oh beetiat onee pene vee vant hues ids uibese tert} Serre) th 99 hy hod sys nnme ators bile ay i it oe ee Vi yeaee pel? Sabet: sp ah Ore onl wprag pant! abit he peas SU Recah ne oh obsert! Maori yal on ‘8 rf mt 4g a" ran od shen s it nif a pavar trun de! F ryioeree yt eM Te etre wasie erie 4 il a) + salettrie bien Ep aNe TE 2a seca bp Ea aerate aire by Wb aE ashe a7 rf se AE lena sree tis q ; ve Ty) ayet ae fr i i $y “he Tike ee " ney Uta) Aa ‘ 7 4 we si ie qi ekg c : i ps savy Be aly ae apbe 84 Rettig Dial aes Lo thd ati yA pee e pogen: erie of BY wath Teh iad fenra corks wy Ri MEN FOR THE PEOPLE | FOR EDVCATION 1 OR SCIENCE THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Department Bulletins “Nos. 1051-1075, WITH CONTENTS AND INDEX. Prepared in the Office of Editorial Work. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICKH, 1923, {i fats Oa Es P < { oh ed ia MOT OMEHeAAW JOMMO OUD: WCE Ms OR DEPARTMENT BuuiEtin No. 1054. EXPELLER AND Benzou Extraction Mernops: CONTENTS. — DEPARTMENT BuxuetTiIn No. 1051.—Rep CEDAR CHESTS AS PROTECTORS Acatnst Moth DAMAGE: wD TESTS SR OG TP tae SSIS TUM ea Sy NN eR RE Source, distribution, and description of red cedar............------------ SIG BECO CC CLAT tear aera geet. Mere ey ee eR a at PTR LPP CARON ECU: COC AT ea tare RN hE rata BEAR en iehcue ac ataln op am Meee HCS i EXPCHIMeNUS. 2 5 ht Gee ee at a BePaOMe AGT MOLNS eee. Ae ih ae clr s cle cia ciaiee se Lae eae Bafect Upon egers.. 2.222252... - 1 MG Aree ERO Woes CON Ao Mrs eet BPEL OM tar yceR MO) ete ot eer Bn SOL ee agent se eceten wo DIE BN EYSTVOWASY SS EN an en tt EC Og eines tah PReRC ILC pe eae reel ae fat meme iene CONAN RIN Wane Opa 1s DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 1052.—Rations For FrEepING PouLtTRY IN THE Packine Howse: Peper’ at miveshivaiion® 2252S alt eet Cede ic he se PLE Th DEPOT CGGI EHS Se Bes lt etna tad oel etAeal G RAD A st ALE Pe emestO ech OattONe te eee an Ne enor cen A SS we) PV LESD Die Renae ineherd degen oie rece cl tea ele dcaet pe DEPARTMENT Buuietin No. 1053.—Srupies or Certain Funai or Economic IMPORTANCE IN THE DeEcAy oF BurnpING TIMBERS: SPR EN CS LGE ISB een 9 tata steps = pees ei tararn ate etere em rene int on A ELLIE BSAA DE OS 2 25 3 soterere tt tt yerer nara. ~~ Beers © MOSLEM UII BOL Jo. sae Sources of bagidiospore material..222 2. 20.0 seed eae Methods used in the basidiospore studies......-----....---+2+:++---- permatiaidon. ols ne pasidiospdres. A234. feed eo et tol Retention of the viability of the basidiospores. ..........---.-------- Observations of the casting of the basidiospores. ......-.-.---------- Observations on the dissemination of the basidiospores Trametes serialis. 1°72] Thy ae a a ee a POR ran ER ote tee ae AEN DETTORI CS Excparacton of cultines...2 120: aan wri ailetew to Aimed te eplAe.: Macroscopic appearance of cultures grown at room temperature... .-. Microscopic characters of the mycelia on malt agar..-....-..-------- Pinerentiaiouor the cultures upon agar olf. l ee ile. Effect of temperature on the growth of the mycelium.......-..--.--- Pee ALCL Pete yy ment rn |p Rees tte ee ee: Fh ROEM SIND Intramural dissemination of fungi causing decay. ..-...-..---------- Review of the literature of secondary spore formation. ......-...---- Occurrence of the secondary spores in cultures of the fungi studied. ...... Germination studies of the secondary spores. ..........------------------ Experiments upon the dissemination of the oidia of Lenzites sepiaria....-. Occurrence in buildings’of the secondary spores of the fungi studied... ... Penereai lee eee) PE. PG I io PRA SLE I BOS. IIE LLCs bck toy nk he 2S. Ket hele ork Sd cu RAT REITY PUNT: COMPARISON OF CORN OILS OBTAINED BY tunics: Aare duoc gesreslae gaia ian. a Tea el ga op AERP” PPE ND) Octet RAR Character and composition of corm oil 2)... 2... hae tae teamed -- Baer OL DLE VIOUS INVCSLIC RODS... - - dence cree decease x anu,duptie trai isers Sear emer nes. T.. Mee one Rae Ac cas ipayubace des MELNOG Of Selecting Mmaberial”. Ye LO eee sel ewe Benzol extraction of corn germs and oil cake..........-.-...2..-+.-- PeOIIONM ALOUpIC SOLVCt Ls i66i4 3s). . Veeme Socio eh AIST Lae e ae Eb leer Appearance and character of the crude oils...........0..4---s---2- 0 PEOIRVANI ONO TSO ood 2 nt. SRS 3 Es hore ide iso ata emldeepteimn hiv kort MORRMALISOUCOT ERG AUTISM OOLOUSL .\. geet ax 5 asieSialsanavreta oo /u» see's « rE aR Boh a An « MRS acy ie oa bh Sime Wash wisi Beh ee eine ca a bo My A 0 wns Sibloce’ bus Page. REVO ARN Ne ae 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 1051—1075. DEPARTMENT Butietin No. 1055.—MetrHops or MANurFraActTuRING Potato Cures: Page. MGremimetrom Ores k es ens ae A Sa cre 2 cata eae U0) a ar I Experimental methods making potato chips. ..-.-............-.-.-..-.- 2 Fats used in the experimental - WOK Nea ee Sk ee EI Ae a ae AS 3 Standard, method of making chips for the tests. .....::--.--.----4-------- 6 Handling the fat in making Chips! 3c BAS il ae 7 SUMO MME Ne Aa aot I a NR SUH ASCO er 9 Selectinespotatoes for chipstayscs 2... Paes Soe eke Ties Lo) ee Il Causesiottaltre in making ehips?::: See seek 2-8 aoe, 2a ee eee 12 Scorecard used: these*tests: #22222. Hoses Svat ss see ee ae 13 Comparative adaptability of varieties for making chips..-....---.-------- 14 Loss in peeling and quantity of chips obtained........--- PS Pl eae! occ 16 SIBIGTLINE A atelier 19 DEPARTMENT BuLuLeTIN No. 1056.—MARKETING COTTONSEED FOR PLANTING PURPOSES: SOUTCES OM SUpply~t cee coe ou... Lt ee es Oe 1 Selection ofjthejseedistocks! . seis 212 ee Ssh SU Li pe Ss ee 3 IP TePATALIOMA Ise 2. a Vee cesiiae .. . eee ne tien Gein ae a 4 Ginming 2 aes seo ae A On a 4 De laanipino sateen | AMIN eg Sa rr 5 iRecleanineandseradings (2... Bae A a ee fet Sie 12 Sackime svete awed gives Ss TU ee ae 16 SS LOT Cee eo Patches, eye ay cinte cio oye nial — Mindell boos Maat ec eS eye a or 16 Warehousejshouldtbewventilated =. eae sees se ee ee 17 StORMOOINMBACKAI LA LATA 00) 2: MA Aes BAO Eel HOP a ape eae 17 Stackimges sie sas. csi cas RETIRES. RE ODS OS, OE ONE, “CRE a a 18 Germ arom ses ic slots ees Sd A RUS os CEN a A 18 Causesiof low ssermmmation: (2.02. Jee Se ess 2 eee 19 Makame testa. oo 2 Uo. iene a aie fale ils ae 19 ihelshippimeytag ce wee AAPOR aoe ets at emai er eaters 5h 2) 20 sthevlot mummers Wise el oe Raye iyi ay eal segs eS ae eae a 20 Nellie ae ese eee Qece = 2 HOSA: fed AR nts i lo Pei + ye eee 21 Hxtrayagant, claims undesirable: -: Bets Seri sae. aay 1. seat 21 rwemames;foravanletiesi=. 20.2452. Reset yee He Gas one ee eee 22 Renaming syarieties.: oo... AA Pe ae el ee 22 Sales on basis of weight versus measure.....-......-.---------------- 22 Centifiedicottonseedis -meciee 32245 hes 2 reg SE hs ci panei See 23 Summary: 560242535. tye phe eps ty ieee Da irc np lay ee em 23 DEPARTMENT BuutietTiIn No. 1057.—THr CHauLMooGRA TREE AND SOME RELATED Species: A SURVEY CONDUCTED IN SrAM, BurmMA, ASSAM, AND BENGAL: Introductions 55 caer ek OSes see os ae ae sere eee ES ee ppg 1 History: oiehawlim oogray Onley yeh 5 aie pes Ae a ea oa ya Eg ae erage 3 Chemistry of chaulmoogra, hydnocarpus, and gynocardia Ollsste Yapaeeee 7 Recent information on the chaulmoogra tree and some related species. - 10 JEM COC DUS COAL MNANNCH 6 oo Seis soe dnaoonbeooscasceousseeosacss sc 10 TLV ONOCOT DUS! COSLONCOR LE 2. oi tE eee ee Soe eee Ne ee eee 12 MELO AO CONPDUSNCUTIASUU so a ok iees 02) MBO SRE ok eye eo) ee 14 MGROREOGENOSCURZUUR: NOM TOM 20 WME agi SLI SRO Ja) TS 15 VAISTET UGS LUC INU TIUCLCT.O COLTED Oypaae 9 Mi Na a aera eee 22 Gynocardiaodonata 21 e3eesee. - - ee eon en ce oes eee 23 Conclusions: 92-422 :caee Sides. eee eden tee leet ee 24 Recommendations: 24-54 2.4 .4- 2). GROG Oa Oe Oe ae ee 26 Jiiterature cited. 2s sete ei 2 EB ER a es 28 DEPARTMENT ButieTiIn No. 1058.—SreEriuiry or Oats: Introduction: i. 2244 .<45~ DAO EL TO OC gC eee 1 Experiments O1:1918 -2...22¢222222 24. Beene 2 emt. Oe eee 4 Experiments of 1920-1. 2 BIS 20 RO DNS Ot a Ie Oe 5 General-summary2. .~..22252etn 222+ Bek tetas ae cele tee Se 7 - CONTENTS. Dx¥PARTMENT Butietin No. 1059.—ResearcH METHODS IN TEH OrU>y oF Forest ENVIRONMENT: PereePeINORE Rw es 84s RORES EA wns 2: Hays Sea es a) PORT) RU En Measurement of environmental condition affecting forest vegetat on...... Simininc characteristics: of localitiyas< 4) senesced ees OUT SONS Ratunalelimatie tecions: G2) 7! Spi LECT) ATEN I MES a) SER URES Fase Knowledge of existing Weather Bureau stations necessary.-.......... Computation of all weather data by periods of growth and rest............ Special observation of climate and soil of locality Sec als ergs GAG Eh Fo Location of instruments for the study of the erowth of forest side Location of instruments for the study of condition affecting repro- LEAST Tie cee iaen is Spun i ca NERS erect = eg apa A eI ead a PererctmperitUres: as eee anen ss eae ere eres ee Ale CeO OTTO > Diab RETEEY oxi AUT Shee acs eae sere ch ae heel LE Me aC ARG NUE apd SR ch A ky Pererigt ra rntrOl Tot tae Meee |.) patients CMe neg OOD eT FO) ONS Peni OW NS | eens sree ste! Ske ee: Se TR Remrmoisitrernna sll (ucliqres. “semis sats) hCG 20 walt CONS tae Peo Sp CTL INTC ye aes ee hn Te Sees emveanny oR DORE PoP Re Sibietslssn cy mwenient jer ins me 295 4 seek means cs Se ees bt kN nds 2S Ye OM iBvaporation= — 222/220 29S. TT ts POT 8, «119 PH AAO MM Ps PReHOIGtHIE. SOKA eer Oa BAe creatine LOSE AEE VN CH Acts Biter field observationsiiy m4 aey So. See Nath Tyla sn os ae Internal or physiological observations.......>....v2%uela! sssaen ee abees Field observation, photographs, and maps.....-....-...-------+----+-+-:- JST ETT Ee Te MNS ee A - me LE eee Smee PEARY IETS Pram CICTEN COS. (88520 as Vann = ee EIS SMELT TL. Da wieey So elses DEPARTMENT BuLuetTIN No. 1060.—SitKa Spruce—Its Usks, GrRowTH, AND MANAGEMENT: Maaco EGO TE es SAN ee els a. eye AY A a TL SON aaa oe CU Geographic distribution and altitudinal VATISO) 2 ecg takin ke fe ii Paes ees RECTeM AUP pl ypad AMM AIC 20). 2 Oo CI CO DIF FY be HH SMooONININWWH eH SJo10 wmowwr. =—— os) woo aac 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 1051—1075, DEPARTMENT BuLuetIn No. 1073.—SomE CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF CALIFORNIA Avocabos DurRING GrowTH—Continued. Discussion of results— Page. Composition of standard varieties tested. -........------2202..-0.241 15 Correlation between maturity and composition....-.--...--.--.----- 16 Coneluisions!222 25. . 2s... 220: . . ress ee ee 22 DEPARTMENT BuLLETIN No. 1074.—CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES: Necessity oiielassification of wheat! :. Rees 32 rete 20s. 16k aie eee 1 Previousmmvestigations..2 io: 5. ...-: . .. Baee ae ee 2 Horeigniclassihcationss.2.. 2... . eee ea he sen: Eee 3 American Classifications yi10 2!) apg Sie ve ihe cut eee 7 Summary of previous classifications: -.............---22.2222.2222 222 9 Present investigationsy...... 2222): . . . Gee eS wes 4) ck Ga 10 Classification! nurseries os fu. 402). SERB OO Rss he Ue AG eae ee 11 Preparing descriptions, histories, and distributions..-.....--------.-- 15 Varietalinomenelature.<':-.-...- ees. s- e ee ive henwheat plants. se 2 8 paces ae... GENRES) 2 aa 22 Morpirological characters 522: 2: aes saesocae ae eee 23 ehystolopical characters: 12-22: : 2 aes eee eee see ee ee 47 Classification tolthe wenus,limtzcwm:: ~— "eg eae eee ee 48 Key to tieispecies or subspecies -'2 fase Banos eee oct ae eee eee 50 Commom wheat eo. <2shos5 0021.7: ee ee eee 50 Chibrwiteate222 Se52 S222 820 SD ee ee ee ee 172 Ronlardirwheats2 60 soos soe 2ts . Ee eee Oe oe 180 Drums with. 422s 2st 53a se AR eee eee et eee 183 MATT ees eo SS NY) irae Seat ate aoe ee ee 193 Spelitee sce Sse teers c ts ec lt: ees See Se ee One ce 195 Polasti wheat. Pity see hice 2 RE ASE EE a0 oe ies 197 Bamikoune ee sae Sess ON Se oS. Beene a Ne 198 Unidentutiedi varieties... 25... .- See sees 060 oa ee 199 Bsiimated acreageyol varleties) 2)... .. Sees. esee = ys oe 207 Diterature Cited vse: oc Ae. 6 = pa sais o-oo oe Ba ole 219 Iindexsto varieties and symomyms--.... Se Sseseee see.) a 231 DsPpaARTMENT BuLLETIN No. 1075.—THE WHIPPING QUALITY OF CREAM: Haetors influencing whipping quality 4s" -eie. Aces. 2h 2: aes 1 Experimental procedure. 2022 $iss si... Raber eee as es ee 2 Method of comparing stiffness of whipped cream. ..----------------- 2 Relation of various factors to whipping quality.........-----------.+---- 3 ‘“standing-up ’ quality ot whipped. cream...222-455—- 925 4422o- © eee 20 Whipping quality of powdered’ cream... #72 52..5.-- 2-4) 225-5 eee 21 Whipping quality of evaporated milk: .% 2-22. dope oo) soe one 21 SUMMA ie ie cee ee eo RI Oe os ac 21 63967—22 2 INDEX. Acidity— Bulletin No. cream, effect on whipping quality... Jee SE 1075 soil, titration methods and equipment forstudy...-......... 1059 “ Advance streak,’’? use and value in turpentining............... 1064 Agriculture, North Carolina, Catawba county, census data for ee rE ee oS TSS SE ene ee Pe ES OI 1070 Aurctait, manufacture from spruce wood . 222.222: 02.20.2222 1, 1060 Alabama, wheat acreage and varieties mehr. 2 A oc Oe ER 1074 Alaska— Per PulpIRGUBtEY fe 225e tessa. SSPE 2 1060 Sitka spruce— Ruemmrcnceand Imporignce. 0. MMe eS a Ti 1066 Pe oloeand elt. Volo LOO. pepe ki ee 1060 Alkali, black, in soil, titration methods and equipment. . rae 1059 Alkalinity, soil test, titration methods and equipment........... 1059 Anemometer, description and use in forest work, and cost. 1059 SALIENT Spruce Lees. 6. ya eee eat Sie eR 1060 Arizona, wheat acreage and varieties. ../.-.22.-2..-.--2-2-5-2-+-- 1074 Arkansas, wheat acreage and varieties: ~~. .5:22:.222ssse02202222 1074 Arlington Experiment ‘Farm, sweet-potato storage experiment.. 1063 Assam, explorations by J oseph Deel GC aa Ue dls eee a ae ta 1057 Asteriastigmam acrocarpa, similarity to chaulmoogra tree.....-.... 1057 Atmometers, use in evaporation studies, description, and cost. --. 1059{ Avocado— California, changes in composition during growth, bulletin Bye Chitrelt and pM: Chace: -sa2 ee nb o a 1073 composition, variety comparison, discussion of results........ 1073{ fat content, importance and relation to maturity............- 1073 harvesting, importance of maturity stage studies, etc.. 1073 industry in California, satus and magnitude................ 1073 investigational work, sampling and analysis methods: 2.3! 52. 1073 maturity Rridivsiions un stcse edt Pe MT Bag, 1073 uate recommend =e | AN A ke BON A) 1073 Avocados— auaiyere, mnetnods and-resulta' 2 -.. ne 2 DE 1078 California, changes in ppaposien during growth, bulletin by C. G. Church and EB. M. Chace.....-2 0 Soe 1073 composition at different stages of maturity, eight varieties. . . 1073 samples for analysis, collection, BLOTACE Meher asses ae ate OS 1073 SCM LING TEQUILOM + = srs sce | See ee ee es MD & 1073 Bascock, ©. J., bulletin on ‘‘The whipping quality of cream”’ 1075 Back, E. A., and Frank Rasak, bulletin on ‘‘Red cedar chests as protectors against moth damage’ ey. d-rerte I COANE 1051 Baw, Carveton R., J. H. Martin, and J. Arben Crarx, bulletin on ‘Classification of American w heat varigires: o> Act no. 7 1074 Bank storage, sweet potatoes, comparison with house storage. .. -. 1063 Barr, J. E. , bulle stin on ‘‘Marketing cottonseed for planting”. 1056 Basidiospores, wood-rotting fungi, experimental studies.......-.- 1053 Bares, Cartos G., and Rarpwary Zon, bulletin on ‘‘ Research methods in the study of forest environment” ee. Be ee eee 1059 Bearriz, James H., and H. ©. Tuompson, bulletin on ‘“Sweet- potato storage studics”’...............--2+: pases. Ges Loeearre 1063 Beetle— pine, injury to long-leaf pines, control studies. ............- 1061 Sitka spruce, habits, and injuries...............-...--2-+6- 1060 Page, 17-18 199-201 10-12 y 2,6,7 208 199-200 152, 156- 160, 168 1-22 5-9, 10— 14, 15-22 17-18 i 3-t 2 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 1051-1075, Bulletin No, Page. Bengal explorations by Joseph My WRock ae 2 ta) on eee eee 1057 19-22 Benzol extraction of oil from corn germs and oil cake...........- 1054 810,17 Big-stem Jersey sweet potato, keeping quality, comparison with 1063 ilies IOfhernarietles sie y ee ee ais eel hak Ae Cas unmUmR Ney ee Ve ee \ 14,17 Bins, sweet-potato, storage, comparison with crate storage........ 1063 13-14 Black Land Prairie, topography, nature of soil, etc.............. 1068 3 Blacks Waxy iBelt,’ soils: \et Coe c.: ot ceueurs ener Pgs = pl aig 1068 3 Bleaching,Wcornioil, use of fullers’ earth..5.--....252-..22222..2- 1054 13 Blight halo, ofoats, relation to sterility, investigations........... 1058 2-8 Boerner, H. G., and E. H. Ropus, bulletin on ‘“‘The test weight of grain: Method for determination of the accuracy of the ap- ys aU SIP oo SN Ue a AH ge 1065 1-13 Bolometer description and use in forest study................--- 1059 50,58 Borers AnjuEytospruce timber... ...... (gees en 1060 21-22 British Columbia, Sitka spruce— occurrenceand amportance 2... 2. - eee es ea 1060 4-5 Btand glole vandicub. pl Ol5 1918.0: Mien See ol 2 ea 1060 4,5 Broilers, fattening rations, composition and results.............. 1052 rb ‘Eas ? Brooks, Frep E., bulletin on ‘‘Curculios that attack the young fruits and shoots of walnut and hickory”’.............-------.- 1066 1-16 Burma,jexplarations by, Joseph B.jRock | 4 cea oe 1057 12-18 Bushel— weight for grain, testing apparatus and method, bulletin by HeGeBoermerand! WH. Ho Ropesis.. Sele se soe ei ee 1065 1-13 Wanichestersimeasure oni see jo0 . Nai) scale ata 1065 2 Butter fat— per cent in cream, influence on whipping quality.........-- 1075 15-16 production— gudamcome Over cost Of feeds... Besse een ye ee 1069 5-14 relation to calving season! YIUi (ADEE ia NOL Oe Ble. 1071 4,38-9 Buttermilk— feedy value dor POUltEye Weenie jos: eee yams ee aan eels 1052 4, 23-24 powdered, use in chicken feeding. ..-._........-2--+------- 1052 Butternut, curculio, description, distribution, life history, and COMERO! MEE ie siete g REPU 2 ERR ENED ROMY: WP TENE 1066 2=7, 16 California— avocado industry, status and magnitude..............----- 1073 i2 avocados, changes in composition during growth, bulletin by OCs. Clarwnelay eavel I, WE Claeyeei3 Se Of ae ese Obese es wa5k 1073 1-22 pear-growing locations, and quality of fruit.......-.-.------ 1072 3, 5-9 Sitka spruce— oceunmencelandamipontances 45 - Sees eee ee 1060 4-5 ovol, SIMs} Ghavol ore. IMME URS ne sabe 1060 4,5 wiheat-aiereaceand varieties... .-..20: Be. -ceceea sae sees 1074 209 Calvinge— month, relation to production and income from dairy cows - - 1071 7-9 season, influence on production and income from dairy cows, puller biz Ck Mel owellleye) -): = Seppe erin s/epteeyaa eer ate 1071 1-10 Camibimm sy sueuCctuneyan deine hone sas. ac «PORE een aera oo eee Vee aes ‘Relation of production to income from dairy cows” ...... Merulius lacrymans, cause of decay in timber, studies.......-...- Michigan, wheat acreage and varieties..............------------ Milk— evaporaked wihiljpp in) qual aigy si oie Ue ieee ces oe as of lime, preparation and use in whipping cream......--....- production— relation to calving seasons... - eames eM aete ievelc Bulletin No. Page. 1068 31, 33 1061 5-6 1068 12-15 1068 19-30 1068 21-22 1067 1-2 1061 6-13, 36-44 1068 12-15 1066 16 1053 3-41 1053 36-38 1053 3-41 1057 1-6 1068 12 1059 39-59 1075 18-19 1056 10 1061 49-50 1068 7 1060 8-10 1060 38 1060 22 1061 1-50 1060. 18 1061 40-41 8-38, 1067 4044 1074 211 1064 45-46 1060 37-38 1060 9-10 1060 27-28 1055 12-13 1072 16 1074 211 1073 2 1056 1-24 1074 1-238 1074 211 1074 211 1061 1-50 1071 10 1069 1-20 3) 11) 6 1053 ae 1074. 211-212 1075 ok 1075 18-19 1071 3-47-38 1069 14-19 * INDEX. id Milling— Bulletin No. Sincere’, nrethodsen sok NS sf TMI EN ON Oe 1060 value of wheat in, use as varietal character............----. 1074 Mills, timbers, decay from fungi, amount and costs.....-........ 1058 Minnesota, wheat acreage and varieties......--.--...---.-+-.--- 1074 Mississippi, wheat acreage and varieties. ........-.............- 1074 Missouri, wheat acreage and varieties............-2-.5552-2..5.: 1074 Moisture, soil, relation to forest growth and reproduction, study. . 1059{ Montana, wheat acreage and varieties. ......----.------ Sea 3 1074 Moths, clothes, control by use of red cedar chests, experiments. - 1051 Musical instruments, manufacture from Sitka spruce............. 1060 Mycelium, wood-rotting fungi, studies, description and growth... 1053 Nancy Hall sweet potato, keeping quality, comparison with other 1063 { ELT ELE s Soe RS ee \ Naval stores— agreement, Forest Service and operators of Florida National PES ae REM be pa Fas Nata p estado ln ACS cpap Gans are reve BELATED 1061 mipeneny HIS Oreal NOLES: Hons. hots SESS cs lead age 8 1064 Nebraska, wheat acreage and varieties......-.........-+-+------- 1074 Nevada, wheat acreage and varieties.............-.------------- 1074 New Hampshire, wheat acreage and varieties.........-.....----- 1074 New Jersey, wheat acreage and varieties.............-.2.-2...--. 1074 New Mexico, wheat acreage and varieties.....-......:----------- 1074 New York, wheat acreage and varieties..............-.2:.-.--+-- 1744 Nomenclature, code for wheat varieties.......-.........------+-- 1074 North Carolina— ; Catawba County— agriculture, census data for 1850-1920.................-- 1070 farm management, bulletin by J. M. Johnson and E. D. Sig Te Sens ot 2k Se Re ELe RN e as ae aan CAB Ug CUR 1070 Wiest acteace and varieties: {1.0.00 .2S8sqe wlan miatloiutar 1074 North Dakota, wheat acreage and varieties..............--------- 1074 Nutrients, soil, chemical analysis and tests...........-...----+-- 1059 si injury to long-leaf pine seedlings, cutting recommendations. 1061 ats— inoculation experiments, 1918, 1920..................-.---- 1058 sterility— pubetan by: Charlotte Hott... sas.2nsd Beech be 1058 reminGn of halo blights eijwiLs. awa. eireb mpheoo. beat s 1058 ca wheat acreage and varieties.............-5...2222255.0005 1074 at — chaulmoogra— PHUMIETTY: Of: U2 sss: Begin). oils, 1057 iustory audruse cite? su: spade. lege ieee. matagide 1057 Bpeeiue forleprlos yee s 22 5 a= ~~ hin lavas ERIM. FL Ey 1057 MBG AML treatment Of LEDTOSY, 3. nn =~ <,2015 FIsi2 persia teen eee ciate 1057{ cormn— RGHZOL CXtlactiom ss erate fee 2 He Rae eae ie 48 . 1054 Diesebine with fullers? earth... Ae cncinc. = eee ee ae 1054 character and composition, review of investigations. -.. - . 1054 constants, physical and chemical............--.........- 1054 CLEOMOLIZATI hye servers vier a PREP cP Ee andichenenshdvere MEEBO 1054 extraction, experimental work.....-.........--.----++.- 1054 extraction, selection of materials for different processes. . 1054 MCULLALIZITIS WITH CANSULC. « qe Prain, Davin, discovery in regard to chaulmoogra seed. .....-.- Precipitation, rain and snow, measurements in forests....... Ava bets Psychrometer, description‘and use, and cost. ......-...22++-++-- Pulp, paper, manufacture from Sitka spruce. .....---.+-+.-+++-+ Pumping plants— drainage, tests in Southern States, bulletin by W. B. Gregory. Bulletin No. 1064 1061 1061 1061 1061 1061 1064{ 1061 1064 1061 1064 1064 1061 1064 1064 1061 1064 1064 1067 1050 1059 1059 1059 1059 1074 1060 1063 1055 1055 1055 1055 1055 1055 10554 1055 1074 1052 1052 1052 1052 1067 1057 1057 1059 1059 LO60 1067 11 Page. 5, 12-17 1-50 3-5 103-109, 136, 137 164-167 107-109 166-167 66-70, 120 197-198 18-19 17 1,19 12-13 1-2 2-3, 6 1-20 13-14, 19 11-12, 14-16, 19 16-19, 20 180-183 20-22 1-24 1-24 20-21 5-6 7-10 5, 6 60-65 144-146 7-8 1-54 12 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 1051—1075, Pumping plants—Continued. in South— Bulletin No. Page. operation) cost of various types. . 2 a200..4\-4- ac eeen- 2: tests at various points, conditions and results........... Pumps, drainage, types for drainage plants in South............- Pyrheliometer, description, and use in forest study, cost, etc....- RaBAK, Frank, and E. A. Back, bulletin on “ Red cedar chests as protectorsiagaimst moth damage’): .....:..2s242-2424742022-- ee Radiometer, description, and use in forest study..............-.. Radiomicrometer, description, and use in forest study..........- Rations, poultry, fattening in the packing house...............-.- Red cedar chests, use in protection against moths...............- Reforestation— long-leaf pine— lands! methods/and: times. 15 2.-. . Gas gen oa Possibilities crowth Tate, etc... .).-Beses: soe. e eee 3 seed-tree/law of Louisiana.....0..+- =. 9 se 0 Fee Rent— black lands of Texas, contracts and relation of landlord and contracts, provisions on 259 rented farms on black land...... ‘Reseeding long-leaf pine, seed-tree methods, seedlings, etc....-. Resin passages, significance in unterpentined trees, and uses. - - - - Rhode Island wheat acreage and varieties...............---.----- Ripening avocados, changes in stored product.........---.-.--- Roaches, agent in spread of fungus spores..........-------------- Roasters, fattening rations, composition and results............... Rock, Josrru F., bulletin on “The chaulmoogra tree and some re- MAA ted SPECies V2) ito Seana sas oes RRS ASO AVE Root-rot, corn, relation to character of endosperm of seed, bulletin Redon? NOt SOSMDTOSt i -- c's 2 eerseen ere ER OA OF LORE RIL, 5 Ropss, E. H., and E. G. Borrner, bulletin on “ The test weight of grain: Method for determination of the accuracy of the appa- i ratUs Yee. 25). SOI OIE, OBO LO SEES ORE OTBID Rosin— distillation of product of long-leaf pine, description....-...-- production— BUBUAAVETALC. osixdoe wt ca awe 5 ~ eae aa ee decrease) 1906=192 a HAO) (ae TER LO raL epee from second-growth long-leaf pine, yield average ........ Rot, corn root, relation to character of endosperm of seed, bulletin long ohm SRE rOstea sate oe SNe nis OR rey gat gga onesie Rotations, spruce forest, possibilities...........-.-..---2--2------ Rust, broom-forming, injury to Sitka spruce.......--.-----.----- ‘Sanvers, J. T., bulletin on ‘‘Farm ownership and tenancy in the Black iPraimeiolMexas: 7. scene. + sesee ss SSeS eee Saps, osmotic pressure, determination from freezing point, table. . ‘Saw-timber, long-leaf pine, yield of trees of various sizes.......- meald: pear, In storage, Causes: oso...) 20. Fete ciel rayeietere teres “‘Scrape.’’? See Oleoresin. ‘Seed— corn, occurrence of root-rot organism, studies..............--- cotton— annual seeding requirements, sources of supply.-...-.---- CATCH OUMMING Sooo See ek 2... ee ee oe ee delinted, weight, size, and appearance......-.....-..--.-- germination test, factors affecting, etc....-.-.-.-.----.--- marketing for planting purposes, bulletin by J. E. Barr. - planting stocks, selection methods and conditions gov- erHine) PUTEbY ><) 558 2 A OE ve Cie) ER preparation for planting and improvement methods...... purity certification, neglect and need.-..-.........-.-..--- reclaiming, grading, sacking, and machinery......-....-- 1067 44,54 1067 6.44 1067 2-3 1959. “50159 1051 1-14 1059 49 1059 49 1052 1-24 1051 11-13 1061 41-44 6-13, 1061{ 36-44 1061. 40-41 1068-19-22 1068 - 20-21 1061 37-41 1064 9-10,12 1074 215 1023 16-22 1053 37 10, 12-17 1052 ae 1057 1-29 1062 1-7 1065 1-13 1064 3-4 1061 22 1061 24 1061 22-25 1062 1-7 1060 32. 1060 18 1068 60 1059 198 1061 16-22 1072 15-16 1062 2-7 ee 1056 4-5, 23-24 1056 11-12 1956 18-20, 24 1056 1-24 1056 1-2,3-4 1056 4-16 1056 ~—«-28, 24 1056 12-16, 24 INDEX. Seed—Continued. cotton—Continued. Bale Dy weizht and measure... 22. so2 ook e oe eee ee storage in sacks and stocks, methods.....-....-...-....-. COI IN GELS per tom lee: WE. VION ee aes ae. long-leaf pine, production and germination..................- Sitka spruce, quantity and high germination........-......- Seeding, long-leaf pine lands, methods and time.................. Seedlings— forest, wilting coefficient, determination..................-- Sitka spruce, establishment and requirements...-..........-. Seed trees, law, for Louisiana, summary......-...--2.2222-:2-05 Shipping tags for cottonseed, data requirements...........-.---- Shrinkage— sweet potatoes in storage— experiments with different varieties--..............:.+.- wae explarsions by Joseph F.Rock..\. ..2522.--2+-+--/... 222255 2/42 2. sae. moisture, relation to forest growth and reproduction, study... Soils— absorption of moisture, determination, studies............... forest— MPL ET CTIMIMAIIOUS 20 3 be ee oe ine Bam sce Sacee mechanical analysis, method suggested............---.. PiMEtEA COPING LOUD (45 31-55 og orala eta RS Sara a a Ms hygroscopic coefficient determination.................------- moist, freezing point study in forests..-.......-------.--0--- IED NESATING SUUMCICAS ie ateiscs ss ae vale cals sec eee ae epee ia eee 1060 pat requirements, soil, climate, and light..-.............--- 1060 15-16 size, age, growth, and characteristics..............--..-: 1060 ne Stamiduan dvammnual ete. i vps = eee ee eee AEC, SES ia 1060 4-5 stands; composition and volume: ...%..2.35..../052422 2% 1060 13-15 uses, growth, and management, bulletin by N. Leroy Cary 2222 BGS (E el Lie SRN (id. (SERRE DT | tT Ceeye 1060 1-38 volume tables for Oregon and Washington. .....-.-.-... 1060 33-37 wood!) characteristics and Uses)...2 325 eos we eee 1060 5-8 yield ‘of lumber at different ALES PORES ee ena 1060 27-28 sine? o Oates pulletingbivas Charlottesllotthees=sseeeee eee eee 1058 1-8 Storage, sweet potatoes— comparison of house storage with bank storage....-.-......-- 1063 6-7 studies, bulletin by H. C. Thompson and James H. Beattie. - 1063 1-18 Srrait, E. 'D. , and J. M. Jonnson, bulletin on ‘‘ Farm manage- ment in Catawba County, N. C. RO an ll | up tate 1070 1-23 Sugar, addition to whipped cream, effect on Quiallatyes Nees 1075 19-20 Sunlight— effect on germination of fungous spores. .......-.----...---- 1053 9-11 nature and relations to plant growth in forests..2..-...2..+.: 1059 41-49 recorder, thermometric description and use in forest study. -- 1059 50-51, 59 \ Sweet potatoes— acreage, production,.and value, 1922ja;s295 osha: ese 1063 1 keeping qualities— obiseveral varieties since: ae ness 2 ae ae iy sie ee 1063 1-12, 17 under different handling and storage methods......--.--- 10634 ae storage— conditionsan varlous sections: +>) > Skee ene. eee ees 1063 2 studies, bulletin by H. C. noni eon and James H. Bedttio iso) her ae oc MRS a OI 1063 1-18 Tags, shipping, for cottonseed, requirements......-.-.---.------- 1056 20-21, 24 » Tannin, content of pines, relation tooleoresimseiyajsje his sisee) tase 1064 il Taraktogenos kurzit source ‘of true chaulmoogra oil, habitat, etc.... 1057 { Panbahae See also Chaulmoogra tree. Temperature— cold storage, for Bartlett Deans ess) eee eer ee eee 1072 13-15 effect on germination of certain fungous spores.......--.--.-- 1053 6-9 studies in relation to forest growth and reproduction ahaha d oh hep 1059 13-38 Tenancy— and farm ownership, in Black Prairie of Texas, bulletin by Joes an Gers sce Ges. 2 esisee tee. Ses Sia ae 202k 1068 60 \ INDEX ‘Tenancy—Continued. : black land— Bulletin No. 280 gd DRIER eRe Se onc boca Sober] Done pESE er seasde ck 1068 increase from smaller farms, 1880-1920......--...--.---. 1068 time required for tenants to attain various Btagesh! you ek 1068 bonus-rent— BEN OPULAEED Ye aprotinin) ta sla ere ERY oUt 1068 practices aa Wp beveke Vand gee oo ia gy ates ey Vo Aa ena art 1068 extent and growth in black-land area, 1880-1920. ........... 1068 Tenants— families, living standards and cost....2: 255... Ztaralel 1068 share, black ‘land, various employments and years em- SLT ET. - Sy SEGA 0 eR I 1 Ve RE 1068{ Tennessee— red cedar. See Cedar. mbeaiacreare and vyarieties:../.\).... cece ss ee ascehineaee se 1074 Terpenes, BegBETCNee nn GURPEMUING = ose) = 2-6 a= ele = ice ycinnn 1064 “Test weight,’ grain, determination, apparatus for, bulletin by E. G. Boerner and E. H. 1 0 oY e's ER HR IR a ea Lm Ns - 1065 Tester, “‘weight-per-bushel” of grain, description. ........-.---. 1065 Testing, grain weights per bushel, apparatus and method, bulle- tin by E. G. Boerner and EB. H. "Ropes. FR 1 Ie ON eee 1065 Tests, drainage pumping plants in Southern States, bulletin by W. B. SL DET a ie ae TS CNR 0 1067 Texas— black land, relation between tenure and education.......-.-- 1068 Black Prairie, farm ownership and tenancy, investigation, , SD LTETNS LNG RIS(@0) 0 2 aR en US A Ne ee a 1068 land laws, landlord lien, and homestead exemption, provi- LLiGS .- ke eee = se ee er RS 1068 wet lands, drainage operations, pumping-plant tests....-..-.- 1067 Meeainieteice and varieties: » 6... ee oa oe 1074 Thermograph, solar, description, and use in forest studies......-- 1059 Thermometers, use in measuring air and soil temperatures, cost, VELL 6 2 Neale ERA OMEN ee IRS D'oh em ee SLE 1059 Thermopyle, description, and use in forest study.............---- 1059 immmeione—leal pine stands... = 2 ae 8s re we ec ee eee 1061 Tuompson, H. C., and JAmes H. Brarrtis, bulletin on ‘‘Sweet- SEMETEABRISEAOOUSHGLCS anne ac roo 3 A nr a 1063 Tideland spruce. See Spruce Sitka. Timber— long-leaf pine— production possibility for southern cut over lands... -...- 1061 wAclavol trees Ol -VarlOus Sizes. 52. assole lee ee ese 1061 Joss Eas ga/oya4 gW 0g ee eee ee Se ae el el 1061 PMR OrOCUCTION. Clr. see TM eats ota stesa en cit 1061 Timbers, decay, relation to certain fungi, bulletin by Walter H. ER ie age te a acs aE be 1053 Tineola biselliella, control by cedar chests-. _crt eer 1051 Tracheids, formation and fnCtlOn In! trees. 245. stench ess oe Als 1064 Trametes pint, description and injury to spruce trees...........- 1060 Trametes serialis, cause of decay in timbers, studies.........-.--.-- 1053 Transpiration, studies in forests, methods...........-.-..------- 1059 Trees— forest, physiological observations, suggestions.........---..-- 1059 long-leaf pine, stands, age, number, size, yields per acre, etc.. LOGL need of light, measurements, methods, and apparatus. . 1059 pine, growth, height, and diamete Pe) We. 1 Nan pan Cline oe a ear ae 1061 ETC ISAS CATION oe ore oe on eee» Salers tensa oe 1074 Trost, Joun F., bulletin on ‘‘ Relation of the character of the en- te dosperm to the susceptibility of dent corn to root rotting”. Turpentine— OTIORUEIONT 5.555 nete oletely © ole s'sin's «thes = ¢ plan =e e 9 2'6,0 250 a\pieig's's ='s'e distillation product of long-leaf pine, description............- 1064 L064 25-26, 38 49 34-36 1-18 171-172 19-22 46-59 10-13 48-207 1-7 4 3-4 ve Weight, 16 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. Turpentine—Continued. production— annual aVETERS RRMA) MMMM) |.) Al aga SER a a from second- srowth longleaf pine py) £i ae jee ek See See Turpentining— data ofequivalents, values, ete------ 22) mn. =... 2. Eee effectioupiimiber. ei hi A a 2 ee Se Be eta experiments, yields ete:(. PEG! 22 layne Pen teeelat se) cee Florida National Forest, agreement between Forest Service ANG /GPeLators, ve hoe ee ees as + 92 sees Oe Dee BEE e eae practices, sum) sreldsy profits; ete? q-gebereses -Saoieen) heed size of timber, lease specifications, etc. . - suggestions for— J ORBEN CH BU GLENS GING aN ay a RMD yh 5 ual ae led IN a deol research and experiments. . SSNS CHaGl SWS NOINs oo Ceo Ueeiea s sadesac4eeeesaeecoo ac wigs icubsuse 1 transpiration Studies’. -seneh sess ne yo Utah swheatacreaseand-varlewesss: .-. Sees ans st eee Vanes, wind, use in forest, and cost of installation. ........-.--- Vapor— movement in soils studies. - POrEssune PALER esc Seo Tan cea Mame amennes fe een ee Vegetation, forest, environmental conditions, measurement... .. Vermont awheat acreage and varieties: ~~. see ease een ee Virginia— red cedar. See Cedar. wheatmencaceand varieties: ...... 0. seeeea es 7 cee ae Viscogen, preparation and use in siGiopine Crean te ee ee Vospury, MarGARET Connor, bulletin on ‘‘Methods of manu- facturing DORVTONC TDS AS age a eiae Sls = Sa Be x 12 37.8 34.1 33.8 4.30 5. 66 74 10. 70 .82 C.; 380A, at 36° C. Bul. 1053, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. FUNGI STUDIES OF IMPORTANCE IN THE DECAY OF BUILDING TIMBERS. (X 523.) Fic. 1.—Oidia of Lenzites sepiaria from malt-agar culture. Fic. 2.—Stages in formation of chlamydospores of Trametes serialis on secondary mycelium in malt agar, with a few thin- walled chlamydospores. Fic. 3.—Oidia and mycelium of Lenzites sepiaria upon fibia of cockroach allowed to roam over wood block culture over night. FUNGI OF IMPORTANCE IN THE DECAY OF TIMBERS. 27 (Buller, 6, p. 428; 7, p. 6; and Jaczewski, 26, p. 407). Under these circumstances the question naturally arises whether or not secondary spores might be produced by some of these organisms and thus ac- count for the rapidity with which decay spreads in certain types of buildings. In certain places in mills, as basements and between floors, for example, light may be insufficient for fruit-body forma- tion, yet this lack of light and the abundance of moisture would be highly favorable for the growth of superficial mycelium, and hence, perhaps, for the production of secondary spores. With these possi- bilities in mind, considerable attention was paid to the observation and study of the secondary spores formed by the five organisms in question. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE OF SECONDARY SPORE FORMATION. GENERAL SUMMARY. The subject matter relative to secondary spores has been well sum- marized by Lyman (37). His conclusions (p. 202) were: That a ma- jority of the hymenomycetes have no secondary spores; that oidia are common among the Polyporacee and Agaricacee and are con- fined to these two families; that chlamydospores occasionally occur in connection with the basidial fructification and are quite widely distributed on the mycelium of all families; and that conidia and other highly specialized methods of reproductions (bulbils, etc.) are rare and occur more frequently in the Thelephoracez than in the higher families. Since Lyman’s paper, only scattering references to secondary spores have appeared. Of these only a few are of interest here. Marryat (32) found chlamydospores of Pleurotus subpalmatus in the vessels of wood-block cultures, Rumbold (49) not only re- ported secondary spores for the first time in a few species of wood- destroying fungi, but studied their formation, germination, and sub- sequent development. Falck produced two comprehensive volumes, one in 1909 on the decay produced by species of Lenzites (15) and the other in 1912 on the decays caused by species of Merulius (16). In these he takes up in a thorough way the occurrence, the methods and conditions of formation, and the germination under various conditions of the oidia in the species considered. In the later work (6, p. 182- 133) he makes some general remarks upon these oidia. He considers them of two kinds—a transition, or tiding over, form (Ubergangs- fruchtform), as found in Merulius, and a true secondary form (Nebenfruchtform), as found in Coniophora. The former he says are not formed under normal conditions (natiurlichen V erhdlinissen) but only when conditions become unfavorable for growth of the fungus. Their viability is reduced and they are capable of being disseminated only to a slight degree. The latter are found under 28 BULLETIN 1053, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. normal conditions of growth, and their formation is independent of environmental conditions. They germinate immediately and nor- mally, are formed in loose dustlike masses, and are easily removed. The former he considers a facultative transition form and the lat- ter a true propagative form. Hotson in two papers (22 and 23) extended and summarized our knowledge of bulbils and similar propagative forms, and added the finding of bulbils in a few basidiomycetes. Learn (28), in his cul- tures of Plewrotus ostreatus, noted the formation of new mycelial growths at the base of wood-block cultures below blocks bearing oidia. This suggested the shedding of these oidia from above. Weir (62) noted a Ptychogaster form in connection with Trametes suaveolens growing naturally, and he remarks that in the damp woods of Idaho there are many abnormal polyporoid forms, some of them conidial. In Homes officinalis, Faull (18) found chlamydo- spores not only in cultures but also in the crust of the sporophores. The writer has found the chlamydospores of this fungus on rotting wood in nature (55). Hiley (20) reviewed the status of the conidia of Fomes annosus. REFERENCES TO THE OCCURRENCE OF SECONDARY SPORES IN NATURE. The references to secondary spores occurring in nature are quite numerous. Perhaps the least understood of the fungi producing secondary spores are the Ptychogasters, which are considered ab- normal conidial or chlamydospore fructifications of the polyspores. Observations on the Ptychogasters occur chiefly in the older litera- ture, and reference may be had to Boudier (3 and 4), De Seynes (50, 61, 62, 53, 54), Richon (48), Ludwig (30), Patouillard (42 and 43), Brefeld (5), and Weir (62). Then there are the spores reported as conidia, called “ wet-weather spores” by Lyman (3/, p. 135), who said that until these spores had been more thoroughly investigated their nature must be regarded “as uncertain and their occasional production as of doubtful importance to the fungus.” (Cf. Patouil- lard, 41, 44, 46; Eichelbaum, /7; and Massee, 33.) Of the references to secondary spores in nature the status of which is more certain, we might mention the following: Chlamydospores on the hairs of the stipe of Pleurotus ostreatus (Patouillard, 39) and in the hymenium (Matruchot, 34); chlamydospores in groups or singly in Trametes rubescens (Daedalea confragosa) (Patouillard, 40) ; chlamydospores in fruit bodies of Polyporus sulfureus (De Seynes, 50, 61); conidia (chlamydospores according to Lyman, 3/, p. 186) in the hymenium of Hydnum coralloides (De Seynes, 53); terminal chlamydospores in Fistulina hepatica (De Seynes, 50) ; chlamydospores on and in the pileus of Vyetalis asterophora and V. parasitica and conidia of Fomes FUNGI OF IMPORTANCE IN THE’DECAY OF TIMBERS. 29 annosus found by Olsen (Brefeld 5, p. 177) ; chlamydospores between the margin and the poriferous zone in Polyporus bambusinus (Patouillard, 45); conidia (chlamydospores according to Lyman) in Stereum disciforme and all over the hymenium of Aleurodiscus oakestii and A. amorphus (Patouillard, 46); conidia on racemose organs in the hymenium before formation of basidiospores in species of Alewrodiscus (Burt, 9, p. 198) ; viable chlamydospores on branches of the stipe of Collybia racemosa (Stefan, 59); helicoid conidia on hairs arising from the young veil and from the margin of the developing pileus of Lentodiwm squamulosum (Lentinus tigrinus Fr.) (Lyman, 31; p. 186) and on the mycelium overgrowing the gills of the same fungus (Murrill, 38, p. 296). Further, Cool (20) found oidia coming from the pileus during basidiospore casting of Collybia velutipes (p. 9) and chlamydospores along with the basidiospores of Sphaerobolus stellatus (p. 21). She also reports that she found a great many more oidia than basidiospores in the hymenial layer of Collybia velutipes and wart-shaped heaps of oidia on the dried fruit bodies of this fungus. Long and Harsch (29) report the chlamydo- spores of Lentinus lepideus. We have already mentioned Weir (62) and the observation of Faull (78) and the writer (55) on the chlamy- dospores of Fomes officinalis. REFERENCES TO THE IMPORTANCE OF SECONDARY SPORES IN THE DISSEMINATION OF FUNGI. There are a few references to the importance of secondary spores in the dissemination of fungi. Eidam (72, p. 245) concluded that there was no natural secondary reproduction in Cyathus striatus and that the oidia were an abnormal appearance, although they might tide over unfavorable conditions. In speaking of the failure of Hartig’s isolation trench in checking the spread of Pomes annosus, Brefeld (5, pp. 153 and 179-185) suggested as the reason that conidia were formed by this fungus that they infected the cut roots and thus produced more disease than normally occurred. Brefeld never found conidia growing naturally, although he reports such a finding by Olsen (4, p. 177), but he obtained them in the laboratory on mycelium collected in the woods (4, p. 153). Hiley, in reviewing the status of the conidia of this fungus in relation to decay of the larch, reports (20) the production of conidia in wood cultures and upon sterilized soil. He believes it probable that the mycelium of Fomes annosus “may grow on forest soil and bear conidia” (p. 115) and that one of the means of infection of the host is by these conidia (pp. 115, 121, 123). Tubeuf (60, p. 103) had nothing conerete to offer on the propagation of Merulius by secondary spore forms, but emphasized the theoretical importance of such. He pointed out that 30 BULLETIN 1053, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the basidiospores of the dry-rot fungus are difficult to germinate and may have low germinability in nature. He further states that the chlamydospores (asserted to be oidia by Falck) if found outside arti- ficial cultures would probably contribute to the spread of the fungus. Falck (16, p. 132), on the other hand, maintained that the oidia of Merulius were not true propagation organs. The same writer in 1902 (13, p. 319) remarked that insects must spread the oidia of Hypholoma and Pholiota, which are formed in abundance on firm substrates. He believed that the formation of oidia on blocks infected with Collybia velutipes placed in moist moss illustrated the im- portance of these spores in nature. These oidia were formed in col- onies in the air, undoubtedly for insect dissemination, he avers, but he doubts whether they could be detached by the wind. Falck (25, p. 144) also maintained that the tertiary oidia of Lenzites sepiaria “doubtless play an important part as organs of propagation, inas- much as the spores might easily be carried away by animals in creases of their bodies, etc. A somewhat rough shaking loosens single end-spores from one another, and these can easily be collected on slides held beneath.” Miinch (87, p. 577), however, believes that oidia do not possess in nature the great significance for the spread of the fungus which Falck claimed for them. He observes that the conditions of oidia formation are not clear, that their formation in nature is not possible in cases that have come to his attention, because of the inability of the fungus to get to the air, and that direct observations of oidia in nature are lacking. He asserts that this form of reproduction is merely a makeshift at best and not a normal reproductive form. Faull (18, p. 201), as mentioned above, found chlamydospores in the crust of sporophores of /omes officinalis and expressed the belief that they are a means of reproducing the fungus, although the viability of these chlamydospores appearing naturally was not tested. ‘The finding of chlamydospores of this fungus in nature by the writer (55) has suggested their importance in the spread of the fungus. OCCURRENCE OF SECONDARY SPORES IN CULTURES OF THE FUNGI STUDIED. Of the five fungi used by the writer in these studies, secondary spores have been found in four. Oidia have been previously re- ported in cultures of Lenzites sepiaria by Rumbold (49) and Falck (15) and chlamydospores also by Falck. Long and Harsch (29) reported the occurrence of chlamydospores in cultures of Lentinus lepideus. As far as the writer knows, the chlamydospores formed by Trametes serialis have not been reported, although Mez (39, p. 116) mentioned a brown corky Ptychogaster form of this species FUNGI OF IMPORTANCE IN THE DECAY OF TIMBERS. ous with deep pores. Brefeld (5, p. 106) reported in Trametes serialis aerial oidia which would germinate and made the observation that their formation occurred only on young mycelium, never on old. The writer’s cultures have developed no oidia. The oidia and chlamydospores in Lenzites trabea have not been reported. No secondary form has been noted in Homes roseus. Chlamydospores have been seen in cultures of Lenzites sepiaria, but have been scarce. They could not have appeared abundantly in Falck’s cultures, for he little more than mentions them. All his references to secondary spore production by this fungus are to the oidia, and he describes no physiological tests upon the chlamydospores. Oidia have appeared to a limited extent in the submerged my- celium of Lenzites sepiaria, chiefly in the hanging agar drop cultures (Pl. IT, figs. 3 and 10), while the aerial oidia have been quite abun- dant with some variations (PI. ITI, figs. 4-7; and Pl. VIII, fig. 1). Oidia have been quite abundant also in wood cultures. What little aerial mycelium forms on either wood or agar breaks up almost en- tirely to oidia. The occurrence and method of formation has been described sufficiently by Falck (75, pp. 189-140). He describes pri- mary, secondary, and tertiary oidia according as they are formed on primary, secondary, or tertiary mycelium. The secondary oidia are never formed on the natural substrate of the fungus, according to him, but abundantly on agar, while the whole superficial growth of tertiary mycelium on agar or wood forms oidia in moist air. Chlamydospores and chlamydosporelike bodies (PI. ITI, figs. 12 and 13) are found in small numbers upon the submerged mycelium. The secondary mycelium of Lenzites trabea develops oidia in abundance (Pl. LV, fig. 2) and chlamydospores in fair numbers (PI. IV, figs. 3 and 4). The oidia are formed on the superficial mycelium and the chlamydospores on the submerged so far as can be determined. Some of the latter spores are thin walled and appear much like rounded oidia. Many of the chlamydospores show the contraction of the protoplasm and the abandoned cross walls (Pl. IV, fig. 4), as in the chlamysdospores of 7rametes serialis and Lentinus lepideus. The chlamydospores of 7rametes serialis (Pl. IV, figs. 6, 7, 8; and P|. VIII, fig. 2) have appeared regularly in the writer’s cultures and fairly abundantly. They are found for the most part on the submerged mycelium, although sparingly in the aerial fruiting my- celium at the upper end of older agar slant cultures, where abortive fruit bodies are formed. The method of development is that de- scribed by Lyman for other basidiomycetes (3/, p. 150, pls. 19, 21, and 22) and illustrated in Plate IV, figure 6, and Plate VIII, figure 2. The chlamydospores of Lentinus lepideus (P\. V, figs. 4 and 5) have never been found abundantly. They occur in a living condition ao BULLETIN 1053, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, on the submerged mycelium after about 10 days, but are empty and dead in 2 months. The secondary spores of the four species considered here are formed on all the nutrient media tried, although in varying quanti- ties, but Lenzites sepiaria is the only species so far known to form them on wood. Temperature has no appreciable effect on the forma- tion of these spores on malt agar. Early in the work it seemed as if light favored the formation of oidia by Lenzites sepiaria and that darkness prevented it, but a variety of tests, variously checked, failed to give absolutely consistent results. Yet it was found that cultures started in the light nearly always En oidia, while those in the dark seldom did. GERMINATION STUDIES OF THE SECONDARY SPORES. The oidia of Lenzites sepiaria germinate readily and to practically 100 per cent on agar. The cylindrical oidia as a rule simply lengthen out at either end or both ends with no swelling, so that no sign of the original oidium is left (Pl. III, fig. 11). Germination may be- gin, however, with a swelling of the oidium, at one end or in the middle, and the germ tube may then arise from either the swollen or unswollen ends (PI. III, fig. 9). The club-shaped oidia which are found occasionally may send out one or more tubes from either the swollen or unswollen ends. In water the tubes are attenuated. The chlamydospores of Lénzites sepiaria germinate normally (PI. II, fig. 10). The oidia and chlamydospores of Lenzites trabea germi- nate in a manner similar to those of ZL. sepiaria. The chlamydo- spores of Zrametes serialis (Pl. 1V, fig. 9), and Lentinus lepideus send out tubes from either end of the ellipsoid spores, although usually from only one end. Germination tests were carried out upon the oidia of Lenzites sepiaria and Lenzites trabea and the chlamydospores of 7'rametes — serialis. The chlamydospores of L. sepiaria and L. trabea were not readily obtainable in sufficient quantities and were hard to separate from the oidia. The chlamydospores of Lentinus lepideus could not be obtained in a condition which would allow of their manipulation. The chlamydospores of all four fungi occur chiefly, if not entirely, on the submerged mycelium in the agar. Those of Trametes serialis could be obtained in sufficient numbers by scraping the submerged mycelium, with as little agar as possible, from the surface of the culture, then macerating this material between two thick glass slides which had been previously flamed and finally removing this macer- ated mixture to sterile water blanks. The chlamydospores were separated from the mycelium by this process and the mycelium sufficiently injured so that it did not interfere with germination FUNGI OF IMPORTANCE IN THE DECAY OF TIMBERS. ae tests. This method was not entirely satisfactory, but was the best that could be used in view of the lack of chlamydospores in quantity on the aerial mycelium. This method would not produce results with the chlamydospores of Lentinus lepideus, however, because they could not be separated from the mycelium, which appeared to be rather tough. The spores were not abundant in the first place, and germination tests on the few obtained were unsatisfactory, because the mycelium in the macerated mass overgrew the germinating chlamydospores. All of the secondary spores germinate readily on various agars or in tap water. In distilled water numerous tests have shown that the oidia germinate sparingly (usually less than 1 per cent and produce only a small amount of attenuated mycelium. The chlamydo- spores could not fairly be tested in distilled water, on account of the difficulty in obtaining the spores free from mycelium, agar, etc., as explained above. On red spruce the secondary spores germinate normally as to time and manner, although forming attenuated mycelium. TEMPERATURE. The curves shown in figure 3 represent the effect of temperature upon the germination of oidia of Lenzites sepiaria and L. trabea and the chlamydospores of 7’rametes serialis. It will be noted that most of the oidia of both species germinated even at the extreme temperatures. At 5° C. (22° F.) in 5 days only 35 per cent of the oidia of L. sepiaria had germinated, 75 per cent in 11 days, and 80 per cent in 14 days. At 44° C. (111° F.) the oidia of both ZL. sepiaria and L. trabea germinated to practically 100 per cent in 20 hours. The oidia of L. sepiaria germinated most rapidly at 36° C. (97° F.) and that of L. trabea at 32° C. (89° F.). About 75 per cent of the chlamydospores of Trametes serialis ger- minated between 20° and 32° C. (68° and 89° F.). In three weeks 35 per cent germinated at 50° C., but none germinated at 36° in re- peated tests. The rate of development was optimum around 28° and 32° C. (82° and 89° F.). A comparison of the cardinal temperatures for rate of germina- tion of the basidiospores and secondary spores with growth of the mycelium of the five fungi studied shows that they correspond quite closely. The optimum for basidiospores extends over a little wider range of temperature than for the secondary spores or mycelium. The maximum temperature for the germination of the basidiospores is somewhat higher, by a few degrees, than for the growth of the mycelium of all five fungi, The oidia of Lenzites sepiaria and L, 34 BULLETIN 1053, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. trabea showed little or no retarding effect in percentage of germina- tion at 44° C. A single test upon the effect of cold on the oidia of Lenzétes sepiaria and chlamydospores of Z'rametes serialis was made. Slides A = oe ETE & A Whim = & FER CENT FER CENT I CYPONS FER BOMOUKS O 8 2F- Ge #0 48 DEGREES CENTIGRADE Hig. 3.—Effect of temperature upon the germination of the oidia of Lenzites sepiaria and L. trabea and of the chlamydospores of Trametes serialis. A, Effect of temperature upon the percentage of germination, showing the maximum percentage obtained, regard- less of the time element; B, percentage of germination in 20 hours; C, rate of growth of the thalli in 20 hours (shown in microns). were left out of doors over night when the temperature varied from —19° C. to —23° C. (—3° to —10° F.). The next morning germina- tion tests were made, and it was found that the oidia had not been FUNGI OF IMPORTANCE IN THE DECAY OF TIMBERS. 35 affected, practically 100 per cent germination resulting, while the chlamydospores did not germinate at all. LIGHT. The diffused light from an east window during the winter appar- ently had little effect on the germination of the secondary spores. The oidia of Lenzites sepiaria and L. trabea germinated almost per- fectly in diffused light or in the dark, although the development was somewhat more rapid in the dark. The same is true of chlamydo- spores of 7'rametes serialis, except that the percentage was between 50 and 60 rather than around 100.’ In the month of May, 10 hours of direct sunlight acting upon the secondary spores upon agar not only inhibited germination during that period but prevented subsequent germination altogether. Ex- periments upon the killing effect of direct sunlight upon these spores when resting could not be carried out, inasmuch as it was impos- sible to separate the effects of drying from the effects of sunlight, because, as will be shown, drying materially reduces the percentage of germination. DRYING. There have been a few reports of the resistance of secondary spores to drying. De Seynes (50) found that the conidia of Fistulina hepatica germinated after four years. Brefeld (4, p. 153) said that the conidia of Yomes annosus retained their viability for one year and a few germinated after two years of drying. He also stated (5, p. 27) that the oidia of PAlebia merismoides resisted drying for a month and some germinated after six months. According to Falck (15, p. 146) the aerial oidia of Lenzites sepiaria are resistant to dry- ing. Olidia subjected to drying in the presence of calcium chlorid germinated after one year, and they were not killed after an exposure of several hours to 60° C. (p. 147). On the other hand, Lyman (31, p. 149) concluded that in general the retention of viability by oidia is of short duration. The writer’s results with the oidia of Lenzites sepiaria and L. tra- bea agree with Lyman’s conclusions. Agar cultures with an abun- dance of oidia and oidia on glass slides were dried for varying periods. After one day of drying the percentage of germination was much reduced, and usually to less than 1 per cent. In some cases, however, a very small percentage of oidia would germinate after a few months at room temperature, perhaps because of pro- tection of certain oidia by large masses of others. It was thought that if any resistance to drying should be manifested it would be on the natural substrate for the fungus, but the results were the same as on agar. 36 BULLETIN 1053, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The chlamydospores of 7rametes serialis proved no more resist- ant. It is possible, however, that the conditions under which they were formed (in a moist medium) and their previous wetting in obtainmg them may render them more sensitive to drying. ALTERNATE WETTING AND DRYING. The oidia of Lenzites sepiaria and L. trabea do not survive alter- nate wetting and drying. Oidia were removed in quantities from an agar plate culture to glass slides. Two slides were retained as checks and the oidia on two others were wet with sterile distilled water and immediately put away until dry. One slide was allowed to dry under room conditions, while the other was dried in the presence of calcium chlorid. Germination tests were then made. After 16 hours the controls showed practically perfect germination, while of the wet and dried oidia three Van Tieghem cells showed less than 1 per cent and one 5 per cent germination. Repetitions of the test gave similar results. EXPERIMENTS UPON THE DISSEMINATION OF THE OIDIA OF LENZITES SEPIARIA. Flask cultures of Lenzites sepiaria and L. trabea obtain a much better start than cultures of the other fungi, because of the oidia. The water in the tube containing the bean-pod cultures used as inoculum becomes a suspension of oidia, and these are distributed all over the flask to start centers of growth, whereas cultures of fungi possessing no oidia can only be spread from the inoculum and consume about one month in covering all the blocks in the flask. In, the light of these facts a few experiments were carried out with a view to ascertaining by what means and how easily the oidia of this fungus might aid in dissemination. It is realized that any points made here are contingent for their importance upon the question as to whether or not the oidia occur naturally. Inasmuch as Falck (7/3, p. 319) doubted whether wind would be of any importance in disseminating oidia, the writer set out to de- termine how easily the oidia might be removed from plate cul- tures. A new transfer was inverted over a sterile agar plate, sealed with gummed paper, and set away in the incubator. In the first test with ZL. sepiaria, an abundance of oidia were found upon the sterile agar plate after a week. Repetitions gave inconsistent re- sults, but it was shown that small numbers of oidia may be released during their formation. Shaking a plate culture over a sterile agar plate yielded results similar to those reported by Falck (15, p. 144). Oidia were dislodged in some cases, but not in all. The same test was tried with Collybia velutipes, and pure cultures were obtained from oidia shaken off. FUNGI OF IMPORTANCE IN THE DECAY OF TIMBERS. 37 Attempts were next made to dislodge oidia from agar-plate cul- tures by air currents from an electric blower delivering 1.4 cubic feet per minute. The apparatus was so set up that at least a part of the oidia removed would lodge on sterile agar plates. From cultures with a very heavy development of oidia, a very few were dislodged, as determined by microscopic examination of the surface of the sterile agar plates and subsequent growth. An electric fan making a much stronger current of air removed larger, though not consider- able, numbers of oidia. Oidia on wood blocks from cultures were not removed any more readily, inasmuch as they are formed only in moist atmospheres and are themselves moist and sticky. The same procedure was tried with other species showing secondary spores in culture. Individual oidia or small clusters were likewise dislodged from agar cultures of Collybia velutipes. The stronger current of air removed a few of the chlamydospores of Yomes officinalis, but oidia could not be removed from cultures of Contophora cerebella or Merulius lacrymans or chlamydospores from cultures of Trametes robiniophila or Fomes igniarius. It is thus seen that secondary spores of most of the species mentioned do not appear to be adapted to dissemination by wind. Oidia are readily removed by contact. Prints can be made upon glass slides or cover slips by simply allowing the glass to touch the surface of a culture. More sticky substances like agar retain more oidia than glass. The obvious application of these facts is insect dissemination, for insects with sticky feet and hairy or bristly ap- pendages should be able to remove and carry away large numbers of the moist oidia. A cockroach caught in the laboratory was placed upon agar cultures of Lenzites sepiaria for a few minutes. Exami- nation of the roach’s appendages under the microscope disclosed large clumps of the oidia stuck to the tarsi. Another roach placed upon an agar culture was transferred to a sterile agar plate, allowed to remain a few seconds, and then the plate was incubated. In three days the plate showed a winding growth of Lenzites sepiaria and contaminations, chiefly Penicillium, presumably where the roach had walked over the agar during his captivity. A cockroach was then placed in a flask containing a wood-block culture of Lenzites sepiaria and examined after a few minutes. A few oidia were found upon the pads of the tarsi and on the bristles of the legs and antenne (PI. VIII, fig. 3). Water will dislodge large quantities of oidia from agar or wood cultures. Sterile water dropped from a pipette upon the inoculum of a new transfer will carry or splash large numbers of oidia on the surrounding sterile agar. From the above results it is concluded that oidia occurring either on wood or agar are moist, sticky spores, not adapted to air dissemi- 388 BULLETIN 1053, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. nation, but excellently adapted to dissemination by insects or drip- ping water. The practical application of these facts is obvious. If secondary spores occur outside of artificial cultures, there is no place more suitable for their formation than in the structures of wet oc- cupancy referred to. In these structures, where conditions are moist, there would be insects or animals, such as sow bugs and cockroaches, and there is commonly dripping water, precipitation water upon cool masonry, around cold-water pipes, ete. OCCURRENCE IN BUILDINGS OF THE SECONDARY SPORES OF THE FUNGI STUDIED. The step following the demonstration that oidia can disseminate fungi, such as Lenzites sepiaria and L. trabea, is to prove that such oidia occur naturally in buildings. The outstanding fact is that many European writers have suggested the importance of the sec- ondary spores in the economy of the fungus, if found naturally, and that no one has yet reported such occurrences. The writer has little information on the subject. The only secondary spores found in mills are the chlamydospores on the mycelium overgrowing the gills of fruit bodies of Lentinus lepideus (Pl. V, fig. 6). These are formed quite abundantly, but thus far nothing is known of their ability to disseminate the fungus. The spores which the writer found were on old fruit bodies, and tests as to their ability to germinate failed. There is, of course, the possibility that freshly formed chlamydo- spores may germinate, and, if so, they would disseminate the fungus much as do the basidiospores which are overgrown and imprisoned by the chlamydosporic mycelium. This means of dissemination would appear to be not so efficient a method as by the basidiospores which they replace, because the basidiospores should be lighter and hence capable of wider dissemination. It is known that certain fungi do form superficial mycelium within the structures referred to in these studies as well as out of doors. Falck. (15, p. 154) relates that the fruit-body-forming mycelium (fruktifikative Oberflachenmycel) of Lenzites sepiaria is found on moist places on beams, and he states (15, p. 143) that it is capable of producing oidia, although he has not reported the finding of these oidia in buildings. The writer has examined some superficial myce- hum of Lenzites sepiaria and L. trabea upon planks secured from mill roofs, but the presence of oidia or chlamydospores as yet has not , been definitely established. SUMMARY. In textile and paper mills prevailing conditions of humidity and temperature provide a favorable environment for the development of wood-decaying fungi. Under such conditions poorer grades of FUNGI OF IMPORTANCE IN THE DECAY OF TIMBERS. 39 timber, such as inferior southern pine, spruce, and hemlock, which have been used in mill construction in recent years, are readily at- tacked and destroyed. Hence, the losses through decay by a certain group of fungi are large. Because of the practical importance under mill conditions of Lenzites sepiaria, L. trabea, Trametes serialis, Fomes roseus, and Lentinus lepideus, studies upon the physiological relations of the basidiospores, mycelium, and secondary spores were undertaken, particular attention being paid to those factors influenc- ing intramural dissemination. All five of these fungi have been found fruiting more or less com- monly upon mill roofs or in basements. Lenzites sepiaria and L. trabea do more damage to coniferous roof timbers than has here- tofore been reported. The basidiospores of the five fungi will Peainate upon various agars, or wood, in tap water, and irregularly in distilled water. At 40° C. the basidiospores of Lenzites sepiaria will germinate in large percentages, while those of L. trabea and Fomes roseus give small percentages. The spores of the other two fungi will not germi- nate at this temperature. The optimum temperatures for rapidity of germination are: Lenzites sepiaria, 82° to 35° C. (89° to 97° F.) ; L. trabea, 28° to 32 ° C. (82° to 89° F.) ; Trametes serialis, 30° to 32° C. (86° to 89° F.); Fomes roseus, 28° to 32° C.; Lentinus lepideus, 28° C. Large percentages of the spores will germinate at the lower temperatures within the range of growth for each fungus if sufficient time is allowed. The percentage of germination is the criterion which best shows the effect of temperature upon the viability of the spores. Diffused light did not affect the germination of the spores. The basidiospores of these fungi would not germinate in direct sunlight in May, and after two days of exposure few or no spores would germi- nate when put in the dark. Two days of direct sunlight in May acting upon dry spores usually killed all but a very small percentage, if not all of them. The germ tubes showed no phototropic responses. In drying tests, basidiospores of Trametes serialis and Lentinus lepideus (aged 10 days and 7 months, respectively) were killed in about 10 weeks’ exposure at 28° and 32° C. (82° and 89° F.) and in about a month at 36° C. (97° F.). With fresh spores at 40° C. (104° F.), Lenzites sepiaria survived two months and 7'rametes serialis six weeks in an unfinished test. Spores of Yomes roseus five months old were killed in one week at the same temperature. Alternate wetting and drying is destructive to the spores of these fungi. This applies either to the wetting with free water or exposure to atmospheric moisture and subsequent drying. Basidiospores of Lenzites seyiaria gave a germination of 25 per cent after 2 years and 10 months of storage in an ice box; those of 40 BULLETIN 1053, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, L. trabea 50 per cent after 1 year; spores of Trametes serialis 2 per cent after 4 years and 3 months; those of Yomes roseus less than 1 per cent after 18 months; and those of Lentinus lepideus less than 1 per cent after 2 years nelly months. All but Homes roseus have the ability to cast large numbers s spores and are shown to be capable of doing so within buildings. Lenzites sepraria cast Spores six times in experiments upon the ability of the sporophores to survive successive wetting, casting, and drying. A fruit body of Trametes serialis in the dark in the fungus pit cast spores for 15 days successively. Observations upon fruit bodies of Trametes serialis in the bottom of a closed fungus pit showed that slight convection currents of air carried spores upward and throughout the pit. In mills, air cur- rents caused by machinery, humidifiers, and heating pipes are of im- portance in disseminating spores cast into the air. Sow bugs were observed in this pit beneath the sporophores and were found to bear large numbers of the spores upon their bodies and appendages. The possible importance of insects and other animals in the dissemination of these wood-destroying fungi is suggested. A description of the macroscopic and microscopic characters of malt-agar cultures of the fungi, with a key for identification, is given. The cardinal temperatures for mycelial growth were found to be as shown in Table 5. TABLE 5.—Cardinal temperatures for the growth of the mycelium of certain wood-destroying fungi. Cardinal temperatures (° C.). Species. Minimum. | Optimum. Maximum. | Lenzites sepiaria.........-.... AES est ee a Se | About 8...) 30 to 34....| Above 40. enzites trabea sas eee eee Le a ae ba kala epee Le aS 28 to 30....| Little above 36. ITFAMObCS|SEMIANIS oe seis cis etm eisicers idee bs cies seo ee ele WATOUts eos eee peewee 32 and 37. WOMES|TOSCUS nese see ebie se tisebe seeeesek Ce tan ees) oye Below 4...| 30......... Above Lentinus lepideus. .--...-- Le sieeteiaieey carers Sivas ae eis ae sess | About 8...) 28......... Hetpeant 36 and 40. Secondary spores of certain hymenomycetes have been reported by several writers as occurring naturally, and their importance in the economy of the fungi has been suggested. Studies were made upon the secondary spores of four of the fungi under consideration in view of their possible occurrence in a mill environment. Oidia and few chlamydospores were found in agar cultures of Lenzites sepiaria, and oidia also in wood cultures, and both kinds of spores in agar cultures of Z. trabea. Chlamydospores were found in agar cultures of Trametes serialis and Lentinus lepideus. Certain of the physiological relations of the oidia of Lenzittes sepiaria and L. trabea and the chlamydospores of Trametes serialis FUNGI OF IMPORTANCE IN THE DECAY OF TIMBERS. 41 were studied. The germination temperatures corresponded closely with those of the basidiospores of the respective species except that the oidia germinated better at the higher temperature tried. Dif- fused light hall no effect upon germination. Ten hours of direct sunlight in May prevented the germination of the secondary spores studied. Neither the oidia nor the chlamydospores resisted drying nor alternate wetting and drying. The oidia of Lenzites sepiaria and L. trabea are essentially sticky and were found not to be adapted to dissemination by air currents. They are, however, adapted to dissemination by insects and water. This adaptation may possibly be of some importance in case oidia are found to produce naturally in mills. Thus far, however, the only secondary spores of these fungi found in mills are the chlamydospores of Lentinus lepideus upon the fruit bodies. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) LITERATURE CITED. Bratr, R. J. \ 1919. Fungi which decay weave shed roofs. (Abstract.) In Phyto- pathology, v. 9, no. 1, p. 54-55. 1920. Prevention of decay in the timber of pulp and paper mill roofs. In Pulp and Paper Mag., y. 18, no. 1, p. 7-10; no. 2, p. 27-30. 12 fig. Boupizr, EMILE. 1887. Description de deux nouvelles espéces de Ptychogaster et nou velle preuve de l’identité de ce genre avec les Polyporus. In Jour. Bot. [Paris], t. 1, no. 1, p. 7-12, 1 col. pl. 1887. Note sur une forme conidifére curieuse du Polyporus biennis Bull. Jn Bul. Soe. Mycol. France, t. 4, fase. 1, p. lv—lix, pl. 3 (col.). BREFELD, OSCAR. 1889. Untersuchungen aus dem Gesammtgebiete der Mykologie. Fort- setzung der Schimmel- und Hefenpilze. Heft 8. Leipzig. BuLier, A. H. REGINALD. 1905. The reactions of the fruit-bodies of Lentinus lepideus Fr., to external stimuli. Jn Ann. Bot., v. 19, no. 75, p. 428-439, pl. 23-25. 1905. The destruction of wooden paving blocks by the fungus Len- tinus lepideus Fr. Jn Jour. Econ. Biol., v. 1, no. 1, p. 2-18, pl. 1-2. 1909. Researches on fungi. An Account of the Production, Liberation, and Dispersion of the Spores of Hymenomycetes Treated Botanically and Physically. Also some Observations upon the Discharge and Dispersion of the Spores of Ascomycetes and of Pilobolus. xi, 274 p., 83 fig.,5 pl. London, New York, etc. Burt, EDwARgD ANGUS. 1918. The Thelephoracee of North America. IX. Aleurodiscus. In Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard., v. 5, no. 3, p. 177-203, 14 fig. CooL, CATHARINE. 1912. Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Sporenkeimung und Reinkultur der héheren Pilze. In Meded. Phytopath. Lab. Willie Commelin Scholten, III, p. 5-38, 45-46, 4 pl. Ubersicht der Litteratur, p. 37-38. EICHELBAUM, * FELIX. 1886. Uber Conidienbildung bei Hymenomyceten. Jn Bot. Centbl., Bd. 25, no. 8, p. 256-259, 1 fig. EIDAM, EDUARD. 1876. Die Keimung der Sporen und die Wntsteliung der Mruchtkorper bei den Nidularieen. Jn Beitr. Biol, Pflanz., Bd. 2, Heft 2, p. 221~248, pl. 10. ‘9 44 BULLETIN 1053, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, (18) Fatex, RicHarp. 1902. Die Cultur der Oidien und ihre Riickfiihrung in die h6here Fruchtform bei den Basidiomyceten. Jn Beitr. Biol. Pflanz., Bd. 8, Heft 3, p. 307-346, 1 fig., pl. 12-17. (14) 1904. Die Sporenverbreitung bei den Basidiomyceten und der _ bio- logischen Wert der Basidie. in Beitr. Biol. Pflanz., Bd. 9, Heft 1, p. 1-82, 2 fig., pl. 1-6. (15) 1909. Die Lenzites-Faiule des Coniferenholzes. eine auf kultureller Grundlage bearbeitete Monograph’e der Coniferenholz bewohn- enden Lenzites-Arten. Jn Moller, A. Hausschwammforschung- en in amtlichem Auftrage, Heft 3, p. ix—xxxii, 1-234, 24 fig. (18 col.), 9 pl. (partly col.). Jena. (16) 1912. Die Meruliusfaule des Bauholzes. Neue Untersuchungen iiber Unterscheidung, Verbreitung, Entstehung und Bekimpfung des echten Hausschwammes. Jn Moller, A. Hausschwamm- forschungen in amtlichem Auftrage. Heft 6, xvi, 405 p., 73 fig., 17 pl. (partly col., 13, 17 fold.). Jena. (17) 1916. Zerstérung des Holzes durch Holzschidlinge. 1. Pilze. In Troschel, Ernst. Handbuch der Holzkonservierung, Teil 1, p. 46-147, fig. 28-82h. Berlin. (1S) MBA J. Ta 1917. Fomes officinalis Vill.,.a timber-destroying fungus. In Trans. Roy. Ganad. Inst.. v. 11, pt. 2, no. 26, p. 185-209, 1 fig.; spl. 18-25. Literature cited, p. 207-208. (19) Frreuson, MarcGaret C. 1902. A preliminary study of the germination of the spores of Agaricus campestris and. other basidiomycetous fungi. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Piant Indus. Bul. 16, 438 p.. 3 pl. Bibliography, p. 39-40. (20) Hinry, W. EH. 1919. The Fungal Diseases of the Common Larch. xi, 204 p., 73 fig. (in text and on 21 pl.). Oxford (England). Bibliography, p. 193-199. (21) HorrMann, HERMANN. 1860. Untersuchungen tiber die Keimung der Pilzsporen. Jn Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. [Pringsheim], Bd. 2, p. 267-887, pl. 26-82. (22) Horson, JOHN WILLIAM. 1912. Culture studies of fungi producing bulbils and similar propa- gative bodies. Jn Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., v. 48, no. 8, p. 227-3806. 12 pl. Literature, p. 303-306. (23) 1917. Notes on bulbiferous fungi with a key to described species. In Bot. Gaz., v. 64. no. 4, p. 265-284, 6 fig.. pl. 21-23. Literature cited, p. 283. (24) Hoxtr, F. J. P 1915. Dry Rot in Factory Timbers. Ed. 2. 107 p., 70 fig. Boston. (Inspection Dept. Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies, [Publ.] No. 32.) (25) Huvupparp, HENRY G. 1892. The inhabitants of a fungus. Jn Canad. Ent., v. 24, no. 10, p. 250-255. (28) (29) (30) (31) (34) (35) (36) (47) (38) FUNGI OF IMPORTANCE IN THE DECAY OF TIMBERS. 45 JACZEWSKI, ARTHUR DE. 1910. Note sur le géotropisme et le phototropisme chez les champig- nons. In Bul. Soe. Mycol. France, t. 26, fase. 4, p. 404408, 6 fig. Keitt, G. W. 1915. Simple technique for isolating single-spore strains of certain types of fungi. Jn Phytopathology. v. 5, no. 5, p. 266-269, 1 fig. LEARN, C. D. 1912. Studies on Pleurotus ostreatus Jaequ. and Pleurotus ulmarius Bull. Jn Ann. Mycol., v. 10, no. 6, p. 542-556, pl. 16-18. Bibliography, p. 552-554. Lone, W. H., and Harscu, R. M. 1918. Pure cultures of wood-rotting fungi on artificial media. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, vy. 12, no. 2, p. 33-82. Literature cited, p. 81-82. LUDWIG, F'RIEDRICH. 1880. Ptychogaster albus Corda, die Conidiengeneration von Polyporus Ptychogaster n. sp. Jn Ztschr. Gesam. Naturw., Bd. 53, (¥olg. 3, Bd. 5), p. 424-481, pl. 13-14. LYMAN, GEORGE RICHARD. 1907. Culture studies on polymorphism of Hymenomycetes. Jn Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v. 33, no. 4, p. 125-209, pl. 18-26. Literature, p. 203-209. Marryat, DororHea C. EK. 1908. Chlamydospore-formation in the basidiomycete Pleurotus sub- palmatus. Jn New Phytol., v. 7, no. 1, p. 17—22, 1 fig., pl. 1. MASSEE, GEORGE. 1889-90. A monograph of the Thelephoreae. Jn Jour. Linn. Soe. [London], Bot., v. 25, no. 170, p. 107-155, pl. 45-47, 1889; vy. 27, no. 181-182, p. 95-204, pl. 5-7, 1890. MATRUCHOT, LOUIS. 1897. Recherches biologiques sur les champignons. Jn Rey. Gén. Bot., t. 9, no. 99, p. 81-102, fig. 16-34, pl. 4. Merz, CARL. 1908. Der Hausschwamm und die tibrigen holzzerstOrenden Pilze der menschlichen Wohnungen. IJbre Erkennung, Bedeutung und 3ekimpfung. 7, 260 p., 90 fig., 1 col. pl. Dresden. Nachweis der im Buch zitierten Literatur, p. 250-254. MOLLER, ALFRED. 1907. Hausschwammuntersuchungen. Jn his Hausschwammforschungen in amtlichem Auftrage, Heft 1, p. 29-52, pl. 1-5. Jena. MuUncH, Ernst. 1909. Uber die Lebensweise des ‘“ Winterpilzes,”’ Collybia velutipes Curt. Jn Naturw. Ztschr. Land u. Forstw., Jahrg. 7, Heft 12, p. 569-577, 3 fig. MURRILL, W. A. 1915. Agaricales. Agaricaces. 26. Lentodium Morgan. In No, Amer, Flora, v. 9, pt. 4, p. 296. New York. 46 BULLETIN 1053, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (39) PATOUILLARD, NARCISSE. 1881. Sur quelques modes nouveaux ou peu connus de reproduction (40) (41) (42) (43) (44) (45) (46) (47) (48) (49) (50) (51) (52) (53) (54) 1882. 1883. 1885. 1887. 1890. 1891. 1894. RHOADS, secondaire chez les hyménomycétes. Jn Rev. Mycol., Ann. 3, no. 10, p. 10-12, pl. 16, fig. 1. Observations sur quelques hyménomycétes (Cyphella curreyi, Trametes rubescens, Agaricus spissus). Jn Rev. Mycol., Ann. 4, no. 18, p. 35-88. Quelques observations sur ’hyménium des basidiomycétes. In Rev. Mycol., Ann. 5, no. 18, p. 167. Contribution & V’étude des formes conidiales des hyménomycétes : Ptychogaster aurantiacus Pat. sp. nov. In Rev. Mycol., Ann. 7, no. 25, p. 28-29. Hyménomycétes d’Hurope. Anatomie générale et Classification des champignons supérieurs. 7, 166 p., 4 pl. Paris. (Maté- riaux pour l’historie des champignons, t. 1.) Les conidies du Solenia anomala. Jn Bul. Soc. Mycol. France, t. 5, fase. 4, p. 128-129. : Polyporus bambusinus, nouveau polypore conidifére. Jn Bul. Soe. Mycol. France, t. 7, p. 101-108. Espéces critiques d@’hyménomycétes. Jn Bul. Soe. Mycol. France, t. 10, p. 75-81, 1 fig., pl. 3. ARTHUR S. 1918. The biology of Polyporus pargamenus Fries. N. Y. State Col. Forestry Tech. Pub. 11, 197 p., 31 pl., 6 fig. Syracuse, N. Y. Literature cited, p. 194-197. (Syracuse Univ. [Bul.] v. 18, no. 5.) RIcHON, CHARLES. 1877. Notes sur trois espéces intéressantes de champignons. Corticium amorphum, Ptychogaster albus, Pilacre poricola. In Bul. Soe. Bot. France, t. 24, p. 148-152, 6 fig. RUMBOLD, CAROLINE. 1908. Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Biologie holzzerstérender Pilze. In SEYNES, Naturw. Ztschr. Forst. u. Landw., Jahrg. 6, Heft 2, p. 81-140, 26 fig., 1 col. pl. Literatur, p. 139-140. JeeDE: mS 1874-88. Recherches pour servir 4 l’histoire naturelle des végétaux - 1884. 1890. 1891. 1893. inférieurs. 3 fasc., 16 pl. (partly col.) Paris. Les conidies mycéliennes du Polyporus sulfureus Bull. Jn Bul. Soc. Bot. France, t. 31 (sér 2, t. 6), p. 296-299. De la distribution des Ceriomyces dans la classification des polyporés. Jn Bul. Soc. Bot. France, t. 37 (sér. 2, t. 12), p. 109-112. Conidies de ’Hydnum coralioides Scop. In Bul. Soe. Mycol. France, t. 7, p. 76-80, 1 fig. Un Ptychogaster du Congo. In Bul. Soc. Bot. France, t. 40 (sér. 2, v. 15), p. Ixxxiv—Ixxxvi. (55) SNELL, W. H. 1921. Chlamydospores of Fomes officinalis in nature. Jn Phytopathol- ogy, v. 11, no. 4, p. 173-175, 1 fig. (56) (57) (98) (59) (60) (61) (62) (63) FUNGI OF IMPORTANCE IN THE DECAY OF TIMBERS. 47 SPAULDING, PERLEY. 1904. Two fungi growing in holes made by wood-boring insects. In Mo. Bot. Gard. 15th Ann Rpt., p. 73-77, pl. 25-27. 1905. A disease of black oaks caused by Polyporus obtusus Berk. In Mo. Bot. Gard. 16th Ann. Rpt., p. 109-116, pl. 13-19. 1911. The tinmber rot caused by Lenzites sepiaria. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 214, 46 p., 3 fig., 4 pl. Literature, p. 31-37. STEFAN, JOSEPH. 1905. Beitrag zur Kenntniss von Collybia racemosa Pers. In Hed- wigia, Bd. 44, Heft 3, p. 158-167, pl. 5. TUBEUF, CARL VON. 1903. Hausschwamm-Fragen. Jn Naturw. Ztschr. Land u. Forstw., Jahrg. 1, Heft 3, p. 89-104. WEHMER, CARL. 1912. Hausschwammstudien. I. Zur Biologie von Coniphora cerebella A. et Sch. Jn Mycol. Centlbl., Bd. 1, Heft 1, p. 2-10, 4 fig. WEIR, JAMES R. 1914. Notes on wood destroying fungi which grow on both coniferous and deciduous trees. JI. Jn Phytopathology, v. 4, no. 4, p. 272-276. ZELLER, SANFORD M. 1915. Notes on Cryptoporus volvatus. In Mycologia, v. 7, no. 3, p. 121- 125, 1 fig., pl. 159. Literature cited, p. 125. © Raa at il UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 11, 1922 COMPARISON OF CORN OILS OBTAINED BY EX- PELLER AND BENZOL EXTRACTION METHODS. By A. F. St®vers, Chemical Biologist, Office of Drug, Poisonous, and Oil Plant Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page CLD Dn oe ee 1 | Experimental work—Continued. Character and composition of corn Removal of the solvent___-_---~- 9 (oi cet 2 ee ee 2 Appearance and character of the Review of previous investigations__ 2 CRUG ECHO SE Ieee ea oe Reve ees 10 PSB PVIIBOIAL-sWODK 2 222 So 8 Renminie Phevoulses a= see ee att) Method of selecting material_____ 8 Comparison of the finished oils___ 14 Benzcl extraction of corn germs Sum ais > eee eee ed ee a ee 16 TICE OINCAKC. 2. 2 tt 8 | bitenaturedcited= ==) s= se 17 INTRODUCTION. The production of oil from corn germs resulting from the manu- facture of hominy, starch, glucose, and sirup has become a well- established industry in the United States. The methods of obtain- ing the oil from corn germs, also the economic relation of its production to the manufacture of corn products in general, the utilization of the oil, and its future in the vegetable-oil industry of this country have been described in a bulletin of the Department of Agriculture (47).1_ Later,a technical study was made of methods for refining corn oil for edible purposes, and a second bulletin was published giving the cost of refining, together with plans and esti- mated cost for a refinery (44). The present paper deals with still another phase of the corn-oil industry, that of extracting the oil by means of a solvent. With few +The serial numbers (italic) in parentheses refer to ‘ Literature cited" at the end of this bulletin. ’ 2 BULLETIN 1054, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. exceptions vegetable oils in the United States are at present obtained from the various oleaginous materials by means of pressure. In the case of cottonseed oil the hydraulic press is universally used, while in the production of oil from corn germs the oil expeller has been everywhere adopted. In European countries the extraction of vege- table oils has been to a considerable extent by means of organic sol- vents, and within the last decade this method has been receiving in- creasing attention in this country. The success of this method, pro- vided it is found acceptable from an economic standpoint, depends in the case of edible oils largely on whether the oil produced thereby can be freed from the solvent so thoroughly that its flavor will not be affected. This method is finding some application in the produc- tion of corn oil and is being considered both for extracting the oil from the germs directly and for extracting the residual oil from the so-called oil cake, or expeller cake. In the present paper comparison is made of the general characters and quality of three types of corn oil which have been prepared from the same general lot of material so as to make their source compara- ble. The three types are as follows: (1) Oil produced by expellers -at the plant, (2) oil extracted with benzol from germs from the same source, and (3) oil extracted with benzol from the oil cake obtained ~ from the first-mentioned process. These oils were neutralized, bleached, and deodorized, their physical and chemical constants de- termined, and their color, odor, and taste compared. Such a com- parison should show whether there is a possibility of preparing corn oil by benzol extraction that will be equal to that PEE oSL by the expeller method. CHARACTER AND COMPOSITION OF CORN OIL. Like most vegetable oils which have acquired economic prominence, corn oil has been the subject of much study and investigation. The literature shows that such investigations have been mainly along three distinct lines: (1) Its composition and physical and chemical] constants, (2) the methods of its production and its economic rela- tionship to the manufacture of corn products in general, and (3) its uses 1n the industries. In order to show briefly the extent and char- acter of these investigations, a résumé of the literature is herewith given. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. The first investigation of corn oil seems to have been published in 1822 by Bizio (6), who describes the oil as a reddish yellow liquid with a faint vanilla odor and balsamic taste, one constituent of which resembles stearin. In 1832 Cartis (8) called attention to the oil ob- CORN OILS. 3 tained from corn during the distillation of brandy, which he found suitable for lamp oil and as a substitute for linseed oil in paints. The first investigation of the composition of the oil appears to be that reported in 1866 by Hoppe-Seyler (20), who found that the saponi- fiable fat of the corn contains stearin, palmitin, and much olein. Investigations of the oul followed rapidly after this. In 1867 Alle- mann (2) confirmed the presence of palmitic and stearic acids. Konig (23) in 1871 reported that the oil obtained by ether extraction was at first a colorless liquid, but on standing became solid and quite yellow in color, from which he concluded that the oil belonged to the class of drying oils. The methods of obtaining the oil from corn also began to receive notice. In 1880 Schulz (47) described a method of removing the oil from corn mash, and in the next year Leeuw (24) suggested the removal of the germ from the remainder of the cracked kernel by flotation in brine of 15° Bé. Maisch (27) in 1885 called attention to the fact that corn oil was being used to some extent as a lubricant and for soap making. In the following year (1886) Shuttleworth (42) reported on the specific gravity of the oil. In the same year we find the first mention of the oil produced by hydraulic pressure when, - according to Wiegand (53), Trimble discussed the physical prop- erties of such an oil. Spiiller (48) in 1887 published the results of a detailed study of the composition of an ether-extracted oil. He reported no free acids and no oxygen absorption in 14 days. A year later Lloyd (25), while discussing some of the characteristics of corn oil, reported that as early as 1876 an attempt was made to ex- tract the oil from corn with carbon bisulphid, the purpose being to furnish extracted meal for the distilling industries, but that the venture was abandoned. At the same time Hazura (13) reported some work on the iodin number of the oil, and the following year Bowers (7) suggested the adaptability of the oil for pharmaceutical preparations, but found that it emitted disagreeable odors on heat- ing, which, he states, would make it unsuitable for frying purposes. In 1889 Kennedy (27) and also Heinitsh (76) suggested the use of the oil for pharmaceutical preparations. Stellwaag (49) in 1890 reported on the constants of corn oils extracted with ether and petro- leum ether, respectively. In 1891 De Negri and Fabris (30) studied the constants of corn oil, and a year later Smith (46) published what appears to be the most detailed investigation of the oil up to that time, his report including its physical and chemical constants, its reaction with alkalis with special reference to soap making, and its application as a lubricant. In 1893 Hart (72) and Smetham (/5) both reported on the constants of the oil. The following year (1894) De Negri and Fabris (77) published their second note on the oil and Rokitansky (38) isolated linolic acid from it. 4 “BULLETIN 1054, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. From 1894 to 1898 corn oil was subjected to much study, reports on its physical constants being published by Hehner and Mitchell (16), Duliére (9), and Hehner (74). In 1898 Hopkins (19) made an extensive study of the oil and Procter (34) reported on its physical constants and Wiley and Bigelow (54) determined the calories of the oil. In 1899 Winfield (55) published a monograph, including a review of the literature and the results of her study of the oil. At about the same time Archbutt (3) reported the oil as semidrying and un- suitable for lubricating purposes. The following year Morpurgo and Gotzl (29) found that corn oil is difficult to detect in cottonseed oil and in 1901 Vulte and Gibson (57) determined the constants of the oil and claimed to have confirmed the presence of hypogeeic, arachidic, acetic, and formic acids. In 1903 a comparison of olive oil with corn oil was made by Tolman and Munson (50), and Moore (28) studied the digestibility of the oil. In the same year Gill and Tufts (J0) suggested that the presence of sitosterol in corn oil might serve as a means of identifying it when present in other oils. The same au- thors (77) also published during the year their investigation of the unsaponifiable matter. The possibility of corn oil being used as an adulterant in lard was investigated by McPherson and Ruth (26) in 1906. Two years later Ritter (36) claims to have found the oil equal to olive or cod-liver oil in the treatment of tuberculosis. In 1909 Wagner (42) published an account of the development of the corn-products industry, in which he refers to some of the tech- nical uses of corn oil and Olig and Brust (32) reported on the con- stants of nine samples of corn oil. The refractive index of the oil received the attention of Klimont (22) in 1911 and Smith (47) in 1912. The following year an editorial (7) in the Seifensieder-Zei- tung suggested the use of the oil for edible purposes and Pool and Sayre (33) studied the oil with a view toward its substitution for olive and cottonseed oils in pharmaceutical preparations. In 1915 the constants were again reported on by Backer (4) and Sayre (39) found its drying properties to be greatly inferior to linseed oil. The adaptability of corn oil to cooking and baking and for gen- eral edible purposes was pointed out by Sayre (40) in 1916. The digestibility of corn oil was found to be similar to that of cottonseed oil and somewhat greater than that of lard by Rockwood and Sivickes (37) in 1918, and in the same year Holmes (/7) found the oil to be digestible and suitable for food purposes. The following year Holt, Courtney, and Fales (1S) also reported favorably on the digestibility of the oil and its food value. In 1920 Rabak (35) studied the effect of mold on the composition of corn oil and reported that the mold apparently feeds on the oil, causing the latter to disappear gradu- CORN OILS. 5 ally and modifying its composition. ‘The most recent work on corn oil is that by Baughman and Jamieson (5), 1921, who found the following acids to be present: Oleic, 43.4 per cent; linolic, 39.1 per cent; palmitic, 7.3 per cent; stearic, 3.8 per cent; arachidic, 0.4 per cent; and hegnoceric, 0.2 per cent. For purposes of comparison the physical and chemical constants of corn oil as reported by the various investigators are summarized in Table 1. (a1) é a 4 5 So) em i) < fy fe) il Z & =} cal (ata a (e) 3 8 A 0) 5 £ S = G — a “syIeur =) faa) 6 Beha a Bebb edb dbaddbane Bdbsode Food oEEES Bhat ebelsersends *I9442UL e[qey -1u0d¢s -uf) (¢) 0J180}S pus “OOUTT “O}OTO, “0118948 pue oryed “WOT]BUSISOC “ST Bee al OF Oi org casas tee es Beretta oe eel SS uednel eiconee Bebb bee Bhd bode Ed AES Bhdbods BhEbbD HbdEbabe bob dEdE eS EESES GOP 'T § LOCO ey on eae ois L°S6 “SjUB}]SUOO [BOTMEYO ON) *2u90 | *7Wa0 quad | *7wad sq LI 49d lad ® “sproe pmo] 10919 5 ‘ 5 ) 106 - pm |. OTT} 914 seed sedate | -ber | PHS) toa |-nposuy|“eproe | a urpoy ; | aie u0T}80 A -yruod “BS “sproe £44RJ Jo JojowIVYO 6 SST eS MB jorweee fajeoseers 03-32 PINT 06— ye = 6pmp Is -O1— *10q -mnua 144 -00V *10q -mnu urpoy 9126 "+ 8926» 696 ° bbe rdbeondeboseoda ¢ ---UMOIG AIeq 6 UoPos WwYsI_ 2322S IONOO NG, “ooo 9" *-surydoH Sirs aeisinsisi*ls erlang “Tleyo “WIN. pue JouyeR “STIq 8,1 PUB ION 0G Seite oe Meyyeus posaee Prose aeTy iaiae es eae qyuts *STIq -@,, pue 1130N 28d "777 ">") BeBMT]O1S9 *SyuBysuod eoIsAy “sdoqobysavur snowpe fig pajlodas sp 110 W109 fo s7uD}SWOI JoOVWAYD PUD JoIIShygJ— | ATAV], FOR OSC ROG ROR OCF ae dain Visser | oe imam On eae erate Yostey eigen ee ieee |7 7729-9 TUsmelly usa eTee Sacat 1 MOTIOA FUSTIG |°" ~~ >>" >>>" OTT ‘Do “UOr} *yurod -obrjor | ‘AqyrAeIs 94S) pue sul[eosu0_D, jo oyeds ‘I0po ‘10]OD xopuy *IQAIOSQO "DO 006 4V u “OD 06% 1V or *JoT[ed xo Ue GAIA SUlIed sseo01d-AIp WO PauTe}qo SBM [IO OU, cr *O 0&2 4V #1 *SUPAIPTUIOS ST [IO et *O of ST 1V at *4u00 Jed 7 ‘uoTdsosqe UeSAXO 11 “quiod WOISN or 93S] Ppl ‘10po AqoIBIS ¢ *O o9T 09 off “WOTBOBIPT[OS :*D .0Z 02 OST * UOISNY s “1940 WANeOI}ed YIM PejdB1}Xa [JO PUODS ‘Jaye YI PeJOBIIXg [TO ISI 2 * J 099Vs9 “TTO PeJVIIXG ¢ "2 Sl 3¥> ‘sAVD FT UT UOTdIosqe uesixo 0 Ne “1949 YILM PoJOVIIXe [IO s *9]S8} OTUTBSTeq “IOPO BI[IUBA JUTBY "01100 -ousr, ‘orp -1yoeie ‘Oe -948orj roped Tout, ‘1elO |°-*-**~ CORN OILS. L'T elf 6°049° *(punoy OJP ovis) aresodsH | 16981 G PET &F'T 69'T (or) QL °CL | PL°LE “02 OF 8T 8 OT CT $8 9 § “L181 £061 9°€6 weeses-] pe 0°61 £°S6 -9°%6 ae eee | OnCOT £161 “L881 6 “68T G9°¢ athaye kee ee 8 “OST TL SST €6°26 | 8ZT‘1 | 9°C61 v'S O°OTT I 82r be lar i (Tan) €°SZI GL°ZS) SPST 89°03) 9°LFT 6P TT] 9°STT | | | Sar acalne e AWA Zo Yt = ON | | | | ~*! SILF “Tr CPLF TT QOLF Ty “pod C816 * ot F0Z6 * ot GLE6~ | | GOO | S126 * er S46 *s | YSTUAMOIG oT’ sr UOSATMUS SF uBuiygsneg “-* = *g AVQUY e1ses pus [ood > TV s=eseeneose ss Saar =3 [aces Sse= WOSqIH PUB OITA "T2109 pus odunds0yy trrptt toss PPRUUTAL ves[eees*s=**-ganquod¥ 8 BULLETIN 1054, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPERIMENTAL WORK. METHOD OF SELECTING MATERIAL. In order to make a logical comparison of the oils obtained by both the expeller and the benzol extraction processes it was necessary that COAIV LECGLFAMED EXPELLED ZENZOL | LNTHROCTED FILLE ZENVZOL EXTRACTED FELIMED SEFINED = FEFINED | A SYCAL- CHET 1/ CAL | | CONSTANTS | |\COLOR-OLOR-THETE | Fic, 1.—Diagram showing the method of collecting corn ma- terial for the extraction of oil. This system was used in connection with both dry-process and wet-process germs. both types of oil should be obtained from the same lot of germs. The mate- rial used in the ex- periments was ob- tained from typical hominy and glucose plants, the former producing dry- process germs and the latter wet- process germs. A day was spent in one plant of each type, and the material was collected, a little at a time, during a period of about seven hours. In this way approxi- mately 150 pounds each of the germs and oil cake and about 5 gallons of expeller oil were ob- tained. This method of collecting the ma- terial gives reason- able assurance that the three types of oil, namely, the ex- peller oil and the oils extracted with benzol from the germs and from the cake, are derived from approximately the same germ stock. Figure 1 shows graphically the plan according to which the material was collected. BENZOL EXTRACTION OF CORN GERMS AND OIL CAKE. The germs and oil cake were ground to a suitable degree of fine- ness, and 50 pounds at a time were extracted in a large, heavy, gal- CORN OILS. 9 vanized-iron can, in the center of which was a 1-inch glass tube ex- tending below a false bottom. The false bottom consisted of a screen of one-fourth-inch wire covered with several thicknesses of light, coarsely woven cloth. The material was packed on this false bottom and the benzol allowed to percolate through it into the bot- tom of the can, from which it was removed by means of the tube. The benzol used in all the extractions was a pure so-called water- white grade, which could be distilled completely on a steam bath at a temperature not exceeding 85° C. The first extract was reserved and a new batch of solvent added. The latter was allowed to pass twice through the material and then set aside. A new batch of solvent was added and allowed to pass four times through the ma- terial. No further extraction was made, although the material still contained considerable oil, especially the wet-process germs. Table 2 shows the quantity of oil present in the several materials before and after extraction. TABLE 2.—Percentage of oil in the wet-process and dry-process germs and in the oil cake before and after extraction with benzol. Percentage of oil sm eo present. Material. Before After extraction. | extraction, Germs: WUE DEOCCSS eee cc cme cecine meee Sen canoe nninin ie clos etme eletalete Bice eae es eee eee aes 50. 6 7. TRE DEOCOSS ee Sheek Sass ks es. BES ei. see gaerie Lae) seein pectic 23. 4 RE 9il cake: MR OIURWEL-PLOCESSPELIN Susan sr cs. eh acis tatio ce vin mis MERE ne eros meee ene eesee 13.5 2. HOPOHIATY=DEOCESS PCLINS ace ate tec ae tonics a cee eee alte Meine oo eee ciee or 5.2 ile The quantity of oil remaining in the material after the extraction with benzol, especially in the wet-process germs, was considerably greater than would be the case in commercial practice. REMOVAL OF THE SOLVENT. The last two benzo] extracts obtained were mixed, and by heating the extract on a steam bath under partial vacuum approximately 90 per cent of the benzol was removed. The residue of oil, together with the remaining benzol, was then added to the first extract, which contained the bulk of the oil removed from the material. From this mixture the benzol was distilled as thoroughly as possible in the way described. The last portions of the solvent were then removed by passing a current of dry steam into the mixture under reduced pres- sure. This treatment was continued until no more benzol collected in the receiver. The oil thus obtained still had a very slight benzol odor. If small quantities of water collected in the flask, this was removed from the oil by settling, with subsequent filtration if nec- essary. 10 BULLETIN 1054, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A serious difficulty encduntered in the removal of the solvent was the tendency of the oils to foam when the last portions of the benzol were being removed. This foaming was much more severe in the extracts from the dry-process germs, due possibly to the presence of more starchy matter in such material than in the germ stock sepa- rated by the wet process, in which all the starch is removed by thor- ough washing. The presence of the starch also makes the benzol extracts from the wet-process germs exceedingly difficult to filter. For purposes of convenience the several--orls will hereafter be designated as follows: A, Wet-process germ by expeller; B, wet- process germ by solvent; C, wet-process cake by solvent; D, dry-process germ by expeller; #, dry-process germ by solvent; F, dry-process cake by solvent. APPEARANCE AND CHARACTER OF THE CRUDE OILS. Samples of the two expeller oils and the four benzol-extracted oils were placed in standard 54 inch bottles for the purpose of com- paring the color and other characteristics. Some of the oils, espe- cially the benzol-extracted oils from the oil cake, appeared to be somewhat turbid when cold, although they were filtered clear while warm. For this reason the samples were allowed to stand in a dark place for a month and their condition then noted. Table 3 sum- marizes the appearance of the oils. TABLE 3.—Colar and appearance of crude corn oils in standard 54-inch bottles after standing in the dark for one month. Oils.@ Color. | Clarity, deposit of solids, ete. Sample D, dry-process germ by expeller...| Bright golden.......-....... | Very slight whitish deposit. Sample E, dry-process germ by solvent....|...-. GO!s2 2 see ne em acciae About 4-inch whitish deposit. Sample A, wet-process germ by expeller...| Bright golden, with reddish | Very slight whitish deposit. tinge. | Sample B, wet-process germ by solvent-..| Slightly more reddish than | About 4-inch whitish deposit. oil A. | Sample F, dry-process oil cake by solvent.| Reddish yellow............. 23-inch dark brown deposit. Sample C, wet-process oil cake by solvent.| Reddish brown. .....-.--.-.| 34-inch light brown deposit. a The samples of oil are arranged according to their depth of color, lightest to darkest. It will be noted that the oils from the dry-process material are on the whole somewhat lighter in color than the other oils. However, the same oils also appear to have the heaviest deposits of solids. While, no doubt, some stearin is present in these deposits, yet from the fact that the oils from the dry-process germ material contain the heaviest deposits it may be assumed that a portion of these solids is starchy material. The benzol-extracted oils from the oil cakes deposit by far the greatest quantity of solid matter. The free fatty acid content of each of the oils was determined, and the results are shown in Table 4. CORN OILS. dele TABLE 4. Percentage of free fatty acids in crude corn oils. Percentage Percentage Oils. of free Oils, of free fatty acids. fatty acids. Sele A, wet-process germs by ex- Sample D, dry-process germs by ex- TELE So aes ea eaten 1 764l|* Mpellerenre ssa. cat eee oes oe eae ibs 72 Eample B, wet-process germs by sol- Sample E, dry-process germs by sol- = 222 at Pie erties ees 2. S|" EMOTE) eee cee te cls Seacae ee sone eee 1.90 sample C, wet-process oil cake by sol- | Sample F, dry-process oil cake by sol- Witt. Res baa e eee 3. 60 GING Sremnes cee coe ce ec ciecesle aaiteeece 1.88 Pee, It is of interest to note that the oils from the dry-process germs (D, E, and F) are uniformly lower in free fatty acids than the oils from the wet-process germs. There appears to be practically no difference between the free acidity of the benzol-extracted oils and the expeller oil of this group. In the case of the oils from the wet- process germs (A, B, and C), the benzol-extracted oils contain more free fatty acids than the expeller oil. This is especially true of the oil extracted from the oil cake (C). REFINING? THE OILS. The six foregoing oils were refined as nearly alike as their indi- vidual character would permit. The bleaching and deodorizing were done in the same way in the case of each oil, but the method of neutralizing with caustic required some modifications with cer- tain of the oils. It was the intention to treat all as nearly alike as possible, so that whatever differences might be noted in their quality after refining could logically be assumed to be due to the inherent differences in the oils obtained by the two methods of removal from the germ. NEUTRALIZATION WITH CAUSTIC. After a number of preliminary experiments it was found that the method of neutralizing the oils with caustic described in a previous publication (44) seemed likely to give the most generally satisfactory results on the oils as a whole. After the preliminary experiment, 5-pound batches of oil were used in each case. The method used was as follows: To the cold oil there was added slowly, while stirring, sufficient 14° Bé. sodium hydroxid to neutralize the free fatty acids present plus 50 per cent excess. After being stirred for 10 minutes the oil was slowly heated while the stirring was continued and the temperature raised to 55° C., until the oil broke. After the break 2 per cent of powdered soda ash was added gradually and the stirring continued for 5 minutes longer. The oil was then kept for 8 hours at a temperature of 50° C., after which it was allowed to cool ‘over night and then drawn off from the deposited soap stock. Channels were cut 2The term “refining” as here used includes the three main operations usually em- ployed in making edible oils: (1) Neutralization with caustic, (2) bleaching with fuller’s earth, and (3) deodorizing with steam, 12 BULLETIN 1054, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the soap stock and the oil, which drained into these channels upon warming, was removed from time to time until no more could be separated. All the oils, except F, were treated in the manner described. The time required for the oils to break varied somewhat, oils D and E requiring about 30 minutes to acquire a good break, and oils A, B, and C slightly longer. Oil F presented some difficulty, owing to the presence of mucky, solid matter, and in order to make it break within a reasonable time an additional 50 per cent excess of 14° Bé. sodium hydroxid had to be added. Table 5 shows the refining losses result- ing from this treatment. TABLE 5.—Refining losses and condition of the soap stock resulting from the neutralization of corn oils. Refining loss (per cent). Oils. Character of soap stock. After After first final draining. | draining. Bauiple A, wet-process germs by ex- 9. 58 5.65 | Sufficiently firm to permit channeling. peller. Sample B, wet-process germs by solvent. 8..27 6. 58 Do. : : ; Sample C, wet-process oil cake by sol- 14.13 12.71 | Slimy; occluded considerable oil which can vent. not be recovered to any extent by chan- neling. cauple D, dry-process germs by ex- 5. 08 3.69 | Same as oil A. peller. Sample E, dry-process germs by sol- 6. 84 6.49 | More slimy than oil D. vent. Sample F, dry-process oil cake by sol- 15.0 15.0 | Very slimy; no oil can be removed by chan- vent. neling. It is found that in the case of both wet-process and dry-process germs the neutralization of the benzol-extracted oil results in a higher refining loss than with expeller oil and that this greater loss is not accounted for by any corresponding difference in the free fatty acid content. In the case of benzol-extracted oils not so much oil can be recovered by channeling the soap stock as is the case with expeller oils. The soap stock from the solvent oils is slimy and occludes more oil than the soap stock from the expeller oils, and this oil can not be recovered to any great extent. By reference to Table 4 it will be noted that the amount of free fatty acids present will not account for the difference in the refining losses obtained in the oils from wet and dry process germs. Thus solvent oil B from wet-process germs with 2.15 per cent free acids showed about the same refining loss as solvent oil EK from dry- process germs which contained only 1.9 per cent of free acids. In the case of the expeller oils from these two types of materials the free fatty-acid content was about the same, yet the oil from the dry- process germs showed a much smaller loss. It is probable that the presence of the substances which cause the foaming of the benzol CORN OILS. 13 extracts of the oils from dry-process germs and retard their filtering are accountable for the greater refining losses in such oils. In the case of the extracted oils from the cake the same condition exists, and a lower refining loss was experienced with oil C than with oil F, although the former contained practically twice as much free fatty acids. The free fatty-acid contents of the oils after treatment with caustic are given in Table 6. TABLE 6.— Quantity of free fatty acids in corn oils after treatment with caustic. : Free fatty : Free fatty Oils. acids. Oils: acids. Per cent. Per cent. Sample A, wet-process germs by expeller. 0.039 || Sample D, dry-process germs by expeller. 0. 033 Sample B, wet-process germs by solvent. .050 || Sample E, dry-process germs by solvent. 0 - 053 Sample C, wet-process oil cake by solvent. - 058 |; Sample F, dry-process oil cake by solvent. . 066 Jt will be noted that after the treatment with caustic the oil con- tained only a very slight percentage of free fatty acids. The color of all the oils made directly from the germs was quite satisfactory, and oils prepared by benzo] extraction did not show to disadvantage as compared with the expeller oils. The oils extracted from the oil cake were, of course, considerably darker than the others, the same general color relationship being evident as that which existed in the crude oils. The color of the oils after the treatment, as read on the Loyvibond scale, is included in Table 7 for the purpose of comparison with that from the finished oils. BLEACHING WITH FULLER’S EARTH. All the oils were treated exactly alike during the process of bleach- ing with fuller’s earth. The procedure used was as follows: The oil was heated slowly, with constant stirring, to 110° C., at which tem- perature it was held for 15 minutes. Then 5 per cent of standard fuller’s earth * was added and the stirring continued for 10 minutes, at a temperature of 105° to 110° C. The oil was then rapidly filtered on a force filter. The effect of this treatment on the color of the oils is shown in Table 7 in connection with the discussion of the bleaching effect of the deodorizing treatment. DEODORIZING, The deodorizing of the oils was accomplished in half-liter lots in glass flasks by blowing with a current of dry steam at 225° C, (487° F.) for two hours under a vacuum of 25 inches. This treatment had *Standard fuller’s earth is recommended by the American Oijil-Chemists’ Society for bleaching vegetable oils and may be obtained from the secretary of that society. ‘Sample A, wet-process germs by expeller............-200--222e-eeeeeeeeee 14 BULLETIN 1054, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a noticeable bleaching effect on all the oils. In order to show the relative bleaching effected in the several oils by this and the other processes the color readings are summarized in Table 7. TABLE 7.—Color readings of corn oils in standard 53-inch bottles with the Lovi- bond scale after treatment with caustic, bleaching with fuller’s earth, and deodorizing. Color (35 yellow in each case). Oils After After : treat- jbleaching) After ment ith deodor- wi with fuller’s izing. caustic. | earth. Red. Red. Red. Ra CAnmoon 6 Samplers; wet-process germs) DysSOlvelte oe sac --- = -eeeeeeene eee atene 5. Sample C, wet-process oil cake by solvent.............--.------+-------+-- 16. Sample D; dry-process germs byiexpeller--.:---22.. 2220222222 ie 4, Sample B; dry-process germs by solvent..-..........222----5.--22s0-5---- 5. Sample Ff, dry-process/oil'cake by solvent ---2.:1.. 25002-2225 14, CHOMoONeD OWE Sp co _ Su RI Onanwaed It is of interest to note that the benzol-extracted oils from the germs contained only slightly more red than the expeller oils. On the whole the oils from wet-process germs are darker than those from dry- process germs. The oils extracted from the oil cakes are naturally considerably darker than the others, that from the dry-process cake bleached much more than that from the wet-process cake; in fact, the latter oil is the only one in the entire group in which the color would be likely to interfere to any extent with its use as an edible oil. COMPARISON OF THE FINISHED OILS. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CONSTANTS. In order to show whether the six oils under discussion differed to any extent as regards the usual physical and chemical constants, these constants were determined and the results summarized in Table 8. TABLE 8.—Comparison of some physical and chemical constants of the finished corn oils. Acids. Iodin ., |Saponi- am F Specific Index |number| AC4 | fication) ACety!| In- Reich- | Solidi- Oils. F of re- num- num- fying gravity. Reaction (Ha- hen num- |. por soluble : ert- aint *| nus). ole aber * |Hehner] Liquid.) Solid. | Meisel | P. num- “‘num- | ofthe Inixed ber ber 3 acids Ait 25° GC At 26° C:| SUG Gis || JAGR Gis 21: Sample A.| 0.9181 1. 4723 122.8 | 0.078 191.7 9.26 | 95.07 91. 27 9.73 | 0.352 16.6 Sample B. . 9186 1. 4726 121.6 - 10 189. 6 9. 81 95. 04 91.10 9. 90 - 312 16.8 SampleC. . 9185 1. 4733 123.0 - 116 183.0 | 10.93 | 92.60} 89.96 10. 04 .318 16.5 Sample D. - 9177 1.4726 | 124.8 . 066 187.2 7.26 | 95.06 89. 82 | 10.18 - 115 16.0 Sample E. - 9165 1.4732 | 121.2 | .106 194, 2 9.99 | 93.00 89.88 | 10.12 . 190 16.3 Sample F. . 9179 1. 4731 125.5 . 123 197.5 10.58 | 92.40 89.61 | 10.39 addo: 16.5 CORN OILS. 15 In so far as is indicated by the physical and chemical constants these six oils do not appear to differ to any great extent. Such differences as exist are not any greater than would be expected in several samples of normal oi]. Neither do the constants of these oils on the whole show any considerable divergence from those reported by other observers. QUALITY OF THE OILS. The only practicable means of Judging the quality of an oil which is intended for edible purposes is by its color, odor, and taste. As already stated, all the oils except C, which was extracted with benzol from wet-process oil cake, are sufficiently light in color to make them acceptable for edible purposes. Immediately after the oils were deodorized all samples were carefully tested for general odor and taste. To the writer there appeared to be no perceptible difference between oils A, B, D, and E. The remaining two, C and F, both of which were obtained from oil cake, were quite inferior, and C was the most inferior of the entire lot. In order to obtain a more criti- cal opinion as to the quality of these oils, small samples of each were submitted to two men engaged in practical oil refining and experienced in the judgment of edible oils. The samples were sent two or three weeks after they had been deodorized, which fact should be borne in mind when the findings of these men are con- sidered. Besides the six oils under discussion, a sample of com- mercial corn oi] bought in a grocery store * was also submitted, desig- nated as oil X. The entire list was numbered and submitted without any information as to their source or method of preparation except that all were corn oils. One of the judges considered all the oils except C of proper color for edible purposes. As far as odor and taste were concerned he thought he could detect traces of solvent in all the oils except A and B. Since sample B was prepared by benzo] extraction and A was an expeller oil, the “ off” odor could not have been due to the solvent alone. He considered all but A and B insufficiently deodorized and believed that the peculiar flavor of all but A would make them unsatisfactory for edible purposes. The opinion of the other man was considerably different. Oil D was considered suitable for salad and B and E good enough for cooking purposes; C was declared to be exceptionally bad, and a peculiar flavor was detected in F and X. While none of the oils were considered “choice,” he would rank them as follows, from best to poorest: D, B, E, A, F, X, C. This judgment would place the two solvent oils from the germs between the two expeller oils ‘This sample of oil was purchased at a store which has a rapid turnover, but the exact age of the sample was not known; hence its quality as compared with the experimental oils must be considered with this fact in mind. 16 BULLETIN 1054, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and rank all four of them as better than the solvent oils from the cake. After these opinions had been received the oils were again tested in the laboratory, and it was found that some deterioration had taken place in some of the oils during the five weeks which had elapsed since they were deodorized. The bottles containing the oils were not quite full and were kept during the interval in a dark place. The changes noted were greatest in the oils from the oil cake and possibly slightly greater in the benzol-extracted oils than in the expeller oils. There seems little doubt that the general quality of these oils could have been materially improved with a more thorough deodorization. The deodorization of oils in the laboratory on a small scale has certain limitations and can not quite compare with commercial operations. The vacuum obtainable in these ex- periments was not as great as desired, and the arrangement used for raising the oil to the proper temperature might have led to unequal heating. It is probable that a more thorough deodoriza- tion would not only improve the quality of these oils but would pre- vent them from deteriorating rapidly on standing. SUMMARY. Corn oils obtained by means of expellers and by benzol extraction from comparable samples of both dry-process and wet-process corn germs and oils obtained by benzol extraction from the expeller cake were compared as to character and quality. Of the crude oils those extracted from the cake were the darkest and deposited the greatest amount of sediment on standing. The benzol-extracted oils from the wet-process germs contained more free acids than the oils obtained by that method from the dry-process germs, this being especially true of the oils from the cake. All the oils were refined in the same manner, with the exception of the benzol- extracted oil from the dry-process germ cake. Owing to the sediment present, this oil required a greater quantity of caustic. The oils were all deodorized by blowing them with a current of steam at 225° C. (437° F.) for two hours under a vacuum of 25 inches. This treat- ment removes odorous volatile constituents and in the case of solvent- extracted oils tends to remove the final traces of the solvent. The expeller oils showed the lowest loss on treatment with caustic; in the oils obtained by benzol extraction from the germs the loss was somewhat greater, and the benzol-extracted oils from the oil cakes showed by far the greatest loss. There were no striking differences in the physical and chemical constants of the oils either with respect to the two types of germs from which they were produced or to the method of production. CORN OILS. 1G No material difference could be noted in the finished oils from the germs immediately after their preparation, but upon standing some deterioration took place, and this was somewhat more noticeable in the benzol-extracted oils than in the expeller oils. All the oils except perhaps that obtained by benzol extraction of the cake from wet-process germs were sufficiently light in color to make them suitable for salad and cooking purposes. The oils obtained by benzol extraction from the two types of oil cake were inferior in all respects to the oils from the germs, that from the cake from wet-process germs being the poorer of the two. A more thorough deodorization than that to which the oils could be subjected in these experiments might eliminate the remaining traces of either benzol or other odorous constituents, which no doubt account for the slight inferiority noticed in the benzol-extracted oils from the germs. LITERATURE CITED. (1) ANONYMOUS. 1913. Maisol. Jn Seifensieder-Ztg., Jahrg. 40, No. 26, p. 690-691. (2) ALLEMANN, HEINRICH. 1867. Chemische Untersuchungen des fetten Maisols. Jn Sitzber. K. Akad. Wiss. [Vienna], Math. Natur. K1., Bd. 56, Abt. 2, p. 185-188. (3) ARcHBUTT, L. 1899. Note on maize oil (corn oil). In Jour. Soe. Chem. Indus., v. 18, no. 4, p. 346-347. (4) Backer, H. J. 1915. Molecuulgewichtsbepalingen van eenige plantaardige olién. In Chem. Weekbl., jahrg. 12, no. 47, p. 1034-1040. (5) BavuGHMAN, WALTER F., and JAMIESON, GEORGE S. 1921. The chemical composition of corn oil. Jin Jour. Amer. Chem, Soe. vy. 438, no. 12, p. 2696-2702. (6) Biz1o, BARTOLOMEO. 1822, Analisi del grano turco (Zea mays). Jn Gior. Fis. Chim. e Storia Nat., v. 5, p. 127-135, 180-181. German translation in Jahrb. Chem. u. Phys., Bd. 5 (27), p. 877-386, 1823. Italian original not seen. (7) Bowers, CHARLES EDWARD. 1889. Oil of maize. Jn Amer. Jour. Pharm., vy. 61 (ser. 4, v. 19), p. 508-504. (8) CARTIS. 1833. Brennohl aus Mais oder sogenannten tiirkischen Korn. Abstract in Dingler’s Polytech. Jour., Bd. 48, Heft 2, p. 158. (Original in Recueil industriel, Dec., 1882, p. 290. Not seen.) (9) DuLifire, WALTER. 1897. Btude de Vhuile de mais. Jn Ann. de Pharm. Belges. Abstract in Jour. Pharm, et Chim., sér. 6, t. 6, p. 80. Original not seen, 18 BULLETIN 1054, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (10) Girt, AucustTuUS H., and Turts, CHARLES G. 1903. Does cholesterol occur in maize oil? In Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., v. 25, no. 8, p. 251-254. (11) 19038. Sitosterol, a possible test for maize oil. Jn Jour. Amer. Chem. Soe., v. 25, no. 3, p. 254-256. (12) Hart, FERDINAND. 1893. Ueber Baumwollstearin und Maisol. Im Chem. Ztg., Jahrg. 17, No. 838, p. 1522. (13) Hazura, K. 1888. Zur Kenntniss der nicht trocknenden Ole. In Ztschr. Angew. Chem.; 1888, Heft 24, p. 696-698. (14) HEHNER, OTTO. 1897. On the bromine absorption of fats and oils, gravimetrically and thermometrically. In Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus., v. 16, no. 2, p. 87-89. and MircHeE.y, C. A. 1895. A new thermal method for the examination of oils. In Analyst, vy. 20, p. 146-151. (16) HerInitsH, CHARLES A. 1889. Maize oil. Jn Proce. Amer. Pharm. Assoc., v. 37, p. 175-177. (17) Hotmags, A. D. 1918. Digestibility of some seed oils. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 687, 20 p. (18) Hott, L. HMuerrr, Courtney, ANGELIA M., and Fates, HELEN L. 1919. Fat metabolism of infants and young children. IV. The diges- tion of some vegetable fats by children on a mixed diet. Jn Amer. Jour. Diseases of Children, v. 18, no. 3, p. 157-172. (19) Hopxtins, C. G. 1898. The oil of corn. Jn Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., v. 20, no. 12, p. 948-961. (20) Hoppm-SEYLER, FELIX. 1866. Ueber einige Bestandtheile der Maiskorner. Jn his Medi- cinische-chemischen Untersuchungen aus dem Laboratorium flr angewandte Chemie zu Ttibingen, Heft 1, p. 162-163. (21) KENNEDY, GEORGE W. 1889. On maize oil. Jn Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc., v. 37, p. 169-175. (22) Kiimont, J. 1911. Ueber die Refraktionskonstanten bei vegetabilischen Olen. Jn Ztschr. Angew. Chem., Jahrg. 24, Heft 6, p. 254-255. (23) Konig, J. 1871. Ueber die Hlementarzusammensetzung der Pflanzen-fette und die verdaulicke Fettmenge im Rauhfutter. Jn Landw. Vers. Stat., Bd. 13, p. 241-255. (24) Lzruw, M. C. de. 1881. Untersuchen tiber ein Verfahren, den Mais vor seiner Verwen- dung zur Spiritusbereitung von seinem Fett zu _befreien. Abstract in Biedermann’s Centbl. Agr. Chem., Jahrg. 10, p. 702. (Original in Bul. 2, Laboratoire Agr. Hasselt, 1881, S. 5-8. Not seen.) (25) innoxns J 1888. Maize oil (oil of corn). Jn Amer. Jour. Pharm., v. 60 (ser. 4, vy. 18), p. 325-327. (15) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35) (36) (37) (38) (39) (40) CORN OILS. 19 McPHERSON, WILLIAM, and RUTH, WARREN A. 1907. Corn oil—its possible use as an adulterant in lard and its detection. Jn 2ist Ann. Rpt. Ohio Dairy and Food Comr., 1905/06, p. 18-23. : MaiscH, Joun M. 1885. Maize and oil of maize. In Amer. Jour. Pharm., y. 57 (ser. 4, v. 15), p. 403-404. Moorg, J. F. 1903. The relative digestibility of some edible fats and oils. Ark. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, p. 33-41. MorpurGo, GIULIo, and GOTzL, ALB. 1900. Die Untersuchung des Baumwollsamen6les auf eine Falschung mit Maisdl. Jn Oesterr. Chem. Ztg., Jahrg. 8, No. 3, p. 58-54. NEGRI, G. de, and Fasris, G. 1893. Oil of maize. Abstract in Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus., v. 12, no. 7, p. 607. (Original in Ann. Lab. Chim. Centr. delle Gabelli, 1891-92, p. 222-225. Not seen.) 1894. Die oele (Gli olii). Publicazione del Laboratorio chimico centralle delle Gabelle. Nach dem italienischen Original von D. Holde. In Ztschr. Analyt. Chem., Jahrg. 33, Heft 5, p. 547-572. Oxic, A., and Brust, H. 1909. Zur Kenntnis der Bellier’schen Reaktion und einiger Pflanzen- dle. Jn Ztschr. Untersuch. Nabr. u. Genussmtl., Bd. 17, Heft 10, p. 561-584. Poot, B. H., and SAygez, L. E. 1914. The value of corn oil as a substitute for olive oil and cotton- seed oil. In Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., v. 26, 1913, p. 41-42. Procter, H. R. 1898. The refractive constant in oil and fat analysis. Jn Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus., v. 17, no. 11, p. 1021-1026. RABAK, FRANK. 1920. The effect of mold upon the oil in corn. In Jour. Indus. and Engin. Chem., y. 12, no. 1, p. 46-48. RITTER, JOHN. 1908. Corn oil in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Jn Jour. Amer. Med, Assoc., v. 51, no. 1, p. 8940. Rockwoop, Ersert W., and Sivickss, P. B, 1918. Relative digestibility of maize oil (corn oil), cottonseed oil and lard. Jn Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc., v. 71, no. 20, p. 1649-1650. ROKITANSKY, TH. 1894. [Linolie acid from corn oil.] Russische physikalisch-chemische Gesellschaft zu St. Petersburg. Sitzung der chemischen Abtheilung vom 7/19 April, 1894. Jn Chem, Ztg., Jahrg. 18, No. 43, p. 804. SAykeE, L. EB. 1915. Corn oil. In Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., v. 27, 1914, p. 74-75. 1918. Corn oi] and a new point of view in food values. Jn Trans, Kans. Acad. Sci., v. 28, 1916/17, p. 143-146. 20 (Ga) (42) (43) (44) (45) (46) (52) BULLETIN 1054, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SCHULZ? 1880. Die Maisélgewinnung aus der Maismaische. Jn Neues Bren- nerei-Fachbl. 6, Nr. 1, Ind-Bl. 17, 353. Abstract in Chem. Centbl., F. 3, Jahrg. 12, No. 3, p. 48. 1881. Original not seen. SHUTTLEWORTH, H. B. 1886. Notes on maize oil. Jn Canad. Pharm. Jour., v. 19, no. 6, p. 170-171. SIEvERS, A. FE. 1920. The production and utilization of corn oil in the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 904, 28: p., 11 fig. and SHRADER, J. H. 1922. The preparation of an edible oil from crude corn oil. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 1010. SMETHAM, ALFRED. 1898. Notes on (a) rice oil; (0) maize oil. In Analyst, v. 18, p. 191-1938. SmMiTH, J. CRUICKSHANK. 1892. On maize oil. Im Jour. Soc. Chem. Indus., v. 11, no. 6, p. 504-505. SMITH, W. B. 1912. The index of refraction of the mixed acids of fatty oils. In Jour. Indus. and Engin. Chem., vy. 4, no. 1, p. 36-38. SPULLER, JOSEF. . 1887. Zur Kenntniss des Sonnenblumen- und Maisdles. In Dingler’s Polytech. Jour., Bd. 264 (Reihe 6, Bd. 14), p. 626-627. STELLWAAG, AUGUST. 1890. Die Zusammensetzung der Futtermittelfette. Jn Landw. Vers. Stat., Bd. 387, p. 1385-154. | TorMAN, L. M., and Munson, L. S. 1903. Olive oils and olive oil substitutes. Jn Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., : vy. 25, no. 8, p. 954-962. VULTE, HERMANN T., and Gipson, HARRIET WINFIELD. 1901. The nature and properties of corn oil. II. Determination of the constitution. Jn Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., v. 23, no. 1, p. 1-8. WAGNER, T. B. 1909. The American industry of corn products. Jn Jour. Soe. Chem. Indus., v. 28, no. 7, p. 348-348. (58) WIEGAND, THOMAS §S. (54) (55) 1886. Minutes of the pharmaceutical meeting. Jn Amer. Jour. Pharm., v. 58, (ser. 4, v. 16), p. 268-265. Witry, H. W., and BIcELow, W. D. 1898. Calories of combustion in oxygen of cereals and cereal products, calculated from analytical data. Jn Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., vy. 20, no. 4, p. 304-816. WINFIELD, HARRIET. 1899. The oil of maize (Zea mays). 49 p. Easton, Pa. Thesis, Co- lumbia Univ. O Ee Ga ees UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1055 ; Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry ‘ WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D.C. Vv May 10, 1922 METHODS OF MANUFACTURING POTATO CHIPS. By MarGaret Connor Vosspury, Scientific Assistant, Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations. CONTENTS. Page, Page. PnRSS A CANONS of A SS 1 | Selecting potatoes for chips____---~- 11 Experimental methods of making po- Causes of failure in making chips__~ 12 SET CLT SY 0S eee a 2 | Score card used in these tests______ 13 Fats used in the experimental work_ 3 | Comparative adaptability of varieties Standard method of making chips for Tiley Taney keraaven oGlanly Oysters 14 iG, TS iS ee ees 6 Loss in peeling and quantity of chips Handling the fat in making chips___ 1, Co) ay ies wa ep | RS ee Se ie Sis, Re ae 16 Le TLE TROY Te a SASS UIT T TR een a eas agree mate ema ey 19 INTRODUCTION. Potatoes are a universal food and share honors with bread as the “staff of life.’ There is only one style, however, in which cooked potatoes are now distributed in commercial quantities over long dis- tances in a condition to keep for a considerable time. Crisp, golden potato chips command a ready market in all seasons, and there are firms which supply markets a thousand miles away. Moreover, it is not difficult to prepare them at home with ordinary household equip- ment if a few fundamental rules are observed. Jeginning in 1914, there has been conducted each winter a series of cooking experiments designed to test the culinary value of a large number of the most promising of the seedling tubers developed in the potato-breeding project of the Office of Horticultural and Pomo- logical Investigations of the Dureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. During the first three years a special study was made of methods of making potato chips and the value of the different seedlings for that purpose. The first year’s work, 1914-15, was largely experimental, methods of procedure being developed and standardized. The tests were continued and amplified during 1915-16 and 1916-17. No effort was §2277°—22——1 Zi BULLETIN 1055, U. 5S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. made to study commercial varieties systematically, but a number of the varieties from the departmental collection were tested during the course of the three years. These included several varieties from each of Stuart’s! eleven groups or families. All of these potatoes were grown by the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investi- gations on the State Experimental Farm at Presque Isle, Aroostook County, Me. Cultural and weather conditions varied somewhat dur- ing the seasons, but the comparison between different varieties is substantially correct, especially between tubers grown in any one year. The potatoes were shipped to Washington each fall and kept in cold storage at the Arlington. Experimental Farm until needed. The general results obtained in the cooking tests have been sum- marized and are presented here. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS OF MAKING POTATO CHIPS. In starting these tests it was first of all important to determine the best methods of making chips, the most satisfactory frying me- dium, and the most efficient equipment to use. The Green Moun- tain variety of potato was taken as the standard of comparison. The methods employed naturally had to be those adapted to home rather than to commercial usage, because of laboratory limitations in equip- ment and supplies; but it was intended to make the tests comply with commercial practices in so far as it was possible. The following recipe for potato chips by Farmer? was used as a basis for the investigation: Wash and pare potatoes. Slice thinly (using a vegetable slicer) into a bow: of cold water. Let stand two hours, changing water twice. Drain, plunge in a kettle of boiling water, and boil one minute. Drain again and cover with cold water. Take from water and dry between towels. Fry in deep fat until light brown, keeping in motion with a skimmer. Drain on brown paper and sprinkle with salt. The partial cooking in boiling water was supposed to keep the potato from absorbing much of the fat in which it was fried, result- ing in a less greasy product and was, of course, a slightly more eco- nomical one, as less grease was consumed. The recipe was followed, with variations, during the preliminary work in 1914-15. Though good chips were secured, the method was not found to be entirely satisfactory, as it entailed too much labor. A study of the methods in use in commercial plants demonstrated that the hot-water bath was neither practicable nor necessary. The problem was to produce 1Stuart, William. Group classification and varietal descriptions of some American potatoes. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 176, 56 p., 19 pl. 1915. *Farmer, Fannie Merritt. The Boston Cooking-School Cook Book ... p. 314. Boston, ULC oe ee : | METHODS OF MANUFACTURING POTATO CHIPS. 5) first-class chips by methods as simple as possible, equally applica- ble at home or in a factory. The following methods were tried: _ (1) Following the recipe given =bove. (2) Washing in cold water, which was then shaken off; not dried. (3) Washing in cold water; dipping in hot water; not dried. (4) Washing in cold water; dried between towels. (5) Washing in cold water, dipping in hot and again in cold water; not dried. : (6) Washing in cold salt water and then in clear, cold running water: dipping in hot water; then in cold water and dried. (7) Soaking in cold water for 24 hours; dipping in hot water; again in cold water; dried. (S) Not washed or dried; fried as soon as sliced. (9) Not washed; dried before frying. (10) Dipping in hot water immediately after slicing; then in cold; drained but not dried. Some of these methods produced good chips. Certain others, notably Nos. 8, 9, and 10, resulted in a distinctly poor product, soggy and uneven. There was no apparent advantage from the use of the salt-water bath in No. 6. Nor was it found that the hot-water bath was at all essential to producing crisp, nongreasy, high-grade chips. Cutting the potatoes into thin, even slices with an accurate vegetable slicer, soaking them thoroughly in clear, cold water after an initial bath of cold running water, and frying them in a clean, high-grade fat at a high temperature were found to be the three essentials in producing crisp, high-quality chips. FATS USED IN THE EXPERIMENTAL WORK. Deep-fat frying to the minds of many housekeepers means frying in lard, and many cookbook recipes for potato chips specify the use of lard. Pure leaf lard, therefore, headed the list of fats which were experimented with. Then came various lardlike derivatives of cot- tonseed oil, half a dozen standard brands of- cottonseed oil, several samples of peanut oil, coconut oil, and a mixture of lard and beef suet. The most satisfactory frying medium was found to be a high- grade cottonseed oil, and this was adopted as the standard in sub- sequent cooking tests. (Good cottonseed oil was clear and bland and practically flavorless. It proved to be the most economical fat, both because of a lower initial cost and a minimum of waste in cooking; and a comparison of chips fried in the different fats demonstrated its superiority in behavior during cooking and in the flavor of the finished product. Both the lard and the lard and suet mixture im- parted a flavor or aftertaste that was unpleasant to some people and left a cloudy coating on the chips that made them less attractive than the clear yellow-brown gloss of chips fried in oil. All the vege 4 BULLETIN 1055, U. 5S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. table oils and compounds were more satisfactory than the animal fats. The liquids were preferred to the semiplastic compounds, be- ing more convenient to use in quantities, less expensive, and less sage | in utilization. Most manufacturers of commercial potato chips use cottonseed oil, a few use lard, and a few have experimented with coconut and corn oils. Peanut oil is not yet widely known and has been so far little used in the manufacture of potato chips, but there is no reason why satisfactory results should not be obtained if a highly refined, bland oil is put on the market at prices that will compete with the contort seed oil now in use. The smoking point of well-refined cottonseed oil is higher than that of most of the other frying mediums, a much more important factor Fig. 1.—First step in making potato chips. Weighing six medium-sized potatoes = a torsion balance. in frying potato chips than in frying doughnuts, fritters, or similar foods that must be cooked through as well as browned. Blunt and Feeney * have determined the burning point of a number of the cook- ing fats, and their investigations show that cottonseed oil has the highest burning point, 451° F. (232.7° C.), with two cottonseed oil derivatives very nearly the same, 450° F. (232.2° C.), and 448° F. (231.1° C.). Leaf lard smoked at 480° F. (221.1° C.), bulk lard at 381° F. (194.0° C.) ; olive oi] at 347° F. (172.7° C.) ; two samples of peanut oil at 323° F. (161.6° C.) and 300° F. (148.8° C.), respec- tively; and coconut oil at 277° F. (136.1° C.). Some of the samples of peanut oil used in these investigations were almost as highly refined as the cottonseed oil and had as high a smok- ing point, but others smoked at approximately as low a temperature * Blunt, Catharine, and Feeney, Clara M. The smoking temperature of edible fats. In Jour, Home Econ., v. 7, No, 10, pp. 535-541, 1915. a METHODS OF MANUFACTURING POTATO CHIPS. 5 as the two samples used by Blunt and Feeney. The coconut oil used in the chip experiments of the United States Department of Agricul- ture smoked at a temperature of 338° F. (170° C.), higher than the Fic, 2.—Removing eyes and diseased spots from peeled potatoes, figures given by Blunt and Feeney, but still too low for satisfactory results. Olive oil was not tried; its expense prohibits its use as a com- mercial frying medium. According to Blunt and Feeney, however, 6 BULLETIN 1055, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. its smoking point is too low to make it a competitor of the cheaper oils. No fat with a smoking point of less than 220° C. (428° F.) is desirable for frying potato chips. Overheated fat is unwholesome and imparts a scorched flavor to the food. STANDARD METHOD OF MAKING CHIPS FOR THE TESTS. As a result of the first year’s experiments, the following uniform method of procedure was developed and used as a standard: Six or seven medium-sized potatoes, with a total weight of approxi- mately 1,000 grams, were first weighed on a torsion balance (fig. 1), then peeled in a vegetable peeler, all eyes or diseased spots removed (figs. 2 and 3), and the peeled potatoes weighed again. They were then sliced with a vegetable cutter into slices one-sixteenth of an inch thick; these slices were weighed (fig. 4) and put to soak in cold water, care being taken to keep each lot or variety in a separate pan. Each lot was washed in cold running water until the next lot ‘had been weighed, peeled, sliced, and weighed again. It was then placed in a pan of cold water, while the second lot took its place under the faucet of running water (fig. 5). By the time the last lot had been prepared and placed under the faucet, the first lots had been soaking in cold water for several hours. The water in the pans was changed until the last wash Fic. 3.—Small apple corer or peseible peeling knife used waters were practi- to remove eyes and diseased spots from potatoes. There z is a blade at the side, and if a mechanical peeler is not caily free of starch. available knives of this description are better for peeling The fr ying pan than ordinary paring knives. : : and oil were weighed before and after the chips were cooked, to determine just how much oil was used in making a given weight of chips. A thermometer was hung in the frying pan, the bulb being covered with oil, in order that uniform temperatures might be secured for each experi- ment.’ When the oil reached 210° C. (410° F.) the thermometer was removed to another pan of hot oil, the inner basket containing the raw sliced potatoes lowered into the hot fat (fig. 6), and the slices stirred constantly with a long-handled spoon. The slices were not dried, but as much of the water as possible was removed by shaking before lowering them into the hot fat. When the water on the potatoes had boiled away and the slices were crisp and golden brown, the frying basket was raised, the excess oil drained off, and the chips emptied on brown paper to dry (fig. 7). They were later weighed (fie. 8), sprinkled lightly with salt, and scored by the three judges, METHODS OF MANUFACTURING POTATO CHIPS. 7 HANDLING THE FAT IN MAKING CHIPS. If the sliced potatoes are put into oil which is at a low temperature, they take a long time to fry and absorb so much grease that they are both soggy and unpalatable. Moreover, the more grease consumed in frying, the greater the expense of the product. The aim of the hot- water bath in Miss Farmer’s*# recipe was to coagulate the protein in the potatoes, thus searing the surface and making it impossible for much grease to soak in. The same result may be attained by heating the oil to a point just below smoking before the slices are put in. The higher the temperature that can be maintained, the sooner the surface of the potato will be crusted over and the less oil will pene- trate. The water on the raw sliced potatoes and the temperature of the inner frying basket itself will lower the initial temperature of the Iric. 4.—Weighing the slices of potatoes to determine the total loss in peeling and slicing. oil, and it will take several minutes for the water to boil away and the fat to regain the heat it lost. Fats do not “boil.” It is the water in the oil that makes it bubble when heated, and until this has been changed to steam and evaporated the temperature of the fat can not be raised much above 100° C. (212° F.). The hotter the initial tem- perature of the oil, the more quickly the water will be boiled away. As the water evaporates, the oil becomes still and the temperature in- creases rapidly. It should be reheated after each batch of chips is re- moved, The only certain laboratory method of determining the tem- perature of the fat is to suspend a thermometer in the center of the pan. 1Farmer, Fannie Merritt. Op. cit. 8 BULLETIN 1055, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Oil can not be used indefinitely without being renewed. After prolonged use of the oil the chips do not brown well and take too long to cook. Much foreign matter has been absorbed by the oil, which can not be removed by the most careful straining. It should be thrown away or used for soap grease. The common practice in potato-chip factories is to replace what is used up in the cooking process by adding fresh oil. This, however, should not be continued indefinitely, entirely fresh oil being required at least every few days. The most successful potato-chip factory which was visited makes a practice of renewing the oil every second or third day. The small particles of potato are skimmed out after every batch of chips is re- moved and all the oil carefully filtered each night after the close of business. New oil is added as needed during the day, and every sec- Soaking the different lots of potatoes in pans of cold water pre aratory to frying into chips. The last lot is still under the faucet of running water. BIG? 5: ond or third night the contents of the kettles are emptied and sold for soap grease. The result is a high-quality potato chip that will keep sweet for weeks. Some manufacturers make no effort to renew their oil entirely, simply adding fresh oil as needed. As a result the oil is never entirely sweet; and the old, worn-out oil which is always present affects the ease of cooking, the flavor, and the keeping quality of the chips. In the refined cottonseed oil sold for cooking purposes there is re- markably little of the foreign matter from which the oil is expressed. Small particles of such foreign matter act as ferments if left in the oil and set free fatty acids which make the oil turn rancid and lower its smoking point. Chips can be cooked at. a higher temperature in oil that is free from such impurities than in oil that has not been as highly refined. The small particles of fried potato or of the plant from which the oil is expressed burn and smoke at a comparatively low temperature and impart a scorched flavor to the oil, which is METHODS OF MANUFACTURING POTATO CHIPS. 9 transmitted to the chips. Hence the importance of buying high-grade oil and of carefully skimming out little particles of potatoes after each batch of chips is removed. EQUIPMENT. The mechanical peelers have been found very satisfactory as time, labor, and food savers. Of course, in the average household vege- tables are not prepared in quantities large enough to make necessary the purchase of such equipment, but in restaurants, hotels, or large establishments they are found very serviceable. In potato-chip fac- Fic. 6,—Lowering the inner basket full of raw sliced potatoes into the hot oil. The thermometer is now hung in the kettle at the left. tories they are indispensable, and every chip factory has one or more large power machines. Figure 9 shows the small hand-power peeler which was used in the potato-chip experiments. Six or eight po- tatoes were peeled simultaneously. The loss in paring was less than by ordinary hand peeling, for the sharp edges of the carborun- dum lining nicked off the skin without cutting deeply into the flesh. The loss was least, of course, when the potatoes were smooth and regular, as the abrasion tended to wear down knobs and irregularities and leave the potatoes round or oval-oblong in shape. Deep eyes or bad spots had to be removed by hand, however. One of the small 89977° Oo” 7 Ommb ne sae ~ | 10 BULLETIN 1055, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. apple corers and vegetable peeling knives retailing at 10 or 15 cents (figs. 2 and 3) was used for this purpose. In potato-chip factories a number of women or girls are employed to go over the potatoes as they are emptied from the peeler to cut out the eyes and imperfect places. . Some form of vegetable slicer is essential, as it is impossible to slice the potatoes thinly enough and evenly enough by hand. Satis- factory slicers may be obtained, either turned by hand power or motor driven. A small hand-power slicer used in 1914-15 did not prove satisfactory for laboratory tests, for the slices were thicker at Fig. 7.—Draining the excess oil from the potato chips by spreading them on brown paper. one side than the other, because of an imperfection in the casting of the knives. As it was necessary to secure uniformly even slices for experimental work, a larger slicer, also hand driven, was obtained at the beginning of the 1915-16 season (fig. 10). A number of large power-driven mechanical slicers, suitable for use in factories, are on the market. When making chips at home the slices may be soaked in any kind of pans that are available. In factories they are generally soaked in tubs with fresh water fed in through rubber hose or in big tanks especially built for the purpose with fresh water flowing in at one end and an outlet pipe at the other end to carry off the wash water and starch. When working with large quantities it is eener- ally found worth while to salvage the potato starch deposited by this wash water and by the waste from the potato peeler. ‘ 4 4 3 4 : ‘ ae 8. ee At 32% wes. : METHODS -OF MANUFACTURING POTATO CHIPS. ik The best vessel in which to fry the chips is one that is deep rather than wide, with an inner perforated basket in which the chips can be lowered and raised. Steel friers in two parts, which are suitable for frying chips, croquettes, chicken, ete., can be obtained at hardware stores. Practically every family has some kettle suitable for deep-fat frying, and if necessary the inner basket can be improvised from steel wire. These frying pans should be of iron or steel, which is not affected by the highest cooking temperature. It is not safe to use tin or enamel-ware pans, which melt or chip off when very hot. Most potato-chip factories have large frying kettles built to suit their par- ticular requirements, sometimes round, sometimes oblong in shape, and with special heating equipment for either gas or coal. Gener- ally the kettles are built in one piece with the stoves. In some cases Fic. 8.—Weighing the chips, the last step before they are salted and judged. inclined boards at one end on which the chips are emptied as skimmed out of the oil serve as drains to carry the surplus oil back into the tank or kettle. The sliced potatoes are lowered into the oil in heavy wire baskets made to fit the shape of the kettles. Sometimes, in- stead of frying baskets being used, the raw slices are emptied directly into the oil and the chips removed with perforated scoops or long- handled wire skimmers. SELECTING POTATOES FOR CHIPS. Not every potato will make a good chip, and the excellence of the finished product, here as elsewhere, depends on the materials used and the care exercised in their preparation. The following require- ments should be observed when selecting potatoes for chips: Use mature potatoes. New potatoes in the spring or early summer do not make good chips. They should not be used before the skin sets. Manu- db BULLETIN 1055, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. facturers who use potatoes in large quantities are agreed that the old stock is preferable for chips to the immature potatoes of the spring or early summer. Use potatoes high in starch. A waxy or soggy potato does not make good chips. Select a variety that is known to be mealy when baked or boiled. The raw flesh should be firm and crisp when sliced with a sharp knife. Use large or medium-sized round, smooth potatoes with shallow eyes. The size and shape do not affect the cooking quality, but they do influence the quantity and appearance of the chips. Round po- tatoes are better than long ones, as there is less waste in peeling, especially if a vegetable peeler is used. Deep eyes are objectionable, because of the difficulty of paring and the waste involved and because they make ragged-look- ing slices. Care should be taken not to cook too many chips at once. The fat should be deep enough to cover the slices completely, and allow them to lie flat and be crusted over quickly. If the kettle is too full, the water on the raw slices will bubble high and splash over the sides of the pan or vat. They cook quickly, the time re- quired varying with Fic. 9.—Small hand-power vegetable peeler. The potatoes the size of the kettle are thrown by centrifugal motion against the carborun- and the quantity of dum lining, which nicks off the skin in small bits. Fresh : water drips through the perforated pan at the top, carry- oil and potatoes used. ing away the skins through the rubber waste pipe at the Three to five minutes base. : 1s a good average. If they take longer something is wrong; either the oil is not hot enough or the quantity of potatoes cooked is too great in proportion. CAUSES. OF FAILURE IN MAKING CHIPS. The troubles of commercial manufacturers are generally due to one or more of the three following causes: (1) The use of a potato METHODS OF MANUFACTURING POTATO CHIPS. 13 variety not adapted for making into chips. (2) Improper washing of the sliced potatoes. Some factories do not recognize the impor- tance of removing a maximum amount of starch. The result is a tough instead of a crisp chip. (3) Using the oil at too low a tem- perature and not renewing it frequently enough. When the oil is not hot enough the chips absorb too much grease, and when it is teo old they have a burned or spoiled flavor and turn rancid quickly. Chips fried in fresh sweet oil should keep sweet for weeks unless ic. 10.—Hand-power vegetable slicer purchased at the beginning of the 1916 season. subjected to very high temperatures and should permit long-distance shipment. SCORE CARD USED IN THESE TESTS. The form of the score card used in keeping a record of each lot of potato chips is shown here. The markings were all numerical, with the exception of the two subdivisions, “shape” and “ desirability,” under “tubers.” Shape might be designated either by a descriptive term, such as flat, round, oval, etc., or by a pencil sketch. Symbolic markings, with the following divisions—very good, good, medium, poor, and very poor—indicated the desirability of each lot, as shown 14 BULLETIN 1055, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by their general appearance and shape. The different weights of the tubers were recorded in grams. While the standard temperature of the fat was 210° C. and endeavor was made to raise the temperature of the oil to that point for each test, there were variations, especially _ when different frying media were being experimented with. Provi- sion was made in one column, therefore, for keeping a record of the temperature at which each lot was cooked. SCORE CARD USED IN POTATO-CHIP TESTS. AV/ELLIG Liyss beret ose se eielace ie VAS Ee BSS oe Sie eas. - Sa ee Aecession NOs... 22s nasser eee CIROW AN iso 6 daeead eo a6 te eso Rene G = OSE eee a PiCkedes Aware eee ke Shipped.--......-...-- SHOWN goa sacasdoscsn TPS ete eae Sp Seer ieee Gla iinet eRe ee I ens area anerea ee Ota een eee RESUS Sans she aetna Potato chips. Frying medium...............:.......... Daten oHe oo ce ee | Tubers. Weight. pee eee Tem- | Cook-| Ease | 41. pera- | ing of ae Crisp-| Fla- | Total | i s Desir-| yp. ture | time | cook-| oe | mess | vor | score 3 Sliced | ,); ing rm ae Shape.| abil- peeled. Peeled. fan: | Chips. (° F.).| utes). | (10). (5). Ease of cooking was given 10 points out of a possible total score of 30, the rating being necessarily left to the judgment of the person who conducted the tests. It was based on the general behavior of the potatoes in the hot fat, the length of time a lot of given quantity took to fry, and the uniformity with which the slices colored and became crisp. The other three subdivisons of the score were marked by the three judges who tested all the potatoes. Under “Appearance” (5 points) the ideal was a clear, yellowish brown, flat chip. “ Crisp- ness” (5 points) was marked high when the chips were dry and crisp, greasiness or unevenness in cooking lowering the score. I lavor (5 points) was, of course, largely a matter of individual preference. With fresh bland oil there is no heavy, greasy flavor to obscure the variations in the different potatoes. COMPARATIVE ADAPTABILITY OF VARIETIES FOR MAKING CHIPS. The total scores given the different seedlings from which potato chips were made during 1915, 1916, and 1917, were averaged when several tests were made. 5S 22723 ranked highest, with an average METHODS OF MANUFACTURING POTATO CHIPS. 15 score of 28.4 for two seasons’ tests, 27.2 in 1916 and 29.7 in 1917. In a 1-season test there was only one seedling whose total score exceeded 29.7, and that was S 38595 with 29.8, a difference so slight as to be negligible. Many of the seedlings graded 29.0 or more, however. The lowest average score was 20.9, given to S 7322, and the lowest single score was 12.3, given to S 1449. In this connection, it should be borne in mind that those potatoes which were evidently unsuited for chips were not subjected to this test. TABLE 1—Comparison of the adaptability for chips of standard varieties of potatoes tested in 1915, 1916, and 1917. [Based ona score of 30 for perfect. | | Score for making chips. | Seore for making chips. | Group and variety. | | i Group and variety. | | } | 2 — | Aver- z 2 Aver- ; 1915 | 1916 | 1917 age. | 1915 | 1916 | 1917 age. i} ps ene IEE We | | Rural: | Irish Cobbler: Rural New Yorker. - Irish Cobbler........ : . F : Nonblight. ........-.. Early Beauty 8. Pan American....... HArivaVICtOn= 225.) : Sensablonseses= eae Mligurball oe 2 2. 58| li. Lo) {be Sir Walter Raleigh. . LEY Srst #1 Gpe ol eo SPB ep 1 ce ne Pe ea I Todd’s Wonder...... New Early Standard.|._....|...... OH (okt hs eed Russet Rural) =. Triumph: Pearl: TM ATYEES 7) 0) (ee i OED a Rees | PaonOn Done lever el he aise en 7 acai aes Witeirigmphess 2)s2. 5. |. 28. WS By Weceeese ID Garb Ounce eae eens | Uta tee Wiaud Ss Banliest =< 230 O20 2b. See 2650) |e eee EOD LES a ome al eee ete 5, Early Michigan: IB) WACO Penos co anallcesoe |saaese Bary Michigans: 52. |=. cslocece. BIO) | eabings Peachblow: Lok GN 3p tla oe eee Re A Dee PiU dal Beene White Peachblow. ..|....-- MaLIveHanvest=22--5|e0. soph Sana 2856) sean Mc@ormicka ayes ste: ) Extra Early Sunlight}. .....|...... QBN AN ee sone White McCormick...|_..... ASO Ree aE eer WEWMALOD rece aoe Alo sa |ooeice PF 5) Ns ocemc Up-to-Date: OLA eee ales ee ee 28 Byles es ACCOR eee aoe ee PH Gy) at EE teal CaaS a5 Early Rose: Up-to-Date. ......... 251 Sile2o Li 26san| zone Jarly Rose........-. PO Nat BMY ea Sho He ee Ue {eyGlll WI@OR seo e eee Salle e-aoollseencc 2On8H eeeeee 2 WAI OWVALECES ee oa] ei DESO eae: GoladlStandardeesscme essen acme QGP 10; beeen : Northern King. ..... PAE PAN PLAY) (PPA) Bees = MOTELOn Es eee cuss lioesen | aaeees Pay Wee eee Woodbury’s White Miscellaneous: MOSCs-5- 5. CP see) me eee Diol hetas FHS AHCI aig erlsooneclsoas oe PbS |eeean Early Manistee...... 2br A ZTEO 265 4\ econ Casseker Salathorn- Spaulding No. 4 Oe pao eee oat enmes 23110) |e ee | eee (Rose No. 4)...... US geome eRe ors [Sia esis CHOP ee ee crac veal aotine |e civlees Dye eee Early Ohio: Country Gentleman.|_.....|....-.. PASIAN ae “arly Ohio.......... 18285) 2oeeaeo red |) 23.10 Dalmeny Challenge..| 24.0 | 27.0 | 25.5 |...... MONG eee oot be Fs. 5 tons cael Bee see PAS 10 eres GOA C.O eee ees |B 25.6 | 26.7 | 26.1 (UPS) 6703 0) be ei] Ue es ba oe Pfs 5) eae aes Garnet Chili: -. ==. -2- A) | oe 26.1 | 25.8 Hebron: Hamburger EHier.....|...... 25.1 | 26.8 || 25.9 New White Hebron.|......|..-.-. PA ta) || ere arvestikanestenc!sc|tee cue BER es eter Burbank x Early Jones Pink Eyed UNO er cet Ae 2 ASSEN GAG) | a Seedlin pein bie alew es oe LOSE secon lceeie ere Burbank: LR}, | Saas IMCITIGY TON tEe Lede asnd|ine seis 25.6 | 23.6} 24.6 Netted Gem......... PAI PARP AN) 51) Maggie Murphy......|......|..---: Owe ears Green Mountain: ING WoTa Ree. Seema pate cl Santee PY ieee Green Mountain..... 24.2 | 26.6 | 29.0} 26.6 ODUENCHA te ren cescrl| tae ee QB Fie | taetaml| cametae Green Mountain, Jr..)......]...... LOAD bees 53 NOT AOL Kel ya vee cel penn xe 20.0 | 21.3} 20.6 ROPTIIU IN Ooi Asics celle cecal ocinnee 7A al Perkin’s Seedling. ...]......]...... DO FY sata Oe UT A ee Ee 28 he SR el ZB OH eee = 2 ITAL Babes seo. Sol bees: 20. 3 | 24.7 || 22.5 MAC MIISLOU wines ction oat | eaten as 71S. ||. eae DB ROUV sath merce deol lee co:5 mr aeare tage eee ball te etal BIRCID SHIN 2 ee stole ove volo eeinde 74h | Oe Sport of Garnet Chili.|......|...... ZOU | weveatet Wee McGregor.......|... atl were = = inoue. . 2% PSULUB Zo sionctats clejehh'cierrcll oie» a" 7.0} 17.8 | 12,4 American Wonder...|......|....-- 240) 0)| | ae WOU UAT Io. seen | sac as 10.1 | 24.2) 17.1 DOHSIENOW.. . 22. cca cclewecseloesess| (200 VADER Victor ure sia ecsiacatete linc x acaie > x > imlaie QAO) rate es Table 1 summarizes the scores of those standard varieties of po- tatoes which were made into chips. The Green Mountain received the 16 BULLETIN 1055. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. highest average score, 26.6, based on three years’ tests. In the single season’s scores there were three varieties that were tied for highest. place, Flourball, American Wonder, and British Queen, all scoring 29.5in 1917. The lowest average score, 12.4, was given to Switez, one of the German starch varieties. This variety was not adapted for chip making and was merely tried to see how it would behave. The same may be said of the potato receiving the second lowest score, 17.1, Wohltmann, another German variety. The lowest 1-year score was given to Switez in 1916 also. LOSS IN PEELING AND QUANTITY OF CHIPS OBTAINED. Table 2 gives a 3-year average of the loss in peeling and the quan- tity of chips made from all lots, with detailed figures for a few of the better known commercial varieties. The average waste in peeling all the potatoes handled during 1915, 1916, and 1917, a total weight of 233,492 grams, averaged 12.47 per cent, and the quantity of chips obtained averaged 29.85 per cent of the weight before peeling. In 1915 the average loss for all lots was 13.16 per cent and the average weight of the chips produced was 27.48 per cent of the original weight of potatoes. In 1916 the loss through peeling alone averaged 14.33 per cent; through both peeling and slicing, 17.48 per cent; and the quantity of chips produced averaged 30.22 per cent of the original weight. In 1917 the loss through peeling alone averaged 11.67 per eent; through peeling and slicing, 16.36 per cent; and the chips weighed 30.18 per cent of the original weight of potatoes. The 3- year average was therefore reduced by the 1915 figures, both the 1916 and the 1917 averages being slightly over 30 per cent. Commercial men figure on getting between 15 and 27 per cent of chips from each barrel or sack of potatoes. Their percentages of waste in peeling are higher than the 12.47 per cent given here, for more careful meth- ods were employed in the laboratory than would be possible in a large factory. Langworthy ® estimates the average waste in peeling potatoes to be 20 per cent, and with careless methods it may go even higher. The lowest possible percentage of waste in peeling may depend upon a number of factors, such as variety, place where grown, and condi- tion of the tubers (1. e., firmness, freedom from injury, decay, sprouts, etc.). The shape of the variety is one of the chief determining factors, for when the tuber is irregular, knobby, with deep or numer- ous eyes, it 1s practically impossible to prevent paring deeply. The skin itself varies slightly, being thicker on certain varieties, especially those with rough or netted exteriors. The influence of different soil types and environmental conditions sometimes causes a greater vari- 5 Langworthy, C. F. Potatoes, sweet potatoes, and other starchy roots as food. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 468, 29 p., 7 fig. 1917. ae 17 METHODS OF MANUFACTURING POTATO CHIPS. ation in shape, general appearance, and quality between specimens of the same variety grown in different parts of the country than is found in different varieties produced in the same locality. The con- dition of the tubers at the time of peeling also influences the per-— centage of waste. The value of careful handling, though less popu- larly appreciated in the case of potatoes than with most perishable crops, has been clearly demonstrated. Cuts and bruises caused by careless methods of harvesting and handling are followed by decay in storage and make necessary much deeper paring into the flesh. Old potatoes that have softened and begun to sprout are much more difficult to peel economically. When the flesh is hard and firm the knife can shave off a thinner portion of crisp flesh than after some of the water has evaporated and some of the starch has been con- verted into sugar, leaving the flesh with a rubbery texture. TABLE 2—Comparison of certain standard varieties of potatoes, showing the loss in peeling and slicing and the quantity of chips produced, Arlington Experimental Farm, 1915, 1916, and 1917. Average loss in Weight of chips per kilogram eight a f 5 Weight weight (per cent) of potatoes (grams) Varieties compared. Year. Taeeee 5 5 grams). B y peel- i y ingand | UD | Peeled. | Sliced peeling. slicing peeled. raw. 1915 1,000 IOP Rete Heeioe 272 SO9S8i |e meemern Green Mountain. ...........---.-- 1916 4,417 16. 8 21. 46 289. 1 347. 5 368. 2 1917 6,377 12. 70 17.09 305 362. 2 376. 5 2-year avearge, 1916and1917.|_....... 10, 794 14. 37 18. 88 307. 1 358. 6 378. 6 3-year average, 1915, 1916 PI Ege ee oe AS Sars ie ca 11,794 ne 0a ee er 304. 1 CHEB! nee coesae 1915 2,002 NSA Sees icles 268. 2 BLUES sl PReeoaseiae BELO) 0) 51 eS eee 4 1916 2,192 19. 84 21.99 264. 6 330. 1 339. 2 1917 396 19. 95 22. 72 275. 2 343. 8 356. 2 2-year average, 1916and 1917.|........ | 2,588 19. 86 22. 10 266. 2 332. 2 | 341. 2 3-year average, 1915, 1916, PIIMLON Cece k oo o.o oe mcinie mee aie Ne ate es 4, 590 Ts OSt | Benes cis =e 265. 3 BY0H (NE pee anna a f 1915 2.000) | MemtageBi |e occu te Z18/O\ 254 2 ess cece Rural New Yorker. ..........-.-- { 1916 2) 581 9. 26 12.55| 275.1 203/1.| 314.5 2-year average, 1915and1916.|........ 4, 581 1 Ee 3H ees aa 250. 1 PS2i Ee ii| alsa atote\n inte 1915 1,000 iN Gye || eee 321 36300) | See eee RAMORUM «fo is sss ose oo ae os as 1916 2,323 10.8 13. 43 299. 2 335. 4 345. 6 | 1917 285 12. 98 17.19 291, 2 334. 7 351.7 2-year average, 1916and 1917.|........ 2,608 | 11. 04 13. 84 298. 3 335. 3 346, 2 a-year average, 1915, 1916 TT UALS Wy GBR SE ee Se ee 3,608 | Ll are aia ciate 304. 6 343, 2 fois ri, 005 | Rampaeyiais:, sere 306.5 | 337.7 URE AERO ots 2 teas ad oe wield y ai 1916 2,008 5.8 8. 87 325. 7 | 345. 9 ; | | 1917 395 6, 83 11. 39 308. 9 | 331.5 a 2-year average, 1916and 1917.|........ z, 403 5. 99 9. 23 304. 1 321. 3 | 355. & ayear average, 1915, 1916 UGE 1 Ge lle a Dae 8, 408 | OpUDN pahiess ax slats 318.0 | 20s 0) amiataaateale 1916 | 2,667| 8.73] 11.18| 329.6| 361.1 371.08 Peachblow........---++0+-+-++0+- K 1917 | 374 | 7.22 11. 50 334.2] 360.2 377. 6 2-year average, 1916 and 1917|........ | 3,041 | 8. 54 LUT SB0NL | BBL OI" ares — wo tf a — 18 ~ BULLETIN 1055, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 2.—Comparison of certain standard varieties of potatoes, showing the loss in peeling and slicing and the quantity of chips produced, Arlington Experimental Farm, 1915, 1916, and 1917—Continued. = et —— ———— Average loss in | Weight of chips per kilogram | weight (per cent). of potatoes (grams). ‘ Weight Ae Varieties compared. Year. | unpeeled (grams). Be By peel- y Qj By A Un- Sliced : ing and Peeled. : peeling. slicing. peeled. raw. Netted Gem (Colo.)..............- 1916 1, 586 9. 98 12. 42 319. 0 354. 36 365. 4 Netted Gem (Me.).....- BR ete, ale 1917 264 12. 16. 66 306. 8 350. 6 368. 2 2-year average, 1916 and 1917.|...-.... 1, 850 10. 32 13. 02 317. 2 353. 8 364. 8 Soni 1915 1, 000 AES tall esas Eee Ss 277 325.0155) Peer ‘Seen Ooo one aoaascaee {ir | ’492] te faze] 315. | sea 380. 8 2-year average, 1915and 1917.|........ 1, 492 AG i eaase eee! 289. 6 388.20) | ee eer Pearl 1915 1, 000 17-5 Dik eon gesooes 234.0 PAY fie Ga oe eS SOS OR URS AR Sin ie tinea aae na a 1917 373 16. 08 | 22.0 262. 7 313.1 336. 8 2-year average, 1915and 1917. ...__._. 1, 373 SEPA 7a ene sea 241.8 DQIOs4: \| a eee ae . A 1915 1, 000 TS Oat et ee 197.0 229. La eee ees BTSs si wit paso =e == { 1917 370| 14.321 18.9 297.3| 347.0 366.7 2-year average, 1915and 1917. ......-_- 1,370 14503) oacgce+oce 224.0 AGN lecceacccs = | . 1916 994 18. 41 20. 32 308. 9 378. 6 387.6 REIN) MENNSIGD Jono co cenoocedse { 1917 321 7.16 9.97 314.6 | 338.9 349.5 2-year average, 1916and 1917. ..__.__. 1,315 15. 66 17.79 310. 2 367.9 377.4 'f 1916 1, 000 14.2 | 768) 319.0 371.8 386.7 ENGLER p cade cae see aoe cee ar car \ 1917 210| 10.00! 16.19] 304.7| 338.6 363. 6 2-year average, 1916and 1917.)._._.__. 1, 210 13. 47 | 19. 96 316.5 365. 8 382. 6 1916 432 33.8 36. 34 | 240.7 | 363.7 378. 2 TEE TEU). 220 2cba2eooccaosacts { i917 297| 12.45| 16.83| 285.0| 353.8 372, 4 2-year average, 1916 and 1917.|_.__..._. 729 25.10 28. 39 | 268.8 | 358.8 Sadao 1916 ||) 1G) 18.34 320.5 | 385.1 | 392. 4 MMC TIES cence enoae ose oyen GSE 3: { 1917 298 | 16.10| 21.81] 268.4| 320.0 343. 3 2-year average, 1916and 1917.|__.____. 685 16. 49 19. 85 297.8 356. 6 378.8 : a 1916 196 16. 83 20.41) 295.9| 355.8 371.8 pee Ole HOMES aro eecie- Fos 1917 252| 13.89] 22.62] 277.8| 322.5 | 359.0 2-year average, 1916and1917-|__..._.. 448 | 15.17 21.65 285. 7 336.8 364.3 ete es ’ _ | 1915 24, 695 1B} 1G |e setoesans 274.3! 310.8 |: See Sec ociseed cay Wat |, 180.764 atlas ps ira) 502! 2) 1 34082 363.1 Ey ee oe SIR ae Ta Se SR [{ 1917 78, 033 11. 67 16. 36 301.7) 341.9 361.6 2-year average, 1916and1917-|___..__- | 208, 797 12. 39 | 16. 56 301.9 343. 4 361. 2 3-year average, 1915, 1916, : Palle Sao se osoesenee etaetsters rsa 233, 492 Wel We oaacsemoc | 298. 5 O41 0% | Seeeeceee 1 | | When the potatoes are sound and in good condition most of the 12.47 per cent waste in peeling is composed of flesh around the eyes. If the eyes are deep it is not possible to gouge them out with a knife as carefully as the skin is removed by the peeler. This loss is less important than an equally deep peeling elsewhere, however, for the internal medulla extends a branch to each eye, lessening the propor- tion of dry matter to water and reducing accordingly the food value of the flesh. East® has shown that the quality of the potato varies ‘East, Edward M. A study of the factors influencing the improvement of the potato, Ill, Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 127, p. 375-456, 10 fig, Bibliography, p. 450-456. 1908, —- METHODS OF MANUFACTURING POTATO CHIPS. 19 inversely with the number of eyes, and that there is great variation within the variety. | Table 3 shows that approximately half a pound of oil was used for every pound of chips produced, or, to be more exact, 0.451 pound in 1916 and 0.434 pound in 1917. This was slightly less than the estimates furnished by two manufacturers of potato chips. Not all of this oil went into the chips, however, a great deal being lost through spattering over the pan, in draining the chips, and in strain- ing the oil. TABLE 3.—Katio of cottonseed oil required for making potato chips, tests of 1916 and 1917. Average weight . * | (grams). Ratio. Year. Number of tests. | - Chips . cS Oil used. ene Oil. Chips. Nit EE Is ar 3 te | 47 | 369 818 0.451 1 TELS. 2212252 i eee ee ee 33 | 718. 66 . 434 1 SUMMARY. Potatoes are a universal article of diet, and their home manufacture into potato chips is entirely feasible. High-grade cottonseed oil heated to approximately 210° C. (400° F.) is the best fat in which to fry them. Vegetable oils or compounds are more satisfactory than animal fats, and liquids are somewhat preferable to the semiplastic compounds. No fat with a smoking point of less than 220° C. (428° F.) is satisfactory. The oil should be entirely renewed every second or third day when chips are manufactured in commercial quantities. Mechanical peelers are necessary for commercial production and of great assistance in home manufacture. Vegetable slicers are essential for uniform results, as it is impossible to cut potatoes thinly and evenly enough by hand. The best vessel in which to fry the chips is one that is deep rather than wide, made of iron or steel, with an inner perforated basket in which the chips can be lowered and raised. Use mature potatoes, high in starch. Large or medium-sized, round potatoes with shallow eyes are preferable. The slices should be thor- oughly washed in cold water and «a maximum of starch removed. Tn the experimental tests of the Bureau of Plant Industry, potato chips were scored on a basis of 30 points, distributed as fellows: Kase of cooking, 10; appearance, 5: crispness, 5; flavor, 10, 20 BULLETIN 1055, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The average waste in peeling all potatoes handled during 1915, 1916, and 1917 was 12.47 per cent, and the quantity of chips produced averaged 29.85 per cent of the weight before peeling. Commercial men figure on getting between 15 and 27 per cent of chips from each barrel or sack of potatoes. Approximately half a pound of oil was used for every pound of chips produced. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C, AT 5 CENTS PER COPY. V POR SS ee a Re ee UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1056 Contribution from the Bureau of Markets and Crop Estimates H.C. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. vV April 5, 1922 MARKETING COTTON SEED FOR PLANTING PURPOSES. By J. E. Barr, Investigator in Marketing Seeds. CONTENTS. Page. Page PIECE MOS PLY <= 225 2 Sr” || MMos) oul eyaubeler” (ese ss ee ee 20 Selection of seed stocks___________ Sy MMi aie sale haaayey pe ee ee 20 OUP Eo a a eae 4s Selina rae ee ee 21 Serereen operee ee 28a. SAN EERE ees 2 4 Extravagant claims undesira- LG pie ae ae 5 | a) Ky ae a cll ie ee 21 Recleaning and grading________ 12 True names for varieties______ 22 SEU Sree CAE ee eee ere 16 Renaming varieties ___________ 22 “SaaS OE SS ee ee ee 16 Sales on basis of weight vs. Warehouse should be ventilated_ 17 Si ee eee 22 Nuprinc pine SACKS <2 322 Ss it |" Certified! cotton sced22===2=—22==-— 23 SIVOk if SS ee ee ee SSM Manype— eee 23 PeentitiantOn = sos See 18 Causes of low germination_---- 19 PAAR OMCCS TS = 19 The area devoted to the production of cotton in the United States annually averages 35,000,000 acres. To plant this acreage requires approximately 500,000 tons or a billion pounds of seed, about one- tenth of the average total annual production. It has been estimated that normally 30 per cent of this total planting requirement is ob- tained by farmers from commercial sources, 70 per cent being pro- duced on the farm where used. The number of persons and concerns dealing in cotton seed for planting purposes and the total volume of their annual business have increased steadily. However, comparatively little effort has been made to improve the commercial and agricultural value of their stock. It is true that a limited number of growers and dealers are endeavoring to develop either new varieties or improved strains of standard varieties; but the possibilities of enhancing the commercial and agricultural value of cotton seed by better methods of preparing, storing, and marketing have been overlooked or neglected. As a 83460 —22———-1 2 BULLETIN 1056, U..S- DEPARTMEN VT OF AGRICULTURE. result the average commercial cotton seed of to- day used for plant- ing does not measure up to a high standard. The seed dealer’s place in the channels of trade is sustified largely by services rendered in improving the quality of his product. If his stock is no improvement over the average farmer’s stock, farmers will continue to be more or less skeptical regarding it, on ihe basis of the increased prices usually asked. On the other hand, if commercial cotton seed for planting possesses superior qualities and honest efforts are made to prove its superiority, skepticism regarding its true value will not long remain in the minds of farmers. There is rarely, if ever, al oversupply of really superior seed and no effort should be spared by commercial agencies and others to make the term “ plant- ing cotton seed ” stand for something of infinitely greater agricultural value than the average cotton seed now used for planting, and thereby to render a distinct service to the cotton-growing industry. The ideal planting cotton seed may be described as seed selected from cotton that is true to type and pure of variety; well matured; free from disease and insects or insect injury; delinted; recleaned and graded; and with a minimum germination of 88 per cent. By pointing ac some of the fundamental points in selecting, improved methods of preparing and storing, and ways of overcoming or elimi- nating some of the existing unfair and unscrupulous practices in sell- ing planting cotton seed, all classes of dealers may be aided in making their product approach more closely the ideal and farmers may be guided in determining its intrinsic value when making purchases. SOURCES OF SUPPLY. The percentage of the total planting requirement of cotton seed that is sold commercially varies from year to year and is influenced largely by one or more of the following factors: (1) Extent of boll weevil and pink boll worm injury and expansion of the area in- fested, which creates an abnormal demand for seed of early maturing varieties grown in noninfested territory; (2) excessive and contin- ued rains during the harvest period, adversely affecting the germina- tion; (3) unfavorable weather conditions during the planting sea- son, necessitating more or less replanting; (4) sane prosperity of the cotton farmer; and (5) spasmodic changes in the acreage. The percentage obtained by farmers from commercial sources also varies greatly in the several cotton-producing States, as shown in Table 1: ‘2 4 ¥ THLE Ty ee MARKETING COTTON SEED FOR PLANTING PURPOSES. 3 Tasre 1—Sources from which farmers obtain planting cotton seed and estimated nornal percentage and quantity obtained from each source. Be eee. | Produced on farm | Obtained from Obtained from planting. where used. other farmers. dealers. State. Pounds. eet Pounds. eek - Pounds. Ber Pounds. | = ee 1,755,000 | 47 825,000 | 16 281,000 | 37 649, 000 North Carolina... -.-~- --< 54, 648, 000 a) 37, 707, 000 17 9, 290, 000 14 7, 651, 000 South Carolina........... 100,695,000 80} 80,556,000; 13] 13,090,000; 7 7,049; 000 a 163,614,000 | 80| 130,8917000| 12] 197634000 8| — 13/0807000 iD GiGi le es es 2,626,000 34 893, 000 15 394, 000 51 1, 339, 000 USS a See ee 4,736,000 | 23 1, 089, 000 13 616, 000 64 3, 031, 000 Tennessee................ 29, 664,000 70} 20,765,000} 13| 3,856,000| 17 5, 043, 000 Giana c.-...-....... 93,786,000 76| 717277,000| 11| 10/317/000| 13] 127192'000 Mississippi................ 99,792,000 80} 79,834,000) 10| 9,979/000! 10 9” 9797000 LOU R a ae eee 50,470,000 | 76 38, 357, 000 13 6,561, 000 11 5, 552, 000 VED S SS aeeee SeEaee 314,400,000 | 56] 176.064, 000 13 40, 872, 000 31 97, 464, 000 @uahans............ 66,360,000 | 46 | 30,526,000) 20] 13/272'000) 34 | 2275627000 Jr i 100;170;000 70} 70,119,000} 23] 23,039,000 | 7 7’012? 000 ee 4'470,000 27| 132807000 11 521,000 | 62 2” 9397 000 GAbMOrni are > S26). 522 2.5 25. 2,980, 000 9 268, 000 6 179, 000 85 2,533, 000 United States.......| 1,090,436,000| 68| 740,451,000| 14] 151,901,000) 18 | 198,084,000 The percentage shown as obtained direct from other farmers is considered commercial seed and is included in all references to com- mercial seed in this discussion. The quantities given in the table are based on the 1920 acreage and the reported average rate of seed- ing per acre in each State. SELECTION OF SEED STOCKS. The production of planting cotton seed is so closely allied with the marketing of it that a line of demarcation between the two activities is difficult to draw. The agricultural value of the finished product sold depends in a large measure on the growing crop and the stock seed from which it is produced. The stock seed should compare favorably with the “ideal.” It should come direct from the origina- tor of that particular variety, or the conditions under which it has been handled and propagated since leaving the originator’s hands should conform with approved methods of growing and selecting cotton seed for planting purposes. The dealer should maintain close cooperation with the grower and have direct supervision over the growing crop. To this end advance growing contracts may be ad- vantageous. Rogueing the fields one or more times prior to and dur- ing blossoming time is desirable in order to remove ali barren, dis- eased, and off-type plants.’ The cotton from which seed is selected should be well-matured and dry when picked. Seed from the top bolls on the plants and from ' Distribution of Cotton Seed in 1921, U. 8. Department of Agriculture Circular 151, 1920, 2Cook, O. F.: and Bolls. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular No, 66, Cotton Selection on the Farm by the Characters of the Stalks, Leaves, 1910, 4 BULLETIN 1056, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. eotton harvested late in the season, after frosts and storms, almost invariably is of low vitality and of poor quality for planting pur- poses. If a field contains a high percentage of diseased plants this fact immediately disqualifies it as a source of planting seed supply. _ Also, any appreciable damage by the boll weevil and pink boll worm renders cotton seed unfit for planting purposes even in infested ter- ritory, while quarantine measures prohibit the shipment and sale of cotton seed from infested areas into noninfested territory. PREPARATION. Cotton seed, unlike most other leading field seeds, continues to be sold and planted in a rather crude physical condition. Dealers seem to overlook the fact that commercial cotton seed of the most carefully selected and improved strains can be made of still greater value from the farmers’ point of view by the use of modern machinery in gin- ning, delinting, and recleaning and grading. The commercial ad- vantages of better preparation are measured by the agricultural advantages accruing to the farmer planting the better prepared seed. If it does not mean a larger net profit to the farmer by promoting more economical production or a greater yield, the increased cost is not justified. On the other hand when it is evident that a process or method of improving the physical condition of cotton seed en- hances its value for planting purposes, it is incumbent on the dealer to use the process. A reduction of 100,000 tons of cotton seed in the annual seeding requirement and a saving of 30,000,000 pounds of linters, now a total waste, for industrial purposes, would result through the more thorough and uniform removal of the surplus lint and the culling out of all extraneous matter and small and light- weight inferior seed by the application of such methods as are now available. - GINNING. The first mechanical operation affecting the appearance and physi- cal condition of cotton seed is ginning.? Improvements in ginning machinery during recent years enable the operator to produce much cleaner seed than formerly. Most of the sand, dirt, burs, and other foreign material is removed automatically. The most modernly equipped gin plant, however, will not turn out seed in the best con- dition unless a thoroughly competent operator is in charge and unless the cotton to be ginned is fully matured and dry. There are thou- sands of gins in the cotton belt but relatively few skilled operators who appreciate the importance of improving the physical condition ® Taylor, Fred, Griffith, D. C., and Atkinson, C. E.: Cotton Ginning Information for Farmers, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 764. 1916. MARKETING COTTON SEED FOR PLANTING PURPOSES. 5 and preserving the varietal purity and identity of cotton seed to be used or sold for planting purposes. No attempt should be made to gin cotton that is “ green” or that has become damp, as it is difficult to prevent the seed from such cot- ton from becoming “heated” in storage. An important precaution- ary measury which always should be kept in mind is the prevention of the admixture of varieties at the gin. Before changing from one variety to another the roll box should be emptied and, together with the flues, feeders, conveyers, bins, should be thoroughly cleaned. This factor has been discussed fully in a previous publication of the United States Department of Agriculture.* DELINTING. Delinting is one of the most important factors essential to the preparation of the ideal planting cotton seed. It is evident that any process which removes the surplus lint without impairing the germi- nation is of prime importance in the improvement of cotton seed for planting purposes and the same interest should be manifested in de- linting as in maintaining the purity of variety, trueness to type, or other factors pertaining to the cotton from which the seed is selected. From a commercial point of view, delinting offers dealers an op- portunity to improve the quality and intrinsic value of their product and to maintain the grade of it at a higher level than the average farmer’s stock or what is termed “ gin-run” seed. AGRICULTURAL ADVANTAGES, The delinting process offers decided possibilities for bettering agricultural practice. It promotes a uniform stand of plants by en- abling the seed to germinate more quickly and with the aid of less moisture. In “gin-run” seed, regardless of variety or strain, there is usually a wide variation in the quantity of lint left on the in- dividual seeds, as is shown in figure 1, @ and c. When planted, the seeds with the shortest lint on them come into closer contact with the soil moisture and germinate more quickly than those containing ex- cessive lint. The delinted seeds, containing a small, uniform quantity of yery short lint or fuzz (see figure 1, 6 and d), germinate at prac- tically the same time and produce a more nearly perfect stand of plants at least two or three days earlier. This is of value in growing cotton in the presence of the boll weevil because every day gained in getting the plants above the ground increases the prospects of obtaining a profitable yield. Delinting materially assists in the emergence of cotton seedlings. In germinating the seed is forced up *Saunders, D. A., and Cardon, V. V.: Custom Ginning as a Factor in Cottonseed De terloration, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 288, 1915. 6 BULLETIN 1056, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. through the soil on the cotyledons of the cotton seedlings and a closely delinted seed offers less resistance than gin-run seed. Also the united action of the young plants, resulting from the simultaneous Fic. 1.—Cotton seed. a and ¢, Gin-run; b and d, delinted. All natural size. germination of the delinted seeds, enables them to break through soil that has been compacted by rains with comparatively little dif- ficulty and helps to insure a stand of plants under adverse conditions. MARKETING COTTON SEED FOR PLANTING PURPOSES. if Delinting effects an economy in the use of cotton seed, as planting ma- chines will distribute a smaller quantity per acre more uniformly. Tt will eliminate the necessity of a force feed in planting machines and facilitate the single-seed distribution and the planting of cotton seed in hills. The thin uniform stand, made possible by the use of delinted seed, also may help to simplify the culture of cotton by what is known as the single stalk method® which, repeated experiments show,® produces the highest yields and earliest maturity. Fie. 2.—A type of machine used in delinting cotton seed. COST OF DELINTING. The cost of delinting, which on first thought may be expected to ke excessive, is small per unit. 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is quite evident, however, that considerable sterility occurs on oat panicles which have not come in contact with diseased leaves or sheaths, and even in fields where there has been little or no bacterial blight; also there is evidence that in years of severe bacterial blight early in the season the yield per acre has not been reduced, but some- times has been greater than when there was less blight. In order to learn more about the relationship of the halo blight to the sterility of oats the observations and experiments described in the following pages were made. EXPERIMENTS OF 1918. During the season of 1918, 11 varieties of oats were used for inoculation experiments. In each variety bundles containing about a dozen plants were sprayed with water suspensions of the halo- blight organism and covered with glassine bags for two or three days. One bundle was sprayed without being injured in any way and another after the plants had been drawn between the fingers to rub off the bloom. The plants of a third bundle of each variety were injured by needle pricks or were cut with a scalpel before spraying. Check bundles of each variety, injured and uninjured, were sprayed with sterile water and also covered with bags. In some cases water suspensions of the organism were sprayed into unopened sheaths and sterile water into similar plants as checks. (Pls. I to IV.) In most of the varieties the sheaths were about ready to open or were already partly open. In Wisconsin Pedigree 7 the heads were entirely out of the sheaths and were inoculated to learn whether or not the spikelets themselves were susceptible to infection with the halo-blight organism and what the effect of infection would be. In the oat panicie the uppermost spikelets develop first and at the time when the sheath is about ready to open are usually fully grown, while those at the base are still only partly developed. The difference in the stage of development of the spikelets on the panicle influences, of course, the results of the experiments where inoculations are made upon panicles about to emerge from the sheath. The almost fully developed spikelets at the top are less influenced by the inoculum than the partly developed ones at the base. When these inoculated and check plants were mature and were collected for recording the results, a bundle of untreated plants of each variety was also collected in order to compare the proportion of sterility with that of treated plants. The results of this set of inoculations, together with the amount of sterility found on untreated plants, are shown in Table I, and a brief summary of the same is presented in Table LI. Bul. 1058, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. WISCONSIN No. 22 OATS, IMPROVED LIGOWO (MINNESOTA NO. 6), UNTREATED. Collected in July, 1918, at Madison, Wi Photographed in January, 1921. Three-fourth natural size ; Bul. 1058, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. WISCONSIN No. 22 OATS, SPRAYED WITH STERILE WATER ON JUNE 29, 1918. Collected in July, 1918. Photographed in January, 1921. Three-fourths natural size. Bul. 1058, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II]. WISCONSIN NO. 22 OATS, SPRAYED WITH WATER SUSPENSION OF ‘‘STOCK”’ HALO ORGANISM. Not injured before spraying on June 29, 1918. Collected in July, 1918. Photographed in January, 1921. Three-fourths natural size. Bul. 1058, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. WISCONSIN No. 22 OATS, SPRAYED ON JUNE 29, 1918, WITH WATER SUSPENSION OF ““STOCK’’ HALO ORGANISM AFTER INJURY BY NEEDLE PRICKS. Collected in July, 1918. Photographed in January, 1921. Three-fourths natural size. STERILITY OF OATS. 5 Tasie I].—Average percentages of sterility in 11 varieties of oats, as shown by inoculi tion experiments nm 1918. Sprayed with water. | Sprayed with organism. Tete Untreated, : Variety. uninjured. Uninjured.| Injured. | Uninjured.| Injured. | Wisconsim. Eedicree I... .. s22.2-222--2-5-- 16 7a) el Wes ees a Seas 2 Be Se eee Wasconsim: Pedigree ’3-. 2226. 45---52-cee4 5: 10 Wile ssaeseeouae { 12 \ aeons MASCHMSTRENIO ©4222 8 ot oo cas 2 ose Ss oe 7 a Receeoe cera AQ Rees seo - . a 9 ! « MPISCONSINAP edioree 5b. 2- = 325-556 be eee se { af \ er ai 16 29 Wasconsin Pr edisres 72... 222.0222 2222: 1 { 2 \ ay ie ae ee 4 6 Weaseconsin- Pedisree 132... 24.s22se2 eset 15 35 47 25 46 Wisconsin Pedigree 14.-_.................. 7 23 { iS \ be Soe eer 21 ascansm Pedipree 1520... 282.222 <5+-5- ORAS) Eines ee ta ks { S \ See es a { 8 Miisconsin No: 22........-....-5----.-0i--- 14 { 2 } eR Be AQ eee ae ek Wisconsin No. 25.......22...2-2-2-00e2---- { re \ ADH ee eae 50 63 “TRO PITS: IN 14 { fe \ OBOE SOcaE Se Go ae Eerie Dene eee On normal untreated plants of the 11 varieties tested the amount of sterility varied from a fraction of 1 per cent to as much as 16 per cent. Sprayed with water suspensions of bacteria and with sterile water and treated as previously described, the proportion increased from 2 to 47 per cent. In some cases there was more sterility on plants sprayed with bacterial suspensions than on plants of the same variety sprayed with sterile water. In other varieties the reverse was true. On the whole, the amounts of sterility produced by either method seem to be about equal. [If this is so, the bacteria are not the cause of the sterility in the varieties included in these experiments. Wisconsin Pedigree 7 oats were sprayed when the panicles were entirely out and the spikelets practically full size. Although every spikelet was yellowed with halo lesions, the spikelets continued to fill out, as in untreated panicles. In a plat of Wisconsin Pedigree 14 oats which was untreated a few panicles appeared which showed halo lesions on from a few to all of the spikelets in a panicle, but in spite of these lesions the spikelets were apparently as well developed as those unspotted. EXPERIMENTS OF 1920. During the season of 1920 panicles of oats were collected at random in oat fields and counts made of sterility; also another set of experi- ments was carried on to learn more of the possible relation of bacteria to sterility in oats. Bacterial suspensions and sterile water were sprayed into the unopened sheaths of plants about two-thirds grown. These were covered with glassine bags for three days, as in previous experiments. The results of these tests are shown in Tables IIT and LV. 6 BULLETIN 1058, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste III.—Counts of sterility observed in oat panicles collected at random in a field of Wisconsin Pedigree 1 (Wisconsin Wonder), at Madison, Wis., July 21, 1920. [The extreme and average percentages of sterility are shown in boldface figures.] Normal and sterile spikelets counted. Bundle 1. Bundle 2. Bundle 3. Panicle. | | | Sterile. | Sterile. Sterile. ‘ice -————— ce -——— | Nor- Total. | Total. | | Total. | mal. | Num-| Per | mal. |Num-| Per | mal. /Num-| Per | ber. | cent. ber. | cent. | ber. | cent. | | | ING eee ee Ad | 42 3 6 40 | 34 6 15 67 52 15 22 NON Dea anes 53 45 8 15 50 | 45 5 10 51 41 10 19 INOS Heer eice 38 27 11 28 43 | 38 5 11 82 58 24 29 INO: 42S eee 44 42 2 4 | 32 | 28 4 12 61 45 16 27 INGOs seein ee 40 32 8 20 65 | 41 24 37 85 60 25 29 INO, Ges 2ee sae se 40 | 39 if 2 | 37 | 33 4} 10 72 54 18 25 INO ee eee 42 38 4, 9 31 29 2 6 | 75 49 26 34 INOS Mess 2 ee 41 37 4 | 9 38 34 4 10 | 93 66 27 29 INCOR ees ste 34 25 9 26) 55 41 14 25 62 52 10 16 IN@> MOSS. ashes 38 32 6 | 15 41 30 6 14 62 46 16 25 INO Lees SS 42 39 3 u 54 37 17 31 | 77 62 15 19 IN@s P35 bse ss8e 60 48 12 20 54 37 17 31 73 40 33 45 INO) TIS as, ARE TIS sae 9 Daa eb eee apa oan ee tr | 50 35 15 30 81 52 29 35 BN edt a aS BU ok ene eS AN Lt CORN NE | esis oa Si ee oy Bs | 69 45 24 34 TINO pd yee pa a a TS Tae P| OM | CYP TS Bi tecaatn | AD Se gael) pene taal eee a ek |e Rel 90 67 23 25 SIN 11 GS rs | PAP ah ra |S a RO Se A a BNR | i eri | Peerage | RO 76 53 23 30 IN OS LPs Ss oe ace al = ol Stee eh nat nner eS AIOE BL as I SEA ban LAT BC Nes, 78 55 23 29 IN(OSB SEES ep eee So ai | APE FIN EY a UR Saree ice OMe | ha eR RI Crab 65 50 15 23 INOS IIQ Wee pee eit tae manned Peer NW Sa 7 Jes aL] B Sapa eet escapees sen a 51 35 16 31 INO 320 eet a EO De NN a a rae SY U 09 SR PROMS ESI Tk BZ | A ae a 78 59 19 24 INOS 2 PRU Ree Benet Re A STR PG Se at Oi SN al RA ates | eerie UE Sect gia | ees 2, 54 18 25 INOS 2 DEAR Brae a eeteee cece || Dia ee eatin a i a a i Pal eee De ae 45 34 iit 24 DINO PO ele 2 ete Ha RRS a ea The of 2A gl pa eae be haat | eats act [Note aa 48 37 11 23 NG 24a ee amen RPE CE aa tie UE | 20 A Wel DN ESA EE EES ES PRU ae ee 43 29 14 33 HN FCG PS Faye es a el he tecterci nee Sy fs SL Ca [Sea ieee aaa [Ren See Sa Dee TOI Re the 49 40 9 18 INGO 226 eat eR eI eI ei dees SPEIRS E HS Bet Meee eco eye 2. 4 perenne ae ad 47 35 12 25 INO S)2 (ee ee oa |e pec aoe | eee ier eaten |e su | Sees a he a | a seams ee ok I! ars 53 40 | 13 24 INO 28 ree eke ee | ane ES Eee | She enc 01] vt pay eens | eaten lecoaeesilecccas- 72 56 16 25 Average...... 43 37 | 5 | 13 45| 35 | 9 18 67 48 18 26 | The panicles recorded in Table III were collected on July 21 with- out regard to sterility from an acre plat on the agricultural grounds of the University of Wisconsin. It was noticeable that every panicle showed some sterility, the amount varying from 1 spikelet per panicle in bundle 1 to 33 spikelets per panicle in bundle 3. This field from which the panicles were taken was practically free from halo blight. There were no lesions on the upper leaves, flag leaves, or panicles, and only an occasional lesion on a lower leaf could be found. In the case of this variety there seems to have been no connection what- ever between the halo blight and the sterility recorded above, yet in bundles 2 and 3 the average sterility was more than a third of the whole number of spikelets. In the 1920 experiments (Table IV), as in 1918, water and bac- terial suspensions sprayed into oat sheaths produced more sterility than occurred naturally. The average of 21 per cent of sterility on untreated plants is high, but this increased to 40 and 52 per cent when water was sprayed into the sheaths and to 44 and 63 per cent with bacterial suspensions. In this experiment the bacterial sus- STERILITY OF OATS. 7 pension retarded growth more than the sterile water. In a number of cases the panicles did not push out of the sheaths, remaining un- developed inside, and were so moldy that it was practically impos- sible tc make counts. How much the mold had to do in retarding development could not be determined. Counts from these panicles are given where possible. Tasie 1Y.—Relation of halo blight _and stripe organisms to sterility in oats, as shown by moculation experiments wiih Wisconsin Pedigree 5 (Swedish Select) at Madison, Wis., June 25, 1920. [The extreme and average percentages of sterility are shown in boldface figures.] Normaland sterile spikelets in treated and untreated panicles. Inoculumin sheaths. Sterile water. Halo-blight organism. Sian alae eee ae Bundle2. | Bundle3. | Bundle4. | Bundle5. | bundles. Panicle. Ster- Ster- Ster- Ster- Ster- Ster- ile ile ile ile. ile. ile. seal. = 5 ° 5 . 5 A Fl 5 = i= ~ as oS ~ = i ~ i— H > = i~I »~ ae im] ~~ /S(S lel a/S[Sl lal Sl2/8 ia) S18 8/2/22 /8/2/e 12/8 SASS 8 SS Sse Sie Ss Sle Ale |e ele e o/° oiol/S/FBl|alo!lo o};o]}] 9S o|/o/; 9° oe om oy) eia|alajelaiaeleiaia isle |ai4 ee |zi4 |e lel ia |e iu fied Pee See 52! 38 rm 26| 22) 12 10 45) 31{ 18} 13) 41) 17) 10) 7 41)..-) 10)..-)..-]...| 5/- i (Ts OEE Ns ie eee 64} 51} 13) 20) 30) 18) 12) 40) 34} 13) 21) 61) 16) 10} 6) 37/ 27) 18) 9) 31)_..| 0 100 Nor fits sO - 58) 46 12) 20) 37) 23) 14) 37; 20) 9) 11) 55}...) Oj.--100, 12) 11) 1) 8} 29) 12) 17) 58 inite Cie ee 47| 26] 21; 44) 25) 13) 12; 48) 20) 10) 10, 50)...|...)-.-; 50) 21) 14) 7) 33/...| 0/...,100 Noron. es eet 53| 44) 9 16) 33) 18) 15) 45) 20) 8 12, 60 20} 9} 11) 55} 28) 13) 15) 53} 43) 31) 12) 27 LG GS es 50} 38] 12; 21) 21) 15) 6} 27) 11} 3) 8) 72) 28] 16) 12) 42) 19} 11) 8} 42) 46) 30; 16] 34 Le a 36| 24) 12) 33] 39} 25) 14) 35] 30] 16] 14] 46]...| O}..-/100}..-] O|...|100)...} 5!_._|..- Lit see ie 25} 21) 4! 16) 25) 11) 14) 56) 22) 13) 9) 40/.--] O}..-/100} 21) 13) 8) 38). 2_]_ 22]. 2]. ITE nee ae 43| 41) 2) 4) 23) 12! 11) 47) 28] 11) 17} 60} 22) 10} 12) 54) 21) 10) 11) 52)__.}...)...]_.. VOID eee is ar ee 32| 12) 27; 24) 13} 11) 45) 19) 7} 12) 63) 19] 9} 10) 52) 32) 17) 15) 46)._.)...)..-}..- i Geil ae 41) 28] 13 21| 21) 12) 9) 42) 27) 9) 18) 66) 23) 11) 12) 52)---)-. |---|)... ee lee ibis Sa ee aie 58| 51) 7) 12) 23) 16} 7| 30} 21) 8) 13) 61)-- 0)... ./100 meal eetalonol esis ijts Be A Oe B =ecl-..| of} 26) 11) 29) 23) 9} 14) GO|...) 4). .-|-2.)..- ab ale ataleas i four cis = Oh eee 2 a ees 28] 19] 9} 32) 28) 16} 12) 42;.__] 38.. semilere Ales Lee ae Bes Slesheoe 26} 10) 16) 61) 25) 9} 16) 64/.. Bleee| Sualees wala < aks Lt a i ee aAesSison}) UE) UG) Sieh qt Baye a aie BalSse see Sellen % Ln Ces Ss a Se (ie eee copie |...| 30] 13) 17| 56! 24) 14) 10) 41)... Ps Ses | ees 5 Bolleon Vip hye EE ee ee ee ee \secleeeloarilescllcoel! 2g) UGy aiey) ue = BOR SHalsse ales wie 3 wiht, Ud See aaa eae) ea ae eet Sele see leZOl ee OOl SON =| Saas es eral pete elarel | eee esate ae LOVE, 2/12 9 Se eg en aia Pane ae -|---|---|---| 24] 10} 14) 58]. i Sallsolinecleas Sea ese aealaas Lt) ila 3 ee ee ee one Gee Beet ---| 33} 18) 15] 45 5 Salas ecallscsilos 1 AOA el One | epee ea Nei se =.-| oo| 17] 16) 48). - lise ees 8 Sellsaaee Lh, DA Ee) Fe ae ae eee 303 DolMiomlowo0lteeloos |e selene ze LT 2 a pepe ie ial | ES Ra ae rag See 22| V4) Si a6l ecole helen. A z < IT Ais Ee ie a I Vr les aa ee 24| 12) 12) 50)...)..-]...]--- & AVECTARC...gecccccee 47 36 My 21; 27) 15} 11) 40) 24) 11) 12) 52)...)... Say eh) 44 63 | GENERAL SUMMARY. Considerable sterility occurs on oat panicles without any apparen connection with halo blight and in fields where there are no bacterial lesions. The amount seems to vary with different varieties of oats, some showing more sterility than others during the same season under similar conditions. The amount of sterility does not appear to be in proportion to susceptibility to halo blight. Wisconsin Pedigree No. 14 oats is the most susceptible to halo blight of the 11 varieties tested, but does not 8 BULLETIN 1058, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. show the greatest amount of sterility. By spraying plants with sterile water or water suspensions of bacteria and covering them for two or three days, the amount of sterility can be greatly increased. Although abundant halo lesions result from spraying with bacterial suspensions, the consequent sterility is only slightly, if any, greater — in amount than that induced by sterile water. It seems probable that rains falling about the time the oat sheaths are ready to open may have the same effect as the sterile water used in the experiments recorded here and that most of the sterility observed in oat fields is not the result of the halo-blight organism but of too much moisture about developing panicles. The striking variations in percentages of sterility in different panicles of the same bundle (Table I, Wis. Ped. 14, bundles 1 to 6) and the high percentages of sterility in all the panicles of a few bundles (Table I, Wis. No. 25, bundles 4 and 5, and Table I, Wis. No. 22, bundles 3 and 4, 1918; also Table IV, bundles 2, 3, and 4, 1920) would ‘seem to point to the condition of the oat flowers at the time of rain or spraying as a controlling factor in the amount of sterility. If, how- ever, the variations in the amounts of sterility in different varieties should prove constant from year to year the varieties found to be sus- ceptible could be discarded and hardier ones grown. Records for several years from parallel plats of varieties which have shown differ- ent amounts of sterility in one season might give interesting and practical results. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. ¢. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V Washington, D. C. RESEARCH METHODS IN THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1059 ¢ Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester May 19, 1922 FOREST ENVIRONMENT. BATES, Station, By Carwos G. Need for a permanent organiza- tion in forest investigations__ Forest experiment stations ____ Short-term studies_________-__ The simple physico-physiological (QUE CS 61 a aaa Measurement of environmental con- ditions affecting vegetation__-~ Climatic characteristics of local- 5 SSS ee Natural climatic regions___-__-~ Data obtained by the Weather ATCA an at Knowledge of existing stations ICONS ay Periods of growth and rest __--~--~- Special observations on climate anGsol Of locality. ==. Location of instruments for study ofregtowth=s_-— ~-—=+-— Location of instruments for study of reproduction_____-- Air temperatures__----------- Problems_ Exposure of thermometers—_—_ Standardizing thermometers — Maximum, minimum, and cur- rent temperatures ats te Hourly temperatures-____--- Frosts __-- Se ace Mean temperatures Annual summary Instruments Soil temperatures Purposes to be served Z Problems CONTENTS. ‘Page. 2 | Measurement of environmental con- 2 ditions affecting vegetation—Con. 4 Soil temperatures—Continued. 6 Time of observations_______ 6 Daily mean soil temperatures_ 7 Readings. se vive ea eS 7 Pal bul aeons Sees ee a Hourly soil temperatures____ 8 Summary of soil temperatures. Annual summaries of soil 11 Tempera tes aes Apparatls= = 22-22 ial Special suggestions on surface ial measurements_—--_-__-____ Tmis Enum ts 11 Solar radiation—light ________ Concept of the functions of 12 radiant energy——-_----~- 12 The nature of sunlight____~ Horizontal and vertical ex- 13 DOSULeS ee | Se Total radiation on the site__ 13 Isolation under canopies———— Light measurements in rela- 13 tion to minimum require- 15 ATV tise ie = ae Ss ee 15 Apparatus and methods for 17 radiant energy measure- 18 TAOS) eee ee ee ae Mhe radiometer —-—--=—--= 18 The thermopyle -_-_-_--_— 19 The bolometer .-.__——-— 24 Pyrheliometers—-—-—- ae 24 Thermometric sunshine re- 95 corder ~~ a i 25 Solar thermograph- 26 Photo - chemical photome 26 ters 27 Comparison photome tersu.. | STUDY OF Silviculturist in Charge of Fremont Forest Experiment and RAPHAEL Zon, Forest Hconomist. Page. 28 28 31 31 31 34 34 34 37 38 39 39 41 44 45 45 46 49 49 49 49 5O 2 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Measurement of environmental con- ditions affecting vegetation—Con. Solar radiation—light—Contd. Apparatus and methods for radiant energy measure- ments—Continued. Spectroscopic measure- Spectro-photographs —__-__ Spectro-bolometer________- Evaporimeters ___________ BTCA SS tee UNM Ts See r IPOH oMAENONy oe HWxposure of gauges_.____-__ Snow Pedepths =) ee Snow-seale readings __-___-~_ AM OU ay eee Ee ee Sa HEMTNS TS, A Soil moisture and soil qualities_ Osmosis as a factor in water absorption Problems and some definitions_— Total moisture determinations Soil wells for representa- THIS OXON ONS) 2 Technique of periodic sam- pling! 2s Se SS eee Determination of non-avail- able moisture __________ Direct determination of wilting coefficient __-____ Indirect methods for wilt- ing coefficient________ Capillary moisture______ Moisture equivalent penpals Hygroscopic coefficient __ Calculation of the available OOM O MUSH POU) ye Availability of the moisture_ Coefficient of availability__ Osmotic pressure in plant PISSILES Heer eer toni nes Method of determining freezing points_____ Osmotic pressure in soils_ Vapor transfer in soils_ Vapor transfer method_— Comptting the coefficient_ Other soil properties to be STA CCAS ye ines. se Acidity and alkilinity_____ : Hydrogen-ion concentra- tel © TH Sees ee CL Mechanical analysis of soils Determination of humus __ DGOSS) 7 Ws 250110 Tae ea Ammonia-soluble humus_ Page. 5T 100 101 101 103 107 108 109 112 120 121 121 122 12@ 126 127 iY Measurement of environmental con- Page. ditions affecting vegetation—Con. Soil moisture and soil qualities— Continued. Other soil properties to be studied—Continued. Capillary conductivity_—-__ Chemical analyses for nu- trients: 2-223 Summary of soils discussion_— Special equipment __________ Atmospheric humidity __-_____ instriments 22 Wind movement=—==-=2]=ssse== Instruments --_— 222 IE Vaporaitl Ona = ae Objects and nature of evapo- ration measurements_—____ Instrumental methods______~ Free-water surface _______ Measurement —-—-___~__ Nonfree-water surface____~— Piche evaporimeter_____ Porous cup atmometer__ Shive’s nonabsorbent por- ous-cup atmometer —__ Standardization________ Computation of field re- sults Dxposure: 23s Forest Service evaporim- ObsenvalhiOn sss Mab wlayciony === aan Direct transpirationmethod_ Cobalt-chloride method__ Method of excised twigs_— Method of potted plants_ Instrum entsy22 2 eee Phenology Se ee ee External field observations ___—~_ Internal or physiological observa- Hons] tse ee Field observations, photographs, and PAVED S fees Ee ee Appendices: ==. 