sor oo mw one wen weapon amr iM in ee fret Sass snanee Sc osk ore seOaeonds Bmeions aiecCuing BCCDALC.. cece a ce cine ee eal = ee eiele Shee ian The carrying capacities of concrete-lined canals.........----....--------. Cienere Urea GIS Wied Lah oY cS MA ares 18 ee a ee ee a iN Ls ee milvereconomy, O1,concrete LImin es). be eee. Pht Rice retcinrs «soja Sol sta pei Suitableyeradesmorduned canals 2 2) eae serie el See cee ease eee eats Miiommentorlimed canglges (so cares cskc. o aae oie ss af cteta? mperops yer Soa ees heetectotalkali on concrete; Mming.. 2.5. 2 = ispecies ae ejeinseyie oie The expansion and contraction of concrete...-....--.--------------+--+--- Joimtspa: concrete linings: See ce cee!) eee co a oe a Re Wonsinuetiom methods and! cost 92) she | eee re ee an Carerto;pevexercised in Operation: s0- 55. chee cs ec nicies 2 = sclecie pelos e BNC KAO WAC COTM CIES seat INE MENTS ya PLE SOR OO EM ies ana DEPARTMENT BuuuetTin No. 127.—THEe Mycoaone Disease or MusHrooms AND Irs CONTROL: MAG ROCU CET OT yes oe ees entender ARG 81 25a eek canal Ry sa tahe thy ct RAD RUINS Historical review of the mycogone disease............--.-----------+----- Investigations of the mushroom disease in America..........---.-------- AU OTN CTU ST OSE rere ese eae Sea ele Pa ee ae a Ete NE Rea el Bt a oA DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 128.—DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF NorTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES: DEPARTMENT Buiuetin No. 129.—YiELDs From THE DeEsTRUCTIVE DIstIL- LATION OF CERTAIN Harpwoops: ULpOse OLeXPeriIMeN tas occu os. eee ote eee eee ee ees Methodtotimvestications S25 eh ee ae eta ee OS SA eis Ee Computationvofiresulte 232 MUA Soe Ae ee Oe Yaeldsion percentage weight basis....25..0.c). ss. see tees tee BYale lds sper, CONd sc sersc seed hee a Be hi) 2c ee SE ie at DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 130.—OPERATING COSTS OF A WELL ESTABLISHED New York APPLE ORCHARD: ET ELOGUCELOMME ee yes eee kV UL CR NASM STEP TOMAS get RL AO Managsement of the.farms: 22 Bato. PULL eed Ree ee ee Rear ey icistom~outherorchard ocepyaccisclon 2s «is cee sie sii 136 111-112 TEE ONS to a el a em ee Rape IRR 136 114-129 Bone— fertilizers value, preparation, etCs:/. =< jane. ste oe sete 144 2 phosphate, yield per ton of fish waste...........--.-.-.-------- 150 24-25 BonstreeEL, J. A., bulletin— elite Clydeiseries of soils’ so. jos... sacar ce lee e rene eee ek 141 1-60 pobhe Muamiseries|OL souls. Ses eee ete ps ies 142 1-59 Boe, LOVE BLOCK oes s Moc. eee ee ceed o ciee's « aMERe 131 it Brick highways, maintenance, discussion..........----+------+--+--- 136 14 Bridge bonds, county and district, by States............-.-......---| 186 37-39 Bdge piling. Norway pine, value. :_- 2252-46 Sst iV sek. cies 139 15 Bril, A., citrus-fruit management in Palestine, note.......---.------ 134 34 British Columbia— Kanaloops: Canal, Construction. 2.52.) .'. 022 Secreta set 126 65-66 Kelowna, Canal. construction: =. 2.20... (:sauce ts gece onetot 126 70 palmonpack! LO0S=TOUS Secs Slt ei Se Reeser rca He ie 150 13, 16 Brown, Epear, bulletin on ‘‘Commercial Turkestan alfalfa seed” .| 138 1-7 Buckwheat, growing— Wlidertypesiot soutien: i cee sci ck sh je eiccte cay AY ees OEE oak 141 23,37 Manimiaiinpesiol soil: 2022222. 2 Noes cece gels ak tey wee 142 32 Cabbage, growing— 22,21, 31, Clyde types of soil, management, etc.......-..........-------- 141 |; 41, 42, 43, 56 lime requirements. 2 sac? 08 oh 22 5k se pk\s ol os 141 27 Calcmimeyanamidsnitrogenicontent. 0..... 922222. 22.2. 220.2... - 150 4 California— bonds, county highway, and bridge, rate, etc.............---- 136 38, 62 Brentwood Canal! construction: =. 2. heise ey ee 126 62 Clapperratl ran gescs: cvs be Sg a ees were eye seas tL 128 17 concrete-lined irrigation canals, data..............-....---.-- 126 42-45 irrigation canals, dimensions and seepage...........---.-.--|- 126 4-8 Los Angeles Aqueduct, construction and cost...............---- 126 81 Manteca. Canali construction 5. 2//,.01. «2 eeergnsrie -fs 6 (ee ee 126 78 Modesto|Canal, Construction: /2 22. (2.3 me ey es aaiatieen S 126 78 Orechardaruits.PrOdUCtION, CLCSae. -..-': eer yan ia ive sh ein 140 36 Patterson: Canal, constructiom. 6.04: sc... nebo hoe lsapaele 136 34 Murlock¢Canal constructions... 4222. Seabee hee en oe 126 77 Calliphora spp., effect. on sheep, mote... <4. ee ssid oe. wes} f Gee. 181 2 Canal linings, cost and advantages of various kinds, experiments... .| 126 47-48 Canals— concrete-lined— BHEHIMENC so sos jess Ss is calea ec. wie See eo ts tees bade sere 126 51 14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 126-150. Canals—Continued. care and protection aie Sing clei e'ercio’s Sines ate edhe oT ante carrying capacities, (aig... <. s.suns Jes fcc elec irrigation, prades.and alionment 222i 2.'hs 0 Set concrete lining, adivantavesiess=2 = 5 = ae een eae Meee ape concrete linings, data for various Ghanie | Seesee ss ee eee irrigation— concrete lining so22 siesta ee ee Eyieas ae AP construction and cost in western localities. ...........--- number, miles:.and capacity 2.2: 5-25)... isnt ees seepage ‘losses, ‘measurements, Cathe cuteness eee joints in concrete lining, types and construction.......-.--.--- Cannery— salmon, equipment, requirements of ‘‘one line” plant, out- PUbPCtC A wae scics os cctos ee Se so See ek Se ete ee ORES waste, Taw, Chemical composkion. -..2825.2¢25.2.422--ees ese Canning— fish, technology 2... 2 csni002252-douaeeasi seat csdascsaetess | SalMOnsG pera tlOns: sla OLs (CLC. = aes 5 eee ee eee oer Cape Cod, topography, soils, agricultural products, etc........-..-.- Carbolic acid, crude, fly repellent for live stock— OX PCT CNS 4 aye hn, hs care peers ene FS pe ee ee epee ane | value andiuse: ..-s2oc...25 sce asedsae nsec senses eee Caribbean. Clapper. yall; range... 42555 2de55c05222~. Ee | Caribbean 00t; ranges 224-200. ens s abe dan fe: eeee Pepe Carmen peach, "effect of soil condition and structure.............-.| Carolinarail. See Sora. | Carpophilus dimidiatus. See Nitidulid beetle. Cattle, injury: by flies, experiments, ete. J. 22.2 5222.5. 22202 2... Cattle tick. See Tick, cattle. Cayenne wood Tall, Tange... 2200-6200 oh ce cae sd ete) a ee hs Celery, growing on Clyde types of soil.....:-..-..--2--2.222.0-22- Centaurea picris. See Knapweed, Russian. Ceratitis capitata. See Fruit-fly, Mediterranean. Champion peach, effect of soil condition and structure.........--- CuapMaN, Herman H., and THEopore S. Wootsey, JR., bulletin on ‘‘ Norway pine in the Lake States” Se Ss ate Charcoal— production in destructive distillation of hardwoods, remarks. . yield from destructive distillation of hardwoods.....--....--- yield of hardwoods, destructive distillation, comparisons. Cheese, Emmental. See Cheese, Swiss. Cheese starters, use of Bacillus bulgaricus for Swiss or Emmental types... 22. ee eee eee eee ee ee ee eee eee eee eee eee Cheese, Swiss— American-made, quality, condiionscie 2. .-222e0 cee making with Bacillus bulgaricus starters, experiments . suppression of gas formation, use of Bacillus bulgaricus, experi- M CNUs sateen Seis BIRR ie eicrae Ae Sicvere lee aera ya use of Bacillus bulgaricus in -starters.o02 212-2. -cececeer soe Cheesemaking— mother- starters, care and protection from yeast..............- Swiss type, difficulties in United States............2220.00-- Chestnut timber— acetic acid yield, destructive distillation. .............-.--.- alcohol yield; destructive distillation..<:=.c2cs322. 25225, =2 7 charcoal yield, destructive distillation..................-.--- EEA distillation, value of alcohol and acetate yield per COTO jogs BL EEL iS UB ee ese eae eee nen lime acetate yield, destructive distillation..............-..--- tar yield, destructive distillation... ee- 2-2 orcs see Chicory, growing on Clyde soil, yield, notes. .....-.............- Chilocorus bipustulatus, enemy to black scale, note..............-- Page. INDEX. 15 Chrysomphalus dictyospermi— injury to citrus fruit in Mediterranean countries.....--------- isfeyhistory, habits, and natural enemies:.-2..---...---------- occurrence on imported plants, danger of establishment, etc. - Citrus fruits— ommblan corp lt alyssa eo sae ce '.)2s . seeeieneac tite ve ciece es handling i Tiga FS) op Pra epee ge EI nas AUR a aS Nearer imports of oranges and lemons from SOPH So eee eee Ee! injury by insects in Mediterranean countries.-.....----------- Citrus mealy bug— life history oa natural enemies....-..--2------------------- occurrence and injury to citrus fruits in Mediterranean coun- tries. Citrus-fruit— _ industry, Mediterranean regions...........--+-+--+-+----+-+-+-- insects, Mediterranean SOuTitriCR = Sumemennnn are U A We) region, Spain and Italy, meterological data.........-.-.------ Clapper rail, range........-.. PE NO TAI 2, © ANC sae ll ap ae BS Cope Clover— growing— Ghydety pes of soil! 2neaehe isc epee cna. a | Mianaitypes'oi soil, yield,ete= 22. .g222 242. 22 aa Club, agricultural— organization byenuralitescher-solam: 4. rsa see ss eam scheme for school grades, by TOnths : ea ee 28 BGM school work, constitution and by-laws, suggestions. ....--.-.-. Clyde series of soils— CERIO soni to cet RAN t Shs eae, ee aye She tre cacy ween draimage-mecessity and benefits:: 22... 02222. fcc ee en See also Soils, Clyde. Colorado— bonds, county highway and bridge, rate, etc.....-.........-- irrigation canals, dimensions and seepage, data.........-..-.-- Columbia River— fish waste of canneries, utilization.....-.....-. Senn clei aN ace Ley Salmon pack, J909—191 3052s ose ess. ee ees Heeeapiear a ae Concrete— canal lining, effect of alkali water, protective measures, etc... contraction and-expansion, testes: 7 eee sete lee | joints, canal lining, types and construction. ..... Beate Sik ile Bie lining for canals, care and protection. . | iinanoulorpirmeation canals::.* 6226222... eee: tooo ser aero roads; sMaimtenance, GISCUsslOM. 2225. . Bees tse ee. Pe Connecticut— bonds, township highway and bridge, rate, etc.............-. orehardsrults, Production, CLC. 2.2: . 2. aaa sess cnt se slo orchard lands, DELCCS MOLES =) aice 2 5 oer ae eee ee ee soils of various sections, descriptions, etc... soils (with Massachusetts), especially for apples and ‘peaches. . State highway bonds, ‘rate, etc). .: -. eee rs Connecticut Valley— soils, adaptability to special crops, discussion . topography, SOLIS) Cte Mest e i. eames Ste 220). CORRE CooKE, WELLS W., bulletin on “Distribution and migration of : North American rails and their allies”...............-..-- Coot— economic value, need of protection..........--.. So booco dhe food value, TOL Nr He Se re iO NING ana ey LoyaNsiii oF range and migration EEN Cos a CHR MEP ico cE Sg ea Corn crake, TUT Gy ce etahfa rnc ate SMe ELE Ss pO gf ELIS Lo Bul- letin. Page. 15-16 G7, 26-27 31-32 29-30 30-31 1-35 22 21-22 28-35 1-35 34-35 19 24, 26, 29, 36, 38, 46 22, 25, 29 16 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 126-150. Bul- letin. Page. Corn— growing— 20-21, 23, 26, 29, 31, Clydectypes.ot sotlo. -20. eas n ence saeco ass ae 141 |{33, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 45, 47. 19, 20, 21, spa te +) . 22, 24, 29, Miami types of soil: yield ."Cte.. 12. . sees ee eee 142 34-35, 38, 39, 47. under fall irrigation, Scottsbluff experiments..........-.-. 133 11-12 Cotton— consumption and stocks, kind and locality, 1911-1913......... 146 18 culture, methods in Georgia SG LORI aes eee arene ees rere 146 | 13-14,15 Egyptian— average oradé, 1902-1012 coi...:... mee see wee sa se nue eee 146 17 competition with Sea Island cotton............:-..------ 146 2-3 factor; statusim cotton marketing... 28 s-.22.222) 5-2-2 oe = 146 10 goods, change in style, effect on “Sea Island cotton industry...| 146 6-7 grades, average for upland, Sea Island and Egyptian, 1902- 1912.) 146 Aer growers— ‘Island... situation, CONGMIONS, Gls... 222 oe ee se oe 146 8-13 South (arolina, refusal of sale of Sea Island seed.........- 146 5-6 crowing, disadvantages of many varieties..........----.....- 146 11-12 imports, by countries from which consigned, 1895-1913....... 146 18 lands, diversification of crops, suggestions, note..............- 146 12-13 marketing— Methodsan Georclasand | HlOride =e asees oe eee 146 14 system at Charl estonyiss Go... s seen eo ee ee ee 146 10-11 mills, improved machinery, effect on Sea Island cotton indus- EY 2 Sid sickest eral yet a 2a eee ee es 146 7 mixing seed cotton, disadvantages.....--....2----------------]| 146 15 Sakellaridis— j advantages over Sea Island cotton, for spinners.......-.-- 146 4-5 relation to consumption of Sea Island cotton.............- 146 4-6 Sea Island— average orade, TOI2—1912 oot ss) ce as ays ala ee inert eee 146 17 centralization of market control at Charleston..........-- 146 10-11 Gropsrandsprices lS Gp) OWs se eee ee eee ee 146 16 crops of 1911-1913, yields, prices, etc., comparisons......- 146 1-2 cultural methods, expense, etc.-....---.---------------- 146 ial deadlock, 1912-13, causes and effect on peas see 146 3-4 decrease 1n consumption, causes. -| 146 3-8 deterioration in quality, causes and effect on ‘industry. -| 146 5-6 ECONOMIG CONGITIONS ama USt yee cee 8 eles re reer 146 1-18 exports, consumption and stocks, 1865- 1913. SR Rate 146 16-17 soil requirements) MOtes -seme= note esata iatelee toe oe 140 43 seed, Sea Island— refusal of sale by producers, effect on industry, etc....... 146 5-6 supply by pinning. companies. 22.8220 232-2222. cee te 146 14 upland, average crade, 1902-1912 5.58. 2. ose eee cee suse 146 17 Cottonseed meal, source of nitrogen for fertilizers, amount used rh a8 ata 1 Cs ieee eeg ts oe Rene vO eee a Perey Cea Ne 150 4 Cottony cushion scale— life history and natural enemies... -2.-s5.<¢-2<-222-<--2-25=- 134 20-21 occurrence, and injury to citrus fruits, Mediterranean region..| 134 20 Coturnicops noveboracensis, Tange and MiSTaMON. «oc cceoce come cees 128 31-33 Cows— dairy— milk production as affected by ticks........-----.-------- 147 1-22 injury by, cattle ticks, experimentss.,... 2.620002 on ne eee 147 2-14 milk production as affected by ticks, experiments, records, \ 147 { 11-14 COMparisons,, -ClCas 2 <2 oss cece BS SORE ES CE ISTIC INDEX. Cows—Continued. fever caused by tick infestation, experiments, records, etc. -- - injury by flies, effect on milk and butter supply.....-.-..- ee tick infested, spraying with arsenical solution, effect on milk yield, experiments...........- jie eae aS ee Sean Crandall, W. C., survey of kelp groves of Pacific coast, note....-.--. Cranes— economic value, need of protection, etc.........-...--------+- North American, description, range and migration of several SEO CVSS ip ea ee Cc i oI tS ote Spey Crawford peach, late, soils suitable. ................-.-.- eee as Creciscus— albigularis, range.--....- Rr Sates oes seem ey oeps es iaeta rele < 28 CUMETCUCE D Sn LAM OO Mera ciate we ies eee ep ai cisinie ee erniee ek COMP CHMUS: OMIBS SES SCE SGU SIE SESH Oe SAGES SSOOAS BA OUECES CUM ISRAG CIES MB DSC. ccc: Scrctie ci on foi Coates ae eos ee sees VOmarccnsisurangce andonmilerationme: .-..2sesse" os see ose ae SO RCTACH CU MAM COUN esc sae el ee. SVR CSU Se Oe Crops— character and varieties, relation to soil characters............. fall irrigation, experiments at Scottsbluff reclamation project production on alkali land, experiments on Huntley reclama- HIGMEPLO;eCim Montana Ne ante et) < ee ih oe es he ad: varieties— 3 indie types Of soil ssces cece Wace s a poe cee ow eee some ae Dacus oleae. See Olive fly. Dairy cows. See Cows, dairy. Waieiarmine, Clyde'ty pes Of soil? 2... s.edeees ceed see et soh sue: Weaiane Maamictypes Ob soll: 2.2... 02 Gime oe. Delaware— i i Doane, C. F., and EK. H. Evpreper, bulletin on ‘‘The use of Bacil- . oe bulgaricus in starters for making Swiss or Emmental cheese sees e ee eseese ese ee see esses ees ese eee cee eee ese ee 61218°—16——3 141 20-22, 23- 24, 26-28, 29-30, 31, Be) BY Be 38, 40-41, 42-43, 45— 47, 48 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24- 27, 29-30, 34-36, 38) 39-41, 46, 47-50 9 17 1-22 1 LS: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 126-150. ietin, | Page. ; = Drainage— g Clyde series of soils, methods, benefits, etc............-.--.---| 141 53 Clyde:types of soil, notess.ei2s0-) 2 cee ee Soc ee ee sate 141 { 2 oy 3 Miami types of soils, necessity, cost, etc....-...-..--.--------- 142 44 Dried blood, source of nitrogen for iertilizers, amount used and VICI: S252 vote cue tno cetetn a wae apes e aa ee ey ea Le eres 150 4 Beypt,.cliirus-iruit industry, notes..-2.$ eso fee ose cae cee 134 34 Elberta peach, relation to soil condition and structure pa Regt ers 140 70 EvLpreDGE, E. E., and C. F. Doans, bulletin on ‘‘The use of Bacil- lus bulgaricus in starters for making Swiss or Emmental Cheese eee iaweck acaerccmion aio. 04 Saue se cca oot oda eman ee 148 1-16 Emmental cheese. See Cheese, Swiss. Engineer, highway, employment in question of bond issuance, Beneitsse? 12201, urtaae ssi ae vias sets Stee ue Seuaietas, shoes 136 29-30 HUTO pean CoOty TANGes. a6 5 skew theca to Selec c.s sisle ot,-cre Seis gee one 128 43 Cr YOU AION, TANCO—. a five ao ais ofacie eeie + ian 2 Sm 5 aie steel 128 47 Exochomus 4-pustulatus, enemy to black scale, note.............--- 154 15 Exports. See under name of specific product. Fall pippin apple, soils suitable............seccees ete ore ase eee 140 61 arallom Yall Tange. -.. -.. cjcereicts oc aie ee ae inves wae oc eine cena ae 128 36 Harm lands, production, weight per acte. gett .i24 2 es ee esas 136 9 Farm-orchard development, southern New England, practices....} 140 34-35 Feed, fish scrap for cattle and poultry, discussion.................-. 150 34-35 Feldspar, fusion with phosphate rock, experiments................. 143 4-5 Fertilizer— acid phosphate manutacturess fac sec esses Ye cee 144 1-28 citric-soluble phosphoric acid and potash, prodnaten and value.| 143 J-12 elements, soll requirementas es. 52 .c0 2s ht sinis joe's coders 2 ea 150 2 fish-scrap and kelp— pels mixture,;walue, Management, ClCkc..ecceccics 06 cece sce. . 150: |e 66 Prodietion, sUPSESHIONBS a-ais s ee ee 150 52, 66 manufacture from fish waste of Pacific coast... 150 1-71 phosphoric acid-potash, making from phosphate rock and feld-_ 4 spar, methods, experiments, CLC Paes ae ao eS ee 143 2-9 plant, fish scrap and kelp, combination, advantages, sugges- PLOTS CLCE ee ce See ste es arte is cS Sate es ae See ee ee 150 64-66 prices, determination Methodists cocoate cee s mcee waa eae 149 2; Blap MOTE StSN. ace sa/iee aioe terete ticicle Nepales ere cie asian ean orn pales 143 9-12 Fertilizers— catalytic; natire; experiments, etc. cae. os cincisuisenise tes cee 149 11-13 elements NeCeSsArys fo tye seats saSate ns Sa ene eee ae 150 2-3 TMANULACtUres; YAW ANALEMAIS: vo uo .jsteel ae a vela a eee yan eee ela 2-5 Miami types:of soils: 056.2 cote eto ee 142 ae 4 aa ? orchard, in southern New England, use............ Be tne Ae 140 34 radioactive substances, use....... Seis sn ae Ny es Ue pant tee Cg a 149 1-14 requisite elements: .. o\ss5ccs ease (eects aoe eee eee ee ~.| 149 1-2 sugar-beet growing on Clyde types of soil...............2.222. 141 52 ‘ : 7 213225205 ube on: Clyde:types:of sole s.: wd... ae Sete heh pet tae 141 { 27-28, AY Miniooth AMOR Can TANS sacs oe heen 2h ea alee ae 128 47 Fire, protection of forests, importance of brush disposal. .........- 139 33 Hires; forest; danger from‘ slash. 2-23.52. . os 256 boone eaters 2 oe 136 33 Fish— canneries, waste, chemical composition..............0+---..--| 150 23-25 canning technology... 2 o.oo ere ce ees), ae 150 4-16 fertilizers, analyses of salmon and menhaden scrap............ 150 33 glue; salmon, value ‘and Uses, NOTE. wceeseds cere cece ons wen ice ts0 36 INDEX. 19 retin Page Fish—Continued. oil— value and use as fly repellent for live stock............---- 131 { 9, 10, ee vaclaaper tonvol fish waste:2-2. 2.2 seem eb. . sccs co Scie 150 24-25 scrap— deredieanalysesiof various-kinds: . .2o-2 5. ssc hsec- Set 3 - 150 71 manufacture as by-product, proposed plan.........---.--- -| 150 44-52 manufacture, central rendering station, suggestions, objec- TOTS EUG eee Clectis San eI, SN Mae rie NO 150 36-44 nitrogen content, amount used for fertilizer, yield, etc.....| 150 4 - oily and oilless, fertilizer value, comparison, note.-.-....-- 150 32 plant, cost of apparatus, and operation, items.....-........ 150 49-51 rendering station, equipment, etc.. proposed plans......-- 150 36-44 salmon, value, comparison with menhaden, cic...........- 150 32-35 salmon waste, production, process.......-..--....-..-.--- 150 fe1ey | SAR MUTE HAN Aly SiSeey Scie en ys Cl | Nee MO oe erate ras 150 71 HATE PARALYSIS 208 ee iat 2s. ae enact e cect cree oe Oe 150 71 use as feed for cattle and poultry...............--.------ 150 34-35 traps, salmon fisheries, Pacific coast, description and operation.| 150 4-6 waste— amount, character, and value from salmon canneries.......- 150 16-22 eaunenyaavalile: Per One s22522 Ss. setae ace Sues 150 24-25 disposal at salmon factories, practices, objections, etc.....| 150 25-27 Pacific coast, utilization for manufacture of fertilizer... ...| 150 1-71 yield of fertilizer elements per ton............--..----.-- 150 24-25 wheels, description and operation.........-... Sacibars Ops penetrate 150 7-8 Fishing— salmon methods.on Pacifie coast <2... yi onssciotcs a2 22 sin 55 150 4-8 trap, management at salmon fisheries........-... Be Semen eee 150 4-6 Flies— | biting, injury to live stock.......... So SSE ae eel ees eer 131 2-5 etieet oicolor: Observallonss o- <2)... chanes 2 etc Sas is as 131 5-6 repellents for ‘protection olanimals:. (. Seti. Wee apa 131 1-26 _Florida— bond-built roads, studies in Manatee County................. 136, |. 91432533 bonds, county and district highway and bridge, rate, CWC Soar sBXe 38, 63 elippemrall range So oe. et ok. ect eee eee 128 20-21 gallinule, range and IMpTatlONs. ee... eens Sas eel 128 40-43 Sea Island cotton industry, SItUATION - - eee eck 2 eos 146 13-14 Fly, olive. See Olive fly. | Fly repellents— effect of various mixtures on live stock. .............-.-----. 131 22 for. wounds of live stock, formulas...../..2..2.0 022.022.500.025 131 12 internal, experiments with dogs, asses, mules, and cows...-...| 131 6-7 Moore formula, experiments.......-. 2 ERE SIS EC eee 131 18 Fly, stable. See Stable fly. Forest management, Norway pine in northeastern and Lake States, | importance SUNOS COR HE GAO SHAE Hn 6S cB COaQ Neen an wore 139 1-2 Forest types containing Norway pine......-..-...00.0cccecece cee 139 11-12 Forests— é fire protection, importance of brush disposal........ cat eee 139 33 losses from fire in Lake States, 1911..........22.20.2..20...2.. 139 33. Formaldehyde gas— Es fumigation, use against mushroom diseases, directions, etc....| 127 18-20 use in control of mushroom disease, experiments.............. NO 11-14 Formalin, use against mushroom discise. =) Seu 127 17-18 - Fortier, "SAMUEL, bulletin on ‘“‘Concrete lining as applied to irri- gation Garni sock i. ee era 126 1-86 France— : Pia eeCCM PLO UCION MOTE ei. Soe ocean ake eee esis 138 | 1 CiGSeUIt IMGUSIY ce sac os Shwe sce. Sle kee eet a: A Sop pa aie a 134 | 33 20 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 126-150, Fruit farm, western New York, operations, costs of apple orchard- IN OMELC ts syots hs MAR Nec oa, SN ats a miata oteyee Se ahclecaya va teretate Fruit growing— genéral farm, Advantaves. 2.0: 2. Se ees Spee Gate eee ee ie soils of Massachusetts and Connecticut............2+---e2eseee Fruit-fly, Mediterranean— breeding in lemons, experiments......-..-.-.: Marthe teste aie life cycle De atd nicceecterne es aetimrare aie steals at a chaeyu Se termes te aegeea are occurrence, description, nature of injuries, -etc........... ee Fruits— citrus. See Citrus fruits. orchard, production and number of trees in eight leading States, wee TP QOQE eB Ret So Se cees Sage EE a ee es Frye; T. Ci; and G. B . Rigg, survey ‘ot kelp ¢ groves of Pacific coast, note. a fete Sisrineicuaie 2 .c-ater ata ae clercve weve Bho ete Dvane ate ate stg aes Mtoe. Fulica americana. See Coot. J DOROTE GHG RS ERO eee te MS AA eae lave See oe ae one elena Fates ee Fulica car ib POSTADO CH roar) Oacyeretintale ele stone ere Creep e eas oer en aie ee Fumigation, formaldehyde gas, use against mushror oom =i INDEX. Hansen, Dan, bulletin on ‘‘ Experiments in the production of crops on alkali land on the Huntley reclamation project” Hardpan, description, effect on quality of apples, treatment, etc. Hard woods— alcohol yield per cord, destructive distillation, comparisons. destructive distillation— value of alcohol and acetate yield per cord, comparisons. . . yields, investigations, and experiments..........----/-.--- Harian, Harry V., bulletin on ‘“‘Some distinctions in our culti- vated barleys with reference to their use in plant breeding” | Haul, average on market roads, note.....---.--------+--+--------- Haul seine, ‘description aANGwoperanion. >... Geer ee waa eos Hauling cost— on improved and unimproved roads, comparisons...........-- reduction on bond-built roads, relation to liquidation of debt, CER OUUS da ay A RBI ag PR ag 5 a yea ater yg Hawtey, L. F., and R. C. Patmer, bulletin on ‘‘ Yields from the destructive distillation of Gertain hardwoods’’..........-. Hay, growing— Gindenres OlSOUs 2.8 stoke a. se). eee Ss eee ae Marnumetypes of soil’ 2 22 beke is 2 Meee cee) ea Heartwood, destructive distillation, yield of alcohol and acetate, comparisons with slab wood IP MEISE IEE ICO TAM OCs Ses aieay = ieee ice :J2) 22 eee ie Ue WNCUC AT SEATON Sc bees ars te Nos i apn ee os SS es os AD Red spider, occurrence on citrus fruits in Mediterranean countries. Rennet— preparation with Bacillus bulgaricus for cheese starters, value, CCR aia or Sk ee ee rad Ne NCEA SAL CULT use-as cheese starters, -note....2.2 082.5 Poe Be es aepellentsy tly, protection ofamimals. 2... 2.320220 0-2. le Retort, destructive distillation of hardwoods, experimental. ...... Rhizobius ventralis, enemy to black scale, note...................- Rhode Island— bonds— county and township highway and bridge, amount, rate, LETIM, “Dye tOWNSs Shs cosas! hoe PATIO Y township highway and bridge, amount, rate, term, by WOW Soom boob o Hm EoE SO aap e beet Cee obese srayce osunes Greeningapple; ‘soils suitable. 0. ee eS BOI State highway bonds, amount, rate, term, etc.................. Rigg, G. B., and T. C. Frye, survey of kelp groves of Pacific coast. Eeavembertacereoll province, repioms 42000) 2) ae es ee eee Fad building, elements of investment, dangers, suggestions, etc. - oads— bituminous macadam, Maine, New Jersey, and Massachusetts, 1908=191 1" area, and- location. 2. 222i SP ee 32 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 126-150. Roads—Continued. bond built— county,: studies, in several States...........-.-----.---+-- mileage and kind, by States and counties...-.........--- mileage, kind, and cost in nine counties.....--.-...-.----- reduction in cost of hauling, relation to reduction of debt... good, economic advantages, remarks and data ...............- eravel. See Gravel roads. improved, relation to land values......-.-.-- Pasa aeeio Sas eee oe macadam. See Macadam roads. market, economic value, data and discussion.........-.....- traffic area, determination and use of term..................-. water-bound macadam, Maine, New Jersey, and Massachusetts, cost elements 1908-1911, area and location...............- See also Highways. Rome beauty apple, souls:sultables. /o..6..042 2c. ec cela Bleed Ross, Witi1aM H., bulletin on ‘‘The use of radioactive substances as fertilizers. 2c joie Aico eee eee eee een Roxbury apple, soils suitable.........22 2s.ce secs - cine sencetenes EUIEOUS TALE TAG asa oi cee en i aden ae ree fare ee Russian knapweed. See Knapweed, Russian. Rye— green manuring alkali land, cultural directions. .....-.......- growing— Glyde:types of soll. 22 sss. on etoe tte}. ee teeeetoee Miami types of soil.-yield .et@esctocrtatet eee Sacramento River, salmon pack, 1909-1913. .......-..-----...... Saginaw basin, glacial lake deposits, topography, Cl@pscadht Sink ae Saissetia oleae. See Black Scale. Sakellaridis cotton. See Cotton, Sakellaridis. ‘Salmon bellies,’’ preparation, production, wastes fetCcscseiontye k Salmon— canned— production; OVS = 3.5 1)2.003 See ecemn wale css cea cttre ore tae relation of grades to location of cannery.....-.--...-....-- canneries— by-product plant for fish scrap manufacture, cost, advan- [eee Cas orien dpopouenGn er Spee enUCSeE ceo SoSe en aaa fish waste, amount, value, and character.................- waste, amount utilized, purposes, etc., by districts........ waste, treatment on large scale, proposed methods......-. catch, Alaska, percentage by different methods.............. dressing for canning, operation of machine, etc................ fish scrap— analyses of samples from various localities. .............. coniparison with menhaden scrap... i... 0sssnsssee-c.- fishing methods:on:-Paciic toasts... ce eee oe eae eee eee handling in canning FRCLOTICS: a. Atlece wee cies Sb eeiea ee cet ‘“‘mild-cured,’ ’ production - > Mipualh prelates San'ers wesw’ spa al alepsteig Bee “‘mild-curing,’’ practices, waste, etC..-..--------------2+--+-- oversupply to canneries, disposal, practices, discussion, etc.... pack, 1909-1913, by distriGtde ss 0 eee cae eee pickled, production Qd Wastes. 22.2 Fonds on fo eee Aimee waste, from canneries, collection, cooking, pressing, drying, etc., fonifertilizer: 45-0284 ee oe tee ee pr eeie ees waste from canneries, fish-scrap manufacture, process........-- Salmon-cutting-machine,..operatlon: -sii.%. cee cieb evs ieace ott lieele s ofeye Salmon-packing industry, Alaska, location of canneries............ Sand-clay roads— bond-built, mileage, by States and counties.................-- maintenance, cost. J ee AD DB CODE HIOODGU DOUG Oo Conn ANGOSsaoar | 18-19 23, 27, 48 21,22, 24, 32, 49 13, 16 16-17 INDEX. Sandhaullierane, range and migration. -2222.222252.05-...---------- Sardine fish scrap, dried, analysis..........--------+-----+-+5+--- Scale— black. See Black scale. cottony cushion. See Cottony cushion scale. lone maT. LOCUS AULb oie ae = «<= aa eer cielatiniet So cleleiemis ime purple. See Purple scale. School— exhibits, agricultural work, suggestions................-.---- eR ONAPETOLATAS ye Se erate SiSa late alala a's a a = eiepoets aia\-)-/-/ara\-elarrsereiel= Schools— EMO MESFOMPOOMETOACS $50) ccc(btenc Son a sie RR ere le cyeynimnvmreraie retore Southern States, correlating agriculture with public-school MUSIC: A= Gb bcee eee core eboeeeoeme coc etme eee cee e Score cards, school work in agriculture...........----------------- Scottsbluff reclamation project farm, experiments with crops under AaITICATIONA 22 4 08e e552 kee pps Unie ans pemna ri ee epa acct ces Screwaworm-anyjuny, to live stocks: f2ess220 oe tee ARE SE. se Scutellista cyanea, enemy to black scale, occurrence, etc.......---- Sea Island cotton. See Cotton, Sea Island. Seed— alfalfa. See Alfalfa seed. cotton— mixinowdisad vantagesssseco.. se eee tes. SSE sak SS See also Cotton seed. Norway pine, yield germination, collection, etc.......-.-.---- selection, storage and testing, school work..............----.-- Seepare— imacatiom canals. factors atfectine: .2.-2-2 222.2 622522222 es losses, irrigation canals, measurements, data.............---.-- Seine— fishing, percentage of salmon catch in Alaska..-............--- nanledescriptionjand, operation >... -. G22 23. cco ees purse, description, and operations. 22a: sciseilte ee) ee use in salmon fishing, Pacific coast, descriptions, etc..-.....-- Sheep aniuEy by: fiesas iiss Sel. foi5. Set See tee Sse; ‘“‘Shellbark” pine. See Pine, Norway. Slab wood, destructive distillation, yield of alcohol and acetate, Comparisons: with heartwood... -.:-.22meese..6 255-52 222: Siaemeniilizen spot testSi: 8s cece Se ou ce wl aee ons PSR “‘Slash” disposal in forest, fire-protection measure, management, Small fruits, growing on Clyde types of soil..................-.-..- Sodium SaaS source of nitrogen for fertilizers, amount used and TiAeL a a eee te Se SSS ISN AR Soil— characters, relation to crop and varietal adaptation.........-. moisture studies, Scottsbluff reclamation project experiment prommens classification; 0s... See. clocles structure} antiuence of humus... 2.22 yee Oe, aes temperature, relation to soil moisture. ...-...-.-..----.-..---- USLEEOTSS, ENA Sr ale pe Se eh) AN oe mS pe varieties, adaptation to apple growing, Massachusetts and Con- BICCLICUG Mes epsmiee Cink eo 2 eae Re NEUES A Soils— CG) VSISY SUK (0) 0 See pS ea ae nS SRS de eC, Clyde series— Pole tian se eee asco ie, SR Tr baie foes bn erop adaptations.summary =<. 2... 23/252) sealed * geographical distribution, map, etc..-.........-........- 10-13 15 912) 33 27,28,30,33 84 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 126-150. Soils—Continued. Clyde series—Continued. eeolocicalsoripims. 24.2 = Sona 2 ee eee ee eee eee subsoils Mature... ete s 2st ee epee ee ee topostaphic relationships... .<-s8se tesco enon ee eee oe type -Gescrip hong. secccs% 5. seems 2. es ate eee ae ae placial lake deposits, lorymation....29..2. 222.32. 22-0058 eeiwoss Massachusetts and Connecticut with special reference to ap- ples and peaches Miami series— en ee ed i i i a a ae physical teatures..2. ccc ssncmes cote eee ee Miami types— descriptions, value, distribution, etc..........-.....-..... distribution, crop uses, and adaptations, etc presence:o! radium, GIScUsslom suede eae = eee een ae southern New England, descriptions........................-. stony, value for apple growing, discussion...................- structure, moisture retention, etc., discussion ..............-- suitability to peach ‘varieties.......25222-22 525 4se5-<5e- sees types adapted to apple varieties, Massachusetts and Con- NOCUCHUicction Sosce ose ais acres ga es Hee ee eee Sooty-mold. See Black scale. Sora— habitat, economic value, need of protection MMUISTATO Ms ol ee so eatpeiiea aaa een See ee eee eee range and! mioration etes. sete. 2. se asl 142 |; 36, 38, 39, 47-48 under fall irrigation, experiments at Scottsbluff reclama- iON TORO Ke TENN A eee oo es a onean soa. Ceased aes oneae 133 3-7 influence of soil types in Minnesota............-----.-------- 140 42 Wittte=throated rail range i 0. os see c ee ab alale 128 36 Whooping crane— range and migration....-....--.-----+---------2-22 eee eee eee 128 4-7 BCATCHtY. MOLE Se see eas eras cysieieicle a iis oss Mite eieialesiee acta sibs 128 5 Wiper, Henry J., bulletin on ‘Soils of Massachusetts and Con- ‘necticut, with especial reference to apples and peaches’’..| 140 1-73 Wisconsin— bonds— county highway and bridge, amount, rate, term, etc., by counties 136 49, 80 township highway and bridge, amount, rate, term, by LOW MSIM POS ete eles eteisie civevclels ays. (Us eee Mapes erate SS las 136 62 glaciation, distribution of soil deposits, etc....--.....--------- 142 9-17 Miami series of soils OCCUITeNCe 2 fas. eee eae aceon e 142 5 Norway pine; annual cut; note:- 5.0... eee eee cl 139 13 ood— alcohol. See Alcohol, wood. combustibility, effect of preservatives, tests...........-------- 145 |6, 10-11, 18 etleet Olepreservallves, tests. .< 2. -- 2-2-2 he ce eee 145 3-20 preservation, treatment, bibliography.......-.-.-..-----.---- 139 11 effecivonisteeltestse scat utau ciency eee Said ig 145 | 7-8, 12, 20 GES US epee reyn ernie yelsiaie 1slel sieieya(ate toy are laver oe = co araMmen atere) Syste pty ate sways 145 le (realmente Method sie see ee. Sess ee eS Nan ae 145 3 freatedvand: painted, discoloration... .....8ss2 ce aetee aes oe 145 | 12-13, 20 Woopwarp, T. E., W. F. Turner, and CooPer Curticz, bulletin on ‘The effect of the cattle tick upon the milk production GlgGatiys COWS Ae ater we cic cei deci ea aan ae eer ae 147 1-22 Wootsety, THeopor: §., Jr., and Herman H. Cuapman, bulletin on ‘‘Norway pine in the lake States”.....................| 139 1-42 Wounds, live stock, fly repellents...........-..--.....--..------- 131 12 Wyoming, irrigation canals, dimensions and seepage measure- STAVE) NSIC EHR NN ue andl ata ras Segoe ere gS Oa eo ee a ae 126 36-47 iWellowerall,rangeand micrations 25.0.2... sseeces sc ses sce se 128 31-33 Neliowebellied:rail ranger oo 2cco ise. eos. Se ae 128 31 Yucatan clapper rail, specimen, place and date of capture. ...--... 128 22 O seth an) tien BULLETIN OF THE US DEARTENT OAC & No. 126 Contribution from Office of Experiment Stations, A. C. True, Director. October 31, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) CONCRETE LINING AS APPLIED TO IRRIGATION CANALS. By Samuet Fortier, Chief of Irrigation Investigations. INTRODUCTION. An estimate based on the census of 1910 shows that approximately 74,400,000 acre-feet of water is diverted annually from streams, reser- voirs, wells, and other sources of supply in the United States for use in irrigation. If this volume were spread over an area the size of the State of New York it would cover it to a depth of over 28 inches. To convey this amount of water, often from distant sources, and distribute it over cultivated lands require a large number of canals with capacities varying from several thousand second-feet to a part of a second-foot, or a few miner’s inches. In the United States, irri- gation canals are for the most part excavated in earth, and, except in a few cases, a large percentage of the water, estimated at 40 per cent of the amount takenin at the heads of the main canals, is lost by absorption and percolation along the routes. But allowing for water later recovered by lower conduits, the amount that is wholly lost may be reduced to 25 per cent. The benefits resulting from work in recent years in the lining of canals for preventing transmission losses have been marked. This publication presents in a summarized form some results of seepage measurements and discusses the subject of lining canals with concrete as one of the best known means of preventing seepage losses. Most of the irrigation canals in this country that have been lined with concrete have been examined and the good and bad fea- tures of each noted. Construction methods have likewise been studied. In brief the main object of the entire investigation has been to show, first, the need of an impervious lining and, second, the best practice to follow in construction work of this kind. Nore.—This bulletin treats of the subject of concrete lining for irrigation canals from the standpoints of economy, design, and construction. It is intended for the use of irrigation engineers and the managers and superintendents of irrigation systems. 48307—Bull. 126—14 1 2 BULLETIN 126, U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. UNLINED CANALS. The census of 1910 showed for that year 81,837 main and lateral ditches, aggregating 125,591 miles in length and having a maximum capacity of 618,097 second-feet. Assuming that not over 4 per cent of the total volume of water used in irrigation was carried in pipes, flumes, and lined canals and deducting all channels having imper- vious linings, there remained over 120,000 miles of unlined irrigation canals in the West. Transmission losses in the channels considered herein may be grouped under the headings leakage, evaporation, and seepage. Cheap and faulty structures are a common cause of leakage, but such losses are only a small percentage of the total loss. A large percentage of the water used to moisten the top layer of soils is evaporated.t. Water flowing in an open conduit evaporates from the surface an amount dependent upon the temperature of both air and water, the velocity of the wind, and upon other factors. This loss, as in the case of leakage from faulty construction, is so small that it may be neglected without causing appreciable error. Evaporation data obtained from 37 different stations throughout the various arid States and covering the months of June, July, August, and September give average daily rates in inches for this period as. follows: Maximum, 0.34; minimum, 0.18; and mean, 0.26. For prac- tical purposes the loss of water from a canal through evaporation is a negligible quantity. SEEPAGE LOSSES. The results of measurements of seepage show that this is the most important source of loss from canals. As Table I indicates, in many cases full data are not available, particularly as to the character of the materials through which the canals are excavated. The canals measured vary widely in capacity and with one exception are situated in various parts of the arid regions of the United States. About 1,500 miles of separate canal sections are represented in the data collected and considering the character of mate- rials, erosion, age, etc., they cover a wide range of conditions. It must of course be recognized that with measurements taken under such diverse conditions and by the different methods used in collecting these data allowance must be made for probable inaccuracies in the results. It may, and probably does, happen that in cases where the amount of loss or gain is small, the variation may really amount to a gain where it is given as a loss and vice versa depending on the accuracy of the methods used and the care taken in making the measurements for a given canal. However, in collecting these data an effort was ee 1U.S,. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 248, CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. 3 made to eliminate all measurements of doubtful accuracy in so far as this could be determined from the records examined. Two methods of expressing seepage losses in canals are in com- mon use. One method expresses the loss in the percentage of flow of the canal while the other expresses the loss in 24 hours in terms of cubic feet per square foot of wetted area. Opinions differ as to the relative merits of these methods, but each has its advantages. The former gives one a ready grasp of the efficiency of a canal in a general way while the latter permits a more detailed estimate of the loss which may be expected from a given section of a canal when the conditions therein have been carefully studied. However, seepage losses from canals are governed by many variable and interdependent conditions, the combined influence of which it is very difficult, if not altogether impracticable, to reduce to a math- ematical formula. The writer is convinced that no refinement of calculation for estimating seepage losses in proposed canals is war- ranted at this time without considerable data directly applicable to individual conditions, and even when this is obtainable the accu- racy of the estimate will largely depend upon the skill as well as upon the experience and judgment of the estimator. Seepage measurements made by this office together with the greater part of the reliable records obtainable are combined in Table I. Canal and stream or locality. Arizona. ATIZONAs SOLE ARTVOIoe soa. eee pieeee a= Consolidated, Salt River..........-- California. Callison Slough, Tule River.......-. Tipton Tule River. Trrigation District, Hine Ditch, Tule River: ...--:-.s--. Vandalia Ditch, Tule River......... Porter Slough, Tule River........-.. South Tule Independent Ditch, Tule River. Modesto, Tuolumne River.......... D Turlock, Tuolumne River........-. Birch Lateral, Colorado River BULLETIN 126, U. —— | Number of measurements. bo S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. _ Section measured. 8 Q [on — | 2d ef inane Es § & 4 co Miles. | Sec.ft. 79.8 { 93.3 12 113.0 124.6 4 22.8 53.3 2.5 55.0 10.0 75.5 12.0 48.7 e Tile: 1.5 { 31.9 2.00 16.0 15 10.2 { 2.0 97.6 4.0 We 35.38 4.0 73.3 42.8 7.75 Ged 2.75 26.9 3.00 21.9 4.5 4.9 | 5.0 5.6 7.9 5.0 { ae 33.0 260. 0 22.0 532.0 18.0 22.0 4.0 3.0 24.45 6.5 7.12 Dimensions of canal. | Mean depth. th of water surface. | Wid TABLE Length of wetted perimeter. Velocity in canal. Diversions in section. I.— Seepage Total loss in section. Sec.- > Dd & ha wn § LS) oF mou 7.0 | 13.00 CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. “measurements. Loss per mile. Maxi-|Mini- {mum.|mum. Mean. Per cent. Per cent. \ 0.88 0.80] 0.84 .48 Per cent. aferie 6..75 11.30) 13.60 44.50) 45.25 64. 00) 9.50) 3.25) 6.33 Loss per square . foot of | Character of material | Source of informa- Remarks wetted in the channel. tion. 2 area in 24 hours. Cu. feet. { 0. 30 \ Berar We He ae eae coated with analmost 32 Say Sep. No. 2, 1900.” impervious silt deposit. B23 | GA eae Vi hoe | Same oe (6 Ko} 5 a Do. SFL tee Wy ae e/a ed eh Re does Saae Do. | eae eas eG Rb RE | ene (6 lappa! sees Riera ( Do. 5428 | Reseed NU Sete SRN Tce SF ae GO Manan tee Do. Bemieieis es yall aac Meters oes oe Report A. E. Chand- Sandy, weedy, and flat; 2 miles in em- _s, bankment. ——— ler, O. E. S. Bul. 119, Sep. No. 2, 1901. .| Report A. E. Chand- ler, O. E. S. Bul. . No. 2, Report A. E. Chand- ler, O. E. S. Bul. 119, Sep. No. 2, 1901. Report Frank Adams, O. E. S. Bul. 158, Sep. No. 3, 1904. Report Frank Adams, O. E. §. Cir. 108, 1909. pies Goner ss a ee is dors Report J. E. Road- house, O. E. S. Bul. 158, Sep. No. 3, 1904. wie GONee kee ay First use in 5 years. Gopher and squirrel holes in chan- nel bed. Do. Channel through sand of the first river bench. Discharge (97.6) measured at headgate June 1, 1901. Discharge (3.7) measured headgate July 9, 1901. Measured June 12, 1901, the head of canal. Measured June 14, 1901, 1901, at at at the head of canal. Measured June 27, the head of canal. at Measured June 14, at the head of canal. {Measured June 29, 1901, 4 \. miles below head of canal. Measured June 29, 1901, at { the head of a lateral. 1901, Measured at head. For first 44 miles bottom width 5 feet, grade 8 feet per mile. The succeeding 4 mile bot- tom width 6 feet, grade 6 feet per mile. See O. E. S. Bul. 158, Sep. No. 3, for losses in individ- ual portions of canal. Measured June 16, 1903. Measured June 23, 1903. Canal and stream or locality. California—Continued. Dahlia Lateral, Colorado River Dogwood Lateral, Colorado River... Do. Moore Ditch, Creek. main canal, Cache East Fork or Rumsey Ditch, Lateral of Moore Ditch. West Fork or Montgomery Ditch, Lateral of Moore Ditch. Hoy Ditch, Lateral of Moore Ditch - D Ditch. South Fork, Lateral of Moore Ditch. Schoolhouse, Lateral of Moore Ditch. Capay- Winters, Cache Creek Stony Creek Irrigation Co., Stony Creek. San Joaquin and Kings River, | BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TaBLE I.—Seepage San Joaquin River. ime Kings River and Fresno, Kings River. & .s Dimensions of : Section measured, faster = = § d B By Sips -|a@ | 8 es ® a, Ss = = D 3 | =) a Boe | Cee 8 I ve = ae Ve Maer alt eel hate | Gis & 5 ei Sq 3 ° ce > 5 2 418 |) |els*ieelsi8] 4 oe s = 12, .3) 3 2) 6 AS sj= |8 a) ee e Za 4 fy a |e 4 > A a Feet ; per | Sec.-| Sec.- | Per Miles. | Sec.-ft. | Ft. | Feet.| Feet.| sec. | feet. | feet. | cent. 1 9.5 AD FAO aca 8 ete Seal Weck ee | erate ees |e 8.95 | 19.70 1 6.0 D2 GOS = aA ale eerie vcr onal |S eeeterecil rere ee 5:72) 25330 1 5.0 2158 Al sede Pee ese |S ee 2.84 | 10.00 it 3:5 LD OTF aan | Pacis ce eae ss | aescee| eee 1.10 8.51 y 6.0 SOHO thes Selle eee SSB eee eee || eee 4.54 | 12.40 1 4.75 AON] eae, 2h |e el| © or arercral arencpe a eee ane 522) 4.97 D624) 2 2 alee eee| Sees Sel ree 8.73 7.50 \ 2} 8 COLO Ewe see oe ee || ee ee eee 5. 36 6. 20 T1229 |) e238 taco |e eee see [Sere 4. 26 3.80 2 4.0 1G Kes at] Dees Oo een! Pperersee tl reamed poe o 4 4. 62 4.00 2GSii > eae ever e |fee a ae | rere eye | eee 20.9 16. 50 2 4.0 G22G 0s ales cece eae eee |e eee 1225 20. 00 lio 3.5 { VOSA eee sale cw lt oko sheers 34.4 29. 90 id 7 a Sines (aienae: Naim erry ee ile ge: 8.83 | 20. 00 aL 520 BbnOs Meals eae eee ease eae 41.4- | 62.80 1 3.0 SOLD ees alce eee ess sere eae a | See 14.58 | 41.20 1 Ma) Oe OO.i kee alereeecters | Saatteece | ste aces | Cees noe, 4.00 i 2.0 DAS GOES aoe aleve oe ese cee | reer 7.68 | 31.10 il sn) a Ry (5100 iy erence pera peers ene ee eter Pare 4.60 | 27.00 di 1.0 DOVOS Nha sole e cet al Moree Patera ties heres 4.92 | 16.40 1 2.0 F107: (0) RO ane [eae ene HPvNeR ere Lares ores | eee 15.09 | 49.70 1 3.0 W808) Needed ckiclecs eeele=s oop oes 36.1 45. 80) 1) 15.5 AQT Wsxen 2s Seaoe |: Sete nee eee ted 16. 80 ill) pale ais DSc Oe Pera sercillrcicacelleeree wrat percomas Sete ee 12.9 33. 30) BAY SAINT QE | eee Seee cca tcas aso Ile cyeye eel Seeger) Seer eee | ee 37.00 20.40-| 3 16.6- Soc Bos sdcllleap ora eterna Lees | see \ mn { 8.20| 80 \ & 190- oedllac Rohe Lit eleeecle es caells eee \ 5.0 { 239 \ \ THe 9 se, tal Me ee Ronen eeaeres 39.6| 4.4 | 8.00 1} 4.75 SOE ay. |: es Se eee | es aie ae 8.2 | 16.5 20. 50 Ee 250 YS 6s Oe a Ui ea UN Se (EON a se ee 10.1 |! 43.4 32. 40) 1 Farmers’ laterals foul with weeds, many gopher holes, and diversion weirs out of repair caused many leaks. CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. i measurements—Continued. Loss per mile. | Loss per square foot of | Character of material | Source of informa- Remanice wetted in the channel. tion. 7 Maxi-| Mini- area in mum.|mum. Mean. 24 hours. Per | Per'| Per cént. | cent. | cent. | Cu. feet. i (TESS NEES eae PAA aa First one-half in] Report J. E. Road- | Measured June 7, 1903. ; ; slight cut with re- house, Or : mainder somewhat Bul. 158, Sep. No. | silted, especially in 3, 1904. ; last 2 miles. LOSES aaa 4,22)..........| Lateral was in poor |.....do...............| Measured July &, 1903. : ; condition; deposit of silt inside; levees partially weedy. 5 Soil varied with he 230 2800\02/92| soe strata of silt and | Oe ae Measured in 1903. =H Miata ; clay. \ 2.07 TECH esta eae Ne a UN Gomeaene Ju Do. A Report Samuel For- Way eo 9.40|...........{Canal in| gravelly |)" “tier O. E. S. Bul. |‘Measured July 31, 1906. \ creek bed. 207, 1909 Peeneraa (Sy ainen TSO | ae e eee | apasennrNate Maser ao a). SG Ouran ene Ul Measured: Sept.8. 906% i ee Heavy clay loam, w/in sl LE a -90}..........]4 puddled by domes- . do...............| Measured Aug. 1, 1906. tic animals. ud iT OO eevee sl ee CL Obert nse). ented ud Quinney eae Measured adtllya2o 01906: Same section, but ; Be tate eI Shula ASLO see aie meh less pud- . doseeeeeeio-.45 4) Measured July 101907. ing. SE EIN en D500 |e ee as Pen Osce amen. ewe Ud Queena wee Measured! Illy oOs Lore TSA eS a SHO Geese ame eee nen mail | nd Oseeeeiee ea eee Meastredi sly zo; 0906s lee Ni aac OH 0 BERR neicnl le Soa eee 2k ed Oeeore un nee Measured Septsc, 1906: ASS eee nate 12.60]..........| In an open gravelly |.....do...............| Measured July 19, 1906. soil, apparently former bed of Cache Creek. Pa pe aa Seyi ewes tale aaieke LE aad Quakene ce eee Mieasired Atoll 06s penance S500 | Suse e ne i eee a i eS ed ORE en eee tule Measuredidtuly;o 906s sop eee| Aeeee OO Wes eens nls eee Le done eee wee “i Measured tye 7) 19062 Reape eee DAs OO aera spake ee UU eased Quawae neal. anne MCASTITEGH ULL yo el Obs WAC | nd G340 pre cnn Pe MN hie iss | ad Qua sews Te atMiedsured:duiyv24 (19062 a ea QAR SO |B eeee h iall yue see Ses I Oe Md oslatemaesano stl Measured. ily. 5 6l906:) PEE AER atl 15..30|_2 2.2...) Canal in: old creek'|....:do...2-....{522.) Measured Aug. 9, 1907. bed of wash gravel. SPS Rae ES OPE ea ee eee Clayloamias seu. 2 22a lead Oh an ments t el Measured MavAti siiiO Gul O07 Tight diversion weirs. SebieH Meee 2590p ee ee area liye here CLO Lien cn seaere etl ey COM eeee ejay ses A MCASUTEGUAI Clic OO fam com Winters to State Farm, Davis. Pepa a el) NN BeAD ene casece eee COnteeem es ke soe lseceed Oeisntieeesacceea| Measured) in 19072) = lowing about 100 second-feet at upper end of section; canal designed to carry 8 times this capacity. SSCO lel OG Nise S0la sas sisecnel cic © COW ee ee as aa CONS S ise Be Report Frank sb eeos apes AD eee ee eee cieete Sena cen CA ams: Os JH ios)|»Measuredian L908: Cir. 108, 1911. Report C. E. Grun- Sea neles Light sandy loam.... sey ‘s Be oe fe Measured in 1882. Paper No. 18, 1898. peal. 01 309 Indurated clay hard- y ; SHR Eee pan below surface BAG LO} ies pees rE Do. soil. Pes aga as Lard pani ease ses lo miane toe ree al Do. 2 Average, 4.06. 3 Average, 40.8. BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE I.—WSeepage 1 Gain. B : Dimensions of = Section measured. canes : hy ra co g g = Ss ig Canal and stream or locality. = 5 Eu core espe a B ae = ert iors el ee A S 2d a | Ss | | oa A a on ‘ os} § o e 4 Bb ° 4 og Ieee Slaplse]| 2] 3 AS g bo S fst) ae wa | 8 3 = 5 8 & s(s 5 3s | & 5 a) fy Se 1s Ss | A & Feet California—Continued. per | Sec.-| Sec.- | Per a Miles. | Sec.-ft. | Ft. | Feet. | Feet.| sec. | feet. | feet. | cent. Rresno;, Koings River. oe. as2- 2-225 1} 4.0 GON eae ale cecal eee fences 28.0) | 7328 6. 30 WOeeA ceeaaactoe tae acest 1 1) ALSO il eet pee ore se | pee eee 73.5 5,2 B70) c DOMsea see eee Se Ty} da 25 B8lK0) seen cl eeeeec | poemealecesse 146.4 | 95.5 | 25.00 enterville and Kingsburg, Kings oe \ {r= iS 71a) es OS ieee eae ee 26.7 | 52.3 | 20.80 DORescseh tbat ess as be eertedasse 1 5.0 S46057" wera bee ealeaee eet cecee 9.1 | 85.9 | 24.80 Smialliditches c.csccceeensiceccsen- Lo Pa a Ue ee erent eect (eeraeaecy esc 1.42 | 59.00 ID OS a8 targa ootee akc Gee ett 1 -5 SOUS sears |Mec ee Saecee aces pene -79 | 44.00 Lateral of Fresno Canal..........-.- 1) 4.0 ONG: Mees. a eaes eee coon oe | Meee 4.38 | 78.20 Kern County, Kern River..........}.... Generales. c2 282. seca alsa ees aos ae| Shenk -|aaecec| See eee Colorado. Grand, Grand River..............-- TN Agel Ba peO lee ais sea ected cose: 86.1 | 19.60 | 12.84 ID) 0 Beene poe os eels elaine ee stisieleia il 2.25 26055. 5 4s aiec.2 saree alle ere earel| ere score 11.3 8.70 3.34 High line, Grand River............- 1} 5.0 1395671 Seeesloes sacl eensa| seems 18.1} 5.05 | 3.62 DD) OP nee ea aaes Se eeeisce rece een 1 1,25 EGE! Ulescreciell Srarccoe «! omar sree rere 8.55 .94 81 WD Osa ae owe ee cemite noes fees 1) 6275 TOGHOS Ewer: |e aaa | Beets) Sacer 34.31} 1.48] 1.38) 1D) OL eaeee is cease eisai tecee if 4.75 ONG Sea te fes eral es craters | et earal| eee 20. 82) 12.9 8. 64 1B 0 ee eee SE eee Srnec Aca ih 3.5 DOr QO). Wesesciltereree er |lere teretare fepee sree 12. 42 .99 IESCAEA Lake, Arkansas River..........---- 1} 16.0 AD OA ee teers | acces | Sia areyete | eecierarars 249.4 | 35.6 7. 80 e Pleasant Valley and Lake, Cache la Le e380 QO ears o alimtetcerval va seers | eiereree .16) 4.70 | 21.30 Poudre. HE) Opes oe ace ke eae ee ee di ates 5 APS tal ese ares bores .69} 5.90 | 34.2 1B) Oe eae 4 eee a cc 8 Da a a 1 . 82 HEAT) | ae, 5 42) ararkarell Sineratas||(Seisateel wearin 88 | 12.3 UD Oe ee ee een ES en ce 1 72 68208 eal as be seealios tee 4 NORE . 64 | 10.2 IDO A et ae 1 eRe 1 . 30 Go ALP Hescrsicpel|iisio atere!| Sarevatetal|eraoretctal| rawitete 1.87 | 29.3 LD) Oe en eee eran sere 1 2. 55 ge De ees (a: ree el aes oe Bee 6.19) 1 4.50 |133.5 ID Gia ceee eeeen sacha ken senate 1} 2.64 135023) Resco | eee | eames eee ee 2,82|- .25 | - 1.92 CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. measurements—Continued. Loss per mile. Loss per square ; foo tof | Character of material wetted in the channel. Maxi-| Mini- area in mum.|/mum. Mean. 24 hours. Per | Per | Per cent. | cent. | cent. | Cu. feet Natural channel; Shae see ground water 4 to 2.20] 0.53) 1.43 10 feet. Bee Aes aye avec Oma cee par sau a as COs ee seh 6.0 Porous soil and sub- 20.80] 4.50 peso ‘ yl eae ge GhOW eases OVERS oES Sree ee Rete re aan cial 59.00} 1.2-6.4 | Sandy loam 5 to 8 feet deep. SOER Se eee 88.00] 1.2-6.4 Sandy loam with ground water at 8 feet below surface. ara A yes LONSO MC Q=GE Au Eee Sele De SOS Gcsl EEE al eee 39=25 GO| emeae lycra eres enn Besa tier 1 .60)..........| Heavy clay; allearth Sab el eee 1.49). ...:.....) In shale hills. ..522.. SUS LIN a A ote ae eee eae TM APE eR | alae ais Bee SA Le RGD Mek Ee hee siiln eee CL Oh Stats sie taees Stee eee Ss apo aS en) | ce tad O KO ga ps ae peer iT at SHUI re eater | bee te LO ey sama cad ets L(A SU Ee eSias SER ISS ECO Og era Buchan alts LadSanlsaatee 40 Beeseeeee | oandysloanmes ha. ak SeASae Rees 16. 40)..........| Gravelly and sandy; near river. Sesetel Mace PA aS ACES a eyesehh ees | ee a 0K 0 Yat a ts tg disoseleeeune TSO0 Ree ease Siratified slope: rocks ineine ape pera Reet It He EE) st kta EN Far LIE Va Yate cui eee SSG S| RSE Re raeLa [eaeneeaese make OnE: outer side ridge near junction of earth and rock. SSH BS Nae DTS 20 ees Wye tere era yl [a ayah shennan tS SNS) EN ara anal . 73)....-.----| Somewhat gravelly .. Source of informa- tion. Report C. E. Gr sky, U. S. G. Water-Suppl Paper No. 18, 189 he Eo ates Fic a ees (Oko iy ee Bele so ese a ne Paine len INES Bul. 48, Colo. Expt. Sta. 1898. Report C. E. ae sky, U. S. G. Water - Supply Paper No. 18, 1898; also Bul. 48, Colo. Expt. Sta., 1898. Reports P. Stover, . E.S. Bul. 119, Sen No. 3, 1901. Report L. G. Car- penter, Bul. 48, Colo. Expt. Sta. 1898. So baein — SSS Remarks. Measured in 1882. Artificial channel of uniform dimen- sions. Measured in 1882. Surface soil and subsoils saturated. Measured in 1882. Do. \ Do. Measured June 14, 1882, on Gould ranch ‘north’ of Fresno. Average width, 3 feet; shade trees along por- tion of ditch, and banks overgrown with grass; weir used. Measured June 21, 1882. Lateral of main ” supply canal; about 2 feet wide; weir used. Measured June 26, 1882. Di- verts water from Fresno Canal at point 4 miles east of Fresno. Average width, 8 feet. 31 diversions in this length. Increase thought to come from irrigated lands west of Palisade.2 At numerous places small trickling streams could be seen issuing from canal bank.2 Water section entirely in ex- cavation; considerable side- hill. Same as foregoing but mostly along sidehill. Comparatively level cross slopes. Comparatively level cross slopes; in excellent condi- tion. Receives heavily laden silt waters, flood time only. Canal follows river for 11 miles. Some land irrigated above ditch from Dixon Canyon. Some land irrigated above ditch from Spring Canyon. 2 Combining these two measurements shows gain greater than loss. 10 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Section measured. Dimensions of TaBLE I.—WSeepage 8 canal. ; | | : o Sa iS a 5 i i Z a = 2S a & s |3 $s 2 3 Canal and stream or locality. I 3 ..[e = 2 BI g a : oa =e a es rs) Pa o & Dn ieee = ; ae Pines |S aces sabes g oa a a ro =| a‘e as} = iS} 2 re gaa|ses] 3 Z Sat Ba) ee z iif | een Sle 3 3 h ae o | i) Aa 3S z/ a | & Bee Wet ee ne & | Feet per | Sec.-| Sec.- | Per Colorado—Continued. Miles. | Sec.-ft. | Ft. | Feet.| Feet.| sec. | feet. | feet. | cent. 90.5 ONSSRZ0R7: |oeocsellseaie ee 64.3 5.3 5.90 North farm lateral of Rio Grande |\ 4} 9 9 Canal, Rio Grande. f 199315) 5 Ph20 02650) eeecee beeen 156.5 | 12.5 6. 30) Lateral 1C, Rio Grande............. 1) 5 18.8 F772), VOHOM se 22 28|5 5 cel ee 12.38 112.70 Isiee eases mia dae wets we cis. oeseke 1; 3.0 29.70 Prairiewhi0 Grande... -2.22-os.ce.0 1} 3.5 1 3.90 HD Ge Sone ae ee ee ee 1}. 15 5.07 ID) Orie oseee ok ae a ty Sete 1} 4.0 19,97 Ot s siecn bits etadacacaee ube) a), Wao 6. 08 Blackmore, Rio Grande............ 1 2.08 31. 20 Empire, Rio Grande................ 1) 65.0 112. 30 Lateral 1F, Rio Grande............. 1 4.0 13.00 HD) Oitapy RE ee ee Ae ts Se 1 1.0 Sait aeerelllarevere | sed Sera asia 2.22 )11,24 |114.00! Lateral of North Poudre Land & 4.0 BAO oe al epee |sseisic 4 | 'armateree anaes -80 | 20.90 Canal Co., South Platte River. Idaho. South Side Twin Falls,Snake River.}| 1) 8.0 S009 | i seeioe | edimaie| Semmens Seee ees | wets 64.0 7.10 Lateral of South Side Twin Falls,| 1) 2.+ CHE gg Re Der PRnmnie) aera apt A 25 | 4.95 Snake River. C0 PA CS ee a Sarno ee ee il LO) 248. Satea| cscs |e nseealssesee |eeeeee 5.6 22. 60 Howell & Swendson, Lost River.... 1 4.0 C35 ar geese (eet | MOR el PO UE on ok lea 25.00 Frank Uehren, Lost River.......... 1 “ ADS Gin revere sill Steere evecare | eeerecetaral| comets so, |p 19:00 Bradshaw, Lost River.............. 1 3.0 Ea oererces | ev reae eee eye le oceans Cre eee 2.8 | 51.00 Davidson, Lost River............... 1) 12.0 eA Eset ve ea calle eee [Eo wine ie, See 4.6 | 62.00 Mower, Warm Spring Creek........ i 3.0 ga eee Roane | pene [ee he -8 | 20.00 Sharpe Nos IS Nosh River..2. 222... 1 1.0 pRS eee Peers eee er ree | aeesne, 1.0 5.30 West side (No. 22), Lost River...... I 388 ESET Ay | cre vere hs Sere era Pearl | eo eee | 2.7 | 14.50 Upper Harger (part of No. 23), Lost 1} 4.0 Lass al eee Sree cl beremerme | At ee 1.7 | 29.30 River. ABD OSes asec os ets NR Seas 1 1.0 450 Wi letae la eede a eeacen samane laemece 1.0 25. 00 Lower Harger (part of No. 23), Lost Li 0 ET PO ie 5.crs)| ee ieee eeemerel atemeron| emeperate 3.6 | 30.00 i Se enced See ARES 1) «3.0 Sal ell eee ate Sees | eee eyes |e ale 8. 00 Cater of Upper Harger, Lost River it} “ta: SO.) || eexcooralltpeteraeee | eee eereretere |eeeeete 2 8. 00 DeEAGY (No. 24), Lost River....... 1 =25 G89 Ul sees bee teellgeees booked cosas -35 | 5.00 Sees ie aa Stereos See ta eaes 1 4.0 (Git Jah Paes, Seed FR nea «|| Sa Se ee eee 35. 00 iene Keogh, Raft River........... 1 1S PBA sia mel ee epee emer asm meee .66 | 13.90 NI OE Sica, See at 2 oe or PE att a 1 120) Ase \le goalie ee tile ate ail. or. he a pee 14 3.40) 1 Gain. CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. measurements—Continued. It 1897. Tn- 1897. Aver- High Loss per mile. Loss per Teot of Chi f material} S f inf oot 0 aracter of materia ource of informa- wetted in the channel. tion. Remarks. Maxi-| Mini- area in mum.|mum. Mea 24 hours. Per | Per | Per cent. | cent. | cent. | Cu. feet. Report L. G. Car- fagividual measurements : enter, Bul. 48, show variations of 8.47 per seocos}oo5b05 0.65 0.51) Gravelly soil......... olo. Expt. Sta.,| cent gain to 8.95 per cent 1898. loss. Ineividual measurer onus show variations of 8.77 per opbacnloocecr -70 73). 2-2-0... 0202-22222 222)--2--dO. 2-22-2222 22-- cent gain to 12.18 per cent Oss. ease laces B20 430 | se pee asa eee eae te naan ce cc ee ee ee a Feet Idaho—Continued. per | Sec.-| Sec.- | Per Miles. | Sec.-ft. | Ft. | Feet.) Feet.| sec. | feet. | feet. | cent. 972 SAO. LO2 ES ee ee een e lane 91.7} 9.4 South Side Twin Falls, main canal, \ a} 7.79 ; i 02:8 ; : Snake River. ay 4 1, 691 PaO Gaacemee | eee ee 13 194.7} 11.50 ID Osteo sa acer eet ase ees 1 Dae eee SOE oe | ee ea | beer n| tba tage alate! 51.0} 5.71 WD ORME AL He ans Sasi te senses 1) 11.98 839.4 Dee O21 00| tena Gea os 53.7 101.5} 12.10 LD) Oeste eee ery eee 1 8.07 | 1,448 655 | 96h ae aes ie 14.49} 121 8.36 I) Olean" eye Bre aye ae ae eee 1 6.32 | 1,312 GiGi 96r451 salen < 137 93.9) 7.15 Ose temic oa say scoce ames oecseee 1 5.35 | 2,737 7.53}104.0 |110.5 3 4oleeeeae 93.0) 3.40 DOF eins See oer een oeeee sa ueee 1 6.070) 2,798.0 7.72{107.3 114.30) Brsal see see 30.4} 1.10 WD Oss ace te oe see eens teed 1 2.650) 2,857.0 Tolo)lO7: 5 \11420)| 8242) 22528 27.0 95 LOL ae ee RS eo ee i eee 2.08450 is | eanes| Soaeealeu es | eae ale ees 54.0) 1.80 TT) OB Bicrets Rese ee ens ez erie ee 1 5.050) 3; 097.0 8. 09/118.:0 |128.0.|.3:16)....-. 148.0} 4.80 1) eereys oe ee eee ai ee zeae 1 3.350! 3,192.0 8.001123.0 |129.0 |} 3.16)...... 167.0} 5.20 South Side Twin Falls, low line, 1 6.40 SASL MliaaG: | p4eso|seccee em aac 37.1 34.8] 10.10 Snake River. D028) aero t en 8 oe een ae Aa ae 1 9. 61 332. 2 Dyer | NO eee Nae emer 147.6 50.7] 15.30 1D OO noted aot eee ee 1 6. 24 133.9 Loa ae |e erates ate 77.2 22.4! 16.70 eo CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. measurements—Continued. 13 Loss per mile. Loss per square : foot of | Character of material wetted in the channel. Maxi-| Mini- area in mum.|mum. Mean. 24 hours. Per | Per | Per cent. | cent. | cent. | Cu. Jeet. Soil deep and slight- Se as 1.21 1.88 lysandy. Numer- ous rock cuts. Ae Ail ae ahs SS 1.48 BuGOr se ae Opeee es nae Hap SBalGaeaen| PaBeae .15 | Bottom becoming silted. aS NA te 1.01 1.50 | Mostly soil; few rock cuts. Maes ee 1.03 2.54 | Mostly soil; few rock cuts near lower end. So Anelesaaes 1.13 DGS Uh Pa Sig he See Eee Soe er ere . 60 2.56 | Deep uniform clay loam. ee ee ee ees 20 BP An ARO OneH at CoE eBeae naan ase . 40 TAG Hees SO Osseo siase cee Saoe eels eae CBB seS| Pees see Serae (0 Voy Seana iors mene Bes ees ane 2 90 3.905) Deep uniform clay loam with some rock cuts. eleciat SS pee ; 1.60 6.338] Uniform clay loam with numerous rock cuts. pe raver We ahs 1. 580 1.62 | Heavier than along main canal. Some rock cuts. Cy al Pee 1. 590 LEGS Ale ck One eesy cnn se Ue cree ae 2. 680 TSAR MON 5s pg Secs Source of informa- tion. Remarks. Report Elias Nelson, Idaho Expt. Sta. Bul. 58, May, 1907. PES CAEA(G Ka eS St tata Report D. H. Bark, 9th Biennial Re- port State Eng. Idaho, 1911-12. Report Elias Nelson, Idaho Expt. Sta. Bul. 58, May, 1907. to Dry Creek Reservoir. {Measured Aug. 6, 1906, Milner \. to Dry Creek Reservoir. Measured June 11, 1906, Dry Creek Reservoir only. Measured June 12, 1906, Dry Creek Reservoir to within 34 miles of end of canal. Measured Aug. 6, 1906. In- cludes upper 8.07 miles of eae June 9, 1906, Milner preceding measurement; Dry Creek Reservoir to spillway. Measured Aug. 8, 1906, spill- way to near end of canal. Backwater condition in lower end of.section. Measured July 20, 1912; from Low Line Canal to point 5.35 miles above. Good lower bank; comparatively clean uniform cross section and grade; used 7 years. Measured July 18, 1912, from “The Point” to 2.7 miles below Dry Creek Reser- voir. Good lower bank; clean uniform cross section; used 7 years. Measured July 18, 1912, the first 2.65 miles below Dry Creek Reservoir. Good lower bank; clean uniform cross section; used 7 years. Measured July 15, 1912; Dry Creek Reservoir only. Measured July 15, 1912. Up- per end of section is 34 miles below Milner. Banks somewhat eroded; upper bank gone in places; nu- merous pools above upper bank; used 7 years. Measured July 14, 1912. Up- per end of section is at Mil- ner wagon bridge. Banks badly eroded; numerous pools above upper bank; no surface indication of seepage; used 7 years. Measured June 15, 1907, sta- tions 359 to 697. Waste wa- ter (6.8 second-feet) in ad- dition to inflow; first used June, 1905. Measured June 18, 1907, sta- tions 697 to 12044. First used, upper part, June, 1905; lower part, April, 1906. Measured June 19, 1907, sta- tions 697 to 1534. 14 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE I.—-Seepage Canal and stream or locality. Section measured. Dimensions of Number of measurements. perimeter. Diversions in section. Idaho—Continued. South Side Twin Falls, high line Snake River. South Side Twin Falls, farm lateral, Snake River. canal. m m 3 5 . Patch Nace ee 3 | F se |e /|8/% a 2 s-| 2] 2 bo : a (3° | & A é Ha HAS: 5 o = i= o 4 ey = - a} | Miles. | Sec.-ft. | Ft. | Feet.| Feet. 12. 68 226.5 29 AS: O1 lez oea| esse 16.94 177.9 SA 0) fc hea | ape | ae 11.8 92.1 2. 180 759. 6 2. 260 783.0 2. 140 788.4 2. 060 832. 0 2.940 877.0 490 073 | -700| «205 714 Rey 740 545 1 Gain, 4.94) 53.5) 57.00 5. O07 (oj 5.48) 53.0} 58.90 5.55] 57.0) 62. 60 5.31] 60.0} 64. 80 -13 29) 1.05 -14, 1.4) 1.51 -32) 1.5) 1.87 28} 1.0) 1.35 = = Velocity in canal. ~~ sd . 6.7) 61. 40 Total loss in section. Sec.- | Per feet. | cent. 35.2 | 15.50 44.4 | 25.00 16.8 | 18.20 14,01 1, 53 112.68) 11.61 4 DL eles | 20.9) 2.38 - 017) 23.30 - 040) 19. 50 - 068; 12. 70 - 070) 12. 80 CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION measurements—Continued. CANALS. 15 Loss per mile. Loss per square foot of | Character of material | Source of informa- A wetted in the channel. tion. Maxi-| Mini- Mean.| .27e2 in mum.)mum. ‘| 24 hours. Per | Per | Per cent. | cent. | cent. | Cu. feet. Si aaeise SE 1. 220 0.93 | Some gravel and | Report Elias Nelson, some white lime. Idaho Expt. Sta. See reference. Bul. 58, May, 1907. socon| Rae 1. 470 OSE estas heehee.) 1s ost | te Oman wey sae eee Ayah is ve eee 1. 540 SO h | rynieiciarate clans eis wis i= ore oso] Ca OO meio ean Ns er pea sae | Noms 1,24 1.53] Compact gravelfor 4} Report D. H. Bark, mile on either side 9th Biennial Re- of McMullin Creek; port State Eng. compact clay loam Idaho, 1911-12. in other places. uh el ee 76 1292]kCompacts a oriavieil.|s 91 sdosena eee ees mixed with dense clay loam not so gravelly as preced- ing section. ine eee 1,75 11.65] Compact gravel and |.....do...........-.. clay loam, mixed with gravel. ere etapleta 65) 14 sDeep uniform: clays |ss2s200neeee seeee ee loam. eA | ee 81 PO |i srat SO iesens mci eee a Ce ee LO res een crue 25 es [RE 48.00 56leMedinmiclayeloam), ||. 90 0s seats ee some surface rock on top of ground. .| 28.30 .63] Deep medium clay |..... Op sara ne eis loam. 25) Sos Ae 17.80 .83} Medium clay loam, |.....do..........1... hardpan near sur- face. Sona aaaee 17.40 s15| Deep remediuminclay:||f22 doresesass tone loam. Remarks. Measured July 2, 1907, from end of main canal to Cot- tonwood Creek. Measured July 3, 1907, Cot- wood Creek to Cedar draw. First season. Measured July 6, 1907, Cedar draw to near end of canal. First season. Measured July 26, 1912, from 1 mile above McMullin Creek to Cottonwood flume. Banks solid; uni- form grade and cross sec- tion; porous irrigated land above; used 7 years. Measured July 26, 1912, from 14 miles below Rock Creek to 1 mile above McMullin Creek. Banks solid and well above water line; uni- form grade and cross sec- tion; used 7 years. Measured July 26, 1912, from 4 mile above to 13 miles be- low Rock Creek crossing. Banks very solid and well made, uniform grade and cross section; porous irri- gated land above; used 7 years. Measured July 25, 1912, from station 180+30 to within 4 mile of Rock Creek cross- ing. Banks well above water line; uniform grade and clean uniform cross section; used 7 vears. Measured July 26, 1912, from 4 mile below Low Line Canal to station 180+30. Banks well above water line; uniform grade and clean uniform cross section; used 7 years. Measured Sept. 10, 1912, 1 mile south of Twin Falls. Banks irregular; some grass and weeds; used 5 years. Measured Sept. 14, 1912, 4 miles northwest of Twin Falls. Irregular cross sec- tion; badly eroded; some grass and weeds; used 4 years. Measured Sept. 11, 1912, 7 miles southwest of Twin Falls. Irregular cross sec- tion; banks eroded; sweet clover in lower half of ditch section. Measured Sept. 13, 1912, 2 miles northeast of Filer. Sodded banks; moss in water; uniform cross sec- tion; water in ditch above normal surface of ground; used 4 years, 16 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE I.—Scepage Canal and stream or locality. Idaho—Continued. South Side Twin Falls, farm lateral, | Snake River. River. Lateral of Burgess Canal, Snake River. | Number of measurements. fs Dimensions of Section measured. AAD § g (ay s 3), a n o b=} , B.| es cS) q pa ; gel 9 | Fs -_ I eS | Blsalse] = | g g : oe 8 |e | ae | ele g 3 e San |so a He = 4 fy a |= 4 > a 'S Feet per | Sec.-| Sec.- | Per Miles. | Sec.-ft. | Ft. | Feet.| Feet.| sec. | feet. | feet. | cent. 0. 528 0. 802) 0. 22 OSes ek (3) sees 0. 126) 15. 70) . 422 eGo). 2a Web|) Wai 2) 2532) soe - 030} 3.60 573 871) .28 1.3) 1.62) 2.35).... <2 -045) 5.20 - 480 12, . 29 1.8) 2.11) 2.04)...... 104; 9.30 . 945 2.03 | .34|- 2.4) 2.82) 2.31!...... - 265) 13. 10 . 659 2.22 |-.38) 2.4). 2.83) 2.40)..2..: -055) 2. 50 2. 612 14.71 s6a) LL 2500)" 183) 2ecea2 3.48 | 23. 60) 1.936 24.05 | .81) 20.4) 21.38, 1.30)...... 5.00 | 20. 80 - 662 1.91 -86) 3.0) 4.05 pay eee 37 | 19.40 - 498 5s45 | O2! © =3859)) 1bs53) 1539) Sec. -96 | 17.70 - 584 6.15 | .92 4.6] 5.83} 1.34)...... . 46 7. 50 - 520 8.94] .83} 7.5) 8.03) 1.36/...... .85) 9.50 CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. measurements—Continued. 17 Remarks. Loss per mile. Loss per square : s foot of | Character of material | Source of informa- wetted in the channel. tion. Maxi-| Mini- area in mum.|mum.|“!€@"-| 94 hours. Per | Per | Per cent. | cent. | cent. | Cu. feet. ; SS EnEE Erere 29.80 1.84] Medium clay loam... 9th Biennial Re- port State Eng. daho, 1911-12. Beara les ee 8.50 $68 [ees cO Oo cts -cinsiccce ss] eased Oneuecusae cea tol Eas eee 8.90 .79] Deep medium clay |.....do.........-.-.- loam. Soil 8) ae 19.20 1.68} Rather porous clay |.....do...........--- loam, hardpan at 3 feet. BORNE 13 13.80 1563|sDeep “uniform: clay, | ..-.d0z2-2--s4seeeee loam, hardpan at 2 to 24 feet. fee e6H| Geneee 3.80 .49} Medium clay loam, |.....do...........-.- hardpan at 2 feet. Bete ee |e Sess 9.00 1.81) Deep uniform sandy |.....do........-..-.- loam, 2 pve eae 10.70 198) ;Sandyloamls ge 22nd Oa erase gagae el eeeeee 29.30 2.23) Gravelly, sandy loam}.....do.......-.-.... Ae eOta Seneee 35. 40 5.69} Very gravelly and |...-.do.............. porous, So in| Bo sne 12.70 2IZIVeLY, gTavellyfess-j-2-|-2 202 OOn sce ec gee sees Praag leeecies 18.20) 3:00} Medium) gravelly | Sis) 055 -tdoe. 22. Sense. 48307°—Bull. 126—14——2 Report D. H. Bark, | Measured Sept. 13, 1912, 4 miles southeast of Twin Falls. Regular cross sec- tion; somewhat eroded; no weeds; used 5 years. Measured Sept. 12, 1912, 74 miles southwest of Twin Falls. Clean clover sod on banks; uniform cross sec- tion; used 3 years. Measured Sept. 9, 1912, 2 miles west of Filer. Clean uniform cross section; used 4 years. Measured Sept. 12, 1912, 7 miles southwest of Twin Falls. Uneven cross sec- tion; much moss; water near top of bank; used 4 years. Measured Sept. 14, 1912, 64 miles southwest of Twin Falls. Uniform cross sec- tion; 1,000 feet new dike; used 5 years. Measured Sept. 11, 1912, 6 miles southwest of Twin Falls. Upper part fairly uniform cross section; lower part somewhat irregular, with weeds; used 5 years. Measured June 6, 1912, 2 miles east of Wendell. Carrying only halfcapacity; clean uniform cross sec- ion; used 4 years. Measured June 6, 1912, 1 mile south of Wendell. Clean uniform cross sec- tion; no erosion; carrying only one-fourth capacity; used 3 years. Measured Aug. 26, 1912, 5 miles southwest of Rigby. Partly in dike; fairly uni- form cross section; alfalfa, moss and sweet clover growing in channel; used 5 years. Measured Aug. 25, 1912, 4 miles southwest of Rigby. Uniform cross section; heavy growth of weeds and moss in channel; low ve- locity; used 6 years. Measured Aug. 25, 1912, 44 miles southwest of Rigby. Irregular cross section; some weeds and sweet clo- ver growing in channel; used 6 years. Measured Aug. 24, 1912, 7 miles southwest of Rigby. Uniform cross _ section some gopher holes in bank used 7 years. 18 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE I.—Seepage 2B ; Dimensions of = | Section measured. 8 canal ; 5 uw 7m | g B ~ - = Canal and stream or locality. = = Sina e g | § es A C a a4 3 ns a Ss Puc) a is 3 io F A a a ~ : ae ® 5 1 > S 8 3 ce eS aa|8 5 a % aa e| F | & gis | Be) 8 | 8 g S o = el pred S o 4 5) a | cs eee. | Aloe > 1A a Feet Idaho—Continued. per | Sec.-| Sec.- | Per Miles. | Sec.-ft. | Ft. | Feet.| Feet.| sec. | feet. | feet. | cent. Lateral of Burgess Canal, Snake Ai ey Sheps! 12. 52 |1.42 Te2) 9220) ea | eee 1.57 | 12.50 River. | ORS croee sence ieee te Boek oe 1 . 674 18.54 | 1.35) 8.6) 9.88 1.54)...... 1.35 | 7.30 Vance, Snake River -..-..2-22.s.-6- d) 3.171 41.07 | 1.46) 8.9) 11.25) 2.98).....- 4.84 | 11.80 Randall, Snake River.............. are | 2. 833 135.7 | 2:49) 17.0)21:00) 3.10)..-2.. 9.36 | 6.90 Salmon River project, farm lateral, 1 - 399 - 145) 216) 150) L174) .84}c..c. -015 | 10.30 Salmon River. DGG ese: Snocne eet oeas eee eee al 378 ool) o lol Lebip GQ), 2749) ae cae - 033) 5.70 Dt eee eee oes epee ana == it -519 987) 227) 3.5) 38.272) .99).-5-.. - 068) 6.90 | DOS a ese sae cee ace eae eer e 1 . 301 1,28: | 229) 2:0} 2230) 2:19)--.--- - O11 - 90 D OSes sean seas onee eseee 1 554 2.18 | .381 3.0} 3.30) 2.34/...... - 049) 2.30 1B Yo perience ee Al .576 2.26 | .42| 2.5) 2.98) 2.03]..-.... 099) 4.40 Salmon River project, main canal, 1} 2.928 78.6 | 1.29) 45.0) 46.25) 1.30).....- 5.88 | 7.50 Salmon River. | CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION measurements—Continued. CANALS. 19 Loss per mile. Loss per square : foot of | Character of material wetted in the channel. Maxi-| Mini- area in mum.|mum.|£e22-| 24 hours. Per | Per | Per cent. | cent. | cent. | Cu. feet. aes Sal erate pe = 9.90 2.22} Medium gravelly... . py se aloe ae 10.80 Booz eae Sd Ot meats an see | Ca ieee 3.70 2.28| Gravelly............- Beas |e aise. 2.40 2.58} Sand and gravel..... eal ye hie 25.90) .55 | Medium clay loam... SSeS eerie 15. 20 .88 | Shallow clay loam, hardpan at 13 feet. Sho aera 13.30 . 68} Clay loam underlain with hardpan at 14 feet. | By eae acura 2. 50) . 23] Clay loam........... Bdrsca peceed 4.00 . 43) Shallow clay loam... Bi ee tall endl ai 7. 60 .95| Medium clay loam, hardpan at 23 feet. Bsmt claves os 2. 60 .71| Medium clay loam, underlain with hardpan and gravel beneath. Source of informa- tion. Remarks. Report D.H. Bark, 9th Biennial Re- port State Eng. Idaho, 1911-12. Measured Aug. 24, 1912, 44 miles southwest of Rigby. Uniform cross section; partly in dike; weeds and sweet clover growing in ditch; used 7 years. Measured Aug. 23, 1912, 7 miles southwest of Rigby. Uniform cross __ section; carrying about one-half ca- pacity; clean channel; uni- form velocity; used 6 years. Measured Aug. 17, 1912, 44 miles southwest of Rigby. Irregular grade and cross section; moss and roots in channel; used 8 years. Measured Aug. 16, 1912, 6 miles southeast of Rigby. Uniform grade and cross section; growth moss and weeds in channnel and on banks; used 8 years. Measured June 20, 1912, 14 miles east of Hollister. Banks fairly regular; bot- tom fairly well silted; used 1 year. Measured June 19, 1912, 4 mile east of Hollister. Ir- regular cross section; bot- tom silted in places; other places hardpan exposed; used 1 year. Measured June 20, 1912, 14 miles east of Hollister. Clean, uniform cross sec- tion; hardpan exposed; used 2 years. Measured June 21, 1912, 2 miles east of Hollister. Clean, uniform cross sec- tion; used 2 years. Measured June 18, 1912, 14 miles southwest of Hollis- ter. Clean but somewhat irregular cross _ section; ditch across nonirrigated sagebrush lands; used 1 year. Measured June 19, 1912, 2 miles south of Hollister. Clean, uniform cross sec- tion; water 24 feet below surface, flowing on hard- pan; used 2 years. Measured June 17, 1912, 3 miles southwest of Hollis- ter. Uniform cross section and grade; canal carrying small uN of capacity; water flowing on hardpan; used 1 year. 20 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE |.—WSeepage g P Dimensions of 5 Section measured. aiaGih 2 8 d | a % 3 = a] iS) 3 5 Ble » |aaal @ 8 Canal and stream or locality. q =} aE : oe 8 a z omy . Gq 5 Pio = an fea aq — -| , | Se |e POS] Se leaps a 3 q 2 SDlabl(se}| £ - AS ~ n =a") Os] u pa | ay 5 SS et tS ® 3 3 8 2 S js 8 Ta | S a 4 em = |= 4 > A a Idaho—Continued. Ls Gens Sesedl eer Miles. | Sec.-ft. | Ft. | Feet.| Feet.| sec. | feet. | feet. | cent. Salmon River project, lateral A, 1 3. 138 92.2 1.96} 23.3] 24.50) 1.98)...... 3.44 3. 70 Salmon River. Salmon River project, coulee in 1) 3.809} 192.4 | 1.72) 67.5] 68.25) 1.65]....-. 2.30} 1.20 main canal, Salmon River. Salmon River project, main canal, 1 4.189} 206.9 | 1.84} 68.1] 68.75] 1.62]...... 8.41 | 4.10 Salmon River. : Salmon River project, check basin, at eee B48F9) Ween leo illese Sic eee fee Seat 9452) |Eoetece Salmon River. ; Murphy Land « Irrigation Co. 1 - 469 - 685) .25) 1.8) 2.30) 1.49)...... . 030) 4.40 farm lateral. WD OR erce ee cen ae eee See oe 1 1. 623 1.282) .28 4.3] 4.58) 1.03].....- . 086] 6.70 MD) Oey ae oe cyte nets UIT et Loe 1 5. 254 1.454) .34 3.6] 3.96) 1.94]...... . 562! 38. 60 Murphy Land & Irrigation Co., 1; 4.568 19.3 -97) 10.3] 11.25] 1. 83).--... 1.81} 9.40 main canal. DOne ae soe elas cette eae tose 1 3. 812 21.7 #98) 11.2) 10.78) 1e8vje-.-.< 2. 25| 10. 40 MUDD i osetia recs seveye'|=-5caccis allnssetm ors! eee eve eel eros | eee Farmers’ Union, A-B, Boise River..| 3) 1.69 joe é sandal obi al ce seec| ease c|eoasee! naeeree eee DO sits at icks eee eemsl eases Se ose 2.44 £2? Fa | Reet ee oem (cere eed [ens ete eee (ree hab Farmers’ Union, B-C, Boise River... 2] 3.30 95.3 000 fo boiiiinciiigie Farmers’: Union, C-D, Boise River..| 1] 4.40 ag Wg age ee beer em Pal Dee Seales cae Settlers, AB, Boise River.......... 14H eee (ee le Settlers, B-C, Boise River........-.. 1} 1.73 168.4 32st |store 3| eo asaone cel 2 ee eee | eee Settlers, C-D, Boise River.......... 1 95 1S cA al PPE (Pt See a Der ene ne meert nH tear |e Alesse Settlers, B-D, Boise River.......-... 1} 2.68 1s Hl Ls ae cet He ee Peso eseneete Len al bears Caldwell high line, A-B, Boise T1650) eee oct S| 2265. | 5 ee Peele ened scene River. ; \ 2) 2.25 { G66 (ticles [oc acah eet bees ee | Caldwell high line, B-C, Boise 113.4 | scale had Sachs ease | soso seen | eee River. i. eee Aa ae TN bene nor "lich emi tees) | CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. measurements—Continued. Loss per mile. Maxi-| Mini- mum.);mum. Per cent. Per cent. Mean. -30 1.00 9. 30 4.10 7.30 2.10 2.70 Loss per square foot of wetted area in 24 hours. -48 45 ~ 442 - 576 - 82 Character of material in the channel. Medium clay loam, underlain with limestone shale at 14 feet. Rock and clay loam.. Clay loam underlain by hardpan; rock exposed in places. Lava rock covered with clay loam 1 to 3 feet deep. Impervious clay loam. Beiios C6 U0 psi a em be es Varies between im- pervious clay loam and sandy loam, all underlain with hardpan. Clay loam mixed with gravel. Clay loam Clay, silt, and gran- ite wash. Vea sand wash, and lake deposit. Granite, sand wash, lake deposit, and volcanic ash. Wasa and gravel, partly cemented. Cemented gravel and sand. Sand and gravel more or less ce- mented. Voleanic ash, clay and cemented gravel. Source of informa- tion. Report D. H. Bark, 9th Biennial Re- port State Eng. Idaho, 1911-12. Report F. W. Han- na, in report of Boise Conference of Operating En- gineers, U.S.R.S., Boise, Idaho, Nov., 1911. Bo dorset se 21 Remarks. Measured June 15, 1912. Uniform grade and clean cross section; canal carry- ing only part of capacity; water flowing on limestone shale; used 2 years. Measured June 16, 1912. Coulee or natural water course; well silted greater part of section. Measured June 16, 1912, below check basin. Clean uniform cross section and grade; used 2 years. Measured June 14, 1912. Small lake about 62 acres; rather regular in outline; 1,200 feet of rock cut at outlet; used 2 years. Measured May 27, 1912. About 10 wooden drops in this ditch; regular cross section; irregular grade; used 2 years. Measured May 27, 1912. Ditch carrying only one- fifth capacity; uniform cross section; no weeds in channel; used 2 years. Measured May 26, 1912. Irregular cross section; car- Trying only small part of capacity; numerous drops; varying grades; used 2 years. Measured May 23, 1912. Clean, uniform cross sec- tion; mostly side-hill sec- tion; well silted; used 3 years. Measured May 23, 1912. Clean, uniform cross sec- tion; well silted bottom and banks; used 3 years. Bottom. Do. Side hill. Bench and bottom fill. Side hill. Do. Bench. Side hill and bench. Side hill. 22 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE I.—WSeepage g . Dimensions of : Section measured. Evia Z url g be : z . & (E>) a-| 3 = fast ae) Canal and stream or locality. A ie ps: cos (ecole ls z % ls . a 3 | FS a q 3 vid SS betaltes e mn by , ad ® q og bs iS) L alee U/)/e2|S8) 2 | # = g Sp > qa /3 wa, | 8 5 Zz S| & £ Soe. 18 | a hee 5 Zl wa fe Se > 1 2 a Feet = ; per | Sec.-| Sec.- | Per Idaho—Continued. Miles. | Sec.-ft. | Ft. Feet. Feet.| sec. | feet. | feet. | cent. Middleton Water Co., A-B, Boise || 3 4 (ate el eae oes aes eee ae iver | : MEAP ert faeiee ool ee eeer| Peewedppkeediecccnn|occast ‘ \| 1.95 DF histatins geal Seaxatenege'| evepahecees| oa save sere' lio ceteveve layne | Spree Middleton Water Co. and Middle- 1) 14.91 LOTEGs 3) seize Gases Sagee| |S osesce leet cee = | eee ton Mill Co., Boise River. 1D) One cee ee sae e emer 1) 16.15 OG SOF a ee 2 a Sr sree [ors exe lees cere eee eee | ee North Mora, A-B, Boise River..... 1; 2.08 Q LST Eason se <6 Semis | as See) etl Renee aa eee North Mora, C-D, Boise River......| 4] 2.'04 448 Nos ool eecel sees] eeecee tae eae | Rawson, A-B, Boise River. ....-.--- 1} 4.56 SBE actoee ale ae sell ohne) Soe sel Seater reyes eee Kuna, A-B, Boise River ..........- 1) 1.56 203\L > |e ace |seceakleemsee ee Mere meer sacar Teed, A-B, Boise River.........--. 1} 2.00 MD 2) oe cco: thee] croietsi| 8 Gesteistelle s.c.cssl| Peeeeeerll eee Eight-Mile, A-B, Boise River....... 1} 5.69 YAO [ene ek be eye I ecevopsde| Stone. cxei| oc reel Eee Kennedy, A-B, Boise River. ....... 1} 5.81 20 SA eee eee locace al Secteall eam eeellee orb Eureka, A-B, Boise River......--... 1; 2.26 DELO Ne wate lees acc oracle eee eaaee | Seeeree | Goes D Onstage Sante tee aero oak 1 2. 20 1558: Ne 8.2 aateconl dees ee aesll . ae ece | eens | Sem Eureka (rating flume to C), Boise 1} 3.96 DMS. Oe eats ciceeia| ween elle ete || See eee || eee eee River. | WO pass ocuaeetateaeneeeeaeaeee Lee oe ONOGH Peo eemers | aye cl sc eer|| Sees | Sees epee Ballantine, C-D, Snake River...... 1 85 UA Wes os Bae cle aie cll nee os | ae sel eee eee SOA rahe tee Seal oo eal ace yeceve ll sy ee eel eet ee | eee Boise Valley, A-B, Snake River....| 3) 1.80 TSG: jeses: VeiSiechina| Sratse.c 6 soe a7) ro Dy Ee ays = g | 2 sje (38 | s 4 ey Sse 14 > Feet | per Miles. | Sec.-ft Ft. | Feet. | Feet.| sec. 0.549 CO |esece 1 2) a 8 0/5) ee | a fil 71. 44 |..... 14, 65) 19.18)... .-. 515 TAOS FAW ee 14. 05} 18.10)....-- . 306 72,32 Da ol 5 Olea . 843 58:69) jin... 12. 30} 16. 80]... .. 1. 449 64. 41-|. 2... 13;:20)) 18540). 2222 91.59 0, 244— SOUGG+ |e ce [es sel ek cane 947 52. 78 1.36 37. 43-]....- 14°20) U7 10)2 2222. 58. 57 1.32 ASTOs | ares |e ees oe asl ee meee 2.5 ADAG oscePel ae well. S: 2g does 1.6 V1 ¢o Res ge eos | eae Ween [Ree 75 7710 OR [Seeger Ee be 3. 25 Dee, lie eres pe es Se ec hee BaOso | seme eee eee eee A5SUG Tal. 228 52ers Fd en alee 5.5 ADSED: jee see) See e | eee BOO ee ade tes aS ae ate oe QOS QVM on sae a pserie ns | estapete ia | tativere 3.5 ASS oad [eames Sik ie acta [as el LN res 4.0 TSO cee ase lee acys| erence 2.5 W204. ernest Bol slecsalieescat G95 110.0 14. 03 x S x 6.29) 1.84 17.3 2.14 4, 47 1.34 1.65) 4. 06 CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. neasurements—Continued. 31 Loss per mile. Loss per square foot of | | Character of material | Source of informa- Re k wetted’ in the channel. tion. HBAS. Maxi-} Mini- area in, mum./mum. Mean. 24 hours. Per | Per | Per cent. | cent. | cent. | Cu. feet. Bee a 2.67|..-..-.-..|---------+------------] Report George L.| Measured 1899. Averages Swendsen, O. E. only. S. Bul. 104, Sep. No. 3, 1900. eae ell oe a ANAS Neuere sna tate went crete tis (LAMAN G] Qillganr be tara) Al Do. sil, || Maes MOO Reese ia ee ame cme te aun eee See oar maa a Do. eA aaa ly USO ee eee hats (ee ee sieges ns cea e cals | Sal OM eee meal caren Do. 2a eran GTN saa ALO Oe ea ca ee mene eR ESC Kn ny A Lee Do. Ss SOei ana 6277 eg ae SNE ree Sees ees oe 2 (2 Need enue (nee all Measured sai 1900s1. Atverage measurements for identical sections. eas | Nae SH Sb ee tee dena lbeee tee tees! se eeeee| este do jeeecene aes Measured’ ($9920 Ioss im! por cent average for six meas- urements. ALOE eenaas We22 et te aiec eee a eae Fis nee eee oN: |p tee) On wer ceee es een Measured) (19008. Average measurements for identical sections. Measurement July 12 omitted. Steep mountain side. BROT dae 33. 60)..-.......|.-------+-------------| Report Samuel For- | Measured Aug. 31,1893. Up- tier, Utah Expt. per end of section at head- Sta. Bul. 26, 1893. gate. Allin canyon. Jposad cane 6.10}..........| Coarse...............] Report Irrigation In-| Measured Aug. 11, 1900, vestigations — for along steep hillside from 1900, O. E.S. Bul. headgate to power plant. 104. i Sone ad acl 3.30)..........| Mostly rock cut, | Report A. P. Sto- | Measured June 25, 1901, from some disintegrated | ver, O.E.S. Bul. | headgate to flume No. 1. limestone. 119, 1901. ; Bee ees pea A 2. 60}.........-| Porousside hillalong|.._..do..............| Measured June 25, 1901, from river bottom. flume No. 1 to flume No. 3. Seiad mae .34|..........| Heavy compact soap-|.....do..............| Measured June 25, 1901, from stone formation. flume No. 3 to Corrinne division gates. Along side hill bluffs. Report J. C. Wheel- 1.83 ee measurements for |} on, of Utah Sugar Sa ar Glee font GS F Rane pied istics ela aia | Ua LOO) Co., office manu- sion gates script. % Measured June 28, 1902, from 2 es ts eee DO Bera py eli | oe CLO) Sept tae a Cg il headgate to Corrinne divi- | sion gates. Measured July 28, 1902, from PP Ss |B si 3503 Beene ee eee | aoee Orn ane as ayn) | UT Ou san urn tL ae headeatesto: Corinne) Givi= sion gates. Measured Aug. 26, 1902, from Swe Ree QE 84 Ges alae aaCOsee wee ae ed one as vag esas headgate tox Cornnorcdiv-= sion gates. ; Measured Sept. 22, 1902, from See ol RS 2003 | Baas anes Sec O eee neal ie ous wars headgate: to Corrinne divi- sion gates. ¢ Bpbes eat as ates 3 1,39).......--.|--.--.-+-+-------------| Revort A. P. Stover, | Measured June 25, 1901, from O. E.S. Bul. 119, Corrinne division gates to 1901. Malade flume. Entirely in excavation. Ob AE OA Seereis reisisia ace aetare cia See emeee sea Oo aeeisace een | Measured une 251901 from: Malade flume to bridge No. 13. Entirely in excavation, uniform conditions. Se aie See OG Beate ase tyeset eee semen | ot end Oe ates) v4 254 Measured) Junet25. 1901. from bridge No. 13 to bridge No. 18. Entirely in excavation; uniform conditions. Be eheltateisiaverd 303 |Eemieeieeme|elseeniceeicione ste Seen | beets Omeice bcs ace=e|| Measured wurie 26.51 901s from bridge No. 18 to Rowe- ville. 32 BULLETIN 126, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE I.—Seepage Canal and stream or locality. Number of measurements. Section measured. Dimensions of a bo | o 4 Utah—Continued. Miles. Bear River, west line, Bear River...| 6) 16.5 Bear River, Corrinne line, Bear 1] 8&5 River. DO nde eaten ere ancssesiokas piers DOs soe once ee ceecesesse seks 1 3.75 Anderson & Spilsbury, near 1 75 Toquerville. Peter Anderson, near Bellevue... .-. A) aie 0 Bellevue Town, Bellevue........--- i Pehalets Cottonwood, St. George...........- 1} 14.0 Brigham Dalton, Rockville. ........ 1 5 Davisand Pace, near New Harmony 1 -12 Dry field, near New Harmony....-.. I als) Flanigan, near Springdale.-..-...... 1 rf Hurricane, near Hurricane......-.. 1} 4,12 William Jackson, near Toquerville..| 1 75 La Verkin, near Toquerville..._.._. 2 75 La Verkin field, near Toquerville...| 1 i) Leeds, near Leeds:....-..0.++.-.0s-0- te Daniel Mathews, near Mount Dell... 1 25 Mill Race, Virgin............ sieeve 1 - 095 Mount Carmel City, near Mount 1 -75 Carmel. canal. . 8 d i] = ro ms ~ = = S Je eel B ts! B . o H Ss qd n : a g|FS = qd rd S |e Q}we a wy art ae = (ice = bce = al Rete Ge 2 = mG Sian] 3 “A & q/37|ma] 8 Fs 3 ee ee $ Fy a am ae) a Feet per | Sec.-| Sec.- | Per Sec.-ft. | Ft. | Feet.| Feet.| sec. | feet. | feet. | cent. OIf2 2 dal Aeros |e aemreel (nena em rem peeee| oe yes 2) 20.2 | 10.10 DA RAL eae | eyes [ce eed | eee ee ee 20.0} 8.15 DUSS ON) eens sens eee sek ee eee 19.6 | 9.00 ESHA Dr facies |e ase | Seeeec| se ceee eee 12.6] 6.80) VOL Alesse l|etcc.s| arctan eral erecee a (eae ress 19.3 | 12.70 SH IAC ofa Peery pera Sd Perenrerd| POR ean | [es 6.7 | 8.20) TLS iO0l eae lees selowecec|as sacs 31.9 7.37| 6.20 TAL BY tel ses ES ORee! mee | eee 28.3 4.53) 5. 68 DosDubis sacle sees someon [sees er 12.13] 2.69) 4.85 We G|deeee |S oe ne | cee oee eee es acer . 41} 23. 30 pa? amen gel (Peas) EE ga | he - 35} 12.00 808 |v e | eee ic eerie | eee | erererere .58| 6.50) (A0B | Soe glee [oe os | eee eee 3.17] 45.10 sielLehe iostoen |Sacoealeeneae Steen . 04} 5.60 DADO yee el lee oe | ae a ee | ee .18} 7.90 DBO ames (oes 5m |e mcae lla sere atecereree . 28} 12.10 V4 Es ssl ce eee oar eee lice: coal seetet . 86} 5.90 (Ss: | eee PERN a ERIE Ieee Se bee ee 2. 25) 10. 30 ELD cella, cya cen a | elena = 02) 170) LOS55 ese oe ickc oie |bic cee soe omrd asersine . 45} 3.30 | PRE (pire eae (Bea el PRE a [Resa 01; +.10 Aol ste-cale tees ol Seeeee lesen | sees . 56} 16. 20 QRG0 |e ta a |= eee | ee ee . 65) 6. 80 Dey Lec etal seeaestctellis: serena | severe eral eterreters -17) 11.20 BA CAL poserote | ieeteteta | Scasencayc are eee na eee . 08} 10. 80 ASAD |S cacial ance sl see coal sacece eeeee 4 -02} = .56 CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION measurements—Continued. CANALS. 393 Loss per mile. Loss per square foot of | Character of material wetted . in the channel. Maxi-|Mini- Area in mum.|mum. Mean. 24 hours. Per | Per | Per cent. | cent. | cent. | Cu. feet au Ly er ae CO ESL I PD ai eis A Brajaoaies alley 8 2P4O | Pieter eI ECT Rp Ur ee 9) Mae tae | a Se a) hee a Sa Lp Ea a Re Se ee es Bee Sees TAM ope ees photo par | lave spec eyajerer ele lores eisai ne: 6 se ds] Nees TTS SD. eepre NaS eae ns ern ec coe a es a Soe onl Soar fy (D apeeak es ces are |= el wove chapeau re Dire ee | Sepeealaoeaee ZY eS IIS vad a ee Stereos oe ebay fae ye Na A US (Oa Sa os ar a a arse ee ere ed Seed ho se | a 1.20)... 2) eee rere eee eee eM ee valES NE 2 2 31. 00|..........| 2sandy loam; river worn gravel and bowlders 2 inches to 2 feet in diame- ter. a | a 1.70)..........] 5 miles solid rock in ravine; 2 miles black loam. Senos CaRaee 4. 30)..........| 4 bowlders; 2 volcanic soil. Sessalseueee 3. 20)..........| 4 solid sandstone ra- vines; 4 sand and 4 black loam. Sandy loam......... Fine gravel and clay - Sand and clay......- Black loam and gravel. Bess ees 2.50|..........| Volcanic ledge; gyp- sum in places. Ui chases 2120 Pens LOAN Cyn lOBIMys sae ies, 4. 40 Volcanic ledge; gyp- CIEE | RRR ile aal te SumMiDplaces: ae ape pee 2 a Tees Sa Na aa Saco Co age cy ag Bae fel | 3 2RA0 Eee enue | San Cyl ales see WE FY J......| 6.80]..........] Bedded sandstone with strata dipping toward the moun- tain. SAscise |------| 45.00)..........| Sandy loam and gravel. shenee lostoud lorsoas|-posedoded pn ecumlihy loehte eo oaoes oeieled |....--| -60)..........| Channel coated with clay deposit from ! floods. 48307 7°—Bull. 126—14——_3 Source of informa- tion. Remarks. Report J.C. Wheel- on, of Utah Sugar Co., office manu- script. Report A. P. Stover, O. E.S. Bul. 119, 1901. Records of office State engineer of Utah. Measured May 28, 1902, from Corrinne division gates to Roweville. Measured June 28, 1902, from Corrinne division gates to Roweville. Measured July 28, 1902, from Corrinne division gates to Roweville. Measured Aug. 26, 1902, from Corrinne division gates to Roweville. Measured Sept. 22, 1902, from Corrinne division gates to Roweville. Measured Oct. 24, 1902, from Corrinne division gates to Roweville. Measured June 26, 1901, from Corrinne division gates to bridge No. 14. Measured June 26, 1901, from bridge No. 14 to Red Flume. Measured June 27, 1901, from Red Flume to bridge No. 25. Approximate grade 5 feet per mile. 700 feet fail. 40 feet fall. 700 feet fall. 4 feet fall. 14 feet fall. 7 feet fall. 5 feet fall. 20 feet fall. 5 feet fall. 5 feet fall. Measured May 10, 1910. 5 feet fall. Measured May 26, 1910. Coated with clay -!) since previous measure- ment. 5 feet fall. 50 feet fall. 2 feet fall. 1 foot fall. 6 feet fall. o4 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE |.—WSeepage 2 2 Dimensions of FI Section measured. arait : Seats w by Z ne) a= 3 Bi edif Spell mle 5 : ® a =. a 2) ® Canal and stream or locality. o 3 2B | Oe S q a f=) a oO = o = ¢ s| se (21 8 | oe | ele a 2 3 AS | ebiniel | etinh le aa ra = H} Pe jgls |PF) 3/2 e 3 =| a} o = = Ses Cae B ee Une ee wee & Feet Utah—Continued. per | Sec. | VSecs. | eer Miles.| Sec.-ft. | Ft. | Feet.| Feet.| sec. | feet. \ feet. | cent. North Ash Creek, near Bellevue.... 1) 0.50 } pyc (3 |e pee ee Were ne Pe en 0.17} 10.20 Orderville Town, near Orderville. . . 1 nea) Py Ly pee (ere | es A PR a isa LOL 222} Pace & Prince, near New Harmony. 1 . 123 PASH | Soe | pce S| rees| oe ee ee 23) 12. 40 Henry A. Pace No. 1, near New Har- 1 Spall BSc eid conse ele eee . O08) 13. 80 mony. ; Rockville South Field, near Rockville) 1 alg OAC | oases eam | en eagye etme. eee -11] 3.00) Joseph Sanders, near Mount Dell...) 1 420 i140) | Pepe (aaatel A [epee veel rae 05] 5. 00) Santa Clara South Field, near Santa 1 - 40 4257 | oes ale eee Santen eocelloeeeee 73| 16.00 Clara. Santa Clara Town, near Santa Clara. 1 25 De Gi esate pee eee ayes see . 03} 1.20) | Gottlieb Schmutz No. 1, near New| 1 25 | Rae Beene [Seared Bee = eae 01) 2.40 Harmony. | Shones Creek, near Shonesburg..... 1 5 tei ERPs cet acre! aoe cae ete e Seen . 43) 38.70 Spring Ditch, near Toquerville..... 1 B25 Des) Cie eee | a eecee ene oe | Bae -71| 28. 20| St. George and Washington Field, 1) 4.25 1551 TRL} <} eae el Re LOR RAR LO et one nal carte aS 1.58] 3.00 near Washington. West Field, Toquerville....-....... il Py vf Pits) | Peeper ged Relea ee enectea bene Ee . 06) 1.60 Huntington, Huntington..........2 1 13:26 De stecioe| Sate |temieer |Saeae aaa 1.39} 7.80 Washington. Prosser Falls Irrigation Co., Lateral, 1 BS yit) JDO ee. «| Semen | ees seers poe or .32) 64.00 Yakima Iiver. | Ke ce ene oe ets | 32.0 | 26.00 Kennewick, Yakima River......... 4, 9.0 161.0 |.....|..----]------|------ [Gees 30.0 | 18.60 T4850 bes tale eealnee ton eee (poten 24.0 | 16.20 | TB AG ti ghee See |e | eens oe 9.8 | 12.50 eee ee ae eee 2) 2.6 | 10} Yee eee see ee 5.0 | 3.80 1247 ONPSRGe|k eer ul eee (aaa aaa ae 4.0 | 3.20 TGR aA eto da Mens Std a 8.6 | GSSSi serie Ree eee eee | yaaa 10.9 | 15.80! | PSR sta re aint eater, ape Woes 23.0 | 25.30 ADD) (Se Pathe Ae yee cetera ee aes 1 6.0 120.0 | bs excl exces oer=| core eee [eee |------ 13.0 | 10.80 Selah-Moxee, Yakima River........ 2) 1.42 | BOD Per ealene asl c* 2 97 lca ene tS es 49.8 |..... eure Prepon reer, Cerere 1:2}.)2.40 WO eeacsats eee oberis ss eee 1} 2.6 AQ28) eee slo es Ie Ss eee eee 2.1] 4.20 BY A scatnun hts niiene ee ena ses waa 1] 1.87 Rel Rem (een Rees Ri peel 2|. ..70) Sunnyside main line, Yakima River 30.0 636.0% |- oye) e ee jer ae | Sree | 258.0] 38.0 ' 6.00) | DD) Ose ae ee kee Pe 18.0 SKU 0s acne seed (erence | eae | 171.0} 40.0 | 11.80 | 1 Gain, CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS, measurements—Continued., 35 l.oss per mile. Loss per square foot of. | Character of material wetted in the channel. Maxi-| Mini- area in mum.{mum.|!242-| 94 hours. TPO IGP AW etap cent. | cent. | cent. | Cu. fect. Be oe| Beene 20500/825 2282s Sandy loamess ce Pi A ee 1,90|..........; Channel coated with thick layer of clay. SO ea Seis EIS Seel Intepe meses ees Gravel and black loam. cH ae eae a GGK00 | Reeh eeeae eee Ores teuan sae Ss Sa Sk ade US O|Se Seaton sscoandy loam) SoBe oa neeeas NOE RO accep ersen S| oye SOU Alisa teens roa A peed Me ne ADS OO re eiinae solek Po GOme eis iiles es PRE ee AGO Reese so eis LOnae me nice oer Bena eeia 9. 80}-.........| Gravel and black loam. Mess Pe ey yu 77.40)...-......| Sand and gravel..... Ab clade SSCS Sees [esate ecm #sandy loam; + river worn gravel and bowlders, 2 inches to 2 feet in diameter ett Ni ces WO seems s Sandy loamee ale Nus Sie as eet | EN 9..20).-......-.| River rocks and sandy loam. ert | See ae 6.30)..........| Clay and blue slate rock points. 2oSbeu OSbes6|GaBee Memes Mostly coarse gravel covered with soil 4 to 9 inches deep. Le eae ZO () erecta ental oe meet tite ela aides use al ine poprieeneni (trys Ne Peel) Nes ea | [areca Rie Teg nee Yee CBU) a AS Ls fehO) HS Re L a DS Rela ik at eStore a ar ES aU acaalladouse ELISA (| Eee eye | ete Nex ghar ice ib IRON ete Wares 0 TSO ae AL ea NM Le Nt 2s Ae ge an Is LR seer seaee cee ian ah a me a IE sca uae ensee PERSO) epeasetindeec in| ee rietogy elles iran MIME Mason ly | pointe (ER Gta oi PPO EXC) Kee pera a la ea taal Raise neeUN aE 2h ON Sif RSI ag ALF () epee Seen ae RSet ee Na KL ps sbonntarae a PsA () titer ara pealhe ee | Ce per ueyal i uae alec nw. i)? Ryerss [ieee NY E170) peated SOU Ue oe aE aL MMe DA Ec Lath ae Bae Reveal 1.60)..........| Mostly seamy ba- saltie rock. 3 Une | Beis iO) | eset ee eral hice ries as a lo Mee eee at foe ae A OS 20 Bae: Bo) Ps acy Cm EE | Wiper | HD - 65 1 4 |Search chy aba Source of informa- tion. Records of office State engineer of of Utah. Report O. L. Waller, O. E. S. Bul. 104, 1900. Report S. O. Jayne, O.E.S. Bul. 188. Report J. C. Stevens, Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. 71, p. 339, 1909. do Remarks, 5 feet fall. 2 feet fall, ground saturated from recent rains. 1 foot fall. 2 fect fall. 2 feet fall. 3 feet fall. 4 feet fall. 2 feet fall, flowing a much larger stream a few hours before. 2 feet fall. 7 feet fall. 2 feet fall. 21 feet fall. 3 feet fall. 7 feet fall. Measured Oct. 31, 1900. Measured Sept. 9, 1904, De Moss’s bridge to flume No.1 Measured May 11, 1906, De { Moss’s bridge to flume No.1 Measured Sept. 27, 1906, De { Moss’s bridge to flume No.1 Measured Oct. 16, 1906, De { Moss’s bridge to flume No. 1 Measured Sept. 27, 1906, { fume No. 1 to flume No.2. 0. { Measured Sept. 9, 1904, flume No. 1 to flume No. 3. Measured May 11, 1906, flume { No. 1 to flume No. 3. Measured Oct. 16, 1906, flume No. 2 to flume No. 3. {Measured July 3, 1906, flume \. to Butterfield’s bridge. Measured Aug. 21, 1906, flume { to Butterfield’s bridge. Measured Aug. 21, 1906, flame to northeast corner section 21. ; Measured July 6, 1906, ceme- tery to Rankin hopyard. Mean of continuous measure- ment, Apr. 16 to Sept. 15- 1909. From intake to 3C- mile station. Mean of continuous measure- ment, Apr. 16 to Sept. 15, 1909. From 30-mile station to 48-mile station, 36 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE I.—WSeepage g 7 Dimensions of | i = Section measured. canal: E By ig 5 5 Ss |%3 ais ee 8 Ey se |8.| g | & 3 Canal and stream or locality. gi = a ee £ x 8 s a 3 | feus! = ‘a 3 on 3 a a = e | og *) 8 Se eles es C8 g top| iete | is sa|/38/ 2 Z = Sige ee yea = so] 5 Co) = Sis i) ® “o ° 4 = ia = |e 4 > a a | i | Feet Washington—Continued. | per | Sec See; | Ber | Miles. | Sec.-ft. | Ft. | Feet.| Feet.| sec. | feet..| feet. | cent. | Sunnyside main line, Yakima ....| 12.0 | 1295 0)5 223= jeer oe | eeu lelcase 99.0 | 21.0 | 16.30) River. | | | | Sunnyside, Snipes Mountain Lat- .... 9.0 | 89/0). 22... toes | Oe Soak eee 57.0 | 12.0 | 13.50 eral, Yakima River. | Wyoming. | | | pot! Fey A hapees ate eee eee ae Besse 00.0 4.35 4.85 Wheatland No. 2, Laramie River.... 2) 1.50 | BO Diet on yeeeen| eee eee 0.0 1.46 4.00 | | Ca] Neel Meee Eres eee 0.0| 4.23) 4.96 DOM aan eee este neer |} 2 2.50 H aes: y's | Rees Oe | 0.0| 1.05 2.99 | BT ede alte eerated [ta att cee 0.0| 3.06, 3.77 DORE teacen ae one amen es 2 2.40 | SAU (leeeee | ane soe eee aeons 10.95) 1.27) 1.79 {ATAU ecules parser ..---| 25.79] 2.78] ° 3.56 1) Oe eee Some ae 2) 4.40 | | | re | Spel eee eee eee 12.05} 12.03} 1.87 AQUAI Saal! Sees |e ye sol gee | 0.0] 20) = .40 IE) OSes See sen oeereae eaaee ee | 2 1.70 | | UA ecsce| Scant legesddlseoben 0.0, 1.07) 8.04 | | gL eee ees ee ee ee 20.88 48 97 Bae cea eeen acco eee ea } 2} 2.17) | | | 07674 Bree eel (cde seer aeel Pea eer) 5. 64) 19} 1.56 BOs pees te Sere eee 1] 2.38 ya) Rees eee Metres ener } 12.31; ..15] .54 CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. measurements—Continued. ~~! Loss per mile. Loss per square foot of -| Character of material wetted in the channel. Maxi-| Mini- area in mum./mum. Mean. 24 hours. SGP AN JEG WW Tae cent. | cent. | cent. | Cu. feet. (So oe 1. 36) YU (654 I ee ea ee ae Saaeeclaeaene 1. 50 De 28 e eieie mine ieiaheyelenniete=iaisi= == See she eee OP OO | ites erate | Prete eM aes Blok as ped Ya Be etl pa eee POS A esa em oko WA ange Nar en rE a SESE Sees PAROS | Rysh es 2 SAE DAES Ee ee eevee nee Rd pe eee reese 5150010) ie eee nl Cr he ies oe eet al ee STIR ae Bee crest Mattes toe ce eee a eee re 1 (|e ede eee cae rae lee Beier te Buti ea cu el Teall cag) sangsel bsenas LEO ess laa tere nee anime erat ciate Seah eee EDA erent sae lINSS ayyare, teat wom ar eet = SSEsst bs seer | Air Se ec ieiara | Byer el aoe ap eras eae aS Sols ia BURR, WPepedaton si DNity En SE eke ie ei 2 Sea Pea iD poate IES | Pe Mga MNeceaiae Mel SSee EE Sooo ae LO e ea aie oe ei tal| cisiais Sravele rere cieaaeelnctats Source of informa- iors Remarks. Mean of continuous measure- ment, Apr. 16 to Sept. 15, 1909. From 48-mile station Report J.C. Stevens, Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. 71, p. 339, 1909. to 60-mile station. mee 0.....----------| Mean of continuous measure- ment, Apr. 16 to Sept. 15, 1909. Measured July 9-11, 1900, from station 1 (headgate) | Report Clarence T. Johnston, O. E.S. Bul. 104, 1900. to station 2. Measured Aug. 20-22, 1900, epee do........-...-..|, from station 1 (headgate) \{ to station 2. do |fMeasured July 9-11,1900, REE rate aha pea ea al from station 2 to station 3. HO jMeasured Aug. 20-22, 1900, Hee UE TT a MR TS '\. from station 2 to station 3. d {Measured July 9-11, 1900, DoHES Wbecseer ey from station 3 to station 4. Gt) |{Measured Aug. 20-22, 1900, Pana ern ale aie nem ee ‘\. from station 3 to station 4. ao Here July 9-11, 1900, Sonetie apes erae socio Sater Te from station 4 to station 5. Ate | erase Aug. 20-22, 1900, POET ei Tone ea Payte Pe '\. from station 4 to station 5. ao eine July 9-11, 1900, Shc RS eee ar from station 5 to station 6. ale {Measured Aug. 20-22, 1900, Be maar oats Was ea \. from station 5 to station 6. do Nae ters July 9-11, 1900, sey ered ages oN aNONIa ee ‘\\. from station 6 to station 7. an ace Aug. 20-22, 1900, vi esaroetiar? Sue hes eee ag man oe from station 6 to station 7. are do............--.| Measured July 9-11, 1900, from station 7 to station 8. 38 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FACTORS AFFECTING SEEPAGE. It is not within the scope of this publication to include a detailed discussion of the various factors influencing seepage, but in order to form a reliable estimate of the loss by seepage from a proposed canal, the principal factors should be carefully considered. Briefly these are: (1) Size and shape of grains and general character of materials. (2) The gradual deposition of silt. (3) Depth of water over the wetted perimeter. (4) The relation which the wetted perimeter of the canal bears to other hydraulic elements. (5) Velocity of water in canal. (6) Inflow of seepage water. (7) Temperature of the soil and the water. A study of the results of the measurements secured brings out the close relation existing between the unit loss as expressed in percent- age of flow and the size of the canal. Three hundred and twenty- three separate and distinct sets of measurements are grouped in Table II according to the capacity of the channels. It is interesting to note in this table the fairly constant decrease in the average loss in per cent per mile as the capacity increases. TaBLE II.—Summary of seepage measurements expressed in terms of per cent of total flow lost per mile of channel for various sized canals. Capacity of canal (second- | Number pats = Capacity of canal (second- Number ae eke feet). of tests. rae feet). of tests. pert ae Per cent. Per cent. Ges than de cce See mewiow scietses 16 250) |e OU UO FOr ocarex o’eictajarn on o5 > oO 2 as = Tangent. Sharp caves edlacent each end and a E By a tae : cee Ce ewe and istonelhy rough vey al rock ee ee foe o ah curve. ook gage.| concrete. cu eginning : 2.94} 92.5] .0177 Bag! V eemant eocon tect lt a blons: below this sec- tion. 3.12; 103 | .0166 Mean of 3 measure- ments.! 3.09} 103 | .0165 Expansion joints 12 |; Mean of 5 measure- feet apart usually ments.2 2.97, 97 | .0176 some 8, 10, and 16 || Mean of 6 measure- ; feet, made by in- ments.2 2.84| 94 | .0182 serting temporary || Mean of 3 measure- wooden strips. ments. 2.76) 97 | .0171 Through neglect |; Mean of 3 measure- of management the|}| ments.? 3.06 99 | .0168 Teno wooden strips were|} Mean of 5 measure- : radon not removed and ments.? Unpublished _ ree- 2.86) 105 | .0151 Paes al asphalt inserted, || Mean of 4 measure-}| ords of Office Ir- EGROT but projected in ments; depth rigation Investi- - ‘(Current iheea Hae |} some cases from 14 0.83 to 2.18.2 gations. Meas- 3.16] 112 | .0142)| meter. fae ae to 2 inches above |) Mean of 5 measure- urements by E. aa OG surface and im- ments; depth 0.8 R. Barrett under a ee ot peded flow. These to 2.27.2 direction of W. 2.55} 99 | .0156 sine were more frequent}| Mean of 5 measure- W. McLaughlin. aE in the upper por- ments; depth tion. There was 0.67 to 2.33.2 3.89} 110 | .0144 also some gravel || Mean of 8 measure- on the bottom in ments; depth the upper portion. 0.85 to 2.45 2 2.62) 104 | .0141 Concrete placed || Mean of 7 measure- \ithout forms, fin- || ments; depth 0.6 ish of average to 1.87.2 3.25) 113 | .0138 smoothness. Mean of 8 measure- 5 ments; depth 0.6 to 2.29.2 Shavigsesse - 0146) Vertical | Leveland | Medium smooth con-| Wooden strips at | B. P. Fleming, Irri- curves.) hook gage.| crete. joints projecting gation Investiga- i 14 to 14 inches. tions. 3.94] 109.7} .0154|...do..._. BEG Ove ae oat ee Gonos eee eee ee Wooden strips at | F. ©. Scobey, Irri- joints projecting gation Investiga- 14 to 14 inches. tions. 1.38) 72.6) .0171| Current |...do.......| Rough concrete, in- | Tangent with Do. meter, fluence disap- slight curve. integ. peared through de- posit of slime and moss. Tal tose || 0126) | CUM ERE NT evel ana. |(Conerete deposited {Records of U.S. 19. 3] 114.4) .0140\) IV [phook gages|) @8 FT teach On? curves. .- 2 Reclamation 19. 1| 114.1] .0140|| ™ ™ in wells, || fs; no retouch- | Service. canal. ing of surface. | 13.1} 133.1) .0109 5 ; Soe tired oii do edo cS don. Tangent.........-. | 20, 6) 150.5] ..0108 | 3.86) 111.4] .0149) Vertical | Leveland | Fairly smooth con- | Slight amount of | S. T. Harding, Ir- curves.| hook gage.| crete. moss, new flume. rigation Investi- gations. 1. 86) 80.2) .0160)...do.._-. .-do.......| Fairly smooth ce- | Some gravel on | F. C. Scobey, Irri- ment finish. bottom. | gation Investiga- tions. 3. 75! 92.0) .0155|...do..... .-do.......| Smooth cement wash] Tangent rough- | Do. concrete. ened by a dark | deposit. | 44 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLE II1.— Measurements of flow in concrete-lined canals giving hydraulic Canal and location. California—Continued. Santa Ana main canal, near Ana- heim. Modesto Irrigation District main canal, near La Grange. Arroyo Ditch & Water Co.’s main canal, near Whittier. Los Nietos Water Co.’s main canal, near W hittier. S 5 @ oS , Belo Beers 2 Shape of Aa ie (ee = g section. g : Sige es 3 g 8/2] 4 |a®| ef | g tp boty ee ee & 2 z iol A i= P= mM = 4 Feet.| Feet. |Sec.-ft. Feet. Feet. Trapezoidal . 10(s...... 27.16) 1.215) .000321} 0.328 1, 082. 8 Sees Gozzese 20)......] 114.81 1.381) .001157| 0.874 755. 6 cudlee 02-2225 3]...-.-| 18.54] 0.951) .001449) 1. 449 4,000 e2dOcece 7) gel ees 19.36} .983} .001444| 0.971 600. 5 CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. 45 elements, value of “‘C'” in Chezy’s formula and ‘‘n” in Kutter’s formula—Continued. Velocity feet per second. 1.67 3. 59 2. 83 2. 89 in Kutter’s C in Chezy for- mula formula. n Method of meas- uring discharge. Method of meas- uring slope. Condition of surface, ete. 87.1] .0176| Vertical curves. 89. 7| . 0174 70. 2 75.5) .0197 - 0188)... Bue Ose ae: Level and hook gage. Sede oe 2 oi 8 Medium smooth concrete; 0.1 to 0.2 foot of sand in bottom; rough with hard deposit about 4inch thick. Fairly smooth con- crete With uo vegetable growth. Tangent. Rough finish with combined vege- table and mineral deposit. Fairly smooth ce- ment finish rough- ened by a dark deposit. Remarks. Reference and authority. A few loose rocks in canal and right angle turn below section accounts for high 667? Mangentans sees ' Shifting sand on bottom. | F. C. Scobey, Irri- gation Investiga- tions. 46 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Perhaps the most important conclusion to be drawn from tbe 76 measurements of the 18 canals summarized in the table is that the so-called coefficient of friction m is on an average larger than has usually been assumed by engineers. The results show that only in rare cases, where conditions are more or less ideal, is one justified in assuming a value as low as 0.012 for n. The Ridenbaugh Canal of the Nampa and Meridian irrigation district of Idaho, shown in Plate XVII, figure 2 (p.80), belongs to this class. The flow in this concrete- lined canal has been measured by at least five engineers and their average result as regards the value of n is a trifle below 0.012. In the results given in the table, one also finds a value of n as high as 0.0197 and five others greater than 0.018. Again, in the concrete-lined canals of southern California a coating consisting of a vegetable and mineral accumulation was found adhering to the perimeters. The effect of this coating on the flow of water is seen in the high coefficient of friction for these channels as given in Table III. This coating may be observed in Plate I, figure 1, which shows a portion of the Santa Ana Canal near Orange, Cal. The folowing approximated values for n may serve as a guide to those who are required to estimate, prior to construction and opera- tion, the discharge of lined canals. I. n=0.012 for concrete-lined canals having a smooth sidewalk finish, clean bottom, no moss, uniform cross section, well-formed joints, long tangents, flat spiral curves, no perceptible undulations on the surface of the water, and in general the best construction and the best conditions obtainable in practice. II. n=0.013 for concrete-lined canals having conditions slightly better than those of Type HI and not so good as those of Type I. Ill. n=0.014 for concrete-lined canals having an unplastered or rough troweled surface, clean bottom, uniform cross section, well- formed joints, medium curvature, no spirals, slight surface undula- tions, no aquatic vegetation, and in general good construction and favorable conditions. IV. n=0.015 for concrete-lined canals having conditions similar to those of Type II, but with greater curvature and some débris or other retarding influences. V. n=0.016 for concrete-lined canals of average workmanship and medium conditions, having a rough surface, imperfect joints, and sharp curves; also for canals of smooth lining and good workman- ship, but having one or more unfavorable conditions, such as sand and gravel in the bottom or projecting joints which decrease the velocity of water. VI. n=0.017 for concrete-lined canals roughly coated, but other- wise in medium condition. CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. 47 VII. n=0.018 ! for concrete-lined canals coated as in Type VI and having the bottom more or less covered with sand and gravel, or else a clean bottom but poor alignment, irregular cross section, broken gradient, or the like. OTHER KINDS OF LINING. Experiments were made by this office in 1906 in cooperation with the University of California * to determine the cost and relative merits of different kinds of canal lining. A series of short experimental ditches were excavated in a field in Stanislaus County, Cal., about 4 miles east of the town of Modesto. The channels used were 50 feet long, had a bottom width of 2 feet, a depth of 2} feet, and a slope of 14 to 1 on both sides and ends. The experiments were continued under the direction of the writer the year following on the same site, and a similar set of experiments were also conducted on the university farm at Davis, Cal. The results obtained in 1907 at both sites did not agree with those pub- lished in the progress report and in consequence the final report was not published. The belief is quite general, however, that the report of the results obtained in 1906 * tended to give erroneous impressions as to the relative merits of certain kinds of linings. This is especially true of oil liming. The Lemoore Canal & Irrigation Co. of Kings County, Cal., was cited as an example where heavy crude petroleum containing a high percentage of asphaltum had been successfully used in lining 14 miles of their main canal. It would appear that this experiment did not prove altogether satisfactory since the com- pany which tried it has discontinued the use of this kind of lining. Other investigations have shown that oil lining is not effective for a long period of time. Even in California where a heavy oil containing a large percentage of asphaltum can be purchased for about 2 cents per gallon, practically no canals have been lined, to the writer’s knowledge, with this material in the past five years. When lumber was cheap and cement expensive it was common practice in the West to line the weak and leaky portions of canals with lumber in the form of flumes. The short life of wood, particu- larly where it is in contact with moistened earth and exposed to the air, the high cost of maintenance, the high cost of lumber, and the somewhat lower cost of cement have all tended to lessen the use of wooden lining. Reference has already been made to the advantages of a natural lining of silt derived from the earthy impurities borne by the water in the canals. A clay puddle may likewise serve as an effective bar- 1 The value of 7 for some concrete-lined canals exceeds 0.018. In such cases, however, the increased car- rying capacity due to lining is counterbalanced or nearly so by deposits of débris in the bottom, aquatic vegetation, or other causes. 2 California Sta, Bul. 188 (1907), 48 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rier against the escape of water. If the bottom of a new canal in porous material is covered with a layer of clay, moistened, and then used as a feeding ground for domestic animals it may be rendered quite impervious. Some of the thoroughly worked clay can after- wards be removed from the bottom and placed on the slopes. When domestic animals are not available to mix the clay, it should be done by harrowing and packing. A layer of coarse gravel spread over the clay lining and tamped into it may prevent the erosion of the clay and render it more effective. THE ECONOMY OF CONCRETE LINING. In determining the economy of concrete lining for a given canal, one has to consider and compare the cost and benefits of such work. Itemized statements of the cost of concrete lining for various canals are given in another part of this report. The principal benefits to be derived from lining are briefly discussed under the following heads: (1) Seepage water and its value-—The possible saving in seepage losses by lining can be readily determined for canals already in use, and the portions in which this is important can be located by measure- ments of the discharge. In some cases the loss in short distances may be sufficient to make the lining of these desirable, although it would not be practicable to line the canal as a whole. In the case of a new canal, a reasonably close estimate of the seep- age losses which are likely to occur may be made from the data given in Table I. In nearly every irrigated district of the West water which can be saved through the prevention of seepage has a value. As the demand for water increases the value of any saving will also increase until methods of canal lining at present too expensive to be considered may become practicable. The value of the water which may be saved varies widely in the different portions of the country. On the larger systems now being constructed, water rights are being sold for from $25 to $50 per acre, and in some cases for even higher prices. Based on the final estimated cost and acreage included, the average estimated cost per acre July 1, 1910, was $48.14 for the United States Reclamation Service projects and $21.75 for the Carey Act projects. The duty of water delivered under these rights is also variable and will probably average 1 second-foot to 100 acres. Inasmuch as any saving in canal seepage can be delivered to the user with small addi- tional loss, each 0.01 second-foot saved should make it possible to serve another acre. The additional expense required for such irri- gation would be for the lateral system only, as the storage and diver- sion works would not be affected. On this basis each second-foot of water which can be saved should have a value of from $2,500 to $5,000. Allowing $750 for the additional cost of the distributing system leaves - Bul. 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. Fic. 1.—SANTA ANA CANAL NEAR ORANGE, CAL. Showing moss and mineral accumulation on wetted surface.) Fic. 2.—ByY-PASS CHUTE, ORLAND PROJECT, U. S. RECLAMATION SERVICE, ORLAND, CAL. (From a photograph furnished by A. N. Burch, project manager.) if CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. 49 $3,000 as a general average for the value of each second-foot saved by lining. (2) Increase in carrying capacity.—The volume carried by a canal in earth is as a rule much less than that carried by a concrete-lined canal of the same dimensions and grade. ‘This is due to the smoother perimeter of the latter, and its greater uniformity in cross section, alignment, and grade. The discharge of a typical canal in earth having a mean velocity of 2.5 feet per second and a coefficient of friction (n in Kutter’s formula) of 0.0225, may be increased from 25 to 80 per cent by lining with concrete. A gain of 25 per cent in the volume carried is readily obtained as the result of lining, but to secure a gain of 80 per cent involves the construction of first-class lining and conditions favorable to the maximum discharge of water in such channels. (3) Reduction of charge for operation and maintenance.—On many systems, particularly where the canal follows a side hill, much dif_i- culty is encountered from breaks on the lower bank when the canal is crowded to its full capacity or when an opening may be made by a gopher or other burrowing animal. A concrete lining should pre- vent such breaks except in cases where the water overtops the bank due to stoppage or other causes. Faulty location of the canal and weak places developing later can very often be largely corrected by a good concrete lining. Where the original grade is such that scour occurs, or where excessive curvature causes cutting of the sides, a similar remedy may be used. Maintenance charges also will be materially reduced by the lessening of weed growth and the prevention of the shifting of the channel through scouring. In some systems the fall of the country is too great to be taken up by the grade of the canal and many drops are required which may form a considerable proportion cf the cost and necessitate bigh maintenance expenses. The use of a concrete lining frequently permits a sufficiently high grade to be used so that no drops are needed, the saving in these structures paying part of the cost of the lining. (4) Insurance against damage to crops.—As the losses from the lack of water at critical times during the irrigation season are often much greater than the actual cost of repairs, a portion of the cost of any canal lining may be considered as an insurance against such accidents. An instance of this occurred on the Turlock Canal, of California, in 1910, when a break thought to have been due to a gopher hole caused 1,000 feet of the main canal on a steep side hill to be washed out. The canal was out of service for six weeks during the period when water was most needed for crops. The actual cost of repairs was $20,000, but the estimated damage to crops was $1,000,000. 48307°—Bull. 126—14——4 50 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUITABLE GRADES FOR LINED CANALS. In deciding upon suitable grades, cross sections, and alignment for lined canals, one has to take into account the two types of canals which are lined. One of these is represented by the canal in opera- tion designed for earth, the other by the new canal designed’ for concrete lining. The grade which is suitable for a canal in earth is not the most economical grade for the same canal when lined with concrete. It is not, however, feasible to make any material change in the grade of an old canal preparatory to lining it. The irregularities can and should be removed so as to secure a uniform gradient, but more than this can not be done without changing the location. The discussion of suitable grades must therefore be confined in this report to new canals intended to be lined before carrying any large percentage of their maximum capacity. Disregarding all other features and considering only the most economical method of conveying water, the steep grade with its correspondingly high mean velocity is best. The fact is now fairly well established that water can pass over a concrete surface at a high velocity without injurious effects. It is only when fast-flowing water strikes against concrete or is obstructed by it that damage is likely to result. Mr. A. P. Davis, chief engineer of the Reclamation Service, cites a case? in which a concrete chute on the south canal of the Uncompahgre project, discharging 300 cubic feet per second at a velocity of over 20 feet per second for one year, not only showed no perceptible wear, but it had acquired a growth of slimy moss over the concrete surface subject to this velocity. In the summer of 1913 Justin T. Kingdon, of this office, made an examination of a concrete chute (Pl. I, fig. 2) on the main canal of the Orland project, Orland, Cal. The canal maintains a fairly constant flow throughout the season. It was measured shortly after the observation and found to be discharging 84 second-feet of water which at the bottom of the chute had a velocity of 17 feet per second, and like the south canal of the Uncompahgre project, this concrete showed no wear on its wetted area, and the growth of slimy moss which it had acquired was especially noticeable over that portion of the surface subject to the highest velocity. It would therefore appear that the permissible velocity in lined ‘ranals depends largely on considerations other than damage to the lining. The mention of three of these causes may serve to make this statement clear. Assuming that a concrete-lined canal will successfully withstand velocities up to 20 feet per second, the fall necessary to produce such velocities must be considered, since 1 Eng. News, 67 (1912), No. 1, p. 20. CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. 51 the sacrifice of so much head might entail greater cost than the build- ing of a larger canal on a lighter grade. Again, the extra cost and inconvenience in making suitable turnouts to divert water from such a canal would serve to lessen the advan- tages gained by having a high velocity. Lastly, pulsations are a common feature in all channels in which the water flows at a high velocity. The water surface consists of irregular waves which travel at various distances apart and an extra height of lining is required to prevent the waves from over- topping It. It is believed that a mean velocity of between 8 and 10 feet per second is about as high as should be adopted in lined canals under ordinary conditions. ALIGNMENT OF LINED CANALS. Tn locating a new canal for concrete lining, sharp curves should be avoided if possible. The reduction of curvature in a location over a rough country with steep slopes may increase considerably the amount and the cost of excavation, but this additional expense may be more than compensated by the advantages gained in having flat curyes. In flowing around curves the surface of the water tends to rise on the outer side due to centrifugal force. The height to which it will rise in any given case will depend on the velocity of the water and the sharpness of the curve. In order to maintain a uniform height of lining above the water surface of the canal, the practice has been to raise the outer lining. In the case of the Tieton main canal of the United States Reclamation Service, Yakima project, Washing- ton, on the sharpest curves, having a radius of 57.6 feet and a velocity of 9 feet per second, the superelevation amounted to about 1 per cent of the width. The presence of a large number of sharp curves likewise increases the cost of both the earth trimming and the laying of the concrete. In railroad location it is customary to limit the curvature within a certain fixed maximum regardless of expense, but in the construction of irrigation canals, on account of the wide range permissible, it has not been customary to fix any such limit. The expense of excavation required to lessen curvature should be balanced against the cisad- vantages and extra cost of lining sharp curves. THE EFFECT OF ALKALI ON CONCRETE LINING Throughout the West are to be found here and there instances of concrete construction having been disintegrated through the action of alkali salts. While some uncertainties remain regarding the exact nature of such action, there seems to be no question but that the prin- 52 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cipal reason for it arises from the reaction between the various alkali salts and the calcium hydroxid of the cement. The new compounds formed have a greater volume than the replaced hydroxid and their formation weakens or destroys the concrete by forcing apart the particles of cement. In order for this action to occur it is necessary for the water containing alkali to percolate into or through the con- crete. Under field conditions ! ‘‘these reactions referred to are much Fic. 1.—Briquets showing repellent action of oil-cement concrete on alkali water. (From tests by the Office of Public Roads, United States Department of Agriculture.) Top row contained 10 per cent of semiasphaltic oil; middle row contained 5 per cent of semiasphaltic oil; bottom tow con- tained no oil. Briquets were immersed one year in a 10 per cent solution of sodium sulphate. retarded if not entirely suspended in most cases, due probably to the carbonization of the lime of the cement near the surface or the formation of an impervious skin or protective coating by saline deposits.” It is also doubtless true that ? ‘‘wetttng and drying or freezing and thawing will hasten the destruction of the cement by extending the cracks already started.” 1U.8. Dept. Com., Bur. Standards Technol. Paper 12 (1912). 2 Montana Sta. Bul. 81 (1910). CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. 53 _In experiments with oil-mixed Portland cement concrete,' the con- crete was damp-proofed by the incorporation of semiasphaltic oil. In hand mixing, the sand, cement, and water were first mixed to a mushy consistency, the oil added and mixed until no trace of it was visible on the mortar surface, and then the broken stone or gravel was mixed in. In machine mixing the sand, cement, and water were first mixed to a mortar followed by alternate batches of stone and oil which were added and mixed. The proportion of oil used was based on a comparison of its weight to the weight of the cement used in the concrete. The results of tests show that oil-mixed mortar, containing 5 to 10 per cent of oil, is dampproof as well as water- proof, and indicate that its use may prove desirable in the construc- tion of irrigation canal linings exposed to the action of alkali (fig. 1). Good practice in concrete lining construction where alkal must be reckoned with necessitates the following precautions: (1) Do not use sand, gravel, or water containing alkali. (2) Keep soil waters charged with alkali from coming into contact with the concrete by the use of suitable drainage. (3) Give careful attention to the proper proportioning of materials and use more cement than is needed to fill the voids. (4) Protect the surface by a thin plaster coat of dense mortar of eranular sand. (5) Both the concrete and the mortar used for the lining may be dampproofed by the addition of 5 to 10 per cent of semiasphaltic oil when mixing the materials. THE EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. FIELD TESTS AT LOGAN, UTAH. During the summer of 1913 field experiments were conducted by Prof. B. P. Fleming, of the State University of Iowa, working under the direction of this office, at Logan, Utah, for the purpose of deter- mining the coefficient of expansion of concrete slabs. An effort was made to secure conditions as nearly as possible like those found for canal linings. It will be noted, however, that the slabs were not tested to find the effect produced by being wet on one side. The variations in length were measured with two micrometer microscopes focused upon lines in the highly polished tops of two steel pins projecting above the surface of the slab, one at each end. This device permitted making direct readings from the micrometer scale, giving measurements to 0.0008 of a millimeter. The ther- mometers used were graduated to 0.10° C. and could be estimated easily to 0.025°. All measurements of the slab length were direct, and no part of the apparatus was in contact with the slab. The idea of maintaining the latter condition was to prevent in every possible way influences which might affect the expansion of the slab. 1U.S. Dept. Agr., Office Pub. Roads Bul. 46 (1912). 54 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Except for a roller placed under one end, each slab was lying on ground composed mostly of loose gravel. The slabs were 12 inches wide, 6 inches deep, and-11 feet long. The steel pins inserted vertically in the top were spaced 10 feet apart, thus leaving 6 inches length of slab beyond the pin at each end. A wet hand-mixed concrete mixture was used for each slab, numbered 1 and 2, and volumetrically proportioned 1:3:5 and 1:2:4, respec- tively. Each slab was of rectangular cross section throughout. The general average coefficient of expansion measured was 0.0000043 for slab 1 and 0.0000042 for slab 2. LABORATORY TESTS AT THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA. In the fall and winter of 1913-14 the experimental work initiated at Logan, Utah, was continued in the laboratory of the State Univer- sity of Lowa under the same supervision as before. The sand and gravel used were taken from the bed of Iowa River. This raw material was screened through a 1-inch mesh screen and again through a 4-inch mesh screen. The material failing to pass the latter screen was considered gravel. The sand was unscreened. but it was fine and clean. Three horizontal slabs were cast with the same dimensions as those made at Logan. The apparatus and equipment were practically the same, except that the laboratory permitted a somewhat careful control of influencing conditions not possible in the open-air work. In addition, a specially devised apparatus permitted the making of observations for change of length within 30 minutes after water had been added to the dry materials used in making the concrete. Brass pins with their upper ends highly polished were used instead of steel pins. The methods employed for temperature determination and control were quite satisfactory and it is believed gave results fully as accurate as the investigations warranted. Two slabs of seasoned concrete were used for determining the coefficient of expansion. HEHE Sie [ im F = 00! lo e 9 | | al | - ‘s ial 0G | FEE Ho +H HH 8 | | | i 1 a T x 0 jv : m| Se | | | 5 | : > RaGaeed 5 4 jo) Soo eg | 2 O 001} | z CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. i _ In summing up the results of the experiments at Logan, Utah, and those at the State University of Iowa, it may be stated that for con- crete slab construction such as canal lining, where only one side is exposed and with the other side in contact with earth, a coefficient of expansion of 0.0000045 should be used, but in the case of concrete construction where all sides are subject to equal temperatures and are not under the conditions of moisture and earth contact found in canal lining and similar construction, a coefficient of 0.0000063 can be used with safety. JOINTS IN CONCRETE LINING. Owing to the fact that concrete lining expands in warm weather and contracts in cold weather, joints would seem to be an essential feature of such construction. Where no provision is made for expan- sion and contraction by means of joints, the concrete lining is certain to be subjected to high internal stresses, which increase in intensity until the lining is ruptured. These ruptures occur at the weakest points, and following the directions of least resistance result in irregular fractures which are difficult to repair. They frequently are so small and so irregular that it is practically impossible to introduce any filler into the seams. Even when this is done the alternate open- ing and closing of the fracture, due to changes in temperature, lowers and in time destroys the effectiveness of such repairs. On the other hand, joints in concrete lining constitute a weak fea- ture. In strength, durability, and water-tightness the best formed joint is inferior to the continuous lining. For these reasons, to which may be added that of extra cost, the distance between joints should be as great as possible consistent with changes in volume due to tem- perature and the adoption of suitable forms and proper methods of construction. When forms are used their length is usually limited to the size and weight which can be readily shifted by hand without the aid of special equipment. Even when the forms are of the simplest kind the methods of construction commonly employed place other limitations on the distance between joints. Again, in lining curves the frequency of the joints depends upon the degree of curvature, the sharper the curve the shorter the distance between joints. Notwithstanding these limitations, the tendency in the past has been to insert too many joints, particularly on straight portions of canals. The subject of joints in concrete lining is also closely related to the manner in which the lining is laid, whether continuously or in alter- nate sections. Joints which are adapted to one of these methods may be a misfit when applied to the other. In using either method it is advisable to break joints between the floor and the sides, as indi- cated in figure 3, a. : 58 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. KINDS OF JOINTS. Various kinds of joints are used to prevent cracks in concrete linings: (1) One of the most common is the plain abutting joint. This joint is simple, cheap, and easily made. Expansion, likewise, is pro- vided for in the frequency of the joints. It has, however, several weak features which render its use questionable. One of these is the lack of any bond between the sections. Were it not for the con- nection with the bottom at the toe each side section might be A. halt Coating | 254 or Tar Paper On. gett ee Tete 3 Gee Sheet Me Sd Reet PM ER, Stee! Dowel-pins , Ay Pipe and Dowel-pin » Ceol Fie. 3.—Typical joints for concrete-lined canals. regarded as a separate slab, liable to be thrust upward by pressure from behind or to fall backward when the earthen support is removed. Both of these effects are quite probable, and may be seen in the lining of the New York Canal of the Payette-Boise project (fig. 4). An- other defect is the difficulty experienced in filling the seam with any material which will render the joint water-tight, it being too narrow to calk. (2) The abutting joint is frequently modified by introducing one or more ples of tar paper (fig. 3, 6). While the paper provides for CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS, 59 extra expansion and renders the joint more impervious, it adds noth- ing to the bond between the sections. Fic. 4.—A broken joint in concrete lining, New York Canal, Boise, Idaho. (3) An interlocking device (fig. 3, c), consisting of a 4-inch strip of corrugated iron, was inserted in each joint of the lining of the North Side Twin Falls Canal, Idaho. If the metal strip is thickly 60 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. coated with asphalt before being inserted it may prevent leaks. The device likewise secures a fairly good bond. (4) A pliable metal sheet protected from rust, of the form shown in figure 3, d, has also been used for such purposes. When section A is being laid the metal assumes the form of a right angle, the vertical part being placed against the form. Before section B is laid the upper portion of the vertical is bent down to a horizontal position, as shown, (5) In the Ridenbaugh Canal of the Nampa and Meridian irrigation district, Idaho, tar paper was inserted between the abutting joints, which are spaced 16 feet 3 inches apart, and a good bond between the sections was secured by short 4-inch steel rods (fig. 3, e). (6) To overcome the objection of projecting rods in laying by the method just described, the plan of bonding shown in figure 3, f, has been devised, A socket is formed in sec- tion A by means of a short 4-inch pipe, and into this is inserted one end of a steel rod five-sixteenths inch in diameter and double the length of a pipe. This con- trivance adapts the joint to the alternate method of laying, as illustrated in fig- ure 3, a. (7) The form of joint used by the writer on the Snake Ravine retaining walls of the Turlock irrigation district of California is Fic. 5.—Sketch of joint used for . ; ALD conerete lining, Patterson Land Shown in figure 3, g. In laying the lining & Water Co., Patterson, Cal. in alternate sections the joint with its con- cave surface may be coated with hot asphalt or lined with tar paper before the adjacent section is laid. (8) In lining the Davis and Weber Counties Canal in Utah, a thin strip of wood coated with asphalt was placed in each joint and ex- tended through about two-thirds the thickness of the lining. The specifications called for the withdrawal of these strips and the filling In of the spaces with hot asphalt, but this was not done. As a result, many of the wooden strips became loose and project more or less above the surface of the lining, thus retarding the flow of water. In other respects the joint has proved satisfactory. (See fig. 3, h.) (9) A somewhat similar joint (fig. 5) was used by the engineers of the Patterson Land & Water Co. and the East Contra Costa Irrigation Co. On both canals, to which references are made else- where, the wooden strips were removed and the spaces filled with hot asphalt to within three-eighths inch of the surface, the re- maining space being filled with cement mortar. When inspected by the writer during construction he questioned the advisability of so wide a joint, and was advised that a smaller joint could not well be filled with asphalt. CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. 61 (10) Where conditions are adapted to its use, the type of joint shown in figure 3, 7, possesses some advantages over those previously discussed. This is merely the carpenter’s shiplap or half-timber joint applied to concrete. It provides for all the expansion necessary without weakening the lining by too wide a joint space. It also permits a certain amount of ‘“‘creeping”’ in the section without mis- placement and furnishes an excellent opportunity to secure a water- tight joint by the use of an elastic material like asphalt. (11) In adapting the shiplap joint to thin concrete linings a greater thickness of lining is used at each joint. The sections shown in 7, F, J, and m, figure 3, represent this modification showing two joints and methods of construction, as designed by A. F. Parker for the lining of the Davis and Uinta Counties Canal in Utah. CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND COST. In submitting the following data an effort has been made to show as fully as possible what constitutes current practice throughout the West in the lining of old and new canals. The lack of space prevents taking up many of these features in detail, but it has been the aim to select representative work in the various localities and to point out not only the good features of such work but to call attention to doubtful practices in order to assist the engineer in the design and execution of similar construction elsewhere. PATTERSON LAND & WATER CO., PATTERSON, CAL. About three years ago a series of pumping plants was installed to raise water from the San Joaquin River to irrigate a tract of 14,000 acres, comprising the bulk of what is locally known as the Patterson ranch. To prevent the loss of water by seepage the canals of this system were lined with a 3-inch layer of concrete and finished with a t-inch plaster coat. The main canal at the river end (Pl. II, fig. 1) has a bottom width of 7 feet, a vertical depth of 54 feet, side slopes of 14 to 1, and a capacity of about 110 second-feet. Its capacity is reduced at various points along its length, and at a distance of 24 miles from the intake the bottom width is 44 feet. After the excavation of each division the main canal was filled with water and allowed to soak for from 6 to 9 days. It was then trimmed and lined in 12-foot sections. The gasoline-driven concrete mixer had a capacity of 75 cubic yards per day, which provided material to line 300 linear feet. The position of this mixer when operated and the methods employed in elevating the material and delivering the concrete are shown in Plate IT, figure 2. The concrete used was a mixture of 1 part cement to 6 or 64 parts of sand and gravel. The plaster coat was proportioned 1:2 cement and river sand. 62 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HAST CONTRA COSTA IRRIGATION PROJECT, BRENTWOOD, CAL. This enterprise, although much larger, is similar in design, purpose, and scope to that at Patterson. Mr. A. Kempkey, the engineer in charge, in writing of this project claims that some improvements have been introduced in the lining as planned over the lining used on the Patterson project. One of these is the insertion of two expan- sion joints at the toe of each slope and parallel to the canal axis. It is also proposed to apply the mortar coat by means of a cement gun. at an estimated cost of 1 cent per square foot of surface. The expansion joint used on both projects is shown in detail in figure 5, page 60. It has given good satisfaction wherever used in both canal and reservoir lining. A medium grade of asphalt, applied warm enough to flow readily but not smoking hot, is considered best to fill the jomts. In using this joint it is not necessary to place the lining in alternate sections, as a tapering strip of wood may be in- serted between adjoining sections. These strips can be afterwards removed and the joints formed by pouring asphalt into the grooves and applying a 4-inch coat of plaster on top of the asphalt. Plate Il, figure 1, shows the work of lming this canal in progress and in Plate IU, figure 2, is shown a portion of the completed canal lining. NORTH SIDE TWIN FALLS LAND & WATER CO., MILNER, IDAHO. This company lined 8,400 feet of its main canal to increase its capacity. The canal is carried for several hundred feet along a rough lava rock clifl and is 60 feet above low water in the river. The outer bank through this section is a concrete retaining wall. The remainder of the lined section is excavated almost wholly in solid lava. The grade varies from 0.001 in narrow places to 0.0002 and 0.00025 in the wider sections. The canal was emptied October 10, 1909, and the work of preparing it for the concrete was commenced as soon as the channel had dried sufficiently. In places for several hundred feet from the headgates the canal bed was considerably below grade. The rock projecting into the canal section in the sides and bottom was blasted and smoothed, the low places being filled to subgrade with broken stone and puddled earth. An 8-inch thickness of concrete was applied to the sides of the rock sections and a 6-inch thickness to the bottom. The sides of the rougher rock sections were riprapped to secure a better align- ment and to save concrete. Cavities and large irregularities were back-filled with stones and puddled earth. It seems to the writer that the 6-inch thickness laid on the bottom of rock sections might have been reduced to 3 or 4 inches if the bed had been better pre- pared by the placing of finely crushed stone, compressing this mate- rial by rolling to secure an even surface and uniform grade, as is done in macadamized road construction. CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. 63 The concrete was composed of a 1:3:6 cement, sand, and crushed stone mixture, but whenever a well-graded crushed stone could be secured sand was omitted and the concrete was made of 1 part cement to 6 parts crushed stone from which all particles over 13 inches in diameter had been excluded. In earth sections the lining of the sides and bottom was 4 inches thick and had side slopes of 1? to 1. Expansion joints of corru- gated iron were inserted every 16 to 20 feet along the sides and bot- tom except in the bottom of the rock sections. These joints consisted of pieces of corrugated iron cut into strips 4 inches wide containing 14 corrugations, these being designed to lock the edges of adjacent sections and to prevent slipping. (See fig. 3, c.) The side walls in the rock sections were supposed to have a slope of 1 to 4; but in many places where this would have necessitated the blasting of large amounts of rock, walls were made almost vertical. Heavy, collapsible forms of 2-inch lumber were used in placing con- crete for the walls which approached the vertical. The concrete was wheeled directly from the mixers and spread in uniform layers 4 inches thick over the bottom and on the sides of the easier slopes in earth sections. Concrete placed within forms made of 4 by 4 inch lumber was compacted by tamping and finished by working 24-foot floats made of 2 by 6 inch timbers back and forth over the upper sur- face of the forms. Sixty cubic yards of concrete per day were some- times laid in this way by one gang working under favorable conditions. The sides and slopes were finished with a coat of cement mortar whenever the surface was rough enough to warrant it. The unusually high cost of this work was largely due to the diffi- culty of preparing the rock cut for the lining and to the absence of sand and gravel, which made it necessary to crush rock for the con- crete. However, a greater factor than either of these was the added expense due to the necessity of prosecuting the work during severe winter weather. To do this the canal was roofed over for a distance of 2,000 feet and the inclosed space warmed by specially constructed heaters, using sagebrush for fuel. The nature of the temporary roof and the method of heating are shown in Plate IV, figures land 2. The cost of labor and material was as follows: Cost of labor and materials for lining Twin Falls North Side Canal. MEAD Oners pera OU NOPMOUNSH: ils pe vege he ope oly oe a $2. 50 Drillers epetmedayaoldlOshnourse’ 3.0 See ce ee Nema se Ske 2. 75-3. 00 HIPAIMESTST (SECA) CT, GA eyer. ais. fee ci ese ae arenes aN APN 3. 00-4. 00 Makanda reatibn perc ayeassagi ects (hit. a meal RAT ALAS DIAN yaaa Learnt ie he 5. 00 Coalepertons teromprMillmorsat fs cele Ope Pn ANE ed cae has oe 6. 50 Cementspen barrel ts oxbsgMalmen i): 25) a kee s aes ee ea eee 2. 59-2. 89 Costol crushinorockwpexsCulble,vard joe al ad | sania! aon te | Gost on labor fonplacing; concrete, per cubic yard. sse2h 222s. ee. oo: 2.75 64 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Complete cost of material, mixing and placing concrete for form work Onlyi Per CUDLeMVArC: Se iae? halenia, Ocoee ne on eee Ciera ae eee $8. 50 Salle wathout Tomas: yw se) gists eas Cee eee ee ae ae 7. 50 Cost cf rock excavation (light cuts from 0.4 to 2 feet), per cubic yard.... 5. 00 Cost of placing riprap 1 foot thick, per cubic yard....................... 2. 00 Total cost cf preparing 8,400 linear feet of canal for concrete............. 75, 000. 00 Gross cost of lining 8,400 linear feet of canal. .................-..------ 200, 000. 00 Average cost-of concrete; per cubic yard. aon ioc oe ee ee 8. 00 MAIN SOUTH SIDE, OR NEW YORK CANAL, UNITED STATES RECLAMATION SERVICE, BOISE, IDAHO. This canal is designed essentially to carry flood water from a point on the Boise River 9 miles above Boise to the Deer Flat reservoir, a Fic. 6.—Showing method of setting forms on slopes for placing concrete lining in Main South Side, or New York Canal, U. S. Reclamation Service, Boise, Idaho. distance of 36 miles. Seventy thousand acres of land is also watered from the canal before the reservoir is reached. About 64 miles of the canal was lined to prevent seepage, increase the carrying capacity, and for the safety of sidehill sections where breaks frequently occurred. The canal is an old one, originally built with side slopes of 14 to 1, but the change and filling up of the section common to old canals necessitated considerable preliminary work in the removal of very gravelly earth and in shaping the sides before the concrete could be laid. The lined section has a grade of 0.00025 to 0.00032 and slopes of 1}to 1. Forms of 4 by 4 inch lumber were placed upon the slopes and aligned, as may be seen in figure 6, after which the surface PLATE Il. Bul, 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘NOSYSLLVd “O09 WO ‘NOSHYSLIVd “OD YSLVM ® GNV7] NOSYSLLVd YaLVAA 2 ONV7] NOSYSLLVd ‘IVNVO NIVIA) NI ONINIT ALAYONOD ONILONYLSNOO— ‘IWNVO GANIT SO NOILYOq—"} “SI4 G oI Bul. 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. FIG. 1.—LAYING CONCRETE LINING IN CANAL OF EAST CONTRA COSTA IRRIGATION PROJECT, BRENTWOOD, CAL. Fic. 2.—CONCRETE-LINED CANAL OF THE EAST CONTRA COSTA IRRIGATION PROv- ECT, BRENTWOOD, CAL. Bul. 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fig. 1.—COVERING USED FOR CANAL AND METHOD OF HEATING WHEN CONCRETE LINING WAS BEING CONSTRUCTED, NORTH SIDE TWIN FALLS LAND & WATER Co., MILNER, IDAHO. Fig. 2.—OUTSIDE VIEW OF COVERING USED FOR CANAL WHEN CONCRETE LINING WAS BEING CONSTRUCTED, NORTH SIDE TWIN FALLS LAND & WATER Co., MILNER, IDAHO. Bul. 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V FIG. 1.—CONCRETE-LINED CANAL FOLLOWING THE LOCATION OF AN OLD CHANNEL, FRUIT- LANDS IRRIGATION & POWER Co. (LTD.), KAMLOOPS, BRITISH COLUMBIA. Fic. 2.—FORMS USED FOR BACKFILLING WITH PUDDLED EARTH TO PREPARE CANAL FOR CONCRETE LINING, FRUITLANDS IRRIGATION & POWER Co. (LTD.), KAMLOOPS, BRITISH COLUMBIA. CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. 65 between the forms was smoothed and thoroughly hand compacted. A uniform layer of concrete 4 inches thick was then applied. After heavy stripping, a good natural mixture of sand and gravel was secured adjacent to the canal. This was hauled by slip scrapers up a runway and dumped into the mixers, which were placed high enough to permit discharging the concrete directly into one- ae se carts. The concrete was a 1:3:6 mixture of Portland cement, sand, and eravel. It was laid in sections measuring 8 by 16 feet on the Tones and 8 by 16 or 16 by 16 feet on the bottom. .The lining was laid in alternate sections to make room for the workmen, and the upper sec- tions were usually the first completed. As soon as the concrete of the first sections had set, the forms were removed and the intermediate sections filled in. Expansion joimts of one thickness of tar paper were used between sections in part of the work. After being dumped from the carts, the concrete was worked down and later smoothed by drawing long floats made of 2 by 6 inch tim- bers back and forth across the forms. In order to get a smooth face, the surface was painted with a 1 to 2 finishing coat of cement mortar as soon as the concrete was placed and set. The lining was kept wet by sprinkling for a period of seven days after being laid. It was protected from nightly freezes during the early part of the work by covering with a layer of straw, and during some freezing weather in the latter part of the work some concrete was laid under large tents heated by stoves. Some of the cost items are as follows: Cost of lining New York Canal. Preparing canal section for lining, per linear foot, seo ey, Bes ae en ee $2. 80 Hauling gravel to mixers, per ont Wal ise S-(2h epee eRe Oa aeons tye SSS UF Lente 1.14 Mixinesand placing concrete, per cubic yard. . 222.2... 2 22222. 23220. 5-82 2. 20 Total cost of concrete, including cement, per cubic yard_.........-.-.....-.-- 7.7 Moralteostiotconcrete im: place, per lineal footiis.. 3222222002) 2 as 9. 64 Sennemupembatrel tao. boiser. sniee 2S ee ik CEE) oe $2. 27-2. 50 SC MAELO TN CTIO AVS ha Moose ot Fn oe SS ae 2d Ce 2.50 Mian, eyevel. HORII OCIA GEN seen areas eee Sele ee eee te eke i Nee ee me Rim oe 5. 