Miles, and Southern Queen are light colored, but become soft to medium soft in storage. The Big-Stem Jersey, Karly Red Carolina, and Yellow Jersey are intermediate in color and yield the firmest product of any of the varieties. Almost every combination of qualities is found in some variety. Certain changes take place after digging which alter greatly the firmness, flavor, and sweetness of the canned product. The varieties differ in the degree of change in each of these characters. This be- havior greatly aids in choosing the type of product that the market» demands. The home canner will find something desirable whatever may be his particular preference. (83) In these tests material from each of the varieties has been canned as nearly whole as possible and also after passing through a food grinder in order to obtain a uniform product. The ground ma- A STUDY OF SWEET POTATO VARIETIES. 81 terial, commonly known as “ pie stock,” is more uniform in color and texture and is equally as attractive. It is suitable for making pies, puddings, etc., and: the firmer varieties may even be sliced and used in other ways. The material canned as whole potatoes retains to a - greater degree the original form and shape of the potatoes, which seems to be the only possible advantage to the housewife. For the canner, packing whole may have a slight advantage in that the method is simpler, but canning as pie stock utilizes the entire crop, large potatoes as well as small. (4) The principal difficulty in canning sweet potatoes is due to the tendency of the cooked potato to darken on exposure to the air." When it is cooked in steam so as to exclude the air it assumes a clear bright color. On cooling in the air a darkening occurs, which is more marked in some varieties than in others. This discoloration disap- pears on reheating in steam but reappears on exposure to.air. Metal- lic iron and iron salts accelerate and intensify this discoloration, and when large quantities are present and the material is exposed to the air for a considerable time it becomes black and the original bright- ness is not regained by reheating. In canning sweet potatoes if the air or oxygen is not excluded the mass darkens, the metal of the container is acted upon, and the ma- terial in time becomes black. If the air or oxygen is excluded the material remains bright. Filling the can at a temperature of 80° C. or above and sealing at once effect this more easily and completely than filling the can cold and then exhausting in the usual way. If the can is opened immediately after processing there is a slight ten- dency to darken on exposure to the air, but this tendency slowly dis- appears in storage. In-these tests material kept in cans for one year showed no tendency to darken on exposure to the air. (5) The physical character of sweet potatoes is such that the penetration of heat into the mass is very slow. This so affects the length of the processing necessary to sterilize the product that the material should be filled into the can hot, sealed at a temperature not below 70° C., and processed immediately. If it becomes necessary to delay the work, the cans should be kept at the sealing temperature until they can be processed. The rate at which heat penetrates the can varies but little among the different varieties, and for practical purposes the variation is negligible. ; (6) The sweet potato has a high sugar content; hence, its flavor and quality are easily injured by long cooking at high temperatures. The time and temperature of processing, therefore, must be carefully adjusted. ; (7) The plasticity of the sweet potato after cooking is due to the nature of its carbohydrate content. The potatoes which remain firm after cooking contain a high percentage of starch, while those which 32 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. become soft have a low percentage of starch but a comparatively high percentage of dextrin. During canning, storage, and cooking the starch is transformed into sugar, dextrin, and probably all the intermediate products, the proportions in which they are formed varying with the method of handling and with different varieties. Changes in plasticity are due to these transformations, which affect the ratio of starch to moisture. (8) The essential points in the canning of sweet potatoes are: (a) Steaming for a-sufficient length of time to make peeling rapid and easy and to cook the potato. (0) Handling so as to expsse the cooked material to the air for the minimum time possible. (c) Packing the cans as full as convenient in order to eliminate oxygen and prevent darkening. (d@) Filling the can with material as hot as possible, not below 70° C., in order to exclude oxygen and shorten the processing period required. (e) Avoiding bringing the material into contact with iron or iron com- pounds. z (7) Processing the material the minimum length of time necessary to insure its safe preservation. LITERATURE CITED, (1) AtTwatrrR, W. C., and Bryant, A. P. 1906. The chemical composition of American food materials. U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Sta. Bul. 28, rev., 87 p., 4 fig. (2) Biertow, W. D., and Catricart, P. H. 1921. Relation of processing to the acidity of canned foods. Bul. 17-L Research Lab., Nat. Canners Assoc., 46 p., 16 fig. (3) Browne, C. A. 1912. Handbook of Sugar Analysis ... xi, 787, 101, Ixxi p., 200 fig. Bibliographical footnotes. (4) CAMPBELL, C. H. 1920. To prevent discoloration of sweet potatoes in cans. In West. Canner and Packer, v. 12, no. 2, p. 11. (5) CARVER, G. W. 1918. How to make sweet potato flour, starch, sugar, bread and mock cocoanut. Ala. Tuskeegee Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 37, 6 p. (6) Gorr, H. C. 1921. Preparation of sweet potato sirup. Jn Chem. Age, v. 29, no. 4, p. 151-158, 1 fig. (7) Harrineton, H. H. 1895. Water and sugar in sweet potatoes, as influenced by keeping. In Tex. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 36, p. 628-629. (8) HASSELBRING, HEINRICH, and HAWKINS, Lon A. 1915. Physiological changes in sweet potatoes during storage. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 3, no. 4, p. 331-342. Literature cited, p. 341-342. (9) 1915. Respiration experiments with Sweet potatoes. In Jour. Agr. Research, y. 5, no. 12, p. 509-517. Literature cited, p. 517. (10) 1915. Carbohydrate transformations in sweet potatoes. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 5, no. 13, p. 548-560. (QO) Loam, “bh ade 1909. Sweet potato work in 1908. S.C. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 146, 21 p. (12) 1911. The formation of sugars and. starch in the sweet potato. S. C. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 156, 14 p. (18) 1912. Sweet potato investigation. S. C. Agr. Hxp. Sta. Bul. 165, 48 p. (14) KoHMaAN, Hpwarp F. 1921. Discoloration in canned sweet potatoes. Jn Jour. Indus. and Engin. Chem., v. 18, no. 7, p. 634-6535. (15) McDoNNE IL, C. C. 1908. The manufacture of starch from sweet potatoes. S. C. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 136, 50 p., 5 fig., 4 pl. (in text). (16) Mancets, C. E., and Prescort, S. C. 1921. Manufacture of sweet potato flour by the “flake” process... Jn Chem. Age, v. 29, no. 4, p. 182-135, 1 fig. 34 BULLETIN 1041, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (17) Mryaxe, K1IcHt1. 1915. On the nature of the sugars found in the tubers of sweet potatoes.. In Jour. Biol. Chem., v. 21, no. 2, p. 503-506. (18) Swiver, F. S. 1901. Sweet potato. S. C. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 63, 37 p. (19) THompson, H. C., and BEATTIE, JAMES H. . 1922. Group classification and varietal descriptions of American varie- ties of sweet potatoes. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 1021, 30 p., 8 pl. (partly col.) Literature cited, p. 26-30. (20) WEINZzIRL, JOHN. 1919. The bacteriology of canned foods. Jn Jour. Med. Research, y. 39, no. 3 (172), p. 349-413. Bibliography, p. 411-413. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT. OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv Bul. 1041, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE lI. 1 2 3 4 5 6 iE 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 R. C. STEADMAN A.Kaen LLo Baltimore SHADES OF COLOR OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF SWEET POTATOES WHEN CANNED IN THE FORM OF PIE STOCK. I. Explanation of figures: 1, Ballinger’s Pride; 2, Belmont; 3, Big-Stem Jersey; 4, Catawba White; 5, Catawba Yellow; 6, Creola; 7, Dahomey; 8, Dooley ; 9, Early Carolina; 10, Early Red Carolina; 1i, Florida; 12, General Grant; 13, Golden Beauty ; 14, Gold Skin; 15, Gros Grandia, Bul. 1041, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 R. C. STEADMAN Afoen&GnBaltimare SHADES OF COLOR OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF SWEET POTATOES WHEN CANNED IN THE FORM OF PIE STOCK. II. Explanation of figures: 1, Haiti; 2, Improved Big Stem; 3, Japanese ‘‘Yam’’; 4, Key West; 5, Miles; 6, Mullihan; 7, Nancy Hall; 8, Pierson; 9, Porto Rico; 10, Pumpkin ‘‘Yam’’; 11, Purple “Yam’’; 12, Red Bermuda; 13, Red Brazil; 14, Red Jersey ; 15, Southern Queen. Bul. 1041, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 il 12 13 14 2 do CERES Aiteee cane SHADES OF COLOR OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF SWEET POTATOES WHEN CANNED IN THE FORM OF Piz STOCK. IIil. Explanation of Heures: 1, Triumph; 2, Vineless Pumpkin ‘‘Yam’’; 3, Vineless ‘“‘Yam’’; 4, White “Yam??; 5, Yellow Jersey; 6, Yellow Strasburg; 7, Yellow ‘‘Yam”’; 8, No. 10412; 9, No. 10650 ; 10, No. 11284; 11, No. 11285 ; 12, No. 12686; 13, No. 39833; 14, No. 49711. re A \ it eee * mt * , UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv February 4, 1922 EFFECT OF WINTER RATIONS ON PASTURE GAINS OF CALVES.’ By E. W. SHeets and R. H. Tuck Witter, Animal Husbandry Division.’ I. WINTER RATIONS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON PASTURE GAINS OF CALVES. II. THE COST OF RATIONS FOR WINTERING CALVES. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Outline of the experimental work__ 1 | I. Winter rations and their influence 4 The region and its problems —__ 2 on pasture gains of calyes— Objects and plan of the work___. 3 Continued. Kind of calves used__---------_ 3 Gains during summer__________ 8 Meedsmusedre 22225 22 eles 3 Gains for winter and summer_-__ 8 Character of pasture____---—_— 5 Diagrams of gains and losses___ 9 Method of feeding and handling Summary of feeding___________ 11 thescalvesi{s) 8 2 oe 5 II. Cost of rations for wintering I. Winter rations and their influence CAV Se ea Sen ee eee 11 on pasture gains of calves___ 6 Cost per pound of gain-_______ 13 Quantity of feed consumed_____ 6 Summary Of costs s=—— === 15 Gains during winter__________ 7 OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTAL WORK. The work reported in this bulletin is part of a series of experi- ments on beef-production problems in the Appalachian Mountain region that have been in progress since December 22, 1914, in coop- eration between the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture and the West Virginia Agricul- tural Experiment Station, on the farm of David Tuckwiller, in Greenbrier County, W. Va. This farm is located in the southeastern part.of the State in the blue-grass area. The results of this experi- ment apply not only to West Virginia but also to the adjacent States 1A report of cooperative work by the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States De- partment of Agriculture, and the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 2The authors acknowledge the services of W. F. Ward and F. W. Farley, formerly of the Animal Husbandry Division, who assisted in planning and carrying on the work. T8471—22 2 BULLETIN 1042, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. having similar conditions, as shown in figure 1. Some of the methods and results may be utilized to advantage by cattle feeders in other parts of the country. THE REGION AND ITS PROBLEMS. The topography in most parts of the region, except in the vicinity of streams, is gently rolling or even mountainous in the higher elevations. The region is generally cleared of forest trees, although vast areas of cut-over or stump land are found. The farms vary in size from less than 100 acres to-more than 1,000 acres. The land is especially adapted for grazing purposes. In most sections there is tillable land for the production of abundant crops for winter feed or other purposes. It is in this general area that a large percentage of the grass- finished cattle which go annually to eastern markets are produced. The fact that most of the steers raised in this area are finished for market from grass alone at- tests the value of the pastures, which consist largely of blue grass. The use of grain for finishing cattle is not general, although there are many sections where the Fic. 1—Map showing region to which practice is followed, particularly tis wank soins ne lak 201386. in the valleys of some of the langes the experiment was conducted. The streams. By far the larger num- shaded portion represents the area to aie which the results are applicable, and ber of farmers who handle beet the dotted portion shows an additional cattle grow either stockers and area to which the results apply in part. feeders or finish cattle for market from grass alone. It therefore becomes one of the principal beef-pro- duction problems in this general area to determine the best and most economical method of wintering the cattle and the one that will enable them to make the best possible use of the pasture the following summer, the time when the cheapest gains are made. A common practice in this area has been to winter steers on dry feed, such as hay, corn stover, and wheat straw, and on corn silage to a less extent, in a way that causes them to lose materially in weight. They are then pastured the following summer and sold from grass either as stockers or feeders or as finished steers for the market. There are some who hold, the idea that it is profitable to permit this loss of weight, which with older steers often amounts to from 25 to 100 pounds. Others believe that cattle wintered on silage, or on a WINTER RATIONS AND PASTURE GAINS OF CALVES. 3 ration of which silage is a part, will not do well on grass the follow- ing summer. OBJECTS AND PLAN OF THE WORK. The experiments as a whole had these general problems in view: 1. To ascertain the effect of different wintering rations upon subsequent pasture gains. ; 2. To determine the most satisfactory and economical method of wintering. 3. To determine the best method and the cost of raising beef cattle in West Virginia. Two distinct phases of the problems as above outlined presented themselves for solution: First, the keeping of grade beef cows to raise calves; second, the wintering of calves, yearlings, and 2-year- olds that are to be pastured the following summer and sold as stock- ers, feeders, or fat cattle. This bulletin takes up the work with calves. The results of the work with yearlings and cows are pub- lished in United States Department of Agriculture Bulletins 870 and 1024, respectively. The work was carried on for a period of three years, in order to have an average of feeds, cattle, seasons, and other conditions tend- ing to produce variation. The general plan of the experiments, in- cluding the rations used for the different lots of calves, is given in Table 1. TasBLE 1.—Plan of the three years’ work. Lot No. Season. Gale S| Winter feed. Summer feed. 1916-17 10 | Corn Bee rye hay, and cottonseed | Pasture. meal. nese ge ERGO RO noe Gas HEpa a eee 10) |e 088 Os ain ee ae Nec eae Do. 1918-19 NOE Sec (0 Vo pesca cs Genel ar te ae vie rari Do. 1916-17 10 | Corn silage and clover hay...-......... Do. 2a SB Coo a Ae cS Goa uae aces eReanena jes TO) eS S a GO ee aie ese Do. 1918-19 LOH cee (0 (oS la ee oral as ea Do. 1916-17 10 | Mixed hay and grain mixturel........ Do. Be SO iy He Sits SUK ea ie a eae as ish OR oe are (CIO ISS AAG N TNR Ty Aaa Do. 1918-19 OS sisd (0 Va eros SPs A a Do. 1 Grain mixture, Aas ae ne 3 parts corn, 1 aa se 1 ae Heooany mea KIND OF CALVES USED. The calves used were grade Shorthorn, Hereford, and Aberdeen Angus. They were raised in southern West Virginia and were a good, uniform lot in age, weight, quality, and condition. They ranged in weight from 300 to 500 pounds, averaging 385 pounds at the beginning of the winter period, and were 1 year old the following spring. . FEEDS USED. Samples of each of the feeds used were taken at different times during the winter periods and sent to the department of chemistry, West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Morgantown. 4 BULLETIN 1042, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. W. Va., to be analyzed. The averages of these analyses are given in Table 2 in heavy type. The average analyses for several thousand other samples are also shown for comparison. ~ Fic. 2.—The type of calves and pasture used in the experimental work. TABLE 2.—Composition of feeds used. nya : ‘ ydrates, Feed. Moisture. Ash. Protein. including Fat. fiber. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Cormpsila gen ye es SN See hla VE ee ah ate = ae oes Sarcten ee 75 1. 1.9 21.5 0.5 70.9 1.4 2.4 24.4 9 Mixed ih aye cesta oweractote mie oscrepans ree iciere os aepepencnete ete 8.3 3.7 6.6 79.5 1.9 UY CSE Ye yatta caters anastasia arstetonsre eae echo ye ra stesayerene aap ele « 8.5 4.7 5.8 79.8 ae: | 6.4 4.7 5.9 81 2 Clovershay eis sseiajercersteteerere/2 eis clalsrsisteye s aisivtetersicle toe 8.6 4.4 8.7 76.6 eer | 12.9 6.9 13.6 63.2 3.4 Shelledtcormfacyecs ce seen eee ieee picisisten se acasless 12.6 153: 9 73 4.1 : 12.9 1.3 9.3 (2.2 4.3 NWihea Garam eee eye Oe ON ri he Re Rea, 10.2 5.3 15 65.9 3.6 9.6 5.9 16.2 64.1 4.2 Teinseed meal asa ihe eters eee rst coe Ee ee ES 8.4 6.3 30 48.1 7.2 8.9 5.4 34.5 44.4 6.8 Cottonseedimest] esa eee see ogee 7.8 6 37.6 40.3 8.3 dso) 5.8 36.8 43.5 6.6 From the analyses it is evident that the feeds used were somewhat below the average in quality. The cottonseed meal was slightly better than the average of that which is graded as good by the Asso- ciation of Feed Control Officials of the United States. The silage was made from a mixture of dent and silage corn. A three-year rotation of crops, consisting of corn, wheat, and hay, is practiced quite generally in the section under discussion. Timothy is sown with the wheat in the fall and red clover is sown on the same WINTER RATIONS AND PASTURE GAINS OF CALVES. oS) field in the spring. This provides in the year following the wheat crop a mixed hay of approximately one-half timothy and one-half clover. The mixed hay used in this work was obtained in this manner. In making rye hay the seed is sown in the fall, as it would be for raising grain, except that more seed per acre is used. In the spring, just before the rye blooms, it is cut and cured. Fic. 3.—Lot 1, calves fed corn silage, rye hay, and cottonseed meal. Photographed at the end of the winter period, April 25, 1919. CHARACTER OF PASTURE. Each year the calves were turned on to a rather rough, hilly pas- ture of about 200 acres, one-half of which is woodland. A small stream, which flows through the pasture, provides an abundance of fresh water at all times throughout the summer. The soil is of limestone formation. A fairly good growth of blue grass with white clover is found on all parts of the pasture not in timber. Under normal climatic conditions there is rainfall enough to keep the grass growing throughout the season. However, the latter part of the summer of 1917 was so dry that the calves made only small gains, as shown in figures 6, 7, and 8. METHOD OF FEEDING AND HANDLING THE CALVES. In the fall before starting the calves on winter feed they were divided into lots of 10 each. In making this division care was taken to have the lots as nearly uniform as possible in quality, breeding, size, and condition. The different lots were given the same amount of space in open sheds with small outside lots about 30 by 60 feet 6 BULLETIN 1042, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in size. Water was supplied in these lots at all times and salt was constantly available. The calves were fed twice a day. The feed, both concentrates and roughages, was weighed at each feeding, and accurate records of it kept. The calves were weighed at the beginning and at the end of the feeding period, the weights being taken three days in succession and the average taken as their initial and final weights. They were also weighed once every 28 days, in the morning after feeding. Neck straps with numbers on them were used so that the identification of each individual could be accurately kept. In the spring of each year, as soon as the grass was good enough, which was usually about April 22, the calves from all the lots were turned into the same pasture with no additional feed. Weights were taken once every 28 days, just as during the winter. Thus the effects Fic. 4.—Lot 2, calves fed corn silage and clover hay. Photographed at the end of the winter period, April 25, 1919. of the different raticns upon the summer grazing of the different lots could be studied. I. WINTER RATIONS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON PASTURE GAINS OF CALVES. QUANTITY OF FEED CONSUMED. In considering the quantity of feed consumed it should be kept in mind that the calves were not getting fattening rations, but only enough to keep them in thrifty growing condition. Table 3 shows the total amount of different feeds eaten in the various lots and the average daily ration per calf in each lot during each of the three winters. WINTER RATIONS AND PASTURE GAINS OF CALVES. Hl TaBLE 3.—Average total and daily rations per calf during three winters. Total feed per calf. Daily feed per calf. { | Speia Ration. | 1916-17 | 1917-18 | 1918-19 | Ay er- | 1916-17 | 1917-18 | 1918-19 | Aver (133 | (184 | (135 | (134 (133. «|| «(434 | (135 (34 | days). | days). | days). | days). days). | days). | days). days). Lot 1: ‘Pounds. \Pounds. Pounds.|Pounds.|Pounds.|Pounds.|Pounds.|Pounds. Corn silage Jaa tania ee Ana | 1,596 | 1,608:| 1,730 | 1,645) 12.0) 12.0] 12.8 12.3 UY Cu a Verret race mcsecoe cieiisiesine we | 560 | 536 478 525 4,2 | 4.0 3.5 3.9 4 pooronsced THs cceereatee eet 66 | 67 101 | 78 | 5 | mt) edi 26 0 | | Cormisilazennue yee ae Mets 1,596 | 1,608 | 1,730| 1,645) 12.0} 12.0) 12.8 12.3 Clover AV epee ayes Sec ecient ae | 661 | 736 561 653 5.0 5.0 4.2 4.9 Lot ; Mixed Ear yee no Arial 1,064 | 1,284] 1,346 | 1,281 8.0 9.6 | 10.0 9.2 GrainenxGures- assess = as | 383 | 402 270 352 2.9 3.0 2.0 2.6 | | | : The composition and nutritive ratio of the rations fed are given in Table 4. TABLE 4.—Quantities of dry matter, digestible nutrients, and nutritive ratios of the daily rations. Digestiblenutri- ents: Feed per : = | gegen Lot a : D , No. Daily ration per calf. | i Carbo. i pounds . ydrate | Nutritive F Protein. equiva- | ratio. weight.? lent.! Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds Pounds Jee mCornmsilace 2:3) pounds). a. casce seen oe 3.07 0.17 DESI ee ae ate 32.0 IR ye) ey (GO jooiwnateks) oS oaaocecsolcBecconeuoses 3. 57 .12 ASTM mracrocR erat 10. 2 | Cottonseed Treal\(O'6spound)) eee ee | 55 .19 2 Ohl lees 1.6 Ro tallest waht, eRe EAM. AEE aR | 7.19 48 ASd. Washo Ovni beatae ders, 2. | Corn silage (12.3 pounds) 3.07 17 DE S2) eee NN 31.9 Clover hay (4.9 pounds).... 4, 48 41 Qe VD ues 1257, ERO Ga aya sre ot SOs ck Sy See eas 25 ee

yearly summer Winter. Summer.| Total. gain. per calf. | | Pounds. \ Cents. 1 Corn silage, rye hay, and cottonseed {1916-17 238 | $11.49 $5. 60 $17.09 | 0. 072 TNO eats sais ecies esses eeaiseicne 1917-18 246 | 11.32 5. 60 16. 92 - 069 1918-19 256 12. 02 | 5. 60 | 17.62 - 069 ee ASV ET ALO ca sete ss ses isomeric eee sees 247 | 11.61 5. 60 17.21 . 070 1916-17 258; 10.41 5. 60 16.01 . 062 2 | Corn silage and clover hay............ 1917-18 238 | 10. 08 5. 60 15. 68 - 066 ; 1918-19 219 | 9. 96 5.60 | 15. 56 | -071 Average ie. chee, S22 seer tees ie 238{ 10.15/ 5.60; 15.75| 066 1916-17 266) 17.19 5.60| 22.79 . 086 3 | Mixed hay and grain mixture......... 1917-18 | + 283 19, 55 | 5. 60 25.15 | - 089 1918-19 290 | 17. 48 5. 60 | 23.08 | . 080 Aryera gOS. eee cr a base eee Leos eet 280! 18.07 5.60| 23.67 | .085 While the calves of Lot 2, which were fed corn silage and clover hay during the winter, made the least gains during the year, the cost of a pound of gain was lowest for this lot, the average for three years being 6.6 cents. Lot 1, fed corn silage, rye hay, and cottonseed meal, put on gains for the year at an average cost of 7 cents a pound. Lot 3, fed mixed hay and mixed grain, made greater annual gains but at much greater cost than the calves of the other two lots. It cost 8.4 cents to put on a pound of gain when the wintering ration consisted of mixed hay and grain. TaBLeE 9.—Summary of costs and gains. Item. | Loti. Lot 2 Lot 3 AVerageicOstOl WINLETIN Gsm << semaine s-leee -biinl= > « epee 316 | 9751 2TH) 32885 |e Ola el 02 West North Central! 33.04 |14.59 | 2.33 | .35 48 | 1.49 | 2.99 +30 |°3. 79 | 3.92%) 25028/eat . 67 South Central... .-. 32.17 |18.09 | 2.63 AAs dd, |mes 62.4), 160. .19 | 2.71 | 1.48 | 2.67 | .09 | 1.22 Par West:.-2.0.2-< 23. 48 12. 96 oT7)| «24 | 1.32.) 1.22) 1.42 29 | 1.81 | 1221 | S562E S20 te S0: | | | ——__ Potal: 20 sss 28.77 |12.38 | 2.03 | asks 33 |: 70°) 121032502) . 26° |-45135|2.. 655] Dat 2a nh9 . 86 Oats: | North Atlantic...) 17.47 | 7.94 | 3.85 Palsy || meal ye 332 43 49) ..54:). 12:70) 9 540 OSs Sk South Atlantic....| 23.82 | 9.50 | 2.10 | .54 nil Oeil meeeltss BAL -21 | 6.10 | 1.89 -41 | .06 | 1.84 East North Central} 20.66 |10.76 | 3.38 | .35 e162)" 5264). 42 ~57 |; «89 | 1.428) Seo) sols eu a2: West North Central} 26.76 |15.05 | 2. 43 «25 -40 | 1.17-| 2.88 -38 -40 | 2.04} .95 | .06| .80 South Central..... 32. 53 119.61 | 2. 83 . 58 .49 .47 | 1.18 -82.4°2..07 | 1.730] 1849) | OGR el e70 Mar, West: -5.52=53- 22.68 |13.72 | 1.00 -11 | 1.15 | 1.60 | 1.08 30 59 | .90 | <63'|.68 | 92 Motalaetee. ss 24.52 (13.44 | 2.73 | .31| .38| .77| 1.90] .43] .80/ 1.73] .89 | .08 | 1.06 Barley: | East North Central} 15.35 | 6.50 | 2.75 -16 sol | SO} R2E07, AD 2y| Oe .66 | .32] .01 | 1.31 West North Central) 33.90 |20.12 | 1.76 .16 .64 | 1.81 | 4.19 -42| .388 | 2:28) .941].16 | 1.04 Mar WeStasse.s secs 20. 48 |13.60 | 1.25 - 10 Ou Aaa O4eli a5 60 «39 Beh || ot) || oS: Totals 22224. 28.65 |17.06 | 1.78 | .14; .68 | 1.32 | 3.17 . 36 ~43. | 165"]) ov4e zie eleoo Flaxseed: Total..... 36.44 |21.06 | 1.25 | .14 | 3.97 at 72 | 3.04 22 39 | 2.19 -95 | .09 | 1. Rice: | South Central... ..| 19. 77\i27< 208 ("32.245 DN52e)— 625) | 402 |) 586 | 2901 | 2 23e ee Q2Nie roar 24aleeaOo: California.......... 8.43 | 1.34 i la| este . 42 |------ 1. 43 oO") 9 288) Seeses| See . 67 | 3.42 Rotalem es ee. 19.04 | 6.67-] 3.14 | 1.47] .24| .02 43°) 1.85 | -.23 1.18 | .76 | .29 }-2.76 Potatoes: North Atlantic....; 29.46 |10.23 | 4.21 | .12]1.36| .05] .40| .04] .48 | 8.02 2.98 | .03 ; 1.54 South Atlantic....| 28.28 15.51 | 1.96 | .34| .71| .14| .38] .04] .31 | 2.86 | 3.68 | .08 | 2.27 East North Central} 31.08 |14.53 | 3.78 | .29|2.19| .04] .83] .04! .47 | 4.31 | 3.15 | .O1 | 1.44 West North Central) 33.35 |20.00 | 3.01 | .33! .96| .3011.28| .04! .49 | 1.96 | 3.79 | .06 | 1.13 South Central..... 32.66 |18.62 | 2.35 nop lochl Sily/ - 65 .06 | .41 | 1.11 | 5.58 | 205 |/2.40 Marswestiss-eeeeee 23.75 j11. 15 . 62 ~16 | 2.77 | .26 -d7 | .06 -48 | 3.62 | 1.31 | .42 | 2.33 otal: 2. ees. 30.12 (14.55 | 3.08 | .25|1.57| .14| .73| .04| .45 | 4.35 | 3.23 | 08 | 1-65 Tobacco: North Atlantic....| 15.05 | 6.34 | 1.29) .18 | 1.79 | 2,17] .07| .55] .46} .22) 1.12) .01 | .85 South Atlantic....| 21.38 | 8.75 | 4.01 -66 | .41 suf Ol| ence On| iol: -40 | .54] 3.54 | .01 | 1.65 East North Central) 19.26 | 6.72 | 3.16] .37 | 3.33 | 1.13 | .21] .36| .34] .45]1.72| (@ | 147 South Central... .- 21.33 | 9.84 | 4.03 - 81 . 65 -44 |] .25 13) 2425 | S28) 02535 Ole pete Hotaleseemeatee 20.50 | 8.72 | 3.65| .64|1.02| .81| .19| .34| .39| .40| 2.50 | .o1 | 1.74 Hay: pesca hope cal er ae North Atlantic....| 16.50 |10.08 | 1.50} .09 | .92] .05 25'| 12} 1.53 | 209 | .45 | .O1 | 1.41 South Atlantic....| 21.27 |14.28 | 2.01 | .66] .388] .15] .32 TFA) ay Sa B Ys Pasty |] OEE | 1b 777 a The statistical data contained in this table and in Tables 2 and 3 were gathered, tabulated, and com- puted by the Bureau of Crop Estimates, which has recently been combined with the Bureau of Markets, as the Bureau of Markets and Crop Estimates. b Including winterkill. c Including defective seed. @ Less than 0.005 of 1 per cent. CROP INSURANCE: RISKS, LOSSES, ETC. {i TaBie 1.—Average annual crop damage from specified causes, in percentage of normal yield, by geographic divisions, for decade 1909- 1918—Continted. Adverse weather conditions. Crop and pepeeunic division. Total loss. Deficient mois- ture. Excessive mois- ture Hot winds. Other climatic. Plant diseases. Insect pests. Animal pests. Other and unknown. ’, Hay—Continued. East North Central 19.01 |10.89 | 1.99 YQ azAl . 04 108 e145 52.27 09 | NOM | OLe | 1e00) West North Central) 24.89 |19.11 | 1.52 . 36 . 20 mlbe lt 1608} 09 | 1.30 05 -40 | .03 63 South Central.....| 22.10 14. 63 | 2.61 . 61 19 . 07 514 SPA 79 418} B23 PS O2 a LA89 lope WWESisogoseoose | 18.91 |11.88 | 1.38 | 20 lel 6 20. .42 22, od. 17 | 1.00 | .46 | 1.00 otalese see | 20.35 |13.44 | 1.74 31 . 62 11 58 15 | 1.45 10 | 52 08 | 1.25 Cotton: | South Atlantic....| 27.09 | 6.60 | 6.75 | 1.10 | 1.99 48 -99 | 77 | 3.03 | 2.85 | (@) | 1.93 South Central... .. -| 38. 83 (14.53 | 3.42 | 1.03 | 1.05 48 | 1.75 | isa ey Eto |12.35 | .03 | 1. 26 | | " | } | | — TO Gall eee | 35.49 |12.29 | 4.34 | 1.05 | 1.32 48 | 1.56 71 60 | 2.00 | 9.67 | .02 | 1.45 a Less than 0.005 of 1 per cent. The purpose of Table 1 is to bring out the relative degree of se- verity of the different hazards, or causes of damage, with reference to each of the crops enumerated for the country as a whole as well as for the various geographic divisions. Thus, in the case of corn, deficient moisture represented the most severe hazard during the 10-year period, not only for the country as a whole, but also for each of the geographic divisions. Excessive moisture represented the second most severe hazard for the country and for four of the six geographic divisions. Frost was the third most severe hazard, insect pests the fourth, and hot winds the fifth, considering the country as a whole. None of the other specified causes represented as much as 1 per cent of damage for the entire country, although the damage or loss from floods exceeded this amount in the South Atlantic and South Central States, and hail damage was more than 1 per cent of the crop damage in the Far Western States. The purpose of Table 2 is to show quantitative damages on a plan sunilar to that by which damages are given on a percentage basis in Table 1. The figures in Table 2, therefore, represent not only the relative severity of the hazards or causes of damage in each case, but also the importance, from the point of view of acreage or volume, of the given crop, in the division or in the entire country as the casé may be. This explains why some causes of loss appear relatively important for given crops in certain divisions in Table 1 and rela- tively unimportant for the same crop in the same divisions in Table 2. _ According to Table 1, for example, an average of 1.12 per cent of the corn crop was lost annually in the far western division through the occurrence of hail, which was a higher percentage of hail damage 8 BULLETIN 1043, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. than occurred to this crop in any other division. But according to Table 2, owing to the relative unimportance of the corn crop in this division, the total hail damage was only 300,000 bushels, or less than it was in any other division. | TABLE 2.—Average annual crop damage from specified causes, in bushels, pounds, or tons, by geographic divisions, for decade 1909-1918. ; Crop and geographic division. Corn (bushels): North Atlantic. ..- South Atlantic... - East North Central West North Central South Central...... Har Wiest: .- 0-025. Wheat (bushels): North Atlantic. ..- South Atlantic..... East North Central West North Central South Central Far West Oats (bushels): North Atlantic... South Atlantic..... East North Central West North Central South Central....._ WaTAW CStis sn sigd soe Barley (bushels): East North Centra! - West North Centra! HO TAWICSt stent ese Flaxseed (bushels), totals ar ee Rice (bushels): South Central...... California.........- Potatoes (bushels): North Atlantic... .. South Atlantic..... East North Central WestNorthCentral South Central...... WaT AVES te weeee aoe [In millions of bushels or pounds, and thousands of tons.] a Including winterkill. b Including defective seed. c Less than 50,000 bushels. Adverse weather conditions. a t 1 38 : nm n . S 3S AS a : a 8 i S| 2) aaleeeian a d|o0 ee q ® DB o|}s D == essen ae} 4 a ro) 2 fst aS) a3 leas 5 & Be 3) E= i mA 3 = me? ne? a : = 4 + sS a \ A lea) ae) ue) 2 : g be 2 S g nm oy C= Saale a=) g id tea te Seat g oheelbanet [Pek 3° io) K — i 3 i) S 3 ac} 2 q re} a a ical co q aa) na ) ey a Fea il (S) 31.9 | 12.3 | 6.3 0.2 |= 429°} 005 0.3 058°} 0595) 0825) 229 OnE 2a: 87.2 | 39.8 | 17.5 | 5.1 2.8 1.4 1.6 257. Leck Te 9.5 -6 4.0 317.4 |120.8 53.0 | 8.3 | 58.0 2:8) lds) 7.0 4.8 12.7 15314 6a| Shas 588.0 |310.8 | 57.1 | 10.8 | 61.4 | 11.2 | 52.3 4.7 8.3 2.3 | 44.5.] 3.8 | 20.8 313.7 1189.0 | 31.7 | 11.5 5.0 2.8 | 24.9 6.7 3.4 3.5 | 24.6) 1.4 9. 2 Me Salita nee od pak elalp e785 [ier anlieha a: GaN fay» lal epee eon eS 1,345.6 |677.0 |265..8 36.1 |127.9 | 19.0 | 94.8 | 22.0] 18.5 | 8.9 |1138.8 | 7.3 | 54.5 | dl | | 6.9 123) a6) salt =i) sal sab gall 2.2 Be 1.3 | (¢) 4 89/058 ets SOE ee a rence be wea Pile ate eal ahs 43 (a) U7, Ba dela esta B46 | Noel Mae! Psst NS | s.58"s1oe7alh Tar lGeor 1 (CB eamleng W938 Wiles 4| 13.9) || fQi0ut. 2.56; !|< 8834) 41625, 1.7 | 18.5 | 22.5 | 11.6 NON pearl Qo Pl4e5 Dal: -4 2 ziki 12 Bo) | 2860 Lee aaron eel 1.0 43.5 | 24.5 1.3 Aral Acide coopera eects -5 | 23.3 | 225 een elo 1.4 301.2 1126.2 | 23.1 3.8 | 7.4) 11.9 “21.4 2.8 | 41.0 | 28.6 | 23.8 | 2.1 9.1 1 — —=— 19.9 | 9.1 4.4 32, 2 13 5 .6 .6 1.9 710) | CO) ender 11.5] 4.6 1.0 3 4 gal aul «Lele cds0 .9 2 | -(e) -8 109.6 | 57.0 | 17.9 1.9 9 Te P75" 3508)" 2500) 06s son eee Ono 202.7 {114.9 | 17.8 1.8 3.0 8.9 | 21.5 2.9 3.0 | 15.4 (6) a9 5.8 42.7 | 25.3 Be .8 6 EL. 1.4 4 3.0 2.4 OEP) il 21 27 9V A659 4 ls2 wll 14, \|. «250 1.3 4 BU ipa! Btls, dl 414.3 |227.8 | 46.0] 5.0] 6.5 | 18.4 | 32.3] 7.3 | 12.5 | 9. TESS SRS || rn D4 2a 9 Ball sal wil: .8 BY al +2 Be) 5 51.4 | 30.9 2.6 2 1.0 206 6.3 6 .6 | 3.4 1.4 BP et ta) N77 bn bil 1.0 Bal -8 4 .8 gil 36) 3 .3 .6 .8 74.1 | 44.7.) 4.5 BASED) | OS2 eas 9 12 |r 50) 1.9 | -8| 2.8 10.2 | 6.0 ~3 |} (c) LSA BL) .8 pul wll .6 -3 | (¢) .4 6.9 | 2.6 1.2 BU) -l1 | (¢) sal .6 a1 4 -3 sil .9 . Se Oy Besse (genset TARM(OY. ey lee seeclle 5252 (c) 2 7.4 2.7 1.3 6 -1 | (¢) Bul 7 sali 4 -3 us 1.0 AT, 24 16:2) 6.8 Sh bePae Bil .6 ilk .7 | 13.0} 4.8 | (e) 2.5 10; 2).)- 5.5 Sill ny .3 jal oph) || Ge) oil ie 1.4 | (¢) -8 44.3 | 20.6 5.4 4 3.2 ail 1.2 sal .6 6.1 4.5 | (c) 2:1 36.4 | 21.9 3.2 4 Lek 3 1.4] (c) Sh 2.2) 4.1 mat 1.2 ON aah 7/ if oil .3 .1 |- 2°) (ce) gil -3 ii / (c) Si 16.9} 8.1 4 1 1.9. 2 4] (¢) 35] 206 ort ad By 164.8 | 78.0 | 17.2] 1.3 | 89 -8} 3.9 +2 225 i250. Sel) dee 5| 88 CROP INSURANCE: RISKS, LOSSES, ETC. 9 TaspLe 2.—Average annual crop damage from specificd causes, in bushels, pounds, or tons, by geographic divisions, for decade 1909—1918—Continued. {In millions of bushels or pounds, and thousands of tons.] Adverse weather conditions. | = rf A | : . 3 fa | te | ii |e Sal BN ie Crop and geographic g g | é = wa a me division. g3 2 |e ae a q a g a | 2 S asd |-o8 sal | us| a 3 cs) Sr Warsi ives zB eo), ne oe aes i = g a ~ S Spee &e |A fees | ey Pea) ES [Sa eee Por EN) «ony SN le | | |" | Tobacco (pounds): | | | North Atlantic... LON 72.98 116 SQN Qe4i i 228 aul sith .6 6a) ake h@)) Hea South Atlantic....| 114.1 | 43.6 | 22.3; 3.9 | 2.4) 4.4 OAs One eae Monel MON Sil (a) 8.8 East North Central 39.5 | 13.8 | 6.5 OOK | hau .4 al od -9 | 3.6] (2) 3.0 South Central.....- 123.6 | 53.7} 25.1 | 5.1 359) 257 133 8} 2.5 1.7 | 14.1 1 | 12.6 Movaletiens !.% 296.3 |119.0 | 55.4 | 10.0 | 15.6 | 121] 27] 53) 5.9) 58/389! .1 | 25.5 Hay (tons): | | North Atlantic....| 3,128 |1,927 | 278 18! 172 ll 48 23 282 16 85 2| 266 South Atlantic...-.) 1,043 690 100 | * 34 18 9) 16 9 57 6 16 1 87 East North Central] 4,258 |2,431 | 441 | 58] 159 Ori, All? S252 CAL APRS i) BBR WestNorth Central] 6,441 |4,922) 401) 99 | 53 47 | 260 26 | 349 11 104 | 7 162 South Central...... 1,704 |1,157 181 | 44 13 5 54 16 64 10 19 1 140 D Beye Vi CSisscecoosor 3,839 |2,414 | 266!) 49 | 241 51 84 45 157 35 206 | 90 201 | = i} “tO Soe seoous 20,414 |13, 542'1, 667 | 301 | 657 131 | 580 151 |1; 436 100 | 557 | 103 |1,189 Cotton (pounds): | P | 4 South Atlantic..... 