2= = ee eee A. Vapor pressure tables for ba- rometric pressure 21.42 inches. 2-2 ov eae B. Osmotic pressures and freez- ing-point depressions_______ C. Titration methods for alka- linity and acidity_______ Alkalinity test =2—= =a Acidity, test=_ 22) Sees List of references_________-______ INTRODUCTION. OBJECT. Forestry, like engineering or medicine, is largely an applied science. Its development is based on fundamental knowledge of the natural sciences. Knowledge of the tree itself is purely botanical — SC ’ RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 3 and physiological science. The first contact with its enemies and hiotic aids leads into mycology and zoology. Investigation of the effect of environment upon the tree necessarily involves considera- tion of geology and scils, physics and chemistry, c imatology and solar radiation, as well as the biology of the tree’s living companions. In measuring the volume and growth of tree and stands, as well as many of the conditions within and without the tree, there is need for mathematics somewhat beyond the elemental. And so on ad in- finitum. The present-day forester is keen’y alive to the need for help from every possible source of scientific information. Unfortunately, the investigations undertaken by those trained in forestry must cover so wide a field, and are so often governed by some practical, economic, und immediate necessity, that there is no time or opportunity, and often a lack of the necessary training, for delying into the fundamental problems of the underlying sciences. It is therefore in keeping with the needs of forestry and the spirit of the times to call the attention of scientists in every line to the problems that confront foresters and to seek the cooperation of such scientists in solving them. While the present bulletin is designed primarily for the aid of forest investigators—those who are giving all of their time to for- estry—it is hoped that it will be suggestive to a great many others of problems well worthy of their serious study. An effort must be made to show to such workers the ways in which forestry is weak and as exactly as possible the nature of the problems with which foresters are confronted. To trained scientific workers the discus- sion of methods with which they are already more than familar will seem unnecessary. To others familiar with the problems of for- estry and perhaps almost overwhelmed by their magnitude it is hoped the same discussions may bring needed suggestions of a technical nature. a ee ae A method of investigation is to the scientist what a tool is to a mechanic. The point of view of the investigator, determined by his past experience, knowledge of facts, and philosophy, is to him what manual skill is to the mechanic. The investigator, like the mechanic, to be thoroughly effective, must be able on occasion to make new tools for new and special purposes. Any suggestion of a handbook, presenting cut-and-dried methods by which research is to be conducted, would be repugnant to the true investigator. The aim of this bulletin must be to clarify the problems so that the investigator may readily choose for himself the method of approach, and not so much to recommend as to enumerate methods and equipment, describing their past accomplishments. If the fol- lowing discussions do not hold strictly to this point, it should be 4 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. understood that it is the purpose of this bulletin to build a founda- tion for the future on the experience of the past, and to suggest the form of the superstructure rather than its architectural design. In this way it is hoped to save the actual designers much needless and fruitless effort. SCOPE. In surveying the present field of forest investigations and analyz- ing the factors which enter into the problems and the methods available for their solution, it appears that, although the number of problems is great and they may vary in character from region to region and from period to period, theoretically they may be conceived as falling into two essential groups. These two groups are (1) ecological and (2) statistical. In solving the ecological problems the alm is to express relations; in solving statistical problems the aim is to express. the bare facts of forest growth. This bulletin will be concerned wholly with ecological forest studies.!. To some it may seem strange that the word “ ecological ” should be used rather than the more inclusive “biological.” The choice is a question of aims and objectives. “ Ecological” better ex- presses the objects of the knowledge foresters seek to gain. The prac- tice of forestry is in a very large degree the application of ecology. As an example, a forester may be only slightly interested in the ab- stract physiological fact that trees require sunlight for their develop- ment. This fact is taken as a matter of course and allowed for. When, however, he finds that one of two species with which he is dealing requires much more sunlight than the other, or, in other words, does not react so readily to the stimulus of sunlight, the for- ester then finds a keen interest, because it is a practical interest, in this ecological factor and its relations. Or, again, the matter may be expressed in this way: The forester, in dealing with a given species, feels that he is dealing with a bio- logical entity whose characters he may know minutely or generally but which he can not change, except possibly through long-term 1The statistical group of problems, in distinction from the ecological, includes chiefly those which deal with the determination of the amount of standing timber, its incre- ment, and other quantitative changes in the stand, with only general reference to the conditions governing, such as might be met in the use of arbitrary site quality classes. AS a matter of fact, there can be no sharp line between ecological and statistical forest studies, and as forestry advances there will be a tendency to consider all growth in its ecological relations. It is, however, at the outset necessary to recognize certain standard methods for the measurement of -growth, whatever their purpose or use. These methods are distinct from the processes which are ordinarily considered as essential to progress in ecology, and it is for this reason that ‘‘ measurements,” or statistical studies, are not included in the present discussion. The method of determining the growth, volume, and yield of forest stands is largely mechanical, though for sound progress it should, of course, involve knowledge of biology as well as mathematics. The caliper, hypsometer, scaling stick, log scale, increment borer, and tape are practically all the instruments that are required. 2 id RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. oO breeding. On the other hand, the environment of this entity can to a considerable degree be controlled, and its reactions to changes in environment can be observed. His concern is therefore not witn the physiological functioning of the plant as such, but with its physiological functioning in relation to a given environment. Control of environment is the cornerstone of the practice of forestry. The art of the forester is primarily the art of utilizing to best advantage the biological forces active in forest growth, through his ability to modify the environment. Any considerable ase of forests means interference with the natural conditions and modification of some of the environmental factors, the sum total of which determined the character of the present forest. Forestry adapts this interference to produce the best results, from the stand- point of human needs. Therefore it has been thought best in this bulletin to take up each of the environmental factors separately, and to introduce only such a discussion of physiological facts as seems necessary to a proper conception of the methods of study of the environment. Ecological forest studies deal with all problems which involve the determination of the effect of environmental conditions on repro- duction, initiation, growth, and physiological functions. To this group belong such studies as the seed production of different species in different seasons and conditions; the characteristics of seeds as related to their origin; the correlation betweén the composition, suc- cession, and growth of forest vegetation on the one hand, and the conditions of the evironment on the other; the vast field of prob- lems in natural reproduction and methods of cutting for definite silvicultural purposes; the various phases of forestation, including the germination of seed, requirements for shade and water of the different species, the planting of forest trees, and their competition for moisture and hght with herbaceous and shrubby vegetation; and many similar problems. The methods and instruments available for the study of the ecological forest problems are essentially the same as those which are used in the study of the physiology and ecology of plants in general. They involve the measurements of such aerial conditions as precipitation, air temperature, the evaporating power of the air, wind velocity and wind direction, and sunshine intensity ; and such subterranean conditions as temperature and moisture of the soil, its depth, structure, and chemical composition. ‘The func- tioning of the tree in response to these conditions must also be meas- ured by the means recognized and used by plant physiologists. The methods and instruments used in physiology, meteorology, and soil physics, therefore, are applicable in a large measure to the study of ecological forest problems, though often with modifications necessi- tated by the character of the plant and of its environment. 6 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. While it is true that in studying the present composition of a forest stand it is necessary, to a certain extent, to have the historical. viewpoint in order to determine clearly how this stand was initiated and why it now supperts one dominant species rather than another, still it must be recognized that historical studies and conjectures are outside the main domain of ecology. The purpose of ecology as an exact science must always be to measure present conditions and their reactions on the organism, reducing to precise terms relations between environment and life which may be already understood in general terms. In such processes no distinction will be made between a condition which is a direct result of the climate or site, one which is the result of cumulative effects of the presence of the plant forma- tion, and one which may represent the current influence of the pres- ent plant formation. Thus, while recognizing in principle and in the application of results historical conditions and the so-called social relations which are particularly important in forest aggrega- tions, it must be clearly understood that, in the current measure- ments with which this bulletin has to deal, the source of a given con- dition has no bearing on the method of its determination. SAMPLE PLOT METHOD COMMON TO BOTH ECOLOGICAL AND STATISTICAL STUDIES. A method common to both ecological and statistical problems is the method of sample plots. The details of the sample plot method vary with the purpose of the problem which is being investigated. The plot may vary in size from a square foot to an entire section. It may have all possible geometrical forms—circle, square, quad- rangle, strip, or triangle. It may be used in the study of herbaceous vegetation, of seedlings in a nursery, or of virgin forests; for the purpose of studying the evolution of the vegetation, for bringing out the effect of a definite condition, for determining the growth of the vegetation, or for observing any other change that takes place in the plant association, whether it be grass, brush, or forest. The prin- ciple, however, remains everywhere the same; namely, the use of areas.representative of a given type of vegetation for intensive obser- vation over a long period of time. NEED FOR A PERMANENT ORGANIZATION IN FOREST INVESTIGATIONS. The great variety of forest stands, the difference between stands in different regions, and the longevity of trees make it difficult for an individual to complete any investigation on the life of the forest. This difficulty is now universally recognized. A permanent organi- zation charged with such investigations has been formed in practi- cally every country in which the care of the forests is a matter of national concern. This permanent organization consists of investi- gators assigned to forest experiment stations. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 7 FOREST EXPERIMENT STATIONS. Since it is practically impossible to follow all the changes which take place in a stand during its entire life of 100 years or more, the usual procedure is to carry on a number of observations simultane- ously. By distributing the observations over stands of the same character, representing a large number of age gradations, the entire 100-year cycle of development of the stand may be encompassed in 20 years. Even then it often happens that a forest stand, because of an accident, such as fire or insect infestation, may become un- suitable for further observations. It is evident, therefore, that for reliable silvicultural conclusions it is necessary to have under obser- vation a large number of forest stands for long periods of time, and, therefore, a permanent investigative organization, which will insure the completion of long-term experiments and correlate in a sys- tematic and uniform way the observations conducted by many in- vestigators throughout the country. The investigations which come as a general rule distinctly under the work of forest experiment stations are: (1) Forest meteorological observations; (2) distribu- tion of species and types in relation to climate and soils; (3) studies of the growth, volume, and yield of forest stands; (4) Studies of the effect of the source of seed upon the resulting forest stand; (5) experiments with the introduction of exotic species; (6) experiments with different silvicultural methods of cutting for the purpose of securing natural reproduction; (7) methods of artificial reproduc- tion; (8) the study of the effect of different methods of thinning upon the growth of the main stand; and (9) studies of the effect of site upon the technical properties of the wood produced. These investigations are beyond the ability of an individual investigator to handle because their solution requires either a very long period of years, often exceeding the life of a single man, or the simultane- ous establishment of many experiments in different places—a whole- sale method of observations—or expensive apparatus. It is true that some of the problems involved have been studied by individual investigators with very suggestive results, but there is no doubt that forest experiment stations, being less subject to the uncertainties of individual effort, can conduct such studies with greater uniformity and assurance of success. SHORT-TERM STUDIES. Although in the study of forest stands the most reliable results will be secured only by permanent, well-equipped experiment stations organized and maintained by the Federal Government, States, or institutions, much can be accomplished also by comparatively short studies of individual investigators. 8 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Studies which do not involve continuous observations for a long period of years or expensive stationary instruments and equipment— for example, microscopic and chemical studies of woods or studies of natural reproduction, distribution, and growth—may be conducted without permanent forest experiment stations; and even observations: on climate in its relation to forest vegetation may sometimes be made on short field trips. Very often the painstaking observer, without extensive apparatus, will discover some fundamental facts which alter the conception of a given problem, and which therefore lead to far more productive efforts by the permanent organizations which can study the problem for longer periods. It is stalks by recognizing this principle of supplemental effort that substantial. progress in forest investigations can be made. There should be no attempt to delimit the work of any organization or individual. THE SIMPLE PHYSICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL CONCEPT. Many ecological problems are less confusing to the beginner and are more likely to be approached by sound methods if, at the outset, a rather definite physical interpretation of life is accepted, for through such a concept is gained an idea as to the probable physical reaction to the environment and the method of measuring the physical con- ditions. Thus, to begin with, the living mass of plants (the protoplasmic mass, primarily) may be conceived to be simply a colloidal mass of organic compounds with a pecuhar affinity for water. Water is of fundamental importance to its life qualities. To supply the demand for water, the protoplasmic mass must possess a greater affinity for it than the soil or solution from which the water is to be obtained. The struggle for water is, primarily, a contest between the colloids of the plant and the organic and inorganic (clay) colloids of the soil. Secondly, it is inevitable that any object possessing water should lose the same by evaporation to the atmosphere until a balance is reached between the vapor pressure of the water-holding mass and that of the atmosphere. Such an equilibrium does not, necessarily, mean death, at least for certain kinds of tissues, but the small supply of water represented by equilibrium with ordinary atmospheric vapor is insufficient to permit photo-synthesis, metabolism, and transport within the plant. For continued functioning, the plant must be able to maintain its water supply above this level. The objective of physiological functioning is reproduction, to which growth is only incidental. The object in the existence of any indi- vidual plant is to extract enough phosphorus: from the soil so that a peculiar accumulation of matter called a seed may be formed, with 1 Phosphorus is mentioned only as an example of the vitally necessary elements ob- tained from the soil. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 9 a sufficient affinity for water and a suffieiently close chemical combi- nation to enable this embryonic plant to resist all of the forces of disintegration during a period of dormancy. The first requirement, then, is that the present plant should live long enough to accumulate by absorption from the soil a quantity of phosphorus which may be concentrated in this one seed, or ten thousand seeds, as the case may be. To accomplish this object, it is rather evident that a large amount of water must be absorbed and disposed of, with a resulting deposit of phosphorus and other solids as the water is evaporated. Even then there must be a strong tendency for such solids, if retained in solution, to diffuse back to the roots and into the soil. Not denying the possible ability of the plant to trap and hold phosphorus, or any other needed substance, at the point where needed, it seems necessary to call into play some other physical force to effect this concentration. The only other possible force is the electromagnetic affinity of energy for matter and of matter for energy. The ability of the plant to concentrate the essential inorganic substances in the best-lighted parts of its structure may thus be explained. In other words, the requirement of plants for ight is primarily a requirement for a concentration of essential substances needed for reproduction. But hght can only be obtained where there is com- petition through growth. To insure the necessary amount of light, the individual plant is required to keep its head at least up to the level of the competitors, and the plant which becomes dominant is most certain to reproduce. Possible differences between plants, in their ability to make use of different kinds of hight, need not be discussed here. So, then, reproduction requires light, the need for hight calls for growth, and growth in turn is possible only through the action of light in photo-synthesis, or the creation of new organic matter by the combination of water and carbon dioxide. This necessary combination of water from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air can be effected only by exposing the cells con- taining water to the air, so that the carbon dioxide may be absorbed by these cells. The important feature ecologically is that such ex- posure inevitably results in considerable losses of water; and even though the cells so exposed may be somewhat protected, it is evi- dent that carbon-dioxide absorption and water loss must, in a given plant, run about parallel, both being controlled by the size of the stomatal openings. The actual water loss, of course, will vary ac- cording to the dryness of the air, the concentration and vapor pressure of the contents of the exposed cell, and the intensity of the light in which the operation is performed. ‘Thus a plant capable of making use of diffused light, or largely of the so-called actinic rays, 10 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. may function with less water loss than one exposed to the full heat- ing effect of sunlight. Until the distribution of essential substances, such as phosphorus, in the plant has been more fully and carefully studied in relation to light and the volume of the water stream, it is impossible to form a fair opinion as to whether the latter, and the transpiration of a large volume of water, are really essential to the end for which the plant exists. On this point botanists have ever been at variance. For the present, however, transpiration is believed to be merely an unavoidable concomitant of carbon-dioxide absorption, serving no useful purpose when carried to extremes, while always menacing the existence of the plant. There is now only one more very essential point to be touched upon—a point which is of especial interest in connection with the study of trees because of their perennial .character. The continu- ous absorption of water at the roots and its loss at the leaves of plants is necessarily accompanied by the absorption of all salts which are contained in the soil solution. There is undoubtedly some so-called selective absorption in the sense that any semipermeable membrane admits the complex molecules less readily than the simple ones, but the ability of the plant to differentiate between useful and unnecessary salts is not admitted. It is therefore inevitable that the leaves should accumulate quantities of material which can not be used; that there should be a tendency for such materials to dif- fuse back toward the roots; that when such material is present im sufficient quantities it should be precipitated or crystallized, and in such form should tend to obstruct the flow of water in the channels where it exists. It is conceivable, then, that all tissues which are actively engaged in the transport of water must eventually become “silted up” with this useless material and that this is the cause of senescence. Its best illustration is, perhaps, in the petiole of the broad leaf, through which narrow passage a large evaporating sur- face must be supphed. This conception explains quite well the eventual failure of leaves to function and their gradual drying and falling, even in those forms in which the leaves are not in the least sensitive to seasonal changes. It also, perhaps, explains the forma- tion of heartwocd in trees. ‘The more important idea, however, is that it points to the necessity for growth to maintain existence. It is not sufficient that the “suppressed ” tree (as every forester calls the tree growing with insufficient ight) should obtain enough water to prevent the desiccation of the foliage. The plant must be peri- odically enabled to produce some new growth or it succumbs to senility, regardless of age. Apparently the maturity of a normal or even a dominant tree is attained soon after its limit of height is RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 11 reached, as it is then limited in its extensions for light and soon can not make the needed annual additions to its transporting system. It is hoped that this discussion will clarify the point of view which prevails in the discussion of the individual environmental conditions. MEASUREMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING FOREST VEGETATION. The character of the forest and its very existence are determined by the climate, soil, and subsoil of the locality. The general charac- ter of the region, including the character of the vegetation and of the soil, is determined in the highest degree by the climate. The climate affects the region and vegetation in two ways: (1) It is at present the most important factor in the environment of the vegeta- tion; (2) it has affected the present environment in its historical de- velopment: for instance, in the formation of the soils, their present physical and chemical composition being. largely the result of the past climate in combination with other natural factors. The deter- mination of the important features of a climate is not a simple mat- ter. It must rest upon a sufficiently long series of observations at well-equipped meteorological stations. CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LOCALITY. NATURAL CLIMATIC REGIONS. The characteristics of a climate must be studied first of all by natural regions and the study based on the observations of several stations located in different parts of the same region. The climate of individual localities may best be analyzed by comparison with the climate of the entire natural region in which the locality is found or of a contro! station centrally located. DATA OBTAINED BY WEATHER BUREAU. For general climatic studies of the forest regions, and to some extent in studying the conditions for growth in established stands, the data collected by the United States Weather Bureau at its numer- ous regular stations may be used to good advantage. At the greater number of these stations only data on air temperatures and precipite- tion are obtained. At the larger stations data on humidity, sun- shine, barometric pressure, etc., are obtained, but because of the al- most universal location of such stations in towns and cities the applicability of the data to forest conditions is often very question- able. It appears, therefore, that the regular observations of the Weather Bureau will furnish us principally with precipitation and temperature data by which the broader forest regions may be de- 12 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fined. The use of these same data in strictly local studies will de- pend entirely on the minute examination of the conditions surround- ing the station. KNOWLEDGE OF EXISTING WEATHER BUREAU STATIONS NECESSARY. Before attempting any meterological observations the investigator should visit the nearest permanent meteorological stations and ob- tain a clear understanding of the manner in which the observations are made, compare his own instruments with those of the station, and ascertain the natural conditions in which the permanent station is located and the extent to which they are typical of the region. This is essential to enable the investigator to decide whether and to what extent he would be justified in connecting his special meteoro- logical observations with those of the permanent station. Observa- tions at permanent, well-equipped Weather Bureau stations are not always condueted in the way that meets the special needs of the investigator. There may be observations essential to the forester which are not being made at all. Furthermore, the data of the per- manent station will not always enable one to judge of the effect of the climatic conditions upon forest vegetation. For instance, the measurements of the temperature of the air are always made at a regular Weather Bureau station at some height above the ground and in a more or less open place outside of the forest; while to the forester, the temperature of that layer of the air in which most of the forest vegetation is found has the greatest significance. Again, while a very precise measure of precipitation may be of no use to the investigator, the amount falling in single storms may vary so greatly in short distances that a record obtained a few miles away will be very misleading. It is thus evident that forest research has special meteorological problems, and that usually the long-estab- lished weather station may serve better as a control than as a definite point for obtaining information about forest conditions. COMPUTATION OF ALL WEATHER DATA BY PERIODS OF GROWTH AND REST. One essential thing to be kept in mind is that plants may react to the climatic conditions in altogether different ways during periods of growth and rest. To analyze the reactions of plant life it is usually desirable, therefore, to compute climatic data by such periods. They may be based either on a knowledge of the particu- Jar plant formation which each observation-point represents, or on the average period of the native vegetation of the locality. Usually it will be preferable to adopt first a “ growing season ” for the whole region under study. Later, for more exact comparison of the com- ponent formations and after careful determination, the specific RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT, di} periods of plant activity may be employed in summarizing tem- peratures, etc. SPECIAL OBSERVATIONS ON CLIMATE AND SOIL OF LOCALITY. To obtain concrete information on restricted localities and specific forest types it will be necessary in most instances for forest investi- gators to establish apparatus and make observations independently. In the more important respects the accepted procedure of meteor- ologists and the standard instruments may be used by the forest investigator, but the latter will also require many data not obtained in routine meteorological work, and, especially in the location of instruments, will be compelled to vary procedure according to local needs. LOCATION OF INSTRUMENTS FOR THE STUDY OF THE GROWTH OF FOREST STANDS. Atmospheric conditions affecting the growth of forest stands as a whole should naturally be measured at a distance from the ground which will represent the mean height of the sensitive portion of the tree: that is, the mean elevation of the crown. Thus, if a stand were generally devoid of green limbs for the first 10 feet of the stems and had an average total height of 70 feet, the observations should be at Vee or 40 feet from the ground. Measurements of the light received by the stand should obviously be made at an elevation where none of the light is intercepted. The same result may sometimes be obtained by measurements near the ground in a large opening on the same site. Soil conditions should be measured at all depths which the roots of the trees may be reasonably ex- pected to reach. The depth will be less in heavy than in light soils. In general, however, it is believed that an extreme depth of 4 feet is sufficient, though any evidence to the contrary should change the procedure. The rule of measuring soil temperatures at the surface and at 1 and + feet may be followed. If it should appear necessary in using the data, the temperatures at other depths may be obtained by plotting the known values and by interpolating on the curve which may be drawn for any given period, assuming the tempera- ture at 20 or 30 feet to be always equal to the local mean annual temperature. Similarly, soil moisture may be determined at the surface and at 1, 2, 3, and possibly 4 feet and, by projecting the curve formed by plotting the moisture of these points the moisture at greater or intermediate depths may be approximated. LOCATION OF INSTRUMENTS FOR THE STUDY OF CONDITIONS AFFECTING REPRODUCTION. It is only logical to assume that, before a definite plant formation or forest type can be developed, there must exist conditions favorable omy 14 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to germination and development of the small and very sensitive seedlings. The forester is often concerned only with the problem of “ securing reproduction,” realizing that. once the seedlings of a given species are established, the future of the stand is quite definitely assured and ‘practically beyond his ability to influence. In forestry particularly, because perennial plants are the subjects of study, the seedling stage presents the most acute practical problems and those most deserving of scientific study. What bearing this has on the methods to be followed in ecological investigations may be readily illustrated. If, for example, it should be noted that seedlings of a given species die in great numbers during their first or second winter and it is desired to determine why such losses occur and whether they are preventable. it might be deemed necessary to study the rate of evaporation and the amount of drying to which such seedlings are subjected during periods when the soil is frozen. Obvi- ously, it would be necessary to determine this period precisely and to know (1) when the soil was frozen throughout the root zone of - the seedlings, and (2) when it was frozen at the surface so that moisture obtained below might not reach the aerial portion. On the other hand, the atmospheric stresses and the tendency toward evaporation losses generally might be measured, that is to say, for the locality and at a convenient spot; but it would be apparent that if the seedlings under observation were covered by snow the rate of evaporation above that snow layer would have no significance whatever. The point, therefore, needs the greatest possible stress that, in the investigation of many of the particular problems of reproduction and distribution of the species, the investigator must be concerned with the immediate conditions of the surface soil and the atmospheric and solar conditions at an elevation barely above the surface soil, in connection with germination, with survival before the seedling becomes well rooted, and with possible injury through heat or drought at the soil’s surface before the young stem is protected by an effective corticle. Measurements at depths of even 1 foot in the soil, or at elevations of a foot above it, will usually only be made to give general, comparative indications of the conditions which it is really necessary to under- stand; and because the rapidly fluctuating conditions of the soil’s sur- face are in many ways extremely difficult to cope with. In considering the conditions which affect reproduction, an eleva- tion of 6 inches above the surface may possibly be accepted as the lowest level at which aerial measurements are practicable, but by the exercise of ingenuity it should be possible to improve on this. In soil study, greatest attention must be paid to the near-surface conditions. The actual moisture of the covering of litter and humus, as well as that of the first mineral soil, is obviously important, but extremely RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 15 difficult to measure with any great accuracy, especially as the humus layer is seldom the same on any two spots which might be selected, and may change in moisture content almtost as rapidly as the atmos- phere. It is almost inevitable, therefore, that actual moisture meas- urements should be confined to the first layer of mineral soil and to greater depths if desired, and that the depth and character only of the humus should be noted, using some predetermined rule for esti- mating its moisture content at various times. For soil temperatures conditions at the surface are doubtless of the greatest importance; but here again the measurement of the actual and constantly chang- ing soil conditions presents a practical difficulty. Measurements be- low the surface may have considerable comparative value, even though they do not give the extremes which may have the most direct bearing on plant life; and it is therefore suggested that a depth of 1 foot be taken in all such studies as furnishing a kind of control for other observations. Having considered the general arrangement of apparatus, the mat- ter of exact methods and instruments to be used in measuring each aerial and soil condition may now be taken up. AIR TEMPERATURES. Air temperatures are more readily measured than any other con- dition because of the simple equipment required, and they will prob- ably be most frequently considered at temporary stations. It is hardly to be questioned that air temperatures affect growth very directly, although this may not always be apparent if only periodic and annual mean temperatures are considered. It is also fairly ap- parent that the air temperature which is adequate for the growth of an individual] plant receiving an abundance of ight may be quite inadequate for one growing in competition with or in the shade of other plants. Then there are the maximum temperatures to be con- sidered, which it now seems may be more directly operative in pre- venting the extension of plant ranges than any other temperature condition. In this connection, the temperature of the soil surface may be most important, but that of the air layer just above the soil must not be overlooked. The following problems summarize briefly what are believed to be the most important temperature problems in relation to forestry. PROBLEMS. 1. Temperature zones, as indicated by mean monthly, seasonal, and annual air temperatures, or length of frostless season, or temperature sums (hour degrees) above a fixed minimum (say, 40° F.), which furnish the conditions necessary for the existence of a given species. 2. Actual rate of growth in height, diameter, volume, or weight of any species, within different temperature limits, should preferably be 16 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. determined under controlled conditions of moisture supply and sun- light. 3, Especially in connection with the preceding, and as integrating air temperature and sunlight influences, leaf temperatures should be measured as a more direct criterion of the temperature conditions regulating food production and growth. What is particularly sought, of course, is the relation between leaf temperatures, air tem- peratures, and sunlhght, and whether or not this is essentially dif- ferent in different plants. It is probably necessary to determine gen- eral relations of this kind and to base observations of growth on long- term air temperature records. 4. The maximum temperatures which may be tolerated without highly destructive reactions in the plant, leading to fatal results, have been investigated very little and apparently have received very little weight in considering problems of distribution, although a number of investigators have shown that growth-rate falls off rapidly beyond a certain optimum temperature. The difficulty of observations on this point lies in the extremely close connection which is likely to exist, under any natural conditions, between very high temperatures and excessive transpiration or positive drought in the soil’s surface. In the general study of climatic or temperature zones affecting plant distribution and life forms, Merriam’s (30)* work has become classic. The more minute determination of forest zones may begin with comparison of mean temperatures or temperature sums above a minimum of about 40° I*., or similar sums for the frostless period. Livingston (25), in a general survey of the temperatures of the United States, carried the matter one step farther by rating the chem- ical efficiency of temperatures above 40° F., according to the van't Hoff-Arrhenius principle of doubled activity for each 18° IF. increase in temperature. These temperature efficiencies were then summed for the growing season, in place of the original temperatures. Samp- son (32), McLane (31), and Lehenbauer (24), have tried various modifications of the Merriam idea of temperature sums, all of which should be looked into. One will hardly escape the conviction that the consideration of any temperature term other than the mean tempera- ture will require the accumulation of hourly temperature records or, in other words, the use of the thermograph. s In the more exact study of the rate of growth as influenced by temperature a greater number of technical problems are presented. The temperature coefficient can not be determined unless moisture and sunlight are under control. The actual measurements of growth rate are difficult, and necessitate first of all plants of uniform age and size for the various comparisons. It seems to be quite well estab- lished that growth of most plants begins at about 40° F., is very slow ® The figures in parenthesis refer to the bibliography at the end of this bulletin. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. lee up to about 60° F., and reaches a maximum at, perhaps, 80° F, These points will be at least suggestive of the temperature ranges and tem- perature groups to be considered. It will, however, probably not be satisfactory to merely note that a given growth was secured in A hours in temperatures between T and T,. MacDougal (27) sug- gests the summation of temperatures from what may be called the base of each temperature range (say, about 60° F., but not more than 65° F.), and as the simplest means of obtaining hour-degrees in each temperature range has used the planimeter to measure the area on thermograph traces included between any two given lines. The study of leaf temperatures is not a study of the environment, but will be at least a means to a better understanding of the action of the environment and will, perhaps, lead to more comprehensive and expressive measurements of the environment. A good deal of rough work has been done in measuring the temperatures of leaves, usually by wrapping them about the bulb of a thermometer or placing the latter in close contact with them. Such methods, however, are wholly inadequate for treating the needles of conifers, and are of doubtful value elsewhere. E. Shreve (36) has made use of the great sensitivity and possibly small bulk of a thermocouple, to devise an apparatus which will readily reflect the temperature of any part of a jeaf with which it is brought into contact. The whole equipment seems sufficiently compact and practical to furnish great usefulness in the field as well as in the laboratory. With this sketchy consideration of the problems which should be faced, the ordinary means of accumulating temperature records may now be mentioned. EXPOSURE OF THERMOMETERS. Comparisons of air temperatures under different conditions can, of course, be made only if the measurements are made in such a manner as to eliminate radiation influences. Radiation measure- ments or “sun temperatures” undoubtedly have their places, but are not to be confused with the present subject and they will be discussed later. To measure correctly the temperature of the air, direct or reflected sunlight must be excluded from thermometers as fully as possible. At the same time, the shelter which affords this protection must not itself absorb the radiation sufficiently to become heated within. This danger is largely overcome by allowing free circulation of air through the shelter, and the danger is still further lessened when the air circulation is naturally strong. Such radiation is particu- larly to be guarded against in any kind of shelter placed on or near the ground. The standard type of shelter is double-roofed and has §2769—22——_2 18 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a partly open floor, and walls made of slats which overlap to ex- clude light from any overhead source without causing complete stagnation of the air within. Modifications which would still more fully overcome the heating of the shelter have been proposed by K6ppen (23), who would pro- vide artificial air circulation, but such provisions will hardly be necessary for any ordinary thermometric work. On the other hand, the observer can not be too strongly urged to provide shelters which will give the maximum of-lght protection without preventing the natural air currents from coming in contact with the thermometers. To obtain true nocturnal temperatures near the ground it may be desirable to use a shelter without a floor, so that radiation from below the thermometers is retarded as little as possible. In the work at the Fremont Experiment Station, Bates has found that a shelter for ground temperatures need be no more than a hood, fully open to the north and below the thermometers. If there should be considerable reflection from the north at midday, it could be largely eliminated by an absorbing screen set a foot or two from the hood. STANDARDIZING ‘THERMOMETERS. The present possibilities of correlation between temperatures and plant behavior do not justify the greatest precision in thermometry. Units smaller than 1° may be ignored in field work, for all practical purposes, though personal taste may dictate that tenths of degrees. be recorded. The essential thing is that only reliable thermometers be used, as the errors in cheap thermometers are not uncommonly as great as the difference between two conditions which are being studied. Even the standard types of maximum, minimum, and mer- curial thermometers may well be critically examined and compared with a standard before being used. The Bureau of Standards (37) calibrates such instruments at a nominal cost. With recording apparatus, such as the air thermograph, adjust-_ ment takes the place of standardization. The use of any such re- corder, without thermometers to check its accuracy at frequent in- tervals, can not be recommended. MaximMuM, MINIMUM, AND CURRENT TEMPERATURES. Where only maximum and minimum thermometers are available, of the standard Weather Bureau pattern, the maximum and mini- mum temperatures for the preceding 24 hours should be recorded once each day, either before 10 a. m. or after 4 p. m., and at the same time the current temperature, as indicated by the minimum ther- mometer, should be recorded, also the time of the observation. The current temperature is principally of value for making a thermo- graph correction, and the height of the thermograph pen should therefore be recorded at the same time. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 19 When readings are taken in the morning, if there is no thermo- graph record by which the time of the maximum and minimum may be determined, the minimum then read should be tabulated on the form for “Air Temperature Record,” as of the current day, and the maximum as of the preceding day. If readings are made in the afternoon, both maximum and minimum should be credited to the current day. The current temperature should, of course, be credited to the day on which taken. The instrumental corrections should be used when entering the data in the field, if cards therefor have been prepared, the card being tacked in a conspicuous place in the instru- ment shelter. ; The daily range—purely a computed quantity—in degrees and tenths should be the difference between maximum and minimum tem- peratures as tabulated for any calendar day. ( Hourty TEMPERATURES. Where a thermograph is available the instrument should be set in the same shelter as the maximum and minimum thermometers, and hourly temperatures may be obtained therefrom.’ Corrections for the thermograph trace should always be obtained from the readings of the maximum and minimum thermometer, as thermograph records are liable to considerable errors; but the hours to which these correc- tions are applied may well be a matter of judgment with the ob- server, depending on the shape of the temperature curve.* The tabu- lation of hourly temperatures when obtained will require the special form, “ Hourly (Air, Soil, or Actinograph) Temperatures.” Certain data therefrom will e entered on the “Air Temperature Record.” For example, as a measure of conditions affecting growth rate, it may be desirable to know, besides the mean: In any ordinary comparison of the temperatures of plant habitats, hourly tempera- tures are not likely to be used except to explain transient phenomena. However, the thermograph is an extremely valuable adjunct in determining the maximum, minimum, and mean temperatures, not only helping to correct errors of observation but making possible the more exact determination of the extremes and temperature ranges for any period, such as the midnight-to-midnight day, which is the unit of time in most meteo- rological computations. *Various rules for applying corrections to thermograph traces are used by different students. It is obvious that errors may exist in the traces from two distinct causes: (1) When the range of oscillation of the pen is too great or too small the thermograph may read correctly at medium temperatures but be high and low at the two extremes ; (2) even if the pen is approximately correct in its possible range there is a lag due both to the lesser sensitiveness of the thermograph as compared with a mercurial thermometer and to the friction of the pen upon the paper, so that normally the pen does not quite reach to the extremes indicated by the thermometers. In the first case, it is essential that the error be distributed somewhat according to the temperatures; thus, if the pen read correctly at a temperature of 45, at all temperatures above 45—the range of the pen helng too great—-there would be a minus correction for the trace, and at all temperatures below 45 there would be a plus correction. On the other hand, if the instrument is properly adjusted, it is logical to apply a minus correction to all descending portions of the trace and a plus correction to all ascending portions, the amount of such corree tions to be determined from the corrections at the minimum sand maximum, respectively. BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 20 aveur eq (x Aq o}¥0Ipuy) ite Os “Ho “Wo “Wo “Ho “Ho ; = ie" | | ee | g ow, JOAIISGO “SYIVUIOY AIOE, ‘duro, aed py sutusoul| ‘puno13 osuery ; Ul {soO1q. | Uo Moug WNT XBW | Apreq UT, “XB | —Y}IM simoy Jo quinn “uRey “quelIng ‘—6] ¢ fo yyuow ay} Lof punosb aaogn suajamousay} {0 yay “(awo yno ynw) wado/ianod « ‘ON UOYoIg —~ adh J, ‘qoaf [Aoaans [eotshyd eotares 4se10q “9S “Q] ‘duoOodd APALVUAINAL YIV ‘¢ WOW 21 RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. ' PENSE BSED Oe ee 200 in ay Ma LEN ap ~ *(QA0Q® 10 ,T'7L UBOUT) SABP 304 ‘ON *—— (,0'ZL 01 1°09 UBENT) SEP UIIeA “ON 3 (.0°09 0} T°0¢) S&ep oyesopour “ON * (0°08 01 [Tf UBeUT) SABP [00D "ON * (.0°' TF 02 TZ UBEUT) SAVP PTO “ON *——— (,0'Z¢ JOAO “x¥Ur ‘SSoy IO .0'7E WOM) ZUIMET} YIM SAep BuTzdo1J “ON (,0°GE JOAO JOU *XBUL) BUTMVI} INOYIIA SABP SutTeel) “ON punois uO MoUs OU [QVM sAep IO} ainqesedure} UBA punois uO MOUS YLT SABp Joy ainieredure? Wea “Wo “Wo {SP10AI JOJOULOUTIOY} ULNUITUTU PUL UINUWITXBUT WO] EJEP SUTAOTOJ oy yO [[S UIeIQO “xx Aq poqBorpul oq PlNoys sysory SUT + BEES E 200 COROT Pee ee th os rer) BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 22 “ayy | bE Or uve | uns N “ACG ‘Yeyuoyey seviseq—r; o1nyeiedui9} A, Moy yquou ay) Lof “aaf punolb nojaqg 40 avogn quawmnijsur fo vaunisp “(auo yno YyLnUL) Uado 4a000 “—— ‘oy UWoUnIy ‘—6] ‘6 —_—— fo ‘SUUNLVUAINAL (HAVUDONILOV YO TIOS ‘YIV) ATUNOH € . Go @ Ga Ga IS Ayanoy ‘dura y, “9 ULIO 23 RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. fig paundasg “SUBoUT OU ‘sealdap Ut sofzjUe ‘YdvasoUTOR Joy ‘sy]poupUNyY UT suUvOUT PU syqUO} UT solzqtE *[IOS 10} ‘SyY}U9} UT SUBOUT PUB soaIFep UT SaTzzUO ‘ITE IO y anoy “1109 near 24 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The number of hours with temperatures 32° or below. The number of hours with temperatures 33° to 41°. The number of hours with temperatures 42° or above. FROSTS. Since the actual freezing of foliage may have some very definite effects on plant functions apart from the temperature effect, the occurrence of frost on the ground in the morning should be noted and recorded at the time of regular observations. This notation is espe- cially important in cases where air temperatures near the ground are not being recorded. If the latter are available, records of occurrences: of 30° F. or below may be taken in leu of frost observations. This record should also be tabulated on the “ Air Temperature Record.” It may be of value in determining at least a normal growing-season for some types of vegetation. , MEAN TEMPERATURES. It is generally accepted by climatologists that the mean tempera- ture for the day is sufficiently well represented by the sum of the maximum and minimum divided by two. This is probably less satis- ° factory in the forest, however, than in most open situations where insolation and radiation are not interfered with. Where a thermo- graph is in use, a nearer approach to the true mean may be obtained from the sum of the hourly temperatures divided by 24. Means for the day should be entered to the nearest tenth degree Fahrenheit. Some of the problems connected with computations of means are described by Hartzell (22). The means for the decades and the whole month, in all temperature columns, should be obtained and entered to the nearest tenth degree. The following computations are suggested for valuable comparisons of growing conditions. They should be made and entered at the foot of Form 5. All should be taken from the maximum and minimum temperature records, since it is likely that some of the stations to be compared will have no hourly records. Mean temperature for days with snow on ground. Mean temperature for days with no snow on ground. Number freezing days without thawing (maximum below 82°). Number freezing days with thawing (mean 32° or below, but maximum above 32° F.). Number cold days (mean 82.1° to 41.0°). Number cool days (mean 41.1° to 50.0°). Number moderate days (mean 50.1° to 60°). Number warm days (mean 60.1° to 72.0°). Number hot days (mean 72.1° or above). RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 25 ANNUAL SUMMARY. The annual summary of air temperatures on the “ Summary ” form should be a tabulation by decades and months of the means or totals obtained from the “ Air Temperature Record,” with the annual mean or total, as the case may be, computed therefrom. Usually a separate “Summary ” form will be used for each datum to be summarized. In addition, as a part of the annual summary, there should be worked out the mean or total for each datum for the growing season. The limits of the latter may be determined, as indicated by the dis- cussion in earlier paragraphs.’ Whatever the criterion as to the actual length of the growing season, it should be considered to begin and end with even decades, and all means computed for the growing season should be the sum of the decade means divided by the number of decades. Form 10. ; [U. S. Forest Service, Physical Survey.] SUMMARY. LLSG oS Se ees eee 3 Station No. ____ SR LOUUUITY eae ae mh as es A el i height or depth ______. Month. Mean Year. | Dec- <>] chose] ER] MET Mean ce ade. | annual. eee Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. |June. | July.| Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. sain ' <, 5 oe ee mod | {Determined by comparing annual means for 1 foot and 4 feet.] INSTRUMENTS. Approximate Thermometers and shelters: range of prices. Mercurial therniometer (Weather Bureau pattern) ______ $1. 25 to $3. 00 Maximum thermometer (Weather Bureau pattern) ~~ ~_____ 2.50 to 5.00 Minimum thermometer (Weather Bureau pattern) _-__--_~ 1.50 to 3.00 Maximum and minimum thermometers are often sup- plied in pairs. Support for maximum and minimum thermometers____-__~_ 2.00 to 2.50 Instrument shelter, complete, without supports__._________- 20.00 to 80. 00 "As a matter of fact the temperature conditions that delimit the growth of plants, and especially of coniferous trees are not known, and to attempt to fix a rule for determin- ing when the growing season begins and-ends would, at this stage, be extremely ar- bitrary. 26 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Recording instruments: Thermograph, complete, with a year’s Supply of blank ~ TiO 40 LSP OLS OUEST OO ba) ccoeipn etal Ie SS Sr ES ga er $70. 00 Combined air and soil (or water) thermograph, complete, with bulb and connecting tube 10 feet long; a year’s sup- P09 Beal 0) Ea Ne 0 ea Y= ea ph RE eS ee Ts ea ee: 105. 00 Extra length tube (above 10 feet) for above instru- UY) 0 aman cepa sees OI a A a a ES i ao ee per foot__ . 50 Thermograph, short range of temperature (probably duty- REC YPTICES)) ia eee ee Ses ee le Rae dite tie ne ee 32. 00 Thermograph, large range of temperature (probably duty- fT CO LICES)) so ee ee ee eee ra 42. 00 Recording thermometers, dial type, with one or two pens ATC PD UL See re as al ___$75. 00 to 150. 00 SOIL TEMPERATURES. Soil temperatures are probably even more important in forest study, especially when questions of initiation and distribution are ‘involved, than air temperatures. Opportunities for obtaining data on the former will probably be more restricted, because of the greater difficulty and expense of installing satisfactory apparatus. They are at present measured at very few, if any, Weather Bureau stations. It should be strongly emphasized that the study of soil tempera- tures is in a primitive stage, and that the devising of both instru- ments and methods offers great opportunity for the investigator, especially in the search for the exact, controlling conditions of the soil’s surface. The present discussion does not attempt to consider . all the special investigations which are undoubtedly needed, but con- fines itself largely to routine methods, by which a broader survey of soil temperature conditions may be gained, making possible regional and site comparisons on something like a standard basis. PURPOSES TO BE SERVED. The number, and to a considerable extent, the method of soil tem- perature observations to be made, will depend on the object. Some of the purposes to be served may be summarized as foliows: — 1. Rather general comparisons of temperature conditions in dif- ferent plant formations and regions. [or this purpose, soil tem- peratures may have some advantage over air temperatures, in that the former reflect to a considerable degree the amount of insolation received at the ground: and it must be admitted that air tempera- tures, without radiation measurements, really give no indications of the temperatures experienced by the plant. For this broad purpose, temperatures at a depth of one foot are perhaps most satisfactory. 2. Very careful comparisons of the extreme temperatures to which plants are subjected on the various sites. There is much reason to believe that maximum temperatures are often the forbidding factor in the extension of the range of any given species and that they react RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT, aT mainly upon the very young seedling at the ground-line, where tem- peratures are usually highest. The proper investigation of this subject certainly demands surface measurements, but temperatures at a depth of a foot or more may give some indication of the surface condition. The actual measurement of surface conditions presents great tech- nical difficulties, which will be pointed out later. 3. Determination of soil freezing, not as a directly operative tem- perature condition, but in relation to the availability of soil mois- ture. In this connection it must be borne in mind, of course, that soil moisture may become essentially nonavailable at a temperature as high as 34°; and, again, that it may not actually freeze until a temperature of 30° or lower is reached. Soil temperatures for this purpose must therefore be coordinated with some data on the soil itself and on the plants involved. It is obvious that, to serve the purpose, frequent observations may be necessary. Continuous ther- mograph records are preferred because, while most forest trees are not sensitive to freezing for short periods, if at all, in the considera- tion of moisture even a short period of relief through thawing may mean the beginning of a new cycle of observations on the effect of drought. In the study of soil freezing, the surface or near-surface temperatures are perhaps most important, but it is not entirely certain that mere freezing of the surface soil will stop the movement of water through the main root and stem. It is the part of caution, therefore, to examine the entire root zone, and it may perhaps be necessary to know the conditions of the tree itself as regards freez: ing at a point near the ground line. PROBLEMS. The problems, then, to which soil temperatures are related, are even more numerous than those concerning air temperatures and in- volve more directly the relations with initiation, habitat extension, and plant succession, rather than rates of growth. Some of the most evident problems may be hsted as follows: 1. Optimum temperature of the soil as a seed bed, in direct effect on rate and amount of germination. 2. Optimum temperature of the soil in stimulating osmosis in the roots and hence rate of growth. 3. Minimum temperature at which water is available, or sufli- ciently available to supply transpiration. 4. Temperature at which the soil freezes and cuts off the plant entirely from water, length of such periods, and atmospheric condi- tions conducive to transpiration during such periods. 5. Maximum temperatures of the soil or soil-surface which may be tolerated without injury to root or stem of the young, shallow- rooted, and barkless seedling. 28 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 6. Influence of air temperatures and light upon soil temperatures, especially maxima, with different kinds of soil cover. 7. Correlation between soil temperature and extremes of drought in the surface soil. It should be noted that the distinction between drought injury and heat injury to young plants is often very difh- cult, as is shown by Hartley’s (44) work. Also, that the soil sur- face can not for long be excessively hot without becoming arid. TIME OF OBSERVATIONS. The daily range of temperatures at the surface of the soil may be considerably greater than in the air above, and for the study of sur- - face conditions the thermograph 1s essential. The time of observa- tion of thermometers used to check this instrument should be a time when radiation and absorption of heat in the surface soil are about equal, or, in short, in the early morning. At no other time will a real check be found possible, because the thermometer and thermo- graph are not equally sensitive to changes and do not absorb direct sunlight equally well. The daily range of soil temperatures at a depth of 1 foot or more is so slight that it is unimportant, except in its bearing on the ques- tion of determining the mean for the day. The latter must often be obtained from a single daily reading of soil thermometers, and must be based on a knowledge of the diurnal oscillation for the particular site. The daily range at 1 foot will seldom, if ever, exceed 5° F., and at 2 feet it is far less; so that, at greater depths than 1 foot, almost any time of the day is suitable for obtaining approximately a mean temperature. The time of observations may therefore be made to accord with other observations without any serious disadvantages. : The point of this discussion is that it is not satisfactory merely to compare the soil temperatures of several sites for a certain time of the day, since at that time one soil may be cooler than the mean temperature for the day and another above the mean. Daity MEAN Sor TEMPERATURES. The simplest way to secure a proper comparison of sites in respect to mean soil temperatures would, of course, be to determine the maximum and minimum for each day and to average these, as is commonly done with air temperatures. However, as will be pointed out in the discussion of apparatus, registering thermometers for this purpose have not been satisfactorily developed; so that, at present, dependence for a complete record must be placed on one of the several types of soil thermograph, supplemented by frequent readings of a thermometer. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 29 Granting that a full and satisfactory record of soil temperatures may be obtained by the use of the thermograph, it may still, because of the cost of this instrument, be impossible to obtain the desired comparison of a number of sites. The best alternative would seem to be to make one thermograph serve for a number of stations by placing it successively at the several stations until the nature of the diurnal oscillation, for a given season, has been worked out for each station. These oscillations will depend so greatly on the character of the insolation, that a curve for one point could hardly be expected to apply at any other point. With a mean daily curve, however, a single thermometer reading each day may give a very good basis for approximating the mean soil temperature for the day. If this is convenient, the reading may be timed to accord with the most probable hour for the mean temperature to occur. With hourly soil temperatures for a period of a week at any season, tabulated on the “ Hourly (Air, Soil, or Actinograph) Tem- peratures ” form, the mean hourly temperatures may be computed, as well as the mean for all of the days concerned. From the former may be obtained a correction factor for any hour, which, added to the reading for a similar observation hour will give approximately the mean temperature. For instance, a study of station A-1 at Wagon Wheel Gap, Colo. (steep northerly exposure), at midsummer, showed that the daily oscillation was about 1.35°, that the mean temperature was ap- proached very closely at 7 a. m. or 7 p. m., the minimum not occur- ring until 2 p. m., and that the correction for a 9 a. m. reading, on 6 days, varied from +0.10° to +0.50°, with a mean correction of 0.34. Similarly at station A-2 (south exposure), it was found, that the aproximate mean would be read at 5 a. m. or 4 p. m., that the minimum occurred at noon, that the daily oscillation was 2.37°, and that a 9 a. m. reading must be corrected by —0.88° to give the mean for the day. Corrections for six individual days varied from —0.50° to —1.35°. Moore (11) states that at a depth of 3 feet daily oscillations are not felt. It is believed that they are, as a rule, too small even at 2 feet to warrant consideration, although in excessively insolated soils the procedure described for 1-foot temperatures may be fol- lowed. Another method which suggests itself for determining the probable variation from the,mean of any daily temperature reading at a fixed hour is to compare the annual mean temperature at the shallow depth with the mean for 4 feet or greater depth where, it may be assumed, the daily values are not affected by regular oscillations. For, while at any time the deeper soil may be cooler or warmer than the surface, the deeper soil always evincing a definite “ lag” when 30 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.. changes are in one direction, still there is no basis for assuming that for whole years there can be any essential difference. Therefore, if, ‘for example, the mean annual temperature at 1 foot, as shown by 8 a. m. observations, is 49°, and the corresponding temperature at 4 feet is 50°, there is every reason to beheve that the 8 a. m. readings at 1 foot give values, on the average, 1° below the corresponding daily means. When the oscillations are greatest at midsummer, this correction would be too small, and in winter it would be too great; but its use should, at least, bring us nearer to the true mean . tem perature for any given period. Table 1 indicates the correction factors thus obtained for a num- ber of stations and sites, with sufficient description of each to show why the morning temperature is much or little below the mean for the day. Practically all of these records were obtained from ther- mometers in iron pipes, which, by conduction, tend to create a greater daily range of temperatures in their vicinity than occurs in the soil naturally. From these data it will be seen that a small variation from the mean is likely to be secured if (1) the aspect is easterly so that the site receives early insolation, or (2) if the observation hour is relatively late, or (3) if the natural daily range is small, as is usually the case with heavy cover and to some extent on slopes which do not receive vertical rays. Finally, insolation late in the day, though probably causing a large daily range, may bring a morning observation relatively high on the descending curve. These data will be principally valuable in indicating that every site must be studied independently. TABLE 1.—Probable error in mean 1-foot soil temperatives obtained through . . . g single daily observations. { Determined -by comparing annual means for 1 foot and 4 feet.] Average | dep ression| Site. Station. | of 1-foot | tempera- | ture. Moderate southerly slope open...................--- 1 eee 2.92 | 8a.m., strong radiation. \ Southwesterly slope, some trees..................... F-2.. 1.01 Tnsolati ion late in day. Northeast slope, steep, heavy cover.............-..- F-3..... 0.71 | Insolation early, range small. WASTES OME nSOMIE COMCIs se eee ee eerie eee Fee a he eee 0.34 | Insolation.early. Canyon bottom, heavy cover. -2.-.2.-.1..-2..124 pe ABS iS ee 1.40 | Insolation late, if any. INORUIWRES HS) OPC eae race ee Rae Oman som 1 eee sly Do. INOGULSLOp Call O1C OM Clete tre eee eee ae | F-7-8._. 1.10 | 9a. ee some insolation early. Non pMSlop ert lic oy ele pee ee ree F-9._._. 0.94 | 9a. . little insolation. Flat, ttle (COM CS een SANT So eR cenat se Bere 5 F-11-__. 1.19 | 7-8 aS m. , heavy snow blanket. SS Bee ae See ee Eine Serena eye F-12 0.78 89a , insolated all day. North: ‘slope, ONG -ThiTGiCOMeLa esse se eee F-14 t.11 | 9a. m., "little insolation. Bw ir IC Ie aE ARR PRR ER eae OS Gio ac 0.97 |. Do. Nort: Slope; high altitude, no cover....-.....2.....- F-16...- 1.38 | 10-12 a. m., radiation intense. Gentle easterly slope, litle covers ee We Mes ister 0.64 | 8a.m., early insolation. MOLUNSLOpes SEED COMCLE= =) een ee ee W-Al1 10.38 | 9a. m., small daily range. South slope, steep, some cover../....._........4..22 W-A2 3.16 | Great daily range. North slope heavy CONECIE Osi eee ct ce nas eam W-F 0.34 | 11-12 a.m. 1 This station equipped with telethermoscope, so that depression is due solely to normal depression of soil temperature at 9a.m. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. Dd READINGS. All réadings of soil thermometers should be in degrees and tenths. Where suspended soil thermometers are used, the readings should be made with the greatest possible speed after removing the ther- mometer from its seat, and care should be exercised not to expose the thermometer bulb to the sun, even though it be encased. Ther- mometers on the surface of the soil should be read, if possible, without frequent disturbance of their contact with the soil. With standardized thermometers the correction may best be ap- plied before recording the reading; but if centigrade readings must be transposed to Fahrenheit, or the reverse, it may be best to make the instrumental correction and the transposition in the office simul- taneously. TABULATION. The daily observations may be tabulated on the “ Soil Tempera- tures” form. Where two observations are made in one day, both should be entered on the line for the day, with the mean for the day computed from each, and the average of the two computed means in a separate column. Where more than two observations are made, it will be best to enter all at their respective hours on the “ Hourly (Air, Soil, or Actinograph) Temperatures” form, and to enter on the “Soil Temperatures” form the mean of all readings without any corrections, provided the three or more readings are distributed well between the times of maximum and minimum temperatures. Hourty Som TEMPERATURES. Whenever the soil thermograph is used, or when eye observations are made at frequent intervals, the hourly values should be tabulated on the “Hourly (Air, Soil, or Actinograph) Temperatures” form. With the complete record, the means by hours as well as by cays should be computed for any period covered. In addition, from the hourly record, the maximum, minimum, and mean for each day (midnight to midnight) may be transferred to the “Soil Temperatures” form, in order that the mean may be compared with that obtained from thermometer readings, and that the daily range may be shown. The application of corrections to the soil thermograph trace can not follow the same rules as are used with air thermographs, because of the difficulty of making corrections of the maxima and minima at the time. If the correction of the soil thermograph trace varies con- siderably in amount from day to day, the amount of the correction at any hour should be determined by its position with respect to the preceding and following correction hours. If the correction at, say, 9 a. m. is about the same from day to day, one correction may be BULLETIN 1059, U. S. 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. applied to all the hours of the day which it represents. This implies, of course, that the range of the instrument has been adjusted before it 1s placed in service. SuMMARY OF Sort TEMPERATURES. In addition to the means by decades and months, the “Soil Tem- peratures” form may show the number of days, for each depth at which readings are taken, with temperatures below 32° F. (frozen) ; with temperatures 32.1 to 41.0° (cold); with temperatures 41.1 to 50.0° (cool); with temperatures 50.1 to 60.0° (warm); and with temperatures above 60° (hot). ANNUAL SUMMARIES OF SoTL TEMPERATURES. The “Summary” form may be used for a summary of one or several soil temperature conditions, such as the mean temperatures by decades, months, growing seasons, and years, or the number of days of each temperature class in each month. In the case of surface tempera- tures, the mean and absolute maxima and the daily ranges are doubt- less of great interest. As many forms as necessary may be used. It may be found that a given. soil temperature sufficiently delimits growth so that the occurrence of such a temperature marks the be- ginning and end of the growing season. This has been the idea in suggesting a division of temperature computations at 41° F. or 5° C., such a temperature being approximately the minimum for activity of lower forms of plant life, as shown by numerous experiments. APPARATUS. The most simple apparatus for measuring soil temperatures is the encased soil thermometer, having a stem of sufficient length so that the mercury appears above the surface of the ground when the bulb is at the desired depth. As ordinarily made, however, this thermom- eter is not only very expensive but is inadequately protected from exposure to the elements and to mechanical forces. For this reason it is not desirable for permanent stations, but will probably in many cases be useful where observations are temporary and light equip- ment is desired. For permanent stations the most serviceable apparatus that has been thoroughly tried is an ordinary thermometer suspended by a cord in a 1-inch iron pipe, whose lower end may be sealed either by a cap or by welding. The latter is preferable where the pipe must be sunk to any great depth, since the welded pipe may be formed as a wedge and may be driven into position without seriously dis- turbing the soil. The pipe should, in all cases, be long enough to extend well above the ground and above any ordinary snow cover- RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 30 ing, and the upper end should be capped, the suspending cord being attached to the inside of the cap. A welded pipe may be driven in almost any soil if the upper cap is screwed on tightly, and a mallet is used in driving, or wood is placed between the cap and hammer used. An iron hammer directly applied will tear the cap to pieces in a few blows. The conductivity of an iron pipe is so great that its use for soil temperatures at a depth of 1 foot or less introduces serious com- plications. Wood or porcelain tubes are therefore necessary. A porcelain wall tube, such as is commonly used in wiring build- ings, may ordinarily be obtained in lengths up to one foot or more at electrical supply shops. For a relatively permanent installation of thermometers at a depth of about a foot, wood tubes turned and bored in a wood- working shop are very satisfactory. The tube should have some taper, and the lower end should be pointed, so that it may be driven into a smaller hole that has been made with a bar. A wood which does not split readily should be used. When completed, the tube ——— SSS > Sn Fic. 1.—Sectional view of turned wood tube for soil thermometers at a depth of 1 foot. Telethermoscope (electric resistance thermometer) with one bulb and recording gal- vyauometer $245; extra bulbs, each $15, connecting wire, per foot about $0.10. and its plug should be boiled and cooled in a bath of creosote and linseed oil, to prevent swelling, shrinking, and-cracking. The top of the tube may be turned with a slope outward, and the plug simi- larly turned, so that rain water does not enter readily. A tube which has proven very satisfactory in Forest Service work is shown in figure 1. A satisfactory tube for temporary use may be made by cutting a piece of 2 by 2 inch lumber 14 inches long, boring a 1-inch hors through from end to end, capping the lower end with a piece of tin, and cutting a plug to fit in the opening at the top. Two inches of the tube should be left above ground. It is hardly feasible to prepare this apparatus in greater lengths; in fact, for depths of 2 feet or more, the iron pipe is to be preferred. In order to obtain reliable readings with a thermometer which must be lifted to read, it is necessary that the bulb of the ther- mometer be in some way protected from immediate contact with the air. This is done either by placing it in a cork, by wrapping it in Bh BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tissue paper, by sealing to the thermometer an empty cap or vial, or by sealing on a vial filled with alcohol. Covering the bulb, of course, retards the movement of the thermometer which changes of soil temperature, but this is unimportant as compared with the sud- den changes which would result from bringing the naked ther- mometer up into the air. The thermometer to be used in these tubes should be the Weather Bureau “mercurial thermometer,” and may be kept attached to the aluminum frame which affords much needed protection. . The use of registering maximum and minimum thermometers in soil temperature work is not very satisfactory. It is true that the standard Weather Bureau types of these instruments may be used on - the surface of the soil almost as well as in the air. The following precautions, however, should be observed: 1. ‘To bring the thermometer into close contact with the soil and to avoid unnecessary conduction the metal frame should be dis- carded. 2. The minimum registering thermometer should be protected from insulation in the middle of the day, since such thermometers ordi- narily will not bear temperatures in excess of 120° F. Also, there is some tendency to distill the spirits and break the spirit column at high temperatures. 3. The thermometers must be nearly level. Maximum and minimum thermometers of the ordinary type are not feasible at any depth, because they can not be kept level. A maximum thermometer may, however, be used in a vertical posi- tion at any depth, provided the stricture of the capillary tube is suffi- ciently close to carry the weight of the mercury above it. This is technically almost impossible to accomplish, but one in a dozen maxi- mum thermometers may serve the purpose. To use the registering minimum thermometer at any depth, it is necessary that the stem be bent at a distance from the bulb approxi- mately equal to the contemplated depth, and that the scale fall en- tirely in that part of the stem above the bend, which is to be hori- _ zontal. There is, of course, a limit beyond which this form of con- * struction can not be safely carried, since the alcohol in the stem, as well as in the bulb, reflects temperature. An additional difficulty is in the distillation that has been mentioned, but this may be largely overcome by sufficiently high air pressure above the spirit column. For permanent stations the use of the telethermoscope or electric- resistance thermometer may, in some cases, be advisable; but this apparatus is expensive and delicate, can not be installed except with considerable disturbance of the soil, and is subject to serious errors if, for example, the batteries become weak or the ealvanometer i is not perfectly leveled. Especially where great precision is necessary, as RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 37 in determining the character and mfluence of surface temperatures, the telethermoscope offers great possibilities. | The soil thermograph is desirable for continuous records of soil temperature which can hardly be obtained with any other instru- ment, and particularly for measuring the extremes, which it is almost impossible to obtain with registering thermometers. These can be had only after careful adjustment of the range of the pen, or by fre- quent checking against a thermometer, at high and low temperatures, after the instrument is installed. This instrument should at least be employed wherever new stations are being established, and until the daily curve has been worked out for each season. The securing of a record with. this instrument is very similar in its routine fea- tures to the work with air thermographs. There is. however. one feature of the soil thermograph which deserves special consideration. This is the tendency, whenever the instrument is moved and the con- necting tube suffers more or less deformation, for the whole appa- ratus to go through a gradual readjustment. One frequently finds the pen steadily ascending or descending for a week after any change. For this reason it does not appear practicable to calibrate or adjust the recording apparatus to agree with an accurate thermometer be- fore placing the instrument and its bulb in their final positions. The Ecological Society, in outlining methods for a systematic soil tem- perature survey, however, recommended calibrating soil termographs by placing the bulb in a pan of water with the thermometer, and after placing the bulb in its final position in the soil trusting completely to the accuracy of the thermograph. Tt is believed, in view of what has been said, to be absolutely necessary to have a thermometer so placed in a wooden or porcelain tube that its bulb is at the same level and practically in contact with the bulb of the themograph, and to obtain frequent comparisons of the thermograph and thermometer. SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS ON SURFACE MEASUREMENTS. It has been stated that the extremely high temperatures attained at the surface of a well-insolated soil seem to have an important bear- ing on the initiation of plants, and that technical difficulties make the actual measurement of this surface temperature almost impossible. Doubtless this could be accomplished from time to time with a super- sentive plate such as constitutes a part of the leaf-temperature appa- ratus, but the problem of recording the maximum attained in a day or a season would still be unsolved. It should be admitted, therefore, that a record of the maximum temperature at the soil’s surface can only be approximated with present equipment, for the very simple reason that the object which 38 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is to indicate the temperature can not be expected to react to insola- tion quite as the soil does, nor to ‘be exactly in temperature equilib- rium with the soil. Since the technique has not been well developed, the following suggestions are made in the hope of obtaining somewhat comparable results by different investigators. 1. The bulb of the (maximum-registering) thermometer or the bulb of the thermograph should be exactly half buried, the object lying in a horizontal position. The lower surface may then be a little coler than the surface of the soil, but the exposed surface may ie a little warmer. . In order that the thermometer or fecmoeraph bulb may have ee capacity for insolation similar to that of the soil studied, the exposed surface should be coated with linseed oil, and while this is still moist enough soil should be sprinkled upon it to form a thin coating. It may be necessary to repeat this at rather frequent in- tervals. 3. The thermometer or thermograph should be disturbed as little as possible, since, if the soil about it is kept loose, it will not be normally moist and will not have the temperature of undisturbed | soil. A maximum thermometer of the ordinary type must, of course, be raised for setting, so that for frequent comparisons of thermo- graph and thermometer, the ordinary cylindrical-bulb mercurial thermometer may be most satisfactory. 4. Provision must be made for recording temperatures far in excess of those of the air or deeper soil. It will be safest to allow for an excess of full 100° F. over the 1-foot soil temperature, where- ever direct insolation is received during several hours of the day. INSTRUMENTS. For mercurial thermometers, combined air-and-soil thermographs, and recording thermometers (equally adapted to air, soil, and water measurements), see “Instruments” listed under “Air tempera- tures”: Special soil thermometers, wood encased, with stem long enough to be read above the surface of the ground, for depths of 6 inches to 3 feet______ a eS 3225522 $65 00REO $10. 00 Soil (or water) thernograph, with connecting tube; pens, ink, forms, etc. (bulb is about 1 inch by 12 inches)________ 85. 00 SOmesEHermOs cap ee ee ee ae a tet eee > Telethermoscope (electric resistance Therein) with one bulb and nonrecording galvanometer_____________ ag A 95. 00 Switch for 6 thermocouples ( Galvanometer requires about 3 dry cells) RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 389 SOLAR RADIATION—LIGHT. The importance of light, at all stages in the development of trees, has never been underestimated by foresters. On the contrary, re- viewing the literature of forestry at the present time, it would seem that this element of the environment has been emphasized, by some almost to the exclusion of all the other conditions. It was, perhaps, only natural that casual observers of the forest should mention this factor more frequently than all others, because the presence or absence of ght is so easily detected. It must now be admitted, however, that visible light does not tell the whole story; and, fur- thermore, that phenomena, commonly called by foresters the “ sup- pression” of trees, which have often been credited to insufficient. light, may be and probably are in many instances caused by lack of moisture. In this country Zon (77) citing experiments of Fricke, was one of the first to call attention to the relatively great importance of factors other than hght. It may be that his suggesion created too strong a reaction, that there has been too much of a tendency on the part of American investigators to ignore light or to be satisfied with an incomplete study of its ecological relations. It is believed, however, that this is only apparently the case, the situation being explained by the large amount of ecological study that has been per- formed in the western mountain forests, where sunlight is not defi- cient and precipitation or soil moisture appears usually to be the more vitally controlling factor. On the other hand, the work of Burns (5€-59) shows substantial progress in the study of light. Its effects on growth have been directly observed, and its bearing on the transpiration rate and water requirements of young trees is, at least, strongly suggested. Pearson (12), Clements (60), and many others have made observa- tions on light under less controlled conditions. The principal lesson to be learned, from the progress to date, however, is that light can not be taken independently without regard for other conditions that it modifies and all of the plant functions which it stimulates. Nowhere, perhaps, is a better illustration found of the danger of one-sided ecological investigations than the common error of forest- ers in ascribing all bad effects of crowding in the forest to lack of light. CONCEPT OF THE FUNCTIONS OF RADIANT ENERGY. The solar radiation available to the plant not only supplements the heat available by conduction from the air but is vitally necessary to the chemical activities of the plant, of which photosynthesis is foremost and of most direct interest to the ecologist. It is fairly evident that sunlight has an influence on the temperature of leaves 40 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - and other plant parts of which we obtain only a partial measure- ment through ordinary air temperatures. That this is an important condition affecting distribution of every species is evidenced by the fact that with increase of both altitude and latitude, or, in short, with decrease of air temperature, a given plant seems to require more light for its development. This evidence is not in itself con- clusive, because, on a given site, more light obtained by wider spacing will usually mean more moisture, which may often be the controlling factor. Again, in a given locality, the species which thrive best in air of low temperature always seem more tolerant of shade. Perhaps it is best to analyze the situation at the outset according te physical principles and logic rather than on the basis of ques- tionable evidence. The latter has been mentioned to forewarn the student of some of the pitfalls of poorly conceived observational methods. The radiant energy available to the plant may consist of an infinite variety of rays or wave lengths, from the most subdued heat to the ultra-violet light. The effect of each of these wave lengths is entirely dependent upon the nature of the absorbants in the plant. Thus the organic material of the cell walls and the water within the cells are capable of absorbing readily the red and infra-red or “heat ” rays of the solar spectrum. The chloroplasts show an ability to absorb visible rays, the proportionate absorption of the various wave lengths varying in different plants. Of the absorp- tion of ultra-violet light by leaves practically nothing is known as yet on account of the difficulties of observation in this end of the spectrum. We may, however, safely assume a considerable absorp- tion of these invisible rays. There is practically no question that each of the chemical elements found in the plastids (or, for that matter, anywhere in the leaf cells) absorbs the kind of rays which it would absorb under any other condition. Thus the “selective absorption” by different plants may be mainly the resultant of different amounts and pro- portions of such of the elements as iron, sodium, and potassium. All rays which are absorbed are heating, and all may assist in bringing about chemical reactions, of which the first in importance to the plant is the union of H-O and CO: to form carbohydrates. The function of the chlorophyll and of the chloroplasts is to con- centrate sufficient energy at a given point to effect this difficult com- bination. The kinds of rays which are essential to photosynthesis. therefore, are the kinds which the substances in the chloroplasts are capable of absorbing; and, as has been said, the substances may vary according to the kind of plant and according to the solutes which the soil is capable of supplying. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 41 On the other hand, if the chloroplasts find themselves in a medium of cell sap which is cold, it is perfectly evident that the energy which has been concentrated in them through the absorption of a special assortment of rays may be dissipated to the surrounding medium by the simple process of conduction. The rate of conduction will decrease directly as the temperature of the cell sap approaches that of the plastids. It is thus seen that both radiant energy and heat of the air, which may serve to warm the leaf as a whole, do have an influence on photosynthesis; and that for a given intensity of sun- ght there must be a leaf temperature below which photosynthesis can not be effected, because of the dissipation of the energy in the plastids. This leaf temperature will depend on every atmospheric condition, including the air temperature. The most important factor tending to keep the leaf temperature below the air temperature, is the use of any available heat in the water-vaporizing process of transpiration. This consumes a very large proportion of all the heat obtainable from all sources. The loss of water and consump- tion of energy is, presumably, to be looked upon as an unavoidable consequence of the need for stomata to admit carbon dioxide. THe NATURE OF SUNLIGHT. Biologists must enter upon the measurement of radiant energy, or even upon a discussion of the subject, with the greatest hesitancy, realizing (1) that the physicists’ conception of energy is, at this writing, undergoing a change almost daily; (2) that investigations of the solar constant and of sky radiation have made enormous strides during the last two or three decades, creating a vast array of equipment none of which are of proven value, and leaving the whole situation in a state of flux; and (3) that these investigations have shown beyond question the constantly changing quality of sun- light, due both to variations in the sun itself and to absorption in the earth’s atmosphere. Realizing these things, it must be admitted that the past investigations of light in connection with forestry and other biological subjects are, practically without exception, obsolete and of no assistance in looking into the problems of the future. It can not be attempted in this discussion to predict the line of endeavor for future investigators in light. Plainly it is a problem for specialists only. A few of the most fundamental facts or prin- ciples which, it seems, must govern the method of attack at this time, may, however, be pointed out. 1. As to the character of sunlight, probably the most important point to be borne in mind is that it is an extremely variable quantity, both as regards its whole energy and its constitution of various wave lengths. Setting aside for the present the fact that the emanations from the sun vary periodically in total intensity and also in wave 42 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. length, it is necessary to consider the constantly changing absorption by the earth’s atmosphere. According to Very (75), who cites Lang- ley (Professional Papers of the Signal Service, No. 15), there are “two different kinds of selective depletion which the solar rays suffer in traversing the earth’s atmosphere. One kind is greatest for the rays of shorter wave length, and diminishes by perfectly regular gradations as one passes toward the longer waves of the infra-red. Its cause may be referred to selective reflection or diffraction of the shorter ether-waves by particles of excessive minuteness. The other kind of absorption produces irregular gaps or depressions in the spectral energy curve, which begin at the red end of the visible spectrum and grow in magnitude and frequency as the wave length increases. Researches by Abney and Festing, and by other investi- gators, have traced the majority of these depressions to the action of aqueous vapor.” In the extreme infra-red there is shown to be al- most total absorption from this source. The light, principally of the shorter wave lengths, which is dif- fused by minute particles in the atmosphere, is not entirely lost, but may be measured as skylight, probably of greater wave length than the original direct rays. The infra-red rays which are so greatly absorbed by the vapor of the atmosphere, merely heat the upper at- mosphere, and to this extent, of course, are lost as solar radiation. 2. Looking at the matter from another viewpoint, and accounting for the rather regular daily change in sunlight intensity at a given point on the earth’s surface, Kimball (63) after showing the greater intensity of all wave lengths at midday when the light passes through minimum thickness of atmosphere, makes interesting comparisons of the total and luminous radiation under various circumstances. Radiation from an overcast sky is slightly richer, and radiation from a clear sky markedly richer, in luminous rays, than is direct sunlight. Direct sunlight decreases in luminous richness as the sun approaches the horizon. 3. These few facts point to the uselessness of photometric methods, depending on the chemical action of rays of rather limited wave length, to measure the total radiation or any part of the radiation other than the few wave lengths which may be involved in the par- ticular reaction. Thus, for example, even if it were assumed that silver chloride was decomposed in proportion to the intensity of a given section of the spectrum, a certain reaction with silver chloride might be secured with other wave lengths varying through a very wide range. Again quoting Very (75), it is seen that photochemical processes are very complex and hazardous as a measure of energy: While luminous effects may be regarded as dependent on a certain photo- ‘chemical action upon the retina, not all photochemical processes are equally RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 43 definite and measurable. As M. Radau (72) says: “The red rays and the yel- iow rays in certain cases continue the work commenced by the violet rays, and in others undo what the last have accomplished. Thus, chloride of silver, slightly impressed by the violet rays, is then blackened under the action of all of the visible rays; and guaiacum, turned blue by the violet rays, is bleached by the more luminous rays. It follows that the chemical action of light is, in general, very complex, and that it can be used for measuring the energy of solar rays only with much circumspection.” The inevitable conclusion is that direct photochemical methods can not be made to solve the problems of ecology, but this does not elimi- nate spectrophotochemical measurements, which may, in fact, give the best possible criteria as to the variations in the different spectral regions and the effect of such variations on plants. 4. The fourth point to be considered in approaching the study of possible methods for radiation measurements, is the difficulty of securing complete absorption of sunlight. While lampblack is popu- larly conceived to absorb rays of all wave lengths and to transform them into measurable heat, recent investigations have proved that this is only approximately true, and have shown the existence of an infra-red spectrum of extreme wave length to which lampblack is partially transparent. Fortunately, this region is relatively unim- portant as a source of energy and may be, for biological purposes, almost wholly unimportant. A greater source of error than that arising from the failure of lampblack to absorb the radiation is undoubtedly the loss, as heat radiation, and by conduction and convection, before the heat can be properly measured. It must, of course, be borne in mind that tem- perature is not a measure of heat, and that the indications of a ther- mometer can not be used except as the radiation rate of the thermom- eter itself has been thoroughly studied. With this conception of the nature of sunlight and the difficulties in the way of its proper measurement, it is perfectly evident that the primitive methods that have been employed in measuring light in the forest do not give satisfactory results. Two distinct but sup- plemental lines of attack suggest themselves as being profitable : 1. The growing of trees under controlled conditions of light, using both artificial lights of known composition and monochromatic and other screens which will transmit to the plants only certain wave lengths, as suggested in the work which has been started by Mac- Dougal (68): The physiological action of each wave length must, of course, be studied. Through such study it is hoped that the require- ments for light may be determined, any actual deficiency in sun- light which exists in the forest recognized, and the effective supply measured, 2. In studying either the light conditions as they exist in the forest or the effective supply suggested by the preceding line of 44 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. investigation it is obviously necessary to use spectroscopic methods. Since the growth of a tree requires many years, and even complete suppression in the densest forest is seldom accomplished in less than two or three years, it is evident that in the forest minute examination © of every variation in sunlight is unnecessary. An examination cov- ering the entire period of the activity which is being studied must, however, be obtained. The nearly ideal and still practicable arrange- ment would seem to be provision for continuous observation of the total energy available as radiation throughout the period of plant activity, with sufficiently frequent spectroscopic observation of the composition of this energy to establish not only an average quality analysis for the whole period but also to show the variations which occur from season to season and year to year and their relations to the functioning of the plant. . Unfortunately, spectrum analysis by present common methods does not permit an examination of either the ultra-violet or infra-red spectra. For this reason it has been suggested that all spectrum analyses might be better conducted by means of energy measure- ments (e. g. thermal effect) than by optical comparisons. This is an almost unexplored field and presents infinite possibilities for the in- vestigator who will devise a satisfactory method of measuring the energy of all parts of the spectrum under both laboratory and field conditions. HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL H}XPOSURES. It is perhaps well to point out at this stage that, particularly in forest studies, light measurements of whatever kind may be on two distinct bases. In forestry the growth of an individual tree is rarely spoken of, or even if it is, no practical significance is attached to it, because the individual can rarely be separated from the influence of other individuals. Forest growth, in any practical sense, must be growth (volume increment) per unit of land area. Similarly, if an attempt is made to find a relationship between growth and available light, it 1s certain that the energy must be expressed in terms of a unit of area inclined at the same slope as the ground. The total energy available to the crowns of trees on a northerly exposure of given gradient, for example, can not be more than that which would be inci- dent upon a plane of exactly the same aspect and gradient. Land areas, however, are always measured in terms of their horizontal projections. It therefore follows that the measurements must be re- duced to horizontal areas, and the simplest means for reduction is to expose a given area horizontally for the original determinations. Determinations of total energy available for growth, however, will rarely be made in ecological studies, which are much more likely RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 45 to be concerned with questions affecting the survival of the individual plant or tree. The individual tree of any age must be thought of as a spherical, conical, or cylindrical mass of irregular surface, such that a pencil of rays will affect equal absorbing surfaces, almost regard- less of its angle of approach. It is therefore logical that, in the study of individual trees, all determinations of light intensity and quality should take as the unit a pencil of rays of given cross section. This full cross section is to be obtained by exposing the absorbing surface of given area normal to the axis of the pencil. In the following discussion exposures for this purpose and of this nature will be implied, unless light quantities affecting stand growth are specifically mentioned. TOTAL RADIATION ON THE SITE. To determine the quantity of radiant energy which is available for plants or trees on any particular site in relation to the growth of the whole stand, obviously the quantity should be measured at a point where it has not been intercepted or diminished in intensity. As previously pointed out, this will be above the crowns or in an opening of exposure similar to the plane of the forest canopy. After haying determined the total amount of energy available, the amount actually utilized, if desired, might be measured as the difference be- tween the total and that which is available below the canopy. In any event, the intensity of solar radiation may be expressed in heat units, or calories per square centimeter of horizontal area. INSOLATION UNDER CANOPIES. The measurement of insolation or sunlight intensity under canopies may be for two distinct purposes: To determine the amount of energy which has escaped the tree crowns above and therefrom to deduce the amount utilized by them; and to determine the amount which is available for undergrowth, either in the form of subordi- nate species or reproduction. The first measurement, which is not concerned with the tolerance of the species, but rather with the com- pleteness of the canopy, the completeness of utilization, and the rate of growth of the stand should obviously be closely connected with measurements of total radiation on the site. Since the plan of such measurements has been explained, this subject may be dismissed and the attention turned to those problems which are concerned wholly with the question of tolerance, or the question of the relative requirements of the various species for light, especially in connec- tion with survival in their earliest stages. 46 BULLETIN 1058, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LigHt MEASUREMENTS IN RELATION TO MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS. The tolerance of trees to shade may be determined in any one of four ways: 1. By preparing empirical scales of tolerance, based on experience and long-continued observation of the relative shade-enduring quali- ties of various species when growing together. This method is obyi- ously very crude, and may be very misleading, since such a condi- tion as soil moisture may determine, as directly as does light, the relative positions of the species in any particular stand. The per- sistence of individual branches, or rate of pruning; the maximum density of stands composed mainly of any particular species; the ability of reproduction to thrive in shade; all these things may be considered in preparing empirical scales. 2. A second method of determining the tolerance of trees is by study of the structure of the leaves. Having determined the normal relations of the tissues of protective and assimilative characters, leaves may be subjected to different degrees of shading. Those which adapt themselves most completely to a variety of light conditions are naturally those which will survive best 1f placed under trying conditions as regards lack of light. This method, however scientifi- cally it is executed, can not give us absolute comparisons, since the structures of leaves are so variable even under the same conditions that the exact degree of change of structure can not be determined. In other words, this may give indications, but not comparable statis- tical data. 3. A third method of determining tolerance is the experimental method, which must, of course, be executed in the laboratory where all other conditions, as well as the supply of light, may be con- trolled. The primary object is the determination of the minimum amounts of light which will sustain life of the several species under consideration, when all other conditions (especially heat and soil moisture) are nearly optimum. It will be fairly apparent, how- ever, that high temperatures may reduce the light requirement, and low soil moisture may increase it; and, since variations in all of the other conditions will be encountered in the field, it is very desirable that any experimental test should be so conducted that the influence of these other conditions on tolerance may be at least accurately gauged, if not directly measured. It is believed that the best results will be secured if each species to be tested is grown under a variety of light conditions, approach- ing both the optimum and the minimum, and if the tests are so conducted that the physiological effects of each light intensity may be expressed finally in terms of growth, or weight accretion, rather than if dependence is placed solely or largely on observations of RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. Ae fatal effects when the minimum light has been exceeded. For ex- ample, if seedlings of a given species are grown with 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 per cent of the full available hght, other conditions being equal, and if the greatest accretion is put on by those having 60 and 80 per cent, while those having only 20 per cent barely exist, and some of their number succumb, it will be fairly evident that the optimum is between 60 and 80 per cent, and the minimum slightly below 20 per cent for the given conditions of heat and moisture. Both points may be found quite closely enough by curving the growth data. Similarly, in other temperature and moisture series different optima and minima of light may be found, and the abso- lute optimum combination may be very nearly arrived at. On account of the difficulty of duplicating any set of conditions at different periods, it is extremely desirable that the more im- portant species whose relative tolerance it is desired to know should all be treated during the same period, and also that an arrangement should be effected which will make possible different combinations of light with moisture and temperature. ; The following plan for such experimental determination of toler- ance, while merely suggestive, may assist in initiating some work along this very important line. The arrangements suggested should accommodate about four species. It would, perhaps, be well to run an initial test with rather gross differences in the light quantities, as suggested above, and to repeat at a later date when the knowl- edge obtained will permit more minute examination of the critical points: Construct a solarium about 54 by 8 feet, with its long axis lying east and west, its floor and glass roof having possibly a gentle slope to the south. The depth from glass to floor need not exceed 18 inches. Divide this into three equal parts by means of glass parti- tions running north and south. If two layers of glass are used throughout, having dead air between them, the purposes will be more completely fulfilled without affecting light quantities appre- ciably more than would the single layer of glass. Let the higher north wall serve as entrance to the compartments, being closed by a door whose inner surface has very poor reflecting powers. For each of these compartments 10 pans, each a foot square and 6 inches or a foot deep, will be required. These may be made of gal- vanized iron with drainage openings in the bottom. Into each pan put a measured quantity of soil, sufficient to fill it to within 2 inches of the top. The pan and dry soil weight both having been deter- mined, the amount of water necessary to maintain a given moisture percentage in the soil may easily be computed, and this, added to the gross dry weight, will give the weight which the pan should show after each watering. Kach pan may now be sown with sufficient seeds of the several species involved to produce a good stand on the area of 1 square foot. Possibly 100 seeds of each species should be used in each, the . 48 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seedlings later being thinned to uniform density. Unless it is de- sired to determine the effect of ight on germination, this process should be concluded for all pans, under uniform conditions, before they are placed in the solarium. The main operations may be started just as soon as the seedlings are established. Otherwise great care must be used to develop the seedlings similarly in all pans. Having reached the proper stage, place 10 pans in each of the three compartments; say, in two north-and-south rows. The three compartments are to be maintained at different temperatures; say, at mean temperatures of 50°, 60°, and 70° F., with more or less diur- nal oscillation in each. In each compartment one row of pans is to be given sufficient water to maintain its soil moisture at, say, twice the wilting coefficient, while the other row will be maintained at four times the wilting coefficient. The condition of the pans may at any time be determined by weighing and the water supply regulated ac- cordingly. In any row of five pans five different hght intensities may be maintained. One pan in each row should doubtless be al- lowed full sunlight, another should be cut 20 per cent, a third 40 per cent, etc. The amounts may be governed by previously gained em- pirical knowledge of the requirements, so that the full range of light values will not have to be covered in any case. The shading of each pan separately may be arranged by using covers of punched screen, in which the areas of the openings correspond to the propor- tion or full ight which it is desired to admit. It should be borne in mind at the outset that the glass of the solarium considerably reduces the light intensity, particularly in the infra-red rays. The quality of this light should be compared with that of direct sunlight and means should also be devised for measuring the hght intensity under each screen. The proper heating of the various compartments will prove the most serious obstacle in most cases. This, of course, will have to be accomplished by artificial means and should be done by introducing warm air into the compartments from an outside source in such a manner as to maintain the desired air temperatures without directly heating the pans. The air thermometer and thermostat should be suspended at a mean elevation and protected from insolation. The positions of pans in each compartment should be frequently changed so that none will profit more than others by localized heat and light optima which are certain to exist. The final effect of ight and also the effect of other factors with light is to be determined by the accretion of dry matter in the seed- lings of each pan and species. In order that this may be expressed in net quantities for the time of treatment, some of the sedlings weeded out at the beginning of the test should be dried and weighed. It is evident that this general plan might be followed in tests to show the effect of different kinds of light on growth, using mono- chromatic screens as covers for the pans instead of the punched me- tallic screens, or supplying different compartments of a dark chamber with various kinds of artificial light. 4. The fourth method of determining tolerance or light require- ments is similar to that just described, but depends on the measure- ment of light intensities as they are encountered in the field, and the RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 49 correlation of such measurements with observations on the condition, rate of growth, etc., of the trees existing under the measured condi- tions. The great advantages of this method are that a great variety of light conditions may be obtained and maintained with little ex- pense or trouble and that growth and health of the subjects may be studied through long periods and under natural conditions. One disadvantage is that a variety of light conditions is necessarily accom- panied by a variety in the measure of other conditions the effect of which may be confused with the effects of light, and neither of the two sets of effects can be exactly measured and balanced against each other, nor, most of all, can they be controlled. A further disadvan- tage consists in variation of the amount of shading at any given point with different hours of the day and seasons of the year, necessitating long-continued observations to obtain any expressive results. These disadvantages, however, will loom up less formidably when we under- stand better what part of the radiant energy is really effective. As has been pointed out, the field method must go hand in hand with laboratory studies. APPARATUS AND METHODS FOR RADIANT ENERGY MEASUREMENTS. Although most of the: methods of light measurement used by forest investigators have been described as now obsolete, it is impossible, of course, to throw away all that has been gained through experience with different types of instruments. Quite apart from forest inves- tigations, there is available a vast amount of research in the study of light per se which, however incomplete and changing this study may be, represents the starting point for any new work undertaken. It is therefore considered expedient to bring together a list of the methods and instruments which have been used, not in any degree of historical completeness, but rather to show the several lines of study and their possibilities as briefly as possible. 1. In the radiometer, which is commonly seen in jewelers’ windows, the energy of light is transformed into work. This instrument has no practical value, however, because the work is performed inef- ficiently and probably does net vary in proportion to the energy received. 2. The thermopyle represents the first attempt to transform radi- ant energy into electrical current. This is accomplished by allowing the light to fall upon the junction of two wires of different metals. The opposing ends of the two wires are also joined, forming a com- plete circuit. The amount of current generated and passing around this circuit is measured at any point in the circuit by means of a galvanometer. The radiomicrometer, for measuring the heat from stars, is an extremely delicate adaptation of the principle of the thermopyle. 82769—22——4 50 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 3. The bolometer developed by Langley (67), who was a pioneer in investigations of the sun’s energy, employs a blackened platinum strip for the absorption of the rays, the thermal effect on this strip being measured by its change in electrical resistance. — 4. The later developments along this line, described as pyrheli- ometers are known, respectively, as the Angstrém (69), Callendar (64), Marvin (65), and Smithsonian Institution Standard (50). The first three are constructed on the principle of electric resistance ther- mometers, while the Smithsonian utilizes a mecurial thermometer. The Callendar, it is understood, is distinguished by its automatic arrangements for constantly recording the difference in resistance between the absorbing and nonabsorbing plates or “ erids.” The technical differences between the several types of instruments are so involved that a discussion of them can not be undertaken here. They have to do largely with questions of efficiency in absorption and measurement of the energy. In fact, the student of ecology who plans to use any such instruments as these will be compelled to make a most thorough study of the subject. Recent years have seen so much attention given to it by physicists and meterologists that, it may be said, the measurement of solar radiation is in a state of flux. Bigelow (53) has recently questioned the adequacy of any measurements made with pyrheliometers, declaring them useless, at least for the determination of the solar constant. It will therefore be the part of wisdom for biologists to stand aside until the physi- cists have reached a more stable basis. aie In all of these instruments the auxiliary apparatus required is considerable, except possibly with the Smithsonian. This is natu- rally a deterrent to their use in the field, although the difficulties may always be overcome when we are convinced of the usefulness of the results. An instrument utilizing a mercurial thermometer recommends itself for simplicity; yet, in view of the frequent changes in the light intensity at any single point in the forest, the equipment for continuous recording is not more than is needed for satisfactory results. 5. The thermometric sunshine recorder (70), with electrical regis- tering apparatus, is the equipment used at many Weather Bureau stations for registering the duration of sunlight. This instrument is extremely simple in design and operation, involving only the movement of a column of mercury through a tube connecting a black- ened and a transparent bulb of an air thermometer. When the mercury reaches a certain height, as the result of air pressure in the black bulb, it completes a circuit with the two platinum wires em- bedded in the walls of the tube, and the current passing over this circuit operates the registering mechanism. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 51 The apparatus is adjusted by increasing or decreasing the amount of mercury in the tube and by bringing the tube closer to or farther from a vertical position, so that the mercury first reaches the platinum wires when the disk of the sun is visible through the clouds. Any addition to the light intensity above this approximate standard does not, therefore, alter the nature of the record. While the method is thus seen to be extremely crude, the record showing only the presence or absence of light of a rather low intensity, still it can hardly be questioned that such a record of sunlight duration is of very great value in comparing the solar climate of different regions, and possibly also in obtaining a measure of the direct hght under canopies; that is, of the approximate degree of shading. There appears to be an untried value in such records through arbitrary rating of the recorded “sunshine ” according to the elevation of the sun, and with allowance also for atmospheric humidity. One objectionable feature of the instrument is the amount of time required to warm it in the morning to the point where it first records. In fact, it is by no means free from effect of the air temperature and must be adjusted to the seasons. In the lack of a better measure of sunlight values, it seems well worth while to have this sunshine record in forest studies. The form for * Daily and Hourly Sunshine Duration” has been provided for the tabulations of a month. 6. The solar thermograph or mechanical differential telethermo- graph devised by Briggs (54) in the biophysical laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry, is in principle the same as some of the soil thermographs; but it is a duplex instrument, in which the tem- perature of one of the bulbs tends to compensate that of a second. One of the bulbs may be blackened and spherical, with a short tube, so that the bulb is rather easily held just above the case of the in- strument, while the second bulb may be kept in the shade. This arrangement permits the recording of the excess of tempera- ture attained by the bulb in sunlight, limited by the natural radia- tion and by conduction, which will increase as the air movement in- creases. The reduction of air movement to practically zero, or the elimination of conduction almost entirely by the use of an evacuated glass case, would make possible the calibration of such an instrument so that the temperature difference between the bulb and the sur- rounding air might be directly converted into rate of heat absorp- tion by the bulb. As a matter of fact, an ordinary air and soil thermograph has been used by Bates (105) with a fair degree of satisfaction, to show the variations in sun heat from day to day, the disadvantage of the regular equipment being in the variable surface exposed to the suo at different hours by a cylindrical bulb. BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 52 -arqissod “‘SYIVUIOY Jo 4000 Jog “sinoy Y}U9} JO SeynuTaI—uoT}eanp eulysuNns “ABP 10} ‘Aep ,e[qissod 10J 8 pi, 9 c ¥ [830.1 ac T “u00u ral II Or , ‘a18q ‘um ‘d (surpue inoy 10,7) “ur: 8 (Jurpue anoy 10,7) 6L Jo yquow ay} 10} § .—"M ‘o— “ “PUawnsysuy WMod WOLVOY JO UONDIAAIA §B "ON VO1WDIS § YNOILVYNdG ANIHSNOS ATYNOH GNV ATIVG ‘Od, *“ATq} 00m ‘aurqsuns “| WO F 53 RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. fiq pawdaig ‘9[Qtssod st moeAsesqo iejnSex ssajun epeur 8q 02 SUOT}Ne2109 (YSIIM] ON “MULT Io oq yseq Avur ostms0y}0 ‘1890 Ayqoojr0d a10M sporiod 44 3t TA} Of} VY} PIAtosqo SI 41 Way on[eA afqrssod [[D} Wears oq pmnoys smMoysurmaae pue FUMIO “ABP Yowo LO} VULYSANS yo saynuTor afqyssod 94} WMoyosioyy Surjnduroo ‘smosvas [ie ysnomy ‘JUSMINIISUT oY} 1 JaSUNS PUB astuMs Jo SOUIT] [BNI0v SUTAIOSqO Aq PeUTUTIOIEp aq ISN ¢ : *SUOT}OIIION YYSTIAZ INOYITA IO WITAK ¢ eee wees weeleee eee eee ee ee eee See TL COUNT OOM | | - ra - — mae sneha eahel| oleate (ale) Beare \a)|la/alalaialeisiolmls'|\ctalntamlelateiclataleie)snvd [2104 Aja UO! tense cee wel eee Ce ei eae aes 55> = === *=="--TBeUL ep uae G, 04 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There is hardly any question that an instrument of this kind may be made to serve the present practical requirements of forest studies, for a measure of radiation intensity. It would be very desirable to have the necessary protection from air currents supplied, without intercepting some of the rays by a layer of glass. 7. Photo-chemical photometers.—The objections which have been raised to the use of chemical reactions as a measure of the sunlight intensity can not be overcome. In addition to the fact that the other rays may not vary from time to time in the same proportion as the chemically active rays measured, it is somewhat questionable whether the result secured, as in the coloration of a photographic paper, is proportionate to the product of the light intensity and the time. In forest studies the photochemical method seems to serve one purpose fairly well, that being to obtain a measure of the density of the canopy. It is then assumed that the amount of hght reaching the ground is to the total sunlight as the area of openings in the crowns is to the whole area; or, in other words, that the light coming through these openings is unaltered in its passage. While technically there is also. light below the crowns, which has been transmitted through the leaves, and the photographic paper may be sensitive to the rays in this class, it probably does not introduce any serious error, considering the purposes for which such measurements should be used. This crown-density determination should always be made by mov- ing the photometer through as great a space as possible during the few seconds of exposure. The Bunsen-Roscoe (55) unit of actinic light 1s the light required to produce on a standard paper a shade equivalent to that produced by the mixture of 1 part lampblack and 1,000 parts pure white zinc oxide. The details of the preparation of this “ normal shade” and the “normal paper” are given by Zon and Graves (78) or may be obtained from the original citation given above. The object in men- tioning it here is simply to show that it is possible to carry on photo- metric observations on a fixed standard. Likewise, photographic-supply manufacturers have prepared a standard shade, and a standard paper for estimating light intensi- ties. One of the best known of the “exposure meters ” is extremely simple in operation. In one opening of a small disk containing the standard paper is exposed the standard color, a permanent shade. In a corresponding opening may be seen a fresh area of the paper. It is only necessary to expose this to the light until it attains the stand- ard shade, noting the time required, to have a very close basis for computing the light intensity. It seems that this simple contrivance may serve the purpose of ecologists quite as well as more elaborate apparatus of the same type. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 55 Weisner (76) used an instrument almost as simple as this, his standard shade and fresh paper being set in a groove in a block of wood, and appearing in openings of a layer of opaque paper. Clements (6) devised a photometer in which a narrow strip of “solio” or other sensitive paper may be held, having sufficient area for 25 exposures. This strip is placed on the periphery of one metal- he ring, which fits snugly inside another. In the outer ring there is an opening one-fourth of an inch square, covered by a slide which is drawn back to make the exposure. In using this instrument the colors obtained on exposure are not directly compared with a stand- ard color. Rather, it is customary to make a scale of shades with each set of observations, consisting of, say, 10 exposures in full light, of 1, 2.3, etc., seconds. In the later exposures, then, it is only neces- sary to keep within the limits of the “scale,” and the time may be varied to secure the desired shade. If, for example, a 24-second ex- posure gives a shade corresponding to 7 seconds on the scale for full light, the relative value of the suppressed light is 7/24 or 29 per cent. The photochemical-photometer method is not satisfactory for any expression of the light in absolute terms, or for comparing quantities in one day or season with another day or season, or for comparing different localities. Of course, all exposures might be coiupared to some standard shade, but the operation is needlessly circuitous and is made the more difficult by the perishable nature of the record, — the need for examining it in dim lamplight, etc. It is therefore be- lieved that, while this method has some value, a similar effort ex- pended in determining absolute light quantities. will be much more profitable. In addition to the above there are instruments of the same prin- ciple by which more or less continuous records may be secured. In one such instrument, used by the Weather Bureau a number of years ago, the light entering through a very small opening made its im- pression as a band across the sheet of photographic paper on which it fell at successive moments. (See Clements (6), p. 51.) 8. It is probable that several hundred kinds of comparison pho- tometers have been devised, all depending on an ocular comparison of the sunlight to be studied, with a light of known luminous powers. It is evident that such instruments deal only with the luminous rays, and while they rely upon the accuracy of the eye, the method cer- tainly has advantages over the photochemical method in dealing with that part of the spectrum which is least affected by changes in atmos- pheric absorption. It is not to be supposed, however, that the lumi- nous rays control plant activities. One of the simplest types of comparison photometers is the smoked-glass type used by Wagner and credited to him by Zon and Graves (78), although yndoubtedly invented much before his time. 56 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The smoked glass is in the form of a wedge which is inserted be- tween the eye and the source of lhght, until the thickness attained by moving it one way or the other is just sufficient to cause complete absorption of the rays. The wedge is calibrated along its entire length, and the comparison is made between the modified light under study and the full, direct sunlight. Since the luminosity of the latter is variable, the results are not, of course, in absolute terms, even if the subjective error were eliminated. The Sharpe-Millar (73) photometer is a more recent development and probably superior to other photometers using comparison lamps, in that the light is supplied by electric current, and the comparison lamp may be standardized as often as necessary by varying the amperage. Kimball (63), however, in using it through a great range of daylight values, found it necessary to have screens to cut down the intensity of the daylight to the range of the artificial hght; also blue-grass screens to reduce the lamplight to the color of day- light (skylight) alone. It is thus seen that a comparison of sun- light with artificial light has various complicating factors, even with the best of photometers. With certain correction factors arising from ‘the use of these screens the distance of the comparison lamp from the photometric device is made to express directly the power of the illuminating source in foot-candles. 9. Spectroscopic measurements.-—In the spectroscope the rays of any light are separated according to wave length. This naturally makes it possible to note the presence or absence of those wave lengths which are known to be essential to the plants under con- sideration, so that spectroscopic observations promise much to the student of ecology. Unfortunately, however, with the ordinary spectroscope, observations must be ocular and confined to the visible or middle portion of the spectrum. Both the highly active chemical region of the ultra-violet and the strong heating rays of the infra- red, are outside of observation. Zederbauer (79) made spectroscopic observations of the light in the forest, from which he concluded that there is a marked difference between the absorption by pine and spruce, or intolerant and toler- ant species, respectively. The former absorb more strongly near the red end of the visible spectrum; the latter more strongly in the violet region. While Zederbauer’s observations and his attempt to reproduce the transmitted wave lengths separately by means of monochromatic glass plates, did not lead to any precise results, they ®° The present discussion is necessarily very sketchy, because it is largely suggestive of possibilities rather than actual accomplishments in ecological work. For a complete discussion of spectroscopy and its possibilities we must refer the reader to such a mono- graph as Baly’s “ Spectroscopy’ (52). RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 57 are certainly suggestive of the need for spectroscopic measurements, if we are to determine with any degree of accuracy the kind of light available in the forest. It is self-evident that the simplest means for examining into the absorption of various wave lengths by leaves is to examine the spectra of beams of light which have passed through individual broad leaves or layers of needle leaves, charting the marked bands of absorption, and comparing such charts with similar ones for uninterrupted sun- hight. Likewise the spectrum of the diffuse light in the forest may be examined, while the spots of direct light which have reached the ground through large or small openings may be expected to show essentially the same character as light in the open. Such observations, while doubtless of great value in gaining an insight into the difference between species, and representing the first work which one would naturally undertake in spectroscopy, have only limited value because of the difficulty in reducing the absorption evidence to quantitative terms. There would naturally be also a large subjective error. 10. Spectro photographs—Photographs of the various spectra which may be examined in forest studies obviously have an advantage over mere observations in their permanency, and over drawings in their completeness. According to Baly (52), ordinary photographic dry plates are fairly sensitive to rays within the lengths 2,200 to 5,000 Angstrém units, or from about the limit of the pine alll into the ultra-violet. In the “ orthochromatic” plates and films of commerce the tendency toward very rapid action in the ultra-violet region is suppressed by the use of dyes, so that the shades and tones of the visible spectrum are more clearly brought out. Plates approaching monochromatic value have been prepared for several regions, the principle being in all cases to stain the plate with a dye which absorbs strongly the rays it is desired to bring out. Thus a red-colored dye may be used to bring out yellow and green. Ac- cording to Baly (52) again, Abney succeeded in preparing a photo- graphic emulsion which was sensitive in the infra-red to 20,000 Angstrém units, and the solar spectrum was actually photographed to 10,000 Angstrém units. Such plates, of course, are short-lived, being very sensitive to heat. In addition, there are, more recently, so-called panchromatic plates, which have a very wide range of sensitiveness. Until more is known as to the part which the infra-red rays play in the chemical activities of the plant, it would seem to be the part of wisdom, in spectrographic observations, to use several plates, cover ing the entire range of the spectrum with as great thoroughness as possible. 58 | BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 11. Finally, in following out this line of thought, the spectro- bolometer represents the present limit of thoroughness. By measur- ing the heat energy of every part of the spectrum, all of the results may be expressed in the same absolute terms, whereas the results ob- tained by photochemical reactions must be in different terms for each of the several reactions which are required to cover the spectrum. Furthermore, bolometric observations permit the comparison of de- ficiencies in any region with deficiencies in the whole energy of the light as determined by the same means. As has been pointed out, the heat energy in the region of greatest chemical activity is small; but it is not too small for precise measurement, and when once measured it may be transposed to terms of definite chemical reactions, the trans- position factor varying, of course, with each wave-length and with each reaction considered. The Langley bolometer has been briefly mentioned, because it was designed for measurements of the whole energy of sunlight. The following description from Baly (52) indicates the manner in which the same principle was adapted to the most minute quantities. In his final work upon the solar spectrum, Langley made use of a new appa- ratus'; the light from a 20-inch siderostat passed through the slit of a horizontal collimator, which possessed a lens of rock salt 17 centimeters clear aperture, and 10 meters focal length. This lens focused the ray upon a prism or grating; the prism was of rock salt, and was 18.5 centimeters high and 12 centimeters deep in the face, and had a refracting angle of 60°. The angular width of the bolometer thread was decreased to 2 inches of are by using a telescope lens of 5 meters focus; the sensitiveness was thereby increased, and by improvements in the galvanometer the apparatus was made capable of detecting a temperature change of 0.000001° C. The whole spectrometer was of the fixed-arm type, and the spectrum was made to pass over the bolometer strip by rotating the prism. An automatic self-registering method was adopted of recording the galvanometer readings. The spot of light reflected from the galyanometer mirror was focused upon a broad strip of photographically sensitive paper. This paper strip was caused to move slowly in a vertical direction, and in this way a faithful record of the excursions of the light spot was obtained. At the same time the prism was slowly rotated, and therefore this record clearly showed all the temperature changes of the bolometer as the spectrum passed over it. Further, the motions of the sensitized paper and the prism were exactly coordinated, so that the angu- lar position of the prism corresponding to any portion of the galvanometer record could at once be obtained. In this way, Since the dispersion of the prism was already known, the wave length of any spectrum line shown upon the record - could be found, and also, from the length of the throw of the light spot, its in- tensity estimated. The delicacy of this apparatus was sufficient to show the D lines widely Separated, with the nickel line in between. * * * By means of this apparatus, Langley mapped the solar spectrum as far as 55,000 Angstrém units, and observed 700 lines between A and this limit. 12. Hvaporimeters:may be used for a very rough measure of the heating value of sunlight. At first thought it would seem that the rate of evaporation would be an almost ideal measure, since the 7 Brit. Ass. Rep., 1894, p. 465; and Nature, 51, 12 (1894). RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 59 evaporation of a gram of water requires a nearly constant amount of heat, varying according to well-known laws. The use of evapo- rimeters, however, has many complicating factors, principal among which is the air itself as a source of heat. If the atmosphere is lack- ing in moisture and the wind movement rapid, even an evaporimeter im the sun may be cooler than the air and consequently derive heat from the air. On the other hand, when the rate of evaporation is slow, the evaporimeter may be superheated, and some of the radiant energy absorbed will be dissipated into the air by radiation. The situation is by no means simplified by the use of a pair of evaporimeters, one of which is designed to absorb little of the radia- tion and the other much or all of it. In this combination, one instru- ment may be giving heat to the air, and the other has heat conducted to it. Tt therefore appears that evaporimeters may only give the broad- est possible comparison of light intensities, as, for example, when a number of similarly constructed instruments are exposed to similar atmospheric conditions. The latter, of course, are very likely to be modified by the same factors that modify the light. For these reasons. the method can not be recommended as an aid in the study of present problems. INSTRUMENTS AND APPROXIMATE Costs.” AWeSEEGI Dy GUCIIOMETERS 22 =2icu = oe ees = 2 ‘ PERS Callendar pyrheliometers _-__---_- +--+ is peaeae) $500. 00 Marvin phyrheliometer—not on market. (U.S. Weather Bureau) — ey Smithsonian phyrheliometer (mercurial thermometer). (Smith- Ronit LnSiliubion ) = 2 es ee a Se pe es ig ae 100. 00 BEEDE MULT photometer. 22 Es) wel eee 3a = 100. 00 Clements photometer____-__ syetrgae ERC PE PAVE ahead ROR ot ene ae 7. 00 Exposure-meters. (Photographic supply houses.) —-----__--_____ 1 to 5. 00 UU TS YS aa Be Tt oe pe ee eee ee tee Re eae Ve ft RB eee 20 to 100. 00 Thermometric sunshine recorders: Sunshine recorder, electric, glass (not filled), G. 8S. S. No. SR Ee Re By See NIN OE cee A en By 15) Electrical sunshine recorded, complete___----_----__----_. hago 37. 00 Extra glass parts, mounted in brass socket, ready for at- taching to support_-__----- piLib se ees ver peers Be the Ae ee 28. 00 Registering instruments for use with thermometric recorders: Two-magnet registers— No. 1. For sunshine and rainfall (using Form No. 1015-B ) 5 See AY a RDM Reo Eos ee ate 2 ec aches 408 140. 00 No. 2-For wind velocity and sunshine (using orm No. IOiS—O jhe : Siti aa Re apices ed NMR i 125. 00 No. 4. For wind velocity, rainfall, and sunshine (using Form No, 1015-K)) . 140, 00 Quadruple register complete (for wind direction, wind velocity, rainfall, and sunshine), with a year’s supply of blank Forms 1017, pens, and ink 850, OO * These should not be taken as quotations. 60 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PRECIPITATION. Precipitation should be measured at as many special stations as possible, but only at those which are fairly permanent. In general, the regular Weather Bureau data collected at a large number of sta- tions will suffice for the purposes of forest investigators. Because of the difficulty of obtaining an average exposure under canopies, precipitation should always be measured in more or less open situa- tions, or above the crowns, except of course when it is desired to de- squinime the amount cone a by crowns (89). Since precipitation has no important action on plants until it is added to the moisture of the soil, there can be no object, in a biologi- cal study, and especially in a study of forests, in analyzing precipi- tation data very closely. For this reason there is no need of hourly precipitation records except possibly in a few localities to study the general character of the storms, which, of course, will vary only shightly with the forest types. For this purpose the tipping-bucket rain gauge (93) should be used. Standard eight-inch rain gauges (93), if properly exposed, will serve in most cases, though more valuable results will be secured where it is possible to install shielded gauges. On the whole, however, the gain in catch through the use of the Marvin shielded gauge® is hardly of enough significance to _justify the additional. expense of the installation, at least for any practical benefit to ecology. The methods of measuring precipitation are too well known to need description. Under certain circumstances, as in situations which can not be conveniently visited every day, it is possible to increase considerably the value of the record by keeping some kerosene in the rain gauge, which will cover the water and in large measure prevent its loss by evaporation. In this event it will be desirable either to pour off the kerosene before attempting to measure the water or to pour both into a glass graduate in which the amount of water can be seen in a few moments, after which as much of the kerosene as possible may be replaced in the gauge. This method needs little modification for the winter period, if the snow is melted before measuring, as ordi- narily it would be. It is, however, very desirable to have the snow, as it melts naturally, drop into a seamless basin containing some kerosene. This may be accomplished by placing a loose funnel near the bottom of the gauge. EXPOSURE OF GAUGES. While the measurement of precipitation in gauges is very simple, the securing of a true “catch” is much more difficult, and for this reason the greatest care should be used to install gauges in such ®° Designed by the present Chief of the United States Weather Bureau. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 61 positions that a near approach to a true catch will be secured. Wind (81) is the factor which usually prevents all of the precipita- tion of a given area from entering the gauge and which sometimes removes snow from the gauge after being caught. To obtain pro- tection from wind without obstructing the fall of precipitation from any angle, should be the chief aim in the installation of gauges. The ordinary ‘rule is that the edges of the shielding objects should be at an elevation of 30° or less from the edges of the gauge. This rule may be varied somewhat. Where precipitation is usually ac- companied by high winds, the angle should be even less than 30°, and the shield, to compensate, must be the tighter. Where pre- cipitation is not so likely to be driven by wind, the angle may safely be greater. A solid shield is less valuable than a partial one, be- cause it may set up eddies in the air currents which will be fully as unfavorable as the direct wind. On the whole, shields consisting of trees or brush are best. | Snow DeEptHS. The depth of snow and its water equivalent will serve a useful purpose in giving data on the period of-dormancy -for each forest type, and in indicating the amount of precipitation available at the beginning of the growing season, which in some localities may be the larger part of the precipitation for the whole year (82, 88). The period of dormancy might be obtained more exactly by tempera- ture measurements, but the latter are not possible at present at least on so large a scale. No data that can now be obtained will cover the forest types of the mountain regions so completely as the snow depth records, and the conclusions which may be drawn from them, as to the water supply, will be extremely broad and com- prehensive. SNOW SCALE READINGS. The work of obtaining snow depth and density measurements by the national forest ranger force, and in cooperation with the Weather Bureau, is already well organized in some localities, and this work is of a nature which may be done creditably by the general forest forces. The same organization may possibly be effected with profit in other lpcalities. While the work was originally designed to fur- nish data on the water available for stream flow and with that object in view has been discontinued at the end of April each year, there is no reason why it should not be slightly extended so as to serve the purposes of any forest investigations. The general plan of the work is: 1. To have a large number of snow scales distributed over all the main watersheds and throughout the entire range of elevations and 62 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. — the entire range of types, read at the end of each month by the rangers on whose districts they are located. The major portion of these scales are in timbered areas because of the necessity of some protection to secure a representative snow cover (90). Many of them, however, are not actually in the forest but in small parks or openings, and some are in patches of aspen or coniferous reprodue- tion. The cover conditions are classified as (a) normal forest cover of mature or nearly mature trees, (b) partial cover, as given by aspen, reproduction, or scattered trees which shade the snow to some extent, and (c) no cover, as in parks or openings. For each snow scale a complete description of the cover and surroundings is ob- tained. The essential features of this description are listed on the record card for each scale, and the cards are filed serially according to scale numbers, each card carrying the depth and density record for 12 years. 2. The reports from rangers are submitted at the end of each month on postal cards, of which the following is a sample: Snow Scare No. —. Snow Report National Forest, for the end of —————— 19—, county , main drainage , local stream Depth at scale, inches. Average in vicinity, — inches. Ts depth more (++) or less (—) than normal for this time of year? ‘ Density measurement: Depth of snow in tube, (inches and tenths) s¢ water equivalent of tube contents, (inches and hundredths, as shown by spring balance). : *Density estimate, per cent. (Light, fresh snow should be estimated at 6 to 8 per cent; settled, dry snow at 8 to 15 per cent; drifted, compact snow’ at 15 to 20 per cent; frozen or wet snow, with ice at bottom, at 20 to 40 per cent.) ° The above observations were made by ———————- (“‘ myself” or name of other party) on —————— 19—. (Signature) (2 os 2 oe ‘ Forest Ranger. *Not to be filled by officers having density apparatus. ' 3. Snow depths are read at each scale by simply sighting over the general surface of the snow and noting the intersection of this plane with the graduations on the scale. 4. For most localities, the density of the snow is estimated from the descriptive data given on the card. Each ranger is expected to make occasional rough tests to determine density, so that he will become proficient in estimating under varying conditions. A few rangers are now furnished with density-measuring apparatus (91) and the number of such apparatus is to be increased as conditions and funds warrant. The apparatus consists simply of a tube in which a core of snow may be taken (its length being noted on the scale outside the tube), and a balance graduated for inches of water. The weight in inches divided by the depth in inches gives the density. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 63 Where density is estimated, the depth and density are entered when the report is received, and the water equivalent may be com- puted at any time. Where density apparatus is used, it is necessary to compute the density and apply this figure to the depth reading at the scale, which may be somewhat different from the depth noted on the tube. Tt is self-evident that, while the progress of snow accumulation throughout the winter is interesting, the most important data are those which show the maximum accumulation just prior to the beginning of rapid spring melting. TABULATION. The form for “ Daily and Hourly Precipitation” may serve as a monthly summary both for daily observations and for notations from hourly records where these are obtained. The following should be tabulated from daily observation: Total precipitation in inches of rain or melted snow. Unmelted snow, as measured in the gauge, in snow bins (4), or on the ground. Precise measurements of the snowfall appear to be useless to the ecologist. Depth of snow on the ground at time of observation. Number of storms of rain, sleet, or snow which, by the weight of accumulated water or because of accompanying wind, do mechanical damage to trees. The following data are merely intended to depict the character of storms, and should be obtained from the hourly automatic records. for a few stations typical of the different regions and altitudes: Number of hours having measurable precip‘tation. Number of hours haying 0.05 to 0.10 inches precipitation. Number of hours having 0.10 to 0.20 inches precipitation. Number of hours having 0.20 to 0.50 inches precipitation. Number of hours having more than 0.50 inches precipitation. The “Summary” form will serve as an annual summary for pre- cipitation data of both classes and will include all of the data given as the monthly sums or means on the several “ Daily and Hourly Pre- cipitation” forms. As usual, sums and means should be computed for the growing season as well as for the whole year. INSTRUMENTS AND APPROXIMATE PRICES. Rain and snow gauges: Rain and snow gauge, 8-inch Weather Bureau pattern _ $5. 00 Pupports, box, for rain and snow galige.-.__._-____.__.. 1.50 Measuring sticks, rain gauge, cedar, No. 12236____- Rain gauge, tipping-bucket, with supports and measur- IE ROE SEE 27 ee 0 ea 75. 00 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 64 ee aes ape a te apa ier Nie Lath ek Dee AS eR anh See eee IN Saco MINE (Ne ete od repli eoe Sm ain tag | Sah mi amet) eee ee iar kee ae Gnee” Peat PEE com “9% weet ewww ae) ERE re | aM mi yeah NN Les Plas cone lacamnt ER Os re ceee U, Ce pen = vera) [Pec Ly” ae ailia" |GSene, NSE LNG ag RIRRE De Renee re Meri eat SG meee eee s,s i i i i i! i i a i is cae Cd ee ddl ee i i i ed i ea i ins Seeing OR | 8G ed ee i ee es be Oe ee 113% : P26 ange Ta Bo ahead al RD cP MRD Wega te [fae gc a rn, «abstr pe eptpetr en MA De Cg haeh cet es ee | AR peas age the cas UvIUI IO [84034 “00 Ae he We re ESI | lin a ae Re ecie Goteg A eee a GREY cer age Oe eee 764 i dd i i i i i i is fo i i i. i a a aad 17 6r Ce aes bas oy ean ee OR se LAN coe EN Tt || ate atc ear dG WEN AR aa aes TEC ie OME | FEES | A = eR Os ll ER BE Fae Clete aie LT weet eee ewes ete | PR cs oy ea acer BAG et mere [Repay Muench Sead Sim te Sed 7779 eet batel patter stsloiof-Re\| cfetetarate era jerevacetessicie|| otetevaranevercuayotetakelstere|etetetetetoteielcverevevarersvel| icvoneiareicreteveret ie tater=i|e)=(evee te ie iere ereiece ares _. Yt ddd Cn i si ee ee ay eos eh aniniatiess ada dele 05] GNSOME caBaBorn cel cide SSk USES fs an BSA eee oe Pama mr ete eras Mas aE men ee ae ce a8 eA cag re Cae eof ec OR Le Lae age Ba cl WYSE esac ies craic Sle a eSatond Siete |e dea eee Micka cs oPaputCie | ye ess NTs a ENS ne ee | es Preece ON oN Siete Sora ae oc oe A I Suu Bnav oaCOseno Al DocaaBO OSE Bao a5] DUSSEe Soa aGGRS AL | NESS Gao ES SRC EE CEE an oan Ears EEEnaae eee aeia TIeOUT 10 12303 ‘00, | Ascbe deine iota Zp accl So GA OAR Ee eis Nestea eel RGR” e saa sa ame eet fees be igen ay lence B53 SSR Ce eicieal ac URES a asl ee Aaa a I 5 HELIS GEIS ERIS Ee tl GES ss oe RNC EL whem BS Sango eatin Oe ein ce geet Blas mest G8 he oe cee Ap ay Se earner Es | Ota ee merece | an termini coh ey Sek Fase en aNiey ie ae ts eG ay edie ont On [epee eed || ee Eee RN SISE Tekan emule oo 8S ue TO SES ET SEE 8 St ed Cd PO i s CC i i i i i i i si i i ee ee ae i ae ad Tih FcR ss GSE Sees a yeas el Se SI SGT As IC ec ea ee a iy 2 sey GREETS S| Th sere VS GE EELS RESOS Gea es ae Re Amerie ec cae | [oe tay ce il eg ESRD og CO (ENN ge Re a ere eet ea s eigeenies nadovel nce del stitelecG ize /al| Sere cks oe Silos ol |= See Aca oe ened [Peete | 6 Repeal eee cae ol eee aca ee pn el ON er eee cny gran ay a acontde dee Sébodl betiegaee' ¢- GAS Lil ko GaSe Sts DBEASa eo | Zea ee SRS e eS NE Re eta i Fs cr aa Fa a en ee eee ee ee nent £ ws cicseobseseslges Saw ol Ges IES a Oe eles ce ASS Seka es NR a LS Sa eT ee a ya crys ree eg eens Td Nese eee Sacer on Uae rare ma eae ha G 5 Grid SEO MEME AAS iS SECC SAEO BOE Bi SEE ARIS ae Oia Ses ee Eaeorere cites TC eaceea oral (ei 2c in| beng eed Ne Pe eg ra ee 1 ; ‘ry 19d ,,0¢'0 “my ied ‘ry 10d "ry sa9d rs ener WRU} COW 1,0" 0-02'0 102'0-01'0 yoro-soro | UOeHdIOed | -(soyour) sqo | “(SeuoUT) | (soyour) uorye > B} =) . . eae ; are ee Te Tee : ; Tomer Br eae “Idtoord [e101 ; SUII0}S MOUS UES SEDC HSER aod 1O 499]S »‘UTBI a = = ‘pur ‘ON “Sp10001 O1jeUL0jNe A[INOY WOIY SsuorTjvaAresqo ATIeq ‘—6T ‘ fo yuuow sof £ (auo0 yno YwuU) wado 4aa09 <—— ‘on uoynys £ adh, ‘NOILVLIdIONUd ATUNOH GNV ATIVG { Ajq}uour uote Idtoerg | "6 WOW, 65 RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. i ves Whee BS ae fq pawnda dd F “MOUS JO “QaaTs ‘PUTA ‘UTI ‘spIOA\ aq AQ UTIOIs ATT] JO O1NnjVU 944 PUB ‘a1BAVS 10 oJvIOPOUL “4YSI[s sut19} OY. £q vovds sItY} Ul PoJvoIpUT oq AvUT oseUIEp JO 4UA}Xa OY} ‘INd00 WOPyas [TIA ABP & ULIOIS T Wey. e1omM ApQuqoid eouts» *[810] JOU ‘WROTE OT]} BATS SOUT] TIWOUL PUB APwOAP UT > 9 *‘punoid ot} WO posn o18 snjvIedde 9TQUITer IoyIO IO sVUT sseTUN “Yo we eANe} » ‘HOISTATP OU} WUTIEd spIO9AI OIYVUTOING OITA STSeQ IYSTUPTUL O} YYSTUPIUL wo ITY » | N a ee fee SS 6° Ss 7a es Oe ; a on) aed ““uREUT OTOP Ie == NI Sele aww. cames [ekc Kuh wee even Cc ab ceseeane = "Te B® wh oes noma cclke ninth «aos ) The make-up of the soil, and particularly its clay content as indicated by the mechanical analyses. (¢) Humus content. (d) The capillary transporting power of the soil, by which water from distant regions may be brought to the roots. Obviously this may often be an extremely important factor in the economy of the plant. Its importance is somewhat minimized when moisture deter- minations are certainly made in the soil area which is reached by the roots. (e) Chemical content of all elements and compounds, with par- ticular reference to those which are necessary in nutrition. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 73 ToTAL-MOISTURE DETERMINATIONS. The determination of the current-moisture content of the soil at a given point is an exceedingly simple matter, and a vast amount of such work has been done in connection with agricultural investiga- tions and greenhouse experiments; 1n fact, so much has been done that citations are useless. On the other hand, repeated determinations at a given point to show changes, minima, etc., immediately introduce complications. When a sample has been taken from the ground, it 1s very difficult to fill the space with the same kind of soil as before, and even if this were accomplished the new soil would not soon be in a normal mois- ture condition. The next sample must, therefore, almost certainly be taken a short distance away, and almost invariably this introduces a change in composition, such that equal moisture contents in two successive samples may not have the same plant value. Usually in agricultural soils or well-mixed potting soils, these variations may be ignored. Very often in forest soils, however, the changes in composition are very abrupt; in fact there is often no such thing as uniformity of soil texture, even in a practical sense. The sampling of forest soils, moreover, is often difficult owing to the presence of rocks which make it impossible to obtain a sample at the desired spot, at least with borers of any description. These mechanical diffi- culties may usually be overcome by the use of pick and shovel, and in careful surveys of the root zones of individual trees or groups such methods will undoubtedly have to be resorted to. In practice, it is usually impossible to examine a large number of soil points with sufficient frequency to show even approximately the changes in soil moisture. It is necessary to select, more or less arbitrarily, points which seem to represent the average of conditions in the plant formation or forest type under study, and to confine the effort to showing as accurately as possible all the conditions which occur at this point. SOIL-WELLS FOR REPRESENTATIVE POINTS. In view of what has been said, it appears necessary to make provi- sion for establishing some standard conditions under which soil sam- ples shall be taken at permanent stations. The ideal method would undoubtedly be to show the moisture content of a single sample of soil from time to time, and it has been suggested that this might be accomplished by the periodic weighing of a standard soil sample contained in a porous cup which would be permanently located at the soil point. This plan involves a number of technical difficulties, and is. moreover, wholly untried. The nearest practical approach to the method of a single sample would seem to be in the plan of 74 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soil wells, which has been thoroughly tried at the Fremont Experi- ment Station and elsewhere. At each station where soil moisture is to be determined periodi- cally, a well 18 to 24 inches in diameter and 4 or more feet deep may be dug. At the nearest available point a soil quarry is established for each station or group of stations having similar soils. From this quarry is taken soil containing only a moderate amount of humus, and which should be sifted through 4-mesh screen. At the outset sufficient sifted soil is obtained to fill the well and to furnish 1 or 2 cubic feet of reserve, the whole being thoroughly mixed. The sifted soil should be firmly tamped into the well. It will be better if the well may be allowed to stand a year before being used, the soil be- coming settled by water action and being to some extent penetrated by roots. In order to maintain uniform conditions at the surface, each soil well should be kept free of litter by means of a frame of 1 by 4 inch boards, 18 or 24 inches square, which may be slightly sunk in the soil. Over this is placed a slightly larger frame covered with hard- ware cloth. It is evident that this frame will interfere with sur- face erosion. The surface of the soil in the well should at all times be kept flush with the surface of the ground around, so that the amount of water available for absorption is not appreciably greater or smaller than elsewhere. At the time of digging any soil well, samples of the native soil at 1, 2, and 3 feet from the surface and other depths at which mois- ture is to be determined, as well as one of the prepared soil for the well, should be obtained for testing. Each sample should comprise about 30 pounds and should be air-dried, unless it is to be used 1mme- diately. e : Each soil quarry should be permanently designated at the time of its first use, and a record may be made of the quality and location of material taken therefrom, so that in the future fresh supplies for the well may be obtained, with a little trial, very nearly like the original. As such soil wells are used year after year, it will be noted that the finer material is to some extent concentrated in the lower layers, especially if the soil of the well is decidedly sandy and loose. This will not be found so important a change if the soil is compact, or contains considerable humus. The question naturally arises, how will the moisture in ene of these wells compare with the moisture of the native and undisturbed soil on either side? For the reason that the soil of the well is quite certain to be finer than the native forest soil, it is evident that the well soil will always contain a higher percentage of moisture. Further- more, without going into all the details, this question is answered unequivocally by saying that the moisture content, as determined RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 175 for the well soil, can never be considered as an exact measure of the moisture outside. The well samples will be principally useful in showing changes, and without doubt should occasionally be compared with native samples taken near by. It is believed, however, that for practical purposes a certain constant relation between the two soils may be assumed. So far, because of the great difficulty of actual contact tests between two soils, the moisture ratio at equilibrium must be established on theoretical considerations. From what is known of capillary movement in soils (116) it would seem that, when the moisture content of two soils is near the satura- tion point, they will be in equilibrium at moisture values measurable by the amount which either soil can hold against the force of gravity. DIAGRAM 3 POSSIBLE RELATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN MOISTURE OF WELL SOIL AND THAT OF NATIVE SOIL AT VARIOUS DEPTHS ae Beer eet oe ila ds mada l moistur@ inso' indicates 4.3%im native il 4 t dep th | fpot, 6. elat Ea CO “= , oO 3 a ° ” gal 2 = c oO =) y 3 - = oe a at aun ‘Nie moisture Pa she amounts which the two soils hold against a force one hundred or one thousand times as great as gravity, would appear to establish a basis for equilibrium. But, in view of the fact that at a low-moisture content actual capil- lary movement becomes negligible while transfer from one to the other by the vapor-transfer method can be readily accomplished, it seems more logical that we should consider an equilibrium existing which would mean equal osmotic pressures in the two soils. ‘These points can be determined for each soil by freezing-point depressions or by assuming equal osmotic pressures at the wilting coefficients. Diagram 3 shows a method for working out a scale of relations for the soil of any well and soil from three depths, obtained when the well was dug. The curve for the well soil is a straight line whose 76 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ordinates and abscisse are equal. It need not be drawn at all, except for illustrative purposes. For each of the native soils three or more points may be plotted. The capillarity point has as its ordinate the actual capillarity of this soil; but the abscissa has the value of the capillarity for the well soil, similarly, for the moisture equivalent at 100 gravity (which is still a capillarity measure) and the wilting coefficient, or any other point at which osmotic pressure of the several soils would be in equilibrium. (See also diagrams 8, 9, and 10 and discussion, p. 116.) i These curves may then be used to transpose moisture values for the soil well directly into moisture values for the native soil, realiz- ing the probability which has been mentioned that at any moment the well and native soil may be far from a state of actual equilibrium. TECHNIQUE OF PERIODIC SAMPLING. The field work of soil sampling is essentially the same where soil wells are used as where it is feasible to sample the native soil. Soil samples should be taken at permanent stations at least weekly during the open season. Definite depths of 1, 2, and 3 feet, and more if necessary, will recommend themselves in preference to long cores, which show less definitely the location of the moisture. The 1-foot sample may be obtained by a core extending from 10 to 14 inches; the 2-foot, at 22 to 26 inches; and the 3-foot, at 34 to 38 inches. If intermediate values are desired, they may be obtained by interpola- tion. Each sample as obtained should be placed in a soil can, the num- ber of which may immediately be entered on a convenient field form,’® together with the number of the station and the depth. There is an infinite variety of soil cans, but perhaps the most gen-~ erally serviceable form is a rather heavy, stamped aluminum, screw- top can, about 24 inches in diameter and 24 inches high. Soil cans containing moist soil must be shielded from the sun and from excessive heat, and should be weighed at the earliest oppor- tunity, the weight being ordinarily determined to the nearest centi- gram. (Fig. 2.) Soil samples of any ordinary texture, and of weight not exceed- ing 100 grams, should be dried for at least eight hours in an oven having the temperature of boiling water. Unusually moist samples, or those of very fine texture, should be given a longer period. Dry- ing for 24 hours is not too long to make good results certain. Espe- cial care must be used with humus soils of low conductivity. Only trial weighing will show when a sample is as dry as possible for the conditions of the oven. 10 Forest Service Form 486, fitting notebook cover 874—C. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 177 After drying, each soil can should be immediately covered and weighed. The moisture percentage should be determined on the basis of dry weight of soil, by deducting the can weight from the dry weight, deducting the dry weight from the wet weight, and dividing the Fic. 2.—Ordinary soil cans, for collection of moisture samples, with covers removed. Size 23 by 23 inches. second remainder by the first remainder. Moisture percentages are usually worked out to one or two decimal places. Soil cans in continuous use should be weighed at least twice each season, preferably at the beginning and middle of their periods of use. Aluminum cans, while satisfactory in most respects, wear appreciably in a few months. BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 78 Soenrnenon gs SOS SSS Se ecseaSon CiMSb eet SOOD SSSA MOR OSD OW IQ SO0INeCSOU DSR on eh sbe ar COODU GS OSOn or OUST OR COORD SoG SbHGRh osm >a Gocre SuoT}dvd UI posn sjoqurAs JO MOMeUR[AXT x~ paar dvaks soi Wap a Le menenate puma Cea ee Teno O Sg Geli TI ey Goss fe Rn eee pocsc esses sess st eect esses ses sese sen -NgSed I SUOMVINAUIOD YOIYM UO VAC x BOSE SSI ORA Poon cs abeS9e osc Gan alae OS RTE IRC AATEC OCR US a0 ACS EES Oe eo toss eke eriepe ata OE a tera lta or ia acti | Nias ks |e eek fe gy te | (ea Yuour ‘UBeyW Seeds |eemecenne 10a ye ga (ace a te eye alee ene ec uae eee He dey Al See RIE ES SG ee ac eit a yjyuow ‘ung ak rere E aed ‘TAOMY NAAID VLYQ Wowd “OLE ‘AHALSIOW MOS AO ALITIAVIVAY FO SNOILVLOAUWO) © jaaaoandboc|sousanedonllode Sono oolb ade oSues|lSoconcoopélloos anbbosollso ao e6oadollteeap eo ONS OD 09 COS GOOG SOOO OG SOD SS). G CRICK CY CRICINFO ae Cid tal een on hr yqyuour ‘UBOT se nSaconenlonbeconcosibouousceadllocasdecadsllo Sool aod soon boop adalisouérooBbollo oon ee so ol lo GOGO SEC OOO OS OOO GO DIIGT COOH S TIO DSI OO GTO! (IO OCLC EON I ON SN SUS a On bi met ona yyuoUL ‘uns *% Tos | . ‘% (th) | “Bros | . ‘% (TL) | “% Tos | . “%(TL) | % os | . ‘% (UL) | % os | . “% (1h) OATIVUN oned djduieg BATIVN OR SL aydureg ATI N oned o[dues ATIC N one. aqdureg oanye N HERS ejdures : ; ‘948d *QINJSIOU [I0g “aIN4stIour [10g dIN}SIOU [IOg ‘QIN}STOUL [10g *91N}SIOUT [IOS SIs ng chr TRA ae yydeq Searels mice TTA CLO Gs TERRES ORB ESE 2 SMOG picieds stellata earaisciaasore 1 LO (li Goh a Seth Se BCr Soom op KiGYar -_6¢f, ‘fo yjuow ay} sof “awo yno anu, uae —— ‘oN u0yni}g -—— ad hi], ‘AUNLSIOW TIOS~AGAUNS TYOISAHd [eotAJeg josI0,g ‘aIngpNoIsy Jo yueMIBdeq soyB1g peztU al % d—€ ULIOW RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 79 The figures resulting from the above computations for the mois- ture of the soil in soil wells may be tabulated on the “ Soil Moisture” form in the columns headed “Sample, T1.” The ratio which has been determined between the moisture of the soil in the well and that of the native soil at same depth, and the computed moisture of the surrounding soil, or the moisture figure read directly from curves, may also be entered for each date. If the native soil moisture is directly determined by sampling, only the third column under each depth will be used. Space is also provided on the “Soil Moisture ” form fer any computations which it is desired to make, either cur- rently or after obtaining the monthly means; such as, for example, the percentage of available moisture, the availability, or the various percentages on a volume basis. Appropriate headings may be sup-— plied. DETERMINATION OF NONAVAILABLE MOISTURE. ' The method of soil wells does not attempt to standardize soils for different localities, which could only be done thoroughly by using soil from one source in all soil wells. Nor is it desirable that soils of different localities should be compared on the same physical basis, since this physical basis of itself determines quite largely the mean water content of the soil and its attraction for a given species. It is, however, necessary before different sites and localities may be satis- factorily compared as to their soil moisture that it should be known, _at least approximately, at what points they become physiologically dry, either for plants in general or for plants of a given species. Briggs and Shantz (114), it is true, after an exhaustive study of this subject which has cleared the way for many other investigations, summarize in part as follows: The results of this investigation have led us to conclude that the differences exhibited by plants in this respect are much less than have heretofore been supposed, and are so small as to be of little practical utility from the standpoint of drought resistance. As compared with the great range in the wilting coeffi- cient due to soil texture, the small differences arising from the use of different species of plants in determining the wilting coefficient become almost insig- nificant. Expressing this difference numerically, it is said: Taking 100 to represent the average wilting coefficient, the different species tested (except Colocasia and Isoetes) give an extreme range from 92 for Japan rice to 106 for a variety of corn. From these experiments and conclusions the impression has grown up that al] plants are capable of extracting the moisture of the soil to essentially the same basic point. Shantz may be quoted as say- ing that there was no intent to convey this impression, and experi- ments to be described later will show that as between tree species 80 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ,adapted to radically different habitats, there may be, at least under certain conditions of wilting, radical differences in the coefficients. Another important phase of the matter is that certain soils may have a peculiar reaction on one species and not on others; as, for example, a highly acid or strongly limey soil. It is therefore the part of wisdom to test the nonavailable moisture of any soil by the use of at least the predominating or type species found on the soil, and of as many other species as possible. DIRECT DETERMINATION OF THE WILTING COEFFICIENT. The writers cited above-have given such thorough consideration to this and the succeeding subjects that a complete discussion here appears almost useless. The treatment of forest soils and forest species, however, has brought out a number of new problems, so that it is almost impossible to overlook any phase of the question in this discussion. Constant comparison will be made with the treat- ment found desirable for field crops and related plants. It is well to bear in mind from the outset the point brought out by Briggs and Shantz that the wilting coefficient represents merely the moisture point at which wilting first occurs to such an extent that the plant does not recover if placed in a saturated atmosphere. The plant may actually draw considerable water from the soil after this, and might be theoretically conceived to pass moisture to the atmosphere until the soil and atmosphere were in vapor-pressure equilibrium. The wilting coefficient is, however, the practical ex- pression for sanemeniaols moisture. The fact must also be strongly emphasized that the point at which wilting occurs must depend in a very large measure on the rate at which “ihe plant is transpiring; or, in other words, on atmospheric conditions and sunlight. Therefore, as the soils approach dryness, the conditions should be maintained at a fairly definite standard. Tt will usually be feasible to prevent the occurrence of temperatures in excess of 70° F., as well as sudden changes in temperature, and to exclude direct sunlight. It would also be desirable to control atmospheric moisture, though this is a very difficult thing to do in ordinary rooms. In the tests with seedlings of coniferous trees it has been found exceedingly difficult to determine when permanent wilting occurs. There is no doubt that seedlings of this kind have developed a power of resistance, or recovery, far in excess of that of most plants. This probably consists in an extremely low rate of transpiration when the moisture becomes deficient; but the difficulty of observation may be mainly ascribed to the fact that the stems, and to a lesser extent the leaves, become stiff and woody at a very early age, so that shriveling rather than collapse is the phenomenon that evidences RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 81 ‘lack of water in the aerial portions. This is particularly true of yellow pine and Douglas fir seedlings, at the age of six weeks or more, while lodgepole pine does not harden until much later. For these reasons wilting can rarely be recorded in a large num- ber of seedlings simultaneously, and it is therefore desirable that the moisture content should be recorded as each seedling wilts, an algebraic mean content being computed when the process is complete. While Briggs and Shantz found it desirable to grow the seedlings in small glass pots (these seem to have had about the dimensions of drinking glasses), the heterogeneous character of nearly all forest soils necessitates the treatment of samples large enough to include a normal proportion of rock fragments. If these are very large they may be broken down to maximum dimensions of about 2 inches without appreciable alteration of their relations to moisture, but Fic. 3.—Echard pans, 7 by 3 inches, containing seedlings. that is all that can be done. These rocks can not be eliminated altogether, as it is found that the more permeable of them may hold 1 to 2 per cent of nonavailable moisture. They are distinctly a part of the soil and it is their presence which, in a large measure, makes the soil capable of supporting forest growth. A pan (fig. 3) which meets these requirements is made of 20- gauge or 24-gauge galvanized iron, 3 inches deep and 7 inches in diameter. Half a dozen small perforations in the flat bottom permit drainage while the seedlings are being started, and aeration after the surface of the soil has been sealed over. When filled to a depth of 24 inches, such pans hold 3 to 6 pounds of soil. To avoid any chemical change in the soil, but more particularly to keep it receptive toward moisture, the dry weight of soil placed in the pan is determined rather by moisture samples secured as the pan is being filled than by drying the whole mass. The latter, more- over, is a slow process, especially with soils of low conductivity. 82769— 22———_65 82 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. However, no bad effects whatever have been noted from drying fairly sandy soils at the standard temperature. After obtaining the air-dry weight of the pan and soil, an amount is removed from the pan sufficient to form a layer one-fourth of an inch deep. ‘The coarser material is excluded from this lot, which is to form a covering for the seeds. With this taken out, the re- maining soil is leveled down with a spoon, the seeds are sown on -this smooth surface, and the covering soil is replaced. The number of seeds to be sown should be gauged according to known viability, so as to produce about 100 seedlings in a pan of this size. The weight of the seeds is obtained before sowing, and this weight is considered throughout as an addition to the tare. The further assumption is made that the weight of the seedlings will not at any time appreciably exceed the weight of the seeds. Having calculated the net dry weight of the soil from the mois- ture content of the dried sample, the moisture content of the soil at any stage in development or wilting of the plants is calculated, after a weighing of the pan, by the equation: Moisture percentage equals 100 Wa (Ean, oe and parafin) ; The pans are placed in a greenhouse where they may have the ~ necessary light and warmth to induce prompt germination, and for the sake of uniform development and conditions affecting wilting, are preferably kept on a revolving table. The soils are watered exclusively with distilled water, both to avoid the introduction of spores and the addition of salts, which, in the absence of drainage, might appreciably increase the wilting co- efficient. Nothing suggestive of a toxic effect from this distilled water has been noted. It is desirable to aerate the water as much as possible before applying. Under ordinary atmospheric conditions, the pans will require 50 to 60 cubic centimeters per day to maintain moisture favorable for germination. In working with deeper mineral soils, damping off of seedlings is rarely noted, but surface soils from the forest often contain the damping-off fungi. In fact, this is so common that many observa- tions which ascribed the death of seedlings in the forest to unfavor- able physical conditions may be questioned. Certain it is that damping off in the wilting pans may cause the greatest confusion, if they do not actually vitiate the tests. Soils suspected of contain- ing these organisms should therefore be treated, several days before the seed is sown, with a solution of formaldehyde, as suggested by Hartley (124) for nursery beds. This should be used at the rate of about one-eighth of a fiuid ounce per pan, dissolved in sufficient clean water to reach all soil in the pan. Opportunity should afterwards RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. §3 be given for the formaldehyde to evaporate eatirely. This will doubtless occur before the soil is perfectly dry. When germination is fairly complete, the seedlings well established so as to reach all parts of the soil, and the tendency to succumb to damping off, if any, outgrown, the surfaces of the pans are sealed over by pouring on the top of the soil, previously leveled, about 50 grams of a melted mixture of paraffin and petrolatum (veterinary vaseline is one of the least expensive forms) in the proportion of 2:1. This congeals at 40° C. and may be applied at 50° C. without any injury to the stems of the seedlings. Not infrequently, if the wilting process requires many days, the seal will draw away from the edges of the pan, but this is easily rectified by the use of a blunt, smooth stick. At any rate, it is not essential absolutely to prevent direct evaporation from the soil, though a more even distribution of moisture may be expected if such loss is kept at a minimum. The weight of paraffin added is determined by weighing the beaker from which it is poured before and after each application. This makes a further addition to the tare. The soil should be fairly moist when the paraffin is applied, so that the latter will not penetrate. With coniferous seedlings, provided a good stand has been secured, the withdrawal of moisture and the sealing of the pans may usually be undertaken at four to six weeks after sowing; though in the case of spruce and perhaps other species which root rather slowly a slightly longer perior may be desirable. As has been pointed out, the difficulty of detecting wilting increases as the seed- lings become older and more completely lignified. It is also un- mistakably true that the older the seedling the more difficult it is to kill. This is probably due in part to greater resistance to drying out and in part to deeper or more extensive rooting, which would be an advantage if the moisture at, say, the bottom of the pan, were not being drawn on as freely as that near the surface. However, observations on the wilting of seedlings under direct insolation point unmistakably to resistance increasing with age. When the surface of the soil becomes extremely warm, even if there is an abundance of moisture within reach of the roots, wilting is likely to be evidenced by collapse of the stem at the ground line. The phenomenon is almost identical when the surface of the soil becomes dry in advance of the deeper soil. The seedling is undoubtedly vulnerable to water loss and critical injury in the lower part of the stem. Under such conditions it is noted that the younger seedlings usually succumb first, and those which survive one exposure are killed by a repetition which is still more severe. It is eyident, therefore, that age of seedlings will have an import- ant influence on the results, though this will not be so important if ~ 84 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the test is conducted in such manner as to keep the moisture uniform throughout the soil, and hence uniform for the deepest and shallow- est-rooted seedlings. It is also self-evident that specific differences may be brought out by one set of conditions, which would not be apparent in another set, particularly conditions which make the requirement for. mois- ture great or small. If transpiration is very rapid, seedlings of a shallow-rooted species may be unable to meet this demand, while deeper-rooted seedlings in the same pan may pull through, because their supply at this stage is somewhat more readily obtained. For an actual test of drought resistance, therefore, it is fundamentally necessary that the transpiration and soil-drying process should be slow enough to permit equalization of the opportunities before the critical test comes. Hence the standard conditions of exposure which have already been suggested. The method of recording the death of each seedling in a lot of 100, together with the pan weight and calculated moisture accom- panying such death, has a distinct advantage over the method which permits only one determination of the moisture content when all of the seedlings, or a majority of them, have succumbed. It gives an indication of the possible variation between individuals of the same species, and a measure of the probable experimental error due both to this variation and to uneven distribution of moisture in the pan, which is not wholly avoidable. What it really amounts to is practically 100 separate tests on 100 sections of soil: If, on the one hand, the first losses occur in sections of the soil~which have unavoidably become drier than the average, on the other hand, the last survivors are undoubtedly in areas which are at the opposite ex- treme. These variations should be largely compensated by taking the algebraic mean of all the moisture determinations, a figure in which a great deal of confidence can be placed. INDIRECT METHODS FOR WILTING COEFFICIENTS. Inasmuch as the direct determination of the wilting coefficient is a process which is likely to require several weeks, at the best is liable to rather large experimental errors, and is also, without question, in- fluenced by the kind of plant used, various methods have been devel- oped by which the affinity of the soil for water may be determined ; and the amount of water held by it under certain empiric conditions of the test may be related to the amount which would be held against the pull of plants. In addition to furnishing a ready, if only approximate, index to the soil conditions which may be encountered in the field, and espe- cially an index to the danger of early drought, it seems that the use of indirect methods, employing definite physical forces for the crea- RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 85 tion of a certain condition of soil moisture, has a scientific value which fully justifies an elaborate description of them. For example, such methods permit us to compare the drought resistance of any number of species in any number of soils through any period, pro- vided only that the experimental conditions are reproducible. We can determine this relative drought resistance, as between two or three species, by wilting them simultaneously in the same soil mass, and gradually, by one comparison and another, include all of our species and all of our soils. Even this method, however, is not free from the necessity for uniform conditions in the successive tests. It is therefore best that each wilting coefficient, while being determined under some arbitrary and standard set of conditions, should be re- lated to some other measure of the soils’ water-holding capacity which, under reproducible test conditions, always means just one thing. In this way an enormous number of comparisons may be made between the wilting coefficients for different soils and different species. Such physical determinations may also lead to a critical ex- amination of wilting coefficients and to the most desirable standard methods for their determination. Of the various indirect methods which have been devised may be mentioned : 1. The determination of the antiosmotic pressure of the soil, corre- sponding to the maximum osmotic pressure which the species under consideration is known to tolerate without fatal results. This method is obviously not so useful as the others, since it presupposes some knowledge of the plants which may not be available. It must neces- sarily consist of a number of determinations on the same kind of soil, at different moisture contents, until the moisture condition is found at which the freezing point becomes “submerged;” that is, becomes indeterminate. Obviously, this leads to the region in which the freezing-point determinations are least precise. While not abandoned, this method will be laid aside to be discussed more fully, and in its most useful aspects, in connection with the coefficient of availability. 2. The capillary moisture determination, in which the soil is allowed to demonstrate its ability to hold water against the force of gravity. 3. The moisture-equivalent determination, in which the moisture in the soil is subjected to any definite force, dependent on its own mass. This may be a force one hundred or one thousand times as great as gravity created by the centrifugal method. 4. The hygroscopic coefficient determination, in which the affinity of the soil for moisture is determined by exposing it to an atmosphere of saturated vapor. The capillary moisture, or “capillarity,’ the terms being used interchangeably, in this discussion, refers to the quantity of water 86 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that may be held by the soil against the force of gravity. This amount decreases as the height of the column of soil increases, and may also be considerably influenced by the packing of the soil. Since it is almost impossible to treat any soil in the same state of compactness in which it is found in the field, or to establish a stand- ard condition for soils in vessels, this measure of the water-holding power of a soil is not likely to have precise value. The greatest theoretical objection to it is, that the force tending to remove the water from the soil is of an entirely different magnitude from that at work as the plant makes its final struggle for water, and thar the effect produced by the one force can not serve as a measure of the effect which might be produced by the other. There seems also to be an impression that salts in the soil water operate to raise the wilting coefficient, while decreasing the capillary moisture by lower- ing the surface tension of the liquid. Such an impression arises from the well-known effect of foreign substances on the surface of a liquid. It has been pointed out by Free (121) that salts in solution actually increase the surface tension of the liquid, and this is entirely in keeping with the known properties of solutions. While the pres- ence of solutes may have the effect of weakening the affinity of one water molecule for another, this is fully counterbalanced, in its rela- tion to capillarity, by the greater density of each group of molecules of which the solute forms a nucleus, and the consequent greater affinity between such groups and the solid surface. This affinity is known by the name of “capillary attraction.” Furthermore, even while admitting that in either the capillary moisture test or the moisture equivalent test some of the solutes may be lost with the water which is drained out of the soil. considerable satisfaction is gained from the idea previously set forth that. at the wilting point of soils, these solutes may be absorbed by the colloids. Tt is believed that Hilgard (125) was the first to employ the principle of capillarity for comparing soils. He used a sieve cylin- der only 1 centimeter high, which, after a layer of filter paper was placed in the bottom, was filled level with the soil. This was im- mersed to a depth of 1 millimeter in distilled water, allowed to stand for an hour, and then weighed. The amount of water absorbed, of course, was dependent on the ability of the soil to lift it, a maximum distance of 9 millimeters. Briggs and Shantz (114) compared this measure of absorbing capacity with the directly determined wilting coefficients of 15 soils whose wilting coefficients ranged from 0.9 to 16.7 per cent. From these comparisons it is evident that a soil which is able to withhold almost no moisture from plants has a fairly high capillarity, but that the latter does not increase in so great a proportion as the wilting coefficient with more retentive soils. Thus it was neces- RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 87 sary to subtract 21 from the percentage of capillary moisture to obtain a quantity having a fairly constant ratio to the wilting co- efficient. Capillarity—21 Wilting Coeff. The probable error of a single determination by this means was found to be 8.3 per cent of the wilting coefficient. In the treatment of forest soils Bates (105), at the Fremont Ex- periment Station, has found it necessary to use much larger cars than those employed by Hilgard, and has also reversed the process, so that the result is rather a measure of the ability of the soil to hold the water of saturation than to lift water from below. A gal- vanized can 54 inches deep and 4 inches in diameter, is filled to a depth of 5 inches with air-dried soil, which is jarred and tamped until no appreciable settling occurs. This can is perforated in the bottom and a filter paper is used to keep the soil from sifting out. The can is immersed to its full depth in water, but no water is al- lowed to flow on the top of the soil. As the water rises from the bottom by its own pressure, the air is pushed out, so that few, if any, alr spaces are left. The samples are allowed to soak at least 24 hours to insure complete absorption by the larger, permeable rock fragments. The weight attained at the end of this period, or a longer period if it appears necessary, 1s an index to the saturation capacity. The cans are now placed on a drain board, covered, and allowed to stand for 48 hours. In rehandling the cans care must be used to avoid jarring, as some of the water is held in a very delicate balance. The amount of water held at this time is a measure of the capillary moisture. In the vast majority of soils that have been treated, the capillary moisture is about 90 per cent of the saturation capacity. Clay does not affect this ratio appreciably, but humus increases it. The same cans are now used for the centrifugal test or moisture equivalent determination, which will shortly be described. After this they are oven-dried, to give the basis for dry-weight calculations. The apparent density is also computed from the weight and volume after this treatment. In Table 2, there is presented a comparison of the capillary mois- tures and wilting coefficients of 10 soils of one general type (granitic) from an Engelmann spruce forest, but varying widely in state of decomposition, clay content, and humus content. Each soil repre- sents a sample extending from the surface to a depth of 1 foot. The wilting coefficients for Douglas fir and Engelmann spruce were most carefully determined, the only objection that might be brought against the treatment being that the seedlings were given more direct This is given by =2.90=-0.06, or+ 2.01 per cent. 88 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. light than now seems desirable, although not enough to develop ex- cessive temperatures. In contrast, there are also presented the re- sults of nine tests on coarse granitic gravels, from depths of 1 to 3 feet, containing minimum amounts of humus and clay. The wilting coefficients were determined in the same manner as the other group, and at almost the same time. TABLE 2.—Capillary moisture, moisture equivalent, and wilting coefficient of 19 soils. (Wilting coefficients determined synchronously.) Ratio mean | Ratio final wilting coeffi- | wilting coeffi- RAL ee en cient. cient. ‘apil- oist- | wilting : Gam | lary ure coeffi- | Humus Water2|—— eee ———— Sample No. | moist- | equiva-| cient | byig- | Clay. | soluble To aati | To ure lent |(spruce | nition. matter. To mois Seni eecnicy ince (G). |(100-G). ae capil- | ture | eapil- | ture 2): larity. | equiva- | larity. | equiva- lent. lent. | |. | Parts | Per Per Per Per Per | per | Per | cent. cent. cent. cent. | cent. | million. cent. 9998 Vee Gea 17. 07 11. 68 ay 7/ 3. 29} 4.5 305} 0.186 ; 0.271 2.56) 0.150 | 0.219 Gas =o emeae 20.29) 11.72 3. 00 3. 52) 0. 4 275) .148) «256 2. 52} 124 . 215 Uny SenaneS 24. 06 14, 45 3. 90 3. 00) 22) 465) =. 162 - 270 3. 30 137 . 228 bi eee ere oe 29. 34) 20. 32) 6. OL 6. 56) 6.7 270 . 205 . 295 | 5. 26 179 . 259 be eee see SE A; 22L 0) 6. 02 7. 09) 3.6 845 .178 273 5.18 153 3230: O49 eb seeek 36.16); 19.95 7. 04 6. 04; 4.2 O00 eel OD 353 6. 10 169 - 806 AS eee ee 41.56) 26. 30} 8. 68 11. 64) 3.4) 1,030 . 209 330 7. 83 188 . 298. O26 Reena 49.92) 29. 84} 8. 60 Birks) 3. 2| 530 .172 288 6. 95) 139 . 233 SAGE ee aes 3 60.00) 42.72 20. 46 21. 10) 2.6) 200, . 341 479 Wile A 186 - 262 DORs eee ae 89.05} 73.50) 21. 71 27. 00 2.7) 1,250 . 244 295 | 13. 89 156 189 Gnrouplaverages,seramitics 0am Seer see-eeeaeeee eee eeer eee - 204 SoM lula sooas . 158 - 244 292s re Soe 11. 02 5. 04 2. 73} 1. 02 1.5 700; .248 542 1.79 162 355 Slee 11. 46 3.03 2. 00) 1B! 0. 2 500 .174 567 1.18) =. 103 . 334 7a ate S Be 12. 00 5. 06 3. 09 2. 09 ah Il 800 oZyl 611 2.25) .188 . 445. DORE eae 12. 95 4.35 2.47 1.74 2.10 500). 191 . 568 1.64, .127 . 377 298 Seca Leh 12. 96 5. 62 2. 95 1.79 1. 5) 200) .226 . O21 2.06) .159 . 867 SD Eee ee 13.18 4. 86 2.27 1.85 1.9 600) .172 467 1. 85 . 140 - 381 SoS eee ries 13. 61 5. 19 2. 76 1.76 oO 500) =. 203 - 532 1.76 . 129 . 339) Bon eee ee 15. 30 5. 57 2. 54 1. 92 2.1 800). 166 - 456 1. 62 . 106 . 291 (oie SS Ss 15. 65} 5. 03 2. 54 1.31 3.0 800) =. 162 . 506 1.62) .104 ~ 22 Group averages: granitic gravelswenas see ateee eee eee . 200 Sas lesgacces 135 . 300 Grand: averages s.oa selon ene Soe ek er ya ae papa . 202 SCI EAI E Uae 3 . 147 . 298 Meankvaniationofsinglenvaliesan ences =e ene Ose8)| oiHKWbssonso- . 0228) . 0607 Percentage of mean variation...................--.------ | 16.5 35 .Dieal a eee 15.5 20. 4 JEFCO ON OKs! Cranaye UN EIGN S38 ooh aac eedoadntGokbaccncuodess O0G6|se0230)| eee eres . 0045) =. 0121 2 200 grams soil ached fea AI tReet Tech Eee anon For the gravel group re Be etgeraes onthe moistuneeeering esl teesraieatiene ee ; To avoid duplication of tables later there are also inserted here the moisture equivalents of the same soils. The comparison of capillary moisture and wilting coefficients given in Table 2 brings out the following facts: 1. An examination of the column headed “ Ratio of mean wilting coefficient to capillarity ” shows that there is considerable variation im the individual results. In the first group the two results which are appreciably higher than the average are those for samples of the highest capillarity, resulting from unusual quantities of humus. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 89 2. The group averages for the loamy spruce soils and the granitic gravels are essentially the same. It therefore seems entirely legiti- mate to consider both groups together and, as shown in diagram 4, to express the relation of wilting coefficient to capillarity by a straight line. The nineteen cases show an average variation of 0.0333 from the mean ratio of 0.202, or 16.5 per cent variation. 3. Both from its mean value and from the fact that the graph which expresses this relationship passes through the main axis of the system of coordinates it is evident that the capillary moisture as it has been measured by the method described above is an entirely DIAGRAM 4 RELATION OF MEAN WILTING COEFFICIENT TO CAPILLARY MOISTURE IN 10 SPRUCE SOILS AND 9 GRAVELS LEGEND 2.75 Humus Berccnane © SPRUCE GRANITIC LOAMS 650 Salutes, p.pm of soil wt. 8 GRANITIC GRAVELS [S) = 166 : t Codffici 6 W Gy Mea Cepilary oir ee Hci ee abe dele 35 Ho 44 A a2 6 qo K qs 72 bp different expression from that used by Hilgard and by Briggs and Shantz. 4. The relatively high wilting coefficients of the loamy soils having the largest humus contents are believed to result from experimental errors, largely unavoidable, and due to the lack of capillary con- ductivity in soils which are particularly loose. This lack permits a seedling to succumb in one region of the soil, while there may be considerable free moisture elsewhere. The two gravelly soils which show similarly high wilting coefficients also have high moisture equivalents, and it is thought from this that they were probably richer than usual in permeable feldspar, which could not hold much water but would probably hold it very firmly. 90 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 5. It is to be noted that the percentage of variation of individual cases is slightly less when the final (diagram 5) rather than the mean wilting coefficient of each soil is taken. On the other hand, there is considerably more spread between the two groups on this basis. It is believed that the slightly poorer showing made by using the mean wilting coefficient is due to the fact that losses caused primarily by fungi were not entirely eliminated from the calculations. With care in this respect, the mean value for all the seedlings is undoubtedly the more dependable and also more expressive. It should be noted in this connection that in a group of 100 seedlings the weakest usually DIAGRAM 5 RELATION OF FINAL WILTING COEFFICIENT TO CAPILLARY MOISTURE SAME BASIS AS DIAGRAM 4 give a SaaS coefficient twice as high as that indicated by the final wilting, and not infrequently three times as high. 6. The comparison of wilting coefficients with moisture equiva- lents shows a wide gap between the two groups. The value of the moisture equivalent data will be discussed later. ¢. While these results, all obtained at practically the same time and in soils which showed no great chemical activity, indicate a use- ful parallelism between wilting coefficient and capillary moisture, it should be pointed out that the wilting coefficient may occasionally go out of bounds as the result of acidity or alkalinity, so that any of the physica] tests on soils, taken alone, are quite worthless. It should not be surprising to obtain wilting coefficients twice as great, relative to capillarity, as those indicated above, especially with the pines. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 91 It is desired to present another set of data obtained by Bates (105) to illustrate the need of establishing the wilting coefficient for the particular species in which one may be interested and, therefore, of establishing a specific relationship between the wilting coefficients and . the capillary moistures of the same soils. This presentation also assists In showing, what has already been mentioned, that a measure of the capillarity or other moisture relation of the soil has an indirect value in permitting comparisons of the species under a variety of conditions. The tests as represented in Table 3 were performed on five distinct kinds of soil, varying as to origin (hence, chemically) and also con- siderably as to composition and water-holding capacity. With the exception of the prairie soil, which contained only 1 per cent of coarse sand and no gravel at all, these soils were prepared by passing through a sieve with quarter-inch meshes. The wilting coefficient determinations, moreover, were made with- out the xse of paraffin. As the test was designed particularly to com- pare the four species which were grown in each soil, and it had be- come apparent that the rooting habit of each had a good deal of bear- ing on the stage in soil drying at which it succumbed, the effort was made to keep the upper layer of the soil well supplied with moisture by daily watering. Asa result, the common drying of the steam just at the ground line was not appreciably in evidence and, indeed, so general was the drying that the determination of the end point was exceedingly difficult. It was based almost wholly on the flaccidity of the leaves. Whether because of this protection afforded the stems by surface watering, or because of the comparative shade in which the end points were approached, it is noteworthy that the ratios of wilting coefiicients to capillarities are much lower, except for the heaviest clay, than in the results obtained under different conditions and already described. Another noteworthy feature of this test is that the seedlings were produced in each soil with the moisture brought daily to the moisture equivalent, so that the availability was, as nearly as could then be calculated, the same in all cases. When drying began, each soil was brought by easy stages to two-thirds of the moisture equivalent, and finally to one-third. The seedlings attained an age about 6 months before the test was completed. 92 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 3.—Wilting coefficients of four species in five types of soil. Woisnire Mean wilting coefficient. BAe Capillary| equiva- | - Sample No. and description. F | l eye De Yellow | Lodge- _ Douglas | English pine. | pole. | fir. | spruce. Per cent.) Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 590. Sifted granite gravel with loam...-.-- 26. 58 10. 55 2. 50 2.79 | 2.60 | 2.72 604. Composite limestone...........-.----- 31.85 22.00 3. 82 | 4,74 | 4.06 4.03 602. Composite sandstone. .-........------- 35. 34 21.77 | 5:01 | 6.30 | 5.08 4.87 601. Prairie soil from shale. ......-...--- Sig 37.77 28.79 | 8.65 | 9. 65 8.52 8.76 G03 Composite lavas s conse nema sas 43.16) 27.80) 5.56) 7.48 | 5.44 5.31 H | PAVCL APRESS 5. Ship. aaa see eae eel ee Sees ad | Uc ersarcets a Sih | 6.19 | 5.14 5.14 | | Ratio wilting coefficient to capillary moisture. | Fine material. Sample No. and description. | 7 ae ayaa Yellow odge- ouglas | : pine. pole. ie Spruce. All. | Silt. Clay. 590. Sifted granite gravel with | | 3 | Per cent. | Per cent. OAT Meet tice ae ros Pees | 0.094 0.105 0. 098 0.102 0.100 | 13.5 5. 604. Composite limestone..-....- - 120 . 149 -128 127 aie | 45.8 11.4 602. Compositesandstone..-.._- ho ee) .178 .144 .138 .150 | 41.8 11.0 601. Prairie soilfrom shale.._.-. | . 229 -256) | - 226 ~ 232 . 236 53.3 17.2 603. Compositelava.....-...... eee29 174 - 126 - 123 138 | 51.9 ahIFat INSETS aE oa a cee |. .1428 .1724 . 1444 1444 -151 1). ee Mean variations of single | i determinations..._____. | 0346 . 0364 - 0324 0348) 7.10389" |S iene eee | ee Percentage ofmean varia- | ; | PLONS weer een eee | 24.2 21.1 22.4 24.1 25.8 | 18 Sao oa Sees Ratio of wilting coefficient to moisture equivalent. Sample No. and description. Yellow | Lodge- | Douglas pine. pole. fir. Suits 590. Sifted granite gravel with loam_.._................. ai awe 0. 237 0. 265 0. 247 0. 258 GOS COMPOSE ines ome see ee ee pee ee 174 a PAIS) .185 . 183 GOZ.Compositesandstones sees is. eee . 230 . 290 . 233 - 224 Gil, JNO O NCE eee ke oe 301 .335 . 296 - 305 G03 5 Compositelava | jj5- sce eae el ek ae ees ee . 200 . 269 . 196 -191 AV OLAR ESE ES Sea Ub ciese aeatigs + hea Nae eee . 2304 . 2748 2314 - 2322 Mean variation of single determinations...___.......___.. . 0328 . 0302 . 0328 . 0394 Percentage of mean variations. ..-22.222 1) 14.2 11.0 14.2 17.0 The wilting coefficient tests given in Table 3 bring out the follow- ing facts: 1. The line showing the percentage of the mean variations indicates that the four species taken together and comprising 20 cases have a larger variation from an established mean ratio than any of the individual species. Lodgepole pine shows the highest relative wilt- ing coefficient, and, since the other three species gave almost identical results, it follows that a ratio established by the promiscuous use of species would be most largely in error when applied to calculations for lodgepole. . 