00 FRUITLAND IRRIGATION & POWER CO. (LTD.), KAMLOOPS, BRITISH COLUMBIA. This company has lined some 6 miles of its main canal. The writer examined the lined portion of this canal in the summer of 1912 and found it in good condition. The upper bank is quite gen- erally in excavation and the lower bank is partly in excavation and partly in fill. There appear to be more curves than the nature of the ground warrants, but A. E. Meighans, the company engineer, stated that the lined canal follows an old location for a ditch built before this company acquired the property. (Pl. V, fig. 1.) Some slight injury to the lining has resulted from earth setile- ment. Lining the sides of the curves required the use of short 48307°—Bull, 126—14——5 66 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. forms, which were also used on tangents, resulting in a much larger number of joints on the straight portions than good practice warrants. The joints were spaced 6 feet apart, and an attempt has been made to cover the seams with a coating of cement mortar. It is claimed, however, that these will eventually become filled with sediment, but the daily and seasonal contraction and expansion usually tend to enlarge rather than to decrease their width. Plate V, figure 2, shows the forms used for back-filling with puddled earth to prepare this canal for concrete lining. In Plate VI, figures 1 and 2, these forms have been removed and the channel is ready to receive the forms used in placing the concrete, as shown in Plate V, figure 2. Additional information on construction methods used with other useful data are to be found elsewhere.! NORTHERN PACIFIC IRRIGATION CO., KENNEWICK, WASH. During the winter of 1910-11 this company lined 22,500 feet of ditches on the ‘‘ Highlands” at Kennewick to eliminate heavy seepage losses. The soil through which these ditches are built is principally a fine sandy loam overlying gravel at a depth of 18 inches to 2 feet. One ditch 10,800 feet long, 3 feet wide on the bottom, with. side slopes of 4 to 1 and a vertical depth of 26 inches, is designed to carry 18 second-feet. Another ditch having in part a bottom width of 34 feet, side slopes of 4 to 1, and a vertical depth of 194 inches is designed to carry 14 second-feet. This ditch is reduced to a bottom width of 24 feet, but with the same side slopes and depth as the upper part. The concrete used was a 1:3:4 mixture of cement, sand, and crushed rock. In preparation for lining, center grade stakes were set and the bottom of the ditch brought to grade. Scantlings 2 by 4 inches: were then placed across the bottom of the ditch at 12-foot intervals at right angles to the center line and flush with the subgrade. Three forms 12 feet long (Pl. VII, fig. 1) were then set in the ditchon the cross strips and centered. Earth was shoveled and tamped behind the forms to secure the desired section. There were 14 men in a crew on this work. ‘ After the earth sections were prepared in this way, 2 by 2 inch screeds (Pl. VII, fig. 2) were placed at intervals of 5 feet 8 inches and upon them forms 6 feet long were set on every other space. The concrete was mixed with a one-third yard mixer, wheeled to place and dumped on planks laid on top of the forms. It was then shoveled behind the forms and lhghtly tamped. Strips of sheet iron were inserted behind the forms to protect the slope while the concrete was being put in and also to prevent a too rapid loss of water from the mixture by its contact with the drier earth. These 1 Brit. Columbia Dept. Agr. Bul. 44 (1912). CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. 67 strips were raised as the filling progressed. Two crews of 5 men each placed the concrete behind the forms, 2 men wheeled to each crew, and about 5 men were employed to move forms, etc. About 6 men were in the mixing crew and 2 others plastered rough places in the lining. Water kept in the finished ditch a few hundred feet in the rear of the work (PI. VII, fig. 3), was pumped ahead to the mixer with a small gasoline engine. The engineer stated that in one hour a crew could place about six sections, or 34 lineal feet, of the lining in the ditch having a 3-foot bottom. On some of this work done-during freezing weather, canvas covers were placed over the ditch. Under these covers iron pipes were laid through which steam was run from a steam boiler during the night. Rock gathered from various places within the locality was crushed and hauled from 1 to 14 miles. Six men collected the rock, 4 men operated the crusher, and about 7 teams hauled the crushed rock to the place of use. The cost of the crushed rock was not obtainable, but other items of expense were as follows: Cost of labor and materials for lining Northern Pacific Canal. Cement per barrel delivered at works, approximately...........---..-.--.... $3. 00 Sanded cliveredubyicontract, percubie yard. 222.22... 2. ose as ee 1.75 Waboretsypermnour without boards 4s... 82s se ne ee oe ees ed See 25 MeAmMenCmMO UE WI TNOUL LCCC ones cas Shee ee ok ese ea SAEs os See 35 TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT, NEWADA. A part of the main lower Truckee Canal constructed in 1904 and 1905 by the United States Reclamation Service was lined with concrete. Much of this lining was placed without the use of expan- sion and contraction joints. In November, 1911, about six years after the lining was completed, Mr. F. L. Peterson, irrigation engineer of this office, made a careful examination of the lined portions of this canal to determine if possible the effect produced by the lack of joints. Plate VIII, figure 1, is a general view of the lined canal opposite the railroad siding at Gilpin, Nev. Here the canal is excavated for the most part in solid rock and lined with 4 inches of concrete. In the same plate are shown fractures in the lining after a thin mortar coating had been placed over the seams. Pilate VIII, figures 2 and 3, gives a closer view of two of the fractures, the latter one of which has been repaired. The general specifications for the concrete used on this work provided: The concrete to be used on all the structures and tunnels on this canal will be composed of Portland cement, sand, and gravel or broken stone, in the proportion of 68 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1 barrel of cement to 7 full barrels of the same size of aggregates when mixed together. If broken stone is used, it must be hard, clean, and heavy, having at least a specific gravity of 2 and screened into three different sizes. None of the gravel is to exceed 2inches in diameter. The mixture of such sizes will be in the proportion determined bythe engineer. All of the rock must be of such size that it will pass through a screen with a 2-inch square mesh. The seam shown in Plate IX, figure 1, is typical of many such seen in canal lining in that it gradually diminishes in width from the top to the bottom of the side lining. Plate IX, figure 2, shows a fracture extending not only through the concrete but also through a diabase rock some 14 inches long and 4 to 6 inches thick which was embedded in the concrete. The natural cleavage of this rock, it may be observed, was nearly at right angles to the rupture as made by the contraction of the concrete. The placing of the concrete lining against the uneven rock surface served to anchor the lining and prevent contraction, and this same foundation condition doubtless added much to the strength of the lining as a whole. Notwithstanding this fact, however, ruptures have occurred at intervals of 28 feet or more throughout the lining. The seams created by these ruptures varied in width from one- twelfth to one-half inch or more at a time when the temperature of the air was 50° and that of the water in the canal was 42° F. LOWER YAKIMA IRRIGATION CO., RICHLAND, WASH. The canal of this company parallels the Yakima River for several miles, where the earth sections run mainly through coarse gravel, bowlders, of shattered basaltic rock. The remainder of the system is very largely built through sand. In the unlined channel the seepage losses were excessive, and through the sand it was also difficult to maintain the ditch owing to its tendency to fill up both by drifting and on account of the flat side slopes which the sand naturally as- sumed under the action of water. The lining was intended, there- fore, not only to reduce the loss of water but to increase the carrying capacity of the ditch and render it more stable and easy to maintain. About 5 miles of the ditch was lined in 1910. The company furnished all materials used and prepared the channel for lining, but the other work was done by contract. In preparing the ditch, center stakes were set about 13 inches above grade, to which the excavating was roughly done with teams and scrapers. At intervals of about 25 feet along the bottom of the side slopes stakes were set to grade, and from these the top slope stakes were set by the use of a slope triangle. Nails were driven into the grade stakes and chalk lines were stretched on them parallel to the ditch. Trimming to these lines was done then with square- pointed shovels and the slopes and bottom scraped to smooth sur- Bul. 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. FiG. 1.—EARTHEN CANAL PREPARED FOR CONCRETE LINING, FRUITLANDS IRRIGATION & POWER Co. (LTD.), KAMLOoPS, BRITISH COLUMBIA. Fic. 2.—FORMS PLACED TO RECEIVE CONCRETE, FRUITLANDS IRRIGATION & POWER Co. (LTD.), KAMLOopPS, BRITISH COLUMBIA. Bul. 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII Fic. 1.—PREPARING EARTHEN CANAL SECTIONS FOR CONCRETE LINING, NORTHERN PACIFIC IRRIGATION Co., KENNEWICK, WASH. Fic. 2.—SETTING FORMS PREPARATORY TO CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE LINING, NORTHERN PACIFIC IRRIGATION CoO., KENNEWICK, WASH. Fic. 3.—SECTION OF CONCRETE-LINED CANAL, NORTHERN PACIFIC IRRIGATION Co., KENNEWICK, WASH. Bul. 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fic. 2.—SHOWING FRACTURES IN CON- CRETE LINING OF TRUCKEE-CARSON CANAL, NEV. PLATE VIII. Fia. 3.—SHOWING FRACTURES IN CON- CRETE LINING OF TRUCKEE-CARSON CANAL, NEV. Bul. 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. Fic. 2.—CRACK IN CONCRETE LINING EXTENDING THROUGH DIABASE ROCK, TRUCKEE- CARSON CANAL, NEV. CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. 69 faces with straight-edges. The sides and bottom were tamped lightly with wooden tampers and sprinkled before the lining was applied. The section lined has a bottom width of 114 feet, side slopes of 14 to 1, and a wetted perimeter of 263 feet. The three mixers used were operated on planks in the bottom of the ditch in advance of the work. With each mixer there was a crew of about 25 men and in addition a finishing crew of 5 or 6 men to dress the earth surfaces immediately ahead of the mixer. One rock crusher was also operated, the crushed rock being hauled an average of 2 miles. Most of the sand was procured from pits along the line of the canal and was used without screening. The lining was laid in 8-foot sections 1# inches thick, with strips of building paper in the joints between the sections. Four hundred feet of lining was considered a good day’s work for a crew. A 1:3:4 mixture of concrete was used for most of the lining, but on one section a 1:4 mortar applied 1 inch thick was considered just as good as the thicker lining of concrete, besides being much easier to apply. The lining in gravel sections leaked considerably the first season, presumably because allowed to dry too rapidly on account of lack of water for keeping it moist after laying. In work that was done the following year this difficulty was obviated by allowing a small amount of water to flow in the ditch soon after lining, using check dams to prevent its interference with construction. Men wearing rubber boots then waded along and with shovels or buckets threw water upon the side slopes at frequent intervals to keep the concrete wet while setting. Where lining had been placed on moistened sand, the results were better than in the sections through gravel, there being no perceptible leakage. Conditions in the gravel portion improved with the first year’s use of the lined section, after which the seepage was considerably lessened. The various items of cost secured are as follows: Cost of lining canal of Lower Yakima Irrigation Co. itaborers.per day of 10 hours; without board £22. ..22-22 22222. 9/228 ee $2. 50 Manandi team per day, without board /2:. 02:0 2.5.2 2.3322 Joe ee 4, 50 Contract price per square foot for mixing and laying concrete .........-. . 025 CORTHDSTI, OSE LOAN TE Se seals er a ea ee aan er gO a ee 3. 10 SanGaepencibichy ard, approximatelyenss. 02.551 bo 6222 0 o eect ee ee 50 Lotalecostoruning .persquare toot... 25. Wo see le eT . 065 ‘STOR Coss Oy 1bUENbNagse et ROLE Ae ca ei ELE panos alee manera eae ae 9, 064. 49 During February and March, 1911, the company placed additional lining, using practically the same methods above described, except 1 This does not include an 8-mile haul over heavy roads. 70 BULLETIN 126, U. 5.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that all work was done by force account. The prices for labor and material indicate that the work was done considerably cheaper than in the previous year. Laborers were procured for $2 per day without board and men with teams for $4 per day each. Cement cost $2.95 per barrel delivered at the work. BELGO-CANADIAN FRUIT LANDS, KELOWNA, BRITISH COLUMBIA. About 3,000 feet of this company’s main canal, 11 miles long, and about 4 miles of its lateral ditches have been recently lined with concrete to prevent seepage losses in a porous soil. On the main canal a 3-inch thickness of lining has been used for a finished section having a bottom width of 3.5 feet, depth 3.75 feet, and side slopes of z to 1. Lateral linings are 24 to 3 inches thick on slopes, with a 3- inch thickness on bottoms which vary in width from 9 inches to 2 feet. After excavating the channel to be lined, a drain filled with loose rock or gravel was made beneath the bed. Cross drains from this through the lower bank were placed at 500-foot intervals. The forms shown in figure 7 were then set and bolted together. Galvan- ized-iron plates placed outside the forms were spaced with pieces of lumber, and after the earth was back-filled and tamped behind the plates concrete was poured between them and the forms. The galvanized plates and spacing pieces were withdrawn as the space was filled with con- crete. The bottom of the ditch was then floated in and the edges smoothed, using for this purpose the excess concrete which had passed over the forms. The forms were left in place 48 hours. Curves were made by using special short forms having the outer edge superelevated $ to 1 inch according to the degree of curvature. In placing the concrete around sharp curves, special galvanized plates were used to close the gap at the outer edge of the forms. No cost data could be secured on the lining of the main canal. The cost of lining laterals per square foot and exclusive of excavation varied from $0.118 in the larger to $0.142 in the smaller ones. These costs include excavation, back-filling, rock drains, and supervision. The work was done late in the fall when protection against frost increased the cost. Cement cost $3.75 per barrel delivered, con:zmon labor $2.75 per day, and skilled labor $4 per day. Fig. 7.—Section of form used for placing concrete lining, Belgo- Canadian fruit lands, Kelowna, British Columbia. CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. 71 TUCSON FARMS CO., TUCSON, ARIZ. The water for this project is obtained by pumping from numerous wells. During the winter and spring of 1912-13 a reinforced concrete lining was placed in about 24 miles of the new main canal for the prevention of seepage losses through a sandy and gravelly soil. The canal has a trapezoidal cross section entirely in excavation and as lined is capable of carrying a 2.9-foot depth of water. The bottom width ranges from 2 to 4} feet and the side slopes are 1 to 1. The ereater part of the concrete used in this construction is a 1:4 :4 mix- ture and the lining is 3 inches thick throughout. In grading the channel for lining, a framed template was used to get a true section. The reinforcement is made of round steel bars intersecting at right angles and wired together. Four longitudinal bars, %;-inch diameter, were placed one on each side of the bottom for the lining floor and one on each side near the top of the side walls. Then at right angles to these, as stated, 4-inch crossbars were spaced 12 inches apart. Each crossbar was continuous and extended from the top of the lining on one side through the lining to the top of it on the opposite side of the canal. When it was not possible to obtain the 4-inch bars, ;°;-inch bars were substituted and spaced 18 inches apart. Wooden-framed forms built in 12-foot sections were then set in position over the steel reinforcement, blocked to place, and the ad- joining ends bolted together. Then 4-inch steel backing plates, 2 feet wide and long enough to reach to the bottom of the earth section, were slipped behind the forms and under the reinforcement. Before placing the concrete, wooden spreader-strips 2 by 3 inches were set between the wooden forms and the backing plates. Each spreader contained a staple driven almost full length into its side near the bottom, and in setting the spreader the staple loop was slipped over the end of the crossbar and the spreader was then slid into position. In this way the bar was carefully held in position while the concrete was being placed in the forms. A spreader was set beside each cross- bar, and as the concrete for the side lining was tamped and puddled into place the spreaders were gradually removed, leaving the cross- bars firmly embedded in the concrete. The steel plates likewise were withdrawn as the walls were built up. When the side forms were filled with concrete to within 3 inches of the top, the longitudinal bars were placed and wired to the crossbars. The remaining concrete was then placed and smoothed with an edging trowel. Expansion joints were provided by setting 1 by 3 inch wooden strips in the middle of each form in the same manner as the spreaders, except that no staples were used and the joint strips were not removed re BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. afterwards. ‘To keep them in position while concrete was being de- posited, each one was lightly nailed to the side of the form, and before the latter was removed the nails were withdrawn. The forms were left intact for a period of 8 hours at least, and they usually remained undisturbed over night during a period of 14 to 20 hours. After their removal any defects in the wall surface were “picked”? out and the cavities smoothly plastered with a 1:14 or 2 cement mortar. The canal bottom was then carefully cleared of litter, its surface smoothed, and solidly tamped. All reinforcement bars that may have become bent were straightened. The bottom piece of the expansion joimt was fitted to the two side pieces and its top care- fully laid to grade. (Pl. X, fig. 1.) The concrete for the floor lining was then tamped and puddled into place, and when it had reached the required thickness the surface was easily brought to grade and smoothed by the use of a straightedge resting on the bottom joint strips as guides. The entire liming was kept wet by continual sprinkling during a period of three to five days. After this was discontinued a wash coat of neat cement mortar was applied to the surface with a brush. (PI. X; figs 2.) A 1:4:4 mixture of concrete was used on all the work except for about 1,000 feet of bottom where there was excessive external water pressure. In this portion of the canal a 1:3.2:3.2 mixture was used. As a further protection in one very wet and miry place, additional reinforcement was usec in the bottom. Extending over a length of about) 5,000 feet of the largest canal section near the Santa Cruz River bed, ‘weep holes”’ were a. med in the bottom to relieve external water pressure. Two-inch tapering plugs extending entirely through the lining floor were set in the freshly laid concrete and these plugs were later removed as soon as the concrete had set sufficiently to retain its shape. Two rows of these holes were made 24 feet apart and spaced 4 feet longitudinally. During construction a considerable portion of the canal was drained. gh x22 Wade = is k-4, 4’ > 4.4; J 3/4* twisted b ey sd Pes (LO (EE a Gravel TWH: FACS WE 6 Hie 6Hi/e 7S Fig. 9.—(a) General type of concrete lining construction used for Davisand Weber Counties Canal, Ogden, Utah. (b) Type of concrete lining used for weak foundations on the same canal. It was at first proposed to use a 6-inch thickness of lining, but on the recommendation of the writer this was reduced to a 4-inch thick- ness for all but the worst portions. Figure 9, a, represents a cross section of 4-inch lining used for the greater portion of the channel. Where the canal bank was weak and where slides were liable to occur, a form as shown in figure 9, b, was adopted. In reducing the thickness from 6 to 4 inches a somewhat richer mixture was used and more precautions were taken to secure good drainage. ‘The specifications for concrete called for a 1:2:4 Portland cement, sand, and gravel mixture, on which the contract price per cubic yard for concrete in place was $6.80, while for a 1: 24:5 mixture, also used, $6.45 was paid. On all straight portions of canal the concrete was laid in sections 20 feet wide. That placed on the bottom was first tamped into place and then carefully floated and smoothed. It was afterwards covered with sand kept moistened for a period of seven days by sprinkling. A 1:2 mortar of cement and sand was troweled over the surfaces of the slide slopes soon after the concrete had been tamped in and the so 76 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. forms removed. ‘The slopes were then covered with burlap and kept moistened as described. The construction methods used on this canal are shown in Plate XI, figures 1, 2, and 3. A tapering strip of wood, as shown in figure 3, h, forms the expan- sion and contraction joint between each section of concrete. The specifications called for the removal of these strips and the filling of the spaces with hot asphalt, but this was not done. YAKIMA PROJECT, UNITED STATES RECLAMATION SERVICE, NORTH YAKIMA, WASH. The Tieton main canal, located in the canyon division of this project, was provided for 10 miles of its length with concrete lining. Actual work commenced in 1907 and was finished in 1909. The steepness of the cross slopes, involving large excavation quantities per square foot of water area, and the lack of water-tightness in the material, made necessary an impervious canal and one that would e withstand a_ high velocity. These re- quirements, together with a largely imac- cessible locality havy- |? bars Ma “224 Exif sice ing difficult working conditions, compelled the use of a minimum RE g2” ae volume of lining, Fra. 10.—Cross section of open concrete-lined canal, Yakima project, which it seemed ad- U.S. Reclamation Service, North Yakima, Wash. visable to make of molded concrete shapes cast in central yards. The cross section used for canals is shown in figure 10 and a portion of the constructed canal in figure 11. Curves of 57.6 feet radius were the maximum curvature used, and in some cases these were reversed with only a foot or two of tangent between. The canal was intended to have a carrying capacity of 300 second-feet. The concrete aggregate was river gravel and sand and crushed gravel. The cost of manufacture of the lining per cubic yard was: Cost of manufacture of lining for Tieton Canal. DGD OP soothe os oe G2 '3. oo tyes RO de a A oe $6. 094 Matenali( cementing steel)ins a2 ass sen 2 ee eee ee ee 9. 370 Blan tchargG. <1 2S. 5, Ao oe ana oe ee ee re ree 4. 579 Engingering and mspectlOn soc, 2022250 eek ae seen see Sea eee . 324 Generalic. £2 Son) oc oc hoe Ee ee ee eee 2. 830 The cost of placing and jointing a total of 49,494 lineal feet, includ- ing 23,295 shapes, raised the above cost to $32.05 per cubic yard, or $7.42 per lineal foot. CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. Ot TURLOCK IRRIGATION DISTRICT, TURLOCK, CAL. In 1910 this district made a hydraulic fill inclosing an old unsafe wooden flume on trestles across Peasley Gulch, and in the fall of that year, after the canal was emptied, the wooden flume box was removed and a concrete lining substituted. The lined section is 365 fect long, with a bottom width of 40 feet. The side walls, 4 inches thick and 9 feet high, are reinforced with No. 6 wire fabric (6 by 6 inches) and have a batter of 4 to 1. Buttresses with the same batter are built at 8-foot intervals back of the lining and similarly reinforced. The floor, which is 6 inches thick and of the same construction as the sides, is concaved, being 1 foot lower at the middle than at the sides. Fig. 11.—Concrete-lined canal, Yakima project, U.S. Reclamation Service, North Yakima, Wash. Concrete floor ribs 12 inches deep and 8 inches wide are spaced equally with the buttresses and reinforced with two }-inch steel bars. The lining is made of 1:3:5 concrete placed behind wooden forms and cost $16 per cubic yard. It has no joints and no cracks of importance have developed. MODESTO IRRIGATION DISTRICT, MODESTO, CAL. Considerable concrete lining has been constructed to date in Modesto main canal, but all of it is for providing increased safety, and the small saving of seepage secured is merely incidental. In the narrow canal sections near the headworks the velocities range from 5 to 8 feet per second. Where it has seemed necessary 78 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to provide considerable slab strength, the floor liming is from 4 to 6 inches thick. The linings for hydraulic fills recently completed are 6 inches thick and reinforced with No. 6 wire fabric 6 by 6 inches. Linings of 2% to 24 inches thickness have been used on four stretches of lined canal having lengths of 250, 250, 575, and 1,000 feet, respec- tively. The bottom width is 44 feet and water depth of 5.5 for the first three and 34 feet and 7 feet, respectively, for the fourth. All slopes are 2 to 1. In preparation for the linings the canal sections were carefully graded and aligned by chalk line and straightedge. Fills were made a little high, with loose sand where possible, and after saturating with water were graded. Fills as high as 10 feet were graded and aligned within two or three days after the material was placed with a scraper, but they were made of clean sand thor- oughly saturated with water. No settlement has been noticed. The lining was laid in cross strips 3 feet long longitudinally, and these were imperfectly bonded to permit cracking at the joints. The latter, being numerous, permitted only narrow cracks, which are unimportant. It is said that in part of this linmg the water reaches a velocity as high as 20 feet per second at times and that no appreci- able injury to the concrete has occurred after five or six years of use. SOUTH SAN JOAQUIN IRRIGATION DISTRICT, MANTECA, CAL. Concrete lining has been placed on 7 miles of the main canal, 3 miles of which is owned jointly with the Oakdale irrigation district. A typical lined channel has a bottom width of 11.36 feet, side slopes 1 to 1, and is planned to carry a 9-foot depth of water and allow 2 feet additional for splash. This design, having a grade of 0.0775 per 100 feet, is intended to have a capacity of 850 second-feet. An excess grade for curves was computed from the following formula: where He is the excess grade in feet per 100 feet; v is the uniform velocity of water in feet per second; 7 is the radius of the curve in feet. The value of n for Kutter’s formula was taken as 0.015. The lining thickness averages 4 inches for the bottom and 4 to 6 inches for the sides of the canal. A mixture of 1:3:6 concrete, placed behind forms and in alternate sections 12 to 16 feet long, was used without allowing expansion joints. In many places where the channel is in rock cut no back forms were used, and in such case the alignment is irregular and follows the contour of the side walls. The cost of the concrete in the completed work was about $14.50 per cubic yard. CONORETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS. _ 79 BURBANK POWER & WATER CO., BURBANK, WASH. This company concrete-lined about 4,000 feet of canal in 1910. The essential features of the design are shown in figure 12 and the con- struction is reported to be giving satisfactory results. The contract price of the concrete in place was $12.50 per cubic yard, and the engineering 7 per cent additional. The cement cost Fra. 12.—Cross section of concrete-lined canal, Burbank Power & Water Co., Burbank, Wash. $2.75 per barrel at Burbank and $3.25 delivered at the work. Gravel and sand having within 5 per cent of the proportions used were found within a mile of the work and for which the contractor paid $1.75 per cubic yard delivered. The lining is made of a 1:24:44 mixture of concrete and is formed in cross strips 3 feet long. MEDINA VALLEY IRRIGATION CO., SAN ANTONIO, TEX. Concrete lining has been placed in 2,390 feet of the main supply canal having in this portion of its length a capacity of 850 second- feet. The canal, located on a sidehill slope of 3 to 1, is excavated in limestone having some pockets of rotten limestone and adobe. The ground surface is covered with a layer of broken stone and débris. The work of excavation and placing of the lining was let to contract. In order to keep a low excavation cost the contractor blasted heavily and for this reason needed a on large amount of rubble backfill. Figures 13 and 14 show the main fea- tures of construction and the dimensions of thesection used. Joints arespaced 16 feet apart, and while cracks have CYS appeared no harmful Fie. 13.—Cross section of concrete-lined canal, Medina Valley Irri- results are anticipated. gation Co., San Antonio, Tex. Mexican labor, used on the work, cost $1.50 to $1.75 per day. The concrete was hand mixed, and except for the filling of local voids no plastering was done. The use of poor lumber for forms left an uneven concrete surface. Hand-laid Rubble SZ, 80 BULLETIN 126, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, The contract prices were $0.90 per cubic yard for rock excavation, $6 per cubic yard for concrete in place, and $1.50 per cubic yard for dry laid rubble. The company paid for one-half the rubble needed for back filling the overbreakage. For the entire 2,390 feet of canal lined the costs per foot are: Fig. 14.—Construction methods used in placing concrete lining, Medina Valley Irrigation Co., San Antonio, Tex. Contract prices and cost of lining Medina Canal. Approxi- Gas i ; ost to the ee us company. Excavation $7. 86 $10. 56 Rubble 1.56 . 86 WOTCTELES Ae atta ee ee miles ee am Bil 3.27 Cement 1.80 1.80 Total : 14.33 16. 49 Cement cost $2.40 per barrel delivered at a point on the rail- road nearest the work. The cost of the concrete per square foot was 19 cents, PLATE XIV. S. Dept. of Agriculture. U 126 Bul. (WOLLOG G3AYND 3HL 3LON) “LONGANDY SATBONY SO7 ‘TSNNVHO N3dO G3NIq-3LSYONOD G3ILIIdWOD JO NOILYOd Bul. 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV. FiG. 1.—TEMPLATES USED IN PREPARING EARTH SECTION FOR CONCRETE LINING, RIDENBAUGH CANAL, BOISE, IDAHO. Fic. 2.—FORMS USED IN PLACING CONCRETE FOR LINING, RIDENBAUGH CANAL. Bul. 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVI. Fia. 1.—LAYING AND SURFACING CONCRETE ON SLOPES, RIDENBAUGH CANAL. FiG. 2.—METHOD OF DELIVERING CONCRETE FOR SIDE LINING, RIDENBAUGH CANAL. Bul. 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVII. Fic. 1.—METHOD OF LAYING BOTTOM LINING, RIDENBAUGH CANAL, BOISE, IDAHO. Fic. 2.—A PORTION OF THE COMPLETED LINING, RIDENBAUGH CANAL, BOISE, IDAHO. CONCRETE LINING FOR IRRIGATION CANALS, 81 THE LOS ANGELES AQUEDUCT, LOS ANGELES, CAL. - About 37 miles (196,402 feet) of canal forming part of this aque- duct is concrete lined. The excavation was made with a steam shovel, and some of the excavation was in very rocky ground. The slopes and bottom of the channel left rough by the steam shovel were brought to a fairly even surface by trimming off the high places, and the low portions were shoveled full of moist earth which was tamped to place. The guideboards set to allow a slab length of 12 feet were held to place by stakes driven into the earth. In placing the concrete for lining, a platform was built half way up the slope, and in order to reach the upper half of the slope the con- crete was handled a second time from this platform. Alternate slabs were first laid and these were brought to surface by the use of astraight- edge supported on the guideboards. After this concrete had set and the forms were re- moved the interme- diate slabs were con- creted in and brought to a true surface, using the straight- edge on the hardened slabs as guides. OF 02 “1 GSS PF: 7 Iey10u | ET OT OFS CLS 00°% F:[ 1B}10UL} FT Whe OF % G8 0S | OFS P:T TeyLOUL |) FT GE'S BRE mes Peal eee aceon (Sea a a os | eee epee ren se GiPeL Se a aad [= ay a peas Se sels USDEPARTNENT OFAGRICUIIRE % No. 127 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. September 16, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) THE MYCOGONE DISEASE OF MUSHROOMS AND ITS CONTROL. By F. Jj. VeramMeyer, Formerly Scientific Assistant in the Office of Pathological Collections and Inspection Work. INTRODUCTION. The industry of mushroom growing in this country has been steadily increasing until to-day large establishments for the cultivation of mushrooms are found in the vicinity of nearly all of the large cities. In the eastern part of Pennsylvania there are many extensive mush- room plants which supply the eastern markets. In one section there are more than 250 establishments whose collective product exceeds 1,000,000 pounds of mushrooms annually, while many of the growers individually send to market over 100,000 pounds a year. The sub- stantial manner in which the modern mushroom houses are con- structed and the extent and operation of the individual plants represent investments of considerable magnitude; consequently, the failure of a crop in even one mushroom house means a serious financial loss to the grower. Because the knowledge and conditions necessary for the ee saul cultivation of mushrooms are peculiar and unique, and while it is recognized that various factors—such as an unsuitable degree of humidity, imperfect ventilation, improper preparation of the beds, the presence of insects, and other unfavorable conditions—may be the cause of the loss of a crop ora large percentage of it, the growers have only recently been led to appreciate that a fungous disease is responsible for extensive losses. PREVALENCE OF THE DISEASE IN MUSHROOM BEDS. Many instances of total failures of mushroom houses are recorded. For example, one growe® reports the complete failure of four houses and about two-thirds of another house. Houses that should have Notr.—This bulletin describes a disease of mushrooms which causes great losses to growers and gives methods of control. Of interest to mushroom growers generally. 49597°—Bull. 127—14——_1 2 BULLETIN 127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. produced more than 30,000 pounds yielded less than 1,000 pounds of mushrooms, owing to the ravages of this fungous disease. An establishment containing over 50,000 square feet of mushroom beds was abandoned on account of the heavy losses sustained. While the disease is prevalent in most localities where mushrooms are cultivated on a large scale, there are mushroom-raising plants in these infected districts where the disease has never made its appear- ance. There is, however, evidence of a local distribution of the disease, and unless proper measures to control the fungus are taken it will be only a question of time before all mushroom houses are infected. Costantin and Dufour (1892c)! state that under the ordinary condi- tions of cultivation in a great number of the caves or underground quarries in which mushrooms are cultivated abroad, the proportion of diseased to normal mushrooms is about 1 to 10. In less frequent cases this proportion rises to 1 to 4. Costantin and Dufour and Répin (1897) report the losses to the Parisian mushroom growers caused by this disease to be about $200,000 yearly. This loss is based on a daily estimated production of about 56,000 pounds, at 66 cents per pound, the yearly production having a value of approxi- mately $2,600,000 and losses due to the disease being estimated at probably one-tenth of the production. As nearly as can be ascer- tained these figures apply to the year 1892. OCCURRENCE OF THE DISEASE IN AMERICA. The occurrence of the fungous disease of cultivated mushrooms in America was first called to the attention of the Department of Agri- culture in 1909, when specimens of diseased mushrooms were sent to the department with requests for a diagnosis of the trouble. A microscopic examination revealed the presence of a fungus, a species of Mycogone, similar to, if not identical with, the species causing the European disease of mushrooms known as la mle. HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE MYCOGONE DISEASE. OCCURRENCE IN EUROPE. The Mycogone disease of cultivated mushrooms has been known in England, France, and Germany for many years. In France it is reported as having been recognized ‘‘for at least three generations of mushroom growers,” and it is believed that it was known at a much earlier date. Probably the first reference te the disease in scientific literature was that of Magnus, who described it in 1888 as being the most serious enemy of mushroom growing around Berlin. 1 All references to literature are indicated in the text by the name of the author and the year of publi cation. For full citations, see the list at the end of this bulletin. THE MYCOGONE DISEASE OF MUSHROOMS AND ITS CONTROL. 3 IDENTITY OF THE FUNGUS. The common identity of the fungi studied by different investigators in relation to the disease of mushrooms has not been established, but it is interesting to note that in each study one of the three concerned in the life history of the fungus causing the mushroom disease, e. g., Mycogone, Verticillium, or Hypomyces, is the subject of investigation. Owing to the similarity of the fungus causing the disease to certain stages of diseases of wild species of mushrooms, Magnus called the fungus Hypomyces perniciosus. No technical description was given by this author and the fungus was only a hypothetical stage of Hypomyces. Cooke (1889) in England identified the fungus which was causing considerable loss to mushroom growers as ‘‘a species of Mycogone not unlike Mycogone rosea in many of its features, but referable to Mycogone alba,” notwithstanding the fact that he described the larger cells of the Mycogone spores as becoming amber colored. In Vienna, Austria, Stapf (1889) described a disease of cultivated mushrooms, which was attributed to Verticillium agaricinum Corda, a conidial stage of Hypomyces ochraceus Pers. Stapf found several spores of Mycogone, but could not connect them with Verticillium. Prillieux (1892) described a disease of mushrooms and identified it as Mycogone rosea, which by analogy he considered a conidial stage of Hypomyces linkit Tulasne, although the perfect stage of the fungus had never been observed. In the same year Costantin and Dufour (1892a) published a note on the disease then known as “‘la molle.’””? They described the macro- scopic and microscopic characters of the disease and stated that the fungus is very similar to Mycogone cervina, though it differs in habitat, or host plant. Two types of modification of the mushroom caused by the fungus are described. In the first type the cap, stipe, and gills are well defined, though the presence of the disease is indicated by a stipe swollen at the base, swelling of the gills, and distortion of the cap. The second type of the disease is manifested by an early arrest- ing of the development of the mushroom, the cap is rudimentary or entirely lacking, and the stipe, or stem, is swollen to such a size that the affected mushroom has the appearance of a puffball. On the dis- eased mushrooms of the first type Mycogone and Verticillium spores were found. The Verticillium spores were long, cylindrical-oblong, and sometimes two celled. The relationship of these two forms, Mycogone and Verticillium, was established by finding the two kinds of spores growing on the same mycelium. The second or puffball-like type of diseased mushrooms has only a Verticillium with small unicellular spores, microscepically quite different from the Verti- cullium of the first type. 4. BULLETIN 127,;Uj//8;- DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It was at first thought that there were two different diseases, but when a sufficient number of specimens were studied all transitions between the two forms of Verticillium were found and it was estab- lished that it was one disease with two very dissimilar forms of fruiting bodies. Costantin explained that, together with Dufour, he had previously stated that the fungus was similar to Mycogone cervina, but that they had not identified it with that species. The fungus also did not agree with the description of Mycogone rosea. Costantin and Dufour (1892¢ and 1893a) give the most exhaus- tive study of this disease of cultivated mushrooms. They discuss the two characteristic types of infection, as described in their pre- vious article, designating them as the common form and the sclero- derma or puffball-like form. The discussion of the fungus immedi- ately folowimg embodies the observations made by these authors. A microscopic examination of the common form, as_ previously described, revealed the presence of a Verticillium having large spores variable in size and form. The large spores are two celled, 16 to 20 by 3.5 », while the small spores are more numerous and one celled, 8 by 3 #. This Verticillium is usually found on the gills in an early stage of the disease. At a later stage of the disease the mushroom is covered with a thick white coating consisting of long irregularly and verticillately branched hyphe, upon which are borne bicellular ‘‘chlamydospores”’ of a Mycogone. In rare cases these large Mycogone spores are three celled and much longer than the usual 2-celled spores. At first these two cells are smooth, hyaline, or colorless, and almost equal in size; later the terminal cell becomes swollen, amber colored, and covered with warts. It is spherical in shape and measures about 16 to 20 ». The lower or basal cell is smaller, smooth, colorless, and 14 to 16 » in size. In specimens of the puffball-ike type of infection the color is at first a dirty white, becoming pearl gray or pale rose gray as the disease advances. In this latter stage the deformed mushroom is covered with a hght velvety tomentum or hairhke coating formed of little tufts or filaments much more branched and scattered and thinner, but still of the form of Verticilium. The spores are uni- cellular, more numerous than the form just described, and much smaller, being 4 by 2 y In size. Magnus (1906), Cooke (1889), and Prilieux (1892) probably observed the disease in the common form, 1. e., the Verticillium with large spores and the Mycogone spores, while Stapf (1889), who reported only a Verticilium stage, examined the disease in the puffball-ike stage, where only the Verticiltum with small spores was present. THE MYCOGONE DISEASE OF MUSHROOMS AND ITS CONTROL. 5 As previously suggested by Costantin and Dufour, it might be ‘supposed that these two forms of Verticillium belonged to two distinct diseases. A specimen was found infected in the puffball- like manner which had a rose-gray velvety covering and at the same time a whitish woolly coating, on the lower part the Verti- cillium with small spores, and on the upper part Mycogone and the Verticillium with large spores. There was a gradual transition from the Mycogone and large-spored Verticilium to the small-spored Verticilium. The conclusion is then drawn that there is one dis- ease with two forms of Verticillium. This is an interesting fact, since Costantin and Dufour by sowing the large-spored Verticillium in suitable media produced Mycogone spores. The cultures were at first drab in the center and white at the margin, finally be- coming a color intermediate between light leather and umber. It was impossible to cultivate the large-spored Verticillium alone, as this form was always accompanied by the production of Mycogone spores. . When cultures were made trom the small-spored Verticillium of puftball-like infected mushrooms, they remained permanently white and only the Verticillium with small spores was produced. Never could the small-spored Verticilium be made to take the characters of the large-spored Verticilium. Tt is concluded that this parasite of the cultivated mushrooms differs from Mycogone rosea and Mycogone cervina in habitat, size, and color of the ‘‘chlamydospores,”’ but that it is the species named by Magnus (1906) Hypomyces perniciosus, although his description was insufficient and he regarded the ‘‘chlamydospores” as being hyaline, whereas this is only the case in immature spores, for they rapidly become amber colored. The authors designate the species as Mycogone perniciosa Magnus. Evidently Prillieux (1892), who believed the species to be Mycogone rosea, later agreed with Costantin and Dufour in considering it Mycogone perniciosa, for the sketch he presented before the Botanical Society of France has been reproduced and designated as Mycogone perniciosa (Prilheux, 1897). Delacroix (1900) described the disease ‘‘la méle” as the most important of the diseases of cultivated mushrooms, and ascribed it to the fungus Mycogone perniciosa Magnus. Magnus (1906) discussed the work of preceding investigators and concluded that the Verticilliwm agaricnum (Lk.) Cda. given by Stapf (1889) as causing a serious disease of cultivated mushrooms at Vienna is rather Mycogone rosea Lk. than Mycogone perniciosa Magnus as given by Costantin and Dufour. However, the question of specific identification is one which Magnus states requires further study. 6 BULLETIN 127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The fungus causing the disease in American houses is probably the one described by Costantin and Dufour (1892c) and called Mycogone perniciosa Magnus. Costantin (1893a) gives the morphological dif- ferences between Mycogone rosea and Mycogone perniciosa, and, although there has been no opportunity to compare our fungus with the European species, it is thought that the two species are identical, as they agree in both macroscopical and microscopical characters. INVESTIGATIONS OF THE MUSHROOM DISEASE IN AMERICA. TYPES OF THE DISEASE. During the course of the present investigation, specimens of the two types or forms of infection as described by the French investi- gators were collected in diseased mushroom houses in this country. In many cases it was difficult to determine to which type the diseased individuals belonged, as there are gradations between the two forms. Often cap, stipe, and gills are clearly defined, the presence of the malady being indicated by small tubercles on the cap and a fluffy white growth on the gills, a form of the disease known in France (Costantin and Dufour, 1892c, p. 471) as ‘‘chancre.”’ In this country the common form of the disease is similar to that in France. The mushrooms are covered with a white, velvety coating, which consists of interwoven hyphe. This growth prevents the normal development of the individual gills, which become more or less coalescent, a condition shown in Plate I. The progress of the disease is also frequently accompanied by arrested development and by the distortion of the cap and stipe, as well as by the general darkening and decay of the tissue. These characters are illustrated in Plates IT and III. In cases of infection termed by the French the ‘‘scleroderma”’ form, the stipe is bulbous and the cap rudimentary or entirely lacking. In this form the gills are completely aborted, and the diseased mushroom is covered with a coating of interwoven hyphe similar to that of the common form. It has been observed that in this form of the disease the plants are much softer than in the other form and that they decay more rapidly. Monstrous soft masses with thick white coatings of the fungus are often observed in houses in which the disease is abun- dant. These infected plants have very little resemblance to mush- rooms, and they decay rapidly, forming a putrid mass which emits a disagreeable, almost acrid odor. Figure 1 illustrates one of these masses. Clumps greatly exceeding this in size are often found. MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS OF THE FUNGUS. The small-spored Verticilium described by Costantin ana Dufour (1892c) has not been observed in the specimens examined from American houses, but it has been possible to grow the Mycogone in “ST[LS Of] JO OOMDDSO[BOd OY] SUTMOYS WY JO Or} ‘opISBIvd dy} JO YPMOLS LU0}JOO OY} YYLAL p9LoAOSD ov SUDUPOods osoyL “ASVASIG ANODOOAN BHL 4O LOASSA JAILONYLSAG SHL ONILVYLSNTT] ‘SNHOOYUHSN|| SO NOILVWHOSTVI) SO SdAL TWASf YO NOWWOD 3HL PLATE | Bul. 127, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il Iture. Icu . Dept. of Agri S U Bul. 127 “ASN OUIVS OY} WOT} ONSST} OY} JO ABOVp IO SuLUOyAVp OY} SMOYS UOTIOOS SSOID OY, SSV4ASIG SANODOOAW| SHL OL 3NG SNOILVNYOSIVIY ONILVYLSNTT] ‘SNOOYHSN| Gasvasiq PLATE III. Bul. 127, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. S) uoumroeds AyA[VOY OYJ YYTAL UOStAVdUIOd UL UMOYS ApIBOTO SI Od4y STYY JO STIOOAYSNU JO UOTPLOJSIp OTJSTIOJOVIVYO OYL “SNAWIOSdS IWNYON OM_L GNV SNOOYHSNIA) GaSVasid 4O AdAL 3MIT-V1vassnd SHL SO SAIdWVX" THE MYCOGONE DISEASE OF MUSHROOMS AND ITS CONTROL. i cultures from inoculations made indiscriminately from the common and sclerodermalike forms. Further investigation, however, may demonstrate the occurrence of this small conidial form. Figure 2 illustrates the Mycogone stage of the disease. During the course of the present investigation many hundreds of cultures were made, both from infected material and by transfers from pure cul- tures of the fungus. With few exceptions, spores of Verticillium developed first and later were followed by Mycogone. The spores of Verticillium are hyaline, oblong cylindrical, and borne on tapering branches. They are generally one celled, but occasionally larger, 2-celled spores are developed. They are variable in size, the aver- age measurement being 20 by 3.5 for the larger 2-celled spores. The cell wall is uniformly thin. Often, as noted by Costantin and Dufour Fic. 1.—lrregular mass of a diseased mushroom growing among normal mushrooms. (1892c) and Priilieux (1897), these Verticillium spores were borne on the same hyphe as the Mycogone spores. The Mycogone spores were usually produced at the bases of the hyphe strands and the Verticil- lium spores at the apexes. Figure 2 is an illustration of the Mycogone spores and the manner in which they are produced on the mycelium. They are two celled, the upper cell spherical and rough or covered with warts. At first, both cells are hyaline or colorless; later, the upper cell becomes light brown, the lower cell usually remaining hyaline, but in rare cases becoming faintly tinged with brown, averaging in size from 20 to 30 w. The cell walls are thick, while the spores of the Verticillium possess very thin walls. 8 BULLETIN 127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE DISEASE IN MUSHROOM BEDS. The study of the mushroom disease in America has proved the fungus to be exceedingly variable as regards the time of its appear- ance. In some instances evidences of Mycogone were observed when the mushrooms were just beginning to appear; again, the crop was well developed before being attacked by the parasite. The experience of the French growers also proves that the time of the appearance of the disease 1s subject to great variation, but that ordinarily it reaches its height about the middle of the productive period of the beds. The occurrence of diseased mush- rooms in an infected house is very sporadic. Sometimes isolated dis- eased specimens will appear among normal mushrooms, while again per- fectly healthy mushrooms will be observed growing in a badly dis- eased bed. An example of a badly diseased specimen growing among normal mushrooms is illustrated by figure 1. PROPAGATION AND DISSEMINATION OF THE DISEASE. The manner in which the parasite is propagated in the beds is only partially known, but from the ex- perience of foreign growers and the studies of the writer there can be little doubt that the disease is dis- tributed by the spawn and that the fungus grows up with the mycelium of the mushroom, which it finally attacks and destroys. Fic. 2.—Mycogone spores, showing the thick- ¢ . ; walled and warty cells. Magnified 425 A thorough investigation of one diameters. From a photomicrograph by eens of the American mushroom spawn- manufacturing plants in which the so-called ‘‘tissue method” of spawn making is practiced leads to the conclusion that there is little chance of the disease being carried by the spawn where proper precautions are taken to prevent infection. To prevent infection of the spawn entails great care on the part of the manufacturer. He must be absolutely sure that his cultures are made under sterile conditions and that the bricks are kept from any chance of contamination by spores of the parasite. Investigation and inquiry among most of the large growers in this country have dis- THE MYCOGONE DISEASE OF MUSHROOMS AND ITS CONTROL. 9) closed the fact that the disease is as prevalent in the beds of growers ' who use imported spawn entirely as among those who use domestic spawn. Instances of the use of both foreign and American manutac- tured spawn by growers in localities where the disease was present have been noted in which there was no trace of the disease. It is the general opinion among American growers that the disease was introduced by imported spawn. Tn the course of the present investigations it has been possible to propagate the parasite in the laboratory on pieces of blank spawn bricks! in sterilized bottles. The mycelium of the fungus spreads over the pieces of brick, eventually fruiting and producing spores of Verticillium and Mycogone. These experiments prove that under proper conditions the parasite will grow on the spawn bricks. The growth of the fungus appeared to be superficial, and it could not be ascertained whether or not the mycelium penetrated the bricks. No reliable method has yet been evolved to determine the presence or absence of the mycelium of Mycogone in spawn bricks. The ob- servation of the writer has been that there are no marked differences between spawn in an infected bed and that in healthy beds. Although our knowledge is incomplete as to the exact way in which the parasite spreads through the beds, because of insufficient experiments on this phase of the subject, it seems probable from the limited data that the parasite does grow through the manure of the mushroom beds and attacks the developing mushrooms, producing spores by means of which the disease may be carried to other beds. Tn addition to this method of reinfection, the question suggests itself as to whether the fungus may not persist for long periods in the lumber used in the construction of houses or beds. In order to deter- mine this point many cultures were made from the wood secured from diseased houses, but at the present time no definite conclusions can be drawn. LONGEVITY OF THE FUNGUS. In order to obtain data which would be of assistance in devising a method for the control of the mushroom disease, two distinct lines of investigation on the subject of the longevity of the fungus were inaugurated. Laboratory and field experiments were continued during a period of over three years. While the experiments were not sufficiently exhaustive to be conclusive, they are significant and interesting. Laboratory expervments.—Many different sets of cultures were made on corn meal in 100-cubic-centimeter flasks. These were opened, examined, and transferred at certain periods in order to ascertain 1 Blank spawn bricks are bricks in which the mushroom mycelium has not been “‘run,’’ or grown. 49597°—Bull. 127—14 2 10 BULLETIN 127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. their power of germination. Several hundred cultures were made during this series of experiments, and no growth was produced from cultures after a period of 18 months. It should be stated, however, that the cultures were kept in a dry place and were consequently thoroughly dried out at the termination of 18 months. That the organism retains its vitality for such a period and on an artificial medium demonstrates its dangerous nature. The probability is strong that in the mushroom house, under more favorable conditions of humidity and temperature, it would retain its power of germina- tion much longer. Field observations.—The writer’s opportunity to study the vitality of Mycogone in the beds of different mushroom houses has covered a period of about three years. One case for observation was that of a new house in which earth was mixed with manure from a badly infected house, which manure had been exposed to the weather for five years. This house produced a splendid crop of mushrooms, which indicates that the fungus exposed to the weather had not retained its vitality at the close of this period. A case in which the fungus persisted for three years is cited by Costantin. Two caves were held under observation; one was new, while the second had been used for mushroom cultivation for over 30 years, although the culture had not been continuous. This second cave was idle for three years before being employed for this experiment. The yield of the new cave exceeded that of the second, and the presence of the disease in the first was negligible, while in the second it was considerable. The conditions and attention in the two caves were practically the same, and, while the report does not mention what precautions were observed to prevent infection of the new beds, the result would indi- cate that the spores in the abandoned cave had retained their vitality for at least three years. CULTURAL STUDIES TO DETERMINE A MEANS OF CONTROL. Many hundreds of cultures of Mycogone were made during the course of the present investigation, for the purpose of studying the development and habit of the fungus and observing the direct effect of fungicides and disinfectants upon the organism. It was found that the fungus could be cultivated upon numerous different media, but as corn meal in flasks and corn-meal agar proved very congenial media they were employed in most of the experiments. The fungus grew rapidly, producing vigorous cultures, and practically no diffi- culty was experienced from contaminations even when fresh cultures were made directly from diseased mushrooms on which spores of various fungi were doubtless present. Figure 3 shows a photograph of one of the cultures, all of which exhibited a similar vigorous growth. In the early stages the cultures of the fungus were white, soon becom- THE MYCOGONE DISEASE OF MUSHROOMS AND ITS CONTROL. at: _ing drab in the center and finally light brown. As the method of growth is centrifugal and the marginal growth of the culture is the youngest, it is the last to become brown. The most important physical factor concerned in the growth of the fungus in culture proved to be humidity. While ordinarily low temperatures are not conducive to the growth of fungi, in the present instance it was found that a moist atmosphere was more important to the growth of the cultures than a high temperature. This observation was made from the study of numerous cultures in flasks and tubes and on various media subjected to different degrees of humidity maintained at various temperatures. Cultures grew at a temperature as low as 2° C. (35.6° F.) when considerable moisture was present, while cul- tures at a temperature oso. ©. O5- F.) in a dry atmosphere failed to produce any growth. This peculiarity of the fungus is an important factor in the method of fumigation. TREATMENT WITH FORMAL- DEHYDE GAS. , In view of the impor- tant role of formalde- hyde as a disinfectant and fungicide and the success obtained from its use in inhibiting the growth of certain para- sitic fungi (Patterson, Charles, and Veih- meyer, 1910), a series of laboratory experiments was performed to determine the effect of formaldehyde upon the Mycogone disease of cultivated mushrooms. The apparatus used in these experiments is fully described and illustrated in Bulletin No. 171 of the Bureau of Plant Industry. It consists of a large air-tight box provided with a glass door and a set of drawers, whereby cultures can be withdrawn from the box at any time during the process of fumigation with a minimum loss of the formaldehyde gas. Fia. 3.—Petri-dish culture of Mycogone on corn meal, 2113,hours after inoculation made from an infected mushroom, CHEMICALS EMPLOYED. The formalin employed in these experiments was purchased in the open market and was supposed to be of full strength, which should contain 40 per cent by volume of formaldehyde gas (37 per cent py BULLETIN 127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. weight U.S. P. standard). The formaln-permanganate method was used to generate the gas in all the experiments, since it has been found that it is the only practicable way of using the gas in mushroom houses. By this method formalin is poured on crystals of potassium permanganate, and this was the procedure in the laboratory experi- ments, but in the practical application of the method it was found necessary to deposit the potassium permanganate in the receptacles containing the formalin. Chemically pure potassium permanganate in finely divided crystals was used. In each of the experiments the proportions were 100 cubic centimeters of formalin to 50 grams of potassium permanganate. EXPOSURES OF CULTURES. In the laboratory experiments, pure cultures of the fungus were subjected to the direct action of the formaldehyde gas. The cultures were exposed to the gas in Petri dishes and 100- cubic-centimeter flasks.! Transfers for checks were made from the cul- tures to be subjected to the action of the gas im- mediately before the fumi- gation and again imme- diately after fumigation, in order to determine the effect of the formaldehyde gas on the vitality of the fungus. Figure 4 shows the manner in which the inoculations were made in every case in Petri dishes. Fia. 4.—Check culture, experiment 5: Transfer made from There were four centers “ul , i : bj d to f ldehyde gas. : : culture before it was subjecte o formaldehyde gas of inoculation, and the From a photograph made 1893 hours after inoculation. amounts transferred from the fumigated cultures were large enough to allow abundant chance for the fungus to grow. In the flask cultures four inoculations were also made. Resuuts or Fumigation witH FORMALDEHYDE ON CULTURES OF THE FUNGUS. The results of these experiments are given in Table I. The efficacy of formaldehyde in destroying the parasite is clearly shown by these experiments. As stated by McClintic (1906), and also by Patterson, Charles, and Veihmeyer (1910), it seems that higher temperature and humidity increase the fungicida! action of the gas. 1 The cultures contained Mycogone and Verticillium, as in no instance was it possible to cultivate the Verticillium alone. THE MYCOGONE DISEASE OF MUSHROOMS AND ITS CONTROL. 1b} Taste I.—Results of experiments with formaldehyde gas on cultures of the fungus. : Number ofcul- | Growth ( period in days)! of the uneus - “1A in| tures exposed in checks and in transfers made from Experiment. Detect Hen e) eat to formalde- | Num- cultures exposed to the gas for 30 and (°F.) |per1,000|culture| hyde gas for— peror 60 minutes, respectively. before | cubic jat time aleares! mixing | feetof joffumi) > enade reagents.| space. | gation. |30 min- 60 min- 5 A F Date. No. aaa ll Ge Check. | 30 minutes. | 60 minutes. 1911. fale INIOS225= ee : A 1in8. 1 55 700 21 12 13 LG eee see pink Seeetee- A & 1 fips 1in21. 5 ; fysbal hessooeae 2 in 6. com oat (pl 55 700 17 i 1 Cee ieee ee ke 246. GuiniGessseene (VL eee ee 1in7. 1e | 55 700 7 11 12 AUB E I Se oas Tein 4s Solon 205 shay aly eso in 26. Ia A oe oe 1 in 84.....-.| 3 in 4$. 1ini20222-e os le2nmi bs. Feb. 8| 2 67 700 11 22 23 Cp eence sees il Gai OA ae 1 in 9b. } : Thin 28. 222-10 in)28: Mar. 1| 3 65 800 16 19 18 Shiga sce No growth..| 1 in 53. Mar. 10 | 24 76 900 23 16 18 Kd) Nh Seoe Bee soellaeses donsauy No growth. Mar. 16) 5 58 1,000 12 14 15 IBY Be ocoadsa|lapade dome Do. Age A if 6 74 900 17 | None 12 RCS Bee al igen Saree Rois 1 in 38 DI: |\37 76 | 800 9 11 11 Giboseeeeae- No growth..| No growth Apr. 14/48 73 700 11 10 9 5 [54 34.2-).0--2 doxeesee Do ess ee isl petra eeean| Pes ees pr. 20 | 69 | 73 600 13 12 10 6 | 5 in 33-1) G06, i a oh : | iS - 3 Rita ee sososessanesas | stall) Apr. 25 |710 | 76 500 20 | None. 15 6m ee qGas His aos RECAPITULATION OF RESULTS. | NR Gia Percentage of check cultures and transfers from culuntes: which | Formalin | grew after exposure to formaldehyde gas for stated lengths Experi- Memperaciii(a165) per days) of | of time. ment | re CF.) | ooo cubic| Culture No before eons Se at time Ts ; mixing. of fumi- x 2 1 H space. | sation Ghecks 15 30 60 90 183 | | & < *- | minutes. | minutes. | minutes.| minutes.| hours. 10 76 500 20 83. 33 CPC ee oetent BES Eeead aaral 0 9 73 600 13 | S3nSoy peace ee | 16. 67 | 30 0 0 8 78 700 11 | 80 0 0 0 Oo Ee eemee la 55 700 | 21M oe OO Mens Bee eee [Rae SSkS3i Wemihi 5s 38h Be quale aeen \Sso5 see eee 1b 55 700 |e O0) ee cee ne 72.72 | Bovalia eeeocaccss eseosers Ic 55 700 7 TOOVE Blea tee ee 90.90 | Ps heel Vaart aes (ee Nona icats 2 67 700 TG Meer LOO! A ii [sper eal R918) ley 340.90) |e eee eeaen ee 3 65 800 TCE eye LOOKS | Queens Rs 0 | (atta) a ey sere eed 8 Are ars 7 76 800 9 100 0 0 | 0 Oi eee eps 4 76 900 23 IYO) ea ee 0 | 0 OF ee ye ao 6 74 900 17 STCOT A an AP tee a Lp IT | BESS. Mey ces ea be eso 5 58 1,000 12 COLO) ied (sa A 0 QE AE Serer Sete te Spear re 7 | } 1 The period for growth was reckoned to the time when an indication of growth of the fungus in the transfers first appeared. 2 In experiment 4, 17 cultures also were subjected for 90 minutes to formaldehyde gas, and the transfers from them showed no growth. 3 In experiment 7, 12 cultures were also subjected for 15 minutes and 11 cultures for 90 minutes to for- maldehyde gas, and the transfers from them showed no growth. 4 In experiment 8, 10 cultures were also subjected for 15 minutes to the gas and 10 cultures for 90 minutes. None of the transfers grew. > One culture contaminated. 6 In experiment 9, 12 cultures were also subjected for 90 minutes and 11 cultures for 184 hours to the gas. There was no growth in the transfers. 7 In experiment 10, 14 cultures were also subjected for 15 minutes to the gas, and 6 transfers grew in 16 days; 14 cultures also were subjected for 194 hours and the transfers from them showed no growth. The total absence of growth in the transfers from the cultures subjected to fumigation and the abundant and vigorous growth in see 14 BULLETIN 127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the check cultures were constant and characteristic of this series of experiments. TREATMENT WITH COAL OI. Early in the investigation of the problem of this mushroom disease it was learned that certain growers believed coal oil to be effective in destroying the spores of the fungus and checking the spread of the disease. The coal oil was poured ‘on sections in the beds where diseased mushrooms had appeared and was also employed for the disinfection of the hands and tools. In order to demonstrate the efficacy or inefficacy of this treatment a large number of cultures. of the fungus were grown on corn meal in 100-cubic-centimeter flasks and subjected to the direct action of the oil. These cultures were of various ages, but all in a state of vigorous growth. An arrangement was made by which the flasks could be inverted over the nozzle of a pipe supplying compressed air and made to pass through a stream of coal oil. The compressed air was turned on and the coal oil sprayed upon the culture. One half of the cultures were removed after the fungus had become covered with a film of coal oil. It was thought that this would be comparable to the condition in a mushroom house where coal oil was sprayed on the bed boards, walls, floors, and ceiling. The remaining cultures were sprayed until they were drenched with oil. In these the coal oil thoroughly penetrated the culture, which was practically an immersion of the fungus in coal oil. As in the experiments with formaldehyde, transfers were im- mediately made from the treated cultures. These cultures grew as quickly and as vigorously as the check cultures (transfers made from the cultures before being treated with coal oil). A sufficient number of these experiments were made to demonstrate the inefficacy of coal oil as an agent for controlling this disease. TREATMENT WITH ADDITIONAL DISINFECTANTS. Costantin and Dufour (1893a@) experimented with a variety of chemicals, to note their action on the growth of the fungus in cultures. The experiments were carried on in such a way that the toxic effect of the chemicals could be definitely determined. The following were used: Lysol, thymol (or thymic acid), boric acid, copper sulphate, calcium bisulphite, and milk of lime. These authors range the chemicals in the order of their effectiveness as follows: (1) Lysol (2 per cent solution), (2) thymol (2 per cent solution), (3) copper sulphate (2.5 per cent solution), (4) boric acid (to saturation). The milk of lime which many growers used for cleaning their caves was ineffective in preventing the growth of the disease, and the use of calcium bisulphite is not advised. From these experiments these authors advise the use of a 2 or 2.5 per cent solution of lysol as a spray to disinfect mushroom caves. THE MYCOGONE DISEASE OF MUSHROOMS AND ITS CONTROL. 15 The investigators (Costantin and Dufour, 18926, p. 145) described -cultural experiments of the parasite, using sulphur dioxid produced by burning sulphur. It was concluded that “sulphur dioxid has a very destructive effect upon the spores of the parasite.” Directions are given (Costantin and Dufour, 18930, p. 411) for the fumigation of mushroom caves by burning sulphur. These investigators in a later publication say that the sulphur method of fumigation is attended with such inconvenience that spraying with lysol is preferable (Dela- croix, 1900). The Great Britain Board of Agriculture and Fisheries (1905) recom- mends the thorough spraying of the house or other structure in which the mushrooms are grown with asolution of sulphate of copper, 1 pound of sulphate to 15 gallons of water, three times at intervals of 10 days. This treatment has been recommended to English growers since 1905 (Gardeners’ Chronicle, 1906-1912). Costantin and Dufour (1893a, p. 510) found that copper sulphate had a very feeble antiseptic action on the parasite. In America the attempts to control the disease by this fungicide have been discourag- ing to the majority of the growers using it. Costantin (1893b, p. 530) and Dufour (Costantin and Dufour, 1893a, p. 504), from the results obtained in experiments in a mushroom cave, advised the use of a 2.5 per cent solution of lysol. When the cave is dry, one spraying is said to be sufficient, but if it is very damp two thorough sprayings are to be given. A 2 per cent solution of tysol in water was used to check the spread of the disease in the mushroom bed in an infected cave. Places where the diseased mushrooms ap- peared in the beds were watered with the solution and the disease destroyed. In one of these places, watered with the disinfectant, a cluster of healthy, normal mushrooms later developed. So-called ‘“‘sanitary fluids,’ of which there are quite a number on the market, composed of coal-tar derivatives, saponified, are of a nature similar to the lysol used abroad. Several experiments have been made with such fluids. Although the number of these experiments was limited and the results not abso- lutely conclusive, in view of the previous French experiments with a similar disinfectant it is thought that these sanitary fluids will be effective for the uses mentioned, while the price is not prohibitive. PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS TO CONTROL THE DISEASE. A practical application was made of the information acquired from the results obtained in the laboratory experiments with formaldehyde gas in the inauguration of experiments for the control of the disease. This economic phase of the work received attention during several years. Continuous observations were made of the same houses during this period, but each succeeding year additional houses, with 16 BULLETIN 127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. their more or less differing conditions, were added as subjects of study in the practical application of the formaldehyde method for the control of the disease. Experiments were made in fumigating houses with different amounts of formaldehyde, the following proportions being used: 26 fluid ounces of formaldehyde per 1,000 cubic feet, 1 quart of formaldehyde per 1,000 cubic feet, and 3 pints of formalde- hyde per 1,000 cubic feet. The proportion of 3 pints to 1,000 cubic feet was found to be more effective and will probably prove the most satisfactory in ordinary practice. In cases in which the leakage was considerable, allowance was made for such loss. During the course of the present investigation 16 houses were fumigated by the writer or according to his directions. Two of these houses were fumigated at the rate of 26 ounces of formaldehyde per 1,000 cubic feet, five at the rate of 1 quart of formaldehyde per 1,000 cubic feet, and nine at the rate of 3 pints of formaldehyde per 1,000 cubic feet. Two houses which were total failures the season previous to fumiga- tion, after treatment produced crops which the grower reports as follows: ‘‘I believe that I never had a finer or more promising house or better mushrooms.’ The results of fumigation were successful in all cases in which the proper sanitary methods were observed to pre- vent reinfection of the houses. From the writer’s observations of the results of these experiments with fumigation and the satisfaction expressed by the growers in the course of conversation or correspondence as to the efficacy of the treatment, the important réle of formaldehyde as an agent in con- trolling the mushroom disease seems practically demonstrated. MEASURES OF CONTROL. As a result of the present investigation of the Mycogone disease of mushrooms, the following measures may be advised for the control of the fungus. The treatment is more or less prophylactic in its nature and seeks rather to prevent the appearance or spread of the disease than to eradicate the fungus after it has actually made its appearance. SANITATION NECESSARY IN RELATION TO THE DISEASE. Too much emphasis can not be placed upon the danger from the fungus, because of its highly infectious nature. The remarkable rapidity with which the fungus is propagated and the great vitality possessed by the spores, as shown in the preceding pages, make it absolutely essential to observe great care in the construction of new beds or in passing from an infected to a noninfected bed. The ways in which the spores may be carried from place to place are numerous. They may be contained in the manure or soil for the casing of the beds, in particles of earth or manure adhering to the boots and shoes THE MYCOGONE DISEASE OF MUSHROOMS AND ITS CONTROL. 17 of the workmen, or they may be present on tools and implements used ‘in the mushroom houses. Wind and insects, especially the mushroom fly, are probably active agents in the distribution of the disease. It is a deplorable fact that there are growers who allow diseased mushrooms to decay on the beds. There is in many cases so much discouragement due to losses occasioned by the disease that no effort is made to clean off the beds, the growers being content to pick what few normal mushrooms they can and avoid the labor necessary to suitably dispose of diseased specimens. Figure 5 shows a photograph of a bed which has been practically. exhausted, no normal mushrooms being produced. The grower has allowed the diseased masses to remain and decay and these will produce millions of spores, which will become a menace to new beds. These spores will become mixed with the manure and earth when the beds Fic. 5.—Diseased mushrooms left to decay upon the beds to become a menace to future crops. are removed and, if not suitably disposed of, may be introduced into the house when new beds are made. All diseased material should be picked off as soon as it makes its appearance. The labor of keeping the beds clear of the diseased specimens will be repaid many times over in preventing the spread of the malady. An important measure for the control of the disease is to prevent the production of spores of the parasite. Places in the beds where the fungus appears may ve treated with either of the disinfectants mentioned, formalin or one of the ‘“sani- tary fluids,’ to prevent the spread of the disease. Diseased mush- rooms picked from beds should be soaked with a disinfectant. For this purpose a solution of 1 gallon of formalin to 1 barrel of water (45 gallons) should be used. The only reason for not using formalde- hyde solution is the discomfort in handling it. Its fungicidal action against the disease has proved to be effective. In place of the 18 BULLETIN 127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. formaldehyde solution, one containing 5 per cent—a gallon to a barrel of water—of one of the sanitary fluids composed of coal-tar deriva- tives will be satisfactory. This percentage is higher than that commercially recommended. When the material is removed from the bed at the completion of the production of the crop, it should be immediately removed to places where there will be no possibility of bringing the disease back into the houses. The Mycogone disease, as far as is known, does not affect other cultivated crops. The old compost may therefore be used as a fertilizer, but it should be sold only to farmers who will carry it to a distance and to a locality where mushroom cultivation is not prac- ticed. , The ground in the vicinity of the houses, the composting yard, and places with which the diseased materials have come in contact must be thoroughly sprayed with one of the disinfectants. If it is necessary to place the new manure or soil on ground where the old compost from diseased houses has rested, it will be necessary to give several such sprayings. All tools, carts, wagons, and wheelbarrows which have been used to handle the infected materials must be thoroughly treated with the disinfectant. Soil for the casing of the beds and for mixing with the manure must be selected from a place which has not been in contact with the disease. . The houses which have been fumigated shouldbe kept closed until precautions to prevent the reentrance of the disease have been taken. DrIrReEcTIONS FOR FumicaTtinc MusHroom HOUwSEs. Preparatory to fumigation, the houses should be completely cleaned of all old bedding material and thoroughly swept. The proper method for the disposal of this material has already been described. A warm, moist day should be selected for fumigation, as the fungi- cidal effect of the gas is greater under such conditions. To this end, the house should be thoroughly sprayed with water and kept warm for about a week or ten days. To insure sufficient humidity, this pro- cess should be repeated the day before the fumigation is to be per- formed. The houses should be closed and sealed and made as nearly air-tight as possible by pasting paper over all cracks and filling up all openings, thus preventing the escape of the gas. If care is not exercised to prevent leakage of the gas, the fumigation may be ren- dered ineffective. The same grade of formaldehyde (or commercial formalin) as that used in the experiments with pure cultures of the fungus is advised for practical work. Three pints of formalin should be allowed for every 1,000 cubic feet of space, the reagents. being used in the proportion of 1 pint of formalin to one-half pound of potassium permanganate. In houses THE MYCOGONE DISEASE OF MUSHROOMS AND ITS CONTROL. 19 24 by 100 feet, the usual size of mushroom houses, at least three ‘receptacles should be used in which to generate the gas. It does not - matter what the material of the receptacles may be, for the formalin has no corrosive action, but the heat of the chemical reaction, when potassium permanganate (permanganate of potash) is added to the formalin, might break glass receptacles. Half barrels, wash tubs, and iron or earthen receptacles are suitable, but it is advisable to select containers in which the diameter of the top is greater than that of the base. The formalin should cover the potassium permanganate when it is placed in the receptacle, which should be deep enough to insure the formalin from splashing over as a result of the vigorous chemical action. The proper amount of formalin is measured and divided among the number of receptacles to be used in each house, while the proper proportion of potassium permanganate to be added to the formalin in each receptacle is carefully weighed out into paper or cloth bags. It will be found more satisfactory and the possibility of error may be avoided if ike amounts of formalin and potassium permanganate are placed in each receptacle. If convenient, receptacles of a uniform size should be selected. The weighing and measuring of the chemicals should be accom- plished as quickly as possible after the receptacles contaming the formalin are placed in the house. It is advisable to weigh the potas- sium permanganate into the bags first and then to measure the for- malin for the respective receptacles, since considerable gas will be given off from the formalin and the house being almost air-tight, © extreme physical discomfort due to the formaldehyde gas might result. The receptacles contaiming the formalin are then placed in position in the aisles of the house. In average-sized houses it will be sufficient to place the receptacles in the center aisle, but in larger houses the gas must be more evenly distributed by placing some of the receptacles in the several aisles. There will be required as many persons to place the bags of potassium permanganate in the formalin receptacles as the number of aisles in which the receptacles have been placed. A bag of potassium permanganate is placed beside each receptacle containing the proportionate amount of formalin. When everything is ready, the operator in each aisle, if there are receptacles in more than one aisle, goes to the farthermost receptacle in that aisle and places the bag of potassium permanganate in the formalin, the operation being simultaneous in each aisle. Egress is made through the door at the end of the aisle, which is quickly closed and tightly sealed. The operation should be accomplished as quickly as possible, and care should be taken to prevent accidents, for inhaling large quantities 20 BULLETIN 127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the gas may prove eae urious. Formaldehyde has a distressing effect upon the eyes, and also attacks the mucous membranes, with consequent discomfort. The potassium permanganate may be placed in the receptacles first, which should be of selected size, so that it will just cover the base of the receptacle. This was the method followed in the cultural experi- ments, but, as already stated, for general practice it was found more convenient to place the formaldehyde in the receptacles first. The formalin-permanganate method of fumigation differs radically from other methods. The potassium permanganate 1s decomposed by a part of the formalin, and the heat of this chemical reaction serves to liberate formaldehyde gas. Formaldehyde gas is explosive when in a confined place, such as a mushroom house; consequently, all lights must be kept away from the houses while they are being fumigated. Even after the receptacles containing the formalin are placed in the houses, they should not be entered by persons with lights. The houses should be kept closed for at least 24 hours. If possible, they should be unopened until just before the new beds are to be installed, thus preventing any chance of their being infected meantime. Under no circumstance should the houses be opened until the manure which had been taken from them has been removed and the ground where it was placed thoroughly disinfected in the manner described. CONCLUSIONS. The disease of cultivated mushrooms is the cause of extensive losses to growers in this country, who state that unless precautions are taken to prevent its spread it will necessitate the abandonment of the indus- try in infected localities. The disease of cultivated mushrooms apparently is the same as that which has caused great losses to foreign mushroom growers for many years. This disease is caused by a fungus, a species of Mycogone, which has two forms of spores, one possessing thin and the other thick walls. Experiments prove that the thick-walled spores retain their vitality under ordinary cultural conditions for considerable periods of time. A moist atmosphere is essential for the growth of the fungus, as moisture rather than heat favors luxuriant growth. Cultures kept in a dry place were found to retain their vitality about 18 months. This would indicate that under natural conditions the life of the spores would be much longer. The removal of the diseased mushrooms as soon as they appear will prevent the production of the thick-walled spores and thus lessen the spread of the disease. THE MYCOGONE DISEASE OF MUSHROOMS AND ITS CONTROL. 21 As the disease is carried by many different means, the greatest care “must be taken to prevent the infection of clean houses. There are, in general, two ways in which infection may take place: (1) It may be introduced into the house by means of the spawn and (2) the manure or soil for the beds may contain spores of the fungus. In the first case, the disease becomes evident as soon as the mushrooms begin to make their appearance, and all portions of the beds are affected. In the second case, beds may become infected by spores from a previously diseased crop. Air currents free these spores from crevices or wher- ever they may have lodged and thus assure a recurrence of the trouble; insects may carry spores from other diseased beds, or from diseased material which has been allowed to remain outside the houses, or spores may be carried on clothing or tools. When the spores of the parasite are introduced in such a manner, the disease may make its appearance a considerable time after the crop has begun to bear. The abandonment of diseased houses for less than three years will be insufficient to rid them of the parasite, and a period of more than three years may be necessary. Formaldehyde-gas fumigation and the observance of proper san- itary measures should be employed. Formaldehyde gas, even in small quantities, retards the growth of the fungus, and when sufficiently strong will destroy the spores. A rate of 3 pints of formaldehyde or formalin per 1,000 cubic feet should be used, in the proportion of 1 pint of formalin to one-half pound of potassium permanganate. Fumigation will control the disease in Ne houses, but will not keep them free, since bringing infected material, tools, etc., into the houses will agatonnnlee start the disease anew; therefore every precaution should be taken to prevent the reinfection of the houses after they have been fumigated. Coal oil has no effect upon the spores of the parasite. Diseased material should be removed from the houses immediately and treated with a disinfectant, preferably a solution of 1 gallon of formalin to about 45 gallons of water. This disinfectant should be used to spray all places where diseased material has been. Tools and conveyances should also be treated. The disease is highly infectious, and the measures to be taken are more prophylactic than palliative in their nature. Certain questions are yet to be solved concerning the life history of the fungus, such as the development of a perfect stage, but the method evolved for the control of the disease has proved effective and has resulted in saving large sums to mushroom growers. LITERATURE CITED. Cooxg, M. C. 1889. Mushroom disease. Jn Gard. Chron., s. 3, v. 5, no. 119, p. 434-435. Costantin, J. N. 1893a. Note sur la culture du ‘‘Mycogone rosea.’’ In Bul. Soc. Mycol. France, t. 9, p. 89-91. 1893b. Recherches expérimentales sur la méle et sur le traitement de cette maladie. Jn Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. [Paris], t. 116, no. 10, p. 529-6532. and Durour, LEon. 1892a. La molle, maladie des champignons de couche. Jn Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. [Paris], t. 114, no. 9, p. 498-501. 18926. Recherches sur la destruction du champignon parasite produisant la molle, maladie du champignon de couche. Jn Bul. Soc. Bot. France, t. 39 (g:)2;, t-.1'4) 5p. 143-146. 1892c. Recherches sur la méle maladie du champignon de couche. Jn Rey. Gén. Bot., t. 4, p. 401-406, 462-472, 549-557. 1893a. Action des antiseptiques sur la mdle, maladie du champignon de couche. In Rev. Gén. Bot., t. 5, no. 60, p. 497-514. 18936. Observations sur la méle, champignon parasite du champignon de couche. In Assoc. Franc. Avanc. Sci., 21™° Session, 1892, p. 406-412. DELACROIX, GEORGES. 1900. Rapport sur les traitements 4 appliquer aux maladies qui attaquent le champignon de couche dans les environs de Paris. Jn Min. Agr, [France] Bul., ann. 19, p. 889-899. GARDENERS’ CHRONICLE. 1906-1912. S. 3, v. 39, no. 995, p.48, 1906; s. 3, v. 43, no. 117, p. 340, 1908; s. 3, v. 49, no. 1256, p. 48, 1911; 5. 3, v. 49, no. 1265, p. 192, 1911; s. 3, v. 51, no. 1318, p. 212, 1912. (Answers to inauiries of corresponcents about diseased mushrooms.) Great Briratn—Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. 1905. A mushroom disease (Hypomyces perniciosus). Bd. Agr. and Fisheries [Gt. Brit.], Leaflet 139, 3 p., illus. McCun tic, T. B. 1906. The limitations of formaldehyde gas as a disinfectant, with special refer- ence to car sanitation. U.S. Treas. Dept., Hyg. Lab. Bul. 27, 112 p., 1 pl. Maenus, P. W. 1906. Die verderblichste Champignonkrankheit in Europa. Jn Naturw. Rund- schau, Jahrg. 21, No. 38, p. 508-511, 1 fig. Patrerson, Fiora W., CHARLES, VERA K., and VEIHMEYER, F. J. 1910. Some fungous diseases of economic importance. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 171, 41 p., 3 fig., 8 pl. Prinuievx, E. E. 1892. Champignons de couche attaqués par le Mycogone rosea. In Bul. Soc. Mycol. France, t. 8, p. 24-26. 1897. Maladies des Plantes Agricoles . . . 2t. Paris. 23 24 BULLETIN 127, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REPIN, CHARLES. 1897. La culture du champignon de couche. Jn Rev. Gén. Sci., ann. 8, no. 17, p. 705-717, 5 fig. STAPF, OTTO. 1s8s9. Ueber den Champignonschimmel als Vernichter von Champignonculturen. In Verhandl. kK. K. Zool. Bot. Gesell. Wien, Bd. 39, p. 617-622. C3 BULLE TIN, OF) THE 1) USDEPARIMENT ORAGRICULTURE No. 128 — fs. N\A Ee gz 4 Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, Henry W. Henshaw, Chief. & September 25, 1914. DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. By WELLS W. Cooke, Assistant Biologist. INTRODUCTION. The North American rails and their allies, the cranes, gallinules, coots, and others, are considered game birds in many localities, but until within the last few years they have received scant protection. As a matter of fact they include among their number several species that are not only of harmless habits but of great food value. This is particularly true of the sora, or Carolina rail, which until recently has existed in immense numbers in the marshes of the Atlantic States, and which not only has been a favorite object of pursuit by sports- men but also has been regarded as a highly prized table delicacy. Another species, than which none more striking exists in North America, is the stately white crane. This bird used to stalk over the prairies but is now almost extinct, and a few more years will probably witness the passing of the last individual. The draining of the Ever- glades probably will mark the end also of the contingent of its smaller relative, the sandhill crane, which nests in Florida. While the de- struction of such birds is to be deplored it seems to be a necessary concomitant of the settlement of the wide areas they once called home. A large bird that furnishes meat of a high grade can not be expected to survive long in a thickly settled country. Owing to their fine ap- pearance, harmless habits, and economic worth, it is highly desirable to withdraw all cranes from the list of game birds and preserve as long as possible the few now remaining. Rails differ markedly from cranes in appearance and _ habits, although they belong to the same family. Chiefly marsh or meadow breeding birds, they spend most of their time well concealed in rank swamp vegetation, where they are out of harm’s way. Several of the species are few in numbers, but they are so secretive that they Notre.—This bulletin aims to give precise information as to the ranges of the several species of North American rails and their allies, the cranes, gallinules, coots, and others, especially in regard to breeding ranges and migrations; and to furnish data sufficient to serve as a basis for protective legislation for the species by States in which they are found. 50602°—14——1 i BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. probably maintain their numbers in spite of persecution. The one striking exception is the sora, or Carolina rail, for which a special plea needs to be entered. Considered a game bird in many parts of the United States, the sora has rapidly decreased in numbers. Many hunters are fond of the sport of rail shooting, and since each hunter requires a boat and a pusher, the rail-shooting season is an important factor in the total yearly income of a large number of boatmen in the neighborhood of rail marshes. The sora was originally the most abundant of the rails, and is still able to care for itself during the breeding season, when it is thinly scattered over an immense area of fresh-water marshes. During migration, however, it betakes itself to tidewater marshes and here falls an easy prey to the hunter. Hach high tide forces the bird from its safe retreat in thick grass or bushes and affords the hunter a chance to pursue his game in the open, when the number of sora killed is almost past belief. A long-noted resort for the sora is the flat land near the mouth of the James River, Va. Here at the height of the fall migration in September the reeds used to be fairiy alive with count- less thousands of these birds. That their number is now sadly re- duced can easily be understcod from the hosts that have been shot on these marshes. Two men in two days, September 15-16, 1881, killed 1,235 of the birds, while as many as 3,000 have been shot in a single day on a marsh of hardly 500 acres. In the light of such figures no one need ask what is becoming of the game birds or what is their probable fate. Immediate steps should be taken to decrease the bag limit in order to prevent the destruction of the species. The sora is a game bird that should be especially fostered. Its habits are absolutely harmless; it breeds only in places that are not suitable for agricultural purposes; it will live and thrive in marshy spots too small to harbor any other species of game bird; and it is so widely distributed and so capable of adapting itself to a wide range of con- ditions, that if given a fair chance and not too severely harassed during the shooting season, it will survive in abundance as a game bird long after many other species have succumbed before the advance of intensive agriculture. While the salt-marsh breeding rails have not been so severely perse- cuted as the sora, they are numerous enough and important enough both for food and sport to warrant more effective protection than has hitherto been afforded them. They should at least be allowed to breed in peace, and robbing their nests should be prohibited. A word may be said also in favor of the much despised coot. Many hunters class this bird with the crow as regards edible qualities. However, those who have tasted coot only in winter or spring after NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. 3 it has fed for many weeks on the animal life of the salt-water marshes, would not recognize the taste of the bird in October in northern Minnesota, after it has been fattened on that best of all duck foods, wild rice. But everywhere in the United States coots and gallinules should be recognized by law and their killing should be forbidden dur- ing the closed season on ducks, if for no other reason than that their slaughter may not be used as a blind to hide the killing of the more valuable ducks. DISTRIBUTION. The North American rails and their allies include 36 species and 8 subspecies, a total of 44 forms. Twenty-one of these (16 species and 5 subspecies) are found only in the West Indies and Middle America, and two are Hastern Hemisphere species that are casual or accidental in North America. This leaves 18 species and 3 subspecies, or 21 forms, that occur in the United States. SOUTHERN FORMS NOT RANGING Cuban king rail (Rallus elegans ramsdeni). Mexican king rail (Rallus tenwirostris). Bahama clapper rail (Rallus crepitans cory). Caribbean clapper rail (Rallus longiros- tris caribaeus). Cuban clapper rail (Rallus longirostris cubanus). Yucatan clapper rail (Rallus pallidus). Spotted rail (Limnopardalus maculatus). Lawrence wood rail (Aramides axillaris). Cayenne wood rail (Aramides cajanea). Mangrove wood rail (Aramudes- albiven- tris). NORTH TO THE UNITED STATES. Nicaragua wood rail (Aramides plumbei- collis). Red rail (Amaurolimnas concolor). Mexican yellow rail (Porzana goldmani). Yellow-bellied rail (Porzana flaviventris). Rufous rail (Porzana rubra). Ash-headed rail (Creciscus cinereiceps). White-throated rail (Creciscus albigu- laris). Wandering rail (Creciscus exilis vagans). Caribbean coot (Fulica caribaea). American finfoot (Heliornis fulica). Guatemalan sun bittern (Eurypyga ma- jor). EURASIAN FORMS ACCIDENTAL IN GREENLAND. Spotted crake (Porzana porzana). | European coot (Fulica atra). FORMS RANGING IN THE UNITED STATES. Whooping crane (Grus americana). Little brown crane (Girus canadensis). Sandhill crane (Grus mexicana). Limpkin (Aramus vociferus). King rail (Rallus elegans). Belding rail (Rallus beldingt). California clapper rail (Rallus obsoletus). Light-footed rail (Rallus levipes). Clapper rail (Rallus crepitans crepitans). Louisiana clapper rail (Rallus crepiians saturatus). Florida clapper rail (Rallus crepitans scott). Wayne clapper rail (Rallus crepitans waynet). Virginia rail (Rallus virginianus). Sora, or Carolina rail (Porzana carolina). Yellow rail (Coturnicops noveboracensis). Black rail (Creciscus jamaicensis). Farallon rail (Creciscus coturniculus). Corn crake (Crex crex). Purple gallinule (lonornis martinicus). Florida gallinule (Gallinula galeata). Coot (Fulica americana). 4 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. elf f ) | | MIGRATION. Rails and their allies include both migratory and nonmigratory forms. Most of the salt-water species remain in the same marshes the entire year, while the greater number of those breeding near fresh water perform longer or shorter migrations. Much misunderstanding has arisen in regard to the powers of flight of some of the species. The flight of the sora is so slow and labored and the bird seems so reluctant to use its wings that some writers have supposed that it was unable to fly long distances and that its migration was therefore a series of short flights or even performed on foot. As a matter of fact the sora is among the long-distance migrants, the most northern breeders traveling not less than 2,500 miles to the nearest winter home; and those wintering south of the Equator being at least 3,000 miles from the nearest breeding grounds. Thousands make the hundred-mile flight between Florida and Cuba, and there is reason to believe that many individuals easily achieve the 500-mile passage from Florida to Yucatan, and the equally long journey from the West Indies across the Caribbean Sea to South America. As in previous bulletins of this nature,’ the data on distribution and breeding have been collected from both published and unpublished sources; the migration data are taken principally from reports of observers scattered all over the United States and Canada, who for 30 years have been furnishing the Biological Survey extensive records of bird movements. NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. WHOOPING CRANE. Grus americana (Linnaeus). Range.—North America, from northern Mackenzie to Florida and central Mexico. Breeding range.—Many years ago, when the whooping crane was common, it was known to nest north to Great Slave Lake (Coues) and south to Oakland Valley, Iowa (eggs in U.S. National Museum), the breeding range being a northwest and southeast strip 1,500 miles long by less than 300 miles wide. The species probably nested over a much wider area, since Hearne says that in his day, about 1770, it occurred on the coast of Hudson Bay [near Fort Churchill], and on May 25, 1865, Macfarlane saw it at Fort Ander- son, Mackenzie, and about the same time Ross saw it at Fort Simp- son, Mackenzie. It nested east of Dubuque, Iowa (Coues), Mille Lacs, Minn. (Trippe), and Oak Point, Man. (Small); and west to Spirit Lake, Iowa (Mosher), Herman, Minn. (Roberts and Benner), Larimore, N. Dak. (Eastgate), Qu’Appelle, Sask. (Hind), and Stony 1 Bul. 45, Biol. Sury., U. S. Dept. Agr., 1913, ‘‘ Distribution and Migration of North American Herons and Their Allies,”’ et al. {| NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. 5 Plain, Alta. (Stansell). At the present time the species has proba- bly ceased to breed anywhere in the United States or Manitoba, and the few remaining individuals—for the species is almost extinct— spend the summer in southern Mackenzie and the northern parts of Alberta and Saskatchewan. 1@ BREEDING © OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER A+ WINTERING > OCCURRENCE IN WINTER Fig. 1.—W hooping crane (Grus americana). Winter range.—The winter range is rather restricted, extending from southern Louisiana (Audubon), along the coast of Texas to northern Tamaulipas (Nelson), La Barca, Jalisco (Goldman), and Silao, Guanajuato (Nelson). Formerly the species ranged in winter eastward to western Florida (Nuttall). 6 BULLETIN 128, U,'S.: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Migration range-—The whooping crane seems to have had a pro- nounced southeastward migration in the fall, brmging it to Emsdale, Ont. (Fleming), Yarker, Ont. (Ewart), Cayuga Lake, N. Y. (Eaton), and Beesieys Point, N. J. (Turnbull). There are good grounds for believing that in early colonial times it wandered not rarely to Vermont and Massachusetts. It ceased to visit New England a century ago, and there are hardly a half dozen records of its occur- rence in the last 25 years east of Lake Huron and the Allegheny Mountains. ; The whooping crane probably was never a common visitor to the South Atlantic States. Audubon’s records of the crane in that part of the country refer to the sandhill crane, but one was seen about 1850 on the Waccamaw River, 8. C. (Wayne), and there was a specimen in the museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, sent from St. Simon Island, Ga. The whooping crane has wandered westward a few times to Big Sandy, Mont., May 1-5, 1903 (Coubeau); Terry, Mont., October 5, 1904 (Cameron); Loveland, Colo. (Smith); and southern New Mexico (Henry). Spring migration. Num- Average F Biace ber of | date of Har esvdate ; years’ | spring areas records. arrival. iy Ste owis, Mole cccsec cote saccccssccets wee eceteee f onssone cowed Soalose 3 | Mar. 22 | Mar. 17,1884 MLOLES DUPLO Saar cise coe cists ee nine Sowell cies ae eae ean ce tees | pera chee ral cee Mar. 9, 1894 ATV GTATIOAY LOW Datars cine eee teen Sree oe tee ee ae ee ee eee SLOMM ARO OWE wack se Soe aotechic noes ei eee aa a en ere anaes FCTOTIT A Os Min Tease oem sexe retain Safe ete are a oe ee nee e a Bonham extre esc desc wtewes coke tore seme nae e ee eee eee seus Sas East-central Kansas Harrisons Dak. (Mean) ss sos ssaneecn cee bandas cones smote ase ecmn see Northeastern North Dakota Oweland*: COlOmcaee 2 si tsece ec coe ae oe coc amen nae cee eee ee wen eee FAW OTING MEI Ticet eens Ra NO erm ere Se ise erent tle Wa ee Se mete a nanhe iindiangleads Sass (Near) << Gece wiadinwe bias sae se asec. seiesg eases a OF SLOnyeblainy Altacnksese2co cece one csk ae Nance cones Soars eee ooene eal eee eee eameeeee May 21,1909 tay RiversMackenzieiwes. oon. sces 6. tee o ns somes ans ones ainaeeee se neeee WiillowaRivers: Mackenzie ce 2. ukcds.co. 2 cen scctaass eee eee seek co semen} MONTE; MaCKenZiGxs at ae = ake mes cca coe e nee oes s one eee ne coe eee HoTovANd ersons, Macken 710s oo 225 a8 ee aa eee enone eae cee e ec e sate Brownsville, Tex............-- Bonham, Tex....... Bay St. Louis, Miss. East-central Kansas........... : 4 WasternsNebraskas seme fotsec cece ee ee acme ne eo ae ee ee ae eee | 4| May 10] May 16,1890 ETaITISOU, Ss Dake s2ces co dece oases pe acceso ene eto sesame eee eee se 2| Apr. 30 | May 15,1891 Eggs have been taken April 25, 1868, at Dubuque, Iowa (specimens in U.S. National Museum); May 2, 1882, at Clear Lake, lowa (Goss); May 26, 1894, near Eagle Lake, Hancock County, lowa (Anderson); and May 16, 1900, at Yorkton, Sask. NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. fl Fall migration. Num- | Average . per of | date of | Earliest date Place. 5 of fall years fall ar- ea records.| rival. BENE NOMMEASTOLOVSOUL NED akOtawee sone see sen oe se ee eee ese Ee sone ee wens 3 | Sept. 8 | Sept. 8,1891 IBIAS TODMEN Obras kaze tem yen cll as uate Beet ra seine MER SKN OM nee ae 6] Oct. 6] Sept. 19, 1891 LUG UTEz TAO bes ION pti gS cae a a A teste ee ta Seether ar ncau sera Pane Retype get ee Sept. 4, 1902 TE CCAS NAN yh ES a Sa Ne ae a a LAD eg Aug. 26, 1886 IBOMa en, Wee Con OES AO sop anebe sane abo ceoosUaeeeeSbeE ad eaoncao| Seopa |sAsacesase Oct. 8,1888 Num- | Average | + ‘ ber of | date of | Latest date Place. piel of the last years’ | the last Sa KEEL records.| one seen, Boe AASHAGIEIG Os Se oa od ey eRe NE a PR a i ohana eR pe 3 | Oct. 10 | Oct. 12,1904 Ie BYR Ora SS AD Bes se eh as Genre Fae A Aue Or B75 DAE AN ae me mB 2 | Oct. 29 | Nov. 1,1891 IB aBGIM ING OBI ae eae ae ee eS aaa ooo cn eae ORME a ame ma oe 3 | Oct. 26 | Nov. 12,1890 (Ta VRN ER TERI OS) Ss aA Ny la A a co Rs a [eect eee Oct. 18,1907 EVE TO TIBI AKO MEN TIT Tse see eee se Pye io ellen vores mualtage mene Neyateate dears Cauteeaareaw lias alan fo Resear ees Noy. 18,1885 Deca Commins JOWE edcaend ana sosoobAocan cnc oon bHSoUSEnEH abe: BacEesecd SS abpaa4 aoesbarese Nov. 12,1871 iBaiMleniin, “Mx 5 San asooee toc Hose dee pEEEcooeoseTs sausS Ur Esooppocooaor oe 3 | Nov. 19 | Nov. 22,1888 LITTLE BROWN CRANE. Grus canadensis (Linnaeus). Range.—North America from the Arctic islands to central Mexico. Breeding range.——The little brown crane is the northern represen- tative of the common sandhill crane of the United States, and breeds north to Ponds Bay, Baffin Land, iatitude 73° (McClintock), Bay of Merey, Banks Land, latitude 74° (Armstrong), and Colville River, Alaska, latitude 71° (Murdock); and ranges north in migration to Point Barrow (Stone). It breeds west to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska (Grinnell), Semiayine Strait, Siberia (Nordenskjold), Lawrence and Matthew Islands, Alaska (Nelson); and migrates still farther west to the Near Islands, Alaska (Turner). The breeding range extends south to the Nushagak River, Alaska (McKay), Big Island, Macken- zie (Coues), and near Cape Eskimo, Keewatin (Preble); and east to Southampton Island, Keewatin (Hifrig), and Igloolik, Melville Peninsula (Parry). The summer home therefore is a parallelogram, 2,500 miles from east to west and one-third as much from north to south. Winter range-—Compared with the above outlined breeding range, the little brown crane occupies a comparatively small area during the winter season, extending from San Patricio, Tex. (Sennett), to Rio Verde, San Luis Potosi (Allen), Silao, Guanajuato (Nelson), and La Barca, Jalisco (Nelson and Goldman). A specimen was taken at San Rafael Mission near San Francisco, Cal., in January (Buturlin), but this probably was an accidental occurrence. Migration range——The little brown crane is a migrant in the region of the Rocky Mountains and the Great Plains lying imme- diately between the summer and the winter homes, but even here the 8 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. records are few and far between, owing to the difficulty of dis- tinguishing this species from the more common sandhill crane. The normal migration range may be said to extend east te Manitoba and ® BREEDING O OCCURRENCE + WINTERING Fig. 2.—Little brown crane (Grus canadensis). Towa, beyond which wanderers have been recorded from ‘Trout Lake, Keewatin (Murray); near Johnstown, Wis. (Kumlien and Hollister); Clark County, Mo. (Widmann); Alexander, Prince Edward NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. 9 Island, September 22, 1905 (Moore); Natick Hill, R. I., October 9, -1889 (Howe and Sturtevant); and near Mount Pleasant, S. C., October 18, 1890 (Wayne). The species is rare on the Pacific slope, but has been noted at Chilliwack, B. C. (Brooks); Roy, Wash. (Thayer); Fort Klamath, Oreg. (Merrill); Ash Meadows, Nev. (Fisher); and Los Angeles, Cal. (Grinnell). : Spring migration.—The arrival of the species in spring has been noted in Clark County, Mo., April 10, 1896 (Widmann); Whiting, Towa, April 6, 1886 (Anderson); near Johnstown, Wis., April 4, 1894 (Kumlien and Hollister); Portage la Prairie, Man., May 5, 1898 (Atkinson); Carlton House, Sask., April 28, 1827 (Richardson); Indian Head, Sask., April 28, 1910 (Lang); Fort Vermilion, Alta., April 24, 1906 (White); Hay River, Mackenzie, May 1, 1908 (Jones); Fort Resolution, Mackenzie, May 7, 1860 (Kennicott); Fort Provi- dence, Mackenzie, April 28, 1905 (Jones); Fort Simpson, Mackenzie, May 9, 1904 (Preble); Felix Harbor, Franklin, latitude 70°, June 4, 1830 (Ross); Igloolik, Franklin, latitude 69°, June 25, 1823 (Parry); Los Angeles, Cal., March 21, 1904 (Grinnell); Ash Meadows, Nev., March 10, 1891 (Fisher); Okanogan Landing, B. C., April 20, 1906 (Brooks); Fort Kenai, Alaska, May 4, 1869 (Bischof); St. Michael, Alaska, May 7 (Nelson); near Kigulik Mountains, Alaska, May 10, 1905 (Anthony); Kowak River, Alaska, May 14, 1899 (Grinnell); Point Barrow, Alaska, June 1, 1883 (Murdock); and Bay of Mercy, Franklin, middle of May, 1852 (Armstrong). If these isolated records represent the average dates of migration, then the little brown crane occupies about 65 days in passing the 2,800 miles from southern California to Banks Land, an average of about 40 miles a day or scarcely an hour’s flight. » Eggs have been found at St. Michael, Alaska, May 27, 1879 (Nel- son); Kowak River, Alaska, June 14, 1899 (Grinnell); and young just hatched at Montreal Island, Mackenzie, August 2, 1834 (King). Fall mgration.—little brown cranes that had nested in Siberia were observed August 18, 1880, crossing Bering Strait to Alaska (Bean), and this probably represents about the beginning of the fall migration. The birds continue to pass south for a month and the last one seen is reported on Kowak River, September 4, 1898 (Grinnell) ; St. Michael, Alaska, September 27, 1880 (Nelson); Fort Reliance, Mackenzie, September 14, 1907 (Seton); near Athabasca Landing, © Alta., September 22, 1903 (Preble); Terry, Mont., October 10, 1898 (Cameron); Okanogan Landing, B. C., September 22, 1888 (Brooks) ; Edmonds County, 8. Dak., October 22, 1883 (specimen in U. S. National Museum); Glendo, Wyo., October 7, 1898 (Jesurun); and Bee County, Tex., October 25, 1887 (Sennett). 50602°—14——_2 10 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SANDHILL CRANE. Grus meaicana (Miiller). Range.—North America from southern Canada to Florida, Cuba, and Mexico. Breeding range.—The sandhill crane has two distinct and widely separated breeding areas. The smaller includes Cuba (Gundlach), f @® BREEDING f O OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER | + WINTERING | OCCURRENCE IN WINTER | RESIDENT Fig. 3.—Sandhill crane (Grus mericana). Isle of Pines (Gundlach), and southern Florida north to Waukeenah (Wayne), and Lake Monroe (Bryant). It has been known to nest in the Okefenokee Swamp, Ga. (Wayne); it nested in 1911 near NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. 11 Perdido Bay, Ala. (Gutsell), and it also breeds at Houma, La. ‘(Wurzlow), and, as late as 1907, at Calcasieu Pass, La. (Kopman). The larger breeding area extends north to near Rondeau, Ont. (Mecllwraith), Morrice, Mich. (Brownell), Vans Harbor, Mich. (Van Winkle), Mille Lacs, Minn. (Trippe), Oak Point, Man. (Small), Shell River, Man. (Calcutt), Big Quill Lake, Sask. (Barnes), Midvale, Mont. (Bailey), 158-Mile House, B.C. (Brooks), and Strait of Juan de Fuca, Wash. (Cooper). The species is definitely known to have nested south to Chicago Junction, Ohio (Jones), Carroll County, Ind. (Sterling), Decatur County, Iowa (Trippe), Alda, Nebr. (Powell), Animas Park, Colo. (Drew), Mormon Lake, Ariz. (Mearns), Inde- pendence Valley, Nev. (Hoffman), near Carson City, Nev. (Ridgway), and Fort Crook, Cal. (Coues). Thus at the present time the two breeding areas are separated by a district more than 600 miles wide in which the species does not breed. It is probable that in the early days of the settlement of the Mississippi Valley, when the species was very abundant, it nested somewhat farther south, almost if not quite to the Ohio River. Its numbers have decreased decidedly in the last 30 years, and it is now rare as a breeder in the southern half of the above-defined breeding range, although within the last 10 years it has nested in southern Michigan (1907), northern Indiana (1905), northern Iowa (1907), northwestern Nebraska (1904), and central Colorado (1903). Winter range.—The sandhill cranes that nest in Louisiana, Florida, and Cuba are probably nonmigratory, while their number in Louisi- ana is probably augmented during the winter by migrants from the north. The species also winters along the whole coast of Texas and south in Mexico to Hacienda Angostura, San Luis Potosi (Jouy), Guanajuato (Duges), La Barca, Jalisco (Nelson and Goldman), and Mazatlan, Sinaloa (Lawrence). The winter range includes southern California north to Pasadena (Daggett) and, in the early days, to the valleys of central California (Belding). Formerly a few wintered north to Waverly, Miss. (Young), and Mer Rouge, La. (Hollister), while 70 years ago many wintered along the Rio Grande north to Socorro, N. Mex. Migration range.—The sandhill crane has been noted a few times east of its breeding range, north to Beaumaris, Ont. (Fleming); Brockport, N. Y. (Bruce); Lunenburg, Vt. (Perkins and Howe); Wakefield, N. H. (Allen); Waynesburg, Pa. (acobs); Washington, D. C. (Coues); and Waccamaw River, S. C. (Wayne). It seems probable that in colonial days the sandhill crane was not uncommon as a migrant throughout most of eastern United States from New York and southern New England southward. 12 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, “Spring migration. Num- | Average ber of dateof | Earliest date of Place. years’ | spring spring arrival. records.| arrival. ING WiDOLb A Tite t cc wes een Sees ea eee emettia ne Sheen eee ee DAU 6): W all ex (a ied ta ea eC eS Nee SR ett az Boitony3Mo oie. c5ess< canes Sesicted so ciectasbece ses Bai nee Siege Seas Ste Wouis Mo eee ee ce Bio mae Seo ates Meme oon a ae cee ee Mount.Carmel, Gis ccc s-cctises Soaue oiices tease bao. s~ ae asecmtvenee DATO PICO Ure ee Be ee bs NL oS Se dis Sco Sees tars Mewand ag sect grata. tie Bickel dima estes tek ee ants Sees ete opener mies are eet ese aioe English Lake, Ind seis Petersburg, Mich 9 Locke, Mich... 9 Grinnell, Iowa.. 5 Storm Lake, Iow 4 Milford, Wis...... 5 Elk River, Minn.. 5 Heron Lake, Minn 5 White Earth, Minn. 4 Grape Vine Pex: . csi ois o.com eters cee mieaee Bec Cee ee). ele eee 14 | Mar. 18 | Mar. 4, 1892 GainesvillesMexy (Meat) cases. sleet Oe See eS 4 | Mar. 14 | Mar. 2, 1887. Cad dOFi@ tela ae aaa es cteriecrs sisjer eh ainssic Bg.a 2 vers ae eee ein Soe Som eae wee emails sec |e ce creer Feb. 26, 1884. Richmond; Kans ates oc Sse ee cites ae Dating wee see eas sowie nese 5 | Mar. 23 | Mar. 11, 1885 FROPGKE SICATIS Sate cette e ete ee Moai ene ceeeioaes sealers ee eons 4 | Mar. 24 | Mar. 16, 1891 Onaga (Kans Host Foe oss hese one se Sis cao mpsis Sinastioenise oatec a Sinje ce s/etsleiere 5 | Mar. 25 | Feb. 14, 1896 SYTACUSE NCDP so ios ade tcmecittcte ofc. tate te ec esimicels shiek csleg aes 5 | Mar. 26 | Mar. 12, 1898 Badger. NCDEE sacs sehen Seon Sout eee sou as omuieee seca | 3 | Apr. 6 | Mar. 26, 1902 Southeastern South Dakotas. ost. s-0 tc cecnsy- sees coer e ee enine. | 11 | Apr. 6] Mar. 26, 1910. AT SUS VAIO Nel) Sikes e er come cee a ee emia oe yet see ce Sue See eee 13 | Apr. 16 | Apr. 8, 1895. ATIIMOLG s Nei D alt em sae secie poe oe wee ales chore ae Sete tae ee eae 10 | Apr. 16 | Apr. 12, 1890. Bathgate, N: Dak... ..:2..--- serie ita ea are Se ohare haere he etecayertioe 5 | Apr. 15 | Apr. 5, 1894. EASWrOITIE) MATI He. Sys Ue irelors = ais cin Siatesejt Sie 2 Siala/de wiehiie Simcarsiaje aie Hereie dioiete 1535, 13) Apr. 14) Apr. 6, 1905. Shell River, Mant 2c. 2 sceca. ocr eo ec we een eae jetsiat baal 3 | Apr. 15 | Apr. 14, 1891. Andian Heads {Sask ..< cic sedsctjasic Stem ciersisi ole ae Stes cue ta sequela onsets 7 | Apr. 17] Apr. 7, 1906. SOWeM-@uzAp pelley Saskosshoo. Sess soe eens ee ose eceetee Soe ees 12 | Apr. 16 | Apr. 6, 1903. MOM DStONG: tATIZ) 5 = Ses annus goo ecc-oe ce eneas eet meee: ac manent seers cela: comers Feb. 13, 1910. Southern Coloradocs ess 5-ce sc sen Dae e a seee ema ceete enact eeecace 3 | Mar. 16] Feb. 13, 1908. Fort Shaw, Mont.........-..-- SU oh teye sere MS a ate ora he late eterno a Seas Feb. 28, 1868. BigsSandy Montijo c.c2ccc cteeueoss fe acsce eae oe Solmsbaus an ceetacledatedae| sae agueeee Apr. 6, 1905. AW EN, OES Es. co 2s cise ac See tee bacink ore aijsce amie Asm aocts od N sSiicie Ga) sions eo cine aicise ee Apr. 1, 1909. Resident sandhill cranes of Cuba and Florida nest much earlier than the migrants from farther north. In Cuba eggs are most com- mon in March, but some are laid earlier, for specimens in the U.S. National Museum were taken at Lantana, Fla., February 6-23, 1894, and at Manatee, Fla., March 2, 1873. The earliest eggs at Jackson, Mich., were collected May 8, 1901, and May 5, 1902 (Arnold); Summerfield Township, Monroe County, Mich., May 2, 1880 (Arnold); Dubuque, lowa, May 11, 1865 (specimens in U.S. National Museum); Hayfield, Iowa, about May 17, 1894 (Anderson); Delavan, Wis., May 30, 1883 (Kumlien and Hollister); Minnewaukan, N. Dak., May 2, 1898 (Rolfe); Camp Harney, Oreg., May 2, 1875, April 27, 1876, April 24, 1877, and April 14, 1878 (Bendire) ; Gunnison County, Colo., at 8,000 feet altitude, June 5, 1903 (Warren); and Big Quill Lake, Sask., June 20, 1909 (Barnes). NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. 13 Fall migration. Num- | Average Earliest date ber of | date of ; Place. years’ | fall ar- of eae records.} rival. a VUE TELNYS IMO ZB icici Se acts ec HPS ees ee aU EHES OCU sca am DST ern) Lae Lo ae Oct. 10,1890 Grapegvalne Rexa 7 te ce 2 ahaa emcee nora aos de ee ce eee mae nae soem nsemee 10 | Oct. 13 | Oct. 3,1893 (QDRYED, ABI Zoe Sh SEE NOS BE a Ie GEESE SEG Canc e CSSA ae at. meaner 5 | Oct. 22] Oct. 12,1898 Southeastern South Dakota..:..022.2..22 2502 sl secs noes ewes eee nee 5 | Sept. 17 | Sept. 8,1891 IBSOE,. COlOscage seed dae aun easene Se enBadHaenbes AAur sone oss eie NAnSBeaoocne Decrares sHaRensDas Sept. 24,1890 Num- | Average ber of | date of Latest date Place. paints of the last years’ | the last aS eNaT records. | one seen. 2 BASIC IIT CoML Tiree rma. ste crn Wiech eek tec nay ul ON oa Pwmeegepen hy he Scesa yt aS Nye tae 7 | Oct. 15 | Oct. 31,1900 BEDE TO aed eM Ta Ta cee eeu nthe Se Sat Nas LA eI Ca eS eR a lene abe ID VAMP R VAIS Berenice tis ote cicie so4 ans nel AEEeeeaase Oct. 28, 1893 Montauk, FIN RAY (eager a ae ae CE oh Sy emanate nay eli Ieee Pele een Oct. 30, 1900 Ottawa, rie ee Reem 6s i OMNI Sa ala 4| Oct. 61 Oct. 28,1897 incl eile ONTO Re ee oN nu EL Laat a Um Rae Ci Fei RN RN sea ae aed Sea Nov. 23, 1880 IDG EWES. \NEBEES RS aac OSes eens ano SSeRb SEeHeA >> e AS See E SEER SEe as ae SEnee 2| Oct. 15 | Oct. 16,1894 Vv icksburg, EVD Ta see eat Shik «Se Se ees 8D Se i Se oer 4| Nov. 9 | Nov. 17, 1903 HAVES HR, ATE a NS a a ge 2 | Sept. 20 | Sept. 21, 1911 White Earth, EMA rae res en eat ea as SU cw Se eee l= oc I: ener estore [eas NS Le ees Sept. 15, 1880 Lake Andrew, PIE Te en pha Na A ee SPA ay sy 2] DANI) SS Oct. 5, 1891 Fort Snelling, Misr ee me ea, 5 MR pat ON me mmr Pee eae ete Nov. 11, 1890 TOV OU ILA eet eerste hae n/N SS rs ee ceo ci sla aN MR sl a GEER MONS Nov. 27, 1872 St. George, CUP UNS os iets eee ates ee tn au es im a SPS SL Ai eae a cae esos De Nov. 3, 1909 The Virginia rail usually returns to southern Mississippi about September 15, earliest September 3, 1902; Washington, D. C., Sep- tember 4, 1911; Raleigh, N. C., September 8, 1896; and South Caro: ae the inet of eptember. [SPOTTED RAIL. Linnopardalus maculatus (Boddaert). The eastern coast of South America is included in the range of the spotted rail, from Paraguay and Argentina to Guiana, and to Colombia, with the islands of Trinidad and Tobago. The species reappears in Cuba, but there seems to be a long break in the range from Cuba to Colombia. ] [LAWRENCE WOOD RAIL. Aramides azillaris Lawrence. The Lawrence wood rail is a species of wide distribution, ranging north on the Pacific side of Mexico to Mazatlan (Grayson), and quite common at San Blas, Tepic, June 12, 1897 (Nelson and Goldman); while on the Atlantic slope it was noted at Las Bocas de Silan (Cabot), and Mujeres Island, March 24, 1901 (Nelson and Goldman), both in northern Yucatan. It has also been taken at Acapulco, Guerrero, January 14, 1895 (Nelson and Goldman), and Belize (Bocourt). It seems to be very rare between southern Mexico and northern South America, though it has been found at Carrillo and Lepanto, Costa Rica (Carriker). It occurs on the northern coast of South America from Barranquilla, Colombia, to Venezuela, Trinidad Island, and British Guiana. ] [CAYENNE WOOD RAIL. Avamides cajanea (Miiller). The Cayenne wood rail ranges from eastern and central Brazil to Peru and north to British Guiana and Colombia. It is a common species in Panama and extends along both coasts to northern Costa Rica. ] [MANGROVE WOGD RAIL. Avamides albiventris Lawrence. The Mangrove wood rail has a wide distribution on the eastern side of Mexico north to Alta Mira and is abundant in favorable localities along the coast of Vera Cruz and east to Cozumel Island, Yucatan; Belize; and Omoa and San Pedro, Honduras. It is also common on the Pacific side from the coast of Guatemala west to Huilotepec and Guichicovi, Oaxaca. ] 50602°—14__4 26 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. [NICARAGUA WOOD RAIL. Avramides plumbeicollis Zeledon. The range of the Nicaragua wood rail is along the coast of Nicaragua and north to the Segovia River, eastern Honduras, and south in northeastern Costa Rica to the foothills of the Volcano Turrialba.] [RED RAIL. Amaurolimnas conccicr (Gosse). Little is known of the distribution of the red rail. It was originally described from Jamaica and has since been recorded from Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Guiana, and Brazil.] SPOTTED CRAKE. Porzana porzana (Linnaeus). Several specimens of the spotted crake have been taken in the fall on the western coast of Greenland at Godthaab, Nanortalik, and Juliane- O OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER ipa — ————— ae eee Fia. 11.—Spotted crake (Porzana porzena). haab. All were wanderers beyond the normal range of the species, which includes nearly all of Europe north to latitude 65° and east in Asia to Yarkand, Turkestan. The species winters in southern Asia and in Africa. ; SGRA. Porzana carolina (Linnaeus). Range.—North America, north to central British Columbia, southern Mackenzie, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence; thence south through the West Indies and Central America to Venezuela and Peru. NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. Diy Breeding range.—The sora, or, as it is often called, the Carolina rail, reeds throughout northern United States and north to Grand Manan Island, N. B. (Osgood), Prince Edward Island (Bagster), Godbout, Que. (Comeau), Moose Factory, Ont. (Spreadborough), Fort Churchill, Keewatin (Clarke), Fort Rae, Mackenzie (Baird, Brewer, and Ridg- way), Fort Simpson, Mackenzie (Preble), Cariboo District, B. C. (Brooks), and Victoria, B. C. (Rhoads). The species has also been noted as a wanderer north to Nova Scotia (Willis), Newfoundiand (Reeks), Harrington, Que., July, 1907 (Townsend), Sandwich Bay, +- WI/INTERING @ RESIDENT 30° 120° Fia. 12.—Sora, or Carolina rail (Porzana carolina). Que., 1898 (Townsend and Allen), Massett, B. C. (Keen), and Sukker- toppen, Greenland, October 3, 1823 (Reinhardt); several other specimens are reported from the west coast of Greenland, the most northern of which is from Umanak, latitude 70° (Schalow). The breeding range extends south to Philadelphia, Pa. (Audubon), Warren, Ohio (Dana), Lewiston Reservoir, Ohio (Fisher), Philo, Il. (Hess), Independence, Mo. (Widmann), Osawatomie, Kans. (Colvin), near Breckenridge, Colo. (Carter), Utah Lake, Utah (Johnson), Pyramid Lake, Nev. (Ridgway), and Escondido, Cal. (Hatch). 98 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Winter range.—The flight of the sora is slow and labored (see p. 4), but some individuals travel more miles between the summer and winter homes than almost any other rails in the Western Hemisphere. The birds breeding in the Mackenzie Valley do not winter farther north than the Gulf coast and hence must travel at least 2,500 miles during their fall migration. The species passes in winter to about latitude 5° S., and as none of these South American birds nest south of latitude 35° N. the migration route can not possibly be shorter than 3,000 miles and may be much longer. The sora is dispersed in winter throughout the Greater and the Lesser Antilles and must take long flights over water in passing from one island to another. Moreover, the species is common in winter in northern Yucatan, and these individuals undoubtedly fly back and forth over the Gulf of Mexico, making a distance of at least 500 miles in a single flight. The sora winters in Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, and northwestern South America, south to Tumbez, Peru (Taczanowski), and east to Medellin, Colombia (Sclater and Salvin), Lake Valencia, Venezuela (Sclater and Salvin), Caracas, Venezuela (Ernst), and to the island of Trinidad (Sharpe), and Tobago Island (Jardine). It also winters in the northern Bahamas (Bonhote), Bermuda (Hurdis), and in Florida north to Amelia Island (Worthington) and Whitfield (Worthington). It is rather common in winter along the coasts of Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, in Lower California, and in western California north to Marysville (Belding). Stragglers have been seen in winter far north of the regular range at this season, at Canton, Md., December 26, 1890, and January 22, 1895 (Kirkwood); Rochester, N. Y., December 12, 1882 (Coues); Seaford, N. Y., December 24, 1908 (Braislin); Hartford, Conn., December 29, 1881; Salem, Mass., about December 22, 1874 (New- comb); Rantoul, Ill., December 27, 1910 (Kkblaw); Lanesboro, Minn., January 25, 1894 (Hvoslef); and Pecks Lake, Ariz., January 24, 1887 {Mearns). Spring migration. Num- | Average Th Vy ber of | date of | /2tliest date Place. years’ | spring Or SpEIne records.| arrival. Mma Gum pera), Wid ee ee rect sre ee Ee Pat ee ee ete Ne fete a fe es Mar. 7, 1902 MRTP ow O00 Gale tae ey gare ne ak ee RAN aah fay stan oe Se eee ce, Sine se MN hae earl te oa eles hee ee Mar. 31,1896 OtrantoSa Cle eeu oes eter Mount Pleasant, 8. C Qunonochontaneg, R. I Cam brid seNMass 22th ee whee weet sete se oo seme ae eee Soe Beene tesa . ¢ BPittshieldsiMess2 ccee - acess ose oe ose ae ee yr ee ee Sh ees 3 | May 16 | May 14, 1899 Quebec City; Canada. oe. sees ts acid ceinnc. occ ee face desea See So eee ee eeic esl aeeemeree May 27,1892 NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. 29 Spring migration—Continued. Num- | Average n WSeGh. | Gee; Earliest date Place. ) Fi of spring Seats Spry arrival records.| arrival. r TSANG, INIo We sgcoc BobucasoaceeBGbeaoes saben eH noedags be keooroasece| begudHoE baanepooo: May 17,1888. Bayley Cire, Kye codon cnesso4 soueacouseeceen sede HaoceeSsJesecesoceaE 2| Apr. 16) Apr. 5,1902 Ikeriens Cray, WW@s so cdonsttadeebeoabsesesedseasoLe ssacedscesecsarocosuc 2| Apr. 18] Apr. 17,1902 CHICO LGR ae ee ee ti aerejslciniclelscio seciereleniaetisi== sacinee eee 11 | Apr. 19 | Apr. 11, 1896 IN@wy Bnew), OMNES Hoes dadaseaaeenoccecudos SocctodsEEeosod cocdononE boa becbosoHbEcdoas Apr. 19, 1909 Olam iin, Ono). osedsaseaddesundaseeeueaconcobe se oseedcEeescodecusecers 11 | May 2) Apr. 22,1907 FATITIPAMD OL MICH sot ia\ajasiaicislajsyeisie eninie a|= 2 sinners eee 4 ae ros coer el [area ere | eer eee Oct. 20, 1889 ING WD OTbRLUES coc oa ait ope cie te see ease ee eee ema eeaeeeceseenes 5 | Oct. 10 | Nov. 10, 1899 FES MERE cect ire ere aro oe ctor pea teere eC Srctee cle Peete ia xe oe ence eat 4] Oct. 21 | Oct. 25,1894 OSSIMIN GAIN geeks otic ee See ae Bee the ean eee Mae Eae, cee eee pada es 2} Oct. 14 | Oct. 16,1885 WiasShine Tomy Ds Cathe ae cs eens So ate cee sein oe Netiets owe sees 5 | Oct. 19 | Nov. 9, 1878 Raleigh, NAG Sine CRRA NES, ee en ood el er ee 4} Oct. 15} Oct. 30,1891 Kirkwood, Gabon ce ete ccna ae Scan Stet mice emiien Se eeeemecie ee mene ge bre beineee|Secmees yee Oct. 14, 1898 ESCO UKAMLOWealiwec cect e Ser scien a eteiaes Sateen oe eee em eeon 3 | Oct. 10 | Nov. 19, 1893 BID) CLAN TI spa VV IS oes wea ge re eee Sc tree eee: na Sp Lf ont Ee ea eee 3 | Oct. 13 | Oct. 22,1896 EDODOR SS CAMS sk Sse Beer ayn is oe stnee A eS Ses oot Seach Sree cheers rere | tae tees |e eran Oct. 18, 1902 BSUS ereNGbr Stes cece ce oot caaese concn oe coe een meet ctecie sce Ses ee eee cra [eee Se Oct. 23,1899 SiowumWallsys 7 Dake socks Mee Sor see ae ae ee acs ara ct aah a ral ote ee tae | ee Oct. 17,1909 Antler, N. Dak . 12,1908 Terry, Mont...... BP : . 17,1908 St. George, Utah . 38,1909 Palmer, Mich.. . 6,1894 Neebish Island, “Mich - . 9,1893 Vicksburg Mich...... . 17,1902 Oberlin, Ohio. . . 23,1896 Brookville, Ind.. : . 14,1890 Chicago, Ili... : . 17,1897 NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. 31 [MEXICAN YELLOW RAIL. Porzana goldmani Nelson. The Mexican yellow rail is known only from the type specimen taken by Goldman, July 11, 1904, at Lerma, Mexico.] [YELLOW-BELLIED RAIL. Porzana flaviventris (Boddaert). The distribution of the yellow-bellied rail is rather peculiar. It is known in South America from Guiana. to southern Brazil, but though not yet recorded from Central America nor from the rest of the Greater Antilles, it is not infrequent in Jamaica and Cuba. | [RUFOUS RAIL. Porzana rubra Sclater and Salvin. Recorded many years ago from British Honduras, the lower parts of Guatemala south to Duenas, and from Cozumel Island, Yucatan, the known range of the rufous @ BREEDING | © OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER | + WINTERING 1 t- OCCURRENCE IN WINTER Fic. 13.—Yellow rail ( Coturnicops noveboracensis). rail was extended in February, 1901, to Tlacotalpam, Vera Cruz (Smith), and on April 25, 1904, by Sheldon and Piper, to Isla de los Pajaros, near Tampico, Vera Cruz.] YELLOW RAIL. Coturnicops noveboracensis (Gmelin). Range.—North America from central Canada to the Gulf coast. Breeding range.—Vhere seem to be only a few sets of eggs of the yellow rail in museums or collections. Hence the breeding range of the species has to be inferred from its occurrence in summer. At 32 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this season it has been noted north to Fort George, Que. (Bell), York Factory, Keewatin (Preble), and Fort Resolution, Mackenzie (Preble); and west to Red Deer, Alta. (Saunders). It has been seen during the summer south to Calais, Me. (Boardman), Winnebago, Ill. (Coues), Jefferson County, Wis. (Kumlien and Hollister), and in . Minnesota (Roberts). Winter range.—The yellow rail winters on the Gulf coast from Sandy Key, Fla. (Audubon), to Vermilion Bay, La. (McAtee); and north on the Atlantic coast to Charleston, S. C. (Wayne). Indi- viduals have been taken casually in winter much farther north to Newbern, N. C., February, 1892 (Brimley); Sayville, N. Y., January 17, 1894 (Eaton); and Seaford, N. Y., December 4, 1908, and January. 10, 1909 (Peavey). The species also has the remarkable record of _ appearing on the Pacific coast in winter. It does not breed anywhere west of the Rocky Mountains, but a few individuals seem to cross the mountains in migration and have been noted at Scio, Oreg., Feb- ruary 1, 1900 (Prill); Humboldt Bay, Cal., 1884 (Townsend); So- noma, Cal., December 20, 1898 (Carriger); Point Reyes, Cal., Novem- ber 19, 1900 (Mailliard); Cordelia, Cal. (Bryant); Martinez, Cal. (Cooper); Alameda, Cal., November 7, 1900 (Cohen); Alvarado, Cal., December 28, 1883 (Bryant); Alameda County, Cal., fall of 1897 (Kaeding); San Mateo County, Cal., November, 1897 (Tay- lor); Berryessa, Cal. (Beck); and Sacaton, Ariz., March 28, 1909 (Gilman). Spring migration.—The spring advance occupies nearly two months, from late March to the middle of May. Yellow rails arrived at Fort Macon, N. C., April 12, 1871 (Coues); Washington, D. C., March 28, 1884, and April 14, 1893 (Palmer); Erie, Pa.,; April 23, 1904 (Todd); Princeton, N. J., April 10, 1895 (Phillips); Oakdale, N. Y., April 29, 1887 (Dutcher); Murray, N. Y., April 21, 1894 (Posson); Bridgeport, Conn., March 24, 1888 (Averill); Wakefield Meadows, Mass., May 9, 1888 (Webster); Dedham, Mass., May 26, 1906 (McKechnie); St. Louis, Mo., March 27, 1876 (Widmann); Lebanon, Ill., April 5, 1877 (Jones); Chicago, Hl., April 12, 1888 (Woodruff); Detroit, Mich., March 25, 1908 (Taverner); Lake Maxinkuckee, Ind., March 22, 1901 (Evermann); Kankakee Marsh, Ind., April 2, 1885 (Perry); Toronto, Ont., April 24, 1899 (Fleming); Two Rivers, Wis., May 22, 1890 (Fisher); Elk River, Minn., May 14, 1885 (Bailey); Lake Wilson, Minn., May 13, 1909 (Peters); Lawrence, Kans., April 18, 1885 (Goss); and Lincoln, Nebr., April 30, 1909 (Zimmer). ‘The species has been noted at Darien, Ga., as late as March 29, 1890 (Worthington), and at Bay St. Louis, Miss., until April 21, 1902 (Allison). Eggs have been taken at Winnebago, Ill., May 17, 1863, and near Devils Lake, N. Dak., June 4, 1901, June 8, 1903, and June 9, 1910. NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. oo Fall migration.—The first yellow rails returned to Chester, 5. C., September 3, 1887 (Loomis); Erie, Pa., September 15, 1901 (Todd); Charlestown, R. I., September 26, 1886 (Glezen); Newton, Mass., September 8, 1868 (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway); Toronto, Ont., August 5, 1896 (Fleming); near Burlington, Iowa, September 9, 1898 (Bartsch); Lanesboro, Minn., September 1, 1886 (Hvoslef); Biloxi, Miss., November 19, 1903 (Brodie); and Bermuda, October, 1847 (Hurdis). The last were reported from Portland, Me., October 1, 1905 (Nor- ton); Seabrook, N. H., October 15, 1871 (specimen in U. S. National Museum); Canton, Mass., October 15, 1872 (Purdie); near New Ha- ven, Conn., November 10, 1876 (Merriam); Buffalo, N. Y., October 11, 1907 (Katon); Far Rockaway, N. Y., October 15, 1883 (Lawrence) ; Salem, N. J., October 24, 1908 (McKee); Erie, Pa., October 29, 1901 (Todd); Prince George County, Md., November 3, 1880 (Kirkwood); Washington, D. C., November 17, 1893 (Palmer); Lanesboro, Minn., September 24, 1891 (Hvoslef); Delavan, Wis., October 13, 1901 (Hollister); Kalamazoo, Mich., October 19, 1890 (Gibbs); Toronto, Ont., October 15, 1895 (Nash); Ottawa, Ont., October 22, 1895 (White); and Lawrence, Kans., October 1, 1885 (Kellogg). BLACK RAIL. Oreciscus jamaicensis (Gmelin). Range.—North America from Kansas, southern Ontario, and Mas- sachusetts, to Jamaica and Guatemala. Breeding range.—The black rail breeds throughout the northern half of its range in the United States; it is not only the rarest rail in this district, but is also so secretive that even when present it is seldom seen, and hardly more than a dozen nests have ever been ‘found. It occurs in summer from Mount Pleasant, S. C. (Wayne), Weaverville, N. C. (Cairns), Philo, Ill. (Hess), and Garden City, Kans. (Kellogg), north to Chatham, Mass. (Allen), Dundas, Ont. (Nash), Calumet, Ill. (Nelson), Fort Dodge, Iowa (Somes), and Beloit, Kans. (Goss). It has been taken also north to Lake Koshkonong, Wis., August 20, 1877 (Kumlien and Hollister), Westpoint, Nebr. (Bruner), and Denver, Colo. (Bruce). Winter range-—The black rail winters in Guatemala (Salvin), and occurs in Jamaica from August to February and rarely to April (Scott). There seems to be no sure record of its wintering anywhere in the United States. Spring migration.—The species was noted in the spring at Key West, Fla., March 11, 1890 (Scott); Warrington, Fla., March 22-26, 1885 (Stone); Mosquito Inlet, Fla., May 9, 1902 (Gane); Washing- ton, D. C., May 29, 1891 (Brown), and June 6, 1879 (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway); Milton Hill, Mass., May 16, 1904 (Cobb); Canton, TL, April 15, 1895 (Cobleigh); Bicknell, Ind., May 1, 1907 (Chansler); 34 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Carthage, Ohio, May 17, 1890 (Drury); southeastern Texas, April 29, 1879 (Nehrling); and Neosho Falls, Kans., March 18, 1886 (Goss). Fall migration.—During the fall the black rail has visited the Bermudas, September 5, 1848 (Hurdis); Mount Pleasant, S. C., October 17, 1891. and November 9, 1906 (Wayne); Piscataway @ BREEDING — f © OCCURRENCE IN SUMM 1 + WINTERING f © OCCURRENCE ER IN WINTER | | Fig. 14.—Black rail (Creciscus jamaicensis). Creek, Md., September 25, 1877 (Palmer); Mount Calvert, Md., October 19, 1906, September 22, 1907, and October 12, 1908 (Palmer); Washington, D. C., September 1, 1908 (Palmer); Camden, N. J., September 22, 1887 (Sherratt); Canton, Ill., October.27, 1894 (Cob- leigh); Chicago, IIL, October 15, 1903 (Dearborn); Lawrence, Kans., September 26, 1885 (Kellogg); and Habana, Cuba, twice (Gundlach). NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. 35 Eggs have been found at Mount Pleasant, S. C., June 10, 1903 (Wayne); Raleigh, N. C., May 26, 1890, to August 10, 1898 (Stone); Saybrook, Conn., July 10, 1876 (Purdie); Great Island, Conn., June 6, 1884 (Clark); Calumet Marsh, near Chicago, Ill., June 19, 1875 (Nelson); Philo, [l., May 30, 1901 (Hess); and Garden City, Kans., @® BREEDING © OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER ne is neues rail ( Ce coturniculus). June 6, 1889 (Kellogg). Young not long from the nest were found near Philadelphia, Pa., July 22, 1836 (Allen). FARALLON RAIL. Creciscus coturniculus (Ridgway). Knowledge of the life history of the Farallon rail is only fragmen- tary. The species has been found nesting in a marsh near National City, Cal. (Stephens), and apparently this is the only place where 36 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. eggs have actually been collected. The nesting season extends from the middle of March to early May (Ingersoll). The species is somewhat common in late fall in the marshes around San Francisco Bay and especially near Point Reyes (Brewster); it has been noted there from October (October 12, 1899) to December (December 1, 1892) and may possibly winter there, as one was seen February 29, 1892 (Beck), and one at Redwood City February 2, 1897 (Thayer). At their breeding grounds near San Diego they have been recorded from March to June 22 and from November 16 to December (Stephens). Other California dates are: Riverside, August 13, 1892 (Miller); Orange, December 12, 1896 (Grinnell); and Ballona Marsh, Los Angeles County, May 16, 1895 (Grinnell). The species has wandered into Washington—Tacoma, November 10, 1900 (Bowles); it was probably seen by Bendire at Malheur Lake, Oreg.; and one was taken August 31, 1905, at San Quintin, Lower California (Nelson and Goldman). Eggs have been taken in the vicinity of San Diego Bay, April 21, 1908 (Thayer); May 4, 1908 (Ingersoll); and April 7, 1910 (Thayer). Should it be ascertained that this rail winters near San Francisco Bay and does not breed there, the species would be unique among United States birds as wintering north of the breeding grounds. [ASH-HEADED RAIL. OCreciscus cinereiceps (Lawrence). The ash-headed rail occupies most of eastern Costa Rica and the southern half of eastern Nicaragua. Its known range was extended in 1911 by E. A. Goldman, of the Biological Survey, through the capture of a specimen at Lion Hill, Panama. |] [WHITE-THROATED RAIL. Creciscus albigularis (Lawrence). Originally described from Panama, the white-throated rail has been recorded south to Remedias, Colombia, and north along the Pacific coast to Las Trojas and La Bar- ranca, Costa Rica.] [WANDERING RAIL. Creciscus ezilis vagans (Ridgway). The wandering rail has been obtained on the Segovia River, Honduras, and the Escondido River, Nicaragua. The type species occurs in northern Brazil, Guiana, and Trinidad Island. } CORN CRAKE. Crez crez (Linnaeus). Range.—Eastern Hemsiphere; casual in Greenland and to the United States. The coast of Greenland has received several visits from the corn crake, its range here extending on the west side to Egedesminde in Disco Bay, and south to Julianehaab; and on the eastern coast it has been noted at Angmagsalik and Tasicasak. It was once taken in Bermuda—October 25, 1847 (Reid); Hursley, Md., November 28, 1900 (Laurent); Salem, N. J., fall of 1854 (Cassin); near Bridgeton, N. J., June, 1856 (Krider); Dennisville, N. J., November 11, 1905 (Stone); Oakdale, N. Y., November 2, 1880 (Dutcher); Green Island, N. Y., NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. Ou November 6, 1883 (Park); near Amagansett, N. Y., about August 15, 1885 Dutcher); Montauk Point, N. Y., about November 1, 1888 (Dutcher); Saybrook, Conn., October 20, 1887 (Clark); Cranston, R. 1., 1857 (Howe and Sturtevant); Falmouth, Me., October 14, 1889 (Brock); Pictou, N.S., about October, 1874 (McKinlay); and New- foundland, about 1859 (Jones). Thus there are at least 14 records of the corn crake in North America south of Greenland, all but one of them in the fall. The species ranges across Europe and Asia east to the valley of the Yenesei, and to Maskat, Arabia. It winters in Africa. Y q wh —¥ # O OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER Fic. 16.—Corn crake ( Crez crez). PURPLE GALLINULZ. JIonornis martinicus (Linnaeus). Range.—Tropical and subtropical America; north regularly to southern United States; casually to southern Canada; south through the West Indies and Central America to Ecuador and Paraguay. The real home of the purple gallinule is in Middle America, the West Indies, and South America. In the latter country the species extends south to Iguape, Brazil (Ihering); Buenos Aires, Argentina (Dab- bene); and Androas, Ecuador (Sharpe). It is common in the Lesser and Greater Antilles and throughout Middle America west to San Blas, Tepic (Lamb), to the Rio de Coahuana, Colima (Lawrence), and 38 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. | ® BREEDING N& 1O OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER | Fig. 17.—Purple gallinule (Jonornis martinicus). NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. 39 to La Barca, Jalisco (Goldman). Throughout this great region it geems to be either resident or so slightly migrant that its movements can not be traced. To the northward it has occurred a few times in Bermuda—May 30 and October 22, 1851 (Hurdis); and in the Bahamas, according to Bonhote, has been taken at Cay Lobos, October 19, 1900, Cay Sal, April 24, 1901, and February 9, 1902, and Mangrove Cay, December 16,1901. Itis resident in Florida and thence along the Gulf coast to Texas and eastern Mexico. Along the Atlantic coast it nests regu- larly north to Charleston, S. C. (Wayne), but withdraws in winter to Florida, where it is known at this season north to Tallahassee (Wil- liams). It breeds up the Mississippi River to Natchez, Miss. (Audu- bon), but seems to retire to the Gulf coast for the winter. The purple gallinule is a great wanderer and has been taken in the spring at Rockport, Mass., April 12, 1875 (Whitman); Randolph, Mass., May 24, 1904 (Thayer); South Lewiston, Me., April 11, 1897 (Knight); near St. John, N. B., April 6, 1881 (Brewster); Halifax, N.S., April, 1889 (Piers); St. Charles, Mo., April 22, 1877 (Widmann) ; im Illinois near St. Louis, Mo., Apri! 18, 1877 (Allen); Coal City, IIL., April 24, 1900 (Deane); Willington, Ill., April 26, 1909 (Deane); near Chicago, [ll., May, 1866 (Nelson); Sandusky, Ohio, April 28, 1896 (Moseley); near Toronto, Ont., April 8, 1892 (Nash); Janesville, Racine, and Milwaukee, Wis. (Kumlien and Hollister); Blackhawk, Towa (Peck); Huntsville, Tex., April 26, 1909 (Thomason); Manhat- tan, Kans., April 14, 1893 (Lantz); Westpoint, Nebr. (Bruner); Tombstone, Ariz., June, 1904 (Willard); and Florence, Colo., June 17, 1911 (Doertenbach). The latest dates in the fall north of the breeding grounds are at Quebec City, Canada, middle of September, 1909 (Dionne); Mount Desert Island, Me., November 7, 1899 (Swain); Stoneham, Mass., November 27, 1837 (Peabody); Sandusky, Ohio, September 2, 1894 (Tuttle); Waverly, Ohio, November 16, 1898 (Henninger); Freder- icksburg, Tex., September 18, 1894 (Grasso); and Tucson, Ariz., October 20, 1887 (Brown). There are also the strange records of single birds found at Halifax, N. S., January 30, 1870 (Jones), and January 16, 1896 (Piers). At the southern limit of the purple gallinule’s range in Brazil the eggs are laid in November (Kuler), and at Santiago del Estero, Argentina, a set was taken December 28, 1905 (Hartert and Venturi); in Cuba eggs are found most commonly in June and July (Gundlach); while in the United States the breeding season is long extended, since eggs are in the U.S. National Museum, collected at Avery, La., April 15, 1894, while downy young were taken at Yemassee, S. C., Septem- ber 17, 1887 (Wayne). 40 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FLORIDA GALLINULE. Gallinula galeata (Lichtenstein). Range.—North and South America; north to California, Minnesota, and Quebec; south through the West Indies and Central America to Chile and Argentina. Breeding range.—The Florida gallinule has a wide distribution in the Western Hemisphere, breeding throughout the West Indies and in South America south to La Concepcion, Chile (Gould and Darwin), and to Buenos Aires, Argentina (White). It is almost entirely absent from northwestern Colombia and the whole of Panama and Costa Rica, but is common in favorable localities of the rest of Middle America north to Tepic and Mazatlan (Lawrence), and to Browns- ville, Tex. The summer distribution in the United States is peculiar, com- prising three distinct areas. The largest area occupies the district from the Ohio River and the mouth of the Delaware north to Province- town, Mass. (Small), St. Albans, Vt. (Woodworth), Montreal, Canada (Wintle), Toronto, Ont. (Nash), Lansing, Mich. (Cole), Kelley Brook, Wis. (Schoenebeck), and Minneapolis, Minn. (Moore); and west to Valentine and North Platte, Nebr. (Bruner, Wolcott, and Swenk). The second area includes Florida and the Gulf coast west to Louisi- ana and north to Rodney, Miss. (Mabbett), and to Charleston, S. C. (Wayne). This Florida area connects southward with Cuba and the Greater Antilles, where the species is common, but to the eastward in the Bahamas the bird seems to be rare and local, though it has been recorded at Nassau (Bonhote), Watlings (Todd), and at Inagua (Cory). It breeds rarely in Bermuda, and additional m?zrants appear there in the fall (Reid). The remaining area is western California from Escondido (Sharp) to Sacramento (Ridgway). Hach of these three areas is separated from its nearest neighbor by several hundred miles in which the species is rare or unknown. Between the first and second is an isolated breeding colony at Lake Ellis, N. C. (Philipp). The birds that breed at Woodward, Okla. (Lantz), may constitute a far removed outpost from the lower Mis- souri contingent, while the few individuals nesting in the vicinity of Tucson, Ariz. (Rhoads), are separated by many miles of desert from their nearest neighbors in southern California. A few Florida gallinules have wandered north to Halifax, N. S., November 18, 1888 (Austen); Kentville, N. S., September 20, 1886 (Chamberlain) ; St. John, N. B., September, 1880 (Brewster) ; Calais, Me. (Boardman); Quebee City, Canada, May 28, 1892 (Dionne); Beaumaris, Ont. (Fleming); Bay City, Mich., May 2, 1891 (Eddy); near Vermilion, S. Dak., late April, 1899 (Sweet); Colorado Springs, Colo., May 9, 1882 (Allen and Brewster); and near Fort Verde, Ariz., September 26, and November 1, 1884 (Mearns). NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. Fig. 18.—Florids gallinule (Gallinula galeata). 49, BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Winter range.—The Florida gallinule seems to be resident through- out its range in Middle and South America and north to Ashepoo Station, S. C., December 30 and 31, 1904 (Murphy); Tallahassee, Fla. (Williams) ; Vermilion Bay, La. (McAtee) ; Lake Surprise, Texas, December 8-11, 1910 (McAtee); San Pedro, Ariz. (Scott); and Los Angeles, Cal. (Swarth). A laggard was noted at Palmer, Mass., December, 1909 (Morris). Spring migration.—The Florida gallinule arrived at Washington, D. C., April 19, 1892 (Hasbrouck); Waynesburg, Pa., April 26, 1894 (Jacobs) ; Philadelphia, Pa., average April 23, earliest April 16, 1909 (Miller); Canandaigua, N. Y., April 12, 1905 (Antes); Cambridge, Mass., April 29, 1895 (Faxon); Ferrisburgh, Vt., April 28, 1879 (Robinson); East Sullivan, Me., May 5, 1883 (Knight); Montreal, Canada, May 19, 1892 (Wintle); Versailles, Ky., April 11, 1905 (Brodhead); Chicago, Ill., average May 9, earliest April 24, 1902 (Blackwelder); central Indiana, average May 2, earliest April 29, 1908 (Ratliff); New Bremen, Ohio, April 19, 1909 (Henninger) ; Oberlin, Ohio, average May 2, earliest April 20, 1907 (Jones); Vicks- burg, Mich., average May 2, earliest April 24, 1904 (Corwin); Dunn- ville, Ont., May 8, 1884 (McCallum); Grinnell, Iowa, April 28, 1890 (Kelsey); National, Iowa, April 18, 1909 (Sherman); near Madison, Wis., average May 1, earliest April 26, 1908 (Vorhies) ; Minneapolis, Minn., May 10, 1905 (Moore); Lawrence, Kans., April 19, 1907 (Han- na); Dunbar, Nebr., April 27, 1899 (Wolcott). Near the southern limit of the breeding range at Sacaya, Chile, the species nests up to 11,000 feet altitude and the eggs are here laid during January and February (Lane); at Concepcion, Argentina, young were found September 29 and eggs the middle of October, 1880 (Barrows); and at Cantagallo, Brazil, young in late October, and eggs January 28, (Euler). It is thus evident that south of the Equator the breeding season lasts about six months from September to February. Nearly the whole year is represented north of the equator, for young 10 days old were found in Jamaica January 23, 1891, and eggs in May and June (Scott); while in Barbados eggs were taken July, 1888 (Fielden) ; and in Cuba, according to Gundlach, the gallinule nests from June to December. Eggs were found at Mount Pleasant, S. C., May 21, 1904 (Wayne); Philadelphia, Pa., May 22, 1905 (Miller); Stratford, Conn., June 25, 1891 (Lucas); North Truro, Mass., May 22, 1892 (Thayer); Cambridge, Mass., June 5, 1890 (Brewster); Lake Boma- seen, Vt., May 28, 1881 and 1882 (Richardson); Rodney, Miss., May 10, 1887 (Mabbett); Kalamazoo, Mich., May 25, 1891 (White); Dunnville, Ont., May 29, 1884 (McCallum); Pewaukee, Wis., May 20, 1875 (Goss); Fort Snelling, Minn., May 28, 1903 (specimens in U.S. National Museum); Brownsville, Tex., May 16, 1877 (Sennett) ; and near Los Angeles, Cal., April 15, 1890 (Howard). NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. 43 Fall migration.—The latest birds noted at Point Pelee, Ont., were seen October 9, 1906 (Taverner and Swales); Vicksburg, Mich., average October 1, latest November 16, 1910 (Corwin); Oberlin, Ohio, November 11, 1890 (Jones); New Bremen, Ohio, November 16, 1909 (Henninger); Calumet, Ill, October 23, 1876 (specimen in U. S. National Museum); St. Louis, Mo., October 3, 1905 (Widmann) ; Montreal, Canada, November 5, 1898 (Wintle); Portland, Me., October 15, 1907 (Norton); Cambridge, Mass., November 9, 1898 (Hathaway); Point Judith, R. I., November 29, 1900 (Hathaway) ; Shelter Island, N. Y., October 28, 1898 (Worthington); Washington, D. C., October 26, 1876 (Wouy); and Philadelphia, Pa., November 16, 1909 (Miller). EURGPEAN COOT. fFulica atra Linnaeus. The normal range of the European coot includes most of Europe, the northern part of Africa, northern and central Asia, India, and southeast to the Philippines. A few specimens have been taken in southern Greenland, where it is an accidental visitant. COOT. Fulica americana Gmelin. Range.—North America from central British Columbia, southern Mackenzie and Quebec, south through the West Indies and Central America to Panama. Breeding range.—During the breeding season the coot shuns south- eastern United States and the lower Mississippi Valley, while it breeds abundantly in the same latitudes of western United States and even south in Mexico to Jomatla, Vera Cruz (Sharpe), and Acapulco, Guerrero (Nelson). There arc more or less isolated breeding colonies on Cozumel Island, Yucatan (Sharpe), and the Lake of Duenas, Guatemala (Salvin and Sciater), while the species is a common breeder in Jamaica (Scott) and in Porto Rico (Wetmore). The coot is a rare breeder along the Atlantic coast, but a few pairs have been known to nest from Philadelphia, Pa. (Miller), north to Long Island City, N. Y. (Braislin), and according to Nuttall it nested once near Cambridge, Mass., but it is not now known to breed anywhere on the New England coast. It has nested at Lake Bomaseen, Vt. (Howe), and is a common breeder west of the Aileghenies south to Ithaca, N. Y. (Reed and Wright), Port Clinton, Ohio (Langdon), Mount Carmel, Il. (Ridgway), Reelfoot Lake, Tenn. (Rhoads), and Eureka Springs, Ark. (Smith), whence the breeding range extends southwest through Decatur, Tex. (Donald) to Brownsville, Tex. (Merrill). On the Pacific coast the species breeds south in Lower California to Purisima (Thayer). It may occasionally breed in southern Louisiana, for some twenty birds were seen June 19, 1914, on the southern side of Lake Ponchartrain (Fisher). Northward the coot breeds to Quebec City, Canada (Dionne), Ottawa, Ont. (White), Sudbury, Ont. (Alberger), Kelley Brook, Wis. At BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (Schoenebeck), Oak Point, Man. (Small), Chemawawin, Keewatin (Nutting), Prince Albert, Sask. (Ferry), Fort Simpson, Mackenzie (Preble), and Caribou District, B. C. (Brooks). It has been known to wander north to New Brunswick (Chamberlain), Nova Scotia (Downs), St. John, Newfoundland (Hawley), Sandwich Bay, Que. (Grenfell), i @ BREEDING HOOCCURRENCE IN SUMMER f-+WINTERING HQOCCURRENCE IN WINTER | HO AES/DENT Fic. 19.—Coot ( Fulica americana). Nain, Que. (Turner), Jacobshavn, Greenland, 1854 (Harting), God- thaab, Greenland, 1854 (Newton), Fort Yukon, Alaska (Nelson), and Sitka, Alaska (Hartlaub). Winter range.—The coot migrates south in winter through Central America to Lagunadel Castillo, Panama (Salvin), and to the northern NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. 45 Bahamas, Cuba, and Haiti. It winters in southern United States, north on the Atlantic coast to Cobb Island, Virginia (Rives), inthe interior to Mount Carmel, Ill. (Ridgway), San Angelo, Tex. (Lloyd), San Pedro, Ariz. (Scott), Pecks Lake, Ariz. (Mearns), and St. Thomas, Ney. (Bailey); and along the whole Pacific coast from San Jose del Cabo, Lower California (Frazar), to Chilliwack and Okanogan, B. C. (Brooks). It has been noted in winter near Cambridge, Mass. (Brewster), Buckhannon, W. Va. (Day), and at Barr Lake, Colo. (Her- sey and Rockwell), and in late fall migration in Bermuda (Hurdis), and on Clipperton Island, southwest of Mexico (Beck). Spring migration. Num- | Average : berlon lidatece Earliest date Place. years’ | spring of spring records.