870.4 | 213.3 214.8 | 35.4 | 64.8 | 15.4 | 31.8 | 19.7 | 24.3 | 95.9.) 93.8 1 | 61.1 South Central......|2, 860.6 1,078.7/249. 8 | 74.5 | 75.7 | 35.0 '129.2 | 53.1 | 42.1 |114.2 1912.6 | 2.4 | 93.3 ANOS cabesou ls 3,731.0 |1,292.0/464. 6 |109.9 |140.5 | 50.4 161.0 | 72.8 | 66.5 |210.1 |1,006.3| 2.4 {154.5 (2) Less than 50,000 pounds. Based on quantitative measurements and considering the country as a whole, deficient moisture is again the leading cause of crop damage to each of the crops here covered, excessive moisture ranking second for corn, oats, rice, tobacco, and hay. In the case of wheat, plant disease is the second most important cause of damage, with insect pests third, and these causes also retain this relative importance in potatoes. In the case of barley, hot winds come second as a source of damage, while with cotton insect pests occasion almost as much damage on the average as does deficient moisture. The figures in Table 3 indicate that, considering a crop which is 10 per cent above the normal as a perfect or no-damage crop, and applying average farm prices to the quantitative losses of each crop for each year, this total annual crop damage in the United States to the crops here considered varied during the 11 years 1909 to 1919, inclusive, from a minimum of 2,054 million dollars in 1912 to a maximum of nearly 3,066 million dollars in 1918. The average annual crop damage during the 11-year period was 2,620 million dollars. These loss figures in terms of dollars are particu- larly convenient in making comparisons, but, for reasons stated on page 12, they do not represent the actual monetary loss to farmers through a reduction of the yield. (38032— 22 2 BULLETIN 1043, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 10 crop damage from specified causes in the United States, for the 11 years, 1909 to 1919, inclusive. al & TaBLeE 3.—Annual [In millions of dolars.] DHAOMMHMORDAOO rPOMDNDOONAMEN PH MADHOMONS rAMDOHME~ DOME HoH ON 4 O09 0D NH -SIOUL OATSSOOXTT ere Leverer tol 20) Vets cute tape OBA TOSBSAR “HOMH mt) oie Soe Galoncie en elrl sie akrie file ies Zeus ge ioe ce) fo at alot Sah ee Uh foubeur al” fa SpiMmbares. 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Ve Mewes ics : : RSF iaAaS ie HQ ARHSSCAN : a “0104 WOO ONS cocoon Cin imide al Sco Go Ane wn ons Sint oOinHtHAtMoS ONHOMADARMIQ ~OnHOM ‘omy Cet tee cereus ees LOBRBDHHHDONH AHOKniowoRazan ASSRASKSAS BRAM eRe ooo Sane i O : > rau stom 4yuoTOyOd AN 4 ANN BMHANRNDS Othe mae aH Ranvane AND MOHOBDINSINOMO HHHMEMRNOOCO RHOHKRADNAMOCHH NROtHOOaHIO CHAI ON . SSHHSsdHGeN SIs NUisasdaodiasngd todd dASSOoKH HCSissresn stad SudssairdcHnowt sssrads SSOT [@4O], TEONSOhHGGAASH DAKO AGSSOHHS WRANHAMHOOWD HROMBHNBoOUS BReaaad aA 4 NANO AHO AN oD Th MH CO DOODNAWHOAnRRr MANTA NNRAR RN e weandsh rE re mm Sere = [iti reac near Lest a Sa nme RT iin ssa aU ie in eT La aaSaLal NET GeRMURUS cD. A) ote De O Deo ooo ny Uno sO ’ ‘ ‘ Pee eee eR ae er a ST Tene enter] ete ER ie the eth stanton ne pend G09 De Ode DO Oe 0 UO a0. "0 on er OO aN et FOUR DE ae el CBee Bi, aUaPd trike) Seeepe 5 ete hvere: Pe. ' ' , . ' ' ' ' ‘ ‘ ' ' ‘ ' ‘ ' . ’ , ’ ' , ’ ’ ' ' ‘ ' 0 7 ' . es ie eee en ee ee eee Mn Oc Nena eer mertat e MMiy cent Nemo et Le pig Ata, Gee hoes Bo DD Rey 1G. Oe Oa 0 3 en er Cees acne nM NB Se ane ert en tare en unabated CO 9 OE SO4.0- 0% 8-0 Pele Gots Daa. Oe ED a oe PB Pe ae ee rete eee ee ene ere nee meee ete SO coat tes 0s also buen BOS de aa yg ob Ba Ph DED so og nt col a) ata ae: etane i ee nd oe ee eee eet ere erm res ai om (bar Orme OURIT A. ou Me OL Ot tet ea ofa Soh by On20o iil tht 5 Loe : u 4 Se a oe ED Ee a a MN FON CC ETN erat SSD oN SEte Tab Sae EG. <0 Leh Ne oO yt ee ee ee NO aa ain q HAOHAMHIDNSOROD SOHNBOdHidcoNnda BSHAADH GON AD .ADSHAMHBSONASTSOHAMHBSNKS BonAaH 3 ima) 2 ARAAANHD BAAR HAR ARRAM ..PRRBRBRAWVWID , HAEBHBBBBBAADPSAAABARRAAGYRRAGADADAARS..S S jo) f| ay aad w a CS) m ' 5 3 a ce} = S) e ‘s) fo) -Q fy & b Including defective seed. ¢ Less than $50,000. @ Including winterkill. 11 ified causes in the United States, for the 11 RISKS, LOSSES, ETC. inclusive—Continued. {In millions of dollars.] years, 1909 to 1919, c Excluding flaxseed. d Excluding hay. CROP INSURANCE TasLE 3.—Annual crop damage from speci OrMnan BONMAHOARAOHBD HOMO AMDHORAMAH OMDDOROW HRAMUHRDOOOHH HOMHOHHHrios ‘ “SAUD HSH SSHHHHSH ASAT SAGA HOTS Sw SORBOHASHOGB AHO $B od NS 18 8 of = 06 i uUMOUYUN pure 100 S OS aaa FABAAAB GA” SRASQaaeaeorin ri PM Ht IR IDRMAANAANA TAA RAR IR AMD OR OO BHAA HID 1M | OMmnoHonMiNwn a e ‘ . OPe O50 SOF0F POG AOS OF O%-0 ‘ 3 . ‘ . ‘ A eS el Naive), (0) “fel=\ 0 dpa aie ees OO >. 0) (0 renee), Oli es: 18 pete tiles i a Ba aly ET wel o UG Ue fae BE | *sqsod [euIuy Beeb SE a ees COO 0. 5S adda = 1 CHSSHSrSsws qn ; 0 AHH OM PMOKRHOAHHHOMNH ARBNMHAOCOOMOKR MRWDWDNOBHD HMAMOCORMOMH OMINOHDHDWDAANKO “sqsod.qoesuy| = RHA SSHHSAGDKRA SSA HSHHSidH SSSKHSNAS SSBHHASHStHH 6H SStinsSSSoSoOHAS AMARA ARN aM mON OCW OP '9 & oD mINOnN MMO HOWS c SSS ees NRN ANNNMMMMOHAAIO NUIANN WDWOOMWMAOAWNON HHO OD HOD OON HOnOOOM|S COD 210 19 6D HH OO HH 19D OMAR OrN MO dH SSOSGOSTPIVULG[ qi |eauue ees tes PBA SOSO BAN HOM USA OR OM ORAM de SE doyistiada ASHSisitdtscisagh aaA SANNA é OS ARAMA BHOHTNROCOKSH doo foal Kone AGA tH OCOOSKROMMOONM MOROWDNDOHOHH AHOHDHORH HAMAENMHAKRON HHMHATMAOANH 3 7S CTR eC ee eer aan eer ge le rT Oy SA ts citer AY TE ee Oe ny OS OVeU[[O 19440 S520 HANA OA A 6A ol doin OHOANEHN NOCHNAMHODN ADOMGMDSOBDSY~19 . a mood a AA rownnwonrynHont me rt mAs WA AD AAA MAMMA Ho VWOMMOmMIDOr LDA NDRWHR SAMARMHMACHAR Makhmanntoro 5 Boa ecg eee Fag h ace ae ase BPeia bass wie ok Vale's CONT ei Saja seas eons Roa NT SMU RES cS) ND We PSE rR Ae SUIIO}S oS tS Zs SF st? SONIC Oo itt SBNSNANGAS ISK SHBAOAdiSAidid ; : = Kan) BN ANNABOANG n at 8 AANA, DOOCHHONMONHH AHAMNOMANHA NAOMMDNNRDO GOMONHMAENKNO DOCHOHOROOHE ae) “SpUurlM JOR, ee Ee IO IGOR el DIGnIGE. Sen ee 8 Mod AtSo xi qscgddsssoser tera scr aoatanra “4 rc AN mo maNn tend fen COLIN ICON CISRICN ig mann Ard Aw i eat S fort tt RONDONMOBOHD OE HHONLMSOR HANHAMKRS MOMDOOHHDOHKR OHRDODONMOOS ae ae] Reem Ta TT act ae Saher ea ae a OS eo oe em a ory Ty a ne ir) SG) TG aay SL QDS LO Oe nO eee Ps [TreH 00 nO 4 ni NAANBANGDAN BHAA NRNR HR SBHHSDADSSSOKRNG SSONKKSOSSHHSH ky 055 ap S55 DATDH ASW HO fal ——— — a — —__—_— = ~+4+— — —— — a ae 3 AORN KANOSINOOCHHAAID HOMAHOTROHRKR FHNODHDHNH NOKRKADAHNDHO NArNMMrKoMwoHoO iw) “sol SCC SBN SASH HON ON ANK HR BSOHSKHSIS SHH KKHKDKDSKHOH AHOSHISSSaKbAS isd 4 | ao aa 7) ORMOAOM OHNO o wz DAH IDDM OONASCS AO rt AOMAOA CHANSON NA WHADHOBOMAH MANDONOSAArHA Ss “Spooy Ty Ces ae rt “eS CANAAN AN IRS COHN Oo ON xtiWNAs fac) "BHO 8 0S se Or SAHAaSon 4 na . ' Ss Ee los te) CO =H IGA ENS E00 G0) en < “omy MAHHOM~ ABNADOARBANDH MOMMOOCHNOMHAH AHHOMHHID CHDDHONDOMHID HrAHOARMNOMING “ 4 8 thes BrP Sgt SSAAGIG SHAHOHA SHE GHS KRNHDSHHHSD ANNHHSOHHOSH ASM idsHadcisacis -SIOUL OATSSOOX I, q AAS Sh = S& ASCSSATR SSARAFGRSASH SARBASLSSRA s — or AN HNO FShHHe SAE OW CHANHOHNONGD BHODOHNAOGOMIQ CHANRHOOCH OARADEMHDOH NMHOHNIDIMANNS “oIn} SONA SHrSsHADOnNKH HosdddonKrda MdSAKBSAGD SHAS H KAS Sa MSH Nddens -STOUL uspyoqd RO} ESS Tes GN} RaeR MmHNTN YD mN mi O19 P10 HK SH mODNOMDO MOD OO H OmMmMOINNA HOD > T yuo! rAd AAR APRA SHAO AMAHOSGHHMONDH Ree eI IS cS rire Sea lhnenl San lh oa lh | COONS CON NOGHNCAMAM ANWDOHDOHOHEY HONK ORNR® KRWOCHAMHOOHRO SHOWHHNANMMONNH 6 BANS SAK Ad AHO SHiisSibKraoandsdtA SSARSSAS HS H SSO] [840.,, HH ONDDOAHHHNHH AAHAAAHHSOKR SANBWASGSNS = nd Sn Eh ee es oe oe ee OD 1D D2 © CO ri OD OD Oo Ee ey ae ty RO Be: rs SMe MeN Max Mes Mex Mes Mes Max ae on 5 t= a COO OL Sa ; 5-0 Paso: Wet o ao Oe Dee HG OMe Dae AE SOR D Po EO Reo eo biden: ED COLD b \ . ; BQ DRG SOLO? GSD o MTU Ue BReRHE OS, og ; 06 00-0 0 OO Gaon 8 ; 0 Qed -in OSA 0 oie0..-O i ; i Oo OSbe oo. 5 eS eS meen CoS Oe Ms UR SUR Ree 20 AEE OTe BREE RED SOE Gots ae ' ' ray ro ci Reo Neches Ga PSO SLO DEL. oT PORES WONG. « Gee Ooo 7 Deneca. 0 Ba DE GRR RAO aie meee Pa oy 0 a0 Oe 02 08 = oe O00 0 ee a MO 0 ee an nO ok oo 6 o Oo tf a 0 6 ho O° 0 99 fe Peacoat tse aka Os SEOs ete Omer er et: Srey ser een arisege gun irre eneethoo 20- SMO Oe or tO. Gs Mak oreD- Oe orss <4. OCD OOo. 80 0-0 ' Lo} ©) 0 oe 7 0 gO 0 8 0 D0 ono 80 Cb eo 8 aio 0 sss so ' q OHMOSRODBROHAMHDORN DG SCROHAMHDOR OD DBOKADAHINDSONWOD 5 |PORRSBBESSSGGG55598 VSORRRRR5555 BPRRBRBABABHSD ~ 2 = S fo) YS ie: ERNE TE AT ee Q39DR sowie eee ase oes 40+ 50 | 68 52.6 | F+ ook PLOTS aise cece [eee ccc Se ae cal eae eee ee aitre 20+] 45 Wk) | (2a Wa ieee = PALO RZ SS eR eee Ne Aiea 8 fk L5G DUT Ke y/o este 25 50 65 46.6 | F+ P TAO) eS eeu ee He cae O20) VAT oI g eee eee elas 85+ Cee Beceaed Pp P (QU) Ee Seas J ieee mea cereess | ca tenen aly VelvetiChafio.s2|"-.22-2 65 Wiki eee Gaile -eocce Group 4.—AWNLESS, GLUMES GLABROUS, KERNEL SOFT. WINTER VARIETIES. | | Common wheats: | EGAN Peas eaesespemes seem 725 45}° Mesa pareen Reeeinge aes ap bene Cates 30 40 95+ 55 G | G— TSO es eed SMe UR TEN 2 alibetnatay leal| ang Mafaal ae na es 80+ 40—| 60 60 F F eee Oona Rees aera 2441 |? 1535 | Berdiansk... 0.2! 025-2 65 TOL eee He lee DEAE I ar CS i Ue Ra Fe En ee 85 40— 95 dae dene ys de JEN ee ee Sel En a Pa Se ee eM Rene 40—-| 65+/ 85+] 63.3| F+ | G— PiGosi cue 2402 |.-..-.. |ietsves oie epee aN ayaa tennant 65+ 90-5) asses F— Ft LEAS ATBIA, eee UM BS Mei aa ES eases emer 40—| 60+} 80 60 | F— | F+ POT O ee eeicaraie ceyaciera DAO i | epee eee Nahe Reuse an [hy ceca ES 65. 90) See eee F— ¥F POSO Starrs Soe eyae eck 2405 |...2.-- North Allerton. . 40+ 68 75 61 12 F— PAOG4. eos ee 2440 | 6218 | Zimmerman..... 30+} 60+ 70 53.3 Aas a POO 2 ess Se eee 2406 | 6216 | Currell.........- 25+ 75 90 6333) 3G— ale FO ee perme esi a SCY a 1733 | Dawson Golden.|.-...--- 75+ Wilco eee es 1 jsoaaae Ss Chaff. Ls et TCS Reus ceaeiciee cle osceeee 1744 | Early Genesee |....... 77 Wk seen Wipe aacsene Giant. | AD aie fie cial ages grat 1915 | Purple straw....|......- 60 Wika eae Ite ocaaaks DCN es sees ee A Li ey apa 1OQSEISENTC ZS seen esse ee eee 67 Walesa eee Rae alee aes RED Dee Serle sere ate sees ete eye 1969 | Michigan Amber]..-..... 80 SE sistonceds Ie bb oacas CHATISIG (OE a rae alse Cee ie erate IRGOLE eae. |e 85 Wilks E eee By" [assence TAS ae ety i ects 1980 | Fultzo-Mediter- |......- 90+ WilkNeeckee. Pe ileeynere 2 ranean. BCA G SMS aCe enh aN peat ae PAST (lie Soy 0X0 Wea hs iia a 65 WE | eases Fee eee (OGRE RB Pia sress itn eave ean Prenat Currey ees Seen Pees 95—-| Wk ]-.2..--2 iP wines Group 6.—AWNLESS, GLUMES PUBESCENT. WINTER VARIETIES. | Common wheats: : OTB Se ate 2408 |...---- | Jones X Red Fife!....... 95 Wika | Aesnase5 Pr Poe e = eRe pa Enya as Rearernes 1933 | Jones Winter |....... 90 Wik Sasser (Pe |eeeenes Fife. RED Oar a Na cietayetuse aoe erie atte Ne eeetere Meal yore cen ence SOWN ea WH | eres Pepa saeee SPRING VARIETIES. Comimon wheats: CI 29O8e ee eee se H. 3111 H. 4942.10 H. 6X 2223 Preston (Minn. No. 188). Tumillo x Pres- ton. Kubanka Pres- on. KubankaX Blue- stem. 80 68 RUST RESISTANCE IN WINTER-WHEAT VARIETIES. 11 TABLE 1.—Stem-rust infection of wheat varieties after artificial inoculation-in the nursery at Manhattan, Kans., in the years 1915, 1916, and 1917, together with data on kernel quality in 1916 and 1917—Continued. Group 7.—AWNED, GLUMES PUBESCENT. Quality of Stem-rust infection (per cent). | ‘kernels. F | | | Season, class, and iden- | Kansas} C. f. F SaeeaaaReT Ie 1 aE | cification number. NOU eNowl aamcal name. | Son | | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 | aver- | 1916 | 1917 | age. | | | S —— bis i i eR Ds 1 Pa eases 4 a) 6 Coes tech eae) | ——— eS: = = | | eS | Se SPRING VARIETIES. | | | Per | Per Per Per Common wheats: cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. OMe 244 2 Ue essen | sce lseliseine siete Black Persian... 5—| 10 |10t040) 18 |:....-. G aap, f s Gia a RN ph iva ft i Group 8.—AWNLESS, GLUMES GLABROUS. . a e = Dy Soe i | Tea ay SPRING VARIETIES. | | Common wheats: ; | | TEs AUST Za ae hae Me ee cE Ghirka Spring..| 354] 50 98 GL Bees 1s CGS GATE ee aes ee i on | Marquis...--.--. 25 65 95 6l |. 222. G— Cie Some or eee alas seas esencell Glyndon_ Fife 25 45 85 Se ene P (Minn. No. 163).| | | Group 9.—AWNLESS, GLUMES PUBESCENT. SPRING VARIETIES. | | | | Common wheats: | | | = (CMOS eee Cont eee een Haynes Blue-| 35+| 40 GOerle {sony Memmi ioe stem (Minn No. 169). | | Group 10.—AWNED, GLUMES GLABROUS. Durum wheats: Hi: 3122A12 elololclololelelolc) Iumillo X Pres. ton. Arnautka “Gharnovka...... Beloturka Monad Selection Pentad (D-5)... Acme Emmer and Einkorn: OMIM DD ee es TT. ZO] a White Emmer. | SASCE GOR eteeer Bets GOs eee Yaroslav emmer Khapli emmer... Common einkorn Spring | a Heavy on base; on upper culms, trace. 0 On necks. c Fairly heavy at base; on culms, trace. d Heavy on necks; on culms, trace. 12° VBULLETIN 1046, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The names are those which appear in the records of the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. Most of the varieties in the bearded, glabrous-glumed, hard red-kerneled group are very similar to the well-known Turkey and Kharkof varieties. Nearly all the winter-wheat varieties proved to be very suacentible to stem rust (PI. III). Three of the pedigreed strains, however, were found to be remarkably resistant. These were Kanred and two un- named varieties, P1066 and P1068. These three pure-line selections differ morphologically from Turkey and Kharkof in the greater length of the short awn or beak found at the tip of the outer or empty glume. The average length of the beak in these three varieties is considerably greater than in the case of Turkey, Crimean, and Kharkof.’ The va- riety P762 (Kansas No. 2401) was named Kanred (from Kansas Red) and distributed to farmers in 1914.. The other two resistant strains, P1066 and P1068, are very similar to Kanred; in fact, the three strains seem to be morphologically identical. They appear to differ slightly in certain agronomic characters, such as yield, winter hardi- ness, and grain quality. The experimental data which are available indicate that each of these other two selections is equal to Kanred in yield and other agronomic qualities, although they have not been grown as long in plats at the agronomy farm and have not been com- pared at the branch experiment stations or in cooperative experiments with farmers. These three strains did not attract any particular attention in 1915, as they seemed as heavily rusted (40 to 70 per cent) as many of the other varieties, but in 1916 and 1917 very different results were ob- tained. They were almost free from stem rust (Pl. IV). The estimated infections of rust on these three varieties in 1916 were 10, 5, and 5 per cent respectively, and in 1917 they were 10, 15, and 5 to 25 per cent, respectively, compared to the maximum figures of 95 to 98 per cent on other varieties in the same seasons. The only other variety of winter wheat which gave any evidence of resistance was Kansas No. 2390. The infection of stem rust on plants of this variety was estimated at 40 per cent in 1915, at 30 per cent in 1916, and as “Trace to 40 per cent’ in 1917. This variety was much less heavily rusted than many other varieties in 1916 and 1917, but it does not appear to be nearly as resistant as Kanred, se UU, and P1068: 7 This aistineuishine Araracter was first ea to the attention of the writers by Carleton R. Ball nal J. Allen Clark, of the Office of Cereal Investigations. 8In the light of present knowledge of the existence of several biologic’ strains of stem rust, with differ- ent infection capabilities, the results in 1915 are easily explained as being due to the presence in the rust nursery of one or more strains of stem rust which were able to attack these varieties. Bul. 1046, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. A.HOEN & CO.LITH TYPICAL INFECTION OF STEM RUST OF TURKEY WHEAT. This represents the susceptible strain of this variety used as a check in the wheat-rust nursery in 1916. Bul. 1046, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. A.HOEN & CO_LITH A TYPICAL PLANT OF KANRED WHEAT FROM THE RUST NURSERY IN 1916. Note the very slight rust infection. The other pure lines (P 1066 and P 1068) presented a similar appearance. Bul. 1046, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. 0 > 0-0-0 0 Dee Cer OS) Sits Oea0- 2070 ' . ' Creal fiat eA doer ee ee ee eit (Lae vO . ' , ' ’ . ' . Ly ’ ‘ ' . ° e t ‘ a . ' ’ . . on tear ts aH of fof ch shesonensuay ten heen 5 ae Opty 6 Oot rack) Socom aaa se 000-0 0 Oe Ue to - 0 10 0 eo ae 5 noe Ue ch 00 Ge) so ns Go Oe 1 DDE “lene ae een Ue 0s Uae Din: 5 OGD ty abs ty gO ) OMNOOnO MAMMROD COAG 0 VOCs OrowDAo Meee erorerene Anrorwes DODAHRBOMN A Leeeeeeenr RSLSRS5RB58S oad e) epee ep emasvepme) DOVE ONGP. CSSD icra oreoont BORAr~ORMDODOM Gene OE aso OSG FOG a DaAnroror On ete ee Tate. (per cent). Low Second-mortgage farm loans, average Number ing (per | of banks reporting. TMENT OF AGRICUL cent). Prevail- (per cent). rate. ' High (per cent). y banks, March, 1921—Continued. Low First-mortgage farm loans, average Number of banks reporting. REBRSHRSEB OOOO OOWMOW 19 NguseoRoes me ON HOD MOO ONOD OD 14 12 ox ENA SH ™~oo CMO 1D HS Ce ek et ee et ete Peery a =e. 8 e060 6 lemme BULLETIN 1047, U. §. DEPAR State, and crop estimates district. Continued. Tae 4.—Average rates of interest on farm mortgage loans in the United States, reported Wisconsin... East North Central— Geographic division, 12 2. 3 4 5. 616: 255 (ioe 8 Oey District 1- 2, 615 West North Central... HAHHDBADADS rbd Or Eee SS Homo OMOrond S45 1D 6 oD SH SH tH eile. ele 0 the 0) es) ese D0 PO on 69 00 CO Secs saseser ZASRSRVSHS ewer fende sei 0 ve, lelsse se RtSSRSSSRE ISG yes aves WODODDODODOOO MAY MAH OPO ORDO Dr | FBRSS 97 050) feo Jee, a, 0) |}: ce Jee) ey se. Jeena ee a Deimeesel veep epnees 9 nepeprep rept e)='emepneliwe 6 00000 RSSR S888 «o oe 8 ee eo WODOoD 1919 Pe 19 49 6D 0 to INDIO NOOO No NAPA oOFromNn ooo MASONS RRRSKRSBSH eo eppeme tivity pause lee Dilan: 3. Astaveyeralacle Se sj. ae Besos ee 8 9 District 1.. Minnesota..... 2 North Dakota... DAs District 12 5.)-.- Iowa... ata cpetetelete Sanbeocua Districtds. 500... dee Oe eaeiciewe South Dakota..... District 1... FARM MORTGAGE LOANS BY BANKS, BTC. 18 TaBLE 4.—Average rates of interest on farm mortgage loans in the United States, reported by banks, March, 1921—Continued, First-mortgage farm loans, average Second-mortgage farm loans, average rate. rate. Geographic division, State, and crop estimates district. | Number| Low High | Prevaiil- | Number} Low High | Prevail- of banks (per (per ing (per | of banks (per (per ing (per reporting.| cent). cent). cent). |reporting.| cent). cent). cent). West North Central— Continued. Nebraska.......-.. 298 6. 49 7.18 7.19 218 7. 50 8. 60 8.12 District 1..-..... 14 8. 79 9.79 9. 25 10 9. 50 9. 50 9. 50 cA 8 7.25 9. 50 8. 50 6 7. 50 9. 67 8. 83 Bie) eesti 46 6. 24 7.70 7. 04 45 7.46 8. 83 8. 28 CNS Ae 19 8. 21 9. 39 8. 82 15 9. 67 10.00 10. 00 Seles odie 33 6.15 7.64 6.95 26 7. 50 8. 88 8. 35 Gee 69 5. 92 6.91 6. 55 52 6. 90 7.91 7. 43 peters 29 7. 28 8. 98 8. 23 12 7.75 8. 83 8.17 fo Sed 31 6. 29 7.63 7.02 19 6. 92 7. 92 7. 50 Qe sue 49 6. 00 7.07 6. 48 33 7.15 8.35 7.74 IKcamn saci speu eon 382 6. 92 7. 76 7. 30 235 ~ 7.67 8. 39 8. 06 District 1........ 22 7.02 & 64 7.95 10 7. 90 9. 00 8.70 See 46 6. 34 7.48 7.04 35 7.60 8.17 7. 84 he ie oe 61 6. 13 7. 26 6.79 39 aon 8.13 7.78 Ase fiom 11 7.27 8.27 7.91 5 8. 00 8. 60 8. 30 OE 51 6. 74 7. 54 1.27 34 7.47 8. 19 7. 90 Geen 50 6. 50 7. 46 7. 06 28 7. 80 8. 14 7.99 7s SMe 22 8. 05 9. 36 8.61 12 8. 67 9. 50 9. 25 ae ee 56 6. 61 7.79 1.33 38 7.59 8. 53 8. 16 OS oes 63 ~ 6.80 7. 86 7.35 34 7.76 8.53 8. 07 South Atlantic....... 786 7.15 7.49 7, 33 339 7.42 7.79 7. 60 Delaware.....-.... 12 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 6 6.00 6. 00 6.00 Maryland.......... 50 5. 96 6. 00 6. 00 12 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 District 1......... 6 5. 92 6. 00 CCE DN eset te Ces eh 4 OY eae a mt Cite ae NOS Se REE 17 5. 97 6. 00 6. 00 5 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 uines SON 5 5. 80 6.00 6. 00 2 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Gee ore 8 6..00 6. 00 GED ase Se aod ea) RercGirn tal eee nes Seles enon GE 8 6.00 6. 00 6. 00 3 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Senay ie 1 6. 00 6. 00 CHINO W Meaeoecedl ameemetc ea eure Aelia ny ie Ce Queen. 5 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 2 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 District of Columbia 1 6. 00 7. 00 6. 00 1 6. 00 8. 00 8. 00 Virginia............ 110 6. 04 6. 26 6.17 32 6. 06 6. 28 6. 16 District 2......... 19 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 5 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 ge ea 14 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 5 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 DS dee 19 5. 97 « 6.11 6. 03 4 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Gree yee) 12 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 3 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Ceeae aeons 22 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 5 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Stee saee 10 6. 20 6. 90 6. 80 3 6. 33 6. 67 6. 33 Oe anaes 14 6. 21 7. 29 6.75 7 6. 14 7. 00 6. 57 West Virginia..._.. 51 6. 00 6. 16 6. 06 13 6. 00 6.31 6. 08 District 1......... 10 6. 00 6. 00 GOO eee ir BT Se aes UN lala aes 8 FE se : 10 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 3 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 eens ees 9 6. 00 6. 22 6. 00 3 6. 00 6. 67 6. 00 Ce Ee 8 6. 00 6. 75 6. 38 3 6. 00 6. 67 6. 33 Sue UNC 2 6. 00 6. 00 Lap OLO Hesse yet tt RCN SYE al RN ep L Gage 9 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 4 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 BO eee, 3 6. 00 6. 00 CHT 010); | reel vek Niels LENS Ne A re ALN RE ON North Carolina..... 99 6. 04 6.31 6. 12 42 6. 05 6. 36 6.19 District 1......... 12 6. 00 6. 42 6. 25 6 6. 00 6. 83 6. 50 QO ou) 13 6. 00 6. 00 6..00 4 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Cae epee 17 6.00 6. 24 6. 18 7 6. 00 6.57 6. 43 COS ers 9 6. 22 6. 22 6. 22 3 “6. 60 6. 00 6. 00 Dieses 23 6. 00 6.17 6. 00 10 6. 00 6. 20 6. 00 (yates 11 6. 00 6. 18 6. 00 5 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Mgiscisenticrs 3 6. 67 8. 00 7. 00 1 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 CRAP Hie 7 6. 00 7.14 6. 14 4 6. 00 6. 50 6. 00 Qe ae 4 6. 00 6. 00 » 6.00 2 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 _—_——— South Carolina..... 176 |- 7. 76 8. O1 7.98 90 7. 88 8. 02 7. 99 District 1......... 38 7.79 8. 00 8. 00 20 7.95 8. 00 8. 00 Bane 4 a) Pal 7. 38 8. 00 7. 93 13 7. 46 8. 00 7. 92 Buc 29 7. 93 8. 00 8. 00 13 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 4.. 24 7. 62 8. 00 8. 00 13 7. 85 8. 00 8. 00 LaALEaeerae 28 7. 86 8. 00 7.95 14 7.93 8. 00 8. 00 Gee ae 9 7. 89 8. 00 7. 94 3 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 Simoes 27 7. 83 8. 07 8. 00 14 8. 00 8. 14 8. 00 14 BULLETIN 1047, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TasLe 4.—Average rates of interest on farm mortgage loans in the United States, reported by banks, March, 1921—Continued. First-mortgage farm loans, average Second-mortgage farm loans, average Sati Sie rate. rate. Geographic division, State, and crop isiaanibee iba et : 7 : 7 : arta gh Prevail- | Number Low High Prevail- estimates district. of banks (per (per ing (per | of banks (per (per ing (per ‘ reporting.| cent). cent). cent). |reporting.| cent). cent). cent). South Atlantic—Con. Georgiae 222222 241 8. 01 8. 56 8. 28 126 8.10 8.75 8. 40 District tosses 16 7. 94 8, 25 8. 00 6 7. 83 8. 33 8.00 LOO sere 28 7. 96 8. 43 8. 21 13 8.15 8. 46 8. 23 Sitesi 21 8. 00 8.19 8.10 11 8. 00 8.18 8.09 4... e 54 7. 98 8. 67 8.37 25 7. 96 8. 80 8. 48 Deas 38 7. 92 8. 58 8. 25 21 8. 00 8. 86 8. 33 Gi 27 7.96 8. 78 8. 33 13 8. 62 9.08 8.77 dese 20 8.15 8.35 8. 20 12 8. 25 8.42 8.33 tela 23 8. 35 9. 04 8. 78 16 8. 12 9. 00 8. 62 OR eahisistie 14 7. 93 8. 29 7.93 9 8.00 8. 44 8. 44 IR orida sere ec che 46 8.17 8. 96 8. 59 17 | 8. 47 8. 82 8.65 District Wess jee 7 8.57 9. 43 9. 14 5 8. 80 9. 20 9. 20 Dose eee yas 8 8. 25 9. 75 9. 38 1 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 beeen. ce 24 7. 92 8. 42 8.12 8 | 8. 00 8. 25 8. 00 Sarees Lae id 8. 57 9. 43 8. 71 3 | 8. 67 9. 33 9.00 East South Central... 608 7. 21 7.79 | 7.50 241 7.61 7.96 7. 80 IKON GUC. s seicrerssicte 134 6.18 6. 72 6. 45 33 6. 30 6. 61 6. 47 Districts ss.cc 18 6. 22 7. 00 6. 56 1 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Dayar ciate 28 6. 07 6. 54 6.27 6 6.17 6. 50 6. 33 Be eyeinvare 4 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 2 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 5 35 5. 93 6. 31 6.15 14 6. 07 6. 21 6.11 6 4 6. 00 6. 50 6. 25 1 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 7 16 6.75 7.38 Heel, 2 7. 00 9.00 8. 00 7a 14 6. 43 7,14 6. 86 2 6. 00 7. 00 7.00 8 14 6.14 6.79 6. 46 5 6. 80 6. 80 6. 80 9 1 6. 00 8. 00 65,00. crescent | esoeeetee.| Pes aseee oe | eee PReTMMeSSee yer isan ate c 171 6. 93 7. 85 7.51 56 7.21 7. 98 7. 64 ‘Districtesss 2220. 28 7.32 8. 07 7. 82 “12 7.33 8.17 7.83 Pitre USERS 29 6. 48 7. 48 6. 91 10 6. 80 7.90 7. 30 See eey 14 6. 64 teal 7. 21 2 7. 00 8. 00 7. 50 AA OLED 22 7. 00 8. 82 8.05 7 7.43 8. 86 8. 43 Eee yas ve 29 6. 52 7.41 7. 24 12 6. 67 7.17 7.00 Gisoee Mek 8 6. 50 7.25 7,12 3 7.33 8. 00 7. 67 heen 16 7.50 7.88 7.81 4 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 Spee ee 10 7. 80 8. 00 8.00 4 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 £9) A ae 15 7.07 8. 00 7. 67 2 8. 00 9. 00 8. 00 Miahbamaeee acco! 149 7.95 8. 40 8.18 68 8.12 8. 50 8. 29 Districtwlereeecee 10 7. 80 8. 20 8. 00 5 8. 40 8. 40 8. 40 sper ieni 17 8. 00 8. 41 Be 24 8 8. 00 8. 00 8.00 Pas Ae h 19 7.79 8. 84 8. 42 3 8. 67 10. 33 9. 33 Oyssoneye 16 8. 00 8.12 8. 00 5 8. 40 8. 80 8. 40 Lp RE 12 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 9 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 favs Sane 12 7. 92 8.17 8.17 7 8. 00 8, 29 8. 29 Gasageeas 20 7.95 9. 00 8. 45 9 8. 22 9. 33 8.89 (aes 5 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 1 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 Soy age 15 8. 00 8.73 8. 27 8 8. 00 8. 88 8. 25 OR tA sty s 23 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 13 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 Mississippi........- 154 7.70 8. 06 7.99 84 7.96 | 8.05 8. 04 District ees 18 8. 00 8.11 8. 06 16 8. 00 8.12 8. 06 Peete ia 26 7. 46 8.15 7. 92 9 7.78 8. 00 8. 00 Se Ay 10 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 3 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 Aiese eed 12 7. 67 8. 00 8. 00 12 7.83 8. 00 8. 00 Gia Raanerites 20 7.90 8. 00 8. 00 9 7.78 8. 00 8. 00 Oe dics 16 7.75 8. 00 8. 00 10 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 (ees ceKor 21 7. 52 8. 10 8.10 10 8. 20 8. 20 8. 20 Se 15 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 9 8.00 |- 8. 00 8.00 OMe edi aak 16 7. 25 8. 06 7. 88 6 7. 83 8. 00 8. 00 West South Central. . 581 8. 46 9. 37 9, 02 283 9. 08 9. 72 9. 44 sArkansastecee cece 125 8. 63 9, 70 9, 34 39 9, 23 9, 85 9. 59 DiStrich ee eee 21 8. 14° 9, 10 8. 60 3 9. 33 10. 00 9. 33 7 ASSES 17 8. 76 9, 65 9.38 5 9. 20 10. 00 9. 80 hie 17 8. 71 9. 88 9. 56 6 9, 00 9.33 9,17 Se one 19 8. 74 9. 89 9. 47 4 9. 50 10, 00 9. 50 Lye eae 6 8. 67 10. 00 9. 67 2 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 (ised 15 8.13 9. 60 9. 00 6 8, 67 9. 67 9.17 Ajeeraeateras 14 9. 21 9, 86 9. 82 6 9. 67 10. 00 10. 00 SASS soce 9 9, 33 10. 00 9. 89 2 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 Qeeteicmes 7 8.29 10. 00 9. 43 5 8. 80 10. 00 9. 80 FARM MORTGAGE LOANS BY BANKS, ETC. 15 TABLE 4.—Average rates of interest on farm mortgage loans in the United States, reported by banks, March, 1921—Continued. First-mortgage farm loans, average Second-mortgage farm loans, average Adah ies Lan te rate. rate. Geographic division,’ State, and crop Number Low High Prevail- | Number Low High Prevail- estimates district. | Gf hanks| (per (per | ing (per | of banks] (per (per | ing (per reporting.) cent). cent). cent). |reporting.| cent). cent). cent). West South Central— Continued. Louisiana...-...-.- 48 7.73 8.63 8. 24 19 7.95 8.95 8.50 District 1.----.... 5 7.80 8. 40 7.90 3 7.67 8.00 7.83 PO 6 8.00 9.00 8. 54 3 8.00 9. 33 8. 67 Quaatie 7 od 8. 86 8. 43 2 8.00 10.00 9.50 fee 3 8.00 8.00 8.00. 1 8.00 8.00 8.00 Hoses 10 7.90 8. 40 8. 20 4 8.00 8.50 8. 25 Ges: 3 8.00 8.67 SHO ON eae ee aes CLG NEES abe ii ta aa eae eee 5 7.00 9.20 8. 40 3 8.00 9.33 8.67 Sei 6 8.00 8. 67 8.33 2 8.00 10.00 9.00 Oe emer 3 7.00 8.00 8.00 1 8.00 8.00 8.00 Oklahoma.........- 185 8.39 9.37 8.98 136 9.22 9. 83 9.60 District 1..... 23 8.52 9.13 8.85 16 9.19 9.69 9. 44 Une 22 7.07 8.34 7.91 20 8.60 9.68 9.28 Bseussusus 14 8.21 9.57 9.14 13 9.08 9.69 9.62 4 eee. 11 8.82 9.36 9.05 8 9.38 10.00 9.50 Sl aesese 36 8.05 9.31 8. 76 22 9.23 9. 82 9) 55 Gisete 22 8.73 9.82 9. 41 12 9.33 9.83 9.67 Uschi 24 8.40 9.44 8. 83: 2M 9.29 10.00 9.76 Bieseles: 27 9.19 9.85 9.72 22 9.64 9.91 9. 86 ue 6 9.67 10.00 10.00 2 10.00 10.00 10.00 MOK aS ie Oe yt 223 8.58 9.35 9.05 89 9.04 9.67 9.36 MDisthicthle.--ss4-- 31 9.31 9.90 9.58 19 9.47 9.89 9.63 eeBoBeee 39 8.31 9.09 8.72 15 8.53 9.53 8.97 Bybee: 30 8.97 9.67 9.40 9 9.11 9.78 9. 56 Bes: 9 9.33 10.00 9.56 3 10.00 10.00 10.00 4a..... 22 8.64 9.55 9.27 10 9.60 9.80 9.70 Oana 47 8.11 9.02 8.64 22 A GE UD 9.55 9.10 eran earice 15 9.07 10.00 9.60 2 9.00 10.00 9.50 CH ses 19 8.21 9.05 9.00 7 8. 57 9.43 9.29 ree A 11 7.73 8.18 7.91 2 9.00 9.00 9.00 Mountainees2 22-2... 222 519 8. 26 9.53 9.07 278 9.19 9. 82 9.57 Montana..........- 169 8.64 9. 81 9.50 127 9.61 9.90 9. 82 District lessees: 6 8.67 9.17 9.17 4 9.50 9.75 9.75 seat gant 30 9.30 10.00 9.87 28 9.93 10.00 10.00 Beosde 22 8.32 9. 86 9.70 20 10.00 10. 20 10.00 qeises 14 7. 82 9.79 9.18 7 9.14 9.71 9.43 Moscebseu 34 8.37 9. 84 9.38 25 9.68 10.00 9. 88 Gxeeee 14 8. 64 9.64 9.50 12 9.00 9. 42 9.33 Uoeeee 7 7.71 _ 10.00 8. 86 4 10.00 10.00 10.00 eecaE 26 8. 50 9.65 9.29 17 9.00 9.71 9.62 Ves eee 16 9.75 9.88 9. 81 10 9.70 10.00 9.90 IE ona seusosooase 71 7.94 9.32 8.83 48 9.04 |" 9. 81 9.58 District Vi... . 2... 20 7.45 8. 80 8.05 10 8.30 9.60 9.10 SR ee 5 8. 40 9. 40 CEO) Peto S AEG HES er ual betalcaer es osl DY Oeay I Le, Ae 2 10.00 10.00 10.00 2 10.00 10.00 10.00 Beeese 5 6.60 9.20 8.90 6 9.00 9.67 9.67 Goose 10 8.30 10.00 9.30 9 9.78 10.00 10. 00 Copccseeee 17 7. 82 9.18 8.65 8 8.38 9.75 9.12 Cede 5 9.60 10.00 10.00 6 10.00 10.00 10.00 ndec ies 7 8.00 9.57 9.57 7 8. 86 9. 86 9.71 Wiyoming?..2-....- 55 8.16 9.85 9.21 26 9.04 10.15 9.58 District Ween. 9 8. 33 10.00 9. 44 4 8. 50 10.00 9. 50 ee as 8 8.75 10.50 9.38 2 9.00 11.00 9.50 OE 5 10.00 10. 80 10. 40 4 10. 50 10. 50 10. 50 osocoeac 3 8.33 9.67 9.67 1 8.00 12.00 10.00 Ges aem be 8 7.88 9.25 8.75 3 8.00 10.00 9.33 Guest 6 8.67 10.00 9.50 4 9.50 10. 00 9.75 Se Caee Bee 2 8.00 9.50 8.00 iL 8.00 9.00 8.00 SSA ae ne 5 8.00 9. 20 8.30 1 9.00 9.00 9.00 CES aaa 9 8. 56 9. 56 9 00 6 9.00 10 00 9. 33 Colorado........... 121 7. 84 9. 06 8. 58 39 8. 56 9.36 9. 03 District Wess 3 9. 33 10. 00 DG TAN eer Sic ese ee ere eave [PN rate ete ae ao De 32 Woe) 8. 45 8. 09 13 7.69 8. 54 8. 23 Conan one il 8. 00 9. 36 9. 09 8 9. 00 9.75 9. 62 AER ND | 16 8. 00 9.12 8. 44 2 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 Lis aie 4 6. 88 7.38 SOAS | We NEO xa BOBO aE SAGE ate so Bees setae 6a 23 7. 96 9. 26 8. 83 5 9. 20 9. 60 9. 20 Ue 3 7. 67 8. 67 8. 67 1 8. 00. 10. 00 8. 00 pSlcte pir 9 7. 67 9. 56 8. 78 4 8. 50 10. 50 9. 50 ba ae 20 8. 50 9. 60 8. 90 6 9. 67 10. 00 10. 00 16 BULLETIN 1047, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 4.—Average rates of interest on farm mortgage loans in the United States, reported by banks, March, 1921—Continued. First-mortgage farm loans, average Second-mortgage farm loans, average aly Jelena rate. rate. Geographic jalvisicn, State and crop Number ivan Hi . Z i ; NEEL gh Prevail- | Number Low High Prevail- estimates district. of banks (per (per ing (per | of banks (per (per ing (per reporting.) cent). cent). cent). |reporting.| cent). cent). cent). Mountain—Contd. New Mexico........ 33 9. 03 9. 88 9, 52 7 9.71 10. 00 10. 00 Districts. =) Ut 2 9. 00 10. 00 9. 00 1 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 bee ea oh 4 8. 00 9. 50 9. 50 1 8.00 10. 00 10. 00 fe ie ar tia Es 2, 10. 00 10. 00 VO: OO Wiebe coc fee Md A a ea eee 4a ae. 1 8. 00 10. 00 B00 Wei occu cate ores ee EE ea ees Bi eae 3 8. 00 8. 67 BOT MES os aoa SS a | Snag Gey 13 9. 38 10. 00 9. 62 4 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 hsiowe ets 2 10. 00 11. 00 11. 00 1 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 aa 5 8. 80 10. 09 QAO AG ee Soe NE Sn eae I | ea ane DE ese ew 1 10. 00 10. 00 TO. OO Aart ese ee ce OU STI aga pe aro Qu tees ai 3 8. 00 10. 00 9. 33 1 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 Uitalne elites ce rh 41 7.95 9. 46 8. 71 15 8. 20 9. 73 8.90 MiStrichwecss cents 3 7.67 9. 67 8. 83 2 8. 00 9. 50- 8.50 DSSS sles 16 7. 62 9.19 8. 44 7 8.14 9, 29 8. 50 Que NN ie 3 8. 67 9. 33 sss PES LRM PML aire 2 SEN Te Lt 4.5: i 3 7.33 10. 67 8. 33 2 8. 00 11. 00 9.50 faye eee 3 8 v3) 9.12 8. 50 3 8.00 10. 00 9. 33 (oy eg 2 8. 50 10. 00 12545) 0) fl Paar ere MA ME CP Ne oasaude desaeouaek 4 9. 25 9. 75 9. 25 i 10. 00 10. 00 10.00 : ee 2 8. 50 10. 60 TOS OO So sogse Ok |B UES SE sea | Aaa vn INevadaiiw. vs coh ah 8 7.88 8.75 8. 62 2 8. 00 9. 00 8.50 IDistrichtee. oh 1 7.00 8. 00 8200$| See scesek LE o oR A ee ee | mre Q2oFRe ES: 2 8. 00 9. 00 8. 50 1 8. 00 10. 00 9. 00 iG torent 1 8. 00 8. 00 SOON ee a isi ales cue aller | ; rence n 2 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 1 8.00 8.00 8.00 g ES aa 1 8. 00 8. 00 SOO He oe SSC ee eet See aR a Sere eee 1 8.00 12. 00 172 0) RG eee not Beene IO i lIecindabiebee Ca gen sea V9 27 LN FA a Ree ere Pes eee aie eG Pa Le |e eal iba soudooda Baccara base aL 513 7. 04 7. 89 M55 122 7.98 8. 48 8.24 Washington........ 124 VBPY 8. 34 7.95 44 8.30 8.77 8.49 District es cet 16 6. 69 eich 7.41 3 8. 00 8.00 8.00 Qaere eau 14 8. 46 9.71 9. 21 3 9. 00 9. 67 9.67 Seven sss 6 7.92 9. 67 8. 33 1 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 AN sete 14 7.29 7.79 7. 64 1 8. 00 8.00 8.00 Hee 12 7.29 8.17 7.79 8 8. 00 8.25 8.12 Saar uae 15 7. 67 8. 87 8. 43 il 9. 00 9. 45 9.14 Gasca ed 22 6. 50 7.91 7. 42 9 7.67 8. 44 7. 89 dessa 14 7. 21 8. 07 8. 00 4 Mento 8. 50 8.25 Cape aa 4 7. 50 9. 00 8. 50 2 9. 00 10. 00 9.00 Qe rc aioas U 7.14 tod 7. 36 2 7. 50 7. 50 7. 50 Oreconte aes 112 7.41 8. 27 7.96 49 &. 06 8. 43 8. 26 IDIStrIChileeecpsead 37 7. 08 7.97 (elo 16 7.88 8. 25 8.19 PRES 13 7. 69 8.15 7.85 8 (616) 8. 00 7.88 esas 7 7.71 8. 57 8. 29 3 8. 67 8. 67 8.67 arate 17 7. 00 8.18 7.65 8 7.88 8. 12 8.00 ew sured 4 8. 50 9. 00 &. 50 dy! 8.00 10. 00 8.00 Geese” 6 7. 83 8. 00 8. 00 2 8.00 8. 00 8.00 Weasel 14 7. 50 8.14 7.96 3 8. 67 8.67 8. 67 Sees an 8 7.62 8. 50 8. 00 4 7.50 8. 50 8.00 Deere cee 6 8. 00 10. 00 9. 67 4 9. 50 10. 00 9.75 California. ...-....- 277 6.79 7. 54 7. 20 29 7.34 8. 14 7. 83 District a 14 6. 50 7.29 BOS ee Se ee gL Sa at eRe erate SEEN NES 5 6. 60 8. 00 7.60 1 8. 00 8. 00 8.00 Bak ee ees 4 7.00 7.75 (ECS PAP ee Prnn PA soReSaor Setsotsstel bocunsoase ¢ basa te 45 6. 48 7. 26 6. 93 1 6. 00 8. 00 7.00 Orso ee 48 6. 62 7.35 6.95 2 7. 50 7. 50 7. 50 fi} yay veel 51 6.98 7. 51 7.34 10 7. 30 7.90 7. 85 Ooeeebecen 7 6.71 7. 57 ig eS ee ae Sea Meel Pe ALS scnoS Caren nr 2 7. 50 9. 00 8. 00 1 8. 00 10. 00 8. 00 Feel pea 101 6.95 7.74 7. 38 14 7.36 8. 