2. The relatively high wilting coefficient for lodgepole pine has been thoroughly established by numbers of other tests, which, how- RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 93 ever, are not given here because the results do not coordinate closely with this set. 3. It is noteworthy that the coefficients for all species in the lime- stone soil are relatively low, while the really high values are given by the heaviest clay. The latter fact, like the result in a strongly humous soil, is believed to be due to nonconductivity of the clay. 4. In this case the correlation between wilting coefficients and moisture equivalent is a great deal better than the correlation with capillary moisture. In view of what has been said regarding the level of moisture maintained in each pan, it seems pointed to suggest that the wilting coefficient may depend in some measure on the degree of moisture to which the seedlings have become accustomed. It is only logical to suppose that, if abundant moisture tends to stimulate growth, the seedling may, when drought occurs, be relatively defi- cient in the carbohydrates which assist in osmosis. The moisture equivalent is a term devised by Briggs and McLane (113) to define the amount of water held by a soil against a definite external force. In the original experiments of these authors the force employed was a centrifugal force exerting a pull 3,000 times as great as the force of gravity. The small samples of soil were placed in finely perforated cans, which in turn were placed against the inside wall of a heavy cylinder. The latter was caused to rotate rapidly by direct connection with a motor. In this early work the writers seem to have made no attempt to correlate the moisture equivalents with wilting coefficients. There was, however, a fairly successful formula devised by which the holding power of the soil was related to the constitution thereof, as shown by mechanical analyses. This, it is believed, has been found of little use. It remained for Briggs and Shantz (114) to carry on the wilting tests which showed the real value of the moisture equivalent deter- minations. In these later tests the centrifugal machine was con- siderably improved and its speed automatically controlled, while being cut down to give a pull of 1,000-gravity, since it was found that the higher tension extracted relatively little additional water. As the result of some hundreds of wilting tests and comparisons with the moisture equivalents of the same soils, it was found that from light sands to the heavier clays a linear relation exists between these two measures, which is expressed by the formula: moisture equivalent Wilting coefficient 1.84 (1-+0.007) 94 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Or, in other words, there is a probable error of less than 1 per cent in this average relationship. Single determinations, however, show a probable variation of 2.9 per cent of the wilting coefficient, as measured by this direct means. This work, though extremely thorough, was confined wholly to soils encounted in agricultural regions, and while these varied be- tween 1.6 to 57 per cent moisture equivalent, they were undoubtedly more homogenous than forest soils in general, and lacked the complhi- cating features of both rocks and large quantities of organic matter. It is not desired to suggest that, if this method were readily applicable to forest soils, and if experimental error both in wilting coefficient and moisture equivalent determination could be largely eliminated, the general relationship would be found different in the case of forest soils. Unfortunately, no one has made sufficient use of the moisture equivalent, in connection with wilting tests on forest species and forest soils, to determine whether the formula of Briggs and Shantz holds good. It is hardly to be doubted, however, that a for- mula must be worked out for each species, or the species of each general climatic region. Also, there is little doubt that occasional soils will be found in which, owing to exceptional alkalinity or acidity, the wilting coefficient is extremely high, and hence the formula breaks down. In connection with the capillary moisture determinations by Bates (105), data on corresponding moisture equivalents have also been given in Tables 2 and 3. ‘These, as pointed out, were deter- mined on samples which had just passed through the capillarity tests. The 4 by 54 inch soil cans were placed in a machine of such speed and radius as to develop a centrifugal force of 100-gravity, the radius being computed to the center of the 5-inch column of soul. Ordinarily, 30 minutes of revolution suffices to extract the free water susceptible to this force, but with a heavy clay an hour may be required.*? 41 In order to show the importance of the time element, where such large masses of soil are being treated, and also to illustrate the very great difference between the water- holding powers of sand and clay, two samples were weighed repeatedly after short periods on the centrifugal machine The one sample consisted of very fine, thoroughly washed sand from granitic soils, the other entirely of silt and clay from innumerable sources, the clay probably not constituting over one-fourth of the whole mass. Both samples had previously been compacted by centrifuging, so that the rapid loss of mois- ture in the first period can not be ascribed to loose structure. The test was somewhat complicated by a freezing atmosphere which, in fact, necessitated cessation before an end point for either soil was plainly reached. From a mass of soil of about 1,070 grams in either case, the sand gave up in 80 minutes 276.3 grams of water, of which 230.7 grams (84 per cent) was released in the first 24 minutes of centrifuging. The corresponding figures for the silt and clay were 76.2 grams, and 12.7 grams or 17 per cent. In the last 20 minutes of the 80-minute period the loss for the sand was 3.1 grams and for the clay 12.8 grams. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 95 The results of tests so made confirm the idea which was given by Table 2, namely, that the relation of the moisture equivalent, as determined by a force of 100-gravity, to the wilting coefficient, may depend a great deal on the type of soil. To make the reason for this clearer, the data of Table 2 have been further grouped in Table DIAGRAM 6 RELATIVE AMOUNTS OF na WATER HELD BY DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL AGAINST VARIOUS FORCES bo | tt | |) | fmt Herring codentienr i a a= ee a (] Cepillary Morsture vu PS ets PaMlee easel | LS AW ERRAAR AANY SSSSSSSSSYSSSS i E SSS El IR c LO FSSSSSANSS SY hea SSS SASSY b ~ a RSs RATNN AIRARVVW. BABA’ SSS ARRAN ARAN AARAV AALS WY 4, while diagram 6 assists in visualizing the relations. Data for other types of soil have also been introduced. In the case of the sands and the prairie clay, the conditions under which the wilting coefficients were determined were perhaps conducive to slightly lower values than in the other groups. This, however, will affect the comparisons of wilting coefficients with capillary moisture and moisture equivalents, about equally. 96 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 4.—Moisture equivalents in several types of soil in relation to capillary moisture and wilting coefficients. Mean | Mean | Mean Mean Mean capil- | mois- lear cin Mean | Mean PHO Mean | Mean | varia- Description of group. lary ture | coeffi 8 ratio | varia- ly @ /M. varia- | ratio tion mois- equiye, ical: M.E./C.| tion. ea tion. |W.C./C.| within ture. ent. | J c group. 9 Michigan and Nebraska | sands; humus not over 3 | P.ct. | P.ct. | P. ct. MErCOMt A apieseem es ee cee oe 21. 82 5.49 | 1.73 | 0.253 0.055 | 0.320 0.035 | 0.080 0.016 5 Michigan and Nebraska : sands; humus 3 per cent to : PALO CAN oa ose ma deena nes 43.78 | 19.24 6.99 - 407 - 090 -o0t -028 | .152 - 023 9 Pikes Peak gravels; humus 2.1 per cent, clay 3.7 per cent (maximum).-.-......- 13.13 Op) || OLE Bile -040 | .530 -038 |} .200 . 030 3 granitic loams (spruce); 3 | to 4 per cent humus....... 20.47 | 12.62 | 3.36] -.621 -042 | .266 -006 | .165 - 014 3 granitic loams (spruce); 4 | to 8 per cent humus. .....- 33.09 | 20.76 6.36 - 632 - 054 - 307 - 030 . 193 .010 4 granitic loams (spruce); 8 to 27 per cent humus. ....- 60.13 43.09 14. 86 . 692 - 077 - 348 - 066 . 242 051 1 prairie clay; 70 per cent silt and clay, very Jittlehumus.| 37.77 | 28.79 SOO) | SO Noacoscice SLO FS eke 220 0hen Meeeaeee AVIELASCIONSTOUPS Spe aa sane eel mcs eyeseteres SG88). “a5 chesue - 348 -034 | .181 - 021 Mean variation be- bWeEeCMsSTOUpSeeeee oss see cessor lesce ess s|Seeeeees rl 6245|See eae 305430 sees 04195 | eae 1. There are three outstanding facts in connection’ with these data, clearly shown by the diagram. The first of these is that the two eroups of sands show an extremely large proportion of the capillary water removable by the force of 100-gravity, and correspondingly low wilting coefficients. This speaks for the hght hold which the sands have on their moisture, when even approaching saturation. 2. The second conspicuous fact is that, with the exception of the granitic gravels, the wilting coefficients and moisture equivalents rise and fall somewhat proportionately. The gravels have the smallest capacity for capillary water, a very weak hold on a large part of it, and a strong hold on the remainder. This is partly caused by a small quantity of clay derived from the feldspar, but more largely to the fact that the feldspar is itself somewhat permeable. Coarse cleaned gravel of this type has been shown to have a capil- larity of only 2.90 percent, but a moisture equivalent of 1.70 per cent. It seems likely that practically all of the latter would be non- available. : 3. Another important point to be noted is the very small amount of water removable from the prairie clay by the moderate centrifu- gal force, and the correspondingly high wilting coefficient. 4, Finally, although the influence of humus is somewhat obscured by the fact that increasing amounts of it in one general soil type are usually accompanied by increasing amounts of silt and clay, it seems fairly certain that the humus does not yield up its moisture any too readily and that it may tend to make the wilting coefficient relatively high by preventing capillary movement to the roots. It must also RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 97 be remembered that, while the table indicates three times as much water-holding capacity in the granitic loam of high humus content, the actual increase over the same type of soil with little humus is only about 65 per cent on a volume basis. The sum of these various effects of different soil properties on the moisture-holding properties is shown in the final line of Table 4, where it is clearly indicated that there is a closer parallelism between wilting coefficients and moisture equivalents than between wilting coefficients and capillarity. Eliminating the granitic gravels, the average variation of the group ratios is only 7.5 per cent from a mean value W. C./M. E. of 0.318. The explanations given, more- over, all tend to confirm the belief that the moisture equivalent ob- tained with a much greater centrifugal force would give a still closer index to the wilting coefficient of any of these types of soil. The hygroscopic coefficient is an expression of the amount of water held by a soil after a limited exposure to saturated water vapor under certain conditions. As in the case of the capillary moisture measure, it appears that Hilgard was the first to make practical use of the absorption powers of soils, to compare them generally as to physical properties, and to obtain an approximate measure of their wilting coefficients. More recently Alway (102, 103) has done a large amount of work on this subject, using Hilgard’s methods very largely, but also investigating many possible sources of error in the routine treatment of samples. It is a very well-known fact that a soil is never entirely devoid of moisture if dried in the air for an indefinite period. On the con- trary, if atmospheric conditions did not fluctuate so rapidly there would be at all times an amount of moisture in the soil somewhat proportionate to the amount of vapor in the atmosphere. The amount so held is a measure of the soil’s hygroscopicity, but not a useful measure because of the changing conditions of the atmosphere. Similarly a soil undoubtedly still possesses some hygroscopic moist- ure when dried in an oven at, say, 100° or 110° C. The only way in which the soil can eventually be robbed of all its moisture is by drying in a vacuum, by means of which the constant withdrawal of the atmospheric vapor is assured. For practical purposes, how- ever, drying in an ordinary atmosphere at 110° C. gives a good basis for moisture calculations, since at that temperature the vapor in the atmosphere will be very much rarefied in comparison with its satura- tion capacity. This point is mentioned because it is not infrequently noted, in drying large samples, that they may gain moisture in the hot-air oven if there is a decided increase in atmospheric moisture. To avoid appreciable errors it has been found necessary to avoid final weighings of oven-dried samples on excessively moist days. 82769—22——7 98 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The discovery that within certain limits the moisture of the soil follows the laws of osmosis, or more precisely speaking, the laws of dilute solutions with respect to its freezing point, has naturally led to the idea that the soil solution might also be considered as having a definite vapor pressure at a definite osmotic concentration. If this were true, then a soil placed in a moist atmosphere should give off or absorb vapor, according to whether its original solution repre- sented a lower or higher osmotic pressure than that represented by the atmosphere of vapor in which it was placed. Furthermore, if this vapor pressure manifested itself properly and in accordance with the laws of solutions, then, through vapor transfers, one soil or « hundred soils simultaneously might be brought into vapor-pressure equilibrium, and thereby into osmotic equilibrium, with a solution whose osmotic pressure is readily determined; and the moisture con- tents corresponding to such osmotic pressure might then be readily measured for one or all of the soils. This plan was conceived as a possible means of avoiding some of the difficulties of the freezing- point method of osmotic determinations, which are especially bother-— some in treating coarse soils. That the theory is correct may hardly be questioned now, and full discussion of the available data will be given later. This subject has been mentioned here because of its possible bearing on the hygroscopic coefficient determinations. It is rather readily seen that, if the laws of solutions prevailed under all conditions of soil moisture, a soil exposed to completely saturated water vapor should go on absorbing moisture indefinitely, because the dilute solution of the soil would always stand for some osmotic pressure, while saturated water vapor would stand for none at all. Whether this does not occur in the hygroscopicity tests because of the failure to create a completely saturated atmosphere, or because there is a sharp line between the behavior of water vapor in the soil and liquid water, is for the future to decide. That it probably has no practical bearing on the hygroscopic coefficient under the empiric conditions set for that test, is perhaps enough in itself. It will help to clarify the matter if it is remembered, first, that Bouyoucos (109) has shown that at about the moisture content at which wilting occurs, the water of the soil ceases to behave as a liquid and refuses to freeze; and secondly, that Briggs and Shantz (114) have shown that the hygroscopic coefficient falls considerably below the wilting coefficient, the former being usually about 0.7 of the magnitude of the latter. Since the determination of the hygroscopic coefficient begins with air-dry soil, it does not deal with liquid water in the soil, but more probably with water molecules more or less separated, like individual vapor molecules. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 99 The conditions under which the hygroscopic coefficient should be determined, as most recently worked out by Alway, Kline, and McDole (103), are briefly as follows: 1. The absorption box is of wood, 12 by 9 by 8 inches, the interior surtaces being paraffined to prevent absorption of water and warp- ing. Larger boxes were found to be more difficult to keep saturated. 2. In the bottom of this box is placed a snug-fitting galvanized-iron tray, 3 to 4 inches high, to hold the water. The walls of the box are then lined with blotting paper, the edges of which project into the vessel of water. This insures rapid dissemination of vapor through the interior. 3. A wooden table is held by metal supports, 1 to 2 inches above the surface of the water in the tray. On this table are placed the two trays which hold the soil samples. 4. Metal trays are accepted as most satisfactory, because they ab- sorb no moisture and hence do not retard absorption by the soil. These trays are of aluminum or copper, 7 inches long, 5 inches wide, and 0.75 inch deep. 5. The soil is carefully sifted over the bottom of the tray to a depth of 1 millimeter. This naturally precludes the use of coarser material. It was found that there was little or no change in soils from careful grinding which would barely permit the coarser particles to pass a 1-millimeter sieve. It was also found that oven drying at 105° to 110° C. did not appreciably affect the absorbing capacity of any of the soils tested. In any case, however, previous drying should be avoided when possible, 6. The exposure to vapor in the boxes is for 24 hours. At the end of this period the soil tray is removed from the box as quickly as possible and emptied into a stoppered weighing bottle, since exposure to the air beyond a few seconds would cause appreciable loss of mois- ture. 7. Undoubtedly the most important consideration in securing re- liable results is a suitable room. This must be, in most cases, a cellar room not subject to daily fluctuations of temperature or heating from one side, or even to localized heating from bright light. These pre- cautions are absolutely vital, if condensation is to be prevented. As a matter of theory, it is altogether probable that the need is to pre- vent even momentary complete saturation of the vapor in proximity to the soils, since this might give rise to the creation of liquid moisture in them, and entirely alter their condition. 8. A temperature of about 60° F. may be considered a standard. At a lower temperature there will be fewer water molecules reaching the soil, and, necessarily, a slower rate of absorption. Under these circumstances fairly constant results may be expected in hygroscopic coefficient determinations. In the absence of any other 100 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. results reference is again made to the comparisons made by Briggs and Shantz between hygroscopic and wilting coefficients. In 17 tests, with soils varying from 0.9 to 16.5 per cent wilting coefficient, they found the ratio of hygroscopic to wilting coefficients to be on the average 0.680, with a probable error, or variation, in any single deter- mination of about 7.1 per cent of the wilting coefficient. It is to be noted that the hygroscopic is so much lower than the wilting co- efficient that serious error would result from considering them as inter- changeable, though this proposal has sometimes been made. CALCULATION OF THE AVAILABLE MOISTURE. As has been stated, when the current moisture of the soil has been measured, and the nonavailable has been measured in the laboratory by the direct method of wilting tests, or indirectly through the. capillary moisture, moisture equivalent, or hygroscopic coefficient, it is then only necessary to subtract the wilting coefficient from the whole moisture to have a measure of the amount of water which, under the most favorable circumstances, will be available for growth. For example, if in sand and clay, respectively, the whole moistures are 10 and 20 per cent, and the wilting coefficients of these soils are respectively 2 and 15 per cent, then it is evident that in the sand there is 8 per cent available moisture, and in the clay 5 per cent, or d2=1/—WC. The use of the last figures is certainly far mor2 expressive of the relative conditions in the two soils than would be the use of the whole moisture figures, although, on account of vary- ing concentrations of salts, even this figure for the available moisture does not give a direct means of comparing the moisture conditions of radically different soils. Of course, if the measure of available moisture is to be used most fully as an index to supply, the percentage should be transposed finally into cubic centimeters per cubic meter, or any other measure of soil volume. This is very readily done if the apparent density has been de- termined, as in the large capillary cans described, where the apparent density is obtained by dividing the dry-soil weight, in grams, by the volume in cubic centimeters, which is approximately 1,030 cubic centi- meters (usually less after centrifuging). Carrying the volume idea still farther, in studying any plant cr group of plants it is obviously desirable to know how much soil sur- face can be drawn upon. Thus a yellow pine on a dry site may actually have a much greater supply of moisture than a crowded spruce on a moist site. Consideration of this point of view will lead to the conclusion that soil moisture figures, as ordinarily given in percentages of the dry-soil weight, have almost no_ significance RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 101 ecologically. Both area and depth of soil which contribute to a given plant must be known. AVAILABILITY OF THE MOISTURE. As already stated, it is intended to confine this term “ availability ” to the simple relation between the whole moisture and the available moisture. The term can not be an exact expression of the rate at which the plant will be able to obtain water, since such rate depends on conditions within the plant as well as those without; or, in brief, on the need of the plant for water. It should, however, have greater value than a bare measure of whole moisture, or even of available moisture in percentage of dry soil weight as an expression of a condition of the soil. Its value is predicated on the assumption that, at the wilting point, a given plant is probably exerting a fairly definite osmotic pressure in its effort to obtain water, and that at this time the osmotic pressure of the soil water is also definite and the same as that in the plant. This is evidently not the case if the wilting coefficient is as low as the point at which both the water and solutes become adsorbed by the soil colloids, for at this point the osmotic pressure becomes infinitely large. For this reason the pro- posed measure of availability may have only limited usefulness, but should at least serve as a stepping stone to the next and more definite proposal. If, for example, it is assumed that when a plant wilts it 1s exert- ing an osmotic pressure, P, of 100 atmospheres, then supposedly at the same time (that is, in the condition expressed by the wilting coefficient) the soil is exerting an opposing force, P’, also repre- sented by 100 atmospheres. If, then, an amount of water equal to the wilting coefficient is added to the soil, the soil solution, roughly speaking, has been diluted to one-half its previous strength, and there is a differential in favor of the plant of 50 atmospheres. Since the starting point was 100 atmospheres, this situation, or the avail- ability for this particular plant and soil, may be expressed as 50/100 or 0.50. Similarly, when the moisture content is three times the wilting coefficient, P’=33 atmospheres, the differential is 67 atmospheres, and availability is 0.67. It is seen that this is readily expressed by M—WC ee MS giving availability numerical values somewhat proportionate to the osmotic pressures in favor of the plant. A V THE COEFFICIENT OF AVATLABILITY, As already suggested, the ability of the plant to supply itself with water would seem to be measurable in terms of the differential 102 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. between the osmotic pressure within the plant and the antiosmotic pressure exhibited by the soil moisture, with an allowance for the distance through which this force must operate. This same basis was used in the preceding section as a rough means of showing changes in the soil condition, but without any allowance for changes in the absorbing power of the plant which occur with its loss or gain of water, or without considering the factor of height and dis- tance as it may affect tall trees. In attempting thus to express the availability of water to the plant, in precise terms or osmotic pressures, currently for any con- dition that may be encountered in the soil or plant, it is necessary - to determine the osmotic DEEBLS of the soil or plant quickly and accurately. The osmotic pressure of an aqueous solution is determined by the increase in its boiling point over that of pure water; by the depression of its freezing point; by the decrease in the vapor pressure over the solution; and, possibly, by the increase in the latent heat of vapori- zation. It is only recently that investigations of the last have been made, so that there is no known formula which would make this process available. Within the limits of so-called dilute solutions a rise of 1° C. in the boiling point represents an osmotic pressure of about 57 atmos- pheres; a depression of 11° C. in the freezing point indicates P= 12.05 atmospheres, and a depression of 1 per cent in the saturated vapor pressure over the solution, the temperature being the same. indicates about 12 atmospheres pressure. ‘These approximate figures permit us to judge of the practical utility and accuracy of different methods. It may also be useful at this point to refer to the fact that in pure solutions, such as may be used in the vapor-transfer method or in plasmolytic tests on tissues, the osmotic pressure is very readily de- termined by the concentration of the solution, in terms of the molec- ular weight of the solute, provided the solute is chemically pure and anhydrous. According to Nernst (134) the “molecular lowering of the freezing point” for water is 18.4° C.,” or 1.84° C. when 1 gram molecule of the substance is dissolved in a liter of water. A 1- molecule solution, therefore, stands for 22.12 atmospheres osmotic pressure. From these data it would seem that the boiling-point method would insure the greatest precision in osmotic pressure determina- 122 More recent investigations reported by Jones 128 show that the molecular lower- ing may be twice this amount in the case of salts which are dissociated by water into two ions. Freezing-point determinations should quickly decide this, in case of doubt. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 103 tions, were it not for the effect on the boiling point of the character of the vessel itself, of gases in the liquid, and of solid particles which form nuclei for steam bubbles. It is also self-evident that the boil- ing-point method is not applicable to soils, and hardly more appli- cable to plants unless the sap has been separated from the pulp, which, under certain circumstances, as in the treatment of conifers, may be impossible of attainment. The freezing-point method comes next in order, and has been con- siderably used; though, at this stage, it is well to mention that the foliage of coniferous trees frequently becomes so dry that a definite freezing point can not be determined, probably because of the lack of conductivity in the mass, which is such that each particle of the pulp may freeze without affecting the rest of the mass quickly. The vapor-pressure method does not look so promising, because of the technical difficulties in the way of any precise determination of yapor pressure. However, the complicated apparatus necessary for the direct determination of a vapor pressure may be done away with if instead the determination of vapor pressure is made in a vessel by means of a solution which is in equilibrium with that vapor. This method especially commends itself in the treatment of soils be- cause of the possibility of preparing them and retaining them during treatment in a state of compactness and granulation approaching the natural. It does not seem so applicable to plant tissues because of the danger of fermentation and enzymic action during the treat- ment. The determination of osmotic pressures in plant cells by plasmolysis, while evidently useful for the examination of restricted areas, such as the epidermis, and possibly useful for any tissues which are ex- ceedingly dry, does not recommend itself for general purposes be- cause of the large amount of manipulation necessary and the experi- mentation required to find the balancing solution. This method, of course, necessitates the observation of individual cells under the microscope, when placed in media of various osmotic concentrations. Osmotic Pressure of Plant Tissues. Dixon and Atkins (119), in 1913, were apparently the first to use the then developing theoretical knowledge of the behavior of solu- tions as a means toward looking into the internal conditions of plants. In the citation given they deal at length with the method of extract- ing sap from plant tissues for the purpose of freezing-point determi- nations. Hibbard and Harrington (126), in 1916, and Harris, Lawrence, and Gortner (123), in the same year, followed this work with further 104. BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. studies of the method of determining the freezing point of cell saps, and also applied this knowledge to the study of plants under various habitat conditions. The latter were probably the first to point out that the osmotic pressure of the cell sap varied rather directly with the dryness of the habitat. They also showed that trees and shrubs possess higher pressures than the lower and shorter lived forms of vegetation, which furnishes the basis for considering height as a factor affecting the osmotic pressure in the leaves. McCool and Millar (131), 1917, experimented with unpressed plant tissues and obtained practically the same results as when the ex- tracted saps were used. This was a distinct step forward in simplify- ing the process, and therefore no attempt is made to describe the method of sap extraction. McCool and Millar found it only neces- sary to macerate slightly the material with a stiff wire, in the freezing tube. ‘These investigators also brought out much new information on the changes in osmotic pressure in the leaves with atmospheric changes, and the close correlation between root pressures and condi- tions of the soil moisture, the former being httle influenced by atmos- pheric conditions. Bates (105), in 1917, seeking an explanation of the great difference in the transpiring capacity of different species of tree seedlings, and not being equipped with freezing-point apparatus, obtained the sap density of the aerial portions of whole seedlings by grinding them in a food grinder, extracting the water-soluble substances, filtering the liquid, and then drying the water-soluble solids and the washed pulp separately. The weight of these two, when deducted from the origi- nal weight of the plant, gives the weight of the original solvents, and the “sap density” is expressed by the ratio between solutes and solvent. These first results were found to have a close relation to the transpiration rates that had been observed, and it was therefore concluded that sap density might very largely serve as an automatic restriction on transpiration. Although realizing that an expression of osmotic pressures would. give a more reliable basis for comparing the species, this was not undertaken for some time, since it was desired to establish first the importance of the sap density as a measure of the condition of the plant and its response to various atmospheric conditions. This work has been pursued to some extent."®? It is only desired here to state that, within the limits of experimental error, the osmotic pressures shown by a number of the conifers appear to be the same when the sap densities by the above method are the same. Considering all of 13“ Worest Types of the Central Rocky Mountains,’ by C. G. Bates. Unpublished report. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 105 the species, the following correlation between the two measures is given tentatively: Sap Osmotic density. pressure. | | Percent. |Atmosphere. 5 4.5 10 10.0 15 15.7 20. 22. 4 For rough approximations, the osmotic pressure in atmospheres may be considered equal to the sap-density percentage for plants of this class. It is probable that further data will bring out specific differences worthy of consideration. It is, therefore, believed that where freezing-point determinations are impracticable because of lack of apparatus, or of freezing mixtures; or when, as frequently happens with the foliage of conifers, the material is so dry that even with grinding it lacks free moisture, so that a distinct end point can not be secured, the sap-density method may be of very great assist- ance. After considerable experimentation with a number of methods giv- ing essentially the same results, the following simple practice has been developed, which is designed primarily to eliminate the need for evaporating the large volume of water used in extracting the solutes; it also greatly reduces the opportunity for loss of material during the operation. 1. The plant material, usually consisting of the more exposed and consequently the drier portion of the needles, is secured by carrying into the field the desired number of wide-mouthed liter flasks, a fun- nel, and a pair of shears. The plant, or branch of a tree, is held over the funnel, and the leaves are snipped off in sections not over one- half inch long, the outer one-half to two-thirds of all needles being taken. When 10 to 15 grams of material has been secured, the flask is stoppered. As soon as a collection has been completed, the flasks are taken in and weighed with their contents, the flask weights hav- ing previously been recorded. Confusion may be avoided by making all weighing with the stoppers removed. 2. The flasks are now placed in the drying oven for a period of not less than 12 hours. It will usually be found convenient to have the specimens ready for extraction early in the morning. At this stage the weight of flask and dry contents is secured, and by the difference between this and the earlier weight, the original water content is obtained directly. 3. Each flask now has added to it distilled water to the extent of five times the weight of the green plant material and is then again placed in the oven for an hour, the temperature attained in this time 106 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. being practically that of boiling water, which will greatly facilitate the diffusion of the solutes. While this warming is being accom- plished, a filter may be prepared, corresponding to each flask. The filter papers are dried and weighed before using, and their weights credited to the samples with which they will be used. At the end of the hour the liquid contents of each flask are poured into their appropriate filters. 4. Water is again added to each flask, in the same amount as be- fore, and the process repeated. After the third extraction, with possibly a little cold rinsing of the pulp, filter, etc., the filter, with whatever solids it has accumulated, is placed in the flask, and this is returned to the oven for its final drying. After this, making allow- ance for the filter-paper weight that has been added, the loss of solutes is readily computed. It should also be realized that this loss will include a small proportion of water which was hygroscopically held by the solutes in the previous drying. Such loss, however, will possibly compensate for solutes not removed. While the three ex- tractions, theoretically, should remove more than 99.9 per cent of the solids, it is probable that they fall appreciably short of this. Since it is believed that investigations along this line will de- velop increasing importance in forest ecology, it seems advisable to make available a table of osmotic pressures for freezing-point de- pressions to 5.999° C., as worked out by J. A. Harris and published in the American Journal of Botany, 2:418-419, 1915. This is an extension of the work begun by Harris and Gortner in 1914. The table will be found in the appendix. | Of almost equal ecological importance with the increase in osmotic pressure and absorbing capacity which accompanies greater concen- tration of the cell sap, is, perhaps, the very great decrease in the prob- able rate of evaporation from the leaves. It is especially desired to call attention to this, since the earlier announcements of the findings of physical chemistry have led many biologists to believe that a considerable change in the osmotic pressure of the plant solution could have little effect on evaporation. Thus Livingston (130), in 1911, argued that the greatest concentration of the cell sap would only create a depression of 10 per cent in the vapor pressure over the solution, and consequently could have no important effect on the evaporation rate. As early as 1915, Bates (105) had observed in the artificial drying of pine cones, for which a calorimetric kiln was used, a very great increase in the amount of heat consumed as the drying advanced. In certain instances this was nearly three times as great, per unit of water evaporated, in the final stages as when beginning with very green cones. When, therefore, he found, in 1917, a great decrease in the transpiration rate of those species of conifers which showed RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 107 the highest concentration of the cell sap, he was led to investigate this matter further. Finding nowhere any reference to experiments on the latent heat of vaporization of solutions, and believing that the conception of the fixed nature of that quantity for water was based upon the fact that the condensation of steam had always been em- ployed to determine it, he has been led to perform a number of ex- periments with solutions and with distilled water. The most important and convincing of these shows that at the respective boiling points of water, and various solutions up to the point of saturation (for sodium chloride), the latent heat of vapori- zation, determined directly by means of an electric heating element, is practically a constant, though perhaps varying inversely as the absolute boiling point. Thus a saturated salt solution whose boiling point is 7° above that of water and whose osmotic pressure is theo- retically about 400 atmospheres, requires only 4 per cent less heat, per unit of water evaporated, than does pure water. This, however, does not solve the problem, as will be seen from the fact that when placed over a steam bath the saturated salt solution evaporates at a rate of less than 5 per cent of that for pure water. There is in the problem, therefore, very evidently some factor besides vapor pres- sures and latent heats of vaporization when an external supply of heat is concerned. It appears to be a matter of conductivity and possibly also of convection. Further investigation of the problem is urgently needed. Method of determining freezing points—Since, as has been stated, the treatment of the leaves of forest trees, especially conifers, is likely to present some complications because of the extreme dryness which they sometimes show, it is believed the whole-tissue method of McCool and Millar (131) is likely to be ineffective. Hibbard and Harrington (126) are therefore quoted here on the process used by them and involving grinding of the frozen tissues. From this basis any investigator will certainly be able to devise modifications to suit his special conditions. The apparatus used in our tests was the Beckmann outfit ordinarily used for such work and described in books on physical chemistry, consisting of a teckmann thermometer, freezing tube, outer jacket, and a battery jar con- taining the freezing mixture. The freezing point of distilled water was taken as zero. and the lowering of the freezing point of the pulp was obtained by subtraction. When determining the freezing point of distilled water an elec- trie st‘rring device was used consisting of battery, metronome, magnet, and platinum stirrer, but this was not employed in determinations made upon pulps. The pulp was allowed to undercool about 1°, after which the beginning of solidification was brought about by rotating the thermometer backward and forward a few times in the pulp. When the undercooled mass of pulp was thus disturbed the temperature began to rise almost immediately and soon eame to rest, after which the thermometer was tapped several times and the 108 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. final reading then taken. This reading was considered as the freezing point of the pulp tested. Correction for undercooling hag not been applied, since the undercooling was always the same. Since, as has been especially emphasized by Shive,* the external air temperature exercises a marked influence on the apparent depressions of the freezing point obtained by means of the Beckmann apparatus, the freezing of the pulp or expressed juice must always be carried out with aproximately the same temperature of the surrounding air as pre- yvailed during the determination of the freezing point of distilled water used for comparison with that of pulp or juice. The simplest way to avoid possible sources of error in this connection is to make a freezing-point determination on distilled water for each external air temperature at which pulps or juices are tested. Then the lowering for any test is considered as the difference between its freezing point and that obtained on distilled water with the same room temperature. The property of the solution upon which its maximum possible osmotic pressure depends is approximately measured by its freezing point lowering, and this property may be expressed in terms of pressure. ‘Thus, according te the formula of Lewis,’ II=12.06A—0.021A’, where II is the maximum osmotic pressure, in atmospheres, at the freezing point of the solutions, and A is the low- ering of the freezing point in centigrade degrees, below that of distilled water. With the aid of this formula Harris and Gortner* have prepared a table of the values of II for the range, A=0.001° GC. to A=5.999° C. This table has been employed in our deductions. At the beginning of the work the material to be used was first ground and then frozen, but it was difficult to. prevent some loss of sap in this way, and difficulty was also encountered in getting a perfect mixture of the material after thawing, since much of the sap had left the cells on grinding and had settled to the bottom of the mass. Consequently, it was found better first to freeze the material and to grind it afterwards. In the earlier tests this preliminary freezing was carried out in large test tubes immersed in a mixture of salt and ice at a temperature of from —12° to —17° C. Sometimes during cold weather the material was placed out of doors overnight for the preliminary freezing. jn the remainder of the work it was frozen by carbon dioxide and ether. Car- bon dioxide was obtained in the solid state by allowing the compressed gas to escape from the supply cylinder into a small cloth bag. The material to be frozen was placed in a beaker and completely covered with solid carbon dioxide. A small amount of ether was then added, until complete freezing had taken place. A temperature of approximately —120° C. may be obtained in this way. The tissue is reduced to a finely divided condition by grating or grinding in a food grinder. The ground material must be quickly and thoroughly mixed be- fore sampling, since as would be expected, and as has indeed been found by other investigators, not all parts of a given organ give the same concentration of sap. Unless great care is taken in mixing, two or more samples of the same pulp do not have the same osmotic concentration. Samples are placed in the freezing tubes and allowed to thaw completely be- fore the determination of the freezing point is made. When the tissue is 14 Shive, J. W., The freezing-points of Tottingham’s nutrient solutions. Plant World 17; 345-553, 1914. = Lewis, G. N., The osmotic pressure of concentrated solutions and the laws of the perfect solution. Jour, Amer. Chem. Soe. 30: 668-683, 1908. 16 Harris, J. A. and R. A. Gortner. Notes on the calculation of the osmotie pressures of expressed vegetable saps from the depression of the freezing point, with a table for. the values of II for A=0.001° C. to A=2.999° C. Am. Jour. Bot. 1: 75—78, 1914. Harris, J. A., An extension to 5.999° C. of tables to determine the osmotic pressures of expressed vegetable saps from the depression of the freezing point. Amer. Jour. Bot. 2: 418-419, 1915. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 109 ground and pressed before the preliminary freezing many serious changes may take place; enzymes may be liberated, many new chemical reactions may be brought about, and the solutions may change in various physical ways. After _ thawing, the material should be stirred with a glass or suitable wooden rod to expel all air bubbles. Thawing may be completed within 15 or 20 minutes at most, and the possibility of chemical change is thus very greatly reduced. When thawing is complete, the thermometer is inserted, the tube is placed in the freezing mixture, and the material allowed to reach a temperature about 1° below its freezing point. Solidification is then brought about, as has been stated, by turning the thermometer backward and forward a few times to create a slight disturbance in the pulp. It has been found in practice that much more satisfactory results are obtained if the material is thus allowed to undercool about 1° than when solidification is brought about with less under- cooling. In the latter case the mercury rises to the freezing point much more slowly and the determination of this point is consequently more difficult. Osmotic pressure in soils. Although it is possible to remove the soil solution from the soil and to determine its osmotic pressure by the freezing-point method, this will fall far short of the desired end, which is to determine how the water behaves in the presence of the capillary forces and ad- sorption tendencies of the soil particles and colloids. As has been suggested in the introductory paragraphs to this chapter, these in- finences may run parallel with the influences of dissolved salts in the soil water. The freezing-point determinations for moist soils are so similar in method to those for plant pulps that it seems unnecessary to describe them here in detail. The reader is especially referred to the descrip- tion given by Bouyoucos (107). It would seem that the fundamental consideration in testing a given soil at various moisture contents is to have samples very evenly wetted. This is accomplished by placing the sample in a moisture-tight jar and, after thorough shaking, allow- ing it to stand one or more days, so that the moisture is-evenly dis- tributed and has ample opportunity to be adsorbed. While it is possible to use measured amounts of water in wetting the soil, it is probably safer procedure to take moisture samples at the same time that samples are taken from the jar for freezing tests. Vapor transfer in soils—The vapor transfer method is the only other method of osmotic determination which appears feasible for soils, and where time is not an important element, it is believed to be preferable to the freezing-point method because of the possibility of treating soils in their natural states. It should be understood, how- ever, that the value of the method is as yet theoretical rather than proven. The work of Alway (103) and Hilgard (125) on the hygroscopic coefficient of soils has already been mentioned, with the suggestion that since the moisture boxes used could not completely prevent the 110 ~=BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. vapor from escaping, their results are not indicative of those to be expected when vapor pressures are maintained in true equilibrium with solutions of reasonable osmotic pressure. As has been stated, a solution showing 12 atmospheres pressure will be in equilibrium with vapor 99 per cent saturated, and even this degree of saturation, it is believed, would be extremely difficult to maintain except in a fully sealed vessel. On the other hand, Patten and Gallagher (136) have carried out experiments, both on absorption of vapor and evaporation from soils, in “desiccators” which are assumed to be similar to the bell jars mentioned hereafter, and which, while usually not strictly vapor proof, approach much nearer to the ideal condition. Patten and Gallagher, both in their review of earlier work and in their own experiments, have established a number of salient points which assist in the proper conception of the relation between vapor (or, to a cer- tain extent, gas) molecules and solid particles, such as those of the soil. Schitbler*7 and Davy?’ are quoted as having shown that, in general, the finer the texture of the soil and the greater its content of humus, the higher is the absorption capacity of soil for water vapor. These results, while actually referring to the initial rate of absorption, are fairly indicative of the forces with which various soils attract water vapor. Von Dobeneck** obtained similar results, though concluding that large grains absorbed more vapor per unit of surface than small ones. Each soil particle reacts upon ‘vapor molecules independently, and each has a specific relation to different kinds of gases. Several investigators have decided that the absorp- tion of vapor decreases with an increase in temperature, even though the absolute vapor pressure increases proportionately. Patten and Gallagher have carefully proven this. Hilgard’s contrary finding may be explained on the basis that he was dealing almost wholly with rate of absorption, and higher absolute vapor pressure should more quickly bring about equilibrium. Mason and Richards* found that cotton fiber containing water resembles a solution in exhibiting a definite partial vapor pressure. Patten and Gallegher’s most important results have to do with the rates of absorption of vapor, and with evaporation, in the presence of various vapor pressures controlled by sulphuric acid solutions and vessels of water, within desiccators. The rate of absorption by dry soils increases, and the rate of evaporation from*wet soils de- creases quite regularly as the partial vapor pressure in the desiccator is increased. It is, however, evident in all of the results that as the vapor pressure approaches saturation the amount of absorption in- creases In greater proportion than does the vapor pressure. A num- ber of the graphs are strongly suggestive of the idea that, if com- 17 For complete citations see Bureau of Soils, Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 51. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 111 plete vapor saturation were attained, the absorption by the soils might be unlimited. ? With partial vapor pressures over acid solutions, practical equi- librium was reached in all soils at the same ultimate moisture con- tent, whether the soil was started in a moist or dry condition. Thus Sea Island cotton soil, which was the finest used, dried out at a vapor pressure of 17.90 millimeters (76 per cent of saturation) in 97 days from 55 per cent to 6.08 per cent moisture, and the same soil ab- sorbed in the same period 5.6 per cent, starting from a dry condition. In the presence of a vessel of water the drying out was always very slow, and the fact that any drying whatever occurred is believed to be sufficient evidence that the atmospheres in the desiccator were not saturated, owing to the presence of the dry soils in the same atmos- pheres. Finally, the energy effects of absorption must not be overlooked. Patten and Gallegher cite a number of investigations which show that the heat released when vapor is absorbed by a soil is in excess of the latent heat which is released when vapor condenses. This fact indicates that water held in the soil, like water held in a solution, is brought to a greater density than that in which only water mole- cules are attracting each other. This density can only be obtained through the release of additional energy. Examined kinetically, then, the whole situation is fairly simple. Molecules of a gas or vapor repel one another, and this repulsion increases with the temperature and energy of each molecule. When a certain density is obtained in a volume of vapor, the so-called saturation density, the molecules may either return to the liquid from which they emanated or be compelled to unite with other molecules, starting condensation in the molecular sense. In the case of atmospheric vapor, solid particles, such as dust particles, may start condensation through their attraction for vapor molecules, which latter would otherwise repel one another too strongly to be brought together. The same phenomena occur in the soil. A soil particle of given size, mass, and gravitational power can attract to itself a certain number of vapor molecules, this number depending upon the space available and the distance at which the vapor-molecules begin to repel one another, or the temperature and energy of these molecules. A vapor molecule which has been trapped, and has given up some of its energy in this process of “individual condensation,” is relatively inert, but not so inert as the soil particle, and is still capable of re- pelling other molecules to some extent. The ultimate number of molecules that can be held in a given soil, therefore, must depend (1) primarily on the energy of the free molecules as governed by temperature; (2) on the area or surface of soil particles exposed, 112 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. such that vapor molecules remaining on said surfaces do not crowd one another; (3) on the size of the particles, the smaller particles having less gravitational power; and (4) on the extent to which the substances in the soil act as solids or crystals with only exterior sur- faces available, as spongy masses capable of absorption, or as indi- vidual molecules each of which may attract and retain under partial control a sufficient number of molecules, so that in the aggregate the conditions are those of a liquid. The factors that affect the rate of absorption are far less impor- tant, but might be briefly mentioned, as follows: (1) The size of soil spaces as affecting free passage of vapor molecules; (2) the number of chances for a given molecule in motion through a given space to encounter an attractive force too strong for it (this has to do with the number of particles per unit of volume, as well as size of air spaces); (3) the density of the soil particles; (4) the density of the vapor molecules as affected by temperature and whole pressure ; (5) the conductivity of the soil, governing the rate at which the heat of condensation can be eliminated from the soil mass. This examination of established facts and theory regarding vapor condensation in soils leads to the recent efforts by Bates (105) to show that the moisture of soils does exhibit a definite partial vapor pressure corresponding to that of a solution, and that the vapor transfer method has many latent possibilities. It should be stated that these investigations are not yet complete or convincing, but in some respects they have gone farther than any others and are worth mentioning at least as suggestions for further effort. The vapor-transfer method of Bates—In its simplest form the vapor transfer method is similar to the plasmolytic method in at- tempting to find a point of osmotic equilibrium between the soil moisture and solutions of known concentration. In this case equi- librium must be shown by the cessation of transfer of water, through vapor, from the soil to the solution, or the reverse. It would be possible to take a number of samples of a given soil at a known-mois- ture content and place them in relatively small chambers, each with a solution of different concentration from the others, and in the case in which there was no transfer from the soil to the solution or vice versa equilibrium would exist and the osmotic pressure of the soil water could be directly calculated from the known concentration of the solution. In practice, however, it is far more feasible to place the soil sample of known moisture content in the vapor of a solution of approximately the same osmotic pressure, let the two come into equilibrium through vapor transfers, then compute the moisture content of the soil, the osmotic pressure of the solution, and the approximate original osmotic pressure of the soil on the assumption RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 113 that the osmotic pressure varies inversely as the moisture content. The latter is probably true only within rather narrow limits. Further, since obtaining an equilibrium by vapor transfer is a slow process, it is desirable to be able to treat a large number of soil samples simultaneously. For this purpose a large-size bell jar, resting upon plate glass, may be employed. D [e} Ze , = i 7 Ee 4 = — 7 - 7 = / -7 / ae / Been Sanee ie Except this period, the exposure in the oe = at aapoaaee between 0° sail 10° C., which, it will be noted, are lower than have previously been employed. For several of the soil types duplicates were run. however, are so nearly identical in each pair that only the averages need be given. The results, TABLE 5.—-Absorption of water vapor by Nebraska fine sand, and modifications thereof. [Basis 100 grams dry matter in 21-inch aluminum can.]} 7 Absorption at end of— ber of Description of sample. sam- 5 10 63 382 ples. days. days. days. days. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 2 | 100 per cent fine sand, unwashed. ...-.......-.-..----:- 0. 56 0. 58 0. 68 0.80 1 | 100 per cent fine sand unwashed half-size1...........-.- - 68 - 68 2 1.08 2 | 100 per cent fine sand, washed2....................--.-- BBY) .62 -69 -79 1 | 90 per cent fine sand, 10 per cent very fine sand......... nO -59 . 64 - 89 2 | 90 per cent fine sand, 10 per cent silt and clay........... .97 1.10 1.33 1.59 2 | 80 per cent fine, 10 per cent very fine, 10 per cent silt and ler CLAY erecta oleh cee ik Meet ho Se legal foi 2 eg 93 1.07 1.37 |} 1.72 2 | 90 per cent fine sand, 10 per cent fine limestone soil...-. ae, . 85 - 96 1.27 1 | 90 per cent fine sand, 10 per cent calcium Romp ouAle” wean syal - 89 1.55 | 2.05 1 | 99 per cent fine washed sand, 1 per cent KNO33........ «74 - 98 2.88 | 7.75 1 | 98 per cent fine washed sand, 2 per cent KNO3.........- .75 1.07 3. 20 11.69 1 | 97 per cent fine washed sand, 3 per cent KNO3.......... 73 1.03 3.01 13.77 1 | 98 per cent fine sand, 2 per cent ground decayed wood. . 87 -99 1.13) | 1.61 1 | 96 per cent fine sand, 4 per cent ground decayed wood. 1.15 1.33 1. 64 | 1.68 1 To indicate effect of volume and depth on rate of absorption. 2 Washed with 5 volumes of distilled water. 3 Potassium nitrate applied in solution, and water evaporated before starting the test. ¢ RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 115 It should be borne in mind that the ideal temperature conditions were not attained in this test, and, as has been stated, that at no time has complete saturation of the vapor existed, except possibly for short periods during cooling. This ideal has, however, probably been approached more closely than in any previous test, and the long period employed gives us a new insight into the phenomena of absorption. The following comments on Table 5 may assist in an understand- ing of these results. The comparative behavior of various soil com- binations will not be discussed, as these merely substantiate the ob- servations of others. 1. The amount absorbed by the unwashed fine sand in 382 days is only one-third more than the absorption in 5 days. It is, however, evident that even at the end of the longer period the unwashed sand was not in an atmosphere of saturated vapor, but rather in one whose pressure was quite as much controlled by the presence of soils still absorbing vapor, and particularly by the sample containing the largest amount of potassium nitrate. Assuming that all the moisture absorbed by the last entered into the salt solution, the latter would be a 22 per cent solution and would stand for an osmotic pressure of more than 45 atmospheres. It is therefore not surprising to find that a soil which contains not over 20 parts per million of soluble mat- ter should make little gain in this atmosphere. 2. On the other hand, the amount absorbed by the fine sand in 382 days is just about equal to the wilting coefficient for this sand, as nearly as can be estimated from a test on the original soil, which contained about equal proportions of material finer and coarser than the fine sand. 3. The continued and relatively large absorption, especially by the soils containing active salts, might be ascribed to the low tem- peratures under which the test was conducted. It is believed, how- ever, that the evidence of a condition slowly approaching saturation vapor pressure, and never quite up to it, is convincing, and that this explains not only the present results but nearly all the phenomena that have been reported in a similar connection. A number of other tests somewhat similar to the above were made during 1918, but for short periods only. Several attempts were made to compare the osmotic pressures of soil samples in their natural moisture conditions, by placing the fresh samples under 2 single bell jar without a control solution, to note whether the samples gained or lost moisture in the common atmosphere. While these gains or losses indicated the relative dryness of the several samples, the tests were not continued long enough to produce any results of value. It was found that a period of two or three weeks was inada- quate to bring about equilibrium between the many samples, whose 116 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. average weight was about 100 grams. Especially was it noted that surface samples which were nearly air-dry when taken absorbed very little moisture in these short periods. Finally, from November 28, 1918, to March 29, 1919, a test was . made involving samples from nearly all of the regular soil-sampling points at the Fremont Experiment Station, as well as a miscellane- ous lot exemplifying various peculiar characters. Two bell jars were employed, a small dish of sodium hydrate solution being placed in each. At the end of the four-month period these solutions had not absorbed vapor to quite the same extent in the two jars, and in neither case was the total absorption equal to the losses from all of the soils. However, for practical purposes the two containers were DIAGRAM 8 OSMOTIC AND CAPILLARY RELATIONS SOILS FROM DIFFERENT DEPTHS AT COMMON POINT Sis lr el Granite Gravel , |OO-G a tvatents, a es & 3 reenra & \ | Moisture Eq Coefficients Wilting in equilibrium with each other, the osmotic pressures of the solu- tions being 21.5 and 20.2 atmospheres, respectively. At the outset each sample of soil was given 10 per cent of moisture above its air-dry weight, so that the moisture was available in liquid form and the various soils were not radically unlike in their initial conditions. While it is not certain that the time allowed was sufii- cient to establish equilibrium, it is to be noted that the changes in moisture content varied from losses of about 3 per cent to gains of fractional percentages and, in one case, where there was much raw humus, a gain of 15 per cent. ; The results, as shown in small part in Table 6 and diagrams 8, 9, and 10, are very elucidating. These diagrams are prepared some- RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 117 what in the manner suggested for interpreting the moisture data for soil wells and illustrated in diagram 3. Tt will be noted on examining these diagrams, each of which rep- resents the soils from various depths at a single point, that in each group of soils of common origin the lines drawn to connect the capillary moisture and moisture equivalent for each sample tend to converge toward the axis of the system of coordinates and give the DIAGRAM 9 OSMOTIC AND CAPILLARY RELATIONS SOILS FROM DIFFERENT DEPTHS AT COMMON POINT SAle ae Granite Gravel 2 eae ee eee : See) 288882408 cen e Pe ini t=) 5 Moistur LL haf cpa ee) edict | 210 suggestion that in any such group of samples these two measures will vary proportionately. On the contrary, there is a decided ten- dency toward parallelism in the lines connecting, for each soil, the wilting coefficient and the moisture content at the point of osmotic equilibrium established approximately by this particular test. If, for example, the last-mentioned moisture contents, which may be termed the “osmotic equivalents,” be taken to correspond in every case to 20 atmospheres osmotic pressure, and if these be represented 118 | BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ; by M’, and the excess over wilting coefficient by K, then in these diagrams the condition is represented by M=WC+K rather than =WCxK - since it is readily seen that the osmotic equivalents are not propor- tionate to the coefficients. TABLE 6.—Osmotic equivalent of soils, in presence of solution at 20 atmos- pheres, after four months exposure and other related properties. f | | Excess és | Moisture | aaa: . \Change in | F Wilting | Osmotic over A Station. Depth. Capillary| | edtlivaS | coeiii- equiva- | wilting (eyeD? moisture. lent, | Gian, lent! Baa | during | 100-G. | Gist. transfer. | | Feet Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Grams. 1S Aap CHOBE HE BeTaE 11.64) 4.29 | 2:31 11.19 8. 88 +0.01 De cis ee meee ater is 10.00 | 3.60 93 8.7 7.34 —2.39 epee eee Be acini icic vines oe nici 10. 96 | 4. 34 | 76 8.92 Seay SEs iWrellisan dae. ean oe = 22.08 | 8.25 | 2.13 110.06 7.93 1 —Q.72 Ay Ooh Ses ee | eee eee leasgandnes cabenosess |osooceasss 8.13 —1.58 Pee ORS ae 11.34 | 5.41 | 1.16 7.84 6.68 —2.62 DeSree Sec ct ste es 16.08 | 5.91 2.63 8.69 6.06 —2.20 10 E ee a eee e See ere eee ees 14.84) 5. 86 2.67 9.58 6.91 —1.67 iiWiellisand: 2-2. -- 23. 24.70 | 9.29 | 3. 67 19.87 6. 20 1—].24 Aci OL Sia.2asGe soe So ee eee en oe ere [ame seeae Josesoccna- 6.55 —2.16 | ! eet (face tie ae SPs etme 93.53) 13.45 4.72 11.06 6.34 —1.90 p HEBER MERE REI 24.00 | 16.25 3.65 10.72 7.07 —1.80 IRA ie eee ich Se Oe rsa s wines cee eens 18.86 | 11.62 | 2.99 10. 24 WD —2.11 ie Sandee erry 21.61 | 6.67 | 2 .76 9.90 9.14 —1.29 PAC HOLS Seis cee Sa ee eee [Steesee Geel tae ae el nds ecees 6. 89 —1.94 | 1 Average of 4samples taken from each well, representing the surface and depths of 1, 2, and 3 feet, so that mean value should be equivalent to that of soil as placed in the well. 2 Approximate. Test made on coarse sandy soil from depth of 4 feet, most nearly approaching the quality of sand used in the well. - Table 6 shows that K varies as between different groups of samples from different sources, but that within a group of similar origin K is essentially a constant. Thus, it has an average value of 8.13 per cent for one group, 6.55 per cent for another, and 6.89 per cent for the third, and this value seems not to have any constant relation to the change which occurred in the samples during their period of ex- posure, so that it may be accepted as representing something near a final condition. In one sample representing a limestone soil, K is found to be 17.12—15.33 per cent, or 1.79 per cent. In another soil of lava origin, containing less of silt and clay, but a considerable amount of sedi bicarbonate, K is found to be 12.23—4.44 per cent, or 7.79 per cent. These findings compel the following conclusions: 1. The wilting coefficient of a given soil is probably dependent both on the solutes present and upon the colloids capable of ad- sorbing both the solutes and the water, but more particularly upon the latter; since only very rarely will the solutes be so abundant as to create an excessively strong solution before the disappearance of the free water. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 119 2. The osmotic equivalent of the soil is almost wholly dependent upon the solutes present, and among soils of one general type, in which the ingredients are conducive to the creation of solutes at a definite rate, and their free transfer from one point to another, a given osmotic equivalent represents a fairly constant amount of free water plus a variable amount of unfree water, depending on the quantity of clay, humus, etc., in each sample. 3. In such a group of related soils the wilting coefficients may have some fairly constant relation to the capillary moistures or mois- ture equivalents, because both measures are affected by the water- holding power of the colloids in large part; but a capillary measure DIAGRAM IO OSMOTIC AND CAPILLARY RELATIONS SOILS FROM DIFFERENT DEPTHS AT COMMON POINT STA F-Il & ” v wo Q _ o oe co L 3 + we oc = aes ° 9) ea Roe > SSS Bare cece ene ee of the condition of the soil water is not alone a safe criterion as to its osmotic condition or availability at points considerably above the wilting coefficient. It is believed that these conclusions are essentially in accord with those of Bouyoucos (106) and Hoagland (127), as derived from their study of freezing points and osmotic pressures. Probably this conception of the factor affecting availability is of greatest value in explaining the poor growing conditions of undrained soils and the great preference of trees for those which are well drained. It is also of importance in indicating that soils of closely related origin may be compared, as to their current conditions, on the basis of the amount of free or available water in each. This proposition, it will be remembered, the writers were unable to accept with reference to soils of unrelated origins, which gave rise to the need for this whole investigation. 120 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Computing the coefficient of availability. In computing the coefficient of availability of the moisture at a given part of a tree or other plant, allowance must be made, as has been said, not only for the osmotic pressures at. work in the plant and soil, but for the distance through which these must operate, and the effect of gravity on the balance between the two forces. As previously suggested, let P =osmotic pressure in the plant, P’=opposing pressure in the soil water, L=h=height of plant in centimeters at point where P is determined, G =weight of the column of water to be lifted, in atmospheres, or equal to h><0.00097 atmosphere. AA, representing the coefficient of availability, is equal to P—P’—G h It may then be assumed that the foliage of the tree, at a height of 30 meters above the ground, has been determined by its freezing- point depression to possess an osmotic pressure (P) of 25 atmos- pheres. A more complicated case may also be considered. A soil, previ- ously tested, is found to possess an osmotic pressure of 25 atmos- pheres at 4 per cent moisture content and of 5 atmospheres at 20 per cent moisture content, the former being appreciably above the wilt- ing coefficient. This soil is found to be currently at 6 per cent moisture content. Its osmotic pressure P’ may then be computed as Die) 25 — o(5o— 4) = 22.5 atmospheres. The formula for this case then reads 25 — 22.5 —3000(0.00097)_—0.41_ _ An S00 = on The coefficient of availability being a negative quantity of any magnitude, it is evident that the part of the tree which has been examined can not obtain water from the soil unless (1) the moisture content of the soil is increased, or (2) the foliage may withstand further drying and the creation of a higher pressure, without injury. Under the conditions stated as to the wilting coefficient of this soil, it is still probable that the part of the tree examined may obtain water when it attains a drier state. In the examination of a tree branch of appreciable length, it may be necessary and desirable to make an additional allowance in A for the horizontal distance, as well as the distance from the ground. This addition, however, would not apply to the calculation of G. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 121] OTHER Sor PROPERTIES TO BE STUDIED. ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY. While neither extreme acidity or alkalinity is often encountered in forest soils, because of their usually good drainage, yet the subject is one that should not be overlooked, even though, on account of its relative unimportance, it must be given rather scant space. Unfortunately because of deficiencies in chemistry itself and a lack of proper understanding of the method by which the activity of acids in the’soil might be measured, reliable results in such measurements bearing on problems of plant distribution are only just beginning to appear; for this reason, it is unsafe to say that the concentration of acids in the soil either is or is not an ecological problem distinct from the moisture-supply problems which have just been described. The suggestion of direct toxicity of soluble substances in the soil is frequently encountered, but so far as known no one has shown that toxic effects are not effects produced by the cessation of the water stream.’ It has also been frequently suggested that active acids or alkalis in the soil combine to withhold from the plant the substances needed for its nutrition. This seems more probable. Skepticism in these matters is designed primarily to indicate that such questions are still open to investigation from more than one angle. The methods for determining acidity and alkalinity in soils will be briefly reviewed, as though these were matters entirely independent of the subject of water supply. A recent and readily grasped article by Wherry (141) is filled with good suggestions on the vexed question of measuring the acidity of soils, and should be read by everyone who intends to go further with this discussion. Among his suggestions, an outline given by him to cover the various methods of acidity measurement will be followed, with some elaboration, also bringing up at appropriate points the corresponding methods applicable to the determination of alkalinity. It should, perhaps, be explained that the term “ alka- linity ” is here used in its chemical sense, and not with the broader meaning, sometimes permitted, of total soluble salts. 1. A_salt solution is added to the soil. For this purpose there have been used sodium chloride, potassium chloride and nitrate, calcium chloride, nitrate and acetate, zine sulphide plus calcium chloride, ete. The quantity of acid in the resulting solution, which represents that originally present in the soil plus a4 much greater amount produced indirectly by the processes “ outlined is then determined by titration or other means. In the appendix to this paper has been given in detail the titra- tion method for acidity following the “extraction” of the acids of % Briefly, replacement of H-lons in compounds which would in stable condition show no evidence of the weak acids present. 122 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the soil by potassium nitrate solution, a method which has been much used and debated, but which should probably from now on be considered only for its historical interest. It has many times been found that this method produces appreciable acidity in soils _ which at the same time evidence alkalinity. 2. No salt solution, but some pure water, is added to the soil. (a) The mixture is titrated with lime water, using either an indicator or observation of the freezing point to determine the end point. This gives the amount of lime needed to neutralize the acid originally present in the soil plus that produced indirectly by the action of lime (which is likely to differ from that produced by a neutral salt solution) as well as the amount of lime required to satisfy the absorptive power of the soil colloids for calcium ion under the given conditions. The determination of the end point in such a water mixture by the freezing-point method is the method described by Bouyoucos (108), and is based on the fact that as long as the CaOH added is combining with a free acid or an acid salt (which is up to the point of neutrality), the solution will contain fewer and fewer ions, and consequently will have a higher and higher freezing point. When the CaOH molecules begin to remain in solution, however, there. is an immediate change in the opposite direction. This method appears to have considerable value, though not wholly a measure of the free acids. Likewise, when the reaction of the solution has been shown not to be acid, through an immediate lowering of the freezing point on adding CaOH, it would seem that the normal freezing-point de- pression was a measure of the alkalinity. (6) The mixture is filtered and the filtrate titrated with standard alkali. This gives the quantity of acid present in the soil. By titration with KHSO, solution, the filtrate may likewise be tested for alkalinity, the method being described in the appendix. It is perhaps desirable to bring out here, however, since both of these methods may be used, that the commonly used indicator, phenol- phthalein, does not indicate neutrality, but a specific alkalinity of 30. Wherry suggests the use of litmus of brom-thymol to detect complete neutrality. (c) The hydrogen-ion concentration or specific acidity (or alkalinity) is de- termined— a. By eatalysis of an ester. b. By measurement of the potential due to hydrogen-ion with the potentiometer. E c. By observation of color changes of indicators whose relations to hydrogen-ion concentration are known. This last-named method is that which Wherry then describes in detail. It consists primarily of the use of six indicators in various RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 123 combinations, such that variations between a specific acidity of 3,000 and a corresponding “ superalkalinity ” may be detected with not too great refinement, yet probably with all the precision necessary in studying the distribution of plants. These extremes correspond, re- spectively, to hydrogen-ion concentrations of Py=3.5 and Py=10.5. For the most precise determinations of the degree of alkalinity or acidity the potentiometer is undoubtedly the last word. A number of such instruments are on the market and should require practically no adaptation for the treatment of soil extracts. No reason appears why they might not be readily used in the field. Apparently the apparatus devised by Briggs (111) for determining the “soluble salt content of soils” was of very similar nature, though its relation to hydrogen-ions was probably little understood at the time. THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS. A mechanical analysis of any soil which is being studied exten- sively is probably worth while if only to give a convenient and ap- proximately correct name for the soil. Thus may be avoided the error of speaking of a soil as a “clay” when, in fact, it contains 80 per cent silt and only a very little clay, or perhaps even a large component of very fine sand and small amounts of the finer mate- rials which make it as stiff as clay. With accumulated analyses of soils, too, comparison will show whether the mechanical analysis of two are very similar, approximately what water-holding capacity a new soil may have, what wilting coefficient, etc. However, in this calculation the humus plays a very important part and its effect is difficult to estimate. The method of mechanical analysis which may be considered standard has been recently described by Fletcher and Bryan (120). It employs a number of sieves, with perforations of successively smaller size, which separate the particles of various sizes but allow the very fine sand, silt, and clay to pass through. These three grades are then separated in water under the action of gravity. The standard soil grades recognized by the Bureau of Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, are indicated by the fol- lowing table of diameters (Table 7), which also indicates the diam- eters of the circular perforations in the standard sieves. Opposite these values have been set the approximately corresponding sizes of screens which are adapted for handling larger samples in the study ef forest soils, under what may be called the “English” rather than the metric system of classification. 124 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 7. Class. Metric. (Diameters of sieve perforations.) | English. (Number of openings per inch.) Millimeters. TOC SE Be une MS Ea ee Se ia oe A Roe See a Less than 4. Coarse gravel....:... OM CF 2s 2) SELF seta tite as Sear AEE 4 to 10. Fine gravel.......... ZOOMGOE OOS ER hae Aa ae Shere ae SS 10 to 20. Coarse sand.......-. 1 OOstO) 0:50 Sawer Savemece 20 to 40. Medium sand...--.-. O:50)60:0! 25s saa Sees eee ae nee nee ease 40 to 60. IMAG SAWOOl 9 oS oeeene R25 GOO OE ie Se ieee ee ae 60 to 100. Very fine sand.....- 0.10 to 0.05 (settles in test tube in 30 seconds)| Over 100 (settles in bottlein 30 seconds). STG Sareea ees seas 0.05 to .005 (settles in centrifuge in 5 minutes} Same as metric. at 800 revolutions per minute.) , (CEN A Sea ceeane seeee -005 to 0000 (does not settle in centrifuge; | Turbid water evaporated and weighed. measured by deduction). The following procedure is suggested as the result of a good deal of experience in treating forest soils: 1. If the soil to be sampled contains a great deal of rock, say over 25 per cent by volume, and of large size, it is desirable to determine the rock percentage by sifting a considerable quantity of the mate- rial through a screen having four meshes to the inch. This should be done only when the material is air-dry, and should be accom- panied by much beating and brushing to remove the fine material from the rock surfaces. After the process, a sample of about 100 grams of the finer material may be taken. If rocks are few and small, it is better to sample and wash them with the other material, separating them when dry from the coarse gravel on the 2-milli- meter or 10-mesh sieve. 2. The sample is placed in a wide-mouth 8-ounce bottle, which is- then nearly filled with clean tap water, stoppered, and placed on the shaking machine, or attached to a pulley which is turning at the rate of about 100 revolutions per minute. The amount of shaking necessary will vary from two to eight hours with different soils, but should always be sufficient to break down every lump of whatever size. If the soil lacks gravel for its own pulverizing, place two or three round pebbles in the bottle. 3. The lumps thoroughly broken down, the contents of the bottle are placed on the coarsest screen, with the finer sieves in succession below it, and the whole nest standing over a can of 1 or 2 gallons capacity. The material is washed down through each screen by a tiny stream of water, until all silt and clay have been removed; that is, until the water comes through perfectly clear. The nest of sieves may then be placed in the oven to dry, after which the separation of the sands is readily accomplished by a little jarring of each sieve; the material held on each is weighed promptly, before it can take up moisture from the air. 4. The very fine sand which passes the sieves after drying 1s placed in the washing bottle. The water from the washing of the materia] several hours earlier may now be decanted off into a meas- RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 125 uring vessel, leaving the very fine sand in the can, some silt and clay, and a little water. This material is also transferred to the washing bottle. As the first measure of lquid in the bottle will be very rich in silt and clay at least one minute should be allowed for the very fine sand to settle. After this time the silt and clay are partially decanted into the measuring vessel. More water is added to the bottle and is thoroughly stirred. With each successive washing the time is reduced, so that as the water becomes nearly clear the sand is allowed just 30 seconds to settle through a.4-inch column of water. It will be noted that the settling is somewhat slower if the water is extremely: cold. 5. All the very fine sand is now in the wash bottle, in which it may be dried and weighed, and all of the silt and clay, with a considerable volume of water, in the measuring vessel. It will be economical to obtain the weights of the silt and clay by merely sampling this large volume after thorough stirring. Perhaps 100 cubic centimeters may be drawn off for centrifuging from a total volume of 2 liters. The amount and fineness of the material thrown down in the centrifuge will depend on the time of centrifuging and the speed of the machine. These should be adjusted after repeated trial and examinations of the suspended particles under the microscope. (See Briggs, Martin, and Pearce (117).) However, as the standards for “ clay,” “ silt,” etc., are purely arbitrary any investigator may, for his particular pur- poses, adopt his own, as by deciding on a period of centrifuging which will in every case clear the water of particles of visible size. The centrifuging completed, the clay water is decanted off into one evaporating dish, and the silt in each tube is washed out with a fine jet of water into another. These are dried in the oven. Care should be used to avoid weighing either the clean dishes or dishes containing this fine material when the general humidity is very high. The amount of silt and clay in the evaporators having been determined, the total amount for the whole sample is readily cal- culated. 6. The quantities have now been determined in nine grades, and the percentage of the whole which each grade represents may be readily computed. The several percentages may be entered on the form for “Summary of Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil” (p. 134). [t will be noted in the following kéy that no grade coarser than coarse sand is mentioned. In analyses made by the Bureau of Soils it is customary to pass the material through the 2-millimeter sieve before sampling and to base all calculation on the total weight of this “fine earth”; that is, material not coarser than fine gravel. In forest soils coarser material is too commonly met with to be ignored, and its importanee from certain points of view may be as great as 126 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that of the soil proper. It is believed, however, to be desirable to describe the soil in such manner as to denote separately the presence of a coarse: matrix and a finer soil occupying its interstices. Thus if rocks or gravel formed more than 10 per cent of the mass we might speak of the soil as a “rocky medium sand” or a “gravelly loam.” In this event the fine gravel and finer material should be considered as constituting 100 per cent when using the following key: CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS ON MECHANICAL ANALYSIS. Soils containing — 20 silt and clay: Coarse sand_ _____-.____ «25+ very coarse sand and coarse sand and less than 50 any other grade. Se Gee? iso 2 a ea era ey oe 25-+ very coarse sand, coarse and me- dium sand, and less than 50 fine sand. Fine sand___ os 50+ fine sand, or — 25) verye coarse sand, coarse and medium sand. Very fine sand__________ = ___ 50+ very fine sand. = Soils containing 20 to 50 silt and clay: Sandy loam___ Mee s _ 25+ very coarse sand, coarse and medium sand. iDibae Geumdhy Nopimesee See 50+ fine sand or —25 very coarse sand, coarse and medium sand. SS Din Ghiye Cl Any eas a EY ee ee — 20 silt. Soils containing 50+ silt and clay: Gopal ee 20) Gla, = BY Sill: Silt loam ——-—_ sei Ee _ — 20 clay, 50+ silt. Cla yao areas tae el a See ee 20 to 30 clay, — 50 silt. Niltysclaysloam==252 = esse 20 to 30 clay, 50+ silt. (SR yes ei ee eee ee 30+ clay. THE DETERMINATION OF HUMUS. The amount of humus in the soil, which plays an important part in the water relations and may also be an important source of nutrients, may be determined in two general ways: 1. By ignition, taking no account of the degree of decomposition of the organic matter, and always involving some error through the evaporation of water which may exist in several forms in oven-dried soils. 2. By extraction of the humified portion of the organic matter with ammonia, and its subsequent ignition. It should be realized that these two methods produce entirely different results and, in fact, they have distinct purposes. On the one hand, the total organic matter is of interest because of its bear- ing on the water-holding properties of the soil, and in this connection the total loss on ignition is probably as expressive as any other meas- ure, though in soils containing large quantities of carbonates some correction must be made for their breakdown. It is, however, a RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 127 misnomer to call this a “ humus determination.” On the other hand, the amount of humified material is important as a possible source of nitrogen, it being, according to Hilgard (125), “ wholly uncertain to what extent the unhumified material will ultimately become humus, from the nitrification of which plants are presumed to chiefly derive their nitrogen.” Loss on ignition. Loss on ignition, as has been said, may be of interest in connection with water-holding properties. It is readily determined by placing approximately 100 grams of the soil in a shallow earthen or platinum dish, in which it will first be oven-dried and weighed and then heated to red heat in a gasoline or electric oven, with a moderate current of air passing over it. Providing lumps have been broken down at the outset, the oxidation may usually be completed in an hour. After this the sample is again weighed, the ignition loss is calculated, and the percentage of loss is based on the oven-dry weight of the sample. In the case of soils containing considerable lime or magnesium car- bonate, the error through the breaking down of these on ignition may be largely eliminated by a preliminary treatment with dilute hydro- chloric acid, as in the humus extraction method. The ammonia-soluble humus. The ammonia-soluble humus, or matiére noire of Grandeau (122), is the aim of all of the more recent methods of extraction. Lime and magnesia are first removed by washing the soil with dilute hydro- chloric acid. Grandeau mixed the washed soil with coarse sand and placed it in a funnel at the bottom of which were fragments of glass or porcelain. The whole mass was then moistened with dilute ammonia and allowed to digest for three or four hours, after which the solution was washed through with water or water containing a little ammonia. The filtrate was then evaporated to dryness, weighed, ignited in a platinum dish, and weighed again. The loss on ignition is the measure of the extractable humus. The residue is termed humus ash. Hilgard * modified the Grandeau method by placing the soil in a paper filter, covering it with a disk of filter paper, and here perform- ing both the acid washing and the ammonical extraction. The latter is accomplished with 4 per cent ammonia water until the filtrate comes through colorless. Others have attempted to improve on Hilgard’s method in order to expedite the/process; but, as shown by Alway, Files, and Pinckney (101), they have introduced serious error through including in the ammoniacal extract considerable amounts of colloidal clay which, on In Bulletin 38, Bureaw of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, 189%. 128 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ignition, suffers a loss of water. The experience of the writers in- dicates that the sand filter devised by Grandeau, with also the paper filter used by Hilgard, will come nearest holding the colloids in the soil. Such as are likely to escape will have passed the filter by the time the acid treatment is complete. In the case of the coarser forest soils the addition of sand is wholly unnecessary. Alway suggests the recording of the humus ash percentage as well as the humus as a means of detecting the errors which commonly enter into this determination. CAPILLARY CONDUCTIVITY. As has been frequently pointed out in the discussion of the mois- ture problems, the rate at which a plant is able to obtain water from the soil particles with which the roots are in actual contact may have an important bearing on the wilting coefficient for the whole soil mass, and may, in turn, depend largely on the facility with which the mois- ture travels from one soil particle-to another when there is unequal distribution. Thus, a clean sand is generally understood to have the highest conductivity (whether because of the close contact between the particles or because of the clearness of the spaces between the iarger particles, is not known), while clay in the soil seems to impede this movement, probably because of absorption, and humus apears to retard the movement, possibly by breaking the contacts between the mineral particles. The whole subject of capillary conductivity appears to have been thrown into confusion in recent years by practical findings, especially in connection with the study of moisture supplies in the arid farming regions of the West. In brief, it has been found that in certain lo- calities the soil is never moistened to a greater depth than, say, 10 feet, by precipitation; that the moisture which goes beyond the depth of ordinary crop roots is never brought toward the surface by capillary action, and hence is lost for practical purposes; that fallow- ing with the object of storing moisture in the deep soil is therefore useless. Buckingham (116) and McLaughlin (132) have apparently made the most exhaustive studies of the movement of soil moisture; and it may be said that these investigations confirm the practical con- clusion that when the mean moisture content is very low and the difference in moisture between two points is slight, the rate of move- ment from the moister to the drier point is negligible. These, of course, are the conditions to be dealt with as the wilting coefficient is approached, and it is somewhat relevant to remark that there is no evidence against the ordinary conception of capillary move- ment when the amount of moisture in the soil is considerable. It is true, however, that this movement is very slow upward—that is, against the force of gravity. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 129 eee deine only that which is particularly relevant to the prob- lem, it was found by Buckingham that considerably different types of soil show about the same capillary flow under the same con- ditions. A moist and a dry layer of soil were, in these experiments, placed one above the other in direct contact. The amount transferred from the moister to the drier soil in a given time was found to depend almost wholly on their original difference in moisture content; fur- thermore, the greater part of this transfer was accomplished in a very short time. A great many methods have been devised for showing the rate of movement of water in soils; but none of these, so far as known, is readily standardized or will produce closely comparable results on duplication with the same soil. This is because the granulation of the soil has an important influence on the capillary forces set up. In view oi this difficulty, no procedure can be suggested which is more likely to produce reliable comparative data than the following: After the completion of the moisture equivalent determination on the centrifugal machine, all water having been extracted which is subject to the force employed (whether this be 100 gravity or 3,000 gravity), and the soil being then in a state of compactness which is somewhat close to a standard, add to the unit volume of-soil a small standard amount of water, say 10 cubic centimeters; as soon as this has been absorbed in the surface centrifuge again for short periods until the amount added has been extracted, determining the time for this unit process. This should be a measure of the resistance offered by the soil to the passage of a unit amount of water through a unit distance (the distance may be somewhat variable, but correction may be made directly). It would be unwise to leave this very open subject without ref- erence to the possibilities of the electrical conductivity method; for, as Buckingham (116) has shown, there is a close correlation between the conditions affecting electrical conductivity and those affecting water conductivity in a given soil. It would seem that there is also a chance for correlation between heat conductivity and water con- ductivity. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS FOR NUTRIENTS. It may be said that almost nothing is known as to the quantitative requirements of most plants for the nutrient materials obtainable from the soil with the soil water, and little enough as to the elements which in greater or less quantity are essential for growth. The lack of knowledge with respect to trees is especially glaring,”® little atten- “” The writers do not ‘consider ‘the evider nce obt: ine .d by the examination of leaf ash and other similarly crude methods, even as convincing evidence of qualitative require . ments. 82769—22 9 130 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tion having been paid to the subject because of the almost universal belief that the requirements of trees are satisfied by almest any soil. That this is probably true of such trees as the pines is evidenced by their adherence to light, sandy soils. In fact, rather low require- - ments may be assumed for all of the evergreens on theoretical grounds, because of the fact that the green, functioning parts are of long life and the main product, cellulose, is a purely organic compound. Ecologically speaking, evidence of any direct part played by soil fertility in the distribution of species. and especially of forest trees, is rarely found. This may be partly explained by the fact that forest soils are usually young and potentially fertile, so that other characteristics, especially water-holding capacity, come into greater prominence. Much careful work must be done, however, to deter- mine where and when soil fertility becomes an important ecological factor. Much difference of opinion exists as to how the fertility of the soil should be measured. There is potential fertility in practically all of the soil mass except the silicon, and actual available fertility only in those substances which are currently in solution with the - soil water. As has been pointed out, notably by Hoagland (127), the quantity of all substances in solution varies not only with the drain upon these substances by plants, but with the quantity of the soil water. For practical purposes these substances may be said to be soluble only to a limited extent. The ordinary complete quantitative analysis of a soil involves the treatment of all of the mass susceptible to chemical action, with a view to discerning potential fertility.. In some young soils, espe- cially if formed in situ, these potentialities may be arrived at by the experienced person through examination of the mother rock. Where there is any question, however, the ordinary investigator, because of the great amount of equipment and technique involved, should refer samples for analysis to some well-equipped laboratory, such as that of the Bureau of Soils in Washington. Four or five pounds of the soil are required for complete anaylsis. The samples should be thor- oughly air-dried when taken from the ground, freed of rocks, and shipped either in jars or in heavy canvas sacks from which the fine materia] will not be lost. To obtain a measure of the total soluble salts readily available in the soil solution, where the chemical make-up of the soil is gen- erally known, or may be assumed to be adequate for all needs, ex- traction of the solutes by leaching may be employed. For com- parative purposes, the amount which may be extracted with five volumes of distilled water (1 liter for 200 grams of soil) will serve as well as a more thorough extraction. The soil is placed on a RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 131 paper filter, in a 6-inch funnel, and the water is poured on to it, a few cubic centimeters at a time, through a period of 24 hours. Be- fore the soil has thoroughly settled, some clay is likely to pass through the filter. This is eliminated by pouring on to the soil a second time the first 100 cubic centimeters of water which passes through. When all of the water has drained out, the solution may be partly boiled away and allowed to cool, when the suspended matter will largely flocculate and may be removed by a second fil- tering. The clear solution is then evaporated in a weighed por- celain dish. Solutes varying in amount from 20 to 1,500 parts per million of the soil weight are ordinarily found in such extracts. This subject has been investigated in great detail by King (129). For the purpose of ecology, qualitative analyses showing the pres- ence in some quantity of the elements and compounds known to be essential, may often be all the chemical evidence that is required to throw the burden upon some other environmental condition. Fol- lowing Osborn (135), who has rather recently given a summary of the evidence on this subject, the investigator may look for: 1. Nitrogen (in the form of nitrates), as an essential constituent of proptoplasm, required in large quantities when the proteins are being produced, as in seed formation. Nitrogen is itself practically useless without nitrifying agencies in the soil, so that the presence of humus is not absolute proof of the abundance of nitrates. Nitrogen in certain forms may also, as shown by Schreiner and Skinner (138), inhibit plant growth. This is a subject of great complexity. 2. Phosphorus, as an essential of the nuclei of cells. 3. Iron, as an essential of protoplasm, and playing an important part in the formation of chlorophyll. A lack of iron in available form is quickly shown in yellowing or “ chlorosis ” of foliage. 4. Magnesium, as a constituent of the chloroplasts. 5. Sulphur, required for forming proteins. 6. Potassium, probably as a regulator of life phenomena through chemical reactions. 7. Chlorine, commonly present in plants and probably functioning in metabolism. It is with a view to detecting the lack of some of these substances that the following simple tests are enumerated, requiring the mini- mum of laboratory equipment and technical skill. The sample of air-dried soil which is to be examined should be placed in a glass jar and distilled water added to the amount of five to eight times the volume of the soil. After about five minutes the solution may be used. One hundred cubic centimeters of the solution may be tested qualitatively for chlorine. For this purpose, to the soil solution 132 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, should be added one or two drops of potassium chromate (K,Cr,O,) solution and titrated from a dropper by a weak solution of silver nitrate (AgNO,). If chlorine is present it will be precipitated as silver chloride. The test for chlorine can be made also more simply by taking some of the soil solution in a test tube and adding silver nitrate solution. For tests of the presence of other chemical substances which may be of importance in the life of plants, the following procedure is suggested : Three hundred cubic centimeters of the soil solution are poured into a porcelain dish and slowly evaporated, the drying being con- tinued almost to red heat in order to burn any organic matter. If the organic matter is not burned up in the porcelain dish contain- ing the dry residue, aqua regia 1s added and the liquid evaporated to dryness at least twice. The residue is then heated to red heat in order to render the silicic acid insoluble. The soluble residue is dissolved by heating in a weak solution of hydrochloric acid, and the liquid is filtered off from the white amorphous residue of the acid. The filtrate is collected into a graduate and water is added to bring it up to 300 cubic centimeters. Of this the following amounts are taken for further tests: 1. One hundred cubic centimeters for determining the entire amount of Fe,O, (ferric oxide)+P,O0, (phosphorus pentoxide) + Al,O, (aluminum oxide)-+CaO (calcium oxide)-+MgO (magnesium oxide). The solution is neutralized with sodium carbonate (Na,CO,) until some cloudiness appears, then from 5 to 10 cubic centimeters of sodium acetate (NaC,H,O,) are added and the solution is heated ; the entire amount of ferric oxide and aluminum oxide will be pre- cipitated in the form of basic acetates. These are filtered off. The filtrate is heated and neutralized with ammonia (NH,) until an alkaline reaction is obtained, then 1 or 2 cubic centimeters of am- monium chloride (NH,Cl) and ammonium oxalate (NH,), (COO), are added. The calcium is precipitated and is filtered off. To the filtrate, after it has been cooled off, are added several cubic centimeters of sodium ammonium phosphte (NH,NaHPO,), and it is left to stand for several hours. If magnesium is present it will be precipitated. 2. One hundred cubic centimeters for determining SO, (sulphur trioxide). For this determination the 100 cubic centimeters are heated and to the solution are added several drops of barium chloride (BaCl,). If SO, is present, it should precipitate in the form of barium sul- phate (BaSO,). If it is not precipitated at once, the solution to RESEARCH. METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 133 which barium chloride has been added is left to stand for several hours. 3. One hundred cubic centimeters for determining P,O, (phos- phorus pentoxide). In order to determine the presence of phosphorus pentoxide (P,O0,), 100 cubic centimeters of the solution is neutralized with ammonia until an odor is perceived, the solution is made acid by the addition of weak nitric acid (HNO,), and to such acid solution there is added from 10 to 15 cubic centimeters of molybdic acid (H,MoO,). A qualitative test for ferric oxide can be made in the water solu- tion of the soil by hydrochloric acid. Some hydrochloric acid is added, together with several drops of potassium sulpho cyanide (KSCN). A pink, or often bright red, color will indicate the pres- ence of ferric oxide in the solution. When the soil is rich in ferrous oxides, their presence can be readily ascertained by dropping directly upon the soil some of the potassium ferricyanide (K,Fe(CN),) solu- tion which with the ferrous oxides gives a blue color. The form for the “ Summary of Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil” is provided with a number of blank spaces in which the results of qualitative or quantitative tests for various salts may be entered. 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 105 BULLETIN 134 Se Gee bs. eae | Ae real omen el OE Spee eae Reni yo Ae ieee haa Pragiems eet (USNS let aie es he A Hee \ ar aeslhen ay sis eemmenen e el cee sig pase ee cen esaae rem ania pe oes ona Remeasnead Sisistere's cle ayn Batson Baa eo eat a efron tec etec|aneeerdece|eeceec ec ec[ecececereeleececcecee|eencnerse sree ec ececqycees haa rater tara ieoaes he Sto clweeeeauacs wene|etec ences efnccecccrenlecscetcees|aecseececelecscesecesleseereeeceleceeceecsctcsersecenyeces auppanncedlodheoaboac lado opcedballbonnsnSapelopacnauesn snueesacce auodeountel oonoaasidce lasooscas ve)eeereceeea|eee eres ee reree ss sgogzing pout (2) (sishtey 10 smexa | oy of, % % % % % % % poseq eureU (S[IOg Jo Inq) prepueyS VATH) eidures Gy a pues pues pues. pues Jeavi3 JeARis 5100 fi qideq eyrq 129430 4Y310M 10 HS ouy AloA| oul uInIpeyy | es1v0p oul aS1V00, HOO [840.1 ayeq :—————-. fq ope (9) poen poyVeWL ‘SISATVNY 'IVOINVHOGW 1% MN Ty Gs pyiroos Vs Pye 202 Opp OS OPEL 90BJINS ‘(¢) pesn poyJOW SAT AT INALNOD saWwaA_ (,, OS(NS,, UI0.1J poySINsuUTASTp SB ,,]10S,, Jo YZdop sozBoIpuISsIgy,) ‘“SoyouT—-— JO]oOo Aq poJvoIpuUTSe ‘[IOS [BIOUTUL UT SnuINyY Jo uoT}eI}9N0T ‘Soyour 304411 908M Jo yydeq :snuny *(F) JOFOD ‘oIN4STOUL YIM BUTTZIOS 10 SUTT[OMS ‘o1qety Jo AWOTYS ‘osie0d 10 ou “[IOs Jo 01N4x04 [BIO ‘(@) SUOTJV[NUIMIO’ [VS 10 BUTYOBO] JO VDUEPIA TT | [los-qns Aq po}oIpUl SUOTIIpUOD sdeUTeIC “43 ——— ‘(Z) JOA9] 914 B} IIB AA OAOGV UOTYRAOTO { qoodse 1% adojg :Aydevis0do04 Aq poxeolpul suoMtpuoo eseurelq ioralnede ebgeeatcre ats Sic 7 2 > (T) [los Jo o38 pus UTSTIO OIdOON4) % ‘Trosqns £% ‘tos ‘sxo01 Aq potdnooo voeds j1os Jo uotys0doid ‘4007 [los e[qvoursed Jo yydep [eqog, “NOILVNINVX®, GTA yoolorg ! 48010 i ——_—__--—____—— fiq :-—6I —— aqop ‘paurunua “oWo INO YyunUb ee —— ‘0N7 uounj}g :———_———_- ———_——_ adi, ‘JIOS HO SHLLYAdOUd 'IVOINHHO GNV TVOISAHd JO AYUVWWAS ['4oAang [eorsdyg ‘eorAsog ysol0,7 “SQ ] *"g W110, 135 RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. ———9}8q : *(8) ‘SISKIVNY 'IVOISAHG oe % % 6 % % % % % % ape d : #1) JeqeuT c) arnioeat: . fyppy .|(St) 4a9MeAIV| gqnosteon | aed 4q spew “SISKIVNY TVOINGHO SSD Ebon SOE Se coe SOG Geeta Oe ol GBEeeee SOS BOSORAPO a Maer nec sre ict ase aml eotac Seria ISaecreeeee cael is eee gs ae seeeeseeee|seeeeteees|eeeseeeeseeepog Eptog tote Bieccat teenies tne ee am ha | bade ce ake ga Ie ode oh rae | oan: Sear gee | eR a or gl | ome ake ens oranl| oe, A agency asl pe mele tee sepa cei tins | ne ge oe toe leans Sini>im mie) S slaniainn soe ei = Sees |e 4y°**> TrosTeuwnNo |->*"<"~ > OSE a kee ass Va =a ey cae Tp naa cat Ue eee arc Kp ear peril ee ea a ey bebe ie i (Cy SO Rc S| Pega Sool faa yo °** ‘os TeuTUO seer eee ii ahaa oh | ae iene | co eae Reta [eg eben, wes gamete at [eine Git al| a matey “cca emerges Mopac mon Mee Sh wel Le | Ag) ante mak Prien eeengte dee eet aS ae ee ees hee Sl yy {os TeusUO > a weer wets ele ee ee ea santa seen esswelie ee ee ase eleeeeeeseweleeseesesaeie sees sees aimee eeecreasl|eseasemweeslsaees eee ees nesses esssieseeeee eee a eesesseesineseseeeesiconce ay >>> ‘Tos TeuBuo ~eeeee ee SB AS a eae (eae AI aE katt IR at || i a ie iad (leh lea OA QOBJIMS ‘OS[TBUIGNQ ~~ "*77 7” a soynurar | WUPE | WoUuTps | Wour4qst if : ) -diosqe | 98H | Sa TEES Pou; Sefoeds | eed % of % Go Jo} %(g) [810.L, % oer | 2TUPTB | A) goed! fared “SON 1840 ‘ ‘ t ie O) AY Mu < N iL soynurur ‘oy’e1 ‘qouy Aysueq (ID)(10 0) me] fa () “#9 00R eounos pus yadeq aidures : : I “BIN}RS (eT) Ayqvours6 7 % (IN JO N)(ZI) 109 BA\ OTquTTBABUON Aq ope 1386 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY OF SOILS DISCUSSION. The preceding discussion has attempted to bring out the theoreti- cal considerations which make the study of soils very important in forestry, from the standpoint of initiation of seedlings, later com- petition between individuals and species, and the rate and ultimate limit of height growth on any particular site. In the main all other soil conditions have been considered in their bearing on the supply of soil moisture. In view of the length of the discussions, it would appear desirable to repeat the salient points, as follows: 1. It is believed that from every ecological aspect the important soil condition is the availability of the soil moisture. 2. Plans for the study of this soil condition have been based on the assumption that the relation between the plant and the soil in which it grows can best be demonstrated if, at any time, the status of either may be expressed in terms of osmotic pressures. 3. The generally coarse character of forest soils, and the presence of rocks which are as characteristic as any other part of the soil and can not properly be eliminated, give rise to the need for special methods of examining forest soils, and particularly for methods adapted to larger samples of the soil than have commonly been used in agricultural investigations. 4. The total moisture of the soil, while not directly making possible the comparison of sites, if there be any variation in soil composition, must be had for most of the indirect methods of comparison; and in forest studies it must be determined periodically through one or more seasons in order to discover the conditions that are critical. The quantity may sometimes be found through ordinary methods of sam- pling and drying the soil samples; but often, because of mechanical difficulties, and to insure greater physical uniformity in the samples from time to time, it is desirable to have “ wells” of prepared soil from which successive samples will be taken. 5. If it seems desirable to compute the moisture of the natural soil from that found in a soil well, this may be done, at least approxi- mately, by comparison of the capillarities, moisture equivalents, and wilting coefficients of well soil and natural soil, respectively. It seems probable, however, that up to a high moisture content osmotic equi- hbrium is more lkely than capillary equilibrium between the well ~ and the natural soil, so that if the moisture of the former may be expressed in terms of osmotic pressures, it is unnecessary to compute the moisture of the soil. 6. For any study of the critical situations in soil moisture, either for seedlings or for older trees, it is necessary to know the wilting coefficient of each soil under consideration. The moisture content at which a plant may wilt, however, varies widely not only according to RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 137 physical properties of various soils, but also, for any given soil, ac- cording to the manner in which the test is conducted, the age and species of the plants employed, and, more important still, according to the atmospheric conditions at a time when the moisture supply is running low. In short, the wilting coefficient is dependent vary largely on the rate at which the plant must obtain water in order to balance losses. As the atmospheric conditions are difficult to control, and practically impossible to reproduce from time to time and place to place, it follows that wilting BUSING OU are empiric quantities and have no precise value. . It is probably very desirable that wilting tests should be con- Baa as a further check upon theory, and for the further establish- ment of relations between different species and different soils. Rela- tive values for different species and soils, of much value and interest, are to be obtained through simultaneous tests at any given point, and by such comparisons a scale of values either for soils or for species may eventually be built up. There are, however, indirect methods of arriving at the wilting coefficient which are not only desirable for practical purposes, but will add greatly to our understanding of the variations in wilting coefficients due to biological and environmental factors. 8. The study of the freezing of soil water, the study of the acquirement of moisture by soils when exposed to saturated vapor, and eyen the behavior of the soil water when subjected to an external mechanical force, all point to the fact that water may exist in the soil as a liquid, capable of more or less movement from one soil particle to another, or as a vapor;*' that is, as separate water molecules, held in place by the affinity of the solid particles, and thereby prevented from moving. All signs, too, point to the fact that, except possibly in soils of unusual alkalinity or acidity, the soil water is truly nonavailable only when it ceases to function as a liquid. While wilting cf plants may often occur with liquid water still available, this is readily accounted for by the slow rate of movement toward the roots, which become a probability, espe- cially in clay and humous soils, whenever the volume of water is not large. Water obviously moves much more readily in coarse than in fine or humous soils; and, as has been mentioned, the rate which may be fatal to a plant depends on the needs of the plant as determined by its losses. 9. While, therefore, no method has yet been devised by which the theoretical and exact wilting coefficient may be directly arrived at, any one of the methods mentioned in the ores ‘eding paragraph has its “It would, pe Eyam, be more descriptive of the kinetic status to speak of this as “solidified water” and it Js not certain that a wide separation of the molecules, as in vapor, is an essential part of the situation. 138 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. possibilities as an avenue of approach. Thus, by the freezing-point method the osmotic pressure of the soil solution corresponding to any given moisture content may be determined; and by several] trials, the point at which the soil water ceases to behave as a liquid, that is, ceases to show a definite. freezing point, may be determined quite closely. This water content is probably the term sought as a standard. The freezing-point method has one serious objection; namely, that it forbids keeping the soil during test in a natural state of compactness, or with a natural arrangement of the soil particles. The vapor transfer method has also many possibilities. In the ordinary determination of the hygroscopic coefficient the water vapor is probably not entirely saturated; and, in consequence, under certain empiric conditions of the test, there may be obtained in a limited time a limited absorption of vapor by the soil which was air-dry at the outset. The quantity absorbed, so far as the tests go bears a fairly constant relation to the wilting coefficient, the ratio of the two quantities being approximately 2:3. The objection to this method is that the conditions are purely empiric, and the quantity of soil treated is very small. By exposing soils to water vapor in a vapor-tight chamber, such as a bell jar, and in the presence of a solution of an active salt which represents a given osmotic pressure and vapor pressure, considerable masses of soil may, after a long period, be brought to vapor pres- sure equilibrium with the solution and with one another. The mois- ture content of each soil is then the “ osmotic equivalent ” of the con- trol solution, whose osmotic pressure is readily calculated. The osmotic pressure to exist at the end of the test may be in part con- trolled by calculations at the outset, and later by changing the con- trol solution. A solution, at the end of. the test, representing 50) atmospheres osmotic pressure, for example, might be taken as a standard for establishing osmotic equivalents in leu of wilting coeffi- cients. The objections to this method are the long time required to complete a test and the absolute need for a constant temperature, or at least for the elimination of rapid changes. The former objection is partly counterbalanced by the number of soils which may be treated simultaneously. In the moisture-equivalent determination, as so far conducted, the moisture of any soil is submitted to a definite centrifugal force which tends to separate it from the soil. Within the limits of agricultural types of soil, at least, the force of 1,000 gravity employed by Briggs and Shantz (114) appears to leave in the soils amounts of water which bear a nearly constant relation to the respective wilting co- efficients. Experiments with a force of 100 gravity have shown wide variations in results with different types of forest soils, indicat- ing that, as humus and clay proportions vary, both strong and weak RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 139 capillary tensions are set up, and these do not react in the same way on relatively large and very small quantities of water in the soil. ‘It appears, therefore, as suggested by Free (121), that the effective procedure is the employment of a variable force, sufficient in the case of any particular soil to extract all of the water which is extract- able. It seems probable that this quantity would correspond to all of the liquid water capable of moving from one part of the soil to another. The remaining water would probably correspond closely to the “unfree water” of Bouyoucos (106) and what in this bul- letin is termed “water vapor,” or water whose molecules are too rigidly held by solid substances to have the motility of quid mole- -cules. While this method is as yet untried and would obviously be more laborious than the present standardized procedure, possibly pre- ‘senting new mechanical difficulties, it promises so much as a direct and rapid means of determining a physical constant that it deserves “serious investigation. In the meantime the 1,000-gravity test should be employed as the basis for comparing the moisture conditions of various soils and in the detailed study of their wilting coefficients. 10. Once the wilting coefficient of a soil has been determined, di- rectly or indirectly, the current moisture condition may be expressed in terms of the percentage of available moisture or the available moisture per unit of soil volume, by subtracting the nonavailable moisture from the whole. The amount of water per unit of volume recommends itself particularly in comparing the conditions of open and dense forest stands, provided that the root extent of the indi- vidual tree has been investigated. Without such information, very wrong conceptions of the moisture supplies available to. the indi- vidual trees in different forest types are likely to be formed. 11. For the purpose of expressing the condition with which any individual plant is coping, particularly the conditions against which a seedling must struggle in times of drought, it is very desirable to reduce the water content of the soil to terms of availability. If it is assumed that the wilting coefficient stands for a definite osmotic pressure in the soil, with which the osmotic pressure in the plant is in equilibrium (this, of course, being only approximately true, as pointed out in paragraph 6, and being further subject to the condi- tions of the plant, as indicated in the following paragraph), then, when the moisture content is equal to the wilting coefficient, the availability of the soil water is 0. When the moisture content of the soil is twice as great as the wilt- ing coefficient, about twice the osmotic pressure may be expected in the plant asin the soil, and this should make possible a fairly definite rate of absorption by the plant. The availability at this point may be called 0.50. Similarly, when the moisture content is three times the wilting coefficient, the availability may be expressed as 0.67, It 140 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. should be understood that these are arbitrary terms, and that they only express relatively the conditions under which a given plant in a given soil may be obtaining its water from time to time, perhaps a little more clearly than these conditions can be expressed through the percentage of available water. 12. Finally, the plan of expressing the relation between the plant and its moisture supply currently and accurately through the osmotic pressure of each has been conceived. The difference in osmotic pres- sure in favor of the plant expresses the degree of control of the plant over its water supply; but, since the highest osmotic pressure in the plant is likely to be attained at that point which is farthest from the roots, where also the danger is greatest, it is evident that in considering the availability of water to this point there must be considered the distance through which the differential pressure must operate; or, in other words, the osmotic gradient, say, per centimeter of stem tissue, etc. This gradient will also be affected by gravity. As the coefficient of availability, therefore, a term has been proposed which brings these elements into their proper relations with definite values. Thus, _ P—P’—G ae h a formula which promises to be especially enlightening in studying the phenomena of growth in older trees, as they compete with one another and reach their limits of height for a given site. The value of AA is seen to fluctuate with each change caused by water loss or accretion in the region where P is determined, as well as with gradual changes in the conditions of the soil moisture. 13. The discussion has included other aspects of the soil, which, with the possible exception of nutrition, it is believed should be considered only as indicator aspects; that is, these aspects will only serve to explain the phenomena of soil moisture. They include al- kalinity or acidity, humus content, composition (as indicated by the sizes of the soil particles), and the capillary transporting power of the soil. 14. In the study of seedlings during their most critical periods of establishment—this being the period when the character of the plant society is most largely determined—it is believed that the percentage of available moisture within’ reach of the usually short roots is of primary importance. To determine this with any accuracy will be found difficult on account of the usually heterogeneous character of the soil layer that will be involved. The proper study requires: (a) Determination of root depth at each examination. It is through this determination that a distinction between species may be made. AA RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 141 (6) Selection of the soil sample at the point of maximum moisture content within the zone reached, which, of course, in the important periods of drought, will usually be the deepest point reached. (ec) Determination of whole moisture of each sample. (Zz) Determination of moisture equivalent of each sample, at least as a means for classification of unlike samples. (e) Retention of samples, with determinations of wilting coeffi- cients on typical classes, probably after the period of field observa- tions. In these determinations it will be well to compare the be- haviors of the two or more species involved. Tt is believed that, with tiny seedlings, the quantity of water usually required to maintain life is so small that the available volume may be left out of consideration. In other words, the samples may be practically point samples, seeking always the maximum available. Even this painstaking examination of soil moisture, however, may be futile without a record of the conditions conducive to water loss, particularly the temperature conditions at the surface of the soil. 15. Whenever, in a plant society, competition between individuals of the same or different species becomes a factor, the moisture prob- lem is different from that which confronts seedlings. In the forest there may be competition for moisture without keen competition for hight, but the two will usually be closely interrelated. In any ordi- nary situation the keenest competition for moisture occurs near the end of the growing season, when the reserve winter moisture has been exhausted and the current rate of use is in excess of the current accretion. Where this is the case the study of soil moisture may be restricted to a period of two or three months in the late part of the season. It is evident that, of two individuals on the same site, one may possess an advantage over the other through deeper rooting. It is therefore essential in each site studied to know the extent and depth of the roots of the plants under observation, and to sample the soil for moisture in accordance with a root map. If it should appear that two individuals in competition have essen- tially the same moisture supply, then it obviously becomes necessary to determine their respective relations to that supply by examination of their interna] conditions as affected by atmospheric conditions, light, etc. It is not sufficient in these circumstances to say that soil moisture is not a factor in the greater success of one than of the other. By measuring the osmotic pressures of the plants it may be found, for example, that the individual which is most exposed to light, wind, and other desiccating influences has a greater control over soil moisture than the near-by individual which is shaded and protected, and which, nevertheless, may die from the effects of 142 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. drought while the other thrives. Unless, then, it is desired to deal in generalities, and ascribe to one species certain characters which another does not possess, on the basis of general knowledge or pure assumption, it will be necessary in studying competition to go to the whole length prescribed for the determination of the coefficient of availability. 16. Much the same situation exists with respect to the study of the final character of the forest formation, its height, rate of growth, etc. The critical study of the moisture conditions in relation to ultimate height is of special importance in forestry because ultimate height, in forest management plans, is often taken as a criterion of the quality of the site; that is, its yield possibilities. Are the two things closely related? If the ultimate height is limited by drought conditions which occur only periodically, may not the yield possi- bilities be considerably greater or less than would be indicated by this measure, depending very much on the total water-holding capacity of the soil, etc.? Obviously such questions as these can be answered only after exhaustive study. This requires the establish- ment of permanent soil-moisture stations, the determination each year of the critical conditions that exist, and the use of the entire system that has been suggested for arriving at a measure of the true conditions. SPECIAL EQUIPMENT FOR SOIL MOISTURE AND SOIL QUALITY STUDY. Soil sieves: Standard soil sieves. Per set, about______ 22 AEs ale ee ee $10. 00 Soil borers: 3-foot soil borer, tube, with hammer Epp ME Uh ete Si aR ag Dep chee SU Oe! 9. 00: 6-foot soil borer, tube, with hammer__________ ps Sie i ere tage 11. 00 6-foot soil borer, auger handle hammer________-___ => 12. 00: Soil cans: Patent seamless, noncorrosive, tin soil cans— (35 per cent discount on above prices to United States Government. ) Soil sample cans, seamless tin, No. 9178 A— Capacity, OUuNnCeS== aes ae aS SINC! 8 16 Rew Cozens2 22 Nokes eee eet SEES 0322 $0. 33 $0. 55 Soil sample cans, aluminum, with screw tops— 2% inches in diameter by 2% inches high, unnumbered 9183, Ca chy Sante ih wee SN A Pee 25 With can cover numbered. (In ordering, state what numbers une GIGStRECl)) ~ ING, CileR ONS Cael S600) Soil sample can, aluminum, with aluminum top. The diameter of these cans is uniform, so that the cover fits the bottom of the can, RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 143 Soil cans—Continued. making it possible to-keep can and cover together while the can is open— INCH Sys Bs See 5 eR ep ear eee i 2 3 BRAT ET 1m CLC Seats a 2 eee 2 23 3s Height, inches________ os eae 3 i 2 TERY C)q Us 28 20 bale Niguel ee eat ae eee OL: $0.15 $0. 20 With can and cover numberec. (In ordering, state what numbers are desired.) Nowois4 oA seach]. 22h seer $0. 16 $0. 20 $0, 25 Aluminum soil cans, 24 by 23 inches, with screw tops— NeeAnvel entre Er yE IMC CMs ee ee ie ee oe Re $88. 00: Heavy yerht. pershundred= 92 2 see 45. 00, Cans. galvanized, 4 by 54 inches, for capillarity, moisture equiva- Phe awe CATIT GNEEL- Metal y WOLKS) =. ss 8 ee . 40: Drying ovens: ‘ About Hot-water bath, in various dimensions from 9 inches up________ $50. 00) and up. Blectric, Freas, type R No. 108, inside dimensions 16 by 14 by 16 inches, thermostat, thermometer, ete____________ = oo BAOOG: Hearson low temperature incubators, gas and electric heated, vari- FIPS SES Se Sa oe ae el ene eee in Fated RE A ea eh +_-___ 140 to 360. 00: Potentiometers and other electrical resistance apparatus. Water-retention cup, for determining the maximum water retained by soil, of brass 2 inches in diameter by § inch high, with diaphragm of perforated metal fastened about ze inch below top, No. 9295________ 0. 20 Capillary moisture pans: Hilgard’s small circular metal pans, about 1 centimeter high and 44 inches in diameter, with perforated bottoms for determining “capillary moisture” of soil, each_______ a i, Pah een ea iy 2 TEA RIE GY De EE eS ae AE A ie ee ol a 10. 00 Balances, glassware, reagents, etc. (Obtainable from all dealers in laboratory supplies. ) ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY. The humidity of the atmosphere is directly reflected in any such yater-containing object as the leaf of a plant, in which there is a constant tendency to come into vapor-pressure equilibrium with the atmosphere, usually through evaporation but in rare circumstances through absorption. The point of equilibrium between the leaf and the atmosphere will be better understood by considering the discus- sion which has preceded, in reference to osmotic pressures. Although this constant tendency is nearly always causing the loss of water from plants, the humidity of the atmosphere alone can not be taken as a measure of the “evaporation stress,” or rate of evapo- ration, depending on the wind movement which aids in diffusion of vapor, and the heat supply, principally from sunlight. For this rea- son, when a direct measure of the evaporation stress is possible through the use of some form of atmometer, ecological studies will not require the measurement of atmospheric humidity ex- cept in a somewhat perfunctory manner, as a means of detecting 144 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. errors in evaporation records, or possibly for comparing conditions locally studied with stations for which there is no evaporation rec- ord, but which maintain a complete record of wind movement, sun- shine duration, and humidity. In such an event it may be possible to work out a fairly constant relation between the evaporation from any given type of atmometer, and a combination of these other con- ditions, properly integrated, in the general relation of: EL (4) =(Wind movement plus saturation deficit) sunshine. The term “ vapor pressure” expresses the weight per cubic foot, or the pressure, in centimeters of mercury, of the vapor currently in the atmosphere. The term “saturation deficit” expresses the lack of vapor pressure, or the difference between the existing vapor pressure and that which the atmosphere would contain at the current temperature if the space were saturated with water vapor. The “ dew point” indicates the temperature at which the existing vapor would condense; or, in other words, the temperature at which the existing vapor weuld produce a condition of saturation. It is readily seen, then, that the saturation deficit~is the difference between saturation pressure for the current dry-bulb temperature, and saturation pres- sure for the temperature of the current dew point. The term “ rela- tive humidity ” expresses, as a percentage, the relation between the existing vapor and that which might be present if the space were saturated at the current air temperature. The dew-point figure is used only incidentally in computing vapor pressure, saturation deficit, or relative humidity. Of the three, experience in a number of forest ecological studies has shown that the saturation deficit is by far the most useful, giving, as it does without further reference to temperature conditions, a direct measure of the capacity of the atmosphere for more vapor, and hence, in some degree, a measure of the rate at which evaporation will take place. The psychrometer, consisting of a pair of thermometers mounted on a frame in such manner as to be readily whirled in order to accelerate evaporation, is the common instrument for determining atmospheric humidity. One of the thermometers is covered with a layer of cloth (preferably linen), which is dipped in clean water before making the exposure. ‘The evaporation of this water cools the thermometer, or, as the expression is, causes “a depression of the wet bulb;” and the maximum depression which it is possible to produce by vigorous movement of the instrument through the air, taken with the current temperature, is considered to give a measure -of the atmospheric humidity. Tables have been worked out, after experiment, for almost all possible combinations of air temperatures and wet-bulb depressions, showing the corresponding dew points and relative humidities. Of these the best-known in this country RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 145 are the “Psychrometric Tables” of the United States Weather Bureau, contained in its Bulletin 235, These have been worked out for barometric pressures of 30, 29, 27, and 23 inches. In accordance with American custom, vapor pressures are given in inches of mercury. Through the courtesy of the Weather Bureau, it is possi- ble to produce in the Appendix an additional Table of vapor pres- sures for a mean barometer of 21.42 inches, prepared by B. C. Kadel for the special use of the Wagon Wheel Gap Experiment Station, at an elevation of 9,300 feet. This table will doubtless be of con- siderable assistance in ecological studies in the western mountains. The vapor pressure may also be determined very quickly and precisely by means of dew-point apparatus and a table of satura- tion pressures corresponding to various temperatures. This appa- ratus is, however, far less convenient for field use than the psychrometer. The ideal record of Eesoiaiby is, of course, one which shows the atmposheric condition for every hour of the day. Theoretically, this is obtained by the use of the hair hygrograph; but, actually, the instrument is of very little use. The atmospheric conditions are measured in terms of relative humidity, which fluctuates rapidly with every change in air tem- perature. The record must then be transposed, in conjunction with the continuous temperature record, into terms of absolute humidity and saturation deficit, before it can have much value. Furthermore, the hygrograph is probably the least reliable and accurate of the automatic instruments commonly used. Since the absolute humidity or vapor pressure usually does not change through a wide range in a short time, but shows a general tendency to increase as the air warms and to decrease with the cooling at night, it is possible to determine a fairly satisfactory mean humidity for any day (except of course during general disturbances) by means of two or three observations with the psychrometer. For example, the hours of 7 a. m.,1 and 7 p. m., have been used, or 7 a. m., 2 and 9 p.m. After hourly observations for a few days at any season and point, it should be possible to select one or more con- venient hours when, in the ordinary sequence of events, the mean humidity of the day may be approximately measured, either at each observation, or through averaging unlike valuations. As has been suggested, the absolute humidity varies less than the relative humid- ity or saturation deficit. Therefore, for calculating the mean sat- uration deficit for the day it is logical to arrive first at the mean vapor pressure, and then, after calculating the mean temperature for the whole period, to obtain the saturation deficit by deduction. 82769—22——_10 146 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. If only one psychrometer reading a day is feasible, both the wet and the dry bulb reading may be entered in the first columns of the “ Humidity, Wind, and Evaporation” form, and the relative humid- ity, vapor pressure, and saturation deficit calculated therefrom may be set opposite. When several readings are made each day, it is suggested that the calculated vapor pressures be recorded on the form for “ Hourly (Air, Soil, or Actinograph) Temperatures” for their appropriate hours, and that only the mean vapor pressure be recorded on the “ Humidity, Wind, and Evaporation” form. The relative humidity, vapor pressure, and saturation deficit should be averaged by decades and months. The means by months, the year, and the growing season, should be shown on the annual “Summary ” form. INSTRUMENTS. Psychrometer, sling, standard Weather Bureau pattern; aluminum backs; polished hardwood handles; double-length connections ; 2 glass tubes, exposed, mercurial thermometers, 9 inches long; stem-graduated and figure on glass for each 10 degrees; Fahren- heitzorrzcentrerad es. a eee Pepe eee a ae set Ost, QOS OD) Whirling apparatus, stationary, complete (without thermometers) _ 18. 50 Cog psychrometer, Thermometers about 4% inches long, reading = etOVOQe AG eoINOM L280 5 Sites aes eee es See eee 4.50 Hygrograph (or self-registering hygrometer) complete with a year’s supply blank forms. No. 58—B, pen and ink ti soe 80. 00 WIND MOVEMENT. Wind movement may be effective upon plants both directly and indirectly; that is, through mechanical breakage, windfall, etc., and through its influence upon evaporation and transpiration. While mechanical injury to trees by wind seems to be a less im- portant factor in American forests than in those of Europe, judged by the literature on the subject, the problem of windfalls is one of ever-growing importance as forestry is extended and thought 1s given to the conservation of that portion of the stand which is not now merchantable or is needed as a guarantee of future reproduction. A recent article by Weidman (150) and several other articles that might be cited have shown the importance of the problem and the desirability of a great many more wind records than are now avail- able for our forest regions, if the problem is to be scientifically solved. Perhaps this is a far cry from ecology. Yet a disturbance in the forest which is capable of starting a new succession is certainly of some ecological significance, at least after it has occurred. Wind movement has without doubt a very marked effect on evapo- ration; and, in addition, the moving air may be either a source of heat or a means of dissipating the heat of sunlight, as suggested by RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 147 ‘Bates (145) in discussing the actual measure of heat available for use in the plant. The first of these influences may be practically ignored, as was the case with humidity, if there is available a record which has integrated all the factors in evaporation. It is believed, however, that most ecological studies will be found deficient if the record of wind movement is not obtained. To obtain a record of wind movement in the forest which may cause mechanical injury, the anemometer should undoubtedly be placed almost at the tops of the tree crowns, where the most severe winds will be encountered. A strong support is needed to prevent loss of record at the most critical times. In the study of reproduction and of other shall plants, it may even be necessary to dig a pit for the stem of the anemometer in order that the cups may be close to the ground surface. The standard Robinson anemometer is the most practical instru- ment for all outside work. Because of a friction factor, it underrates wind of low velocity such as is often characteristic of the forest floor, and shghtly overrates the high velocities. The amount of wind move- ment may be read on the dial of the instrument to tenths of miles, and the anemometer may also be electrically connected to a register so as to give a record of each mile of wind movement. Because it records no less than a mile of wind movement, the Robinson ane- mometer is not wholly satisfactory from the standpoint of mechani- cal injury to trees. It is possibly more true in mountainous regions than elsewhere that the winds of greatest velocity are gusty, and it seems likely that the gusts of only a few seconds’ duration may have at least twice the mean velocity recorded for whole miles. While daily or more frequent readings of the anemometer dial may be suffi- cient where a definite use of the wind record can not be foreseen, in many cases the occurrence of maximum and minimum velocities, the movement by day and by night, ete., as obtainable from the electri- cally operated register, will be desired. Since the current required for operation is only 2 or 3 volts, connection with the anemometer in the field may be made with the crudest sort of conductors, using wire fences, or insulated wire laid on the ground. In this way the register may be in a protected place and receive due attention. Apparently the only apparatus capable of recording momentary high velocities is the Dines pressure-tube anemometer, the use of which in the forest is hardly feasible. Wind vanes with connections and registering device are obtain- able, and may possibly be desired at one station in a locality. There is, however, no ecological significance in wind direction; and if there were, it is probable that a single observation on prevailing direction each day and night would be amply sufficient. BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 148 a { — 8 L 8 B L Oa A sare IS SE ee ea EH Cel faa Ps de ale cee al ee cage atte e e “-uveul “09d eRe ee eos ees ee | ere | ee ee ane eee ale ee Ak | Sees aC mae Cue re cone agree Tel geet Wo Se Wee ees 0Z oe ee ere re ee ele i GC ee ha oe ele le De eS eo Seip | epee reek (retinal pote [eae rece Dhl lNeeae ee ata lee ceNen | Pe nea Pon Ne eat eas. lpi aot wall resus Alen < (OOH ik ee INCE pee om ais, ont peenl tee tea ee tga ley army eg 8T si SSS | eee teers See ale Sa SE me Sach Se ae at laguna eae dL gnc eh oe pena Vee oe es meme collie Sse As Ue eet Ls ei call ey ots eal teat e es At Sediats EUs ose HBel kes Sep 8 So Go Shoe A fe eee Sa LS al er eee Ine ek es el cuenta vee Rvs Wags Gael i aesaeaee Ss Pea recline eal eka na ele apes oT ee i i ee ey Oe GeO Dei Bi ii iis fii ain ie bomen es bein mer nl bey ee enw ew xe aRsoe ‘ oe - sf aes ope a ieee Rese el pbisaSeal teeta] iano a HOB SAE |[Bola ea Mel oar ein Sil GES ae lege meas Pea aS fe ge Le sa eee ee be rae eee lh ee cd eke ai ane Coan pe Sic ae | Wk pe a koa vL < peavdulpRasee A Poco S oq losadacpals seer ed loee leis sa matress aero ese desoe [ange erg Lara tee Lae Gos em Ate Ui ea aigd Be ees re Us |e ee ak er eI aceasta ein al legs cool ee eee en nA! ayer Be seers Cac ce nia aah. a avateit «|e > oe 1 2s Tea Vela to yy ene Mee aces pane vanelrne| Pg dee | SRA ee [pier Mee (S| ye Wi ell oe aS oe | BAMNOUnt SINCE ASLIOD ss. - = s|se% ae APPENDICES. APPENDIX A. VAPOR PRESSURE TABLES—WAGON WHEEL GAP, COLORADO. The accompanying table for obtaining vapor pressures from reading of the dry and wet bulb thermometers was computed by Mr. B. C. Kadel for a pres- sure of 21.42 inches, from the Ferrel psychrometric formula used by the Weather Bureau: U-=32 in which ¢ and ¢’ are the temperatures of the dry and wet bulb thermometers in degrees Fahrenhe t, B is the barometric pressure in inches, e’ is the satura- tion pressure of aqueous vapor at the temperature t’ of the wet bulb, and e is the vapor pressure corresponding to the thermometer readings. The constants of the formula were determined by Profs. Hazen and Marvin, of the United States Weather Bureau. aa P=7 89549. Tasie 8.— Values of 0.000367 p(i+4 + Z) when P=21.42 inches, log. 0.000367 1 | —32 t’ | i7l log. +7.89549 | Product. eS | wats ees Pe —35..... 0. 95736 9. 98107 7. 87656 0. 007526 —30..... -96054 | 9.98252 7. 87801 . 007551 —25..... . 96372 9. 98395 7. 87944 . 007576 oe - 96690 | 9, 98538 7. 88087 . 007601 —15....-| - 97008 | . 98681 . 88230 . 007626 —10..... | 97327 | - 98824 | -$8373 | .007651 —5...... . 97645 98965 | -88514 | .007676 Ti (eae | . 97963 . 99106 | - 88655 | . 007701 Sisto - 98282 | . 99248 | .88797 | .007726 Tp Seapese, - 98600 99388 | . 88937 . 007751 i tS ee ewe 98917 | -99527 | . 89076 . 007776 | Spa . 99236 . 99667 . 89216 . OOT8OL LD cat - 99554 | . 99806 . 89355 . 007826 Mae rstorns . 99873 . 99945 . 89494 . OO7R51 ODaceiwe 1, 00191 . OOOR3 . 89632 007876 | Ee ee 1, 00509 . 00221 . 89770 . 007901 ADS eco o 1, 00827 . 00358 . $9907 . 007926 BOS a Pets .2 1.01146 . 00495 90044 | - OOT95S1 DOS cee ss « 1, 01464 . 00632 . 90181 . 007976 DO ea: 1. 01782 . 00767 90316 | . 008001 Obsiec,.- 1, 02101 . 00903 . 90452 . OO8026 (Lh Pere 1, 02418 . 01038 90587 | 008051 1 Devs ws 3 1, 02737 OLL73 . 90722 . OOSO76 | er 1. 03055 . 01307 . 90856 . OOS101 | ae 1, 04373 O14 | . 90990 OOS126 an 1, 03692 ~OVS75 91124 ~OO8152 | 176 TABLE 9.—Vapor pressure, WET BuLB —16° TO —8°. BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. inches; barometer 21.42 inches; depression of wet (aH) (Me) OUP. Wet bulb.! 0.0 1.0 2.0 | Wet bulb.| 0.0 16 | 2.0 3.0 | Proportional parts. | || Degrees. | Inches. =16:0.52-0- 0.0159 | 0.0083 | 0.0007 || —12.9..... 0.0199 | 0.0123 | 0.0046 |........ 0.1 0.0008 SURO 0160 | .0084 | .0008 || —11.9..... BO20G8 (een O12 al 0047 Meenas | -2/\ 0015 ieee .0160 | .0084 | .0008 || —11.8__... S0201 |) -3G1250)| 950048| Eee eaee | -3| .0023 SUG oacsc -0161 | .C085 | .0009 || —11.7..... 0202 | .0126 | .0049 |.......- 4) 0031 =15.6......) .0162} -0086 | .0010 || —11.6....: 0203 | .0127| .0050 |........ | .5 | --, 0038 Sie ase .0163 | .0087-| 0011 || —11.5_.... 0204] .0128 } .0051 |_..-..-. I .6 .. 0046 SIG. 4 ae 0164 | .0088} .O011 || —11.4.._.. 0206, .0130 | -0053)|22222..2 .7| *.0053 Ea epee .0165 | .0089 | .0012 || —11.3..... NO207 je O1S1 sl ees0054-|aeeeeee .8! .0061 SOS aaan -0166 | .0090 | .0013 || —11.2..... 0208 | .0132) .0655 |.......- | 9 ..0059 Silo 55. .0167 | .0091 | .0014 |) —11.1222.. .0209 | .0133 | . \ =F. O12 oc- -0168 | .0092} .0015 |) —11.0..... .0210 | .0134 MO os. .0169 | .0093 | .0016 || —10.9..... | .0212 | .0136 SA So ooe -0170 | .0094 | .0017 || —10.8..22- | .0213 | .9137 | VY asaa 0171 | -0095 | .0018 || —10)72.... | .6214 | .0138 | Sills. 0172 | .0096 | .0019 || —10.6.....| .0215 | .0139 SM Rion C173 | .0097 | .0020 |] —1c.5....- | .0216 | .0140 | dea .0174 | .0098 ; .0021 |) —10.4.._.. 0217 | . 0141 || SB za o5e 0175 | .0099 ! .0022 |] —10.3...2- | .0218 | .G142 iia eaee 0176 | .C100 | .0623 || —10.2..... 0220 | .G143 | SVS US eee KOU7el SOLON |e 20024) |p 1 Omi | -0221 | 0144 | SIME OSES g4 0178 | .0102! .0025 |) —10.6_...- 0222 | .0145 | StgeQee. -0179 | .0103 | .0026 || — 9.9.....| 0223 | .0146| . IBV Soe SOTSON| 01045) 20027) ||" Onsen 02205 esa eee SIRE sobuen 0181 | .0105 | .0928 || — 9.7..... 0226 | .0149) . ‘ iB sa tee C182 | .0106 | .0029 || — 9.6..... 0227 | .0150) . HIB Rs ocone 0183 | .0107 | .0030 || — 9.5..... | 9502283) SOIbti = ais EU SEe .0184 | .0108 | .0031 || — 9.4..... 0229 | .0152) . Si Bois -0185 | C109} .0032 || — 9.3:....| .0230! .0153| . i189. sos | OLS) 20h |) ORS ||} =O. 5 32 - C2320 O1bAa as TEE Gace 20087. |, EOLtAS (i=0034%| |= sone I O2S3 sie 01555 ie OOS0i Seemann I SI Grscose 0188 | .0112 | .0035 || — 9.0..... | -0234 0157. 0081 | 0.0004 | | || | | | \j 12.522 0189 | .0113 | .0636 || — 8.9.__.- | .€236) .0159 | .0083 |} .00C6 | ID, Bocesae 0190 | .0114 | .0087 || — 8.8....- .C237 | .0160 | .0084 | .0007 || IPE scabs 0191 | .0115 | .0038 |) — 8.7.....| .6238| .0161 | .0C85| .0008 | aT DAGEanne 0192 | .0116 | .0039 || — 8.6..... | 0239) .0162 .0086 | .0009 STP saben RO1933 | O17) 50040) |= Ses aseee | .0240} .0163 | .0087| .0010 | SID An ee 0194 | 0172 | 0041 |] — 8.4.._2. 0242 | .0165 | .0089 | C012} =i. sabe .0195 | .0119 | .0042 || — 8.3.....| .€243 | .0166 .0090 | .0013 | SA Diacsae | -0196 | .0120 | .0043 || — 8.2..._- | 0244 | .0167/ .0091 | .0014 | =I Saou ROL Tees 01 210 00145) |e ae lene | .6246 | .0169 .0093 | .0016 | =i). _donoe .0199 | 0123 |. 0046 || — 8.02222: | .0247) .0170 |} .0094| 0017 | | | | WET BuLB —8° TO —0°. Wet bulb. | 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 || Wetbulb. | 0.6 | 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 | -|| | = ss sstoese | 0.0247 || 0.0170 | 0.0094 | 0. C017 |) =4.0.......-- 6.0307 | @.023C | 0.0153 | 0.0077 | 0.0000 =7/,0,- 0248 | 0171 | .0095 | .0018 || —3.9......... 0309 | .0232! .0155 | .0079 | .0002 Bee) eons SeRO249 0 O72 51 MOOSE ies 0019) ||) =o) Gane nema 0311 | .0234 | .0157 | .0081 | .0004 Se | 0250) |) SCl78=- -0097 |! 0020) |) —3. 72.22.22 0313 | .0236 | .0159 | .0083 | .0006 =7/(5.- .0252 | .0175 | .0099| .0022 || —3.6.......-. | .0315 | .0238 | .0161 | .0084 | .0008 215i eae [e254 en OMe eee OL OTe ee O024| mets ms eee | .0316 | .0239 .0162|) .0C85 |} .0009 7G. | 22 ites || OG ||) GOUws Neh is ee 0318 | .0241 | .0164 | .C087} .0011 SFB 40256) |) S079) |) 2 OL05pI. 400260 |= 335 sae 0320 | .0243 | .0166| .0089| .0013 79. MO25 een O1SOL i OLCLa O02 7am 3s aes .0322- .0245 | .0168 | .GO91 | .0015 =27[ ihe oeeeee b0258) = AOLS IN 10105) |e sO028eI|n=sate ss knnne 0324! .0247 | .0170 | .0093 | .0017 =7,0-- -| .0260 | .0183 | .0107| .0030 || —3.0........- 0325 | .6248 | .0177 | .0094 | .0018 (3) lee | . 0262 |..0185 | .0109 | . 0032 || 9327 | .0250 | 0173! .0096 | .0020 i Gis SNE 6263} 0186 | .0110} .0033 0329 | .0252 | .0175| .0098| .0022 = gaebaeee | .0264 | .0187} .O111 | .0034 2 0330 | .0253 | .0176 |} .G099 | .0023 ih, Bis caueeae | (0266 | .0189| .0113| .0036 || —2. . 0332 | .0255|~.0178} .0101 | 0024 =8, 5.2 | .0268 | .O191 | .0115.| 0037 || —2.5__..1..22 0334 .0257 | .0180 | .0103 | .0026 Hi Ue Ua 0269)| 201927} 0116 |) -0038|| 2 47-2 i) .0336 | .0259 | .0182/] .0105 | .0028 A ay ee ee C270) | pen O13» 01117) 400308 |= 2.5 ee | .0338, .0261 | .0184 | .0107| .0030 =P M. | 0272} .0195| .0119| .0041 || —2.2. -| .0340 | .0263| .0186 | .0109| .0032 =P lee eae [eK02745 | Oz |. AO1DIG | 0018 One Rees oe .0342 | .0265| .0188} .O111 | .0034 8 Os 6 scbesas 0275 | .0198! . 0122} 10044 '| —2:0.._.._... 0344 | .0267 | .0190} .0113 | .0036 BQ WNNKYNYVNNNYNN Nw he be el be el lt tn. ive ees RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 177 TasLe 9.—Vapor pressure, inches; barometer 21.42 inches; depression of wet bulb (T.—t'), °F—Continued. Wer BuLB —8° To —0°—Continued. | i | Wet bulb. 0.0 1.0 2.0 | 3.0 Wet bulb. 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.6 4.0 | 0276 | .0199 0123'| .0046 |} —1.9_.......- -0346 | .0269 |) .0192| .0115) .0038 0278 | 0201 | .0125} .0048 |) —1.8......... -0347 | .0270 | .0193 | .0116 | .6039 0280 | .0203 | .0126 | .0050 |) —1.7.......-- -0349 | .0272) .0195| .0118) .0041 GOST SS O204s Ie O1272 1) 0051 |) — 16 Soe .0351 | .0274 | .0197 | .0120| .0043 0282 | -.0205 | .0128 | 0052°|| —1,5....-...- 0353 | .0276 | .0199 | .0122) . 0045 0284 | .0207| .0130| .0054 |) —1.4.......-- -0355 | .0278 | .0201 | .0124) .0047 epee Tee - 0286 | .0209) .0132} .0056 || —1.3......... 0357 | .0280 | .0203 | .0126 | .0049 =i PE ae -0287 | .0211 | .0133 | .0057 )| —1.2_.....-.-| .0359} .0282 | .C205| .01281! .0051 =i ee ae O289) mecO2toat: eOlSps e059) — le eee .0361 | .0284 | .0207 | .0130) .0053 9.05. -------| 20291 | .0214 OLS 7a ee OOGLs || a— iO Meee }, -0363 | .0286 | .0209 | .0132/} .0055 1 i eee | 2 20292) 021511, . 01388), ..0062|| —0)9:.2 22° .0365 | .0288 | .0211 | .0134) .0057 = Nhe | -0294 | .0217 | .0140'| .0064 |) —0.8__.___.-. .0367 | .0290 | .0213 | .0136 | .0059 =i n/p ae .0296 | .0219) .0142} .0066 |) —0.7......... | .0369 | .0292} .0215 |) .0138| .0061 aie Saas -0297 | .0220} .0143 .0067 || —0.6._....._- | .0371 | .0294 | .0218! .0140/] .0063 = oe eee BO269 | 702223) s0145-1, (0069) || —085 5-2 ee . 0373 | .0296 | .0220) 0142! .0065 == Se P0300 |) 0224) 01477} 00719) —Os40) 2 ee . 0375 | .0298 | .0222| .0144| .0067 =2.4 5 - eae .0302 | .6225 0148 | .0072 || —0.3_5.....-- .38777 | .0300 | .0224| .0146) .0069 == i eee | -0304 | .0227 | .0150) .0074 |) —0.2......... 0379 | .0302 | .0226 | .0148) .0071 —4.1.. 0306 | .0229 OU520 00765 |'— On ee : .0381 } .0304 | .0228 | .0150] .0073 == 1 eee | 0307, .0230 O13") C077 || —05 02-2252 255 -0383 | .0306 } .0230) .0152)| .0075 WET BULB 0° TO 4°. | [ 3 Wetbulb.| 0.0 1.0 20 | 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 Proportional parts. . | | Degrees. | Inches. 0 0.0383 | 0.0306 | 0.0229 OS QI | esenaeladllsaecousscalaecee eels 0.1 0. 0008 Ot . 0385 POSS aman O 2c Uy enrol eae we kale C ea aE ier oe BD) 0015 O21 5-22 5: - . 0387 - 0310 - 0233 | (ONS o a cle aera tse epee ae See Pra tee ae} . 0023 “1 ie eas . 0389 . 0312 FO2SDE ems Ola Sx pecan [ees eg ne eas ee 14 . 0031 Sian be s039i-}. 0314 O23 fie mei! LOOM erent arte online ao meee [ete s= of 0039 5 . 0392 . 0316 (D200 nm LOD ule ae ye ci [Pepa eteee |e ame he 6 . 0046 0:6... .-- 2-2 . 0394 . 0318 . 0241 “OL OE Meseeci= cee aoe eet ecleemicee ase el . 0054 Rite De oe: . 0396 . 0320 . 0243 BOLO GH | ee psa e se | aap teen ar a Pe 8 . 0061 eS eee | .0398 50322 | e024 | | OL68. ee Se Betsnec Paes os Se 9 . 0069 re toe . 0400 . 0324 BODATINF eee Oii70) see eee eee ses cles gee ease ais g (|e ae . 0403 . 0326 . 0249 0172 O30095) et cetaees ee 9 tae . 0405 . 0328 AO2515\) O14! OOS Nae ree teeta 12 I eetae. 3 70407 |) 20330} 0253 |) = 0176 OUGSn ater Ne tue va tn Bes ee 0409 . 0332 $0255) S0178 EE OLOON Meee en ee eect kaw. 2 el ae .0411 | 0334 . 0257 . 0180 OLG24| ep isee el ee ed oe [ae -0413 | —. 0336 . 0259 . 0182 ACM OA | pees ake aeois ‘Sete 0415 | . 0338. | . 0261 . 0184 MO1OG ni Gerreteeeers |ece eae os | i, eres .0417 | =. 0340 . 0263 . 0186 NOLOSH cise oe elles ote sae bee tn es. “0419 | 10342 . 0265 . 0188 POLLO al Peites se eee eee Qe Se - x .0421} .0344 . 0267 . 0190 UO | Meee eee aiellee eee oe he .0423 | .0346 . 0269 0191 0114 ORODS Mm |Aaeeeereee | | nae 0496 | 0348 | .0272| 0194/0116 | 0040 |... eee. -0428 | .0351! .0274| .0196 0119 rl Yh eee ee eee -0430 | .0352} .0276} .0198 . 0120 NOOSE |oo. saamtes | re oi hess 0431 | . 0354 | 0277 . 0199 . 0122 AOO8 Dn boars. se oe 0434 | .0356 |} .0280 | . 0202 . 0124 HOOABiilieeaes esles o | Pepe 0436 | .0359) .0282 . 0204 . 0127 ROOHOM eee \ eee 0438 .0361 | .0284 . 0206 . 0129 HOOD 2s Seer Bae voi « 0440 | 0363 . 0286 . 0208 0131 700 R48 omens | Se 0442 |. 0365 . 0288 . 0210 . 0133 ROOD: mero Rect o8 52 0444 |. 0367 . 0290 . 0212 0135 AQUEB: lomo nteon eae Bewnccs - 0446 | - (369 0282 | 0214 - 0137 ROUB ON ere pitta ol a .0449 | .0372 . 0295 . 0217 0140 AUOBBIAl deme occas Ee : -(451 | 0374 -0297 | .0219 - O142 ROUGDM zd 22 hore a 0453 | =. 0376 0299 . 022) 0144 BOOB Tal meenaeee ce a 0456 | — . 0379 . 0302 . 0224 SATB be oR Ual eR See its oa... C458 | 0381 . 0304 0226 0149 BOUL desta = vsisie's = ae C460 |. 03883 .0306 | — . 0228 O51 ROO VA Aet pre ea's Reet « - 0462 | . 0385 0308 0230 . 0153 | UL AO Mier sa fara lao ES 0464 | =. 0387 0810 . 0232 0155 HUDMB elie dese es \| a OA67 . 0390 -O3138 | . 0285 . 0158 -OCSL | 0, 0004 I | | $2769—22——12 178 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 9—Vapor pressure, inches; barometer 21.42 inches; depression of wet bulb (T.—t’), °F—Continued. WeT BULB 4° TO 8°. { = = | = Proportional Wet bulb. 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 | parts. eae Inches. AG () Peco Vee kegree 0. 0467 | 0.0390 | 0.0313 | 0.0235 | 0.0158 | 0.0081 | 0.0004 |......-- | 0.1 | 0.0008 ASI UR ie ese yeah nce 0470 | .0393 | .0316 | .0238 | .0461 | .0084 | .0007 |.-...--- | .2| .0015 AN OTe ae wees mca .0472 | .0395 | .0318 | .0240 | .0163 | .0086 | .0009 |.......- 38} . 0028 AES ene el nce 0474 | 0897 |) 20320 | .0242 | 20165 | 20088 || . 0011 |_..1-_-- .4|. .0081 AVA ee try ae . 0476 | -0399 | .0322 | .0244 | .0167 | .0090.| -0013 |..._._..) 25 - 0039 Cae = acl cre eee tere -0478 | .0401 | .0324 | .0246 |} .0169 | .0092 | .0015 |....._-- | 6 . 0046 AUG ESE tree eee eee -0481 | .0404 | .0327 | .0249 | .0172| .0095 | .0018 |..__._-.| Re 0054 NS fase ete ies Me .0484 | .0407 | 20330 | .0251 | .0175 | .0098 | .0021 |.....-.. | 8 (6062 LSS LEE Stare Bee a Sse c - 0486 | .0409 | .0332 | .0253 | .0177 | .0100| .0023 |.-...... | 9 0069 Pleo ee Rem eS A Noe 0488 | .0411 | .0334 | .0256 | .0180 | .0103 | .0026 |....._.. BS be ee! w= Sem pee . 0491 0414 . 0336 | .0259 | .0182 | .0106 |! .0027 |_._.:_.. | Ey ep nie Ret Se 0493 | .0416 | -.0338 | .0261 | .0184 | .0108 | .0029 |........ ier aha Se Sas ily meee -0495 | .0418 | .0340 | .0263 | .0186 | .0110 | . 0031 |-.---..- | 5.3 y ; -0421 | -0343 | -0266 | 20189 | 20113 | -0034 |)--1.2-)| 5.4 0423 | .0345 | ~.0268 | .0190 | .0115 | .0036 {._.1.1_- 5 NO425 =| 5034751 502705! O10 25 |e Oia ees O0038 a1 eee Bi 204285|= (0350) | 0273) 210195 «|e O1204le 004i aaa 5. -0431 | .0353 | .0276 | -0198 | .0123 | .0044) .---.-- 5. -0433 | .0355 | -0278 | .0200 | .0125 |. .0046 |. ___..- Be 70435. | --0357 ||" 50280) |< 50203 | 20126 |" 20048 |i 222 6. 0488 | .0360 | . 0283 | .0206 | .0128 | -. 0051 |.----.-- 6. } .0441 | .0363 | -.0286 | .0209 | .0131 | .0054 |........ 6. .0443 | .0365 | .0288 | .0211 | .0133 | .0056 6. .0446 | .0368 | .0201 | .0214| .0036 | .0059 6. 0449 | .0371 | .0294 |} .0217 | .0139 | . 0062 6. .0451 | .0373.) .0226 | .0219 | .0141 | .0064 6. -0454 | 20376 | .0299.| .0222))| 10144 | 10067 |)22221)) 6. [C4579 20379) 103021 022551) O47) |) 00708 seen 6. EQ4595 | 0381s A030 4 als 0227 es O150 5 ee O07: [anaes 6. 504627 s0384ne e030 7aees02308 Ol 5351 9 OO Ton be sees 7. | 10465 |. 0387 | 20310 |. .0233°| 0155 | /0078-|-2 == fell reh Less ees 0544 | .0467 | .0389 | .0312 | .0236| .0157 | .00S0 |........ ED Stee a a see | .0547 | .0470°| ©0392 | 0315 | -0239 | .0160.| . 0083 |_--=2.-2 ES A el ae eee 0550 | .0473 | 20395 | .0318 | :0242 | .0163 | 0086 |-.-2-.2- EAE SE ee eee -0553 |. 0476 | 10398) 10321 | 10245) .0166 | .Q089 |--_.-..- Teg SEM bese me |. £0556 | 20479 | 20401 | 20324}. .0248 | 10169 | 20092 |_!..--22 AONE a ine ees | .0558 | .0481 | .0403 | .0326) .0C250| .0171 | .0094 Med eee eatin feet -0561 |; .0484 | .0406 | .0329 | .0253 | .0174 | .0097 | (Blom aee ae a eee | 0564 | .0487 | .0409 | .0332 | .0256 | .0177 | .0100 | ES eae ae 0567 | .0490 | .0412 | .0335 | .0259 | .0180 | .0103 (SH) Boer ee ee ee eee -0570 | .0493 | .0415 | -0338 | .0262 |) .0184 | .0106 | | Wet BULB 8° TO 12°. | : Wet | lage - = = | Proportional pulp.| 9 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | a Oe | | | : | | i | 8.0...| 0.0570 | 0.0492 | 0.0415 | 0.0338 | 0.0260 | 0.0183 | 0.0106 | 0. 8.1...| .0573 | .0495 | .0418 | .0341 | .0263 | .0186 | 0109 | 8.2...| 10576 | .0498| 0421 | 10344 | .0266 | .0189 | 0112 8.3...| 10579 | 10501 | 10424 | 0347 | 0269 | .0192 | .O115 $.4...| .0582| .0504 | .0427| .0350| .0272| :0195| . 0118 8.5. | 10584 | 10506 | 10429] ‘o352| ‘0274| ‘o197 | ‘0120 8.6... .0587 | 10509 | 0432 | -0355 | .0277 | .0200| .0123 | _87...| 10590 | -0512 | 10435 | .0358 | .0280| .0203 | . 0126 8.8...| .0504 | 10514 | 0439 | .0362 | .0284 | .0207 | .0130 8.9.--| 0597 | .0518 | .0442| -0365 | 0287 | .0210 | .0132) 0 9.0...| .0600 | .0523| 0445 | .0368| .0290| .0213| .0135 | .0058|....2...|) 210-7 | | | | | | 3 9.1...| .0603 | .0526 | .0448 | .0371 | 0293 | .0216| .0138| .o0eI-|........|..222.- 9.2...| .0606 | .0529| .0451 | (0374 | .0296| 10219 | .0141 | . 0064 |.....2..|--222- 9.3...| .0609 | .0532| .0454| .0377| .0299| .0222} .0f44| - 0087 |........)-2---22 94...| 0612} 0535 | 0457 | 0380 | .0302 | .0225 | 0147 | 0070 [0.0.2.2 2).221.21: 9.5...| .0615 | .0538 | 0461 | .0383 | .0306| .0028| 10151 | .0073 |........|0.4 2. 9.6...| .0618 | .0541 | 0464 | [0386 | .0309| .0231 | .0154| 0076 |........|121-. 9.7...| .0622) .0545 | .0468 | 10390] .0313 | .0235| .0158| .0080 |........|..-....- 9.8...| .0625 | .0548| .0471 | .0303 | .0316 | .0238| .0161 | .0083 |---|. 9.9..|~.0628 | -0550| .0474 | (0396 | .0318| .0240| 10164 | .0086 |2-.0 122-1 .212e 10.0.-.| :0631 | 10553 | [0476 | 0308 | .0321| .0243| 10166 | .0088 | .O011 |-1._. See ee cle as a RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 179 TABLE 9—Vapor pressure, inches; barometer 21.42 inches; depression of wet bulb (T.—t’), °F—Continued. WET BULs 8° TO 12°—Continued. | | | Wet | Proportional bulb 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 | 4.0 } 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 parts. | | | | | | | 101-1 .0634} .0556 | .0479 | .0401 | .0324 | .0246| .0169| .0091 | .0014 |_....... 10.2... -0638 | .0560 | .0483 | .0405 | .0328 | .0250| .0173| .0095 | .0018 |........ t0:3--- |). 0641 | -0563 |} £0486 | 20408} -=0331 |- .0253}. .0176 || .0098 | /0021 |_.------ 10.4._.| .0644 | .0566| .0489/ .0411 | .0334 |) .0256| .0179 | .0101 | .0024 |........ 10.5...) .0648 | .0570| .0493 | .0415 | 0338 | HO2G0R lee OlSoe i = OLO5s | 0027 i ee cee 106---| 0651 | .0573 | :0496} .0418 | .0341 | .0263 | .0186 | .0108 | .0080 |-....-.- 10.7...| .0654 | .0576 | .0499; .0421 | .0344 BOZO Gis wel OLS Onl eee ONIN eee OS 405 Ree aerr 10.8...| .0657 | .0579 0502) | ~0424- | ~ 0347 | 50269) -0192)) [0114 | -0038 |-..-:--- 10.9. | -0661 , .0583 | .0506 | .0428 | .0351 ORB) 20GB. OR |S OO eee seas 11.0...) .0665 | .0557 | .0510 | .0432 | .0355 | .0277 | .0200 | .0122| .0045 |..--..-- / | | 11.1...| .0668 | .0590 0513 ; .0435 | .0358 ) .02280 | .0203 | 20125 | .0048 |...-...- ae, -0671 | .0593 0516 | .0438 ) .0361 | OZ ae O2000 ee A OL28 ii OO5Is |B ase see 11.3...| .0674 |. .0596 0519 | .0441 | .0364 | .0286 .0210 | .0131 | .0054 |........ 11.4...| .0678 .0600 | .0523 | .0445 | .0368 | .0290| .0214 | .0135 QOS S| eee Hit5---) -0682 | .0604| .0527 |] .0449 | .0372| .0294 | .0217} .0139 | .0062 |...-...- 11.6 -0685 | .0607 | .0530| .0453 | .0375 | .0297 | .0220| .0142 OOG5s eae = 11.7. -0688 .0610 0533 | .0456 | .0378 | .0300; .0223} .0145 | .0C68 |.....--- 11.8...; .0692 | .0614 0537 | .0460} .0382 | .0304 | .0227 | .0149) .O071 |...-..-- 11.9... .0696 | .0618 | .0541| .0463 | .0386 | ZO308n O230N ew O lam 00 eee = 12.0... -0699 .0621 | .0544 | .0466 | .0389 | -0311 | .02383 |) .0156 | .0078 | 0.0001 WET BULB 12° To 16°. | | | = eet) | 0 | 20° | 30.7) 402] 5.07) 00 | 70 | -a0 |S. |, too || *toporional te | | } | Deg. | Ins. 12.0.... 0.0699 0.0621 [0.0544 0.0466 0.0389 0.0311 ,0.0233 |0.0156 \0.0078 0.0001 |...-..- | 0.1 | 0.0008 12.1.... .0702 | .0624 | .0547 | .0469 | .0392 | .0314 | .0236 | .0159 | .0081 | .0004 |.....-- | -2| .0015 12.265 .0706 | .0628 | .0551 | .0473 | .0895 | .0318 | .0240| .0163 | .CO&S | .0008 |.-..---| .3 | .0023 12.3....| .0710 | .0632 | -0555 | .0477 | .0399 | .0322 | .0244 | .0167 | .0089 | .0012 |...-... 4} .0031 124.... .0713 | .0635 | .0558 | .0480 | .0402 | .0325 | .0247 | .0170 | .0092 |..0015 |....... | .5 | .0039 12.5....) .0716 | .0638 | .0561 | .0483 | .0405 | .0328 | .0250 | .0178 | .0095 | .0018 |.-.-.-- -6 | .0047 12.6 .0720 | .0642 | .0565 | .0487 | .0409 | .0332 | .0254 | .0176 | .0099 | .0021 |....... .7 | .0054 12.7...-| .0724 | .0646 | .0569 | .0491 | .0413 | .0336 | .0258 | .0180 | .0103 | .0025 |...-..-. -8 | .0062 12.8....| .0728 | .0650 | .0573 | .0495 | .0417 | .0340 | .0262 | .0184 | .0107 | .0029 |....--- | .9 | .0070 12.9 -0732 | .0654 | .0577 | .0499 | .0421 | .0344 | .0266 | .0188 | .0111 | .0033 |-.-...- | 13.0 735 | .0657 | .0580 | .0502 | .0424 | .0347 | .0269 | .0191 | .0114 | .00386 |--....- ate ISel; 2. 0738 | .0660 | .0583 | .0505 | .0427 | .0350 | .0272 | .0194 | .0117 | .0089 |.....-. 13.2....| .0742 | .0664 | .0587 | .0509 | .0431 | .0354 | .0276 | .0198 |°.0120 | .0043 |....-.- 13.3... 0746 | .6668 | .0591 | .0513 | .0435 | .0358 | .0280 | .0202 | .0124 | .0047 |....- au 13.4..... .0750 | .0672 | .0595 | .0517 | :0439 | .0362 | .0284 | .0206 | .0128 | .0051 |......- |! 13.5 . 0754 | .0676 | .0599 | .0521 | .0443 | .0366 | .0288 | .0210 | .0132 | .0055 |...-.--- 13.6 0757 | .0679 | .0602 | .0524 | .0446 | .0369 | .0291 | .0213 | .0135 | .0058 |......- | 13.7....| . 0761 | .0683 | .0606 | .0528 | .0450 | .0372 | .0295 | .0217 | .0139 | .0062 |....-.-. 13.8...-| .0765 | .0687 | .0610 | .0532 | .0454 | .0376 | .0299 | .0221 | .0143 | .0066 |..-...-- 13.9 0768 | .0690 | .0613 0535 | .0457 | .0379 | .0302 | .0224 | .0147 | .0069 |.....-- 14.9.... .0772 | .0694 | . 0617 0539 | .0461 | .0383 | .0306 | .0228 | .0150'| .0073 |.....-. | 14.1....' .0776 | .0698 |! .0621 | .0543 | .0465 | .0387 | .0310 | .0232 ! .0154 | .0077 !.....-.|| Ga O780 | .0702 | .0625 0547 | .0469 | .0391 | .0314 | .0236 | .0158 | .0081 |.....--. 14.3....| .0784 | .0706 | .0629 0551 | .0473 | .0395 | .0318 } .0240 | .0162 | .0083 |....... | 14.4....; .O787 | .0709 | .0632 | .0554 | .0476 | .0398 | .0321 | .0243 | .0165 | .0086 |....-.. 14.5 0790 | .0712 | .0635 5e .0479 | .0401 | .0324 | .0246 | .0168 | .0090 |....... | 14.6....) .0794 | .0716 | .0639 5 . 0483 | .0405 | .0427 | .0250 | .0172 | .0094 |....... 1] (14.7....| .0798 | .0720 | .0642 0487 | 0409 | .0431 | .0254 | .0176 | .0098 |....... | 14.8....| .O802 | .0724 | .0646 .0491 | .0413 | .0485 | .0258 | .0180 | .0102 |....... 14.9 0806 | .0728 | .0650 .0495 | .0417 | .0439 | .0262 | .0184 | .0106'|....... 15.0... O810 | .0722 | .0654 | .0577 | .0499 | .0421 | .0343 | .0266 | .O188 | .0110 |0.0034 |} 15.1.. O814 | .0736 | .065% .0581 | .0503 | .0425 | .0347 | .0270 | .0192 | .0114 | .0088 152... -O818 | .0740 | .0662 .05*%5 | .0507 | .0429 | .0351 | .0274 | .0196 | .0118 | .0042 || 15.3., GR822 | .0744 | .0666 '.0589 .0511 | .0433 | .0855 | .0278 | .02(00 | .0122 | .0046 || 15.4....) .0526 | .0748 | .0670 | .0593 | .0515 | .0437 | .0359 | .0282 | .0204 | .0126 | .0050 15.5.. O#80 | .0752 | .0674 | .0597 =. 0519 | . 0441 | .0863 | .02*5 | .0208 | .0130 | .0053 15.6....| .0834 | .0756 | .0678 | .0601 | .0523 | .0445 | .0367 | .0289 | .0212 | .0134 | .0057 ee 0838 | .0760 | .0682 | .0005 .0527 | .0449 | .0371 | .0293 | .0216 | .0138 | .0060 15.8.. O842 | .0764 | .0656 | .0609 | .0531 .0453 | .0875 | .0297 | .0220 | .0142 | . 0064 15.9....| .O846 | .0768 | .0690 | .0613 | .0585 | .0457 | .0379 | .0801 | .0224 | .0146 | .0068 | 16,0....| . 0850 | .0772 .0604 | .0617 | .0539 | .0461 | .08°3 | .0805 | .0228 | .0150 | .0072 180 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 9.— Vapor pressure, inches; barometer 21.42 inches; depression of wet bulb (T.—t’), °F—Continued. WET BULB 16° TO 20°. H 4 | | j Wet bulb. 0.0 1.0 | Ad | BD) 4) 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 | | Se eae | 16502. sass 0.0850 | 0.0772 | 0.0694 0.0617 | 0.0539 | 0.0461 | 0.0383 | 0.0305 | 0.0228 | 0.0150 | 0.0072 (08 ES ecars -0854 | .0776 | .0698 .0621 | .0543) .0465) .0387 | .0309 | .0232 | .0154 |---_--.- Oe SSaasese 0857 0779 | 0701 | .0625| .0546 | .0468) .0390 | .03124 .0236 | -O157 |.-2----- Wise oasdebee -0862 | .0784; .0706 .0629 | .0551 - 0473 20395: | “0317 | 02405) 701625 |2a=eeee Ga eee - 0866 -0788.| .0710 | .0633 | - 0555 0477 .0399 | .0321 -0244 | .0166 |.-----.- 1G 5s esse 5 -0870 | -0792 | .0714} .0637 | .0559 | .0481 -0403 | .0325 | .0248 | .0169 |----..-- W626 sso 2 >= - 0874 | .0796 0718 | .0641 | - 0563 -0485 | .0407 - 0329 102525) Olan areas UGE eee eeomae - 0878 -0800 | .0722 | .C645 | .0567 | .0489)| .0411 - 0333 20256 || 201U7)\ =e eee 1G) Sas ee ae - 0882 -0804 | .0726 | .0649 -0571 | .0493 0415 - 0337 0260) | O18 aeeeeee 16:9F Sse - 0886 -0808 | .0730 .0653 | .0575 .0497 | .0419 - 0341 -0264 | 0185 |= 22-5 PEO SS Baise - 0891 - 0813 - 0735 -0657 | .0580 - 0502 .0424 | .0346 | .0268 | .0190 - 0112 | | | a fal Pea See -0895 | .0817 | .0739 | .0661 | .0584! .0506| .0428 | -.0350 | .0272| -0194 - 0116 hey a ete oe -0899 | .0821 -0743 | .0665 .0588 .0510 - 0432 | .0354 . 0276 - 0198 - 0120 TeApee se een _ -0903 | .0825 | .0747 | .0669 | .0592) .0514 .0436 | .0358 | .0280| .0202| .0124 aye eae - 0907 - 0829 -0751 | .0673 | .0596 | .0518 0440 | .0362 .0284 | .0206 - 0128 1 VES eres .0912 | .0834 | .0756| .0678) .0600| .0522) .0445| .0367 | .0289)| .€2i1 - 0133 EO cee tee - 0916 -0838 | .0760 | .0682 -0604 | .0526 | .0449 | .0371 - 0293 - 0215 . 0137 Wier canes - 0920 - 0842 -0764 | .0686 | .0608 .0530 | .0453 -0375 | .0297 - 0219 - 0141 lyfe aag 5 Heese - 0925 - 0847. 0769 - 0691 - 0613 - 0535 - 0458 -0380 | .0302 | .0224 - 0146 WSO Se se -0929 | .0851' .0773 | .0695 | .0617 |, .0539 | .0462 | .0384 | .0306 | .0228 - 0150 fee teers - 0933 - 0855 -0777 | .0699 , .0621 -0543 | .0466 | .0388 | .0310 - 0232 - 0154 Slee eea . 0938 - 0860 -0782 | .0704 | .0626 | .0548 | .0471 | - 0392 . 0314 - 0236 - 0158 go es eae . 0842 - 0864 -0786 | .0708 - 0630 -0552 | .0475 | .0396 | -.0318 0240 - 0162 18-322 eeeaa- - 0946 - 0868 - 0790 . 0712 -0634 | .0556 | .0479 0400 - 0322 . 0244 - 0166 1 eae - 0951 -0873 | .0795 -O717 | .0639 -0561 | .0484 | .0405 - 0327 - 0249 -0171 NS 5S ese ae . 0956 - 0878 - 0800 . 0722 .0644 | .0566 | .0488 | .0410 0332 - 0254 0176 UN eer een . 0960 - 0882 . 0804 -0726 | .0648 ; .0570 | .0492 | .0414 .0336 - 0258 0180 I Ae oes - 0964 - 0886 -0808 | .0730 ; .0652 -0574 .0496 | .0418 0340 - 0262 0184 TS ERee es ieee - 0969 - 0891 - 0813 .07385 , -0657 | .0579 , -.0501 - 0423; .0345 . 0267 - 0189 PSOne ee - 0974 - 0896 -0818 | .0740 -0662 | .0584 - 0506 -0428 | .0350 . 0272 - 0194 TOME oases . 0979 - 0901 - 0823 - 0745 -0667 | .0589 0511 | .0433 0355 0277 0199 OSS ec - 0984 - 0306 -0828 | .0750 - 0672 -0594 | .0516 | .0438 | .0360 . 0282 - 0203 AOSD ah ee. oie - 0988 - 0910 - 0832 - 0754 -0676 | .0598 -0520 | .0442 .0364 - 0286 - 0207 NEES Ye Boe eters - 0992 - 0914 - 0836 . 0758 -0680 | .0602 0524 0446 - 0368 0290 | =. 0211 N94 5. 2 Sass - 0998 . 0920 - 0842 - 0764 - 0686 -0608 | .0530 0452 - 0374 0296 .0217 f1925 Eee s - 1002 - 0924 - 0846 . 0768 -0690 | .0612 | .0534 0456 - 0378 0300 0221 ONG eee a - 1007 . 0929 -0851 | .0773 -0695 | .0617 | .0539 .0461 .0383 . 0305 0226 UCL Aese ree - 1012 - 0934 - 0856 . 0778 -0700 | .0622 . 0544 -0466 | .0388 .0310 | .0231 NOIR eee ee - 1017 - 0939 - 0861 - 0783 -0705 | .0627 | .0549 0471 - 0393 -0315 | 0236 AQIO TS 52 2kes - 1022 - 0944 - 0866 . 0788 -0710 | .0632 - 0554 -0476 | .0398 -0320 | .0241 20:02 eeeces - 1026 - 0948 - 0870 - 0792 - 0714 | - 0636 | .0558 .0480 | .0402 . 0324 . 2045 ! 1 DY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 181 } RESEARCH METHODS IN STU 0200 ° 6° 6900 ° 8° C00 ° Lid L¥O0° 9 6£00° (ce T£00° i £600 * See 9100 ° (i 8000°0 | 10 “saycus | Ssaatbacy squed leuoT}odoag LEO TFIO” CETO” 6610 * FSI0 © STIO° GIT0° LOTO” TOTO” 9600 * 1600°0 OPT C660” 610° E160 ~ LOGO ~ GOGO * 9610 © 0610" S810 610° FLO” 6910” F910” SSTO~ GSTO © Z¥10- GFLO” 9E10° TETO” 9G10° 0610” 6900 © ZS00~ 6S00 ° LP00 © CFO” LE00° GE00 © 2G00 * GG00 © L100 ~ 6100 "0 £0€0 * L6Z0 ° 1660 © G8c0 © 080° FLC0 8960 ° 6920 ° ZS¢0~ GSO" L¥GO ~ GPCO © 960 ~ 0860 * GZCO0 * 0660 * FICO” 6020 * F0GO° 8610" £610" L810 ° G810° LLTO" TLIO” 99T0° TOTO” GG10” OSTO* SFLO” OFTO * CETO ” O&10” SGT0~ OZT0* ST10° OTTO * COTO” OOTO” C600 ° 0600 °0 G8E0 Séc0° | 9TCO° | F690" | S420" | TS80° | 6260" | LOOT” LLEO” cécO” =| OT90" | 8890" | 2920" &660° | GOOT” GLED © 9690" | 4090" | G890° | T9L0" Z160° | 9660° G9E0 OcSO” | 8690" | 9490" | ¢¢20° T160° | 0060 ° 6980 © GTSO” | S620" | TZ90° | OS20° | 880° | 9060° | Ss60° PSE0 6090" | 2890" | S990° | #FZ0° | GZ80° | 0060" | 6260" L¥E0” £090" | T890° | 6890" | 8620" | 9T80° | F680" | SZ60° TFE0* 8670" | 9290" | 990° | €E20° | TT80° | 6880° | 8960" 9EEO ° c6FO” | OLGO” | 8P90° | 2220" | SO80°* | E880° | 2960" O&E0" L870" | S9S0° | S90" | TGZ0° | 6620" | 2480° | 960° SCEO © G8F0° | 09S0" | 8890" | 9120" | F620° | Z480° | TS60" OZEO ” ZL¥0° | PSG0° | S€90° | OTZ0° | 68Z0° | 9980° | 9F60° FIE0 © IZ¥O" |) 6FS0° | 2090" | FOO” | E820" |; 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T&F | 68h" | LIP | GSH" | POF’ | CLP’ | OSF" | 88h" | 96F* | FOS | SIS* | Os" | Sze’ 60r° | LEV” | Shr" | ESF" | COh" | OLF’ | SLK° | OSF° | FEF" | GOS” | OTS* | SIS" | 9ac° Lov | S&P’ | Shh" | ISh* | OOF" | 89F° | OLb° | F8P° | GBF’ | OOS" | 80G* | gIS* | Fac" Sch’ | S&h° | Tbh | GPR’ | 89h" | 90° | PLE’ | Z8F° | O6F" | S6F* | 90S" | FIG" | aac° ech" | Ie" | GE | Leh’ | OSh’ | POF” | LH" | O8h* | S8F° | 96h" | FOS" | ZIS* | OS" lop" | 6ch" | LER’ | Shh" | Hoh | COR | OLF | SLP° | 98%" | FGF | GOS" | OTS" | SIG” Och" | 80h | 98%" | PHP’ | CSP" | OOF | SOF" | OLF° | F8h* | 26F* | OOS" | 80S" | OIG’ Liv’ | Sch’ | 8h" | Teh” | GPR’ | LSh° | GOP | €2b° | I8h° | B8F* | L6h° | GOS” | eTS* SIP’ | Sth | Leh" | 6&h" | Leh’ | GGh* | SOF | LF | 6Lh" | L8h° | G6P* | gOS" | ITS° E1P 0} Th '0| 62h 0} LEP ‘O) SPP 'O) ESF ‘0! 19h ‘0! 69F 0} LLF 0) SSF ‘O| 6F'0| TOS 0) 60S *0 0°G% | 0°@@ | OIG | 0°02 | O'6E | ORT | OAT | O'OT | OST | O'FE | OST | O'@T | OTT 9€S * PES © GES * 08S” 82S * 92S * PCG * Teo 61S * LIS ‘0 | “oS9 OL ol PO AINE LAM ‘ponuryu0pn—7, ‘(,4-—.L) ang yam Jo uoissaidap Sseyouwr ere sajawmoung fs sayour ‘aanssoud odpjA—§ WavG FRe age Oe slg gle PLe ZLe 69° Lae goge "0 | 06° * | gs¢ bLG* | ¢g¢ £4 °0) I88 oF | oe | ow 009° 86o° 96S * FOS * c6o* S8s 109° 66o° 268-0)" ** "Qing 38. fLLA2TLIz 3 z 198 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. APPENDIX B. TABLE 10.—Osmotic pressure in atmospheres for depression of the freezing point to 2.999° Cl ieee tee 3 A es 6 7 8 9 | | ope ee 0.000 | 0.121 | oom | ogea| ols! olaoalll a 724 | 0.844 0.965] 1.085 sie = hoe ie | 1,206] 1.327} 1.447! 1.568] 1.688] 1,809| 1.930) 2050| 2171| 2291 (pies tee | 2'412| 2:532| 2.652| 2.772) 2.803| 3.014| 3.134| 3.255| 3.375| 3.496 Desienmie Sr 7s | 3.616] 3.737| 3.857| 3.978| 4.098| 4.219] 4.339] 4.459| 4.580| 4.700 (pA ae Geeeeas | 4isar| 4941 | 5.062] 5.182) 5.302 | 5.423 | 5.543 | 5.664] 5.784| 5.904 Mom eh | 6.025| 6145 | 6.2661 6.386| 6.506] 6.628| 6.747| 6.867| 6.988] 7.108 Geos one | 1229] 7.349 | 7.460) 7.590] 7710 | 7.830) 7.951) Sor| S18 | 830 pg meioees: S| 8.432 | 8.552| 8.672] 8.793| 8913 | 9033] 9.154| 9.274| 9.394] 9.514 OSS Reet terse ees: eee 9. 635 9. 755 | 9. 875 9.995 | 10.12 10. 24 10. 36 10. 48 10.60 |, 10.72 glows rer: | 10.84 | 10.96 | 11-08 | 11-20 | 1132 | 1144 | i156 | i168 | igo | 11.92 Ocoee ee (12.04 | 12.16 | 12.98 {12.40 | 12.52 12,64 | 12.76 | 12.88 | 13.00 | 13.12 a Ge Sen a: 13,24 | 13.36 | 13.48 | 13.60 | 13.72 | 13.84 | 13.96 | 14.08 | 14.90 | 14.32 1 2 eee or Eeesewel| 14.44 | 14.56 14. 68 14. 80 14. 92 15. 04 15.16 15. 28 15. 40 15252 Mae es | 15,64 | 15.76 | 15.88 | 16.00 | 1612 | 16.24 | 1636 | 16.48 | 1660 | 1672 acme mente Cant Notas | 16.84 | 16.96 | 17.08 | 17.20 | 17.32 | 17.44 | 17.56 | 17.68 | 17.80 | 17.92 1.5 ....2..22..22----.] 18:04 | 18.16 | 18.28 | 18.40 | 18.52 | 1864 | 18.76 | 18.88 | 19.00 | 19.22 SG meee ae /19.24 | 19.36 | 19.48 | 19.60 19.72 | 19.84 | 19.96 | 20.08 | 20.20 ) 20.32 ie ae es 20.44 | 20.56 | 20.68 | 20.80 | 20.92 | 21.04 | 21.16 | 21.98 | 21.40 | 91.52 The oe 21,64 | 21.76 | 21.88 | 22.00 | 2212 | 92.24 | 92:36 | 2248 | 22.60 | 92,72 Tg As ea Si (92184 | 22196 | 23.08 | 23.20 23.32 | 23.44 | 23.56 | 23.68 | 23.80 | 23.92 DR ee Re ec 24.04 | 24.16 | 24.93 | 24.40 | 24.52 | 24.63 | 24.75 | 24.97 | 24.99 | 25,11 Dee ia i age | 25,23 | 25.35 | 25.47 | 25.59 | 25.71 | 25.83 | 25.95 | 26.07 | 2619 | 263% Di Deen iis aR 26.43 | 26.55 | 26.67 | 26.79 | 28.91 | 27,03 | 27.15 | 27.27 | 27.39 | 27.51 Digime ey Ghee 97.63 | 27.75 | 27.87 | 27.99 | 2811 | 2823 | 2834 | 28,46 | 2858 | 28 70 DAR ieee 28.82 | 28.94 | 29.06 29.18 | 29.30 | 29.42 | 29.54 | 29.65 | 29.78 | 29.90 p) Geen ean rae 30.02 | 20.14 | 30.26 | 30.38 | 30.50 | 30.62 | 30.74 | 30.86 | 30.98 | 31.09 noe et 31,21 | 31.33 | 31.45 | 31.57 | 31.69 | 31.81 | 31.93 | 32.05 | 32.17 | 32,20 De eas ae 32,41 | 32.55 | 32.65 | 32.77 | 32.89 | 33.01 | 3313 | 33.25 | 33.36 | 33.48 9.800100... 2011] 83/60. | 33.72 | 33.84 | 33.96 | 34.08 | 34.20 | 3ta1 | 3443 | 3456 | 34.68 PON sly Raker Pepe ae | 34.79 34. 91 35. 04 35. 16 | 35.27 35. 39 35.51 35. 63 35. 75 35. 87 1 1 Harris, J. A., and Gortner, R. A.. Amer. Jour. Botany, 1: 75-78, 1914. TABLE 11.—An extension to 5.99° of tables to determine the osmotic pressure of expressed vegetable saps from the depression of the freezing point.” {Hundredths of degrees, centigrade. | | 0 sine baie Cw is ou fon x1 io.) Yo} w for) = — w for) i) (JC) w S. Ww Or S as ~J w oe or Qe) w for) sI ra ww & w > Ne} Or (Jt) xy S ier) ww Ve) isa ve) (J) Vs) Co a ise) ie) ive) ox) is i=) fo) an nS S ay I ns cS iw) ax is S Ha oO is (=) oO ind is i} 49.21 | 49.33 | 49.45 | 49.57 | 49.69 | 49.81 | 49.93 |. 50.04 50. 16 50.40 | 50.52] 50.64 | 50.76 | 50.88} 50.99) 51.11 |] 51.23 51.35 51.59 | 5Y.71 | 51°83 | 51.94 | 52.06 | 52.18 | 52.30 | 52.42 52.54 52.78 | 52.89 | 53.01 | 53.13 | 53.25 | 53.37] 53.49] 53.61 53. 73 69.36 | 69.48] 69.60 | 69.71 | 69.83| 69.95 | 70.07| 70.19| 70.30 70.54 | 70.66| 70.78} 70.90| 71.01 | 71.13 | 71.25| 71.37| 71.49 QUETOU SION CUSTOTOT OT Rk BB UR Bp uk Bk go G90 G9.g9 go eo G9 G0 89 1 Harris, J. A., Amer. Jour. of Botany, 2: 418-419, 1915. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 199 APPENDIX C. STANDARD TITRATION METHODS FOR SOIL ACIDITY AND FOR CARBONATES (“BLACK ALKALI’). The following procedure in titration for the alkalinity and acidity tests is practically that followed by the Bureau of Soils, and a number of soil depart- ments in the agricultural experiment stations: The equipment required* is two 50-cubic centimeter burette titration ap- paratuses, one 50-cubic centimeter graduate, one 250-cubic centimeter gradu- ate, two 50-cubic centimeter Nesslar tubes, 1-liter flask, four 100-cubie centi- meter beakers, two 50-cubic centimeters Royal Berlin porcelain evaporating dishes, one 50-cubic centimeter pipette, two ordinary pipettes or droppers, bottles and jars for reagents, analytical balance, numerous quart jars with screw caps or stoppers, and reagents as indicated by the procedure. The necesSary reagentS are prepared as follows: (1.) Standard Potassium hydrogen sulphate solution: The average single test will not require over 5 cubic centimeters of this solution. Dissolve 5.58 grams of pure KHSO, in 1 liter of water, and dilute 100 cubic centimeters of this solution to 1 liter. Place the dilute solution in burette jar No. 1, for alkalinity titrations. (2.) Phenolphthalein indicator: A drop or two for each alkalinity and acidity test is required. Dissolve 1 gram of phenolphzehalein in 100 cubic centimeters of 50 per cent alcohol. Neutralize by adding a few drops of centinormal alkali, until faintly red, then add a drop of centinormal acid, which should remove the color. (3.) Methyl orange indicator: A drop or two for each alkalinity test is required, Dissolve 1 gram _ of methyl orange (indicator) in 1 liter distilled water. (4.) Normal alkali is prepared by dissolving 39.96 grams of NaOH in 1 liter of water. Since only a few drops of the centinormal solution are needed in preparing the phenolphthalein indicator, and the exact strength is un- important, use in about the proportion of 0.04 gram per 100 cubic centi- meter of water. (5.) Centinormal acid (HCI): Exact strength unimportant. About 2 drops in 100 cubic centimeters of water give approximately correct strength. (6.) Standard sodium hydroxide solution: Compute quantity required at rate of one-half to 1 cubic centimeter per acidity test made. The solution is not normal, but is computed so that 1 cubic centimeter will have the equivalent value of 4 mg. of calcium. Dissolve 6.4 grams of pure NaOH in 1 liter of freshly boiled distilled water. Place this in burette jar No. 2, for acidity titrations. Exclude air from the jar as far as possible and make-up fresh solution frequently. (7) Normal potassium nitrate solution: Use 250 cubie centimeters for each soil examined for acidity. Dissolve 100.93 grams of pure KNO, in 1 liter of distilled water. ALKALINITY TEST. Place 100 grams of air-dried soil of the sample to be examined in a quart jar: add 200 cubic centimeters of distilled water; shake occasionally during 1 The special equipment required to conduct the work at experiment stations should cost approximately $20 to $25. 200 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, © 12 hours and allow to settle. The test may best be started early in the day, shaking jars occasionally during the day and leaving them to settle overnight. Turbidity of the solution is difficult to eliminate in this test, but time is saved if complete settling occurs. Draw off with pipette 50 cubic centimeters of the supernatent liquid ;:filter, if not fairly clear, into an evaporating dish; and evaporate over Bunsen flame, continuing the drying almost to red heat, so that residue is devoid of humus and will cling together in flakes when the dish is scraped. When dish is cool add 50 cubic centimeters of distilled water; allow to stand for two hours; then pour half of solution into each of two 50-cubic centimeter Nesslar tubes. If fusing of residue has been complete, filtering at this stage would be unnecessary, as the flakes of solid matter will remain in evaporating dish. Add to each Nesslar tube a drop of phenolphthalein indicator, comparing the first tube with that which has not been treated, before treating the second. If the solution in tube 1 is colored pink, carbonate (Na.CO;) is present, and the solution is titrated with KHSO:. until pink color disappears. The burette, pre- sumably graduated to tenths of a cubic centimeter, should be estimated to the nearest hundredth just before beginning to titrate, and again as soon as the color disappears. The comparison tube may then be similarly treated, reading the burette for the second treatment, as a check on the first. This second tube is carried simply as a color comparator. A drop of methyl orange indicator is now added to each of the above tubes, whether or not the titration for carbonate has been made. This will give to each a yellow color, and the second tube will be kept alongside the one which is titrated so that change of color in the latter will be quickly apparent. The titration of the first tube is continued until the slighest reddish or orange tinge appears. This may best be discerned against a white background and not in direct sunlight, which sometimes itself imparts a reddish tinge to the yellowish solution. A final reading of the burette is obtained to compute the quantity of KHSO. used in titrating for the bicarbonate (NaHCOs;). The amount of the second titration, less the amount of the first, gives the amount necessary to neutralize the HCO; originally present, since the first reaction changed the carbonate to bicarbonate, as follows: Na.Co;s+KHSO.= KNaSo.:+NaHCoOs. The second titration, or the first if no carbonate was originally present, reduces all bicarbonate present to carbonic acid, as shown by the reaction: NaHCO; +KHSO.:=KNaSo, +H-2COs. For each 0.01 cubie centimeter of KHSO. used in the first titration, there was present 0.00246 milligram of CO; in the 25 cubic centimeter solution treated, or 0.01968 milligram in the solution representing 100 grams of soil, or 0.00001968 per cent of the soil weight. For each 0.01 cubic centimeter of KHSO, in the differential titration, there was present in the original solution 0.0025 mg. of HCO: in the 25 cubic centimeter solution used, or 0.02 mg. in the solution representing 100 grams of soil, or 0.00002 per cent of the weight of the soil. ACIDITY TEST. Place 100 grams of air-dried soil of the sample to be tested in a quart jar; add 250 cubic centimeters of normal KNO; solution and stopper ; and shake at in- tervals of 5 minutes for 3 hours. Let stand overnight. Draw off 125 cubic centi- meters of the supernatant liquid, which in this case is usually quite clear; boil 10 minutes to expel carbon dioxide; cool; and add a drop of phenolphthalein RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 201 indicator. Place the beaker under the burette, against a white background, and titrate with NaOH to the appearance of the faintest pink color. The amount of the titration being determined by readings of the burette, the amount of acid present in the solution is expressed by the amount of lime which would be required to neutralize it. Each 0.01 cubic centimeter of the sodium hydroxide used in titration is equivalent to 0.04 mg. of calcium car- bonate in the 125 cubic centimeter solution used, and while this stands for one-half of the 100 grams of soil treated, it really stands for only two-fifths of the acid in that soil, because the first solution does not completely dissolve the acids. Therefore, each 0.01 cubie centimeter of titration indicates 0.1 mg. of lime necessary to neutralize the 100 grams of soil, or the amount required to neutralize is 0.0001 per cent of soil weight. In practice, the amount of lime required to neutralize the first foot of soil is expressed in tons per acre, being computed, of course, on a standard or spe- cific weight of soil per acre-foot. ; Space is provided on “Summary of Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil” form for tabulating the computed results of alkalinity and acidity tests in terms of percentages of the weight of soil, which are as serviceable for scien- tific comparisons as any other expression. LIST OF REFERENCES. The following citations to the literature of forest ecology are mainly those concerned with methodology. A few references are given to descr ptive works in which the methods of obtaining the results are clearly brought out, or in which the nature of the problem to be met by the future ecologist is emphasized. No attempt has been made to prepare a complete bibliography, and the con- venience of the average student has rece:ved considerable weight, in avoiding, especially, foreign language articles. GENERAL. 1. ABBE, CLEVELAND. ‘Treatise on meteorological apparatus and methods. An- ‘ nual Report of the Chief Signal Officer for 1887, Appendix 46, Sig- nal Service, War Dept., Washington, 1888. 2. BATES, C. G., NOTESTEIN, F’. B., and KEpLINGER, P. Climatic character‘sties of forest types in the Central Rocky Mountains. Proc. Soe. Am. Foresters, LX, 1, Wash., 1914. 3. BiceLow, F. H. Manual for observers in climatology and evaporation. U.S. Weather Bur., 1909, pp. 106. 4. Borerker, R. H. Some notes on forest ecology and its problems. Proce. Soe. Am. Foresters, X, 4, Washington, 1915. . BowMAN, I. Forest physiography. New York, 1911. . CLEMENTS, F. EH. Research methods in ecology. Lincoln, Nebr., 1905. Plant physiology and ecology. New York, 1907. 8. Hann, JuLius. Handbook of climatology. (Transl. by R. deC. Ward.) New York, pp. 487, 1908. 9. Harrinetron, M. W. Review of forest meteorological observations: a study preliminary to the discussion of the relation of forests to climate. U. S. Forest Serv., Bull. 7, 18938. 10. Marriot, Wm. Hints to meteorological observers. Royal Meteorological Soc., London, 1911. 11. Mooxr, W. L. Descriptive meteorology. New York, pp. 344, 1910. 12. Pearson, G. A. Reproduction of western yellow pine in the Southwest. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Forest Serv., Circular 174, 1910. 1 ey Meteorological study of parks and timbered areas in the western yellow pine forests of Arizona and New Mexico. U. S. Weather Bur., Mo. Weather Rev., XLI, pp. 1615—1629,-1913. 14. Factors controlling the distribution of forest types. Ecology, I, 3, 1920. 15.. ScHimprr, A. F. W. Plant geography upon a physiological basis. (Transl. by W. R. Fisher), Oxford, pp. 839, 1903. 16. SHREVE, ForREST. The vegetation of a desert mountain range as conditioned by climatic factors. Carnegie Institution, Washington, 1915. . WARMING, Eve. Ecology of plants. (Transl. by Groom and Balfour.) Oxford, pp. 422, 1909. = co | 202 18. 19. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 203 WEATHER BurEAU. U. S. Climatological data of the United States. (A monthly record by sections—States—issued since Jan., 1914, mainly of temperature and precipitation data for each station reporting to the Weather Bureau. Prior to 1914, all similar data were pub- lished in the Monthly Weather Review. Current conditions are given, as well as variations from the normal for stations estab- lished 10 years Or more.) “ox, RAPHAEL. Meteorological observations in connection with botanical geography, agriculture, and forestry. U. 8. Weather Bureau, Mo. " Weather Rev., XLII, 4, 1914. AIR TEMPERATURES. . Fassic, O. L. Period of safe plant growth in Maryland and Delaware. U. S. Weather Bureau, Mo. Weather Rev., XL., 3, 1914. . Hartzert, F. Z Comparison of methods for computing daily mean tem- peratures: effect of discrepanc’es upon investigations of climatolo- gists and biologists. N. ¥. Agr. Exp. Station Bull. 68, 1919. Ab- stract in Mo. Weather Rey., p. 799, Nov., 1919. . KoEPPEN, VrADIMAR. A uniform thermometer exposure at meteorological stations for determining air temperatures and atmospheric humid- ity. U. S. Weather Bureau, Mo. Weather Rev., XLIII, 8, 1915. . LEHENBAUER, P. A. Growth of maize seedlings in relation to temperature. Physiological Researches, I, 5, pp. 247-288, Baltimore, 1914. . Liyrneston, B. E., and Lryrneston, G. J. Temperature coefficients in plant geography and climatology. Bot. Gaz. 56, pp. 349-875, 1918. . Liyryeston, B. E. Physiological temperature indices for the study of plant growth in relation to climatic conditions. Physiological Re- searches, 1:8, 399-420, 1916. . MacDovucat, D. T. The auxothermal integration of climatic complexes. Amer. Jour. Bot., I: 186-1938, 1914. . Maryry, ©. F. Instructions for obtaining and tabulating records from recording instruments. U. S. Weather Bureau, Circular A, Instru- ment Div., 1913. Sluggishness of thermometers. U.S. Weather Bureau, Mo. Weather Rey., X XVII, 10, 1899. . Merriam, C. Harr. Life zones and temperature zones. 1898. . McLane, F. T. A preliminary study of climatic conditions in Maryland as related to plant growth. Physiological Researches 14. (Balti- more) February, 1917. . Sampson, A. W. Climate and plant growth in certain vegetative associa- tions. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. No. 700, 1918. 8. Seetey, D. A. Instruments for making weather observations on the farm. U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1908, pp. 483-442. . SHreve, Forresr. The influence of low temperatures on the distribution of the giant cactus. Plant World, 14, 6, 1911. - Cold air drainage. Plant World, 15, 5, 1912. . SHReve, Hpire B. Thermo-electrical method for the determination of leaf temperature. Plant World, 22, 6, 1919. . Stanparps, U. S. Bur. of. Testing of thermometers. Cire. No. 8, 1911. . TuHtessen, A. H. Story of the thermometer and its uses in agriculture. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1914, pp. 458-461. . WEATHER Bureau, U. 8. Instructions for cooperative observers of the Weather Bureau. Cires. B and ©, Instrument Div., 1915. 204 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SOIL TEMPERATURES, 40. ABBE, CLEVELAND. First report on the relations between climate and crops. U. S. Weather Bur. Bull. 36, 1905. 41. Bovuyoucos, G. J. Effect of temperature on the movement of water vapor and capillary moisture in soils. U. 8S. Dept. Agr., Jour. Agr. Res., V, 4, 1915. 42, Soil temperature. Mich. Agr. Exp. Station Tech. Bull. 26, 1916. 43 FERREL, WM. Temperature of the atmosphere and the earth’s surface. U. S. Signal Serv., War. Dept., Prof. Paper 13, 1884. 44, Hartley, Cart. Stem lesions caused by excessive heat. U.S. Dept. Agr., _Jour. Agr. Research, XIV, 18, 1918. 45. MacDoueat, D. T. Soil temperature and vegetation. U. S. Weather Bu- reau Mo. Weather Rev., XXXI, 8, 1903. 46. Oscamp, J. Soil temperatures as influenced by cultural methods. U. S. Dept. Agr., Jour. Agr. Research, V, 4, 1915. 47. PaTreN, H. E. Heat transference in soils. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils, Bull. 59, 1909. 48. SeeLtty, D. A. Temperature of the soil and surface of the ground. U. S. Weather Bureau, Mo. Weather Rev., XXIX, 11, 1901. SOLAR RADIATION—LIGHT. 50. ApBoT, C. G., and AtpricH, L. B. Smithsonian pyrheliometry revised. Smithsonian Mise. Coll., vol. 60, No. 18, 1913. 51. Awestrém, A. A new instrument for measuring sky radiation. U. S. Weather Bureau Mo. Weather Rev., XLVII, pp. 795-797, Nov., 1919. 52. Baty, EH. C. C. Spectroscopy. pp. 568, Longmans, London and New York, 1905. 538. BigELow, F. H. Mr. Abbot’s theory of the pyrheliometer. Science, n. s., vol. XLVIII, Oct. 25,1918. 54. Brices, L. J. A mechanical differential telethermograph and some of its. applications. Jour. Wash. Acad. Science, vol. 8, No. 2, 1913. 55. BUNSEN, R. and Roscor H. Meteorologische lichtmessungen. Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. 117, 1862. 554. Burns, G. P. Studies on the tolerance of New England forest trees. 56. I. Development of white pine seedlings in nursery beds. Vt. Agr. 2 Exp. Sta. Bull. 178, 1914. LNT II. Relation of shade to evaporation and transpiration in nursery beds. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 181, 1914. . 58. ———— III. Discontinuous light in forests. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull, 193, 1916. 59. ———— Tolerance of forest trees and its relation to forest succession. J our, of Forestry XVIII, 6, 1920. 60. CLEMENTS, F. E. The life history of lodgepole burn forests. U. S. Forest Serv. Bull. 79, 1910. 61. Davis, Harvey N. Observations of solar radiation with Angstrom pythelio- meter. Providence, R. I., Mo. Weather Rev. XXXI, 6, pp. 275— 280, June, 1903. 62. Kimpartrt, H. H. Observations of solar radiation with Angstrém pyrheliom- eter, Asheville and Black Mountain, N. C. U.S. Weather Bureau Mo. Weather Rey., XXXI, 7, pp. 320-334, July, 1903. 65. 66. 68. 69. 78. 79. 81. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 205 . Kiweatt, H. H. Photometric measurements of daylight illumination on a horizontal surface at Mount Weather, Va. U. 8S. Weather Bureau Mo. Weather Rey., XLII, pp. 650-658. 1914. Total radiation received on horizontal surface from sun and sky at Mount Weather, Va. U. S. Weather Bureau Mo. Weather Rey., XLII, 8, Aug. 1914, pp. 474-487, and XLIII, pp. 100-111, March 1915. Variation in the total and luminous solar radiation with geograph- ical position in the United States. U. S. Weather Bureau Mo. Weather Rey., XLVII, pp. 769-798, Nov., 1919. Knorr, ©. G., Solar radiation and earth temperatures. U. S. Weather Bureau Mo. Weather Rey., XXXI, 10, pp. 454-459, Oct., 1908. . Lanetey, 8. P. Researches on solar heat and its absorption by the earth’s atmosphere. (Mount Whitney Hxpedition.) Papers of the Signal Service No. 15, War Dept., 1884. MacDovueat, D. T., and SPporHR, H. A. The measurement of light in some of its more important physiological aspects. Science, n. s., vol. XLY, No. 1172, June 15, 1917. Marvin, C. F. The measurement of sunshine and the preliminary examina- tion of Angstrém’s pyrheliometer. U. S. Weather Bureau Mo. Weather Rev., XXIX, Oct., 1901. Care and management of sunshine recorders. 3d ed.. 22 p. (Cir- cular G, Instrument Div.), U. S. Weather Bureau, 1911. . Poyntine, J. H. Radiation in the solar system. U. S. Weather Bureau Mo. Weather Rev., XXXII, 11, pp. 507-511, Nov., 1904. . RapAv. Actinometrie. Paris, 1877. . SHARP, C. H., and Mirrer, P. S. A new universal photometer. Electrician, 60, pp. 562-565, 1908. . Very, FraAnK W. Atmospheric radiation. (A research conducted at Alle- gheny Observatory and at Providence, R. I.) 184 p. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Weather Bureau Bull. G, 1900. The solar constant. U. S. Weather Bureau Mo. Weather Rev., XXIX, Aug., 1901. . WEISNER, JuLIUs. Orientirende Versuche tiber den Hinfluss der sogenannten chemischen Lichtintensitit auf den Gestaltungsprocess der Pflan- zenorgane. (In Sitzungsberichte der K. Akademie der Wissen- schaften, Wien, Mathematische-naturwissenschaftliche Klasse, vol. 102, pt. 1: 291-350, 1893.) . Zon, Rapwarv. A new explanation of the tolerance and intolerance of trees. Proc. Soc. Am. Foresters, II, 1, 1907. and Graves, H. 8S. Light in relation to tree growth. U. S. Forest Serv. Bull. 92, 1911. Zepereaver, Emerton. Das Lichtbediirfniss der Waldbiiume und die Licht- mess Methoden. (In Centralblatt fur das gesamte Forstwesen, 1907, vol. 33: 325-330. Transl. in Forestry Quarterly, vol. 6: 255— 262, 1908.) PRECIPITATION, ABBE, CLEVELAND. Rain gage and the wind. (Ed. Notes, Mo. Weather Rev., XXVII, 10, p. 464468, Oct., 1899. . Atrer, J. ©. Where the snow lies in summer, U. 8. Weather Bureau Mo. Weather Rev., XXXIX, pp. 758-761, 15, May, 1911. 206 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 93. 94. 101. Beats, H. A. Variations in rainfall. Mo. Weather Rey., XXIX, 9, p. 1448— 1452, Sept., 1911. Bicetow, F. H. Catchment of snowfall by means of large snow bins and towers. Mo. Weather Rev., XXXVIII, 6, p. 968-973, June, 1910. CuHurCcH, J. KH. Jr. The conservation of show; its dependence on moun- tains and forests. Bull. of the University of Neyv., Agr. Exp. Sta- tion, vol. 1, No. 6, Dec., 19112: ——. The progress of Mount Rose Observatory, 1906-1912. Science, n. s., Vol. XXXVI, No. 939, December, 1912. ——-. The Mount Rose weather observatory. 1906-1907. Bull. No. 67, University of Ney. Agr. Exp. Station. ——. Snow survey provides basis for close forecast of watersheds’ yield. Engineering Record, April 17, 1915. Horton, R. E. Rainfall interception. U. S. Weather Bureau, Mo. Weather Rey., XLVII, 9, Sept., 1919. JAENICKE, A. J., and Forrster, M. H. The influence of a western yellow- pine forest on the accumulation and melting of snow. U.S. Weather Bureau, Mo. Weather Rev., p. 115-26, March, 1915. Kaper, B. C. An improved form of snow Sampler. U. S. Weather Bureau, Mo. Weather Rey., XLVII, 10, Oct., 1919. . Kincer, J. B. The seasonal distribution of precipitation and its frequency and intensity in the United States. U. 8S. Weather Bureau, Mo. Weather Rey., XLVII, 9, Sept., 1919. Marvin, C. F. The measurement of precipitation ; instructions on measure- ment and registration of precipitation by means of standard instru- ments of Weather Bureau. 3d ed., Instrament Div. Cire. H, 37 p., 1918. StockMAN, W. B. Periodic variation of rainfall in arid region. 15 p., Weather Bur. Bull. N., 1905. . THIESSEN, A. H. Value of snow surveys as related to irrigation projects, p. 391-396, U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook 1911, separate 578. . U. S. Weather Bureau. Instructions to special river and rainfall observers of the Weather Bureau. U.S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bull. No. 415, 1909. Snow and ice bulletin. (Weekly during winter.) . WAtiis. B. C. Rainfall and agriculture in United States. Mo. Weather Rev., XLII, 6, p. 267-274, map. June, 1915. SOILS. Atway, F. J., Fires, BE. K., and Prncknry, R. M. The determination of humus. Nebr. Agr. Exp. Station Bull. 115, 1910. 102. ————. Studies of the relation of the nonavailable water of the soil to the hygroscopic coefficient. Nebr. Agr. Exp. Station, Research Bull. 3, 1913. 103. ———. Kune, M. A., and McDorr, G. R. Some notes on the direct deter- 104. 105. mination of the hygroscopic coefficient. U. S. Dept. Agr., Jour. Agr. Research, XI, 4, October 22, 1917. Bates, C. G. Concerning site. Jour. of Forestry, XVI, 4. (A suggestion as to factors controlling height growth.) April, 1918. The descriptions and data given under this reference are original contributions resulting from studies at the Fremont Experiment Station, from 1914 to date, heretofore unpublished ; hence given in detail. 107. 108. 109. 110. ebitel 113. 114. 128. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 207 . Bouyoucos, G. J., and McCoon, M. M. The freezing-point method as a new means of measuring the concentration of the soil solution directly in the soil. Mich. Agr. Exp. Station, Tech. Bull. 24, 1915. Further studies on the freezing-point lowering of soils. Mich. Agr. Exp. Station, Tech. Bull. 31, 1916. —. The freezing-point method as a new means of determining the nature of acidity and lime requirements of soils. Mich. Agr. Exp. Station Tech. Bull. 27, 1916. ———. Measurement of inactive, or unfree, moisture in the soil by means of the dilatometer method. U.S. Dept. Agr., Jour. Agr. Research, VIII, 6, Feb., 1917. Briees, L. J. The mechanics of soil moisture. U. 8S. Dept. Agr., Bu. of Soils, Bull. No. 10, 1897. Brices, L. J. Electrical instruments for determining the moisture, tem- perature, and soluble salt content of soils. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bu. of Soils, Bull. 15, 1899. : ——, Martin, F. O., and Prearce, J. R. The centrifugal method of mechanical soil analysis. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils, Bull. 24, 1904. and McLaAng, J. W. The moisture equivalents of soils. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils, Bull. 45, 1907. and SHANTz, H. L. The wilting coefficient for different plants and its indirect determination. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Plant Indus- try, Bull. 230, 1912. . BUCKINGHAM, HE. Contributions to our knowledge of the aeration of soils. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils, Bull. 25, 1904. . ——. Studies on the movement of.soil moisture. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils, Bull. No. 38, 1907. . CAMERON, F. K., and GALLAGHER, F. HE. Moisture content and physical con- ditions of soils. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils, Bull. 50, 1908. . CHEMISTRY, BuREAU OF. Official and provisional methods of analysis. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 107. . Drxon, H. H., and ATKINs, W. R. G. Osmotic pressures in plants. I. Method of extracting sap from plant organs. Sci. Proc. Royal Dublin Soc., n. s. 18, pp. 422-33, 1913. . FiercHer, ©. C., and Bryan, H. Modification of the method of mechanical soil analysis. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils, Bull. 84, 1912. . Free, E. E. Studies in soil physics, The Plant World, y. 14, Nos. 2, 3, 5, 7, and 8, 1911. . GRANDEAU, Louis. Traite’ d’Analyse des Matieres agricoles, Paris, 1877. . Harris, J. A., LAwReNCE, J. V., and Gorrner, R. A. The eryoscopic con- stants of expressed vegetable saps as related to local environmental conditions in the Arizona deserts. Phy. Res., yol. 2, No. 1, 1916. . HArriey, Carn. The control of damping-off of coniferous seedlings. Bur. Plant Ind., U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull, 453, 1917. . Hmcarp, E. W. Soils. New York, 1906. . Hrpparp, R. P., and HArrinaron, O. BH. Depression of the freezing-point in triturated plant tissues and the magnitude of this depression as related to soil moisture. Phys. Res., vol. I, No. 10, 1916. . HOAGLAND, D. ¥. The freezing-point method as an index of variations in the soil solution due to season and crop growth. U.S. Dept. Agr., Jour. Agr. Res., XII, 6, Febr. 11, 1918. Jones, H.C, Physical chemistry. 4th ed., 1918. New York. 208 BULLETIN 1059, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 129. Kine, F. H. Investigations in soil management. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils, Bull. 26, 1905. 129a. Livineston, B. E., Brirron, J. C., and Rem, F. R. Studies on the prop- erties of an unproductive soil. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils, Bull. 28, 1905. Review of Hans Fittings’ Die Wasserversorgnung und die Osmo- tischen Druckverhaltnisse der wustenpflanzen. Plant World, 14, 7, 1911. 131. McCoor, M. M., and Mitiar, C. E. The water content of the soil and the composition and concentration of the soil solution as indicated by the freezing-point lowerings of the roots and tops of plants. Soil Science, vol. 8, No. 2, 1917. . : 132. McLAUGHLIN, W. W. Capillary movement of Soil moisture. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 835, 1920. Contribution from Bur. Public Roads. 133. Moork, BARRINGTON. Osmotic pressure as an index of habitat. Jour. Forestry, XV, 8, Dec., 1917. i 134. Nernst, W. Theoretical chemistry. 7th German edition. London, 1916. 1385. Osporn, H. F. The origin and evolution of life. New York, 1918. 136. PAaTrEN, H. E., and GALLAGHER, F. EH. Absorption of vapors and gases by soils. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils, Bull. 51, 1908. 187. Scuutt, H. A. Measurement of the surface forces in soils. Bot. Gaz., vol. 52, pp. 1-31, 1916. 138. SCHREINER, O., and SKINNER, J. J. Nitrogenous soil constituents and their \ bearing on soil fertility. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils, Bull. 87, 1912. 1389. SHREVE, Forrest. Rainfall as a determinant of soil moisture. Plant World, vol. 17, No. 1, 1914. 140. Sorts, BurREAU oF. Soil survey field book. U. S. Dept. Agr., 1906. 141. WuHerRRy, H. T. Soil acidity and a field method for its measurement. Heology, I, 8, 1920. 142. WuitNEy, M. D. Methods of the mechanical analysis of soils and of the determination of the amount of moisture in soils in the field.. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils, Bull. 4, 1896. | 130. WIND MOVEMENT. 145. Bates, C. G. The rdle of light in natural and artificial reforestation. Jour. Forestry, XV, 2, 1917. 146. HumpuReys, W. J. Wind velocity and elevation. U. S. Weather Bur., Mo. Weather Rev., XLIV, 1, p. 14-17, Jan., 1916. 147. Marvin, C. F. Anemometer tests. U.S. Weather Bur., Mo. Weather Revy., XXVIII, 2, p. 58-63, Feb., 1900. 148. Sanpstrém, J. W. Working up wind observations. U. S. Weather Bur., Mo. Weather Rey., XLIII, 11, p. 547-556, Nov., 1915. 149. U. S. WeatHer Bureau. Instructions for the installation and mainte- nance of wind measuring and recording apparatus. (Cire. D, In- strument Div.) U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bull. 530, 1914. 150. WripMAN, R. H. The windfall problem in the Klamath region, Oregon. Jour. Forestry, XVIII, 8, 1920. EVAPORATION. 151. Bates, C. G. A new evaporimeter for use in forest studies. U. S. Weather Bur., Mo. Weather Rev., May, 1919. 152. BiceLow, F. H. A manual for observers in climatology and evaporation. U.S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bull. No 409, 106 p., 1909. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162, 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT. 209 Brices, L. J.. and SHantz, H. L. The water requirements of plants. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bulls. 284 and 285. Relative water requirements of plants. U.S. Dept. Agr., Jour. Agr. Res., III, 1, 1914. Kaper, B. C. Instructions for installation and operation of Class A evapo-_ ratien stations. U.S. Weather Bur. (Instrument Div., Cire. L.), 1915. KiesserpacH, T. A. Transpiration as a factor in crop production. Nebr., Agr. Exp. Station Bull. 6, 1916. KimpBartt, H. H. Evaporation observations in United States. U. §&. Weather Bur., Mo. Weather Rev., XXXII, 12, p. 559, Dec., 1904. Livyineston, B. E. A rain correcting atmometer for ecological instrumen- tation. Plant World, 138, p. 78-83, 1910. Operation of the porous-cup atmometer. Plant World, vol. 13, p. 112-118, 1910. Atmospheric influence on evaporation and its direct measure- ment. U.S. Weather Bur., Mo. Weather Reyv., XLIII, 3, p. 126-181, March, 1915. —. and SHrRrvE, E. B. Improvements in the method for determining the transpiring power of plant surfaces. by hygrometric paper. Plant World, Oct., 1916. Liyineston, Grace J. An annotated bibliography of evaporation. Mo. Weather Rey., vols. XXXVI and XXXVII, June, 1908, to June, 1909. Maryin, ©. F. Methods and apparatus for observation and study of evap- oration. 1. Methods, U. S. Weather Bur., Mo. Weather Rev., April, 1909. 2. Instruments, U. S. Weather Bur., Mo. Weather Revy., May, 1909. RUsseLtt, THomaAs. Piche evaporimeter (description and use). U. S. Weather Bur., Mo. Weather Rev., p. 253-255. (Hd. rev. of article Mo. Weather Reyv., Sept., 1888), June, 1905. Suive, J. W. An improved nonabsorbing porous-cup atmometer. Plant World, vol. 18, No. 1, p. 7-10, Jan., 1915. SHREVE. Forrest. (See Reference 16.) SmirH, A. W. Our present knowledge regarding heat of evaporation of water. U. S. Weather Bur., Mo. Weather Rev., XXXV, 10, p. 458-63, Oct., 1907. THom, ©. C., and Hortz, H. F. Factors influencing the water require- ments of plants. Wash. Agr. Exp. Station, Bull. 146, 1917. Weaver, J. E., and Turer, A. F. Ecological studies in-the tension zone hetween prairie and woodland. Univ. of Nebr. Botanical Survey, Lincoln, 1917. 2 ADDITIONAL COPIES O¥ THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 20 CENTS PER COPY Vv §2769—22——_14 Be Sees Nigvacagen gel SORE FRONTISPIECE. Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F—70500 Two MAGNIFICENT SPECIMENS OF SPRUCE IN ALASKA. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1060 Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester Washington, D. C. vV May, 1922 SITKA SPRUCE: ITS USES, GROWTH, AND MANAGEMENT. By N. LrEroy Cary, Forest Exanviner. CONTENTS. Page. Page. mameeuere tron 2 oe Sk Ue os dls) Slope type. 242 et Say gee 13 Geographic distribution and altitudi- Composition and volume of stand___ 13 ial) hire ee eee 2 | Climatic and soil requirements__-_~_ 15 Present supply and annual cut_--_~_ 4 | Light requirements __-__-_____-___ 16 Characteristics of the wood__------ 5) |, Reproduction S245. 