| arrival. arrival. [Raleiplimp Na Carentan eciie sie ite Se ok eR Sa Nea a She oe EN Se Sepa Apr. 6,1898 COUP C DOU MAW I Viele tas oa cis Spice nie eisicicre cle Si er oee cy tse ete on 3 | Mar. 19 | Mar. 15,1907 Grimipo wid ers Marsha mnie i Ao Ss bie cla ON I eae al aisbea aise eee a Mar. 14,1893 TREE RTO) TERA Es Sa ata ane ete aa eu AN Rep ame ree Mar. 5,1900 TIS, LP Ee OSG de kao BOS SEAS SE SIS caer ea ere agli ae e geNT ePecieste De eae eae Mca ay ay Mar. 28,1898 BEA h Oni py NMpY endear) a. eeau Ss ee em ae eae 4} Apr. 22} Apr. 12,1888 (CHT a ay rit Wexa),, WIENS a ee a a eu HU | La Apr. 18,1890 S LIGETSTD OA OPTI GIs sep ae a pe EG 7a NT a ich Lata i Fane or Apr. 28,1893 QUERECIO iy Can Ada sess een coe cae ec SOc emer i') Mi es Gea ee eee May 14,1890 ECATY ORS yp Cmts TNT Dee ee teaser ee oie ye a emer a eT SRR eT a Bee IC eh Mar. 27,1909 \WWGTPRERITN GS LPS 3 Sissel Se Be rarer etl hae ars pg a eee nee Re ae es | YP er Deal ens Mar. 24,1904 CHES TP NN TM GAS a eta NS) fu em pee ee HL 9 | Mar. 17} Feb. 23,1898 SGVSH I eveyone UMMM a hays eG A ah te a Sa or aes 3 | Mar. 15 | Feb. 26,1890 TEBE IN Keperra bX FS WL a a lr ae eah ce nel enc Jan. 10,1901 TBeEA IASI, WU Gees Trae SE = i at a te ry ae ees a Nes ena UE eRe SI Feb. 14,1891 PES OO Kayellll @mplira Cle pesreys meee a pepeeeicpee Rc ie 2s Asean aie yetemme wi cS apie eee i 6 | Mar. 31 | Mar. 26,1888 (Chica OM eee ene a Ns yeoman wis. seuss 7 | Mar. 25 | Mar. 19,1886 ROC ORd pl Meee a joa meee dao ces tee seam socees oc oe Bee mnee eee 7| Apr. 4] Mar. 19,1891 MA benlOOMindimee ee soa eonae Hes Sues Coa asia ela cic. sapere ee ete 4| Apr. 9 | Mar. 17,1907 OCT HO peter Se eee eee eaten ee ere nner aie uel agen 9| Apr. 2] Mar. 9,1908 RV ALG cS ULL OABIVEAC Lime in ee tamer Smee ag gaa ( ic 6 ee ean con. <2 Nan ep ee 7 | Mar. 28} Mar. 19,1904 OGM ETO MEAL see eee oy eee amie oe eel se epee 2 Seen SO gna ater 5 | Apr. 23 | Mar. 15,1885 Ding TB, Ollie CASS RSE age ae ease essa soe rs patie enlarge le ERE 3 | May 3] Apr. 27,1892 SRE KAP OW alee cce eet yee Seen iiaun au ee aoe ene 2). oo) DA Ee 6 | Mar. 28] Mar. 13,1900 SiniaCityelowae eo Went sere sles pease Pee aa a 7 | Mar. 25 | Mar. 21,1909 TEAS IOTP Ds WONG SSP Sls alee a a agua MS ES 5 | Mar. 30] Mar. 16,1886 IDGIENTRT, WV SAE ee A a oe ee eet ag LR 3 | Mar. 26] Mar. 24,1894 TLR) CRORES, WS eae ery sess a ys eens eee pael rl yA a genre ane ES 6 | Apr. 2] Mar. 25,1910 TEvavoin, LENS! INIT te uns Gee eh ad a cena a oa Os] See yeti tel g | Apr. 1]| Mar. 16 1894 ATES ORO op MT ei este snus 2) Cy ee ae ec ae eee 4| Apr. 18] Apr. 16,1892 VEIT ee MO LIS SMM Era erp ne SG IIE se IS ee Se Ue Eee 5 | Apr. 19 | Apr. 15,1906 VE CORB ari eMiri ries pa T SI ier ie ee os NN 3| May 2] May 1,1880 AVE CLTT HA UAB ECATIS Seen pee ee ee en eu ee neta ee 2 VN ei ieap aun em a |e eetaeteel| Seeeeeemmrees Mar. 19,1897 (QIRPEYT ED, TEER TNS) 2 A ea a RS ae OS a de a eG eee eae ae 5 | Apr. 12 | Mar. 31,1903 DOMMACAS LDP CDRASK aye eens aty tenis envisage rt SUES ial ae 4| Apr. 3] Mar. 18,1909 Southeastern South Dakota. sll 7 | Apr. 7 | Mar. 27,1910 TRARY OTE, IN LENA se rt eee et ee tae ye 8 | Apr. 28] Apr. 17,1895 SOMGOEO TPA PClleNSASkates satya oe nia y es sermon SAY HUES ese 6 | Apr. 25 | Apr. 20,1908 (GIGE, SRR A5 ot Seem ey SHA Seas A rat acca i ST ee rae ova es et ea) Iie eee caer May 1,1893 HOG CAVeLIMallOn eA tases rsaee ie ses eae oe ee eS 25 SPE RS Ears EP ees: May 8,1909 i and 1911. HoGiSim psoneyMackenziChaey mys sce aici ere eee CP) hy a cee edna ei eau (ean aseem uate June 1,1905 (Gulley Chins ANA GA SSS SS Ses EU OU ay Bet Nag CN Se erates te Mar. 1,1894 Carr RG AT GRANT Zoe eu eee sean Be RR ia 1 3 3) ree te Ried | at eae eee Mar. 20,1869 BOLO SE COLO smn sere Seer ea oe ah eee eee NR 8 SIR Na Na eel (Ep eA | Seamer sees Feb. 27,1904 ove arid OO Saas ie uae Ree ey 2 cplent | SS Se ee ems gee) Uo ean a 3 | Mar. 21 | Mar. 10,1887 WHEY CTATTE MV V AY Oto ee ee ioe apc Rot ea Pig elat a 2) 1.3 BL SRR SNPS I UM ccct fs NE a Apr. 12,1888 FEU EIVCUTUT TTI oe Ch etl Os a ee A pe ig UE cerns Gee on RR 2} Apr. 26} Apr. 25,1903 Crea METAS MT OTC ick eet MN) CEN LY ee eS ie eg a OE NO Pa OE cies I eR a Apr. 26,1892 Qhawib hs eyed es Tay (OW TO Se UT ia cet 0 St aR NEED Oe ga A 3 | Apr. 10 | Rare, winter. The coot is reported to remain in northern Florida to May 2, 1908, average, April 30; Canaveral, Fla., April 29, 1889; Washington, D. C., May 2, 1904; southern Louisiana, May 18, 1898, average, 46 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. April 18; Bay St. Louis, Miss., May 10, 1902; and Brookville, Ind., May 16, 1884. Eggs of the coot have been reported at Newark, N. J., May 30, 1907 Abhot): Ithaca, N. Y., May 25, 1907 (Reed and Wright): Kewanee, Ill., May 22, 1893 Ainehison)- Terre Haute, Ind., May 19, 1888 (Pisichin), English Lake, Ind., May 11, 1890 (Deane): Agri- cultural College, Mich. , May 15, 1897 cnenan: Dunnville, Ont. June 1, 1884 @leCsliun: Fort Snelling, Minn., May 27, 1891 Cane mens in U. S. National Museum); Brownsville, Tex., May 16, 1877 (Sennett); Decatur, Tex., May 19, 1889 (Donald); Barr Lake, Colo., April 27-July 21, 1907 (Rockwell); Long Lake, Man., June 5, 1894 (Arnold); Fort Chippewyan, Alta., June 7, 1880 (MacFarlane); Purisima, Lower California, May 17, 1909 (Thayer); Escondido, Cal., April 20, 1903-July 1, 1906 (Sharp); and Fort Klamath, Oreg., May 13, 1878 (Merrill). Fall migration. Num- | Average ber of | date of | Latest date Place. > of the last years’ | the last ora records.| one seen. 2 Been. Montreal «Canadates= 2305.04 se cet acai eo otcec mee ston settee ee eke etes 3 | Oct. 18} Oct. 24,1892 Obtawa Unt s. teese ees bh shed a eee eae oe estates tee tee eee 5 | Oct. 17] Oct. 23,1909 SouthermiMaine ste. 262 sabes Ss celiae ae Cee hoe et ee eats She scictine 5 | Oct. 13 |-Oct. 24,1904 IDYanala syndy IN) 4 Jel Se Se nee be noo eo secacs ae are mre yo tone AC atscag poSaAl henemome errae ts a Oct. 10,1897 Cambridgery Mass rn dicassse cess Jetee-teteeee toe enn eter lease an Geo mene eee Dec. 20,1903 ING WDOntMR Ieee eae oes eae Se Sees eee pores ere an seie eltetaee = 4| Nov. 7 | Dec. 20,1900 Portland; Conne *s22c-ecise eto nt aes Sac eee eee e ee Bel sera Aes ares Ss | arises ece Nov. 14,1892 Branch port NY. .swcssece ns Joie sc ces saet seca fase se see beeke sees ees 2 | Nov. 11 |. Nov. 22,1896 Renovo, Bae ak ennai a) Ae date cote on sone ce 7 | Oct. 25 | Nov. 2,1894 Washington, DAC oo, Se See Soe ee eee 9S cee rest aie een ne ane 4} Oct. 21 | Oct. -31,1899 Winfield, Vin aera cee Nena e LNeee geen emer ans lls. 7 Pane nace Nov. 12,1907 Raleigh, (NaC Sota d soe Ses ae os erase Reet thee | soa oa Meee ace Dec. 1,1882 South Qu’Appelle, SESS awd Reese me et ee ee on tee enn T oo cee era a SEn ane eeeee eee Oct. 21 1907 AWyelne eMianis= cess 222 seme esenans sees Ree aersteisaaerd Bf Ginn SASS eee apa aes See nae ee eee Oct. 15 1909 SLOURAHAlIS ISD ales Mee Shot eet ee ele eee ee re Sem ea ie 3 | Noy. 11 | Nov. 14 1909 ibinico ne INebiee teers eh ee ek ae Lc ee ene aad | 2| Nov. 14] Nov. 18 1900 Omega Kans <6 ee toceiac acs Dea cioeqjasnts Mdotbanssegeoee sans adesagesseees 2} Oct. 23] Oct. 26 1899 Minneapolis, sMilnitee 2c... ~ 208s etee accuse seen Suse Sees keene 3 | Oct. 17 | Nov. 6 1906 Man eSHOrLO MIND = Secs senses dee Sese ie toe See eeta a sea koe eee eSpace pea Nov. 10 1892 IMA MISONSNWHSE seman cijesscn cos naekecn see sasae See eases octet eet en se oesell SSen eel eemes alee Noy. 24 1909 Chicago, Meh Sisko eas aeiist cca sroeeek ocean eeee tenes. tac: beta Senses 4} Oct. 17 | Nov. 6 1906 INewaHlanmnonyselnd 232222 ano Bosse skece oo os poesece ste hehe sae sects 2] Oct. 21 | Oct. 27,1902 Oherlinwi@ Wiese a F232 las sse ee ae eee esses Se aoe SREB Saer 2 | Oct. 15 | Nov. 26,1906 Vicksburg, MICH. osx a ceee ease cece ce eee es Sees e ehes sec sc ee eee ee 6 | Nov. 19 | Dec. 5 1909 HEC OM LOW Gee ns Socticis aerate fara eee me seniosa see eemee oe S sons ose 2a 5 | Nov. 12 | Dec. 21,1899 Kansas City, IMT OB ars alate ats ate ates rie se sie ae ee eee Bee mrs rye [eee | esmescee Nov. 23,1904 Sawtooth Lake, Idahosers.2: ssesccife Sees coseeeestetsstsceaccecee es -Sec|eeaneee | oe eet eee Oct. 2,1890 ADOT pe MOM GS een taste cee oe ne han wai Ae e-em aa) aoa sie aisinicee eee Ree | siziceiserneer Oct. 4,1903 MOSCA C OlOm (MEAs) et = netics cee ntttset oe Ce Re menen 5,2 ie econ oe aeyen = |leedan mel Bee eee eee Noy. 5 1907 @hattanooray Okage srs. s8=--sesese 2 BR (ats mS IE A AeA Oe Se Ne | re ee ead eee eee Nov. 28,1904 The first coot arrives in northern Florida, in the fall, on the aver- age October 20, earliest October 17, 1908; Washington, D. C., Sep- tember 20, earliest September 1, 1890; Erie, Pa., September 6, earliest September 5, 1875; Winfield, W. Va., August 20, 1907; Cambridge, Mass., August 16, 1895; Rodney, Miss., September 24, 1888; Jasper City, Mo., September 20, 1902; and Clipperton Island, southwest of Mexico; November 19, 1901. NORTH AMERICAN RAILS AND THEIR ALLIES. AT [CARIBBEAN COOT. fulica caribaea Ridgway. The Caribbean coot is recorded from the Lesser Antilles on the islands of Anguilla, Guadeloupe, and St. John.] [AMERICAN FINFOOT. Heliornis fulica (Boddaert). The American finfoot ranges from Matto Grasso, Brazil, and Pebas, Peru, north through Guiana, Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Central America to the Belize River, British Honduras, the Coatzacoalcos River, and Buena Vista, Vera Cruz. | [GUATEMALAN SUN BITTERN. LHurypyga major Hartlaub. Ranging into northern South America, in Colombia and Ecuador, the Guatemalan sun bittern is rare in Central America, where it has been recorded from Panama, Costa Rica (both coasts), and from the mountains southeast of Coban, Guatemala. | i ean not Oa i Re nin ih VA to ag ie Egon ee YS i Mr Ty ee albigularis, Creciscus, 36. albiventris, Aramides, 25. Amaurolimnas concolor, 26. American finfoot, 47. americana, Fulica, 43. Grus, 4. Aramides albiventris, 25. axillaris, 25. cajanea, 25. plumbeicollis, 26. Aramus vociferus, 13. Ash-headed rail, 36. atra, Fulica, 43. axillaris, Aramides, 25. Bahama clapper rail, 22. Belding rail, 17. beldingi, Rallus, 17. Bittern, Guatemalan sun, 47. Black rail, 33. Brown crane, little, 7. cajanea, Aramides, 25. California clapper rail, 18. canadensis, Grus, 7. caribaea, Fulica, 47. caribacus, Rallus longirostris, 22. Caribbean clapper rail, 22. coot, 47. carolina, Porzana, 1, 2, 4, 26. Carolina rail. See Sora. Cayenne wood rail, 25. cinereiceps, Creciscus, 36. Clapper rail, 19. Bahama, 22. California, 18. Caribbean, 22. Cuban, 22. Florida, 20. Louisiana, 20. Wayne, 21. Yucatan, 22. concolor, Amaurolimnas, 26. Coot, 2, 3, 43. Caribbean, 47. European, 43. Corn crake, 36. coryi, Rallus crepitans, 22. Coturnicops noveboracensis, 31. coturniculus, Creciscus, 35. Crake, corn, 36. spotted, 26. Crane, little brown, 7. sandhill, 1, 10. e white. See Whooping crane. whooping, 1, 4. Creciscus albigularis, 36. cinereiceps, 36. coturniculus, 35. INDEX. Creciscus erilis vagans, 36. jamaicensis, 33. crepitans coryi, Rallus, 22. crepitans, Rallus, 19. saturatus, Ralius, 20. scotti, Rallus, 20 waynei, Rallus, 21. Crex crex, 36. Cuban clapper rail, 22. king rail, 17. cubanus, Rallus longirosiris, 22. Distribution, 3. elegans, Rallus, 14. ramsdeni, Rallus, 17. European coot, 43. Eurypyga major, 47. exilis vagans, Creciscus, 36. Farallon rail, 35. Finfoot, American, 47. flaviventris, Porzana, 31. Florida clapper rail, 20. gallinule, 40. Fulica americana, 43. atra, 43. caribaea, 47. fulica, Heliornis, 47. galcata, Gallinula, 40. Gallinula galeata, 40. Gallinule, Florida, 40. purple, 37. goldmani, Porzana, 31. Grus americana, 4. canadensis, 7. mexicana, 10. Guatemalan sun bittern, 47. Heliornis fulica, 47. Introduction, 1. Tonornis martinicus, 37. Jamaicensis, Creciscus, 33. King rail, 14. Cuban, 17. Mexican, 17. Lawrence wood rail, 25. levipes, Rallus, 18. Light-footed rail, 18. Limnopardalus maculatus, 25. Limpkin, 13. Little brown crane, 7. longirosiris caribacus, Rallus, 22. cubanus, Rallus, 22. Louisiana clapper rail, 20. maculatus, Limnopardalus, 25. major, Eurypyga, 47. 49 50 BULLETIN 128, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Mangrove wood rail, 25. martinicus, Ionornis, 37. Mexican king rail, 17. yellow rail, 31. mexicana, Grus, 10. Migration, 4. Nicaragua wood rail, 26. noveboracensis, Coturnicops, 31. obsoletus, Rallus, 18. pallidus, Railus, 22. plumbeicollis, Aramides, 26. Porzana carolina, 1, 2, 4, 26. flaviventris, 31. goldmani, 31. porzana, 26. rubra, 31. Purple gallinule, 37. Rail, ash-headed, 36. Bahama clapper, 22. Belding, 17. black, 33. California clapper, 18. Caribbean clapper, 22. Carolina. See Sora. Cayenne wood, 25. clapper, 19. Cuban clapper, 22. king, 17. Farallon, 35. Florida clapper, 20. king, 14. Lawrence wood, 25. light-footed, 18. Louisiana clapper, 20. mangrove wood, 25. Mexican king, 17. yellow, 31. Nicaragua wood, 26. red, 26. rufous, 31. spotted, 25. Virginia, 22. wandering, 36. Wayne clapper, 21. white-throated, 36. yellow, 31. yellow-bellied, 31. Rail, Yucatan clapper, 22. Rallus beldingi, 17. crepitans crepitans, 19. coryi, 22. saturatus, 20. Scotti, 20. waynei, 21. elegans, 14. ramsdeni, 17. levipes, 18. longirostris caribacus, 22. cubanus, 22. obsoletus, 18. pallidus, 22. tenwirosiris, 17. virginanus, 22. ramsdeni, Rallus elegans, 17. Red rail, 26. rubra, Porzana, 31. Rufous rail, 31. Sandhill crane, 1, 10. saturatus, Rallus crepitans, 20. scotti, Rallus crepitans, 20. Sora, 1, 2, 4, 26. Spotted crake, 26. rail, 25. Sun bittern, Guatemalan, 47. e tenuirostris, Rallus, 17. vagans, Creciscus crilis, 36. Virginia rail, 22. virginianus, Rallus, 22. vociferus, Aramus, 13. Wandering rail, 36. Wayne clapper rail, 21. waynei, Rallus crepitans, 21. White crane. See Whooping crane. White-throated rail, 36. Whooping crane, 1, 4. Wood rail, Cayenne, 25. Lawrence, 25. mangrove, 25. Nicaragua, 26. Yellow-bellied rail, 31. Yellow rail, 31. Mexican, 31. Yucatan clapper rail, 22. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1914 BULLE TING OR THE gf) USDEPARTITENT OFAQRICULIURE No. 129 Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester. September 10, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) YIELDS FROM THE DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION GF CERTAIN HARDWOODS.’ By L. F. Hawtery and R. C. Parmer, Chemists in Forest Products. PURPOSE OF EXPERIMENTS. The chief hardwoods used in this country for distillation are beech, — birch, and maple. Oniy mi!l and forest waste and trees unmerchant- able for lumber are now ordinarily used, although some material suit- able for lumber still finds its way to the distillation plants. Such southern hardwoods as the oaks, red gum, tupelo, and hickory have not been important in distillation, and no information has existed in regard to the amount of the various products which could be obtained from them. Nor has information been available on the relative value of the commonly used species, or of the different forms of material, such as body wood, limbs, and slabs. The investigation here de- scribed was undertaken in order to supply this information and to aid in this way the utilization of materials now wasted. METHOD OF INVESTIGATION. GENERAL PLAN. Since conditions of distillation influence the yield of products, results obtained in the laboratory could not be compared directly with those obtained in commercial operations. In order to have a direct comparison between the species commonly used and the ones which are not, it was therefore necessary to include both classes in the investigation. The various materials were distilled under similar conditions, and their products analyzed by the same methods. In order to avoid errors due to differences in yields from different trees of the same species, in most cases an average sample of material from two or Note.—Gives results of experiments in destructive distillation of hardwoods. Of interest to manufac- turers of by-products. 1 The investigation the results of which are given in this bulletin were conducted at the Forest Prod? ucts Laboratory, Madison, Wis., maintained in cooperation with the University of Wisconsin. 51595°—14—_1 2 BULLETIN 129, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. three trees was distilled. Further, the average yields from the heart- wood! of several trees were in a few instances compared with the yields from lumber of the same species. Differences in yields may also occur in trees of the same species grown in different localities, and for this reason the results obtained are averaged separately when more than one locality is represented. At least two distillations were made of each kind or form of material tested. Different forms of wood—such as body wood (wood free from bark), slabs, limbs, ete.—were distilled, but the proportion of each used in commercial practice varies with different plants and localities, so that it is not possible to assume a proportion representing average con- ditions. For this reason the yields from different forms of wood of the same species are presented separately. The corresponding yield per given weight of wood, made up of any proportion of the various forms, can readily be calculated. However, as a basis of comparison between the species, the average yields from all heartwood runs (in- cluding lumber) are taken arbitrarily as the species value. The mean of the heartwood and slab-wood yields is also given wherever both forms were distilled. THE RETORT. Figure 1 shows the construction of the retort in which the distilla- tions were made. The retort proper A was surrounded by the oil jacket B, which was filled with a high-flash-test cylinder oil. The outlet pipe C connected the retort with an ordinary worm condenser (not shown). The pyrometer tubes, 1, 2, 3,4, and 5, made it possible to measure the temperature at various places within the retort. The retort was mounted on an iron stand, was insulated on all sides, and heated by a row of gas burners underneath. The flames from the burners played chiefly up one side of the cylinder and induced a fairly good circulation of the hot oil around the retort. PREPARATION OF MATERIAL. The forms of material used varied to some extent with different species, but most of them consisted of round bolts. These were sawed into slabs and heartwood in about the same proportion as would occur in ordinary sawmill practice, and the percentage of bark on the slabs was roughly determined. Sticks were prepared from 6 to 8 square inches in cross section and a trifle less than 18 incheslong. Just before each charge of wood was weighed, six 1-inch sections, each cut from a different stick and in each case from a different part of the stick, were taken for moisture determinations. In the comparative distillations on bark and sapwood the material was taken from the same bolts. When lbmbs were used they were 1 The term “ heartwood”’ as used in this paper appiies to the material left after the slabs have been removed from a bolt or log. It was in all cases entirely free from bark, but small amounts of sapwood sometimes remained. Lumber is considered as made from heartwood as thus defined. YIELDS FROM DISTILLATION OF CERTAIN HARDWOODS. O/L BATH -& @ iS a S RETORT FROPER-A Fig. 1.—Experimental retort. AAC Sd 4 BULLETIN 129, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. taken from the same trees as the body wood. In the case of factory waste or lumber there was, of course, no record of the trees from which the material came. TEMPERATURES OF DISTILLATION. Tt was found that the temperatures in pyrometer tubes 1, 2,3, and 4, which are all near the surface of the retort, were always within 15° to 20° of each other, and usually within 10° during the last part of the distillation. Tube 1 was the hottest and tube 5 the coolest. Tt was, therefore, considered unnecessary to take temperature read- ings in tubes 2, 3, and 4, and the records contain the readings from tubes 1 and 5 only. The maximum temperatures obtained in the various distillations ranged from 327° C. to 415° C., and the maximum temperatures near the surface and at the center of the retort often differed as much as 60° C. in the same distillation. These differences, however, did not appreciably affect the yields of alcohol and acetic acid, since in some instances higher temperatures gave higher yields, and i others lower. It is also found that the charcoal from low-temperature distillations, when redistilled in small samples at temperatures above 400° C., produced only smali amounts of acetic acid (equivalent to an mcerease of 2 per cent of the original yield of acid). It was considered, there- fore, that the distillations were practically complete, as to alcohol and acetic acid, provided all parts of the charge had been subjected to a temperature of at least 320° C.t In most of the distillations, on account of the exothermic character of the reaction, the temperature at the center of the retort finally became higher than that at the surface. It was the heat developed during the exothermic reaction which made it difficult to obtain the same maximum temperatures in all distillations; after the reaction was well started at the surface its progress toward the center was spontaneous and the maximum temperature could not be fully controlled. The maximum temperature was usually kept below 260° C. until the water was nearly all expelled from the wocd and the temperature at the center had risen to about 190° C., when it was allowed to rise more rapidly. Only in this way could the temperatures at different points in the retort be kept near one another. By this means also the possible effect of variation In moisture content was minimized, since the slow preliminary heating resulted in a partial drying of the wood, and the different charges had therefore nearly the same mois- ture content at the time the destructive distillation began. 1 See Klason, von Heidenstam and Norlin, Arkiv for Kemi Min. och Geol. 1908, ITI, 9. YIELDS FROM DISTILLATION OF CERTAIN HARDWOODS. 5 TaBLE 1.—Sample daia sheet. Shipment No. 197. Project No. 152. ’ + Sample Nos. 21 and 22. Run No. 97. January 14, 1913. Birch slab wood. Actual weight of charge 69.86 pounds. 10 per cent to 14 per cent bark. Dry weight of charge 63.10 pounds. | Temperature. Total Time. ; distil- | Remarks. Tube Tube late. || No. 1. No. 5. January 13. o”. oC. ieee USM) 19, Wile os-s558 cneepeuadecese saSoaeRloseaEEes s- PAO) Vespa, eataaes Retort charged; gas on one-half. | January 14. | | 90) 2), jad Ao ouoseeebeoeedcosSoerlbecE 234 180 3,200 | Gas on full. iD De Wl Geceeeccidocussesuanee ape SEnEe 280 220 4, 200 O50) Qo ses ese seseeaeensecousaaee 303 246 5, 700 UO ahs WS Shes hae eRe oo coeee ces 312 263 6, 700 TNT as Tals ee ee eee ee en eas 317 278 7, 700 IN-OF) 2.10. Asse soad ss espe s er eneoenaeme 322 291 8, 700 1iLBY/ Qp Wil. cos GesebasoeaaoqeaceosseeEe 329 305 9, 700 TSB ANS ial hs ear eee PSs ea 336 318 10,700 | Gas off. THAN Gh, 700) a Soe AUB Se eee ao ooooceeEee 342 325 11, 700 TS Gl, Toe) esas eGR o oko Seas ee Bee 342 351 12, 700 IDG, Wl, ~caoes cobos ene uooEEco os eudeED 344 370 13, 200 WOWG Op 1s oodseussoSoueHee sss coup Eee 341 378 13, 500 TAA) 3 cae) ii COB ee ORE aeS Coen Be aoe 339 STASI Weare a Maximum temperature. TWAS G5 Tle oA cue de seen Wee oreaease 337 S1OK| same L510) @p\I60l so SoegadcoesacauporeEaesooos 282 284 14, 000 January 15. §\@\, 100) oe Oboes Sa BER BOSFE Ee SpOoaGos Seneneeooc 50 14, 200 Total distillate=32.83 pounds. COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTS. A typical data sheet is shown in Table 1. The time and tempera- tures were read as every liter or half liter of distillate was collected. In a few distillations separate titrations for acetic acid were made on the first several fractions of one-half liter or one liter each, but in general all the distillate was mixed for analysis.'. The distillate was allowed to settle for at least 24 hours. At the end of that time the tar and pyroligneous acid were separated by decantation, and the vol- ume and weight of each determined. The charcoal was allowed to cool in the retort over night, and was weighed after separaticn from the “tar coke.” Tar coke refers to the material occurring in the retort that was clearly a residue from the distillation of tar. This was weighed separately. The gas was computed by difference, and no determination of its composition was made. PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. The pyroligneous acid was analyzed by the methods described by Klar? for the determination of acetic acid, wood alcohol, and dis- 1 The acetic acid in that part of the distillate (consisting usually of water) which came over before true destructive distillation began amounted to from 8 to 10 per cent of the total acetic acid; the alcohol in the same part amounted to about 1 per cent of the total alcohol. The volatile acids obtained at temperatures below the point at which the wood begins to distill destructively, say 280° C., must have an origin difv:- ent from that of the acid obtained during the destructive distillation. It is probably formed by action of the water on the wood fiber at high temperatures similarly to the acid obtained by hydrolysis as re; by Cross (Dissertation, GOttingen, 1910). 2 Technologie der Holzverkohlung, p. 337. 6 BULLETIN 129, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, solved tar. For the acetic-acid and dissolved-tar determinations 100 c. c. of pyroligneous acid were distilled at a maximum tempera- ture of 140° C. until practically no further distillate appeared, when 50 c. c. of water were added and distilled off as before. The residue in the flask was weighed and computed as dissolved tar, while for the acetic-acid determination an aliquot part of the distillate was ti- trated with normal scdium hydroxide solution, with jeetste) pines as indicator. The wood alcohol was determined by distilling 60 per cent from a 1-liter sample of the pyroligneous acid and adding an excess of sodium hydroxide to the Recor, again distilling 60 per cent, and after again adding sodium hydroxide, making a third distillation of 60 per cent. The final distillate was accurately weighed, and the specific gravity determined by means of a Westphal balance at room tempera- ture and corrected to 15° C. by using the tables of Dittmar and Fawsitt.! In correcting the specific gravity for temperature it is necessary to consider both the concentration of alcohol and the range of temperature. TAR. The amount of acetic acid in the settled tar was determined, after Klar, by distilling 100 grams of the tar at 130° to 140° until the watery distillate ceased, then passing steam through the residue until no more acid was found in the distillate, the latter being then titrated, as in the pyroligneous-acid analysis, and added to that found in the pyroligneous acid. COMPUTATION OF RESULTS. All the yields of products were first computed to a percentage of the dry weight of the material distilled, since only on this basis are the results directly comparable, the effect of varying percentages of moisture in air-dry wood and of differences due to weight per unit volume being eliminated. But because the unit of measurement for wood is the cord, and the capacity of a plant is natur ally expressed in this unit, a comparison between the various species is made also on the cord basis. A cord was assumed to contain 90 cubic feet of actual wood, and its weight was derived from the average weight per cubic foot of air-dry wood of different species as given by Snow.? The actual volume of a cord differs, of course, for different forms of material, due to variation in diameter and shape among the indi- vidual pieces. Also, differences in density exist between wood from different parts of the tree and between wood and bark; hence between forms of material containing different proportions of wal and bark. For these reasons it was impossible to estimate closely the weight per cord of the several forms as compared with each other, and the 1'Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 33. Quoted in Smithsonian Physica! Tables. 2 The Principal Species of Wood, by C. H. Snow. YIELDS FROM DISTILLATION OF CERTAIN HARDWOODS. i weight is therefore assumed to be the same for all forms, and the yields per cord computed on this basis. For comparison with commercial conditions it is better also to express the yields per cord in terms of commercial products, and so they are computed as 82 per cent crude wood alcohol and 80 per cent gray acetate of hme. YIELDS ON PERCENTAGE WEIGHT BASIS. ALCOHOL AND ACETIC ACID. VARIATION AMONG SPECIES. The average yields of total acetic acid and wood alcohol, expressed in percentages of the oven-dry weight of the material distilled, are shown in Table 2. TaBLeE 2.— Yields of alcohol and acetic acid in percentages of oven-dry weight of material distilled. YIELD OF WOOD ALCOHOL (100 PER CENT). Mean Aver- = ey | aa heart- hoe . an eart- a um- | wood Species. Locality. pee ritele cen neal omatal bee Other forms. slab h wood. Can wood. IP aha: Nid 2G Fea | IER eR Ch anes Pe oe (Barks ee 1.2! Beecher. sees one SEs mdianayes cece ae 1.95 1.79 2.04 | 1.87 1.99 \Sapwood..., 1.97 LDS Si ea et rare nares Pennsylvania...| 2.23 22098 asses QML Gals isy Sect IBC aE a a el ee See ee Wisconsin,.....- 1.45 1.55 1.67 1. 50 1. 54 DORs eee os ss bees: Pennsylvania.../ 1.62 SLES Oi le sxe nae ILS Ohl oaeane IMaplopeerer nic =o anes sats Wisconsin,......} 1.94 1.91 1598 oh 93: 1.76 | Barketeee:: 1.88 IDO. 6 CS oes eee sees Pennsylvania...| 1.94 L783 Seesceee 116 Wk Bepesase RVediomer asso os. e3/- 5 Missouri.......- 1.76 BYR ees tee 115./(as oO 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 : PERCENTAGE Fig. 2.—Relative yields of acetate oflime per cord. (Average yield from heartwood and lumber of beech, birch, and maple from Wisconsin=100 per cent.) on beech, birch, and maple from Wisconsin as the standard (100 per cent). The same values are shown graphically in figures 2 and 3 for acetate and alcohol, respectively. YIELDS FROM DISTILLATION OF CERTAIN HARDWOODS. a In) OM HEARTWOOD: VZZACHESTNUT —-33.0/77 BETH BEA SENSI LM LAGHESIN OT —~35.8 Wp peas | (9) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 —=—s«HIO 120 130 PERCENTAGE el 140 Fig. 3.—Relative yields of wood alcohol per cord of wood. : (Average yield from heartwood and lum- ber of beech, birch, and maple from Wisconsin=100 per cent.) 12 BULLETIN 129, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasieE 4.— Yields of commercial alcohol and acetate from various species per cord of wood. YIELD OF WOOD ALCOHOL (82 PER CENT). i) Mean | Aver- heart- age Species. Locality. shi baa a we Se Other forms. slab heart- wood. | wood Gals. | Gals. | Gals. | Gals. | Gals. Gals. Beech..... See eae ere Indiana.........- |, 13 10.9 |'- 12.2 11.4 12.05 | Sapwood... 11.9 DOr. eee eee Pennsylvania...| 13.5 12:63 13:15) |/eee eee BEd y le koeeeie aes, reeks aed as Wisconsin....... 8.3 8.9 9.6 8.6 8.9 Ons Sean ee eee Pennsylvania...) 9.3 OF 13) Same tS Fe ic | se a2Y elk ie ioe eee Rene a Wisconsin....... 11.8 1956) 9. 87 iy 10.9 T) Oe enc hoe ee age Pennsylvania...) 11.85 LORS 2 eee oe 48 Ps en (eee a IBY leg phases Seema eS MiASSOUTI Se esa-.5 9. 4 G52 sf aos O53 5) aes Chestnut... 2: 35-3 New Jersey...... Be i Be Gale es 32050 |: ee eee Dimbsezeee. By) TICK OR yee ot ye ee eee ETO Na) Bee ee ee cele soos Ai) 13) el (ee On omen Webitooakss 23: 85-2 See slewe ae do: :..2e2see== 9.2 9.2} 10.4 9.2 9.9 TD OF ee ee te wave ‘Arkansas-c2. . 3.2 9.2 10g eee OS G5: | Seems i pelopeeecsaccceccesacce Missouri........- 18.75 104g eee Oe) ta eeeeee Gimbsaees- 9. 2 1 Single unchecked determination. YIELD OF ACETATE OF LIME (80 PER CENT). Mean | Aver- Weight a | Spall ©. heart- age per core! : wer Heart-| Sla um- | wood |lumbez \. i Species. Locality. wood. | wood. | ber. | and | and Other forms. | per cent slab | heart- moist- wood. | wood ure) | | Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs: Lbs. Beech. <.22fc2e" Indiana. .; 2.2 - 301 335 313 318 307 | Sapwood... 3, 785 i) eece ee Pennsylvania... 313 BBE a eee B20 ese enh | saw e oeeetemaee 3, 785 Birchecso eee Wisconsin....... 346 355 341 350 3430 )l een 3, 600 Dos. eee Pennsylvania... 319 Ble 2S a SLOW bees 2 5|-aosten ee ooo eee 3, 600 Maples 2s2see. | Wisconsin..._.-.| 301 284 310 293 B05»|2 eek eae etess 3,875 WOE ace eeeee Pennsylvania. -.| 314 3020 Se meee BOB TA o2|_ oscars a eeeeereee 3, 875 Red gum...__.. Missouri.........| 269 VEU sles aes 2 8e | isiciess.0 | aaa teaaeeenies 3,300 Chestnut.......| New Jersey... .. 198 TOO Ee ecete 2 104A eee impS2 see 232 2,520 Hickory.......- Trdiam ae... lao eles oe 3327 | ee ee Boz! | 2 eh enh ones 4,590 White oak.....|..... C0 seen. 308 295 300 301 B05)! Scc tees o ae cee 4,320 1) iets eee Arkansas........ 262 PANG) | erate oe OOo a eee | oceans ae eee 4,320 ebupeloise seas: Missouri......... 226 2601| Sees AGS Bee caer Pimps. < 222 283 3,510 1 The weights per cord are derived as explained on p. 6. TaBLe 5.—Ielative yields of commercial alcohol and acetate per cord of wood of various species. [Average yields 2 from heartwood and lumber cf beech, birch, and maple from Wisconsin equals 100 per cent.] Yield of acetate of lime Yield of wood alcohol (80 per cent). (82 per cent). Species. | Locality. | Heart-| Slab Heart-| Slab wood. | wood. | Other forms. | yooq. | wood. | Other forms. | Gals. | Gals. Gais. | Gals. | Gals. Gals. Beech. c22 see Indiana. <2.2-.:. 94.6 | 1035.0 | Sapwood. 113.1 108.2] 100.0 | Sapwood 109.1 DOnzate ee: Pennsylvania... 5 124.0 | 115.6 Jevigel ae epme Wisconsin.....- 76.2 81.6 DOn2i2222 ae Pennsylvania... 85. 4 83.5 Maples. s.<..25s08 WVASCOMSIneS: 2 o. 108.2 | 106.5 DOsoce. nee Pennsylvania. .. 108. 8 98. 2 Red gum......... Missouri... ..... 86. 2 84.5 Chestnut. =. -=.22 New Jersey-.-.- 33.9 3.0] Limbs... 35.8 UCKOnycteee os. <4 Indiana......... 140: oe tea2 Wihiteoak.<.-.. 5). 2225 do7.... 84.5 84.5 1) ae 5. Arkansas........ 84.5 92.7 TUPSlOs. fos als Missouni.2...!.: 80.3 95.5 | Limbs.. 84.4 1 The weights per cord are derived as explained on p. 6. 2 Acetate of lime, 80 per cent, 319 pounds; alcohol, 82 per cent, 10.9 gallons. YIELDS FROM DISTILLATION OF CERTAIN HARDWOODS. 13 COMPARISON OF VALUES. -The combined value of commercial alcohol and acetate of lime from the various forms of material per cord of wood of the various species is given in Table 6, which 1s computed from the yields given in Table 4. These values are according to the prevailing prices for 1911-13. In judging the value of the different forms and species for dis- tillation, the yields under commercial conditions must be consid- ered, and therefore the value of the acetate per cord of wood of different species is computed on a basis of two-thirds of the yields shown. The value of the alcohol is based on the experimental yields, since these are at most only slightly higher than average commercial yields. Tar and gas are not included in the computa- tion of the value of products, because they are relatively unimpor- tant and are commonly used as fuel at the plant, Charcoal is one of the valuable commercial products, but is not included because there are no definite data from which the values night be computed. The charcoal produced by the experimental method has not been subjected to temperatures as high as in commercial practice, and therefore contains more volatile matter. Although the relation be- tween the yields obtained from different species in the experiments might be the same as between those obtained by commercial meth- ods, there is no information on the quelity of the charcoal from different species. Also, charcoal is usually sold by volume, and since no data are available on the weight per bushel for that produced from different species, the yields can not be computed to commer- cial units. Tas Le 6.— Values of commercial alcohol and acetate per cord of wood of various species.* Values of wood alcohol and acetate of lime during period 1911-13.2 | | Mean Aver- | sient Species. Locality. | ie es a Heart age conde | Heart- a um- | woo Pes Lum Dera eo 2. wood. | wood. ber. and Other forms. and (15 a slab heart- aa i wood wood ae 3) ; Pounds. IB eechwann = esas ein Giamateaee ss | $8.08] $8.41] $8.38] $8.26 | Sapwood,$9.10_.| $8.23 3, 785 IDO. Seeeeeene Pennsylvania. - . 8. 72 OSSOn ea ees teal | - see esate || Meet 3, 785 LR Ne BAe ese Wisconsin. ...._. 7.92 8. 22 8.17 Be: O 77 |e Basen Ore 8. 04 3, 600 IDO) seeeeesas Pennsylvania. -- 7.7 (EEo4 See Coat ||: en Ses I 3, 600 14s [eyo a pa eet Wisconsin....... 8. 08 7. 74 1.12 LSS | = aa eae he 7.90 3, 875 IDO ea em ee Pennsylvania. . - 8.31 75 OAs BE OG apis ie SCs a TN. LO a 3, 875 Redvgums. je Missouri........ 6. 92 GO| eet pes G27 PRM i cee SSE 1 RR 3,300 Cirestnutae: | 72252 New Jersey--...| 4.28 ATT Mies 4.19) |Wimibs, $4:89)2= - 3). 2 285% 2,520 iickonyees-. 22222 ihr Gi aim a eee |i Ses QS BL Bie P| Pe ik, Salar 9.51 4,590 ORNs. 555 oes eee donee: 7. 52 7.30 7. 70 (Gail. Pate apse oe 7. 61 4,320 DORs 2 Arkansas...-.-.. 6. 76 (003 ae GROQ nesses Hy RRBs la aae ae 4,320 Mupeloseemase.* 5 Missouri.-.......] 46.04 Uo OB RS SR ae 62590 | Pbimbs) $70 -\os eee 3,510 1The market price of cruae alcohol is fairly stable, but acetate of lime fluctuates considerably from time to time. For this reason the relative value of the different species, from the standpoint of value of products, may vary from the calculations indicated. 2 The weights per cord are derived as explained on p, —. 3 At 26 cents per gallon for alcohol and $2.50 per hundredweight for acetate of lime. The acetate is com- puted from two-thirds the yields given in Table 4. 4 One determination only. 14 BULLETIN 129, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 7.—Relative values of commercial alcohol and acetate per cord of wood of various species.! [Average value of yields from heartwood and lumber of beech, birch, and maple from Wisconsin ($8.06) equals 100 per cent. J Heart. | Mean Species. Locality. Heart- Slabs. wood wood |Sapwood.} Limbs. wood. and rl lumber. shins Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Beech eae=..32 see soee Tinatobishat: eye fe ee 100. 2 104.2 102.1 102.5 JAB IOM aces DD OM ea ea ree Pennsylvania..... 108.1 OS 20h aie eae we: 109. 23 os Sc aoe Ses eye eee Jet aleerss Sear eNp ye a Wisconsin......... 98.4 102.0 97.7 LOO. ae ese cose (ae ee DD Oc aeae ae Pennsylvania... . 96.0 Ord) lpse soe ee O52 8: eases te | eeeeee eee Maplerscise: 22. aces Wisconsin. 2: .:2 100.2 96.0 95.8 OSs | ai som errs | eee ee TD ON er eee eee Pennsylvania..... 103.0 OVO S aci2 Sis «siete 100.:08 |: 2823.56 sele eee eee Red gum..... eer Missouri...2.:..-.- 86.0 SOUTH cee omer 83.13 i [ee ee es ee ee Chestiitt.2 3.554.226 New Jersey...-...- 53.2 OlniOi eee 2 eer ‘52 eet | eee eee 60.7 RELIC OYayiaere cere ae TGA os leet etree sere ene se WYS90) Wane oc taccl ce ore ecrel aeeeeeeyee White oak. 222522402. 2leess doe. Jc. eee 93.3 90.7 94.5 OD Oi oak ce Seen ete Diossass= eae eee Arkansas. .-2 s222-- 83.9 S810 lees 8559525 eee ee ee Tpelones eae ee IMISSOUTI2s2eee eee 75.0 Sia) eee acoso BI Bh ceeosee ace 88.1 1 The weights per cord are derived as explained on p. 6. Assuming that the value of the charcoal and the cost of plant operation per cord of wood is the same for all species, the differences in the value of the alcohol and acetate produced by the various woods represent the differences in the value of these woods for distillation purposes... The average value of the alcohol and acetate yields from Indiana beech and Wisconsin birch and maple heartwood 1s $8.06 per cord. The values of these products from the heartwood of chestnut, red gum, tupelo (slabs), and southern and northern oak, are less than this amount by $3.78, $1.14, $1.03, $1.30, and $0.54, respectively; from hickory (factory waste) the products are $1.55 greater in value. The average price paid is only about $3.50 per cord, and consequently the use of chestnut for this purpose is out of the question. Oak, tupelo, and red gum, under favorable conditions of supply and cost, might be used profitably, while hickory should command a very good price for this purpose. Since these deductions are based on the value of the chemical products they apply less strongly in case of plants making only a partial recovery of these products. The value of alcohol and acetate from the different forms and species as given in Table 6 are compared in Table 7 by means of a standard value. This value is $8.06, being the average value of beech (from Indiana), birch, and maple heartwood (from Wisconsin). This standard is taken as 100 per cent and the other values are ranked accordingly. 1 The assumption in regard to the cost of operation will undoubtedly hold so far as the destructive distillation of the wood is concerned. However, the cost of the refining operations is approximately proportionate to the amount of crude pyroligneous acid produced; although this is variable, it bears some relation to the yield of refined producis. The large amount of crude pyroligneous acid per cord of hickory would tend to increase the refining cost per cord of wood; likewise the low yields of crude pyroligneous acid from chestnut, tupelo, and red gum would tend to lower the cost of these woods. Therefore, the assumption made is not entirely correct, but the differences are not great enough to affect seriously the conclusions. YIELDS FROM DISTILLATION OF CERTAIN HARDWOODS. 5 The value of the two products (alcohol and acetate) from hickory is 18 per cent greater than the standard chosen for the comparison. Of the other species, oak from Indiana is the only one which falls above 90 per cent; with all the others, except chestnut, the average yield from heartwood and slab wood is above 80 per cent. Of equal interest to these relative values based upon species are the relative values of the different forms of wood from the same species. These relations are shown in Table 8, in which the value of heartwood in each case is taken as 100 per cent. A number of species show a higher value for slabs than for heartwood. The slabs of Indiana beech, Wisconsin birch, Pennsylvania beech, and Arkansas oak are from 2 to 5 per cent higher that the heartwood, while the limbs of the two species tested, chestnut and tupelo, are about 15 per cent higher than heartwood. ‘These results are based upon equal weights of the several forms of material compared. TasLeE 8.—Relative values of commercial alcohol and acetate from equal weights of various forms of material. [Heartwood=100 per cent.] Species. Locality. Heartwood.| Slab wood. | Sapwood. | Limbs. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. IBeCCH Bee ree ss ee een ee nieone MNGi an deen eae eee 100 104.0 PAG leas tase IDO sa bacdon de BaeeeenEeee Pennsylvania......-...--- | 100 O20: | axe. Unie ee ya IB 55 odo Sane ce sUaEeeaees Wisconsin 22/22 es 100 TOSESS Sau ee [hn bees ks DD) Oe ote Sulcissenacinis Pennsylvania...........-- 100 (Boe ah acs ee ns |S OR WOO ae Saas see eae eee eare IWAISCONSIN aye eee ae 100 OO NS) || ele evaaet ae aeNeeasee TOY). cela karte ee Ne Pennsylvania........--.-- 100 93 fay] ene fase antias Redveummse see eee ene lite IMISSOUTI oe se ee lene 100 OL: Oi Peete oe Ses ae Chestnut eas soles ele New Jersey....-..-------- 100 CYS 0y Pea ateine aaae 114.2 NICK ONY seep ce se cicine baie lboebenoe ya ee See Aone axe DOO | caer iu Mee 2 eee aw Re Beas \iV/intli®) Oi op easeea Ss eaSaouaeeal eee Gow Sarees Snes 100 ABD Ne aerate Sela ape IDO) sg eeseoseeeeeene IAT KANSAS Wy ys pyte spe une 100 TO in ae ee ee ERR Ney 6 Mupelomererescass sc Sosacevee Missourics. | ses 100 GES | Seay eee ee 117.5 PYROLIGNEOUS ACID, TAR, AND CHARCOAL. The average yields of pyroligneous acid, tar, and charcoal from the various forms of material, expressed in pounds per cord for each species, are given in Table 9. Although the yields of these products, especially of the last two, are directly affected by the maximum tem- peratures of distillation, and are therefore not as accurate as the alcohol and acetate yields, some conclusions of interest can be drawn from them. The yields of pyroligneous acid are of interest mainly in connection with the cost of refining the products from a cord of wood. (See footnote on p. 14.) The average commercial yield of charcoal from a cord of beech, birch, and maple is about 50 bushels or (at 20 pounds, the usual weight per bushel) 1,000 pounds; the average yield from the heart- wood of the three species by the experimental method is 1,378 pounds per cord. This large difference is probably due chiefly to the low maximum temperatures of distillation, resulting in a charcoal with a high amount of volatile matter. Charcoal of this composition would probably be satisfactory as a fuel for domestic use, but where 16 BULLETEN 129, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, high carbon content or high crushing strength is required it might not be suitable. The yields of tar are also somewhat higher than those usually obtained in practice, and this can not be explained entirely by the low maximum temperature of distillation, since further distillation of the charcoal at higher temperatures gave increased production of it is probable, however, that under the experi- mental conditions of distillation there was less tar decomposed into gas and coke than under commercial conditions where part of the tar would be subjected to considerably higher temperatures after tar. formation. (See p. 4.) TABLE 9.—Average yields per cord of pyroligneous acid, charcoal, and tar from various species. PYROLIGNEOUS ACID (MINUS MOISTURE). Mean | Aver- | : heart- age Species. Locality. tsar ap vue poe re Other forms. slab | heart- | wood. | wood ; Lhs, Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Beetlial aemsesese e282 im dianaises. 2.2 1,062 | 1,165] 1,119] 1,113] 1,085 | Sapwood.. 1,149 ers. Para cee: Pennsylvania... .. TL, 1803 | esas 2 Ts 1697) sees oo PITCH cor eee sec ee. Wisconsin......... 1,152 | 1,159] 1,220] 1,156] 1,167 ee sciacee aerate Pennsylvania... - Pi 249 |, AEB DY a cmasese W925) seen Mia DiGe testis: seme Wisconsin......... 1,120} 1,061 1, 207 1,145} 1,157 DD) OR ii oc Seeeree a | Pennsylvania... .. 1.195 | Tel6sa |e eee: D146 Neves eee. Er EVO ONC ELIE =» eeepeees reere = Missouri: ...0..-+-: 1, 098 CT aed 1005 sj... see Whestn users 2222-55, New. Jersey. -...-- HO; | a Osean | eee (1G) eee asec Limbs... 74 Hitckory aioe 222 sec. int 1a a epee eres | ees ee eee De AQ5: | cecto ee 1, 495 Wihit6 One wes. 2 ese. 6 |B. .2 does: ean 1/230.) WyrrOn|/ eb 275.-|' - 15.206 1, 156 HD oe i arora INE ROSAS eeeemr can Ue L55e 2 Ee b202 | oe ee. goa Eo eee eee! PDUDGIO esas esto emee |, Meissoumitc2.. 5.2.2. 150804) DS OGps\eeckece Ti O(B sl ecketee Limbs...- 1,049 CHARCOAL. | | | Indiana......--..- 1,417 | 1,297] 1,385 | 1,357 1,403 | Sapwood.. 1,470 | Pennsylvania... . 1330 Walesa losses ap 00 |e see | Wisconsin...<...../ 1-315 i, 284 1, 286 1,300 1, 303 | Pennsylvania. .... 1,298.4 "15300 fie 02.2 1 S965: eee eeee Wisconsin........- 1,341 | 1,515 | 1,348 | 1,344] 1,430 | Pennsylvania..... POIs eQOSe| se. 8 131 0)| Se oaeee Red Sum... 2222 e 3 eMAssourietetecce|eJ058%| 1,360.2 oa2- aKa eee ees Chestnut... --..---2..-.- | New Jersey. ------ POST Ne eV NGOn Been L102: Asana Limbs.... 1, 061 IHACKODY sah ire ee oI a apres) No ee ae, ae e500 Ga cee 1, 500 White oak... 2.2.2 L.- eee don ede. 1,858 | 1,392 | 1,625] 1,875 | 1,715 DOM pA s BAl8 Fee | Arkansas....12....| 1,580) 1-734|...2..- 1 Gh4n eee oe ; Piupelosees-s22 ee tla MaAssOounIeeses = <2 5\" 91 $400) | Las) TAQ 2 a aes Limbs..-- 1,320 | | TOTAL TAR Beech Satter: + a4 li En@ianey2.. 2.) e. 319 34 342 332 529 | Sapweod.,. 250 DONE rsais- le as | Pennsylvania..... 299 RS) | Peer B29 |kecs hse ‘Bircham ten ge. = Ee | Wisconsin......... 325 285 338 307 330 DOS See = oe | Pennsylvania... .- 426 | BAL Ne. oe BSbElesmecase Maples 0.382... Wisconsin. .......- 418 | 310 500 459 360 WD Ome eee cs. ee Pennsylvania. ...-. 422 ALGR| Gas. cis< QS Tee Aes Wed cum teers = S2 see | Missouriz oo = 22 336 pally ie a eo ee 216) | Seer sae Chestnu gage 22.22.55: | New Jorsey. ---.--- 102 RO eres. OI ee. eens Limbs 173 HICK Ory =... eee be ks ok Imrdiang see = seleeess- 2.2 ee eee O19? | co seer 519 White ale. ame". 3 ea eieeaKe le Pte teresa 237 173 331 203 285 O82. Ay. 5 ae Arkansas 222 22:572 349 BP) | eens 8880 | aes TODO: «cn eee Missouri......-.--- 348 SOM eee. 364. kee 5. Se Limbs. - 447 1 The weights per cord were derived as explained on p. 6. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1914 BULLETIN OF THE USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE No. 130 WE Aguas Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. August 21, 1914, OPERATING COSTS OF A WELL-ESTABLISHED NEW YORK APPLE ORCHARD.’ By G. H. Mittsrr, Assistant, Office of Farm Management. INTRODUCTION. It is not primarily the purpose of this bulletin to present data which actually show the cost of operating a mature orchard, but rather to suggest a plan of cost accounting for orchard operations. This will be useful to fruit growers who wish to determine the cost of fruit production. Probably in no branch of farming have greater recent advances been made than in fruit growing. The growing of the apple is one of the most highly specialized branches of agriculture. It is a business which requires scientific knowledge, skill, and the greatest care to make it a success. Many investors have entered the field, and many of the older growers are realizing profits. Thus spurred on by stories of fabulous returns, millions of trees have been set in the last decade. It is probably safe to say that few know the cost of growing this fruit. It is certain that there is a scarcity of accurate data published on this problem. The method of cost accounting is discussed through the presen- tation of two years’ data obtained by the Office of Farm Manage- ment through cooperation with Mr. H. E. Wellman, a progressive fruit grower in Orleans County, N. Y. Detailed records of all daily labor and financial transactions were kept, including complete inventories and accurate surveys of all crops, as well as all necessary information to determine not only the costs of the apple enterprise, but also the cost of the entire farm business. It should be carefully noted that the data presented in this bulletin are costs based on the annual expense factors incident to the maintenance and operation of a well-cared-for mature orchard. No attempt is made to establish a normal for the different items entering into the cost of growing 1 Acknowledgment is due to Mr. J. S. Ball for aid in the compilation of the data presented and to Mr. H. E. Wellman, through whose cooperation this work was made possible. NotE.—This bulletin contains data on the cost of producing apples on a mature orchard operated in connection with a general farm in western New York. The information is applicable to all similar oper- ations. 51618°—14 BULLETIN 130, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2 apples over the entire country, for to do that would require a much more extended study. No figures are available from which to determine the cost of t began to return imei orchard up to the t a i‘ planting and caring for thi “spreYpos0 BY} JO WOTBOOT otf} PUB SPToY oY} JO JUaMIESURIIe Ol] SULMOYS UII ULTAT[AM OY} JO UTBIBVIG—T| “D1 228 (2 OLe OP E-G ks wwwx x x Ritde Ni ap Poe se AX Ke KK x xx BREN AOR A RR Re kk eke were MR MI A ULRL MINT XR 2 > 2 B NICHD | ree OF '22/ Wee F7OHM eee Savoy 90/4 CFRALSWAS i and al SFIMMO ° STHIVIS + SYS ° SITIIY x COA PHILO SAM ONY Cefv0g LIANG S OT 7/ / be ay re F/M NFAOM RIINTS Sovevd FIOYOLS AIMHICW CN CFHS SITFGALLS FSO NAVE Niriv SSOOH FD FOVAHQLS ONY CFHS TSVIOH LNONZL SIN/T7TIMG SINOMNG NOLENE TSIXT SAUMTPHON O No attempts have been made at estimating the profit or loss that may result from this area during the declining years of the orchard, and no loss factors incident to crop failure such profitable crops. It as occur in the life of every orchard enterprise appear here. OPERATING COSTS OF A NEW YORK APPLE ORCHARD. 3 must be remembered that these records cover expense items only dur- ing two years of the life of the orchard and do not show the full cost of apple production, even in a region of high potential possi- bilities for this industry. The farm under consideration is situated in the northeastern part of Orleans County, 1 mile south of Lake Ontario and 14 miles from the shipping point. The farm, a diagram of which is shown as figure 1, consists of 122.3 acres of tillable land, well drained. The soil varies from a medium clay loam to a stiff clay. Of this 122.3 acres, 39 acres, or approxi- mately 37 per cent of the crop area, are in fruit. Table I shows the relation of the fruit and general crops on the farm as a unit. TasLe I.—Summary of crop areas on the Wellman farm for 1911 and 1912. Proportion of crop area in— Crops. 1911 1912 1911 1912 Orchard fruits: Acres. Acres. | Percent.| Percent. Ip plesimbecanime ee ease ee a yes on aaa a Peteen Weft 14.74 14.1 14.1 REACHES MDC ATUL, somes ea cers cpa oma ys Mia eee 0 7.85 7.85 Tod 7.5 Pears in bearing.....- SERRE SEN SEC CHARS CO EEG ese aeee 3.95 3.95 3.8 3.8 Ouinceswnybearnerenisesc asses Soa ieee oe Sees sss | - 80 -80 St Bil Motalybeaninestruitess meee ene maue ns | (ieee aes 2 Jel em 27E84 27.34 26.1 26.1 Apples and peaches, nonbearing..............--.-.--------- | 9.92 9.92 9.5 9.5 Apples, nonbearing...-...--.-..--- | 1.26 1.26 2 1.2 Quinces, nonbearing | LIOR See AO A|eeele see ee Motalmonbearing truit sss 5225555 sw. . a ee | 15.88 11.18 15.2 10.7 Po tellbiraite steerer cise eiaya sine icieinieicla = os = Se eens se aise 43. 22 38.52 41.3 36.8 General farm crops: Beans 11.01 17. 28 10.5 16.6 Wheat 18. 04 18.95 17.3 18.0 Hay. 19. 00 18.98 18.1 18.1 (Chay eas SB i ree pt = a 4.70 4. 67 4.5 4.5 Potatoes - 80 83 8 8 CASS. 6 ca sb cess no SHaB OES sdAt OSes sO ASE e eso raBeMEEoo Ssboneaee | 7.90 5.47 7.5 oe2 otalsseneralyfarm):CropSs-ss2se ele ieis sie = =e geen ae | 61.45 66.18 58.7 63.2 Recapitulation: PAST CAMUMULGUDGeeyerets epee ce aia arsisicinicieeinic (Selnicc sin inin)e Desens seis 43.22 38. 52 41.3 36.8 Tea imseneralifarm CrOpPS.2s- cnt sicesissie- <2 es - -/ ieee eae oe 61. 45 66.18 58.7 63.2 TG en eae Se ear a el arey mae oa aici ola ROU Sc 104.67 104. 70 100 100 Pasture. roads andifarmsteadsce- esse holes. - 5. \sebeee esa. 17.63 LAS G08 | persaen oes: | 28 Ue eine Motalgfarmvancasescae eerie cece cial mls stat oc e.< eERReSeN e 122.30 DOES Ole eee tele [ANN aU Eo MANAGEMENT OF THE FARM. The farm studied is a typical western New York farm on which fruit is the foremost of the enterprises. Of the total area, 50 per cent is devoted to general farm crops other than fruit. It is the plan to raise enough hay, oats, and corn for feed. Potatoes are raised only for home use. Besides fruit, wheat and beans are the cash crops. Each year 20 or 30 sheep are kept and pastured during the summer. Lambs are raised and fattened during the early spring 4 BULLETIN 130, U.,§.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. months. Six horses are kept for work and one for family use. One or two colts are raised each year. The organization of any farm of this type will have more or less bearing on the method of management of the orchard and will there- fore have its influence on the cost of producing fruit. There will be more or less variation, whether it is a general farm with fruit as one of the enterprises or a specialized fruit farm. The apple orchard, consisting of 14.74 acres, is situated in the northwestern part of the farm. There are 527 trees of bearing age, Fig. 2.—View in the Wellman orchard, showing the size and shape of the trees. 45 to 65 years old, consisting mainly of Baldwins and Rhode Island Greenings. The soil here is a medium clay loam about 10 inches deep, with a subsoil of heavy clay. The orchard has a shght northerly slope, and the drainage is good. HISTORY OF THE ORCHARD. In 1864, at the time Mr. I. E. Wellman took possession of the farm, there were 100 Baldwin trees about 20 years old. In 1866, 150 Bald- win and Fall Pippin trees were set out, and in 1871 the remainder of the orchard was set to Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening trees. These trees were set 33 by 33 feet on the square. The orchard as it now appears is shown in figure 2. OPERATING COSTS OF A NEW YORK APPLE ORCHARD. 5 EARLY TREATMENT OF THE ORCHARD. . Up to the time that the orchard came into bearing it was cropped with a rotation of beans, barley, wheat, and clover. When the trees came into bearing, the orchard was allowed to remain in sod and was used mainly for a cattle and sheep pasture. Owing to the low returns, orchards in western New York were cut down to a great extent about 1893, and at that time land on which apple trees stood was assessed for little or nothing. But on this specific farm in 1894 ereater care was taken to make the orchard produce more, and in 1896 it bore its heaviest crop, ike many orchards in the region. In 1897 the orchard was plowed and cultivated. This was the begin- ning of an organized effort to make the orchard profitable. Since that date greater care in pruning, spraying, and cultivation has been given. CULTURE SINCE 1907. In the spring of 1907 the entire orchard was plowed 34 inches deep. During that season it was harrowed five times, and a cover crop of clover, 6 quarts of seed to the acre, was sown the latter part of July. In 1908 the orchard was left in sod. In 1909 a double-action disk was used to break up thesod. This was followed by a spring-tooth harrow during the summer, and in the month of July the orchard was again sown to clover. It was mowed in 1910, and in 1911 the soil was plowed away from the trees. During the summer the orchard was cultivated five times and sown to clover in the latter part of July. In 1912 there was an excellent clover sod, but during the month of August the army worms appeared in great numbers, eating the clover to the ground and giving the remaining cover the appearance of having been swept by fire. RATES PAID FOR LABOR. The rates of labor used in showing the costs of the orchard opera- tions are the same as those of the other enterprises on the farm, such as the growing of beans, wheat, and hay. The cost per hour of man labor was 17.9 cents, and the cost per hour of horse labor was 15.3 cents. These rates represent the total cost of paid labor plus the value of board and privileges. The proprietor’s labor was considered at the same rate as that of the regular workmen on the farm. In the case of horses, a cost of $10 per month, or $120 a year, was used. This amount, divided by the total number of hours worked by the horses, gave an hourly cost of 15.3 cents. The rate of both man and horse labor was lessened by reason of the general farm crops, which utilized the labor when not needed for the fruit. LABOR COSTS FOR VARIOUS OPERATIONS. Three cost factors present themselves in any business enterprise. In this bulletin these are termed labor, cash, and fixed costs. 6 BULLETIN 130, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In considering the labor requirements in the production of fruit, the following questions present themselves: What operations make the total labor in the production of marketable apples? What factors influence the cost of these operations? What records should be kept by the grower so that he may at any time know the cost of a given operation and at the close of any season know the total cost of any and all operations ? In the management of commercial orchards there are operations which must be performed and which are essential for the production of marketable fruit. These operations will be discussed in the order of their occurrence in the western New York apple belt. Detailed labor costs for the Wellman farm, taken during 1911 and 1912, are given in Table IT. Tasie Il.—Labor costs on the 14.74-acre Wellman apple orchard, containing 527 trees, for 1911 and 1912. Total hours. Labor cost. Operations. Dates. | Per Per Per | 1 2 | Man.! | Horse.?| Total. Hei ioe, Whartels 1911. Prin ines ceee eee eee es Mar. 1) to-Apre lie. 2. >: 137. eeescees $24.52 | $1.663 | $0.046 | $0.026 Removing brush......----- Apr. 10't0. 26. -2-5-=-2: 27% 26 8. 90 - 604 017 . 009 Mixing lime and:sulphur. ...j2-.2-.. -ss2te-sccciencses5-- a eee 1. 43 AWSY - 003 . 002 Mirst/ Spraying ss .o2-c sen. -25 | Apr. 25 to May 2......-. 494 383 | 14.70 . 998 . 028 . 016 Second spraying.......--.-- May. 12 to 132225 -5225-<- 45 30 12. 65 . 859 - 024 .014 Mhird (spraying s...22----52 2 | May 23 10:26 222 222- s2-- 483 48 16.03 | 1.088 . 032 017 Blowin he. ane oae ee see nas JUNG NS TO2ieee seers 2 a2 1013 1933 | 47.81 | 3.243 - 091 . 051 ROW eee ee sees ace =e May 29 to June7.....--- 102 PAL 5.09 -344 . 010 . 006 First harrowing 3 JUNG ICO Oeeacee cee <= 304 61 14.79 | 1.004 - 028 . 016 Second harrowing JUNIE MO LO 222 eee eee 123 244 5.94 - 403 O11 . 006 Third harrowing......- .| June 30 to July 22.....-- 10 20 4.85 - 329 - 009 . 005 Fourth spraying...-..-..- .| July 20 to 21.. 24 24 Veyi O41 -015 . 009 Sowing cover crop HJ ye22ibO/ 24 ise seco s 10ky| eee 1.88 . 128 - 004 . 002 Fourth harrowing...-....-- | JUly22 10206 sateen 243 493 | 12.01 . 814 . 023 013 Pickingiapplessss 92-222 ee2=- | Aug. 31 to Oct. 19....... (iby Boren 137.03 | 9.297 - 260 - 146 Picking up apples..-...-..-- Sept. 21 to Oct. 22....... 1008) Beene e 18.04 | 1.224 - 034 - 019 Packing anples. sc: .cs.ce =: Aug. 31 to Nov. 3......- [en eloee eeeeae 74.91 | 5.082 . 140 . 080 Marketing apples.........-- Vteeeanic's olalatereteeiacere erase 2345 3555 | 96.36 | 6.536 . 183 . 102 Total for year. ..<.<-..- | A Societe aeje eee eee eens 2, 0582 891% | 504.91 | 34.254 . 958 -539 1912 PEUTIN Gos ubeceemcsaee aeae Dec. 21 (1911) to Apr. 26.| 229% |......-. 41.03 | 2.784 .078 019 Removing brush:...-.-...-2 Apr. 4 to May 3.-.......- 742 604 | 22.55 | 1.530 . 043 O11 MITSt/SDra yale seco ss neces Maly 31042 so esac 554 36 15.44 | 1.048 . 029 007 Second spraying.........-.- jeMay 1S tOvl4o cease. 2 453 30 12. 73 . 864 024 - 006 Third spraying. o.-..cs2--2 | May 31 to June 6........ 80 54 22.58 | 1.532 - 043 - O11 Cutting clovers .cceonssoe 2. | June 25 to July 11....-... | 13 26 6.31 428 012 . 003 Cutting clover (with scythe)| June 28 to July 11...-.... ‘Led all See 1.97 139 . 004 - 001 POULth Spraying. c2cn2- ase. Ane; OLOU Beemer es JANUARY. LANGUAGE LESSONS Conversations concerning the uses of fertilizers, the quantity required, and for what crops, should be engaged in with the younger pupils. Oral and written accounts of visits to fertilizer plants, methods for distributing fertilizers, and methods of mixing should be required of the more advanced pupils of the group. Descriptions of fertilizer distributors, fertilizer mixing boxes, and the different brands of fertilizers should constitute werk for the still more advanced pupils of this group. READING AND SPELLING. The following selections are suggested as supplementary work for this month: Winter Time, R. L. Stevenson; The Snowdrop, Tennyson; The Frost Spirit, Whit- tier; and Snowbound, Whittier. List and assign words found in the correlation exercises of this month adapted to the use of the several classes. Among this number should be found such as follows: Sacks, brand, potash, acid, nitrogen, mixed, material, fertilizer, community, distrib- utor, commercial, elements, manufacture, formula, problem, profit. DRAWING. The drawing work of the month should consist of outlines of fertilizer sacks, ferti- lizer horns, fertilizer mixing boxes, tools employed in home mixing of fertilizer, and sketches of more improved fertilizer distributors. HISTORY. Study the history of the use of commercial fertilizers in the community and county, noting the principal brands and formulas that have been used and in connection with what crops. Let special attention be given to the effect that the use of fertilizers has had upon the agricultural development of the community, noting the crops grown previous to the use of fertilizers and those grown since their use. Also study the effect of fertilizers ou the yield of crops. The development of the industry of manu- facturing fertilizers in the community, county, and State should be studied, and in connection with this the history of the prices and the conditions that have affected prices. GEOGRAPHY. Study the leguminous crops that can be grown in the community successfully, noting the locality and the conditions obtaining. Extend this study to the county, noting where the leguminous crops are grown and not grown and the reason. Locate the fertilizer plants in the community, county, and State, and assign reasons for the particular location. What and where are the raw fertilizer materials found in the community, county, and State? What crops are exchanged for fertilizers, and is the exchange made at a profit or loss? CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN STATES. 11 ARITHMETIC. ' Have the younger pupils count the number of sacks of fertilizer used at home and report this to the teacher. Let the total number of sacks be determined, the total number of pounds for each farm, for the community, and find the average number of pounds used per acre for each farm and for the entire community. Multiply this work to include the cost per acre, per farm, and for the community. For the more advanced pupils develop simple problems on the cost of fertilizing elements taken from the soil by each crop. Prepare statements of problems involving the replacing of fertilizing elements by leguminous and other cover crops and by the use of mold. Problems involving the cost of the elements in various fertilizers as determined by their formulas should be developed. EXCURSIONS AND PRACTICAL WORE. Visits to fertilizer plants, warehouses, etc., for the purpose of observing the mixing processes and of securing the names of the different brands, their formulas, and special uses, should be made. The necessary data for the other correlation exercises should be secured on these trips. During this month the school grounds should be laid out and the year’s work planned. The plats of the individual pupils in the school and home gardens should be laid out and located during this month. Making stakes and other devices to be Fic. 1.—Simple seed-germinating devices. used in the school and home gardens should constitute some of the practical work of the month. FEBRUARY. LANGUAGE LESSONS. Conversations on the need, value, and methods of seed testing should be engaged in. For the slightly more advanced pupils oral and written narrations of the steps in making a seed-testing box should be required. Written descriptions of seed-testing boxes should be assigned as work for the still more advanced pupils. Conversations and oral and written statements concerning the value of sprays, the materials used, the steps in mixing, and the devices used, should be given. Descriptions of methods of pruning and grafting should constitute work for the advanced pupils of this group. READING AND SPELLING. The following selections are suggested for this month: The Oak Tree, Mary Howett; The Voice of the Grass, Sarah Boyle; The Planting of the Apple Tree, Bryant; Wood- man Spare That Tree, G. P. Morris; The Parable of the Sower, The Bible; How to Plant a Tree, Julia E. Rogers; and Plant a Tree, Lucy Larcom. Such words as the following will appear in the correlating exercises of the month: Seed, testing, checks, production, germination, diseases, insects, spraying, pruning, grafting, scion, stock, vigorous, tongue, cleft, budding, helpful, harmful. DRAWING. Make drawings of different kinds of seed testers (fig. 1), of germinating grains, both weak and vigorous, of diseased parts of plants showing affected parts, of proper and improper cuts in pruning, of different methods of grafting. 12 BULLETIN 132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HISTORY. The history of the practice of testing seed in the community and county showing the different methods employed, and the effect in crop preduction should be studied. A study of the different fruit crops of the community and county as to their introduc- tion, success or failure, and why, should be made. The history of plant diseases and insects, showing how and when introduced and the successful and unsuccessful methods of combating them should constitute part of the correlation work of the month. GEOGRAPHY. The correlation work in geography for the month should consist in naming and locating the farmers of the community and county that have practiced seed testing. Name and locate the plant diseases that obtain in the community and county, setting forth the conditions favorable and unfavorable to the propagation of the same and the effect that the appearance of these diseases and insects have had upon the agricul- tural interests. What conditions cf climate, altitude, and soil obtain favorable and unfavorable to fruit growing. ARITHMETIC. For the younger pupils work may be assigned involving the determining of the number of checks in seed testers, the cost in time and material of making them, and the value of the time spent in testing seed. For more advanced pupils problems should be developed involving the value of testing seed, the value of the time spent in such work, and the loss that would be sustained in poor stands by failure to dc it properly. These processes may be multiplied to include as many principles of arithmetic as desired. Problems involving the cost of spraying mixtures, and the time emploved in their application should be developed. The work should be extended to the saving in fruit crops and the value of the time and means expended in this way. Let your problems be based as nearly as possible upon local experiences. EXCURSIONS AND PRACTICAL WORK. Excursions should be made this month for the purpose of observing diseased orchards and learning to distinguish the different diseases affecting the plants of the same. Specimens of diseased plants and vegetables should be brought from the homes of the community for study in the school. Special attention should be given to the seeds that are to be planted in the school garden. Asa matter of precaution all seeds should be subjected to preventive treatment in order that the school or home garden may not become infested with diseases. The practical work of the month should consist of testing the vitality of seeds to be planted in the garden, pruning of school or home ground shrubbery, preparing ground, and planting early vegetables. MARCH. LANGUAGE LESSONS. Have the younger pupils engage in conversation and prepare short written state- ments concerning the kinds of birds, their habits and their means of subsistence. Oral and written statements should be required of the more advanced pupils con- cerning the habits of birds, their means of subsistence, and migrations. These stories should be based on observations made on the school grounds and during excursions made to the fields and woods. Written descriptions of nests and their locations should be required of the more advanced pupils. Reasons should be sought and assigned for the nesting habits of different birds. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN STATES. 13 READING AND SPELLING. -The following are suggested as supplementary selections for the month: Little Birdie, Tennyson; Da‘sies, T. D. Sherman; Robin Redbreast, William Allingham; The Barefoot Boy, Whittier; Mary Emily’s Chickens, L. N. Duncan; The Lamb, William Blake; The School Garden at Plumfield, Louisa M. Alcott; and The Botany Lesson, Rebecca Rickoff. List and assign the new words of an agricultural bearing appearing in the correlation work of this month. Examples: Bird, nest, flock, migration, local, value, location, destroy, native, rodents, pests, insects, materials, garden, habit, domestic, prevalent, subsistence, stake, preparation, planting, practical. DRAWING. Simple outline work of birds, fowls, and different kinds of nests should constitute the drawing work of the month. In case of more advanced punils, some color work with crayon might be required to give touches of reality to the sketches. HISTORY. Study the history of the birds prevalent in your community and section. This history should cover the origin, introduction (in case any of the birds are not native), and their relation to agriculture. Special attention should be given to the relation of the different kinds of birds to historical events, art, song, and story. GEOGRAPHY. Study the migration of local birds. Learn the conditions of climate and food supply at the places to which they go. Compare these with local conditions of the different seasons. Compare the habits and uses of migrating and nonmigrating birds, as to their methods of subsistence. Study the habits of nesting as to locality and assign reasons for the selection of different places by the different kinds of birds. ARITHMETIC. For the younger pupils, develop problems on the number and quantity of the different kinds of seeds, such as onions, potatoes, corn, beans, peas, etc., required to plant a given area. For the slightly more advanced pupils, a record of the time spent in working plats in the school or home garden should be kept and problems developed on the value of the time. For still more advanced pupils, problems on the cost of materials used in the home and school gardens, such as stakes, fertilizers, and seed, should be developed. EXCURSIONS AND. PRACTICAL WORK. During this month, excursions should be made to the forests to observe the birds, to learn their names, their songs, their habits of nesting, means of subsistence, and other peculiarities. The same studies should be made with reference to the undomesti- cated animals, rodents, and insects prevalent in the community. This work should be extended through the months of March, April, and May. Making hotbeds, germinating plants, preparing ground, and planting plats in the home and school gardens should constitute the practical work of the month. APRIL AND MAY. LANGUAGE LESSONS. For the younger pupils, conversation practice and brief narrations, oral and written, concerning the school-garden experiences and insect, animal, and bird habits should be engaged in. For more advanced pupils, oral and written exercises concerning the 14 BULLETIN 132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. preparation of seed beds, planting, fertilization, and cultivation should be required. The written work should be extended to descriptions of plants in process of germi- nation and in different stages of growth. Oral and written stories on the rounds of economic insect life, the means of subsistence in each stage of existence, and the methods of combating insects in each stage of existence should constitute part of the written work for the month. READING AND SPELLING. The following are suggested for supplementary exercises: The Cow, R. L. Stevenson; The Little Plant, Kate Brown; Come Little Leaves, George Cooper; The Busy Bee, Isaac Watts; Little Cock Sparrow; The Bee and the Flowers, Tennyson; To a Butter- fly, Wordsworth; The Gladness of Nature, Bryant; The Owl, Tennyson; The Song of the Brook, Tennyson; The Pet Lamb, Wordsworth; Sweet Peas, Keats; and To a Mountain Daisy, Robert Burns. The new words and terms appearing in the correlation exercises of April and May should be listed and assigned as lessons from time to time. Examples, plantlet, leaves, roots, flowers, simple, stage, existence, elevation, drainage, excursion, com- bating, forests, germination, absorption, growth, implements, developed, common. DRAWING. The drawings of these months should consist of outlines and sketches of germinating seeds, plantlets, leaves, roots, flowers, and parts of flowers from the gardens, fields, and forests. Drawings of devices and simple implements used in the school garden should be made. Drawings of the insects found in the gardens, the home orchards, and the fields should also be made. Insects having a well-defined round of life should be studied with a view of making drawings of each stage of existence. HISTORY. The history of the most common garden plants covering the following points should be studied: Where native, by whom domesticated, or in case of varieties, by whom developed, and when and under what circumstances introduced into the community or section. The life history of the prevalent insects, both beneficial and harmful, should be studied, giving special attention to when, where, and how they exist in each stage of the round of life; when, where, and how introduced into the community. GEOGRAPHY. The time of planting garden plants as affected by climate, elevation, and drainage in the community and in the local school garden should provide interesting work in the subject these months. Market gardening with a community bearing should be studied, noting especially the crops that can be successfully grown, the means of dis- tribution, and the places of marketing. Such questions as follow should be answered: What garden products does your community buy, and why? Where were they raised, and what conditions obtained? What effect has the Girls’ Canning and Poultry Club had upon the production of these products in ‘your community? What effect have insects, fungus diseases, and birds upon the time of planting, the manner of cultiva- tion, and the general treatment of garden crops? ARITHMETIC. Problems should be developed on the value of birds to the farmer in the number of weed seeds and insects destroyed by each individual bird in the course of a year. Estimates of the harm done by birds, rodents, vermin, insects, and small animals should provide material for exercises in arithmetic. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN STATES. 15 EXCURSIONS AND PRACTICAL WORK. Excursions for the purpose of studying birds, animals, and insects should be con- tinued. It would be well to make excursions to gardens, orchards, or fields where methods of combating harmful species of any of the foregoing are being employed. Practical work for these months will consist almost entirely of caring for the garden plats of the pupils (fig. 2). THE SCHEME FOR GRADES SIX TO EIGHT. While the following suggestive scheme is prepared for all the pupils of these grades, yet the success with which these exercises may be correlated with the other school work will depend to a great extent upon the cooperation of the club members of the school. The im- Fig. 2.—Harlem, Ill., consolidated schoo! garden. portance of club membership should be emphasized by the teacher in every way possible, especially by calling upon the members to assist in this work and by making the problems of the clubs the problems of the school. SEPTEMBER. LANGUAGE LESSONS. Written reports of field observations. Compositions on selection of seed in the field: Corn, cotton, tomatoes, potatoes, tobacco, cane, peanuts, etc. Make records of prac- tical work. Letter writing: Write letters ordering seed catalogues, asking for the quo- tation of prices on seed, requesting publishers to contribute farm papers for school libraries, asking friends and others to contribute books on agricultural subjects for school libraries. 16 BULLETIN 132, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. READING AND SPELLING. The following are suggested for supplementary correlation reading: Bureau of Ento- mology Circular No. 6, The Mexican Cotton-Boll Weevil; Bureau of Animal Industry Circular No. 208, Organization of Girls’ Poultry Clubs; Bureau of Entomology Circular No. 4 (2d ser.), The Army Worm; Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 198, Strawberries; 290, The Cotton-Boll Worm; 303, Corn-Harvesting Machinery; 408, School Exercises in Plant Production; 415, Seed Corn; and 478, How to Prevent Typhoid Fever. List and assign new words related to agriculture for spelling exercises. DRAWING. Make drawings of ideal and faulty specimens of various farm plants such as corn, cot- ton, sugar cane, tobacco, tomatoes, etc. Collect, name, and make drawings of weeds and helpful and harmful insects active at this season. HISTORY. During the month of September, or the opening month of school, considerable time should be spent in organizing the school clubs, studying parliamentary practice, famil- iarizing club members with rules governing contests, planning exhibits for the county fair or school fair, practicing club members in making out reports of yields, and plan- ning and preparing the agricultural notebooks to be used by the pupils in keeping records of the ensuing year. GEOGRAPHY. Have each pupil prepare an outline map of the State and fill in with seeds, fibers, and pictures, showing by these the agricultural products of the State and their location as affected by climate. Extend this study to the other States and show by comparison of the agricultural products in what respects the climate is the same, and in what respects the climate is different from the local State. Follow this up with a study of the agricultural products of other countries for the purpose of determining those that have the same climatic conditions and those that differ. ARITHMETIC. Develop problems from measurements made of fields of given crops and especially club acres and plats. Count stalks, ears, bolls, etc., and with these as a basis develop exercises on yields, values of crops, etc. From data gathered in the community, develop exercises on the comparative cost of farm buildings to farm lands. Problems in making out bills of lumber for pigpens, poultry houses, dairy barns, cribs, silos, etc., and finding cost of same may be made use of. As nearly as possible, use local material as a basis for exercises. Have the club girls furnish recipes of various dishes to be used as a basis for calculation on the cost of materials involved. EXCURSIONS AND PRACTICAL WORK. Weekly excursions should be made to near-by fields, or, better still, to the patches of club members (fig. 3) to study types of stalks and to make field selections of seeds. The stalks selected should be indicated by some kind of marking, so that they may be detected easily when seeds are matured and ready for gathering. Before going on these excursions publications pertaining to seed selection should be carefully read. It would be wise to take the publications for reference on these excursions. Practical work in preparing equipment for storing seeds and arranging exhibit material for the school or county fair should be done in this month. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN STATES. 17 OCTOBER. LANGUAGE LESSONS. Reports of field observations. Compositions on modern methods of harvesting and modern methods of preparing leading crops for market. Descriptions of observations made at the school or county fair should be required. Letters to commercial people asking for prices and offering products for sale should be written. Make a record of practical work. READING AND SPELLING. The following are suggested for correlation reading: Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 113, Harvesting and Storing Corn; 258, Texas or Tick Fever and Its Prevention; 292, Fic. 3.—School children visiting a club member’s acre ofcorn, Elbert County Ga. Cost of Filling Silos; 354, Onion Culture; 408, School Exercises in Plant Production; 436, Winter Oats for the South; 548, Storing and Marketing Sweet Potatoes; 617, School Lessons on Corn; and Bureau of Plant Industry Document No. 485, The Selection of Cotton and Corn Seed for Southern Farms. List and assign the new words for spelling exercises. DRAWING. Prepare outline plans of poultry and hog houses, cribs, silos, and dairy barns. Make drawings of the less complicated harvesting machinery and the important parts of thesame. In this connection emphasize the learning of the names and uses of imple- ments and their parts. 65765°—Bull. 132—15——3 18 BULLETIN 132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HISTORY. Study the history of crops of the community as to their origin, time, and circum- stances of their introduction, and the success with which they have been grown. Also study the history of weeds, insects, and fungus diseases of the section as to origin, introduction, spread, damage done, and methods of combating. GEOGRAPHY. Study the topography of the State with reference to the effect that elevation has upon agricultural industry. Prepare outline maps to illustrate. Extend this study to other States and countries and note the effect of elevation, as compared with latitude, on crops, locating those sections that have similar products as a result of similar altitude or latitude. ARITHMETIC. Develop exercises on the capacity of bins, cribs, hay barns, silos, wagon beds, etc.; also on cost of harvesting crops, such as corn, cotton, cane, fruits, peanuts, potatoés, and on the cost of preparing salable crops for market. Let all exercises be based on local conditions and facts. These data should be collected by the club members of the school. During this month problems involving the annual reports of club mem- bers should be developed. The exercises should be so prepared as to involve as many of the principles of arithmetic as necessary. EXCURSIONS AND PRACTICAL WORK. Select seed from near-by fields and club plats from plants previously marked on the excursions. This is the month for fairs, and the pupils should visit these, observe exhibits, and collect facts for correlation exercises. Practice in storing seed in previously prepared devices should be given. Let the economic importance of this work be emphasized. During this month pupils should get valuable training and practice in judging crops and animals. Let the school authorities insist on the officers of the fair association furnishing specialists for this purpose during fair week. The training and experience in scoring and judging of this week can be followed up by the teachers and pupils during the following months. NOVEMBER. LANGUAGE LESSONS. Reports of field observations. Compositions on crop marketing, crop storing, and the feeding of crops. Written descriptions of bins, cribs, silos, and hay barns, modern in character, should be required. Make records of practical work. A description of the school’s exhibit by the club members at the county or school fair with a record of the results obtained in the way of prizes, etc., should be made. Practice in letter writing should be had by applying to the Department of Agriculture for the necessary publications for the succeeding months’ correlation exercises. READING AND SPELLING. The following are suggested for correlation reading: Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 298, Food Value of Corn and Corn Products; 379, Hog Cholera; 408, School Exercises in Plant Production; 488, Hog Houses; and 537, How to Grow an Acre of Corn. List and assign the new words for spelling exercises. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN STATES. 19 DRAWING. Prepare drawings of farm tools used in breaking and cultivating land, in fertilizing crops, and in general cultivation. When the implements are too complicated, make drawings of only the most essential parts. Keep in mind that the purpose is to teach the pupils the names and uses of implements and parts of implements. HISTORY. Study the history of the methods of preparation, cultivation, and harvesting of the various crops of your State and section that have obtained in the past and note the development. Compare these with methods employed in other sections and countries having similar products. Study the history of farm implements, noting the develop- ment, the saving of time and labor, and the increased efficiency. GEOGRAPHY. Study the time of planting crops, the maturing of crops, and the manner of housing crops and animals as affected by the elevation and latitude of your own State. Ex- tend this study to a comparison of the same with other States and countries having similar agricultural productions. ARITHMETIC. Problems should be developed on the cost of liming land, turning land at different depths, on the economy in the use of improved machinery in turning land, on the crop yields for your county, State, and section, on facts gathered as to the farm prod- ucts bought and sold by the Stateand country. Let problems be developed involving the value of farm products bought and sold by the home county and lessons deduced as to the status of your county in a financial way. Answer these questions: Do you produce more than you buy? Do you buy what you should produce? From records of pig-club members compare the relative value of scrub and pure-bred hogs. From records of poultry-club members develop problems on the production of the different breeds of poultry. EXCURSIONS AND PRACTICAL WORK. Excursions should be made to the farms of the community to study poultry, swine, horses, cattle, and sheep, for the purpose of practice in scoring (fig. 4) and to secure data for correlation exercises. On these visits to the farms implements should be observed to learn their names and uses. If there are any particular farmers who have new or specially improved implements for fall and winter plowing, visits should be made to observe these and to note their efficiency in use. DECEMBER. LANGUAGE LESSONS. Reports of field observations. Prepare score cards for exercises of this kind in field crops. Compositions on value of improved farming implements, especially those that are adapted to your section, should be required. Compositions on the care of farm implements should also be required. Letters ordering farm-implement catalogues and bills of implements should be written. Copy records of practical work. READING AND SPELLING. Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 51 (Rev.), Standard Varieties of Chickens; 270, Modern Conveniences for the Farm; 321, The Use of the Split-Log Drag on Earth Roads; 408, School Exercises in Plant Production; 413, The Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home; and 541, Farm Buttermaking. List and assign new agricultural terms for spelling exercises. 20 BULLETIN 132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DRAWING. Lay out school grounds and plat to a scale, showing the walks, flower yard, garden, clumps of shrubbery, trees, buildings, etc. Plat the school and home gardens to scale, showing walks and individual plats. HISTORY. Study the introduction and development of the use of fertilizer in the State and section, noting its effect on the agricultural development, the study that has been made to use it intelligently, the laws that have been passed relating to the fertilizer industry, and to what extent the use of fertilizers has proved beneficial. Fig. 4.—A lesson on the beef type. Study the organizations and functions of the State and national departments of agriculture and note in what particular way these departments have been helpful to your State. GEOGRAPHY. Study the trade that results from the exchange of agricultural products between your State and the other States and countries. Compare the exports and imports as to quantity, value, and character. Learn the means by which each home-produced article reaches the ultimate consumer. Extend this study to the trade relations of your section of the country with the other sections and with the other parts of the world. In this connection prepare maps showing lines of commerce and locate the principal receiving and distributing points for each agricultural product bought or sold. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN STATES. 21 ARITHMETIC. ‘Develop problems on the cost of keeping cows in the different homes of the com- munity. Have pupils bring data as to the rations fed daily to the cows and from such determine the nutritive value and let it be shown whether the ration is balanced or not. Where the Babcock tester can be had let the milk of the various cows of the community be tested and from these facts develop problems showing the profit- ableness or unprofitableness of the individual cow, and by a comparison of the kind and cost of rations and returns from each cow let it be shown whether the profit or loss is due to the feeding or to the animal. Special problems in nutritive ratios should be developed for the benefit of the pig and poultry club members. This entire month can be spent in working out balanced food rations for the various farm animals of the community, combining foodstuffs in these rations that can be had Fig. 5.—Fathers observing a corn-judging contest, New Martinsville, W. Va. at the least cost. As a basis for these exercises the following publications are sug- gested for use: Farmers’ Bulletins 22 (Rev.), Feeding Farm Animals; 346, The Com- putation of Rations for Farm Animals by Use of Energy Values; and 411, Feeding Hogs in the South. EXCURSIONS AND PRACTICAL WORK. Excursions for comparison of out-of-date and modern farm machinery, gins, and grain mills should be made. Trips should also be made for the purpose of practice in scoring farm animals. Practical indoor work in scoring seeds should be engaged in during the months of December and January (fig. 5). Have specimens brought to the school by club members and the work carried on under the supervision of the teachers. When possible, have farmers bring animals to the school grounds for practice in scoring. 22 BULLETIN 132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. JANUARY. LANGUAGE LESSONS. Reports of field observations. Prepare systems of crop rotation adapted to your section. Write description of seed testers and methods of testing the vitality of seeds. Letters ordering material for seed testers and garden stakes or submitting bills of material should be written. READING AND SPELLING. The following are suggested for correlation work in reading this month: Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 185, Beautifying the Home Grounds; 213, Raspberries; 347, Repair of Farm Equipment; 375, Care of Food in the Home; 389, Bread and Bread Making; 408, School Exercises in Plant Production; 468, Forestry in Nature Study; 511, Farm Bookkeeping; and 538 and 539, On Citrus Growing in the Gulf States. List and assign the new words and terms of an agricultural character appearing in the correlation exercises of the month. DRAWING. Have each pupil lay out his plat in the school garden and show in the diagram the location of each vegetable to be planted, indicating the rows or beds by name. Require drawings of all garden devices, such as stakes, tools, etc. During this month seed-testing boxes or cases should be planned and drawings made to a scale. HISTORY. Study the relationship of the agricultural products of the State and section to the political history of the State and country. Let this study begin with the settle- ment of the country and extend to the present. Emphasize the importance of the relationship by connecting particular crops with striking historical events and legis- lative enactment. GEOGRAPHY. Study and compare the forms of government, the prevailing customs, the religions, the classes of people and their personal characteristics in the different parts of your own State, in other States, and in other countries having agricultural industries sim- ilar to that of your own State and section. ARITHMETIC. At the beginning of the new year the older pupils, and especially the club mem- bers, should he encouraged to open books for the purpose of keeping accounts of the outlay and income of the farms of the community. Separate pages should be set apart for each farm crop and enterprise, providing both credit and debit columns. Each domestic animal should be assigned a page with credit and debit columns. If it is not an animal that labors or supplies some product for immediate consumption, and is not disposed of during the year, its credit column should show the increase in weight or value at the market price. Club members should open books and keep accurate records of their enterprises for the year. Practice problems in determining the value of elements in fertilizers of given formulas, in the cost of compounding fertilizers of given formulas, and in determining the value of the time consumed in compounding fertilizers, should be developed. Data for the foregoing should be secured by visiting local warehouses or farms and examining the formulas found on the sacks of the various brands. Compare the cost of the home-mixed products with that of the commercial brands of the same formulas and note the saving, if any, by home mixing. Practice pupils in interpreting the fo:mulas on fertilizer sacks. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN STATES. 23 EXCURSIONS AND PRACTICAL WORK. . The excursions for this month should be made for the purpose of securing data for the exercises mentioned in the other subjects. The pupils of this group of classes should do practical work in compounding fertil- izers for their contest plats, and to get as much practice as possible they should go in groups from one boy’s home to another’s to assist in compounding the fertilizers. The fertilizers to be used in the school garden should be compounded by the club members in the presence of the entire school and for its benefit. All seed-testing devices should be prepared this month, and the seed to be tested assembled for the purpose. FEBRUARY. LANGUAGE LESSONS. Compositions on the value of seed testing should be required. A most valuable exercise for the advanced pupils and club members would be to collect, classify, and record the agricultural statistics of the school district. Let this show what was produced the previous year, what kept on the farm, what sold, and what bought. This will not only give valuable practice in systematic work but will furnish the school and community with valuable information as to its agricultural status. READING AND SPELLING. The following are suggested for supplementary reading: Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 134, Tree Planting on School Grounds; 181, Pruning; 218, School Gardens; 236, Incu- bation and Incubators; 243, Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing Diseases of Fruits; 255, The Home Vegetable Garden; 389, Bread and Bread Making; 428, Testing Farm Seeds in the Home and in the Schools; 491, The Profitable Manage- ment of the Small Orchard on the General Farm; Bureau of Entomology Circular No. 54, Peach Tree Borer; and Bureau of Plant Industry Yearbook Reprint No. 197, How Birds Affect Orchards. List and assign the new words as spelling lessons. DRAWING. Require pupils to bring to school specimens of all kinds of domestic plants affected by fungus diseases and make drawings of these, showing the appearance of the affected part. Require drawings of cuttings, proper and improper pruning (fig. 6), methods of grafting, pruning and grafting implements; also drawings of spraying devices, In connection with all these emphasize learning the names and the uses. HISTORY. Study the origin and development of the school-gardening movement, noting especially the purposes, the results that have been obtained, and its future possi- bilities in advancing the interests of the community, both as to vitalizing the school work and as a source of revenue for school enterprises. GEOGRAPHY. Study the relationship of the agricultural products of your county and State to the industrial development of the same. Compare your own State in this respect with other States and countries having similar agricultural products. If there is a difference in the industrial development in any of the cases noted let it be accounted for. 24 BULLETIN 132, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ARITHMETIC. Problems on the value of selecting and testing seeds of the various crops should be developed for this month. Let the exercises invclve the value of time spent in selecting and testing, the time spent in replanting, and the effect of untested seed on the stand and the ultimate yields. Let these exercises as nearly as possible be based on data gathered from the community. These processes may be multiplied to meet the needs of the different classes in the subject of arithmetic. Problems on the cost of spraying materials, the time spent in spraying, and the increased yield should be developed. Comparison should be made of the yields of sprayed and unsprayed trees, and problems developed on these as a basis. The value of sprays in prolonging the lives of plants should be estimated. Fia. 6.—Practice in pruning. Useful publications to be used in connection with this work are: Bureau of Ento- mology Circular No. 42, How to Control San José Scale; and Farmers’ Bulletin 243, Fungicides and Their Use in Preventing Diseases of Fruits. EXCURSIONS AND PRACTICAL WORK. Excursions should be made this month to orchards for the purpose of observing methods in spraying and for practice in the use of spraying mixtures and devices. Excursions should also be made for the purpose of observing pruning and for practice in the same. Practical work in testing seeds, both in the school and the home, should be engaged in. The actual work at school should be confined largely to school-garden seeds and those to be used by the club members in their contest plats. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN STATES. 25 MARCH. LANGUAGE LESSONS. Reports of field observations, compositions on the value of clubs to the members, the schools, and the community, and the influence of clubs on increased production and onhome economy. Letters of correspondence between club members of different schools. Record of practical work. Debate: The Boll Weevil is a Blessing in Dis- guise. READING AND SPELLING. The following are suggested for supplementary correlation reading: Farmers’ Bulle- tins 205, Pig Management; 229, Production of Good Seed Corn; 241, Butter Making on the Farm; 287, Poultry Management; 408, School Exercises in Plant Production; 417, Rice Culture; and 533, Good Seed Potatoes and How to Bed Them. List and assign new words for spelling exercises. DRAWING. Have each pupil prepare a drawing of his home farm, locating buildings, yards, barn lots, permanent pasture, orchards, streams, springs, woodland, roadways around or through the farm, crops as planned for the year, the prize acres and plats, etc. After an accurate outline has been drawn the map can be made attractive by filling in with seed, fiber, pictures of fruit, stock, farm implements, flowers, and houses at proper places on the map. On farms where a system of rotation is followed a set of maps should be drawn representing the location of the crops for each year of the course. HISTORY. Study the history of the agricultural-club movement in your State and in other States. Collect and study data as to records of prize winners, methods employed by them, and value of prizes and advertising received by the winners. Study the systems of judging yields employed in your State and other States. GEOGRAPHY. Prepare a map of the United States and indicate the States in which there has been club activity, the kinds of clubs, and prepare a statement in this connection showing the influence of the club movement on the school and farm work of each State. Also study the influence of clubs on increased production, crop marketing, home life, and health. ARITHMETIC. Develop problems on the cost of farm fencing. Special attention should be given to the cost of constructing temporary hog and poultry fences. Exercises in this phase of the work should be developed for the benefit of the club members. Problems relat- ing to the cost and value of grazing crops for hogs and poultry should be developed. EXCURSIONS AND PRACTICAL WORK. The time that can be devoted to excursions should be spent in visiting the different club members’ patches for the purpose of observing the methods and thoroughness of preparation. Practical work for this month should consist in preparing plats and patches for planting the contest crops. 26 BULLETIN 132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, APRIL. LANGUAGE LESSONS. Reports of field observations. Compositions on methods of growing given crops, such as corn, potatoes, and tomatoes. The following points should be covered in each composition: Preparation of soil, fertilization, cultivation, and harvesting. Write letters to the State extension agent asking advice and information as to matters pertaining to your club work. Make a record of practical work. Debate: ‘‘The corn- club movement’’ has done more to increase the yield of corn in the State during the last five years than any other one influence. READING AND SPELLING. For correlation reading the following are suggested: Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 54, Some Common Birds; 220, Tomatoes; 372, Soy Beans; 414, Corn Cultivation; 431, The Peanut; 458, The Best Two Sweet Sorghums for Forage; 459, House Fly; and 509, Forage Crops for the Cotton Regions. The usual method of listing and assigning words should be employed. DRAWING. During the months of April and May the pupils of this group should spend the time to be devoted to drawing in gathering data and preparing a map of the school township or district, showing the location of all public enterprises that touch upon farm life. These will include the following: Principal and neighborhood roads, telephone line, rural carriers’ routes, church buildings, school buildings, railroads, railway stations, sidetracks, community markets, if any, streams, mills, gins, etc. This map should be so complete that it will show all the advantages and disadvantages of the township or school district. Complete this map by locating the homes of the boys and girls who belong to the clubs and have contest plats. HISTORY. During the months of April and May, or the closing month of the school, special attention should be given to the study of the histories of crops or breeds of animals to be grown by the club members, laying special emphasis on the degree of success with which each has been produced and the conditions that have obtained in connection therewith. It wul be especially important to study the methods of preparing seed beds, of fertilizing, of planting, and of cultivating that have been employed in the past, to determine with what success these methods have been employed and to what extent they should be used by the club members. This study should be extended to methods of feeding poultry and swine, noting especially the success of the different methods and the conditions that obtained in each case. GEOGRAPHY. Prepare a map of the State, indicating thereon by distinguishing marks the different classes of schools teaching agricultural sciences. Continue this study to the Nation and to other countries and determine as nearly as possible the effect that such insti- tutions have had on agricultural advancement and how agricultural conditions have affected the work of the schools. ARITEMETIC. Develop problems on crop rotation, estimating the value of the same in soil improve- ment and in saving in the cost of fertilizers. Plan rotations especially adapted to the needs of the corn and pig club members, based on proper rotation principles, and at the same time providing feed and grazing for hogs. Develop exercises based on the foregoing for work in the arithmetic classes. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN STATES. a7 EXCURSIONS AND PRACTICAL WORK. Visits should be made to places in the community affording opportunities for the studying of hotbeds, cold frames, and their structure and use. The months of April and May should be devoted to planting contest crops and germ- inating plants for the purpose of transplanting later. MAY. LANGUAGE LESSONS. The closing days of school are generally used preparing exercises for the final public entertainments. These exercises should be full of the subject of agriculture. Let all the selections rendered touch upon some phase of agriculture. This will be an opportunity for the teacher to show in a public way what the school can do for the community in connection with its most important enterprise. READING AND SPELLING. The following are suggested for correlation reading: Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 132, Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat; 426, Canning Peaches on the Farm; 447, Bees; and 521, Canning Tomatoes in the Home and in Club Work. The same plan with regard to the spelling exercises should be followed as in other months. DRAWING AND HISTORY. Same as in April. GEOGRAPHY. Study birds of the State with regard to habits of migration. Compare those that migrate and those that do not as to their agricultural economy. Study insects and fungus diseases of the State as to kinds, localities infested, and the influence they have on the kinds and yields of crops. ARITHMETIC. Develop problems on cost of terracing, estimated saving of terraces, cost of open ditches, cost of blind ditches, and problems involving the relative values of blind and open ditches with reference to original cost, saving in cultivatable ground, time in cultivation, keeping open ditch clear of weeds, etc. Multiply problems on the econ- omy of birds in destroying weed seeds, insects, and insect eggs. (See Yearbook Re- print No. 448, Does it Pay Farmers to Protect Birds? Also Farmers’ Bulletin No. 187, Drainage of Farm Land.) CORRELATION SUPPLEMENTS. REFERENCES. Let each school provide itself with the publications of the Depart- ment of Agriculture mentioned in this scheme and arrange them according to subjects in a permanent place in the school building. These publications may be had as long as the supply lasts by apply- ing to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Each school should write to the State college of agriculture asking that its name be listed to receive such matter printed by the college and the experiment station connected with it as is of value in the school work. —— a, 28 BULLETIN 132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Have the pupils bring from home the farm papers that have been read there. Group your publications after some convenient plan and form the habit of using them in connection with your work. ; Almost unlimited reference material may be had free. Use a few postal cards and command this material. Create an agricultural atmosphere in the school, thereby making it a real center of activity in the community. Agricultural colleges in the Southern States: Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala. College of Agriculture of the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark. College of Agriculture of the University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Georgia State College of Agriculture, Athens, Ga. State University and College of Agriculture, Lexington, Ky. Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Baton Rouge, La. Maryland Agricultural College, College Park, Md. Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, Agricultural College, Miss. The North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, West Raleigh, N.C. Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, Okla. The Clemson Agricultural College of South Carolina, Clemson College, S. C. College of Agriculture, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station, Tex. Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va. West Virginia University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Morgan- town, W. Va. SEED SELECTING. As soon as possible after the opening of school in the fall trips to to club patches and near-by fields should be made and typical plants located, from which seeds are to be selected later. Plants should be selected that have made the best showing as to symmetrical growth and number and quality of seed under average conditions. For instance, do not be misled by an attractive, symmetrical, highly productive specimen that happens to have unusual distance or stands on an unusually fertile spot. Select the plant that has outstripped its neighbors in the before-mentioned characteristics under average conditions. Let these individuals be marked in some way so that they may be located readily when seeds have matured. Later in the season, after the seeds have matured and in advance of general harvesting, go back to the fields or plats and select the choice specimens of seed from stalks previously marked. Such seed should be stored in a dry, cool place to await germi- nating and vitality tests.! 1See U.S. Dept. Agr., Bu. Plant Indus. Doc. 485, The Selection of Cotton and Corn Seed for Southern Farms. CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN STATES. 29 SEED STORING. Care should be exercised in storing seed that its vitality may be preserved. Extremes in temperature, excessive moisture, and attacks of rodents, insects, etc., should be provided against. If the farm buildings are not equipped with a room especially prepared for storing seed, racks should be used, which may be suspended from points inaccessible to small animals. To prevent insect injury, grains especially should be fumigated with bisulphid of carbon. Seeds that are likely to be affected with fungus diseases should be treated with a formalin solution before planting. SEED TESTING. The work in testing garden and field-crop seeds should prove one of the most interesting, as well as one of the most valuable exercises Fig. 7.—Sand tray for testing seed corn. that the club members and the schools can engage in. No special skill is required. The accompanying seed-testing device (fig. 7) will suggest the principal equipment.? The value of seed testing in securing regular stands of healthy, vigorous plants can not be overestimated. PLANS FOR SCHOOL GARDENS. The plan for the school garden will depend upon a number of things, among them being the land available, the number of pupils, and the size of the individual plats. In the event that the school 1See U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Buls. 243 and 544. 2 Special attention is called to U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 428, Testing Seed in the Home and in the School. 30 BULLETIN 132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. grounds do not supply a sufficient amount of land arrangements should be made to secure a plat adjacent to the school. F WALA Vp I a ee A WALA ONE-FOURTH ACRE. THF7TKF PLATS. SCALE OF FEET a ee CODERS: | Ee oe 4 2 { 6 Q 6 yf) . ROWS PLIAVTED 70 CROP p t a Q g Rel aie 2 ELECTED |G¥ PUPILS iy Q 8 N y) S Voy fy § qs Y INMOVVIDUAL FLAT, SCALE OF FEET. a) Qtr @ FFE EC 7 BI lA Fig. 8.—Suggestive plan for a school garden and an individual plat. The mistake of making the individual plats too large should not be made. Just sufficient area should be assigned to enable the pupil CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN STATES. 31 to give it proper attention. Careful, thoughtful work should be insisted upon rather than quantity. Demonstration plats for the supervision of the teacher should be set apart. These plats should be used to demonstrate certain truths with regard to individual crops. The farmers of the community should be encouraged to take an interest in this phase of the work for their own benefit. The preceding school-garden plan (fig. 8) should prove suggestive to the teacher in laying out grounds. SCHOOL EXHIBITS. Every school should have its fair or its exhibit day. There are -many reasons for this. In the first place, such an enterprise is local Fia. 9.—Marion County, Tex., Girls’ Club exhibit. in character, and it is possible for every pupil to participate. Look- ing forward to an exhibit of products and work will prove quite an incentive to the pupil to do his or her best in the garden, plat, or other work. The interest thus awakened among pupils will react on the community and attract its attention to the school. It will be necessary to offer prizes for the best exhibits, and in soliciting the articles for this purpose the attention of beneficent and enterprising people will be called to the progressive spirit of the school and its importance magnified. In turn, the recognition given the school by patrons and others will prove encouraging to the pupils and will be conducive to better results in their work. 2 BULLETIN 132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Aside from the benefits of an inspirational character the pupils will be rewarded with better yields and in some instances with prizes of intrinsic value. As a means of raising funds for school improvement the prize- winning exhibits should be sold at auction. The exhibits (fig. 9), excepting live stock, can be displayed either within or without the school building. Seats and simple contriv- ances may be employed for the display. Nothing appears to better advantage than agricultural or home-economic products. The exer- cise of a little taste in the arrangement will produce surprising results. Finally, the school fair will provide a means of collecting and preparing material for the district or county fair, if such is conducted. SCORE CARDS. SCORE CARD FOR LARD HOGS. 25 i clats Laie arn eare ee Nanri ee ee Register No. 2-...--.. Perlect | Student’s} Corrected score. score. score. General appearance, 36: Weight, Scoreraccording:toage:. . 35 -teee sas ose Sernteg: hot. ce bie: G4 |2.08.. oleae ie oon eae deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, compact, standing squarely ; OT NORGE oe ai. svat ra wie erates mes tal he Succ (ertin pte ea races Ca RAEN arene ale cre ee ene ns Otte a eae a a a Quality, hair silky; skin fine; bone fine; flesh smooth, mellow, and free from. lumps Or Wrinkles. s2sacuius. eee fe ee gue eaten Be TOs Me an es sates ene Condition, deep, even covering of flesh, especially in regions of valuable i CULES Sesto cycjaccteie ateis evgieve sina oat ais eaieians aia eee Ble etre eee eer tame aenaes Oo ame Cire Nat dase Head and neck, 6: i ; Snout, medium length not cOsarsec. 2.58. tonne emcees Sueaees. cet WP Ase cre ees PSS e ee cress Eyes, full, TONG) brIghT 5 a wis ccs, eins prod scces Meee we ete pie oa De ene A DS epee sos arsine ee ae Face;.short, cheeks full: . 3222 282 Bae ee tae oe ere eee 1 )| Roce gee nS eee Mars; fine;medium: size, soit: 22 -seootes 4 = 2.2 tart te eee west e cs pee 1 Pest a ee Jowl, strong, neate broad =. gcse eee. at. ie at Veal phat ap 2e Beet reer te Neti thick: medium: lengths: so: oe sate stone oan es eee ne ee eee ae Hil ees once | ae Pee Fore quarters, 10: a act Shoulders, broad, deep;.full, compatt-on- top: -2-se yo os G ane Supers eS Breast, advanced, Wid Gtr -.2 BR ae PRS A Poe a ae hae ee ae rats 2 Satara ctveulll eee tee the Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns upright; feet miedie ; SIZ@ 2a ste Baca ate Mic ccic na ape ae 2 ote ats ee anes Sapa etea oN ae oem owls take are ete Did) Se oe See ep re ie Body, 30: J Chest. deep. broad. large cirthe csi ove es set ae te ae Pee Gees Di | eectas Se see PE ot led a Sides, deep, lengthy, full; ribs close and wellsprung.......-..-...-.---: (oe [eee se {ep aeenae S Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed .............--.2..-.-.- IQ i/skee sees [ae ee hye OIn ewides UNICky-Stralg Nts aees aoc erte Sere een rar ate cee LO eh eel eee Belly, Straight; CVelsse5 2-2 eta = 2 - sere cet aa eee ees hee rea Va Nee oe ise re ['Seretentcemetiie Hind quarters, 18: | ips, wideiapart, SMOOtM soo las nieces sacs emcees sen ieke ct senieats Rump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight. .........22/-.22.2------2-- Ham, heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep,;wide.......:-..-.-..--s-...--. Uhichs-fleshed close:tohocks2. Sadie teste Japtenec sates see oes aero Legs, straight, short, strong; boneclean; pasterns upright; feet medium SIZGsa Bae Sets siecle steele oe creiicin = neyens ok Miecints cai meine mccleareas 2) | ancececeges|Selnde dee ce GA 0) eB aay ae a oh eh a aps as aeRO DLN Pe 100) | .20 sees | cai cuohees FREMATKS SR: ee. site ees ee ok Bal AES os Me ee eee |e Geet yeaa ope ty eee CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN SOUTHERN STATES. SCORE CARD FOR BACON HOGS. 30 recdaee es. 28 ct eee INainie 2220). cee woe ecister No: 5.22222) Perfect | Student’s} Corrected score. score. score. General appeaiance, 36: , | Weight, 170 to 200 pounds; largely the result of thick covering of firm flesh. (oh hs esearareeeses Umer ey ee Honm@lonelevelasm ooth id ee piv eerie sesso le eee eee eer liane | ON | ess Cates Sener oe Quality, hair fine,skin thin; bone fine; firm, even covering of flesh with- Outany soit bunches offatioriwrinkdles. 2. 1). 2) See) es net IUD) Te bse rncne ts 2 ees ae Da Condition, deep, uniform covering of flesh, especially in regions of valua- los) Gui -cebeeadeaporbaoes SESS HE ODD OBE SUD AE BE borboncosScdncMb Sods uoonE LOA eR Se seers Head and neck, 6: SWOUG; IN) Ss Bossancdavedcs ames oso aee aa eeneeserurs oAdcspvcapacoosceasae WN edeppecusellescoracds= yes ial dl wonigitS Sy eien)-iate ream isiceieie a= cee pb oosdsoscoconuesauaee ya) Lee oa ee Mes oi host We eee Iheve®, Shinn. 65s See sgoaercedoaSeodepoooESsEEAeBOMeass onosochacosaueasnone ALN eae ess tyra SA ea DENS, Woo Saale olibbeal Nee soos Sone ee sem ne meae = aco oss bone maen ore C1 pe DY Sah rea ete Jovy, Weta. npbole OR eee DEE RSA aS ee Dae p ae Emme tat Ab ame elle amet SD ce SMe eae Raat oa Pe Nee keen eclararms] ery orth ota Gee eee te Fest A ala aan epee e) fase recue( LGA Ze Sane ra cia a raoees I Fore quarters, 10: Shoulders, free from roughness, smooth, compact, and same width as | backsandehandiquantersisseepeaece - eon os een eee ere eeisie ce eels Culeaeeeeeeae SSA SESaeee Breastemoderatelya wide. tulle aaa 2s. os Aaa eee eres nS DUIS eee 63 Seema Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns upright, short; feet TC Ghinhin SIVA S = Oe Somsonsacecoos San Con Rese aeReE Abad So bAcaansbeoeeonesass Dit | Bees UR ena ee seat Body, 34: Chest, eeprytul teint se sec See no iho Se Die eb yath Jelena a AGE | NE fae ices | pi Ae Back, medium and uniform in width, smooth, slightly arched.........- Sia eens 2 eral let ye tt Sides, long, smooth, level from beginning of shoulders to end cf hind quarteis. The side at all points should touch a straight edge running AROMPCO Te RLOMMITM EI CMAN CEL ets cle Seer elaae es ITO essere eet fark rene ar IRM OS, GCA D-csccevedousunaepessase ob AeSae eseEeMEEEED oe ocaodabsocaneacadaS Dla ee ates beads Belly, trim, firm, thick without any flabbiness or shrinkage at flank. .-. LOR) Bet eeae are hares een Hind quartets, 14: Hips, smooth, wide; proportionate to rest cf body.-.....---..--.------- Die LUE tte Wiest ficaip la hans Nie Rump, long, even, straight, rounded toward tail.............-.----..--- Die | Risener a | eee ee Gammon, firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed deep, and low toward hocks. Sialic oa eee eee Legs, straight, short, strong, feet medium size; bone clean; pasterns UPON OI Beyer eerers ee shcleres ae eine areicictareiziaisisiein eo said ames else inte ater nee oA eee A ent een ar ERO Pa eer ee arora ee mre salen siti 12 ba ae eee see Sale sien kale LOOP Ee ere oe oe srsrecicree VRR SHB NTEL LES ss sls aN I A a ND 2-1 a gs Nite nc Niet nore ounpo nll earns: aes ee ne kee SD Ae ez we eds Serato eg = ; i 4 | ! 1 | H j 4 34 BULLETIN 132, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SCORE CARD FOR COTTON PLANT. As oa ee te ee eon ene VOTIGCY:too42 cess oe do tee Per- Stu- The cotton plant. fect dent’s Corrected score score . \ Plant, vigorous, stocky, 25 points: | DIZC. oreiiala ina St incianised’s on ojo Sens a0 2 oa eee aes eta pidemes.t heteamecaenen tee Dy (5 eee eo ee Horm, symmetrical spreading. conical... .2s2ccc.4sce-2 sccceeenssooecee Slee eseieee & | Se see ees Stalk, minimum amount of wood in proportion to fruit................. 0} | Grd ate cio lertere eae Branches, springing from base, strong, vigorous, in pairs, short jointed, AN CLMECIUD Ward s\srse dec cae eee eee Sees eee eens oA deer eee en Ol Seta aca Ree ee Head, well branched and filled, fruited uniformly. ....-.......-. Os te ate eeerernte lars, steeteeiees Fruiting, 24 points: Bolls, large, uniformly developed, plump, sound, firm.................. Be oS Ae ae lee Number-of' bolls, according 10 variety. 222<2- 2. case mene es cocseeeeoeske oe 4s aise celal Sec eee Bolls per pound of seed cotton, large, 40-60; medium, 60-75; small, 80-110 Al ctjeksnciatetst leictrsecharerate Character of bos, number of locks 4 to 7; kinds of sepals; retention of Coulton a sesens2s86 602 seetee sets ete st So cen eee ae acme ee Nee 63) Ai cose tema eee Opening of bolls, uniform including top crop, classify as good, medium, ( 91010) ene er ae ran UNDE ee tet Ps ee ee Pe Ae ee 0) | See eee cee eeeeee Yield—Standard 1 bale per acre, 30 points: Seed cotton, estimated by average plant, distance of planting, per cent of stand, plants per acre; thin uplands, 10,000; fertile uplands, 6,500; “bottoms,” 4,500; distance of plants, 33 by 1} feet, 44 by 14 feet, 43 by 2 ECOL T OSD COULVOL YE 2 xcas 3 ayer sem recione See ee een Se See | 1D See ae oe | See Per cent of lint, not less than 30, standard 40.........2.......-.--.---<- UD. js cee gee oe eestor Seeds, 30-50 per boll, large, plump, easily delinted; color, according to | variety; germination not less than 95 per cent...............----..-:- 6 sete eeectleceet Sena Quality and character of lint, 21 points: | Strength, tensile strain good, even throughout length................... 5p] Siciss cee |naeeeners Length, long, according to iocal standard; upland, 3 to 1 inch; interme- | diate, 14 to 2 inches; long staple, 14 to 2 inches............--.--..--.. | 6) ieSaewceeseaseeeeer = Fineness, fibers soft, silky and pliable, responsive to touch...........-- Oi | gaa eee as |e Uniformity, all fibers of equal length, strength, fineness...........--.-.- ORS ae | eee ees Purity, color dead white; fiber free from stain, dirt, and trash........-. FA Ree aces eel (renee: GERI OD 225 ho A tek Ao: sey 8 Sn a id eo ee FVOMONERE.. .3oes oo .6 ec eee Boe cee ee le a ea AV ENIS OP PUI ou can saad xa tree e eaten 2 der ears oi Date... .ii22.2sa cae ee eee SCORE CARD FOR CORN. RSS Bro otc ent ore cnet, SPO RE A ae BE Waitlety -. n'a STANDARD. sian Otgst oYeeueK elu s\arge eae ee a ee Ware per stalike 2 2 eee Weient OF Gaxe. .nvcon ses tsuce pounds. ¥16)d- per 6res: 42.2 ye eee bushels. 1 Fy) 615714 4 ee eae ee ae ee eee inches. GYAIR : ose leend! See ae ee Ear: Color: Circumference... 2.22.2... 2: inches. Cobisct Stu- | Cor- Ee dent’s rected eos score. | score. (OeniKo) eoWliy Mos V2: RR oe See eo oe aera oro. oan oa eyeccercs oc PAN eeiseede <= (vas eens Wa TORT D401 GO) Olas casera te ia ae = eee DA) reese sre lEtsceos ae Wmitonmiity Of SHAN sas nice sae ote le sg ote = nie = rere eters lene rare a 1 Soren. Weereresh Ses nc Condition-and freedom from blemishes... .....--2.------+ 184.3. 72215 To0d, 1.802) 4.33.) 108s) 47 | dd 8 13. 75 | Table I shows that the total annual precipitation at the Scottsbluff Experiment Farm was 11.39 inches in 1911, 18.51 inches in 1912, and 13.75 inches in 1913. The average annual rainfall of the three years was 14.55 inches. The chief feature of the rainfall in connection with the fall-irrigation experiments is the quantity of precipitation which came during the autumn and winter months each year preced- ing the growing seasons of 1911, 1912, and 1913, when the crops used CROPS UNDER FALL IRRIGATION AT SCOTTSBLUFF. 3 in these experiments were grown. The total precipitation from Octo- ber 1, 1910, to April 1, 1911, amounted to 1.19 inches. From Octo- ber 1, 1911, to April 1, 1912, the total precipitation was 3.59 inches, and from October 1, 1912, to April 1, 1913, it was 2.13 inches. The average total rainfall for this 6-months period during the three years was 2.3 inches, or a little less than 16 per cent of the average total annual rainfall during 1911, 1912, and 1913. The above facts substantiate the statement previously made in connection with the low precipitation of the fall and winter months. Since much of this precipitation comes as small showers or as light snowfalls, a large proportion of the moisture is lost by evaporation from the surface soil, so that during the months from October to March, inclusive, comparatively little moisture is added to the soil by precipitation. This being true, soil which has given up the greater part of its available moisture to a field crop remains compar- atively dry during the following winter. The precipitation which came during the growing season of 1911, 1912, and 1913 could not be expected to influence greatly the results obtained with fall irrigation, since it fell on all the plats in the experi- ment and since irrigation water was applied uniformly to all the plats during the growing season. The chief point to be considered in con- nection with the,rainfall as it affected the results of these experi- ments is that the fall and winter period was comparatively dry, the precipitation being insufficient to increase materially the quantity of moisture in the soil, particularly at depths of a foot or two below the surface. METHODS OF EXPERIMENT. Of the land used for these experiments one half was irrigated in the fall each year, and the other half was not so irrigated. In the fall irrigation, water was applied copiously to the soil, so as to sat- urate the latter to as great a depth as possible. This water was applied late in September or early in October each year, usually between September 15 and 30. In the fall of 1910 the land to be fall irrigated was plowed before irrigation, but it was found that this method necessitated considerable extra labor. In order to irri- gate after plowing, the land had to be leveled, and after irrigation it was necessary to harrow the land in order to check evaporation. If irrigation water were applied before plowing, the leveling could be dispensed with. For this reason, in the fall of 1911 and again in the fall of 1912 the land was irrigated before plowing. In the spring of each year crops were planted on the fall-irrigated land, and the same crops were planted on adjacent land not so irri- gated. The spring and summer treatment of the land and crops was identical in both cases. Each crop was planted on the same date on both the fall-irrigated land and the land not so irrigated, 4 BULLETIN 133, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and the irrigation during the growing season was uniform in both cases. Irrigation was applied to the plats in both series by the usual meth- ods. The potatoes, sugar beets, and corn were irrigated by means of furrows between the rows and the grain crops were irrigated by the field-fiooding method. The water applied to the different plats was not measured, but irrigation was practiced in the way it is com- monly done by good farmers in the locality. The water was allowed to flow over each plat so long as the soil absorbed it readily. In 1911, the only year in which soil-moisture determinations were made, it was found that at the first irri- gation, June 10, the soil on the fall- irrigated land, Series VI, absorbed the irrigation water very readily. The soil was saturated to a depth of about 18 inches, and a good sup- ply of water penetrated to a depth of 6 feet. Series VII, which was not fall irrigated, required a longer run of water in order to saturate the upper 18 inches of soil, and when this was done dry soil was found at a depth of 24 inches. Af- ter several attempts to apply addi- tional water to Series VII and thus put moisture in the lower depths, the loss of water by run-off was so great that the flow had to be stopped. The results of the mois- ture studies made in 1911 are dis- W6 sf YS } cussed later in this builetin. Fiq. 1.—Diagram of Series VI and VII on field H, The crops used in these experl- Scottsbluff Experiment arab uiere ee caper: ments were wheat, barley, oats, iments in fall irrigation were conducted. ; potatoes, sugar beets, and corn. Corn was not included, however, until 1912, and only two years’ results with this crop are available. The experiments were conducted in field H, Series VI and VII, shown in figure 1. Series VI was fall irrigated each year and Series VII received ro fall irrigation. The plats used were one-tenth acre in size. In 1911 there were on each of the series three plats each of wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, and sugar beets. In 1912 each series contained two plats of potatoes, two plats of corn, and three plats each of the four other crops. In 1913 there were on each series two plats of barley, two plats of potatoes, and three plats of each of the four other crops. CROPS UNDER FALL IRRIGATION AT SCOTTSBLUFF. 5 No attempt was made to conduct these experiments in definitely established crop rotations. The principal feature in the sequence of crops from year to year was that in most cases a cultivated crop fol- lowed an uncultivated one. For example, plat 2 in each series grew wheat in 1911, corn in 1912, and oats in 1913; and plat 11 in each series grew beets in 1911, wheat in 1912, and corn in 1913, The field on which these experiments were conducted was broken in the spring of 1910, so that all of the crops grown in 1911 were produced on virgin soil. The sequence of crops on the plats in both series during the years 1911, 1912, and 1913 is shown in Table II. Exactly the same sequence was used in Series VI as was used in Series VII; that is to say, for any given plat in Series VI in any one of the three years the corresponding plat in Series VII in the same year was planted to the same crop. TaBLE II.—Sequence of crops in the plats in Series VI and VII, used for the fall-irrigation experiments at the Scottsbluff Experiment Farm in 1911, 1912, and 1913. Year and crop. Year and crop. Plat No. Plat No. 1911 1912 1913 1911 1912 1913 ee oe ae ao ESET eeenee Potatoes ..| Barley. Le ame eer ae Oatsrares Barley ....| Beets. Deny sae Ie Wheat....| Corn......| Oats. 10 yeaa eee Potatoes ..| Oats...... Potatoes. See pare se Barley....| Beets..... Wheat. 1D eee Rana iBeetsheaas Wheat. .-..| Corn. Re ho a es Oats e222). Barley....| Beets.1 DAE es Aes a Wheat....| Potatoes ..| Oats.1 Onion ee: Potatoes ..| Wheat ....| Potatoes. BG eae ais Oatsees == Beets.....| Wheat.1 Goenka Beets... .. Oatszsaaee Corn. 1420 INS RE Potatoes ..} Barley....| Bests. Usa ee Wheat....| Corn...... Oats. 15S Sey deers & Barley. ..-| Oats... .-- Corn.! SieeeS a eee Barley....| Beets... .. Wheat. LG ae ee IBEetSe ss Wheat....| Barley. | 1 These plats were used for a special experiment in 1913, and the yields of the crops are not considered in this report. Table If shows that with the exception of plats 4, 9, and 15, an intertilled crop (potatoes, corn, or beets) was grown in alternation with either wheat, oats, or barley during the 3-year period. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS. A discussion of the cultural treatments applied and of the results secured in the fall-irrigation experiments during the 3-year period is given in the pages that follow. : WHEAT. Defiance spring wheat was used in these experiments and was planted with a press drill at the rate of 6 pecks per acre each year. In 1910 the land in both series was plowed during the first week in September. Both series were harrowed and leveled after plowing, On September 15 Series VI was irrigated. After the irrigation it seemed advisable to harrow Series Vi for the purpose of checking evaporation, and in order to preserve uniformity both series were 6 BULLETIN 183, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. harrowed at the same time. In the spring of 1911 the land was pre- pared for seeding by harrowing and leveling. The wheat was seeded on March 31. On Series VII, which had not been irrigated the pre- ceding fall, the soil was very dry at planting time in the spring of 1911 and the grain was very slow to germinate. After the rains, which came during the latter part of April, however, the grain came up promptly and a good stand was secured on both series. The wheat plats in the two series were irrigated uniformly twice during the season of 1911. No differences were noted in the time of maturity of the wheat on the two series. The crop reached matu- rity on August 10. In 1911 Series VI was irrigated on September 29 and 30. As soon as the soil was sufficiently dry in Series VI both series were plowed to a depth of about 7inches. They were left in a rough condition during the winter. [tis believed that leaving the soil in the rough condition had the effect of preventing much of the soil drifting which commonly occurs when the soil is left in a finely pulverized state during the win- termonths. As previously stated, the total precipitation from October 1, 1911, to April 1, 1912, was 3.59 inches, which was more than that which fell during the corresponding period in either the preceding or the following year. This relatively high precipitation left the soil on the series not irrigated in the fall in better condition at spring planting time in 1912 than at the corresponding time in 1911. When spring operations were begun in 1912, the surface soil on both series was in excellent condition for receiving the seed, and it was expected that there would be little, if any, difference in the yields obtained on the two series during that year. The two series were double-disked, harrowed, and leveled preparatory to seeding, and the wheat was planted on April 10. Uniform treatment was appiied to the two series as in 1911. Both series were irrigated twice. No difference was noted in the time of maturity of the wheat on the two series. The crop on all the plats ripened August 2. In 1912 Series VI was irrigated on September 29 and 30. As soon as the soil was sufficiently dry in Series VI both series were plowed and left in a rough condition over winter. The preparation for plant- ing in the spring of 1913 was the same as that in 1912. The wheat was planted on April4. The soil was in good condition at the time of planting and copious rains in April resulted in a uniform germination of the grain on all the plats. The irrigation and other treatments subsequent to planting were uniform on both series during the growing season. Both series were irrigated twice. All the wheat ripened about the same time, July 30. The numbers of the plats, the height of the wheat at maturity, the yields of straw and of grain, and the number of pounds of straw accom- CROPS UNDER FALL IRRIGATION AT SCOTTSBLUFF. i panying the production of each bushel of grain during the three years are given in Table Ii. The plat numbers were the same in each series each year. In other words, where plats 5, 11, and 16 in Series VI were fall irrigated, the corresponding plats in Series VII grew the same crops and were otherwise treated in the same way, except that they received no fall irrigation. In studying the table it is necessary to keep this in mind and to remember that the figures in columns headed ‘‘ VI” relate to the fall-irrigated plats, while those in the column headed ‘‘ VII” relate to the plats which were not fall irrigated. TABLE II1.—Results obtained with wheat on fall-irrigated land (Series VI) and on land not fall irrigated (Series VII) at the Scottsbluff Experiment Farm in 1911, 1912, and 1913. Yield per acre. Height (inches). | REL Oh ee Year and plat. Straw (pounds). Grain (bushels). VI. Vil. VI. VII. VI. VII. VI. VII. , 1911. sh eae ae AB eeue 29 28 3, 520 2,940 31.1 22.6 113.2 130.1 lati: a steer O27 31 29 3, 220 2, 640 31.3 21.0 102.8 12587; Patil ee eae se 31 28 8, 020 3,170 32.1 23.8 94.1 133.2 Average.-....-. 30 28 3, 253 2,916 31.5 22.4 103.3 130.2 1912. plata cee ae as 40 36 3, 910 3, 410 45.5 46.9 85.9 (PE TRE INS a ee eee 42 38 3, 080 2, 250 40.7 35.9 75.7 62.9 Plat 16........ See SRE 40 37 2,720 3, 760 38.7 32.4 70.3 116.0 Average........ 40 37 3, 236 3,140 41.6 38.4 77.8 81.8 1913. Plait mera sects s/asis's 5 36 37 1, 640 1, 200 26 3 20.6 62.4 68.2 NARS eee oe eek 39 38 1, 750 2, 060 27.5 25.0 63.6 82.4 Average........ 37 37 1, 695 1, 630 26.9 22.8 63.0 71.5 Average results, three : VOLS seyesiesse t eins ise 35. 8 34.1 2, 728 2,562 33.3 27.8 81.9 92.1 Difference in favor of fall irrigation....... +1.7 | +166 +5.5 —10.2 i Table III shows that the average results obtained with wheat during each of the three years favored fail irrigation. There were several individual instances in which the results did not agree with the average results, but the inconsistencies were in all cases relatively small. Con- sidering the average results during each of the three years, the wheat on fall-irrigated land grew taller and produced heavier yields of straw and of grain and a lower proportion of straw to grain than the wheat on land which was not fall irrigated. Considering the average results of the 3-year period, the wheat on the fall-irrigated land grew 1.7 inches taller, produced 166 pounds more of straw, 5.5 bushels more of grain per acre, and 10.2 pounds less straw per bushel of grain than the wheat on the land which was not fall irrigated. 8 BULLETIN 133, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BARLEY. The soil treatment applied to the plats which produced barley was substantially the same as that applied to the wheat plats during the three years. Plowing and other operations necessary in preparing the seed bed were the same on the barley plats as on the wheat plats, and fall irrigation was applied at the same time each year. A variety of barley known as California Feed was used during each of the three years, and it was seeded at the rate of 7 pecks per acre. In the spring of 1911 the barley was planted on April 20. At this time the surface soil on both series was’very dry, and very little seed germinated until after a rain of 0.35 inch which came on May 2. This rain supplied sufficient moisture to the fall-irrigated plats, but was not sufficient to germinate the grain on Series VII, where no fall irriga- tion had been applied. The barley on Series VII did not come up until after a heavy rain on May 15. After this rain the barley on both series grew well. The first irrigation was applied to the barley plats on both series on June 12. It was noted that the soil on Series VII absorbed moisture much less rapidly that that on Series VI and that the depth to which the irrigation water penetrated was somewhat ereater on Series VI than on Series VII. The barley in both series was irrigated the second time on June 27. At this time the barley on the plats which had been fall irrigated showed the need of water much less than that on the plats on Series VI, but, in order to preserve uniformity, all plats were irrigated. The barley was irrigated twice during the season. The grain on both series matured on July 26. In the spring of 1913 soil conditions at planting time were much more favorable than in 1911. This apparently was due te the rela- tively high rainfall of the preceding autumn, as was mentioned in con- nection with wheat. The seed was planted on April 24. The barley on both series germinated well and good stands were secured. The plats were irrigated twice during the season. The grain on both series matured July 30. In the spring of 1912 barley was planted on both series on April 28. The soil conditions were fairly favorable. There was sufficient mois- ture in the soil to germinate the seed and support early growth. The plats in both series were irrigated twice during the season. ‘The grain ripened on both series on July 28. The numbers of the plats, the height of the barley at maturity, the yields of straw and of grain, and the number of pounds of straw accom- panying the production of each bushel of grain during the three years are given in Table IV. The plat numbers were the same in each series each year. The figures in the columns headed ‘‘ VI” relate to the fall- irrigated plats, while those in the columns headed “VII” relate to the plats which were not fall irrigated. CROPS UNDER FALL IRRIGATION AT SCOTTSBLUFF. 9 TABLE IV.—Results obtained with barley on fall-irrigated land (Serves VI) and on land not fall irrigated (Series VII) at the Scottsbluff Experiment Farm in 1911, 1912, and - 1913. Yield per acre. Height (inches). Seer aeletaa nad Year and plat. Straw (pounds). Grain (bushels). VI. VIL. VI. VII. VI. VII. VI. VII. 1911 PlatiShesceecencee ae Ss 29 25 2, 640 2, 700 40.4 24.5 65.7 110.2 PIA See eee nics coe 31 26 2,335 3, 060 34.8 30.0 67.1 102.0 Patel peepee Sesto 31 25 2,745 3, 080 37.6 29.5 73.0 104.4 Average........ 30 25 2,573 2,936 37.6 28.0 68. 4 104.9 1912 TE peak ee A ee 36 36 97 870 37.1 33.9 26.1 25 PATO ae ose ee 37 34 1, 640 790 43.3 2.5) 37.9 24.3 MP late wee eer. 37 36 2,150 1, 400 48.1 38.6 44.7 36.3 Average.....- 37 36 1, 586 1,020 42.8 35.0 By/eal 29.1 1913 Lely na a be Oe ee sea 30 32 1,340 1,380 29.1 27.0 46.0 51.1 lab lO es eee ee 32 32 1, 720 1, 430 31.8 26.8 54.1 53.4 Average........ 31 32 1, 530 1, 405 30.4 26.9 50.3 52.2 Average results, three VCOUS ee rerep tenis seni 82.5 30. 7 1, 896 1, 787 35.9 29.9 51.4 59.8 Difference in favor of fall irrigation....... +1.8 +109 +7.0 —8.4 J Table IV shows that the average yields obtained with baleey during each of the three years were in favor of fall irrigation, and the same was true with all but one of the individual grain yields obtained. Barley on fall-irrigated land produced higher average yields of straw per acre each year, except 1911. In 1911 and 1912 the barley grew somewhat taller on the fall-irrigated land, but in 1913 the height of the matured grain was slightly greater on the land which was not fall urigated. The average proportion of straw to grain was lower on the fall-irrigated land in 1911 and 1913 and higher in 1912. Considering the average results of the 3-year period, the barley on fall-irrigated land was 1.8 inches taller than that on land not fall irrigated, and it produced 109 pounds more of straw and 7 bushels more of grain per acre and 8.4 pounds less of straw per bushel of grain. OATS. The soil treatment and fall irrigation applied to the plats producing oats were the same as those applied to the plats producing wheat and barley during the 3-year period. ) om OQ © 2 BULLETIN 135, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. | t The land in the affected area is somewhat lower than the surround- ing lands of the project and is generally rather level, being broken only occasionally by slight depressions or natural-drainage wasteways. Very little leveling is necessary in preparing the land for irrigation. The natural vegetation is a low, scattering growth of scrub sage and saltbush and a very little grass. Throughout the entire area are many small spots entirely barren of vegetation. The soil on these barren spots bakes rapidly and becomes very hard after rains. The lower layers of the soil between the upper foot or two and the underlying gravel contain very little moisture before irrigation water is applied or before they are affected by the rise of ground water. The ground water at the time this work was started in 1910 was 6 to 8 feet below the surface and occurred only in the underlying gravel. This gravel stratum is apparently broken or contains so much fine material that the water entering the soil from the irriga- tion of higher lands can not be carried off as rapidly as it enters the soul, and there has been a consequent rise of the ground water over this area during the past two years. It rose during the season of 1913 to within about 3 feet of the surface. It appears that the problem involved in the reclamation of this land is the opening up of the surface soil so as to make possible the leaching out of the alkali salts either by the application of irrigation water or by the rainfall. . This soil is also very deficient in vegetable matter, and it appeared that the addition of humus by plowing under green-manure crops would be one of the best means of improving the physical condition of the soil. Rye appeared to be the best crop for this purpose, as it is able to produce a crop under rather adverse conditions. In the fall of 1910 about 12 acres of the land on this tract were broken up and planted to winter rye. This land lies in two fields. Field M-I contains about 5 acres and field M—II about 7 acres. The rye crop made a fair though rather irregular growth, and was plowed under in June, 1911, when the plants were heading. On the 7-acre field and on a part of the 5-acre field this treatment was repeated in 1912. The second year’s crop of rye was much heavier and more uniform than the first. Each year after plowing the rye under, the land was cultivated frequently after rains, to maintain a mulch and to prevent the crusting of the surface. By this method the tilth of the soil appeared to be much improved, and the amount of salt in the surface soil, as shown by determinations made at different dates, was greatly decreased. The land on which the green-manure treatment had been applied for two years was cropped to winter wheat in 1913. . The wheat on field M-IT yielded 28.7 bushels per acre and that on field M-I 35 bushels per acre. ‘Trials of alfalfa and sugar beets were also made in 1913 on small plats that had received the green- OROPS ON ALKALI LAND, HUNTLEY PROJECT, MONTANA. 3 manure treatment. Sugar beets yielded at the rate of 11 tons per acre, and a satisfactory stand of alfalfa was secured, although the success of this crop will, of course, not be known until next season. It appeared that the leaching out of the salts might be hastened by frequent light applications of irrigation water followed by culti- vation after each irrigation. The purpose of this cultivation was to keep the soil opened and to cause the water to move downward through the soil to the underlying gravel. This irrigation was done by means of the bordered check system in which small plats were bordered and made as nearly level as pos- sible, so that the drying of the soil after irrigation would be uniform, in order that the cultivation would not be delayed. This method was practiced on a series of plats on which one green-manure crop had been plowed under and was continued during a part of the season of 1911 and all of the season of 1912. Determinations made at different times indicated that the total salt content of the soil was at first materially reduced by this method, but that it increased slightly in the lower depths during the latter part of 1913, owing _ to the rapid rise of the ground water. This land was cropped in 1913 to alfalfa and oats, one plat to each crop. A good stand of alfalfa was secured, and the oats yielded at the rate of 51.6 bushels per acre. On another series of plats on which the flooding and cultivation treatment was practiced, manure was applied at the rate of 20 loads per acre each year during 1911 and 1912. Determinations of the total salt content of the soil indicate that this method was only slightly more effective in reducing the salt in the soil than the irrigation and cultivation treatment without the use of barnyard manure. The crops grown on this land in 1913 were spring wheat, oats, and sugar beets. Wheat yielded at the rate of 36 bushels, oats at the rate of 68.9 bushels, and beets at the rate of 7.9 tons per acre. The method of plowmg under green manure has apparently been more effective in reducing the salt content of the soil, as indicated by determinations made in 1913, than has either of the other methods tried. During the latter part of the season of 1912 and during 1913 there has been a rapid rise of the ground water over this area. The average depth during 1913 was about 3 feet, and it is apparent that under- ground drainage will be required before the benefits of soil treat- ment can be expected to be permanent. The experimental work, begun on this tract in 1910, has been continued during three seasons and is still in progress. While the reclamation of the tract is not yet completed, substantial progress has been made, and it seems desirable to publish an account of the | | | | | 4 BULLETIN 135, U,.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. work and of the results so far accomplished. pet. inches ches fest Cultivated .......... 60 | 0. 23 0.28 0.39| 0.82} 0.85 0.58 1.31 1.29 0.94 Varpin soil ocass2e 50 65 . 92 1.54 1.16 1.83 1.49 2. 08 1.79 7A Difference.....{...---.- 42 64 1.15 84 98 su 17 50 77 The average difference between the total salt content of the first’4 reet of cultivated soil and that of virgin soil is shown by Table IT to Fra. 4.—Rye in field M-II on June 13,1912. This was the second crop of rye grown on this land and was much more uniform than the first crop. have been 0.77 per cent. The largest differences occurred in the first and second feet. The differences are sufficient to show that the treat- ment given the soil has been decidedly beneficial in reducing the salt content. It was noted that the soil of plat 2 2, which was subsoiled in June, i911, contained somewhat less salt in 1913 than the plats which had not been subsoiled. The average salt content of the soil of five plats which received treatment eordine to the first method and which were sampled for total salt determinations in 1913 is given in Table ill, together with the average salt content of the soil in plat 2. CROPS ON ALKALI LAND, HUNTLEY PROJECT, MONTANA. 9 TasLe II1.—Average total salt content of the soil on five plats not subsorled and on a. subsoiled plat, 1913. Aver- Jum- - = aon Narot |,TOP3 | 306 |6to12] age, |12t024| Aver |24to.36|36to4s| Aver borings. aes inches. | inches. ie inches. 3 feet. inches. | inches. A feet. z| . i Nos. 5,7, 9, 11, and 12. 50 0.24 0.30 0.44 0.35 0.89 0. 62 1.50 1.48 1.05 No. 2, subsoiled...--. 10 ~24 22 -25 -24 -33 28 ANC 57h) -53 Difference.....|....--.- 0 - 08 -19 ast - 06 -34 73 -69 - 52 The subsoiled plats showed little advantage in yield, however. The average yield of winter wheat on two plats subsoiled was at the rate of 35 bushels per acre, while the average of seven plats not sub- Fig. 5.—Winter wheat in field M-IT on July 14, 1913. In 1911 and 1912 a crop of rye was plowed under on this field as green manure, according to the first method. The winter wheat in this field yielded 28.7 bushels per acre in 1913. soiled was 34.7 bushels per acre. Subsoiling is a difficult and expen- Sive operation, and it is doubtful whether the differences in salt content, as shown above, are of sufficient importance to indicate that subsoiling would be profitable. Crops grown vn 1918.—Winter wheat, alfalfa, and sugar beets were grown on this land in 1913. Ten plats of winter wheat and one plat of each of the other crops were planted. At the time of planting winter wheat, in September, 1912, the ground was in excellent tilth. This crop made a much more uniform growth than the preceding crop of rye. (See fig. 5.) The alfalfa and sugar beets were planted on May 6, 1913. A good stand of alfalfa was secured and the crop was clipped on September 6. The yields of these crops are given in Table IV. 52602°—Bull. 1835—14——2 10 BULLETIN 135, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste 1V.—Average yields obtained in 19138 from land treated according to the first method. Yield per acre. Field. Crop. Area. Variety ee Bl ie i arad Maxi- | Mini- | Aver- ° mum. | mum. | age. Winter wheat. --} 10 quarter-acre | Kharkof ..........]| Bushel..] 41.31 29.4 34. 96 plats. wees) cady C6 LO epee ae 62 BCVOS i : = - : : ie ~~ Wee ee an : a - ; : i : P 7 - : wo =z La > 7 ry 7 ao ’ a a : i at” ' ic : \ - 7 oe 7 : : ual a ae: + is 7 Mele . yh Au a = Hy BULGLETIN-OF THE D> USDEPARINENTOFAGICTTRE No. 136 ® - Contribution by the Office of Public Roads, Logan Waller Page, Director. ‘February 12, 1915. — HIGHWAY BONDS: A COMPILATION OF DATA AND AN ANALYSIS OF ECONOMIC FEATURES AFFECTING CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF HIGHWAYS FINANCED BY BOND ISSUES, AND THE THEORY OF HIGHWAY BOND CALCULATIONS. _ BY LAURENCE I. HEWES, Chief, Economics and Maintenance, Office of Public Roads, ; and JAMES W. GLOVER, ~ _ Professor of Mathematics and Insurance, University of Michigan, Collaborator, Office of Public Roads. Ly WASHINGTON + GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 Rts BwWELETIN OF THE USDEPARTFIENT OFAQRICULTURE % : No. 136 Contribution by the Office of Public Roads, Logan Waller Page, Director. February 12, 1915. HIGHWAY BONDS: A COMPILATION OF DATA AND AN ANALYSIS OF ECONOMIC FEATURES AFFECTING CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE | OF HIGHWAYS FINANCED BY BOND ISSUES, AND THE THEORY OF HIGHWAY BOND CALCULATIONS. BY LAURENCE I. HEWES, Chief, Economics and Maintenance, Office of Public Roads, and JAMES W. GLOVER, Professor of Mathematics and Insurance, University of Michigan, Collaborator, Office of Public Roads. WASHINGTON 3 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 25 CENTS PER COPY BULLETIN OF THE USDEPARTMENT OFACRICUETURE * No. 1356 Contribution by the Office of Public Roads, L. W. Page, Director. ; February 12, 1915. HIGHWAY BONDS: A COMPILATION OF DATA AND AN ANALYSIS OF ECONOMIC FEATURES AFFECTING CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF HIGHWAYS FINANCED BY BOND ISSUES, AND THE THEORY OF HIGHWAY BOND CALCULATIONS. By Laurence |. Hewes, Chief, Economics and Maintenance, Office of Public Roads, and JamMES W. Guover, Professor of Mathematics and Insurance, University of Michigan, Collaborator, Office of Public Roads. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. | Page. Tint rOdUC HON ease acre eetseeise gore eee si 3 | Appendix B.—Approximate lists of county CountyahichwaySs--=-2.--2-o2s2222-2ss2ee ce 5 and district highway and bridge bonds. .-.- 37 Economic value of the market road.......... 6 Appendix C.—Table showing cost elements Cost of highway construction...-.....-..-.-- 10 of gravel, macadam, and bituminous mac- Cost of highway maintenance...-.......-..-. 12 | adam roads in Maine, Massachusetts, and Mheipowdwssuessss: . ss Mee oo 143i WeriINiG ws Jersey. eas tek eevee ne we ne es ne tee 86 Motalicostiothich ways... 2-2 222.2-ss226-- 24 | Appendix D.—Theory of interest applied to Expediency of issuing highway bonds.....-- 27 highway bond calculations ............-- 91-129 Appendix A.