29 7.89 FARM MORTGAGE LOANS BY BANKS, ETC. Ai are On second-mortgage loans the Middle Atlantic and New England divisions have the lowest prevailing rate, while the Mountain division has the highest. Considered by States, the lowest prevailing rate, as before, is for New Hampshire, namely, 5.5 per cent, and the highest for New Mexico, 10 per cent. In several Middle Atlantic and New England States the average low and average high rates will be found to be the same, whereas for the West North Central States, which together furnished one-half of the reports on second-mortgage rates, an average spread of 0.87 per cent is shown. Comparing the prevailing rates on first and second mortgage loans, it appears that second mortgages bear a rate of interest eighty-seven one-hundredths of 1 per cent higher than those borne on first mort- gages for the United States as a whole. In three States, namely, Vermont, Virginia, and Nevada, the reports show an average rate 0.05 per cent, 0.01 per cent, and 0.12 per cent higher, respectively, on first-mortgage than on second-mortgage loans. The reasons for this irregularity in Vermont seem to be the small number of reports received on second-mortgage rates as compared with those on first- mortgage rates, and the fact as pointed out previously that the banks of Vermont hold a large amount of first mortgages in the West where the rates of interest are higher. The second-mortgage loans are presumably more generally on local farms; hence the rates charged are more nearly the local rate. For Virginia and Nevada the explanation seems to be that a relatively small number of banks reported rates on second-mortgage loans, and that the rates reported were not from the banks reporting the highest rates on first-mortgage loans. The same explanation will hold true for the various subdivi- sions of States or districts where the average rates reported for first mortgages exceed those for second mortgages. A comparison of the interest rates shown in Table 4 with the rates determined by a study made by the department in 1915 indicates that although the current rates on farm mortgage loans are uniformly higher than those for the earlier date, owing, no doubt, to the in- creased demand for capital occasioned by war expenditures, there is a slight tendency toward equalization in rates as between different sections of the country. In other words, although the rates for all sections have increased, this increase is less marked in the States whose rates in 1915 were disproportionately high. It seems probable that the loan operations of the Federal land banks, with their uniform rates for all parts of the country, have been a leading factor in this tendency toward equalization. The districts referred to in the table are those established by the Department in connection with the gathering of data on crop condi- tions. These district are indicated by number on the map, figure 1. BULLETIN 1047, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 18 “yoLy IP YoNs UI SULO] TIL O8vS}IOM YsIY UO O71 ysosoyUT SuyTeAomd oyeurxoidde pue *F qe L Ul 0} Podlojol sjo14sip seyeunyse doIQ—'T *H17 oo72zt Oot 660! OOo! 666 006 668 008 6642 002 669 009 66S 6ES AISAYALNI AO Co FARM MORTGAGE LOANS BY BANKS, ETC. 19 The rates by districts, as shown on the table, are of particular signifi- cance for the tier of States comprising the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. In each of these States the variation between rates in the eastern districts and the western districts is very marked. ‘The chief explanation of this variation is the increasing meagerness and uncertainty of the rainfall as one proceeds westward in these States. The map, besides indicating by number the various districts referred to in the table, also indicates by the shading of each district the approximate prevailing rate on first-mortgage loans. An effort was also made to obtain data on the interest charges by insurance companies. ‘The figures obtained give an average rate for the United States of 5.82 per cent. The lowest average rate for any geographic division was 5.5 per cent, for the New England States, and the lowest for individual States was 5 per cent, for Vermont and Massachusetts. The highest average rates for any geographic division and State were 7.24 per cent, for the Mountain division, and 8.15 per cent for Utah. These figures, however, are not com- parable with the rates reported by banks, since the reports indicate that the figures given were in most instances the return realized on outstanding mortgages rather than the current rates. Some of these mortgages have been held for as many as 5 or 10 years. The mortgages held by insurance companies also represent to a much ereater extent selected mortgages than is the case with those held by banks. In any comparison of the rates given in Table 4 with those recently published by the Bureau of the Census, it should again be remembered that the latter are not current rates, but the rates actually being paid by farmers on their outstanding mortgages, many of which represent loans negotiated several years earlier than the census date. An effort was made to obtain also figures on commission and other charges on mortgage loans. The information obtained on_ this point, however, was insufficient to warrant detailed presentation at this time. Such data as were obtained indicate that when com- missions or other charges are made they amount to from one-half of 1 per cent to 3 per cent of the amount of the loan, or, on an annual basis, from two-tenths of 1 per cent to 1 per cent per year. Table 5 gives a percentage distribution of the replies received from banks according to the prevailing rate reported on first-mort- gage farm loans. In the New England, Middle Atlantic, and East North Central States most of the loans are made at 7 per cent or less, whereas in the West South Central and Mountain States a majority of the banks charge more than 9 per cent. 20 BULLETIN 1047, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 5.—Prevailing rates of interest on first-mortgage farm loans: Per cent of banks reporting the various rates, March, 1921, by States.@ Geographic division 5 per 6 per 7 per 8 per 9 per 10 per 11 per ae and State. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. 1 over United States... 0.7 33.6 25.8 26.7 shits) 9.6 0.0 New England........ 9.0 80. 6 9.0 4 |e AE aL ane 2 a ae Maine eee oes rccn | eeete seine at (Asal 23.6 17956 Jal | gst am (ERP see] Le ict New Hampshire. ... 57.1 BQnOR SS LUE Re NES eee Raa OA ED SON OR eae MermoOnt ane scee 3.0 87.9 en a eae Vaid ee peas | oS cycle | ee Massachusetts. ..... 3.0 86.6 9.0 D4 ee LR A Te OT ND pence sac ENE Rhodeislands:. 23) anes LOO! Oe) es a eH an OETA Bi OE ee | pelo Connecticut.) i220 11) ae 97.4 yi) Bae ee ee MRE Ae a Le A Le Middle Atlantic...... 2.7 97.1 P57 3a Dee ea el ea eee Pe Meee ge | HR ES ALE New yvorks 2.22.20 2.8 ODO ea ee OTe UU [i al 2 ARTs a Ales Bee | ee pape ara New Jersey. f. s6))ic822 241. 10020 Jost ores eek eas eed CA Ae a ES Re ae SA Pennsylvania....... 3.0 96. 6 Ey: al eee ee onan anee Denne ay Ue) Ih nS ie el ano oeeas East North Central. . ig 52.8 Oi ae es IE OS 59. 1 Indiana 45.7 Minoish AOee by 56.9 Michigan 33.5 Wisconsin: ......... 3.4 61.9 West North Central. . #1 25.8 36. 2 27.0 4.7 G52 ES Bal La ee Minnesotan: 02 csi ane oye 29.8 46.2 21.3 15 De Dita ae Se Al aoe ae OWwasditi cious 7 48.6 42.1 BLOUSE ee aoe) EE Te Ne Missouri: 322. 672. Seen a O85 36.8 SOE File SN |e Mea eat RRR ON ie | are North! Dakotat fhashiee sh. [913 1.8 14.3 40.3 24.2 VOU AEROS SE IS Ee South! Dakota 222 aoe hee 20.5 33.9 21.3 5.2 OE DG selbst SMP een oxayens| ai Nebraska’. . oo uaa Bi) Osa 30.9 34.9 18.1 4.4 1 ay fi) Pee ee SS eo ANISAS)s cok cr theckrepae |e 16.5 Slike 40.8 2.0 2.9 Bladesdssons SouthvAtlantic sy yy ey ks 38.0 2.4 51.9 3.2 Delawaré:. Cer {iia DOO ORS PLLC ae ERE 9 Sa ATS EL Pe Marylands sie scan a|ib eae nae OOS OH CG Li GE Coes | ee alt District of Columbia).......... LOO HOR Sree Ree ee ae ena Ee IIs OY Aib oss a4 Es mena a ae S| Kea a °88. 2 5.4 (ae. BN Wiest Virginians te.) Seer 94.1 bias I ee ee RE She Ds BA North Carolina.....).......... 92.0 4.0 Ae Qs Oa a Sis South:Carolinas2 ize i ae ae 1.1 OS Sher COR La) eg a ge PG Ge RL a8 7 80.9 7.5 OTIC ALCS EE | PEE EOL UO BA nen) 2 Re 63.1 15.2 East South Central...|........-. 22.2 6.9 66.5 Jays) ASG) WRITS gery mh Ws Ses 68.7 17.2 13.4 vb Tennessee} nse) as een Oe 25.1 8.2 61.4 -6 Alabama 90. 6 3.4 Mississippi 94.8 1.3 West South Central i : 4 34.9 10. 2 DX SEW RSENS] a ce ne Pa RCA hy Agee Na 25. 6 12.8 TWoulisian ares Paget Se een MEE aE TS ae 83.4 8.3 Oklahoma.......... ab) 4.3 7.0 22.7 11.4 DOXAS EL MTC TY Sy ENG .4 1.8 39.9 8.1 MOUNTAIN SEE. pel Pere eens 6 3u3 34.5 11.9 Montana ees yen ees ene 6 1.8 13.6 13.6 UG EW aoe 8 od WRN es UE METS Ce ee ae a eh Gy | 5.6 45.1 7.0 Wy OTT UAE RS NII MCA ES SUE RAIS ire OFA RN 32.7 18. 2 Coloradose ie ee ees 1.7 7.4 50. 4 10.7 ING WAMEXT CORA AN a Se ieee Aol am yes 3.0 21.2 3.0 Arizona... 47.6 4.8 Utah? 53.7 19.5 Nevada 75.0 1045 5 det (UTLOS MENT AN HO RA SD RUAN I Lk) OF 47.0 44.0 1.8 WiaSIinip tO mie eee | Leagan att 27.4 57.3 4.0 Oreson eee EEE | URE ee 3.6 13.4 W253 3.6 Califormigh henna Cue ier eas : 3.6 69.3 PAV AGS owas « Rates involving fractions of 1 per cent are approximated to the nearest unit. FARM MORTGAGE LOANS BY BANKS, ETC. 21 TERM OF LOAN AND METHOD OF REPAYMENT. Farm mortgage loans by banks are usually made for relatively short periods of time. Only rarely do such loans run for a period as long as 5 years. Insurance companies make loans as a rule for somewhat longer periods of time. Of 182 insurance companies which gave information on this question, 102 stated that the terms of their loans were not over 5 years; 72 that they loaned for not over 10 years; and 6 that they had some loans of more than 10 years maturity. Of 65 mortgage bankers who reported on this question, 34 stated that the terms of their loans were not over 5 years; 27 that they were not over 10 years; and 4 that some loans were for more than 10 years. On the question of the method of repayment of loans, 177 insurance companies and 61 mortgage bankers reported as follows: Thirty- three insurance companies and 8 mortgage bankers stated that their loans were straight loans to be paid at maturity; 17 insurance companies and 5 mortgage bankers that repayment was optional at any time; 18 insurance companies and 9 mortgage bankers that repayment could be made in whole or in part after specified periods of from 1 to 5 years. Eighty-four insurance companies and 34 mortgage bankers stated that payments could be made on the prin- cipal on any interest date, in multiples of from $100 to $500, or one- fifth or one-tenth of the principal in any one year, after the lapse of a certain period varying from 1 to 5 years. Nineteen insurance companies and 1 mortgage banker stated that certain annual pay- ments were required, sometimes specified as $100 to $500, or one- fifth or one-tenth of the loan, while 6 insurance companies and 4 mortgage bankers reported using the amortization plan of loans running for 20 to 30 years. CONCLUSION. While the increase in farm mortgage indebtedness during the last decade, as indicated on the earlier pages of this bulletin, appears almost startling, such increase is not in itself a cause for alarm. It is rather a logical result of increased market value of farms. The increase in these values, in turn, reflects better farm incomes during the decade in question than prevailed during preceding decades, these incomes being to a considerable extent invested in added permanent improvements in the form of buildings, fences, silos, and drainage and irrigation systems. A very considerable percentage of farm mortgages are the result of land transfers, the mortgage, like tenancy, forming a rung in the agricultural ladder leading to farm ownership. The size of the mortgage naturally tends to bear a direct relationship to the purchase price of the farm. 29 BULLETIN 1047, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To the extent that farm mortgages are the result of investments in productive permanent improvements and equipment by existing farm owners, they evidence progress and not regression. In general, the increase in farm mortgages during each decade since data on this subject were first gathered by the census has been most marked in sections which have made the greatest progress during the decade. Even where improvements of the kind above mentioned are paid for out of savings instead of with the proceeds of loans, the increased value and price of a farm is quite certain to result in a larger mortgage in case the farm is transferred to a new owner. In spite of the great increase in farm mortgage debt during the past decade, an increase which for the country as a whole has slightly more than kept pace with the increase in iand values, it may be doubted if any other industry shows so small a percentage of mortgage or bonded debt as agriculture. The farm mortgage debt in 1910, so far as this debt was ascertained by the census, represented 27.3 per cent of the value of the mortgaged farms, while that in 1920 repre- sented 29.1 per cent of the value of the farms for which mortgage debt was reported. The total farm mortgage debt, indicated by the estimated figures in Table 1, constitutes 12.9 per cent of the total farm values in the United States. While the farm mortgage debt considered as a whole is thus but a relatively small percentage of the total farm values, and only about 2 per cent more of the value of the mortgaged farms than was the case in 1910, it is true beyond doubt that many individual farmers who purchased land during the recent boom period assumed mort- gages which even with a continuation of fair prices for agricultural products would have been heavy burdens, and which, with the present marked disparity between prices of farm products and prices of supplies and equipment which the farmer must buy, are a matter of very serious concern. As sources of farm mortgage loans the commercial banks with upward of a billion and a half of such loans continue to be of first importance. Ranking second as a source of farm mortgage loans are the life insurance companies, with total outstanding loans of a billion and a quarter. The reports of loans reported by farm mortgage bankers, as ex- plained on an earlier page, are very incomplete. Institutions of this class therefore are a more important source of farm mortgage loans than the figures in Table 1 indicate. Not only do these organiza- tions as a class hold a considerably larger amount than the quarter of a billion dollars reported, but they annually place a large volume of farm mortgages which are passed on to other investors. This, of course, is true also of commercial banks, particularly those operating in rural districts. FARM MORTGAGE LOANS BY BANKS, ETC. yes State funds or loan agencies constitute a source of importance only in a few States, the State of South Dakota being particularly note- worthy in this respect. While the banks operating under the Federal Farm Loan System as yet hold but a small percentage of the total farm mortgage loans they are a potential source of far-reaching significance. In spite of the brief period of their existence and the handicap under which they have hitherto operated, these banks now hold more than one- tenth of all the mortgages in 14 States. In Florida, Mississippi, and Utah they hold one-sixth, and in West Virginia more than one-fifth. These banks are no doubt a leading factor in bringing about a closer approach to uniformity in interest rates for various sections of the country and in keeping such rates more nearly on a par with charges for loans on urban real estate. While the maximum loan that may be made by the Federal land banks to any one individual is at present too low fully to meet the legitimate demands of borrowers in certain of the more highly developed sections of the country, the type of loan offered by these banks is particularly well adapted to the pur- chase of land by prospective farmers, as well as to the funding of existing mortgage indebtedness. The long term of these loans and the amortization plan of repayment further tend to make it easier to obtain an additional loan on second mortgage than is the case where the first mortgage runs for a short period and is not diminished from year to year by an amortization payment. This is also an advan- tage to the landless farmer, since it makes it more possible for him to become an owner even when his available cash resources are relatively small. It seems probable that other loan institutions will be influenced by the example of the Federal land banks to make the terms and methods involved in their loans more generally adapted to the farmers’ needs; hence that the time of enforced short-term mortgages, heavy com- mission charges, and the necessity of frequent renewals, coupled in times of depression with danger of foreclosures, is about to give way to a farm-credit situation more favorable to agricultural stability and prosperity. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1922 BULLETIN No. 1048 , Contribution from the Office of Farm Management and Farm Economics G. W. FORSTER, Acting Chief Washington, D. C. Vv February 7, 1922 BANK LOANS TO FARMERS ON PERSONAL AND COLLATERAL SECURITY. By V. N. Vateren, Associate Agricultural Economist, and ExmMer E. ENGELBERT, Junior Economist in Farm Finance. CONTENTS. ie oe } Page. Amount of personal and collateral bank Page. Minimum balance requirements against bank WOSNSHOMALMeCTS- =e esac sce caces oc scene 2 loans to farmers on persona] and collateral The estimated amount of personal and col- security ..... soetesecetescssscrseceseseeees 17 leianell lasing in eae ee 3 | Interest collections injadvancelsnns- ose see 20 g anebuatonta lacie Coll 1 Nature of security for farmers’ personal and easonal fluctuation in personal and collatera STA OCaLOANS. oon cnf eee 20 Hoan's towfarmerst =. -s sent eeesee secs 4 | Termlofloan.......0.- Naa Dy eae sine 2s 8 92 Conclusion 2*.2. Serko lee eee 25 RGtESOMMLErestarr es = eee eto ee ie ae seen 6 A very large part of the world’s business is conducted on a credit basis. In proportion to the magnitude of the industry, it is perhaps safe to say that a smaller amount of credit is used by farmers than by any other important class. The outstanding loans to farmers in the United States, nevertheless, amount to a significant part of the credit of the country. The present farm mortgage credit from such data as are available has been estimated at a sum exceeding 8 billions of dollars. The information available on personal and collateral credit to farmers is even less satisfactory than that concerning farm mortgage credit. No attempt will be made at this time to present an estimate of the total amount of such credit. By far the most important single source of personal and collateral credit to farmers, as well as to most other industries, is found in the commercial banks of the country. With a view to obtaining more comprehensive information concerning this source of rural credit, the Department of Agriculture recently sent to all banks in the United States a questionnaire on loans to farmers. The results of this inquiry, so far as it relates to short-time or personal and col- lateral credit, is summarized on the succeeding pages. 79293°—22—Bull. 104g —1 2 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AMOUNT OF PERSONAL AND COLLATERAL BANK LOANS TO FARMERS. The reported amount of bank loans to farmers on personal and collateral security, as well as the estimated total amount of such loans outstanding for all banks on December 31, 1920, will be found in Table 1. Figures are given for States and geographic divisions, as well as for the United States as a whole. The table also shows the extent to which the banks of the country replied to the questionnaire, and the percentage that the estimated short-time loans to farmers constitute of the total loans and discounts of the banks as given in the latest available report of the Comptroller of the Currency. TaBLe 1.—Personal and collateral bank loans to farmers outstanding Dec. 31, 1920, by States. Gioia | Nutibes aN arab ence er | Number | Number : of banks’ frsaratoeaih of banks | of banks | report- Amount Estimated total Geographic division and State. (Comp- | report- |ingfarm| reported. amount ioe loans troller’s ing. loans. feuallicss- and dis- report). counts. United States..........- | 30,178 13, 540 10, 261 | $1, 586, 536,310 | $3, 869, 891, 415 13. 29 New Hngland....-. 2: le 1120 661 296 | 11, 893, 052 26, 941, 166 92 Maine ss. n a ui 161 | 82 50 2, 862, 905 6, 515, 518 4.69 New Hampshire I} 126 51 36 956, 827 1,949, 027 1.96 Vermont...... 108 41 34 3, 944, 688 12, 493, 623 9. 89 Massachusetts 466 335 109- 2, 526, 033 3, 270, 017 Saly/ Rhode Island. =| 48 33 8 91,471 188, 089 - 10 Connecticute 2s 228. see | 220 119 59 1, 511, 128 2,524, 892 63 Middle Atlantic..............- | 8,009 1,709 787 71, 724, 400 106, 808, 377 1.10 ING WaVorkse make eal miaey 1, 063 620 319 36, 603, 418 52, 002, 471 75 Now Jersey: 2212.2 )ae ee | 393 251 76 6, 463, 992 16, 369, 101 2.87 Pennsylvania: S22 9445s 1, 553 838 392 28, 656, 990 38, 434, 805 1.75 East North Central........... 5, 507 2,645 2,103 300, 259, 595 656, 326, 611 12.38 Ohio RMIT pa As 1,153 544 414 48, 993, 665 106, 983, 846 7.48 Tdi ae eh aa eee ee elle WaT SG) 509 434 64, 402, 727 127, 910, 904 23. 19 TONS OR 1,617 798 592 97, 904, 600 253,967,783 | _ 11.93 Michivanle tei: so eats 704 345 266 37, 355, 710 50, 630, 088 8.03 IWHSCONSING aoe eae ea eat 977 449 | 397 51, 602, 893 116, 833, 990 20. 83 West North Central.........-- 9, 086 3, 726 3, 236 594, 737,791 | 1,562, 987,613 40.77 Minnesota: Lo). e » | 1,524 660 564 100, 155, 871 235, 078, 342 30. 87 TOW Beare eee eee ee ee 1,762 699 591 152,301, 415 400, 816, 955 44.68 IMISSOULIO SCE SOR | LG 1,649 598 493 65, 199, 671 211, 059, 938 22. 32 NonthsDakota thse cessececes 897 395 361 49, 879, 816 118, 920, 813 62. 58 South Dakota............2.. 694 303 261 55, 881, 624 154, 311, 092 67.98 INebraska fete ee ckeie basse 1,195 475 423 81,778, 750 204, 389, 176 49, 21 Kansas. ets eee Pe eee 1,365 596 543 89, 540, 644 238, 411, 297 60. 07 SouthvAtlanticumes-s0 4. ene | 3,294 1,312 | 953 117, 186,072 313, 184, 956 14. 34 Delaware... 52shsseee ee eee 46 23 18 1,773, 485 | 3, 438, 537 7.89 Marylandie: © snouts 282 123 71 9, 494, 333 17,913, 727 5.45 District of Columbia. -..---- 45 21 2 57,000 537, 820 . 46 WAT EIT a Cue Neel Le ae 490 179 128 18, 115, 857 52,701, 208 13. 36. West Virginia............... 341 128 70 5, 127,875 15, 663, 408 6. 44 North Carolina.........-..-- 623 172 124 10, 528, 270 61, 026, 032 19. 24 South Carolina....-...-..--. 461 233 192 29,099, 462 67, 413, 772 28. 93 Georgia sees he cya 739 350 291 38, 701, 550 83, 986, 661 22. 45 Mloridas Sensi VeRO 267 83 57 4, 288) 240 10, 503, 791 7.83 East South Central. .......... 1, 840 881 714 74,646, 549 185, 981, 673 19.93 Kentucky... 80s they 583]. 188 148 20, 855. 446 61, 201, 963 20.70 Mennessees s2 Ve se cea 546 320 251 20, 823, 722 45, 725, 307 USGY ( Alabama ois) ho Ser 356 191 163 18, 859, 715 40, 424, 370 22, 46 IMISSISSIp piso erace-e wesee ae 355 182 152 14, 107, 666 38, 630, 033 23. 58 BANK LOANS TO FARMERS. 3 Tasie 1.—Personal and collateral bank loans to farmers outstanding Dec. 31, 1920, by States—Continued. | Total H er cent number | Number | Number F of banks’ Estimated a eimniin te of banks | of banks | report- Amount total Geographic division and State. | (Gomp-| report- |ingfarm| reported. qo E loans troller’s ing. loans. : and dis- report). counts. West South Central .....-...-- 3,305 1,072 946 $144, 749,773 $541, 988, 607 34. 07 (Aricanisas sees ere ece 489 150 143 17,083, 156 72, 134, 936 39. 84 WOUMISIAN Aes see eee 268 79 61 12,340, 116 69, 753, 012 21.37 Oklahoma | 966 347 320 47, 450, 757 147,924, 291 43. 86 GREASE a bby wane sees 1,582 496 422 67,875, 744 252, 176, 368 33. 79 Mountainke paserase sera. oe 1,601 745 627 121,514,552 268, 160, 368 35, 61 Montana steerer aia 14 te. = 431 194 178 30, 217, 135 73,618, 242 47.72 GN. ocseasnasocesese acoder 227 106 94 20,005, 947 44,513,900 47. 62 Wiyoming Miia te) sg au 160 72 | 64 11, 963, 364 26, 390, 048 41. 29 Colorad onaeeseete ee een) - 404 192 163 30, 452, 646 66, 317, 753 31. 34 New Mexico. ...--.-.--.---- 124 55 37 6, 692; 874 16, 052, 302 34. 89 PAULZ OMA Sree ee ale siete ace 88 55 32 11, 419, 992 20,032, 210 33. 51 (Witaheeee era a ts Vipa ce: 133 54 48 7,396, 882 14,727,010 14, 84 INGNOUE) cons sonoseeene suber 34 17 11 3,365, 712 6,508, 903 26. 19 SIBEXGTIG Ss Sac Soe Son eosae Manan 1, 407 789 599 149, 824, 526 207,514, 044 11. 16 Washington....-....-----.-- 401 201 149 28, 756, 973 48, 427, 865 17. 41 (Cres orn es ae yee ai 278 149 126 29, 285, 554 39, 904, 738 20. 38 (alivornia gee ese enn | 728 439 324 91, 781, 999 119, 181, 441 8. 60 THE ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF PERSONAL AND COLLATERAL LOANS TO FARMERS. It may be observed from Table 1 that 45 per cent of the banks in the United States complied with the request for information. to lack of classified data concerning total loans and discounts, it was not found possible to make separate estimates for city and country banks. It should be stated in this connection, however, that ex- amination showed that the percentage of replies from banks located in larger cities was almost uniformly higher than from the country banks of the same States. some farm business. reported is in itself significant. Owing With this fact in mind, it is interesting to note the percentage of banks which reported farm business. For the United States as a whole, 76 per cent of the banks reporting had In the West South Central States, the corre- sponding figure was 88 per cent, and the lowest reported for any geographic division was 45 per cent for the New England States. By States, the five highest percentages were as follows: Arkansas, 95 per cent; Oklahoma and Montana, 92 per cent each, and Kansas and North Dakota, 91 per cent each. The amount of farmers’ personal and collateral loans actually Its chief value, however, is that it constitutes a basis for estimating the total amount of such loans out- standing with banks. In estimating this total, the reports from national banks and banks other than national were considered sepa- rately. It was assumed in the case of each class that the ratio of farmers’ personal and collateral loans to total loans and discounts 4 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. obtained for the banks reporting was also applicable to the loans and discounts of the banks which did not report. In view of the fact that city banks, as explained above, were represented in the reports rather more largely than country banks, it would seem that the esti- mates arrived at on this basis should be conservative rather than the reverse. The prominence of agriculture in the West North Central States is apparent from the figures in the column showing the estimated total personal and collateral loans outstanding to farmers. The seven States in this division have about 40 per cent of the total of such loans in the United States, and Iowa alone has over 10 per cent. Turning to the percentage which personal and collateral loans to farmers constitute of total loans and discounts of banks in the various States, the highest figures again are found for the West North Cen- tral States. The three States showing highest percentages of such loans to farmers are South Dakota, North Dakota, and Kansas, where the figures are 67.98 per cent, 62.58 per cent, and 60.07 per cent, respectively. It has been estimated that the banks of the United States on December 31, 1920, held approximately $1,447,500,000 of farm mort- gage loans.t Combining this figure with the estimated amount of personal and collateral loans as shown in the table, namely, $3,869,- 891,415, it appears that last December the banks of the United States had total loans to farmers approximating $5,317,400,000. This amount represented 18.3 per cent of the total loans and discounts of all banks. A similar combination of the percentages for the esti- mated totals of the two classes of loans indicates that the total bank accommodation to farmers constituted 78 per cent of the total loans and discounts of all banks in South Dakota; 77 per cent in North Dakota; 69 per cent in Kansas; and 68 per cent in Iowa. SEASONAL FLUCTUATION IN PERSONAL AND COLLATERAL LOANS TO FARMERS. It is generally known that in agricultural sections banks experience a gradually increasing demand for credit, which commences with the planting of crops and reaches a peak immediately prior to the time when crops are ready for market. Figure 1 indicates for the United States and for each of its geographic divisions the fluctuations which occurred during 1920 in the amount of farmers’ personal and col- lateral loans outstanding with reporting banks. For the United States as a whole, there was a gradual increase for each month from January to October, when loans began to decline. It is apparent, however, that this decline was very slight, and that the contraction 1 Department Bulletin No. 1047, entitled, ‘‘Farm Mortgage Loans by Banks, Insurance Companies and Other Agencies.”’ BANK LOANS TO FARMERS. 5 FLUCTUATIONS IN AMOUNT OF BANK LOANS TO FARMERS | ON PERSONAL & GOLLATERAL SECURITY AS REPORTED FOR THE LAST DAY OF EACH MONTH, 1920 JANUARY 3i=100 | } E/NORTH CENTRAL ee ees cc ia ak UA Aa Fic. 1.—Fluctuations in loans.. Data based on reports from following number of banks: United States, 1930; New England, 19; Middle Atlantic, 128; Hast North Central, 339; West North Central, 840; South Atlantic, 128; East South Central, 91; West South Central, 198; Mountain, 121; Pacific, 100. 6 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of outstanding debt during the last three months of the year was far less than those familiar with farm financial practice would normally expect. This feature of the diagram, therefore, emphasizes the fact that 1920 was decidedly an abnormal year. For the New England States a rather unexpected curve occurs. In view of the importance of dairying and truck gardening in these States and the comparatively steady income from these activities, one would hardly expect a variation during the year of over 40 points. In only two geographic divisions, namely, the South Atlantic and the West South Central, was a greater variation shown. It may also be noted that for New England and also for the Middle Atlantic division the curves continue upward, and reach their peaks in Decem- ber. This fact would lead one to believe that the banks in these two sections were in a position to continue extending credit for a longer time after the arrival of the credit stringency than was the case elsewhere. In the East North Central, West North Central, and Pacifie divi- sions the amounts outstanding were remarkably uniform during the entire year. This fact is no doubt accounted for, at least in part, by the diversified farming which is practiced in these three sections, but perhaps also by the fact that toward the end of the season farmers found it difficult, and in some cases impossible, to obtain the credit they desired and needed. In the South Atlantic, Hast South Central, and West South Central divisions the fluctuations were marked. In these areas a great deal of money is borrowed for the purchase of fertilizer and for food and feed during the crop-producing season. The credit curves, therefore, begin to rise at once, and continue up- ward until October. During October, November, and December a slight decrease is shown, which, however, doubtless falls far short of amounting to a normal contraction. The Mountain division has what appears to be more nearly a normal curve. The peak for the Mountain division came in August. During the last four months of 1920 there was a marked contraction of loans in this area, reflecting in part, no doubt, a rapid marketing of live stock. RATES OF INTEREST. The average low, high, and prevailing rates of interest for short- time loans to farmers as reported by the banks are shown in Table 2, loans of $100 or more and loans of less than $100 being classified - separately. In examining these rates it should be kept in mind that the reports were received mainly during March, 1921, which was ap- proximately the peak for interest rates throughout the United States. An average prevailing rate of 7.96 per cent on short-time loans of $100 or more is indeed high. However, as compared with the rates of ae BANK LOANS TO FARMERS. a discount on agricultural as well as other credit paper, which for the month in question averaged approximately 7 per cent, the rate re- ported is perhaps no higher than the banks were forced to charge in order to continue in operation. TABLE 2.—Average rates of interest on short-time loans to farmers reported by banks, March, 1921. Short-time loans of $100 or more. Petty short-time loans. | Geographic division : | ; State, and crop Neabae Rate of interest. Rate of interest. estimates district. | of banks Number report- | Prevail eaeee i P il 5 Coa “4 - Dp Tt- ° Trevalle- ing. Low. High. ing. ing. Low. High. ing. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. United States - - 9, 157 7.59 8. 23 7.96 7, 880 7.91 8.48 8.21 New England...-.-..-. 226 6.19 6.57 6. 43 153 6. 31 6. 59 6. 49 IMB ebratrere tren verencrais 42 6.12 6. 40 6.31 29 6. 34 6. 62 6. 50 New Hampshire 28 5. 89 6. 00 5. 98 18 5, 94 6. 00 6. 00 Wiermonteeeeen aa: 31 6. 00 6. 10 6. 03 Sad 6. 04 6.15 6. 07 Massachusetts. -- - - - 77 6. 43 7.09 6. 86 46 6. 66 7.14 6.97 Rhode Island. - -.-- 5 6. 50 7.10 7.00 4 6.75 Ta2o 7.25 Connecticut. .-.--.- fs 43 6.13 6. 44 6. 31 29 6.16 6.38 6.31 Middle Atlantic. -.-.-. 675 5. 97 6. 03 6. 01 560 5. 98 6. 03 6. 00 New York. .-...---- 259 5. 98 6.05 6. O1 212 5.99 6. 06 6.01 IONGHNCGHS 6 eaesce 17 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 15 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Sey ae ales 6 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 4 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 4.. 50 5.98 6. 12 6. 02 43 6. O1 6.10. 6. 03 wars 51 5.99 6. 00 6. 00 43 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 @a5 4 28 6. 00 6. 00 6.00 24 6. 00 6. 04 6. 00 Lk 26 6. 00 6.19 6. 06 24 6. 00 6. 29 6. 02 8.. 11 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 9 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Ose 48 5. 98 6: 04 6. 02 35 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Dae ae 22 5.91 6. 00 6.00 15 5.87 6. 00 6. 00 New Jersey --.----- 74 5. 94 6. 04 6. 00 58 5. 98 6. 03 6. 00 Districhdlleesass- 10 5. 80 6.10 6. 00 9 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Dees 4 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 2 6. 00 6. 00 6.00 3 13 5. 81 6.15 6. 00 10 5. 90 6. 20 6. 00 5 27 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 22 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 7 14 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 11 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 9 6 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 4 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Pennsylvania. .-.--- 342 5. 96 6. 01 6. OL 290 5. 97 6. 00 . 6.00 IDIStrICtHles see eee 23 6.00 6. 04 6. 02 20 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 OAS Se 26 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 26 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Saat rane pert 21 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 18 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 AEROS A 34 * 6.00 6. 00 6. 00 27 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Soaemenee 56 5.95 6. 00 6. 00 47 5. 98 6. 02 6. 00 (a Saree 28 5. 93 6. 00 6. 00 25 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Pitesti a rone 46 5. 93 6. 00 6. 00 38 5. 92 6. 00 6. 00 Bison e ce 38 5. 89 6. 00 6. 00 35 5. 94 6. 00 6.00 Qe aad 70 5.96 | 6. 04 6. 04 | 54 5. 96 6. 00 5. 99 East North Central. - - 1,890 6. 58 les 6. 96 1, 666 6.88 7.40 Tle ale/ OMors. see see oe 370 6. 48 7.09 6.79 329 6.75 | 7.25 7. 00 District 1........ 66 6.54 7.39 7.00 59 6.98 7.56 7.36 Pea ene 37 6. 41 6. 65 6. 59 35 6. 57 6. 80 §. 69 B)5 eetce - 59 6. 46 7. 03 6. 81 49 6. 67 7.20 6. 93 (Ue eae 38 6. 66 7.32 6. 92 32 6. 81 7.47 6. 98 alee ai 50 6. 56 7.34 6.85 49 6. 92 7.43 7.15 Qa aes 35 6. 29 6. 60 6. 43 29 6. 34 6. 69 6. 45 cries een te 39 |: 6.47 6.91 6. 68 34 6. 59 7.18 6. 86 SS RaHN Ad 17 6. 53 7.41 7.03 18 7.00 7.61 7. 50 Qe he 29 6. 28 7.03 6. 66 24 6.71 eZ, 6. 94 _———— | ——— SS ees | ——$—$—$_———— ir 8 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 2.—Average rates of interest on short-time loans to farmers reporied by banks, March, 1921—Continued. Short-time loans of $100 or more. Petty short-time loans. Rate of interest. Misuse Number Geographic division, if : S State, and crop | Number Rate of interest. of banks estimates district. | of banks AS g. report- Prevail- ing. Low. High. ing Low. East North Central— Continued. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent. Indiana aes 2502 384 6. 82 7. 64 7.27 335 7.26 District pleees-— == 34 6. 91 7.56 7.32 26 7.04 Di 50 6.98 7.76 7.46 46 7.41 Sei 44 7.00 7.68 7.41 39 7.49 Ast 46 6. 86 7. 84 7.38 46 7.30 ister 85 6. 87 7.78 7.40 73 7. 20 Gas - 27 6. 83. 7.37 ial 26 7.12 ES ees 51 6. 63 7.65 7,16 40 7. 52 Se 26 6. 50 7.35 6.85 20 6. 95 Qari ianere 21 6. 38 7.14 6.71 19 6. 84 IL MOIS epee eee 519 6. 56 6. 98 6. 83 428 6. 67 District lees: oe 71 6. 46 6. 98 6. 80 60 6. 52 SN oaths 74 6. 50 7.00 6. 72 69 6. 43 ASE oa 58 6. 57 6. 88 6. 82 56 6. 64 A awies vay 73 6. 44 6.91 6. 80 62 6. 55 fe Se 57 6. 61 6.95 6. 84 45 6.73 Gee raee 61 6. 70 6. 98 6. 96 46 6. 79 Gia. 2334 63 6. 71 7. 02 6. 94 45 6. 80 Lichen espaol 42 6. 37 6. 98 6. 67 34 7.00 Qt Ho ae 20 6. 90 7.40 7.10 11 7.55 Michigan se. 2. 3: 244 6. 76 ales 6.97 221 7.00 District ee. 2 21 6. 91 7.95 Hera 18 7.39 Dies es a 21 6. 71 7.09 6. 90 18 6. 89 BIE Seas 6 7. 00 7.00 7.00 7 8. 29 Ages oa 6 6. 83 aki 6. 83 6 6. 83 Eis Sue 23 7.00 7.17 (eal 18 7.00 Gees 27 | 6. 