039 Vel 16 Dine ee age oe Gime ausestoteinaunyens ee 18 Logging and milling _____-_------~_ te BALES Opa yaArlal pte Deny A oe aie ROS Eo eS Se ee 23 Size, age, and distinguishing charac- NTR EN ART A AP ee oe a a 27 BOrINDICH = ee KO? | Management =) 22022 fae eeu es 28 WTR Gt ee APPA | pea op Ys) 0(8 b ba aces NSU SL Te ee 33 Bottom-land type----------------- 12 INTRODUCTION. Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Trautv. and Mayer), also called tideland spruce, is an important timber tree of the Pacific coast region, growing naturally from Alaska to northern California. It is found largely at low altitudes and never very far from the ocean. In Alaska it is the principal tree of commerce; in Oregon and Wash- ington it is one of the components of the dense and luxuriant conifer- ous forest that blankets the humid strip of country on the west side of the coastal ranges. Here several of its associate trees are more abundant than Sitka spruce; but in the superior qualities of its wood, in its magnificent form, and in its immense size it has no superior except the redwood with which it mixes at the south end of its range. Because Sitka spruce does not ordinarily occur in pure stands, it must be logged in conjunction with other timber species—with Douglas fir, western hemlock, and western red cedar in Washington and Oregon, and with the western hemlock in Alaska. The greater part of the virgin forests in which Sitka spruce occurs has not been Note.—The writer wishes to acknowledge the valuable assistance given him by Messrs, H. T. Gisborne, R. H. Weidman, and others in the preparation of this manuscript. 85569—22—_-1 2 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. reached by lumbering operations; hence until recently the cut of this timber had been relatively small. It was not well known in the world or national markets until an extraordinary demand for it arose during the war because its wood was found to be superior for airplane construction. Within the space of a few months in 1917 this species, which had been of decidedly secondary importance in the lumber industry, became one of the woods most eagerly sought. To effect an enormous increase in the production of Sitka spruce and to obtain lumber of the quality needed for airplane wing beams. a special organization of the War Department—the Spruce Pro- duction Division—was created. The great activity of this organiza- tion in promoting the lumbering of this needed Sitka spruce air- plane stock in conjunction with the local lumber industry is one of the interesting chapters in the history of the war industries.? Although Sitka spruce may never again be so eagerly sought and so extensively cut as during the war, it has so many superior quali- ties in the estimation of foresters and lumbermen that it will always play an important role in the forest management of the Pacific coast region. It has a habit of rapid growth, makes a large yield per acre, lends itself fairly well to forest management, and produces a wood which has large value for many special purposes, prominent among which is the manufacture of paper. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION AND ALTITUDINAL RANGE. The botanical range of Sitka spruce, as shown in figure 1, lies along the north Pacific coast, roughly between 40° and 60° of lati- tude, and in that narrow strip of shore line often described as the ‘fog belt. Its width is nowhere more than 200 miles from the coast line eastward, and usually much less. In Alaska this species occurs as far north as the west shore of Cook Inlet, the north end of Kodiak Island, and along the Lynn Canal, and is generally abundant southward, on the islands and mainland near the coast of southeastern Alaska. In British Colum- bia it is found chiefly along the shore line and on the lowlands of the large rivers like the Fraser. In the United States it is found in the western part of the State of Washington on the lower benches and bottomlands of the rivers along the Pacific coast, and less commonly about Puget Sound, oc- curring sporadically in the foothills of the Cascade Range. In Oregon it is found under similar conditions but almost exclusively west of the crest of the Coast Range; it extends up the Columbia River only 50 miles from its mouth, and farther south not more than 1“ History of Spruce Production Division, United States Army,” issued by the United States Spruce Production Corporation. SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 3 20 miles inland. In California it grows close to the shore line and along the Smith and Klamath Rivers; the southern limit of its range is near Casper, in Mendocino County. Fic. 1.—Botanical distribution of Sitka spruce, shown by shaded areas. Heavy commercial stands of this species are found all the way from southeastern Alaska to Coos Bay, Oreg., though by no means does this tree preponderate in the forest growth throughout this strip nor is it even present everywhere. The heaviest stands of Sitka spruce, in its entire range, occur in the northwestern part of the 4, BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Olympic Peninsula (Washington) along the Soleduck, Dickey, and Hoko Rivers at elevations between 400 and 600 feet. The upper altitudinal limit has been noted by many observers as being higher in the northern part of its range than farther south; it is seldom, however, more than 3,000 feet above sea level. In the States it is doubtful whether it grows at that elevation; actually it has been found at 2,500 feet on the west side of the Olympic Mountains, at 2,100 feet near Bandera in the Cascade Range of Washington, and at about 2,100 feet on the slopes of Saddle Moun- tain in Clatsop County, Oreg. (Pl. I.) Although botanically it does occur at these elevations, an altitude of about 1,200 feet marks the upper limit of its growth in commercial quantities. The lower limit extends to the very surf line of the Pacific. PRESENT SUPPLY AND ANNUAL CUT. The total stand of Sitka spruce in America is estimated at 40 to 44 billion feet. As shown in Table 1, more than one-third occurs in Alaska, one-third in British Columbia, and the remainder in Washington, Oregon, and California. It is estimated that about 1,600 million board feet of the most ac- eessible spruce has been cut since the estimates given in Table 1 were made.? An additional billion board feet is estimated to have blown down by the catastrophic wind storm of January, 1921, which oc- eurred in the heart of the Sitka spruce belt of Washington. TABLE 1.—Hstimated stand of Sitka spruce in 1918.° State: Million feet b.m. | State: Million feet b. m. Nit Shine toni eon 6, 575 Alaska 15, 000 to 18, 000 @Orecon as eee 4, 374 British Columbia ________ 15, 186 California ae 2 econ 187 ; Sitka spruce forms only 1.5 per cent by volume of the total mer- ehantable stand of timber west of the Cascades in Oregon and Wash- ington. In British Columbia it comprises 6.7 per cent of the timber along the coast. Of the coastal forests of southeastern Alaska it forms about 20 per cent. Approximately 50 per cent of the entire stand of Sitka spruce is in private ownership. Detailed estimates of ownership appear in Table 10. The cut of spruce in Washington and Oregon increased over 50 per cent in the year 1918, and practically all of this increase was made up of Sitka spruce. The cut of spruce in the United States increased very little, and in general is declining. For a number of- 2 Supplies and Production of Aircraft Woods,” by W. N. Sparhawk, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Fifth Annual Report. Rpt. 67, p. 9, 1919. 3 Figures for all localities except British Columbia compiled by Forest Service from county records and private, State, and Government estimates. British Columbia figures from ‘“‘ Forests of British Columbia,” by H. N. Whitford and R. D. Craig, p. 330, 1918. SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 5 years Maine had been the leading spruce-producing State, cutting chiefly red spruce; but the pressing need for spruce aircraft lumber for war uses stimulated production in the Pacific Northwest to such an extent that in 1918 Washington took first place in the produc- tion of spruce with a cut of over 275,000,000 board feet, Oregon second with a cut of over 215,000,000, while Maine dropped to third place. As is shown in detail in Table 2, the cut of spruce for 1918 comprised 6 and 8 per cent, respectively, of the total lumber pro- duction in Washington and Oregon, less than 2 per cent in Cali- fornia, and practically the entire cut in Alaska. No distinction is made between species of spruce, but Sitka spruce probably forms over 95 per cent in these three States. In British Columbia the ratio was about the same as in Washington. ‘The total cut of Sitka spruce in 1918, exclusive of British Columbia, exceeded 536,000,000 board feet. TABLE 2.—Total reported cut of spruce lumber, 1915-1918. [No distinction is made between species of spruce: Sitka spruce probably forms over 95 per cent in Wash- ington, Oregon, and California.] Per cent Number | Quantity| Per cent | of total ztvernee Wear of active | ofspruce| of total | spruce | ; 000 eee * mills re- | reported | lumber cut in wou porting. cut. cut. United Sati. j States. S M feet. Washington: b. m. PPE eee se ce as ee oe alata ate Cee eeiee eon ck eae 49 | 196,203 5.3 16.4 |, $14.08 NGA Grete sa sot trs = S2 oo sence a asicasececeectoue 65 | 221,295 5.0 19.6 14. 08 LEU A SS A Re ee ea rere aa eee dea 66 | 198,271 4.6 20, 3 22,34 Ce ee Sa os nels tad atk ke Bio seet eae es 60 | 275, 826 | 6.0 28. 1 23. 91 Oregon Bae eas et ot ono isk sboee Ak on cata es « 20 65, 327 | 4.3 GB) 13. 56 LUE EA AR ee a Se seg he Si Se ee oe ae a ee 23 96, 245 | 4,3 8.5 11. 96 BUMP eo Sai iacm one o Sas Seve aptiss wees tS acsices Ooee | 26 | 120,647 4,9 12.3 28. 28 DU oR SEE SCUE SES AS See ee seer see | 35 | 215, 828 8.0 22. 0 27.03 California TU Ne A Ee i SER oe oonaatete 9,477 UU Bp acabecagaacepcscos Nar ee i ee Sas oe te Sau eae teeta hee 2 13, 871 0.9 1.2 14, 44 MME Stat ee, Ae pons oa te ot ee lee teen 4 20, 659 1.5 2.1 17. 50 DRE eS at es ne iad ia Biss siete ntealcipisniie Sas sito 8 16, 663 1.3 Ih 7/ 20. 75 ABBE G NOLS O25. ce sects Nac cecctcsotasctiees tecteneoay 18 28,716 OSH O RR iiaiateteterste 23. 00 British Columbia: ; 5 Sete wack ae oot toes de ceetecdccocceccssbatiss| AON EIR DON BOUIN eeleie siete ie alae eteleiscicts = | 13. 60 ET Oa aie Mop eatin cali re aie ioenineielr 48 | 749,077 | DO | Sees staterele 14. 66 no ee of Lumber, Lath, and Shingles in 1915 and Lumber in 1914,” U. 8. Dept.Agr. Bul. 506, p. 20. 2 “Production of Lumber, Lath, and Shingles in 1916,” U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 673, p. 21. * “Production of Lumber, Lath, and Shingles in 1917,” U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 768, p. 21. 4“ Production of Lumber, Lath, and Shingles in 1918,” U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 845, p. 24. 5 “Character and Distribution of the 1918 Lumber and Shingle Cut of Washington, Oregon, and Alaska, 48 *roducing and Consuming Regions,” by T. J. Starker, West Coast Lumberman, Vol. 36, No. 423, p. 26, 19. 6 “Forests of British Columbia,” by H. N. Whitford and R. D. Craig, p. 178, 1918. 7 No distinction is made between species of spruce; probably about 80 per cent Sitka spruce. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WOOD. Sitka spruce wood is light, soft, straight-grained, tough, easily worked, and very strong for its weight. It is tasteless and contains very few resin ducts. The color of the heartwood is a pale pinkish brown, which blends imperceptibly into the creamy white of the 6 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sapwood. The longitudinal surface of the wood shows a silky sheen, and the tangential surface, less noticeably, slight indentations or dimples. There is no distinct line of demarkation between the spring- wood and the summerwood as in Douglas fir. Compared with other woods of similar weight, Sitka spruce is of greater strength and toughness. Table 17 (Appendix) shows the value of its mechanical properties as measured by laboratory tests. Individual test specimens may show a variation of as much as 16 per cent from the data on bending, compression, shearing, tension, and such properties. Spiral grain is found in Sitka spruce as in other species, though not to any great extent. During the war specifications for airplane stock required that no spiral-grained wood be accepted which had more than 1 inch departure in 20 inches of length. Tests showed that a greater amount of twist caused a marked reduction in strength for aircraft purposes. Spiral grain in Sitka spruce can generally be detected in the standing tree by a twisting of the fluted portions of the lower trunk. : The calorific power of one cord of air-dried Sitka spruce wood is 52 per cent of that of a short ton of coal, and that of western hemlock and Douglas fir is 58 and 68 per cent, respectively. USES. The varied properties of Sitka spruce fit it for a wide variety of uses. It is the premier wood for the manufacture of aircraft. It is unsurpassed for pulp and is especially adapted for musical instru- ments. It is also a desirable wood for boxes, crates, barrels, veneer, and woodenware. By far the most extensive use to which the wood is put is the manu- facture of lumber. As such, in one form or another, it is used for about the same purposes as the other spruces. About 40 per cent is used for construction and similar purposes without further manufac- ture. While not suitable for heavy construction, it is well adapted for many building uses in which light weight, ease in working, and ability to take and hold nails and paints are essential. It is especially suitable for large doors, such as are used for garages, freight houses, and similar structures. It is extensively used for beveled siding. As -a car stock it is unsurpassed. The bulk of the lumber, however, is remanufactured into a large variety of products. More than half the lumber cut of this species is consumed by the planing mill, box, and crate industries. It cuts to advantage for doors, window and door frames, and molding. Belonging to the class of tasteless woods, Sitka spruce is extensively used for contain- ers in which articles of food are packed or handled. SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 7 Because of its light weight, combined with strength and tough- ness, Sitka spruce is the most desirable and most generally used wood for such airplane parts as wing beams, struts, longerons, ribs, and plywood parts. Although red, white, and Sitka spruce do not differ greatly in strength properties, the last species, on account of its greater size and consequently its greater proportion of clear lumber, is a more important source of aircraft material than the other two. Because of this and the relatively large supplies of virgin timber still remaining, Sitka spruce will probably for many years be a very im- portant species in the aircraft industry, notwithstanding the fact that the supply is far from the centers of manufacture. Because of the resonant quality of the wood, its even structure, the absence of vessels, the extremely fine and regularly distributed medul- lary rays, and the straight and long fibers, spruce generally is con- sidered to be the best wood for piano sounding-boards, as well as for musical instruments generally. Sitka spruce yields a large propor- tion of clear lumber and wood of selected quality for this purpose, but its rapid growth tends to lessen the resonant quality in compari- son with the slower growing eastern species. The wood is not durable in contact with the soil or when exposed to weather. It is less suitable for piling in salt water than are other species, because of its greater susceptibility to the ravages of the teredo, which may destroy it in one or two years. For the manufacture of white paper pulp by either the mechanical or the chemical process, spruce is the leading wood used. It is soft, white, and nonresinous, and its fibers are longer, more flexible, and stronger than those of most woods. Containing a maximum percent- age of cellulose, it gives a high yield by the chemical process. A1- though there are several species of spruce, no marked difference is noted in the pulps manufactured from them. A comparison of the character and uses of the pulp made from Sitka spruce with that made from white spruce, a wood that can be considered standard for pulping by the sulphite, sulphate, and mechanical processes, indicates no practical difference. Because of the long distance to the large paper markets of the Hast, the utilization of Sitka spruce for paper manufacture is relatively small. Of the domestic spruce consumption in the United States in 1918 for the manufacture of paper, 35,385 cords, or 1.6 per cent, was Sitka spruce from the forests of Weashitpton and Oregon. British Columbia utilizes about half as much Sitka spruce for [phils purpose as do the States of Oregon and Washington. Other species, includ- ing western hemlock, white fir, cottonwood, and Douglas fir, are util- ized on the Pacific coast in the manufacture of pulp, but Sitka spruce represents about 15 per cent of the total. 8 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The pulp, paper, and board industry of the West, a long-established one, is confined practically to the Pacific coast, with the pulp mills largely confined to the States of Oregon, Washington, and the province of British Columbia. Alaska has one pulp mill, established in 1921. There is every indication that this industry will grow rapidly in the next few years, with an abundant supply of pulp- wood, waterpower, and coal, taken in connection with the fact that the pulp-wood supply in the East is approaching depletion. LOGGING AND MILLING. - The occurrence of Sitka spruce on the lowlands near tidewater, and along navigable or drivable rivers, on the benches and gently rolling country of the lower foothills makes logging relatively easy, and a mild climate permits year-long operation. As the species occurs largely in association with Douglas fir, hemlock, and cedar, the method of logging is identical with that universally used in the heavy forests of the Pacific coastal region. Here large operations, powerful steam machinery, and heavy capital investments are the distinctive features of logging operations. (PI. II.) These are required by the large size of the timber, the ground conditions, and the enterprise of the industry. Trees 6, 8, or 10 feet in diameter, standing on rough steep ground, are felled and converted into logs in such a way that the minimum of waste results; and logs, some of them scaling 10,000 feet and weighing 30 tons, are dragged with great dispatch over the ground or swung down steep slopes and over deep canyons on overhead cables. The greater part of the timber is transported from the woods to the mills or waterside over standard-gauge logging railroads for distances ranging from a few miles to 30 or more. (PI. IIL.) Toa limited extent motor trucks (Pl. IV) are used in conveying logs, and in some cases in the Grays Harbor and Willapa Harbor regions of Washington logs are transported by driving streams. A large per- centage of the cut of Sitka spruce reaches the waterside along’ the Columbia River and in Puget Sound, Grays Harbor, and Willapa Harbor, where the logs are made into rafts and towed to the mills. Logging with animals in Oregon and Washington is confined to small operations getting out ties, shingle bolts, piles, and poles. In Alaska, operations are found only along the shore line, and there both hand and machine methods are employed. If the latter method is used. the donkey engine is mounted on a float, the hauling line is led inshore a thousand feet or more, and the logs are skidded directly to the water to be towed to the mills. The sudden and urgent demand in 1917 for high-grade spruce timber for airplane material, which existing logging operations were PLATE 1. Coe SOP COUNTY, OREG . of Agriculture. _ < - O z 2) Ww oO = c a 79) < m4 = 7) uw ° a > fe) c O "ONIGNV] GNV ANISNS ASANOG ONIMOHS *30NYdS VALIS NI SNIDSO7] Wvals 6-O IN—A PLATE II. Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "SGNNOY SNINOOG LV S907 39NYdS 4O GVOINIVYL V PLATE IV. Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. MonUL OLNY Ag SSO7] 40 NOILVLYOdSNVY_L 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Bul. AFTER EBRIS 4 Fila. 2.—D RIVING FOR CLEAR AIRPLANE MATERIAL. Fia. SELECTIVE LOGGING. Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. F—850842 F—NLC-7 Fic. I.—LARGE SITKA SPRUCE NEAR FiG. 2.—SAME AS FIGURE I, SHOW- BEAVER, WASH., MEASURING ING BROKEN TOP. 16 FEET IN DIAMETER. F—NLC-8 Fic. 3.—Two BiG Stumps IN CLATSOP COUNTY, OREG., SHOWING FLARE OF THE Roots. Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. ™ ‘ ‘i aS TYPICAL FOLIAGE, CONES, AND BARK OF SITKA SPRUCE. PLATE VIII. Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F—70502 BASAL SWELL IN SITKA SPRUCE IN ALASKA. SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 9 unable to meet, caused the Spruce Production Division to encourage small isolated operations to rive out by hand cants of clear spruce from selected trees. By means of wedges and jacks huge logs were split to obtain cants of clear, straight-grained wood, which were dragged from the woods, usually by horses, and sent to resaw plants. (Pl. V, fig. 1). That method of logging was discarded later in favor of a plan of logging selected trees on a larger scale, and this method resulted in a more rapid production of high-grade spruce.* In logging selectively an area was combed of all trees which were of airplane quality, and the others were left standing. This method avoided the cutting of low-grade spruce and other timber for which there was no market. The cost of logging Sitka spruce has varied widely, more particu- larly during and since the war. Before the war the average cost of logging was about $5.50 per thousand feet; in 1919 it amounted to approximately $11 per thousand feet; and in 1920 it was somewhat higher. Sitka spruce timber is normally cut into logs ranging from 32 to 40 feet in length. As about 40 per cent of all timber cut on the Pacific coastal region is logged by operators engaged solely in log- ging, who sell their logs in the open market, logs are graded accord- ing to size and quality into No. 1, 2, and 3 logs. It is estimated that Sitka spruce timber as logged will grade: Twenty per cent No. 1 logs, 40 per cent No. 2, and 40 per cent No. 3. Prior to the war Sitka spruce logs sold for about $12, $9, and $6 per thousand for No. 1, 2, and 3 logs, respectively. In 1920 they sold for $30, $24, and $18 on this basis. At the height of war-time operations in 1918 a price of $35 for No. 1 logs was reached. Most of the Sitka spruce lumber that is manufactured in the United States is cut in the large band sawmills of the Coos Bay district of Oregon and the Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay districts of Washington. The sawmills of Alaska, with a daily capacity of 25.000 to 40,000 board feet of lumber, are smaller comparatively. The cost of manufacture before the war was a little less than $5.50 per thousand feet; in 1919 it amounted to about $12, and in 1920 it was a little higher. Although exceedingly high prices were paid in 1918 for clear lumber suitable for aircraft construction, the average wholesale value of mill-run Sitka spruce in that year varied from $20 to $27 per thousand board feet. (See table 2.) Before the war an average price of about $14 obtained. Prices on January 1, 1919, are given in table 3. ** History of Spruce Production Division,” 1919. 85569—22-——-2 10 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 3.—Range in selling prices of different grades of spruce lumber (f. o. b. mill), January 1, 1919. Grade. Price per 1,000 ft. b. m. “B” and better, finish, S2S CIE SAVANE ES CE EY $35. 00 to $62. 00 Factory select and better, S2S_--- 12-222 35.00 to 62. 00 NO: SHOPS S25 pce ae ai i Salas eats anne ae ua pn 32.00 to 39.00 SHOP VEOMMMMON IS 2S ee ae ees a ena 30. 00 INOS ZEON aS tee a on AI NT roi ulead be LE Peete 27.00 to 34.00 Box sWNOss al 2 SAT CRS S29 22 ee Mee ANN eB Oi Ua Ne WEE 26.00 to 28.00 COMMONYHOATASHSZS Aes ae SOE ES RV ERIE ee 25. 00 Common dimension, S1S1H ~-----______________________.___ 17.50 to 30.00 Regarding the prices of Sitka spruce stumpage, it may be said that they varied as greatly in the last few years as did logging and milling costs. Ten years ago average stumpage was worth about $1.50 per thousand feet. Just prior to our entrance into the war it was about $2.75 per thousand feet, and in 1920 it reached $3.50. During 1918 stumpage values of selected trees to be cut in riving or logging operations ran as high as $7.50 per thousand feet. Sitka spruce stumpage, of course, like that of other species, varies in value with topography and accessibility. For this reason values greater than those given here, as well as values considerably less, have obtained. SIZE, AGE, AND DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. SIZE. Sitka spruce, which is the largest of the spruces, grows to a size comparable with the maximum for Douglas fir and cedar, and larger than its other associates. When maximum sizes are considered, individual specimens of Sitka spruce have been found to attain surprisingly large propor- tions. Total heights of 296, 285, and 282 feet were recorded in the course of the field work for this study for individuals found in the vicinity of Quinault Lake and Beaver, Wash. All these trees were under 300 years of age. Specimens which measured over 9 feet in diameter at a height of 10 feet above ground were found not merely once or twice, but many times, in both Oregon and Washing- ton forests. The largest diameter recorded was of a tree which grew near Beaver, Wash. It measured 16 feet in diameter at breast height, and because of its gradual basal taper was of large volume (Pl. VI, figs. 1 and 2). Necessarily, large diameters and heights mean large volume, and individual trees in Oregon and Washington occasionally have scaled 40,000 board feet in merchant- able contents; but the average tree scales about 8,000 board feet. In Alaska single trees have scaled 24,000 board feet of merchantable material.5 6“ Production of Airplane Lumber in Alaska,” by W. G. Weigle, Alaska Pioneer, vol. 1, No. 2, p. 4, 1918, SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 11 The species attains its maximum development in Washington and Oregon. The average tree found in the virgin forest has a height of about 230 feet and a diameter of 4 feet, measured 15 feet above ground. North of the optimum range in British Columbia it grows to maximum diameters of 8 to 12 feet and heights of 160 to 180 feet; but ordinarily it is only 3 to 6 feet in diameter. In Alaska, too, its average diameter is 3 feet and its height about 150 feet, but single trees frequently exceed this. In California it is smaller than farther north and becomes only a medium-sized tree. This subject is dis- cussed more fully under the heading “ Growth.” LONGEVITY. Sitka spruce is a long-lived tree. Sudworth reports a maximum age of 750 years.’ During the recent study, however, the oldest tree that could be found was 586 years of age. It is doubtful whether many individuals ever reach an age of over 600 years, and the mean mature age is not more than 450 years. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS. An outstanding characteristic of the appearance in the forest of Sitka spruce is its bark (Pl. VII). The thin, stiff, cupped, and elliptical dark purple-gray scales 1 or 2 inches in diameter make this species easily distinguishable from its associates in the stand. Little protection is afforded to the living tissues, however, by the bark, which is only one-half to 1 inch thick. The needles are also of distinctive appearance. In spring the yel- lowish green color of new needles in sprays that bend downward limply at the ends of the branches stands out in contrast with the dark bluish green of the older needles; and although the young leaves are soft and velvety to the touch, during the remainder of their 5 to 6 year existence they are stiff and stand out straight in all directions around the twig, each needle tip being keenly pointed and quité bristly to the touch. The leaves are somewhat flattened, only indis- tinctly four-angled, and about 1 inch long. The cones, too, exhibit peculiarities by which this species may be identified. They have an average length of 3 inches, are light brown in color, elliptical in shape, and hang down conspicuously from the upper branches. The cone scales are thin and papery, with irregular margins but slightly pointed in general outline, and are firmly attached to the central stalk of the cone. Maturity is reached at the end of one year’s development; soon thereafter the scales open and release the small dark brown seeds with their large thin wings adhering to them. Most of the cones drop from the * Forests of British Columbia,” by H. N. Whitford and R. D. Craig, p. 199, 1918. ™* Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope,’ G. B. Sudworth, p. 83, 1908. 12 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tree soon after the seeds have been scattered by the wind, but some cones may remain on the branches for a number of years. The root system is characteristically shallow. This is especially true of trees on swampy soils where the roots spread out very close to the surface; but on deep, porous soils they penetrate 4 to 5 feet into the ground and occasionally as far as 12 feet. Characteristics of form are unimportant, with one exception, for the recognition of this species. In general, the forest-grown trees are tall, with open, conical crowns and long, cylindrical boles. Their bases are very commonly heavily buttressed. Plates VI (fig. 3), VIII, and LX show the importance of this fact when form is con- sidered. Plate IX, figure 2, gives one clue to its cause; the stumps illustrated in this plate were those of only two out of seven fully grown trees that developed on this one windfall. Basal or butt swell is common in this species and especially so in trees which occur on the lowlands. Incidentally, it should be mentioned that this con- dition in the tree very materially affects any diameter measure- ments, for the standard practice in all species is to measure diameters at a uniform height of 44 feet above the ground, and this practice would give very inconsistent results with large Sitka Spruces. Further discussion of this point appears under “ Diameter growth.” ‘he overmature trees present another characteristic, that of stag- headedness. (Pl. VI, fig. 2.) Such broken-topped trees are apt to develop ascending side branches, and these may grow to 14 inches and more in diameter and 50 feet in height. Trees in this condi- tion, as shown by the cedar snags in Plate XIV, may be called bayonet-topped. OCCURRENCE. Sitka spruce stands are found on a variety of sites but may be grouped broadly into two classes—the bottomland or lowland, and the slope or highland. The development of the tree, which to a great extent is influenced by the amount of soil moisture, is the chief difference between the two types, and the altitudinal situation is of only minor consideration. The forest may be of pure spruce or of spruce in mixture with other species. These types occur throughout the range of the species, and a third or “upper slope” type might | be added for Alaska to include the bodies of scrubby spruce near the upper altitudinal hmit of tree growth. BOTTOMLAND. TYPE. This type is found in the moist Situations of river bottoms and benches above the river beds where there is a deep, rich alluvial soil, and where in places the heavy precipitation of the winter and spring months has so saturated the ground that standing water is not un- SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 13 common. Here the trees, though large and tall, are characterized by large buttressed bases, limbiness, and comparatively short clear length. On these moist sites the trees make a noticeably rapid and well-sustained diameter growth, especially from 100 to 200 years of age. In this type Sitka spruce occurs also on tidelands | and in swamps where there is considerable inundation; but, although it can stand these conditions, it prefers an excess of soil moisture only with good drainage and in general avoids stagnant sites and acid soils. In contrast with the stands on the bottoms and benches, those in swamps are quite frequently pure, but the trees here are shorter and much more limby. Trees which occur on exposed situa- tions along the coast are small and scrubby and unfit for commercial uses. SLOPE TYPE. Spruce stands of the slope type are found on the moist but well- drained hills which border the lowlands and which afford all ad- vantages for excellent growth in their rounded ridges and gentle slopes of deep, rich soil. It is not only in the upland country that this type occurs; similar conditions exist on the rolling, sandy land along the coast. The trees on such sites are fine specimens, large and tall, with long, clear length; and, in contrast with those of the bot- tomland type they seldom develop buttressed bases. (Pl. XI.) . The wood is characteristically fine-grained, and this fact is frequently mentioned by lumbermen as a means of distinguishing between trees of the two types. Spruce in these stands is more often pure than in mixture, and this is especially true on the sandy lands which border the ocean. (PI. XII.) COMPOSITION AND VOLUME OF STAND. Pure stands of Sitka spruce are usually not extensive but are apt to be limited to patches of a few acres in contrast with Douglas fir, which occurs pure over great areas. Larger pure forests of spruce are found occasionally, however, 40 or more acres in size in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, and even 100 acres in Alaska; but this is the exception rather than the rule. When Sitka spruce grows in mixture with other species, the most common associate is western hemlock, and large areas of these two species are found in Alaska and in the States as well. Sitka spruce is‘also associated with Douglas fir, western red cedar, lowland white fir, silver fir, and Pacific yew throughout the range, with Port Orford cedar and redwood only in southern Oregon and California, and with Alaska cedar and mountain hemlock on the upper slopes in British Columbia and Alaska. In the valley bottoms it occurs with such hardwoods as broadleaf maple, black cottonwood, and red alder. 1g Ee 14 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The composition of a typical piece of what is distinguished as the “western hemlock-Sitka spruce type” in British Columbia is as follows: * Per cent. ‘Western Nemlock: 222 2 2G 22 EUR eae. Se Bin oan hee ge 38 Sitka ssprucels60) jo Oi A NE SL) 27 Western) red ced aresises 61) isin Maeve ro) detest tae gl tee ee ce ae 15 Balsam (SUL Ver) sis fite 2a aa ae tn) Oe 15 Others (Alaska cedar and cottonwood) _________-__-_-_ 5 100 A summary of cruises made in 1918 in spruce stands on the west side of the Olympic National Forest in Washington shows the fol- lowing average composition of the forest: ® Per cent. Western’ hemi csie eb ou Se aE ae EE A 37 DE Yo 0 Fea ee fate a ea Og ge oi US aU ge ey 26 SST GH ea hats i aU Sao a ae hl 21 RSH Ey i NS tN Pa eS ME th ON A A A ESS q IW eSTErIG rede Ce dl ar ee. Ae UB eee) Ne ee ae 6 OTHER'S ea Tt Se a CRF 3 100 The mixed forest is usually of even age; infrequently it is of two age classes, and then the hemlock trees are the smaller and younger ones of the stand. An all-aged forest occurs but rarely, and then ‘as an open stand on swampy soils. An idea of the composition of the stand and the representation of small-sized trees of other species (in the older stands) may be gained from Table 4. This table shows the results of measurements on 12 sample plots in typical stands in Oregon and Washington in which Sitka spruce comprised from 50 to 100 per cent of the volume of the stand. TABLE 4.—Number of trees of Sitka spruce and other species per acre for typical stands of various ages. Plots. Living trees per acre. Sitka spruce. Other species. Designation and locality. Area. Age. Under 12! Over 12 | Under 12! Over 12 Total. inches. | inches. | inches. | inches. Acres. Years. New POrtilen ee eos 0.4 27 448.0 122.0 30.0 0.0 600. 0 S EDOXG FAA RIES ey ene aD a2 60 104.0 112.0 24.0 32.0 272.0 eats 4.0 70 1.5 PAU 25. 2 98.0 152.4 2.0 130 2.5 61.0 3.0 8.0 74.5 2.0 175 1.5 49.5 10.0 13.5 74.5 4.0 175 3.5 13. 2 13.8 41.2 TLT 4.0 240 0 18.0 28.2 18.8 65.0 4.0 260 2 18.2 5.3 9.6 33.3 4.0 290 5 21.5 8.0 8.0 38. 0 Clatsop ete ce mere. oie 5.2 310 0 10.1 0 10.3 20. 4 New portale eee ee eee ae 2.0 320 3.0 7.0 43.5 54.0 107. § Hoquiam lenses oe lsenies ce . 2.0 | 340 0 7.0 40.0 34.0 81.0 8“ Worests of British Columbia,” by H. N. Whitford and R. D. Craig, p. 61, 1918. ® “Descriptive Report of Olympic West Side Spruce,” by C. J. Conover. Forest Service manuscript report, p. 13, 1918. SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 15 The underbrush, which in both the pure and mixed forests is extremely large and dense, is composed of salmonberry, huckleberry, vine maple, salal, devil’s club, elderberry, and cascara, with a pre- ponderance of the first two species. The ground cover consists chiefly of braken, sword ferns, and moss. The volume of spruce per acre in the virgin stand varies greatly with the proportion of species, the density of stocking, and the quality of the site. The heaviest yields are naturally produced in properly stocked stands on sites where the best growth of individual trees is made. County cruise estimates indicate that the stand of merchant- able timber in what would be classed as spruce type (running all the way from 25 per cent to 65 per cent of spruce) varies from 20,000 to 100,000 feet per acre over large areas. Very much Bander as Hel as lighter, stands occur in the virgin woods. CLIMATIC AND SOIL REQUIREMENTS. Sitka spruce is very exacting in its soil and atmospheric moisture requirements. An abundance of rainfall, frequent fogs, and tempera- tures moderated by proximity to the sea are the climatic character- istics of the north Pacific coastal strip where this species grows. The yearly precipitation is 75 to 150 inches or more and comes chiefly in the form of rain, well distributed throughout the year, except for about two months in midsummer. Cloudy or partly cloudy days are frequent, and weather records show an average of 240 such days in a single year at one station in the heart of the spruce region. The tem- perature of the region is generally mild, the annual mean ranging from 38° F. in Alaska to 53° in northern California. Extreme tem- peratures of 15° below zero in Alaska and 102° above in California are encountered within the range of the tree; but withal it may very readily be seen that Sitka spruce occurs only on areas that offer climatic advantages favorable for growth. Its soil requirements, however, are not so distinctly defined, and thin, rocky soils on the slopes, pure sand along the coast, and deep, rich alluvial deposits of rivers share equally, under similar condi- tions of climate, in the distribution of the species; but the trees are larger and reach better development on bottom lands of moist, friable, sandy loam. It is noteworthy that in Alaska the heaviest stands of spruce and those of best quality are found on limestone soils, perhaps partly because these are the deepest and most completely decomposed. Though this species demands a very great amount of soil moisture and can grow on swampy sites, it attains its best development on soils of good drainage. yt BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LIGHT REQUIREMENTS. Sitka spruce, unlike other spruce, is somewhat intolerant of shade. Compared with its associates, it is less tolerant than western hem- lock and western red cedar and about as tolerant as Douglas fir. Seedlings can endure heavy shade and on old burns and logged-over areas establish themselves with little difficulty under the dense cover of deciduous brush, such as salmonberry and huckleberry, and of other coniferous seedling growth; but strangely enough Sitka spruce is seldom found under the heavy canopy of a mature stand. Here temperature, not tolerance, is thought to be the governing factor, and the coolness in the mature stands prevents, whereas the warmth in the openings permits, the germination and establishment of spruce seedlings. As the tree advances in age it demands overhead rene and dies if long overtopped. The dead side branches, which are often moss-covered stubs 2 or 3 feet long and cane iterericae coarse and stiff, are very persistent in young spruce. The shedding of the dead linabs and cleaning of the bole starts when the trees are about 50 years old and often is not completed for a century or more. (Pl. XII and Pl. XIII (fig. 1.)) REPRODUCTION. SEED PRODUCTION AND DISSEMINATION. Sitka spruce is a prolific seeder. Open-grown trees commence to bear seed at 35 years of age, and trees of all sites are vigorous pro- ducers of seed until maturity. ‘Some seed is produced each year and heavy crops are yielded every three or four years. The cones mature in the early fall of the first year and, under normal condi- tions, open and release the seed within a short period afterwards. A mature tree with a full crown may produce, in a good seed year, 4 to 6 bushels of cones, which yield from 0.65 *° to 1.2514 pounds of clean seed. A pound of these seeds will number between 200,000 and 300,- 000. Because of their small size and relatively large wings they are often carried by the wind 400 feet or more from the base of the tree. Many of the seeds filter into the deep duff of the forest floor and are stored, their hard covering keeping them viable for several years. The seed has a high percentage of germination. In tests’? of fresh commercial seed under greenhouse conditions, this amounts to 72 per cent, and is higher than the germination percentage of western hem- lock, western red cedar, and Douglas fir as determined in similar tests. 10 “* Sitka Spruce in Alaska,” by B. E. Hoffman. Forest Service manuscript report, p.9. 1912. 11“ Reforestation on the National Forests,’’ by C. R. Tillotson. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 475, p. 17, 1917. 1a“ Seeding and Planting,” by J. W. Toumey, p. 122, 1916. Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. F—150849 FiG. |.—VARIATION IN BASAL SWELL, ILLUSTRATED BY TREES IN LEFT AND RIGHT FOREGROUND. I’ —1 50850 Fic. 2.—StTumPps OF MATURE TREES WHICH STARTED ON OLD WINDFALL. Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. E—NL€E-9 SITKA SPRUCE IN MIXTURE WITH RED ALDER AND BROADLEAF MAPLE ON RIVER BOTTOM. PLATE Xl. Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. SD ote x we ie 7 ~ iy | A, ris a , ie A “5 OREG. 100 FEET ELEVATION IN CLATSOP COUNTY HIGHLAND SPRUCE AT PLATE XII. Bul. 1060. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F—150834 PuRE, EVEN-AGED STAND OF SITKA SPRUCE (175 YEARS) NEAR TSILTCOOS , OREG. LAKE ul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII. = eS Ss EF—NLC-11 Fic. |.—A STAND OF 65- YEAR-OLD SPRUCE WITH UNCLEANED BOLES. Fic. 2.. THRIFTY 18-YEAR-OLD SITKA SPRUCE IN OLD CLEARING. “"NOLONIHSVAA NI NYNG LINVNING NO HOOIWAH GNV ‘YVdSaD “30NYdS VALIS JO NOILONGOYdSY ASNAG €I-OIN—a PLATE XIV. Bul. 1060. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bul. 1060. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV. FULLY STOCKED SECOND-GROWTH STAND OF 27-YEAR-OLD SITKA SPRUCE Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVI. F—NLC-15 FiG..1.—FRUITING BODIES OF FOMES PINICOLA. F—NLC-16 Fic. 2.—FRUITING BODIES OF TRAMETES PINI. SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 1. ESTABLISHMENT OF SEEDLINGS. Sitka spruce germinates slowly, and in this habit it is similar to other low-altitude species of the coastal region, and in contrast with Engelmann spruce and high-altitude Douglas fir, which re- quire only a short time for germination. Similarly, Sitka spruce seedlings do not respond quickly to atmospheric warmth early in the spring, and their buds do not unfold until the season is well ad- vanced. Were it not for this characteristic much injury to re- production would result, for during early spring clear, warm weather in the lowlands is often followed by killing frosts. Moisture, light, and heat are all essential for the germination and establishment of spruce seedlings; but, as moisture is abundantly supplied by rains and fogs in the region, and as the young seedlings are capable of enduring dense shade, heat is the uncertain factor. In this regard the warm exposures of old burns, clearings, and logged-over lands offer conditions more suitable for growth than elsewhere, and, as spruce can compete successfully with all other species, it establishes itself with little difficulty on these sites. In the choice of seed bed, Sitka spruce prefers loose mineral soil, but it can thrive equally well in the decayed wood of down logs and in the deep humus of the forest floor. Plate IX, figure 2, rllustrates the establishment of two spruce trees on an old windfall. Because of its extreme tolerance in early youth, Sitka spruce sometimes occurs on fresh earth slides, under a temporary cover type of alder, and eventually becomes the predominating species. Stands of reproduction in the spruce type are densely stocked. (Pls. XIV and XV.) Counts were made during the recent field study on 10 square-rod quadrates in areas of reproduction, and these counts showed that in thrifty stands under 10 years old there were 3.000 seedlings per acre, and that in stands 30 years old there were 500 trees per acre. Nearly one-quarter of the 30-year-old trees were 12 inches and over in diameter at breastheight. It was also shown that a stand of maximum density, which was 5 years old, contained 35,000 seedlings per acre. In each of these stands 50 per cent or more was spruce, and the remainder was mostly hemlock, with a few cedar and Douglas fir trees. In very dense stands Sitka spruce seedlings generally comprise only 10 to 20 per cent, but this per- centage often increases as the stands become older. Under ordinary circumstances spruce is able to maintain itself and even increase notwithstanding the competition of other species. These seedlings, which are rather delicate and slender stemmed during the first few years, later develop heavy, stiff stems. They at first average nearly one-half foot in height growth per year and beyond 15 years of age increase in height at the rate of 3 feet per year. 85569—22——3 18 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CAUSES OF INJURY. FUNGI.2 Sitka spruce, in common with other forest trees, is attacked by two broad groups of fungi—first, those reducing the annual incre- ment; and, second, those reducing the merchantable timber. In the first group there are two rust fungi. One of these is a broom- forming rust (Peridermium coloradense). ‘The mycelium of the fungus is perennial in the twigs of the host, causing pronounced witches’ brooms. As a rule, this fungus is not serious, but it may completely dwarf and deform small trees. The other rust fungus (Peridermium decolorans) does not cause any deformation of the host. The mycelium confines itself to the infected needles and does not enter the twigs or branches. The parasite is usually confined to small trees of the sapling and small- pole sizes. Another needle disease of importance is characterized by a brown- ing of the individual needles. This fungus is Lophodermiwm macro- sporum or a closely related species. Infected needles are invariably killed and drop off, but the degree of infection varies. Sometimes only occasional needles are diseased; at other times most of them may be killed. The disease usually attacks the lower branches of young trees. It has been reported as very prevalent along the lower Columbia River in Clatsop County, Oreg. It is impossible to give an estimate of the amount of damage caused by the needle and twig diseases just mentioned. It is obvious that there must be a greater or less reduction in annual increment of the infected trees, but no exact data are available. Control meas- ures need not be discussed, as present economic conditions preclude such work, except for nursery stock or trees of high aesthetic value. By far the most important fungi are those which reduce the mer- chantable volume by attacking and destroying the heartwood of living trees. The most serious of these on Sitka spruce is the ring-scale fungus (Trametes pini) which causes the common red rot or conk rot in the heartwood of living trees. In spruce the attack may be made at any point along the bole. In the split section the decayed wood has a reddish color in its early stages, and later small white sunken spots are found separated by apparently sound reddish wood. The fungus gains entrance to the heartwood of the trees principally through old branch stubs and is exceedingly destructive in mature and over- mature stands. Plates XVI (fig. 2) and XVII are illustrations of this fungus. Next in importance is the velvet-top fungus (Polyporus schwet- nitzw@), which causes a pronounced butt rot. The sporophores ap- 13 Prepared in collaboration with Dr. J. S. Boyce, Pathologist, Bureau of Plant Industry. SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 19 pear at the base of the tree, on the trunk in old wounds, or on the ground, coming up from decayed roots. Those on the ground have a short, thick stalk. The disease spreads both by spores blown about in the air and through the ground by means of the decayed roots. The decay which is confined to the heartwood is light reddish brown in the early stages, and pronouncedly cubical, reddish brown, crumbling to a fine powder between the fingers, and often with thin resinous crusts of mycelium in the typical stage. The rot is found in the roots and butt, and rarely extends beyond the first log. Besides the actual loss due to the volume of wood rendered unmerchantable by decay, the infected tree is frequently broken off at the base as a result of the weakening of the roots. Many large overmature trees, completely rotted at the base except for a thin layer of sapwood, are found broken off between 5 and 20 feet above ground, and their loss can be charged directly to the destructive work of this fungus. The red-belt fungus (Yomes pinicola) is of equal importance with Polyporus schweinitzii as a butt rot in living trees; but it is also common on dead snags, old windfalls, stumps, and other débris, and thus functions as a beneficial scavenger in the fores‘. The fruiting bodies are usually found at the base of the tree in the flare of the roots or at scars along the lower portion of the trunk. The typical decay is light reddish-brown in color, somewhat cubical, crumbly and brittle, with white feltlike layers of mycelium occupying the cracks. Infection caused by this fungus is illustrated in Plate XVI, figure 1. One of the most common fungi found on fallen Sitka spruce, be- sides the red-belt fungus, is the lacquer-top fungus’ (Ganoderma oregonense), readily recognized by the shiny, lacquerlike, reddish upper surface of the annual fruiting body. This organism has not been reported on a living spruce, but is often found on its associate, the hemlock. There are a number of other fungi of less importance which live on fallen trunks, but do not attack living trees. Sitka spruce is much freer from decay than either western hem- lock or Douglas fir, but snags and down timber decay very rapidly. The earliest infection appears in trees between 60 and 100 years of age; only a slight amount of rot is found in stands between 150 and 300 years of age, and this is confined to the butts of trees. Over 300 years, or after maturity, however, the tops commonly break off, and top rot as well as butt rot is very prevalent, becoming more marked with age. It is not unusual, however, to find trees of 400 years entirely sound at the butt and with very little decay along the trunk or in the top. In general, this species is remarkably free from decay up to 200 years of age. The amount of resin which the wood of a tree contains, or that it is able to produce to cover any injury, affects its ability to ward off disease. Spruce, which has very little resin, is almost never able 20 BULLETIN 1060, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, to heal over scars or wounds along the bole; here the spores of fungi soon establish themselves and, on account of the very moist condi- tions in spruce stands, cause the rapid decay of much sound wood. Advance rot spreads quickly in this species, and, though often hard to detect, it becomes very noticeable after lumber is dried. It is commonly, though not always, accompanied by a change of color in the wood, appearing as streaks of red, yellow, or green. Tests were made recently by pathologists to show the effect of different stages of decay on the strength of the wood, particularly for spruce airplane stock, but these data are not yet available for publication. INSECTS." Although Sitka spruce, like other forest trees, is subject to insect attacks, it is not so susceptible as most of its associates in the forests of the Pacific coastal region. The attacks are naturally more serious in pure or nearly pure stands of Sitka spruce than in stands in which it occurs in mixture. Damage is caused by three classes of insects— bark beetles, defoliators, and borers. The first two classes attack standing timber and the last works in felled trees. The most important insect enemies of Sitka spruce are the bark beetles, of which the most destructive is the Sitka spruce beetle (Dendroctonus obesus). ‘This beetle attacks the living trees and kills them by girdling in the cabium layer. In attacking the trees the first broods enter the inner bark of the middle trunk, and those which appear later extend the infestation to the base of the trunk and even to the larger roots. This beetle also works in the inner bark of stumps, logs, and slash of felled trees. Although no exten- sive depredations of the Sitka. spruce beetle have been found thus far, it has been reported now and then that groups of Sitka spruce have been killed by its activity. If infestations should ever become widespread it would be possible to practice control operations by cutting and barking the infested trees before the beetles emerge im the late spring. It would not be necessary to burn the bark in this work.’® From time to time Sitka spruce is subject to the attacks of such defoliators as caterpillars, sawfly larve, and aphids, all of which destroy the needles and may therefore occasionally kill trees over large areas. In Clatsop County, Oreg., in 1890 and 1891, Sitka spruce and western hemlock were attacked and killed over an area of thousands of acres by a caterpillar belonging to the Geometrid family. During the years 1917 to 1920 the Sitka spruce and western hemlock on several hundred thousand acres on the Tongass National 144 Prepared in collaboration with Forest Examiner A. J. Jaenicke, U. S. Forest Service. 145 For detailed information regarding control measures, see Bulletin 83, Part I, “‘ Bark Beetles of the Genus Dendroctonus,” by A. D. Hopkins, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture. SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 21 Forest in southeastern Alaska were defoliated by the combined actiy- ity of sawfly larve and caterpillars belonging to the Tineid family. Thus far only a small portion of the Sitka spruce in southeastern _ Alaska has been killed by this widespread defoliation. Occasionally aphids kill the foliage of Sitka spruce. The western spruce gall louse (Aphis abietina) is believed by Dr. A. D. Hop- kins of the Bureau of Entomology to be the aphid which caused the loss of the needles of Sitka spruce over thousands of acres of forest in 1918 in various portions of the coast region in Oregon | and Washington. Fortunately the activity of this aphid was of extremely short duration, and only about 15 per cent of the in- fested spruce was killed. Most of this loss was confined to swamp and tideland areas in the lower Columbia River basin and the coast region and included only the poorer stands of timber. The Sitka spruce gall aphid (Chermes cooley) is found very commonly doing injury to Sitka spruce reproduction and occasionally causing its death. Large trees also are attacked, but the injury to them is rarely severe. These minute insects cause the development of conelike galls which kill the affected twigs. Infested trees of special value, such as those in parks and streets, may often, with good results, be sprayed with contact sprays like kerosene emulsion. Fortunately the work of defoliators does not continue more than a few years when it is controlled by natural agencies. Under forest conditions control measures against this class of insects are not feasible. However, defoliators greatly increase the fire hazard on the areas on which they have been active. Nearly always the fires which followed the defoliators did more damage than the insects themselves. The reduction of the fire risk on the defoliated areas is, therefore, an important consideration in defoliator problems. Felled timber of Sitka spruce is subject to the attacks of various wood borers. Logs cut between April and September are frequently attacked, shortly after being felled, by ambrosia beetles, sometimes called timber beetles or pinhole borers. These are small, elongate, wood-boring beetles which excavate round black tunnels, the di- ameter of a pencil lead, into the wood of dying trees and stumps, as well as logs. Investigations by the Bureau of Entomology in 1919 showed that species of Griathothrichus and Xyloterus commonly attack Sitka spruce logs, as well as western hemlock and Douglas fir. These borers may penetrate the wood to a depth of from 4 to 6 inches and therefore seriously reduce the value of the sapwood, especially when Sitka spruce is being used for such special pur- poses as airplane stock. The logs which are cut in the late fall and winter are usually attacked in the following spring. Logs cut in ‘the early fall are not entered that season; and, if piled loosely in 22 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the open, they often dry sufficiently to be protected from attack the following spring. Logs placed in water are safe from further in- jury. Damage by these borers can be prevented almost entirely by removing the logs from the woods or placing them in water as soon . as they are cut. Larger wood borers are an important factor in the deterioration of the sapwood and heartwood of fire-killed trees and logs. During the first two summers after the death of the trees or the felling of ‘the trees the borers are most active, and at the end of the two-year period the salvage value is usually next to nothing. If the logs are placed in water or barked within a few weeks after cutting, losses by these borers may be avoided. Logs which are loosely piled in the open soon after cutting usually escape damage because of the rapid drying out of the thin bark, which is then unattractive to the borers for the laying of eggs. Dr. J. M. Swaine, of the Canadian Entomological Branch, recommends covering the logs thickly with brush. The logs to be covered should be piled on skidways and given a very thick covering of green limbs so that the sunlight can not penetrate at all to the logs beneath. WIND. Sitka spruce, because of its characteristically shallow root system, can not withstand severe winds. Trees which grow on exposed situations along the coast where they encounter severe winds are windfirm, but they are also scrubby and of little use for lumber. In the virgin forests under normal conditions only the very diseased trees are likely to be windthrown, but in cut-over areas trees isolated by logging and those which border on fresh cuttings are invariably windthrown. (Pl. XVIII.) Spruce trees which have grown in dense stands never become wind-resistant, and full consideration must be given this fact before a method of cutting and a man- agement policy are adopted for a spruce forest. . The hurricane that swept the western edge of the Olympic pen- insula, Washington, in January, 1921, felled from 5 to 95 per cent of the timber on a swath 60 miles long and 20 miles wide in the heart of the spruce belt. Six billion feet or more of virgin western hemlock, Sitka spruce, Douglas fir, silver fir, and western red cedar timber was laid flat by the wind. Perhaps a billion feet of Sitka spruce in the State of Washington was windthrown in that storm. All species suffered alike regardless of their relative windfirmness. In addition to windthrow, other damage from the elements is wrought upon spruce timber by breakage and wind-shake. The breakage consists in the shattering of the tops of overmature and decadent trees, and this permits the entrance of fungous growth, SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. which spreads quickly through the sound wood and renders much of the upper trunk unmerchantable. Damage from this cause is very common in trees over 300 years of age.. Wind-shake is a me- chanical defect resulting from heavy stresses in the butt section which are caused by the action of severe winds, and is of infrequent occurrence in large trees. This circular or radial rupture of the wood considerably reduces the value of the tree for lumber. BURLS. Another injury is the formation of huge burls along the trunks. This defect has been found abundantly in a limited area in Oregon. The illustrations in Plate XIX are typical examples of the defect. Its cause is uncertain, though probably analogous to similar mal- formations in many other species. FIRE. Sitka spruce is fortunate in having as its habitat a region in which there is less forest-fire hazard than in most parts of the conif- erous forest regions of western North America. Frequent rains throughout the year in southeastern Alaska make fires in the virgin spruce woods there quite uncommon; farther south in Washington and Oregon there is more danger of forest fires in the short dry season. Fires in this region are apt to run in the crowns of the trees, and they do so even in the spring months when the surface litter is still too wet to burn. The moss that hangs on the branches of the hemlock, spruce, and fir trees is very inflammable and helps to carry fire. The spruce region of Oregon suffered from several very disastrous and widespread fires a few decades ago, as the “burns” of the Coast Range witness. Sitka spruce is very susceptible to fire. This is due chiefly to its thin bark, which at stump height is only a half-inch to an inch thick. Fire-scars are uncommon in Sitka spruce, for even a very light surface fire is sufficient to kill the cambium, and the trees, thus girdled, die. Although an individual tree of Sitka spruce is more susceptible to injury than a Douglas fir of the same size, the forest in which it grows along the coast is less subject to fire than the forest farther inland where Douglas fir predominates. Even though the danger of uncontrollable fires is less in the Coast Range than in the Cascade’ Range, careful fire protection in both regions is imperative. GROWTH. Sitka spruce is one of the most rapid-growing coniferous species in the Pacific Northwest. In keeping with the character of spruces in general, its growth during the first few years is less than that of 24 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. many other conifers; but thereafter it increases in size with great rapidity and maintains a fast growth until late in life. Its rate of growth naturally varies with the quality and the character of stand. Moisture conditions are an important factor and growth is more rapid on wet bottomland situations than on the drier slopes. The growth of Sitka spruce varies also in different parts of its range, and is more rapid in Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia than either farther south or north. Average figures on height, diameter, and volume growth are given in the tables that follow, but it is real- ized that these are not universally applicable. In the appendix will be found tables of growth from several different localities. HEIGHT. In the seedling stage the height growth of Sitka spruce is fairly rapid, but not so fast at this period as that of its associates, Douglas fir, western hemlock, and western red cedar. Table 5 shows the height growth of dominant, open-grown Sitka spruce seedlings, and is compiled from measurements taken of young trees which grew in seven different localities and sites in Oregon and Washington. Here the reproduction was sometimes found in pure stands, but more often in mixture with other species. TABLE 5.—Height of doninant, open-grown Sitka spruce seedlings, averaged for all sites in Oregon and Washington. : [Based on 2,102 sectional measurements of 322 trees.] (Curved.) ; Current Current Age. Height. annual Age. Height. | annual growth. || growth. Years. Feet. Feet. Years. Feet. Feet. Misa rots Sg 2 Sih SAN AL AES ep at 0. 2 COPTER MARUI Ts Se 6.6 12 QWAdshee. eee 5 PG eT 5a eB NGO bela At eh ee 8.0 1.4 Dies stsaie is ae bole ete 1.0 REF eat 1 NAT A LE Up 9.8 1.8 Aire pailen. ta0!) Pee een Miley 1.6 46 7|| TOE aes a BP Sc ye Bolen 12.0 22 Doser ole aiais Ge Ee ee ee Dre, PR ae VW aS re eS RS TS ere 8 14.4 2.6 OREN ae RE ra Se a 3, SR 2.8 5 GSA) I Ss ORE Ae We ee ite 1 2 a 17.2 2,8 USB AEA eae Sep sem Rel kein 3.5 off || Weessaekooncdéeecascesceossaccos 20. 2 3.0 tS EIS a Mae VPS 5 Ale AN 4.4 SQA TS eS aA ee a 23. 4 3.2 Qe AN oh SL at a Ree 5.4 1.0 |] After the early years, growth increases rapidly and is maintained at a good rate until late in life. In the sapling stage a growth of 3 feet and over a year is not unusual. At the age of 50 the average dominant tree is still growing 1.7 feet per year, and at 100 years as much as 1 foot. At these ages the height growth of spruce compares very favorably with that of Douglas fir. This comparison is made from the available growth tables for the species mentioned, under con- ditions representative for each species, and not by comparison of the several species growing side by side on the same site. Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVII. F—NLC-17 END VIEW OF SPRUCE LOG INFECTED WITH TRAMETES PINI. | | Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVIII. F—NLC-18 HEAVY WINDFALL DAMAGE AT EDGE OF CUTTING IN 175-YEAR-OLD STAND NEAR TSILTCOOS LAKE, OREG. I Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIX. | | | | F—7 LC-20 Fic. 2..-HUGE BURLS COMMON ALONG THE COAST NEAR NEWPORT, OREG. '—NLC-19 Fia. |.—ABNORMAL GROWTH IN SPRUCE. PLATE XX. Bul. 1060, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Ic-OIN—A “HLMOUE) YSLAWVIG GANIVLSNS DNIMOHS ‘907 39nNYdS VHLIS 40 NOILOSS GNJ SITKA SPRUCE: USES,:-GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 25 The figures given in Table 6 indicate the average total height and average annual height growth in each decade of older spruce of vari- ous ages, averaged from the measurement of 554 dominant trees. The figures are dependable for trees up to 300 years; beyond that age reliable height-growth figures are difficult to obtain, because very old spruce trees are commonly stag-headed. TABLE 6.—Average total height at various ages, and average annual height growth in each decade of Sitka spruce on all sites in Oregon and Washington. [Based on 1,260 sectional measurements gf 554 dominant trees.] (Curved.) e VCUAES selene Average | 20nua Average | 200ua Age. total . pete Age. total height height. | & height. | STOW in each in each decade. decade. | Years. Feet. | Feet. Years. Feet. Feet. 31 DEAN 220 5 5 sc See sea Ss mse claisjcicis terete 224 0.3 51 2.0 226 2 70 1.9 228 AP 87 yd, 230 ay) 104 7. 232 2 119 1.5 233 5 i 132 1.3 234 sil 144 1.2 235 apt 154 1.0 * 236 jit 164 1.0 236 Al 173 9 236 1l-— 181 8 237 1— 188 of 237 1— 194 .6 237 1— 200 .6 237 1— 205 ao 237 1— 210 5 238 1— 214 4 238 1— 218 4 238 1— 221 23 DIAMETER. Diameter growth in this species is remarkably rapid and well sus- tained, as the figures in Table 7 indicate. In this table the figures represent the average of measurements taken of 557 dominant trees from seven localities in Oregon and Washington. Although its an- nual rate of diameter growth culminates at about the age of 40 years, it maintains a growth of over 3 inches per decade up to about 60 years, and thereafter for a few decades over 2 inches per decade. At the advanced age of 400 years, the data in Table 7 indicate, the diameter is still increasing at the rate of over 1 inch per decade. Exceptionally rapid diameter growth is attained on wet sites, where sometimes it may amount to three-quarters and even 1 inch annually during early years of vigorous growth. Plate XX shows the diameter growth of Sitka spruce. 26 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. "TABLE 7.—Average diameter outside bark at 15 feet above ground at various ages and average annual diameter growth in each decade of Sitka spruce growing on all sites in Oregon and Washington. [Based on measurement of 557 dominant trees. ] (Curved.) | | Average Average in panne i‘ annual verage | diameter verage | diameter Age. diameter.| growth age. diameter.| growth in each in each decade. decade. Years. Inches. | Inches. Years. Inches. Inches. 2 AA cael Use alors ye asta as 2.0 43.4 0.14 30 | 5.6 44.8 14 9.5 46.2 -14 12.8 47.5 13 15.7 48.8 mild 18.2 50.1 pels 20.5 51.4 = 18 22.5 ae 7) -13 24.4 54.0 .13 26.3 53.3 alg} 28.1 56. 6 -13 29.9 57.8 aly LTS ee SS eo ae ee 31.5 59.0 -12 TG) sae) ee a eee 33.1 60. 2 = iF} Bee ae es 3 ae ae a a 34.7 61.4 212 VOR see a es inde win ceveiclc 36. 2 62.5 oi hit ASO Rare e Ree re bee er ele cic 37.7 63.6 Sibh IO ee eas os an tee ana a 39.2 64.7 -1l OBS yoe Ree crates riclac cleanse 40.6 65.8 ikl LOE ae eee oe eee Gincrera 42.0 Diameter measurements at breast height are of little value in a Sitka spruce growth study, as this species commonly has a pro- nounced basal swell and its root base is usually well above the gen- eral ground level, owing to its habit of starting on down logs. For these reasons, in Forest Service timber survey work in spruce, diam- eters are taken at a point 1 foot above the swell; but this is a variable height and can not be used in growth studies when the relation be- tween age and diameter is desired. In Table 7, therefore, diameters are given for a distance 15 feet above the ground and on most trees this point is above the basal swell. It must be borne in mind, how- ever, that this uniform height above ground does not mean a uniform distance between this point and the root bases of all the trees meas- ured. Trees which started on fallen logs 4 or 5 feet in diameter naturally have their root bases 4 or 5 feet above the ground, and the number of annual rings showing at the 15-foot point in these trees is, of course, less than at this point on trees whose root bases rest on the ground. It was found, however, that the discrepancy for ail the trees measured amounted to only two years. This variation is rendered of little consequence by the rapid height growth of Sitka spruce in its sapling stage, when 3 feet per year is not an unusual growth. Another point that must be kept in mind in this connec- tion is that it takes an average of 14 years for the seedling to reach a height of 15 feet, as shown by Table 5, and therefore a tree must be more than 14 years old before it shows diameter at this point of measurement. SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 27 VOLUME. The volume growth of Sitka spruce is also rapid and well sus- tained. Table 8 indicates the average diameter, height, and volume, and the average volume growth that may be expected of dominant Sitka spruce trees in the spruce region of Oregon and Washington. The figures for diameter, height, and board-foot volume were taken from Tables 6, 7, and 11. Those for cubic-foot volume were sup- plied from a tree diagram in which the figures for average diameters and heights were combined with complete stem analyses of 10 domi- nant trees. As indicated in this table, the periodic annual volume increment of spruce at 100 years exceeds 5 cubic feet, and at 300 years it is double this amount. The periodic annual growth continues greater than the mean annual for a long time after 300 years. At 100 years of age the volume of the entire stem without bark of dominant Sitka spruce trees approaches the high figure of 300 cubic feet, and at 200 and 300 years it exceeds 1,000 and 2,000 cubic feet respectively. Taste 8.—Average diameter, height, and volume and average volume growth of dominant Sitka spruce trees in Oregon and Washington. Size. Volume. | Annual volume growth. ks a From A tump Age. Entire | SU D. 0. b Total Broun ma Periodic.| Mean. | Periodic.| Mean at15ft. | height. | without] q j'> ; ; a8 alk : bark. @F10- inches. Years. | Inches. | Feet. Ou, ft. Bd. ft. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Bad. ft. “| Le eS Se 2.0 | 31 3 PRS | 0.15 (OST UGH RAS eee A 2 9.5 70 PER SMA E Ese 9 See oases Sep aSonced 15.7 104 87 260 3.2 ee ee 4 20.5 132 175 670 4.4 2.12 20 8 24.4 154 279 1, 230 5.2 2.8 28 12 28.1 | 173 400 1, 960 6.0 6B) 36 16 81.5 188 538 2, 760 6.9 3.8 40 20 34.7 200 690 3, 690 7.6 4.3 46 23 37.7 210 859 4,640 8.4 4.8 47 25 40.6 218 1, 036 5, 660 8.8 5.2 51 28 43.4 | 224 1, 219 6, 720 9.2 5.9 53 30 46.2 228 1,417 7, 800 9.9 5.9 54 32 48.8 | 232 1,617 8, 940 10.0 6.2 57 34 51.4 | 234 | 1,818 10, 040 10.0 6.5 55 36 54.2 | 236 2,020} 11,170 | 10.1 6.7 56 37 | YIELD. The yield of Sitka spruce per acre in the virgin forest varies con- siderably with its representation as a species in the stand, with the density of stocking, and with the quality of site. Although available data are not sufficient to furnish yield tables for the wide range 28 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of conditions which obtain in the virgin forest, it is possible to give an idea of what may be expected under average conditions. The number of trees and the yield per acre in Table 9 are based on the averaged and curved values of twelve sample plots from one-half to 5 acres in size. On six of these plots Sitka spruce made up 88 to 100 per cent of the stand by volume; on five of them it made up 50 to 82 per cent, and on one plot it comprised 25 per cent. The plots were in essentially even-aged stands, except that the older stands contained an underwood of younger hemlock and cedar trees. TABLE 9. Average yield per acre of stands of Sitka spruce and associated species on good quality sites in Oregon and Washington. (Curved ) Trees Yield Mean Trees Yield Mean Age. per per annual | Age. per per annual acre. acre. growth. || acre. acre. growth. Years Board feet | Board feet Years Board feet| Board feet AQ’. AN Ea ee. 400 | 29,500 TEA N BOenee Le ale 82 | 140,000 7718 60 ere ee 280 | 54,250 OO | CODES ea es RN 70 | 144,750 724 802.5. 2823 eee 220 78, 000 QTM 220s ee See ee ee 60 | 148, 250 674 LOO nese eee 175 99, 500 QOD R2k OMe SAL aces 50! 151,000 629 D20 et soe ieee tne ee 130 115, 000 DORM ZOO ee ee ema eseeee 42 | 153,000 588 T4022 FSS eee 112 126, 000 GOOMP2B0S PATO 2s dss 36 154, 250 551 LEGON eevee 94 | 134,000 SBSH SOME! acs See ak esi 30 | 155,500 818 As represented by the figures in this table, the yield of spruce stands compares well with that of Douglas fir on the best sites. Up to 90 years it makes a better yield, at 100 years it equals, and there- after it falls a little behind Douglas fir.° The yields of the table are those of the virgin forest; if proper methods of forest manage- ment were employed, and if the trees were thinned at regular inter- vals, these yields would be considerably increased. The rapid incre- ment of Sitka spruce is especially evident when the periodic annual growth is considered, which between the ages of 40 and 60 years is 1,237 board feet. MANAGEMENT. Since Sitka spruce does not ordinarily grow in pure stands, but rather in intimate mixture with several other commercial trees, the principle of management which must be applied to spruce should be equally applicable to its associates—fir, hemlock, and cedar. The entire forest of which Sitka spruce forms a part must be treated uni- formly. Hence the discussion of the management of spruce is inter- woven with considerations of the other trees in the stand. It has been shown that Sitka spruce is a very excellent timber tree, that its wood is superior to that of all others in the region for certain 16 Manuscript report by E. J. Hanzlik, Forest Service, Mar. 14, 1912. SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 29 purposes, that the tree has habits of growth and hardiness that rec- ommend it as a tree for the forester to favor and propagate for the forests of the future. It should be the objective, therefore, of tim- bermen and foresters so to manage spruce lands that they may be- come reforested through natural seeding, and that the new crop may contain a desirable admixture of Sitka spruce wherever this species will thrive. Much of the land upon which the virgin forests of spruce occur has agricultural value and will be put to that use after the removal of the timber. On such lands no effort need be made by the forester or lumberman to promote a new crop to take the place of the one removed, but on all other lands this should be done. The rapid extension of logging operations in this type makes very timely a discussion of methods of forest management which will in- sure continuous crops of timber. OWNERSHIP. The present ownership of the commercial Sitka spruce is shown in Table 10. TABLE 10— Ownership of Sitka spruce timber, by classes of owners, in millions of feet, board measure. . British : Wash- Cali- Ownership. P Oregon. F Alaska. Co- ington. fornia. lambiat REN ME ica oe one ood ens Se uoe yeln a 1, 550 300 (2) 15, 000— GHD Iecoenocee Li eee ee 720 @) (EO) cis RAS eee a 1, 423 (Puree, 013302 Uy lp CR ks TN Ree eee Days Mins Om MEAD 4,205 4, 074 187 (2) 12, 742 EEE. Se San bocd de ellos saide mtn se eeaes ote 6,475 4,374 187 | 15,000- 14, 165 18, 000 1 Including Indian reservation. £ Negligible amount, From the above it is seen that in Alaska the Sitka spruce forests are practically all under Federal control, but that in Washington, Oregon, and California the bulk of this timber is in private owner- ship. The perpetuation of forests of Sitka spruce and their future welfare are largely in the hands of private owners and not under the jurisdiction of public agencies of government. Many of the hold- ings have been consolidated into units of 1,000 to 30,000 acres, though small properties are not uncommon. The State lands of Washington are in various-sized blocks, which in the aggregate now amount to about 10,000 acres. The Sitka spruce timberlands under Federal control in Washington lie chiefly in the Olympic National Forest and 30 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the Quinault Indian Reservation. In Oregon they are confined to the Siuslaw National Forest and several military and lighthouse reservations. FIRE PROTECTION. The most important factor in the management of the Sitka spruce type is fire protection. Without effective fire protection all other steps in forest conservation are useless. The virgin forests of the Sitka spruce type in the coastal belt are perhaps less likely to suffer from fire than the Douglas fir forests of the Cascade Range, but they are by no means immune. Systematic organized fire protection dur- ing the two or three dry summer months is essential for the safety not only of the virgin forest but also of the new crop of reproduc- tion which follows logging. In the course of lumbering, special precautions should be taken by operators to prevent the escape of fire, for an accidental and uncontrolled fire in dry slashings may gain such headway that it will do great damage to adjoining standing timber and especially to areas of second-growth timber on older cuttings. METHOD OF CUTTING. Clear cutting is the method of logging universally employed in the spruce region; it is the only method practicable in these dense forests of very large trees. Moreover, Sitka spruce and western hemlock when isolated by the removal of a part of the stand are so subject to windthrow that any method of reserving seed trees of these species or of making a selection cutting is technically undesirable. Steam logging, moreover, fits in well with the requirements of the species, except so far as it increases the fire hazard, for it helps to expose the mineral soil. SLASH DISPOSAL. Slash disposal in the heavy forests of the Pacific coast region; means the elimination of slash by broadcast burning. The objects are to reduce the fire hazard in the débris left after logging, to pro- vide a proper seed bed for reproduction, and to retard the spread of insect and fungous diseases. By far the most important of the above objects is to reduce the fire hazard. Since this is so the necessity for burning slash depends largely upon the fire menace of the region.. Although in the spruce belt of Oregon and Washington the rainfall is abundant and fogs are frequent throughout most of the year, there are two months or more in the summer when slashings become dry, and uncontrollable fires may start and do untold damage. Because of this Sitka spruce slashings in this region should ordinarily be burned. SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 31. In Alaska, on the other hand, the danger of forest fires in the spruce belt is not great even in old cuttings because of frequent and. heavy rains in the summer as well as throughout the rest of the year. Slash burning, therefore, is unnecessary and, moreover, highly un- desirable, because it destroys the layer of humus and duff with which the rock is all too scantily covered in that thin-soiled country. For- esters recommend that in Alaska the slash be lopped and allowed to le, and this is the required practice after logging on the national forests of the Territory. If slash is to be burned in Sitka spruce stands, it is very important that it should be done the first spring or fall following logging, so that the crop of seedlings which springs up in the first growing sea- son after cutting will not be killed by the fire. Slash burning should also be done at a time when the weather conditions are such that the fire can be held in control on the area which it is intended to burn. Further, the slash fire should be hot enough to clean up all the inflammable débris. PROVISIONS FOR REPRODUCTION. Studies of old cuttings indicate that Sitka spruce reproduction ordinarily follows the removal of the virgin forest, unless the area has been subjected to repeated fires. Reproduction is abundant where the slash has not been burned at all, as well as where there has been but one slash fire immediately after logging. Sitka spruce seems to be represented in the reproduction in as abundant pro- portions as it was in the original forest. It is apparent that this abundant reproduction following logging comes from seed which had accumulated in the ground before the virgin timber was cut, had escaped injury from fire (if the slashing was burned), and had germinated when the forest floor became exposed to the light and warmth of the sun’s rays. Because of this adequate store of seed in the ground, special provisions for leaving spruce seed trees is not essential, provided only that the area is effectively safeguarded from fires after this seed germinates. As a precaution in case of an accidental fire, and as an added assurance of natural reproduction, it is well to leave occasional seed trees of such wind-firm associated species as Douglas fir, choosing those which are good seed producers. It is not ordinarily advisable to leave single seed trees of Sitka spruce, for they are too likely to be wind thrown. To secure some of this species in the next crop, reliance must be placed on the seed stored in the forest floor and released by the cutting of the virgin forest. If natural reproduction does not restock an area adequately, it may occasionally be advisable in the interest of good management 32 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to renew the forest artificially by seeding or by planting nursery- grown trees. This may be advisable if repeated fires have so de- nuded the land of seed trees and of reproduction arising from stored - seed that there is no way for the natural regeneration of the stand to take place except by the slow process of migration from the sur- rounding timber. Methods of artificial reforestation of Sitka spruce are in general similar to those employed for Douglas fir. Occasion- ally successful results may be obtained from the direct sowing of seed on the denuded area, either broadcast or in specially prepared spots. This method, however, is very uncertain because of the like- lihood of the seed being destroyed by birds or rodents and because of the heavy mortality which frequently occurs among the young seedlings during the first years after germination. Planting nursery- grown trees is a more dependable method, and while the initial expense may be greater than that of direct seeding, it may prove to be cheaper in the end. The use of 3-year-old transplant stock is recommended. On the better quality of sites Sitka spruce may be planted pure over relatively small areas; but, since it more commonly - occurs associated with other species, a mixture of spruce with Douglas fir or hemlock is usually preferable. The composition of the former stand should largely govern the choice of species. ROTATION. A relatively short rotation is possible in Sitka spruce forests be- cause of their rapid growth. Crops suitable for pulpwood might be produced on the best sites in 40 years or less, and crops for saw timber in twice that period. Information on the growth rate of the Alaskan forests is meager, but the indications are that a somewhat longer period will be required to produce timber suitable for various pur- poses than is needed in Oregon and Washington. APPENDIX. Tascre 11.—Volume table for Sitka spruce in Oregon and Washington. This table is based on the measurement in 1914 and 1919 of 450 felled Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) trees, grown in fully stocked stands, averaged for all sites and seven localities at elevations from sea level to 1,200 feet, and from southern Oregon to northern Washington. Trees were scaled by Scribner Decimal C rule to a top diameter of 10 inches inside bark; actual height of stump was used (it averaged 8 feet) ; logs were scaled in 32-foot lengths and less, plus an allowance of 0.5 foot for trimming. The table was constructed by the frustum form factor method and volumes curved. Trees are classified according to their diameter outside bark at 1 foot above pronounced basal swell, which was found to average 8 feet above ground. No allowance is made for defect or breakage. Breakage in 184 trees amounted to less than 2 per cent of merchantable volume. : | Number of 32-foot logs. ' ———— eee Diam-;| Aver- 2 | 3 | Se | ‘ 4 | : | 5h | : | 64 | g | a Basi aes age.! Total height in feet. mc swell. | 112 | 128 | 142 | 158 | 173 | 188 | 202 | 217 | 231 | 241 | | Volume in board feet in tens. SRSASSSSSSHSLSSKRSESSRSESSRSENS ° -_ = —] a a nN an i) -_ oo oO ~~ _ < a rot) © a ~~ -_™~ a 2 - So 4 o —_— Wwe eANRSAUSAIAD s 1 When trees are not tallied by number of logs, use this column. 33 34 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 12.—Volume table for Sitka spruce in Behm Canal (Alaska) region. This table is based on taper measurements, in 1917, of 131 trees, total height and length of tip of 28 trees, and total height only of 92 trees which grew near Loring, Alaska. Figures indicate merchantable volumes, scaled by Scribner Decimal C rule, and represent contents from stump height of 2 feet and up to 6 inches d. i. b. at top. They are unreliable for trees over 44 inches in diameter. The table was prepared under the direction of R. H.. Kan Smith. Diameter breast-high. Volume. Diameter breast-high. Volume. Board feet Board feet Inches. . | in tens. Inches. in tens. OANA SERS Jo, EUR PMN ERG 8 BRIE SBR es 82) RAGE RE Iee SUR tideydaas able epee ee ree 400 PEE Pn pea tn nate SAAS gS ERETES VOL (VaBe sees. 2 sete socio Sete Cee eee 445 SE SU VSS CNAURL UE en ase sy Ve SPQ a ays Oe Tlie a AE ee oh ME isc cl stacniine 491 rare ee er | gee rar ae ps Oe 1G ON aye ee ea) a OREO ooo cnc. 536 Dea sho le) s hee Ee eee ic iaia urctatate shies stsie 166 Poa eee sic on secisite ice oe ce ere eC ne 587 BALM Re lai: Speman ie iene Riera Re Ta NA LOD GEL. chose! i es ee ae 639 Fa ee SMO etree Eel eS aH URS re | PANS ate ees oem PS Ra IS Ete PERE EC A a oO ice 686 BO SU BORIS AR Aen ta ais Cea Gere yee engi a 250!iI| GOs uae sch cece cices Sac se eee eee 736 AQ ee A Se Set ep ncae Sie afew tai sialoroietS Sens 283 ||): G2. care.s aercancisideuins Seca eee e ORR EEE aepee 784 Den Usk sine BRU AML cpa aye seicslte cvs jaa hata ofan BUS WI KGAe Sie eee hue oie oispaceeise is eee ete eee 837 MARIE Sa CEPR TENTS EO Lies Se 357 | GG aces See Fe SI ae 890 TABLE 13.—Log volume table for Sitka spruce in Oregon and Washington. This table was constructed from measurements of 234 felled Sitka spruce trees in Oregon and Washington (the majority of which grew along the Hump- tulips River in Washington). By means of the Scribner Decimal C rule the volume of each log and its percentage of the total merchantable volume in the tree were calculated, and these percentages were curved and applied to the merchantable volume of the average tree for each diameter class. Logs are in 82-foot lengths. Total Log volume and percentage of total volume. Diameterabove | mer- | tise s swell. chant- : Basis. a able Butt log. Secondlog. | Third log. Fourth log. | | Batts) \eeen eB dait. ber || Ba ft eerie |B ayicen meier No. .| intens.| cent. |intens.| cent. |intens.| cent. |intens.| cent. | trees. 23 57.8 13 BBN7 | eek see gue eae eee 2 32 54.9 18 BOER | Ashe eS [Nee Sl eee ea | ee 9 43 52. 2 26 S16. | eee. eee Cea eae 9 53 49.6 33 BONS (| Poses och ae oe 10 66 47.1 42 BOS me eee) Pe esate AME A Hosea 8 79 44,6 53 29.8 34 19; Ale Gos Ae 14 93 42.6 64 29. 4 42 19,5) 25/8 Soe al eee 0 109| 40.7 78 | 29.0 | 530 IN 198 6) Ls tomes eae 23 125 39.4 91 28. 7 62 19.7 35 11.0 28 143 38.3 106 28.5 74 19.8 41 11.0 0 161 37.5 122 28.3 86 19.9 47 111 35 181 36. 8 138 28.1 98 19.9 55 11.2 0 202 37.3 156 28.0 112 20.0 63 11.3 32 | 222 35.8 173 27.9 124 20.0 71 11.4 0 | 245 35.4 192 27.7 139 20.1 80 11.5 18 | 269 35. 1 210 27.4 | 155 20. 2 89 11.6 0 | 292 34.7 229 27.2 171 20.3 98 11.7 15 315 34. 4 247 27.0 187 20. 4 108 11.8 0 | 340 34.1 268 26.9 204 20. 5 119 11.9 14 365 33.8 288 26.7 223 20.6 129 12.0 0 391 33.5 309} 26.5 | 242 20.7 |. 141 12.1 4 413 33.1 | 329 26.3 | 259 20.7 152 12.2 0 | 437 32.8 348 26.1 277 20.8 164 12.3 4 | 461; 32.4 369; 26.0 296; 20.8 178 12.5 0 | 484 32.0 392 25.9 | 316 20.9 191 12.6 5 | 510 3l. 7 413 2050 338 21.0 204 12.7 0 575 | 30.9 | 472 | 25.4 | 395 212 244 13.1 4 | 234 SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 35 Taste 14.—Comparative diameters at breast height and above swell of Sitka spruce, based on maximum taper. This table is based on maximum taper measurements of 37 trees which grew in Oregon and Washington. The figures under “taper” are inches per foot of vertical distance. The diameters above swell are noted for average heights of swell. (Curved.) : Diameter; Average P _ | Diameter] Average ae aceal above | height | Taper. D oe Mane above | height | Taper. 3 | swell. | of swell. i swell. | of swell. | Inches. | Inches. Feet, | Inches. Inches. Feet. Inches. 51 \ 7 { 3.5 76 4.5 56 3.5 80 12 4.6 61 \ 7 { 3.6 85 4.7 66 3.7 89 4.8 67 3.8 93 12 4,9 ml ° ht 7. 76 2 \. 72 41 106 \ ue { 5.2 77 10 4,2 81 4.3 TABLE 15.— Average total height of Sitka spruce on all sites in different parts of Oregon and Washington. (Curved.) | R Age. cr Newport.| Clatsop. meng Hoquiam.) Beaver. | Average. Total height in feet. 1 20 48 32 28 38 31 34 66 52 48 60 51 51 82 70 66 85 7c 70 96 85 83 110 87 89 109 98 99 130 104 106 122 110 114 147 119 121 133 120 127 161 132 134 144 130 141 173 144 147 155 139 154 183 154 157 165 148 166 192 164 167 173 156 176 201 173 175 181 164 186 209 181 183 188 171 194 216 188 190 194 178 201 222 194 196 199 184 205 227 200 201 204 190 213 232 205 205 208 196 218 236 210 210 212 201 223 240 214 213 215 206 227 244 218 216 2N7 210 230 246 221 218 220 214 234 249 224 220 222 218 236 251 226 222 223 221 239 252 228 224 | 225 223 241 254 230 1 The following is a description of the localities in which the growth measurements were taken: Teiltcoos Lake, Lane County, Oreg.—Pure stand of even-aged second growth (175 years) on gentle eee, at elevation of 150 to 200feet. Soil deep, loose, sandy tosandy loam; moist but well drained. Newport, Lincoln County, Oreg.—Three types; 130-year-old pure stand on moist, well-drained flat at 20-foot elevation in deep eer 0am; 320-year-old stand mixed with young hemlock on slopes, 300 to 350 ‘eet above sea level in deep, well-drained sandy loam; and 300-year-old mixed stand in wet clay loam of creek bottom, 25 to 50 feet in elevation. Clatsop, Clatsop County, Oreg.—T wo types: 300-year-old pure stand on gentle slopes at altitudes of 900 to 1,100 feet, deep, moist, well-drained clay loam; 300-year-old stand in mixture with hemlock on level ground of wet clay loam at altitude of 400 feet. Raymond, Pacific County, Wash.—Two types; small Pups of even-age, varying between 110 and 440 —s on slopes of moderate pitch, well drained, deep, and of clay loam; parklike stand on poorly drained t, at elevation of 250 to 300 feet. Ho uiam, Grays Harbor County, Wash.—T wo pe, 250-year-old pure stand on moist, well-drained flat, at 405 feet elevation, in loamy soil underlain with gravel; 350-year-old stand in mixture on wet poorly drained flat, of clayey soil at same elevation. Beaver, Clallam County, Wash.—Three hundred-year-old, pure stand in very moist, level, creek basin of rich alluvial soil at altitude of 600 feet. 36 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 15.—Average total height of Sitka spruce, etc——Continued. Age. Tsiltcoos.| Newport.| Clatsop. Average. Years—Continued. Basis: Number of measure- Total height in feet. 232 233 234 235 236 236 236 237 237 237 237 237 238 238 238 1, 260 TABLE 16.1—Average diameter outside bark at spruce on all sites in different parts of 15 feet above ground of Sitka Oregon and Washington. See ee SOLES CO CO NOCIONI OT He 0 09 09 NSIS? HES GOSH EMTODS) Sg (Curved.) Age. Tsiltcoos. Average. Diameter in inches outside bark at 15 feet. GY/ 2.3 | 3. 1. 2 2.0 5.5 6.3 Ho 4, iy 5.6 9.1 10.0 ne le 8. 9.5 13.0 13.7 14, 9. ibe 12.8 16.6 16.8 | 16. 12. 13. 15.7 19.7 19.7 | 18, 14, 15. 18.2 22.3 22,3 | 20. 16. 18. 20.5 24.6 24.6 22. 19. 20. 22.5 26.6 26.6 24, 21 22) 24.4 28. 4 8.6 | 2, 23. 2a. 26.3 30.1 0.3 | 2 25. 25. 28.1 31.5 1.8 2 27. 27. 29.9 32.8 3. 2 | 3 29. 28 31.5 34.3 4.8 | 3 31. 3 1 35.6 6.6 | 3 3: 36.9 Hott } 3 3 38. 2 9.1 3 3 0.3 3 3 i, 7 3 3 3.0 3 3 4 5 42. a 44 8 4 8 8 Sdddc0ss Jai 1 For description of localities see footnote to Table 15. > > hedeatealisality PPC Wwwtwh Dor SO GOL, wWwwww WNFOsN WwaPrPOW BdwowWn OO ht > Or Or mt rt bob WOmDRO Wont BONO cOnAIO NrONwS NNR OMOrsT00 NNN NNR OO RPONnPRN OFF OA] Neo bb SRES% SSPSS SSSSe 8 Croan Ras GO 00 90 OP kee PPP SSe55 oe qnoron cn Oo Ra Sas Shs SeSne VSHS! Or Cn Cr > NESeS ft OND RO CAWDOR O Shh)! SITKA SPRUCE: USES, GROWTH, MANAGEMENT. 37 Taste 16.—Average diameter outside bark at 15 feet above ground of Sitka spruce on all sites in different paris of Oregon and Washington—Continued. Age. Tsiltcoos.) Newport.) Clatsop. ey Hoquiam.) Beaver. | Average. Diameter in inches outside bark at 15 feet. Years—Continued. ‘ Ws see. OL SE RS i (ee 53.8 51.4 60. 5 bib 7 bal te ese 55.3 82) SEE ASS eee Ae le a(S 54.8 52.4 61.7 RES esas ae 56.6 ok Seeks 23. a ee eee Bond 53.5 62.8 B72 | Se eae 57.8 PED) eee eta Bein oS evel eae Se os 56.7 54.5 64.0 EEGOilleboacbeoos 59.0 STD AEE AL RR ee Se ee ae GY Sain |e aeconeor 65.1 GOON ES eee 60.2 PN Cae ee oes oP cle satel ceral] eo mie k ocinis Sala tis a hdeidiere 66. 2 (Hie. 40 | Pa eee rare 61.4 Sa ee a rae arias of cic ais nS al tec c ceeds fables Vue 67.3 GPE Ae ae 62.5 PER EE Ne ee ected snacteamaks-[oasce ne oct GBxao eee sacle 63.6 Pee ere ee ee eee Se Solon joe ce bed oes scceldepucs once ce ORG | eT eee 64.7 een eee rte ie eS Ela oae OS Whack Ue oaema a claemeaesce decency 65.8 Pe eee a io oll osc cicis oie mil sige cisisin cles erie cic sisal awewine Serelslacicciag cele oaeiececines 67.2 Basis: Number trees.........-.. 95 78 100 133 73 78 557 Tasle 17—Resulis of tests on Sitka spruce wood from Washington, in green and air-dry condition, in the form of small clear pieces.’ [From Table 1, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 556.) Green | Air-dry Mechanical property. condi- condi- tion tion Number of rings per inch... ‘ 9 9 Summerwood (per cent). --. 24 24 Molnpuke Cousent (PEL Cent) =~. -- =. 2222-2 sce see t hee seco eet 53 8.9 pram BravxtT based on volume and weight when oven-dry - 580 . 38 Parte CmeE ENC AGO LI CPOUINGS) -\-snso ajc wie oe ne se woe aoeihic oe neseowe mins 33 26 Shri e from green to oven-dry condition: Badiaii(pencent)=-.2-.2-.2.----.s2ss Tangential (per cent) Static bending: : Fiber stress at elastic limit (pounds per square inch)... 3, 000 7, 200 Moduius of rupture (pounds per square inch)....... 5, 500 11, 200 Modulus ofelasticity (1,000 pounds per square inch).... 1, 180 1,610 Work to maximum load 2 (inch pounds per cubic inch). .... 6.4 10.4 Compression parallel to grain: ximum crushing strength (pounds per squareinch)................-.-..----- 2, 600 5,770 Compression perpendicular to grain: Fiber stress at elastic limit (pounds per square inch).... 330 1,010 Shearing strength parallel to grain (pounds per square inch) 780 1, 210 Tension ee ae to grain (pounds per squareinch)..................--- 230 oma cman Hardness, side: - Load required to embed 0.444-inch ball to one-half its diameter (pounds)........ 370 530 1 Test specimens were 2inches by 2‘inchesin section. Bending specimens were cut 30 inches long; others were shorter, depending on test. 2 Work to maximum load represents the shock-absorbing ability of the wood. LUMBER GRADES. The following lumber grades are in use for different Sitka spruce products: Finish: B and Better. Flooring: B and Better. Ceiling: B and Better. Stepping: B and Better. Battens: B and Better. Partition: B and Better. Bevel siding: A, B, C. Wagon-box sets: B and Better. Boards and strips: Selected Common, No. 1 Common. “Por further information, see West Coast Lumberman’s Association, ‘‘ Rule 2: Stand- ard Classification, Grading, and Dressing Rules for Douglas Fir, Sitka Spruce, Cedar, and Western Hemlock Products,” January 22, 1922. 38 BULLETIN 1060, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Dimension, plank, and small timbers: | Car siding and roofing: B and Better. Selected Common, Common. Ladder stock: Special Grade. Lath: Standard Grade. Cut-up sash and door stock: No. 1, Turning squares: Standard Grade. No. 2. Molding stock: Standard Grade. Piano posts: Special Grade. Panel stock: No. 1, No. 2. Sounding-board stock: Special Grade. Factory lumber: Select Factory, No. 1 | Box lumber: No. 1, No. 2, No. 3. Shop, No. 2 Shop, 1-inch Shop Com- | Airplane stock: Special Grade. mon. Flitches: Special Grade. LOG GRADES IN BRITISH COLUMBIA. SPRUCE, PINE, AND COTTONWOOD. No. 1: Logs 12 feet and over in length, 30 inches in diameter and over, up to 32 feet long, 24 inches if over 32 feet long, reasonably straight, clear, free from oot such defects as would impair the value for clear lumber. 7 No. 2: Logskless than 14 inches in diameter and not over 24 feet long, or not less than 12 inches in diameter and over 24 feet long, sound, reasonably straight, free from rotten knots or bunch knots, and the grain straight enough to insure strength. i No. 3: Logs having visible defects, such as bad crooks, bad knots, or other defects that would lower the grade of lumber below merchantable. Cull: Logs lower in grade than No. 3 will be classed as culls. 18“ Morests of British Columbia,” by H. N. Whitford and R. D. Craig, p. 170, 1918. a= ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 25 CENTS PER COPY Vv Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. RAEI AO ete BS A well-stocked, second-growth longleaf pine stand, 70 years old, on a farm in Tattnall County, Ga. The trees average about 70 feet in height and range up to 15 inches in diameter; they con- i tain a total of about 40,000 board feet per acre of saw timber. The present owner grew up on | the farm and remembers the trees when they were saplings about 10 years old. ‘The location | is within a few miles of the railroad, and attractive offers have repeatedly been made to the owner for the timber to be used as piling and lumber and for turpentining. Tires have largely been kept out. | Agriculture. PLATE II. Bul. 1061, U.S: Dept. of Fic. 1—Here is going on the complete removal of the forest cover with no hope of its returning naturally. After being cupped for two years, practically every pine is cut for saw timber or pulpwood. The tops and culls are being worked up into pulpwood; but regrettably, all the small young trees down to 4 inches are: being taken. This type of logging, with the exception of the close utilization, is widely practiced over the longleaf belt. Fig. 2.—The South has some 30,000,000 acres of waste and idle land suitable for producing 100 to 400 board feet of longleaf pine yearly, together with a steady yield of turpentine. In the develop- ment of the country’s resources these lands are bound to be among the South’s greatest assets. THE PASSING OF THE LONGLEAF FOREST. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1061 Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester Washington, D. C. Vv July 29, 1922 LONGLEAF PINE. By Wicsur R. Mattoon, Forest Hxaminer. CONTENTS. Page Page Range and importance__-__~--_---- 2h aC UG bin oye ee eae 34 Fab G2 fn 7) Gi MRELORES taht Or yerete ene eres ee 36 PrsGuctiom of timber.—-20 =. 13 | LEA WORE ELe| Gy als ets a EVE ee ees 44 Production of turpentine and rosin_ 22 | Timber and live stock _-___________ 49 Longleaf pine is a southern forest tree of great economic im- portance. It is one of our best timber trees, and from it is derived the bulk of the turpentine and rosin produced in this country. With the rapid disappearance of old-growth timber, the increasing use of low-grade lumber, and the rising values of all forest products, second- growth pine is coming to be an asset of increasing importance. Large areas of cut-over lands are being handled in connection with the farming and grazing industries. On account of the natural wide spacing of longleaf pine trees, the grazing of live stock can be suc- cessfully carried on along with the growing of timber, without in- jury to either industry, as a double source of return from the land. Almost daily new uses and new values are being found for forest products formerly considered valueless. Questions on how to get the most profit from second-growth pine are being frequently asked. To the owner of large timber holdings, as well as to the farmer, the importance and value of second-growth pine are coming to be matters of increasing consideration. The common belief that longleaf pine is slow growing applies only to old-growth or mature timber, and to that growing on unfavorable situations, such, for example, as the very dry sand hills and the flat- woods. It is likewies true of stands that are burned frequently, and of those that are overcrowded and in need of thinning. The seed germinates quickly—usually in two to four weeks after it matures in the fall. Contrary to the popular belief, when sufficient seed trees are left, young longleaf comes in extensively on cut-over lands, but the great bulk of it is killed by fires and hogs. Longleaf pine is, however, remarkably resistant to fire. Millions of young trees not over 25 years of age have undoubtedly passed 85927°—22——1 2 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. through as many as 10 fires. Each fire, however, takes its toll of living trees and injures and retards the growth of all the others. Of the trees which survive, large numbers are being bled for turpen- tine or cut for timber at much too young an age to get the best money returns. Protection and forest management mean increased timber growth and increased profit. Destructive lumbering and destructive fires are every year creating in the southern pine region millions of acres of waste and barren lands. In these idle timber lands is an enormous potential wealth, and their productive power is not fully realized. Hconomically, this condition is an unsettling factor just as serious as the idleness of thousands of farms or of factories. Forest growth should be en- couraged on waste or idle lands and on lands not now in demand for agricultural use and not likely to be during the next half century, whether on farms or large cut-over tracts. This bulletin deals not only with the forest conditions on the upper or higher portions of the Coasta] Plain, where farming is relatively important, but it is also applicable to the flatwoods, where only 10 to 15 per cent of the land is in farms and the remainder mostly in the ownership of large lumber companies. Little atten- tion will be given to old-growth timber, which is rapidly passing. The aim is to present the more useful information pertaining to the growth and value of longleaf pine, the production of timber and turpentine, the methods of cutting, reforestation, and protection of second-growth longleaf pine, and the ways of making tracts of land profitable which will remain idle for many years unless they are devoted to growing crops of turpentine and timber. RANGE AND IMPORTANCE. Longleaf pine is generally well known in the localities where it grows and is commonly distinguished from other species with which it is associated. In earlier life, the erect, stout, central stem, densely covered with leaves (“straw”), is one of its well-known characteris- tics. Later and through life it has a straight, clean shaft or trunk. The leaves are from 8 to 18 inches in eae wanton, and occur in crowded clusters of three leaves each, forming the familiar-looking tufts toward the ends of the branches (Pl. III). The terminal buds’ are very large and almost white. The cones (“burrs”) vary in length from 6 to 10 inches—the longest of any of the southern pines— and, like all the pines, require two full seasons to reach maturity. The bark is orange-brown, and in mature trees separates on the sur- face into large, flat, irregular-shaped plates (Pl. IV) made up of thin scales. Fully grown trees reach heights of 70 to 120 feet, and diameters of 2 to 23 feet or occasionally 3 feet. The trunk is notably straight, slightly tapering, and usually clear of limbs for one-half to two-thirds of its length. os LONGLEAF PINE. 3 The natural range of long-leaf pine (fig. 1) extends from south- eastern Virginia, southward over the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain to Florida and westward to eastern Texas. Commercially the range is very much less extensive. As a result of lumbering and repeated fires, there remains to-day probably less than one-fifth of the original stand of long-leaf pine, estimated to have amounted originally to over 400 billion board feet. The largest remaining areas of old growth are found in the five States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. Reports from mill operators - aN ee KC Zh gee als | CAR OGRA? “FIT ENINESS EE Woe WN : Cae BOTANICAL RANGE OF LONGLEAF PINE (Pinus palustris Mil |) SCALE 100 200 MILES Itc. 1.—-Outline map of the southern United States, the shaded part showing the botanical range of longleaf pine. This species of southern pine occurs widely distributed over the Coastal Plain from southeastern Virginia to eastern Texas. [Extensive areas of cut-over longleaf lands occur throughout practically the whole range. ‘The bulk of the remaining old growth is located in parts of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Originally, longleaf pine composed the bulk of probably the world’s greatest pure yellow pine forest. owning or controlling practically the entire remaining stand of old- growth pine in the South indicate that it is very doubtful whether at the present rate of cutting the longleaf forests, which have always been the chief factor in the production of southern yellow pine, will last for many years. The total annual cut of longleaf is not known. According to the best estimates, the lumber cut is roughly about one-half of the total southern yellow pine lumber cut, which ranges yearly from 10 to 15 4 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. billion board feet.. In addition, considerable amounts are cut for crossties, piling, pulpwood, and fuelwood. The estimated total cut is, therefore, equivalent to 8 to 10 billion board feet. Continuous losses of merchantable timber are caused by windfall, turpentining, insects, fires, and diseases. Its habit of growth in pure stands over large areas, rather than as scattered trees in a mixture, and its ability to grow on poor, dry, and poorly drained soils mark longleaf as a pine of great potential value. Over its range, generally, longleaf pine is found growing on prac- tically all soils except the very wet and the rich alluvial soils, which are variously occupied by cypress, mixed hardwoods, and slash, pond, or loblolly pines. Yellow pines have been and still are among the few important sources of wealth in the South. The original timber is going; but, with a recognition of the evil effects of fire and with a few essential precautions against it, this timber can be replaced with young growth, and the land will again come back in large measure to its former position of economic importance. SECOND-GROWTH TIMBER. The value of second-growth pine is becoming increasingly recog- nized as the main body cf old growth is cut. Within the next 10 to 15 years this value will doubtless be widely recognized. Exten- sive purchases of second growth by investors might be expected in view of the history of the prices that have been paid and are being paid for small and often inferior timber growth in New England and the Lake States. Second-growth pine has a distinct use and value (Pl. IV). Lum- bermen, who have heretofore regarded themselves simply as manu- facturers of boards, are coming to have an interest in the question of a future supply of logs, and during the past few years operators in various sections of the South have bought large tracts of land for the perpetuation of their industry. The underlying idea is to operate continuously on the same tract. The more progressive lum- bermen regard favorably the buying of good stands of young timber because it affords a more profitable investment than holding old tim- ber for 20 to 40 years. A relatively small amount of capital is tied up in the combined young timber and cut-over land, and often a greater return on the investment is possible. Growth in mature timber is very slow and is offset by losses caused by insects, fungous diseases, fire, wind, and lightning. Young tim- ber, on the other hand, is growing at a good rate and utilizing the productive capacity of the land. Merchantable stands are coming to be taxed at an amount nearer their full value. In young stands the trees that need to be cut out, in order to allow the remaining trees ample room for growth, yield cordwood, ties, poles, or pulp- Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fig. 1—A heavy crop of longleaf pine cones bearing seed occurs widely over the South at intervals of about every 7 years. The flowers ‘‘set’’ early in the spring; the seeds require 2 years to mature, and are usually shed in September. Seed crops can thus be foretold more than a year ahead by observing the small green cones on the trees in the summer and fall during their season of devlopment. fic. 2,—Foliage and cones (‘‘burrs’’) of the longleaf pin PLATE IV. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bul. 1061. ee souvIveadde oy} UT SoouATOYIp Av] TULIS eyinb sziqryxe ould YQMOIs-suN0 A ‘SosplI PUB SMOLIN] [RUIpNyIsuo], deep yy ‘Ysnor st ‘ould pojetoosse Joyo -ue ‘AT[OTGO] JO 9RYY TIM ‘3yaEq AIL “unis ojinb @ seg ‘ould YSseRyS ‘soyvicosse S]I JO 9UQ ‘ddTIALINDD0 S4T JO osuBA oy} 19AO WAMOUY [fo ST OUId Jro[suOT JO YUN WYsles YOoWS oUT—'s YI ‘soal} Pox001d pue ‘pessoaddns ‘1o100d oy} yno Sutuutyy Jo ooyovid o[qe -PUOULULOD S,49UMO OY} JO J[MSeI oy} “Soar oYyy JO FUOUIdOTEADD WIOJIUN pus sutoeds UdAD oY} OJON “Wo PULA OAIJCOJOId B £B PoAIOS OUT} OULVS 94} 4B SBY 4I “BH ‘AQUNOD AIVJJay, Ul ‘Tios ulyy JO ospll @ UO payBooy ‘“MeIys oUId pue ‘poom ‘IequIT. WjIM JouMo oyj poyddns siveA 10} sey puvys ould jJeopsu0y Plo-1vos-OF SI, “PURpPEquIly Wary Wo syonpolg—~Z diy eS “VSO sSVoiq 4 (L1eq optsyno) loyoULVIp Ul SOY TT puv JYoloty UI Jooj Z pons vour 9014 OL Co Stl “XT td) ‘puejs Jvo[suo], pyo -IBdA-RF PoYOO}S-TJOM @B UT 901} POZIS-oSVIOAV OY UWLOIJ JD SUOTIOODS—"T “DIT LONGLEAF PINE, 5 wood. Under “ Cutting” the subject of thinning is discussed. Oper- ators of turpentine have learned that second growth serves the purpose. Over considerable sections of the yellow pine region the lumber industry is now working on second growth. Extensive areas in the South will not be put to their best use until they are growing well-stocked stands of young timber. It is in- conceivable that a section of the country with such a vast area of natural forest soil could continue for any length of time in a state One sawmill, that cuts mostly longleaf pine, re- quires daily the timber from about 100 acres, or yearly that from about 25,000 acres. About 6,000,000 acres of longleaf pine timber land, it is estimated, are cut in this country yearly, and about 4,000,000 acres are left fire-swept and practically idle. Is it not time steps were taken to remedy this situation? It is not a ‘question of decreasing the rate of cutting the timber, but rather of stopping fire devastation and putting the nonproducing acres to work. Millions of acres of lands now denuded and nonproductive should be growing trees of use and value. The supplies of coal, petroleum, and iron are lim- ited, but not so with wood. A forest is not a thing to be exploited and then abandoned, but a property that under right management can be made to yield fair annual dividends in perpetuity. Lumber should be among the cheapest of com- modities, since with adequate forethought and care the forest becomes, like the air, water, and soil, an inexhaustible resource, of prosperity with timber growing largely eliminated. Any sound economic policy for the region calls for the right use of the present forest resources and also for the adoption of public measures which will insure an income from all lands and a perma- nent supply of the raw products so essential to the progress and pros- perity of the people. Cut-over forest land can be made to produce another forest as good or better than the original one. It thus fol- lows that the use of timber and the reproduction of timber can go hand in hand, provided, of course, that the right steps are taken in accordance with the natural laws of tree growth. 6 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Cut-over lands on which there are seed trees are worth more than denuded lands, for the reason that they are earning an income from the growth of the trees, which is accelerated by the increased supply of light and soil moisture, and from the constantly enhancing value of the young forest stands. It is claimed by some practical lumber- men that the value of such lands with young growth will be doubled within about 5 years after logging. These factors do not diminish the prospective value of these lands for agriculture or interfere to an appreciable degree with the use of the land for grazing. Lands that contain some timber are more valuable for farms than are “skinned ” cut-over lands, because a supply of timber is available for sale and for home use, there is shade in the pastures, and the trees make the homes more attractive. RATE OF GROWTH. During the first 30 to 60 years of its life—the period under special consideration in this bulletin—and on the better soils or situations where it occurs, longleaf pine grows at a moderate to rapid rate. The general rating of longleaf as a slow-growing species of pine is the result of the almost exclusive handling and consideration of old timber, which grows at a slow or very slow rate. The rate of growth shows wide variations, apparently related closely to differences in the depth and texture of the soil and its supply of soil moisture. Because many of the longleaf pine soils - are subject to periods of extreme dryness, the slow growth in many natural unthinned stands and the comparatively wide spacing found in older longleaf stands are often attributed to the competition of the roots for soil moisture rather than of the branches for light. An important determining factor in the rate of growth of the indi- vidual trees is their density, or the number of trees per acre in the stand, at any specified age. Growth in diameter is particularly — influenced by this condition. During the first few years the growth of young seedlings con- sists chiefly in the development of a large root system. A very stout long taproot, accompanied by several large laterals and many smaller ones, underlies and supports a very short stem, crowned with a dense tuft of long, drooping, grasslike foliage. This period of apparently little activity is very deceptive and has been one cause of the general impression that longleaf is a very slow grower. Generally, from 3 to 5 years are required for longleaf to reach the height of 6 inches to a foot and develop the requisite root system for making the rapid “shoot” upward which follows. Under pro- tection from fires, it is known that on loamy sand in the upper LONGLEAF PINE. G Coastal Plain longleaf saplings at 5 years of age reach heights of 2 to 3 feet and at 7 years of 5 to 8 feet. The occurrence of fires at frequent intervals, usually of about 2 years, in different sections. over practically the entire longleaf pine belt, and the accompanying marked effect in checking growth should not be overlooked in any consideration of the rate of growth. Since the purpose here is chiefly to consider growth after the youngest or seedling stage, the germination of the seed and the early seedling development will be discussed under “ Reforestation ” in connection with getting young stands started. The period of vigorous growth, during which the longleaf sap- lings “shoot” up rapidly, begins at an age of about 5 years and continues to about 20 to 25 years. At about 7 years, the height of saplings sometimes increases 3 to 4 feet during a single year. A growth of 2 feet a year in well-stocked stands is common over large areas (fig. 2 and Pl. V.), and open-grown trees on average good situations not uncommonly grow from 2 to 3 feet yearly. At the same time, the young trees grow to a diameter (at the ground) of about 2 inches during the 2 to 4 years following the early prepara- tory stage. Varying widely, longleaf saplings require 6 to 8 years on an average to reach breast height, or 43: feet above the ground. After the maximum rate of height growth, at an age prior to 20 years, the rate gradually diminishes. It should, however, be clearly understood that young longleaf pine trees, subjected to hot fires, -do not grow at the rates indicated. On protected old fields in the flatwoods of eastern North Carolina, measurements of longleaf pines show that in 35 to 50 years the average trees produce saw logs 14 to 20 inches at the butt and 20 feet in length.* The usefulness of these pine trees, however, would begin a little earlier if they were turpentined, and the thinning out of the foliage would also en- courage the incoming of the tender grasses which are valuable for pasturage. This may be considered as about the average of the bet- ter growth to be expected throughout the longleaf pine region. The soil conditions on old fields are favorable, probably because of changes taking place in the hardpan layer.* The most useful information regarding the rate of growth is obtained by measuring the amount of growth actually taking place in stands approximately even-aged and fairly well stocked. The trees in such stands grow tall, straight, and clean of branches, but relatively slow in diameter (PI. IV). At any given age, therefore, the average trees in well-stocked stands will be considerably smaller *By W. W. Ashe, formerly in charge of Investigations, North Carolina Geological Survey. Studies by J. O. Veatch, Bureau of Soils, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 8 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in diameter than those of similar age growing in the open. Like- wise, at relatively early ages—at 30 years for example—an acre that was half stocked might have trees of saw-timber size, whereas a fully stocked stand might not have any trees of merchantable saw-timber sizes. GROWTH INHEIGHT AGE| HEIGHT | YEARLY | YEAR YEARS| INCHES |GROWTH INCHES, 9%] 93.5 _ GROWTH UPTO JUNE 22 25.2| 1916 — BRANCHES (2) (Spring) 9 | 68.3 RESERVE BUD (Late Summer) MID-SEASONAL NODE 27.6 1915 <| MID-SEASONAL NODE (| GAoky d_— BRANCHES (2) (Spring) 9.6 1914 <4 Wd BRANCH (Spring) 7 eel BRANCH FROM RESERVE BUD #* 21.6 | 1913 . "ee 2, BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pared with stands of that age, it contained about the average amount of cordwood but double the average amount of saw-timnber. The two 25-year-old stands afford an interesting comparison, showing the effect. of the tree density, or number of trees per acre. It will be noted that the first stand (2) contained over twice as many trees per acre as the second (3), and that, as a result, they are very much smaller—29 feet in height as compared with 54 feet, and 4.2 inches in diameter as compared with 7.6 inches, about one-third as much cordwood, and only 700 board feet as compared with 6,980 feet of saw-timber. The two 70-year-old stands (5) show very nearly the general average size of trees both in diameter and in height, and slightly less than the average amount of cordwood and saw-timber. » PRODUCTION OF TURPENTINE AND ROSIN. The bulk of the turpentine and rosin produced in this country has been obtained from longleaf pine.* The average yearlyepro- duction for the 6 years ending in 1919 has been estimated to range between 23,000,000 and 25,000,000 gallons of spirits of turpentine and between 700,000,000 and 820,000,000 pounds of rosin. The center of production has changed, gradually following the timber supplies from the Carolinas to Florida. The industry is extensive in Florida and is developing in Louisiana. Second-growth pine now furnishes most of the yield from South Carolina and Georgia, and smaller amounts from Florida and Alabama. YIELD OF SECOND-GROWTH STANDS. Young longleaf pine has been for many years worked for turpen- tine, and this is often its greatest and sometimes its only value. In this respect extensive abuse of young pine has come to be very general. As long ago as 1900 a considerable amount of the tur- pentine produced in South Carolina and coastal Georgia was de- rived from young stands of longleaf and slash pine. Since the common practice has been to work young stands heavily, let them burn freely, and make very little further use of them, the destruc- tion of young longleaf has taken place on an extensive scale. Obviously this in part explains the prevailing absence of second growth. Only a few preliminary studies have thus far been made in the amount of naval stores produced by second-growth longleaf pine. There is much need for accurate information in regard to the amount of gum yielded by trees of different sizes and ages and by entire stands or various ages and tree densities. Table 11 gives a rough approximation of the yields per crop and Farmers’ Bulletin 1256, Slash Pine.) LONGLEAF PINE. eS. working of second-growth, well-stocked longleaf pine stands. Caution is necessary, however, in using the table, since it should be regarded as based upon insufficient data to make it final, but it is probably the best of its kind available. It is not based upon actual yields from whole stands, but has been computed from two sets of independent measurements, one relating to the sizes and numbers of trees per acre of growing longleaf stands (Table 1), and the other relating to the flow of gum from a limited number of trees of specified sizes (see Table 12). On the basis of this information, secured by the Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, the table was compiled jointly by the State Department of Con- servation, New Orleans, La., and the Forest Service. It is included - here with the hope that it may be the means of stimulating the collection of further measurements and the acquisition of more com- plete information. The yield of gum per crop is exceedingly vari- able, as is well known among operators, depending upon the locality and region (extending from North Carolina to Texas), the season, class of labor, and indirectly the market conditions. Hence,:any figures of yield should be used with discretion. Taste 11.—Computed production of gum, turpentine, and rosin from weil- stocked second-growth longleaf pine stands, of various ages (virgin, or first year’s working) .* Production per crop. Production per acre. : P Pe Produc- | 2 ea Sa ee Os | | stand. | T of gum l a urpen- a Turpen- Asner Gum. | “pb | Rosin? | per cup. | Gum. “| “fra2 | Rosin? } Barrels | Barrels Barrels Years., Pounds. | (50 gals.).| (500 1bs.).| Pounds. | Pounds. | Gallons. | (500 lbs.). 20 | 37,000 18.5 61 Shel 186 4.6 0.3 30 | 53,000 26.5 88 5.3 1,122- 28.0 1.9 40 | 68,000 34.0 113 6.8 | 2,190 54.7 Sal 50 74,000 37.0 123 7.4 2,760 69.0 4.6 Trees cupped per acre (grouped by diameter sizes) .3 | Trees per al ae Ot. 2 Rn eee Cups acre 17 Diameter of trees—inches. per stand acre (all |- SS eee = SS Total. , sizes). 7 8 9 10 11 | 12 13 | | 150) | Ph ees DA Se aa ay FOr se | IE OAS Le! 50 50 B55 70 90 Dhee ieita deaNotta sss oo te a aw aie > \ Pelee Salat | 210 210 408 48 13 0 | 4 5 ‘hice ad (cece yais | 41 321 2) 5) 36 10 1H5 1) | 25 | 15 240 371 | 1 This table is computed from two different sets of measurements and is not based upon actual measured jelds of whole stands. The working of small trees and young stands is not good practice excepw& where rees are to be removed in thinnings or the land to be cleared for other uses. 2 Production of turpentine and rosin calculated on the basis of 100 pounds of gum yielding 2) gallons of turpentine (one-twentieth barrel) and 83 pounds of rosin (one-sixth of a 500-pound barrel) 2 One cup hung on each tree measuring 7 to 9 inches, inclusive, in diameter; two cups hung on about one-half of the 10-inch trees and on all trees measuring 1Linches and over. : 4 In the 40-year-old stand, 35 of the total 65 trees were 2-cup trees; in the 50-vear-old stand, 25 of the trees; and in both cases the remainder of the 10-inch class of trees were hung with one cup each 24 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table 11 assumes that well-stocked stands are heavily cupped with one cup to every tree measuring 7, 8, or 9 inches in diameter, one cup on about one-half of the 10-inch trees and two on the re- mainder, and two cups on all trees 11 inches and over. The figures are for the first year’s working. At 30 years, for example, the aver- age yield per crop (10,000 cups) is shown to be 53,000 pounds of eum, which makes in turn about 26.5 barrels of spirits of turpentine* and 88 barrels of rosin. This is obtained from 210 cups per acre, each yielding 5.3 pounds of gum during the season. This number of cups was hung on 210 trees out of a total stand of 355 trees per acre. At 40 years, a yield of 34 barrels of turpentine may be expected. The yield per acre at 30 years was 1,122 pounds of gum, producing about 28 gallons of turpentine and 1.9 barrels of rosin. These yields The production of turpentine and rosin has shown a marked downward trend for some 15 years. This is due chiefly to the exhaustion of virgin timber. The very wasteful and destructive methods generally employed with both old timber and second growth have always meant a total production much below what would be possible under a more conservative system. If the rate of decrease continues, within the next decade or so the United States will lose its com- manding position in the world’s market and may in time be unable to supply its domestic requirements. seem to be very fair in comparison with the average of about 40 barrels of spirits per crop yielded by the better class of mature stands under good working in the Gulf region, and an average for all timber of about 20 barrels per crop. The inclusion of small sizes of trees and very close cupping should not be taken as any recommendation for operating such young stands as a general prac- tice. The figures are given as an indication of what might be ex- pected in working thick stands of young timber before thinning or clearing up the land. On the Florida National Forest the longleaf pine of all ages and sizes, 10 inches and over in diameter, in a certain contract yielded a virgin working of 96,000 pounds of gum per crop, which gave 48 barrels of spirits and 134 barrels of rosin. This was an average yield 4By a coincidence this is the same yield as shown by the 1910 United States census for the average crop in Georgia, where much of the production is from second-growth timber. LONGLEAF PINE. 95 of 9.6 pounds per face, of which 8.3 pounds were dip and 1.3 pounds scrape. The timber as a rule is old and very slow growing, but was worked conservatively. UNPROFITABLE TURPENTINE PRACTICES. Working small-sized trees—The figures given in Table 12 refer to young longleaf pine timber in southern Georgia, and show the weight of gum in cups ready for the first dip after six streaks. The trees ranged from 7 to 12 inches in diameter (measured at breast height, or 44 feet above the ground) ; each tree was hung with one cup and was being worked for the first year. The production for the season is computed on the assumption that there were six dip- pings. TABLE 12—Yield of gum per cup in the first dip, and computed yield for the season from different-sized trees. Yield of gum per cup. Diameter of tree Per Sen (breast Pend: son, : p(6| Per cer high). | streaks). | streak. apne puted). Inches. | Ounces. | Ounces. | Pounds. 17 10.0 1.7 3.7 18 15.0 2.5 Bad 19 19.0 3.2 7.1 110 22.5 3.7 8.5 lil 23.0 3.8 8.7 112 24.0 4.0 9.0 210 36.0 6.0 13.5 211 43.0 7.1 16.1 212 48.0 8.0 18.0 1 One-cup trees. 2 Two-cup trees. The most noteworthy point here is that a 7-inch tree yields less than one-half the gum yielded by a 10-inch tree. Of the 10-inch trees those with two cups yielded 60 per cent more gum than those having only one cup; of the 11-inch trees, they yielded 87 per cent more; and of the 12-inch trees, they yielded 100 per cent more. In operations on small timber the expense of cups, hanging, chipping, and dipping is incurred in connection with many trees that yield only about a quart of gum for a full season’s working. Even smaller returns than those shown above are not uncommon. In May, 1920, third-year workings of these small sizes were found that yielded at the rate of 1 ounce of gum to each four streaks. The conclusion arrived at from these weighings is that, in general, timber less than 9 inches in ©The discussion is based upon studies and recommendations by Austin Cary, Logging Bngineer of the Forest Service. See also ‘‘ New Method of Turpentine Orcharding,” lor est Service Bulletin 40. Vor sale by Superintendent of Documents, Government l’rinting Office, Washington, D. C. Price, 10 cents. 85927°—22——_4 26 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. diameter at breastheight, or about 10 inches on the stump, yields gum in such small amounts as to be considered below a workable size. Faces per tree—Observations on virgin crops indicate that the addition of the second face, when conservatively made and worked on longleaf pine trees from 10 to 12 inches in diameter at breast- height, increases the yield of the tree by about 70 per cent over the yield of one face. However, when trees under 12 to 14 inches in diameter have been worked with a second face their growth has nearly stopped. They have often been found to be in a sickly or dying condi- tion. The more observing and practical operators feel justified for that reason in not permitting a second face on trees less than 15 inches in diameter; but, if a second face is allowed, they require that bars shall measure at least 4 inches across and that at least 40 per cent of the surface or circumference of the tree shall remain uncut. Heavy chipping—F¥or conclusive results regarding the effect of heavy and light chipping, reference may be made to the experiments carried on in Florida by Dr. Charles F. Herty and published by the Forest Service® (Pl. VIII). To this may be added some results obtained by the Forest Service on the Florida National Forest near Pensacola. In these workings the trees were conservatively cupped, and chipping was limited to one-half inch in depth and the same in height. Under these conditions the results per crop of 10,000 cups from five successive years’ work on a specified body of timber have been as follows: First year, 46 barrels; second year, 40 barrels; third year, 41 barrels; fourth year, 38 barrels; fifth year, 41 barrels. The average season’s production of gum per crop was, therefore, 41 barrels, with a total of 206 barrels. It will be noted that there was a slight alternation in the amounts, with production the third and last years equal to the average for the operation. A significant result was the subsequent death of only 2 per cent of the trees from dry-facing. Private operations in the same locality using the ordi- nary old-time system commonly lose from 10 to 20 per cent of their timber and the average yield of gum obtained is approximately as follows: First year, 46 barrels; second year, 38 barrels; third year, 25 barrels; average yearly, 36.3 barrels. This total yield of 109 barrels in three seasons’ working with an average yearly production of 36.3 barrels per crop stands in bold contrast to the result of 206 barrels obtained under similar condi- tions on the National Forest by the use of better methods. SUGGESTED SYSTEMS OF TURPENTINING. A method that is now being tried out on the Florida National Forest in fully stocked second-growth stands starts with the gradual 6“ Relation of Light Chipping to the Commercial Yield of Naval Stores,’ by Dr. Charles FEF. Herty. Forest Service Bulletin 90. For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Govern- ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Price, 10 cents. LONGLEAF PINE. D5) thinning out of the stand by means of periodic turpentining of the trees to be removed in order to develop an open forest of. large- topped, vigorous trees capable of being worked for turpentine re- peatedly over a period of 30 to 50 years or more." Beginning when the trees are 25 to 35 years old, the first step is the removal of the least desirable trees from the stand. These trees, perhaps one-third of the total number, are worked for turpentine under such a system of cupping as will give the maximum immediate financial returns to the operator. When the turpentine value of the tree is gone—probably after a working period of five years—they are cut and utilized. Following the working and cutting of the first lot of trees the remaining stand is again gone over at an age of 30 to 40 years, and the largest trees are selected and designated to constitute the final stand. All other trees are marked for immediate and rapid working under the system of cupping used in the first thinning operation. After five or more years of operation these trees are cut and removed from the stand. This leaves the trees of the final stand which are to receive the conservative turpentine man- agement and from which the chief and sustained money yield of the forest is to be expected. The final stand consists of only the best trees—those stimulated by the previous thinnings to a state of development much in advance of trees of the same age, 35 to 45 years—in unthinned stands. They should be uniformly and widely spaced and stand 50 to 100 trees per acre. The final stand is now ready for systematic working over a period of 35 to 40 years. The trees are worked conservatively, regular intervals of 3 to 5 years being allowed for rest between the successive 7 or 8 year periods of working up a face. As the tree grows and the wounds heal, narrow faces may be worked between the old ones. At the end of the “ rotation,” when the trees are consid- ered mature, or at an age of about 80 years, they are heavily worked and then cut for lumber or other products. This system is quite similar to that in use by the French in tur- pentining their forests of maritime pine.* The results of five years’ operation on the Florida National Forest indicate that no great dif- ficulty will be found in applying it generally to second-growth stands in this country. A modification of the above method, which is believed by some practical operators to be feasible and promising, follows more nearly the prevailing custom of turpentining in that the operation starts when the largest trees in the stand have attained sufficient size for 7 Initiated by Mr. I. F. Eldredge, forest inspector, and for about 10 years carried under his direction. This applies to all of the turpentining operations on the Ilortd National Forest from 1907 to 1917. *¥For brief description of the French method, see Farmers’ Bulletin 1256, “ Slash Pine.” CoMMON PRACTICES IN TURPENTINING. (Description of Plate IX.) Fic. 1.—There are 240 trees per acre, of which 184 measure from 7 to 14 inches in diameter at breastheight, and 56, which are suppressed, measure from 4 to 6 inches in diameter. Some 20 trees per acre of turpentine sizes are too nearly dead from fire for cupping, and a good many trees are missing as the result of repeated burnings. Some of the trees in this working have two faces and leave insufficient width of bars for the trees to function properly. The result is a marked reduction in the total pro- duction. If not disastrously burned, the stand will be worked for a third year. If the stand is afforded protection, the one-face and the two-face trees, which have not become dry-faced, and the two-face trees, which have not become dry-faced, after 5 to 10 years of rest and growth can be reworked. If the timber is not to be cut at the end of the first or second working, a more conservative working than here shown would have been advisable. At 15 cents per cup for turpentine the stand is yielding the owner $28.80 per acre, and there will be a cut of some 15,000 board feet of lumber. The effect of the fires has been to deplete the stand of almost one-third of the trees which it should contain at the present time. In the picture some effects are clearly apparent. At the age of 45 years, well-stocked longleaf stands should have about 300 trees per acre all of turpentine sizes (Table 1). On the same scale of working as here operated, these stands should afford about 400 cups per acre. At 15 cents per cup, and counting in the cups which have been lost by fire, the total return for timber rights would have been about $60, or an average yearly return for the 45-year period of about $1.85 per acre. The value of 15,000 board feet of second-growth pine, assumed to be $3 per thousand, would add $45 and bring the total average gross income up to $2.35 per acre yearly. The operation, as it is being carried on, illustrates well the better class of second- growth stands and the way they are being worked. This one is in Baker County, Fla. Fic. 2.—This stand of longleaf, with a little slash pine mixed, is about the same age and located near the stand shown in figure 1. It, however, was boxed, worked for three seasons, and since then has been allowed to burn over at random. The trees have been badly burned; some are gone ‘‘ root and branch,’ leaving holes in the top soil as the only visible mark of where they formerly stood. More than one-half of the trees origin- ally boxed have been killed or destroyed. The remaining portion in 1916 was considered of no value because it was badly burned, insect infested, and decayed. Wight or nine years had elapsed since the timber was workcd. The original tree density was very good; now about four trees are left to every ten that were standing when they were boxed and ~ worked. There are now 55 trees per acre measuring 7 inches or over in diameter. The growth of the trees, which came up in an old field, has been rapid, and the stand of rela- tively .high value. The owner received 10 cents a cup, or from 192 cups per acre (an estimated number) $19.20 per acre, as the return on the timber for the period of 40 years of growth. Under adequate protection during the 10 years following the first working, if the trees were back-cupped in 1919, and the timber sold at $3 per thousand feet on the stump, the profits would undoubtedly have been somewhere near four times the amount received. The treatment of this promising stand represents widespread practice, the folly of which is beginning to be widely and fully appreciated. This operation is in Baker County, Fla. 28 IX. PLATE Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. tand in northern Florida being worked for the second season, (See description on p. 28.) C pine s with 192 cups on 164 trees per acre. Fic. 1.—A 43-year-old longleaf Cull > = —x N (See desc jicture of the great waste of timber by fire , ollow turpentining — om monly is Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. Fic. 1.—For the purpose of conserving the yield of gum, this operator is hanging cups on timber that has up to this time been worked by the crude boxing method. Fic. 2.—Effect of deep chipping on longleaf pine about 50 years old in Clinch County, Ga. In strong winds the leverage is great and the breaking point is mostly at the top of the face. By care- less burning a good many of these faces have been deadened. It is known that pine timber may be worked for turpentine if done in suitable manner without causing great injury either to its value for other purposes or to its rate of growth. LONGLEAF PINE. 29 working. After being completely worked the trees are cut and re- moved, giving space “ae the accelerated growth of the remaining stand. In the working the trees are bled for about 4 years (with a relatively narrow face to a height of 6 feet), followed by a rest for about 3 years. This operation is then repeated twice with a new face each time, representing in all a-working period of about 20 years. If the age of the stand at the start was 30 years, it is now 50 years old. The trees are now cut and utilized, and another 20- year working period begun, making use of the larger trees of the remaining stand. If the yearly burnings in connection with the turpentining .de- stroys most of the young growth which starts, as seems likely, in order to secure a satisfactory reforestation of the tract, it may be necessary, in the case of either method of turpentining, to secure for- est regeneration by the artificial means of seed sowing or by plant- ing nursery-grown seedlings. Operating old-growth timber on the Florida National Forest.— The regulations for turpentine operations on Government-owned tim- ber on the Florida National Forest will afford suggestions to private owners desiring to work or lease their timber, under methods of operation that aim to reduce the injury and waste and maintain the production of turpentine over a maximum period of years. The enforcement of these requirements has been no obstacle to success- ful forest management, but rather has proved to be a great help. Competition for turpentine rights is keen among operators, and in 1919 the bids reached the high mark of $25.70 per 100 cups. Close observation and study of the best practice of turpentining has resulted in the regulation of 1 cup on trees measuring from 10 to 15 inches, inclusive, in diameter; 2 cups on trees 16 to 24 inches; and not more than 3 cups on any tree. The location of the Forest in western Florida is in a region of deep, dry, sandy soil, where only longleaf pine and southern blackjack oak are able to maintain an existence and where the pine is mostly mature or slow growing. The timber, however, is worked for about 14 years out of a total of 15 to 17 years. The procedure normally is about as follows, sub- ject to minor variations depending upon conditions: Virgin crop worked for 3 years, high-face 4 years (sometimes 3); a rest period usually of 3 years (minimum of one year) ; back-cupping carried on for 3 years, and high-face back-cutting for 3 or 4 years. The first working is sold, or if desired, the combined first and second work- ings together. After the rest interval the same practice of selling the rights is used in the back cuppings. The plan is to sell the tim ber at the expiration of the working, which will be completed on a certain tract in about 5 years more, the present season being the eleventh since turpentine operations were begun. 30 BULLETIN 1061,.U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. An idea of the conditions to which the buyers of turpentine rights on the National Forest subscribe may be had from the following form. The bold-face type indicates the portions of the agreement that are filled in separately in each case, and the figures used repre- sent about average conditions: UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FOREST SERVICE. NAVAL STORES AGREEMENT. We, James F. Elder and Wm. H. Johnson, partners, doing business under the firm name and style of Elder and Johnson, of Gracewood, State of Florida, hereby agree to work for naval stores certain timber in the Florida National Forest in accordance with our bid submitted in pursuance of a notice inviting bids therefor, duly given by publication. Said timber is all the longleaf pine timber not excepted under the terms of this agreement located on an area of about 640 acres to be definitely designated by a Forest officer before cupping begins in Sec. 14, T.1S., R. 26 W. Principal meridian, within the Florida National Forest, upon which area it is estimated that 10,000 cups, more or less, may be placed. In consideration of the granting of this privilege to us we do hereby promise to pay to the District Fiscal Agent (Washington, D. C.) or such other depository or officer as shall hereafter be designated, to be placed to the credit of the United States, the sum of Twenty-five hundred dollars (32,500), more or less, as may be determined by actual count at the rate of Two hundred and fifty dollars ($250) per thousand cups in installments, the first of which shall be in the sum of not less than $1,000, payable on or before the date of execution of this agreement, the second in the sum of not less than $800 payable on or before February 1, 1923, and the third in the sum of the balance then remaining due on or before February 1, 1924, credit being given for the sums, if any, hitherto deposited with the said United States depository or officer in connection with this privilege. And we further promise and agree to work said timber in strict accordance with the following condi- tions and all regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture: 1. Timber on valid claims and all timber under other contract with the Forest Service is exempt from cupping under this agreement. 2. No tree will be cupped, chipped, raked, or worked in any manner until Se geet ae has been made in accordance with the terms of this agreement. 3. Title to the product of the timber included in this agreement will remain in the United States until it has been paid for as herein prescribed and removed from the tree. 4. No timber will be cupped except that on the area designated by a Forest officer; and all timber on that area will be cupped except as herein specified. 5. No marked tree and no tree 9 inches or less in diameter at a point 44 feet above the ground will be cupped; not more than one cup will be placed on trees from 10 inches to 15 inches, inclusive, in diameter; not more than two cups will be placed on trees from 76 inches to 24 inches, inclusive, in diameter, and not more than three cups will be placed on any tree. 6. The depth of streaks will not exceed 1/2 inch, excluding the bark. The width of the streaks will beso regulated that not more than 1/2 inch of new wood will be taken from the upper side of each streak. The faces chipped or pulled the first season will not exceed 16 inches in height from the shoulder of the firststreak of the season to the shoulder of the last streak of the season, including beth. The faces chipped or pulled in subsequent seasons will not exceed 16 inches in height, measured in the same way. A No. 0 or smaller hack or puller will be used for chipping or pulling. Bars or strips of bark not less than 4 inches wide in the narrowest place will be left between faces, and this width shall not be lessened as the faces progress up the tree. Where more than one face is placed on a tree, one bar between them will not exceed 8 inches in width. The first streak at the base of the face will be made at the time the apron or gutter is placed. Not more than one streak will be placed on any face during any week except during June and July, when faces may be double streaked, provided that not more than one-halfinch is added to the height of the face during the week. Faces not chipped in accordance with these specifications may be marked out and the cups removed by the Forest officer. 7. A cupping system satisfactory to the Forest Supervisor will be used, and the cupsand aprons or gutters will be so placed that the shoulders of the first streak will be not more than 70 inches distant from the bottom of the cup, and the cups first placed will be as near the ground as possible. No wood will beexposed on any tree by removing the bark below the gutter or aprons. 8. No unnecessary damage will be done to cupped trees, marked trees, or to trees below the diameter iimit. Trees that are badly damaged during the life of this agreement, when such damage is due to care- lessness or negligence, shall be paid for at the rate of $5 per thousand feet board measure, full scale. Trees split or windthrown because of deep incisions for raised tins will be considered as being damaged unnecessarily. The Forest Supervisor shall decide as to the presence and extent of damage. rs LONGLEAF PINE. on 9. No cups will be placed later than April 1, 1922, without written permission from the Forest Super- yisor, and all timber embraced in this agreement will be cupped before said date. The cupping will proceed with all reasonable speed. 10. Unless extension of time is granted, all timber will be chipped, dipped, and scraped, the product and all cups, aprons, gutters, and nails removed, and each cupped tree thoroughly raked to the satisfaction of the Forest officer not later than December 31, 1924. Tins will be pulled out, not chopped out. 11. No fires will be set to the timber, underbrush, or grass on the area covered by this agreement without the written permission of the authorized Forest officer, and during the time that this agreement remains in force we will, independently, do all in our power to prevent and suppress unauthorized forest fires on the said area and in its vicinity, and will require our employees and contractors to do likewise. We hereby agree, unless prevented by circumstances over which we have no control, to place our employees, contractors, and employees of contractors at the disposal of any authorized Forest officer for the purpose of fighting forest fires, with the understanding that unless the fire-fighting services are rendered on the area embraced in this agreement or on adjacent areas * * * we will be paid for such services at rates to be determined by the Forest officer in charge, which rates shall not be less than the current rates of pay pre- vailing in the said National Forest for services ofa similar character: Provided, That the maximum expendi- ture for fire fighting without remuneration in any one calendar year, at rates of pay determined as above, will not exceed $50; and further provided, That if we, our employees, contractors, or employees of con- tractors are directly or indirectly responsible for the origin of the fire, we will not be paid for services so rendered, nor will the cost of such services be included in determining said maximum expenditure for any calendar year. It is further agreed that except in serious emergencies as determined by the Forest Supervisor we will not be required to furnish more than 4 men for fighting fires outside of the area above specified, and that any employees furnished will be relieved from fire fighting on such outside areas as soon as it is practicable for the Forest Supervisor to obtain other labor adequate for the protection of the National Forest. 12. All cupped trees will be raked in a workmanlike manner for the space of 24 feet around each tree during December of each year of the life of this agreement; and, if required by the Forest officer in charge, a fire line not less than 3 feet wide in the narrowest place shall be hoed or plowed around the area covered by this agreement in such a manner as to completely isolate it from adjoining lands. Natural firebreaks such as creeks, swamps, roads, etc., may be utilized with the consent of the Forest officer in charge. These, fire lines must be made and receive the approval of the Forest officer in charge before any cups are placed the first year or new streaks made at the beginning of each subsequent year. 13. Cabins, shelter camps, telephone lines, and other improvements necessary in working the timber covered by this agreement will be constructed on National Forest land only under special-use permit. 14. If requested by the Forest Supervisor, we also agree to keep an accurate count and record of the number of barrels of gam and pounds of scrape obtained from the area covered by this agreement and to report the same upon request. 15. The United States reserves the right to sell or otherwise dispose of and remove or have removed all dead timber and uncupped living timber from the area covered by, and during the life of, this agreement: Provided, That the removai of such material will not, in the judgment of the Forest officer, interfere with the operations of the purchaser. ; 16. If during the life of this agreement cups are raised, the nails which had supported them and the gutters shall be removed within thirty days after the raising of the cups. 17. If during the life of this agreement cups and tins are placed on trees at any point other than at the base where they are first placed, a two-piece saw-tooth apron shall be used. In placing these aprons a straight edged driving blade shall be used and an incision made on each side of the face, which incision shall not exceed one-quarter (4) of an inch in depth. If desirable in order to allow cups to fit better, narrow chips, not more than 4 inch thick may be removed from the ridge in the center of the faces. 18. Complaints by the purchaser, arising from any action taken by a Forest officer under the terms of this agreement, will not be considered unless made in writing to the Forest Supervisor haying jurisdiction, within thirty (30) days of the alleged unsatisfactory action. The decision of the Secretary of Agriculture will be final in the interpretation of the regulations and provisions governing the sale, cupping, and removal of the product covered by this agreement. 19. All operations on the area may be suspended by the Forest officer in charge if the conditions and requirements contained in this agreement are disregarded, and failure to comply with any one of said conditions and requirements, if persisted in, will be sufficient cause for the termination of this agreement and the cancellation of all permits for other uses of the National Forest incident thereto: Provided, That the Forester may, upon reconsideration of the conditions existing at the date of sale and in accordance with which the terms of this agreement were fixed, and with the consent of the purchaser, terminate this agreement, but in the event of such termination the purchaser shall be liable for any damages sustained by the United States arising from the purchaser's operations hereunder. 20. No Member of, or Delegate to Congress, or Resident Commissioner, after his election or appointment, and either before or after he has qualified, and during his continuance in office, will be admitted toany sliar or part of this contract or agreement, or to any benefit to arise thereupon. Nothing, however, hi contained will be construed to extend to any incorporated company, where such contract or age 32 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is made for the general benefit of such incorporation or company. (Section 3741, Revised Statutes, and sec- tions 114-116, act of March 4, 1909.) 21. The term “ officer in charge,”’ wherever used in this agreement, signifies the officer of the Forest Serv- ice who shall be designated by the proper Supervisor or by the District Forester to supervise the timber operations in this sale. 22. This agreement will not be assigned in whole or in part. 23. The conditions of the sale are completely set forth in this agreement, and none of its terms can be varied or modified except in writing by the Forest officer approving the agreement or his successor or superior officer, and in accordance with the regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture. No other Forest officer has been or will be given authority for this purpose. 24. And as a further guarantee of a faithful performance of the conditions of this agreement, we deliver herewith a bond in the sum of $1,000, and do further agree that all moneys paid-under this agreement will, upon failure on our part to fulfill all and singular the conditions and requirements herein set forth, or made a part hereof, be retained by the United States to be applied as far as may be to the satisfaction of our obligations assumed hereunder. Signed in duplicate this first day of December, 1921. Witnesses: (Corporate seal, if corporation.) John Dorman. Elder and Johnson. Richard Rowley. By James F. Elder, A Member of Firm. Approved at Pensacola, Fla., under the above conditions, Decermber 8, 1921. W. F. Hillyer, Forest Supervisor. USEFUL EQUIVALENTS IN TURPENTINING. A few equivalents and values in turpentining operations may be useful. They should be regarded only as approximate because of the variable nature of practically every stage of the industry. Although some of the factors refer only to mature timber, others seem to be equally applicable to second-growth trees, and all pertain to the industry as it is being carried on commercially. 1. The yield per tree of crude gum for one season averages from about 8 to 12 pounds per working cup or face on old-growth trees of average size. Based upon the figures in a following paragraph (4), the average yield per cup for a season is from 1 pint to 1 quart of turpentine and from 4 to 5 pounds of rosin. 2. A crop of 10,000 cups under common practice will generally yield from 30 to 45 barrels of turpentine and from 92 to 130 barrels of rosin (500 pounds each), depending upon the favorableness of the season, the size and vigor of the trees, and the method of working. 3. A gallon of spirits of turpentine weighs about 74 pounds, and a barrel of turpentine contains about 50 gallons. 4. Crude gum or “ dip” may be assumed to contain, in round figures, an average by weight of 20 per cent of turpentine, 15 per cent of water and trash, and 65 per cent of rosin. One barrel of average crude turpentine will yield about 10 to 12 gallons of spirits of tur- pentine. One hundred pounds of clean gum will yield about 24 gallons of turpentine and 83 pounds of rosin. 5. The yield of both turpentine and rosin is notably increased by the use of the cup system as compared with the boxing method. The yield of turpentine for two similar crops under investigation for three years was 151 barrels by cupping, and by boxing 118 barrels Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Xl. Fic. 1.—On one square rod, located in a natural opening in virgin timber and indicated by the four white markers, were 84 longleaf seedlings, or at the rate of 13,440 per acre. When examined in the spring these 3-year-old seedlings were beginning to show new green foliage, following a fire about two months before. (Bogulusa, Washington Parish, La.) Fic. 2.—About 3,500 longleaf seedlings per acre, 24 years old, growing under blackjack oak. They came up in 4 one-year grass cover which has since been protected. (Urania, La Salle ~arish, La.) Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII. Fig. 1.—Plenty of seed trees were left—the trees left were considered as culls when lumbered (1902), but unfortunately no protection against annual fires and hogs has been afforded. The result, after 15 years, is the absence of-a young forest and the loss of considerable old timber by action of fire, insects, diseases,and wind. This condition apparently has misled many people to believe that longleafland would never come back to timber. Fic. 2.—Seed trees and protection on longleaf cut-over lands near-by that shown in Figure 1. The young forest of mixed longleaf and shirtleaf pines is growing well and producing from 1 to 2 cords yearly of wood suitable for pulpwood or 300 to 500 board feet of saw timber. The seed trees have been making profitable growth as shown on page 11. More trees were left than neces- sary for seed, but all were considered culls when logged. SEED TREES AND PROTECTION—THE ESSENTIALS FOR KEEP=- ING THE FOREST PRODUCTIVE. LONGLEAF PINE. 33 of spirits of turpentine. (Pl. X.) Both shallow and light chipping. as practiced on the Florida National Forest, are effective in increas- ing the yield cf gum. 6. If the yield for the first year is assumed to be 100 per cent, the yields for the following years in per cents for a number of crops were — for turpentine 91.6, 70.6, and 62.2, and for rosin 93.8, 74.4, and 69.7, respectively. 7. If the total yield from three years’ operation is assumed to be 100 per cent, turpentine operators count on obtaining about 45 per cent the first year, 35 per cent the second, and 20 per cent the third year. A publication of the Department of Agriculture entitled “ Turpen- tine, its sources, properties, uses, transportation, and marketing, with recommended specifications” (Agriculture Bulletin 898, 1920), may be obtained upon application to the Superintendent of Documents. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Price, 15 cents. EFFECT OF TURPENTINING TIMBER. It is generally recognized that turpentining longleaf as commonly practiced renders the tree very liable to subsequent attack and in- jury by insects and various fungi, to being felled by wind (Pl. X), and particularly to severe injury by fires. However, if turpentin- ing operations have been carefully conducted by limiting the number of faces per tree and the depth of chipping, and if adequate protec- tion has been given, the amount of timber in any way injuriously affected has been shown to be very small; in one large operation in central Alabama it was only about 1 per cent of the total stand. On the Florida National Forest a study was made, at the close of the third year of working, of several sections of longleaf pine located on private lands and adjoining portions of the National Forest. There had been a severe drought during the working season imme- diately preceding, and the casual observation of a marked difference in losses of timber suggested the study. On the timber that had been worked under Government regulations the losses were found to be about 10 per cent of the total volume of timber, whereas on the pri- vately operated timber losses were found ranging from 25 to 60 per cent. Natural causes, such as insects, diseases, winds, and lightning, were found to have produced about 4 per cent of the losses. Thus the result of turpentining was, roundly, a loss of 6 per cent on Goy- ernment-operated timber and from 20 to 55 per cent on private workings. The mechanical properties of the wood are not affected by turpen- tining operations. It may be of interest to know that as far back as 1895 this subject was studied and it was reported that tests and 34 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. examinations permit of the announcement without reserve that the timber of longleaf pine is in no way affected by the tapping for turpentine. It is further pointed out that in this statement the chemical as well as the mechanical properties are considered, and thus all doubt as to the comparative durability of timber from bled and unbled trees is eliminated. Preliminary studies of the effect of turpentining upon second- growth longleaf pine indicate, as a result, some check in the rate of growth for an indefinite period of perhaps two to four years fol- lowing operations, depending on the severity of the bleeding of the tree. Locally near the face, growth takes place rapidly on account of an apparent effort of the tree to heel the wound, making very favorable conditions of the wood for later working. Additional in- formation on this particular phase of growth is much needed. CUTTING. Thrifty, well-stocked stands of longleaf soon become overcrowded, and a great competition arises among the trees, the foliage seeking for light and the roots for soil moisture. This should be closely looked after by the owner. Longleaf does not readily thin itself by the natural dying-out process, but many of the smaller trees may live years in a practically dormant condition. The stronger trees gradually crowd and kill the weaker individuals. If such timber is left unthinned, big losses may be expected in the potential timber- producing power of the stand. 4 With some kinds of trees and forests it is more profitable if the largest trees are cut and the smaller ones are allowed to grow and take the places of those that have been cut. This system, however, is not generally to be recommended for longleaf pine. The method of cutting believed to be most applicable to longleaf consists in thin- ning from the bottom upward, that is, in removing first the less thrifty, overtopped, diseased, and unpromising trees. In crowded groups, good-sized trees should sometimes be removed. The cooler part of the year affords the only reason that is safe against danger- ous insect menace following cutting operations. (See under “ Insects, Disease, and Wind.”) Such thinnings should be made as needed, usually at intervals of 5 to 10 years, each helping in the development of the final stand. The purpose of thinning is very much the same as that of the farmer in chopping his cotton or corn, namely, to give the remaining plants proper growing space and to secure the largest amount of the desired product. Trees growing wide apart in understocked stands may not need more than one thinning or they may not need any. If young longleaf stands contain unde- sirable kinds of trees, such as slow-growing, wide-spreading gums LONGLEAF PINE. 35 or oaks, which shade out a lot of pines and promise less valuable tim- ber, these should be cut out much as weeds are eradicated from fields. This process, known as “cleaning,” may not be necessary more than once. The last thinning is followed, at a suitable age and develop- ment of the trees, by a clean cutting of the stand. The clean-cutting method is recommended for longleaf, because this species grows naturally, and probably best, in pure stands or mixed with small amounts of other pines. Longleaf, apparently, grows fastest into timber when it comes up uniformly over the land and is kept at uni- form heights, for it is a species that needs an abundance of light, and hence must not be shaded by taller trees. The desired number of trees per acre for a given stand is deter- mined largely by the quality of the locality or the favorableness of the situation, and by the size and age of the trees. It is, after all, more a matter of judgment and experience than of rule. (See Table 1.) In the earlier thinnings, when the stand is about 20 years old, sometimes as many as one-fifth to one-third of the trees should be removed. These usually represent, however, less than one-fifth of the total timber volume of the stand. The final clean cutting of the stand should include provisions for early restocking of the land before oaks and other inferior growth ° get a footing. A good way to do this is to leave seed trees. These should be the vigorous, full topped, or limby trees, of less value for lumber. In practically all stands they may be found growing alone in openings, and hence are well rooted and wind firm against the storms that may follow the cutting. It is well to spot the trees with white paint before cutting operations are begun, as is being done in some operations in the South. Certain State laws require this, as pointed out under “A seed-tree law.” It is sometimes good practice to cut to a diameter limit, as, for example, down to 12 inches. In this way trees below good merchantable size will be left on the ground to aid in reseeding the land and to provide good material for cutting 5 to 10 years later. In logging timber, often no profit but a positive loss is incurred by trying to handle trees too small in size. Good forestry in lumbering operations calls for preserving the young and thrifty trees. The amount of material secured from the several thinnings re- quired in well-stocked stands up to an age of 50 to 70 years might easily be equivalent to one-third of the total amount yielded at the final cutting of the stand. The value of the timber, of course, would depend upon its location with reference to transportation facilities and upon the competition from outside markets. Wherever possible the trees to be removed in thinnings should first be worked for tu pentine, because at times the gum brings more than would be realized 35 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from the later sale of the timber. The progress of good roads is rapid, and it requires only a relatively short sight to anticipate the day when one’s young pine will come into its own and have a very real value on the stump. With the higher prices that are being paid for all forest products, including lumber, crossties, poles, piling, fuel wood, paper pulpwood, and turpentine rights, the proper disposal of young timber is well worth looking after and should offer more than pay for the cutting. REFORESTATION. One often hears it said that the land will never come back to pine. To a great degree this statement has been justified, and it will be true so long as the prevailing practice continues and the prevailing sentiment maintains that the woods “ just will burn and must burn.” Getting young longleaf started, however, is not a serious problem. The bulk of the cut-over land has some seed-bearing trees; through- out much of the South there is probably a sufficient number of seed ‘trees. Contrary to the general belief, cut-over longleaf lands have at rather frequent intervals become well stocked with seedling stands, each in turn of relatively short duration, because of agencies mostly of man’s making and mostly under his control. Fire and native hogs have been the undoing of young longleaf pine. Re- forestation thus becomes largely a matter of educating people as to the destructive nature of fire and hogs and as to methods of pro- viding the necessary protection. The reforestation of lands from which all longleaf trees capable of bearing seed’ have been removed involves the necessity of starting young growth by artificially sowing seed or by planting small seedlings. Both the natural and artificial methods will be briefly considered. SEED PRODUCTION AND GERMINATION. Longleaf trees bear seeds at intervals of two to four years. In stands some seed is borne almost every year. Apparently about every seven years heavy crops of seed are produced generally over the long- leaf belt. Such heavy seed years occurred in 1913 and 1920, and a fair crop was borne in 1916. Incidentally, the production of a heavy crop of seed is accompanied by a shrinkage in the flow of gum in turpentine operations. An experienced operator, in charge of one of the largest and most up-to-date turpentine plants in the South, estimated that the shrinkage of crude turpentine production in 1920, coincident with the maturing of the heavy seed crop, amounted to 10 to 15 per cent of the normal production. The seeds are relatively large, averaging about 7,500 to the pound, and rich in food materials. The seeds are provided with wings which LONGLEAF PINE. 87 usually carry them away from the tree for distances up to once or twice its height, and in strong winds as far as several hundred yards. Compared with the seed of most of the yellow pines, that of the longleaf is heavy and not widely dispersed. A reliable observation was reported in the fall of 1920 of an abundant seeding taking place on the leeward side of old timber at a disfance of about one-quarter ‘mile from the margin. Like all pines longleaf requires two growing seasons to mature its seed. The seed ripens in September and soon falls from the cones. The normal time for germination is probably from two to five weeks after the seed falls, or during October and November. The seed pos- sesses quick germinative energy and has been known to sprout in damp weather while it is in the partially closed cones on cut trees, and frequently while it is in cones lying on the ground. Seed col- lected in Florida in the fall of 1920 gave a germinative test of 5 per cent in 5 days, 32 per cent in 7 days, 71 per cent in 2 weeks, and 73 per cent in 17 days. Probably about 70 per cent of the seed good or viable is representative for the better grades, and about 50 per cent is the usual average. No other species of pine, so far as known, shows quicker activity in seed germination and the establishment of the seedlings (fig. 4). SEED-TREE METHOD—NATURE’S WAY. If proper methods are followed at the time of cutting, and if a few good seed trees are left per acre, not a dollar need be spent for seed to start young longleaf. In order that the seedling may get a good start, it is necessary for the seed to come in contact with or close to mineral soil. In low ground, where the soil cover is very heavy (“rough”) and contains more than a year’s growth, this is not apt to happen. The necessity then arises of preparing the ground to receive the seed. Observations show that even in deep grass a few seeds fall in openings and germinate successfully. In some cases it may be found advisable, during the winter or early spring before a good seed crop is anticipated, to burn over lands which it is desired to reforest. This will afford a light grass cover which is probably more favorable to successful germination than entirely bare soil, such as the seed would fall upon directly after the burning. Where fires have been of yearly occurrence and in regions of thin grass or other sparse soil cover, such measures wil] be unnecessary. The preparation of a good seed bed might be tried experimentally by turning in hogs early in the fall of a seed year, but excluding them in time to be sure of a sufficient supply of seed on the area. Natural stands up to 20,000 seedlings per acre in the spring after the heavy seed crop of 1920 were not uncom mon on the Florida National Forest. On adjacent lands not wider Government ownership and having fewer seed trees, the young forest 38 BULLETIN 1061,-U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fic. 4.—Harly development of longleaf pine. a. Seedling in October or November from 2 to 4 weeks after fall of seed. b. Appearance a few days later, when the empty seed coat has been shed. c. By January to March the true leaves (in sheaths with 1, 2, or 3 leaves) are ex- panding as shown. d. During the first season after germination the plant develops a very short stem, above the taproot, supporting clusters of long true leaves. The early seed leaves, or eotyledons, it will be noted, have been shed. e. A dense tuft of long, slender, drooping leaves, the whole gradually expanding and massed on a short, stout stem, gives longleaf pine its characteristic appearance during the first 3 to 5 years. It is this mass of green foliage and the so-called ‘‘ asbestos”’ bud that enables longleaf to persist thrcugh repeated fires. Below is developed the very heavy, long tap root and strong laterals, which in other pines usually accompany saplings 2 to 6 feet in height. (From Forest Service Bulletin 13.) LONGLEAF PINE. 39 was on the average only about one-fourth as dense. Stands of 4,000 to 13,000 seedlings per acre (Pl. XI) the second and third years after ‘seeding are are not uncommon. Although good seed years are generally followed by good stands of seedlings, it is not always so. Because of the palatability of the large kernels, great numbers of seeds are known to be destroyed by weevils, birds, mice, rats, squirrels, and razor-back hogs, and prob- HELP REFOREST THIS TIMBERLAND Longleaf pine bears seed in quantities only once in every 5 or 7 years. This is a mast year, and this fall and winter will produce the only seed in quantity that can be ex- pected before 1926 or 1927. On the seed fall of this season depends in large part the future supply of naval stores and saw tim- ber of this region. The young pine seedling is quickly and totally de- stroyed by fire during the first two years of its life. Nature will do its part by furnishing and sowing a bountiful supply of seed. Will you do your part in helping to prevent forest fires while the seedlings are being established? Join us in starting a new stand of timber. U. S. FOREST SERVICE. Be careful with fire in the woods. If you find a fire burning, put it out if you can; if you need aid, notify the nearest Forest Ranger. The Government on its National Forests in the South is reforesting its lands by the natural method of leaving seed trees and protecting the young growth trom fires, ably to some extent by cattle, where the seeds collect in wagon ruts and other depressions. It is believed that the practice of shooting hawks and owls has allowed the various rodent pests to multiply greatly. Favorable weather conditions during the first six months or so after the seed falls will greatly increase the number of tree that become established. The best trees for reseeding the cut-over lands are, all thin; considered, the younger, full-foliaged, vigorous-growing trees, f 40 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. These usually have been standing apart and are relatively very wind-firm; in favorable situations they will increase rapidly in size after the logging of the other trees.. A woodsman can readily come to recognize such trees, and they should be chosen and marked by paint or other means prior to logging. If all slash is cleared away from the trees, and proper protection from fire is provided, within periods of 5 to 15 years the seed trees should provide ample young growth and be of enough value to pay all costs and a fair rate of interest on the total investment. (Pl. XII.) The prob- able value of the young pine stand by the twentieth year should be sufficient to offset and justify the whole cost of producing the trees, including the holding of the land. In general, seed trees of — If cut-over lands have been properly logged, and if seed trees have been left in the operation and been given adequate fire protection, the lands will become reforested naturally and the planting of seed will not be necessary. There are many millions of acres of southern pine lands which have been cut so heavily or burned over so often and so completely that they can not become restocked naturally, and will therefore lie idle unless they are artificially reforested by the sowing of seed or the planting of seedlings. If these lands were restored to timber production and were given adequate fire protection they would produce yearly from 100 to 400 board feet per acre of longleaf pine. the right kind should cause no loss but rather prove to be a good investment. A seed-tree law.—As a step in the development of sound forest principles, the State of Louisiana in 1920 enacted a seed-tree law. It is required that at least one seed tree per acre be left on lands cut by any individual or company, unless such land is agricultural in character and will be used for that purpose. A seed tree has since been defined as a “sound tree of well-developed crown and not less than 8 inches in diameter at 2 feet above the ground.” The law covers just about the minimum requirement in this respect. It is better if at least three to five such trees per acre are left. The purpose of the law is to prevent complete denudation of forest land and yet work no hardship upon the owners. Some chance, at least, Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI!I. Fic. 1.—The simple manner of sowing longleaf pine broadcast as conducted in the fall of 1920 by tt large holders of cut-over lands in Louisiana. The seed carried in sacks and sown at the rate of it 2 to 4 pounds per acre. The cost was $1.40 for the seed (3 pounds) and 15 cents for the sowing, if or a total of $1.65 per acre. The grass has been previously burned off. Experiments, however, i have not yet progressed to a point which warrant definite recommendations regarding the best ii conditions of grass cover and methods of starting young longleaf forests. | fic. 2,—A part of the 4,000 pounds of longleaf pine seed collected from the heavy seed crop of 1920 by a large sawmill company in southeastern Louisiana.. The seeds were shaken from con (“burrs”), that had opened on the ground in clear, dry weather, into pans, and brought 1 ' and sold by the collectors at 50 cents a pound. ‘The large membranous wings are ca ly remove from the seed by a rubbing or beating process. PLATE XIV. Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (-xeg, ‘Aqunog UrpreH) *4S010J yeoZuo] Sunod Burst -w101d oy} pues s80y pus 9[}) eo SIY 10; osuvI ON ATYSTY SonTea JOUMO OL, +19] 199 9} IBS SpUeys ‘9919 Pods BSB poJ0w OOUIS SVT YOM “olojoq siveA CT ynoqe SUIss0] UT 4JoT ‘001 ,,J[ND,, W “WOTJO0J01d Jo sivoA +] YnoGe 10}J@ WMOYS 018 UIJIM OSUBI PU 4SOIOJ oY} JO UOTJIPUOD oY, “SUIZeIs pue Jequin sutonpoid pur] oy} 403 0} IOWMO oY} Jo UR{d oJTUYEp *& Jo q[NSol oY} SI SVX, U1oSvotJNOs UI PUL] JOAO-jNd Jo 4081} STE LT—'S “DIL (eT ‘ysed pieseinveg) ‘sATonpoid ATeDuUeUy Woy) SUD[eM pu YOM 0} SPURT J9A0-9Nd OPT oy} BUTyINd JOJ Teo pfMom yuoWTZUES oqnd ueyM OUT} OY MBSOIOJ SSoPqnop oym ‘yueid [[TULMes Iq & Jo peoy oy} Aq epeur sem sutured sty “ose sivoA g SMOI UT NO 4os pue SpooM oy} ut dn 8np 010M pjo sivod F 10 ¢ SB8UT[P9eS ][VUIS “pO SIVOA FT qnoqe ‘eURISInoT UsojJsSoMYyNOs Ul UOT}eJULTA OUId jJeo[suO,T YW—T “DI LONGLEAF PINE. 41 will be afforded of cut-over lands being reforested naturally instead of remaining idle unless they are restocked by artificial seeding or planting (PI. IT). Example of leaving seed trees—On its own initiative a large lum- ber company in southeastern Louisiana is going further than re- quired by law, and is leaving and protecting practically all small trees. The skidding crews are required to save as many small trees as they can and to throw all slash from the bases of these trees. A considerable space around the trees is raked and the wounds are painted over. In addition to relying on these groups of the smaller trees, single trees of moderate size and heavy tops which stand isolated are being left for seed, wherever needed. These are selected - and ringed with paint in advance of cutting or turpentining. Tt is believed that these measures will prove sound from a busi- ness standpoint. The plan does not put much value at risk, and the total cost, including the stumpage, is probably 15 to 20 cents per acre. In themselves the seed trees are likely to prove a good investment, on account of their accelerated growth, and in addition there is the enhanced value of the land that contains a good young forest stand. The leaving of very old longleaf trees for seed production has re- sulted in some losses, because the trees have either died standing cr been blown down. Of those that died, some were killed by lightning and some by certain insects? which do extensive injury over much of the South. SOWING AND PLANTING. Available information may indicate the best lines to follow in making denuded lands produce an income. Apparently the best time for artificial seed sowing is soon after the seed matures—during October or early November. If sown much later, it probably re- mains dormant until the coming of warm weather. Meanwhile, the menace is great from the numerous enemies. Hence, if not sown by November, the seed should be put in storage in a cool place until about the time vegetation starts in the spring. The seed is rich in food elements and apparently deteriorates more rapidly than that of some other species of pine. The best method of storing pine seed is to place it in sealed containers after it is thoroughly air dried. Cold storage below freezing has also given fair results. If the seed is to be kept longer than a few months, one of these methods is recom- mended. As to the preparation of the soil, plowing and harrowing have given the best results; but this method is obviously impracticable, because of the high cost. The results have generally varied with the degree of preparation of the soil. * Belonging to the genus Ips, Studies have been made by the Bureau of Wntomology, U, 8. Department of Agriculture, to whom inquiries should be addressed, 42 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The simplest method of sowing is to broadcast the seed over the natural grass land. From 2 to 4 pounds of seed per acre is believed to be about the right amount. After the sowing, if the land is clear enough to permit it, a spike-tooth or spring-tooth harrow should be run over it for the purpose of working the seed down to the soil. In this grass the seed will generally settle in the openings sufficiently to come close to mineral soil, and be afforded partial shade and pro- tection against extremes of heat and moisture. A light ground cover, such as one season’s growth of grass, is generally favorable to the establishment of the seedlings. A heavy covering of grass, fine leaves (“straw”), or oak litter, which might not keep the seed from germinating, would, however, prevent many of the seedlings from becoming established. Another method of sowing that has .— given fair results in loose, “black jack” soil, consists of drilling in the seed with an ordinary corn planter or seed drill. The drill should be low-built and strong, and preferably of the type that passes every seed in plain view of the operator. A bull-tongue or a scraper may be used, depending upon the character of the soil. A quiet, steady animal, needless to say, is desirable, on account of roots and other obstructions. The seed should be barely covered, not in excess of one-quarter of an inch. A modified and usually more expensive method wiuld be to drop and cover about 10 to 15 seed in a prepared “hill” or seed spot, using a hoe or a mattock much as in planting a garden. Several furrows may be run, and the seed may be sown broadcast over the area and brushed or harrowed in. The aim should be to get trees growing at regular intervals of about 8 to 10 feet, or from 680 to 430 trees per acre. Because of the inevitable loss of some seed and seedlings from various causes, there will be a better chance of a good stand at, say, 10 years of age if more than 680 trees are started. Until further knowledge is available re- garding methods of starting young longleaf stands, it will be desir- able to make small-scale test sowings under different methods, with such variation as may seem advisable to suit local conditions, in order to determine which is most suitable for more extensive operations. During the fall of 1920, a large sawmill concern in Louisiana collected about 4,000 pounds of seed of longleaf pine and also some seed of other species. It was obtained in part from dried cones (“burrs”) picked from trees felled in logging, but mostly by the cheaper and more satisfactory method of gathering up cones that had opened on the ground after falling, and shaking the seeds out into a pan or tub. Incidentally it may be mentioned that the price paid to the collectors was 50 cents per pound. The seed was sown broadcast, part on plowed strips spaced 8 feet apart, each made up of several furrows and afterwards harrowed to work the seed in, and LONGLEAF PINE. 43 part on natural and recently burned-over grass land (Pl. XIII). An average of 2 pounds of seed per acre was used for sowing the furrow strips and 2 to 3 for broadcasting on the grass land. The cost for broadcast sowing was 15 cents per pound and for drilling or harrowing 32 cents an acre. The plowing was done in the late fall by farmers hired after work became slack on the farm. The areas seeded were previously fenced against cattle and hogs, and plans were immediately made to keep fires out thereafter by means of fire lines and other protective measures. The planting of longleaf seedlings, because of the very large taproot, is likely to be more restricted than that of most other species of pine. The possibilities in this line have not yet been fully tested. Successful experiments were conducted on a limited scale in eastern North Carolina by the Forestry Division of the North Carolina Geo- logicai Survey. These consisted in planting (or “ transplanting”) in the spring 5-month-old seedlings obtained from freshly gathered seed sown in a garden bed the previous October. ‘The soil was shal- low, with a firm subsoil, and this produced a taproot not more than 8 inches in length. At the same time, a limited number of 2-year- old seedlings were also planted with very good results. Among the residents of Southern Pines and Pinehurst, in the “sand-hill” region of North Carolina, it has been common practice to dig up volunteer longleaf seedlings from 1 to 4 years old and plant them about town in the winter season, and generally there has been little loss. One such plantation in Louisiana, about 14 years old, is shown in Plate XIV. After the first year or two, it is certain that the degree of care necessary for successfully planting young longleaf seedlings increases greatly, apparently to such a degree as to make operations on 2 commercial scale impracticable. Up to the present time the evidence points to good success from the spring planting of seed- lings 4 to 5 months old, either when grown in prepared soil in gar- den beds or when dug up in the woods or old fields. In general, reforestation by the method of planting seedlings should be attempted only in unfavorable situations where such cheaper methods as direct seed sowing have proven unsuccessful. Planting has the advantage of starting the trees in the locations de- sired, and thus, if successful, of securing an even stand at the outset. Soil preparation may always be expected to result in better growth, at least for a number of years. The degree and kind of soil prepa- ration that can be given will vary widely with conditions. In fairly loose soil, shallow holes dug with a mattock or hoe should be suffi cient. Undoubtedly a better method, which should prove practicable in light sandy soils, would be to prepare strips by plowing two or three furrows together, spacing them at desired intervals of say 44 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 10 feet, and planting the seedlings at about the same distance apart. Soil preparation, although helpful at the start, is usually not neces- sary for the growth of seedlings. Blackjack oak lands.—TYhe presence of much scrub or blackjack oak on cut-over lands is generally considered to be a great interfer- ence with the securing of a good natural reproduction of pine. Much of the oak did not “come in” after logging but was already present as stunted shrubs hardly noticeable at the time of logging. Undoubt- edly the oak hinders reproduction by forming a thick layer of leaves which prevents many seeds from reaching the soil. The absence of young-growth pine, however, is often directly traceable to the ab- sence of sufficient seed trees and to repeated fires. This type of oak occurs most commonly on dry ridges where fires are frequent and unusually severe. Young pine which gets a start, therefore, stands small chance of living against such odds, while the oaks sprout and seem to become more dense as a result of the action of the fire. If sufficient seed trees were left in logging, and young growth got started, it is likely that the hot fires would weaken or kill many of | the seedlings in the first few years. A good growth of longleaf seedlings and saplings has repeatedly been observed among oak thickets (Pl. XI) in various parts of the South. It may be found advisable to cut out some of the oak and make openings for the pine to get a start, as has been done by at least one lumber company in Louisiana. Various preparations, or “ herbi- cides”, are on the market for use in killing trees, and the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., upon request furnishes informa- tion regarding their preparation and use. In oak thickets where seed trees are present in sufficient numbers, and where no fires have oc- curred in several years, in order to secure pine reproduction, many people believe that it may be advisable to burn over the land in the winter preceding the fall in which a good seed crop is anticipated. This will allow the seed to reach the soil. Protection against fire should thereafter be afforded. In the absence of good seed trees, at least an average of one to each acre, artificial methods of seed-sow- ing or the planting of seedlings must, obviously, be employed. PROTECTION. PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE. Every informed and right-thinking person knows that the stop- ping of forest fires is the first step in the reproduction of forests. Fires in the woods have lost to the South a rich heritage amounting to many hundreds of millions of dollars. If the lumbermen had already cut every stick of the original-growth pine, but, if from the start, fires had been kept down, the South undoubtedly would today Bul. 1051, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV. Fig. 1.—After being protected for a period of 5 years, this longleaf pine was defoliated by fire (in February, 1917) up to a height of about 10 feet. The photograph was taken in the following April, when the new leaves were beginning to show. Fic. 2.—The same stand as above, pyciserap bee at the close of the second season of growth (January, 1919). The tree growth was notably checked during the first year (see p. 12), because of the extra drain in completely renewing the foliage. Only the small stunted “runts,” result- ing from a former period of annual burning, were killed by the fire. Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVI. Fic. 2. Figs. 1 AND 2.—Views taken on opposite sides of a road in Jasper County, S. C. One side is burned over nearly every year, while the other is protected by a near-by farmstead and two roadways; the contrast in development and growth is probably representative for the whole longleaf pine belt. A count in the burned stand revealed the fact that the last fire had killed just one-third of the total number of trees, as shown by the white tags. EVERY FIRE TAKES ITS TOLL. Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVII. Fic. 1.—A splendid start for a profitable piece of longleaf pine timber. Fic. 2.—Under fire PROCES DOL, young longleaf pine grows rapidly and in a comparatively short time reaches suitable sizes for turpentining, crossties, or pulpwood, and later for sawing into boards or other small dimensions. This stand is from 12 to 15 years old. Many young stands are, however, worked much too young. RESULTS OF PROTECTION. Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVIII. Fic. 1.—A small farmer in east Texas ran a hog-proof fence around a piece of some 20 acres of cut-over land near his buildings. He excluded hogs for 6 years and most of the fires for 12 years. The result, in part, is shown in the above view; a full stand of longleaf pines 25 to 35 feet high and 3 to 6 inches in diameter at breastheight. The owner regards the whole thing with much satis- faction, for he has a rich pasture for cattle and hogs and a valuable stand of pine about reaching the size of thinning by turpentining. Fic. 2.—Part of the same cut-over tract shown above, looking in the opposite direction from the same spot; unprotected from hogs and subject to frequent fires. LONGLEAF PINE. A5 be far richer in timber than it is. At best, few fires would probably have occurred, and some probably always will occur. Public senti- ment in the South will some day reach the point where fires, so far as humanly possible, will be eleminated; those which do start will be attacked and brought under control, and the great area of natural forest land will be brought into productiveness. A yast amount of longleaf pine is killed or seriously injured by fire every year. The first-year seedling is very susceptible to fire. The growing sapling is always set back or stunted when robbed of its tuft of foliage, and, as the result of repeated attacks, it weakens and dies. The few saplings that succeed in the struggle and reach pole size are usually worked early for turpentine, and within a period of 5 years thereafter most of them become a complete loss as a result of burning and the subsequent attacks of insects and diseases or of windfall. The power of longleaf pine to withstand the effect of fire is remarkable. It is very likely that this exceptional adaptation has given the species the popular reputation of being completely immune from fire, and even of “thriving on fires” (Pl. XV). The fact that many longleaf saplings survive an ordinary burning fire is no ade- quate reason for implying that longleaf is immune and suffers no injury from fire. Every fire, with probably few exceptions, takes its toll in the death of a greater or less number of trees, and in addi- tion causes much injury to practically all the others (Pl. XVI). The degree of injury varies widely with the size of the tree, the amount and dryness of the inflammable material, and velocity of the wind. In this manner promising young stands have been repeatedly wiped out from the same tract of cut-over land. A few stragglers can usually be found, giving a clue to the successive young stands that at various times have provided the land with the making of a forest. If fire burns underneath 1 or 2 year old seedlings, they are usually killed. A quick grass fire under a stiff breeze, however, passes so rapidly that many 1-year-old seedlings may survive. If fires burn in summer or fall during dry weather, longleaf seedlings up to 8 years old are very apt to be completely wiped out. From about the second year up to the fifth year, or at heights up to about 1 foot, longleaf seedlings appear to be relatively very restant to the effects of fire. For longleaf pine the zone of greatest injury from fire is apparently from 1 to 5 feet above the ground, where the heat blanket is most intense. This corresponds to the ages of approximately 5 to 8 or sometimes 10 years. The familar sight of stunted saplings standing alone or in smal! groups, huddled for protection on an upturned “ clay root,” or along 46 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the edge of a swamp on cold, wet ground, or in very dry places where scarcely anything else can grow, gives evidence of the ceaseless pursuit of fires. The effect of protection upon the rate of growth, discussed under “ Growth Under Fire Protection” (Pl, XVII), is very marked in contrast with the slow growth and accompanying stunted development more commonly seen. The fire problem is great, but undoubtedly is can be solved by the organized cooperation of the private owner, the State, and the Fed- eral Government, acting jointly in placing the responsibility and sharing the cost (fig. 5). The settling of the lands and the develop- ment of higher types of community organization will exert a helpful FIVE YEARS OF FORES: FIRES MORE THAN % OF THE STATES 20 AEC ACRES OF FOREST LANDS oF ALL CLASSES WERE BURNED OVER, WIT:-H A LOSS OF OVER 4% MILLION DOLLARS. THE STATE DID NOTHING TO PREVENT THIS LOSS. $16,000 Loss LESS THAN 1% OF THE 7% MILLION ACRES OF FOREST LAND ae ALL CLASSES WERE BURNED OVER. THE STATE INVESTED 2 MILLION DOLLARS IN FOREST FIRE PROTECTION. FOREST FIRE PROTECTION “PAs Fig. 5.—Forest fire losses in Georgia and in New York. economic influence, while the increasing scarcity of old growth and the advancing prices of lumber and turpentine will tend to interest owners to bring their cut-over lands into productiveness. Small owners are already in a position to afford a good measure of pro- tection to the old fields, which constitute the source of their local supplies of timber, and to the cut-over lands, which afford grazing and help in keeping live stock over the winter. RAZORBACK HOGS. The native, or “razorback,” hog is one of the greatest enemies of young longleaf pine. As an agent of destruction he probably holds next place to that of fire. In localities near settlements, where fires are infrequent, the hog easily becomes the chief factor in preventing the reforestation of longleaf. (Pl. XVIII.) LONGLEAF PINE. A” The piney-woods hog consumes large amounts of the seed, or mast; but probably his chief offense springs from his fondness for the thick, succulent bark on the taproot and lateral roots of young longleaf pines. In southeastern Texas the writer counted as many as fifty- two 2-year-old seedlings killed by hogs in 1 square rod, or at the rate of 8,320 per acre. It is likely that in the course of one day a hog often destroys as many as 200 to 400 young pines. Those from 2 to 5 years old probably suffer most, but not uncommonly saplings up to 10 years of age are killed. The spring season is the favored time for attack when the swamps are overflowed and food must be sought on the drier lands. In stripping the bark from the roots, sometimes the tops are left intact or are bitten off at the surface of the ground, and at other times the plants are pulled out of the The question of future longleaf pine forests turns largely on controlling fires and “razorbacks.” Mil- lions of acres of young growth have been and are being destroyed by these agencies. Is the native hog worth while? Two experimental tracts at Urania, La., after five years of protection against hogs, contained an aver- age of 6,440 longleaf saplings per acre, as compared with an average of 8 per acre on two similar unpro- tected tracts. ground. (Fig.6and Pl. XIX.) With the drying and hardening of the soil, or the exhaustion of the supply of trees, operations cease for the season. Asa rule,a good stand of young longleaf will disappear completely in two to four seasons. Although the “razorback” is widely and generally distributed, especially where stock laws are not enforced, the number of hogs present and the amount of damage accomplished appear to be varia- ble, and in spite of the hog considerable young longleaf seems to get through the hog-danger period, only to go down in the losing battle with fires. No damage, so far as known, has been reported from blooded hogs, and with the passage of State-wide stock laws and the bringing of large tracts of land under farm management, the nec sity for finding means for preventing damage from native hog: lessening. In getting young longleaf stands started a good deg of protection against this class of hogs, if they are present, | essential for at least the first five years, 48 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INSECTS, DISEASES, AND WIND. Various insects are known to attack longleaf pine. Damage by insects to fertile seeds, before being shed from the cone, has been reported. The southern pine beetle is well known because of the out- breaks that have occurred and in which large areas of pine timber have been killed. It seems that the remedy for preventing such losses in small operations consists chiefly in not cutting timber in the hot season; or, if some must be cut, in removing it without delay and either piling the brush and burning it in an opening or scattering it to dry out as quickly as possible. The trees infested with the beetle should be utilized at once. For information on this subject a copy of Farmers’ Bulletin 1188, The Southern Pine Beetle, should be re- quested from the Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Acri- culture; or a letter may be addressed to the Bureau of Entomology regarding this or other insect problems. Fie. pte taproots stripped from 6 to 10 inches; B, top frequently broken off; C, seed- lings pulled up with taproots usually 8 to 15 inches long, all roots stripped. A cone-rust disease is known to be the cause of much injury in parts of Florida and some distance northward. It attacks the first- year cones and kills them after causing them to grow to an abnor- mal size. In parts of the palmetto region it is probable that this disease largely accounts for the scarcity of reproduction. A leaf blight is not infrequently seen defoliating small groups of seedlings before they get above the tall grass. The growth is checked but not otherwise affected. : Wind damage to longleaf pine is heavy, chiefly on turpentined timber (Pl. X); and occasionally tropical hurricanes make almost clean sweeps of timber. One of the largest sawmills in the South operated for about a year (1915-16) on such wind-thrown timber. The usual loss of old-growth timber from insects and wind is in- dicated by the results of the measurement of three “ forties” in 1917 and of their remeasurement in 1920.1° The timber consisted of about 30 trees per acre, averaging 560 board feet each, or 16,780 feet per 10 The timber was located in the north-central part of Louisiana, and the measurements were made by members of the Yale Forest School. Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIX. Fic. 1—The native piney woods hog is one of the worst enemies of longleaf pine. These 2-year-old seedlings were dug out of the ground. In the spring, when the ground is soft and available food searce, hogs eat the thick, spongy, succulent bark around the taproot and larger laterals, thereby killing millions of seedlings annually. The saplings, about 2! years old, during the ccurse of the meal were pulled completely cut of the ground and left in their present condition. Others had lost their tops and on some the roots were skinned and girdled without much damage to the tops. fia. 2.—On 1 square rod in eastern Texas, selected at random, there were found 38 longleaf seed- lings recently killed by hogs, and 5 living. his is a slaughter of 6,080 per acre. The tract In east Texas was cut for logs in 1896 (20 years prior) and again cut for piling 10 years later, bul hardly a young tree has escaped the hogs and fires DESTRUCTION BY NATIVE RAZORBACK HOGS. PLATE XX. Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fic. 1—Cattle grazing on a farm in lower South Carolina, established on flat, cut-over longleaf “crawfish” lands. The growing of longleaf pine is to be favored, because it usually grows open enough so as not to interfere with success in livestock. The plowed furrows mark the margin of a strip that is burned yearly as a fire guard to protect young longleaf stands. (Berkeley County, S.C.) Fic. 2.—Longleaf pine stands about 40 years of age on an old field in northeastern Flovida. There are about 90 trees per acre, of which about 50 are cupped for the virgin crop. The dominant trees are mostly 60 to 70 feet in height and 10 to 15 inches in diameter and would saw out about 6,000 board feet, or about one-half the yield of a well-stocked stand at this age. The land, however, has furnished continuous grazing, timber from time to time, and now about 60 cups per acre. It is being carefully worked so as not to injure the trees. (Baker County, Fla.) Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXII. aes ee Fic. 1.—Because of fires, only a very small percentage of the young trees ever reach beyond the small sapling stage. The location shown is in Louisiana, enly 5 miles from a large paper-pulp mill which uses over 50) cords of wood daily, and will greatly need supplies of pulpwood within a few years. Fig. 2.—Such timber as this, requiring from 100 to 150 years, if produced in the future will be mostly grown under State or National control rather than in private ownership. The State and Federal Governments, cooperating with the private owner, have a large and important place in any program of reforestation. Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXII. SECOND-GROWTH LONGLEAF PINE, ABOUT 40 YEARS OLD, GROWING IN A WELL-STOCKED STAND. The trees are tall and the volume of timber per acre is large. This stand might profitably be thinned by turpentining and then cutting the trees to be removed. If no waste is permitted, such stands yield large money returns. LONGLEAF PINE. 49 acre. During the 3-year period, the loss was 41 trees, mostly from 24 to 30 inches in diameter, scaling an average of 654 feet each, or an average loss of 222 board feet per acre. Most of the trees were killed by insects or blown down. Fires, which had run every year, caused the death of about 4 trees of smaller sizes. No evidence appeared of unusual wind or insect damage having been wrought. TIMBER AND LIVE STOCK. A large lumber company, operating exclusively in southern Missis- sippi and eastern Louisiana, after a general survey has estimated that about one-quarter of its cut-over lands lying mostly on the On the poorer lands no other crop promises to pay so well as timber growing. The chief sources of future economic production on the vast area of cut-over lands of the South will unquestionably be agriculture, grazing, and timber srowing. The advantages for investments in the growing of pine timber in the southern region are: (1) An abundance of land of relatively low value in excess of all that can possibly be used during the next few decades for all other purposes; (2) a very long growing season, resulting in rapid timber pro- duction; (3) easy logging and shipping conditions; and (4) relative proximity to the large northern and eastern markets. upper coastal plain soils is adapted to farming, and that the bulk of the land is better suited to other uses. The great flatwoods sec- tion, which was originally forested, chiefly with longleaf pine, offers little promise of being wanted extensively for cultivated crops. Only 10 to 15 per cent of this natural soil division and of the near-by lands is now in farms. The utilization in the near future of these nonproductive lands for timber growing and for grazing purposes is unquestionably the only logical solution of the problem (Pl. XX)" The cut-over lands of the South that are practically idle because they contain little or no forest reproduction or young growth are estimated at not less than 30,000,000 acres. Of this amount by far the greater portion consists of longleaf pine lands, an area equiva- " Agriculture Bulletin 827, ‘The Cut-over Pine Lands of the South for Beef Cattle Production.” 50 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lent to more than all the forest lands of France. The amount of permanent “ forest soil” in the South, or land which will eventually be found to be better adapted to forest purposes than to any other use, 1s not known, but the area is extensive. Plate XXI shows the kind of timber which, if it is grown at all in the future, will probably be produced under some form of public land control or ownership. Either acting alone or in cooperation with the Federal Government, the State after acquiring tracts of the poorer classes —of southern pine cut-over lands, would doubtless be in the best position to begin building up forests for a sustained yield of tur- pentine and hmber. Such action, if taken, would probably be more as an example to show how the thing may be done. It is believed that at the present rate of development private enterprise in the South will soon take a serious interest in managing forests of long- leaf and slash pines for continuous production (Pl. XXII). Grad- There are millions of acres of lands in the South- ern States which will become valuable to the owner and the State only by the growing of pine timber. The protection and reforestation of these lands mean permanent industries, permanent homes, good roads, and good schools. ually the small owner will adopt the system, making such changes as May seem desirable to meet the conditions of private ownership. While it is growing a crop of longleaf or of slash pine for tur- pentine and timber, much of the land at the same time can be grazed without detriment to the growth of the timber. This means of securing a double source of income is open alike to the small farmer and to the large land company. If the farmer’s principal business happens to be the growing of crops, cattle and trees make a good combination for additional profit. The best utilization of southern cut-over pine lands and the method of bringing it about constitute a problem affecting the interests of owners of farms, large landholders, the State, and the Nation. The present state of waste and idleness of these lands places a financial burden upon the owners, and, through the decrease in taxable values, upon the State and Nation. It appears practically certain that, however large the demand may be for farming and grazing lands, vast areas of the poorer classes of land will remain idle during the next half century or more unless they are devoted to timber growing. ADDITIONAL COPIES _ OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM | THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS f GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE - : a _- WASHINGTON, D. C. ; AT ee 25 CENTS PER COPY Vv > ve a ae oN ror UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry eee A. TAYLOR, Chief, in cooperation with Purdue Univer- sity Agricultural Experiment Station. Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 22, 1922 RELATION OF THE CHARACTER OF THE ENDO- SPERM TO THE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DENT CORN TO ROOT ROTTING. By JoHn F. TROST, Besietant Pathologist, Office of Cereal Investigations, Bu- reau of Plant Industry, and the Departinent of Botany, Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station, CONTENTS. Page. Page. Ear classification based on starchi- Relation of kernel starchiness to PECTS os oe ES a ae tc i pathological performance_______ 4. Relation of endosperm character and Susceptibility of disease-free seed PEINTECC LIONS ne P) (SEIS ree ape a Pha ee eee 5 SS UO 0 yes = ea ane thee seg eee q EAR CLASSIFICATION BASED ON STARCHINESS. Early in the course of investigations of the root, stalk, and ear rots of corn, differences were observed in the amount of starch in the various ears from which kernels were being germinated to determine the extent and character of seed-ear infections. These differences were noticeable not only among different varieties, but often equally so among the individual strains within a single variety. It seemed important to determine what physical characters of the ear or kernel, if any, might be used in recognizing and eliminat- ing infected seed ears. Obviously, such a procedure would be val- uable in reducing the necessity for a detailed germination test of each ear. The ears were classified on the basis of the endosperm. The starchy endosperm appears opaque when the kernel is held up to the light, but the portion containing horny endosperm is more or less translucent. Six degrees or types of starchiness were recognized and 86451—22 2 BULLETIN 1062, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, designated as types A to F, inclusive (Pl. 1). Where the starch zones of the crowns and tips of the kernel were completely united and the kernel was entirely opaque to transmitted light, it was designated as type A, or starchy. Kernels of which three-fourths of the en- dosperm was starchy were designated as type B. Kernels in which ~ half of the endosperm was starchy were classed as type C, and those in which about one-fourth of the endosperm was starchy represent type D. Kernels showing only a narrow band of starch at the crown were designated as horny, or type E, and a few strains in which prac- tically all of the endosperm was horny were designated as very horny, or type F. These types are shown in Plate I. With this classification it was easy to separate the character of starchiness from that of indentation, with which it has been too fre- quently confused. Starchiness is characteristic of chaffy, immature ears, but is not necessarily associated with normally matured ears of rough indentation. Ear types commonly encountered are illus- trated in Plate II. Most of the ears studied fell within the range of types C, D, and E. Some strains averaged “C” in composition, and some northern In- diana strains of Ninety-Day corn averaged “ F ” in composition, or very horny. The larger, later maturing strains grown in the south- ern part of the State seemed to show some tendency te be more starchy than those grown in the northern part. RELATION OF ENDOSPERM CHARACTER AND EAR INFECTION. The results of a study of the relation of ear composition to ear infection are shown in Table 1. This study was made upon repre- sentative ears supplied to this office for germination and field experi- ments during 1918 and 1919 by a number of the more prominent seed-corn growers of Indiana. On the basis of character of endo- sperm, the ears in each sample were separated into the two classes, starchy and horny, the dividing line being placed arbitrarily between types D and E. In studying the germination record of these ears, ~ all ears were considered infected the kernels of which were charac- terized by growths of Fusarium spp., Diplodia zeae, or Penicillium spp. when accompanied by disorganized tissue surrounding the scu- tellum in each of duplicate germination tests made upon the lime- stone-base table germinator, as described by Hoffer and Holbert.t 1 Hoffer, George N., and Holbert, J. R. Selection of disease-free seed corn. Ind. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 224, 16 p., 20 fig., 1918. SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DENT CORN TO ROOT ROTTING. 3 TABLE 1.—IJnfection by rot-producing organisms in starchy and in horny ears of several varieties of dent corn obtained from different parts of Indiana during 1918 and 1919. Number of ears studied. Redon Source of sample Variet Average . i (Indiana). vs character. = Total. | Starchy. | Horny.) Starchy. | Horny. Woedburns =. 22s. =2- Champion=--5-<552-5e5 ce F 100 42 58 6.17 4.45 Walnpararsoe: 222. 2.3: Ninety-Day..........--- F 100 24 . 76 58. 33 48, 24 Fort Wayne....-.-.-- Early Yellow Dent..-..--. D 100 40}- 60 57. 89 17. 59 Rensselaer..........-- Silvermine.-_...-.5.---- E 100 44 56 50. 00 33. 33 La Fontaine.........- Reid Yellow Dent......-. E 150 42 108 50. 00 28. 57 Wobltesvillers - 2f25 2.22 2: d E 100 22 78 20. 00 16. 50 IHORCS ER Pe ak Bane E 100 15 85 42. 86 35. 00 Battle Ground. E 100 24 76 50. 00 23. 08 ullivan... E 100 37 63 43.75 37. 04 Pennville De 100 59 41 46. 20 38. 90 Delphisc 5... < D 100 34 66 76. 92 41. 67 Fort Branch......... D 150 52 98 68. 40 47. 20 New Richmond......]..-.- do C 200 168 32 70. 33 35. 29 Shelbyville........... Johnson County White. - E 100 53 47 66. 67 58. 33 PO re aoe e|s-5 22 Onsen es oneeoee D 400 304 96 55. 27 41.67 12 ae ed Een ONS ie cata. D 100 54 46 51. 56 34. 78 Rea seers San E Pen eee Seg. hie rete le st tsceeen 2,100 MOUSE esl O86) Wei555= eis |ecwisaca= FAMERS O Gee ets |e jaca ct oa gue osicasaenaac| sus culemene| sete cee 63 68 50. 90 33. 54 In every case the ears of the starchy class were characterized by a larger percentage of infections. This was especially noticeable in those strains which averaged a half (C) or a quarter (D) starchy. A very horny sample from Woodburn, Ind., carried a very low amount of ear infection. In this sample the differences between the horny and starchy groups were practically negligible. The most ex- treme difference occurred in a lot of starchy ears of Reid Yellow Dent from New Richmond, Ind. In this lot 70.383 per cent of the starchy ears were infected, compared with only 35.04 per cent of the horny ears. In general, such extreme variations have not been en- countered. When all the samples subjected to this germination test, totaling 2,100 ears, are considered together, practically equal num- bers of horny and of starchy ears are represented. The average proportion of infection in the horny group was 33.5 per cent and that, in the starchy group 50.9 per cent, representing 17.4 per cent fewer infected ears in the horny group. These data indicate that progress may be made in securing better seed ears by selecting those ears within the strain which have the more horny composition. Though these data concerning ear infections of different varieties are meager, it is evident from the variations encountered among the nine separate strains of Reid Yellow Dent under comparison that as great variations in the character of the endosperm may occur among strains as among distinct varieties. The field performance of these strains indicates further that just as large variations in starchiness may occur among strains within a variety which require the same length of growing season. 4 BULLETIN 1062, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. With increased starchiness a number of factors operate toward increasing the number of ear infections. Immature seed ears are characterized by starchiness. Some of the starchy ears may come from the normally late-maturing strains, in which case the ear is exposed to weather conditions more favorable for infection by the root-rotting organisms during the period of ripening. Because of their high moisture content, such immature ears afford a good me- dium, even after harvest, for the development of these organisms when introduced from external sources. It has already been ob- - served, however, that larger percentages of ear infection occur in the starchy groups of seed ears from strains with practically the same length of growing season. Field observations indicate that such seed ears are obtained from stalks suffering from an unbal- anced food supply. Perhaps the main contributing factor is a root- rotted condition of the parent stalk itself. These factors merely furnish additional argument in favor of the practice of selecting seed ears from the stalk in the field. RELATION OF KERNEL STARCHINESS TO PATHOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE. As starchy seed ears are more frequently infected with root-rot organisms than the more horny ears, it has seemed important to de- termine the relation of kernel starchiness to pathological perform- ance in the field. Decreased stands and yields follow the planting of kernels from infected seed ears, as has been determined by the writer and by Duddleson and Hoffer? (unpublished data) and pre- viously reported in the course of these investigations by Hoffer and Holbert.® Because of the larger proportion of infections in the starchy seed ears, the planting of seed from these two groups without regard to the germination records would be expected to show superior yields from the more horny seed. In the study of the field effects of ear infection during the seasons of 1918, 1919, and 1920, approximately equal numbers of infected and of disease-free ears from the horny and the starchy groups were used in ear-to-row experiments. All rows were 75 hills in length. Only ears giving 100 per cent germina- tion in the laboratory were used for seed. The data from these plats have been summarized in Table 2 on the basis of starchiness of kernels. In this table the field perform- ance of the horny groups of ears in each experiment has been taken as 100 per cent. The figures represent the percentage of decrease incurred through the use of the starchy seed ears. In all but one 2 Duddleson, B. H., and Hoffer, G. N. The improved rag-doll germinator for the elimination of diseased seed corn. (Manuscript.) 3 Op cit. ar = Bul. 1062, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE lI. KERNEL TYPES OF CORN SHOWING GRADATIONS OF STARCHINESS. A, Starchy; G, three-fourths starchy; C, half starchy; D, one-fourth starchy; 2, horny; I’, very horny type. Bul. 1062, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. COMMON TYPES OF SEED EARS OF REID YELLOW DENT CORN, ILLUSTRATING THE RELATION OF INDENTATION AND STARCHINESS. A, Normally matured, smoothly indented, horny ear; B, normally matured, roughly indented, horny ear; C, chaffy, immature, roughly indented, extremely starchy ear. SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DENT CORN TO ROOT ROTTING. 5 experiment, that at Woodburn, Ind., the horny ears produced the higher initial stand in the field. This difference in stand was main- tained throughout the growing season, as shown by the figures for initial stand compared with those for final stand, taken just pre- vious to harvesting. This inferiority in stand was reflected in the decreased yield of the starchy group. Results due to differences in ‘stand were eliminated by correcting the yields of both groups to per- fect stand for each experiment. In this manner the actual superior- ity of the horny seed ears becomes apparent. Thus, while the aver- age difference in final stand in the 11 experiments was 2.78 per cent less for the starchy ears, this was accompanied by an average reduc- tion in actual yield of 5.57 per cent. Upon correcting both groups to perfect stand, the average decrease in yield incurred through the use of starchy seed ears amounted to 4.2 per cent. "TABLE 2.—Actual and corrected yields from starchy and from horny ears of dent corn in ear-to-row tests in Indiana in 1918, 1919, and 1920. Number of ears used in Decrease resulting from the use of each plat. starchy seed (per cent). Location of plat (Indiana). Stand. Yield. Total. | Starchy.| Horny. Gorrected Initial. Final. | Actual. | to perfect stand. OOEE NV MIIG = oot oo hic os s2 cesses oe 45 19 26 4.12 4, 26 6. 51 Dalit ACS aoe 48 20 28 () 3. 04 1. 26 4, 44 MAMISEAINO: 42. och sess dsenesss 46 11 35 4. 30 5. 48 8. 21 4, 83 DPI Ba ee 50 11 39 (1) 1. 47 - 93 . 89 Ceri a 44 26 18 () .78 7. 24 6. 96 LUGS es 50 17 33 (1) A708! 9, 21 3.57 RIDES PANICN oe eS on eco ce cs 37 21 16 9. 86 6. 21 8. 38 4.69 New Richmond 80 62 18 (1) . 54 6. 40 6. 21 Shelbyville. 45 35 10 4. 64 5. 05 6. 50 4.05 Cannelton. . 20 5 115) J! 1.60 1.34 2. 39 1. 88 COTO ATLS Uh ge Se ee 49 21 27 (1) 712 4, 20 3.47 Average decrease from the use of starchy ears. ...........|........-- 2.78 fy, BY/ 4. 20 1 [nitial stand records were not made in these experiments. SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DISEASE-FREE SEED EARS. To determine the relative susceptibility to root rotting of the horny and starchy groups of seed, a field experiment was outlined in 1920 in which alternate rows were planted with kernels from selected horny and starchy disease-free ears of a single strain of Reid Yellow Dent. In the horny group most of the ears were classi- fied as type I*. In the starchy group no ears less than half starchy (type C) were employed. This experiment was conducted at Bed- ford, Ind., and was duplicated in a fertilizer plat at Linden, Ind. The plats were each 1 acre in size. Owing to evident errors intro duced by marked soil inequalities, the taking of notes was dis- 6 BULLETIN 1062, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. continued on the Linden plat after recording the initial stand. The data at Bedford were taken throughout the growing season and in- clude the harvest results. A complete analysis of the field results obtained in this experi- ment is given in Table 3. At Bedford the average reduction in initial stand due to planting starchy ears was 4.26 per cent. The reduction at Linden amounted to 10.21 per cent. The weather con- ditions following the planting of this plat were very unfavorable for germination. Thus, it appears that starchy ears are especially unsatisfactory for seed in districts where weather conditions are likely to make it difficult to secure a good stand. As in the earlier experiments, the difference in stand was maintained throughout the growing season. As the difference between the initial and the final stands is made up of losses sustained through blighting, and prin- cipally through seedling blight, the results indicate that the suscepti- bility of the two groups to such blighting is equal. TABLE 3.—Yields from starchy and from horny disease-free seed of a strain of Reid Yellow Dent corn, planted in alternate rows at Bedford, Ind., in 1920. Agronomic data (per'cent). Yield per of : acre 2 Stand. Plant vigor. Stalk condition. ee of | (bushels). 3 5 Group. K : ; s 2 ed rc) 8 2 . cs) iS 5 z ° . n > ZB | 4 Bee a | ep el |g #| des ge 1) 1 Ls} 5) g) eee | es |e | ee | oe eee PA pela vec ivey Lease) | sive es eZ oy ee SS Onn ya eee eee 19 | 86.9 | 83.7 | 61.8 17.9] 3.7 7.2 | 44.5 1.7 | 46.7 | 29.5 |38. 43 ‘40.7 Slarchiypee ee ee eee 17 | 83.2 | 79.6 | 51.6 20.1) 7.3 } 11.4 | 45.9 2.6 | 41.0 | 27.4 |32.09 | 35.0 Difference: INCTUA Re heehee ee Gv 4.1 | 10.2 |— 2.2) 3.6 4.2 1.4 9 5.7 |—2.1 | 6.34 5.7 In favor of horny CALS Heese scel siete 2 4.26 | 4.84 | 16.5 |—12.6) 97.3 | 58.3 | 3.14 | 53.0 | 12.2 |—7.2 |16.41 14.0 Records were taken on the relative vigor of early growth 40 days after the date of planting. At this time the plants averaged 24 inches in height. They were classified arbitrarily as vigorous, semi- vigorous, or weak, and records for the entire plat were taken on the same day by one person, thus insuring the maintenance of the same. standard of classification. Rows from the horny seed contained larger numbers of strong plants and markedly smaller numbers of weak plants than those from starchy ears. These results are in agree- ment with the studies reported by Hughes,* in which he found that horny kernels gave a more rapid early growth than starchy ones. His data covered a period of only 20 days, however, at the end of which Hughes, H. D. The germination test of seed corn. Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 135, pp. 305-379, 22 fig.. 1913. SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DENT CORN TO ROOT ROTTING. 7 time the seedlings from the starchy kernels had practically caught up with the others. His opinion that the advantage ordinarily obtained by rapid early growth is not retained throughout the season is not borne out by these Indiana experiments. In the Bedford experiment the advantage of stronger early growth is reflected at harvest time in the higher proportion of good ears and the lower percentage of barren stalks. Leaning and down stalks have been considered valuable external indications of a root-rotted condition. Just prior to harvesting, a heavy windstorm lodged about 50 per cent of the stalks. Counts of the leaning and down stalks made immediately following the storm showed stalks from the horny group to be slightly more storm resistant. The rows from horny seed ears also were superior in yield to those from the starchy ones. After making corrections to eliminate errors introduced by differences in stand, the starchy ears still produced 14 per cent less corn than the horny ears. These data furnish direct evidence of the correlation of resistance to root rots in corn plants of dent varieties with a horny character of endosperm and of the sus- ceptibility of those with a starchy endosperm. SUMMARY. Ears of seed corn of dent varieties characterized by starchiness of endosperm have been found to be infected with root-rot organisms more frequently than seed ears characterized by horny endosperm in the same seed lots. Starchy ears of corn of dent varieties produce larger numbers of weaker growing plants, more susceptible to root rots in the field, than do ears more horny in composition. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv ane is Selgpedioet Na ea ob tia Ge + Susie tre aration ie Be abenine eRe Henge, okt AES, paptianehog a Lareke9 ddaview Beti nae. Ht a an), Ao fina soc Ae fs Be, add 10 bits oi ‘Poteidtewio ae ea " ye i Oe oni baniats- $e; eaecineeees: Frrobtidgh ptt HOES paltvern brn; al ointt Jerre ss tstoulids 2 eS kos oie ie ake tee Bel Hiete 2D. hee i ” nas desea we qorter Pe RE Hokos to aiialy ago a) eles 1919 ead EEO abate qlee | -f Tah ene woloiiny Jit sab Ty ea: eo Aenhne wird vA to, one FON IIA. fi fait ers ih bere 305 4: c Bin ee f Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D.C. May 29, 1922 SWEET-POTATO STORAGE STUDIES.’ By H. C. THompson, formerly Horticulturist, and JAMES H. Brarrin, Horticul- turist, Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. : Page. Importance of the sweet-potato Comparison of the keeping qualities PRR Wawa rer peees ely cise t 1 of various varieties of sweet pota- Preliminary studies_______________ 2 HG OSS ys Sst Salsas He gO Ll ae 10 Objects of the experiments________ 3 | Comparison of the keeping qualities Methods of procedure___._________ 3 of sweet potatoes when stored at Comparison of the keeping qualities different temperatures __________ 12 of sweet potatoes under careful Ikeeping qualities of sweet potatoes and under commercial handling __ 5 stored in bins and in crates_____ 13 Comparison of house storage and Relation of the temperature in the bank storage of sweet potatoes__ 6 bins to the temperature of the Comparison of the keeping qualities SUPTOUNGINE Faire sees Wo Lele eee te 15 of injured and uninjured sweet Comparison of the keeping qualities CE [a ORS ESR RE ee 7 of four important commercial Comparison of the practices of sort- varieties of sweet potatoes stored ing and not sorting stored sweet under like conditions___________~_ ily poramoses sets) Fh) ee eS RPP SSSR ETIVEN Ts yet tee ee me eas re 18 IMPORTANCE OF THE SWEET-POTATO CROP. The sweet potato is second in importance of the vegetable crops, being exceeded in value only by the Irish potato. In 1920 approxi- mately 1,085,000 acres of Jand in the United States were devoted to the production of sweet potatoes. The estimated production was 112,368,000 bushels, with a farm value of $126,629,000. The greater portion of the crop is produced in a few of the Southern States, the important producing States being Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, Texas, South Carolina, and Louisiana. 1Puring the progress of this work assistance was rendered by H. M. Conolly, formerly assistant horticulturist; F. W. Miller, formerly horticulturist; and C. J. Hunn, assistant horticuiturist, Office of Horticultural and Vomological Investigations, $7029" —22-——-1 2 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PRELIMINARY STUDIES. In preparing for this investigational work on sweet-potato storage a study was made of the industry in the South. It was found that storage and marketing were by far the most serious problems con- fronting the grower at that time, but it was evident that little could be done on the marketing problem until the storage problem was solved. At the time these studies were made, careful estimates indi- cated that on the average the loss by decay was fully 30 per cent of the sweet potatoes stored in pits or banks, the common method of caring for the crop in the South, while in many cases the loss was complete. In addition to the loss due to storage rots, it was found that these potatoes were poor in quality when removed from the pits and decayed rapidly after they were placed on the market. From these preliminary studies it was evident that experimental work on sweet-potato storage was needed, especially in the South, where the bulk of the crop is grown, and that some method of stor- age was desirable which would give better results than the pit and bank methods. Various types of storage houses had been used in some of the sweet-potato growing sections, but at this time there were very few storage houses in the South, and practically none of these were in the sections of States producing large crops of sweet potatoes. Various commercial sweet-potato regions, including New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Illinois, lowa, and a few in the South, were visited, and studies were made of the types of storage houses and the materials and methods used in their construction, ventilation, heating, and management. The methods employed in harvesting and caring for the sweet-potato crop were also noted, and a study was made of the results obtained in the various types of houses under the different methods employed in handling the sweet-potato crop. From these observations it was thought that the first step should be to devise a type of house that would meet the needs of the South. The good features of all the storage houses that had been visited were combined and a plan was made by the senior writer in 1912. This plan, somewhat modified, was later published in Farmers’ Bulletins 548 and 970. Tn 1912 a few houses were built in Alabama and Mississippi, ac- cording to these plans, and observations were made on the keeping of sweet potatoes in them. This work was done during the first year in cooperation with the agricultural colleges in Alabama and Mis- sissippi, but after that active cooperation ceased. The work was con- tinued in these and other States by the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The houses built in 1912 were so successful that they served as demon- SWEET-POTATO STORAGE STUDIES. 3 strations and object lessons, with the result that thousands of similar houses are now in use. OBJECTS OF THE EXPERIMENTS. Many problems arose relative to the management of storage houses built according to the plans as originally made and as modified from time to time. It became apparent. that more information was needed on the problems involved. These were— (1) The factors which hasten the decay of sweet potatoes in storage. (2) The best methods of peouce | the losses due to decay and to excessive shrinkage. (3) The effects on shrinkage and decay of different methods of handling sweet potatoes. (4) A comparison of varieties of sweet potatoes with reference to loss in storage from shrinkage and decay. (5) The effects on the keeping quality of sweet potatoes of temperature and humidity in the storage house. METHODS OF PROCEDURE. Experimental work on sweet-potato storage was begun in 1912 and has been continued every year since. During the first four years all the experiments were conducted in houses owned and controlled by farmers or commercial firms, and the management was not en- tirely under the control of the investigators. During the five years 1916-17 to 1920-21, inclusive, the work was carried on in a storage house erected for this purpose on the Arlington Experimental Farm at Rosslyn, Va. This house has been under the complete control of the investigators. In all of the experiments it was the aim of the investigators to have all the conditions identical, with the exception of the particular one being studied. Where the conditions were not alike the results are not considered in this bulletin. In all the experiments conducted in storage houses the sweet potatoes were subjected to a curing process for a period of two or three weeks, the length of time depending upon the weather and the condition of the potatoes. The curing consists of reducing the moisture content of the potatoes by means of artificial heat with thorough ventilation. The temperature during the curing period was usually maintained between 80° and 90° F. by means of heating apparatus until the potatoes were cured, as evidenced by the “ feel” when handled or by the appearance of sprouts. When the potatoes were cured the temperature was gradually lowered to the desired point. The average temperature maintained in the different rooms in the experimental house is shown in figure 1. Ventilation was provided by means of openings in the floor and through the ceiling and roof, as illustrated in figure 2, and by means 4. BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of doors and windows. During the curing period all ventilators were kept open. During the day the windows and doors also re- mained wholly or partially open unless the weather was cold or the atmosphere was very moist. By means of heat and ventilation, moisture was prevented from depositing on the interior of the stor- 1916 -1917 7 Eno oF ENO OF =) pis EC RINSE FERIOS! PERIODS OF SEVEN DAYS EACH STORING PERIOD Poot | NESE ER COLE EL WEEESEGSEESSEESEREED cL loRSe= ne ios EI 1918-1919 CeStSPRnEET HOBEBETEE CPN SE EREEEE LT HEE EEE 1919-1920 ea AVN AEE SREP T YT PEPE LE ELL EEE LT bebe —50-55 ROOM —— 55-60 ROOM moon 60- 65° ROOM Fig. 1.—Diagrams showing the average temperature in the storage house at the Arling- ton Experimental Farm, Va. age house. During rainy or cold weather the doors and windows of the house were kept closed. Temperature and moisture variations. in the experimental storage house were recorded by means of thermographs and hygrothermo- graphs. These instruments were standardized by comparison be- SWEET-POTATO STORAGE STUDIES. 5 fore beginning work each year and checked at occasional intervals while in use; they were all of the 7-day type, and the record sheets were changed each Monday, thus giving a continuous record for each storage season. The selection and the grading of the potatoes for each test were done by the investigators or by careful men under their direction. Shrinkage and decay were determined by weight. The percentages of shrinkage as recorded in the tables are progressive; that is, the record of loss at any period shows the total loss from harvest until that time. oo gS A (“10x 10 Fioor Ventuarors[] ‘4 f-4 2x12 rt $--fCENLING VeNTILATORS/—_____»}_ 4 STOVE O Fic. 2.— Plan of the experimental storage house at the Arlington Experimental Farm, Va. COMPARISON OF THE KEEPING QUALITIES OF SWEET POTATOES UNDER CAREFUL AND UNDER COMMERCIAL HANDLING. To determine the effects of methods of handling on the keeping qualities of sweet potatoes, five tests were made to compare careful handling in the field and in the storage house with ordinary com- mercial handling. These tests were all made in good houses in the South. The “careful handling” was done by men engaged in the experimental work, and all the conditions except the one under in- vestigation were kept the same. Table 1 gives the results of the five tests in the four years 1912-13 to 1915-16, inclusive. Attention is called to the fact that both crate storage and bin storage were used in the tests. Under careful handling the minimum shrinkage was 5 per cent and the maximum 9.39, the average being 7.52 per cent. The minimum shrinkage under commercial handling was 7.40 per cent and the maximum 20.40, with an average of 10 per cent. The average amount of decay was 0.45 per cent under careful handling and 3 per cent under commercial handling. 6 BULLETIN 1063, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 1.—Comparison. of the keeping quality of sweet potatoes under careful and under commercial handling. [Shrinkage and decay averages for two varieties in five ie eae tests in Southern States during four seasons. Careful handling. Commercial handling. - Test . P : % Lae Be | Si aa | Bivinke fives iad Corea cere ques: 1 Bhoraee . ue to 3 ue to | recep- harvest} stor: age. decay harvest | stor. age. decay. anion time. | age. time. age. Pounds.) Days. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Pounds.) Days. | Per cent.) Per cent. Nancy Hall....... 1] 3,062} 161 5. 00 0.50] 3,062] 161 7. 40 1.00 | Bins. os IDO asenecaseod 2 120 125 9.10 - 93 120 125 11. 60 2.08 | Crates. Nancy Hall...-..- 3 45 125 9. 39 5. 56 45 125 20. 40 15. 56 Do. MOoleys. sess. 5508 4 42 131 8. 33 2. 00 42 131 10. 70 5. 00 Do. Nancy Hall.....-- 5} 9,510 114 8. 30 .41 | 110, 663 114 10. 10 3. 04 | Bins. Totalo sees s|es 22 TE) base osa6qao) b= -sse50- LIS OBIE ree c as| > esse cen |e ae eee PASV ETAL Crt sal aise ssetes cole 7. 52 ADS | Eero aes 10. 00 3. 00 COMPARISON OF HOUSE STORAGE AND BANK STORAGE OF SWEET POTATOES. To compare the keeping quality of sweet potatoes in storalge houses and in outdoor banks or pits, several experiments were conducted in the South during the three years 1913-14, 1914-15, and 1915-16. In each test the methods of handling and all conditions were the same, excepting the kind of storage used. The sweet potatoes were care- fully handled for both types of storage and the banks were very well made; in fact, the banks were much better than the average. Sweet potatoes are not stored in banks in the North and to only a small extent in the colder portions of the South. In regions where freezing occurs sweet potatoes stored outdoors in any kind of banks are in danger of chilling, even though protected from freezing. Table 2 gives the results of storing 10 lots of sweet potatoes in houses and in banks. Table 2 shows that the percentage of decay of sweet potatoes stored in houses ranged from 0.5 to 2 per cent. In banks the vari- ation was from 4 to 40 per cent. The average decay of all the tests was 1.2 per cent in houses and 14.33 per cent in banks. The length of time the comparable lots of sweet potatoes were in storage was not always the same, but where there was a difference the shorter period was for those in the banks. As already suggested, the potatoes stored in these particular banks kept in much better condition than in the usual banks. This was due to the careful handling of the potatoes and to the making of good banks. Many ordinary banks and pits of potatoes were examined during these studies. Generally the proportion of decay was between 25 and 50 per cent, and in some cases 100 per cent. SWEET-POTATO STORAGE STUDIES. 7 TABLE 2.—Felation of the place of storage to the keeping quality of sweet potatoes. [Percentage of loss due to decay in a storage house and in outdoor banks and pits.] In storage house. In banks or pits. Variet Test Year Weight : Weight y- No. - | Time ae ass Time & Loss in stor- ue to |in stor- due to age bee decay. | age. Harwest decay. Days. | Pounds. | Per cent.| Days. | Pounds. | Per cent. _ UT Se ee ee ee 1 | 1913-14 137 6, 000 0. 60 124 42, 000 10. GO LUPE 2 oN | a ee 2 | 1914-15 106 84, 000 60 106 > 17. 30 WManeyetallee eo se 3 | 1915-16 118 | 48, 000 1.50 102} 18,000 33. 30 iNenegeetalles 6.254) be 4 | 1915-16 103 , 000 2.00 103 | 30, 000 11. 60 Wiis Tipe) es eee 5 | 1915-16 115 | 372, 000 1. 50 108 12, 000 7.30 AS TTIE 77 Le | eae ee a 6 | 1915-16 110 | 168, 000 . 60 110 6, 6. 50 LACT? 2 UE ee a ee 7 | 1915-16 123 | 120, 000 50 120 1, 800 6. 40 Wired wanionies 2.025.222. l 8 | 1915-16 114 48, 000 1.00 114 60, 000 4.00 Wiawey Hall se-- 225. 3... 22-55. 9 | 1915-16 110 48, 000 1.75 110 18, 000 35. 00 1S | Ee ee LO pled (Sa sles. SRS S382 AS ose 110 12, 000 40. 00 LeU DS 2S Ae ee ee 984 O00 | sctariosatstiocsce 20453000 Ss sesee5 DAOYED Po ee eee Rees RoRee nee gS | eye a 1.20 Th GL ete ee 14, 33 It is impossible to control the temperature and moisture in banks, therefore in unfavorable seasons nearly all potatoes stored in them are lost by decay. This was the case in many sections of the South during the cold winter of 1917-18, when the banked potatoes froze. More labor is required to store potatoes in banks than in houses, as the pits must be made each year. It is not always possible to remove the potatoes from banks when wanted, because of unfavorable weather conditions, as it is not safe to open a bank of potatoes during cold or rainy weather. Potatoes which have been stored in banks are of low quality and decay rapidly, probably owing to lack of complete curing resulting in a watery potato. But even if potatoes stored in banks kept as well as those in storage houses, it would still be desirable to store in houses because of their greater convenience. COMPARISON OF THE KEEPING QUALITIES OF INJURED AND UNINJURED SWEET POTATOES. Some injury will result even with the most careful methods of harvesting and handling sweet potatoes. The plow or other harvest- ing implement cuts and bruises some of the potatoes. Some bruising is incidental to handling in the field and in storing. To determine the effects of cutting and bruising on shrinkage and decay in storage, potatoes injured at digging time were sorted and kept separate. For comparison, lots of uninjured potatoes of the same varieties were kept under like conditions. Three standard varieties were used in this experiment, which was conducted in the experimental storage house at the Arlington Experimental Farm. The results of this experiment are given in Table 3. 8 BULLETIN 1063, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 3.—Relation of cut or bruising injury to the keeping quality of sweet potatoes. j [Shrinkage and decay averages for three varieties kept at a temperature of 50° to 55° F., seasons of 1917-18 and 1918-19.] ink- Shrink t end of— 3 Average 3 ee ee Weight SE erat weight at/6°" at end of |Lossdueto decay, y harvest 18 storage 164 days. condition. time, |Curing,| 51 82 111 141 164 Emad * 119 days.| days. | days. | days.| days. | days. Pp : Per IEG Nd exar || Seve eta ie IR Ge Per Uninjured: Pounds. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | Pounds. | Pounds. | cent. Big-Stem Jersey- 142. 56 6.59 | 8.02] 9.42] 10.88 | 12.09] 13. 54 123. 25 1.81 1.2 Nancy Hall. .-.-. 140. 00 7.14} 8.46] 9.69 | 11.03 | 12.12) 13.10 121.56 . 84 - 60 Southern Queen.} 153. 09 7.83 | 9.12 | 10.49 | 12.00 | 13.21 | 14.69 130. 59 59 38 Totaley thse 439; OOM ess. cael Se eerie | a= Ce ae eee S| ee seco esos 375. 41 Ge 2a oeeetens PANVICT ASCs a cies | ern see 1a23 Bro |) 9588er dilsaol|) 12.498) T3583 eee. see |e ee eee 75 Injured, cut, and bruised: Big-Stem Jersey . 73.25 | 14.44 | 19.75 | 23.59 | 27.09 | 30.33 | 33. 83 48. 47 20.16 | 27.52 Nancy Hall. .... 46.06 | 18.52 | 21.51 | 23.88 | 26.19 | 27.99 | 29. 51 32. 47 4, 28 9. 29 Southern Queen. 71.97 | 12.55 | 14.67 | 16.54 | 18. 64 | 20.05 | 21.88 56. 53 1. 94 2. 69 Notaleeeyeea see OU 2Re esos ae elas | 2) Tea tea eins [ee aod rape |p 137. 47 Pads teiel bins a ee AVErages seen ea eae Sou 18.26) | 21 Ol e23 7 6925 91s P2853 eee | ee 13.79 1 Every potato in the damaged lots was either cut or bruised. Table 3 shows that for every period the shrinkage of the injured sweet potatoes was much greater than that of the uninjured ones. The exposure of the cut surfaces and the drying up of the decayed sweet potatoes caused:a higher shrinkage in the injured lots. At the end of the storage period the average shrinkage of the three varieties was 28.13 per cent for the injured and 13.83 per cent for the un- injured potatoes. The Big-Stem Jersey variety showed the highest percentage of shrinkage and also the largest proportion of decay in the injured lots. The Southern Queen had the smallest percent- age of shrinkage of the injured lots. The extent of decay was con- siderably greater in the injured than in the uninjured lots. The average loss for the three varieties was 0.75 per cent in the unin- jured lots and 13.79 per cent in the injured lots. The greatest loss was in the Big-Stem Jersey, being 27.52 per cent in the injured lot in comparison with 1.27 per cent for those not injured. The propor- tion of decay in the injured lot of the Southern Queen variety was very small, being only 2.69 per cent, or less than one-third as much as in the Nancy Hall and less than one-ninth as much as in the Big- Stem Jersey. It is a matter of common observation that the South- ern Queen will stand rough handling better than any of the other standard varieties. The cut surfaces of this variety heal rapidly under good storage conditions. It should not be inferred, however, that great care in handling it is not important, for under less favor- able conditions the loss might be much higher. The excessive shrink- age and the poor appearance of the injured potatoes reduce their market value materially and are of sufficient importance to justify SWEET-POTATO STORAGE STUDIES. 9 careful handling. The conditions under which this experiment was conducted were more favorable than would ordinarily exist in com- mercial practice. The loss due to decay was not as great as would usually occur. Under ordinary conditions the cut and bruised sweet potatoes should be disposed of at harvest time. COMPARISON OF THE PRACTICES OF SORTING AND NOT SORT- ING STORED SWEET POTATOES. It has been very generally believed that when sweet potatoes be- gin to decay in storage they should be sorted to pick out the diseased ones. Observations on this point indicated that this sorting was of doubtful value. Experiments were begun in 1912 and continued in each of four years to determine whether it is safe to pick out the diseased sweet potatoes. The sorting was carefully done, so as to avoid bruising as much as possible, about once a month during the storage period. In all, seven tests, including three varieties, were made. The aver- age storage period for all of these experiments covered 134 days. The results are given in Table 4. Tasre 4.—Relation of sorting to the keeping quality of sweet potatoes. {Shrinkage and decay averages for three varieties in seven storage-house tests in Southern States during ; four seasons. ] Sorted. Not sorted. | Variety. | Year. |Weight/Time| Weight Weight Time] Weight atthe | in |at end of|Shrink-|,)0°S,| at the| in lat end of) Shrink-|,U0Ss begin- | stor- | storage | age. |qoc,.| begin-| stor-| storage | age. Aes o ning. | age. | period. ‘AY-| ning. | age. | period. SCONE Per Per Per Per Lbs. |Days.| Lbs. cent. | cent. | Lbs. |Days.| Lbs. cent. | cent. BOMeye se... | 1912-13 300} 1 272. 4 9.2} 0.93 300 | 125] 272.79 9. 30 0. 74 Nancy Hall.-....| 1912-13 50} 182 39. 0 22.0} 6.00 50 | 182 40.00 | 20.00 4.00 Wemeye fe. ae | 1913-14 847 | 106 | 759.76 10.3 | 2.70 | 2,527 | 106 |2, 239.93 | 11.36 1. 20 DOs 4745's} c.- | 1913-14 42 131 36. 25 13.7} 5.00 42 131 38. 26 8. 90 2.00 Nancy Hall...... 1913-14 42 125 34. 57 17.7} 4.40 42 125 36. 67 12.70 dba fh Big-Stem Jersey... 1914-15 36 152 32. 00 11.1} 8.00 36 152 32,11 10. 80 2.00 Nancy Hall...... 1915-16 32 103 29. 06 DARN a ale ia, fe 29 103 26. 74 Ui S0 levee aie PN led il all 1 ae Loparoe |. meee nce Nip ig ean WeOBe, pu |e oe S.C. ees PP OTRO nines). bc saaahas cote PS As Oe eee 10582) \+y 2) 633) 54220 - BQ less. eeee 11. 24 1. 21 Except in one experiment with the Nancy Hall variety, the decay was greater in the sorted lots than in those not sorted. The average decay of the sorted lots was 2.63 per cent and of those unsorted 1.21 per cent. Under less careful handling there would probably have been more decay in both sorted and unsorted lots, but especially in the former. No definite explanation can be given for the larger percentage of decay in sweet potatoes that were sorted, but it is possible that slight bruising resulted from handling, and that the sorting increases the chance of spreading disease from decayed to 87029° —22——_2 10 BULLETIN 1063, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sound sweet potatoes. One decayed sweet potato left undisturbed might be in contact with several sound ones, all of which would eventually become diseased, but it would require considerable time for all of these to decay completely. When sorted, each of the pota- toes which had become infected with disease might be placed in con- tact with several uninfected ones, thereby spreading the disease to them. Since sorting increases disease injury and in addition requires considerable labor, it seems inadvisable to disturb sweet potatoes until they are to be placed on the market. Should decay appear to be serious, the potatoes should be sorted and, if the market is at all satisfactory, disposed of immediately. COMPARISON OF THE KEEPING QUALITIES OF VARIOUS VARIETIES OF SWEET POTATOES. Experiments were begun in 1916 to determine the shrinkage and decay in storage of the most important varieties of sweet potatoes grown in the United States. These experiments were conducted in the storage house at the Arlington Experimental Farm, Va. The sweet potatoes were placed in bushel crates in the field and hauled to the storage house. At the house they were cleaned by wiping each potato with a soft cloth. The potatoes were then placed in weighed crates, and a second weighing showed the quantity stored. Only one crate of a variety was used in these experiments, and with some varieties there was not always a full crate. During the curing period, which averaged 20 days, the temperature was maintained be- tween 80° and 95° F. After this it was gradually reduced and main- tained between 50° and 55° F. for the remainder of the storage period. The crates of potatoes were weighed once each week during the curing period and approximately once a month thereafter through the storage period. One year the weights were taken every day during the curing and once a week throughout the remainder of the storage period. As the differences from day to day during cur- ing and from week to week throughout the storage period were rather slight, the figures given are based on the weights at the end of curing and at monthly intervals thereafter. The results for the four years 1916-17 to 1919-20, inclusive, are given in Table 5. Table 5 shows that the average shrinkage during the curing period was 7.97 per cent. The lowest shrinkage was 6.07 per cent for the Big-Stem Jersey, and the highest 10.27 per cent for the Gold Skin. It is worth noting that these varieties belong in the same group. Excepting the Gold Skin, all the varieties in the Jersey group were low to medium in shrinkage during the curing period. Of the other important varieties, the shrinkage during the curing period was as SWEET-POTATO STORAGE STUDIES. 11 follows: Triumph, 6.75; Porto Rico, 7.10; Nancy Hall, 6.77; Southern Queen, 7.10; Pumpkin “ Yam,” 8.51; Dooley, 9.62; Red Jersey, 6.34; and Yellow Jersey, 7.11 per cent. Shrinkage continued throughout the storage period, but was great- est during the curing period, and the rate gradually decreased to the end of storage. The shrinkage due to loss of moisture during the curing period, which averaged 20 days, was nearly half the loss for the entire storage period of 160 days. The average loss in weight for all varieties for the entire storage period was 16.52 per cent, the lowest being 12.96 per cent for the Pierson and the highest 21.01 per cent for the Gold Skin variety. The heavy loss in the latter was caused largely by the drying of decayed potatoes. The sweet potatoes in this experiment were in storage for a longer period than is usual in commercial houses. In fact, the average storage period for sweet potatoes is probably not more than three months, since marketing usually begins soon aiter the potatoes are stored and continues until all are removed. Very few sweet potatoes remain in storage longer than four months, so that the 113-day period is more nearly comparable to commercial storage than 160 days. TasBLe 5.—Relation of variety to the keeping quality of sweet potatoes stored m crates. [Shrinkage and decay averages in storage-house tests during four seasons.] Shrinkage at end of— Average | Shrink- EI 3 Loss A no age ey WIA ha PP LUO ED) eta toes at | duting 113 1423 hay Alte r 160 curing, or 160 re 20 days. | 0 days. | 83 days.) days. | days. | days. | days. Pounds. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. White Sealy ! 36. 31 7.03 8.15 9. 67 10. 87 11. 98 TNL |e sc yee Belmont ve 34. 61 8.44 10. 57 12. 05 13. 41 15. 00 16. 44 1. 08 Georgia (old-time ‘(vam’’)... 36. 92 8. 80 10. 83 12. 62 14, 52 15. 58 17. 63 +32 Wdlow ’Yam”..../.22..52.. 45. 44 7.57 10. 50 12. 28 14,15 15. 74 16. 81 Atul Vineless Pumpkin ‘‘Yam’’?.| 45.95 7.05 9.10 10. 86 12. 58 14. 49 15.58 35 La Se ee 46. 91 7.08 8.37 9. 83 10. 98 12.13 IGN) | Bric es eae Yellow Strasburg....-....... 48. 00 7.06 9. 08 11. 06 12. 37 13. 42 14, 46 02 PRATT... 4 622.22. 43. 23 6.75 8, 28 9. 60 11. 38 12. 40 12. 98 25 a> Le eee ea ssa 45, 34 6. 31 11. 80 13. 98 16. OL 17.73 18. 64 2.45 Red Bermuda................ 50. 25 7.64 9.73 11. 36 12. 84 14. 31 15. 24 72 LV A a a re 49. 50 7.98 10. 38 12, 24 14, 08 15. 55 16. 89 2.18 MEMS rc Ds. oc oe naive = on Vase 40. 73 9. 43 LEZ 12. 74 14. 66 17. OL 17.75 -38 fy 7 014 Se ee ee or 44. 53 7.10 8, 87 11. 05 13. 09 14, 24 15. 29 13 o.oo Ee BIE eee 31.94 7.89 9. 46 10. 92 12.15 13. 65 15. 47 19 ORIN Seg Met = ah ain koe ee 40, 41 7.55 9.11 10. 34 11. 51 12, 69 13. 73 07 jE PS Ee 48. 34 7.34 9. 33 10. 98 12. 47 13. 90 14, 87 1.39 General Grant Vineless....... 46. 39 7.50 9. 59 11, 25 13, 00 14. 49 LO Adi et ve evaade Naticy Tall... 2+, ...0/2.2.'.2 45. 23 6.77 8.31 9. 73 11. 43 12. 53 LOROU | caret elccree A ae Gs ER ee 47. 03 7. 80 9, 44 10. 99 12, 59 13. 93 14. 88 40 Southern Queen.......-...... | 44.78 7.10 8. B4 10. 38 11. 89 13. 03 14. 09 02 Brea Yad. wenn nd 43.94 8. 51 11,17 13. 27 15. 59 17. 32 18. 57 2, 64 | 1): Si Se SS ESD BEE BT | 31.62 8.73 13. 35 15. 50 18. 37 19. 26 20). 46 1. 58 0). 28 33E sepa ace 41. 59 9. 62 12, 36 14.11 16. 49 18. 22 19. 86 34 PE OTOOY 6 Jaeec she sae ve ewes S| 41. 64 6.34 7.80 9. 46 11.45 12. 68 14.75 14 Big-Stem Jersey......-...... .| 47.97 6. 07 5. 06 10. 11 11. 90 13. 51 14, 43 3. 65 Yellow Jersey '............... 45. 15 | 7.11 | 8. 57 10.19 12, 03 13. 49 14, 88 1.37 OMA SS gcc 5 210i e ooo 44. 02 10,27 | 12.88 14. 99 17. 56 19.45 | 21.01 | 8, 66 Average for all varieties. 3. 27 7.97 | 10, 20 11.99 13, 82 15. 31 16. 52 1. 10 1 Average for only two years. 4 Average for only three years. 12 BULLETIN 1063, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The loss due to decay in this experiment was very small, the average being only 1.10 per cent for all varieties. Among the varities tested, those showing the greatest loss were the Gold Skin, 8.66; Big-Stem Jersey, 3.65; Pumpkin “Yam,” 2.64; Haiti, 2.45; and Red Brazil, 2.18 per cent. Of the 27 varieties in the ex- periment 4 showed no decay; 7 varieties had a loss between 0.02 and 0.25 per cent; 6 varieties between 0.25 and 0.50 per cent; 1 variety 0.72 per cent; 4 varieties between 1 and 2 per cent, and the others showed losses between 2.18 and 8.66 per cent. The conditions in the storage room were nearly ideal; therefore the loss due to decay was so slight that differences between varieties mean very little. Several varieties, chiefly those belonging to the Jersey group, namely, Red Jersey, Big-Stem Jersey, Yellow Jersey, and Gold Skin, though not showing excessive decay, had begun to deteriorate and from a commercial point of view should have been removed sooner. COMPARISON OF THE KEEPING QUALITIES OF SWEET POTATOES WHEN STORED AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES. To determine the effects of different temperatures on the keeping qualities of sweet potatoes, experiments were conducted during 1917-18 and 1918-19. Three standard varieties of sweet potatoes were stored in each of three different rooms, where after the cur- ing period it was the plan to maintain the temperature between 50° and 55° F., 55° and 60° F., and 60° and 65° F., respectively. Theaim during curing was to keep the temperature high enough to cure the potatoes properly, all three rooms being treated alike. After the curing period the temperature was gradually lowered in each room and an effort made to maintain it between the points mentioned. The average weekly temperature usually varied only a few degrees, as shown in figure 1. The shrinkage of sweet potatoes at the end of the curing period and at various intervals during storage and the percentage of loss due to decay are shown in Table 6. Table 6 shows that under all temperatures about half the shrink- age occurred during the curing period. After the curing period the shrinkage continues, but the rate is rather slow, averaging less than 14 per cent a month under the three sets of temperatures. Comparing the average percentage of shrinkage under the three different tem- peratures, it is seen that it is greater at the higher temperatures. The difference between the first two sets is especially noticeable, and is just as noticeable with the Big-Stem Jersey and Nancy Hall varieties in the third set. The Southern Queen showed less shrinkage at 60° to 65° F. than at any other temperature. The average total shrinkage of SWEET-POTATO STORAGE STUDIES. 13 the three varieties for the storage period of 164 days was 13.83 per cent when stored at 50° to 55° F., 15.27 per cent at 55° to 60° F., and 15.70 per cent at 60° to 65° F. These percentages are fairly low for such a long storage period, especially for storage in crates. At 111 days in this experiment, this period being comparable to the time sweet potatoes are ordinarily held in storage, the average percentage of shrinkage was 11.33 at 50° to 55° F., 12.47 at 55° to 60° F., and 13.22 at 60° to 65° F. TABLE 6.—Felation of temperature during storage ot the keeping quality of sweet potatoes. {Shrinkage and decay averages of three standard varieties in storage-house tests during two seasons. ] ‘ | | Loss Loss in weight at end of— | : 1 in Tem- eres weight Loss due to Variety. la Rech dur- Fy , an Ae deuay in 164 ure. ; ing ays. time. | cur- | days. | days. | days. | days. | 164 days. ing. Cay gh Lbs. | Per ct.) Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Lbs. | Perct.| Lbs. | Per ct. Big-Stem Jersey....| 50 {055 | 142.56 | 6.59] 8.02] 9.42 | 10.88 | 12.09 | 19.31 | 13.54] 1.81 1. 27 Nancy Hall......... 50 to 55 | 140.00] 7.14] 8.46] 9.69 | 11.03 | 12.12 | 18.44 | 13.10 . 84 - 60 Southern Queen....| 50 t0 55 | 153.09 | 7.83 | 9.12 | 10.49 | 12.00 | 13.21 | 22.50 | 14.69 -59 38 Total for three varieties....|......... CRUST (a) IS See Oe eee (SS Ree acoA 602250 eeeaae 320M eee cee Average for ; three varie- ‘TTT See Se ER ee Peas Oe 7.23) 18:55 | 9588°) 11.335) 112349 | Le 1383) [3-4 75 Big-Stem Jersey....| 55 to 60 | 144.16 | 7.74 | 9.02 | 10.82 | 12.59 | 14.24 | 22.50 | 15.61 1.69 1.17 Nancy Hall. 2.2... 55 to 60 | 144. 47 8.50 | 9.73 | 11.12 | 12.74 | 14.30 | 22.31 | 15.45 72 - 49 Southern Queen....)| 55 to 60 | 151.72 | 8.71 | 9.68 | 11.53 | 12.09 | 14.03 | 22.44 | 14.79 56 aBY/ Total for three WALICLICS.-< -|-.0.-.2.- CTE Ed Ee aie | 9 i bo aN (694d Goo asec D597 genteeme Average for three varie- Mofo re tte wuelswcceeosslose cab ae 8.32 | 9.48 | 11.16 | 12.47 | 14.18 }....... DoS Full elcraeere 67 Big-Stem Jersey ....|60 to 65 | 139.94] 7.98} 9.60 | 12.10 | 13.75 | 15.46 | 23.62 | 16.85} 3.31 2. 36 Naney Hall... ....:. 60 to 65 | 143.16 | 9.17 | 11.05 | 13.18 | 14.69 | 15.89 | 24.12 | 16.85 .78 . 54 Southern Queen....| 60 to 65 | 150.53 | 6.73 S24 [MLO aOs M3 tenet | 20,04.) 23. ole awe sce ce Total for three WANICIICS. .3.|2 35-025 = AS30102 || 53 oo cee le bas sala see ce asle oe atectcen obey 63209: |eeoac. 2 AN OO ec ecree. Average for three varie- TS ne eal eee Bel bec sere hee: 7.93 9,62 Wel15)87% |) 13,22 |) 14.68 12.2... Mee Ola jnetee ste . 96 1 Weight means the average weight of potatoes stored per year (total weight divided by 2). Toward the end of the storage period the Big-Stem Jersey usually withers at the tips, while the two other varieties remain plump. The Southern Queen retains its plumpness better than the others. For this reason Jersey varieties are usually marketed first. KEEPING QUALITIES OF SWEET POTATOES STORED IN BINS AND IN CRATES. Sweet potatoes may be stored in bins, or in crates, boxes, hampers, baskets, or other containers. It is often asserted that crates, baskets, and other containers are better than bins, because when decay sets 1n it is likely to be confined to the container holding only a small quan- 14 BULLETIN 1063, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tity; but in bins the decay is likely to spread throughout the large bulk of the potatoes. It is asserted also that less injury occurs in handling where small containers are used, because the potatoes are placed in the receptacles in the field and are not disturbed until pre- pared for market; but when stored in bins the potatoes are gathered in baskets and dumped into bins, and some bruising will occur even with the most careful workers. In ordinary commercial handling there is considerable bruising. Experiments were begun in 1917 to study the shrinkage and decay in three standard varieties of sweet potatoes stored in 1-bushel crates and in bins. The bins used were about 4 feet wide, 8 feet long, and 7 feet high, although the potatoes were seldom more than 5 feet deep in the bins. After the potatoes were plowed out they were placed in 1-bushel crates and hauled directly to the storage house. Those put in bins were first cleaned and weighed. The potatoes intended for the crate experiments were cleaned and placed in weighed crates, and the total weight was then recorded. The crates were not disturbed until the end of the storage season. In the room where these experi- ments were conducted the temperature was maintained between 55° and 60° F. The average temperature in this room is shown in fig- ure 1. Table 7 presents the results of these experiments for 1917-18 and for 1918-19. TABLE 7.—Relation of the storage receptacle to the keeping quality of siweet potatoes. [Shrinkage and decay averages of three standard varieties stored in bins and in crates during two seasons.]} | | | | Average weight at— Time Variet peorpee in Lossin weight due |Lossin weight due SAHIN ASC pce Daa stor End of to shrinkage. to decay. tacle age Harvest | + orage time. | period. Days.| Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. |\Per cent.) Pounds.|Per cent. 13. 80 65. 5' 2.18 Big-Stem Jersey.........-- Bin s-eo|- 1214 | 8, 000-90] 2,686.50.) #14 $1) 18.90 ee Naney Hall).........20+. Grate} i | isos] tion | “teet| ige| ci9| 14 Southern Queen........... {Grate 2) 1 | 142 | ise} anat | atte] s3] Zar Average for three varieties. {Qrve "| jaet | *aor.si | ’sorea | gos7| 1co2| aa7{ 237 1 Only one year, 1918-19. Table 7 shows that the average shrinkage for the three varieties was greater in crates than in bins, although the difference was not as great as is commonly supposed. The average percentage of decay. was a little greater in the bins than in the crates, although it was so slight that the difference is not of great importance. Under less favorable conditions the differences might be greater. SWEET-POTATO STORAGE STUDIES. 15 The sweet potatoes in the bins were kept longer than those in erates. If the latter had been kept the full length of time (1714 __ days) the shrinkage would have been a little greater, since during the last month of storage the average shrinkage of the three varieties at 55° to 60° F. was a little more than 1 per cent, as shown in Table 6. The results with the Nancy Hall are for one year only, since I918 =1919__ PERIODS OF SEVEN DAYS EACH DAILY AVERAGES aan aay] TLR EF TT TI [cr TTT CONTI cron MEAL syepraetiett tiie Hitter! A yet MY PUPA UU CLUUM CUCU COCCI UCC UCU vi ALES aes a a Er TESTI ec Hc iD Th cn THERMOGRAPH SHPDT FOR THE PERIOD A~B, Fic. 3.—Diagrams showing the temperature in the interior of the bins (solid lines) as compared to the temperature of the air (broken lines) in 1918-19 at the Arlington Experimental Farm, Va. The upper diagram gives the average temperature for the Storage season, by weekly periods. The middle diagram gives the same data by daily averages. In these diagrams each square indicates a period of seven days. The lower diagram is a typical thermograph sheet, in this case for the period A—B. there was no bin test of this variety in 1917-18. The shrinkage of this variety was low in both the bins and crates in 1918-19. RELATION OF THE TEMPERATURE IN THE BINS TO THE TEM- PERATURE OF THE SURROUNDING AIR. Air-soil thermographs were employed to ascertain the differences, if any, between the temperature in the center of the bins and the temperature of the air in the storage house. Figures 3 and 4 show ¢ 16 BULLETIN 1063, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the temperatures in the bins and of the air recorded by the instruments and averaged by 2-hour periods for the years 1918-19 and 1919-20, respectively. The variety used was the Southern Queen, and the bin contained about 75 bushels each year. The average temperature in the bins was somewhat higher than that of the air, and the fluctuations in temperature were less marked in 1915 — 1920 PERIODS OF SEVEN DAYS EACH | ~ CEA Vim ss, ~. ~ Af Ul i SEAR iia HTT OUUUANUUOUETTDACUERROOU TEA DHE ANVOAUANVONUHNNENENONENOAOVENENANENENEUAONEAUNENEANNANEAAUAEACNUNENATANATAONANEAUNEAON en nT THERMOGRAPH Breer i aan ieaicen ra ry Fic. 4.—Diagrams showing the temperature in the interior of the bins (solid lines) as compared to the temperature of the air (broken lines) in 1919-20 at the Arlington Experimental Farm, Va. The upper diagram gives the average temperature for the storage season, by weekly periods. The middle diagram gives the same data by daily averages. In these diagrams each square indicates a period of seven days. The lower diagram is a typical thermograph sheet, in this case for the period A’—B’. the bins than in the air. Some work was done in studying the temperature of the bins as compared with that of standard bushel crates, but owing to its incompleteness the results are not presented here. In general, the temperature in the crates was about the same as that of the surrounding air and somewhat lower than the tem- perature of the interior of the bins. SWEET-POTATO STORAGE STUDIES. 17 COMPARISON OF THE KEEPING QUALITIES OF FOUR IMPORTANT COMMERCIAL VARIETIES OF SWEET POTATOES STORED UNDER LIKE CONDITIONS. Experiments were begun in 1917 to determine the relative keeping qualities of the more important commercial varieties of sweet potatoes. The Southern Queen, Nancy Hall, Big-Stem Jersey, and Porto Rico varieties were used in this experiment, and the purpose of the workers was to store these in bins in sufficiently large quan- tities to be comparable with commercial conditions. (Table 8.) TABLE 8.—Comparison of the keeping qualities of four standard varieties of sweet potatoes stored in bins. {Shrinkage and decay averages at a temperature of 50° to 55° F. during four seasons.] Weight at— a : : Weight of te . Room Loss in | Shrink- Time in Variety and year. No. rarvest Bnd of | weight. age. ae Decay. storage. > storage time. period. ee [eee sae ea [ee | ee eee ee eee eee Southern Queen: Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Per cent.| Pounds. | Per cent.| Days. Lea | ee ne 3 | 2,512.50 | 2,119. 37 393. 12 15. 65 20. 56 0. 82 171 LS Se 3 | 3,349.00 | 2,947. 81 401,19 11. 98 6. 50 19 172 js Se 3 | 2,217.81 | 1,984. 75 233. 06 10. 51 8. 94 40 159 LA 2)) Ee eee 3 | 1, 498.75 | 1,397. 25 101. 50 6.77 2. 00 13 164 a ee { 9,578.06 | 8, 449. 19 | 1,128.87 |.......... Riu oes as fe [220 Sean PEEP EEE err LL ieee a eee Laie an 2 RZ ot EE A ae ST Bitires SSA St eee Et ol bear ES _._ JED ESS Rae iW eee Be NE S22 se8b—eeaeees eee ies Peer Lea ial = -) 06 GSES eReeeN 25.2527 Rae eae S| th Baer . RZ SRE SRESER o Apr a aoe Aug. Sept Oct Nov Dec. Apr Moy June July Avg. Sepl Oct Nov Lec. Vic. 3.—Double trees, 1916, Number of tracheids, observed April to Number of resin centers per unit area December; in 1916, growth ring. ° Sum- (an arbitrary tangential extent; diameter mer wood present. , of microscopic field by the width of the annual ring observed). Observed April to December, 1916; in 1916, growing ring; in 1915, completed ring. The conclusion therefore seems justified from this and other data that some of the resin passages are shorter than others, and are en- tirely cut away as chipping progresses. The microscopic observa- tions indicate that in the case of the standard tract, the trees, judged by their wood formation in the neighborhood of the faces, a region where the wound response is very pronounced, did not suffer seri- ously from the effects of turpentining by this method for a two-year period. The wood formation was reduced more than in the case of the narrow chipping, as is brought out in the comparisons given in Tables 2 to 4. From Table 2, for instance, it is apparent that in 16 BULLETIN 1064, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1916 many trees, 36 to 78 per cent, according to the position from which the material was taken, showed no decrease in ring width following turpentining. Also (see Table 3) 26 to 64 per cent showed no decrease in the amount of summer wood formed, and the summer wood appears to be one of the most readily affected structural fea- tures. In Table 4, covering both 1916 and 1917, similar results were shown; but the decreases in 1917, the second year of the opera- tion, are somewhat larger in the case of this type of chipping than they were in 1916. The size of the resin passages also decreased somewhat as time went on. On the average a greater number of resin passages per unit area was formed on this tract in 1917 than on the double tract. In both 1916 and 1917, however, the number on the narrow tract exceeded that on the standard. TABLE 2.—Compdarison of the annual rings formed in round timber (1915) and turpentined timber (1916). Frees showing increase | Trees showing no de- | Trees showing decrease in ring width, 1916 crease in ring width, in ring width, 1916 (percentage of total 1916 (percentage of (percentage of total Number and kind of speci- number).. total number). number). mens. spe Inere- | Aver- A Incre- | Aver- : Incre- | Aver- Chips. | ments age. | CHIPS. | ments age. Chips. | ments. age. 20 trees untapped............|..---.-- 70 AO eects 95 hyn eae eva 5 5 50 trees narrow 1_........-.-- 64 60 62 64 82 73 36 18 27 50 trees standard....--..-... 26 56 41 36 78 57 64 22 43 50 trees double:...--...--2.-- 44 50 47 58 76 67 42 24 33 1 The narrow specimens showed more resin centers in the chips than were apparent in the standard and double specimens. NotEe.—The increment borings were made on the tree at a distance of 2 to 3 inches from the face and at the same height as the last streak. The chips were obtained at the cutting of the last streak. TABLE 3.—Conrparison of the amounts of summer wood formed in the round timber (1915) and the turpentined timber (1916). Number and kind of speci- Trees showing increase in amount of summer wood, 1916 (percent- age of total number). Trees showing no de- crease in amount of summer wood, 1916 (percentage of total number). Trees showing decrease in amount of summer wood, 1916 (pereent- age of total number). mens. A Inere- | Aver- : Incre- | Aver- 5 Incre- | Aver- Chips. ments age. Chips. ments age. Chips. ments.; age. 20 trees, untapped...........|......-- 70 (Oasabaas 75 1D) |e ee 25 25 50 trees, narrow }_.......--.. 54 44 49 60 70 65 40 30 35 50 trees, standard....-.-...-- 20 50 35 26 64 45 74 36 55 50 trees, double..-.--....-.-. 26 28 27 38 44 41 62 56 59 1 The narrow specimens showed more resin centers in the chips than were apparent in the standard and double specimens. NotEe.—The increment borings were made on the tree at a distance of 2 to 3 inches from the face and at the same height as the last streak. The chips were obtained at the cutting of the last streak. OLEORESIN PRODUCTION. 17 TaslE 4— Comparison of ring width, swnmer wood, and resin passage formation for 1915, 1916, and 1917. ennaniton woodeformed: Average resin centers per one-eighth inch cross Number of section (Nov. 17, 1917).1 trees ts 16 d}1917 d ; for— 1916 compare compare Operation. to 1915. to 1915. 1915 1916 1917 Sum- Sum- 1916 | 1917 Bors mer otal mer | No.| Size. |No.} Size. |No.| Size. mng-" |wood. 2 ring.? wood. 2 : Per ct.| Per ct.) Per ct.; Per ct. Pe Lig ny a a rr i bg a, 1.5 | Medium | 4.4 | Largest. 8.3 | Smallest. one chip- —43.0/—63.0 | —58 | —56 108 55 +57. 0|-+-37. 0 442 pry Te2 ee -\2d Onsace hfs) |loosGWe esse 6.4 Do. Narrow chip- —35.5/—41.5 | —45 |} —45 A ara pee 51 {rene Garo le ase ry .8 | Smallest] 4.7 |...do...-. 9.3 | Medium. 1Jn 1916 material it was noted that the narrow had more resin centers than the standard or double. 4 Minus sign (—) indicates decrease in width; plus sign (++) indicates same width or increase in width. TARLE 5.—Comparison of yield data for 1916 and 1917.4 Calculated yield Corrected per crop (10,000 number | Total Total Total cups). Plot. Year. | offaces | dip dis- | , atin turpen- or cups. | tilled. ; tine. = c urpen- Rosin. tine. Pounds. | Pounds. | Gallons. | Pounds. | Gallons. 1916 5,405 | 63,926 | 64,822] 2,002.5] 119, 929 3, 704 Standard ................-.-.----- 1917 5,335 | 70,275 | 54,595 | 1,625.0 | 102, 334 3, 046 Nadie 1916 6,105 | 61,062] 59,874| 1,853.0 | 98,073 3, 035 =) Gee 71 gal TS a 1917 5,977 | 77,776 | 58,680| 1,761.0| 98,176 2, 946 Double 1916 3,062 | 42,687) 43,766 | 1,301.0} 142,932 4, 248 ih a lal ba 1917 3,020 | 50,805 | 36,670] 1,091.0 | 121, 424 3, 613 Comparison of yields on the percentage basis. Standard for respective years Plot. Year. rated as 100 per cent for the given year.? 1916 yield for each crop rated 100 per cent for that erop.? Rosin. Turpentine. Rosin. Turpentine. Pounds | Pounds. Gallons.|Gallons.| Pounds.|Pounds.|Gallons.|Gallons. 1916 1 a ak Bape ae 11010): Pt Le eree pee iM 0[0 Pa IS Ararat TOO Ril arses Standard.........-..-....-.. { 1917. A 001. 2,8 100} f(t 85.4] —14.6| 82.2] —17.8 : 1916 81.7 | —18.3 $1.9 | —18.1 M010), TMS pl Ol ire Ree ae NAMTOW.---04--0ee0-eseeeee ee { 1917°| (95.9) — 4.1) 96.7| = 3.3] 100.0) 4° Ui] conv ("a6 'f 1916 119.1 | +19.1 114.6 |-14.6 10/0 a ae el 0 {0 Yaa | oee T Double.......-2.+-/-0-0+-5-. { 1917 118.6 | +18.6 118.7) +18.7 85.0 | —15.0 2 —14.8 | i 1 Compiled from monthly field reports for 1916 and 1917. 4 Minus (—) indicates loss; plus (+-) indicates gain. 18 BULLETIN 1064, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 6.—Oomparative yields per crop (10,000 cups) with respect to height of face (inches), 1916 and 19172 Turpentine. Increase “ Average F ae Num- ape in per- : Plot. Year. ele ber of nee Total | Yield | centage Gontparien ot ace: Istreaks. |, yield |perinch|(stand-| 8 streak. (year 1916 per | offace| ard es edninner crop. |height.| rated cent) Ae 100 per : cent) Inches. Inches. |Gallons.|Gallons. ; x 1916 21.95 38 0.58 | 3, 704 NG) Neesooaes OOS) Sea Standard. ................--. { 1917 | 20.00 39|| 62.051 1 42046 Me uyl52, | bee 90.00. | —10.0 1916 | 312.85 38 3.34} 3,035 236 39.6 | 100.00 }...---:. Narrow 3. ...2.-2-2+++-2+-++- 1917 | 13.00 38 134 | 2/946 227| 49.4] 96.2 |.— 3.8 1916 | 3 23.67 70 3,34 | 4,248 179 5.8 | 100.00 |........ DIOL E oesus aabeoeo se 92> {1917 | 19.00 72i| 226 | 3,613,| 490 | 125,01 10st erage ! Rosin. Increase i is in per- Plot. ai Total wide centage | Comparison of per- yiela. | Be face | (Stand- | centages (year 1916 per crop. b ioht ard rated | rated 100 per cent).2 elgnt- | 100 per cent) Pounds. | Pounds. nae + 1916 119, 929 By4G3 see ee Ral RE ee emer Standard —-- 2-2 -- 2-22-2222. 22222222 aH Tempo TONeEe > REALE 93.5 6.5 1916 98, O72 7, 632 39. 7 100° eee ee = 255 Narrow 9... 2. 2--2-- 2.222222 22-eeceeeeeese ee { i917 | 98176| 7,552 47.6 98.9 seis 1916 142, 932 6, 039 10.5 100) iles-eececee Double >... .. 22-2. .2-+22 22-222 22- 222222222 1917 | 121,424) 6,391 25.0| 105.9] +59 1 Compiled from monthly field reports for 1916 and 1917. 2 Minus (—) indicates loss; plus (+) indicates gain. 3 The narrow and double areas had four standard streaks before the experiment started. The height of the four streaks averaged 2.75 inches (average from 25 measurements). With this allowance, the streaks on the narrow and double areas averaged 0.30 and 0.32 inch, respectively. The corrected height for the double faces is 22.20 inches and for the narrow faces 11.38 inches, which, in this latter case especially, would further improve its rating. The comparative yields obtained are given in Tables:5 and 6. It is apparent that the total yield from the 1916 chipping was highest in the case of the double tract and lowest in that of the narrow. If, however, the narrow is compared to the standard with reference to height of face chipped, it is apparent that the narrow shows a gain of almost 40 per cent in the first year of the operation. During 1917, the second year of chipping, the results were even more strongly emphasized. The double showed about the same increase in total yield over the standard, but the narrow made a better relative show- ing than the year before, and nearly equaled the standard in total yield. With reference to the height of face, i. e., amount of chipping surface used to obtain the yield, the narrow showed almost a 50 per cent gain over the standard in yield per inch of height of face chipped. OLEORESIN PRODUCTION. 19 In the second year in all crops there was some decrease in total yield. The 1917 comparisons, using the total 1916 yields from a crop as 100 per cent or the criterion for judging the relative yield of that crop, showed that the greatest decrease occurred in the stand- ard tract.- (Table 5.) DOUBLE CHIPPING. The special feature of this method, used for two years on this area at Columbia, Miss., was that the streak was cut at four-day intervals instead of only once each seven days. This type of chip- ping was used (PI. IV, figs. 3, 5, and 6) on about 3,000 faces on the same kind of timber as that in the standard experiment. Only as much wood as was cut in the standard chipping was removed by this double method, since the dimensions of the streak specified were one-half inch deep and one-fourth inch high, cut twice weekly. The depth in general tended to average slightly less in the double than in the standard. During 1916 the chipping was carried on with a “00” hack (PI. IV, fig. 2) anda streak averaging 0.32 inch was ob- tained (Table 6, footnote). In 1917 a “puller” (PI. IV, fig. 6) was used, and a more accurate narrow chipping or rather “ pulling” was obtained (average 0.26 inch) as is indicated in Table 6. This was also more accurate chipping than was obtained in 1917 on the single narrow-chipped area (average height of streak 0.34 inch), where a hack was used. It is of considerable interest to note that with this narrow chipping the double showed a smaller relative re- duction in the second-year yield of turpentine, when compared to that of its first-year yield, than was shown by the wider-chipped (one-half inch per streak) standard. This was true in spite of the fact that the vitality of the double-chipped timber had apparently suffered rather more severely from the process of turpentining than had the standard. In figures 3 and 4 are given the monthly observations on the five trees selected from the double area for 1916 and 1917, respectively (different sets of five each year). The same reduction as in the case of the standard was noted_in the number of resin passages per unit area of the 1916 ring, as was observed in material cut at the level of the 1917 chipping. The tendency for fewer resin passages to be present at the end of the 1917 season than in midsummer was also observed. In 1917 practically all five trees from the double area showed that their wood formation had suffered as a consequence of that method of turpentining, and that they had not been able to recover, as many of the narrow-area trees had, or even been able to hold their own during 1917, the second year of turpentining, as some of the standard-area trees appeared to have done. The results from the examinations of the 50 specimens collected ) at the end of the season each year are given in Tables 2,3, and 4. In 20 BULLETIN 1064, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tables 2 and 8 results are given from a set of chips obtained at. the last streak cut and a set of increment borings made 2 to 3 inches to the side of the face at the height of the last streak. The borings, in general, showed less effect from the turpentining than the chips, indi- cating that the response to the wound was not as marked tangentially or circumferentially as it was vertically. The double and the stand- ard both showed more reduction in wood formation than the narrow, as indicated by ring width. Judged by the borings alone, the double showed slightly greater reduction than the standard. The chips, on the other hand, showed more reduction in ring width in the standard than in the double. This tendency, however, did not hold for the sooipeeriteenietc id 52 Pt er ae el alee eal: dette he O : Mor. EAS Ynetuly Aug. Sepr Ocr Nov: ar SEE May June SUE Re ae Ocr. Nor. Fic. 4.—Double trees, 1917. Number of tracheids, observed March to Number of resin centers per unit area November; in i917, growth ring. ° Sum- (an arbitrary tangential extent; diameter mer wood present. of microscopic field by the width of the annual ring observed). Observed March to November, 1917; in 1915, 1916, and 1917, growth rings. amount of summer wood present, which was exceptionally reduced in the specimens from the double tract. It would appear that the double chipping produced a special response which was manifest in the increased ring width shown by the chip specimens and in the sustained relatively high yield for the second year, which has been mentioned. It would seem, however, that this response was accom- polished at the expense of summerwood production and of the tree’s vitality in general, judging by such indications as these and by the frequent occurrence of “dry” faces in this crop. The double also produced fewer resin passages than the narrow. In 1917 (Table 4) the reduction in wood formation in the specimens collected from 50 PLATE III Fie. 1—A face from the double-chipped area, Columbia, Miss., in November, 1917, at the end of a 2- year operation. Tree freshly chipped, dry-facing beginning at peak, gum exuding well at shoulder or corner. Droplets indicate the position of resin passages. Fie. 2—A face from the narrow-chipped area, Columbia, Miss., in November, 1917, at the end of a 2- year operation. Tree freshly chipped. Abundant exudation all along the streak. Each droplet at a resin passage, clusters and lines of droplets indicate series of resin passages. Fourteen or moreannual rings of sapwood exposed and participating in the yield. PLATE ill. 1064, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bul. PLATE IV. Bul. 1064, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV Fic. 1.—Face from narrow-chipped area at the end of the first year of turpentining (1916). About one foot in height of chipping surface used. Fic. 2.—The hack to the left of the picture is a “00.” This type was used in the narrow and double eine at Columbia, Miss. The broad “‘billed’’ hack to the right is a ‘‘No. 2,” the type used in the standard chipping at Columbia, Miss. Fic. 3.—Face from the double-chipped area at the end of the first year of turpentining (1916). About (Gn feet Zea twice as much chipping surface was used here as in the case of the narrow chipping. Compare figure 1. Fic. 4.—Low face on narrow chipping at end of second year of turpentining (November, 1917). Note paddle over cup to keep out trash. Fie. 5—A dry face. A considerable number of trees on the double-chipped tract at Columbia, Miss., showed dry faces during the second year of the operation, indicating reduced vitality of trees. Tic. 6.—Relatively high face on the double-chipped area at the end of the second year of turpentining (same height as standard chipping). Note chip-catcher attached to puller. Somewhat higher yields may be obtained by this method in short operations. Net | ea bs by Las OLEORESIN PRODUCTION. 91 trees from the double area at the end of the season was more pro- nounced than that of the year before. The yields from the double area presented in Tables 5 and 6 show that a higher total quantity of gum was obtained by this method than by either the standard or the narrow chipping. From Table 6 it is also apparent that under the careful narrow “ pulling” prac- ticed in 1917 there was a marked gain over 1916 in yield, with refer- ence to amount of face used. A slightly higher relative proportion of turpentine, as compared with rosin, was obtained by this method in both 1916 and 1917. It is questionable, however, whether the extra yield obtained is sufficient to justify the cost of the extra chip- ping, especially since the microscopic investigations showed that the responses of the trees on the double area, as expressed in the reduction of wood formation (Tables 2 and 3) and in the somewhat more belated and less abundant formation of resiniferous tissue, particularly in the spring of 1916, were less satisfactory than the responses obtained with the other methods of turpentining. Yet if a case occurs in which timber can be turpentined only for a short period (one or two years) before it is cut, this method might deserve consideration, especially if practiced only during the height of the producing season. NARROW CHIPPING, Narrow chipping was practiced on about 6,000 faces at Columbia, Miss., for a period of two years. The results obtained gave infor- mation worthy of careful consideration and further test, since they indicated a means of securing a high sustained yield for a consider- able number of years with a comparatively small reduction in the - vitality of the trees turpentined. The streak specified was of the same dimensions (one-half inch deep and one-fourth inch high) as that used on the double area, but it was cut only once each week. The type of forest was the same as that turpentined by the standard and double methods. Figures 5 and 6 show the results obtained from the monthly observations on the five trees selected for 1916 and 1917, respectively. Tables 2, 3, and 4 show the results of observations on larger numbers of specimens obtained at the end of the season each year. Yields from narrow chipping—The summarized yield data for 1916 and for 1917 are given in Tables 5 and 6. During the second year of operation the narrow crop produced within 4 per cent of the total yield of the standard crop, although during 1916, the first year of the operation, it had fallen 18 per cent below. With the narrow method, however, the usual second year reduction in yield was prac- tically eliminated; whereas about 15 per cent reduction occurred in the standard and double when the yield of the second year was com- pared with that of the first. 22, BULLETIN 1064, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. With respect to per cent of yield as compared to amount, of chip- ping surface used up, the narrow method was markedly superior to the other two methods. In 1916 it showed an increase in yield per inch of height of face of about 40 per cent, and in 1917 of nearly 50 per cent, over the standard. The productivity of the trees on the narrow area at the end of the second year of operation, even after a long period of dry weather, was very high as compared with that of the trees on the double area. Photographs of freshly cut streaks made immediately after chip- HEH {tec aes i i le 20 : io eis fais a aie iets =p |b -4297, EZ DiGwaee PEELE Lees See ae 9 Littjit errr Pret ry | 2 Eee ee SSSS0SS005==—EE8 PY aN FSP an Acne ean ial ats clk a Ep dfabatal dy Palas aA Hon eene PREECE EHH (4 " Apr MoyJune Johy Avo. Sent Oct. Nov. ‘Dec? ro WO Sune VER Yds Sept Ocr Nov Dec. Fic, 5.—Narrow trees, 1916. Number of tracheids, observed April to Number of resin centers per unit area December; in 1916, growth ring. ° Sum- (an arbitrary tangential extent; diameter mer wood present. of microscopic field by the width of the ‘annual ring observed). Observed April to December, 1916; in 1916, growing ring; in 1915, completed ring. ping are shown in Plate III, figures 1 and 2... The abundant exuda- tion of the gum from the narrow-chipped tree shown, even! under adverse weather conditions, was so striking that the practical tur- pentine operator who was managing many crops in that section, and had been very skeptical of the narrow method of chipping, expressed surprise and satisfaction at the excellent condition of the timber: Not all the double-crop trees had “dry-faced” to the extent shown in Plate III, figure 1, but many were in that condition, and the yielding capacity was in general markedly reduced. OLEORESIN PRODUCTION. 23 Production of resiniferous tisswe—Many more resin passages than are normally present were formed in the wood which developed after wounding. (Figs. 5 and 6.) In both the 1916 and 1917 rings the greatest number of resin passages per unit area was present in the specimens from the narrow- chipped trees, although the average number present in the 1915 ring, when the timber had not been turpentined, chanced to be smaller (Table 4) than in the case of either the standard or the double specimens. In 1916 the earliest formation of resin passages was also found in the narrow-tract specimens. HELL ree § 4H ol | ix] ssc a il ik, Fil il id Eb page SOC hg eae Hininind al indi ol onl op soSe for Apr Moy Akal Aug, Sepr Ocr Nov. Nae ykley’ Wine by? Aug. e, “Ocr a > Fic. 6.—Narrow trees, 1917. Number of tracheids, observed March to Number of resin centers per unit area November; in 1917, growth ring. ° Sum- (an arbitrary tangential extent; diameter mer wood present. of microscopic field by the width of the annual ring observed). Observed March to November, 1917; in 1915, 1916, and 1917, growth rings. ———, 1915 ; ——, 1916; 1917. At the level of the 1917 chipping, fewer resin passages per unit area were present in the 1916 rings than at the lower levels, judging the latter from the specimens studied during their development in the 1916 growing season. This was also true in the other two methods practiced. Some, but not all, of the resin passages induced by wounding were therefore apparently relatively short and appear to have been cut away as chipping progressed up the tree. The largest resin passages found in the narrow material collected in 1917 were present in the 1916 ring, which was produced during the first year of turpentining. The year 1916 was found, further- 24 BULLETIN 1064, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. more, to be the best for wood formation, as was shown by the com- parative observations made on material showing the 1915, 1916, and 1917 growth rings. The maximum number of resin passages per unit area found in 1917 was not present even at the end of the 1917 season (fig. 7). Wood formation under narrow chipping—The width of the an- nual ring, the time when wood formation begins, and the amount and density of the summer wood, appear to serve as very good cri- teria of the extent to which the tree is affected by turpentining. A very severe chipping was generally found to be followed by a delay in wood formation and by a very marked reduction in both ring width and percentage of summer wood. ES il il is oc, FR et a ty PSG Ot dc ON ts (BR Ep 0 a A sl Ol He ace nina ale mls So Be OB PS TT SC a Ss sro Peis eae Seale sera A Bs FS Es BE FT a Oe Gr PP a | PR) YW PY A HG es ml es eee pad es ccs ORS See eesesss oso o 77 EERE SS aS ars siete setting ea ALATA BP AT OPS Saal a aa aaah aS al ae dee Bag ee OY al BO Sc Cte ce eee eS e ees we slo At Ba FR Pe SP BR PY PE NY WS 05 PP FN PS cles ms 77 Oe a SS LEC 22> See eee eeeEEel ses DDD Ao eS i es POCO ARES OEE a SB a asl i eS PORER) Fon? 4200 eee Oe es eee se 2sce = Bann Aa 4A eee oes BESSeSee rl LAGS) Aes ee eee eeSeer se Bo GS nD ae haba tha aeaei ke asknes aaa sae 7 Sie, pes Tees Ta ee ee fea Ps Mar. | APR | Mar |June |Juzy | Ave. |\See7| Ocz| Nor | Fic, 7—Number of resin centers, 1917, based on averages of five trees per crop, as observed monthly. S, standard; N, narrow (top light line is the average of four normal narrow trees with one dying tree left out) ; D, double. ’ The wood structure observed in the specimens from the narrow- chipped tract at Columbia, Miss., as shown in Tables 2, 3, and 4, ap- proached most closely the wood formation of the round or untur- pentined timber from that section. The width and character of the summer wood were also much nearer normal than in the specimens cut from the standard and double tracts. Hence it might be said that wood formation in general suffered little, or sometimes not at all, from this method of turpentining. In other words, the vitality of the timber and its capacity to respond were less reduced by narrow chipping than by either the standard or the double method. The narrow-chipped trees in many cases (PI. V, figs. 3 and 4) showed more wood formation in 1917 than in 1916, in spite of the fact that 1917, 6. ep nL ester jtid Die mnie aati fist tA ¢ y ® ona e344 ed “Mons eMaMigas? i do PLATE V In each case the specimens came from the Columbia, Miss., tract and were cut midway between the shoulder and the peak at the streak. The barkis shown at the top ofeach figure. The two annual rings next the bark (top) were formed during turpentining in 1916 and 1917, respectively. The other rings (below) were formed by the unturpentined timber. In all figures the greatest number of resin passages is present in the rings formed after turpentining. SPECIMENS FROM THE DOUBLE-CHIPPED AREA CUT NOVEMBER, I9I7 ¥ic. 1.—Marked reductionin ring width and amount of summer wood accompanying turpentining. This was generally greatest in trees with vigorous wood formation. Fic. 2.—Tendency to increased ring width in 1916 but reduced summer wood formation. Both ring width and summer wood were reduced in 1917. At this height resin passages are present earlier in the 1917 spring wood than in that of 1916, where probably short resin passages, formed in 1916, have been cut away by chipping. SPECIMENS FROM THE NARROW-CHIPPED AREA Fic. pgs Pociten cut November, 1917. The 1916 and 1917 rings are both wider than the rings formed during the three years previous by the unturpentined timber. The 1917 ring is somewhat wider than oe 1916 ring, showing the sustained vitality of the tree in spite of turpentining, and cf a poorer season in 1917. Fic. 4.—Specimen cut July 24, 1917. Here also sustained vigor associated with this rather conservative method is apparent. Note the closed condition of the resin passages. PLATE V. Bul. 1064, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. net A 99 8 ree Bul. 1064, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI ug cat sea caters ieee ie agta #6 ike iris # AO es PLATE VI Fic. 1.—Cross section, cut April 24, 1916, from the peak, about 6 feet above the ground, of one of the trees shown in figure 4. The effects of 2 years of heavy chipping are manifested, even in this vigorous timber, by reduction in width of ring and in amount and density of summer wood in the 1914 and 1915 rings. More resin passages than usual are present. The effect of the wound is apparent in the wood itl 6 at above it in the 1914 ring. No wood formation for 1916 had occurred. Material from near ogalusa, La. Fic. 2.—A_ boxed tree heavily chipped for five years. Wood structure shown in figure 3. Tree near Florida National Forest. Pic. 3.—Specimen cut from the peak of the tree shown in figure 2, about 8 feet above the ground. The response to turpentining is apparent in reduced wood formation in the five annual rings next the bark (top). The effects in the ring formed when turpentining was first begun were preduced about 8 feet above the wound. The specimen was cut in May, 1916. No wood formation for that year was yet apparent. Fis. 4.—Timber of which the specimen shown in figure 1 is an example. Fie. 5.—Very heavy chipping was used on this small tree for 3 years. The wood formation was markedly reduced. The specimen was cut sepa 6, 1916. No wood formation for that year had occurred. Fic. 6.—Specimen from a conservatively chipped small tree. (Second year of turpentining by the French method.) This treeis from the same locality as the specimens shown in figures 8and 5. Here, however 5 or 6 rows of wood cells and one series of resin passages were already formed by May 6, 1916 (top next bark). In 1915, the first year of turpentining, summer wood formation was not reduced 1n this specimen. i Hoe eee LE att ee YS a } [vaqty DPR CesT Wy Re OPE AS CSR Th) arts athe gsi nae ad hei f OLEORESIN PRODUCTION. 25 judging from the wood formed by the round timber, was not such a favorable growing year as 1916. Hence it would appear that the narrow method of chipping not only permitted a nearly normal wood production but also a very marked increase in resiniferous tissue. It is greatly to be regretted that the same operation could not have been continued for at least two years longer, in order that still fuller results from this very promising method might have been secured. In this regard it is of interest to compare the results obtained from an earlier Forest Service experiment, and likewise those from the Florida National Forest, where the chipping is only slightly wider than that actually used on the narrow tract and where this method has been practiced successfully for a period as long as six years. Information clearly indicating the advantages of narrow chipping has also been gleaned here and there from conversations with observ- ing and experienced practical turpentine operators. This evidence, in addition to the positive evidence presented as a result of the pres- ent study, definitely points to the importance of further practice of the method, to the end of obtaining conclusive results on a large scale and over a period of four or more years. It is especially desirable that data from narrow chipping on small young timber should be secured, . STANDARD FOREST SERVICE METHOD OF TURPENTINING. The method of turpentining practiced on the Florida National Forest is designated as the “standard Forest Service method.’”4 In the Forest Service leases issued to those who rent timber for the purpose of turpentining, the following requirements were made, subject to inspection by forest officers during the operation of the permit. All unmarked living trees 10 inches and over in diameter, breast-high, were cupped with not more than one face on trees 10 inches to 15 inches in diameter; with not more than two faces on 16-inch to 24-inch trees; and with not more than three faces on any tree. It was customary to make the first streak of a virgin opera- tion when the aprons were placed, some time before the regular chipping began. In general, it may be said that wherever trustworthy evi- dence is obtained it points to the conclusion that conservative chip- ping which does not unduly reduce the vitality of the tree, leaving unturpentined trees that are too small, not overcupping, and leaving sufficient bark bars pay in point of yields obtained and in reducing the number of trees which are killed or which dry-face. EARLY FOREST SERVICE EXPERIMENTS. Evidence pointing to the advantages of conservative chipping is also to be found in the results from some experiments carried on from 1905 to 1908.°° The standard chipping of a commercial tur- pentine company not far from Jacksonville, Fla., was in this case used as a basis for comparison. It was slightly heavier chipping (streaks 0.6 to 0.7 inch deep and 0.51 inch high) than the standard chipping practiced in 1916 and 1917 at Columbia, Miss. Both slash and long-leaf pine were found in the stands of timber used. It was noted that the slash pine produced little or no scrape. The purpose of the work was to determine the results to be obtained from (1) shallower chipping, a reduction of depth of cut from 0.6 or 0.7 inch to 0.4 or 0.3 inch, the shallowest cuts being used on the slash pine; (2) narrower chipping, an intended reduction in height of one-half, which was, however, in practice a narrowing from 0.51 to 0.4 inch; and (3) light cupping, the cutting of fewer faces, and the elimina- tion of turpentining of very small trees with a view to a second tur- pentining at some future time. It was reported that considerable difficulty was found in obtain- ing exact and uniform chipping, because of the change of chippers from time to time on the different crops. Another possible source of some error in the results was the method of determining the relative yields from the different crops by weighing the dip and scrape instead of the turpentine and rosin distilled from it. This method was found to be misleading in the case of the results ob- tained at Columbia, Miss., where it was found that a high weight of crude gum might be partly due to water mixed with the gum during rainy periods, and that it did not always indicate a proportionally high yield of turpentine and rosin (Table 5). %A publication is in preparation by the Forest Service on the detailed results and relative yields from the different types of experimental chipping practiced on this tract, “Vor. Serv. Bul. 90, p. 16. 98 BULLETIN 1064, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taptt 7.—Harly Forest -Service experiments—Summary of total yields for 1905, 1906, 1907, and 1908 on the basis of the corrected amounts of dip and scrape (125 chippings). [Data from U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Bulletin 90.] : 4 Serape (hardened Dead) Per cent of 1 : Dip (oleoresim). oleoresin). otal) AVer- trees| Stand. num. 28¢ | Average | at l um height} depth of end of Crop. perl of chip- ie : In- : Tn- De- |©%P-| chip-| pings. | ond | Long Yield. |crease.| ¥1€!4- | crease.| crease. |PI8S- pings. sea- | leaf. SR son. , Fiaiss |sifios|e 27 (seers aa3 |G te [9 eee). 40 Jat gl A. Standard chipping of Wallkill Turpen- Inches.| Inches. tine Cols sees eee- ee 206, 235). --.--- 47, TAQ)... - oe 125} 0.51/20.7to 0.6) 121 57 43 B. Shallow chipping-| 211,911 2.75) 44, 838).-.---- 6.08) 123 . 51)? 0.4 to 0.3 73 48 52 C. Narrowchipping..| 214,503} 4. 01] 39,775|._....- 16.69} 124, .4020.7to0.6| 64, 46) 54 D. Reduced number offaces, larger trees, prospect of back Cupping 22222-2225 279,260} 35.41) 53,915} 12. 93)..-.-.- 119 . 51/2 0.7 to 0.6 58 51 49 1 Minimum diameter of turpentined trees 6 inches, 2 faces permitted on trees over 13 inches. 2 Shallower cuts on slash. 2 Minimum diameter of turpentined trees 10 inches, 2 faces permitted on trees over 16inches. No more than 2 faces per tree. A summary of the results obtained is given in Table 7. It is ap- parent that crop A (standard) showed a successive yearly decrease in yield and the greatest number of dry-faced and dead trees. Crop B, the shallower chipping, showed in the four years of oper- ation an increase in yield of about 3 per cent over the standard. This gain took place during the last two years of the operation. There was less relative yearly decrease in yields also than in crop A, and less scrape was formed, which fact, the writer pointed out, was in accord with the current idea that deep chipping produced much scrape. From these results it is concluded in Bulletin 90 that there is “no doubt as to the wisdom of shallow chipping.” In sharp contrast to this were the results from an operation visited in 1917 in Mississippi. The type of timber and the method of chip- ping employed are illustrated in Plate VI, figures 5, 6, and 8. The streak cut was about 0.75 to 1 inch in depth and a scant 0.5 inch in height, and a very high as well as a sustained yield was reported.” These trees were characterized by having very wide sapwood. Less than 1 per cent of the trees were lost through death from turpentin- ing. Care and good judgment were exercised in the placing of the cups and in maintaining adequate bark bars between the faces on this timber. : It would appear from the foregoing that the question of the width of the sapwood and the responsive vigor of the timber on any given tract must be considered as of fundamental significance in determin- ing the depth of the streak to be cut. That the resin passages in a 2 Reported yield of 105 barrels of turpentine per yearling crop and an average of 82 pbatrels for different ages, including virgin and fourth-year workings. OLEORESIN PRODUCTION. 29 considerable number of the outer sapwood rings are involved in the yields of gum obtained is evident from the discussion on pages 9 and 10 and from Plate III, figure 2.25 It would therefore appear that the proportion of the sapwood which it is desirable to expose in chipping probably varies somewhat according to circumstances, and that the range of depth should be more exactly determined by further experiments on different types of longleaf and slash pine timber, especially on young timber, since this is of great future significance. : Crop C, the narrow chipping, did not have as narrow streaks as those cut at Columbia, Miss. Although it was intended that the streaks should be about one-fourth inch in height, it is stated that “in spite of continued urging and the closest supervision, the chippers in- variably made the cut wider than was desired. * * * Neverthe- less in spite of the failure to reduce the width of the cut as much as desired, a considerable decrease was made.” The height of the faces at the end of 4 years on crop A (standard) was 64.3 inches, and on C, 50 inches, or an average height of chip of about 0.4 inch. Under the narrowed chipping this crop showed an increase over the standard which was greater than that secured by the shallow chip- ping of crop b. Furthermore, less dry-face and dead trees resulted, and about one year of chipping surface (14.3 inches) was gained. These facts, therefore, furnish another instamce of successful narrow chipping. How far the streak can further be narrowed with ad- vantage beyond this 0.40 inch and the 0.34 inch obtained at Columbia, Miss., and sometimes obtained in commercial “ pulling,” is a subject for further experiment. Crop D, the light cupping at Walkill, Fla., where fewer faces were cut per tree and no tree under 10 inches was cupped, but where the standard streak was cut, gave the highest yield of all the crops and the least loss from dry-facing or death of trees. It should be borne in mind that on the other crops trees with a diameter as small as 6 inches were cupped, and two faces were permitted per tree on timber with a diameter of 13 inches and over. (See Table 7.) As has been recently shown, it is unprofitable from the point of view of the growth in length and diameter of the timber, as well as from that of the yield of gum, to turpentine too small trees by the methods gen- erally practiced in the United States.*” (See Table 8.) It was demonstrated clearly both in the Walkill experiment and in Cary’s observations (Table 8) that it was of fundamental importance to maintain the vitality and responsive power of the tree. Too large *This fact was not recognized at the time that the conclusion in regard to shallow chipping was expressed in Forest Service Bulletin 90. * Cary, Austin, ‘A look ahead” in Naval Stores, published by the Weekly Navai Stores Review, and in “ Money is actually lost In working small trees for turpentine and rosin,” Naval Stores Review and Trade-Journal, Vol. XXX, Jan. 22, 1921, p. 14, and Novy. 19, Dec. 3, 10, 24, and 31, 1921, and Jan. 7 and 14, and Ieb. 4, 1922. 30 BULLETIN 1064, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and too numerous faces, which unduly reduce the relative percentage of uncut bark, are unquestionably harmful and unprofitable. The questions of depth and height of streak are intimately connected with the number of faces and the returns obtained, but further work is needed, as has been shown, to fix within narrower limits the range of the most successful depth and height of chipping. It is stated by careful operators that, at the very least, one-third of the bark should remain uncut, and undoubtedly a larger proportion is de- sirable. The area D at Walkill was so turpentined that it would be possible to work it for a second period (back cup) some time later. TABLE 8.—Yield at first dipping from trees of different diameters. Set 1. Set 2. Diameter breast high (inches). Width of| Yield | In pea- face (average centage Yield . of 15 of 10-inch 5 (inches). : trees). trees. 14 trees. TABLE 9.—Gain obtained by light cupping as compared with Standard chipping at Wallkill, Fla.% 7 : Dip. | Increase. | Last three years compared to first. Year. | A | D A,stand-| D, light- | ard. cupped. Pounds. | Per cent. | Increase. | Decrease.| Increase. | Decrease. | 10H ee ee. 63,615 | 73,704 | 10,089 16 LODGE gt a ee A 64,583 | 84,074 | 19,491 BO his x8 Dah: he eles op ed en ii fgets 43,675 | 69,286 | 25,611 Egle aed es Bt ae 6 SS ie CE OE | 34,362 | 52,196 | 17,834 (ol ee aed AG eae | 29 @ For. Serv. Bul. 90, p. 20. > This increase was chiefly due to the fact that in 1905 there were 31 streaks and in 1906, 35 streaks cut. Because of the gains secured in the first three years of the Walkill experiments, a different experiment was instituted on two crops during the fourth year (1908), which combined both the shallow and the narrow chipping features. “Yearling” or second-year crops were used, and the yields of gum were compared with those from a similar adjacent crop chipped by the standard method. An increased production of about 35 to 38 per cent was secured in this experiment. The “dip” from these shallow and narrow-chipped OLEORESIN PRODUCTION. 3l trees was also considerably richer in turpentine than the ordinary dip, and fewer dry faces and dead trees were found on these crops. In conclusion, therefore, it may be said that these early Forest Service experiments clearly showed the advantages of certain con- servative turpentining methods, which as was at that time felt, were only an indication of what might be accomplished in this direction. CHIPPING IN THE LIGHTWOOD. There is a belief current among practical turpentine operators that, to obtain the best yields from turpentining a substantial amount of wood, a high chip s-ould be cut away each week in order to “keep ahead of the lightwood.” By lightwood is meant the region above the streak which is more or less saturated with oleoresin. The presence of lightwood is indicated by the difference in color be- tween the surface of the freshly cut streak and that of a wound newly cut in round timber. It may be that the wood is only slightly impregnated with resin, so that the summer wood bands appear somewhat darker than normally, or, on the other hand, that a con- siderable amount of resin may have soaked into the wood, markedly darkening it, and often making the summer wood appear translucent, especially when the light is allowed to shine through a chip from such a region. An extreme example of this is shown in Plate III, figure 1, in which case the saturation probably occurred as a result of the undue drying out and dying of the overstimulated tree. Narrow chipping, one-fourth inch to a strict one-half inch in height, will not keep ahead of all lightwood, especially during the midsummer season. For this reason many practical operators were convinced in advance that narrow chipping would fail. However, as has been shown, the results of reducing the height of the chipping speak for themselves in terms of increased yields and sustained vi- tality of the trees, as indicated, for instance, by the late autumn re- sponse shown in Plate III, figure 2, and by the recovery of the tree under turpentining, shown by the amount of wood formation in Plate V, figures 3 and 4. : The following interpretation of the observations made appears to be justified by the results obtained. When a tree is chipped or scari- fied the living cells in the wood are injured and a strong wound stimulus is given. Oleoresin exudes from the resiniferous paren- chyma present. It tends to coat the surface and to cover it with a more or less complete seal, which materially assists in preventing the drying out of the exposed sapwood. Probably most of the paren- chyma cells close to the surface of the wound, especially those actu- ally cut, may die. The wound stimulus is undoubtedly greatest in the immediate vicinity of the wound. Its effect appears to be mani- ae BULLETIN 1064, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fested in the increased yields obtained by using the “ advance streak.” (See pp. 10 to 12.) The effect of the wound on the actively growing tissue is apparent in the tendency of the tree to heal or close the wound. More than the normal amount of parenchyma or resin- yielding tissue is formed, often at the expense of ordinary wood formation. More resin passages or resiniferous parenchyma ag- gregates were generally produced in a definitely limited region, 8 to 12 inches above the wound, than further above it, as is indicated by the resin passage graphs in figures 1 to 6. Twenty or more inches above the original wound the number of resin passages is notably reduced, as is shown by the 1916 data as compared with those of 1917 in figures 1 to 6. Nevertheless, the wound response giving evidence of the extent to which the stimulus is transmitted, although less marked at a distance, was manifested as far as 7 to 10 feet above the wound. (PI. VI, figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4.) Both increase in resin- iferous tissue, most marked in the transition wood and in the summer wood in the specimens from the higher portion of the tree, and often some reduction in ring width or summer wood formation, oc- curred in the wood produced after turpentining. The chipping or freshening of the wound is designed to remove the dried and hard- ened surface of the streak and the unproductive parenchyma cells in order to permit the fresh exudation of the oleoresin, which forms and collects above this sealed surface during the period following the chipping. The chipping also serves to stimulate the living cells to further responses. It appears as if a very narrow chipping should successfully accomplish this purpose. It is obvious that a high chip- ping cuts away the most intensely stimulated and presumably the most responsive tissue, especially for gum production, in the tree. Tt is as if a whole organized battery of the tree’s forces were wiped out at each stroke of the hack and a new organization had to be mustered afresh in the attempt to respond to the new condition. After a number of such responses, the results of which are cut away and wasted, the tree’s resources tend to become more and more ex- hausted, and the yield of gum and the wood formation are reduced. Many trees under thege circumstances become dry-faced—that is, physiologically speaking, their living cells cease production, and they frequently die (Pl. VII, fig. 3) ; at best the vitality of the timber is too severely taxed to assure the best returns possible. In brief, then, chipping in the lightwood (progressing up the tree slowly less than one-half inch per week) is to be recommended be- cause: (1) This is performed in the region of maximum stimula- tion, (2) it conserves chipping surface, (3) it tends to keep the sur- face from drying out because of the oleoresin saturating it to a greater or less extent, and (4) it has been found experimentally and practically to give sustained yields. Much “ pulling” (see Pl. IV, 5a} +: - soit eit uth woes Dotter oat seuastl eh woke di lo muleinigad ods Popar souls saa seroe) Scineky 1b wae ; bis ink GIO. oak gizabeis pind. te aoe brlild ek. i pier, wales dasa aa a Tae oe aes 5 oe. alrisersioepnay YO" ES OPA Bebe Hp) Le rnd godt oe dior Hud D at onset? Bey aa ns sp on! 9 hehe boini=3e ater eK id, E mate a di aie on ‘ sd og sit zd Beasts one Merere Cen Heeb Ort ail it oorlat 45 aa bitsahti oF otf Die rede tee wis RedaTT yo! web naa: Woda Bb) >. a Aan. ; ox me ah ‘ a ANE “ee Hotiaa ane Sein ns 5 et ai patton am v Mesh ex £ Mime FORNEY Behr I oe mnie i ik t sabi. ‘oh patoly: tight’ vhar nthe be ae Sn EN AIRY Ny 4 —_ PLATE VII Fic. 1.—Well-placed faces. This insures the fullest return from the tree for the labor of operation. Fic. 2.—Bad placing of faces at the beginning of the operation. This means waste and loss at every stage. Fic. 3.—The effects at a later stage of placing faces too close together. Note dead and dry face. Fic. 4.—The beginning of the third year of turpentining, May, 1917, in a conserva Ney chipped tree. bau 16 inches height of chipping surface was cut annually. Standard Practice Florida National orest. Fic. 5.—The beginning of the sixth year of turpentining, June 6, 1917, on a well managed commercial operation. Inits fifth year about 45 barrels of turpentine were said to have been made from this crop. Fic. 6.—One tree from the area shown in figure 8. This was the beginning (June 6, 1917) of the second year of this operation. Note chipping 3-inch to 1 inch deep. The sapwood in this case was about 3 inches wide. Thirty-three streaks were cut each year. Fic. 7—Excellent opportunities for future turpentining are offered by the good reproduction and rapid growth of slash pine. This tree, 4 feet above the ground, was 54 inches in diameter and 9 annual rings were present at that height. 4 Fic. 8.—Stand of old timber, such as is rapidly disappearing. This is characterized by having wide sap- wood and by producing very high yields under efficient management. Deep chipping (see figure 6) succeeded in this operation. PLATE VII. Bul. 1064, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. OLEORESIN PRODUCTION i 33 fig. 6) is so narrow that it is done in the lightwood. The current prejudice against chipping in the lightwood probably arises from the fact that at times the lightwood (PI. ITI, fig. 1), especially when it is most conspicuous, may indicate the beginning of dry-facing. Under such conditions the decreased production occurring may be revived to a certain extent by chipping ahead of this lightwood up the tree for several inches, until a region which is less dried out and injured is reached. It is therefore only when it indicates the satu- rated condition of dead and dried cells, especially the devitalized condition of the resiniferous parenchyma, that the presence of light- wood should be considered detrimental. Such a condition, more- over, is much more likely to occur in high chipping which is designed to keep ahead of the lightwood than in narrow chipping (one-half inch or less) which is done in the region of the lightwood. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE PRACTICE. Many of the statements made in the following discussion are not based upon the results from definite experiments, but are derived from the writer’s observations made on successful commercial opera- tions or from the statements of experienced operators, or are deduc- tions from the data presented in the preceding pages. They are, therefore, to be considered as suggestions only and are advanced tentatively, subject to further investigation, because in the light of our present knowledge they appear to be beneficial in character. SIZE OF THE TIMBER. From the preceding discussion, especially that with reference to light cupping (pp. 29 to 31), it is apparent that it is unprofitable to turpentine very small timber. An excellent example of conservative operation, from the standpoint of present practice in the United States, is the method specified in the Florida National Forest tur- pentine leases (page 25). LOCATION AND SIZE OF THE FACES. One of the most obvious sources of waste in turpentine operations, and apparently a matter which has received relatively little compe- tent attention, is the matter of placing the faces on the trees. Bad practice of this sort, due to carelessness, is only too commonly found. Figures 2 and 3 of Plate VII, illustrating such bad methods, are in sharp contrast with figure 1 of Plate VII, which illustrates the proper placing of faces. This practice of leaving insufficient bark between faces is a fundamental error of the worst sort, since it means waste throughout the operation. Six-inch, or at least 4-inch bark bars should be left between faces, and the width of face should be in pro- 34 BULLETIN 1064, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. portion to the size of the tree. (See pp. 29 to 31.) Conservative operators recommend leaving one-half, or at the very least one-third, of the bark uncut. Without such provision the tree is unduly injured and its productive power is reduced so that the yield is less or may even fail entirely, as shown in Plate VII, figure 3. The cost of tur- pentining such trees throughout the operation, or until they die, is, however, just as great in the matter of placing cups and aprons, chipping and dipping, as is the cost in the case of the more productive trees. Such trees are also frequently attacked, some think more often than more healthy individuals, by fungus or insects.2° Care is re- quired not only with reference to the position of the faces in relation to each other, but also with regard to the way the tree leans, its gen- eral shape or curvature, and any special irregularities which may occur. Loss in production of oleoresin is also occasioned by cutting the first streaks too far above the ground. It is of advantage to place the faces as low as the butt conformation of the tree will permit. The location of the faces with relation to the points of the compass has received some attention but appears to be considerably influ- enced by variable local conditions. As is shown in figures 1 to 6, the 15 trees selected at Columbia, Miss., where the position of the faces was noted, showed great variability in wood formation, with some tendency toward greater vigor on the south side. From some ex- periments with western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa Laws.), it was found that an average from the total yields of 50 trees during one turpentining season was 9 per cent greater from the south side than from the north side cups.*t An experienced operator has advanced the following argument : It is pretty well settled now that the average pine standing erect has thicker sap on the south side, evidence of greater thrift on that side; then, unless there are conditions that require it otherwise, it would seem to promise a larger yield of gum to so install the cup and chip as to leave as much of this best sap uncut as possible. Make the faces west or southwest, east or southeast. In cupping trees of the size to permit two cups, if the timber is to be cut for lumber before it has time to be recupped (or back cupped), place them opposite, east and west; but if it is expected to be cupped the second time, hang the cups south- west and southeast with 6 inches of unchipped surface between. CONTAINERS FOR THE GUM. The destructive method of using a box cut in the tree (PI. I, fig. 1) to hold the gum has been*practically abandoned. In its place are found a great variety of containers or cups of pottery or metal. 30 Hopkins, A. D., ‘‘ The Southern Pine Bettle.’”’ Farmers’ Bul. 1188, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1921. y % Betts, H. S., ‘“ Possibilities of Western Pines as a Source of Naval Stores.” For. Serv. Bul. 116. * Courtesy of Mr. A. Sessoms, Bonifay, Fla. OLEORESIN PRODUCTION. 35 Some of these are illustrated in Plate I, figures 3, 5, and 6, and Plate VII, figure 2. They present various advantages and disadvantages. The earthen or clay cups do not rust and discolor the gum as the metal cups that have been used for some time may do, but they are subject to breakage in handling and during freezing weather. Various efforts such as lining metal cups with wood have been made. One of the most successful has been coating old cups with bakelite, which prevents the discoloration of the gum. The argument that the metal cup becomes hotter during warm weather and causes greater evaporation of the gum is advanced by clay-cup advocates. Partly covered cups which reduce evaporation are used in India. The connection between the cup and the surface of the tree is made by the use of gutters or aprons. (PI. I, figs. 3 and 6, and Pl. IV, figs 1 and 3.) Efforts have also been made to develop an apronless cup. In order to attach the cups and gutters to the trees, nails are often employed, but these are very undesirable from the point of view of the sawmill end of the operation, for even though they are theoretically all removed, headless or hidden nails may occur and be very destructive if encountered during the process of sawing up the timber. With this in mind, wooden pegs (PI. IV, figs. 3, 4, and 6) to support the cups or soft lead nails to attach the apron, when the cup is raised, are used by some operators so as to avert possible damage if accidentally left in the tree. CHIPPING. Two sizes of hacks are illustrated in Plate IV, figure 2. The hack with the narrow opening or “bill” is a “00,” such as was used on the narrow chipping at Columbia, Miss. The other hack is a “No. 2,” such as was used on the standard operation by the cooperating company. The method of chipping, a free arm stroke, is illustrated in Plate IV, figure 4. It would be very desirable if a gauged hack could be devised which would mechanically govern the size of the chip cut. The “puller” for cutting a streak on the higher faces is illustrated in Plate IV, figure 6. It is said that “ pulling” is more difficult than chipping**; the use of the 00 hack and narrow chipping defers the time when pulling need be used. With the puller good narrow chipping may be obtained, as in the case of the double chip- ping at Columbia in 1917. It is thought to be highly desirable to use a sharp tool and to make clean smooth cuts at regular intervals,** Practically, chipping once in seven days has been found to give satisfactory results. The Columbia, Miss., experiments indicated that chipping twice a week was not desirable for long operations. *¥or. Serv. Bul. 90, p. 19. “*In India the smoothness of the face or channel is especially emphasized, ‘The great est care is taken to remove rough surfaces which would promote the formation of scrape. 36 BULLETIN 1064, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DEPTH OF THE WOUND. . The width of the sapwood appears to be very intimately con- nected with the distance that it is advantageous to cut (radially) into the tree (cf. p. 28). At the present time it can only be stated that a considerable portion of the moist sapwood should be left be- hind the face. Instances undoubtedly occur in which a very con- siderable yield of gum may be obtained by making relatively deep cuts, 3/4 inch to 1 inch into sapwood which is as much as 3 inches wide; for a notable yield has been found to come from the resin passages of a number of the outer sapwood rings (PI. ITI, fig. 2), not merely from those formed after turpentining. Before chipping more than one-half inch in depth, however, the width of the sapwood should be determined. Some operators judge the amount of sap- wood and the yielding capacity of the tree by the roughness or loose, scaly appearance of the bark, as contrasted with the rela- tively smooth bark found on some trees. No consistently dependable characteristic, however, is known for predicting the productivity of a given tree, for individuals are found to show wide variations. HEIGHT OF CHIPPING. The amount of wood removed vertically with the grain at each chipping has been very fully discussed in the preceding pages. It is evident that weekly chipping less than one-half inch in height has been found successful both as to yield and with reference to main- taining the productivity of the trees by not unduly reducing their vitality. The lower limit for the height of chipping has not yet been determined, but in the narrow chipping at Columbia, Miss., an average height of 0.34 inch was actually obtained. ADVANCE STREAK. The practice of cutting one streak some weeks before regular chip- ping begins appears to be advantageous (cf. pp. 10 to 12). Regular winter chipping, however, is considered unprofitable. The advance streak is used in India. JUMP STREAK. On many operations, when the cups are raised, a section of uncut bark is left (Pl. VII, fig. 3) so that in driving in the aprons the sap- wood layer or conductive tissue will not be completely severed. As a consequence, some chipping surface is lost, but this is reduced to a minimum by changing, as the end of the season approaches, the “set” of the peak, or the angle made by the two streaks at the middle of the face, so that the angle is obtuse. OLEORESIN PRODUCTION. 37 DESIRABLE PRACTICES. Ideal chipping should be deepest at the shoulder and shallowest at the peak or most exposed portion of the face, at which point the least normal and most harmful conditions, with respect to the vitality of the trees, are most likely to develop. Keeping the gum clean means high grades of rosin; hence it is well to cover the cup with a paddle during chipping (PI. IV, fig. 4), or to equip the “puller” with a chip catcher (Pl. IV, fig. 6), to keep fragments of bark out of the gum during chipping and to avoid filling the cups with trash which will increase the apparent volume of the dip. DIPPING. Frequent collecting of the gum or dipping insures higher yields of turpentine.** Some advocate scraping off the hardened gum, or scraping with the paddle at each dipping instead of allowing it to remain until the end of the season and removing it all at once as was done in figure 4, Plate I. It is maintained that the latter prac- tice exposes the surface to undue drying, and that harmful cracking and checking may take place. Furthermore, the longer the scrape remains on the tree the greater is the reduction in the amount of turpentine which it will yield. A real reduction of waste may be obtained by using tight dip barrels. On one operation gasoline barrels were employed. Ideal dip containing about one-third more turpentine than usual was obtained by using closed glass cups for holding the gum as it exuded from the tree, but these were found to be very difficult and expensive to operate. YIELDS.. It would appear as if under proper operating conditions more gum should be obtained at least during the second and third years than during the first, for many more resin passages are present. This, however, is not ordinarily the case in the United States.** On the Columbia, Miss., experiment the narrow chipping nearly held its own the second year, but during the first year the total yield, without reference to the amount of chipping surface used, was lower than the yield from the standard.” It seems entirely possible that an optimum Jn India dipping is as frequent as chipping. The same worker does both and is paid on the basis of the gum produced. One worker chips (by the French method) about 1,000 faces or channels in 6 days. * Since this was written, information has been obtained from Mr. FI. Canning, con- servator of forests, India, concerning turpentine operations by the French method (very conservative chipping) on Pinus longifolia in the Kumaon Hills in the United Provinces, to the effect that, as a rule, more gum is obtained the second, third, and fourth years than the first. The yleld the fifth year is about the same as that obtained during the first. “ata from the Florida National Forest experiments about to be published are also of interest in this connection. 38 BULLETIN 1064, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. set of operating conditions may some day be found under which the yields will not fall as markedly as is now usual. It has been held that it is in the fourth year that the reduced response of the turpen- tined trees is most marked. This also may be further delayed or reduced by practicing better methods. REDUCING THE NUMBER OF CUPS TO THE ACRE. By applying the rules laid down for conservative chipping (p. 25) the number of cups per acre would be materially reduced. Often a 50 per cent reduction would assure a higher yield. The argument that the cup system has been bad for the trees, based on the fact that the trees have been overcupped, may be true if one considers such operations as one in which 232 cups were hung to the acre, but such a procedure is unproductive and will not long be practiced by clear- sighted operators. The fact that individual pines will survive under excessively abusive treatment is no indication that high total yields over a period of years may be obtained in this way. There is a case on record, for instance, of a tree 9 inches in diameter 5 feet above the the ground which had had two boxes cut in it that were operated for five years. During the third year a cup was also added and the tree continued to produce some gum, although it had all together only 14 inches of live bark between the faces. Again, a tree 6 inches in diameter survived turpentining and grew fairly well. Such methods, — however, are to be deplored for the same reason that it was not desir- able to kill the goose which laid the golden eggs. REPRODUCTION. Protecting the turpentined trees and the young growing seedlings (Pl. VIL, fig. 7) from fire is of importance to the future of the indus- try. Very important, also, is the protection of the seedlings from destruction by hogs, which appear to prefer the roots of longleaf pine to those of the less valuable loblolly pine. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH. There are still many unsolved problems which are of importance from the point of view both of commercial practice and of funda- mental scientific knowledge. Of immediate significance is the question of the proper turpen- tining of small timber. The existing second growth, the protected natural reproduction, and the prospective plantations of slash and longleaf pine will be the future source of naval stores. The results presented here were obtained chiefly from large, mature timber. The methods required for the successful turpentining of young trees should have further study, especially with reference to the depth OLEORESIN PRODUCTION. 39 of chipping advisable in relation to the width of the sapwood. More information, in addition to the results obtained in the Florida National Forest experiments, is desirable in regard to the relative width of face to employ. Which, for instance, is more costly, and which produces higher yields, the use of two small faces or of one large one, or, on larger trees, two large faces or three smal] ones? In this connection it is important to determine under what cir- cumstances the peak is kept most healthy and productive, since it is at the peak that dry-facing most often begins. The question of the minimum width of bark bars between faces is fairly well determined, but an innovation in the form of leaving a bark bar in the middle of the-face, which is practically equivalent to chipping two small faces, has been suggested. A detailed study of the length of the normal resin passages and of those formed after wounding, made by dissecting the outer sur- faces of logs, would furnish information bearing on the desirable height of chipping, and on the matter of maintaining gum produc- tion, at least at the level of that obtained during the first year of the operation. The effect on yields of resting the timber for a year or for a shorter period of weeks or months at some time during the operation might be significant. In one instance it is reported that timber tur- pentined for two years and rested for a year before continuing the - operation gave exceptionally high yields. More exact information regarding the responses associated with the tise of the advance streak is essential in order that this practice should be more fully understood. The method of using closed cups made it possible to obtain a very high grade of gum, which gave an exceptionally high yield of tur- pentine, but it was impractical in operation because of the difficulties encountered in freshening the yielding surface and because of the expense of the cups. It seems possible, nevertheless, that some method of covering the cups, such as is used in India, or of protecting the faces or of using borings instead of open faces,** might be devised. By such means evaporation might be markedly reduced and produc- tion notably increased. It is highly desirable that some of the conclusions recently obtained in German experiments ** should be checked upon American species. The filling and the emptying of the resin passages during turpentin- ing is a problem of fundamental significance. The steps in the proc- ess by which the tree manufactures the oleoresin are still practically *« To try out the Augur and Glass Holder System.” Naval Stores Review, 31: June 25, 1921, p. 10. ™ Miinch, .: “ Naturwissenschaftliche Grundlagen der Kiefernharznutzung,”’ Arbeiteo a. d. Biol. Reichsanstalt fiir Land-u. Forstwirts. 10 Bd.: 1919. 40 BULLETIN 1064, U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. unknown. A more intimate knowledge of the substances of the great- est significance in resin production—as, for instance, the effects of the constitution of the soil—might have a marked influence on future practice. This has been found to be the case with fruit culture, as a result of the work on the effects of the carbon-nitrogen ratio upon vegetative and reproductive responses.*® Indeed, as has been sug- gested by Dr. W. D. Bancroft, chairman of the division of chemistry and chemical technology of the National Research Council, who selected oleoresin production as an example of an important present- day problem, the understanding of this subject appears to involve cooperative work by a botanist, a microscopist, an organic chemist, and a colloid chemist. Much valuable information on oleoresin has already been collected by the Bureau of Chemistry and by different units of the Forest Service, and with the timber on the Florida Na- tional Forest available for experiment, the opportunities for carrying on further research are exceptionally good. That the future need in this direction is recognized and that plans (in the carrying out of which microscopically obtained data can unquestionably be of serv- ice) are being formulated, is indicated in the following statement of Col. W. G. Greeley, Forester : #4 One of the things which must be worked out as part of our general progress in forest conservation is a system of extracting gum turpentine which will make this industry and its valuable commercial products a permanent resource of the Southern States. We must develop a plan for tapping second-growth timber, somewhat along the lines used in France but adapted to commercial require- ments in the United States, under which this can be a continuous forest indus- iry, obtaining yields of gum from the same trees for 20 or 30 years, right up to the time when they are cut and converted into lumber. Without some method of this nature the gum turpentine industry will soon cease to exist. I am hopeful that the Forest Service can extend the instructive experiments in various methods of conservative chipping and cupping which you™® have already initiated on the Florida National Forest in order to work out completely a plan of tapping second-growth timber without injury which can be adopted commercially by the owners of pine land throughout the South. SUMMARY. The results of this work and of the other earlier and current ex- periments of the Forest Service clearly demonstrate that those methods which conserve the vitality of the tree and its responsive power, under stimulation such as is given by turpentining, insure the greatest production of oleoresin. The process of turpentining is not merely a draining out of the gum already formed; it is a col- lection of the oleoresin constantly being manufactured by the tree. 40 Kraus, E. J., and H. R. Kraybill, Oregon Agric. College, Exper. Station. Bulletin 149, 1918. “Wor. Serv: Bul., Jan. 3, 1921. “That is, Florida National Forest organization. OLEORESIN PRODUCTION. 41 This production of gum by the tree is greatly increased as a result of the stimulation of the wound or face cut. The institution of cupping, in place of boxing, made it possible to eliminate the unnecessary injury to the tree caused by cutting the box, and hence was a marked advance in the direction of improved operation. The proper placing of faces with reference to the size and confor- mation of the tree, and the maintenance of bark bars of sufficient width between faces, are matters of fundamental importance, which too often are neglected in practice. These matters if not cared for imvolve waste and loss throughout the operation. The fact that it is unprofitable to turpentine too small trees, at least by present commercial methods, has been demonstrated beyond question, The practice of cutting a streak in advance of the regular season’s chipping on a virgin or first year operation appears to be productive of an increased early yield, which is of practical importance. This effect, as has been clearly shown, is not produced by the induced resin passages, formed at once as the immediate result of the streak, but presumably is due to the wound stimulus given to the resiniferous tissue already present. The following effects of turpentining on the structure of the wood have been pointed out: #* The structure of the annual rings of the wood formed before tur- pentining was not found to be visibly affected as a result of the tur- pentining, although the activities and responses of the living paren- chyma cells in the outer layers of the sapwood already present in the immediate vicinity of the wound were undoubtedly stimulated by it. It was demonstrated that the resin passages of a considerable number of these outer sapwood rings contributed a very significant portion of the yield of oleoresin. The structure of the wood produced after wounding was con- siderably modified, especially in the region immediately above the face. The effect in a tangential or circumferential direction was relatively slight, being hardly noticeable at a distance of 2 or 3 inches to the side of the wound. In all material the number of resin pas- sages formed was greatly increased. The resin passages were formed earlier in the ring than normally. They varied from about the same diameter as that of the normal resin passages to rarely larger and frequently smaller diameters. The response to the wound stimulus, particularly in respect to the increased number of resin passages formed, was observed to be greatest within about 1 foot above the “4 See also Gerry, E., ‘“ Proper Methods of Turpentining,” Sei. Am. Sup. 2176, Sept. 15, 1917; and Gerry, B., “ Production of Crude Gum by the Pine Tree,’ Naval Stores, p. 147, 1921, 49 BULLETIN 1064, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. wound. It was also registered in the wood produced 6 to 9 feet verti- cally above the wound. At this point the resin passages were fewer than near the streak, but, nevertheless, were more numerous than in the round timber. The resin passages in the specimens studied were observed in both the open and closed condition, as is shown in the - illustrations. Although this increased number of the resin passages, formed after wounding, is an important factor in securing a high yield, they are not, as has been shown, the only or possibly even the chief source of the gum. Provided the size of the timber and the faces and their location have been properly cared for, the method of chipping which is inti- mately connected with these features is also of fundamental sig- nificance. Characteristic effects on the structure of wood, result- ing from different methods of chipping, were determined and fully described in the discussion of the microscopic investigations made. HEAVY CHIPPING. Heavy chipping (more than one-half inch in height and more than three-fourths inch in depth) or overcupping tends to produce the following undesirable results in the wood formed after turpentining. 1. Delay in the beginning of wood formation. 2. Delay in the formation of resiniferous tissue. 3. Reduction in width of annual rings. 4. Reduction in amount and thickness of walls of the summer wood. 5. Tendency to develop resiniferous parenchyma at the expense of other wood cells. 6. Death of a relatively high percentage of trees and tendency to produce dry-face. 7. Markedly reduced yield from year to year. CONSERVATIVE NARROW CHIPPING. Conservative chipping, of which the narrow, as practiced at Columbia, Miss., is an example, produced results in direct contrast to those from heavy chipping. The optimum methods of turpen- tining are still to be determined, but in the light of our present knowledge, the application of the following specifications would appear likely to produce the nearest approach to ideal operation that has thus far been attained. : No tree under 10 inches in diameter, breast high, should be cupped. One-half, or at the very least one-third, of the total circumference in the neighborhood of the faces should be covered with uncut bark. Bark bars, at the minimum about 6 inches wide, should be left between faces. OLEORESIN PRODUCTION. 43 Chipping should progress up the tree at the rate of not more than one-half inch a week. In experiments in which chips of an average height of 0.40 * to 0.34*° inch were actually cut, a higher sustained yield was produced than in comparable workings in which the chip averaged one-half inch high. In the case of the double chipping at Columbia, Miss., an average height of chip of 0.32 inch was obtained with a 00 hack in 1916, and an average 0.26-inch chip with a puller during 1917. During the second year these trees, under this treatment, showed a smaller relative reduction in yield of turpentine, when compared to the first year yield, than did the half-inch chipping (standard). Using such a narrow streak means chipping in the lightwood or region of maximum stimulation, at least for a part of the season. It is yet to be determined whether the height of the chip can be further reduced. Sufficient experiments to determine the most advantageous depth of chipping have not been carried out. It appears probable that the significant factor in this case, however, is the width of the sap- wood, since, as has been shown, a considerable yield is obtained from many of the outer sapwood rings. ACCURACY OF TESTING APPARATUS. 3 of wheat for commercial purposes. The chart in figure 3 shows graphically the number of quarts of grain for various test weights required to weigh the number of pounds fixed by law as a bushel for various grains.+ NUMBER OF UARTS PER 60 POUNDS (LEGAL BUSHEL, BY WEIGHT, OF WHEAT) TEST WEIGHT 64 LBS. “ » $8 * Reig ee . » SZs . Np Sp % 32 QUARTS EQUAL | BUSHEL BY VOLUME Fic. 2. Comparison of the yolume of 60 pounds of wheat of various test weights. The standard weight-per-bushel tester is so designed that when the kettle is properly filled and struck off it contains exactly 1 dry quart, TEST WEIGHT PER BUSHEL 20 22 2% 26 28 30 32 3% 36 38 4o 42 HY 46 4B 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 6h T 7 a | ne 2 ho e 5 38 ea 36 ' Nl wy 2 = = | } oe = 32 L SAn 3 | | 2 30 rane ots | 44 LEGAL WEIGHT PER BUSHEL 261. OATS 32 POUNDS BARLEY 48 “ kane 24 CORN 56 “ Se Ee, | RYE 56 “ 22) FLAX 56, 4 7 SLE ed es cet EL ig iat WHEAT- 60 “ | 3] RS Te et “inlet EN ET ES) : Ss Fic. 3.—The number of quarts, by measure, of grain of various test weights required for a “legal bushel”’ by weight. or 67.2 cubic inches. When the filled kettle is hung on its proper hook on the short end of the beam of the official testing apparatus, ‘Milling and baking tests conducted by this bureau and by other authoritles have furnished conclusive proof that 60 pounds of wheat which has a high test weight per bushel, say 60 pounds, will yield more flour of better quality than can be obtained from 60 pounds of wheat which has a lower test weight per bushel, as for instance, 18 pounds, 4 BULLETIN 1065, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the weight of its contents may be determined directly in terms of pounds per bushel by means of the counterpoise and the graduations onthebeam. As there are 32 quarts to the bushel, the beam is gradu- ated to indicate 32 times the actual weight of the contents of the kettle; therefore, 1 pound in the kettle is equivalent to 32 pounds per bushel on the beam, 1 ounce to 2 pounds, $ ounce to 1 pound, ete. When these facts are borne in mind the necessity for great care in following the prescribed method in making the weight-per-bushel test and for having an accurate kettle and beam will be realized. The apparatus for determining weight-per-bushel tests shown in figure 1 and the method of making the test have been carefully de- veloped and are officially approved. It has been demonstrated that if the prescribed method is followed and the apparatus is accurate, weight-per-bushel determinations can be made rapidly and accur- ately by any one familiar with the test. The two main factors af- fecting the accuracy of “test weight” determinations are the method used in making the test, and the accuracy of the apparatus. Whether or not the proper method is used depends entirely upon the person making the test, as the official method is clearly defined, but the most careful application of the prescribed method will not give ac- curate results if the apparatus used in making the test is insensitive or incorrect. The accuracy of the apparatus depends first, upon the capacity of the test kettle, and second, upon the correctness of the weighing mechanism. If the apparatus is purchased from a reliable manufacturer both the kettle capacity and the beam are usually accurate when it leaves the hands of the factory inspector, but even if it is absolutely correct at that time, it may not be correct when set up in the office or laboratory. No test-weight device should be used for determining grades of grain until it has been checked for ac- curacy by a properly conducted test, and this test should be repeated periodically as a general precaution. In addition to the periodic tests a special test should be made whenever the device has been shipped and particularly whenever any deformation of either kettle or beam is noticed. Any kettle or beam which has been deformed by bending or denting enough to render such deformation visible should be considered incorrect until a thorough test has been made. Methods of checking the capacity of the standard quart test kettle and the accuracy and sensitiveness of the beam fn been developed and are given on pages 8 and 11. | When the test weight per bushel of grain is determined with the standard apparatus in correct adjustment and with careful applica- tion of the correct method of use, uniform results are obtained. TEST WEIGHT OF GRAIN: ACCURACY OF TESTING APPARATUS. 5 VARIATIONS IN MAKING WEIGHT-PER-BUSHEL DETERMI- NATIONS, Any variation from the standard apparatus or the standard method of making the test may, and often does, result in an inaccu- HEIGHT OF HOPPER ABOVE TEST KETTLE 2” 3" rin Be Ze 2” 5B" DIAMETER OF OPENING AT BASE OF HOPPER Pe fe" fz V5 Va Ee le Ean eg FLAXSEED eae F523 — == —} M/LO SI.E S95 59.4 S33 5G.2 WHEAT 6/5 6/.4 6/.3 61.2 6/./ 61.0 542 RYE 54,1 54.0 $3.9 538 POUGH RICE WE/GHT PER BUSHEL — POUNDS FMMER VW Fic. 4.—The test weight of grain is affected by the height of fall from the filling hopper and the size of the grain stream used in filling the test kettle. —— ‘rate test weight. Errors in the test weight may result from any o! the following variations: ; 1. A tester having a beam that is inaccurate, insensitive, or “ slow, or having a kettle that is dented, bent, or worn, or a kettle of I pint, r sna Na 6 BULLETIN 1065, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2 quarts, or 4 quarts capacity in place of the standard quart-size kettle. 9. A kettle having rough edges on top instead of smooth edges, which cause the stroker to jar the kettle and the grain in the kettle to settle down during the stroking operation. =e CON TEN TF — Bee ie ho NSN ISI fee /0 20 33.50 Za ee | Beal SEATS F250 52.25 oS $2.00 go S175 = 51.50 : — S1.25 oe 50.50 50.00 Fig. 5.—The influence of moisture content on the test weight of corn. This illustrates the necessity of making the weight-per-bushel test immediately after the samples have been delivered to the inspection or testing room. WEIGHT PER BUSHEL — POUNDS 3. Instead of having the kettle rest on a firm base and filling it from a standard hopper, it is pulled through the grain until it is full; or it is sunk part way into the grain and filled by pulling the grain over the edge by hand; or it is filled by a few handfuls and i TEST WEIGHT OF GRAIN: ACCURACY OF TESTING APPARATUS. 7 sometimes by several small handfuls; or it is filled from a pan or bag or from a funnel not of standard design. 4. The bag, pan, or funnel in some cases is held at a point either higher or lower than 2 inches above the top of the kettle, sometimes almost even with the top and at other times raised to a considerable height above the kettle; or it is filled from such bag, pan, or funnel sometimes with a thin small stream and at other times with a large heavy stream. (See fig. 4.) 5. Instead of striking off the excess grain with the standard stroker, the grain is struck off with the scalebeam, a sawed-off piece of broomstick, a pencil or other implement, or with a worn-out standard stroker having rough edges. 6. The kettle is tapped or jarred before the surplus grain is struck off; or the grain is pressed into the kettle before it is stroked off; or when the standard stroker is used, the stroke is not made with three full-length motions; or the stroker is held inclined forward or backward instead of vertically; or the stroker is allowed to jar the kettle when it is placed in positicn; or it is held pressed too tightly against the kettle during the stroke, thereby causing a jarring of the kettle. 7. In the case of wheat, the test, instead of being made on the dockage-free wheat, which is the correct method, is made on wheat containing the dockage. Allowing samples having a high moisture content to lie around and dry out for some time will also seriously affect their test weight, as is shown in figure 5. Taste 1.—Variations in the test weight per bushel of oats obtained by filling the test kettle by different methods. Weight per bushel (pounds). Test kettle filled— Individual tests. Mini- | Maxi-| A ver- mum.| mum.| age. No. 1.| No. 2.| Noz3.| No. 4.| No. 5. | —_——_—- — -— — - - _ _| From a bag held 2 to 3 inches above the kettle.| 37 87.5 | 37.5 | 38.25 | 37 37 88.25 | 37.45 By sinking it into the grain and pulling the | grain into the kettle by hand: (1) By one motion of both hands......... 36.5 | 36.5 | 36.5 | 36.5 | 36.25 | 36.25 | 36.5 36.45 2) By 9 to 11 motions of both hands..... 37 37 37 36.75 | 37 36.75 | 37 | 36.95 By dipping it into the grain.........-..-..-- 88.75 | 39.25 | 39 89.5 | 39.5 | 388.75 | 39.5 | 39.20 By pulling it through the grain with about a } | Zloot sweep: (1) Through loose, worked-over grain. ...| 38 88.25 | 38.25 | 38.25 | 39.5 | 38 | 38.5 | 38.45 (2) Through the packed surface of the grain in a car before the grain had | been worked over............-.....| 39.75 | 40.75 | 39.5 | 39 89.75 | 39 40.75 | 39.75 From a hopper having an outlet opening 1} in@hes in diameter held 2 inches above the kettle (officia) method)........-.....-..--. | 37.2 | 37.2 |'37.8 | 37.2 | 87.2 | 37.2 = t 8 BULLETIN 1065, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SPECIAL POINTS TO OBSERVE IN MAKING CORRECT WEIGHT- PER-BUSHEL TESTS. 1. Use an accurate quart-size weight-per-bushel testing apparatus. 2. Fill the kettle from a hopper. 3. The opening at bottom of hopper must be round and exactly 14 inches in diameter. 4. The bottom of the hopper must be held exactly 2 inches above the center of the kettle. 5. Mark the hopper on the inside at a point where it will hold just enough grain to cause an overflow over all sides of the kettle. S isa the same volume of grain for each test. . Use a stroker made of henraad) with smooth rounded edges, 12 he long, $ inch thick, and 13 inches broad. ~ 8. Place the stroker on the edge of the kettle hghtly without jarring the kettle. 9. Hold the stroker on the kettle with its sides in a vertical position. 10. Stroke the grain from the kettle with three full-length zigzag motions of the stroker. 11. Make the stroke clean all the way across the kettle. 12. Have the kettle rest on a firm base. 13. Do not jar the kettle before or during the stroking operation. 14. If the top of the kettle is rough, smooth down the roughness with a rounded metal bar but do not use a file. 15. Make the test immediately after the sample has been brought to the inspection room, office, or laboratory, to prevent the grain from drying out with consequent change in test weight. 16. In the case of wheat and other grains for which the standards provide a specification for “ dockage,” make the test after the dockage has been removed. 17. The quart kettle must have a capacity of exactly 67.2 cubic inches. 18. Use a beam which is both accurately graduated and sensitive to 45 pound per bushel. 19. Have the grain tester tested periodically for— (a) Accuracy of kettle capacity ; (b) Accuracy of beam readings; and (c) Sensitiveness of beam. Any office of Federal grain supervision will be glad to test any apparatus for accuracy, or arrange to have it tested free of charge. METHOD OF DETERMINING ACCURACY OF TEST KETTLE, Apparatus required: (See fig. 6.) 1. Kettle to be tested. 2. Slicker plate, plate glass 5 inches in diameter. TEST WEIGHT OF GRAIN : ACCURACY OF TESTING APPARATUS, 9 3. A correct even-arm balance. 4..One standard weight weighing 1,098.08 grams, or standard weights from which this amount can be built up. - One tolerance weight (1 gram). 6. A supply og distilled or pure water. . A chemical thermometer reading 20° C. or 68° F. To make. the test: 1. Remove scoop from balance and place the test kettle, slicker plate, and standard weight on scoop bracket and bring the scale to exact balance by means of weights and sliding poise, as shown in figure 7. Tic. 6.—Special apparatus consisting of a metal weight weighing 1,098.08 grams, glass, slicker plate, and a 1-gram tolerance weight used in connection with a sensitive even- arm balance for determining the accuracy of quart weight-per-bushel testing kettles. 2. Remove kettle, slicker plate, and standard weight from one arm of the balance, being careful to avoid disturbing the weights or coun- terpoise on thé other arm of the balance. Fill the kettle full to over- flowing with distilled water which has been brought to the required temperature of 20° C. or 68° F. and place slicker plate on top of kettle to remove excess water, leaving the kettle exactly level full. The purpose of this action is similar to that of “striking-off” the excess grain in a test kettle when making a weight-per-bushel test. To eliminate all air bubbles from beneath the plate and the inside of the kettle it may be necessary to repeat this operation several times, refilling the kettle each time. When there are no air bubbles in the kettle carefully wipe off all moisture on outside and bottom of kettle. 10 BULLETIN 1065, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 3. Replace kettle filled with the distilled water and covered with the slicker plate, omitting the standard weight, on scoop bracket of balance without spilling water or disturbing weights previously set, release the arrest or damper, and let the pointer on balance come to rest. 4, If when the pointer has ceased oscillating it indicates an exact balance, the capacity of the kettle is correct and this test is satis- factorily completed. 5. If the pointer comes to rest at any other position than the center of the graduated arc, or center of balance, place the tolerance GASES SLICKER | : SLATE : THE SIOLTET LA? (Zz HATER AT 2OC: ee LIT KETTLE | ee SO BE TESTED 4 " - VOLEFANCE Ce C CRUD Fic. 7.—Apparatus required for determining the accuracy of the quart-sized kettle: The standard weight shown on top of the glass slicker plate over the test kettle is equal in weight (1,098.08 grams) to 1 quart of water at 20° C. (68° F.). weight (1 gram) on the light side of the balance. If the toler- ance weight is sufficient to swing the pointer to or across the center mark, the error in kettle capacity is within the allowable tolerance and the kettle may be used. But should the tolerance weight be insufficient to swing the pointer to the center of its arc, or bring the scale to balance, the error in the kettle capacity exceeds the allowable tolerance and the kettle should not be used in making official tests. | To insure a correct test it is of course essential that the balance used in making the test be sufficiently sensitive to indicate a change in the pointer or beam reading when the tolerance weight is added to or taken from either arm of the loaded balance. , P= TEST WEIGHT OF GRAIN: ACCURACY OF TESTING APPARATUS. II] METHOD OF DETERMINING ACCURACY AND SENSITIVENESS OF BEAM. Before attempting to check the accuracy of the beam the base of the tester should be leveled and, if it is of the standard type with horizontal arm and trig loop, this level should be tested by examin- ing the position of the projection or pointer on the end of the beam in its relation to the trig loop. The pointer should be in the center of the trig loop both horizontally and vertically when the empty kettle is on the beam and the counterpoises are at zero. If this is not the case the leveling screws should be adjusted until it is true. There are two methods of checking the accuracy of the beam graduations. In the more simple and direct method a special set of 14 accurate testing weights is used while in the other method an ordinary set of metric weights is used. Fic. 8.—Special weights used in determining the accuracy of the beam in the weight- per-bushel testing apparatus. In making the test these weights are placed in the test Kettle. The 14 special weights illustrated in figure 8 are marked to repre- sent the following number of pounds per bushel: 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 5, 2, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.2, and 0.1. Each weight actually weighs 35 of its marked value. To test the beam place any weight or combina- tion of weights, within the range of the beam graduations, in the kettle and bring the beam to balance by means of the counterpoise. The combined readings of the counterpoises should now equal the combined represented weights in the kettle, and the difference be- tween the weight represented in the kettle and on the beams, if any, is the error of the beam. It is equally essential in making correct weight-per-bushel tests, especially on “line” samples, that the beam should not only indicate an apparently correct reading when a given weight is placed in the test kettle but that it should also be sensitive to within one-tenth of a pound per bushel. That is, the beam should be sufficiently sen- sitive to move either up or down noticeably, and in the case of a 12 BULLETIN 1065, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tester having a trig loop the beam should move from the center posi- tion to either the top or the bottom of the trig loop whenever the poise on the beam is shifted one-tenth pound under or over the cor- rect position for the load that is being weighed in the test kettle. Beams are occasionally found in use which are “slow” and which do not show a change in the beam reading until the poise is moved along the beam often to the extent of an indicated half pound or more per bushel. In testing the beam by the second method: an accurate set of ordinary metric weights, comprising weights Bema 1,000 grams to 0.1 gram, is used. However, if 0.1 gram weights are not ayailnle. 1 gram weights may be used to check to within one-tenth of a pound per bushel. The table of equivalents (Table 2) has been prepared to facilitate the use of metric weights for checking beams. HOW TO USE THE TABLE OF EQUIVALENTS. It must be remembered that the pounds per bushel in the table are shown on the beam of the tester, and that the equivalent grams per quart in the table are to be placed in the kettle. The first column in the table Gontains the even pounds per bushel and the second column headed “0.0” (tenths) contains the grams-per-quart equiva- lent. The third column headed “0.1” contains the grams-per-quart equivalent to the pounds per bushel horizontally opposite any gram figures plus 0.1, or in the last column headed “0.9” the figures in grams horizontally opposite to any pounds per bushel in the first column represent that number of pounds plus “0.9.” Erample: How many grams per quart are equivalent to 50.9 pounds per bushel? Follow down the left-hand column of the table to 50.0, then on that line horizontally to the right to the column headed 0.9 and find 721.5 grams, which if placed in the kettle should balance 50.9 pounds per bushel on the beam. If it is practicable to determine the weight in grams of the con- tents of a quart test kettle, this weight per quart in grams may be transposed by the use of the table to pounds per bushel. Haample: If 1 quart of grain is found to weigh 781 grams, what is the weight per bushel? Find 781.0 grams in the column headed 0.1. It is horizontally opposite 55.0; therefore, 781.0 grams per quart is equivalent to 55.1 pounds per bushel. TEST WEIGHT OF GRAIN: ACCURACY OF TESTING APPARATUS. TABLE 2.—Grams per quart equivalent to pounds per bushel. 1 Tenths of pounds per bushel. 3 0.0 NSS SERPS NASNO ONION SORMUG© HOWE NON BPNOH TT UWHOM APhWHO ARRNO ONIMWNO CTS RO peat men my SSRs NeSson NOW CO 6 G0 OH» or al oo 242. 4 Ce OORPD SHE ONM ALNOH NUMWHO WORWHE OAD ~ — CenNoewe wOwmR& 20 Ens ONS ES > x = * a | 0. 4 | 0.5 0.8 0.9 Grams per quart. 2.8 4.2 5.7 (eal 8.5 939 13 12.8 17.0 18. 4 19.8 21.3 22.7 24,1 25.5 26.9 31.2 32. 6 34.0 35.4 36. 8 38. 3 39. 7 41.1 45. 4 46.8 48. 2 49.6 51.0 52. 4 53. 0 55. 3 59.5 60. 9 62. 4 63.8 | 65.2 66. 6 68. 0 69. 5 73.7 75. 1 76.5 78. 0 79. 4 80. 8 82. 2 83.6 87.9 89.3 90. 7 92. 1 93. 5 95. 0 96. 4 97.8 102.1 103.5 104. 9 106. 3 107.7 109. 1 110.6 112.0 116. 2 117.6 119.1 120.5 121.9 123. 3 124.7 126. 2 130. 4 131.8 133. 2 134. 7 136. 1 137.5 138. 9 140. 3 144.6 146.0 147.4 148. 8 150. 2 151.7 153. 1 154, 5 158. 8 160. 2 161.6 163.0 164. 4 165. 8 167.3 168. 7 172.9 174.3 175. 8 177.2 178.6 180. 0 181. 4 182. 8 187.1 188. 5 189. 9 191. 4 192.8 194. 2 195. 6 197. 0 201.3 202. 7 204. 1 205. 5 206. 9 208. 4 209. 8 211.2 215. 5 216-9 218.3 219.7 221. 1 222.5 224.0 225. 4 229.6 231.0 232. 5 233. 9 235. 3 236. 7 238, 1 239.5 243. 8 245, 2 246. 6 248. 1 249, 5 250. 9 252. 3 253. 7 258. 0 259. 4 260. 8 262. 2 263. 6 265. 1 266.5 267.9 272. 2 273.6 275.0 276. 4 277.8 279, 2 280.7 282. 1 286. 3 287. 7 289, 2 290. 6 292. 0 293. 4 294.8 296, 2 300. 5 301.9 303. 3 304. 8 306. 2 307.6 309. 0 310. 4 314.7 316. 1 317.5 318.9 320. 3 321.8 323. 2 324. 6 328. 8 330. 3 331. 7 333. 1 334, 5 335. 9 337, 4 338. 8 343. 0 344. 4 345. 9 347.3 348. 7 350. 1 301.5 352. 9 357. 2 358. 6 360. 0 361.5 362. 9 364, 3 365. 7 367. 1 371.4 372.8 374, 2 375. 6 377.0 378. 5 379. 9 381.3 385. 5 387. 0 388. 4 389. 8 391. 2 392. 6 394, 1 395. 5 399. 7 401.1 402. 6 404. 0 405. 4 406. 8 408, 2 409. 6 413.9 415.3 416. 7 418. 2 419.6 421.0 422. 4 423.8 428. 1 429. 5 430. 9 432.3 | 433.7 435. 2 436. 6 438. 0 442, 2 443. 7 445.1 446.5 447.9 449, 3 450. 8 452. 2 456. 4 457. 8 459. 3 460. 7 462. 1 463. 5 464.9 466. 3 470. 6 472. 0 473. 4 474.8 476. 3 477.7 479.1 480. 5 484. 8 486, 2 487.6 489. 0 490. 4 491.9 493.3 494, 7 498. 9 500. 4 501. 8 503. 2 504. 6 506. 0 507. 5 508. 9 513. 1 514. 5 516. 0 517. 4 518. 8 520. 2 521.6 523. 0 527. 3 528. 7 530. 1 531. 5 533. 0 534. 4 535. 8 537. 2 541.5 542.9 544. 3 545. 7 547. 1 548. 6 550. 0 551. 4 555. 6 557.1 558. 5 559. 9 561. 3 562. 7 564, 2 565. 6 569. 8 571. 2 572.7 574.1 575. 5 576.9 578. 3 579. 7 584. 0 585. 4 586. 8 588. 2 589. 7 591. 1 592.5 593. 9 598. 2 599. 6 601. 0 602. 4 603. 8 605. 3 606. 7 608. 1 612.3 613. 8 615. 2 616. 6 618. 0 619. 4 620. 8 622.3 626.5 627.9 629. 4 630. 8 632. 2 633. 6 635. 0 636. 4 640. 7 642, 1 643. 5 644. 9 646, 4 647.8 649, 2 650. 6 654. 9 656. 3 657. 7 659. 1 660. 5 662. 0 663. 4 664. 8 669. 0 670. 5 671.9 673. 3 674. 676. 1 677.5 679. 0 683. 2 654. 6 686. 1 687. 5 688. 9 690. 3 691. 693. 1 697.4 698. 8 700. 2 701.6 703. 1 704. 5 705.9 707.3 711.6 713.0 714, 4 715. 8 717. 2 718, 2 720. 1 721.5 725.7 727.2 728. 6 730. 0 731.4 732. 8 734, 2 735.7 739.9 741.3 7A2. 8 744, 2 745. 6 747.0 748. 4 TAY. & 754.1 755. 5 756.9 758. 3 759. 761, 2 762. 6 764. 0 768. 3 769. 7 771.1 772. 5 773.9 775. 4 776. 8 778, 2 782. 4 783.9 785. 3 736. 7 788. 1 789. 5 790.9 792. 4 796. 6 798. 0 799. 5 800. 9 802. 3 503. 7 805. 1 806. 5 810. 8 812, 2 513.6 815.0 816.5 817.9 819. 3 $20. 7 825. 0 $26.4 $27.8 829. 2 830. 6 832. 1 833. 5 834. 9 839. 1 540. 6 #42. 0 843. 4 844, 846, 2 847.6 S40. 1 853. 3 854.7 856, 2 857. 6 859. O S60, 4 861,58 SO, 2 867.5 568. 9 870. 3 871.7 873. 2 874.6 876.0 877.4 881.7 883, 1 884. 5 BRD. | 887.3 RHR, 5 BK), 2 BO1. 6 BOS. & 897.3 898. 7 900.1 | 901.5 902, 9 WA. 3 905. & ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1066 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv June 21, 1922 CURCULIOS THAT ATTACK THE YOUNG FRUITS AND SHOOTS OF WALNUT AND HICKORY. By FrRep E. Brooks, Entomologist, Fruit Insect Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. SID ih So res 1 | The hickory-nut curculio__________ iat The butternut curculio____________ 2 History and distribution ______ 12 Panpotioni! (tie tel 2 Mood! jplanttis see yirel Sieve 2 & 12 LEGG) (PLEIN a 5 Se a a 2 DROME TSO Tyee ne cone er noe RE 12 Nature and extent of injury____ 3 Naturals enemiest 2225 2. areas 13 Eetomnintorye Eire ort pers ob 4 | The hickory-shoot curculio ________ 14 ITEUE AIA CTRINICS © 0s 4 tl if ATG USSetare fasta tap ra) eae ae a pe 14 The black-walnut curculio_________ 7 HOGG mp LEaMUS Sete Oe ee 14 Brachial e e 8 ite history; 2S eerie i ee 14 UOts) (pn ns Lae 8 Natural venemies! 22805 20) cee 15 Nature and extent of injury___ 8 | Methods of controlling nut-infesting © PPTL ALOU si ee 9 GOUT CUNT Se See are 16 Nabiral- enemies... ----._-__ 11 INTRODUCTION. Several species of snout-beetles nearly related to the common plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar Ubst.) attack the immature fruits, tender shoots, and leaf petioles of walnut and hickory. Four such species are cliscussed herein, all belonging to the genus Conotrachelus and all having evidently at times been confused under the one most familiar species, Conotrachelus juglandis Lec. The four species throughout the several stages of their development resemble one an- other closely in appearance, habits, and seasonal activities, except that they select different food plants or have different methods of attack. Several members of this group attack acorns and there are also several species of an allied group of snout-beetles (genus Balaninus) the larvee of which feed in mature, or nearly mature, chestnuts, hick- ory nuts, hazelnuts, and acorns. These are not dealt with in this bulletin. §8253°—22 2 BULLETIN 1066, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE BUTTERNUT CURCULIO-; The butternut curculio has been known commonly in the past either as the “ walnut weevil” or “ walnut curculio.” It would seem that for the members of this group whose larvee feed in immature nuts the term “curculio” is to be preferred in order to disassociate them in the popular mind from members of the Balaninus group, which have long been known as “nut weevils.” The other part of the name is here restricted to “ butternut ” for the reason that this species appears to confine its attacks almost exclusively to our native butter- nut (Juglans cinerea) and to introduced walnuts of the butternut type. There is a very similar but distinct species to which the name “walnut curculio” could be applied with equal appropriateness. In rearing several hundred specimens the writer has failed to obtain a single individual of C. juglandis from infested young black wal- nuts (/uglans nigra), the species commonly attacking black walnuts being Conotrachelus retentus Say, described on pages 7-11. One beetle of C. retentus was found among a lot of beetles of C. juglandis reared from butternuts, and it is possible that with both species of insect there is occasional interchange of hosts. The butternut curculio also attacks and injures seriously the fruit and small branches of various species of introduced walnuts, being especially destructive to the Japanese walnuts (J. sieboldiana and J. cordiformis) which are of the butternut type. (Pl. II, D; PI. ITT, B.) DISTRIBUTION. The known range of the butternut curculio extends from the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec, Canada, south through the New England States, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Kansas to Alabama and Georgia. Britton and Kirk? record it from 20 States within the boundary just given. The distribution of the insect follows rather closely the natural range of the butternut, which is its favorite native food plant. Throughout the general range of the insect there are evidently many localities, even where host trees abound, in which it is very rarely found. In many other localities it is abundant and destructive. FOOD PLANTS. Britton and Kirk ? give the food plants in the order of preference shown as follows: Juglans cordiformis, J. sieboldiana, J. cinerea, J. regia, J. nigra, and J. mandshuria. They quote Dr. Robert T. Mor- 1 Conotrachelus juglandis Lec.; suborder Rhynchophora, family Curculionidae, tribe Cryptorhynchini. 2 Britton, W. H., and Kirk, H. B. LIre HISTORY AND HABITS OF THE WALNUT WHEVIL OR CURCULIO. In 12th Ann. Rept. State Ent. Conn., p. 240-253. 1912. CURCULIOS THAT ATTACK WALNUT AND HICKORY. 3 ris, a nut grower, of New York City and Stamford, Conn., as stating that he has observed this curculio on various species of hickory. Blatchley and Leng * record the species as “ occurring on walnut, but- ternut, and hickory, the larve breeding in the green fruit.” The present writer has found this curculio attacking extensively the fruit of our native butternut (/. cinerea) and the shoots and leaf petioles of the Japanese walnuts (J. sieboldiana and J. cordi- jormis). It was found less frequently feeding and ovipositing in the shoots of the native butternut and the fruits of the Japanese walnuts. Several beetles were found in September on the branches of a young tree of Juglans cathayensis growing in Arnold Arbore- tum, at Boston, Mass., and there were evidences of serious injury to the branches made earlier in the season by the larve. Similar although less extensive injury was noted on a tree of the same spe- cies growing in one of the parks of Rochester, N. Y. NATURE AND EXTENT OF INJURY. The injury inflicted by this insect consists of feeding punctures made by the adults in the nuts, tender tips, and leaf petioles and the burrows of the larvee in the nuts and new growth of various species of walnuts. Extensive injury has been reported from Con- necticut, where young transplanted trees and trees in the nursery row haye been partially or entirely killed by the larve working in the branches. The most serious loss of this kind has been to the Japanese walnuts, although trees of the Persian walnut have suf- fered to some extent. Britton and Kirk® describe infestation in one nursery as follows: In a nursery at New Canaan [Conn.], about the middle of September, Mr. Kirk noticed a row containing about 265 trees of Juglans sieboldiana on all of which the larve were tunneling in the new growth. An adjoining row of about the same number of J. regia trees was only slightly attacked, and another adjoining row containing about 400 trees of black walnut, J. nigra, were unin- fested. Several hundred other trees of J. sieboldiana in another part of the same hursery were badly infested, not a single tree escaping. Here, also, was noticed the fall attack of the adults at the base of the leaf petioles, and two adults were collected. During the present investigation the writer has observed serious injury to young trees of J. siebaloliana, J. cordiformis, and J. cathay- ensis in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York. Southward, particularly in Maryland and West Virginia, extensive attacks upon the fruit of the native butternut occur regularly. Many cases have been observed in which 50 per cent or more of the nuts dropped from trees prematurely on account of injury by the cureulio larve, the percentage of loss being greatest in years of light crops. I*arther * GLatcHiey, W. 8., and Lene, C. W. RAYNCHOPHORA OR WHEVILS OF NORTHEASTERN AMERICA, p. 469. 1916. *Brirron, W. &., and Kirk, H. B. Op. elt. 4 BULLETIN 1066, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. north attacks upon the fruit of the native butternut seem less exten- sive, although at least a few infested nuts can usually be found upon or beneath any bearing tree. A case of slight injury to the nuts was found in 1920 in Jefferson County, N. Y. At nearly the same time about 20 bearing butternut trees were examined along the St. Law- rence River, in St. Lawrence County, N. Y., and not a trace of the in- sect found. Beetles were reared from both shoots and fruit of /. sieboldiana collected at Lockport, N. Y., and larvee were abundant in butternuts collected at Lake Winnepesaukee, in central New Hamp- shire. Occasionally the larvee are found boring in young shoots of butter- nut at French Creek, W. Va., oviposition evidently taking place in the tips of these shoots before the fruit is large enough to be attacked. On July 2, 1920, in the last-named locality, 60 half-grown butternuts were picked at random from the lower branches of one tree. Of these 60 nuts 48 contained ege punctures of the curculio and 12 were sound. A number of nearly full-grown larve were also found bor- ing in the terminal shoots and leaf petioles. These larve averaged larger than those in the nuts, indicating, as in numerous other obser- vations made, that eggs are first laid in the shoots. LIFE, HISTORY. The butternut curculio has but one generation annually, and, like other members of the genus, passes the winter in the adult stage. In West Virginia oviposition begins in May and continues practically all summer, apparently reaching its maximum the last of June or the first of July. EGG. The egg is oblong, oval, creamy white, with the surface like ground glass. (Pl. I, D and £; Pl. U1, A, 4, and @.) Three measured on July 2, 1920, were uniformly 1 mm. long by 0.6 mm. wide. Two measured on June 7, of the same year, were 0.9 mm. long by 0.6 mm. wide. Britton and Kirk® give the following dimensions: Length, 0.95 mm.; thickness, 0.57 mm. Most of the eggs hatch in from 8 to 10 days, although the period may extend to 15 days. LARVA. The larve are whitish, or dirty white, with brown head and black- — ish mandibles. (PI. II, D; Pl. I11, A and B.) The length is 12 to 13 mm. and the thickness 3 mm. Feeding in the nuts and shoots, they become full grown in four or five weeks and then enter the ground to pupate. Nuts that are attacked when very small usually furnish > BRITTON, W. E., and Kirk, H. B. Op. cit. Bul. 1066, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. THE BUTTERNUT CURCULIO. a, Adult curculio excavating egg chamberin butternut; b, adult female excavating exe chambet accompanied by male: c, curculio on tip of young butternut, a favorite resting place; d, ere in young butternut exposed by cutting away the skin; ¢, eggs near tip of butternuts, a favorite place for oviposition while the nuts are small. All enlarged. Bul. 1066, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. THE BUTTERNUT CURCULIO. a, Egg and egg-punctures near tip of young butternut, egg exposed by removing skin of nut; b, egesin shoot of Japanese walnut; c, eggs; d, larva boringin pith of Japanese walnut shoot. All enlarged. Bul. 1066, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. THE BUTTERNUT CURCULIO. a, Larvein husk of butternut; b, larvain shoot of Japanese walnut; c, pups within pupal cellgin the ground. Allslightly enlarged. CURCULIOS THAT ATTACK WALNUT AND HICKORY. 5 enough food to bring only one larva to maturity, but nuts that become infested when larger may contain from four to six larye which reach full growth. After leaving their feeding places preparatory to pupation the larve are active and crawl rapidly. When exposed to the light they have a habit of bending and catching the anal tip under the jaws and then releasing the tip with a jerk, sometimes throwing themselves in this way a distance equal to the length of the body. ‘The larvee issue chiefly in the early morning hours and enter the soil as quickly thereafter as possible. In West Virginia larvee began to issue from butternuts on July 18 and ddeaiuedl to appear al Sep- tember 4. Table 1 shows the rate of emergence. TABLE 1.—Time and rate of emergence of larve of the butternut curculio from half a bushel of butternuts at French Creek, W. Va., during the season of 1920. Num- | Num- Num- Date. ber of Date. ber of Date. ber of larve. | larve. larve. TELS ee SSG MANU i ee 4 9 0 2 8 6 5 1 0 1 1 9 8 0 1 4 0 5 5 0 2 0 2 Age 0 TNS Opt yo) sed Paty cee as 0 4 INE NU REN 3 0 EA Gee eae 14 a 0 0 Gls 5 NN Sa 4 4 LE ERS eee Soe 0 1 y Motalke: sso eon 464 9 As set forth in Table 1, 464 larve issued from half a bushel of in- fested butternuts over a period of 49 days. It is an interesting fact that emergence was much more rapid during cool than warm weather. For example, on the mornings of July 26 and August 2, the dates of maximum emergence of the larve, the temperature registered, re- spectively, 46° and 54° F. More than half the entire number of laryee issued on these two mornings of unusual cold. PUPA. The pupa (PI. IIT, () is creamy white, the color deepening and the eyes becoming dark as the adult stage is approached. The length averages 10 mm. and the thickness 5mm. The entire ventral surface is sparsely covered with short, stiff hairs. The pupa occupies a smooth-walled cell from 1 to 3 inches below the surface of the ground. Nearly a month is spent beneath the ground by the insect in the pre- pupa, pupa, and young adult stages and then it emerges as a fully developed beetle and seeks the branches of a host tree. 6 BULLETIN 1066, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ADULT. The beetle (Pl. I, A, B, and C’) resembles very closely the common plum curculio, being brownish gray with a variable, whitish, curved line on each side of the thorax and a broad whitish band behind the middle of the elytra. The back is marked with prominent humps and ridges and is covered with short gray and whitish pubescence. The strong curved beak is nearly half as long as the body, and the body, smite of the beak, averages about 7 mm. in length. The general appearance of the tile | is on and angular. The young beetles issue igus the soil in late summer and early autumn, 64 individuals issuing in West Virginia between August 17 and September 6. Of these beetles the maximum daily emergence of 13 took place on August 27. A few beetles continued to come from earth in rearing jars up to the middle of October. These young beetles reach the trees before those of the parent generation have all died, and, like them, feed sufficiently in the autumn on the surface of terminal shoots nad leaf petioles to suggest their destruction with arsenical sprays in September or early October The beetles go into hibernation, probably in litter on the ground, with the approach of freezing weather. The beetles issue from hibernation in the spring at about the time walnut trees come into bloom and resort at once to their host trees. They may at this time be jarred in abundance from butternut trees, a few having been taken in West Virginia by jarring black walnut and hickory trees growing near butternut trees. With very few ex- ceptions, however, the species jarred from black walnut at this season of the year has been (. retentus and those from hickory C. aratus. This usually holds good even where the three kinds of trees grow in close proximity. Feeding begins in a limited way soon after the beetles appear on the trees, the food consisting of stem and leaf tissues of the new growth. The feeding marks in the stems are in the form of irregu- lar pits reaching through the bark and are sometimes extensive enough to cause the leaves and tips to droop and die. Oviposition soon begins, the first eggs being laid in the new growth which forms before the fruit is large enough to be attacked. In the native butter- nut most of the eggs are withheld until the nuts are large enough to receive them, this being when the nuts are about an inch long. In young and tender nuts practically all the eggs are placed in crescent- shaped marks eaten into the husk near oe Bienes end. (PILI, Zz; Pl. II, A.) By means of an extrusive ovipositor the egg is thrust into a small pocket excavated beneath the tongue of skin on the con- cave side of the crescent. The beetles are often found resting upon the remnants of the blossom that project from the tip of the young CURCULIOS THAT ATTACK WALNUT AND HICKORY. 7 nuts (Pl. I, C), and in excavating the egg chamber in such nuts the female beetle takes her position on this withered part of the blossom, and, with her head pointing toward the nut, proceeds to excavate the crescent-shaped egg chamber. On account of her method of work the concave side of the crescent faces the tip. (Pl. II, A.) It is not unusual to find a young butternut with a row of hase crescent marks completely encircling the blossom end. As the nuts develop and the husk becomes tougher the beetle changes somewhat her method of procedure, and instead of cutting out the crescents for her eggs, places them in simple cavities gouged into the side of the nut through small openings in the skin. Such cavities are usually arranged in groups, the skin about the wounds being marked by dark stains from slight exudations of juice and from excrement voided by the beetle during the excavating process. These groups of punctures often contain half a dozen eggs each, one having been found by the writer which contained 11. NATURAL ENEMIES. During this investigation two species of dipterous parasites have been reared in West Virginia from larve of the butternut curculio. These have been determined by Dr. J. M. Aldrich, of the United States National Museum, as Chaetochlorops inquilina Coq. and Cho- lomyia longipes Fab. Both species are rather abundant, the first- named, especially, rendering good service in holding the curculio in check. Other investigators have reared the following species from this host: Metadexia basalis G.-T., Cholomyia inaequipes Bigot, MUyiophasia aenea Wied., and Sigalphus curculionis Fitch. THE BLACK-WALNUT CURCULIO-' In June, 1919, the ground beneath bearing black walnut trees (Jugians nigra) at French Creek, W. Va., was found to be strewn thickly with young nuts the size of small marbles. Examination showed that each nut contained a single dirty-white larva half an inch or less in length. A quantity of the nuts were collected and placed in rearing jars with the expectation that in due time beetles of Conotrachelus juglandis would be reared therefrom. When the beetles appeared, however, they were slightly different from C. jug- landis, and specimens submitted to Mr. E. A. Schwarz, of the United States Department of Agriculture, were determined as Cono- trachelus retentus Say, a species the habits of which had hitherto been practically unknown, Further observations proved that this species attacks commonly the young fruits of black walnut in many localities in the eastern » RARE of es country. * Conotrachelua retentuse Say; suborder Rhyncho yhora, family ¢ ‘urculionidae, tribe ‘ I Cryptorhynchint. 8 BULLETIN 1066,.U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DISTRIBUTION. This species was described and named nearly a century ago by Thomas Say.” Since Say’s description was published entomologists have from time to time collected specimens of the beetle, but no data on the feeding habits of the species have found their way into print. There are records of beetles being collected at Allegheny, Pa., Topeka, Kans., Mendenhall, Miss., and Haulover, Fla. During the present investigation the writer has collected the species at Harris- burg and York, Pa.; Hagerstown, Cumberland, and New Windsor, Md.; Morgantown and French Creek, W. Va.; Fincastle, Gala, Lick Run, Marion, McDowell, Oak Ridge, Pulaski, and Radford, Va.; and Black Mountain and Hickory, N. C. FOOD PLANTS. No food plants of this curculio seem to be known other than the black walnut (Juglans nigra) and butternut (J. cinerea). Of these two, the black walnut is much preferred, only one beetle of the species having been obtained in extensive rearings from butternut. Hamil- ton records taking the beetles by beating red oak sprouts, and the present writer has collected them from: hickory trees growing close to black walnut. The occurrence of the beetles on both the red oak and hickory was probably accidental. NATURE AND EXTENT OF INJURY. Except for its different food plant, this species corresponds very closely in all its activities as well as in appearance with the butternut curculio. The adults feed on the tender shoots and leaf petioles and make oviposition scars and feeding punctures in young black walnuts similar to those made in butternuts by the other species. The larve develop in young black walnuts and cause the nuts to drop, usually before they are half grown. The larve are occasionally, but rarely, found burrowing in the tender shoots of black walnut. In .seasons when black walnut trees are bearing a lght crop of nuts a large percentage of the crop may become infested and drop, but in years of heavy fruitage the curculios do no more than to effect an unimportant thinning of the nuts. The following notes of field observations indicate degrees of infestation such as were fre- quently noted. On June 15, 1920, 17 newly set black walnuts were picked from the lower branches of a tree growing in a parklike woods near Cumberland, Md. Of these 17 nuts, 16 contained cur- culio egg punctures and the other a feeding puncture. On the 16th of the same month 50 per cent of the nuts on trees growing along the highway at New Windsor, Md., were found infested. At French 7TSay, THOMAS. ENTOMOLOGY OF NORTH AMERICA. (Leconte ed.) vy. 1, p. 295. 1859. Bul. 1066, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. THE BLACK-WALNUT CURCULIO. aandd, Female beetles excavating egg chamber in young black walnuts; b, egg; c, larva con structing pupal cellin the ground; é, egg puncturesin young walnut; f, pupa; g, egg punctures in walnuts. Bul. 1066, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. THE BLACK-WALNUT CURCULIO. a, Eggin natural position exposed by removing skin of young black walnut; 6, group of egg punctures in half-grown black walnut; c, parasitic fly Cholomyia longipes; d, pups within pupal cellsin earth; e, cocoons of the parasite Thersilochus conotrachelt occupying the pupal cells of the curculio after killing and devouring the host larve. All enlarged. CURCULIOS THAT ATTACK WALNUT AND HICKORY. 9 Creek, W. Va., 400 young nuts were gathered at random from the lower branches of-four black walnut trees growing in a pasture field. Of this lot of nuts 289 contained 466 egg punctures and the remaining 111 were sound. In another instance in the locality last mentioned 1,447 infested nuts dropped from one tree during the season. So far as observations have been made, the black walnut curculio seems much more abundant and injurious in the latitude of Mary- land and West Virginia than within the range of the black walnut farther to the north. In the vicinities of Trenton, N. J., Lancaster, Pa., Rochester and Lockport, N. Y., and Wallingford, Conn., a num- ber of bearing black walnut trees were examined without finding any evidences of the presence of the curculio. Locality records by various entomologists and observations made during the present in- vestigation indicate a southern rather than a northern range for this species. LIFE HISTORY. EGG. The egg (PL IV, B,; Pl. V, A) is oval, oblong, creamy white, sur- face delicately granulose, 1 mm. long by 0.7 mm. wide. Eggs that are deposited in young, tender nuts are placed beneath the flap of skin within a crescent-shaped puncture eaten out of the side of the nut (Pl. IV, #,G@). In the more solid husk of half-grown nuts the eggs are inserted in less elaborate punctures which resemble pin pricks and extend directly into the husk. (Pl. V, B.) These sim- ple egg punctures in the more nearly mature nuts are usually formed in groups of from three to six on the side of the nut. About a dozen eggs deposited in nuts on the trees on July 15 hatched on the morning of July 22 and an equal number deposited on July 16 hatched on July 23, an incubation period in both cases of 7 days under natural conditions. Two other lots of eggs laid and kept in an open insectary hatched in five and six days, respec- tively. In West Virginia oviposition begins normally during the last days of May and continues through June and most of July. LARVA, The larva (Pl. IV, () is creamy white with brown head, legless, and fusiform. It assumes naturally a curved position and is sparsely clothed with short, stiff hairs. The length is 11 mm. and the thick- ness 3mm. As soon as hatched it begins to feed from the side of the oviposition wound, and, in young nuts, soon devours the whole interior. In the older nuts feeding is done chiefly in the husk. The infested nut adheres to the branch until the larva is at least half grown, and then drops, the larva continuing to feed while the nut 10 BULLETIN 1066, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. dries and hardens on the ground. When the larva is full grown it ceases feeding, assumes a clearer cream color, and, after a period of a week or two of inactivity within the nut, cuts its way out through the shell and enters the ground to a depth of from 2 to 4 inches to pupate. Larvee may be found in the nuts from early in June until late in September. In one lot of 805 larvee which issued from in- fested black walnuts kept in rearing jars the first larva left the nut on July 14 and the last on September 21. These larve, like those of the butternut curculio, chiefly issued early in the morning and the largest numbers always in cool weather. In small green nuts only one larva matures to the nut, but two or three larve may de- velop together in a large nut. Apparently where several larve hatch and begin feeding in a small nut one individual always kills and devours the others. In two or three instances one larva was found killing and eating its fellow. On entering the ground the larva seeks a place where the soil is solid and fashions a smooth-walled cell (Pl. IV, C, Pl. V, D), where it rests for several days before pupating. PUPA. The pupa (PL IV, 7, Pl. V, D) is white and is about 9 mm. long by 3 mm. thick. The abdomen, thorax, and wing pads are covered thinly with short, stiff hairs, these hairs being shortest on the wing pads. The pupa occupies an unlined earthen cell from 2 to 4 inches - beneath the surface of the ground. The pupa stage covers a period of from two to three weeks. . ADULT. The mature beetle (Pl. IV, A and ZB) is dull reddish-brown and covered with grayish pubescence. There is a lghter colored, in- distinct, broad band behind the middle of the elytra and a vague, broken line of the same lighter shade on each side of the thorax. The snout is half as long as the body and the back is ridged and punctured. The length averages from 6 to 7 mm. This beetle in size and general shape resembles very closely the butternut curculio but its color markings and elytral sculpturing are less pronounced. The newly developed beetles begin issuing from the ground in August; the first specimens were obtained in this investigation on August 7. In one rearing cage 75 beetles came from the ground between August 13 and September 2, the maximum emergence tak- ing place from August 24 to 29. In late summer and early autumn the young beetles may be found on their host trees, where they apparently feed on the leaf petioles before seeking their hibernation quarters. The beetles live through the winter, probably hidden in the duff at the surface of the ground, CURCULIOS THAT ATTACK WALNUT AND HICKORY. 11 and resume activity in the spring in time to be on black walnut trees when the male catkins of the walnut are fully developed. As soon as the leaves and tender shoots appear the beetles attack them, sometimes feeding rather extensively. Soon thereafter they begin egg-laying in the young fruit. There is considerable variation in the time the fruit sets on individual trees of the black walnut in any locality and the beetles collect on the trees where the develop- ing nutlets are at the stage just to their liking. This is immediately after the female catkins on the point of the nut are beginning to wither. Most of the eggs are deposited in nuts at this stage of their development, although the beetles continue to oviposit to some extent in nuts that are larger. The beetles live normally throughout most of the summer and oviposit over a period of at least two months. Several over- wintering beetles confined in screen cages placed over walnut branches on the trees lived until the last of August. It is thus possible in late summer to find the parent beetles and their mature offispring to- gether on the trees. NATURAL ENEMIES. At least five species of insect parasites were found attacking the black walnut curculio in its Jarva and pupa stages. Three species of parasitic flies, determined by Dr. J. M. Aldrich as Chaetochlorops in- quilina Coq., Cholomyia longipes Fab. (Pl. V, C), and Fannia canicu- laris L., were reared from this host in considerable numbers. Two hymenopterous parasites, determined by Mr. R. A, Cushman as 7'77- aspis curculionis var. rufus (Riley) and Thersilochus conotracheli (Riley) (Pl. V, #) were also obtained in the rearing jars. Still another parasite, determined by Mr. R. A. Fouts as a new species of Belyta, was found in jars in which this curculio was being reared. THE HICKORY-NUT CURCULIO-* The hickory-nut curculio is very similar to the two species just dis- cussed, but it attacks the immature nuts of various kinds of hickory instead of walnuts. The beetles appear upon the trees somewhat later in spring than the other two and lay their first eggs in hickory nuts that are at least half grown, although before the nut kernels have begun to form. The most conspicuous manifestation of the presence of the insect is the dropping of the infested nuts about midsummer. It is not unusual in July and August to find in some localities the ground beneath bearing hickory trees strewn thickly with green nuts. Examination of these nuts will disclose a brownish oviposition scar ®Conotrachelus affinite Boh.; suborder Rhynehophora, family Curculionidae, tribe Cryptorbynechini. 12 BULLETIN 1066, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. on the side of the nut (PI. VI, @) and a whitish larva feeding within. (Pl. VI, D.) The dropping of nuts from this cause is sometimes very heavy. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. This species was described and named in 1837 by Boheman.® Since the original description was published the species has been referred to occasionally by entomologists, but it has at no time at- tracted extensive notice. It has been recorded from the States of New Jersey, Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, Louisiana, Florida, and the District of Columbia. FOOD PLANTS. During the last 15 years the writer has reared this curculio frequently from hickory nuts in West Virginia. Pierce’ has reared it from hickory nuts in Louisiana. Apparently its attacks are confined to the nuts of various species of hickory. In West. Vir- ginia the nuts of the pignut hickory, Hicoria glabra, seem to be pre- ferred to those of other species, although shagbark hickory nuts, H. ovata, are sometimes attacked extensively. Nuts of HW. alba and H. minima are attacked to some extent and it is probable that injury may occur to the nuts of all species of hickory that grow within the range of the insect. LIFE HISTORY. EGG. The egg (Pl. VI, 2) is oblong, elliptical, translucent white, the surface smooth and shiny. The average dimensions are 1 mm. long by 0.6 mm. thick. The eggs hatch in from five to seven days. LARVA. The larva (Pl. VI, D) is white with light brown head, full-grown specimens measuring 12 mm. in length. The larve are practically identical with those of the preceding species except that they taper somewhat more abruptly at the anal end than Conotrachelus retentus, and the bristles, with which the body is sparsely clothed, are shorter and less conspicuous than in C. juglandis. They are found feeding singly in fallen nuts during the months of July and August. The infested nuts drop about 20 days after oviposition takes place, or about 2 weeks after the larve begin to feed. At the time of dropping, the nuts average from one-half to two-thirds grown. ®BoHpMAN, C. H., In ScHOENHERR, C. J. SYNONYMIA INSECTORUM. GHNERA HBT SPECIES CURCULIONIDUM, t. 4, pars. 1, p. 429-480. 1837. 10 PIBRCE, W. DWIGHT. ON THE BIOLOGIES OF THE RHYNCHOPHORA OF NORTH AMBRICA. Studies from the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Nebraska, No. 78. Nebr. State Bd. Agr., Rpt. Zoologist, p. 274. 1907. Bul. 1066, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. THE HiIckKORY-NUT CURCULIO. a, Adult curenlio resting on hickory nut; b, egg exposed by cutting away the husk of the nut from around the egg chamber; c, oviposition scars in shagbark hickory nuts; d, larva feeding inshagbark hickory nut; é, parasitic ly Cholomyia longipes. Bul. 1066, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. THE HicKORY-SHOOT CURCULIO. a, Adult excavating egg chamber in leaf petiole; 6, oviposition scars; c, egg exposed by cutting away bark; d and e, larve feeding at base of leaf petioles; f, larvee Bul. 1066, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII}. e THE HICKORY-SHOOT CURCULIO. a, Ege in hickory shoot, exposed by removing bark; b, pups; c, hairworm parasite of larva by dead body of its host; d, curculio larva killed by larvee of parasitic fly, Chacto- chlorops inguilina, with pupze of parasite on right; ¢, adult parasite C. inquilina, CURCULIOS THAT ATTACK WALNUT AND HICKORY. 13 The larve continue feeding in the nuts for 10 days or 2 weeks after they are on the ground and then leave through exit holes made at the oviposition scar. PUPA. The pupa is delicate white, sparsely covered with short bristles, as in juglandis and retentus, and is of the same general size and shape as the adult. Pupation usually takes place within unlined cells of earth an inch or two below the surface of the ground. In a few in- stances pupation was found occurring within host nuts that were buried beneath damp, fallen leaves. The pupa stage covers a period of approximately 30 days. ADULT. The adult (Pl. VI, A) is reddish brown with a conspicuous broad band of a lighter grayish shade behind the middle of the elytra. The snout is long, and the general size, shape, and markings of the beetle are similar to those of C. juglandis and C. retentus. It may be dis- tinguished from C. retentus by its more reddish color, the light mark- ings on the thorax and elytra often having a pinkish cast, and from C. juglandis by the less prominent humps and ridges of the elytra and also by the more pronounced reddish shade of the elytral and thoracic bands and markings. The young beetles issue from the ground from August to October ; they have appeared in rearing jars at French Creek, W. Va., from August 12 to October 15. Soon after emergence from their pupal quarters they go into hibernation and do not reappear until late the following spring. Oviposition in the latitude of West Virginia begins late in June and covers a period of at least four weeks. The eggs are laid in cir- cular or sometimes crescent-shaped scars on the side of the nut, the scars soon taking on a brownish or blackish color and becoming rather conspicuous. (PI. VI, @.) It has been observed frequently that in nuts of [/icoria glabra the oviposition marks are made near the point of the nut, while in those of //. ovata the marks are directly on the side or near the stem end. Also, beetles developing from nuts of 7. ovata average larger than those from the nuts of 1. glabra. The beetles are especially active at nightfall and have been ob- served ovipositing after dark. NATURAL ENEMIES. Numerous specimens of a parasitic fly were reared in September from lJarve of this curculio. (Pl. VI, .) The species was determined by Dr. J. M. Aldrich as Cholomyia longipes Fab. A few specimens of another fly determined by Aldrich as Myiophasia globosa Towns. were also reared from the larve. Two hymenopterous species were 14 BULLETIN 1066, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. found parasitic upon the larvee; one of these was determined by Mr. R. A. Cushman as Triaspis curculionis var. rufus (Riley) and the other by Mr. C. F. W. Muesebeck as a new species of Microgaster. Pierce * records rearing the parasitic fly Myiophasia aenea Wied. from this host. THE HICKORY-SHOOT CURCULIO.” Soon after the growth of hickory begins in the spring the tender tips and leaf petioles may be found disfigured by dark, V-shaped marks on the bark about an eighth of an inch long. (PI. VII, B,) These are the egg punctures of a small snout-beetle which may be known as the hickory-shoot curculio. Often these marks occur in series of from 5 to 10 along the shoot, one above each leaf axil. Ex- amination of these marks usually discloses either the single white egg (Pl. VII, C,; Pl. VIII, A) or a small white grub feeding in the stem (Pl. VII, D and £). The affected tip or leaf usually withers and drops as a result of the injury. No instance of serious loss from this insect has come under the writer’s notice, but injurious attacks, especially to newly transplanted hickory trees, are a pos- sibility. DISTRIBUTION. This species was described from Kentucky in 1824 and has since been recorded from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Florida, and Texas. The writer has found it abundantly at French Creek, W. Va., and has observed its work in other West Virginia localities. FOOD PLANTS. This curculio has been observed attacking the shoots of the fol- lowing hickories in West Virginia: Hicoria minima, H. ovata, H. alba, H. glabra, and H. pecan. LIFE HISTORY. EGG. The ege (PI. VII, C; Pl. VIII, 4) is oval, oblong, creamy white, semitransparent, and averages 1.1 mm. by 9.7 mm. It occupies a shallow cavity at the side of an elongate slit which the female beetle makes with her snout in the bark of tender twigs and leaf petioles. (Pl. VII, A.) After the egg is deposited the bark over the egg cavity and along the edges of the slit turns dark and the wound shows as a blackish, triangular spot on the green bark. (PI. VII, B.) Several eggs laid on May 24 hatched on May 30, the incubation period being six days. 11 PrerRcH, W. DwicHT. A LIST OF PARASITES KNOWN TO ATTACK AMERICAN RHYNCHO- pHoRA. Jn Jour. Econ. Bnt., v. 1, no. 6, p. 390. 1908. 2 Conotrachelus aratus Germ., suborder Rhynchophora, family Curculionidae, tribe Cryptorhynchini. CURCULIOS THAT ATTACK WALNUT AND HICKORY. 15 LARVA. The larva (Pl. VII, D, #, and /) is yellowish white with brown head and black jaws and is covered with scattering, short bristles, those on the dorsal surface of the last three segments being longer than those elsewhere. The length of the larva averages 10 mm. and the thickness at the middle 2 mm. Except for its slightly smaller size it is practically indistinguishable from those of other species described herein. The favorite feeding place of the larva is in the heart of the bulb- like swelling at the base of the leaf petiole. (Pl. VII, D and £.) It also mines in the pith of the shoots and leaf stems, making bur- rows an inch or two long. The season of activity is in the spring and early summer when the new growth is tender. PUPA. The delicate, white pupa (Pl. VIII, &) is characteristic of the group and occupies an earthen cell from one-half inch to 2 inches below the surface of the ground. The pupa stage covers a period of not more than two or three weeks. ADULT, The beetle (Pl. VII, A) is considerably smaller than any other of the curculios discussed herein, an average specimen measuring 5 mm. in length and 2 mm. in thickness. The color is dull grayish brown with a more or less indistinct, broad band of yellowish pubes- cence behind the middle of the elytra and a narrow line of the same color on each side of the thorax. . The snout is stout and curved and as long as the head and thorax combined. The newly transformed beetles issue from the ground in mid- summer and probably spend thereafter a period of comparative in- activity on hickory trees before hibernating in the autumn. With the bursting of hickory buds the following spring they reappear and begin ovipositing as soon as the shoots are a few inches long. They feed rather freely at this time, eating out small pits which extend through the bark of the young growth. Beetles were found fre- quently hiding between the folds of the expanding buds of hickory. In ovipositing the female spends 30 to 40 minutes in preparing a place for the egg, and while thus engaged is often guarded closely by a male. NATURAL ENEMIES. The larvee while feeding and developing became rather heavily parasitized, at least 50 per cent of them dying from this cause during the two seasons they were kept under observation. Three species of 16 BULLETIN 1066, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. flies, determined by Dr. J. M. Aldrich as Myiophasia globosa Towns., Cholomyie longipes Fab., and Chaetochlorops inquilina Coq. (P1. VIII, D and £), were reared from the larve. Two larve in rearing cages died when full-grown and from each of their bodies there issued a hairworm several inches long, the species of which was not deter- mined (PI. VIII, @). METHODS OF CONTROLLING NUT-INFESTING CURCULIOS. The dropping of curculio-infested walnuts and hickory nuts before the larvee within them mature affords an opportunity for destroying the young insects by collecting and burning, or otherwise disposing of the fallen nuts. This method can be resorted to with success, how- ever, only in cases of isolated trees or plantations. In localities where the nut trees abound in woods a sufficient number of the cur- sulio beetles will develop on them to visit and injure any near-by ‘antations of the same kind. Where this means of reducing the in- seets is practiced collections should be made as often as once a week in orcer to secure the nuts before the larve leave them to enter the gre id for the completion of their development. Ail the curculios discussed herein do more or less feeding in the beetle stage before oviposition begins in the spring. A considerable part of this food consists of the surface tissues of stems, leaves, and frat. This makes it possible theoretically to destroy the beetles be- for their eggs are laid by spraying with arsenical poisons. Limited experiments by the writer indicate that lead arsenate applications soon after growth starts in the spring can be counted on to give good results in reducing injury, at least from the butternut and black wal- nut curculios. Britton and Kirk’ have found that spraying walnut trees with lead arsenate at a strength of 6 pounds to 50 gallons of water is an effective method of controlling the butternut curculio. Morris, in writing of attacks of the butternut curculio which were so extensive as to kill nearly 300 young English walnuts and several hundred young Japanese walnuts, states that subsequent spraying with 1 pound of lead arsenate to 10 gallons of water killed the beetles and prevented further injury. 18 BRITTON, W. E., and Kirk, H. B. Op cit. 14 Morris, Ropert T. METHOD FOR COMBATING THE WALNUT WEEVIL. In Amer. Nut Journ., v. 10, no. 5, p. 71. 1919. ¢ UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF oe CULTURE Contribution ‘rom the Bureau of Public Roads THCMAS B. MacDONALD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. June, 1922 TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. By W. B. Grecory, Irrigation Engineer. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Tle) 78 Li) a ee a 1 | Sources of power for pumping plants.-....._. 5 ares Of PIN Ske: fy. eS yey Cece ee 2 | Tests of pumping plants. -...2...2222-22 52-22 6 Suction and discharge pipes. ..-..---....---- 3 | Cost of operation of plants:-....----..1.....