—State highway bonds......._- 34), Index.to: AppendixsDie sz oe.cec se Selene cle 91 INTRODUCTION. The practice of issuing bonds for highway and bridge construction by counties and their subdivisions has become common. In 1,230 counties, or 41.1 per cent of all the counties in this country, there were outstanding highway bonds on January 1, 1914. The total amount of such bonds voted,' as ascertained by the Office of Public Roads up to that date, was $286,557,073, of which township bonds alone amounted to $57,153,718. The amount of outstanding local highway bonds on January 1, 1913, was approximately $202,007,776. This amount was increased during the year 1913 by current issues noted _ below, but was also slightly decreased by maturing payments. The county highway bond is essentially a municipal bond; that is, a bond issued by a public corporation. Statistics indicate that all municipal bonds constitute about 20 per cent of the total of all bonds issued, while Government bonds are about 10 per cent. Municipal bonds are regarded as excellent investments and are frequently used by banks as a second reserve. The amount of highway bonds issued is indicated by comparison with the $79,741,688 of irrigation and drainage bonds authorized in the interval from 1907 to 1912, inclusive. '“Voted”’ is almost equivalent to “issued,” except in State highway bonds. The difference between bonds voted and bonds sold in 1912 was a little over 3 per cent. 5) { 4 BULLETIN 186, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The progress of the local highway-bond movement is further indi- cated by the diagram of first issues for the interval 1900-1913. Dates of first issues were reported, however, for only 579 counties. First issues for 1912 and 1913 are practically complete. (PI. I, fig. 1.) During the past three years county, district, and township highway and bridge bonds were voted as follows: 1911, $29,200,022; 1912, $32,022,703; 1913, $50,445,756; making a total of $111,668,481. There have also been voted State highway bonds which now total $158,590,000.1. The grand total of all highway bonds voted and reported to the Office of Public Roads to January 1, 1914, is, there- fore, $445,147,073. There is given in Appendix A of this publication a list of all the State highway bonds with their dates of issue, terms, and nominal interest rates, together with other pertinent information concerning the issues. In Appendix B are given three lists of local highway and bridge bonds. First there is a list of county and district highway and bridge bonds voted to January 1, 1914, with their terms and interest rates where reported. A similar table of township bonds is next presented. In aseparate table is a list, by counties, districts, and townships in the several States, of highway and bridge bonds reported voted during each of the years 1912 and 1913. The approximate distribution of local highway bonds is shown in the map, Plate IT, by counties. State highway bonds are not included. In collecting data for this publication the Office of Public Roads corresponded directly with county and township officials and the tables of bonds were submitted to State highway officials and other State officials for corrections and additions. Many county officials failed to state the term of the highway bond issues; it was found, however, that the mean term for approximately $47,000,000 issued prior to 1913 was 24.8 years. For the years 1912 and 1913, the term of issue, the number of issues, and the total amount issued by munici- palities with complete reports are presented in the following table: TaBLE 1.—Bond issues during 1912 and 1913 in counties, districts, and townships, with complete returns. | Total number Terms of Total amounts of issues. issues. | of issues. De VORTeeca 2. acs. $442,175 100 LO-year: 2s. 2a2-% 5, 165, 383 18; 4) Lbsyear.scetese: 1, 266, 500 68 | 20-year.......... 8, 906, 538 31 BD-VOAM <52.c.c sae 5, 518, 150 45 | 30-year....--.--- 7,399, 000 129 Serials.......... 15, 300, 819 AT Above 30-year... 7,170, 971 47 | Other term....-. 1,816, 541 1 Including $3,415,000 issued by Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire in 1913. Massachusetts authorized, in 1912, $5,000,000 to be issued during the years 1913 to 1917, inclusive, which is part of the total given. New York’s second $50,000,000 will probably not be entirely issued for several years, HIGHWAY BONDS. 5 These figures represent 61.2 per cent of all the counties, townships, and districts reporting bond issues during 1912 and 1913. The reports on the mileage of road constructed from the proceeds of local bond issues are very incomplete and in many instances con- tradictory. After eliminating all reports which were obviously incorrect or defective, a list of counties and districts giving complete returns of classified mileage of roads constructed has been made. A similar list for township work has also been made. These two lists are presented in Appendix B. It is quite probable that omissions in reports from counties and their subdivisions concerning mileage built are due in part to the frequent changing of local officials. It will be seen from the diagram of first issues (Pl. I, fig. 1) and from the fact that probably over 80 per cent of local bonds for high- ways and bridges are still outstanding (see p. 3), that the highway bond movement has vet to meet the test of repayment. The maxi- mum outlay for retirement of outstanding highway loans will appar- ently be reached in about 20 years. If highway bond issues are to continue successfully, certain fun- damental principles require attention. They are, therefore, discussed briefly in this publication. Necessary information is presented in considerable detail with illustrations and tables to guide highway officials in borrowing and expending highway funds. COUNTY HIGHWAYS. The highways of a county may usually be classified into main market roads, intercounty roads, and neighborhood roads. A rela- tively large percentage of the total mileage—more than 80 per cent in many counties—may be classed as neighborhood roads, which are either feeders to market roads or crossroads of relatively small impor- tance. The intercounty roads are usually in part also main market roads. The market roads are, therefore, the roads for which the question of borrowing money frequently arises. The total mileage cf main market roads varies greatly from county to county, but usually does not exceed 150 miles. The distribution and individual lengths of market roads is of much importance to the highway engineer, who must plan for improve- ments. Rules can not be laid down which will apply universally for the selection of such roads. The area served by a given market road depends upon the length of the road and the form of the road network, which, in turn, is largely governed by topography and the situation of shipping points. In regions where the public land survey system prevails the roads very generally follow the section lines and radial roads are not common. Tt is usual to find from four to eight main market roads radiating from market centers. The average number of such roads of consid- erable length is about six for each shipping point. The traffic on ee 6 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. radial roads will tend to vary inversely with their number. Plates IV, VI, and IX show the distribution of the main market roads in three counties. ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE MARKET ROAD. The service rendered by highways radiating from a town may be measured directly by the tonnage which is hauled over them; and their economic importance is indicated by this tonnage and varies directly with it. There are two ways of computing the tonnage of traffic on a road: (a) By actual count, and (b) by determining traffic areas supplemented with producers’ and merchants’ estimates of tonnage. The actual count of traffic determines the average number of teams hauling produce each day, their loads, and the average distance traveled. From the count on a sufficient number of days a close estimate of the average annual traffic may be had. TABLE 2.—Traffic record of seven unimproved roads. ee meaiee chants’ Reported Road ; Leneth Tons per - eee? Equiva- | and pro-| Traffic costs Mo Location. alanis day, each (n cai et lent annual) ducers’ area (cents 3 a area. mile) ’| ton-miles. | estimates) (acres). | per ton- : | (ton- mile). miles). 1 | Lauderdale County, Bales (2) sete e ee eeee 28.3 58 10 367, 894 228,046 | 154, 432 16.0 2 | Booneand Story Coun- ties, Iowa (16)..-..-.-- 45.1 10 2 162, 342 105, 662 1135521 37.2 3 | Cumberland and Sa- gadahoc Counties, | | Me: (8) seecaas.semae 32. 1 18 4 PA fee: Ne ee ere 38, 182 23.6 4 | Leflore County, Miss. | Oi) lejos onan eine 24.1 33 vf 197,386 | 90,628 | 60,736 36.2 5 | Montgomery County, | IMS lb) Sevan o elesese 5.4 21 2 14,044 5,892 | 12,531 26.0 6 | Muskingum County, (Oiiuton())aen oe 20.9 28 6 111,026 | 132,711 41, 952 28.0 7 | Jackson County, Oreg. (AN eee ates ee” | 50.5 11 4 51,810 | 32,170} 73,881 36.6 | Totals and aver- BPOS aes ces as 206. 4 26 5 LAST 058 |b cesccs-- 495, 235 29.1 1 Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of traffic areas. From a map, supplemented by field observations, the traffic area served by a highway may be determined. This is the area on which originates market produce and for which supplies must be hauled from market. Inawheat country, for example, the average annual wheat acreage tributary to a highway will determine approxi- mately the principal market traffic. Even a rough estimate of the traffic area is valuable for determining the relative importance of highways and indicates the order in which their improvement should be undertaken. It is also an excellent check on traffic count. Traffic data for a number of roads recently investigated by the HIGHWAY BONDS. 7 Office of Public Roads are given in Table 2. Actual traffic count was made four times for seven consecutive days on all the roads. The traffic areas, traffic estimates, and the hauling-cost data were determined in the field. The weight derived from loaded teams and motor trucks only is entered in this table, and the ton-mile hauling costs include a slight increment for loading and unloading. Highway improvement with borrowed money must be regarded as an investment. The only way, however, that a measurable income arises from the investment is by the reduction of hauling costs. From the standpoint of public economy the annual cost of hauling represents the operating expenses of the road system. The direct return upon the highway investment, then, is the reduction in oper- ating expenses. This difference between the old hauling costs and the hauling costs over the improved roads is a real saving to the community. In the language of railroad bookkeeping, this differ- ence is an operating income to the community. It is invariably true that the improvement of market roads is followed by an increase in annual tonnage, so that estimates based on the existing tonnage are usually conservative. Doubtless much more money can be spent for well-planned and well-built roads without over- capitalizing them. The unit in which hauling costs are measured is the ton-mile. The cost of hauling a ton 1 mile on a poor road probably varies on an average from 20 to 35 cents. (See Table 2.) It depends on the con- dition of the road and changes greatly during the year. Recent figures for hauling over unimproved roads in the mountain regions of West Virginia and Kentucky also show seven instances where the cost per ton-mile varied from 23 to 37 cents. Ton-mile costs as low as 10 cents are common in Europe on first-class highways. Even with the extreme variations of wages it is doubtful if the cost per ton-mile anywhere in this country on an adequately improved road exceeds 15 cents. Cross ties were hauled over improved gravel roads in Spotsylvania County, Va., in April, 1913, for about 12.7 cents and less per ton-mile, and apples were hauled by motor trucks on good roads in Jackson County, Oreg., in October, 1913, for a little more than 11 cents a ton-mile. To understand how many tons a highway can carry in a year, assume a market town from which radiate six roads uniformly dis- tributed and 12 miles long. There is then a circular traffic area of 12 miles radius and each road serves theoretically one-sixth of this area, which is 75.4 square miles. The average haul for each separate road is about 8 miles. (See p. 8.) If each acre tributary to this road supplies only 200 pounds of produce, which must move to market an average distance of 8 miles, the road carries an annual traffic of at least 38,605 ton-miles. Another way to view this traffic PGE ON LE a nee NE 8 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is to divide the total number of tons by the number of hauling days, which is usually taken at 300. With an acreage yield of 200 pounds there result 16 tons per day which may be assumed to move an average distance of 8 miles. This would make a total of 128 ton- miles daily. The daily average weight over the entire road is there- fore about 10.7 tons. The tonnage hauled is the most direct and reliable basis from which to determine the economic value of a road. (See Table 2.) It is common to find that when a poor market road is improved the cost of hauling is reduced by from 2 to 10 cents per ton-mile. The saving to the community during a year can then be readily computed for each mile. (See Pl. III, fig. 2.) Table 3 shows the annual saving per mile and the capitalized amount of this annual saving at 5 per cent interest for daily traffic varying from 5 to 80 tons, - TaBLE 3.—Annual saving per mile in hauling costs at 5 cents per-ton-mile reduction. Total aang Total ve Tons per | saved in Fieve a Tons per | saved in vibed day. year of | 5 147 Carte day. year of |. 14 ae t 300 days. | ° P : 300 days: | 2 2eF Cent: 5 $75 $1, 500 45 $675 $13, 500 10 150 3, 000 50 750 15, 000 15 225 4, 500 55 825 16, 500 20 300 6, 000 60 900 18, 000 25 375 7, 500 65 975 19, 500 30 450 9, 000 70 1, 050 21, 000 35 525 10, 500 75 1, 125 22, 500 40 600 12, 000 80 1, 200 24, 000 If the roads do not radiate uniformly from a town it is evident that in a uniformly producing area the traffic lost to one road must go over some adjoining road. However produce is distributed along the road, in general, the portion of the road nearer the market will receive much more use than the distant portion. The first few miles of radial road from a town are also much used by vehicles other than market vehicles. Although a very important matter, the average haul on a market road-is somewhat difficult to determine. It may be estimated from the maximum haul or the known radius of the traffic area,t and may usually be assumed to be two-thirds of the average maximum haul. To show further the service which market roads render to a com- munity, there is given in Table 4 the yearly and daily tonnage pass- 1JTn Bulletin No. 49 of the Bureau of Statistics of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, entitled “Cost of Hauling Crops from the Farms to Shipping Points,’’ the average haul is assumed to be the radius of the circle whose area is one-half the area of a circle whose radius is the maximum haul. The average haul is then about seventy-one hundredths of the maximum haul. If all produce on a traffic area of one-sixth of a complete circle were hauled directly from the point where it originates to the market at the center, the resulting average haul would be sixty-seven hundredths of the maximum haul, which is the radius of the sector. If all produce were first concentrated on the middle radius of the sector, the average haul resulting would be sixty-four hundredths of the radius. Bul. 136, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Pvate l. 100 DIAGRAM SHOWING NUMBER OF FIRST HIGHWAY BOND ISSUES atte 0 1900 190! 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 19)I 912 =: 1913 Fic. 1.—DIAGRAM SHOWING NUMBER OF FIRST HIGHWAY BOND ISSUES IN COUNTIES BY YEARS. 80 60 co Ze TZ VY, Villa Fig. 2.—PooR MACADAM CONSTRUCTION OF 1911 AFTER 1 YEAR. Bul. 156, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. LEGEND HEEB 11.000,000 on Mone & SAHEICHORPUBLICKD Up ~; DISTRIBUTION BY COUNTIES Ly 5 750,000 TO 1,000,000. SSS. 008 SSS Ree *,00.000 T0'750,000. HIGHWAY & BRIDGE FREE “250.000 To s00,000. CORR OP PBI } ~ 1 —~ GZ s.000 T0"250,000. ry 5 BON Ss *00,000 OR LESS. “ VOTED TIAN, 1, 1911. Map OF THE UNITED STATES SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION BY COUNTIES OF HIGHWAY AND BRIDGE BONDS VOTED TO JANUARY 1, 1914. Bul. 136, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. o := s 5) 3 i— 300,000 | | 280,000 al ql 260,000 240,000 ae | ie 2 a 220,000 3 i = i | 2 al 5! eS — | 1 200,000 — — gy 25,000 Ss [| 8s S S im TT 8 |_| | 180,000 — 20,000 a [| | 146 | Cl i) 160,000 |_| 15,006 43 N coo 5 z 4 Hell < 140,000 | + tt it 10,000 4 SEE 120,000 a Eu 5,000 H cI re Inte! Tt K ia 3 a 00,000 aoe" ° 5 10 15 20 30 35 40 45 50 Years 25 Term of Loan Fic. 1.—DIAGRAM SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN ANNUAL AND TOTAL COST AND THE PERIOD OF HIGHWAY BONDS—$100,000 SINKING FUND, 3!2 PER CENT. Reduction in cost - cents per ton mile [ [| 12 IE a 10 i {| Ei | 8 6 el @ I — o nif il 4 2 a = ++ o o -1000 2000 3600 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 Ton miles per year Fia. 2.—DIAGRAM SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN TOTAL REDUCTION IN COST OF HAULING AND ANNUAL Cost OF A $1,000 Bonp. sgaRUET ROAD SYS 79, DALLAS CO. ALABAMA MAP SHOWING MARKET ROAD SysTEM, DALLAS COUNTY, ALa, HIGHWAY BONDS. g ing over six market roads assumed uniformly distributed about a market center and extending from 1 to 15 miles through a territory each acre of which yields the same weight of market products. TaBLe 4.—Theoretical average tonnage on each of six uniformly distributed market roads. Uniform yield per acre of— One-tenth ton. One-fourth ton. One-half ton. Maxi-| Aver- mum | age Tons hauled Tons hauled Tons hauled haul. | haul. per day. per day. per day. Total Total Total tons per tons per tons per year. Over | Over year. Over | Over year. Over Over first | eighth first | eighth first eighth mile mile. mile. | mile. mile. mile. 1 0. 66 33.5 ONO 7 |e eins 2 88.8 (ORE Sep ee ee 167.5 OLS 4 eee aoa: 2 1.32 134.0 AOU eee ees 335. 9 SOO oaaras 670. 0 PON I eee ies 3 2. 00 301.6 #96) j|Eo aaa oe 754. 0 PCADY Ne iets 1, 508. 0 CCU beesooeee 4 2. 67 536. 2 SL yA cea ee 1,340.5 AE SG USL Ne. 2,681.0 oe eal mae macase 5 3. 33 837.8 PASTS eee ame 2, 094. 5 ORSie | Benen ee AMUSO LON Loe eles cio = Ch lemezMOOnet20622°) S598: ial ee 3,015) 5 || 9195 (ears GeO31 Or 19N90) [Bese esas 7 4.67 | 1,642. 2 yy el eee Bras CE AOS es) |e dla tos eee SHU On eae o | eee ee 8 5.33 | 2,144.8 Gel 0.85 | 5,362.0 | 17.76 2.13 | 10,724.0 | 35.52 4.25 9 6.00 | 2,714.5 9. 00 2.715 |- 6,786.3 | 22051 6.88 | 18,572.5 | 45.02 | 13.75 10 6.67 | 3,351.2 | 11.13 4.87 | 8,378.0 | 27.82 | 12.18 | 16,756.0 |] 55.63 | 24.35 1 7.3 4,055.8 | 13.47 7. 22 | 10,138.5 | 33.68 | 18.05 |.20,279.0 | 67.35 | 36.10 12 8.00 | 4,825.7 | 16.04 9.79 | 12,064.3 | 40.10 | 24.48 | 24,128.5 | 80.20] 48.95 13 8.67 | 5,663.3 | 18.88 12.58 | 14,158.2 |} 47.08 | 31.45 | 28,316.5 | 94.15 | 62.90 14 9.33 | 6,568.0 | 21.85 | 15.59 | 16,420.0 | 54.63 | 38.98 | 32,840.0 | 109.25 | 77.95 15} 10.00 | 7,540.0 | 25.09 18.83 | 18,850.0 | 62.73 | 47.08 | 37,700.0 | 125.45 | 94.15 The average acreage yield in pounds or the acreage coefficient varies with the locality. As market roads are usually located through farming country, the weight of crops per acre of farm land is a good indication of the tonnage originating on market roads.! The report of the 1910 Census shows an approximate average product of 332 pounds per acre of farm land. The average yield per acre on «wmproved farm land in crops was 1,674 pounds2 The average weight per acre of forest products on unimproved farm land was 122 pounds.’ It is found that usually 20 per cent of the roads in any county carry nearly all the traffic—possibly 90 per cent of the total. In the United States 20 per cent of the total mileage of roads is about 440,000 miles. There is an average of about 2,000 acres of farm land to each mile of such road, which should represent about 65 per cent 4 1 There is a considerable return haul of fertilizer, fuel, kerosene, supplies, wire fence, etc., which can be partially determined by thorough inquiry of dealers. 2 A careful computation of the weight per acre of all marketed crops in Tompkins County, N. Y., based on the data of Bulletin No. 295 of the Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station, gave 0.51 ton per acre of land in cultivation, which was 70 per cent of the total farm area and 63 per cent of the totalarea. The acre yield for the entire area was, therefore, 0.35 ton. 3 These figures are derived by determining the weight and acreage of each crop reported and by making reasonable assumptions as to distribution in the case of fruits, etc., where acreage was not given. (See Table 2.) * The average per cent of lands in farms in 39 States which reported more than 20 per cent of their areas in farms in 1910 was 65.16. 10 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the adjacent land. On each of the six radial market roads which have been assumed for the calculations above there would be a traffic area of 4,021 acres and a farm area of 2,614 acres per mile. COST OF HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION. The cost of a given type of highway varies, but the range of variation has become comparatively well defined for each type within a given region. The standard of construction for any given type is now also generally understood and adhered to in the best practice. As this standard becomes more generally adopted, the price variation for similar local conditions will become less. In Table 5 there are given examples of cost per mile for three types of modern State highways. These averages are taken from lists of State construction jobs which are tabulated in Appendix C.1 The standard which present specifica- tions represent is a necessary standard evolved as the result of 20 years of modern road building. When these standards are ignored, it is usually at the expense of good work. TABLE 5.—Cost elements of three types of highways. ] Drainage | |Drainage | Type. and Surfacing. Total. |. and Surfacing. grading. | | grading. | | | a. | | Per cent. | Per cent. Gravel (20;feet wide). 222 3 sees coe ee $1, 817 $2, 599 $4, 416 41.15 | 58. 85 Ordinary or water-bound macadam (15 feet wide)...-. 3, 400 5,815 9,215 36.90 63.10 Bituminous macadam (15 feet wide) 2...........-..-.-- 2 765 | @, 000 10, 298 26. 85 | 13.15 \ } 1 These cost elements were obtained from 87 gravel jobs and 104 macadam jobs in Maine and New Jersey, The averages were computed by weighing each job with its relative ength and reducing all costs by simple proportion to and from 53 bituminous-macadam jobs in Maine, Massachusetts, and New Jersey. equivalent average widths of 20 feet and 15 feet respectively. 244 jobs are given in Appendix C. 2 Includes eight jobs of bituminous resurfacing. (See footnotes, Appendix C.) The complete tables of cost elements on the The cost of highway construction may be subdivided into (a) cost When roads alignment, drainage of enduring features and (b) cost of perishable features. are built with accepted standards of grade, structures, and foundations, the cost of such elements may be charged for enduring features. Whether roads so built result in the maxi- mum percentage of permanent investment depends in part upon the cost and nature of the wearing surface. For example, a highway completed with all the best enduring features and then surfaced with gravel would show a higher percentage of cost for enduring features than the same road surfaced with more expensive material, as ordi- nary macadam or bituminous macadam. A poorly constructed gravel road, however, where enduring features had been slighted, would present a very high percentage of charge for temporary features. Macadam roads, so called, have been built with bond money by simply ae broken stone in the mud. An example is shown in Plate I, figure 2 1 Thisee saunas were selected from States in which records were kept so as to pea Coat analysis, HIGHWAY BONDS. 11 Tn issuing bonds for building highways the element of investment is of great importance. The allowable variations in grade and align- ment are considerable, as are also the variations in the types of drain- age structures. But there exists always a minimum standard below which it is uneconomical for any community to build on borrowed money. It is manifestly poor policy to build an expensive surface or a relatively long-lived surface on defective grades with poor align- ment, or where the drainage features are short-lived and temporary. Construction should be so adjusted to the service needed that its purpose is accomplished without waste. A county with impassable muddy clay roads must obtain, with a bond issue of $100,000, a maximum mileage of improvement. If roads are constructed cost- ing $10,000 per mile, but 10 miles can be built. It is quite proba- ble that the best economic result will be obtained by building 40 miles of road at a cost of $2,500 per mile. This money should be spent largely for enduring features, such as grading, drainage, etc. The common error, however, in county bond issues is to fix the sum to be voted upon and then to demand an exorbitant mileage for that sum. There is presented in Table 5 and in Appendix C the percentage of the cost of drainage and grading, exclusive of surfacing, and the percentage of cost of the surfacing on a considerable mileage of road from several States. Not all the surfacing need be a perishable feature. It is becoming more and more common to construct roads with surfaces built in two courses, the lower of which is regarded as a permanent feature of construction. This is particularly true of those types of road that are built with concrete foundations for bituminous-macadam, brick, or asphalt surfaces. Most hard roads are now seldom allowed to wear into the foundation course of the surfacing. It is probably conserva- tive to regard 40 per cent of the surfacing cost of macadam or more enduring pavements as a cost for permanent features. Well-built macadam roads, from the recorded costs in Table 5, would therefore indicate a cost of 62 per cent of the total cost for permanent features and bituminous-macadam roads about 56 per cent. This method of estimating can not be applied to gravel or any natural soil road. Under most existing systems of maintenance the entire surfacing of such roads steadily deteriorates. It is generally accepted that roads built with surfaces entirely of concrete or with a brick pavement and a concrete foundation are permanent. It is not, however, yet known how long the best concrete surface will wear and it is certain that serious failures of concrete surfaces have resulted from poor construc- tion. The best vitrified brick surfaces may have a life of 30 years or more, but repairs will usually be required and sufficiently exten- 12 BULLETIN 136, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sive data on the life of modern vitrified brick roads grouted with cement mortar are still lacking to fix the average life period.t The danger of building roads with little attention to anything but the surface, with no provision for repair and maintenance, and with bonds of excessive term is, however, very serious. Complete returns of highway mileage built with local bond issues are not available, but there is given in Appendix B (Tables 25 and 26) a list of bond issues and mileage constructed with the proceeds where the reports are complete. COST OF HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE. Highways constructed with borrowed money should be strictly maintained.? Maintenance is necessary in order to insure to the community the maximum economic service by the road and also to preserve the investment. The cost of maintenance and repairs must, therefore, be studied at the outset. Unfortunately public records do not yet present complete data on the cost of either repair or main- tenance, except in certain States which have highway departments. Well-constructed gravel roads will sometimes sustain several years of traffic without showing marked deterioration, even when there has been no maintenance. Such roads sometimes even improve during the second season; more frequently, however, they show ruts or the formation of chuck holes. It can not be expected that the average life of a gravel surface will be greater than that of a macadam surface. The average interval for resurfacing macadam roads is between six and seven years. If a sum equal to two-thirds of the original cost of the gravel surface itself is provided for renewals at six-year intervals, it should be estimated at from $150 to $250 per mile per year. If $30 is then allowed for annual dragging and small repairs, the total annual cost of repair and maintenance of gravel roads would be from $180 to $280 per mile. The annual cost of strict maintenance is sometimes below $30. In Bennington County, Vt., during 1912, 175 miles of gravel roads were maintained at a cost of $20.70 per mile. The annual cost of maintenance and repair on sand-clay roads, including all necessary resurfacing at periodic inter- vals, should not be fixed at less than 10 per cent of the original cost. The cost of repair and maintenance of water-bound macadam roads has been determined with considerable exactness from Massa- chusetts figures and checked by resurfacing charges in other States and in Germany. From $100 to $125 per year ordinarily pays for necessary small repairs, such as patching, cleaning culverts, etc., 1 For further information as to the life of roads, see Bulletin No. 48 of the Office of Public Roads, U.S. Department of Agriculture, “Repair and Maintenance of Highways,’’ and Bulletin No. 23 of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture, ‘‘ Vitrified Brick as a Paving Material for Country Roads.’’ These bulletins may be obtained from the U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 2See Bulletin 48, Office of Public Roads, U. S. Department of Agriculture. HIGHWAY BONDS. 13 and from $400 to $425 per year is the necessary annual charge for resurfacing at periods varying from six to seven years. (See foot- note 1, p. 12.) The sum of $525 per mile, on an average, should therefore absolutely maintain macadam roads if changes and increases of traffic are not excessive. It must be understood, however, that in many instances where macadam sufficed for the volume and char- acter of traffic prior to 1906, it will not withstand the action of the motor vehicle traffic which has developed since that time. Many miles of ordinary or water-bound macadam road have been resurfaced with bituminous materials and many miles of new bituminous-macadam road have been constructed. The logical maintenance of such highways is a surface treatment with bituminous material and rock screenings, clean gravel, or sharp sand. The cost of such surface treatment is from 4 to 12 cents per square yard, and it may be expected to last from one to three years, according to the density of traffic and the success of the application. Theo- retically, perfect surface treatment would constitute absolute main- tenance for a bituminous-macadam road. Such maintenance is seldom or never realized and bituminous-macadam roads doubtless require resurfacing at intervals. The cost of such resurfacing is not yet known. The average cost for repair and maintenance of 7,300 miles of highway in Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and Rhode Island for the year 1912 was about $800 per mile. A large part of this money was expended for bituminous resurfacing and bituminous surface treatment. There is some ques- tion whether the expenditure correctly measures the average cost of repairing and maintaining bituminous-macadam roads. In the State of New York, however, for the years 1911 and 1912 the average cost for repair and maintenance was $724 per mile upon a total average of 2,861 miles. The annual cost of repair and maintenance on Massachusetts State roads for the years 1910, 1911, and 1912 was, respectively, $642, $647, and $676 per mile for about 850 miles. For the most part these figures for New York and Massachusetts represent the cost per mile of resurfacing with bituminous material and of maintaining bituminous-macadam and water-bound macadam roads by surface treatment with bituminous material. It is clear, therefore, that $700 per mile is not an excessive estimate at present for the annual cost of all repair and maintenance of bituminous- macadam roads. The cost of maintaining concrete roads is not yet known. It is known, however, that great care must be exercised in constructing such roads to insure their success. There have been cases where such roads began to disintegrate along the wheel tracks in less than a year, owing to defective concrete. Sometimes such roads have cracked so badly that it was necessary to remove the surface entirely. In other instances the necessary repairs have been very expensive, 14 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Instances are also known where concrete road surfaces have shown a very high percentage of annual wear. In other cases there is appar- ently no measurable wear. If the road surface is built with the proper mix of concrete and carefully placed, it apparently should last indefinitely and not rut. Some cleaning of the surface and patching of joints and small depressions will be necessary at all times, so that the maintenance can not be entirely neglected. The cost of repair and maintenance upon brick highways is very low. In most instances, where the construction is as nearly perfect as possible, almost no maintenance charges have resulted. Perfect construction, however, is seldom obtained.’ It is not unusual to find depressions and points of wear in brick roads, but it is less com- mon than formerly. Brick roads are now usually constructed on a concrete foundation, with very carefully selected vitrified brick, and with the joints filled with cement mortar. Their annual maintenance costs, although low, are not on record with sufficient continuity to supply accurate data. It has not been customary for officials to face frankly the cost of maintenance and repair on bond-built highways at the time the bonds are issued and before construction begins. In fact, in the majority of cases where bonds have been issued by local authorities there has been no provision whatever for maintaining the roads when built. This is perhaps the gravest defect in the project of building highways by issuing bonds. The cost of all maintenance and repair over a series of years has ranged in the past from 6 to 10 per cent of the original cost of construction on the average and varies with the type of construction. Concrete roads and brick roads apparently are a marked exception to this rule. In future construction where the type of road is properly adapted to traffic and with careful main- tenance from the outset the percentage of repair and maintenance cost should be lower. THE BOND ISSUE. Sinking-fund bonds.—The majority of highway bonds now outstanding have been issued as straight terminable bonds to be retired by sinking funds. Many such bonds now run for excessive terms. Although the term varies from 10 to 40 years, the average is nearly 25 years.2. The fund to retire the bonds is accumulated by annual installments paid by the taxpayers and is supposed to draw interest continuously and to accumulate a sufficient amount to dis- charge the debt at maturity. The interest which the sinking fund draws is usually from 1 to 2 per cent less than the interest paid for the joan. Five per cent highway bonds are common with the sinking fund calculated to draw 34 per cent interest. Table 6 shows the annual payments to the sinking fund necessary to accumulate $1,000 1 Cf. Bulletin 23 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2 Some issues—notably New York State—run 50 years. Cf. Appendices A and B, HIGHWAY BONDS. 15 at 3, 34, and 4 per cent compounded semiannually for varying periods from 1 to 30 years. TaBLE 6.—Annual payments which, with interest at 3, 34, and 4 per cent, compounded semianually, will amount to $1,000 at the end of a term of years." Annual payments. Annual payments. Years. = Years. 3 per cent. | 34 per cent.) 4 per cent. 3 per cent. | 34 per cent.) 4 per cent. 1 $1,000. 0000 |$1, 000.0000 | $1,000. 0000 16 $49. 5229 $47. 5689 | $45. 6734 2 492. 5562 491. 3266 490. 1000 17 45. 8652 43. 9283 42. 0837 3 323. 4583 321. 8368 320. 2221 18 42. 6221 40. 7032 38. 8504 4 238. 9468 237. 1428 235. 3498 19 39. 7280 37. 8279 35. 9976 5 188. 2699 186. 3672 184. 4796 20 37. 1306 35. 2499 33. 4426 6 154. 5102 152. 5508 150. 6104 21 34. 7875 32. 9267 31. 1429 7 130. 4475 128. 4252 126. 4560 22 32. 6639 30. 8236 29. 0636 8 112. 3666 110. 3564 108. 3723 23 30. 7313 28.9116 27.1759 9 98. 3436 96. 3254 94. 3382 24 28. 9656 27.1670 25. 4557 10 87. 1402 85. 1208 83. 1366 25 27. 3469 25. 5696 23. 8829 11 77. 9872 75. 9717 73. 9954 26 25. 8582 24. 1024 22. 4404 12 70. 3721 68. 3643 66. 3996 27 24. 4850 22. 7508 21. 1136 13 63. 9399 61.9427 59. 9924 28 23. 2149 21. 5024 19. 8901 14 58. 4372 56. 4527 54.5191 29 22. 0373 20. 3465 18.7591 15 53. 6780 51. 7080 49.7928 || 30 20. 9428 19. 2739 7.7113 1Tn Appendix D, page 98, Example 9 shows the method of calculating this table. Table 7 illustrates how an annual sinking fund of $32,345.83 accumulates for three years to $100,000. Taste 7.—Accumulations of an annual payment of $32,345.88 with interest at 3 per cent compounded semiannually. Number | Principal at} Interest | Annual pay- moa ae of beginning of} during ment at end AGL Gh 6-month | 6-month 6-month | of 6-month 6-m natn intervals.) intervals. intervals. intervals. RaVGES al a 1 $0. 00 $0. 00 $0. 00 $0. 00 2 0. 00 0. 00 32,345. 83 32, 345. 83 3 32,345. 83 485. 19 0.00 32, 831. 02 4 32, 831. 02 492. 47 32,345. 83 65, 669. 32 5 65, 669. 32 985. 04 0.00 66, 654. 36 6 66, 654. 36 999. 81 32,345. 83 100, 000. 00 To obtain the necessary annual payments to produce any multiple of $1 it is necessary merely to multiply the tabular value in Table 6 by the corresponding multiple; thus, an annual sinking fund payment to retire $100,000 in 15 years at 34 per cent would be $5,170.80. Table 33, pages 120 and 121, gives the yearly or periodic payments necessary to accumulate $1 in a given number of years or periods at varying rates of interest. There are objections to the sinking-fund method of retiring high- way bonds. It may not be possible to obtain continuously the requi- site rate of interest on the sinking fund to discharge the debt at maturity. The existence of the sinking fund is a constant temptation to municipal officers to use it for purposes other than the purpose originally intended. If a county, for example, issues bonds for a second object, it is easy to argue that the sinking fund already aceu- mulated may be used to purchase the new securities, and the finances 16 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the community are in a way to become much confused. This is particularly true since the officers in charge of such operations are frequently changing. Sinking fund tax levies may be deferred through carelessness or under pressure of other needs. The sinking fund always requires careful attention, because it does not progress automatically in most cases.t. It has sometimes been entirely neg- lected. The total cost of a bond issue retired by a sinking fund will be greater in the end than the cost of the same bond issue made by either the annuity method or by the serial method. Annuity bonds.—By the annuity method of issuing bonds both the principal and interest are discharged by constant annual or semi- annual payments. The amount of each payment or installment is determined by the rate of interest and the term of the bond. It usu- ally is necessary to subdivide the bond issue into individual bonds of $100, $500, or $1,000each. The resulting periodic payment of principal and interest must vary slightly because of this adjustment. Tables 8 and 9 show, in detail, the schedule of principal and interest repayments upon a loan of $100,000 for 20 years, retired by this plan at 4 and 5 per cent per annum, respectively. The necessary adjustment to the nearest $100 bond is also shown. It will be seen that the amount of principal retired is small at first and constantly increases while the interest charge decreases. The sum of interest and principal re- mains constant, and this is an advantage as the tax is then uniform. TaBLE 8.—Repayment of a 4 per cent $100,000 loan, including both principal and interest, by a uniform annual payment of $7,358.175 for 20 years.” Adjusted to nearest cent. Adjusted to $100 bonds. Principal Principal a ge Princi- | Wears: owing at Interest repaid at ae oueere. Interest pal repaid) rp oral beginning | for year. end of ming of for year. | at end of : of year. year. year. year. | | | | | i eee $100, 000. 00 $4, 000. 00 S | $100, 000 $4, 000 $3,400 | $7,400 2....| 96, 641. 82 3, 865. 67 96, 600 3, 864 3,500 | 7,364 james & y 3, 725. 97 93, 100 3,724 3,600 | 7,324 4.. 3,580. 68 89, 500 3, 580 3,800 | 7,380 pees 3, 429. 59 85, 700 3, 428 3, 900 7,328 6.2. 81, 800 3, 272 4,100 7,372 Pace 77, 700 3, 108 4, 200 7,308 8.. 73, 500 2,940 4, 400 7,340 Ono 8. 69, 100 2,764 4, 60 7,364 Overs 64, 500 2,580 4, 800 7,380 11...-} 59,681.38 59, 700 2,388 5, 000 7,388 12....| 54,710. 46 54, 700 2,188 5, 200 7,388 13....| 49,540.71 49, 500, 1,980 5, 400 7,380 14._..| 44,164.16 44,100 | 1, 764 5, 600 7,364 15....] 38,572. 56 38, 500 | 1,540 5, 800 7,340 16_...| 32,757.28 g 32, 700 1,308 6, 000 7,308 17....} 26,709. 40 1, 068. 38 26, 700 1,068 6, 300 7,368 18....} 20% 419. 60 816.78 20,400 | 816 6, 500 7,316 19...) ,13,8(8:21 555. 13 13,900 | 556 6, 800 7,356 20s: 7,075. 16 283. O1 7,100 | 284 7,100 7,384 Motals)|:ceecs oes. 47,163.50 | 100,000.00 |...-.-.---- | 47,152 | 100,000 | 147,152 1—In some States there are restrictions on the nature of county investments for sinking fund purposes. *An additional table showing the annual payments necessary to discharge a loan of $1, with interest for varying terms and rates, is given in Table 36 on pages 126 and 127. Bul. 136, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fig. 1.—DALLAS CouNTY, ALA. WOODEN BRIDGE ON AN UNIMPROVED ROAD, 1 MILE NORTHWEST OF MARION JUNCTION. Fig. 2.—DALLAS CounTy, ALA. NEW STEEL BRIDGE WITH CONCRETE FLOOR BUILT IN 1911 TO REPLACE THE BRIDGE IN FIGURE 1. | i PLATE VI. t. of Agricultur p Bul. 136, U.S. De VINDDNTA “OD VINVATASLALOdS WOISAS (VOU LAMAVIN ‘VA ‘ALNNOD VINVATASLOdS ‘W3LSAS GVOY L3EYYVIA) SNIMOHS dvi Bul, 136, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. Fic. 1.—SPOTSYLVANIA COUNTY, VA. UNIMPROVED ROAD FROM FREDERICKSBURG TO CHANCELLORSVILLE, MARCH, 1910. Fig. 2.—SPOTSYLVANIA COUNTY, VA. CHANCELLORSVILLE ROAD IMPROVED, MARCH, OMe ee Bul. 136, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. Fig. 1.—LeEE County, VA. ONE AND ONE-HALF MILES FROM JONESVILLE; NEW MACADAM ROAD BUILT FROM BOND ISSUE; OLD ROAD SHOWN AT THE RIGHT FOREGROUND. Fic. 2.—LEE County, VA. IMPROVED ROAD BuiILT UNDER BOND ISSUE OF 1911 NEAR CUMBERLAND GAP; OLD ROAD IS SHOWN AT THE RIGHT. Bul. 136, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. DT ea Ty 4 ER eet | lt yA aS eeeee cs Stee A 0 MAca ED Te pact ee \ IRQS SSE NS SSeS Amineee isan > a (ete) Le\_ A] Then Tay US : aA 4 | ia a || et ry oat ace iiGh ree Sant 77 PC et Py al BB agit So scaatt i Valle aN fey | een et Aes OS ib | ‘| Eat Pe hey? etree IL Dt ee i ao a as cs 4c y Qi mu 70405 MPROVEC. ima) JE | Saat me memes 70A05 70 BE IMPROVED Bae Van OD Se iz HUMERALS (NOICATE TRAFFIC CENSUS STATIONS. SHOWING IMPROVED ROADS WAYNE: CO. MICHIGAN Pisces) ah : HA — ; A 3 ~s5 = : f 9 ATT ‘ | 3 - iy 4 } oO / NE - Dea he PY i Map SHOWING IMPROVED Roaps, WAYNE COUNTY, MICH. Seate oresas MILES, Fi HIGHWAY BONDS. ik76 TABLE 9. — Repayment of a 5 per cent $100,000 loan, including both principal and interest, by a uniform annual payment of 88, 024.259' for 20 years. Adjusted to nearest cent. Adjusted to $100 bonds. Bede, Princi- Bagi | Principal Principal F Princi- Years. | Wing at Interest | repaid at pebowing Interest |palrepaid) potay "| beginning | for year. end of main ot for year. | at end of 5 | of year | year. Tene. year. 1 /$100,000.00 | $5,000.00 | $3,024.25 | $100,000 | $5,000 $3,000 | $8,000 2 96, 975.75 4, 848. 79 3,175. 47 97, 000 4, 850 3, 200 8, 050 3 93,.800. 28 4, 690. 02 3, 334. 24 93, 800 4,690 3,300 7,990 4 90, 466. 04 4,523.30 3,500. 96 90, 500 4,525 3, 500 8, 025 5 86, 965. 08 4,348. 25 3, 676. 01 87, 000 4,350 3, 700 8, 050 6 83, 289. 07 4,164.45 3, 859. 81 83, 300 4,165 3, 900 8, 065 7 79, 429. 26 3,971. 46 4,052. 80 79, 400 3,970 | 4,100 8,070 8 75, 376. 46 3, 768. 82 4, 255. 44 75, 300 3,765 | 4,300 8, 065 9 71,121. 02 3, 556. 05 4, 468. 21 71, 000 3,550 | 4,500 8, 050 10 66, 652. 81 3,332. 64 4,691. 62 66, 500 3, 325 4,700 8, 025 11 61,961.19 3,098.06 | 4,926.19 61, 800 3,090 4,900 7,990 12 57,035. 00 2,851.75 | 5,172.51 56, 900 2, 845 5, 200 8,045 13 51, 862. 49 2, 593.13 5,431. 13 51, 700 2,585 | 5, 400 7, 985 14 46, 431. 36 2,321.57 5, 702. 69 46, 300 2,315 | 5, 700 8,015 15 40,728. 67 2,036. 43 5, 987. 83 40, 600 2,030 | 6, 000 8, 030 16 34, 740. 84 1,737. 04 6, 287. 22 34, 600 1,730 | 6, 300 8, 030 17 28, 453. 62 1, 422. 68 6, 601. 58 28, 300 1,415 | 6, 600 8,015 | 6,931. 66 21,700 1,085 | 6, 900 7, 985 ey ie) i cs Ne) Le) or (JN) ee) “I eS for) oO bo 7,278.24 | 14,800 740 7,200 | 7,940 20 7, 642. 14 382.12 | 7,642.14 7, 600 380 | 7,600 | 7,980 Motals|tee oe 60,485.18 | 100,000.00 | Past gees / 60,405 | 100,000 | 160, 405 1Cf. Example 14, p. 101, for details of calculations. Serial bonds.—The serial bond differs somewhat from the annuity bond, because, instead of keeping the annual payment of both prin- cipal and interest constant, the principal alone retired each year remains fixed. This type of bond has become more common for high- way purposes in recent years, and during 1912 and 1913 the number of serial issues exceeded the number of issues for any other single given term. The Office of Public Roads received reports for these two years of $15,300,819 in serial highway bonds, which is over 20 per cent of the total county and district bonds for which the period or term of issue was reported. In Tables 10 and 11 are given the necessary annual payments of interest and principal for an issue of $100,000 for 20 years at 4 and 5 per cent, respectively, where the bonds are retired by annual payments of $5,000 each. The first retirement is some- times deferred for a number of years. TaBLe 10.—Schedule of interest and principal to retire a serial loan of $100,000 ct 4 per cent, ue annual principal repayments of $5,000. Principal | Principal P joutstand- Interest Principal | | outstand- Interest Peat | Years.| ingat | sor von Lae f | Total. || Years.| ingat | gp ces: eel abyecll beginning year.| endo | beginning] for year. | end o of year. hs: | of year. | Year. 1 | $100,000 $4, 000 $5, 000 $9, 000 | 12 | $45,000 $1,800 $5,000 | $6,800 2 95, 000 3, 800 5,000 8,800 | 13 40, 000 1,600 5,000 6, 600 3 90,000 3, 600 5,000 8, 600 14 35,000 1,400 5,000 6,400 4 85, 000 3,400 5,000 8,400 | 15 30, 000 1,200 5,000} 6,200 5 80, 000 3, 200 5,000 8, 200 16 25,000 1,000 5,000 | 6,000 6 75,000 3,000 5, 000 8,000 17 20, 000 800 5,000 | 5,800 | 7 70, 000 2,800 5,000 7,800 18 15,900 600 5,000 | 5,600 8 65,000 2,600 5,000 | 7,600 | 19 10, 000 400 5,000 5,400 | 9 60, 000 2,400 5,000 7,400 | 2 5,000 200, 5,000 5,200 | 10 55,000 2,200 | 5,000 7,200 | } | | 11 50, 000 2,200 5,000 7,000 | Motalsa|-aaseeeee | 42,000 | 100,000 | 142,000 | | | | | | 92448°—15 18 TasLE 11.—Schedule of interest and principal to retire a serial loan of $100,000 at 5 per BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, cent, with annual principal repayments of $5,000. ee Mag | Principal | ennai Principal) Prince joutstand-} 7, . wep ae outstand- bee De Years. | ing at patel er Total. || Years. | ing at feos Z ena Total beginning} Sia Sen | beginning) e ae Pigs ine eS year. eae | year. | of year. . of year. | 1 | $100,000 $5,000 $5, 000 $10,000 | 12 $45, 000 $2, 250 $5,009 | $7,250 2 95, 000 4, 750 5,000 9, 750 || 13 40, 000 2,000 5, 000 7,000 3 90, 000 4,500 5,000 9,500 | 14 395, 000 1,750 5,000 6, 750 4 85, 000 4,250 5,000 9, 250 15 30, 000 1,500 5, 000 6, 500 5 80, 000 4,000 5,000 9,000 | 16 25,000 1, 250 5,000 6, 250 6 75,000 ser da{) 5,000 8, 750 | 7 20, 000 1,000 5,000 6, 000 7 | 70,000 3,500 5,000 8,500 | 18- 15, 000 750 5,000 5, 750 8 | 65,000 3, 250 5,000: 8, 250 | 19 10,000 500 5,000 5, 500 9} 60,000 8,000 5,000 $, 000 | 20 | 5,000 250, 5,000 5, 250 10} 55,000 2, 750 5,000 7,750 || ; 11 | 50, 000 2,500 5,000 7,500 1 Totalse..2 222 see 52,500 100,000 | 152,500 | 1 | | | | | Comparison of serial, annuity, and sinking-fund bonds.— It will be noticed that the total expense to the community under the serial plan is somewhat less than under the annuity pian. The expense by either method is, however, considerably less than the expense under the sinking-fund plan. For the purpose of comparison the total expense to the community under each plan is assembled under Table 12. . Tables 8 to 11, inclusive, are computed with interest payable annually. Bonds with interest payable semiannually sell better. Similar tabies or schedules for the annuity and serial plans of bond issues to conform to semiannual interest payments can be easily prepared. Schedules can also be prepared to show the progress of a bond loan when the bonds are bought at a premium or discount.' TaBLE 12.—Total cost of a loan of $100,000 for 20 years, interest compounded annually. | Sinking fund compounded | Annual annually at— | ak Annuity. Serial. | bonds. |. Pex 34 per | | | 3 percent. cent. | 4 per cent. | | | | 4 $154, 431 $150, 722 | $147,163 | $147, 163 $142, 000 43 164, 431 160, 722 | 157, 163 153, 752 147, 250 5 174, 431 170,722 | 167,163 160, 485 152, 500 | 54 184, 431 180, 722 177, 163 167, 359 157,750 | 6 194, 431 190, 722 187, 163 174, 369 163, 000 | In a bond issue by any given plan the amount, the interest, and the term may be fixed at will, but when this is done the annual repayments of principal and interest are theoretically determined. Thus, by the annuity method, if $100,000 is to be issued at 5 per cent annually and retired in 20 years, the annual amount of interest and principal is at once determined to be approximately $8,000. 1 Cf. Appendix D, pages 91 to 115, for details of such schedules. HIGHWAY BONDS. 19 For the same bond issue under the serial plan, the total annual payment varies because the interest varies, but each yearly payment of interest and principal is nevertheless fixed. Under the sinking-fund plan the annual payment necessary for prin- cipal and interest is theoretically constant, but it depends upon the interest realized upon the sinking fund. It is not safe, as a rule, to estimate this interest at more than 34 percent. Then for a $100,000 20-year loan, with annual interest on the sinking fund, the total annual payment would be $8,536.11. If the sinking fund could earn the rate of interest which is paid upon the loan there would be no advantage in expense to the community in the annuity or the serial bond over the sinking-fund bond. There is given in Table 13 the total mill tax on $1 to retire a bond issue of $100,000 by the sinking fund or the annuity plan. TaBLe 13.—Annual mill tax on $1 for interest and retirement on a bond issue of $100,000, at 5 per cent annual interest, for terms of 10 and 20 years. Mill tax. 10 years. 20 years. Valuation. Sinking-fund plan.t Sinking-fund plan.! Annuity Annuity 3 per 33 per 4 per plan.? 3 per 33 per 4per | *Plan.’ cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. | | $1, 000, 000 13. 723 13. 524 13.329 12. 950 8. 722 8.536 8.358 8. 024 1, 500,000 9.149 9.016 8. 886 8. 634 5. 814 5. 691 5.572 5.350 2,000, 000 6. 861 6. 762 6. 665 6.475 4.361 4, 268 4.179 4.012 2, 500, 000 5. 489 5. 410 5.332 5. 180 3.489 3.414 3.343 3. 210 3, 000, 000 4.574 4.508 4. 443 4.317 2.907 2. 845 2. 786 2. 675 3, 500, 000 3.921 3. 864 3. 808 3. 700 2.492 2. 439 2.388 2. 293 4, 000, 000 3.431 3.381 3.332 3. 238 2.180 2.134 2.090 2.006 4, 500, 000 3.050 3.005 2. 962 2. 878 | 1.938 1.897 1.857 1.783 5, 000, 000 2.745 2.705 2. 666 2.590 | 1.744 1. 707 1.672 1.605 5, 500, 000 2.495 2. 459 2. 423 2. 355 1.586 1.552 1.520 1.459 6, 000, 000 2. 287 2. 254 2.222 | 2.158 1.454 1. 423 1.393 1.337 6, 500, 000 2.111 2.081 2.051 1.992 1.342 1.313 1. 286 1. 235 7.000, 000 1.960 1.932 1.904 1. 850 1. 246 1.219 1.194 1.146 7,500, 000 1. 830 1. 803 1.777 1.727 1.163 1.138 1.114 1.070 8, 000, 000 Ley fl) 1.691 1. 666 1.619 1.090 1.067 1.045 1.003 | 8, 500, 000 1.614 1.591 1.568 1.524 1.026 1.004 . 983 944 9,000, 000 1.525 1.503 1.481 1.439 . 969 - 948 929 892 | 9, 500, 000 1. 445 1.424 1. 403 1.363 918 . 899 . 880 - 845 10, 000, 000 1.372 1.352 lp3so 1. 295 . 872 - 854 - 836 . 802 1 With interest compounded annually. 2 The tax for the serial plan is slightly less, but varies from year to year. It is quite probable that so many 30-year bonds are issued in order to take advantage of the fact that bonds of that term result in a low annual charge for interest and sinking fund. It will be seen from Table 14 that very little advantage is gained by fixing the term of a bond longer than 30 years. The annual charge decreases very slowly from that point, whereas the total charge increases rapidly. | | 20 BULLETIN 136, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Taste 14.—Annual and total costs of a loan of $100,000 for varying periods, with sink- ing fund to draw 34 per cent interest, compounded annually. Annual interest on bonds. 4 per cent. 5 per cent. Term in | i years. Total an- Total an- nual pay- | nual pay- | ment, in- | Total cost | ment, in- | Total cost terest, and of loan. | terest, “and of loan, | sinking | sinking | | fund. fund. | 5 $22, 648 $113, 241 $23,648 | $118, 241 10 | 12, 524 125,241 | 13, 524 135, 241 15 | 9, 183 137, 738 10, 183 152, 738 20 7,536 150, 722 8, 536 170, 722 ah 6, 567 164, 185 7067 189, 185 30 5, 937 178,114 | 6, 937 208, 114 35 | 5, 500 192,494 | 6, 500 227, 494 40 | 5, 183 207,309 | 6, 183 247, 309 45 | 4,945 222,540 | 5,945 267, 540 50 | 4,763 238, 169 5,763 | 288,169 The same facts are presented in the diagram of Plate III, figure 1. The curves of annual cost of interest and retirement fall very slowly after the 30-year point. It is an unfortunate fact that most highways do not vitage a life of 30 years, and it is now quite evident that the life of the highway and not the apparent economic term of the bond should determine the length of the loan. Many miles of natural soil roads are annually built by 30-year bond issues. There is usually no provision for repair and maintenance charges, and little business organization in the county road system. This practice is financially dangerous. No gravel road surface can last 30 years, and apparently the only road surfaces for which a 30-year life is recorded are surfaces of far more expensive construction than are usually built under the bond issues reported to the Office of Public Roads. There is a further advantage in the annuity or serial bond for high- way construction, because it is more likely under such a bond that the road surface will be paid for before it is entirely worn out. If an annuity or serial bond begins to mature immediately, this is not con- sidered a serious objection among bankers. These types of bonds are particularly adapted for financing operations which by their very nature involve a wasting of the property. A highway is in part a wasting property and it is desirable to have established a margin of safety in highway financing. Railroads frequently issue serial equip- ment bonds for a period of 10 years with which to purchase rolling stock. The amount of bonds retired annually is carefully adjusted so that the retirement is faster than the depreciation of the rolling stock. The difference between the outstanding bonds and the value of the equipment in any year is the margin of safety. 1 Massachusetts in 1912 reduced the term of State highway bonds from 30 to 15 years. Wisconsin passed a law, effective in 1913, providing that counties may issue 5 per cent bonds for State highways for periods not to exceed 10 years. The bonds must be serial bonds, with interest and redemption fund to be raised by direct taxation. HIGHWAY BONDS. Dilk From the nature of the annuity or the serial form of highway bonds it is never necessary to issue new or refunding bonds at the end of the term. Both of these types of bonds have the advantage that they accomplish with one financial operation all that the sinking- fund type of bond can accomplish. The main advantage, however, of both types of bonds is that the community saves more money than under the sinking-fund plan because it avoids paying a higher rate on borrowed money than it can obtain on money that it loans. Highway bonds are seldom sold at par. Not infrequently they command a slight premium; that is to say, they are sold at an advance over the par value. In nearly every State the-law provides that municipal bonds shall not be sold at less than par.t When the pur- chaser pays a premium for a 5 per cent highway bond it will yield less than 5 per cent. To enable investors to determine quickly the net rate of yield from a bond purchased at a premium or at a discount, tables known as bond tables have been calculated. In Appendix D is presented a short bond table of this kind (Table 37). From this table the net yield of a bond with a nominal rate of interest of from 3 to 6 per cent, payable semiannually and for varying terms, may be calculated for various prices. Thus a 5 per cent 15-year highway bond purchased at 103.20, or with a premium of 3.20 per cent, will be found to yield the purchaser 4.70 per cent on his investment.? Such tables are of more important interest to the purchaser than to the municipality offering the bonds, but they are necessary for the intel- ligent direction of the bond issue. Jn calculating the price to be paid for serial bonds, it is customary to treat each series separately and to find the price that yields the given net rate by adding the separate prices. Some formulas will be found, however, in Appendix D which considerably shorten the labor of calculating the price to be paid for serial bonds and the labor of related calculations. Speciai form of annuity bond.—In the operation of the annuity bond both interest and principal are discharged by a series of equal installments, usually semiannual. Each installment contains inter- est on the bonds outstanding at the beginning of the interval and the balance is applied to retire the bonds. The effect of this method is to diminish steadily the investment of the purchaser. If, however, the borrower should arrange to set aside periodically in a sinking fund a fixed sum im excess of the periodic interest on the entire issue, the effect would be to leave the total investment of the purchaser undis- turbed until the sinking fund had accumulated to the amount of the loan. When the excess of the periodic installment over the required interest is arbitrarily selected and accumulates at a given rate of 1 Massachusetts requires the premium to be deposited in the sinking fund. Toavoid paying par value for the bonds, bidders frequently bid par or above par and require an allowance for attorney’s fees and expenses, 2Cf. Appendix D, page 129. 22 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. interest, the term of the bond is thereby absolutely fixed. A simple way to accomplish this result is to add to the nominal interest rate which the bonds pay a percentage of the principal to be set aside in a sinking fund to retire the bonds. There is produced thus a new nomi- nal rate. Since both interest and principal are discharged by the periodical payment of interest or dividends at the new nominal rate, an issue of this character may be described as a special form of an- nuity bond. Table 15 shows the resulting terms in years of a bond issue for $1,000,000 where from 14 to one-half per cent of the principal is set aside semiannually in a sinking fund which draws 3 per cent com- pounded semiannually. The original interest rate on the bonds is assumed to be 3 per cent, payable semiannually, and the new in- creased nominal rate varies then from 6 to 4 per cent. The last col- umn shows the total cost to the borrower for the loan of $1,000,000 under this method. TaBLE 15.—Necessary terms and total costs of a bond issue of $1,000,000 at 3 per cent, payable semiannually, when retired by various arbitrary fractions oF the principal set aside and compounded senvannually. Applied ier sare prt increased enibien interest Term of | Total cost to aia d 6 rate on bonds. borrower. retire bond soe issue. 7o bonds. Per cent. of loan. Per cent. Years. Dollars. 1% 6 2314, 1, 410, 000 134 534 25 1, 437, 500 1% 5% 261% 1, 457, 500 114 5 2814 1, 496, 250 if 5 31 1, 550, 000 i% 484 34 1,615, 000 34 44 37 1, 665, 000 58 414 4144 1, 763, 750 4 4 47 1, 880, 000 % 4 50 2, 000, 000 The progress of the accumulation of the semiannual sinking fund under the plan here outlined is shown for varying retirement rates in Table 17. It is possible so to determine the rate of retirement that the resulting term of the bonds is integral instead of fractional. The increased nominal rates for 3 per cent bonds to retire in varying integral terms is as follows:1 TaBLe 16.—EHquivalent nominal rates for retiring 3 per cent bonds in varying terms. Per cent. Per cent. INO ch his tee wee ese eae atte MNOS 0148 | SOP VCarS te koe eeene cise emer 5. 078686 PUWWCOES oe 52 yee ae ance 6nOS0420" (40 ivearsus 25285 a nyse 4, 309664 POR CONG: namin ka ane eae ee 5} (AS rion POW acct eee ees heer oe 3. 874114 1 This rate per cent is determined by the formula: Rate per cent= 3+200/S3,) where 7 is the number of years Ss is determined from Table 32, Appendix D, at the rate 14%. 23 HIGHWAY BONDS. sarang eaeeregrrmemnece OT “622 ‘£10 ‘T TZ 969 ‘E86 TF S10 ‘FT8 Zz 089 ‘G9G TO “6¢8 ‘OPE €8 OFS ‘O9T Gg e98 ‘19 8E 829 ‘CF 00 “6zz ‘08 00000 ‘ETS 68 “SET “€T0 ‘T 66 619 ‘F86 SI 688 ‘826 69 “E98 ‘106 PS EST ‘OFL 18 “SST ‘OTS GF UGB ‘LTE Gh GOT LPT G6 “BFS ‘9¢ £8 TLS ‘Th GZ 9021 ‘22 00 OGL “ETS “queo tod $f “yuo Iod ST ‘uaa Jed 9 “quad sod £¢ ZS STO ‘FFT ‘1 GZ FOL ‘210 ‘T 66 "L6L ‘266 0S '6F9 “686 88°10 '2T0‘T | 16899 ‘E18 19 F88 ‘C66 69 “LOL ‘964 €8 “GhF ‘P96 9B "P99 E91 86 'PZL ‘FOOT | G8 026 ‘LES G9 “OTS ‘699 19 “L8b ‘86 BL 6&L ‘8T8 82166 ‘P99 GT “86 ‘216 OF “SLL POL 92818 ‘T19 06 "9ST ‘Z20‘T | Sh PET ‘928 10211 O&L 29 680 ‘F8¢ rahe Sma od nels ee "“77""| PP OEP (866 &S LOL G8 09 “POT ‘ETL 89 "Tes ‘026 peer ae “LTTTTT] OF £28 ‘TT0'T | 6e “996 ‘r88 GO “Ses ‘Scr 18 ‘O1T ‘29 02 °889 ‘GUS TL “829 '986 8 996 ‘£98 70 FE6 “6&2 OL ‘T19 ‘9T9 9& 682 ‘86h poe! ZS OPT 096 0% 'SL8 ‘TFS 68 “609 ‘T2L Lg “TPE ‘109 9 "E20 ‘TSP Fr 698 ‘Z00T | 90°¢66 ‘068 89 069 “6LL O€ 9FS ‘899 16 “TL8 ‘9¢¢ 9 “LG ‘GPP oo "75 | 98 “Chr ‘926 EF “G16 ‘298 09 “SLP (691 Lg "186 ‘0¢9 $9 PSP ‘ZS TL “186 ‘EF 90°ZL1‘T00‘T | 98 "FS0‘106 29 “286 “008 PP “0Z8 ‘O02 FG “E02 ‘009 £0 “98S ‘00S ZB 89h ‘OOF FI “190 “F26 £0 "G9 ‘928 36 SPS 6LL 08 “ZFS ‘TS89 69 ‘9EF ‘F8S Lg “080 ‘18h OF FZ9 “68S GE “SEO “126 Z8 “TE6 ‘8z8 8% "828 ‘9EL CL PSL PEO Tz “129 ‘age 89 °LT9 ‘09F PI PIP ‘898 GL “SOT “G68 G8 “269 ‘S08 86 “980 ‘OTL OT “9249929 € “90 ‘LE¢ 98 "POS “LEP 6F “SFO ‘8GE GB “66 ‘PFS £E 696 ‘6SL OF 619 ‘GL9 8 °6L0 ‘T6S GS "6£9 ‘909 £9 “G6I ‘Zor OL “6GL ‘288 21-909 “618 99 PPO 'LEL FL “P89 ‘cco BO "ESL “ELS OT “E92 ‘T6F 69 08 “60% LO “GPS ‘288 19 SPE (819 18 “S19 ‘O19 16 S19 ‘CPS 10 “FPS ‘PLP 62 *600 ‘L0F FE PLT ‘688 LP 688 TLE GS “EES 69F LT OTE ‘CBF T8 98E “GLE OF EN ‘SBE TL “OFS 18 9L 919 FEZ TP 69 ‘L8T FS “SFO ‘682 GIFT “09% L9 “983 ‘TSZ 60 “EE ‘ZOZ OG L2P ‘SLT 26 ZES ‘PPT PE S19 “GIT ZO PSL ‘EET Z9 SOF ‘OZT BE °L60 ‘LOT 18 ‘SP9 ‘86 TF 022 ‘08 10 "268 ‘99 19 S19 ‘e¢ 6 ‘9ST ‘TS 99 G20 ‘OF £0 606 ‘OF OF “964 ‘SE 82189 “OE GT 89S ‘Gz GS PSF ‘0G TE “690 ‘86 BL 896 ‘PE GZ BSb OE GL Sh9 ‘9G OT GES ‘2% 99 ‘ZE0 ‘6T SL “9Go (ST OG “L8T 'S CL 899 ‘2 G00ST ‘08 GG “TE9 FLT OS IL (ST GL “869 G1 00 °¢20 OT 00 002 ‘I$ 00 ‘092 ‘TI$ 00 000 ‘OTS 00 0¢2 ‘8$ 00 ‘00g “28 00 ‘0g6 ‘9$ 00 000 ‘¢$ “quod rod Ff ‘quoo red Sf *}ue0 Jed T “quod Jod $ *yue0 Jed = ‘quod Jed $ “yuo rod % *SIBO “UROT OY} 07 SIBAq JUsTIACC PUNJ-SUL{UIS [VNUURIUMIOS 9} YOIyAr osvjusod1eg 9 ‘spuoq %¢ [SULSIIO UO 911 *yueo rod Fg “yuo Jod fe ‘yuoo Jad ¢ “yuoo od £5 “yuo rod Sp “yuo sod tf “yuo rod F [SUTUIOU PesvoIOUT MON “000° 000° T§ {0 uno] v ysinbuyxa oj punf buiyqurs yonuuniuas vo fo ‘Ayjypnuunvwas a1quy1aauos ‘quan dad ¢ JD SuOYN)NUNIDp— LT ATAV I, 24 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The details of advertising and selling highway bonds are frequently prescribed by law. Bids from bond houses are always made con- ditioned on an investigation of the validity of all proceedings leading to the issue. The attorneys for the bidders will require from the municipality certified copies of all papers concerning the transaction. There frequently is much variation in the form of the bids for a single issue. The items of denomination of the bonds, options on delivery, portion of the issue bid for, deposit of the money in stipulated banks, and items of less importance are often written into the bids. TOTAL COST OF HIGHWAYS. Charges included in total cost.—The first cost of construction is not the total cost of a highway. It is becoming customary to con- sider the cost of highways for a period of years.1. This view of high- way costs is important in the construction of highways with bor- rowed money. Municipal or county bonds are invariably issued for a definite term or period, and it is desirable, therefore, to know the total cost to a community during the life of the bond. Undoubt- edly the best financial policy is to restrict the term of the highway bond to the probable useful life of the original type of road under actual conditions. There is considerable difference of opinion among engineers and highway officials as to what constitutes the total cost of a highway during a given period of years. Questions arise over the interest charge on the original cost, the annual payments to amortize or retire the loan, the depreciation charge, and the repair and main- tenance charge. Evidently if a repair and maintenance charge is made sufficient to maintain the road absolutely for an indefinite period, a depreciation charge has no place in the estimate of total annual cost. It is also apparent that total and annual costs for the loan can be made to vary at will by changing the period of the loan, i. e., the term of the bond. To make the problem more definite, it is desirable to assume, first, that the highway loan is a terminable loan and for a period not greater than the period for which the road will continue to serve with the original type of surface, grade, and alignment; and, second, that there is charged as the total cost of the road for that period all money paid by the community for that road in the form of taxes. Although the cost of resurfacmg a road or extraordinary repairs is a cost which occurs only at intervals, it is a safe and conservative plan to make an annual charge for all such work. As an example, if a water-bound macadam road is built at a cost of $8,000 per mile 1Cf., for example, the report of the Cambridge (Mass.) Paving Commission, June, 1911, and the 1909 Report of Public Work in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, p. 21. HIGHWAY BONDS. 25 with money borrowed at 5 per cent for 15 years and retired by a sinking fund, there would result the following annual expense to the taxpayers for each mile for 15 years: Interest on $8,000 at 5 per cent, $400; annual sinking fund to retire $8,000 in 15 years, at 34 per cent interest compounded semiannually, $413.66 ;' cost of annual mainte- nance, $125; annual cost of periodic? resurfacing, $400—making a total annual cost of $1,338.66. By the annuity bond plan, the expenses would be: Annual repayments of interest and principal,’ $770.74; cost of annual maintenance, $125; annual cost of periodic? resurfacing, $400—making a total annual cost of $1,295.74. At the end of 15 years the interest and redemption charges cease, and if resurfacing is carried out as planned the surface is but two years old and the community has a property the permanent value of which represents at least 62 per cent of the original cost, or $4,960, exclusive of the surface, and an accumulation of $800 toward resurfac- ing. If the road is to continue in its original form, the annual charge for repairs and maintenance will probably increase because of increased traffic. If the annual payment of principal is reduced by extending the period of the loan, there is danger that a new loan will be necessary for more expensive construction to meet the increasing traffic before the original loan is retired. Moreover, the decrease in annual pay- ments of interest and principal is not inversely as the increase in the period of the loan. A 30-year 5 per cent annuity bond would require an annual payment of $520.41 per mile on the $8,000 macadam road above cited. (See Table 36 and PI. ITI, fig. 1.) If the same method of estimating the annual cost is used for each type of road considered, the relative total cost of the various types may be computed fairly and without confusion. If a highway were built from cash in the public treasury it would theoretically still be necessary to include in the annual cost of such a highway the interest on the first cost of construction at a rate which the municipality or county could obtain by investment of itsfunds. The question of how long such interest should run has never been determined.! In estimating the total cost of a highway for a series of years the cost of repair and maintenance is the item most frequently neglected. The cost of the sinking fund or the charge for bond redemption is also sometimes forgotten. There are now outstanding bonds for highway construction where no provision has been made to retire them, although the bonds have been issued for a definite term. 1 Use Table 6, p. 15. 2 At intervals of 6.5 years, at $2,600 per mile, or 29.5 cents per square yard for a 15-foot road; no allowance of interest is made; for discussion of this point, see p. 13. 3 See Table 36, Appendix D. * Theoretically interest would run until improved road had paid for itself by saving to community. * In one county of Virginia, after public highways had been constructed from the proceeds of a bond issue, the county established tollgates upon the highways in order to raise revenue for their maintenance. ee ee —_ ina 2 Dienst icin iii as 26 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Financing maintenance.—It is undoubtedly necessary, in gene- ral, to establish a direct tax for annual repair and maintenance for bond-built highways.t| When highway bonds are issued it should be distinctly understood that there will be (besides the tax for interest and retirement) within a few years an additional tax for repair and maintenance, if the regular road tax within the county, as is most often likely, is not already sufficient to repair and maintain the new roads. This repair and maintenance charge is inevitable and, since the earning power of the road in reducing hauling costs tends to in- crease with the degree of maimtenance, it is sound business to face the repair and maintenance charges in the beginning. Comparisons of total costs.—When the more expensive types of highways are to be built by the proceeds of a bond issue, especially under increasing traffic, a question may fairly arise as to the relative portions of the total cost for a series of years, which should be devoted to repair and maintenance and to first construction and interest. As Table 5 shows, the cost of the hard highway surface constitutes, for standard types of construction, the largest percentage of total costs. Up to a certain point, when the cost of the surface is increased, the cost per mile of maintenance correspondingly increases, but not usually the cost per unit of traffic. It costs more per mile to repair and maintain an ordinary macadam road, for example, than it does to repair and maintain a gravel road, and the cost per mile of repair and maintenance for bituminous-macadam roads is greater than for ordinary macadam roads. The costs of repair and maintenance of the best-buiult brick and concrete roads are apparently very low, and would, therefore, not follow the above rule. The total necessary cost of a highway for a series of years can be determined only approximately and only after a study of the charac- ter and volume of traffic and a comparison of the total probable costs for the kinds of surface adapted to the traffic. It may not be economy to build a road of cheap first cost and high maintenance charges. If exact figures were available, accurate comparisons of different sur- faces would be simple, but many items are still lacking. It is not known how long a concrete road will wear or what it will cost to renew it, especially if it has to be broken up and removed. The hfe of bituminous-macadam roads has not yet been fully determined, nor has the life of the best modern vitrified brick pavement. Abso- lute maintenance? on most pavements can seldom be continuous. Repairs or resurfacing operations will be needed at intervals which are as yet imperfectly determined. 1Cf. Act of September, 1913, by Legislature of Tennessee, which establishes a maintenance tax of 2 per cent of all highway bonds. 2 See Bulletin No. 48 of the Office of Public Roads, p. 8. HIGHWAY BONDS. 27 If it is assumed that a 15-foot bituminous-macadam road costs $10,500 a mile, and the corresponding 15-foot brick road $18,500 a mile, with annual (absolute) maintenance for the bituminous road at $600 per year and strict maintenance‘ for the brick road $300 per year, the necessary items for the total cost for 20 years may be stated as follows: Bituminous-macadam: Cost of construction ($10,500) under 5 per cent serial bond with inter- PatmOTe2 ORY CATS: iis: shee ees keno see elo ea 8-316, 012: 50 Cost of annual repair and maintenance ($600) for 20 years........--- 12, 000. 00 otalvcost-lor 20sy ears) Leeman es arte l eh eA 28, 012. 50 Brick: Cost of construction ($18,500) under 5 per cent serial bond with inter- CEE TOR OAD er hiss Sone ee EES o8 be 6.5 2a teen eee ae ae eo $28, 212. 50 Cost of annual repair and maintenance ($300) for 20 years.......---- 6, 000. 00 Rotalzcostwor20sy.ears' |. - 33.2 ee ciate eter eee cis 34, 212. 50 On the assumption made there is not as much difference in the total costs of the two road surfaces as would appear from the first costs. It is not known that $600 per mile per year will absolutely maintain a bituminous-macadam road nor that $300 per mile per year will strictly maintain a brick road, and the relative value of the two road surfaces at the end of the 20-year term is still to be determined. The above analysis indicates a method of estimating the total cost of roads and of required bond issues. The total cost of a 15-foot con- crete road, for example, may be compared with the above total costs, assuming a construction cost of about $1.35 per square yard or $11,880 a mile and an equivalent annual repair and maintenance charge between that of brick and bituminous-macadam. EXPEDIENCY OF ISSUING HIGHWAY BONDS. Legal restrictions on bond issues.—Nearly all States restrict the total amount of municipal bonds which may be issued to a fixed percentage of the assessed valuation. In other cases there are legal restrictions governing the amount of taxes which may be raised for highway purposes. These are examples of legal restrictions which must be clearly understood before the issue is made. The question frequently arises regarding the authority of the districts of a county to issue bonds. In a number of States the law allows the creation of highway districts or the issuance of bonds by the legal subdivisions of a county. Care must be exercised to determine to what officers the authority for such issues belongs. Instances have arisen where district road boards have undertaken the issue of bonds legally voted, but where the law provided that the county authorities and not the district authorities must issue the bonds. 1 See Bulletin No. 48 of the Office of Public Roads, p. 8. 2 Use Table 11, p. 18. 28 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In nearly all States county bonds or district bonds of any kind must be authorized by a majority, or a two-thirds vote, of either the entire county or of the district. Advantage of bond issues.—The issuance of highway bonds is essentially a method of capitalizing the resources of a community for the purpose of creating improved highways. The fundamental advantage of the bond plan is the construction of a goed system of roads at once, but there are secondary advantages in building roads in long stretches and in the planning of the maintenance of such roads. The question is not merely whether a community shall incur a debt; it is also a question as to whether the maximum economic efficiency and the full development of the public wealth will be best promoted by using public credit. There is shown in Plate ITI, figure 2 the relation between the vol- ume of traffic in ton-miles, reduction in hauling cost in cents per ton-mile, and the annual cost per $1,000 of a 20-year bond under the annuity plan. 158,590,000 | 88,476,000 |......---- acne. 2 | 1 Massachusetts—Authorized for special State roads by legislature, 1913. 2 New Hampshire.—Not to exceed $250,000 to be issued in any one year, and the proceeds to be used exclusively for State aid in the construction of the three trunk lines to be designated by the governor and council from the Massachusetts State line in a northerly direction. 3 dior be used for State aid in constructing trunk-line highway to be designated by the governor and council, 4 Not sold Dec. 1, 1913. i | 5» New Mexico.—These bonds shall be in denominations of $1,000, numbered 1 to 500, the first 20 of which shall be payable on Jan. 1, 1919, and 20 of said bonds, in consecutive numerical order, shall be due and payable on July 1 annually thereafter until and including July 1, 1942. The proceeds are to be expended for the construction and maintenance of a system of State highways. 6 Bonds not sold Dee. 31, 1913. ; 7 New York.—These bonds were to be issued in two classes, to be known as A and B. Class A is coupon or registered, and redeemable from a State sinking fund, while Class B bonds were to be registered and redeemable from a redemption fund provided by the counties and towns wherein the proceeds thereof should be applied tc the improvement of highways. > 8 The act of the legislature authorizing this issue of bonds was ratified and rendered operative by vote of the people at the general election, November, 1912. Of the proceeds. $20,000,000 shall be devoted to State highways, to be built at sole cost of the State, and $30,000,000 to county highways, to be built at joint expense of State and county. 9 Rhode Island.—$200.000 to be issued before Jan. 1, 1907, and the balance on or before Jan. 1, 1908; the proceeds to be used in building a system of State roads under the direction of the State board of public roads. 10 To be used for construction, reconstruction, and maintenance. 11 Utah.—The proceeds to be divided equally among the counties of the State, exclusive of Salt Lake County, to be used in the construction and maintenance of State roads and bridges therein. Bonds dated July 1. 1911. 12 Washington.—For purchase of bridge across the Columbia River at Wenatchee, 36 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. STATE BOND ISSUES DEFEATED. Colorado.—The proposition to issue $10,000,000 in State bonds for _ roads was submitted to the people of Colorado at the general election in November, 1912, and was defeated. The proposition can not be again submitted to the people within a few years. Ohio.—At the general election in November, 1912, there was sub- mitted to a vote of the people of Ohio a proposition to issue $50,000,000 in State bonds to construct a system of intercounty highways. The vote on this proposition numbered about three-quarters of a million, and the bond issue was defeated by 2,017. One remarkable fact in connection with this vote was that the cities of the State gave sub- stantial majorities for the bond issue, while the rural vote was substantially against it, and to such an extent as to overcome the city majority, although about 80 per cent of the taxes which would have been levied to take care of the interest and sinking fund of the bonds would have been paid by the cities. Rhode Island.—On June 3, 1913, a special election was held in the State of Rhode Island on the issuance of $700,000 of State bonds for the purpose of completing a system of State roads. At this election only about 14 per cent of the voters of the State attended the polls, and the proposition was overwhelmingly defeated. Pennsylvania.—On November 3, 1913, at a general election a pro- posed issue of $50,000,000 in highway bonds was defeated, although the proposition carried in Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. APPENDIX B. APPROXIMATE LISTS OF COUNTY AND DISTRICT HIGHWAY AND BRIDGE BONDS; TOWNSHIP HIGHWAY AND BRIDGE BONDS; COUNTY, DISTRICT, AND TOWNSHIP HIGHWAY AND BRIDGE BONDS VOTED IN 1912 AND 1913; COUNTIES, DISTRICTS, BEATS, AND TOWNSHIPS GIVING COMPLETE MILEAGE RETURNS OF ROADS BUILT UNDER BOND ISSUES; TOWNSHIPS AND TOWNS GIVING COMPLETE MILEAGE -RETURNS OF ROADS BUILT UNDER BOND ISSUES; SUMMARY OF ALL HIGHWAY AND BRIDGE BONDS VOTED TO JANUARY 1, 1914. TaBLE 22.—County and district highway and bridge bonds." ALABAMA. Teas { Total Rotaliaas| Counties and amount | nem Interest Counties and Amount Fem Inter- districts. voted to | Joars rate. districts. voted to | years, strate. Jans talgi4.| 7 Cats: Jan. 1, 1914.| ats: | | Perce: | Per ct. NCAT Seba laj ae sce ese =) $65, 000 30 5 Limestone.:...:--..- $135, 008 30 44 PB TounG ea eer a 150, 000 30 5 Mia disonesese se eeee di O00N Bees: 5 Bock era | 160, 000 30 5 Marion egos meres 100, 000 20 | 5 IB WitleT eee te ee | LSS AOOOM Boece ee |= -i ee Marshalls 3 sss eae 130, 000 30 5 Colbert ts | 200,000 | 30-35 5 EMC bileweee a serene nae 500, 000 20 5 Conecuhss2— =... -=-- ZOOSO00S Peeters alte see Montgomery. -.---.--- 85050008 Pee eree 44-5 Grenshawe nos. 25. THB N00) 5 egestas Bataetee Morgan 240, 000 30 5 Malas 2ies se. We shee 410, 000 30 5 Perry 126, 000 30 5 BT OTe Sees ee: 170, 000 30 5 Pike... 192" 000 E saee one 44 Bscambia?_--- 24350100) | Seoedoee 54 || Russell 100, 000 30 | 5 SiO. sechoGenseeeeeEee HOOZOOON Ee Stereo oe. ae8 St. Clair 85, 000 30 | 5 \ JACKSOME aseneet aos. ZOOS OOOR| erste ster l= ee rciee Sumter 120, 000 20 | 5 } Meftersomeee! 22027 H 200, 000 30 | 6-5-6 : | | Wawrences.. . 22... - 123, 000 30 6 Bei 21 500) |e oaee == HaSenmen GOS see ee | 25, 000 30 42 | ARIZONA. i} | (since ISmachemaeue tes kes E B{OA010)8| eee 5 | Maricopa—Con. Greenlee: Duncan‘... AGHOOOH S28 se 6 || Special road dis- Maricopa: | CLIC ti Dee ee ae $40, 000 20 | 6 Phoenix (city)5...-. 60, 000 20 5 | Mohaviesn eats 1000008 (eee eee 5 il Mesa (city)5........ 2,000 20 5h | eau ae eae Eee ae S00 K 000K Mee enamel seereees | Special road dis- ERictileme nS eas 30,000 | (8) 6 || Motaleies SOS 0008 Saeeenee | Soke eee Special road dis- i] eric tplepesc ese 30, 000 20 6 | ARKANSAS. iBentoneeeese eee. -5 $2,815 12 | Bu ee Montgomery......... | $10, 000 ete | nia fe a @rawford@ren seo NTA! OO00n| eecn eis peonA ne Sebastian: Ft. Smith3 GOOKO00s Ease aes |aeeeees JEfersOnm sews ose = se 45, 500 13 | 6 || Woodruff: District 1-. 30, 000 20 6 Ie nee Oe See 151000) eee: teeetee ee | - WOnOkien ns lyst 205, 000 | 20 | 5 Motels se eel 2186315 | Beet a iene: 1 Tn 21 States highway and bridge bonds have also been issued by townships. See list following. 2 Includes $60,000 of bridge bonds. 3 Bridge bonds only. 4 Bridge. f ; Be cover partial cost of improvement of Phoenix to Roosevelt Dam road. erial. qo ~J 38 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 22.—County and district highway and bridge bonds—Continued. CALIFORNIA. Total | Total Term Term . . amount Interest e2 amount Interest Counties voted to pte | rate. Counties. voted to te rate. (Jan, 0 1914.) =| Jan.1,1914.| - : : | Per ct. Per ct PA IMC see nays cere tie $4,800 |........ | 5 Riverside. s==225 2 $1; 500/000 |e2ceeeeslecee ee Contra Costa......-.. | 300,000 |......., eee eee Sacramento3......... 825, 000 240 44 Bresnot -.222s.ccss ee: 80,000 |........ | 6 San Diego...-.....-.- 1, 250, 000 40 43 (Glennie 7 eee ee ees 450,000) (2) 5 San Joaquin..........| 1,850,000 40 5 Jeli bb aol] XO] Ghee ees | 15, 000 20 7-9 San Mateo........... 1,298, 000 |7-10-40 5 SCYTine oe B26 5 cee eee 2, 500, 000 25 5 Santa Barbara. .._. eal 290, 000 20 6 ake # eee ee so. a 20; 000) |as.. 2 e 5 MehamMaecass 22h sy 35000). |2aeeeee 6 Los Angeles........-.. | 3,900, 000 40 43 || Ventural...........-- 275,000'|-2.-.22. 5 OVEN SOUS oe eee eee eee 15370/0002|22.22.2- | 5 PIMMaS 25225. 22<2555- 100, 000 10-25 4 Motalvns2 ss a< LGy 6305 800)| 23 2eeees| seers | COLORADO. Total | f a amount Term of | Interest Counties. voted to | years. rate. Jan. 1, 1914. Per ct. 1 YY i pees eae es a py a ee lid OR ee I Tce are Bil, (00) | acececcee 5 Gia iclhs pagan ieh een Peet teen Oe ee ie OG ene ae Q8¥000) eens eee 6 PATI MH TIO ES Fe cere LE ei eee oe aye mae eye here oe eee oe a eee 30; 000/25 a222222 6 Noy 2A nae es ai UR eae CS ho ee ear oe rater eee ae 154) 7004]: sane | ere DELAWARE. Total | Total Counties and amount ag Interest Counties and amount oe Interest districts. voted to ears. | Tate. districts. voted to GS rate. Jan, Ue1914 0224s: Jans 1.19140 |) cats | | | Peeler CLs Per ct INeniiseeserectt ees $30, 000 20 5 Districts 1-10.......-.- $50, 000 5-11 4 New Castle.........--) 41,285,000 | 20-51 ; 442-5 STiscoxu see a hee 30,000 | 5-24 | 43 Motel sees. 2. =| 21805; 000) sae eens FLORIDA MIB CHUA so seas. fos $40; 000; |-5.ssee5 2 |e INSSSAUE Le eos tooo $180;000))| oe ane es Bradford: Hampton. . 25, 000 20 6 \}| Orange. :. 22222-2225. 800, 000 30 | 5 Clave ee ene dene 1505000) |2.225.22|-22 eee cent | eens GAC Neots 345, 000 30 43 Coliimbig+22552 3.2.52 AND O00) |e. c2- = 6 PASCO SS ee acess) ee 150, 000 30 | 5 ID ENG Uc Senay ace gee ee 250, 000 20 5 PImoll asian. eesseces 370, 000 30 | 5 1D Gs SOLOss see ee 200,000) soa e 2-5 tee aa = Polk: Winterhaven. . 1304000) | 2 eases eee TD diy alee eee tee oe 1,050, 000 25 5 PUG eee ee £59;000)|--22e2ee 5 rani kslane 2 eect ota 20, 000 20 ALA bed OUT etesee ance se @O; OOO 8 areolar Hernando... .-- oe 300, 000 30 5 Dt dullClésessseeees eee 200;000"|22=2- 222 eee oe Hillsborough... .-..-..-- 1, 400, 000 30 5 Seminole...........-. | 200; 000':|-2 Sete = eee eee Holmes: 1 district... - 40, 000 30 O) A WESLLDON wee atest era 70, 000 20 | 6 JACKSON eae n eee 300, 000 30 4 | IDE Nesp oats eek ae 500,000 | 2 15-30 5 Motalesse. 22805) 71295, 000s|_ ase [peeretra Manatees ..22.-22c2s25% 250,000 | 30 5 | GEORGIA. BensHille cs 22.2 snes _ $75,000 |......-. | 5: Miller. 2ece = — $48,000) |. 2 sees eno eee BleGl6y.oos.2 oa SO00:|fevene ee lees toe Spalding............. TO} 00032 e eee | eee Clarke.............-..| 100,000 |........ | 4|| Towns............... £000: fetnente ee Colquitt... se .cseec- AQO: O00; |e. o2.ce- e522 ee PST OW Ds te cee seeee 200;000 |-- 22222. |2 2225 ee Gordon. .ceises tense SOOO s isec =| eecers cee fi bh wa) opera eee 20,000 |.2222222 5 IamCockss- 22snceecey 51, 000 30 5 WGaUreNS 2s 5-2 Sachs 5. | 202; 000#|<5= se2c- | 5 Motal< 222s. 1 1763000 |. 2s s2se2 eens Marion: ccz22 224-5. - 00; 000. |eeee ee alae eee 1 Bridge bonds only. 3 Bridge bonds, $225,000. 2 Serial. 4 Of this amount $275,000 was for bridges. HIGHWAY BONDS. 39 TABLE 22.—County and district highway and bridge bonds—Continued. IDAHO. Total Total Counties and amount cen Interest Counties and amount oe ‘Interest districts. voted to e rate. districts. voted to EAS rate. Jan.1,1914.| Yeats: Jan. 1,1914.| ¥ Penct Per ct ANGIE. Gone oe eee $234,484 | 10-20 43-5 K Of this amount $65,000 used for bridges. 6 Serial. 7 Bridge bonds only. 8 Of this amount $9,000 used for bridges. OHIO. Total Total Countiesand | amount Tee Interest Counties and amount coun Interest districts. | voted to S rate. districts. voted to ars, | rate. Jan. 1,1914.} Ye4Ts: Jan. 1,1914.| Years. Per ct. Pench. $181, 300 15 Sebel MEUCAS eas s ss aee ee! $1, 212, 437 (6) 4-44 1 258,500 | 10-18 4-5 Madisonee seme eae 132, 250 10 5 2'309!,500) 22. 22222 44-5 Mahonings 22 2 oso! L408 5408) 22 Soe 4-44 300,000 |...-.-.- 5 District 1325322! 150, 000 25 5 378,000 | 13-26 Ooel||pMarions eee eee STOUT) |Eareee ee 4-44-5 Belmonteeess-- soe. D4NSOOH ie As Sas eee IMeTCel aS aeseie sect 25134. GOON SS ao 25 4-5-54 Bintlenen es sass s a CG (U0) Papemeua saesecess WEBI en euasaoreue 9515047;,,000))2 22225: 5-6 Champaign....-..... 23 MOOR eae ceca |) scenes Montgomery...-..-..-- Ait O00 aes acer 4-43-5 Clarkes esis eS: ZOU OO2h|Pasee ene 4-5-7 Morgans se) eee 404000) |B2aec- =. Clermont.......-.... U1OS200N Es ou. Lee 444-5 MOrrOWisl anise eeene ZS Pass mecoeddal eesonese Columbiana......... 300, 000 |... .- esl Nes eee Muskingum.........- 10 920,000 |......-- 5 Coshocton.....-.---- 4150, 000 10 $6: sp ANODleer esse aos 45.0.2 AS O00K Se eee Ale oe Die sor Ottawa ede S25 O0ON | es sevras| 5-6 Bee e 8G Eaeee See Raul ding sees tenses 847, 972 7 5 ae =dge5 || Perryman ane seeian 45,000 10 5 OOO Meee & 4-43 || Pickaway’7.......---- 3245000) | Bee 2 een 5 Defiance............ STG OOO} CE) 44564.) Detlcelerys mene an nN 69,500 | 3-10 5 DM elawaresssee: es 7 540, 544 |....-.-- 4-43 Portage eye 224600) eos oe a 4-44 TIC eee see 59,500 |........ 4 replenyses eee ANS Os Reese ee attri Ha eiiter says 8 909,000 |......-. Die Me imames sey seth 464, 600 9 5 ranking seskenee a: BIBL OTTO: seu ahead Richlandesaes lane 205,500: |eocmue: 41-5 Hultones ese see eee 204, 400 5 43 cl ROSS ae aaee cece see ee 131,000 | 25,30 5 Gallina = tae eae 542, 000 2-20 | 4-43- Sandusksye-e 22a se 195, 998 5 3-5 Geauraccean eee 20,000 |........ 3-5 SCIOtOsssees eee eee 11 740, 000 5 4-8 Greene nee eee Al OOO) |i... 2. 4 Seneca-....--- 244,000 |.......- 44 Hamilton's.) 22222 OUTS O DOR eis Sees Mure ae See Shelby eee ane LE OOON Sasso epee es ancockeetec steer AOS4OOO)) Seek seres le eersetcicn Starks ee sees 12 605, 000 5-15 5-6 ATVISONe 222 22 TONOOOR| S22 ees 4% || Summit..--... 2.2.2. 509%050)|feeceese 44-53 (lenny ois ee 937, 250 5 Seal rumble sees 13 905,000 |.-..-... 43-5-54 nighlands)s 22382222 7,850 5 5 || Tuscarawas. -........ 130, 000 1-3 6 lockines. = 2522 2k 62: 5OXOO0N esce ee: Ane Union eee ene TA SAG 00! te eriewee |e ean LUTON epee ee a 6, 500 (6) 44-5 || Van Wert.....-.-.-.. 508,260 | 12-21 | 444-5 VACkSOMME ee sons 22 DOOR OOOH eee ielete seks WWiaTremt 3) jos sara 284, 000 1-30 4-5 VCMeTSOMM Nae see SOSOOO See ase |e cries Washington?......... 190, 000 1-22 5-54 TREMOR emis sike ee 61,000 |........ A- Di | WVIVANO croc 2) eres ZO OOO spree ces Scere yete IL Ee ees eae ee aan 278, 000 20 | 4-44-5 Williams?............ 2050008) 22251: 44-5 Wawrence 2)... 2 555,000 |......-. 44-5 || Wood.......-.--...-- 15 2,072,000 5 | 44-5-6 MEIC Keim oy Vere es Sete 701, 000 5-15 |4-5-53-6 || Wyandot..-.........- 180,400 |.-....-. 43 MOAT MRS eee. f 300008 Neeneeee 4-44 Se IStrICtss sae 7, 200 10 oer) Moramees sss ses... 598, 000 18 4-5 Mistrict 121i 42.02: 180, 000 13 5 otal same ees Sb APA SOS opal eae tee OKLAHOMA. Carterseee ese. s a: $200;000) ese cos| eee INOW alan ss see eso $100, 000 25 Chocta were... 5.52 4- 120,000 |........ 5 || Okfuskee7........--: 100, 000 20 5 Coalee war res sone! SOOO | ehcp eat Osage een eens 1005000; | Soest Creek ee iN 200,000 | 10-25 5 || Pottawatomie.-...... 10950002 |-2 2 5-54 Melawares sss ens. fx: 26,000) ooo. Se Oulll Pinu] Sa eee cares sleeve ane | OOOO) eee aes 5 (GiXohy UG SBeSere mena 60, 000 20 5 || Wagoner ......2..--- MOSOOOR Ee eae | See kee Johnston 7.......--... 100,000 |...-.... 5 Muskogee...........- T40 000s 2 te oo. 5 || otal sansa. P4405 000M eel aes ayes OREGON. Wlatsopee eee. tee $400, 000 20 5 | Multnomah.......... $1, 250, 000 1-30 5 VAcksonee tense ee 500,000 | 10-30 5 || } Mota ase ce 25150 0008| Sse ecea eee aces 9 $60,000 issued under emergency act of 1913 for bridges. Bye 1¢ Of this amount $775,000 used for bridges. 11 Of this amount $440,000 were 5 per cent flood emergency bonds. 12 Bridge $250,000. 13 Bridge $85,000. 14 Emergency bonds. 15 Bridge, $6,000 emergency. SESE AE 46 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 22.—County and district highway and bridge bonds—Continued. PENNSYLVANIA. Total Total Counties and amount te Interest Counties and amount Teun Interest districts. voted to ‘are rate. districts. voted to o rate. Jan. 1,1914.| Ye"S: | Jan. 1,1914.| Ye7s- Per ct. Per ct. We gheny. 2 e-ss sas. $15,900,000 30 } 34-444 || Luzerne.............. 3 $2, 690, 000 30 44 BOA CG 28s oacioe se ciatces 555, 000 2-12 334 |} Lycoming...........- 382,900 |........ 3-35 Bedford.............. Q5500) |sose..ee|-c-seece Miafhl tresses enn 55,000 |......-- 4 Bets erat ae Samer g 475, 000 2-12 34 || Montgomery......... (255000) eee 3344 BuUtlen2 2 2ee2ccedesaes 20,000 |.....-.-- 4 Northampton -....-- 300,000 |........ 3 Cameron.........-.-- T00Q) | eeaereneclcee acces POGbCi es eance emcees 25;000 |. 222-08 5 Car DONssence eee 50, 000 5 4 Susquehanna..-.-....- 15; O0Os eee eee ae 5 @limtonm e068 e.6-2e ee 202° 5000| 252.2... 34-4 Venango 2.._......... 282 5000/12 yas oes | eee Columbia. ..-- 2222. SO; 0008) 2a eiee 4 Washington.......-..- 1,789, 000 5-20 44 Orestes secs ceo aeeee 10;500) |. sae. -- 5 Westmoreland... ....- 250, 000 20 43 Wndaanae- 2522 sk2- 25. BOvSCO Pat ner eck loseeseee Wyoming ?2........... 725000) |oeeeee 33-4 Lackawanna......... 450, 000 15 Pee [len 4(0) cco ery aren een ee Ae 103;000%|2 222 oe eee ee Mepanon es sseecccee: 297 800 | saceens ater eeace Wehiphys fe. os .eece cs S20e O00) | Peasese™ eee aes Totals scales 24, 8395050 |gecceeee lessees SOUTH CAROLINA. Wao ee eee 4 $100, 000 | Sena ee 5 Oconeessecc see esses $45;000 ec ee sole tee LOTT ye segs ee TOD CULON0) | Vee oe oe bee Richland 2........... 75,000, leesa eee | eee Kershaw 2............ 40 OOO S22 tees |tececce SUMtEr 2-222 se25-- 2s | 50" 0003)fee nee |Eecee eae IUaNrens. 2222-25526 50, 000 30 44 ; | = Marion. .....--.. ae 40000) eescec= = 44 Morale eeee one 410) 0003/2 aoe eee ser SOUTH DAKOTA. Pennington 2......... $44, 000 | t oeiea elke cmos | Stanley 5............. $33, 300 | ) kn | eee | | Motalesese asses ig COON fee eee al eee e ee TENNESSEE. ATIC ersonmessstcee as He eeo OOOO 0 Seae ase 43-5 McMinn............. $325,000 |......-- 5 IentONecos] se oe 2003000) 22222 -22| see. Bees |i) eicrobiyoyns oe 5005000) |po-- ee 4 Blountess.s2seesco= 300;000) |---2.ee- 5 Marion oss teens 170; 000)|Seeeeeee 43-5 Bradleye cc cncee soe: 216,000 | 25-30 5 IMaUGVeee ee see tees 175,000 (2e2 55 se see Campbell Ss. 2.2.22: | 4,000 i eee MONTOCE tes Grease se 300; 000)}22-.2. Peace Districts 1-5......-.| 200;000)| 225-222. 43-5 Montgomery......-.- 120,000 30 5 Carter!.....-<2-...--- | (a AGS | eee De) || Morgane. 22-2. 50; 000 cee eee. eae eee Blizabeth.....--.-.- 655.000! 222 2.2 23|2se.. 55 IROL itetiacor, Sere 19,000 7 5 Claiborne........-.-- 0 OO eee See | eee BR OMCa ee see eee eee 405,000 | 15-30 5-6 COGK62 a eas os eee 3005000 |e ee. 9-67} Putnam... 22 s52-. = 250,000 30 43 Coteau c 22 2a22 552. We Lae See seal ae mee TRO NO( see we Boe ae 365,000 | 20-80 | 4-5 Cumberland... ...--- 405000 |2.28..-2 5 Robertson.........-- 450,000 |........ 4 Wavidsolo.sse 2.22 250,000) |2es.5 ce | 4 Sevier= sco sanaoem ene 245,500 15 43-5 WiGKSOT =a. se 22 de 5 =e 250,000 30 OW SNelDYesierce2ece tees 2,792,000 12 5 Grane eie see se ee LOO; 000). 2.2. ..2 5! -\| Sullivan’.!._......-.2: 530,000] 20-30 | 44-5 Greene... 2-2. ecaas2--- 800,000 30 5-6 SUMMNGrees eee 200,000 30 | 4h Hamblen..-....-..-- 325,000] ° 40 5 (OMUIONES eee ae ee D0; O00) faa = ses | 4 ami tome. «..22 2. - Gb; O0 00M S2e2o a Nis ci cotanacs IVWaTneMee se nee oe 168,000) fe oes eee Hawkins........----- 220,000 65 5 Washington.......... 60;000)|22-22 eee Wickman..........-. 80,000} 1-124 53 || Wayne ®............- 47,700 |.....--. 6 JACKSOMS 2250 ee ee 9 2505000) |222--2-2 fee Sraicre White. 52 -622055 252 90; 000 tee ee eee eee deflersome 24.2. <.55- 150,000 30 a | Odistricts:=s- 4 -. .. 395, 000 25 43-5 otalagwee see. 12/4/4298) 2 see eee Kenge ete ofc | 255).000) los sea ces) seeece.c | Woudonecee sce | 150,000 30 | 5 Hr CISULIGLSs o=2oseee 100,000. |222:.... | Hi | | | 1 Of this amount $550,000 bridge bonds. 2 Bridge bonds only. 3 Bridge $100,000 payable serially, last 10 years of term, 4 Concrete bridge, $17,500. 5 Certain townships only. 6 Bridge bonds. HIGHWAY BONDS. TABLE 22.—County and district highway and bridge bonds—Continued. 47 TEXAS. Total Total : Counties and amount Term Tnterest Counties and amount erm Interest districts. voted to Sens rate. districts. voted to C rate. Jan. 1, 1914. | ¥°47s- Jan. 1, 1914. | ¥e4Ts Per ct. Per ct Nmidersonen se sac cece $150,000 20 5 || dame Wellss. =e 52 cee: $125, 000 10 INASCOR sb bocsneoaee 205000} | ses eee 3) || OWMSon as eae e 183652001) sees eal uandy se Austin: Districts 1-3. 175,000 5-40 Oo} ||; OD eS Heat. ae eee 7, 000 20 5 Bastrop: Districts 1 IATNOS Ss s/a5 2 aye Sune ADSOO0 U5 -2 ae | ease AINE eetset Bis ere 180,000 | 20-40 5 XG cl pS BUR mare LOSO00 Ree sascce |e IBaylOlee eee aes 100,000 40 lf eines aaeseeasedsseese 40-Q00N 5S Aas OR eae 1G: SGU a sea SBE ASE nEee 49,922 20 G) lt GN odd soqueesnade GUNN) aseyataar| Beeeerace BOI ee ee UO; OC ONE ames BS MSGI Wee Soeea secure SOS0003| Me relents MGistrictssse- 0.2... 200,000 40 apy ill. OE Pec obcopeaoeeeoe TSS5005| Pe seate: 34-5 IBEK AT Nee eso. 152505000) spaeiee ee alee ee Lamar: Justice Pre- ROLM eM a EE G29 00} Bee erscns 4-5 cinchlas ss: Bae 300,000 | 10-40 5 Bosque: District 7. 40,000 40 5 am pasas cos. tee.% 45"5008|ossecse2 4-5 TBXO ATS or sp a ea 250000) eat oe 5 UAV LCA Saar a 2ST OOOH Mee names |e lees Brazoria. . 450, 000 34 4-5 Leon: Districts 1, 2, Brooks 45,000 40 5 AMO; ANOOs sale sane P34 0004s se see See Brown: District 1 T50; 000) on 2 5 Liberty: Districts 1 Burnette ATAOO OH Mts pecans GaaQoc ny en ae 425,000 |....---- 5 Caldwell arte s5 2 ZA0KOO 0} ae Set Ee eee Limestone: District 4 300,000 | 10-40 5 Calhoun: Districts 1 Tivo! Oakes ees. s es ceee 168990) Poke ee 4-5 Caras ON anne ee Oa 235,000 40 Roll abw yas ke beady DB MOODH eee teers @allanank oS 2768 ee sae ee 4 || McCulloch..........- 118, 000 40 4-5 Cameron: District 1.. 2.05000) |: Reeal pee ee McLennan. ......--.- 150, 000 40 3-5 Cass: District’ 7------- 35,000 40 5) i MieMullense) s2S2 22208 A5000h|Seeeeee: 5 Chamberst2s. 22) 2 168, 000 20 5 Matacord aj tases ESO) Sead daclibeeseese @hildresss 4-0 yuan 203000) | sn yeao es 4°6) || Maverick: 2224. 2.222¢: A260 2 ee hemes 5 COKE een ae 25510 OOS Beare tea teen Medinaeet lee aeer nes 60, 000 40 4 Coloradone2 eae 60,000 40 4 ||P Mean Ge ie eer Seer ar 20000) | Se hee ee teu Collingsworth....--.- 14, 888 5-40 4-6) Mian der nce slept SOKOOO) |Seeseeee eens OU ais Aus Sey A500 0) eee ate ana ns Milam ye) ie ee ETHAN leet steel rate en Comal ea 153,000 40 | 444-5 Districts 2 and 5. 200, 000 CUO eis Concho ee 15000) sees 4-6 SEU eae eee aeseee 5400p |e sre am | enaae we Cooker seas es LOG OH |SMa Rae oe eR 2 Mitchell: District 1. - 30, 000 40 5 Distnictlera ease 100,000 40 5 Montgomery: Dis- @ulbbersons. = 2292: 50,000 40 5 GRICE so eee ee eee 250, 000 40 Dallas teeea ee. he sie 13905 O00), 222 se Ago|| Motleyencmecsncscee: PASS 01010 eee ese a Denton: District 1- 75, 000 40 5 Navarro: Districts 1 Dewitt yet BUS 998i eee eet AM MGS eters cee 475,000 40 5 Dickensanetee te sere 11,500| 20-40 Sr aleNOlanses ae ees ee 100, 000 40 5 Dimaniteee essen SOOO 0) Seer ea eM oeie Nuecest ihe rs ay i GO) ia sea es eR IOVS SES Bes ae a engats SOOKOO 0) Rie een he ers Orangeleeiinse nN tee 200; 000)|2 2258-3 5 APR aASOme oe ee 617,000 40 4 Paloweinton swe. eee ORTSOH see omrelela cs saet aT Spe TOO;000)) 222) Sul ear kere sai cked Liisa 259000" ee eee 4 Hann ine sees ehh 1900) Petianes Pa let Ee a eee 40, 000 4 5 HaVvettossies ses: 6985008 Pena: 5 ROGER asa en cee 20) 000) ease se |e Bishenee doce es, 19; 900/228 eo 4's) | | eeveseemac setae ats ae 124000) |e sees 5 Tato nOl; 8 cca a a S300 OSS 34-5 || Refugio: Districts 1 Hort Bend... 2..:-.--- 420,000)|--2--2.% 4-5 GIO 7) os See a Gonaee 905000! Seeean: 4 Wiramk inte ees seen 500] 2-50 44 || Robertson ........... UO) | Seessabe| eecoces Freestone: District 1- 50; 000)|). 22255. By Rummnelse sess oe CAL) i 5 Minio wanes Res seen Ooo. 86, 953 40 5 || SantWacinto. 2,-2.2: SO0OH|Esn ose 5 Galvestons222 2222.2 - 1,500,000 40 5 SangPatricion 2.222222 148° 000" S22 4-5 Garza sas Tee 50,000 40 4 \|sSaniSabas.s 222.2 2 3857501 Meee | 4 Gonzales: District 1... 1'60000)| 2282 ee 5 Shackleford)j2sss 208% 12, 500 40 | 4-5 Grayson: Districts 1 Shermans Seen TSOOO} 5 94 wen eee GhatGl Chia een aia 685,000} 2-50 424 iSTith a saee nan ate tl 405, 000 40 | 5 Grex eee rmincia Ne! SOWOO Olean aera EL Somervelly 2 osu 28 16, 950 20 5 Grimes tes ee i ie Ue 134,000 |........ 4-5. || Stephens-2. 0020. URNS erestealseesesk« Guadalupess2u2 222222 239,500 | 30-40 | 442-5 || Sterling.............. 10,000 40S ceenes A este gee sb 65"0002|eaeenee: Dolsetonewall 2222s. 5OKO00N|Peeeeeee 4 Hamilton...--.....-. 22,994 5220) 426; || suttonec ees: 1270008 bees aes | 33 Hardeman........... AZe500) | Seeeene 454) | elarman Gees sees 1,834,000 | 20-25 4-5 Mandine ees. oy. 1695000) |2=- == 5 || Taylor: District 1... - 150,000 |.-----.- 5 LATTISe eye eos oes ISU (0010): ab eee sea saeoesee Throckmorton. -.-.-- PAU! Seaenesslbeececee elas kell ese ae TESOOOH EP SSeee toe ee a Tom Green!......-.. 96,000 | 10-40 5-6 Hays: District 1-.-.- STAOOON See Srey METAWAS See aes sete 482° OOOF eereriert 4 Eve phil ie en eee 103000) Bees 6 Trinity: Districts 1 | Elida pO Ree eee TOO SOOO) ee ers eyt een te FEROS Per ee ae cen 160, 000 40 5 EDL seen etal 102000) 4024570) 32-50 Upshur =. 22) s8 149000) Sohne beeen Precinct 1.........- 250, 000 40 Suede MalverdenscaG. cts e8 GB 000n| cee see aeecciene HET OO Cee Re eel coe BONA9O oe cieelao| 4-5 || Victoria: District 2 200; 000 |5e:22=2 5 OMENS =e epee 5, 963 40 | Gall (PWrallerzisccses Hise eis 25000) pecs 4-5 Houston: istics 1 Wraller eyes foe 15,000 40 5 AN GNSS star ey GSS 8 f (AS OOO eosin = 5 Wiallcern hela tn sea GURU Redsosed secdodas EO Ward tees n= EIS: 100,000 |........ | dye WW Nie iRO le Sanne coe taswees 5400 | Seas es oe ees lin Scopes Sea etree 20,000 40 | RE MGI )asesdonsesconade 105000) |Heaeeeee 6 Jacksons. nese sce 124500) erate | 4 “Os 08 |Wihartone <2 occ... 320,000 |.-..-.-- 3-44-5 Jefferson............. 809, 500 40° 4 4-5-6 Wheeler!............ 15 O00 eee ! 4 1 Bridge bonds only. 48 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 22.—County and district highway and bridge bonds—Continued. TEXAS—Continued. { | { | Total | Total Counties and | amount om Interest | Counties and amount vam Interest districts. |_voted to | oars rate. districts. voted to e < | Tate. Jan. 1,1914. | Yat: Jan. 1, 1914.) 7 eats: | Perce. Per ct IWilchitdinsceseccsccs se 150008 |teee ss ce leceeaeee MMOUNGE Sai ecetecces $83, 996: |..-...--| 4-5 Wiilbarsers.<: 22 i2s.. (O;000) eae een-= 4 Fieve eyes epee = Sree 44,999 40 5 Williamson .....2222.. 300;:000 2225... 44-5 Wioodeeesee seen cues 150,000 |........ 5 Mota sem eee 54,960; 887, se. elas ee UTAH iBoxelder ss: 222 -=-oee $175, 000 20 4%. || San Juans... seccce $14, 500 20: ae. E se Caches ee oe 45,000 |... .<--- 4 | WIN: ccceds soscs Ho 8, 000 20 5 Garbo lee aece- sees 30, 000 20 5 Weberaecas-cce ae a 120, 000 20 4-5 MIMOLYisanooscees seSe8 BO; DOOM Eee cee 5-6 —_- |_|. Grand:t. oe ss.ceene 8,500 20 5 MOtel Shee moe. 440), 500M jane ee eee VIRGINIA. Accomac: Atlantic, Northampton: 1 dis- andeeesen acs sk--sck: $100, 000 |........ 5-54 UriGhie eaceeasceeee $50, 000 30 43-5 Alleghany !........-- 40000, Bee oe. les ore Oranpe.: 2. jece2 sens £75; 000) [aes Soe el eeeees Aimiberstse<.-2s2sce—5- 215,000 | 20-30 44-5 PAP 6 Loe ances eee 26-000! |ais2se<- 6 Augusta: South River 250, 000 30 ia) Pittsylvania: Dan Botetourt 1.--...22-.. aU) A(0(0 0) ed Hee eee IGEVOI ae ees eee 100, 000 34 5 Brunswick...-....... S41 (000F | ecsswee|) cece Ye Pulaski: Charlottes. sss5.-s2c- LOOKOOO HPs amee 2 44 POublin geese os os 1005000) |e eee 5 Clarkes: swccctece ale OOOO) Rear 4h Rulas lee cee sce 70, 000 34 53 Culpeper: Rappahannock: Catalpieassas2ss-4- 120, 000 34 i. Wakefield........-- SO KO00N| eee 5 Stevensburg....-... a5 O00) eee ses 5 IlamMiptolie..c.-- os: 30,000! | poceeeec|pooseece Dickenson: PIGMONio essences 285000) | Se sacee eee Clintwood... 2 2:2.- 54, 000 D230! |asae eee Rockingham: Plains . 30, 000 10 6 ICCHACVasuee soc <5 32, 000 1-30 in RUS SEH ee teers 510,000) |eeemces 5 Dinwiddie........-.-- 105,000 | 20-30 5-6 Scott: a Elizabeth City..-.... S0,000 ie eeoces 5-6 Esterville.......... 100,000 | 20-30 5 Fairfax: Mt. Vernon... CLE 010)0M) ee Sete eee Bulkerson.......22- Boe S00K aaa BRS yore Fauquier: Centre... - @os000 eee. ease | ee sserce Ss VONNSONA 22. ossse ee 33,300 | 20-30 5 Fluvanna...........- 1500) |Gee gee eee Smyth: Marion, Rich ESIECH URS. ees BO OUOU eer ae Valley, and St. Greenesville....-.---. 80 0000 ee Aeneas ae Oldira vases oes- es $25; 000)|Eaeseene 5-6 King George......-.. LO; 000 }aec2- oo eee Spotsylvania: Lee: | | Courtland and Jonesville and 7 | Chancellor.....-.. 100, 000 30 5 Cistricts-29-4-22=- 440, 000 6-36 | 5-53 Berkeley and Liy- Lunenburg: INGStON.. 22-262 100, 000 30 5 Plymouth 222-22. 40° 000 |-..0285. 53-6 DtAOlG se ase eee 100; 000) | 2202 eea|eaceee ae Rehoboth. .....---- DA OOO Wer eese se 54-6 || Tazewell............- 6255000 '\ Sea 2eae aes meee Browns Store ..---- 40,000 |..-..--- 53-6 Warren: 3 districts--- 90,000 |..-----. 6 Mecklenburg: 7 dis- Washington........-- 200, 000 |.....--. 5 HICtSiess252-< 4 Se 350,000 |....-.-. 5 Westmoreland. ...--. 25,000) | Beste |S ene Montgomery -..-.--.-- 30,000 |....-..-- 4 WSO! ce os ctaisate acetic 960, 000 30 5 INCISON oaceee eee | 30,000) |..22s6-- 7 INOMOMG. o Seeceasecs 2 | 200,000 |e sscoce: 43 (Rota sense 6,632; 400) |-25- 2252) Seee cess WASHINGTON. ASODIN'. cts occ ceca 900; 000 |. 2 sccccr3 ae Okanovans=. -cceeoe- SLD, O00) | Seeyeceersl ere Clallamin 225222. sec-5 2015000 | eeeseee< 446-7 PACT Ge oe see aioe 100; 000) |22 222... 5 Clarke). 2cécccssac 22 00: 000} 2c. a ae |eeee eae Snohomish........--. 80, 000 20 5 COWIIEZ 2 acc e oeieass G95 262 |i doe eee seme = Weltaicwecnsseeen see 75; 000) | eee |soaeenee JOtLerSOl -(<.52.+<.sacie=me 139; 000' Heccs a. 53 GING oe weswe cece cemes 3,000; 000) | s2522:--|oc-.cta8 TOtal.-cmcsease 4° 408), 262)| ..<5.04|sseeecee 1 Bridge bonds only, HIGHWAY BONDS. 49 TaBLE 22.—County and district highway and bridge bonds—Continued. WEST VIRGINIA. Total Total Counties and amount ee Interest Counties and amount pe Interest districts. voted to eee rate. districts. voted to ears. | rate. Jan. 1,1914.| ¥ Jan. 1, 1914.) ¥ Perce: Per ct IBanpouter eee eee cee $40,000 |....-..-- 4 Marshall......-....-. DLSO 5000 Pee aes | seme ae Cabell eric car 300, 000 |-.--.--- 44 || Monongalia........-- fo, 000 seer eae 6 Bene ae SoenGch Hisesents: St. Marys. GOSO00F (22-2 seen| eae maere axter and Grant..) 225,000 |........|........ yler: tle es 19577000) ONC |S sti Elisworth.........- 125,000 | 10-34 6 TAOKOOO 5 sae seis [Pema ce Mincolnee ss scee ee 200, 000 10-34 6 60, 000 20 5 Wetzel: Grant.....-- 150, 000 34 6 a Wood: Parkersburg. 180, 000 30 44 400. 30 5 300, 000 30 5 Motalese eee DP500 000) |e eee alerts WISCONSIN PAS land epen se secre $50, 000 20 4 Sake Da ye eae erepaseees $40, 000 20 44 pol bie ees Salis 3) ay en 10 WVAIASES ee essrereis cto oe 60, 000 20 5 OLONCOM sees ecesa-|h. +.38,000 | 55.8525 fron... oa: ie Fa. 35, 000 6 4 Motaliees ioe B54) OOO |e acee| eee WalCrosses 2 2-2-1. -i- P00 Us Be pearica| ssccaoae 1 Bridge bonds only. TABLE 23.—Township highway and bridge bonds. CONNECTICUT. Total Total Term Term * amount Interest F amount Interest Counties and towns. | +5t6q to ot. : rato Counties and towns. watodtto of rate! Jan. 1,1914.| Yrs: Jan. 1,1914.| Y°4"S é Fairfield Per ct. || Middlesex: Per ct. WaStOne sane acecee = $25, 000 40 34 Chathamiye os sse. 5: $70; 000) |. tee cese 4 i New Canaan....... 14S 0008 ae aeer- 4 East Haddam... ... 44,000 20 34 i Stamford 1.......-. 96, 000 30 4 New Haven: Derhy.. GOS500F | Femeae se 32 { Vyiltone ee eee ae. 35,000 20 4 || New London: Mont- fj Hartford: villepete e120 AO‘OO0/ seeks 4 i Plainville. ...-..... POLOOON Meeerss|os ects Windham : ‘ West Hartford.-... 452000) See seen 4 Brooklyn........... 28, 000 25 4 4 . Wy ind sor By iole sista rmice 40° 000)|= 255 =— 2. 4 Plaintieldeeessse se. SONOCOR Se aee eee 4 i itchfield: } Barkhamsted...... 160008 Beene == 33 Motalteestes. EGHELD | banonanallbasscsan # North Canaan...... 2as0008 beeen 34 i ; | ILLINOIS. : Total Total | Counties and town- | amount can Interest || Counties and town- | amount oo Intorest } ships. voted to years rate. ships. voted to ears rate. Jan. 1, 1914. Jan.1,1914.| 7 Per ct Per ct. Adams: Melrose... ..- S8s000M Banaeees|esenee eee Clay: Stanford....... COWNA teseetec 5 Bond: Central. .-.... GHO0OR Pee. 5 || Clinton: Bureau: : Carlylenay sau seake 5,000 10 44 reenville...... Beee ZV Gs Seer 5 Germantown....... 353105) | Scene 4 OHIOME Ee soc benaee 17,500 10 5 Santaeweseen uso ssee 200 8 | 4 Barro an : cols: Hast Oakland. 15, 000 5 5 BIH AVenesiseeerer lst) we b2s000h| ences ace rawford: Wigodiand forsee ase 23, 2. ae 5 Honey Creek Seep iek et 000 | 20-25 | 5 VSOKHS sas ee = utsonville........ 2S O00 8 ems eepcte ras Champaign: Colfax .- 4,400)|' 426) 43-5 )ll| * Lamotte. 1.22. 100: 58,479 | 20-25 5 Christian: Mount Au- Martinteteseece nice 4351008 Sactaete lee eee. seecTipee ged a 6000) |p ee 4g Oblong:::2)22 2.2 95,000 | 20-25 5 Clark: RObinSOne = pean ee 155000}, || 22 a= see lesa SARC CTSON = =)= =21a- i= 3;,000)| 2254 ose 5 || Cumberland: Green- | Westfield 1........: 2, 250 6 6 UD ee ae 2,000 |eeencece 5 BYIOT eens se ni oe SHOOO Meee 5 || Dekalb: Malta....... 8,500 2 | 5 1 Bridge bonds only. 52448°—15—_14 2 Of this amount, $1,200 for bridges. 50 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 23.—Township highway and bridge bonds—Continued. ILLINOIS—Continued. Total Total Counties and | amount pte Interest Counties and amount tae Interest townships. voted to a rate. townships. voted to i Tate. Jan. 1,1914.| Yets- Jan. 1,1914.| Years | Douglas: Perch Lee—Continued. Per ct. Boudre..........-- $35, 000 113 5 Hamilton 52 ese. -- $12; 800 |f2eeeees 5-6 Sareentems jsuese 35, 000 Mai 5 ETRE Oreo ee BOKIOF | Manan 5 Dupage: Naperville... 2300) ae nese ae Wiola: ss -e tee. iese 13, 000 1-13 53 Edgar: McLean: Martin.-... 252003 fee seen 6 Elbridge........... 2°00 | 22eeeese 6 Macoupin: Bird....-. 8-000) | See se aoe eee aes Embatrass......... 35, 000 10 5 Madison: Godfrey... . 15200" |S 2ee Soe 5 MARIN TEE 4. = eco nce AiO eee, 5 Montgomery: WATS oe eee’ 35;(000' |2--.-=-.-| 5 TLS OLOfe eat eeee 16, 000 15-8 5 Effingham: Mason. -- 10;000"|=. =2<=-- 6-10 Witte. ceaceccastcc 22200 sees 6 Ford: Button.....:-- 20002 twee 5 Moultrie: Franklin: East Nelson........ 3; D00N| Seen eaes 5) Browning........-- a DUO ee eeeees 6 Lovington?........ Pret ata eens = 6 Northern........... BO! |e 4 || Ogle: Fulton: Orion2...... MAQUDM esas ee 5 Maryland.........- 4500! le= eee | 5 Gallatin: Pine iROCke. 2.2.5. 2, 000 13 5 Bowlesville........ 1,000 1-2 4 Rockvale.....-..--- 9000! |2aceaseaI 5 CUA Gyemeececcens A000 1s teste 6 iWiOOSUN ES wes eaecne: 15° 0007] Seeecsce 5 Shawnee........-.. 7,090 1-5 4 Peoria: Greene: Woodville. .. DD Ohi lee etna: 4 Jubilee: sa sss acne 27000 |-2eee- 5 Grundy: a Bs) 242) ee 7, 000 8 5 Goose Lake. .-...-: 2 O00 MV eetetaece 5 Rimtber 22. seecea. 55 1,500 (222-222. 6 MiaITIG oe Sepia 0, 000)|s. 555-28 5 || Pike: ; Wauponsee?..._.-- Oea00H eee cee 5 IDGrTyi 2c eee see BPs Been 53 Hancock: Fairmount.......-- B00 ee Secale ose cee Appanoose.......-- 18300 | see 5 PACS Vince er ee D2 ce |e ee RVaTICOC Kase ae GyonU) eee 5-54 ATI. a0 eac sae 5 19200) eee ee A See ee Henry: Kinderhook. ....... 100) eee cae eee Riba 2ee eee ae 3, 500 6 5 Pleasant Hill... ... T2001 ee es ee ATeIMS ONS seas eee 5,900 10 5 Richland: German... 1798) |e eeneee 6 Genesed42-oe.-2 35-5 15, 450 3-19 5 Rock Island: Black Moraine 22.22... 228 2 LOOM ee Sse x Hawke 2 cccceees 6,D00: |e-cee eee 6 IPH CNIX. See 25 iil Sevexadelanars 5 St. Clair: Yorktown.......... 200) ae ee 5 Centerville......... 2,500; 2s aaene nee Troquois: | Fayetteville........ 2,000.) ssau- see leeseeeee Belmont....22.--22- 6; 0008)2- 222. ba? | vatres puree = aon 7,400 10 Chebanse?......... BV OO 8) See cre a) New Athens 2....-. 8, 000 12 | 4-5 Milfordi2sy eee... 2s 10; 000% |e Acc-2- 5 O’Fallon........--. 6,000 |so ees ‘ 5 Pigeon Grove...... 5,000 10 60 SestGlari22 eS 2 3, 200 4 | 5 Sheldon..........-. Bi O00) sae eee 5 Shiloh Valley...... 9,550 15 4-5 Jackson: | Saline: Carbondale......... 35, 000 3-5 5 || Brushy............ 1, 500s eee ee | 5 DeSoto: ..3. 222-5. (Pore ae pene 6 Cottage 2: 22-2604 1,694 Bt 6 Fountain Bluff... .. L250 os sees 2 5 Galatia® s. 22-2522 A004 ees 6 Sand Ridge........ AU OUn serene oe 44 Harrisburg 2.....-. 65200u|saaeeee 6 Jasper: Independence 2... .. 800) |ss02 see 6 CGTOVOSS aoe ae $71 0]0s| I gee ra eee eee Mountain.......... REY 1 eee 6 Wadeice -enctees ATR at ey en (Oe oe Raleipiiv 2 secon. D000 sssesee 6 Jefferson: Stonefort:..2.2-.- 22 5,000: |-- 2 =... 6 Blissville2.......... OU Cyaan |S ere Sangamon: Salis- Farrington 2........ 1 (00,4 i (espe: ier io || DULY. 2: 3525225 oee 6, 000 i 5 Jo Daviess: || Stephenson: | | Derinds. 22.2 2.5. aes] 001 eee eee a A JOLEISONA se 4-6 sees 3, O00 | saeeeieee 9) Elizabeth.......... D000 oot aston eee Waddams........-- 6000) |Soas22 ose Pleasant Valley... - LO S000" }seeo2se2 5-6 | Tazewell: Kankakee: | Hopedale 2......... 1,142 4 is GaneGie.. cscee< vice OO U0 | eepmeeereaee arene || Mackinaw 2........ 9.000 |2s4eeeee 54 Momence.......-... 30; 000 )|22Bee = ee case | | =a PTemOnt Sace-ce ee: 6,500 }esc2- 222 5 Yellowhead........ BO OOUs| deroeee el. see | Vermilion: Knox: Haw Creek... ZrO |Wacee == Oe ||, SGralltenccas-cseea oe LOVEE \saSeeaee ee eee La Salle: Jamaica. o- 2: esa 65500; |Secee a eee Deer Park......... 22,000 |... .--.. 51-6 || _Middlefork......... 5,000 |....--../-------- Farm Ridge........ 2,000 |........|.....--- _ Washington: Bolo... PTL BS Bee al eacacee Mission },=2. 302253 3) D0" 2 te cee 5 || Wayne: [Opal epee aor 26,500 |......-. 51 || Big Mound........ 11) 600; |eeeem ae 6 alco: |i dbeech' 2. ...22) -scner 4,000 5 6 ‘Antioch............ 4:000 |.-...-.- Bi eee he ogee £6,125 5 | 6 NEWDOME oc aee se: 9,325 28 4-53 Burnt Prairie...... 11-0005 6 Lawrence: 7 1Dhcotssts Peed eee 25/000) |ecce. eee 5 Bond. se- 52-225. G, 190, | 222 ose 6 Hawthorne........ 57, 500s ae 5 GIS OE ws eaten 35, 000 6 5 || Mill Shoals......... 5,000 | 1-10 6 Lee: | Whiteside: IAG LONoes eee yee. 44, 000 20 5 || Newton............ 5, 820 11 | 6 Ghing222, 03.0 8ee DF- O00) seco | soeeaee | S.Portlandsa2) 2.45 15,000 16 i East Grove2_.._... 3,500 719 ge aan | Sterlings...2 2-2 5..5. 16000 aee 352s eee 1 Serial. 2 Bridge bonds only. 3 Of this amount, $3,000 bridge bonds. 4 Of this amount, $3,125 for bridges. HIGHWAY BONDS. D1 TaBLE 23.—Township highway and bridge bonds—Continued. ILLIN OIS—Continued. | Motaler)| Total Counties and amount Bom Interest Counties and amount re | Interest townships. voted to BRS rate. townships. | voted to Bae Tate. Jan.1,1914.) 7 Jan. 1, 1914. | Ye7s- Will: Per ct Winnebago—Contd. Per ct. Channahon... ....-- $ONSOOH ees e es 5 IROSCOC ME eeasaeeee $35, 000 5 5 Crepe ee erie 35, 000 13 5 Woodford: 6 Cirste ee 3, 000 3 5 Ratridgenmeee eee S00 N | Seerereee | Dupasebsese se. 5008 | ese eee 5 Spring Bay.....-.. 25700) Saeee- a | 5 Winnebago Cherry Valley...... 1225 ues aes 5 Motalereyus sees 1 GI SK EBAY meee heey New Milford.....-- aan ee eee 5-6-64 INDIANA. Adams: Townships. .| $1,026,321 () 44 | Martin: Townships.-.| $148,870 a3 2 eS Allen: Townships... .- 134, 132 1-20 44 | Miami: Townships.. - 504,530 | 10-20 44-5 Bartholomew: Town- Monroe: Townships. 599, 465! Jus... 2 3h SHIpSsee ee. tees - 780, 180 10 43 | Montgomery: Town- Blackford: Town- SHIpSiee eee =e 849,820 |....-2-- 43-6 SHMDS Sees etteceie 1 249,063 10 45 | Morgan: Townships.. 393, 689 |... ---.- 43 Benton: Townships. . 723, 560 10 43-6 | Newton: Townships . ASO e208 Necro 45-6 Boone: Townships... 127,150 10 4 | Ohio: Townships. .-- 20KOTSY eae Fein oe See Carroll: Townships. -.} 1,016,686 310 £1 Orange:Lowushipss=|| 2170; 541 |652 2 2 eee Cass: Townships. -..- M6925 58h |= saihicse\|eelsee ose Owen: Townships. -. 394,089 40 44-5 Clark: Townships...-| 1 213,138 310 43 | Parke: Townships. - - 893, 367 10 44 Clay: Townships...-. 1,,0045354.|0 2-225. 43-6 Perry: Townships. . - 73,000 20 44 Clinton: Townships. - 850, 000 10 44 | Pike: Townships...-- 15252960 | eace an! sae eee Crawford: Townships: (AS38063 | Beene 43-5 Rorberseh owas b1p Siesta .25 51 On| eee ee | See Daviess: Townships. - 934,988 | 31-20 4F | Rosey: bownshipseen|i 2 473s2310 [pases | see Dearborn: Town- Pulaski: Townships..| 1 270,229 |........].....-.. Ships yeasts ele 219, 330 1-20 | 44 | Putnam: Townships. (5 GAO059 | ees aes 43 Decatur: Townships. 779, 583 10 + || Randolph: Town- Delaware: Townships 850, 000 10 4-5 SHIpee tes eee ES Le GY |p ate 44 Dubois: Townships. . 21654003|Seeceece 43-6 Ripley= 1,000: | 5.622. 6 Hart Lake......... + 000n| sacs 4 Wagoner. -<2-| 5,000 |........ 4 White Oak........- 3,000 | 5-20 4 Wealthwood....... 7, S008 | Sees 6 || Isanti: Stanford2..... A500 |Te ees eaee aes aie 2 C000 Hees 2 oe 4 Teese ee | Workman. 025025 O,000 lea Sae- 6 ee Becker: Spring Creck. O00 geese 4 eae rae add 2 500 : ‘ Beltrami: Bal Ge are ece deat Poa H WAN Cee ee 2.000 5 4 alsam.......----- 20,000 |-..--... 6 : 7? ‘Bass Brookess2-.--- 15, 000 4-15 5} Kelliher...........- (AUN BAe 6 infieinas 8’ 000 20 8 Wabanica........-. 9,000) 2252-2 4 aerate cen 12’ 000 6 SIM Feeley............. 3,000 | 20 6 RBar hte gf on, Saas LSLOO toe fea ee (atekenas rien Nec as 10 650 : Dongola... 2.2... 3,000 | 118 4 nie PICS sae eld Nea 2 Marcelle, zsicoce:4 10, 000 20 6 Watab.......-.-... 1,500 |......--| 6 Trout Lake 8,500 | 3-21 6 Bigstone: Otrey...... 2,150 5 6 pa ts iter ’ oe Brown: Prairieville?. 2000) |Peesess = 6 Jackson: | Carlton: Enterptise2 22.222 SA000" eee 4 Barnum........... 2, 200 15 5 Sioux Valley....... 3, 600 4 Beseman..... S000) |beeeece.e 6 Kanahec: Blackhoof.......... 3,000 15 4 KerosCh ele seen ssa5 2 85400 |-252-52 4 Carona = 52526523. 4. L500") See etes|esecees IPOMTO ys ot Sees ae 4, 100 11 4 Maple. 2. oleae ede SPL 0010)| (eee es 4 South Fork........ Ty500" |Seeeee es 4 Holyoke........... 10, 090 15 6 (EGIL arlene 3,000 10 4 Gala Vallee ae ee 3, 000 15 4 Kandiyohi: Lake Knife Falls........ 3,000 | 10-15 if Mlizabethi: 2222-22. 5a0neeore sacle eee see Lakeview.......... 9, 603 20 6 Kittson: Mahtowa......... 3,000 20 4 IDAVISE 22 s65 ae 1,000 10 6 Red Clover... ..... | 3,500 13 4 Ia OCK es see ee 125 300i tae eee 4-7-10 Split Rock......... 3, 000 13 4 POrC Vine te tourer a 3,000; |saeee eee 4k Chippewa: | Red River....-..-- 1, 100 10 7 Cratezce ae eae 5,000 5-20 4 St. Vincent........ p40) 010) Pape es ee 4 Lone Tree2..._._.. 3,000 20 3 Spring Brook...-.. 1, 400 5-11 4 Chisago: SPVGG coe ccscecn ce 15000 )|2 222s 4 Rushseba2......... 600 7 6 INS) o 2 eegree Opes Negra 6000) | eae enes 4 Sunrise2..... 5,000 6 4 Thompson ?....._.- 1, B00? pokes 4 Clay: Koochiching: Uc) E00) see en Pea Gsp000 eee cee | 4 Bannock: : ...- ees 3, 000 10 4 Flowing........... 1000) eee scss 6 Cingmare.........- L2E0007 ase nese 6 Morken. 222 .acc~ 4,500 19 | 10-7 Dinner Creek... --- 3; O00Ne eee 4 Cook: Englewood.......-. 2,000 | 11-20 4 Golvillew sc cateneoss. 12,000 |........ 6 Forest Grove....... 2, 000 6-16 4 Grand Marais... ... 16,000) |seen- es 6 Grand Falis2....... 1,500 10 6 PI OVION 2 enon oes 20, 000 (1) 6 WEIMOSON 2. sce ee- 10, 000 20 6 Maple Hill......... 1D; 000)\\ee eee ese 6 Koochiching....--. 15), 0007 | Seseeeee 6 Schroeder....::..- 8, 000 14 7 Lindford? ........-. 3, 000 12 4 Cottonwood: Rose Medine. a.-22cocee 7, 000 10 4 12 1 Eee aren eee 2; 000M see ose 4 (IPinteenOD se see es 5, 000 10 6 Crow Wing: Little- ROC Yee sees ase 6, 000 10 4 19) ia (= apes teeatacgy te eee 3, 000 5 4 Sturgeon River.... 3,000" 2eeeee= 6 Dakota: Wildwood......... 8, 000 4-11 6 Randolph?......... 2,300. |lsac so ase 5-6 Lae Qui Parle: Waterford?........ 2,500 4 | 5 MCh unin eo eeaacee ee: ee ee 4 Dodge: Ashland..... 2,650 1| 6 Ten Mile Lake..... 5054009 Fe teeaee 4 Douglas: Belle River. 2, 300) |S ae eee 5-7 Lake: Fillmore: Pilot Two Harbors. ..... 22500) {o.22 oc55 tee eee REOUN Cece seers epithe eee 6 Wialdoenntc.sssceee | 3, 500 ! 4 1 Serial. 2 Bridge bonds only. HIGHWAY BONDS. TaBLE 23.—Township highway and bridge bonds—Continued. Or On MINNESOTA—Continued. Total Total Counties and amount term Interest Counties and amount perm ‘Interest townships. voted to oe rate. townships. voted to GENS rate Jan.1,1914.| Y°@7s Jan.1,1914.| ¥ Lineoln: Diamond Per ct Per ct. ILAKGS See eeees S500e tet ecss laters Pope: New Prairie !. $800) eco eee | 6 Lyon: Eidsvold!..-.. OYE) eeceseee & Ramsey: White Bear. 1255008 | Sees see 4 McLeod: Red Lake: Chyllitnies See egeeeaad 3000) eee ene 4 Lake Pleasant..-... ILE 110) 0a eee re Hoe e ee Rich Valley... .---- O00} |Peeeaaee 6 Terrebonne...-.-..- iL OO; ||\2 s)he 5 Mahnomen: Redwood: Beaulieu ss 2 22 - - TAINO) | Se eracee 4 Brooksville sees = 3, 000 5-10 4 Be Olli ae 25-5 2. 1,500 DOM ste sioee Sundown) sis. 22. 45 0002|- 220-26 7 Isi@re Soames eee IS WO) Weaesasae 4 |) Renville: Crooks....- PEDO ease doe | 5 Townships... --.---- GiG00)|\ eee zeae eee Rice: Marshall: Bridgewater 1...... SA000 9 eee eeee | 5 NTIS ee 1, 200 5-9 4 BL Cray eee ewe ae 2, 000 5 4 Biggwioods: - 22.22% - 1, 400 5 8 || Rock iDonnelhyese se s-- 1,000 10 7 1D) Cnivere ees eeeee 6008 Senee eee 6 incon wee Te 6, 0CO 20 6 Kanaranzi......_.- 3000 fee eeeee | 6 WOES SE ORs ea IBN): Beoaaaee 4 UV. ern eee ater 25500) |e se saa | 6 West Valley. -...--- 1,000 20 4 Springwater 1_...-. 88000) | eee eeeet } 6-8 Millelacs: Roseau: Bogus Brook1...-. 2° 200M eens 4 Cedarbend.......-.- TE AO Uy eae toe [ 4 BAST Sides. Se) es 500) Beet 4 AD Y=Y=) ye Bee a ete 4,000 20 6 TRENTON TS), Ge 12, 000 20 4 Dieter wanes nines Ow500! | sae 6 Omamniaeey: sree 4°000 |... 32. - 4 Grimsted aa. teehee CSO) eae eaclossbaecs Pare eee intron 7.000 9 4 JAdisMeU ee ke Une 65000) ean 6 South Harbor...... 3,000 | (2) 4 ST ae a TG00) | aaa 4 Morrison: Malun oe eee AOOO} eee 6 nil mans se 4,000 14 4 IMac kinloc kes ase G3600)|2=2-22e2 6 HVOSIN Lee oe 800 F-13 6 Mooseei ean. ae nee 8.1600) P24 2 2 6-7 Murray: Des Moines EG) bi areca oosesee OS OOOH |Beseeces 6 IIVCLER Gee oe sacaiac 2008 |Eeeeeee 4 VOSS ee ERS eee 10, 000 10 6 Nicollet: Belgrade ..- ASO00Mteeeeees 6 SPrucese a, eee 58000 nee 6 Nobles. Townships . . 5,700 10 4 Staliordseee eee see- 5, 900 5 46 Norman: Stokes®i@ezecse ss. 9, 500 20 6 NmiGhonyel ieee O00 | Sacre 4 St. Louis Good Hopes. 222... S3)(00) | Saoecaos 6 SAS G See eee srk: GROOOS | eee. 6 ETO RTE rete: Seis rare 800 5-10 10 Beatty seus emcee SA000N a hes see 4 Olmsted: Rochester-- e692 4h Canosiaeea ots. =a LOSOOO | Pee ee 10 Ottertail: Clintoneosuste se 3,000 | 10-15 6 IB USL eae cee a LOS 8h eee eee 6 Mesaiba te ea. e a2 LE SUND ee seco) 53 Eagle Lake..._.... AQ 0) Ronee ae ees: Scott: Belleplaine..... 1, 500 3 | 5 Maine te neato es PLU Dab eaasee 4 || Sherburne: Paddock ie. 522224: IL (00 ee amasee Seances Elk River:.-.-024: 50008 Been 6 Pennington: IbiVvONiaaeenemeece se DT OOOM ee ees 4 High Landing...__. 3.0008 peaaeeee 6 Malimereceejese soe. DANO eee ae 5 Rocksbury.--..---- 1, 500 10 10 Sibley: Dryden-...-. 51 OOO) eee eese 2 | aera Pine: Stearns: PANT diaeresis Sue 250008 | Saeeee ct 5 Brackway....-..--- 5 00U Sasenece | 4 Brookpark... .....- Bp Gy 0) |e eease 4 Grovielee esse aes TA SO0 AB aseercee | 6 BLUM gee eset oe VAN OQ0ON| esa ae 54-6 Paynesville......-- 330008 G2 2e oe 43 Chengwatanal____. 34000) |Beceeees 4 Steele: Lemond.....- LF A00 ES ees 6 Danmtortheees seo! - AS OOK | ee eersere 4 Stevens: Baker....-. 850) |Psveseek leeks AN eionhbalees Bs hge aa 10, 000 13 6 Todd: Little Elk. ... 5, 000 7-16 4 Kettle River....... SAGOOW eee ciee pale cicoets || Wadena: Mission Creek.....- Ss OOOM Eee 6 Bullard teem eeee ee 1,500 (2) 4 Partridsel 2 22-5. - ON500M ees cen 6 Huntersville. ...... ORB O OK lense ien fe Nua aera: ipineiCitvle 22: 2, 400 6-13 4 GEOW eee ets se oS 008 Eee tee 4 iPokegam~as = so 22. 1, 700 10 4 Wing River1l...... 1,900 9 4 ockereek 552-5: GOON See areee 4 Washington: New- pWalmae easier. 28500) | eee ee 4 Donte sere ae ae 202000} haem 5 Pipestone: Sweet... . 255008 |Pecisecir 4 || Watonwan; Adrian. 3, 000 25 5 Polk: Wilkin: Andrea...... 22000) |e ace 5 Mairlax seen sees 3, 500 5-15 4 || Wright: Townships. . 350005 pean 4 Mapleyese secs e ea 12,000 5 4 || Yellow Medicine: Gentillyss; 28 teee: I OOOR Maser 4 Oshkosh lise 22.018 cA(00) 8a eer 4 INES OA eR eee ie 5, 000 20 6 Wright teetees > soe 35000) Es -acece lees ee Sandsville. _. 2.2... 1, 000 10 10 Sliven es a VAS OO ere eee 4-10 ADoyitzy I ie i A oo 9822805 saa arae | eae cers Mab One sk. Beas ee A SOOK eens 6 1 Bridge bonds only. 2 Serial. 56 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 23.— Township highway and bridge bonds—Continued. MISSOURI. Total ; : ae amount | Term of | Interest Counties and townships. watedita years. nates Jan. 1,1914. Nodaway: Per cent. TRO is Se tera ee ene a eee ee err eee een 2 ae eee $50; 000s|ooae seceee |semeceeees (Walon eee hans Anrep k. 65a te seh cheer gs oe nate as oe 15,000 (Q) 6 Ota) set oes tecateees att he oa Ses Ste aes ean eS essen seae See 65; 000; |22se22 oe eee NEBRASKA.* Total Total Counties and amount aig | Interest | Counties and amount ve Interest townships. | voted to aah rate. | townships. voted to © rate. | Jan. 1, 1914. | y r | Jan. 1, 1914. years. | | | | Per ct ; Dawson: Lexington..| $6400 On| tame | aee ee Platte—Continued. Per ct. Keith: Ogallala...... 26;670 |o- =. 2-2} 2-- e208 LOUD Ss ocak Sane $3,000 15 6 Lincoln: | | Oconée:2-2 2222.2 6,000 15 6 Bostwick.......... A OQ00 eee canescens Seotts Bluff: Elersh6y: 2 2s-.s42s- 20000) tee see eee Castle Rock and Merrick: Loup....... 3; O00) ieee eee japon Highland ....... 12; O00 22s eee ee Morrill: Township...) TO OOUEC sa eee eee (FOPRTMIO Soe eee 10,000 20 5 Nance: | Winter Creek. ..... 15;000)| cee neeea|aee on Gen0a lz. sess 222. 82,500 20 | 6 Township......-.-. | 145000 222. - 2c Peemaerse Novaleaeeeesees 246; 1700 ooeee ses| eee eee Platte: | Columbus.......... BO;OOO} essere. |aseeee ee | | NEW HAMPSHIRE. Total ; = : amount | Term of | Interest Counties and towns. voted to years. Fetcl Jan. 1,1914. - — ~ ss — | Per cent. Gra rronreB Tistols. dase aie se Sameer Aten ete Oe og EE IN Tee cicger® hares $15,000 |....-..... 3 Merrimack :3E OOkSeti the se eee ean ee 2 kee ee ec aoe ee 25,000 20 4 TO Ea eee oe ees oe i ae ei De SS ea OO aA a eee Sie! A0 O00 .se2neews| eee ee NEW JERSEY. Total | | Total ™ Counties and amount bee | Interest Counties and | amount rn ‘Interest townships. | voted to | rate. || townships. |_ voted to ears | rate. | Jan. 1,1914.| Years | ‘Jan. 1,1914.| ¥ | Atlantic: | Perct. || Camden: | | Per ct. Egg Habor.. $95,000 |. 8-13 | 43 Delaware... . 3 $5000): eee: | 5 Hamilton. . ee 97; 000 | 2.2 eee een Gloucester... .. . 6,000 |... A 5 Bergen: | | addons... - oe 2; 900) ee eee 5 Franklin... . ; 75,000 |.. el + Voorhees. ...: a ater 200020. - 5 Hillsdale........ 45, 000 Del 5 Cape May: Lower.... D000) 2. 5 Hohokus...........| 22,000 Wee. an. 43-5 Essex: Belleville... ..| 87; 000) oe ene 4 Midland..... 30,000 |. 5 Gloucester: | ORV Ges ioe Sites. 7,000 |. 5 Monroe..-.-........| 500 5 Overpeck......... 75,500 |....:..0 5 Wollwich.........: 3,900 5 Riverdale.......... 25, 000 31 5 Hunterdon: West OT ees 2 ety | 42,500 30 4 ASMmWelLs cece Acc cr.s 4,900 |........ 43 Washington........| AE DOO prea aoe 5 Monmouth: Neptune. 23,000 |........| 43-5 Burlington: | Salem: Upper Pitts- CHEStOR ES ceases A000!) seevatctece 43 OTOVO ccc cciewcs seas 800 |... 0.-.- 5 Northampton...... 15, 000 30 4 Union: Cranford. .... 3,600!) 25 .eee ii Pemberton......... 10,000 |........ 44 ST Southampton.... 15, 000 30 43 Wotaho: ace ceee 160,600) 52. eec|eecemeer | 1 Serial bonds. * Bridge. ’ Bridge bonds. HIGHWAY BONDS. 57 TABLE 23.—Township highway and bridge bonds—Continued. NEW YORK. Total Total Term Term Counties and towns. oma of Tiberest Counties and towns. eee f Eierest Jan. 1,1914.| Years Jan. 1, 1914, | Yeats: Allegany: Per ct Jefferson—Contd. Per ct Angelica. ...0:)5-: $95 0005 iyi 58 | Sune 2 Philadelphia... ... $8000 |e ose e|eccenes SClOtyeeey eran De OOOHIE 55h teas eae se Riutlandee ses CRUUO ean aoallasecneee Chautauqua: Lewis: French Creek...... 3, 000 3 4h IDenmark=seeaswes 6, 000 6 5 Keiontoness == 22) 22): 4,000 Assen ee Wowwilledsnes fabs PECL UU Pe apearal lsoone eae Westfield.......... 285000: 4 Oneida: Chemung: Augusta IUO Na sauadnallboncsdar IBIgeHMAtSeee se eee AQS6455 | Rear 44 Kirklandiess2).ce TES OOK hae eret a | eae eee Chemunge ee. 2050008 Raameney: 4h Parish ss ek fa ienls SSOO0H| Pees ernest eae TOMS See eee OE ADB i ie segs 42 Vernon.. ZO0X0001 |S ees | ees Cortland: Otsego: Cortlandville....... IU) ea eosulleassoaee Maryland=as sean SOOO) Bee. cere eee lakoyeaYrs Coat ee ea ar ANOOO Rs ioetseed mee es Umadilaes se seas BGO) rere bara el Marathon.......... AS SOO ea rie ok fase psc Wiestiordesasee sein 2 SOOH| Siri es | eee Delaware Putnam Putnam Middletown........ GYOOONI eis sa. a |keermeses iValleyesna eee 25, 000 12 44 Siduey eben 1 beer 1 A003 | See = ern ee Schenectady: Prince- Essex: IRON Att bey aaHR ere 1,200 1-4 6 Chesterfieid........ GTO a stea eal eet hata Seneca: Lodi......... TE ZOOU een ata eetan en WMCON Oras ke vies 000) | Rai eee |benen rere Steuben: MO WAS es hacia ie bee 65 5003| Roe aoe tReet ee C@anisteos seks oe US ae Anal loaaenson St. Armand........ ASOO0s| Sa eintaen| teen cae Coming ayer ae 13, 000 2-5 5 Franklin: Rathbone: 05. sun DVASON ways heel| tear eters IBOMpaYsene ees SOOO eh eee Sa aire au Suffolk: Malonees wees. SHUN eeene cle anenos East Hampton..... 70, 000 6-20 4 MOIR ae aice este USUUD ea eee ata ene Huntington........ TOSS Rees as | eee eae Fulton: Caroga....... 35, 000 6 5 Babylon and Genesee: Le Roy !... 12 ROOOH WANE ee lbeeatrt ty. Southampton.... SOS OOOH IES asi iza||aeeeeeee Hamilton: Long || Tompkins: WAKOtR HE Ry Se rsatsie: SOKOOO Ree series eee Lansing 1. nets 5, 000 (?) 44 Herkimer Trumansburg... Pees PLO Eases bagnoode Frankfort.-........ 2,765 4 54 || Westchester: German Flats...... GR OOO ete ae aac ree iBediord sae nn aa is Frerkamerze..- 88, 232 11 44 Cortlandt ee. Manheim... 25,771 12 44 Eastchester........ Newport!.......... 12,500 16 4 Greensburg........ PRUSSIA Se ioe: sve SHOOOH te ese else et chs arnisoneyee ees Salisbunyenio-. n- 5, 900 5 5 New Castle......... Schuyler...:....... IPE GEIS ce Bo sullenonpeas North Castle....... CD Deas cress 17,000 19 D IRelhanteen seen ee Jefferson RGVere ae eee ClayGonesas ye: sassy TSS O00) | ie espana bee. Scarsdalotss nee a: f Mhisburc en PAN Val Fodele stl eid White Plains....... 218) 0008 Eeeiayaaleeeaeee Henderson......... DE OOO a rea else it? —_—_—__—— Me yAN Oe ee MS es 2 25} 000H Heer |iae tines Motaleseeey ween |t2eOollsil Goll Peesee ery. bere NORTH CAROLINA.3 Total Total Counties and amount Teun Interest | Counties and amount vem Interest townships. voted to eats rate. | townships. voted to a rate. Jan. 1, 1914.) ¥ | Jan.1,1914.| Years Per ct Catawba: Per ct Alleghany: Rowustip CHOCO) i cgas eB allesrissaee PVCkOryesscecn ce -s- $90) 000) P22. s2- Pee ea Anson: Wadesboro. . 2.0008 See sea gew se Newtoneo.: Seen. SOROOO! | eee Saas | eee Ashe: Horse Creek... SRSOOH Seseene (eae ee || Cherokee: Bertie: Township. - BE(UU Id ieee eet 4 ee ogee Murph 50, 000 20 6 Unphysene eee F Bladen: Township. MOOI) eeeeesaclseeecrae Valley Town......- ATE 000)||22 sees 54-6 ve mitneiiie 35, 000 ; 5 || Cleveland: aparece oe 15, O00r le we 50° 5 Kings Mountain... 25, 000 30 5 Buncombe: Black Sy higsie andi 20, oe 15 y Mountain.......... PURE: esses | rime 2 ownships 6 an 50,000 |.-...---)..--.--- Burke: Morganton... 50%000:\| sae es ae ae Davidson: Lexington. G0; 000) eee ea ieee eee Caldwell: Lovelady - . 255000) Be sar eee ee Duplin: Carteret: Calypsonrss uesuee G0 C0) een eae eae Morehead.........- 10, 000 42 5 Maison ee beeen ee T5000 Ss sees sees a Newport-t- 2 5..5.: 3, 000 42 5 OSehi ay sae seeees 20° 000) | Beeps eae e eee 1 Bridge bonds only. 2Serial. 3 By act of legislature, county commissioners have authority to sell bridge bonds without vote of people. 58 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 23.—Township highway and bridge bonds—Continued. NORTH CAROLINA—Continued. Total . Total Counties and amount ie Interest || Counties and amount a Interest townships. voted to Gays rate. || townships. voted to ears. | rate. Jamal 19lde Yee Jan.1,1914.| ¥ Duplin—Continued. Per Ct Moore—Continued. Per ct Wallace.....-...-.- | bn 0/010 Reese | aceee aoe Mineral Springs... LO;000) |Seeee nel ese Watsawe...sscce2.- 20; 0004 Ses 3-2 Selene ge | ee soanicl Plat een Sas TOX000 ||-eeeaee= 6 Franklin: | Nash: Franklinton...-.... 140, 000 30 5-54 || 4 townships 402.000 |e soe ee Louisburg.......... 70,000 |........ 53 Manning........... 50/000) | Seeeeee | ee Youngsville ose. ve Sa OVO! eee 6 Onslow: Jacksonville. LOS 000 0\ Sa aeees eee Greene: 7 townships... SO ODO eee || Seema Orange: Hillsboro.... 40,000) |e so eeealesesoeee Halifax: Pitt: Greenville.....- 50, 000 40 5 Winfield 2 32 es | 60000) | Seaeeealseceeeeee Polks TTvo0nlsc. 25.552 12-000, | es esese|Saeceees Je tihlitz> qkepen ie eee AQF OOD E see seahorses Richmond: Haywood: W st eas Beaver Dam....... LON000) |2-eeeeeslseseeeee SVL Renee elas D0; 000; |2essse22 5 Black Jack........- 5,000" Rea seae. | Seecceee Henderson: Marks Creek....... 15-0000 Be eeeee| eee Edneyville......... 125000: | Meee ce seer see Mineral Springs.... D000} eee sean oce sees Hendersonville... .. OO SO00R Ea eee as see we ee Rockingham ....... 20,000; |a2 nos eeleaeee ce Hoopers Creek... -..-. 20; 000) |2-32 gees Ses Steeles veces teak 15000) |aeee aces | tenner Jackson: WiOliSafPiLbesenc see 25; O00!) We. Saeene sccm Cullowhee.......... 30, 000 Scotland: IDWIishoroc 3234.2 2.2 15,000 | Laurel Hill........- 30, 000 30 4 eGo Pees 15, 000 DPRUS Leena 20; 000) \seaeeee 4 ShdbyC ie aoe ne ere 30, 000 Stewartsville....... 003000" | SaGo ene aac emer McDowell: Williamson........ 30/000. |-2aees ee eee MATION aso see eas D0; O00 2eee sa 6 Stokes: INCDOMaesacceoseecs 10000 dees ee cce 6 Danburyeseces. 2.e 15, 000 30 6 Olde otters. se =: 2 20; 000: \acaccee. 6 Meadows..........- 40; 000 30 6 Macon: Franklin..... 100/000) |\2i2=s5-a|2oos5-5 Sauratown......... 50, 000 30 6 Madison: 2 townships. 20000 | a.cee oe lecesec a Surry: Mount Airy... 85, 000 30 5 Martin: Warren: Warrenton. . 50; 000e See Ses See eee Robersonville...... 1510100 Reese eee Wayne: Williamston ......- 40)'000, |beaceteeleoncocee IBTOS OCU ees geno se 40000) |. aoe eee Moore: Goldsboro.......... 1005000: | 22a 2 eee | sae ee Carthage........... St 0005| 2. 2eaece 6 Wilson: Wilson...... 1000005. 3 ooe—25 see Deep River-........ 12°00 ee ees eee ————— Greenwood......... SOROD0) | Sau eee See tek ELOGHL soem oe ee e101, 000) see cel eee MeNeéeills..........- | 14,000 | 10-30 5-54 | | OHIO Adams: Wayne...... | $7; OOO 22 ac. | Cuyahoga—Contd. Ashland: | || Warrensville.......| 10/000 tlace ese eee ae Montgomery..-.-... POSA000 eee seals coe eee jee West Parkes 252) 2. De O00 se Sa eee | ee eee SOUIVaN. cnc onnes 25,000 | 10-18 5 ||, Brie? Groton)... 25,000 |........ 43 Over ences eee 70,000 | 10-18 5 || Fulton: 12 townships. 392;/200 ||'..2-2see 5 Athens ; | Geauga: Hambden... 3, 000 6 4 Cangauiws.c..24s2-< 1,000 2-4 5 |, Hamilton: Springfield 17-500 | |zemoaeee 43 A biahaal ol (oir tanya mes 20} OO0u eames =| ee eee Harrison: Belmont | Short Creek........ 93000: |222 eee b) Goleralnicss se. 25 20; QO0s|Steccce ssc cess NEOCKe. ce dee Ns 2 A005 oceans 4-6 IRBABG Seer ce eee 83:000 |. .222s. 5 || Henry: Ridgeville -.. 25900) |eeseee 6 Pol the yens-2- acces 2b; O00 BS sees e senses Huron: Wialren 2. o52s6ce56 Bo OU0M es eel ereoeae | “Bronson. s cease: 15,500 (3) 5 Washington........ 40; 000! Vesecsie's s|aeeaonce Greenfield. .2. 2.2.26 4, 800 (3) 6 VOR isss22.2% feces 32, 000 16 5 Greenwich......... 64, 000 (3) 44 Columbiana Caecataoe ee 28,000 } = (8) 42-5 IRethye sto eeee eee ee i 25, 000 (3) 5 New Haven........ 50, 000 44 Ste@laingeseencee ee 20, 000 23 5 New London....... 40/000' |e. 2s22e— 44 Crawford: Town- Norwalk........... 25; 00022262285 |eeeeeene SDIDS:, seen eeon ee 355, 500 8-20 4-6 INOrTWwichs22—-e22-. 2 46,000) |2 2-2-6 4-5 Cuyahoga IP BRU eee nears 15, 000 (3) 43 Bedford............ 38,000 |occcunes 5-83 Richmond......... SL 000) |22 4 as= 6 Brecksville......... 19, 000 15 44 Ridgefield.......... 85;000-|- --s2 22 5 (Brook yale aches es: 7, 000 10 5) Sherman. ciccacl ots 40, 000 10 5 WOVGl. 22 a2eo eee 35,829") cos s2 en 44 Wakeman.......... 21,0008 Seeen eee 4-43 Lob (NGL Eee 32,161 24 44 || Jefferson: Sirinefeld. 24, 000 29 43 Independence. ..... 52000 -.-232c2 44-5 Knox: (Hillari- 2 222: 10;,000)\| Sessa. eel fence ae Mayiieldisse= 22225. $000! |2-- cece 43 || Lake: Olmsted Be easaecee 30,500 |2222-... 44 Painesville......... 45000. | eoeeemae 6 Orange. 225625252 32,600 |......-. 4% Willoughby........ 88,000) |o.25- 222 43 [PATI g Seen eee sae 16000" Se acon 43 orain: Rocky River....... 30, 900 8-16 | 4-43-5 Briphtonssesss-2sc2 14S0003 seeeee = 5 Royalton........... TAY Pa | ey oe oe 43-5 Columbia.......... 94,000) (Beene 43 Jo) fol ee eee ee ee 145000") serena 44 (Gratton. eee 40;.000):)2-cc.sccre 5 South Newburgh... OD; 000 saee eS ccciee PUD) BS sec nebo aseranctial bocuretocenal bendeatnas Wocanacess TERS) 52 52 cco 7s SE BOER AB EEO Seq >bSbee| SocSs soocgebe | Eossencose BessuRCaee 150, 000 30 5 iBinellas Meee sts sel ies coins o's 370, 000 30 8 (| Secor Soe] Ran neees on enessta ac iROMGe-sWanterhavenee aos 225 j2ce2 koe se TRANS eben obose| nee saesrecl SacHeaesceur GEaaseeacda em cobescoe Wal tone ereeseere esos kanes ose ee 10) 0003 fcc eee] Ea ese pee eee nne nr Perernenen atop.) Seta eee 1,240,000 |.........- | Eee DeGGSHO00| aes ee GEORGIA | | TBle@kle ype ee tte eo a Sito a oe IesScasse anes Eee cern [ye ams er ne $8, 000 30 5 Colqinitizeees: = sa5 228234 San2 ese ss oe behaves ey |aebpaicoanand ese sce ctor AQO} OOO) emetic oes STROM ap eA | ee errr Wires Sateen AQ SWOOO) exe pas Aes |e eye tae | | IDAHO PANG ANS cece eS Hapa Sey erais ais Stell ois cialeeicin.slace =| USemisecetelsie | eieie Sesacles = $200, 000 10-20 5 IB CansWAkOer omic cor onus ce osetia te $45, 000 20 TE lecaeeneuaaca) besaancsad tretaresac IROKD 5 Lois Sau ae OeE es aeee See eee EOROOO) | aera IS sie ce ere| tek secre a nae ee ice etee |e ce wee ee Canny Ont sa saan eieloe Sos eeetiets 47,620 10 Bl ba eose puedes acuanan aed kemoecacs se HremontseD IStiChals a= saab iateices| sire eo -si- | see asin ec|asceeenas 120, 600" 10-20 6 COUGINE. .650cq055cdesseasdeoesSeSeea npoooTetaeU4 acueeceseR beSaeaenan 160, 80) eae epdend lsveenssane Lincoln: SHOSHONEEasass soe ce at cescke sess 80, 000 10-20 GPalSeeteeceec | semen ne sane ee UIC GCE se scfyehe nee ce Seccm cise slam seicicee's oe) eiscce eines |senicaniseni= 50, 000 10-20 6 TP aay TRIAS Say a lp Ln fc a Ferien 3 100, 000 10-20 5k Ota etapa ea DANG DOI em eem eee |. eee! 6304000! Riper ane: |Paeae etaee 1 Bridges, $250,000. 2 Serial. 3 Bridges, $50,000. 64 BULLETIN 136, U. 5S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TaBLE 24.—County, district, and township highway and bridge bonds voted during 1912 and 1918—Continued. ILLINOIS. 1912 1913 Counties and districts. Townships. aveaae Term Inter Maat Term Tht voted. Me Ss voted Y est years rate. years. | rate. | (PeTCh (Perce: Carrolle sesso ee ee ss WWiOOGIAN GIL =soneelno sesso sect eeaaacelnesees ae SiS QOOY |e eres 5 WiysO Riese ose sics|Cacsee seo ae acess sential 3, 500 1-5 5 @rawiord--+---2eeseee eee eee Honey Creek... --. SIF AOOO tes aeen tees eek 35,000 | 20-25 5 LamOttes <2 eseese 20: 000s) sacs esse|a2 onsen 35,000 | 20-25 5 Oilomeg oo gales |e cpio eae) See 35,000 | 20-25 5 Robinsons =2- 2-22 Dh O00 eco eel oo See ssl eee een Seeman aes IDG ical ly ees ee Maltasoces-cs-scat 8, 500 2 D- dae acc PRG e |Seeeee eee eee DOUG ASa erase eee BOMOTG ecco e ee 35, 000 133) | Saisie sce Se ses eee eee RALSen brece sce 35, 0CO 2-7 By Voce cern clef ne steal oes erect HG Pate sucaee eee sees eee ane Elbridge... <225.2- 2; 500 Jon socc es Os ices ceklses Ee oeecs pees Embarrass......-- 35, 000 10 Di, [bike eee cel eee: ces eee Edwards: DD ISELIGH Once see eee Sora: | sala ee es alee s slam ermine] Oe eet emits eta coc mal ae anatase 3,000 2 6 Wi LTOMecs serena se Sean aoe eae Orion 2s 2 se. 2-2 7000) |paceeets BV eeewckets| peer cess eee Callohiniene cece es Sa Bowlesville....-.-- 1, 000 1-2 4G) Ss have sara| Aeron ares | eee eee Shawnee. .-2-...2. 7,000 1-5 A tl oui eee et Cees JECKSON See ec arene eae eee Carbondale......- 35, 000 3-5 By i iie torsos [ee eee | eee VellersOnie cess ceo soe e a Blissville1...-...: ESl0is eee ere ee 10) Desde Meee ae MALTINStON eee seen eee (tees Seer 500. Secs eee eee eee emia GG eee tats oe ate Ganeeri.s.s<-s3.05 Sy O00 §| sence eens Py ston Wace ete | aun Momence....-...-. B85 000i eon. cos eae 5-||Ses ee aoe Seen |e Yellowhead.....-. BD; O00 2eed2 |p eoncces |seeeeeeens Hee eeees | - eee Mp Salles ace searee. ck es Dteeh waa tel nip (oC s{cGe Seed Re eos oe ee | ee pee 2,000 1 5 WaWlONCss.¢ 204-4 22e ef 8 HD STII SOM sete | ele ee hare | eer aie Peete 35, 000 3! 5 SC csios cae esses cess ase ESTED Wetetspec eee es 22, 000 20 a 22,000 20 ff Chinn eer een as. ZR OOO sa cceae | taeee tes | Seem eer teers [eee ee | eee EIATINON Ane rel eee eae | ae | eee 3; 0000) Sees see |e VWiblae 2 oto eee ees | ore etcetera ee sacs 13, 000 1-13 53 [Pik Cet eres tote eas ae DEI yest ecs see 07070) eee eer ah Ree Beeree| eee sece Hadley eae 3, 000 3) 5) Ota sae Meteo eee alt sue oe ee tere | 424-700)|\s sone eeenee DER NEY gs berets jer Pea ane } INDIANA. AGATIS spite ve teen oe eee Saal we a nie era ete alee ee ee ee oe es ey ee $151, 550 10 44 BlueCreek. 2. sleec oe osc ee eels eee 15, 120 (2) 4h WON CH ae teres. | potest |s oe ee | eae 5, 280 (2) 43 Paritord 5. cec.ce2|* <2e 2p oenlao on cea = 8, 240 (3) 43 Strela eaten aes | See eeng toe eee gee 10,160 | (2) x IMGATO Baier 52 Meh eee ts ee cre [amas ae 25, 440 (2) 44 B33] 0) (seo ees See fy omens ot eal eee wl he ee 6, 560 (2) 43 RO0tis 2 aoctty gee ese ioe feel ehe a | ees 17,120 () 4 be MEATY Spero er | ee eee es |e eee 6, 400 (2) 4h Wabashise.c4 s.cnot |eoceascaac eos t ess 6oee Se 32,940 () 43 WOSHan SHON: © cet Sateen eee | eee ae 69, 740 (2) 4h STL ODLS 2 avers cx ctay erase eestor sha leiarale| seeale w'pieie e ote eat Pac | Crareter state ara | arta sane she tate ates 53, 840 10 44 Jackson........--- $36, 320 1-20 ALND. ciccichteel screencast Lafayette......... 22,800 | * 1-20 Ado) 5k ll ee or Madison.......... 35, 930 1-20 ee eee eee ree Maumee........-.. 30, 842 1-20 ae | ices 2 ore ate | ayaa pees | stator siete MOnTOe 2 =4en ones 8, 240 1-20 Pe Pe er ere seme — Bartholomew scons. 56-202 Townships........ S280627| se Sees ee eeeeee 79,216 | 3 10-20 43 Clittvis. =e acme seh 11,520 10 2a ere es eed ee se Flat Rock........ 5, 000 10 Ad ds ee |e Haw Creek........ 16, 500 10 a ae See ie 1 Bridge bonds only. 2 Six months. 3 Serial. HIGHWAY BONDS. 65 TaBLeE 24.—County, district, and township highway and bridge bonds voted during 1912 and 1913—Continued. INDIANA—Continued. 1912 1913 Counties and districts. Townships Ree gs erm Tater poate 1 ecm Inter- voted o est voted. Y est years. | rate years rate. Per ct Per ct. IDG. oo choo CdSe GOO C OSES SEES BER OGE CS PISE AE) ee a naan UremaeE << | Cte meee SU 5008 seee sees 43 GATE Be AR ere Sea aan I ads [italy aor 11, 156 10 4s TTI COT yA GTO ease | eee ee | ate ny Hops eee 2,926 10 4, Wa (e] of kena ko Ke 2.8 psy eey hi | bara ty Se eal eg 4 mes ee 1, 643 10 2 PS OTIC mmm et asap eteials sis laseinlais = aheicieeieiciecicveveieizicicie iene $145040): Sees |e oo: 39, 640 10 45 Perry pee ee 6, 000 10 alee ica S8 oa lh asl Eo Grp rarees Carroll Cass: Districts 1-3 (CIA K eee cosas Sesesee Decatur ‘af ale) o\—im imi! ol |= i= (= == sin =i =n | aalalavefetsteloteloia)aia =) =i2\o\alalel~ Howard Tehyaprtsepierntstace irae circ Mlnac. Fonpacceeessestcogenes 2 Bridges, $25,000. 52448°—15 5 lh een aE ae ae 122, 750 iContarae eaten see Montgomery 7 s-2e|e-2 220220. Patokaect samc selbice sores ors WMIOMS me eee we tele Townships. .-..-.- 550, 000 “White River......| 6,320. “Harrison..........| 7,100. Payloteise cts else ae 9, 200 Seite ake Maecenas hes 10, 200 Branidini7: ae 9, 200 Wind Ome ee yaya ifs |= ae sees EO TERN GY ia AROSE 52, 988 JACKSON Meas sere seen one “Hanging Grove...| 5,800 Kieeneree sare ane 18,000 ROWNSHips 2 see! ase eas Dig wisi peeeears | ou gen teas iDowushipss:2) 2) 2| ae Wancennes®: 2 eat | bee ana DEIR MUR EE ON 0 1,440 Bh Re HEN g0" agp: UpallCreelmemie Selb oi “Bourbon..........| 28,500. See RUS Or ape 30, 000 Baker seen eeeee eee 5,092 Wee NR) aoe 32, 550 erage Wao Way) 96, 319 PE aia hay ard 21, 000 1 Bridge bonds, $30,000. 4 Serial. * Bridge, $15, 000. 50, 000 Ciao cl Sea a 163,880 | 10-15 Baste | ee Be aha 100,000 | 10-20 Ra cl Fae ea 24, 000 10 pela Sahl eras tte 15, 200 10 Ease eet bahia Me 77, 300 10 cleat eel ies gece 5, 600 10 all ED PRE SL 26, 400 10 Bp ar a eipee Be 18,000 10 ee eal le 27, 300 10 10 ZEN ae rer el aa ies eet ea Loan 42, 499 10 GI Banta ea spe 2 35, 500 1-10 ysis alias sweet 43, 220 20 ieee Ae pane ee ee reat ieee ae ie oT alata Ream ae Piaht Pett ALN Se cen euiy al | Seyeeeet OA Eo ee ase 215, 000 10 10 43 39, 653 10 Lees |----.-.-| _ 22,495 10 US ree |sue 0 e82|| "3291640 10 10 Ae ene righ a rere 10 ARO LEE HS TiS Mite ee ba Malabar hee Rica 68, 910 10 Gin Teka ho ie 50,370 10 Sa acei SPA aals e 3, 000 20 peers ates 14, 300 10 Dep od i SESS Ie 93, 400 10 pias as ce NaS hae Se 189, 360 10 10 ARG (Naas teehee cars Pir iculhis a ee 208, 000 20 10 Asie |e ee alana at Meese Weasley nee 76, 120 410 Leesa ae aie 6, 240 20 SORE OR 5 228,000 | 10-20 PRN HE RNES Oe IEEE 57,000 15 15 ZOE | Need eee I ean See tener ian pete AESOON Pea aee TION a oe oe es cl ee 10-20 43 70,880 | 10-20 10 42| 48,200 10 9,000 10 5 Bridge, $200,000. 66 BULLETIN 136, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie 24.—County, district, and township highway and bridge bonds voted during 1912 and 1913—Continued., INDIAN A—Continued. 1912 1913 Counties and districts. Townships. 7 Amount eta ee Amount tom il voted. years rate. voted, years rate. Per ct | Per ct OWI a garaicette acts cet ations ofa | tre eteteee se paces | seeeee me elee eae ear asrase $24, 159 20 ; iGO eee a= $8, 972 40 Ae |eSs cee Sesloecet ee Sees eee Rarkeen geese caer ee eee SAAS TIS! 2 oe cece | SOL ahs te ao ee |e 22, 658 10) |e HROETYisreayearteaiio tose ee ee ee GOTO Veen ears 73, 000 20 Ae | odissiie nora pid nee ee ete eee IPG Gas isos ates oars aio tbieve x Seneers Townships fas geceale sso estan arise eae cieeee aes 21, 000 20 64 Pina wDistrictslasicqsee=--|soace ce onsen eee fee eae [eee sels ee ae 58, 689 10 44 RUS ie core Sessions ese lee sore ec aS Sa oes eoeme acne oe someon cionee 259,000 | 10-20 43 Walkers. 2..-2---- 39) 800! |i o-.2--- 4b |e oe |e s Sage ee Dt VOSOPU ease ck eects soeeiciae ol eeiem.c Shee ew estes mircle 60, 000 16 4 24, 000 10 43 NCObls acces ase aeck aaes oes JONWINES ose seee= 8, 000 10 $) | Seeesasees [Stee aces eeeese Sle Dysian seem cond asere nal Cae serps tees Saree lhe eyes eel eeemee sleeve ea. 80, 000 20 44 Shelbyville......-.- 51,940 |.-...--- 4% 28, 920 20 4h 15] 03) 0\6{29 Bee a ee ee eee OHIO s cc622-356200e 14 S20 iw not coclenseo55-|feteset ees eaeaee aaa SUATKOs est | “voted. of est years. | rate. years rate Per ct erick IBATNStA DIO. Asses ee cek ec n ses) e nee emane coe ema sees | Sacseas aoe cice cece s|vatesene $145 000 i/o teen s2aencenses Berkshiret se so. 2 Se sale [See oan | aaa sete laeike See's lt cracatt 5,000 1-2 4 Bristol’. S24. 2622-5282 asase North Attleboro ..| $6,000 1-6 4 7,000 1-3 43 PIBSGX ote: Seu eee? Ree eid Mix aoe eae en | enters eas Be oe ke 120,000) |!s2e2 ete. oceans aM pden's.22¢ a2cs2sccceane ee TRUISSELI a eee ae D000 jeesasnes Gl cee taeatios eoeee ens lee Middlesex. <2... ecs ss cactaes Billerica... 222-5 <2 9000 |e wisen.c.6| Scie dict elecsee sccas Seeneces peceeres NATICK GU so: so ee oee eae yes eee a eee | eis oo | one see |eeemoees 20,000 5 Nantucket........ 20, 000 10 B lacecvcvems|ooceeeenlecesanes IN OFfOl? oes eae rst ee nae nectar wets aes one (a eee ees [ear aaaa| Sacer 50, 000 2) 4.92 Millis Gee 2 Speen 2, 400 3 Ae wncetrcteae! | eames | aeons IPT ym OU tll oe cece ter rete nel eerie te Seiteealesacee esses a le caare cis seernee 205000) |- Se en 4 Mota esse en ee ee See aera AD 200i: eros ae 236; 000 Eee sse sel nee eee | ; MICHIGAN. PATA UMMM ns oe eee beets Sek DBatiksye- eee: semen) tine pers ee ree |e ates $20, 000 420 5 Central Lake@s.222 3) 2252-222 be chelsea ee 20,000 | sees eecelee eee IBATALR. Scod fee cae cam tis sicte == AT WOH oc Sosa s see 110, 0008/2222 0cc|\nsee oleae | seen IBONZIG: eae tee seh ee ees Crystalbakes. asad ale 2 ey ee 2 ee ee 20;000)) 2253-28 |e=oo soe PB Grrsan fae PhO gain ee S| ae 9 | oe A en ae | 500,000 15 4 SuLO WOSII DS. oe 285 |oetctect nna |s esses ieee site 30; 000) Seeecmee | ecrerotetsiors GLE Stet ca octets = ots iaiate's stele) tats Se gp Aeveatetnsina > wat 100, 000 (*) ll Gees percnece pesesece MmMImeto. : 23-5 ea eekk ech eel eee geoeect ese oseses eae ne rei eae | 225,000 |..-....-|---.--.- Cr ONCSEB aaa secuce a sass eccns | mc Semens Sees Sere | 500,000 20 43 200,000 +10 4h (OP CII ERE otro emicim ce eae |'s es aeae Hee cees = sate 150, 000 10 Ay) cictew ose e8 (serine actrees Grand Traverse .-25. se s) “Riverdale; Ni Joes. 2 oes sees 26, 240 14 | 33,487.76 | 31.3 68. 7 2,260 | 4,950 ie 210 15 | Westwood, N.J........----- | 6,260 14| 8,225.83] 20.2 | 79.8 | 1,500| 5,940] 7,440 16 |. Franklin, N. 4 ft eon aa or See 8, 400 14 16, 199. 90 59.7 40.3 6, 520 4, 400 10, 920 V7 | Gumiiit, Nedsss. ss. c.. bee | 9,770 14 | 17}352.93 | 41.2 | 58.8 | 4,140) 5,900| 10,040 18 Lumberton, NOD eer ect ee ei 2, 060 14 | 31,110.00 5.1 94.9 440 | 8,110 8, 550 19 | Westfield, N. A eh ee ee 16, 470 14 | 32, 745. 23 19.8 80.2 2,230 | 9,010 ihe 240, 20 | West Fairfield, N.J........- | 11, 160 16 | 17,494.24 | 12.5 | 87.5 970 | 6,780 | 7,750 21 | Westville; N. J. ..cb2.2.-5 0. 7, 750 16 | 11,104.20 | 25.0 | 75.0 | 1,780] 5,330| 7,110 22 |. Harrison Street, N.J....:--- 6, 860 16 | 10,549.60 | 30.5 69.5 2,320 | 5,280 7 600 QSileWiaLCH UNE IN WW iccee see ot 4) 650 16 | 17,074.76 | 63.3 36.7 | 11,510} 6,670 | 18,180 24 | High Street, N.J..........-. | 5,240 16 | 10,817.30 | 44.3 | 55.7 | 4,530 | 5,690] 10,220 25 Whitehouse, ING Wt osec ocstede | 34,190 14 | 52,982.30 | 28.0 72.0 2,460 | 6,310 8, 770 OG Mira Ni Ui creehen bo. nore | 6,280 14| 9,329.38] 18.6.| 81.4 | 1,560] 6,840] 8,400 97 | Brunswick, N. J........--...| 19,540 16 | 34,663.66 | 22.6 | 77.4 | 1,980] 6,800] 8,780 28 | Colonia, N. i Be Oy Cee eS ae 8, 400 14 | 14,444.61 33. 4 66. 6 3, 250 6, 470 9, 720 99 | Cranbury, N.J.......-...--- 5, 300 14| 7,059.80] 14.6 | 85.4 | 1,100] 6,430] 7,530 30 ran ee Avenue, N. J. 5, 910 16 | 10,698.87 | 14.0 86.0 1,250) 7,690 8, 940 31 | Main Street, Woodbridge, N. a 9, 240 14 | 19,271.27 42.1 57.9 4,970 | 6,830 11, 800 32 | State St., Perth Amboy,N.J. 7,180 14 | 10,995.50 | 27.9 | 72.1 | 2,420| 6,250} 8,670 33 | River Road CCA EN lee | 8, 760 14 | 17,157.42 | 33.1 66.9 3,660 | 7,410 11, 070 34 | River Road “B oo N. Teen. each =| 15, 620 14 | 32,805.66 | 39.1 60.9 4, 630 7,220 11, 850 35 | Jamesburg, No ee ence oe = 15, 100 14 | 24,102.39] 20.4 | 79.6 | 1,840] 7,190]. 9,030 36 | Manalapan, N.J............- | 1,400 14] 3,616.45) 17.5 | 82.5 | 2,560] 12,060] 14,620 37 | Rumson Road, N. J.-.......-| 4,010 16 9, 123. 39 19.4 | 80.6 2,180 | 9,070 11, 250 38 | Eatontown (2d), N. J ....-.-- 17, 480 14 | 25,988.28 | 21.1 78.9 1,780 6, 640 8, 420 39) | Allentown) Nie Jiascesc.cese2 5 040 18 | 10,664.37 | 13.1 86.9 1,220 | 8,090 9,310 40 |‘Midvale, N.J_.......--..-.-- | 16, 530 16 | 43,422.05 | 71.9 | 28.1 | 9,350] 3,660] 13,010 Al Mea COpins Nic tac ose ce oe ete | 9, 820 14 | 20,544.09 | 66.1 33.9 7, 820 4,010 11, 830 42 | South Bound Brook, N. J. 11, 880 14. |*- 21; 113.73 41.2 | 58.8 4,140 | 5,910 10, 050 43 | Dead River, N.J./........-- “| 11/190 14 | 18,589.99 | 29.5 | 70.5 | 2,770 | 6,620] 9,390 44 | North Broad ptreet, JN. Ji. 5, 050 16 | 15, 801. 63 30.1 69.9 4,670 | 10,830 15, 500 45 | Terrill Road, N.J.........-- | 5,300 16 | 8,054.08} 28.9 | 71.1 | 2,170] 5,350] 7,520 1909. 46 | Brewer, Me... 5.222652. 1,575 24 1,486.75 | 12.7 87.3 390 | 2,720 3,110 47 | Calais, Me OER er Pee 2, 100 21 1,811.65 | 20.4 79.6 660 2,590 3, 250 48 Camden, DM ie ee es 750 30 1,712.52 | 50.9 49.1 3,070 | 2,960 6, 030 49 | Caribou, ANG el el ee 533 Sib YLOGs00 2 1836 86.4 610 | 3,840 4, 450 50 | Dexter, "Me wicucdacessse eet te 675 19 1, 009. 30 55.3 44.7 3, 430 2, 780 6, 210 51 | Eden, Me EA ete tame meres Soret 1, 100 24 3,012.18 | 50.7 49.3 4,580 | 4,450 9, 030 52'| Gardiner, Me. ....-.2..-2-. 4 1, 200 21 3,038.32 | 26.3 load 2,510 | 7,030 9, 540 53°} Houlton, Me.....2.22.2s5...2 1, 500 21); 2,499.73 | 50.5 49.5 3,170 | 3,100 6, 270 54 | Rumford, Me................ 6, 831 20} 7,364.80] 32.5 | 67.5 | 1,380] 2,880| 4,260 DO) | Sa COM MLO set oe ook nn. eee ee 775 35 | 2,060. 80 14.6 85.4 880 | 5,150 6, 030 56 Skowhegan, Meee. cee .ce8 1, 550 15 2,134. 85 48. 2 51.8 3, 500 3, 760 7,260 57 | South Portland, Mes. 208-55 525 25 1, 420. 34 aR HY) 86.3 1,190 | 7,370 8, 560 58° | Waterville. Me... 2.32 .-2 1,300 40 | 2,726.40 8.5 91.5 350 | 3,800 4,150 59 | Yesler Way, N.J....-.....-. 14, 020 14 | 18,850.72 | 32.9 67.1 2,500 | 5,100 7,600 60 | Valley Road, N. J. pera ciacaeo es 16, 530 14 15, 409.85 | 25.4 74.6 1,340 | 3,940 5, ” 980 61 | Bridge Street, Neco st ee 700 16 2 374 79 | 36.5 63.5 6,140 | 10,720 16, 860 62 Whitehouse, N. 7 ee 30, 980 14 | 42,934.46 41.0 59. 0 3,210 4, 630 7,840 63 | North Crosswicks, Nese 1,160 16 | 2,354.95 iA) 89.0 1,100 | 8,980 10, 030 64 | Cheesequakes Creek, Ne Jie 10, 400 14 | 33,366.90 | 57.0 43.0 10,340 | 7,810} 18,150 65 | Jamesburg, N. J......-..-..- 6, 970 14 | 10,782. 65 Shi) 90.1 860 | 7,890 8, 750 1 See footnote 1, Table 28, p. 86. HIGHWAY BONDS. 89 TaBLE 29.1—Table showing cost elements of water-bound macadam roads for years 1908-1911—Continued. Percentage of | Cost per mile of equiva- cost. lent 15-foot width. fiocation: Length} Width | Total cost Dein rains f (feet). | (feet). | of work. age age and See and Sage Total. grad- 8- | grad- g | ing. ing. 1909—Continued. | | IKG\ OOH IN EG daeboccsSeepesoe 6, 340 | 16 |$16, 850.21 | 53.7 46.3 | $7,070 | $6,100 | $13,170 PRenn’s/Grove,N.J..-------- ) 15, 950 16 | 26,599.42 | 20.5 79.5 1,690 | 6,560 8, 250 Aterantll (1b) IN ed on aGAsetacaone 620 14] 1,014.17] 21.8 78.2 2,010 | 7,200 9, 210 Green Brook, N. J....-..---- | 6,120 14 | 12,469.55 | 43.8 56. 2 5,050 | 6,470 | 11,520 Washington Valley, N.J...-. 10,940 14 | 26,714.22 | 60.4 | 39.6 | 8,510] 5,570] 14,080 Mramkctordy Ne wiicnc 222-6. 18, 240 14 | 34,747.92 | 47.7 52.3 5,140 | 5,640 | 10,780 (MOTTIS AN i0ie ete dass oe | 6,180 16 | 11,210.09 | 50.1 49.9 4,500 | 4,480 8, 980 New Brunswick, N.J....---| 3,960 16 | 10,246.74 | 46.7 53.3 5,980 | 6,830 | 12,810 | 1910. | PANT STISL A IMIG Uses arte Arce a | 585 21 831. 12 4.4 95.6 240 | 5,110 5, 350 BathweMGz eens. secciecc ccs e: | 1,680 20 | 2,370.50 | 31.5 68.5 1,760 | 3,830 5, 590 Biddeford Mert eee sete. as. 1, 324 21 | 2,625.50 | 18.9 81.1 1,410 | 6,070 7, 480 IBTO WED MGs Uae es oes | 1,500 40 | 1,996.84 | 39.9 60.1 1,050 | 1,590 2, 640 Calais, TKS 1,400 21 | 1,625.53 | 39.9 60.1 1,740 | 2,630 4,370 Caribou Mier eee eee 773 27 | 2,234.00 |. 44.9 55.1 3,810 | 4,670 8, 480 TDG) A Cy ae 455 36 | 1,222.56 | 23.8 | 76.2 | 1,410] 4,500] 5,910 Fort Fairfield, Mie Sts joes i 832 32 | 1,487.00) 49.7 50. 3 2,200 | 2,220 4, 420 Hreeport,, Me e222 225200220. 700 21 | 1,230.74 | 33.9 66.1 2,250 | 4,380 6, 630 Hallowell, Me... -..-.-.----- 437 39 | 1,240.90 | 17.2 82.8 990 | 4,770 5, 760 Houlton Me 68) is 22213) | 1,400 22 | 2,252.00] 33.4 | 66.6 | 1,930] 3,850] 5,780 Ue iG eRe Seeeee aSieesasaal 1, 150 21 | 1,235.56 | 19.0 81.0 770 | 3,280 4, 050 Oldtown Mere ee ee ee | 1,005 21] 1,821.93 | 32.6 67.4 2,230 | 4,600 6, 830 Rumford Melee = 2 ee | 4,320 23 | 6,227.56 | 25.6 74.4 1,270 | 3,690 4, 960 Benwack. Mes ers cites icissiars el | 800 21 | 1,016.94 | 27.0 73.0 1,300 | 3,500 4,800 1911. | Brunswick, Me 21 | 1,836.82] 25.7 74.3 1,370 | 3,950 5, 320 CaribousiMer Sess ccc ca 46; 1,406.24 | 30.4 69.6 2,210 | 5,060 7,270 Hallowell, Me.....-..---- a 20} 1,080.00] 19.2 80.8 1,640 | 6,910 8, 550 Moulton Mele eee | 21 | 2,667.10] 21.5 | 78.5 | 1,270] 4,640! 5,910 OlditowmsMen sees -2 2-522 -- 22 | 1,829.07} 42.9 57.1 3,530 | 4, 700 8, 230 Rumford; Mest. = 22... 2 23 | 2,604.47 | 18.5 81.5 1,480 | 6,500 7,980 AVWilltomM Monee tecsse- seas. Jee 21} 1,311.21 | 28.7 71.3 1,180 | 2,920 4,100 1910. IRAN OCS INEM) sane stesso ee | 21,550 14 | 36,425.67 | 31.6 68. 4 3,020 | 6,540 9, 560 AS OIE; ING Ugeoenacue secaeee | 5,280 14 | 7,500.00 | 34.4 65.6 2,770 | 5,270 8, 040 MainStreet Ned. 222002227 | 68, 800 14 | 15,810.67 | 43.2 56.8 5,620 | 7,380 | 13,000 mramictord News ccc oo. sees 18, 250 14 | 34,747.92 | 47.7 52.3 5,140 | 5,630 | 10,770 1911. | Smalley’s Corner, N. J....... 16, 860 15 | 22,759.49 | 24.1 75.9 1,890 | 5,960 7, 850 Brunswick, N.J.-.....2..--- 5, 340 16 | 10,450.65 | 15.4 84.6 1,490 | 8,200 9, 690 MardvillewNe de es sone: 18, 000 14 | 32,396.84 | 15.5 | 84.5 160 860 | 1,020 Greater Cross Roads, N.J....| 10,470 14 | 20,633.71 | 29.6 70. 4 3,300 | 7,850] 11,150 IB UTiZVvalleyiNe mess note see 19, 420 14 | 31,371.99 | 37.6 62. 4 3,430 | 5,700 9, 130 Total and weighted | | | AVELALESS eases 2137. 51 | 15 | 8,688.00 | 36.89 | 63.11 | 3,400] 5,815 9,215 1See footnote 1, Table 28, p. 86. 2 Miles 90 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 30.!—Table showing cost elements of bituminous-macadam roads for 1908-1911 Percentage of | Cost per mile of equiva- cost. lent 15-foot width. s . Length | Width | Total cost or : No. Location. (feet). | (eet). | ofwork. Pea pa and ee and | Surfac- Total. grad- | 78: | graq- | M™8- ing. ing. 1908. 1 | Kennebunk, Me...........-. 426 27 | $1,597.30 | 25.3 74.7 | $2,780 | $8,220 | $11,000 2 Waterville; Mei? 22s22:s.ca-s 760 46] 3,565.18 | 11.5 88. 5 930 | 7,150 8, 080 1909. | i 3 | Camden, N.J......-.-.-.