96 7.78 TiS, 26 7. 44 Ue BS 40 6. 71 6.99 6. 85 37 6. 84 Bieta 47 6. 57 6. 94 6. 80 44 6. 66 Co) ie ete 53 6. 70 6. 98 6. 85 47 6. 94 Wisconsin.........- 373 6. 64 7.3 7. 02 353 6. 81 Districh len: 4: 68 7. 22 8. 03 7.69 65 7.38 Wee 3: 6. 97 7.58 7.42 33 7. 36 Bs ASEISES 19 6, 89 7.79 7. 29 19 7.21 CO ea 37 6. 68 7. 50 7.03 38 6. 95 aaa sera 30 6. 45 7. 22 6. 80 28 655% Gsaeeeaus 80 6.38 6. 84 6. 67 70 6. 42 Ce mepemcsit 28 6. 50 7.525 6. 96 26 6. 62 Sh 41 6. 38 6. 93 6. 76 37 6. 49 OH Saar 37 6. 20 6. 85 6. 57 37 6.31 West North Central. - 3, 044 8. 04 8. 82 8. 50 2,660 8.33 Minnesota.........- 541 7. 89 8. 84 8. 44 503 &. 29 Districtilsessass5 87 8.78 9. 82 9. 44 80 8. 96 75 Syne Bs 28 &. 82 95°79 9. 32 28 9. 25 Baaaeneacry 12 7.75 8.75 8. 21 it 8.09 Ms 65 8. 05 9. 14 8. 57 59 8. 42 Oxon Sean 88 7. 72 8. 62 * 8.19 85 8. 05 Cee Seas 66 7. 67 8.75 8. 22 58 8. 02 Ueserenee 57 8. 07 8. 92 8. 52 50 8. 10 Sie aii 72 7. 54 8. 28 7.97 65 7.70 Si aes 66 6. 90 7.81 7. 42 66 Ue ile 566 7.39 7. 89 7.71 496 7.51 64 7.78 8. 00 7.95 5k 7.89 65 7. 62 7. 97 7.88 61 7. 69 60 7.10 7. 85 7. 58 54 7.49 66 1.183 7.98 7. 94 61 7.74 83 7.41 8. 00 7. 83 65 7.61 78 6. 65 7. 65 7. 25 68 6. 85 tL 7. 73 7. 98 7.93 37 7. 85 46 | 7. 52 8. 00 7. 93 41 (6163 60 | 6. 85 7. 53 (Er) 55 7.05 High. Per cent. 7.79 x1 SOOO OWSOD i=) Be Se 00 00 OOo DN OrwmrAISO N“N T1909 0C OO NRO SUSI SSICO CO CIE R CD ist EES ISIE SENG — v Ss mle HOOHNH SES IES ED ESES Ke le ole) ESS ESCO Ke oll Sasi oO $9))|,-90 S|| S| esxesues Sil all HeSHeounans Weyivo} Wejie} wr lle ho ow NRO MRO MO? Re) DIISSaSBLEB mn SEO Be So o roo co Orbos Prevail- ing. Per cent. MADD 6.95 NSS bo Qo OO nce alae, a oR od Cm Oh SIGH EP RIES IS Oe) haat | PCr ios a ie.) lor) RPIONoOATO BRO OO N||s pp mmDmm So | | ol] PPNSINANA| 3 WIAIRKDSOEAN! Nile ~I =) SIGNEUIESIESESIG ES We 20 6 09 COCO GOO SBESSSEERE | | BANK LOANS TO FARMERS. 9 TABLE 2.— Average rates of interest on short-time loans to farmers reported by banks, March, 1921—Continued. Short-time loans of $100 or more. Petty short-time loans. NNECERAS ZAC Number caso: Nee Rate of interest. of banks Rate of interest. estimates district. | of banks | ‘aes t FeDely Wow Hich | Prevail- | Re ow Hich Prevail- g. . gh. | ing. ay ing. West North Central— Continued. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Missouri..........-- 447 7.38 7.95 7.72 373 7.72 8.33 8. 03 Districts: 72 7.32 7.81 | 7.62 57 7.53 7. 86 7. 78 Pala sass 52 7.31 7. 88 7.69 35 7.60 7.91 7. 80 Shi Sota eee 39 7.08 7.77 7.45 36 7.31 7.92 7.67 Rec Ga 66 7.42 7.94 (oug 53 7. 85 8. 32 8.12 Oe 5 ies 68 7.38 7.90 7.74 58 7.73 8.16 | 7.98 Gee a 46 6. 65 7.53 7.20 47 7.15 7.72 7.53 Cesc eure 38 7. 87 8.13 8. 00 30 8. 23 9.07 8. 40 C SaopeBoe 38 7. 84 8. 87 &. 34 30 8.53 10. 97 9. 53 Lao aEee 28 7. 86 8.11 7.93 27 8. 07 8.15 8. 07 North Dakota...... 368 9. 38 9. 95 9. 82 341 9. 95 9.95 9. 86 —_—_s—_ — | ———}}?N$NR $$$ | Districiplawe ee 53 [ 9.74 10. 00 9. 92 51 9. 86 9.98 9. 94 Ll eae ee 52 9. 69 10. 00 9. 98 49 9. 80 10. 00 9. 96 Bia sal ear 71 8. 92 9. 86 9. 33 65 9.11 9. 88 9.71 AONE in Ss 32 10. 00 10. 00 10. og 30 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 eo Mn EEE 32 9.12 9. 94 iG: 27 9. 41 9. 89 9. 78 (5 Lees 41 8. 63 9. 80 9. 40 39 9.08 9. 85 9.58 Chaar 25 9. 76 10. 00 9. 92 22 9. 95 10. 00 10. 00 fh ean 22 9.77 10. 00 9. 95 20 9. 80 10. 00 10. 00 Cedaamoer 40 9. 32 10. 00 9.94 38 9. 45 10. 00 9. 96 South Dakota...... 261 8. 97 9.98 9.59 238 9. 20 10. 05 9. 69 DIStrict ase 19 1 26 10. 68 10 G8 18 10. 33 10. 78 10. 78 2.2 43 . 05 9.98 L 39 9.38 10.10 9. 64 SLU SSE 54 e 5 10: ug 9. ie 49 8. ee 10. 16 9.77 A ae eee 18 39 . 94 9. 61 17 9. 82 9. 82 9. 82 3 = ae 23 2 2 uM a8 2 0 21 B 62 10.19 © 9.90 bs 5 5 . 64 , 48 . 50 9. 81 9. 20 Users 5 9. 60 10. 00 10. 00 5 9. 60 10. 00 10. 00 8.. 14 10, 14 10. 43 10. 21 14 10.14 10. 71 10. 36 CO) Saar ga 28 OL 9. 50 9. 21 27 8. 70 9. 37 9.15 Nebraska.......... lp | LE eT Pees] ee | Pe District 1... 16 9. 25 10. 00 9.78 17 9.71 10. 00 9. 88 D iaeerete 13 i 46 10. 00 2 92 12 9. 42 10. 00 10. 00 S coesooee 55 . 38 9.58 18 47 8.72 9.79 9. 37 = 2] Es) RE) 28) B) RR) eel baeeeeaee 3 33 3 . 73 9.3 Gieeraey 80 7.77 8.91 8. 34 70 8.16 9.01 8.59 see ceamesees 33 8. 64 9. 94 9.55 29 9.07 9. 69 9. 48 fs) ee ates 35 7.97 9. 20 8. 66 29 8.62 9. 72 9.16 ORS 65 7.68 8.75 8. 21 47 7. 89 9. 06 8.39 Kansas eas 496 7.97 8. 81 8.37 405 8.16 9.13 8.75 District i=... 24 § 30 & a . a3 21 9.14 9. 62 9.52 oe ES 4 . 87 3 seelt 46 8.15 8.96 8. 45 Ps 2 en 76 7.46 8. 25 7. 84 63 7. 85 8.58 8.16 7S. oes 17 8. 76 9. 47 9. 29 14 8.93 9.57 9. 21 (3) a eee 65 8.08 8. 63 8.31 52 8.19 8. 88 8. 43 GY aSean 64 Mente 8. 34 8. 09 51 8. 20 8. 88 8.50 Tipit shake 35 9.14 9. 83 9.51 30 7.51 9. 80 9.53 fo, aR ee 80 7.87 9.11 8.51 64 8.56 9.52 9. 08 Qe seer 78 7.96 8. 85 8.30 64 8.59 9. 25 8. 94 South Atlantic....... 802 7. 26 7.78 7.52 687 7. 50 8.18 7.79 Delaware.........-- 14 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 13 6. 00 6.00 6. 00 Maryland......._.. 61 5. 98 6. 05 6. OL 58 6. 00 6. 03 6. 02 Districtylesn sees 9 6. 00 6. 00 6. 60 8 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Pose eae oe 21 5. 95 6. 05 6. 00 19 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 Saga ueeas 7 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 8 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 : HS eee eer tats cal a be bs Gaara aoe i 5 H 00 PLaneeames I 6. 00 6. 00 CrOON BE ao ae oko See ae cea meer eine ccees Qe ceca 5 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 5 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 79293°—22—Bull. 1048——2 10 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 2.— Average rates of interest on short-time loans to farmers reportrd by banks, March, 1921—Continued. Geographic division, State, and crop estimates district. South Atlantic—Con. District of Columbia North Carolina. ---. Districvles= = 25. Hloridasssen see aee District Ace -a--2e 3 East South Centra’... Kentucky.........- District 1 Short-time loans of $100 or more. Petty short-time loans. Rate of interest. Number | Rate of interest. Number of banks of banks | report- sai]. | Teport- ing. Low. High. | prey ae Low Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. 2 6. 00 8.001} 6.50 1| 00 ul 6. 06 6.2712 > 6.17 99/ 6.20 17 6. 00 6.00} 6.00 16} 6.00 14 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 12) «6.00 17 6. 00 6.00; 6.00 14| 6.00 13 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 12 | 6. 00 26 6. 02 6.10} 6.02 22 «6.20 10 6. 20 6.70} 6.60 10| 6.30 14| 6.29 7.43 6. 89 13 |. - 6:36 55| 6.00 6.11| 6.05 42) 6.00 9 6.00 6. 00 6. 00 5| 6.00 12 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 10 ~—«6.00 9 6. 00 6. 22 6.00 6 6.00 9 6. 00 6.44 6.33 6 6. 00 2 6. 00 6.00} 6.00 2 6. 00 10 6.00 6.00 6. 00 9 6.00 4 6. 00 6.00} 6.00 4 6. 00 106 6.12 6. 44 | 6. 23 83 6. 10 12 6. 00 6.75 == 6.38 9 6. 00 14 6. 00 6.00 | ~ ~6.00 12 6. 00 17 6.12 6.24] 6.12 14 6.14 12 6.17 6.17| - 6.17 10 6. 20 20 6.00 6.30| - 6.05 15 6.00 11 6.00 6.18| - 6.00 9 6.00 | 6 6. 67 TOTNES 1033 3 7.00 | 10 6.50 7.40| 6.65 9 6. 11 4} 6.00 6.00} 6.00 2 6.00 | 172 7.87 8.11| 8.06 147 8.04 | 37 7.89 8.08| 8.03 38 7.95 19 7.42 8.00} 8.00 17 7.59 | 28 8.07 8144, 1), 8.07 23 8.17 O35 We 7291 8.09 8.09 19 7.89 30 Nic 7287 Ape 8: 20elay nt 807 23 8.17 Oils S789 8. 00 7.94 7 8.00 | 25; - 7.92 |e 2 8.15 8.15 | 20 8.48 231 8.47| 9.54| - 894 206| 8.91 13 8.00 9.08| 8.46 12 8.67 27 8, 22 9.33| 8.70 27 8. 67 | 22 $18) —-9.00)| - 8555 18 8,22 | 54 8.28{ ~ 9.41]. 8.80 40 8.68 35 8.511 9.91} © 9.25 31 9. 23 26 9.04 10.19} 9.52 23 9. 48 20 8.45 9.30 8.75 20 8. 85 21 9.05 10.38 9.57 21 9. 62 13 7.92 8.62 8. 46 14 8.57 50; 806]. 9.124) 8.72 38 74 7 9.14 10. 00 9. 57 4 . 50 9 8.33 9.78! 9.22 6 00 25 8.16 8.56 8. 24 20 - 40 9 8.44 9.33| 8.89 8 9. 00 599 7.52 8.09 7.83 512 8.05 131 6.50 7.08 6.79 103 6.85 18 6.78 7.61 7.28 4 7.29 24 6.25 6. 96 6.69 16 6.75 4 6.00 6.00 6.00 4| 6.00 32 6.19 6.47 | 6.28 26 |. . 6.46 o| RSSSSSs3|s © & || SSSS8Ss SSIssssysw ww ea] ow way ha || ean g Ney rn ee Deed es it Hr Som co Less oa Nm HPO HF cm. CPR I9) GPa) 9) a1 > aa SSRrAKs Prevail- ing. Per cent. 8. 00 > nN © SSS2I38SS1 Si CSKSS3S to 00 SSERKE! SI SUBSSSBSA He |] Il bo _ _ CHA | eee ease | ce | cos ak a a a Sa ee | ce | | 69D) 9A GAD 670 HOG | BEI 1 P99 > eP0) 52S I> a | SOD Ds SP21 > Ia 8 S81 I>, 7 | ITO 2 > oI? SBSSeoRAE Bassi s oo fr) _ cs PONIN| N S337 BANK LOANS TO FARMERS. 11 TABLE 2.—Average rates of interest on short-time loans to farmers reported by banks, March, 1921—Continued. Short-time loans of $100 or more. Petty short-time loans. Geographic division, | : : Stat a and crop’ | Number | Rate ofinterest. Number Rate ofinterest. estimates district. | of banks of banks ; report- Prevail- | T¢Port- A | Prevail- ing Low High ing. ing Low High. | ing. East South Central— Continued. Kentucky—Con. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. District 6........-. 6 6.67 (E38) 7.00 3 6.00 Tees) 6. 67 Ura ee 17 7.06 7.76 7.47 15 7.23 USL Use (CB Ss 14 6.93 7.71 7.14 11 7.36 8.55 7.73 SEY. icin. - 12 6.42 6.92 6.58 12 7.00 7.58 7.25 Gee cate 4 6. 00 6. 50 6. 25 2 6.00 7.00 6. 50 Tennessee. .....-.-- 186 7.39 8.13 7.88 150 7.87 8.43 8.25 District 1......... 29 8. 07 8. 62 8.48 26 8.46 8.77 8.65 2 Refeerercihe 27 6. 89 7. 67 7. 26 20 7.10 8.15 7.70 See se 23 6. 96 7. 87 7.48 17 7.06 7.76 7.53 AS, 19 7.89 9. 00 8.63 16 8.75 9.25 9.12 Seen celts 35 7.00 7. 83 7.54 28 CEM 8.29 8.00 625 Le 10 7. 20 7.80 7. 80 9 7.78 8.11 8.00 CROCORCOEE 15 7.53 8.33 8.13 11 8.55 8.91 8. 82 Sires oak 14 7.57 8.14 8.00 9 7.78 8. 22 8.00 UL steaasue 14 7.71 8.00 8. 00 14 8. 07 8. 86 8.50 Mlabamassee ssc. 2 140 8.15 8. 88 8. 46 126 9. 08 9. 84 9.51 IDistrictileee sec: 12 7.83 8.17 8.00 11 9.91 9.91 9.91 Bee cretion 16 8. 25 9. 00 8.62 17 8.76 9. 82 9.53 Oe aia (e\e 15 8.17 9.13 8. 62 14 9. 00 10. 00 9. 50 Bees ease 14 8. 43 8. 86 8. 64 11 9. 82 10.00 9. $2 Mey) oes 12 8.00 8.50 8.17 12 8.67 9.00 9.00 i cea eee il 8.18 8.73 8.36 9 9.11 9. 56 9. 56 Deere 19 8. 21 9. 68 8.95 18 Oealitt 10. 44 9.78 Ee ernieic 4 8. 50 8. 50 8.50 4 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 (2) eee 15 8.138 8. 80 8.33 12 9.17 9. 83 9.58 Oia ss at 3 22 8. 00 8.73 §. 23 18 8.44 9. 67 8.94 Mississippi......... 142 8.01 8.17 8.11 133 8. 24 8.50 8.34 Districtiles=- 2s. - 2 15 8.13 8.13 8.13 15 8. 27 8.53 8.27 Pd Se Oe 23 8.17 8.35 8. 22 22 8.18 8. 64 8.32 She arenes 9 8.00 &. 22 8.00 7 8. 00 8. 29 8. 00 CANOE: 12 8. 00 8.17 8.08 12 7.83 8. 33 8.17 Dee eecisic ai 20 8.10 8.30 8. 25 19 8. 63 8. 84 8.79 GO eneee ees 13 8. 00 8.00 8. 00 13 8. 62 8.77 8. 62 RB Sete 21 7.81 8.10 8.10 17 8.12 8.12 8.12 Pees seis 14 8.00 8.00 8.00 14 8.43 8.43 8. 43 Qe ites 15 7. 87 8.13 8.00 14 7.86 8. 29 8.07 West South Central. . 789 9. 24 9. 90 9. 66 621 9. 80 10. 53 10.14 Arkansas.........-. 112 9.15 9.92 9.70 102 9. 64 9.95 9.88 Districtileesss-s-- 17 9. 24 9. 94 9.35 15 9.80 9. 93 9. 93 Dee oe asians 16 9. 25 10. 00 9. 81 11 9. 82 10. 00 9. 91 Oeseec ses 19 8.95 10. 00 9. 89 18 9.77 10. 00 9. 89 a ee 16 9. 25 9.75 9.75 15 9.73 9. 87 9. 87 ete ea 6 9. 67 10.00 9. 67 6 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 Geese as 14 8. 86 9.71 9. 43 13 9.08 9.85 9. 62 Bee cas 11 9.32 10. 00 9. 95 11 9. 64 10. 00 10. 00 Siok oe 6 9. 67 10.00 9. 83 6 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 Ca eeeercrs 7 8.14 10. 00 9.71 7 8. 86 10. 00 9. 86 Louisiana.......... 49 7. 89 8. 74 8.34 45 &. 38 9, 27 8. 74 Distrieth lessee se 4 7.75 8. 50 7. 88 4 arto 9. 00 &. 38 Wed oeeae 6 8. 00 9. 83 8. 67 6 9. 00 9. 83 9. 42 OMe sks 7 8. 29 9. 14 8. 86 6 8.33 9. 33 9. 00 4... z 3 8. 00 8. 67 8.17 3 8. 00 8. 67 8.17 LS CBaeeees 9 8. 00 8. 22 8.11 9 8. 89 9.11 9. 00 6.- 5 3 8. 00 8. 67 8. 67 3 8. 00 8. 67 8. 67 bees : 9 7.33 8. 67 8. 22 8 8.25 10. 00 8. 50 Bese eho 6 8. 00 8. 67 8. 33 5 8. 00 8. 80 &. 40 UE ape es 2 7.75 1-19, Ue) i 8. 00 8. 00 8. 00 12 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 2.—Average rates of interest on short-time loans to farmers reported by banks, March, 1921. —Continued. Geographic division, State, and crop estimates district. West South Central— Continued. Oklahoma.........-. District Short-time loans of $100 or more. Petty short-time loans. Number of banks report ing. = SOWA WoT eS 153 Rate of interest. Rate of interest. Prevail- ing. Per cent. 10. 40 10. 00 9. 78 9. 88 10. 00 10.79 10. 50 10. 08 11.63 10. 40 10. 27 Number of banks fe report- Low. | High. | P ee ing. Low. | High. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. 9. 46 9. 99 9. 84 204 10.11 10. 79 9. 74 10. 06 10. 00 25 9, 92 10. 08 8. 85 9. 76 9. 45 23 9. 57 10. 09 9. 40 9. 90 9. 70 17 9. 65 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 16 10. 00 10. 94 9. 31 10. 00 9. 83 38 10. 42 11. 08 9. 04 10. 00 9. 78 20} ~ 10.30 11. 85 9. 63 10. 05 9. 95 33 9. 82 10. 27 9. 83 10. 06 9. 97 27 10. 81 11. 96 9. 20 10. 00 9. 80 5 10. 40 10. 40 9. 28 9.99 9.68 270 9. 87 10. 76 9. 82 10. 04 9. 91 41 9. 90 10. 24 9. 27 10.17 9.75 53 10. 55 12. 28 9. 43 10. 27 9. 86 24 9. 62 11. 29 9. 71 10. 00 9.79 9 10. 00 10. 22 9. 56 9. 94 9. 83 33 9. 91 10. 24 8. 92 9. 97 9. 63 57 9. 46 10. 26 9. 29 10. 00 9. 68 12 10. 92 12, 25 9. 05 9. 63 9. 33 28 9. 36 9. 86 8.08 9. 38 8. 69 13 9. 31 9. 69 9.19 9. 92 9. 64 543 9. 61 10. 25 9.61 10. 00 9. SO 171 9.71 10. 01 9. 33 10. 00 9. 83 6 9. 33 10. 00 9. 94 10. 00 10. 00 30 10. 00 10. 00 9. 82 10. 00 10. 00 21 10. 00 10. 00 8. 93 10. 00 9. 60 15 9. 33 10. 00 9. 50 10. 00 9. 88 35 9. 66 10. 00 9. 87 10. 00 10. 00 14 9.71 10. 00 9. 00 10. 00 9. 67 6 9. 00 10. 33 9. 53 10. 00 9. 90 29 9. 66 10. 00 9. 83 10. 00 9, 94 15 9. 80 10. 00 9. 02 9.77 9. 55 86 9. 48 9. 93 8. 57 9. 26 8. 91 22 9. 05 9. 82 9. 33 10. 00 10. 00 3 9. 33 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 2 10. 00 10. 00 9. 00 9. 86 9. 57 7 9. 48 10. 00 9. 09 10. 00 9.77 11 9. 64 10. 00 9. 10 9. 90 9. 65 18 9. 56 9. 89 9. 54 10. 00 10. 00 13 10. 00 10. 00 8. 92 9. 92 9. 71 10 9. 40 10. 00 9. 26 10. 25 9.72 50 9. 96 10. 86 9. 82 10. 36 10. 00 11 10. 36 11. 09 9. 43 10. 86 10. 29 5 10. 40 12. 00 10. 40 11. 20 10. 80 5 11, 20 12. 00 9. 67 10. 33 9. 67 3 10. 67 10. 67 8. 67 10. 00 9. 50 5 9. 20 9. 60 9. 33 10. 00 10. 00 6 9. 67 10. 33 8. 00 10. 00 8. 67 3 8. 67 10. 67 8. 50 9. 83 9. 00 4 9. 00 10. 25 9. 00 9. 80 9. 20 8 9. 75 10. 75 8. 91 9. 67 9. 43 134 9. 41 10.12 9. 29 10. 00 9. 71 7 10. 00 10. 29 8. 21 9.19 8. 74 30 8. 70 9.33 9.33 10. 00 9. 89 17 9. 88 10.12 9. 33 10. 28 9. 67 18 10. 00 10. 89 8. 00 9. 67 8.83 5 8.40 10. 40 8. 86 9.59 9.32 23 9. 04 9. 83 9. 20 10. 80 9. 60 5 9. 60 10. 80 9. 27 10. 73 9. 82 oF 10. 00 11.33 9. 25 10. 08 9.91 20 | 9. 70 10. 10 9.95 11. 26 9. 95 9. 83 ae S Ss = SeSesSo| o|| peeSpwoss SSS2SSEN/ Sa) SSRBSLES — 10. 00 BANK LOANS TO FARMERS. 13 TABLE 2.— Average rates of interest on short-time loans to farmers reported by banks, March, 1921—Continued. Geographic division, and crop State, estimates district. Mountain—Contd. New Mexico District 1 Arizona District 1 Nevada District 1 79293°—22—Bull, 1048-——3 Short-time loans of $100 or more. Petty short-time loans. Renee Rate ofinterest. Aber Rate ofinterest. of banks of banks report- aij. | report- ai]. ing. Low. High. nae ing. Low. High. Roe | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 35 9. 60 10. 69 10.17 29 10. 21 11.45 10. 62 3 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 3 10. 67 12. 00 12. 00 3 8. 00 12. 00 10. 00 3 8. 67 11.33 10. 67 2 9. 00 12. 00 11.00 2 11.00 16. 00 11. 50 1 10. 00 10. 00 1 OS, OO) | pe RVR IRGEED ye passe ats tee eee ce MI asain ia 3 8. 00 10. 67 9. 00 3 9.33 10. 67 9. 33 14 10. 00 10. 57 10. 29 10 10. 60 11.00 |. 10. 60 2 10. 00 11. 00 10. 50 2 11.00 12. 00 11.00 5 10. 00 10. 40 10. 40 4 10. 00 11.00 10. 25 2 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 2 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 25 9. 04 9. 84 9. 44 24 9. 33 9. 92 9. 75 Rare Sil 2210800) 10/005) MnO NOONE Vet ool e| he s108 008 ee 10° 0017 wartOs00 2 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 2 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 13 8.31 9. 69 9. 00 12 9. 00 9. 83 9. 58 2 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 3 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 2 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 2 9. 00 10. 00 10. 00 BON yi 40 |iiiil aes 01508 as «105 OOM gma TON75u| Kies ard ee ONS) oui tONOO! Na miol75 40 8.52 9. 95 9. 25 39 9. 67 11.08 10. 27 3 9. 67 10. 00 10. 00 3 10. 00 10. 67 10. 00 15 8. 20 9. 93 9.00 15 9. 33 10. 93 10.17 4 9. 00 10. 00 9. 25 3 10. 00 11.33 10. 67 3 8.00 10. 00 9. 00 3 9.33 10. 67 10. 00 7 8.57 9.71 9. 00 7 9.71 10. 86 10. 29 3 8. 33 10. 67 9. 67 3 9. 67 11.33 9. 67 3 9. 00 9. 67 9. 67 3 11.33 11.33 11.33 2 8:50 10. 00 10. 00 2 9. 00 12. 00 10.50 10 8.40] 9.40 8. 90 10 8.40 | 10.00 9.50 1 8. 00 12. 00 10. 00 1 8. 00 12. 00 12. 00 2 8.00 9. 00 8. 50 2 8. 00 9.00 8.50 1 8.00 8. 00 8.00 i 8.00 8. 00 8. 00 2 8.00 8. 00 8.00 2 8. 00 10. 00 9. 00 1 8.00 8.00 8.00 1 8. 00 10. 00 8. 00 2 8.00 10. 00 9.00 2 10. 00 10. 00 10. 00 Sie fia ee OOS |e o8 OO ea ONOON Miata Hid heESSOON | CE. COMN ee e100 542 7.61 8.35 8.01 478 8.01 8. 62 8. 24 134 8.22 8.91 8. 56 123 8.60 9. 28 8.90 18 7.83 8.11 8.00 17 8.24 8. 47 8. 29 13 9.08 10. 46 9. 85 13 9. 54 10.77 10.15 7 §. 29 10. 29 8.86 7 9.00 10. 57 9. 57 15 7.73 8. 33 8.00 14 8.21 8.71 8. 43 11 8.00 8. 64 8.45 11 8.27 9. 00 8. 64 18 9.17 9. 72 9. 44 15 9. 73 10. 00 9. 80 25 7.80 8. 56 8.08 22 8. 23 9.18 8.73 14 8.07 8. 43 8.21 13 8.08 8.85 8.31 6 9.17 9. 67 9. 67 4 9. 00 9. 50 9. 50 7 1.50 7.86 7. 86 th 8.14 8.14 8.14 124 7.88 8. 55 8.27 111 8. 28 8.73 8.47 46 7. 67 8. 30 8.01 38 8.16 8. 66 | 8. 33 14 7. 86 8.29 8.11 12 8.17 8.33 8.21 9 8.33 9. 33 9.00 8 9. 25 9. 75 9. 38 16 | 7. 50 8.38 8.12 16 7.94 8. 38 8.19 5 8.80 8.80 8.80 4 9.00 9.00 9. 00 5 8.00 8.80 8.00 5 8.00 8. 40 8.00 15 7.87 8. 40 8.27 14 8.00 8.57 8. 50 8 7. 62 8.75 8.12 8 8.00 8. 75 | 8.12 6 9.33 10.00 9. 83 6 9. 67 10. 00 9. 83 14 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 2.—Average rates of interest on short-time loans to farmers reported by banks, March, 1921—Continued. { | Short-time loans of $100 or more. Petty short-time loans. | Rate ofinterest. Geographic division, | F State, and crop | Number Rate ofinterest. Gee estimates district. | of banks | of banks 2 | Tepore : Prevail. |, gen - | Prevail- ing. Low. High. ing. ing. Low. High. ing. Pacific—Continued. | | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. California 2.2... 284 7.21 8.00 7.63 244 7. 59 8.25 7. 79 District 1 Sito. | 13 | Tas 8.15 7.58 | 9 7.22 8.89 7.78 eee | 5 7.80 8.20 8.00 5 7.80 8. 20 8.00 3 7. 67 8. 67 8.00 3 8.00 8. 67 8.67 38 6.79 7. 71 7.32 32 6. 97 7. 69 7. 30 48 7.02 7.81 7.36 41 7. 59 8. 24 7.85 55 7.39 7.93 7.76 50 7. 66 8.04 7. 87 6 7.50 8.83 7. 67 8 7.00 8. 50 7. 50 2 8.50 9. 50 8. 50 2 10.00 10. 00 10. 00 114 7. 26 8.10 7 Paty 94 7.78 8. 42 7. 84 Considering the average prevailing rate on short-time loans of $100 or more by geographic divisions, the lowest average is found for the Middle Atlantic States, namely, 6.01 per cent, and the highest for the West South Central States, 9.66 per cent. For individual States the lowest average is 5.98 per cent for New Hampshire, and the highest is 10.17 per cent for New Mexico. The smallest variation in the prevailing rate within any geographic division occurs in the Middle Atlantic States, where New Jersey has an aver- age of 6 per cent and New York and Pennsylvania each 6.01 per cent. In the South “Atlantic States, however, a variation of 2.72 per cent occurs between Delaware and Florida. For imdividual States, the largest variations in prevailing rates appear in Minne- sota and Nevada. In Minnesota 9.44 per cent is the average for the northwest corner of the State and 7.42 per cent for the south- eastern district. In Nevada three districts have an average rate of 8 per cent, while one district, the eighth, has an average of 12 per cent. The reasons for sectional variations in interest rates are discussed in an earlier bulletin.? For the country as a whole, the difference between average pre- vailing rates on short-time loans of $100 or more and petty loans is only twenty-five hundredths of 1 per cent. In general, this varia- tion is largest in the South Central States where the credit needs of the small tenant farmers are a marked feature of the rural credit situation. The districts which have been referred to in these paragraphs are indicated by number on the map, figure 2. By means of shading, this map also shows the approximate prevailing rate on personal and collateral loans of $100 or more in each such district. 2 Department Bulletin 409, ‘‘Factors Affecting Interest Rates and Other Charges on Short-Time Farm Loans.’ 2 RR peng creer onto ores nro pet pe 6rzi - ost 67'lt - OGOAl 6y'0l - OS6 6v'6 - OSS 6v'e - OGL 6v'2 - OSS 6y'9 - OSG LSSYSLNI JO Alva , LL 4, 4 Yy We BANK LOANS TO FARMERS. 16 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The range in the prevailing rates as reported in Table 3 is also of interest. For the United States, 35.2 per cent of the banks which replied to this question reported rates varying from 7.50 to 8.49 per cent. Rates of from 5.50 to 6.49 per cent, which are shown as preva- lent for New Hngland and Middle Atlantic, disappear almost en- tirely in the West South Central and Mountain States, where a rate of 9.50 per cent or more was charged by three-fourths of the banks. Rates exceeding 11.50 per cent were reported by nearly 9 per cent of the banks in Georgia, by 10 per cent of those in Nevada, and by 11 per cent of those in New Mexico. TaBLE 3.—Prevailing rates of interest on personal and collateral loans to farmers: Per cent of banks reporting the various rates, March, 1921.1 Geographic division 5 per 6 per 7 per 8 per 9 per 10 per 11 per jails and State. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent, cent. cent. One United States.. 0.0 aaa 20.0 3522 4.9 22.1 0.1 0.6 i —— ——— rf} New England). vo. . cock e2tar 59.7 32.3 PFU il eee ee eee ae i Lene gr, deme | se Maine. 3 .is\astecs.selseeeeeecne 71.4 23.8 4 Bi] Sees sab ere Cate ee sc crete al teeters New Hampshire. ..|.........-. LOOH OBE RSS| Bien so ernie eo Aran He tedster | mae Rapa | Deo eR Re Wermontsrse! 2.0 eon esa 96.8 Be | ees ie eM see Kee I a te | ee Massachusetts. 2... ei o2csesee 22.1 58. 4 nA tie Pannen) Webeet tyre alin Ge ee 4 ee Rhode Teland a2 seers aie eae OO RO: ee SORE ea | ay a ai | (eet en pace Connecticut ::.. 2 Aleta ee: 69.8 27.9 Pre Sel eecng me ee ere RSS oe A Middle Atlantic. ..... 1 99.1 LTR A ee sn tn) dh 5 | Sears pent esa * New: York. “en cis secu: 98.5 Tey eee Me he ieee Newilerseye roc. | toes skeete UCU OSG easel red tele ee Doane te peel ens = ole aes GaoGe Pennsylvania...... .3 99.1 Ba tel ceo: Se | ear a FS Fe ees te gery Ree East North Central..|........-- 16/3)| Senter b)| 1.8 3 iy Bene oe eae ae Ohio 2s sss Meee las NING@iang Te Taree Rae eer TIN OSS eee se re Michigan Wisconsin West North Central... Minnesota, OWS ae eee eo Missouri sss skh ee: 1 North Dakota 2 South Dakota 6 Nebraska.......... 2 Se cece es. wees 5 South Atlantic#:.._ 2/0. see 39.7 | 2.2 43.4 3.1 8.1 .9 2.6 Mela warescens sess sc|sccscocees LOONOs| 2522s Pee (st nol ea Ee Or eR close Sot OOS Monylandep amen ren.| se ceneaeee 98. 4 1 BS fh (A ee eee eens! ete aa Sag Soba poo ve caere District of Columbia!.......... 50. 0 tr) OO (es eR I eS acl andar sn SOG Aiea ta ae he ee ee 88.3 5.4 635 ee oo De a Nese aaa ees | Seeeeei... Wiest vareinian sat eee 96. 4 1.8 US) Beene nad bacloS. -Goacda cast ntoS MNorth Carolinas: 22/2 22 86.8 4.7 SOR sees LOM Seas cs | Se mioeee = South) Caroling |i ae eee 2.3 93. 6 .6 291) Aeneas 6 Georgia: YC a. Re SE | oo Reel ee eee 62.3 6.1 19.9 3.0 8.7 Bloridas. Se Aa it Res Ser eh © ere (ea ase 54.0 20.0 26:03) eel See ees East South Central... 64.0 Bee} FL el Pane Sora 1.0 IKentuchkyaap cee 25. 2 Lee 8) becese ce -| Saeeecests Tennessee.......... 59. 2 3.8 1374 | Spee ees Scr coa ner Mlabama a yrses 77.1 I Y/ 13:65) Sige he 2.9 Mississippi......... 93. 0 Oe Dae cease 1.4 West South Central - - IB} 8.7 77.1 1 -6 Arkansas.........-- 9.8 9.8 SOF See et | Seeeeees Louisiana . ee 77.5 8.2 14.34]: SSSR: | eee Oklahomlaeeeeeene- 4.4 6.2 8904) |. os SE eee ROXAS Boose nee 12.1 10.5 75.1 3 1.4 | i 1 Rates involving fractions of 1 per cent are approximated to the nearest unit. BANK LOANS TO FARMERS. 17 TABLE 3:—Prevailing rates of interest on personal and collateral loans to farmers: Per cent of banks reporting the various rates, March, 1921—Continued. Geographic division 5 per 6 per 7 per 8 per 9 per 10 per 11 per 12 per and State. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. eee NU oyerin rT e 3 oo k ae 2 14.1 10.0 73.7 3 Be INVA REN OV se SS ea ee a | |e || 3.4 2.8 BBE Coase aracelfostencess MG ENING) 5 Si Ayer EERE Seas a eae 16.5 11.0 TAS hs Lean al Eee aaa VV ay CS NUTT papper teary sre ecane | ste eemeeesnan | paren a 12.3 14.0 66. 6 1.8 5y3 COLOT AC OR aaa te ice a 7 20.9 13.7 GAMO meee eee aul ING we MexiCOtmeceo msec n oceanic odaeecclanes occ 2.9 2.9 79.9 2.9 11.4 EAT UZ OT ane nl pnete een Ie TR te 8 16.0 24.0 GOED alee ae st eee WS GES ASS ogee ote Rake Pesan [aes cise A | ean 30.0 17.5 50508 Seas 2.5 INCA apres ects femelle eal ae sa Sue 2 60. 0 10.0 2020) aee ses 10.0 Tenet. een an Foul o20 62.1 4.4 Wy | oe 2 Wewashinetons 22222 Se 2.2 65.7 Se OL? (ee 7 ORG Ese 6 dodo Seee BEB Sebohis| CBee reaaee 6.5 74. 2 4.8 Ee Faye BSE BASS Hel Meee Califorminemeener meets stose ne 1.1 38.0 55. 2 3.2 ORs Eay i aie saute a aN een MINIMUM BALANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR BANK LOANS TO FARMERS ON PERSONAL AND COLLATERAL SECURITY. As a rule, when a farmer obtains a loan at a bank he leaves the proceeds on deposit subject to withdrawal by check. This practice is entirely to his advantage as well as to that of the bank, so long as he can draw on the proceeds of the loan at his convenience. Some banks, however, require that a certain portion of the loan be kept permanently on deposit so long as the loan exists. This has the effect of making the loan actually extended smaller than the face of the note on which the interest charge is based. Six per cent of the banks reported a minimum balance requirement on 16.3 per cent of their loans. The purpose of such a requirement seems to be either the procuring of a higher rate of interest or the reduction of the risk involved by means of keeping a certain percentage of the loan in the control of the bank. As an illustration of the effect which a balance requirement has on interest cost, let it be assumed that a farmer obtains a loan at 6 per cent on which 20 per cent of the proceeds are required to be kept at the bank. The actual interest cost would then be not 6 per cent but 74 per cent. Similarly, a loan with the same minimum balance requirement at a rate of 8 per cent would cost the borrower 10 per cent. It seems probable that these practices have resulted from the mistake of establishing by law a maximum rate of interest which is lower than is justified by the available supply of capital in relation to demand. Under such circumstances, creditors are tempted to resort to evasions, the effects of which many debtors may not comprehend and which in many instances no doubt bring the actual cost above what it would be if the laws were so drawn as merely to prevent actual extortion without attempting to regulate the rate in a free and open market. 18 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 4.—Minimum balance requirements for bank loans to farmers on personal and _ collateral security. Geographic division and State. New Hampshire Vermont.......- Massachusetts . inode dlslandes. 2 SP sok cs. Sak ce ct eee COnnecti crits

SR Alle namaken bs Pins s col Whig (Ga ree SP) 2 IMEISSISSUD le presiasctsetcie a ee Reisen Oe eee eee Vestas OutHCentralie tae esha kau. Se sesiy ae es 21) ee TAG EERO) 5 MRIs tee sg Cian eerh 9) OM ay ls NUR Daa eo Sea cS Ss SNR rag COLOR OE Bae ee Wa a eo 0 85 TRSTEESS 7 Ny US: c11 6/0) a Sat asd Nreear ti), S020 ae POU pera 8 Arizona..... SE Washington Oregon Per cent of banks re- | Per cent of porting— farm loans on which advance Number collection of banks was made reporting. | No collec- | Collection | (in case of tion in in banks advance. | advance. | reporiing such col- lection). 8, 827 60 40 66. 0 225 29 71 82.4 38 29 ai 65.8 27 30 70 76.7 30 33 67 70.6 81 42 58 85.5 i} (a Gees 100 99.0 44 7 93 95.7 628 21 79 76.5 267 38 62 60. 1 50a Ree Se ee 100 90. 7 302 10 90 82.9 1,851 64 36 54.0 361 59 41 59.6 374 43 57 56. 4 519 69 31 60. 2 237 54 46 40.1 360 90 10 Divelk 2,973 83 il 43.6 511 92 8 20.3 566 96 4 11.9 452 56 44 52,2 354 96 4 24,2 245 92 8 18.5 364 89 11 By a) 481 62 38 51.1 745 14 86 82.7 11 18 82 87.8 53 24 76 70.8 2 50 50 10.0 107 5 95 93. 4 52 2 98 91.1 LOU ee os se 100 97.6 165 4 96 87.6 215 34 66 58. 4 39 10 90 83.3 557 24 76 7/3683 124 15 85 79.3 172 5 95 85.7 129 28 72 68.1 132 52 48 52.0 746 33 67 64.5 113 49 51 §2. 2 47 6 94 72.4 258 32 68 58. 8 328 33 67 70.8 565 85 15 48.1 169 91 9 20. 6 84 87 13 30.8 57 98 2 2.0 152 87 13 50.8 32 28 72 74.3 24 67 33 58. 5 38 79 21 Si), 7 9 LOOMS ess ee 0.0 537 89 11 44.5 134 81 19 54. 1 120 94 6 40.7 283 91 9 35.1 20 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INTEREST COLLECTIONS IN ADVANCE. A second practice which has the effect of increasing interest cost is that of collecting the interest at the time the loan is made. As indicated in Table 5, 40 per cent of the banks follow this practice on 66 per cent of their loans to farmers on personal and collateral security. This would indicate that, taking the United States as a whole, interest is collected in advance on slightly more than one- fourth of all short-time bank loans to farmers. This practice, it may be noted, is most common in the eastern and southern sections of the country, and occurs only rarely in the central or western States. Thus in the States of Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Louisiana, and Tennessee, 90 per cent or more of the banks reporting collected interest in advance on a large majority of their loans. In Nevada, on the other hand, no bank reporting on the question followed this practice. In Wyoming, only 2 per cent reported collections in advance and on only 2 per cent of their loans. In each of the States of Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Oregon, and California less than 10 per cent of the banks followed this practice on any part of their loans. The collection of 6 per cent interest in advance makes the rate on the credit actually obtained 6.4 per cent, while the collection of 8 per cent interest in advance makes the actual rate 8.7 per cent. NATURE OF SECURITY FOR FARMERS’ PERSONAL AND COLLATERAL LOANS. Table 6 discloses the marked prominence of purely personal security in rural short-time credit. For the country as a whole, 36 per cent of farmers’ short-time loans from banks reporting on this subject had no security other than the written promise of the debtor to pay at the proper time. In Iowa 66.3 per cent of the personal and col- lateral loans were of this nature. In other States, loans secured by the indorsement of one or more persons are the prevailing type. In Rhode Island, 97.5 per cent of the personal and collateral loans were of this class, as were also two-thirds or more of the loans in Vermont, Connecticut, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Combining the figures of the first two columns, it will be observed that in the United States, 68 per cent of these loans were strictly personal or character loans. The lowest total occurs for Oklahoma, where 30 per cent of the loans rest on personal security only. Considering the kind of collateral pledged, mortgages on live stock are of most importance, 18.3 per cent of the total personal and col- lateral loans to farmers in the United States being based on this form of security. In the West South Central and Motntain States mort- gages on live stock are particularly common. BANK LOANS TO FARMERS. 21 TABLE 6.—Form of security given for personal and collateral bank loans to farmers. Per cent of loans secured by— potel ee Note Geographic division | number ote ; Mort- ; and State. of banks | without with one gage on : Ware | Stocks Other reporting.| indorse- on ore live Crop lien.| house Kone ae ‘ indorse- receipt. onds. RiGh ment. | ments. | stock. Pp United States. . 7,590 36. 0 32.0 18.3 6.2 1.4 4.2. 1.9 New England........ Sa GO| Hau 62.6 ALR ee 3 18.1 1.6 Maine...... as00s00u 30 16. 4 53. 8 BU llksogubocedisoosenedne 235 4.0 New Hampshire. . . 22 8.6 64.9 | ik ce Asha baat oes as 22.1 2.6 Vermont...-..----- 25 17.8 73. 9 GTN T Bn RN esa all aes ora has Gi Ge eaten Massachusetts... --- 50 21.5 55. 7 7251 ee ae co S| Seca tenes 19.3 1.4 Rhode Island.....-. AS Reema c 97:5») | eee se tee lyase tereteiell Os erate Seisais Qe 5x teem aie Connecticut......-. 29 10. 8 67. 4 OX ree rats 1.4 19.9 5} Middle Atlantic. ..... 519 19.8 67.6 1) s| See esate .2 9.1 23 New York.......-- 185 26. 0 62.3 D2 GENE Se Ai) 7.4 1.6 New Jersey....---- 63 8.9 78. 0 4 | Ee ae jal 11.3 1.6 Pennsylvania. ...-- » 271 18.0 68. 9 OW Brera Bal 9.7 3.0 East North Central. . 1,498 46.8 43.9 3.3 .3 1 4.7 9 Otto) Yesoosdodusok 265 43. 8 46.7 1.0 SOT Rte Bers 7.5 .8 Indiana........---- 321 28. 8 62. 1 1.8 .2 jal 6.2 3} MNMOISe ae sy esese 423 52.6 40. 6 2.8 5 cal Oh 7 Lo Michigan........... 197 48.5 41.0 5.6 .5 Hal 3.5 .8 Wisconsin........- 292 59. 8 | 28. 1 6.5 .3 Hil 4.0 19) West North Central..| 2,713 47.6 17.3 25.0 5.7 .6 1.8 2.0 Minnesota........-- 450 51.8 14.2 25.0 4.1 Ae 203. 2.3 TOW ASE eee eee ene 501 66.3 20. 0 9.3 1.6 4 1.6 .8 Missouri.........-- 412 46.3 34.7 13. 0 2.0 .2 Pt 1.1 North Dakota....-- 336 26.8 8.9 43.2 12.4 2.5 5? 4.5 South Dakota....-- 233 34. 6 8.6 46.0 6.0 oo) 2a 252, Nebraskans. 85242: 345 49. 2 16.6 24. 6 6.4 pl 8 2.3 Kansast ee ees 436 44.9 13. 0 29.7 9.5 .3 1.2 1.4 South Atlantic.....-. 644 11.4 57.6 9.2 (633 5.8 5.8 2.9 Delaware........-- 9 15.0 80. 6 Ty ates Sere Mee aoa eae 353) te eee Maryland.......... 51 15.0 73.5 TES} eee Aes ar Ieaepannes Si 9.0 1.2 District of Columbia 2 1.0 As Oy erssieeme ae Peas ee Ce ae ee PASM OFA ew Reo EY WAeT TT eee et 87 6.5 | 83.1 2.0 ea leh [eres oe Usith .6 West Virginia....-. 30 9.8 75.9 1.6 Fi Let sees ae 9.5 ehal North Carolina... -- 77 10.5 68.6 ibe 5.2 el 7.5 4,4 South Carolina. ..-- 154 9.1 41.0 13. 6 20, 2 9.7 4.8 1.6 Georpia eet 203 12.5 50. 1 14.5 4.9 10.0 3.5 4.5 INOAC HE oS ooke eee 31 27.0 40. 1 13.8 6.5 EG, 6.8 4.1 East South Central. . 458 15.9 45.9 14.1 10. 4 4.0 6.4 3.3 Kentucky.......-.. 90 22.5 63.6 1.6 11 a 9.0 2.1 Tennessee.......--- 152 18.1 67. 2 5.0 18/5) 8 5.8 1.6 Alabamayee es... .. 107 10. 4 20. 1 3135 26.1 15 2.4 2.0 Mississippi-.......- 109 127 27.0 20. 2 15. 1 8.0 9.1 7.9 West South Central. . 719 18.5 20. 9 38. 6 6 56) il? ileal Arkansas.........-- 101 apeal 37.9 22.7 19.9 3.0 2.2 2.2 Mouisianasee noses 40 15.5 D2 12.4 iP POU 9.0 ao) Oklahoma......... 265 17. 2 12.9 49.3 18. 1 oak ie?) -6 REA Sei ge oy cpa 313 21.9 18. 0 38. 1 18.3 1.6 iat 1.0 MOUNT AINE Masse meeeee 489 27.9 12.2 39. 6 12)1 1.4 3.5 3.3 INOW | sbheagods 151 22.9 6.7 44,9 ile dl 1.8 1.8 4.8 IGEN AO ae Bera aes 73 45.5 5) 20.0 13. 8 3.1 4.1 2.0 Wyoming......--... 45 19.0 16 hal 56. 7 7.0 52 201 1.9 Coloradosaees -see-- 134 28.9 13. 3 42.5 9.5 Sl 2.8 2.9 New Mexico. ...---. 32 22.1 16. 2 50. 7 8.0 8 1.6 .6 JNAVA UR 5S. ae ea ceae 18 20. 3 20. 8 26.5 16.5 5.4 3. 8 6.7 italy ee oe 30 26. 4 PSP) D2 5.9 Sth 15. 8 3.3 INK EKG ee ie ote Ba 6 47.3 17. 2 16.0 6.7 1S 7.8 88) JECT OR A er ee 390 49.0 By 2} 15.0 8.3 4.5 7.8 2.2 Washington......-.- 111 43.6 13. 4 19.2 11.4 4.8 4.8 2.8 OnERGN a sasdesesoos 90 53. 8 13. 4 16.8 5.9 4.0 6b 2.8 California.......... 189 50. 