- 44 INTRODUCTION. Agriculture in the southern portions of Louisiana was first prac- ticed along the rivers and bayous. Since the alluvial soil was de- posited by the rivers the highest land is found near the banks, and there is a gradual slope from the rivers and bayous back to the swamp. Previous to the last decade the only reclaimed agricul- tural lands in southern Louisiana were in the rear of the sugar plan- tations. The early planters cultivated the narrow strip of land along the streams which could be drained by gravity. The width of these strips varied greatly, but usually the distance from the levees back to the swamp was from one-half mile to 2 miles. The cultivation of sugar cane created a demand for more land, and this demand was met by extending the plantations toward the swamps, removing the water by means of pumps from lands too low to drain by gravity. About 150,000 acres of agricultural lands in the State of Louisiana have been reclaimed or are at present in process of reclamation. The drainage of these agricultural lands and the drainage of the city of New Orleans, which was largely built in a swamp, have given a notable impetus to the development of pumps and pumping plants in this State. This development has been so rapid that it is now pos sible to find all types of drainage pumping plants in operation, from the old drainage wheel to the latest design of screw pump. Both 89752—22— Bull, 1067- ] | Dens BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in capacity and in excellence of design the pumping plants of this section are unique, although among the many plants erected there are some that are conspicuously superior to others. Department Bulletin No. 652, ‘““The Wet Lands of Louisiana and their Drain- age,’ and Volume XI, No. 6, of the Journal of Agricultural Re- search, contain much interesting information relating to the recla- mation of these lands. This bulletin contains a short description of the various types of drainage pumping plants found in the southern coast country, and: gives the results of tests that have been made since 1909 by the Division of Agricultural Engineering, Bureau of Public Roads. TYPES OF PUMPS. DRAINAGE WHEEL. The first pumps used in the Gulf Coast country for artificial drain- age were of the drainage wheel or scoop wheel type. Many of the steam-driven drainage wheels are still in use in Louisiana. Large wheels of this type range from 28 to 32 feet in diameter, with a width of from 4 to 7 feet. In most localities, however, the cost of founda- tions stable enough to hold the wheels rigidly in place has increased the cost of the drainage wheels to such an extent that they have been practically eliminated from competition with other cheaper forms of pumping plant. Another point against the drainage wheel is the difficulty involved in adjusting its height. Once set, the depth to which the water may be lowered is definitely fixed. As a rule these wheels are expected to pump against a maximum head equal to one-fourth the diameter. The humus of the drained land in time disappears as the land is cultivated, and the level of the land falls, the amount of shrinkage varying with the depth of humus. As a result of this shrinkage it has been found desirable after a few years to pump to a lower level. With a drainage wheel this requires either lengthening the paddles or lowering the founda- tions and power plant. CHAMBER-WHEEL PUMP. The chamber-wheel pump, certain types of which have been used for drainage, is practically a meter, the discharge being propor- tional to the speed. Because of the pulsations set up, due to the alternate accelerating and retarding of the water that is being pumped, there are well-defined limits of speed that may not be ex- ceeded without injury to the pump. While the centrifugal pump may be forced to an extent that is limited only by the power of the engine or motor driving it, the limitations of capacity for the cham- ber-wheel type are found in the pump itself. TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 3 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. The centrifugal pump in some of its various forms has proved to be a favorite for drainage work, where large volumes of water must be elevated only a few feet. There are many reasons for the popu- larity of the centrifugal pump, among which might be mentioned first cost, reliability of operation, simplicity of construction, and its ability, when forced, to develop a capacity much greater than the rated capacity. It is efficient if properly designed for the condi- tions under which it is operated. A cheap but fairly efficient form of centrifugal pump that was much used a few years ago is the vertical-shaft, wooden-box pump. Many are still in use, but of late they have given way to more substantial pumps made entirely of metal. The older pumps usually were driven by belt or rope drive, while the modern plants often have pumps and engines direct connected. HORIZONTAL CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. Centrifugal drainage pumps with horizontal shafts ususally have double suction pipes. The suction and discharge pipes withthe pump form a siphon, with the pump at the top at a convenient height for examination and for repair. Variations in level of the suction and discharge sides do not affect the pump, and the lift is always equal to the actual difference of level while the head the pump must develop is the lift plus the various friction losses in the pump and piping. These pumps are made by many firms and differ considerably in minor details. Their popularity is shown by the fact that a large majority of all the drainage plants installed during the last 10 years are of this type. SCREW PUMPS. Screw pumps range from 3 to 12 feet in diameter, the largest hav- ing a capacity of 700 cubic feet per second. The lift ranges up to 10 feet or more. A combination centrifugal screw pump has been developed that is especially suited to electric motor drive or internal-combustion engines. ‘The blades of this type of pump are so designed that the load is practically constant from a minimum to a maximum. lift when running at a constant speed. SUCTION AND DISCHARGE PIPES. In drainage installations, where the lift is usually between 4 and 10 feet, the losses at the entrance of suction pipes and the kinetic energy thrown away at the end of the discharge pipe together make up a large percentage of the energy used. These losses increase with the square of the velocity of the water at entrance and discharge, + BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and the velocity in turn depends upon the diameter or area of the pipe at the two ends. The larger the area at these ends the less will be the velocity and energy loss, and vice versa. For this reason the practice, formerly common, of designing the suction and discharge pipes to have the same diameter throughout is now being very generally abandoned, though occasionally descriptions of such plants, in which the fundamental laws of hydraulics are disregarded, find their way into the technical press. Ee Se ae ESE erase aie | ie be lao. aey Sead lela 40 /| za aoe 4e7 a ales Ss o/ |. | ee eee BORER “wena AES) Aral a] elles eee ee ae 20 2- oO" Ze e 3- oO" 35 Gt 4-0" Dram. of Opening, Suction and Discharge Fic. 1.—Gain in -fficiency due to expanding suction and discharge pipes. Until lately the entrance loss has usually been estimated at 0.93 of the velocity head at the entrance. Bulletin 96 of the Engineering Experiment Station, University of Hlinois, contains evidence that this coefficient is too high and suggests a value of 0.62. The dis- charge loss is equal to the velocity head at the end of the discharge pipe. If the pipes are round and the diameter be doubled at the suction and discharge ends, the areas will be multiplied by 4; and with pumping at a constant rate there will be entrance and dis- TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 5 charge velocities one-fourth as great as with pipe of uniform size. Losses vary as the square of the velocity, so they will be reduced to one-sixteenth of the loss in a pipe of uniform size, if the diameter of the ends of suction and discharge pipes be gradually enlarged to twice the diameter of the rest of the pipe, or, in case the pipe is not round, if the end atea be increased four times. The importance of this matter of pipe expansion is illustrated by figure 1. It is assumed that the pump flange is designed for a dis- charge pipe 2 feet in diameter and that the mean velocity is 10 feet per second. The length of straight pipe is taken as 15 feet. SOURCES OF POWER FOR PUMPING PLANTS. STEAM ENGINES. Steam engines were used to furnish power for the earliest pumping plants. The simpler and less efficient types first employed have been replaced by more efficient types as improved pumps have taken the place of the drainage wheel and less efficient pumps. Plants now in use employ simple, noncondensing engines, compound condensing engines with high-pressure water-tube boilers, Corliss engines direct-connected to centrifugal pumps, and one plant in- spected used superheated steam in a compound-condensing engine of the poppet-valve type. Steam plants of all types are reliable in operation, and when the pumps are of the centrifugal type the capacity may be increased to a marked degree, at the expense of efficiency, by merely increasing the speed. Steam plants are easily run and if cared for by a competent operator will have a reasonable length of life. Unfortunately, however, they frequently do not receive the neces- sary care. The principal cause of deterioration is the character of water that is used in the boilers. Generally the only water available is the drainage water from the wet prairies, containing acids and organic compounds which corrode and cause trouble with feed pipes, boiler accessories, and boilers. Besides the boiler troubles to which they are liable steam plants are often wasteful of fuel, while the opposite is true of plants using the internal-combustion engine. For these and other reasons the most recent pumping plants erected in Louisiana have in many instances used internal-combustion engines as a source of power. INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES. In the last few years the internal-combustion engine has been so far improved and perfected that lack of reliability is no longer con- sidered a hindrance to its use. For several years four-stroke cycle engines were used almost exclusively, and the fuels employed varied from heavy low-grade crude oils to kerosene. Recently, two-stroke 6 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cycle oil engines of the semi-Diesel type have come into favor. These engines employ comparatively low compression, usually from 125 to 250 pounds per square inch. The speed is relatively high, ~ the engines usually running 200 to 260 revolutions per minute for sizes from 50 to 150 horsepower. They are generally of the horizontal type, but some are of the vertical type. Ignition is by means of a hot bulb or a hot plate partially cooled by water circulation. The details of design differ considerably. In providing scavenging air some compress into the crank case or on the front side of the power piston, while others use a large piston in front of the power piston. Some have governors that may be adjusted while the engine is running, while others must be stopped when an adjustment of the governor is to be made. Some have crossheads, others have trunk pistons. Some inject water with the fuel or into the combustion chamber, others do not. Lubricating oil may be recovered from some of these engines, while that employed in others is useless after being used once. Some owners complain of the large amount of lubricat- ing oil used. A point worthy of note is that all engines of this type must be operated well under their maximum load to avoid trouble, and this is especially true of the crude-oil engines. The exhaust from engines using crude oil, unless of the Diesel type, is always smoky and often contains tarry matter that will foul the cylinders and eventually cause trouble. Absence of valves tends to minimize this trouble, but does not entirely remove it. Coke sometimes forms in the exhaust pipe if a low grade of oil is used, and the pipe must occa- ‘sionally be removed and cleaned. For the smaller plants, two-cycle crude-oil engines are being installed to the exclusion of nearly every other type. The future probably will see some of the present difficulties eliminated, and further use will familiarize operators with such peculiarities as require close attention and care. ELECTRIC POWER. Electricity as a source of power for drainage pumping plants has not come into extensive use in southern Louisiana and Texas. It has the advantage of greater convenience than other sources of power, and where adequate transmission lines are easily accessible this advantage may make it desirable, notwithstanding its higher cost as compared with power from steam or internal-combustion engines. TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS. CONDITION OF TESTS. Tests of pumping plants should be made during fair weather, after allowing the reservoir canals to fill to the maximum depth. If the TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 7 test is continued until the water is drawn down to a low level the results may be divided into hourly periods in such a way as to show the behavior of the plant throughout the range of lift. The reservoir capacity per unit tested will determine the length of time required for such a test. If it is desired to determine the behavior of a plant under average lift, either the test must be comparatively short or there must be a supply of water furnished by rain during the test, though the water possibly may be siphoned back through a pump that is not being operated. The latter plan is applicable only to plants having more than one unit. In any case the test usually will be more accurate if it extends over a considerable length of time. Although many of the tests described covered only a comparatively short period, the accuracy of fuel measurements is high because the fuel has been oil. Tests made with this fuel used in internai- combustion engines or burned in boiler furnaces are much more accurate than those made for corresponding periods of time with coal as a fuel. A boiler test with oil fuel can be made without dis- turbing the normal operation of the plant. With coal as fuel there are many irregularities introduced, due to the measurements neces- sary to the test. Fortunately all the tests here recorded were made with oil as fuel. The showing made by a pumping plant depends in some measure on conditions surrounding the test. If a guarantee of efficiency and fuel consumption has been made by the parties erecting the plant and the test is made to show whether the guarantee has been met, the plant is likely to make its best showing. If, however, the same plant has been turned over to a careless operator and has not been kept in first-class condition a casual test made without particular preparation may show results quite different from those of the acceptance test. The amount of this difference will vary greatly with different types of plant and with the conditions of operation. Centrifugal pumps operate efficiently only at proper speeds. There are, however, many instances where capacity and not efficiency is the controlling element in a pumping plant. If an unusual rainfall has occurred it is desirable to remove the water before damage results to crops, regardless of fuel cost. Steam pumping plants have in general more overload capacity than internal-combustion engine plants. Steam engines usually are selected on a basis of size that enables them to force the pumps beyond normal capacity, while an increase of steam pressure in case of liberal boiler capacity always will insure overloads. On the other hand, the internal-combustion engine usually may not be forced to an output of power greatly in excess of its normal rating. When in the best possible condition a maximum of 10 to 15 per cent in excess of the rating may be expected. 8 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The showing made by a pumping plant will depend to some extent on the amount of vegetation in the water and consequently on the time of year the test is made. A screen in the suction canal to keep weeds from reaching the pump is a necessity. Even where there is a good screen, weeds of small size will pass through and be caught on the blades of the impeller of the pump. The effect is to reduce both capacity and efficiency. There is urgent need for some form of cutter that may be operated while the pump is in use. Such a device has been applied to one form of screw pump. It consists of a heavy cyl- inder of metal that is foreed in and out by a hydraulic piston and so placed that the blades of the impeller barely clear; any trash caught by the blades is thus sheared off and passes on through the pump. The patent involved also covers the application of the device to centrifugal pumps, but so far as observation extends it has not been applied to that type of pump. Some pumping plants are operated at an improper number of revolutions per minute because of lack of data regarding the proper speeds for different lifts. Without a series of tests to determine the best speed of rotation a plant may be operated at considerable disadvantage. Because of the limited time ordinarily devoted to such a series, and the many limitations affecting the outcome of the tests, it is quite probable that the results do not represent the best performance of the class to which the plant belongs. The tests described hereafter were run by W. B. Gregory and J. M. Robert, of Tulane University, and C. W. Okey, Senior Drainage En- gineer, United States Department of Agricuiture, assisted by B. S. Nelson, Charles Kirschner, and several members of the senior class in mechanical engineering at Tulane University. TEST OF DRAINAGE WHEEL ON THE SOUTH SIDE PLANTING CO.’S TRACT, NEW ORLEANS, LA. This test was made in 1905 on a drainage wheel used to drain 1,700 acres. The wheel was typical of its class, but had distinct features in the double gearing and in the number of paddles. Care was exercised so to design the wheel that the water would not be lifted unnecessarily. Its diameter was 28 feet and its width 6 feet. It was driven by a simple noncondensing engine of the slide-valve type, with a cylinder 16 inches in diameter and a stroke of 24 inches. The method of testing consisted in traversing the discharge flume with a current meter and taking indicator cards and other observa- tions as quickly as possible after the traverse was finished. By this means the indicated horsepower was a little less than the mean cor- responding to the water measurement, but as the latter required only about 10 minutes the error was not great. TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 9 The results given in Table | are very satisfactory, as they show an efficiency of engine, transmission gears, and pump in every case exceeding 38 per cent and in two cases considerably above that figure, while the actual lift of the pump varied from 2.4 feet to 2.86 feet. During the last observation the paddles dipped into the water to a depth of approximately 1 foot, and the slip or backward flow was quite large. The clearance on the side of paddles was about three- fourths inch. TaBLe 1.—Engine and pump test, South Side Planting Co.’s drainage wheel. | at | | pas ; | Useful | Boiler posucaied Speed of | Speed of! Actual | Diccharee | water | Effi- pressure-| > ower engine. | wheel. | lift. % ie horse- | ciency. is power. | | | | = | | Lbs. per | * | | sq. in. R.p.m.| R. p.m. Feet. Sec.ft. | G. p.m. | | Per cent. 40 13. 43 GIy) +] DACO EE ac Soe Reo ne eet eee Sao NS as. ee eg 40 12. 61 66 4 2.17 2.4 20. 71 9,299 | 5. 59) | 44.3 38 | 10. 37 68 2.24 | 2.8 | 17. 20 USER 5. 41 | 52.2 36 8. 80 | 67.5 | 2, 22 | 200) | 11. 23 | 5,042 3.41 38. 8 37 | 6.95 68 | 2.24 | 2. 86 | 8.21 | 3,686 | 2. 66 | 38. 3 | 138, 2 19. 68 166.1 | 12,22 | 12.69 1 14. 34 16, 437 | 14,97 | 143.4 | | ! Mean. Duration of test, 1 hour. These results are confirmed by a test of a similar drainage wheel in the old London Avenue pumping station in New Orleans, made in August, 1900, by W. M. White. In this test between 50 and60 cubic feet per second were pumped through a height varying from 4 to 5 feet. The efficiency of engine, gearing, and pump ranged from 45 to 50 per cent. The duty per 100 pounds of coal was approxi- mately 13,000,000 foot-pounds. The water rate of the engine was 50.5 pounds per indicated horsepower-hour. The engine was of the type used in Mississippi River steamboats; diameter of cylinder 18 inches; length of stroke 54 inches. During the test the engine made about 35 revolutions per minute. TEST OF CHAMBER-WHEEL PUMP ON WILLSWOOD PLANTATION, WAGGAMAN, LA. In a drainage pumping plant composed of large units such as are required ordinarily in drainage work, the pumps lift the water higher than is necessary, and while they are efficient if credited with the higher lift, they lose their efficiency on low lifts when the actual difference in level is considered. This point is well illustrated by the test made at the drainage pumping plant of Willswood plantation. At the time there were three pumping units on this plantation, steam being furnished by two water-tube boilers and one horizontal return tubular boiler. The fuel was crude oil and a feed-water heater was used. Following is a description of the three units: 89782—22—Bull. 1067 2 10 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1. A 16 by 24 inch automatic noncondensing engine connected by rope drive toa rotary chamber-wheel pump. Maximum capacity of 40,000 gallons per minute. 2. A similar engine connected by rope drive and bevel gear ! to a 42 by 16 inch Menge pump. 3. A double vertical engine direct-connected to a 36-inch centrifugal pump. Pumps 1 and 2 discharge into open flumes at an average head on the pump of 10 feet, which was 5 feet greater than necessary. The bottom of the discharge flume was placed at the elevation of the top of the back levee, which normally was about 5 feet higher than the water of the swamp behind the levee. In testing pump No. 1, the quantity of water was measured by means of a weir without end contractions placed in the discharge flume. Table 2 shows the results obtained by the test. TaBLE 2.—Test! of pump No. 1, Willswood plantation, June 15, 1909. Water horse- Ss | Speed. power. : 16 a iiss | ro gia eoeat ok maces 7 Efficiency of Bout cated | | piscine Actual Head engine, trans- ae e, | horse- | = ae lift. Based | Based_| mission, and > ower. ne | DUD eee onuhiead| pump P Engine.) Pump. on actu-| on 3 lift. | allift pump. |. | |Lbs . per | Per Per sq. in R.p.m.|\R. p.m.) Sec.-ft. |G. p.m.| Feet. | Feet. cent. | cent | 89 | 153.5 | 108.5 89.0 | .2 | 30, 200 5.2 10.0 46.0 88.4 | 29.9 57.5 89 | 163.0 | 115.0 94.5 83.0 | 37,300 5.3 10.3 49.6 96.5 | 30.4 59.1 89} 155.8 | 112.5 92.0 80.8 | 36,300 5.4 10.3 49.3 94.0 | 31.6 60. 3 90°} 166.8) 116.5 | 95.5 83.9 | 37,700 5.5 10.5 52.1 99.5 | 31.3 59. 8 92) 166.8} 117.5 | 96.0] 84.3 | 37,900 5.5 10.5 52.3 | 100.0 | 31.4 60.0 87 | 152.2 109.0 89.5 78.7 , 400 5.5 10.5 48.8 93.3 | 32.1 61.3 86 | 145.6 |} 106.0} 87.0) 76.4 | 34,400 5.6 10.5 48.4 90.8 | 33.2 62.3 Sea dera| beatae Rees ew eed [ecco chalets alee |Ee oe eels ees 22 hae es a oe eS | | 1 Duration of test, 1 hour and 30 minutes. 2 Average. ~ When the pump was credited with the head through which the water was elevated at the pump the average efficiency of engine, trans- mission, and pump was found to be 60 per cent. Based on the actual lift it was only 31 per cent. Assuming the mechanical efficiency of the engine as 90 per cent and the efficiency of transmission as 95 per cent, the efficiency of the pump, if credited with the whole lift, is a little more than 70 per cent. TEST OF MENGE PUMP, PARADIS, LA. Several efficiency tests of Menge pump installations, both for drainage and for irrigation, show that where the pumps were favor- ably located and the plants in good condition the efficiencies were excellent. The results given in Table 3 were obtained from a test of a drainage plant made at Paradis, La. The plant consisted of a 48 by 18 inch Menge pump run by means of a rope drive from a steam engine; 1 This has since been changed to a quarter-twist rope drive, thus eliminating the bevel gears: TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. ial diameter of cylinder 14 inches, stroke 20 inches. Various speeds of rotation were employed for the purpose of finding the best efficiency. The results were excellent and have been confirmed by tests of other plants. If the mechanical efficiency of the engine be assumed as 90 per cent and the efficiency of transmission 95 per cent, the efficiency of the pump would be approximately 55 per cent with a 5-foot lift. TABLE 3.—Test1 of Menge pump, Paradis, La., Sept. 16, 1909. | ae Speed. EENCY, : ndi- ofengine, Boiler cated Actual : Water trans- DEES: hors2- lift. Discharge. ROUses mission, SUSE: power. | Engine. | Pump. OAS and pump. Lbs. per sq. in. R.p.m.| R. p.m. Feet. Sec.-ft. | G. p.m. Per cent. | 76 11.4 67 78 2. 67 1.28 575 0.39 3.4 77 39.6 92 98 3. 55 39.6 17, 800 15.9 40. 2 80 49.1 92 99 3.65 39, 6 17, 800 16. 3 40.6 75 59. 6 107 117 4, 24 54.5 24, 500 26. 1 43. 8 77 22.1 80 8&7 3. 42 20. 8 9, 360 8.0 36. 2 7 BVAT/ 93 101 3. 90 35. 5 15,970 15.6 41.4 69 59.3 107 116 4.30 53. 7 24, 150 26.1 44.0 | 70 41.7 97 104 4.15 37.9 17, 050 17.8 42.7 68 65.8 111 121 4. 80 52.0 23, 400 28. 2 42.8 55 48.4 100 111 4,55 42.8 19, 300 22.0 45.5 55 71.0 114 123 5. 00 55. 5 25, 000 31.4 44,2 50 65.3 | 110 122 5. 00 54.5 24, 500 30. 8 47.1 48 60.6 | 109 118 4.90 51, 2 23, 000 28. 4 46.8 70 | 76.5 116 128 5.30 56. 3 25, 350 33.7 44.1 1 Duration oftest, 3 hours 13 minutes. TESTS OF PUMPING PLANT OF THE PHILLIPS LAND CO., PLAQUEMINES PARISH, LA. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. This pumping plant is used to drain 2,500 acres of wet prairie land in Plaquemines Parish, about 15 miles below New Orleans. The plant consists of two units, a 36-inch double-suction centrifugal pump driven by a 14 by 18 inch simple slide-valve engine, and a 24-inch double-suction centrifugal pump driven by a 10 by 14 inch simple slide-valve engine. Both engines are noncondensing. The suction pipes of the large pump are 26 inches in diameter, while those of the smaller pump are 18 inches. The pumps are direct connected to the engines through flexible couplings. The exhaust of the engines is conducted through a common exhaust pipe to a closed heater and then to an exhaust head. Steam is furnished by two horizontal return tubular boilers rated at 80 horsepower each. Oil is used as fuel. Steam is required to atomize the oil and to run the oil and boiler feed pumps. The pumping plant is housed in a steel frame building covered with galvanized iron. METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE FIRST TEST. The plant was operated under normal conditions for the first test. Fuel was measured in a barrel. Feed water was measured by a Worthington meter, which was calibrated after the test. No attempt = BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was made to measure the moisture in ithe steam, the amount of which at times was quite large. Observations were taken ‘at *half-hour intervals. The quantity of water pumped was measured by means of Pitot tubes, one being placed in the discharge pipe of each pump. Velocity was measured at 10 points in the pipe, so chosen that the arithmetical mean of the separate velocities gave the mean velocity of water in the pipe. Gages set in still water in the suction and discharge canals were read, and the difference of the readings used as head of actual lift in computing the useful water horsepower. The heads on the pumps were found by providing openings in the suction and discharge pipes near the pumps and reading the negative heads by means of a mer- cury column. The suction head was taken in each case as the mean of the two readings on the suction pipes. The head on pump was computed from the formula Vee Vie H=ha—h, +h’ + — Gi ha=head in discharge pipe in feet of water shown by mercury column; it may be positive or negative. h,=head on suction pipe in feet of water shown by mercury column; it is usually negative. h’’ = difference of level of openings in suction and discharge pipes; this term is + if opening in discharge pipe is above that in suction and — when the opposite is true. V,z=mean velocity in discharge pipe. V,=mean velocity in suction pipe. - Table 4 shows the results obtained by the test and Table 5 gives a summary of the results of the engine and pump test and the boiler ‘test. Tasie 4.—First test of Phillips Land Co. pumping plant,.Oct. 19, 1912. 36-INCH UNIT. | | Efficiency. Boiler Head | Useful Pump | Based Time. | pres- EeOTEes Speed. Actual on. Discharge. wane horse- on Based | sure. P * | pump. | power. | POWer- useful pump | | water | WF p 1 a tes | Heee wey | | Lbs. per | sq. in. |R.p.m.| Feet. | Feet. | Sec.-ft.|G@.p.m.| IPE Cb | aebsChs NODS ss oasaal 118 94.0 | 176 3.85 6.93 62.2 | 27,910 | 27.20 | 48.90 28.9 52.1 10:305 ee ee 118 92.2 | 176 4.01 6.61 63.0 | 28,280 | 28.70 | 47.25 31.1 51.3 M00 | JE I tele 7) 172 ANSE see 61.2 | 27,480 | 28.70 |..-.---- Borla eee LISS Osea 120 | 90.9 174 4.21 6.63 61.0 | 27,390 | 29.15) 45.80 32.1 50. 5 P2100 2ee ne | 126) 90.6 | i74 4.2) 6.63 60.6 | 27,2 0, 29.60} 45.70 3227 50.4 22d 0 ese se 120 CBR IH 177 A AQ). | os ae ere 61.2 | 27,480 | 30.60 |........ 32291 Sanaa LEO ORES aie 120 91.6 177 4.49 7.08 61.7 | 27,700 | 31.50) 49.60 34.4 54.1 ES) bse soseel 117 88.4 | 177; 4.59 6.76 60.4 | 27,100 31.45; 46.30 35.6 52.3 200 See | 120 88.6 176 4.67 6.92 59.5 | 26,700 | 31.55 | 46.70 35.6 S2ei BEsUmee eke 125 87.8 177 4.77 6.97 54.8 | 24,600 | 2).60| 43.30 33.7 49.3 300 S| 115 86.9 | 177 4.85 7.26 53.9 | 24,190 | 29.65 | 44.30 34.1 51.0 3 Mgscos a 118} 86.3 176| 4.94] 7.10] 54.2 | 24,320) 30.35 | 43.60] 35.1 59.5 4:00 DS ie | 117 90.3 | 177 | 5.04) 7.22 59.5 | 22,670 | 28.90 | 41.40 32.0 45.8 Mean..... | 118.5 89.8 | 175.9 4.48 | 6.92 58.7 | 26,345 | 29.75 | 45.75 33.2 po-9 Fuel oil used, both units, 2,256 pounds; feed water used, both units, 27,850 pounds. TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 13 TaBLeE 4.—First test of Phillips Land Co. pumping plant, Oct. 19, 1912—Continued. 24-INCH UNIT. | . Efficiency. | | | | | Useful | Boiler es litaree Head | . ese Pump _ Time pres- HOrse-| Sheed. Acual on Discharge. | Water horse. | Based | Basea power ift. horse : on sure. pump. : power . on power useful water | aoe ISR IER sess © | — — — Lbs. per | | Sq. ?n. | R.p.m., Feet. | Feel. | Sec.-{t.|G.p.m. 12a) LCi TM Sa / 118 34.6 210) 3.85 6.14 29.5 | 13,240 | 12.90 | 20.60 37.3 | 59.5 iliss{| Sa aes 118 35.0 210); 4.01 6. 20 29.3 | 13,150 | 13.33 | 20.60 38.1 | 58.8 PAOD Sr oo 117 26.0 202 41S) les eee hoa P2EZ00N TAN Soles ona URE eaeos soe PESOS 120 23.0 182) 4.21 5.65 22.6 | 10,000 | 10.80 | 14.50 47.0 63.0 12-00-23 == 126 23.8 132i 4229015 5412 26.2 | 11,760 | 12.72} 17.00 53.4 eS IZSOX 52 22 120 34.1 208i) SP 4540 are see ASO ML 2BO TON Mel asAS hee. AD2S El A atoees 1 ee 120 34.9 209 | 4.49 6.44 28.7 | 12,880] 14.60 20. 90 41.8 59.9 ibs xeees Gam 117 33.7 208 | 4.59 6.57 27.6 | 12,390] 14.40) 20.60 42.8 | 61.1 2:00-- Y== = - 120 34.1 208 | 4.67 6. 40 27.6 | 12,390} 14.65 | 20.05 43.0 | 58.8 Dens Seek 125 | . 33.5 208 | 4.77 6.63 26.5 | 11,890] 14.38 | 19.95 42.9 DORD BOs 5-5 - 115 33.8 208 4.86 6.33 25.9 | 11,640 | 14.25 | 18.57 42.2 54.9 Ara! 118 33.4 208- 4.94) 6.56 26.5 | 11,890} 14.85 | 19.71 44.4 59.0 4:00.52 .-- 117 33.9 209 »=-5. 04 6.63 23.6 | 10,590 | 13.50 | 17.78 39.8 52.5 Mean..... 118.5 31.8 204 4.48 6.30 26.9 | 12,073 | 13.67 19.10 43.4 | 59.9 | } Fuel oil used, both units 2,256 pounds; feed water used, both units 27,850 pounds. TABLE 5.—Summary of first test of Phillips Land Co. plant. 36-inch 24irch unit. unit. fea | ENGINE AND PUMP TEST. | LE) TOA LITE THEST SS LNG iV EI ie he lac ge ee 6 6 PERU PINGMO DEI LO one as Pete mans San a SAS ota cis rie CO se a seins Ses } 175.9 | 204. 0 eeree EMOTE DOW CL. ge 5 Set tee crt nee Liye © hs) Ts SESE See 89.8 | 31.8 Steam used, pounds per indicated horsepower per hour, average (uncorrected for CAE SEIS SO a SR A See eee 2 a oe Coe ae 99 ee Boao! wal wats onesie PPE NER CIIAICTOOL DCL SCCOUGS. 5 sas cose bie oto we one Sos enek con ckbedcers aces 58.7 Zino Pee ALPeAUOANOUS DEG IMMUNE 622.2 52. eats = Siaeja nine oe ceeds ¢ ae eis n efeieneisisiecie one 25, 350 12, 350 LS a ae ey ee ee ee 5 ' 4, 48 | 4.48 De EUESSITET COL the Oe eta oe Sa Se Takk ee oe eee 6.92 | 6, 30 Head lost in suction and discharge pipes, feet.........-...2..-2--------00-----0e- 2.44 | 1 82 PPEMEIEEITIOLECDOW EL 8 2 meen ee ec ce ad 2 oc oe ee dee IES Cen we aioe ee cies cece 29. 75 13. 67 2 ETSIG Gis Ie SS 6 errr erie Cana ate ees eae Ve Se a eee ee 45.75 19. 10 Efficiency of pump, engine, and piping, percent............-......---2---2----- 33. 20 | 43. 40 miumency OLpininp And engine, percent. =...) 02k --<1.0c eee were ales wee cin see oe 50, 90 | 59. 90 Efficiency of pump (engine efficiency assumed to be 90 per cent), percent....... 56.6 | 66.6 BOILER TEST. IERMIETEMRSSTICMLELATLOLILE sete oe 2 2s se Siok ec te ie Ne ae Sire is ieictereiie Ghia 25 reece Average steam pressure, pounds per squareinch...............-..-------------- BLS Oot Scies eens SPEPRLOLITALIO UW ALCL TIS, OUNCES... ssc ed cinc donc cles comcecescecceeelonees 27850 nual aaa sects Meraramlount Or fuel Ol ISCO; POUNGS: 222. 2.2 othe koe ee teen cee eee nees DuObGy Ml ase ee Ratio of water to fuel oil (uncorrected for moisture).........-....---.-----.+---- LOF BG oss cee Average feed-water temperature, degrees F..............2- 02 eee cece cence eeeee| Uifine® 4 oe kets MICU ELIORUAOLU Late om hth eS oo ee tn Cs vole ns '> mie clamlna ees oc be eben cs WOS) hiecasaneee, Ratio of water evaporated to fuel oil (uncorrected for moisture).............-.-.-| ASE OS Wee hccicicteae Efficiency of boilers (assuming 18,500 B. t. u. per pound of fuel oil), per cent...... Pe Grr ern Soc Two efficiencies are given in Table 5, the first based on the head represented by the difference of level of the suction and discharge basins and the second based on the head on the pump as defined above. The difference between these two amounted to 2.44 feet in the 36-inch unit and 1.82 feet in the 24-inch unit, showing extremely bad design of suction and discharge pipes at the ends where they dip — 14 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. into the water. By way of comparison, in the test made at Gueydan, La., at the pumping plant of Subdistrict No. 1, Gueydan drainage district, the loss of head corresponding to those given above amounted to 0.3 foot. * SECOND TEST. A second test was made to determine the efficiency of engine, pump, and piping. This test was of special interest, inasmuch as changes had been made in the suction and discharge pipes of two pumps since the previous test of October 19, 1912. The intake ends of the suction pipes and the exit ends of the discharge pipes as origi- nally constructed were very poorly designed. Since the first test was made the pipes had been replaced by others with well-designed ends. The side clearance of the open impeller of the 36-inch pump, which had been nearly three-fourths inch, had been reduced to about one-eighth inch, and the impeller blades in both pumps had been lengthened. The changes were beneficial to plant efficiency, although it is diffi- cult to say how much each contributed to the improved conditions. Lengthening the impeller blades and decreasing the clearance gaye more water for a given lift and number of revolutions, while the elimination of entrance and discharge losses decreased the total head on pump. The second test was run at a greater lift than was the first, and this also contributed to the higher efficiency. The results of the test are given in Table 6, and a comparison made with the first test in Table 7. TaBLe 6.—Second test of Phillips Land Co. pumping plant, Aug. 11, 1916. 36-INCH UNIT. Efficiency Indi- : Uses of P cated Actua P water engine, Time. Speed. Horses lift. Discharge. nome pump, power. . power. and piping Feet. Sec.-ft G.p.m. | Per cent. 81.20 5. 64. 28, 800 42.90 5 81.25 5.95 63.00 | 28,300 42.50 52.4 78.80 6.00 | 61.40 27,600 41.70 53.0 78.60 6.05 | 62.13 | 27,900 42.50 54.1 80.30 6.10 62.75 | 28,200 43. 30 53.9 67.20 6.12 48.53 | 21, 800 33.65 50.2 65.72 6.14 | 47.18 21, 200 32.75 49.8 62.95 6.16 43.76 | 19,650 30. 55 48.6 61.70 6.18 43.08 19,350 30.20 48.8 71.65 6.13) 59.20) 26,600 41.10 57.3 93.15 6. 20 | 69.06 | 31,050 48.50 52.0 89.10 6. 23 69.03 31, 000 48.70 54.7 91.60 6.25 | 69.21 | 31,100 49.00 53.5 91.35 6.29 68.62 | 30,800 48.90 53.5 103. 25 | 6.35 74.48 | 33, 400 53.60 51.8 102. 50 6.38 | 74.00 | 33, 250 53. 50 52.2 ES he eo ee Se SSR ke 160 101.90 | 6.42 74.08 | 33,300 53. 80 52.9 Mea ntsc ase eee ee | 148 | 76.6 6.17 61.98 27, 817 43.36 52.45 | | TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 1135) TaBLE 6.—Second test of Phillips Land Co. pumping plant, Aug. 11, 1916—Contd. 24-INCH UNIT. /| : Efficiency | ind hen Useful of : cate Actua ae water engine Time. | Speed. | horse- lift. SESE: horse- ste | power. power. and piping. | | R.p.m. | Feet. Sec.-ft. | G.p.m. Per cent. ing F255 ees eee 207 33.93 6.25 26.20 11, 760 18.55 54.7 TUE Lo ee eee | 206 32.78 6.30 26.38} 11,830 18.81 57.4 ia 2 ocala ee 206 =. 32.02 6.34| 25.94] 11,640 18.62 58.2 EAU See doe 244 50. 73 6.44 | 39. 27 15, 830 25.72 50.7 2ANS-25 bo ee eee 244 50.11 6.45 | 35. 93 16, 140 26. 23 52.4 ee Pe en rca oom re 2 198 | 26.83 6.45 21.40 9,610 15.62 58.3 ee ee os canes 198 | 26. 85 6.45 | 21.57 9, 680 15.72 58.5 Deepen 2 ae FE 2 tains | 199 26. 87 6.45 20.72 9, 300 15.13 56. 2 Ee LENT 3 Saas 203 | 35.01 6.39 | 26.68 11, 974 19. 30 55.8 TaBLE 7.—Comparison of the results of the two tests of the Phillips Land Co. plant. ? 2 Efficiency of engine Lift. | Rate of pumping. pump, and pipe. ’ Unit. 1912 | 1916 1912 | 1916 1912 1916 Feet. Feet. Sec.-ft. Sec.-ft. | Per cent. | Per cent. Erie Hae es a sas ee cis Gis hee | 4. 48 6.17 58.7 61.9 33.2 52.4 DETCIP rss nek se selene seeiess ces = Hedee | 4.48 6.39 27.5 26.7 43.4 55. 8 During the test different speeds were tried. Some of the varia- tions in efficiency are due to change of speed, but the superior effi- ciencies obtained in the second test bear witness to the great improve- ment of the pumping units resulting from the changes noted, for the test was made in the same manner and with the same instruments as the first test. TESTS OF PUMPING PLANT IN SUBDISTRICT NO. 1, LARKOURCHE DRAINAGE DISTRICT NO. 6, LAFOURCHE PARISH, LA. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. This plant is used to drain a tract of land containing about 1,880 acres. At the time of the first test the plant consisted of duplicate units, each having a 24-inch double-suction centrifugal pump driven by a 12 by 12 inch simple slide-valve engine. The suction openings on the pumps are 18 inches in diameter. The intake and suction pipes have been tapered and enlarged so that the area of the intake is 4.2 and the area of the discharge 2.7 times the area of the discharge nozzle of the pump. The pumps were direct connected to the engines by flexible couplings. The exhaust of the engines was con- ducted through a common pipe to a water heater and then exhausted into the air. Steam was generated by two horizontal marine-type boilers 7 feet in diameter by 13 feet long. Neither boilers nor steam line were covered during the test. The fuel used was Mexican crude oil. Steam was used to atomize the oil in the furnaces and to run the 16 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. usual oil and boiler feed pumps. The machinery is housed in a corrugated-iron building and is mounted on a concrete foundation supported by piling. The pumps take the water from the main canal of the district and discharge it into Bayou Des Allemands through about 300 feet of outlet canal. The bulk of the water from the average rain is lifted about 3 feet, so the plant was tested at this lift. When the canals are empty the lift is about 8 feet, but very little water is lifted more than 5 feet. The water on the discharge side varies about 1 foot in~ height, according to the stage of water in the bayou. FIRST TEST. For the first test the plant was operated under normal conditions, using only one of the boilers. Observations were taken at intervals of a half hour. The discharge from the pumps was measured by means of a Pitot tube in each discharge pipe. Gages set in the still water in the suction and discharge canals were read and the actual lift obtained. This lift was used in computing the water horsepower. The water used in the boiler during the test was measured in a large storage tank. Water was then drawn from this tank and pumped through the heater mto the boiler. The oil used as fuel during the test was measured with approximate accuracy in the large storage tank. However, as the tank was about 19 feet in diamater and the oil was lowered only 0.091 foot during the test, it is evident that the oil measurement is only a close estimate, and the error of observation might change the result materially. The usual method of finding the total head on pump, or dynamic head, was followed, but gave results so erratic that they were con- sidered of no value. The results obtained are set forth in some detail in Table 9. A summary of results is given in Table 8. TABLE 8.—Engine and pump test. Unit No. 1.| Unit No. 2. | Duration Oftest; NOunSe-eee cesses See ee aa ete eee eee eer coe ceria | 4 Revolutions per MINWUbe Ee iss SAE re as oes Son Reeders wee Bett inacse eeawe Bem aae 172 | 162 Indicated: h otsepower =< 222s maces sees e oe aliens Seale Sees oe one ee rreree| 46.8 38.7 Steam used per indicated horsepower, per hour, average pounds Saetoags 40.7 | 40.7 Discharsecubicfeet per Secon deseree reson et eee rere nea eee ee 38.7 | 37 Discharge, gallons per minute...-----------+-++++2+2+++2++05 BNE Sos eacieciaie wel 17, 340 | 16, 580 Statiehead feet 22 sat. asas coteeie aes sense eee eee Bee seee niece ace 2.97 | 2. 97 Wsefulswaterb orse powers sa geee sees ea ae Berra Set te en ee 130 lt 11.34 SE ATIG LET iva Of POULT + C1A Sa © veh 10 Cl pL POT eet ee 28 29.3 Efficiency of pump and piping (assumed engine efficiency, S0;pen.cent) == sees 31.1 | 32.6 BOILER TEST. Mura tionoftest, hours 2S Seee o vsn sas see See ESE oe ee eee 4, Qo "Gee cere Average steam pressure, pounds per Square imnGh=-2: -22 502 - oS. a= s ose Total water used, pounds BAS SA Se eee ran eae cra ORR Ponte ae aera Total fuel oil used, POUNGS 2. NL CE | ea ss ae ES RR CS ee Se ee Ratio Ol ater CO Tiel ols ss Cie ast) oe i Me a OS oe Averageteed-water: temperature she so. teas ee See Ree eee eee ee Ha ClomOhevapOLatlOone eee seca ssa catia Cae ce Se ne eee ee eee nee Ratio water evaporated from and at 212° to fuel oil...........--...-----..------- Efficiency of boilers (assuming 18,500 B. t. u. per pound of oil), per cent..-...-.-- TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. LY = TABLE 9.—First test of pumping plant in subdistrict No. 1, Lafourche drainage district No. 6, Nov. 23, 1912. UNIT NO. 1. Efficiency. Indi- | . | Water . Boiler cated | Actual ‘ Time. | pressure.| SP&¢d- | horse- | ~ lift. Discharge: nee pe Pump power. y SEY and and sate piping. | Piping. Feet. Sec.-ft. | G. p.m. Per cent. | Per cent. 40.6 | 2. 60 36.5 16, 380 10.75 26.5 29. 5 46.4 | 2.65 40.5 18, 180 12.15 26.2 29.1 46.7 | 2.72 38.7 17,370 11. 92 25.6 28. 4 48.0 2. 84 40.7 18, 260 13. 10 27.3 30.3 49.1 | 2.95 39.1 17, 550 13. 06 26.6 29.5 55. 5 3. 07 41.1 18, 450 14.30 25.8 28.6 44.3 | 3.17 37.5 16, 880 13.45 30.4 33. 8 37.6 | 3. 29 34. 5. 15, 490 12. 85 34. 2 38.0 53.0 3. 42 40.0 17, 950 15. 50 29.3 32.5 UNIT NO. 2. a eee 85 146 29.0 2. 60 30.9 13, 870 9.12 31.3 34.7 1 Pol Te 92 149 30.3 2. 65 32.3 14, 500 9.70 32.1 35.7 3 Oe ee 92 150 30. 5 2. 72 31.8 14, 270 9. 80 S20 35.7 EAS. Tu: «! 87 172 44.4 2. 84 35.0 15,710 11.25 25.3 28.1 BARS 3538 86 171 44.6 2. 95 35.6 15, 980 11. 90 26.7 29.7 2a ES ae ot 175 48.0 3. 07 36. 2 16, 250 12. 60 25.0 27.8 ra 81 165 41.0 3.17 34.6 15, 530 12. 40 30.3 33.7 BY as 92 156 34.4 3.29 31.7 14, 230 11. 80 34.4 38.2 ie 90 172 45.9 3. 42 34.9 15, 670 13. 50 29.5 32.8 1 Engine assumed to be 90 per cent efficient. It will be noted that the lift was less than 3 feet, which is much too low for efficient operation of the pumps. The capacity of the pumps was large and they were undoubtedly run too fast to get the best efficiency. By examining Table 9 it will be seen that when the discharge dropped to 30 cubic feet per second the efficiency of pump and piping was about 38 per cent. SECOND TEST. At the time of the first test the static lift of the pumps was low, between 2.6 and 3.4 feet, and the pumps were operated at about 30 per cent over their rated capacities. While this information was valuable in showing overload capacity and the efficiency of the pumps at low lift, it was desired to know what efficiency this type of pump would give when operated at the rated capacity and at a static lift of at least 4 feet. The second test made for this purpose included only the engine and pump of unit No. 1. The first reading was taken while the pump was working at a 50 per cent overload and shows the reduction in efficiency that may be expected to result from such an overload. In computing the average efficiency for the test this first reading is omitted. Table 10 gives the results of the test. 8$9782—22—Bull. 10673 18 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF ‘AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 10.—Second test, pumping plant in subdistrict No. 1, Lafourche drainage district No. 6, Oct. 28, 1913—Umit No. 1. Efficiency. f F Indicated | Water Time Boiler | speed. | horse- | Actual Discharge. horse- | Pump pressure lift. Set) Pump power. power. | engine, | “sng ao iping.t piping. | Piping. ss! | Lbs. per sqg.in. | R.p.m. Feet. Sec. ft. | G.p.m. Per cent. | Per cent. iba aoe 90 188 60.15 3.93 45.09 20,200 | 20.15 33.5 37.2 TOG a Bes 102 152 33. 44 | 4.01 34. 30 15, 400 | 15. 56 46.5 51.7 MOO Neo eas 95 144 27.40 4.04 27.77 12, 460 12.68 46.3 51.4 PESO S32 100 146 29.73 3.93 32. 92 14, 780 14.71 49.5 55.0 TAU aio 90 152 31.76 3. 84 31.08 13,950 13. 56 42.7 47.4 20M oes 90 151 30. 30 3. 84 30.74 13, 800 | 13. 42 43.8 48.7 320025222 - 96 154 33.05 3.88 30. 72 13,790 13. 55 |. 41.0 45.5 S30 bse os- 92 150 30.59 3. 88 31.18 13,990 13.75 45.0 50.0 M00 aS: 88 150 29.97 | 3.85 30. 37 13,630 | 13. 29 44.3 49.2 ASO eae se 90 148 30.00 | 3. 85 30.06 13, 470 13.35 44.8 49.8 Average - 94 150 30.69 | 3.90 31.01 13,920 13.76 44.9 50.0 1 Engine assumed to be 90 per cent efficient. The total feed water used in the boiler from 12.15 until 4.30 was 7,590 pounds, or 58.1 pounds per indi- cated horsepower-hour. THIRD TEST. During the fall of 1919 changes were made in the equipment of the pumping plant. A 4-cycle, 50-horsepower Ingeco distillate engine was installed to drive one of the pumps, replacing one of the slide- valve engines. Bevel gears of cast steel, having a ratio of 213 to 164, were used between the pump and engine. The smaller gear was attached to the engine shaft. Both gears were hand-finished and operated with very little noise. In the test of unit No. 1 of this plant after the above changes the oil used by the engine was carefully weighed, while the output of the pump was measured by means of a Pitot tube in the discharge pipe. The lift was determined from gage readings on the suction and dis- charge basins. Kerosene oil was used for fuel. Table 11 gives the results of the test. TABLE 11.—Third test of subdistrict No. 1, Lafourche drainage district No. 6, Nov. 15, 1919—Umnit No. 1. Speed. | Pounds of | |Pounds of |. Ti Actual | . Water oil used oil used ime. litt. | Discharge. | horse- | per 15 per horse- Engine. | Pump. eee Power. | minutes. | Power R.p.m. | R.p.m. Feet. Sec.ft. | G.p.m. | UN Says oe en aaa cele 212 | 163 4.27 | 32. 52 14, 600 | 15. 73 10. 69 ILS) R sea Pee a 202 156 4.27| 29.95] 13,450| 14.51 10.00 HRA eerie ahi ae ese ae 206 159 4.27 29.95 13,450 | 14.51 10. 50 2200 gees 34305 Re 209 161 4.27 31.98 14, 350 15.50 10. 38 IG On ey ea 209 | 161 4.27 31.78 14,250 | 15.38 10.38 ND QO Reet e. Eee Sees 208 160 4,27 31.70 14, 230 | 15. 36 10.12 1A Gee See aoe 208 160 4.27 31.82 14, 290 | 15. 41 10. 25 2.70 MOOT Ssr RE oR 209 161 4.27 | 32.32 14, 520 | 15. 63 10. 44 WS Sooo ates as ace 208 160 AZT N= ool. 14, 430 | 15. 57 10.06 130) See eo eee 12153 166 4.27 31. 86 14, 300 | 15. 43 10.06 WAS SS ee ase 232 179 4.27 37.37 16,770 | 18.09 12.09 att eee oeraen tar 2274 175 4.27 | . 36.48 16,370 | 17.68 12.03 Dib Geese meee 217 167 AL 27s 3456251). 15.550 | 16578) eee eee } 1 Variation in speed of engine during this interval. TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS, : 19 TEST OF PUMPING PLANT IN SUBDISTRICT NO. 3, LAFOURCHE DRAINAGE DISTRICT NO. 12. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. This plant consisted of duplicate units, each having a 30-inch Lawrence double-suction centrifugal pump driven by a 14 by 16 inch Lawrence vertical slide-valve engine. The suction openings on the pumps are 24 inches in diameter. The intake and discharge pipes have been tapered and enlarged so that the area of the intake is 2.9 and the area of the discharge 1.8 times the area of the discharge nozzle of the pump.. The pumps were direct connected to the engines by flexible couplings. The exhaust of the engines was conducted through a common pipe to a water heater and then discharged into the air. Steam was generated by two return tubular boilers of 100 boiler horsepower each. The boilers were in a brick setting covered with asbestos. The fuel used was Mexican crude oil. Steam was used to atomize the oil in the furnaces and to run the usuai oil and boiler feed pumps. The machinery was housed in a corrugated- iron building. The average lift was probably less than 3 feet and the maximum lift about 7 feet. The level of the water on the dis- charge side varied about 2 feet. The area drained is 2,260 acres. METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE TEST. It was necessary to siphon considerable water into the district the day before the test in order tc have enough water to make a test of both units. As a result the lft was low at first, but rapidly increased to 4 feet at the time of the last reading. A five-hour test was made on unit No. 2, but it was necessary to stop the test of No. 1 after four hours to prevent the débris which had collected around the suction screen from breaking the screen. At noon it was necessary also to shut down one boiler, as the parts of one of the valves in the boiler feed line became detached from the valve stem and jammed so that no water could be pumped into the boiler. By forcing the remaining boiler both pumps were run until the necessary adjustments could be made, although the steam pressure dropped. The pumps were operated at such speed that they slightly exceeded their rated capacity during the earlier readings. Toward the last, especially after the steam pressure dropped, they were running somewhat under their rated capacity. The discharge of the pumps was measured by means of a Pitot tube in each discharge pipe at distances of about 12 feet from the pump. ‘The first reading taken on unit No. 2 was inaccurate as to quantity pumped, as the velocity of the water was too great to be measured with the Pitot tube. Gages. set in the still water in the suction and discharge canals were read to obtain the actual lift. This lift was used in computing 20 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the useful water horsepower. The indicated horsepower of- the engines and the total head on the pump were then obtained in the usual manner. The loss of velocity head due to lack of proper enlarging of the ends of the pipes is quite plainly shown. As this loss varies with the square of the velocity of the water, it is greatest when the pump is working at maximum capacity. The water used during the boiler test was measured by means of a Worthington piston-type water meter, afterwards calibrated. The - steam used for all purposes per horsepower per hour was 54.91 pounds. Table 12 shows the results of the test. TaBLeE 12.—Test of pumping plant in subdistrict No. 3, Lafourche drainage district : No. 12, Raceland, La., Nov. 14, 1913. UNIT NO. 1. i- Efficiencies.! GLEE |. cuted | Actual | Head ee aren Time. pres- | Speed. : on Discharge. horse- lift. horse- Sune power IOSD: | power. 1 2 3 | R.p.™M.\- Feet. Feet. | Sec.-ft..\G. p.m. Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. 95008 snes 100 142 48.4 1.45 2.17 | 58.18 | 26, 100 9.57 20.0 22. 2 33. 2 9°30 eke 104 143 48.4 1.70 2.67 | 58.28 | 26,160 | 11.25 23.2 25.8 40.5 TOXO0 Sse 222 101 140 46.2 1.95 2. 68 54. 89 | 24, 630 12.14 26.3 29. 2 40.1 1OMSOR eS 102 144 48.9 2. 20 2.76 | 54.84 | 24,610 | 13.69 28.0 31.1 39.0 IHEU DSeeaae 103 144 46.8 2. 40> 2.98 54.16 | 24, 290 14.76 31.5 35.0 43.5 nea ts 103 147 | 49.8 2.75 3.32 | 54.11 | 24,280] 16.389 33.9 37.7 45.5 124 (OOeosceae 106 146 49.1 3.00 3.74 | 51.60 | 23,150 | 17.57 35.8 39.8 49.5 IDE RUS Assoes 104 142) 48.1 3.35 4. 23 49.44 | 22, 200 18. 80 39.1 43.4 55.0 Da cee ces 84 134} 39.8 3. 62 4.20 | 42.13 | 18,910 | 17.31 43.6 48.4 56. 2 Average..| 100.8 142.3 | 47.3 2.39 3.19 53.07 | 23,820 14-553 soe eee | ' if 1 UNIT NO. 2. 150 88. 4 1.457] 3.24] 66.97 | 29,900 | 11.01 12.5 13.9 31.0 124 51.6 1.70 3.05 61.08 | 27, 290 11. 80 23.0 25.6 46.0 124 51.1 1.95 3. 30 60. 54 | 27,030 13. 41 26. 2 29.2 49.3 128 53.4 2. 20 3.43 | 59.80 | 26,720 | 14.92 27.9 31.0. 47.2 127 53. 2 2. 40 3.52 | 58.28 | 26,050 15. 86 29.8 33.1 48.5 127 53.0 2.75 3.77 | 56.66 | 25,310 | 17.67 33.3 37.0 50.7 126 52.8 3.00} 3.95 55. 24 | 24, 690 18.79 35.6 39.5 52.0 124 48.3 3.35 4. 24 53. 67 | 23,810 20. 39 42.2 46.9 59.4 120 41.7 3.62 4.32 | 43.65 | 19,500 17. 92 43.0 47.8 57.0 126 50.8 3. 90 4.70 41.54 | 18,570 18. 37 36. 2 40. 2 48.5 128 52.1 4.00 4.97 | 47.14 | 21,060 21.38 41.1 45.7 56.6 Average..| 101.5 127.6 54.2 2.76 3. 86 55.00 | 24, 680 162502 occ se go eee 1 Efficiencies: 1. Efficiency of engine, pump, and piping. 2. Efficiency of pump and piping, assuming mechanical efficiency of engine at 90 per cent. 3. Efficiency of pump, assuming mechanical efficiency of engine at 90 per cent. As the lift of the pumps was so variable, no average efficiency was determined. A summary of the boiler test follows: Boiler test. Duration of test, OUTS 2. sere 2 eee ee ee ere Ree oe pte ae er e308 otaléwater used; pourds 22s Fates 5 Ae pe ete a sorcerer ee 26, 760 Potalstuel oil vised pounds *': fits. Se See ee ne et 2,095 Ratiotofswater to fuel wowlke'.) 2 Pes: ee a ee Se ee eee 257 Average steam pressure, pounds per square inch...-............-..-.-.----- 101 Average feed-water temperature, °.F....2::0 0. Fi Ae wal eee oe 144 Factorofevaporationen cee. oc. 00 3 3 at = oe ee ea ea Are a eee a leet bi Ratio of.water evaporated at 212° to\fneloul: <2 ee ee eee 14.1 Efficiency of boiler (assuming 18,500 B. T. U. per pound of fuel oil), per cent. 74 TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. OE TEST OF PUMPING PLANT IN JEFFERSON DRAINAGE DISTRICT NO. 3, LAFITTE, LA. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. This pumping plant is used to drain a tract of about 5,000 acres. The average lift of the pumps is about 4 feet, and at times the maximum lift is 10 feet. It consists of two 48-inch double-suction centrifugal drainage pumps direct-connected to two 16 by 36 inch simple noncondensing Corliss engines of the girder-frame type. The engines are fitted with gravity release gear and a special governor for emergency use in case the pumps lose their priming. The cut-off is adjustable by hand while the engine is running. Steam is furnished to the engines by two Brownwell horizontal return tubular boilers of 150 horsepower each. The fuel used is Mexican crude oil. For starting the boilers with oil, steam is supplied by a 10-horsepower boiler fired with wood or coal. The suction and discharge pipes are respectively 25 feet and 20 feet long and are enlarged so that the areas of the intake and discharge are four times the area of the discharge nozzle of the pump. The suction pipes are tapered uniformly from one end to the other, while the discharge pipes are tapered and flattened so that the outer ends have a rectangualr cross section with the sides rounded to a radius of 24 inches. A steam ejector is installed on each pump for use in expelling the air in priming. While this plant was guaranteed to deliver at normal load 55,000 gallons per minute against a total head of 6 feet at a speed of 100 revolutions per minute, it was decided to test. it at a much lower total head and somewhat greater capacity and speed. FIRST TEST. The first test of this plant determined the capacity and efficiency of the pumps for a rather wide range of heads and speeds. During the test the head increased rapidly, making it necessary to take observations on the pumps as frequently as possible. It was decided that a boiler-test run under such varying conditions would be of little value. Tests were run on each unit separately. In making the tests indi- cator cards were taken, the speeds of the engines and pumps were recorded, a Pitot tube traverse was made in each suctiorf pipe, the suction and discharge canal gages were read, and the dynamic head was obtained by means of mercury manometers connected to each suction pipe near the pump flange and to the discharge pipe near the discharge flange. At the beginning of the test of unit No. 2 the difference in water levels was 3.38 feet. This difference rapidly increased to 6 feet, at which point the attempt was made to keep the speed of the pump as 22 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. nearly constant as possible, so as to obtain the efficiency under normal conditions. Table 13 shows the results of the test. The indicated horsepower given in the table is the mean of the two cards taken at the beginning and end of each observation. TaBLe 13.—First test of pumping plant in Jefferson drainage district No. 3, Lafitte, La., Feb. 22-28, 1913. UNIT NO. 1, 48INCH PUMP. Efficiency. : Useful Indicated Head Speed. horse- Discharge. ecu on water Pump, Pump power. pump. power. engine: and piping. | engine. R. p.m. Sec.ft. | G. p.m. Feet. Feet. Per cent. | Per cent. TOS Ue Rees eens: Se 134.8 136. 6 61,300 4.00 | 4.05 62.0 46.0 46.6 RNS eemcoaaenens 203.5 158.6 71, 200 4.40 4,42 79.2 38.9 39. 2 LON bi eek ies Seeey 121.3 129.8 58,300 4.80 5. 48 70.8 58.4 66.6 QR YB ease Necianeee 90. 9 103.8 46, 600 4.85 5. 87 57.1 6258" |encseasos LOOESHSS eae ee Ee 102.2 94.6 42,450 6.05 6.58 65.1 63. 8 69.3 OS eae He ioh 137.1 118.3 53, 100 5.35 6. 29 71.9 52.4 61.6 LOSS ak Ol is 142.6 119.7 53, 750 5. 42 6. 23 73.5 51.6 59.4 TOONS secre ae 140.7 122.8 55, 100 5,45 6. 03 75.9 54.0 59.8 DVO5 Bese cen ese ees 1134.1 1123.0 | 155,200 15,41 16.18 169.4 152.7 160.3 UNIT NO. 2, 48-INCH PUMP. 170. 4 76, 500 3.38 4,40 * 65.4 30.7 40.1 176.7 79,300 |~ 3.40 3.00 68. 2 31.4 35.4 147.7 66, 300 3.31 | 4.03 55.5 36. 2 44.1 158.7 71, 250 3.45 | 5. 16 62.1 33.5 50.1 133.1 59,700 3.64 | 4.01 55.0 43.8 48.3 115.4 51, 800 3. 84 3.71 50.3 GYR iayen| Wes He Fee 82.9 37, 200 3.70 4.08 34.8 57.1 62.9 122.1 54, 800 6. 25 6. 84 86.5 52.8 57.8 120.1 53, 900 6. 85 Te i 93.5 53.5 55.9 1136.3 | 161,170 | 16.55 | 17.00 163.5 1 53.2 156.9 1 Mean. In testing unit No. 1 the actual head at the beginning of the test was 4 feet and readings were taken up to 6 feet. It was then found that the increase in head was too rapid to get proper readings, due to the fact that the only water available for pumping was then in the canal. It was therefore decided to siphon water back into the canal with No. 2 unit while testing No. 1. This was done for the last three observations, and as a result the actual head for those three readings was 5.41 feet. The difference between the dynamic and static head gives the friction losses in the pipes and at the entry and discharge. Several inconsistencies appear in the friction losses recorded which can only be accounted for by the fact that it is im- possible to make very accurate readings on the suction and discharge manometers of drainage units. Velocities were rather high, and the suction and discharge pipes were so short that there seemed to be a surging effect through the whole system at each revolution of the engine corresponding to the variation in angular velocity at different parts of the stroke. TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 23 SECOND TEST. The results of the second test are given in Table 14. Although they appear to be quite consistent, the quantity of water entering the suction pipe on the engine side was about 50 per cent more than the quantity entering the other suction pipe. This is probably to be attributed to the fact that the end of the suction pipe which had the low capacity was close to the bottom of the canal. The same con- dition existed during the first test. The water used in the boiler test was measured by a Worthington piston meter. The amount of steam used per horsepower per hour for all purposes was 33.7 pounds. The fuel oil burned during the test was measured in a calibrated barrel. TABLE 14.—Second test of pumping plant in Jefferson drainage district No. 3, Lafitte, La., Dec. 13, 1913—Unit No. 2, 48-inch pump. Efficiency.! - Useful Horse- Boiler | Actual water . . power Time. DEES: Speed. lift. Discharge. nore Bue: Pump tanec : power. | P se and ted. : piping. engine. Ibs. per | sq.in. | R. p.m. Feet. Sec.-ft.. | G. p. m. Per cent. | Per cent. 125,008 .../- =. 100 | 115 2. 80 125.8 55, 750 39.9 7Bh i 25.5 170.0 1 SS eek Sie 100 118 2. 90 130.5 58, 600 42.8 22.3 24.1 192.9 005-6222 100 lil 2.90 128.0 57, 450 42.1 26. 5 28.7 159. 0 16 eee 100 113 3.00 130.8 58, 720 44.5 25.6 27.9 173.7 3 O05 25-5 100 115 3.10 |e 124.6 55, 910 43.8 24.0 25.9 182. 8 fo See 106 117 3. 30 127.2 | ~ 57,100 47.5 28. 2 30. 4 168. 6 5A Eee 100 | 110 3.45 125.7 56, 410 49.2 32.0 34.0 153.7 Saas ss 100 | 108 3. 60 121.4 54, 480 49.6 33.9 36. 6 146. 5 4500s 5-2 100. | 109 3. 80 118.6 53, 250 uy eal 33.9 36. 6 151.0 Mean.... 100.7 | 112 3. 20 125.8 56, 480 45.6 27.8 30. 0 166. 5 1 Mechanical efficiency of engine shown by friction cards to be 92.5 per cent. THIRD TEST. Nearly three years after the second test a third test was run, this time on No. 1 unit. The useful lift, or actual head, varied from 6.04 to 6.5 feet. The results are given in Table 15. TasLe 15.—Third test of pumping plant in Jefferson drainage district No. 8, La/itte, La., Aug. 14, 1916—Unit No. 1, 48-inch pump. Efficiency. Pre - ; Useful : : tec ctua +a water noes Time. Speed. Horses lift. Discharge. horses ee BAN power. power. pimp, P. R. p.m. Fect. Sec.-ft. | G. p.m. Per cent. | Per cent. Mies a on 0 ee eee 116 161.7 6. 04 110, 89 48, 900 75.9 | 46.9 p 50.7 I eae tern Te tai se ve 116 SO re Be clemnone als SeeAae ae eee sae leisterale skeretetel| mietalaiarctataets ME ane se oe btdsn te on 117 173.7 6,10 117.29 49, 000 81. 2 | 46,7 50. 5 Ul) LR Spe ES ee 116 Spy (ae teas ats ate arate ae! eiotaiale Gis’ s\s | cldlot> wim =, «:t'='| «ass ov hone |= = 0'aini sb 1 Se See rre 116 TEC ee RSE eye Pe ee ee Se a ee OPC eae | eerie ae eneacsere MRA y Sad legs depees 118 171.8 | 6, 34 113.86 52, 600 81.8 | 47.7 51.5 a tax awoke «hind «6 118 MAA de Akan deal ead aaa A eae ede lawg p06 ob 2)|< 123.75); 2.76 141.30 , 63, 400 44.2 35. 70 PASO sam seen ee a 130 IBS ty |) ees ass 2. 81 138.35 | 62, 100 44.0 35. 10 S00 Rs eee | 135 118.8 170. 50 3.41 139.25 | 62, 500 53.8 31. 54 BU See ee eee 127 111.3 | 149.63 4.45 133.73 | 60, 000 67.4 45. 00 aOb eae. ee: She 127 | 111.6 | 150.78 4.93 127.63 | 57,300 71.3 47.30 BOR ost sae see soe pe CaBeae Ss 112.0 118. 95 5. 84 110.72 | 49,700 73.2 61. 56 ge Sie a A Sree | 142 108. 6 116. 69 6. 21 99. 81 | 44, 800 70.3 60. 21 TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 29 TEST OF PUMPING PLANT IN SUBDISTRICT NO. 4, JEFFERSON DRAINAGE DISTRICT NO. 4, JEFFERSON PARISH, LA. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. In Plate I are shown interior and exterior views of this plant, and figure 3 is a cross-sectional view showing the shape of the suc- tion and discharge pipes and method of supporting the plant. The pumping equipment consists of two duplicate units, each with a capacity of 59 cubic feet per second at a 2-foot lift and capable of pumping at any head between zero and 10 feet, the capacity decreas- ing as the head increases. The pumps are 30-inch, double-suction, slow-speed drainage centrifugals with special radial and axial flow impellers haying a nearly constant horsepower input at all heads. They are direct-connected through friction-clutch couplings to 60-horsepower distillate engines designed to make 190 revolutions per minute and operating on cheap distillate of 39° Baumé gravity. Fic. 3.—Elevation of pumping, subdistrict No. 4, Jefferson drainage district No. 4. The engines are started on gasoline, run for a few minutes until the jackets warm up, and are then switched to distillate by throwing the handle of a six-way cock. Batteries are unnecessary, as the engines are fitted with oscillating magnetos suitable for starting as well as running, a valuable feature for an isolated plant. Cooling water is supplied by two rotary pumps belted off the hub of the clutch coupling, one to each unit. Each of these pumps is of ample size to supply water to both main engines and to the water-sealed glands of the main pumps. To insure a supply of water for starting and to provide against accidents to the circulating pumps, a 500- gallon elevated tank was erected. This furnished an hour’s supply for one engine and is so piped that should the pump stop working, water would still flow to the jackets. An added advantage of this arrangement is that it gives a constant head of water on the jacket at all times. y = 30 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The suction and discharge pipes on the main pumps are shown in figure 3. These pipes are one-fourth inch riveted steel of such size and design as to reduce the loss of head to about 0.5 foot. This is done by a design of the cross-section of the straight pipe which so reduces the velocity that the friction loss is only 0.25 foot, and by using long taper increasers and liberal bell mouths to reduce the loss due to velocity head. These calculations were made for a normal working head of 4 to 5 feet. DESCRIPTION OF TEST. In acceptance test made at this plant, the quantity of water was measured by means of Pitot tubes in the suction pipes. The lft was determined by reading gages in the suction and discharge basins. The fuel was a distillate oil of 42.3° Baumé weighing 6.81 pounds per gallon. The results of the test are given in Table 21. TABLE 21.— Test of 30-inch drainage unit No. 2 of the pumping plant in subdistrict No. 4, Jefferson drainage district No. 4, Jefferson Parish, La., Sept. 20, 1916. Fue Oil! used) Discharge Time. | Speed. Actual Discharge. per 20 per gallon z minutes.| of oil. b J&s fo D> Feet. Sec.-ft. | G.p.m. | Pounds. | Cubic feet. DL SLOP eee ae eer ce scnschio. sence Sele te 179.6 4.44 49.1 21, 900 14. 31 28, 000 HBO SRS ees ace Ree eae aeatetele ci eiejese sae sini 171.9 4.58 42.8 19, 180 13.19 | 26, 500 TORS Serio eiee te eb s are = Sites cteasieere 175. 4 4.61 48.7 21, 800 13.19 30, 200 120 tase Bet eemetok see eae cece eeec eeceee | 174.9 4.69 46.9 21, 000 12. 31 31, 050 DOES Oe ite aaa Sic See Be lcepeaiciele einer cial 174. 8 4. 94 43.7 19, 600 12. 75 | 28, 000 DES Ole Reece ceapmiaietis sii Seye nice et en een Lpeoge 1)5 177.0 cis UY 43.1 19, 300 12. 37 28, 450 LEST OA BEE is ok mis ee eee cece case aes 177.1 5. 49 42.1 18, 830 12.75 | 26, 950 MBO SE eat aN acts Beeiosic aloee em eects were e's | 178.6 5. 91 41.1 18, 400 12. 94 | 25, 900 Means. 22 ae oe ceeateasme eee sae noise | 176. 2 4.98 44.7 20, 060 12. 98 28, 130 1 Distillate of 42.3° Baumé; 6.81 pounds per gallon. TEST OF PUMPING PLANT IN SUBDISTRICT NO. 1, LAFOURCHE DRAINAGE DISTRICT NO. 9, FAYPORT, LA. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. This pumping plant drains 2,000 acres. The equipment consists of two 30-inch centrifugal drainage pumps, each driven by a kerosene engine of 50-horsepower rating with pistons 16 inches in diameter and the stroke 18 inches. The engines are supposed to run at about 190 revolutions per minute, but ordinarily run at a slower speed. Water is injected with the kerosene. Air tanks are provided for. starting, and a small air compressor may be used in charging the ° tanks. Circulating pumps are belted to the engines. DESCRIPTION OF TEST. The test on one unit of this plant was made with the plant operating at from 169 to 182 revolutions per minute. The lift and the quantity of water pumped were measured in the usual manner. The amount TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS, 31 of the fuel oil used was obtained by measuring the change in elevation of the oil in the storage tank. When the test was finished the pump was opened and about a bushel of grass and weeds was taken out. This débris, which must have been accumulated gradually, was nearly equally distributed on the two sides. There were defects in the screen, especially at the ends, but these were soon remedied and it is probable that most of the vegetation came through the screen itself in small pieces. It is certain that the fillig up of the pump decreased the capacity and efficiency of the pump. Table 22 gives in detail the results of the test. TABLE 22.—Test of pumping plant, subdistrict No. 1, Lafourche drainage district No. 13, Fayport, La., Nov. 24, 1916.) ie Useful ° etua . water Time. Speed. lift. Discharge. inane power R. p.m. Feet. Sec.-ft. | G. p.m. ete conde SRE TER ae Se pee U IS Se 5 a A oy rem yer 169 1.94 35. 66 16, 000 7. 86 a pe ae re ee A Ne ete ce sie icone ise ete 168 | 2.26 33. 84 15, 200 8.70 irae ek. eee ets cae os cede ceaiaaens 169 2. 42 30. 40 13, 630 8.35 Speer EP 2 yn ata aysiw oeicreln io aces denis tos awsteeanta 170 2. 59 30. 26 13, 590 8. 90 PA eS soe ciate a td ns oe Grae cide Daca emaae 170 2.73 28. 60 12, 830 8. 87 US. 22 +2 BtS Se Oe eee ae eee meen 182 2.97 31. 82 14, 300 10. 72 eR ee She Ae eek cued BS Scdclede cee oodars 181 3.10 29. 10 13, 060 10. 22 ae Pe ee oe nae ceo ne =) Sead a Haecloue 182 3. 25 29. 30 13, 140 10. 81 Seealice oie GORA Ee ee SEA ee ne ye ee ee 182 3. 46 28.18 12, 620 11.13 Pe ee ay er i initoe ees cise 2 oltiatad| 181 3. 57 26. 98 12, 100 10. 93 peepee eeee See ee SS es hee eae 181 Bh LE 24. 90 11,170 10. 66 RE Eee Sen. A aos aciaicioce gale sie an ais aleaeteisieice 183 3. 87 25. 34 11, 370 11.12 UO meee a) tert ate as tio Amicus Socacis siaisie 176.5 | 2. 99 29. 53 13, 250 10. 02 | | 1 Oil used, 244 pounds. TEST OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANT IN DALCOUR DRAINAGE DISTRICT, DALCOUR, LA. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. This pumping plant installed in 1913 at Dalcour, La., about 22 miles below New Orleans, drains 650 acres of land. A 35-horsepower distillate engine is used to drive a 24-inch centrifugal drainage pump. A friction clutch is used to connect engine and pump. A priming pump is run from a jack shaft which in turn is belted to the engine. The fuel used in the acceptance test was distillate of 45° Baumé at 86° F., which reduced to 60° F. was equivalent to 42° Baumé, weighing 6.8 pounds per gallon. The manufacturer’s guarantee was that the plant would consume not more than 3.56 gallons of kerosene or No. 2 Solar oil per hour with pump operating at a capacity of 9,250 gallons per minute and a difference in water level of 5.5 feet. It was impossible to continue the test long enough to pump the water down to a 5.5-foot lift, but it was agreed that the results obtained at the 5-foot lift would govern if satisfactory. Table 23 gives the results obtained during the test. 32 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 23.— Test of pumping plant, Dalcour drainage district, Dalcour, La., May 26, 1914. Time. Speed. cena Discharge. Remarks. R.p.m.| Feet. Sec.-ft. | G. p.m. stuare Q fj sheuld TUT OSA EEY 8S) 209 4.22 240.0 | 107, 810 Sete fil THUR en oewne 210 4.36 233.8 | 105, 000 ve divided by ten. PbO se eee ale 209 4.57 230.9 | 103,700 ID PAlsssesussces 209 4,53 218.5 98, 200 || Fuel, distillate, 42° Baumé; total oil used from UQA0.. seseit 212 4.62 225.0 | 101,000 11.10 a. m. to 2.07 p. m., 78 pounds=3.98 UAQueS es cee 211 4,64 224.5 | 100, 8C0 gallons per hour. ES As Sa ie 211 4.75 223.5 | 100, 400 CAE Sarees ose 212 4, 81 218.9 | 98, 300 Ea Mean.... 210. 4 4, 56 226.9 | 101,9c0 DMI ee seers Seces 21 eton 215.4 96, 800 325: a tebecets zi | Bae | an an nee ||Adjusted carbureter; total oil used from 2.07 AA) Rao 210 | 5.07 | 215.1 | 96, 600 | ae 4.26 p. m., 45; pounds=2.99 gallons Mean....| 210.2} 5.00| 213.7 | 96, 020 | TEST OF PUMPING PLANT IN SUBDISTRICT NO. 1, LAFOURCHE DRAINAGE DISTRICT NO. 20, CUTOFF, LA. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. This plant is made up of two pumping units, each consisting of a 36-inch centrifugal drainage pump driven by a 2-cylinder 4-cycle engine of 120 horsepower at 190 revolutions per minute. The pumps have overhead discharge and are really larger than 36 inches, as they have an oval discharge flange. A flexible coupling is used between engine and pump, but there is no friction clutch. The pumps are primed by means of vacuum pumps run by friction drive from the flywheels of the main engines. The circulating pumps are of the chamber-wheel type. Air tanks and a small compressor driven by a gasoline engine furnish an easy and effective method of starting. METHOD OF MAKING TEST. The quantity of water was measured by means of Pitot tubes and the lift was determined by means of gages set in the suction and dis- charge canals. The fuel used, a distillate of 43.25° Baumé, was weighed by means of a spring balance. The engines were started by gasoline. The results of the test are shown in table 24. TaBLE 24.—Tests of pumping plant in subdistrict No. 1, Lafourche drainage district No. 20, June 18-22, 1917. TEST NO. 1, UNIT NO. 1. Time. Speed. lift. Discharge. Remarks. | | R.p.m.| Feet. Sec.-ft. | G.p.m. S50c an tea 190 4.3 | 102.8| 46,200 ALO SSS ease aneciore LBAS | ieee 3 oe ac | 100.0 44, 860 || Fuel, distillate of 43.25° Baume; from 3:49 p.m. Moe ee ee 188 4:47] 99.8} 44,700 |{ to 4:49 p. m., 95.25 pounds of fuel used. aig carga 187) |e waa | 982] 44100 Mean.... 187. 2 4.35 | 100. 1 44, 965 D879 INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR VIEWS OF PUMPING PLANT, SUBDISTRICT NO. 4, JEFFERSON DRAINAGE DISTRICT No 4, JEFFERSON PARISH, LA. TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 33 TABLE 24.—Tests of pumping plant in subdistrict No. 1, Lafourche drainage district No. 20, June 18-22, 1917—Continued. TEST NO. 2, UNIT NO. 2. Time. Speed. lift Discharge. Remarks. - R.p.m.| Feet. Sec.-ft. | G.p.m. eae ere Sts: 184 5. 00 94.0 42,200 |) e BW ce ais ais = 185 5.15 94.1 42, 240 ee ee Ck ek 190 5. 25 96. 0 43,100 || From 3.164 p. m. to 4.164 p. m., 98.25 pounds of sol ee ae 191 5.39 96. 2 43, 200 fuel used. ASRS SS. 190 5. 45 96. 2 43, 200 : i eee 190 Stl Bie doe na Hee Seer Mean 188. 3 B20) i a9bs3 42, 788 TEST NO. 3, UNIT NO. 2. . = 1 Peet 5 [ee too3| os Be 94.0] 42,220 Bee) 0) 8) 80 lL rcom 32.070 p.m to 1s p.m. 158.7 pounds= HOHE | 188 | 5. 84 90. 1 40, 460 97.8 pounds per hour of fuel used. UR) ie a | 190 6.07 96. 0 43, 100 Mean... 189. 4 | 5.79 94.4} 42,366 SUMMARY. Water Water Mean p Mean A Oil per per per Test. goat speed Mean discharge. GIB. pound gallon of oil. of oil.! G.p.m. | Pounds. | Cubic feet.) Cubic feet. : 100. 44,965 95.25 3,790 | 26, 630 ; ; 788 98.25| 3,700| 26,000 1.) 2 a eenmeies 5.79 94, 42,366 97.80| 3,480] 24, 460 1 Based on 36° oil=7.03 pounds per gallon. TEST OF PUMPING PLANT IN SUBDISTRICT NO. 1, LAFOURCHE DRAINAGE DISTRICT NO. 12, RACELAND, LA. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. This plant was designed to pump water from 835 acres. It consists of duplicate pumping units, each having a 24-inch double-suction centrifugal pump connected by means of a clutch to a 14.5 by 21 inch 4-cycle engine. The suction openings on the pumps are 18 inches in diameter. The intake and suction pipes have been tapered and enlarged so that the area of the intake and the area of the dis- charge are considerably greater than the area of the discharge nozzle of the pump. Engine ignition is by means of a hot bulb at the end of the cylinder. Oil is forced into the combustion chamber by means of a pump, and an overflow is arranged so that if the supply is too great the oil will flow back to a tank located in the foundation of the building. The average lift of the pumps is approximately 3 feet and the greatest lift about 6 feet. The usual variation of the water level on 34 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the discharge side is 2 feet. The suction and discharge pipes are each about 25 feet long, and the main shaft of the pump is about 3 feet above average water level in the discharge canal. METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE TEST. Two tests were run on this plant. In the first the discharge of the pumps was measured by Pitot tubes placed in the discharge pipes at a distance of about 10 feet from the pumps. This proved to be so close to the pump that eddy currents interfered with the proper working of the tubes. The results for the quantity of water pumped during the test were found to be too erratic to be of value. A week later the test was run again on one unit with the Pitot tubes placed in the suction pipes. The readings taken on the suction side were very consistent. The lift used in computing the water horsepower was obtained by reading gages set in the suction and discharge canals. The fuel oil used in the engines, a distillate oil of specific gravity 0.875 at 72° F., was weighed in buckets by means of a spring balance. In the first test the indicated horsepower of the engine was measured by an indicator using a 250 spring. In the second an 80 spring was used with entire success. From 10 to 20 complete cycles were taken on each card and the several areas were averaged. While the results of the first test of the pumps are of no value, the results of the test of the engine compare very well with the results of the second test and are considered of value. Table 25 is a summary of the first engine test. TABLE 25. Unit Unit No. 1. No. 2 Teng th Oh run NOULS Bese eee ee te rae Se ST ta IE a SRE nraye ene tetris Revolutions permintibe averages tess cis eee eee ea ie eee 204 211 Average indicated horsepowerss sees oe Sega ss eee eels ate es ee eee eee 32.6 41.6 Minimum indicated horsepower... - <5... -- <2. < 9-9 ee ee eee 26. 4 28.4 © Revolutions per minute at minimum indicated horsepower...-......--..--.--------- 193 183 Maximum indicated horsepower....-....-..--.-------------------- eee eee eee 37.7 50. 6 Revolutions per minute at maximum indicated horsepower. .-......-...------------ 213 HOtali pound sone Moll eNioseeleci easy eerste eee ame ye em ene eye 219. 2 Pounds of fuel oil per indicated horsepower-hour.........-.----.-------------++++--- 74 Pounds per DEARGINGRCONONEE (assuming mechanical efficiency of 80 per cent)......- . 92 During the second test on unit No. 1 the speed of the engine was somewhat less than in the previous test, and the engine seemed to be working much more smoothly. The results of the test are given in | Table 26. TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 35 TaBLE 26.—Test of pumping plant in subdistrict No. 1 of Lafourche drainage distrie No. 12, Raceland, La., Nov. 22, 1918. Indi- Water Efficiency.? Fuel 2 cated | Actual F used per Time. | Speed. | horse- lift. Discharge. Done one-Lalf power Bowmen 1 2 hour. R. p.m. Feet. Sec.ft. | G. p.m. Per cent. | Per cent.| Pounds. ee Sees | 205 31.4 2.18 36. 44 16, 370 8.97 28.6 DOs dEl erste ase Debye. as = | 206 34.0 2.25 35. 78 16, 060 9.14 26.9 33. 6 11. 00 9.45.-:....- | 201 32.2 2.47 34. 49 15, 445 9. 60 29.8 37. 2 10. 44 9945... 2-22. 206 33. 8 2.73 34. 36 15, 430 10. 45 31.6 39.5 20. 31 LS ee 204 34. 1 3.05 33. 62 15, 100 11.70 34.3 42.8 10. 56 os 205 | 34.5 3. 29. 33.15 14, 885 12. 41 35. 0 43.7 13.75 8 eee 210 34.5 3. 54 33. 64 15, 110 13. 52 39. 2 49.0 13. 62 ib Gane 212 35. 4 3. 82 32. 82 14, 740 14, 22 40.3 50.5 13.00 12.45....... 215 35.9 4,12 31. 46 14, 120 14. 65 40.8 51.0 12. 87 Mean | 207 34.0 3. 05 33. 97 15, 245 11. 52 34. 1 42.6 13. 19 1 Efficiency: (1) Efficiency of pump, piping, and engine. (2) Efficiency of pump and piping, assuming mechanical efficiency of engine to be 80 per cent. : TEST OF PUMPING PLANT IN SUBDISTRICT NO. 2 OF LAFOURCHE DRAINAGE DISTRICT NO. 12, RACELAND, LA. This pumping plant contains two units similar to those at Race- land subdistrict No. 1 and similar methods of testing were used. The pumps and accessories are practically the same, but the engines, while of the same type and make as those in the previously described plant, have a cylinder diameter of 15 inches with 24-inch stroke. The pumps are 24-inch drainage pumps of the centrifugal type. The behavior of the engine in this test was doubtless affected by the presence of some Mexican crude oil which had been put in the tank more than a year before. The indicator cards, when taken for several cycles, showed two different areas: One area was the regular card, while the other showed a rise in the compression line earlier than in the large card and no great increase of pressure at the end of compression, but a gradual rise of pressure as expansion proceeded until at exhaust opening the pressure was about the same as for the large card. There was no accurate way to determine how often either of these cards occurred. The evidence from a great many cards showed that the numbers of large and small cards were about equal, but this was too uncertain to make the indicated horsepower reliable enough to compute pump efficiency. Owing to the behavior of the engine the speed of pump was quite variable. Table 27 gives the results obtained. 36 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FABLE 27.—Test of pumping plant in subdistrict No. 2 of Lafourche drainage district No. 12, Raceland, La., Apr. 19, 1915.1 : Water Time. Speed. Acura Discharge. horse- = power R. p.m. Feet. Sec.ft. | G.p.m. ONL sete epee SR eens Cie set Jaa ee ee eal Rene ee 198 3. 67 29. 44 13, 210 12. 24 eG Sener SiO nn ES el > SABRE MECC ABeeS 198 3. 81 26. 08 11, 720 11. 27 OG See oe) ee REN... eta ity er See 200 3. 98 31.17 14, 000 14.05 Os eee Bock bs Se be Do eee See eee See 200 4.14 23.11 10, 420 10. 83 UGE: 28 tk Be ESS ER cate oe a eee One eae eee 198 4.34 29. 42 13, 230 14, 48 PAG Eee Jae ree So Race ae eae cine Toe Saya a oars eae eve ioe 200 4,49 22. 53 10, 110 11.45 AVELASC Sak Sse ease ci eeetes eos aoe eee eeee 199 4.07 26. 96 12, 100 | 12. 46 1 FueL-oil consumption, 23.4 pounds per hour. TEST OF JAMISON RELIFT PLANT OF THE LOUISIANA IRRIGATION & MILL CO., CROWLEY, LA. This pumping plant contains two units, each consisting of a 60-horsepower Muncie engine direct-connected to a 36-inch cen- trifugal pump. The pumps are primed by small vacuum pump run from the engines. A small compressor and a gasoline engine are used to fill the air tanks for starting the engines. Although used for irrigation, this pumping plant does not differ in any way from plants used for drainage. Tests were run on both units of the plant. The results are given in Table 28. The quantity of water pumped was measured by a current meter in a carefully constructed flume in the suction canal. The lift was determined by means of gages set in suction and dis- charge canals. Fuel oil was accurately weighed by a spring balance. TABLE 28.-—Tests of Jamison relift pumping plant of Lowisiana Irrigation & Mill Co., Crowley, La., May 18-19, 1917. Time. Speed. Actual Discharge. Remarks. R.p.m.| Feet. | Sec.ft. | G. p.m. | D200 eee es 259 3. 57 51.9 23, 300. | . 3.15. .-.------ 261 3. 54 51.7 | 23,200 |In the first hour 31.44 pounds of oil were con- 3.30. ....-..-- 256 3. 52 49.9 22,400 | sumed. The number of gallons pumped per 3.45. ....----- 256 3.50 poe 23,200 |f pound of oil was 43,940; total oil consumption B00 eae eeits 256 3. 52 50. 8 22,800 || 54.06 pounds PRC Si ls eee aa 256 3. 51 50.1 22, 500 GOO ee aoe 256 3. 53 50. 2 22, 550 | Average..| 257 | 3.53 | 50.9 | 22, 855 | O00 255 2.041 523| 23,500 : OMS pene | 255 2.03 | 53.5 24,000 |\The total consumption of oil was 29.81 pounds Or aO Berea 256 2.01 Dane 23, 900 per hour; gallons pumped per pound, 47,750. Sie Hes Sea 255 1.99 52.3 23, 500 Average. . 255. 2 2. 03 52.8 23, 725 e a Sipe os 2. 20 | re 2 200 ee of oil, 32.87 pounds per hour; PMWide Sedecoeds ~ 1d | . | Shi 256 2 10 | 48.3 21 700 gallons pumped per pound, 40,200. Average. .| 257 2.14 | 49.0 22, 000 TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 37 TESTS OF THE FERRE, HINE’S, AND RICHARD RELIFT PUMPING PLANTS OF THE LOUIS- IANA IRRIGATION & MILL CO., CROWLEY, LA. During the summer of 1919 the Louisiana Irrigation & Mill Co. installed several pumping units in relift plants. Tests were made to determine the performance of these pumping units, with results as shown in Tables 29, 30, and 31. The equipment in each plant consisted of duplicate units made up of 60-horsepower internal- combustion engines direct-connected to 24-inch centrifugal pumps. TaBLE 29.—Test of Ferre relift pumping plant, Grand Canal, July 9, 1919. [60-horsepower Ingeco engines direct-connected to 24-inch Worthington pumps.] Minutes | required a Time. Speed of a to use 12 | Discharge. iginetiy E pounds of oil. South unit: R.p.m. Feet. Sec.ft. | G.p.m. "EL 1 ES een aan @ oneere oueemes 5 238.0 8100; [a.m 3: 45. 00 20, 200 bile 1 Une, SESS SEE oC ESET aes I ee 238. 5 AS OOM |isascctes 45. 90 20, 600 At) S's Saar pode joes cee essa as tassac es 236. 0 4, 04 21.0 45, 62 20, 480 MMR ie ine ws pscniaxis Siem Sele ese cic\acls ajaisis lotete s 241.0 4.06 21.0 45.12 20, 250 MOE ee atone hb isa ee niaes s bac ced seis pict 240. 0 4. 06 20.5 45,12 20, 250 MMI oe eine is ctem oscil cie tecnico Meaacetimews sissies 241.5 4.08 20.5 41.98 18, 850 MDa Sa aim o ciaio'n Sasa aoe SEE ESS vise Sesh e ob siecle 243.5 4. 08 20.0 42. 40 19, 030 CSTs eae ae OE Siar Silla 239.9 4. 04 20.6 44. 60 20, 080 : 20.5| 44.59] 20,000 22.5 45.00 20, 200 22.5 41.65 18, 700 92.5 43, 22 19, 400 22.5 42.12 18, 900 22.5 42,21 18, 950 22.0 44. 10 19, 800 22.1 43. 28 19, 420 DIE BRS weer lteter oe TasLe 30.—Test of Hine’s relift pumping plant, Grand Canal, July 12, 1919. {60-horsepower Bessemer engine belted to 24-inch Lawrence pump.] Speed. | Minutes 4 required Time. ait aed to use 12 Discharge. Bariga Pin a | pounds pomat PP | of oil. Rk. p.m. R. p.m Sec.ft. | G.p.m. A nee teRe reese e st nc sce Rwsivccps'dclbeee 222.0 167.5 30 | PE sl Os aca aa ala tale = ore Wi Se mya Pa 217.0 NGGEOsi A. Foo 225232 te , ; | ited Sgeiblpae ACA el me ea Pig) Saat Dal oe 7°88 1.2... coe Min eee Sanu MDE R AChE «inh s Roe ee pared «au dats sob OhS 217.0 167.0 30 | ctrl le fad es ears iit pie aps 220, 0 ROO Ola ts BBA ode arg Wes Seatetiy alters Pe are Be ee ere ee le ee ee eee 255.0 | 193.0 19 | PRES s w'o we ain Pe Cae MaRS OAA geen ae as kei 256. 0 LO EOS OS 8 er MN ag nwt ooo » oSaMaleSeepac pe a aaw dada’ 255. 5 | 199. 0 18 27.18 12, 200 i RE A apse og nis GAPE Sten BEB) | aoe Onls 7 SAL lo... acess RRA) ox: oun a sea dob Li tebeeethiont sabe 260. 0 198. 5 18 | | 38 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 31.—Test of Richard relift pumping plant, Grand Canal, July 11, 1919. [60-horsepower Ingeco engine direct-connected to Worthington pumps.] Speed. aes require: Time. : Actual to use 12 Discharge. No.1. |. No.2 itt. | pounds a of oil. | R.p.m.| R. p.m. Feet. Sec.ft G. p.m. DAQU Ie aon eens nos See cle inne OES caciee | scien veaee 250. 0 exGol ante see 39. 65 17, 800 DAO se OS ai 55 ee Reise ae mee aE as ee Eee ie os asses 250. 0 7. 84 19.5 38. 65 17, 350 2 20 Pattee Hel aais sel Sa eee Sine Os SEL pees Siclee cise Sere ce 250. 0 7. 87 20.5 38. 65 17, 350 DEAQ ER oa am os 2 ans Se eeeee Melee fee ane tal en ones 249.0 7.85 21.0 36. 60 16, 450 INN CLA BOP te eieicie Se ae See Oe oe See 249.7 7. 83 | 20. 33 38. 38 17, 237 The methods followed in testing the Ferre relift and the Richard relift were the same as those already described in the test of the Jami- son relift. In making the test of the Hine’s relift the quantity of water was measured by means of a weir installed at the end of the flume. As the flow was rather turbulent, the depth on the weir could not be read with great accuracy, and the results may be in error by 5 per cent. As the water was discharged vertically upward from the pump, the discharge gage could not be read as accurately as in the other test, but the readings are substantially correct and the final results satisfactory. Fuel oil used in these plants was Jennings crude, direct from the wells. A sample from the Richard relift had specific gravity 0.8975 or 26.15° Baumé at 100° F. DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANT AT PORT ARTHUR, TEX. This plant was installed to drain the city of Port Arthur, an area of approximately 2,175 acres. It is not an agricultural proposition and the capacity is far in excess of that required for farm lands. The pumping plant contains three units, each consisting of a vertical 2-cylinder 100-horsepower oil engine direct-connected to a 48-inch screw pump. ‘Two of the pumps were sold under a guaranty to de- liver 40,000 gallons per minute against a 5-foot lift and 26,000 gallons per minute against an 11-foot lift. The other pump was to deliver 55,000 gallons per minute against a 5-foot lift. All operate at 257 revolutions per minute. In the test of this plant, water measurements were made with a Pitot tube. The lift was determined by means of gages set in suction and discharge basins. Fuel oil was measured by means of a spring balance. Readings of fuel were taken at 5-minute intervals. The oil used was sold as 28° Baume, weight 7.38 pounds per gallon. | Tests were made on one high-lift and on the low-lift unit. In the course of the work of adjusting and testing the plant it was found that the blades were quite rough. When they were made smooth and sharp a marked improvement in capacity and duty was observed. TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 39 Table 32 gives the result of a test on high-lift unit No. 2 before the blades of the pump were smoothed and sharpened. Table 33 gives the results of a test after the improvements had been made. It was believed that a considerably better showing would be obtained from the low-lift pump by sharpening the impeller blades and trimming out the casing, and this work was subsequently done. The results of the test on low-lift unit No. 3 are given in Table 34. TABLE 32.—Test of pump No. 2 of drainage pumping plant at Port Arthur, Tex., July 23-26, 1918. £9 29 G9 09 G9 49 09 69 49 9 69 KO Wealth pumpe Time. Speed. Discharge. ste fue per gallon of fuel mB used. R.p.m.| Sec.ft. | G. p.m. Feet. G. p.m. | Gallons. ee a ec Score eso ak ae eS 255 89.12 40, 000 Ay UOF | nates ae laces NB ee ae a Sails einai ci isinete cs oo cte ae 255 88. 68 39, 800 4.95 0.139 286, 000 eee Rae eC cE 255 88.23 | 39, 600 5.15 .166 | 238,000 Ji. : 244; 22.0 ogee ee ee eee 254 87. 56 39, 300 5.38 . 164 239, 000 ee ee ato in min lolal aio aloo pinto Steyn = = misjnie 254 85. 56 38, 400 5. 60 - 156 246, 000 (Vie 32 5 a Sec A 5 oe ee ee 254 86. 01 38, 600 5.75 - 163 237, 000 133°. 22. See eee 252 85. 34 38, 300 6.05 -175 219, 000 pps eeee cd is bs 22S 252 84.00 | 37,700 6.68 159 | 237,000 Jo.) 2 eee 250 81.10 | 36, 400 7.18 -180 | 202,000 Eo Ee ee 244 78.65 | 35,300 8.64 .210 | 168,000 wih o- 3+ 2 SSBB Saar eeSee ieee 239 71.30 32, 000 10.10 213 150, 000 ena 5 S52) 13525 - Eee 237 58.87 | 26, 200 11.34 210 | 125,000 1 This test was made W. P. Langworthy before pump blades were sharpened. TaBLE 33.—Test of pump No. 2 of drainage pumping plant at Port Arthur, Tex., July 23—26, 1918. ‘ } Weer - Average | pumpe Speed. | velocity | Discharge. perunt pUe per gallon | of flow. | : eee of fuel } | used. | | | = =| oe 1 | | R.p.m. | Ft.persec.| Sec.ft. | G.p.m. Feet. G. p.m. | Gallons. | 254 6.04 | 89.12 | 40,000 | 3.60 0.153 | 262,000 | 255 5. 87 | 86.45 | 38,800 3.75 . 156 249, 000 253 5.89 | 86.67 38,900 | 3.88 - 156 “249, 000 254 6.09 | 89.57 | 40,200 | 3.97 - 151 267, 000 253 5.91 87.12 39, 100 4.35 . 154 254, 000 253 B77 4)! 18511 38, 200 4.40 . 154 248, 000 } i 258 5.82 | 85.78 | 38,500 | 4.48 149 | 258,000 | 254 5.85 | 86.22 38, 700 4. 60 .149 260, 000 |. 253 5. 81 86. 56 | 38, 400 4.70 .159 | 241,000 | 252 5.85 86.22 | 38,700 5.00 164 | 236,000 252 5.70 84.00 | 37,700 5.18 . 164 230, 000 } 252 5. 64 83.33 | 37,400 | 5.40 166 | 225,000 252 5.61 82.88 37, 200 5. 60 -173 215, 000 251 5.44 80.21 | 36,000 5. 82 shlo 208, 000 249 5. 53 $1.55 36,600 | 6.45 . 180 203, 000 247 5. 51 81.32 36,500 | 6.70 . 180 203,000 245 5.48 80. 65 36,200 | 7.10 . 169 214,000 243 5.24 | 77.31 34,700 | 7.65 169 205, 000 1 This test was made W. P, Langworthy after pump blades were sharpened. 40 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 34.—Test of pump No. 3 of drainage pumping plant at Port Arthur, Tex., made by W. P. Langworthy July 23-26, 1918. » | Water | Average pumped Time. Speed. | velocity Discharge. Head. oe per gallon | of flow. of fap | used. PR. p.m. |Ft.persec.| Sec. -ft. | G. p.m. Fest. G.p.m. | Gallons. 250 | 7. 91 116. 75 STUY a rat Ze eo lage 5 16.75 | 52,40 3.00 0.160 | 327,000 DIAG Som ek eas ce 250 7.84| 115.41 | 51,800 3.38 157 | 330,000 PESTO are aoa ke See 249 7.79| 114.75) 51,500 3.6 166 | 310,000 TULA a elem lisariere tt Le BNE a) 246 7.60 | 112.07 | 50,300 3. 96 173 | 291/000 POGOe ot a ee ee ae 946 7.51| 110.51} 49,600 4.06 174 | 285, 000 PROS on hr) ae ge ee 246 7.29} 107.39} 48,200 4.19 178 | 271,000 PDOV esa oes ee eae 945 7.36 | 10828| 48 600 4.36 .194| 250,000 TP ie 2 alae eines ae BET oath 941 7.27| 107.17) 48,100 4.63; .174| 276,000 TAQ ca ail on oie Nag en e 243 7.28 | 107.39 | 48,200 4.16 .183 | 263,000 Ty aa te heed hale aac 244 7.26| 106.95 48,000 4.90 .184 | 261,000 LD ER eed ae eee, |e ee ae 243 7.21 | 106.28| 47,700 5.00 163 | 293, 000 TEST OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANT IN SUB-DISTRICT NO. 4, LAFOURCHE DRAINAGE DISTRICT NO. 12, RACELAND, LA. This plant, which drains 4,466 acres of prairie land, was installed in 1915. The machinery consists of two units, duplicates in every way except that the pumps are driven respectively by right-hand and left-hand engines. The pumps are 48-inch centrifugal drainage pumps designed for high speed and a flat power curve. The pump impellers are a combination of the screw propeller and the ordinary centrifugal pump impeller. Each pump has double-suction pipes attached to 48-inch elbows, and both suction and discharge pipes are enlarged at their outer ends. Wooden flap valves are used to cover the discharge ends while the pumps are being primed. The pumps are driven by 2-stroke cycle Diesel engines 144 by 24 inches, with variable speed governors. The plant is ordinarily oper- ated between the limits of 190 to 200 revolutions, while for maximum lift of about 9 feet the speed may be increased 220 revolutions per minute. A test of one of the units was made to determine the oil consump- tion for a given output of work. Observations were taken every 20 minutes on the speed, lift, suction (with manometers), pounds of oil consumed, and quantity of water pumped. The fuel used during the test was crude oll, specific gravity 0.889, or 27.4° Baumé at 60° F. The unit tested was situated on the left-hand side of the suction canal looking upstream. The two suction pipes are labeled right and left, as one stands facing the suction canal, and therefore the right- hand suction pump is near the middle of the canal. During the test an eddy was observed in the suction basin, so disposed that water was brought to the right-hand pipe and away from the opening of the left- hand suction pipe. The effect of the eddy was clearly shown in the quantities of water measured in the two pipes, as the right-hand pipe invariably carried more water. Without doubt this condition TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 4] had some effect upon the efficiency of the pump, and consequently re- duced the over-all efficiency. The eddy was caused by unequal depths of water below the suction pipes and by the higher velocity near the center line of the suction canal. RESULTS OF TEST. The test, which extended over a period of nearly six hours, was run with a varying difference of levels in the canals, the lift increasing from 3.55 feet at the beginning of the run to 4.96 feet at the close. The speed of the pump was held uniform at 195 revolutions per minute, but the total water pumped varied with the change in actual lift, ranging from 60,050 gallons per minute at the lower lift (3.55 feet) to 54,700 gallons per minute at the higher lift (4.96 feet). The results obtained are given in Table 35.- The economy of the plant can best be realized by a comparison with the steam pumping plant in subdistrict No. 1, Gueydan drainage district, where the equipment consists of high-grade simple noncon- densing Corliss engines and volute pumps. When pumping against a head of approximately 5 feet the fuel consumption of the steam plant was to that of the internal-combustion engine plant as 4.28 to 1 for equal output of work. TaBLe 35.—Test of pumping plant in subdistrict No. 4 of Lafourche drainage district No. 12, Raceland, La., Feb. 21, 1916. | Useful Time. Speed. fetus Discharge. | ES | power = z ase, SI Oe ST ‘ | Leet Seu-ft. | G.p.m | 3.59 133. 80 60, 050 53. 80 3. 63 132. 79 59, 600 54.70 3.69 | 131.57 59,050. | 55. 00 3.75 131. 23 58, 900 | 55. 80 3. 82 128, 23 57, 550. | 55. 50 3.90 | 128.89 57, 850 | 56. 95 3.98 | 129.90 | 58,300 58. 60 4.08 126. 22 58. 40 4.17 126. 78 59. 90 ibebt7/ 128. 67 62. 25 4. 34 125. 00. | 61. 50 4.43 | 124. 66 62. 55 4.52 |} 126.00 64. 55 1.63 | 125.55 65. 90 } 4.74 123. 88 66. 50 4. 84 123, 32 67. 60 1.96 121. 88 | 68. 50 | 1 TEST OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANT OF LITTLE WOODS TRACT, NEW ORLEANS, LA. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. The New Orleans Lake Shore Land Co. has reclaimed an area of 6,943 acres of prairie land, located on Lake Pontchartrain, inside the city limits of New Orleans. The pumping plant was erected during the latter part of 1913. (See Pl. Il.) It consists of two centrifugal pumps, each with a discharge opening equivalent to a circle of 514 inches diameter, connected by means of herringbone gears to electric 42 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. motors. Electric energy was used in this case because of the desirability of having the city current for use for other power and - in the suburban residences. The cost of electrical energy is greater than that of steam power or that furnished by internal-combustion engines, although the first cost of the electrical plant is less than either of the other types. The plant is very economical when interest on investment and depreciation are considered together with the cost of operating. The pumps are equipped with a combination of screw and inclosed- centrifugal impeller. They are primed by means of small exhaust pumps of the chamber-wheel type driven by small motors. Greatest capacity is had at the low lifts, where it is desirable. As the lift increases the capacity decreases, but the need of large capacity also decreases. The capacity of the plant when operating at a lift of 4.5 feet is 1.3 inches in depth removed from the area in 24 hours. The motors which drive the pumps run at practically constant speed, and therefore the revolutions of the pump remain constant regardless of lift. METHOD OF MAKING TEST. The height through which the water was elevated was obtained by reading gages in the suction and discharge basins. The quantity of water was determined by using a Price current meter in the discharge flume. The voltage and revolutions per minute were also observed. The results of the test are given in Table 36. It is believed that the two units under favorable conditions will show identical results. TABLE 36.—Test of pumping plant in Little Woods Tract, New Orleans, La., Nov. 14, 1914. UNIT NO. 1. (Me vee cl a ieee Elec- : | a F Water Actual F é | Kilo- trical Effi- Time Speed. | Volts. lift. Discharge. | watts. | horse- horse. ciency. power. P a = R. p.m. | > Feet. Sec.-ft. | G. p.m. | | Per cent. 10;00 = 119.8 | 2, 246 5.76 173.7 77, 800 | 174.C | 233.0 113.5 | 48. 80 LOM Sees 121. 2 | 2, 288 5. 83 176.8 79, 200 | 174.9 | 234. 2 116.8 | 49.75 1030 Sees 120.7 | 2, 300 5. 85 177.9 79.700 | 174.8 234. 2 118.0 | 50. 35 OSS a: 120.7 2, 298 5. 85 175.5 78, 600 175.1 234. 6 116. 2 49.50 TE OO Ere 121.2 2, 298 5. 87 173.7 77, 800 | 175.0 234.5 115.5 49. 25 i ES ayaa 121.4 | 2, 304 5. 91 172.1 77, 100 178.0 238. 5 115.3 | 48.35 a oa as 120.8 2, 320 6. 29 171.0 76, 600 174.4 233.7 121.8 52.10 Biaibossdos 120.5 2, 320 6.39 169. 2 75, 800 172.6 231.3 122.7 53.10 o40e yee ee 120.7 2,320 6. 41 170.2 76, 200 | 171.6 230. 0 123.5 53.70 ANOS ES ss 121.1 2,320 6. 44 168.1 75, 300 173.4 232.3 122.6 52.75 L15 Geen 121.0 2,316 6. 46 166.3 74, 500 171.0 229.1 121.6 53.10 430M Sass 120.7 2,320 6.54 167.4 75, 000 166.4 223.0 124.1 55.70 Mean..| 120.8 2, 304 6.13 171.4| 76,960|- 173.4| — 932.4 117.6 51.37 UNIT NO. 2.1 ib eeeescs | 120.4 2, 300 6.10 170. 2 73, 200 | 176.5 | 233.5 | 117.5 | 49.7 1S Seen | 121.1 2, 398 6.14 171.5 76, 890 178.0 238.5 119.3 50.0 Le ee 129.8 2,310 6.15 U7fle 76, 700 176.1 236.0 119. 2 50.5 PVD sae aass | 121.0 2,310 6. 20 167.0 74, 890 174.0 233. 0 117.3 50. 4 OH a seca 129.8 2,329 6. 25 169.2 75, 890 173.0 231.8 120.0 50. 47 Mean..| 120.8 2,310 6.15 | 169.8 | 76, 060 | 175.5 | 235.2 118.7 | 50. 47 1 A mud lump was found in suction basin under one suction pipe. TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 43 The test showed an average efficiency at 6-foot lift of 50.55 per cent. At a lift of 6.32 feet and while pumping more than 76,000 gallons per minute the guaranteed efficiency of 524 per cent was attained. TESTS OF 12-FOOT WOOD SCREW PUMP, NEW ORLEANS DRAINAGE SYSTEM. The drainage of New Orleans and the sanitary sewers are separate systems. The area drained amounts to 25,000 acres, or a little more than 39 square miles. The capacity of pumping plants for drainage will eventually be equal to 7.33 inches of run-off removed in 24 hours. The pumping units include eleven 12-foot screw pumps. (See fig. 4.) Tests were made of one of the 12-foot Wood screw pumps at New Orleans pumping plant No. 1, on November 17, 1916, and January Fic. 4,—Section through 12-foot screw pump, New Orleans drainage pumping plant. 17,1917. In the test of November 17 the flume was divided into 10 equal areas. As the bottom was V-shaped the width of these sections was greatest at the sides of the flume and least near the middle. Velocities were observed at 0.2, 0.6, and 0.8 depth in each area, and the mean velocity for an area was taken to be the mean of the three velocities observed. The sum of the 10 separate areas multiplied each by its mean velocity gave the total discharge and this divided by the total area gave the mean velocity. In the test on January 17, 1917, observations were taken of velocity at the same sections as in the previous test but at one-sixth, five- tenths, and five-sixths depth. The mean of three readings was used as the mean velocity of the vertical section, and the total discharge was obtained by summing up the discharges of the separate sections. Table 37 gives the results of the tests. 44 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 37.— Tests of 12-foot Wood screw drainage pump at New Orleans pumping station No. 1, Nov. 17, 1917. TEST OF NOY. 17, 1916. uantity é Q tity pumped Meas- MCS: aoe a | Correc- Water umes Saree Effi- No.| Speed. | Meas- vee Leak- prnee: |tion for) Cor- Lift. | horse- | pee au om ciency ured BEILO age OE storage} rected Does | Lee ~ |__| pump. oo Broad naaraalh storage | ~ ak = horse- | input Street eee himin: | eat eos power.| to flume. Gane station.| |. 1 | charge | tity. } anal. canal. | asin. | | pump. Sige al Siete ieee | R.p.m.| Sec.-ft. | Sec.-ft. | Sec.-ft. | Sec.-ft. | Sec.-ft. | Feet. Pact. 1...| 73.7 | 457. 84 1.74 3.26 | 21.18 | —0.90 | 482.92 | 7.59 416.0 | 585.86 | 551.0 75. 45 Dee Ne TES Ib |e ies, 783 1.74) 3.74) 11.45 | —4.70 | 487.96 | 7.48 414.5 | 586.77 | 552.0 75.1 3...| 74.1 | 481.54 1.74) 4.35 §.96 | —4.34 | 490.25 | 7.415 | 412.5 | 582.52 | 547.5 75. 3 Av.; 74.0 | 471.70 1.74 | 3.78 | 138.20 | —3.31 | 487.11 | 7.495 | 413.9 | 585.03 | 550.2 75. 23 P) TEST OF JAN. 17, 1917. F ] 7 7 1...| 75.75 | 491.35 2. 82 | 2.17 | 18.25 | —0.28 | 514.31 | 7.37 430.0 608.5 572. 5 75.0 1A -|} 75.8 488. 80 2. 82 De NGS Bil pele 5 SOS, D2 7. 41 428.0 | 610.0 573.5 74.6 2...| 76.05 | 513.10 2. 82 3.85 | 7.85 | —3.49 | 524.13 | 7. 55 448.5 617.0 | 580.5 77.3 Av.) 75.9 | 497.75 2. 82 9.85 | 13.87 | —1.74 | 515.55) 7.44 434.6 | 611.8 | 575. 5 75. 51 Before each of these tests it was necessary to allow the water to accumulate for about a week, and as the weather was dry the water became rather foul; it carried trash and organic matter which appeared to give off gas. The lift, or difference of level on suction and discharge sides of pump, was approximately 7.5 feet for all these tests, which is the lift for which the pump was designed. The results obtained from the tests show the efficiency of the pump to be about 75.5 per cent. This is less than was shown by the official test of 1915, when for a lift of 7.15 feet the efficiency of pump was approximately 79 per cent. It is possible that the foulness of the water affected the results. to some extent. The efficiency obtained is good in any event. COST OF OPERATION OF PLANTS. Information regarding the various pumping plants tested, as well as for some others for which data have been obtained from reliable sources, has been arranged in tabular form (Table 38) and in graphic form (in figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9). All but plants Nos. 19 and 21 have centrifugal pumps. The impellers of the pumps in plants Nos. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 20, and 22 (see Table 38) are a combination of the screw and centrifugal principles. Nos. 19 and 21 are screw pumps. Plants Nos. 1, 2, and. 3 are medium-grade steam plants having slide valve noncondensing engines. Plants Nos. 4 and 5 have Corliss noncondensing engines. The former was not tested under the most favorable conditions, while the latter was; No. 5 has a much more elaborate pump than No. 4. Plant No. 6 has a cross- PLATE II. D3518 OR RM rere sors INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR VIEWS OF PUMPING PLANT, LITTLE WooDS TRACT, NEW ORLEANS, LA. TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 45 compound condensing Corliss engine. Plant No. 7 has a compound condensing poppet-valve engine using superheated steam. Plants Nos. 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 are alike in having internal-combustion engines. No. 9 uses kerosene as fuel, while the others may use distillate or kerosene. They are all 4-cycle engines. Plants Nos. 13 26 NAME OF PLANT /YPE 24 ENGINE PUMP Va Seam shde-valve oe non-candensing. Sub Dist No! Latourche QD Noé. Subbist No.3 Lateurche DD No/2 Jefferson D.D. No 3. Simple non-con- Sub, DistNol-Gue ydon DD, |e Corts. Pumping Plant No.2 Avoca QD. comp.tond Corliss Pumping Alant No.3 Avoca DD. mp %eodpapper valve Jub. Dut Nod Jefferson DD. No.4. lot Comb, bistllate Jub bittNo.l. Lafourche 0D.No.9. » + Kerosene * Daleaur 2D, ~ = Distillate. Sub. Dist Nol Lofourche OD No20" ~ " Combanee D.D. : Dir a0 opted sub Dist Nollateurche DDNol2. - = Hot Bulb, Jub bistNo2Latourche DDNol2 * Jamison Belitt - + fem/-Dresel. ferre. ees a fichard. Hines. . Port Arthur : Jub, List No4. Lafourche LD No.le ° Combmation of Nos. 12 and 19. Phillps Land Campan 2Z 20 ~ & SGGSRIRGRRGNVSOMOr1DVAGN_W aS Boooeedeqgeureovandgd 0 & SHAY ~ tS ~ S Pounds of Oi! per footAcre-leot Pumped 4 y} 4 ec cS Fs fn + 8 z we Ht ee Pe ee! Drese/. Lift in Feet F1G. 5.— Pounds of oil required by different types of engines to pump against various liits. and 14 have hot-bulb ignition and operate on the 4-stroke cycle; they use a fairly low grade of fuel oil. Plants Nos. 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19 have 2-cycle oil engines with hot-bulb ignition. Plant No. 20 has 2-cycle Diesel engines using a low grade of fuel oil. Plants Nos. 21 and 22 are electrically driven. BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 46 op ee ee . o. -SIp dsBUIBIP Bs yoINOJ 19'T 8a" GIs‘T | 00G¢T | STS 69 Asi $9 StL ‘1 | 89°T 0°6S 6LT 829 Grae} ge waieBose eee “eT ‘T ‘ON a apans el $e'T 68° 060‘ | o0¢‘t | 06g SIT CLP 06 IS ‘T 16° ¥6L 86° ¢ ‘08 0¢6‘T | -01eQ ~—YQHOS | -s!p odeurerp aoyequIoy | ZT : 0% ‘ON 4011} -SIP dvstureip ayoInos 08° 68° 926‘ | 008‘T | 9zF‘T | 982 OFT ‘T 06 0c9‘g | 98 0'26t | 9ST Wohl Ose. Poser es OD saan “BT ‘T ON Jol4SIpqns | IT Seecaapaie eI ore See | tae fad tee Site oe csctvges see rahe scr el | eo a aera aca [eke te ak ee E conaiea tates pl Prem ii sce semtatte (exraean eric cre i eee pe Sige or hints Mav ey ceo OSGi ee aleRPeesee OD en JOVIPSTP VSVUIBIP INOI[VG OT : 5 “0 ON 40114 : -SIp dsBUIvIp 9oINos OF a 68° T6L‘T | O0¢‘T 16z 8¢ $&Z 06 LEL oS" Z6ee | CET ‘86 (OOUFHTS ee |neeaianues op UT ‘T ‘ON JOLYSTpgns | 6 : : : “‘b ON qorysIp ssevuTerp uos 92 °T 6E° C11‘% | 00¢ ‘T G19 C&T OFS 06 oez ‘Tt | 02°T 0°16 0g 'T 86 OOSETa | Seas OD aaa Toyo! 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Plant capacity was rated on a velocity of 10 feet per second at the © discharge flange of pump. The capacities of the various plants as shown by the test are also included. The capacity of plant in acres drained was next computed on the basis of 1.25 inch removed in 24 hours. In selecting engines a limit is set by the size of engines of certain types. Slide-valve steam engines may be had in almost any size or capacity, while Corliss engines are not made in small sizes. It would therefore be impracticable to decide to use a Corliss engine on a proposition so small as to demand special design. Distillate and oil engines of medium grade are not made by some firms in sizes above 100 to 125 horsepower. To use an internal- combustion engine in a pumping plant of large capacity with cor- respondingly large units would mean the selection of a Diesel or a semi-Diesel engine, both high-grade engines, costing considerable more per horsepower than the medium-grade engines using distillate. The original costs of pumping plants and the years they were purchased are shown in Table 39. In using the data contained in this table, however, it must be borne in mind that prices of all ma- terials and equipment of pumping plants have advanced materially. The average plant would probably now (1920) cost as much as 75 to 100 per cent more than before the war. TABLE 39.—Costs of pumping plants. | | Name of plant. : Acres. Cost. | Caskven ccentod: Philips: Wari di Coss pss sere aoc RE se ee ee ae eee 2,500 | $15,000; $6.00) 1911 Subdistrict No. 1, Lafourche drainage district No. 6.....--..... 1, 880 10, 000 | 5.32 | 1912 Subdistrict No. 3, Lafourche drainage district No. 12.-..... .... 2,250 13,500 | 6.00 1910 Jetlersonidraina se GistiGteNOns ete. anaes seer eee oie et 5, 000 28, 000 5.60 | .1912 Subdistrict No. 1, Gueydan drainage district...-.....-.--- eee 7, 500 40, 000 5.32 1912 Subdistrict No. 2, Avoca drainage district. -...-...-.--..--.... 4,350 34, 000 7.81 1911 Subdistrict No. 3, Avoca drainage district. ....-..--...----._-- 11, 250 73,000 | 6.48 1913 Subdistrict No. 4, Jefferson drainage district No. 4.-......-.... 1, 800 18, 000 10.00 1915 Fayport subdistrict No. 1, Lafourche drainage district No. 9. -. 2,000 14,000 | (2007 |2 55 aoe Malcouridramaredistrict = aa eee aes eee ae ee 650 10,000 | 115.40 1913 Subdistrict No. 1 Lafourche drainage district No. 12..-....._.- 835 10, 500 | 12.57 1915 Subdistrict No. 2 Lafourche drainage district No. 12.-........- 940 12,500 | 13.30 1915 Subdistrict No. 4 Lafourche drainage district No. 12......._... 4,240 31,500 | 7.42 1913 Dittle Woods tracts. seks sss ec es jaan a Sec eee ee oa ee 6, 943 37, 500 5.39 1913 RorlsActhurs sche ac eee see ae see ee ree Se ack See Eee 5,720 54, 290 29.50 1918 Herre relitt: .. = S2ei- 552 SS ae a elas oe ee 5 Lene a eee Coe ase ase 20:000) |= 52 aeees= 1918 RichharG reli iow. 2 SoS Saige sea en So eee el ee eee 150000 haa errs 1918 Hine’ Sreliftec ss ses oe sige a ae ne eee ES Sep Se SRT ey meee 8:,0095|Seeeeeeees 1918 1 Acreage will be considerably increased later. ¢ 2 Plant costs more than it would for an agricultural proposition, as two units must lift water 11 feeti occasion demands it. GRAPHIC SUMMARY. Figure 5 shows the pounds of oil per foot-acre-foot of water pumped, plotted against the lift in feet. The several curves repre- sent different types of plant. While, in some instances the data were sufficient to define the curve accurately, in others the exact definition was a matter of judgment. The amount of fuel shown is TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 49 for normal plant operations and does not include the 25 per cent allowance for starting and lubricating oils. The accuracy of -the work is limited by the amount of data available. It will be noted that curve II does not pass through the point plotted for Jefferson drainage district No. 3 nor through point for subdistrict No. 1, Gueydan drainage district, but is drawn between them to give probable results for an average plant of this type. It must be remembered that the test of the former plant showed greatly unbalanced quantities passing through the two suction pipes. The engines are rather large for the pumps, and this doubtless has a material effect on economy. On the other hand, the Gueydan pumps are volute pumps of much more elaborate design than the drainage pumps of Jefferson drainage district No. 3. The pumps were large and the velocities of water through them comparatively slow; all these factors made for lower fuel rate. Figure 6 shows the cost per year of pumping 29 acre-inches against various lifts, as obtained from the curves of figure 5. For the average drainage proposition discussed in this report the lft for the first two or three years is approximately 3 feet; later, when a part of the humus disappears and deeper drainage is desired, the lift is increased to 5 feet or more. The general range of lift was from 2 to 8 feet. In all the tests recorded oil was used as fuel. In order to make a comparison of cost it is necessary to consider the kind of oil used in the different plants. The steam plants and the Diesel-engine plant No. 20 (fig. 5), either used or could use Mexican crude or some low grade of fuel oil. Prices of fuel oil have fluctuated considerably during the last seven years. During 1919 and 1920 the price of oil delivered at New Orleans has ranged from about 75 cents to $3.50 per barrel. The prices of distillates and kerosene have shown variations that make it impossible to arrive at a probable cost for the future because of the great instability of prices. The average price of the lower grade of fuel oil delivered at the . pumping plant for the years 1912-1917 was about $1.10 per barrel of 42 gallons. For hot-bulb engines of the semi-Diesel type a higher grade of crude oil is required. The price for this oil delivered at pumping plants for the same period ranged from $1.40 to ,$1.80, with the average about $1.60. Some internal-combustion engines, such as those in plants No. 8 and No. 10, are supposed to use a distillate of low grade, costing about the same as the fuel oil used in the semi-Diesel engines. In some instances distillate has been mixed with kerosene to make a more satisfactory fuel. Plants Nos. 8 and 10 may be operated in this way. Plant No. 9 uses kerosene. The cost of distillate deliv- . 50 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ered at pumping plants in the period 1912-1917 has been about 4 cents per gallon or $1.68 per barrel, while kerosene has cost about 74 cents per gallon or $3.15 per barrel. Possibly kerosene in tank- car lots was purchased at a lower figure, but many plants have 3 BS : a a Gallons of Ol per foot-dere-looh Pumped lea WAL HE Cent ~ ® ~ (yy) N — ‘ I AS wy) tes 1S) Pounds of Oi per loot Acre-loor Pumped, Dy USE aba AG ET TAItG Lift in Feet Fic, §.—Cost of fuel oil to pump 29 acre-inches. limited storage capacity and fuel is purchased in smaller quanti- ties. The cost of fuel has been assumed to be as shown in Table 40. TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 51 TABLE 40. | Per barrel | Per gallon. | of 42 | | gallons. Le NWS ERE TEI aah Uap SBS toca aaa Seas Os pe Seebas Sbsasas Sees ebe sees seeaee $0. 035 | $1. 47 Better grade fael ba CSUN ATC) Se Resets seh sober tess nee eee 065 | 2.73 Ls SECTS G2 5,35 RUE RES IE Se ee ea as apdaaudsdas ; -090 | 3.78 An allowance has been made for fuel used in starting, lubricating oil, and supplies, amounting to 25 per cent of the assumed cost of fuel oul. While the prices of fuel oils are so unstable these assumed prices ie Ea se rE c CosT PER ACRE PER YEAR, DOLLARS l 2 3 4 5 6 THOUSANDS OF ACRES /N PROJECT Fic. 7.—Labor cost per acre in pumping plants using oil as fuel. are probably as good as any others. Figure 6 has been arranged with oil prices varying from 1 cent to 10 cents per gallon, so that corrections may easily be made for changes in fuel costs. Figure 7 shows the labor costs per acre per year for pumping plants. The basis on which they were computed is shown in Table 41. TABLE 41. | Engineers, | Assistants, Total, per month. | per month, | per month. BEES TLOTICONGOIAING BECAIN 0 dn cidcneclniensentseniessPinacndvad eases $70. 00 | $40. 00 $110, 00 Type of plant. BIDE COTES. oo olin aician bb fen tenaeleiedcd sep eam Idd ae > oka 85. 00 | 60, 00 145, O0) Compound con Mopiaiiic COMES cP. wines oe Se ie che Pees 110. 00 75, 00 185, 00 MILOCULAL COMMIUSELON «os sngh on ospowenremy eoaud baleuiie dd sapieah cases +e 75. 00 | 50. 00 125, 00 BECTEID ws oiga's v0 2 ep : RET ee AEE 75, 00 | 50, 00 125, OO 52 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The above wages are approximately 25 per cent greater than those paid in 1917. In considering the above table, it must be remembered that the plant operator is usually furnished a house and garden and is able to engage in agriculture on a small scale. In some cases he is able to do considerable repairing of farm machinery in addition to his duties at the pumping plant. Wages therefore are considerably lower _ than those paid in commercial plants, where full time is required. Bae eRSeaSeeees ss DIAGRAM SHOWING COST OF PUMPING 30 PLANT PER ACRE IN 19/7 AND /9/9 H ee | Sa ea le See oe 20 Cos7 OF PUMPING PLANT PER ACRE PER ACRE PER YEAR FOR DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS IN LOUISIANA, BASED ON 19/9 COST OF PLANT. FIXED CHARGES PER ACRE PER YEAR | 2 S} 4 5 © T THOUSANDS OF ACRES /N PROJECT Fic. 8.—Cost of pumping plants and fixed charges per acre per year. The actual costs of some of the plants tested are shown in figure 8. The costs for 1919 were obtained by increasing the 1917 price by 88 per cent, which is the average increase in the cost of material and labor. The two lines for each year represent approximately the upper and lower limits of cost, depending upon the type of plant constructed. The upper limit of fixed charges per acre per year was obtained by taking the interest on the upper limit of cost of pumping plant per acre for 1919 computed at 6 per cent and adding an annuity on a basis of 4 per cent that will replace the plant in 15 years; the lower limit was obtained by taking the interest on the lower limit of cost per acre for TESTS OF DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS. 53 1919 and adding an annuity on a basis of 4 per cent and that will re- place the plant in 20 years, amounting to $33.58 per $1,000. The life of a pumping plant depends largely on the grade of machinery used and the care itreceives. It is believed that the limits of 15 to 20 years Jora/ Cost per Acre per Year, Dollars Steam shde-valve non-condensing. Simple non-condensing Coruiss. Compound condensing Coriss. Internal Combustion Engine, Oi at 9cents per gal. Internal Combustion Engihe, Oi/ at 34 cents per gal. { 2 Ke 4 5 6 if Thousands of Acres /h Pro ysec’ st per acre per year, of drainage pumping plants of various types in J oulsiana, Fic. 9.—Total co including fuel, supplies, labor, and fixed charges. will cover most cases, although occasionally a pumping plant will not last more than 10 years, while another under favorable circumstances may last 25 years. 54 BULLETIN 1067, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Figure 9 indicates the total cost per acre per year, including fuel, supplies, labor, and fixed charges, of pumping plants of various types in the southern prairie region, where an average of 29 inches of depth of water is pumped annually. The cost of the fuel, as assumed, is given in Table 36; labor charges are shown in figure 8; the fixed charges are assumed as the mean of the fixed charges for the year 1919, as shown in figure 8. It will be noted that the cost decreases as the size_of the project increases. . The average cost per acre of operating a _ pumping plant for a project of 3,000 acres is approximately $1 per acre per year more than for a project of 7,000 acres. This is an incentive toward reclaiming lands by pumping in fairly large units. From figure 9 it will also be seen that with the assumptions made the most expensive plants for projects with acreage 2,400 or more is the steam plant with slide-valve engine. There is little choice between the simple Corliss engine and the compound condensing type, the former having a slight advantage for projects of more than 5,000 acres and the latter being a little cheaper for projects between 2,000 and 5,000 acres. The cheapest plant of all has internal-com- bustion engines, and the difference in various plants will depend quite largely on the price paid for fuel. While the above analysis is for a set of conditions that are assumed as typical, different conditions will modify the results, and correc- tions in computations may be quickly made to fit special conditions. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1068 , Contribution from the Office of Farm Management and Farm Economics G. W. FORSTER, Acting Chief Washington, D. C. v May 12, 1922 FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN THE BLACK PRAIRIE OF TEXAS. By J. T. SANDERS, Assistant Agricultural Economist. (Division of Land Economics, L. C: Gray, Economist in Charge.) CONTENTS. Page. Page Purpose and extent of investigation_ 1 |} Agricultural history of farm opera- The development of tenure problems OLS pe teem eran! a el a 3 perio: plade land === -osos. = 22 4 Domestic, social, and educational Economic aspects of the forms of conditions in relation to tenure___ 50 GUTS Ge Sia a er oe a eee 15 PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION, The Black Land Prairie of Texas has long been regarded by stu- dents of American tenure problems asa region of special interest. The percentage of tenantry is high, and the development of the tenant system has been unusually rapid. Since the region was but sparsely settled at the close of the Civil War, and since there has never been a high percentage of negro farm operators in the region—in 1926 but 15.9 per cent—tenancy in the Black Land is not attributable to the historical reasons which serve to explain, in the main, the pre- ‘alence of tenancy in other sections of the South. However, the one-crop system, with cotton as the basis, prevails here as elsewhere in the South where there is also a high percentage of negro tenantry. The region is of special interest, furthermore, because of the social and political unrest arising from its tenure problems, which at times has been a major factor in politics in the State and attracted national attention. Shortly after 1900 tenure conditions gave rise to the pay- ment of a bonus above the customary one-third grain and one-fourth cotton share rent—the share paid since early renting days in the t Acknowledgment for helpful cooperation in planning field work and cohecting data is given to Mr. C. O. Brannen, of the Office of Farm Management and Farm Economics; to members of the faculties of the Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College and the Texas State University for valuable suggestions as to plans for fleld work; and to Miss M, I Herb, who assisted in the tabulation of the data. 90872—22——-1 2 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. State. The bonus system aroused violent antagonism among renters, culminating in the organization of the Renters’ Union of America in 1911. By 1914 the situation had become so acute that the United States Industrial Relations Commission held investigations on the land problem in the region, and the bonus problem became the main issue of the Texas gubernatorial campaign of that year, resulting in the election of the candidate advocating an antibonus law. This law, discussed more fully later, was passed the year following the campaign. It is an interesting and unpre- cedented experiment in land legislation in this country. There are four dis- tricts in Texas known locally as “ black land prairies.” The area covered in this study comprises 19 coun- ties? lying wholly or in large part in the main Black Land Prairie—sometimes known as the “ Black Waxy Belt.” (Fig. 1.) These 19 counties, designated through- out this bulletin as the black land, are- , , e similar in agricul- a reaswhere survey data we 5 2 were toler tural, economic, and == Boundary of 19 black land counties _| iti I ouridary 0 wae and counties | social conditions.® F 1g, 1.—Map of black land prairies of Texas, showing loca- The study is based f h k i . 0 tions where data were taken for this study mainly on data taken in 6 representative counties* from 368 farm operators, particular pains being taken to avoid any selection of the men to be interviewed, fe 00,00 Last Cross Timbers QWAA Fort Worth Prairie Eee Black Waxy Belt a Mixed black and Timber Lands BEER Coast Prairie 2These counties are Bell, Collin, Dallas, Delta, Hllis, Falls, Fannin, Grayson, Hill, Hunt, Kaufman, Lamar, Limestone, McLennan, Milam, Navarro, Rockwall, Travis, and. Williamson. 8 The portion of the Black Land Prairie lying southwest of Travis County is not_in- cluded in the study because its system of agriculture and economic and social conditions are different from,those in the 19 counties included in the study. ; 4 Dallas, Ellis, Hill, McLennan, Bell, and Williamson; also a few schedules were taken in Johnson and Navarro Counties. (See map, Fig. 1.) FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS, 3 because it was desired to get a true cross-sectional view of tenure in the area. - The Black Land Prairie is high, gently rolling, and well drained, with numerous streams crossing it from west to east. Along the larger streams are wide, flat bottom lands, many of which are not yet cleared of their heavy growths of timber, and which are subject to disastrous overfiows when in crops and not protected by levees. The outstanding topographical feature of the area is the “ White Rock Escarpment,” extending near the western edge from Sherman to Austin. This bluff is more or less pronounced, rising 300 feet above the plain at its highest point in Dallas County, and much of the untillable land of the black land is adjacent to it. An authority on the soils of this region has described them as follows: ® The prairies are characterized by black or dark-colored soils derived from a substructure of calcareous marl or chalky limestones, and are the most fertile of the whole Trans-Mississippi region. This fact, together with the compara- tive searcity of untillable land, enables it to support the densest agricultural population of Texas. The black land soils are very sticky when plowed wet and very hard and cloddy when plowed too dry, but the clods readily break up when rains fall upon them. During droughts the soil is apt to erack if not frequently cultivated, but when cultivated enough to keep cracks from forming, it ranks among the most drought-resistant soils in the State. The climate of the black land is almost ideally suited to cotton growing, and, on account of the relative importance of this crop, which is highly susceptible to cold, to wet weather, and to drought, unusual weather conditions radically affect the income of the aver- age black-land farmer. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS. Tenancy increased most rapidly in this area when the character of farming was changing from stock raising to crop growing. The greatest increase in land values occurred in the past two decades, during which time there was relatively no increase in the number of operators in the black land. This rapid increase in land values was primarily the result of an increase in the productive capacity of the land, measured in terms of dollars. No evidence was found of increasing concentration of ownership of land in the area. See Part VII, 21st Annual Report of the U. 8. Geological Survey, p. 68; also Univer- sity of Texas Bulletin No. 1818, The Geology of Dallas County, pp. 9-10. °R. T. Hill, 2ist Annual Report of the U. 8. Geological Survey, Part VII, p. 60. 4 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The net return to the owners of rented land was 5.9 per cent on capi- talinvested. Aside from this return, increases in land values, for all land bought in the black land by the operators interviewed, equaled a net compound annual interest of from 8 to 9 per cent on the origi- nal investment. On the basis of the average net accumulation of wealth in 1919, and the average value of farms operated, it would require the aver- age share tenant interviewed »pPEcecen stely 28 years to pay for the farm he operated. The different tenure stages function not only as stepping-stones in tenure progress but they function also as selective agencies, tending to keep the operators of least ability in the lower stages. The ability of different operators to accumulate wealth varied widely. Fourteen operators (or 3.8 per cent of all interviewed) together saved annually as much as 238 other operators (or 64.8 per cent of all interviewed) who ranked among the least thrifty. The group of operators who accumulated wealth most rapidly in- cluded those who had been most consistent in the application of their time to operating farms, had the most diversification of farm enter- prises, raised the largest amounts of family food on the farm, and moved least frequently from farm to farm. Comparative data on school records of children of owners and tenants show the record for children of owners to be much better than that of children of tenants. THE DEVELOPMENT OF TENURE PROBLEMS IN THE BLACK LAND. EXTENT AND GROWTH OF TENANCY IN THE AREA. It will be noted from Table 1 that there have been two well-defined periods in the growth of tenancy in the black land since 1880, the first 20 years being a period of very rapid increase in tenancy, and. the last 20 years marked by a decided falling off in the rate of increase. During the first period the percentage of all farms that were operated by tenants increased from 41.8 to 61.5, an increase of. 19.7, while during the last period the increase was from 61.5 to 66.1 an increase of only 4.6 per cent. Because of its bearing on discussions to follow, it is significant to note the fact that of the total increase in number of farms, or farm operators, from 1880 to 1920, 88.4 per cent took place during the first 20 years, the years when tenancy was increasing most rapidly. By 1920, 66.1 per cent of all farms in the black land, or nearly two out of every three, were operated by tenants. Moreover, tenants oper- ated 64 per cent of the total area in farms in the black land, and the value of the land and buildings of the farms which they operated was 60 per cent of the total farm value in the area. ’ - FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 5 Of the 368 farms surveyed in this study, 70.4 per cent were oper- ated by tenants. Including the land rented by owners who rented additional land (owners addttional) , 68.5 per cent of the land oper- ated by all of these farmers was rented land, the value of which was 63.7 per cent of the total value of all land rel buildings. In comparison with most other sections of the country the erowth of tenancy in the black land has been very rapid. Since 1880 the total percentage increase in tenantry for the black land has been 24.3 per cent, for the State of Texas 15.7 per cent, and for the United States 12.5 per cent. TABLE 1.—/J/ncreadse in number of farms operated by tenants and owners in the black land, as compared with the State and the United States, by decades, since 1880. Total number of farms in black land Per cent o: aliouns operated operated by— y i Census year. ; Owners 2 eS In the and Tenants. es ne ate United managers. : Tita ocaess DST. Lo ie a eae reps ni ee ee 26,703 | 19,155 41.8 37.6 25.6 wrt): 2-bes Soe lo ee ee ee ee ee ere er ae 29,005 31, 805 B83 41.9 28.4 SN etree yo Soe Socio aise oae dele era ek 35, 871 57, 270 61.5 49.7 35. 3 EDS Dole BES eR a ga eect eR roe ance re 33,018 60, 704 64.8 52.6 37.0 AI eee Se se eae ee UO Pt 31, 924 62, 245 | 66. 1 §3. 3 38. 1 1 Computed from U. 8. Census publications. Evidently, therefore, conditions in the black land have been more conducive to a rapid increase in tenantry than in other sections of the country, and it is the discussion of this growth, its causes, and its effects, that has aroused nation-wide interest in the land problem of this area. UTILIZATION OF LAND IN RELATION TO TENURE. Agricultural development had scarcely begun in the black land by 1860, as is noted from Table 2. At that time the number of farm operators in the black land was only 7.5 per cent of the number in 1920; and only 4.3 per cent of the total area in the 19 counties was then in improved farm land, as compared with 51.1 per cent in 1920. The great increase in the number of farmers has been taken care of mainly by a corresponding increase in improved land rather than by an increase in “total land in farms. The number of farms in 1920 was 13.4 times as many as the number in 1860, but the total acreage in farms was only 2.2 times as much in 1920 as in 1860. The total improved acreage in farms, however, in 1920 was 14.1 times the amount of all improved land in 1860—a relative expansion 6 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. slightly larger than the relative increase in number of farm opera- tors. Since 1880 the total area planted to all crops has increased about 3.5 times. The decades of 1870 to 1880 and 1890 to 1900 were the two out- standing periods in the increase of the number of farm operators. If data on tenancy were available for the former decade, these two decades undoubtedly would also be shown as the outstanding periods as regards increase of tenants in the area. The increase in number of tenants in the single decade from 1890 to 1900 was 59.1 per cent of the total increase in tenants from 1880 to 1920. Therefore, a more intensified use of farm land has been the principal means whereby the great increase in farm operators has been met; and this use has taken the form of crop growing, so that in 1920, 89.6 per cent of all improved land was in some kind of crops. TABLE 2.—Utilization of land for farming purposes in the black land, by decades, since 1860. Per cent Total | Percent | Per cent Total of area Census year. number aunt of black ae os ae of farms. | $ land in bate | eee it in farms. arms proved. | crops. | TTS ween eae ee aia note ae tre Cr eae ae 7,036 | 3,963, 348 37.4 197) 1) TRV MRR Gs eee cists tat me bawy Tener TT” 14/403 | 3/251; 056 30.7 20.8| (2) PRED 2 tees Sone eens s pec pecs See seer oe ce eunine 45,858 | 6,104,472 YG tf 46.7 27.3 eee eae eee GTO Rete ago wee Ma gee ats er IF on e703il ONO TSNG07 85.2 68.6 56.6 FEO ae es oer Te Seta eee dy ae 94) 169 | 8) 535,123 80.6 76.3 65.5 ieee ee from U.5. Census data. Data for 1860 slightly incorrect on account of county boundary changes. 2 Data not available for these dates. 3 This per cent is increased because of a change in the definition of improved land. CHANGES IN SIZE AND TYPE OF FARMS AS RELATED TO TENURE GROWTH. Practically all of the good agricultural land of the black land was granted to its original owners in holdings that were considerably larger than the average size of holding at present. The maximum amount of land ordinarily granted to a married man when Texas was an independent nation was a league and a labor (4,605 acres), and 640 acres after it became a State in the Union. The average size of holdings in the area was probably increased rather than decreased by the depression following the Civil War, which caused land values to decline and stock raising to continue as the principal farm enter- prise until 1870. By 1860 practically all good available agricultural land was patented in holdings of an average size much larger than the present average size of farms. q After 1870, when great numbers of immigrants began to come into the black land, changing the system of farming to crop growing, many of the original owners of large tracts chose to retain owner- FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. i ship, but to break up their holdings and rent them, because of the large returns from crop growing as compared with grazing. The inflow of immigrants during the decade from 1870 to 1880 greatly influenced the agriculture of the region, reducing stock rais- ing to a secondary place in farm enterprises, decreasing the average size of the farm to about one-fifth of the average for 1860, and de- veloping tenancy until 41.8 per cent of all farms were operated by tenants in 1880 (see Tables 1 and 2). The size of the farm continued to decrease during the two decades following 1880, although this decrease was much less than the de- erease prior to that date. Cotton growing had reached and con- tinued to hold a dominant place among farm enterprises, though checked in its development by the extremely low prices prevailing during the decade from 1890 to 1900. TABLE 3.—Changes in the average size of farms and in system of farming since 1860, for black land farms.* Im- Percent | Units Acres proved Acres ofcrop | of live in farms.| acresin | incrops. | acresin | stock on farms. cotton. | farms.? Census year. 563.3 65. 8 (3) (3) 121 225.7 47.0 (8) (3) 51 133. 1 62.1 36. 4 40.9 20 114.4 78.4 45.1 48.7 18 91.8 59.1 49,7 47.8 12 96. 2 66.0 54.5 61.7 10 90.6 69. 2 59.3 59.7 9 1 County changes between 1860 and 1870 affect data somewhat, though not materially. 2 A live-stock unit as used here is equal to 1 grown horse, 1 grown cow, 7 hogs, or 7 sheep or goats. There is some discrepancy in these figures for some dates, since some census figures do not distinguish between young and mature stock. Number averaged by all farms. 2 Figures not available for these dates. With better cotton prices prevailing after 1900, cotton growing rapidly encroached on all other farm enterprises, until, by 1920, 59.7 per cent of all crop land was in cotton. In fact, on many farms practically all agricultural efforts were expended directly or in- directly on cotton growing. During the decade from 1900 to 1910, the average size of the farm showed the first increase since 1860, although in the decade just past it has again shown a decrease." It is evident, therefore, that the most rapid growth of tenancy has taken place when the greatest increase of operators occurred, and that this has been closely associated with the breaking up of the stock-raising industry and the larger farms. 7The limiting factor to the introduction of improved machinery in cotton growing is the picking, no practical picking machine having been developed as yet. The average farmer, without the latest improved tilling, planting, and cultivating machines, can grow more cotton than he and his family can pick. The unusually large cotton farms of the black-land farmer are operated by using improved machinery for growing the crop and by importing a picking foree of negroes and Mexicans, the former coming from cities anl the latter from Mexico and counties near the border. 8 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table 4, giving farms classified by size, shows that since 1860 there has been a rapid and uninterrupted increase in the number of farms of the size groups of 20 to 50 acres, 50 to 100 acres, and 100 to 500 acres. On the whole, there was an increase in the num- ber of farms in the size groups above 500 acres until 1890, since which date there has been a decrease. From the standpoint of this discussion it is unfortunate that the census tabulations for decades prior to 1900 do not show the farms of 100 to 500 acres broken into three groups, as has been done since 1900, for 96 per cent of the increase in the total number of farms of from 100 to 500 acres, between 1900 and 1920, was owing to increase in the number of farms of 100 to 175 acres in size; that is, to an increase in the number of farms in the group including sizes nearest the average for the black land. TABLE 4.—Number of farms in different size-groups in the black land, by decades, since 18602 500 to 1,000 Under 20} 20 to 50 | 50 to 100 | 100 to 500 Z Census year. 1,000 acres and acres. acres. acres. acres. Spe. Peas. ESO Sea ae ae che Re ae eT a 1, 246 2, 884 1, 905 1, 280 59 7 PSM se aac een ae eee eRe BE Eee 3, 634 5, 960 3, 394 1,380 27 2 SSRs re a eas ce Ne See 4,813 | 13,859 | 10,190 | 15,406 1, 106 484 USS 0 Spe a 8 Se ree te el oer ees, ere a eT 3,317 20, 868 16, 420 18, 244 1, 140 524 1 SOO Soe ge ates Ogee Tesi Sane es a 25,732 29, 496 31, 451 25, 263 802 397 Fig CU ener th Oia NBL pce Sahl a 25,087 | 23,002 | 34,875 | 29,712 710 336 UP. Dea set Bacon ase se SR eRe Sea 6, 210 24, 496 33, 497 29, 056 662 239 1 Computed from U. S. Census data. 1 These increases are largely the results of a change in the definition of ‘‘farm.”’ The possible increase in tenancy that would follow the breaking up of all farms of 500 acres or more, assuming that the ownership of these farms did not change after breaking up, is shown in Table 5. It will be noted that the greatest number of tenant farms would have resulted from the breaking up of farms of 500 acres or more during the decade 1890 to 1900, when the greatest increase in tenant farms occurred (59.1 per cent of the total increase since 1880). Furthermore, it will be noted that, as a result of the slackened rate of increase of tenants each decade since 1890, the breaking up of farms of 500 acres or more has possibly played an increasingly important role in the growth of tenancy (see Table 5, last column). Some writers on the tenure of this region have held that large holdings in land were increasing in number and size in the black land and that this was partly the cause of the growth of tenancy. But data on all the land owned by persons owning 200 acres or more taken from the tax rolls of Ellis, Hill, McLennan, and Bell Counties, and summarized in Table 6, do not show that there has been a tendency toward an increase in concentration of ownership in large holdings. FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 9 There was a decided tendency toward a decrease in land held in holdings of 1,000 acres or more, the total decrease from 1899 to 1919 being 21.3 per cent of the amount held in 1899. The percentage decrease for all holdings above 500 acres was 8.8. Holdings of from 200 to 500 acres in size, however, showed a slight increase of 6.4 per cent over the amount held in 1899. Land held by nonresidents of the counties has shown a decidedly greater tendency to decrease in the larger-sized holdings than has all land, the total decrease in land in all nonresident holdings of 200 acres or more decreasing 21.4 per cent since 1899. TABLE 5.—EHstimated possible increase in black land tenancy resulting from the breaking up of farms of 500 acres or more. Decrease (—) OF | Possible Per Total increase (+) in | increase | cent that increase | umber of farms | in num- | possible innum-| Oof— ber of | increase Period. ber of tenant was of tenant farms total farms for) 400 to 1,000 resulting | increase decade. 1,000 |acresand| from in ten- acres. above. | change.? | antry.3 SN ee ee ae ne ad eae er a 2 tte 12, 650 + 36 + 40 4675 8) LADS OTL. Ac ES 5 ea eee ere, See eee cee 25, 465 —338 —127 4,489 13.7 LOUIE DUD 350. ae cep CREE CeSE EEG: See ee ere Sees 3, 434 — 92 — 31 1, 120 32.6 Nate s iaiain rie ainicis a SS a wie wee eae mae wai 1, 541 — 48 — 98 1, 749 113.5 1 These data are computed from Census publications. 3 This figure was arrived at as follows: Farms of from 500 to 1,000 acres each were assumed to average 750 acres in size; and farms of 1,000 acres or more, 1,250 acres in size. These acreages were multiplied by the increase or decrease in the number of their respective size farms, giving total increase or decrease of acreage in farms above 500 acres. This total acreage was divided by the average size of the farm at the end of the decade, giving the figure in the column above. 2 Preceding column divided by first column of table. 4 Decrease. Tarte 6.—Wztent of concentration of ownership of land in holdings of different sizes in Ellis, Hill, McLennan, and Bell Counties, for different periods.’ I. ALL LAND KNOWN AND RENDERED. Holdings of 200 acres Holdings of 500 Holdings of 1,000 | Holdings of 200 to and over. acres and over. acres and over. 500 acres. [coal 2 cat Year. | rie ie | Per cent : Per cent : Pericent | m4. Per cent Totalacres.| of 1899 | Total | ofigog | Total | ofigog | Total | of isog | acreage. te acreage. acreage. ar re acreage. } bee poke i | 0 el a 1, 507, 626 | 98.1 | 764,770 91.2 | 362,147 78.7 | 742,856 106.4 CT eee ae 1,541,267 100.3 760,766 90.7 | 364,641 79.38 | 780,501 | 111.8 1 a eee ae ae 1, 537, 313 | 100.0 792, 557 94.5 385, 005 83.7 744, 756 | 106.7 ets yuce ctbon 1, 584, 606 | 103.1 831, 809 99.2 416, 287 90.5 752, 797 107.9 SS 5 5 oss 1, 536, 963 | 100.0 | 838,685 100.0 | 459,975 100.0 | 698,278 100.0 * | } Il. LAND OWNED BY NONRESIDENTS. DOE a) oc ona key 154, 107 78.6 92, 981 65.8 47,945 51.6 61, 126 111.6 SS eavne wed adas 182,185 93.0 117, 358 83.1 69, 591 75.0 64, 827 118.4 Os ee 185,914 94.9 | 118,283 83.8 67, 802 73.0 67, 631 123.5 MMe owssk ner sesee 171, 662 87.6, 119,240 84.4 65, 587 70.7 §2, 422 95.7 PienaRedons warns. 195, 981 100.0 141, 212 100.0 92, 828 100.0 54, 769 | 100.0 1 Data taken from county tax records. 90872—22——2 10 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CHANGES OF FARM VALUES IN RELATION TO TENURE. Agriculture in the black land has passed in 60 years from the pion- eering stage of 1860, when the best land was plentiful and relatively cheap, to the well-established system of crop growing of 1920, with all but the very poorest land in-use. As one would expect, this change has affected land values more than it has affected equipment values on the average farm. Land values rose from an average of $5.57 an acre in 1860 to $116.47 in 1920, an increase of 20.9 times $5.57, while during the same time the value of equipment per acre rose from $3.48 to $12.56, an increase of only 3.6 times $3.48 (see Table 7). The general depression following the Civil War caused both land and equipment values to decline from 1860 to 1870. However, equip- ment values continued to decline until 1880, owing to the breaking up of the stock-raising industry. There was 1 animal unit for each 4.4 acres of land in farms in 1870 and 1 for each 6.7 acres in 1880. The striking increase in farm operators between 1890 and 1900, however, did not greatly affect land values, which increased only 38.9 per cent during the decade as compared with an increase of 95.5 per cent for the previous decade and 93.8 per cent for the decade following. TABLE 7.—Average farm values per acre in the black land, by decades, since 18603 Average | Average | Average | Average value of | value of | value of | value of Census year. |landand| equip- | machin- live buildings| ment ery stock per acre. | per acre. | per acre. | per acre. UMS cososncacasoOlcacoqES |Seb See Seu sn ebdSUaasAcDOS Ss cQEuOOREE $5.57 $3. 48 $0. 31 $3.17 Ue ciscaco soos caaosadsoone en soos ocodoncoonoDEooDHbED se“ 40006R0e 5.45 3.13 -28 2.85 IE en ecsonneccoococebcosbeToOs SOUL osenoSEaaraacbooeSa0cacNasguse 9.07 2.44 -48 1.96 HIM ose dco oscd SoscnocasonsensdeHoscauasoobodcdoadosasoccesosaue 17.73 4.06 | -61 3.45 BO se coeaneccbadsuocscssas soo saconaca de secadGdeesotooasosdKes 24. 63 5.10 1.09 4.01 TOO esscasustosbossonboacsuouSaksbabseoucossadEbaooTSsosacecus 47.74 7.41 1.51 5.90 IPD = con codbedascacdcansocoucooscosebongcooocdesuabesoscosocase 116. 47 12. 56 4.15 8.41 1 Computed from U.S. Census data. The increase in land values since 1900 has been 4.8 times as great as the increase during the four decades previous to that date. This phenomenal increase in the value of land occurred in a period when the size of the farm, the system of farming, and the number of farm operators practically remained unchanged. This great increase in value was largely the result of competition for the purchase of the land’s annual use value (present and pros- pective) without any significant change in the number of operators. This statement is supported by the fact that the bonus system (see p. 18) grew up during the decade from 1900 to 1910, although the FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. el number of farm operators in the 19 black-land counties increased during this decade scarcely one-half of 1 per cent. On the other hand, land in farms increased 5.4 per cent. That the rapid increase in the value of land in this area was closely related to the trend of the value of the products that were produced on the land is indicated by Figure 2, which shows the movement of land values, and the movement of the values of the corn, small grain, and cotton produced on the land.*’. In general, the movement of the’ curves are quite close together after 1890, when the present system of agriculture became fairly well established. Were data on annual land values available the curves would probably move more closely together. 300 JT Boe MOVEMENT OF THE PRICES OF CORN, OATS, WHEAT AND COTTON (WEIGHTED BY TOTAL 250 ACREAGE GROWN IN BLACK LAND.) 250 o———- MOVEMENT OF THE AVERAGE VALUE OF LAND PER ACRE 200 200 150 150 100 100 50 50 0 0 1869 1874 1879 1884 1889 1894 1899 1904 1909 1914 1919 Fic. 2.— Movement of the average value of land per acre and of the prices of the principal products raised on farms, for the black land of Texas. The rapid increase in land values during the past two decades is, therefore, primarily the results of an increase in the productive power of the land (measured in terms of dollars), which has re- flected itself in higher prices for land. However, war-time prices of The index figures of the value of the principal crops raised on the land were calculated as follows: The average annual farm prices of corn, oats, wheat, and cotton, as given by Yearbooks of the United States Department of Agriculture, were expressed in price per pound. These prices were weighted by the respective acreage of these crops grown in the black land as reported by each decennial United States Census, the acreages given by each census belng used to weight prices for the four years preceding the census year, for the census year, and for the five years following the census year. These weighted figures for the price of each of the four crops were added together for each year, and their sum was the figure from which the index figure, on the value of products raised in the black land for each year, was calculated. The census year 1909 was taken as the base. 12 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cotton have, no doubt, raised land values to levels that prewar prices - would not justify, and if cotton prices return permanently to prewar. levels, land prices may decline as they did following the Civil War. LEGAL PHASES OF THE LAND PROBLEM. The landlord’s lien law is designed to protect the landlord against unscrupulous tenants who might try to get out of paying their debts to the landlord. It provides that the landlord has a prior len, whether contractual or not, on the tenant’s crop for advances fur- nished the tenant to make the crop, for any rent due on the year’s crop, and-for teams, tools, and feed furnished the tenant by the landlord. The present homestead exemption law is based on a constitutional provision ® and exempts from forced sale a legally designated home- stead of 200 acres, regardless of the value of the land and the im- provements on it. No lien of any kind on the homestead is valid, except for taxes due on it, for the original purchase price, and for work and material used in putting permanent improvements on the place. Court interpretations of this law have been very rigid, and much opposition to its provisions has developed. However, repeated efforts to repeal or amend it have met with failure.*° The amount of value exempt at present is unquestionably much larger than was ever intended by those framing the provision in 1875. Two hundred acres of some of the farms surveyed were worth $60,000, including the improvements on them. Yet, under the pres- ent law, every cent of this is exempt from seizure for debt, except as noted, and the land can not be used directly as a basis of credit to the owner. Such conditions are bound to affect- the credit situa- tion in the State, making money for legitimate expansion of the farm business expensive and difficult to obtain. Without doubt, a limitation on the value of the exempted homestead would elimi- nate undesirable results of the present law, without seriously im- pairing the employment of the principle of homestead exemption as a means of protection from injustice and economic oppression. There has long been a public sentiment in the State against the ~ ownership of farm land by nonresident aliens and by nonfarming corporations. Land can be acquired by such agencies only by fore- closure, for debt on the land, or as a settlement for other debts, and for judgment granted to the alien or corporation. But this land ®See Article XVI, Secs. 50 and 51 of State Constitution, and for the law see The Com- plete Statutes of Texas of 1920, pp. 612-614. 10 An amendment to the constitutional provision for the exemption of the homestead was submitted to the voters of the State for ratification in 1919, but failed to pass by a small majority, although it had the support of the Farmers’ Union officials, the Texag Farmers’ Congress, the Federal Land Bank at Houston, officers of the Extension Depart- ment of the State A. and M. College, and most of the daily papers of the State. FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 13 must be disposed of within specified periods of time after posses- sion is secured. The antibonus law, as has been noted, was the result of agitation against the bonus system.” -This law makes it illegal to contract for or collect a rent zn excess | of the value of one-third of the grain and one-fourth of the cotton raised on the land where the landlord furnishes only land and im- provements, and a rent 7n excess of one-half of the crops where the landlord furnishes land, improvements, and equipment. A tenant who is charged a rent in excess of this can collect from the landlord by legal proceedings double the amount of the rent, and, further- more, the Jandlord loses his right to the landlord’s prior lien. Strict enforcement of this law would, no doubt, have far-reaching social effects in areas where the specified share rent yields a very low return on the value of the land, since it would tend to keep land values much lower than they would otherwise be. A legally pre- scribed and unvarying rent must be justified on social and not on economic grounds, for it does not provide for adjustment to meet changes in economic conditions that affect the amount of rent that equitably may be asked for the use of the land. The factors of production have been classified as land, equipment, and /abor—the human element of labor and management.’? In the black Jand the landlord furnishes only land, when renting his land on a one-third and one-fourth share basis, and the tenant furnishes the other two factors. The reward to land is rent, and the reward to the other factors is usually spoken of as interest on equipment and capital and labor income. Variations in the values of the landlord’s and tenant’s respective contributions toward the operation of the farm would of necessity vary the share of the rewards that should go to either party. Con- sequently, such variations have a vital bearing on the problems of the determination of an equitable rent. The total capital used on the average farm has varied consider- ably since 1860, but practically all of the increase in total farm value occurred during the past 20 years (see Table 8). ‘The smallest average total value was reached in 1880, at the end of the decline 11 See Complete Statutes of Texas, pp. 13-14 and 745. Aliens of countries which have treaties with the United States providing for the right of ownership in this country and aliens of countries which allow ownership rights to citizens of the United States are excepted from the provisions of this law. 2 The extent to which the bonus system was practiced is not known, because the bonus provision of the rent contract was usually kept a secret and was very unpopular with renters in general (see Univ. of Tex. Bul. No. 21, 1915, Chapter VI). However, by 1910 state-wide attention was given to the subject, which culminated in the organization of the Renters’ Union of America in 1911. The subject of rent and land problems in general became the main issue for the gubernatorial campaign of 1914, and the successful candidate was elected mainly because of his advocacy of an antibonus law. 1% See Chapters IX, X, and XI of Taylor's “Agricultural Meconomics.” 14 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in total farm value which was caused mainly by a reduction in the size of the farm. TABLE 8.—Total value of the average black land farm and distribution of this value, by decades, since 1860.1 Per cent | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent Average pane offarm | offarm | offarm ; of farm Census year. acres pel | form value in | valuein | valuein | value in farm. ETE landand| equip- | machin- live * |buildings.| ment. ery. stock. INIT ere erse ari er mtcinicRs reste uainee NA 533.3 $4, 860 61.5 38.5 3.5 35.0 SCO citer ts tape ice eg mes eeemee tel tN 225.7 1,923 63.9 36.1 2.6 33.5 TBS OG SSeS Ae Ce ee ie agen ea ee 133.1 1,532 78.8 21.2 4.2 17.0 1890......- ree aA mane S Net Ee Seu 114.3 2,493 . 81.4 18.6 2.8 15.8 TRY eae ee Sete rasa Cen Seca SNe 91.8 2,730 82.8 17.2 aed, 13.5 DOU eo eS eagle aay Gol ae Bee eS 96.0 5,306 86.6 13.4 2.7 10.7 LO20 ieee neces tos eS aera 90.6 11,694 90.3 EY 3.2 6.5 1 Computed from United States Census data. $00 —— 6) 550 + 550 500 ———_ MOVEMENT OF LAND VALUE PER FARM 500 =-e<--—-—— MOVEMENT OF EQUIPMENT VALUE PER FARM 450 —— — \OVEMENT OF LABOR VALUE PER FARM 450 1860 1370 1880 1390 1900 1910 1920 Fic. 3.—Movement of the value of land, equipment, and labor used on the average black land farm, by decades since 1860. Prior to 1890 the size of the farm and the system of farming changed so radically that the actual and relative amounts of capital in land and buildings and in equipment were greatly affected. How- ever, since 1890 farm values have been affected very little by changes in size of farm and in the system of farming, and land values have gradually and consistently increased in proportion to equipment values. This increase possibly indicates to a certain extent the rela- tive future trend of the values of equipment and land if the present system of farming is maintained. If equipment value were the only value contributed to the farm business by the tenant, an equitable adjustment of rents would have FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 15 necessitated a gradual increase in rents each decade since 1880—pro- vided none of the increase in land values was speculative in nature. But the value of the labor, management, and risk contributed by the tenant to the farm business are relatively much greater than the value of his contribution in equipment. Consequently, equipment and land values alone do not constitute a basis for an equitable ad- justment of rent. Striking variations in the relative values of the factors of produc- tion on the average black-land farm have occurred since 1860. These variations are shown in Figure 3. Changes in the size and system of agriculture before 1890, as stated above, influenced the variations in both the actual and relative values of the factors of production, and for this reason 1890 was taken as the base for the index figures from which the graph was made.’ During these changes rent has not changed, except as price levels alter the value of rent in dollars, for the one-third and one-fourth share rent has been the customary rent since the early days of renting.* Equitable rent adjustment must be based on a fairly accurate valua- tion of the contributions furnished respectively by landlord and ten- ant, and since these values vary greatly, it is not reasonable to sup- pose that a set share rent, such as is legalized in the antibonus law, can possibly adjust itself to these variations in the value of the factors of production. This adjustment can only be accomplished by a care- ful and scientific appraisal of the value of these factors as a basis for apportionment of the rewards of the farm business.?® * ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE FORMS OF TENURE. e FARM ORGANIZATION. For the discussion which follows, of the forms of tenure, operators are classified as (1) share croppers, (2) share tenants, (3) owners % The index numbers on which graphs are based are calculated as follows: The index numbers of land and equipment values per farm were calculated from data given by decades in Table 8, p. 14. The index figures on the amount of labor used on the average farm were calculated by finding the total country population in the 19 black-land counties by subtracting from the total population the population living within incorporated cities and towns. The ratio of the number of people engaged in agricultural pursuits to the country population in the State as a whole was then applied to the total country popula- tion of the black land, which gave the estimated number engaged in agricultural pursuits in the black land. This figure for each decade divided by the number of farms for the decade gave the following average number of people engaged in agricultural pursuits per farm: 1860, 4.16; 1870, 3.67; 1880, 3.82; 1890, 2.25; 1900, 2.18; 1910, 2.11; 1920, 2.04. The average number of persons per farm engaged in agricultural pursuits was weighted by the average wage paid farm labor, other than harvest labor (see U. S. Bureau of Statistics Bulletin 79), which gave the final figures on which the index figures for labor were based. 1% See “ Texas the Home of the Immigrant from Mverywhere,”’ Texas Bureau of Imml- gration Bulletin of 1873. “Prof. William W. Leonard, formerly of the University of Texas, has suggested a county rent board with official standing and with power to adjust rents. This seems to be an excellent plan for a more scientific adjustment of rents. See Uniy. of Texas Bulle- tin No. 21, 1915, p. 123. 16 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. additional, or (4) owner operators." The term owner is used to in- clude both owners additional and owner operators; and the term tenant is used to include both share croppers and share tenants. Of the 368 farmers from whom data were taken, 192, or 52.2 per cent, were share tenants; 83, or 22.6 per cent, were owner operators ; 65, or 17.7 per cent, were share croppers; 26, or 7 per cent, were owners additional; and 2, or 0.5 per cent, were cash tenants."* SIZE AND VALUE OF FARMS OF DIFFERENT TENURE CLASSES. The average size of the farms varied considerably with each form of tenure, as will be noted from Table 9. Share croppers, who had the smallest farms, had exactly half as many acres on the average as owner operators, who operated 118.2 acres each. Share tenants had only 14 acres less on the average than owner operators, while owners additional, who had the largest farms, operated 159.2 acres each. TABLE 9.—Average size and value of farms and the distribution of farm values for the different tenure classes. Average value per farm. Average value per acre of— Number | Average Present tenure class. | of oper- acres per aan ators. | farm. Total | Value of | Value of 1 f jean : | farm [Jandand| equip. |,uigiaet| aaneut | mone” value. |buildings.| ment. buildings. Share croppers...-... 65 | 59.1 | $10,945 $9, 841 | $1, 104 $703 $155 $19.00 Share tenants......-. 1194 | 104. 2 19, 162 16,489 2,679 1,144 148 26. 00 Owners additional... 26 | 159.2 | 26,747 | 22,995 3, 752 2,061 132 24.00 Owner operators..... 83 | 118.2 23, 408 19,078 3,330 2,215 143 28.00 All operators......... 368 | 103.3 18,981 16, 359 | 2,622 1,374 145 25. 40 1 Includes two cash tenants. As a class, owner operators are better able than any other tenure class to increase the size of their operated farms, for their average net worth is more than twice that of owners additional and more than eight times the average wealth of share tenants. The fact is Mw Owner operators own all the land they operate. Owners additional own part and rent part of the land they operate. Share tenants rent all the land they operate and furnish all labor and equipment used on their farms, and as a rule receive two-thirds of the grain and three-fourths of the cotton raised. Share croppers rent all their land and furnish only the labor used in operating their farms, the equipment, feed, repairs, etc., being furnished by the landlord and the crops being shared equally. There are two distinct classes of croppers in the black land, these classes being known locally as half renters and as half hands. he half renter usually gets all the land he can operate and does little work for his landlord. The half hand is allowed only enough land to “ hold ’” him during the year, the aim of the landlord being to use the half hand most of the time working on his (the landlord’s) farm. The cropper farm, therefore, is frequently a part of a larger unit of farm organization and is discussed throughout this bulletin from the. tenure and operator viewpoint rather than from the organization viewpoint. 18 These two cash tenants were included with the data on share tenants throughout the bulletin. FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. JE) that owing to advanced age, many owner operators are gradually ‘decreasing the size of their farms as they approach retirement time. This class of farmers has been called “retreating farmers.” ** The average size of share croppers’ farms is small as a result of the fact that probably half of them had less land than they needed in order to utilize their entire time.2° Owners additional as a class are successful farmers who are striving to expand their farm busi- ness, and do so by renting additional land. The average total value of the farm and its equipment for all ten- ure classes was $18,981 ; and the relative values of farms for different forms of tenure have the same order as the order of the sizes of farms for the different tenure classes (see Table 9). However, it will be noted that owner-operator farms have relatively a much higher value in proportion to size than do the farms of owners additional. That the average value of farms of owner operators is relatively large is due in part to the fact that they have more than twice the wealth of owners additional (see Table 22) and can have and do have better houses and farm equipment. Furthermore, many of the owner operators are decreasing the size of their farms as they. ap- proach retirement age without pedvere Beocuouately their build- ing and equipment ame. An interesting fact brought out in connection with equipment value per acre is that share tenants are almost as well supplied with equipment as are owner operators. One of the serious drawbacks of the one-crop system practiced in the region is that the tenant can not profitably invest all his surplus savings in his farm business, and the resultant tendency for some tenants to overinvest in equip- ment probably explains the relatively high average equipment value for them as a class. The data on value of buildings show strikingly one of the evils of tenancy in this area. The average value of buildings on share- tenant farms is about one-half, and on share-cropper farms less than one-third of the average value of buildings on the farms of owner operators. Most of this difference is accounted for in the difference in value of dwellings (see Table 29). However, there is a lack of buildings for housing machinery on the farms of all tenure classes. Investigation on this question re- vealed the facts that (of those reporting) 120 tenants had no build- ings for the protection of machinery from the weather, 10 had part of their machinery under shed, and 16 had all machinery under shed. potty five owners had no machinery under shed, 9 had part of it % See Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station Research Bulletin No. 44, p. 6. 2 Kighteen of the 65 croppers had 30 acres or less, 90872—22-—-3 18 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. under shed, while 21 had all of their machinery protected from the weather. Of the various tenure classes, share. croppers farm the most val- uable land (after deducting building values). Furthermore, the land farmed by share tenants is higher in price than the land farmed by either of the owner classes. This situation, common throughout the cotton belt, is not the result of competition between operators, the most efficient getting the best land, but it is rather the result of competition between systems of farming, with the operators who will grow the most cotton getting the best land. This is largely due to the fact that the owner believes cotton yields him the highest net returns, and to the fact that when cotton is raised the owner can easily ascertain what his share of une crop is and can easily market it. OTHER FARMS OWNED BY OPERATORS. Owners who have farms they do not operate usually have acquired the additional farms as investments, or in order to have land for children who are growing up (Table 10). A larger proportion of owner operators than of any tenure class own farms they do not operate; over one-third of all in this class own additional farms, as compared with about one-fifth of owners additional and one-eighth of share tenants. Furthermore, the average owner operator’s equity in farms owned but not operated is nearly twice as large as the average equity of owners’ additional, and more than four times as much as the average equity of tenants in the farms they own but do not operate. Black-land tenants usually say that the land in the region is priced higher than its productive capacity warrants, and that if they buy they will buy where land is cheaper. Evidently, this be- lief has influenced the purchase of farms owned by share tenants, for the average value per acre of the land owned by share tenants _ was $74, while the average value of the land they operated was $175 per acre. Taste 10.— Operators who own farms they do not operate, and the size, value, and equity in these farms, for the different classes of tenure. Number | of oper- | Per cent é: ators | ofall | Number] Average pugiare ncnaee CY Average Present tenure status.| who | operators) of other | acres per | per oper-| per oper-| in age of owned |intenure| farms. | operator.|~ + A ean equity operator. other | class. ‘ 3 wae 2 farms. | Share croppers......- 2 | 3.1 2 29.0 $1, 350 $1, 200 88.8 48 Share tenants........ 20 | 12.8 27 115.2 8, 559 5, 882 68.7 43 Owners, additional. - 5 | 19.2 8 207.6 20,726 13, 274 64.4 44 Owner operators. ...- : 29 | 34.9 | 53 209.5 26, 589 25,515 95.9 49 - vel FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS, “19 THE CROPS GROWN. The average black-land farmer, regardless of his tenure, is a one- crop farmer; for owners had about six-tenths, share tenants over _ two-thirds, and share croppers almost four-fifths of all their crop land in cotton. Moreover, approximately two-thirds of the total area of the 368 farms was in cotton in 1919 (Table 11). Taste 11.—Proportion of all farm land in crops, proportion of all crop land in various crops, and operators classified by the per cent of all crop land planted to cotton, by tenure classes for 368 operators. Per cent of all operators in each : ‘ crag tenure group whose per cent Percent of all cropland in: of cotton acreage to all crop | Per cent acreage is— ofall | Present tenure status. farm | =] T ; land in| 90 | | | per| ~ | | e crops. | E 75 to | 50to | Below /Cotton.| Corn. | oe aa cone 90 per) 75 per | 50 per | above. | cent. | cent. | cent. lea | | Share croppers............-.. OOD ee Sai 13.4 | 5.5 24 52.3 24.6 | 20.0 | Shit Share tenants............... [ SCYESs yea 1259) elo a9) 4.1 1.6 29.0 59. 6 | 9.8 Owners additional.......... ETE) tonal 12.1) 27.4 Cae aaa 11.6 57.8 30.8 Owner oeprators............ S559) t 6255 16.0 16.2 Doh eases 13.4 64.6 22.0 AOLOPERALOIS! 2.2220... 87.6 66. 0 13.6 | 16.1 4.3 10. 1 23.5 53. 6 12.8 | The extent of the dependence that the black-land farmer places in cotton is not adequately shown by these data. Corn is grown primarily to feed live stock used in producing cotton, and in this sense it practically becomes a cost in the production of cotton. Be- cause this policy so largely governs the growing of corn, the per- centage of corn to all crops varies but little with the different tenure classes. Over half of all croppers have 90 per cent or more of their crop area in cotton. And, while practically none of the operators in. the other tenure classes go to this extreme, only 15 per cent of them have less than 50 per cent of their crops in cotton. In this connection it is well to note that the conservation of soil fertility is rarely considered by operators in any of the tenure classes. However, it will be seen that owners probably do more to conserve soil fertility than do tenants, for owners alternate grain crops with cotton to a greater extent than do tenants. RENT CONTRACTS AND RELATION BETWEEN LANLORD AND TENANT. Customary renting practice forms the basis for practically all renting contracts. In fact, nearly all rent contracts are nothing more than an agreement between the landlord and tenant that “ cus- tomary renting practices” shall be followed. Such a contract, no doubt, seems indefinite and broad in its interpretation, but customary 20 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. practices are quite well known and there is less friction due to mis- understanding between landlords and tenants than one would ex- pect. ee The principal objection to this method of renting is that it does not induce changes in the rent contract as the tenant develops and as he and his landlord learn to appreciate each other better through experience.2?. Written contracts would probably induce a greater care in working out the details to fit changed conditions. Data on the details of the rent contracts of 259 tenants are given in Table 12. Of those reporting on the question, only 13.5 per cent had written contracts. Only 1 share cropper out of 61 reporting had a written contract. Only 4 contracts out of a total of 239 ran for more than a year. - TABLE 12.—Provision of rent contracts on 259 rented farms. Subrenting privi- Nature of contract. Duration of contract. = aoe | More than | Num-|Num- Verbal. Written. One year. “one year. WEE Ge Tenure class. oF who | who | Num- | were | were | ber | Per Per Per | Per | al- |notal-| not cent of] », cent of) +, cent of| + ‘cent of | lowed | lowed /report- aa those Net those es those au | those | to to | ing. * |report- report- “* |report- * |report-| sub- | sub- : | ing. ing. ing. | ing. | rent. | rent. Share croppers.. aeons 60 | 96.8 1 | 1.6 59 | 98.3 1 | 17, 10 19 36 Share tenants......-... 155 82. 4 25 13.3 168 98. 8 PN alg 67 41 85 Owners additional..... 2} 20:0- 8) 80.0 8] 88.9 1 | 1163! 5 2 13 1 Frequently no dependable information on certain points could be obtained, hence the number of opera- tors on which the data in this table are based varies considerably. The privilege of subrenting is not usually allowed, and frequently is not mentioned in contracts, since a provision in the landlord’s hen law makes it illegal to subrent land without the landlord’s consent. It will be seen, however, that a greater proportion of share tenants than of share croppers are allowed to subrent. Thirty-six farms were found where the landlord had agreed to pay the tenant for improvements put on the place, provided the land- lord gave his permission to have the improvements put on the farm. Usually it was agreed that when the tenant left the farm the land- lord would buy the improvements himself or require the tenant fol- lowing to buy them. This provision would unquestionably be de- sirable for most rent contracts. Landlords frequently complain that they can not repair old improvements or put new ones on the 21 Many cases were found where absolutely nothing as to details of rent contracts was said for years, the tenant simply asking his landlord, some time in the fall, if it were -agreeable to remain on the farm another year. : FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. al farm, because their returns from the farm do not justify such ex- penditures, or because tenants will not take care of these improve- ments. Tf legal provision were made for the compensation of tenants for improvements put on with the landlord’s consent, the present prob- lem» of tenant housing would be less acute, landlords would not so often be accused of lack of interest in this problem, and the mutual interest in the farm arising from a joint ownership of improvements would make for a more stable and reliable tenantry. . Moreover, with such a provision, tenants would be able to invest their savings in the farm business, which is possible only to a limited extent with the prevailing crop and renting system. This lack of opportunity to accumulate by gradually increasing their investment in the farm constitutes one of the most serious drawbacks to the tenure and financial progress of the tenant in this area. The amount of supervision given the tenant by the landlord is largely dependent on the location of the landlord’s residence with reference to the rented land. Data on the residence of the landlords, given in Table 13, show that very few of the landlords of share croppers live outside of the county, and that 42.2 per cent live near the farm of the cropper. On the other hand, only one out of eight landlords of share tenants live near the tenant’s farm, and over one- fifth of them live in another county. TapLe 13.—Residence of landlords of share croppers and share tenants. | Landlords who do Landlords who live | Landlords who live | a Neigepers = not live in same near tenant farm. | in same county. | county. Class of tenants. — oe in Percent | | Percent | . | Per cent Number.| ofall |Number.| ofall Number.| of all reporting. | reporting. reporting. SEIRECIOROTIDOLS 1212-550. 12s bows ns 7414 42.2 31 48. 4 6 | 9.4 . BEAM LONAMUG Loco 6c22 cece sce cnn'e 23 12,2 127 67.6 38 | 20: 2 The recapitulations for the tax rolls of Bell, Hill, and McLennan Counties for 1919 show that only 8.4 per cent of all the land outside of incorporated cities and towns was owned by nonresidents of the county in which the land was located. Only 17 of the nonresidential landowners in Bell County in 1919 lived outside of Texas, and none lived outside of the United States. It will be noted from Table 14 that about half of all share croppers were subject to supervision by landlords. The extent of this super- vision is in a way indicated by the average number of visits the land- lord makes to the farm during the year, namely, 85 for each of the 22 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 17 share croppers who reported on this question.?? Share tenants receive very little close supervision. Nine out of each ten said they were given no supervision by their landlords, and the average number of visits-by landlords was only 5 during the year. TABLE 14.—Supervision of tenants by landlords. . i Operators whose | Operators whose Operatats y nose landlords give| landlords give | Visits of landlord @ | Seana eee © “little” super- close supervi- per year. Sue NaEgy vision. : sion.t Tenure class. | [ewe | | : sil | | Average | Per cent Per cent | Per, seen ees | mer e _ofthose x | of those | +; | of those _ of visits | Number. report- _ Number. | report- (SiGe report- eae | per ing. - 1S Taye , ing. ~ | Oper- | | Ese | aor Croppers.......-.---- | 30 51.7 | 5 8.6 | 23 39.7 17 | 85 AUSTEN oooesdecone | 161}. 91.6 8 4.5 | 7 3.9 100 | 5 Owners additional. - -| Osi LOO ON es 222 Sis eee ses See cants [eerste eee 3 | ie ¢ | | é fil Z 1“ Close supervision”? as here used means close atieution and direction as to how and when the details’ of farm work should be done; also “‘no supervision” does not imply that the landlord does not keep in touch with the farm work, but, rather, that he leaves the tenant to work out the execution of the details of farm operations. This great difference between the amounts of supervision given by landlords of the two renting classes accounts in part for the social stigma popularly placed on the cropper stage. It is unfortunate that conditions foster this dislike for the cropper stage, for cropper farming can be made to exercise a useful and desirable function in the tenure system of the black land. -It offers the young, inex- perienced man, who has little capital, an opportunity to assume part of the risks involved in operating a farm, with a good chance of recelving in return an increased reward over farm wages as payment for assuming part of the responsibilities and risks of an operator. If landlords were more careful about the nature of their supervision and granted more privileges as regards raising a garden, and keeping poultry, and a cow, they would do much to obviate the popular dis- like for the cropper stage. Operators were asked if they noted any changes taking place in renting practices. Of 168 operators answering the question, 126 noticed no changes, which probably means a lack of observataion on the part of most of the operators. Many, however, believe that the bonus system was on the decline and that it was getting easier to obtain desirable share-tenant contracts from the viewpoint of the tenants. ; It should be borne in mind that the average man does not like to answer questions of this nature, and for this reason answers were not secured from all operators. Further- more, some of the answers secured were possibly misleading, and where there was doubt concerning the answer given and no verification could be had it was discarded. FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 23 INCOMES FOR THE DIFFERENT TENURE CLASSES. COMPARATIVE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF AREA IN 1919. Before discussing the incomes earned in 1919 on the farms sur- veyed it is well to consider comparative data on the general economic conditions prevailing in the black land during that year. The year was characterized by unusually high prices of products, especially cotton, by a yield of cotton that was much below the average for the black land, and by unusually high costs of production. Further- more, the fall of the year was unusually wet and the picking of cot- ton was thus delayed to a considerable extent, resulting in an inferior grade of cotton in most cases.. The total production of cotton for the 19 black-land counties in 1919 was 89.1 per cent of the average production for the 20 years, 1900 to 1919, inclusive.?? The production of cotton for the 6 counties in which most of the survey data were taken was.74.4 per cent of the 20-year average pro- duction for these counties. Without doubt the acreage of cotton had not been reduced after 1916 (Census data show an increase of 11.8 per cent from 1910 to 1920), for the high prices prevailing from then until 1920 did much to stimulate the farmer to plant more cotton, although the low yields during these years tended to prevent the realization of profits that otherwise might have resulted from high prices. The average of monthly prices of cotton received by pro- ducers for 1919 was 29.6 cents per pound, the highest price received during the 9 years from 1911 to 1919, inclusive.** The economic situation of the black-land farmer in 1919 is further shown in Figure 4. While the trend of prices of articles which the farmer bought and the trend of farm wages were steadily and sharply upward after 1916, the upward trend of gross receipts from cotton (represented by the total value of cotton produced in Ellis and Williamson Counties) was relatively much less abrupt. It is doubtful, therefore, if the average income of farmers for whom survey data were taken was larger than usual in 1919, since the cotton crop on which they so largely depend was less than three- fourths of an average crop, and at the same time all costs were un- usually high and weather conditions unfavorable. “ Vigures on total eotton produced are computed from Census publications which report the total number of bales ginned annually for each county. The figures on production are on the basis of 500-pound bale equivalents. * The average prices received by producers for their cotton during these years were as follows: 1911, 12.7 cents: 1912, 10.6 cents; 1913, 12 cents; 1914, 10.6 cents; 1915, &.9 ¢ents: 1916, 123.5 cents; 1917, 21.5 cents; 1918, 29.5 cents; 1919, 29.6 cents, (From December, 1920, Crop Reporter, U. 8. Bureau of Crop Estimates, p, 144.) 24 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARM INCOMES AND NET RETURNS ON CAPITAL. The farm income is the difference between receipts and expenses.?> If from this farm income we deduct the value of the operator’s labor and add to the remainder the value of the family living furnished by the farm, we get a figure that represents the net return to the farm and its equipment for their services in production, regardless of what portion of this return goes to the landlord or to the tenant. In other words, this figure represents the net increase of wealth attributable to the farm, irrespective of tenure.2° The income for share tenants’ farms, when figured in this way, compares favorably 250 : T 250 240 | | | | | 240 2350 |} ——— L{OVEMENT OF PRICES OF ARTICLES ; 230 220 FARMERS BUY 209 210 || MOVEMENT OF THE VALUE OF COTTON RAISED AL 4 >10 a5 IN ELLIS AND WILLIAHSON COUNTIES 200 Soll Renan MOVEMENT OF THE WAGES PAID FOR | I A FARM LABOR. 90 180 130 Ife 170 160 160 150 150 140 140 130 130 120 120 110 110 100 100 90 | 30 re) 80 ue | aT Nine | lle 60 | ov | AL A 60 1909 1910 1911 1g9l2 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 Fic. 4.—Movement of the prices of articles farmers buy, of farm wages, and of the value of cotton raised in Ellis and Williamson Counties, Tex. (5-year average 1909-13 ~ equals 100). with the income of the farms of the two owner classes, while the income from cropper farms is only about two-thirds as large as the income from farms of the other tenure classes. 2 Incomes were not calculated by the usual receipts and expense method, but by taking inventorics of the farm business at the beginning and the end of the year. To the differ- ence between inventories was added any sum taken out of the farm business and put in outside enterprises, and the sum of all family living expenses. From this sum was taken receipts from sources outside of the farm business. This gave a basic figure from which the various income figures were calculated. 28 Tt will be seen by comparing items 1 and 2 of Table 15 that the value of the operator’s labor is not as great as the value of family living furnished by the farm, hence item 2, which includes the family living furnished by the farm but does not include the value of the operator’s labor on the farm, represents the net return of the farm more nearly than item 1. Items 1 and 2, however, include the value of the operator's management and the value of uninsured risk; that is, nothing is deducted for these. The value of family labor on farm is considered a farm expense. 5 © FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 25 TABLE 15.—Analysis of incomes of 343 black-land farms and farm operators, by tenure classes. ; | Wor 26 | | For 343 | Bor62 | For179 | For 76 | operators: Item of income. | share share cS owner- of all croppers. | tenants. | ;. z operators.) tenure: . | tional. classes MRP ABIMGR GAH Poe ao en ane ee seoseees Seegae $1, 217 $1, 678 $1, 609 $1, 757 $1, 607° 2. Farm income plus value of family living furnished by farm and minus value of operator’s labor +.....- i eas 1, 812 | 1, 866 1, 911 1, 734 3. Ratio of net return to the total farm capital 2_..._. 13.4 11.4 8.2 10.3 11. 3: 4. Operator’s labor income (interest charged on all PiMicapinalat 75 Pelicent))..5) esses eee eee 528 702 —61 317 498 5. Operator’s labor income, plus family living from | | farm (interest at 74 per cent deducted)............ 775 1,120 480 656 906 6. Operator’s labor income plus family living from farm (interest on capitalin equipment at 74 per cent and on capital in land at 44 per cent deducted).-.. 3775 31,128 731 1, 293 1, 08% 7. Operator’s rate of net return on his share of farm SpapRtsatnee ee EE eee Serer aoe sln bows vee sone (4) 45.7 11,2 10.7 sont 8. Landlord’s rate of net return on his share of farm TLDS - fe ASS ee ee Ge 5.6 Heelies ceeee & 5. 9) 9. Actual disposable net income from labor of oper- | ‘ ator and family and from farm investment (interest | and rent when paid out not included 5)............ 1, 094 1,513 1, 646 2, 429 1, 649: 10. The family’s net accumulation of wealth for the WED) oo 22:2e tee tebeeesbs ss Seb pporone pane oO ree sears 149 291 213 613 3277 1 No interest on farm capital, whether borrowed or not, is deducted in these figures, and the data are: based on the operated farm as a whole, regardless of the tenure of the operator. Hach tenant or cropper farm is here considered a farm as defined by the Census. The value of family labor on farm is considered a farm expense. 2 Calculated on the basis of item 2. + Since rent instead of interest is deducted in calculating the income of tenants, these figures are the same as item 5 above, except for share tenants, 36 of whom had $31,824 invested in improvements on the farms they operated which caused their labor income to be increased $8 on an average in item 6. 4 Croppers own no farm capital, hence no calculation was made for them. 5 Tn this figure no allowance is made for rent and interest on farm capital unless these are actually paid out. Therefore, the figure for an owner-operator whose farm is not mortgaged has no rent or interest on farm capital deducted, but for operators who actually paid either rent or interest, or both, these items were’ not included in the figure. : On the other hand, the ratio of net return to the capital invested in the cropper farm (item 3) was more than the ratio of net return to capital for any of the other tenure classes, and in this regard share tenant farms also exceeded the farms of owners. It would seem, therefore, that net social wealth is increased proportionally most when land is operated in the black land by tenants.?7 However, it should be remembered that material wealth is sometimes created at a loss to the intellectual, social, and political life of people; and, judging from the effects of tenancy on the education of tenants’ chil- dren (see pp. 56-60), such losses would far outweigh any possible in- crease in social wealth that might result from an extension of tenancy in the black land. The rate of net return on the capital invested in the farm can not well be used as an indication of the relative efficiency of the operators 7 Tenant farms, as has been shown, have a higher percentage of their acreage in crops, a smaller proportion of farm capital in buildings, and no doubt less land is used in yards, dwelling sites, and other nonproductive purposes than is the case with farms operated by owners, tending to give a higher ratio of net return on the capital invested in the tenant farm. With this exception, however, it is doubtful if the less diversified farming of the tenant yields a greater net social gain on the capital invested over a long period of time than the more diversified farming of owners, 90872—22——-4 26 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the different tenure classes in this area. Considerations that are not of an economic nature influence operators differently. For ex- ample, some of the most efficient operators may not wish to grow large acreages in cotton, thus running the risk of being compelled to keep their children out of school to get it picked; and prefer to grow small grain on much of their land, even though their net return on capital is thereby made smaller. . The operator's labor income, aS used in most farm-management surveys, 1s the net surplus left to the operator, for his labor and man- agement, after deducting all farm expenses (including interest on the farm capital) from receipts, not including the family living fur- nished by the farm as a receipt. The labor income given under item 4, Table 15, conforms to the above definition, deducting interest at 74 per cent—the average interest paid for first mortgage loans on the farms surveyed.** In all cases where land was rented, the actual rent paid was deducted and not an assumed rate of interest on the esti- mated value of the land. Item 5 is similar to item 4, except that the value of the family living is included as a receipt. And item 6 is the same as 5, except that on farms operated by owners the interest on land value deducted was 44 per cent, which was the average return on the capital invested in cash-rented farms, in 7 black-land counties in 1919.?° item 6 represents more correctly the net value that the farmer re- ceives for his farm labor and management than do either of the other two items on labor income.®° It will be noted that when a flat rate of 7k per cent is deducted to arrive at labor income, both tenant classes make a better showing than either of the owner classes. The 26 owners additional have the lowest average labor income—averaging a loss of $61 each for their labor and management. Yet in this caleu- lation the interest deducted on the value of the land was not in excess = °3 This is the average weighted interest rate on first mortgages, weighted by the total amount of loans under the different interest rates. 2 This rate of return on cash-rented farms is based on compilations made- from schedules of the 1919 census on 331 cash-rented farms in Collin, Falls, Lamar, Limestone, Milam, Navarro, and Travis Counties. This ratio does not represent the net return to the landlord, as taxes, upkeep, and other expenses are not deducted. 30 The present price of land is the sum of a number of different values. It represents use values in production, the value of anticipated increases in future income-yielding power, and the value of the social, community, and home uses which go with the owner- ship of the farm. The man who buys a farm gets all values attaching to the ownership of the land, but the renter gets only its present use values (including in some cases part or ail of the home, social, and community values), and should pay for these only. For vhis reason the cost of land, in calculating labor income, should be the cost of its present tses. Since a current rate of interest on the capital invested in land and buildings covers all values that go to make up the price of land, it may be too much to charge for the use of the land for the year’s operation. Share rent, besides paying for the use of the jand for the year, covers part of the risk in the business that the landlord assumes, but the landlord assumes comparatively little risk when he rents for cash. On account of these conditions it is believed that cash rent offers the best available figure as a basis for calculating the cost of land as a factor of production. FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. ae of the interest paid in the region for loans under reasonably favor- able conditions. In practice the operator does not calculate his labor income in this manner. He knows that what he receives from the farm for family living materially reduces his family expenses, correspondingly in- creasing his reward for labor and management. Furthermore, if he is an owner, knowing that land values have steadily risen in the past, he assumes that this rise in the future will supplement the low re- turn that his land yields from its present use. Moreover, he fre- quently is influenced to pay more for his farm than he otherwise would pay, because he desires to own his home. Consequently, part of the land cost is considered part of his family expenses. In short, he does not charge all of the present cost of land to its present operating use. Hence, the landowner realizes that he has not in any sense low- ered his power to earn wealth by becoming an owner; he knows that he has bought new personal satisfactions and future incomes which he thinks are worth the price paid for them. Thus, when these values are not deducted from the net surplus which is the reward of the operator for his work and management (see item 6) the result is quite different from that shown in item 4. The average labor income of owner operators increased from $317 to $1,293, and the increase for the labor income of owners’ additional income is from minus $61 to plus $731. The average rate of net return on the investment of the share ten- ant in the farm business is more than four times as large as the rate of return to owners on their investment (see item 7). This situation is quite generally realized. and is a strong stimulus to the develop- ment of tenancy in the area. The pecuniary considerations responsible for this tendency may be further shown by presenting the things that would confront a share tenant who contemplated buying the average farm operated by the share tenants interviewed. The average value of the farms operated by share tenants was $16,489 (see Table 9), and the average net rent paid to the landlord in 1919 was $924.** Assuming that the tenant could pay one-third of the price of the farm in cash,°*? the interest at 74 per cent on the remainder would amount to $825 for the year, leaving a remainder over rent of $99 to apply as pay- ment for the interest on the cash payment and upkeep. Interest on the cash payment would amount to $412, and after taking the re- mainder of $99 from this. the tenant would be short $313 as an owner of the place he rented in 1919. For this $313 he would have to get * Net rent as used here is the gross rent from the land less taxes and upkeep The approximate per cent paid in cash by owners who have bought since 1900 (See Table 20.) 28 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. his reward from the privileges of owning the farm, including the right to all increases in land value and to any intangible values the tenant may place on ownership. Share tenancy, therefore, yields the tenant a greater immediate eash return than he could earn with an equivalent expenditure of cash and labor as an owner operator, and this condition tends to increase the period of tenancy of operators, and thus the per cent of tenancy. A rigid enforcement of the antibonus law, if the legally specified share is less than the net return attributable to land after all expenses are deducted (not including rent to be paid as an ex- pense), would tend to make land values lower than they would be were there no such law, and the enforcement of the law under the conditions outlined would, without doubt, tend to lessen the stimulus to tenancy mentioned ore Land owners in the black land have frequent said their rents were too small to yield them a return on the capital invested in the _ tand equivalent to the return yielded on the same capital if it were put in equally safe alternate investments. In 1919, a year favorable to landlords, the landlord’s net return on his farm capital was less for both tenant classes than the average first mortgage loan rate. The average rate of net return to the landlords on share-tenant farms was 5.6 per cent and on cropper farms 6.6 per cent (see item 8, Table 15). However, if the returns of the landlord from rent in the past were — supplemented by his net returns from increases in land values it would be found that his total net gain as a land owner has been very attractive. By reference to data in Table 7, it will be noted that land values in the black land as a whole, including improvements placed on the land, have increased each decade since 1870, and by increases varying from 39 to 144 per cent. In order to give the proper emphasis to this important phase of the tenure problem, data on each land purchase were taken from all operators interviewed who had bought land in the black land. These data are summarized in ‘lable 16. In each individual case the in- crease or decrease in land values was calculated by deducting the value of improvements (buildings, fences, drainage, clearing, etc.) from the gross increase or decrease. All increases are calculated in terms of their equivalent in interest compounded annually on the original investment, which is, in reality, counting the original invest- ment and the accumulated increase as reinvested capital for each year. It will be noted that only 3.7 per cent of all purchases were made at a loss, and that these places were usually kept for a very short time. Practically no losses were recorded on purchases where the FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 29 jand was kept an average of over three years. Therefore, land in- vestment has been exceptionally safe to these people. TABLE 16.— Changes in the value of land bought i the black land by the opera- tors interviewed, expressed in equivalents of interest compounded annually on the original investment. Land bought and sold. | Land bought and still owned. At a gain. | At a loss. At a gain. At a loss. Changes in land values | : saptyalant to an enna Raw Neral pheeaee | Wie compound interest of— Kas aes age |Num- Ag: age |Num- Ag- age (Nume ae age : ste | com-| ber | 82 |com-| ber | 87° | com-| ber | 8° | com- ber of} gate gate gate gate cases.| years pound) of | years pouid - oe years peng coe years pound inter-| cases. inter-| cases.| T- ! inter- eld. | ost. held. | ost. held. |" ct held. est. PIBEHCOCRL 22s soos cc2s~ 55 11 28 Poa sot|paceee Above 0 and to 4 percent... ll G35, Sa Above4andtoS8percent..| 19} 118] 64) 3 9) 4 Above 8andtol2percent..| 19 | 132] 10.5 |_..... Aboyel2andtol6percent.| 8 9 | Above 16 and to 20 per cent-| 6 19 | 17.8 Above 20 and to 25 per cent. 7 Above 25 per cent.......... 7 Total number of cases...... PPE NS ee aE ed Tf The average weighted per cent of annual net increase in land values ** calculated annually, for land bought and then sold, was 9 per cent, and for the land that was bought and held, 7.9 per cent. In other words, the increase in land values was the equivalent of an annually compounded interest on the original investments of 9 and 7.9 per cent. The net return from these 267 purchases of land from increases in its value alone, therefore, has been enough to make the land an attractive and safe investment, to say nothing of the return in rents. General realization of these facts has, without doubt, been a most potent influence in the rapid increase in land value during the last 20 years. Whether or not it has resulted in speculative inflation of land values is impossible to say from available data. However, unless present price levels in general are maintained, there is the possibility of much loss and social unrest in the present situation. The farmer’s net surplus wealth accumulated during the year de- pends on the amounts of his capital that he owns, the labor that he himself can furnish, and the amounts of these he must hire. The actual disposable incomes of operators, in which interest and wages are deducted only when actually paid, are shown in item 9, Table 15. These figures include all value received by the farmer from the labor of himself or family on and off the farm, and values of family living furnished by the farm. - The rates of increase were weighted by the aggregate years the land was owned 4s given for cach group in Table 16, 90872—22——5 30 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The disposable income varies from $1,094 for croppers to $2,429 for owner operators—a difference of $1,335. This difference exceeds the difference in the labor incomes of the two classes by $817 (com- pare with item 6), which is largely the results of the earning power of the greater amount of wealth of the latter class. The cropper pays for all his capital and has a little less than half as much in use as has the owner operator (see Table 9). Owners additional had only a slightly larger disposable income than share tenants, although the former had 4.1 times as much net wealth as share tenants had, which is largely explained by the conditions already discussed that make the share-tenancy stage relatively more profitable to the aver- age tenant than are the owner stages (see p. 27). Out of this disposable income the operator had to pay all family expenses, and the remainder (item 10) represents the net accumula- tion of wealth for the year from the farming efforts of the operator and his family.** The cropper saved 13.6 per cent of his disposable income; the share tenant, 19.2 per cent; the owner additional, 12.9 per cent; and the owner-operator, 25.2 per cent. It will be noted that ~ the larger the disposable income the greater the amount that was spent for family living, but that the per cent spent for family living decreases with the increase of disposable incomes, except with owners additional. The actual net accumulation of wealth of the average family in 1919 was $149 for croppers, $291 for tenants, $213 for owners ad- ditional, and $613 for owner-operators. For all except the latter class these figures may seem somewhat small. In fact, it is probable that they are smaller than usual for reasons stated at the beginning of the discussions of incomes. If the average share tenant should buy the farm he operated in 1919 on the assurance of his 1919 net accumulation of wealth, how long would it require to pay for the farm and its equipment? As- suming interest on farm indebtedness to be 54 per cent and that the rent paid as a renter equals interest on the total farm value, and assuming further that, as farm indebtedness is lessened, the resultant saving in interest is appled to the payment of principal, it would require the tenant nearly 28 years to pay completely for his farm and equipment from his $291 annual accumulation of wealth. If the tenant were required to pay in cash at least one-third of the price of the farm and equipment before he could buy he would have to farm more than 13 years in order to complete payment. 24 No wealth received from sources outside of the farm business, except for the labor done off the farm by the operator and his family, is included in these figures. FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS, oa AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF FARM OPERATORS. TENURE HISTORY. TENURE STAGES OF ALL OPERATORS. Table 17 shows the percentage of all operators who passed through each of the several tenure stages or were engaged in other occupa- tions, and the aggregate time spent in these stages since the operators began for themselves. These data show the relative importance of the different stages in the tenure history of the operators. One-third of all the farm operators, as will be seen from Table 17, had been in other occupations than farming; but the per cent of aggregate years spent in other occupations was comparatively small, being 7.9 per cent of the aggregate time that all operators had been working for themselves. Those entering other occupations generally fall into two classes: (1) Operators who had been fairly successful in other occupations and had followed them for a considerable number of years, and (2) operators who were not very successful as farmers and who volun- tarily entered other occupations after having been farm operators or who were compelled to do so because of tenure reversals. Most of the men who have tried other occupations fall within the last class, and it is the influence of this class that makes the average age of entry to other occupations higher than the age of beginning as a farm hand and as a share tenant. TABLE 17.—How the 368 operators have been employed since they began to work for themselves. i we Farm | Share | Share Cash Cvaiels Owner ricer hands. |croppers.| tenants.| tenants. aati operators. Per cent of all operators who MEMORIES sits civic vee ncicens 32.5 51.8 41.0 85.8 7.4 10.6 30. 1 Per cent ofaggregate years spent in each stage... ....--. 5.2... 7.9 14.2 10.6 43.8 .9 2.4 20.3 Average age of operators at time of first entering each stage.... 26 21 24 25 34 35 32 Average years spent in each | SE eb oa ic omoacenss 6 | 5 5 10 2 | 4 il The farm-hand stage is used largely as a beginning stage for young unmarried men. The average age of entry into this stage was 21— less than the age of entry into any other stage, and 72 per cent of the total time spent in this stage was spent while the operators were single. However, share croppers, to a greater extent than any other tenure group, have been reversed to the hired-man stage, anc have, consequently, spent more time after marriage in the farm-hand stage than have the members of the other tenure groups. 