---| 12, 693 14 | 29,043.42 | 28.3 | 71.7 3,660 | 9,290} 12,950 4 | Evesham, N.J.3...........-- | 12, 838 14 }) 22,649.61} 20.8 ) 79.2 | 2,080; 7,910] 9,990 6 | Hopewell, N. J:25.--.22:--222 | 10,720 18 | 16,121.40} 21.0 79.0 1,390 | 5, 230 6, 620 6 | Trenton, N.J.............-- Naigs22% 16 | 24,509.44] 20.3 | 79.7 | 1,870] 7,320] 9,190 Ué Helmetta, NGS toe ee ee | 14, 271 14 | 21,375.59 | 11.3 88. 7 960 7,510 8, 470 § Plainsboro, INGA eee toe ee | 12,992 14 | 21, 596. 57 13.7 86.3 1,290 | 8,100 9, 390 9 | Terrill, N. J biepee aries saree | 9,982 16 | 26,404.08 | 37.2 62.8 4,870 | 8,230 13. 100 108} Btvoutswure, Ned sesaeecse sos - | 10,845 14 | 19,741.90 | 22.0 78.0 2,270 | 8,030 10, 300 Diy) BodgarvNos: 2522.2 2t ee. seee 17, 526 16 | 42, 424. 74 25.0 75.0 2,990 | 8,990 1 980 12 | Washington Avenue, N.J .- =| 6, 125 16 | 14,230.20 | 23.4 76.6 2,690 | 8,810 | 11,500 13. Walnut Avenue, N.J.....-.| 6,313 16 | 15, 868. 00 19.7 80.3 2,450 | 9,990 | 12,440 | 1910. | 14%) Belfast, Me.45- 3. 55222 esees oe | 580 ai} 1,990758. | 4857 56.3 5,670 | 7,310} 12,980 15 | Coffin’ 8 Corners No Jee css222- | 11, 866 14 | 25, 188. 87 14.8 85. 2 1, 780 10, 220 | 12,000 16 | Nicholson, N. J fod cet sotieasell 6, 532 14 | 13, 168. 82 14.6 85. 4 1, 660 9, 740 | 11,400 17 | Brown’s Corner, Nee. soe) 8: 60 14 | 20,468.00 | 24.3 75.7 3,270 | 10,180 | 13,450 18 | Runnymeade, N. Ji Secstes Ses | 8,984 16 | 19,408.76 | 30.9 oR 3,310 e 390 | 10, 700 19 Mountain, N. J scGn dessa ctisse 325 16 561. 00 5.0 95.0 430 | 8,190 8, 620 20 | River Road, N.J.......-.--.) 6, 458 16 | 13,705.67 | 13.7 | 86.3 | 1,440] 9,070 510 21 | Kingston, N.J.....-...-..--- | 3,805 14| 6,555.88] 17.9 | 82.1 | 1,740] 8,000] 9,740 22 | Somerset Street, N.J........| 2,040 14 4,252. 27 45.5 54.5 5,380 | 6,440} 11,820 23 | Seventh Street, N. J......... 8, 700 14 | 15,213.40 | 14.4 | 85.6 | 1,390] 8,290] 9,680 24°) Morris Plains, Noy. c...2.cep, formula (26) reduces to the important particular case fe J/p borne (27) TAD TCR Dime rea where a; is to be taken at 7/p per cent. Example 15.—To find the half yearly payment at 5% compounded semiannually which will discharge both principal and interest on a loan of $100,000 in three years. By formula (27) with n=3, p=2, a loan of 1 will be discharged, both principal and interest, in three years by a semiannual payment of il az (taken at 24%) = 1815500, and the loan of $100,000 will. be discharged in like manner by .1815500 X $100,000 =$18, 155.00. 102 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Installment annuity loan.—The preceding example shows how the function 1/a, may be employed to determine the periodical fixed payment which in 7 years will discharge both principal and interest on a loan. It is to be noted particularly that the lender receives interest throughout the term of the loan on all outstanding principal. The following schedule, based on the above example, illustrates the progress of the loan. ScHEeDuLE J.—Showing repayment of principal and interest on a loan of $100,000 by six equal semiannual payments, each of $18,155; interest 5 per cent, compounded semi- annually. . ea Mh Lael Pete Sar eee er Principal repayment Year. ing a ee ol Interest for interval. |Semiannual payment.| +! for ree ip 2 4 $100, 000. 00 $2, 500. 00 $18, 155. 00 S15, 655. 00 1 84, 345. 00 2, 108. 63 18, 155. 00 16, 046. 37 1g 68, 298. 63 1, 707. 47 18, 155. 00 16, 447. 53 2 51, 851. 10 1, 296. 28 18, 155. 00 16, 858. 72 24 34, 992. 38 874. 81 18, 155. 00 17, 280. 19 3 ie loo 1 442.81 18, 155. 00 | ALG Vale, Als) Totals 357,199.30 | 8, 930. 00 108, 930. 00 100, 000. 00 The initial invested principal of $100,000 earns $2,500 interest dur- ing the first half year; the first payment of $18,155.00 takes care of this and there remains a balance of $15,655.00 which goes to reduce the outstanding principal to $84,345.00, beginning with the second half year. This process is repeated until the end of the third year, when the last outstanding principal is retired. When preparing such aschedule, the work can be checked by adding the columns. It is evi- dent from the nature of the calculations that, for example, if the first row were omitted from this schedule, the remaining five would repre- sent the schedule for a loan of $84,345.00 on the same terms as the original loan, except that it would be discharged in two and one-half years by five equal semiannual payments. It must therefore be the present value of the five payments, that is, 51x SIOO,000 $84,345.00, where the annuities are taken at 24 per cent. Similarly, by succes- sively employing aq, ay, @y, and aj, all at 24 per cent, as multi- pliers, the figures in the first column of principal outstanding at the beginning of the interval could be obtained. When these are known, the figures in the second column are obtained by multiplying the cor- responding figures in the first column by the interest rate for the interval, .025; in the fourth, by successive subtractions of the figures HIGHWAY BONDS. 103 in the first; and in the third, by adding those in the second to those _in the fourth as a check. Generalization of the annuity loan.—The preceding discussion can most easily be generalized by considering the loan of aq dollars where both principal and interest at effective rate 1 per annum are discharged by equal annual installments of 1 at the end of each year for n years. The initial principal is aq; the interest, ia,,=1—v"; the annual payment, 1, of which 1— (1—v") =v” is applied to repayment of principal. But ai—v"=a;=q; hence the outstanding principal at the beginning of the second year is a=, as might have been predicted in advance. A repetition of this process leads to the fol- lowing schedule: ScuEpDULE II.—Showing repayment of principal and interest at effective rate i per annum on a loan of a, by equal annual payments of 1 at the end of each year for n years. Principal een F : : Annual pay- Principal r outstanding Interest due at - . : Year. aeeeatn: & | enact ean IMeHE Bt end neve G at ning of year. | of year. end of year. = | 1 an 1—yn 1 un 2 ena ba L Wier 3 On=>] Lo"? 1 ee k an —KFI| L—ynT-kt 1 pn-ks1 n ayy Ey 1 v Totals ; (n—a,)/t N—Oz n a] Since this is a schedule for a loan of aj, if each item in it, apart from those in the column headed “year,” is divided by a” and multiplied by L, there results the corresponding schedule for a loan of Z dollars. For example, the items on a loan of Z dollars for the kth year would be DOnze/ Ani, L'—v"—) fan, L/an, Ler tan. (28) There are some curious properties revealed by the above schedule, among which the following may be pointed out. The principal repayments on an annuity loan increase in geometrical progression, the factor being 1+7. The sum of these repayments is aq; the sum of the annual payments is n; the total interest is n—a,; and the check on the first and second columns shows that Qi Oia ct Gg iatciie vat) ek se + aq) =N— aq. It is apparent that most of the items in the schedule can be filled in directly from the a and v" tables. Having thus filled in each 104 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. number, it would be necessary only to multiply each item by L/a*! to obtain the corresponding schedule for a loan of L. If in the preceding discussion year is replaced by «interval, the schedule may be made to apply to loans repaid by equal install- ments at the end of each interval. Relation between annuity which 1 will purchase and sinking fund which will amount to 1.—The important relation +4 (29) an Sn) can easily be verified by substitution of the values of 1/a” and 1/s"| expressed in terms of 7, by formulas (25) and (15). The relation (29) merely expresses the fact that the annual rent, 1/a4 on the annuity which 1 will purchase, must include, not only the interest 7 on the unit so invested, but also a sinking fund, 1/s“, which will accumulate to the invested unit at the end of the term of the annuity. Application to bond calculations.—An important application of the theory of compound interest and annuities arises in the valua- tion of bonds. First to determine the value of a bond issue redeem- able in one sum on a given date, with interest, or dividends, on the outstanding bonds at rate g, and all computed, or valued, so as to yield the purchaser a given effective rate of interest 7. Consider an issue of $100,000 highway bonds, denomination $500, dated January 1, 1914, maturing January 1, 1948, interest 5 per cent, payable annually. The annual interest, or dividends, on these bonds is 5 per cent, and the bonds are redeemed at the end of 34 years. Suppose an intending purchaser desires to pay a price which will yield a net income of 3 per cent on his investment; how much ought he to bid ? This is the nature of the general problem. If the purchaser desires to realize 5 per cent on his investment, he must bid $100,000 for the bonds, or $1 for each dollar to be redeemed. If, however, he is content with 3 per cent, more than $100,000 must be paid for the bonds, that is, more than $1 for each dollar to be redeemed. In this case the bonds are said to be bought at a premium; if less than $1 is paid for each dollar to be redeemed, the bonds are said to be bought at a discount. In the general case, let C denote the price to be paid on redemption; i, the effective rate of interest employed in the valuation of the bonds, which is the net wcome rate to the purchaser; g, the ratio of the dividend per annum to (; ”, the number of years after which the bonds are redeemed; KA, the present value of C, due n years hence, HIGHWAY BONDS. 105 at the effective rate of interest 7; and A, the present value of, or bid _on, the bonds. In the above illustration C=100,000, and n=34. The dividend or interest per annum is 5,000. Hence g=5,000/100,000=.05. Returning to the general problem, the value of the bonds, so far as the purchaser or holder is concerned, consists of two parts: 1. The annual interest, or diidend, to be recewed. 2. The sum to be redeemed at the end of n years. Hence, to find the present value, A, of the bonds, the present value of each of these parts must be determined and added together. The interest per unit of the redemption price Cis, by definition, g; if the interest on 1 unit is g, the interest on CunitsisgC. Hence at the end of every year for n years the holder will receive g@ units. Dividend Redemption payment, C payments gC gv gC gC | 1 i 2 is n—1 yrs. n yrs. It is evident that these interest or dividend payments of g@ at the end of every year constitute an immediate annuity-certain of annual rent gC and term of n years. The value of such an annuity with annual rent 1 is a; hence the value of the annuity with annual rent gC is gC Ti) where a; is to be taken at the rate of interest 7 to be employed in the valuation of the bonds, a rate which in general is different from g, the rate of dividend. By formula (5), the present value of the sum C, to be redeemed In ” years, is v™=C. Adding these parts together, the result is A=v.'+ gCaz. Substituting in this relation the value of az given by formula (19), it follows that A= +2(C—w0). Since, by definition, K=v"C, the bid is given by Ae: £(C-K) (30) and the premium by AAC =(C- ieee (31) 106 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. If in formula (31) the total sum to be redeemed is regarded as unity, then C=1 and K=7", the present value of 1 due in n years, and there results (—w) ° (g—@)=14+ g-da,- (32) In this formula az is taken at 7 per cent, and gives the bid on a bond where the sum to be redeemed is 1. Denoting the excess of A over 1 by k, which is called the premium, formula (382) becomes k= (g-ba®, (33) where the 7 per cent over the symbol a; means that the function is to be taken from the 7 per cent annuity table. This is the fundamental formula in bond calculations. It admits of a very simple interpretation, for it states that the premium on a bond is equal to the present value of an m year annuity at 7 per cent whose annual rent is the excess (g—7) of the nominal rate of dividend of the bond over the effective rate of interest 7, desired to be realized by the investor. Unit redeemed, 1 Unit invested, 1 i i i i Lyre : 2 yrs. n—1 yrs. n yrs. Premium, ke 4 gt g—t g-i The dividend paid each year on each unit of the bond to be redeemed is g, which may be divided into two parts,7 and g—7. For the first part the investor pays 1-and in return receives interest of 7 each year and the 1 is redeemed at the end of n years. For the second part the investor pays the premium, ’=(g—7)az, and this is repaid, both principal and interest at rate 2, in n equal annual installments of (g—7). A portion of each installment goes toward the repayment of the premium k which is eventually reduced to zero. This is called the amortization oc writing off of the premium. It is thus seen that, if £ is positive, the bond is bought at a premium; and if k is negative, it is bought at a discount. Since aq is always positive, it appears from formula (33) that the sign of k will be posi- tive when g is greater than 7, or when the rate of dividend is greater than the rate of interest used in valuation; conversely, when g is less than 2, & 1s negative. Example 16.—To find the bid on the highway bond mentioned on page 104, on the hypothesis that the purchaser wishes to realize 3% on his investment. Consider a dollar (unit) of the loan C=100,000. Here n=34, g=.05, +=.03, and by formula (33), ? k= (.05—.03)a37? =.02 X21.1318367 =.422636734 or the premium is slightly over 42 cents on the dollar. Since for each dollar of the loan the purchaser must pay $1.422636734, for the whole loan of $100,000 he must pay 1.422636734 < $100, 000=$142 263.67. HIGHWAY BONDS. 107 Dividends payable and interest,convertible semiannually.— When the net income interest rate desired by the investor is nominal, Say Jim), and the dividends per unit of the sum to be redeemed are paid in m equal installments, g/m, during the year, it is evident that it is a case of m times n intervals with g/m as dividend and j/m as the effective rate of interest per interval. Hence formula (33) becomes jue (g—J ‘gq lime : (34) Ve a In particular, if the net income is 7g), and the dividend payments are semiannual, GD) 512% k= pay al es (35) This formula provides for the valuation of all bonds, redeemed in one sum at the end of a term of m years and with semiannual dividends. Particular attention is called to the fact that the annuity must be taken for the term 2n, and at the rate of interest 7/2. Example 17.—What is the bid on $100,000 highway 5% bonds maturing at the end of 3 years, interest payable semiannually, to net purchaser a nominal rate of 4% con- vertible half-yearly? Here n=3, g=.05, j=.04, m=2, and formula (35) gives zs eODier 02) a=? =.005 X5.6014309=.0280071545. kh Hence the premium on $100,000 is $2,800.72, and the corresponding bid is $102,800.72. The progress of this bond loan is illustrated in the following schedule. ScHEDULE III. | Book velne 0: Statbrain Pe aaa Orie Redemption ete rincipal at be- "A ivide ti - | payment at | Year. | ginning of half | interest of Digaotim ie le titemet era) | endif nale year. | £05 bonds. | of half-year. year. 4 | $102, 800. 72 | 32, 056. O01 $2, 500. 00 $443. 99 0. 00 aL 102, 356. 73 De OATS | 2, 500. 00 452. 87 0. 00 13 101, 903. 86 2,038.08 | 2,500.00 | 461. 92 0. 00 2, 101, 441.94 | 2,028.84 | 2, 500. 00 471.16 0. 00 24 100, 970. 78 2,019.42 | 2,500.00 480. 58 0. 00 3 100, 490. 20 2, 009. 80 | 2, 500. 00 490. 20 $100, 000. 00 Totals 609, 964. 23 | 12, 199°28 15,000.00 | 2,800.72 100, 000. 00 At the outset the holder has an investment of $102,800.72 upon which, at 2 per cent, at the end of the first half-year, $2,056.01 interest is due; the dividend payment of $2,500.00 then made on the bonds provides for this interest and a balance of $443.99 remains, which is applied to amortize or write off the premium so that the book-value, or invested principal, is reduced to $102,356.73 at the beginning of the second half-year. This process continues for three years until the entire premium of $2,800.72 is written off and the bonds are redeemed by the payment of $100,000. The various columns are added and the checks upon these totals are obvious. 108 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Example 18.—What is the bid on $100,000 highway 3% bonds maturing at the end of 3 years, interest payable semiannually, to net purchaser a nominal rate of 4% con- vertible half-yearly? Here n=3, g=.03, 7=.04, m=2, and formula (35) gives (.08—.04) 2”, k= 5 — i 9 4 = — .005X 5.6014309= — .0280071545. Hence the discount on $100,000 is $2,800.72, and the corresponding bid is $97,199.28, The progress of this bond loan is illustrated in the following schedule. ScHEDULE IV. Book value or Raa ’ Aceumulati Redempti oar prinetpal at seater ae al pare pe of discount P ae a itd beginning o terest of 2%. 107 : at end o tend of pines | 14% on bonds. half-year. haltvear | | | s $97, 199. 28 $1,943.99 | $1,500.00 | $443.99 0.00 a 97, 643. 27 1,952.87 | 1,:500.00 452. 87 0.00 ak 98,096.14 { 1,961.92 |; 1,500.00 461.92 0.00 y | 98, 558. 06 1,971.16 | 1,500.00 | 471.16 0.00 Le | 99, 629.22 1,980.58 | 1,500.00 | 480. 58 0.00 3 99, 509. 80 1,990.20 | 1,500.00 | 40.20 | $100, 000. 00 Totals) 590,035.77 | 11,800.72 | 9,000.00 | 2, 800. 72 100, 000. 00 | | | In this case the holder has an initial investment of $97,199.28, and at the end of the first half-year 2 per cent interest, or $1,943.99, is due. The dividend payment of $1,500.00, then made on the bonds, is not sufficient to provide for this interest, and the difference of $443.99 is added to the principal and determines the book value at the beginning of the second half-year. This is called the accumulation or writing on of discount. By continuing this process for three years the entire discount of $2,800.72 is written on the initial principal, and the book value, $100,000, is then redeemed. ‘The totals of the several columns may be used to check the numerical work. Valuation of bonds redeemed in installments.—For the valuation of bonds which are not redeemed in one sum, but in a series of installments, first consider the simpler case where the dividend payments are annual and the rate of interest is the effective rate 7. Let ©,, C,,... . C,, denote the successive installments by which the bonds are to be redeemed; Fis Wigs be ee Tig the respective number of years after which the successive installments become due; ee ee eae the present values, at the effective rate of interest 7, of C, due n, years hence, , due n, years hence, C, due n, years hence; HIGHWAY BONDS. 109 q; the fixed rate of dividend to be paid on the outstanding bonds; Os the effective rate of interest employed in the valuation of the bonds, which is the net wncome rate to the pur- chaser ; BIMGIBAR Ase a>. Ay. the present values, at the effective rate i, of the separate installments with their respective dividends. 0, 0, C. a . | nN, yrs. Tey VTS. N, YIs. Each installment redeemed may be regarded as furnishing a distinct problem under formula (30) so that, in order to value the entire bond issue, it may be treated as made up of r distinct issues and, after finding the value of each one, they may be added together for the value or bid on the total issue. By formula (30) in the case of a single issue of C, at net encome rate 4, dividend rate g, due in n, years, the present value, or bid, A,, is: A, = K,+ @g/r) (C,— K). Similarly, A,= K,+ g/y) (G,— 4), A,= Gar (9/2) (Chee TG) Adding, (4,4+4,+.... +4, =CG4+K4+....+4K,) +(g/)[(C,+G,4+....4+¢0)-(K,4+44+....4+4K,)}. The total sum to be redeemed, C,+C,+....+(C,, is denoted by C; the total present value of C, in n, vears, C, in n, years, and so on, which by definition is equal to K,+ K,+....+K,, by K; and the total value of the issue, A,+A,+....+A,, by A; then for the bid there results A=K-+ (g/t) (C—4), (36) and for the premium, A—C=(C_-K) g—-@/é. (37) It thus appears that formulas (30) and (31), which were derived before for the case of a bond issue redeemed in one sum, hold also for the more general issue redeemed in any number of installments. Installment bonds when total sum to be redeemed is 1.— When 1 is the total sum to be redeemed, that is, when C=1, formula (37) becomes A—1=(1-K) g—-“@)/é, (38) EG) BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. where A is the value of each unit of the sum to be redeemed, and K is the present value of the various parts of the unit at effective rate 7 dueinn,,7n,.... 2,years. Letting A—1=-k, formula (38) becomes k=(1-4) (g—-7@)/4. (39) The premium ts positive if g is greater than 7, and negative, or a dis- count, if g is less than 2; for the first factor (1 — A) can not be nega- tive, as A by definition is the present value of a series of future pay- ments whose sum is 1, and hence their present discounted value must be less than 1. This shows in all cases that a bond issue must be bought at a premium, if it is valued at a lower rate 7 than the rate of dividend g; and at a discount, if it is valued at a higher rate 2 than the rate of dividend g. Serial bonds.—To apply the general formula (39) to the case of a bond issue redeemed by n equal annual installments, consider a unit of the total sum to be redeemed. Since this unit is to be redeemed in n equal installments over n years, the annual portion redeemed is 1/n. 1/n 1/n 1/n 1/n | I | | lyr. 2 yrs. 3 yrs. nm yrs. The present value, A, of these m installments is clearly the value of an annuity of annual rent 1/n; hence K=aq X1/n=aq/n. Substituting this value of A in formula (39), the following formula is obtained: k=(1-—a,/n) (g—@)/é. (40) Example 19.—What is the bid on $100,000 highway 4% serial bonds maturing in 20 equal annual installments, to net the purchaser an effective rate of 3%? Here n=20, g=.04, 1=.03, and axe =14.8774749; consequently k=(1—14.8774749]/20)(.04—.03)/.03 =(1—.748873745) X1/3=.256126255 X1/3=.085375418. Hence the bid on $100,000 is 1.085375418 X $100,000 =$108 537.54. Extension of formulas to case when dividends are payable and interest is convertible m2 times per annum.—Formula (36) assumes that dividends are payable once a year and that the effective rate of interest is? perannum. Replacing year by interval and assum- ing dividends to be paid at the end of each interval and the rate of interest realized by the investor a nominal rate convertible m times a year, formula (36) still applies, if the present value K of the several HIGHWAY BONDS. ifalal installments to be redeemed is calculated at the effective rate 7/m per interval, and the dividend per unit of the sum to be redeemed is taken at the rate g/m per interval. The formula is unchanged in form since m cancels out in the ratio g/m to 7/m. General formula for valuation of bonds.—Assume that: 1. The bonds are redeemed in 7 equal installments. 2. The first redemption of bonds is made at the end of f years. 3. The remaining r—1 bond redemptions are made at intervals of t years. 4. The annual rate of dividend is g paid in m equal installments. 5. The bond issue is valued at the nominai rate j,m). First find the present value, A, of an issue of the above type where O=1. The value of a similar total issue of Cis then found by mul- tiplying A by C. Since the unit fund is redeemed in 7 equal install- ments, each one will be 1/r. Redemption payments 1/r 1/r 1/r 1/r | | f years t yrs. t yrs. The total term of the issue is seen to be f+ (r—1)t years. As in preceding extension of formulas when dividends are payable and interest is convertible m times per annum, apply formula (36) to each installment of 1/r in the unit issue and the formula for the value of k, the premium per unit of the total sum to be redeemed, may readily be obtained. Expressed in terms of annuities, it appears as follows: Um (f+tr)| — Omf| LONE 5 See, y i E es Anipates Ont. |g DY at rate j/m. (41) The annuity present values in this formula must be computed at the rate of interest j/m. The most common case in practice is where the dividends are paid semiannually. Here m=2, and formula (41) becomes: eee E - a Cera diy —j) lj at rate j/2. (42) The last two formulas are very general in their application and have the advantage that when employed in practical computations it is necessary to consult only a table of values of ap. Example 20.—To find the bid on $1,100,000 highway bonds, interest 5% payable semiannually, dated January 1, 1914, maturing $100,000 on January 1, 1922, 1924, 1926, 1928, 1930, 1932, 1934, 1936, 1938, 1940, and 1942, to net the purchaser a nomi- nal rate of 4%, compounded semiannually, on his investment. Here f=8, t=2, r=11, g=.05, m=2, and j,.),=.04. Accordingly, m(f+étr)=60, mf=16, and mt=4. Substituting in formula (42), aia a 05—.04)/.04 at 2%. 112 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Entering Table 35 with 2% for the values of the annuities and numbering the successive steps for convenience of explanation, the calculation may be outlined as follows: gj =34.7608867 (1) (gq =13.5777093 (2) gp] — yg) =21.1831774 (3) (3)+11= 1.9257434 (4) a= 3.8077287 (4)-aq)= .5057460 (5) Complement of (5)=1—(5)= .4942540 (6)=first factor (.05—.04)/.04== .25 (7)=second factor k=(6)X(7)= .1235635. The bid on one dollar is 1-+-/=1.1235635; consequently the bid on the whole issue is ‘ 1.1235635 X $1, 100, 000=$1, 235,919.85. Example 21.—To find the price of $100,000 highway bonds, interest 5%, semi- annual, dated January 1, 1914, maturing $50,000 January 1, 1917, and $50,000 Janu- ary 1, 1919, to net the investor 4% compounded semiannually. In this case f=3, r=2, t=2, m=2, g=.05, 7=.04, and, substituting as in the pre- ceding example, the required price is found to be $103,646.00. The progress of the loan is indicated in the following schedule. SCHEDULE V. Book value Eee Amortizati i ent or principal _ Se miannual eae mislead ees eens ‘ ii at beginning interest of 2%. no onthonds! at end of at_end of of half-year. 2/0 half-year. half-year. 4 $103, 646. 00 $2, 072. 92 $2, 500. 00 $427. 08 0. 00 1 103, 218. 92 2, 064. 38 2, 500. 00 435. 62 0. 00 14 102, 783: 30 2, 055. 67 2, 500. 00 444, 33 0. 00 2 102, 338. 97 2, 046. 78 2, 500. 00 453. 22 0. 00 24 101, 885. 75 2 03(et2 2, 500. 00 462. 28 ~ 0.00 B: 101, 423. 47 2, 028. 47 2, 500. 00 471.53 $50, 000. 00 34 50, 951. 94 1, 019. 04 1, 250. 00 230. 96 0. 00 4 50, 720. 98 1, 014. 42 1, 250. 00 235. 58 0. 00 44 50, 485. 40 1, 009: 71 1, 250. 00 240. 29 0. 00 5 50, 245. 11 1,004.89 | 1, 250. 00 245. 11 50, 000. 00 Totals 817, 699. 84 16,354.00 | 20, 000. 00 3, 646. 00 100, 000. 00 Extension of term of tables.—It sometimes happens in applying formula (42) that the value of 2(f+1?r) is greater then the term given im, the tables. In example 20 one of the required annuity values was dm but, if the interval between redemptions had been three years instead of two, 2(f+tr)=82 would have called for the value of an annuity dm beyond the limits of the tables. It is easy, however, to extend these limits by making use of the following obvious relations: ian (43) (1+4)™*m= (1 +7)™(1+2)2, (44) Gaza = [1 — 0") /2, (45) Guta = On + Vda, (46) Sara = [(1+4)™(1 +2)"—1]/2, (47) Speen = (la 0) Sa tS (48) HIGHWAY BONDS. 113 Example 22.—To find sj; at 14% when the limit of the tables is 60 years or terms. Applying formula (47) there results pe _ (1.015) (1.015)#—1 as ii 015 015 =203.5528568. __2.4432198 XK 1.6589964 —1 : O15 - By formula (48) 2 S94) = Sep aq) = (1.015): Seq) S3q] =1.6589964 « 96.2146517 +-43.9330915=203.5528523. The correct value of sj, at 14% to seven places of decimals is 203.5528497; so the above method may be regarded as giving the correct value to about five places of decimals. In most practical cases this will be sufficiently accurate. Valuation of serial bonds bearing semiannual dividends.— The most common type of serial bond bears semiannual dividends and is redeemed in equal annual installments, the first of which is paid at the end of the first year. Formula (42) lends itself directly to the valuation of this bond at a nominal rate of interest 7 convert- ible twice a year. In this case f=t=1, r=n, and Arn — WF Ae yi) ° k-|1 ies dC — jf) {J at rate 7/2. (49) Formula (49) requires the use of a table of values of a, only. It can be put in another convenient form for computation involving the use of a table of values of aq and sq. For, by formula (46), daz = Ay + Vda, and, since v’/aq=1/(1 + 1)?aq=1/sq, after a simple reduction, there results w—| 1-228 loa at rate J/2. | ~—-(50) NSy Example 23.—$300,000 highway serial bonds bearing 4% interest payable semi- annually, dated January 1, 1914, mature $100,000 January 1, 1915, 1916, and 1917. What price should be paid to realize a net income of 3% compounded semiannually? Here n=3, g=.04, j(2)=.03, and by formula (49) ay4—a5 b=[1-“3— | (.04—.03)/.03 at 14% 3 305) = .0575373 X 1/3=.0191791, therefore the price to earn 3% compounded semiannually is 1.0191791 X$300,000=$305,753.73. The following schedule illustrates the progress of this loan. 52448°—15—_8 114 BULLETIN 136, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ScHEDULE VI. Book value or Ca ATT Semiannual Amortization Redemption Teas) patel | nestor |, een ol oe |e half-year. oer bonds. half-year. half-year. 4 $305, 753. 73 $4, 586. 31 $6,000.00 | $1,413.69 0. 00 il 304, 340. 04 4,565. LO 6, 000. 00 1, 434. 90 $100, 060. 00 14 202, 905. 14 3, 043. 58 4, 000. 00 956. 42 ; 0.00 2 201, 948. 72 3, 029523 4, 000. 00 970. 77 100, 000. 00 2 100, 977. 95 1, 514. 67 2, 000. 00 485.33 0. 00 3 100, 492. 62 1, 507.38 2, 000. 00 492.62 100, 000. 00 Totals} 1, 216, 418. 20 18, 246. 27 24, 000. 00 5, 753. 73 300, 000. 00 Annuity bonds.—On pages 101 to 104 the operation of a loan where both principal and interest are discharged by equal install- ments is fully described. It is evident that bonds may be issued on this basis and retired in accordance with the principal repayments contained in the annuity installments. Since these principal repay- ments are not exact multiples of the amounts or denominations in which bonds are usually issued, it is necessary to adjust the exact schedule so as to meet this requirement. The adjusted schedule gives an issue in which the bonds are retited year by year in increasing amounts. Examples of exact and adjusted schedules appear in the body of this bulletin on pages 16 and 17. To finance a loan of / by an issue of annuity bonds bearing interest or dividends at rate g per annum.—The annual install- ment which will retire the bonds in n years and at the same time pay interest at the rate of g per cent on outstanding bonds is Dan at rate g. (51) If the bonds are to bear interest of g per cent per annum, pay- able in p installments of g/p per cent during the year, then LL/Qap at rate g/p (52) is the periodical payment or annuity installment which will take care of interest on the bonds and retire them in n years. Example 24.—Adjust Schedule I, page 102, to finance the same loan by an annuity bond issue of $100,000, denomination $100, bearing 5% interest, compounded semi- annually, and retired in three years by six equal (nearly) semiannual annuity install- ments. Referring to Schedule I on page 102, the adjustments in the last column to even multiples of $100 are easily made; a check on this work is that the adjusted column must foot up to $100,000. When the column of bond redemptions is decided upon, the other columns in the schedule are readily derived. HIGHWAY BONDS. 115 ScHEDULE VII. (Schedule I adjusted to bonds of denomination $100.) , : A i Amortization Amount of Wied a ae t poems asia: of Data honile retired h beginning of 2407, at end of at end of at end of half-year. 2 half-year. half-year. half-year. 4 $100,000 . | $2, 500. 00 $18, 200. 00 0. 00 $15, 700 iL 84, 300 2, 107. 50 18, 107. 50 0. 00 16, 000 14 68, 300 1, 707. 50 18, 107. 50 0. 00 16, 400 2 51, 900 297200 18, 197. 50 0. 00 16, 900 24 39, 000 875. 00 18, 175. 00 0. 00 17, 300 3 17, 700 442. 50 18, 142. 50 0. 00 17, 700 Totals 357, 200 8, 950. 00 108, 950. 00 0. 00 100, 000 Valuation of annuity bonds.—In order to value an issue of this character, so as to yield the purchaser a net income at a rate of interest different from the rate of dividend on the bonds, it will ordi- narily be necessary to value separately the several parts of the total issue in accordance with the respective dates on which they are re- tired. This calculation may frequently be shortened by employing formula (36). Bond tables may also be consulted to advantage. The following example and schedule respectively illustrate the cal- culation of the bid and progress of the loan. Example 25.—Determine the bid on the entire issue of annuity bonds in Example 24 so as to yield the investor a net income of 4%, compounded semiannually. Applying formula (35) successively to the several bond issues in the order in which they are retired with g=.05 and j=.04, the following premiums are found: $76. 96 155. 32 236. 48 321. 75 407. 71 495. 73 $1, 693. 95 Accordingly, the bid on the entire issue is $101,693.95. The schedule illustrating the progress of this bond issue follows. It is constructed in the same manner as pre- ceding bond schedules and needs no additional explanation. Scuepute VIII.—Showing the progress of an annuity bond issue of $100,000, denomi- nation $100, bearing 5 per cent interest, compounded semiannually, and retired in three years by six equal (nearly) semiannual annuity installments. Bought to yield the investor 4 per cent, compounded semiannually. Amortization | Book value or Annuity Amount of Vicar! principal at Semiannual installments of premium | bonds retired beginning of interest of 2%. at end of at end of at end of half-year. half-year. half-year. half-year. 5 SLOL, 693. 95 $2, 033. 88 $18, 200. 00 $466. 12 $15, 700 1 85, 527. 83 1, 710. 56 18, 107. 50 396. 94 16, 000 ly 69, 150. 89 1, 382. 62 18, 107. 50 324. 88 16, 400 ZING 52, 406. 01 1, 048. 12 18, 197. 50 249. 38 16, 900 25 3d, 256. 63 700. 13 18, 175. 00 169. 87 17, 500 3 17, 786. 76 355. 74 18, 142. 50 86. 76 17, 700 Totals 361, 802. 07 7, 236. 05 108, 930. 00 1, 693. 95 100, 000 116 BULLETIN 1386, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Tape 31.—The accumulation of 1 at the end of n years. y _ (1+4é)”. Years.| 114%. 134%. Bor. 24% 214%. 234%. Bie Years | = ——. 5 | 1 | 1.0150000 | 1.0175000 | 1..0200000 | 1.0225000 | 1.0250000 | 1.0275000 | 1.0300000 al 2 | 1..0302250 | 1.0353063 | 1.0404000 | 1.0455063 | 1.0506250 | 1.0557563 | 1. 0609000 2 3 | 1.0456784 | 1.0534241 | 1.0612080 | 1.0690301 | 1.0768906 | 1.0847896 | 1. 0927270 3 | 4 | 1.0613636 | 1.0718590 | 1..0824322 | 1.0930833 | 1. 1038129 | 1. 1146213 } 1. 1255088 4 | 5 | 1.0772840 | 1.0906166 | 1. 1040808 | 1. 1176777 | 1. 1314082 | 1. 1452733 | 1. 1592741 iD) 6 | 1.0934433 | 1. 1097024 | 1. 1261624 | 1. 1428254 | 1. 1596934 | 1.1767684 | 1. 1940523 6 7 | 1.1098449 | 1. 1291222 | 1. 1486857 | 1. 1685390 | 1. 1886858 | 1. 2091295 | 1. 2298739 Uf 8 | 1. 1264926 | 1. 1488818 | 1. 1716594 | 1. 1948311 |-1. 2184029 | 1. 2493806 | 1. 2667701 8 9 | 1.1433900 | 1. 1689872 | 1. 1950926 | 1.2217148 | 1. 2488630 | 1. 2765460 | 1. 3047732 9 10 | 1.1605408 | 1. 1894445 | 1.2189944 | 1. 2492034 | 1. 2800845 | 1.3116510 | 1. 34389164 10 11 | 1.1779489 | 1. 2102598 | 1. 2433743 | 1.2773105 | 1.3120867 | 1.3477214 | 1.3842339 11 12 | 1.1956182 | 1. 2314393 | 1. 2682418 | 1. 3060500 | 1.3448888 | 1. 3847838 | 1. 4257609 12 13 | 1.2135524 | 1. 2529895 | 1. 2936066 | 1.3354361 | 1.3785110 | 1, 4228653 | 1. 4685337 13 14 | 1.2317557 | 1.2749168 | 1.3194788 | 1. 3654834 | 1.4129738 | 1.4619941 | 1. 5125897 14 15 | 1.2502321 | 1.2972279 | 1.3458683 | 1. 3962068 | 1. 4482982 | 1. 5021990 | 1. 5579674 15 16 | 1. 2689856 | 1.3199294 | 1.3727857 | 1.4276215 | 1. 4845056 | 1. 5435094 | 1. 6047064 16 17 | 1. 2880203 | 1. 3430281 | 1. 4002414 | 1. 4597429 | 1.5216183 | 1.5859560 | 1. 6528476 17 18 | 1.3073406 | 1.3665311 | 1.4282463 | 1. 4925872 | 1. 5: 596587 1. 6295697 | 1. 7024331 1s 19 | 1.3269508 | 1.3904454 | 1.4568112 | 1. 5261704 | 1.5 1. 6743829 | 1. 7535061 19 20 | 1.3468550 | 1.4147782 | 1.4859474 | 1. 5605092 | 1.6 3386164 1. 7204284 | 1.8061112 20 21 | 1.3670578 | 1.4395368 | 1. 5156663 | 1. 5956207 | 1.6795819 | 1.7677402 | 1. 8602946 Pail 22 | 1.3875637 | 1.4647287 | 1. 5459797 | 1.6315221 | 1.7215714 | 1. 8163531 | 1. 9161034 22 23 | 1.4083772 | 1.4903615 | 1.5768993 | 1.6682314 | 1. 7646107 | 1. 8663028 | 1. 9735865 23 24 | 1.4295028 | 1.5164428 | 1.6084373 | 1. 7057666 | 1. 8087260 | 1.9176261 | 2. 0327941 24 25 | 1.4509454 | 1.5429805 | 1.6406060 | 1. 7441463 | 1.8539441 | 1.9703608 | 2.0937779 25 26 | 1.4727095 | 1.5699827 | 1.6734181 | 1. 7833896 | 1. 9002927 | 2. 0245458 | 2. 1565913 26 27 | 1.4948002 | 1. 5974574 | 1. 7068865 | 1.8235159 | 1.9478000 | 2. 0802208 | 2. 2212890 27 28 | 1.5172222 | 1.6254129 | 1. 7410242 | 1.8645450 | 1. 9964950 | 2.1374268 | 2. 2879277 28 29 | 1.5399805 | 1.6538576 | 1. 7758447 | 1.9064973 | 2.0464074 | 2.1962061 | 2.3565655 29 | 30 | 1.5630802 | 1.6828001 | 1.8113616 | 1. 9493934 | 2.0975676 | 2. 2566017 | 2. 4272625 30 | 31 | 1. 5865264 | 1. 7122491 | 1.8475888 | 1. 9932548 | 2. 1: BOS 2. 3186583 | 2. 5000804 3 32 | 1.6103243 | 1. 7422135 | 1.8845406 | 2.0381030 | 2.2 2. 3824214 | 2. 5750828 32 33 | 1. 6344792 | 1.7727022 | 1. 9222314 | 2.0839603 | 2. < 2. 4479380 | 2. 6523352 33 34 | 1.6589964 | 1. 8037245 |.1. 9606760 | 2. 1308495 | 2. ¢ 2. 5152563 | 2. 7319053 84 35 | 1.6838813 | 1.8352897 | 1.9998896 | 2. 1787936 | 2. 373: 2052 | 2. 5844258 | 2. 8138625 35 36 | 1. 7091395 | 1.8674073 | 2.0398873 | 2. 2278164 | 2.4325353 | 2. 6554975 '| 2. 8982783 36 | 37 | 1. 7347766 | 1. 9000869 | 2. 0806851 | 2.2779423 | 2. 4933487 | 2. 7285237 | 2. 9852267 37 38 | 1. 7607983 | 1. 9333384 | 2. 1222988 | 2.3291960 | 2. 5556824 | 2.8035581 | 3. 0747835 38 39 | 1.7872103 | 1.9671718 | 2. 1647448 | 2.3816029 | 2.6195745 | 2. 5 3. 1670270 39 40 | 1.8140184 | 2.0015973 | 2. 2080397 | 2.4351890 | 2.6850638 | 2. 3. 2620378 40 41 | 1.8412287 | 2. 2. 2522005 | 2.4899807 | 2. 7521904 | 3. 0412705 | 3. 3598989 41 42 | 1. 8688471 } 2. 2. 2972445 | 2.5460053 | 2.8209952 | 3.1249055 | 3. 4606959 42 | 43 | 1.8968798 | 2. 2. 3431894 | 2.6032904 | 2.8915201-] 3. 2108404 | 3. 5645168 43 | 44 | 1. 9253330 | 2. 2 | 2.3900531 | 2. 6618644 | 2.9638081 | 3. 2991385 | 3.6714523 44 45 | 1.9542130 | 2. 1899752 2.4378542 | 2. 7217564 | 3.0379033 | 3. 3898648 | 3. 7815958 45 46 | 1. 9835262 | 2.2211773 | 2.4866113 | 2. 7829959 | 3. 1138509 | 3. 4830861 | 3. 8950437 46 47 | 2.0132791 | 2. 2600479 | 2. 5363435 | 2.8456133 | 3. 1916971 | 3.5788709 | 4. 0118950 47 48 | 2.0434783 | 2. 2995987 | 2. 5870704 | 2. 9096396 | 3.2714896 | 3.6772899 | 4. 1322519 48 49 | 2.0741305 | 2.3398417 | 2.6388118 | 2.9751065 | 3.3532768 | 3. 7784154 | 4. 2562194 49 50 | 2. 1052424 | 2. 3807889 | 2.6915880 | 3. 0420464 | 3.4371087 | 3. 8823218 | 4.3839060 50 51 | 2. 1868211 | 2.4224527 | 2. 7454198 | 3. 1104924 | 3. 5230364 | 3. 9890856 | 4. 5154232 nat 52 | 2. 1688734 | 2.4648457 | 2.8003282 | 3. 1804785 | 3.6111124 | 4.0987855 | 4. 6508859 52 53 | 2. 2014065 | 2. 5079805 | 2. 8563348 | 3. 2520393 | 3. 7013902 | 4. 2115021 | 4. 7904125 53 54 | 2. 2344276 | 2.5518701 | 2. 9134614 | 3.3252102 | 3. 7939249 | 4, 3273184 | 4. 9341249 54 55 | 2.2679440 | 2. 5965279 | 2.9717307 | 3.4000274 | 3. 8887730 | 4. 4463196 | 5. 0821486 55 56 | 2.3019631 | 2.6419671 | 3.0311653 | 3.4765280 | 3. 9859924 | 4. 5685934 | 5. 2346131 56 57 | 2.3364926 | 2. 688: 2015 5 | 3.0917886 | 8.5547499 | 4. 422 | 4. 6942298 | 5. 3916514 57 58 | 2.3715400 | 2.7 3. 1566244 | 3. 6347318 | 4. 1877832 | 4. 8233211 | 5. 5534010 58 59 | 2.4071131 | 2.78311 18 8. 2166969 | 3.71651382 | 4. 2924778 | 4. 9559624 | 5. 7200030 59 60 | 2.4432198 | 2.8318163 | 3.2810308 | 3. 8001348 | 4.3997897 | 5.0922514 | 5. 8916031 60 HIGHWAY BONDS. TABLE 31.— The accumulation of 1 at the end of n years—Continued. "(144)". TANG Years.| 314%. 4%. 416%. 5%. SGC | 6%. Pheae 1 | 1.0350000 1. 0400000 1, 0450000. 1. 0500000 1. 0550000 1. 0600000, 1. 0700000 2 | 1.0712250 1. 0816000 1. 0920250 1. 1025000 1. 1130250 1. 1236000 1. 1449000 3 | 1. 1087179 1. 1248640 1. 1411661 1. 1576250 1. 1742414 1. 1910160 1. 2250430 4 | 1.1475230 1. 1698586 1. 1925186 1. 2155063 1. 2388247 1. 2624770 1. 3107960 5 | 1. 1876863 1. 2166529 1. 2461819 1. 2762816 1. 3069600. 1. 3382256 1. 4025517 6 | 1. 2292553 1. 2653190 1. 3022601 1. 3400956 1. 3788428 1. 4185191 1. 5007304 7 | 1. 2722793 1. 3159318 1. 3608618 1. 4071004 1. 4546792 1. 5036303 1. 6057815 8 | 1.3168090 1. 8685691 1. 4221006 1. 4774554 1. 5346865 1. 5938481 1. 7181862 9 | 1. 3628974 1. 4233118 1. 4860951 1. 5513282 1. 6190943 1. 6894790 1. 8384592 10 | 1.4105988 | - 1. 4802443 1. 5529694 1. 6288946 1. 7081445 1. 7908477 1. 9671514 11 | 1. 4599697 1. 5894541 1. 6228531 it 7103394 1. 8020924 1. 8982986, 2. 1048520 12 | 1.5110687 1. 6010322 1. 6958814 1. 7958563 1. 9012075 2. 0121965 2. 2521916 13 | 1. 5639561 1. 6650735 1. 7721961 1. 8856491 2. 0057739 2. 13829283 2. 4098450 14 | 1.6186945 1. 7316765 1. 8519449 1. 9799316, 2. 1160915 2. 2609040 2. 5785342 15 | 1.6753488 1. 8009435 1. 9352824 2. 0789282 2. 2324765 2. 3965582 2. 7590315 16 | 1. 7339860 1. 8729813 | 2. 0223702 2. 1828746 2..3552627 2. 5403517 2. 9521638 17 | 1.7946756 1. 9473005 | 2. 1133768 2. 2920183 2. 4848022 2. 6927728 3. 1588152 18 | 1.8574892 2. 0258165 2. 2084788 2. 4066192 2. 6214663 2. 8543392 3. 3799323 19 | 1.9225013 2. 1068492 2. 3078603 2. 5269502 2. 7656469 3. 0255995 3. 6165275 20 | 1.9897889 | 2. 1911231 2. 4117140 2. 6532977 2.9177575 | 3.2071355 3. 8696845 21 | 2.0594315 | 2. 2787681 2. 5202412 | 2.7859626 3. 0782342 3. 3995636 4. 1405624 22 | 2.13815116 | 2.3699188 | 2. 6336520 2. 9252607 3. 2475370 3. 6035374 4. 4304017 23 | 2.2061145 | 2.4647155 2. 7521664 3. 0715238 3. 4261516 3. 8197497 4. 7405299 24 | 2. 2833285 2. 5633042 2. 8760138 3. 2250999 3. 6145899 4. 0489346 5. 0723670 25 | 2. 3632450 2. 6658363 8. 0054345 | 3. 3863549 3. 8133924 4. 2918707 5. 4274326 26 | 2. 4459586 2. 7724698 3. 1406790 | 3. 5556727 4. 0231289 4. 5493830 5. 8073529 27 | 2. 5315671 2. 8835686 3. 2820096 3. 7334563 4. 2444010 4, 8223459 6. 2138676 28 | 2.6201720 | 2. 9987033 3. 4297000 3. 9201291 4. 4778431 5. 1116867 6. 6488384 29 | 2.7118780 3. 1186515 | 3.5840365 4. 1161356 4. 7241244 5. 4183879 7. 1142571 30 | 2. 8067937 3. 2433975 | 3. 7453181 4, 3219424 4. 9839513 5. 7434912 7. 6122550 31 | 2.9050315 3. 8731334 3. 9138575 4. 53880395 5. 2580686 6. 0881006 8. 1451129 32 | 3.0067076 3. 5080588 4. 0899810 4. 7649415 5. 5472624 6. 4533867 8. 7152708 33 | 3.1119424 3. 6483811 4.2740302 5. 0031885 5. 8523618 6. 8405899 9. 3253398 34 | 3. 2208603 3. 7943163 4, 4663615 5. 2533480 6. 1742417 7. 2510253 9.9781135 35 | 3.3335905 | 3. 9460890 4. 6673478 5. 5160154 6. 5138250 7. 6860868 | 10. 6765815 36 | 3. 4502661 4. 1039326 4. 8773785 5. 7918161 6. 8720854 8. 1472520 | 11. 4239422 387 | 3.5710254 4. 2680899 5. 0968605 6. 0814069 7. 2500501 8. 6360871 | 12. 2236181 38 | 3.6960113 4.4388135 | 5. 3262192 6.3854773 7. 6488028 9. 1542524 | 13.0792714 89 | 3. 8253717 4. 6163660 5. 5658991 6. 7047512 8. 0694870 | 9. 7035075 | 13. 9948204 40 | 3. 9592597 4. 8010206 | 5. 8163645 7. 0399887 8. 5133088 | 10. 2857179 | 14. 9744578 41 | 4.0978338 4. 9930615 6. 0781009 7. 3919882 8.9815408 | 10. 9028610 | 16. 0226699 42 | 4. 2412580 5. 1927839 6. 3516155 7. 7615876 9.4755255 | 11. 5570327 | 17. 1442568 43 | 4.3897020 | 5. 4004953 6. 6374382 8. 1496669 9. 9966794 | 12. 2504546 | 18. 3443548 44 | 4. 5433416 5. 6165151 6. 9361229 8. 5571503 | 10. 5464968 | 12. 9854819 | 19. 6284596 45 | 4.7023586 | 5. 8411757 7. 2482484 8.9850078 | 11.1265541 | 13. 7646108 | 21. 0024518 46 | 4. 8669411 6. 0748227 7. 5744196 9. 4342582 | 11. 7385146 | 14. 5904875 | 22. 4726234 47 | 5.0372840 | 6.3178156 7. 9152685 9. 9059711 | 12. 3841329 | 15. 4659167 | 24. 0457070 48 | 5.2135890 | 6. 5705282 8. 2714556 | 10. 4012697 | 13. 0652602 | 16. 3938717 | 25. 7289065 49 | 5. 3960646 | 6. 8333494 8. 6436711 | 10.9213331 | 13. 7838495 | 17.3775040 | 27. 5299300 50 | 5. 5849269 7. 1066834 9. 0326363 | 11. 4673998 | 14. 5419612 | 18. 4201543 | 29. 4570251 51 | 5.7803993 7. 3909507 9. 4391049 | 12. 0407698 | 15. 3417691 | 19. 5253635 | 31. 5190168 52 | 5. 9827133 7. 6865887 9. 8638646 | 12.6428083 | 16. 1855664 | 20. 6968853 | 33. 7253480 53 | 6. 1921082 7. 9940523 | 10. 3077385 | 13. 2749487 | 17.0757725 | 21. 9386985 | 36. 0861224 54 | 6. 4088320 8. 3138144 | 10. 7715868 | 13. 9386961 | 18. 0149400 | 23. 2550204 | 38. 6121509 55 | 6.6331411 8. 6463669 | 11. 2563082 | 14. 6356309 | 19.0057617 | 24. 6503216 | 41. 3150015 56 | 6. 8653011 8. 9922216 | 11. 7628420 | 15. 3674125 | 20. 0510786 | 26. 1293409 | 44. 2070516 57 | 7. 1055866 9. 3519105 | 12. 2921699 | 16. 1357831 | 21. 1538879 | 27.6971013 | 47. 3015452 58 | 7.542822 | 9. 7259869 | 12. 8453176 | 16. 9425722 | 22. 3173518 | 29. 3589274 | 50. 6126534 59 | 7.6116820 | 10. 1150264 | 13. 4233569 | 17. 7897009 | 23. 5448061 | 31. 1204631 | 54. 1555391 60. | 7. 8780909 | 10. 5196274 | 14. 0274079 | 18. 6971859 | 24. 8397705 | 32. 9876909 | 57. 9464268 oR WNr co 00 NIO> 10 id be: BULLETIN 136, W. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 32.—The accumulation of an annuity of 1 per annum at the end of n years. (144)"=1 $= : . n| A Years. 114%. 134%. | OL ae 234%. 214%. 234%. BV Years. | 1 1.000000 | 1.0000000 | 1.0000000 | 1.0000000 | 1.0000000 | 1.0000000 | 1. 0000000 i 2| 2.0150000 | 2. 0175000 | 2.0200000 | 2.0225000 | 2.0250000 | 2.0275000 | 2. 0300000 2 3} 3.0452250 | 3.0528063 | 3.0604000 | 3.0680063 | 3.0756250 | 3.0832563 | 3.0909000 3 4| 4.0909034 | 4.1062304 | 4.1216080 | 4.1370364 | 4.1525156 | 4.1680458 | 4. 1836270 4 5 | 5.1522669 | 5.1780894 | 5.2040402 | 5.2301197 | 5. 2563285 | 5. 2826671 | 5. 3091358 5 6 | 6. 2295509 | 6. 2687060 | 6.3081210 | 6.3477974 | 6.3877367 | 6.4279404 | 6. 4684099 6 7 | 7.3229942 | 7.3784083 | 7. 4342834 | 7.4906228 | 7.5474302 | 7.6047088 | 7.6624622 7 8 | 8. 4328391 | 8.5075305 | 85829691 | 8.6591619 | 8. 7361159 | 88138383 | 8. 8923361 8 9 | 9.5593317 | 9.6564122 | 9. 7546284 | 9. 8539930 | 9.9545188 | 10. 0562188 | 10. 1591061 9 10 | 10. 7027217 | 10.8253995 | 10.9497210 | 11.0757078 | 11. 2033818 | 11.3327648 | 11. 4638793 | 10 11 | 11.8632625 | 12. 0148439 | 12. 1687154 | 12.3249113 | 12. 4834663 | 12.6444159 | 12.8077957 | 11 12 | 13.0412114 | 13. 2251037 | 13. 4120897 | 13. 6022218 | 13. 7955530 | 13. 9921373 | 14.1920296 | 12 13 | 14. 2368296 | 14. 4565430 | 14.6803315 | 14.9082718 | 15.1404418 | 15.3769211 | 15.6177905 | 13 14 | 15. 4503821 | 15. 7095325 | 15.9739382 | 16. 2437079 | 16. 5189528 | 16. 7997864 | 17.0863242 | 14 15 | 16. 6821378 | 16.9844424 | 17. 2934169 | 17. 6091913 | 17.9319267 | 18. 2617805 | 18.5989139 | 15 16 | 17.9323698 | 18. 2816772 | 18. 6392853 | 19.0053981 | 19. 3802248 | 19. 7639795 | 20.1568813 | 16 17 | 19. 2013554 | 19.6016066 | 29.0120710 | 20. 4330196 | 20. 8647305 | 21.3074889 | 21.7615877 | 17 18 | 20. 4893757 | 20.9446347 | 21. 4123124 | 21. 8927625 | 22. 3863487 | 22. 8934449 | 23.4144354 | 18 19 | 21.7967164 | 22.3111658 | 22. 8405586 | 23. 3853497 | 23.9460074 | 24. 5230146 | 25.1168684 | 19 20 | 23. 1236671 | 23. 7016112 | 24. 2973698 | 24.9115200 | 25. 5446576 | 26. 1973975 | 26.8703745 | 20 21 | 24.4705221 | 25. 1163894 | 25. 7833172 | 26. 4720292 | 27. 1832741 | 27.9178259 | 28.6764857 | 21 22 | 25. 8375799 | 26. 5559262 | 27. 2989835 | 28. 0676499 | 28. 8628559 | 29. 6855662 | 30.5367803 | 22 93 | 27. 221436 | 28. 0206549 | 28. 8449632 | 29. 6991720 | 20.5844273 | 31. 5019192 | 32. 4528837 | 23 24 | 28. 6335208 | 29.5110164 | 30. 4218625 | 31.3674034 | 32.3490380 | 33. 3682220 | 34.4264702 | 24 25 | 30. 0630236 | 31.0274592 | 32.0302997 | 33.0731700 | 34. 1577639 | 35. 2858481 | 36. 4592643 | 25 26 | 31.5139690 | 32.5704397 | 33.6709057 | 34.8173163 | 36.0117080 | 37. 2562089 | 38.5530423 | 26 27 | 32.9866785 | 34. 1404224 | 35.3443238 | 36.6007059 | 37.9120007 | 39. 2807547 | 40.7096335 | 27 28 | 34. 4814787 | 35. 7378798 | 37.0512103 | 38. 4242218 | 39. 8598008 | 41. 3609754 | 42.9309225 | 28 29 | 35.9987009 | 37. 3632927 | 38. 7922345 | 40. 2887668 | 41. 8562958 | 43. 4984022 | 45.2188502 | 29 30 | 37.5386814 | 39.0171503 | 40.5680792 | 42. 1952640 | 43.9027032 | 45. 6946083 | 47.5754157 | 30 31 | 39. 1017616 | 40.6999504 | 42.3794408 | 44. 1446575 | 46. 0002707 | 47.9512100 | 50.0026782 | 31 32 | 40. 6882880 | 42. 4121996 | 44. 2270296 | 46. 1379123 | 48. 1502775 | 50. 2698683 | 52.5027585 | 32 33 | 42. 2986123 | 44. 1544131 | 46. 1115702 | 48. 1760153 | 50. 3540345 | 52. 6522897 | 55.0778413 | 33 34 | 43.9330915 | 45.9271153 | 48. 0338016 | 50. 2599756 | 52.6128%53 | 55. 1002277 | 57.7301765 | 34 35 | 45.5920879 | 47. 7308398 | 49.9944776 | 52. 3908251 | 54.9282074 | 57. 6154839 | 60. 4620818 | 35 38 | 47. 2759692 49. 5661205 51. 9943672 | 54.5696186 | 57. 3014126 | 60. 1999097 | 63. 2759443 | 36 37 | 48.9851087 35368 54. 0342545 | 56. 7974351 | 59. 7339479 | 62. 8554072 | 66.1742226 | 37 38 | 50. 7198854 | 5: 36 | 56. 1149396 | 59.0753774 | 62. 2272966 | 65. 5839309 | 69.1594493 | 38 39 | 52 58. 2372384 | 61. 4045733 | 64. 7829791 | 68. 3874890 | 72.2342328 | 39 40 | 54, 2678039 | 57. 2341339 | 60. 4019832 | 63. 7961762 | 67. 4025535 | 71. 2681450 | 754012597 | 40 41 | 56. 0819123 | 59. 2357312 | 62. 6100228 | 66. 2213652 | 70.0876174 | 74. 2280190 | 78.6632975 | 41 42 | 57.9231410 | 6 65 | 64. 8622233 | 68. 7113459 | 72. 8398078 | 77. 2692895 | 82.0231965 | 42 43 | 59. 7919881 | 63. 3446228 | 67. 1594678 | 71. 2573512 | 75. 6608030 | 80. 3941950 | 85. 4838923 | 43 44 | 61. 6888679 | 65. 4531537 | 69.5026571 | 73. 8606416 | 78. 5523231 | 83. 6050353 | 89.0484091 | 44 45 | 63. 6142010 | 67.5985839 | 71. 8927103 | 76.5225061 | 81.5161312 | 86.9041738 | 92,7198614 | 45 46 | 65.5684140 | 69. 7815591 | 74. 3305645 | 79. 2442624 | 84. 5540344 | 90. 2940386 | 96.5014572 | 46 47 | 67. 5519402 | 72. 0027364 | 76. 8171758 | 82. 0272583 | 87. 6678853 | 93. 7771246 |100.3965010 | 47 48 | 69.5652193 | 74. 3 | 79.3535193 | 84. 8728717 | 90. 8595824 | 97. 3559956 |104. 4083960 | 48 49 | 71.6086976 | 76.5 81. 9405897 | 87. 7825113 | 94. 1310720 |101. 0332854 |108.5406479 | 49 50 | 73.6828280 | 78. 9022247 | 84.5794015 | 90. 7576178 | 97, 4843488 {104. 8117008 |112. 7968673 | 50 51 | 75. 7880705 | 81. 2830136 | 87. 2709895 | 93. 7996642 |100.9214575 |108. 6940226 |117.1807733 | 51 52 | 77.9248915 | £3. 7054664 | 90.0164093 | 96.9101566 |104. 4444940 |112. 6831082 /121.6961965 | 52 53 | 80.0937649 | 86.1703120 | 92.8167375 |100. 0906351 |108. 0556063 |116, 7818937 |126.3470824 | 53 54 | 82, 2951714 | 88. 6782925 | 95. 6730722 |103. 3426744 |111. 7569965 |120. 9933957 |131. 1374949 | 54 55 | 84.5295989 | 91. 2301626 | 98. 5865337 |106. 6678846 |115. 5509214 |125.3207141 |136.0716197 | 55 56 | 86. 7975429 | 93. . 5582643 |110. 0679120 |119. 4396944 |129. 7670338 |141.1537683 | 56 57 | 89.6995061 | 96. . 5894296 |113. 5444400 |123. 4256868 |134. 3356272 |146. 3883814 | 57 58 | 91. 4359987 | 99. . 6812182 |117. 0991899 |127. 5113289 |139. 0298569 |151. 7800328 | 58 59 | 93. 8075386 |101. 8921041 |110. 8348426 |129. 7339217 |131. 6991122 |143. 8531780 |157.3334338 | 59 60 | 96. 2146517 |104. 6752159 |114. 0515394 |124. 4504349 |135. 9915900 |148. 8091404 |163. 0534368 | 60 HIGHWAY BONDS. 19 TABLE 32.— The accumulation of an annuity of 1 per annum at the end of n years—Con. eel n| i Yrs 316%. 4%. AM6%. 5%. 514%. 6%. oe Yrs. 1 1. 0000000 1. 0000000 1..0000000 1. 0000000 1. 0000000 1. 0000000. 1. 0000000 1 2 2.0350000 2.0400000 2. 0450000 2.0500000 2.0550000 2. 0600000 2.0700000 2 3 3. 1062250 3. 1216000 3. 1370250 3. 1525000 3. 1680250 3. 1836000 3. 2149000 8} 4 4.2149429 4. 2464640 4.2781911 4. 3101250 4. 3422664 4. 3746160 4. 4399430 4 i) 5. 3624659 5. 4163226 5. 4707097 5.5256313 5.5810910 5. 6370930 5. 7507390 | 5 6 6. 5501522 6. 6329755 6. 7168917 6. 8019128 6. 8880510 6.9753185 7. 1532907 6 7 7. 7794075 7.8982945 8.0191518 8. 1420085 8. 2668938 8. 3938377 8. 6540211 ii 8 9. 0516868 9. 2142263 9. 3800136 9. 5491089 9. 7215730 9. 8974679 10. 2598026 8 9 10. 3684958 10. 5827953 10. 8021142 11. 0265643 11. 2562595 11. 4913160 11. 9779888 9 10 11. 7313932 12. 0061071 12. 2882094 12. 5778925 12. 8753538 13. 1807949 13.8164480 | 10 11 13. 1419919 13. 4863514 13. 8411788 14. 2067872 14. 5834983 14. 9716426 15. 7835993 | 11 12 14. 6019616 15. 0258055 15. 4640318 15. 9171265 16. 3855907 16. 8699412 17.8884513 | 12 13 16. 1130303 16. 6268377 17. 1599133 17. 7129829 18. 2867981 18. 8821377 20. 1406429 | 13 14 17. 6769864 18. 2919112 18. 9321094 19. 5986320 20. 2925720 21. 0150659 22.5504879 | 14 15 19. 2956809 20. 0235876 20. 7840543 21.5785636 22. 4086635 23. 2759699 25. 1290220 | 15 16 20. 9710297 21. 8245311 22. 7193367 23. 6574918 24. 6411400 25. 6725281 27.8880536 | 16 17 22. 7050158 23. 6975124 24. 7417069 25. 8403664 26. 9964027 28. 2128798 30. 8402173 | 17 18 24. 4996913 25. 6454129 26. 8550837 28. 1323847 29. 4812048 30. 9956526 33. 9990325 | 18 19 26. 3571805 27.6712294 29. 0635625 30. 5390039 32. 1026711 33. 7599917 37.3789648 | 19 20 | 28.2796818 | 29.7780786 | 31.3714228 | 33.0659541 34. 8683180 | 36.7855912 | 40.9954923 | 20 21 30. 2694707 | 31.9692017 | 33.7831368 | 35.7192518 | 37.7860755 39.9927267 | 44.8651768 | 21 22 32. 3289022 34. 2479698 36. 3033780 38. 5052144 40. 8643097 43. 3922903 49.0057392 | 22 23 34. 4604137 36. 6178886 38. 9370300 41. 4804751 44. 1118467 46. 9958277 53. 4361409 | 23 24 36. 6665282 39. 0826041 41. 6891963 44. 5019989 47. 5379983 50. 8155774 58. 1766708 | 24 25-| 38.9498567 | 41.6459083 | 44.5652102 | 47.7270988 | 51.1525882 | 54.8645120 | 63.2490377 | 25 26 41. 3131017 44, 3117446 47.5706446 51.1134538 54. 9659805 59. 1563827 68. 6764704 | 26 27 43. 7590602 47.0842144 50. 7113236 54. 6691265 58. 9891094 63. 7057657 74. 4838233 | 27 28 46, 2906273 49. 9675830 53. 9933332 58. 4025828 63. 2335105 68. 5281116 80. 6976909 | 28 29 48. 9107993 52. 9662863 57. 4230332 62. 3227119 67. 7113535 73. 6397983 87. 3465293 | 29 30 | 51.6226773 | 56.0849378 | 61.0070697 | 66.4388475 72. 4354780 79.0581862 | 94.4607863 | 30 31 54. 4294710 | 59.3283353 | 64. 7523878 70. 7607899 | 77.4194293 | 84.8016774 | 102.0730414 | 31 32 57. 33845025 62. 7014687 68. 6662452 75. 2988294 82.6774579 90. 8897780 | 110. 2181543 | 32 33 60. 3412101 66. 2095274 72. 7562263 80. 0637708 88. 2247603 97. 3431647 | 118. 9334251 | 33 34 63. 4531524 69. 8579085 77.0302565 85. 0669594 94. 0771221 | 104. 1837546 | 128. 2587648 | 34 35 66. 6740127 73. 6522249 | 81.4966180 |. 90.3203074 | 100. 2513638 | 111.4347799 | 138. 2368784 | 35 36 70. 0076032 77.5983139 86. 1639658 95.8363227 | 106. 7651888 | 119.1208667 | 148.9134598 | 36 37 73. 4578693 81. 7022464 91. 0413443 | 101. 6281389 | 113. 6372742 | 127. 2681187 | 160. 3374020 | 37 38 77.0288947 85. 9703363 96. 1382048 | 107. 7095458 | 120.8873243 | 135. 9042058 | 172.5610202 | 38 39 80. 7249060 90. 4091497 | 101. 4644240 | 114.0950231 | 128.5361271 | 145.0584581 | 185. 6402916 | 39 40 | 84.5502778 | 95.0255157 | 107.0303231 | 120. 7997742 | 136.6056141 | 154. 7619656 | 199.6351120 | 40 41 88. 5095375 | 99.8265363 | 112. 8466876 | 127.8397630 | 145.1189229 | 165.0476836 | 214.6095698 | 41 42 92. 6073713 | 104.8195978 | 118.9247885 | 135.2317511 | 154.1004636 | 175. 9505446 | 230. 6322397 | 42 43 96. 8486293 | 110.0123817 ; 125. 2764040 | 142. 9933387 | 163.5759891 | 187.5075772 | 247. 7764695 | 43 44 | 101. 2383313 | 115.4128770 | 131. 9138422 | 151. 1430056 | 173.5726685 | 199. 7580319 | 266.1208513 | 44 45 | 105. 7816729 | 121.0293920 | 138. 8499651 | 159. 7001559 | 184.1191653 | 212. 7435138 | 285. 7493108 | 45 46 | 110. 4840315 | 126.8705677 | 146.0982135 | 168.6851637 | 195. 2457194 | 226.5081246 | 306. 7517626 | 46 47 | 115.3509726 | 132. 9453904 | 153.6726331 | 178.1194219 | 206. 9842339 | 241.0986121 ! 329. 2243860 | 47 48 | 120. 3882566 | 139. 2632060 | 161.5879016 | 188. 0253929 | 219.3683668 | 256.5645288 | 353.2700930 | 48 49 | 125.6018456 | 145.8337343 | 169.8593572 | 198. 4266626 | 232. 4336270 | 272.9584006 | 378.9989995 | 49 50 | 180.9979102 | 152.6670837 | 178.5030283 | 209.3479957 | 246.2174765 | 290. 3359046 | 406.5289295 | 50 51 | 136.5828370 | 159. 7737670 | 187.5356646 | 220.8153955 | 260. 7594377 | 308. 7560589 | 435.9859545 | 51 52 | 142. 3632363 | 167.1647177 | 196.9747695 | 232.8561653 | 276.1012067 | 328.2814224 | 467.5049714 | 52 53 | 148.3459496 | 174.8513064 | 206.8386341 | 245. 4989735 | 292. 2867731 | 348. 9783077 | 501. 2303194 | 53 54 | 154.5380578 | 182.8453587 | 217. 1463726 | 258.7739222 | 309. 3625456 | 370.9170062 | 537.3164417 | 54 55 | 160. 9468898 | 191. 1591730 | 227.9179594 | 272. 7126183 | 327.3774856 | 394.1720266 | 575.9285926 | 55 56 | 167.5800310 | 199.8055399 | 239.1742676 | 287. 3482492 | 346.3832473 | 418.8223482 | 617.2435941 | 56 57 | 174. 4453321 | 208. 7977615 | 250.9371096 | 302. 7156617 | 366. 4343259 | 444.9516891 | 661. 4506457 | 57 58 | 181.5509187 | 218.1496720 | 263. 2292795 | 318. 8514448 | 387.5882139 | 472.6487904 | 708. 7521909 | 58 59 | 188.9052009 | 227.8756589 | 276.0745971 | 335. 7940170 | 409. 9055656 | 502.0077178 | 759. 3648443 | 59 60 | 196.5168829 | 237.9906852 | 289. 4979540 | 353.5837179 | 433. 4503717 | 533.1281809 | 813.5203834 | 60 120 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 33.—The annual sinking fund which will accumulate to 1 at the end of n years. Years.| 114%. 134%. 2%. 214%. 216%. 234%. Be: Years. 1 1. 0000000 - 0000000 . 0000000 1. 0000000 1. 0000000 - 0000900 1. 0000000 2 0. 4962779 - 4956630 . 4950495 0. 4944376 0. 4938272 - 4932183 0. 4926108 | 3 0. 3283830 . 3275675 . 3267547 0. 3259446 0. 3251372 . 8243324 0. 3235304 4 0. 2444448 . 2435324 . 2426238 0. 2417189 0. 2408179 . 2399206 0. 2390271 5 0. 1940893 . 1931214 . 1921584 0. 1912002 0. 1902469 . 1892983 0. 1883546 . 1555708 | 0. 1545975 . 13814975 | 0. 1805064 . 1134580 | 0.1124564 - 0994410 | 0.0984339 . 0882397 | 0.0872305 10 . 1585258 | 0.1575350 1345120 | 0.1835003 | 0. 1324954 1165098 | 0.1154846 | 0. 1144674 1025154 | 0.1014817 | 0. 1004569 . 0913265 | 0.0902877 | 0.0892588 0. 1565500 - 6 7 | 0.1865562 - 1355306 8 | 0.1185840 - 1175429 9 | 0.1046098 - 1035581 10 | 0.0934342 . 0923753 Ooona Oe wh it 0 0 0 0 0. 1605252 | 0. 1595226 0 0 0 0 0 .0821779 | 0.0811365 | 0.0801060 - 0745596 |° 0.0735174 | 0.0724871 . 0681184 | 0.0670769 | 0.0660483 - 0626020 | 0.0615623 | 0.0605365 - 0578255 | 0.0567885 | 0. 0557665 . 0790863 | 0.0780775 11 . 0714687 | 0.0704621 12 - 0650325 |. 0.0640295 13 - 0595246 | 0. 0585263 14 - 0547592 | 0. 0537666 15 . 0536501 | 0.0526166 | 0.0515990 | 0.0505971 | 0.0496109 16 1 0 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0 11 | 0.0842938 . 0832304 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0499698 | 0.0489404 | 0.0479278 | 0.0469319 | 0.0459525 Af 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 | 0.0766800 | 0.0756138 13 | 0.0702404 | 0.0691728 14 | 0.0647233 | 0.0636556 15 | 0.0599444 | 0.0588774 16 | 0.0557651 | 0.0546996 0467021 | 0.0456772 | 0.0446701 | 0.0436806 | 0.0427087 18 0437818 | 0.0427618 | 0.0417606 | 0.0407780 | 0. 0398139 19 - 0411567 | 0.0401421 | 0.0391471 | 0.0881717 | 0.0372157 20 . 0358194 | 0.0348718 21 - 0336864 | 0.0327474 22 - 0317441 | 0.0308139 23 - 0299686 | 0.0290474 24 . 0283400 | 0.0274279 25 . 0268412 | 0.0259383 26 . 0254578 | 0.0245642 27 . 0241774 | 0.0232932 28 . 0229894 | 0.0221147 29 . 0218844 | 0.0210193 30 19 | 00458785 20 | 0.0432457 | 0.0421912 21 | 0.0408655 | 0. 0898146 22 | 0.0387033 | 0.0376564 23 | 0.0367308 | 0.0356878 24 | 0.0349241 | 0.0338857 25 | 0.0332635 | 0. 0322295 . 0387848 | 0.0377757 | 0.0367873 . 0366314 | 0.0356282 | 0.0346466 - 0346681 | 0.0336710 | 0.0326964 - 0328711 | 0.0318802 | 0. 0309128 0312204 | 0.0302360 | 0.0292759 26 | 0.0317320 | 0.03807027 27 | 0.0303153 | 0.0292908 28 | 0.0290011 | 0.0279815 29 | 0.0277788 | 0.0267642 30 | 0.0266392 | 0.0256298 - 0296992 | 0.0287213 | 0.0277687 - 0282931 | 0.0273219 | 0. 0263769 . 0269897 | 0.0260253 | 0.025°879 - 0257784 | 0.0248208 | 0. 0238913 - 0246499 | 0.0236993 | 0. 0227776 31 | 0.0255743 | 0.0245701 . 0235964 | 0.0226528 | 0.0217390 | 0.0208545 | 0.0199989 31 32 0245771 | 0.0235781 - 0226106 | 0.0216742 | 0.0207683 | 0.0198926 | 0.0190466 32 33 0236414 | 0.0226478 0216865 | 0.0207572 | 0.0198594 | 0.0189925 | 0.0181561 33 34 0227619 | 0.0217736 - 0208187 | 0.0198966 | 0.0190068 | 0.0181488 | 0.0173220 34 35 0219336 | 0. 0209508 0200022 | -0.0190873 | 0.0182056 | 0.0173565 | 0. 0165393 35 36 0211524 | 0.0201751 - 0192329 | 0.0183252 | 0.0174516 | 0.0166113 | 0.0158038 36 37 0204144 | 0.0194426 0185068 | 0.0176064 | 0.0167409 | 0.0159095 | 0.0151116 37 38 0197161 | 0.0187499 0178206 | 0.0169275 | 0.0160701 | 0.0152476 | 0.0144593 38 0190546 | 0.0180940 0184271 | 0.0174721 -O171711 | 0.0162854 | 0.0154362 | 0.0146226 | 0. 0138439 39 - 0165558 | 0.0156774 | 0.0148362 | 0.0140315 | 0.0132624 40 0178311 | 0.0168817 0172643 | 0.0163206 0167247 | 0.0157867 0162104 | 0.0152781 0157198 | 0.0147932 -0159719 | 0.0151009 | 0.0142679-| 0.0134720 | 0.0127124 41 -0154173 | 0.0145536 | 0.0137288 | 0.0129418 | . 0.0121917 42 - 0148899 | 0. 0140336 | 0.0132169 | 0.0124387 | 0.0116981 43 0143879 | 0.0135390 | 0.0127304 | 0.0119610 | 0.0112298 44 0139096 | 0.0130681 | 0.0122675 | 0.0115069 | 0.0107852 45 .0152512 | 0.0143304 0148034 | 0. 0188884 .0143750 | 0.0134657 . 0139648 | 0.0130612 -0135717 | 0.0126739 - 0134534 | 0.0126192 | 0.0118268 | 0.0110749 | 0. 0103625 46 -0130179 | 0.0121911 | 0.0114067 | 0.0106636 | 0. 0099605 47 - 0126018 | 0.0117823 | 0.0110060 | 0.0102716 | 0.0095778 48 - 0122040 | 0.0113918 | 0.0106235 | 0.0098977 | 0.0092131 49 0118232 | 0.0110184 | 0.0102581 | 0.0095409 | 0. 0088655 50 O2Oo0900 SOSoOeo SsSooSoO SOoC'Sso SOooOoSo SOSoSoo SoOoSoSo SCOSoOSoS SseSoeS SsooSoH = ee S2999 SSSs99 SsesSs SSeS 51°} 0.0181947 | 0.0123027 | 0.0114586 | 0.0106610 | 0.0099087 | 0.0092001 | 0.0085338 51 52 | 0.0128329 | 0.0119467 | 0.0111091 | 0.0103188 | 0.0095745 | 0. 0088744 | 0. 0082172 52 53 | 0.0124854 | 0.0116049 | 0.0107739 | 0.0099909 | 0.0092545 | 0.0085630 | 0. 0079147 53 54 | 0.0121514 | 0.0112767 | 0.0104523 | 0.0096765 | 0.0089480 | 0.0082649 | 0. 0076256 54 55 | 0.0118802 | 0.0109613 | 0.0101434 | 0.0093749 | 0.0086542 | 0.0079795 | 0.0073491 55 56 | 0.0115211 | 0.0106580 | 0.0098466 | 0.0090853 | 0.0083724 | 0.0077061 | 0.0070845 56 57 | 0.0112234 | 0.0103661 | 0.0095612 | 0.0088071 | 0.0081020 | 0.0074440 | 0.0068311 57 58 | 0.0109366 | 0.0100850 | 0.0092867 | 0.0085398 | 0.0078424 | 0.0071927 | 0. 0065885 58 59 | 0.0106601 | 0.0098143 | 0.0090224 | 0.0082827 | 0.0075931 | 0.0069515 | 0.0063559 59 60 | 0.0103934 | 0.0095534 | 0.0087680 | 0.0080353 | 0.0073534 | 0.0067200 | 0. 0061330 60 HIGHWAY BONDS. 121 TasiE 33.—The annual sinking fund which will accumulate to 1 at the end of n : years—Continued., De ee Sn) (1+i)"—1 33 | 0.0165724 | 0.0151036 | 0.0137445 | 0.0124900 34 | 0.0157597 | 0.0143148 | 0.0129819 | 0.0117554 35 | 0.0149984 | 0.0185773 | 0.0122705 | 0.0110717 36 | 0.0142842 | 0.0128869 | 0.0116058 | 0.0104345 37 | 0.0136133 | 0.0122396 | 0.0109840 | 0. 0098398 38 | 0.0129821 | 0.0116319 | 0.0104017 | 0. 0092842 39 | 0.0123878 | 0.0110608 | 0.0098557 | 0. 0087646 40 | 0.0118273 | 0.0105235 | 0. 0093432 | 0.0082782 41 | 0.0112982 | 0.0100174 | 0.0088616 | 0.0078223 42 | 0.0107983 | 0.0095402 | 0.0084087 | 0. 0073947 - 0064893 | 0.0056834 | 0. 0043359 42 43 | 0.0103254 | 0.0090899 | 0.0079824 | 0. 0069933 - 0061134 | 0.0053331 | 0.0040359 43 44 | 0.0098777 | 0.0086645 | 0.0075807 | 0.0066163 ; 0.0057613 | 0.0050061 | 0.0037577 44 45 | 0.0094534 | 0.0082625 | 0.0072020 | 0.0062617 | 0.0054313 | 0.0047005 | 0.0034996 45 46 | 0.0090511 | 0.0078821 | 0.0068447 | 0.0059282 | 0.0051218 | 0.0044149 | 0.0032600 46 47 | 0.0086692 | 0.0075219 | 0.0065073 | 0.0056142 | 0.0048313 | 0.0041477 | 0.0030374 47 48 | 0.0083065 | 0.0071807 | 0.0061886 | 0.0053184 | 0.0045585 | 0.0038977 | 0. 0028307 48 49 | 0.0079617 | 0.0068571 | 0.0058872 | 0.0050397 | 0.0043023 | 0. 0036636 | 0. 0026385 49 50 | 0.0076337 | 0.0065502 | 0.0056022 | 0.0047767 | 0.0040615 | 0.0034443 | 0.0024599 50 51 | 6.0073216 | 0.0062589 | 0.0053323 , 0.0045287 | 0.0038350 ' 0.0032388 | 0.0022937 51 52 | 0.0070243 | 0.0059821 | 0.0050768 | 0.0042945 | 0.0036219 | 0.0030462 | 0. 0021390 52 53 | 0.0067410 | 0.0057192 | 0.0048347 | 0.0040733 | 0.0034213 | 0.0028655 | 0.0019951 53 54 | 0.0064709 | 0.0054691 | 0.0046052 | 0.0038644 | 0.0032325 | 0.0026960 | 0.0018611 54 55 | 0.0062132 | 0.0052312 | 0.0043875 | 0. 0036669 ; 0.0030546 | 0.0025370 | 0.0017363 55 56 | 0.0059673 | 0.0050049 | 0.0041811 | 0.0034801 | 0.0028870 | 0.0023877 | 0. 0016201 56 57 | 0.0057325 | 0.0047893 | 0.0039851 | 0. 0033034 | 0.0027290 | 0.0022474 | 0.0015118 57 58 | 0.0055081 | 0.0045840 | 0.0037990 | 0.0031363 | 0.0025801 | 0.0021157 | 0.0014109 58 59 | 0.0052937 | 0.0043884 | 0.0036222 | 0.0029780 | 0.0024396 | 0.0019920 | 0.0013169 59 0. 0050886 | 0.0042019 ; 0.0034543 | 0.0028282 ; 0.0023071 | 0.0018757 | 0.0012292 60 - 0113347 | 0.0102729 | 0.0084081 33 - 0106296 | 0.0095984 | 0. 0077967 34 - 0099749 | 0.0089739 | 0.0072340 . 0093664 | 0.0083948 | 0.0067153 | 36 - 0087999 | 0.0078574 | 0.0062369 37 - 0082722 | 0.0073581 | 0.0057951 -0077799 | 0.0068938 | 0. 0053865 39 - 0073203 | 0.0064615 | 0.0050091 | 40 - 0068909 | 0.0060589 | 0.0046596 oo or wo io.) Vieira 316%. 4%. 414%. a yA, 514%. 6%. we Years. 1 | 1.0000000 1. 0000000. 1. 0000000 1. 0000000 1. 0000000 1. 0000000 1. 0000000 1 2 | 0. 4914005 0. 4901961 0. 4889976 0. 4878049 | 0.4866180 | 0.4854369 | 0. 4830918 2 3 | 0.3219342 | 0.3203485 0. 3187734 0. 3172086 | 0.3150541 0. 3141098 | 0.3110517 3 4 | 0. 2372511 0. 2354901 0. 2337437 | 0.2320118 | 0. 2302945 0. 2285915 0. 2252281 4 5 | 0.1864814 | 0.1846271 | 0. 1827916 0. 1809748 | 0. 1791764 0. 1773964 0. 1738907 5 6 | 0.1526682 | 0.1507619 | 0. 1488784 0. 1470175 0.1451790 | 0.1433626 | 0. 1397958 6 7 | 0.1285445 | 0.1266096 | 0.1247015 0. 1228198 | 0. 1209644 0.1191350 | 0. 1155532 7 8 | 0.1104767 | 0.1085278 | 0. 1066097 0. 1047218 | 0. 1028640 | 0.1010359 | 0.0974678 8 9 | 0.0964460 | 0.0944930 | 0.0925745 0. 0906901 0. 0888395 0.0870222 | 0.0834865 9 10 | 0.0852414 | 0.0832909 | 0.0813788 | 0.0795046 0.0776678 | 0.0758680 | 0.0723775 10 11 | 0.07€0920 | 0.0741490 | 0.072242 0. 0703889 0. 0685707 0. 0667929 | 0. 0633569 11 12 | 0.0684840 | 0. 0665522 0. 0646662 | 0. 0628254 0.0610292 | 0.0592770 | 0.0559020 12 13 | 0.0620616 | 0.0601437 0. 0582754 0. 0564558 | 0. 0546843 0. 0529601 0. 0496509 13 14 | 0. 0565707 0. 0546690 0.0528263 | 0.0510240 | 0.0492791 0.0475849 | 0.0443449 14 15 | 0.0518251 0.0499411 0.0481138 | C. 0463423 0. 0446256 | 0.0429628 | 0.0397946 15 16 | 0.0476848 | 0.0458200 | 0.9440154 0. 0422699 | 0.0405825 0. 0389521 0. 0358577 16 17 | 0. 0440431 0. 0421985 0. 0404176 0. 0386991 0.0370420 | 0.0354448 | 0.0324252 17 18 | 0.04081€8 0. 0389933 0. 0372369 | 0. 0355462 0.0339199 | 0.0323565 0. 0294126 18 19 | 0.0379403 | 0.0361386 0. 0344073 0. 0327450 | 0.0311501 0. 0296209 0. 0267530 19 20 | 0.0353611 0. 0335818 | 0.0318761 0. 0302426 0. 9286793 0. 0271846 0. 0243929 20 21 | 0.0330366 | 0.0312801 0. 0296006 0. 0279961 0. 0264548 | 0.0250046 0. 0222890 21 22 | 0.0309321 0.0291988 | 0.0275457 | 0.0259705 0.0244712 | 0.0230456 0. 0204058 22 23 | 0.0290188 | 0.0273091 0. 0256825 0.0241368 | G.0226696 | 0.0212785 0. 0187139 23 24 } 0.0272728 0. 0255868 | 0.0239870 | 0.0224709 0.0210358 | 0.0196790 | 0.0171890 24 25 | 0.0256740 | 0.0240120 0. 0224390 | 0. 0209525 0. 0195494 0. 0182267 0.0158105 25 26 | 0.0242054 0. 0225674 | 0.0210214 | 0.0195643 0. 0181931 0. 0169044 0. 0145610 26 27 | 0.0228524 0. 0212385 0. 0197195 0.0182919 | 0.0169523 0.0156972 | 0.0134257 27 28 | 0.0216027 | 0.0200130 | 0.0185208 | 0.0171225 0. 0158144 0. 0145926 0. 0123919 28 29 | 0.0204454 | 0.0188799 | 0.0174146 | 0.0160455 0.0147686 | 0.0135796 0. 0114487 29 30 | 0.0193713 | 0.0178301 0..0163915 0. 0150514 0.0138054 | 0.0126489 0. 0105864 30 31 | 0.0183724 | 0.0168554 | 0.0154435 | 0.0141321 0. 0129167 0.0117922 | 0.0097969 31 32 | 0.0174415 0. 0159486 0.0145632 | 0.0132804 | 0.0120952 0. 0110023 0. 0090729 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 122 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE 34.—The present value of 1 due in n years. = (1+4)—". Years.| 114%. 134%. 2%. 214%. 216%. 234%. a4. Years. 1 0. 9852217 0.9828010 | 0. 9803922 0.9779951 0.9756098 | 0.9732360 | 0.9708738 Al 2) 0.9706618 | 0.9658978 | 0. 9611688 0. 9564744 | 0.9518144 | 0.9471883 | 0. 9425959 2 3 | 0.9563170 | 0. 9492853 0. 9423223 0. 9354273 0. 9285994 | 0.9218878 | 0.9151417 3 4} 0.9421842 0. 9329585 0. 9238454 0. 9148434 0.9059506 | 0.8971657 | 0. 8884871 4 5 0. 9282603 0. 9169125 0. 9057308 | 0. 8947123 0. 8838543 0. 8731540 | 0. 8626088 5 6 0. 9145422 0. 9011425 0. 8879714 0. 8750243 0. 8622969 | 0.8497849 | 0.8374843 6 7} 0.9010268 | 0.8856438 | 0. 8705602 0. 8557695 0. 8412652 | 0.8270413 | 0.8130915 ul 8 | 0.8877111 0.8704116 | 0.8534904 | 0.8369384 ; 0.8207466 | 0.8049064 | 0. 7894092 8 9} 0.8745922 0. 8554414 | 0. 8367553 0. 8185216 | 0.8007284 | 0. 7833639 0. 7664167 9 10 | 0.8616672 | 0. 8407286 0. 8203483 0. 8005101 0. 7811984 | 0. 7623979 | 0.7440939 10 11 Q. 8489332 | 0. 8262689 0. 8042630 | 0.7828950 | 0.7621448 | 0.7419931 | 0. 7224213 11 12 | 0.8363874 | 0.8120579 | 0.7884932 | U.7656675 | 0.7435559 | 0. 7221344 | 0.7013799 12 13 | ©.S240270 | 0.7989913 0. 7730325 0. 7488191 0. 7254204 | 0.7028072 | 0.6809513 13 14 {| 0.8118493 0. 7843649 | 0. 7578750 0. 7323414 | 0.7077272 | 0.6839973 | 0.6611178 | 14 15 0. 7998515 0.7708746 | 0. 7430147 0. 7162263 0.6904656 | 0.6656908 | 0. 6418620 15 16 | 0.7880310 | 0. 7576163 0. 7284458 | 0.7004658 | 0.6736249 | 0.6478742 | 0.6231669 16 | 17 0. 7763853 0. 7445861 0. 7141626 0. 6850521 0. 6571951 0. 6305345 | 0. 6050165 17 18 0. 7649116 | 0.7317799 | 0. 7001594 0. 6699776 0.6411659 | 0. 6136589 0. 5873946 18 19 0. 7536075 0.7191940 | 0.6864308 0. 6552348 0.6255277 | 0.5972350 | 0.5702860 19 20 | 0. 7424704 | 0.7068246 | 0.6729713 0. 6408165 0.6102709 | 0.5812506 | 0.5536758 20 21 0. 7314980 | 0.6946679 | 0.6597758 0.62A7154 | 0.5953863 | 0.5656940 | 0.5375493 21 22 0.7206876 | 0.6827203 0.6468390 | 0.6129246 | 0.5808647 | 0.5505538 | 0.5218925 | 22 23 0. 7100371 0. 6709782 | 0.6341559 | 0.5994372 0.5666972 | 0.5358187 | 0.5066918 23 24 0. 6995439 | 0.6594380 | 0. 6217215 0.5862467 | 0.5528754 | 0. 5214781 0. 4919337 24 25 0.6892058 | 0.6480963 | 0. 6095309 0.5733464 | 0.5393906 | 0. 5075213 0. 4776056 25 26 | 0.6790205 | 0.6369497 | 0.5975793 | 0.5607300 | 0.5262347 | 0.4939380 | 0.4636947 26 27 0. 6689857 | 0. 6259948 0. 5858620 | 0.5483912 0.5133997 | 0.4807182 | 0. 4501891 27 28 | 0.6590993 | 0.6152283 | 0.5743746 0. 5363239 0.5008778 | 0.4678523 | 0.4370768 28 29 | 0.6493589 | 0.6046470 | 0.5631123 0. 5245221 0.4886613 | 0.4553307 | 0. 4243464 29 30 | 0.6397624 | 0.5942476 | 0.5520709 | 0.5129801 | 0.4767427 | 0.4431442 | 0.4119868 30 al 0. 6303078 | 0.5840272 | 0.5412460 | 0.5016920 | 0.4651148 | 0.4312839 | 0.3999872 31 32 | 0.6209929 | 0.5739825 0. 5306333, 0. 4906523 0.4537706 | 0.4197410 | 0.3883370 32 33 0. 6118157 0. 5641105 0.5202287 | 0.4798556 | 0.4427030 | 0. 4085071 0. 3770263 33 34 | 0.6027741 0.5544084 | 0.5100282 0. 4692964 0. 4319053 | 0.3975738 | 0.3660449 34 35 0. 5938661 0. 5448731 0.5000276 | 0. 4589696 0. 4213711 0. 3869331 | 0.3553834 35 36 | 0.5850897 0. 5355018 0. 4902232 | 0.4488700 | 0.4110937 | 0.3765773 0. 3450324 36 37 0. 5764431 0.5262917 | 0.4806109 0.4389927 | 0.4010671 0. 3664986 | 0.3349829 37 38 | 0.5679242 0.5172400 | 0.4711872 | 0.4293327 | 0.3912849 | 0. 3566896 | 0.3252262 38 j 39 0. 5595313 0. 5083440 | 0.4619482 ; 0.4198853 0. 3817414 | 0.3471432 ; 0.3157536 39 | 40 | 0.5512623 0.4996010 | 0.4528904 | 0.4106458 | 0.3724306 | 0.3378522 | 0.3065568 AO 41 0.5431156 | 0.4910083 0.4440102 | 0.4016095 0.3633470 | 0.3288100 | 0.2976280 41 42 | 0.5350893 0. 4825635 0. 4353041 0. 3927722 0.3544848 | 0.3200097 | 0.2889592 42 43 0. 5271815 0. 4742639 | 0.4267688 | 0.3841293 0.3458389 | 0.3114450 | 0.2805429 43 44 | 0.5193907 | 0.4661070 | 0. 4184007 0.3756765 0.3374038 | 0.3031094 | 0.2723718 44 45 | 0.5117149 | 0.4580904 | 0.4101968 | 0.3674098 | 0.3291744 | 0.2949970 | 0.2644386 45 46 | 0.5041527 | 0.4502117 | 0.4021537 | 0.3593250 | 0.3211458 | 0.2871017 | 0.2567365 46 47 | 0.4967021 0. 4424685 0.3942684 | 0.3514181 0.3133129 | 0.2794177 | 0.2492588 AT 48 | 0.4893617 | 0.4348585 0. 3865376 0. 3436852 0. 3056712 | 0.2719394 | 0.2419988 48 49 | 0.4821298 | 0.4273793 0.3789584 | 0.3361224 | 0.2982158 | 0. 2646612 | 0. 2349503 49 50 | 0.4750047 | 0.4200288 | 0.3715279 | 0.3287261 | 0.2909422 | 0.2575778 | 0.2281071 50 51 0. 4679849 | 0.4128048 | 0.3642430 | 0.3214925 0. 2838461 | 0. 2506840 | 0. 2214632 51 52 | 0.4610689 | 0.4057049 | 0.3571010 | 0.3144181 0. 2769230 | 0.2439747 | 0. 2150128 52 53 0. 4542551 0. 3987272 0. 3500990 | 0.3074994 | 0.2701688 | 0. 2374450 | 0. 2087503 53 54 0. 4475419 0. 3918695 0. 3432343 0. 3007329 | 0. 2635793 0. 2310900 | 0. 2026702 54 55 0. 4409280 | 0.3851297 0. 8365043 6. 2941153 0. 2571505 | 0. 2249051 0. 1967672 55 56 | 0.4344118 | 0.3785059 | 0.3299061 0. 2876433 | 0.2508786 | 0. 2188858 | 0. 1910361 56 57 0. 4279919 0. 3719959 0. 3234374 0. 2813137 0. 2447596 | 0. 2130275 | 0. 1854719 7 58 | 0.4216669 | 0.3655980 0. 3170955 0. 2751235 0. 2387898 | 0. 2073260 | 0.1800698 58 59 | 0.4154354 | 0.3593100 | 0.3108779 | 0. 2690694 0. 2329657 | 0.2017772 | 0.1748251 59 60 | 0.4092960 | 0.3531303 0. 3047823 0. 2631486 | 0.2272836 | 0.1963768 | 0. 1697331 60 HIGHWAY BONDS. TaBLE 34.—The present value of 1 due in n years—Continued. Years. ra SCOOND OhWNHe ee Nr a nn | gn GEER 3%. 4%. AM%. 0.9661836 | 0.9615385 | 0.9569378 0.9335107 | 0.9245562 | 0.9157300 0.9019427 | 0.8889964 | 0.8762966 0. 8714422 | 0.8548042 | 0.8385613 0.8419732 | 0.8219271 | 0.8024511 0. 8135006 | 0.7903145 | 0.7678957 0. 7859910 | 0.7599178 | 0. 7348285 0. 7594116 | 0.7306902 | 0. 7031851 0. 7337310 | 0.7025867 | 0.6729044 0. 7089188 | 0.6755642 | 0.5439277 0. 6849457 | 0.6495809 | 0.6161987 0.6617833 | 0.6245971 | 0.5896639 0.6394042 | 0.6005741 | 0.5642716 0.6177818 | 0.5774751 | 0.5399729 0.5968906 | 0.5552645 | 0.5167204 0.5767059 | 0.5339082 | 0. 4944693 0.5572038 | 0.5133733 | 0.4731764 0. 5383611 | 0.4936281 | 0. 4528004 0.5201557 | 0.4746424 | 0.4333018 0.5025659 | 0.4563870 | 0. 4146429 0.4855709 | 0.4388336 | 0.3967874 0.4691506 | 0.4219554 | 0.3797009 0. 4532856 | 0.4057263 | 0.3633501 0. 4379571 | 0.3901215 | 0.3477035 0.4231470 | 0.3751168 | 0.3327306 0. 4088377 | 0.3606892 | 0.3184025 0.3950122 | 0.3468166 | 0.3046914 0.3816543 | 0.3334775 | 0.2915707 0. 3687482 | 0.3206514 | 0.2790150 0.3562784 | 0.3083187 | 0.2670000 0. 3442304 | 0.2964603 | 0.2555024 0. 3325897 | 0.2850579 | 0.2444999 0.3213427 | 0.2740942 | 0.2339712 0.3104761 | 0.2635521 | 0.2238959 0.2999769 | 0.2534155 | 0: 2142544 0. 2898327 | 0.2436687 | 0.2050282 0. 2800316 | 0.2342969 | 0.1961992 0.2705619 | 0.2252854 | 0.1877504 0. 2614125 | 0.2166206 | 0.1796655 0. 2525725 | 0.2082890 | 0.1719287 0. 2440314 | 0. 2002779 | 0.1645251 0.2357791 | 0.1925749 | 0.1574403 0. 2278059 | 0.1851682 | 0.1506605 0. 2201023 | 0.1780464 | 0.1441728 0. 2126592 | 0.1711984 | 0.1379644 0. 2054679 | 0.1646139 | 0.1320233 0.1985197 | 0.1582826 | 0.1263381 0.1918065 | 0.1521948 | 0.1208977 0.1853202 | 0.1463411 | 0.1156916 0.1790534 | 0.1407126 | 0.1107097 0.1729984 | 0.1353006 | 0.1059423 0.1671482 | 0.1300967 | 0.1013801 0.1614959 | 0.1250930 | 0.0970145 0.1560347 | 0.1202817 | 0.0928368 0.1507581 | 0.1156555 | 0.0888391 0.1456600 | 0.1112072 | 0.0850135 0. 1407343 | 0.1069300 | 0.0813526 0.1359752 | 0.1028173 | 0.0778494 0.1313770 | 0.0988628 | 0.0744970 0.1269343 | 0.0950604 | 0.0712890 1238 De 54%. 6%. Wien [aes 0. 9523810 0. 9478673 0. 9433962 0. 9345794 1b 2 0. 9070295 0). 8984524 0. 8899964 0. 8734387 2 0. 8638376 0. 8516137 0. 8396193 0. 8162979 By | 0.8227025 | 0.8072167 | 0.7920937 | 0.7628952 4 0. 7835262 | 0. 7651344 0. 7472582 | 0. 7129862 5 0. 7462154 0. 7252458 0. 7049605 0. 6663422 6 0. 7106813 0. 6874368 0.6650571 0. 6227497 ‘te 0. 6768394 0. 6515989 0. 6274124 0. 5820091 8 | 0. 6446089 0. 6176293 0. 5918985 0. 5439337 9 0. 6139133 0.5854306 | 0.5583948 | 0.5083493 10 | 0. 5846793 0.5549105 0. 5267875 6. 4750928 11 0. 5568374 0.5259815 0. 4969694 0. 4440120 12 0. 5303214 0. 4985607 0. 4688390 0. 4149645 13 0. 5050680 0. 4725694 0. 4423010 0. 38878172 14 0. 4810171 0. 4479331 0. 4172651 0. 3624460 15 0. 4581115 0. 4245811 0. 3936463 0. 3387346 16 0. 4362967 0. 4024465 0. 3713644 0. 3165744 17 0. 4155207 0. 3814659 0. 3503438 0. 2958639 18 0. 3957340 0. 3615791 0. 3305130 0. 2765083 19 0. 3768895 0. 3427290 0. 3118047 0. 2584190 20 0. 3589424 0. 3248616 0. 2941554 0. 2415131 21 0. 3418499 0. 3079257 0. 2775051 0. 2257132 22 0. 3255713 0. 2918727 0. 2617973 0. 2109469 23 0. 3100679 0. 2766566 0. 2459786 0. 1971466 24 0. 2953028 0. 2622337 0. 2329986 0. 1842492 25; 0.2812407 | 0.2485628 | 0.2198100 | 0.1721955 26 0. 2678483 0. 2356045 0. 2073680 0. 1609304 27 0. 2550936 0. 2233218 0.195€301 0. 1504022 28 0. 2429463 | 0.2116794 0.1845567 | 0.1405628 29 0. 2313775 0. 2006440 0.1741101 0. 1313671 30 0. 2203595 0. 1901839 0. 1642548 0. 1227730 31 0. 2098662 0. 1802691 0. 1549574 0. 1147411 32 0. 1998725 0. 1708712 0. 1461862 0. 1072347 33 0. 1903548 0. 1619632 0. 1379115 0. 1002193 34 0. 1812903 | 0.1535196 | 0.1301052 | 0.0936629 35 0. 1726574 0.1455162 | 0.1227408 | 0.0875355 36 0. 1644356 | 0.1379301 | 0.1157932 | 0.0818088 7 0.1566054 | 0.1307394 | 0.1092389 | 0.0764569 38 0. 1491480 0. 1239236 0.1030555 0.0714550 39 0.1420457 | 0.1174631 0.0972222 | 0.0667804 40 0.1352816 | 0.1113395 | 0.0917191 | 0.0624116 41 0. 1288396 0-1055350 0. 0865274 0. 0583286 42 0. 1227044 0. 1000332 0. 0816296 0. 0545127 43 0.1168613 0.0948182 0.0770091 0. 0509464 44 0.1112965 0. 0898751 0.0726501 0. 0476135 45 0.1059967 | 0.0851897 | 0.0685378 | 0.0444986 46 0. 1009492 0. 0807485 0. 0646583 0.0415875 47 0.0961421 0. 0765389 0. 0609984 0. 0388668 48 0.0915639 0. 0725487 0. 0575457 0. 0363241 49 0.0872037 | 0.0687665 | 0.0542884 0. 0339478 50 0.0830512 0.0651815 0.0512154 0. 0317269 51 0. 0790964 0. 0617834 0. 0483165 0. 0296513 52 0. 0753299 0.0585625 0.0455816 0. 0277115 53 0. 0717427 0.0555095 0.0430015 0. 0258986 54 0.0683264 | 0.0526156 | 0.0405674 0. 0242043 55 0.0650728 | 0.0498726 | 0.0382712 | 0.0226208 56 0.0619741 0. 0472726 0. 0361049 0. 0211410 57 0. 0590229 0. 0448082 0. 0340612 0.0197579 58 0. 0562123 0. 0424722 0. 0321332 0.0184653 59 0.0535355 0. 0402580 0. 0303143 0. 0172573 60 124 BULLETIN 136, U.S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 35.—The present value of an annuity of 1 for n years. T—a a; = 7 n| i Years.| 114%. 134%. 2h: 24% 214%, 234%. BA Years. 1 0. 9852217 0. 9828010 0. 9803922 0. 9779951 0. 9756098 0. 9732360 0. 9708738 | 1 2 1. 9558834 1. 9486988 1. 9415609 1. 9344696 1. 9274242 1. 9204243 1. 9134697 | 2 3 2. 9122004 2. 8979840 2. 88388833 2. 8698969 2. 8560236 2. 8422621 2. 8286114 3 4 3. 8543847 3. 8309425 3. 8077287 3. 7847402 3. 7619742 3. 7394279 3. 7170984 4 i) 4. 7826450 4. 7478551 4. 7134595 4. 6794525 4. 6458285 4. 6125819 4.5797072 5 6 5. 6971872 5. 6489976 5. 6014309 5. 5544768 5. 5081254 5. 4623668 5. 4171914 6 if 6. 5982140 6. 5346414 6. 4719911 6. 41024638-} 6. 3493906 6. 2894081 6. 23028380 7 8 7. 4859251 7. 4050530 7.3254814 7. 2471846 7.1701372 7. 0943144 7. 0196922 8 9 8. 3605173 8. 2604943 8. 1622367 8. 0657062 7. 9708655 7. 8776783 7. 7861089 9 10 9. 2221846 9. 1012229 | 8. 9825850 8. 8662164 8. 7520639 8. 6400762 8. 53802028 10 11 | 10.0711178 9. 9274918 9. 7868481 9. 6491113 9. 5142087 9. 3820693 | 9. 2526241 11 12 | 10. 9075052 | 10. 7395497 | 10.5753412 | 10. 4147788 | 10. 2577646 | 10. 1042037 9. 9540040 12 13 | 11. 7315322 | 11.5376410 | 11.3483738 | 11. 1635979 | 10. 9831850 | 10. 8070109 | 10. 6349553 13 14 | 12.5433815 | 12.3220059 | 12. 1062488 | 11. 8959392 | 11.6909122 | 11. 4910081 | 11. 2960731 14 15 | 18. 3432330 | 13.0928805 | 12. 8492635 | 12.6121655 | 12.3813777 | 12. 1566989 | 11. 9379351 15 16 | 14.1312641 | 13.8504968 | 13.5777093 | 13.3126313 | 13.0550027 | 12. 8045722 | 12. 5611020 16 17 | 14. 9076493 | 14. 5950828 | 14. 2918719 | 13. 9976834 | 13. 7121977 | 13.4351077 | 13. 1661185 aif 18 | 15.6725609 | 15. 3268627 | 14.9920313 | 14.6676611 | 14. 3533636 | 14. 0487666 | 13. 7535131 18 19 | 16. 4261684 | 16.0460567 | 15. 6784620 | 15. 3228959 | 14.9788913 | 14.6460016 | 14.3237991 19 20 ; 17. 1686388 | 16. 7528813 |; 16. 3514333 | 15. 9637124 | 15. 5891623 ; 15. 2272521 | 14. 8774749 20 21 | 17.9001367 | 17. 4475492 | 17.0112092 | 16.5904278 | 16.1845486 | 15. 7929461 | 15. 4150241 21 22 | 18. 6208244 | 18. 1302695 | 17. 6580482 | 17. 2033523 | 16. 7654132 | 16. 3434999 | 15. 9369166 22 23 | 19.3308615 | 18. 8012476 | 18. 2922041 | 17. 8027896 | 17.3321105 | 16. 8793186 | 16. 4436084 23 24 | 20.0304054 | 19. 4606857 | 18. 9139256 | 18. 3890362 | 17. 8849858 | 17.4007967 | 16. 9355421 24 25 | 20. 7196112 | 20.1087820 | 19. 5234565 | 18. 9623826 | 18. 4243764 | 17.9083180 | 17. 4131477 25 26 | 21.3986317 | 20. 7457317 | 20.12103858 | 19.5231126 | 18.9506111 | 18. 4022559 | 17. 8768424 26 27 | 22. 0676175 | 21.3717264 | 20. 7068978 | 20.0715038 | 19. 4640109 | 18. 8829741 | 18.3270315 27 28 | 22. 7267167 | 21.9869547 | 21. 2812724 | 20. 6078276 |. 19. 9648887 | 19. 3508264 | 18. 7641082 28 29 | 23.3760756 | 22.5916017 | 21. 8443847 | 21. 1323498 | 20. 4535499 | 19.8061571 | 19. 1884546 29 30 | 24. 0158380 | 23. 1858493 | 22. 3964556 | 21. 6453299 | 20. 9302926 | 20. 2493013 | 19. 6004414 30 31 | 24. 6461458 | 23. 7698765 | 22.9377015 | 22.1470219 | 21. 3954074 | 20. 6805852 | 20. 0004285 31 32 | 25. 2671387 | 24.3438590 | 23. 4683348 | 22. 6376742 | 21. 8491780 | 21. 1003262 | 20. 3887655 32 33 | 25. 8789544 | 24. 9079695 | 23. 9885636 | 23.1175298 | 22. 2918809 | 21. 5088333 | 20. 7657918 33 34 | 26. 4817285 | 25. 4623779 | 24. 4985917 | 23.5868262 | 22. 7237863 | 21.9064071 | 21. 1318367 34 35 | 27.0755946 | 26.0072510 | 24. 9986193 | 24. 0457958 | 23..1451573 | 22. 2933403 | 21. 4872201 35 36 | 27. 6606843 | 26. 5427528 | 25. 4888425 | 24. 4946658 | 23. 5562511 | 22.6699175 | 21. 8322525 36 37 | 28. 2371274 | 27.0690446 | 25. 9694534 | 24. 9336585 | 23.9573181 | 23. 0364161 | 22. 1672354 37 38 | 28. 8050516 | 27. 5862846 | 26. 4406406 | 25.3629912 | 24. 3486030 | 23. 3931057 | 22. 4924616 38 89 | 29. 3645829 | 28. 0946286 | 26.9025888 | 25. 7828765 | 24. 7303444 | 23. 7402488 | 22. 8082151 39 40 | 29.9158452 | 28. 5942296 | 27. 3554792 | 26. 1935222 | 25.1027751 | 24.0781011 | 23. 1147720 40 41 | 30. 4589608 | 29. 0852379 | 27. 7994895 | 26.5951317 | 25. 4661220 | 24. 4069110 | 23. 4124000 41 42 | 30.9940500 | 29. 5678014 | 28. 2347936 | 26. 9879039 | 25. 8206068 | 24. 7269207 | 23. 7013592 42 43 | 31.5212316 | 30. 0420652 | 28. 6615623 | 27.3720332 | 26. 1664457 | 25. 0383656 | 23.9819021 43 44 | 32. 0406222 | 30. 5081722 | 29.0799631 | 27. 7477097 | 26.5038495 | 25. 3414751 | 24. 2542739 44 45 | 32.5523372 | 30. 9662626 | 29. 4901599 | 28. 1151195 | 26. 8330239 | 25. 6364721 | 24.5187125 45 46 | 33.0564898 | 31. 4164743 | 29. 8923136 | 28.4744445 | 27.1541696 | 25. 9235738 | 24. 7754491 46 47 | 33.5531920 | 31. 8589428 | 30. 2865820 | 28. 8258626 | 27. 4674826 | 26. 2029915 | 25.0247078 47 48 | 34. 0425537 | 32. 2938018 | 30. 6731196 | 29. 1695478 | 27.7731537 | 26.4749309 | 25. 2667066 48 49 | 34.5246834 | 32. 7211806 | 31.0520780 | 29.5056702 | 28.0713695 | 26. 7395922 | 25. 5016569 49 50 | 34.9996881 | 33. 1412095 | 31. 4236059 | 29. 8343963 | 28. 3623117 | 26.9971700 | 25. 7297640 50 51 | 35. 4676730 | 33. 5540142 | 31. 7878489 | 30. 1558888 | 28.6461577 | 27. 2478540 | 25. 9512272 51 52 | 35. 9287419 | 33. 9597191 | 32. 1449499 | 30. 4703069 | 28. 9230807 | 27. 4918287 | 26. 1662400 52 53 | 36. 3829969 | 34. 3584463 | 32. 4950489 | 30. 7778062 | 29. 1932495 | 27. 7292737 | 26.3749903 53 54 | 36. 8305388 | 34. 7503158 | 32. 8382833 | 31.0785391 | 29. 4568288 | 27. 9603637 | 26. 5776605 54 55 | 37. 2714668 | 35. 1354455 | 33.1747875 | 31.3726544 | 29. 7139793 | 28. 1852688 | 26. 7744276 ‘OD 56 | 37. 7058786 | 35.5139514 | 33. 5046937 | 31. 6602977 | 29. 9648578 | 28. 4041545 | 26. 9654637 56 57 | 38. 1338706 | 35. 8859473 | 33. 8281310 | 31. 9416114 | 30. 2096174 | 28. 6171820 | 27. 1509357 57 58 | 38.5555375 | 36. 2515452 | 34. 1452265 | 32. 2167349 | 30. 4484072 | 28. 8245081 | 27.3310055 58 59 | 38.9709729 | 36. 6108553 | 34. 4561044 | 32. 4858043 | 30. 6813729 | 29.0262852 | 27. 5058306 59 60 | 39. 3802689 | 36. 9639855 | 34. 7608867 | 32. 7489529 | 30. 9086565 | 29, 2226620 | 27. 6755637 60 TABLE 35.—The present value of an annuity of 1 for n years—Continued. HIGHWAY BONDS. 125 1-7” Cn age Years.| 314%. 4%. 416%. BY. 516%. 6%. | Woe Years. 1 0. 9661836 | 0.9615385 | 0.9569378 | 0.9523810 | 0. 9478673 0. 9433962 0. 9345794 1 2 1. 8996943 1. 8860947 1. 8726678 1. 8594104 1. 8463197 1. 8333927 1. 8080182 2 3 | 2.8016370 | 2.7750910 | 2.7489644 | 2.7232480 | 2.6979334 2.6730120 | 2.6243160 3 4 3. 6730792 3. 6298952 3. 5875257 3. 5459505 3. 5051501 3.4651056 | 3.3872113 4 5 4. 5150524 4, 4518223 4, 3899767 4. 3294767 4, 2702845 4, 2123638 4. 1001974 5 6 | 5.3285530 | 5.2421369 5. 1578725 5.07569 3 4, 9955303 4, 9173243 4. 7665397 6 7 | 6.1145440 |} 6.0020547 5. 8927009 5. 7863731 5. 6829671 5. 5823814 5. 3892894 7 8 6. 8739555 6. 7327449 6.5958861 | 6.4632128 | 6.3345660 | 6.2097938 | 5.9712985 8 9 | 7.6076865 | 7. 4853316 7. 2687905 7. 1078217 6.9521953 | 6. 8016923 6. 5152323 9 10 | 8.3166053 | 8.1108958 | 7.9127182 7. 7217349 7. 5376258 7. 3600871 7. 0235816 10 11 | 9.0015510 | 8. 7604767 | 8.5289169 | 8.3064142 | 8. 0925363 | 7.8868746 | 7. 4986744 11 12 | 9. 6633343 | 9.3850738 | 9.1185808 | 8. 8632516 | 8. 6185179 8. 3838439 7. 9426863 12 13 | 10.3027385 | 9.9856479 | 9. 6828524 9. 3935730 | 9. 1170785 8. 8526830 8. 3576508 13 14 | 10. 9205203 | 10. 5631229 | 10. 2228253 | 9. 8986409 9. 5896479 | 9. 2949839 8. 7454680 14 15 | 11.5174109 | 11. 1183874 | 10. 7395457 | 10.3796580 | 10.0375809 | 9. 7122490 9. 1079140 15 16 | 12.0941168 | 11. 6522956 | 11.2340151 | 10. 8377696 | 10. 4621620 | 10.1058953 | 9. 4466486 16 17 | 12. 6513206 | 12. 1656689 | 11. 7071914 | 11. 2740663 | 10. 8646086 | 10. 4772597 9. 7632230 17 18 | 13. 1896817 | 12. 6592970 | 12. 1599918 | 11. 6895869 | 11. 2460745 | 10. 8276035 | 10. 0590869 18 19 | 13. 7098374 | 13. 1339894 | 12.5932936 | 12.0853209 | 11. 6076535 | 11.1581165 | 10. 3355953 19 20 | 14.2124033 | 13.5903263 | 13.0079365 | 12. 4622103 | 11. 9503825 ; 11. 4699212 | 10.5940143 20 21 | 14. 6979742 | 14.0291600 | 13. 4047239 | 12.8211527 | 12.2752441 | 11. 7640766 | 10. 8355273 21 22 | 15. 1671248 | 14.4511153 | 13. 7844248 | 13.1630026 | 12.5831697 | 12: 0415817 | 11. 0612405 22 23 | 15. 6204105 | 14. 8568417 | 14. 1477749 | 18.4885739 | 12.8750424 | 12. 3033790 | 11.2721874 23 24 | 16.0583676 | 15.2469631 | 14. 4954784 | 13. 7986418 | 13. 1516990 | 12.5503575 | 11. 4693340 24 25 | 16. 4815146 | 15. 6220799 | 14.8282090 | 14.0939446 | 13. 4139327 | 12. 7833562 | 11. 6535832 25 26 | 16. 8903523 | 15. 9827692 | 15. 1466115 | 14.3751853 | 13. 6624954 | 13. 0031662 | 11. 8257787 26 27 | 17.2853645 | 16.3295858 | 15. 4513028 | 14. 6430336 | 13. 8980999 | 13. 2105341 | 11. 9867091 27 28 | 17. 6670189 | 16. 6630632 | 15. 7428735 | 14.8981273 | 14.1214217 | 13. 4061643 ; 12. 1371113 28 29 | 18.0357670 | 16.9837146 | 16.0218885 | 15. 1410736 | 14. 3331012 | 13.5907210 | 12.2776741 29 30 | 18.3920454 | 17. 2920333 | 16. 2888885 | 15.3724510 | 14.5337452 | 13. 7648312 | 12. 4090412 30 31 | 18. 7362758 | 17.5884936 | 16. 5443910 | 15. 5928105 | 14. 7239291 | 13.9290860 | 12. 5318142 31 82 | 19.0688655 | 17.8735515 | 16. 7888909 | 15. 8026767 | 14.9041982 | 14. 0840434 | 12. 6465553 32 33 | 19.3902082 | 18. 1476457 | 17. 0228621 | 16. 0025492 | 15.0750694 | 14. 2302296 | 12. 7537900 33 34 | 19. 7006842 | 18. 4111978 | 17.2467580 | 16.1929040 | 15. 2370326 | 14.3681411 | 12. 8540094 34 35 | 20.0006611 | 18. 6646132 | 17. 4610124 | 16.3741943 | 15. 3905522 | 14. 4982464 | 12. 9476723 35 36 | 20. 2904988 | 18. 9082820 | 17. 6660406 | 16.5468517 | 15.5360684 | 14. 6209871 | 13. 0352078 36 37 | 20.5705254 | 19. 1425788 | 17. 8622398 | 16. 7112873 | 15. 6739985 | 14. 7367803 | 13. 1170166 37 38 | 20. 8410874 | 19. 3678642 | 18. 0499902 | 16.8678927 | 15. 8047379 | 14. 8460192 | 13. 1934735 38 39 | 21. 1024999 | 19.5844848 | 18. 2296557 | 17.0170407 | 15.9286615 | 14. 9490747 | 13. 2649285 39 40 | 21.3550723 | 19. 7927739 | 18. 4015844 | 17. 1590864 | 16. 0461247 | 15. 0462969 | 13. 3317089 40 41 | 21.5991037 | 19. 9930518 | 18.5661095 | 17. 2943680 | 16. 1574642 | 15. 1380159 | 13. 3941204 41 42 | 21. 8348828 | 20. 1856267 | 18. 7235498 | 17. 4232076 | 16. 2629992 | 15. 2245433 | 13. 4524490 42 43 | 22.0626887 | 20.3707949 | 18. 8742103 | 17.5459120 | 16. 3630324 | 15.3061729 | 13. 5069617 43 44 | 22. 2827910 | 20. 5488413 | 19.0183831 | 17. 6627733 | 16. 4578506 | 15.3831820 | 13. 5579081 44 45 | 22. 4954503 | 20. 7200397 | 19. 1563474 | 17.7740698 | 16.5477257 | 15. 4558321 | 13. 6055216 45 46 | 22. 7009181 | 20.8846536 | 19.2883707 | 17.8800665 | 16. 6329154 | 15.5243699 | 13. 6500202 46 47 | 22. 8994378 | 21.0429361 | 19. 4147088 | 17.9810i157 | 16. 7136639 | 15. 5890282 | 13. 6916077 47 48 | 23. 0912443 | 21.1951309 | 19.5356065 | 18.0771578 | 16. 7902027 | 15. 6500266 | 13. 7304744 48 49 | 23.2765645 | 21.3414720 | 19. 6512981 | 18. 1687217 | 16. 8627514 | 15.7075723 | 13.7667986 49 50 | 23. 4556179 | 21. 4821846 | 19. 7620078 | 18. 2559255 | 16.9315179 | 15.7618606 | 13.8007463 50 51 | 23. 6286163 | 21. 6174852 | 19. 8679500 | 18. 3389766 | 16.9966994 | 15.8130761 | 13. 8324732 51 52 | 23. 7957645 | 21. 7475819 | 19. 9693302 | 18. 4180730 | 17. 0584829 | 15. 8613925 | 13. 8621245 52 53 23. 9572604 | 21. 8726749 | 20. 0663447 | 18. 4934028 | 17.1170454 | 15.9069741 | 13. 8898359 53 54 | 24. 1132951 | 21. 9929567 | 20. 1591815 | 18.5651456 | 17. 1725549 | 15.9499755 | 13. 9157345 54 05 | 24. 2640532 | 22. 1086122 | 20. 2480206 | 18. 6334720 | 17. 2251705 | 15.9905430 | 13. 9399388 55 56 | 24. 4097133 | 22.2198194 | 20. 3330340 | 18. 6985447 | 17.2750431 | 16.0288141 | 13. 9625596 56 57 | 24. 5504476 | 22.3267494 | 20. 4143866 | 18. 7605188 | 17.3223158 | 16. 0649190 | 13.9837006 57 58 | 24. 6864228 | 22. 4295668 | 20. 4922360 | 18. 8195417 | 17. 3671239 | 16. 0989802 | 14. 0034585 58 59 | 24.8177998 | 22. 5284296 | 20.5667330 | 18.8757540 | 17. 4095961 | 16. 1311134 | 14. 0219238 59 60 | 24.9447341 | 22. 6234900 | 20. 6380220 | 18. 9292895 | 17. 4498542 | 16. 1614277 | 14. 0391812 60 126 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 36.—The annuity for n years which 1 will buy or the annuity needed to discharge a debt of 1 in n years with interest. is a i ‘tl a. ue Years.| 114%. 134%. 2%. 24%. 2%. RBG. |) BOF. Years. 0200000 | 1.0225000 | 1.0250000 | 1.9275000 | 1.0300000 5150495 | 6.5169376 | 0.5188272 - 5207183 | 0.5226108 . 8467547 | 0.3484446 | 0.3501372 . 8918324 | 0. 3535304 2626238 | 0. 2642189 | 0. 2658179 . 2674206 | 0. 2690271 2121584 | 0. 2137002 | 0. 2152469 . 2167983 | 0. 2183546 1785258 | 0. 1800350 | 1545120 | 0. 1560003 1365098 | 0. 1379846 1225154 | 0. 1239817 1113265 | 0. 1127877 1..0150000 | 1.0175000 0. 5112779 . 5131630 0. 3433830 . 3450675 0. 2594448 . 2610324 0. 2090893 . 2106214 OR Whre . 1770226 . 15303806 . 1350429 . 1210581 . 1098754 0. 1755252 6 7 | 0.1515562 574954 . 1589975 | 0. 1605064 8 9 0. 1335840 . 1409580 | 0. 1424564 0. 1196098 254569 . 1269410 | 0. 1284339 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 i} 5 . 1815500 | 0.1880708 | 0. 1845975 6 ma 0 7 . 1394674 | 0. 8 ie 0 7 . 1142588 | 0 0 10 | 0. 1084342 - 1157397 | 0.1172805 1 2 SSesS SSooH . 1051060 | 0. 1065863 | 09. 1080775 11 . 0974871 | 0.989687 | 0. 1004621 12 . 0910483 | 0.0925325 | 0. 0940295 13 . 0855365 | 0.0870246 | 0. 0885263 14° . 0807665 | 0.0822592 | 0. 0837666 15 . 0765990 | 0.0780971 | 0. 0796109 16 0685162 | 0. 0699698 | 0. 0714404 . 0729278 | 0.0744319 | 0.0759525 17 0 0 0 0 0 11 | 0.0992938 . LOO7304 1021779 | 0. 1036365 | 0 0. 0 0. 0. 0 0 0652449 | 0.0667021 | 0.0681772 | 0.0696701 | 0.0711806 | 0. 0727087 18 0 0. 0. 0 0 0. 0} 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 | 0.0916800 | 0.0931138 | 0.0945596 | 0. 0960174 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 13 | 0.0852404 0866728 | 0. 0881184 | 0. 0895769 14 | 0.0797283 15 | 0.0749444 0811556 | 0.0826020 | 0. 0840623 0763774 | 0.0778255 | 0. 0792885 16 | 0.0707651 0721996 | 0.0736501 | 0. 0751166 | 17 | 0.0670797 18 | 0.0638058 19 | 0. 0608785 20 | 0. 0582457 . 0667606 | 0. 0682780 0. 0698139 19 . 0641471 0. 0656717 0. 0672157 20 . 0617873 | 0.0633194 | 0. 0648718 21 . 0596466 | 0.0611864 | 0. 0627474 22 . 0576964 | 0.0592441 | 0, 0608139 23 .0559128 | 0.0574686 | 0. 0590474 24 . 0542759 | 0.0558400 | 0. 0574279 25 0623206 | 0.0637818 | 0. 0652618 0596912 | 0.0611567 | 0. 0626421 21 | 0.0558655 0573146 | 0.0587848 | 0. 0602757 22 | 0. 0537033 0551564 | 0.0566314 | 0. 0581282 23 | 0.0517308 | 0.0531880 | 0. 0546681 | 0. 0561710 24 | 0.0499241 | 0.0513857 | 0.0528711 | 0. 0543802 25 | 0.0482635 | 0.0497295 | 0.0512204 | 0. 0527360 0527688 | 0.0543412 | 0,0559383 | 26 . 0513769 | 0.0529578 | 0.0545642 | 27 0500879 | 0.0516774 | 00532932 | 28 29 | 0.0427788 ; 0.0442642 | 0.0457784 | 0.0473208 | 0.0488913 | 0.0504894 | (,0521147 | 29 30 | 0.0416392 | 0. 0431298 | 0. 0446499 | 0.0461993 | 0.0477776 | 0.0493844 | 0.0510193 | 30 26 | 0.0467320 | 0.0482027 | 0.0496992 | 0. 0512213 27 | 0.0453153 | 0.0467908 | 0. 0482931 | 0. 0498219 28 | 0.0440011 | 0.0454815 | 0.0469897 | 0. 0485253 31 | 0.0405743 | 0.0420701 | 0. 0435963 | 0.0451528 | 0.0467390 | 0.0483545 | 0. 0499989 31 32 | 0.0395771 | 0.0410781 | 0:0426106 | 0.0441742 | 0.0457683 | 0.0473926 | 0. 0490466 32 33 | 0.0386414 | 0.0401478 | 0.0416865 | 0.0432572 | 0.0448594 | 0.0464925 | 0.0481561-| 33 34 | 0.0377619 | 0.0392736 | 0.0408187 | 0.0423966 | 0.0440068 | 0.0456488 | 0. 6473220 34 35 | 0.0369336 | 0.0384508 | 0.0400022 | 0.0415873 | 0.0432056 | 0.0448565 | 0. 0465393 35 36 | 0.0361524 | 0.0376751 | 0.0392329 | 0.0408252 | 0.0424516 | 0.441113 | 0. 0458038 36 37 | 0.0354144 | 0.0369426 | 0.0385068 | 0.0401064 | 0.0417409 | 0.0434095 | 0, 0451116 37 38 | 0.0347161 | 0.0362499 | 0.0378206 | 0. 0394275 | 0.0410701 | 0.0427476 | 0. 0444593 38 39 | 0.0340546 ; 0.0855940 | 0.0371711 | 0.0387854 | 0. 0404362 | 0.0421226 | 0. 0438439 39 40 | 0.0334271 | 0.0349721 | 0.0365558 | 0.0381774 | 0.0398362 | 0.0415315 | 0, 0482624 40 41 | 0.0328311 | 0. 0343817 | 0.0359719 | 0.0376009 | 0.0392679 | 0.0409720 | 0. 0427124 41 42 | 0. 0322643 | 0.0338206 | 0.0354173 | 0. 0370536 | 0.0387288 | 0.0404418 | 0. 0421917 42 43 | 0.0317247 | 0.0332867 | 0.0348899 | 0. 0365336 | 0.0382169 | 0.0399387 | 0. 0416981 43 44 | 0.0312104 | 0.0327781 | 0.0343879 | 0. 0360390 | 0.0377304 | 0.0394610 | 0, 0412299 44 45 | 0.0307198 | 0.0322932 | 0.0339096 | 0.0355681 | 0.0372675 | 0.0390069 | 0. 0407852 45 46 | 0.0302512 | 0.0318304 | 0. 0334534 | 0.0351192 | 0.0368268 | 0.0385749 | 0. 0403625 46 47 | 0.0298034 | 0.0313884 | 0.0330179 | 0. 0346911 | 0.0364067 | 9.0381636 | 0.0399605 47 48 | 0.0293750 |} 0.0309657 | 0.0326018 | 0. 0342823 | 0. 0360060 | 0.0377716 | 0.0395778 48 49 | 0.0289648 | 0.0305612 | 0.0322040 | 0.0338918 | 0.0356235 | 0.0373977 | 0. 0392131 49 50 | 0.0285717 | 0.0301739 | 0.0318232 | 0. 0335184 | 0.0352581 | 0.0870409 | 0. 0388655 50 51 | 0.0281947 | 0.0298027 | 0.0314586 | 0.0331610 | 0.0349087 | 0.0367001 | 0. 0385338 51 52} 0.0278329 | 0.0294466 | 0.0311091 | 0.0328188 | 0.0345745 | 0.0363744 | 0. 0382172 52 53 | 0.0274854 | 0.0291049 | 0.0307739 | 0.0324909 | 0.0342545 | 0.0360630 | 0. 0379147 53 54 | 0.0271514 | 0.0287767 | 0.0304523 | 0.0321765 | 0.0339480 | 0.0357649 | 0. 0376256 54 55 | 0.0268302 | 0.0284613 | 0.0301434 | 0.0318749 | 0.0336542 | 0.0354795 | 0. 0373491 55 56 | 0.0265211 | 0.0281580 | 0. 0298466 | 0.0315853 | 0.0333724 | 0.0352061 | 0. 0370845 56 57 | 0.0262234 | 0.0278661 | 0.0295612 | 0.0313071 | 0.0331020 | 0.0349440 | 0. 0368311 57 | 58 | 0.0259366 | 0.0275850 | 0.0292867 | 0.0310398 | 0. 0328424 | 0.0346927 | 0.0365885 58 59 | 0.0256601 | 0.0273143 | 0.0290224 | 0.0307827 | 0.0325931 | 0.0344515 | 0. 0363559 59 60 | 0.0253934 | 0.0270534 | 0.0287680 | 0.0305353 | 0.0323534 | 0.0342200 | 0. 0361330 60 HIGHWAY BONDS. LOT TABLE 36.—The annuity for n years which 1 will buy or the annuity needed to discharge a debt of 1 wn n years with interest—Continued. Ded Hn) 1—ar Years.| 314%. 4%. 416%. 5%. 51%. 6%: We Years. 1 | 1.0350000 1. 0400000 1.0450000 | 1.0500000 | 1.0550000 | 1. 0600000 1.0700000 1 2 | 0.5264005 | 0. 5301961 0. 5339976 | 0.5378049 | 0.5416180 | 0. 5454369 0. 5530918 2 3 | 0.3569342 | 0.3603485 | 0.3637734 | 0.3672086 | 0.3706541 0. 3741098 | 0.3810517 3 4 | 0.2722511 0. 2754901 0. 2787437 | 0.2820118 | 0.2852945 | 0.2885915 | 0. 2952281 4 5 ) 0.2214814 | 0.2246271 0.2277916 | 0.2309748 | 0.2341764 | 0.2373964 | 0.2438907 5 6 | 0.1876682 0. 1907619 0.1938784 | 0.1970175 0. 2001790 | 0.2033626 | 0. 2097958 6 7 | 0.1635445 0. 1666096 0.1697015 | 0.1728198 | 0.1759644 | 0.1791350 | 0.1855532 dh 8 | 0.1454767 | 0.1485278 | 0.1516097 | 0.1547218 | 0.1578640 | 0.1610359 | 0.1674678 8 9 | 0.1314460 | 0.1344930 | 0.1375745 | 0.1406901 0. 1438395 | 0.1470222 | 0.1534865 i) 10 | 0.1202414 | 0.1232909 | 0.1263788 | 0.1295046 |. 0.1326678 | 0.1358680 | 0. 1423775 10 11 | 0.1110920 | 0.1141490 0. 1172482 | 0.1203889 | 0.1235707 | 0.1267929 | 0.1333569 11 12 | 0.1034840 | 0.1065522 | 0.1096662 | 0.1128254} 0.1160292 | 0.1192770 | 0.1259020 12 13 | 0.0970616 | 0.1001437 | 0.1032754 | 0.1064558 | 0. 1096843 0. 1129601 0. 1196509 13 14 | 0.0915707 | 0.0946690 0.0978203 | 0.1010240 | 0.1042791 0.1075849 | 0.1143449 14 15 | 0.0868251 0. 0899411 0.0931138 | 0.0963423 0. 0996256 | 0.1029628 | 0.1097946 15 16 | 0.0826848 | 0.0858200 | 0.0890154 | 0.0922699 | 0.0955825 | 0.0989521 | 0. 1058577 16 17 | 0.0790431 | 0.0821985 | 0.0854176 | 0.0886999 | 0.0920420 | 0.0954448 | 0. 1024252 17 18 | 0.0758168 | 0.0789933 | 0.0822369 | 0.0855462 | 0.0889199 | 0.0923565 | 0.0994126 18 19 | 0.0729403 | 0.0761386 | 0.0794073 | 0.0827450 | 0.0861501 | 0.0896209 | 0.0967530 19 20 | 0.0703611 | 0.0735818 | 0.0768761 | 0.0802426 | 0.0836793 | 0.0871846 | 0.0943929 20 21 | 0.0680366 | 0.0712801 | 0.0746006 | 0.0779961 | 0.0814648 | 0.0850046 | 0. 0922890 21 22 | 0.0659321 | 0.0691988 | 0.0725457 | 0.0759705 | 0.0794712 | 0.0830456 | 0.0904058 22 23 | 0.0640188 | 0.0673091 | 0.0706825 | 0.0741368 | 0.0776696 | 0.0812785 | 0.0887139 23 24 | 0.0622728 ; 0.0655868 | 0.C689870 | 0.0724709 | 0.0760358 | 0.0796790 | 0.0871890 24 25 | 0.0606740 | 0.0640120 | 0.0674390 | 0.0709525 | 0.0745494 | 0.0782267 | 0.0858105 25 26 | 0.0592054 | 0.0625674 | 0.0660214 | 0.0695643 | 0.0731931 | 0.0769044 | 0.0845610 26 27 | 0.0578524 | 0.0612385 | 0.0647195 | 0.0682919 | 0.0719523 | 0.0756972 | 0.0834257 27 28 | 0.0566027 | 0.0600130 | 0.0635208 | 0.0671225 | 0.0708144 | 0.0745926 | 0.0823919 28 29 | 0.0554454 | 0.0588799 | 0.0624146 | 0.0660455 | 0.0697686 | 0.0735796 | 0. 0814487 29 30 | 0.0543713 | 0.6578301 | 0.0613915 | 0.0650514 | 0.0688054 | 0.0726489 | 0. 0805864 30 31 | 0.0533724 | 0.0568554 | 0.0604435 | 0.0641321 | 0.0679167 | 0.0717922 | 0.0797969 31 32 | 0.0524415 | 0.0559486 | 0.0595632 | 0.0632804 | 0.0670952 | 0.0710023 | 0. 0790729 32 33 | 0.0515724 | 0.0551036 | 0.0587445 | 0.0624900 | 0.0663347 | 0.0702729 | 0.0784081 33 34 | 0.0507597 | 0.0543148 | 0.0579819 | 0.0617554 | 0.0656296 | 0.0695984 | 0.0777967 34 35 | 0.0499984 | 0.0535773 | 0.0572705 | 0.0610717 | 0.0649749 | 0.0689739 | 0.0772340 35 36 | 0.0492842 | 0.0528869 | 0.0566058 | 0.0604345 | 0.0643664 | 0.0683948 | 0.0767153 36 37 | 0.0486133 | 0.0522396 | 0.0559840 | 0.0598398 | 0.0637999 | 0.0678574 | 0.0762369 37 38 | 0.0479821 | 0.0516319 | 0.0554017 | 0.0592842 | 0.0632722 | 0.0673581 | 0.0757951 38 39 | 0.0473878 | 0.0510608 | 0.0548557 | 0.0587646 | 0.0627799 | 0.0668938 | 0. 0753868 39 40 | 0.0468273 | 0.0505235 | 0.0543432 | 0.0582782 | 0.0623203 | 0.0664615 | 0.0750091 40 41 | 0.0462982 | 0.05C0174 | 0.0538616 | 0.0578223 | 0.0618909 | 0.0660589 | 0.0746596 41 42 | 0.0457983 | 0.0495402 | 0.0534087 | 0.0573947 | 0.0614893 | 0.0656834 | 0.0743359 42 43 | 0.0453254 | 0.0490899 | 0.0529824 | 0.0569933 | 0.0611134 | 0.0653331 | 0.0740359 43 44 | 0.0448777 | 0.0486645 | 0.0525807 | 0.0566163 | 0.0607613 | 0.0650061 | 0.0737577 44 45 | 0.0444534 | 0.0482625 | 0.0522020 | 0.0562617 | 0.0604313 | 0.0647005 | 0.0734996 45 46 | 0.0440511 | 0.0478821 | 0.0518447 | 0.0559282 | 0.0601218 | 0.0644149 | 0.0732600 | 47 | 0.0436692 ; 0.0475219 | 0.0515073 | 0.0556142 | 0.0598313 ; 0.0641477 | 0.0730374 47 48 | 0.0433065 | 0.0471807 | 0.0511886 | 0.0553184 | 0.0595585 | 0.0638977 | 0.0728307 48 49 | 0.0429617 | 0.0468571 | 0.0508872 | 0.0550397 | 0.0593023 | 0.0636636 | 0.0726385 49 50 | 0.0426337 | 0.0465502 | 0.0506022 | 0.0547767 | 0.0590615 | 0.0634443 | 0.0724599 50 51 | 0.0423216 | 0.0462589 | 0.0503323 | 0.0545287 | 0.0588350 | 0.0632388 | 0.0722937 51 52 ; 0.0420243 | 0.0459821 | 0.0500768 | 0.0542945 | 0.0586219 | 0.0630462 | 0. 0721390 52 53 | 0.0417410 | 0.0457192 | 0.0498347 | 0.0540733 | 9.0584213 | 0.0628655 | 9.0719951 53 54 | 0.0414709 | 0.0454691 | 0.0496052 | 0.0538644 | 0.0582325 | 0.0626960 | 0.0718611 54 55 | 0.0412182 | 0.0452312 | 0.0493875 | 0.0536669 | 0.0580546 | 0.0625370 | 0.0717363 55 56 | 0.0409673 | 0.0450049 | 0.0491811 | 0.0534801 | 0.0578870 | 0.0623877 | 0.0716201 56 57 | 0.0407325 | 0.0447893 | 0.0489851 | 0.0533034 | 0.0577290 | 0.0622474 | 0.0715118 57 58 | 0.0405081 | 0.0445840 | 0.0487990 | 0.0531363 | 0.0575801 | 0.0621157 | 0.0714109 | 58 59 | 0.0402937 | 0.0443884 | 0.0486222 | 0.0529780 | 0.0574396 | 0.0619920 | 0.0713169 59 60 | 0.0400886 | 0.0442019 | 0.0484543 | 0.0528282 | 0.0573071 | 0.0618757 | 0.0712292 60 i aD 128 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLE 37.—Bbid on a bond for $100 to realize a given net income, interest payable sennannually. INTEREST 34%. ee é 2 years. | 10 years. | 15 years. | 20 years. | 25 years. | 30 years. | 3. 00 102. 31 104. 29 106. 00 107. 48 108. 75 109. 85 3.10 101. 84 103. 42 104. 77 105. 93 106. 92 107. 78 3. 20 101.38 102. 55 103. 55 104. 41 105. 14 105. 76 3.30 100. 91 101. 69 102. 35 102. 91 103. 39 103. 79 3.40 100. 46 100. 84 101.17 101. 44 101. 68 101. 87 3. 50 100. 00 100. 60 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 3. 60 99. 55 99.17 98. 85 98. 58 98. 36 98.17 3. 70 99. 09 98. 34 07.71 | -97.19 96. 76 96. 39 3. 80 98. 65 97, 52 96. 59 95. 82 95.19 94. 66 3.90 98. 20 96. 71 95. 49 94, 48 93. 65 92. 96 4.00 97. 75 95. 91 94. 40 93. 16 92.14 91.31 4.10 97.31 95. 12 93.383 91. 86 90. 67 89. 70 4. 20 96. 87 94.33 92. 27 90. 59 89. 23 88. 12 4.30 96. 44 93. 55 91. 22 89. 34 87. 82 86. 59 4.40 96. 00 92. 78 90. 19 88. 11 86. 44 85. 09 4.50 95. 57 92. 02 89.18 86. 90 85. 08 83. 63 4.60 95. 14 91. 26 88.18 85. 72 83. 76 82. 20 4.70 94. 71 90. 51 87.19 84. 55 82. 46 80. 80 4.80 94, 28 89. 77 86. 21 83. 40 81.19 79. 44 4.90 93. 86 89. 04 85. 25 82, 28 79, 95 78.12 5. 00 93. 44 88. 31 84. 30 81.17 78. 73 76. 82 3. 00 104. 61 108. 58 112. 01 114. 96 117. 50 119. 69 3. LO 104, 14 107. 69 110. 73 113. 34 115. 58 117. 50 3. 20 103. 67 106. 80 109, 47 111.75 113. 70 115.35 3. 30 103. 20 105. 92 108, 23 110.19 111. 85 113. 27 3. 40 102. 74 105. 05 107. 00 108. 66 110. 05 111. 23 3. 50 102. 28 104.19 105. 80 107.15 108. 29 109. 24 3. 60 101. 82 103. 33 104. 60 105. 67 106, 56 107. 30 3. 70 101. 36 102. 49 103. 43 104, 21 104. 87 105. 41 3. 80 100. 90 101. 65 102. 27 102. 78 108. 21 103. 56 3. 90 100. 45 100. 82 101.13 101.38 101. 59 101. 76 4.00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 4.10 99. 55 99.19 98. 89 98. 64 98. 45 98. 28 4, 20 9011 98. 38 97.79 97.31 96. 92 96. 61 4.30 98. 66 97. 58 96. 71 96. 00 95, 43 94, 97 4, 40 98. 22 96. 79 95. 64 94. 72 93. 97 93. 37 4, 50 97. 78 96. 01 94. 59 93. 45 92.54 91. 81 4.60 97.35 95. 23 93. 55 92. 21 91.14 90. 29 4. 70 96. 91 94, 47 92. 53 90. 99 89.77 88. 80 4. 80 96. 48 93. 71 91. 52 89. 79 88. 42 87.35 4.90 96. 05 92. 95 90. 52 88. 61 87.11 85. 93 5. 00 95. 62 92. 21 89. 53 87. 45 85. 82 84. 55 INTEREST 43%. 00 106, 92 112. 88 118. 01 122, 44 126. 25 129, 54 10 106, 44 111. 96 116. 69 120. 75 124. 23 127. 22 20 105. 96 111. 05 115.39 119. 09 122. 26 124. 95 30 105. 49 110. 15 114,11 117. 47 120. 32 122. 74 40 105. 02 109. 26 112, 84 115. 87 118. 43 120. 59 50 104. 55 108. 38 111. 59 114. 30 116. 57 118. 48 60 104. 08 107. 50 110. 36 112. 75 114. 75 116. 43 7 103. 62 106. 64 109. 15 111. 24 112. 98 114, 42 80 103. 16 105. 78 107. 95 109. 74 111. 23 112. 47 102. 70 104. 93 106. 77 108. 28 109. 53 110. 56 00 102. 25 104. 09 105. 60 106. 84 107. 86 108. 69 10 101. 79 103. 25 104. 45 105. 42 106. 22 106. 87 20 101. 34 102. 43 103. 31 104. 03 104. 62 105. 09 30 100. 89 101. 61 102.19 102. 66 103. 05 103. 35 40 100. 44 100. 80 101. 09 101. 32 101. 51 101. 66 50 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 60 99. 56 99. 21 98. 93 98. 70 98. 52 98. 38 70 99. 12 98. 42 97. 86 97. 43 97. 08 96. 80 80 98. 68 97. 64 96. 82 96.17 95. 66 95. 26 90 98. 25 96. 87 95. 79 94. 94 94. 27 93. 75 00 97. 81 96. 10 94.77 93. 72 92. 91 92, 27 COPS ARR RR RRR Goer gee Go O9 0900 G0 eo} i=) HIGHWAY BONDS. 129 TaBLE 37.—Bid on a bond for $100 to realize a given net income, interest payable semmannually—Continued. INTEREST 5%. 5 years. | 10 years. | 15 years. | 20 years. | 25 years. | 30 years. 3. 00 109. 22 117.17 124. 02 129. 92 135. 00 139. 38 | 10 108. 74 116. 23 122. 65 128. 16 132. 89 136. 93 i 20 108. 26 115. 30 121.31 126. 44 130. 81 134. 55 30 107. 78 114. 38 119. 99 124. 75 128. 79 132. 22 40 107.30 113. 47 118. 68 123. 08 126. 80 129. 94 50 106. 83 112. 56 117. 39 121.45 124. 86 127. 72 60 106. 35 111. 67 116.12 119. 84 122. 95 125. 55 70 105. 88 110. 78 114. 86 118. 26 121. 08 123. 44 80 105. 42 109. 91 115. 62 116. 70 119. 26 121.37 | 109. 04 112. 40 115.18 117. 47 119.35 : \ 00 104. 49 108.18 111. 20 113. 68 115. 71 117.38 10 104. 03 107.32 110. 01 112. 20 113. 99 115. 45 20 103. 57 106. 48 108. 84 110. 75 112. 31 113. 57 30), 103812 105. 64 107. 68 109. 33 110. 66 111.74 40 102. 67 104. 81 106. 54 107. 93 109. 04 109. 94 50 102. 22 103. 99 105. 41 106. 55 107. 46 108.19 60 101. 77 103. 18 104. 30 105.19 105. 91 106. 47 H 70 101. 32 102. 37 103. 20 103. 86 104. 38 104. 80 80 100. 88 101. 57 102. 12 102. 55 102. 89 103. 16 90 100. 44 100. 78 101. 05 101. 27 101. 43 101. 56 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 Pi ebebate bab be bebe SSeS SOR = LOSS CIeS oO oO — oO _ ive) a on S o ray S =) S o INTEREST 6%. 50 111. 38 120. 94 128. 98 135. 74 141. 43 146. 20 60 110. 89 120. 01 127. 63 134. 01 139. 34 143. 81 70 110. 41 119. 08 126.30 132. 30 137.30 141. 47 80 109. 93 118.16 124. 98 130. 63 135. 30 139.18 90° | 109. 46 117. 25 123. 68 128. 98 133. 34 136. 94 00 108. 98 116. 35 122. 40 127. 36 131. 42 134. 76 b 115. 46 121.13 125. 76 129. 54 132. 63 20 108. 04 114. 58 119. 88 124.19 127. 70 130. 54 30 107. 58 113. 70 118. 65 122. 65 125. 89 128. 50 40 107. 11 112. 83 117. 43 121.14 124. 11 126. 51 50 106. 65 111.97 116. 23 119. 65 122. 38 124. 56 60 105. 19 111.12 115. 05 118.18 120. 67 122. 66 70 105. 73 110. 28 113. 88 116. 74 119. 00 120. 80 80 105. 28 109. 44 112. 73 115. 32 117. 36 118. 98 90 104. 83 108. 61 111. 59 113. 92 115. 76 117. 20 5. 00 104, 38 107. 79 110. 47 112. 55 114.18 115. 45 . 25 108. 26 105. 78 107. 72 109. 22 110. 38 111. 27 : b 103. 81 105. 06 106. 02 106. 75 107.31 275 101. 07 101. 88 102. 49 102. 95 103. 29 103. 55 - 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 Eph baba haba ba be SS goeae. = i=) = oS (ee) or a D2 Crore ot on o — So is) e oO 52448°—15——_9 INDEX, : Page. Acre, farm land, yield of crops and forest products, weight........-.-..------- 9 Alabama— bonds, highway and bridge, county and district, amount, term, rate, etc-. 37 bonds: hichway and bridge, with summary............----2-2--2o0+sses-- 62, 85 Lauderdale County, traffic record of unimproved road.......-.----------- 6 roads, bond-built, mileage to January 1, 1914...-.. yy Her dae Ge Me 80 Annuity— ans Calle Inityl Caray ks ee hy ats yee ME Ania, CS anaes ee es hd atl Lessa be 102 LOumeE eNETAI Za tIOMe a uasieees hoe Se eee me Re ae Ei ee a eid Sibi 103 present value.and amount, relations between.............-....-.--------- 100 Annuity bonds— ME paymaemfsMEthOd Ss! ClLCk ae ects hee se ce ela = Uaveyale che cela = 16-17, 21-24, 25 Vallarta Ommaballoleguie tet esse ete ai ere sepa ty ty oon opeeaeys Wye al ail la Sis es as 115-127 Annuity-certain— GUSTY O MONS 535 8 RE Oe ee a dL nea NE ha sk CT sO eee et eee 95 HIMMMMe date maT OUMtS Men N ah aie Strive eer ON ay LNs ewe ich elt ele 95-97 MMMMe ciate mpPTeESe MC AVAlUe. oe. )scrcele ae ee a cteren eer) savcidere epee e/ojeeiieetveere 99 AGO] OTEEING IG. JAX re a a Oe ae ee gt sO ge Ra 34-36 ANjoyOrevaVG U5; 29] B15 es apa ea ea hae a Nig ey et ea ada see ota aareys HAMA eD aE? (RES HSB 37-85 NTO YOCHOVGLID,¢,(O}5 oS eR 8 a PI mt Ss me Ea ee ST PE 86-90 Appendix D..... ae ICI ees BSN oof, 5 aCe a aay Maree Ce GN ab Pe od halite ly 91-129 Arizona— bonds, highway and bridge, county and district, amount, term, rate, etc. .- - 37 bonds, highway and bridge, to January 1, 1914, summary.........-..-... 85 roads, bond-built, mileage to January 1, 1914.............-...........-. 80 Arkansas— bonds, highway and bridge, county and district, amount, term, rate, etc. - BY bonds yhichway and bridge, with summary 222.2. 222222252 .4220 2222 2. 62, 85 roads, bond-built, mileage to January 1, 1914 ...-.......-.......-2....-- 80 Bids on bonds, to realize certain per cents on investment, formulas, PaCS ME LOM ec ae CO Ee, RO kR um 106-111, 115, 128-129 Bituminous-macadam roads— COMSERUCELOMME COST its aUs ss eleanor tr ete ys UC cat ge ys Sees a lepers 10, 11, 27 Sce also Roads, bituminous-macadam. Bond issues— TOOT Le cs eres co Le ea a a a aly pee ea eT Ree ee ey SO 28 PE TINUITPE NE © ALI SCS ESA yy SEA g sieht oRION rats rest yaya gne Spe adm rave eitepnel se ee pela or geeys IE aya 29 Iaegnl FREIND AUCTION OFS) sierra oes Oe eaten Us pale Gee ws RIA AWOU een ee eae Pa 27-28 TOAD MMUGIMS HAC VAMLAPes esc Hi iac lei ee we ee ee RU eee gia plere 28 SUED, GIGS GS Steg Cee en eae rt tices OI ange Pea Jeni etree MIE eat rg eneye ee 36 FETTIAO)TOS) TROY TOTS AS ee ego a a en Ut 2 ae pee eer eet Ace ze Ne a 14-24 [Brom G) TONS. 35 es ME RI int mele ce ei nets et CT 116-129 Bond valuation, application of theory of compound interest and annuities... 104-106 Bonds— AC CAMA ELOMMCAD LOS cee eis 0H ois iat hy seman porn ere Lok eid cuit Sk 117-121 annuity, comparison with sinking-fund and serial bonds.......-......--- 18-21 AUMULLY, repayment methods, CtCs...2- o-2tles xe << cic senie oes 16-17, 21-24, 25 AMM YP aVaL ee LOM a taDlEs MEL@ss ice. uo ert apteieh relcte ceyale os cise ec einen 115-127 as investments, calculation of bids to realize different per cents.....- 106-111, 115, 128-129 bridge, county, district, and township, voted in 1912-13, by States......- 62 county and district highway and bridge, by States.....................-- 37-49 highway and bridge, State, county, and township, voted to January 1, 1914, [DAY SHEETS STE SA Spr Oa a dy cote oa et oe Se are 85 highway, county, district, and township, total prior to January 1, 1914... 3,4 highway, county, district, and township, voted in 1912-13, by States..... 62 highways) sotate: total, priorto January, Ue V914 22. 68. Shee yasep ee 4 132 BULLETIN 136, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bonds—Continued. Page. highway, total voted prior to January 1, 1914......--22.-2..222.--1...c- 4 redemption in installments, valuation...-.-.-.--------2----+-0-s+-20-% 108-110 serial, comparison with annuity and sinking-fund bonds. ..............-- 18-21 serial Tepayment methods; CLC. 2252 cease oe te de oe ek Sah ee oe ee 17-18 sinking-fund, annual payments, etc., and objections.....-.......-.-....- 14-16 sinking-fund, comparison with serial and annuity bonds...........-...-- 16, 18-21 UALS Oey LIS tery cmrart acta eee rire ees ad eee 34235 township highway and bridge, by States................5...-.---+------2- 49-62 VALUE ELOM COMO re MTOR Eset te Seer eee ets tet el eee ee 111-112 Boston, city taxes, assistance to State highways.-.-.-......--.--:------------¢- 30 Brick, vitrified, roads IMAL TED AN CEs COS sao4< ne estate te ale ee ee Se on ee ee 14, 27 permanence, discussion.............------ Weis Ae tees ee = bad: Shey eee 11-12, 14, 26 California— bonds, highway and bridge, county and district, amount, term, rate, etc. . 38 bonds, highway and bridge,-with summary-_-.-.....:---.-2---212012..4-4- 62, 85 highway bonds; amount, rate, term, Cte =. 10 5.de.552 ens cae = eee ee 34 roads, bond-built, mileage to January 1, 1914-...............-----------:- 80 Colorado— bonds, highway and bridge, county and district, amount, rate, etc. .....- 38 bonds, highway and bridge, with summary ......-....-..----+---+------:- 85 huchway bonds, GCtegt. 2. seco Fact ae cleo tae Merete + id ene tee eee 36 Concrete roads, maintenance, cost, discussion. ...--........-------------- 13-14, 26 Connecticut— bonds, highway and bridge, with summary. ..................-----.- 34, 49, 85 Toads. Maintenance, COSt!. <2 e245. sae foe e sa. Sean oo eee 13 County bonds, tssuanes, lépal rostrichions... 02. osee se oe a oe 27-28 County highway bonds. See Bonds. County roads. See Highways; Roads. Credit, public, use in road building, economic value to community, discussion. . 28 Delaware— bonds, highway and bridge, county and district, amount, rate, term, etc... . 38 bonds, highway and bridge, with summary......--.....------- Ries end! Seay 63. 85 roads, bond-built, mileage to January 1, 1914.....:...........-...------- 80 WISCOUMMHIACTON ne sok eres Oe ee ee eee ee ee 93 District bonds, issuance, legal restrictions..........---..-.-.------+--------- 27-28 Dividends, payable and interest convertible semiannually..........---..---- 107-108 Engineers, highway, employment in county road building, need, practices, ete. 29-30 Europe, hauling costs on good roads, note. ...<....-.0.----- 2220 - eee e ee eens 7 aa iy yield per acre of crops and forest products, weight...........-.-.---.- g) lorida— bonds, highway and bridge, county and district, amount, terms, rat2, etc. - 38 bonds, highway and bridge, with summary.-........-..---------------+--- 63, 85 roads, bond-built, mileage to January 1, 1914................-..----.---- 80 ormitla, general: for valuation of bonds. <..-.2. 2 52. 2-2 111-112 Formulas, computing interest, and examples............------.------------ 93-114 Georgia bonds, highway and bridge, county and district. amount, term, rate, etc... . 38 bonds, highway and bridge, with summary...............--+-----+---++---- 63, 85 roads, bond-built, mileage to January 1,1914........-..-.-..----.---..-- 81 Gravelroad, constriction. COst--2.< 4-22: \f.55- sete eo ee AO}, di Gravel roads— MAM TENAD Ces: COStssme ease oe a eae es eee eee 12 See also Roads, gravel. Hauling— reduction of cost on bond-built roads, relation to bond requirements... .... 33 reduction of cost on good roads, relation to payment of bonds, estimates, tllustration, et@ss: Aik. ete ie ee ge) ee ee 28 Hauling costs— estimation methods Ctec-54.2sse koe pe ee ee 6-8 saying permile at. 5 cents reduction... Jecc< sense alee sce ee ees ce eee 8 INDEX. 138 Page Highway bonds, issuance, legal restrictions, caution, suggestions ..........-.--- 27-28 Highway districts, issuance of bonds, restrictions: .:.......-.-../--./.2------ 27 Highway. WSee also Road. Highways— COSIRe SEMIN ATION. = -ltetsieieeniae . o:.0...-2222.22.0-2220 2252 75 Jackson County, traffic record on unimproved roads...........----.------ 6,7 roads, bond-built, mileage to January 1, 1914 ...............-.-- hae ae eae 82 Pennsylvania— bonds, highway and bridge, county and district, amount, term, rate, etc. . 46 bonds, highway and_bridge,..with summary...-.-...-.-..-.-.---.--.2.--. 75, 85 bonds, township highway and bridge, amount, term, rate,etc..-.....-..- 60-61 ichiwayeOONnGs!-deleatserre secs oe ic eit vane cvjeichche lacs niece) ae wlerieien ote 36 Rhode Island— bonds, highway and bridge, with summary.........--...-------- seh he 75, 85 bonds, township highway and bridge, amount........--..-....----------- 61 nichwayzbondss amount rate, berm, CLC. s2s--c-2ssco--ce ss ++ 22 oe eee 35 ncdawanpoomdsud efeatin stises ae ccc ectee testi ssias eins eels aoe o weere re ops 36 ROA SeelM ad CET AT COM COS beieeraare repo is else eta eye ilar Srna eS eee ed aI 13 Road bonds— county and district highway and bridge, by States and counties, tables... 37-49 ABSA CMA CNV OTICAC ES eee ome se eile tine Di ied! Lie arcana, pena el ee nue 28 issuance, legal restrictions, caution, suggestions...........-..-..---------- 27-28 IS Gare ani Shame meme ce st ERY Pap SPS ae ee eee yeaa eae 28 Uae RS ee Min ci Rea voles 34-35 See also Bonds. Road building— : AN AMLAS ES Ole DONG ISSUES as os Susan) ieee oct evs Ses Denes ia ee 28 county, distribution of funds, caution, suggestions......................- 29 AVOACECOMS TEUCtIOMRACOS ES Aap tet ayers Sips or bach ea ee nels Se Oe ey a een 10-12, 27 froadedistricts; 1ssuance of bonds, restrictions: .....-..--!..-...-...---.2.-.222 27 cer EIRATM LET ATCE mCOSt ae est elec in). uals ape INU de ahr NR 12-14, 24-27 Roads— bituminous-macadam, Maine, Massachusetts, and New Jersey, cost. ele- MINE TAGS (SOM a as oss Meals its anes Ce aya eect cay ANAL Lute ede AN ey due ia 9 Bue 90 bond-built, cost of different kinds in nine counties....................---- 32 bond-built, financial items, supervisory methods, cost of different kinds, eremmecuciesmuseverals States! . 2 5 ce ce ee foie Oe ee 31-33 bond-built, mileage for various States, to January 1, 1914................ 80-85 bond-=builts studiesanyvarious:localitiestnssess:. 4. cac coe ceeeee 30-33 On D Ulta taxGhOrMm AlN GENAaN Ce a. c< user osc c oe be ae a 26 county, classification general teatures...52--os.cr USDEPARINENT OPAGRCULTURE © Y) No. 137 WA Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. October 16, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) SOME DISTINCTIONS IN OUR CULTIVATED BARLEYS WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR USE IN PLANT BREEDING. By Harry V. HARLAN, Agronomist in Charge of Barley Investigations, Office of Cereal Investigations. INTRODUCTION. When the writer began active operations in barley breeding in 1909, the intelligent selection of mother plants was found to be very difficult because of the lack of sufficient information to enable minor variations to be recognized and interpreted. European breeders had subjected the taxonomic details to a most exacting scrutiny, but their results were not immediately useful. It was necessary to confirm the European findings, for a character found stable there could not be considered stable under the widely varying climatic conditions of America until it had been so proved. Again, the European authorities were far from united. There was not even a broad taxonomic char- acter whose stability had not been questioned at one time or another, and often by the highest authorities in barley classification. More- over, even if the groundwork could have been adopted entire, the more or less established taxonomic characters are only the beginning of the problem. Breeding must take note of characters that are trivial in taxonomy. The intangible must be analyzed and made to serve, as well as the tangible. Even the very plausible idea of adopting European methods and _ importing improved European stocks was only partially successful. Conditions in America differ in one vital particular from conditions in Europe. On the Continent and in Great Britain barley has been cultivated for centuries, and it is therefore practically indigenous. Each geographical locality has, through long periods of time, been provided by natural selection and acclimatization with superior native races. Breeding, under such conditions, is largely concerned with the improvement of these existing stocks, with small likelihood of any importation proving to be a serious competitor. Notr.—A large part of the data herein presented was obtained in cooperation with the Minnesota Agricultural Hxperiment Station, and the article itself was submitted as a thesis as required for the degree of doctor of science in the University of Minnesota. The Subject is of interest to plant breeders and agronomists. 52783°—Bull. 1837—14—_1 2 BULLETIN 137, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In America there are no native stocks. The grain-producing areas are relatively new. The varieties peculiar to a section are usually the result of chance introductions. Breeding material from foreign sources is as likely to contain desirable types as is that already at hand. In this investigation, in order to obtain the proper basis upon which to conduct breeding work, stocks were assembled not only from local sources but from all over the world. Many distinct strains were isolated from each stock, for both the local varieties and the foreign introductions were usually either races that had not been purified or that had become mixed after purification. The isolation was accomplished by head and plant selections, which when grown in pedigree rows formed a surprisingly: large collection. When to these were added a still greater number from the progeny of hybrids, the problem became one of elimination. The plant selections from their very nature were made more or less arbitrarily, and hundreds of these forms were necessarily duplicates. These duplicates, espe- cially as long as they were not so recognized, were a drain upon the breeder, and it was soon realized that the efficiency of a nursery was measured, not by the number of stocks it carried but by the number it eliminated. It was to accomplish this reduction better that the character studies were made. The distinctions found were of two classes, morphological and physiological. The morphological variations were, in the broader divisions, of taxonomic value, and many of them were practically invariable. The physiological characters were, from their nature, more difficult to appraise. They were found to possess not only more widely fluctuating limits, but the limits often overlapped and at times the characters became inseparable. In physiological characters a further distinction was made between permanent and place variations. Some separations were so wide that they never became confusing, while others became evident only when grown under certain conditions of soil and climate. Such dis- tinctions are worthless as taxonomic features, but have proved very valuable as indications of individual qualities in breeding. Even the lack of stability in a character does not destroy its usefulness, as the tendency of a strain to behave in a certain manner under certain conditions may mark an inherent difference. | Tt is realized that distinctions of this kind are only a part of plant breeding, and it is not thought that that part is clarified in any great measure. In this paper are given a few of the observations that have been found useful in barley breeding, and with them many that have been found useless. The data upon which the conclusions are based consist of some 200,000 recorded observations, extending over a period of five seasons and embracing experiments at St. Paul, Minn.; Williston and Dickinson, N. Dak.; Highmore, S. Dak.; Moc- DISTINCTIONS IN CULTIVATED BARLEYS. 3 ~ casin, Mont.; Aberdeen and Gooding, Idaho; and Chico, Cal. Of the work done at these points, that at St. Paul, Minn., which was conducted in cooperation with the State experiment station, was the most extensive. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. Although the literature of barley is, with the possible exception of wheat, more extensive than that of any other cereal crop, the pub- lications bearing directly upon the theme of this paper are com- paratively few. The great mass of the European publications, especially the German ones, have to do with the malting quality of barley. They are concerned mostly with its chemical constituents, the effect of soil, climate, and culture upon the nature and composi- tion of the grain, and the behavior of the converting enzyms in grains of different character. The same is true of papers on the morphology of the grain, and even many of the publications treating directly of barley breeding have little bearing upon the present dis- cussion, as they are often concerned only with the correlation of characters or with the behavior of hybrids. It is only the papers dealing with the taxonomic features of barley, and experiments such as those of the Swedish Plant-Breeding Association at Svalof, which have had for their end the isolation of plant variants, that are of particular pertinence. The first comprehensive systematic work was that of Koérnicke (15)', who described 44 botanical forms of barley, using spikelet fertility, color, nature of the awn and glume, and the adherence or nonadherence of the palea. His groups will undoubtedly form the bases of all future classifications. The classification of Voss (25) is important largely because he based a part of it upon the extent of overlapping of the grains, thus forecasting in an indefinite way the use of density. Atterberg (2) made use of the bristle and nerve characters discovered by Neergaard, mentioned below, and subdi- vided the previous groups until he had 188 named botanical varieties. Beayen (3), by a rearrangement and compilation of previous classi- fications and by growing and describing a large number of hybrids of Karl Hansen, Ko6rnicke, and others, gave a very clear conception of the entire species. His work is perhaps most valuable in the placing of the Abyssinian forms with abortive lateral florets in a group by themselves. He does not make use of the finer subdivisions employed by Atterberg. Regel (21), on the contrary, carries the sub- division still farther and uses twisting of the spike and earliness and lateness of the variety in his separations. The last, a purely physio- logical phase, he employs in named botanical forms. A review of the work at Svalof is especially valuable in this con- nection because of the fact that a large part of that effort has been 1The figures in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the end of the bulletin. 4 BULLETIN 137, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. along the same line and because, in many instances, this investiga- tion has merely attempted to discover whether results obtained by them were sustained under the great variations of the American cli- mate. In barley the greatest achievement at Svalof was the dis- covery of two kernel characters, which, by various combinations, gave four separations under each previous group. These investigators found. that the rachilla in some barleys was covered with long straight hairs and in others with short curly ones; also that the inner pair of dorsal nerves sometimes bore teeth and were sometimes smooth. The stability of these characters was ques- tioned by Broili (10), who claimed to have frequently observed one form in the progeny of another. Tschermak (13), Blaringhem (7), and others have supported the investigators of the Plant-Breeding Association at Svalof, at least so far as the basal bristle is concerned. Although none are to be compared with this discovery in importance, many other studies have been made at Svalof. At one time they had developed a very elaborate system of measurements made by means of many ingenious mechanical devices. They have, unfortunately, made no specific, comprehensive publication of their negative re- sults, but according to Newman (20) and others they have aban- doned the use of many of the measurements that were formerly made. Of those retained, the most important from the standpoint of this paper is that of density. In the early history of the asso- ciation two or three varieties were obtained by the “élite” method. They chose an arbitrary density and made mass selections of spikes conforming to that measurement. Later, they used density as a means of valuing head measurements, as a long head if loose might contain no more grains than a short one if compact. They finally employed it in varietal description. Biaringhem (7), who has fol- lowed the work of the Svalof association quite closely, used density as an indication of purity and to reveal the effect of climate. The morphological characters of the seed coat and the kernel have been treated by Kudelka (16) and Johannsen (14), but there is no suggestion of usable varietal differences. The composition of the grain has been studied by a few American and a large number of European scientists. Le Clerc and Wahl (17), who have made the most comprehensive of the American studies, have clearly demonstrated that composition is of slight use as a varietal character for, while there are differences, the effect of location and season is many times greater than that of variety. Color in barley has been employed by all systematists, but has received very little analytical attention. Brown (11) has a note on the color in the variety coerulescens, and numerous authors have dis- cussed the occurrence of pigments in other plants. Kennedy (8, p. 29) found that none of the Turkestan strains tested in scutheastern Nevada were as valuable as the domestic strains of alfalfa. Brand and Waldron (1, p. 46), after reviewing the available experi- ments where Turkestan alfalfa seed was tested for hardiness, say that ‘Gt is apparent * * * that while none of the Turkestan strains in their present condition are hardy enough for the cold Northwest, several of them are promising for acclimatization by selective breed- ing methods.” Westgate (11, p. 37), referring to certain strains of alfalfa introduced from Turkestan by the United States Department of Agriculture, says that ‘‘Turkestan alfalfa was introduced into the United States in 1898 and has since been tried in all parts of the country. It has been found to be superior to the ordinary alfalfa in only limited sections. It is decidedly inferior in the humid sections east of the Mississippi River, but has given somewhat better results than the ordinary alfalfa in the semiarid portions of the Great Plains and in the Columbia Basin.”’ The results of comparative tests in the United States of commercial Turkestan with other strains of alfalfa have shown it to be decidedly inferior in most sections and of only doubtful value in the localities most favorable to it. COMMERCIAL TURKESTAN ALFALFA NOT ADAPTED TO GENERAL USE IN THE UNITED STATES. Commercial Turkestan alfalfa should not in any way be confused with the special strains of hardy alfalfas developed from certain intro- ductions of alfalfa seed from Turkestan made by the United States Department of Agriculture. Some of these strains have proved hardy in the upper Mississippi Valley and are evidence that valuable varie- ties of alfalfas exist in Central Asia, but for the present none of these can be said to have passed the stage of being of use in experimental work in selection and breeding. Commercial Turkestan seed of promiscuous origin is not adapted to general use in the United States. It is particularly unsuited to the humid climate of the East. It is not sufficiently hardy to warrant its general use in the upper Mississippi Valley, where hardiness is a limiting factor in alfalfa production. It is slow to recover after cut- ting, and gives inferior yields of hay, even when it does not suffer from drought or winterkiling. It has a tendency to be short lived, making it undesirable where alfalfa is wanted in long retations, and it is also a poor seed producer COMMERCIAL TURKESTAN ALFALFA SEED, 5 HOW COMMERCIAL TURKESTAN ALFALFA SEED CAN BE IDENTIFIED. In view of the facts already set forth, it appears necessary to warn alfalfa growers to avoid the use of commercial Turkestan seed. Seed from this source has nothing to recommend it for general use in this country. i Fortunately, commercial Turkestan alfalfa seed can be identified by the presence of the seeds of Russian knapweed (Centaurea picris), shown in figure 1. These seeds are believed to be always present in commercial Turkestan seed and have not been found in commercial seed from other sources. Russian knapweed is a pernicious weed in the Crimea and in other parts of southern Euro- pean Russia, but there is at the present time no alfalfa seed produced in these sections for export. In manner of growth, Russian knapweed is similar to quack-grass, Johnson grass, and the Canada thistle, being a perennial, spreading both by seeds and under- ground rootstocks. The seeds of Russian knap- weed. are slightly larger than those of alfalfa and ean not all be removed Fic. 1.—Seeds of Russian knapweed mixed with alfalfa seeds. by any prac ti cabl e (Magnified five diameters.) This sample shows a much larger : proportion of the weed seeds (distinguished by their lighter color me th O d of machine and their symmetrical form) than is ordinarily found in cleanin e, Their ch alky- Turkestan alfalfa seed. white color makes them especially conspicuous, and their symmetrical form, being slightly wedge shaped, serves to distinguish them from the notched seed of other species of Centaurea, which often occur in Italian and other alfalfa seed. As the seeds of Russian knapweed are not usually abundant, a small trade sample should never be used to determine whether the seed is commercial Turkestan alfalfa. It may often happen that a number of small samples, such as are usually supped by the trade, would contain none of these seeds, while an examination of the bulk will show them to be present. If any seeds of Russian knapweed occur, the alfalfa seed is wholly or in part from Turkestan. 6 BULLETIN 138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, SUMMARY. Russian ‘Turkestan produces the largest supply of alfalfa seed for export. Turkestan alfalfa seed is distributed into international trade through Germany, chiefly through the port of Hamburg. Turkestan alfalfa has given uniformly poor results wherever tested in Europe, and none of the tests of commercia! Turkestan seed in this country has given as good yields as were obtained from local seed. : Approximately one-fifth of the alfalfa seed used in the United States is imported, and practically all of this imported seed now comes from Russian Turkestan. Commercial Turkestan is the cheapest alfalfa seed in the European market, and its wholesale price in this country is less than that of domestic-grown seed. The retail price of Turkestan alfalfa seed in this country is usually higher than that of domestic seed; consequently, the seedsman’s profit on it is greater than on domestic seed. Commercial Turkestan alfalfa is particularly unsuited to the humid eastern portion of the United States, while it is not as hardy as other strains in the North and everywhere recovers slowly after cutting, thus reducing the hay yield. It is relatively short lived and is a poor seed producer. Russian knapweed, a weed similar in manner of growth to quack- erass, Johnson grass, and the Canada thistie, is constantly beimg introduced in Turkestan alfalfa seed, and by the presence of this weed seed commercial Turkestan seed may be easily identified. 10. ale 12. - LITERATURE CITED. . Brann, C. J., and Waupron, L. R. 1910. Cold resistance of alfalfa and some factors influencing it. U. S$. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant’ Indus. Bul. 185, 80 p., 1 fig., 4 pl. . DENAIFFE. 1911. La luzerne du Turkestan. Jn Jour. Agr. Prat., ann. 75, n.s., t. 21, no. 3, p. 82-85, fig. 10-17. . FREEMAN, G. F. 1908. Alfalfa. History and varieties. Jn Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 155, p. 183-195, 7 fig. . GYARFAS, JOZSEF. 1912. A turkesztani lucerna termelési értékének megdllapitasdra vonatkozé kisérletek eredménye. Jn Kisérlet. Kézlem., kétet 15, fiizet 2, p. 191-208. Abstract in German, p. 208-209. 1913. A turkesztani lucernaval folytatott kiserletezés harmadik évi eredménye. In Kisérlet. Kézlem., kotet 16, fizet 3, p. 405-407. Abstract in German, p. 408. . Hansen, P. 1912. Dyrkningsforség med Lucerne fra forskellige Avlssteder. In Tidsskr. Landbr. Planteavl, Bd. 19, Hefte 3, p. 378-411. . Himrner, LORENZ. 1908. Uber den Anbauwert von Luzerne verschiedener Herkunit, insbesondere der Turkestaner Luzerne. Jn Prakt. Bl. Pflanzenbau u. Schutz, Jahrg. 6, Heft 10, p. 116-120. . Kennepy, P. B. 1910. Report of Board of Control of the Lincoln County Farm, 1909/1910, 59 p., 15 pl., map. Carson City, Nev. . LEMMERMANN, Otro, and LizsBau, P. 1911. Sortenbauversuche des Jahres 1910. Jn Landw. Jahrb., Bd. 41, Heft 3/4, p. 389-415. Toparo, FRANCESCO. 1911. Turkestan lucerne. Jn Italia Agr., ann. 48, no. 21, p. 497-502. Abstract im Internat. Inst. Agr. Bur. Agr. Intell. and Plant Dis., year 3, no. 1, p. 137-138. 1912. (Original not seen.) WestaGateE, J. M. 1908. Alfalfa. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 339, 48 p., 14 fig. Wirtr, Hernrrip. 1909. Hvilket odlingsmaterial af blaluzern ar det fér oss limpligaste? In Sveriges Utsidesfér. Tidskr., arg. 19, hafte 5, p. 265-274, 4 pl. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V ‘ J 2 ’ % : / as ) a * ) + i —— a BULLETIN OF THE USDEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE No. 139 Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry 5. Graves, Forester. December 4, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES.’ By TuHEopoRE 8. Wootsey, Jr., Assistant District Forester, District 3, and HERMAN H. Cuapman, Professor, Yale Forest School. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Importance in forest management.........-- ‘1 MOLES tuby POSS so soe ok ya ie gs yc hive aes 11 Botanical and commercial range-..........-. 2 | Competition with other species.......----- Bs 12 Climate, topography, and soil........-...--- Dele Sp Ply zane Cut ss see ene pe Vesa ec eit 12 Gross botanical characteristics.............-- ANN Geel LOS epee ae ON a a ec ea rahe 13 Habitiandrootisystems 222.2222). 225% DASA WE' 2 ea Kel eveyone 55 ln ty eae ATI ee ae a aa 13 SIZeyanGHlONSeVAb yee. cms 2 a5 sees essen cee Al MAT ICe GS cece yom wii eh later /epasctrs eben OED ICON 14 ‘TO GHRINGD 23 Scbossed! saUrr Seas E ORE ase aes Bie ROSES i as se NE Sra ee ei ar ae ae 14 UCDO GUC OMe ease cee ce sone sees ee eeine Dralie GicOwsblen dpylel eae srrcee ees ee ae recat 15 Busceptibility, touinjuny-- 22222280 se: Te veManagem ent} asters ae ye eer) rae See Sen, 25 MSC EW OO Cermiee Bele iain een ae Melba eajsle Tile AD Pen Gix Ss aes EF eeaiate se aae ar sir ce 34 IMPORTANCE OF NORWAY PINE IN FOREST MANAGEMENT. Norway pine, or red pine as it is sometimes called, is a tree whose importance is certain to increase. Kvyen now it is important com- mercially. From the standpoint of forest management, however, its special value lies in the fact that it makes better growth on poor soils than does its associate, white pine; it prunes itself of branches earlier, is more hardy, is freer from injury by insects or fungi, and ranges over as wide a territory. Looking into the future, therefore, when the depletion of the present stand will make it necessary to rely upon trees that can produce merchantable timber on poor, sandy soils unsuited for agriculture, Norway pine, as its good qualities become better known, will be one of the few important trees of the Northeastern and Lake States, especially for reforestation. In past reforestation work it has often been discriminated against in favor of Scotch pine, the seed of 1 The discussion of ‘Growth and Yield” and the ‘‘Appendix” are the work of Prof. Chapman. In the main this bulletin presents the results of field work conducted under the supervision of the authors, and data collected by them through correspondence. Forest Service file data were also drawn upon, as were several unpublished reports, among them one by Mr. E. M. Griffith, State forester of Wisconsin. The manuscript wasread by Mr. William T. Cox, State forester of Minnesota, and by Forest Supervisors C. E. Marshalland W. B. Piper. Note.—The manuscript describes the life history of the Norway pine, its requirement upon soil, mois- ture, and climate, its rate of growth and yield, and the best methods for its management. As this tree is already commercially important, and this importance is certain to increase, the informa- tion ppresericed is valuable for foresters, lumbermen, and forest owners, especially as, when the present stand of timber has been depleted and ‘dependence must rest on trees which will produce merchantable timber on poor sandy soils unsuited for agriculture, the RoE pine will be found to be one of the few important trees of the Northwestern and Lake States. 55040°—Bull. 139 —14——_1 2 BULLETIN 139, U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which was easier to procure, though the tree itself had no advantages. With better methods of seed collection and storage, this drawback in the case of Norway pine can be overcome. This bulletin describes the life history of the tree, its requirements upon soil, moisture, and climate, its rate of growth and yield, and the best methods for its management. BOTANICAL AND COMMERCIAL RANGE. Norway pine is confined to the Northeastern and Lake States and to southern Canada. Economically, it is most important in the Lake States and in Ontario. It occurs, however, as far south as south- eastern Pennsylvania and as far east as Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and eastern Maine. Its western limit is in Minnesota and its northern at the fifty-first parallel in Manitoba. In Minnesota its commercial range extends from Lake of the Woods to the mouth of Pigeon River, and south to Lake Pepin. In Wiscon- sin it occurs in 27 counties, but is abundant only in the more sandy districts. In Michigan it closely follows the range of white pine. The supply of Norway pine in the Northeastern States is now pretty well exhausted. It was heavily logged in Maine during colonial times, and has been lumbered also in Pennsylvania and New York. In Canada it is commercially important in the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Figure 1 shows its botanical and commercial range. CLIMATE, TOPOGRAPHY, AND SOIL. In the Lake States and Ontario, where Norway pine reaches its best development, the climate is cold in Winter and rather hot and dry in summer. The annual rainfall within this region varies from 20 to 45 inches, with from 51 to 65 per cent of sunshine. In the tree’s optimum range the rainfall does not exceed 36 inches, with 60 per cent of sunshine. In Wisconsin the average annual precipitation of 31.5 inches is distributed as follows: Summer, 11.2 inches; spring, 8.3. inches; autumn, 8.1 inches, and winter, 3.9inches. Norway pine with- stands a temperature of —50° F.in winter and one of 105° F. in sum- mer. Insome parts of the Lake States where it grows there are frosts every month of the year. The last killing frost, however, usually occurs by May 15, and the first by September 15. The foliage of the mature tree is immune to cold, though seed production is affected. Seedlings are often damaged by periodic droughts. Throughout its range Norway pine is forced by its associates to seek the dry, sandy, or gravelly soils. Itis found on dry, coarse, sand; but produces better timber on a moderately fine, fresh sand. The tree is certainly not exacting in its soil requirements, however, since a pure, fine-grained, moderately dry sand supports some of the finest NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 3 stands of Norway pine in northern Minnesota. On rich, well-drained soil the tree has great possibilities, if given the start over its competi- tors. Inits soil and moisture requirements, Norway pine is somewhat more exacting than jack pine but considerably less so than white pine, which requires some clay in the subsoil. It can not endure drought like jack pine, but grows well on sands where the better grade of jack pine is found. Mechanical analysis has shown typical jack- NORTH WEST TERRITORY ——— GENERAL RANGE OF SPECIES e SPECIFIC LOCATIONS OF SPECIES DETERMINED FROM DATA COLLECTED BY THE FOREST SERVICE Fig. 1.—Distribution of Norway pine. pine soil to consist of 60.6 per cent coarse sand, 30.1 per cent medium sand, 3.3 per cent fine sand, and a scattering of fine gravel, very fine sand, silt, and clay. Typical Norway-pine soil is composed of 62.9 per cent fine sand, 12 per cent medium sand, 11.5 per cent very fine sand, 6.7 per cent silt, 3.7 per cent coarse sand, 2.8 per cent clay, and 0.4 per cent fine gravel. White-pine soil contains no gravel, 43.4 per cent very fine sand, 26.1 per cent silt, 16.2 per cent fine sand, 6.4 per cent clay, and 7.9 per cent coarse and medium sand. When the 4 BULLETIN 139, U..S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. virgin stands are first cut off, these sands may grow crops for a few years until the humus is exhausted. After that the necessity for expensive fertilizers makes agriculture unprofitable except with extraordinary market conditions. Norway pine is rarely found in hilly country or in swamps, except in Cook County, Minn., where it occurs on some high ridges. It is com- mon along lake shores. GROSS BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. Norway pine belongs to the two-needled group of pines, the needles themselves being from 5 to 7 inches long. The bark of young trees is thin, dark, and scaly; that of mature trees is moderately thin, gray- ish yellow or reddish brown, in diamond-shaped plates. Owing to the characteristic appearance of the bark and the relatively high spe- cific gravity of the wood of young trees, the latter are often locally distinguished as “pig iron” and ‘“shellbark Norway.”’ The cones, some 2 inches long, are brown and brownish yellow when mature. The brownish buds have rolled-back scales; the seed is held as with forceps and has light wings. HABIT AND ROOT SYSTEM. The bole of Norway pine is normally slender, straight, or in old age slightly bending, with but little taper. It is unusual to find a forest- grown tree with a decidedly crooked, misshapen bole. The difference between the straight, symmetrical bole of young red pine and the fre- quently misshapen one of white pine, the result of weevil damage, is strikingly apparent. The large tufted clumps of long needles give the crown an open appearance, in contrast to the denser crown and - more delicate needles of white pine and the ragged, narrow crown of jack pine. The branches are in distinct whorls. In old age the crown becomes short and irregular. Seedlings during the first summer develop a taproot from 6 to 18 inches long. The sapling, therefore, has a strong taproot, which gives place to to stout laterals as the tree matures. Except when overmature and declining in vigor, Norway pine is remarkably windfirm. SIZE AND LONGEVITY. Norway pine rarely reaches a diameter of more than 33 inches breast high. The largest tree of which there is a relable record meas- ured 60 inches in diameter outside the bark. On the Minnesota National Forest the average run of 16-foot logs cut from a stand mostly over 200 years old scaled 15 to the thousand board feet. The average run of mature Norway pine in mixture with hardwoods, or with white pine on the better soils, is perhaps from 11 to 13 logs to NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 5 the thousand board feet. In northern Minnesota the average tree in mature timber over 200 years old measured 18.7 inches in diameter. Norway pine does not grow very tall. On the sandy soil of the region a tree from 200 to 250 years old occasionally reaches a height of from 90 to 120 feet. The tallest tree recorded was 150 feet high, but the accuracy of this measurement is questionable. The oldest tree found was 307 years old, and but few over 280 years were encountered. Norway pine, however, seems to decline in vigor after it reaches an age of from 200 to 230 years. TOLERANCE. For their best development Norway pine seedlings should have direct sunlight. They can not endure as much shade as those of white pine, but will grow in a moderate shade under a jack-pine stand, and exact less light than the latter species. In small, natural openings in a Norway pine stand a few white-pine trees will seed up the ground ahead of Norway. This intolerance partly accounts for the earlier and more thorough pruning of the latter. Even in pure stands on poor soil early and clean pruting is the rule. The wind also plays a part in pruning by swaying the tall, slender-boled trees, the branches of which are thus brushed off in contact with those of neighboring trees. This is especially the case when Norway pine occurs in mix- ture with hardwoods. In its ight requirement Norway pine may be considered as halfway between ‘“‘very intolerant”’ and “intermedi- ate.’’+ As a means of comparison, the classification in regard to demands upon light of a few other species may be given. Balsam fir is classed as very tolerant, beech tolerant, white pine intermediate, Norway pine and red oak intolerant, and tamarack and cottonwood very intolerant. The intolerance of Norway pine is indicated by the occurrence of its reproduction; under a shade density of over 0.5 as - a rule it does not reproduce. It begins to reproduce abundantly when the density falls to 0.3. REPRODUCTION. Norway pine seedlings need some protection against extremely hot winds and drought. On the other hand, if there is too much under- growth or shade from the parent stand the young growth will suffer. In plantations, however, it was found that Norway pine seedlings will stand sun, exposure, and weeds much better than will those of white pine. Norway pine produces seed in abundance only at intervals of from 3 to 5 years. The seed falls in September and early October. Seed 1 For a discussion of tolerance see Forest Service Bulletin 92, “Light in Relation to Tree Growth,” by Raphael Zon and H. S. Graves. 6 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. years are local; there may be a good crop in Minnesota and a failure in Michigan or Wisconsin the same season. According to Forest Service records there have been five seed crops in Minnesota at 3- year intervals since 1898. In Wisconsin there were crops in 1890, 1893, 1897, and 1900. In Canada good seed years are said to occur not oftener than every 5 to 7 years, due possibly to the colder cli- mate. ‘Trees in the open have produced good cones when 25 years old, and in stands when from 50 to 60 years old. It is not known definitely when seed production begins to fail in old stands, but probably the fertility and quantity begin to fall off when the trees reach an age of 150 years. Squirrels annually destroy large quanti- ties of seed. The seed is disseminated by the wind and can be relied upon to restock areas at least 300 yards away, provided the soil has been bared by logging. Even after proper dissemination there is always a chance that seed will fall on heavy litter to dry out before germina- tion or on sodded ground where it can not get a start. Seedlings do not establish themselves after fire if there is much ash on the ground. Light burning before a seed crop may often be conducive to excellent reproduction where the scil is moderately rich. On dry, pure sand even a light fire may keep out Norway and white pine and give jack pine a start. After a fire jack pine always seeds before Norway, because it produces seed each year, which are released from cones by the heat of. the fire. White pine will come in first where there is partial shade, provided it is not crowded cut by broadleaf trees. On areas between these two extremes of baked, parched soil, free from all growth on the one hand and ground covered with dense underbrush on the other, Norway pine reproduction will have the best chance. However, the three pines compete with one another for the occu- pancy of the ground, as shown by actual measurements of repro- duction on small plots in the National Forests. On the Minnesota National Forest, on an area where 5 per cent of the stand had been reserved for seed, there were 1,900 Norway and white pine seedlings per acre which had come in on exposed mineral soil rather than near the seed trees. In Hubbard County, Minn., on a plot 50 by 100 feet, there are 499 jack pine seedlings and only 481 of Norway pine, although there were two Norway pine seed trees and no jack pine within 300 feet. In a small, open stand, composed of 3 white pine and 70 Nor- way pine, growing on sandy soil, there were 13 white pine seedlings to every 1 of Norway pine. Near Mahtowa, Minn., young stands of Norway pine 7 and 8 years old averaged 20,855 trees to the acre, and near Barnum and Moose Lake stands about 23 years old averaged 4,699 trees to the acre. This shows that excellent reproduction of Norway pine is possible, provided soil conditions during the seed NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 7 year are favorable, notwithstanding the fact that the tree is a meager seed bearer. Reproduction on the average cut-over tract is usually very deficient because of fire and excessive cutting. Aspen, paper birch, and jack pine usually crowd out the white and Norway pine. On most cut-over lands there are few Norway pine seed trees, so that reseeding will take centuries unless assisted by artificial reforestation. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INJURY. Freedom from ordinary injuries constitutes the strongest recom- mendation in favor of Norway pine for forest management. This quality might adapt the tree to turpentining, though the short grow- ing season would be a decided drawback. FIRE. Mature Norway pine may be charred at the butt by an ordinary ground fire, especially the uphill side of the tree where there is an accumulation of needles, but the burn is seldom followed by decay. Careful observations in northern Minnesota‘ indicate that young Norway pine seedlings resist fire better than either white or jack pine. OTHER DAMAGE. Norway has few serious enemies. In the seedling stage it seems to suffer no more from damping off than do other conifers, though the tender roots are occasionally attached by a grub as yet unidenti- fied. It is rarely frost killed, but in the forest a prolonged drought may seriously decrease the seed crop. In the sapling and pole stage it is practically free from windfall and fungi. Mature Norway pines, when growing on well-drained soil, are rarely defective. The strong lateral root system makes the tree windfirm, though if isolated when overmature it may blow down. THE WOOD.? APPEARANCE AND STRUCTURE. The wood of Norway pine is redder in color, in most cases slightly heavier, and invariably more resinous than that of other northeastern commercial conifers. However, before seasoning, the softer grades, cut from trees of rapid growth, are scarcely distinguishable from those of white pine. After thorough seasoning this similarity is less marked, because Norway pine is generally darker and more resinous. The better quality Norway pine wood is soft, light, moderately strong and tough, fine, and straight grained. It is easy to work, but is not durable in contact with the soil. The best grades are cut from trees of rapid growth, on low, moist, rich soil, and exhibit very 1 “Report on the Jack Pine Barrens of Northern Minnesota,” by J. P. Wentling. 2 Prepared by C. D. Mell, assistant dendrologist, and W. D. Brush, scientific assistant, Forest Service. 8 BULLETIN 139, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. little contrast between early and late growth. Lumber cut from slow-growing trees, on dry, sandy soils, is redder in color, more resinous, and somewhat harder and more durable than the other. There is also a marked difference between the weight and quality of lumber cut from young stands and from mature timber, due to the percentage of sapwood in the former. Sargent gives the specific gravity of dry wood (unquestionably cut from mature trees) as 0.485. The sapwood of immature trees has a specific gravity of 0.9, and the heartwood of 0.6. It is this difference between sapwood and heartwood which perhaps gives rise to the term ‘‘pigiron,” since second-growth Norway pine with a wide sapwood would not float. In the course of experiments by the Forest Service, under the direction of H. D. Tiemann, small blocks cut from ‘‘pigiron”’ floated from 2 to 9 days, while heartwood floated from 3 months to 1 year. Thus the floating ability of timber cut from young stands can be determined by computing the volume per cent of sap- wood and heartwood in the logs. In mature trees the sapwood is narrow, rarely exceeding 3 inches. In the softer grades of Norway pine the late wood of the annual rings does not contrast very sharply with the early wood, as is the case with the hard grades, or in the yellow or hard pines, of which longleaf pine is typical. Moreover, the late wood usually forms much less than one-half of the width of the annual ring. This and the slight contrast between, the inner and outer part of the annual ring gives the wood a rather uniform structure and density, rendering it equal to white pine for many purposes. Microscopic characters which distinguish Norway pine from other pine woods with which it is likely to be confused are the conspicuous dentate projections on, the inner walls of pith-ray tracheids and the large simple pits (from 1 to 2) to each longitudinal tracheid and the radial walls of the ray-parenchyma cells. The following ana- lytical key will be of assistance to technical students in, the identifi- cation of red, white, and jack pine: Inner walls of pith-ray tracheids without dentate projections. One to 2 large simple pits to each longitudinal tracheid on the radial walls of the ray-parenchyma cells. Late wood narrow, inconspicuous; wood sparingly TSIM UOUS) Seyeec ccna ars epee ree aes note ee ee oe White pine (Pinus strobus) Inner walls of pith-ray tracheids with conspicuous dentate projections. One to 2 large simple pits to each longitudinal tracheid on the radial walls of the ray-parenchyma cells. Dentate projections regular, short. Late wood con- spicuous, not sharply defined from the lighter early wood of the same annual ring. Wood usually very resinous ..........