0 13.1 11.8 (0) 4.5 11.6 1.5 22 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Crop liens come next in importance, being relatively common all over the southern, central, and western part of the country, but practically unknown in States of the East. As the practice of crop insurance develops, crop liens will no doubt become more common as a form of security. Considerable interest has been shown recently in an improved system of warehouse receipts. The fifth column of Table 6 indicates that although some loans are secured by this type of collateral, it as yet plays a minor part. As improved marketing systems are - adopted for the various farm products, greater attention undoubtedly will be given to warehouse receipts. Their acceptability as security has been demonstrated particularly in certain southern States where warehouses are operated under the joint supervision of the State and Federal Governments. The flotation and wide distribution of Government bonds during and after the war, which were bought by farmers largely on patriotic grounds, will no doubt explain the relatively large and uniform per- _ centages of loans reported as secured by stocks and bonds. Unfor- tunately, the farmers as a class have not yet attained a position where they have an appreciable amount of earnings to place in investments outside of their own business. TERM OF LOAN. One of the most frequent complaints heard with reference to bank loans to farmers is that the term is too short to meet the needs of the producers of agricultural products, particularly those producing live stock. Table 7 presents the average maximum term of personal and collateral loans to farmers as reported by 8,008 banks. For the United States as a whole, nearly one-half of the banks reported a maximum term of 6 months or less, and most of the remaining banks reported a term ranging from 9 months to a year. The shorter maximum term prevails to a larger extent in the Hast, but in the geographic divisions where agriculture is considered of chief impor- tance the longer maximum term is more common. Table 8 presents the average term of such loans. As might be expected, the average as well as the maximum term was reported in approximate periods only. For this reason, it was not possible to tabulate the replies in groups which are mutually exclusive. For the United States, the average term falls between 3 and 6 months. Practically one-fourth of the loans run for 6 months or more. In the Eastern States, more loans are made for a term of 3 months or less, than for 6 months or more, but in the central and western sections the reverse is true. BANK LOANS TO FARMERS. 23 TABLE 7.— Maximum term of personal and collateral loans to farmers: Per cent of banks reporting various maximum terms, March, 1921. Total 3 4 ridin cha One to One to | Three to} Six to Nine to More pogereelic Miyision eee Demand. pay es Se ning twelve | than one reporting. ys. | months. |} months. | months. | months.| year. United States .. 8; 008 0.8 0. 4 4.6 41.6 6.8 45,2 0.6 New England....-..-. 146 See so. 6. 2 GLEGt eae ASA Cee ae re WENGE CS asosaomedas 30 OSTA SNe SS ee Ss (Sse eeasoaoocT (Sheil ein ee New Hampshire... 17 DO AE RE: 5 meee Oe OSNS el eee see LASSER ee Bales Wenmont =: 2 26 BOBS | Peer et 3.8 50 Val Sees 4 iL ed | a ae Massachusetts... ..- 45 SHO iil Rows Susi 8.9 EBS) saEeeoasos 282-9 [teeta beet Rhode Island. ...-. Bs ae eee asaear ay kote army 33.3 GOS 78 OS eo OS Sas eee aye Miles) ESN eee Connecticut.....--- 25 NG OR pees 12.0 TQ Oats Ay SN ek | lahat adler Ee |e ee Middle Atlantic. ..... 528 1.9 22 21.4 54.9 3.2 18.2 ow ING wanionke jee e-- 201 Le) 5 18. 4 58. 7 ONO) ES SaliSeeeeran New Jersey..------ 60 Ne lsat Gees 28. 2 55.0 6.7 6.7 aL Pennsylvania...... 267 Ped Wee Saaeeee 22.1 52.1 7 225 9% eee a East North Central... 1, 669 ah ao) 4.6 48.9 3.0 41.4 9 Ohiog ees. eet 302 2.3 lh 4.3 57.6 2.3 S25 8H Mane ee Ne Imdianaseneraene soe SAIL Eee arses eee 1.5 5.9 58.3 4.7 DOG is ee ae Injtinonss. ove heses 482 52) lEpRGSeeoe 4,1 42.8 2.3 50. 4 uD. Michigan..........- VAG eee faces peered 2 eal 44.9 4,2 45.3 20) WVISCONSIMeeseneme ae 330 1.0 5 3.9 42.7 2.4 45.8 3.9 West North Central. . 2,798 4 .4 1.8 41.0 4.7 51.3 74 Minnesota.........-. 473 4 Be 16383 20. 3 4.9 h2e5) 4 OWA ese ears ee BADE Be Rae sieht 4 13 2 38. 2 3.5 OD eee hae: MASS OUMISe seen eee 424 wt -9 4.0 51.4 Sep: 39. 4 5 North Dakota.. 334 60 | EEHeESBEal bis ccubeoae 4,2 5.7 88. 0 15) South Dakota PRY) eEBBacasnd Soseeeeeee oA 35. 9 6.3 BE ai fas wa ee ea Nebraska-.:...-... 330 .6 503 Qui; 61.5 6.1 28.5 .3 TREATS ASH eee yen ee 458 2 4 2.2 71.0 4,8 SEA | Retires South Atlantic......- 666) Baesene as a) 6.9 30. 6 16. 2 45.5 5a Delaware..........- TER See tN ate 28, 6 ADRS, ee eee 286 ar enn Maryland.......... BOP Eee eens eet 2 2 See 10.0 68. 0 2.0 DOR OA Aaa aaa District of Columbia Qi as oR 50. 0 CEO) eee see Sel leemmestnsl coe mere) A Sune soa Wirgerbotiy oboe eee AUD ilebsbesseetlicceanooass 11.4 56. 2 4.2 27.1 iil West Virginia...... AD hi Bee ieee 2.4 S8e ieee Oita cians see North Carolina..... Cot eer aes 1.2 10.6 33. 0 17.6 36. 4 12. South Carolina..... SLL | eae ee sill She} 10.6 2225 GQNOM |e eects Georgia ee ese: LQG Se creases te Se 2:1 11.2 27.0 DOR Ts ee renenie INORCAS 525 5a555ee6 BA ase lh ie pn 21.6 27.0 207 AGN Tse East South Central... UA ears See .6 6.0 25.3 6.8 59.9 1.4 Kentuckaypas.- 2-2 OO | Ricerca 9 2.8 45.9 9 AT.7 1.8 Tennessee......---- ICG feta ah seach geile een 13.4 37. 2 4.3 43.9 12 Mlalpamianeseeacene AA iN encase .8 255 7.4 11.6 |- 76.9 aS Mississippi...--..-- 20S eee eee .8 20) 8.3 10.8 75.9 Uff West South Central. - 724 1 6 ea 25.4 18.6 53. 1 oil PAmIcanSAS sees eee C00 Ve rasa al a a = 3.0 14,1 212) Gh te eee Louisiana i OTe | ewaeceie site| Salta eR 4.8 11.9 19.0 61.9 2.4 Oklahoma il are eee ipa 1.5 29. 2 15.9 GAG acceoseoas Uf Nyasa lei bs Cone anes 312 .3 a3) 1.9 27.6 20. 2 AQ. Je) Reba abe es Moumbaimeme a2 oa 536 2 74 2.1 48. 7 6.7 41.3 -6 IMonmtanae- esas. 26 GIG eke foeee rere 76 .6 25. 5 6. 2 yAaln aan aioasce IGE GYO)S Sie eae Se Soult toe See ae 1.2 2.4 41.0 10.8 AAL GY, | Pea eee Wyoming.......... By Ase cOao or 4 SadReeeS olldceoocaaas 61.1 5.6 29.6 3.7 Colorado 2.8. HAG ii ee a seer eines cae 207, 66. 5 8.2 21.9 ath New Mexico.......- 2 Oe lByeaercneererae [use ee ace 3.4 Go85n | Kae ae eee Slee ees ae PAU IZOM A espe ae PA lees Se ete. 0) hues etme 8.7 60. 9 4,3 Po a epee eae ONE a eee a Oe ae 34 PS Te Aaa 2.9 61.8 2.9 202 5\i| es saa INIGURYCEYScae eee Se Gal Sees te gc |r pero Sbhe) [eae sebsees 6.75 |S eee PAGING saab. Gane 427 SOLES eas 4.0 49, 4 Wa) 36. 8 1.4 Washington....--.. SEAS SR Siac calaa 5 Be 6.8 41.0 TEU AAD Dice eee ews Orecon eee orn eas 105 GO) eA a 9 58. 1 4.8 } O43 EE as California.........- 205 PSO eres ae 3.9 49.8 8.8 33.6 2.9 al 24 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasiE 8.—Average term of personal and collateral loans to farmers: Per cent of banks reporting various average terms, March, 1921. Total Geographic division | mumber | parca] Qnet? | (Queto | Thiseto! Sis to | Muatio) Mol: Ce ees ren Orting. days. | months. | months. | months. | months.| year. United States... -| 7, 627 | ORT eatin 4 eB} 58. 6 15.4 7.8 0.8 New England....--.- 109 Ue Some 33.1 56. 0 1.8 7.3 3) Maineie. sec. es 20 US te a ae te 90. 0 5.0 BRO Soman New Hampshire. - - 13 a | are a epee 3 1 69.2 oo. NS ae ee ee Wermontysseee 2-2 AY ered ere) [OO tear ny 52.9 41.23) os SORE OS OF |S emcee Massachusetts... .. - Ba reise SP ae ee AL Ua 41,2 BBLS ules eee 17.6 2.9 Rhode Island. ..-.. Aa att se as ES here rage ae 50. 0 25.0 2550) | Ri an es aoe arc Connecticut........ 7A Sas tee res| Crome rescies eee 38. 1 6159 ean nsec SER Se eee Middie Atlantic...... 492 Vaile 51.2 37.6 | 3.9 51 1.4 New (Yorki:3. 02s. - 195 Ot Soticweunes 48.7 42.6 4.6 2.6 1.0 New Jersey..-....- lays) Bon eee ariersieae ts 58. 2 3059) |sh2oe 15/38 |eteeee ee Pennsylvania...... 242 oA ele ee ok Leia 35. 1 4.1 6.6 251 East North Central. . 1, 589 ye eres tS 20.6 67. 2 | 6.9 4.5 atl Ohio esse seeeiccs 270 side (iatdeteresieces 21.9 67.8 4.1 4.4 j eal Indiana....... BOON eels aoe ARs es Ss 28.0 64.8 4.5 207 RS Mn Oise seek ees AGI ta ie aR MANS 16.3 72.4 6.5 4.6 2 Michigan. 204s |i se seks al abe hey 26.9 60. 3 7.4 3.9 1.5 Wisconsine Saco es. 3 BUS see oko ate me 14. 2 65e'7. 12.3 6.6 1.2 West North Central-. 2 GOOn| seein elt 12.4 63.0 14.7 9. 2 .6 Minnesota..--..-.: AGS | MSIB SRN ayes coaish Sets 59. 8 22.5 1450); eee: OW ese Hees Ey Asy hea plea aaa 2 9.7 72.0 13::7 4.0 4 IMSSOUTIM ee see coe ZEB T aes Ela (ee cte 18.6 70.1 5.3 5.8 -2 North Dakota-.....- SUD eee a ei oi 1.0 22.1 40.0 35.6 1.3 South Dakota DEVAN Tees aR at 9 A nN 10. 4 62.5 19.8 5.6 U7, Nebraska. ..-- BAG eae SR A ane 17.2 75. 8 2.9 205) 1.6 KAM SAS selbst vane 440 ines eo 2 25.0 68. 9 4.1 1.6 .2 South Atlantic......- G28 si seis LAO E a ae 17.5 49.5 PRY) 5.9 1.4 Delaware.........- fo) le Sa a Deere 50. 0 25.0 12.5 VAG EeanososeS Maryland = os. 5.222 ALAN epi mece ened aN Resto es 15.9 72.7 4o'6i| Ce See 6.8 District of Colum- The espa st eae PP | ROBES So oS Pe aS SOLON SAEs SOs ei | Sete aera MLO Ssqacasssg VATeINI AY oss Et eae LN PIE Atal ese ares 40.7 48.8 7.0 2.3 1.2 West Virginia...... ASN is Jeera ae 5 eR I Scene The 65.9 2.4 12.2 12.2 North Carolina... -. SOB aca B= UE ees ew 28. 0 Daal 15.9 OE eae aacaaee South Carolina. .-... aL DR [eatetoah ee WDE ARN said 12.5 40.1 40.8 Gaia heneeacuoe Georgian esses oe abt) IS eleseeaey ae Eee as ee 3.9 50. 3 38.5 UeSisllobedssg see IME. Sse ee AF |p lanes cee 32. 4 38. 2 20. 6 etal bosaaSosee East South Central... ATAU Re Soa atest a0 ata 13.3 44.3 25.7. 15.6 ila Ken tuckye sae sce WO Baa aae.sl Sacre ameae 5.2 75.0 5} lay 2 3.1 Tennessee.....-.... SU SSD ie pcpae May ae Una pt 2 28.5 45. 0 14.6 BUR Rebonsieoe Alaibamatve so ous MRM ee NO BSE SN NCU 4.2 30. 5 39.9 25e4 | Sas ou Mississippi......... TOES SR a es aaa 9.2 31.2 38.5 19.3 1.8 West South Central... Gi | a i 9.2 48, 2 34.7 7.7 iil Arkansas gee sce Qe ee Ne os eallae Beers ccc ae 7.2 36. 7 45.9 LOS 25 Cerere ce Mouisianas ee - 222-2 CB ARS oes aaa eG aca 9.3 37.2 37.2 OS Sa eee c Oklahoma. .......- 260 Roe eecce .4 11.6 49.6 31.9 (Mahl Hedodoasee WROXASS Ma eretende ae Sa Se earo deel FOS cos eeeS 7.9 52. 1 33.0 6.7 3 Mountaineesseseeene. OOM te cistoete | citeeicinciee 11.4 64. 4 14.0 9.2 1.0 Montana sicher es cc GY) Na ae ree | se 13 54.1 29.3 13.4 1.9 Canoe seme eee TSH Peseta e otal letras crete 12.8 70.5 11.6 gu la oo Wyoming.....-.... DURA crete Bes ts Core 3.9 78. 4 5.9 TO ea epeemiscecn Colorados ee GY) AES RR 11S 19.4 68. 4 4.3 6.5 1.4 New Mexico. .-... SG ee ee ea re MLN 12.9 67.8 3.2 1K at all 455 ee PATIZONA Senet ece coe AUS sial Se Oe es SY =e 33.3 44.5 Hike il Ss | Beeteerretets i tah Sov eh as SOM eae ee a ee 20. 0 66. 7 13.3" |. Sere es a) eee es Nevada Waa oss day WORN ire Fae 20. 0 Ch Fl Meee Sloe secaial Neacicbentae NPACITIC oe Asemcee eels 410 Roa erper ccs. 17605) 63. 9 10.0 6.6 1.5 Washington TOYS \a| Ee a ae Dilee 59.3 14.8 3.7 -9 Oregon.-...... 5S Si rete se cierte| Cratermretcveriele 16.3 69.4 9.2 ae Sab 556.505 Calitonniaeesseeece 204 Ob tees en 16. 2 63.7 1.8 8.8 2.5 BANK LOANS TO FARMERS. 25 CONCLUSION. For short-time or personal credit, the farmers rely mainly on com- mercial banks, estimated loans from this source amounting at the close of 1920 to nearly $3,870,000,000. Data are not at hand for a satisfactory estimate of farmers’ personal credit from general stores, implement dealers, and kindred sources which are relied upon for a considerable amount of credit, particularly in certain sections of the country. Bank credit has been unusally costly to the farmer dur- ing the past year and a half, but there is no doubt that merchant credit has been even more so. The interest charges of the merchant are almost invariably higher than those of the banks in the same locality and, in addition, a higher price is frequently placed on goods sold to a credit purchaser. It would be better for all concerned if all credit were sought and obtained from specialized credit agencies and purchases made for cash. The truly progressive and constructive rural banker makes every effort to acquaint himself with the legitimate credit need of the farmers in his community and to supply this need to the extent of his ability. Similarly the progressive and constructive merchant frankly points out the advantages of purchases with cash instead of on credit. The farsighted and progressive farmer in his turn aims to establish definite banking connections, is thoroughly frank with the banker as well as with the merchant, and prompt and businesslike in his dealings with both. Small farmers and tenants particularly, who have hitherto been without banking connections and who have little security to offer, can materially improve their credit status by pooling their security and consolidating their credit demands by means of local credit associations or credit unions.2 The organiz- ation of such associations should be facilitated by the enactment of suitable State laws where such laws do not not already exist. As indicated on preceding pages, the rate nominally charged by banks is not in all cases the actual rate. In some States, the practice of requiring a minimum balance from the proceeds of a loan to be: maintained at the bank, as well as that of collecting interest in ad- vance, materially increases the rate on the amount actually made available to the borrower. Such subterfuges are believed to be contrary to the public interest, and where they are the result of un- wise legal regulation of rates such regulations should be properly modified. The rate of interest, so far as the legitimate credit market is con- _ cerned, can be lowered only by establishing a new relationship be- tween the supply of capital and the demand for it. This can be accomplished only by thrift and saving. The wise farmer borrows not 3See Department Circular 197, ‘‘The Credit Association as An Agency For Short-Time Rural Credit.” 26 BULLETIN 1048, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. merely for the purpose of making a crop, but to give him a start in efficient production so as to enable him to acquire a working capital of his own. When he has accumulated all the capital he himself can profitably use, he continues to save a part of his income and at a reasonable profit to himself assists in supplying those less advanced than himself with the capital that they need. It is only where a spirit of energy and thrift prevails in a community, whether agricul- tural or industrial, that real progress in prosperity and well-being is made—a prosperity that is shared by all whether they are engaged in a profession, in trade, or in agriculture. One of the greatest defects of bank loans to farmers under existing conditions is that credit is not available for such a length of time as is frequently needed by the farmer to mature his products end to market them in an orderly manner. For the production and market- ing of crops, loans for a term of from 8 to 12 months are frequently needed, and the producer of live stock, as contrasted with the feeder or finisher of such stock, often needs credit for a period of from 1 to 3 years. To obtain a loan under existing conditions, farmers not infrequently are obliged to agree to repay the same at a time prior to that at which they have any expectation of being able to meet it, and to rely on the hope of being able to renew the loan when it falls due. Such a state of affairs is discouraging at the best, and often leads to serious results for the borrower. At present, as shown by Table 7, the maximum term with nearly half the banks is 6 months or less, and only in the case of a very small percentage of the banks are loans made for a year or more. Some means must be found for providing the crop and live-stock producer with credit running for such term as the nature of their business demands. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY — V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1922 Ae UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, KE. W. NELSON, Chief. Washington, D.C. v March 14, 1922 GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. By T. S. Parmer, Hxpert in Game Conservation. CONTENTS. Page. Page. LimpOLnAMCemOr camel ss. SF 1 Methods of increasing game _ re- Principal kinds of game in the SOUL CES eae te eee cere he eee 25 Wimitedestatessss = fine Sa) eee 2 BOE CtlO nies serene Sy Saas cee EEE See 26 Big game: summer shooting: 225 2-2 = 27 Deora 2S Ce A a ee 2 Spring shooting______ EDalonts Wop cere 28 DTG eS DE eee re ae 4 Protecting females of big game_ 28 CORD = es es een eee 5 Establishing game refuges_______ 29 Smiiiosoame | Rab pits) 6 Public hunting grounds________ 29 Game birds: Game refuges_____ EP bar ss io oiae we 31 (QUE TY P es sae Se SS ee eee if Restocking depleted ACD Sie eae 34 WWaibeinony eet ee ees Sears 7 Games bind See ee eee eee 34 Value of game to the farmer___?__ 9 ID Yoyo nike Nene eee ee a Bay EOS Be 36 Vaiue of game from the standpoint Tel eS 2 Nok ral Sgt ae 39 COE LO EU NNT yi ae es 5 SD) Game’ breeding ____— = TR eer ae 49 Returns from license fees__________ 11 State jcame farms. 4a oe 42 Estimates of the value of game by Brive came farms eee ee 3 Starer Oni Cra Sewn le Sah es 12 Cost of maintaining game _________ 44 Limitations on excessive hunting___ 15 WAIEGenE Service ners She ey eles 44 Bie eoaMesam cd) alate soe ke 15 Gaim esa eles cali Wales yee 4D TRANS ee oe prereent eS 18 Gam Go Laer TIS pase eye be a 47 Records or same killed. _ 22a 1g | Suggestions for making a survey of milena toms ct, Caves 9 a ecren 23 PAIS SS ee Oe ee, 47 IMPORTANCE OF GAME. Game is produced in every State in the Union, but its full im- portance as a national resource has not been generally recognized, and the best method of insuring its preservation and increase is a problem which as yet has been only partially solved. Under normal conditions in the United States probably more than 6,000,000 persons engage in hunting during the open season. The number increases NorTEe.—This bulletin summarizes present information on some of the larger problems of game‘conseryation. It is for the information of individuals and associations interested in game preservation and is prepared with a view to the more general gathering of data for use in making a survey of game resources. 79864—22 1 2 BULLETIN 1049, U. S! DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from year to year and is now approximately 6 per cent of the total population, indicating that 1 person in every 16 hunts game of some kind. With the information at present available only rough estimates of the value of game as a national resource are possible. By the esti- mating methods followed the annual value of the wild-life resources of the whole United States may be placed at several hundred million dollars. Phe importance of game resources to any region is indicated by the extent to which they are advertised by transportation lines and by local interests in regions fortunate enough to possess game. The needs of sportsmen in the way of weapons, ammunition, special cloth- ing, and other equipment form the foundation of business enterprises of considerable magnitude. The investment in shooting preserves owned by individuals and clubs runs into large figures and makes of productive value many areas otherwise of little or no use. The objects of this bulletin are to discuss briefly the value of game as food and as an asset to the individual and to the State, to review the various methods by which estimates of such values are obtained, to point out some of the causes of present depleted conditions and some of the methods by which game resources may be preserved and in- creased, and to consider the expense involved in work of this kind. Many details must be omitted. All that is possible is to present a summary of present information on some of the larger questions of game conservation, with references to sources where further data may be found. It is hoped that this presentation may result m the sys- tematic collection of statistics and data of a kind now available only in fragmentary and unsatisfactory form, and suggestions for such a survey of game resources are included. PRINCIPAL KINDS OF GAME IN THE UNITED STATES. The variety of North American game animals and birds hunted for sport, for recreation, or for food is large; but as some of the kinds are rare or local the number of species killed in any quantity for food is relatively small. Of these the most important are deer, rabbits, quail, and waterfowl. BIG GAME. DEER. More than one-fourth:of the States now have no deer hunting, either because the animals have been exterminated or because they have become so reduced in numbers that it has been necessary to close the season for several years to allow them to recuperate. (For GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. 3 list of States, see p. 15; and map, fig. 1.) Statistics are available - for only about one-third of the deer-hunting States, but include the more important hunting areas. Figures given for other States are necessarily estimates. The Biological Survey has published esti- mates for the years 1908, 1909, and 1910 of the number of deer killed in the States east of the Mississippi River, including Louisiana and Minnesota. The returns showed that in 15 States in 1908 the num- ber was 59,878; in 1909, 57,494; and in 1910, in 17 States, 60,150. An estimate of the total number of deer killed throughout the United ‘States in 1910 gave 75,000 to 80,000, and a similar estimate of the deer killed in 1915 showed about 75,000. The latter total, covering 36 States (all in which deer hunting was permitted), included ab- normally large numbers killed in California, Connecticut, and Ver- mont, which were offset somewhat by a decrease due to closing the seasons in Colorado and North Dakota. If the average dressed weight of a deer is taken as 150 pounds, the total weight of 75,000 deer is 11,250,000 pounds. At 10 cents a pound this meat would be worth $1,125,000, and at 20 cents a pound it would be worth $2,250,000. The region north of a lhne drawn along latitude 42° and Mason and Dixon’s line includes 19 States, 16 of which had deer hunting in 1920 (the exceptions being Connecticut, Rhode Island, and North Dakota). Of the 29 States south of this line, Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, and 9 States in the corn belt had no deer hunting, and Missouri had very. little. Omitting from consideration the States in which hunting is practically closed (leaving 16 States with open seasons in the northern tier and 17 in the southern tier), the possible deer crop is more than twice as great in the northern tier as in the southern, the States north of the line having under normal conditions a possible kill of 60,000, whereas those to the south have less than 25,000. The only States to the south-where the number is likely to exceed 5,000 are California and Texas, whereas at least 4 States to the North may exceed this limit, while in 4 of the New England States—Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Massa- chusetts, where one deer, on the average, is obtained on each 5 square miles of territory—the kill might total 20,000, a number equal to the present possible crop of all the States to the south except Texas. If the deer crop can be increased to 100,000 head a year, the quan- tity of meat would be increased to 15,000,000 pounds, which at 20 cents a pound would be worth $8,000,000. To attain this total it will be necessary to increase the present number of deer killed each year 25 per cent. No permanent increase can be expected during the next few years in the number killed in 6 of the principal States— Maine, California, New York, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan. In fact, figures of the last few years are likely to show a decrease, 4 BULLETIN 1049, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for in Maine, New York, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin seri- ous inroads have been made in the breeding stock because until] recently laws have permitted the killing of does. In New York in 1919, when the season was open on both bucks and does, probabty more than one-third of the total number of deer in the State were killed. On the other hand, some increase may be expected in the States in the Northwest and in the Rocky Mountains, and possibly in some of the Southern \States, but whether the total will reach 100,000 a year will depend largely on the success attending the application of modern methods of conservation, such as complete protection of does and fawns, reasonable limits on the number a hunter may kill, and prevention of “jacking,” “ firelighting,” “hounding,” killing in the water, and market hunting. ELK. Elis formerly occurred and were hunted in nearly every State. Of the five forms generally recognized, the common elk (Cervus canadensis), once widely distributed east of the Mississippi, has retired to the fastness of the Rocky Mountains; the Roosevelt elk (Cervus rooseveltt) is confined to the mountains of northwestern Washington; the Pacific coast elk (Cervus canadensis occidentalis) * is found in limited numbers west of the Cascades and south of the Columbia River to northern California; the valley elk (Cervus nannodes) is restricted to one main herd in the upper San Joaquin Valley, Calif., and to a few small herds recently transferred to various parts of the State; and the Arizona elk (Cervus merriam?) has been exterminated. At one point on its former range a flourish- ing herd of the Rocky Mountain elk has been established on the Sitgreaves National Forest in Arizona. Estimates made a few years ago showed a total of approximately 72,000 elk in the United States, whereas to-day it is doubtful if the number is much in excess of 52,000, of which about 25,000 are found in the Yellowstone National Park and adjoining regions. Elk hunting has been closed in most States and is now restricted to a few counties in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, where the num- ber 1s limited to one to each hunter. The question of refuges is vital if elk are not to become extinct. The Yellowstone National Park forms the greatest natural refuge for these animals, but the herds, though they find abundant summer range within its boundaries, are obliged to leave the park in winter. The State of Washington has kept the season closed on elk for several years, and in the Olympic Mountains the Federal Govyern- 1Some authorities consider Cervus roosevelti and Cervus canadensis occidentalis identical. GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. 5) ment has established a National Monument which includes the breed- ing grounds of the species and thus aids in its protection. In Cali- fornia the valley elk has been protected for years both by th» State law and, on the present range near Bakersfield, by the owners of the Miller & Lux ranch. From 1910 to 1920 nearly 4,000 elk vere transferred from the Yellowstone Park and from Jackson Hole to a number of States in the West and in the East. Some of these herds, particularly those in Arizona, Colorado, and South Dakota, have thrived remarkably well, while others, located too near farms or cultivated lands, have done more or less injury to crops and have given rise to complaints and claims for damage. No big game animal is easier to raise on a preserve or in semi- domestication than elk when suitably located and provided with abundant food, and no game animal will increase more readily; but large herds can not be maintained in farming communities or near settlements, nor will mountain refuges preserve the species unless adequate winter range is provided. Notwithstanding the comparatively few and simple requirements of the animals, the adjustment of elk refuges to conditions in the West has given rise to some perplexing problems which have not thus far been satisfac- torily solved. MOOSE. In Canada, moose and caribou are the principal meat producers among game animals. In the United States there is no caribou hunting except in Alaska, but moose are still hunted in Minnesota and Maine, there having been an open season for them in Maine except from 1915 to 1918. It is worth while, therefore, to examine the conditions surrounding moose hunting somewhat in detail. The center of moose hunting in eastern North America is prob- ably in the State of Maine and in the Provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In Maine, moose are confined to the northern and -eastern sections, and probably not more than half the State can properly be considered moose country. In’ New Brunswick thev are found in all the counties, and in Nova Scotia are hunted in all sections except on Cape Breton Island, where they have been pro- tected for a number of years. This gives an area of about 16,500 square miles of moose territory in Maine, 28,000 in New Brunswick, and 18,300 in Nova Scotia, or a total of 62,800 square miles, a little less than the area of New England. In this region nearly 3,000 moose were recorded as killed in 1914, and probably at least 3,500 were actually killed that season. As each hunter is limited to a single moose, this indicates that more than 3,000 persons hunted moose, and on the average one moose was obtained on every 20 square miles. 6 BULLETIN 1045, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Moose hunting on such a scale has been made possible by pro- tection. Calves are protected throughout the area, and cows like- wise have been protected, except in Nova Scotia prior to 1909. Vith this exception the limit has been one bull a year. The hunt- ing season has varied in length from 3 months down to 10 days, and in 1920 it was open 10 days in Maine, 25 months in New Bruns- wick, and 1$ months in Nova Scotia.? In 1907 Nova Scotia required that every moose killed shouid be reported, and about 1908 New Brunswick adopted the same requirement, so it is now possible to ascertain approximately the number killed in each Province. SMALL GAME. RABBITS. Rabbits probably constitute the largest, cheapest, and most gen- erally available supply of game in the United States. Abundant almost everywhere, shot for sport and market, and free from non- sale restrictions in many States, they form an important item of food supply. The jack rabbits of the West, which are a serious pest in some States, are destroyed in enormous numbers—sometimes as many as 10,000 in a single drive—but only a relatively small number | are placed on the market and find their way to eastern States. Cot- tontails, however, are found in every State in the Union and during the autumn and winter are hunted almost everywhere. In 23 States, comprising all those east of the Mississippi River and north of latitude 36°, and in addition California, Louisiana, Minnesota, and South Carolina, there are close seasons and other regulations, but in the other States there is. at present. no restriction on hunting (see map, fig. 3, p. 17.) The Conservation Commission of New York estimated that about 465,000 cottontails were killed in 1918 in New York: the Game Commission of Pennsylvania estimated that in the open season of 1919 about 2,700,000 rabbits were killed in that State; and a game survey of Virginia fdr 1920 shows 293,625 Iilled in that State. Sta- tistics or even estimates of the numbers killed or sold in most other States are not available. Perhaps it is not too much to assume that the total number of rabbits killed annually in the United States is not less than four for each hunter, or a total of about 25,000,000. Ordi- narily rabbits are sold at from 10 to 30 cents apiece, but in the autumn of 1920 they retailed for as much as 50 or even 75 cents ach. At an average of only 20 cents each the value of this supply of meat would be not less than $5,000,000 annually, but more im- 2 Maine. 1905-1913, 6 weeks; 1913-14, 1 month; 1915+1918, closed; 1919-20, 10 days. New Brunswick, 1905-1920, 23 months. Nova Scotia, 1995-6, 3 months; 1907-1914, 2 months: 1915-1918, 24 months; 1919, 2 months; 1920, 13 months. GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. 7 portant than its value is the fact that a nutritious and relatively cheap meat is thus distributed and made available to a considerable number of persons who can ill afford to pay high prices for beef, mutton, and pork. GAME BIRDS. QUAIL. Every State has some species of quail, either native or introduced. Probably no game except ducks is more generally hunted, particularly the eastern species commonly known as bob-white. Quail. protection has passed through several stages. Formerly abundant in most States, the birds were first hunted for food by pioneers and early settlers; later, commercialized, they were hunted and trapped for market in such enormous numbers that now they have become so reduced that their sale is prohibited almost everywhere. Even the privilege of hunting them for sport has been withdrawn in a number ot States. In 1920 there was no quail shooting in 15 States—Colo- rado, Iowa, Maine, Michigan, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New York (except Long Island), North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Wisconsin, and Wyoming—because of the scarcity of the birds or the closing of the season. The only States in the north- ern tier which had an open season were New Hampshire, Vermont, Minnesota, Idaho, and Washington, but even in these States the birds were by no means abundant. On account of existing restrictions as to sale, it is difficult to ascer- tain the market value of quail, but prices advanced considerably during the last century. In 1810, Audubon®* records that quail soid for 12 cents a dozen, and by 1830 the price had increased to 50 cents a dozen. In the season of 1917, two years before Congress prohibited their sale entirely in the District of Columbia, they retailed in the markets of Washington, D. C., at $9 a dozen. Enormous numbers of quail were formerly sold in some of the larger cities, notably San Francisco, where in 1891 it was reported that about 100,000 were sold each year in the market.* This was about 10 years before the sale of quail was prohibited in California. The sale of native quail is cow prohibited throughout the United States except in a few counties of North Carolina. WATERFOWL. Enormous numbers of waterfowl are killed in the United States every year during autumn and winter. Formerly they were sold in large quantities in certain markets, notably Boston, New York, Phila- 2Ornith. Biog., vol. 1, p. 392, 1831. +Judd, S. D. (quoting C. P. Streator), The bobwhite and other quail of the United States in their economic relations: Bull, 21, Biol. Survey, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 48, 1905. 8 BULLETIN 1049, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. delphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago, and San Fran- cisco, but with the progressive adoption of nonsale laws the legal iraflic has been greatly restricted until it has now disappeared. With the passage of the Federal migratory-bird law in 1913 and the prohibition of spring shooting, and with seasons shortened to not more than three and a half months in any one State, the number of birds killed has been still further reduced. With the approval on July 8, 1918, of the migratory-bird treaty act, the sale of all migra- tory game birds was forbidden throughout the United States and Alaska. Notwithstanding all these restrictions several million water- fowl are still shot every year, and these birds furnish an important source of food in nearly every State. In considering the number of birds which have been reported as shot or shipped to market at various times, it is necessary to bear in mind the factors above mentioned and the changes which have been due to the legislation of recent years. In certain favorable sections waterfowl are again congregating in considerable numbers where formerly the market hunter was accustomed to ply his tratle almost without limit. On the Atlantic coast, ducking grounds have made famous the areas on the south side of Long Island, New York; at Barnegat Bay, New Jersey; at the head of Chesapeake Bay, Maryland; and on Currituck Sound, North Carolina. In the Mississippi Valley duck-shooting resorts are almost equally famous in Vermilion Parish and in the delta of the Missis- sippi, Louisiana; at Lake Surprise, Texas; in the Sunken Lands of Arkansas; at Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee; on the [lhnois River; on the Sandusky marshes in Ohio; on Lake St. Clair and Saginaw Bay, Michigan; in the lake region of Wisconsin; and in southwestern Minnesota. Farther west, the Platte River, Nebraska; the Arkansas bottoms, Kansas; Bear River, Utah; Klamath Lake, Oregon; and the marshes of the Sacramento River, Suisun Bay, Los Banos, and Firebaugh, and certain localities in Orange County and in the In- perial Valley, California, are celebrated ducking grounds. One of the greatest centers for wild fowl in the country is in the vicinity of Great Salt Lake and on the marshes of Bear River, Utah. During the prevalence there of the so-called duck disease, between the years 1910 and 1916, it was estimated that more than 1,000,000 birds per- ished—an indication of the enormous numbers of birds which fre- quent these marshes in autumn. The only system thus far devised of recording accurately or even of estimating the number of ducks killed is that of Minnesota, based on the reports of licensed hunters. In other States all that is pos- sible is to refer to estimates which have been made of the number of birds at certain localities or of the numbers which have been GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. 9 shipped to market in some years. The reports of the California Fish and Game Commission estimate that in 1911 approximately 1,000,000 ducks were killed in that State;* and later (referring also to 1911) the statement was made that “ during the season three years ago there were fully 250,000 wild ducks brought into the San Fran- cisco market for sale.’