4 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The share-cropper stage is third in importance, considered from the standpoint of the number who have been in the stage, and fourth, considered from the standpoint of the per cent of time spent in it. The average age of entry into the stage is materially increased by the fact that 46 out of the 151 men who had at some time been croppers were croppers for the first time by reversal from a higher stage, en- tering the cropper stage at an average age of 32. The remaining 105 operators who had been croppers entered at an average age of 25, the same average age at which operators entered the share-tenant stage. In point of number of operators involved and time spent in the stage the share-tenant stage hasbeen by farthe mostimportant inthe ten- ure history of the operators, nearly 86 per cent of them having been share tenants, spending thus 44 per cent of the aggregate time worked by all spans since they began farming for chemeaes Operators who had been share tenants spent on an average 10 years each as share tenants, which was twice the time operators had farmed as croppers. The data on the cash-tenant stage show how unimportant this stage has been in the tenure history of the individuals, since not quite 1 per cent of the aggregate time that operators had been working for themselves had beenl spent as cash tenants. The owner-additional stage, also, had been used by but few opera- tors, yet this stage is becoming increasingly important, and is already of much greater importance than the data would indicate. Of the 40 operators who have been owners additional, 32 have used the stage in the past 5 years, 3 used it from 5 to 10 years ago, and only 5 used it 10 years or more ago. The important function of this stage is that of enabling the man who owns land to expand his business to fit his developing capacity as an operator when he can not find adjoining land for sale or does not have funds to buy it. Thirteen of the 26 operators who are now owners additional, and operate on an average 131 acres each, were formerly owner oeunors, farming an average of 85 acres, indicating that these men used the owner-additional stage to make a considerable expansion in the size of their operating unit. The owner-operator stage is the tenure goal of practically all op- erators, and it is to be supposed that some have entered it and failed to maintain the status. Over one-third of all operators have been owner operators, but only about one-fifth of them are now in the stage. Thirty-two, or 24.8 per cent of the 129 operators who have been owner operators are now in some status below the owner addi- tional status. From the standpoint of total time spent in the stage by all operators, the owner-operator stage is second only to that of the share tenant. FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 33 Eyen at that, more than twice as much time was spent in the share- tenant stage as in the owner-operator stage. Operators had been in the owner-operator stage on an average longer than they had been in any other stage. - TENURE STAGES OF PRESENT TENURE GROUPS. From the data presented in Table 18, showing the use of the dif- ferent tenure stages by operators in each of the present tenure groups, it will be noted that owners and share tenants alike have made greater use of the farm-hand stage than they have of the cropper stage. This aversion to the cropper stage seems to be general in the black land; it is probably due to class discrimination against crop- pers, and to the close and sometimes disagreeable supervision given to them by the landlords.*® It is to be hoped that these conditions can be remedied, for the eropper stage offers the inexperienced young man who has little capi- tal a chance to get experience as an operator under the supervision of a successful farmer. It offers the further advantage of yielding a return over wages which is usually more than enough to cover the risk assumed by the new operator in the business. Tt will be noted that 43.1 per cent of all croppers, as compared with only 12.8 per cent of all owners, have tried other occupations. This is evidence of the fact, noted elsewhere, that the unsuccessful oper- ators have not stuck to farming as closely as have the more success- ful (see p. 46). TasLte 18.—Relative importance of different tenure and occupational stages in tenure history of operators, classified by present tenure of operators. { Percentage distribution of operators by stages passed through, with average years in Numberof | each stage. operators by |_ a ? et ae ‘eat eur ree = present | tenure. Other | Farm . Owner Owner occupations. | hand. Cropper. Tenant. additional. orerator. G, te pals hae | Chile Saree Mabtbat 19. .| PChaeonese | WE Cle LY 78: P.ct.| Yrs. | P.ct.| ¥rs. 65 croppers....-. 43.1 A Sip An 7.1 | 100.0 6.5 | 49.2 eH) ACE) | = aeleros (A) lisew stelle 194 tenants. .... 24.5 6.4 | 48.3 4.9 32.7 | 4.4 | 100.0 LL.5 Be a 2) 14.0 4.6 109 owners..... 12.8 & 1) 55.1 3.9 21.1 2.4 82.7 8.6 | B0b8 | anonw 88. 2 13.5 1 Nine croppers have been owners or owners additional for an average of 5.2 years. *% Two examples will illustrate the popular prejudice against the cropper stage: One man whose sons were seeking to begin as farmers advised them to go to Dallas and seek employment, simply because they were unable to rent land except as croppers, his remark being, “If my boys have to farm like ‘ niggers’ I don’t want them to be farmers.” Another case is that of a young man who had been a cropper on his mother-in-law's place for two years and had saved enough to buy farming equipment. He asked his mother-in- law for a share-tenant contract, and failing to get it from her he spent two weeks search- ing for a farm for rent to a share tenant (this was in 1918), but failed to find a satisfac- tery place, He quit farming and began work as a barber, saying that if he couldn't bo anything but a cropper he wouldn't farm at all, 34 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The relative importance of the share-tenant stage is shown by the fact that the 109 owners had spent more time in the share-tenant stage than in the cropper and farm-hand stages and in other occu- pations combined. Furthermore, owners who received no fortuitous assistance in their tenure advance had been share tenants an ‘ag- geregate of 4,876 years as compared with an aggregate of 2,183 years spent in other occupations in the farm-hand stages and the cropper stage combined. More than half of all croppers, and 36 of the 194 share tenants, had attempted to operate in higher-tenure stages, but had failed in the attempt. MOVEMENTS OF OPERATORS ON THE AGRICULTURAL LADDER. If a man should climb the agricultural-tenure ladder by tak- ing successively all the tenure steps that are found in the black land, he would pass through, in the order named, the following stages: farm-hand, share-cropper, share-tenant, cash-tenant, owner- additional, and owner-operator stages. However, only one of the 368 operators had taken all of these steps. For all practical pur- poses the tenure ladder in the black land may be given as follows: The farm-hand and cropper stages as the first step; the share-tenant stage as the next step; and the owner-operator and the owner-addi- tional stages as the final step. Very few operators climb the tenure ladder without interruption by reverses.*° Twenty-six share tenants had never been in any other tenure stage, and had farmed for an average of 10.8 years each; 111 operators had been either croppers and share tenants or farm hands and tenants, but 56 of these had at one time or other been re- versed in tenure, and 82 operators had taken all three tenure steps, 59 of these having had no tenure reversals. Thus only 16 per cent of all operators had climbed the agricultural ladder to the top with- out suffering some reverse in tenure status. The proportions of all operators in each tenure class who had suffered tenure reverses were as follows: Croppers, 60 per cent; share tenants, 29.8 per cent; owners additional, 19.2 per cent; owner oper-_ ators, 14.5 per cent. Economic pressure or failure caused 61.8 per cent of all reverses of croppers, 46.8 per cent of the reverses of share tenants, and 44.4 per cent of the reverses of owners. The different proportions of operators in each tenure who suffered reverses are largely due to the different proportions of operators of inferior abil- ity in the different tenure classes. These differences in ability will 26 A reverse here means a change from a higher to a lower tenure form unless such a change was accompanied by unmistakable evidence that the operator was better off financially by the change and made it of his own free will. — FARM--OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 35 be more clearly shown in connection with the comparisons of the rates of accumulation of wealth by operators of the different tenure classes. In comparing these figures on reverses in the different tenure groups, it should be borne in mind that a tenure reverse from the owner stage is a more serious reverse than a reverse from the share-tenant stage, and that a reverse from the cropper stage is the least serious of all reverses. WEALTH USED AND PROPORTION BORROWED AT TIME OPERATORS ENTERED EACH TENURE STAGE. : Very little wealth was needed for operators to begin the share- cropper stage. In fact 20 of the 28 reporting had no wealth to begin with (Table 19). These 20 croppers doubtless were half hands, who depended entirely on labor performed for the landlord, and advances he made to them, for their living expenses during the year. The 8 croppers reporting wealth owned an average of $380 and borrowed $194, or about one-third of the total wealth used. Taste 19—Average wealth used and amount borrowed at the beginning of the share cropper, share tenant, and owner stages, operators classified by present tenure. Operators at begin- | Operators at begin- | Operators at begin- ning of cropper ning of share- ning of owner stage. tenant stage. Stage. Items classified by present tenure of operators. Orer- | Oper- Oper- Oper- Oper- Oper- ators who ators who| ators who) ators who| ators who} ators who owned |owhedno; owned |ownedno; owned | owned no wealth. | wealth. | wealth. | wealth. | wealth. | wealth. | . | Share croppers: MRITENPST ee see eke Ol oe oe ec 2 8 | 20 Za 15 6 1 Average wealth owned............:--- $3804) 2 eee $287 aed Fea SU SLO 7iMe ere Average wealth borrowed 1........... $194 | $77 $284 | $149 $1, 908 | $720 Per cent wealth used that was bor- MOOR eee as a kee bot a 33:8: |eeeaae seen AON GI |g) ou a G250h yeas deine Share tenants: LE AS es oe ee ee ae ee ee | eureka 136 55 SBin ce ane Average wealth owned.............-.. (2) leraree ae Cte day |e teat ebro $2430) ee eee mverave wealth borrowed 22.26 e cn]. .....-cscleuen geese. $415 $282 Sov GLO: | case ccuew Per cent of wealth used that was bor- | Ne Bi Ge a) eee {pe Seereiae Les | Spasedeeing Te Ne aac Owners: ‘ PEL hh SE ee eee ae a eee lio-2:d\> sxe » ole OEE 67 24 103 2 Average wealth owned........-......- | (?) Wo eneeee SOLO) mere e PF UN epee oo Average wealth borrowed !........... PE | aitete alors avers $203 $184 $3, 397 $550 Per cent of wealth used that was bor- | SURUMEN ts Bes fea eA cate ott oid wala no Ae wisi's «a noe ater ot OUND Ela felorone eeis ave ey BE is Saag | 1 Borrowed wealth includes amount borrowed for operating and lfving expenses during the first year in the tenant stages, and wealth borrowed for these purposes and land debt during the first year of ownership. 2 No data secured for share tenants and owners at time of bezinning as a cropper. It will be noted that over one-third of operators who are now croppers, and of operators who are share tenants and owners, owned no wealth when they began as share tenants. ‘These operators either began on a very small scale or had concessions such as free use of teams, tools, etc., from kinfolk. 36 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tes Of the operators who owned wealth on entering the share-tenant stage, those who are now croppers used the least wealth and bor- rowed the largest proportion and those who are now share tenants used the most wealth (an average of $940). | The average amount of wealth used by all tenure classes on begin- ning as share tenants was $787, and this was but slightly less than. the average amount of wealth used by 43 operators who began the stage since 1909. It would seem, therefore, that this represents about the amount of wealth needed to begin the share-tenant stage before the rise of prices owing to the World War, the amount needed under war prices probably being at least 50 per cent more. Owners borrowed a smaller proportion of the wealth they used than did either of the other two classes. From this fact it might be concluded that the less the operator borrows the more likely is he to succeed, a conclusion that in all probability is erroneous. These data, however, may suggest that the present credit facilities are at fault, and that the owners were possibly more judicious bor-. rowers because of these faults. Both the share croppers and share tenants who had tried the owner stage had borrowed almost two-thirds of the capital they used upon becoming owners, but the latter used almost twice as much capital as did the former. Share tenants and owners both used over $6,000 on becoming owners, but owners borrowed $513 less on an average than did share tenants. The data given in Table 19 seem to indicate that under prevailing credit facilities purchasers of land are safe if their net worth is about half of the value of the farm bought. Loans for longer periods of time and at lower rates of interest than is now commonly paid, with arrangements permitting payments to be made on the amortization plan, would no doubt make it safe to increase to more than 50 per cent the proportion of borrowed capital in land pur- chases, thereby encouraging ownership. TIME REQUIRED FOR OPERATORS TO ATTAIN THE SHARE TENANT AND OWNER STAGES DURING DIFFERENT DECADES. One of the causes for the rapid growth of tenancy sometimes suggested by writers on the subject is the increasing price of land and equipment, especially the increasing price of land. As a result, it is claimed that young men starting out must work longer than they formerly did in order to accumulate enough to make their first payment on land. The mformation collected cn this subject from the 368 operators of the farms surveyed is summarized in Table 20. No operators were included in the table if they had received as much as $200 from FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. - on fortuitous sources before attaining tenancy or as much as $500 be- fore becoming owners. TABLE 20—Time required during different decades to attain the share tenant and owner stages, and the amounts of wealth used on beginning each stage, for operators who have received no fortuitous assistance. Conditions under which operators who | Conditions under which operators who are now tenants or owners attained are now owners attained owner- tenancy. ; : ship. : Average |. Average ae | wealth ; Years to| Wealth Number} Years to used Per cent | Number tian used Per cent of | attain when | of wealth of Onna when | of wealth operators.| tenancy. | beginning|borrowed.| operators. ship beginning) borrowed. as a 3 as tenant. owner. Before 1889......-...- 42 | 7.1 $424 52.6 17 16.1] $6 141 49. 2 TSRG-“IRGOE = oo ss. 51 4.9 564 46.2 18 13.0 5, 463 59.7 1899-1909. 2.22... 56 | 222 794 58.1 16 9.4 | 6, 804 62.8 LODS-1919 20222. . 43 1.3 788 52.9 3 4.3 6, 317 72.6 1 Any value of $200 or more received by gift, inheritance, or marriage, before or at the time of becoming @ share tenant was considered fortuitous assistance to tenancy, and any amount received thus, of $500 value or more, before or at the time of becoming an owner, was considered fortuitous assistance to ownership. These data on share tenants are for men whose sole reliance in financial advance has been their earnings, and since they attained tenancy each decade in a shorter time and owned more wealth at the time of becoming tenants, it follows that ability to accumulate wealth had increased each decade, this increase, no doubt, being primarily due to an increased earning power. The data on owners are not based on sufficient numbers to be conclusive, but the fact that they show the same tendency that is shown in the case of tenants is presumptive evidence of reliability. With each decade, from the time prior to 1889, the total value of the farm has changed-but little, which means that the size of the pur- chased farm has been reduced each decade. But there was a tendency to borrow a greater proportion of the wealth used with each suc- ceeding decade, which would itself tend to shorten the time required to attain the owner stage. Jlowever, there is a difference of. 6.7 years in the time required to attain the owner stage prior to 1889, as compared with the decade between 1899 and 1909, while the in- creased amount borrowed is only $1,251, which could not account for the entire decrease of 6.7 years. Therefore, these data would indi- cate that in these groups, also, increased ability to accumulate wealth has shortened the time required to attain the owner stage. SPECIAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE INDIVIDUAL’S TENURE STATUS. One of the most important special conditions affecting the inc- vidual’s tenure status is the receipt of wealth from fortuitous sources—inheritance, gift, or marriage. There were in all 50 owners who had received $500 or more from fortuitous sources either at the 38 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. time or before they became owners. The average wealth thus re- ceived was $3,578, and the operators receiving it attained the owner stage an average of 3.6 years sooner than did the owners who received no fortuitous wealth. In other words, each $1,000 received fortui- tously shortened by about 1 year the average time required to attain ownership. - It is interesting to note that owners receiving fortuitous’ help shunned the cropper stage and made use of the farm-hand stage more than did those who received no fortuitous assistance. The number of operators who had been farm hands, in the group receiv- ing fortuitous help, was 3.6 times as many as the number who had been croppers. On the other hand, of the group receiving no for- tuitous assistance, only 1.8 times as many had been farm hands as had been croppers. Operators receiving fortuitous assistance and who had been farm hands spent an average time of 5.4 years in the stage as compared with an average of 4.6 years spent by those receiv- ing no fortuitous assistance, while of the operators who had been croppers, those receiving fortuitous assistance were croppers for an average period of 1.8 years, and those receiving no fortuitous assist- ance were croppers for an average of 2.6 years. Calculations on the effects of receipts of fortuitous wealth. on the time required to reach share tenancy *’ showed that for each $703 received fortuitously before, or at the time of attaining tenancy, the average time of attaining the stage was shortened by one year. About 89 per cent of all land owned was purchased by the owners, and the remainder was received in about equal amounts through marriage and inheritance. The proportion of all land owned that was received in these three ways are approximately the same for ten- ants and owners. The tendency for inheritance to break down the size of holdings is suggested by the fact that the average inherited farm was 65.5 acres in size, while the average size of the purchased farm was 141.6 acres—more than twice that of the inherited farm. — In order to determine whether or not there is any relation be- tween the tenure of father and that of the son, data on the tenure status of the fathers of operators were taken. It was found that of the fathers who were farmers, 38.6 per cent of those of croppers, 68.2 per cent of the fathers of tenants and 75 per cent of those of owners were owners. From general observation, while interview- ing operators, it is believed that the greater financial encourage- ment and assistance given by fathers who were owners was a more important influence in this regard than was the training and in- herited traits of the operators whose fathers were owners. Never- theless, it will be noted from Table 21 that there is a relation 27 Only: amounts of $200 or more are considered fortuitous assistance to attaining tenancy. j FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 39 | between the tenure and the education of the operator, croppers as a class having less education than share tenants had, and share tenants having less as a class than had owners. However, it should not be inferred from the data presented in the table that the relation is all due to the effects of education on tenure. ; TABLE 21—Relation leticeen tenure and the. education of the operator. Extent of educational attainment. Tenure group. Below fourth Fourth to ninth Above ninth grade. grade, inclusive. _ grade. Number. | Per cent.| Number. Per cent.| Number.| Per cent. BiB PIPLORHELS es serine aod hes oscc wes « 21 | 321.3 | 40 | 61.5 4 06. 2 PUMMPMUAIATLES ps2 5. oct oases cose ds aks 37 | 19.1 134 | 69. 1 23 11.8 80 73.4 12 11.0 (2 UHEGTS. . ¢ cae eee er 17 | 15.6 . | | FINANCIAL HISTORY OF OPERATORS. NET WORTH OF OPERATORS AND ITS SOURCES. The wealth of the operator and the rate at which he accumulates it are better indications than tenure status of the operator’s progress in agriculture. However, it is a well-known fact that financial and tenure progress generally develop together. This fact is brought out by Table 22, which gives the present net worth of the operator and the sources of his wealth. Owner operators, it will be noted, whose average present net worth was $32,901, had almost 38 times as much wealth as croppers who owned on an average $868. Of the total net worth of all operators, 53.5 per cent came from net accumulations from earnings, 39.6 per cent from increases in land values, and 6.9 per cent from fortuitous sources.**® Owners accumulated from their earnings an aggregate of 1.7 times as much as owners additional accumulated, 5 times as much as have tenants, and 21.2 times as much as have croppers. These differences in rate of accumulation from earnings by the different tenure groups are more significant when considered in connection with the average number of years the operators of the different tenure classes have been working for themselves. On this basis owners had an average annual accumulation from their earnings 1.3 times that of owners additional, 3.4 times that of tenants, and 15.3 times that of croppers. It is obviously impossible to ascertain how much of the wealth received from increases in land values is attributable to the owner’s superior judgment in securing and holding possession of the land and how much of it should be credited to things wholly outside the “For a statement of what is included in the concepts of net accumulation from earn 99 ings, increases in land values, and fortuitous wealth, see footnotes under Table 22, AO BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. owner’s efforts and ability. If such a separation were possible, a figure on accumulation from all human efforts, mental and physical, would show much greater differences for the operators than are shown by the comparisons made in the above paragraph. ‘TABLE 22. —Average present net worth per operator and its sources, by tenure classes. ts gowns ae : = Wealth received Wealth received Average | from increases in from fortuitous Average | amount land values.? sources.® Number | present | of wealth Present tenure Status. of net worth| accumu- ee ; . |operators. per | lated- | Number = Number operator.| from of opera- aS ak of opera- Average earnings.’ — tors Pecoinedl ros noose | receiving. "| receiving. | ; | DHALEICrOPPELS=seee eee eee eee eee 65 $868 $721 5 $732 15 $444 SSE TOMES eaoaaacosSeesncens 192 3,979 | 3, 047 34 3, 014 91 840 Owners additional......-...-.-- 26 16,166 | 8, 761 26 5,981 | 14 2,645 Owner operators:.-==-------5-=- | 83 32,901 15,254; - 8 15, 807 53 | 2, 882 All operators... .. een e 366] 10,851) 5,822 / 148 | 10,632 173 | 1,577 1 This figure does not include wealth received from increases in land values and fortuitous wealth, but does include any wealth made by the use of capital from these sources. Accumulations from earnings represent approximately the wealth the operator has earned from his farming efforts (labor and manage- ment) and any wealth made from the use of capital from whatever source received. 2 Increases in land values, aSused in this bulletin, means net increases from this Source, all value ofimprovee ‘ments put on the land by the owner. being deducted. 3 Wealth received through inheritance, gift, and marriage. Every owner interviewed had made more money from changes in land values than he had lost. Forty-eight per cent of the total pres- ent net worth of owner operators and 37 per cent of the present net worth of owners additional was secured from increases in land values. Only 34 of the 192 share tenants and 5 of the 65 share croppers received wealth from increases in land values, and the average amounts thus received were very small in comparison with the amounts received by owners. The wealth received from fortuitous sources was relatively small as compared with the wealth received from the other two sources. However, it should be noted that owners received larger amounts of wealth from this source than did tenants. Fifty of the 67 owners who received fortuitous wealth got $500 or more at the time of be- coming owners or before. It is very probable that most of these operators received their fortuitous wealth at a time in their financial history when it was relatively of great importance to them as a * boost.” VARIATION IN ACCUMULATIVE ABILITY OF OPERATORS AND ITS INFLUENCE ON TENURE. The extent to which men differ in their ability to accumulate wealth from their earnings is brought out by Table 23 and Figure 5. It will FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 41 be noted from the table that by far the greater proportion of tenants have accumulated less than $200 annually, and that the 19 owners. SHARE CROPPERS | | I Ih HII | istozs | estrone | TENANTS CLASSIFIED BY PRESENT TENURE & YEARS OF WORKING FOR SELF “ e ° Pa < 4 ] a ° z & < i 6 ‘J ” n aU) z c= i 4 < Wl PS ° V4 ri z = | < A 3 w 0 Zu So E 4 = = =] 18) 18) q all z =) z Zz < Ww 0 < rr rm > < Fie, 5,—Ayerage annual accumulation of wealth for 367 operators, classified by tenure, t ij an” OWNERS in this class actually lost, on the average, instead of accumulating wealth from their earnings. 42 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. | TABLE 23.—Operators classified by tenure and by average amount accumulated from earnings annually. Share croppers. Share tenants. Owners. All operators. | ' Operators whose net | | Per cent Per cent ; a Per cent Per cent ayaual cee Number | ofaceu- | Number ae Number | of accu- | Number to ion | of oper- | mulation | of oper- ofall of oper-. | mulation} of oper- an all | ators. | ofall ators. Sane ators. of all ators. anaes | croppers. eee owners. wee Less than $200.....-.. 58 | 49.2 108 19.0- 19 — 0.5 185 10.0 $200 to $400..-..--.-- | 6 | 34. 8 45 27.4 29 15.3 80 21.3 $400 to $6)0....-.-.-- | BO e Saree blew ee 27 28.8 29 24.5 06 25.3 $600 to $830.......--.| it | 16.0 4 6.0 14 | 16.8 19 12.1 $800 to $1,000.....-.-- | Bevis Saree ee ee 3 5.7 8 12.6 11 9.1 $1,000 or more........ ieee ease | Peeneve gen TC: 4 13. 2 19 31.3 14 Pap Ps It will be noted, furthermore, that 136 of the operators fall within the groups of farmers who saved $200 and less than $600. These operators, who are 37.1 per cent of all operators, and who save 46.6 per cent of the aggregate annual accumulation of all operators, are, in the main, what might be called consistent accumulators of wealth. They are not outstanding accumulators, on the other hand, nor are they failures. From Figure 5 it is evident that there is a very great range between the two extremes, that of the few high accumulators, and that of the large number of low accumulators. This point is illustrated con- cretely by the fact that the best 14 accumulators, whose average an- nual accumulation from earnings was $1,000 or more, saved annually $23,940, as compared with an annual accumulation of $24,105 by 238 who were the poorest accumulators. In other words, 14, or 3.8 per. cent of all operators, accumulated annually about as much as 238, or 64.8 per cent of the 367 operators. The former saved 22.2 per cent of the aggregate annual accumulation of all operators; the latter, 22.4 per cent. These facts concerning the extent to which men differ in ability to accumulate wealth from their earnings are fundamental in the tenure problem. The most important thing brought out by them is the dual function of the different stages of tenancy. Not only do these different stages function as stepping-stones to the rising oper- ator, but they function also as selective agencies, often reversing the operator of inferior ability into the lower stages, or else keeping him there, where he is subject to the supervision of an operator of proved efficiency and capacity. This dual functioning of the different stages of tenancy is strik- ingly shown in Figure 5. The best accumulators of the two tenant classes are the men who have worked for themselves the shortest time ; while the poorest accumulators are those who have worked for them- FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS, 43 selves longest. In other words, figuratively speaking, the operators of greatest capacity and efficiency (which undoubtedly are the main determinants of largest accumulating power) crowd upper strata of the tenant stages and soon pass off into the owner stage. On the other hand, the poorest accumulators of the owner and share-tenant stages suffer reverses and settle toward lower stages, out of which some never rise. Among owners, however, the majority of best accumulators have worked for themselves longest—the reverse of the situation with the tenant classes. Many operators become owners through fortuitous assistance and often can remain in the stage throughout life, even though suffering a small annual loss. Nevertheless, reversals from this stage (there were 42 tenants out of the 258 who had at one time been owners) largely involve incompetent operators, many of whom can provide for their families best in a state of tenancy, where they ’ are supervised by more competent operators.. These two functions of the different, tenure stages are based on the fundamental fact that men vary greatly in ability to produce and accumulate, which fact must not be neglected in shaping any land policy. It is highly important that the road to advanced stages be kept open and free from uneconomic handicaps, such as speculative land values; that care be taken that the operators in the lower stages get a return commensurate to their efforts and ability; that they have proper houses to live in; that they be given a chance to expand as they prove their ability; and that they have contracts protecting them in their rights and protecting the landlord from any dishonesty on the part of unscrupulous renters. CLASSIFICATION OF OPERAFORS ACCORDING TO ABILITY TO ACCUMULATE WEALTH. The reasons why men differ in their ability to accumulate wealth are numerous. In fact, each case probably has its own set of reasons that are somewhat different from all others. Nevertheless, there are some general conditions associated with the rate of accumulation which can well be brought out by way of comparison.*® A glance at Figure 5, in the light of what has been said on the dual function of the tenure stages, will show that a tenure classification within itself is a rough classification of operators into classes of accumulators. However, within each tenure class there are good as well as poor accumulators; therefore operators within each tenure class were divided into the best, the medium, and the poorest accwmu- * The factors that enter into the individual operator's ability to accumulate wealth from his earnings are as follows: (1) Ability to produce, which depends on the operator's capacity and efficiency; (2) ability to save wealth produced; and (3) ability to use saved wealth in the production of more wealth, 44 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lators on the basis of the average annual accumulation of wealth from earnings.*° Data presented in Table 24 indicate the reliability of the above classification of accumulators. It will be noted that the present net worth of the different classes of accumulators increases without ex- ception in passing from the poorest to the best in all three tenure classes, increasing from an average net worth of $187 for the poorest cropper accumulators to $46,903 for the best owner accumulators. Furthermore, the 1919 net family accumulation increases from the poorest to the best without exception, in each of the tenure classes. The best accumulators from earnings also accumulated most from increases in land values, as would be expected. TasBLeE 24—Average present net worth, its sources, and the average family accumulation of wealth during 1919, for the different classes of accumu- lators. E Croppers. Tenants. Owners. — Items of correiation. | 7 ask |e “ F | e- Me- Me- Hootest ahaa. Best. ECU akeran. Best. |Poorest. akeraea. Best. Number of operators.....--.- 21 | 19 22 65 | 62 64 39 al | 33 Present net worth af opera- | Pe COTS eee es ee eee eae $187 | $731 | $1,697 | $2,001 | $3,305 | $6,685 |$16, 063 |$21,498 | $46, 903: Average amount received | | from fortuitous sources}... 143 | 72 107 480 | 137 563 | 1,984 | 1,666 1,599 Average received from in- | | creases in land values !...-- | 21 106 18 369 | 355 862 | 8,661 | 10,156 | 20,869 Average family accumula- | | tion of wealth for 19192... | —H 169 231 | 54 | 199 | 618 | —178 862 | 977 1 Averaged on all operators in class whether wealth was thus received or not. 2 See item 10, Table 15. RELATION BETWEEN SIZE AND VALUE OF FARM OPERATED AND ACCUMULATION OF WEALTH FROM EARNINGS. It is quite definitely shown in Table 25 that the best accumulators in each tenure class are now on farms which have the largest value in land and buildings, the largest value in equipment, the. greatest acre- age, and largest number of work stock. Moreover, it will be seen that the best accumulators had generally operated the largest farms when they were in other tenure stages. On the other hand, the oppo- site condition is shown by data on the operators who were the poorest accumulators. This close relation between the best accumulators and the largest and most valuable farms is not only the result of demonstrated effi- 49In making this division of operators it was recognized that accumulation of wealth is influenced by the age of the operator; also by the period of time in which the accumu- lation was being made. Consequently operators were first grouped by periods of time when they began for themselves and were then regrouped by age groups so as to eliminate as nearly as possible these two influences before the operators were divided into the above three classes of accumulators. After selecting the three classes of accumulators in the final groups, based on age of the operators, the best accumulators in each tenure class were brought together, as were the other two classes of accumulators. FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 45, ciency and capacity of the operators, but is also partly due to the superior wealth saving and using ability of the best accumulators. In agriculture, development of ability and advance in one’s voca- tion is more largely dependent on the amount of personally accumu- lated wealth than in many other vocations. The farmer must have — capital, and this is usually owned, borrowed, and rented, or is owned and borrowed. The amount the farmer can borrow depends to,a con- siderable extent on his wealth, much of which is, as a rule, secured from accumulations from earnings. But wage hands, skilled me- chanics, professional men, and men employed in numerous corporate industries can, and frequently do, rise in their vocations, whether they save from their earnings or not. Saving from earnings for the farmer is, therefore, not only one of the most important factors in accumulation of wealth, but it is also a means to the expans on of his business and to the fuller development and employment of his ability as an operator. TABLE 25.—Relation between different classes of accumulators of wealth and the size of the farm business in 1919, and average size of farm operated under the different tenure stages of the operator’s history. Croppers. | Tenants. Owners. Items of correlation. | Poorest. Ao Best. |Poorest. nen: Best. |Poorest. nee Best. a a Number of operators.....-.-- 21 | 19 22 | 65 | 62 64 39 31 38 Average value of land and \ buildings operated in 1919.| $6,805 | $7,158 |$15,399 |$13,657 |$15, 332 |$19, 028 |$14,571 [$18,891 | $26, 248 Average value of equipment | | PISA ETILO ED oe os oe os 2 | $596 $774 | $1,173 | $1,261 | $1,567 | $2,014 | $1,452 | $2,101 $2, 344 Average acresincropsin1919.| 37.9, 45.8 79.9 | 85.9 88.0 | 106.9 81.1 107.2 136.7 Average number of work | | | stock per operator in 1919..} 1.9 27 ORNL Sip SEO 4.8 3.9 4.5 6.1 Average acres operated when | } LI 1 A 42.4 | ° 47.8) 75.1 45.3 59.9 | 52.4 58.5] 30.8 102.9 Average acres operated when | a share tenant !............ | 66:5) 50:2) 67.4 78.8 | 85.9 100.0 73.9 78.3 89. 9 Average acres operated when | TT tl Se LOZ Oi eseo=s.- « 55. 5 94.7 83. 0 87.5 100.1.) 116.1 168. 1 1 The number of operators in these three lines varies from the number given at the top of the tables in most cases the number being less. RELATION BETWEEN THE OPERATOR'S DEGREE OF APPLICATION IN OPERATING HIS FARM AND HIS ACCUMULATION OF WEALTH FROM EARNINGS. Constancy of purpose and application to the business of operat- ing a farm has evidently been exercised more among the best ac- cumulators than among the poorest. This fact can be seen by comparing the sets of data of almost any two classes of accumu- lators in Table 26, but the data on the two extreme classes will be used to bring out the point. In the case of owners the best accumulators have been working for themselves an average of 24.5 years, while the poorest accumulators among croppers have been working for themselves for an average of 19.4 years. The former 46 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. group have spent on an average only 2.1 years, or 8.6 per cent of the total time since they began for themselves in other occupations and as farm hands, while the latter group (the poorest cropper accu- mulators) have spent on an average 9.9 years, or 51 per cent of their total time, in other occupations and as farm hands. Put in another way, the best owner accumulators have applied themselves to op- erating a farm 91.4 per cent of the time since they began for them- selves, while the poorest cropper accumulators have applied them- selves only 49 per cent of their time. The data showing the value of the labor done on the farm and off the farm show that in each tenure group the best accumulators did more work on the farm they operated and less work off the farm than the poorest accumulators. In other words, the best accumulators confined their efforts to their own farms more than did the poorest accumulators. It is obviously impossible to say to what extent the lack of applica- tion to the farm business on the part of the poorest cropper accumu- lators is the cause of inability to accumulate or to what extent it is the result of it. However, it is very important to note that poorest accumulation and the least application to the farm business are closely associated, and that the greatest accumulation of wealth and the most application to the farm business are closely associated. TABLE 26.—Relation between accumulation of wealth and the application of the operator to his farm business. a Croppers. Tenants. Owners. Item of correlation (average take we ae operator in the AC . KE class). | e- e- e- Poorest. alii, Best. |Poorest. alee. Best. |Poorest. ae Best. Number of operators.......-- 21 19 22 65 62 64 39 31 38 Average present age.......... 40 36 39 38 39 37 45 44 45 Average years as farm oper- BOTS Se So ee ee 9.5 9.5 11.5 13.3 14.1 13.1 21.2 19.0 22. 4 Average years at other occu- Pallonl ees wee eee 3.0 2.8 3.4 1.9 1.4 1.2 0.3 0.7 0.3 Average yearsas farm laborer! 6.9 4.6 4.3 shal 2.1 1.3 2.7 1.8 1.8 Per cent of total years since beginning for self spent in other occupations and as farm laborers..........---. 51.0 43.8 40.1 27.3 19.9 16.0 12.4 11.6 8.6 Average amount per operator received for labor done off farm, for year 1919 ....._.. $253 $183 $112 $145 $94 $138 $124 $94 $67 Average value of operator’s i labor on farm, 1919 ........ $324 $292 $393 $425 $494 $456 $468 $491 $543 1 Averaged by all operators in group and not by actual number who were in other occupations or farm laborer stages. RELATION BETWEEN DIVERSIFICATION OF FARM ENTERPRISES AND ACCUMULATION OF WEALTH. It will be noted from Table 27 that the per cent of all crop land on the farm planted to cotton was highest in the group of poorest accumulators and smallest in the case of the best accumulators. FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 47 On the other hand, small grain was grown in the largest proportions to all crops by the best accumulators and in the smallest proportions by the poorest accumulators, in each of the three classes of tenure. On farms where cotton is a large proportion of all crops there are seasons when practically the whole labor force and all equipment are idle. These same periods are usually times when teams, tools, and men can be employed profitably in small grain fields, and it is this use on the mixed grain and cotton farm of (what on the cotton farm would be) idle labor and equipment, that helps to swell the profits on the mixed grain and cotton farm. Furthermore, when several years of operation are considered, the risks from agriculture are much more uniformly distributed and probably made less by the mixed grain and cotton type, as against the one-crop type of agri- culture. Tt will also be noted that the greatest number of animal units other than work stock, the greatest number of poultry, and the greatest value of garden, fruit, poultry, and dairy products used for family and furnished by the farm are associated, without exception, with the best accumulators in all the tenure classes. On the other hand, in eyery case (except two) the smallest amounts of the items above mentioned are associated with the poorest accumulators in each tenure class. Taste 27.—Relation between the diversification of farm enterprises and classes of accumulators. Croppers. Tenants. Owners. Items of correlation. Poorest. Bet Best. |Poorest. pales Best. |Poorest. Rcae Best. | Number of operators... -...-. 21 19 22 65 62 64 39 31 38 Per cent of all crop land | planted to cotton.......... 90. 8 83.9 69.8} 72.1 66.6 | 64.2 59.5 65. 8 56, 4 Per cent of all crop land planted to small grain ....| 1.8 2.6 8.9 Average number of animal | units other than work | | LO ee eee ue al 1,5 3.0 Average number of poultry | SUIMEMIL DS ocless on = oo ves > Average value in dollars | received from farm for | family living from garden, | fruit, poultry, and dairy | Opa Ol: a ee ree | 135 205 269 Average value in dollars of | groceries bought........... 355 329 278 | 279 281 | 317 286 292 296 Average value in dollars of clothing bought............ 155 182 274 255 260 293 322 330 423 Per cent of all operators who who reported sickness in | family during 1919......... 42.9 25.0 19.1; 25.8 22, 4 18. 3 26.3 | 26.7 27.0 Per cent of all operators in class that used short time SMU MAUS a2 co ccncccsrve 41 LOGS TT a eee 82 72 82 SI 53 11.7 16.1 19.0 20. 5 18.6 22. 2 aw a cs i) a o i) =a ir _ So oo > a = 493 ‘ aoe unit’”’ a9 used here is the equivalent of one horse, one cow, or 7 hogs or sheep. Poultry is nob neluded. 48 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There is little difference in the amounts spent for groceries by the different classes of accumulators, but there is a large difference in the value of food raised on the farm, the poorest cropper accumu- lators receiving an average of $135 worth of food from the farm as compared with $493 worth received by the best owner accumulators. Edibles raised on the farm apparently do not reduce family grocery bills appreciably, but they do raise the family dietary standards. The extent of this increase in dietary standards from edibles raised on the farm is not adequately shown by a comparison of values, for the most important difference is due to the quality of the food rather than to its value in dollars, and it is not at all unlikely that the lower dietary standards of the poorest accumulators cause much of the larger amount of sickness found among them and indirectly influences accumulations. (See data on health in Table 27.) The somewhat high per cent of sickness reported among all classes of owners is no doubt due to the advanced age of several operators in this tenure class. Advocates of diversification have claimed, with good reason, that increased diversification would remedy the credit situation, making it less imperative for the operator to resort to short-time credit for running expenses. The data on this point show that the proportion who used short-time credit in 1919 was greater with the poorest accumulators than with the best accumulators by 4 per cent for croppers, 22 per cent for share tenants, and 29 per cent for owners. Although these differences are not entirely attributable to differences in degree of diversification, the marked association of the greatest diversification with the least short-time credit used indicates that . diversification lessens the need for short-time credit for consumption purposes among the two poorer groups of accumulators in all tenure classes. RELATION BETWEEN THE SHIFTING OF OPERATORS FROM FARM TO FARM AND THE ACCUMULATION OF WEALTH. Tenants in the black land have little to attach them to a given farm from one year to another. Almost all farm enterprises are completed annually, the relatively unimportant enterprise of raising stock being the only one that lasts from one year to another. Even this enterprise as conducted in the black land can be transferred from one farm to another with little difficulty. Because of these condi- tions tenants move very often for little or no reason. Similarly, landlords can change tenants with practically no incon- venience or financial loss. Tenants are often asked to move without knowing in what particular they have failed, or have displeased FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 49 their landlords. As a result, the connection between landlord and tenant, as a rule, is transitory, neither party being willing to con- tinue the connection if either finds the least objection to it. The average number of years between shifts from farm to farm for share croppers, share tenants, and owners is shown in Table 28. The poorest cropper accumulators moved on an average every 2.3 years, while the longest time between shifts was 7.6 years for the best owner accumulators. The average cropper has nothing but a few household goods and his family to move, consequently he is more of a transient than the share tenant who owns his farming equip- ment. The most important thing to note in connection with frequency of moves is that the poorest accumulators in each tenure class are also the operators who have moved most frequently; and that the best accumulators have remained longest, on an average, on the farms they have operated. Although it would require a detailed study on the subject to establish the optimum number of years be- tween shifts, it can be said from the data presented in the table that most tenants move more frequently than they should for their best financial interests. Some interesting facts are brought out in connection with the reason given for each move. It will be noted that a higher per cent of all moves were for “ good economic reasons” in the case of owners than in the case of croppers and share tenants. Furthermore, in all three tenure classes the percentage of moves for good economic rea- sons was higher for the best accumulators than for the poorest accumulators. TAsLe 28.—Relation between the shifting of operators from farm to farm and the accumulation of wealth from earnings. Croppers. Tenants. Owners. F | Per cent of all shifts that ERE cial aa Tes ee =e were made because of— | poor. | Medi- | post, | Poor- | Medi- | p., | Poor- | Medi- | pac est. | um. ae est. um. sae est um . : as | 2 vs} z Number of operators......... a1 | 19 22 65 62 | 64 39 31 | 38 Good economic reasons or advance in status........-.. 45.5 | 44.4 56.7 59.6 66.7 64.7 75.7 80.0 | 84.9 Plausible social, educational, } | | or health reasons........... 4.5 4.8 9.6 | 5.6 S20u | 2s 6.4 3.5 | 5.5 Financial pressure, or per- | sonal faults of operators.... 21,2 25.4 9.6 13.3 10.9 | 7.8 | 4.3 5.9 6.9 Other reasons given which did not seem to justify a | MES Ss otc scaccdeotshede 9.1 17.5 2.4 6.9 2.0 1.3 1.4 1,2 0.0 Reasons which could not be Classified, or no reason MT lee nea op > eo Oe 19.7 7.9 21.7 14.6 12.4 14.0 12.2 9.4 ? Ba f Average number of years between shifts......... 2.3 2.24, 2.5 3.0 3.6 4.0 4.7 5.4 7.6 50 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Moves for social, educational, or health reasons are relatively few. However, it is interesting to note that the best accumulators of both tenant classes moved for these reasons in a greater per cent of all cases than is true of the poorest accumulators in each class of tenants. This indicates that the best accumulators probably think more of social, educational, and family standards than do the classes of poorest tenant accumulators. Financial pressure or personal faults of the operator caused a greater proportion of moves among the poorest accumulators than among the best of either of the tenant classes. Among owners, how- ever, the opposite situation is noted, which is possibly owing to the fact that the best owner accumulators have much more valuable farms. ‘They have probably taken heavier risks than the poorest owner accumulators have assumed and have been forced more fre- quently to move because of these risks. The data on moves for economic reasons taken in conjure with the time between moves are, in general, indicative of the degree of application of operators to the farm business. Considered thus, again it will be seen that those operators who have applied them- selves most consistently to their farm business have been able to accumulate the most wealth (see p. 45). DOMESTIC, SOCIAL, AND EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS IN RELA- TION TO TENURE. DWELLING, SIZE OF FAMILY, AND FAMILY HEALTH. Housing conditions for the different tenure classes are summarized in Table 29. The average value of the dwelling was $532 for croppers, $731 for share tenants, $1,335 for owners additional, and $1,532 for owner operators. These values were taken during the winter of 1919-20 and are somewhat higher than prewar values, although not so high as general price levels would indicate. A comparison of value alone is not likely to give an adequate idea of the difference prevailing between the housing conditions of owners and tenants. For example, the owner operator’s house has an average value nearly three times that of the cropper’s house, but the crop- per’s house has three-fourths as many rooms. Thus, the average dis- parity between the construction and repair of the two becomes more evident when considered in the light of comparative number of rooms. Not only is the average renter’s house poor and flimsy in construc- tion but it is usually kept in very poor repair. Practically all of the reports of “poor condition” are oceans to the tenant classes (see Figs. 6 and 7). FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. Pbk: Kia. 6.—Typical owner homes. Above.—tThe operator began for himself in the black land 39 years ago, with no wealth of his own; owns 381 acres of fertile black land; has accumulated from his carnings an average of $781 annually, since he began for himself; has been a farm operator all the time, moving only twice. Below.—The operator began for himself in the black land 29 years ago; owns now 153 acres of the best black land; has accumulated annually from his earnings an average of $508; has moved 5 times since be began farming. Compare yards with the tenant yards shown on following page. 52 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Hic. 7.—Typical tenant homes. Above.—The operator is a ‘‘ third and fourth share” tenant, beginning for himself in the black land 10 years ago; worked as a carpenter 3 years; has never moved since beginning to farm ; has accumulated from earnings an average of $83 per year. The land on this farm is among the most fertile in the black land. Note that crops are grown to the very door—a common situation on tenant farms in the black land. Below.—The operator, a share cropper, began for himself 24 years ago in Tennessee and farmed in that State 10 years as a cropper, moving 5 times; he has moved 8 times and has had 4 reverses in tenure during the 14 years he has been in the black land; he attained the share tenancy stage and remained in it for 1 year only. Eleven people, including a married son and wife, live in the house. The operator has lost an average of $4 per year since he began for himself 24 years ago. FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 53 It will be noted that there is no great difference in the average number of persons per room for all tenure classes. In all probabil- ity overcrowding is not the cause of much of the sickness found among these people, for the open construction of the houses would, in prac- tically all cases where crowded conditions exist, provide for plenty of fresh air. TABLE 29—Value and size of dwelling, size of family, and family health, by tenure classes. | | The dwelling and its condition. Size of family and family health. | 3 ‘Aver- uraber Teponiay con- Aver- | Num- papeneenlGea re ition of house as— | age | Num- | berre-| Per Tenure class. | aS - num- AY ‘2 | num- | berre-| port- | cent wos en ber of ae ber of | port- ing | report- of | rooms a Gemin wes ing poor ing in Le- P sons good | health | poor house. dwell- Good. | dium. Poor. | family. per | health. in health. | ing. room. | family. Share cropper....... | 9532] 3.9 16 13 Sale Gay eel 43 17| 28.3 Share tenant......-. } 731 4.3 63 53 147 5.0 1.2 147 35 19.2 Owners additional... 1,335 5.0 8 3 15 4.9 1.0 20 6 23.1 Owner operators. - - .| 1, 532 | 5.4 59 17 7 5.6 ileal 54 28 34.1 It will be noted that the percentage of reported sickness is higher for croppers than it is for tenants or owners additional. Doubtless this is due in large part to the fact that croppers lack the fresh, home- grown foods that the other classes have. Also, it is very doubtful if croppers have as much knowledge of sanitation and dietetics as - do the other tenure classes. The highest per cent of reported sick- ness is found among owners, which is probably due to the much larger proportion among this class who are of advanced age. RELATIVE STANDARD OF LIVING OF DIFFERENT TENURE CLASSES AS REFLECTED IN COST OF FAMILY LIVING. The relative standards of living of the different tenure classes is probably better indicated by the total cost of family living than by any other available figure (see Table 30). The living cost of the average cropper family was 55 per cent, and of the average share- tenants family 71 per cent of the average cost of family living for owners. In making this comparison it is well to bear in mind that ihe average size of family for the different tenure classes was ap- proximately the same. The differences in standards as indicated by these data are not shown to the fullest extent; for the quality of food, the difference in the knowledge and practice of selection, preparation, and use of articles of food make the variations in standards much wider than are here indicated, especially between croppers and the other two classes, Share tenants receive from the farm (in garden, dairy, poultry, i i and pork products) a value that is about 75 per cent as much as owners 54 BULLETIN 1068, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. thus receive, while croppers receive only 41 per cent as much value from these sources as owners. The most striking lack of these articles is, therefore, found with croppers. TABLE 30.—Average cost of all family living, and of selected items of expense, for 368 operators. Average value per family. Meat garden, Spent Spent poul- 4 or Tenure class. al All | “try, Gro- | Cloth- | F1¥€2 | recre- [tobacco family | fur- ual All once || fan to Sear and living | nished | jf; ur- 8 | church ’ | other a4 ur- ur- enter- Oe y rod- | “28sed-! chased.| chased.| 222 _| tain- | Pel penses.| farm Pe : ‘|charity.| 7° sonal ent, exe cont etc. | nenses Share croppers....-.---.----- $965 $262 $184 $704 $310 $201 $13 $11 $20 Share tenants................ 1, 243 424 338 824 296 259 22 10 20 OWMETS! saeco tne eee eee ee 1,742 575 450 1, 167 294 358 53 15 27 An interesting fact brought out in connection with the data on value of groceries purchased is that croppers, with the lowest stand- ard of living, buy the most groceries; while owners who have de- cidedly the highest standard of living, buy the smallest amount of groceries, notwithstanding the fact that they have the largest fam- ilies. The edibles from the farm for share tenants and owners sup- plement their groceries sufficiently to maintain about the same differ- ences in values of foods that are found in clothing values. The usual diet of operators who do not cultivate gardens and raise fresh meats consists almost entirely of groceries bought at local stores, few of which handle fresh vegetables and fruits. As a result, these important constituents of a well-balanced diet are often want- ing in the meals of those who do not have gardens. Furthermore, good milk is relatively hard to buy in many localities. It is the lack of these important articles of food, or their inferior quality when bought, that makes the money value of family living an inadequate measure of the difference in family living standards. The amount given to church and charity by owners is relatively large. Indeed, the difference in this regard is more marked than in any of the other items of expense. The average amounts spent for recreation and entertainment is strikingly small for all classes. Few families of any tenure class take vacations, and but few more patronize “movies,” theaters, or other entertainments that charge an admission fee. It is interesting to note in this connection that more is spent for tobacco and other personal expenses than is spent for recreation and entertainment. Picnics, fishing trips, pecan hunts, young folks’ parties and dances, and school entertainments go to make up the principal entertainments FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN TEXAS. 55 of the people. The Bohemians and people of other foreign extrac- tion get much entertainment and amusement from public dances. THE USE OF THE AUTOMOBILE, TELEPHONE, AND R. F. D. BY THE DIFFERENT TENURE CLASSES. The automobile, the telephone, and the rural free delivery have done a great deal to make life on the farm more enjoyable, and at the same time have been a source of farm profit as well. Table 31 shows the extent to which these agencies are used by the different tenure classes, TABLE 31.—Number and per cent of operators in each tenure class that have automobiles, telephones, and rural free delwery. Automobile. Telephone. Rural free delivery. Tenure status. Per cent ; Per cent Percent Number | having | Number | having | Number niin report- | automo- | report- tele- report- R.F a ing. biles. ing. phones. ing. oS ae PRONTIELONNCIGH = cn a ccibsaacosccs. je eee 17 This study is based on a farm business analysis survey of 297 farms, for the year 1912 and of 304 farms for the year 1918 in Catawba County, N. C., and on census reports for that county from 1850 to 1920, inclusive. (Table 1.) The facts brought out, though strictly applicable only to the area surveyed, should offer valuable sug- gestions to all farmers throughout the lower Piedmont region. The objects of this study were: 1. To ascertain the type of farming followed and the profits realized in a long-established agricultural community of the southern Piedmont country. 2. To determine the importance of such factors as the size and the quality of the farm business as they affect the economic organ- ization of farms. 3. To bring out the farm practices that enable some farmers to excel others in single enterprises or in the entire farm organization. 4. To note changes that have taken place in the type of farming during the six-year period. 5. To determine the change that has taken place in crop yields, prices received for products, quantities of the several products available for sale, and expenses of operating the farm business, and, so far as practicable, their effect upon the farm profits of the area. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. The more important facts brought out by this study may be sum- marized as follows: Type of farming.General crop farming with live stock. $2201 — 22 J 2 BULLETIN 1070, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Size of farm.—In 1912 the 297 farms studied averaged 121 acres in size, 57 per cent of the land being tillable. In 1918 the 304 farms studied averaged 111.5 acres in size, 58 per cent of the land being tillable. Most of the untillable land was in woods or in pasture. In 1912 the average value of real estate was $45 per acre and in 1918 it was $66. : Capital rnvested.—The average capital invested in the farms in 1912 was $6,530, and in 1918 it was $8,858. About 83 per cent of this represented real estate. In 1912 a working capital of $1,070 and in 1918 of $1,461 was required to operate the average farm. Income.—¥or the year 1912 the average labor income was $86 and for 1918 it was $542. For the year 1912 the average family income was $546 and for 1918 it was $1,166. This includes money paid on debts, but not the value of food products, fuel, and use of house furnished by the farm, which in 1912 averaged $328 per farm and in 1918, $573. In 1912 for all farms of 30 crop acres or under the average amount of the family income was $260, and in 1918, $611; for the farms of over 70 crop acres the family income in 1912 averaged $1,144 and in 1918 $2,225. : Receipts.—About two-thirds of all receipts were from crops. Cot- ton, cattle, sweet potatoes, and wheat were the four leading sources of income. The leading cash crop was cotton, returns from that crop repre-_ senting about two-fifths of all receipts. TaBLE 1.—Census data showing changes in the agriculture of Catawba County, N. C., since 1850. Item. 1850 1860 | 1870 1880 1890 | 1900 1910 1920 | Number offarms.....|........-- 1,078 698 | 1,725 2,119 | — 2,647 | 3, 199 2, 916 Landin farms, acreS.-| 221,653 | 221,615 | 127,954 | 219,673 | 237,734 | 239,824 | 241, 037 217, 463 Improved land in | : farms, acreS--.---.- 64, 439 67,833 | 39, 203 78,080 | 101,193 | 116,379 | 125,564 113, 685 Improved land per farm (Aches) seeseee |= eee 62.9 56.3 44,4 47.8 44.0 39. 2 39 Value of realestate. ..| $812, 535 |$1,715,639 | $607, 424 |$1,723,438 |$2,814,560 $2,758,590 |$7,324,304 |$10,885,426 Value of machinery..| 118, 115 85, 611 37, 387 86,140 | 124,560 | 168,680 | 326, 497 734, 346 Value of livestock. ..| 221,877 | 386,207 | 152,563 | 241,219 | 322,710 | 375,660 | 763,276 | 1, 250, O17 Value of real estate, machinery, and live Stock. ..-.-..-- 1, 152, 527 |2, 187,457 | 797,374 |2, 050, 797 |3, 261, 830 |3, 302,930 |8, 414,077 |12, 869, 789 Milk cows.......----- 2, 581 2,752 | 1, 458 2) 871 3, 042 3, 379 4, 891 4, 955 Other cattle. .. 3, 582 Soo fa. Oh ileks 3, 835 4,011 3, 979 4,218 3, 575 Swine........ El pea oasoiellies ii7agoR 6,768 | 10,594 | 10,239 8, 067 7, 187 8, 812 Sheep... osu Meany ie 6, 280 6, 146 4,644) 6,299 3,961 1, 584 359 184 Butter produced, Ibs.| 73,337 | 82,769 | 29,679 | 120,784 | 246,025 | 379,515 | 633,739 | 523, 782 Cheese produced, Ibs.) 1, 141 63 100 1, 338 425 191 356 280 Maliceproduced seals). |. Oreo eee oa ete ae cee heam 1, 080, 297 |1, 824, 658 |1, 365, 390 | 1, 711, 616 Heaps produvedsdoz.2|-2 = -gacs|scmee Munich ees 159,206 | 187,189 | 337,680 | 466,146 | ” 467, 665 Corn, bushels......-- 355,185 | 403,213 | 142,876 | 358,210 | 317,544 | 389,280] 448,855 | 401, 433 Wheat, bushels... -.- 52,190 | 91,702 | 34,746 | 104,770 | 163,977 | 274,740 | 135,756 | 160, 182 Oats, bushels........- 65,674 | 23,799 | 41,553 | 64,236 | 71,875| 31,970 | 87,185 93, 478 Rye, bushels........- 5,263 717 1,917 783 1, 204 590 7, 394 6, 980 Cotton, bales......--- 652 138 18 2, 012 2,412 4,018 6, 344 7,311 iciay, tons) eee oe: 2, 925 1, 871 3 1, 137 2,504 7, 733 7, 679 16, 417 Sweet potatoes, bush.| 21,215 | 27, 661 5,177 | 19,325 | 42,447| 49,924] 195,679 | 189,938 Irish potatoes, bush..| 10, 606 9, 701 4,540 | 12,687 | 22,520 4,531 | 20,541 17, 619 Sorghum sirup, gals. 0 9, 747 7,082 | 28,884 | 28,340] 17,098] 21,243 16, 178 Tobacco, lbs....-.--- 6, 036 9, 308 25 | 26,380] 16, 400 8, 600 638 9, 930 FARM MANAGEMENT IN CATAWBA COUNTY, N. OC. 3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF AREA. Catawba County, N. C., is near the center of the western or more: elevated half of the Piedmont region of the State. Newton, at the eenter of the area surveyed, is about 150 miles west of Raleigh and about 75 miles east of Asheville. The surface of the region is rolling, the elevation varying from about 700 feet to about 1,100 feet (fig. 1). A fringe of rich bottom lands, varying in width from only a few rods to a half mile, borders the important streams. When properly drained these lands produce large yields of corn, small grains, and grasses, and where the elevation is sufficient they make good yields of cotton. Between the bottom lands and the uplands are a series 1 ASUS! IRD SIE EE aE Neca ND wu ann NizanS SE ey CC Rea ee ae anne i Lt SY) RES OL eae a V, Fic. 1.—Map showing location of area studied. of slopes. When erosion is prevented by deep plowing and careful terracing, these slopes produce good yields. The steeper slopes in many places have become so eroded that their cultivation is difficult and unprofitable. The uplands, which constitute by far the greater part of the area surveyed, are more or less rolling, free from steep slopes and_ bluff formations, and show but few outcropping ledges and bowlders. Modern farm machinery can be used to advantage over nearly all these lands. All crops common to the central Piedmont region of the South are grown more or less extensively and successfully. Most of the better class of farm homes are located on these lands (figs. 2, 3, and 4). The climate, fairly mild and equable, is suitable for the crowing of a large variety of farm crops. Extremes of temperature are almost 4 BULLETIN 1070, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - Fic. 2.—Topography of Catawba County uplands of the better class. Fic. 3.—Wheat on uplands of the better class. FARM MANAGEMENT IN CATAWBA COUNTY, N. Gc. 5 unknown here. The temperature seldom goes as high as 100° F. or as low as zero. The elevation, rolling topography, good surface drainage, and abundance of spring and well water, together with the mild and in- vigorating climate, give this area many advantages as a place of residence. TYPE OF FARMING AND ANALYSIS OF FARM BUSINESS. The farmers of this section practice a general or mixed type of crop farming, about two-thirds of all receipts being from crops. In acreage the leading crops are wheat, corn, and cotton. About 38 per cent of the farm receipts in 1918 were from cotton. Fic. 4.—Farmstead of the better type. Measured by the receipts derived from various enterprises, the type of agriculture during the very earliest period was live stock, which changed early in theenineteenth century to grain, with live stock as secondary. This continued up to about 1880. At that time cotton became the dominating factor in the type of farming, which position it still holds. As much grain is grown now as at any time in the history of the county, but cotton has made large gains, while the other enterprises have very little more than remained stationary. The meat-producing branches of live-stock farming lave been losing in importance for more than 70 years. Catawba County is frequently referred to as a dairy county, though very few farmers receive sufficient income from dairy products to warrant their being 6 BULLETIN 1070, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. classified as dairy farmers. In 1912, 10 per cent of the receipts were from dairy products, and in 1918, 9 per cent. In Table 2 is given a summary of the farm business of 297 farms for 1912 and 304 farms for 1918. It shows comparisons of the size of farm, crop area, amount of labor, work stock, capital, receipts, expenses, and profits for each sized group for the two years. TABLE 2.—Summary of the farm business of 297 farms for 1912 and 304 farms for 1918, Catawba County, N. C. NOT 2s 1918 Item. 30 crop! 30.1 | 50.1 | Over 30 crop} 30.1 | 50.1 | Over acres | to 50 | to 70| 70 All | acres | to 50 | to 70; 70 All or crop | crop | crop |farms.| or crop | crop | crop | farms. = under.| acres. | acres. | acres. under.| acres. | acres. | acres. 4 | | | a Namber\ot farmseseee-s--2==-|. > 73] > 112. - 62/5 50) a7 75} 125) 60, = 44) 304 lee Farm area, acres..-.._;........| 58.5! 90. 8) 138.5! 265.8! 121.1) 53.0! 91.2} 129.2! 24478) 191.5 Crop area, acres..........._.-- -| 22.6) 40.1) 60.0! 105.0) 50:8] 22.8) 39.1) 58.5} 101.6) ©47.9 Months of labor..__-...........| 15.9) 19.3] 22.8] 38.2} 22.4] - 15.0) 18.7) 24.2) 36.0] 21:4 Number of work stock.....___- | 1.5 28} 3.3 4.8) IG ile 7 2.3 3.0 4.5 2.6 Capital ss s5. 5 Seen case | $2,855) $5,076) $7,507|\$13, 942. $6,530) $4,194) $6, 906 $10, 525|$20,077| $8, 858 Receipts... -------------| 404) 702/996 2,067; 919] 841) 1,354) 2,056] 3,839] 1, 726 BEGUM, each cecescessoosee | 220; 395/ 543) 1,130 506] 313; 538| 869] 1,873| 741 MBSE hake oTINe Yo ake oso 184, 307} - 453} 937! 413/ 528) 816) 1,187) 1,966] 985 Interest on capital at 5 per cent. 143 255) 375) 697 326 210} 345) 526} 1,004 443 Wabor income: esa 41 52; 78, 240) =~ 87| Ss 318} = 471/661] ~ 962} «42 Value of farmer’s labor..._.__- 230 269 268 271| 260 360) 418 448 470 417 Return on capital.........._.. —2.0%| 0.7%] 2.4%) 4.8%] 1.1%| 3.9%! 6.2%| 7.2% 7.0%| 6.0% Harmin comes pees eens $184| $307) $453) $937) $413] $528) $816! $1,187| $1,966) $985 Value of unpaid family labor. - 76 129 148) 207 133 83 177) 256 259 181 Family income...............- 260, 436] 601) 1,144) 546] 611] ~—«4993|_1,443| 2,225] 1, 166 Family living supplied directly | | : Dyeiarin.= 25) Gee ee 244 313 a 428) 328 ey 551 677 730 573 The farm income, which is the difference between total receipts and total expenses, averaged $413 for all farms in 1912 and $985 for 1918; that is, the farm income was 140 per cent greater in 1918 than in 1912. Farm income is a good indication of the size of business and of the prosperity of the groups of farms studied. It shows the in- crease that occurred.in the earning power of farms as a result of in- creased prices of farm products. Considering the great drop that has since occurred in prices for agricultuzal products and the relatively smaller decrease in the prices of supplies the farmer requires, it is probable that the farmer’s income for 1920 and 1921 was less than for 1912. . The family income, which is a good measure of the purchasing power of the farmer, was about double in 1918 what it was in 1912. It is likely that 1918 was a year as favorable from the standpoint of income as the farmer may expect in the near future. The labor income, which represents the amount of money the far- mer received for his year’s labor after paying all farm expenses, in- cluding as expenses the value of labor performed by his family, and FARM MANAGEMENT IN CATAWBA COUNTY, N. Cc. ff allowing 5 per cent interest on the capital invested averaged $87 per farm for 1912 and $542 per farm for 1918. In addition to this labor income the farmers received house rent and what the farm furnished toward the family living. In 1918 this aver- aged $573 per farm. These figures were not obtained direct for 1912, but were calculated by applying 1912 prices to the quantities used in 1918. In 1912 this form of income averaged $328 per farm. DISTRIBUTION OF FARM AREA. The farm area for the 297 farms surveyed in 1912 averaged 121.1 acres per farm, and for the 304 farms surveyed in 1918 it averaged 111.5 acres per farm, or 9.6 acres less per farm (Table 3). TABLE 3.—Distribution of farm area on 297 farms for 1912 and 304 farms for 1918, Catawba County, N. C. 1912. 1918 Item. 30 crop) 30.1 | 50.1 | Over 30 crop} 30.1 | 50.1 | Over acres | to 50} to 70| 70 All | acres | to 50] to 70] 70 All or crop | crop | crop |farms.} or | crop | crop | crop | farms. under.| acres. | acres. | acres. under.| acres. | acres. | acres. Number of farms. .......-...-- 73 112 62 50 297 75 125 60 | 44 304 RCS PEP AATT s -<).o= cheese 53.5 | 90.8 | 138.5 | 265.8 | 121.1 | 53.0) 91.2 | 129.2 | 244.8) 111.5 MAINE ATCT nono: o.. 2 sapere 30.2 50.5 81.9 | 153.5 69.4 30.5 Dosh 75.3 | 1386.5 64.0 DEGDALCA So =e . >. - kau 22.6; 40.1 60.0 | 105.0 50.8 22.8 39.1 58.5 | 101.6 47.9 Acres rented out......-..- BS) eee saa (eee aa otf 2 Sit Nas cote 8] 2.5 1.1 Tillable pasture........... Sey Greet On e25a0 9.8 3p il 6.9 8.8 | 21.8 8.5 iaipanid=s->>....°. ies: AIO eros gn LOS a2258 8.6 3.9 6.3 We2) | LORS 6.5 Untillable pasture............- Dolo G2 50959) |S O56 8.5 4.4 8.6 | 12.7) 21.7 10.3 Woodland, pastured.......... Ou beerosce: 6.5 | 12.4 5.0 2.9 5.6 9.7 | 1b:4 7h WROOGISNG os 2 225... mabe 16.0 | 26.9 37.5 73.1 34.2 15.0 25.9 36.4 75.4 32.4 VE CUTE Ss a a ee 4.2 | Th? 9.2] 19.6 9.0 34 i 3.6 4.8 | 11.2 4.8 The crop area per farm averaged 42 per cent of the total farm area in 1912 and 43 percent in 1918. In 1912, 12.4 per cent of the acreage of tillable land was lying idle or ‘“‘resting,’’ while in 1918 this ares had been reduced to 10.1 per cent. “ Resting land” has long been a practice throughout the South. With low-priced land the practice doubtless has been justified, but as values increase the interest on idle land becomes so great as to make the resting of land to restore its fertility no longer profitable. Table 4 shows the distribution of capital on the farms in 1912 and in 1918. Both years about four-fifths of the capital on the farms was in real estate. In 1912 the value of real estate was $45 per acre and in 1918 $66, or 47 per cent higher. This increase was principally due to the general increase in land values that occurred through this region rather than to improvements on the farm. 8. BULLETIN 1070, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 4.—Distribution of capital on 297 farms for 1912 and 304 farms for 1918, Catawba County, N.C 1912 1918 l Item. 30 crop} 30.1 | 50.1 | Over 30crop) 30-1 | 50.1 | Over acres | to 50 | to 70} 70 All | acres | to 50 | to 70] 70 All or crop | crop | crop |farms.) or | crop | crop | crop | farms. under.| acres. | acres. | acres. Gace acres. | acres. | acres. = ee | : : Number offarms........._.. Be 73 112 62 50 297 75) 125 60 44 304 INVER CHM Se 5asesascoss $2, 855) $5, 076) $7, 507/$13, 942) $6, 530) $4,194) $6, 906 $10, 525|$20, 077) $8, 858 Mand. 35 aeeeee sear ode 1,749| 3,189] 5,096) 9,723) 4,332] 2,477) 4,462| 6,910] 14,579) 5,919 Dwellingsseee mashes aN 504 704 788 ils 126 743 697; 930) 1,174) 1,301 975 Other buildings.........-. 158 305 414 ‘851 385 250; 390 644; 1,062 503 Total real estate........- 2,411, 4,198) 6,298) 11, 700 5,460| 3,424) 5,782] 8,728] 16,942] 7,397 Tie stock4 eee ae oe | 254/ 508] 706| 1,334 626| 383) 564) 940/ 1,634) 748 Ma chineny2. seer speseee cease 93 188 278 436 225 170; 248 372 594 303 aces and supplies.....-...-.-- 77 150 188 407 183 174) 258 427 760 344 Cash a. oi Seeeecceseocceen 20 32 37 65 36 43| 54 58 147 66 Total working capital - . -| 444 878} 1,209) 2,242) 1,070 770) 1,124' 1,797) 3,135) 1,461 Valuereal estate per acre.....-- |S 45[ | a5 | aa Sas es | esos Co eee | Table 5 shows the sources of receipts on the farms in 1912 and in 1918, and figure 4 shows the distribution of the principal receipts by crop area groups for 1912 and 1918. TABLE 5.—Sources of receipts on 297 farms for 1912 and 304 farms for 1918, Catawba County, N. C. 1912 1918 Item. 30 crop) 30.1 | 50.1 | Over 30 crop| 30.1 | 50.1 | Over acres | to 50 | to 70 70 All | acres | to 50 | to 70 70 All or | crop | crop | crop |farms.| or crop | crop | crop | farms. under.) acres. | acres. | acres. under.| acres. | acres. | acres. | INUimberoifanmisha sss. -pesree 73 112 | 62 50 297 75 125 60 44 304 Receipts, wtaleees=-- 2225) $404 | $702 | $996 |$2,067| $919 | $841 |$1,354 [$2,056 |$3,839 | $1,726 Cotton Uieeter sess eae 141 | 238] 342| 767| 325 | 285] 532) 673 | 1,269 606 Cotton'seedeer= a> == eee 3 47 13 27 46 57 150 59 Sweet potatoes..........-- 35 64 63 95 62 102 165 249 176 167 Wheat Wes oss sa srs Se 15 44 67 239 75 28 68 145 535 | 141 Corn tae re sei oe en 21 28 50 98 42 40 82 71 302 101 Othenicropssese pees eee 47 39 102 125 69 71 96 138 246 120 A CRODSEeeese eee eeeee 262 421 632 | 1,371 586 553 989 | 1,333 | 2,678) 1,194 Dairy products.........--- 33 80 85 186 87 87 100 189 348 150 Cattle eee Sees See 11 38 45 95 43 20 38 125 386 101 Poultice aces aaa 29 48 59 50 46 56 65 82 119 74 TL Og Stee eS URS oe 15 17 75 21 13 44 62 128 52 All other stock and bees... 3 1 1 15 3 0 1 O) Ee eee 0 Horses and colts.. : 6 16 19 35 17 1 3 Bilosssece 4 All'stockeysas 2 55530 s2| 198] 226| 456] 217| 177| 251) 467) 981) 381 Woodland products. -.-...-- 8 19 30 100 32 13 ile 59 20 25 Increase feed and supplies. 8 17 38 85 31 24 38 81 63 47 Miscellaneous. -...--.--.-.- 43 47 70 55 53 74 59 116 97 79 In 1912 the average receipts per farm were $919 and in 1918 $1,726. In 1912, 64 per cent of all the receipts were from crops, 24 per cent FARM MANAGEMENT IN CATAWBA COUNTY, N. Cc. 9 from stock, 3 per cent from woodland products, 3 per cent from increase in inventory of feed, and 6 per cent from miscellaneous sources, consisting principally of labor. In 1918, 69 per cent of the receipts were from crops, 22 per cent from stock, 1 per cent from woodland products, 3 per cent from increase in inventory of feed, and 5 per cent from miscellaneous sources. Jn 1912, 37 per cent of the farm receipts were from cotton and cotton seed, while in 1918, 39 per cent of the receipts were from this crop (Table 5). The amount of cotton sold, however, averaged 2,833 pounds per farm in 1912, while in 1918 it was 2,113 pounds (Table 6). In 1912, 7 per cent and in 1918, 10 per cent of the receipts were from sweet potatoes. On an average 103 bushels were sold per farm in 1912 and 113 bushels in 1918. DISTRIBUTION OF CROP AREA. Table 6 shows the distribution of the crop area, yields, amounts sold, and selling prices of farm products on the farms for 1912 and 1918. TABLE 6.—Distribution of crop area, yields, amount sold, and selling prices of farm products on 297 farms for 1912 and 304 farms for 1918, Catawba County, N.C. 1912 | 1918 Item. 30crop 30-1 | 50.1 | Over 30crop) 30.1 | 50.1 | Over acres | to 50 | to 70 70 All | acres | to 50 | to 70 70 All | or | crop | crop | crop |farms.| or crop | crop | crop |farms. | under. acres. | acres. | acres. pander: acres. | acres. | acres. | | Number offarms............-. (Bel eh) 62 50)|) 29711 75\|, 125 60| 44 304 Crop ares, total. .........222-- 22.6 | 40.1 | 60.0} 105.0] 50.8| 22.8) 39.1] 58.5 | 101.6 47.9 WMGAbe. 2-2. --.-- ae Je SED 974 | 1327 |) 25.7 |, 1220 5.8) |) 1052), 14.9] 3106 13. 2 Otiioe he ccc... 3. ee Toth, Ses} 15.8} 26.8 14.1 7.4 LOND eal 7. 25. 2 12.7 Poon. ooo... --- sae AMT srelal LOFSulena0sa 9.4 3.6 6.3 82] 14.4 7.2 ee ts cn no» S74 ate ait 1.3 2.0 th i nist 1.2 1.9 Rb) 1.4 DE ee eS A ARON) 2a 4.7 8.1 3.6 ON yo Wars 2.5 2.2 1.4 Sweet potatoes...........- .8 1.0 1.2 1.6 ul etal fe Neneh? | 1.2 Soy bean and cow peahay. 53 1.0 2 3.0 MOM Melson) a4: 4.5 4.7 | 2.9 LE a AY AC 4.1 1.9 oti = ale 1.6 1.8 | 1.2 Red clover hay............ a2 1.1 1.5 2.8 2 oll ail 15) 80 1.9 Meadow hay........-...-- 6 | a) 2.6 3.6 1.7/5 Bil .4 .8 | 6 4 All other crops............ 16] 2.8 4.8 7.2 3.7 PAD 653 6.2; 88 4.4 Second orintertilledcrops.; 1.8) 4.2 3.9 8.3 4,2 3.6] 4.6 3.8) 13.2 64 Yield per acre of— REID tase vos enna 2 bu.. 10 11 | 11 13 11 | 8 8 9 11 9 “ih es SE ee bu.. 22 23 23 25 23 | 23 24 23 26 24 4) a ee lbs.. 270 295 277 328 301 266 293 | 286 310 | 293 Sf RE ee See bu. .! 5 7 7 | 7 7 | 5 5 | 5 6 5 NE 2 eee bu.. 19 19 17 | 21 20 15 16 | 17 20 17 Sweet potatoes....... bu.. 128 166 139 | 162 152 1389 | 142) 141 151 142 Amount sold— | NUMLONGs den ahun ices oo» bu.. 14 40 61 | 213 67 | 12 29 60 | 229 60 Seis ue oon alan bu..| 24 35 60 | 118 51| 26 54] 47] 207 67 OORIINS sat tletaia a. Ibs.) 1,261 | 2,108 | 2,976 | 6,575 | 2, 833 965 | 1,853 | 2,355 | 4,470] 2,113 Cotton seed.......... bu... 12 24 | 25 142 41 26 45 55 l M4 57 Sweet potatoes....... bu... 56 106 100 | 169 103 69 114 162 117 113 Selling price of— | t CAN Eta waa se ob ebb’ Ib$../$0. 112 ($0. 113 |$0. 115 '$0.117 '$0.115 |$0. 206 '$0. 287 |$0. 286 |30. 283 $0. 287 Cotton seed.......... bu..| .29 , 32 32 33 .38 | 1.08 103 | 1.03 1, O4 1. 03 Sweet potatoes.......bu..| .62 61 | .68 | .56 -60 |} 1.46 | 1,45 | 1.54 1, 50 1, 48 OL SL aa See bu...) 1.13 1,10 110 | 1.12 1,11 2. 35 2,34 | 2.39 1, 33 2. a) C/E oe eee bu..| .89 . 51 -83 | .83 -83 | 1,52 | 1.53 | 1.51 | 1.46 1, 50 | | | 92301—22 Z 10 BULLETIN 1070, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In 1912, 24 per cent of the crop area was in wheat and in 1918, 28 per cent. This increase in area devoted to wheat in 1918 was largely owing to the demand for wheat that existed at that time and because the Government appealed to the patriotism of the farmers in urging them to grow more wheat. The yield of wheat was low. In 1912 it averaged 11 bushels per acre and in 1918 only 9 bushels. One would expect that where the yields of wheat per acre were low wheat would be less profitable than some other crops yielding a greater money return per acre. Table 7 shows the relation between the acreage of wheat, total receipts, and farm and labor income on 297 farms for 1912 and 304 farms for 1918. It will be seen that, in general, income declines as wheat acreage increases. Where less than 10 per cent of the crop acreage goes into wheat a poor yield will not cut down the farm income very much, but where much over 10 per cent of the crop acreage is in wheat it is important to make an effort to increase the yield. TaBLE 7.—Relation between per cent of total crop land in wheat and total receipts, farm income, and labor income on 297 farms for 1912 and 304 farms for 1918, Catawba County, EAG: N Per cent of crop acres in wheat. ql 1912. | 1918. Item. : : met a 10 per} 10.1 | 20.1 | 30.1 | Over | 10 per | 10.1 | 20.1 | 30.1 | Over cent {| to to to 40 All | cent | to to to 40 All and /|20 per|30 per'40 per per farms.| and | 20 per|30per|40 per! per | farms. less. | cent.| cent. cent.) cent. | less. | cent. ; cent. | cent. | cent. Number oi farms... 30 82} 117 SHE = ale 297 | 12 | 73 119 68 | 30 304 Crop area, acres...-) 45.2 | 51.5 | 48.8 | 55.4 | 52.4) 50.8 30.1 | 45.6 | 46.6] 49.0) 63.7 47.9 Acres in wheat... -- | 1.7) 8.4] 12.1 | 19.1 |-24.4) 120) 1.2 | 7.5 | 11.6] 16.8 | 30.0 13.2 Total receipts. .....|$1,446 | $967 | $858 | $917 | $885 | $919 $1,302 $1,854 |$1,766 [$1,658 |$1,873 | $1,726 Receipts from 7|) 42 64 | 142.| 219 | 75 | 4 | 50 103 184 468 141 wheat. | | Farm income..-..--- 583 440 | 356 407 | 402 413 | 7 1,059 | 1,033 859 969 985 Labor income..----- 196 | 134 61 44 | —29 | 86 482 635 | 601 431-346 542 To show the effect of increased yields of wheat on income, all farms that had over 30 per cent of their crop acreage in wheat were grouped into two groups; the first group consisted of all farms on which the yield of wheat was below the average, the second group of those with yield above the average. In 1912 the average acreage of wheat per farm for-these groups was 20.4 acres. There were 39 of these farms with an average yield of 8.6 bushels per acre. Their farm income was $260 and labor income was a minus $69. There were 29 farms with an average yield of 14.6 bushels per acre which had an average farm income of $601 and an average labor income of $153. In 1918 the average acreage of wheat per farm for these groups was 20.8 acres. The 62 farmers having over 30 per cent of their crop acreage in wheat, but with yields averaging 6.5 bushels per acre, FARM MANAGEMENT IN CATAWBA COUNTY, N. C. tal: had average farm incomes of $710 and labor incomes of $301, while the 36 farmers who had a yield of wheat averaging 11.9 bushels per acre had an average farm income of $1,207 and an average labor income of $585. In spite of the fact that the low yield, the topography, and the type of farming followed make the cost of raising wheat high and its production therefore relatively less profitable than that of some other crops, farmers grow wheat here because they do not like to buy flour for bread and do not think it is a mark of good farming to do so. Moreover, the presence of local flour mills makes it easy to have their wheat ground. A small acreage of wheat does not materially interfere with other crops. It fits well into the rotation and is a good nurse crop for clover. Wheat sells at a higher price here than in the wheat belt, and a little wheat to sellin the summer brings in ready cash when it is needed most. The wheat crop is thus the medium through which important steps in raising the cotton crop are financed. The corn crop occupied 28 per cent of the crop area in 1912 and 26 per cent of the area in 1918. The average yield per acre was 23 bushels in 1912 and 24 bushels in 1918. In both years in which the study was made there was only one farm that did not grow corn. The acreage of corn which the farmer should grow is a question that arises annually. Table 8, showing the relation between the acreage of corn and the farm and labor income on 297 farms for 1912 and 304 farms for 1918, may help to solve the question. TaBLe 8.—Relation between per cent of total crop land in corn, and total receipts, farm income, and labor income on 297 farms for 1912 and 304 farms for 1918, Catawba County, N.C. Per cent of crop area in corn. 1912. 2 1918. Item. ——— = a i Se 10 per, 10.1 | 20.1 | 30.1 | Over 10 per! 10.1 20.1 30.1 | Over cent| to to to | 40 All | cent | to to to 40 All and | 20 per 30 per/40 per, per |farms.| and |20per)30per|40 per) per | farms. less. | cent. | cent.| cent. | cent. less. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. Number of farms... 5 | 56 111 86 39 297 5 | 61 123 84 31 304 Crop area.......-.- 40.1} 61.3 | 53.7 | 47.1 | 37.4) 50.8] 38.0) 59.9] 49.2] 42.4 16.8 47.9 Acresin corn.......| 4.6 9.8 | 13.3 | 16.2 | 18.0) 14.1 2.8 Oa") 128 14.5). lee 12.7 Total receipts......| $687 |$1,333 | $937 | $860 | $740 $919 |$1, 441 |$2, 332 |$1, 733 |$1,615 |$1, 146 | $1,726 Receipts from corn. 16 13 40) 52 72 | 42 4 | 58 80 134 195 101 Farm income...... 306 573 | 394| 379| 328 413 906 | 1, 292 972 902 665 | 985 Labor income...... 62 134 56 123 | 278 87 375 | 726 545 192 $26 542 | | Disregarding the first groups of farms, both in 1912 and in 1918, since there are only five farms in each, too small a number to make the conclusions very reliable, it will be seen that for both years the farmers making the highest farm incomes were those growing the smallest acreages of corn. pi BULLETIN 1070, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To show the effect of increased yields of corn per acre on farm prof- its, only farmers with over 30 per cent of their crop acreage in corn were selected. Of course other factors besides the yield of corn influenced the profits on these farms, but where so great a propor- tion of the crop acreage was in corn the yield of that crop was bound to have considerable weight. In 1912 farmers who got a yield of only 16 bushels of corn per acre made an average labor income of $48, while those with a yield of 30 bushels per acre got an average labor income of $175. It will be remembered that the average labor income of all farms in 1912 was $87. In 1918 the farmers who got less than an average yield a Fig. 5.—Catawba County cotton field. Cotton is the main money crop of this area. of corn got an average labor income of $337, while those with an average yield of 31 bushels of corn per acre got an average labor income of $633. In 1918 the average labor income of all farms was $542. Among factors favorable to the growing of corn may be cited the fact that it is an excellent feed for farm stock; that any surplus has a ready market at good prices jn this region; and that on lowlands very large yields per acre are possible. Among the unfavorable factors are the fact that it competes with cotton and sweet potatoes - for labor; that the yield is generally low, in 1912 averaging 23 bushels per acre, and in 1918 24 bushels; and that. weevils often causes con- | siderable damage. — FARM MANAGEMENT IN CATAWBA COUNTY, N. Cc. 13 The cotton crop occupied 19 per cent of the crop area in 1912 and 15 per cent of the area in 1918. The average yield per acre was 0.6 bale (301 pounds) in 1912 and 0.59 bale (293 pounds) in 1918. In 1912 and 1918, 18 farmers raised no cotton. With the exception of sweet potatoes, cotton returns higher receipts per acre than any other crop that is extensively grown in this area. As has been pointed out in the preceding pages, from the standpoint of receipts, cotton is the leading enterprise. Table 1 (page 2) shows the in- creasing importance of the cotton crop in this county since 1850 (see fig. 5). In 1912, with cotton selling at 11.5 cents per pound, the study indicated that from 20 to 40 per cent of the crop land planted to cotton gave the highest farm and labor income. That year 37 per cent of all the farms came in that group. In 1918, with cotton selling at 28.7 cents per pound, the farmers who had 10 to 30 per cent of their crop land in cotton got the highest incomes. That year 63 per cent of all the farms came in that group. Table 9 shows very strikingly the effect of high yields on income: For example, in 1912 the farms had an average of 22.1 acres of cotton per farm, but with a yield below the average made an average labor income of $74, while the small farms that had an average of 9.1 acres . per farm, but with a yield above the average, made an average labor income of $189 per farm. The farmers who had the largest acreage in cotton and the highest yields per acre made an average labor income of $683. TABLE 9.—Effect of increased yields of cotton per acre on farm income and labor income on 120 farms for 1912 and 84 farms for 1918 with over 20 per cent of their crop acreage in cotton, Catawba County, N. C. 1912 1918 Yield 0f301 pounds| Yield of over 301 | Yield 0f 293 pounds| Yield of over 293 Wes or less per acre. pounds per acre. or less per acre. pounds per acre. | ee ma a { : " 50.8 erop | Over 50.8| 50.8 crop | Over 50.8] 47.9 crop | Over 47.9| 47.9 crop | Over 47.9 acres or | crop acres or crop acres or | crop acres or crop less. | acres. less. acres. less. | acres. less. acres. | | : a PRE AS fe ot (is = e ae Number of farms. . .. mm |) 6 28 14 39 Ui | 9422 12 Average acres in | 1 ee ae 9.7} 22, 1 9.1 27.9 | 9.1 20,2 | 7.9 19,4 Average yield per | | Tes wcnee pounds.. 238 =| 242 369 396 232 225 | 374 361 Farm income. .....-- $214 | $451 $388 | $1,423 $727. | $1,266 | $1,106 | $2,076 Labor income........ ae" 74 | 189 683 466 647 | 744 1,488 | | In 1918 the farms that had an average of 20.2 acres of cotton per farm, but with a yield below the average, made an average labor income of $647, while the small farms that had only 7.9 acres of cotton per farm, but with a yield above the average, made a labor income of $744. The 12 farmers averaging 19.4 acres of cotton per 14 BULLETIN 1070, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. farm, but with a yield above the average, made an average labor income of $1,488, which is over twice as large as the average of the group of farms with 20.2 acres of cotton per farm but with a yield below the average. Table 9 shows that the maximum profits, both in 1912 and in 1918, were made by the farmer who had an acreage of cotton above the average and yielding above the average. The sweet potato crop occupied 2 per cent of the crop area in 1912 and 2.5 per cent of the crop area in 1918. As shown in Table 5, 7 per cent of the receipts were from sweet potatoes in 1912 and 10 per cent in 1918. The amount sold per farm averaged 103 bushels im 1912 and 113 bushels in 1918. In 1912 the average price received per bushel was 60 cents and in 1918 it was $1.48. More farmers raised sweet potatoes in 1918 than in 1912. In 1912 31 per cent of the farmers did not raise sweet potatoes, while only 22 per cent did not raise them in 1918. The number of farmers depending upon sweet potatoes as a source of cash receipts is in- creasing. In 1912 169 farmers, or 57 per cent of the total, reported sales of sweet potatoes, and in 1918 195 farmers out of 304, or 64 per cent, reported receipts from sweet potatoes. TABLE 10.—Relation between yield per acre of sweet potatoes and farm income and labor income on farms having over 5 per cent of their crop acreage in sweet potatoes—47 farms for 1912 and 59 farms for 1918, Catawba County, N. C. 1912 | 1918 Item. 1152 bush- | Over 152 | 142 bush-| Over 142 els orless| bushels |els orless| bushels per acre. | per acre. | per acre. | per acre. INUM DED Oftarmiser eee ee eae cea eee eS ee SL "| 16 25 34 Average acreage in sweet potatoes...........-..------.--------- 3.6 3.4 | 3.4 Mie eetee (AVerare yield Mears. aoe serrata tee casa bushels. . 113 204 | 108 177 Warman comebep ss 2 ccc cat ane Hea Sate eco: ee ee $327 $488 | $829 $1, 166 Taborincomemsmrec sss sce eer eeee ao tek serene eee 48 6 | 467 In 1912 the farmers who secured an average yield of 113 bushels per acre made an average labor income of $48, while those who averaged 204 bushels per acre made a labor income of $162 (Table 10). In 1918 farmers who secured an average yield of 108 bushels per acre made labor incomes of $467, while those who averaged 177 bushels per acre made an average labor income of $801 per farm. Of course, not all this difference in income can be directly attributed to difference in yield of sweet potatoes, but certainly some of it can. Some important factors that are favorable for raising sweet potatoes in this region are a climate and soil well adapted to the crop so that good yields are the rule, successful cooperative marketing associations, and a community of farmers who are experienced in raising the crop. The unfavorable factors are those common to nearly all sweet potato growing areas, namely, plant diseases, diffi- FARM MANAGEMENT IN CATAWBA COUNTY, N. c. 15 culty in keeping the crop, and distance from producer to consumer. Then there is the objection that to a certain extent it competes for labor with another high money value crop—cotton. From the standpoint of acreage in 1912 and again in 1918, hay was the crop fourth in importance. Very little hay is sold, but most farmers grow all the hay needed for their live stock. In 1912 the value of hay bought per farm was $3 and in 1918 it was $5. Hay fits in fairly well in the rotation, does not compete very seriously for labor with other crops, is useful as a catch crop, and, if a legume, improves the soil. The climate and soil are favorable for raising a wide variety of truck crops, but the local demand for these products is very limited and competition with other regions is keen, hence comparatively little truck is grown. Some fruit is grown on every farm for home use, but very little is sold. Table 11 shows the distribution of live stock and selling prices of | some stock products on the farms studied in 1912 and 1918. There was a slight decrease in the number of productive animal units ? per farm from 1912 to 1918. In 1912 there were six productive animal units per farm, and 5.6 in 1918. Table 5 showed that in 1912 24 per cent and in 1918 22 per cent of all the farm receipts were from live stock. TaB_eE 11.—Distribution of live stock and selling prices of some products on 297 farms for 1912 and 304 farms for 1918, Catawba County, N. C. | | 3 & | shetty} | 1918 Item. 30crop, 30-1 | 50.1 | Over | \20crop| 30.1 | 50.1 | Over | acres | to 50 | to 70 70 | All | acres | to 50} to 70 70 All ior crop | crop | crop |farms.| or erop | crop | crop | farms. less. | acres. | acres. | acres. less. | acres. | acres. | acres. | Productive animal units....... 2.8} 5.3| 6.9] 10.9] 6 3.0| 44] 67| 11.8] 56 Number of cows........------- iO ROACH ene ea POE) Te Oe aaa 3.0 Number of brood sows......-. 8 -6 | 9 UZ ie «3 | 6 1.0 4 ail Number of chickens........... 37 49 | 65 69 53 39 42 53 65 47 Number of work stock. .......! 1.5 2.0 Bo me aeerlwectiabe sl Lid 2.3 | 3.0 4.5 2.6 Selling prices: Tee Es ‘ | | | sitter, pound ......-« oe l| BP] eS ae | {ete ars = l's\s wal 22 Kees Ove... oe2 +> nope .18 18 18 18 8 PP 255 68bn 1S. 85 35 | roo Dairy cattle were the principal productive animals kept on these farms. In 1912 cows averaged 2.9 per farm, and 3 in 1918. Jerseys, 1 Where the control methods worked out by the U. 8, Department of Agriculture are used the effect of diseases on the sweet-potato erop may be discounted. Moreover, the difficulties formerly expcrieneed in keeping this crop are rapidly being overcome by the development of proper storage method For details as to growing sweet potatoes, see Farmers’ Bulletin 999, “ Sweet-Potato Gro é 2A productive animal unit is a grown steer, cow, or horse or its equivalent in small animals—% hogs, 7 sheep, or 100 fowls. — 16 BULLETIN 1070, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. grade or purebred, or crosses containing Jersey blood, were the most numerous. In 1912 the average dairy cow was valued at $47.81, and in 1918 at $79.05. In 1912 and in 1918 about 9 per cent of all the farm receipts were derived from the sale of dairy products. It is considered locally that Catawba County is a fairly well developed dairy section, but many of the farmers keep only one or two cows, principally for home use, selling a small amount of butter or cream during the season of highest production. In 1912, eighty-eight per cent and in 1918, eighty-three per cent of the farmers sold some dairy products. Recently considerable interest has been taken in the further development of the dairy enterprise throughout much of the Pied- mont country. At the time the survey was made there was one creamery in the area and several more were within a few miles of the surveyed area. Cream routes have been established over the greater part of the territory. Several bull associations have recently been organized, and a number of high-class purebred dairy bulls have been brought into the area by others. Most of the dairy cows here are of poor quality, however, and altogether too many farmers fail to give enough atten- tion to using good sires and to weeding out the poor cows from their herds. In 1912, 5 per cent, and in 1918, 4 per cent of all the farm receipts came from poultry. In 1912, the average number of chickens per farm was 53; in 1918 the number had decreased to 47. All of the farmers kept some poultry, but in spite of the efforts that have been made to encourage the keeping of poultry in the area, there were no large flocks on any of the farms. In 1912 the receipts from hogs averaged $21 per farm; in 1918, $52 per farm (Table 5). The average number of brood sows per farm each year was 0.7; that is, on every 10 farms studied there were 7 brood sows. The number of swine on farms in Catawba and nearby counties of the Piedmont region has decreased continuously since 1880. The wisdom of this change in practice has frequently been questioned; nevertheless it continues and apparently is becoming more marked decade by decade. Only about one-half of the farmers sold hogs or pork. It is questionable whether under existing con- ditions much extension of hog raising could be recommended. On many farms, however, more hogs could be kept to consume feed that otherwise would be wasted. Table 12 shows the distribution of expenses on the farms for 1912 and for 1918. FARM MANAGEMENT IN CATAWBA COUNTY, N. Cc. 17 TABLE 12.—Distribution of expenses on 297 farms for 1912 and 304 farms for 1918, Catawba County, N. C. 1912 1918 Item. 30 crop} 30.1 | 50.1 | Over | 30 crop} 30.1 | 50.1 | Over acres | to 50| to 70| 70 All | acres | to 50} to 70| 70 All or crop | crop | crop |farms.| or crop | crop | crop | farms. | less. | acres. | acres. | acres. | | less. | acres. | acres. | acres. Totalexpense per farm.....-.-. | $220 | $395) $543 |$1,130 | $506} $513 | $538 | $869 $1,873 $741. Expense for— cropber Mab Or’... Fenn 7 8 29 95 27 16 48 100 530 120 Hired labor and board...--. 13 40 81 298 85 | 8 20 76 | 2% 64 Unpaid family labor...-.. 76 129 148 207 133 83 177 256 259 181 Repairs— ) Machinery... --e55---- 5 9 10 20 10 7 12 20" | ese 16 FERONISGt =... Shee | 6 g 11 15 10 8 11 162) yeas 12 Other buildings.--.-...- 3 6 7 17 7 5 7 10 16 8 WMences=.—. :-s222se8s-2 2 | 5 6 10 5 1 2 3 5 3 Feed bought— | inv. CtC== . -.. 2... saeco 6 | 10 13 29 13 9 19 24 41 21 Other machine work...--- 1 |} 3 3 5 3 4 5 7 18 6 MHSHTAHEe> = 2 |. =. - eee 1 2 3 3 2 1 2 | 2 3 2 SAPS mre ac «oad. Feces eae 11 | 18 25 49 23 17 26 | 34 58 30 Offer items. =... 22. re 10 | 21 29 46 24 26 40 61 110 52 Total current expense... 186 | 337 468 | 1,008 440 | 261 468 T12,\ Vi t2d 659 Depreciation: | | | Machinery... ...<...=s225- | 12 24 35 59 29 18 28 | 37 65 33 ERGUStr er =.= < 2a 14 19 21 26 20 20 23 27 26 24 Other buildings.........--| 8 13 18 oT - 17 il 18 | 29 44 22, Mepaleereeee.... Beano 34 56 74 122 66 49 69 93 135 79 In 1912 the total expense per farm averaged $506; in 1918, $741, an increase of 46 per cent. The largest single item of cash expense in 1912 was that of hired labor, amounting to $112 per farm. In 1918 this item amounted to $184 per farm. The value of unpaid family labor was estimated by the farmer in 1912 at $133 and in 1918 at $181. The next largest item of expense was for fertilizer. _ In 1912 this bill amounted to $61 per farm; in 1918, $91. The cost of repairs on machinery, buildings, and fences averaged $32 per farm in 1912 and $39 per farm in 1918. Depreciation on machinery and buildings, though not a cash expense, nevertheless represents a charge that ultimately must be met, and this averaged $66 per farm in 1912 and $79 per farm in 1918. CROP ROTATIONS. The pioneer farmer of this area, and his successors for two or three generations, had no systematically planned crop rotation. Soil fer- tility problems.were not recognized, and for other reasons rotation of crops was not desired. Even at present, crop rotation is not generally practiced on these farms. Practically all rotations yet suggested for the region have serious defects of adaptation to commercial agri- culture. 18 BULLETIN 1070, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Certain natural conditions have directed the agriculture on some of these lands into along rotation. The redlands and also the gray, when first brought under cultivation, produced good crops of corn and small grain. In‘a few years the corn yield dropped off, so that the crop was no longer profitable. Wheat held up to or above the line of profitable yield for some time longer. It then went below this line, but the losses were not very heavy for some time, and wheat continued to be sown, even though not a profitable crop. After a few years more, however, the losses became so great on exhausted lands that wheat was no longer sown. These lands never have been well suited to grazing, and rather than risk time and effort in con- Fic. 6.—Early stage of “‘resting”’ land. Broom sedge and briars in foreground, old field pine in distancé. verting them into hay or pasture they were turned out to grow up, first to broom sedge, then bushes, and finally to “‘ old field,” or second- growth pines (fig. 6). While a few acres of the poorer land on the farm may thus be abandoned each year, an approximately equal area of new land is cleared up and used, first for corn, then for small grain, till in the course of time it also is turned out to growup. ‘Thus on many of the lands of only moderate natural fertility, a long rota- tion has been established, perhaps unconsciously. . The time required to complete one cycle in the rotation established by the farmer and nature working together is variable. It may b2 20 years or it may be 50. Usually, though, it is a little more than the lifetime of a generation of farmers. The grandson clears up and farms these old fields abandoned late in the lifetime of the grandsire. FARM MANAGEMENT IN CATAWBA COUNTY, N. ¢. 19 The visible but unrecorded cropping history of the region is full of examples of these long rotations. How successfully they have ful- filled their mission is shown by the fact that these old fields, when re- cleared and planted, yield almost if not fully as well as when put under cultivation the first time. On the better grade of lands conditions have been such as to foster a shorter rotation. The strong lands first cleared of the original forest growth continued to give profitable crops for a considerable period, perhaps a dozen years or more. From 2 to 5 years of rest then suffices to bring them back into a profitable state of fertility. The second cropping period was generally of shorter duration than the first while the time for recuperation was fully as long. Thus in the course of time lands come to be cultivated from 3 to 5 years and then lay out (rested) from 1 to 2 years, while occasionally they were cropped 2 years and rested 1. The shorter rotation consisted very generally of nonleguminous plants to be disposed of commercially, and broom sedge, weeds, and brush during the soil-resting period. The completion of a cycle in the rotation required from 3 to 7 years, according to the degree of exhaustion of the soil. Neither of these natural rotations has entirely gone out of use. “Land resting’’ is still practiced on a considerable percentage of the farms, but the practice is not so universal as it was a few decades ago. In 1912 12.4 per cent and in 1918 10.1 per cent of the tillable Jand in farms was classified as idle or resting. The turning out of land to grow up in second-growth or old-field pines is becoming less common with each succeeding generation, and bids fair to cease entirely, in the course of a few decades, or to be confined to lands which really should never have been put under cultivation. SUGGESTED CROP ROTATIONS. According to the findings of this survey, rotations used in the Piedmont regions should give prominence to the cotton crop, un- questionably the most important and profitable farm enterprise for the area. The rotations should be such as to utilize to a very full extent the entire crop land of the farms. In general practice the rotation calling for some double cropping should be preferred over others. The rotation should be so planned as to prevent the neces- sity of resting land, and with a view to utilizing labor, teams, and equipment to the fullest possible degree. Due regard must be given to increasing soil fertility. To this end summer legumes and winter cover crops, both leguminous and nonleguminous, should be grown. In order to utilize teams and labor to the best advantage, consider- able land should be available for the late fall, winter, and early 20 BULLETIN 1070, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. spring plowing. This is importdnt. Attention should be given to the crops necessary for feeding live stock and also for furnishing home supplies. The difficulty of adapting different crops and enter- prises to different soil types is a factor in determining rotations. On the farm with only one or two types of soil, all of it upland and suitable to a considerable variety of crops, a rotation is easy to plan. When the farm has only lowlands, certain crops must be eliminated and the importance of others magnified in the rotation. On farms with both upland and lowland, one rotation may be required for one part and an entirely different one for the other. With these points in mind the rotations here suggested have been arranged. As they are studied the importance given to certain enterprises becomes apparent. The fact that one or two rather important enterprises (sweet potatoes, for instance) are not men- tioned will be noted. On a great majority of places such crops will be grown only on limited acreages. Their period of growth and cultural requirements are such that they may readily be substituted for some other crops. For example, cotton will be planted in April or May. Sweet potato land should be prepared at the same time or shortly thereafter. The plants should be set in the fields in May or June. If importance in the farming system is to be given to sweet potatoes, a few acres of the land intended for cotton in the rotation can be set aside for the potatoes. In considering the individual rotations it should be borne in mind that the findings of the survey are that those farms having a compara- tively large percentage of their crop land in cotton have better in- comes than those upon which this crop occupies but a small per- centage of the land, and that when corn yields are above 30 bushels to the acre the farms having over 20 per cent of their crop land planted to this crop have better incomes than the others. The farms having from 10 to 15 per cent of their land in wheat and from 5 to 10 per cent in oats, especially when the yields are somewhat above the average, have a maximum labor income. The farms getting a hay harvest from 20 to 30 per cent or even more of their lands are among the more prosperous. A moderate acreage of sweet potatoes seems to increase farm profits. The first rotation suggested covers 5 years, gives 40 per cent of the land to cotton, 20 per cent to corn, 20 per cent to small grain (wheat and oats combined), and from 30 to 40 per cent to hay crops, counting double cropping. It keeps practically 60 per cent of the land cov- ered during the winter and makes 40 per cent available for fall and winter plowing. (Rotation 1.) FARM MANAGEMENT IN CATAWBA COUNTY, N. C. 21 Rotation 1.—Five-year crop rotation for Catawba County, N. C., and other southern Piedmont areas. First year. Corron. After first year’s cotton is:picked the land may be plowed in winter for second-year cotton crop. Second year.—Cotron. Planted to rye or crimson-clover cover crop, to be plowed under in spring for third-year corn crop. Third year.—Corn. Peas or soy beans planted in corn; seed picked, vines disked in, small grain sown in October or November; seeded to red clover in February or March. Fourth year. Smaut Grain. If clover catches, make one cutting of clover hay; otherwise pea or soy bean hay, and then seed to crimson clover. Fifth year. Hay. One cutting of red-clover hay, or save crimson-clover seed, disk or plow stubble, and plant peas and soy beans for hay. In fall and wintery plow for sixth-year cotton. The five-year rotation may be shortened one year by omitting one hay crop, in which case the farm should be arranged in four fields; two of these planted to cotton, one to corn, and one to small grains, the corn, of course, being followed by cowpeas or soy beans, and the small grain by the same legumes sown broadcast and harvested for hay. This gives 50 per cent of the land t6 cotton, 25 to corn, 25 to small grain, with a summer crop of hay of 25 per cent. A second method of shortening the five into a four-year rotation is to drop one year of cotton; this brings the cotton acreage down to 25 per cent, leaves 25 per cent in corn, 25 per cent in small grain with clover as a possible fall hay crop, and 25 per cent in clover hay for the June cutting. This rotation will not produce as large a gross income as will the five-year rotation with 40 per cent cotton or the four-year with 50 per cent cotton. However, the expense will not be quite so great and the ultimate net result may possibly be a little greater. It is not difficult to make either of the transitions suggested. (Rota- tion 2.) Rotation 2.—Four-year crop rotation for Catawba County, N. C., and other southern Piedmont areas. First year. Corron. Planted in April or May; picked from September to December; land available to plow from late fall to middle of spring. Second year. Corron. Planted in April or May; first picking in September; plant cover crop; land available for spring plowing. Third year. Corn. Planted in April or May; at last workiug, plant cowpeas in middles for seed and humus crop; small grain planted in fall. Fourth year. Smawy Grain. Harvested in June; cowpeas or other summer legumes for hay or seed; land available to plow from late fall to spring. The three-year rotation has been recommended throughout the Piedmont region more extensively than any other and is perhaps the basis of rotations wherever we find them now followed. (Rotation 3.) 22 BULLETIN 1070, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Rotation 3.—Three-year crop rotation, Catawba County, N. C., and other southern Piedmont areas. First year. Corton. Planted in April and May; first picking in September; cover crop crimson clover or rye planted; land available to plow in spring. Second year. Corn. Planted in April or May; peas planted in middles at last work- ing of corn; seed picked; land disked and small grain planted. Third year. SMAuLL Gratin. Peas or soy beans planted for hay or seed; land available for fall and winter and early spring plowing. This arrangement allows approximately one-third for cotton, one- third for small grain, and one-third for corn. If more than the usual amount of stock is being kept this may perhaps be a more desirable rotation than those already described. For some special cases a two-year rotation, with 50 per cent of the land in cotton, may be desirable. This rotation in addition to giv- ing 50 per cent of the land to cotton gives 25 per cent to small grain, _25 per cent to summer hay crops, and 25 per cent to corn with summer legumes between the corn rows, and with the aid of the manure made on the place will keep the humus content of the soil up to a fairly good standard. This rotation is not recommended for land of a low degree of fertility, nor for farms requiring a great deal of corn and hay for live stock. : Roration 4.—Two-year upland crop rotation for Catawba County, N. C., ne other - southern Piedmont areas. First year. Corron. Planted in April and May; first picking in September; one- half field planted in small grain; one-half plowed in winter and spring for corn. Second year. SMALL GRAIN AND Corn. From half of field small grain harvested in June; cowpeas or soy beans for hay or seed; other half of field corn planted in April or May; peas planted in middles at last working; hay harvested in Sep- tember; corn and peas gathered in October and November; land available for winter and spring plowing. Occasionally different rotations are wanted for different classes of land on the farm. The farm having both uplands and bottom lands should have a rotation in which cotton is by far the most important crop for the higher lands and one in which preeminence is given to corn for the bottom lands. For the upland fields, or cotton land, the suggested rotation covers a period of 3 years. (Rotation 5.) Roration 5.—Three-year upland crop rotation for Catawba County, N. C., and other southern Piedmont areas. Firstyear, Cotton. Planted in April and May; first picking in September; cover crop crimson clover or rye; land available for spring plowing. Second year. Corron. Planted in April and May; first picking in September; small grain planted after second picking—October. Third year. SMALL GRAIN. Harvested in June; cowpeas or soy beans for hay, or seed; land available for fall, winter, and spring plowing. . FARM MANAGEMENT IN CATAWBA COUNTY, N. C. 23 On other lands corn should receive a prominent place. For this purpose a two-year rotation is suggested.. (Rotation 6.) When the land is somewhat evenly divided between the upland and lowland the three-year cotton rotation and the two-year corn rotation together make a very desirable system. Of course these rotations may be varied to suit different conditions. Roration 6.—Two-year lowland rotation for Catawba County, N. C., and other southern Piedmont areas. First year. Corn. Plow in April or later and plant corn from April to June; harvest in September or October; disk land and drill oats or other winter and spring crops. Second year. Oats. Harvest in May or June; plow or disk and plant cowpeas or soy beans for hay and seed; cover crop from September to April. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C, AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH, 122 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Wy. BULLETIN No. 1071 ¥& Washington, D. C. Vv July 12, 1922 INFLUENCE OF SEASON OF FRESHENING ON PRO- DUCTION AND INCOME FROM DAIRY COWS. By J. C. McDowett, Dairy Husbandman, Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. CONTENTS. i Page. Page. Basis ;of he? datas 2222s 1 | Influence of month of freshening___ 7 Influence of season of freshening__ 2 How the months ranked______ 9 Warlie of products! 22 = ea 3) |aConclusions=2 2 S24 eae 9 Milk and butierfat production_ 3) | MSummaryraGe 22 ss SOS e See 10 SRO SS Liss ee Co 5 Income above feed cost__--___ 7 BASIS OF THE DATA. There is a widespread belief that cows produce more milk and butterfat, and that they produce more economically, if they freshen in the fall or winter than if they freshen in the spring or summer. Tabulations of cow-testing-association records show that a definite relation does exist between season of freshening and other factors, but that the relation is not the same everywhere and under all condi- tions. That relation seems to depend to some extent on cost of feed, condition of pastures, and geographical location with reference to markets. “8 Under such circumstances a study of averages for a large number of cow-testing associations taken indiscriminately might be mislead- ing unless followed by a further study of the records of each asso- ciation. The conclusions given in the following pages are based on averages of the records of 64 associations combined, and on averages of the records of each association. The figures cover the period 1910 to 1920, inclusive. From each association the records used were for one year only. ‘To avoid possible error due to incomplete data or to short-time tests, records were discarded if the breed and age were omitted or if the cow was on test less than 12 months. Tabulations on breed and age showed that these were not factors influencing the conclusions drawn in this bulletin. In the 64 associations studied there were on yearly test 10,870 cows whose age and date of freshen- 2 BULLETIN 1071, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing were given. The computations in this bulletin are based on the records of these cows. Cost of feed and price of product are based on actual figures as given by the testers on the individual cow record sheets. INFLUENCE OF SEASON OF FRESHENING. In Table 1 the records of the cows on test 12 months in 64 cow- testing associations are grouped according to the season when the cows freshened. TasLE 1.—Date of freshening, by seasons, with average yearly feed and produc- tion records, per cow. eee Cost of | Cost of Season. . ction® roughage.} grain. Cost of feed. a Eprine | Oe, Babul and Hey): Su jee e, July, and ‘Winter (Decenpet, January, and February)...............- $19. 22 22. 48 28.45 25. 51 24. 06 The cows that freshened in the fall months ranked highest in average yearly production of milk and butterfat, in cost of feed and in income over cost of feed. In all these points, the cows that freshened in the winter ranked second. Of the 10,870 cows, 6,346 freshened in the fall and winter and 4,524 freshened in the spring and summer. On an average the cows that freshened in the spring pro- duced the least milk and those that freshened in the summer produced the least income over cost of feed. Care and quality of cows are big factors in determining production and income, but the large number of records in each group would tend to prevent great variation among group averages due to such causes. _ Fewer cows freshened in the summer than at any other season. This may have been due partly to a belief among dairymen that it pays better to have cows freshen at some other time of year, a belief that seems to be supported generally by the records. It is also true that the season of freshening can not always be controlled. The feed pill, especially the amount spent on grain, was lowest for the cows that freshened in the spring. This was doubtless because the long pas- ture period, when little grain was fed, came during the early part of the lactation period. The total cost of feed, however, was not low enough to give the cows that freshened in the spring first or even second place in yearly income over cost of feed. If cost of labor were to be included, the figures would doubtless be even more favorable to fall and early winter freshening, on account of the scarcity and high cost of labor in some districts during the summer months. INFLUENCE OF SEASON OF FRESHENING ON DAIRY COWS. 3 VALUE OF PRODUCTS. Table 2, which is derived from a tabulation of the records of the 64 associations, shows how many times the cows that freshened each season ranked first, second, third, and fourth in average yearly price received for milk or butterfat produced by the cows that freshened within that season. TasrE 2.—Seasons when cows freshened ranked according to average price of butterfat or milk. Number of times ranked. Season of freshening. First. Second. | Third. | Fourth. ee ee eee OO SITS. ooo CE CEREBRO GOO COOBEE GARI Ck sect teen ta ammaenen eos aria 12 il 14 27 SS PSaT EAT CE Pease = 5h Shae serdar eae esis lave rcta ad fo fareiwre nitleeSigersioie 36 14 9 3 Resa eee os ok Fe ci ere gota aloes wie ceidranrsincin -e oc Meee ears 39 18 5 2 PUMETE RE aoa siete niotatw stele misialaie siaisiaeccremerenemyel 12 20 26 6 The figures do riot refer to the price received for the product at any season of the year, but to the average price received during the entire year for the product produced by cows that freshened at a certain season, There were two associations in which no cows freshened in sum- mer. This accounts for the summer ranks adding up to only 62. As there were ties for first place in some associations, the total number of times the four seasons received first place is greater than the number of associations compared. The table shows that in av- erage price received for butterfat produced during the year, fall freshening ranked first 39 times; summer, 36; winter, 12; and spring, 12. The cows that freshened in the fall may not have freshened at the time of year when prices were highest, but they produced most . of their milk at the time of year when prices were highest. MILK AND BUTTERFAT PRODUCTION. In milk production the ranks of the four seasons were as shown in Table 3: TABLE 3.—Seasons when cows freshened. ranked according to average yield of milk. Number of times ranked. Season of freshening. = 7 First. | Second. | Third. | Fourth. 7 13 24 20 10 4 19 29 29 23 7 5 18 24 14 8 In average yearly milk production, fall ranked first in 29 associa- tions and second in 23 associations. Winter ranked first in 18 associa- tions and second in 24. Summer ranked first in 10 associations and 4. ’ BULLETIN 1071, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. spring ranked first in only 7. It is also worthy of note that in milk production spring and summer ranked third and fourth in most of the cases. Table 4.shows the number of times each season ranked first, second, third, and fourth in butterfat production: TABLE 4.—Seasons when cows freshened ranked according to average produc- tion of butterfat. Number of times ranked. Season of freshening. First. Second. | Third. | Fourth. Spring..... SES SN SOS 8 NEE ane eA ee er aU 7 8 27 22 STATIC Ea a eR SN a ee eee 8 6 17 31 Le ee eT ee | SECO Oe GE aE REE eee Ss aseousaaes 38 16 7 3 BWSLDG OD sites ole ela Soa ate Ribie e-nicl Dig eb is icin ie wie Siw SERRE EES 13 35 11 5 Out of a possible 64, fall ranked first 38 times in average yearly production of butterfat per cow and second 16 times. Winter ranked first 18 times and second 35 times out of a possible 64. Summer ranked first 8 times and fourth 31 times out of a possible 62, there being two associations in which no cows freshened during the sum- mer months. Spring ranked first only 7 times in butterfat produc- tion and second 8 times. In average pounds of butterfat produced per cow for all associations combined (see Table 1) fall ranked first, winter second, and spring and summer tied for third and fourth places. Figure 1 shows graphically the variation of butterfat production according to season of freshening for the 10,870 cows in the 64 associations. POUNDS OF BUTTERFAT 7, 50 400 150 OG) Ma EO 3OO SPAINQHBIIC COWDG) 236 POUNOS FUER TICE FALL( 2.862 COME) 268 POUNDS AUERAGE WIN Tt LA(F FEF COM) ZEB FOUN DS UE IICE Fic. 1.—Relation of butterfat production to season of freshening. The cows that freshen in the fall not only rank first in yearly butterfat production, but they produce most during the winter months. In many parts of the country the dairyman has more time in winter to do the extra work connected with their feed and care. INFLUENCE OF SEASON OF FRESHENING ON DAIRY COWS. 5 It is also true that fall-freshening cows are dry at the time of year when field work is generally greatest. FEED COST. The cost of roughage was about the same regardless of the season of freshening, but there was a considerable di veeees in the cost of grain. Table 5 shows how the four seasons ranked on average cost of grain per cow; that is, the year’s cost of grain for cows of the dif- ferent seasons. TABLE 5.—Seasons when cows freshened ranked according to cost of grain re- quired for the year’s feed. Number of times ranked. Season of freshening. First. Second. | Third. | Fourth. | STDC S a5) Ae Seg eee er os Oran Ae eevee PR I Sh 6 5 12 41 ‘STIEPEIPED SES 2 SE a ea ss Oa a 9 15 23 15 IPS 2 See SR eS MARR RE el kei ES lel creer nee OO tc oN 44 14 5 1 7 TOE BIR oS Sa a SS Ds Se Pa ne Se et ae We 5 30 24 5 In 44 of the 64 associations fall freshening ranked first in cost of grain to feed a cow a year and in only one of the 64 associations did the fall-freshening cows rank fourth in cost of grain. On an aver- age the cost of grain was highest for the cows that freshened in the fail (see Table 1), next highest for those that freshened in the winter, and lowest for those that. freshened in the spring. The average cost oi grain per cow was lowest in 41 of the 64 associations for the cows that freshened in the spring. As the cost of roughage for the year was about the same Pecardlecs of the date of freshening, the total cost of feed varied approximately according to the cost of grain. Table 6 shows how the seasons ranked on total cost of feed. TABLE 6.—Seasons when cows freshened ranked according to total cost of feed. Number of times ranked. Season of freshening. First. | Second, | Third. | Fourth. Spring DIET AROS 00 w dnc ;0 lei MAREE SOP Rae cies « Hee eee 8 5 11 40 pane eae abo Antoledf= se aaa eee. Veeco as. ewee oo 9 14 24 15 Me ows a.a0,4 a'a'a'o'6:6 00 BNR YEE a HAGE sis Bi eine « tied 2S gtk Ad 1 | Handling fruit for the canneries____ 12 Distribution of Bartlett pear grow- The cold storage of Bartlett pears__ 13 ing in the Pacific Coast States___ 3 Storage temperature__________ 13 Handling fruit for shipment in a Bears Seal dhssen ik 2k bene Sh Ee ae 15 EBRD POs, — SS SS eNimaeS UL TORRY Tosy etree te Dp a 16 INTRODUCTION. During recent years there has been a very considerable increase in the acreage devoted to the growing of pears on the Pacific coast. These plantings have been distributed in various parts of California, Oregon, and Washington. Careful estimates indicate that the pro- duction of pears will increase fully 50 per cent within the next five or six years. Of the varieties of pears grown on the Pacific coast the Bartlett far outranks all others combined. It is a safe estimate that more than 50 per cent of all pears grown in Washington and Oregon are of this variety, while in California, the heaviest pear-producing State in the Union, probably 75 per cent of all pears grown are Bartletts. Furthermore, although the so-called winter varieties, coming into market following the Bartlett season, are increasing in popularity in some of the cooler growing sections, the Bartlett is practically the only variety being planted in large quantities in those districts in which it reaches its bighest ea 1This bulletin gives the result of a sovttih of the work carried on under the project “ Factors Affecting the Storage Life of Fruit.” 94444—22 2 BULLETIN 1072, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The reason for the popularity of the Bartlett variety is readily understood. A very heavy bearer of fruits of large size and of very high dessert quality, it is the ruler of the fresh-pear markets during the weeks in which it is in season. Where canned it has a higher quality than any other pear and in regions where it can be produced successfully is practically the only variety that goes into the commercial canned-fruit trade. In some districts it is also dried very successfully, and a large demand has been created for the dried product. With the constantly increasing production of Bartletts, however, it has become apparent that some means of holding the fruit in cold storage is vital to the industry in many producing sections. If the total season for fresh consumption can be lengthened by several weeks, a much larger quantity of fruit can be disposed of on the fresh- fruit market. It is even more important that canners in certain sections be able to hold the fruit in storage. In some sections Bartlett pears and certain varieties of peaches reach canning condition at prac- tically the same time. Since pears can be held more successfully than peaches, it is of great advantage to put a portion of the pears in cold storage and hold them until the peach-canning season is over. It also reduces the overhead expense of the cannery to prolong the canning season as much as possible. In former years heavy losses have been suffered by some pear canners, owing to fruit becoming overripe during the rush season. Much loss has also occurred in fruit that has been in cold storage, due to improper methods of handling. During the past two seasons investigations have been carried on by the Bureau of Plant Industry to determine (1) the effect of the time of picking on the keeping, eating, and canning quality of Bart- lett pears, (2) the comparative keeping and carrying capacity of fruit from different sections of the Pacific coast grown under widely . varying climatic conditions, and (3) the method of handling fruit in cold storage which will give the longest keeping period and the highest dessert quality in the fruit upon removal from cold storage. Chemical and physiological studies have been made of fruit from different sections gathered at different stages of maturity and held under different conditions following picking. The results of some of these studies have been presented in detail in an earlier publi- cation.2. It is the primary purpose of this bulletin to discuss the results presented in that report, as they concern the practical grower and handler of Bartlett pears, and also to include the results of some additional investigations. Ta Gass APE CS aleve Ss P| a ee 2Magness, J. R. Investigations in the ripening and storage of Bartlett pears. In Jour. Agr. Research, v. 19, no. 10, p. 473-500, 8 fig. 1920. Literature cited, p. 499-500. HANDLING, SHIPPING, AND STORAGE OF BARTLETT PEARS. 3 DISTRIBUTION OF BARTLETT PEAR GROWING IN THE PACIFIC COAST STATES. In California Bartlett pears are grown under a very wide range of climatic conditions. By far the heaviest producing area lies along the Sacramento River on reclaimed land below the city of Sacra- mento. This region produces about one-third of all the pears grown in the State. Another heavy-producing section lies in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains north and east from Sacramento and centering about the towns of Newcastle, Auburn, Colfax, and some others. This area lies in Eldorado, Nevada, and Placer Coun- ties, mainly in the last. A third important region is the Santa Clara Valley, centering about San Jose. There are, however, large plantings of pears in all the region centering about San Francisco Bay, from 150 miles north of San Francisco to 100 miles south and east to the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Some sections of southern California are also beginning to produce pears extensively. Los Angeles County has a large acreage soon to come into bearing and is already a factor in the tonnage produced. The Antelope Valley, at the edge of the Mojave Desert, has a considerable acreage of pears, while at Tehachapi, at the summit of the range of mountains of that name, is another fairly large area. These regions in southern Cali- fornia are not yet in full bearing. In Oregon the principal pear-producing section is in the Rogue River Valley, in the southwestern part of the State. A large ton- nage is also produced, however, throughout all the valleys of the western part of the State, particularly in the Willamette Valley, about Salem. The Hood River Valley is also growing pears in im- portant commercial quantities. The Yakima district is by far the heaviest pear-producing section of Washington. The Wenatchee district is second in total tonnage, while scattered plantings occur through the other fruit sections. There is wide variation in the method of handling fruit from these different sections. Some growers depend entirely upon the shipment of fresh fruit to the Eastern States in order to market their crop. In other sections the canneries are depended upon entirely as an outlet for the production. The crop from numerous sections is shipped in part in the fresh state, the remainder usually being canned, while the output of at least one important producing section (Lake County, Calif.) is practically all dried. HANDLING FRUIT FOR SHIPMENT IN A FRESH STATE. TIME OF PICKING. One of the most important questions which face the grower or the shipping organization is that of knowing when to pick the pears. Wide differences of opinion prevail as to the effect upon the keeping quality of the fruit of leaving it on the trees until late or of removing 4 BULLETIN 1072, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it from the trees early. In the present practice the size of the fruit is the most important consideration in determining when to pick. In the investigations here recorded special attention has been paid to the time of picking the fruit. Pickings of pears have been made at intervals beginning before the commercial season started and continued until some time after it was over. Observations of the fruit have been supplemented by chemical studies, the results of which have been presented in a previous report.? Tests of the out- put of carbon dioxid from the fruit following picking at different stages of maturity and under different temperatures of storage have also been made and will be reported in detail in a separate publica- tion. The exact analyses upon which many of the conclusions reached in this report are based have been presented in detail in the paper mentioned. There is no fixed time at which it may be said that pears are in just the right condition to pick. The time of picking will vary widely with the manner in which the fruit is to be marketed. If removed from the trees too early, Bartlett pears will tend to shrivel and wilt before ripening. It has been found that the time at which the fruit may be picked without danger of wilting can be determined by testing for the corking over of the lenticels. As the fruit grows, numerous small light-colored spots can be -observed all over its surface. Examination under the microscope reveals the fact that these are minute openings through the skin of the fruit. These lenticels, as they are called, are open during the early growth of the pears. If such a fruit be immersed in a strong solution of methylene blue in water and left for 15 minutes to half an hour, these spots will be colored a deep blue by the stain that has penetrated the tissue. About the time shipping usually com- mences, however, the lenticels become brown, owing to the formation of a layer of corklike cells over the surface of the opening. After this forms, if the fruit is immersed in the methylene-blue solution, the stain penetrates very little. When the fruit is removed from the stain and rinsed, the methylene blue can be detected only as a faint, thin ring about the outside of the lenticel. The stain will not penetrate the corky layer. Although it has never been tested, it is extremely probable that ordinary laundry bluing, made up in a strong solution, would serve the purpose as well as methylene blue. After the lenticels are once sealed over, there is little further danger of the fruit shriveling after removal from the tree, and if it has attained sufficient size it can be picked with safety. It has been found, however, that if the fruit is left on the tree for about two weeks longer, a very much superior product will be obtained. The sugar content increases rapidly during this period, and the fruit is 3 Magness, J. R. Op. cit. HANDLING, SHIPPING, AND STORAGE OF BARTLETT PEARS. 5 much higher in dessert quality if removed from the tree two to three weeks following the corking over of the lenticels rather than im- mediately thereafter. The earliest Bartlett pears to arrive on the eastern markets are almost invariably of very poor quality, owing to too early picking. It has been found, however, that at the temperatures it is possible to maintain in a car during transit, Bartlett pears will arrive on the market in a greener condition if picked early. The fruit trade at the present time demands that pears show mainly green color upon arrival, and with this fact in mind, picking, especially in districts - where considerable difficulty is experienced in getting fruit to carry through to market, can not be delayed too long. It has also been found, however, that late-picked fruit will hold up for a much longer period after it becomes soft and in an edible condition than fruit from the same trees picked early. With the early-picked fruit there is a period of only two or three days during which the pears are in a good edible condition, while fruit from the same trees but picked three to four weeks later will remain in good, firm condition four to five days after becoming soft enough for eating. In districts where little difficulty is experienced in shipping fruit to market, a much larger sized fruit, of higher dessert quality, and one that will hold up longer for the retail trade, can be secured by delaying the initial picking until about 10 days later than is the present practice. RELATION OF THE CARRYING QUALITY OF BARTLETT PEARS TO THE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THEY ARE GROWN. During the progress of this work a very careful study has been made of the keeping and carrying quality of fruit from some of these different regions. This study has been supplemented by dis- cussions with some of the leading producers and shippers from each of the various districts. There are wide variations in the climatic conditions under which Bartlett pears are grown in the Pacific Coast States, and these are reflected in equally wide variations in the keeping and carrying quality of the fruit following its removal from the trees. In Bartlett pears that are apparently in the same state of maturity at the time of picking, there is a marked difference in the number of days required for the fruit from different producing sections to be- come ripe after removal from the trees. Fruit from some sections requires 12 to 14 days when picked at the height of the season and held at temperatures of 60° to 70° F. following picking before it is in prime condition for eating. Such fruit is usually of a close- grained texture, rather firm when fully ripe, and ripens evenly throughout the whole fruit. 6 BULLETIN 1072, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The fruit from some other sections becomes soft ripe much more quickly, even when picked in what is apparently the same stage . of maturity and held at the same temperature following picking. This latter type of fruit is usually rather coarse in texture, softer when ripe than the slower ripening pears, and has a marked tend- ency to become overripe and discolored about the core region while the outside of the fruit appears to be entirely sound. Such fruit from many sections has been found to ripen in so short a time after picking that successful shipments of the fresh pears to eastern mar- kets is impossible. In certain districts canners, unfamiliar with the tendency of the fruit to become overripe at the core before showing external signs of deterioration, have suffered heavy losses by allow- ing the pears to remain too long before canning. Canners and pear shippers are fully aware of the wide variation that occurs in the carrying qualities of the pears from different sec- tions, at least in so far as these variations occur in their local terri- tory. It is believed, therefore, that a discussion of the ripening of the fruit as it occurs in the different districts will be of advan- tage not only to the industry as a whole, but also to all the indi- vidual districts. For although fruit from certain districts will ripen more evenly and hold up longer following removal from the tree than that from other sections, there is no place on the Pacific coast where Bartlett pears are grown commercially that they can not be handled successfully, at least for canning or drying, pro- vided proper precautions are taken. It has been found that Bartlett pears from the Sierra Nevada foothill region east of Sacramento have uniformly excellent carry- ing and keeping qualities. The same may be said for pears from most of the districts in southern California, particularly the Tehach- api and Antelope Valley plantings. Fruit from the upper Sac - ramento Valley is very high in carrying quality. In the very larg Bartlett pear section, lying along the reclaimed lower Sacramentt River, the fruit is also of high carrying quality, although som trouble is encountered with pears from the lower part of this section nearest the coast. In the Santa Clara Valley the fruit is much poorer in keeping and carrying quality, and fresh shipments from this district have been largely discontinued because of the difficulty in getting the pears through to market in good condition and the excellent cannery market available. The Bartlett pears grown in the counties bordering on the coast in California are uniformly poor in carrying quality. They become soft ripe quickly after removal from the tree and have a marked tendency to soften and become overripe at the core while still ap- parently firm on the outside. HANDLING, SHIPPING, AND STORAGE OF BARTLETT PEARS. 7 In Oregon the Rogue River Valley Bartletts carry the best of any in that State and are comparable to the Sacramento River fruit. Pears from the Salem district ripen quickly and must be handled more promptly after the removal from the tree. In Washington much difficulty has been experienced in handling Bartletts from the Yak- ima and Wenatchee Valleys for eastern shipment. The fruit ripens rapidly and has a tendency to ripen first at the core. By using the best methods of precooling, shippers have been successful in handling the fruit from the Yakima Valley, though severe losses are still en- countered in attempting to ship the Wenatchee grown Bartletts to eastern markets. From a survey of the fruit as grown under the widely varying climatic conditions of the Pacific coast, it is apparent that a marked relationship exists between the keeping quality of Bartlett pears fol- lowing their removal from the tree and the summer temperatures under which the fruit is grown. These observations have been made entirely in the pear regions on the Pacific coast, and no attempt has been made to check them by tests in the eastern producing States. The records of the United States Weather Bureau for various points in each of the main Bartlett pear-producing sections have been obtained, and from these records the average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for June, July, and August have been com- puted. These records are averages for a large number of years. The temperature records together with notes on the carrying quality of the fruit following removal from the tree are summarized in Table 1. In certain instances it has been impossible to secure Weather Bureau records of the average daily maximum and minimum tem- peratures directly in the main pear-producing regions. However, it has been possible to obtain data sufficiently complete to give a very good idea of the general temperature range. As these studies have been carried on, it has become increasingly evident that the summer growing-season temperatures are of great importance in the develop- ment of fruit that has a long keeping season. Bartlett pears grown in the Antelope Valley and other very hot districts in California have a widely known reputation for keeping quality. Often the summer temperatures in this region run to 115° F. The upper Sacramento Valley and foothills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, also having high temperatures during the grow- ing season, pyoahiee pears that can be shipped to any point in the United States. Such fruit is loaded into iced refrigerator cars, shipped without previous precooling, and unless unexpected delays occur usually arrives on the markets in excellent condition. Pears from the lower Sacramento Valley, in the region between Sacramento and the mouth of the river, are also very good shippers, although occasional trouble is encountered. This is especially true of fruit from the lower and cooler portion of this region. In this 8 BULLETIN 1072, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lower valley region fruit is sometimes found breaking down at the core while still sound at the surface, but this tendency is not common in fruit from this section. TABLE 1.—Relation between the shipping quality of Bartlett pears from different districts and the temperature conditions under which they are grown. Remarks. Fruit of very highest keeping and shipping quality. Fruit of excellent keeping and car- Fruit ripens evenly and is of firm Occasionally fruit becomes overripe in transit east, particularly from the lower and cooler portions of Fruit holds up well and ripens Considerable difficulty during cer- tain seasons from fruit breaking down in transit. Great difficulty in shipping; care- ful precooling necessary. Tendency to break down at core. Fresh eastern shipments practi- cally abandoned because of break- ing down in transit. About the same as Santa Clara Little attempt made to ship to east- ern markets. Canneries take Fruits very poor keeping; marked tendency to break down inside; Santa Cruz County (Watsonville) | | June. July. August. sonlent: P lec l District and station. | g i allies dU es j j eee meh eae pela |e e/a lala l a Bae |e lg | Wee mine | ce | a | 3 | 4 ao | = est || ale l/al/e/a/a]e/e nia |F P| Antelope Valley, Calif... [ices at Saeco tiace (8.5 AM SE Upper Sacramento Val- | | ley: CE ae SESH ts | 89.3) 55.0) 98.9) 60. 2) 97.4) 58.3}-...-].--.- ede huts sss eseeH 87. 8] 61.6) 94.7) 66.3] 95.1) 65.1).-...|----- A ‘ Marysville..........-| $7.9] 58.0) 95.8] 60.3/ 94.6] 59.5|.._..|...... Tying duality Sierra Nevada foothills: | | Rockin sae eeeer eee 86. 0) 52.7) 94.7) 58.8) 94.2) 57.3)..-.-|).--.. PACH DUETS 2 yeaa se 85.1) 55.0} 91.7) 61.1) 91.8) 60.3)-..-2)2-2 2. texture. Lower Sacramento Val- . ley: ? | Sacramento..-.....-- 82:3) 56. 2) 88. 8] 58. 2) 88.8! 57. 7/-----|----- this region. Lake County, Calif.: | Upper Lake. ........ 83. 5| 50.0) 93.2) 54. 4| 92.9] 52.6|.....]....- evenly. Rogue River Valley, Oreg.:8 | AShiange eee esses 76.3) 47. 0, 86.2) 51. 9) 85.4) SI. 5) S22 1e 2228 | | Yakima, Wash.: | | | MOxieH) ari see 30.9) 48. 0} 88.9) 53.1) 87.4) 51.1) 77.3) 42.4 | | | | | Wenatchee, Wash.: } | | Wenatchee-.--.-.....- 74.9) 49.0) 83.7) 55.8) 81.0) 54.6) 71.4) 47.6 Santa Clara Valley, Calif.: | | | Sanioseseee aes 76.9| 48.7| 80.9| 52.0] 79.9] 51.3)..-..|_-.<- Santa Clara_-.......2 77.0 46.5) 82. 5) 50.6) 81. 5) 49.6)... -|.---. Sonoma County, Calif.: | | Sambavvosaeeeeeonase 77.9} 45. 8) 82.0} 49.1) 82.1) 47.1)..---}.-.<- | | | | Bartletts. Willamette Valley, Oreg.: | | | Salers: SESE See oe 72. 1) 49.7) 79.6) 53.3} 80. 1} Doel: ae |===e6 | | | | | | total crops. California coast district: | Oaldamdels saaiueae 72,'1| 521d) 73:0) 53. 8170.2) 545 3;.:.6 eee: Watsonville.......-. 68.0) 47. 4 68. 1) 47.0! 68.2) 45. 5) = ee eee Bartlett especially bad. 1 The temperature record is not available, but the summer range is the highest of any place listed. 2 The main pear district is somewhat cooler than Sacramento. 3 The main pear district is at a much lower elevation and is warmer than the above records show. Records are not available. The Rogue River Valley district in southern Oregon produces a good-shipping Bartlett pear, though considerable fruit arrives on the markets in an overripe condition. This fruit approximates that from the lower Sacramento Valley in carrying quality, but somewhat more trouble is experienced with it, owing to a longer haul to market. Most of this fruit goes east via Sacramento. The temperatures given for this district are for Ashland, a markedly cooler location than the main pear plantings centering about Medford. HANDLING, SHIPPING, AND STORAGE OF BARTLETT PEARS. 9 In the Yakima and Wenatchee districts of Washington very great difficulty has been experienced in shipping fruit. through to eastern markets. In former years the losses from fruit breaking down in transit were very heavy. By prompt and very efficient precooling, however, it has been possible to handle the Yakima Valley fruit during recent years without much loss. The Wenatchee Valley, with a somewhat cooler growing season and less cold-storage capacity for precooling, still suffers considerable loss of Bartlett pears on eastern shipments. The temperature range in these districts (the Yakima and We- natchee Valleys) is not markedly lower than that at Sacramento. It is true, however, that during a normal season the peak of the pick- ing season in the former regions is not reached until the first week in September. It will be noted that September temperatures represent 2 sharp drop below those of July and August. This may account in part for a greater difficulty with this fruit than the records would seem to warrant. In the Santa Clara Valley of California, centering about San Jose, in the Sonoma County section north of San Francisco, and in the Willamette Valley of Oregon attempts to ship Bartlett pears to east- ern markets have not generally met with success, except in the case of very early picked fruit. These districts, near enough to the coast to have a comparatively cool climate, produce Bartletts excellent for cannery purposes, but with a carrying season too short to allow them to be readily handled for eastern shipment. ‘The tendency to break down internally is marked. It is probably true, however, that some of this fruit, even of later pickings, could be shipped success- fully were it possible to precool it efficiently. In the counties near the coast, and especially in districts directly adjacent to the coast, a few Bartlett pears are produced. Grown in this extremely cool climate, the pears are of the poorest keeping quality of any under observation. Such fruit is particularly likely to break down internally, and it must be handled very carefully, even for use by canneries, if it is to be utilized without loss. It is not the intention in this report to imply that the temperature of the growing season is the only factor involved in determining the rapidity of the breakdown in pears following removal from the tree. In the territory studied the humidity varies inversely with the tem- perature, the regions of high temperature being low in. humidity, and vice versa, This may be equally important with temperature in its effect on the fruit. Soil and soil moisture undoubtedly are factors entering into the keeping quality of the fruit to a marked extent, but the relationship to temperature during the growing season seems to stand out when the conditions characterizing the different districts are considered. 10 BULLETIN 1072, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Observations indicate that this same relationship of temperature and humidity during the growing season to keeping quality holds in regard to many other deciduous fruits, though not necessarily in the same degree as with Bartlett pears. Plums, prunes, cherries, apricots, and other fruits seem to show a similar tendency toward poor keep- ing quality when grown under particularly cool conditions, but they have not been studied in sufficient detail to warrant a definite state- ment. MARKETING BARTLETT PEARS FROM DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. The trade, through long experience in handling fruit from different sections of the country, has become thoroughly acquainted with the characteristics of pears from different regions. Consequently, the fruit is now utilized largely in the manner to which it is best adapted. Fruit dealers in the districts in which the pears produced are of . the highest carrying quality usually ship the bulk of their crop to eastern markets. In some regions the early-picked fruit is shipped, but the later picks, which are of poorer carrying quality, are marketed through the canneries. In the coolest regions no attempt is made to ship Bartletts any great distance. They are sold to canneries or marketed locally. PRECOOLING PEARS FOR SHIPMENT. The advisability of precooling Bartlett pears before shipping is one that varies greatly with the particular district under considera- tion and with the facilities that are available for cooling the fruit. By precooling is meant placing the fruit in a cold-storage room and cooling it thoroughly before loading it into a car or holding a car of fruit on a siding adjacent to a plant equipped to circulate cold air through the car, thus cooling the fruit more quickly than is pos- sible by simply placing ice in the car. In those districts in which little difficulty is experienced in getting fruit through to market there is no reason for departure from the present practice. The fruit should be packed as promptly as possible after removal from the tree, loaded into iced refrigerator cars, and started to market at once. At the present time the railroad tariffs allow the addition of salt to the ice in the cars, which greatly hastens cooling. Tests carried on by the Office of Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables in Transit and Storage of the Bureau of Markets and Crop Estimates, United States Department of Agriculture, have shown that 200 pounds of salt added to the ice in each bunker at the time of loading is of very great value in quickly cooling the fruit to the minimum temperature that it is possible to maintain in the car. In shipping fruit from districts in which pears have poor carrying qualities, precooling has proved of great value in putting the fruit on the market in good condition. The success or failure of precooling will depend, however, primarily upon the answer to one question, HANDLING, SHIPPING, AND STORAGE OF BARTLETT PEARS. 11 namely, how soon after the removal of the fruit from the tree can the pears themselves be cooled to 30° F. or below? If the fruit after picking can be reduced to this temperature in 24 to 36 hours, there is no doubt that such treatment will be of great advantage in the ship- ping of the fruit. Such results can be attained, Hemeron only by having a very large refrigeration capacity in proportion to the quantity of fruit handled. Marked success has been attained by precooling in the Yakima Val- ley in Washington, and an outline of the methods followed there will indicate the procedure that has given greatest success in handling Bartlett pears. The rooms in which the pears are to be placed are cooled to below | 28° F., in many cases the temperature being reduced to 10° to 20° F. before the fruit is brought in. The fruit is taken to the storage house in lug boxes immediately after picking. As it cools, the room tem- perature rises, but the air in the rooms is kept down to 28° F. or is again reduced to that temperature as quickly as possible after the fruit is placed in the room. After 36 to 48 hours at 28° F. the fruit is removed to a warmer room, held at about 40°, where it is graded, packed, and quickly returned to the 28° room. In most cases the fruit is not in the packing room for more than 30 minutes to an hour, and it is probable that the temperature of the fruit itself does not rise more than 1 or 2 degrees during this time. The fruit is shipped at any time after packing, from immediately thereafter up to a month later. The bulk of the crop, of course, is forwarded at once. Pears cool very slowly when taken into cold storage, and at least 24 hours will be required to reduce the unwrapped fruit in boxes to the desired temperature. If the fruit is wrapped before cooling or if the boxes are closely stacked in the rooms, a much longer time is re- quired, due to the insulating effect of the paper and the reduced aeration in the boxes. In this connection the need for an armored thermometer that can be inserted in the fruit itself, by means of which its temperature can be determined, should be emphasized. Low temperatures retard the ripening processes in the pears only after the fruit itself reaches that lower temperature. This is very often a considerable time after the air is at the desired temperature; this is doubly true if the fruit is wrapped. Very careful tests have been made of the rate of ripening of Bartlett pears at different temperatures by measuring the carbon dioxid given off by them. It has been found that they ripen about twice as rapidly at 37° F. as at 30° F. It is not possible to stop en- tirely the ripening of the fruit at any temperature above the freezing point, which in Bartlett pears has been found to be between 27° F and 28° IF’. However, at temperatures under 30° F. the fruit ripens so slowly that a number of days at this temperature makes only a slight difference in the time the pears will hold up after removal from cold storage. 12 BULLETIN 1072, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In the districts where difficulty is experienced in keeping fruit shipped to eastern markets in good condition, precocling, when carried on as outlined above, has proved to be of great advantage. In some instances, however, commercial precooling has failed to give satis- factory results. The cause of this has invariably been the failure to cool the fruit in a limited time. Overtaxing the refrigeration capacity of the plant or attempting to cool closely stacked boxes of wrapped and packed fruit has in many cases resulted in a rate of cooling so slow that the injury caused by delay incident to the cooling has been greater than the benefits gained. Since ripening goes on until the fruit is actually reduced to the minimum tempera- ture, a delay incident to cooling is as serious as a delay while the fruit isen route. If shipment is delayed without actually getting the fruit cooled through and through, the results will be less satisfactory than if the pears are shipped immediately after picking. HANDLING FRUIT FOR THE CANNERIES. The handling of Bartlett pears for the cannery is quite different in the ultimate object to be attained from the handling of the same commodity for shipment in a fresh state. With the cannery man a fruit of high dessert quality is the first consideration. The number of days that must elapse between the time of picking and the time the fruit is in prime condition for canning is of less importance than the number of days during which the fruit may be canned or, in other words, between the time when the fruit becomes soft ripe and the time when it begins to break down. There is no doubt that the con- sumption of canned pears would be greatly increased if all this fruit that goes on the market was of the high quality found in certain cans. There is also no doubt that the greatest factor in the produc- tion of canned fruit of low eating quality is the inferiority of the fruit itself before canning. With proper handling there will be no occasion for much of the low-grade product that now goes into cans in many plants. Perhaps the greatest single cause of poor quality in canned Bart- lett pears is picking the fruit too early. There is a marked increase in sugar in fruit taken from the tree at successive intervals during the commercial picking season. During a delay of two weeks in picking the sugar content of the fruit will often increase by 10 per cent. In addition to the increase in sugar, late-picked pears lose much of the astringency characteristic of fruit picked early in the season. The highest quality in Bartlett pears is not attained until the fruit is showing a distinct tinge of yellow color beneath the green at the time of its removal from the tree. Such fruit, if held at temperatures of 60° to 70° F., will be in good condition for can- ning comparatively soon after removing it from the tree. The exact time will vary with the section in which the fruit is grown. After HANDLING, SHIPPING, AND STORAGE OF BARTLETT PEARS. 13 ripening, however, this same fruit will remain firm and without decay for several days, giving a long period in which to put the fruit into the cans. It is obvious, however, that if the pears are left on the trees until late in the season the cannery will have a large quantity of fruit to handle within a comparatively short time. In many cases this can be remedied only by putting the fruit, or a portion of it, into cold storage and holding it there until such time as it can be utilized to advantage. THE COLD STORAGE OF BARTLETT PEARS. The cold storage of Bartlett pears has passed the experimental stage, and it only remains for handlers to adopt the best methods in order to obtain a high-grade stored product. This variety of pear has been held in commercial storage for a period of three months, and in experimental storage up to five months, practically without loss. The two factors which in the past have been responsible for the greatest loss to pear-storage men are (1) allowing the fruit to be- come too nearly ripe after removal from the tree before putting it in storage and (2) holding the storage rooms at too high a tem- perature. To these should be added a third factor, namely, pear storage scald. These factors will be discussed individually. If fruit is to be held in cold storage it is essential that it be placed in the storage rooms as soon as possible after removal from the tree. It is impossible to stop entirely the ripening processes going on in fruit by cold storage, though the rate of ripening can be so reduced that several months will be required to attain the same degree of ripeness that would be reached in 10 days to two weeks at ordinary temperatures. In storing for a cannery the fruit should be placed in storage immediately after removal from the tree for the best results. This is especially the case if fruit from districts producing pears of very poor keeping quality is being stored. This fruit, if left on the tree until in the best condition for canning, will ripen within three or four days after removal from the tree. Such fruit should be in storage within 24 hours at the maximum from the time of picking and preferably on the same day it is picked. This is possible only if the storage house is within trucking distance of the orchard. STORAGE TEMPERATURE. Commercial experience, as well as detailed tests by the Bureau of Plant Industry, have shown that for the best results in cold storing Bartlett pears the temperature should be 30° F. or slightly below. This is the temperature that has been found best in the Yakima Val- ley district in Washington, where fruit handlers have had the widest experience in the commercial cold storage of Bartletts of any section in the Pacific Coast States. As mentioned earlier in this report, it 14 BULLETIN 1072, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. has been found that Bartlett pears respire about one-half as fast at 30° F. as they do at 37°. The average respiration rate at 60° F. is about 10 times that at 30°. It has also been found that fruit can be held fully 10 times as Jong in storage at 30° as at 60° F. Fruit when held in cold storage until full yellow and soft is in- variably of poor dessert quality. It is flat in taste and lacking in flavor. Apparently such fruit has not developed many of the com- pounds that give it the peculiar odor and flavor found in fruit that has not been held in storage at low temperatures. In the case of Bartlett pears, however, it has been found that fruit may be held in storage for periods up to two to three months and then taken out while still hard and green, provided it has been held in temperatures of 28° to 30° F. Such fruit should be ripened at a temperature of 60° to 70° F., and when removed from storage it will develop much of the aroma and flavor found in pears that have ripened in normal temperatures. Invariably it has been found that pears handled in this way, by storing at the minimum temperature until the fruit is to be used and then removing from storage entirely and ripening it at temperatures of 60° to 70° F., have given a product of higher dessert quality than that obtained. by any other storage method. This method of handling is to be recommended, regardless of whether the fruit is intended for canning or for a late fresh-fruit market follow- ing removal from storage. There has been some criticism among cannery men of holding pears at so low a temperature. It has even been said that such a procedure will cause the pears to discolor in the can. In order to determine whether or not a season at low temperature injures the fruit for can- ning, a quantity of pears from two different orchards was removed from storage on December 29, 1920, and was canned on January 4, 1921, almost five months after picking. This fruit made a canned product of very good quality and of splendid appearance, though there was considerable waste in preparing the pears for canning after so long a season in storage. This practice is not to be recom- mended, nor is it desirable from the canners’ viewpoint that pears for the cannery be held more than two months in storage. The fact, however, that this fruit after so long a storage season still made an excellent canned product entirely refutes the theory that cold-storage pears, particularly if held at low temperatures during storage, make a poor quality of canned fruit. Another important matter to the canner is the fact that pears from the districts producing fruit of poor keeping quality, such as those along the California coast, can be handled safely through cold stor- age. During the summer of 1920 a large quantity of pears from Santa Cruz County, Calif., supposed to be among the poorest keep- ing Bartletts in the State, was put in storage under the observation of the writer. This fruit was held at 30° to 31° F. for more than a HANDLING, SHIPPING, AND STORAGE OF BARTLETT PEARS. 15 month. Upon removal from cold storage the fruit ripened normally and made a canned produce of as high a quality as though it had not been placed in storage. PEAR SCALD. During recent years, as Bartlett pears have been held an cold storage in constantly increasing quantities, fruit has frequently come out of storage in a blackened condition. The skin is black or brown and tends to slough off very readily. The injury usually does not penetrate the dissues very deeply, but when much of the surface of the fruit is affected it renders the pear practically worthless. Many of the men who have put fruit in cold storage have attributed this trouble to freezing in the storage rooms. This is not the case, however, for fruit that has been held at temperatures never below 35° F. has’ been found badly scalded upon removal from storage. It is apparently a trouble of pears in cold storage closely analogous to the storage scald of apples. During two years of investigational work on pear storage the writer found that this trouble developed several times when fruit was removed from storage. In pears from the same trees and held under exactly similar conditions in the storage rooms, it has inva- riably been the early-picked fruit that scalded upon removal from storage. During the summer of 1920, Bartletts were picked from the same trees in a typical orchard in Sacramento, Calif., on June 30, July 9, 14, 24, August 3 and 13. Part of each lot of this fruit was held at 35° and part of it at 30° F. On September 24 the fruit was removed from the room having a temperature of 35° F. and held at ordinary room temperature. At that time it was yellow ripe, though still firm. The first three lots picked, from June 30 to July 13, showed practically 100 per cent scald. Lot No. 4, picked July 23, showed approximately 50 per cent scald, while lot No. 5, picked 10 days later, was almost entirely free from it. No scald showed in lot No. 6, picked on August 13. Fruit from Santa Clara, Calif., showed practically the same condition. Apparently, early-picked fruit is far more susceptible to scald than that picked late. It is particularly necessary, therefore, that fruit be well matured on the tree before picking if it is intended for cold storage. In all of the tests so far conducted there has been less scald in fruit held at 28° to 30° F. than in that held at higher temperatures. It seems probable that this is because the fruit has been removed from storage at the lower temperature when in a hard, green condition. Scald appears to develop mainly on fruit that is removed from cold storage in a.yellow-ripe condition. The late picking of fruit in- tended for cold storage, followed by its prompt removal to the cold- storage rooms, appears to be the best insurance against scald. Such fruit can be removed after a reasonable season in cold storage while 16 BULLETIN 1072, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. still firm and green tinted. Not only will this treatment give the greatest security from scald, but it will ako give the highest quality product when it becomes soft ripe. SUMMARY. For two years chemical and physiological studies of the ripening and storage of Bartlett pears have been carried on. The time of picking and method of handling pears vary widely in accordance with the manner in which the fruit is to he consumed. For fresh shipment the fruit will not shrivel if picked after the lenticels are thoroughly corked over. A much superior product will © be secured, however, if the initial picking is delayed until at least two weeks later than this time. Early-picked pears after removal from the tree will remain in a hard, green condition for a much longer period than late-picked fruit from the same tree if held under normal temperature or iced-car tem- perature conditions. Early-picked pears, however, after they once become soft and ripe break down and decay very quickly. Late-picked pears after soften- ing remain in prime condition for eating for a much longer period. There is a wide variation in the length of time the fruit from dif- ferent districts will hold up following its removal from the tree. In general, the districts with relatively high temperatures and low humidity during the growing season produce Bartlett pears with the best carrying and keeping qualities. Precooling pears before shipment is to be recommended in districts where the fruit has poor carrying qualities, provided the refrigeration capacity is sufficient to cool the fruit to 30° F. within 24 to 48 hours following its removal from the tree. If the highest quality is to be secured pears for canning should not be removed from the tree until they show a pronounced yellow ground color beneath the green. Bartlett pears can be held successfully in cold storage for two to three months and, if necessary, even five months, if proper methods are employed. If fruit is to be held in cold storage, it should be allowed to come to the stage recommended for cannery picking before removing it from the tree. Early-picked fruit has a marked tendency to scald in cold storage. Fruit should be removed to the cold-storage rooms immediately after picking and cooled quickly. Fruit should be held at 28° to 30° F. until desired for use; then re- moved and allowed to ripen at 60° to 70°. This will give the highest quality for storage pears. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1922 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry W.G. CAMPBELL, Acting Chief Washington, D. C. Vv May 12, 1922 SOME CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF CALL FORNIA AVOCADOS DURING GROWTH. By C. G. Cuurcu, Assistant Chenist, and E. M. Cuace, Chemist in charge, Laboratory of Fruit and Vegetable Chemustry.' CONTENTS. Page. | Page The California avocado industry...-.....-... 1 | Discussion of results: Purpose of investigation...........-.-...-... 2 | Composition of standard varieties tested... 15 Investigational work: | Correlation between maturity and compo- WIEEHOOS OGCAIpP HOE 2. Yoo. occ: aud hae | SIGTOMLE SENS 52 BASAL ME aA RTE a 16 Methods of analysis!..0.. 222252012. 0002: 4,\\ @onclusions). 2 TO2 1s. 22 OR eS 22 Results of investigation.............-....---- 4 | THE CALIFORNIA AVOCADO INDUSTRY. Avocado growing is still one of the infant industries of California. Although many single trees or small groups of trees have been in existence for some time, real attempts at commercial production extend back for little more than 10 years. About 45,000 trees are now registered, but the greater part of these are not in bearing and many more are dooryard trees not intended for commercial purposes. Large commercial plantings are rare and the industry will not reach its maximum for years to come. All of the different varieties now being planted are more or less in the experimental stage, for no large planting is old enough yet to tell what the trees will do at an advanced age under orchard conditions. | It would be difficult to list all the varieties of the avocado in California, for new types of trees are being continually raised from seed and the first fruits of several such trees are exhibited at prac- tically all of the meetings of the California Avocado Association. The fruit of most of these trees, however, is too poor to be of use, so 1 The writers are indebted to the California Avocado Assomation, a cooperative body of avocado growers, aud to many individual growers for information and materia] of great assistance in this investigation. 94446—22— Bull. 1072 J 2 BULLETIN 1073, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - that the trees are budded over to more promising varieties. At the 1920 spring meeting of the California Avocado Association more than 60 varieties of avocados were on exhibition. In a wise attempt to restrain the commercial plantings of new varieties or strains which have not been thoroughly tested, the association maintains a list of those recommended for commercial use. The varieties now listed are Dickinson, Fuerte, Puebla, Sharpless, and Spinks. Blakeman, Lyon, and Taft, listed in 1919, have been dropped. Descriptions of these varieties can be found in the annual report of the California Avocado Association for 1917 and in the Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, by Wilson Popenoe. PURPOSE OF INVESTIGATION. When it is desirable to harvest fruits or vegetables before they mature, the problem of determining the time of their optimum condition is seldom an easy one. It is particularly difficult in the case of fruits that are raised at a great distance from their markets, in which class belong practically all Pacific coast fruits. Much difficulty has been experienced in trying to place these fruits in eastern markets in a state satisfactory to the consumer, the tendency being to harvest the fruit before it is ready, which results in putting a poor and flavorless product in the hands of the consumer. While it is true that the avocado has not yet reached the stage of development where it is being shipped to eastern markets in commer- cial quantities, that time is fast approaching, and even now, under the commercial methods of marketing it in California, knowledge of its composition at maturity is Imperative. Avocados are harvested while hard and kept in storage at hotels, clubs, or markets until they have softened. If picked too early the fruit has a tendency to shrivel and become “‘rubbery,”’ is watery, and lacks the characteristic flavor of well-matured fruit. Its maturity problem thus assumes special importance. Furthermore, this fruit is now in the first period of its development, as far as the American market is concerned. False impressions of its quality created at this time may greatly injure its future. Already some adverse criticism of the avocado, usually traceable to those who have bought immature fruits, is encountered. The composition of fruit of all of the varieties now grown and of that from seedling trees brought into bearing each year, therefore, is a matter of no little interest to the avocado grower. The work here reported. was undertaken for the purpose of throwing some light upon the problems just enumerated. CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF CALIFORNIA AVOCADOS. 3 INVESTIGATIONAL WORK. METHODS OF SAMPLING. It has been somewhat difficult to get satisfactory trees from which to obtain samples. Orchards are still too few to afford much choice. For satisfactory data upon which to base opinions of either maturity or average composition, samples of each variety should be secured from each of several districts throughout the State. Ideal conditions can be secured only where each variety is found growing in the same orchard, thus being exposed to the same climatic conditions and receiving identical cultivation. As some growers neither cultivate nor fertilize their trees, while others do both, it is well within the realm of possibility that the same variety of fruit grown under such varying conditions will differ markedly in compo- sition and maturity. While conditions at the time this work was undertaken were far from ideal, the knowledge gained by any experi- ment goes far in guiding the industry along the right paths. A single tree of each of the eight varieties recommended by the California Avocado Association in 1919? was selected, in a location where orchard conditions existed, without regard to climatic condi- tions. Each location was in a district where the avocado is commer- cially grown. The trees were located as follows: The Blakeman at Altadena, the Dickinson at Chula Vista, the Fuerte at Yorba Linda, the Lyon at Whittier, the Puebla at San Fernando, the Sharpless at Tustin, the Spinks at Duarte, and the Taft at Yorba Linda. This list shows a wide distribution of locations, each growing district of California being represented with the exception of Ventura and Santa Barbara Counties. ; All of the fruit on the trees, which were young, strong growing specimens, bearing from 25 to 75 fruits, was reserved for samples. Although most of the locations were in secluded areas, a great deal of the fruit was stolen. Loss in one location was caused by wind storms. Depending on the number of fruits on the tree, samples consisting of from one to six fruits were sent to the laboratory for analysis at monthly intervals. When possible the samples were divided at the laboratory into equal subdivisions, one of which was analyzed at once, the other being wrapped in paper and permitted to soften at room temperature before analysis. Whenever it was necessary to store samples after they were ready for analysis, they were held at a temperature of from 35° to 45° F. The samples analyzed at once are here designated “fresh samples,” the others, “storage samples.” 2 Three of these varieties have since been taken from the list because of alleged faults in the trees or fruits. These faults, however, had no bearing on the composition of the fruit. 4 BULLETIN 1073, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. METHODS OF ANALYSIS. The methods of analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists were used. Specific gravity of the fruit was determined by weighing it in air and under water. Each fruit was then cut in half, lengthwise, the seed removed, and the pulp separated from the skin by means of a spoon. Often it was necessary to remove the skin of the fresh immature samples by paring. In such cases the separations could not always be accurately made, a fact which must be taken into IN Nirra nile cbs Cy MeN Os Bye Re A Se Oaths itil & Siok TNO Sa SHE ROC EGOS 0 : % 30. og —t—j— ft Lael 29.0 | < | bs | iB | FIGURE 1.—Monthly increase in fat content of the edible portion of avocados. consideration in interpreting the results. The seed, skin, and pulp were weighed and the percentage of each was determined. Moisture was determined by drying to constant weight in vacuo at 020C. Ash was determined by thoroughly charring the sample at low heat, extracting the char with hot water, and ashing the residue at red heat. Next the water-soluble ash was added. The whole was then evaporated to dryness and heated to very low redness. CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF CALIFORNIA AVOCADOS. 5 Fat was extracted from the moisture-free samples with anhydrous ether in a Soxhlet apparatus. Sugar was determined after inversion in the cold, by the usual reduction methods, the cuprous oxid being determined by the optional official method, using ferrous sulphate and permanganate solution. Nitrogen was determined by the Gunning method, the result obtained being multiplied by 6.25 for protein. Crude fiber was determined by the usual method. RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION. The results of this investigation are given in Tables 1 to 6. Table 1 shows the rank of each variety in the matter of weight, percentage of edible portion, seed, and skin, and the percentage of pro- tien, fat, and crude fiber in the edible portion. The data obtained from the analyses of the fruit from the selected trees are presented in Table 2, and, in order to facilitate comparisons, the same data, calculated to a water-free basis, are given in Table 3. Table 4 shows the number of days elapsing between the time the fruits were picked and the time they became soft enough to eat. Table 5 gives the results obtained from the analyses of miscellaneous samples of avocados grown in California. Table 6 gives the results obtained from the analyses of samples of fruit of the varieties intro- duced from Guatemala and South America by the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. Figure 1 shows the increase in the fat content of the edible portion of the standard varieties of avocados during growth. TaBLe 1.—Comparison of varieties of the avocado. Weight. Seed. | Skin. Variety. Ounces. Variety. Per cent. | Variety. Per cent. ——— 1 | Sha dless Bal abhsera'n Sad Zou |} PUCrie..:. . Basis. Bio al be Dla eee oe ote a 5.9 BU DITIKS © a \o215 aoiros~ oro 2 19.3 | Sharpless. ....2..2.. SAGs Mente ec. os ale cee 5.6 3 Blaken 1112 11 Ee Re a 18.2 |} Dickinson........... 95) Blakemane:.) 252. -- 6.7 Oa a a | LOR Ly ON leai- ais. Saeeials= 9574 Spinksishe be sae cas 7.9 | OU Se Po] Logo ye USPas si tis. Bee. 11.8 | Sharpless. .........- 7.9 Gl MOLLE jee oe cae on = 14.7 | Blakeman....... hs TES Ta) Aen 2b Bee see 8.6 TR LCRIUSON ooo sic ac- 5! LS Ee Wm Diglicsia: = See life el Wayans, reise a aribi 9.5 py Os 00-9) rr | 828 | Puebla. i. 2. 5. enon 19. 4 | Dickinson eee sa. 18.9 edible ; | Protein in edible por- | po. 3, cainia nor} Crude fiber in edible Edible portion. Hone Fat in edible portion. portion. Rank Ve N ? ia | Variety. Per cent. Variety. Percent. Variety. Per cent. Variety. |Percent, bn SEES no : “2 b Britet rou i ah ol Nala) BE Bate 1 | Fuerte BMA 6B 35.0 |.Lyon.'2.....%} 4,37 | Fuerte....... 2908. dDafbie 2.52 0,73 2 Sharpless. ... 84.0) Spinks.)...:.. 2.70} Lyon........| 26.89 | Shar dle SS.awi 1.09 3 | Lyon. eS 78.9 | Fuerte....... 2.32 | Puebla. J).).. 26.45 | Spinks...... 1,09 4| Blakeman. 76.4! Puebla....... | 2.30 | Blakeman....} 21.55 | Puebla...... 1,12 5 | Puebla....... 74.0 | Blakeman....! 2. 25 of A Gacttcie tie 18,89 | Lyon....... 1.15 6 | oo: Saeee 73.0 | Sharpless..... 1, 92 Spinks LAR ELSE: 18.53 | Dickinson... 1.19 7 | Taft oe 72.0 | Dickinson... .| 1.66 | Sharpless....| 18.41 | Blakeman... 1, 24 8 Dickinson... ST 0 4 (a Pee 1. 36 Dickinson. ls 14.45 | Fuerte...... 1.35 6 BULLETIN 1073, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 2.—Composition of avocados at different stages of maturity. BLAKEMAN (ALTADENA). 0 Edible portion. = = 1 Sam: Month} Condi- a Specific Edible . | = — ple eked fina 52 |ravity,| Por Skin. | Seed. No, | P . 2 stavity.! tion. Mois- | 4p. | PrO-| yoy. | Total | Crude < ture. “| tein ail sugars.| fiber. 1 | Per Per Per Pern Bers | Pen peer Per Per O2zs. cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent.| cent. | cent. | cent. 42 Nov. Storage..; 10.9 | 0.9636 73.1 12.6 14.1 | 84.37 | 0.87 | 1.11 7. 83 1, 76 1.24 69 | Feb. Fresh....| 14.3 9915 76.8 12.9 9.9) | 75.67 | 1238") LOL |) 13.93 169) |e woe 70 Feb. Storage. .| 13.1 . 2868 74.4 10.7 14.7 | 75.77 | 1.50 | 1.22 | 16.56 . 82 He25 81 Mar. ydoney ae 16.5 | 1.0085 74.6 9.4 15.7 | 76.16 | 1.22 | 1.03 | 16.04 . 70 1, 25 LOT Maye | as =do uae 18.2 | 1.0188 76. 4 6.7 16.9 | 69.14 | 1.61 | 2.25 | 21.55 49 1. 53 DICKINSON (CHULA VISTA). 1 | | 59 | Jan._.| Fresh._..| 11.6 | 1.0173 | 65.3 22.8 | 11.2 | 84.84 | 0.90 | 0.79 4.17 BUSON Cees 60 | Jan...; Storage..| 10.6 | .9428 | 68. 4 2159 |. 9.5 | 86.47 | 1.20 | 1.01 6. 84 Bey inte se 71 Rep=*] Fresh__-_| 11.2 | 1.0159 | 65.0 24.5 | 10.2 | 84. 23 . 94 79 5. 87 ZERO zee 72 Feb... Storage..| 9.7 .9753 | 67.6 19.7 | 13.0 | 86.10 | 1.02 . 94 7.20 - 50 1.34 83 | Mar...) Fresh..._| 11.4 | 1.0160 | 62.0 BB), Wl APRS |) (S835 S55 hj Ts (O53 . 94 6.15 PARSY AN eis laly Say 84 | Mar...) Storage_.} 10.2 .9540 | 66.7 20:6 | 12.7 | 85.40 | 1.19 | 1.31 7. 80 - 58 1.39 957] Apr.) !| Fresh: !{|/10 6] 1.0083] 62:0) 23.311 14°93 | 84.56 | 1.23 | 1.37) 7263 |) 167 esc lees 96 | Apr...| Storage..| 10.5 | .9650 65.8 | 20:8} 13.1 | 84.71 | 1.12-) 1.31 9.68 - 36 1.19 LOO} Manze ond OLm esa: 10.9 | 1.0031 | 68.3 18.2 13.3 | 82.74 | 1.32 | 1.66 9. 84 41 1.36 110 | May... ...do..... 13.4) .9858 | 68.5 18.9) 12.7 | 81.03 | 1.28 | 1.40 | 10.96 - 46 1.26 120 | June.. Fresh..._| 16.0 | - 9892 | 70.2 18.8 | 10.9 | 75.41 | 1.41 | 1.90 | 14.06 a EES Co} PA og 121 | June.- Storages.| 11.2) .9770 | 60.1) 21.4) 18.5) 75.82 | 1/56 |°1.66 | 14.45 Ch 1.68 FUERTE (YORBA LINDA). | | | | 23 | Sept---| Fresh....| 8.9 | 0.9958 | 73.4 11.0] 14.6 81.69 | 0.72 | 1.50| 6.97 | 3.06 ae Oars 24 | Sept...) Storage..| 5.7 . 9969 76.9) 9.5 13.0 | 82.33 | .80 | 1.66 9.61 . 69 1.48 Si) |, Ochs: a Breshe 2st sS . 9921 G10) |), goa. 13.5) | (8.380 | .76 | 1.44 | 11.32 Pee, 112) 1.35 32 | Oct...| Storage..| 10.1 | 1.0099 Ciestsiin inate Os 7 15.4 | Gog | 1.75 | 12.46 1.02 1.50 46 | Nov..-.| Fresh_...| 11.2 . 9864 SIMO) ewe 7/5 7 13.8 | 72.72 | 1.02 pa aes ae 1.08 1.32 47 | Nov...| Storage..| 10.2 | 1.0075 | 76.4, 6.4 16.7 | 70.93 | 1.24 | 1.88°|| 20557 aval 1.62 a2) Dees 2) Breshes ss 1252 —OHOAN| teil | 8.3 14.1 | 67.42 | 1.17 | 1.71 | 23.99 -58 1.47 53 | Dec...| Storage..| 10.0 - 9810 80.5 | 6.8 12.5 | 64.18 | 1.69 | 1.99 | 26.99 257 1.64 62 | Jan...| Fresh_...| 13.9 VOTZS: InehOxomlh. Mherg 15.2 | 65.99 | 1.24 | 1.49 | 25.12 -38 383 63 | Jan...| Storage...) 12.6 . 9967 (OHS) “GNS 13.9 | 65.31 | 1.25 1.49 | 26.62 .29 1.44 76 | Mar...) Fresh__._| 16.7 - 9616 TER CATS 11.9 | 63.93 | 1234 | 12738) 267 13: alg 1.08 77 | Mar...| Storage..| 14.7 -9861 |} 81.6) 5.6 12.7 | 62.08 | 1.43 | 1.68 | 29.74 39 1.36 88 | Apr...) Fresh....| 13.9 9596 | 79.2 | 9.1 11.2 | 63.46 | 1.40 | 1.88 | 28.19 aul 1.25 89 | Apr...| Storage...) 13.1 - 9626 82.6 oO) 9.7 | 62. 07 | 1.42 | 2.10 | 29.93 Breil 1.42 97 May...| Fresh....| 11.4 .9688 | 78.9 | 10.9 9.7 | 61.08 | 1.33 | 2.32 | 30.15 Bile) 1.24 98 | May...| Storage..| 11.4] .9616| 85.0] 6.0] 8.5) 63.94 | 1.41 | 2.32 | 28.06] .28) 1.35 | J i | | | LYON (WHITTIER). | ] PAN (OX Fresh....| 5.5 | 0.9954 G19") HOR 18.4 | 85.87 | 0.61 | 1.71 4.26 Pests} ial vets oie 28 | Oct...) Storage..| 4.8 - 9790 6585 e 10) alae 18.6 | 85.45 87 | 2.10 5.90 1.56 1.15 38 | Nov..-| Fresh....| 11.2 9968 65.4 | 16.1 17.5 | 82.48 .73 | 1.36 6.55 roy ler cee 39 | Nov...| Storage..| 9.1 | .9144 66.7 | 13.8 19.4 | 83.13 Liye al 9.52 1.81 1.20 54 | Dec Fresh....} 12.4 . 9902 66.6 | 15.8 | 17.1 | 81.49 -68 | 1.27 7.63 Bese 55 | Dec...| Storage..| 9.8 . 9292 69.0 | 12.9 18.0 | 80.59 .93 | 1.49 | 10.42 2.24 1.16 645 | Jan...) Fresh-...| 12.5 | 1.0052 68.0 | 18.2) 13.5 | 73.20 .96 | 1.93 | 14.01 PAPA Se tee tes 66 | Jan | Storage..| 10.3 | - 9317 63.6 | 13.0) 23.2 74.83 | 1.06 | 2.25 | 15.76 1.51 1.35 79 | Mar Fresh....| 14.3 | .9990 68. 6 15.3 | 15.8 | 69.85 | 1.09 | 2.34 | 16.66 VOT sae 80 | Mar...| Storage..| 13.4 - 9892 68.6 Ws 7 19.4 | 70.66 | 1.17 | 2.45 | 19.29 1.90 1.19 90 | Apr.. | Fresh....} 16.5 - 9833 70.9 14.8 | 14.1 | 66.79 | 1.19 | 2.60 | 21.34 129) | EN 91 | Apr...) Storage..| 18.2 | .9798 70.5 10.8 18.6 | 66.13 | 1.24 | 3.02 | 23.41 1.65 1.25 105 May.--.-| Fresh....| 14.8 | .9849 72.5 14.6 | 12.4 | 62.95 | 1.19 | 3.41 | 25.07 Pith i tees 106 | May-...| Storage..| 10.6 | .9719 78.9 11.4 9.7 | 61.56 | 1.43 | 4.37 | 26.89 .94 1.29 116 | June..| Fresh....} 15.9 - 9827 77.1 11.5 | 11.0 | 64.44 | 1.33 | 2.66 | 22.91 TERY (i ae ee 117 | June.., Storage. .) 15.3 | 1. 0051 76.9 9.5 | 13.0 | 64.58 | 1.29 | 3.28 | 24.48 37 1.22 1220 Sithiyes |e edoLs.22 16.7 - 9656 77.8 11.1 11.0 | 68.52 | 1.17 | 3.02 | 25.57 -53 1.16 CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF CALIFORNIA AVOCADOS. TABLE 2.—Composition of avocados ai different stages of maturity—Continued. PUEBLA (SAN FERNANDO). Ze j Edible portion. _ ; if Sam Month} Condi- a Specific Edible : 7 ple | picked.| tion 52 leravity,| Por | Skin. | Seed. | No. eee syle ition | Mois-| 4, | Pro-| pa; | Total | Crude = ; ture. | ““S"*| tein.| “?"- |sugars.| fiber. pe Ss 3 es 3 Uy i | Per Per Per | Pers \wePer |) eras Per. Per Per Ozs. cent cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. 36 | Oct...| Fresh....} 6.9 | 1.0107 | 64.9 | 10.3) 24.4 $2.88 0.83. | Veit) 6.72 | 21ade hoes 37 | Oct.-.} Storage..| 5.7 | 1.0324 | 67.5 6.1} 25.6 | 80.12 | 1.10 | 2.30 | 8.87) 2.58 1.34 40 | Nov...) Fresh....| 7.2 | 1.0147 | 67.7 8.4 | 23.6 | 76.29 | 1.09 | 1.62 | 13.12 th Gig ye ne 41 | Nov...) Storage..| 6.9 | 1.0324 | 67.6 5.8 | 26.4 ; 73.49 | 1.34 | 2.08 | 16.36 | 1.45 1.43 48 | Dec...| Fresh....| 7.6 | 1.0022 | 72.7 7.9} 19.0 | 73.50 | 1.17 | 1.62 | 15.59 Dertaaleeuat 49 | Dec. Storage 6.6 | 1. 0282 71.4 5.5 | 22.8 | 70.01 | 1.60 | 2.02 | 19.99 1.47 1.40 68 | Feb.__}... doss—.- 6.5 | 1.0225 | 68.1 8.1] 23.3 | 63.59 | 1.72 | 2.19 | 26.45 -88 1.42 82°) Mar: |... Gone 8.3 | 1.0232 | 74.0 6.2} 19.4 | 64.89 | 1.77 | 2.27 | 25.33 .75 192 SHARPLESS (TUSTIN). is = ee ee eB es Rae: 4 eo 92 | Apr-_..| Fresh-....} 18.5 | 0.9906 Coe | 13. OPA ill 1a 13) VSO ets, 1204) | 508 2 oe 93 | Apr...| Storage. .| 18.2 - 9312 77.9 10.6 | 11.7 | 77.34 | 1.23 | 1.37 |-15.68 -58 1.13 101 | May-..| Fresh....| 16.4 - 9884 72.1 15.1 1225 |) 76:00) jeek7 |, US13)|-16.05 Afotet He nee - 102 | May---| Storage. .} 11.7 -9501 | 75.1 12.8 12.0 | 74.57 | 1.38 | 1.27 | 18.41 *, 60 1.14 112 | June...) Fresh...) 18.8 -9811 | 75-3) 138227))1 11.2 |. 76.99 |-1.529-) P33) |) 15579 PLS CPs 113 | June..| Storage..| 23.0 | .9255 | 81.9 7.9 | 10.2 | 75.83 | 1.46 | 1.31 | 16.91 - 40 Th) 124 | July. a 22.4 -9781 | 80.0 | 9.2 | 10.6 | 74.65 | 1.50 | 1.44 | 18.39 27 1.09 127 | Aug. Fresh 26.6 | .9812 | 78.2 | 11.71 10.0) 73.33 | 1.42 | 1.78 | 18.47 Oat eer iceccs 128 | Aug...| Storage..| 23.4 -9908 | 84.0) 7.5 8.6 | 73.97 | 1.58 | 1.92 | 17.88 -20 1.12 130 | Sept. SGOs-2 ee 22.9 - 9762 S2E Rai AG 9.2 | 74.94 | 1.51 | 1.36 | 17.71 - 36 1.20 | | | | | ! SPINKS (DUARTE). 56 | Dec...| Fresh....| 14.5 | 0.9718 | 60.8} 12.8} 25.9 | 78.55 | 1.13 | 1.40 | 11.03} 2.16 |....... o7 | Dec...| Storage..| 13.0 | .9460 | 64.8 THRE) | BRAS TCAGPs ql dl GP 1.77 | 12,22 106) |) 91. 27 7t | Mar...) Fresh....; 15.8 | .9853 64.1 12.27) 23.3} 76.15 | 1.19 | 1.53 | 14.36 HR Dy | Se 75 Mar. Storage... 12.6 | .9950) 69.8 10.63) 19.1 73.04 | 1.42 | 1.84 | 17.23 -93 | 1.28 $5 | Apr...| Fresh....| 17.5 - 9527 1 2 3. Ome 20a |ezeoo) | Le43nh Qiao. ulooko arid Bae 86 | Apr...| Storage. .| 18.8 | 1. 0001 69.5 8.5 | 21.8 | 72.66 | 1.44 | 2.32! 18.53 .59 | 1.09 108 | May Fresh...-| 21.0 |. .9450 | 68.5 9.4 | 21.7 | 73.74 | 1.40 | 2.40 | 16.96 Ai eee 109 | May :.| Storage..| 19.3 | ..9977]} 73.0| 7.0} 19.2 | 72.85 | 1.54] 2.36 | 18.37] 53 | 1.11 118 | June-..} Fresh....| 16.9 | .9403 | 69.1 11.2)}. 19.3 | 74.15 | 1.24 | 1.79 | 17.03 Bia ee 119 | June Storage..| 13.1 1.0038 | 1200) Eh. 2A ATS 7 fecke: | deter So" rir 21: aeaelh, 2 ile SV 125 | July a eee 17.5 | 1.0147 64.0 7.0 | 29.0 | 75.66 | 1.42 | 1.66 | 16.04 HAN Soe eee 126 Aug. BAO} = 52 15.3 | 1.0152} 6935") 8 9") (2h. 4) 75. 27 | 1.53 || 2. 70.) 15.54 . 62 | 1. 20 129 | Sept 20h ee | 18.8 | .9830 | 71.8} 681) 20.2 | 75.66 | 1.60 | 2.62 | 15.14 -40| 1.09 Ll te ee Be Se eee. alee ena ! TAFT (YORBA LINDA). | 25 | Sept..| Fresh....| 4.8 0. 9870 | 627 | 10. 7 als 23.9087. 97) 0758 e238) 22208)" S2G0hs eee ee 26 | Sept..| Storage..| 3.8 | .9869 | 71.5) $8.6] 19.8 | 88.67 | .79'| 1.36] 3.51 1.58) ) 1.00 34 | Oct. Fresh....| 7.4 | 1.0044 71.3 | 16.5], 11.4 | 87.57 POO animes OO) || ice Um iee wafer 35 | Oct. Storage..| 4.9) .9460 71.8} 16.4 11.8 | 88.67 67 | 1.16 3. 34 2. 04 Arb) 44 | Nov...| Fresh...-| 9.8 | 1.0001 | 70.6} 17.0} 11.6 | 84.34) .72) .66] 6.45] 2.93)....... 45 | Nov...| Storage..| 8.5} .9443 | 67.3, 16.7 15.8 | 84.46} .85] .83)| 7.56 1.71 | . 99 SO | Dec...) Fresh....| 7.9 | 1.0020 68.9 17.0 13.3 | 83. 58 .78 ay 6. 88 Pay ai Vale Boned 51 | Dec...) Storage..; 83) .9749| 70.8 13.8 15.3 | 83.86 | 1/13) 279)! 8.60 | 1.28 | .93 61 Jan oe d0; 22.4 8.2 | .9324| 70.1) 16.2 13.7 | 80.04 | 1.24 | 1.03 | 12. 46 VL) 97 78 | Mar...|..: dO. 44, « 14.4 . 9927 d200 We 10,7 16.3 | 78.87 | 1.11 . 19 | 13.12 68 - 91 87 | Apr...|... 0: 4; | 14.2 . 9835 70. 1 12, 2 17,2 | 76.52 | 1.35°| 1.40 | 15.51 Sith 95 103 | May Fresh 1 15,8 | . 9811 69.8 | 15.1 14.6 | 72.01 | 1.60 | 1.58 | 19. 48 Ail elas 104 May Storage..| 15.3 | 1.0025 eo}. 108 17.4 | 73.75 | 1.45 | 1.31 | 18,89 . 58 1. 03 114 | June..| Fresh....| 16.4 . 99S 65.4 14.5 18.9 | 71.56 | 1.47 | 1.22 | 20. 27 BAe Al se istete 115 | June..| Storage..| 10.8 ' 1.0141 70.4) 11 18.7 | 76.19 | 1.51 | 1.31 | 16. 34 . 68 97 | 8 BULLETIN 1073, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 3.—Composition of avocados at different stages of maturity (calculated to water-free basis). BLAKEMAN (ALTADENA). | Sam- | Month aie : Total Crude | Undeter- ple picked. Condition. Ash. Protein. Fat. sugars. leat. sare Per cent. | Per cent. ; Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. 42s NOVEsee os Sboragels) seeks als 5. 57 7.10 50. 09 11. 26 7. 89 18. 04 69 | Feb....... Breshyh cane) SN een 5. 67 4.15 57. 25 65/955) 2. ee Se eee TOMA NO) oye ss Sh Storage; Gamo)! Ne 6.19 5. 03 68. 35 3. 38 5.15 11. 89 SL Marts sei COE Ree a) 52 Nine 5, 12 4,32 67. 28 2. 94 5, 24 15. 10 MTs) iret ee eran Pees ON eve Speeaie eg ame Ae Dom 7. 29 69. 83 1.59 4,96 11.11 DICKINSON (CHULA VISTA). ae) dena ee dire sta the we eo Ue 5.93 5. 21 27. 49 235 O71) Deore a ese age erer 60>) Janes SPORaS Csaee wee mayer yee 8.87 7. 46 50. 55 22.73) \oasccuiaee aleeaeeee ere Cab URC Do pcoacic RreSbirac je ida on 5. 96 5. 01 37. 24 DW Gipsy Neaisie es Cal ie Gd Nee 2M Ds sae DEORA OME Wao HaNnie iu) 7.37 6. 76 51.79 3. 96 9. 64 20. 50 563)|) Whar oe oo SBIre ste es INE el 6. 42 5. 36 38. 33 15. FO}; | ose PS Ae 84 | Mar_...... Storage 8.15 8. 97 53. 42 3. 97 8. 90 16. 58 Gon ARp Tew meee BRE S ia ay 7.97 8.87 | 49. 43 As BA | a), ey eae Meal ce iene 96 er 8. 57 63. 33 2.35 7.78 10. 66 100 7.65 9. 62 57. 00 2. 38 7. 53 15. 82 119 6.75 7.38 lent 2, 42 6. 64 19.03 120 5.73 lentes 57. 18 AT 2) | 2h see SMM ete e i eletee ae D2 ae: ee SLOLAGE a pia al 2 aCe 6. 45 6. 86 59. 76 2. 36 6. 95 17. 62 FUERTE (YORBA LINDA). Fresh 3. 93 8.19 33.06 | 16. 71 6. 94 26. 16 Storage 4. 53 9. 39 54. 38 | 3. 90 8.38 19. 41 Fresh Bs oll 6. 65 52: 28 9.79 6. 24 21. 52 Storage 4.33 8.32 59. 25 4.85 7.13 16.12 Fresh 3.74 5. 68 64. 55 3. 96 4, 84 17. 23 Storage 4. 27 6. 47 70. 76 2. 44 5. 57 10. 49 resh 3.59 5. 25 73. 64 1.78 4,51 11. 23 Storage 4.72 5. 56 75. 35 1.59 4.58 8. 21 Fresh 3. 65 4.38 73. 86 1.12 3. 91 13. 08 Storage 3. 60 4.29 76. 73 . 84 4.15 10. 38 Fresh 3.72 4.80 72. 45 47 2. 99 15.58 Storage By iil 4.43 78. 43 1.03 3. 59 8.76 Fresh 3. 83 5 a5) 77.15 30 3. 42 10.15 Storage 3.74 5. 54 78. 91 82 3.74 7. 23 Fresh 3. 42 5. 96 77. 47 33 3.19 9. 64 Storage 3. 91 6. 43 77. 82 78 3.74 7.32 i | LYON (WHITTIER). PBS hie cay A) Me 4.3 12.10 30.15 1823S) || fe 7 Se Sees ee ae FSRIO) cee ex\ thes Meme C es BP 5. 98 14. 43 40. 55 10. 72 7. 90 20. 41 res hisaeen a hae na 4.17 7.76 37.38 NS89) Wa ANS ee Be ces aerate POLAR Cea Ne jane Meraitee 4.30 10. 14 56. 43 10. 73 Te iul 10. 79 Daye aYs SNT A Aine) Sea 3. 67 6. 86 41.24 DW Wea act rie ey re Slorase eee ee es 4.7 7. 63 53. 69 11.54 5. 98 16. 33 Lit sts oe aN hes aR aD aL 3.58 7.20 52. 27 LOLS [AER Oe clam | ASR Neer LOTAS eam aa ee Meee 4, 21 8. 94 62. 61 6. 00 5. 36 12. 87 BETES Tease Metin 3. 62 7.76 55. 26 Bs DA ee sale a a ene SUOLALC eee eae | 3.99 8. 35 635. 75 6. 48 4. 06 11.38 PRINS Stas ies as). Ree sb 3.58 7. 33 64. 26 Bote eee Ree cee ate UOTALE Meese! SeeRE 3. 66 8. 92 69. 12 4. 87 3. 69 9. 74 TURES) OES SPS YEA ec Beil 9. 20 67. 67 2. UGE hae oe est ae ey a Storage. savaue: hua 3. 2 11.37 69. 96 2. 45 3. 36 9. 16 AOSTA! RR aS ALG 3.74 7.48 64, 43 Bs OL) | Seroyal ie eee SEOLAL Cs aee ee ieee 3. 64 9. 26 68. 97 1.04 3. 44 13. 64 Ab ee C6 Opie pa Lees 3.72 9. 59 81. 22 1. 68 3. 65 13 PUEBLA (SAN FERNANDO). SON OCT e Mae DES Tames ic Rr 4.85 10. 34 39. 25 13549 lore Netra ecal aiae see neers Sie Over, ue SGoTagerarew! vale uk | 5. 53 iil Sy 44. 62 12. 98 6.79 18. 51 40) | INOWso54 552 APRESS OVC ANTE rea 4.60 6. 83 55. 33 6:92 (ee el seecns eee ete ATS MIN Opel NLORAL Cree ae se sele iyge 5. 05 7.85 61.71 5.47 5. 39 14. 52 ASN Deco ns 1 Ds ish apy Ne ee a 4.41 6.11 58. 83 6250) eS Sees ee eee 49 | Dec......- SUOMI Scab souesbenisas 5. 33 6.74 66. 65 4.90 4.67 11.70 683i Me bya e semen GOP ecie te sae as 4.72 6. 02 72. 65 2. 42 3. 90 10.30 S2i Mier pes aes |e (0 Ko VES Me ery 5. 04 6. 47 72.14 2.14 3.19 11.02 CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF CALIFORNIA AVOCADOS. 9 TABLE 3.—Composition of avocados at different stages of maturity (calculated to water-free basis)—Continued. SHARPLESS (TUSTIN). Sam- ; : | Month aa . Total Crude | Undeter- ple picked Condition. Ash. Protein. Fat. sugars. | fiber. | aR. are Se Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. 92 4.94 4. 67 64.35 (hye epee RS ee Re he 93 5. 43 6. 05 69.19 |, 2. 56 4. 99 | 11.77 101 4. 90 4.73 67.18 SOS! epee eyes Saas BARES 102 5. 43 4.99 72. 40 2. 36 4. 48 10. 34 li 5. 61 5.78 68. 62 TE hott etcetera lecedpassusr 113 6. 04 5. 42 69. 97 1.65 4. 63 12. 29 124 5. 92 5. 68 72.55 1.07 4. 30 10. 49 127 5. 32 6.17 69. 25 Ile 2 Gu eben ahaa See Ieaisesmerere 128 6. 07 7.38 68. 69 - 96 4.30 | 12. 60 130 6. 02 5. 43 70. 67 1.44 4.79 11. 65: | SPINKS (DUARTE). 56 RES Sesse re; Sse oe 5.27 6.53 51. 42 TORO Ana ps aaea Sm mec on 57 RS ICO 2 eC = mer 6.79 7.91 54. 60 4.7 5. 67 20. 28) 74 IBTeSR eta cele ra-iSe 4.99 6.41 60. 21 (Ciro il aA IL ea ncaa ct oe 75 Wetoragese ge” eeu ery! 5. 27 6. 82 63. 91 3. 45 4.75 15. 80! 85 Breshi 292 052 eh 5. 21 8. 60 66. 07 2 SD) eS A Fyre Ne Os 86 SOLAS Crane eam 5.27) 8.49 67.78 2.16 3.99 12.33, 108 1 Dries] oes ea aia 5. 33 9.14 64. 59 POLS) Ieaepeyes Epilator tenner 103 ~ |) SbOrapeys sa. Js) 2 5.67 8.69 67.66 1.95 4.09 11. 93: 118 abreshy tsa 32 Fee onl 4.80 6.92 65. 88 UE Gite epee led gene 119 SHORAGC apucrer.,- peri eee 5.85) 7. 24 64. 87 2.34 5.16 15.04 25) July.2- --<.)----- OSes - Sa- a-ise 5. 83 6. 82 65. 90 LGAs ieee eenes| cases eee 126.) Aue ©. 5.02/52... 2 (OG cic GEC EEEEEEe 6.19 10. 92 62. 84 2Hol 4.85 12.70 129 | § sr ecpBlagoes Gorse. P23 6. 57 10. 76 62. 20 1.64 4.48 14, 34 —_ | ! TAFT (YORBA LINDA). 25 | | Rireshy2 i 142: tebe eet 4.82 10. 22 18. 29 PASS ed ec pa eke ers Mea SE es 26 | Storage. 42 28 = Pe 6.97 12.00 30.98 13.95 8. 82 27.27 34 | BY GSN... 27) ee Se ee Skee ot 4.75 7.42 19.23 P43 LO PA eS AHN Tage se 35 | EPOLACC es ae oa tek ee 5. 91 10. 24 24. 98 18. 00 6.44 29.92 44 | Breshyy #52 ou ide Set 4.69 4.21 41.17 Alt cS ld Wego Era UR 45 WSHOPaP Oras oe coms ose 7 5.47 5. 34 48.65 11.00 | 6.37 23.16 50 | RES sas ee tbh se 4.75 aul 41.90 SS ort eee ee aks Necture ke 51 Storarenise. cee 25:5 7.00 4.89 53. 28 7.93 | 5. 76 21.13 1) RE: Se Pee (sos see ea ee 6.21 5.16 62.42 3. 06 | 4.86 17.79 7) (iL 1) en ee GOSe ae 52 o-2 2% 5.25 3. 74 62.09 3. 22 | 4.31 21,39 Sieaphs.2-22-|2---. dossete Fe lie 5.75 5. 96 66. 10 3. 02 | 4.05 15. 16 103 FYGS YEt Se peees lacie 9.12 5.47 69. 59 PARTY: el ReSRey siete Seed eae eg 1 104 ea OLOLAg es =. see'= 272 5. 52 4.99 71.97 2.21 | 3. 92 | 11.39 114 Bresh 660s. eh te oi 5:17 4,29 71.27 Teas meer ee a eS 115 PALOTAR Osa coe a ese 6.34 5. 50 68. 63 2.86 | 4.07 | 12.60 \ i s | Taste 4.—Number of days required for softening avocados. x — s Variety. | Sept. Oct. | wov. Dec. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. Apr. | May. |June. | July.| Aug. |Sept. ——t ; ot? dich - a : z toner Spinks.....1....... Vise ss) apes UE ee lea ) Wee Ah ae SIA YA 208 BB) iB, 8 BUREUGs. cote Hah = 5. 13 11 Bey es 12| 16 6 7 5 (hl SEA el at. Sco eles fete eae Eo, Se ee 8 14 ba) Sle | 13| 216ileyed9)| =76 5 7 Bil ees eae [sve tees igi) i ie ARS el bean 1 ae 14 | 13 12 | LO Slav sopeat. | Sibrevctetell era ate 8G] eretetuere | atacand lia cnfsiai RRs) Seg > ei > Pandta ela 175 Vl a) A | 17 19 | 8 5 6 4 7) Rae eS Sharpless........... poe oe I eel ale ee ae Miecwod 10 7 5 2 6 10 SOLS CTE RE pen ae aie gral Pipes pope Sp paras 22 17} 20 9 | 9-10 ui levormrreen (AC nt Abe Seusbie Blakeman....... .. hes fe BN AOS 6 Aaa’ ae | LG: eee 4 9 | (cb pee rb AS Bleed Woh ede IO | he 94446—22—Bull. 1073 =2 BULLETIN 1073, U. S. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURI l 107 BULLETIN 14 “TOT M78 pojeooy ‘10z PUB GET ‘SON pUR ‘eIAOIUOPW 4 poied0] ‘PHT PUB EPT ‘SON ‘BIUODSOID BT 4V poyeo0] ‘cpt ‘ON O[dues Jo WOTYdodKO OY} ATA ‘94.1eNG 7B po}ROOT OIOM SOTJOTIVA OSOT[} [TV 1 | | { soamqeyy |=" 71 =" 7] 2e-eT | GBT [>>| OE"EL | INST | Se'ZL | O° | 6800°T | Gre’ |">~ “Mees ye |--ueeIs yreq | gz cBny | cocsny |---- 7-07 |e OD aaaa 10z “THAQnop | é “Sut Aqrangew |---| 2¢* | ize | 99°L | Fst | 026A | 2ZE°ZT | 28°89 | LO“ET | LET6* | SL*OT |* “WooId yOsIIg |- u8AId yaa 1G ABW) Seo e Glpep | -pees uReTTYyD | 6ST mUlelene U0013 YJANOT jyey - 9uo -auo ‘etdind ‘atdaind 0g Gc 1 | 29° 16 ‘02 146° |" | OG TL | FS Te | 9E°E9 | OL ST | TH66™ | Ty SYyANoy-oamyT, | TEU - oO | 6 “Ady |g “adv joo eases SO Dates iaas “OIMNYeWY | 6h | T6°1S | GT | Ge 02 | 298 | P9°S9 | LE CL | cogil eer at [Sa ee RS Mae Opes Neg a ad “| &@ VeW | 8 “eW | O9cEP “ress BJOURS | SPT 9] “opdtmes 100g j= 7 = #88 | G61 | °° | OP -E8 | CIAL | 66°02 | G8°TE | PTE6” =| OL PT | aydang eee) ai Aine | 0 eune | --~~ eal | peewee = at op. 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COMPOSITION OF STANDARD VARIETIES TESTED. The averages of the analyses of the standard varieties of the avocado can not well be used as a basis for comparison, for the reason that samples from some trees were taken while the fruit was immature and those from other trees only when the fruit had become almost ripe. Table 1 was arranged, therefore, to show the order in which each variety ranked with respect to each constituent. The rank is based on either the maximum or minimum figure obtained. The maxima are given in the case of weight, edible matter, protein, and fat; the minima in the case of skin, seed, and crude fiber. When the differences are small, these figures should not be given too much weight, as the relative position of the variety might be changed by another set of data obtained from trees differently located. It might be better, therefore, to rank the varieties by groups only. When mature, Sharpless, Spinks, and Blakeman average well over a pound to the fruit; Lyon, Fuerte, Taft, and Dickinson, while often reaching a pound in weight, average less, usually about 13 or 14 ounces. Puebla averages about 8 ounces in weight. Fuerte and Sharpless have the greatest proportion of edible matter, more than 80 per cent. Lyon, Blakeman, Puebla, Spinks, and Taft have between 70 and 80 per cent. Puebla and Fuerte show less than 6 per cent of skin; Blakeman, Spinks, Sharpless, Taft, and Lyon range from 7 to 10 per cent; and Dickinson exceeds 18 per cent. Fuerte and Sharpless have the smallest seeds, with Dickinson and Lyon next, each of the four varieties having less than 10 per cent of their weight in seed. Taft and Blakeman run below 15 ver cent, while Spinks and Puebla exceed that figure. When protein is considered, Lyon is the outstanding variety, haying more than 4 per cent. In any attempt to increase the pro- tein content of the avocado by bud selection, therefore, this fruit must be considered. When mature, it contains more protein than any other variety yet examined. Spinks, Fuerte, Puebla, and Blakeman are rich in protein, having more than 2 per cent, while the remaining three varieties fall below that figure. Fuerte leads all other varieties in fat content at maturity, having almost 30 per cent. Lyon and Puebla are also very rich in fat, the best samples containing over 25 per cent. Blakeman, when mature, runs over 20 per cent, while Spinks, Sharpless, and Taft are just below that figure. Dickinson is low in fat, the best sample having less than 15 per cent. Taft has the smallest amount of fiber, the best sample showing less than 0.75 per cent. Sharpless and Spinks contain a little over 1 per 16 BULLETIN 1073, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cent. Puebla, Lyon, Dickinson, and Blakeman have less than 1.25 per cent, Fuerte being the only variety to exceed that amount. CORRELATION BETWEEN MATURITY AND COMPOSITION. Even a superficial study of the tabulated data reveals many inter- esting relations between the composition of the fruit and its maturity. The greatest problem in maturity investigations, however, is the correlation between physical appearance and composition. As a rule it is not hard to decide fairly accurately from its composition at what stage of growth a fruit is in its optimum condition. It is compara- tively difficult, however, to correlate this stage with some physical aspect, particularly when the optimum condition desired necessitates the gathering of the fruit some time before it is to be eaten or pre- served. All fruit reaches a stage where its maturity is manifest from the physical appearance, but usually when this stage is reached the fruit has passed the optimum condition for long shipment and per- haps even for storage. For instance, when cantaloupes have begun to develop a yellow color on the vine, the time is past when they can be satisfactorily shipped for long distances, and coloring on the tree marks the time when Bartlett pears have passed their best condition for shipping and storage. Purple or black avocados change in color during growth. An ex- tended study of these varieties might show some correlation between their color and their composition. In the case of green-coloréd fruit, however, such an opportunity is not afforded. Neither kind can be left on the tree until soft enough to eat, with satisfactory results, for besides the loss of time there is also a noticeable loss in flavor. The color of the stem has been suggested as an mdication of maturity. This may be practical with some varieties, but so far the experience of the authors has led to no definite conclusions nm this matter. The stems of some decidedly immature fruit are yel- lowish, while those of others are green after the fruit has reached a satisfactory state for picking. As far as physical appearance is concerned, it has been impossible to correlate closely any single character or set of characters with maturity. There is, however, a definite correlation between some other char- acteristics and ripeness. Thus, the time which elapses after picking, until the fruit becomes sufficiently soft to be edible, roughly indicates: whether or not it was in a satisfactory condition when picked. Data in Table 4 show that during growth there is a sharp decline in the time necessary for this softening, but the chart (fig. 1) shows that this change is seldom correlated with the fat content. For imstance, in the case of the Fuerte, in February the period elapsing between the time of picking the fruit and the time when it was soft was only 6 days, whereas before that time this period had been from 11 to 16 CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF CALIFORNIA AVOCADOS. 