-.. Norway pine (Pinus resinosa) One to 6 (usually 3 to 6) oval, simple pits to each longitudinal tracheid on the radial walls. Dentate projections irregular, long, often branched and con- necting across the cells. Late wood very conspicuous, sharply defined from the early wood. Wood moderately resinous.....- Jack pine (Pinus divaricata) Bul. 139, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Gesgee ce oa @ Seidagetetit!! THK Citatiats TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE Woop OF NoRWAY PINE MAGNIFIED 50 DIAME- TERS; e. w., EARLY Woop; J. w., LATE Woop; t., TRACHEIDS; p. 7., PITH RAY; rT. ¢C., RESIN CANAL. Bul. 139, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PiaTeE Il. RADIAL SECTION OF THE Woop oF NORWAY PINE MAGNIFIED 50 DIAMETERS; e. w., EARLY Woop; 1. w., LATE Woop; t., TRACHEIDS; p. 7., PITH RAY; 7. ¢., RESIN CANAL IN PITH RAY; ALSO A LONGITUDINAL CANAL. PLATE Ill. Bul. 139, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ASAT ITAA AAG SEE — SRN RARASRARRRSITER PS s s See 1 TANGENTIAL SECTION OF THE WoopD OF NORWAY PINE MAGNIFIED 50 DIAMETERS; RESIN CANAL IN PITH RAY. , t., TRACHEIDS; p. 7., PITH RAYS; 7°. ©. NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 9 STRENGTH. Norway pine is stronger than white pine, but weaker than long- leaf. Grade for grade, it is not quite as strong as tamarack, but - experiments by the Forest Service showed thoroughly seasoned Norway pine to be slightly stronger and stiffer, when the seasoning checks in tamarack were considered. The results of the strength tests are given in Table 1. 55040°—Bull. 139—14——2 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 10 ‘solour g ‘wotttroods Jo WSO TT e “sorout og ‘uotaroeds jo VISIO z EEE ee ee ee *S}S0} [[@ Loy poyo[Auroo You sMOTPeUTUTIOJep O.NYSTOTT 1 9LF 892 ‘ 0-8 | “> UTONULUT Ay “ueoT) 0°ST (Gye ail pe mae WINWIXe yy Gis); | ies tego OSVIOAV “*I--->"g9tpour p Aq z pue sorour p Aq T “"| OOF ‘T { O'P i f PaSSe ss WIN UT . 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Since Norway pine is not durable in contact with the ground and when exposed to moisture, timber so placed must be treated with some preservative. The details of various methods of preservation are discussed in Forest Service Bulletins 78, 84, and 118; Circulars 80, 98, 101, 104, 111, 112, 117, 128, 132, 134, 136, 139, and 151; and Department Bulletin 13. FOREST TYPES. Only on moderately poor soils, usually a sand, does Norway pine erow pure. On the richer soils and on well-watered sandy flats it is found in mixture with hardwoods and white pine, and on the driest sands with jack pine. In Ontario the densest stands of Norway pine are found on pure-sand plains. Four chief types may be distin- guished: (1) Norway pine knoll; (2) Norway pine flat; + (3) hard- wood ridges; and (4) jack-pine plains. NORWAY PINE KNOLL. The pure sand of the knolls favors Norway pine, which is the chief, or perhaps the only, tree on such situations. The soil cover is a scat- tering of wintergreen, blueberry, and ‘‘ground pine,” with a thin mat of needles. NORWAY PINE FLAT. On the sandy flats Norway pine may occasionally grow pure, but where clay is present in the soul white pine forms from 40 to 60 per cent of the stand, with a much denser ground cover. Clumps of birch may occupy the openings. On low, poorly drained ground there is usually a scattering of white spruce and occasionally a tamarack. The moist soil insures dense undergrowth. HARDWOOD RIDGES. On the glacial ridges, where a drift of clay covers the subsoil, the forest is chiefly broad leaved. Aspen, sugar maple, hornbeam, paper birch, yellow birch, basswood, black ash, white ash, mountain maple, with a scattering of white spruce, white pine, and Norway pine, form the stand. Often there is a pure growth of aspen, with a few paper birch, white spruce, and maple. Again, paper birch is pure with a few aspens, hornbeams, or spruces. In certain localities there is ample evidence that much of this hardwood land bore white pine of enormous size. Fire and windfall probably caused the change in the type. Often a few overmature white and Norway pines rise out of the dense understory of hardwoods. Some of the largest Norway pines are found scattered through hardwood forests. They have broad, bushy crowns, with a comparatively short, very full, well- pruned bole. 1 On the richer soils this type would be locally termed white pine flat. 12 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. JACK-PINE PLAINS. Jack pine obtains possession of the driest, sterile sands through its ability to reproduce prolifically after fire and to grow rapidly during the seedling and sapling stages. Originally, it is believed, Norway pine formed at least 10 per cent of the stand on this type, but repeated fires have decreased this proportion until on some sand plains there is no Norway pine at all. COMPETITION WITH OTHER SPECIES. For Norway pine to succeed, the ground must be at least partially free from thick grass, briars, and weeds and not excessively dry. White pine, on the other hand, succeeds best with some cover, such as bushes, berry vines, or scattered poplar and cherry seedlings. On the richer sous the tolerance of white pine enables it to obtain a start over Norway, which is usually crowded out. On moderately dry, pure sand Norway pine drives out the white pine and hardwoods by its more rapid growth. On rich clay, suitable for agriculture, the hardwoods obtain the supremacy through their ability to seed up the soil and get a good start. As such stands become open, however, white pine, and later some Norway pine, gain a foothold. Dry, coarse sands favor jack pine, which grows faster than Norway pine at the start, but which begins to decline in vigor when from 80 to 90 years old, permitting the Norway pine to break through the crown cover and quickly occupy the available growing space. SUPPLY AND CUT. The total stand of all pines in the Lake States to-day probably amounts to more than 50,000,000,000 board feet. Of the 250,000,- 000,000 feet estimated to have been cut in the Lake States since lum- bering began, Norway pine has probably furnished about 15 per cent, or about 37,000,000,000 board feet. The estimated present stand of. Norway pine—17,000,000,000 feet—will probably appear too small after another decade or so, since with proper fire protection the pro- duction of second growth should materially increase the supply. Accurate estimates of the cut of either white or Norway pine in the Lake States are impossible, because the two species are marketed together. Mr. R.S. Kellogg, secretary of the Northern Hemlock and Hardwood Manufacturers’ Association, has estimated that between 1880 and 1910 Norway pine formed 25 per cent of the total cut in Michigan, 20 per cent of that in Wisconsin, and 15 per cent of that in Minnesota. These figures may be taken as conservative. In 1911, Mr. H. 8. Childs, secretary of the Northern Pine Manufacturers’ Association, estimated that Norway pine cut 30.4 per cent of the total production in Minnesota and Wisconsin, a conclusion reached on the Bul. 139, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. CLOSE STAND OF NORWAY PINE, CASS LAKE, CASS COUNTY, MINN. NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. i basis of a census of 17 manufacturers in the former State and 12 in the latter. The proportion of Norway pine to the total cut of former years was no doubt small, but it has probably always formed from 10 to 20 per cent. In 1906, H. H. Chapman, professor of forestry at the Yale Forest School, wrote: The proportion of Norway pine in the total annual cut in Wisconsin is rapidly increasing lately at the expense of white pine, and is now about 33 per cent of the annual cut of pine for the State, excluding hemlock, while in the Wisconsin Valley the proportion reaches nearly 50 per cent. In past years Norway pine formed only from 5 to 10 per cent of the Wisconsin pine cut. In Minnesota Norway pine forms 30 per cent of the pine cut. A further cause for uncertainty with regard to the cut of Norway pine has been introduced by the increasing cut of jack pine, some of which is being marketed as ‘‘ Norway.’ GRADES. Norway pine is graded under rules agreed upon by the Northern Pine Manufacturers’ Association. These are given in Table 2. The details of each grade are discussed in a booklet of rules which can be obtained upon request from the secretary of the association. TABLE 2.—Standard grades of Norway pine. Thick finishing: Ist, 2d, and 3d clear, 14, 14,and 2 inch. A select, 14, 14, and 2 inch. B select, 14, 14, and 2 inch. C select, 14, 14, and 2 inch. D select, 14, 14, and 2 inch. Inch finishing: Ist, 2d, and 3d clear. A, B, C, and D select. D stock. C and better Norway. Siding: A and clear. B, C, D, and E. Flooring: A, B, ©, and D flooring. Farmer’s clear flooring. No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 fencing, D. and M. Shiplap, grooved roofing, and D.and M.: No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3. Factory plank or shop common: No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 shop. Inch shop. Short box. Factory selects: Factory A select and better. Factory B and factory C select. Thick common lumber: Tank stock. Select common. No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, and No. 5 common. Common boards: No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, and No. 5. Fencing: No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, and No. 4. Dimension: No. 1, No. 2, and No. 8 or cull. Lath: No. land No. 2. PRICES. Norway pine has risen greatly in value during the past two decades. Virgin Norway was once purchased for less than 50 cents per thousand board feet. To-day values less than $4 per thousand board feet for 14 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. good ‘second growth” are exceptional. Stumpage on the National Forests in Michigan is sold for as much as $12 per thousand, and will undoubtedly go still higher. The better grades of Norway pine, when sold as such, bring less in the open market than do similar grades of white pine, but below the No. 1 grade in dimension or No. 2 in inch lumber the two species bring the same. Norway pine is seldom, if ever, quoted separately in lumber price lists. Even in high grades it is often sold indis- criminately with white pine, and so. brings the same price. As a general rule, therefore, the prices quoted for white pine can be taken as those for Norway as well. Average mill-run prices for white pine in Minnesota and Wisconsin during the last quarter of 1913 were as follows: SelectsiG@ and (better: iin hoe eat ieee ee earner eee $56.00 SOON eels Ba vaccine ee oe eee SP aera ae ere eee 48.49 EO GN On 080 ebro go bene Oe earl ona ec. eeeee ere mre oe ae 22. 87 OVALE Oca cntee tod LN Se eee ha ect Sete ee re ae ae ee 24. 42 Timber, No. 1, 2 inches by 4 inches by 16 feet................-. 20. 33 Boards: IN ORED ers Sek 5 ote eS sn A AR ee ee ee ee 22. 83 INO SFO Ss a ieneee coats eee, i SOIR heen? rai 2 eee ees ee 21.00 IN Gs eet eect e OR lt eae NS errs ae ee ps ae 16. 66 Rencmes NOs Qicecepile satan tesa os dat Seabee ee 25. 36 MARKETS. : With the decrease in the supply of white pine lumber, Norway pine is certain to come more and more into demand. A glance at the list of uses given below for which Norway pine is adapted shows its commercial possibilities. In the investigation of the Wisconsin wood-using industries the Forest Service found that approximately 7,500,000 feet of Norway pine, valued at $124,000, was annually used in that State alone, of which 84 per cent was logged within the State. A similar study in Minnesota showed an annual consumption in that State of over two and one-half million dollars worth of Norway pine, costing on the average $15.74 per thousand board feet. USES. Norway pine is adapted for most of the uses to which white pine. is put. It was first cut in Maine and Canada for shipbuilding mate- rial, such as decking, planking, spars, and masts.’ It is used locally for bridges, though it is distinctly inferior to longleaf pine and Doug- las fir for the purpose. Perhaps it is in widest demand for dimension stuff and for ordinary house construction. The lower grades and smaller sizes are consumed largely by the box trade for crates and 1 For further details regarding early uses of Norway pine, see Forest Service Bulletin ¢¢, ‘‘ Uses of Com- mercial Woods in the United States: Pines,” by Hu Maxwell and William L. Hall. NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 15 shipping boxes, and less frequently for shingles and water pipes. The better grades are used for farm implements, planing-mill prod- ucts, furniture, car construction, panels, screens, doors and sash, and when, treated with preservatives for poles, posts, and ties. The Chicago & North Western, Railway is authority for the statement that Norway pine piling, where below the water and moisture line, gives excellent service, since the wood does not splinter badly under ordi- nary driving. During 1911 and 1912 over 20,000 pieces of piling, from 40 to 64 feet long, were sold on the Minnesota Forest at from $16 to $20 on the stump. When used for bridge piling above ground the sapwood rots quickly unless treated. Norway pine paving blocks, impregnated with 16 pounds of oil per cubic foot have given excellent results in Minneapolis... While experiments with the pav- ing blocks are still in progress, it has already been, established that Norway pine, though slightly inferior to longleaf pine, is fully equal to western larch and white birch as a paving material. There is no positive record of the wood’s value for pulp. The stumps yield turpentine, and are a satisfactory raw material for distillation. Other parts of the tree are not considered sufficiently resinous for the purpose. A company in Michigan reports a yield of 8 gallons of turpentine and 270 pounds grade F rosin per cord of 4,000 pounds of stump wood. In Wisconsin about 61 per cent of the local output and importations of Norway pine are used for boxes and 23 per cent for sash, doors, blinds, and interior and exterior finish. In Michigan about 42 per cent goes into planing-mill supplies, and 24 per cent into boxes and crates. In Minnesota the most important uses of Norway pine are for gates and fencing, and for paving. GROWTH AND YIELD. HEIGHT GROWTH. Norway pine makes an average height growth of 1 foot per year until it reaches an age between 60 and 70 years. From that time on the height growth gradually falls off, until at the age of from 100 to 110 years it practically ceases. The crown of the tree then assumes a broad flat shape. When planted together with white pine, the height growth of Nor- way exceeds that of the former for the first few years by from 8 to 5 feet. This imitial advantage soon disappears, however, since the white pine maintains its height growth to a greater age. Jack pine grows much faster than either Norway or white pine for the first two decades, a characteristic which in many instances enables it to over- Experiments in Minneapolis,” also Municipal Engineering, Vol. XXXIV, p. 14. 2 For further information see Forest Service Circular 114, ‘‘Wood Distillation.” 16 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. top and partially or completely suppress the other pines. The height growth of Norway pine is best in full sunlight, when slightly crowded. The average height growth of saplings in fairly well-stocked stands is shown in Table 3. No measurements were made of the growth in height of older trees. From the measurements of height on diameter, Table 4, and the measurements of diameter on age, Table 7, it was possible to construct a table of height growth based on age. This table is based on the assumption that diameter and height growth are roughly proportional. Thus, if the height of a tree of a given diameter is known and also the age of the diameter corresponding to the height of this tree, the age of the tree having this height is thereby determined. Table 5 has been constructed after this plan. It shows the average height of trees of different ages. Figures for minimum and maximum. heights are also given. The maximum trees grew in Wisconsin in mixture with white pine and were domi- nant. The minimum figures are for slow-growing suppressed trees. TABLE 3.—JHeight growth of saplings in northern Minnesota. Age - Age F Age + ot Age : (years). Height. (years). Height. eek Height. Icvears). Height. | Feet. Feet. Feet. || Feet. 1 0.3 8 4.9 15 15.0 22 23.0 2 .6 9 6.0 16 16.7 23 23. 8 3 1.0 10 7.2 7, 18.1 24 24.6 4 1.5 11 835 18 19.3 25 25.5 5 2.2 12 9.9 19 20. 4 26 26.3 6 2.9 13 11.4 20 21.3 27 27.1 7 3.9 14 13a 21 22.1 28 28.0 TaBLE 4.—Minimum, average, and maximum heights based on diameter, Minnesota and Wisconsin. Diameter Height. Diameter Height. breast- breast- high high (inches). | Minimum.| Average. |Maximum.|) (inches). | Minimum.| Average. | Maximum. Feet Feet. Feet. Feet Feet Feet 1 11 12 16 18 61 88 112 2 16 20 28 19 63 90 113 3 18 27 41 20 66 91 114 4 21 34 52 21 68 92 115 5 24 41 63 22 71 94 116 6 26 47 7 2B) {Bi 95 116 a 29 53 80 24 76 96 117 8 32 58 87 25 78 97 118 ms 9 35 63 93 26 80 99 119 10 38 67 97 20 83 100 120 11 41 71 101 28 85 101 121 12 44 74 103 29 87 103 122 13 47 77 105 39 89 104 123 14 50 80 107 31 91 105 124 | 45 53 82 108 32 93 108 125 | 16 55 85 109 BB) 95 108 126 17 57 87 110 34 98 109 127 Bul. 139, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. FOREST OF NORWAY PINE, WITH LOADED SLEDS ON ICE ROAD, RED LAKE COUNTY, MINN. NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 17 TABLE 5.—Minimum, average, and maximum heights based on age, Bayfield County, ; Wis. | | | | Height. Height. | Age || Age (years). | | (years). | | Minimum.| Average. Maximum.) Minimum.| Average. | Maximum. | | Feet. Feet Feet. Feet Feet Feet 10 7 19 110 7 92 102 20 16 35 56 120 78 94 104 30 26 58 78 130 &1 95 105 | 40 34 70 86 140 96 107 — | 50 43 77 91 150 86 98 108 60 50 82 94 160 99 1 70 56 85 96 170 89 100 110 80 62 88 98 180 91 101 90 67 90 99 190 93 103 100 71 91 101 | 200 94 | 104 | Table 5 apparently indicates that the height growth of maximum trees is very rapid for 40 years and soon afterwards dwindles to almost nothing. In reality the height growth is much more gradual and continues longer than indicated in the column headed “Maximum.” The most rapidly growing trees, which apparently show a height of 86 feet for 40 years, are merely trees which when 86 feet high have a diameter of 13.8 inches, this being the average height of a tree of that diameter. As a matter of fact, a tree which grew 13.8 inches in diameter in 40 years could not reach a height of 86 feet in the same time. The column containing the average figures gives a more nearly correct idea of the growth in height. Table 4 shows the relation between diameter and height. DIAMETER GROWTH. The diameter growth of a tree is influenced to a very marked extent by the quality of the soil and the density of the stand. This effect is clearly shown in the following classes: (1) Dominant trees. According to their past history in the stand these may be divided into those which have survived to reach merchantable size, those which occupy a dominant position in the stand, and those which have been suppressed for about 100 years by jack pine; (2) inter- mediate trees; and (3) suppressed trees. The growth in diameter of these different classes of trees, with different crown development, is shown in Tables 6 to 10. Table 6 gives the best, average, and slowest growth in diameter on good soil in Bayfield County, Wis., for trees which survived to reach merchantable size. §09040°—Bull. 139—14—_3 18 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 6.—Minimum, average, and maximum growth in diameter, Bayfield County, Wis., on basis of age. [Based on 139 stumps from 108 to 202 years old.] Diameter breast-high (inches). Diameter breast-high (inches). Age nein a Da REN Scene ees Age (years). (years). Minimum.| Average. |Maximum. Minimum.| Average. | Maximum. 10 0.2 0.6 13 110 9.3 17.9 25.2 20 1.0 2.8 5.4 120 10.3 18.9 26.2 30 1.9 5.7 10.3 130 113 19.8 Die L 40 2.7 8.0 13.8 140 12.4 20.8 28.0 50 Bie 9.9 16.6 150 1359 21.7 28.7 60 4.6 Ie 18.8 160 14.6 22.7 29.5 70 ayia) 13. 2 20.5 170 15.7 23.0 30.3 80 6.5 14.6 21.9 180 16.9 24.6 30.9 90 7.4 15.9 Pay | 190 18.0 25:9 le. 100 8.3 16.9 24,2 200 19.2. 26.5 32.4 Table 7 shows the diameter growth of trees which are now occu- pying a dominant position in the stand. Figures in the column headed “Maximum” are for trees which have grown practically in the open for their entire life. The column headed “Average” shows trees which have been somewhat crowded, but which from the start have dominated the remaining timber in height growth. The ‘“ mini- mum”’ is for trees which have been suppressed by jack pine. The growth in both diameter and height of such Norway pines is stunted. In 80 years the trees have reached a diameter of but 4.3 inches, as contrasted with 19.2 inches in the case of open-grown trees. At this age jack pine dies out, and by 100 years has entirely disappeared from these even-aged stands. The surviving Norway pines, freed from competition and with plenty of crown space, develop good crowns and take the position of intermediate or dominant trees. Only their record of diameter growth remains to show the former existence of the jack pine in mixture. Had these trees grown in pure stands, they would have been killed in competition. TaBLE 7.—Minimum, average, and maximum diameter growth of dominant trees on basis of age, Cass and Itasca Counties, Minn. [Based on 739 stumps from 27 to 303 years old.] Diameter breast-high (inches). Diameter breast-high (inches). Age Age (years). (years). Minimum. | Average. | Maximum, Minimum. | Average. | Maximum. LOM lectesce oes 0.8 2.7 110 6.8 14.7 2201 20 0.4 2.8 6.8 120 7.6 15.5 22.8 30 8 4.9 10.1 130 8.4 16.1 23.5 40 1.3 6.6 12.6 140 9.1 16.7 24.1 50 2.0 8.2 14.6 150 9.8 17.3 24,7 60 2.7 9.6 16.4 160 10.4 17.8 25.2 70 3.5 10.9 17.9 170 10.9 18.4 25.7 80 4.3 12.0 19.2 180 11.3 18.9 26.3 90 5.2 13.0 20.3 190 11.8 19.5 26.7 100 6.0 13.9 21.3 200 12.1 | 20.0 27.2 NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 19 Table 8 shows the diameter growth of intermediate trees on situ- ations typical of the sandy plains of low agricultural value. TABLE 8.—Minimum, average, and maximum diameter growth of intermediate trees on the basis of age, Cass and Itasca Counties, Minn. [Based on 760 stump counts.] l Diameter breast-high (inches). | Diameter breast-high (inches). Age | Age | (years). | | : || (years). et | ; Minimum.| Average. | Maximum. | Minimum.| Average. | Maximum. | 10 0.4 0.9 2.3 110 6.6 13.5 21.7 20 9 200 6.0 120 Ted 14.2 22.5 30 1.4 4.6 9.3 130 Us 14.9 7a 1h 40 2.0 6.3 12.0 140 +2802 15.5 23.6 50 2.6 7.8 14.2 | 150 8.7 16.1 24.1 60 3.3 9.1 16.0 160 9.1 16.7 24.6 70 3.9 10.3 i765 170 9.5 17.2 25.0 80 4.6 11.3 18.9 180 9.9 Fe 25.4 90 5.3 ID 20.0 190 10.3 18.3 PSST 100 5.9 12.9 20.9 | 200 10.7 18.9 26.0 Table 9 shows the growth of suppressed trees. TABLE 9.—Minimum, average, and maximum diameter growth of suppressed trees on basis of age, Cass and Itasca Counties, Minn. [Based on 164 stumps, 51 to 152 years old.] i| Diameter breast-high (inches). _| Diameter breast-high (inches). IND 0 2) eS tor MSS ie ap eg teen eee Age (years). || (years). : Minimum.}| Average. | Maximum. | Minimum.| Average. | Maximum. | 110) = 0) een eaeeeereses scaes 0.5 13 | 90 5.3 9.5 14.8 20 0.5 1.8 3.9 | 100 6.0 10.1 15.5 30 esl 3.2 6.4 | 110 6.7 10.7 16.1 40 1.7 4.5 Sey7. 120 7.2 11.3 16.8 50 2.4 5.8 10.6 130 Cet! 11.8 17.4 60 Ze 7.0 12.0 140 8.1 12.3 18.0 70 3.9 8.0 1351 150 8.5 12.8 18.6 80 4.6 8.8 13.9 The demand of Norway pine for light, which prevents it from growing under hardwoods, white pine, or underbrush, is brought out in the growth tables. When growing with any other species except jack pine it must remain dominant by means of rapid growth or be killed by suppression in the course of time. Jack pine has such a light crown that in mixture with it Norway pine can survive a period of extended suppression and ultimately develop a fair crown growth. The better the soil the closer will be the competition between these two species. On very poor soils Norway pine in mixture with jack pine sometimes lives to an advanced age as mere stunted poles from 10 to 20 feet high and from 1 to 8 inches in diameter. VOLUME GROWTH. Growth in volume of Norway pine (Table 10) is derived from tables of growth in diameter and height at different ages, used in connection 20 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. with a table in volumes for trees of different diameters and heights. The table indicates that Norway pine grows in volume at a uniform rate to an advanced age. Tae 10.—Growth in volume, on basis of age, of average dominant trees, Cass County, Minn. Age . ; Scribner | Periodic growth for ‘ Mi Meee ae Diameter. | Height. | Volume. anit 10-year periods. Mean annual growth. Inches. Feet. Cubic feet. | Board feet. | Cubic feet. | Board feet. | Cubic feet. | Board jeet. 10 0.8 Settee bic acts lee Sis Se ete eteea [ere erates ain ere Sed lm erssetcrene Sie aces lve ml aero eee | conten ees 20 2.8 Ooi ee sc clor tee s oheeso|fsek coe aetoe |g ateeee ten do[oes coe eae |e eee 30 4.9 35 Qe She tah Sipe len oe ayers eceevere eee ONCE S| eee eee 40 6.6 47 GRO H| Seer eee eee ea}(0 | Pea teeeeA peer: 31133%)| Gee ose eeee 50 8.2 58 10. 1 27 ASS cee eae . 202 0. 54 60 9.6 66 15.8 57 enh 30 . 263 - 96 70 10.9 72 PA leal 90 he! 33 . 301 1. 29 80 12.0 76 27.4 128 6.3 38 343 1.60 90 13.0 80 34.0 160 6.6 32 sabia) Ties 100 13.9 83 40. 6 193 6.6 33 - 406 1.93 110 14.7 85 46.3 228 5.7 35 ~ 421 2.08 120 15:5, 87 53.8 263 G25 35 ~ 448 2.19 130 16.1 88 59. 0 286 D2 33 - 454 2. 20 140 16.7 89 63. 6 314 4.6 28 - 454 2. 25 150 ied 90 69. 4 345 5.8 31 463 2. 30 160 17.8 91 74. 4 374 5.0 29 - 465 2.34 170 18. 4 91 79.3 405 4.9 31 465 2.39 180 18.9 92 84. 4 43 5.1 32 469 2. 43 190 19.5 92 89.3 470 4.9 33 470 2. 47 200 20.0 93 94. 6 505 ieee eS: 35 473 2552 YIELD. The growth in diameter, height, and volume of individual Norway pine trees is of little aid in determining the yield per acre. Yields of stands of different ages are best found by actual measurements of stands of the age to be recorded. The yield of even-aged stands is then determined by.multiplying the volume of the average. tree by the number of trees on the area. The sample plots upon which Table 11 is based were located in Cass and Itasca Counties, Minn. The plots selected for measurement were completely stocked with pine. A mature and fully stocked Norway pine stand forms a prac-— tically complete crown cover. The crowns themselves are not dense nor is the shade deep, though it is usually sufficient to exclude from the dry and sandy forest floor practically all underbrush, leaving only a carpet of needles. At the age of 150 years, however, the stand begins to thin out, and by 200 years the canopy wiil be broken, with many blanks caused by the death of trees. The yield per acre at this time is actually less than at an earlier age. The method followed in constructing Table 11 was to plot the yield of each sample plot on cross-section paper, ‘on the basis of age. The space between the maximum and minimum curves was then divided into three parts, representing good, medium, and poor yields. These coincide roughly with the three qualities of soils upon which the plots were taken. A curve was then drawn through the center of each space representing the qualities, from which the yields for each age were read. In applying this table it should be remembered that the figures represent a theoretically perfect stand. Actual yields on PLATE VI, Bul. 139, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. MICH. ROSCOMMON COUNTY DLINGS, f= NORWAY PINE POLES AND SE . 1 Fic. NORWAY PINE ON THE MINNESOTA NATIONAL FOREST 2. Fia NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 21 sand barrens where there are small openings may, even in the case of plantations, be from three-fourths to one-fourth of these amounts. Table 11 is based on 85 sample plots from 40 to 200 years old. Tasie 11.— Yield per acre of fully stocked even-aged stands according to three quality classes. Yield per acre. Age | (years). | Quality I. | Quality II. |Quality II. Board ft. Board ft. Board ft. 40 4, 100 2000 =P oe ae a 50 9, 400 6, 10 2, 800 60 15, 100 10, 200 5, 300 70 20, 960 14, 300 7, 900 80 26, 500 18, 600 10, 700 90 32, 300 22, 90! 13,700 100 38, 500 27, 400 16, 900 110 44,700 32, 000 20, 100 120 50, 800 36, 700 23, 100 130 56, 800 41, 200 25, 800 140 60, 500 43, 900 27, 900 150 62, 300 45, 700 29, 500 160 0 46, 900 30, 600 170 63, 700 47, 500 31, 100 180 63, 700 47,700 31, 300 190 63, 000 47, 300 31,300 200 61, 800 46, 500 31,000 1 The mean annual growth in board feet culminates on all the quali- ties of site at about 140 years. ‘There is a slight further increase in volume until 170 years on Quality I, and to 180 years on Qualities IT and Jil, but the mean annual growth per acre falls off, and soon the stand itself begins to lose in volume from windfalls, old age, and fire. The maximum mean annual yield on good soils hardly exceeds 400 per year, and on Quality III sites 200 feet. These yields are for natural Norway pine sites, whose quality is at best much below that of soils occupied by white pine and hardwoods. Since Norway pine will grow on any well-drained soil, if started in full sunlight, yields from plantations, even when unthinned, on the richer soils may amount to from 500 to 800 board feet per acre per year. Since Nor- way pine can form fully stocked stands only under ideal conditions of light and moisture, which are seldom met with in nature, the aver- age stand per acre of pine, either Norway or white, actually comes nearer to being 5,000 or 10,000 feet, instead of the 40,000 or 60,000 feet yielded by fully siorked areas. The openings in ordinary stands of Norway pine are occupied by poplar, birch, and scrub oaks, although none of these species do as well as Nome pine on smn soils. Even if these inferior species could be utilized, nothing like the returns can be secured as from fully stocked stands of Norway pine. It is safe to say that with complete stocking the average production of large areas can be increased five- fold. The number of trees on fully stocked areas depends in part on the _ width and shape of the crown. Table 12 gives an idea of the average width of crowns of trees of different diameters. 22 BULLETIN 1389, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 12.—The crown width of dominant trees on basis of diameter breast-high, Itasca County, Minn. [Based on 134 measurements.] Diameter | Width of || Diameter | Width of breast-high crown breast-high crown (inches). (feet). (inches). (feet). 3 4 13 15 4 5 14 15 5 7 15 16 6 8 16 16 di 9 17 16 8 11 18 16 9 12 19 16 10 13 20 17 4 11 13 21 17 12 14 The crowns of Norway pine trees are remarkably narrow com- pared with those of southern and western pines, which makes possible a larger number of trees per acre. An idea of the possible approx- imate yields which may be obtained under management is given in Tables 13 and 14. It can be assumed that with frequent thinnings the trees remaining in the stand will grow at the average rate of dominant trees and will have the width of crown indicated in Table 12. Assuming that the average volume of these trees will be that shown in Table 10, it is necessary only to know the average number of trees per acre in order to ascertain roughly the yield of such stands at a specified age. The diameter of the average crown was squared in finding the number of such trees that could stand on an acre. Since ¢rowns are circular, this introduced a factor of safety amounting to a reduc- tion of 22 per cent of the number of trees which might otherwise be computed as having growing space, and gives a crown density of 78 per cent instead of 100 per cent. TaBLE 13.— Yields per acre of dominant trees, calculated from diameter growth, average crown space, and number of trees per acre at different ages. itee per ! acre from ae see Age Volume of| curve, | Yields per Goon ae (years). tree, based on acre. ae crown space. Board feet. | Number. | Board feet. 8 49 23 302 8, 280 9 56 45 266 13, 590 10 . 63 67 241 17, 822 11 71 94 221 22, 654 12 80 128 206, 28, 288 13 90 160 193 32, 960 14 101 197 183 38, 021 15 114 242 175 44, 286 16 128 289 168 50, 575 17 145 329 163 55, 272 18 163 383 158 62, 429 19 182 444 154 70, 152 20 200 505 151 77,770 NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 23 Column 2 of Table 13, which shows the age of trees of each diam- eter, was taken from Table 7, using the average figures of growth in the middle column of dominant trees. Much larger yields would have been indicated had the left-hand column been made the basis of the calculation. Column 3 was obtained from Table 10, volume een of Norway pine, Table 7, middle column, for diameter growth of dominant trees, and from Table 4, average heen based on diameter of dominant trees. Column 4 was obtained by squaring the crowns of trees of all diameter classes, computing the number of trees per acre for each class by dividing 43,560 by the square of the diameter of the crown, a density factor of 0.78 per cent, and then plotting the results and evening off by a curve for each diameter class. Column 5 was obtained by multiplying column 3 by column 4. Table 14 shows by decades the yields given in Table 13. TaBLE 14.—Theoretical yield per acre of fully stocked stands, Quality I. Yields Yields Age Age (years). cone (years). ae 50 8, 400 130 50, 400 60 14 600 140 54; 000 70 22? 000 150 57, 600 80 27, 600 160 61, 000 90 33,000 170 64, 000 100 37, 700 180 66, 900 110 42, 300 190 69, 500 120 46, 500 200 72} 000 These theoretical yields agree with those found by actual measure- ments of fully stocked stands on first quality sites. The actual yields slightly exceed those shown in Table 14, notably for the ages from 110 to 160 years. At 170 years the actual yields fall off rapidly, while the yields computed from crown space continue to increase even after the results are reduced by a curve. These facts indicate, first, that the rate of growth used in the calculation is actually attained by the greater number of trees forming a Norway pine stand on good soil, and, second, that the density of the crowns of such stands is greater than 0.78, which is the assumed factor of density obtained by squaring the crowns which are normally round. Finally, the divergence of yields for 170 years clearly indicates that at this age the natural stands begin to deteriorate and do not maintain the closed canopy. The decrease in the number of trees per acre re- sulting from this process of deterioration lowers the yield from then on. Individual Norway pines will live to be 300 years old, but plots much over 200 years old are composed either of the remnants of much denser stands or of the survivors of a struggle with jack pine. 24 BULLETIN 139, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is an interesting fact that a Norway pine tree which has been stunted for from 30 to 50 years, if it recovers, adds that period to its normal life. This behavior has also been noticed in the case of tama- rack and the giant sequoias of California. Table 15 gives some interesting figures of increment for 8 sample plots measured in pole stands. The volumes are computed to a 2-inch merchantable diam- eter on the basis of the average tree for each diameter class. TasieE 15.1— Yield per acre of fully stocked sapling and pole stands on good-quality soil. Serial No. of plot. 1 | 2 3 | 4 5 6 | 7 | 8 Location. | Re- | Grand} Men- | Black-| Clo- | Itasca | Shey- | Itasca lease. |Rapids.| ahga. | berry. | quet. | Park. lin. Park Soil. | Sand Sandy | Sandy | Sandy | Sandy | Sandy | Sandy | Sandy * | loam. | clay clay clay. | clay clay clay Age of stand.........0.2..000- years. . 13 15 15 tpl = toy 27 41 79 Average diameter breast-high. inches. . 2 34 34 4 5 5 44 84 Average total height...........-. feet... 104 22% 164 20 29 21 40 69 Total number of trees per acre........ 1,720 | 2,616 713 778 | 1,512 874 616 524 Volume at present..-. .---cubic feet. . 145 | 1,235 272 548 | 1,368) 1,085 990 5, 534 Volume 5 years ago.....-....-- domeelece cease 121 55 74 | 647 548 455 4, 629 Total increment last 5 years..........|...-.--- 1,114 217 474 | 721 537 535 919 Annual increment last 5 years........)......-- 223 44 95 140 107 107 184 Average annual increment..cubic ft.. iba 82 18 32 | 50 40 24 73 Volume at present...........- cords. . 2 17.3 3.8 Get) alos 15.2 14 79.5 Volume'd5 years ago......--.... GOeere ceeeace UG) 0.8 1.2 9.1 7.6 6.3 64. 6 Total increment last 5 years..........|.------- 15.5 3 6.5 10 7.6 (EG 14,9 ATNUGANCKEMENT MASTS Years soe | sae ae ete | eetscte 2 alle year 1.3 2 1.5 1.5 3 Average annual increment....cords..| 0.15 1.3 0. 25 4 0.7 0. 56 0, 34 1 Volume at present....... board feet..) 1,015 | 8,645 | 1,912] 3,840; 9,581] 7,595} 6,934] 39,735 Volume 5 years ago..........-- dole sees? 849 383 525 | 4,530 | 3,838 | 3,187 | 32,332 Total increment last 5 years.......:.-|......-- 7,798 | 1,519] 8,318| 5,047] 3,757 | 3,745 7, 403 Annual increment last 5 years........|----..-- 1,560 | 302 665 | 980 751 749 1,580 Average annual increment..board ft. . 77 643 126 224 350 281 169 503 The figures in the table would indicate a remarkably rapid growth. On the whole, however, it is clear that upon poor soils, and with the comparatively cool and short growing season, rapid growth and heavy yields can not be expected at an early age. The returns from either plantations or natural stands inside of 40 years will be negligible, yet in the end the species not only exceeds in the capacity for timber production any other species adapted to sandy soils in the North, but equals and probably exceeds in yield per acre the Scotch pine grown on similar soils in Europe. If such growth is possible in the more northern latitudes, and on the sandier soils, it should produce yields equal to or exceeding those of white pine at the southern 1 Furnished by William T. Cox, State forester of Minnesota. NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 25 limits of its range and on the richer soils occupied by hardwoods. This fact, when taken in connection with its immunity from the white-pine weevil and freedom from other forms of insect or fungous attacks, should give Norway pine an important place in future forest management. There is a tendency to use Scotch pine on soils suitable for Norway pine. The height growth of the Scotch pine exceeds that of the Norway for a few years, but the future development of the former species as a timber tree in America can not be predicted. Much Scotch pine seed is collected from stunted trees which can not pro- duce sizes of commercial value. In Norway pine, on the other hand, the forester has a tree whose growth and development is absolutely certain, and therefore should be depended upon in large commercial plantations on poor soils. MANAGEMENT. RESULTS UNDER THE MORRIS ACT. The only systematic attempt at management of Norway pine on a considerable scale has been made on the Minnesota National Forest, under the Morris Act of June 27, 1902. This act as passed provided that 5 per cent of the total volume of standing timber be left in seed trees. In 1908 an amendment to the bill doubled: this percentage. When 5 per cent of the volume was left, there were from 0.2 to 1.5 seed trees per average acre, or about 0.6 seed trees per acre for the area aS a whole. Cutting was begun in 1904, but the areas were burned over the same year, so the results from cutting 95 per cent of a Norway pine stand can not be predicted with certainty. Young growth has come in well on two areas where light fire, which cleared out the underbrush, was followed by a good seed crop. Owing to the rather open stand, averaging about 6,000 board feet per acre, considerable ground cover existed before the logging. Taken as a whole, the natural reproduction is not a success, because not enough seed fell immediately after logging, when the bared soil was in the best condition to receive it. What young growth there is has sprung up as the result of the chance combination of a good seed year with a suitable condition of the soil. Where conditions have been favor- able, however, the results are unexpectedly good, Before condemning the Morris Act because better results have not been obtained, one must bear in mind that as a forerunner of forest management in Minnesota it was necessarily a compromise between the clear cutting of the old-time lumberman and the ideal conserva- tive fellings of the forester. ROTATION. The time at which Norway pine should be cut must be determined in each individual case. To grow sawtimber from 20 to 24 inches in 26 BULLETIN 139, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. diameter takes on the average Norway pine soil from 132 to 173 years. The average annual growth culminates at about 140 years on all sites, and consequently the rotation which would give the greatest volume production would be one of 140 years. If timber is cut when too young or too old the full productive capacity of the soil is not utilized, especially if the timber is cut clear. When natural repro-» duction is sought, particularly with the shelterwood system or from clear cutting, the stand should be felled if possible while the trees are producing seed prolifically, i. e., between 80 and 130 years. Financial returns.—A long rotation means a larger growing stock or forest capital; and in compound interest calculations the interest on this standing timber more than counterbalances the sale value of the additional lumber produced. To illustrate this principle, according to Table 11 a Norway pine stand on Quality IT soil? yields 10,200 board feet after 60 years, 18,600 after 80, 27,400 after 100, and 36,700 after 120 years. Table 16 shows the estimated returns on money invested in Norway pine stands when cut after 60, 80, 100, and 120 years. Compound interest has been figured at 4 per cent on an initial cost of $15 for land and young growth; taxes and fire protection at 4 cents per acre per year; and stumpage at $20, a very conservative figure, for the years 1973, 1993, and 2017. TABLE 16.—Revenue derived from the conservative management of Norway pine. : Approxima- $15 capita tion of final Length Final vi - , 2 ieee al yield | at4 percent | yield per Hees Yield from thinnings. per acre. | compound | cent on orig- (years). interest. inal invest- ment. 60 $204. 00 $157.79 4 80 ||Estimated thinnings will pay cost of taxes and fire | 372. 00 345. 74 44 100 protections. 2. 2-5-0 = Syaerapdiatnteiele oo Sicjave sjeseisysteintess ans | 548. 00 757. 57 33+ 120 | 734. 00 1,659. 94 3t Any forecast of future returns necessarily involves some elements of uncertainty. What will be the taxes, fire loss, or unforeseen injuries? Will natural reproduction be wholly or partially success- ful, or a total failure? What will be the stumpage price? At what figure should the land and timber be capitalized? It is certain that in 1950 Norway pine in the United States will bring at least as high a stumpage price as good Scotch pine in France and Germany brings now—from $12 to $24 per thousand board feet—probably 30 to 100 per cent more, since it now nets from $10 to $12 on the stump. But even with such an increase, the returns from forest investments ex-_ tending over long periods of time are certain to be small as com- pared with returns from short-term investments. 1 Allcalculations are based on Norway pine growing on sandy soil, because this is the soil to which the tree is naturally adapted. NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 271 CLEANING OR WEEDING. To produce timber of high quality it is essential in most cases to tend the stand practically from the start. One of the main cultural operations is to clean or weed the young stand of undesirable trees. While such an operation may be permissible from a financial standpoint in a mixed hardwood forest, it would scarcely be justified in the case of Norway pine. To clean or weed the young Norway pine stands will entail an expense of from $2 to $4 per acre. Two dollars at 5 per cent compound interest amounts to $697.82 for a rotation of 120 years, and few operators could afford this expenditure. Where the owner maintains a protective force the rangers may make systematic weedings. For example, if jack pine is temporarily suppressing the Norway pine, the ranger can top the jack pine and lessen the strug- gle for light. Norway pine seedlings under aspen or underbrush can be liberated. If this weeding can be done in connection with other duties, even at a small additional expense, it is certainly worth while. In Minnesota, for example, there are thousands of acres of natural forests of Norway pine, from 10 to 30 years old, which deserve attention from the owners, and which it would be profitable to hold in view of the increasing demand for small mine timbers. THINNINGS. The removal of undesirable or competing trees from a stand is called thinning. This reduces the loss which ordinarily takes place in the struggle for light. The silvicultural value of thinnings in Norway pine can not be questioned, although they are not of the same vital importance as in a mixed forest. In a widely spaced plantation thinnings would probably not be needed before the twentieth or thirtieth year, but will be necessary after that. Timely thinnings are important in securing natural reproduction, since they result in a final stand of trees with well-developed crowns, thus insuring abundant production of seed. Moreover, every lumberman would prefer to cut 88 20-inch boles, rather than 338 13-inch,! because wide lumber brings better prices than narrow boards. Under present conditions thinnings on a large scale are justified only when the sale of the products at least pays the cost. The owner of a small area of timber can improve his stand without expense by selecting the small poles needed for farm construction from dense groups of Norway pine, instead of adopting the possibly more convenient pro- cedure of cutting a portion of his woodlot clear. Thinnings in pine stands should begin early, and be made lightly and often. In a dense Norway pine stand the first thinning should be made when the trees are from 20 to 30 years old, removing from 10 to 15 per cent of 1 See Table 11 for yield data on unthinned stands on Quality IT soil. 28 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the stand. After that, they should be repeated every 7 or 10 years. In practice, however, this can rarely be carried out, because of the present lack of market for small saplings and the prohibitive cost of logging scattered trees. Thinnings in young pine stands should not be heavy or the height growth will be impaired. The trees will not prune so well, and the soil will not be sufficiently shaded toward the end of the rotation to prevent weeds from getting a foothold and endangering reproduction. Heavy thinnings, moreover, are likely to result in windfall, as was well illustrated in the case of the thinned stand of Norway and white pine on the Grand Marais Lighthouse Reservation a few years ago. The winds off Lake Superior are very heavy at times. Many of the trees left standing on the lighthouse reservation lean badly and appear to have their roots loosened. In this case the thinning was probably deferred too long and then made too heavy. IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS. In mature and overmature stands where, as in the case of parks, the aim is not so much to secure young growth as to maintain the present stand, loss would be avoided if systematic improvement cuttings are made at intervals of from 15 to 25 years. The Norway pine trees removed should be those with straggling and light-green foliage, stag-headed, or clearly so overmature that they will not survive until the next cutting. It would be better even to cut a few healthy trees in clumps, in order to increase the amount to be logged per acre, than not to cut at all. When an overmature forest is cut systematically, it is possible to clear up the occasional wind- falls, which are bound to occur in old age. MANNER OF CUTTING. In any partial cut of the stand the trees to be removed should be marked beforehand, in order to insure that the thinning will be carried out as planned. The method usually followed is to blaze or stamp the roots and bole of the trees to be cut. Close utilization of the material marked is even more important. The owner should see to it that stumps are cut low (from 12 to 16 inches, depending on the size of the timber), the tops utilized to the full merchantable limit (in the Lake States usually 6 inches), and that logs partially defective are removed, even if they contain only from 20 to 25 per cent of merchantable material. It is, of course, necessary to use great care not to damage reproduction which is to form the second crop. Roads, skidding trails, skidways, and the cutting of seed trees should be designed with this in view. NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES, 29 NATURAL REPRODUCTION. The aim should always be to secure a second crop by natural seeding of the ground by the trees in the original stand. This can be insured in most cases by proper methods of cutting. Artificial - sowing or planting, because of the initial cost’ and because of low stumpage prices, should be resorted to only when natural repro- duction fails. Even after reasonably successful reproduction takes place there will be fail places or blanks. Where the stand is open and overmature, forestation may be the only certain means of secur- ing a new crop of Norway pine. Where sowing or planting is imprac- ticable, the forest soil of the Lake States will, if protected from fire, still restock naturally, though with some such species as aspen or birch. These, while not as valuable as Norway pine, bring—in Maine, for example—from $3 to $10 an acre. They also have the advantage of rapid growth and ease of reproduction. There are several methods of cutting Norway pine to secure natural reproduction, although no one has been tried out long enough to establish it as superior to any other. These methods are (1) shelterwood system, (2) group selection system, (3) clear cutting and (4) leaving seed trees. No matter which of these systems is followed, it must, in virgin stands, assume the character of a heavy improvement cutting. Shelterwood system.—The shelterwood system of cutting—i. e., the removal of the stand in two successive cuttings—has been suggested as the ideal method of securing reproduction of Norway pine.” This system, however, would probably be better adapted to white pine than to Norway, because the former reproduces better under a par- tial shade. If applied to Norway pine, the parent stand should be removed before the seedlings suffer from suppression. If reproduc- tion came in within a year after the first cutting, the parent stand could safely be removed from 4 to 7 years later. Until fire protec- tion is more certain it would, perhaps, be better to leave scattered seed trees even after the second or final cutting, until the new crop reaches the sapling or pole stage. This would have its disadvan- tages, of course, on account of the additional cost of logging and the unavoidable damage to the young growth in cutting. Another alternative would be not to cut these ‘‘safety seed trees,’’ but to leave them for increased growth during the entire rotation. With the shelterwood system it is important to keep close check on the progress of reproduction after the first cutting. The owner should not only guard against the suppression of the seedlings, but he should also prevent the soil from becoming so covered with brush and weeds 1 Mr. William T. Cox, State forester of Minnesota, states that planting has been carried on successfully in parts of Minnesota for from $3.50 to $6 per acre. 2“Results of cuttings on the Minnesota National Forest under the Morris Act of 1902,’’ Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, p. 104, Raphael Zon. 30 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that even forestation is made impossible through the prohibitive expense of clearing the soil. It is often practicable to assist repro- duction by partial sowing or planting within a few years after cut- ting, before the soil becomes choked with weeds. Group selection system.—Cutting Norway pine in irregular selected croups of from 2 to 10 trees may be advisable: (1) Where for esthetic or protective purposes a mature stand must be maintained; or @) where the fire danger is very acute and continuous areas of even-aged stands, such as would result from the shelter-wood system, must be avoided. The selection method of cutting is always more costly for the lumberman, and invariably results in considerable damage to the young growth. Theoretically not more than one-fourth to one-third of the stand should be cut at any one time, but in practice the lumber- man, may be compelled to take out one-half or more and wait a longer time between cuttings. There will always be danger of weeds unless the cutting can be made closely to coincide with good seed years, followed by favorable climatic conditions to insure immediate seeding. In a large operation, where cutting must be done every year, this would obviously be impracticable. Clear cutting.—Clear cutting in strips or blocks would reduce the cost of logging, but it has the danger of opening the soil to weeds, and hence should be tried only if it can be done during or immedi- ately following a good seed year; otherwise, planting may be neces- sary. The portion of the stand uncut should be north or west, as well as to the windward of the area to be restocked, in order that the ground may be kept as moist as possible. If there is not successful restocking within a few years, planting should be resorted to, where it can, be done at a reasonable expense, before the ground has a chance to become choked with weeds and brush. Seed irees—The plan, of leaving scattered seed trees has on the whole proved unsatisfactory. This system is really a compromise; it is neither clear cutting nor partial cutting, for a few seed trees per acre are insufficient fully to seed up the ground. As generally prac- ticed, from 3 to 10 seed trees are left per acre, the more the better so far as the future reproduction 1s concerned. If logging can always be done at the time of a good seed crop satisfactory results may be obtained, since the soil after being stirred up by hauling and skidding offers a good germinating bed. With a mature stand windfall and sun, scald are likely. About one-fourth of the seed trees on the Minne- sota Forest have blown down. Yet owners may prefer to secure a very partial crop of the original species by this method on account of the small amount of merchantable timber which has to be left. The seed trees could be held over a rotation te yield lumber of large sIZ@ as a provision, against loss of the second growth by fire, or cut when no longer needed for purposes of seeding. NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 3] ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION. Where natural reproduction fails, or where the land has been denuded, sowing and planting is the only way to secure a new timber crop. The greatest drawback to the use of Norway pine for artificial] reforestation, is the scarcity and high cost of the seed and the slightly lower stumpage price as compared with white pine. Norway pine, however, has advantages which white pine does not possess. It wil grow better on sandy soil; it is hardier and less subject to natural injuries; it prunes itself earlier, and on poor soils produces more. wood. Scotch pine is often recommended in preference to Norway, because the seed is cheaper and the plants are fully as hardy. Opinion among foresters concerning the relative merits of Scotch and Norway pine for planting in the Lake States is somewhat divided. Up to the present the consensus of opinion has usually been in favor of Scotch pine, especially in, southern Minnesota, on account of its alleged greater hardiness. If planted on a large scale for forest pur- poses, however, Norway pine has given good results. The fact that it is a native species gives a greater assurance of safety than would the planting of Scotch pine, of which there are as yet no mature for- ests in, this country. Sowing of Norway pine on, the whole has not been, successful in the past, and planting has been found the better method. Measurements of Norway pine in New England show the average growth to be greater than that of white pine. On sand, containing varying pro- portions of loam, 40,758 white pine, 30 years old, averaged 26.6 feet in, height and 3.7 inches in, diameter, while 40,538 Norway pine of the same age averaged 35.4 feet in height and 5.9 inches in diameter, On richer soil, 1,758 white pine, 27 years old, averaged 43.5 feet in height and 5.18 inches in diameter, while 19 Norway pine were on the average 48 feet high and 6.6 inches in diameter. Although the seed usually begins to fall after the first week in October, it should be collected in late August, September, or early October. The date when it matures varies, of course, with the weather conditions from year to year. The cost of collecting it hag been, from $2 to $3.06 a pound and higher. Regular seed dealers ask from $4 to $12 a pound for small lots. According to the Forest Service, a bushel of cones will average 1 pound of seed. A pound con- tains from 55,000 to 70,000 individual seeds, with an average germina- tion per cent of 89. In the Georgian Bay region, forty-fifth paraliel of latitude, Norway pine seed was found by Zavitz to average only 0.26 of a pound to the bushel and 52,000 seed to the pound. After cleaning, germination tests in the greenhouse gave 94 per cent. A great deal of original work has been done in the collection and extraction of Norway pine seed by Kennety at the Cloquet Experi- 1 Measurements made by H. B. Kempton. BY BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ment Station, in Minnesota. Two methods of seed collecting have been tried out at the experiment station. One was to follow the logging crew and gather the cones as the trees were felled. The other was to collect the cones from squirrel hordes. The latter method was found to be by far the best. Thus, when collecting the cones from felled trees from 1 to 2 bushels was the average per man per day; from 1 to 4 bushels was the average collected from squirrel hordes. The largest caches of Norway pine found contained 1 bushel, while caches consisting of jack pine and Norway pine cones citen held 2 bushels. The average number of seed from cones was found to be 37, of which 23 were good and 14 bad. Tn general it was found that temperatures from 130° to 140° were the ones at which the seed could be extracted easiest with the highest percentage of germination. While for all temperatures used in the test the mean per cent of germination was 70.8, for 130° to 140° the per cent was 78.5. The lower germination per cent for tempera- tures of less than 130° is accounted for by the fact that at that temperature only the smaller and less fertile seed are released. In Table 17 is given the length of time necessary for Norway pine to crack and open at different temperatures. TaBLe 17.—Length of time necessary for Norway pine cones to crack and open at different temperatures. Tempera- . teneral re tik Cracking. von Not open. | ° HT, m Teh Sipe Per ceni. 125 1 20 4 35 12 130 1 15 4 15 14 135 1 30 4 0 14 140 45 3 45 8 145 40 2 30 8 150 40 2 22 4 155 50 2 25 6 160 45 2 30 2 165 40 Pe WUE Wen eosencere 170 35 2 20 2 175 15 2 Olav aeacoers sja;5 200 15 Ui 30) oP iSie.< astatels cfeje,< SOWING. Sowing is best done when the ground is free from weeds after log- ging. If the seed averages 55,000 to the pound, with a germinating ner cent of 90, broadcasting would require about 5 pounds per acre. With the seed costing $4.50 a pound, sowing broadcast under these circumstances would be absolutely prohibitive. In any event, broad- casting will rarely be successful uniess the soil is harrowed and raked clear of weeds, though this would not be necessary on soil cleared by fire directly after logging. It may often be practicable to sup- plement natural regeneration by broadcasting on a soil bared by logging when there is no seed crop. NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 338 Sowing in seed spots is cheaper. With spots 2 feet square and 8 feet apart and with 40 seed to the spot a little over a pound per acre would be sufficient. If the seed spots were spaced 6 by 6 feet, the total number of seed needed per.acre would be 48,400, a little less than a pound. Seed-spot sowing should not be attempted with- out proper preparation of the ground, and often some kind of a brush cover will be necessary to prevent the seedlings from being dried out after germination. Mr. J. F. Kendrick, of South Orleans, Mass., secured excellent results on a pure sand by the following method: The owner at one time attempted to farm this soil, and the year previous to starting the plantation rye was sown on the area, while during the year preceding that a crop of corn was produced. The plantation was started simply by dropping seed in the corn hills after making a small hole with a dibble. The spacing was about 4 by 4 feet. After 35 years the dominant trees were 7-8 inches diameter breast-high and 38-40 feet tall, in excellent condition, were clearing themselves well, and apparently growing vigorously. PLANTING. Norway pine should be planted pure or with some more tolerant species of slower growth. Planting in the early spring is preferable to that in the summer or fall. Transplants are better than seedlings, but on good soil the latter should succeed. Ordinarily it will be necessary to raise stock in the nursery, preferably near the plant- ing site, if the planting is on a large scale. Occasionally it may be possible to transplant seedlings growing in the forest, but these give less certain results than nursery grown stock, although success with wild stock at very low cost has been reported from the Minnesota National Forest. BRUSH DISPOSAL. Protection of stands from fire is obviously the first step in forest management. In 1911 the loss from forest fires in the Lake States totaled $3,368,000, most of it in the pineries. As a fire-protection measure the disposal of slash‘ is of great importance. Most of the great fires in the Lake States assumed the character of conflagrations by being able to feed upon the débris left after logging. In Norway pine stands, piling and burning the brush is a prudent and essential insurance against fire. The brush is piled and burned in winter ag the cutting proceeds. The cost varies from 10 to 35 cents per thou- sand board feet logged. On the Minnesota National Forest the aver- age cost has been about 16 or 19 cents. Where the timber is scatter- ing, and the fire risk proportionately small, it is usually sufficient to clear and burn fire lines intersecting and around the cut-over areas. These lines should rarely be less than 150 feet in width. 1 Under the Minnesota forest law the State forester is given authority to enforce the proper disposal of débris after logging. 34 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. APPENDIX. VOLUME TABLES. The tables which follow are based on volume analyses taken in Minnesota and Wisconsin, chiefly under the supervision of E. 8. Bruce, expert lumberman. The board-foot volumes were calculated by the Seribner Rule, decimal C. In these tables no allowance has been made for defect, which must be estimated in the forest. The top cutting limit used was 6 inches inside bark. Table 18 gives the volume in board feet for trees of all diameters, and for 16-foot logs and half lengths or 8 foot differences in merchant- able height. The extremely large number of trees upon which the table is based (4,282 trees) makes its contents very reliable. The average stump height of the trees analyzed was 2 feet; the top diam- eter inside bark 6 inches. Usually 0.3 of a foot was allowed for trimming. TaBie 18.— Volume of red vine in board feet on basis of diameter, merchantable length in 16-foot logs. Number of 16-foot logs. Diameter _ breast- 1 9 O41 1 42 1 A ak high 1 | 14 2 | 24 | 31 3h 4 43, | is | 54 6 63 7 (inches). Volume (board feet). 8 20 30 40 D8; |ehcs on dbaccccra| ae camoclen tcc ec lose SecLe onc seasons Sees eee 9 20 34 48 63 Cid | See tep ore ee ee ae arava terete | eve ee ail eee each | eee | eee | eee 10 20 4] Sy 73 89 LOO) ees 2 ccllertect ts sce lene Sue OAs aer eee Sees li 20 42 62 83 100 120 W40r ese eee Se coad sb Soe see Sees | eee | ee 12 20 52 74 96 120 140 160 TOO". <2 ccre.c | oearoeie all cee | ree sera eateries 13 20) 56 83 110 130 160 180 210 240 | sks ccrellcodiesine ee aon | eae 14 20 63 96 120 150 180 210 240 270) \\sacicrere lhe cite es | eters | eee ia ee 71 110 140 170 200 230 270 300 8408 cot eee cle eee eae ils} hee 78 120 250) 190 230 260 300 340 BBO) [aw cewac|eaeee oe eee cE fo pss ee fe 130 170 210 250 300 340 390 430 ARO A ey Secrets Settee eae 140 190 230 280 330 380 440 490 DOOM ise ese eee TOR ers 2 Sa ae aes 200 260 320 380 430 490 550 620 (c}e\0)9] ee QUE: so 2 | cece | seers 220 290 350 420 490 550 620 680 750 820 3 Weta ae had Papen ees ep ee a 310 390 470 540 610 680 750 820 880 DOM lEsiye aal| a eeicreml| eee dll Seer fare 340 430 520 600 680 750 820 890 950 De eee sacl eee eee oe | eee 380 480 570 660 740 820 890 960 | 1,030 YG re Op ema [es eee Seer rons 420 530 630 730 820 900 970 | 1,040 | 1,110 PSY) Eee SESE Wiese | Papas tes | Re aR 600 700 790 890 980 | 1,060 | 1,130 | 1,200 DG aaa | Pieveess 3 [Merete | eae cteed| emcees 660 760 860 960 | 1,060 | 1,140 | 1,230 | 1,310 DATha We eyed | ee cast) Wieeyel meet Meeseogt cape | Wane ea te 720 830 940 | 1,040 | 1,140 | 1,240 | 1,330 | 1,430 Dit ecemese | yore eeu cts Sane llctee ter | eee acd 790 900 | 1,010 | 1,120 | 1,230 | 1,350 | 1,450 |} 1,560 40 Vi Ian ee (S| |e a ea age ers at [ee Ree Rarer 960 | 1,080 | 1,200 | 1,330 | 1,450 | 1,580 | 1,700 OU Weyer bases | Vepere, te || ere enemy all terre meee at 1,030 | 1,160 | 1,300 | 1,430 | 1,570 | 1,710 | 1,850 Bot Ea eseed [ear Ree (ened ete elev] eae Fas ae were 1,100 | 1,240 | 1,390 | 1,530 | 1,690 | 1,840 | 2,000 B27 Beiter a ee cette Na cero | Sree ars | eee ses em Soe 1,330 | 1,490 | 1,650 | 1,820 | 1,980 | 2,140 a Specie | yet | eee eee eel Merete psi | ena |e Spe oan | weenie oe 1,420 | 1,590 | 1,770 | 1,950 | 2,130 | 2,300 gee | eee ae erage eegre, coell eel ered etfs S| alee ae ae eas 1,520 | 1,710 | 1,900 | 2,090 | 2,280 | 2,480 The use of total heights instead of merchantable height is possible with a species as regular in form and as free from heavy top branches as is the Norway pine. Where this is done, the error arising from failure to employ the top diameters used in timber estimating, can not affect the results beyond the amount of the difference in the used volume or waste in the tops. Total height is a more accurate basis for estimating velumes than arbitrary merchantable heights NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 35 for all species which have a regular form and are utilized closely in Table 19 gives the volumes of Norway pine in board feet classified by 10-foot differences in height, based on the 4,282 trees measured for Table 18. the tops. TaBLE 19.—Volume of Norway pine, in board feet, on basis of diameter, total height in feet. Height of tree (feet). Average Diameter | for all peceombece |,» 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 30 | 90 | 100 | 110 | 120 (inches). 8 G5). iets hs tee 9 CAN semen arate Bier geo balls 10 TL 20) | eee SO Berane 11 DSO ea IIS ies ee 12 180 210} Pie aes 13 210 240 ee eae 14 250 280) eae ai eys 15 299 B20 REEL 16 330 360 399 17 370 410 440 18 420 460 500 19 489 520 560 20 540 590 630 21 610 670 710 22 690 750 800 23 760 830 890 24 850 920 990 25 940 | 1,020 1,090 26 1,030 1,120 1, 200 27 1,120 |} 1,220 1,310 28 1,220] 1,330 1, 430 29 1,320 1,440 1,560 30 1,420] 1,560] 1,700 ol 1, 530 1,690 1,850 32 1,640 | 1,820 2,000 33 ¢ 1.750 | 1,960 2,160 34 PAOLO) Mees Rue ND a Ona on: 3" |2+ COR APA INS ais 1,650 | 1,870| 2,100] 2,320 The cubic volume,. without bark, for trees up to 20 inches in diameter, is given in Table 20, which is based on 303 trees. 21 is the same except that the bark has been included. Table TABLE 20.— Volume of peeled Norway pine, in cubic feet, on basis of diameter, total height in feet. Diameter Height of tree (feet). (inches). 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Peeled volume (cubic feet). 5 2.7 3.3 AEN Dh Sg ss ACO | Sone Ses a dN La CNEL (el Sao ME 6 3.8 4.8 df Sg es Uy aly ea Sy ec 7 5.0 6.3 7.8 QAO eee I EAST ISH GGG | Rea a Reet gaplt = 8 6.5 8.2 10.1 11.9 LOKOM |S else ances eam tease ee 9 8.1 10. 2 12.6 15.0 17,5 ORS | RAS eee tae 10 9.9 12.6 15.3 18. 2 21.0 24.0 27.0 TOU eee eae ese 15.2 18.3 21.0 25.0 29. 0 32.0 TODS Sea oe ee se 18.2 21.0 25.0 29.0 34.0 38.0 UG Pl es SR eee 21.0 25.0 29.0 34.0 39. 0 45.0 Tee ee ROO BE al ne Be eS ees 29.0 33.0 39.0 46.0 52.0 TE Repeerte ceis oic kg yeh oy Se Oe WN Ie eta ae 37.0 44.0 52.0 60.0 TGCS SRR SE See sh RNC UR EE UU GBS ee Fes US nay LNA EN 51.0 60.0 68. 0 TANS eisve BLN Marcie Sei SR oe TE OU CNN 57.0 7.0 77.0 S37 eee ear coche | Se erciey eC ae ea | ENaNe TRI Hin Ee e 64.0 75. 0 86. 0 BUN gst Sahat 00 a Saga aoe sek 268, Re HE 2 [hes he Papert eno PSE a oi 71.0 83.0 | 94.0 PAO) A SU ae ie es a OU aR EP Reset oS areal | DVS ROSE H 79. 0 91.0 103.0 36 BULLETIN 139, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 21.— Volume of Norway pine with bark, in cubic feet, on basis of diameter, total height in feet. {Calculated from form factors of 306 Trees.] Height (feet). Diameter | l ere breast- x | > | C | | 4 orm ha 40 | 50 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 110 ractors (inches). : : Volume (cubic feet) | | 5 | 3.0 an Ai Ae oes | See see 2 0.542 6 4.2 5.3 6.4 | ssl So tnassee laste cenescs . 540 7 5.8 2 8.6 10.1 ila IAs Ss) |ateeehe ee .538 8 165) 9.4 T1i2 13a 15.0 16.8 | . 536 9 9.4 11.8 14027] 16.5 18.9 21.0 . 534 10 1A 14.5 17.4 | 20.0 23.0 26.0 | - 533 il 14.0 17.5 21.0 Dae) 28.0 32.0 20oL 12 16.7 21.0 25.0 29.0 3.0 37.0 | - 530 13 19.5 24.0 29.0 34.0 39.0 | 44.0 . 529 14 23.0 28. 0 34.0 40.0 45.0 | 51.0 -528 15 26.0 32.0 39.0 | 45.0 52.0 | 58.0 SOLU LGN eee 37.0 44.0 51.0 59. 0 | 66. 0 526 N/a eee eee 41.0 50.0 58.0 66.0 | 74.0 525 of oy eee eee eee 46.0 56.0 65.0 74.0 83.0 524 ih) ree eee oe eee 62.0 7230 §2.0 3.0 523 DO ated Se |e eee oe 68. 0 80.0 91.0 102.0 522 py ere eee [eee Nea k 75.0 88.0 100.0 113.0 -522 DAA te Pees | Sent Ot as eed 96. 0 110.0 124.0 SGyAl Dy Be eee |e ene a) Beene ae 105.0 120.0 135.0 520 21 (eset oes Aa | Rare [32 oaiesienss 114.0 130.0 147.0 -519 | By a comparison of Table 20 and Tabie 22 which follows, and by referring to the study of specific gravity, page 8, it is possible to determine approximately what sizes of trees can be driven without danger of expensive loss through sinkers. TaBLE 22.—Volume of Norway pine sapwood, in cubic feet, on basis of diameter, total height in jeet. | Total height of tree (feet). | Diameter | | | | breast-high | 40 50 | 60 | 70 80 | 90 100 110 (inches). | | | | Volume of sapwood (cubic feet). om 2.3 2.6 | 8.0 nude eetewtl sees cey oot coe 6 | one 3.9 QD osc aerate aesle Seesice sos ee aeesn ences) Seeeeeeeee ae 7 | 4,2 5.3 6.1 G25: |osiscn ce etetelocesecsncs|-teee tees ae 8 5.2 6.8 8.0 8.6 | 8285 |. vecse dl eee eee | See 9 6.4 820 10.2 i LUG scenes ee eee eee |e eee eee 10 7.8 10. 4 12,4 13.7 | 14.5 15.4 1653") sooeeeeee 11 9.3 12.3 14.7 16.4 17.6 12.5 19.60) so cose eee 12 10.8 14.2 16.9 19.0 21, 0 22.0 23.0 4 15S) Pearse! eee Seems 19, 2 2120 23.0 25.0 26. 0 27 LG ee eee See eee eee | 21.0 24.0 26. 0 28. 0 29. 0 31 lea Meee ee eel eel el (me eee as 26.0 28. 0 30. 0 32.0 34 BG ree sete eeiccal| Meee oats | cence meee eae 28.0 31.0 33. 0 35. 0 38 AIM x ceieic esses Wace coe ene ees merce [ee wee aeeeeea 33. 0 35. 0 38. 0 40 STS Sr 2 severed 2 air eee eee 1 aya er cer ene ears gre | 34.0 37.0 40.0 43 19 c() tae seed tee ee aa ete ae eel eee oe 36. 0 39. 0 42.0 44 20 | ime nreen Seen eee | Sere rae | (eae 37.0 40.0 43.0 46 Table 22 was computed from the form factors for Norway pine. The form factor is the ratio between the volume of the tree and that of a cylinder with the same total height and diameter at 44 feet from NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. 37 the ground. Trees of the same diameter and height. may vary in form and volume considerably. Those trees which most closely ap- proach cylindrical form contain the greatest volume and have the largest form factors. Old trees, with short crowns and long clear boles, which have grown in dense stands, have the fullest form, while young, rapidly growing, open-grown trees with short boles and long crowns will have the least volume for their diameter and height. Yet saplings grown in crowded stands may have a very high form factor, as may be seen in Table 23, which gives the factors for Norway pine of different heights and diameters and an average form factor for all heights on the basis of diameter; 306 trees were measured for this table. Tasie 23.—form factors of Norway pine, on basis of volume in cubic feet, based on diameter and total height in feet. Total height of tree (feet). Disusier | | | a reast- ae | high 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 80 90 100 | heights. (inches). Form factor 5 0. 567 0. 576 SEBS i See Se es ee erence ea aa uaa 0. 542 6 553 562 569 OL 5764 Petereem arate eae 1 ee sehen .540 7 541 549 556 SOG ice ccs sie sae Same BESASaRHeH .538 8 529 538 544 - 549 O55 Tal eee sa cere .536 9 519 527 534 . 539 547 O35550 Rees . 534 10 510 519 527 a582 . 540 548 0. 553 HO3o) 11 502 511 520 .526 . 534 542 549 . O31 12 495 505 514 .521 . 530 538 546 . 530 13 489 499 509 517 . 526 535 543 -529 Teh eae 495 505 513 523 532 540 .528 plone tation 491 502 510 521 529 537 527 Ge | Peer Ne eset eee ees 499 507 Ry ly 526 534 526 117631 Saaeeaeeecerans Ieee eeesiss Das aa rsa eae 505 .514 523 531 525 1313 ay eae ae ee cease ae | Pe et ak 503 512 520 529 .524 LOT ey enrol [eek eee coi aatee | ayeaipee Wee opi) 501 509 .518 527 .523 DOE eee jhapaieseeaa cpio | Weegee a| ites Se Ne 507 515 524 522 PAE See aeEe ee Diss sree ot eestor | eee Se LYS ce cp A 504 .513 522 BEY DD eee Raye ieie iets | RUE ee earl iso ereletoaleia| oizinizicisisoiatetets 502 oll 520 soul | Converting factors by which cubic volumes may be expressed in equivalent board-feet contents, are shown in Table 24 for trees from 8 to 20 inches and 80 feet high. This was obtained by dividing the values in Table 21. TaBLe 24.—Board feet—cubic-foot converting factors for Norway pine trees 80 feet in height on basis of diameter. | Diameter Diameter | | breast- Convert- breast- | Convert- | high ing factor. high | ing factor. (inches). | (inches). | 8 BES 15 5.0 9 BH it 16 5.0 10 4.1 17 5.1 11 4.4 18 5.2 12 4.5 19 5.3 13 4.7 20 Vai 54 14 4.9 | 38 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Column 2 shows that for a tree 10 inches in diameter, breast-high, every cubic foot of volume in the tree is equal to 4.1 board feet, as determined by the Scribner rule, decimal C. This table emphasizes the progressive increase in proportional board- foot contents of Norway pine, with increasing size, and the impossi- bility of converting cubic contents into board feet by a single multiple or ratio; these ratios apply only to the contents expressed by the Scribner rule. The volume table is made by totaling for each tree the contents of logs of different diameters. No two log rules give the same con- tents in board feet for the same sized log, nor do they maintain the same proportional difference for logs of different sizes. Only by knowing the actual diameters of the logs in each tree can its volume by a new log rule be ascertained. Standard measurements of trees should for this reason be taken at definite intervals on every tree and averaged for trees of the same diameter and height. ae) NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE STATES. basis of diameter, classed by trees of different heights—Continued. TaBLe 25.—Diameter inside bark of Norway pine logs at intervals of 8.15 feet, on the Merchantable length (feet) including stump height. Ve} 2 ES So i ee for) a 10 < cal for} re) iar) i>.6) 1D GE Xe) OY ~ oO ve} = for) Ya} A i=) wo Ye} ~ a tH SS x lon) 1D Sf Ne) N Ge eo ot ay 1D fol S a by . Bab oe Ce2dadae ges Orso Skog Os Q WY Diameter inside bark (inches). 50-foot trees. O2Sth 20) Se Deine 2 atts Che a nO Seth a0 02 fe OSOe Hie Oe is Weeks On 0 S080 Cth 20 lathe Ost Os DS DY ee 0 DOD Oe Qe uke Ue OO 0 0 0an0 Pay a dS SSO ke 0 Shs eee then etl. eh hes Urartu Ot Peel Oy One Oe nat SO eae ZO ent Seth Ge Une De se On OO EOuee D Cow aL wn Og BTW mS a A OE RA RECO ERT Cet ls LImaCh aly chem bese hat orate Patera Se wae Cha Chest) oles ies Os ts aU Canon SOsctyses0 Da sl Ye ieee sack Oi De ot lari*00 steer 00 OR 00) 20 = Sth OO seen ates) alleeCeerthoel Uo -Onaitien Ore One DLO be We One OO UG aten a0 Dee oh Na ADO! OP SiO Oi ee Ge sce OF OSE OS re 0 ree ee 0 ee OO CO Ce Oe Oe sre, “Oh GeO “Oh 0 OO On 0 OSU Dan-O 0? Ore Lae Os) Omid 0-09 0 OE 0 00 oe or Oe GOs 0h fh Oe eb Ds ete A hen 00 Os Or faite: Or alee that steb0ce 0.0 Oe fr 0 sedate ) Os t0e"G fis Omit Ora Dr cUeeDye ir tine (hy to ti Oe Na Oech ody De 2D en} 0s 00 e =D DSA Or 0! 0 0 0k Ot 0 oye Teint GOO. 0 200s os USO} Ott Moo sO UO tet 6. 0220: Diitie sli = De Des eh = =O, Oma Daal OO EA Dea Oe fhe YO fe 02 Oe O10 gD teat On) ALOR Oe aR Sa SUS ti OL SO us) Ol eo GQ eo eth kD oth Dee ete thadh “Ur onyionl SS WTR fe aad 1 SNe UC ra ee ag av encore OME REA AVE ol De ates Oni0S D0ser eet ket oe Une hen 0 ea) ie eLisalbes Coe ic OECD 00 OSS et = OO = Da Ose 0D 6a Sa a0 Rea NS Cr UR OL CE LW CYS SORT CSR Ost ir PaO UD, aD Owe the COs Darltke Of a0 heer, COD eee CP nist Ue a ead Sea tal beset one) eal) ered ueertW ees @/fop8)) Rl ema een vac avin el ur alee lar e)e tel te Donte re Os Leo at=4 One Der, Ore 2Ov Dei Desa 02210) Cesta DO atest (00 ma Un eistisaCayetet G (eS sU mes, AEs ciUn Tau eet OO 80 abe) aU aot) tO all Cera kOe tes 10 OSD o he Os eate =O) 20s SPO: hoe Oat 30 (ee Se Oe) sul Ne e(t etree Qt. nee at (het O SCinate aCisn.cpOetOam One DsQs )0aaUe 20 Que Oe Die Lica eo rot Ores: 20s Os e0S=00—0 AP O20. is Stet Oe Oe 0 0 OG (Paha ae OP UO 0 i Oma 0 Ces a (he. tynethe Os: Oj Geers Ue, sean eathOe v0 Ova 20" 20b 11 lee Ce Ue cet Oenal OS Ue Ay wUe Un U2 Ths 0-0 Oe itk Oia (=n (> cm aan yret ys leas Ones Ure ep 210s Ort brest (SOS 0) 20 Dre 0 Oe Oe ot 0S San (oa at nO aD aE aD ALO att heso O=i0 st) Doe 0 0 ao = De De ae 0) athe 0 Db Oe r0r 0 Oesteen O00: -O- Usst) 0s 02 E 2 S020 Oeyivn O05 020) Ol208502 20) 20a Sp iOS 080-0 DesOearCio tC 10° =Croe0h Lien Oy pei eet (Say t Oy (0-0 OR 10. Ss eS 0 OOM ee aUsse Oy uss str as oa sgn Ue a Oo Xt elOseih i080! 2g) Cees Oe apnea OAc 10: S06 02502 00 IO ds re tesg0 (620 30. UO! OSG ear an) 0- ae ath a Osi sith, 20eS0ee Oe Det O2-Usa0h Ost Orson 020-50 S080 sO 0 soe eee MASS Uk eS EO pS aT On adore ate OF sty GestesU ata a0 0 De OOS 0S 08 0 a) he eee tee Cea0! 20260520 Gi. St Deed <0 0s acess “Oe Dent OL=O ALN 09 09 SH Hd 19 CO CO P= FO HAR HOOMANHOTAE Agswiwtiscoorrddcacid are BOnNHNOnRHHOOMHON GATS SSK ASASASHA AGS bon Be Been Be On HOD SO OD 0 O19 HOD AN rH COR OD SAD 19 CO I$ ODOMAN OD TIO Bn coe OR oe Oe | 60-foot trees. Tos we eset Toul OP nO v Dey cael e SS ee | eS vies ufoce my pm | Dest LiseO iene Laan Oem Uy aires Ue Ohana G OP DES Oe SOROS honk Us Chet? OCS is ONO cOmaOeeD Oe lia OS O10 ae ide 0 0 0m Ne 0 Ch.D o Oe ate te et eye POM eee tent nae then Us aU etre. Une nea =O Pa aU ea ea eae) Sed eos Sd OS D=. Dis Ue tl = "Ds -0> OSU 0) 08 0*-Obete el ales the Os time) tO) O= Wectl 0a 0 0 te th afta SOc CaSO 0s. ecb (Le srurs0> Osten ==(6> Clute Use OO eo OS DicaO pares OSDir: TPO Se eA FO Ole OTe Geis Dis Ose 2M Ons Te OO fic Ue thet: Ue Deeb SOsS0 a HSA OO TOMET ATSRSE NEETU ORO NRA VLE Tec 0 SENN Wn Aa OETA 62.05) Deals Oath iea0e Om sD Odie DEs Osh Ota ty 8 Peele ate li Om. Deore ues inet en erat) eh th a. 2a) O02 0 02 0n 00S OLeO =U: ty 2a 0280: O00 Oo Dar0So0.e Ueeacouetrsttete=t go oe tee02 80-0. -Ossteenee (YothcUe iret thet) Use iia ees i -aDealhe Oo te Osx Jaana Dt Oes Al, Ue Oina> tn On Us Gael atianOn Keniactnatl Vinten Dat t hee (he Litre Tes Ua sDie0s rete SOncster Ch Gee. DO e0eO 20. A sUsate Ws Cr ae Os pe thou tls © ih au=20 Ot tnOe GOs) Det Os fliers Oss th? O° Nn O20) te abe Pontes Wea 0 T= OO ath Oe Ce Oat ey eee. eMC At eles tres eat orl 08s O pul sO Deir Oem OeGNy SteMice De Ove tears 2 es theless te Ue eaten Aen oth tiene ten. wtenn DO Dnt Of Ue On, em Se Se Ce aey it) pees pres =u mete) othe heals reece real uakl oes hecn nay Opel am er ane 00. SO 0 2020 Sess OF (a 10! D0 et GOON rn Ox fh Do OS atin Oe Ue 0-002) OS Te Lees Samo catn ce Wine (200.00 ihe O2c0s De 00s 0-20 0a Oden 0-0 Stet) NOt th ee et U Oe Da is Dn eeu ee OU a SU timate ROM mead Os t<0? 08) De-Cateste (es0a we -y Ureteet Ta) at (08s O02 Sth 0 oth Co ott Oe 0: xc 80 Ue ene G Dec Une hoary Ue sem Os |e = Qe tos ee ae Ub DO P06 Oad0y atl OPA ed CO Deep Shei. aDe 0. 80 Oe: Ue (Oost at 250 Sve 0 DIS OOO OO Velie 0s Oem kestends ate OD. a7 90) a0 ssuu 02 osok 0 Ono ae De 0 Oe Oe teeta! 9 Oe Oo Oe Destin De ties eth ONO i se 80 too js O ae Tees OF LOS UOL ORCAS tL een OFS Out Denti OPO) 0s Ui ees Ce ee Dy Kee i oat] MWODMOOAAIN DAH OMO DIO tt OV NN 09 09 00 SH Hh 19 19) 19190 OOO AMOwWAMAWIOIDOWOMWOCNMOMOD AN oot idis SSH Kr dda aSSH / ao NADOHONMOONDHHEMOMNNAO AGS is id Sr radasccsdinades re ed red ed ed ret ed SOM AHHANMONAAWDOMAN HHO BOTs SSM ADABSSHAAA GS siidis et et et a tid 70-foot trees. CaaS TEC 0s: Onn Ue te itn One Os Ane aan eet) De ac0y cee Di el SO Dy. OS tae (he 0. ke Data fod 0 Otay Ge ho eget Ol =O 0. co nen (acti Ceo sO Cea thts se One Ot Oto On sat ON SOs or Seth O20 > Oo PSTD A Otsu OmA0S Ue res en S0S)0- 205) OF et eS Ob eG Un O08 UD U0 aD 0. UO Ue atl De Ore te (a0 S a NOt Oe Am, Ai Ua Oe ties The De amen Ona atin QoO Death Dae Nts Oe te OSCh > Tim ace ie etlescds °U, © Ont Pee. Ue 20 eth ain 0 Os esate iit Teeatie <0 Ue O° to OS. Def Oe Cats oor eo. 0900. 0 oe tk tp De ds OG O00 OOO Oat aS ea oe 0 GOOG O20, 550 ee DSO Dail Os 0S ee S00 Ont. aO,nnU 0 CEC pont 0 UUs Dat tl wD Teothe Ue Se I en Be ee oe CWMIA~ MMIII M~ MM DOWAE OM OD OD10 Se OO oe Boe oe oe oe Ee | MOMmAMOM DAWN MAONDIOMRAONO See AAA OMAWDSOHHRONNOOHNMAREINAN PW SHSSKABSSHAGATGSSKRADS Se On Oe oe Oe oe Oe oe | SOFAS SKK ASSHAA GH ididocr Se DMAORMrOMMNMATHOMOM woo SHAMGSSSNASSHAAG AH SSKADS Se OB os oe eB ef AM IDAAAHMONOtAMNAOCArONMNASOHOO TiS SKAHDSSHAGHTISSKASSSH RAN RAHM NTNNN NAO OO191D HO AM OD OP C19 10 HOD 1 The stump height is 2 feet. 40 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 25.—Diameter inside bark of Norway pine logs at intervals of 8.15 fect, on the basis of diameter, classed by trees of different heights—Continued. Diameter breast- high (inches). Merchantable length (feet) including stump height. 10.151) 18.3 | 26.45 | 34.6 | 42.75 | 50.9 | 59.05 | (eVP- | beat |fets8it) | 91.65 | 99.8 |107.95 Diameter inside bark (inches). 80-foot trees. 5.3 5.0 4.9 4.7 4.5 4.2 BH DEG: crs cs| SR OLE Ses eee oe ee eee 6.2 5.9 5.6 bip bal 4.7 4.1 D9) irc sere eel cl] i 2 segs & Ue hale ee Wd 6.7 6.4 6.1 Dek 5.3 4.6 Bidula tee. os jae se | i toes serene eee 8.0 7688) tee 6.9 6.3 5.8 5.0 Bei esc ome a2 loots ees | sees are | eters sees 8.9 8.3 7.9 45 eal 6.5 55 AON ierctera a Beh] Eats Se lee eens | pecan 9.7 9.2 8.7 8.2 Tet 7.0 5.9 Ae No ccc Rl oh See eRe oe ol | ahaa |e aa 10.7 | 10.0 9.5 8.9 Sa8 (FAD 6.4 4263) JaAvn col cake. Sele aoe os eee Sea eee LES} SLOE9V e053: 9.7 8.9 8.1 Gat Be Qi fen Fo sons See [Lote Satan e |e chee | Reyna 1254s sia) ae One OnS 9.6 8.7 Tee Deen |e aterkia| Stee ce eee oe Sees eee T3i32) 12257] 1P9-) dae - 1053 9.3 desl Bs Gace ong csccel e ontee cl eeere | ene | eee 1452") 13.4) 1226 | 11.87) 10/9 9.9 8.1 5.9 WSS 1425 Bd LG a alee LOPA 8.6 6.2 16HOU Loge | W421 se8 2S bs) Ot. 6.5 16.9 | 15.97) 15.1 | 14.1} -13.0) 11.6 9.5 6.7 V8) J6i7 | 15:9)" 14390 W357 | - 1252 9.9 Te Qu oo heal os Becca| Se Deets Seine eee 18a.) Pie | LHs6<) tb Ge 4a Lae 1058 TeBP oes cate nt [aise Secon ee | Ere eae ice 19:6 |. 18:4) - 27.4 | 165385) 1520-1; 18.3) | 1048 Ta Gillis, tatcieve | > teense encores ey ee | 20550) 1952"| TSs2 Ved 15s [3.98 be? Te Q W223 cccial a 2 oeecinet oeallleotee eee 2153) 205 0) 19m i AAO) SG N4e|) Va hele daly Bi Tue. Mee Ue ete Cy eee lic ee eo QOS 2029 | 19-8. Wea |) V2) oss 25 Sia ewe te | coe ee ees 23208 2157 \) 52026) 197384 wie dbsi\e 205 ST. | cce ec allise Sasa. . aone| See eee|eneere 2360)-\2- 22.5 ts S20 b= 205 2 els. bi) l6i3) le 13K0 O20) one a Sek age |e ee eee 2407 02365 |) 22537). 20,915 1922) 165.9%) 1325 Qe Dale eal eek ara], che | een |i eran 25:6 | 24.3 | 238.1 | -21.8 | 19.9) 17.5 +) 13.9 Qiib: Pes s.c eo | oot oe | eee ta | eer eee 2655.) 2551) 24500) 2255". 2006 15 18.1) 454 US i Se lee ceyee (te Bi ae ee ee 90-foot trees. 5.4 fay 52.0 4.8 4.6 4.3 4.0 305 2.8 IO Right cee eee | eee 6.2 6.0 5.8 bsp 5.2 4.9 4.6 4.0 8.1 1685) 2 Fo | Gene eee Wad 6.9 6.7 6.3 5.9 5.5 5.2 Ash BH) VS eciaee sal ceace lees 8.0 Uredl 7.4 (gee 6.6 6.3 5.8 5.0 3.8 LOS) 2 Sac She ieee 8.9 8.5 8.3 tas 3 6.9 6.3 oad 4.1 De EH eee oo ol ee es | eens 9.8 9.3 8.9 8.5 8.0 tad 6.9 5.9 4.5 yi YO ea pee ee eed Racer 10.7 |. 10.2 9.8 9.3 8.7 8.2 (5) 6.4 4.8 DEON a eine pa acon ope | eee HG P05 106), LOF 9.5 8.8 8.1 6.9 peal 9°60: le tos alee aoe 1925.4 TO 13) |) LOoS | 10s 2 9.5 8.7 ee Ge) > ear (i Bae ait een re eg 1340) - 22e7 | 2 dl, by Osa 1022 9.2 7.8 58 ONO el. sc VE eee eee 1453) | teed) |- 1250) ) 21253) 56.) 1028 9.7 8.2 6.1 350" | sncetes | See cer | eee 15:1°) 14.3) 1327) “13.0 | L245) 1153) Loss 8.7 6.4 BeDiksSece eae Slee ee T6sd) | 15525)" 142 bs SeRs | 8, de 1222 TOS 9.1 6.7 323) |sBeadt-|fee see ees J6sOu L680) | 25,25 1455)" 1382) 12300) se 5 9.6 10 Bo Dida actec| eee eee POs 21659 | 162 | elboo We L4G" edkosoel sleet 10.1 an0 Bi): soca at| meee See Se) Live.) 6s 4) Olea Se 84) ale alee ts On | elOhD: (od 3:8) |b. oslese tele eee Lie LS ib, | L766 16SOel. Gide Ss Wa ON aso 2 109: 8.0 3.9). [25,2522 See lee 20.5 19. 4 18.4 172.0 16.8 15:5 137 11.4 Bao God ase Soe ee ae P15 a]. <2Ol25)" T9n2F 18n4 ie 1765" Wess) 14s) LIE8 8.6 433° | aL ek ee 22.3 21.0 20. 0 19.2 183 16.9 14.9 Ie) 8.9 4.AC te oe ee eee eee 28095), .2058)) 22058). 1929) | 19.1 Le 7 be4>| 12.6 9. 2 45.6 (222 Sele eee 2450) | 2207 |B2i56F 1) 2027)" 19.83) i8esrih ekbeOr| 13210 9.5 BTC | = te Bills Seek | Bee rere 24.8 23.4 22.4 Qi, 5 20. 6 19.0 16.5 ono 9.9 AOA. rctaatslooae coal aoe 2500 24,2 23.12 22.3 21.3 19.6 Link 14.0 10.2: $6025 fee ea ae cee 2655: || 2580) 24051235 | 225085 2OkSa Lb) Wd Os 5 Be Bic at emek eee | ree 27.4 25.8 24.8 23.9 22.0 20.9 18, 2 14.8 10.8 tar: Oa) Pa eet Pore ed wd Pe 283i o2b501. censor. e240 | Zann Ahem ESsOn te ob i2, lea: BUG cee 22] ee 29.505}. -2753. | 26240) o2bn5 | 24528) “22520 TORS rhe hes Pt ie eee ericca cl aercrrs< 80204) 2845), 2212 26.3) | 2550) 2228i)) 10.84 16.2 | a's GON Cee el Ole ae | eas 109-foot trees. Teo yea! 6.8 6.5 6.0 5.6 Deo 5.0 4.4 Bea 1H? Py Meo ne [os 8.2 8.0 7.6 (8 6.8 6.3 ae) De, 4.8 Beds 2205 | 2262s) See 9.1 8.8 8.4 8.0 leo 7.0 6.5 6.1 5.3 3.9 poy He) reas erties 10. 0 9.7 9.2 8.8 8.3 Toil 7.2 6.6 iyi 4,2 Pa Fe Me ate Pe eh 1079: | -10:5)| = 1050 9.5 9.0 8.5 7.8 (pil 6.2 4.6 225) ee ea eee WW |e LLs37 |. 10:8 i 1028 9.7 9.1 8.5 ede 6.6 4.9 On 7 ect lesaeee 1 The stump height is 2 feet. STATES. NORWAY PINE IN THE LAKE 4] ii TABLE 25.—Diameter inside bark of Norway pine logs at intervals of 8.15 feet, on the basis of diameter, classed by trees of different heights-—-Continued. Merchantable length (feet) including stump height Diameter : eon 10.151 | 18.3 | 26.45 | 34.6 | 42.75 | 50.9 | 59.05 | 67.2 | 75.35 | $3.5 | 91.65 | 99.8 [107.95 ees) : Diameter inside bark (inches). 100-foot trees—continued. 14] 12.6 12.0} 11.5 11.0 10.5 9.9 9.1 8.3 7.0 5.1 DAREN sete bles at 15 13.5 12.9 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.6 9.7 8.8 WED 5.4 Bi Beet he a aes 16 | 14.4 URE Ch 13E1 iPS 12.0 11.3 10. 4 9.3 7.8 Dai Ou el lieoe [eee ee iWA 1522 14.5 13.8 13-32 Ei: 12.0 11.1 9.8 8.3 6.0 BS yale Ss a a 18 16.1 15.4 14.6 14.0 |° 13.5 12.7 IDS 7 10. 4 8.7 6.3 Bey Ea I eepecel ley eae 19 17.0 16.1 15. 4 14.8 14.2 13. 4 11758} 10.9 9.1 6.6 Se Onl eecenys eee 20 17.9 17.0 16.1 15.5 15.0 14.2 13.0 11.5 9.5 6.9 Shite sees a eee 21 | 18.8 17.8 16.9 16.3 UBS 7/ 14.9 13.7 12.0 10.0 UEP Oui Pea eee 22 19.7 18.6 17.7 iia 16.5 15.6 14.3 12.6 10. 4 Ue AE Lhe | eae at pea 23 20.6 19. 4 18.5 17.9 17.3 16.3 14.9 1352 10.9 7.9 GRD ih | cepa bekaier ee 24 PAlE 20. 2 19.3 18.7 18.0 17.1 15.6 ines 11.4 8.2 Baar 2 sy ce [eee 25 22.3 21.1 20.1 19.5 18.9 17.8 16. 2 14.3 11.9 8.5 AS OY mets es eee 26 23n5 21.9 20.9 20.3 19.6 18.5 16.9 14.9 12.3 8.8 AI crane taal ORE ea 27 24.1 22,10. 21.7 21.1 20. 4 19.3 17.6 15.5 12.8 9.2 CEA al peerage bese es 28 25.0 2355 POS 21.9 OHI al 20.0 18.2 16.0 L353 9.5 DSi | eee eee 29 25.9 24.3 PBS S} 22.6 21.9 20.7 18.8 16.6 13.7 9.9 DB hee eeccall teeters 30 26. 7 25.1 | 24.1 2325 22.6 21.3 19.5 17. 2 14,1 10.2 Ob Bama as| (5 cee a 27.6 26.0) 24.9 24.1 23.3 22.0 20.1 ye 14.7 10.6 aie | Soe ae eee 32 28.5 26.7 25.7 25.0 24.1 22.8 20.6 18.2 15.1! 10.8 Se On ew aes eames 33 29.3 Piet) 26.6 25.8 24.8 23.4 21.3 18.7 P5s5e)= 11s 2 GEO Eee | aoe 34 30. 2 28.3 27.4 26.5 25.5 24.0 21.9 19.3 15.9 | 11.5 6.3 |------|------ 110-fcot trees. 12 11.0 10.5 10.0 9.5 9.1 8.5 7.8 7.1 6.3 bisa Onl Debs aes 13 11.8 1183 10.7 10.2 9.8 9.2 8.5 PBT 6.8 525) 4.0 PyaViiataees 14 12.7 12.1 11.5 IESE 10.6 10.0 9.3 8.3 1683 6.0; 4.4 PRESS os ae 15 1B} 12.9 1253 IBA 1153 10.7 9.9 9.0 7.8 6.4 4.7 PEN Beene 16 14.5 13.7 13st 12.5 12.1 1H ES f5) 10.7 9.6 8.5 GEO bed NY al ia eee 17 15.3 14.4 13.8 1353. 12.8 12.1 11.3 10. 2 8.9 E38 553 py i ee ee 18 16.2 15.3 14.6 14.1 13.6 13.0 12.1 10.9 9.6 7.8 Osi Bioielescace 19 17.1 16.1 15.3 14.7 14.3 13.7 12.7 11.5 10.1 8.2 6.1 BSH) lesesoc 20 17.9 16.9 16.1 15.6 15.1 14.5 iBE 5) 12.3 10.7 8.7 GE4c lie Orel eenee 21 18.8 ests 17.0 16.4 15.9 15.1 14.1 12.8 11.2 9.1 6.7 Be) ee ae 22 19.7 18.6 17.7 17.2 16.7 15.9 14.9 13.6 11.8 9.6 Teak ¢ ad a 23 20.6 19.4 18.6 18.0 17.5 16.7 15.6 14.2 12.4 10.1 7.4 APSA Eto 24 21.5 20. 3 19.4 18.8 18.3 17.4 16.3 14.9 13.0 10.6 7.8 44s Sees 25 22.4 21.1 20. 2 19.5 19.0 18.1 16.9 15.5 13.5 11.0 8.1 4G" Ee 26: | 23:3 21.9 21.0] 20.4 19.8 18.9 Ei AG Qala 11.6 8.5 Cte Ws 27 24.2 Dah 21.9 PALS 20. 6 19.7 18. 4 16.8 14.7 12.0 8.8 db eee = 28 25.1 2350 22.6 22.0 21.4 20.5 19.1 17.5 15.3 2D: 9.2 Oho | eee 29 26.0 24.5 23.5 DART 2201 21-2: 19.9 18.1 15.9 13.0 9.6 GS eboo ne S05 2 26598125.3 24.2] 23.6 oe Opllee 2250, 20. 6 18.8 16.4 13.5 LOSOE eS (aleeweee 31 27.8 26.1 Dayal 24.4 FAST 22.8 21.3 19.5 17.1 14.0 10. 4 GEOViES esse 32 28. 7 26.9 25.8 25e 24.5 23.6 2251: 20.1 17.6 14.5 10.7 Gxls|Eeeses 33 29.7 DST 26.7 26.0 5B) 24.3 22.7 20.8 18.2 15.0 11.1 6.5 ceases 34 30.6 28.5 21.9 26.8 26.2 25.1 2355 21.4 18.8 15ED) 10156} 626s Bsueee : | } | 120-foot trees. ; - 16 14.3 13.6 12.9 1253 11.8 112 10.6 9.7 8.7 Use) 6.0 4.3 2.6 17 15.3 14.4 13.8 13.1 | 12.6 12.1 11.4 10.5 9.4 8.2 6.5 4.7 2.9 18 16.2 15.3 14.6 14.0 13.4 12.8 12.1 11.1 10.0 8.6 7.0 5:2 a2 19 iyeab 16.1 15. 4 14.8 14.3 13.6 12.9 11.9 10.6 9.2 7.6 5.6 355. 20 18.0 16.9 16.2 15.6 15.0 14.4 1B E7/ 12.6 iB} 9.8 8.1 6.0 3.8 21 18.9 17.8 17.0 16.4 15.9 52, 14. 4 BER} 12.0 10. 4 8.6 6.4 4.1 22 19.8 18.7 | 17.8 17.3 16.7 16.0 15s? 14.0 12.6 11.0 9.1 6.8 4.4 23 20. 7 19.5 | 18.6 18.1 Wieo 16.8 15.9 14.8 iB} 3} 11.6 9.6 Weed 4.7 24 21.6 20. 4 19. 4 18.9 18. 4 17.6 16.7 15. 4 13.9 12.1 10.1 Tet 4.9 25 2250) 21.2 20.3 19.7 19. 2 18.5 17.4 16.1 14.6 12.8 10. 7 8.1 bse} 26 PRS D2AO iP soleel 20.5 20. 0 19.2 18. 2 16.9 Ps 13. 4 if al 8.5 5) 27 24.3 22.9 21.9 21.3 20.8 20.1 19.0 WAC 15.9 3.9 11.7 8.9 5.8 28 Zane: Payal 22.8 221 21.6 20.9 19.8 18.3 16.5 14.5 282 9. 2 5.9 29 26.2 24.6 23.6 23.0 22.5 21.7 20.5 19.1 17.3 15.1 OG 9.7 6.2 30 Dilek 25.5 24.4 23.8 PAEE) 2285 21.4 19.8 17.9 by 7 1352) | LOE 6.5 31 28. 0 26.3 25.3 24.6 24.1 23. 4 Doe 20. 6 18.7 16.3 ISEteLOND 6.9 32 28.9 2. 2 26.1 25.4 24.9 24.1 22.9 21.4 19.3 16.9 1A sell Osean teee 33 29.8 28. 0 26.9 26.2 25.7 24.9 Daath 22. 2 20.0 id 14.8 | 11.4 7.4 34 30. 7 28.9 27.8 27.1 26.6 25.8 4.6 22.9 20.7 18. 2 15.3 | 11.8 TAU. i | 1 The stump height is 2 feet. 42 BULLETIN 139, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To construct a volume table from the upper diameters or tapers given in Table 25, the average top diameter to which trees are utilized must be known. In species possessing a regular form this may be a fixed limit, as 6 inches, regardless of the size of the tree. But where utilization is not close, and tops are heavy, with large limbs, the di- ameter limit in the top will increase with the diameter of the tree. With this top diameter determined, the taper table will indicate the merchantable length for each diameter and height class to the near- est 8-foot length: For board feet, adapting a 16-foot log, the up- per diameters of each log in the tree enable one to secure the scaled contents by the desired log rule. The number of standard railroad ties or products of other known dimensions may also be found for trees of any size from this table. ADDITIONAL COPiES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1914 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 140 Contribution from the Bureau of Soils MILTON WHITNEY, Chief Washington, D. C. April 5, 1915 SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO APPLES AND PEACHES By HENRY J. WILDER, Scientist in Soil Survey CONTENTS Surface Features The Soil Material Soils of Southern New England . .. . Soils of Different Sections of the States . Orcharding; General Conditions in the Cultural Methods in Orchards Usual Type of Farm-Orchard Develop- ment in Massachusetts and Western Relative Production of Apples in South- ern New England Relation of Scil Characters to Crop and Varietal Adaptation The Adaptedness of Soils to Different Varieties of Apples Classification of Soils Miscellaneous Notes on Soil- Varietal Adaptation The Adaptedness of Soils to Varieties of Peaches WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1915 BULLETIN OF THE p USDEPARTNENT OPACRICULT No. 140 == y; —\ Contribution from the Bureau of Soils, Milton Whitney, Chief, April 5, 1915. SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT, WiTH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO APPLES AND PEACHES. By Henry J. Witper, Scientist in Soil Survey. SURFACE FEATURES. Southern New England consists of a hilly plateau highest at the northwest and lowest along the seashore, the elevation showing a general range from less than 50 feet at the shore to 1,800 feet in the northwest, with an extreme altitude at Mount Greylock of 3,505 feet.. ; The surface features of this area are locally complex, but it is nevertheless naturally divided into three upland blocks and two low- land belts. These are, beginning at the west, the Taconic Mountain section, with general elevation of 1,200 to 2,800 feet; the Berkshire Valley; the Western Plateau, with general elevation ranging from sea level on the south to 1,800 feet; the Connecticut Valley; and the Eastern Plateau, extending from the Connecticut Basin to the coast with general elevation ranging from sea level on the east and south to 1,200 feet. For convenience in discussing the relation of the soil factor to fruit growing, and because of the importance of the elevation factor in such study, the Eastern Plateau is further divided on the basis of elevation into the Coastal district; the Framingham-Boston low- lands; the Eastern and Southeastern Plateau, with general elevation of 200 to 700 feet; and the Eastern Highlands, with general elevation of 700 to 1,200 feet, the lower part of this section being superseded on the south by an extension of the Southeastern Plateau. Figure 1 shows the extent and relations of these several divisions. THE COASTAL DISTRICT. The Coastal Plain of the eastern United States does not extend northward, in typical development at least, to southern New England. The country from Plymouth-New Bedford eastward and northward, 55570°—Bull. 140 —15——1 2 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. with its absence of rock outcrops and the predominance of sandy soils, is a near approach to it. East of a line drawn from the northeast corner of Rhode Island to Blue Hill the country is in ele- vation above the sea level and in relation to higher land westward similar to the Coastal Plain. The main body of this southeastern section is marked here and there by low hills and isolated ridges, giving it a gently rolling appearance, though in places it is almost plainlike. In general the topography east of this line consists of broad, low, rounded hills and ridges, with intervening smooth or faintly dissected plains. West of this line the hills and ridges are sharper, higher, and more thickly set on the landscape, while the smooth plains become narrower. East of it the plains are the pre- dominant topographic feature. West of it the hills are predominant. The change, however, is gradual rather than abrupt, and the divid- ing line described above is only approximate. The Framingham-Boston district includes an area topographi- cally intermediate between the two areas described above, in which there are numerous low but steep hills and ridges standing in broad, smooth plains, a considerable part of which is swampy. This is a local district, which extends for a short distance into the more ex- tensive Eastern Plateau, and west of Waltham it consists of a rela- tively narrow belt lying to the west of the Wellesley Hills. THE EASTERN PLATEAU. The boundaries of the Eastern Plateau are shown on the sketch map, figure 1, and need no further description here. The eastern boundary is so placed because of the much higher general altitude of the Highland district which les to the west in Massachusetts and to the west and north in Connecticut. This district thus in- cludes all the southeastern part of the latter State, in which it con- stitutes the largest topographic division. The elevation boundaries may be easily traced by the contour lines of the United States Geo- logical Survey topographic sheets. The width of this section in Massachusetts is about 35 miles at the center of the State, but on a line with Cape Ann it is much more. The elevation of the principal hills along the east boundary of this region may be approximated as 200 feet, and along the western boundary as something above 600 feet, with isolated points about 700 feet. In Connecticut this district includes approximately the southeastern third of the State, including all of New London County and the greater part of Windham and Middlesex Counties. Were all the valleys and depressions filled to the average height of the adjacent hills, there would result a high plain, sloping from the boundary of the eastern highland toward the sea. Some of the highest elevations, however, would rise above such plain, thus pro- a=H AM PS H Cb \s Ee La i ed ee ee ie Taconic Berkshire estern Highlands Conn.Valley Basin Eastern Highlands Eastern &Southeastern Coastal District Framingham-Boston ; Mannteins Valley Floor Mi Elev. 7001800 Ft. Elev. 50~200. Elev,700-I200Ft. Plateau. Elev.200-700Ft. Elev. 0-200 ft. Lowlands _ Elev. 1200-2800ft. Elev. 650-N00ft. FIGURES GIVEN SHOW THE GENERAL ELEVATION RANGE 55570°—Bull, 140—15. (To face p. 2.) Fic. 1.—Sketch-map showing physiographic divisions of Southern New England. SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 3 ducing a gently rolling surface. Dissection of this plateau through a long period of time has been so pronounced that the existing sur- face is extremely irregular. It is a succession of much worn-down knobs and hills, with narrow intervening valleys. The hills are multiformed. Some are steep, and others not only steep but small, thus rendering cultivation expensive. Others, however, are dome- shaped, or at least sufficiently regular and smooth to afford many good farming areas and sites for orchards.t_ The higher parts con- sist of isolated hills or chains of hills, with much less definite direc- tion than those of the Highland section adjoining on the west, where the trend ranges from north and south to northeast and southwest, as in all of both States farther west. The dome-shaped hills that frequently characterize this section are much more rare in the Western Plateau. The northern part of the Eastern Plateau is drained by the Merrimac River, of which the two principal branches are the Concord and the Nashua Rivers. Much of the Concord River basin is drained by its two important branches, the Sudbury and the Assabet Rivers. The southern part of the region is drained by the Charles, the Blackstone, and the French Rivers. THE EASTERN HIGHLAND. The Eastern Highland extends from the Eastern Plateau to the Connecticut Valley Basin. Its general slope is southerly, and the general range in elevation, barring exceptionally low and exception- ally high points, is from 700 to 1,200 feet. The high hills are some- what broader in the northern part than in the southern, a fact which undoubtedly led in colonial days to the establishment of villages on several of these elevations ranging in altitude from 1,000 to 1,200 feet. Some of the villages in such locations are Shutesbury, Wendell, New Salem, Prescott, Pelham, Petersham, Phillipston, Templeton, Rutland, Oakham, New Braintree, Wilmington, Mansfield, Gilead, and Winchester. The drainage of the Eastern Highland is mostly to the west and to the southwest. In the northern part Millers River rises in the vicinity of Gardner, flows due west, and enters the Connecticut near Millers Falls. In the central part the Swift, the Ware, and the Quabaug Rivers have their sources. These streams flow together at the town of Three Rivers, forming the Chicopee River, which enters the Connecticut at Chicopee. The extreme southeastern part of the 1The apple census of Massachusetts prepared by the State board of agriculture for the year 1905 shows the highest producing areas to be in those sections where this dome- shaped topography is most characteristic. This is an adaptation to conditions of topog- raphy and soil that had gradually come to be apparent, as the deepest and most pro- ductive soils of each section in southern New England are usually located in this favor- able topographic position. Erosion also is not serious and tillage is relatively economical. 4 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. highland is drained by the headwaters of the Quinebaug River, which flows south into the State of Connecticut. The general upland surface of this division is strikingly inter- rupted in its northern part by three prominent isolated mountains— Mount Watatic, Mount Grace, and Mount Wachusett—1,847, 1,628, and 2,108 feet in elevation, respectively. THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY BASIN. The Connecticut Valley region consists of a broad basin, which succeeds the Eastern Highland on the west and crosses both States from north to south. Approximately along its axial line lies the Connecticut Valley, a shallow, flat-bottomed trough, from less than 1 to more than 3 miles in width, through which meanders the river of the same name. The distance from the river due east to Boston is approximately 100 miles, and from the river due west to the New York line about 50 miles. The topography of the basin is generally smooth, becoming rolling locally, and is traversed by narrow but rugged ridges. It is a region of good soils and well-developed agri- culture. The eastern boundary slope of the basin is more nearly a wall than a slope. The western slope is much more gradual than the eastern. It soon merges into the Western Highland section, which forms a broad, dissected plateau with easterly slope. In Connecti- cut the valley is wider than in Massachusetts, being one-sixth the width of the State at North Haven and north of Hartford one-fourth the width of the State. Beginning south of Northampton, Mass., is a series of sharp ridges traversing the valley and dividing it into an eastern and a western area, the former being the broader in the northern and central parts of the State of Connecticut, while the western arm is the broader in the southern part of the State. The latter is known as the Farmington-Southington Valley. Aside from the ridges, both arms of the valley are smooth to undulating; rarely can any portions be called hilly. THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS. The crest of this plateau, which lies along its western boundary, is marked by the Hoosic Range, which reaches a height of more than 2,800 feet, and from which all drainage easterly goes to the Connecti- cut River. This lofty plateau corresponds to the highlands of New York and New Jersey, to the Reading Hills and South Mountain in Pennsylvania (the latter name continuing through Maryland), and to the Blue Ridge of Virginia and North Carolina. Extending into Vermont it becomes more mountainous than in Massachusetts, and soon merges into the Green Mountain Range, which reaches a maxi- mum height of 4,364 feet. On the west the Hoosic Range descends SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 5 almost abruptly to the deep, narrow Berkshire Valley, but on the east it drops a little less steeply to the plateau into which it merges. On the south the Hoosic Mountain becomes less well defined south of the incision by the Westfield River, and in northern Connecticut breaks up into a local group of hills. The surface of the western plateau shows a wide range of varia- tion. There are, however; many localities with areas of smooth to rolling country. These occur on the watershed ridges and along the eastern foot slope of the Hoosic Range, where the streams are yet too small to have cut deep into the plateau. In many cases they form covelike basins in the eastern side of the ridge. Around the heads of many of the small ravines within the plateau, before their streams have cut their way deep into it, there are broad basins of thickly accumulated drift which are usually occupied as farms. One of the largest areas of smooth, undissected land at high- plateau level lies in parts of the towns of Hawley, Plainfield, and Cummington. The farm lands of the western plateau occur on the high-plateau top, in valley-head basins below the top, in valley bot- toms, and on lower-valley slopes. In the eastern plateau it is mainly on the dome-shaped hills and rounded smooth ridges. THE BERKSHIRE VALLEY. The Berkshire Valley forms a link in the chain of great limestone valleys stretching across the United States from Canada to Alabama. At North Adams this valley is about 10 miles, at Pittsfield 7 miles, and at Great Barrington 5 miles from the New York line. Its sur- face is rolling to hilly, much more so than the unglaciated limestone valleys forming other links in the chain, and in marked contrast to the comparatively level topography of the Connecticut Valley. The southern two-thirds of this valley is drained by the Housatonic River and the northern third by the Hoosac River. The Berkshire Valley from the Vermont line to Williamstown is usually less than a mile in width. South of Williamstown it divides, the Green River arm being narrow soon crosses the State line into New York, reentering the main valley near Pittsfield. From Wil- liamstown east to Braytonville the eastern arm is well developed, but at the latter point it narrows rapidly and is nearly closed by Bald Mountain and Ragged Mountain, north of North Adams. From the latter point south to Adams the valley is deep and narrow, rarely exceeding a half mile, and much of that is talus slope. Thence south to Cheshire Harbor the valley is almost V-shaped, but it then broadens toward Cheshire until the local reservoir occupies its bottom as far south as Pontoosuc Lake. Thence to Shaker Village and Pittsfield the valley is several miles wide, and at the former village a spur valley extends southwest to the State line. From 6 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Pittsfield to Stockbridge the main valley is 1 to 2 miles wide, but it then is closed in by mountains. Near Great Barrington and the Egremonts it is again 5 miles wide. Narrowing at Sheffield to 3 miles it again broadens to 6 miles at the State line, narrowing again a few miles to the south. Across the western end of Connecticut it is broken into a number of small isolated areas. THE TACONIC MOUNTAIN GROUP. West of the Hoosac Valley lies a thick local mountainous group with general elevation above 2,000 feet, known as the Taconic Moun- tains. These mountains are parallel to the Housatonic Valley and form its western boundary. They lie partly in Massachusetts and partly in the State of New York. Their steep slopes afford little good farming land. Their highest point in Massachusetts is ap- proximately 2,800 feet. Geologically these mountains and the lower region west to the Catskills correspond to the broad band of shales, which give rise to the Berks soils of Pennsylvania, where they adjoin on the north the Lehigh, Lebanon, and Cumberland Valleys. The highest mountain in southern New England, Mount Greylock, with elevation of 3,505 feet, lies between the two branches of the Berkshire Valley, southeast of Williamstown, Mass. The general surface of the Western and Eastern Highlands and of the Southeastern Plateau is very irregular, yet the upland skyline is approximately even. The surface of this sloping region passes be- neath the sea along the existing shore line with no sudden descent. The coast line merely marks the points of zero elevation along this tilted surface. The rise is gradual to a maximum of 2,000 feet in the northwest corner of Massachusetts. THE SOIL MATERIAL. The soil material found in southern New England is called glacial material by geologists, meaning that it was placed where it now lies by deposition from a former ice sheet. It was removed a short dis- tance, however, and to all intents and purposes it is the product of the weathering, breaking up, and more or less grinding up of the rocks which occur in the region and constitute its foundation. These consist, with the exception of the rocks in the Connecticut Valley, of ancient crystalline rocks, such as gneisses, schists, slates, and various igneous rocks. They are, so far as the soil material is concerned and considered in a broad way, essentially uniform over the whole State. In the Connecticut Valley the rocks consist of soft sandstones and shales with a few bands of hard igneous rocks which form the ridges already referred to. The Cape Cod region differs from the rest of the region in that the existing land and its elevation is not due to a solid rock founda- SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. a tion with a thin coating of soil material, but consists of an accumu- lation of unconsolidated rock material in which the rock founda- tion lies deep, seemingly below the level of the sea. It is in this respect similar to Long Island and to a certain extent to the Coastal Plain. Southern New England has passed through a long history in reaching its present condition. It is unnecessary to recount even the broad phases of that history, since it can be obtained in any good geological description of the region. A late and the most important stage in that history, so far as the soils of the region are concerned, was the invasion of the region by the glaciers of the glacial period. This changed the details of surface relief, thoroughly mixed and rearranged and redistributed the preexisting coating of soil and soil material, making the formation of a new soil necessary. The existing soils, therefore, are the product of soil-making agencies that have been in operation since the glacial period and are therefore young. The ice reshaped the details of the topography by rounding off sharp corners and filling basins with deposits. Although part of the country is ‘mountainous it has been rounded so that most of it is easily accessible. _The ice modified the layer of soil material in several ways: (1) It removed a coating that was due to weathering and there- fore approximately uniform in thickness, and left one that is prac- tically absent in some places and of great thickness in others. (2) It left a layer of soil material usually mixed with stone fragments. (3) Owing to the great amount of water that was released from the ice during the melting period many belts and areas were built up into flat plains by the deposition of gravel and sand. These lie in the low belts and their proportional area increases progressively eastward from the Connecticut Valley. (4) In some areas a very irregular and a very stony deposit was made in which the irregularities are small, giving a rough, bumpy, topography. ‘These areas are usually very stony and almost worth- less for agriculture. We have, therefore— (1) The smooth, moderately stony surfaces that may be level, moderately steep, or rolling. The soils consist of loams, clay loams, and sands. , (2) Level, sandy, and gravelly areas. (3) Bumpy stony gravelly or sandy areas. (4) Very steep areas and rocky areas. The agriculture of New England is mainly on No. 1. 8 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CLIMATE. The climate of southern New England is rigorous, but the seasons are of sufficient length for the securing of good crops, and seem especially favorable for a long list of varieties of apples. It is essential, of course, with all field crops, to select varieties that will mature in the prevailing length of season, but the yields obtained clearly demonstrate that this is no handicap. In fact, the range of crop varieties available is distinctly favorable. This is undoubtedly due in part to the long-continued line of horticulturists and seedsmen in the region who have been interested in varietal development, but the fact that the climate is suitable for a wide range of varieties, especially of horticultural varieties, is unquestionable. This is evi- denced by the fact that 134 varieties have been listed by the United States Department of Agriculture * as having originated in Massachu- setts. Prof. Beach, in ‘“ The Apples of New York,” mentions 27 of these varieties, of which the following 5 may be termed commercial: Baldwin, Hubbardston, Roxbury, Sutton, and Williams. Connecti- cut is credited with 88 varieties,! of which one, the Twenty-ounce, is in the commercial list. It may be added for the sake of comparison that New York is credited with a far greater number, 176 varieties, but of these only 6 are commercial, viz: Fall Pippin, Jonathan, Yellow Newtown, Northern Spy, Tompkins King, and Wagener. Rhode Island is credited with only 9 varieties, but two of these are commercial—the Rhode Island Greening and the Tolman Sweet. A number of secondary varieties have also originated in most of these States, some of almost commercial importance and other highly desirable for family use. To the peach growers of Connecticut the climatic conditions within that State are of much importance. No section is free from frost injury or occasional winter injuring due to low temperatures, but accumulated experience has led to the establishment of most of the commercial peach orchards along the lateral slopes of the Cen- tral Lowland belt or on local elevations within it. In the southern part of the State also, at elevations below 600 feet, occasional com- mercial orchards give excellent results, but the largest of these have been established by men of experience on good local elevations at least a few miles back from the shore. The loss of fruit from strong onshore winds seems to account for the last precaution. In the northeastern part of the State, at medium to higher ele- vations, peaches are grown with moderate financial sutcess, but the average climatic risk is a little greater; only the occasional man engages in it, and even then usually as a money crop rather than as a main business. There is a general feeling, too, that the soils are somewhat less favorable for peaches than in the Central 1 Bul. 56, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. 8. Dept. of Agr. SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 9 Lowland district. In Massachusetts, however, in southeastern Wor- cester, southwestern Middlesex, and western Norfolk Counties, good results have been secured. In the northern two-thirds of the Western Highlands the climate is generally considered too severe for com- mercial peach orcharding, though scattering orchards are more or less successful. Isotherms of the weather maps indicate within rough limits the peach-growing sections and the nonpeach-growing sections as already outlined. But if weather conditions had been the only determining factor in the location of the peach industry, the orchards of the State would not have been distributed as they now are. In general the slopes along the west side of the Central basin have much fewer peach orchards than the slopes along the eastern side, and although there are very few orchards in the latter position be- tween Hartford, Conn., and the Massachusetts line, an important development occurs just north of the State boundary in the Wil- braham district. The development of peach orcharding has already proved that climatic conditions favoring the business obtain in considerable areas of the State, and that only a small percentage of such areas have been developed. It is true, of course, that only a small part of the soils of such climatic areas are the most desirable, but such tracts readily may be selected, and they include many mndercloped local areas of good peach soils. Barring low-lying areas the climatic conditions of the whole State are well suited to apple growing, though the character of the fruit varies with the kind of soil and not improbably to some extent with the range in climate—i. e., a Baldwin grown on a certain soil 1,000 feet above sea level in the northwest part of the State matures a little later’ and it seems reasonable to suppose that it may possess a little better keeping qualities than one grown 40 miles farther south on the same character of soil at an elevation of 500 feet; and while this point is generally conceded by growers, it would be of greater value if supported by experimental data to measure as nearly as may be the amount of this difference. SOILS OF SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND. The soil materials of southern New England, the rocks from which they have been derived, and the glacial processes by which they were accumulated in their present positions have been described. These are factors of great importance in determining the character of the soil, but they are not the exclusive ones. The most important additional factors are drainage, chemical change, and the accumula- tion of vegetable matter. These latter are equally as important in determining the productive power of the soil as are the former. 10 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Since this report is not primarily a soil-survey report, the details of location and character of the different soils can not be given; but the main soil groups of southern New England are relatively simple, though the details are complex. Soil groups are given a name, the members in the group constituting what is technically called a soil series. A soil series includes all soils with the same origin, color, character of subsoil, and all other characteristics except texture, or the coarseness or fineness of the soil par ticles. The most widely distributed soil series in southern New England has been named the Gloucester series. It is typically brown in color, grading toward a yellowish color on the one hand and a light-brown color on the other. The subsoil is typically yellowish brown in color and usually as heavy or heavier than the soil, In the heavier mem- bers of the series in the lower subsoil, from about 24 to 36 inches and deeper, the color sometimes changes to a drab or bluish color. The soils of the series are well drained and aerated, uniformly oxidized, and when they occur on smooth areas and have a fair to good supply of vegetable matter are productive. They are derived from the crys- talline rocks of the region, and the material was accumulated by depo- sition from the ice of the glacial period. They occur on the rolling and hilly uplands of the region. They are usually stony, but do not have gravel or sand subsoils except possibly in rare cases. Their water-holding capacity is normally good. Occasionally the clay sub- soil is rather compact, resembling a hardpan, but true chemical hard- pans are practically unknown. The most prevalent members of the Gloucester series are the loam and the sandy loams, though the sand is not absent. These various members may occur in any part of the region, but the sandier members are more prevalent just east of the Connecticut Valley basin than elsewhere. The most important and permanent agriculture in southern New England, aside from the Connecticut Valley basin and the market- garden areas around the large cities, has developed on the Gloucester soils, and in both States they are the leading apple soils. The Bernardston soils are an upland series closely associated with the Gloucester soils. They are gray to bluish gray in the soil and subsoil. The dark color is due largely to the presence of small par- ticles of the dark-gray slate from which the soils are derived. They are usually heavier than the other series as a whole. Grasses both for hay and pasture do well on these soils. They occur in a number of places in the western part of the region, the type locality being near the village of Bernardston, Mass. The Whitman soils are dark gray to black in color, with gray to yellowish mottled subsoils. They occur in depressions or on flat areas where natural drainage is not good, the mottled subsoil being SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 11 due to this. They are derived from the same rocks and by the same processes as the Gloucester soils, but differ from them in drain- age and aeration. These soils are more prevalent in eastern Massa- chusetts than elsewhere. If drained, they would be of value for grass, corn, and some of the late truck crops, but they are not suit- able for the tree fruits. A group of soils, seemingly with restricted distribution and which has not yet been officially named, but which will be described here as the Essex series, includes soils that are dark brown to nearly black in the soil, with yellow to light-brown subsoils. They seem to lie intermediate between the Gloucester and Whitman. They are better drained and at present more productive than the Whitman. The Merrimac soils are brown to yellowish brown, with yellowish- brown subsoils. They occur on flat surfaces and are due to the depo- sition of material from running water. They consist, therefore, of assorted material, often have porous gravelly or sandy subsoils, and are on that account deficient in moisture-holding capacity. Where the gravel bed is several feet below the surface they are not droughty. They occur most frequently and in larger areas east of the Connecticut River. They are the prevailing soils in the flat sandy and gravelly lowland belts and in the flat areas in the eastern and southeastern part of Massachusetts. They are not so preva- lent in Connecticut as in Massachusetts, though they are found along most of the streams. They are not subject to overflow. The heavier members are productive soils, except those with very gravelly sub- soils near the surface. They are usually free from stones, but are nearly always gravelly. The Wethersfield soils are the predominant soils of the Connecticut Valley basin and the Pomperaug Valley, aside from the soils of the river and creek bottom lands. The soils of the sandy members are gray or yellowish gray, often with a slight salmon tinge. The sur- face soils of the heavier members of the series range from pale to deep salmon color. The subsoils are salmon, red, or yellowish red in color. They are all, except the sands, good soils, naturally produc- tive. The region of their occurrence is well developed agriculturally. The Middlefield series includes the glaciated Triassic sandstone and shale soils which are characteristically yellow or gray at the surface. The subsoils are usually yellow. The series is derived from the same geological formation as the Wethersfield formation with which it is closely associated, though the color contrast is strong. Tn places the soils are complexly intermixed. There is another group of soils occurring on the trap ridges which have been derived from ironstone (diabase). They occur typically on Talcott Mountain and associated trap ridges. They are impor- tant fruit soils and for convenience in this report are referred to 12 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. provisionally as the Talcott series. These soils have a rusty brown- ish-red surface with dull reddish subsoils, their structure differing markedly from that of the Gloucester soils, though they resemble somewhat the Mont Alto soils of Pennsylvania, which are also de- rived from ironstone. Loams and silt loams are the principal types. The ironstones consist of a series of concentric rings which not infrequently are so decayed that several layers may be peeled off readily with the fingers. These Connecticut ironstones are only now and then as red as those giving rise to the Mont Alto series, but grade from a very dull red to a rusty blue. The subsoil is usually lighter than the surface soil, but its definite structure makes the material at first seem stiff, though it crumbles readily in the hand. The Dover soils occur only in the Berkshire Valley and its exten- sion southward into Connecticut. They contain a considerable amount of limestone material in their compositign, and are naturally productive where drainage is sufficient, but they are not as desirable for orcharding as the best Gloucester soils. The alluvial soils are small in area except in the Connecticut Val- ley. Where associated with and derived from the Wethersfield soils they are called Hartford soils, and where derived from the upland soil materials they are called Ondawa soils. Where well drained they are productive. It is evident from this enumeration of the principal soils of south- ern New England and their characteristics that they are not pre- dominantly sterile soils, but, on the other hand, the soils themselves are as a whole at least moderately productive. Through the pro- cesses of their formation they are usually stony, a considerable part of the area has a rough surface, and on account of the geographic position of the region the staple grain crops and the crops adapted to a long growing season and a hot climate do not grow as well as in some other parts of the country. Where the land has been cleared of stones so that it can be cultivated, where the topography is smooth enough for cultivation. and where crops adapted to the soils, climate, and other conditions of the region are planted. satisfactory yields are obtained. The poorest soils for most crops are the very light ones, such as the sands and gravel soils. These do not constitute the predominant soils of the region. They probably have the small- est acreage of any of the soils. Sandy and gravelly soils are com- mon. but they are for the most part the sandy and gravelly loams. SOILS OF THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THE STATES. THE SOUTHEASTERN SECTION OF MASSACHUSETTS. The general elevation of Cape Cod above sea level is from 10 to 100 feet, though west of Barnstable, toward Bourne, hills 200 feet SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. Iai high are not uncommon. Level areas of appreciable size are few. The position of the Cape in midocean, as it were, exposes her farms, especially north of the elbow, to strong winds which have caught up the sandy soil and blown it in swirls here and there, thus forming a succession of low hills, knolls, and hollows. Both elevations and depressions are small in area; hence the surface of the Cape, espe- cially east of Barnstable, is hilly, notwithstanding the slight eleva- tion above the sea. Many of the hilltops are not covered with vegetation, and on them sand-carrying winds make impracticable the growth of any except the hardiest plants, shrubs, or trees. It is in the hollows and on protected hillsides that the crops are grown, and there also the farm buildings are usually located. For this reason a casual glance over the region reveals only a small part of the gardening and farming operations. The soils of the hollows and protected slopes have not had the finer particles blown from the surface by the winds, and the accu- mulation of humus from decaying plant growth has left them gener- ally productive, yet their small size and limited production, together with lack of transportation facilities or high carrying charges, have prevented any considerable development of farming interests to com- pete in general markets. The very important fisheries have consti- tuted, moreover, the principal industry. Hence the chief agricultu- ral problem has been to maintain a home, to grow all sorts of garden and farm crops for family use, and to grow feed for the necessary horses and neat stock. This is a very legitimate and proper develop- ment of the opportunities, in that home supplhes have been produced, while a main industry (fishing) has been specialized.. The attractiveness of the Cape as a place of summer residence has brought there a large population during the warm weather. This has created a large and growing demand for garden produce, summer fruits, dressed poultry, eggs, etc., much of which is shipped to the Cape from the Boston markets. On the best of the soils located as described above, namely, in the hollows and on protected slopes, there are many excel- lent opportunities to grow garden crops, small fruits, plums, peaches, summer apples, etc. The best soil types available for this purpose are fine sand and loamy fine sand, principally, though occa- sional areas of the fine sandy loam occur. Areas of compact medium sand can be used for early-season garden crops, and even the coarse sands bring remunerative return where so managed as to provide a good supply of humus. In wet seasons strawberries and the cane fruits also do well, but in dry seasons the fruit is too small, and by midsummer there is liable to be insufficient moisture to maintain a good growth of plants, thus weakening their vitality. The latter 14 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. feature not infrequently is serious enough to lessen greatly the crop of fruit the following season. This is especially true on medium to coarse sands and sandy loams of loose structure.. Of these some areas are made even more porous by the presence of fine gravel, which is likewise found to some extent with the finer grades of sand and sandy loam. Stony areas occur, but they are generally small in extent. Hay for home use is cut principally from the marshes, of which some are salt and others fresh. From the latter the best hay is se- cured, while salt marsh overflowed intermittently yields a medium crop, and land daily overflowed the poorest crop. West of Barnstable there are appreciable areas of soils somewhat heavier than those previously described. Light sandy loams, light loams, and even light silty loams are sometimes found. The subsoil of the uplands is principally stony fine sand, stony sand, or stony fine sandy loam. There are many areas, too, of light sandy surface soils compared to those nearer the point. Gravelly sandy soils also occur, but at the present time these are little used for farming. Thus it is seen that few of the soils of the Cape are drought re- sistant and crops frequently suffer for lack of moisture. So char- acteristic is this tendency that every possible means should be used to conserve moisture. This necessitates not only a large sup- ply of humus, but also very frequent cultivation. The last is now given by the best farmers, some of whom plan to give surface tillage at least weekly. Humus burns out of these soils rapidly, but not- withstanding this characteristic, a good supply must be maintained if good yields of the various crops are to be secured. Since little stock is kept the small quantities of stable manure available must be supplemented by the use of cover crops—that is, the greater part of the necessary humus must be grown. Red clover succeeds, likewise Canada field peas. Other legumes have not been tried to any ex- tent, and it is not strange that the few spasmodic attempts with alfalfa in most cases have failed. Rarely has the land been brought to a condition of sufficient productiveness before sowing the seed to attain success with this crop. The vetches are promising and should be thoroughly tried. It is also worth while to test the early matur- ing varieties of cowpeas, such as the Whippoorwill and New Era, though these are doubtless less dependable in this climate than Canada field peas. Scattered about the Cape are many low-lying areas upon which the great cranberry industry has been developed. No attempt was made to examine in a comprehensive way the soils of these bogs, but they are evidently miscellaneous in character, though probably more uniform in the large bogs than in the small ones. While this variation may have been brought about in part, or at least have been SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 15 accentuated in some measure by the sanding of the bogs, their virgin condition must have shown wide range in the proportion of muck and sand of which they are largely composed. In fact the countless areas that have never been improved leave no room for doubt on this point. The assorting of the fine gravels and the sands as shown from the rim of some of the bogs toward the center marks the range of local sedimentation and in-wash. The surface soil of one bog examined is a light muck mixed with a great deal of sand, there being enough of the latter to constitute in some places a mucky sandy loam rather than a sandy muck. The subsoil is extremely variable, often differing widely in borings only 3 feet apart. Only in spots is the subsoil a black clay loam, and in most places the soil auger 3 feet long may be thrust down full length with little or no turning. A blue clay is said to lie underneath, but in the borings taken none hap- pened to be encountered within 3 feet of the surface. The soil is well drained to a depth of at least 2 feet. The most serious feature is an intermittent layer of water-washed sand from 6 to 12 inches thick which is found in places at 2 to 10 inches beneath the surface. Not infrequently some peat is found in the lower subsoil. Many of these bogs not utilized at present for cranberries would produce timothy to advantage. In others onions might well be grown by installing drains. To mix thoroughly the different soil materials, subsoiling and deep preparation tillage should precede such cropping wherever the sands occur in beds. Otherwise shallow-rooted crops would be liable to drought injury. In the southern half of Plymouth and Bristol Counties the to- pography, the soils, and the crop use of the latter closely resemble the conditions in northwest Barnstable County already described. The lowland areas constitute very important cranberry lands. The acreage of this crop could be increased, but it should be realized that competition with other producing districts, such as New Jersey and Wisconsin, is likely to become more keen than at present. The soils of northern Plymouth, northern Bristol, and eastern Norfolk Counties differ from those of the southern half of the former counties principally in having a smaller percentage of sandy types of soil and in having a greater proportion of their area above the 100- foot contour. An important part of this section, however, includ- ing that occupied by the Eastons, the Bridgewaters, Whitman, and Brockton, approximates only 100 feet in elevation, and almost the whole section lies between 100 and 200 feet above sea level. The local hills, except where the soil is unfavorable, are suitable for or- charding. The surface soils include loams, sandy loams, and sands of various depths, with subsoils of sandy loams and sands. The color of the surface soil is brown to yellow, while the latter color is almost universal in the subsoil. The subsoils of loamy types are 16 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. typically lighter than the surface soil, a characteristic which very often obtains in Massachusetts, especially in the eastern part. Gravel is not infrequently encountered, especially in the subsoils. Its quan- tity is sufficient in places to prevent boring very far beneath the sur- face, but in no place examined was it sufficiently compact to constitute a true hardpan, though it is often so designated in local parlance. The lowlands of the Bridgewater-Brockton district often consist of heavy loams with retentive subsoil, and on such soils much of the farming has been done, especially that of milk and hay. Many of these lowland fields should be artificially drained. In a few cases this has been done, but there is great opportunity for an increase of the areas so improved. Such drainage would unquestionably pay where the land is not so rocky and stony as to increase to an un- warranted degree the cost of ditching. These soils are good for hay production, and the nearness to Boston markets and the low cost of carrying city manure back to the fields suggest a desirable use for these soils. PLATEAU DISTRICT OF EASTERN MASSACHUSETTS AND SOUTHEASTERN CON- NECTICUT. Topographically, this district also includes much of Rhode Island, but the field work of this report did not include the soils of that State. The average of the soils of this district in Massachusetts is some- what more gravelly, sandy, and porous in the southeastern than in the southwestern part. In Connecticut the fine sandy loam is probably the predominating texture, most of the loam areas of Pomfret and Woodstock being in the Highland district. As detailed descriptions of the soils of this district may be seen in the detailed soil surveys of Windham County and New London County, they are not in- cluded here. In Massachusetts the Blackstone River rises not far west of the city of Worcester and flows southeasterly to the corner of Worcester County. The Blackstone Valley is narrow and not particularly pronounced locally because of the broken surface features, but it is, nevertheless, a definite feature of the regional topography. The land is often stony and some of the lower areas along the stream are wet, so that much of the land is not farmed. There are some high terraces, however, as at North Uxbridge, where the surface soil of one considerable tract consists of open-structured fine sandy loam and light loam, with a few spots of fine sand. The subsoils in the same order are medium sandy loam, heavy sandy loam, and sand. These also are open structured, but as a rule not very leachy. East of the Blackstone Valley in the Mendon section and extending thence north to Grafton, Hopkinton, and Sherborn, the land surface PLATE |. Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘20ULISIP O[PpruUL [ssvpy ‘Sanqroiy UL Yor YB punoris AoT uo podump puvx porvo[d Wood SUTALY SYOOI puT souoys oY} ‘UIvOT LUOIS IOJSOONOTD oy ST [I09] “LNAWNdOTSARd WISYAWWOD LNASSYd 40 AdAL Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. Fia. 1.—MODERATELY EFFECTIVE SOD MULCH ON GLOUCESTER LOAM. [The mulch should be a little heavier.] Fic. 2.—CUTTING DOWN FILLER PEACH TREES IN 5-YEAR ORCHARD OF APPLE STANDARDS. [An unusual example of ability to carry out a purpose. Wallingford, Conn.] Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Ill. & Fertilized with both Vi y grass about three years. ls. ] year followed b mica’ stable manure and che APPLES A SUCCESSFUL MONEY CROP ON A DAIRY FARM IN THE BERKSHIRE HILLS, AT 1,000 Feet ELEVATION. [Baldwin, 18 years old, on Gloucester loam. Crop rotation practiced in corn one PLATE IV. Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. uUdeq OAR [A ‘Id UL 901} [eNpPTATpUT orvduL0g Uf YO UO 9soy Inq ‘ yos 48 I WOT poze AT}[NO sJOT Tog ‘podopoaspun yor ey} Wo ynq "SA 1ddVY JO ONILNVId AGISGVOY (X x pu A S[d UT OUR ‘sivad 0G ISB[ JO POS UL ToT PUB LDU JUSIOYIp XIs Aq pouMO § 00S) AUJTIY} IWSII UO sooty] SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 17 is quite rolling, though the hills are not very high. Many of the hills are dome-shaped and afford excellent orchard sites. Their soils, too, are generally well suited to orcharding, often consisting of mel- low, brown medium loams overlying a subsoil of friable sandy loam or light loam, yellow or brown in color. Just west of the Blackstone Valley the land is more rough and stony until the general level of the uplands is attained, where it is moderately hilly westward to the French River. Farther north in the town! of Sutton, where the apple of that name originated, the surface soils on a representative farm examined grade from heavy fine sandy loam in the “upper orchard” to a light silty loam in the “lower orchard.” The subsoil grades from heavy sandy loam to light loam, and in places to silty loam. The color of the surface soil is brown and yellowish brown, and of the subsoil yel- low, grayish-yellow, or light brown. In North Grafton the surface soils in another orchard examined included loam, light loam, and sandy loam of brown or yellowish- brown color, while the subsoils consisted of yellowish loam and sandy loam. In large orchards of another farm were found the types above mentioned and also a heavier silt loam underlain by clay loam. In still another, a compact gravel layer was encountered at a depth of 2 to 3 feet. This condition is designated as hardpan, and while true hardpan undoubtedly occurs in spots, the term is often used in the State to indicate subsoil conditions much less serious than actual hardpan. These examples serve to show the local variability of the soils. From the Sherborn-Hopkinton-Grafton district northward to Chelmsford and Groton the soils of the Eastern Plateau belt aver- age a little heavier than in the southern part, though the total range in texture is just as wide. This district includes many prominent farming towns, and excellent orchards are frequently to be seen. Among these towns may be mentioned Shrewsbury, Northboro, Berlin, Hudson, Marlboro, Sudbury, the Actons, Concord, Stowe, Clinton, Lancaster, Bolton, Harvard, Littleton, Chelmsford, West- ford, and Groton. The most representative soils are loams and fine sandy loams. Silty loams are not infrequent, while now and then silt loams occur. The subsoils are seldom heavier than the surface soils, but are very often lighter. In some places the subsoil grades to a compact sand in its lower depths, and small gravelly areas are not uncommon. The well- drained and friable character of these soils has undoubtedly been a 1“ Town’ in New England is synonymous with township. 55570°—Bull. 140—15——_2 18 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. most important factor in the establishment of the numerous or- chards. Most of these are small, to be sure, small orchards being countless, but there are also large plantings of both old and young trees. The characteristic color of the above soils is some shade of brown or yellowish brown, but the heavier soils are sometimes grayish and the subsoils a grayish brown or gray. In some cases, but not in others, this indicates poor present drainage. It is evident that the grayish colors of some areas is due to deficient drainage before the land was cleared, the subsequent’ run-off of the surface and open ditches serving to bring the land to satisfactory condition for crop- ping. The soil descriptions of the last district apply likewise to most of Essex County, though small areas of gravelly and sandy soils are perhaps a little more frequent, as are small areas of clay loams. In the Oldtown district, too, are some interesting joams carrying some well-developed orchards of Roxbury (Roxbury Russet). In de- scribing soils for that variety these are classed as Essex loam. North of Groton, and thence toward Hollis, N. H., a town just across the State line, there is another class of soil known locally as slate lands, and classed by the Bureau of Soils as the Hollis series. These have been derived from schistose rocks from which the “slaty ” fragments in the soil have come. The soils are more moist than the corresponding types of the Gloucester series, and in crop use are similar to the Bernardston soils, being especially well- adapted to the production of grass and other forage crops: For the purpose of this report these soils may be grouped with the Bernards- ton series. The red varieties of apples do not color as well as those grown on the Gloucester soils, which on this account are more de- sirable for growing the red varieties. North of the Merrimac River, and in northern Middlesex, northern Worcester, and northeastern Franklin Counties the topography is somewhat choppy, the soils are generally more sandy and porous, and farming is not extensively developed; and while sections of good farming lands and many good individual farms occur, the per- centage of stony land is greater than in some parts of the Eastern Plateau of the Eastern Highland districts. Land prices in the Kastern Plateau district are extremely variable, the average being much higher in Massachusetts than in Connecticut, largely because of the density of the population. Near towns and population centers, farm lands in Massachusetts are worth from $50 to $150 an acre, except in especially desirable locations, where they are much higher. At a distance from town land may be bought for much less than $50 an acre in both States. SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 19 THE EASTERN HIGHLANDS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. The upland soils of the Eastern Highlands are derived directly from glacial material. No exception to this was noted, and the glacial till is, for the most part, deep, even the hilltops having a thick mantle. The Gloucester series is by far the most extensive, but the Bernardston series is of importance in some localities. A striking feature is the stony character of the lowland soils. In this respect central Massachusetts, including much of the Eastern Plateau Belt, seems to differ from the glaciated districts west of New Eng- land, where the upland soils are generally more stony than the lowlands. In Worcester County and in places in eastern Massa- chusetts it is not unusual to find the lower-lying areas, which the railroads for the most part traverse, so stony that no attempt is made to cultivate them. Such lands were first cleared and used probably as pasture and then allowed to grow up in brush, a condi- tion which now largely prevails. That such lands are not tilled leads the casual traveler to think them so unproductive as to be sterile or nearly so. An examination reveals good soils in many cases to be so stony that it is not practicable at present to put them in condition for cultivation. There are exceptions to this statement, of course, and some areas would become profitable if, the stones having been removed, they were artificially drained. Drainage, in fact, is an important problem in Massachusetts and to some extent also in Connecticut, and some time in the future many drains will be installed. Areas are not infrequently found that lack only drain- age to permit profitable farming. In much of Worcester County the largest areas of cultivated land lie on broad hills. The cultivated area often extends down a grad- ual slope or in other cases terminates abruptly as a sharper slope is approached. There is no uniformity in the selection of the areas for cultivation. The lay of the land even leads one to wonder why brushy fields adjoining those cultivated are not likewise tilled. An examination shows that some are as desirable for tillage and some of them even more so than the lands already farmed. Other areas of identical superficial appearance, however, show the good judgment of the owner in making no attempt to till them because of the stones. The value of these lands or lack of it has had little to do appar- ently with their present use. Good lands were just as liable to be abandoned as poor lands. That part of the Eastern Highlands extending from a line drawn from Leominster, Mass., through Princeton and Barre south to in- elude Charlton and Warren, and also Woodstock, Pomfret, and part of Putnam, Conn., constitutes a good farming and orcharding section. Between Barre and Warren, Mass., this area should be ex- 20 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tended westward to include the excellent town of Hardwick, to which reference has already been made. Yet even this locality has been im- proved and reasonably developed only in spots. From much more of the land is the production of crops and other farm products destined to be greatly increased and conditions are already ‘ripe for the undertaking. Similar conditions obtain in the Pomfret-Wood- stock section in northeastern Connecticut. Good glacial loams, both medium and very heavy, produce good yields of corn and grass, the former being preferable for corn and the latter for grass. Both crops brought heavy yields in 1911, not- withstanding the droughty conditions that prevailed during much of the growing season. The medium and light loams are well adapted to orcharding, thrifty orchards here and there attesting to this fact, but they likewise are bringing good yields of forage for the produc- tion of market milk. Directly west from New Braintree, Mass., and toward Enfield the soils are more sandy, as they are to the south- ward in Hampden County east of a line connecting Three Rivers and the town of Hampden. These lighter soils also extend farther south into northern Tolland County, Conn., but in the southern half of that county the percentage of loamy areas increases somewhat. Prescott, Mass., may be taken to represent one of the more unde- veloped towns of eastern Hampshire County. Though hilly, this town has a sufficient area of soils that are capable of bringing good crops to warrant a much higher degree of farm improvement. In northwestern Worcester, in the eastern parts of Franklin and Hampshire, in the southwest corner of Worcester, and in the south- eastern part of Hampden County, Mass., and in northern Tolland County, Conn., the percentage of improved land is much less than in central Worcester County. Conditions differ somewhat, but the pro- duction of farm products is much lower than it should be. The ele- vation is high, the region is hilly, there is a considerable percentage of sandy and stony soils, distance from shipping points is relatively great, transportation over the existing highways is expensive, and hence large areas are in forest. Yet notwithstanding these adverse conditions, which are found in greater or lesser degree in most of the Eastern States, there are sufficient areas of good soils so located that they are easily capable of supporting a prosperous agriculture. From the crest of the Eastern Highland to the Connecticut Valley there is a general slope, but its surface has been so dissected as to leave little semblance to anything plainlike. On the contrary, bold hills approximating 1,000 feet in elevation extend nearly to the Connecticut River, in the northern part of the State, near the Ver- mont line in east Northfield, and thence southward these high hills extend through the towns of Erving, Montague, Leverett, Pelham, SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 21 and Enfield. Near the southern boundary of the town of Enfield the relief becomes much lower, and thence to the Connecticut line and far into Tolland County, Conn., the country spreads out into a succession of lower hills which are comparable to and connect with the eastern Hampden district. Much of this section is from 500 to 700 feet above sea level, though elevations up to 1,000 feet occur. The relief is characteristically much more gentle than that of the higher section to the north. The soils of the whole district are com- plex, often varying widely in short distances. They do not differ in kind from the rest of the Eastern Highland soils. but the percentage of sandy and porous areas is somewhat greater. A description of the soils of a cross section from near the center of this north and south belt in Massachusetts follows: From East Lev- erett to within 14 miles of Shutesbury the soils are extremely poor, being thin and sandy with some gravelly and leachy areas. Some of this material would have to be mapped as stony sand, the grades of sand being rather coarse. Formerly attempts were made to farm this section more or less, but the lack of adaptation of these soils to the production of the general farm crops which were tried necessi- tated their abandonment for that purpose. East of this belt, be- ginning about 14 miles west of Shutesbury and including all of Shutesbury Hill from 14 miles north of the center to 14 miles south- west of the town much of the land should be farmed. Some of the soils of this district are heavy loams, with subsoils usually a little lighter than the surface soil. These can be classed as rather moist soils and are well adapted to hay as a money crop. On soils not quite so heavy, such as light loams and heavy fine sandy loams, a good corn crop was grown in the season of 1911; in fact, it compared well with the crop secured in the Connecticut Valley the same season. The lighter soils give good yields of potatoes, and this is grown as a money crop. The sandy loam types of the region are good for peaches, and with the ight loams are hardly to be surpassed for the production of such varieties of red apples as are grown successfully in this part of the State. Such lands can be bought, without build- ings, for $3 to $10 an acre. The type of present commercial development in the section of the Eastern Highlands around Fitchburg is shown by the illustration, Plate I. To the east of this belt there is a steep scarp to the west branch ‘of Swift River along which there is another narrow belt of poor sandy soils. These, in turn, are succeeded by the more productive loams of Prescott Hill, already described. THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. Walled in by the abrupt or broken slopes of the Eastern Highland 22 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and the Western Highland, the productive and populous Connecti- cut River Valley is one of the most striking topographic features of Massachusetts and northern Connecticut. Approximately 2 miles in width in the northern part of Massachusetts, the valley broadens greatly about 2 miles south of Northfield Farms, where the river turns at a right angle and flows westerly toward Greenfield. There the valley is nearly 8 miles wide. Turning southward again, the river passes between Pocumtuck Mountain and Mount Toby. To- gether these mountains occupy about half the width of the valley. At the southern end of Mount Toby the valley steadily widens on the east side until it is crossed abruptly by a trap dike, the Mount Holyoke Range, which attains a height of 954 feet in the center of the valley at Mount Holyoke. Cutting through the range trans- versely the river pursues its way down through the central part of the main valley, leaving the southern extension of the Holyoke Range to the west. The latter turns directly south from Mount Tom, which is opposite Mount Holyoke, and, decreasing in height, forms a low divide far into the State of Connecticut. To the west of this divide is the valley of the Westfield and Farmington Rivers. The main valley continues about the same width to Hartford, below which it becomes narrower, is in part closed in, or is filled with dikes, and soon ends where the river breaks into the Eastern Highlands. Topographically it is succeeded by the New Haven Valley, which extends to Long Island Sound. The alluvial and terrace soils of the Connecticut Valley are water sediments which have been deposited in currents of varying velocity. Near the present river the first terraces are most always silty, and silt soils extend for some distance up the immediate borders of the con- tributory streams. With increasing distance from the river, higher terraces were laid down when the stream was much wider than at present. These terraces consist largely of fine sandy loams, fine sands, and fewer loams. With increasing distance from the river the sedi- ments become coarser until at the adjoining foothills coarse sands and fine gravelly sands prevail. The regular sequence of materials from fine to coarse has been often changed by the deposition of secondary valley streams. The adaptation of the Connecticut Valley soils to onions and tobacco precludes their general use for orchard purposes. The tree fruits, furthermore, can be grown better on the hills, where land is comparatively cheap. Viewed as a broad topographic and geologic division, the Con- necticut Valley Basin includes not only the valley proper, . but all the above-mentioned mountains within it and the foothills ad- joining the valley on both sides as far back as the red and yellow SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 3 sandstone and shale formations extend. On these elevations are found the soils of importance for fruit growing, as far as the Con- necticut Valley Basin is concerned. Some of the prominent locations are the eastern side of Pocumtuck Mountain in Deerfield, Taylor Hill in the town of Montague, parts of the Mount Pisgah district in Gill, Mount Warner in Hadley, and some of the lower slopes and eleva- tions of the Holyoke Range. In Connecticut sites just as favorable occur along the Talcott and Higby-Beseck Ranges, and the many smaller elevations. The soils of these elevations, and also those of the Westfield- Farmington Valley Basin, have been derived from the glaciated residuum of the Triassic red sandstone and pinkish conglomerates. They are grouped as the Wethersfield, the Middlefield, and the Tal- cott series in the order of their extent. As some of these soils have been more extensively developed for peach growing than those of the other series the most important soil types are here described in detail. In Massachusetts the most common type in the Wethersfield series is the sandy loam, but the loam is also of importance. The surface of the former consists of gray, salmon, or pinkish-gray sandy loam or loamy sand from 6 to 10 inches deep. The subsoil is variable, ranging from a sandy loam to a silty loam. The latter usually contains enough medium or coarse sand to make it somewhat gritty, the grains of sand being sharply contrasted in color with the heavier red matrix soil materials. The Wethersfield loam consists of red silty loam to an average depth of 8 inches. It usually contains enough medium sand to be somewhat gritty. -The subsoil is a gritty loam or sandy clay loam. In Massachusetts most of the series is somewhat stony, and a good bit of it is very much so. In Connecticut this series is much better developed. The average texture is heavier, the silty loam occurring in extensive areas, and a much smaller percentage is stony. Thus the average productiveness is much greater in Connecticut than in Massachusetts. The Wethersfield soils are normally a little less productive than the Gloucester series. This difference is greater, however, in Massa- chusetts than in Connecticut. Not only is the forest growth lighter, but the percentage of soft-wood varieties is greater. Grasses do not hold as long either in meadow or in pasture, and it is generally con- sidered that tilled crops require a little higher fertilization. The soils are well drained and crops mature a little earlier than on the Gloucester soils. The sandy loam is a favorite soil locally for early _ potatoes. In Massachusetts peaches have been grown successfully in some instances, and there is a good opportunity for the extension 94 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the industry, as the soil is well adapted to their production, and the areas have good local markets. In the Middlefield series the range of types is about the same as in the Wethersfield series, so separate description is not given. It is a companion series to the Wethersfield, from which it is separated primarily on the basis of color, though there is some variation in the productiveness and adaptedness when some of the corresponding soil types are compared. These soils are of much less importance in Massachusetts than in Connecticut, where they support good orchards, and their adaptedness is closely comparable to the Wethers- field series, the difference being of type rather than of series. In the Talcott series a silty loam and a silt loam are the predomi- nating types, but in them the presence of small ironstone fragments makes the friability of the soil mass greater than it would other- wise be. A soil map of the valley and the hills immediately adjoining was published in 1903," so the valley soils will not be described further in this report. THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. From the Connecticut Valley the irregular surface of the western highland rises to the mountainlike crest of eastern Berkshire County for a distance of 20 to 80 miles. Across this easterly sloping plateau surface flows the Deerfield River in northern Massachusetts, the Westfield River in southern Massachusetts, and the Farmington River in northern Connecticut. All these are tributary to the Con- necticut River. When the drainage of the western plateau becomes southerly the waters are carried chiefly in the Housatonic River and its important branch, the Naugatuck, though the Saugatuck River is also of importance. These rivers with their numerous tributaries have cut deep courses with fall sufficient in most cases to give rapid currents. Deep gorges are local characteristics, but the streams are usually swift even in the more prevalent open country. Between the stream cuts there are considerable areas of relatively smooth land, with medium-textured Gloucester soils. Following the drainage basin of the Deerfield River westward from its junction with the Connecticut, the valley is dissected only to moderate depth in the towns of Shelburne, Conway, and West Deer- ‘field, the adjoining irregular hills including much farming land, of which some is excellent. In Charlemont, Buckland, Hawley, Florida, and Rowe dissection is much deeper, and with approach to the Hoosac Tunnel it is steep 1Soil Survey of the Connecticut Valley, Field Operations, Bureau of Soils, 1903. PLATE V. Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. [ XX ‘Td UES 901] [BNPIATPUL 9 Iv duto9 WBOT XOSST OYI ST [OG S901} YZ WOT SpOIIVC OOT POpTeLs OTST UI puR PTO SIBAA 9G 1B SdOT} OSOTLL] ‘Al d1Lv1 d NI LHDSIY NO MOY SAO NOILOSS ws R \ SN Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. Fia. 1.—WILD APPLE THICKET IN FOREGROUND, IN A LEYDEN PASTURE, BEING THINNED FOR GRAFTING. COLERAINE DISTRICT. Fic. 2.—A DETAILED VIEW OF FIGURE 1. [Taken after the grafting had been begun.] SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 95 or even precipitous. The valley of the Deerfield is not very wide after it enters the western highland, but in many places narrow bands of alluvial or high-terrace soils are well farmed. On both sides of the Deerfield Valley, extending back for many miles, are hill towns with considerable areas of smooth land. Some of these already have good agricultural records for their output of farm stock and orchard products, and others seem worthy of further development. Even the best developed of these towns have made little more than a beginning, however, on the upbuilding of their opportunities. Of this broad section of good agricultural soils no general boundaries may be drawn, though the following-named towns are representative of the belt: Shelburne, Coleraine, Leyden, Heath, Charlemont, Buckland, Conway, Ashfield, Cummington, Worthing- ton, and part of Plainfield. ; It seems probable that the small amount of lime entering into the composition of some of the rocks from which the Gloucester soils of this section have been derived is partly responsible for their pro- ductiveness, which is apparently a little greater than that of the Gloucester soils of the Eastern Highlands, where lime does not seem to be present in the rocks. This comparison applies just as well to Vermont (the State where the mountains are green) and to New Hampshire (the State where the mountains are white), the latter corresponding to the Eastern Highlands and the former to the Western Highlands. Three general soil types cover the principal areas of the best farm lands of this district. Of these, the Gloucester loam, a brown, mel- low, medium loam, with subsoil of yellow or light-brown loam or light clay loam, is especially noticeable. This soil is naturally well adapted to the production of corn and clover, and when well handled gives excellent returns with these crops. A companion type, the Bernardston loam, consists of a very heavy loam, which is somewhat moist, and of grayish-brown or grayish-black color. The subsoil is gray or grayish. This is the best timothy soil of the region, and on it pasture grasses hold for a long time. As much of the type would be improved by artificial drainage, however, it will be recognized that this soil is not as well adapted to the clovers as the preceding type. In its present condition a good deal of this kind of soil needs lime. The third type, which is representative of the lighter soil areas, consists of a fine sandy loam, with a subsoil of loam, fine sandy loam, or sandy loam. Its area is much less than that of the two preceding types. All of these soils contain stony areas, Some being so stony as to interfere with tillage, or at least to increase its expense. Interspersed with the prevailing soil conditions described are many local areas of rougher topography. These include slopes to stream 26 BULLETIN 140, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. courses as above mentioned and also scattering sharp hills and ridges, from which slow, yet long-continued, erosion has removed consider- able parts of the soil mantle. Most areas of this sort are stony, while some of them are very much so, and ledges often protrude. Along the latter the depth of the soil is far from uniform, as the tilt of the ledge plain varies all the way from nearly horizontal to perpendicular. As “Apple Valley,” in the towns of Ashfield and Buckland, has earned a somewhat noted and well-deserved reputation for its orchards, the character of its soils are of special interest. The soils range from light loams to heavy leams and clay loams, the textures of the subsoils being similar in range. The soils are all derived from deep glacial till. Some fields are comparatively free from stones and others are very stony, but most of the valley is moderately stony. The soils are productive, but the men of the section must be given credit for having used them skillfully. Soils as good for orcharding and farming occur in various places in the hill towns of western Franklin and western Hampshire counties that should be equally developed. Orchard and farm lands can be bought in the Western Highland section of Massachusetts for $10 to $30 an acre, and on tracts of 100 acres or more very good farm buildings are often included at the latter price. Farms of 100 to 150 acres with good buildings are to be had for $5,000. These prices can be duplicated in western Con- necticut, except where the purchase of farms by outside residents has led to a marked increase in prices. This apples more especially to the southwestern part of the State. In the southeastern part of the Western Highlands in Massachusetts and in the northeastern part in Connecticut dissection has been very deep, especially in the towns of Russell, Blandford, Montgomery, Chester, and Huntington, where the slopes above the channel of the Westfield River are exceedingly steep, broken, and rocky, and in those towns of Connecticut along the break in the highlands toward the Connecticut and Farmington Valleys. Local areas are some- times too rough even for feasible forestry planting, yet here and there are smooth, rounded hills or moderate slopes of sufficient area to afford good sites for orchards and other crops. The soils of one large tract examined in western Hampden County included loams— heavy, medium, and light—the subsoils rarely being as heavy as clay loams. Traces of hardpan sometimes occur, but suitable areas free from this difficulty are readily found. Spouty and seepy slopes, which are sometimes encompassed in desirable fields, it is practicable to drain artificially. That part of Hampshire County between the Connecticut Valley SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 27 and the upper Westfield River Basin is much less deeply dissected than the section traversed by the latter river, though withal it is hilly. The soils include a much larger percentage of sandy types than the Coleraine-Cummington region, but there are many good farming areas. Between Cummington and Northampton the loamy soils of the former town extend approximately to Swift River, east of which the soils are more sandy nearly to Williamsburg, and farm- ing is less developed. A mile or two west of Williamsburg begins another strip of loamy and more productive soils, which extend to west Whately, southeastern Conway, and on to Patterson Four Corners. The road from Whately village north to Whately Glen indicates the eastern limits of this area. In the Western Highlands of Connecticut, especially west of the gorge of the Naugatuck River, where dissection and erosion have been more kind than farther east, there are many good farming towns, especially in Litchfield County. Not all localities were ex- amined in detail, hence various good towns were doubtless missed, but among those seen may be mentioned Canaan, Cornwall, Litch- field, Washington, Woodbury, Western Watertown, and Southbury in New Haven County, and Newtown, Redding, and Ridgefield in Fairfield County. Passing northward to the foot of the Hoosic Range in northwestern Massachusetts, the soils up the eastern slope are much more sandy than those of the lower highlands. Going through the tunnel of the Boston & Maine Railway, in Hoosic Mountain, one approaches North Adams, which is located near the center of the Hoosac Valley. There the North Branch, flowing from Vermont, joins the Hoosac River as it comes from Berkshire County and flowing westward through the defile between the southern end of the Green Mountains on the north and Graylock on the south, passes out of the north- west corner of the State. The valley of the Hoosac is flanked on the south in the town of Williamstown by a secondary rolling valley, in which are many good farms. The greater part of the Hoosac Valley is occupied mainly by old glacial terraces, of which the soils include many areas of loam, but there are also many sandy and gravelly knolls and ridges. In the North Branch Valley in the town of Clarksburg the soils are very stony or even rocky, and their nearness to the good markets of North Adams accounts for the relatively high price of land—said to be $50 to $100 an acre, where within a radius of 4 to 5 miles from the town. The soils of the Williamstown Valley average somewhat heavier. There are many areas of loam and clay loam, though sandy and gravelly knolls and low hills frequently occur. Good dairy farms 28 BULLETIN 140, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are to be seen, the milk in excess of the local demand being shipped to Boston. Both Williamstown and North Adams are good local markets for considerable amounts of milk, cream, some butter, and much garden produce. There are few orchards, though good orchard soils occur on some of the local elevations. The Upper Hoosac Valley towards Cheshire is narrow, being in places little more than a defile between Mount Graylock and the Hoosic Range. This is a general farming district. The valley closes in on the south with the low hills forming the divide between it and the Housatonic Valley. At Lanesboro the latter broadens and oc- cupies nearly the whole of Pittsfield Town. It then divides, one | arm extending south through the towns of Lenox and Stockbridge and the other arm southward through the town of Richmond to West Stockbridge. From the latter town to Housatonic village, mountains nearly close the valley, the spaces between them being occupied by narrow stream beds. A few miles south of Great Barrington the valley is again nearly 5 miles broad, and thence it extends south to the Connecticut line, including a large part of the towns of Egremont and Sheffield in Massachusetts and of North Canaan, Eastern Salisbury, and Western Sharon, in Connecticut. The valley floor near the Connecticut line is about 700 feet, and at Pittsfield, Mass., about 1,000 feet above sea level. The Berkshire Valley is underlain by limestone and, although the surface soils are glacial deposits, sufficient limestone débris has entered into their composition to render them somewhat more pro- ductive than they would otherwise be. They constitute the Dover series, and vary greatly. Areas of well-drained loams and some light clay loams are interspersed with more sandy soils. Some of the latter are susceptible to drought and general crops are not considered very safe, but the heavier soils are sufficiently retentive of moisture to constitute excellent grass lands. In some cases, to an extent, the soils are cold owing to inadequate drainage, and the crop yields are correspondingly low. Artificial drainage would pay on some of these fields and will undoubtedly be installed in due time. The valley walls are generally steep, though here and there smoother areas open back into the adjoining hills. The hill region east of the valley includes many good farming localities, but gener- ally speaking it is capable of much higher development. From Pitts- field south the valley is walled in on the west by abrupt hills which occupy the northwestern part of the town of Salisbury, Conn., and the towns of Hancock and Mount Washington in the southwest cor- ner of Massachusetts, but farther north they pass out of Massachu- setts and for some distance extend along the New York boundary, leaving room for a considerable area of good agricultural land in the town of Egremont. A representative sample of these good soils SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 29 consists of dark-brown to dark grayish-brown medium to heavy loam to a depth of 9 inches. The subsoil consists of heavy light- brown or grayish-brown loam. These soils are mellow, deep, friable, and productive. Land prices in the Berkshire Valley vary greatly, the highest prices current being due to causes outside of agricultural develop- ment. The attractiveness of the region has led to the establishment of many summer homes by wealthy urban dwellers, and a few re- main throughout the year. The greater part of such transfer of real estate is congregated in a few towns (townships), and has greatly increased land values in the district immediately surround- ing, but aside from such centers land prices are still very low. Several points of soil condition favorable to orcharding in Massa- chusetts and Connecticut have been mentioned. These are: An abundance of deep, friable, well-drained, well-oxidized and suffi- ciently productive soils; the low price of such soils; and the nearness to the best of markets. Such soil areas are most frequent in the Western Highlands, the Eastern Plateau, and the Eastern High- lands. Several disadvantages should also be mentioned. Many of the upland soils are more or less stony, and in some cases rocky lands are frequently divided into fields too small for economic working and surrounded by stone walls, the removal of which involves some ex- pense, and some districts are handicapped by their distance from railway shipping points. The minor lowland areas, outside of the Connecticut and Merrimac Valleys, often consist of sandy glacial terrace débris that is more seriously affected by drought than the upland soils, and normally less productive. ORCHARDING; GENERAL CONDITIONS IN THE FUTURE. An analysis of the agricultural resources of Massachusetts, includ- ing the soils, and the availability of excellent markets can hardly fail to lead to the conviction that a great deal of good land now. bringing little return must eventually support very profitable lines of farming. The tendency of the last quarter century to leave farm- homes somewhat distant from towns and social advantages, notwith- standing the excellent opportunities for money-making which such farms might possess, has been notable and marks a definite stage in the agricultural history of the region. The still better advised re- turn to such of these lands as possess good possibilities is sure to come, for they hold good opportunities for those able to take advan- tage of them. But the higher development of these lands will be shaped according to their adaptation to produce crops and products under existing economic conditions, and to meet the demands of, and to take advantage of, the markets near at hand. Experience has 30 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. already shown the futility of trying to compete with the Middle West in farm products for which the soil and field conditions of the latter are superior. Hence New England farmers should welcome such competition instead of regretting it, and meanwhile bend their energies to producing and marketing the higher forms of products for which their location gives them an advantage over any possible competitors. The normal increase of the population of the United States is sure to effect this development eventually, because the in- creasing price of foodstuffs will make it necessary to use the many kinds of soils for those crops only to which they are best, or at least reasonably well, adapted. In the following chapter the development of orchards on suitable soils, and the kinds of soil on which several of the different varieties of apples, peaches, and pears may be ex- pected to give the best, or at least good, results is treated in some detail. In regard to the relative importance of the personal factor of the erchardist himself, as compared with that of the adaptation of the soil, it may be said that a man who strongly likes to grow apples may grow very good ones in spite of adverse soil conditions, because he makes all other conditions of growth favorable. Similarly he who does not care for orcharding may not produce good apples, even though his soil be excellent, because he is not imbued with the interest in the subject which makes for success. Yet he who enjoys orchard- ing is most successful when the soil factor, as well as the other fac- tors necessary for success, receives due consideration, and only those varieties are planted on any given soil which that soil is best adapted to produce. A “stony” loam is often recommended as a desirable fruit soil. In fact it is one of the assertions most commonly heard in this con- nection. Many growers think there is virtue in stones for increasing or enhancing the value of a given soil for apple production. If a soil is too heavy (clayey) or too impervious it is made more pervious by stones, but in this case their effect is only that of an antidote to soil conditions otherwise undesirable. It is an easy matter, further- more, to select soils free from stones, or practically so, that are equally pervious and desirable or even more so, and such soils would have an additional virtue in that they could be cultivated more cheaply. Any benefit from the disintegration and decomposition of the stones during the lifetime of an individual is certainly negligible. Hence, while stones may be advantageous in loosening a clay soil somewhat, just as they are disadvantageous to a porous sandy soil by lowering its moisture-holding capacity, they should not be con- sidered, except as above indicated, a desirable attribute of soils to be planted in orchard. Much of the current belief that “stony” SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 31 soils possess some peculiar advantage in their adaptability to orchard fruits has andoubtedly arisen from the success of many orchards located on stony hills. The facts that the soils were in a large num- ber of cases friable, deep, and at least fairly productive, and that air drainage was excellent have apparently made less impression on the mind than has the stony appearance of the surface. The fact that a soil is stony does not necessarily imply that it is productive, even though friable and deep. But if apples are to be grown with profit when competition is keen, as it is periodically certain to be, the soil must be productive, or at least capable of be- ing economically brought to a productive state and so maintained. To this point too little attention has been given. As to the adaptability of well-selected soils, the price of land, and good markets the opportunities for successful orcharding in southern New England are exceptionally good. To certain features of the business, however, attention should be called. In the current rapid expansion of orchard acreage there is a strong tendency to reduce every project to a strictly commercial basis of large proportions. Hundred-acre orchards no longer cause sur- prise, as various individuals and companies operate several times this acreage, and many more very large projects have been begun. On undertakings of such magnitude is the cry of future overproduction chiefly based. There is no denying the probability that the average wholesale markets of the future will be materially «ffected by fruit from these extensive plantings. But the economic efficiency attained in the individual development of these orchards, and the grade of fruit marketed will be very important factors in deternuing the financial outcome. The history of orcharding has shown, moreover, that extensive planting is spasmodic. High prices lead to such an increase of plant- ‘ing that prices are eventually forced down whenever a large per- centage of localities in the whole country happen to bear a full crop because of favorable seasonal conditions. The high prices and ex- tensive plantings of the last several years make it seem very probable that the crest of such a wave may be approaching, and that prices ere long will be lower. When such condition arrives the survival of the fittest is the universal law that applies. It is at this point that the importance of selection of orchard site, soil, and location with ref- erence to markets or shipping facilities becomes most apparent. Adequate care after planting must be given in all cases, but it alone is not sufficient where competition becomes acute. Cheapness in pro- duction of fruit demanded by extensive markets determines the value of most orchard projects, and orchards that are deficient in these various attributes are soonest forced out of business. This is not taken to mean, however, that profitable orcharding may not be 32 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. carried on by the general farmer when carefully done. The old time orchard must go, however, or be rejuvenated and given consistent care if it is to serve any purpose very useful in the economy of the farm. It must be admitted also that there are certain objections to the extremely large orchard. Many of the tender-fleshed and thin-skinned varieties which the best retail markets desire are not amenable to ordinary methods of handling. Skilled help can undoubtedly be secured in many cases, but it is exceedingly difficult through all the processes of care and attention to give all the orchard and all the fruit the personal attention which enables the individual grower of, say, 10 to 20 acres to secure the highest prices of special markets or of retail trade. Another excellent opportunity of the present time is to bene the . old orchards into good bearing condition as soon as possible. In this way a few very profitable crops may be secured before the larger orchards of recent and present plantings bear much fruit. The diagram, figure 2, based upon estimates prepared by the State board of agriculture, so far as production is concerned, shows the relative importance of different parts of the State as apple-growing sections. In many of these towns important plantings have been made since the preparation of these estimates. Similar interest and activity in towns not included in these lists will bring them also above the 10,000-bushel minimum not many years hence. In the diagram (Fig. 2) the approximate location of these townships is represented by symbols. Surrounding areas—not townships—of rel- ative but not necessarily equal production are indicated by a system of lines. CULTURAL METHODS IN ORCHARDS. It is not the purpose of this report to discuss orchard cultural methods beyond calling attention to prevailing practices. The profitable peach orchards are almost always cultivated, and those most profitable are cultivated assiduously until midsummer, when an annual cover crop is grown. The crops used for this pur- pose are many—rye, buckwheat, rape, cow-horn turnips, crimson, red and alsike clovers, winter vetch, etc., being in common use. Rutabaga seed is often thickly broadcasted, the best roots being sold and the remainder left as a cover crop. The best of the commercial apple orchards are also cultivated to midsummer and then laid by with some of the cover crops named above. The sod-mulch system is also practiced to some extent and gives very good results where the plan is consistently and thoroughly carried out. The most common difficulty with this method is the failure to apply sufficient mulch to prevent the growth of any grass or weeds within a circle which should extend for a few feet beyond on SS : BASS a QS ELISBURY » Se) \ a i 1 1. : = = = Ss \ SS QW ae > = : ZA ery ———X SN Cop a TYPE OF ORCHARD PLANTING FOR THE TOWN OF LEOMINSTER Bulletin!40, U.S.Dept. of Agriculture : Bulletin!I40, U.S.Dept. of Agriculture Plate IK LEGEND Regular Plantings BAS= MAP FROM U,S.G.S- TYPE OF ORCHARD PLANTING FOR PART OF THE TOWN OF PARMA, MONROE CO.,NEW YORK. Scale @z500 1 3 o 1 Miles SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 35 prosperous towns of this class, and because of the intense develop- ment of this sort an orchard map was prepared to show conditions there. Definite blocks indicate for the most part trees grafted before they were planted or soon after, the trees being in regular rows. Orchards shown by dots have no regularity of arrangement. Of these trees the great majority have come up as seedlings where they now stand, and have been grafted as the owner could get to it or possibly hire some one to do it. A row of trees along a wall or fence surrounding tilled fields is a common feature, but probably more are located in pastures. Almost all grafting has been to Bald- win, no tree being considered too old for this purpose if in vigorous condition, though most of it is done before the trees are 20 years old. Five to ten years is considered a favorable time where the land is not to be grazed, as the scions can then be set high enough for teams to work underneath; but in pastures an older age is preferred so that cattle may graze without injuring the trees. Of so much im- portance are these irregular orchards that seedlings or nursery stock are not infrequently set in to fill any large gaps, thus by a little effort making a solid block of trees. This method of orcharding seems very strange to those unfamiliar with it; but the profits derived have been largely instrumental in the town’s prosperity, and many Bald- wins of exceptionally good quality are grown. Countless thousands of seedling apple. trees abound in Coleraine that are not yet grafted. Many farmers graft a few every spring as other work permits, or as outside grafters can be hired, but even so the number of trees is so great that many will never be grafted, not- withstanding the profit to be derived. It is doubtful if seedlings grow more profusely anywhere. This system of orcharding, though unusual, is of much im»vortance locally, and the profits derived are certain to lead to its steady die- velopment. From the ungrafted trees large quantities of cider are produced for vinegar, which constitutes no inconsiderable source of additional income. RELATIVE PRODUCTION OF APPLES IN SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND. While it is often unsafe to draw definite conclusions as to the relative importance of fruit growing in different States, because of variations in weather conditions in any given year, age, and con- dition of trees, etc., such comparisons may nevertheless serve as a general index, and for this reason the figures below are taken from the United States census of 1910. It should be borne in mind that New York is by far the foremost State in the production of apples, hay- ing a greater yield than any other entire geographic group of States other than the one of which it forms a part; and in 1909 Michigan 36 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was the only other State exceeding Pennsylvania in the yield of this fruit. Number of trees in orchards and production of orchard fruits in eight leading States for the years 1899 and 1909. Trees of | Trees un- eee State. bearing der bear- ae: eee 1909 1899 | Bushels. Bushels. MASSA CHUSC UGS sere saint ie cera cyh d cleie rrrcimsicti aw ela eeimere cre cle --| 1,698,220 591,796 } 2,763,679 3, 158, 781 Connecticut.........------------2++- +++ - ee eee eee eee 1,369, 515 604,296 | 1,874,242 38, 839, 105 Nem ieork sent. 5 sc lassue aon sate ee aus ad 17, 625,093 | 7,363,614 | 29,456,291 | 26, 172/310 Pam ay lyon teense, Qos Rha Sect canes oe ane ect 13,186,773 | 5,921,257 | 13,285,953 | 25,236, 854 Ilan efi = eae 8 Ae ace ee ean el ae ee 12,842,827 | 6,679,949 | 15, 220, 104 9, 859, 862 Washing LOnt ss She ee ee epee Sek ae, iene 4,944,889 | 6,951,251 4, 244, 670 1, 180, 357 Omegniived(:. seeks feck it ea ee acento 4,583,735 | 4,309,232 | 4,423,244 | 1/529’ 02 WaliTO TM IB Mics Seas ee Oe tebe eens Soe as ae 22,485,195 | 8,410,062 | 31,501,507 | 22,690,696 Number of trees in apple orchards, total production of apples in 1899 and 1909, and production per capita for the same years in selected States. Production. Density} Production per of capita. Trees of | Trees un- F opu- State. bearing | der bearing Population, lation 1910. per age. age. ayn 1909 1899 mile, 1909 1899 1910. Bushels. Bushels. Bu. Bu. Massachusetts....| 1,367,379 355, 868 2, 550, 259 3, 023, 436 3,366, 416 418 0. 76 ial Connecticut. ....- 798, 734 211, 839 1, 540, 996 3, 708, 931 1,114, 756 231 1.4 4 New York....-.. 11, 248, 203 2,828,515 | 25,409,324 | 24,111, 257 9,113, 614 191 2.8 3n0 New Jersey..-...| 1,053, 626 519, 749 1, 406, 778 4, 640, 896 2,537, 167 BB yA 0.5 2.4 Pennsylvania....| 8,000, 456 2,501,185 | 11,048, 430 | 24, 060, 651 7, 665, 111 UE eT, 3.8 Delaware.......- 429, 753 263, 813 183, 094 702, 920 202, 322 103 0.95 sted Georgia 222... 1, 878, 209 822, 327 895, 613 670, 889 2,609, 121 44 0. 34 0.3 Michigan......... 7, 534, 343 2, 253,072 | 12,332, 296 8, 931, 569 2,810, 173 48.9 4,7 3.6 MUNOS2 52 2scc cece 9, 900, 627 2,548, 301 3, 093, 321 9,178, 150 5, 638, 591 100 0. 55 1.9 TOWO8Se5. 2 oskeces 5, 847 034 1, 914, 325 6, 746, 668 3, 129, 862 2,224, 771 40 3 1.4 Washington...... 3,009, 337 4, 862, 702 2,672, 100 728, 978 1, 141, 990 abreal 2.3 1.4 Oregon-=-2- 5.2.2 - 2,029,913 | 2,240,636 | 1,930,926 873, 980 672, 765 ti 2.8 2.1 California. ....... 2) 482’ 762 | 1,054,107 | 4,935,073 | 3,488,208 | 2,377,549] 15 2.6 218 Number of trees in peach orchards and production of this fruit in 1899 and 1909 in important States. Num ber ok Number State. peace under bear- 1909 1899 & ing age. age. Bushels. Bushels. IMASSACHUSCLES cots ci jets ate 2 eke enero tise eee eee 154, 592 162,114 91, 756 27, 906 Connecticuicss 32 s-. ete > Sa be ee ES ee 461,711 338, 608 269, 990 61,775 IN GW? QIK oe ae rence teeta ea seeraaaee 2,457,187 | 2,216,907 | 1,736, 483 466, 850 ING Wed CY SQVe ete eects ast Seater ects 1, 216, 476 1, 363, 632 441, 440 620, 928 IDOLS WAT Ose hse Ree coe cern adie vay Wee area 1,177, 402 212,117 16, 722 9, 750 IPEnnsylVamigs. $522 ems So kha i Bee ee ee aa ee 2,383,027 | 2,179,386 | 1,023,570 143, 464 AVES GILG are eer a ee ae ne ares eee = yr ae Se 2,907,170 | 2,991, 090 1, 686, 586 339, 637 GON e1a 2 Ae Roo ea ee oe Doe ae Oe Ae Ae ate 10,609,119 | 1,531,367 | 2,555, 499 259, 728 Washinotonesss22s5cee- eee Be RES Serre tee rey 536, 875 | 1,028, 141 84, 494 80, 990 OTOS ON eee ace a tine Meta noo oeiniaat toes Sane 273, 162 508,179 179, 030 101, 190 WalitormiagAe eee ae cps eee ae eo em care eee 7,829,011 | 4,409, 562 267,118 8,563, 427 | SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 37 Exports of apples from the United States at five principal eastern ports. Port. 1912 1910 Bushels. Bushels. 437, 611 BES OOS LON es ae alae rem alee aera ala nie) ayn nial (onmm wynpaln lm minim ole myn min ; 170, 013 WIG? WORK co hos doo atheeseaueosnos sedeme seoocose. coppeose dusaeceeeorsrreeenecers 609, 041 566, 926 ails gel pila ee eee esse Aen ere JnenuenocsincbesodacadaayaeLAdsaee desee 649 39 Portland Mees. 2-27-2222 L 2 Speecaednaasoncaconoucb issue ceugEceneeE aes eepee 158, 717 67,748 iBellgtrayye, Il. Ae eee ee Phe we Spee e nee osoce ar asue S045 os On roa aE Rone seReReBe Ee 168 92 The States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania include approximately one-fourth of the popula- tion of the United States, and it is apparent from the above figures that Massachusetts and Connecticut are very fortunate not only in home markets for fruits but also in facilities for exporting whenever prices at home make it advisable to ship apples out of the country. These States have, however, an unusually large proportion of non- agricultural population, and local markets are exceptionally good in that they are well distributed and consume a relatively large quan- tity of fruit for which remunerative prices are paid. This gives no small advantage over States that have to ship a much greater dis- tance to these same markets, but in order to take full advantage of these excellent opportunities the grading and packing of fruit should be greatly improved. There are already sufficient exceptions to in- ferior grading and packing effectively to demonstrate the superior profit of better methods, and by them the general grower should be guided. The importance of the fruit industry in southern New England necessitates a better development of business methods in handling and marketing the crop, and there is already a very no- ticeable and commendable tendency to effect these ends. RELATION OF SOIL CHARACTERS TO CROP AND VARIETAL ADAPTATION. While the statement that “a given variety of apple, for the most successful growth within its general climatic region, requires a cer- tain kind or condition of soil” seems incontrovertible, inasmuch as it is so well substantiated by orchard results under a wide range of conditions, the reason why this should be so is not so easily stated. It seems to depend fundamentally upon the water-holding capacity, or rather the moisture coefficient, of the soil. The capacity of a soil to hold capillary water, which is the only kind plant growth can use, depends on (1) the soil texture (i. e., the size of the soil grain) ; (2) the soil structure or the grouping of these tiny grains into clus- ters, thus making it granular; (3) the amount of humus in the soil; and (4) the degree of soil tilth, which is a combined effect of the foregoing and tillage. 38 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The film of moisture which surrounds every soil particle up to the point where saturation begins varies in thickness according to the amount of water contained at any particular moment by a given vol- ume of the soil. The soil-film moisture is removed, not by drainage, but only by transpiration through growing plants and by evapora- tion. As the last factor can be held under control to a considerable extent by the dust mulch system of crop cultivation, or by artificial mulches, the amount of soil moisture available to growing plants and trees depends upon the film moisture contained in the soil, and the amount of this depends in the first analysis upon the texture of the subsoil and to a lesser degree upon that of the surface soil. As every soil particle is surrounded by a film of moisture, it follows that the finer the soil the greater is the number of films, and likewise the greater the area or amount of moisture in a given volume of soil. Whitney+ found that the surface area of the soil particles in a cubic foot of the subsoil in the pine barrens land was about 24,000 square feet, in silty and fine sandy river terrace subsoils the area was 100,000 square feet or 23; acres, and in the much more clayey lime- stone subsoils 200,000 square feet. In commenting on this data, Wiley ? states: This great extent of surface and surface attraction gives the soil great power to absorb moisture, and thus the soluble mineral ingredients, of which most soils contain only a little, are held too closely to allow of rapid loss by drainage, and still sufficiently available to answer the needs of vegetation, provided the store is large enough. And again: The porosity of a soil depends upon the size of the soil particles (texture), the way in which these particles are grouped together (structure), and upon the space between the particles or groups of particles. If a soil be cemented together into a homogeneous mass, its porosity sinks to a minimum; if it be composed, however, of numerous fine particles, each preserving its own physical condition, the porosity of the soil will rise to a maximum. The porosity of a soil may be judged very closely by the percentage of fine particles it yields on mechanical analysis. A finely divided soil has a high capacity for absorbing moisture and holding it. The adaptation of a soil to different crops depends largely on the sizes of the particles composing it. This is illustrated in the case of a certain soil containing about 30 per cent of clay, “which is strong enough and sufficiently retentive of moisture to make good grass land, but too close in texture and too retentive of moisture for the production of a high grade tobacco or to be profitable for market vegetables.” Cameron and Gallagher*® found that the optimum moisture con- tent—i, e., the particular content at which a given soil can be put into 1 Whitney, Md. Agr. Expt. Sta., 4th Ann. Rept., p. 282. 2 Agricultural Analysis, pp. 181-1382. 2 Bul. 50, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agr. SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 89 its best possible condition for plant growth—varies widely with soils of different textures. In other words, from a given amount of rain- fall one soil is more capable than another of furnishing optimum moisture to a given crop. Frear* states that— Equally essential with the proper food supply for the growth of a crop are fitting temperature, moisture, and looseness of the soil for the root of the plant. While the soil temperature and moisture are strikingly affected by local climate, they depend also in very large measure upon the structure of the soil itself. If we could determine the structure of the soil accurately, we would probably be able ere long to make quite exact predictions as to the kinds and qualities of erops any soil whose structure was known could produce. * * * While no satisfactory means have been devised for determining soil structure with pre- cision, the size of the particles of which it is composed affords valuable indica- tions of its physical properties and especially of its moisture relations. Another important. function must be added: The soil largely modifies the climate to which the plant is exposed. We are accustomed to regard atmospheric condi- tions as most largely influencing the life activities of plants, but careful ob- servation has shown that within a wide range of temperature the warmth of the soil far more than the air determines the vigor of plant development. With tillage conditions equal, the thickness of the film of moisture around each grain of soil depends, on the one hand, upon the supply of ground water at any particular time, and on the other, upon the rapidity with which the film of moisture is being removed by plant rootlets. Amendments may be added to the soil in the form of lime and humus, which also affect in varying degree the amount of film water in the soil which is available to plant rootlets. But the plant food in the soil is obtained by growing plants only as it is dissolved in the soil film moisture, hence it is apparent that the distribution and consequent availability of the moisture is a matter of the utmost importance. Jeffery * found in his work on the water-holding capacity of soils that of water that was passed— Through 100 ounces of air-dry clay soil, 56 ounces were retained. Through 100 ounces of air-dry loam soil, 49 ounces were retained. Through 100 ounces of air-dry sandy soil, 36 ounces were retained. Through 100 ounces of air-dry muck soil, 170 ounces were retained. In the first three cases the differences are due largely to the size of the soil grains. In the fourth case the great capacity of the soil for water is due to the large amount of organic matter present, which in this particular soil was over 69 per cent. It is thus apparent that any marked increase in the water-holding capacity of any one of the three first grades of soil in the above experiment would re- quire some amendment, and for this purpose humus is the most efficient. In the case of the sandy soil, however, decayed organic 1 Bul. 20, Pa. Agr. Expt. Sta. “Bul. 219, Mich. Agr. Expt. Sta. 40 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. matter would be required in such excessive amounts as to upset the equilibrium of the fruiting and vegetative habits of the tree; that is, the sandy soil would actually become so “mucky” as to give an excessive vegetative growth at the expense of fruit yield, and an important percentage of the fruit obtained would be de- ficient in color. Humus is, nevertheless, the most important factor or agent, as the case may be, in modifying the physical condi- tion of the soil mass so far as the mineral constituents are con- cerned. This it does by partly filling the spaces between the grains of sand, i. e., the coarse particles, and by holding apart the finer particles of clay. In these ways both sand and clay are made more loamy and favorable for plant growth. By increasing the num- ber of particles in a given volume of soil, by helping to group the soil particles into clusters, thus increasing granularity, and also by actual absorption of moisture, humus increases the moisture-holding capacity of the soil and likewise the availability of the mineral fertilizing constituents. To change, furthermore, by the addition of humus, the nigel condition of a sandy soil to a depth reached by tree race sufficiently to make its supply of available moisture the same as that of a heavier soil, such as a loam or a clay loam, is unquestionably an expensive process, even were it desirable; and orchards are grown for profit. Hence this phase of the whole problem is an economic one. It is good business to select soils naturally adapted to the different varieties, rather than to use soils that must be modified to make them suitable. Soils so deficient in humus as to be leachy in case of sands, or stiff, intractable, and cloddy in the case of clays, clay loams, and loams should have their humus content increased until these un- favorable conditions for crop growth of any kind be overcome so far as possible. But there are marked limitations even to this funda- mental kind of soil amendment, as it is not possible by the addition of plenty of humus so to change the physical and structural charac- teristics of a given soil that these inherent characters will become negligible so far as its adaptation to crops, or to different varieties of the same crop, is concerned. The agricultural practice of the eastern United States furnishes many examples of the special adap- tation of particular soils to crop varieties. In the Connecticut Valley of Massachusetts and Connecticut the physical character of the soil not only determines what specific crops shall be grown on the different types, but the adaptability of those soil types to such special crops has in turn been the principal basis of land valuation there for the last half century. The soils are all alluvial, and the variation in elevation is in no case more than a few feet. One of the sandy loams is the best type for the wrapper PLATE X. Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. SsvIAl ‘ [ALTAVOLL SUTPTOLA [LYS St ooay sry] HOIMSd| LV WVO7F YSLSSONO1H NO NIMG1VG A1O SNOWYONZA PLATE XI. Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. [‘sploré AAvoy seonpord 90.14 sty OSB 871 SULIPURISYIIMION | "NNOO ‘HOIMNASYD ‘AYO Y3LS30NOTH NO NIMGIVG G10 GadVHS-113M SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. Al leaf tobacco; hence a normal price for many years has been $150 to $200 an acre, though it is now considerably higher than that. It is also a good onion soil, but brings no more profitable returns from that crop than a loam which, under identical cultural treatment, gives a cigar leaf so much thicker and poorer in quality that no one longer persists in trying to grow tobacco on it. Hence a relative price for this soil type is $100 an acre where one location is in every way equal to the other. It should be noted, too, that the best of the tobacco lands contain 1.5 to 2.75 per cent of organic matter. Hence the natural adaptation of that soil does not depend, it need hardly be said, on an unusual organic content; neither may other soils of that locality, though just as favorable for the growth of cigar leaf in every respect save that of texture and structure, be so amended by the addition of humus as to produce leaf satisfactory in quality. Dr. Frear, in Bulletin No. 20 (above referred to), quotes Tscher- batscheff, a Russian tobacco specialist, who has studied with care tobacco culture in America, as follows: In Virginia and North Carolina the heavy or shipping tobacco is usually grown upon heavy loamy soils which for the most part have a red or dark brownish- red color and contain almost no humus. The tobacco of golden yellow color and pleasant aroma requires no thick layer of humus, so that for its culture * * * a sandy, or sandy loam, Soil is selected. The experience of growers is that this crop requires heat rather than moisture. In fact, in the presence of an excess of moisture it grows rapidly, the parenchyma thickens, and the leaf is larger, but at the expense of quality. Again, Mayor Ragland, of Virginia, is quoted as follows: A deep rich soil overlying a red or dark brown subsoil is best suited for the dark rich export type of tobacco. A gravelly or sandy soil with a red or light brown subsoil is the best adapted to the production of sweet fillers and stem- ming tobaccos. Alluvials and rich flats produce the best cigar stock. White Burley is most successfully grown on a dark rich limestone soil. For yellow wrappers, smokers, and cutters a gray sandy or slaty topsoil, with a yellowish porous subsoil, is preferable. The land must be loamy, dry, and warm, rather than close, clammy, and cold, and the finer and whiter the sand therein the surer the indication of its thorough adaptation to the yellow type. The soils so greatly affect the character and quality of the products that success is attainable only where the right selection of both soil and variety is made for each plant planted, and planters do well to heed this suggestion. Trial wili determine what variety is best for any locality, as no one variety is best for all locations. To plant varieties unsuited to the type or on soil unadapted thereto is to invite failure every time. In the rapid development of tobacco growing in Florida and near-by States during recent years soil selection has been one of the most important factors; indeed, within that very considerable dis- trict possessing a suitable climate soil selection has been of chiefest 42 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. importance, and this phase of adaptation has been carried even to the point of breeding tobacco to. suit local soil conditions. The effect of soil influence on the quality and keeping characteris- tics of the particular variety of onion, Yellow Danvers, which has made the Connecticut Valley one of the leading centers in the United States in the production of this crop, also illustrates the :principle of soil adaptation to specific variety. Grown on the sandy loam above referred to the bulbs are hard, fine-textured, and unexcelled in quality. When grown on the loam of the same series the texture of the onion is coarser, the necks do not cure down as well, and the bulbs are softer; because of these characteristics the latter are less desirable for storage purposes, and their culinary quality is inferior. The factor of edibility is not of sufficient importance to make any general difference in the selling price, but the hard onions are always sought by buyers for storage purposes, and on this account bring the top quotation when the market is dull, and sometimes even an ad- vance price. When the crop moves slowly in the fall, moreover, the growers who store any part of their crop always select first for this purpose the hard onions. In actual practice this means those onions grown on the sandy loam soil. On heavier soils, with higher moisture content, the quality of the bulbs is correspondingly poorer. In southwest Minnesota a shallow glacial valley some 3 miles wide divides the upland prairie which extends for many miles in a trans- verse direction. The irregular valley walls range in height from 15 to 30 feet or in some cases a little more. The valley soil is a clay Joam, richly charged with humus. It is suited to grass and other forage crops, but wheat runs heavily to straw, none of the grain grading above No. 2, while much of it is No. 8. Wheat from the gray clay loam to the west of the valley, where the growth of straw and the filling of the heads is well balanced, gives a high percentage of No. 1 grain. Grown on the brown loam east of the valley, the grade is about half No. 1 and half No. 2. These lands have been farmed only 30 to 40 years, hence they have never been dressed to any appreciable extent with yard manure or commercial fertilizers. The superintendent of the elevator at the county seat where most of the grain is sold claims that he can tell on which of these three soil types a farmer, unknown to him, lives by the way his wheat grades. However this may be, the influence of the soil on the quality of the same varieties of grain is effectively shown by the money returns at the elevator. In southeast Michigan the profit from sugar beets grown for the factory follows closely the character of the soil upon which the beets are grown. Beets from the light sandy soils have a high sugar content, with a high coefficient of purity, but the tonnage is relatively small. Moist, rich clay loams and loams yield a heavy tonnage, but SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 43 the sugar content is low and the coefficient of purity very unsatisfac- tory. The farmers’ goal is to secure the highest possible tonnage consistent with a high sugar content of satisfactory purity. This combination is best found there in a good strong sandy loam, under- Jain by a plastic light clay loam subsoil at a depth of 12 to 20 inches. Nearly as good is a deep, fine sandy loam extending to a depth of three feet or more. Sea-Island cotton took its name from being grown on islands along the coast of South Carolina. Its long beautiful staple is now secured in northern Florida and other Gulf States when grown on deep, fine- textured loamy sands similar to those of the sea islands which it made famous. But on the heavy soils, or even shallow sandy loam surface soils underlain by heavy clay loam, it does not succeed and is replaced by the short-staple varieties. In view of these definite cases in present agricultural practice, the different effects of varying amounts of soil moisture on soil tempera- tures and their apparent relationship to soil-crop adaptation is at least suggestive. The greater the amount of moisture in a given soil and subsoil the lower is their temperature in summer. Hence, the more moisture, the larger the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature to any given degree. The removal of drainage waters is followed by rise in temperature at any given depth below the surface. Conse- quently capillary rise of moisture from this lower supply tempo- rarily lowers the temperature of the layers of soil to which it ascends. The amount of capillary soil water held by the soil below the depth to which tillage has taken place does not in many cases depend primarily on the amount of humus in these lower layers of soil. A simple analysis of the case makes this point evident. When the forests were removed in the eastern States for crop planting the decaying roots left considerable amounts of humus to a depth of several feet. The depth varied greatly on different soils, because the different species of trees in the virgin forests showed very marked preferences for certain soil conditions. The local name “ black walnut land” is still used where that hardy tree grows, to indicate a heavy type of soil. In southwest Michigan this is the Miami clay loam. The hickory thrives in the northeastern States on the heavier soils. Both black walnut and hickory are deep-rooted trees. In the same region “ hemlock land” always indicates a sandy soil, and the hem- lock is not a deep-rooted tree. In the orchard districts of West Vir- ginia the leading peach growers will not tolerate “ white-oak land,” but a mixed growth of “rock oak and chestnut,” about one-third of the former and two-thirds of the latter, indicate a soil which has been instrumental in making one of the most famous fruit districts 44 BULLETIN 140, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the world. The rock oak and chestnut growth indicates a soil somewhat stronger than that of chestnut alone, as a better supply of moisture is maintained; newly cleared, it is more productive, and even on old ground better results are secured from fertilization. The subsoil is finer textured, or more clayey, than the chestnut subsoils, but still is not so heavy as the white-oak soil. Yet on the latter some varieties of apples thrive. Carrying the matter of soil adaptation to the different varieties of oak a step farther, it is a matter of common observation that poor and thin soils often support only the dwarfish blackjack oak and the post oak. Shreve states in volume 3 of “The Plant Life of Maryland” that While the general distribution of the loblolly pine is determined by historical and climatic factors, yet its relative abundance at different localities within its area is determined by the character of the soil. * * * It is most abundant on light sands and on the Elkton clay. While these soils may seem to be very dissimilar in their relation to the movement of soil water, yet the texture of the latter causes it to hold to its stores of water so tenaciously that plants growing in it often suffer drought when there is an abundance of water within very short distance but firmly held by the capillarity of the fine soil. This statement indicates that this particular variety of pine flourishes on soils that furnish relatively small amounts of moisture to vegetation. In comparison, it may be commonly observed that the white pine flourishes best on heavy sandy loams and on very light mellow loams, soils on which the minimum supply of capillary mois- ture available to plants does not descend as low as with the loblolly pine soils. Since the time when the forests of the eastern States were first cleared away for crops, the most common rotation has been corn, oats, wheat, and grass. Clover has very often been seeded with the grasses. Potatoes, buckwheat, and garden crops have also been of importance. All of these crops have shallow root systems except clover, and possibly corn which may be classed as medium in root penetration. Not enough of the deep-rooted clover has been grown on many farms to keep up the supply of subsoil humus, in conjunc- tion with the humus supply of the surface soil—plant roots, stubble, and stable manure, which do not get below plow depth to any appre- ciable extent. This system of cropping with decreasing yields makes it apparent that the humus content of the subsoil on most farms has been for a long time at a minimum point. Were such a supply available to crops the average yield of corn would be much increased, and the greater amount of capillary subsoil moisture would in marked degree lessen drought injury to shallow rooted Crops. SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 45 It becomes evident then, that the capacity of a subsoil to furnish capillary or usable moisture to crops depends, under average condi- tions, primarily on the natural character of the subsoil itself, ¢. e., on the size of the soil grains, and that it is practically independent of the supply of humus. The supply of humus in the surface soil, on the other hand, greatly lessens the loss from evaporation and increases the moisture-holding capacity, both as referred to the rise of the capillary water and to light rainfall. Below the depth of a foot, moreover, surface heat penetrates very slowly. Hence, it is reason- able to suppose, in want of definite experimental data to prove the point, that the water-holding capacity of the subsoil, as determined chiefly by its texture, has’ an important bearing on the temperatures surrounding the roots of trees and plants. It is to be regretted that accurate experimental data are not available on thissubject. The extensive series of observations tpon soil temperatures at different depths, carried out in different parts of the United States and in foreign countries, have neglected to take account of the moisture content of the soil at various depths where the temperatures were measured. It is a well-observed fact, however, that in irrigated orchards any overirrigation prevents good color on either apples or peaches. Dr. D. T. MacDougal, in his research work for the Carnegie In- stitution, of Washington (1908), concludes that— The facts disclosed as to the actual temperatures in the soil, the diurnal And seasonable changes therein, lead to the belief that the differences in tempera- ture of the aerial and underground portions of plants can not fail to be of very great importance in the physical and chemical processes upon which growth, cell division, nutrition, and propagation depend. Desert soils have a low humus content, and, consequently, they offer excellent opportunity to observe the effects of variation in texture and structure of the mineral particles themselves. Eliminat- ing soils influenced by alkali, Dr. MacDougal remarks: On all other soils in which clay, loam, sand, or rocks predominate the fea- ture which has the greatest determining influence (on adaptation to plants) is that of the amount and disposition of the moisture. Many striking disposi- tions of the root systems are being discovered which can only be correlated with the moisture factor. E. S. Goff* adduces observations to show that the temperature of the water at the time it enters into the roots from the soil has some relation to the temperature of the stem of the plant for a short dis- tance above the surface soil, and that the distance up the stem to which this temperature is felt depends upon the rapidity of the flow 1 Agr. Sci., Vol. I, p. 134, Bul. 36, U. S. Weather Bureau. 46 BULLETIN: 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the sap and, therefore, ultimately on the rapidity of transpiration from the leaves. And again: A warm summer is always accompanied by a high temperature of the ground or by a rise of its temperature. The increase is the more decided the more the excess in the temperature of the air is accompanied by a large quantity of rain or has been immediately preceded by it. In warm and comparatively dry sum- mers the rise of the earth’s temperature does not perceptibly exceed the normal. * * * The dampness of the soil is sufficient to allow the variations in the temperature of the air in winter and spring to exercise a decided influence upon those of the soil, whereas, in summer an excess of rain would be necessary to accomplish this, and that, too, to a greater degree if the soil be covered with vegetation. Quetelet, as far back as 1849, in his “Climate of Belgium,” ex- pressed regret that he had been unable in his crop-climate studies to consider the influence of the temperature of the soil, although “it is absolutely necessary so to do in order to treat the phenomena of vegetation in a complete manner.” Mr. Knight? has observed that “varieties of the same species of fruit tree do not succeed equally in the same soil, or with the same manure,” and further, that this applies to the peach, pear, and apple, “as defects of opposite kinds occur in the varieties of every species of fruit, those qualities of soil which are beneficial in some cases will be found injurious in others. In those districts where the apple and pear are cultivated for cider and perry, much of the success of the planter is found to depend on his skill or good fortune in adapting his fruit to his soil.? McClatchie and Coit,’ in discussing varieties, state that— The same variety reacts very differently to the various stimuli produced by different environments. Hence, we arrive at the commonly held and correct idea that each climatological area has its own peculiar set of varieties which succeed best under its own climate and soil conditions. Hence it follows that the supply of soil moisture available to plants and the temperature of the soil to depth equaling or exceeding that of the root zone of plants and trees, seem to account in part at least for the phenomena of the soil-varietal adaptations. These two fac- tors constitute the soil climate and in subsoils they are governed indirectly but chiefly by the texture and structure as related to the moisture supply. In the surface soil these have been or may be modi- field to some extent by the addition of humus, but the latter influence is entirely insufficient to control the matter of inherent adaptation of soil types to crops, or to different varieties of the same crop. It is evident, then, that many of our crops bear testimony, both from experimentation and from well-established agricultural practice, to 1Lindley’s Theory of Horticulture. 1841, Chap. 20. 2 Bul. 61, Arizona Agr. Expt. Sta. ? Trans. Royal Hort. Soc., I, 6. SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 47 the influence of the soil factor, not only upon general crop production but also to some extent distinctively upon the different varieties of the same crop. THE ADAPTEDNESS OF SOILS TO DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF . APPLES. The character of the soil is only one of several factors that in- fluence orcharding or other crop growth, and its importance in rela- tion to the other agencies of climate, including temperatures, ex- posure, rainfall, surface drainage, etc., should not be overestimated. If, for example, the climatic conditions in any district are not favor- able for a given variety, the character of the soil is of no importance to the practical grower unless it serves to offset in some degree the unfavorable tendency of the local climate. It is only within the climatic limits which favor a given variety that its behavior as in- fluenced by the character of the soil may be studied. In like manner, surface drainage must be adequate, the water table far below the surface, and the exposures identical, or approximately so, before soil comparisons of value may be drawn. Apples ripen a bit later upon a northerly slope than on a southern one, the elevation, cultiva- tion, fertilization, the soil, the age of trees, etc., being the same; but an earlier soil on the north side of the hill, such as a sandy loam, may mature fruit as early as a heavier soil on the south side, though most of these differences are comparatively slight. The necessity for good depth of subsoil can not be emphasized too strongly. This applies to every variety of apple or other tree fruit and to every type of soil in every series. Shallow soils should be assiduously avoided for orchard purposes wherever they occur. The presence of unbroken rock, large ledges, or hardpan within 3 feet of the surface should be considered prohibitive. A soil depth of at least 6 feet should be insisted upon wherever possible and an even greater depth is highly desirable. Soils with the underlying rock too near the surface have been responsible not infrequently for the failure of commercial orchards in some sections of the country. This is due directly to the incapacity of the subsoil, on account of its limited depth and volume, to store sufficient moisture for the tree’s needs when droughty conditions prevail or to get rid of excess moisture early enough in the spring or following extended summer rains. Subsoils devoid of stones are not infrequently found that are so clayey in texture or so stiff in structure as to produce results similar in kind even though usually less in degree. If, on the other hand, soils and subsoils of the proper texture and structure have been selected, the presence of loose stones in the subsoil in distinction from underlying rock is immaterial so long as their quantity is insufficient to interfere to any great extent with the up- 48 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ward capillary movement of moisture. When soils have been chosen to advantage with a view to their adaptation to any given crop there is no virtue, it may be repeated, in the presence therein of stones, popular opinion as often expressed with regard to tree fruits notwith- standing. This fact may be no better demonstrated possibly than by some subsoils which are so clayey and stiff that they would have little value for tree fruits were it not for the presence of stones which in part offset their excessive compactness. Such a subsoil condition may make it feasible to plant an area that otherwise would be im- practicable. But it is a difficul€é condition to determine; in most cases it is an unwise risk to run; and, furthermore, the soil and sub- soil section should be of such character with regard to both texture and structure that no stones are needed to render them sufficiently pervious for the satisfactory movement of capillary moisture. The common statement that stones conserve moisture in the soil, as is “ proved” by its condensation on the underside of stones in its upward movement from the subsoil toward the surface, is very misleading. Granting that moisture is conserved to the extent of the area of the dimensions of the stones, the amount so controlled is not sufficient to render cultivation unnecessary for the conserva- tion of more moisture, hence the dust mulch is still necessary to accomplish this end in cultivated orchards. In uncultivated or- chards, where mulching is effectively practiced by hauling in rela- tively large quantities of material from outside the orchard, the presence of stones on or near the surface is usually of some assist- ance in conserving moisture, and this advantage is increased as the effectiveness of the artificial mulch (because too little in quantity) decreases. Stones are of most assistance in conserving moisture in neglected orchards where neither cultivation nor mulching is prac- ticed, but even in this case the benefit 1s negligible. The term hardpan is in common use to designate a subsoil con- dition which delays the ready percolation of moisture. Its common use, however, has led to marked misunderstanding at least in the eastern States, as it unfortunately includes everything ranging from true hardpan to a clay loam which may constitute a desirable sub- soil for orchard purposes. A true hardpan consists not of a sub- soil containing sufficient clay to make it retentive of moisture, but of a mixture of sand, gravel, silt, and clay with more or less cement- ing material which so binds these ingredients together that the move-, ment of soil moisture either downward cr upward is seriously, _im-, peded; or a hardpan may consist of a thin layer of mineral matter. formed by deposition of salts of iron, lime, or other minerals in’ solution after the formation of the soil or during the process. ? Such’ conditions within several feet of the surface are very undesirable. They sometimes occur in both Massachusetts and Connecticut, Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII. FITCHBURG, MASS. SIx-YEAR-OLD BALDWIN ON GLOUCESTER STONY LOAM, CARRYING A GOOD Crop. PLATE XIII. Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "NNOO 'YNOWASS ‘SL6BL NI SAdddY 30VYD-HDIH JO STayuYuVg Z DNIONGOYd ‘WVO7] YALSSONOTD NO NIMGIVG Q10-YvVAA-+ | GS0V3SH-MO7 Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV. Ugo Yak ays tee aes A SPRAY OF TREE IN PLATE X, SHOWING POSSIBILITIES OF FRUIT GROWING IN THE EAST. PLATE XV. Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "NNOO ‘HOIMNASYD “NOS ATaVvYyOAVA V—WVO"] YSLSAONOTIH 4O ASVHdq AAVAH NO ONINAAY QNV1S] S3GOHY SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 49 though somewhat more extensively in the latter State. The percent- age of such hardpan areas is not great. It is probable that they may be remedied by dynamite used in sufficient quantities to break up the hardpan effectively, this to be followed and supplemented by the use of deep-rooted leguminous cover crops to keep the shattered hardpan friable, but until the price of naturally good orchard land in the East is much higher than now it is unquestionably better eco- nomics to select soils which do not need the dynamite treatment to render them fit for planting fruit trees, In a given block of orchard where a layer of hardpan is found at depths ranging from 15 to 30 inches, careful records for a number of years indicate that poor color with both Baldwin and Northern Spy is characteristic. In other cases, not alone in Connecticut, Yellow Bellflower is usually knotty when grown on hardpan soils. In several orchards with surface soil of Gloucester loam but un- derlain in places with hardpan at depths of 18 to 24 inches and com- bined with a somewhat retentive subsoil, it is found impossible to grow Baldwin with good color if the orchard is cultivated. The character of the deep-soil section is such that the soil would be classed as somewhat moist, better for grass than for corn or potatoes, and so less conducive to good color of Baldwin than a soil less moist and warmer. This the owner wisely recognizes and so keeps his orchard in sod and removes the hay—a method usually condemned and properly so—but in this case well adapted to the conditions, for by transpiration of moisture through the grass plants the excess of soil moisture is reduced, thus making the soil warmer, and while the fruit is dark and dull colored at harvest time it reaches a beau- tiful color in midwinter, the flavor is well developed, the texture fine, and the keeping qualities remarkably good. This case is mentioned in some detail because it illustrates so aptly the fact that cultural methods should always be flexible rather than absolute, and so fit the soil conditions of the individual orchard. If the soil is too retentive of moisture, evaporation should be hastened by noncultivation and also, if necessary, by transpiration through growing acrop. If the soil tends to dry out too quickly, cultivation should be frequent and a good supply of humus maintained to con- serve the moisture. While such manipulation of method to suit the circumstances in the individual orchards should constantly be made use of, it has its limitations and does not do away at all with the de- sirability of selecting the soils best adapted to the individual va- riety; that is, those soils which will require a minimum of manipula- tion to effect the best soil environment. Such soil adaptation serves as a guidance, furthermore, to the moisture requirements of the 55570°—Bull, 140154 50 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. different varieties, and so to the character of cultivation the differ- ent varieties should have. Orchard fruits differ from annual crops in that they occupy the ground for a long term of years and are subjected to climatic con- ditions for 12 months in each year, and the transition periods from active to dormant in the fall, and especially from dormant to active in the spring are not infrequently a severe test upon the trees. It may be said, however, that the best results from orcharding are obtained only when all contributing influences are favorable.. The soil, which is one of these, is the subject of this report, and a dis- cussion of the other factors mentioned is not within its province except as their relationship to the soil 1s involved. The condition of tree growth and fruit yields in large numbers of orchards makes it evident that soils for any kind of orchard plant- ing should at least be deep, well drained and friable, yet not so porous as to be droughty. For the red varieties in New England both soil and subsoil should also be well oxidized as indicated by brown or yellow solid colors or possibly grayish-brown rather than by light-gray or mottled colors. The last especially should be avoided if possible. It may be added that it is not difficult to select upland soils in the States under discussion that are free from mot- tling, are well oxidized, deep, and located on well-rounded hills and gentle slopes where the processes of orchard practice are not unduly expensive. These soils are also of diverse mineral composition, and respond well in most cases where sufficient humus is supplied. The ratio of leaf transpiration on pruned and unpruned trees to the moisture-holding tendency and moisture-furnishing capacity of the soil also adds greatly to the complexity of the problem of sepa- rating the influence of the soil factor upon varietal adaptation from the influence of other factors of environment known to bear upon varietal behavior. The physical limitations to be encountered in an endeavor to determine accurately this relationship postpones its solu- tion to the indefinite future. So far as this investigation goes the en- deavor has been to balance or to eliminate this factor of influence by the consideration of a large number of cases, but this, of course, only reduces the problem in the final analysis to one of individual judg- ment and leaves the actual problem for future investigation. The discussion of the adaptedness of soils to varieties is based in part on the investigational work of the writer for several years past, as well as on the work of 1911 in Massachusetts, and 1912 in Connecti- cut. During the course of the field work it has been possible to ob- serve the behavior of varieties under a wide range of soil,and other conditions influencing apple production and meanwhile to gather much data from the experience of a great number of orchardists and farmers. Consistently has the attempt been made to check all such SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. iil material by personal observation, likewise to study in a comparative way, as fully as circumstances would permit, the external appearance, the keeping character, the dessert and the culinary qualities of the fruit itself as affected by soil differences. The reader should keep ever in view the fact, however, that the soil is not the sole factor, but only one of several factors which together determine the adapta- bility of any given site to the different varieties of apples or of other tree fruits. It is perhaps needless to mention the difficulty of distin- guishing the influence of the soil from various associated factors of climate, and it is fully realized that the data presented is not only very incomplete, but that much further study of the subject is needed. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. The classification of soils into groups by some arbitrary standard is not difficult, but it is no easy task for one unfamiliar with the process of such separations to make them fit the unmapped soils of a given farm. ‘The many individual conceptions of a sandy loam may differ materially from the place in any definite classification scheme where it properly belongs. But this in no way lessens the necessity for a uniform plan for the grouping of soils, and in view of present knowledge the following plan has been adopted by the Bureau of Soils as the most logical. The sands group? is classified as coarse, medium, fine, and very fine. The name implies that the subsoil as well as the surface soil consists of sand. A sand soil type usually contains as many as three of these grades and sometimes all four, but the predominating grade determines the type name—as a fine sand. When enough of the finer particles, clay, silt, or both, are included with the sand to make the soil somewhat coherent and loamy, or, as often expressed, “to give it more body,” the type is a sandy loam. 1A key to the soil terms used appear in the following table: Soils containing less than 20 per cent siit and clay: Coarse sand_____-_ Over 25 per cent fine gravel and coarse sand and less than 50 per cent any other grade. Sandee seis Over 25 per cent fine gravel, coarse and medium sand, and less than 50 per cent fine sand. Fine sand_—_____- Over 50 per cent fine sand, or less than 25 per cent fine gravel, coarse and medium sand. Very fine sand____Over 50 per cent very fine sand. Soils containing 20 to 50 per cent silt and clay: Sandy loam_____~ Over 25 per cent fine gravel, coarse and medium sand. Fine sandy loam__Over 50 per cent fine sand, or less than 25 per cent fine gravel, coarse and medium sand. Sandyiclay——— == ~~ Less than 20 per cent silt. Soils containing over 50 per cent silt and clay: TOO fz) 06 eee ea Less than 20 per cent clay, less than 50 per cent silt. Siligloames = as. Less than 20 per cent clay, over 50 per cent silt. Clayloam===22==- 20 to 30 per cent clay, less than 50 per cent silt. Silty clay loam___.20 to 30 per cent clay, over 50 per cent silt. Clays eis ees Over 30 per cent clay. 52 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. If most of the sand is fine, rather than medium or coarse, the type is a fine sandy loam. When still more of the clay and silt are included, so that the proportions of sand and fine material are about equal, thus obscuring largely the grittiness of the sand, the soil is a loam. When the clay and silt particles predominate only the fine grades of sand are usually present. If the silt grade is most abundant the soil is a silt loam. If clay is greatest in amount, the soil is a clay loam. And if the exceedingly fine clay particles constitute more than 30 per cent of the soil mass, the type is a clay, the other 70 per cent being primarily of silt and very fine sand. A soil containing as much as 50 per cent clay is very “heavy,” while those containing 60 to 70 per cent, as along Lake Superior and Lake Champlain, are exceed- ingly stiff and hard to work. The classification in the above table refers to surface soils. Where surface soils differ materially in color, as red and yellow, even though derived from similar geological materials, as the Wethersfield and the Middlefield soils, they are placed in different series. If two identical surface soils are underlain by subsoils, one of a sandy nature and the other clayey, they also are, or should be, placed in different series, as the light and heavy subsoils of the Gloucester series. If two soils and subsoils are identical in texture and color, but differ in the character of the geological material from which they are derived, as limestone and granite, they are placed in dif- ferent series, to wit, the Dover and the Gloucester series. These distinctions all lie within a given soil province such as New England, or the Atlantic Coastal Plain, the Appalachian Mountains and valleys, etc., but on account of differences in climatic and consequent cropping characteristics the same series name. is not used in two soil provinces, even though the soils are similar in color and deriva- tion. This is illustrated in the Southern States by the Cecil and the Porters soils, the former occurring in the Piedmont Plateau and the latter in the Appalachian Mountains division. In the Gloucester series loams and fine sandy loams are the pre- dominating soil types in Massachusetts and Connecticut. Fine sand is next in importance, and on Cape Cod it is the most prevalent type. True clays and heavy clay loams do not occur. Even light clay loams are uncommon, heavy loams and silty loams constituting the heavy soils of the region. In the Wethersfield and Middlefield series the silt loams and the fine sandy loams are the most important types, though there is considerable loam and a little sandy clay. SOILS FAVORABLE FOR THE BALDWIN. If soils are thought of as grading from heavy to light, corres- ponding to the range from clay to sand, then soils grading from SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 58 medium to semilight apparently fulfill best the requirements of the Baldwin, particularly under a system involving such average cul- tivation as is usually practiced in commercial plantings. Following definitely the classification standards of the Bureau of Soils with reference to the proportions of clay, silt, and sands, this grouping would include the medium to light loams, the heavy sandy loams, and also the medium sandy loams provided they were underlain by soil material not lighter than a medium loam nor heavier than a light or medium clay loam of friable structure. From this broad generalization it will be seen that the surface soil should contain an appreciable amount of sand. ‘The sands, more- over, should not be of one grade—that is, a high percentage of coarse sand would give a poor soil, whereas a moderate admixture of it with the finer grades of sand, together with sufficient clay and silt, would work no harm. In general, the sand content should be of the finer grades, but soils also occur, though comparatively rare, which would be too heavy for this variety were it not for a marked content of the coarse sands, the effect of which is to make the soil mass much more friable and open than would be expected with the presence of so much clay. Such conditions occur in parts of Perry County, Pa. Soil types having characters as above described dry quickly after a rain, and are not to be classed as moist soils. They will never clod if worked under moisture conditions that are at all favorable. The subsoil on the other hand must never be heavy enough to impede ready drainage of excess moisture, and it should be sufficiently clayey to retain a good moisture supply—that is, plastic, not stiff. If the subsoil be so clayey or heavy that moisture does not percolate down through it readily, or if the same result is caused by hardpan, a Baldwin of poor color with a skin more or less greasy is the usual result. The best results are secured, other circumstances being equal, from warm and “kind” yet not too sandy soils. Such soils can be so managed as to secure a sufficient but not excessive vegetative growth, the proper balance between it and the growth of fruit being readily maintained, a condition necessary to produce the best devel- oped and highly colored fruit. On heavy loams where Baldwin matures slowly, and is dark and dull at harvest time, the fruit sometimes possesses unusually good keeping qualities, and in some cases the color develops satisfactorily by midwinter. For storage such fruit is excellent. Another unfavorable soil condition was noted in several instances in both Connecticut and Massachusetts. It is well illustrated in an orchard where the cause of the unsatisfactory color of fruit is due doubtless to the condition of the surface soil rather than to the subsoil which is a well-drained yellow to light-brown friable loam or a 54 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. light clay loam. The surface soil is dark-brown to grayish-brown heavy loam more retentive of moisture than the subsoil. Such a soil is better for Gravenstein or Fall Pippin. The Bernardston soils are not quite so good a as the Gloucester for the Baldwin and similar red varieties of apples because the fruit matures later and, under the climatic conditions which obtain where these soils are found, tends to a deficiency in color. On the basis of comparisons with similar soils in Connecticut this deficiency seems to be even more marked with peaches. The Rhode Island Greening is well grown, however, on these soils. The apparent ideal to be sought is a heavy, fine sandy loam, or hght mellow loam, underlain by a deep subsoil of plastic light clay loam or heavy silty loam. It is fully realized that many will not possess this ideal, but the soil that most closely resembles it should be chosen. If corn be grown on such soil the lower leaves will cure down in an average season before cutting time, giving evidence of moderately early maturity. This is one of the safe criteria by which to be guided in choosing soil for this variety in the New England section. Typical Gloucester loam conforms ideally to the above con- ditions and characteristic growth of the Baldwin on this soil at both low and high altitudes—50 to 1,000 feet—is shown in Plate X to XIV, inclusive. Mercion was not made in the above description of the color of the soil. The desirability of a surface soil of dark brown, the color being due to the presence of decaying organic matter, is unquestionable and generally recognized, and if the soil be not that color the suc- cessful orchardist will so make it by the incorporation of organic matter through the growth of leguminous crops or otherwise. It is often cheaper to buy soil with a good organic content or humus supply than it is to be compelled to put it there after purchase. Hence, this is purely an economic feature. The warning should be stated, however, that a soil should not be purchased or planted to apples of any variety because it is dark colored and rich in humus. Both soil and subsoil should be selected because of their textural and structural adaptation regardless of the organic content. Then if such soils happen to be well supplied with vegetable matter so much the better; if not, it may be supphed. To modify, by the addition of humus, the physical condition of a sand until it resembles a sandy loam as far down as tree roots ordi- narily extend, is unquestionably an expensive process, and as or- chards are grown for profit the soils on which they are to be planted should be so selected for the different varieties as to furnish the most favorable conditions possible before going to the additional expense of trying to change their character artificially. SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 55 While soils so deficient in humus as to be leachy in the case of sands, and stiff, intractable, and cloddy in the case of clays, clay loams, and loams, should have their humus content increased until these unfavorable conditions for crop growth of any kind be over- come as far as practicable, it is impossible to ignore the effects of the inherent physical character of the soil itself as related to adaptation to crops, and, in some cases at least, varieties of the same crop. It is easily possible, furthermore, on soils of medium texture, especially, so to accentuate the vegetative habit of the Baldwin that the color of the fruit becomes impaired. In current orchard practice this is a common occurrence which growers seek to overcome by withholding ammonia-carrying fertilizers, by checking tillage, and by avoiding humus-forming cover crops. It lowers cost of production to let nature help as much as possible. In both States nearness to salt water is sometimes suggested as a cause for deficient color of red apples, especially the Baldwin; and while sufficient evidence is not at hand to refute the statement com- pletely, it is apparent in many cases that the difficulty is chiefly one of impervious subsoil. Low elevation is also a factor in some in- stances. In the Connecticut Valley, for example, 35 miles from the Sound shore, Baldwins do not color satisfactorily, even though the soil is favorable. At the highest altitudes in northern Berkshire and Franklin Counties, Mass., and farther north in Vermont, Baldwin shows a tendency to become slightly constricted and ridgy at the calyx end. It was not as plump in the season of 1912, at least, as at altitudes of 1,000 feet. The minimum elevation where this effect was noticeable in 1912 was around 1,200 feet, while at 1,600 feet, along the Vermont line, the tendency was more pronounced. It may be added, too, that the variety becomes more susceptible to winter injury at about this same point, thus suggesting proximity to those climatic conditions where Baldwin should be replaced by the Fameuse and McIntosh or others of the Fameuse group. As one drives in this locality from characteristic Baldwin territory through the transition zone to higher altitudes, where this variety no longer develops to its best, it is most interesting to note corresponding changes in the natural forest growth, and in the varieties of farm crops. With increasing elevation these changes are first noticed on exposed and wind-swept areas, where apple trees lean away from the direction of the prevailing winds. A given variety of flint corn be- comes more dwarfed than at lower elevations. The hem!ock, which prevails at 1,000 feet, gives way to spruce in protected situations, while the high ground, which is more exposed, is occupied with a much larger percentage of the hardwoods—beech, maple, black, and yellow birch. 56 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. While the hills of Massachusetts and Connecticut include a great deal of ideal Baldwin soil, or soil that resembles the ideal closely enough for practical purposes, they also include a great deal of soil that is not so well adapted to the Baldwin. The greatly superior color of the fruit from some orchards on mellow, friable loams, when compared with that from others on a more retentive kind of soil and subsoil—certain clay loams of the same series or moist loams of a different series—elevation, slope, methods of culture, and fertilization being virtually the same, gives striking evidence of the importance of the soil factor. On just this basis the fruit from some orchards sells for a higher price than that from others. This illustrates the economic advisability of selecting the orchard site with soils adapted to the variety to be planted. SOILS FAVORABLE FOR THE RHODE ISLAND GREENING. As the best prices for the Rhode Island Greening are usually obtained in New York City the majority of commercial growers have aimed to meet the preference of that market. The demand there for a “green” Greening has usually been stronger than for one carrying a high blush; and while individual buyers may be found, it is said, who do not discriminate against the latter, many of them do. Not infrequently the “green” Greening brings a pre- mium of 25 cents or more a barrel over the “blush” Greening. Of even more importance sometimes is the fact that a “ green ” Greening will move on a slow market when a “blush” Greening fails to do so. There is also a trade objection to the “blush” Greening from the fact that the consumer is rarely able to distinguish it from Mon- mouth, a red-cheeked green apple, which does not serve at all well the purpose for which the Greening is usually bought. In view of these trade conditions the writer has especially sought those soil characteristics which best contribute to the production of a “ green” Greening, and in previous writings or in meetings addressed, the soil adaptations for the Rhode Island Greening have been described with the green type of apple as the standard sought. Bearing this ideal in mind, the soils adapted to this variety are distinct from the Baldwin standard. A surface soil of heavy silty loam or light silty clay loam underlain by silty clay loam excels for the “ green” Rhode Island Greening. Such soil will retain sufficient moisture to be classed as a moist soil, yet it is not so heavy As ever to be ill-drained if surface drainage is adequate. The soil should be moderately rich in organic matter, decidedly more so than for the Baldwin. In contrast to the Baldwin soil in the growth of corn, it should keep the lower leaves of the plant green until harvesting time, or at least until late in the season. Such soil conditions maintain a long seasonal PLATE XVI. Bul. 140, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. [AX ‘la orvedurog ‘UIBOT JOJSOONOTH 9} WO UBY} AOTLIBS OTIIIT B YSNT 07 Spuo}. Surm9915H] "NNOO ‘(UOSONITIVM LY WVO7] G1SISSHSHLAM NIDUIA NO HOWSd HLIM GALNVIdY¥aLN] ONINSSYD GNVIS| SGOHY YVSA 9 LN31150x4 PLATE XVII. Bul. 140, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. [‘S][NSer JUOT[VOXO MOYS SOIT] [BNPTATPUL TSnoTyI]V ‘payuryd Sutoeq ov AOTIVA Sty JO MoT] “SSVIA| ‘ASTIVA, LONOILOANNOD NI NOILVAS19 W907 COOH LY WVO7] ALTIS LHDIT GTSISSUSHLAAA NO AdGS NYSHLYON SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS AND CONNECTICUT. 57 growth under uniform conditions of moisture and thus produce the firm yet crisp texture and the remarkable juiciness for which this variety is noted. A dealer in cider apples who has bought the fruit from two orchards on the same farm in northeastern Massachusetts for many years testifies that the apples from the orchard with subsoil of heavy loam to clay loam yield from 5 to 7 per cent more juice than apples from the orchard on sandy soil and subsoil. On the State farm at Bridgewater, Rhode Island Greening is very successfully grown on a rich, heavy loam from 10 to 16 inches deep. The fruit is large and is said to keep well until January in common storage. On the sandy soils in the same region it is usually described as a fall apple. Tf a high blush is desired, however, to meet other market require- ment, a soil somewhat warmer than that described should be se- lected—a deep, light, mellow loam or productive fine sandy loam being favorable. To secure a “finish” of this character, soils approaching more nearly to the Baldwin standard are best adapted. Plate XV shows Rhode Island Greening on heavy Gloucester loam. Fruit is large and green. Plate XVI shows a tree yielding heavily at six years of age on Wethersfield loam—a soil somewhat lighter than the Gloucester loam in the preceding plate. In northwestern Massachusetts on the heavy phase of Gloucester loam Rhode Island Greening bears heavily. The fruit is firm in texture, of excellent quality, and keeps well until late winter. The blush is usually well developed. The variety is highly profitable in this locality, but the call for red apples among the buyers who come there is so strong that no Rhode Island Greenings are included in the younger plantings. The loam and silt loam of the Bernardston series of the Western Highlands are also especially well adapted to the Rhode Island Greening, giving greener fruit than the Gloucester loam. In eastern Massachusetts the variety drops from the trees earlier than in the western part, but this is undoubtedly due largely to the difference in elevation. This tendency would doubtless be retarded somewhat by planting on heavier soils. In southern Connecticut and somewhat farther north in the Con- necticut Valley, Rhode Island Greening is generally found less ‘satisfactory than in Massachusetts. In many cases the fruit is not a deep, dark green even at harvest time, but rather a pale green, with sometimes a suggestion of yellow. As the fruit ripens it rapidly be- comes more yellow and the apple is much less desirable than that grown in western Massachusetts or at good altitudes in Litchfield County, Conn. The flavor is not well developed, the texture is not as fine, and the keeping quality is poorer, most of the fruit being consumed before New Years. In fact, the variety as grown in south- 58 BULLETIN 140, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ern Connecticut, even on soils adapted to it, is not as well developed as that from the northern half of the Connecticut Valley in Massa- chusetts, notwithstanding the low elevation there. Evenin Litchfield County, in orchards well cared for, Rhode Island Greening has not in some cases given yields sufficiently large to make it as profitable as Baldwin. These various limitations indicate that Rhode Island Greening is more restricted in its range of adaptation than the Baldwin, and that it does not adapt itself to climatic conditions as far south as the Baldwin, even though suitable soils occur there. In fact, its southern boundary may be roughly estimated at 0.25° north of the forty-first parallel. South of that it becomes a fall apple and keeps very poorly. : SOILS FAVORABLE FOR THE HUBBARDSTON. Compared with the Baldwin soil requirements, the heaviest soils desirable for the Hubbardston lap over for a little upon the hghtest soils desirable for the Baldwin, while at the other extreme the Hub- bardston will utilize to advantage a more sandy soil than most other varieties of New England. This does not mean that it will succeed on poor light sands, for on such soils the apple will not attain suffi- cient size to be of value, nor is the tree vigorous enough; but the soil should always be very mellow. Per cent ° Percent |} o Per cent B Sp. gr HoSOu. B. Sp. gr HoS0, 1334 Sp. gr H,SO.. 0 1.0000 0.00 25 1. 2083 28. 28 49 1.5104 ; 60.75 1 1.0069 1.02 26 1.2185 29. 53 50 | 1.5263 | 62.18 2 1.0140 2.08 27 1. 2288 30.79 51 | 1.5426 63. 66 3 1.0211 3.13 28 1. 2393 32. 05 52 1.5591 65.13 4 1.0284 4.21 29 UNO). Wy) ABBESB} 53 1.5761 66. 63 5 1. 0357 5.28 30 1. 2609 34. 63 54 1.5934 68. 13 6 1.0432 6.37 31 1.2719 35. 93 55 1.6111 69.65 7 1. 0507 7.45 32 1. 2832 37. 26 56 1.6292 7, 8 1. 0584 8.55 33 1. 2946 38. 58 57 1.6477 72.75 9 1. 0662 9. 66 34 1.3063 39. 92 58 1. 6667 7A. 36 10 1.0741 10.77 | 35 1.3182 41.27 59 1. 6860 75.99 11 1. 0821 11.89 36 1.3303 42.63 60 1. 7059 77.67 12 1.0902 13.01 37 1.3426 43.99 61 1.7262 79. 43 13 1.0985 14.13 38 1.3551 45.35 62 1. 7470 81.30 14 1.1069 15525 39 1.3679 | 46.72 63 1. 7683 83.34 15 1.1154 16.38 40 1.3810 48.10 64 1. 7901 85. 66 16 1.1240 17.53 4l 1.3942 49. 47 64+ 1. 7957 86. 33 17 1. 1328 18. 71 42 1.4078 50. 87 644 1.8012 87. 04 18 1.1417 19.89 43 1. 4216 52. 26 64% 1. 8068 87.81 19 1. 1508 21.07 44 1. 4356 53.66 65 1.8125 88. 65 20 1.1600 22.25 45 1. 4500 55. 07 654 1. 8182 89. 55 21 1.1694 23.43 46 1. 4646 56.48 | 654 1. 8239 90. 60 22 1.1789 24.61 47 1. 4796 57.90 | 65% 1. 8297 91.80 23 1.1885 25.81 48 1. 4948 D9 a2e4| 66 1. 8354 93.19 24 1. 1983 27.03 THEORETICAL BASIS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF ACID PHOSPHATES. The process of making acid phosphate was devised in order to change the phosphoric acid contained in the substances just enumer- ated into a more soluble or “available” condition. The phosphates of lime, as found in nature are highly basic com- pounds or solid solutions offering considerable resistance to the sol- vent influence of percolating meteoric or soil waters. The less basic phosphates (those containing less lime, iron, alumina, or magnesia) are more soluble in water. Therefore, in order to bring about the desiied change, an acid stronger than phosphoric acid is added in sufficient quantity to combine with a portion of the lime, producing a phosphate less basic and, consequently, more soluble. The reagent which has been found best suited for this purpose is sulphuric acid, not only because of its cheapness but because calcium sulphate, one of the products of the reaction, takes up the excess of water present in the acid phosphate to form gypsum. The final product, there- fore, if properly made, is dry and can be readily mixed with other ingredients to make a complete fertilizer. The main purpose sought to be accomplished in the factory treat- ment of phosphate rock is to prepare a product in which the phos- phoric acid will be water soluble, so far as this can be accomplished, with due regard to the physical properties of the product essential to its ready mixing and handling. While it is a matter of no great difficulty to determine by a chemical analysis just what constitu- ents are in a given phosphate rock and in what proportions, it is not 1 Bul. 41, Bureau of Soils, U.S Dept. Agr. (1907). He | | | | 6 BULLETIN 144, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. known just how these constituents are chemically united. It is gen- erally assumed that the phosphoric acid is combined with the lime in a hypothetical compound—tricalcium phosphate (known to the trade as bone phosphate of lime, b. p. l.), represented by the formula Ca,(PO,),, and that this compound, when treated with sulphuric acid (H,SO,) and water (H,O) in the right proportions, is converted into a mixture of gypsum (CaSO,.2H,0) and monocalcium phosphate [Ca(H,PO,),]. Both gypsum and monocalcium phosphate are per- fectly definite, well-known compounds. The former is but slightly soluble, the latter readily scluble in water. As a matter of fact, in the reaction cited above, it is probable that dicalcium phosphate [Ca(HPO,).] is formed as well. Both these calcium phosphates are decomposed by water, so that a solution of monocalcium phosphate, if diluted, will precipitate dicalcium phosphate and if the dilution be carried further, a phosphate even more basic than the tricalcium phosphate is formed.!. Obviously, the more basic the calcium phos- phate, the less soluble it is in water. It is equally obvious that when incorporated in the soils, the soil water, while dissolving and dis- tributing the phosphate, is at the same time decomposing it into less soluble forms. Assuming now, as we may do for convenience, that the reaction takes place in the mixing as outlined above, it may be represented thus: Tricalcium phosphate or pure phosphate rock. Sulphuric acid. Water. Ca,(PO,). + 2H.S0, + 4H,0 = i molecule, weight 310. 2 molecules, 4 molecules, weight 196. weight 72. Gypsum. Monocalcium phosphate or superphosphate. 2(CaSO, 2H,0) + CaH,(PO,)s. 2 molecules, weight 344. 1 molecule, weight 234. The above equation means that in order to change completely 310 parts of tricalcium phosphate or pure phosphate rock into acid phosphate, 196 parts of pure sulphuric acid are required, or 1 ton of phosphate rock requires 0.63 ton of sulphuric acid. Factory practice and long experience in the manufacture of acid phosphate have shown, however, that much better results are obtained by employing sulphuric acid containing from 30.35 to 37.82 per cent of water (‘chamber acid”). A part of the water contained in this acid is evaporated by the heat of the chemical reactions taking place, and a part is taken up by the calcium sulphate formed to produce gypsum, as shown in the above equation. IMPURITIES IN PHOSPHATE ROCK. Besides calcium phosphate the phosphates of commerce always contain varying quantities of impurities, such as organic matter, silica or silicates, calcium fluoride, oxides or phosphates of iron and 1 Vide, Bul. 41, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 22-25 (1907). THE MANUFACTURE OF ACID PHOSPHATE. ut aluminum, and carbonates of lime or magnesia. All of these impuri- ties take up or are acted upon directly or indirectly by sulphuric acid, the bases being converted into sulphates and the fluorides, carbonates, and organic matter being decomposed with the evolution of gases. It is very important that the manufacturer should be acquainted with the effect that these impurities and the compounds produced therefrom will have upon his acid phosphate, and he should be able to calculate from the analysis of his raw material what quantity and strength of sulphuric acid is required to satisfy these impurities. The action of the sulphuric acid upon the various foreign substances found in natural phosphates of lime, and the effect of these impurities on the finished product are discussed below in some detail. ORGANIC MATTER. Practically all phosphates, with the exception of apatite, are of animal origin and therefore contain a certain amount of organic matter. When present in any quantity organic matter usually imparts a dark color to the phosphate. The presence of very small quantities can be detected by the putrid odor emitted on crushing or grinding the rock. The phosphates of our western States, as well as some of the Tennessee rock, contain considerable quantities of organic matter, while most of the Florida phosphates are very low in this material. The methods now employed in drying phosphate, either by calcining it on ricks of wood or putting it through a rotary drier, burns out or destroys a part of the organic matter; the remainder is carbonized by sulphuric acid with the evolution of volatile or gaseous products. The sulphuric acid is at the same time reduced to sulphur dioxide (SO,), or to hydrogen sulphide (4,8) if the reduction has proceeded further. The production of these gases not only entails a loss of sul- phuric acid, but they are both disagreeable and deleterious to health. In making acid phosphate the organic matter found in the rock is not considered, since the amount present is usually small. Owing to the various forms in which organic matter may occur, it is almost impossible to judge except by actual experiment how much sulphuric acid is required for its decomposition. SILICA AND SILICATES. Sulphuric acid has no direct action upon silica (SiO,), but when fluorides are present an indirect action occurs, which is described below. Silicates are directly acted upon by sulphuric acid, but so slowly that they need hardly be taken into account. The presence of silica or silicate minerals in phosphate rock is not considered objec- tionable except in so far as they act as diluents. Phosphates con- taining high percentages of silica necessarily have a lower percentage of phosphoric acid than the less siliceous or purer phosphates. 8 BULLETIN 144, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CALCIUM FLUORIDE. Fluorides are present in almost all phosphate rock. Some samples contain as high as 8 per cent of calcium fluoride (CaF,). The amor- phous phosphates as a rule contain smaller quantities of this com- pound than apatite. Calcium fluoride reacts with sulphuric acid, giving gaseous hydro- fluoric acid (HF) and calcium sulphate, thus: Calcium fluoride. Sulphuric acid. Hydrofluoric acid. Calcium sulphate. CaF, + H,S0O, = 2HF + CaSO, But hydrofluoric acid (HF) acts upon the silica or silicates present in the mass, producing gaseous silicon, tetrafluoride (SiF,), and water or steam, thus: Hydrofluoric acid. Silica. Silicon tetrafluoride. Water. 4HF a Sio, = SiF, =f 2H,0 Silicon tetrafluoride in turn is decomposed by water with the formation of hydrofluosilicic acid (H,SiF,) and precipitation of pure silica (SiO,), thus: Silicon tetrafluoride. Water or steam. Hydrofluosilicic acid. Silica. SSiF, + 2H,0 = OHSiIF,- + SiO, Before this last reaction takes place, however, much of the silicon tetrafluoride escapes from the mass and can be detected by its pene- trating odor and smarting effect on the eyes and nose. Very high grade acid phosphate can be made from rock containing large amounts of fluorine, because, as pointed out above, many of the products formed during the process escape as gases or vapors, leaving the mass correspondingly richer in phosphoric acid. These gases also, in forcing their way out of the acid phosphate, tend to render it porous and more readily dried. The product, therefore, can be easily broken up and mixed with other ingredients to make a complete fertilizer. The main objections to using phosphates high in fluorides are, first, the increased quantity of sulphuric acid necessary to decompose these compounds, and, second, the noxious and even poisonous nature of the gases evolved during their decomposition. COMPOUNDS OF IRON AND ALUMINUM. Tron and aluminum oxides, either in the free state or combined as phosphates, are the most objectionable of the impurities found in phosphate rock. These substances even when present in very small quantities cause a certain amount of ‘‘reversion”’ in the superphos- phate, and when present in large quantities are likely to produce a sticky acid phosphate unfit for commercial purposes. The phosphate of iron in natural occurrences may conveniently be represented by the formula FePO,, although actually it is probably THE MANUFACTURE OF ACID PHOSPHATE. 9 of an indefinite composition. The exact reactions that take place when this substance is treated with sulphuric acid are not known. Unquestionably, however, the iron is distributed between the two acids. A mixture of “sticky,” disagreeable physical properties results, the composition of the solid part of the mixture changing with the composition of the liquid part which is formed at the same time. Both the solid and the liquid contain all three constituents— iron, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid. Dilution of this liquid mass by the addition of water causes a precipitation of-more jellylike material containing relatively more iron and phosphoric acid than sulphuric acid. The general course of the reactions are sufficiently well known to justify the assumption that they go mainly accarding to the following equations: 2FePO, + 3H,S0,5Fe, (SO,),+ 2H.PO, But a part of the iron sulphate produced reacts with the phosphoric acid or monocalcium phosphate in the mass forming hydrated phos- phate of iron, the gelatinous precipitate almost insoiuble in water, and when present in any quantity causing the acid phosphate to be sticky and difficult to handle. The reactions may be represented thus: Tron sulphate. Phosphoric acid. Water or steam. Hydrated iron Sulphuric acid. phosphate Fe(SO),; + 2H,PO, + 40,0 ~@ 2FeP0,2H,0 + 3H,804 According to Fritsch,! however, two per cent of iron oxide in the raw material is not objectionable, because the quantity of iron sulphate produced therefrom remains unaltered in the superphos- phate. It is true that in properly made acid phosphate nearly all of the phosphoric acid is soluble in water even though there is sufficient iron present to cause part of it to revert, but Fritsch is probably in error in attributing this to the fact that the iron is all in the form of sulphate. Schneider? has shown experimentally that solutions of sulphate of iron increase the solubility of iron phosphate and Cameron and Bell* have demonstrated that gypsum, lime, and phosphoric acid also increase the solubility of this substance. Hydrated iron phosphate may be converted into the anhydrous and less soluble condition by reacting with anhydrous calcium sul- phate; the last-named compound being converted into gypsum, thus: Hydrated Anhydrous Anhydrous iron iron phosphate. calcium sulphate. Gypsum. phosphate. FePO, 2H,O + CaSO, <2 =CaSO,.2H,O+ FePO,. 1 Manufacture of Chemical Manures, pp. 78-79 (1911). 2Zeit. anorg. Chem., 5, 84; 7, 386 (1894). 3 Bul. 41, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. (1907). 58869°—1 1——_2 10 BULLETIN 144, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This last reaction partly explains why acid phosphate in exceilent mechanical condition, but with a relatively high percentage of phos- phoric acid insoluble in water is often made from rock containing large quantities of iron and aluminum. Compounds of aluminum react in a manner similar to those of iron, but to a less marked degree. Fertilizer manufacturers and authorities differ widely on the question of what constitutes the maximum quantity of iron and alumina that a phosphate rock can contain and still be useful in the manufacture of acid phosphate. - Wyatt! says that phosphates containing from 6 to 8 per cent of iron and alumina may be used, proviged there is sufficient carbonate of lime present to produce a dry, pulverulent mass. Schucht? and Fritsch ® are inclined to con- sider any quantity of iron and alumina in excess of 3 per cent as undesirable. Stillwell* states that phosphates containing from 4 to 6 per cent of these oxides can be handled, but that the presence of more than 2 per cent is objectionable. Thousands of tons of high-grade acid phosphate, however, are now annually made from Tennessee brown rock phosphate containing as high as 5 per cent of the combined oxides of iron and aluminum, and though the handling of such phosphates necessitates an increased consumption of sulphuric acid, there seems little reason why they should not be used in making acid phosphate, provided they are so manipulated that a dry, readily workable product is obtained. CARBONATES OF LIME AND MAGNESIA. Carbonates are frequently very desirable impurities in phosphate rock, provided they do not occur in quantities so great that the per- centage of phosphoric acid present is materially reduced. The carbonic acid is usually combined with lime, and it is in this form that it is considered here. Sulphuric acid acts upon caletum carbon- ate to form calcium sulphate, water or steam, and carbon dioxide, which escapes asagas. The reaction may be represented thus. Sulphuric Calcium Calcium Wateror Carbon acid. carbonate. sulphate. steam. dioxide. TSO, 2 CaCO. a80, + 20. a=. CO, Tf sufficiently diluted sulphuric acid is used the excess of water combines with the calcium sulphate to form gypsum. Modifying the above equation therefore, we obtain: Sulphuric Calcium Carbon Acid. Water. carbonate Gypsum. dioxide. H,SO, + H,O + CaCO, = CaSO,.2H,O+ COQ, 1 Phosphates of America, pp. 111-116 (1891). 2 Die Fabrikation des Superphosphates, pp. 79-83 (1909). 3 Manufacture of Chemica! Manures, pp. 78-80 (1911). + Industrial Chemistry, Rogers & Aubert, p. 403 (1912). THE MANUFACTURE OF ACID PHOSPHATE, lt The advantages of having small quantities (and in some cases large quantities) of carbonate of lime present in phosphate rock are threefold: First, the heat evolved in the reaction between carbonates and sulphuric acid is sufficient to warm the pasty mass of acid and phosphate rock and thus promote chemical action between these more slowing reacting substances; second, the escape of carbon dioxide from the mass renders the acid phosphate porous and more readily dried; and third, the gypsum formed prevents the formation of the gelatinous iron and aluminum compounds and thus helps render the product dry and in good condition for distributing or mixing with other fertilizing ingredients. REVERSION OF SUPERPHOSPHATE. iy The reversion, of superphosphate, as the term implies, originally meant the return of the phosphoric acid to a condition, insoluble (or nearly so) in water. In reality the expression ‘‘reverted’’ phosphoric acid is now wrongly used in a much broader sense and includes all of the phosphoric acid of superphosphate which is soluble in certain citrate solutions. In this paper, however, reverted phosphoric acid is used in the strict sense of the word. When, a superphosphate is allowed to stand and take up water from moist air, as it sometimes does while in storage; or is diluted by the soil water when it is applied to the soil; or is added to an excess of water, as is done in the laboratory before commencing analytical operations, then, in any one and in all of these cases, less soluble compounds of phosphoric acid are formed. If compounds of iron and aluminum are present the formation of phosphates insoluble in water is much more marked. This general process is known as reversion, and the superphosphate is said to have reverted, and the product is called reverted phosphate. ‘The theory of this reversion is now clearly understood, owing to the investigations in this country of Cameron and Bell+ and Seidell,? and of Bassett * in England, who have shown, that certain concentrations of phosphoric acid or of other acids must exist in the water in contact with a calcium or iron, phos- phate for the solid definite ‘‘acid’’ compounds to be stable. Dilution of the acid liquor causes the solids to decompose into more basic and less soluble compounds. While the theory of these phenomena has been, made clear only recently, the main facts have long been known, and as is so commonly the case, certain popular misconceptions have held sway long enough to become regarded as facts even by many well- trained chemists. Thus, it is popularly held that monocalcium phos- phate is soluble in water, but dicaleitum phosphate is not; dicalcium 1 Bul. 41, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. (1907). 2 Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 27, 1503 (1905). 3 Chem. News, 95, 21 (1907); Zeit. anorg. Chem., 53, 34 (1907). CPP SRE EAT La 1 12 BULLETIN 144, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, phosphate is in turn soluble in certain citrate solutions, while trical- cium phosphate is not; and on these supposed facts methods for separating the three compounds have been suggested. Moreover, it is held that while the water-soluble monocalcium phosphate and citrate soluble dicaletum phosphate are ‘‘available’’ to plants, more basic phosphates are not. The facts are that the presence of citric acid or ammonium citrate in the water does increase the solubility of the phosphates of hme, iron, and alumina, and it has been shown, by field tests that phos- phates soluble in such solutions are more quickly active under soil conditions than those which do not dissolve in the same mediums. Hence a convenient control or ‘‘police”’ method of analyzing com- mercial fertilizer containing phosphates has been developed. But the ‘‘citrate solubility’? gives no definite information about the constitution of the phosphate. The actual phenomena involved in reversion can, be best followed by the microscope. Reversion, is, however, a reality, and one to be carefully avoided. The reverted phosphate is frequently difficult to handle, and even if its mechanical condition, is good and the phosphoric acid present is classed as available according to the official method of analysis, many consumers seriously object to its use because the percentage of water soluble phosphoric acid present is relatively low. Moreover, reverted phosphate is not easily susceptible to retreatment in the factory, and usually the manufacturer can, better afford to throw it away than attempt to work it over in competition, with untreated raw rock. METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. GRINDING THE ROCK. The phosphate rock is first put through a crusher and broken in pieces not larger than a walnut. This crushing is hardly necessary in the case of Florida pebble phosphate or the screenings from the hard rock phosphate, since the pebbles and fragments are usually small enough to be fed directly to the mill. The pulverizers for phosphate rock that are probably most widely used in this country are those of the roller type, in which the material is crushed by steel rollers revolving within a steel rmg. Sometimes the ring within which these rollers revolve is rigid and the power is transmitted through the rollers. In another form of mill, the ring is revolved by a shaft, and the rollers are revolved in turn by the ring. There are a number of different makes of these pulverizers, but space does not permit a detailed explanation of their construction. For convenience they all may be placed in one of two broad classes, namely, the type which combines both grinding machinery and screens in one, and the type which discharges the partly ground material into elevators to be subsequently screened or separated, the coarser material being returned to the mill for further grinding. THE MANUFACTURE OF ACID PHOSPHATE, 13 Mills of the first type occupy but little space, do not require auxil- iary screens and conveyors, and the grinding is all finished in one operation. The fact, however, that the pulverized phosphate is not separated from the coarser rock until forced through the screens within the mill cuts down somewhat the efficiency of this type of machine, since considerable space and power is always taken up by material already ground. Another disadvantage of this type of mill is that any clogging of the screens or break in the same necessitates the shutting down of the entire mill while the damage is repaired. The manufacturers of the o her type of mill claim to have overcome these disadvantages in their machines; the ground material is con- tinually discharged from the mill and separated from the coarser rock by passing through revolving, or over vibrating screens. Any trouble with a screen can be corrected without stopping the mill by simply cutting off the supply of rock to that screen. Since the mate- rial flows over the sereens instead of being forced against them as in the case of the other type of mill, the repairs necessary on the screens are reduced to a mimimum. ‘This type of mill, however, with its auxiliary screens and conveyors, takes up considerable space, costs more to install, and requires a greater amount of supervision. In Plates I and II these two types of roller mills are shown. The amount of material which can be pulverized per hour depends on the size of the mill, the character of the phosphate rock used, and the degree of fineness to which itis ground. A mill of the size usually employed in fertilizer factories may grind from 10 to 12 tons per hour of Tennessee brown rock phosphate to pass a 60-mesh sieve, but this mill will probably not grind more than seven or eight tons of pebble phosphate to the same degree of fineness in that period of time. A very ingenious ball mill is that of Pfeiffer.1_ The grinding is done by means of steel balls or flint pebbles and the separation of the fine material from the coarse is effected by means of a current of air. All loss of time due to the clogging and repairing of screens is thus avoided and a product of any degree of fineness can be obtained by simply regulating the strength of the air current. The degree of fineness to which phosphate rock is ground often has a very important effect on the acid phosphate produced there- from. Phosphate rocks low in carbonates and high in iron and aluminum are but slowly acted upon by sulphuric acid, and should therefore be gound very fine. Phosphates containing large quan- tities of carbonate of lime are acted upon quite rapidly, and conse- quently do not require extremely fine grinding. In ordinary practice the rock is usually ground so that 80 to 90 per cent will pass a 60- mesh sieve, but in working with less soluble phosphates it is fre- quently desirable to grind them so that 80 to 85 per cent will pass an 80-mesh sieve. 1 German patent No. 116,195. 14 BULLETIN 144, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. QUANTITY, STRENGTH, AND TEMPERATURE OF SULPHURIC ACID. The quantity and strength of sulphuric acid which should be used in treating phosphate rock is a perplexing problem, yet many manu- facturers give it little consideration, proceeding in a “‘rule of thumb”’ manner without regard to the composition of the rock. The reason why many of these latter obtain such good results may be explained by the fact that they have been using one grade of rock for years and have thus learned by actual experience the proper proportions of acid and rock to use. A sudden change in the composition and erade of the phosphates often results in a loss of both acid and rock in attempts to find the quantity of acid required for this new mate- rial. While actual trial mixings should be made when testing out a new grade of phosphate, these tests should be intelligently con- ducted with due regard to the composition of this rock. Take, for example, a sample of high-grade Florida hard rock phosphate having the following composition: Per cent. MOISIIPG? Shean stg ole Ge tence oe ate ee So eee 0.5 Calcrunpdliioride (CAE ps2 s8i oe uae. se a eee Stan st Se eee 4.5 ricalenim: phosphate: (Ca,( FO ))5) =< <- sence or eae ee 80. 0 Galerum carbonate (Ca0O ee: 2<. lak Severe art cee eee 3.5 Aluminum phosphate (AIO). ss22224 feces eee cts poe eee 6.0 Silica BOs aia sacwet? oacee le acise ee eke Pere ee ot eee 5.5 4 WoW Gee are reer me er ngs SL rerio yee Se ear oa 100. 0 The problem is to convert the phosphoric acid of this rock into a soluble form and yet obtain a dry product which can be uniformly spread on the soil or readily mixed with other ingredients to make up a complete fertilizer. The reactions which are desired may be represented in their simplest form, thus: (1) Conversion of tricalcium phosphate to monocalcium phos- phate and calcium sulphate: : 1 molecule 2 molecules 1 molecule 2 molecules Ca,(PO,), + 2H,S0, =CaH,(PO,),+ 2CaS0, Wt. 310 Wt. 196 Wt. 234 Wt. 272 (2) Conversion of calcium fluoride to hydrofluoric acid and calcium sulphate: 1 molecule 1 molecule 2 molecules 1 molecule Cal) - "oUeNjO} OM!'T | Sb" OO Teen | 10 Tes Ts | cares 69 : "O88 popely fo 9HOs800I0 BUOTIS | OL'T | OFT 2T | OTe | OO 76) °o G6 o¢ 0€ Or , “SYIVUI0 YY ‘10PO eee CO.) emjzeredur9} Aqs0o8T A *D oL% 4B UNL JOT PINO Ay 9 *1970M Jud od Og Jo soueseid JO asnvoeq o[qIssod JON ¢ "0) oGG Vv b “BUIUING ZuTyUEAGIC ‘JO peTLOd 10IVAA ¢ : "D oG8c ‘OD 081 GL 09 O85 OF es ee See areas loyong [oo IZ oa 4 EGLO atae| ve teetnee wine siee Tro poztteddon j= 7 777 06 OFS 09 BOO Slee | Rees eae es qyeydserequany | 61 48 09 Asin Kaea | ueran eset eto TIO 9}0S00I0-poo MA | 81 (c) 09 QUSGETt ass | ee eee ee [OATSSOTTS |p ses os IT bd, 09 GOO Seas | See oe nat ae ete eA ourqgiadg |------ 91 88 09 OPO Sees | See aes -a}osoo10 poomypooog | °-°-~ CT cP 09 CGO Ms Teese s | Sek cece tea (ag sej8noq) rey poo, |--- FI 06 09 SOT Gees Re ata hoot See LE DOO DIVE ices eee mee €1 Gohl 09 O21 T “"""TaAresord poom “yg [77 z 68 COL OZ Tee SIS SSeS uInourpog.vo snizemuoAy | II isa 91 LEU Sse ee Sas wmoujoqiea gg | OI 8P 09 SSORTG real ee 020°T 0}0S0ar0 1e4-Se3-1098 MM | 6 18 09 GR6i 0% Saale ZI0'T ‘OJOSOaIO Ie4-SeB-1EYV AA | 8 GL 09 ChOwl sees 1S0°T ‘0708000 1e]-Se3-10]e MQ | L GLT 09 OSL ‘T "=" WoToeIy A1OSOAaIO Ie}-TBOQ [71 9 ost 09 880 “T “--" AT Worjoes,g ‘ejos0or0 Ieq-[eog |---- “6 £0T 09 SPOT ~* "TIT oroery feosoeI0 1e4-[VOD |°-~ p 62 09 €00°T “-* "TT woTovry ‘ozOS0eI Tey-Teog |--" 7° ¢ ey) 09 POONOne ees | oe ee J Worjovty ‘oyOsoeIO Ieqy-Teog |" -- 7 - Z £6 09 SFOT See eee OLOSOOLOLIG]=[ G0) e | sane aaa T Do Do “APAVIS ‘yuiod | ogroods *AUACIS —sr 10}e18d000 “ON OAT Usel a ye omy ogtoedg Aq po VUsIsop VAT}VAIOSOLT ~AIOSOLY ~e.1ad a9 J, ‘saavgoadasald ayz fo savysadoud yoovuays pun qoorshyg—{ ATAV J, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wis: tad) BULLETIN 14 16 “morn -O8 TMIO]BI [OS9I0 490 ae Been aoa oe sjousyd oxy je Sette | esncniged | oii cesumenci any | atest iS escapee 1 ee ee ae §. P. F. carbolineum.......- 3 | 4 5 8 Ih See eres FT Se eee PAey CNATIUSICALDOLMN CHIN cere em ae ae eam en ieee | net een 1 1 ol | eee eee ae De alee kre 2 C. A. wood preserver....-.-.- —2 Pa | paren ar +1 cy el bi Re te Pa SUG 2 eee ard woodstare cc soso se en ss eae ea eee 2 6 63 Rosset Bee ie Wood tar (Douglas fir)...... 12 14 15 15 1 ee eee Tae eee Beechwood creosote........- 14 17 21 25 29),| See BS Mats | SPIC Ne wase eee eee ee 1 3 5 7 8; Soenenee es. 1 (Ae ee IBOSEHV Ola naceseese es vctge coe ik 15 16 16 Diy al tener ee 1 a ee W ood-creosote oi]............ il 13 15 16 G4 Be se see eee 1 5 ME ea ALINE oe iPek] QR Se eae OS eet ek —12 +1 (Ua Saesaeace >. Disa as Copperizedioiey seen eee 5 5 5 6 Ay Nea oes oe 7: Renpenle aaa Ie Ol ee ae ee eee Z 4 a 11 13) Se hi 18 BULLETIN 145, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasiE 4.—Inflammabihiy of treated wood. Preserva- tive No. OS. .e2--2--e Preservative designated by co- operator as— Lossin | Untreated wood (hemlock)....... Coal-tar creosote................-- Coal-tar creosote, Fraction I....... Coal-tar creosote, Fraction II..... Coal-tar creosote, Fraction ITI..... Coal-tar creosote, Fraction IV... Water-gas-tar creosote, 1.070....-. S. P. F. earbolineum Avenarius carbolineum........... C, A. wood preserver...........-. Hardwood tare. 5b. 5228: 8: Wood tar (Douglas fir) Beechwood creosote Spirittine Preservol Timberasphalt................... Copperized oil............22.2.... UIC OU 4 oa eee ZAC SULDORLC! 526 eee le ae Zine sulphate (by-product)....... B. M. preservative o>: 2.0. .5..< Sapwood antiseptic.............. Sodium silicate: ............520.2% Sodium fluoride. ................. Creso] calcium.............--.-... welent due | : : to burning fags eas calculated tion (° é) in per cent “| of weight before ignition. Days after | Days sea- | More | . Soned— 2 | 90 | 2 | 90 | | 207 | sais 25 21 B20: |ocinee 174 | 225 133 | 306 113 | 286 148 | 269 183 | 223 195 | 287 172 | 231 149 | 238 231 | 243 243 | 263 213 | 235 215 | 247 190 | 241 167 | 217 APTN a 22 a 247 205 | 269 178 | 251 296 | 310 200 | 228 167 | 241 126 | 231 eee 1287 Merer 1304 a 1298 ees 1 305 2369 23) | 938 25} 21 26| 16 33] 21 10| 15 24| 19 29| 18 40| 31 26| 19 32| 18 33 | © (35 29| 30 36| 26 34] 19 37 | 29 23! 22 39] 35 23| 32 43] 33 36 | 27 37| 17 ieee 19 peiees 18 See | ae 10 Satu 25 29 Character of combustion. Burned freely. Burned freely; black smoke; easily extinguished. Burned very freely; easily ex- tinguished. Burned freely; easily extin- guished, Did not burn as well as creo- sote; easily extinguished. Burned freely; extinguished with difficulty. Ignited with difficulty; burned poorly; easily extinguished. Did not burn freely; easily ex- tinguished. Burned freely; difficult to ex- tinguish, Burned like bolineum., Burned like coal-tar creosote, but not so freely. Do. Burned like creosote. Burned freely; dense black smoke. Avenarius car- | Burned like coal-tar creosote. Burned freely; black smoke; rathereasy to extinguish. Burned freely; difficult to ex- tinguished. Did not burn as well as creo- sote; easily extinguished. Burned very freeiy; very diffi- cult to extinguish. Did not burn freely. Burned like coal-tar cresote. Burned very freely; very diffi- oe to extinguish. te) Hard to ignite; burned poorly; epaly extinguished, 0; Do. More difficult to burn than zine chloride. More difficult to burn than B. M. preservative. Burned like zine chloride. Burned freely; white smoke; hard to extinguish. 1 Woods treated with salts were ignited as soon as their moisture content was reduced by air-seasoning to 6 per cent, usually about 2 weeks after impregnation. 2 See footnote 1, page 11. For absorption of preservatives, see Table 3. Notre.—All salts burned for less than 3 minutes; all oils burned for 3 minutes and were then extinguished. 19 “O18P Of S}MSoI JOOd WAOYS GALT, UINJOTBO TOSALO TO $480} BdTAIe_ ‘AOYySry AT Rtoprsuoo oq Atul yUjod Surry OywMyyATN OT} PUB ‘pe1s97 JOA UOF]VQUEdTOO YSOYSTY OY) SI SIT] IVY) SOPVOLPUL ATOIOUT G[NSOT Bq} UOT]LAYWOOMOD UTBII0D B ,,PAOGB,, SV POTROIPUT OVUM SopTs JoUQTe UO APYR]s ovenjony Avur ING ONTBA ONY OY} OF OSOTO OIL TOLYBIPUCOUOD UTLIL00 B ,,PUNOIV,, SB PoPVOTPUL SoTPTOLXO} OSOY TL, *ATOIBINVOV OIOUL ESO? BUYOP [[TM YIOA IOYJAN] PUB ‘SITOT] UPVIIGD UPYILA SB UeATS tweed svy qurod SUITE] 9Y} Sosvo UTLIIIN UT OSTt {Zz eqOUJOOF AQ 07 DoIIOFOI VSOY) dooxXo Ssey 10 YUd Iod QT JO AOBINIIV UVB UTYITM OF Poy OAVY SYINSY OY} O[(vz SI} U[—ALON if TESTS OF WOOD PRESERVATIVES. ‘QAOWLYV 9 "punoxry + *pojoTduroo40U SISaT, g ‘oyvorTdnp Ul poyoeyo toed jou svy yUTOd SUITIEY z “FI6L ‘Areniqe,y “WeYO “suy PUB “pUL “MOL UL SuUTMOTY YIN pues AoryduinyT “¢ *O Aq paystpqnd sea o7qez Sty Jo BABY 1 SSS SSS Sooo EoSC SEES a ood Cocco ot aaae (e) 08 T-9'& 0°3-6'8 PLT ‘180° ROP ees |S seul nens rae enc as ane ~~“ (9j0U 99S) UINTOTeO TOSeID 0°¢ Car $6" ST" 9ST” OG Seta ay es Se I alah MR Mg Se, Nea Oe Sore TCE epriony unipos Be SS ee Reece Se So 3 ease weer ee Ug) ara een soa reat | SOE Sal ae Se pee ia sete eer Ta oe Sa es SS a eee 9} VOT[IS TINTPOG (Gyn Ga | RECO B SRNR EP oe PERO ROD RER SSS Pam Cn a arse o ORC UR ois vie: liste Ss despa yee ko CeCe ata os beer -ordestque poosdeg (3) ye Pag (OS CREO GROUSE cop ah lagna PDs (Patil REO CR ORES TEASE OD aig OP Se OOS ---"@ATIBAIOSOIG "PL *_ (a) ers Sea RIS [ic meecreag aa ae Se nian eae ae (Co aera eee SO RRO ASSP een (gonpord-£q) 07eyYd[ns ourzZ Ercyets Mramieie ots [pei ah Soiseisns LEP 5 OL'y wort reese sess sess assess sss 29 (TRIO TAUIUIOD) 6}BYd[NS ourz GL° GIs" (1G ee A Na SS SG Se ae ge are ate Ca ce oie “77> *@pPLO[YO OULZ (s) 0° ORO Pea se [Nas SS Be CC seals = Noe cinos magi anise gies seg -" > QUOSOIO (g) 0° (2G sao a [Roe sieseoasoebonenne es atackoossedd esac SenuOogee [to Jonyy O°OR* 6 96°F ORO PAetabie: 2 ek Se oa sles er a te cee cae oS ape mS “[1o peziioddog (g) 00°S% OR ORG ps: RSE eee RN rot as oar enemas Soe cas q[eydsvioquiyL (gy arsses| Gortiegeees Seimei ne maadarania eral ie tant Sim aay ree (g) ~“[[10 9}0S00.10- POO AA (g Leb” OL" Ba Sao ore JOAIOSEI,T (g Gulsos ONZSOS Tae oe dae SSR ete UA Rg elgreenaesc malo ce as ->--9urqqqatdg (s) ST -GL0° PG -CT 9]0S00.10 POO Yoe0g G8 GOF* G9" (1g SB{INO) 1B} POO AA Chis SLs: G Gas Breas reeas Eee se aise car giceaht oe ee “181 POOMPIBET (s) 6-9" GT1-0'1 SDE SS ee aaa JOAJoserd poom “Vy ‘*O 0g* L6°§ G%"¢ “UINIUT[OGIBO SNTIVUOA WV (s) FOP 'T BG ** “MINOUTOGIVS “A “d “8 0°Oha 0°Sa+ OOF ies “*"10'T {0}OSOO1D 1B}-SBS-10}T AA. (s) GLE" 5 (Ve ees eek RO OS OE Ine aoe ee aoe “ZI0'L {8}OSOOIO IBJ-SBS-10]B AA, (s) G°3-6'1 OSS OCs een ayes ee es IG0°T ‘0}0S000 1}-SVI-10}8\\ 620° LOS “Pb OS ‘*Ls 6S “0% O°ee 2 “-" "A UWOTPIVIY £0JOSOIID IB4-[BOD ST 820° | GOT 690 1G SESka “AT UOIZDVI “0JOSOVIO 1B4-]BO;) ST ‘| 820° S/O G06 ° GCE “s “TIT WoTzoVIy ‘040S00I0 184-[BOD GT P60° ST" OPT” GES = ASS lias aie aban i evantiuaieetta cc peo y Peer sae “"T] WOR ‘184-[8O() OT OPT” GCG ° L81° ORES aoa ee ee ates cay ea eS * "JT UOYOBI ‘9}JOSOeIO 184-[BOD Oa Pen lesa sparta OFT 0 G66 “0 cre 0 CGE ate sae Saas eee iectah: aituraid cone Wot Sag Sarre oes Sage “"7=*"97OSO0ID IBJ-[BOD ‘eploryo | -ajyosoo10 | ‘erpeut jo *OpTIOTYyO 930S0010 “erpow JO : OUIZ IBJ-[VOO | JOO} oIqno | *4uUed Og UTZ 1B4-[BO9 yoos orqno *qU00 10,7 0} O19 BY op onBYy | tod spunog 07} O1V8Y 04 O19 BY aod spunog —S¥ 10}010d000 Aq PoyBUSTSOp OATPBAIOSOI BO NSEA TY ~*epoorurd Seuto yf *“SNSOUUV SOTO WT 5 tee ae een d -BAIOSOL “qutod SuTTTOT 1 Djoowuad sawoy pun snsouun sao 07 sanynadasold fo pore —G AIL I, 20 BULLETIN 145, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 6.—Corrosive action of the preservatives. Loss in weight of flange : Steel after immersion in ee Preservative designated by cooperator as— preservative for 4 weeks MASE at 98°C. in ounces per square foot per week. R | are ee ere Coalstaricreosote: - 2. ocesetc scene neceecn aeceesete sce - seeeaee. Less than 0.005. 2... +) CoaletariCreosole«WraCtlOm las os aaa. poesia os sae eee eee Do. 3 Coaltariereosote; Fraction Es... =. .sSsec teres. oc cee clean ee | Do. 4 Coml-taricreosote sb Taction eel =a" s -c cosh oS Ss Ressare a eeceenEes 1,956 899 Received at southern mills from interior, taken from advance sheets Cotton Record... 7,436 6,042 TROVE 5 3 sh eee ace a Rr AU eta ST ae RL re 68,080 | 122,744 73,613 128, 482 To do- ¥ A To Great| To Con- Shipments. mse Britain SBE Total. Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales. ifivenen Spy yun N= (Ss 5 as deseosasess Paps pSEeESEbeeeEeD= “cesobee 18, 886 8,977 2,076 29, 939 HEL G THEOL ATIES LOTS ete a ae ee rete Semen RIL ig 2 Seas 1,841 1,937 3, 130 6, 908 Hromelacksonvale yee anos Serre lel ok be ekeeeeee ee TET BO) eres eins | sn Sereees 11,780 FHT OTAM ES TANI S WAC Kean eet ise Selle ajar ans iajn's - v feeeeeeaee 1 OU PSR en anosn meres orp. 1,956 OUMMIMNTETIOL= ns: Saree eee ae Se ee elees Rae MPR scr Cie Uses) | Bosesasoad paaeeasano 7,436 Toy teet lepers ane cele a ee oan 2 oo ay ee 41,899 10,914 5,206 58,019 Shinn® inlA Chenoa aaoos see OS Oke e SOSA See MMBEISE 55 oan ee> 102, 846 13,685 6,615 123, 146 IDOOnGIGOs 4 ae Se NEES SaRee Soe cee ones aes Oe 60, 947 2,771 1,409 65, 127 Stocks, August 30. 1913 1912 Fn Sayyeritia neempenien en tare Myc Gc. Rainn cea ere is CE AR 13,717 5,078 1) (Chavemn Swarts ie AS oe ee 5 Saas ce |i a ac 1,922 455 TOM. 6 ba Bb beSs CONES Rete ss SNCS ae eRe = Ce etc odor ere eal ees Sea Nea 15, 639 5,533 1 See footnote to Table I. TaBLeE II1.—Estimated average grade of Upland cotton, and average price of Upland, Sea Island, and Egyptian cotton.' Average price of cotton fiber per pound (cents). ee Estimated average grade of Upland cotton. Sea Island. Upland. | Egyptian. Florida. | Georgia South : 812. | Carolina. LOL Middling to strict middling. -..... Es spobee 12.05 19.50 19.50 25.00 19.7 ii ieee Strict low middling to middling..-.-...-. 9.69 20. 41 20.41 23. 7. 18.75 OID RS: meine 1eabG KoMbtayee Ie se amie on ce Metal is yee 14. 69 27.36 27.36 35. 62 22.25 LGOG Nese [eee COME SRS Ses oe te Se Sos s 14. 29 27.10 27.10 32. 85 20.50 Ie ooo] Gassse WO Pe eed oy See See 9.24 17.92 17.92 23.39 17. 25 SOc IMU CG NG Uta? 5 aie ie apes ape MM er eee Aenea a 11. 46 24.27 24. 27 35.59 21.00 ANG eee: Serie tlow.mid dling: S225. sels see eee 10. 01 28. 65 28. 65 36. 70 20.00 113i Gees Billys mid Glin ges. Sa Bees See ey ae ee 10. 94 17.50 17.50 26.38 19.00 1904.....-. Sipichmiddlings. ==. 222 442 BS EDO Ss > ae 8.66 19.50 19. 00 27.12 15.00 (ORS aaa Rea COS acne OeaE anee nos oScash ote cae 12.16 23.60 21.00 28. 40 17.75 IQO2P E22. Sictilow middling=223o sess 55 eee 8. 20 20.00 17.00 25.00 15.50 1U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Bulletin 116, p. 19. 18 BULLETIN 146, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 1V.—Net imports of raw cotton, by countries from which imported, for the year ending Aug. 31, for specified years: 1895 to 1913.4 Net imports of raw cotton (equivalent 500-pound bales). Imported from— Year. Total. Egypt. 225,460 | 182,238 229,268 | 175,835 231,191 | 183,786 151,395 | 102,217 165,451 | 129,985 140, 869 | 120,187 202,733 | 169,731 133,464 | 103,669 130,182 | 108,283 134,778 | 106,166 99, 399 59, 864 United All other Kingdom Peru. countries. 8,071 10,300 24,851 27,049 9,201 17,183 9,717 10,221 27,467 19,435 | 12,076 17, 667 15,722 | 13,508 6, 236 13,741 5, 586 1,355 22,493 8, 564 1,945 20,176 7,440 2,179 14, 723 5,941 1, 235 21,810 5,116 1, 686 36, 213 2,335 987 1U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Bulletin 117, p. 9. TaBLeE V.—Quantity of kinds of raw cotton consumed and of stocks held in manufacturing establishments: 1911, 1912, and 1913.1 [Quantities are given in running bales, except that round bales are counted as half bales and foreign cotton in equivalent 500-pound bales. Linters are included.] Kind and locality. Wnited States 2225. -..2-.-a-% 2 Domestic: Wiplandige se soaseasee a -seteseseee Cotton-growing States......... Domestic: Wipland ic.5. Ss c0cies tt edeeesiecs Wplands ssesg cee tices scecetses% Raw cotton consumed during year ending Aug. 31 (bales). Stocks held in manufacturing establishments on Aug. 31 (bales). 1913 1912 1911 1913 1912 1911 5,786,330 | 5,367,583 | 4,704,978 | 778,158 | 870,646] 542,191 5,195,614 | 4,826,827] 4,258,750] 619,200 | 709,495| 398,065 54,778 94, 856 64,237 | 18,525 | 23,753 19, 280 303, 009 238, 237 206,561 | 60,454 | 52,622 43, 422 201, 269 180, 465 147,192 | 70,859 | 77,029 70, 678 10, 341 8,539 8, 903 1,044 1, 482 1, 456 2) 412 6, 842 9,793 673 3, 806 3,909 18, 907 11,817 9, 542 7, 403 2, 459 5, 381 2,960,518 | 2,712,223 | 2,328,487 | 234,509 | 241,611] 101,114 2,834,732 | 2,609,369 | 2,230,225 | 210,883 | 224,730 83, 103 12) 696 11,112 7, 987 2) 664 1,916 655 98, 75 76, 345 79,352 | 15,325] 11,508 11,980 10, 051 12, 557 6, 578 4,053 2, 767 4,644 Gil ouaices Se clee ice te ris Maier [eee 475 285 2,092 353 4 223 3, 783 | 2, 555 2,253 1,227 686 510 2,825,812 | 2,655,360 | 2,376,491 | 543,649 | 629,035 | 441,077 2,360,882 | 2,217,458 | 2,028,525] 408,317 | 484,765] 314,962 42, 082 83, 744 56,250} 15,861 | 21,837 18, 625 204, 234 161, 892 127,209] 45,129] 41,114 31, 442 191, 218 167, 908 140,614 | 66,806] 74,262 66, 034 10, 335 8, 539 8, 903 1,040 1, 482 1, 456 1, 937 6, 557 7,701 320 3, 802 3, 687 15,124 9, 262 7, 289 6, 176 1,773 4,871 1U.S8. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Bulletin 117, p. 14. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1914 BULLETIN OF THE USDEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE * No. 147 \\\t 5 ) By, ~ Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief. January 16, 1915. THE EFFECT OF THE CATTLE TICK UPON THE MILK PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS. By T. E. Woopwarp and W. F. Turner, Dairy Division, and Cooper CURTICE, Zoological Division. INTRODUCTION. The common cattle tick, Margaropus annulatus, infests the cattle throughout the greater part of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas, large portions of Texas, Oklahoma, Mississippi, South and North Carolina, and small areas in Virginia and Cali- fornia. On account of the enormous losses occasioned by the para- site, it has been necessary to quarantine the area infested, so that cattle outside of this area may be protected. Ever since 1906 tick eradication in the infested area has been actively pushed by Federal and State governments, cooperating with citizens of tick-infested regions, to destroy the pest. While the majority of farmers admit some loss, few are aware of its extent, hence the experiments reported in this bulletin were undertaken to bring out the facts, particularly in relation to the effect of the tick on dairy cows. The cattle tick is an almost exclusive parasite of cattle. While the ticks may mature on horses, mules, and possibly deer and sheep, their control on these animals has proved to be comparatively easy. All ticks come from eggs laid by the adult female ticks. An engorged female tick dropping from a cow completes oviposition in from five days to aweek; the eggs hatch as a rule in about 21 days in ordinary summer weather; the issuing seed ticks crawl upon the grass and await the coming of cattle upon which they crawl when opportunity offers; they then reach maturity in from 21 to 25 days. While maturing each tick abstracts a definite amount of blood from an animal, and to that degree injures it. The quantity of blood abstracted is many times the weight of the ticks when grown, for these represent only that part of the solids and fluids of the . blood which may be converted into the tissues of the tick, the remain- ing solids and fluids being rejected. The amount of blood taken 58970°—Bull. 147—15——1 ee 2 BULLETIN 147,\'U.| 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by a single tick may be relatively small, but the total amount drawn by thousands of ticks on one cow can not fail to be injurious. If each tick represents but a dram, or a teaspoonful, of blood, a few over 1,000 would represent 8 pounds of blood. It is possible that each tick absorbs more than a dram of blood. But the greatest disturbance created by the tick seems to be, not in the amount of blood abstracted, but in the fact that it is the carrier of the germ of Texas fever which it transmits to cattle. When cattle that have never become accustomed to ticks are infested they become very sick and usually die. This may occur anywhere, either within or without the tick-infested region. Cattle that survive the ticks usually remain immune to their worst effects afterward. However, as time passes the important fact that no cattle in the quarantined area of the South are ever safe from the effects of Texas fever, either in its acute or chronic form, becomes more and more impressed on those who have to study the affected cattle. PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENTAL WORK. As the dairy industry is becoming an important branch of southern agriculture it was thought desirable to ascertain the effect of the tick on the milk production and body weights of dairy cows. Twenty grade Jersey cows” of about average dairy quality were selected in the early part of their lactation periods. They were in fair condition of flesh at the beginning, and all had been tick infested at some time. The animals being immune to ordinary attacks of tick fever, the results should be applicable to the average dairy herd in the tick- infested areas. These cows were divided into two groups of 10 ani- mals each, the two groups being balanced as nearly as possible in regard to milk and butter-fat production, condition of flesh, and size. One group was freed from ticks by spraying with ‘‘tick dip B,” an arsenical solution used by the Bureau of Animal Industry in the tick-eradication work. Data were taken on only nine cows of this group, as one cow received an injury to her udder which stopped her milk flow early in the test. The other group was kept tick- infested by applying seed ticks at regular intervals. The degree of infestation varied with different animals and with the entire group at different times during the course of the experiment. The experiment began May 21, 1913, and lasted during a period of 140 days. The milk of each cow was weighed and a sample taken at every milking for a composite fat test at the end of each 10-day 1 Further details concerning the life history of the cattle tick and the protozoan causing the fever can be found in Farmers’ Bulletin 258. 2 The cows and the feed lots used in these experiments were provided by the Anthony Farms Co., Anthony, Fla., of which Mr. E. C. Beuchler is manager and vice president. EFFECT OF CATTLE TICK ON MILK PRODUCTION. 3 period. The body weights were taken for 10 consecutive days at the beginning of the work; thence once every 10 days until the last period, when they were taken for 10 consecutive days as at the beginning of the work. The weights were taken at about the same hour and under the same conditions each time, so that the extent of fill, both as regards feed and water, would be similar. The treat- ment of the two groups in all respects other than eS was as nearly alike as possible. FEEDING. The tick-free group of cattle were fed as much alfalfa hay as they _ would eat readily, and enough corn ee wheat bran, and cottonseed meal, mixed in the proportions 4 : 2 : 1, to maintain ie body weights. The aim was to give the infested ono the same kind and amount of feed, but toward the close of the experimental period these cows failed to consume as much hay as the tick-free cows. In order to make the digestible nutrients consumed practically equal for each croup, the grain ration of the infested cows was raised 1 pound for each 24 pounds of hay refused. Both groups of cows had access to salt and water in unlimited quantities. THE TICKS. The seed ticks used to obtain the various degrees of infestation in the cattle were the progeny of mature ticks obtained from several sources. The supply of ticks was secured through the cooperation of Dr. Charles F. Dawson, of the Florida State Board of Health, as the local supply was insufficient. Dr. Dawson’s first material was collected from Tallahassee, Kissimee, Dade City, and other places in Florida. A few small lots were received subsequently. The earlier adult ticks were collected between April 13 and April 28. The seed ticks or larvee from eggs laid by these emerged between May 22 and June 2, following. On June 12 and 14 two other consignments were received. The resulting broods seemed sufficient to insure thorough infestation of the cattle during the first weeks of the experiment. A second source of seed ticks was the Anthony Farm cattle not under test. This supply, together with that already mentioned, was sufficient to last until the middle of July by applying them but once a week. These two sources of supply proved to be insufficient, and a third lot was obtained from the Zoological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry. These were mainly a portion of the original col- lection by Dr. Dawson, which had been sent by him to Washington and intended for another purpose. One flask of specimens labeled as originating in Texas accompanied these. This Washington consign- ment was applied during July. As fast as the ticks matured on the 4 BULLETIN 147,°U.|\S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. experimental cattle they were picked off, and the seed ticks derived from them became available about August 1. From that time on there was an abundance of material. The time of application of the ticks may be roughly divided into two periods, viz, from June 4 to July 28, in which ticks were applied at intervals of seven or eight days, and from August 1 to September 25, in which they were applied on each alternate day with but two exceptions. The effect of weekly applications was to cause the ticks to ripen in groups covering about five days; the alternate day appli- cations caused a more continuous and intense infestation. The exact fluctuations of this were not determined on account of cessation of gathering ticks when sufficient had been obtained to complete the expermment. Collections of ticks from the experimental cattle were made twice daily during milking time from June 26 to September 4. This was necessary in order to obtain seed ticks for a continuation of the experi- ment into the fall months. The deleterious effects of the ticks were less than if they had been allowed to mature on the cattle; but in such case future seed ticks would not have been available. Addi- tional effort to acquire material from other sources demonstrated the futility of depending upon outside sources for seed ticks. As the experiment proceeded it became too late to employ other cows for raising ticks, a plan which would be better if the experiment were to be repeated. The count of the ticks made and given in an appended table does not include all that became attached to the cattle, for some dropped off, some were picked off by chickens, and others were licked off by the cattle themselves. Also many incompletely mature ticks were col- lected which might have added their share of damage to that already produced. Table 1 contains the number of ticks picked from each cow daily, the dates when they were applied, and their source. The infestation during the earlier period, June 4 to August 5, was practi- cally like a fall infestation in intensity, excepting that the ticks were not maturing equally throughout the week, thus causing milder effects during the time that the ticks matured less rapidly. Infesta- tion on different cows was from slight to gross during the whole ex- periment. Under farm conditions pasture infestations may occur daily, thus making continuous appearances, such as occurred during only a part of the week in the experiment, and producing consequently more severe injuries. The collecting of ticks was continued until within 30 days of the close of the experiment, when the supply was sufficient to maintain infestation until the completion of the work. EFFECT OF CATTLE TICK ON MILK PRODUCTION. 5 TABLE 1.—Source of seed ticks placed on cows and number of ticks picked from each cow at stated periods. Number of ticks picked from— - Source of seed ticks placed on. i 5 a Eerie. the cows. dis (4 |[3| 4]/¢]s eigis| _ B\ B |E| z B IE/E| E 8 Oo] 6 Onko e) ° ye] |S) IS AS ° oO} Oo Oo |0 oO iS) Oo jO!O] Oo a 1913. d June 26 to July 1..-.-- Florida, except Anthony. .-.. 1) 14) 16)3 44) 15 6} 1] 2 5} 107 July 2 to July 9....-- Anthony (few) and other | 2} 181) 63) 6) 256; 49] 35) 3) 54) 170) 819 places. July 10 to July 19....| Anthony and other Florida. .| 0) 728) 187) 40) 707; 217) 104) 7,146) 370 2,506 July 20 to July 29....| Anthony (most) and other | 2\)1,106) 414) 53) 1,475) 252) 129) 3231) 670 4,335 places. July 30 to Aug. 8...-- Anthony (few) and other | 0) 355) 451) 16) 1,843) 223) 85) 0) 54) 699) 3,726 places. Aug. 9 to Aug. 18.....| Florida(except Anthony) and| 6} 93) 119) 16 825| 158] 84] 3] 68| 300 1, 672 Washington, D. C. Aug. 19 to-Aug.28..-.| Anthony, Fla.-.......----.-- 7| 906} 872) 66) 1,184) 392) 615) 6139) 980) 5,167 AIS 29 FOSept.o-.2-|- 2. -s CO eee Maes ea 8)3, 892 2, 603} 45) 8, 116 1,5942, 430) 8 230 6, 467 25, 393 FANE, se i a(R ag es are 26)7,275/4, 725 245 14, 450 2, 90013, 488311924 9, 661 43, 725 } NotE.—No ticks were picked after Sept. 5, as there was then a sufficient supply of mature ticks on hand from which to procure seed ticks for the remainder of the experimental period. The infestation from August 20 to October 7 was unusually large in those animals which were susceptible to the ticks; in others the infestation was only slight, as throughout the experiment. It may be said, however, concerning the infestation generally that the table does not present a complete picture to the eye, nor do photo- eraphs taken on various dates. In the weekly infestation there were three or four broods on the cows at the same time, viz, newly attached seed ticks, week-old, two-weeks old, and, depending on the exact date, maturing ticks. In alternate-day infestation there were 11 broods on at once. On cows which favored their development one could feel by touch the young ticks that were covered by hair. From the beginning difficulty was experienced in gaging the number of young ticks that should have been put on the cows. In the weekly infesta- tion all the available ticks were used. The effects would not have been different had the same numbers been applied at intervals throughout the week. The infestation would have been less visible, however. Effort was made to apply about the same number each time, but later application gave better results than earlier ones. While the number placed on the animals was purely a matter of judgment, it is probable that the numbers applied from day to day did not vary so much as did the vigor with which the ticks attached themselves to the cattle. After the seed ticks were applied no changes could be made and results alone proved the numbers that remained on the cattle. 