* Estimated at the very moderate price of 50 cents each, the value of the ducks offered for sale in the city of San Francisco was $125,000, while the value of the total number killed the same season in the State would be four times as much, or $500,000. A more accurate estimate has recently been made in Min- nesota, which reports the number of ducks killed in 1919 as 1,804,900, and in 1920 as 1,414,889 (see p. 20). Although there is at hand no definite information as to the number of waterfowl killed in many States, yet enough information is available to warrant the statement that in the entire United States the food value of the waterfow] taken must amount annually to several milhons of dollars. VALUE OF GAME TO THE FARMER. The game on the farm is of value to the owner or tenant in several ways. Nearly every farm produces some game which may be hunted in open season, as rabbits, quail, squirrels, or other species, and this has a certain food or recreational value. Upland game birds are often of more use as destroyers of weed seeds or noxious insects than they are as food, but this phase of their economic value has been , fully discussed in other publications. Under favorable conditions the game on the farm may be greatly increased and even produced artificially, though as yet game farming has made only a beginning in the United States. Pheasants and pheasant eggs have been distributed in certain States and in some cases the persons receiving them have been successful in rearing the _ birds, but comparatively little concerted effort has been made by farmers to raise any large number of pheasants, either in cooperation with game departments or for supplying the market. Pheasants, wild turkeys, mallard ducks, black mallards, and wood ducks can be reared on farms, and, commanding higher prices than poultry, might he made even more profitable.’ Another method of utilizing the game on the farm and of making it render a direct return is to sell or lease the shooting rights. Farms are very generally posted, but owners and tenants do not as a rule attempt to obtain a direct return by leasing the hunting privileges. How valuable these may be under favorable circumstances is shown ’ Twenty-second Bien. Rept., for 1912, p. 22. ® Twenty-third Bien. Rept., for 1914, p. 15. ‘Directions for raising wild fowl in captivity will be furnished on application to the Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture. : 79864— 2-2 10 BULLETIN 1049, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by the experience of one of the counties in North Carolina, where a few years ago on most of the farms hunting rights for quail shoot- ing were systematically leased; in 1904 probably two-thirds of all the real-estate taxes outside the towns were paid by receipts from hunting privileges on lands leased for this purpose. In short, the quail crop was made to pay most of the taxes on the farms. The hunting privileges on a number of adjoining farms comprising an area of several hundred or a thousand acres are usually acquired by a single lessee or club, the basis of compensation being a definite rental by the acre for a term of years, with the privilege of renewal. This rental may be based on the tax rate or double this rate. In sections where it is not feasible to lease lands on a cooperative basis or in sufficient acreage for club preserves, individual landowners who have quail or other birds on their holdings may still obtain a substantial income. By allowing sportsmen the privilege of hunting on their property and in addition by furnishing them teams, hunt- ing dogs, and the assistance of boys for locating the game, and by providing accommodations for sportsmen from a distance, the owners will obtain a direct and very substantial return on any effort ex- pended in increasing the game and preventing it from being killed off before the season opens. VALUE OF GAME FROM THE STANDPOINT OF HEALTH. In a book entitled “ Our National Recreation Parks,” Dr. Nicholas Senn lays special stress on the value of recreation as a restorer of health.® . The man who toils with his brain in the bank, the pulpit, the court room, the library. the great mercantile establishments, and last, but not least, at the bedside of the sick or in the operating room, is the one above all others in need of an occasional rest, change of mental activity and surroundings. Men who ighore nature’s warnings and appeals for rest, sooner or later are made to pay dearly for their neglect, and only too often mend their ways when it is too late. Brain toil means the prolonged strenuous application of the neurons which preside over functions required in the discharge of professional duties or business transactions. If these functions are overtaxed, brain fatigue is GE RreS Utes ees ee There is no country in the world that has as many imprudent brain workers as the United States. The unbridled ambition for fame, influence, and wealth Jeads to a strenuous life which has shortened the lives and curtailed the use- fulness of thousands of our best professional and business men annually, and there are no indications pointing to an abatement of the intense struggle for supremacy in all walks of life. Fortunately, there is no country that can equal our own in the number and attractiveness of places of genuine recreation for those who are in search of mental repose. * * * One of the most desirable places for this class of patients is unquestionably the Yellowstone Park. * * * § Senn, Nicholas, Our national recreation parks, pp. 13-16, 71, Chicago, 1904. GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. ilk One of the principal motives for the establishment of the Yellowstone Na- tional Park was to secure an advantageous place for the protection and per- petuation of our noble game. * * * ‘his large tract of land is one great natural pasture well supplied with the purest water and ample cover for the game in the virgin forest and inaccessible canyons and mountain peaks. It is, in other words, an ideal natural game preserve. Thus does one of the most eminent members of the medical profes- sion refer to the largest of the national parks, created in part as a game refuge, and recommend persons in search of recreation or relaxation to seek health and strength amid its game and scenery. Quail shooting, duck hunting, and the pursuit of big game all have their devotees, who, in their favorite sport, find health, relaxation, and inspiration in an outing in the woods or on the water. The lists of upland-game and duck-shooting clubs and the records of non- resident hunting licenses contain the names of statesmen, prominent bankers, business men, and captains of industry, who in this form of diversion find health and strength sufficient to warrant large ex- penditures of capital. The very fact that busy men of affairs are identified with various projects which afford opportunities for hunt- ing game or prospects of increasing it shows that business men find in the pursuit of game a satisfactory return in health as well as in pleasure or relaxation. RETURNS FROM LICENSE FEES. The hunting-license fees now required in most of the States con- stitute a comparatively modern source of income, dating back only to 1895. Since that year, when the hunting-license system was in force in only a few States, it has been greatly extended, until now every State requires nonresidents to obtain licenses, and all but three—Delaware, Mississippi, and North Carolina—make similar re- quirements of residents. Licenses are issued not only for hunting game, but also for shipping, for breeding, and in some States for selling game. Tags are also supphed for marking each piece of game which is allowed to be sold. Where the tagging system is in operation considerable amounts may be collected, even though, as in New York, the tagging is limited to certain foreign species or to gwame raised in captivity. Owing to the fact that a few States have not yet required licenses from residents, that most States allow persons to hunt on their own lands without licenses, and that some States combine hunting and fishing licenses, the license returns do not afford an accurate index of the number of hunters. Moreover, licenses are issued in such dif- ferent ways and the cost of collecting data varies so much that it is almost impossible to obtain accurate figures showing the actual receipts from this source. Under these circumstances it is prac- 12 BULLETIN 1049, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ticable only to estimate the total receipts, using as a basis such figures as are available for a normal year. Tt was estimated prior to the war that under ordinary conditions the number of persons hunting in the United States was approxi- mately 5,000,000. Granting that 10 per cent of this number were nonresidents, persons exempt from license requirements, and persons hunting without licenses, there were 4,500,000 hunters who should ob- tain resident licenses. At $1 each the gross receipts from this source would amount to $4,500,000. Returns from 17 States in 1914 and figures from 17 other States for a normal year prior to the war showed that about 15,400 licenses were issued to nonresidents. Of the other 14 States very few issue many nonresident licenses, so 20,000 is a conservative estimate of the number of nonresident licenses issued in an average year. ‘The fees for these licenses varied from $5 to $50, but most of them ranged from $10 to $25. If the average fee is considered to be $15, the average gross receipts from nonresidents would be $300,000. The total receipts from licenses should therefore amount to about $4,800,000 per annum. Costs of collection, defective laws, and other circumstances tend to reduce this figure considerably, and it is probable that a much smaller amount is actually collected and made available for game protection. Never- theless, the aggregate for all States is a very large sum. The returns collected from all the States which issue resident licenses—namely, all except Delaware, Mississippi, and North Caro- lina (and Florida, from which figures are not available)—showeil a total of 3,570,925 resident licenses, 20,221 nonresident, and 545 alien licenses issued in 1919. These figures, however, are somewhat too high, because of the fact that several of the States issue a com- bined hunting and fishing license and it is impracticable to separate the fishing from the hunting licenses. In some States receipts are sufficient to bear not only the expenses of game propagation but also the cost of maintaining fish hatcheries, and in a few instances large sums collected from hunting licenses, ostensibly for game protection, have been diverted to other purposes by the legislatures. ESTIMATES OF THE VALUE OF GAME BY STATE OFFICIALS. Several States have made estimates from time to time of the value of fish and game within their borders. Under present methods these are necessarily mere approximations and not compiled on a uniform plan. Some include game, others game and fish, and still others tourist traffic. The fish and game of Idaho have been estimated to be worth $1,000,000 per annum. The Conservation Commission of Louisiana estimates the number of waterfowl killed in a single season at 371,654, a total which includes many of the smaller species, but the value GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. 13 of which may be estimated at from $150,000 to $250,000. Michigan places the annual food value of its game animals, birds, and fish at $500,000 and the value of the insectivorous birds at $10,000,000. New York has estimated the value of game captured in 1918 at $3,239,277, representing a total value of $53,000,000. Oregon, in 1914, estimated the value of its game at $5,000,000. Vermont y alues its fish and game at $500,000 per annum, A auptoallans to a dividend at the rate of 4 per cent on $12,500,000.” The following extracts from the reports of these States show the manner in which the estimates were made: Idaho.—The fish and game warden of Idaho stated in his report for 1913-14 (pp. 8-9) as follows: Our fish and game have a large food value. During 1914 there were killed approximately 5,000 deer and the value of the meat is at least 20 cents per pound, whether eaten in camp or on our tables. These deer are worth $20 each. Two hundred and fifty elk were killed, worth at least $80 each. One hundred mountain sheep and goats were killed, worth $10 each. The above figures are food values only; the hides and heads mounted as trophies have a value of many thousands of dollars. * * #* When we consider the food value of the fish and game taken from the whole State and in addition the value of the hides and heads of our large game animals, and the number of fur-bearing animals that are taken, a low estimate of these resources is $1,000,000 per year. The value to health and happiness from a recreation standpoint is incalculable. Louwisiana.—The Conservation Commission of Louisiana in the report for 1912-1914 included a statistical report (p. 60) of Inspector L. Alberti, showing the combined amount of game received in the markets and taken by sportsmen during the preceding hunting season, based on actual inspection and on market receipts, with an estimated addition for the game killed by sportsmen. The report is for the season 1913-14, from October to February, on mallards, pintails, wood ducks, ringnecks, gray ducks, canvasbacks, redheads, spoonbills, teal, dos gris or lneballes poule d’eau, snipe, ond geese, with a total estimate of 371,654. Michigan.—The Eacom State game, fish, and forestry warden estimated in his report for 1913-14 (p. 6) that the annual food value of the game animals, birds, and fishes taken in the State was $500,009, and the value to the farmer of insectivorous and seed-eating birds was $10,000,000. New Mar —New York has probably made the most comprehensive estimate of the value of its game resources, based on returns for the year 1918.° In spite of the incompleteness of the returns, it is significant that the total ‘amount of game taken by 208,946 licensed hunters was 1,526,960, which was an ayerage of more than 7 animals or birds for each hunter. When it is con- ® Carpenter, W. S., New York’s annual game dividend: The Conservationist, Albany, N. Y., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 19-22, February, 1921. 14 BULLETIN 1049, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sidered that many of the licensees did not hunt at all, or were unsuccessful, or failed to report, the actual average of the successful hunter is seen to be very much higher. At the valuations given in the table, which are based upon current market prices for game or fur legally salable, and upon conservative estimates for all other species, this game was worth a total of $3,239,277. This value, however, was simply the annual dividend, and not the value of the State’s capital stock of wild life. If we consider that it was a dividend on the basis of 6 per cent, then the actual capital value of the State’s stock of game and fur-bearing animals, on the basis of the 1918 reports of game killed, which are themselves low, is $53,987,950. * * * * # * One of the most important of the conclusions based upon this in- vestigation in economic biology can thus be stated as follows: The game and fur-bearing animals of New York State, if capitalized, are worth not less than $53,000,000; they return an annual dividend of more than $3,200,000 ; and they cost the State for their protection and increase the nominal sum of $182,000. This cost of protection and increase is thus less than 6 per cent of the annual dividend. Oregon.—Mr. W. L. Finley, in the report for 1914 of the Oregon Fish and Game Commission, made the following estimate: The game of our State is worth approximately $800,000 annually from a food standpoint. In the neighborhood of 9,000 deer, 150,000 ducks, and 45,000 Chinese pheasants are killed annually. When we also consider the numbers of grouse, quail, geese, shorebirds, and other game that are killed, when we estimate that this meat is worth from 12 to 16 cents per pound, whether on the table of the farmer, the mountaineer, or the merchant, it means a big income to our people. * * * A large amount of money is derived annually from the hunting and trapping of our fur-bearing animals. This is a crop that is worth $100,000 annually to our State. A large part of the revenue derived comes directly to the homesteader and the settler who needs it to develop his property. * * * From an economic and business standpoint, the game and other wild creatures of the State are worth $5,000,000 annually to us. This is not placing a high estimate on these resources. Vermont.—The following estimate of the fish and game commis- sioner of Vermont is contained in the biennial report for 1913-14. pages 3-4 and 101: It will be acknowledged that whenever one brings te the table a mess of fish, regardless of how obtained, it has a market value. The same holds true in reference to any form of wild game, which is a luxurious substitute for meat from the butcher. When a member of the family fishes or hunts, has it oc- curred to the reader to figure up at market prices what he, while indulging in his favorite recreation, contributes to the luxury of the table? * * * On this basis an attempt has been made to figure up the value of all fish and game annually taken in Vermont. The sum total, conservatively estimated at the lowest market yalue, makes a grand total of over $502,000, which, at the savings-bank rate of 4 per cent, is an annual dividend on $12,500,000. In making this estimate the value of in- sectivorous birds, without the aid of which authorities assert that agriculture would be impossible, has not been taken into consideration. * * * The figures do not include the returns from private preserves in the form of arti- ficial ponds and deer parks. * * * Most of these preserves make unproductive land valuable and indirectly raise the value of adjacent property. aS GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. 15 It is safe to say that 20,000 ducks are annually killed in Vermont. While there is no lawful market for them, domesticated mallards in the New York market are worth per pair $3 and up, but to be conservative these birds are figured at $2 per pair, making the value of the season’s bag $20,000, or an annual dividend at 4 per cent on $500,000. LIMITATIONS ON EXCESSIVE HUNTING. BIG GAME AND QUAIL. The results of excessive hunting, and particularly hunting for market, are now beginning to be felt in several sections of the country which have been settled for a long time or in which agriculture has LZZ MINN. ee © © © ei,e © 20 N.MEX. oo} 0 eo No hunting Bucks only L Cl] Bucks and does Fic. 1.—Deer hunting in the United States in 1920. In 15 States (shaded area) hunt- ing was prohibited; in the 33 States which permitted hunting, 17 protected does (detted area). been highly developed. This is most apparent in the case of big game and quail, the hunting of which is not at present -possible in a number of States. Fifteen States were closed to deer hunting in 1920, as follows: Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware, Maryland, and West Virginia in the East; and Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Illinois, lowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and North Dakota in the Middle West. In Delaware, Ohio, and Indiana deer have been exterminated for some years; in Illinois, lowa, Kentucky, and Mary- land they are nearly gone; in Connecticut they were abundant several years ago, but under a law enacted in 1915, allowing the use of shot-- guns in killing deer injuring crops, several thousand were destroyed and the species greatly reduced in numbers. Of the 33 States which were open does were protected in 17, while bucks and does both could be killed in 16. (See fig. 1.) 16 BULLETIN 1049, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In 1921, owing to the opening of the season in North Dakota and the protection of does in Michigan, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and the greater part of Washington, these figures are changed as follows: No deer hunting in 14 States; does protected in 23 States; hunting bucks and does permitted in 11 States. Fifteen States—Maine, New York (except Long Island), Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, and Oregon (except a few counties) —during 1920 were closed to quail hunting also. (See fig. 2.) This is partly due to the great reduction in the number of birds, and partly to the fact that in the Northern States quail are not present in sufficient numbers to permit them to be hunted. The ZZZA No hunting =) Hunting limited Fic. 2.—Quail hunting in 1920. The shaded portion shows the area in which hunting was prohibited. In the 33 States with open seasons, the numbers indicate the daily bag limits. open seasons on quail in 1920 in the 33 other States varied in length from 10 days to 4 months. The daily bag limit on quail varied from 4 to 25. Fifteen States had a bag limit of 12 or less and 15 States of 15 to 25. Georgia, Mississippi, and North Carolina appar- ently had no State limits. In Tennessee the limit of 20 included birds and small game of all kinds. It is not surprising that States hke Maine, Michigan, Wisconsin. North Dakota, Montana, and Wyoming, which are for the most part outside the normal range of quail and in which the birds are likely to be killed off during severe winters, should not be able to obtain sufficient stock to allow general hunting, but it is remarkable that States like Iowa. Nebraska, and Ohio, which formerly were in the GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. 17 center of abundance of these birds, no longer afford quail hunting. Kansas was the pioneer State in attempting to curtail traffic in game birds by prohibiting export of quail in 1876. Iowa, in 1878, attempted to restrict excessive killing by establishing a daily bag limit. The Kansas law, however, did not remain in force very long. In the nineties southern Kansas was the center of the shipment of quail for propagation, and thousands of birds were shipped from the vicinity of Wichita to various States east and west, and also to foreign countries. In 1903 the State found it necessary to close the season on quail in 19 counties; in 1905 to extend the protection three years longer in 14 of these counties; and in 1913 to give quail pro- tection in all the counties for a period of five years. Following this Ly Y Hunting limited aes Hunting unlimited Fic. 3.—Rabbit hunting in 1920. In 23 States, chiefly in the East (shaded area), short open seasons were provided. In the remainder of the country hunting was unlimited. example, Idaho, Iowa, and Ohio in 1917 enacted laws protecting quail throughout the year. That deer hunting should no longer be possible in the great agri- cultural States in the Middle West is perhaps not surprising, but when quail shooting also is eliminated, conditions become serious for the sportsman. Three States in this section—Ohio, Iowa, and Nebraska—now have neither deer hunting nor quail shooting. In Ohio there are possibly 265,000 sportsmen, in Iowa about 105,000, in Nebraska about 65,000. Nearly 435,000 sportsmen of these three States are deprived of any big-game hunting or quail shooting unless they go elsewhere, and are forced to confine their hunting mainly to rabbits (see fig. 3) and waterfowl. 79864—22 3 18 BULLETIN 1049, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BAG LIMITS. Daily and seasonal bag limits are established primarily to restrict the anfount of game which an individual may legally kill under the most favorable circumstances. While the object of such restriction is to prevent undue destruction when game is abundant, it is not often realized how liberal these limits are in the case of certain kinds of game. In many States a resident is limited to one deer a season and the fee for a license to hunt this deer is usually $1. Unless the deer is a small doe or a fawn of the year (the killing of which in some States is prohibited), it will dress at least 100 pounds, and for his $1 license the hunter has authority to secure at least 100 pounds of the best wild meat. Under the same license, or in a few States under a similar bird license costing $1, the hunter is allowed to kill a certain number of game birds. The limit for ducks is ordinarily 25 birds a day, and with fair success in hunting such of the larger ducks as mallards, black mallards, canvas-backs, or broadbills, in three or four days a hunter can obtain 100 pounds of birds, or the equivalent in weight of a season’s mit of big game, while if he succeeds in getting limit bags he may secure this amount in even less time. As only a few States have placed limits on the number of rabbits which may be killed in one day, a fair amount of fresh meat can be obtained by hunting rabbits under a $1 license, pro- vided advantage is taken of favorable weather during the open sea- son. In short, the quantity of wild meat, stated in pounds, which a hunter can reasonably expect to obtain under favorable circum- stances and at a nominal cost so far as the State license is concerned. is very considerable. RECORDS OF GAME KILLED. It is rather remarkable that thus far so little progress has been made in such a fundamental subject as making an enumeration of the game or even in collecting estimates of the game annually killed. Statistics are indispensable, for without a knowledge of the quantity of game killed each year it is impossible to tell except in the most general way whether the stock is increasing or decreasing. Laci of data of this kind may perhaps be explained by the fact that until recently it was impossible to tell how many hunters there were, but since the adoption of the license system it has been possible to ap- proximate the number of persons hunting and also to provide the means of collecting much needed information concerning the effect of hunting on the game. Several States nee undertaken to ascertain the amount of game actually killed, but very few have made more than a beginning, and GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. ‘19 the methods of collecting such information vary as widely as the methods for determining the value of game resources. Two States—Maine and New York—for several years kept records of the big game transported by rail: Maine, by checking shipments at Bangor and Portland since 1894, and New York, by enlisting the aid of the transportation companies which bring deer from the Adirondacks. These returns, of course, do not include the large num- bers of animals consumed on the ground and never brought out of the woods. During the 20 years from 1894 to 1913, 3,434 moose and 65,305 deer were transported by rail in Maine. This source of in- formation is less valuable than formerly, since it is now possible for private individuals to transport large numbers of deer in auto- mobiles. Vermont is a pioneer in recording the total number of deer actually killed, having made annual counts ever since the opening of the deer season in 1897 (see p. 88). This is probably one of the most accurate records in the country and is made by collecting data from wardens, postmasters, and from hunters themselves, not only as to numbers but as to the weights of the heavier animals. Massachusetts has for 11 years recorded the number of deer, and since 1914 the number of pheasants killed. Number of deer and pheasants killed in Massachusetts during the open seasons since 1910. Year. Deer. Pheasants. Year. Deer. Pheasants. = = mall NOLO Ree ee eee ee TE SSOt eee reer TREN 7 fesievs phappnace icra mes ta ais 1,017 2,772 LOIS eee te eck vis 2 33 4s) lecacaoonoso5 Pet een oe See oa aeaaoess 832 1, 923 OND. ose use aeeeane amen 123 10 ented sine COLON Siete en CE Ary ia 833 2,506 Ee stato cesoueepeeenas Dy OSM |e mrek ayes 1920 See ee are cesence 1, 466 1,977 OTA Beate steric ess cf~ alc 1,312 8, 943 || = bMS a eer gc. MPS beh Sel 1,102 5, 841 Motalea ee eee se sett 13,081 27, 095 NOU G ee eee re nee ces ine 1,051 3,133 || ° | 1 Ann. Rept. Div. Fish and Game, Mass., 1920 pp. 40-46. New Jersey (see p. 37) annually records the number of deer killed during the four or five days of the open season, and Minnesota and Wisconsin recorded the number killed during 1919-20. The Fish and Game Commission of California. has published in some detail the figures regarding the number of deer annually killed since 1911, and has estimated on the basis of shipments received at San Fran- cisco and other points the number of ducks killed during the open season in 1911. In Oregon, also, the commission has published some figures regarding the number of deer killed. For most of the Western States the Forest Service has for several years collected figures as to the numbers of big game killed on the various national forests, and as these reservations include most of 20 BULLETIN 1049, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the big-game areas, the statistics thus obtained are the best available for the Rocky Mountain States. About 1910 Louisiana inaugurated an elaborate system of collect- ing figures from local wardens as to the number of each kind of game killed in their districts, but these figures were never published.in de- tail and the totals were so large as to indicate that they were over- estimates in some cases. Pennsylvania published the following com- prehensive statement of the total amount of game killed in the State in 1919: Game killed in Pennsylvania, season of 1919. [Individual and total weights estimated. ] = xT Individual} Total King, Number. weight. | weight. Pounds. Pounds. Male:deern(lemal) Wes aos saiesis es seria ee larg eae SN teat donate eles Beanie 2,913 130 378, 690 Tree Sh Se Saal a Bactiaas Gocee e Becton aS SoS Go CUMEr es ae Bern re 472 200 94, 400 RAD Dts Seas cA Gel ESSE SES ass Se ee eS ere ae se ee Se 2,719, 879 2 5, 439, 758 DCUIERC SIS ae tsteta eo mebiateataet lee series ele met elie elec Re aeioee mee eee 439, 106 | 1 439,106 InP Veeo le) (hen Sac esas ccenccncuaorud sh Scuereraesnneotqnoes SeonsasSSHeee 34, 036 8 272, 288 Vital le Mabie Signe Gone asco nee qeCeoce eecc Se BUSaEEEGSEbEasEasunebsaa ae 5,181 123 64, 762 RAaifledver Ouse st Ree ete a Shee cess aya sees mya eect, Mineo tera 287,001 13 430, 501 Ringneck pheasantsss eases seen so ce cetera ae scien eR Sarees 15, 658 3 46,974 Aaliga nT Ey Chbh Tak aes leo ors a sanen Senetonson BoEE pene aeaoosT ass onewoeE 46,319 2 17, 369 Hungarian partridgess.2 5-2-0 shes ssl ees seae ERT SOA Dee 575 5 359 ViVOOUKR Se Se eee aan pbuGeore cadasen nas cn as pudars Ope ms osunEccaBeonae 27,769 3 10, 413 Will dt waterio WIS sco ce er See eS aia re ee lle eae ocr Meena ee 28,714 | 2 57,428 7) ee CBE Meso aau caso css paconsaUasueeEEatcas Jase sa cneeenn Hes |SSpeoHnceaEell-socsceacose 27, 252, 048 1 There were also 119 male fawns and 207 does illegally killed during the season. 2 Not including 23,786 shorebirds of various kinds nor 175,000 blackbirds killed. Minnesota in 1919 and 1920 required holders of hunting licenses to make written reports to the commission within 30 days after the expiration of the licenses, showing the kind and the number of birds or animals taken thereunder. These returns have brought together some interesting figures, which are summarized as follows: Game killed in Minnesota, 1919 and 1920-2 Kind of game. | 1919 1920 Kind of game. 1919 1920 | | | Fi Deer: | Other birds: BUCKS Eee eee eee nee | 8, 877 9, 612 Coots eases oes 290, 500 123, 889 Des eet eeees he Peal 5, 183 5, 028 TRASH: aed tel eee 1,500 1, 239 Rawnsymaletosnssace- 2,756 2,520 Gallinulesssss-eeeeeene 500 349 Fawns, female.......-- 1,470 1, 412 Jacksnipestsessces sere 20, 000 25, 367 | Yellowlegs.......-..... 3,500 1,918 Total deerz2: 2 3-4-2 | 18, 286 18, 572 Quail. ca 5286 SSeeeee 6, 100 9, 522 : od Ruffedierouses --ssa-ee| cece acseeee 501, 525 Ducks, 17 species....-.--.- | 1,804,900 | 1,414, 889 || DOVES ) from the park or near-by points in Montana to other sections in the State; (c) from Jackson Hole, Wyo.,.to other points in the State; (d) from Jackson Hole, Wyo., to other States; and (e) from Buttonwillow, Calif., to other points in the State. As a rule these elk have done well in their new locations; already a number of new herds have been well established, and in the course of a few years they should increase to considerable proportions. As might have been expected in transferring so many elk, some of the locations selected have been ill-advised and complaints have been 16 The first transfer was actually made in 1905, when a small herd of valley elk was moved from Buttonwillow in the San Joaquin Valley, Calif., to the Sequoia National Park. GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURUE. 4] made of the damage done to farms in the neighborhood, calling for the transfer of these herds to new locations. The number of such mistakes, however, has been small. The following tables give a summary of all elk transferred and the destination of the elk trans- ferred each year. Summary of all elk transfers, 1905 to 1920. [Fiscal years ending June 30.] By State 7 es t 7 By Federal authorities. Aen Oriticg: Year. Total. | From From From | From | stone | Jackson 4 other | Jackson | other Park Hole. | points.! | Hole. | points.) 1 Miscellaneous shipments originated as follows: Federal—1905, California; 19138, Nebraska; State—1912, Montana; 1914-15, California. 2In the Jackson Hole shipments of 1912, 12 head were sent to Minnesota and the others to Wyoming Destination of all elk transferred, 1905 to 1920. [Fiscal years ending June 30.] { | { | | ! State. 1905 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 1918 | 1919 18 19 1920 |Total. ear 7 | | Alabama............ | 2 | MAO NARS Patel eI MNS cs ase 50° INAS ge soe ansbe | | hc) en gee Jess 140 California....-....... | Mae U A ei OP a easel SoS. meets (eoce Neos ice 217 Colorado............. oie FSO OD IE BO ieee eelloeeece aes 356 Manos SOE Be peti | 200 IUOTICTM OR aonb oS Bee Es Gan SBE a aACUCr ee Sac alam er levees sellin calbve (yO) i nein snares ea ee Ra soe 40 IIT OWTaN a SOA i a RA alae gh te gare oe SE As ke hee teagan can alt AAS es He i he 9H INITaURESOUE sags Conse eee sb BAGO Sto eal aeee ella sa eel hay al ounce selleen aus el ete Ss lose a ei ie aa ie a 44 Missouri...........-- Hierctantvall caicrapnel peeceaill es cea he eRe palatal eee ak ee Ale) RG SO Us eka er | 40 Montana... PA aa series 408 Nebraska... . ie NG a A Be eee ees ee Be | 17 New Mexico. I rial al eg tego (aerial ees eee eae 50 100 New York........... : i | BOD seers |e reset sel ee? 65 | 115 North Carolina......|....-. [ee eas joo as (Aaa Rte i NID ei eee RO OIE AV ;. 98 North Dakota....... We So cee Sl dee ete gall eae eo 15 @Oklahomares oop Sale| see | NB Mero Sees ene nmin ae 3 16 Oregonte eae eae GL SMa Ms AMAR Ae ee MAE eee ee OA [eee es Peps EB eh Ge te. ! 30 Pennsylvania.. se : Dil spenes aaron leepoert pee aera 150 South Dakota. ...... Fesoooc| Ze PA) aces OT | Py a0) eo eee e | LOOPS sr. 316 MReKasme ee on tery BO | COE Cal aCe Cee eN ey cresyl | ates ieee awe eters eee eee lar O) [pean es ec lseakiae 9 29 [Ural eee ee se aailnetcalecae a saetcas |p LON OOh| Rae 46)1| MODS EI Aee BO seh yal ae 2a laaweeellioaawels 181 Wain oimiame ese ais | | emer lsecece atececaees 176 Washington......... aN |. 2 SOUR Sete se [eee se ye ae 382 West Virginia....... |. Une eae ep Catone iss | 50 Wisconsin ........