17 days. The rapid increase in fat content of this variety, however, ceased in December, and it seems evident that the fruits were in as good condition for eating at that time as in February. On the other hand, the Taft required only 6 days for softening in March, compared with 12 to 19 daysin the previousmonths. Themaximum fat content here was not reached until May, however, and the fruit was perhaps ready to eat in April. The Lyon sample for March required 8 days to soften, whereas previously from 12 to 19 days had been required. The maximum fat content was not reached until May, and the fruit was not in satisfactory eating condition until April. It would thus appear that the period required for softening is only an approximate indication of a satisfactory con- dition for harvesting. While the fruit of several of the standard varieties was not avail- able in sufficient quantities for satisfactory completion of the tests, enough data were secured from the analyses of Fuerte, Lyon, and Taft to throw some light on the changes which took place as the fruit matured. Specific gravity of the fruit does not vary with maturity. With one of the varieties there is a possible tendency toward a lower specific gravity in the samples as the fruit becomes thoroughly mature, but this is not the general rule. For instance, with the Fuerte, both the fresh and storage samples tend to decrease in den- sity as the season advances. Starting with a specific gravity of 0.99 or 1, they decrease in a more or less irregular way until the final samples show a density of about 0.96. Most of the other varieties, however, show no such tendency, and it may even be said that the tendency is toward an increase in density as the season advances. The edible matter increases in all varieties as the fruits mature, but there seems to be no satisfactory line of demarcation which indicates maturity. The amount of moisture, of course, varies inversely with the amount of fat and therefore decreases with maturity. The percentage of ash in avocados is relatively small. While it increases with maturity, it is hardly possible to formulate a test with this figure as a basis. Protein is also higher later in the season than when the fruit is immature. This constituent seems variable, however, and_ there- fore less available for standardizing purposes. The fat or oil of the avocado, of course, is its chief constituent, and when it has reached its maximum there is no doubt that the fruit is mature. The question arises, however, as to how long before this point is reached the fruit can be harvested with satis- factory results as far as eating and storage qualities are concerned. 18 BULLETIN 1073, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. When sampling could begin soon enough, the fruits showed a con- sistent and more or less uniform increase in fat up to a certain point, after which the increase was much less (fig. 1). Often, late in the season, apparent decreases are indicated, showing at least that the increases were not sufficient to overcome the variability of the samples. In the limited experience of the authors, it would seem that the point where the uniform increase in fat ceases is about the point where a satisfactory maturity is found. With the Fuerte this occurred in December, with the Puebla in February, with the Lyon in May, with the Blakeman in May, with the Spinks in March, with the Taft in May, and with the Sharpless in April or earlier. The Dickmn- son samples afford no data on this point, as the sampling ceased epics the fat content had become constant. The reducing substances or sugars in the pulp of the avocado decrease markedly as the fruit ripens, but the range is hardly suf- ficient to be of use in estimating maturity. Little or no sucrose is present in avocado pulp. The crude fiber changes but little during the growth of the fruit, such changes as take place probably being due to the variability of the other constituents. From the data given in Table 3, showing the actual content of fat on a water-free basis, however, it is evident that at the time the rapid increase in fat ceased, the percentages on a water-free basis in the different varieties were, with one exception, close to 70. The following are the figures: Blakeman, 70 per cent; Dickinson, 60 per cent; Fuerte, 75 per cent; Lyon, 70 per cent; Puebla, 73 per cent; Sharpless, 72 per cent; Spinks, 68 per cent; Taft, 72 per cent. It might be supposed from these data that Dickinson was not yet mature, inasmuch as sampling stopped at this time, but miscellaneous samples harvested even later the following year showed a lower content of fat than was shown by these samples. Experience with fully matured fruit of other varieties indicates that avocados rich in fat usually contain at least 70 per cent on a water- free basis, but the rule does not hold when the fat content at maturity is low. One other source of information concerning changes taking place while the fruit is ripening is afforded by the comparison of the dats, resulting from the analysis of the fresh and storage samples. When these data are confined to the edible portion of the fruit, the differ- ences are more striking after the data have been reduced to a water- free basis (Table 3). Many interesting phenomena are revealed by a close study of these results. Some of them may be the result of errors in the analyses or of the natural variability in samples con- sisting of but two or three fruits, but most of them are undoubtedly the result of changes in composition of the fruit after it is removed from the tree. Itis hardly practicable to analyze part of one fruit and CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF CALIFORNIA AVOCADOS. 19 store the remainder until it has softened before analyzing it. The best that could be done was to select a lot containing from two to six fruits, as nearly uniform as possible, analyze half this number as soon after picking as possible, and hold the other half until they had become soft. The data must therefore be considered in the light of these facts. Where, however, changes are almost always in one general direction, the probability of their being the result of individual variation is remote. In all, 40 samples were analyzed at once and after storage, the number being distributed among immature and mature fruits. Some difference between the specific gravity of the fresh and storage fruits of many varieties is shown. In some varieties the storage samples have a much lower specific gravity than the fresh, but in other varieties the reverse is true. Peculiarly enough, also, the position in each type when the fruits are thoroughly mature shows a tendency to reverse itself. Cases in point are the Taft, six samples of which were examined, and the Fuerte, eight samples of which were examined. The Taft samples in September had the same specific gravity, but in October, November, and December fresh samples had a higher gravity than the storage samples picked at the same time, while in May and June the reverse was true. The Fuerte samples for Sep- tember also had approximately the same specific gravity. The October, November, December, January, March, and April samples of fresh fruit, however, had a lower specific gravity than the storage sam- ples, while in May the reverse was true. Also in the case of the Lyon the fresh samples shewed a higher specific gravity until June, when the storage samples had the higher density. On the other hand, the Puebla samples always showed a difference in specific gravity, the soft samples having the higher. Unfortunately, the samples were exhausted before thorough maturity was reached, so that any change late in the season escaped observation. The December samples of the Spinks showed a higher density in the fresh sample, after which the reverse held true. Omitting the data on the Blakeman, only one double sample of which was examined, the varieties having the heavier skins (Dickin- son, Lyon, and Taft) have higher densities in the fresh samples. The thin-skinned fruits (Fuerte, Puebla, and Spinks) show a higher density in the case of the storage samples. Sharpless also is rather thin-skinned, but acts in this respect like a thick-skinned variety. In several cases the pulp or edible matter increased during storage of the samples. Two factors may account for this—individua variation in the fruit and inability to separate satisfactorily the skin and the pulp in the very green samples. In this connection it will be noticed that the proportion of skin in the storage samples is almost always lower than that in the fresh samples. Of the 40 20 BULLETIN 1073, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. double samples, the storage fruit had 11.2 per cent of skin and the fresh fruit 13.8 per cent. As the moisture in the pulp was about the same between the two sets, this shows that any loss in weight on standing is largely due to loss of water from the skins. The proportion of seed is somewhat higher in the storage samples than in the fresh, about 0.8 per cent, being 15.2 for the fresh and 16. 0 for the storage. The loss of water from the skin, which increases the relative proportion of the seed, probably is the cause. The percentage of water in the pulp varies but little. The 40 double samples show about 0.7 per cent more water in the storage than in the fresh samples, a quantity which is probably negligible, as 1t amounts to only 1 per cent of the moisture content. The per- centage of ash is higher by approximately 10 per cent m the storage samples than in the fresh. The only way to explain this discrepancy, which is too large to be accounted for by variation in the samples, is by the difficulty of separating the pulp and skin of the very imma- ture fresh samples. The greater portion of ash in the pulp of the avocado hes next to the skin. If more of the pulp of the fresh samples were left adhering to the skin, less ash would be apparent in the remaining pulp. This difficulty is not encountered in the soft sam- ples, as the pulp is more readily separated. The fact that the greater ash content is nearer the skin, found true in many fruits, has been confirmed in the case of the avocado by analyses made in the labo- ratory, which showed the outer half of the pulp next to the skin to have 1.54 per cent of ash, as compared with 1.36 per cent of ash in the inner half next the seed, the same avocado being used for each determination. The proteim content shows a somewhat similar change, the average content for the storage samples being approximately 1.8 per cent, while the fresh samples contain but 1.6 per cent. Calculation to the water-free basis does not alter the general ratio between the proteim contents of the samples. Another peculiarity of the data is the uni- form increase in the protein content of the storage samples of imma- ture fruits over that of the fresh samples. This is particularly notice- able in the case of the Lyon, where the average increase in protein of the storage samples over the fresh is more than 0.4 per cent. With some of the other varieties, this increase is more marked in the case of the immature fruits; after maturity there is in many cases little change, and in some a reverse condition is true. Taking it all in all, the results are inconclusive. It is hard to conceive of a condition where the actual nitrogen content of the fruit could be increased after removal from the tree. There also seems to be a decided increase in fat content in the storage samples when the fruit is immature, an increase which is not maintained after maturity has been reached. At present it is not CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OF CALIFORNIA AVOCADOS. 21 clear whether this is the result of chemical changes occurring during storage or merely of the loss of some other constituent in the fruit. In this connection it is to be noted that the loss of sugar accompanies the increase in fat content and that there is also a decrease in unde- termined matter in the storage samples. These losses are not always uniform, however, or in proportion to the increase in fat. When it is recalled that the analyses were necessarily made on different fruits, small inconsistencies can be explained by individual variations in the fruits. The loss is not due wholly to evaporation of water, for the differences are maintained when the data are stated on the water- free basis. There is some loss in weight in avocados on storage, but the loss of water by evaporation from the pulp is offset by the decomposition of other material. Undoubtedly sugar or at: least substances of similar nature are transformed rapidly and are no longer calculated as sugar when the immature fruit is allowed to soften. Such changes often amount to well over 50 per cent of the sugar found. This sub- ject will need further careful study before many questions can: be answered. As far as the present investigation goes, it is sufficient to conclude that there appears to be a decided increase in fat content and decrease in sugar content and undetermined matter during the storage of immature avocados. These changes are less marked in the case of the storage of mature fruits, which sometimes show a reversal in the order of the change. With the amount of work so far accomplished, it is impossible to attempt to recommend a maturity standard on any of the varieties of the avocado. The work here reported covers but one season and one locality for each variety. The data on several of the varieties are decidedly meager. In the search for promising seedlings and varieties, many miscel- Janeous samples have been examined in the Laboratory of Fruit and Vegetable Chemistry. Samples of special interest are those of the Guatemalan varieties introduced by the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction of the Bureau of Plant Industry, not a few of which are now in bearing in California. These samples, the results of the analysis of which are given in Table 6, include the following varieties: Pankay S. P. I. 44785, Benik S. P. Ll. 44626, Mayapan S. P. I. 44680, Cantel S. P. I. 44783, Nimlioh S. P. I. 44440, Lamat S. P. I 48476, Cabnal S. P. I. 44782, Tertoh S. P. I. 44856, Kanola S. P. I. 43560, and a Chilean seedling S. P. I. 43475. Of these Pankay, Benik, Mayapan, Lamat, and Cabnal were mature in May, when the first samples were obtained. Cantel and Tertoh were not mature at that time, and there is some doubt as to the maturity of the first samples of Nimlioh. Kanola had every appearance of being mature in February. The second sample of 22 BULLETIN 1073, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tertoh was poor and possibly immature. As will be seen from the table, several of the varieties are rich in oil. Of these Cabnal was believed to have the best flavor. Kanola, while small, also has a good flavor and possibly matures as early as February, when the markets are not glutted with fruit. The protein content of these importations is lower than that of the standard varieties developed in California. They have the heavy.skin of the Guatemalan types, which is possibly a marked advantage when shipping quality is con- sidered. The seeds in a number of them are also larger than the average seeds of the types developed in California. All of these fruits are from young trees, and possibly some of the characteristics will be modified as the trees develop. The analyses of other California types and seedlings are given in Table 5. Many of these are seedlings which have not yet been grown by vegetative propagation, so that it is of little use to comment on their quality. The data, however, are of value to those who are seeking promising experimental material. CONCLUSIONS. No satisfactory correlations: between physical properties and ma- turity have been found in the avocados examined. The proportion of many of the constituents of the avocado changes during its development, the most marked change being the increase of the fat content. This takes place rapidly while the fruit is imma- ture, and much more slowly as it approaches maturity, with possibly a slight decrease if the fruit remains too long upon the tree. It is accompanied by a decrease in sugar content. Fruits rich in fat (above 20 per cent) contain at least 70 per cent of that constituent on a water-free basis at maturity. On storage of immature fruits there is an apparent increase in the proportion of fat, accompanied by a decrease in the sugar content and undetermined matter. Mature fruits on storage do not show this increase to the same extent, and at times show some loss. No standards of maturity are recommended. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1074 4S = — = =N SUNS Se ar Washington, D. C. Issued November 8, 1922; revised August, 1923 CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. By J. ALLEN CLARK, Agronomist in Charge, JoHN H. Martin, Agronomist, Western Wheat Investigations, and CARLETON R. Balt, Cerealist in Charge, Office of Cereal Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Necessity for a classification of wheat_ 1 Classification of the genus Triticum_ 48 Previous investigations________--_- 2 Key to the species or subspecies_ 50 Foreign classifications________~_ 3 Common swheat. 2a a eee 50 American classifications ____-__ 7 labs wa eer a I 172 Summary of previous classifica- lero Rh: yaaa ee 180 BIGHT = er ERS ee 9 Durumi wheat 2222 es eae rs 183 Present investigations __________~__ 10 QTV OTe BANE ae SN a 193 Classification nurseries________ iat PSY 0X) W rea crs Cyt tte esas a We ie 195 Preparing descriptions, histories, Polish ywihes Gees oe ee een enna 197 and distributions ____-___-__ aLEy AN KOT ie ee was a ASU 198 Varietal nomenclature ______-~- 17 Unidentified varieties _________ 199 Puc awmilentsplanti= LS: — See 22 | Estimated acreage of varieties _____ 207 Morphological characters --_-__~_ Zeal Leiterature cited: ies oe Ae a 219 Physiological characters___-__~_ 47 ! Index to varieties and synonyms___ 231 NECESSITY FOR A CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT. The varieties of wheat grown in the United States show a great diversity of type. This diversity is natural, as wheat is produced commercially in all of the 48 States of the Union, under a wide range of environmental conditions. More than 200 distinct varieties are grown. Many of these are adapted only locally, while others are well adapted to a wide range of varying conditions. This adapta- tion of a variety is an important factor, as it affects the yield and profitableness of the crop. The choice of varieties for given condi- tions and purposes, therefore, usually is given careful consideration by growers. The choice, however, is dependent upon the determina- tion of identity. 95539°—22—Bull, 1074-1 1 2, BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The identification of varieties requires some knowledge of the appearance of plant and kernel and is assisted by information regard- ing its history or distribution. Wheat varieties are most generally designated by names, which are established through publication and usage. The association of a name with a recognized type of wheat enables identification. Confusion in names is frequent, especially in America, where the number of actual varieties is very large. This confusion occurs in two principal ways: (1) The same name is ap- plied to very different varieties in different parts of the country, and (2) the same variety is grown under several different names in dif- ferent parts of the country or even in the same part. Identification is difficult in cases of similar or closely related varieties and is con- fused by the multiplicity of names. There is need, therefore, for a practical and usable system of classi- fication which will standardize the varietal nomenclature and enable growers to identify varieties with which they are concerned. The purpose of this bulletin is to provide such a classification of the wheat varieties that are grown commercially in the United States or may be grown soon. The classification has been made by using only such characters as can be distinguished by the naked eye, no instrument other than a measuring rule having been used in the investigations. The names of varieties have been standardized in accordance with a code of nomenclature prepared by Ball and Clark (43)1 and adopted with slight changes by the American Society of Agronomy. This bulletin is written in response to a demand for varietal infor- mation from farmers, agronomists, plant breeders, and members of the grain trade. It should form the basis for future work in wheat improvement, save the time and expense of breeding for combina- tions of characters which are already in existence, prevent much duplication of work in conducting varietal experiments, and aid in preventing the fraudulent or unknown exploitation of old varieties of wheat under new names. Its greatest value, however, should be in providing a compendium of the wheats of North America for all workers in the wheat industry, especially those who have only a limited or local knowledge of the varieties which are grown. PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. Most of the systematic study of wheat varieties has been done by foreign investigators. Comparatively little work of this nature has heretofore been done in America. 1The numbers (italic) in parentheses refer to ‘‘ Literature cited,’ at the end of this bulletin. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES, 3 FOREIGN CLASSIFICATIONS.* The existence of many different varieties of wheat has been recog- nized for more than 2,300 years. Theophrastus (159), a pupil of Plato, in his “ Enquiry into Plants,” written about 300 B. C., states: There are many kinds of wheat which take their names simply from the places where they grow, as Libyan, Pontic, Thracian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Sicilian. They show differences in color, size, form, and individual character, and also as regards their capacities in general and especially their value as food. Theophrastus mentioned many of the differences between these kinds of wheat. In the writings of Varro, Pliny, and Columella, in the first century B. C. and the first century A. D., the observations of Theophrastus were repeated, rearranged, and amplified. Columella, who wrote about 55 A. D. (74, trans. 1745), presents these previous observations and his own, as follows: Triticum, common bare wheat which has little husk upon it, was, according to Varro, a name given formerly to all sorts of grain beaten or bruised out of ears by trituration or thrashing; but afterwards it was given to a peculiar species of grain, of which there are many sorts, which take their name from the places where they grow; as African, Pontic, Assyrian, Thracian, Egyptian, Silician, etc., which differ from one another in color, bigness, and other prop- erties too tedious to relate. One sort has its ears without beards and is either of winter or summer. Another sort is armed with long beards and grows up sometimes with one, sometimes with more ears. Of these the grains are of dif- ferent sorts; some of them are white, some reddish, some round, others oblong, some large, others small. Some sorts are early ripe, others late in ripening; some yield a great increase, some are hungry and yield little; some put forth a great ear, othersa small. Onesort stays long in the hose; another frees itself very soon out of it. Some have a small stalk or straw; others have a thick one as the African. Some are clothed with few coats, some with many, as the Thracian. Some grains put forth only one stalk, some many stalks. Some require more, some less time to bring them to maturity. For which reason some are called trimestrian, some bimestrian; and they say that in Euboea there is a sort which may be brought to perfection in 40 days; but most of these sorts which ripen in a short time are light, unfruitful, and yield very little, though they are sweet and agreeable to the taste and of easy digestion. In the early Roman literature mentioned reference is found to two groups of wheat, namely, triticwm and adoreum, or far. Columella referred to the far as bearded wheat. The grain of triticum was * Nore. Wines this Preeetor was complica) ae oetenient aOR One on wheat classification haye appeared: (a) Australia. Institute of science and industry. variety. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 99 Synonyms.—Golden Bronze, Golden Chaff, Improved Amber, White Winter. Golden Bronze is the name under which a strain of this variety was being grown at the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. Golden Chaff is simply a shortening of the name Dawson Golden Chaff. Im- proved Amber is the name under which a sam- ple of Dawson was obtained from the Wiscon- sin station. White Winter is a local descrip- tive name used for the variety by farmers. HONOR. Description.—Honor apparently is identical with Dawson in all morphological characters, except for a slightly stronger stem. It is more Fie. 37.—Cutline map of the winter resistant and a better yielder. north-central United States, History. Honor was originated by the plant- showing the distribution of breeding department of the Cornell University Dawson wheat in 1919. Esti- Agricultural Experiment Station, in coopera- ated area, 125,500 acres. tion with the Office of Cereal Investigations, United States Department of Agri- culture. During the experimental stages it was known as Cornell Selection 522-68. Concerning the variety, Dr. H. H. Love, who is in charge of the cooperative experiments at Cornell has written” as follows: Honor was selected from Dawson’s Golden Chaff and seems to be a typical Golden Chaff. I think it is slightly more winter hardy than the commercial variety and has somewhat stiffer straw. Distribution—The selection was distributed from Cornell University to selected farmers for several years previous to the fall of 1920, when it was first offered for sale as Honor wheat by ©. A. Rogers (160), of Bergen, N. Y. SCHONACHER, Description—Plant winter habit, midseason, midtall; stem white, strong; spike awnless, oblong, middense, inclined to nodding; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong, midwide; shoulders midwide, oblique to square; beaks wide, obtuse, 0.5 mam. long; apical awns several, 2 to 30 mm. long; kernels white, midlong, semihard, ovate; germ midsized to large; crease midwide, middeep; cheeks. angular; brush midsized, midiong. . Schonacher has a harder kernel than Dawson, and the spike is more nodding. History—The origin of this variety is undetermined. The variety was obtained from the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, Nets ,a 19177, Distribution—Grown by the Cornell University Station. A red-kerneled wheat was reported under this name from Juniata County, Pa. ARCADIAN (EARLY ARCADIAN). Description —Plant winter habit, midseason, short; stem white, strong, stout; spike awnless, clavate, short, dense, erect; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong, wide; shoulders midwide, oblique to rounded; beaks wide, obtuse, 1 mm. long; apical awns several, 3 to 10 mm. long; kernels white, usually short, usually soft, broadly ovate; germ midsized; crease wide, shallow to middeep; cheeks. usually angular; brush small, midlong. “ Correspondence of the Office of Cereal Investigations, dated Mar. 19, 1921. 100 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The distinctive characters of the Arcadian variety are the stiff straw and the extremely clavate spike. A spike of this variety is shown in Plate V, Fig- ure 6. History.—Originated by A. N. Jones, Newark, Wayne County, N. Y., in 1895, as the result of a direct cross between Harly Genesee Giant and Harly Red Clawson (61, p. 221). Distribution.—Grown commercially in Yakima and Klickitat Counties, Wash., in 1916. Not reported from New York, where it was first distributed. WINDSOR (EXTRA EARLY WINDSOR). Description—Plant winter habit, early to midseason, short to midtall; stem purple, midstrong; spike awnless, fusiform, middense, nodding; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong, midwide; shoulders wanting to narrow, rounded to oblique; beaks narrow, obtuse, 0. 5 mm. long; apical awns few, 5 to 10 mm. long; kernels white, midlong, soft, broadly ovate; germ midsized to large; crease midwide, shallow to middeep; cheeks usually angular; brush small, midlong. Windsor differs from Goldcoin chiefly in having an oblong, nodding spike. History—tThe origin is undertermined. It was grown by the Ohio Agricul- tural Experiment Station as early as 1892 (204, p. 52). Distribution—Grown experimentally by the Ohio and Cornell University (New York) Agricultural Experiment Stations and commercially in Kalamazoo County, Michigan. GOLDCOIN (GOLD COIN). Description.—Plant winter habit, early to midseason, short to midtall; stem purple, strong; spike awnless, clavate, middense, erect to inclined; glumes glabrous, brown, long, midwide; shoulders midwide, oblique to square; beaks wide, obtuse, 1 mm. long; apical awns several, 5 to 15 mm. long; kernels white, short to nridlong, soft, ovate; germ midsized; crease midwide, middeep; cheeks usually rounded; brush small, midlong, collared. The distinctive characters of Goldcoin wheat are the purple straw, clavate spike, and collared brush. Spikes, glumes, and kernels of this variety are shown in Plate XXIII, B. History—The Goldcoin variety is probably a descendant from the Redchaff or Redchaff Bald wheat mentioned in early agricultural literature’ as being grown in the Genesee Valley of New York, as early as 1798. The following history of Redchaff was recorded by Allen (36, p. 153) in 1885. The old Genesee Redchaff is a bald, white wheat, first cultivated in the same region in 1798, and for a long time it was the decided favorite. Since 1820, how- ever, it has been very subject to rust and blast, but when circumstances are favorable it is still found to be highly productive. Its transfer to other local- ities may therefore be attended with great success. Soules is an early name applied to a wheat apparently identical with Gold- coin. The following statement concerning the origin of Soules was recorded by Harmon (103, p. 225) in 1848: In the first volume of the New Genesee Farmer (2) this new wheat was noticed as being discovered, or.a few heads being found, in a field of White Flint by Jonathan Soule, of Perrington, Monroe County. This wheat became well established in New York in the late forties, and by 1857, according to Klippart, (131, p. 755-756), was an important variety in Ohio. About 1897 this wheat or a selection from it became known as New Soules. Soules and White Soules were reported in 1919 from Michigan. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 101 Clawson. or White Clawson, has been found to be identical with Goldcoin., but the name, also, has a much earlier origin. According to Carleton (58. p. 65), the history of this wheat is as follows: This variety originated in Seneca County, N. Y., in 1865, through the selection of certain superior heads from a field of Fultz by Garrett Clawson. On planting the grain from these heads, both a white and red grained sort resulted the following season. The white wheat was considered the best, and the pint of seed obtained of this sort was sown, producing 39 pounds the following season. The third year after this 254 bushels were harvested and that season the variety was distributed to other farmers. In 1871 this variety took first premium at the Seneca County fair, and in 1874 seed was distributed by this Department. Though judged inferior by millers at times, this variety has become a very popularone. It must not be confused with Harly Red Clawson, a very distinct variety. ; The Goldcoin variety itself, is reported by Carleton (58, p. 66) to have 2 been produced by Ira M. Green, at Avon, N. Y., about 1890, in the following manner: Mr. Green grew a field of Diehl Mediterranean, a bearded, red-grained wheat, and while passing through the field one day found a bald head possessing white grains. Planting every grain of this head, he found as a result next season that he had heads with very long beards, some with short beards, and others with Vic. 38.—Outline map of the northern United States, showing the distribution of Gold- coin (Fortyfold) wheat in 1919. WBstimated area, 947,000 acres. none at all. The grain also was mixed, some red and some white. He desired the baid wheat—hence only the grains from the bald heads were again planted. From this as a beginning, a practically new variety resulted. Various names have been given to it by different seedsmen, but it is best known by the name Gold Coin. The commercial production of Goldeoin wheat dates from about 1900. Distribution.—Grown in California, Colorado, Connecticut, Idaho, Illinois, In- diana, Kentucky, Michigan, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Utah, Virginia, Washington, West Vir- ginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. This distribution is shown in Figure 88. Synonyms.—Abundance, American Banner, Clawson, Eldorado, Fortyfold, Golden Chaff, Gold Bullion, Gold Medal, Goldmine, Improved No. 6, Interna- tional No. 6, Junior No. 6, Klondike, New American Banner, New Soules, Niagara, Number 6, Oregon Goldmine, Plymouth Rock, Prizetaker, Prize- winner, Rochester No. 6, Soules, Superlative, Twentieth Century, White Cen- tury, White Clawson, White Eldoradé, White Rock, White Russian, White Soules, White Surprise, and Winter: King. Eldorado, Golden Chaff, Gold Bullion, Gold Medal, Niagara, Goldmine, Ore- gon Goldmine, Plymouth Rock, Prize Winner, Superlative, Twentieth Century, White Century, White Eldorado, White Russian, and White Surprise are local names for the yariety, used chiefly by growers in Michigan. 102 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Abundance is a variety apparently identical with Goldcoin, which was intro- duced by L. P. Gunson & Co., of Rochester, N. Y., about 1894. Mr. Gunson has stated * “ that this variety came from a new stooling wheat which we purchased from A. N. Jones. One of these crossbred varieties, of which we purchased a small amount, showed two different colors of chaff, and two were separated by hand selection. The Abundance was obtained from one of these selections.” Et probably wag selected from the wheat Mr. Jones called Harly White Leader. Abundance was reported in 1919 from Michigan, Tennessee, and West Virginia. American Banner and New American Banner are names under which the variety is best known in Canada. Clawson, or White Clawson, is identical with Goldcoin, but as previously in- dicated, has an earlier history. Clawson or White Clawson was reported in 1919 from Connecticut, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington, and West Virginia. Fortyfold is the name under which Goldcoin was distributed by Peter Hen- derson & Co., (110), seedsmen, of New York City, as early as 1899. The variety is grown under this name chiefly in California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Utah, Klondike is the name under which the same wheat was distributed by J. M. Thorburn & Co. (191), New York City, in 1908. It is grown in New York under this name. No. 6 was applied to this wheat by Hickox-Rumséy Seed Co., Ba- tavia, N. Y. It is claimed by Mr. Rumsey that the name No. 6 antedates Gold- coin. International No. 6, Rochester No. 6, and possibly Improved No. 6, are names under which the variety was distributed by the International Seed Co., of Rochester, N. Y. The distribution of the variety under these names scems to date from about 1908. The Junior No. 6 is said to be an improved strain of No. 6, but is identical with Goldcoin. It was named and distributed by the Hickox-Rumsey Seed Co., Batavia, N. Y. Goldcoin is mostly grown in New York under the names given in this paragraph. Prizetaker is the name used for the variety by the John A. Salzer Seed Co. (163), of La Crosse, Wis., as early as 1897, and possibly prior to that time. Prizetaker was reported from Illinois and Pennsylvania, but that grown in Illi- nois under this name is the variety known as Harvest Queen. Winter King is a name used for Goldcoin in Clearfield County, Pa. JOHN BROWN. Description—Plant spring habit, early, tall; stem white, strong; spike awn- less, fusiform to linear-oblong, middense, erect; glumes glabrous, brown, mid- long, midwide; shoulders midwide, oblique to square; beaks narrow, acute, 1 mm. leng; apical awns few, 3 to 15 mm. long; kernels white, midsized, soft, usually ovate: sometimes oval or elliptical; germ mids zed; crease narrow to midwide, deep; cheeks rounded ; brush midsized, midlong to long. History—The variety is of Australian origin, being one of the many cross- bred wheats produced by Wlliam Farrer. John Brown is the result of a rather complicated cross and has the following pedigree: Blé carré X Wards White. Improved Fife X Unnamed. Hornblende X Unnamed. Unnamed X Lambrigg Australian Talavera. John Brown. 18 Reisner, John H.. Wheat in New Yerk. 1915. Unpublished thesis, Cornell University. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 103 The cross was made in 1896 and named in 1901 (188, p. 282-283). The first introduction of the variety into the United States is believed to have been in the fall of 1909, when F. D. Farrell, superintendent of the Nephi substation, Nephi, Utah, obtained a small quantity of the seed from the Department of Agriculture of New South Wales, Australia. Later introduc- tions have been made by the United States Department of Agriculture (197, S. P. I. No. 36582) and also by the Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, which has distributed the variety in that State (157, p. 30). Distribution — Grown by the California and Wyoming stations and commer- cially in Wyoming. ALLEN (RED ALLEN). Description —Plant spring habit, late, tall; stem white, midstrong; spike awnless, linear-fusiform, lax, inclined, glumes glabrous, brown, long, narrow ; shoulders wanting to narrow, oblique; beaks narrow, acute, 1 mm. long; apical awns several, 5 to 20 mm. long; kernels white, midlong, semihard, ovate; germ usually small; crease wide, shallow; cheeks usually angular; brush small, midlong. This variety is distinct because of its long lax spike. Spikes, glumes, and kernels are shown in Plate XXIV, A. Sth History—tThe origin of Red Allen is undetermined. It has been grown in Washington for about 20 years. ' Distribution—-Grown as Red Allen in Chelan, Douglas, Grant, and Okanogan Counties, Wash., and as Wolf Hybrid in Latah County, Idaho. Synonym.—Wolf Hybrid. This variety has been commercially grown since about 1905. According to Hunter (124, p. 22) it was quite widely grown in Idaho in 1907, but since then it has largely disappeared from cultivation. FEDERATION. Description.—Plant spring habit, early, short; stem white, strong; spike awnless, oblong, dense, erect; glumes glabrous, brown, short, wide; shoulders wide, oblique to square; beaks narrow, acute, 0.5 mm. long; apical awns almost wanting; kernels white, usually short, soft, broadly ovate; germ midsized; crease usually narrow, shallow; cheeks rounded; brush midsized, midlong. Spikes, glumes, and kernels of this variety are shown in Plate XXYV, A. History—According to Richardson (158, pp. 124-126) — It was produced by the late Mr. Farrer, wheat experimentalist, of New South Wales (Australia), from a cross between Purplestraw and Yandilla. Yandilla is a cross between Improved Fife and Etewah, an Indian variety. The produc- tion of this wheat was probably the greatest of Mr. Farrer’s many triumphs in wheat breeding, for none of his many successful crossbred wheats have enjoyed such a wide measure of popularity as Federation. Federation was first introduced into the United States by the United States Department of Agriculture (197, S. P. I. No. 38847) in 1914 from seed furnished by EE. A. Cook, of Perth, West Australia. The variety first showed promise in nursery experiments at the Sherman County branch station, Moro, Oreg., in 1916, and was increased and thoroughly tested (67, p. 10). The first distribu- tion to farmers for commercial growing was in the spring of 1920. Distribution.—Grown by several experiment stations in the western part of the United States and commercially to a small extent in Oregon in 1920. FOISY. Description.—Plant spring habit, late, tall; stem white, strong; spike awnless, linear-clavate, middense to lax, erect; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong, mid- wide; shoulders narrow, rounded to oblique; keel incurved above; beaks wide, 104 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. truncate, 1 mm. long; apical awns few, 3 to 15 mm. long; kernels white, short, soft, ovate; germ mids:zed ; crease midwide, shallow to middeep; cheeks usually rounded; brush midsizéd, midlong. Foisy wheat is easily distinguished by the tall plant and the long, rather lax, but clavate spike. Plate XXIV, B, shows spikes, glumes, and kernels of Foisy wheat. History.—This variety originated on the farm of M. G. Woisy, near the site of West Woodburn, in northern Marion County, Oreg. About 1865, Mr. Foisy “noticed a head of red chaff wheat in his field of white chaff wheat, of unusual size, gathered it, and planted it in his garden until he had sufficient to seed a small field. Mr. Foisy, who was a Frenchman, was too modest to call it after his name, but insisted that it was Oregon Red Chaff, yet there is no one about him that knows it by any other name than Foisy ”’ (100, p. 10). Distribution.—Grown in 11 counties of western Oregon. Synonym.—Oregon Golden Chaff, Oregon Red Chaff, and Red Chaff. These are all local names used for the variety in Oregon. HARD FEDERATION. Description.—Plant spring habit, early, short; stem white, strong; spike awunless, oblong, dense, erect; glumes glabrous, brown, short, wide; shoulders wide, square; beaks narrow, acute, 0.5 mm. long; apical awns wanting; kernels white, short, hard, ovate, with truncate tip; germ large; crease mid- wide, middeep, frequently pitted; cheeks angular to rounded; brush large, midlong. Hard Federation differs from Federation in being slightly shorter and in having a hard kernel. Spikes, glumes, and kernels of Hard Federation are shown in Plate XXV, B History—Hard Federation was originated by selection from the Federation in Australia. The following history was recorded (30, p. 664) in 1914: In consequence of the variations of the ordinary type exhibited by the strain of Federation wheat now being grown at Cowra Experiment Farm, it has been deemed advisable to apply a distinct name to it, and “ Hard Federation ” has been selected as the most appropriate. The departure from type was first noticed by J. T. Pridham, plant breeder, in 1907 or 1908, one of the plants selected from the stud plats being observed to thrash grain of remark- ably hard and flinty appearance, The plant has the distinctive brown head and general appearance of Federation in the field, but the grain was of a class that has never been seen in the variety before. The seed was propagated, and in 1910 the occurrence of white heads was noticed, and from then until 1912 distinctly white heads were common among the brown, but in 1913 there were no white-eared plants, and it is hoped that the seed will now be true to type. Hard Federation was first introduced into the United States in August, 1915, by the United States Department of Agriculture (197, S. P. I. No. 41079). The seed was presented to the United States Department of Agriculture by George Valder, undersecretary and director of the Department of Agriculture, Sydney, New South Wales. It was first grown at the Sherman County Branch Station, Moro, Oreg., in 1916. Experiments conducted by the Department in Oregon and California from 1917 to 1919, reported by Clark, Stephens, and Florell (67, p. 12-17), have shown it to be a high-yielding, Hebe -land wheat, and it has since been increased and distributed. Distribution—Grown at several experiment stations in the western part of the United States and commercially to a slight extent in California and Oregon in 1920, Bul. 1074, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIV. ALLEN (A). Foisy (B). Spikes, face and side views, natural size; glumes from lower, central, and upper portions of spike, natural size; kernels in three positions and in transverse section, magnified 3 diameters. Bul. 1074, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXV. HARD FEDERATION (B). FEDERATION (A). Spikes, face and side views, natural size; glumes from lower, central, and upper portions of spike, natural size; kernels in three positions and in transverse section, magnified 3 diameters. Bul. 1074, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVI. RED WAVE (A). ODESSA (B). Spikes, face and side views, natural size; glumes from lower, central, and upper portions of spike, natural size; kernels in three positions and in transverse section, magnified 3 diameters. Hy Bul. 1074, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVIII. | | } { } } | RUPERT (A). RURAL NEW YORKER NO. 6 (B). Spikes, face and side views, natural size; glumes from lower, central, and upper portions of spike, natural size; kernels in three positions and in transverse section, magnified 3 diameters. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 105 GOLD DROP. Description.—Plant winter habit, early, midtall; stem white, weak to mid- strong; spike awnless, short, fusiform, middense, erect to inclined; glumes glabrous, brown, short to midlong, midwide to wide; shoulders wide, oblique to square; beaks wide, obtuse, 0.5 mm. long; apical awns few, 2 to 10 mm. long; kernels red, short to midlong, soft, ovate; germ midsized ; crease midwide, mid- deep ; cheeks rounded ; brush small, midlong. - Goid Drop is distinguished from other wheats of this group by its earliness and by the short, fusiform spike. History—tThis doubtless is the old English variety usually referred to as Golden Drop. Koernicke and Werner (133, p. 295) state that this variety was bred in 1834 by a Mr. Gorrie, at Annat Garden in Great Britain. It has been grown in the United States for many years, being mentioned by Rawson Har- mon, of Wheatland, Monroe County, N. Y., in 1848 (103, p. 228). The sam- ples furnishing the plants here described were obtained from Izard County, Ark., where farmers state that it has been grown for at least 25 years. An improved strain of Golden Drop, called Hallet’s Pedigree Golden Drop, was used by Cyrus G. Pringle as one of the parents of Defiance. Distribution—Grown as Gold Drop in Arkansas, Missouri, and Pennsylvania, and as Littleton in Humphreys County, Tenn. A bearded spring wheat called Gold Drop was reported in Iowa. Synonyms.—Golden Drop, Littleton. HOMER. Description.—Plant winter habit, midseason, midtall to tall; stem white, midstrong; spike awnless, oblong-fusiforn’, middense, erect to inclined; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong, midwide; shoulders midwide, oblique to elevated; beaks wide, obtuse, 0.5 to 1.0 mm. long; apical awns few, 2 to 10 mm. long; kernels red, midlong, soft, ovate; germs midsized to large; crease wide, mid- deep ; cheeks angular; brush small to midsized, midlong, sometimes collared. Homer differs from Red Wave in having an inclined instead of a nodding spike. History—tThe origin of this variety is undetermined. The plants described were grown from seed obtained from Chatham County, N. C., in 1919, where it had been grown for the past 10 years. Distribution—Grown in Chatham County, N. C. RED WAVE. Description.—Plant winter habit, midseason to late; midtall to tall; stem white, midstrong; spike broadly fusiform, middense, nodding; glumes glabrous, brown, midiong, wide; shoulders wide, rounded to oblique, sometimes nearly square; beaks wide, obtuse, 1 mm. long; apical awns several, 5 to 15 mm. long; kernels red, midlong, soft, ovate; germ midsized; crease midwide to wide, mid- deep, sometimes pitted’; cheeks usually angular; brush midsized, midlong. Red Wave is distinguished by the broadly fusiform, nodding spike. It is in- ferior to many other soft red winter wheats for milling and bread making. Spikes, glumes, and kernels of this variety are shown in Plate XXVI, A. History.-—Originated by A. N. Jones, Le Roy, Genesee County, N. Y., in 1906, as the result of a cross between Early Red Clawson and an unnamed crossbred wheat of Russian parentage (110, 1908). Distribution.—Grown in Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, lowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, 106 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. This distribution is shown in Figure 39. Synonyms.—Advance, Indiana Red Wave, Jones Red Wave, Old Dutch, Red ‘Chaff, Red Ivory, Red Wafer, Ruble, Rust Proof, Waif, Waverly, and Worlds Fair. Old Dutch, Red Chaff, Red Ivory, Red Wafer, Waif, Waverly, and Worlds Fair are local names used by growers, chiefly in Indiana. Advance is a name under which this wheat was distributed by the John A. Salzer Seed Co., of La Crosse, Wis. Indiana Red Wave is the name used for the variety by growers in States adjoining Indiana who obtained their seed from that State, as Red Wave is a rather widely grown variety in Indiana. Jones Red Wave is a name used because the variety was originated by A. N. Jones, aS stated above. Ruble is a variety similar to Red Wave, except for having a denser and less nodding spike. It was obtained from H. W. Anderson, Washington College, Tenn., who states that it has been grown in Washington County, Tenn., for the past 20 years. Rust Proof is the name under which a Sample of Red Wave was obtained from Osceola County, Mich. FLEMING. Description. — This variety differs from Red Wave only in being slightly later and in having a somewhat nar- rower and less nodding spike. History.— Fleming was imported from Russia. According to officials of the Montana Agricultural Experiment Fic. 39.—Outline map of a portion of the Station, in correspondence with the northeastern United States, showing the Office of Cereal Investigations, ‘ Mr. distribution of Red Wave wheat in 1919. H, HK. Fleming obtained it from a Estimated area, 1,132,400 acres. friend from Russia, since dead, and named it ‘Russian Club.’” Several hundred acres now are grown about For- syth, Mont. Distribution.—Grown by the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station as Fleming and commercially in Rosebud County, Mont., as Russian Club. Synonyms.—Russian Club, Winter Club. These names are both used by growers in Rosebud County. 7 PETERSON (LARS PETERSON). Description.—Plant winter habit, midseason, tall; stem white, midstrong; spike awnless, broadly fusiform, long, middense, nodding; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong, midwide to wide; shoulders midwide, oblique to rounded; beaks wide, obtuse, 1 mm. long; apical awns few, 2 to 5 mm. long; kernels red, midlong, soft, broadly ovate; germ midsized; crease wide, middeep to deep, sometimes pitted; cheeks usually angular; brush midsized, midlong. Peterson differs from Red Wave in being slightly taller and in having a longer spike and narrower glumes and shoulders. History.—The history of Peterson wheat: is undetermined. The following statements relate to its culture in Arizona; CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES, 107 A wheat known locally as Lars Peterson grows fairly well in high altitudes under dry-farming conditions. County agents think it fairly promising for dry-land cultivation.“ Peterson wheat has been planted in this section of the country for the past 25 years, but of late Bluestem spring wheat has been planted more extensively.”® Distribution—Grown in Navajo County, Ariz. ODESSA. Description.—Plant winter habit, late, midtall to tall; stem usually white, midstrong; spike awnless, fusiform, middense to lax, inclined; glumes glabrous, brown, long, midwide, shoulders midwide, usually oblique to square, sometimes elevated; beaks usually wide, obtuse, 1 mm. long; apical awns several, those below apex strongly incurved or recurved, 5 to 20 mm. long; kernels red, mid- long, soft, ovate to elliptical; germ small; crease midwide, middeep; cheeks usually rounded; brush small, midlong to long. Odessa is very winter hardy. It is distinguished from other varieties in this group by its late maturity and its slender fusiform spike. Different strains of Odessa vary widely, due in part to natural field hybridization. Several white-kerneled strains have been selected from these natural hybrids, one of which appears to be immune to bunt. Because of its winter resistance, it often is used as one parent for crosses in breeding for greater winter resist- ance. Minhardi and Minturki, winter-hardy varieties developed at the Minne- sota Agricultural Experiment Station, are the result of a cross between Odessa and Turkey. Spikes, glumes, and kernels of Odessa wheat are shown in Plate XXVI, B. History—According to Carleton (58, p. 53) Odessa is of Russian origin. Several introductions have been made. The variety was grown in Minnesota as early as 1865: The Odessa wheat is one of the imporiations of the United States Department of Agriculture that is coming into notice and favor. It was started, says the Lake City (Minn.) Leader, by Porter Martin, of Dakota County, four years ago, from a small package of seed sent him by Hon. Ignatius Donnelly and has been grown exclusively on his farm till this year, for the purpose of giving it a reliable test (5, p. 238). The variety was included among a number of wheats obtained by the Minne- sota Agricultural Experiment Station in 1893 and 1894 from American consuls and from seed dealers in Russia (109, p. 40). It is evident, however, that the variety was quite widely grown in the United States before that time. A variety known as Odessa was grown by the Wisconsin College of Agriculture in 1875 (12). A sample of Odessa wheat obtained from the Black Sea region was grown by the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station in 1879 (46, p. 40). It also was reported to have been grown in Utah for 40 years, having been taken there from the Hastern States by Mormon settlers, and in Cali- fornia in the seventies and eighties, because of its resistance to rust in the coastal areas. Distribution.—Grown in California, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Nebraska, Tennessee, Utah, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. A map showing the distribution of Odessa wheat is presented as Figure 40. Synonym.—Grass. This was reported as a synonym for Odessa by Tracy in 1880 (195, p. 396). A sample of Grass wheat nearly identical with Odessa was obtained from W. EH. Bass, of Stevensville, Mont., in 1918, who states that “% Letter of Prof. W. E. Bryan, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., Mar. 31, 1917, ” Varietal Survey. Report of James L. Hall, Pinedale, Navajo County, Ariz., 1919. 108 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it has been grown for five to eight years to a very limited extent, both as @ winter and a spring wheat in Ravalli County, Mont. Carleton stated that Odessa could be grown as either a winter or a spring wheat. Most samples. grown by the writers showed the winter habit, but as some Strains are heterozy- gous for winter and spring habit a portion of the crop from the bulk variety would produce seed from spring sowing. RUDDY. Description.—Plant winter habit, late, tall; stem glaucous, white, strong; spike awnless, oblong, middense, erect to inclined; glumes glabrous, light brown, ‘short, wide; shoulders wide, oblique to square; beaks wide, obtuse, 0.5 to 1 mm. long; apical awns few, 2 to 8 mm. long; kernels red, midlong, soft, oval; germ midsized; crease midwide, middeep ; cheeks angular; brush midsized, long. This is a high-yielding variety, but its milling quality is poor. History—Ruddy was originated by hybridization at the Washington Agricul- tural Experiment Station, Pullman, Wash. It has Jones Fife, Little Club, and Fic. 40.—Outline map of the northwestern United States, showing the distribution of Odessa wheat in 1919. Estimated area, 54,200 acres. Turkey in its parentage and is a selection from the same cross from which Triplet was obtained. Ruddy was grown first as a pure line in 1910 and was. named and distributed to a few farmers in the fall of 1919. Distribution. Grown experimentally in Washington. RUPERT (RUPERT’S GIANT). Description—Plant winter habit, midseason, midtall; stem white, midstrong ; spike awnless, linear-obling to subclavate, middense, nodding; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong, wide; shoulders wanting to narrow to midwide, oblique; beaks. wide, obtuse, 1.0 long; apical awns several, 2 to 20 mm. long; kernels red, midlong, soft, ovate to elliptical; germ small to midsized; crease wide, middeep: to deep ; cheeks usually rounded ; brush midsized, midlong. Rupert differs from Red Wave in having an oblong spike, which sometimes is: subclavate. Spikes, glumes, and kernels of this wheat are shown in Plate XXVII, A. History—tThe origin of this variety is not definitely known. Apparently it was first grown under the name Woods, concerning which R. Crouch, of Mor- ristown, Tenn., wrote the Office of Cereal Investigations, as follows: Mr. William Woods, of Talbott, Tenn., many years ago noticed an extra head of wheat in his field, and fron: this head of wheat Woods wheat is largely raised in this (Hamblen) and adjoining counties. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 109 Another early name for the variety is Hartzel. John D. Daley, of Clinton, Ohio, in correspondence with the Office of Cereal Investigations, in 1919, states that this wheat “was selected out of some wheat grown by Joe Hartzel, of Barberton, Ohio, about 18 years ago.” A wheat under the name Rupert’s Giant probably was first advertised by J. M. Thorburn & Co., seedsmen, of New York City (191), but this was described as “a red, bearded wheat, long stem, strong growing, resists the Hessian fly best.” Rupert’s Giant, grown by the writers from samples obtained from the Cornell University (N. Y.) Agricultural Experiment Station in 19138 and 1917, is awnless and is as described above. Disiribution—Grown in Dickinson County, Kans., and under the synonyms in Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, and Tennessee. The variety was grown in New York several years ago, but has now probably gone out of cultivation in that State. Synonyms.—Gold Medal, Hartzel, Haskell, Red Hassel, Red Haskell, Ruck, and Woods. Gold Medal is the name used for the variety grown in the vicinity of Morley, Mecosta County, Mich. MHartzel, Haskell, Red Hassel, and Red Haskell are names used by growers in Ohio. H. F. Cranz, of Ira, Ohio, wrote the Office of Cereal Investigations in 1919 concerning Red Haskell as follows: I think it is safe to say that one-half the acreage in Summit County this year is of that variety. It has been grown here about 8 or 10 years and became very popular soon after it was introduced. Ruck is the name under which a sample of this variety was obtained at Dennis, Lawrence County, Ky. Woods, as indicated above, is the name under which the yariety is grown in Blount County, Tenn. RURAL NEW YORKER NO. 6. Description,—Plant winter habit, early, short; stem white, stout, midstrong; spike awnless, clavate, dense, erect to inclined; glumes glabrous, brown, mid- long, wide; shoulders midwide to wide, oblique to square; beaks wide, obtuse, 1 mm. long; apical awns few, 5 to 20 mm. long; kernels red, small to midlong, soft, ovate, and broad across basal end; germ midsized; crease midwide, mid- deep; cheeks rounded; brush midsized, midlong. This variety is distinguished by its dense, clavate spike. Spikes, glumes, and kernels of this variety are shown in Plate XXVII, B. History.—This variety is reported to have been originated by crossing wheat and rye. The cross was made by Elbert 8S. Carman, editor of the Rural New Yorker, in the season of 1883 (23). The Martin variety, known also as Arm- strong and Landreth, was the mother parent of the cross. Seed of the variety was first offered for sale by Peter Henderson & Co. (710), seedsmen, of New York City, in 1894, Leighty (139, p. 426), in reviewing Mr. Carman’s wheat- rye hybrids, gives the following conclusions regarding Rural New Yorker No. 6: From this description, and from a statement made elsewhere concerning its origin, it seems that No. 6 is actually descended from the true wheat-rye hybrid obtained in 1883. It is noteworthy for the fact, since it is the only variety intro- duced by Mr. Carman, whose record, so far as determined by the writer, clearly indicated such origin. ; Distribution.—Possibly grown as No. 6 in Michigan, New York, and Ohio. Its distribution has become so confused with Goldcoin, which also is called No. 6, that no definite distribution can be given. Synonyims.—Burtaker, No. 6, Red Hussar, and Twentieth Century. Burtaker is the name under which the variety has been grown in Cheboygan County, Mich., for the past 8 years. No. 6 is an abbreviation of the full name, and 110 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is the name used by most growers in New York. Red Hussar is a name under which this variety was obtained from the Cornell University Agricul- tural Experiment Station. The true Red Hussar, however, is an awned variety. Twentieth Century is the name used for the variety in Erie County, Ohio, where it has been grown for 15 years or more. SQUAREHEADS MASTER. Description.—Plant winter habit, late, midtall; stem white, strong, stout; spike awnless, clavate, dense, erect; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong, wide; shoulders wanting to narrow, oblique; beaks wide, obtuse, incurved, 1 mm. long; apical awns few, 1 to 10 mm. long; kernels red, midlong, soft, broadly ovate; germ small to midsized, abrupt; crease midwide, middeep; cheeks rounded; brush large, midlong. Differs from Red Russian only in having brown glumes. History.—The variety described above is found rather commonly as a mix- ture in fields of the Red Russian variety in Idaho and Washington. Square- heads Master is an Wnglish variety, and the history of its introduction to the Pacific Northwest is not known. A sample introduced from Hngland in 1911 by the United States Department of Agriculture is very similar to several se- lections the writers have made of the mixtures in Red Russian fields in Wash- ington and also to a selection from a field of Red Russian made by Glen Roundtree, Boistfort, Lewis County, Wash., who increased it and now has a field of the variety. In England, Squareheads Master is reported to have been selected by Mr. Teverson from Scholey’s Squarehead, and is probably the result of a natural cross between Scholey’s and the Golden Drop (85; 155, Dp. 39). Distribution.—Grown as a mixture in fields of other varieties in California, Idaho, and Washington, and in pure culture to a very limited extent in Lewis County, Wash. Synonyms.—Australian Club, Brown Squarehead, Redchaff Red Russian. Australian Club is the name which was first used for the Brown Squarehead wheat by Mr. Roundtree. Brown Squarehead and Redchaff Red Russian have been used as names to describe the wheat where it occurs aS mixtures, because it differs from the Squarehead and Red Russian varieties principally in glume color. CURRELL (CURRELL’S PROLIFIC). Description.—Plant winter habit, early, midtall; stem usually purple, mid- strong; spike awnless, fusiform, middense, inclined; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong, narrow to midwide, shoulders midwide, oblique to square; beaks usually wide, sometimes nearly wanting, 0.5 mm. long; apical awns few, 3 to 10 mm. long; kernels dull red, short to midlong, soft, ovate; germ midsized ; erease narrow to midwide, shallow to middeep, distinctly triangular; cheeks usually rounded; brush small, midlong. Currell is distinguished from other varieties in this group of purple-strawed wheats by its slender spike. Spikes, glumes, and kernels of this variety are shown in Plate XXVIII, A. History.—The history of Currell (Currell’s Prolific) has been recorded by Carleton (61, p. 202) as follows: Currell Prolific wheat was selected by Mr. W. H. Currell, of Virginia, from a field of Fultz in 1881. The original seed was from three spikes. It was first sold for seed in 1884. Bul. 1074, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVIII. CURRELL (A). POOLE (B). Spikes, face and side views, natural size; glumes from lower, central, and upper portions of spike, natural size; kernels in three positions and in transverse section, magnified 3 diameters. Bul. 1074, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIX. CHINA (A). RED May (B). Spikes, face and side views, natural size; glumes from lower, central, and upper portions of spike, natural size; kernels in three positions and in transverse section, magnified 3 diameters. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 111 Distribution—Grown in Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Georgia, MIlinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, North Carolina, Ohio, Okla- homa, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. The distribution is shown in Figure 41. Synonyms.—Gill, Golden Chaff, Pearl Prolific, Perfection, Prettybone, Prolific,, Red Odessa, Red Prolific, and Tennessee Prolific. Gill is a name used for Currell by growers in Kentucky. The name is also. used for the Poole variety in the same State. Golden Chaff is practically the same if not entirely identical with Currell. The origin of this variety is not snown. It has been grown by the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station since 1902 (83, p. 106-111). T. W. Wood & Sons, seedsmen, of Richmond, Va., nave advertised and distributed the variety in the Southeastern States since about 1905. It has been reported from nearly all the States in which Currell S grown. Pearl Prolific is probably a mispronunciation of the name Currell Prolific. 4 sample of this variety obtained from the Cornell University station in 1912 sroved to be identical with Currell. Pearl Prolific is grown in Alabama, Indi- una, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee, and Virginia. Perfection is apparently identical with Currell. It was grown by the Ohio Agri- sultural Experiment Station as early as 1895 (204, p. 39). Perfection is grown n Indiana, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, 1nd Tennessee. Prettybone is the name of a wheat almost identical with Currell which was obtained in 1919 from Madi- son County, N. C., where it had been zrown for at least four years. Prolific is a shortening of the name of che yariety aS used by growers. Red Ftc. 41.—Outline map of the east-central dessa is the name under which a United States, showing the distribution sample of Currell was obtained from of Currell wheat in 1919. Estimated ae ‘a j i area, 645,000 acres. Smiths Grove, Ky., in 1919. Red Prolific S a name applied to Currell because of the color of the glumes. Tennessee -rolific is a name used for the variety in Alabama. WINTER CHIEF. Description—Plant winter habit, midseason, short; stem faintly purple, ‘trong; spike awnless, broadly oblong, middense, erect to nodding; glumes. labrous, brown, long, midwide; shoulders midwide, oblique to square; beaks vide, obtuse, 0.5 to 1 mm. long; apical awns several, 3 to 20 mm. long; ker- iels red, midlong, soft, ovate to oval, frequently elliptical, flattened; germ mall; crease midwide, middeep to deep; cheeks usually rounded; brush small o midsized, midlong. Winter Chief differs from Poole principally in being shorter and having more rect spikes. History.—The origin of Winter Chief is undetermined. A sample was ob- ained from the Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station in 1913, which in urn had received it from Everitt’s O. K. Seed Store, Indianapolis, Ind. Distribution.—Winter Chief is not known to be commercially grown. 112 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. POOLE, / Description.—Plant winter habit, midseason, midtall; stem purple, mid- strong; spike awnless, usually fusiform, sometimes nearly oblong or linear- oblong, wide, middense to lax, usually nodding; glumes glabrous, brown, mid- long, wide; shoulders wide, oblique to square; beaks wide, obtuse, 0.5 mm. long; apical awns several, 3 to 20 mm. long; kernels red, midlong, soft, ovate to oval, frequently elliptical, fiattened; germ small to midsized; crease midwide, middeep to deep ; cheeks usually rounded ; brush small to midsized, midlong. This variety is distinguished by the wide, nodding spikes. The kernels are rather narrow, flattened, and rounded in outline. Spikes, glumes,.and kernels of Poole wheat are shown in Plate XXVIII, B, and a single spike in Plate V, Figure 4. History.—The origin of the Poole variety is undetermined, but it has been an important variety in Ohio and Indiana for about 35 years. It was grown by the Ohio Agricultural Experi- ment Station as early as 1884 (G2) ios 1S). Distribution—Grown in Ala- bama, Delaware, Georgia, TIlinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Mary- land, Michigan, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Penn- sylvania, South Carolina, Tennes- see, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia, and under names of synonyms in Arkansas and Okla- homa in addition. This distribu- tion is Shown in Figure 42. Synonyms —Beechwood or Beechwood Hybrid, Bluestem, California Red, Gill, Harvest King, Hedge Prolific, Hundred Mark, Hydro Prolific, Mortgage Lifter, Kentucky Bluestem, Niss- Fic. 42.—Outline map of the eastern United ley or Nissley’s Hybrid, Ocean States, showing the distribution of Poole O Red Ch ff. Red wheat in 1919. Estimated area, 2,453,400 Wave, Oregon Red Chaff, °F acres. California, Red Amber, Red Chaff, Red Fultz, Red King, Red Russell, Royal Red Clawson, Sweet Water Valley, Wagner, and Winter King. Beechwood (originally Beechwood Hybrid) was distributed by J. W. Still- well, Troy, Ohio, about 1898. In a letter under date of July 15, 1898, to the Office of Cereal Investigations he has given the history as follows: Mixed one-half bushel Rudy, one-half bushel Red Fultz (not Mediterranean), one-half bushel Red Velvet Chaff together. The third year from mixture I named Beechwood Hybrid. Mixed because Rudy is soft straw and large grain, Velvet strong straw and small grain, Fultz was put in to get rid of beards. A mixture of Poole and Red May is now most generally grown as Beech- wood. It has largely disappeared from commercial culture. Bluestem and Kentucky Bluestem are names used by growers for the Poole variety because of its purple straw. Kentucky Bluestem was reported from Arkansas, Georgia, Michigan, Missouri, South Carolina, and West Virginia. California Red is a name occasionally used for the variety under the sup- position that the seed came originally from California. A sample of Poole CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 113 @alled Red or California was obtained in 1919 from Warren County, Tenn., where it Ikad been grown for at least 30 years. Gill is a name used for Poole iby many rowers in Kentucky. Harvest King was distributed by J. A. Everitt & Co., (89, p. 4-7) seedsmen, ‘of Indianapolis, Ind., from 1894 to about 1900. There is no information regard- ang the origin of the variety, and it probably is only a lot of seed of the Poole variety renamed by the Everitt Seed Co., as such renaming was a common practice of that firm. As the wheat was widely advertised under this name, it is NOW grown nearly as widely under the name Harvest King as under the mame Poole itself. It was reported grown in Arkansas, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. Hedge Prolific, a wheat apparently identical with Poole, but of undetermined origin, was grown by the Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station as early as 1884 (135, p. 4). It is not known to be commercially grown now. Hundred Mark is the name used for Poole in Hocking County, Ohio, for 22 years or more. The same name is sometimes used for the Prosperity variety in Indiana. Hydro Prolific is the name under which a sample of Poole was obtained from Rosedale, Ind. Mortgage Lifter is a local name applied to Poole wheat in Pennsylvania. Nissley (originally Nissley’s Hybrid) is an old name for a wheat apparently identical with Poole. It has been grown at the Arling- ton Experimental Farm, Va., since 1913. As far as known it is not now com- mercially grown. Oregon Red Chaff is a name used for Poole in Illinois. Red Amber is a name used for Poole in Pennsylvania. Red Chaff is a common synonym of Poole because of its brown glumes. Red Fultz is a name often but wrongly applied tto Poole wheat in Indiana, Ohio, and Kansas. Red King and Winter King are confusions of the name Harvest King, a synonym of Poole. A sample of Winter King was obtained from Mulberry, Ind., in 1919. Red Russell is a synonym for Poole in Michigan. Royal Red Clawson is ap- parently identical with Poole, but of undetermined origin. It is known to have been grown commercially in New York several years ago, but probably has now disappeared from cultivation. Sweet Water Valley is the name under which a sample of Poole was obtained from Greene County, Tenn. Wagner is a name used for Poole in Indiana. PORTAGE. Description.—This variety is similar to Poole except in having a stiffer straw ‘and a higher yield and quality. History.—Portage is a pure-line selection of Poole developed at the Ohio Agri- eultural Experiment Station. It is recommended by the Ohio station as a high- yielding wheat superior to Poole for milling and bread making (205, p. 478-481). Distribution —Grown in New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. RUSSIAN RED. Description.—Russian Red differs slightly from Poole in having more per- sistent glumes which have more triangular shoulders and longer beaks. History.—tThis variety usually is grown under the name “ Red Russian,” but as other varieties are known by this name it is here designated as Russian Red. The following history of Red Russian wheat was reported by HE. H. Collins, who was offering the seed for sale in 1898: In answers to questions, allow me to say that the Red Russian wheat I adver- tise in the Farmer was selected by an agent sent by the American Seed Co., 95539°—22—Bull. 10748 114 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of Rochester, N. Y., to Russia to secure their best wheat. It was introduced in this section by a prominent mill in Indianapolis at $1.50 a bushel. They paid 1 cent extra for a few years to encourage its more general introduction. It has of late years sold at the seed stores at a 2-cent premium and does this year. It is hardy, smooth, medium hard, and very productive. The only fault I found in growing it 12 years is that it shatters when cut dead ripe, so that I often grow he ee =" crop Fultz, which can wait. Lately, however, I grow all Russian (3, DP. 4 The Red Russian variety was grown by the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Sta- lion as early as 1888 (173, p. 29). It was distributed widely by Peter Henderson & Co. (110), seedsmen, of New York City, and J. A. Everitt & Co. (89), seeds- men, of Indianapolis, Ind., in the early nineties. Distribution. — Grown in Ilinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylva- nia, Tennessee, Texas, Vir- ginia, and West Virginia. (Fig. 48.) Synonym.—Red Russian. CHINA. Description. — Plant win- ter habit, late, tall; straw i ROT ae ' eet dear purple, weak to midstrong, ee (nePaidinibation At ee Beatavblnt fn SIS pie es 1919. Estimated area, 172,000 acres. middense to lax, inclined; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong, midwide; shoulders narrow to midwide, usually rounded; beaks. wide, obtuse, 0.5 mm. long; apical awns few, 3 to 12 mm. long; kernels red, short to midlong, soft, ovate to elliptical, tip end usually flattened, ventral side slightly dished; germ small; crease narrow to midwide, shallow to mid- deep; cheeks rounded; brush small, midlong, collared. China differs principally from Currell in being taller and later and in having a different shaped kernel, as shown in the descriptions. Spikes, glumes, and. kernels of China wheat are shown in Plate XXIX, A. History—Iin 1851 the Rural New Yorker gave the following account of the origin of “ China” wheat, which appeared for the first time in the Niagara Democrat: The kernels from which they (Specimens) grew were originally brought from. China some six years ago (1845). The seed was. handed to Mr. Caverns by O. Turner, the popular local historian, who obtained them from the then lately returned Minister to China, Hon. Caleb Cushing. From a small quantity re- ceived by Mr. Caverns for experiment, an amount sufficient to give it extensive and permanent culture has been received. Several other histories of the origin of ‘‘ China’ wheat are recorded in literature, but the above is thought to be the correct history of the variety here described. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 115 Disiribution—Grown in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia. The distribution is shown in Figure 44. Synonyms—Bluestem, Lebanon Valley, Mortgage Lifter, and Pennsylvania’ Bluestem. Bluestem and Pennsylvania Bluestem are names widely used for China in the States where it is grown. A. H. Hoffman, seedsman, of Landis- ville, Pa., has distributed the variety in that State under the name Pennsylvania Bluestem. Lebanon Valley is the name under which a sample of China was obtained from R. Chester Ross, of Honey Brook, Pa., who stated that the variety “ Originated in Lebanon Valley, Pa.” ( Mortgage Lifter is the name under which a sample of China was obtained from the Cornell University station in 1912. W HEEDLING. Description.—Plant winter habit, late, midtall to tall; stem purple, strong; spike awnless, oblong-fusiform, middense, erect; glumes glabrous, Fight brown, midlong to long, midwide; shoulders wanting to narrow, oblique; beaks wide, obtuse, 0.5 to 1 mm. long; apical awns few. 3 to 15 mm. long; kernels red, midlong, soft, ovate; germ midsized; crease midwide, middeep; cheeks angular; brush small, midlong, Wheedling differs from China in being shorter and in having a more erect spike and narrower Fig. 44.—Outline map of a shoulders, portion of the eastern History.“ This variety was originated about United States, showing i8 years ago (1890) by Louis Wheedling, of In- pRe yer babu or (China wheat in 1919, Hsti- diana. Mr. Wheedling, while walking in his wheat mated area, 62.900 acces field, noticed some heads slightly different from the surrounding ones. These he selected, and from them came the variety that. bears his name” (122, p. 90). Distribution.—Grown in Cass, Clinton, Elkhart, Marshall, and St. Joseph Counties, Ind. RED MAY. Description.—Plant winter habit, early, midtall to tall; stem purple, mid- strong; spike awnless, usually oblong, middense, erect to inclined; glumes glabrous, brown, short to midlong, wide; shoulders wide, usually square; beaks narrow, triangular, 0.5 mm. long; apical awns few, 3 to 12 mm. long; kernels red, usually short, soft, ovate; germ midsized ; crease midwide to wide, middeep to deep; cheeks usually angular; brush usually small, midlong. Red May differs from Poole and China in being earlier and in having a broader and more oblong spike and wider glumes with squarer shoulders, The glumes and shoulders of Red May also are wider than those of Wheedling. Spikes. glumes, and kernels of Red May wheat are shown in Plate XXIX, B. HTistory.—The Red May is believed to be identical with or descended from the Red or Yellow Lammas. Several writers have suggested the identity. Tracy (195, p. 396) mentions Yellow Lammas as being a synonym of Red May. The Lammas was mentioned by Koernicke and Werner (7133, p. 253 and 290) as being a very old English wheat grown previous even to 1699. Both the Red and Yellow Lammas were grown in Virginia many years before the Revolu- tionary War. A White May wheat of a later period, according to Cabell (56, % 116 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. p. 14), was grown in Virginia as early as 1764. A more recent history of Red May indicates that it was originated by General Harmon from the Virginia May (a white-kerneled wheat) about 1830 (103, p. 226). This wheat has been grown quite widely under the name Red May since 1845. Distribution — Grown in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, North Carolina, Okla- homa, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia, and under the synonyms in Connecticut, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Vir- ginia, and Wisconsin (Fig. 45). Synonyms.—Beechwood (in part), Canadian Hybrid, Harly Harvest, Harly May, Early Ripe, Enterprise, Jones Longberry, May, Michigan Amber, Michigan Wonder, Orange, Pride of Indiana, Red Amber, Red Cross, Red Republic, and Republican Red. Beechwood usually is a mixed wheat containing some Red May. For a his- tory of the wheat, see Poole. Canadian Hybrid is the name under which a sample of Red May was obtained from Illinois in 1919. The name Canadian Hybrid usually is used as a synonym of Jones Fife. Early Harvest differs from Red May only in having a shorter and more ob- long spike. Its history is not known, but the name apparently came into use © by farmers of Indiana and Illinois in the Jate eighties. It was reported as grown in 1919 in Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, and Ohio. Early May was commonly used as a synonym for both Red May and White Fic. 45.—Outline map of the eastern United MES ao Mees) he pee y un ues 2 States, showing the distribution of Red White May variety in addition to the May wheat in 1919. Estimated area, one already discussed is claimed to have 1,165,900 acres. been originated by Charles H. Boughton, Center Crossroads, Essex County, Va. This was also known as Boughton and Tappahannock. The name Early May is now probably used partly fer Red May, but principally as a synonym for the Little May or Flint. It was reported in 1919 from Alabama, Arkansas, and South Carolina. Early Ripe was recorded as having been introduced into Darke County, Ohio, in 1840. During the next 18 years it became distributed over the State as Whig, Kentucky Red, and Carolina (131, p. 142). It apparently has continued in cultivation. Samples obtained from the Ohio and Missouri Agricultural Experiment Stations are identical with Red May. It was reported in 1919 from Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Enterprise apparently is identical with Red May. It was obtained from the Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, which received it from W. C. Betts, Forest, Ind. Its further history is undetermined. Enterprise wheat was reported from Hickman County, Ky., in 1919. Jones Longberry is the name under which a sample of Red May was obtained from the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station. It evidently is wrongly applied to this wheat, as the two varieties of Longberry wheat put out by A. N. Jones, of New York, are awned varieties. May is now used most commonly as a synonym for Red May, although it probably was originally a white-kerneled wheat of earlier origin than Red May. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES, 117 The name is also known to be used for other varieties. The distribution of May wheat was combined with Red May, as most correspondents used the names as synonymous. Michigan Amber was grown on the eastern farm of the Pennsylvania Agri- eultural College, in Chester County, Pa., as early as 1871 (8, p. 1384). Concern- ing the variety, the Farmers’ Advocate, London, Ontario, published the following statement, which was republished in the Rural New Yorker in 1875 (11, p. 186-187): Michigan Amber, or Rappahannock, is of an amber color; growth and appear- ance otherwise resembling the Midge-proof variety. Our samples of the variety are similar to Red May, with the possible excep- tion of being a few days later in maturity. This might easily be due to the fact that Michigan Amber wheat has been grown farther north than the Red May for a period of nearly 50 years. Reported in 1919 from Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio, Texas, and West Virginia. Michigan Wonder was reported as one of the highest yielding wheats at the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station in 1911 (146, p. 211). Our samples are the same as Red May, except that they are slightly more erect. It is reported grown in Michigan and Missouri. Orange wheat was reported as having been introduced into Monroe County, N. Y., from Virginia in 1845 (102, p. 286). In 1857 Klippart (131) reported Orange wheat as a beardless, white-grained winter wheat grown in Ohio. The wheat now grown as Orange, however, has red kernels and apparently is identical with Red May. It is reported as one of the excellent-yielding beardless yarieties of wheat for Missouri in 1910 (77, p. 67). Reported grown in Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, Missouri, and Oklahoma. Pride of Indiana wheat obtained from the Indiana and Missouri Agricuitural] Experiment Stations is the same as Red May. The origin of the wheat is undetermined. Possibly the name became used for wheat through error, as it is a name of an important variety of corn in Indiana. It was reported in 1919 as grown in Indiana and Pennsylvania. Red Amber is a name used by growers for Red May or Michigan Amber. A sample of Red Amber identical with Red May was obtained from Georgia in 1919. The name Red Cross is sometimes wrongly applied to Red May wheat. Since 1893 the John A. Salzer Seed Co., seedsmen, of La Crosse, Wis., have been selling a wheat under the name Red Cross which is apparently identical with Red May. They bought the seed from a J. J. Barron, who claimed to have originated it (163, p. 17). This he states was done by crossing three varieties. No evidence is given, however, to prove that the crosses were made. Red Republic and Republican Red are names used by growers for the Red May or Michigan Amber wheat in Illinois, Missouri, and Tennessee. Samples under these names were obtained from Illinois and Missouri in 1919. ILLINI CHIEF, Description.—Plant winter habit, midseason to late, tall; stem purple, strong; spike awnless, oblong, middense, erect to inclined; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong, midwide; shoulders wide, usually square; beaks wide, obtuse, 0.5 to 1 mm. long; apical awns few, 3 to 10 mm. long; kernels red, short to midlong, soft, ovate; germ midsized; crease wide, middeep to deep; cheeks usually angular; brush midsized, midlong. 118 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Illini Chief is very similar to Red May, but differs slightly in being taller and later. It was originally mixed with Jones Winter Fife and with pubescent brown-glumed strains, most of which were heterozygous. Illini Chief is re- ported to be very resistant to Hessian fly injury. History.—Illini Chief wheat was first distributed in the fall of 1915, by HK. L. Gillham, Edwardsville, Ill. He advertised the variety as resistant to Hessian fly, stating “ that it does practically resist Hessian fly attack.” (95.) Further history of Illini Chief wheat is recorded as follows: Eid. Gillham, who was the first man to grow the wheat, bought the seed nine years ago from a neighbor by the name of Finley, and it is still known as Finley wheat in Madison County (31, p. 5). Finley was reported in 1919 from Kansas, Missouri, and Ohio. The name Finley was in use in the early eighties for an awnless variety with white, glabrous glumes and red kernels (8/1, p. 29). This wheat apparently has now gone out of cultivation. A second article in the Prairie Farmer by Dr. S. A. Forbes (90), State Hntomologist of Illinois, contains the following sentence: ‘Mr. Gillham has traced his original stock to an Ohio farmer, who called it Barly Carlyle.” No wheat was reported under this latter name in the survey. Distribution—Grown as Tini Chief in Illinois and Missouri and as Finley in Kansas and Ohio. Synonyms.—Harly Carlyle and Finley. RED CLAWSON (EARLY RED CLAWSON). Description. — Plant winter habit, midseason, midtall ; stem purple, strong ; Fic. 46.—Outline map of the northeastern spike awnless, oblong to linear clavate, United States, showing the distribution middense, erect to inclined; glumes of Red Clawson wheat in 1919. KEsti- 4 3 p | SESS ows. Bae Bees glabrous, brown, midlong, midwide; shoulders midwide to wide, usually square, sometimes rounded or oblique; beaks midwide, obtuse, 0.5 to 1.0 mm. long; apical awns few, 5 to 15 mm. long; kernels pale red, midlong, soft, ovate to elliptical; germ small to midsized ; crease midwide, shallow to middeep ; cheeks rounded to angular; brush midsized, midlong. Differs from Red May in being later and in having a slightly longer and more clavate spike, narrower glumes, and a longer kernel. Spikes, glumes, and kernels of Red Clawson wheat are shown in Plate XXX, A. : History — Red Clawson was originated in 1888 as the result of a cross between Clawson, a white wheat, and Golden Cross, made by A. N. Jones, of Newark, Wayne County, N. Y. (58). It was advertised and distributed by Peter Hender- son & Co. (110), seedsmen, of New York City, as early as 1889. Distribution —Grown in Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia. and Wisconsin. (Wig. 46.) Synonyms —Clawson, Early Red Clawson, and Zeller’s Valley. The name Clawson properly is applied only to the white-kerneled wheat which was one parent of the Red Clawson, but sometimes is used for Red Clawson. Zeller’s Valley is the name under which a sample of wheat nearly identical with Red Clawson was obtained in 1919 from Sharpsburg, Md., where it was reported the variety had been grown for 40 years. Bul. 1074, U. S. Dept. of Agriculturé. : PLATE XXX. RED CLAWSON (A). ROCHESTER (B). Spikes, face and side views, natural size; glumes from lower, central, and upper portions of spike, natural size; kernels in three positions and in transverse section, magnified 3 diameters. ; rs | Bul. 1074, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXlI. SILVERCOIN (A). TRIPLET (B). Spikes, face and side views, natural size; glumes from lower, central, and upper portions of spike, natural size; kernels in three positions and in transverse section, magnified 3 diameters. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 119 ROCHESTER (ROCHESTER RED). Description—Plant winter habit, midseason, midtall; stem purple, strong, stout; spike awnless, very clavate, dense, erect; glumes glabrous, brown, mid- long to long, midwide; shoulders wide, oblique to square; beaks midwide, obtuse, 0.5 to 1 mm. long; apical awns several, 3 to 20 mm. long; kernels red, small to midlong, soft, ovate, humped; germ small; creaSe midwide, middeep, pitted ; cheeks rounded ; brush midsized, midlong to long. Rochester wheat has an extremely dense, clavate spike which distinguishes it from most other varieties. Spikes, glumes, and kernels of Rochester wheat are shown in Plate XXX, B. History.—The origin of this variety is undetermined. It was advertised by Henderson (i10) as early as 1891. Distribution— Grown as Rochester Red in Monroe County, N. Y., and as Pride of the Valley in Morris County, N. J. Synonyms.—Pride of the Valley and Shepherd’s Tennessee Fultz. A wheat called Pride of the Valley, identical with Rochester, was obtained from Morris County, N. J., in 1919, where it had been grown for eight years. Shepherd’s Tennessee Fultz is of undetermined origin, A sample under this name, but apparently identical with Rochester, was obtained in 1912 from the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, which had received it from In- diana. It is not known to be commercially grown. RED CHIEF (EARLY RED CHIEF). Description.—Red Chief is nearly identical with Rochester, but the spike is Not quite as dense. History.——Harly Red Chief is reported by Henderson (110, 1903) to have originated from Harly Red Clawson and Red Arcadian. By whom it was originated is not stated. Distribution.—This variety is not known to be grown commercially at the present time. Samples were obtained from the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. SCHLANSTEDT (RIMPAU’S RED SCHLANSTEDTER SOMMERWEIZEN). Description.—Plant spring habit, late, tall; stem very glaucous before matur- ity, white, midstrong; spike awnless, fusiform, sometimes nearly oblong, mid- dense, erect to inclined; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong, midwide; shoulders wanting to midwide, oblique; beaks wide, incurved, acute, 1 mm. long; apical awns few, 3 to 10 mm. long; kernels red, short to midlong, soft, ovate; germ midsized; crease narrow to midwide, shallow to middeep, triangular; cheeks angular; brush midsized, midlong. This variety is distinguished from other brown-glumed, red-kerneled spring wheats by the glaucous stem and leaves. History—Schlandstedt is a spring form of wheat originated by Dr. Wilhelm Rimpau in 1889 at Schlanstedt, Germany, from a Bordeaux winter wheat (142, p. 192). A sumple of this variety was introduced by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture in 1909, but was not distributed. ; spike awned, fusiform, middense, inclined; glumes pubescent, white, midlong, midwide; shoulders narrow, oblique to elevated ; beaks wide, 1 to 1.5 mm. long; awns black, 6 to 15 em, long; kernels usually white (amber) midlong to long, hard, ovate to elliptical, humped; germ midsized; crease midwide, shallow to middeep ; cheeks angular; brush midsized, short. Velvet Don as originally introduced was a mixture as to kernel color, a considerable percentage of red kernels being present. It has sometimes been described as a red-kerneled variety. That which is grown now,: however, is usually white kerneled. History.—Velvet Don (197, S. P. I. No. 5644) was introduced from Ambro- cievka, 20 miles northeast of Taganrog, in the Don Territory, Russia, in 1900, by M. A. Carleton, for the United States Department of Agriculture. Experi- ments with Velvet Don in the United States have proved it to be only a medi- ocre yielder, and it now is largely discontinued in experiments. Distribution—Seed of the variety was distributed by the Department at yarious times in the early nineties and the variety is commercially grown to a limited extent in Montana and Nebraska. GOLDEN BALL. Description—Plant spring habit, midseason, short to midtall; stem white, midstrong; spike awned, oblong-fusiform, dense, inclined; glumes pubescent, white, midlong, midwide; shoulders narrow, oblique to elevated; beaks 1 to 5 mm. long; awns black, 5 to 18 cm. long; kernels white, long, hard, ovate, humped; germ large; crease midwide, shallow to middeep; cheeks angular; brush small, short. History.—Golden Ball (197, S. P. I. No. 46766) was introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1918, from Johannesburg, South Africa. The seed was purchased through J. Burtt Davy from the Agricultural Supply Association. Three previous introductions of wheat under the name of Golden Ball had been made by the department from South Africa. These wheats all resemble this introduction, except that they had red instead of white kernels. The Golden Ball is reported to be extensively grown in South Africa and is recognized as a valuable drought-resistant and rust-resistant variety. Distribution,—Seed of the introduction discussed above has been distributed to field stations of the Office of Cereal Investigations in the northern Great Plains and Pacific Northwest. It is not grown commercially, 192 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. KAHLA, Description.—Plant spring habit, midseason, tall; stem white, midstrong; spike awned, oblong-fusiform, middense, nodding; glumes finely pubescent, black, midlong, midwide; shoulders narrow, usually oblique; beaks wide, 1 to 2 mm. long; awns black, 6 to 16 em. long; kernels white (amber) midlong to long, hard, elliptical, humped; germ midsized ; crease midwide, middeep; cheeks angular; brush midsized, short. A spike, glumes, and kernels of Kahla are shown in Plate LVI, B. History——The Kahla variety (197, S. P. I. No. 7794) was introduced in 1901 by Messrs. D. G. Fairchild and C. S. Scofield, from Setif, Constantine Province, Algeria, for the United States Department of Agriculture. Concerning the variety they recorded the following information: This is one of the wheats commonly grown by Arabs throughout Algeria. As the name Kahla signifies, this is a black-chaffed sort. It is generally considered to be one of the best of the Algerian wheats for adaptability to a wide variety of adverse conditions. When such are favorable it produces grain of excellent quality for macaroni manufacture. Under certain favorable climatic conditions the chaff loses color somewhat, but under native culture on the gravelly hills of Algeria or in the semiarid plains the purple-black of the chaff is a striking feature. This seed is furnished the department by Mr. G. Ryf, manager of the Geneva Society of Setif. Commonly planted in November or December and harvested in June or July. Experiments with Kahla wheat showed it to be a fairly good yielding variety, but not superior to Kubanka. Distribution.—After being grown in experiments for a series of years in many Sections of the northern Great Plains, its culture largely has been discontinued. Small lots are known to have been distributed, however, and apparently the wheat has become established on farms, especially in Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota, and known by various names. Synonyms.—Black Don, Black Durum, Black Emmett, Black Swamp, Purple Durum, Red Swamp, and Sloat. Black Don (197, 8S. P. I. No. 5645) is a wheat similar to Kahla except that (like Velvet Don) it usually is mixed in kernel color, a considerable percentage of red kerneis being present. The variety is of Russian origin. It was intro- duced in 1900, from Ambrocievka, 20 miles northeast of Taganrog, in the Don Territory, Russia, by M. A. Carleton for the United States Department of Agri- culture. In experiments in the United States this variety did not prove superior to Kubanka and it now largely has been discontinued. It is possible, however, that this variety may be commercially grown. Black Durum is the name under which wheat similar to Kahla is commer- cially grown in Montana. Its distribution apparently started from Fergus County. Black Hmmett is the name commonly used for a wheat, apparently similar to Kahla, in North Dakota, the distribution of which apparently started in Hettinger County. Purple Durum is a name used for Kahla in Wyoming. Black Swamp and Red Swamp are names under which a wheat practi- cally identical with Kahla was obtained from Morrow County, Oreg., where it is grown to a very small extent. Sloat descended from a head selection made by Sloat Bros., of Gettysburg, S. Dak. They state that a single head of black- chaff wheat was found in a commercial field of Kubanka, and from this origi- nated the wheat they have been growing and distributing as Sloat. This strain apparently is identical with Kahla. Its distribution dates from 1917. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 193 EMMER. Emmer is often incorrectly called “Speltz” in the United States. The word emmer is German, but it has come into use in America, as there is no English name for this wheat ally. Emmer may be of either winter or spring habit and usually is awned. The culms often are pithy within and the leaves usually are pubescent. The rachis is brittle. The spikes are very dense and laterally compressed, being narrow when viewed from the face of the spikelet and wide from the edge view. The pedicel (joint of rachis) is short, narrow, and pointed, and remains attached to the base of the spikelet which it bears. The spikelets are flattened on the inner side and usually contain two flowers. The kernels, which remain inclosed in the EMMER ACRERGE 19/9. EXCH DOF REPRESENTS RORERES OR LESS, PER COUNTY. Fic. 76.—Outline map of the United States, showing the distribution of emmer in 1919, according to the United States Census. Estimated area, 166,829 acres. Each dot represents 100 acres or less, per county. glumes after thrashing, are red, long, and slender with both ends acute. Emmer is distinguished from spelt by the shorter, denser spikes, which are laterally compressed. The pedicel of emmer is shorter and narrower and is usually attached to the base of the spikelet which it bears, while in spelt the pedicel remains attached to the face of the next lower spikelet. The inner side of the spikelet is flat instead of arched, and the kernel usually is of a darker red color than that of spelt. Practically all of the emmer grown in the United States is used as feed for live stock. Some winter emmer, however, is used in the manufacture of breakfast food. The distribution of emmer in 1919 is shown in Figure 76. 95589°—22—Bull. 1074-13 194 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. KEY TO THE VARIETIES OF EMMER. SPIKE AWNED. Page. GLUMES GLABROUS. GLUMES WHITH (Triticum dicoccum farrum Bayle). SPRING HABIT. Straw white. Plantpeariy, shot, jae Ee eee a a GSO Neopia es 194 Straw purple. Plant wlate; VmadG tall ee SS ees See aa ae ae VERNADL SL OC ees 194 GLUMES PUBESCENT. GLUMES Biack (7. d. atratum Al.). WEN TR ELAR IIe tel Ee ER Eek EE RAN BLACK WINTER ___ 195 DESCRIPTIONS, HISTORY, DISTRIBUTION, AND SYNONYMY OF EMMER VARIETIES. KHAPLI,. Description.—Plant spring habit, early, short; stem white, midstrong; spike awned, broadly oblong, middense, inclined; glumes glabrous, white, midlong, narrow; shoulders midwide, oblique to elevated; beaks wide, obtuse, 0.5 mm. long; awns white, 2 to 12 cm. long; Kernels red, long, hard, elliptical, acute, humped, curved, usually remaining in the glumes when thrashed; germ small; crease narrow to midwide, shallow; cheeks usually rounded; brush small, long. Khapli differs from the common White Spring emmer chiefly in being earlier and in having shorter stems and wider spikes. History.—A sample of this emmer was first obtained in 1908 by the Depart- ment of Agriculture from Hoshungabad, Central Provinces, India. Seed was grown at University Farm, St. Paul, Minn., and the variety has proved of in- terest and value for breeding, because of its immunity from stem rust. The variety has yielded well in experiments in South Dakota. Distribution.—Grown to a slight extent in South Dakota and at several experiment stations. Synonym.—Kathiawar is an emmer similar to Khapli. It was obtained in 1914 and again in 1915 (197, S. P. I. Nos. 39227 and 40919) by the United States Department of Agriculture, from the district of Kathiawar, north of Bombay. It is said to grow wild in Kathiawar, a very dry district on the west coast of India, but there is no proof of this. ° VERNAL (WHITE SPRING. ) Description —Plant spring habit, late, midtall; stem purple, midstrong; spike awhed, fusiform, middense, nodding; glumes glabrous, white, midlong, midwide; shoulders midwide, oblique; beaks wide, obtuse, 0.5 mm. long; awns white, 2 to 12 em. long; kernels red, long, hard, ovate to elliptical, acute, humped, usually remaining in the glumes when thrashed; germ small; crease narrow to midwide, shallow; cheeks usually rounded; brush small, long. A spike, glumes, a spikelet, and kernel of Vernal (White Spring) emmer are shown in Plate LVIII, A. History.—The origin of emmer dates from prehistoric times. In historic times it seems to have been cultivated first in Switzerland. It is now grown extensively in Germany and Russia, where the White Spring emmer as above deseribed is the most common variety. It is not known when this variety was- first brought to the United States, but it was grown by farmers in the northern Great Plains States probably as early as 1875. In recent years its cultivation has greatly increased. It has long been called White Spring, but is here named Vernal. Bul. 1074, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE LVIII. VERNAL EMMER (A). BLACK WINTER EMMER (B). pike, side view, natural size; glumes from lower, central, and upper portions of spike, natural size; spikelet and kernel, magnified 4 diameters. Bul. 1074, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE LIX. WHITE SPRING SPELT (A) RED WINTER SPELT (B). Spikes, face and side views, natural size; glumes from lower, central, and upper portions of spike, natural size; spikelet and kernel, magnified 3 diameters. Bul. 1074, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE LX. WHITE POLISH (A). EINKORN (B), Spike, side view, natural size; glumes from lower, central, and upper portion of spike, natural size; wheat kernels in three positions and in transverse section, magnified 3 diameters; einkorn spikelet and kernel, magnified 4 diameters. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES, 195 Distribution—Grown to a considerable extent in Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, and to a lesser extent in Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Texas, and Wyoming. Synonyms. Speltz*’ and Yaroslav emmer. * Speltz ” is the name under which White Spring emmer usually is advertised and sold by seedsmen in the Great Plains States. It usually is known by that name on the farms also. This term is incorrectly used, and the name does not exist as a legitimate word in any language. What is meant is the German word Spelz, which is spelled differently and which is translated spelt in English. The confusion between emmer and spelt is thought to have arisen in Germany, where considerable quantities of both cereals are grown. Yaroslav emmer (1/97, S. P. I. No. 2789) was obtained from the Government of Yaroslay, Russia, in 1899, by M. A. Carleton, for the United States Depart- “ment of Agriculture. Experiments with this introduction in the United States have shown it to be practically identical with White Spring emmer. As it has not outyielded the White Spring emmer in exveriments, it has not become com- mercially grown. BLACK WINTER. Description.—Plant winter habit, late, tall; stem white, strong, stout; spike awned, broadly fusiform, middense to dense, inclined; glumes pubescent, black, midlong, midwide; shoulders midwide, usually elevated; beaks wide, 1 mm. long: awns black, 4 to 15 cm. long; kernels red, long, hard, elliptical, acute, curved, inclosed in hull when thrashed; germ small; crease midwide, shallow ; cheeks angular; brush small, long. Black Winter emmer is quite distinct in having pubescent black glumes. Un- like the varieties of spring emmer, this variety is very susceptible to rust. A spike, ghimes, a spikelet. and kernels of Black Winter emmer are shown in Plate LVIII, B. History—Black Winter emmer (797, 8. P. I. No. 11650) was obtained in 1904 from Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., Paris, France, by the United States Department of Agriculture. The original importation of 79 pounds of seed was sown in the fall of 1904. From the resulting crop seed was increased and distributed to experiment stations and a number of farmers throughout the United States. The results of experiments since that time have been unfavorable. The variety has not proved sufficiently hardy for growing successfully north of Kansas and Wyoming in the Great Plains area, and has not been able to compete with other cereals in the southern Great Plains. Distribution—Grown in experiments in the central and northern Great Plains and commercially to a small extent in Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Washington, and Wyoming. Synonyn.—Buffum’s Improved Winter emmer. This js identical with the emmer described, but is a pure strain and consequently more uniform. Buffum’s Improved Winter emmer was distributed by B. C. Buffum, of Worland, Wyo. When director of the Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station at Laramie he received a small quantity of seed of Black Winter emmer from the Office of Cereal Investigations. After his resignation he selected and improved the crop. From a dozen selected plants of the 1908 crop 84 bushels were produced in 1909. 710 bushels in, 1910, and a crop of 20,000 bushels was estimated in 1911. This seed was widely distributed. SPELT. Spelt may be of either winter or spring habit and awnless or awned. It has a long, narrow, lax spike and a brittle rachis. The 196 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pedicel (joint of the rachis) is long and wide, and after thrashing remains attached to the face of the spikelet below the one which it bears. The spikelets are two-kerneled, arched on the inner side, and closely appressed to the rachis. The kernels, which remain in- closed in the glumes after thrashing, are pale red, long, and laterally compressed, and have an acute tip and a narrow, shallow crease. Spelt is grown commercially only to a slight extent in America. The varieties often called “Speltz” in this country are not spelt but emmer. A few varieties chiefly grown experimentally are sepa- rated in the following key: KEY TO THE VARIETIES OF SPELT. SPIKE AWNLESS. GLUMES GLABROUS. GLUMES WHITE (Triticum spelia album Al1.). Page. SPRING GM ARID. 22. ae ee eee WHITE Sprine_____ 196 WEEN TBR OETA RID |. See ATSTROUM.= === 196 GLuMES Brown (7. s. rufum Al.). VV evens sae RSPAS a Sa RED. WINTER _____ 197 Sprxke AWNED. GLUMES GLABROUS; WHITE (ZT. s. arduinii Al.). AVVATEIN TER eDOCS TQ cee cet sk SRS oe ord BEARD IMD 2 == 197 DESCRIPTIONS, HISTORY, AND DISTRIBUTION OF SPELT VARIETIES. WHITE SPRING. Description—Plant spring habit, late, midtall; stem white, strong; spike awnless, linear-fusiform, lax, erect; glumes glabrous, white, midlong, wide; shoulders wide, square; beaks wide, obtuse, 0.5 mm. long; awns few, 1 to 8 mm. long; kernels red, long, semihard, elliptical, humped, curved, inclosed in glumes; germ small; crease wide, shallow, pitted; cheeks angular; brush mid- sized, long. A spike, glumes, a spikelet, and kernels of White Spring spelt are shown in Plate LIX, A. History. Obtained by the Department of Agriculture from J. M. Thorburn & Co., seedsmen, of New York City, in 1904. Distribution.—Grown in experiments in North Dakota, but not known to be grown commercially. ALSTROUM. Description.—Plant winter habit, late, midtall; stem faintly purple, strong; spike awnless, linear-fusiform, lax, inclined to nodding; glumes glabrous, white, midlong, narrow; shoulders midwide, square; beaks obtuse, 0.5 mm. long; apical awns usually wanting; kernels red, long, semihard, elliptical, humped, curved, inclosed in glumes; germ small; crease wide, shallow; cheeks angular; brush mnidsized, long. ' Alstroum differs from White Spring spelt chiefly in having a winter habit. History—AI|stroum spelt was obtained by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1901 from the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station, Pull- man, Wash. Its further history is undetermined. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 197 Distribuiion—Grown in experiments at Arlington Experimental Farm, Va., and by the Washington station, Pullman, Wash. It is known to be com- mercially grown to a slight extent. RED WINTER. Description—Plant winter habit, late, midtall; stem faintly purple, strong; spike awnless, linear-fusiform, lax, erect; glumes glabrous, brown, midlong to long, wide; shoulders wide, square; beaks obtuse, 0.5 mm. long; apical awns few, 3 to 20 mm. long; kernels red, long, soft, humped, curved, usually in; closed in glumes; germ small; crease wide, shallow; cheeks angular; brush midsized, long. This variety differs from Alstroum spelt in having brown glumes. A spike, glumes, a spikelet, and kernels of Red Winter spelt are shown in Plate LIX, B. History—Red Winter spelt was first obtained by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture in 1901 from the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. Its further history is undetermined. Many samples of this and other spelt varieties doubtless have been introduced into the United States from time to time. A sample of spelt practically identical with the above was introduced from Switzerland about 1913 by Paul Scheddiger, of Spear- fish, S. Dak., and was distributed by him in 1915. Most of this winterkilled during the next two winters, which were unusually severe. Distribution—Formerly grown to a small extent in South Dakota and Wyoming. Now grown only by experiment stations. BEARDED. Description—Piant winter habit, late, midtall; stem faintly purple, strong; spike awned, linear fusiform, lax, erect; glumes glabrous, yellowish, midlong, midwide; shoulders wide, apiculate; beaks wide, acute, 0.5 mm. long; awns yellowish, 2 to 10 cm. long; kernels red, large, soft, curved, humped, usually inclosed in glumes; germ small; crease wide, shallow. pitted; cheeks angular; brush midsized, long. History.—Same as Alstroum. Distribution—Grown in experiments at Arlington Experimental Farm, Va. Not known to be commercially grown. POLISH WHEAT. Polish wheat has a spring habit, tall stems, and a pithy peduncle. The spike is awned, large, and lax. The glumes are papery, an inch or more long, and narrow. The length of the glume equals or exceeds the length of the lemmas. The kernel is long and narrow, sometimes nearly a half inch long, hard, and has a shape somewhat similar to that of a kernel of rye. Polish wheat usually yields less than other adapted varieties. It also is of inferior value for bread or macaroni manufacture. Under other names it is frequently sold at a high price for seed by un- scrupulous seedsmen. Only one variety of Polish wheat is grown in the United States. The characters of this variety are shown in the following key: / 198 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. KEY TO POLISH WHEAT. SPrkE AWNED. GLUMES GLABROUS; WHITE. KERNELS WHITE (Triticum polonicum levissimum Haller.). IXERNELS LONG To VERY Lone; Harp. SPRING HABIT Page. Drayes WHite PorisH_____—-—«qxi198 DESCRIPTION, HISTORY, DISTRIBUTION, AND SYNONYMY OF POLISH WHEAT. WHI?TE POLISH. Description.—Plant spring habit, early, tall; stem white, weak; spike awned, linear-oblong, lax, nodding; glumes glabrous, white, paperish, very long, narrow ; shoulders usually wanting; beaks narrow, acute, 0.5 to 1 mm. long; awns biack, usually deciduous, 4 to 10 cm. long; kernels white (amber) very long, hard, elliptical, acute; germ midsized; crease narrow, shallow to middeep; cheeks usually rounded; brush large, midlong. A spike, glumes, and kernels of White Polish wheat are shown in Plate LX, A. History.—This wheat is not definitely known to be of Polish origin, as the name implies. It has been grown in England and other Huropean countries for many years, and was early introduced into the United States. It is known to have been grown in Maryland as early as 1845 (7/80, p. 413). From that time until the present frequent references can be found concerning the variety. It has often been used for exploitation by unscrupulous growers or seedsmen, the seed often being sold for as much .as $1 a pound. It has been tried in most sections of the United States, but has never become established anywhere for more than a year or two. It is usually a poor yielder, although it has produced large yields in some sections. It is difficult to market this wheat in the United States for purposes other than for feed. Distribution.—Polish wheat was reported in 1919 only from New Mexico and Wyoming. It is known, however, to be grown sparingly in Idaho, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota, and is doubtless grown to a slight extent in many other States. Synonyms.—Belgian rye, Corn wheat, German rye, Giant rye, Goose wheat, Jerusalem rye, Rice wheat, Siberian Cow, and Wild Goose. Belgian rye, German rye, Giant rye, and Jerusalem rye are names used by exploiters of Polish wheat because the spikes and kernels have a general] resemblance to those of rye. Corn wheat is the name applied to Polish wheat by W. J. Shields & Co., of Moscow, Idaho, about 1900, the reason stated for so naming it being that it makes the same kind of meal as corn. The exploitation of Polish wheat under this name was continued a number of years, and the wheat is still grown in Idaho under that name. Goose and Wild Goose are names sometimes applied to Polish wheat, as well as to durum and poulard wheats. Rice wheat is a name used for Polish wheat by many men in the grain trade. Siberian Cow is the name applied to Polish wheat in Nebraska, according to a report by Walter Fowler, grain supervisor of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture at Omaha, Nebr. EINKORN. Einkorn, or 1-grained wheat, has no English name, but is called einkorn in German and that namé has become fairly well known in America. The spikes are awned, narrow, slender, and laterally com- CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 199 pressed. The spikelets usually contain only one fertile floret, for which reason it is called 1-grained wheat. The terminal spikelets are aborted. The palea splits into two parts at maturity. The ker- nels, which remain in the spikelets after thrashing, are pale red, slender, and very much compressed. The kernel crease is almost wanting. Einkorn is not commercially grown in America, and the species itself has no economic importance. The form most commonly grown experimentally is distinguished by the following key: KEY TO EINKORN. SPIKE AWNED, GLUMES GLABROUS. GLUMES WHITE (Triticum monococcum vulgare Keke.). Page. WINTER HABIT. ooo See ee TING RNG eee ees 199 DESCRIPTION, HISTORY, AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE VARIETY. o EINKORN., Description—Plant winter habit, although usually it will mature seed from spring sowing, late, short; stem white, fine, strong; spike awned, fusiform, middense, erect; glumes glabrous, yellowish, long, narrow; shoulders narrow, apiculate; beaks narrow, acuminate, 1 to 2 mm. long; awns 8 to 10 cm, long; kernels red, midsized, soft, elliptical, acute, humped, compressed, usually inclosed in glumes; germ small; crease narrow, nearly wanting, shallow; cheeks rounded; brush small, short. This variety of einkorn is described as having a winter habit because the plant remains prostrate during most of the growing season. It usually will produce seed late in the season when sown in the spring and frequently has been grown as spring einkorn. A spike, glumes, a spikelet, and kernels of einkorn are shown in Plate LX, B. iistory.—Einkorn apparently originated in southern Europe in prehistoric times. Seed of this cereal has been introduced into the United States several times, one of the earliest introductions by the department having been received from Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., Paris, France, in 1901, but it is known to have been grown in the United States previous to that time. The strain here described was obtained from Erfurt, Germany, in 1904. Distribution.—Grown by many experiment stations throughout the United States, but not known to be grown commercially. UNIDENTIFIED VARIETIES. Among the wheat varieties grown in the United States are a few which have not yet been identified. Nearly 300 names were reported in the varietal survey, of which no material has been obtained and grown. Seed of many of these was requested, but not received. Ob- viously, some of the names reported were not properly applied to wheat. Others are probably local names used by only a few growers, but not published or generally established. The names of varieties which were reported but not grown or identified by the writers are 2900 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. shown in the following list, together with the State or States from which they were reported: List oF UNIDENTIFIED VARIETIES OF WHEAT, SHOWING THE STATES FROM WHICH THEY WERE REPORTED. [The history of each variety marked with a star (*) is recorded at the end of the list.] Name of variety. State or States where grown. Amaber, Kamo. sya oe cre Mids ae New York. ember lved see 2 00 os wee San ba ON New York. SAM CH ICA 2 eerie fae. SM ee et ae Kentucky. American (Beauty: 2 5... -ns-4 25. sepeeae ee Indiana. FAME CEICATUW ONG Clee =e ape eee eine oa Pennsylvania. NOIXG RYERSS Pr paNNG pestene a ve eee as Alabama. i aNTAO 3) gSCoy a Raat epecegeck SAD iene ee Bs Missouri. BK Fo Reta lag IS ape fe) lo MM indiana. TBAT C 2 2 attache estore ey og netic ie leet ia Oklahoma, Tennessee. 1 S21 IG leap A yh dS eae Wr Ger Ae cee EA ee Indiana, Kansas, West Virginia. Barclegien ssa ack oo ace aeons eye eens Alabama. Beardsley. -....-.-- PI ul wih Ds Ge opp Ohio. 1 BX Siri fe RSENS Aleta ay si ae Texas. "bya oh Le O AAR eeu fee aid ops ond dalle masa North Carolina. zB TSR fp rl Fat ae yh Ag tn Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina. STAT eee a one ere e ache cia mate Missouri. BLL GOL Ss apes bie a cai Sl a Pennsylvania. c+] BOF OTA RO Opa 7a Paces e, eae aaa MAL YE Virginia. AOR ACTA eae em one cn CR PRES Alabama, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia. ESO Rca eee SN. anal sate pen Steer coer STS Tennessee. Broadhedd: UF! a ere, Ue fe ee a Oregon. BrUbaAkenyske eee eee eae ee oe Michigan, Pennsylvania. Bale wy sk OMe eae ee Ss Tllinois. Ballhendee ete. sere: Ge Dee ey Kentucky. BES EC ecole ee Se MO AS LA aE UL Leal Kentucky. Camelies Eee Bie See ee ae eae Pennsylvania. S@anada slab 2b 2 Aus ey ee ee Colorado, Missouri, New York, Tdatho. Canadian Wonders: es52 22 es. Ba eos Pennsylvania. Capaeiiehtle ue gah Ce Lea Se Wisconsin. Carson cates Bates Me” pee te eee Washington. SCastillioue ns Bae Se ee ae South Dakota. Centennial: 222 5. ae Cet Indiana. Chamberlainger: se oer eee eels Tllinois. ClaTKKS NOs ere nae ae rete te New York. Coilege: Nig. OT) SIE Sue ROS Michigan. CommonsRed =!) rane sey Teas: Missouri. Conrer essai. Val lie bd Ae pee dd oe Pennsylvania. Coppervblcad s:e54.52 2h ety ss hee Arkansas, Henini. Missouri, Loe ill li ae ge So kk ah a aa a et re Texas. Cramiand tay rid SF es See een her New York. Crooked Pinger 2 2beic. SB .. Lekue ee Oregon. Dalllagigens dose echt ae cl. TAR See 3: we Georgia. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. List OF UNIDENTIFIED VARIETIES OF WHEAT—Continued. Name of variety. State or States where grown. _o) 2)... ee te Vermont. Prcimirelin@ee 22... 2... et Soe sce Ohio. Memblemnrcide..- .... . i2 Seeoed! Kentucky. e IDM? a aa gs Illinois. Peewaebraision............... suede Towa. Lic Urine nee ete eee Tennessee. Pee 8. os. este Oregon. eee ee ee Kentucky, Tennessee. IDtED 2A 6 er ee Idaho. 27) Tiwi Ae erase tet a Texas. JUL... ere ce eee Indiana. PRMHMEONINC..- i. RL Virginia. ER TS ee eee Illinois, Michigan, Ohio. HaEIMeMs PH AVONITC:.. 2.220222 ss ok eee Indiana. Mp merTOGG. 2 e ees es es we Indiana. Fly-Proof...... Bere OR Se) ee ee Pennsylvania. EH EHNE GOIN: <= 2s -2)s's 2 oe Poke eee South Carolina. SE ees HJp cad See South Carolina. Wulize-Clawson... 3.222... Kiebeneliens Pennsylvania. Genesee Golden Chaff.................- Pennsylvania. ete os fe = ik eras Indiana, Michigan. Si 7 5 eee oe), 78 California. AS TEST 53 5 eR UR North Carolina. Sutin! ee Ree Aes ror California. Pep neice 2 ss ws 2) eS Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia. Glin ile ee a a ee Be North Carolina. Gaideneninber |. >... Seba: Peis Illinois. Claret oe ones ee Tennessee. Gaiden earvent.. 2. 5 32s 8 ne Michigan, Pennsylvania. (Goldener lieh 8 oe: sh bec ee oh we tows Illinois. Galapnenedens. 225255356 0. a Fab eRe North Carolina. : OIA CHELOG Ge PS. io. seniee nad ee Indiana. RIERA enna. of aierrch opt 5 sete Ohio, West Virginia. Goldeu ule: os 2 ccjonse Gell! Saeed Towa. CH Cie c 7 | er ee ee eee =, 8 Missouri. iGedd Quality. 32.25. -0o 5 222. cae Ohio. PERO DUN eee 52 = oo aero wi Ue sive SRP North Carolina. Gi 25 Cera DON Se Sa a eS eR eS nL, South Carolina. GOVEINONS. =. 2.2... -. deepapier? ~ ees eh Illinois. CEE) OLERe See en a ee ae DTS en fey Nebraska. Grimitiics.. 2.22. Ste oh = mean Gio eds Kentucky. UNI is ia Sie wala Sw wl 0) «fa, o) Staton 3) > cs ee O1Lio. jel) Se, i eee SiC Om ASS Ilinois. Harvesting...........- Laitinen Eiger aed Pennsylvania. PAN OR Eins bw raine Fiso ale caine ate a «a metre Indiana. RAIOD og) readied acne p's satin neue ae Illinois. PRETO MOOLO Mises on pais noc vin Mo wis wap eehere ‘Tennessee. RE IO: . cance nnie nner aden nade ak Michigan. Pry Ee kana as nat ewan s dain nid New York. Biv OIE ON de nen e sae vate ss be saga Michigan, Improved NO, 7... . «06 -ssabwd). sue Michigan. 201 202 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. List OF UNIDENTIFIED VARIETIES OF WHEAT—Continued. Name of variety. State or States where grown. Improved Hed= .:=.22258- 2. =. eee Missouri. dindiat? ecb: ans Maen len faa) Skee Maine, Ohio. inidiansked= se) e- S.- 2. PY aoe. Missouri, Ohio. indiana Special -= spn. 1.35552 eee Indiana. Jersey she eee reer tie alent a) ee Tennessee. Jones? Chaiitae = Sree 2 pegs Kentucky. Jones Brolitie 2X52 ans Sek yee ss ae Indiana. Pune 2 p22 S522 2 eee eee dares Oregon. Kansas (Clubhead=:225 eas 2 o2 2s aa Texas. Kayes" Prolific: 2).8 128 Whee Mey 2 1S ae Maryland. TE GST A Aes eee aera aoa ieee 6 Tennessee. Kentucky Blue Joimts--- *2 2:2: }: eee .. Michigan. Kentucky Clayground...........-.-.-- Indiana. Kenticky Hallardes: ass") = 4) Sana Ohio. Kentucky Red “o242-5 2+ RSA he ae Ohio. iKentuckyWihites =: 35-2! eune heer Kentucky. Keystone: 2s sae2ce Jiro ssreHlorgem® .. Ohio. Gira ye SEF) 18 5 SOS a at oe opart a bert OOF ON Virginia. RG Veb tate t MOMs: - 2 open eee iee North Carolina. iKerlesite22> ss yee Seo) eee le Colorado. ba Crosses Ss sete = capes 292 et 3 sett Indiana. Gammon djs Ses een ee. oe Kentucky. andflashis:2: sabe eases <2 Pyar A Idaho. Tandreth’s hongberry. >= .:..2.. 20 Tennessee. Dates <0. SY Sees cA De nee Georgia. WateyBig Gram 425225525. SOs? AG Alabama. ead eis eee eee vote et Pennsylvania. tartletBloode saa eeee 2) 0! Omen Indiana. ItittlesS prime: Sa eee? Meee SS Tennessee. exiles Whiter meses: 5 2 Se SN Georgia. ihoe Cabin¥s0 sees... 32. BAMOMe ee New York. tone Sacks seer! Peas Tilinois. : S50st Nation ssc/2 See SRE oe Towa, Maine, Vermont, Wisconsin. IMICG Cee steerer reer, a2 Ser) fae a Missouri, Tennessee. IMBCK Gye sas ees aes ls Re Idaho. Marina ot als a) leer ye re ee ae ee Michigan. Mammoth Bearded _...-...5)-.: .--- Alabama. Mein chiuntay 222 258s eae ee a Ohio. Manito baer see een eee eo. eee New York, Tennessee. Marbleheadins: “45240. Ses" oe- Aaae! Minnesota. Many lant eee etek eR RS Georgia. MayeKange. ate ie ee eae eee Ee Kansas. Meadownkempe ns tae eee cece soe North Carolina. Michigan Gold Standard. ..........-... Chio Midlentone ee 25h e eer ees Tennessee. *Minnesota Wonder: -2---2-2.2..-088 Oregon. Minnesota Chiet.=*- 5-7 ==. 2. ae Indiana. Missouri "Rede os. 2 ogee ae. 5) ene Tennessee. Monarch asc ccescc:- eee ae eee Ohio. Monitor. 222.) 252.0 see vee cee | eee Ohio. MGOOre ace ootes cee aes onte ne eee Tennessee, Georgia. CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES, 203 List oF UNIDENTIFIED VARIETIES OF WHEAT—Continued, Name of variety. men RPIH EP Lo asr EOTEO dob ae en rare Pmamer Michioan ...-..:...-:-.. dee Erige ot Missouri... 2... ue biee a zip GOON es oe eo ican =, BELLA RO COICO ENCR ES SF orale othe acs SES POO eee = = co aes ao 2 os STU PO GOO eAMOWAD: onc eee wee eo ore EASY RE ACRES os aj w tore w= ow 8 Pee CHONG ces oc hs os oie to Aan Tele TIT © Ball a Ae a aR OE Red Diamond red Egyptian ROO VISCKIC +o eecie oc avec. os Soe BOC RMOTCHIAL csi Oko vine daa -Ladgepdobion edelake voces 2... iaetoa?. ane EGG LIGHOAGY oer oan 7s ko «+ SUL IOEE J. Oar red Monatelivasissl-podeeuie'd. ovosies POMOC a Os tbs ecto ore ete. ce « eOWhe ee led Giver. c.tis 0s. b0el. dau. istanbul LOG RAVER SPOCIAl ; oo asa cveleune eONS Cech SeUSh LOO. 5: Lacs oa allbeeeel tds 2ed Tom ted Willow...... Pete eae mtg ela wo gS WOE WOON aie at dine nnae-as ooo oi'v'a'c NID! State or States where grown. North Carolina. Idaho. West Virginia. Ohio. New York. Arkansas. Tennessee. New Mexico. Kentucky. New York. Michigan, New York. New York. New York. Missouri. Kentucky. Mississippi, Tennessee. Illinois. New York. North Carolina. Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee. Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, New Jersey, Tennessee. West Virginia. Missouri. Michigan. New York. California, Tennessee. West Virginia. Kentucky. Michigan. Alabama. California. Ohio. Michigan. Missouri. Oklahoma, Pennsylvania. New York. Ohio. Ohio. West Virginia. West Virginia. Tennessee, Vermont. New York. Indiana, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania. Nebraska, Tennessee. Mississippi, Tennessee. Kentucky. Missouri. Nebraska. Missouri. 204 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. List OF UNIDENTIFIED VARIETIES OF WHEAT—Continued, Name of variety. State or States where grown. FReISIn oe ese ee eal ees Pennsylvania. Reynoldsec:: - 42.5060 Ae tee ene eee ee Arkansas. FRAO) Grande: «72.4: Sees Bes & ae Iowa, New York, Wisconsin. Rocky teyiaa case mio kiats Je) 0 a Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky. RedoersRed -2. 220.0. ee, ele ed Illinois. 1240) lea 2 a nn Ma RCEg arta) oe West Virginia. Royal Crosstio: ko. eee ee EO Missouri. Rucker .So.32 2 Sens ee eee Georgia. Russian, Hoplite 22032228 oe ee eee Illinois. Rvussian) rose.) 2332) 15. eee a) Pennsylvania. Riissian derolitic.2-- pee aie Cae aes Ohio. SCOTS: Ate ne RE eee a Deg Indiana, Ohio. Heoulande - abe Nowa: aes bre Meth Towa. ‘S{Gah lO @ Meat. ce ar ten Sin AUMeMnMn ET. a 2. Georgia. SSeadlslanide.o. ere. Se Sea: Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska. SHanghas’ 0.2 oe- = eases... eee Maryland. phealtbrolific.c- 2 -Aeyace ck ERLE South Carolina. Shepherd’s Special..........-..- a pews Michigan. phoepers: ses ee a eh po Tennessee. Diivenadgi lus! asenice fie Mi lesley: North Carolina. pilmeri@peenwes.: -soviekne S. 7 aeelal Ohio. Silver Starss ce aqeo ss epee es eee Tennessee. SulveriStraw. 22. 4-2-cok se .. SeORE W§ab North Carolina. Sinks ess. Seek kn ee Tennessee. rs) EO0 A Se ee 5 5 Ne eRe rs 1 on Oregon. Smooth) Chait! 5552/2 .2 1. vee ee North Carolina. Snowllake:....2242: -2oereed HSS cel ee California. Nora ymie2 geese...) BAPE eee Wyoming. ° ppangler/Beardless. 2 :2.-..... ee ease Pennsylvania. DS PEMo Glan eee ee 4-4... = ere Washington. StAVeNSe sick beee oeeo. 4 ke es See South Carolina. Stewart seNO;Wozeecrs.: 22222 Bee Pennsylvania. fH body Oa eras, 2 eal se on Ree Indiana. UCCERS: Sear a2 eee ed oto 51 Ohio. rSLEVON Dus edepeeungrge SM Diels ORR sa 8 | Missouri. DHPOR OTE: ete emer ntat jor JO Towa. SWAT e: sae ee ee ee Virginia. Nova SaeWhIte 022 ae e a oe ae North Carolina. Map paltanocks.2 225 omer aot SS Tennessee. Tennessee Bluestem ......-....------+-+ Mississippi. Menniessee: Red 3) 2c:2/: 2 i eS ee Alabama, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina. Mexagived $22. 2-55 key Baa oe Kentucky, Nebraska, Tennessee. MhousandGhold== 2 = eee see New Jersey. ‘ Turners High: Bred ii). isi ee. 0% eb be Maryland. Victorycie: 250 eee ee pee Illinois. Virginia Beauty - eee! | eae North Carolina. Nireinia Bluestem... 22-22. >See South Carolina. Varoinia Golden: 05.2) 5- 2 eee Oklahoma. Nirgimia Redo i3.3:.2 2 Gee ce. eee Virginia. AWE ofavel s\koas Mi pe linas lens, HOSS test i (enime indiana: CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 205 List oF UNIDENTIFIED VARIETIES OF WHEAT—Continued. Name of variety. State or States where grown. Mrmr WVONGECL - 22. 54... --- oocnae Delaware. Ub) 2a). -. SSE ee ee ee eee West Virginia. Western Three-Mesh. .....-- 4-220. 2256 4- Oregon. . Wott Esai ee 8 Ee a Michigan. WiktVeNeHEGed 32. epi. 2 4 ese yaliars Alabama. Lane [ho0 ne SOE North Carolina. LE STLE DS eee New York. sb See Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland. White Chaff Mediterranean ......-.....-. New York. “ERE (CPSs Sa eee ee ae? Indiana, Missouri. 002. ee Michigan. Mteeerretond ..- 2. ne = Ohio. White Elephant........ Siedes tne UPR caches Michigan. HERO IMOF . 2.322 3... sacs ~ 22 2 gated North Carolina. RNR PP Se ie 2. 5g kys lan) case e Michigan, West Virginia RNa HDL pee 2 fans ioe on. aes AYE Kansas, Missouri. REE SSS PI A a3) 5214s Jess BAI Arkansas. COTS ea Pos 2) oe a eee West Virginia RRMA RN Site or cess gat eee ey gers Idaho. Witte Uime Stone. ...:.~--s2-08524-41) - Kentucky. DPE A I Pn ee Ee Georgia, Louisiana, Tennessee. Woe Medtierranean.........-...+....-- West Virginia. Vt VOSS a ne re er Delaware, New Hampshire. Aes ANI OULD ox st engl core eS Michigan. U1 SFE Bo 0) Fa ee mar os 1 aN West Virginia. I aA i ceca he oy 93 bain yo eS Arkansas. VEN 6” 0 a ees seen Michigan, North Carolina, West Virginia. RRS oe soc wis as Ohio. Witenes 2S CT, Oregon A Ey © ea Indiana WN Oa rods A - dig Sd ois dh. nis: Tennessee. U0 AD geeky A OR eae eae eer eee North Carolina. WU ah oe a 585 wig cite «ls Maryland. Val ob mI iS ee aaah ales. Sine Tllinois. Warten Queer iio Sie. 2.. oz 2 ey. Delaware, Ohio, Oklahoma. Wisconsin Pedigree No. 1................ Illinois, Wisconsin. MUIDENBSISY MED TS eid se Pag eh bao fone Wisconsin. WIRED WORGein. fogie oho > = do nin itn ob 2 Kentucky. MN al td ete fob ta te ons Saas chegs out Michigan. Of the wheats in the foregoing list, Boughton, Canada Club, Cas- tillione, Kivet, Lost Nation, Minnesota Wonder, Rio Grande, Sea Island, Tappahannock, and White Leader are known to be distinct varieties or mixtures of wheats here described. Nothing is known concerning the other names. Boughton and Tappahannock are the same variety, both names be- ing commonly used for many years, but the variety has not been 206 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. identified. The history of the variety is given in the Rural New Yorker of 1858 (3), as follows: The Lynchburg Virginian says: “ Seven years ago (1851) Mr. J. L. Boughton (of Tappahannock, Essex County, Va.) found in his field of wheat four heads that had ripened some 15 days earlier than the remainder of his crop. He pre- served the grain and sowed it, and continued resowing it every year, until his crop comes in this year at least a month earlier than usual.” Canada Club is a spring wheat and was widely grown from 1850 to 1870. It since has practically disappeared from cultivation in the United States. It is stated by Danielson (76, p. 385) to be the Golden Drop originated by F. F. Hallett, of Brighton, England. De Neven (78, p. 148) reported its use and history in 1854 to be as follows: The “ Canada Club” variety, which is generally regarded among our farmers as the most profitable spring wheat, considering the ease of raising it, brings, to- gether with the “ Rio Grande,” the highest market price. It was brought to the United States from Canada, where it formerly was extensively cultivated: but not so much now on account of the terrible ravages of the weevil. It was intro- duced into Canada from France, where it is, at this day, the kind most raised. This wheat is vulgarly known in that country by the name of “ Petit blé de mars blane” (small March white wheat), all kinds of spring wheat being gen- erally designated as ‘“‘ blé de mars,” as March is the month in which it is usually sown. The “Canada Club” is a bald wheat, grows remarkably even and straight. The straw is uncommonly stiff and its height rather below medium, for which reasons it is less liable to be laid low by the winds and storms than any kind of spring wheat with which I am acquainted, a quality of great value to farmers. The flour made from it is not very fine, but good; and the quality heavy. Castillione is a badly mixed durum spring wheat distributed by Lorenzo Falzone, of Milesville, S. Dak., in 1917. He obtained 2 pounds of seed in Italy and grew it for the first time in South Da- kota in 1914, increasing it in 1915 and 1916. As it proved more re- sistant to stem rust in 1916 than other varieties in his neighborhood, he distributed it as a rust-resistant variety. Experiments have not shown it to be especially resistant, however. The fact that it con- tains three distinct types makes it objectionable for growing and im-. possible to classify here. It contains strains having both white and black awns and glabrous and pubescent glumes, which may be either white or yellowish. The kernels of all strains are white (amber). — Kivet is a white-kerneled wheat which has been grown in North Carolina for many years. It was obtained by Blount (47) and grown and reported in 1892 in his New Mexico experiments. It possibly is the same wheat as White Wonder, as both are grown in the same _ localities. Lost Nation is an old awnless spring wheat of the northeastern United States, which has now gone out of cultivation. A history of the wheat was recorded in 1878 in the Rural New Yorker as follows: CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 207 With regard to this variety of wheat, Doctor Hoskins of Orleans County, Vt., writes us: “I was one of the very first to plant it in Vermont, having, with three others in different parts of the State, four years ago received a quart of it from Rey. Marcus A. Keep, of Dalton, Aroostook County, Me. I got a bushel from the quart, sowed it all and distributed the 26 bushels that grew from it among my neighbors, and now it is the principal wheat in the vicinity.” Minnesota Wonder and Early Wonder are names used for a mix- ture of Kinney, Huston, and Defiance, grown in the Willamette Val- ley of Oregon. Rio Grande is a bearded spring wheat which was reported grown in Wisconsin as early as 1853. Concerning it De Neven (78, p. 148) has recorded the following information: “The Rio Grande” wheat was introduced among us more recently than the “Canada Club.’ * * * Jt was brought into Illinois by an Englishman, a soldier in the Mexican War, who carried from the banks of the Rio Grande a handful in his knapsack and sowed it in his garden, from which my seed was derived. * * * It grows very tall, having the ears furnished with long beards and, altogether, when standing in the field, it strongly resembles the “Black Sea” variety, only the straw is somewhat larger, if not longer. In 1896 Hays (108, p. 322) discussed its probable value for Minne- sota, as follows: University No. 72, Rio Grande, has been grown by the experiment station for a number of years. It is a medium-sized plant, bearded, chaff is smooth, white, and holds tightly to the berry. The berry has much the same appearance as the Red Fife, but has usually graded one grade below Fife grown beside it. As it is bearded, hardly as good a yielder as Fife and Bluestem, and not able to secure as good grades, this variety will hardly compete with the standard sorts. This wheat at times has seemed especially susceptible to the effects of rust. Sea Island is a spring wheat which was quite commonly grown in Nebraska during the nineties, but which has now nearly gone out of cultivation. The origin of the variety is undetermined. A sample was obtained from Colorado in 1919, but it was badly mixed, contain- ing at least five distinct types, so its correct identity could not be de- termined. White Leader or Early White Leader is a variety listed on the stationery of A. N. Jones, of Newark, Wayne County, N. Y., where he claims to have originated it in 1893. Nothing further is known concerning it. ESTIMATED ACREAGE OF VARIETIES. The varietal survey, previously mentioned, has furnished a basis for estimating the actual and percentage acreages of the different varieties (Tables 2 and 3). In compiling Table 2 all estimated per- centage acreages from all reports from a county were totaled and the average percentage which each variety represented in the wheat 208 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. acreage of the county was determined. The actual number of acres of wheat in each county, as determined by the preliminary reports of the Fourteenth United States Census, were used to compute the estimated number of acres of each variety. The varietal survey and the census data were for the same. year, 1919. The estimated acre- age of the different varieties in each State (Table 2) and in the United States (Table 3) thus have been determined and a corre- sponding weighted percentage computed. In filling out the varietal questionnaires many reporters listed only the most important varieties and grouped the remaining as “ others” or else failed to report varieties totaling a full 100 per cent. Other correspondents reported “ no wheat ” where the census reports showed a small acreage for the county. These undetermined percentages have been carried as “others and not reported” in all computations. The unidentified varieties reported have also been included under that heading. : Most of the crop reporters were not acquainted with the names of varieties of club and durum wheat. Instead of reporting varie- ties, therefore, these classes of wheat usually were reported merely as “club” and “ durum.” In tabulating the results these elass names are used with the explanation “varieties not reported” in paren- theses. The acreage data for club and durum varieties, therefore, are of little value, but the varieties known by the writers to be grown are listed by name in all cases. Where these names were not reported on the survey, the acreage and percentage columns are left blank. For all varieties reported but which have an estimated actual acreage of less than 100 acres or an estimated percentage of less than 0.1 per cent, leaders (dotted lines) are shown in each figure column. The figures following the State names show the number of reports used in computing the averages. TABLE 2.—Hstimate of actual and percentage acreages of wheat varieties grown in the several States in 1919. [Figures in parentheses following the names of States show the number of reports used in computing the averages.] Area grown. Area grown. State and variety. SS State and variety. Acres Fer Acres Per ql cent. F cent. ALABAMA (223). ALABAMA—Ccontinued. TUE OY asc sisicixts Sore eercieia cisicie soll piers eee | eer Others and not reported.....-.. 5,817 | 17.0 Potal sass cases ewee as 34,017 | 100.0 ARIZONA (41). Alaska | ML Sessa nee See Sei 200 5 AB eaTitere aR et oe aia ei 20,100} 55.6 Club (varieties not reported)... . 6,300 | 17.4 CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 209 TABLE 2.—Estimate of actual and percentage acreages of wheat varieties grown in the several States in 1919—Continued. State and variety. ARIZONA—continued. Durum (varieties not reported )- LUTE. 742 A CR Ss) ee Marquis “Gin? 2 Oo ee DUNEMIEAD a ons aos es esa lke Gipsy RISEV OSIM VIGEN: -- 22-22 <2s55e Ludi O15, 7 See Mediterranean. .........-.-...-- eT EIS bs ep al ee aa aan Bunyi 2. Se- 7 eee Canadian Red LL ee, te Ee Sra ame ee Club (varieties not reported)... Dart Se ee Durum (varieties not reported) .' Early Defiance................. RGUCH : ase GE salsa boven cacene CHICHOG ste ete eo cdo one ane Goldcoin...... ec Ae ES eee RO sh aan Aap © phy: SSOP MIELE cob geen edzwhavce loc. taok Odessa Propo. - hit Len ht MRR aE DS ial aia ad White Winter, Others and not reported... US in sori os'y wo dd oo woes 95539°—22—Bull. Area grown. af Per Acres. cone 400 ue 200 5 200 5h 500 1.4 200 a) 300 .8 600 uae 5,700 | 15.8 100 -3 600 1.7 942 | 2.2 36,342 | 100.0 2,800} 1.1 3,700 1.4 30,400] 11.9 37,100 | 14.5 600 2 3,000 1.2 LOG eee 200 ail 24,100} 9.4 1,400 5 1,200 ans) 21; 500 8.4 63,700 | 24.9 3, 300 1.3 "500 2 1,300 -5 14, 300 5.6 4,100 1.6 42,908 | 16.7 256, 208 | 100.0 116,400 | 10.7 500 |---.-. teed i ee 1,900 1 900 peer $8” 550 sees 600 ee ae 1,700.24 2 18,000} 1.7 27,100 2.5 9, 300 9 4,700 4 2, 900 a) 441,400 | 40.5 mee Po eae he "4905600 | “1775 29,300 | 2,7 7, 200 ‘iy 2, 000 2 79,614] 6.9 ie O91, 314 100.0 1074-1 Area grown. State and variety. Acres. COLORADO (253). I NVTOYO) 3! eee ae ee = Sea OAT NAVE ete see meal nSicicictes ai aisles LE Ahead on Be ee COS eRe aEnee 100 Black Winter (emmer).-........ Club (varieties not reported)... - 2,900 Colorado Nal 50-222 2 ee! 700 Dom anceps ess es ek 124, 000 Durum (varieties not reported). 148, 000 Haynes Bluestem..............- 3, 100 Jones Fife ECT paMike eevee oo sinese ese IURGIQED 055 ssogdaesoccgceansNses (Manqinlsbermcccsccsesscsss caceecs Pacific Blueste: IPAliSH GORE ep oie cimiscnnale ccs meee 1 ER ACHO OLS i SEES Ae Ee Regenerated Defiance OR OTA eee re oo saa aeranes SurpriSOwe sepa osc as a asesce ss s DIK OV APRER REE testo ai2 opm cain al 3 Wernal (emmen) = 22 beet Sai Pea Others and not reported........ 15, 613 NG TSH te. eect aN eee a 1,329,013 CONNECTICUT (18). Durum (varieties not reported)-|............ Goldcoin IME ob. USES 5 Ses ae eres Gurr eee ee iss ois ete ereta arelesaieie 1,100 IND GEC ie Jeane medeceicesonls 18,800 IMD 5d B= 208 oe Oe Bee 14,100 Fultzo-Mediterranean 490 Gipsy oe aan eos cl siclesinnicies cideeate 1,700 IL io ou Gas Se eee a aaaabG 12,700 Mediterranean.......!......-..- 7,700 GO Le peete nt neie tay ince ein in« miaicle'eicis!s 1,300 GOW Osc aa ena ccenee oaeae 800 1 5ef8 (oly. Aah ee eae Ce 800 Others and not reported........ 66,340 ER ote eats ce fare ekels = )e 0a, oy Sicyejeics 125, i FLORIDA (8) HIT CHS CG Ata Sous 0 0 ba Sere wienstesl sidicmia lead LG Eee he ad oclele csiwicicie.« = occu |laalstu Sisimeere ere MERITOITADOGADE so ch suicie.c.< 210% <= 200 | 11.7 Re NYMR eee erties nti oe acie imiel| Mere s einie ental eee Others and not reported...-...-- 1,314 | 76.6 MOG alee See eco ee cles 1,714 | 100.0 MAINE (48). 10,300 | 71.2 2: 000 | 13.8 ey 2,164 | 15.0 14, 464 | 100.0 China nage wees ccckasicue as als 12,500 1.9 @urrell aa aee eee sees. 88,300 | 13.3 Diehl-Mediterranean...../..-.-- 2 000 .3 Durum (varieties not reported)-.|........--.-|...-.- Hi CAStehee ete eer er = sees eee 178,200 | 26.8 TUNA he sober a eae ee Cane OTe SOCe 117; 400 | 17.7 ego ance Senin teerare 19,100 2.9 aS dvonacseneouoeeqessuacdes 43,700 6.6 Mammoth ISG l-oooseeconeogoece 1,400 2 WIGIGIDIS): non coneananaSeeoabenees PANO) osescs Mieditenmaneant cr. =\s2-i/=')- 39, 800 6.0 BOO se series tien seeione sie sine 11, 900 1.8 UIE DLE SiMAW ieee alter eeiec tee 13, 600 2.0 Red Clawson: = 2-22 <= )sjse (=. 600 1 Iyer! \WVENIGIA ho pos Saaeneosoodee 9,400 14 ISOC sinc - SO SOR EBSA SE OO TOO SGEe 13, 100 2.0 Silversheaiaess see neste eae 20, 400 3.1 Others and not reported.....-..-. 92,695 | 13.9 Mota eee asteecis: aiscss size 664,295 | 100.0 MASSACHUSETTS (16) DD AWSOME ec dae hese atnietecclalenlie 300 | 16.0 PV UTS epee teeter stata oie nial a wiofarnte 1,000 | 53.3 LOU oe See ee ase aneee 100 5.3 Others and not reported...-..... 476 | 25.4 40) ete el Se ee Se 1,876 | 100.0 MICHIGAN (571). Dawson Dieh]-Mediterranean........-.-- Durum (varieties not reported) . UI CHSEODS Sees wee le acinp dist a oan 0 Lb Ae) OOS See ene ER Fultzo-Mediterranean..........- Gipsy AT OLA C OLE o's 6: a:0'o oe 6 u:0'n 6/0 wicial MROLOBTOTOSS oracle a pivie = 0 «0)b/u-3;1= 54, 400 11, 500 5, 700 4, 900 5, 200 3, 700 3,700 3, 300 133, 500 400 rm re SE ROOOWOH = a ARE ATIO Owes a> Saisie, oe)2 6 wicin a'p'o all sine we ere eletall nicata ek Harvest Queen........------.0- Haynes Bluestem..............- Jones Fife 1, 100 oo 212 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 2.—E#stimate of actual and percentage acreages of wheat varieties grown in the several States in 1919—Continued. Area grown. State and variety. Acres. Fer | cent. | MICHIGAN—continued. Keanredie obo... eee est 2,800 0.3 AVON berry Os Dose as eee a ie I Mammoth Red. 22222522 ee AGO) | EE MET OU See eee eee 59, 300 6.7 NG Win it 2 0 oo oasoccssssagssase5e 2, 200 2 Meditermaneames=-------------—- 8, 500 1.0 INI eos togenss soos sscoecceee 27, 500 3.1 TROT < cocessececsshosesaessac6e 22,200} 2.5 IBTCS LO eee ee 10, 600 1.2 Prosperity... ----- esessesesases 2,000 2 Ried @lawsonenes sea eee 34, 300 3.9 TROs NS. Soc sacccasesscoans 7, 600 9 Red Ma year eee: eee ee 9, 800 1.1 Boal GU ace ececeoaseseasases 195,400 | 22.1 IRs W/E) Gees esos ose sssonsece> 58,700 6.6 HRA os oscosasossosz220sas0ea6 18, 500 2.1 LSU] ioecocassocesasassces00009 100) | Peeeee SSI Heda ee nee eee eee ere oe 3, 100 4 Aur OGL - cop sccssasecssz50e% 1, 000 sil Turkey. .----------------------- 7,400 8 SWIMCSORSe sete eee eee TC) eee Others and not reported...-.--- 176,960 | 20.0 IRWIN Losococascsesssesna0s 885,460 | 100.0 MINNESOTA (1,008) ATH ALL Kee ere rr ee rasa IDTXOM Ese eter eee eee ere = cr Durum (varieties not reported) - 137, 300 3.6 Gyn ono eee eee sees Haynes Bluestem.....---------- 361, 800 9.5 IEW OR os scc 5 soaseocouESs 18, 400 5 Kebankaseeree= rere eee ene MIGYROPENS 42-22 ceeecsssococceesses 2,175,300 | 57.4 Mandi s.62* 2 che sees Ste Mintardreesess ere er Pree he—- IMM Ih i 50555 s555seocddeces (WSCA -Soscac ssocconssuesee 3008 tae IBS = 3 ceseecsscooacsosuoos 800,700 | 21.1 IESG IMS co seep osesss0cessueds 65, 900 1.8 IRGOU MEW) oo ae occaccomaseaosces Gia esos DTS) oo cope sostecsscnoeecour i 62, 200 1.6 Wernal,(emmier) 2 -s-e=---- == -2- = | Wihite Hifess:) sstee- a=. 2: ee aa WOOMOLA 2/252 cio neteea slot orl | Oe ee eee rr Stanley. 2x02 222 == oo oan ol eee WW OUSEH ects? Sokne Bee ce ee eo eae 100) | eoeaee Mr Key ste ee sooner eee ee 369,900 | 21.6 WelveliDonkes ee eer eee ree GOO era Vernal. (emmer):. 2222.2 25225 ee ee eee White, Polish 2/0000 % 2/7 ce ee Others and not reported..-.-...- 138, 402 8.6 i 0) rl le No, eee erase 1,709, 802 | 100.0 I Bigs Hrame s,s )05 ope ee steers CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. 213 TABLE 2—Hstimate of actual and percentage acreages of wheat varieties grown in the, several States in 1919-—Continued. State and variety. Area grown. State and variety. NEBRASKA—continued. Nebraska No. 28. .........----: Nebraska No. 60............---- y Regenerated Defiance.-.......-- Turke “Git? ie ee Vernal (emmer) Mtute ieee = 9 ------------- = Geldcoir i Eee ee iC a ae Cy | oh i ey a a a Ps catia cas 7 anes TT ie aE ae Mediterranean ted Clawson Red Wave WEINER a os. dons casa onc Russian Red NEW MEXICO (82). AME Rie oe oa ix rn Sees Kae sieeve L DABS tes raw oho weveenonndacnne be Er IR AES i ita Club (varieties not reported)... CPREROEE a ood bende bp ame ain oan Durum (varieties not reported). MIGHIG an onhstablavecwaxsnaggns Per Acres. | cent. | 10, 400 0.2 179,300 4,2 270038 e le 15200 Sacer 14,000 3 ZOOM Ss 3238% 121,000} 2.9 9,000 AY) 2E00O i Feet 3,499,000 | 82.8 138, 882 3.4 4, 229,782 | 100.9 200 9 ies 3,800 | 17.3 200 ae) 600 251 600 2.7 6,700 | 30.5 3,000 | 13.6 200 9 800 3.6 1,300 5.9 1,600 8 2,987 | 13.7 21,987 | 100.0 1, 200 7.8 sonra 166 | 12.2 1,366 | 100.0 200 0.2 pre 16,800 | 19.8 3,000} 3.5 200 2 100 a 5,300 | 6.2 300 4 26,900 | 31.7 700 8 5,600 | 6.6 400 +5 100 ee 25, 293 29.9 84,893 | 100.0 400 0.3 2,800} 2.1 400 3 3,400} 2.5 9, 100 (fis 8,100| 6.0 NEW MEXxIco—continued. Durum (varieties not reported). Forward FFONLOT ARE ee ae ase nome vase Meniais s Mediterranean. ....-.-.--------- IPLOSPCMbYue 2 <= o8 sass tases Red Clawson. ..--.---------.--- Flint Fultzo-Mediterranean........... Goldcoin Marquis Mealy Red Ma y. LO Veeemeee is iite cis e522 nh em an cic Area grown. Per _ Actes. cent. 200 0.1 83,100 | 61.5 19,800} 14.6 200 aul 7, 185 5.4 135, 185 | 100.0 53,200.| 11.5 2,300 = 500 sll 700 ~2 7, 200 1.6 ib 000 1.6 229° 000} 47.9 800 333 700 -2 300 Hil 700 .2 300 ji 52,500 | 11.3 5,700°} 1.2 2, 200 5 400 sul 2, 400 5 7, 800 VET, 4, 500 1.0 6, 900 1.5 14, 600 3.2 500 Aa) 4, 400 1 800 .2 400 ful 800 574 500 oll 63,794 | 14.0 463,894 | 100.0 22, 000 3.6 SOO EERE ct 32, 800 Bhs 199,900 | 32.2 18, 400 3.0 7, 500 1.2 2003) |aeeele 5, 100 8 3,100 | 24.7 OO) Seer 600 vil 5, 200 8 1, 500 2 S00) Pease 86,500 | 13.9 LOD Gi ere ate 15,400] 2.5 1, 800 3 7, 300 1.2 BOO aires 2, 400 4 S800 au 59, 059 9.7 620,659 | 100.0 214 BULLETIN 1074, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 2.—EHstimate of actual and percentage acreages of wheat varieties grown in the several States in 1919—Continued. State and variety. Area grown. State and variety. Area grown. MOON woody or Per Per Acres. cents Acres. aati. NORTH DAKOTA (757). OKLAHOMA (429). ACME... ..- +--+ +--+ 2-22-2222 eee] ee ene eee ee e[eee ee Black Winter (emmer) eee Club (varieties not reported)... . 5,800 | 0. Buford aaa aHGueGOH. he gt a iehl-Mediterranean............ 4 : pura (varieties not reported)-| 2,611,500 | 28.7 Durum (varieties not reported). 9, 000 5 GAG oe a RE 2, 000 Huleasher. oy sk See 322,400 | ° 6. Hieiantiatigm oss 725,100 | 8.0 || Hultz...-...--.--2.-2---2---2-- SPE EE a yc Hom Teepe ales a CoC RE REE 6 600 “1 || Fultzo-Mediterranean.........- | 9, 600 : TS ea i 14’ 700 79i) Harvest @ucan eu ssi 05 ease 218,200) 4. Kota Beis Casi macht is oie > a | 1sGayoh esto lal) See ee De | 10, 300 3 Iirbarawebie othe cae 28, 900 BD [SSS basse are >>e Weegee iteeey y = ek oolele: LRRD Dee OOn ieee. Kubanka No. 8 [cpus tp coo ace Spe Spe ee ie a Marquis 4,274,800 | 47.0 || Purplestraw--2.....-22.2222..-- DEL 6k Monad ; Quality pgacocnsspsagaaosb=55e¢ Belisssaane | BOSE Bec se ascsesecsoaqsesoge= Feet Se CHOOT Peniad 33. 500 SA \iy IRC! Wiley 5 cccdooasocose550c058 | 39, 800 8 : Red Wave-2. 2.225542 535455524 | 900 }225-2- IP OWEL ok Becceiadereasnccssene 9, 100 oll Rad 8 500 3 Preston 760) 00 ee Sipeeescce cones a Blinn, Red Fife B26 e000) 158 pO ee a oe ee Turke 33, 900 14 |) ake Doe te ec Eece ass aaa | 3,235,500 | 68.6 Werneal((emmier)soness seen anaes Verna emer Jas cenzaesscaces: | 1,800 | Pi ees pee ee ee) ee ek Ser den AL) Ew) Cae emer rer ae SMART DD Rite BAH eas Others and not reported..212.2) 404,505 | 8.7 Others and not reported......-- 74, 273 6 TB alee nee ee ae | 4,717,905 | 100.0 ER otalbermen wynigna sss 520798 9,098, 473 | 100.0 maa OHIO (813) L OREGON (161) Currel epee ete aes saci 4,700 S2u\Alaskavss Jt 2.) i220) 2220288) Ee eae Dawsonyeee cease ee ae semece soar 5, 290 72 VAPISETe Le «08s 2 5 ae aes iD ermrOCratee eee ee eee ci snintears 1,500 SL MB AATES eta sunk as sae een 39, 700 3.7 Diehl-Mediterranean........---- 1, 600 -1], Big Club 3, 600 3 Durum (varieties not reported) - 400 Senet | Bluechaft [roe eRe | RM IMMA. 5.4 -Soncconsconeseceesesse 1,000 |----.. Clackamas ts So eee is Huleasten ne snoccotoosiecosasascss ae oe bie Club (varieties not reported). - 2 200 5. : on sock oases secncdescsscss ’ . OR rete Saye ain chee oral ere tore ee reines ° Fultzo-Mediterranean..--.--.---- 12, 800 4M alese ee eee ele a ee 2. 200 24 Gipsy: Sos scesdososasooacHessases ee oo 2. 2 Detiarice ee eas oe ae 1; ane 1. i Ad den are jaan ee aeons sas ai : urum (varieties n_t reported). . Goons. ewtata S20 =. eaten 16200 teeee tl baton. 5. See orn 5,200) .5 Gold coineeeneree ase e-e-ecee 74, 700 PAG) || (esl RON en an I RN Be ee ee 41,300 3,8 ee CTOSS=)- -- 2-22-22 ----- Mae esse 2 Hederaion we eee te tees eee t tees Pee iis TANG PilZeseseeer! Je - 22 -e sn sse § 2 EN eg Kosta ern ei PIE A ° Harvest Queen...) ..22 222-2222. 1eQO I>. (GGiileshinoamaren sp MPEe se coco. 155,500 | 14.4 ibrar Choi oo ose ba oesaeseaecess 5010) lnceste Hard Federation.....-..-..-.-. GUS Ho beokbs wapesespsosese 9, 900 563, || SELON se ceseasuebeassocbocsocc 22, 400 2.1 EG Oe Ba Ace eee ae eer fission 800 |_.---- ety WaidiOs see een one eee 17, 600 1.6 Martin te. 2 scissepicaciernnse coe 2008 eee Tebyoyatel 123}5 See Aes eee ooesosc 1, 200 al MAT OUISES Seana scea rice sles 24, 909 Gh) TBlyovene hie Fe ee ee oobecoace 103, 300 ee IMIG Liy, ENS EE eee sei ersten oe 23, 309 Biot Ih cksiel.cb sleet a eae veaoaeE oaAaRS 4,500 2 Meditenraneare sas eenesen sent) 55, 500 Wj0U alla oes te? Sa ss 5 222s es ee sigeer SANS 2 Sc cies cine Mee 103, 200 30) MRM eyeeee aes: fae ss Aes zy 40 22 ON QULG OR oe ee sie aycetts cron tase SEAN eas Seen RR HGiGtle Club seas aes sen ees 1 3. Poole aN ete RUA 14332900 NASOED) later tin Wes Nea hel Se 5,000} .5 IRORGAR Gr tee mee eee eer epee 4,109 | MIM AT CUS eee eee ee eceas soe ee aeee 23, 700 2,2 Prosperity -4 || Pacific Bluestem.....-..--..:-- 121,700 | 11.3 Read ae ec ceee eee ace }) Rela MOINS. 5 ced otesacsceease = 2!, 600 2.3 Red Clawson Ved chi aithe eke eee hah Se cee 22, 000 2.0 Red May CM Mifete ness emp te ee 2, 400 2 ed os IROL SSO so sass as eaeedon 4 re ae ae Red Wave TRC hate Ae oi Casein iets : RUG ye ce Betas GO ore ae Nas ee AE 12600] 1.2 IRAE Oe Sco seE Sse sakes saeios Squanchea deo eee sass eee | ae eee eee eee Russian Red SUEpLISe see aes se sae 1, 000 1 Turkey... Aisa) ip eset ee nse ‘see aes Trum u INOINKOVn otcandsscostesosese0s< : Valley = ---2s2s2s2s22- ae £00) | gens White Winter.) 2.20/15) 50, 700) 4.7 WN ON Te poe oaoasaboos -ose- 400) | See WL ure ne = ace yasiaie a earns . Others and not reported_..____- 554,792 | 19.3 || Others and not reported-....... 97, 947 8.9 Motaley ss asa ee oe 2,922, 592 | 100.0 ANG AES aaes6 soaeeeoeadssnds 1, 080, 047 | 100.0 CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES, 215 TABLE 2.—FHistimate of actual and percentage acreages of wheat varieties grown in the several States in 1919—Continued. Area grown State and variety. = er Acres cent. PENNSYLVANIA (454). BS HSUE 2 26 seg oh eee SRR S6De BASES Sareea Pe aSIe UIT nc. - S646 SSeS 42, 400 3.0 (USELESS. so sd corodeesedeeoseesee 6, 000 a4 UATD 5s e og apes seen eS 2,700 ao LUE SHES ope cnSee se soepebeseses 2,100 soil LDUNTG BT 9858 eee ae GOON ee tes Diehl-Mediterranean........---- 20, 200 1.4 Durum (varieties not reported) - 500 j...... INT G2GiGitaee soe 335,200 | 23.4 LULU sso ge ae 236,500} 16.6 Fultzo-Mediterranean........... 22, 200 1.6 DEST + 2-2 sssc Sesasasedoeeenese 1, 000 sal OCT S22 aS Seapets ah) sees CGR. «SESS Seeeeeeomecese 13, 700 1.0 Gold) Drop--------------. pecneae AQOH Ease rancerze-- 2s. 2-0-2 eee a - 14, 500 11 Harvest Binpei eee soe. come ae 200} Bea UTE US LNG ok = ee ei ee 6, 100 4 ft - 22 tne de ese ep Reaaeeee 25, 800 1.8 RT <3 5 a SA eee ee aE 1, 100 ant LUST TAS ses See a Reo 2, 600 ae TEU 2 a3 See See nen 17, 900 AP Mediterranean Be) Wirvrigees so-so. n= ea dal LEGG 1) Ce ee Poole.... Portage.... Prosperity RBIE SERA a ont sco ts cee are | nin eens oe cal naan PRBS ean on orn = 3, 600 3 LDS et de ia S Ae es ae 2, 400 22 TEGO GM cee eeme see acl === 6, 100 4 ORY AGO enna os oie esa 107, 700 7.5 TG hg 2 toon 2 eee ae 52,200] 3.7 PUT iy bi en ee 7, 200 a8 BONO HENET Ese nat ten ence o an='al- 1,000 Al RIVERA estan canes e i 2, 900 2 ike te 1,900 ail Others and not reported........ 261,937 | 18.3 TES iat airs a ean 1,429,537 | 100.0 RHODE ISLAND (2). DUO y peas Se ate iit ee AE ee Heg S| OOPSSE LL TLS eRe oS em aah Rp RR ay arn ale! MUR RUIRMREA Rear nse aan oar | elele ae eee tien a Others and not reported........ 106 | 100.0 1M aE a smas peepee, A 106 | 100.0 SOUTH CAROLINA (295). UENO 06 ee Ae EEE ee 900 1.4 oh Bot. =p BPD Sota appear 7,300 | 8.5 Fulcaster...... = Meme Ase op eee > 3,100 3.6 r yt 1.7 5.3 Pur rp 1 OPE I: 32,800 | 38.0 RR ckiae ox cle sces new kp oge 17,900 | 20.7 Ep ile oe ca ag ce Si, Rete al dele al PE Others and not reported........ 9,124} 10.5 PRIMM bce a aacle' aia ols'oe soe ce 86,124 | 100.0 SOUTH DAKOTA (755). | aan sees ceca ve ee dww as cA (MMII D inne wip co side cc eels cu acon Durum (varieties not reported). 654,500 | 16.8 |! SUR RENEe Arce colparte lls sce to aes BOON. oss <- SIRPIMONE Sh anwiaas Jas eens ialeb ees Haynes Bluestem,.............. 153, 900 4.0 Pe et assert scenns es detec es "900 ....-. | Area grown State and variety. Per Acres contin SOUTH DAKOTA—Ccontinued. TG al Ee pr Seca Hae S00) |eeeee Khapli(emmen). 55.5 se RCIA Ae a cjsct veces doesent 22, 800 0.6 MPA UILS Pease cigate we cise sw sclele 2; 385, 600 | 61.1 Romtadtisecsesccmecs coset ace 10, 600 .3 RT OSUONe Emenee er cc icckic ce ss sec ce 401) 000 | 10.3 Red gWiietersccermecce cesses se 35, 900 -9 Regenerated Defiance MUGKe Yee sce cet e eee eee bee se 56, 800 1.5 Vernal (emmer).. - NWihite se olish sein. le ee Others and not reported.-..:... 171, 711 4,5 Motalee eee sesiece seers 33, 895, 111 | 100.0 TENNESSEE (526) Currellttraciacctesnecccs sacs: 29, 600 4.3 DAWSON srereece reco cecaenic= se 1, 400 2 Diehl-Mediterranean............ 4,600 oil Durum (varieties not reported) . NOD) les cobe LT ore Sree cine 400 gil IL GaStehe pee cece erect cescee sce 277,900 | 40.5 LG ee INN YS He 95,800 | 14.0 Fultzo-Mediterranean....-...... 11, 100 1.6 ColdtDropsessee eee eee eee: 800 oil lel Aesth QUES sop cas soseoroue 400 ail IABD oe sssscceostaconssgescoence 23,700 3.5 WESTIN. GonoeesseobaoosaKongor 1,600 2 MEMOIRS oSebods ssnoeBaT Taco aseossET ans slseseen WIGHIOY a. sconcscdososconeseesnese 16, 600 2.4 Mediterranean.-.......-.-..---- 23, 600 3.4 Odessa se ecce acini eee 3, 700 5 1200) Qoegesussoesasccansscannoese 37, 200 5.4 JEbijO) SIE oensaaooecoossodaues 6, 900 1.0 IREl WIEN sendasacuaqoBosacoDone 41, 900 6.1 1yaGl WWENGE SosconboconodoeoooS 1, 100 2 SP Ce Mea eine ard athe vet, 14,800] 2.2 LOOM Yes oe ooectonemoneHeanoo 2, 200 3 Russianed sodancedenocaoggsoo€ 2,700 4 LNBUKCN 2) sd Sap Ose SooSeEoseQdobies 500 oll NWcilcerer eee emcee wie ete stetsl tot 4, 500 ad Others and not reported........ 82,397 | 12.0 Usp a eboeesonehbabosoanes 685, 497 | 100.0 TEXAS (692) NTT MD Kehoe sae cieleins wieiele a sinte 14, 400 a) (SERV ho ncneeibepe epsapbomepnos TAO) Mae: Black Winter (emmer)......-..- Durum (varieties not reported). 26, 000 Heal UN CMOS) pe eeaeooenereoopaoace] 43, 400 1.8 {OTUs -1opapaDapmenpononopadace 22, 200 9 RATT er tiicel tea scm ete teteatatote tet ores 400 |.....- DCAD )a nin cn oan eBene wee cncen cae se [crs acjecneinne[ms LOp ken cn eee 86 Stand by-a assesses ea ase See 167 SPAIN TL HN 6e..o ] NST as Sh el 54, 120 Station-No{ 66222221 hi ae 93 Stoner ss he ove 136 Stooliie: {2s 3h es 136 Stub Head 2222s 55%: aovcoe ee S6 SED 2 a elie il al ph a el nes 82 SUNDER ots eee oa i 123 SUperlative: Wak amas Eee 101 SUE RTS yes a Oe ie 52, 67 SUDESe 2 ee ea elic a wren 87 Swamp ______ pagel Haare O aon SUV ECDL SIP enn ent 141 Sweet Water Valley. 2357) 112 DVLig ne eene yo Sees el Se mtiptiye] Boye Ra canrg se ste = a eee 189 PANIC TSI VILER@ Ace Soir monet tee ee Ray dee HIRANO) Ss; Mia aeeiigieen es RES. et RE ea 182 Gla acym no © keene see ee ee 116, 205 5 BA 21 AE 0 Ce Ss ceed ee pee 145 ‘Pealiea ft 222 sae 141 Mennessee Multza == 2522 aes 84 Tennessee Lroline Saas fell UBNeISSne hse SORE irr ee ae eee 145 Three (Peeks. as Ste cua es ean 136 CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES. Name. Page. Name. Page. LSP CTR a) Ul EX =% | ce Oa SE AOC Clk se a a vos a OR 136 LS MIN 1 0 aaa oes ea Os ST ASD POM ees een ae 2 Oe 2 ee 145 INAPE Te en eres eee ee 143 |) University, Gem 22% = ae ke 68 ICD ST eee G2 NEA Ve oo BE lh SE Ge 4 DEGBVACDRVV BGT, oe ee ee he 55030) ) Velvet, Bluestem= 12. 2b eas AD (METIET OID ahs es ee oes eee nO Me Wekvets Cha fis a0 Lu a 122, ONS 50 123, 126, 150; 169, 172 DES Si ee ee HO WEE DOIN: 222. eras 185, 191 commactum. .. se tacl DRO P MekVel. Head] 2.222 ee 122,128 CECLUSUM Oe Bes APY 1S | Mer COnE Huet hele eRe nh 2 CRLILICEUIN: 6 2 gE Woe MONAT: (emimenr) 2220 sia oe 194 humboldtii___.- GS, | ECGUN WA 2 eh Se 57, 170 50) MATA ep Pee ieee 173 | Virginia Reel ______ ene Be ay 78 wernerianum________. = LSP okcu San Gee ae he 112 wittmackianum ~~ ___ GIT SS sg Eee Sl i SE Sh ate 2 106 SCACOUN Geo Skyy CL ts BO lh WAU IKGH IR ke 8c Sod eh a ae 52, 77 LOR OUUN aos euey ee EY 194 | Washington Hybrid No. 128___ 174 RO PIUI e A T e E LOSE Wa vetlye Soke czas rs 106 PET (SS ee TB 50 | Webb’s Challenge White_______ 60 (2) ae ae a goatee 2) CLES aIS4N | WEISSCn DUG Sy s= eee 1438 HOTMCUTONMe= 5 0 ie Ls DSi SANE Te ICAU a eee De 53, 94 TENECOMELUN PSAR NMETV SAH ee eee a 94 MCIINOPUS 222 a Sho wheat ot Miracle! seis le 182 taganrogense__~_______ 185 | Wheat 3,000 Years Old_2_____-_ 182 PETLOGOCCIUM: = 8 Be 50) |) A Wels OU ODUM Gy ee 54, 115 UOMO. new NN 199) WihitetAmm per ees esis yo ees 58 i EIA AEE 7 ia pli alee el a0) WO Vai QUUeh Jeb isty kee Wena geal ee 66 EVESSUNUUL Te 198)" White *Bilwestemn 2S foe! 66 PPE TE (tet ln Sa ee eee pao iota FOR Bae eats yee = eee ee eat ce 101 1 TA ENG Fb ene ee pc a ia Ba BO. Winnie eC hile te ee ere 66 SAS COLT pr ga cama ae 196 | White Clawson_ = = oe 101 OS Hi aD 196 ||) Whine Columbia ee ee 131 NO fin 5 Ea 196) )\ Wihite RiGorados ea swe ae 101 LEU ONL eS ee Ee DPN 7 Lannie eer BDU Ir Bae Ws Es als eet 66 POTION ee 181 | WHITH) PEDERATION_______ ye (all TUN ACONUM 2s atch telah Ay StI) Sia Mi Mop ee ee ee ee D2aO) LEONG eS ES ee eee TSA | AWahiGe SETiy Ori cl See ene 174, 176, 177 SLU GH (GS SEA ee a FO), aire pico ina ass aes 66 ACT oe a 51 | White Weaders 22 05 eas 205 QOTUOT UM — ea ae 58=|WihiteOnrecon ets ee ce 129 HOG DOEOSS Ue ee Aid MUet Sa lISAdeus cee le 129 15h S| eS A, Ts ee, 9 55 VE ne PORMTSE oo 198 erythroleucon _____-_ {Gea oe x i url Cel RAY ES) py re | 73 erythrospermunm______— Fy elves, PROG a! 25h 2 ols Vw eae 101 ferrugineum —__---_=_- by Pay bute: Russiame 2 af 68, 95, 101 DEGCCIA 22% Seen t 654 Winte Sonora 2 2120 os D7 leucospermum_§_.______— Fd) (OV IRG SOULE gos. 2 vee eR 101 ELAN) SCE) 1h I RE MRD ERED IPAM Fe Ns AT ES) OY es ny eae a eal 0, 129 meridionale _-_._.-____ 57 | White Spring (emmer) 222 194. PETS OT, 70 hee ee Oe pe DA) WEIUTE: SPRING (Spelt jill} 196 DULOULTUM 2 OO VV LCL SURO ISG = i Sere al co 101 velutinum____—--- Sees) By: | VV Be LOUIS Se er Le sed 63 SHLLOMEN eo apse 55 | Witte Velvet. Olathe. 2 ee 122 TROUMBOUL~.__-______.___. 53,85 | WHITE WINTER... en al (540) TURKDY___- SSrae les OO adel Wy be VW IRbers sens Seana tee 99 MON nein ina 144,145 |) WHITH) WONDER... 2 ye 15/81 AOidoh oot 410 1) Sa ral cee a5 je joka (6 6 2) oc a Nr Lh (0) Turkish Red__- pe ee 14a OWACOs ie. lias es eres 92 PBORM eSNG ce 186° | Wild Goose=.- 2222-2. .--1§2, 188, 198 Pee OME UT «ok TE IOI 100. |, WWLIBO seen fe Ee to x 97 The Latin names are indexed here for the convenience of those familiar with the classifications of Alefeld, Koernicke and Werner, and others, and not as representing the conclusions of the writers. 238 BULLETIN 1074, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Name. Page. Name. Page. WAlSon) Special ve wenn 97 | Wisconsin Pedigree No. 408____ 149 WEN DS OR Se ee ahs |) Vals eb sia) VV: 010 Geka via 17i WINTER ALASKA —__ 181,183 | Wold’s White Winter_______ 60 WINTER BLUESTHM______-_ SioS 1 Wolife Eyre] dase 103 WGIEINGDIBIED | @ EB sea oes 54s oN Wonder frie 22s hs ce 136 Wear ten Olay sities A ee ROG ap WWE OES HC! DELTA elt ile eT 109 AWA GET pe iit eae Mea ea as 123) Woods Prolifics] 76 Wantery Gre eres mae eae PAT) NWOOlESEs Go eee 16 \vauneie Aoi oe obyaedt ) bv b4 |) World” Beaters... aioe 171 Winter King _______ LO, di2) 136)154 |) Worlds Champion... {sys 145 Wanter Wal Salilekas sae ee 74 | Worlds Fair_____ ae ANSE SY NA as 106 Vanter Nel lice ian aay KA ||) WIYCAINT) OST) 220 53, 82 Winter Pearlsy2e en 2s Baie Maas 84 | Wyandotte Red _____ UR SETR: 82 \vitorren ena Keyeyn ee Se (8 Ai Wantagh aye Aaa ae 157 Winter Saskatchewan__________ TBS |) YOAUUO S TAG) 2 Me ere 57, 164 WASCONSIN INOS 2 ae 145 | Yaroslav (emmer)——---- 195 WIESCONSIN PEDIGREE Yellow Gharnovka____- = 189 No. 2 We ee ee MIG IAS |) Aeller’s, Valley 222125 Sea 118 WISCONSIN PEDIGRER ZLMEMRRIMACN 2 a2 TG Ts KO 6B aOR i I aE ea a TN 565 |) Zinn’s Golden. aaa 79 —SS== ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 65 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Washington, D. C. Vv July 13, 1922 THE WHIPPING QUALITY OF CREAM. By C. J. Bascock, Assistant Market Milk Specialist, Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Factors influencing whipping quality_ 1 | “Standing-up”’ quality of whipped Experimental procedure ___-_-_---_ 2 GTC Spa EBs ier LE ete ee, 20 Method of comparing stiffness of Whipping quality of powdered cream_ 21 Wapped ‘cream. == ——.— = =-=2 2 | Whipping quality of evaporated milk_ 21 Relation of various factors to whip- Summary,2= 32 6 ee 21 ee) Tro “lit 3 er FACTORS INFLUENCING WHIPPING QUALITY. The increasing use of whipped cream, both commercially and in the home, has brought with it a demand for greater knowledge con- cerning the factors which influence the whipping qualities of cream. It is a subject which has received but little attention. Some reports have been published closely related to the subject but dealing mostly with the effect of adding different substances to the cream and the effect of butterfat content and acidity upon its whipping quality. No accurate means of comparison were employed. Neither was in- formation furnished to the housewife or confectioner as to the best kind of cream to purchase for whipping, nor to the dealer as to the kind of cream he should endeavor to supply in order to assure satis- faction among his customers. Whipped cream is a valuable food. It is generally considered an appetizing delicacy only and is used as the basis of many desserts, or to garnish, improve, or extend others; but when thus used it increases the food value of the dish. a It is not the aim of this bulletin to explain how to whip cream or how to make cream whip. Its object is to show the whipping quality of cream, in order that both dealers and purchasers may know what is to be desired as a whipping cream. 96734°—22——1 2 BULLETIN 1075, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There are many factors which influence the whipping quality of cream, but it is impossible to discuss them in the order of their im- portance, because one factor is sufficient to render what would other- wise be an excellent whipping cream useless for whipping purposes. The most important factors are: Kind of cream, age, butterfat con- tent, and temperature. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. The same method of whipping was followed throughout this ex- periment. One hundred cubic centimeters of cream were placed in a 600 c. c. beaker, which was put in a dish and surrounded with ice to keep the temperature 45° F. or below (except when determining the effect of temperature upon the whipping quality). The cream was then whipped with an ordinary “ Dover” egg beater. As this beater is operated by hand, it is impossible to determine the speed accurately. Approximately, however, 200 revolutions per minute of the handle were made, which gave a speed of 1,000 revolutions per minute of the whipping blades. All factors relating to the method of whipping, quantity whipped, and temperature remained constant throughout the experiment, so that any change in the whipping qual- ity was due to some other factor or factors—not to a change in the method of procedure. The acidity of the cream was determined by titrating with tenth- norma! alkali, phenolphthalein being used as the indicator. The time recorded in the various tables is the time of continuous whipping required to obtain the maximum whip, except in cases where the cream failed to whip; in such cases the maximum stiffness — remained the same, or so nearly the same that it was impossible to determine when the maximum was reached. In all cases the cream was whipped for a longer time than recorded, in order to be certain that the maximum whip had been obtained. METHOD OF COMPARING STIFFNESS OF WHIPPED CREAM. In order to determine the relative stiffness of different samples of whipped cream it is necessary to have some device that will measure comparative stiffness. The methods usually employed for measuring viscosity are as a rule too complicated to admit of practical appli- cation. The following simple method will enable any one to test the stiff- ness of different whipped creams very satisfactorily. It is, however, purely a relative measure intended for direct comparison of differ- ent creams and the determinations are not comparable with those obtained on the basis of other standards. The apparatus is in the form of a balance. (Fig. 1.) The right arm of the balance is divided into 60 equal spaces, zero being at the THE WHIPPING QUALITY OF CREAM. 3 end, and is provided with a sliding weight. To the left arm a metal disk is suspended of such weight as to form a balance when the slid- ing weight is at zero. For each space that the sliding weight is moved the pressure exerted increases approximately 1 gram per square inch. The scale reading used throughout this bulletin may be interpreted as the approximate pressure per square inch in grams required to displace the cream. The pressure required to force the disk into the whipped cream was deter- mined and used as a measure of the stiffness or quality of the whips. The following descriptions may be apphed to the various scale readings: Scale reading. Description. Below. 62"... = Failed to whip. f 1G) [2 Very poor whip. 1S 2S ee a eee Poor whip. 12 Fair whip. ps) (Yo) oe rr Satisfactory whip. yi!) ie) 4 | pee Good whip. 21 Fes eens Very good whip. 36 and above________ Excellent whip. An idea of the comparative scale readings can be obtained by refer- ring to Figures 2 to 6, inclusive, which show whipped creams of va- rious qualities, Fic. 1.— Balance for determining the relative stiffness of whipped creams. RELATION OF VARIOUS FACTORS TO WHIPPING QUALITY. Cream may be divided into four classes—raw cream, pasteurized cream, homogenized raw cream, and homogenized pasteurized cream. Homogenized raw creain is seldom found on the market. RAW CREAM. For whipping purposes raw cream ranked first. It whipped under more adverse conditions than any of the other three, and if it is of good quality, from a sanitary and health standpoint, its use for whipping purposes is highly recommendable. BULLETIN 1075, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fig. 2.—Whipped cream with scale of stiffness reading of 8. Fig. 3.—Whipped cream with scale of stiffness reading of 20. THE WHIPPING QUALITY OF CREAM. Fic. 4.—Whipped cream with scale of stiffness reading of 3 iffness reading of 40. 6 BULLETIN 1075, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fic. 6.—Whipped cream with scale of stiffness reading of 50. THE WHIPPING QUALITY OF CREAM. x TABLE 1.—Hffect of age on whipping quality of raw cream. 20 PER CENT CREAM. Acidity. Average time of | Scale of Age. whip- | stiffness. High. Low. ping. Hours. Per cent. Per cent. | Minutes. 2, 0. 121 0. 090 15 4 24 . 153 5 G3} 10 8 48 . 156 . 126 10 12 72 p2ir . 126 8 16 84 . 218 . 135 8 20 96 . 218 . 144 6 24 120 . 238 . 157 6 26 22 PER CENT CREAM. 2 0. 121 0. 090 15 4 6 =i bab .117 15 8 12 . 139 .117 12 12 24 . 139 . 123 10 20 48 . 168 . 135 8 26 72 . 144 ee 7 30 96 . 200 . 144 6 32 120 . 243 . 154 6 32 | 25 PER CENT CREAM. 2 0. 121 0. 090 15 6 6 a li7l pullii 12 16 24 . 153 Biles 8 24 48 . 162 . 117 6 29 72 .171 135 6 34 96 . 200 . 144 5 36 120 . 250 . 158 5 | 10 | 6 SAR .ii1 8 20 } 12 . 134 -1il 7 28 | 24 . 153 A ili 6 32 48 . 162 .117 5 38 72 Sol lef . 1388 4 44 96 . 200 . 144 3 44 120 . 250 . 158 3 44 30 PER CENT CREAM. NwWNwwOCRASO 36 a 27 PER CENT CREAM. | 2 0. 121 0. 090 12 ) 8 BULLETIN 1075, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PASTEURIZATION. Pasteurized cream ranks next to raw cream for whipping pur- poses. Although pasteurization is slightly detrimental to the whip- ping quality, this disadvantage often is more than counterbalanced by the assured safety from the health standpoint from the use of such cream. A study of Figure 7 and a comparative study of Tables 1 and 2 show the influence of pasteurization on the whipping quality of cream. Practically all the results from which these tables were com- piled were obtained from samples of the same cream, a part of which FAW CREW mma ow me wf G TLV AI ZED CREPUS 1-20 FER? CEN 7 CREAT 3-25 FEF? CLNVT- CAEAV4A 2.-22 LLP CENT CREAI4A 4-27 LF CLNVT CYESI7 2-SOLLR CENT CREFVT 55 ie eS ed a a ce pa i a INEZ ia : cae Ens —— i Soo AL et | . 8 zo WA ee) Wolfe oe S yo _—— 0/2 ma oO 10 20 GO #0 $0 60 70 80 90 100 140 £20 PCE IN HOURS Fie. 7.—Effect of pasteurization on whipping quality of cream. was pasteurized at 145° F. for 30 minutes. Both the pasteurized and the raw cream were aged under the same conditions, so that any differ- ence in the whipping quality was due to pasteurization. Pasteurized cream requires greater aging to obtain the maximum whip than raw cream, all other conditions being identical. In the case of cream containing less than 30 per cent butterfat the maximum whip does not equal the maximum for raw cream. It was impossible to obtain a satisfactory whip with the 20 per cent pasteurized cream, whereas with the 20 per cent raw cream a satisfactory whip was ob- tained after 96 hours of aging. However, it is only necessary to use pasteurized cream with a shghtly higher butterfat content to obtain as good a whip as can be obtained from raw cream. THE WHIPPING QUALITY OF CREAM. TABLE 2.—Effect of age on whipping quality of pasteurized cream. 20 PER CENT CREAM. Acidity. Average time of | Scale of Age. whip- | stiffness. High. Low. ping. Hours. Per cent. Per cent. | Minutes. 2 0. 134 0. 112 15 4 15 .144 - 112 15 5 24 - 148 Bilal 12 6 48 . 158 - 126 12 10 72 - 185 - 130 10 14 96 - 190 -144 8 16 120 . 200 - 153 8 16 22 PER CENT CREAM. 2 0. 103 0. 090 15 4 15 -117 -1i1 12 12 24 .144 -121 10 16 48 .148 .127 10 20 72 -170 . 132 8 24 96 .178 -135 8 26 120 - 200 -135 8 26 25 PER CENT CREAM. 2 0.111 0. 090 10 4 6 molly, - 108 10 8 12 -117 - 108 10 16 24 - 143 121 8 22 48 - 148 - 125 8 27 72 -173 - 130 6 32 96 - 185 a ileti/ 5 33 120 . 200 - 143 5 33 27 PER CENT CREAM. 2 0.111 0. 090 10 10 15 AOA -117 7 26 24 - 143 -121 6 30 48 - 148 -125 6 36 72 -173 - 130 5 40 96 - 185 - 137 4 42 120 . 200 - 143 4 42 30 PER CENT CREAM. 2 0.114 | 0.090 8 18 15 Me iy Ie LiL 5 40 24 143 -121 5 45 | 48 . 148 5 eb 4 49 | 72 -173 . 130 3 51 | 6 . 185 - 137 3 52 120 . 200 - 147 3 52 96734 ° —22——2 10 BULLETIN 1075, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HOMOGENIZATION. It is undesirable to homogenize cream if it is to be used for whipping purposes. The breaking up of the fat globules by homoge- nization gives the cream a heavy appearance so that one would think it would be excellent for whipping purposes. But the break- ing up of the fat globules also destroys the ability of the cream to incorporate air, and thus impairs its whipping quality. The more thoroughly the fat globules are broken up, or, in other words, the higher the homogenizing pressure, the less the value of the cream for whipping purposes. Effect of homogenizing—tThe detrimental effect of homogeniza- tion may be seen by a comparative study of Tables 1 and 3 and in | Figure 8. In all cases a sample of the raw cream was whipped both KlE CALLA ee SOIOCL NIZED CALLS 4.— ZOPER CENT CREAH7 F.— 20FLER CLNV7T CALFYF 2.— ZEFER CLV] CHEI/A 4 — GOCV LA CLNMI CHEF IS pee ee ee | i i ae ee ee ee ee a Ey ee ee ee en a ee ee Nee ae SS A Ee eae ce i ee SS ee is eet ee | ee ee yn eee ee ae eee eee [2 aioe on eee eediner, [ae 40 20 390 #0 $0 GO 70 80 FO 00 10 720 FICE IN HOWKS Fic. 8.—Effect of homogenizing at 3,000 pounds’ pressure on whipping quality of cream. before and after homogenizing in order to determine its effect on the whipping quality of the cream. Figure 8 and Table 3 show that only a fair whip can be obtained from 20 per cent homogenized cream, while 25 per cent homogenized cream gives a satisfactory whip which is only 2 points higher on the scale of stiffness than a whip from 20 per cent raw cream. Thirty per cent homogenized cream gives a whip midway in quality between the 25 per cent and 27 per cent raw creams. In other words, a 20 per cent raw cream is nearly equal to a 25 per cent homoge- nized cream, and a 27 per cent raw cream is considerably better than a 30 per cent homogenized cream for whipping purposes. Furthermore, the average time required to whip homogenized cream was much greater than that required for raw cream. THE WHIPPING QUALITY OF CREAM. tL A comparative study of Tables 1 and 2 with Table 3 reveals the fact that for whipping purposes homogenized cream comes nearer equaling pasteurized cream than it does raw cream. Homogenization, however, has a more detrimental] effect than pasteurization upon the whipping quality of cream. In all cases except that of the 20 per cent grade, pasteurized cream far excelled homogenized cream for whipping. TABLE 3.—Effect of age on whipping quality of raw homogenized cream. Z0 PER CENT CREAM. Acidity. Average time of | Scale of whip- | stiffness. High. Low. ping. Hours. Per cent. Per cent. | Minutes. 2 9.117 0.111 15 4 24 - 143 121 15 4 48 175 - 143 12 6 72 - 195 -176 12 10 96 200 . 196 10 16 120 -247 - 200 10 18 25 PER CENT CREAM. 2 0.121 0.117 15 4 24 - 153 125 12 8 48 181 156 10 20 72 195 -184 9 24 96 217 .197 9 27 120 - 243 200 7 28 _ 27 PER CENT CREAM. 2 0.121 0.117 15 6 24 . 153 121 12 12 48 . 180 - 153 10 24 72 196 -180 9 30 96 - 200 -196 7 33 120 - 236 -200 7 33 30 PER CENT CREAM. 2 0.121 0.117 15 8 24 .153 Aiba! 12 20 48 . 180 . 153 10 28 72 .196 180 9 36 96 . 200 196 7 40 120 . 236 . 200 7 40 HOMOGENIZING PRESSURE. The effect of homogenizing cream at different pressures is shown in Figure 9 and Table 4, which were compiled from tests of samples of the same cream; that is, the sample receiving no pressure was taken before homogenizing and the remaining samples were obtained at various pressures, so that any difference in whipping quality was due to homogenizing. 2 BULLETIN 1075, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. oe The whipping quality of Cae cream is inversely propor- 4s pe Ro tional to the homogenizing Nos pressure, 1. e., an increase Cee in pressure produces a de- tise crease in the whipping Wea quality to such am extent Hye that raw cream which will = ol give a whip with a scale POUNDS PREGIURE APPLIED reading of 52 fails to whip Fic. 9.—Relation of homogenizing pressure to when homogenized at 4,000 STDDING Ua OL re pounds’ pressure. It is also true that as the quality of the whip decreases the time required to obtain the maximum whip increases. TaBLe 4.—Relation of homogenizing pressure to whipping quality of cream. Pressure. Gee of | Scale of stiffness. Pounds. Minutes. 0 | 3 52 1, 000 | 3 44 2, 000 8 35 3” 000 12 20 4, 000 | 15 8 COMBINED PASTEURIZING AND HOMOGENIZING. Pasteurizing at 145° IF’. and homogenizing at 3,000 pounds’ pres- sure, together, have a detrimental effect upon the whipping quality FUE CHEVY F eee ee ee /PSTEUHIZLD-HOLIOGEWIZLO CREA 1-20 FLA CENT CREST F.- 20 FER CENT CREF17 -~25°ER CENT CHE/IA 4.-— JOFER CENT CREFUT ee BEER) GS EEE RE Ere ey 0 20 390 40 80 60 70 GO 90 1700 “WC 20 IGE (NM HOURS Fic. 10.—Effect of pasteurizing and homogenizing combined on whipping quality of cream. of cream equal to the sum of the detrimental effects produced by the processes separately, when compared with raw cream. THE WHIPPING QUALITY OF CREAM. 13 The effect is such that it is impossible to obtain even a fair whip from such cream containing less than 25 per cent butterfat. Twenty per cent cream failed to whip, and 30 per cent cream gave a maximum whip equal only to a 25 per cent raw cream. (See Fig. 10 and com- pare Tables 1 and 3 with Table 5.) TABLE 5.—Effect of age on whipping quality of pasteurized-homogenized cream. 20 PER CENT CREAM. Acidity. Average Age, time of | Scale of whip- | stiffness. High. Low. ping. Hours. Per cent. Per cent. | Minvtes. 2 0.111 0. 090 15 4 24 a ilale/ .1ll 15 4 48 . 148 .121 15 4 72 . 148 . 125 15 6 96 .173 . 130 12 8 120 . 200 - 161 12 8 25 PER CENT CREAM. 2 0.117 0.111 15 4 24 aval .117 12 6 48 . 132 . 121 12 16 72 . 152 . 136 10 20 96 176 . 157 9 23 120 . 200 . 180 9 24 27 PER CENT CREAM. 2 0.117 0. 111 15 4 24 . 121 117 12 8 48 . 136 . 121 11 20 72 . 157 . 136 10 26 96 . 180 . 157 9 28 120 . 200 . 180 8 30 30 PER CENT CREAM. 2 0.117 0.111 15 + 24 - 12h .117 12 12 48 . 136 en PAl 10 24 72 . 157 . 136 9 32 96 . 180 By SY 8 34 120 - 200 . 180 7 36 AGE. Age is an important factor in the whipping of cream. Fresh cream which fails to whip often develops into an excellent whipping cream when aged at a temperature sufficiently low (45° F.) to prevent the rapid formation of acidity. Age in this bulletin refers to time after separation of raw cream and after pasteurization or homogeni- zation of cream undergoing those processes. Care must be used in aging cream. If the temperature exceeds 50° F. the cream will very likely become sour before the desired effect of the aging takes place. It is also likely to become rancid or develop 14 BULLETIN 1075, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. off flavors when aged for more than 48 hours, unless under ideal conditions. The required time for aging varies with the butterfat content and the kind of cream. However, the first 24 hours show the most marked effect upon whipping quality of all cream; and the greatest effect takes place during the first 48 hours, after which the increase in whipping quality is very gradual. Raw cream.—tIn the case of raw cream containing a low per cent of butterfat, continued aging improves the whip; for instance, 20 per cent raw cream improves with age until 120 hours old, and 22 to 25 per cent raw cream does not reach the maximum whip until 96 hours old. Cream containing 27 per cent or more of butterfat usually reaches the maximum whipping point after 48 hours of aging and shows no material increase in quality after 72 hours. However, with raw cream containing 22 or more per cent of butterfat a satisfactory 10 20 3930 40 20 60 70 80 90 100 #10 /20 LPPCE IN HOURS Fic. 11.—Effect of age on whipping quality of 27 per cent cream. whip can be obtained by aging for 48 hours. (See Table 1 and Jeivegs SUL) Pasteurized cream.—A study of Table 2 and Figure 11 reveals the following facts: Twenty per cent pasteurized cream fails to give a satisfactory whip even when aged for 120 hours. Pasteurized cream with a butterfat content ranging from 22 to 27 per cent reaches the maximum whip at 96 hours of age. Thirty per cent pasteurized cream attains its maximum whip when 72 hours old. However, a satisfactory whip can be obtained from pasteurized cream in excess of 22 per cent butterfat at 48 hours of age. The increase in whip- ping quality which comes from aging longer than 48 hours is gradual. Homogenized raw cream.—The effect of age upon the whipping quality of cream, homogenized at 3,000 pounds’ pressure, is prac- tically the same as upon raw or pasteurized cream. As previously stated, homogenization is very detrimental to the whipping quality of cream, and as a result greater aging is required to obtain the maximum whip. (See Fig. 11 and Table 3.) THE WHIPPING QUALITY OF CREAM. 15 Pasteurized-homogenized cream.—The whipping quality of cream homogenized at 3,000 pounds’ pressure and pasteurized at 145° F. for 30 minutes is likewise improved by age, as is shown in Table 5 and Figure 11. However, it should be noted that the aging required to obtain the maximum whip is much longer than for raw or pas- O45 teurized cream. S40 NES § BUTTERFAT CONTENT. Se hea S Butterfat content ee has a marked influ- Ws ence upon the whip- 9”? ping qualities of 7? 20 2 22 23 24 25 25 27 28 29 GO cream (Table 6 and PER CENT OF BUT TERFAT IN CREAT Fig. 12) : Increasing Fic. 12.—Effect of butterfat content on whipping quality the butterfat content of cream. Maximum whips obtained from: A—B, raw cream; A—C, pasteurized cream; A—D, homogenized up to 30 per cent cream ; A—H, homogenized-pasteurized cream. greatly improves the whipping quality. The work showed that an increase beyond 30 per cent gave no additional improvement in the quality of the whip, but it did give a decrease in the time required to whip. TABLE 6.—LHffect of an increase in butterfat content of cream on whipping quality. Maximum scale reading. Butter- Pas- fat Pas- Homog- | teurized content. ew teurized | enize homog- ; cream. cream. enized cream. Per cent 2 26 16 18 8 22 ape Pi OU ESS ea ia ra) be See oe 25 36 33 28 24 27 44 42 33 30 The effect of butterfat content is especially marked in compara- tively fresh cream, i. e., 24 hours or less of age. For example, fresh cream with a low butterfat content fails to whip, whereas fresh cream with a 27 per cent or 30 per cent butterfat content, while not giving anywhere near the maximum whip at this age, does give : satisfactory one. (See Table 1.) It is therefore important to con- sider the butterfat content of cream if it is to be whipped when less than 48 hours old. For whipping purposes no cream containing less than 22 per cent butterfat can be recommended. Although a satis- factory whip can be obtained from 20 per cent raw cream by aging 16 BULLETIN 1075, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for 96 hours, there is great danger of it’s being off flavor or sour when held for this length of time. TEMPERATURE. Temperature plays an important part in whipping cream. As is the case with all other factors affecting whipping quality, tempera- ture has its greatest influence upon cream of low butterfat content. However, the quality of whip from such cream does not improve with a decrease in temperature below 45° F., and with cream containing 27 per cent or more of butterfat does not improve with a de- crease in tempera- _ture below 50° F. An increase in temperature above 50° F. causes a de- crease in the stiff- ness of the whip which is in direct Fic. 13.—Effect of temperature on whipping quality of ratio to the increase cream, ~ : in temperature. Its effect is such that 20 per cent cream fails to whip at 60°; 22 per cent cream fails at 62°; 25 per cent cream fails at 68°; and 30 per cent cream fails at 72.5°. (See Table 7 and Fig. 13.) To insure good results, therefore, cream containing a low per cent of butterfat should be whipped at a temperature not greater than 45° F., and cream containing 27 per cent butterfat or more should be whipped at a temperature not exceeding 50° F. TABLE 7.—EHffect of temperature of raw cream on whipping quality. Seale of stiffness. Tem- Dae 20 per | 22per | 25per | 27 per | 30 per ue cent cent cent cent cent cream. | cream. | cream. | cream.} cream. Ie 40 45 50 55 60 62 65 67.5 70 72.5 THE WHIPPING QUALITY OF CREAM. 17 ACIDITY. Tt has often been noticed that cream which is several hours old will whip better than fresh cream. Because of this it was believed that the small amount of acidity developed in the cream influenced its whipping equality. Also the idea is prevalent that adding a small amount of commercial lactic acid to the cream improves its whip- ping quality. In order to compare the effect of acidity with the effect of age, tests were made on cream representing age without acidity, acidity without age, and both age and acidity. The acidity was obtained both by the natural formation of acid and by adding lactic acid. The maximum acidity which cream may contain without acquiring a sour taste is about 0.3 per cent. It was found that increasing the acidity up to and including 0.3 per cent had no effect upon the quality of the whip. (See Fig. 14 and Table 8.) Increasing the acidity in excess of 0.3 per cent caused a slight decrease in the quality of the SSS Baa I ns ie ota) ala ce ll | SCALE OF STIFFNESS \ oHTFLHSSTHIAS eee ae eee ce NO, IDRC. OO. EAC Nef FLL? CENT OF ACLOITY Fic, 14.—Bffect of increase in acidity ou whippiug quality of cream. A—B, cream which gives a good whip; A—C, cream which gives a very poor whip. whip until the acidity had increased to such an extent that the cream began to curdle, at which point the whipping quality increases. This was found to be true regardless of whether fresh or aged cream was used. It is therefore evident that increasing the acidity of cream will not improve its whipping quality, as it is necessary to increase the acidity to such an extent as to render the cream sour before it will have any effect. 18 BULLETIN 1075, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 8.—Fffect of increasing the acidity on whipping quality of good and poor whipping creams. Good whipping cream. Poor whipping cream. Time of Time of an Seale of Seale of Acidity.) whip- | Acidity. es = ping. stiffness. | ping. stiffness |Per cent. | Minutes. Per cent.| Minutes. | 0.126 3 36 0. 126 5 12 - 135 3 36 - 135 5 12 . 193 3 36 . 193 5 12 . 234 3 36 .219 5 12 . 265 3 36 . 265 5 12 | = 303 3 36 - 279 5 125% * - 373 3 34 . 328 5 10 - 409 3 33 - 346 5 10 - 423 3 32 - 363 5 12 - 468 3 36 2 369 5 12 -477 3 44 2419 5 16 SuSil 3 48 . 463 5 20 - 603 3 52 2022 5 28 3 183} 3 56 - 607 5 32 VISCOGEN. The viscogen in these studies was prepared and used according to directions given by Babcock and Russell in Wisconsin Bulletin No. 54, “The Restoration of Consistency of Pasteurized Cream,” which are as follows: Two and one-half parts by weight of a good quality of cane sugar (granu- lated) are dissolved in 5 parts of water; and 1 part of quicklime gradually slaked in 8 parts of water. This milk of lime should be poured through a wire strainer to remove coarse unslaked particles and then added to the sugar solu- tion. The mixture should be agitated at frequent intervals and after two or three hours allowed to settle until the clear supernatant fluid can be siphoned oft. When properly used, viscogen has a beneficial effect upon the whipping quality of both raw and pasteurized cream. But the in- crease is not to the extent that an excellent whip should be expected from a poor quality whipping cream. Neither should it be expected that viscogen will give a good whip when other conditions are un- favorable. Viscogen will not overcome the detrimental effect of homogenization. However, viscogen, on account of its strong alkaline character, must be used with care. Under no circumstances should sufficient quantities be added to render the cream alkaline, for when added to this extent the effect becomes detrimental instead of beneficial. Therefore, before adding viscogen to cream, the amount required to neutralize it should be determined. This can be done by adding phenolphthalein indicator to a known amount of cream and titrating with viscogen. When the amount required to neutralize the cream has been determined, a slightly less quantity of viscogen should be THE WHIPPING QUALITY OF CREAM. 19 used. Seldom should more than 1 part by volume of viscogen be added to 100 parts of the cream, and more often 1 part by volume of viscogen to 150 parts of cream is better. When carefully used in this manner a fair whip can be obtained from cream which would otherwise fail to whip, and a good whip can be obtained from cream which without viscogen gives only a fair whip. In other words, adding viscogen in the proper amount increases the stiffness scale reading from 6 to 16 and from 16 to 28, respectively, of the different creams. Viscogen should not be added to cream which is to be sold without first consulting Federal, State, and city laws in regard to its use and labeling. SUGAR. Adding sugar either before or after whipping cream decreases the stiffness. When added at the rate of 2 teaspoonfuls to 100 c. ¢. of cream, the decrease in stiffness is 4 points on the scale for each of the different grades of cream. (Table 9.) There is no difference between the effects of granulated sugar and of powdered sugar. Decreasing the amount of sugar decreases the effect until, when added at the rate of 1 teaspoonful to the half pint, it has no effect. Adding sugar before whipping not only decreases the maximum whip but increases the time of whipping (Table 10), when compared with cream to which sugar has not been added. When compared with cream to which sugar was added after whipping, the stiffness is the same; also when the time required to dissolve the sugar in the whipped cream is taken into consideration, the time of whipping is the same. The results are identical, regardless of whether granu- lated or powdered sugar is used. If added previous to whipping, there is a certainty that it will be thoroughly dissolved and distrib- uted throughout the cream. TABLE 9.—Effect of adding sugar” after whipping on quality of whipped cream. | Butterfat Time of Scale of stiffness. content. whipping. Normal Cream with cream. sugar added. Per cent Minutes. 22 6 28 24 25 5 32 28 27 4 40 36 30 3 52 AS Two teaspoonfuls of granulated sugar were added to 100 c. c. of whipped cream, and the cream was whipped for one minute to dissolve the sugar. Confectioner’s pow- dered sugar added, instead of granulated sugar, gave the same results, 7 20 BULLETIN 1075, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 10.—Effect of adding sugar* before whipping on quality of whipped cream. Scale of stiffness. Time of Cream Beene : whip- Cream with sugar z ping. Normal P added and with sugar A cream. added 1 minute 3 longer whipping Per cent. | Minutes. 2 6 2: 28 16 24 25 5 32 22 28 27 4 40 30 36 30 3 52 44 48 1 Two teaspoonfuls of granulated sugar were added to 100 c. ce. of cream before whipping. The experiment was repeated, using the same quantity of powdered sugar, with the same results. FLAVORING EXTRACT. Flavoring extract, whether added before or after whipping, affects neither the stiffness of the whip nor the whipping quality. It is preferable to add the extract previous to whipping, as the cream will whip as readily, and time is saved in that the extract is thoroughly mixed through the cream by the time the whipping is completed. Adding flavoring extract with sugar produces the same effect as though only sugar were added. “STANDING-UP” QUALITY OF WHIPPED CREAM. This investigation would not be complete without considering the standing-up quality, or the ability of the whipped cream to retain its stiffness. There are three important and closely related factors affecting the standing-up quality, i. e., temperature, stiffness of the whip, and butterfat content. If whipped cream could be kept at or below 50° F., it would con- tinue to stand up for several days. With a rise in temperature the stiffness decreases, varying with the increase in temperature and the stiffness of the whip. The effect of a rise in temperature is such that a whip of low quality may become practically useless if allowed to remain at a temperature higher than 65° F. While there is a slight decrease in the stiffness of the better-quality whips with a rise in temperature, it is less marked, and such whips may be held for several hours without falling. Although an increase in butterfat content beyond 30 per cent does not improve the stiffness of the whip, it does enable the whip to stand up for a longer time and at a temperature that would seriously affect cream with a low butterfat content. The effect of viscogen upon the standing-up quality is only equiva- lent to the degree to which it improves the stiffness of the whip. THE WHIPPING QUALITY OF CREAM. Dik As previously stated, a satisfactory whip can be obtained from either raw cream with a butterfat content of 20 per cent or more, or from pasteurized cream with a butterfat content in excess of 22 per cent. But because the very purpose for which cream is whipped usually prevents it from being kept at a low temperature, it is recom- mended that cream for whipping purposes should contain 25 per cent or more butterfat, and that it should be aged for approximately 48 hours before whipping. WHIPPING QUALITY OF POWDERED CREAM. Reconstituted cream made from powdered cream and containing as high as 40 per cent butterfat failed to whip. Its whipping quality was not improved by the use of viscogen or by aging. Powdered cream, therefore, may be considered useless for whipping purposes. WHIPPING QUALITY OF EVAPORATED MILK. The standard brands of evaporated milk used undiluted whipped but did not stand up. When whipped in the same manner as cream at a low temperature (45° F.) evaporated milk gave a fairly dense whip in from 5 to 7 minutes. But the result is temporary, and if the whip is removed from the ice it returns to its normal condition or consistency in approximately the same time that was required to obtain the whip. Viscogen added to the extent of 1 per cent failed to improve either the whipping quality or the standing-up quality of the whip. It is therefore evident that evaporated milk is practically valueless for whipping purposes. SUMMARY. 1. Raw cream excels pasteurized, homogenized, and pasteurized- homogenized cream in whipping quality. 2. Pasteurization is shghtly detrimental to the whipping quality of cream, and especially so in the case of cream with a butterfat content below 23 per cent. 3. Homogenization is very detrimental to the whipping quality of cream. The higher the homogenizing pressure the poorer the whip- ping quality. 4. Homogenizing and pasteurizing combined practically destroy the value of cream for whipping purposes. 5. The whipping quality of cream, regardless of whether the cream contains a high or a low per cent of fat, or whether it is raw, pasteur- ized, homogenized, or pasteurized-homogenized, is improved by age. However, the age required to obtain a satisfactory whip varies with the kind of cream and the per cent of butterfat. In every case the 22 BULLETIN 1075, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. most rapid changes occur in the first 48 hours and at 72 hours nearly the maximum whip is obtained. 6. The whipping quality of cream improves with an increase in butterfat content up to 30 per cent, after which the quality of the whip shows no marked increase, but the standing-up quality is im- proved and there is a decrease in the time required to whip. 7. Temperature is an important factor in the whipping of cream. To insure good results the temperature of the cream should not ex- ceed 45° F. 8. Increasing the acidity, either by adding lactic acid or by allow- ing the natural formation of acid, does not affect the whipping qual- ity until the acidity content exceeds 0.3 per cent, at which time the cream acquires a sour taste. 9. Viscogen, when properly used, increases the whipping quality of raw or pasteurized cream, and does not affect its flavor. 10. Sugar, when added in quantity sufficient to sweeten thoroughly, decreases the quality of the whip regardless of whether added before or after whipping—the smaller the amount added, the less the effect. 11. Flavoring extract, added in quantity sufficient to flavor, affects neither the whipping quality nor the quality of the whip. 12. Temperature, quality of the whip, and butterfat content are the important factors affecting the standing-up quality of whipped cream. 13. Powdered cream is useless for whipping purposes. 14. Although evaporated milk will whip, it is not useful for whip- ping purposes because it will not stand up. ————————————————————————————————— —————————————— ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1922 Aye UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1053 Contribution from the Bureau of Piant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. _ PROFESSIONAL PAPER May, 1922 STUDIES OF CERTAIN FUNGI OF ‘ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE IN THE. DECAY OF BUILDING TIMBERS ‘WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE FACTORS WHICH FAVOR THEIR DEVELOPMENT AND DISSEMINATION By WALTER H. SNELL, Forest Pathologist Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology CONTENTS Page Experiments upon the Dissemination of the Oidia of Lenzites sepiaria ...... 36 Occurrence in Buildings of the Secondary Secondary Spores Spores of the Fungi Studied Occurrence of the Secondary Spores in | Summary Cultures of the Fungi Studied 30 Literature Cited Germination Studies of the Secondary | 32 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 . ee SP AE a ee Ee bas ees : UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE | BULLETIN No. 1057 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 24,, 1922 THE CHAULMOOGRA TREE AND SOME | RELATED SPECIES A SURVEY CONDUCTED IN SIAM, BURMA, ASSAM, AND BENGAL By. JOSEPH F. ROCK Agricultural Explorer, Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction With an Introductory Chapter by DAVID FAIRCHILD, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduc-, tion, and a Chapter on the Chemistry of Chaulmoogra, Hydnocarpus, and Gynocardia Oils by FREDERICK B. POWER, Chemist in Charge of the Phytochemical Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry ~ CONTENTS Page Recent Information on. the Chaulmoogra History of Chaulmoogra Oil Tree and Some Related Species—Con. Chemistry of Chaulmoogra, Hydnocarpus, Taraktogenos kurzii . 15 ‘and Gynocardia Oils Asteriastigma macrocarpa . . 22 Recent Information on the Chaulmoogra Gynocardia odorata 23 Tree and Some Related Species... Conclusions . 24 Hydnocarpus anthelminthica Recommendations .......-s5 26 Hydnocarpus castanea 12 | Literature Cited... 2.2.05 - es 28 Hydnocarpus curtisii ip be WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 Sere = re ; - S oS 2 EEA EN fcr iaomtyer aa = UNITED STATES DEPAR¢MENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1059 Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester * Washington, D.C. WV ~ May 19, 1922 » - ‘ \ | RESEARCH METHODS IN THE STUDY OF FOREST ENVIRONMENT ae et i 4 By . ie 4) CARLOS G. BATES, Silviculturist i In Charge Fremont Forest Experiment Station and RAPHAEL ZON, Forest Economist - ~ = Z ; 1 CONTENTS | ‘ : Page. i : Page. MRNIEAMAMORIOTE 2-065) pia oso aes: eo be >. . 2 | SpeciaJ Observations on Climate and Soil Measurement of Environmental Condi- » of Locality—continued. tions Affecting Vegetation ....... 11 Soil Temperatures. ..--..-+5. 26 Climatic Characteristics of Locality ... 11 | Solar Radiation—Light. ....... 39 ' Nataral Climatic Regions ...... 10" Precipitation.).2/ 2:2 i.) 04) ee alee 60 Data Obtained bythe WeatherBureau. 11 | Soil Moisture and Soil Qualities .. 66 Knowledge of Existing Stations Nec- Atmospheric Humidity. ......., 143 SME A EN ot areal orieel ei Sele 5 sok | a Wind Movement. .......... 146 Periods of Growth and Rest. ...... 12) PV AD OPAULONE Gy oi (ei d,a\ilajcayeet callie sabahceiate 151 ‘ Special Observations on Climate and Soil fe EE MOLG I Gofal 5) si liel sis eoyath any el atl ets 168 ie MEEAN Sc ca ee i iy ree We A External -Field Observations... . . 170 1" Location of Instruments for Study of Internal or Physiological Observations 171 " UENEMNOEE ide, (2's. /a, Yell, ofa s i aeist os) bie:'s 13 | Field Observations, Photographs, and Location of Instraments for Study of VEINS) va alee 3) die Vie: (Metrwcis” envelt ie ial 172 MRC OCUICELOA 6.9. | bo! oe oie Serie se EEE OD ENOMINLER a Wee reli a isi tacsio) 6), (el Stal ante PPA By RELY ch 175 Air Temperatures .......... 15 | List of References. ........ me 20S bd - ’ 4 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; . 1922 nr neni / UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1060 Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester # Washington, D. C. Vv May, 1922 SITKA SPRUCE ITS USES, GROWTH, AND MANAGEMENT é & By - N. LEROY CARY, Forest Examiner CONTENTS Slope Type Geographic Distribution and Altitudinal Range : Present Supply and Annual Cut Characteristics of the Wood Logging and Milling Size, Age, and Distinguishing Character- Composition and Volume of Stand . . Climatic and Soil Requirements Light Requirements Reproduction Causes of Injury Management Appendix WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 CH ODE: OPS es : \ RAE EES GG | UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ‘ , BULLETIN No. 1061 Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester Washington, D. C. July’29, 1922 LONGLEAF PINE By z WILBUR R. MATTOON, Forest Examiner Range and Importance ......... CUEING alin a ala alcoinel a) eine Tali elbeeliian ts BUMMER OSTIOW EN 5 -oh's. 1s) ov iel ve! 2086! a. sj. 6 | Reforestation ........2.s..62.-s 36 Production of Timber. ......... TS Protection) oles ie vores ia jedhe ll aieeptala nena 44 Timber and Live Stock ......... WASHINGTON ‘GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1064 Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester Washington, D. C. August 21, 1922 OLEORESIN PRODUCTION A MICROSCOPIC STUDY OF THE EFFECTS PRODUCED ON THE WOODY TISSUES OF ’ SOUTHERN PINES BY DIFFERENT METH- ODS OF TURPENTINING By ELOISE GERRY, Microscopist Forest Products Laboratory CONTENTS The Naval Stores industry . Purpose of the Investigation . Oleoresin. . Structure of Wood of Warpentine Pines. Methods of Study ah aie aa Process of Turpeniining . . Results Obtained by Different Methods. Chipping in the Lightwoed . Suggestions for Future Practice . Suggestions for Future Research WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 FOREST SERVICE. WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester. yc a ae EDWARD A. SHERMAN, Associate Forester. ‘ _ BRANCH OF RESEARCH. Eag.e H. Ciapp, Assistant Forester in charge. Forest Propucts LABORATORY. CARLILE P. Winstow, Director. SECTION OF TIMBER PHYSICS. Rotr THELEN, In charge. he : ELOISE GERRY, Microscopist, — a re en ene a en UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE . BULLETIN No. 1067 Contribution from the Bureau of Public Roads. THOMAS H. MacDONALD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER . June, 1922 TESTS OF Rae DRAINAGE PUMPING PLANTS IN THE SOUTHERN STATES ee ee By fy Ky W. B. GREGORY, Irrigation Engineer CONTENTS Introduction . Bt Me Types of Pumps. . . . Suction and Discharge Pipes & “Sources of Power for Pumping Plants . Tests of Pumping Plants Cost of Operation of Plants . WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 t o UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE _ BULLETIN No. 1068 Contribution from the Office of Farm Management and Farm Economics : G., W. FORSTER, Acting Chief Washington, D. C. Vv May 12, 1922 FARM OWNERSHIP AND TENANCY IN THE BLACK PRAIRIE OF TEXAS By J.T. SANDERS) -Assistant Agricultural Economist CONTENTS Purpose and Extent of Investigation .........20250200560080658 The Development of Tenure Problems in the Black Land. ....... 4 Economic Aspects of the Forms of Tenure. ...........6.2.282. 15 Agricultural History of Farm Operators. .........-6656-4.64.0.. 31 Domestic, Social, and Educational Conditions in Relation tu Tenure. . . WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 SS re UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 1074 | ‘Washington, D. C. ' Issued November 8, 1922: revised August, 1923 CLASSIFICATION OF AMERICAN WHEAT VARIETIES By J. ALLEN CLARK, Agronomist in Charge, JOHN H. MARTIN, Agronomist, Western Wheat Investigations, and CARLETON R. BALL, Cerealist in Charge, Office of Cereal Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry | CONTENTS Page Necessity for a Classification of Wheat. 1 | Classification of the Genus Triticum . Previous Investigations Key to the Species or Subspecies |. . Foreign Classifications Common Wheat American Classifications Summary of Previous Classifications . Present Investigations Classification Nurseries Preparing Descriptions, Histories, and Distributions ! Varietal Nomenclature The Wheat Plant Estimated Acreage of Varieties Morphological Characters Literature Cited Physiological Characters Index to Varieties and Synonyms... . WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1922 i j ‘ Ae Meee far ay mB: pith: ae | fas , gait HY tt AMNH LIBRARY a iin