-. HsSEae econ falcata Seems ae eee eRe Ml aepRlIhd aMere MLN NSS Cella te ire eee oe ANA OMMST SG BOSE RECS ES aes P18) Tae satan ctl PP ne Baye meet 0) eee el a ae le ee. 495 Wana dam aneen sere ea bite ate yas Ame ne IMRT Conga Sk Vee eH SURE See | ee SRE EM GS aan ake were 200 263 Municipal parks, ete. Se ewe DAle nese | 10 68 BIO Gals oss eto is Pe cael Pecan Eerie HU GIA NCA A Ra Urs OE | 4,018 | ; | 42 BULLETIN 1049, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GAME BREEDING. STATE GAME FARMS. In recent years a number of efforts have been made in several States to increase the amount of game by propagation and by the distribution of certain kinds of game birds. Propagating plants, commonly known as game farms, have been established under State auspices for the purpose of producing as many birds as possible. Some of these farms have been operated in connection with fish hatcheries, others have been established as independent organizations. The kinds of birds which can be propagated in any considerable numbers are necessarily limited. Pheasants, chiefly ring-necked and English pheasants, are the ones most commonly raised, and a few of the other species, such as silver, golden, Lady Amherst, and Reeves, are produced on a small scale, mostly for exhibition. Mal- lards and black ducks, wood ducks, and wild turkeys are also raised in considerable numbers. Among the more important game farms have been those estab- lished in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Dela- ware, Ohio, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri, Iowa, Oregon, and Cali- - fornia. In several cases the farms have been abandoned after a trial of a few years on account of the expense involved or because the results were unsatisfactory. Ohio abandoned the raising of pheas- ants about 1902, but has recently again taken up the propagation of game birds. The most extensive game farm thus far established was probably that of Illinois, near Auburn, 16 miles south of Sprinefield, established in the spring of 1905, and abandoned about 1915. The California game farm raised pheasants and also experimented to some extent with wild turkeys imported from Mexico. The Illinois farm raised numbers of English call-ducks for distribution among sportsmen interested in duck shooting, chiefly along the Illinois River. The Massachusetts commission has experimented in raising quail and ruffed grouse in captivity, but this work has not yet reached large proportions and the raising of ruffed grouse is still in an experimental stage. Much good work has been done at the New Jersey State game farm near Toms River, where pheasants, quail, and rabbits have been propagated. The most extensive State farms now in operation are those in New York, of which there are three—at Brownsville, Jefferson County; Sherburne, Chenango County; and Middle Island in Suffolk County. In 1919 these farms distributed 9.206 half-grown birds and 55,400 eggs for propagation. The whole question underlying the successful operation of game farms is whether birds can be produced more cheaply under State auspices than they can be bought from private breeders. Advocates of game farms assert that game can be produced as economically on a GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. 43 State game farm as it can be purchased in the open market, and furthermore that it is not always possible for the State to obtain the necessary stock of birds if dependence is placed upon open-market purchases. The factors which militate against the attainment of this ideal are frequent changes in administration, the question of labor, and the constant pressure for immediate returns. Changes in ad- ministration of game departments prevent consistent development of definite policies and encourage the adoption of temporary methods which promise showy results; the lmitation on hours of labor, and the necessity of hiring foremen and superintendents who have no permanent pecuniary interest in the success of the farm greatly in- creases the cost of maintenance; while the demand for immediate results causes efforts to be made beyond the capacity of the plant, and tends toward the distribution of immature stock. The distribu- tion of eggs or of birds only a few weeks old makes a showing in numbers, but the percentage of loss is very high, so that the ultimate benefit to the public is much less than if a smaller number of birds had been raised to maturity before being liberated. ‘This factor also renders difficult a fair comparison of results on State and private farms. Owing to the high initial cost of establishing a farm and the short time in which most game farms have been in operation, data are not yet available to determine definitely whether it is eco- nomical for the State to raise its own birds. PRIVATE GAME FARMS. _ The breeding of game on private farms, particularly the breeding of game birds, has made rapid progress in recent years and gives promise not only of becoming an important factor in increasing the supply of game, but of establishing an important industry. Already the game breeders number several hundred, a journal devoted to their interests has been established, a game breeders’ convention is held in New York each year, and a course in practical game breeding has been provided at Cornell University. In addition to work done by the State gathe farms already men- tioned, many persons are now propagating pheasants and waterfowl, ‘and with the spread of interest in this work the hope increases of raising some kinds of game in sufficient numbers to make it abundant in certain localities, At least one private pheasantry has raised 10,000 birds a year, and severa! breeders have raised a thousand or more wild ducks. When this work has increased tenfold an enormous number of birds will be available for liberation each year. Since the beginning of the war the importation of pheasants and other game birds for propagation has fallen off rapidly and nearly all the stock on the market in the United States is raised in this country. 44 BULLETIN 1049,-U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Most persons interested in this work are engaged in raising pheas- ants, some in rearing waterfowl, and a few in raising wild turkeys. Attempts to raise quail, ruffed grouse, and prairie chickens in cap- tivity have met with some success, but have not as yet progressed beyond the experimental! stage. What is now needed is the develop- ment of simple methods of rearing these birds so that those who have had experience in raising poultry may engage in raising quail, grouse, wild turkeys, wood ducks, wild geese, and other native species in sufficient numbers to render the venture successful from a com- mercial standpoint. The demand for such game is greatly in excess of the supply, and the market is capable of being developed enor- mously provided the game can be produced cheaply enough to be sold at reasonable prices." COST OF MAINTAINING GAME. COST GF WARDEN SERVICE. The principal expense connected with the protection of game is the maintenance of a patrol adequate to prevent violations of the laws. The growth of the warden service has developed steadily in the last few years, and in some States the development has been rapid. Until recently wardens were paid part of the fines, but this system. always unsatisfactory, has now been abandoned in most States. The next step was payment by the day when actually em- ployed; this method is still followed by some States but fails to produce satisfactory results, as it is impossible to maintain an effi- cient force when men are uncertain of their pay and must rely on other employment to eke out their incomes. The third step, the employment of salaried wardens throughout the year, is the most satisfactory method thus far devised and makes it possible to develop a permanent and efficient force. Wardens’ salaries are now paid mainly from receipts from hunt- ing licenses. and in many States the income from this source is sufh- cient to make the warden service self-supporting without cost to the general tax payers. The total cost to the State for such service depends chiefly on the amount of the salary and the number of the wardens. The salaries formerly paid deputies or field men were at the rate of $50 or $60 per month, but several States now pay from $100 to $125 per month. the rate being graded according to the char- acter of the work and the experience of the men. District or super- yising wardens receive more, and in New York the chef game pro- tector receives a salary of $5,000 per annum. The Department of Agriculture has issued two bulletins on the propagation of wild-duck foods, which may be lIrad on application: McAtee. W. L.. Eleven important wild-duck foods; Bull. 205, pp. 25, figs. 23, 1915. McAtee, W. L.. Propagation of wild- duck foods: Bull. 465, pp. 40, figs. 35, 1917. GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. 45 New York, which has the most completely organized warden force of all the States, in 1919 had 125 game protectors under a chief protector, a deputy chief protector, and several inspectors. The total cost of the service in the year ending June 30, 1919, was $323,265.19. Of this amount, $180,166.21 was expended for salaries of protectors; $9,976.50 for wages; $88,909.40 for traveling expenses; $3,434.19 for expenses of prosecutions; $7,679.57 for operation of launches; $12.,- 472.13 for printing ; $10,596.40 for equipment and supplies, including hunters’ buttons; and $10,030.79 for miscellaneous items. The law provided for the appointment of 131 game protectors in 1920 at $1,200 to $1,500 each; 12 inspectors at $1,800 each; a deputy chief game pro- tector at $3,000; and a chief protector at $5,000. The salary roll authorized for these officers amounted to from $186,000 to $226,100. With allowances for traveling expenses, operation of launches, and miscellaneous items, the total expense authorized for warden service was fuily $350,000. On the other hand, receipts from hunting and other licenses and miscellaneous income from fish and game for the fiscal year 1919 amounted to $382,499. COST OF GAME REFUGES. NATIONAL GAME REFUGES. In any consideration of the matter of the cost of game refuges, whether national, State, municipal, or private, it is important to distinguish between the original cost of establishment and the ex- pense of maintenance. In the case of national refuges comparatively little has been expended in the purchase of lands, as most of the areas originally belonged to the Federal Government, but there have been some expenses for inclosing or for stocking them. In four cases it was necessary for the Government to purchase the areas on which the reservations are now located. The land for the National Bison Range, on the former Flathead Indian Reservation, Mont., was pur- chased from the Indians in 1908 at a cost of $30,000, and the expense of inclosing it and making it ready for game brought the total cost to approximately $50,000. In establishing the winter Elk Refuge, in Jackson Hole, Wyo., it was necessary to purchase some tracts which were already under cultivation in order to obtain lands on which hay could be raised for the animals, and for this purpose Con- gress made appropriations aggregating $50,000. In the case of the game preserve in the Wind Cave National Park, S. Dak., to secure an adequate water supply it was necessary to acquire a small private holding within the park and some additional land adjoining the northern boundary, and about 456 acres, purchased for this purpose at a cost of $9,880, were thus added to the park. Recently, the Pisgah Sadi Game Preserve, in the Appalachian Forest in North Carolina, was 46 BULLETIN 1049, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. located on private lands purchased under the Weeks Act for water- shed protection. Congress has made several special appropriations for inclosures or other improvements in establishing refuges to provide for game acquired by donation or otherwise. In 1902, an appropriation of $15,000 was made for the Yellowstone National Park for purchasing a herd of buffalo (20 head), constructing a suitable inclosure, and meeting incidental expenses of installation. In 1906, $15,000 was appropriated for constructing a fence on the Wichita Game Pre- serve, Okla., and in 19138, $2,000 for erecting suitable headquarters. In 1910, an appropriation of $26,000 was made for the improvement of the Wind Cave National Park, by the establishment of a game pre- serve, including the acquisition of the lands above mentioned. Fer the Sullys Hill Park, N. Dak., there have been five appropriations of $5,000 each for improvements, including fencing, constructing headquarters, roads, etc. The cost of maintenance of the various reservations is very mod- erate. The annual appropriation for the care of the buffalo in the Yellowstone Park until recently has been $3,000 (later $5,000), and a small appropriation is made for the Wichita Game Preserve. Most of the other mammal and bird refuges under the charge of the De- partment of Agriculture, including 5 big-game refuges and 65 bird reservations, have been maintained for several years under an annual appropriation of approximately $35,000, increased to $39,735 for 1921. During the spring of 1920 emergency appropriations amount- ing to about $75,000 were made for feeding elk in the Yellowstone National Park and in Jackson Hole, Wyo. STATE GAME REFUGES. In marked contrast with provisions made in connection with na- tional refuges, States seldom make any expenditures for lands on which to establish game preserves, although liberal appropriations are made for game farms. In providing for improvements where necessary, or for costs of maintenance, much more liberal appropria- tions are made as a rule than in the case of national reserves. State refuges are usually located either on lands acquired by the State or on lands which have reverted to it through nonpayment of taxes, or occasionally, as in South Dakota, through exchange with the Federal Government for school lands within Government reservations in other parts of the State. In New York, Pennsylvania, and Wiscon- sin the lands have been purchased by the State primarily for forestry purposes, and not chiefly for the establishment of game reserves. In Louisiana an area of about 15,000 acres on Vermilion Bay has been donated to the State for a game reservation. More recently the great Marsh Island and Rockefeller Preserves have also been donated to GAME AS A NATIONAL RESOURCE. 47 the State, and a large area in another parish has been placed at the disposal of the conservation commission for experiments in game protection, including the introduction of elk. The expense of inclosing a preserve is shown by reports’ regard- ing the Custer County refuge, South Dakota, comprising 61,440 acres and inclosed by a fence of woven and barbed wire 40 miles long and 8 feet high. The construction of this fence was begun in July, 1913, and completed in November, 1914, and cost $12,261.05. In the autumn of 1914, 36 head of buffalo were purchased from the Philip herd, Pierre, S. Dak., including 6 bulls, 18 cows, and 12 calves. Early in 1915, 50 elk were obtained from the Yellowstone Park; in 1916, 25: and in 1917, 50 more, making a total of 125 thus obtained. In June, 1921, the total number of buffalo was reported as about 70 and the aumber of elk about 500. A considerable number of deer are in the inclosure and the preserve has also been stocked with pheasants. COST OF GAME FARMS. The cost of maintenance of game farms may be illustrated by the costs of those operated by Illinois, Oregon, and New Yerk. The Llnois farm, now abandoned, formerly embraced about 534 acres near Auburn, a few miles south of Springfield, and was held under eight leases. The total expense for maintenance during the year ended June 30, 1912, was $67,142. This total covered the fol- lowing items: Expenses of the commissioner and purchase of food supplies, $20,665; purchase. of game birds, $18,267; labor, $21,662; leases, freight, and express charges, $6,548. The purchase of game birds included $2,500 for 1,000 ring-neck pheasant hens, at $2.50 each; and $3,915 for 783 pairs of Hungarian partridges, at $5 per pair. About 15,000 birds were distributed during the year. In 1914, the Oregon Fish and Game Commission expended $12,- 891.16 on the State game farm. Of this sum $3,888.42 were spent for salaries and labor, $4,385 for supplies, $738.66 for improvements, and $3,879.08 for game. During the year, 5,686 pheasants, Hun- garian partridges, and quail were distributed. The cost of maintaining the three game farms operated by the Conservation Commission of New York during the year ended June 30, 1919, was $32,076.14. Of this amount $13,365.18 were ex- pended for labor, and $18,710.96 for miscellaneous expenses of maintenance and operation. The number of half-grown birds dis- tributed was 9,206 and the number of eggs 55,400. SUGGESTIONS FOR MAKING A SURVEY OF GAME RESOURCES. The information necessary for ascertaining the value of game resources can only be obtained by the adoption of comprehensive plans for collecting it on a broad and practical basis. In the fore- 18 Rept. Dept. Game and Fish, S. Dak., 1914, p. 12; 1915, p. 7; 1916, p. 19. 48 BULLETIN 1049, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. going pages reference has been made to some of the experi- ments of this kind which have been tried in various States. Thus in the New England States provision has been made for appraising and paying for damage done to crops by deer and for ascertaining the number of deer killed in this connection. In the Rocky Moun- tain States of Montana, Colorado, and Wyoming, and in four of the Canadian Provinces, where guides are commonly employed, they are required to make reports of the amount of game killed by the persons employing them. In several States efforts have been made to ob- tain statistics of the number of deer killed during the hunting season, and in one or two instances estimates have been made of the total number of deer in a State. A simple means of obtaining much of the desired information is already provided under the existing system of hunting licenses. State officers report with much detail the number of licenses issued, the amount of money collected for game protection, and the number of arrests made. More attention might be devoted to ascertaining the extent of the stock of game, which is the central point of interest of the whole game-protective machinery of the State. The following modifications of present methods of collecting data would furnish facts of the highest importance: (1) Publishing in addition to the number of licenses issued an estimate of the number of persons hunting without license on their own lands or under exemptions allowed by law (an estimate which a State game commission could readily make) would furnish approxi- mately the total number of persons hunting in the State. (2) Requiring each big-game hunter to make a return of the re- sults of his activities under his license, as is now done in several States and Canadian Provinces, would give accurate figures of the total number of deer and other big game annually killed. (3) Requiring licensees to report the number of game birds actually killed would furnish returns similar to those needed in the case of big game, and while they would be much more difficult to ob- tain, yet with the. necessary legislation and the cooperation of sportsmen’s associations, local clubs, and the sportsmen themselves they could be collected, as shown by the results already accomplished. (4) Requiring game farms to report the number of birds raised, disposed of for propagation, or sold for market would show the an- nual results of efforts to domesticate game. (5) Estimating the total amount of each kind of game in the State would make it possible, by revising and comparing the esti- mates from year to year, to tell whether the stock is increasing or whether the total number killed exceeds the annual increase. O UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester Washington, D. C. Vv May 12, 1922 THE IDENTIFICATION OF TRUE MAHOGANY, CERTAIN SO-CALLED MAHOGANIES, AND SOME COMMON SUBSTITUTES. By ArtTHuR KoEHteEr, Specialist in Wood Structure. CONTENTS. Page Page. sO Mahoranies? 238 ea ai ke 1 | Description of species—Continued. Key for the identification of true “ African mahogany ’?______ 9 mahogany and mahogany-like “Philippine mahogany’ ______ 10 WO OC Spare eee Seay hd a UN Re 2 “Colombian mahogany” ______ 12 Description of species— “Liberville mahogany ”______ 13 True mahogany______________ 4 Bir Chi aia lay oe LR nse 14 Crab wood ek oe Bet 6 PROG. run rn ess Se oe Dee Si ae Ne, 15 Cedvel anemia Bice Bune omnes ab 7 ‘““White mahogany ’___-___ 16 Sapelia aes SH aN NE SHS EGO SSairny ets SOs oe Se Ea eae Ieee au 16 “MAHOGANIES.” Over sixty different species of timber have at one time or another been put on the market under the name of mahogany. Some of these are closely related botanically to true mahogany and others look much like it, while some have only the most general resemblance, and no relationship which under the most liberal interpretation would en- title them to the name. The woods now most commonly sold as mahogany in this country are true mahogany from tropical America, “African mahogany,” and “Philippine mahogany.” The Cedrelas (Spanish cedar, etc.) are rarely sold as mahoganies, while crabwood, sapeli, “ Colombian ma- hogany,” and “ Liberville mahogany ” are imported only in small quantities. ‘They are, however, described in this bulletin because of their resemblance to true mahogany. A description of “white ma- hogany ” is also included, for though it has no reddish-brown color and so is not confused with true mahogany by anyone who has seen a few pieces, the name might lead one unfamiliar with it to assume that it is true mahogany of a light color. Birch and red gum are 79793°—22——_4 2 BULLETIN 1050, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. used principally as acknowledged imitations of mahogany, but some- times they are used in furniture sold as genuine mahogany. Of the woods mentioned in this bulletin, true mahogany, crabwood, the Cedrelas, sapeli, and “African mahogany ” come from trees which are botanically of the mahogany family (Meliacez). They are uni- formly distinguished from other woods herein described by the occur- rence of a dark reddish-brown gum in the pores. This gum does not completely fill the pores, but occurs as almost black masses here and there. It is seen best with a magnifying glass on longitudinal sur- faces, but in many specimens is visible without a lens. Of course, woods of other families may have dark gum in the pores, but none such are commonly substituted for mahogany. KrY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF TRUE MAHOGANY AND MAHOGANYLIKE Woops.” (Also read carefully the descriptions of these species in the following pages and study the illustrations. ) I. Wood light to dark reddish brown. A. Many pores contain more or less of a very dark reddish brown gum visible on longitudinal and end surfaces. Otherwise the pores are open, no tyloses being present. The gum is visible without, but better with a hand lens. 1. Growth rings sharply but not always conspicuously defined. AA. Wood without characteristic odor. Growth rings de fined by distinct but not always conspicuous lines of soft tissue zz to % inch apart. Pores in each growth ring almost uniform in size. a. Lines of soft tissue light-colored and conspicuous. Rays on a freshly cut or split radial surface not much darker than adjacent fibers. Tangential sur- face occasionally but not always figured with very fine bands which run across the grain, due to the rays being in stories. Wood highly variable in weight and light to dark reddish brown in color. Erie SMV OS a Nye ae ee ee (Swietenia spp.). 6. Lines of soft tissue mostly dark, not conspicuous. Rays on a freshly cut or split radial surface consid- erably darker and more reddish than adjacent fibers and usually with a slight purplish tinge. Rays not in stories. Wood moderately hard. Color more of a plain brown than in true mahogany. Crab wood see a eee eee eae otra ee (Carapa guianensis). 1To one familiar with the examination of wood sections under a high-power microscope, the exceedingly fine pits (as small as in birch) between adjacent vessels and also the septate wood fibers found in Swietenia, Carapa, Bntandrophragma, and Khaya offer an additional means of distinguishing these members of the mahogany family from others not of the same family. In Cedrela the pits are larger, but also very numerous, and the wood fibers are sparingly septate. Boswellia (family Burseracee) also has septate wood fibers, but the pits in the vessel walls are comparatively large. 2Unless otherwise directed all observations as to structure should be made on the end surface cut smoothly with a very sharp knife, and all observations as to color should be made on freshly cut longitudinal surfaces of the heartwood. IDENTIFICATION OF TRUE MAHOGANY. 3 I. Wood light to dark reddish brown—Continued. A. Many pores contain, etc.—Continued. 1. Growth rings, ete.—Continued. BB. Wood with characteristic odor of cigar-box cedar. Growth rings defined by distinct lighter-colored lines and usually, but not always, by rows of larger pores, approaching ring-porous structure as in ash, oak, hick- ory, and some other hardwoods. Wood light and soft. Spanish: Cedars 2 ie canvas eek obey (Cedrela odorata). Brazilian cedar. eee ee (Cedrela braziliensis). Bao a bem geaeenedl Os ol ren SGU Lae tr Oy Wr os RuBn Em Ue uunLA pee sn (Cedrela toona). (Odor most pronounced in Spanish cedar.) . Growth rings not clearly defined by lighter colored lines or otherwise. AA. Numerous ea lines of soft tissue either lighter or darker colored than the adjacent fibers and readily visible without a lens—40 to 50 per inch of radius. Rays usually not in stories and white substance not found in pores. Wood moderately heavy. DS fEHy ey yn ko et eas Cag a ANN (Hntandrophragma candollet). BB. Tangential lines of soft tissue either not present or very rarely an occasional one; however, darker or lighter colored zones without definite boundary, as seen under a hand lens, may be present. Color same as true mahogany, or quite often with a slight pur- plish tinge when freshly cut. Rays not in stories, or only locally, and white substance not found in pores as in some true mahogany. Wood moderately heavy. SUNAAG VO, Tod avarssaOny ee (Khaya spp.). B. Pores do not contain a reddish gum. - 1. Pores readily visible without a lens on smoothly cut surfaces. AA, Occasional short or long white tangential lines present, from 4% inch to several inches apart radially, visible without a lens. When viewed with a magnifying glass these lines appear to be made up of a row of small ducts, much smaller than the pores, and com- pletely filled with a white substance. Considerable variation in color. Weight variable, about the same as mahogany. “Philippine mahogany ”___-_____________ (Shorea spp.). a. Color moderately light to dark reddish brown, with purplish tinge. Pores comparatively small but vis- ible without a lens. Pinworm holes rare. os Wealn cea) Ks ype 7s Bag aes Lk ANS Oa le Mi (Shorea polysperma). b. Color dark reddish eo without purplish tinge. Pores slightly larger than in tanguile. Pinworm holes common. HEV eure ea ss Pan ae a eA (Shorea negrosensis). ce. Color very pale reddish brown without purplish tinge. Pores slightly larger than in tanguile. Pinworm holes rare.® JANI) QA ea ee Sai eee dann ie nbn dealah (Shorea eximia). ®On account of variations in the structure and color of tanguile, red lauaan, and almon, it is not always possible to distinguish the wood of these species by means of the char- acteristics given in this key, which is based on typical features. 4 BULLETIN 1050, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. I. Wood light to dark reddish brown—Continued. B. Pores do not contain a reddish gum—Continued. 1. Pores readily visible, etc —Continued. BB. No white tangential lines consisting of rows of ducts, but numerous very fine continuous lighter-colored lines of soft tissue present, 120 to 175 per inch of radius, barely visible without a magnifying glass. Wood moderately heavy. * Colombian, mahogany 4--- 222 = ss (Cariniana pyriformis). CC. No fine light-colored tangential lines present; struc- ture very homogeneous. Color light purplish brown. Wood moderately light and soft. “Miberville mahogany: 22-22-12 Sass (Boswellia klaincana). 2. Pores not readily visible without a lens. AA. Pores barely visible without a lens on smoothly cut sur- faces in good light; very distinct under a lens. The heartwood is dull reddish brown; the wide sapwood is white. The wood is heavy, usually straight-grained. SWveet sire hy soa tales Sa Pee (Betula lenta). Yellow: Dit Gh 22245 lee yes Mee OR Ee eee (Betula lutea). BB. Pores not visible without a lens; very small and uni- formly distributed as seen with a lens. The heart- wood is reddish brown, often with darker streaks; the wide sapwood is pinkish white (unless blued by stain). The wood is moderately heavy and usually has interlocked grain. Reed goin ta a ee (Liquidambar styraciflua). TI. Wood without reddish tinge. Color creamy white to yellowish brown. Growth rings sharply but not conspicuously defined by white tan- gential lines or by a slightly darker band of summerwood. Pores of practically uniform size throughout growth ring, barely visible on a smoothly cut end surface, but very distinct as fine grooves on planed longitudinal surfaces; mostly filled with tyloses. Wood with interlocked grain and moderately heavy. “White mahogany,” or primavera___________ (Tabebuia donnell-smithii) . Notr.—The sapwood of birch is without reddish tinge, and when taken by itself might be classified under ‘‘II’”’ above, although fresh cuts are almost white. For means of distinguishing birch from primavera, see descriptions of these species. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES. TRUE MAHOGANY.‘ Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.’; Swietenia macrophylla King.; Swietenia cirrhata Blake; Swietenia humilis Zucco.; Sivietenia candollei Pittier. MAHOGANY FAMILY (MELIACE). OTHER NAMES. True mahogany comprises all the species of the botanical genus Swietenia, of which five are known at present.* 4See U. S. Dept. Agr. Bulletin 474, “ True Mahogany,” by C. D. Mell. For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Price, 5 cents. 5 The name after a scientific name is usually an abbreviation of the name of the person who first deseribed the species. ® Blake, S. F., “‘ Revision of the True Mahoganies.” Journal of the Washington Acad- emy of Sciences, vol. 10, pp. 286—297, f. 1-2. IDENTIFICATION OF TRUE MAHOGANY. 5 Mahogany is rarely sold under any other trade name, except that the very light grades are called “bay mahogany” or “bay wood.” The Spanish name is “ caoba.” and in Florida it is called “ maderia.” Swietenia cirrhata is known locally as “ venadillo.” Occasionally the name mahogany is modified so as to indicate the country it came from, as Honduras mahogany, Tabasco mahogany, Cuban mahogany, etc. WHERE GROWN. True mahogany grows in tropical America from southern Florida and northern Mexico to northern South America, including the West Indies. It does not grow naturally in Brazil or other parts of the world. According to Blake,° Swietenia mahagoni grows in the West Indies, Bermuda, and the keys of southern Florida; S. macro- phylla grows along the eastern coast from the State of Tabasco, Mexico, to Honduras and possibly farther south; S. humilis is a native tree of the west coast from Guerrero, Mexico, to northwestern Guatemala; S. cirrhata is known to occur naturally in western Mexico from Sinaloa to El] Salvador; and S. candollei is a native of Venezuela. Of the five species, Swietenia mahagoni and S. macro- phylla are the more common. Swietenia macrophylla, which has larger leaves and larger fruit than the West Indian species, grows principally on low lands, and, as a rule, produces softer and lighter colored wood than S. mahagoni,; however, no distinct differences in the wood by means of which each species can be identified have so far been observed. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. The wood of true mahogany is highly variable in weight; pieces ranging in specific gravity from 0.34 to 0.90, based on oven-dry weight and oven-dry volume, have been found, although very few pieces have a specific gravity greater than 0.70. The wood from southern Florida and Cuba averages heavier than that from Central America. The color of true mahogany varies from very pale to very dark reddish-brown. ‘The wood is without characteristic odor or taste. True mahogany usually has interlocked grain, which gives the “ ribbon ” effect to quarter-sawed material. Unlike most other woods with interlocked grain, it does not warp easily. STRUCTURE. The pores in true mahogany are plainly visible without a hand lens as minute holes on a smoothly cut end surface (see fig. 1) and as grooves on longitudinal surfaces. They are scattered singly or in short radial rows of 2 to 4. Some of the pores are filled with a dark 6 Blake, S. F., ‘‘Revision of the True Mahoganies.”’ Journal of the Washington Acad- emy of Sciences, yol. 10, pp. 286-297, f. 1-2. 6 BULLETIN 1050, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . brown gum, but less plentifully in the light-colored, soft grades than in the darker grades. In heavy grades some pores also contain a whitish substance. (See fig. 1.7) These pores differ from the white gum ducts in “ Philippine mahogany ” in being scattered singly in- stead of in tangential rows; furthermore, the gum ducts in “ Philip- pine mahogany ” are smaller than the sap pores. The rays on the radial surface are very distinct. On account of the luster of both rays and wood fibers, the rays may appear lighter or darker than the surrounding areas, depending on how the light is reflected. Actually the rays are only slightly, if any, darker than the surrounding fibers, a characteristic which helps to distinguish mahogany from crabwood, in which the rays are considerably darker. In some pieces of mahogany the rays are in rows or stories extending at right angles to the grain—that is, horizontally in the tree—show- ing up on the tangential surface as striations, or “ ripple” marks, across the grain. (See fig. 12.) This condition of the rays being in stories is not always found in true mahogany, but is rarely found in any of the other species herein described, although it is common in a number of other woods not mentioned in this publication. The growth rings in true mahogany are defined by light-colored concentric lines, in some pieces very close together and in others one half inch or more apart, with considerable variation in the same piece. CRABWOOD. (Carapa guianensis Aubl.) MAHOGANY FAMILY (MELIACE). OTHER NAMES. This wood is known as “ Para mahogany,” “ Brazilian mahogany,” “Demerara mahogany,” “ British Guiana mahogany,” and in South America as “ andiroba.” WHERE GROWN. Crabwood grows in northern South America as far south as the Amazon Valley, although the exact limits of its geographical dis- tribution are not known. It is a common timber tree of British Guiana. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. The wood is moderately heavy and hard, and similar to magohany, except that such extremes of very ight and very heavy grades are not found. The color is similar to that of true mahogany, except that it is not quite so reddish, but rather more of a plain brown. “The text figures will be found grouped at the end of this bulletin. IDENTIFICATION OF TRUE MAHOGANY. 7 _ The grain is straighter than in mahogany, but the wood is said to check and warp more easily in seasoning; however, the Forest Service has no authentic information on its seasoning qualities. STRUCTURE. The pores are plainly visible on smoothly cut transverse and lon- gitudinal surfaces. They are fairly uniform in size and evenly dis- tributed, and in all respects closely similar to those of true mahogany, but somewhat smaller than in “African mahogany.” Hardened masses of dark-brown gum are visible here and there in the pores. These can best be seen with a hand lens on longitudinal surfaces. No whitish deposits in the pores of this wood have been noticed by the author, although Dixon ® reports their occurrence. (See fig. 2.) The rays are very fine on cross-section, but quite conspicuous on radial surfaces, owing to the fact that they contain reddish coloring matter. (See fig. 13.) This reddish color of the rays is one of the chief means of distinguishing crabwood from true mahogany, although the rays in mahogany may appear darker if the light is re- flected in a certain manner. All “ Philippine mahogany” and occa- sional pieces of “African mahogany ” may also have reddish rays, but can be distinguished from crabwood by other means. (See key.) The growth rings, which are very irregular in width, are faintly defined by somewhat lighter Slored lines of soft tissue similar to but much less conspicuous than those in mahogany. CEDRELA. Spanish Cedar (Cedrela odorata L.); Brazilian Cedar (Cedrela braziliensis _ Juss.) ; Toon (Cedrela toona Roxb. or Toona ciliata Roem. or Toona toona. Wight.). MAHOGANY F'AMILY (MELIACEZ). OTHER NAMES. Spanish cedar ® is also commonly known as “ cigar-box cedar.” Brazilian cedar® is known in South America as “ cedro.” Toon has been marketed as “Indian mahogany” and “toona ma- hogany.” The Spanish and Brazilian cedars are rarely sold as mahogany, but because of their resemblance to the light grades of true ma- hogany their description is included here. 8 Dixon, H. H., ‘“‘ Mahogany, and the Recognition of Some of the Different Kinds by Their Microscopic Characteristics.” Scientific Proceedings of the Royal Dublin Society, Vol. XV (N. S.), No. 34, Dec., 1918. 9 These species are not true cedars. They belong to the hardwood class, that is, trees with broad leaves, but were probably given the name of cedar because of the aromatic odor of the wood. 8 BULLETIN 1050, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. WHERE GROWN. The true Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata L.) is not definitely known outside of the West Indies and French Guiana. Brazilian cedar grows in Brazil and northern Argentina. A num- ber of minor species of Cedrela are also found in Mexico, Central America, and South America. Toon is a native of India, Java, and Australia, and is shipped to the United States in comparatively small quantities. A -similar species, calantas (Zoona calantas Merr. and Rolfe), is of com- mercial importance in the Philippine Islands. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. The color of these woods is very much like that of true mahogany. In weight they are lighter than the average mahogany. They have a distinct, pleasant odor, most pronounced in Spanish cedar. The grain of the wood is not interlocked so much as in mahogany. STRUCTURE. The pores of the Cedrelas are plainly visible with the unaided eye. (See fig. 3.) Some of the pores are partly filled with a dark reddish- brown gum, a characteristic of the mahogany family. As a rule, but not always, the pores are slightly larger at the beginning of each growth ring, making the wood “ring-porous.” The growth rings are also defined by a light-colored line of soft tissue, as in true mahogany. This line is not so conspicuous in toon as in the two species from the American Tropics. The rays are very fine, being barely visible with the unaided eye on a smoothly cut end surface. On radial surfaces they are very lustrous and appear lighter or darker than the surrounding fibers, depending on how they reflect the light. These rays are never storied, as in some pieces of mahogany. SAPELI.° Entandrophragma candollei Harms. MaAnocGany FAmiInty (MELIACE2). OTHER NAME, “African mahogany.” Other species of Entandrophragma, with similar characteristics, may also be included with sapeli. Entandrophragma candollei is known as “unscented mahogany,” and £. utilis as “scented mahogany.” 11 1 Also spelled ‘‘ sapele;” in either case pronounced sap’-el-e. 1 Unwin, A. Harold, ‘‘ West African Forests and Forestry.” T. Fisher Unwin, pub- lisher, London, 1920. IDENTIFICATION OF TRUE MAHOGANY. 9 WHERE GROWN. Countries bordering on the Gulf of Guinea, west coast of Africa. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. The wood is considerably heavier than that of the Khayas. The grain may be very much interlocked, but no information as to whether the wood warps easily is available. No pronounced odor or taste is present in the wood, although a slight odor, faintly resembling that of Spanish cedar, is noticeable in some pieces. STRUCTURE. The pores are visible without magnification on smoothly cut end and longitudinal surfaces. They are fairly uniform in size, evenly distributed, singly or often in twos, and occasionally in threes. As in other species of the mahogany family, the pores contain more or less of a dark reddish-brown gum. _ The chief characteristic of sapeli is the presence of numerous tan- gential lines of soft tissue seen on a smoothly cut end section of the wood. (See fig. 4.) These lines are usually darker, but may be lighter, than the other portion of the wood and average 40 to 50 to the radial inch. The constant closeness of these lines eliminates the possibility of mistaking them for lines limiting growth rings, as in true mahogany. Seasonal growth rings are not clearly defined. According to Record,” the rays are more or less storied as seen on the tangential faces, but this was not the case in the specimens available to the writer. “AFRICAN MAHOGANY.” (Khaya spp.) MaAnoGany F'AMIty (MELIACE). OTHER NAMES. Several species of the genus Khaya are marketed as African mahogany.*® Probably the most common one is A haya senegalensis A. Juss. Other names applied to these species are “ Senegal mahog- any,” “Gambia mahogany,” “ Benin mahogany,” and “Gaboon ma- hogany,” indicating the regions from which the species are obtained. Other species, as sapeli, and some not of the mahogany family, are occasionally called “African mahogany,” but very little wood of these species is brought into the United States. ? Record, 8S. J., ‘“‘ Mahogany and Some of Its Substitutes.” Journal of Forestry, Vol. XVII, No. 1, Jan., 1919. 12 Hor detailed information concerning the various species of Khaya see Unwin, Har- ~ old A., ‘‘ West African Forests and Forestry.” 10 BULLETIN 1050, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. WHERE GROWN. West coast of Africa and inland along a belt from 15° north to 20° south of the Equator, and found occasionally in Uganda and Mozambique on the east coast. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. African mahogany is similar to true mahogany in its properties, except that it does not show such extremes of density and color. Occasional boards have a purplish tinge mixed with the usual red- dish-brown color. Interlocked grain is usually present, but, as in true mahogany, is not associated with excessive warping. STRUCTURE. The pores are plainly visible without a lens; in fact, they are slightly larger than in true mahogany, giving the wood a coarser texture. They are fairly uniform in size and evenly distributed. (See fig. 5.) Abundant dark reddish-brown gum is found in most of the pores. No distinct growth rings are present. Lighter and darker con- centric zones are often found, but without a sharp line of demarca- tion. The absence of the fine tangential lines limiting growth rings in true mahogany of tropical America is the chief feature of distinction between these two woods. The author has noticed one or two such lines in certain pieces of “African mahogany,” but not many, as is usual in true mahogany. Care must be taken not to mistake knife marks for such fine lines. The rays are barely visible without a lens on a smoothly cut end surface, but are very plain and lustrous on radial surfaces. They are never conspicuously storied on the tangential faces, as in true mahogany, although they may be in irregular stories locally. “PHILIPPINE MAHOGANY.” Tanguile* (Shorea polysperma Merr.); Red lauaan*™ (Shorea negrosensis Foxw.); Almon (Shorea eximia Scheff.). LAUAAN oR DIPTEROCARP FAMILY (DIPTEROCARPACE ). OTHER NAMES. Tanguile is also known as “ Bataan mahogany ” and “ tanguile ma- hogany.” The heavier grades of red lauaan are substituted for tan- 14 See Philippine Bureau of Forestry Bulletin 14, ‘‘ Commercial Woods of the Philip- pines: Their Preparation and Uses,” by E. E. Schneider. Bureau of Printing, Manila, P. I. ‘Price, $1. 15 Also spelled “ tangil.’’ Pronounced tang-he’-le. 36 Pronounced lau-ah-an’. IDENTIFICATION OF TRUE MAHOGANY. 11 guile on the Manila market. Almon has no other common names except in the native dialect. Tanguile and red lauaan constitute the bulk of so-called “ Philip- pine mahogany ” sent to the United States. Almon is included occa- sionally. Rarely, other species of the Dipterocarp family may be included, especially white lauaan (Pentacme contorta Merr. and Rolfe) and bagtican (Parashorea malaanonan (Blanco) Merr.). When tanguile is desired, genuine tanguile should be specified. WHERE GROWN. Philippine Islands. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. Tanguile is “soft to moderately hard; hght to moderately heavy, specific gravity 0.469 to 0.509 (Gardner) ;‘* heartwood pale red to dark reddish-brown; grain distinctly crossed, producing a broad, conspicuous ribbon when quarter-sawed; seasons well, but may warp if not carefully stacked ; easy to work.” Red lauaan is “soft to moderately hard; light to moderately heavy, specific gravity 0.406 (Gardner) ; heartwood light red to dark red- dish brown; grain distinctly crossed, forming a conspicuous ribbon when quarter-sawed; texture rather coarse; seasons well, splitting and warping very little; easy to work.” 1* Almon is “soft; light, specific gravity 4.464 (Gardner) ; heart- wood very pale red; texture rather coarse; grain somewhat crossed, making a narrow distinct ribbon when quarter-sawed, small but dis- tinct silver grain; seasons well, checking and warping very little; very easy to work.” ** Tanguile, in general, is slightly heavier, harder, stronger, and finer- grained than either red lauaan or almon. STRUCTURE. The pores are very distinct on smoothly cut transverse and longi- tudinal surfaces. They are fairly uniform in size in each species, but average slightly smaller in tanguile than in red lauaan and almon. They are evenly distributed, singly or occasionally by twos. The pores are open for the most part, but occasionally contain tyloses. Reddish-brown gum is never found in the pores. White tangential lines varying in length from very short to the full thickness of a board are usually common on the cross-section (see 1” The moisture percentage and the volume (oven-dry or otherwise) on which this specific gravity is based are not given, but undoubtedly the basis of computation was the same as that used in computing the specific gravities of red lauaan and almon quoted in the succeeding paragraphs. Forest Preducts Laboratory determinations show an average specific gravity for tanguile based on the oven-dry weight and oven-dry volume of 0.57. 18 Philippine Bureau of Forestry Bulletin 14, pp. 168-171. 2 12 BULLETIN 1050, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fig. 6), but may be absent for areas of several square inches. Under a magnifying glass it can be seen that these white lines are made up of rows of ducts (smaller than the pores) containing a white gum, differing in this respect and in not being continuous from the light- colored lines found in true mahogany. These tangential rows of white gum ducts are found in no other species sold as mahogany, unless it be in other species of the Dipterocarp family which may occasionally be included in shipments of “ Philippine mahogany.” Short lines of lighter colored tissue extending for a short dis- tance tangentially from the pores may occasionally be seen with a lens on smoothly cut end surfaces. It is not necessary to look for these, however, in distinguishing “ Philippine mahogany ” from other species herein described. The rays are not visible without lens on an end section, but are very conspicuous on radial surfaces because of their reddish color. No well-defined growth rings are present, although the rows of gum ducts when long might be mistaken for the termination of seasonal layers. “ COLOMBIAN MAHOGANY.” » (Cariniana pyriformis Miers.) MoNKEY-Pop FAMILY (LECYTHIDACES.) OTHER NAMES, Cariniana, albarco (Colombia). WHERE GROWN. Colombia, South America. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. The wood has about the same weight and color as moderately heavy mahogany, except that a slight purplish tinge is usually present. It has more or less interlocked grain, but is said not to give any trouble by warping when properly seasoned. STRUCTURE, The pores are visible without a lens on smoothly cut end and longitudinal surfaces. They are fairly uniform in size, and evenly scattered, singly or occasionally by twos. They do not contain brownish gum, as do those in true mahogany, but contain some tyloses. The growth rings are very faintly defined by a slight difference in the size of the pores. 20 See Forest Service Circular 185, ‘‘ Colombian Mahogany,” by Geo. B. Sudworth and Cc. D. Mell. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Price, 5 cents. IDENTIFICATION OF TRUE MAHOGANY. 13 A striking characteristic of the wood is the presence of very numer- ous, fine, lighter colored, tangential lines of soft tissue, barely visible without a lens. These lines are fairly evenly spaced and average from 120 to 175 per inch of radius. (See fig. 7.) Similar lines, but wider apart, are found in sapeli, and the presence in “ Colombian mahogany ” of tyloses instead of gum is an additional aid in distin- guishing the two species. The rays are not distinctly visible on cross sections, but on radial surfaces are very distinct because of their reddish-brown color. “ LIBERVILLE MAHOGANY.” (Boswellia klaincana Pierre, ) MyrrH FAMILY (BURSERACE). OTHER NAMES. Gaboon mahogany; okume; okoumie; African cedar. WHERE GROWN. French Kongo and adjacent territory of Africa. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, The wood is lighter and softer than the average genuine mahogany, although it is firm enough to be used for furniture and similar arti- cles. It is pale pinkish-brown or pale flesh-colored with a faint lavender tinge. Dressed surfaces appear lustrous. The wood is without characteristic odor or taste. The grain runs straighter than in mahogany, and hence the “rib- bon ” effect is not so pronounced in quarter-sawed lumber. STRUCTURE. The pores are very distinct to the unaided eye, being of about the same size as those in true mahogany. They are scattered singly, or occasionally several in short radial rows. The pores are empty, except for occasional tyloses. Tangential lines of light-colored tissue are absent, although poorly defined tangential zones of darker and lighter wood may occasion- ally be present. (See fig. 8.) The rays are very fine, not visible on a cross-section without a hand lens.21_ On radial surfaces they are distinct but comparatively small, and not much darker than the surrounding wood. 21“ Tiberville mahogany” and ‘“ Colombian mahogany’ are the only species herein described in which the rays are characteristically 2 (occasionally 1 or 3) cells wide, as seen with a high-power microscope on the tangential section. In all the other species the larger rays are 4 or more cells wide, except in some pieces of red gum in which the rays are mostly 2 or 3 cells wide. 14 BULLETIN 1050, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BIRCH. Sweet birch (Betula lenta Linn.) ; yellow birch (Betula lutea Michx. f£.). BrrcH Famity (BETULACE). OTHER NAMES. Sweet birch is also known as cherry birch, black birch, and ma- hogany birch. Yellow birch is also known as gray birch, silver birch, and swamp birch. The heartwood of both species is usually sold as “red birch” and the sapwood as “ yellow birch.” Other species of birch are rarely cut into lumber. WHERE GROWN. Sweet birch grows within an area that extends from Newfoundland to eastern Iowa, and south to northern Florida. It is of commer- cial importance, principally in the East, from New York State south along the Appalachian Mountains, although it is cut as far west as Wisconsin. Yellow birch occurs from Newfoundland to northern Minnesota, and through the northern States to eastern Tennessee, North Caro- lina, and Delaware. It is most abundant and reaches its largest size in northern New England and New York and in northern Michigan and Wisconsin. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. Although sweet birch averages slightly heavier and harder than yellow birch, the difference is so little that usually no distinction is made between the two species when-used in the form of lumber. Both species are hard, heavy, and strong in bending. Birch has somewhat of a tendency to warp, but not so much as red gum and other species with decidedly interlocked grain. The heartwood is reddish brown; the sapwood, which is often wide, is practically white. Much sapwood is used in the manufac- ture of furniture with a mahogany finish. It is difficult to hide its identity since any wear or fracture is likely to disclose the white wood underneath the finish. STRUCTURE. The pores in birch are of such size that they can barely be seen in good light without a lens on the smoothly cut end surface. On the longitudinal dressed surface they appear as very fine grooves. They are almjost uniform in size throughout each annual ring, although occasionally they are noticeably smaller toward the end of each year’s growth. (See fig. 9.) The annual rings are defined by - fine lines. IDENTIFICATION OF TRUE MAHOGANY. 15 The rays are not distinctly visible without a lens on the cross- section. On radial surfaces they appear as fine reddish-brown *¢ flakes.” RED GUM. (Liquidambar styraciflua Linn.) WitcuH Haze, Faminty (HAMAMELIDACE2). OTHER NAMES. Sweet gum; star-leaved gum; hazel wood; satin walnut (Europe) ; sap gum (sapwood only). WHERE GROWN, In the United States south of a line from Connecticut througn southern Illinois and Eastern Texas, except in southern Florida. It is very uncommon in the Southern Appalachian Mountains and the surrounding highlands, but is found on the mountains of Central and Southern Mexico and on the highlands of Guatemala. Most abundant commercially in the bottom lands of the lower Mississippi Valley. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. The wood is moderately heavy and moderately hard. It usually has interlocked grain, which causes it to warp, especially when plain sawed, unless properly seasoned. The heartwood is reddish-brown, varying more or less in shade. It often contains darker streaks which add to its beauty. The sap- wood is pinkish white unless blued by stain. It is often wide and is sold separately as “sap gum.” STRUCTURE. The pores are so small that they can not be seen without a good magnifying glass. (See fig. 10.) This feature distinguishes red gum from mahogany and mahogany-like woods. The pores are of uniform size and distribution throughout each annual ring, making it difficult to differentiate each year’s growth, although on careful examination with a lens.a fine line can be seen separating the annual growth layers. The rays are fairly distinct, but not at all conspicuous without a lens on either an end or a radial surface, since they are relatively small and of about the same color as the surrounding wood. Since the annual rings, pores, or rays do not stand out clearly, red gum has no characteristic figure except for the darker streaks in some grades. 16 BULLETIN 1050, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. “ WHITE MAHOGANY.” (Tabebuia donnell-smithii Rose.) TRUMPET-CREEPER OR CATALPA FAMILY (BIGNONIACEZ). OTHER NAMES. Primavera. ‘The names “jenicero” or “ genesero” have also been applied to this wood, but these names are also used for an entirely different Mexican species, namely, guanacaste (nterolobium cyclocarpum). WHERE GROWN. Western coast of Mexico and southward to Guatemala. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. The wood is moderately heavy and hard, works well, and is said to give little trouble by warping. It is creamy white to yellowish- brown in color. The grain is interlocked, and the pores are of about the same size as in true mahogany, so that the figure produced, espe- cially when finished with a mahogany stain, is similar to that of true mahogany. STRUCTURE. The pores are plainly visible on longitudinal surfaces as grooves, and can be seen on smoothly cut end surfaces as minute openings. They are arranged so as to form diagonal or wavy tangential rows, especially in the outer portion of each growth ring as seen on the cross-section. (See fig. 11.) Tyloses are very common in the pores. Fine tangential lines, often accompanied by a darker layer of sum- merwood, mark the limits of the growth rings. In some pieces the pores are also slightly larger at the beginning of each growth ring, making the rings more conspicuous. The rays are barely visible-on cross-section and inconspicuous on radial surfaces. On tangential faces they may or may not appear storied. When storied they never produce conspicuous “ ripple ” marks, as in true mahogany. GLOSSARY. Density—Amount of wood substance, equivalent to oven-dry weight. Ducts, or gum ducts.—Special ducts for storing or conveying gum. Found only in a few species of hardwoods; usually smaller and less numerous than the pores for conducting sap. Family—Botanically speaking, a group of plants having certain fundamental resemblances, especially in the flowers and fruit, yet differing more or less in this and other respects. For example, IDENTIFICATION OF TRUE MAHOGANY. 14 apple, pear, and quince belong to one family, and walnut and hick- ory to another family. Fibers—The comparatively long thin cells usually comprising the bulk of the wood, but too small to be seen except with a high-powered © microscope. Distinguished from the pores in the hardwoods, which are larger but less numerous. 2 Growth rings.—The well-defined layers of wood put on each season usually, but not necessarily, limited to one each year. Gum.—A. white or dark deposit, partly or wholly filling the sap pores or the gum ducts of certain woods. Interlocked grain.—F ibers slanting around the tree in one direction for a number of years and then reversing to the other direction, and later reversing: again, and so on, producing a “ribbon” effect on quarter-sawed lumber. Light-colored lines—Very thin light-colored lines extending cir- cumferentially on the cross-section. These may mark the end of each growth ring, or many may be formed each season, as in sapeli and “ Colombian mahogany.” Composed of soft tissue technically known as parenchyma. Longitudinal surfaces—KEither radial or tangential surfaces, as distinguished from cross-section, or end grain. Pores.—Larger cells with open ends set, one above the other, and used for conducting sap, as distinguished from the smaller wood fibers with closed ends used to give strength to the tree trunk. (True pores are not found in the coniferous woods, in which the fibers serve the combined purpose of conducting sap and giving strength to the tree. ) 5; FRadial—Along the radius. Radial surface—A longitudinal surface cut approximately along the radius of the log, that is, from the bark toward the center ; equiv- alent of edge grain or quarter-sawed surface. Rays.—Rows of cells extending horizontally in a tree from the bank inwardly at right angles to the grain. Visible on strictly radial surfaces of all woods; very conspicuous in quartered oak. (See fig. 13.) On end surfaces they may be seen with a lens, or occasionally without, as fine radial lines crossing the growth rings. Ring-porous.—Having the pores at the beginning of each growth ring comparatively large, with more or less abrupt decrease in size toward the outer portion of the growth ring. Ripple marks.—Fine transverse markings uniformly spaced on the tangential faces of wood. (See fig. 12.) Soft tissue—Thin-walled cells, often in rows, usually producing lighter-colored lines when cut across the grain, used to store food. Technically called parenchyma. 79793 °—22———2 18 BULLETIN 1050, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Specific gravity.—The ratio of the weight of a piece of wood (or other substance), usually oven-dry, to the weight of an equal volume of water, with the latter considered as 1. (For most woods the specific gravity is less than 1, because they are lighter than water, which weighs nearly 62.5 pounds per cubic foot.) Storied rays——Rays arranged in horizontal layers or stories in the tree, producing “ripple” marks on tangential faces. (See fig. 12.) Summerwood.—The outer, often darker and harder portion of each annual ring. Tangential_—Along a tangent, or at right angles to the radius. Tangential surface—aA longitudinal surface cut approximately at right angles to the rays, equivalent to flat grain or plain-sawed surface. Tyloses.—Glistening, froth-like ingrowths in the pores of the heartwood, closing them up more or less. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY A Sime: END GRAIN MAGNIFIED 7.5 DIAMETERS. Fic. 1.—TRUE MAHOGANY. END GRAIN MAGNIFIED 7.5 CRABWOOD. RlGr 2 DIAMETERS. hh ee oer tet wd Ye oi END GRAIN MAGNIFIED FIG. 3.—SPAN!ISH CEDAR. 7.5 DIAMETERS. .—SAPELI. END GRAIN MAGNIFIED 7.5 DIAMETERS. Fic. 4 Sager PAGEPRINT IR ee a z z = < jag ic O S [a) ee ai (dp) Ws ae mee ce "2 EF ul SF . Ww ze an g° z0 =<10 as > ite) er =n Zw a mt lw Si a Zz az xz (Lh 72 a < aid 7: 5S a | a= tr) | 6 Ps i’ “gt Le 5 yg Bes i" A ® oe Boece END GRAIN ““COLOMBIAN MAHOGANY MAGNIFIED 7.5 DIAMETERS. FiGs i END GRAIN “LIBERVILLE MAHOGANY. FG) 3.—— MAGNIFIED 7,0 DIAMETERS. END GRAIN MAGNIFIED Fic. 9.—YELLOw BIRCH. 7.5 DIAMETERS. -—RED GuM. END GRAIN MAGNIFIED 10 FIG. 7.5 DIAMETERS. ee as ‘ END GRAIN “WHITE MAHOGANY MAGNIFIED 7.5 DIAMETERS. FIG 12.—TANGENTIAL SURFACE OF TRUE MAHOGANY FIG. SHOWING THE RAYS MORE OR LESS IN HORIZONTAL ROWS OR STORIES RADIAL SURFACE OF CRABWOOD SHOWING 13.— FIG. DARK RAYS. id UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF/AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1026 Contribution from the Bureau of. Public Roads THOMAS H. MacDONALD, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv : May 16,1922 ” IRRIGATION IN NORTHERN COLORADO v By ROBERT G. HEMPHILL, Irrigation Engineer. 9 ee) CONTENTS Introduction Water Rights Cache la Poudre Valley Distribution from River _~ Meteorology Duty of the River j Soils ~| Canal Systems \\Water Resources Gross Duty for Canals Seepage Return : Farm Irrigation Drainage Conditions Reservoirs Exchange of Water Summary and Conclusions (Based on data gathered under cooperative agreement between the Bureau of Public Roads of the United States Department of Agriculture and the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Ty WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 | — } _ UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF .AGRICULTURE | BULLETIN No. 1027 | Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry W. G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief Washington, D. Cc. , April 17, 1922 POISONOUS METALS ON SPRAYED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES : BY W. D. LYNCH, Assistant Chemist, C. C. McDONNELL, Chief, Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory, and J. K. HAYWOOD, Chief, Miscellaneous Division, Bureau of Chemistry; A. L. QUAINTANCE, Entomologist in Charge, Fruit Investigations, Bureau of Entomology; and M. B. WAITEH, ° Pathologist in Charge, Fruit-Disease Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry t i| i ‘| z tl CONTENTS | Purpose of Investigation . . . .». «© ~ ak i Results of Previous Investigations EN iat i Experimental Work - . . . .»© « « *e Results of Experimental Work Sah Summary one Meg hi ra wwrelnal heh West le Wiest te cs Literature Cited . »- 2. » «© «© » « eae '_ \ WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 e) Weed UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1031 Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester Washington, D. C. . Vv May 15, 1922 RANGE AND CATTLE MANAGEMENT DURING DROUGHT By JAMES T. JARDINE, Inspector of Grazing, and CLARENCE L. FORSLING, Grazing Examiner a” CONTENTS | - Page Jornada Range eserve Types of vegetation Use prior to reservation Recurrence of drought Variation in forage production Variation due to drought Variation due to grazing Forage production conclusions Grazing capacity Yearlong or winter range Summer range Adjustments RCC BBALY, in cattle manage- Southern New Mexico a cattle-breed- ing section | Adjustments necessary, ete.Continued. Breeding herd should be limited to razing capacity of range during Sate Surplus stock should vary wiih range forage production and with the market Range management to obtain maxi- mum forage production and proper Improvements necessary to meetincrease in cost of cattle production Improvements in grade of stock . . Increasing calf crop Decreasing losses of cattle Increasing growth of young stock . Summary List of publications relating to this subject WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 - a . | UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1032 Contribution from the Bureau of Entemology L.O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. April 25, 1922 THE BLACKHEAD FIREWORM OF CRANBERRY ON THE PACIFIC COAST BY H. K. PLANK Scientific Assistant, Fruit Insect Investigations In cooperation with the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station, with — Technical Description by CARL HEENRICH, Bureau of Entomology - CONTENTS ge 5 Page 1 | Seasonal History. .....e52:225025 AQ Natural Enemies Control Experiments Recommendations for Control Summary and Conclusions " Systematic Description of Rhopobota Number of Generations maevena Hiibner Description of Stages and Habits Explanation of Plates WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1034 ‘Contribution from the Office of Farm Management and Farm Economics G. W. FORSTER, Acting Chief Washington, D.C... |. PROFESSIONAL PAPER June 28, 1922 “ FARM MANAGEMENT. AND _ FARM ORGANIZATION IN SUMTER COUNTY GEORGIA AN ANALYSIS OF THE BUSINESS OF 534 FARMS IN 1913, AND 550 FARMS IN 1918 By H. W. HAWTHORNE, Assistant Farm Economist _H. M. DIXON, Associate Farm Economist, and FRANK MONTGOMERY, Assistant Farm Economist CONTENTS Page Introduction . Farm Organization ‘and Business Analysis Summary of Results of Farms—continued. Area Studied . Farm Earnings Family Farms Farm Organization and EIA Analysis Choice of Enterprises of Farms t ; Diversity : Factors Affecting Successful Operation of Crops Grown and Yields” These Farms : Receipts Bearing of Farm Organization on Cost of Expenses : Producing Cotton Capital. ... Appendix. ....+...e-s 4 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ‘ 1923 4) vi Rae RUG a > ' ea Nh ed SH UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1036 Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 20, 1922 COAL-TAR AND WATER-GAS TAR CREOSOTES: THEIR PROPERTIES AND METHODS OF TESTING By ERNEST BATEMAN Chemist in Forest Products CONTENTS Part I. fars and the Production of Creosotesfrom Tar . Part Ii. Experimental Comparison of Authentic Specimens of Groisole:. Part III. Properties of Creosotes c Part IV. Methods of Testing Creosotes and Official Specifications for Creosote . 5 c ~ . 5) = : 5 ° - Appendix Bibliography GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 ety STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1037 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER August 19, 1922 THE CONTROL OF SAP-STAIN, MOLD, AND INCIPIENT DECAY IN GREEN WOOD WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO VEHICLE STOCK By NATHANIEL O. HOWARD, Pathologist Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology (In cooperation with the Forest Products Laboratory of the United States Forest Service, Madison, Wis.) CONTENTS Page Introduction ‘| Durability of Stained or Molded Wood. 17 Sap-Stain Losses Due to Sap-Stain or Mold... . Other Fungous Organisms Causing Sur- Control Measures face Discolorations in Green Timber . Factors Which Favor the Growth of Sap- Stain and Mold Fungi WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE a BULLETIN No. 1038 s _ Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry ss WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief | Washington, D.C. v ' March 20, 1922: |. | PECAN ROSETTE : ITS HISTOLOGY, CYTOLOGY, AND RELATION 'TO OTHER CHLOROTIC DISEASES © By \ FREDERICK V. RAND Pathologist, Laboratory of Plant Pathology ” CONTENTS £ Sad ie Page Page 2 - ‘Types of Chlorotic Plant Diseases -..- 1 Studies of Pecan Rosette—Continued. = | | Chloroses ‘Due to Soil or Atmospheric Histological and Cytological Studies . 19 of EACSONGUELONS xe 6) ois clue ws Stee eee 2 Subsidiary Experiments ....... 30 on -. Infectious Chloroses:, ae a claret ak iain gastos aren 6_ Probable Nature of Pecan Rosette .... 31 j Studies of Pecan Rosette... .....+ 13 Summary....... LR UR ere ot Ad 36 / Results of Previous Work ..-...- 13 Literature Cited»... ......... 37 i External Signs of Rosette ...... 17 ; \ eS = tie ae . y | 4 WASHINGTON ; GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE i 1922 - UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1041 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D.C. January 11, 1922 A STUDY OF SWEET-POTATO VARIETIES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THEIR CANNING QUALITY By C. A. MAGOON and C. W. CULPEPPER Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations CONTENTS Introduction . Chemical Composition ‘of Sree Potatosa’ Experimental Canning Tests . Discoloration . Heat Penetration ead ‘Sterilization Consistency Varieties and Strains ot sueet Pointecs Used in ‘These Testa 5 Summary . | t Sie ree Literature Cited 6 WASHINGTGN GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 ( A tyh i) eo tavt 5 M aw ete Teta acai a ae ro UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1044 Contribution from the Bureau of Markets and Crop Estimates H.-C. TAYLOR, Chief | Washington, D.C. v April 19, 1922 f _ SELF-SERVICE IN THE RETAILING OF FOOD PRODUCTS By F. E. CHAFFEE, formerly Investigator in City Marketing and McFALL KERBEY, Assistant, Bureau of Markets CONTENTS Introduction Self-service DO ac aR ae wot bie Advantages and Disadvantages of Self-service Problems in Self-service Shuneee Handling Perishable Farm Products Accounting. -.- -.- . -. Summary of Investigations WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 A study of the principles of self-service, their-ap- plication to the retail distribution of foodstuffs, and the results obtained through their application, neces- sitated a close cooperation between the Bureau of Markets and the operators of self-serve grocery stores. Almost without exception the retailers from whom information was requested evidenced a keen desire to cooperate with the bureau. Special acknowledgment is due to the managing director of the Duffy-Powers Co., Rochester, N. Y., for his personal aid and his generosity in granting the bureau practically unlimited use of the self- serve grocery department of the company for in- vestigational and experimental purposes. Other stores and organizations cooperating with the Bureau of Markets in this study were: Hillman’s, Chicago, Ill.; Liberty Market, Indianapolis, Ind.; The ~ Groceteria, St. Paul, Minn.; Piggly-Wiggly, Memphis, Tenn.; L. S. Ayres & Co., Indianapolis, Ind.; Acme Stores Co., Los Angeles, Calif.; The Emporium, San Francisco, Calif.; Bay Cities Mercantile Co., Santa Monica, Calif.; Groceteria Stores Co., Seattle, Wash.; Gerard Grocery Co., Pomona, Calif.; U-Save Stores (Inc.), Cambridge, Mass.; and bureau of business re- search of the graduate school of business adminis- tration of Harvard University. 2 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1045 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. ~ W March 18, 1922 ‘THE SUNFLOWER AS A SILAGE CROP “ By H. N. VINALL, Agronomist” Office of Forage-Crop Investigations CONTENTS Early History of the Sunflower Present Distribution Cultivation in the United States Areas Suited to the Production of Sunflowers Value of Sunflowers in the Semiarid Regions Soil Relations and Effect on the Fol- lowing Crop Varieties Growing Sunflowers for Silage Date of Seeding Method and Rate of Seeding .... Cultivation and Irrigation Harvesting Methods Time to Cut Sunflowers ~ Filling the Silo Yields of Silage .. Feeding Value of Sunflower Silage . Composition and Digestibility . . Palatability Color, Texture, and Odor Acidity of the Silage Results with Dairy Cattle Feeding Tests with Beef Cattle... Use of Sunflower Silage in Feeding Sheep Feeding Sunflower Silage to Hogs . . Sunflowers as a Soiling Crop Diseases of Sunflowers Insects Attacking Sunflowers Literature Cited, ....-.22. WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1046 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief, in cooperation with the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station Washington, D. C.. Vv May, 1922 RUST RESISTANCE IN WINTER-WHEAT VARIETIES By LEO E. MELCHERS, Plant Pathologist, and JOHN H. PARKER, in Charge of Crop Improvement, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station; Agents, Office of Cereal investigations CONTENTS ; : ; Page Scope of the Investigation spigvern aie SLe AM ale niger eae neue Murata 1 =. Revlew/of the Literature 2s 6. i Se a en ee 2 Nursery Experiments sais 3 Si hire Sih tora ° ne enivitelae ice. 4 Greenhouse Experiments . ‘ stinty ei uehiycet West teint ope Comparison of Nursery and Gibtnnouse Results Ser Fah ae ole co EN cole et opr Evidence of Specific Rust Resistance SR seme eine dente cel peter tele Agronomic Value of Kanred Wheat © . . + «o «© co ee e« e« 26 ° Summary SHR a eer Waban Wie Ulet, ate rty alii etal Ni ene Miterature Cited 625) in) (hes ie gel aretha item ea) wits) 6 eee: Mey: ESO WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 a Ais Ae: YAOVEL UNITED. STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1049 Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey E. W. NELSON, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv March 14, 1922 By T. S. PALMER Expert in Game Conservation CONTENTS Importance of Game . . =. « - Petes Principal Kinds of Game in the United States . Value of Game to the Farmer . 68 Value of Game from the Standpoint | of Health . Returns from License Fees . . » « A Estimates of the Value of Game by State Official Limitations on Excessive Hunting . . . = Records of Game Killed . . . . . «© .@ Enumerations of Game .- . . =. » «© -@ Methods of Increasing Game Resources. . . Cost of Maintaining Game . . . «= = «© Suggestions for Making a Survey of Game 6 © @ © © e «© e© @e e @ 8 6 e © e © ese ee © oe & @ e * e ®© © © €© @ «© © ® @ eceee 686 © e©« © © © e@ WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 PINE ide Y bat 1 | AY Hf mis a Nao) i ie UE ae