6 BULLETIN 147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The seed ticks were applied by permitting them to crawl on to the cow’s hair in various places from the edge of pint fruit jars used in hatching them. Sufficient time was allowed after hatching to permit the seed ticks to harden and become brown. They had been confined in the jars by cotton cloth. This cloth was used later to wipe up the ticks and scatter them over the cattle. In the first period of the experiment the ticks were mainly placed on the backs, bellies, and escutcheons of the cows, but in the second period they were placed more generally over the entire body. Some of the tick masses became too moist during oviposition and incubation in the wet season, and this caused the masses to adhere and resulted in the death of the larvee, especially when too many of the adult ticks were put together. Previously many egg masses had been kept too dry, presumably on account of atmospheric con- ditions and the small number of adults placed in a jar. Later on better conditions were secured by collecting the ticks in paper bags in lots of 200 or 300 and transferring them to the cloth-covered jars when they were nearly hatched. These methods caused the numbers of seed ticks occurring on the cattle to be purely guesswork. Failure resulted in spite of special efforts to infest those cattle that presented the fewest adult ticks. Such were nearly immune to ticks. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS. The damage done to the infested cows by the ticks seems to have arisen from two distinct causes; first, a fever incited in some of the cattle at various periods, and, second, loss of blood abstracted by the growing tick. FEVER CAUSED BY THE TICKS. The presence of fever on various dates is shown in Table 2, where temperatures of both tick-infested and tick-free cows are shown. No attempt was made to take daily temperatures, as the matter of taking any temperatures at all was an afterthought rather than part of the plan. One set of temperatures was taken at 9 a. m.; all others at 4 p.m. The temperatures of the tick-infested cattle were higher than the checks and nearly always above normal. The temperatures of the tick-free cattle were also often above normal. This may have been due to moist, hot conditions of the atmosphere, since only in exceptional cases were the temperatures abnormal on cool days. EFFECT OF CATTLE TICK ON MILK PRODUCTION. {i Tasie 2.—Temperature records of the experimental cows at various periods and average of all readings. Aug. 27. ie . July 27,| Aug. 2,| Aug. 6,| Aug.14,) Aug. 19, Sept. 1, gow Degree of tick infestation. an y maui ? ae ae ei Bene A. M.| P.M 102.2} 102.2} 101.8 103. 2 101.8 101.8 101.6 102.6 102.2 102.8 101.8 103. 6 101.8 101.8 102.3 104.0 103. 2 102. 4 103.6 | 105.6 102.8 | 102.6} 102.2 104. 4 102.0} 102.4) 103.0] 103.8 101.8 101.8 101: 6 103. 0 103.2 | 102.2] 102.4 104.8] 102.5] 101.6] 102.2 105. 4 102.8 | 102.2) 103.4 105.9 103.2 | 102.2) 101.2 105. 2 102.6 103.0 103.2 | 104.4 102.2] 101.2) 102.2 104.6 104.4 103.2 | 102.4} 104.7 | 103.0 101.8 102.6 105.0 101. 1 103.0 | 102.6 | 104.5] 102.8} 101.2] 101.6 103.0 103.2 | 102.8} 101.8 103. 8 103. 2 101.8 102. 4 103. 6 102.8) 102.4 101.8 103.0 | 102.2} 101.6 102.8 102.8 104.0 | 102.2) 102.4) 104.4 103. 4 102. 4 103. 2 104. 2 103. 6 103.0 | 102.0) 104.4 103.0} 102.0} 102.2 103.8 103.6 102.8 | 102.4 105.0 | 103.8 102.2 103.0 104.8 102.8} 103.0} 102.8 | 103.8 103.6 103.2 | 105.0 104. 2 104.0 104.0 | 102.4 | 104.4 104.0 | 102.2} 103.0 104.2 106.8 104.6 | 103.6] 106.8] 106.2) | 104.4} 102.8 106. 2 104.0 | 103.0] 103.2 104.2 | 103.6 102.2 | 102.6 105. 2 103.8 103.4 | 102.2) 104.2] 103.6] 102.2] 102.8 103.8 Sept. 2,| Sept. 3,| Sept. 4, | Sept. 5,| Oct. 1, | Oct. 2, | Oct. 3, | Aver- p.m. | p.m. | p.m. | p.m. | p.m. | p.m. | p. m.| age. 1) IC See ous eee meee 102.4 | 102.0) 102.2) 101.8 | 100.2) 104.2 | 102.4] 102.16 Die Wie a CO. ioe Hodeiped SucSraesa bee 103.5 | 103.4 | 102.0] 100.6 | 102.2) 103.2] 102.8] 102.53 Sp eee COS a aerate eas ean ea rte 104.2 | 105.2] 104.2] 101.0] 103.0) 104.8 | 103.6} 103.52 By aSee GLOSS ee aii Mie ei SUN Le oe 103.0 | 103.8} 102.6} 102.4] 104.0] 104.0] 104.0} 102.88 Oieseed COPS eet sew saecice 104.6 | 104.5] 103.6] 101.0} 103.2) 104.2] 103.4] 103.25 Us leaner COR eS le neice ial 104.8 | 105.8 | 103.2] 101.4] 102.6) 103.0] 103.4} 103.35 Sale ke ChOS Se SUN ie Solace, ena ee ae 103.6 | 102.8] 103.4) 101.0} 104.4] 104.0] 103.6 | 103.08 Oe ees GIS AGA eas ae eset ae eae 104.6 | 104.2] 101.8] 102.2} 103.2) 105.2) 104.6] 103.52 LOB Bee OSes ste ee sara 103.4 | 102.6] 102.6] 102.0} 103.2) 103.6 | 102.6] 102.65 ils) IU Oli SoS Sa SH Eee ae eE SE eaasee 103.6 | 103.8} 104.0} 102.2] 103.2} 103.4] 102.2) 103.00 ee es COS He SSS apeae ine sere eters 102.2. | 102.4] 102.8] 102.2) 102.2] 102.2) 102.2 | 102.37 US owabe donee Jeciieat mee see ea 102.8 | 102.8 | 104.2] 102.2] 103.8] 103.2] 103.4 | 103.24 IG) eee CORR ais Se nesses 105.4 | 104.4] 104.6 | 102.6 | 104.4] 104.0] 102.7} 103.47 Gal Medians tes 2 eas See 105.2 | 104.6] 105.6] 102.8] 104.8] 103.8] 103.6 | 103.93 Ieee CLO Beers es reed Le BS 104.2 | 104.6) 104.6 | 102.8} 104.6} 103.8 | 103.2 | 103.74 119)-|)| SIGN AY As Bo See ee ie eBEeaeae 104.2 | 104.0] 104.0] 102.6} 104.4] 104.2] 102.4; 103.60 OM erseret ClO isi eae ae ete RENE ie 106.0} 105.8} 104.0} 103.4 | 105.0} 105.2} 103.6 | 104.96 ll eeeae LOM rjere oni Ae Nee 104.2 | 104.5] 104.4] 102.8} 106.2] 105.8] 105.2} 104.07 AD eos OMe ses rapyiNn ty ALi Sie Se 103.8 | 104.2] 104.2} 103.2) 105.4]. 104.4 | 103.2 | 103.65 Blood taken from cows 12 and 13 and observed to run from the tick wounds of cows 15, 17, and 20 in particular was abnormal in being too thin. The red blood clots formed but a small part of the mass. All these animals, also cow 16, were noticed to be visibly distressed: as to feelings and respiration on various occasions. Cow 15 alone showed a slight pendulous swelling under the lower jaw. Cows 11, 14, 18, and 19 were infested with but few large ticks and not many visible small ones. Neither were they apparently ill at any time. To what quality these cattle owed their immunity from ticks is not known. They looked more like Jersey cattle than the other ones infested. in color cow 14 was lemon fawn and cow 19 was hght fawn, and the latter’s coat was very short and thin. Cow 15, the cow that became most heavily infested, was a large red brindle cow that resembled the Shorthorn or beef type. (Fig..1.) This 8 BULLETIN 147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cow seemed to resist the effects of the ticks until toward the end of the experiment, but finally failed rapidly in giving milk and died within a week after the close of the experiment. Fia. 1.—Cow No. 15, heavily infested with ticks over theentire body. This was one of the best cows in the group, but she died of tick fever shortly after the close of the experiment. Photo taken Sept. 25, 1913. Cow 20 was infested almost as heavily as cow 15. She was a large Jersey-like cow of lemon-yellow color. (Fig. 2.) Her milk failed quite early in the experiment. She presented a dejected appearance Fia. 2.—Cow No. 20, heavily infested on neck and shoulders. Photo taken Sept. 24, 1913. for some time but later recuperated and gained or held her weight to the end. Externally there seemed to be no reason why ticks developed so much more on her than on cow 14. EFFECT OF CATTLE TICK ON MILK PRODUCTION. 9 Cow 12, a mongrel Jersey with black predominating and white under parts, was the next most infested. (Hig. 3.) She became ill but acquired the habit of licking herself as clean of ticks as she could and of being assisted by other cows. She seemed to recover from her fever and improved somewhat in condition. Cows 13, 16, and 17 were infested about alike, but Nos. 13 and 17 suffered more from fever than No. 16. There seemed to be no par- ticular difference in the coats of Nos. 13 and 16 sufficient to explain why No. 16 should be less infested. They were red cows of mixed origin and doubtful ancestry. Cow 17 (fig. 4) was a very dark cow with white under parts, hay- ing a rather fine Jersey-like head. The sickness reduced her milk flow much more than was the case with No. 13. Asawhole, the light fawn- colored cows seemed to resist ticks better than the dark-colored ones. The sickness in the cattle was not entirely due to the number of ticks, for cows that had fewer ticks by far than cow 15 were sick much earlier. It has previously been stated that one of the sources of ticks was the Anthony farm. This farm sustains a large dairy, and fre- quently the herd is replenished with fresh milkers brought from Georgia and the surrounding coun- try. According to the superin- tendent, many go through acclima- tization or Texas fever. Itis quite probable that ticks from some of the acclimatized animals furnished the first protozoa (piroplasma) to produce disease in the experimental animals; it may be that afterwards ticks from sick cows in the ex- periment transferred the disease to other cows. While all these cattle were used to ticks, it is quite evident that they were not thoroughly immune to fresh attacks of disease, whether due to blood-letting or piroplasma parasitism. That immunity is a variable quantity is accepted by many southern cattlemen who have studied and had experience with traded cattle. The 10 check cattle remained free from ticks through keeping them im a separate pen and stalls; otherwise they were under similar condi- tions as the infested cattle. Although they were separated from the 58970°—Bu!l. 147—15—-2 i Fic. 3.—Cow No. 12, heavily infested on rear parts. Photo taken July 19, 1913. 10 BULLETIN 147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tick-infested group in the stable by the mangers only, and later turned out into a small field on account of the muddy condition of the barn lot, there was insufficient manifestation of small ticks to show penand yard infestation. However, it was thought necessary to spray these cattle on occasions because of a few scattered ticks which were presumably carried to them on the rag with which the udders were washed. Spraying was followed for a day or two by a diminished quantity of milk, after which the normal flow reestablished itself. The spray used was arsenical tick dip B, a concentrated solution which when used in prescribed dilution produced a subsequent slight exfolia- tion of the epidermis. The deleterious effects of the ticks were not so apparent in the ex- periment as they would have been had more ticks been developed Fig. 4—Cow No. 17, showing moderate infestation with ticks. early in the experiment. In that case early losses would have been reflected throughout. It is probable that excessive invasions of ticks on freshening cows in spring reduces their milk flow by fully one-half before the lactation period is ended. An attempt was made to put on about the same number of seed ticks at each application, so that the number applied from day to day was probably fairly uniform. Seed ticks secured from adult ticks from outside sources seemed to be less vigorous and to have more difficulty in attaching themselves to the cows than those more recently obtained from ticks that had matured on the Anthony cattle, so that fewer of them matured and consequently less damage resulted than when the Anthony ticks were used. This apparently low vitality of the seed ticks obtained from outside sources, together with the lght infestation obtained at the early part of the work, delayed any EFFECT OF CATTLE TICK ON MILK PRODUCTION. 11 definite results until toward the latter part of the experimental period.. : The cows used were so-called immune, yet all the tick-infested group except the four lightly infested ones suffered from attacks of fever at different times during the experimental period. This was not due entirely to the number of ticks maturing upon these animals, for cow 15, which showed the heaviest infestation throughout the entire period, was one of the last to suffer from an attack of fever. EFFECT OF TICKS ON MILK PRODUCTION AND BODY WEIGHT. Although each of the cows used in this work had been tick infested at some time, the individual variation in the degree of infestation that could be obtained was so wide that two subgroups were made of four animals each, one of which will be called the lightly infested and the other the heavily infested group. These subgroups show the effect of varying degrees of infestation upon the body weights and milk production of the cows in a manner more marked than when the two entire groups are compared. In the discussion which fol- lows only the summaries of groups are given. Complete data for each cow will be found in the appendix. The average results are shown in Table 3 following, and graphically in the chart, figure 5. TaBLe 3.—Effect of tick infestation on milk production and body weight of cows. Milk production. Body weight. Feed. | | aver. | Average.con- Number of | Aver- i z | “Ver sumption G : Aver- | Aver. | Aver- | Aver. I Hse cows. | age for | age for| Aver- | age for | age for ome per cow for first | last |agede-| first | last | ®?)% | entire period. 10-day | 10-day | crease. | 10-day | 10-day On ies period. | period. | period. | period. |“; “\”” 7/2 | Hay. | Grain. 'Pounds. Pounds.| Per ct. |Pounds.|Pounds. Per ct. Pounds. Pounds. Wicksfree-_ Sse. ae eae Nos.1to10--| 176.2 | 92.1 AT.7 719.2 | 763.4 +6.1 2,500 638 Tick infested. .-...--- Nos.1i to 20..| 177.9 60.6 | 65.9 | 707.2 732.9 +23.6 2,437 | 658 Lightly infested... ._. Nos. 11,14,18,| 157.5] 68.6| 56.4| 694.4] 736.0) +6.0| 2,385 | 585 19. Moderately infested...| Nos. 16,17...) 149.4] 56.8 61.9 746.1 | 809.4 +8.5 | 2,563 569 Heavily infested... ._- Nos. 12,13,15,| 212.6 | 54.5 | 7431 700.7] 691.4] —1.3| 2,424 736 20. | COMPARISON OF TICK-FREE AND TICK-INFESTED COWS (ENTIRE GROUPS). At the beginning of the experimental period the two groups pro- duced practically the same amount of milk—the cows of the tick-free group producing an average of 176.2 pounds during the first 10-day period and those of the tick-infested group an average of 177.9 pounds. During the final 10-day period the cows of the tick-free group produced an average of 92.1 pounds of milk, a decrease of 47.7 per cent from their production during the initial period, while the Te BULLETIN 147, U. S. DEPAREMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cows of the tick-infested group produced an average of 60.6 pounds per cow, a decrease of 65.9 per cent when compared with their first 10-day period. it should be noted especially that while the tick- infested cows produced 1 per cent more milk than the tick-free cows in the beginning, they produced only 65.8 per cent as much during the final period. The two groups consumed practically the same TEN GAY (FERIOLD EV DINe — MAY JUNE JUNE JUNE JULY JULY JULY AUG. AUG. AUG. SEPT SEPI, SEPT OCK 30 9 1/9 29 9 /9 29 8 /8 28 7 TE ae 7 220 210 200 490 /80 ‘ rs /60 V 150 T 1/30 _——————— MILK PRODUCTION (POUNDS ) /00 oe pec Bead 90 ——_—} TICK-FREE $ROUP NK eee TICK-INFESTED GRO aan See FOUR HEAVILY -iINFESTED COWS ------- | nants, Se 70 GO sO Saas Fic, 5.—Average milk production by 10-day periods of the tick-free and tick-infested groups and of four heavily infested cows. amount of feed during the entire period. The percentage of fat in the milk of each group increased toward the close of the experiment, that of the infested group showing a slightly greater increase. At the beginning of the test the tick-free cows weighed on the average 719.2 pounds and the tick-infested 707.2 pounds. During the experimental period each group increased in body weight, but the increase of the tick-free group was greater than that of the tick- EFFECT OF CATTLE TICK ON MILK PRODUCTION. 13 infested. During the final 10-day period the cows of the tick-free group averaged 763.4 pounds in weight, an increase of 6.1 per cent, and those of the tick-infested 732.9 pounds, an increase of 3.6 per cent from the initial weight. In making this comparison it should be remembered that during the entire experimental period the two groups consumed practically an equal amount of nutrients, and that toward the latter part of the experimental period the milk production of the tick-infested group was considerably decreased, so that this group was fed an amount in excess of that required for milk production. Presumably this excess of food would tend to make flesh and thus offset any detri- mental effect that the ticks would have upon the body weights. COMPARISON OF TICK-FREE AND HEAVILY INFESTED GROUPS. Four cows in the tick-infested group were soon found to be more easily infested than the remaining six. A gross infestation of these four cows was obtained early in the experimental period and was maintained throughout the test. At different times all four suffered from attacks of fever, with an almost total loss of appetite and a falling off in milk flow. One, which suffered from an attack of fever at the end of the experimental period, died shortly after the close of the work. By referring to Table 3 it will be noticed that there is a much more pronounced decrease in milk production between this group and the tick-free group than when the two entire groups are com- pared, showing that the heavier degree of infestation results in a proportionately increased injury. ‘This is likewise proved to be true when the body weights of the two groups are compared. COMPARISON OF TICK-FREE AND LIGHTLY INFESTED GROUPS. While four cows of the tick-infested group proved to be easily infested, another four of the same group proved to be very resistant. The immature ticks were applied to these four cows with the same care and in as large numbers as they were to the heavily infested animals; in fact, extra efforts were made to obtain a heavy infesta- tion upon these resistant animals. However, at no time during the experimental period were any of the four so heavily infested that the degree of infestation could be classed as gross, and for the greater part of the period none of them was carrying mature ticks. The decrease in milk production was more than in the tick-free cows, but considerably less than in the heavily infested animals. COMPARISON OF LIGHTLY INFESTED AND HEAVILY INFESTED GROUPS. While the heavily infested cows produced more milk during the initial period and through the greater part of the experiment, they also consumed more feed than those of the lightly infested group 14 BULLETIN 147, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (see Table 3). At the beginning of the experimental period the four heavily infested cows produced an average of 212.6 pounds of milk, while the four lightiy infested cows produced an average of 157.5 pounds during the same 10-day period. During the final 10-day period the heavily infested cows produced an average of but 54.5 pounds of milk, a decrease of 74.3 per cent from their production during the initial period. During the same period the lightly infested cows pro- duced an average of 68.6 pounds of milk, a decrease of 56.4 per cent from their production during the first period. While the heavily infested cows produced 35 per cent more milk than the hghtly infested during the initial period, they produced only 79.4 per cent as much during the final period. When the two groups are com- pared with the tick-free groups, it is seen that the lightly infested group produced during the final period of the experiment 81.4 per cent as much milk as the tick-free, while the heavily infested group produced but 57.6 per cent as much. A comparison of the body weights of the two groups shows the heavily infested with an average weight per cow of 700.7 pounds during the initial 10-day period, which decreased to 691.4 pounds per cow, or 1.3 per cent, while the lightly infested cows, with an average weight of 694.4 pounds, in- creased to 736 pounds per cow, or 6 per cent. No figures are given on cost of milk production, as the aim was merely to measure the effect of tick infestation on yield of milk and body weight. As the cows were kept in comparatively small inclo- sures, the cost of milk production was higher than under ordinary conditions when cows are on pasture. EFFECT OF SPRAYING OR DIPPING IN AN ARSENICAL SOLUTION UPON THE YIELD OF MILK. At four different times during the experimental period the cows of the tick-free group were sprayed with tick dip B, an arsenical solu- tion. This was done to keep the tick-free cows absolutely free from ticks. Each spraying caused a temporary reduction in the milk yield, as shown by the curves in figure 6. The average yield for the first day after each spraying, when compared with the average of three days preceding spraying, showed percentage reductions in each “case as follows: 8.7, 27, 8.3, and 5.7 per cent. It will be noted that the reduction was much the highest for the second spraying. On the day prior to this spraying and for two days thereafter timothy hay was fed, owing to a shortage of alfalfa. This, no doubt, had tts influence on the milk yield, as indicated in thé excessive shrinkage at that time. From three to five days were required for the cows to return to their normal production. The average of five days after each spraying compared with the average of three days preceding EFFECT OF CATTLE TICK ON MILK PRODUCTION. iS: spraying showed reductions, respectively, of 6.2, 21.7, 4.5, and 7.6 per cent. Disregarding the second spraying, the average reduction for five days was 6.1 per cent. These results with spraying are similar to those obtained with dip- ping during the 165-day test conducted by J. H. McClain, of the Dairy Division, Bureau of Anima! Industry, at Summerville, S. C., in 1912. In this experiment 10 cows were dipped seven times with a solution of tick dip B, the dippings coming at intervals o: about 21 days, with an average decline in milk production, for two days, of 10.6 per cent after each of the seven dippings. But apparently the cows became accus- Pave tomed to the dipping Pon? MESR Pe SR! COLT SOB One 0 process, for there was no appreciable de- crease in the milk flow after the first four dippings except the natural decrease due to the advance in the lactation period. The average decline in production “was approximately as follows: After each of the first four dippings, milk 14.8 per cent; fat 8.9 per cent; after each of the last three dip- pings, milk 1.9 per : Fic. 6.—Effect of spraying on milk production, showing the average cent, but an increase amount of milk produced by the tick-free group for three days before of 10.6 per cent in and seven days after each of four sprayings. The unusual decline yiel dot fat. at the second spraying was probably due to a change in feed. That the heavily infested cattle in our experiments yielded fully 40 per cent less milk than the check animals at the close of the experiments, and that even those lightly infested gave less by 25 per cent, has been heretofore recorded. Conversely, we may infer that the check cows in this experiment and those regularly dipped in the Summerville experiment gave this additional quantity of milk on account of being kept free from ticks. Had this freedom been obtained without the use of arsenical dips, it is quite certain that an amount of milk equal to 10.6 per cent during one-tenth of the time in the Summerville experiment, and to 6.1 per cent during one- seventh of the time in our experiments, would also have been saved YING +SUNE 4 pees M/LK PRODUCTION: (POUNDS) =~ 16 BULLETIN 147, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from loss on account of the ticks. These differences emphasize the good results of the use of arsenical dips, and above all, of the necessity for the compiete eradication of ticks so that the remedy, which of itself temporarily reduces the flow of milk, will be unnecessary. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. The cattle tick has a decidedly injurious effect upon supposedly immune dairy cattle, the extent of the injury being largely dependent upon the degree of infestation. The effect is more pronounced upon the milk production than upon the, body weights when a sufficient supply of food is given. At the beginning of the test the tick-free and tick-infested groups gave practically the same amounts of milk; at the close the tick- infested gave only 65.8 per cent as much as the tick-free. The tick-free group gained 6.1 per cent in body weight; the tick- infested gained 3.6 per cent. Spraying or dipping tick-free cattle in an arsenical solution causes a marked though temporary decrease in milk flow. In this experi- ment there was an average reduction of 6.1 per cent from the normal milk flow for a period of five days following each of the four applica- tions of the arsenical solution. Resistance of cattle to infestation by the tick is a variable quality. Of the 10 animals in the tick-infested group, 4 became grossly in-. fasted; 2 more so than the average, and the remaining 4 but lightly infested. The death of cow 15, due to excessive tick infestation, and various recurrences of fever in the other animals, emphasizes the extreme hazard of cattle being continuously subjected to these losses by the tick. Cow 15 was one of the best of the tick-infested group and rep- resented at least a 10 per cent loss from the capital invested in tick- infested cows. Furthermore, the losses observed in this experiment were sustained on rations sufficient to maintain body weights. It is thought that had there been but a scant supply of food, as sometimes occurs when cows are on pasture, the tick-infested cattle would have suffered earlier and probably to a greater degree than they did. The losses in this case were in spite of a good maintenance ration. It is probable that much of the spring losses in cattle now laid to starva- tion, due to lack of pasturage, is materially aided by blood depletion due to ticks, and that repeated dippmgs would save many cattle otherwise lost. These experiments are not extensive enough to furnish an exact measure of the amount of decrease in milk flow due to infestation, but they show that the losses are considerable and vary in immune cows largely in proportion to the extent of infestation, since in all cases EFFECT OF CATTLE TICK ON MILK PRODUCTION. kn the milk flow decreased faster in the heavily infested than in the lightly infested cows. ‘This is additional evidence that the tick is a great hindrance to profitable dairying in the South. Even in so- called immune cattle, ticks cause irritation of the skin and withdraw blood that otherwise would produce milk or meat. Fever-producing parasites are present in the blood of cattle once infested by ticks, though they may be so few in number that no symptoms of the disease are apparent. The danger from them lurks there, nevertheless, for under certain conditions the parasites may multiply so rapidly as to cause marked disease or death, or they may be transferred by ticks to uninfected animals. Thus the tick con- stitutes a source of danger, and should be exterminated. Further- more, eradication must be by cooperative, concerted action. One farmer may free his premises of ticks, but reinfestation is lable to occur at any time from neighboring farms or strange cattle, unless the entire community is free from the tick. The only means of preventing losses by ticks is through disinfection and clean pastures. While dipping may temporarily diminish the quantity of milk given, in the long run it largely conserves the flow of milk. The arsenical solution should be used to frustrate the great dissemination of ticks during their most favorable season. In infected areas Where there is no concerted effort to eradicate ticks it may not be wise to use the solution on slightly infested milch cows. Methods of exterminating the ticks on the farm are described in Farmers’ Bulletin 498, a copy of which will be mailed to anyone on application. APPENDIX. RECORDS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL COWS. The following tables show the records of the experimental cows for the whole test by 10-day periods. Table I gives the results by groups, and Table II the individual records of each of the cows. Originally there were 20 cows in the experiment, 10 in each group, but, as before stated, an injury to one of the tick-free cows necessitated her removal from the test. Therefore, in Table I the tick-free group consists of 9 cows, and in Table II no data are given for cow 4, the cow in question. TaBLE |I.—Group records of experimental cows by 10-day periods. TICK-FREE COWS. aes of ACU of a ee : feed con- “1. * feed con- Milk production. eerie Milk production. Sinner per cow. | per cow. Ten-day 2 2 oH Ten-day » i ce period q Gq je : | period gq gd fo : ended— | ©, /O8|] |;]/ ¥ ended— Oi ee PS aes Bu |8S)og) ‘so | Gad ES los] ‘0 SS Pell cole Ieceveas 3 Cea a ae) dee cc) 2a |ge las) B | od |e |Sa] & gs) é a0 g | am 6 BS |s-/88| & oe go |s.(/88| & ee 2 os | 8 Z be ‘a ® Poe is) b | 3 > p ® 5 s uy > > [) } s a USDEDARTMENT OF IUII & No. 148 Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief. March 22, 1915. THE USE OF BACILLUS BULGARICUS IN STARTERS FOR MAKING SWISS OR EMMENTAL CHEESE. By C. F. Doane and EH. E. ELDREDGE, Of the Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. INTRODUCTION. The Swiss-cheese industry was introduced and is still carried on in the United States by settlers from Switzerland who were cheese- makers in their native land. Not many of them remain in the business in this country for any length of time, however, mainly because of the long hours of labor necessary under the present system of making cheese twice a day. But this system was inevitable until a sufficient knowledge of fundamental principles could be obtained so that the method of making the cheese could be altered without in- juring the quality of the product. As an art Swiss cheesemaking is very highly developed, but it is based on empirical methods. Few scientific principles have been found that are a help to the cheese- makers even in Switzerland, where the industry has been well estab- lished for a long time. Although some very fine cheese of the Swiss or Emmental type has been made in the United States, the quality has not averaged so high as that of the foreign-made cheese. The feed, pastures, climate, topography, and other conditions, so different from those in Switzerland, where the present system of Swiss-cheese manufacture was developed, naturally call for changes which could not be made in the absence of a knowledge of the causes which underlie the proc- esses of cheesemaking. Another contributory cause of low-grade American-made cheese has been the inadaptability of many of the cheese factories; their fitness for cheesemaking has sometimes been sacrificed to cheap construction. So many difficulties have been ex- perienced that cheesemakers were led to believe that it was impossible to make a good Swiss cheese except in a few localities. Some be- lieved, in fact, that there was no place in the United States where Notr.—This bulletin reports experimental work showing how to control undesirable fermentations and thus to provide a remedy for the most serious troubles which occur in making Swiss or Emmental cheese. It is of interest chiefly to manufacturers of that type of cheese. 62121°—15 2 BULLETIN 148, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the product would equal in quality that made in Europe, since the same methods were used on both sides of the Atlantic. The most serious trouble of the cheesemaker occurred during the cold months, which led to the practice of making cheaper varieties of cheese in the spring and fall and closing down the factory for four months in the winter. This, of course, is a considerable handicap to the industry, and would not be necessary if there were sufficient infor- mation concerning the origin of and remedy for the faults in manu- facture. These unsatisfactory conditions led to the investigations reported in this bulletin, since it was believed that the present faulty methods might be corrected, provided the real causes of cheese defects were discovered. In the absence of exact knowledge it was natural that erroneous theories should become prevalent in regard to the feeding of the cows, the care of the milk, and the handling of the cheese; but as they were based on practical experience it has not been found advisable to set them aside without investigation. Apparently very unimportant changes made in handling the cheese were found to result in great changes in the quality of the finished product, and although changes in methods are necessary in order to produce the best quality of cheese, it is unwise to advise the cheesemaker to change his methods without substantial proof of the value of the change. The main trouble in making Swiss cheese is known to be caused by the development of undesirable types of microorganisms, some of which produce abnormal gas, causing what is known as “ nissler” or “pressler” cheese. ‘These undesirable organisms in Swiss cheese cause a lack of uniformity in the formation of the eyes. In some cases no eyes whatever are developed; this trouble is probably due to the absence of certain desirable types. At the beginning of this work it was thought that these faults might be overcome by the proper use of starters, which have become general in buttermaking, and their value has been frequently demonstrated. They have also been used to some extent in the making of Cheddar cheese. Unconsciously the makers of Swiss cheese have used starters with the rennet, a practice which has at times been of great value. But while the rennet starter has been the cause of much help, it has also caused trouble when the helpful species of bacteria usually present have for some reason been weakened. The full benefit of the starter was not obtained, in any event, since less than one-fourth of 1 per cent of rennet was used. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF BACILLUS BULGARICUS IN MAKING SWISS CHEESE. In selecting a starter for making Swiss cheese it is at once apparent that certain characteristics are desirable to make its use possible with the method of manufacture employed. The curd for Swiss USE OF BACILLUS BULGARICUS IN CHEESE STARTERS. 3 cheese is cooked at a comparatively high temperature, 126° to 136° F., and is cooled very gradually while the cheese is in press. This treatment checks temporarily the growth of most species of bacteria, including the lactic-acid bacteria, which are used for starters in the making of butter and Cheddar cheese. The Bacillus bulgaricus group of bacteria has the qualifications which apparently fit in with the manufacturing process of Swiss cheese. Investigators have found a wide variation in the tempera- tures at which different varieties will grow and in the amount and rapidity of acid formation. The presence of this group of bacteria in the rennet preparations was first recognized by Freudenreich and Jensen, who studied it and named it Bacillus casei «. ‘They came to the conclusion that it was largely responsible for the normal ripen- ing of the cheese, but Jensen apparently receded from this position a few years afterwards, though he still advocated the use of B. casei « in the preparation of rennet for the purpose of suppressing the growth of undesirable bacteria in the rennet solution. He has been supported in this by many of the European authorities, and pure cultures of B. bulgaricus have been furnished extensively to makers of Swiss cheese for this purpose. Peter and Held,? in discussing the sources of infection causing troubles with Swiss cheese and the influence of the rennet solution on the cheese, suggested the possibility of the cultures in the rennet sup- pressing undesirable gas-forming types of bacteria in the cheese. Gratz,? in some laboratory tests, found that a culture of Bacillus bulgaricus inhibited the growth of bacteria of the coli-aerogenes group in milk held at a temperature of 40° C. (104° F.). Burri,‘ in discussing the relative merits of commercial acid and pure cultures of Bacillus bulgaricus in making up the whey rennet solution, points out that B. bulgaricus suppressed the growth of gas- forming bacteria in the whey rennet. Thoni® showed the influence of B. bulgaricus in making good rennet. He reported some experiments in which rennet containing B. bulgaricus made good cheese, while cheese made with the natural rennet without this bacillus was gassy, evidently because the gas- producing bacteria made a very heavy growth in the rennet. 1 Wreudenreich, Edward von, and Jensen, Orla. Die Bedeutung der Milchsiiurefer- mente fiir die Bildung von Hiweisszersetzungsprodukten in Hmmenthalerkiisen, nebst einigen Bemerkungen tiber die Reifungsvorginge. Landwirtschaftliches Jahrbuch der Schweiz, vol. 13, p. 169-197. Bern, 1899. 2Peter, A., and Held, J. Praktische Anleitung zur Fabrikation und Behandlung des Emmentalerkiises. Second edition. Bern, 1910. 3 Gratz, Otto. Studien tiber die Antibiose zwischen Bacterium casei « und den Bak- terien der Coli-Aerogenes-Gruppe. Zeitschrift ftir Girungsphysiologie allgemeine, land- wirtschaftliche und technische Mykologie, vol. 1, no. 3, p. 256-281. Berlin, June, 1912. 4Burri, Robert, Reinkulturen oder Siuremischung beim Labansatz? Molkerei Zeitung, vol. 22, no. 33, p. 887-389. Berlin, 1912. 5Th6ni, Johannes. Bakteriologische studien tiber Labmiigen und Lab. Hin Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Bereitung des Kiisereilabes. Landwirtschaftliches Jahrbuch der Schweiz, vol. 20, p. 181-242. Bern, 1906. 4 BULLETIN 148, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Jensen! advised the use of a streptococcus in connection with B. bulgaricus as a starter for suppressing undesirable bacterial growths in the cheese, but offered no proof of the efficiency of this combination of cultures. : Though it is generally believed that it 1s the lactic acid produced by different bacteria that gives different varieties their value in pre- venting the growth of undesirable forms of germ life, this assump- tion is seriously questioned by some bacteriologists, who think it possible that the formation of lactic acid is incidental and is not the active inhibiting principle. White and Avery? point out that cultures of B. bulgaricus grow at relatively high temperatures, forming acid as high as 50° C. (122° F.). They also show that relatively high percentages of acid are formed in milk, reaching as high as 3.1 per cent. Hastings and Hammer ? give 4.09 per cent as the maximum amount of acid found in milk. They find that B. bulgaricus is distributed very widely and generally in dairy products of all kinds. Mention is made especially of its presence in the milk and whey at Swiss- cheese factories. Heinemann and Hefferan* also noted the general distribution of B. bulgaricus, its high growing temperature and its ability to form acid in milk. The authors quoted found a very great difference in the maximum amount and the rapidity of acid formation of different cultures. Cultures also lose their ability to form acid to a great extent when carried under laboratory conditions. The growth of M/ycoderma on the surface of the whey starter greatly facilitates the growth of the B. bulgaricus culture used. Théni® in some tests with the Myco- derma found that while the whey culture of B. bulgaricus without the I/ycoderma showed at the end of 24 hours 7,000,000 and 18,000,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, with the Mycoderma the numbers were 136,000,000 and 200,000,000, respectively, and the increase of acid with the I/ycoderma was more than one-half. In our own work we have found that B. bulgaricus can form as high as 2 per cent acid in whey, and we found that with the culture iso- 1 Jensen, Orla. Ueber die im Emmentalerkiise stattfindende Milchsiiuregiirung. Milch- wirtschaftliches Zentralblatt, vol. 2, no. 9, p. 398-414. Leipzig, Sept., 1906. 2 White, Benjamin, and Avery, Oswald T. Observations on certain lactic-acid bacteria of the so-called bulgaricus type. Centralblatt ftir Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde und Infektionskrankheiten, Abteilung 2, vol. 25, no. 5/9, p. 161-178. Jena, Nov. 30, 1909. ® Hastings, Edwin George, and Hammer, B. W. The occurrence and distribution of organisms similar to B. bulgaricus of yogurt. Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, Para- sitenkunde und Infektionskrankheiten, Abteilung 2, vol. 25, no. 14/18, p. 419-426. Jena, Dec. 22, 1909. 4 Heinemann, Paul Gustav, and Hefferan, Mary. tudkonenve ifine ence as those in the control pot, and the marked increase noted in the growth of the seedlings in this pot could not have been due to the presence of the polonium tube as claimed by the author, but must be attributed to some other influence. From the way in which other experiments were carried out it seems reasonable to suppose that other results were likewise incorrectly at- tributed to radioactive influence. Thus it was concluded “that freshly fallen rain water tends to retard the growth of roots of beans (Lupinus albus) and that the effect is due to the radioactivity of the water.” It was further observed from other experiments that “the growth in length of radicles of Lupinus albus is uniformly accelerated in an atmosphere containing radium emanation.”* The intensity of the radiation was not given in either case, but it was indicated, and it is undoubtedly a fact, that the intensity of the radiation in the latter experiment was much greater than in the former. It would thus seem that as measured by the growth that takes place without any radioactive influence, a weak radiation retards, while a stronger radiation stimulates the growth of certain seedlings. This is con- trary to experience and to the general conclusion reached by the au- thor that “ the rays of radium act as a stimulus to protoplasm. Re- tardation of growth following an exposure to the rays is an expres- sion of overstimulation. Acceleration of growth indicates stimula- tion between a minimum and an optimum point.” Experiments were also described in which seeds and seedlings were exposed in a 6-inch pot to the radiation from i0 milligrams of radium bromide of activity 1,800,000. A preparation of 0.5 gram of radium bromide of activity 10,000 was also used. Both retarding and stimu- lating effects were observed, depending on the seedlings used and the conditions of the experiments. It would be expected that with a radiation of the intensity given by these preparations a marked effect would result, as was observed. The experiments are thus of scientific interest, but they do not give any indication that radium can be of any practical value in general farming. To duplicate the experiments on a large scale He require a quantity of radium which is not available. 1Jqn this connection the author himself states: ‘‘I am unable to explain how physio- logical effects can be obtained with radio-tellurium [polonium] in a sealed glass tube, for this substance gives off only @ rays, and these are not thought to be able to pass through the glass walls of the tube. The results, however, were constant and decided, leaving not the slightest doubt as to the physiological efficacy of the preparation.” Loc. cit., p. 144. 2 0G. Cit:, Dp. ATS! 3 Loe. cit., p. 156. USE OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES AS FERTILIZERS. iG Many experiments on the influence of radioactive matter: on plant erowth have also been made by Stoklasa.t. In one set of experiments there was observed the effect of adding varying amounts of uranium in the form of uranium nitrate to a given quantity of soil. Using plants of clover (Mfelilotus albus) a maximum increase in growth of 24 per cent was obtained when 1 part of uranium was used to 1,510, 000 parts of soil. But the presence of lead in the form of lead nitrate was found to be even more stimulating in its action since a corre- sponding increase in growth was obtained with a concentration only one-eighth as great as the quantity of uranium which gave best results. Lead, however, is a rayless element and the effects observed with it must hace Mieroton ce been due to its chemical properties. As a soluble salt of uranium had to be used to give the effects observed, it is rea- sonable to conclude that these effects are likewise due, in a large measure at least, to the chemical properties of the uranium rather than to its idiouctive properties. Further evidence of the truth of this statement will be given later. In other experiments Stoklasa ? made a study of the change in rate of nitrogen fixation brought about by bacteria (azotobacter chroococcum) when cultures of these bacteria were placed in an atmosphere containing radium emanation. In carrying out the experiments 2 liters of air having an activity of 150 Mache units? were passed daily into the vessel containing the cultures and there resulted from this treatment a marked increase in the amount of nitrogen fixed by the bacteria. It was further observed tkat the time of germination of seeds was shortened and an increase in the de- velopment of plants resulted when watered with water having an activity of from 30 to 2,000 Mache units. Using a concentration of emanation about 30 times as great as that given by Stoklasa, Fabre* likewise observed favorable results in the germination and growth of seedlings. Many experiments on the anenee of Pdioactive matter on plants have also been made by other investigators, but unlike the results just cited the effects reported in the majority of cases were deleterious rather than beneficial. As radium emanation is an inert gas, the results obtained with its use can not be due to its chemical properties, as in the case of uranium, but must be attributed to its property of being radioactive. It is thus necessary to conclude that radioactive material does have an effect on plant growth, and that when a certain concentration, 1 Compt. rend., 155, 1096 (1912) ; 156, 153 (1913) ; 157, 879, 1082 (1913). 2 Loe. cit, The unit now generally used for expressing a quantity of radium emanation is ealied the curie, or the microcurie, and is the amount of emanation in equilibrium with 1 gram, or 1 microgram, of radium. One microcurie per liter equals a concentration of about 2,700 Mache units. *Compt. rend. soc. biol., 70, 187 (1911). 8 BULLETIN 149, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. but not too great a concentration, is used stimulating effects are to be expected in some cases at least. In fact it is to be expected, although not yet clearly demonstrated, that in greenhouse practice and in botanical research, where the results obtained might justify the ex- pense involved, the radio-elements may prove of very great value, as they have done in other branches of science. When consideration, however, is taken of the scarcity of these elements, it does not follow from any experiment so far described that such elements can have any practical application as a fertilizer in general farming. To increase the activity of the a tmosphere above the soil with radium emanation would not be feasible in field practice, neither would it be practical to add such a quantity of radioactive material to the soil that the emanation in the underground air would be increased to even the very low concentration used in Stoklasa’s experiments, and the same may be said with regar d to making irrigating water radio- active. COMPOSITION OF RADIOACTIVE MANURE. The source of the sc-called radioactive manures consists of the residual rock from which carnotite or other uranium ores have been. extracted; or of uranium ores which contain too low a percentage of uranium to make it profitable to extract the radium. Since an ore containing as low as 2 per cent of uranium oxide can be profitably used in the manufacture of radium, it is not to be expected that this percentage of uranium, or its equivalent of radium, will be found in any radioactive manure. In the following table is given the composition of samples of radio- active materials which have been applied as a manure. Analyses of samples of radioactive manure, { { Constituent. | A B | Constituent. | A B ie 7; i Z aap ae Silica (S103) ic ces 2 eee woke os i 0. 44 85.90 || Phosphoric anhydride (P.Os).|.......... Trace. Oxide of iron and alumina | I] “Soluble phosphoric acid’... US37) || bosseecoe (Fe2O2+ AloO3).....--..---- 2. 20 8.65 i ‘Water, volatile organic mat- Mime (CaAOy\e ccs! ses seco oes Se ies SO 208 heresies See eects See 10. 54 0.93 Magnesia (MgO)........------ 1S siecisaaie -95 |; “Soluble salts, soluble free Boda (NGO) 2. 22. cacoese asec ae cose OOP egnlls 2.3 ce. 8 acs oare sa eene 3:82: \ieenauaes Popasit Gs Osage ete cena cee cic (ees ese 1. O40 a Uranium (UW) 222-22 oe eee Trace. 1.00 Siilphidel(S)sss 2 5ece sess. lies asene. .16 | a ee “Sulphuric acid”............ | AD | See cee oe HMAC iva yeaa en eee = 03) Us| = ae 0s ZU | i} { A. Radioactive manure. Analysis according to Foulkes, Bul. Bureau Agricultural Intelligence and of Plant Diseases, 3, 1112. This apparently represents ore from which the uranium has been extracted, The acidity of the material was equivalent to 65 grams of suinhurie acid per kilogram. B. Radioactive manure. Analysis by author. This material represented the origina} ore and therefore did not contain any free acid. FIELD TESTS WITH RADIOACTIVE MANURE. Field tests with radioactive manure (A in table) have been made by Foulkest in England. The material used contained only a trace of uranium, but faa an activity equal to 0.03 times that of uranium. 1 Bul. Buveat of Agricultural Intelligence and of Plant Diseases, 3, 1111 (1912). USE OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES AS FERTILIZERS. 9 This was mixed with commercial fertilizers in the following pro- portions: Steamed bone, 20 parts; superphosphate, 15 parts; kainit, 10 parts; nitrate of soda, 5 parts; and radioactive manure, 1 part. One plot received an application of this mixture at the rate of 1,020 pounds per acre, and an adjoining plot received the same application, but without the radioactive manure. Both plots were planted to turnips, and when the crop was grown it was found that the yield was greatest in the plot to which the complete fertilizer, plus the radicactive manure, had been added. A similar result was obtained with mangels. Radioactive material of exactly the same composition as that given by Foulkes was also used by Malpeaux* in making pot and field experiments with oats, potatoes, sugar beets, and mangels. The ma- terial was mixed with a complete fertilizer made up of sodium ni- trate, superphosphate, and potassium sulphate to the extent of 5 per cent and applied at the rate of 22 to 44 pounds per acre. In the case of oats, sugar beets, and mangels, an increased yield of about 15 per cent was obtained on an average on the plots to which complete fer- tilizer, plus radioactive material, was added, over that obtained from the plots to which complete fertilizer only was added. In the case of potatoes, it was not observed that the radioactive material had any beneficial effect. A very extensive series of experiments was also carried out by Berthault, Bretigniere, and Berthault,? using material for which exactly the same analysis was given as for the radioactive manure used by Foulkes and by Malpeaux. Its effect on a large number of crops (cereals, grasses, and roots) was tested by applying the ma- terial alone and when mixed with standard fertilizers. It was found that when the radioactive manure was used alone the positive and negative results were about equa! for the total weight of the plants and for stalks and grain, but the negative results were the more numerous for tubers; with superphosphate the results obtained were generally unfavorable, particularly for the grain, but for tubers they were more often favorable; and with complete fertilizer the favor- able results were the more numercus for all crops. It was concluded that while the results obtained were not decisive, they show that radioactive substances were more efficacious in the presence of a complete fertilizer than when used alone, or with phos- phate or nitrogenous manures. It is difficult, however, to understand how this conclusion regard- ing radioactive substances follows from the experiments described by the authors, in view of the fact that they acknowledge having had the material which they used tested for radioactivity and that none could be detected. It therefore follows that the results obtained, 1 Vie Agr. et Rurale, 2, 241 (1913). 2 Ann. Ecole Nat. Agr. Grignon, 8, 1 (1912). 10 BULLETIN 149, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. whether of a favorable or unfavorable nature, could not have been due to the radioactivity of the material, but to some other influence. As shown in the table, the acidity of the material was equivalent to 65 grams of sulphuric acid per kilogram, while the “soluble phosphoric acid” amounted to 1.37 per cent, and the “soluble salts, soluble free acids ” amounted to 3.82 per cent. All these constituents when exceeding a certain minimum concentration have a marked effect on plant growth. Notwithstanding this, however, apparently no account was taken of the presence of these constituents in any of the foregoing experiments, but rather all effects observed, whether of a stimulating or retarding nature, were attributed to the exceed- ingly weak radicactivity of the material, which was claimed to be equal to 0.03 of the activity of uranium, but which at least in the case of the material used by Berthault, Bretigniere, and Berthault, was too small to be detected. If it is assumed that the material used in these investigations has the radioactivity which was claimed for it, and that this was due to radium and its products, then it can be calculated that in an application of 25 pounds of the material per acre the amount of radium thus apphled to an acre would be less than one one-hundredth of the radium already present on an average in an acre-foot of soil. This amount is so small that when uniformly distributed through the first 6 inches of the soil there would be radiated per second from the material added only about 2 alpha particles—that is, 2 atoms— from each pound of soil. Furthermore, of the particles so radiated, only a very small fraction would be able to escape from the particles of material in which they originate. The number of beta particles radiated would be still less than the alpha particles. The radioactive material (B), of which an analysis is given in the table and which was kindly supplied by a firm in this country, has an activity of 0.037 that of uranium, and is therefore slightly more active than the material referred to above. An application of from 20 to 25 pounds per acre was recommended, mixed with some stand- ard fertilizer, but even in the case where the largest application is used the quantity of radium so applied per acre is only one-fiftieth of the radium already present in an acre-foot of soil. In defense of the use of such a minute quantity of any substance it has been explained that “this material is not a fertilizer, but that it gives to the plant additional power to consume the plant food that is already in the ground or that is put there by artificial means in the form of any brand of fertilizer.” The use of the word fertilizer in this state- ment is no doubt intended to mean a plant food. As already pointed out, however, a material does not necessarily have to act as a plant food to be properly called a fertilizer, for this term is also used with USE OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES AS FERTILIZERS. 11 reference to any material which when added to the soil brings about an increase in the growth of crops. If radioactive manure really acts in the way described, it could then be properly called a fer- tilizer; and, further, if its function is to give to the plant additional power to consume plant food, its effect should be noticed when added to the soil alone as well as when mixed with a standard fertilizer. Field tests with radioactive mineral from still another source have been made by Ewart, Melbourne University. These tests were made in two different places, in each of which there were selected a series of four plots. In the case cf the first series each plot had an area of one-third acre. Plot 1 received 50 pounds of superphos- phate per acre; plot 2, 50 pounds of superphosphate and 50 pounds of finely ground radioactive mineral per acre; plot 3, 50 pounds of radioactive mineral per acre; and plot 4 was unmanured. The plots used in the second series had an area of approximately one-fourth acre, and the same applications were made in this case as in the first, with the exception that 59-pound portions of the materials were used instead of 50-pound portions. From the yields obtained it was con- cluded that “there is no evidence to indicate any beneficial action of the radioactive mineral upon the growth and germination of wheat, when quantities which could be used in agricultural practice are employed. Any stimulating action which it might exercise when first applied, seems, if anything, to be converted into an injurious action when in prolonged contact. There is nothing, therefore, in these results to show that radioactive mineral is of the least benefit to wheat when applied in the same manner as manure.” CATALYTIC FERTILIZERS. In addition to the experiments which have been described on the use of the radio-elements as fertilizers, many tests have also been made during the last few years of the action on plants of still other ele- ments which are not recognized as essential to the growth of plants. Among the different elements which have been studied in this way may be mentioned copper, nickel, zinc, and lead. These elements are of rare occurrence in the soil, and are ordinarily recognized as plant poisons, but quite remarkable benefits have been obtained by the application to the soil of a very small quantity of a soluble salt of these elements. Plants so treated are said to have been stimu- jated, and because of the small amount of the material necessary to produce noticeable results, these compounds when used in this way are spoken of as “ catalytic fertilizers.” 1J. Dept. Agr., Victoria, 10, 417 (1912). 12 BULLETIN 149, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. With a concentration of 1 part of lead, as lead nitrate, in 965,000 parts of soil Stoklasa* obtained in pot tests with oats (Avena sativa) a maximum increase in growth for the grain and straw of 53 per cent over that which took place in the control pot; but on increasing the concentration of the lead only 2.5 times its toxic action became apparent, and a decrease in growth resulted. Similar results were also obtained, as already pointed out, in pot tests with clover using uranium nitrate. With this compound the maximum stimulation was obtained with a concentration of 1 part of uranium in‘ 1,310,000 parts of soil, but as the concentration of the uranium was increased its toxic action became manifest, and the crop yield gradually decreased. A corresponding series of experiments was also made by Loew and his coworkers? using salts of both uranium and thorium. From the results obtained it was concluded that “uranium and thorium com- pounds differ widely in their effects on plants, uranium salts being highly poisonous, thorium salts not.” It is known that thorium and uranium both give off the same rays and of approximately the same intensity. It would be expected, therefore, if the effects which these elements produce on plants are due to their radioactivity, that the effects would be approximately the same for each element. Since this is not the case, and since the results obtained with uranium corre- spond with those which follow the use of the so-called catalytic ferti- lizers, it is necessary to conclude that the action of uranium on plants is due to its chemical properties rather than to its property of being radioactive. The material (B) of which an analysis is given in the table above contains 1 per cent of uranium oxide. An application of this ma- terial of about 175 pounds per acre would thus give to the first six inches of the soil a concentration of uranium equal to that which Stoklasa found, in the form of the nitrate, gave greatest stimulation to clover plants. An effect would, therefore, be expected to follow the addition to the soil of finely ground uranium ores, but whether the result will be beneficial or otherwise will depend on the amount applied and the kind of crops grown. In the various experiments which have been described on the use of radioactive manure no account has apparently been taken of the chemical action of the uranium present, and the conflicting results obtained with radioactive material from different sources are no doubt to be explained by the fact that the radioactivity of the material was alone considered without regard to the presence or 1Compt. rend., 156, 153 (1913). 2 Bul. Coll. Agr., Tokyo Imperial Univ., 5, 173 (1902) ; 6, 144, 161 (1904). ®Tbid, 6, 165. USE OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES AS FERTILIZERS. 13 absence of uranium, or of such nonradioactive constituents as soluble salts and free acids. The subject of catalytic fertilizers is an interesting one, and worthy of careful investigation, but the manner in which they are able to influence so effectively the growth of plants is as yet but little under- stood. Until further knowledge is gained along this line, and par- ticularly until it is demonstrated that the application of such ma- terials to the soil will not lead to their accumulation with injurious results, the use of uranium, or of any of the other heavy metals, as a fertilizer in general farming is not to be recommended. SUMMARY. Attention is called to a new material which has recently been ex- ploited for use as a fertilizer, and which consists of the residual rock from which uranium has been removed, or of uranium-radium ores of too low grade to be used for the extraction of radium. This material, which is known as “radioactive manure,” is claimed by virtue of its activity to have a marked effect on stimulating the growth of plants when mixed with a relatively large amount of standard fertilizers and applied at the rate of 20 to 50 pounds per acre. When consideration, however, is taken of the facts: (1) That the greatest quantity of radium which can exist in an ore amounts to only 0.00003 per cent; (2) that the intensity of the radium rays is limited by the quantity of radium present; (3) that all rays, like all chemical substances, must exceed in intensity or: concentration, a certain limiting value to produce any noticeable results, or any results whatever; (4) that radium costs $120,000 a gram; and (5) that the activity of radium or any other radio-element can not be increased by any treatment whatsoever, but remains unchanged in whatever state of combination it may exist, it seems incredible that radium or any of its products can have any economical application as a fertilizer in general farming; and still less credible that the so- called radioactive manure has any value, as far as its radioactivity is concerned, since the radium already present, on an average, in an acre-foot of soil, is about 100 times greater than is contained in the quantity of radioactive manure commonly recommended for applica- tion to an acre. Many experiments have been made in studying the influence of the radio-elements, when freed from their ores, on the germination of seeds and the growth of plants, and from the results obtained it is to be expected that in botanical research, and possibly in greenhouse practice, where the results obtained may justify the expense involved, the radio-elements may prove of considerable value; but when con- sideration is taken of the scarcity of these elements it does not follow 14 BULLETIN 149, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, from any experiments yet described that such elements can have any practical application as a fertilizer in general farming. Evidence is given to show that the action of uranium on plants is due to its chemical properties rather than to its property of being radioactive, and that the conflicting results obtained with radio- active manure from different sources is to be explained largely by the presence of uranium, and of such nonradioactive constituents as soluble salts and free acids. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH: 1914 BULLETIN OF THE Jy USDEDARTMENT OF ACRICTURE No. 150 Contribution from the Bureau of Soils, Milton S. Whitney, Chief. January 23, 1915. ‘UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC COAST FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF FERTILIZER. By J. W. TURRENTINE, Scientist in Soil Laboratory Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page LNETOGU Ct ON) a= = sa Eee Sees 1 Fish scrap from salmon waste___~~ 28 Technology of canning ______-.-____ 4. Thesproducts= 22222 ue wee ees 32 Production of canned salmon______~_ 12 Methods proposed for the treatment Centers ef the industry____________ 13 of salmon cannery waste on a The waste produced in the canning NAT SCS CAC ae ees oe as 36 ORES AIO eeeetee eee en a 16 The small by-products plant oper- Other salmon-preserving industries__ 22 ated as an integral part of the Chemical composition of the raw CAME Ty ait ss oO ee Saas 44 Cannery wastes. = s2 Sees Zo | COS Geese a Oe AL A 49 Methods of disposal of waste___-_~- 25 The production of a mixed fertilizer Amount of waste utilized in the from fish scrap and kelp___----~_~- 52 Various centers2 82 222 eee 27 Fish scrap from ‘other fish_________ 66 INTRODUCTION. In pursuance of the investigation by the Bureau of Soils of the fertilizer resources of the United States, the fisheries of the Pacific coast, particularly the salmon-canning industry, were examined dur- ing the summer of 1913 to determine the possibility of developing a source of fertilizer materials in the waste produced in that industry. The purpose of this investigation was (1) to determine the amount of waste and the places where produced, and (2) the possibilities of its utilization as a source of fertilizer. Obviously, it is of little inter- est to know the fertilizer resources of the country without knowing how they may be utilized; the possibility of their utilization deter- mines their value as resources. A third aspect was given the investi- gation by the problem of determining possible ways in which waste fish could be conserved in conjunction with that other vast source of fertilizer materials, now practically untouched, the giant kelps of the Pacific coast. Norre.—This bulletin discusses the utilization of fish waste in the salmon-canning and Similar industries on the Pacific coast as a source of fertilizer material. 59351°—Bull. 150—15 1 yy BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, {n a previous report on the Menhaden Fish Fertilizer Industry of the Atlantic coast,! the fish-fertilizer resources of the Atlantic coast have been discussed. In the introduction to that report the contri- - butions from this bureau on the subject of fertilizer resources of the Nation are mentioned. Since the completion of that report, Wagga- man has reported on the phosphate fields of South Carolina? the utilization of acid and basic slags in the manufacture of fertilizer,? and the possible commercial utilization of nelsonite.t Free has described - the topography of the desert lake areas,®> while Young has discussed the chemistry of the salines of that region.® Crandall has continued his study of the kelps of southern California, and Frye’ and Rigg,’ during the summer of 1913, surveyed the kelp groves of southeastern and western Alaska, respectively. Cullen, Lindemuth, Merz, and Parker have studied further the composition of kelps.° Cameron has reviewed the sources of potash in the United States.1? Ross has studied the decomposition of feldspar,‘t and Smith the value of sponges as fertilizer..2 Gardiner has determined the potash content of certain muds from sugar refineries,* and the writer has surveyed the nitrogenous resources of the United States." Present agricultural practice prescribes the use of three chemical elements as a “soil amendment,” a “stimulant for plant growth,” or a “plant food,” as it is variously put. These three elements when applied to the soil in which a crop is growing have been found by practice to afford an increased crop yield. They are phosphorous, potassium, and nitrogen, spoken of by the respective trade terms of phosphoric acid, potash, and “ ammoniates.” In the commercial fertilizers phosphoric acid is found in the form of calcium phos- phate, which is bone phosphate or rock phosphate, usually treated with sulphuric acid to render it soluble. Potash is found as a salt or salts of potassium, either sulphate or chloride, and the “ ammoniates,” 1 Bul. 2, U. S. Dept. of Agr. 2Bul. 18, U. 8. Dept. of Agr. 3 Bul..95, U. S. Dept. of. Agr. 4J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 5, No. 9, Sept., 1913. 5 Bul. 54, U. S. Dept. of Agr. § Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agr. 7 Rept. 100, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Parts IV and V. 8 Ibid. ®J. A. Cullen, On the Available Nitrogen Content of Kelp, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6, 581 (1914) ; Merz and Lindemuth, The Leaching of Potash from Freshly Cut Kelp, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 5, 729 (1913); Merz, On the Composition of Giant Kelps, ibid., 6, 191 (1914) ; Parker and Lindemuth, Analyses of Certain of the Pacific Coast Kelps, ibid., 5, 287 (1918). 10 Possible Sources of Potash in the United States, Yearbook, U. 8. Dept. Agr., 1912, p. 523; Kelp and Other Sources of Potash, J. Frank. Inst., Oct., 1913, p. 347. 11 Decomposition of Feldspar and Its Use in the Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 5, 725 (1913). 12 Sponges as a fertilizer, ibid., 5, 850 (1918). 18 Thbid. 6, 480 (1914). 14 Turrentine, The Nitrogenous Fertilizers Obtainable in the United States, Bul. 37, U.S. Dept. of Agr. . UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 3 as the inorganic salt of ammonia, ammonium sulphate, the inorganic salts of nitric acid, sodium nitrate, and inorganic compounds of nitrogen, calcium cyanamid, or the organic compounds of nitrogen, contained in animal or vegetable refuse matter, cottonseed meal, abattoir tankage, or fish scrap. The usual commercial fertilizers con- tain these three elements and have the designation of “ complete ferti- lizers.” These are sold under various brand names, the various brands frequently being recommended for particular crops. The propor- tion of the three essential ingredients is varied; as a usual thing that of the phosphoric acid is considerably higher than the other two, which are present in about the same proportion. Thus, for example, a “6-2-2 mixture” contains 6 per cent phosphoric acid (P,O,), 2 per cent ammonia (NH,), and 2 per cent potash (K,O). Its sell- ing price in the retail market is based on its analysis. Little atten- tion is paid to the source of these ingredients so long as the essen- tial compounds are “available,” or readily may be decomposed or made soluble for the use of the plants. The Nation’s supply of these three common ingredients of fertilizer may be summarized as follows: Of phosphoric acid there is an abun- dant supply in the large deposits of phosphate rock in Florida and Tennessee, and the enormous deposits of Idaho, Montana, and Wyo- ming. Of potash, now obtained exclusively from the German mines, there is little known in this country outside of the desiccated residues in Searles Lake, Cal., and the giant kelps of the Pacific littoral. In the latter there is much more than enough to supply the present demands of the fertilizer trade of the United States, the present an- nual consumption of potash being about 1,250,000 tons, of varied com- position. At present the kelps are not supplying any of this, since it has not been determined by actual experimentation on a commercial scale that they can be used economically as a source of potash. Esti- mates based on costs of similar operations indicate that they can be so used. Of “ammoniates” there is a large source in the ammonia produced as a by-product in the distillation of coal for the production of gas or coke, or both. This source is but partially developed, as by the methods most commonly practiced in this country this possible by-product is not recovered. The amount of ammonia now going to waste is almost large enough to supply all of the “ammoniates” now demanded by the fertilizer trade. The abattoirs supply a large amount of tankage and dried blood of high fertilizer value; but of these possible by-products there is still an enormous loss through the lack of organization and cooperation in the small-scale slaughter of animals for food. The present consumption of the various “ ammoniates” and their relative contribution to the total amount of nitrogen used in the fertilizer industry are shown in the table following. 4 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE I.—Sources of nitrogen used in mixed fertilizers of the United States. (Figures are approrimations. ) | ae |N N ‘ used in itrogen | Nitrogen Material. United content. | yielded. States. Per cent. ons. Ammonium sulphate...........- 19. 75 42, 463 Sodium nitrate (Chilean) 15.5 13,175 Calcium cyanamid........... bt doa seeee sa esacewstes cont tes e eee oee 18:07" |Ssccote eae \ 44, 272 arog ae Meals yo 58s5. esse ees cee ee Pace cee oe a eee eee lf 6.5 | 24° 320 JIGME) Petcra Ss onop sees aceeS5ececor ss Sena] a aaae aes a AAP en oree 9.0 6,300 \ 10, 500 TADKASO Sayan) sdrejs weenie Se Senos saci oe Shae eeeean ee easecees j 6.5 { 6, 450 Byte (hai sasenetee! ed cee tad. ae ole ee } 11.0 i 2150 This report is designed for the information of the layman who is totally unfamiliar with the fish industries of the Pacific coast, of those familiar with the fishing industries but not familiar with the fertilizer trade, and particularly of those who are interested in the manufacture of fertilizer from fish waste. For this reason all phases of the subject are discussed, some of them in such detail as possibly to appear extreme to those familiar with these details. Where such details are omitted from this report, the literature containing them, generally easily accessible Government reports, is referred to where possible. The apparatus for use in rendering fish waste is discussed in greatest detail, because, of all the items conneced with the indus- try herein proposed and advocated, this is considered the one on which information is most apt to be lacking and therefore most likely to be desired. The writer has been assured of the willingness and the desire of many of the operators of canneries to conserve the by-products now lost as soon as they are informed of the proper methods and apparatus to be used. An especial effort therefore is made to present all available information concerning these, and to discuss fully their advantages and disadvantages. TECHNOLOGY OF CANNING. FISHING. Salmon for use by the canneries are caught in traps or pound nets, purse seines, haul seines, gill nets, and fish wheels. In southeast Alaska the greater portion of the fish are taken in traps, owned and operated by the packers, while in the Puget Sound region many are caught with purse seines and gill nets. On the Columbia River drag seines, gill nets, and fish wheels are in general use. TRAPS. The traps or pound nets are designed to intercept the fish as they swim in courses paralleling the shore or passing certain points. For: UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 5 this purpose a “lead” is built, consisting of a line of net or woven wire supported on piles or posts and extending from a height slightly greater than that reached by high water to the bottom. It extends at right angles to the shore outward to a suitable depth. The fish, in moving along the shore, encounter the “lead” and turn outward toward deep water to pass around the obstruction. To in- tercept them the trap proper is provided with a V-shaped entrance designed to lead them, as they swim outward, into the trap. This, from its shape, is spoken of as the “heart” of the trap. The outer ends of the two branches of the V are provided with “jiggers,” an inward extension of the ends of the limbs of the V, so constructed as to divert back into the “heart” the fish seeking to escape around them. The apex of the first heart enters a smaller and supplementary heart of similar shape, which terminates at its apex in an elongated, constricted portion of its netting, called the “tunnel,” and enters the “pot.” The “pot” is a cubical compartment, which may be joined on one or both sides, by means of a shorter “tunnel,” with the “spiller.” The latter receives the captured fish and acts as the re- ceptacle from which they later are unloaded from the trap. The trap usually is constructed of piles driven into the bottom. These are connected at the top by stringers. Upon the piles and sup- ported by the stringers is stretched the net constituting the walls of the various compartments. The bottom or floor of the heart slopes upward toward the “tunnel.” This, by leading the fish swimming near the bottom up into the trap, obviates the necessity of extending the subsequent compartments of the trap entirely to the bottom. These then are built only to a convenient depth; they are floored as well as walled with net. A later modification of the trap, designed to do away with the ex- . pense of driving piles, or for use in locations not suitable for pile driving, is the floating trap. The shape of the floating trap essen- tially is the same as that of the stationary trap. It is constructed of a staunch framework of logs bolted together, which floats and from which extend sections of iron pipe to support the requisite nets. The lead likewise floats. It is a string of logs beneath which woven wire is stretched between sections of iron pipe supported by the logs. The whole is securely anchored in position. A trap which is catching fish is said to be “fishing.” The captured fish are transferred to a scow for conveyance to the cannery. To load, the scow is made fast to the pilings supporting the “spiller”; or, in the case of the floating trap, to the logs constituting the sup- porting frame of the “spiller.” The “tunnel” from the “pot” to the “ spiller” is closed and the walls of the latter are dropped almost to the surface of the water. (See Pl. I, fig. 1.) 6 BULLETIN 150, U. S..DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The fish are transferred from the trap to the scow by means of the “brailer” (PI. I, fig. 2), which is a stretch of net perhaps 20 feet long by 10 feet wide. One end is made secure to the side of the scow nearest the trap. To the other end are attached three lines, the central one of which extends through the block at the top of a derrick rigged on a tug drawn alongside and is made fast to the capstan on the deck of the tug. The other two are held in the hands of two operators stationed in a dory within the “spiller ” compart- ment of the fish trap. The “brailer” is weighted at its movable end with an iron rod or section of irom pipe and also by short sections of chain distributed at proper intervals along its edge. In operation, the line from the capstan on the tug is played out, whereupon the “brailer” falls into the “spiller” and is sunk by its own weights. The two men in the dory then pull upon their lines and straighten out the “brailer” in a horizontal position beneath the mass of fish. At a signal the “brailer” is hoisted to a perpen- dicular position by the line running to the tug, and the fish lifted by it slide or tumble into the scow, to the side of which the “ brailer” is attached. This operation is repeated until the “spiller” is emptied or until the scow is filled. The writer has witnessed the filling of a scow of 30,000 fish capacity within an hour and a quarter. Perhaps one of the greatest advantages, to the packers, of the fish trap lies in the fact that the fish in the traps are kept in moving water and alive and therefore fresh until they are needed at the cannery. This is of particular advantage in the height of the canning season when fish are abundant and are being received at such a rate as to tax the capacity of the cannery. The fish traps may be drawn upon when fish from the seine fisheries are not immediately available. PURSE SEINES, The purse seine, so called because it is provided with a line run through rings at the bottom by which it may be closed as a purse with a draw string, is about 1,000 feet long by 125 to 150 feet in width. Rings of galvanized iron strung along its bottom serve both as weights to keep it stretched and to receive the purse line. The seine is operated in such manner as to inclose the school of fish, and is then closed at the bottom. To accomplish this, when a school of fish is sighted, one end of the seine is held in a dory while the main length of it is played out from a power boat, which pursues a course encircling the school. When the circle has been completed and the power boat has returned to the dory, the purse line is drawn in by a power winch and the slack in the seine is taken aboard until the fish are forced into a small compass. They are then “ brailed ” or dipped into the boat, transferred by means of a “ gaff,” or the mass of fish is drawn aboard while still inclosed in the pursed seine. UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 7 HAUL SEINES. This type of seine may vary in length from 500 to 2,500 feet. In its center is a baglike section, sometimes called the “bunt,” which may be about*300 feet in length. Two boats are required to operate the seine, one a dory, which holds the more nearly stationary end of it, and the other a large seine boat, which carries the seine and plays . it out in such manner as to encircle the fish. The dory approaches the shore directly, while the seine boat approaches it after completing a wide curve in the water. The seine usually is drawn ashore, most frequently upon a favorably sloping sandbar, by means of horses. This method of fishing is adapted only to locations where a smooth and gently sloping shore is available, so that the seine can be hauled in promptly and easily before the fish have escaped. It most fre- quently is seen in use on the Columbia River. GILL NETS. The size and shape of gill nets are determined by the character- istics of the body of water in which they are to be used, and the dimensions of the meshes by the size of the salmon to be caught. The net is supported by corks and is kept distended by leads attached to the bottom. It is stationed in the tidal or river current in such man- ner as to form the letter “LL,” with the end of the longer branch _ against the shore and the other flowing loose in the current. As the position of the net is usually maintained by the current without the assistance of stakes, where the current is tidal the net is placed at the beginning of a tide and is taken in before a change in the direction of flow occurs. As the success of this manner of fishing depends on the entanglement of the fish in the meshes of the net, it can be ap- plied only under those conditions whereby the net is rendered in- visible to the fish, in muddy water or at night. At the end of the fishing period the seine is pulled aboard the boat of the attendant, the enmeshed fish being removed as the net is drawn in. The same form of net may be made fast in the stream by stakes or other anchorages and may be allowed to “ fish” as long as the attendant sees fit. Perhaps the greatest objection to this form of fish-taking appa- ratus lies in the fact that the enmeshed fish are killed, probably im- mediately, and are permitted to remain suspended in the water for an unknown period. The fact certainly can not be regarded as enhancing the value of the fish, and may render the fish undesirable for food. FISH WHEELS. Fish wheels are designed to catch the salmon on their course up the rivers in which the wheels are placed. They are of various 8 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. dimensions and methods of construction, being built in that shape and size best adapted to their respective locations. In size they vary from about 10 feet to about 30 feet in diameter and in width from about 5 to 15 feet. The wheel is so mounted, either in a per- manent structure built out from the shore or upon “rocks in mid- stream, or upon a scow, which can be anchored in the desired situa- tion, that it is submerged partially in the water. The flow of the stream causes the wheel to revolve. “ Buckets” of woven wire are built in the wheel in such a manner that as the wheel revolves they pass through the water as scoops, picking up the fish. Frequently series of piles are built extending out into the stream in such a way as to direct the fish into the wheel. Mounted in the axis of the wheel, or in some other suitable manner, is a trough-like receptacle for the fish. This is frequently built so as to empty into a scow. The curve of the scooplike bucket of the wheel is such that as the wheel revolves and the bucket is lifted, the fish in the bucket are made to slide toward the axis and finally to fall into the trough. This manner of fishing is practically automatic. During the season in which the salmon are moving upstream the method is satisfactory for supplying the demands of the packers. One hears reports of scows being sunk by fish taken during a night’s operations. The catch of salmon in Alaska by the three principal forms of gear—seines, traps, and gill nets—is shown in the following table: © TABLE II.—Percentage of total catch of salmon by the three principal forms of gear used in Alaska, for the year 1918. Section of Alaska. Apparatus. een outheast- eri, Central. Western. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. SEINOS oro bare. coins atiarc bec ic'e cig Sicarbre tise aie edslomcieme sed caee cies ameter nee 48 47 2 TTANS = fs concen ean CSR ae wee eee ne Meee ee oe a ane noe eee ee tne nes os 50 46 4 Gilets iecek Sane eve ecicte sae Se woes ane ast se eeeseee ec eananseseeeoes 2 7 94 UNLOADING. The salmon are unloaded at the canneries (Pl. I, figs. 1 and 2) by being pitched, generally on two-pronged forks, into an elevator which deposits them upon the floor of the house in which they are to be cleaned. (PI. III, figs. 1 and 2.) Here they are sorted into grades. As they he in piles upon the floor streams of fresh water— in Alaska frequently icy cold and of a high degree of purity—are directed upon them. 1 Bower and Fassett, The Fishery Industry of Alaska in 1913. Pacific Fisherman, 12, No. 1 (Special), 54 (1914). : PLATE I. Bul. 150, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fic. 2.—“‘ BRAILING”” SALMON FROM A TRAP. UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 9 The freshly caught fish are not regarded as being in the best con- dition for canning. It is said that the flesh is elastic and will not remain compressed in the cans. For this reason it is difficult to put into a can the requisite weight of fish, and many light-weight cans result. Therefore the fish are allowed to le about 24 hours before being canned. When, as frequently happens, they are hauled long distances, from the trap or seining grounds to the cannery, the length of time they are allowed to remain on the canning floor is brief or negligible. In warm weather, or in a warm climate, to permit the fish to remain unchilled for such a length of time would result in their deterioration. In Alaska at least, where the weather, even in the summer, is much of the time cold and rainy, little detriment prob- ably is caused by their seasoning period of 24 hours, especially where they are kept thoroughly washed in cold weather. From the floor of the cleaning house the salmon are pitched upon a table by means of “pews” or one-tined forks. (Pl. IV, fig. 1.) This is generally thrust into the head, but frequently into the body, of the fish. Upon this table the fish are arranged in order and passed on to the “ butchers.” CANNING. DRESSING. Formerly the cleaning or butchering was done by Chinamen, and in some canneries this practice is continued. In most instances, how- ever, cleaning by hand has been supplanted by machine cleaning. - The mechanical cleaner is spoken of in the parlance of the can- nery as the “iron chink” (PI. IV, fig. 2), a name which originated from the pseudo name of its human predecessor. Without entering into a detailed description of this machine, it is sufficient to say that it essentially is a revolving disk or wheel about 2 feet in diameter, around which knives and stiff brushes are arranged. These work to- gether to split the fish along its belly, to remove its viscera, and to sever its fins, and finally its tail. The machine is fed by two laborers, the first of whom places a fish under a stationary knife, against which it is lifted mechanically. The second laborer thrusts the beheaded fish into a slot, of which there are a number on the peripheral rim of the wheel, tail first, so that it becomes wedged and is held firmly. It thus is lifted and carried around, belly outward, by the wheel, and is brought succes- sively against the knives and brushes. Abundant jets of water are made to play upon the fish as it passes through the machine. This contrivance works rapidly and fairly successfully, with a rated capacity of 50 fish per minute and an actual output of 36 dressed fish per minute. It thus is possible to do away with the 59351°—Bull, 150—15——2 10 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. large force of skilled and high-waged dressers. Fish are by no means uniform nor rigid objects; therefore no machine can be ex- pected to adapt itself to the variation in size and the manner in which they pass through the machine. As the fish are not dressed uniformly by the machine, they subsequently must be passed under the knives of the “slimers,” laborers whose duty it is to finish the work left incomplete by the machine. As the number of these about equals the number of “butchers” which would be required if the dressing were done altogether by hand, there is not the economy in | labor resulting from the use of the mechanical cleaner that would be expected. The fact that much less skill is required of “slimers” than of “butchers,” however, is an item greatly in favor of the use of the mechanical cleaner. CUTTING. After being thoroughly cleaned, the fish are cut into pieces of con- venient size for filling the cans. A mechanical cutter of simple design has been adopted for this purpose. It consists essentially of a short conveyor which is made to revolve over bearings in such a way as to describe an ellipse. Blocks of wood are placed at inter- vals to carry the fish. At the apex of the ellipse revolving knives are placed. These revolve in horizontal slits in the conveyor and blocks. As the blocks start on their upward course the fish are placed upon them by hand and are carried through the knives. The distance between the knives is such that the fish are cut into sections of the proper length to fill cans of the size for which they are intended. | FILLING THE CANS. Cans designed to hold a pound of fish are filled usually by a ma- chine which, by means of a plunger, thrusts into the can pieces of salmon already cut to the right length and trims off that which pro- jects. As the thrust of the plunger is uniform, the machine is able to load the cans with a nearly exactly uniform weight of fish, and works rapidly. Less than a second is required in filling a can. From the filler the cans are passed along a table, where they are inspected for short weight. Smaller cans are filled by hand. Their shallow- ness makes them less adapted to the filling machine, as they do not retain their charge of fish so readily. After filling, it remains to cap the cans or put the lids on, cook the contained fish, seal, clean, and label. The canning process involving the use of soldered cans has been supplanted almost entirely by that based on the use of the solderless or so-called “ sanitary” can. The latter process, being almost entirely automatic, effects a great saving in labor as well as floor space, and is commendable from both a mechanical and a sanitary point of view. | UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 11 The modern cannery is equipped with machinery in units. A unit is spoken of as a “line.” The one-line cannery is equipped with a mechanical cleaner or “iron chink,” a cutter, a filling machine, a capping machine, followed by a steam box for the preliminary cook- ing before sealing, two crimping machines* for fastening the caps to render the can air-tight, and the requisite steam autoclave capacity for the final cooking. Such an equipment gives a daily capacity of 900 cases of canned salmon, each case containing 4 dozen 1-pound cans, or 48 pounds of canned salmon. This estimate is based on a day of about 12 hours. During the canning season a “ one-line” can- nery, or one with a single unit, is expected to pack about 40,000 cases. The season’s pack is determined by the skill of the management, the condition of the market, and the fortune of the fishermen. LABOR. As many of the salmon canneries of Alaska are situated in isolated and scarcely habitable places, laborers have to be imported. In southeastern Alaska the natives are employed to a large extent, as the men seem to prefer and to be more successful at fishing; they are not found engaged in the indoor occupations to the extent that might be expected. Women and children are employed in large numbers in the canneries, performing the light and easy tasks such as inspecting the cans for underweight, labeling, and packing, and, where the filling machine is not employed, filling the cans by hand. For this class of work the women receive 25 to 30 cents per hour and the children about half that sum. The industry of the Alaskan native is surprising to one who is accustomed to associate extreme indolence with the American aborigine. That no part of the canning industry is too complex for the skill of the Alaskan native is abun- dantly illustrated by the operation of the cannery at Metlakahtla, which is run on a cooperative basis. During the fishing season, entire villages may be deserted, and it is no uncommon sight to see entire families at work, the men at the fishing grounds and the women and children in the canneries. This native labor is made use of so far as possible, but is entirely inadequate to meet the demands of the industry, therefore labor must be imported. The prevailing nationality thus imported prob- ably is Chinese; there are also Filipinos, Mexicans, Japanese, and other races in smaller numbers. The laborers are hired in gangs, generally on a contract basis. The contractors most frequently are Chinese, and the contract binds the contractor to pack so many cases of salmon at a certain price. To a casual observer it appears that the industry has an abundance of laborers and that there are about two men +The capping machine, the cooking box, and the two crimping machines constitute the solderless or ‘‘ sanitary ’’ canning apparatus proper. 12 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for every position. This may be true or it may be only apparent, but after all it has but a shght bearing on the economy of the industry, as any superfluity in the number of laborers is paid for by the labor contractor and not by the packer. Laborers are provided for but one shift per day; therefore the working day can not be considered to be of more than 12 hours. The cannery may operate for a longer period, as the various depart- ments are not operated simultaneously. Thus the dressing gang in- variably begins work before those attending to subsequent operations. As the forces are organized with.a view to the maximum daily pack of the cannery, there are usually more laborers than is actually necessary for the average daily pack. Furthermore there are many days preceding the rush of the season when there are no fish at all to pack. At this time there are many things to be done to get the can- nery in readiness for the season’s operations, conspicuous among which is the manufacture of the tin cans to hold the fish and the wooden cases to receive the packed cans. But on the whole it may be said that there are frequent periods when one part of the cannery force or another is idle. : The laborers are organized in the Pacific coast cities of the States and are taken to the canneries frequently in the ships of the oper- ators. For those going to western Alaska it is practically impossible to obtain additions to their force during the operating season. Those operators situated in central and southeast Alaska are on or near steamship lines and can secure additions to their force on compara- tively short notice. The former circumstance makes it necessary for the operators of the western Alaska district to “carry” their corps of employees from the time of their departure from the States to their return. This period includes the time consumed in the ocean voyage in a sailing vessel from the city of their departure to the scene of the summer’s activity. PRODUCTION OF CANNED SALMON. The number of cases of canned salmon packed on the Pacific coast during the season of 1913 is shown, by grades, in Table ITT. 1 Pacific Fisherman, 12, No. 1 (Special), 36 (1914). UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCHAN. TABLE Ill.—Pacific coast canned salmon pack for 1913. 13 Kings, springs, Reds, sockeyes, Medium reds, cohoes, chinooks. bluebacks. silversides. District. Se cae pend ca’ | peta pound | ota | pound cand pound | poun ats, 3 | Z-pound | poun ats, g | Pound | poun ates talls. | flats. | gozen talls. flats. eae flats. dozen SAVAGE Soa calanic's s .cdasre 32,840 |......-- 1,327 |1,917,961 | 17,628 | 28,790 | 73, 218 721 3, 438 Puget Sound............-- 7 518) |Esaeeee 967,119 |485, 426 |220,554 | 20,440 | 38,354 | 2, 225 Columbia River........... 28,738 | 96,633 | 66,745 |....----..|-------- 11, 152 | 10,437 | 19,408 | 11,124 Sacramento River.........|........ BO | a ae | See aur erceti occ cies 2 Scars ek ord | Sime | bali imo Outside streams........... 4,827 | 6,957] 4,172| 13,458] 5,778 | 3,381 | 24,011 | 12,893 | 13,942 Total American pack | 67,121 |105,058 | 72,244 |2, 898,538 |508, 832 |263, 877 |128, 106 | 71,376 | 30,729 British Columbia.......... 282 | 1,579 | 5,188 | 290,063 |270,368 |411, 747 | 52,937 | 7,946] 8,939 Total pack of entire Coast Ss 101, 403 [106,637 | 77,432 |3, 188,601 |779, 200 |675,624 |181,043 | 79,322 | 39,668 Pinks, humpbacks. Chums. Steelheads. Total District. }- - 3 1- 1- 1- | pound) 1- 1- | pound Lpeund pound ound pound | pound! flats, | pound|pound| flats, aul H flats. dozen talls. | flats. 8 talls. | flats. 8 3 dozen. dozen. PMlackaeee a es esas 1,377,586 | 4,766 | 20,564 /261,161 | 5,668 | 825 |.......].......|eeeeee- 3, 746, 493 Puget Sound.......... COLT (Gulaliel Gia |el2)943) ode OO R21 2b oe ales enor lureemmelaceenes 083, 463 CohumpbiaiRivers 27202 (sx csce ee |seoeceselee sence 13 ,18i) |e es. 122 | 1,137 | 3,785 | 4,017 | 266,479 MACTAIMIENL OWE Ty Ores Geis [Epa eres ee pal | Sew ar erates axe ree ame te (NOL oe ara Te [Mra aU 95 Outside streams....... 4,141 159 177 | 17,349 3165/2. 600): See 112, 161 Total American Win paces 2 2,143, 503 | 22,092 | 33,684 [345,791 | 8,109 | 947 | 1,737 | 3,785 | 4,017 |6, 709, 546 British Columbia...... 1483799"! 125928), 317160: 1765869) IsbOGH ls come lenne eal mies lene 1,353, 901 Total pack of entire coast .../2, 292,302 | 35,020 | 64,844 |422,160 | 9,705} 947 | 1,737 | 3,785 | 4,017 |8, 063, 447 CENTERS OF THE INDUSTRY. The salmon-packing industry of the United States is centered mainly in four localities: The Columbia River, Puget Sound, south- eastern Alaska, and western Alaska or the Bristol Bay region. The industry along the Columbia River is distributed from The Dalles, Oreg., to the mouth of the river, though the greatest number of can- neries is located near the mouth of the river, in the neighborhood of Astoria. On Puget Sound, the industry is centered around Belling- ham, Anacortes, and Port Townsend; there is an additional number of canneries in the Grays Harbor vicinity, on the Straits of Fuca. In southeast Alaska the canneries are distributed over the large area of islands and fiords extending from the Icy Straits to Dixon Entrance. In western Alaska they are situated principally on Bristol Bay. The locations of the various canneries in Alaska are shown in figures 1 and 2. BULLETIN 150, U. FIG. . Alaska Salmon Co., . Northwestern Fisheries Co., . Columbia River Packers’ S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. eninsula of Alaska. Key TO LOCATION OF CANNERIES, Nushagak Bay (Wood River). . Alaska Portland Packers’ Association, Nushagak Bay (Wood River). . Alaska Packers’ Association, Nushagak Bay (Wood River). Nushagak Bay (Wood River). . Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Co., Nusha- gak Bay (Wood River). Association, Nushagak Bay (Wood River). Alaska Packers’ Association, Nushagak Bay (Wood River). North Alaska Salmon Co., Bay (Wood River). : 10. North Alaska Salmon Co., Kvichak River. 12. Alaska Packers’ chak River. Nushagak Association, Kvi- 13. Alaska Fishermen’s Packing Co., Kvi- chak River. 14. Bristol Bay Packing Co., Kvichak River, 15. Naknek Packing Co., Naknek River. 16, 17, 18. Alaska Packers’ Association, Naknek River. 19. North Alaska Salmon Co., Ugaguk River. 20. Alaska Packers’ Association, Ugaguk 25. 26. 21. Red Salmon Canning Co., 24. Columbia River Packers’ River. Ugashik River. . Pacific American Fisheries. Port Moller. Northwestern Fisheries Co., Chignik. Association, Chignik. Alaska Packers’ Association, Chignik. Pacific American Fisheries, King Cove. UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 15 Fie. 2.—Sketch map showing location of the canneries in southeastern Alaska. Kny TO LOCATION OF CANNERIES. . Pacific American Fisheries, Excursion Inlet. . Astoria & Puget Sound Packing Co., Excursion Inlet. . Northwestern Fisheries, Dundas. . Thlinket Packing Co., Hunter Bay. . J. B. Nelson (proposed). . Hawk Fish Co., Hawk Inlet. - Hoonah Packing Co., Hoonah. . Deep Sea Canning Co., Chicagof. - Geo. T. Meyers & Co., Chatham. . Admiralty Trading Co., Gambier Bay. . Kake Packing Co., Kake. . Pacific Coast & Norway Packing Co., Petersburg. . Pillar Bay Packing Co., Point Ellis. 14, 15. 16. Lis 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Kuiu Island Packing Co.. Port Beau- clere. Shakan Salmon Co., Shakan. F. C. Barnes & Co., Lake Bay. Canoe Pass Packing Co., Canoe Pass. Irving Packing Co., Karheen. Swift, Arthur & Co., Heceta. North Pacific Packing & Trading Co., Klawack. Kasaan Salmon Co., Kasaan. Lindenberger Packing Co., Fish Egg. Scowl Arm Packing Co., Scowl Arm. Oceanic Packing Co., Waterfall. Sunny Point Packing Co., Sunny Point. Alaska Pacific Fisheries, Chomley. Starr, Collinson Co,, Moira Sound. 16 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Ky tro LOCATION OF CANNERIES—Continued. 28. Wiese Packing Co., Rose Inlet. | 45. Metlakahtla Industrial Co., Metlakah- 29. Northwestern Fisheries, Hunter Bay. tla. 80. Alaska Pacific Fisheries, Chilkoot. 46. Northwestern Fisheries Co., Quadra. 81. Tee Harbor Packing Co., Tee Harbor. 47. Kincolith Packing Co., Mill Bay, Brit- 82. Taku Canning & Cold Storage Co., Taku. ish Columbia. 83. Alaska Packers’ Association, Wrangell. | 48. British Columbia Packing Association 84. Alaska Sanitary Packing Co., Wran- No. 2, Nass Bay. gell. 49. Hidden Inlet Packing Co., Hidden Inlet. 35. Point Warde Packing Co., Point Warde. | 50. British Columbia Packers’ Association, 36. Sanborn, Cram Co., Burnett Inlet. Nass Harbor, British Columbia. 37. Northwestern Fisheries, Santa Anna. d1. Anglo-British Columbia Packing Co., 38. Alaska Pacific Fisheries, Yes Bay. : Port Nelson, British Columbia. 39. Alaska Packers’ Association, Loring. 52. Anglo-British Columbia Packing Co., 40. Walsh, Moore Co., Ward Cove. Arrandale, British Columbia. 41. Revilla Fish Products Co., Ketchikan. 53. Herbert Hume, Nakat Inlet. 42. Pure Food Fish Co., Ketchikan. 54. M. Des Brissay & Co., Wales Island, 43. Fidalgo Island Packing Co., Ketchikan. British Columbia. 44, Lindenberger Packing Co., Roe Point. In the following table is given the production of the various cen- ters during the packing seasons 1909-1913, inclusive.1 Taser IV.—Production of canned salmon in the United States and Alaska, by districts, during the years 1909-1913, inclusive. Number of cases packed. District. | 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Pugét-Sound sss sec scec sess cecsersmeecees- | 1, 632, 949 567,883 | 1,557,029 416, 125 2, 583, 463 Grays Harbors secs. o-eeaes ae eer | 19, 787 51, 180 61, 671 54, 507 54, 922 Willapa Harbor s< s0¢ than water it sinks to the bottom. in certain instances it is exposed at low tide (see Pl. V), though generaily the water is of sufficient depth to cover it. In certain localities it is devoured by dogfish as fast as produced, while at other canneries a few 59351 °—Bull. 150—15—4 : 26 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. miles distant these scavengers are strangely missing. In some cases the tidal currents carry the waste away, while in others, again, it accumulates on the bottom throughout the season. In such in- stances fermentation takes place slowly, with the production of obnoxious gases, which may be liberated slowly or may be held within the mass and released in large volumes and with considerable force. In a few instances in Alaska the waste enters chutes beneath the cannery floor, which conduct it to deep water at a distance from the cannery. : This practice has very serious .objections. Practically always the waters around the canneries become fouled through the putre- faction of this waste in the water. Even though it may fall upon the bottom beneath the low-water mark, putrefaction within it will cause it to rise to the surface and some of it will find its way to the beach beneath and close to the cannery buildings. The amount may be small, but it will be sufficiently great to taint the air with its odor and convey the impression of an insanitary cannery. The pollution of the waters of the neighborhood likewise most probably results in those waters being deserted by fish which do not feed upon the putrefying refuse. This has been pretty thoroughly established in other regions in the case of certain food fishes. It is safe to as- sume that other fish possess some of the same fastidiousness. This may appear to be a matter of slight moment; but there are those who believe, and whose belief seems entirely justified by the known facts, that the disappearance of the salmon from certain waters of the East where they once swarmed in great numbers has been caused by the pollution of those waters. To be sure, this is a belief and not a demonstrated fact, but to disregard it and the warning which it gives is to run a risk that the fishing industry can ill afford to take. Likewise, where the cannery is located close to a town the nuisance created by the polluted waters results in a feeling of antagonism on the part of the residents of such a settlement. To retain the sympathy of the residents of a neighborhood in which an indus- try is located is being recognized as a matter of importance. There is in Alaska already a lack of sympathy with the packers on the part of the residents, who show an inclination to regard them as being indifferent to the well-being of Alaska and Alaskans. It is even claimed that this feeling has found expression in recent legisla- tive enactments. Tn certain parts of the Bristol Bay region the lack of deep water near the cannery makes it necessary to carry the cannery waste away from the vicinity of the cannery. This is done by loading the waste upon scows and towing them out to deep water for emptying. The same practice is resorted to in certain regions on Puget Sound, where the nearness of towns makes the pollution of the waters of the harbor UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 27 in this manner prohibitive. This method of disposal involves se- rious expense both in the construction and maintenance of scows and special loading devices and in the actual expense of towage, in addi- tion to which is the inconvenience of applying the cannery tugs to such work during the height of the fishing season. AMOUNT OF WASTE UTILIZED IN THE VARIOUS CENTERS. COLUMBIA RIVER. Of the 4,000 tons of cannery waste produced in the canneries of the Columbia River in 1913, cnly 800 tons were utilized for the man- ufacture of fertilizer and oil, leaving a balance of 3,200 tons which was thrown away. ‘This amount was rendered in one fertilizer and oil plant situated near Astoria, Oreg. The raw materials for this plant were secured exclusively from the canneries of Astoria, a max- imum haul of 7 miles. Its output in finished products during the sea- son of 1913 was about 80 tons of dry fish scrap and 20,000 gallons of oil. PUGET SOUND. During the season of 1913 approximately 15,500 tens of raw can- nery waste were treated in the fish-rendering plants of Puget Sound, with the production of 1,550 tons of dry scrap and 273,000 galions of oil. Four plants were in regular operation, one being situated at Seattle, two at Anacortes, and one on Lummi Island, opposite Gel- lingham. A fifth plant, of large capacity, situated on Eliza Island, near Bellingham, was undergoing its initial trial during the summer, but marketed no output. Of these plants, the four situated near the Bellingham-Anacortes center of the canning industry naturally ob- tained the bulk of their raw materials from the canneries of the immediate neighborhood. ALASKA. At present there is but one rendering plant operating on salmon waste in the entire territory. This is strictly a by-products plant as an adjunct to a cannery, and is designed for a capacity hm- ited to the maximum output in waste of the cannery of which it forms a part. The equipment was installed just prior to the fish- ing season of 1913. Preliminary runs showed that the capacity of the drier was insufficient to dry the output of the digesters or to permit the plant to run at an economical rate. For that reason it was not operated throughout the season. It was operated long enough, however, to show that the process employed yielded a good quality of oil and dry scrap of entirely satisfactory composition and appearance.” 1 Pacific Fisherman, 12, No. 1 (Special), 1914. 2 The analysis of this product is reported in Table VIII, on p. 33. 28 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FISH SCRAP FROM SALMON WASTE. From preceding paragraphs it is to be seen that during the last year a total of 1,680 tons of dried fish scrap and 286,000 gallons of oil were manufactured from the waste from salmon canneries on the Pacific coast of the United States. The amount of these products represents the output of five plants. The methods employed in at least four of the five plants in all essentials are similar. The differences between them are chiefly in mechanical features and in the arrangement of the machinery within the plants. The same process is used in all of them. This consists in cooking the waste by steam, either in closed retorts under pressure or in open retorts, in pressing the cooked fish in one type of press to remove the water and oil, and drying the scrap. ‘In the following paragraphs the methods in vogue in these rendering stations are described in some detail. COLLECTING. The waste is carried from the cannery to the rendering plant on scows. In cases where the floor of the cannery is high enough above the surface of the water the refuse from the various “ butchering ” operations can be run through chutes into the scows by gravity. There are instances, however, where this is not possible at high water, and it has been found necessary to install conveyors for loading the scows. These are arranged beneath the cannery fioor. The material is delivered to them at the bottom of hopper-shaped receptacles which receive the waste from the cannery floor. Where the top of the scow at high tide is above the level of the cannery floor, two con- veyors working together at an angle to each other are utilized, one bringing the material horizontally to the edge of the dock to which the scow is made fast and the other lifting it over the side of the scow. The conveyors may be operated by a small gasoline engine or by the same motive power that operates the mechanical cleaner or the cutter. UNLOADING. The charged scow is towed to the dock of the rendering plant, where it is unloaded mechanically. An adjustable bucket conveyor, of the wheat-elevator type, is rigged in such a manner that its free end can be thrust into the mass of material constituting the load of the scow. The load is thus hfted and deposited directly, or by means of an auxiliary conveyor, into storage bins. From these it is drawn off as desired into cooking vats. What is regarded as the best prac- tice consists in raising the waste directly to bins situated over the cooking vats, which in turn are placed over the presses, so that only one lifting is necessary, and the material thereafter may pursue its course through the factory by gravity. UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. Q9 COOKING. The upright, cylindrical retort is in general use. It is provided with openings in top and bottom for charging and discharging, re- spectively. If the fish is to be cooked under pressure the opening in the top is generally smaller than otherwise, so that it more readily may be closed and rendered tight enough to retain the steam at the pressure at which it is admitted to the retort. The manner in which the steam is admitted and the length of time during which the charge in the retort is subjected to the cooking action of the steam vary from plant to plant. In certain instances the steam is injected at the bottom and allowed to permeate the mass of waste undergoing cooking. When it appears at and issues freely from the top the charge is deemed sufficiently cooked. In other cases the cooking is continued for 12 hours under a pressure of 20 pounds of steam. As each operator regards his methods as the best, it may be said that all of the metheds give equal satisfaction. After cooking, the charge may be allowed to stand to settle, or it may be drawn off at once into the presses. If the former procedure is observed, much of the oil released in the cooking rises to the surface and is drawn off in any suitable manner. in any case the charge is admitted to the presses hot. As a result of the cooking the material may be thoroughly disintegrated to form a thin soup, or it may be broken up into coarse particles. The only essential seems to be the disintegration of the heads. What is considered a good practice is to run the charge as soon as sufficiently cooked from the retorts into a storage vat or “slush box.” This is provided with steam coils so that the material may be kept hot. From this vat the cocked fish is admitted to the presses. This system admits of greater elasticity, making the rate of cooking inde- pendent of that of pressing. PRESSING. Presses of the hydraulic or the “ knuckle” type are in general use. Owing to the fine state of subdivision of the material to be filtered, the part of the press functioning as a filter must have very fine aper- tures in order that the separation between liquids and solids may be effected. ‘The readiness with which such fine material closes the apertures of a filter and retards separation necessitates a very large filtering surface for a comparatively small amount of material. These conditions are fulfilled in the salmon-waste filter presses by the use of a heavy and compactly woven sort of burlap bagging (“hop cloth”), in which only small portions of the waste are put to be pressed. The charge for the presses is made up in the following manner: A framework of 1-inch strips of wood inclosing a square of about 3 or 4 feet is placed on a truck and over it is thrown a square of the 30 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. burlap. This makes a shallow receptacle, which is filled to the depth, perhaps, of about 8 inches with the material to be pressed. Then the loose edges of the burlap are folded over on top of the material so that it is entirely covered. On top of this is placed a square, of about the same dimensions, of wooden slats, held together by a suit- able framework. On the slats is placed a second frame and a second square of burlap, which receives in like manner another charge of material, This operation is repeated until a stack of batches of material held thus in sections of burlap is built up of sufficient height to fill the press. Sheet-ircn plates may be substituted for the wooden slats. . In charging, the truck which is to support the charge is wheeled beneath the cookers or the “slush box.” Fer this purpose a track is built from the press to the cookers. The cooked fish, by the manipu- lation of cocks and a movable spout, is permitted to flow upon the receptacle arranged for it. When the charge has been, completed the truck with its burden is wheeled into the press. The pressure is applied until the maximum power of the press has been reached, or until no further amount of water and oil can be removed. It is desirable that the material be pressed while still hot, as the water expressed contains glue in solution which on cooling tends to harden and clog up the filter. When removed from the press the solids have been forced into hard cakes about an inch in thickness. These are shaken out of their burlap envelopes onto the floor, when they are ready for the driers. The oil and water expressed from the scrap are permitted to run together to receiving vats. On standing and with the aid of heat, the oil rises to the surface and the fine sludge which has escaped the filter settles out. The oil is drawn off from the surface into a series of vats, where it is subjected to successive simple treatments for its purification. Suspended solids and occluded liquids are washed from it by bubbling steam through it, and occasionally it is “cut” with sulphuric acid to effect a clarification. The residue pressed from the cooked fish may be saved to recover the glue which it contains, or it may be allowed to go to waste. ‘The latter practice is the one generally adopted. For the preparation of glue it is thoroughly freed from solid matter and is then evaporated by steam coils to the desired concentration. DRYING. Of the several types of driers in use on the Pacific coast, there is only one employed in drying fish scrap from cannery waste which is at all comparable to the hot-air driers found in common use on the Atlantic coast. This is a drier of large size and capacity, the opera- tion of which involves the principle of both direct and indirect heat- ing. It is a rotary cylinder of iron mounted inside of an inclosing UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 31 chamber of brickwork. Hot gases from crude petroleum burners are admitted to the chamber surrounding the cylinder and are drawn thence into the cylinder through apertures constructed at intervals in the walls. The scrap to be dried is admitted at the hot end of the cylinder and removed at the cool end, thus traveling with the current of air. From the cylinder it drops into an elevator and is carried therein directly te the bagging room. The current of gases through the drier is maintained by a rotary fan situated behind the drier. By means of this the gases drawn from the drier are forced through a chamber where they are washed free from suspended particles by means of a water spray. Thence they are driven through the fire box beneath the factory boilers. In this manner odors arising from the hot-air drier, and constituting, perhaps, the only objection to its use, are completely destroyed. — In the fertilizer plants of the Pacific coast the steam drier is em- ployed most commonly, owing possibly to the simplicity of its in- stallation and operation and to the fact that of all the driers it is most readily available in the desired capacities. It is not intended that the idea shall be conveyed by this statement that the steam drier inherently is more simply installed and operated. Such is not believed to be the case. But at present the hot-air driers advertised for sale and actually in use are large in both size and capacity and are unfit for the treatment of small amounts of material. The manu- facturers have failed to meet, or perhaps to create, a demand for driers cf small capacity, and for that reason the steam drier is in most common use. An additional advantage possessed by the steam drier is its simplicity of regulation. Overheating being im- possible, it remains only to admit the steam and wait for the charge to dry. It can not be regarded as the most efficient or as the most economical except in cases where exhaust steam is employed. The type of steam drier found in use in drying scrap from salmon waste usually is a horizontal cylinder provided with steam coils in- side, or encircled by a steam jacket. For stirring, the cylinder is equipped with paddles revolving in it, or the cylinder itself is rotated on a horizontal axis. _A third type of drier, recently installed in a certain manufactory, is unique in that it makes use of the waste heat from the fires be- neath the factory boilers. As this drier was designed by the operator from ideas suggested by his experience, and is not advertised for sale by the manufacturers of driers, the writer does not feel justified in publishing here the details of its construction. It should suffice to say that the drier is reported as being quite efficient and satis- factory, and the scrap coming from it is of a very high quality. Its lack of importance as a type is more than made up by its value as an illustration of what is possible in the enhancement of economy in a fish-rendering plant. 32 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE PRODUCTS. CHARACTER OF SCRAP. The scrap produced from salmon waste is of very high quality. For its value as fertilizer, 1t is open to criticism only cn the score of its high content in oil. This amount of oil probably is not sufficient to prove a serious detriment to the soil nor, possibly, materially to retard the decomposition of the scrap within the soil. But it is dis- advantageous in that it is so much inert material of no fertilizer value. The fact that the oil, of high value if extracted, here plays the réle of a worthless diluent of a less valuable product, has no bearing on the value of the scrap as a fertilizer; instead, it con- cerns only the economy of the process by which the material is pre- pared. With regard to the bearing of-the presence of oil in ferti- lizer materials on the value of those materials, attention should be called to the work of Skinner and Beattie,? of the Bureau of Soiis, having to do with the value of city street sweepings for fertilizer pur- poses. To explain the poor manurial value of this material it was supposed that the presence therein of oil, dropped upon the streets by automobiles, prevented its decomposition, a supposition which be- came a conclusion when it was demonstrated that the same material, after treatment to remove the oils, showed a greatly enhanced manurial value. This oil is largely, if not entirely, mineral oi], which it is commonly known is much less readily decompesed than animal oils, such as fish oil. In this connection a comparison of the fertilizer values of oily and oilless fish scrap would be of distinct interest.’ CHEMICAL COMPCSITION OF SCRAP. Samples of salmon scrap representative of the product of the vari- ous manufacturers were received at the laboratory in canvas sample sacks. 'These samples were ground to a powder that would pass a sieve of 16 apertures per linear inch. Samples of 2 grams each were then dried for about 5 hours ina vacuum drying oven at a tempera- ture ranging between 75° and 85° C. The loss in weight was re- corded as moisture. The same samples were then used for the deter- mination of oil, which was extracted in a Knorr apparatus with ether. Great difficulty was experienced in removing all the moisture without the loss of oil. Nitrogen was determined by Mr. T. C. Trescott, of the Bureau of Chemistry, by the official method. For the determination of phosphoric acid the official gravimetric method was used. In Table VIII are reported the results of analyses of five samples of salmon scrap from an equal number of manufactories. 1 Circular 66, Bureau of Soils, U. 8. Dept. Agr. 2 Experiments recently made in these laboratories by Skinner and Lindemuth, in which the fertilizing value of oily and oilless fish scrap was compared, showed that the latter (extracted with ether) give pronouncedly better results than the former. UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 33 TABLE VIII.—Analyses of fish scrap prepared from salmon cuttings. Num- eae ber of | Location of factory. Description. Nitro; peas Moisture. le gen. aci samp (P205). | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 1 | Klawack, Alaska...._.-- North Pacific Fishing «& 9.39 5.32 5. 36 Trading Co. Sample from trial run with steam drier. 2 Anacortes, Wash..____-- Robinson Fisheries Co. 8. 26 7.91 5.21 Dry scrap from steam drier. oles.ss 5 On are es eee Les: Russia Cement Co. Dry 9. 49 9. 26 5. 26 scrap from hot-air drier. 4 Seattle, Wash..........- Brandel Chemical Co. Dry 8. 76 7.00 3.91 scrap from steam drier. § | Astoria, Oreg........__. DeForce Oil Works. Dry 7.63 12. 08 5.11 iy scrap from hot-air drier. | 1 More accurately, ether extract. } Oils.1 Per cent. 14.96 17.36 8.32 20. 02 10. 96 This consists principally of oils. COMPARISON WITH MENHADEN SCRAP. For the sake of comparison between the salmon and menhaden scrap, the following table of analyses, made by E. G. Parker and J. R. Lindemuth, of the Bureau of Soils, is introduced here. This has been compiled from analyses made during 1912-13, and has been published in a former report.’ Taste TX.—Analyses of fish fertilizer prepared from menhaden scrap. | | | Phos- Num- Ji ‘ per of Location. Description. a phate Moisture.| Oils. sample. (P205). Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 1 | Kilmarnock Va...---- From Eubanks Tankard Co. 8. 93 6.17 6.48 5.91 Dry scrap (from 6 sacks). QheMait Naess s:.ssc- oc. | From Taft Fish Co. Dry 8.96 7245 6.18 6. 81 scrap (sample of 525 tons). 3 | Irvington, Va......-.- From Carters Creek Fish 7.70 5. 22 11.68 6. 62 Guano Co. Dry scrap, dried in hot-air and steam driers (from 1 sack). Fall ; product. 4 | Cape Charles, Va....-- From Atlantic Fish & Oil Co. 9. 29 6.12 7. 86 5.38 Dry scrap, ground (from 3 sacks). A eeSS Ges susdees sees From Dennis Fish & Oil Co. 8. 80 5. 21 aly WeDo Dust from grinders, 6 | Beaufort, N. C.....--- From Beaufort Fish-scrap & 8. 22 5.95 6.13 8.57 Oil Co. Dry scrap, hy- draulic presses. Sample from heap. 7 | Morehead City, N. C..| From R. W, Taylor. Dry 8.49 5.95 9.12 8. 23 scrap from open heap. Selene CORE RSs SHE: FromChas.S.Wallace. Scrap, 7.76 9.65 8.15 7.56 dry, from hydraulic presses. 9 | Lenoxville, N. C...--- From C. P. Dey. Ground 7.81 5. 85 7.46 7.89 scrap, sun-dried, from hy- draulic presses. Sample from heap. LOU Sst OSes eed ay elas From C. P. Dey. Scrap, dry, 8. 29 9. 00 7.00 5.40 ground, hydraulic presses. Sample from heap. PASV CE ALC oiicty rsite 3 (6) nN OLRM eS Wea etedl ekg ep 8. 43 6. 69 7.72 6.99 1 Bul._2, U. 8. Dept. of Agr., 'The Menhaden Fish Fertilizer Industry of the Atlantic Coast. 59351°—Bull. 150—15——5 34 BULLETIN 150, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The salmon scrap has a hghter color and more pleasant odor than the menhaden scrap. This, again, possibly does not concern its fertilizing value, though there is a remote possibility that it may affect its demand in the trade. It is said that some agricul- turists appraise the value of fertilizer materials by the disagree- ableness and strength of their odor. On the contrary, it is a better established fact that considerable prejudice exists against fish scrap on the part of common carriers and the public in general because of its odor. Since nothing is to be lost and something is to be gained by reducing the disagreeable odors of fish fertilizer, the point men- tioned is favorable to the salmon scrap. The better smell of the latter is due most probably in greatest measure to the fact that it is dried at moderate temperatures and is not scorched, as inevitably must happen in the hot-air driers as now operated on the Atlantic coast. It also is true that the menhaden scrap is dried in a stream of hot gases generated in a soft-coal fire; the soot from this doubt- less contributes likewise to the dark color of the product. Another point of difference between the salmon and menhaden scrap 1s introduced by the occasional acidulation of the latter. The addition of sulphuric acid to the scrap is practiced most generally to disinfect the undried but freshly cooked and warm “ pomace,” and to render it unfit as a breeding place for flies. This is resorted to, as a rule, only when the scrap is being produced at a rate greater than that at which it can be dried. The acidulation frequently is followed by drying. The addition of sulphuric acid to the scrap is supposed to be beneficial in that it “fixes the ammonia” and renders soluble the phosphoric acid of the calcium phosphate con- stituting the bones. While it induces a disintegration and pulveri- zation of the scrap, and enables the producer to sell the bone phos- phate present as soluble phosphoric acid, at the same time it acts as a diluent of slight, if any, fertilizer value, with no rating on a fertilizer basis. In the foregoing comparison of scrap from salmon and menhaden, respectively, it is not intended to convey the idea that the menhaden scrap for fertilizer purposes is inferior to that from the salmon. It is believed that the ammonia and phosphate of the one is as valuable as that of the other. FISH SCRAP AS CATTLE AND POULTRY FEED. To discuss fish scrap from any point of view other than that of fertilizer, perhaps, is beyond the province of this report. It should be pointed out here, however, that with such fertilizer materials as dried blood, abattoir tankage of high grade, cottonseed meal, and fish scrap, it is better agricultural practice to feed these to stock, provided, of course, that all barnyard manures be conserved care-' UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 385 fully, than to apply them direct to the soil. It can be taken as thor- oughly well established that both the nitrogen and the phosphoric acid, after performing their role in the life processes of the adult animal, are eliminated. Then the high food value of these rich foods is utilized, and at the same time the fertilizing elements are still available for use on the growing crops. From the point of view of cattle and poultry feed, the salmon scrap must be considered supe- rior to the menhaden. In the first place, the acidulated scrap is totally unfit for feeding purposes. Its use in that manner undoubt- edly would result in disaster. And in smaller degree, the greater care expended in drying the salmon scrap makes it a more desirable article of food. In fact, when the nature of the raw material and the sanitary condition under which it is treated, obtaining in certain manufactories, are considered, it might almost be regarded as fit for man’s consumption. It would be interesting to learn whether the oil remaining in the salmon scrap is of a more digestible nature than that in the menhaden scrap. No experimental data is at hand in sub- stantiation of such belief; but such appears plausible when it is re- called that the salmon oil is light and sweet and partakes more nearly of the nature of the edible oils, while that from menhaden is dark, heavy, and viscous and has a disagreeable odor. The subject of the suitability of fish scrap for cattle and poultry feed and the experiments performed relating thereto have been dis- ‘cussed in an earlier publication of this department and therefore will not be repeated here. In all of the experiments, records of which have come to the attention of the writer, the results have been affirmative and of such a nature as to justify the further exploita- tion of this food material for that purpose. The reader interested in this phase of the subject is referred to Bulletin 2. United States Department of Agriculture, The Menhaden Fish Fertilizer Indus- try of the Atlantic Coast. OIL. The literature contains little having to do with salmon oil. The amount actually produced, 286,000 gallons, is too small to give it any great importance in the industries. It is rated, however, as a high-grade fish oil. The price which it brings in the market, 30 cents a gallon, against 23 cents for menhaden oil, is sufficient evi- dence of that fact. There is no reason to doubt that it is destined to play an important part as an animal oil when the salmon-scrap industry is fully developed and there is enough oil available to make its study and exploitation profitable. In the absence of more detailed information concerning the physi- cal and chemical properties of salmon oil, it must suffice to say that it is merely a high-grade fish oil. The crude salmon oil is lighter in color than, perhaps, the refined menhaden. Its properties, as now 36 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. understood, adapt it to the uses to which menhaden oil successfully has been applied, conspicuous among which is its utilization as a lubricant, and especially in the paint and enamel industries.? GLUE. Fish glue made from salmon is regarded as low grade and of proportionately sight value. In this particular it differs markedly from that prepared from cod skins. It is used with success in the preparation of sizings and allied materials. METHODS PROPOSED FOR THE TREATMENT OF SALMON CANNERY WASTE ON A LARGE SCALE. In the treatment of salmon cannery waste two methods immedi- ately suggest themselves: (1) Treatment in large units, and (2) in small units. The former at first glance appears the more desirable, as it generally is understood that large-scale manufacturing opera- tions are more economical in both labor and equipment than those conducted on a small scale. And it is the large-unit plan that now is in operation; without exception, all the salmon scrap at present produced is the product of the large-unit plants. The foregoing de- scription, then, of the present method employed in rendering salmon waste applies in a large measure to that of a proposed central ren- dering plant. In fact, it may be argued that it is not wise to diverge from the methods now in vogue as they are the only ones which have been applied with any commercial success whatever. THE CENTRAL RENDERING STATION. The failures in the operation of centrally located rendering plants have been as numerous as and far more conspicuous than the suc- cesses. The causes operating to bring about these failures, it appears at this distance, were manyfold. Speaking of the failures collec- tively and not as individuals, it is evident that over capitalization and extravagance in expenditure for equipment, the failure of equip- ment to yield its expected performance, errors in the location of the plant, and general inexperience all contributed. The plan has inherent faults. These are twofold: The high ex- pense involved in hauling the raw material to the plant and the lack of machinery which would make the rendering process continuous, automatic, and economical. A further disadvantage, applying to both proposed methods but in greater degree perhaps to that of the central plant, is the shortness of the season during which the plant would be in operation. In this discussion the adoption of the plan is opposed further on the ground of its general failure to meet the demands of the problem. 1 For a brief discussion of menhaden oil see ibid., p. 46 et seq. . UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 37 In considering the first objection it becomes evident that the larger _ the rendering plant the larger must be the equipment in tugs and scows and the longer the haul. The irregularity with which the can- neries operate and the vagaries of the weather introduce elements of uncertainty which make it difficult to calculate the probable limits within which the waste profitably can be collected. COLLECTING THE MATERIAL. Loading the waste.—Three methods are available for loading the cannery waste: (1) By means of a scow under the dock at each can- nery; (2) by means of a storage bin under the dock at each cannery; (3) by means of a storage bin on the dock at each cannery. ; (1) The first method is objectionable in that the outlay for scows would be too great. Two would be required for each cannery, one receiving a load while the other was being unloaded. A scow 30 by 16 feet in dimensions would cost about $300. The investment in these would be $600 for each cannery tended. Smaller scows de- signed to hold the maximum daily output in waste of the cannery could be built, perhaps, for a smaller sum, but their usefulness for other purposes would be restricted. A contract between a cannery and a central rendering station most probably would specify a daily removal of waste. Certainly there would be days when the yield in cuttings would be small, far too small to fill a scow. Yet under the contract and this system of col- lecting it would be necessary to remove the partially loaded scow and transport it to the rendering station, or else carry it away for emptying. And even if the daily collection were not required, in warm weather a frequent collection would be absolutely essential and easily might result in the enforced transportation of but partially filled scows. The greatest advantage to accrue from this method would be that the waste could be sluiced directly from the cannery floor or cleaning tables into the scow and would be ready for transportation without any further handling whatever. On the other hand, an occasional cannery would be found to have been built too close to the surface of the water to admit of the loading of a scow in this manner. In a foregoing paragraph has been described the method of load- ing, by a simple system of conveyors, when the cannery floor is too low to admit of the scow’s being placed beneath. Where such an apparatus has to be installed and operated, the advantages of the direct loading into a scow disappear. (2) Under ideal conditions the collection of the waste in storage bins placed beneath the cannery floor or dock is the most economical. The conditions considered ideal are that the cannery floor or dock shall be of such a height that the scow to be loaded can be placed 38 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. beneath the storage bins so that it can be done entirely by gravity. That it be loaded thus by gravity is a virtual necessity, as pitching the material from the bin into the scow by manual labor would be too expensive. But it not often is found to be possible to load the scow by gravity at high tides, and therein les the chief objection to the method. The bin so placed would be loaded by sluicing the cuttings directly into it. This would entail no extra labor over that of the present practice. The bin should be built with a bottom sloping toward an opening through which the waste could be admitted as desired into the scow. In the sides of the bin, sections of close-mesh wire netting could be inserted, if desired, to permit the excess water to drain away; or, since the cutings are heavy and will sink, the water could be permitted to run over the top edges of the bin. The latter is un- desirable as entailing an extra and unnecessary weight on the bin. An additional advantage of any system involving the use of stor- age bins is that, under favorable conditions, a large-capacity scow can make the circuit of the canneries tended, collecting what material has accumulated since the last round, whether that amount be large or small. (3) Storage bins placed on the dock at each cannery would pos- sess the advantage that they could be unloaded by gravity at any tide. The chief objection to them would be that they would have to be loaded mechanically. The waste would have to be brought from beneath the cannery floor, by conveyor, outward and upward, to the bins, involving the expense for installation and operation of the conveyors. As this is the method which, under the conditions usually obtaining, is the only one under absolute mechanical control and therefore the only reliable one, it perhaps is the most desirable method of the three. On the other hand, there is no reason why the method to be employed at each cannery can not be determined by the conditions peculiar to that cannery. No hard and fast rule need be applied. Tugs.—The number of tugs required to collect the raw material from the various canneries would be determined by conditions such as the number of canneries tended, their output in waste, the system of collecting, the capacity of the scows employed, and especially the position of the canneries with respect to each other and the rendering station. In elaboration of the last-named condition it should be pointed out further that if the canneries were situated in such a way that the direct course from the farthest one to the sta- tion lay past the others, one tug and scow or scows of sufficient capacity could collect the load from a number of canneries on one trip. RENDERING APPARATUS. _The equipment and operation of the large-scale rendering stations now in successful operation have been described compositely in foregoing paragraphs. A strictly conservative procedure would be to adhere to demonstrated methods. However, since these methods once were in universal use on the Atlantic coast and now have been discarded almost universally to make way for new methods, a dis- cussion of new methods, and even a recommendation of their cautious adoption may be justified. The only process which has been applied with any success to the rendering of this class of material on the Pacific coast, it has been shown, is discontinuous. The apparatus required by this process may be installed and operated in small units, necessitating a multi- plication of the labor involved, or in large units, involving more labor than the small units, of course, but not proportionately. Since the material to be treated is secured in irregular and uncertain amounts, a number of small units would afford more of the required elasticity than an equivalent number of large units, but the cost of labor required to operate such a number of small units soon would become prohibitive. So, by nature, this apparatus offers serious objections to its adoption in the large-capacity plants. The continuous and automatic machines for cooking, pressing, and drying in use in the fish-rendering industry of the Atlantic coast should lend themselves readily to adaptation to that industry on the Pacific coast. These make possible the cooking, pressing, drying, and intermediate handling of the fish entirely by machinery, with a high efficiency and minimum expenditure of labor. The unloading is done by elevators, which deposit the fish in storage bins, from which they are fed into continuous steam cookers, long tubular cham- bers through which the fish are moved by a rotating screw, being played upon by jets of steam. Thence they are transported by con- veyors, into which they are fed, to the power presses. These are steel- slatted cones, through which the cooked fish are forced by a rotating screw. As they move toward, and before they can pass out of, the small end of the cone, they are squeezed into a very small compass. This pressure rids them of the greater portion of their water and oil. From the press they are conveyed, again entirely automatically, into a direct-heat, rotary, hot-air drier. A plant designed for the treatment of 100 tons of cannery waste per day and equipped with the automatic machinery complete would cost about $35,000. This estimate is based on the following items. 1The itemized statement of the cost of equipment and plant is made possible through the courtesy of Mr. Philip Renneburg and Mr. P. Burgess, of Baltimore, Md. 40 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Two 66 inches by 16 feet, 100-pound pressure, return tubular brick set boilers, 100 horsepower each, complete with independent stacks of No. 10 metal, with castings and fittings arranged for full flush front set- [Ih 0 02 fee Bence fer ees OR eee SE Se, ee cae AB IP oe OR RLS Thee OE SS $1, 650: One 20-horsepower vertical engine, complete with all fittings (for ele- WAGOT)) Se ea ns es ee ee a ee ee 230 One 9 by 12, 20-horsepower, horizontal center-crank engine, complete with all fittings (for raw box transmission) _______________________- 275 One 10 by 12, 25-horsepower, horizontal center-crank engine, complete with all fittings (for cooker and near-by transmission) ~__-_--_______ 315 One 11 by 18, 35-horsepower, horizontal center-crank engine, complete with all fittings "(to operate-press,) <2 22.2 2) ee eee 355 One 10 by 12, 25-horsepower, horizontal center-crank engine, complete with all fittings (for drier and surrounding transmission) —~___________ 315 One 150-light, 16-candlepower, vertical, electric-light engine, cased in, directly connected automatic lubricator and generator, with switch- HOY OF! i feed te Reale es ONE Le Be Ree nee ese gs ieeed oo ew eee eee Fog VS 725 One marine leg fish elevator, with measuring machine and all necessary transmission complete for elevating fish from scow to factory_______- 1, 650 Complete raw box transmission, consisting of all chains, attachments, buckets, sprockets, gears, shafts, and clutches, complete______________ 1, 500 One 17 inches diameter by 40 feet long, spiral worm steam cooker, com- plete; with; driving sprockets.222i2_-5-4. 23222 a eo eS 1, 200 One 12-foot, all-steel, continuous screw press___-__---______----_-__--_ 3, 500 One 5 feet 6 inches diameter by 40 feet long, two-bearing drier, with hopper, castings, blower fan, blower piping, and Jones underfeed stoker_ 2, 500 Balance of and completing factory transmission, including pipe work in connection with boilers, engines, and pumps_-___---__----_-_--___- 2, 500 One 1,200-barrel steel-plate, oil-storage tank _-_______-________________ 1, 000 Incidentals, such as boiler feed pump, oil pump for transmitting oil to tanks, general wash-down pump, fish and coal measuring tubs, per- forated piping system in connection with oil tanks, ete_____-________ 1, 500 otal 8 atts be eat bo ae el denne hes eis ae ee 19, 215 In addition to this, there will be an outlay for buildings, brick- work for the drier, and all foundations for buildings, boilers, en- gines, machines, and tanks. This cost is difficult to estimate, as it will be determined largely by local conditions and the factory site, but probably will approximate that for the equipment, bringing the total for plant and equipment to the figure mentioned above. In addition to this cost again would be added the items expended for tugs and scows. Superficially there seems to be no reason whatever why the auto- matic and continuous cooker in its present form should not be entirely applicable to salmon cuttings. The rate at which the ma- terial is passed through, and therefore the length of time during which it is being subjected to the cooking action of the steam, are regulated with ease. Thus the degree of cooking is under complete control. It has been demonstrated that cooking under pressure is UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 41 not essential. However, even with the continuous cooker a certain degree of pressure can te maintained, a desired, by the correct modi- fication of the cooker. The press in use in the menhaden factories has been designed for expressing the cooked menhaden. As that material is markedly different from salmon waste, there is no reason to suppose that the press efficacious with the former will be so with the latter. How- ever, there is every reason to believe that the press so useful with the one can be modified so that it can meet the demands of the other. This is not a necessary conclusion, since the limits of usefulness of this form of press may lie between the requirements of menhaden on the one hand and of salmon cuttings on the other. As indicated above, this is not believed to be the case. In this connection it should be emphasized that, in view of the fact that the screw press has never received a thorough demonstration in the salmon-scrap in- dustry, before other plants are equipped with it it should be made to conform to the demands of that industry. This can be done only by thorough experimentation by those familiar with the press and the nature of the material to be pressed. The rotary, direct-heat drier probably should be the most economical type at present available. Its present methods of operation can not be so considered. In cease tuctions it is a sheet-iron cylinder, about 40 feet in length and 5 feet 6 inches in diameter. It is mounted, at a slight angle out of the horizontal, on roller bearings which support its weight and on which it revolves. The material to be dried is fed into the upper end and falls out at the lower. Aiso into the higher end is blown a stream of hot gases, generated by forcing air from a blower through the firebox of a eumnace: The wet scrap falls directly into this stream of hot gases and by it is assisted through the drier. It also is lifted and let fall repeatedly by the rotation of the cylinder. Such a drier yields about 45 tons of dry scrap per day. In prac- tice the moisture content of the material (fish-pomace) is reduced from 55 or 60 per cent to 7 per cent, at a closely estimated cost of 50 cents per dry ton. This cost is based on the following items: To heat the drier, , approximately 34 tons of soft coal is “equa while an additional 14 tons is consumed in supplying the power for the rota- tion of the drier and the operation of the conveyors. One skilled laborer is required to operate the drier and two unskilled laborers to tend the drier furnace and the boilers. For the most efficient utilization cf a stream of drying gases, theory demands that it shall flow from the opposite direction over and through the stream of material being dried. Thus the hottest and driest gases are brought into contact with the hottest and driest part of the material being dried, and the coolest and wettest gases with the 42 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. coolest and wettest material. In this way the maximum moisture- absorbing capacity of the gases is made use of and their heat entirely is utilized. To make such a procedure possible, a lower initial tem- perature of the gases would be necessary to prevent the ignition of the hot, dry material; and it is probable that a longer drier and a more prolonged intermixture of the material and the driying agent would be necessary. A point might be reached where the energy necessary to rotate the drier for the increased length of time would cost more than the heat units conserved would justify. This is a matter which could be determined by experimentation. In a drier of the above type use is made both of the heat units and of the drying action of a current of gas. The matter is entirely dif- ferent from the evaporation.of water in a closed vessel, where the evaporation of each unit weight or volume of water is accompanied by the absorption of a definite amount of heat. To be sure, all evaporation 1s so accompanied. But it is remembered that water is evaporated by a current of air without the application of artificial heat. And, too, the hotter and drier the stream of air the more rapid the evaporation. In the hot-air drier this combined action is made of use. The fish-fertilizer industry as developed on the Atlantic coast has found the above-described continuous and automatic apparatus the most satisfactory for meeting the demands of that industry. On the basis ef that verdict one is inclined to believe that this machinery most advantageously could be apphed to the large-scale rendering of salmon-cannery waste, provided the proper modifications were intro- duced to make it entirely adapted to that sort of material. We do not regard the past failures of this machinery as significant of any fundamental unfitness, but rather of a lack of attention given the re- quirements of the new material to which it is applied. In the present stage of knowledge of the subject it appears that the continuous- process machinery conforms most nearly to the ideal equipment. Rendering apparatus of various other forms are to be had. Many of these forms have been applied with success to the rendering of garbage and tankage. Some are designed with a view especially to the suppression of all disagreeable cdors, others to the recovery of a larger percentage of the oils present. The latter usually involve the use of petrol or gasoline as the extracting agent, which effects a more complete recovery of the oils. This may obviate the necessity both of a press and a drier, the cooking, drying, and extracting being accomplished in one container, the retort. Theoretically, such proc- esses for the recovery of oil are most nearly ideal. Whether they can be applied successfully to the rendering of fish, viewed from the commercial standpoint, remains to be demonstrated in this country. UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 43 OBJECTIONS TO THE CENTRAL RENDERING STATION. SHORTNESS OF SEASON. A serious difficulty in the way ef making a commercial success of the central rendering station is the shortness of the season during which the plant would be in operation. This would be even shorter than that during which the canneries would be in operation, as both preceding and following the actual canning of fish there is a period when allied work is pursued. Furthermore, the rendering plant would have to be in readiness to handle whatever material the man- agement had contracted for (certainly to be the entire output of waste of the cannery contracted with) whether it became available in large or small amounts. The result would be that for about nine months of the year the plant would be closed up; and for a consid- erable portion of the remaining three, while being held in readiness to operate, it still would be idle. This objection is entirely valid from the point of view of output, but not necessarily so from that of profit or investment. Money is invested in such enterprises, not because of their output in product, but because of the profits accruing. If the profits of the short season’s operations represent an adequate interest on the investment, then the expenditures for plant are justi- fied and objections on the score of shortness of operating season are eliminated. Aside from the inconvenience of reorganizing annually the corps of employees, the period of inactivity may be considered a benefit, as affording the management opportunity for other pursuit. The inactivity of the plant during the operating season is a more serious obstacle to the success of the undertaking. There would be pericds when no material was being delivered to the plant when it and its corps of laborers would be held in readiness for immediate operation. This would involve an expenditure of money for wages and of fuel for maintaining heat in the boilers from which there would be no returns. A part of the equipment of such a rendering plant, the tugs and scows, it should be possible to keep employed profitably during the winter months. Whether this could be done would depend somewhat on the location of the plant and to a larger extent on the design of the tugs and scows. In this connection it should be pointed out that the equipment pro- vided for the treatment of cannery waste could be applied during several months of the year, when fish refuse is not available, to the treatment of kelp for the preparation of fertilizer. This topic is considered more fully in a subsequent chapter. 44 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. See, GENERAL FAILURE OF THE CENTRAL RENDERING STATION TO MEET THE DEMANDS OF THE PROBLEM. Our problem being to devise a scheme whereby the valuable mate- rials produced as waste in the canning of salmon in particular and the dressing of fish in general may be saved, any plan which pro- vides for the conservation of only a porticn of this must be rejected as inadequate. Therein les a vital cbjecticn to the central rendering station idea—that at best 1t can render the waste only from those fish-cleaning establishments which happen to be grouped together in close enough proximity to make the collection of the waste econom- ically possible. In the Columbia River region this plan as now ac- tually applied results in the utilization of 800 tons from a total of 4,000 tons. In the Puget Sound region four of these stations con- serve a total of 15,500 tons, out of a tetal of 38,750 tons. The scheme as suggested for ideal conditions, as weli as when actually applied, 1t is reiterated, falls far short of meeting the demands of the problem. THE SMALL BY-PRODUCTS PLANT OPERATED AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE CANNERY. As the only alternative to the central rendering station, the sug- gestion is offered of a by-products plant operated as an intimate part of the cannery. This would be a small-unit plant of low capacity, just sufficient to treat the output in waste of the cannery of which it forms a part. EQUIPMENT. For equipment the old-fashioned, unimproved retort cooker and hydraulic press are recommended, not because they are regarded as ideal, but because they constitute the only apparatus which the writer has seen in successful operation on a small scale. It has been demonstrated, and is being demonstrated daily, that this form of apparatus will render salmon cuttings, affording a good grade of scrap and a fair yield of oil. The demonstration has not been con- fined to large-scale operations, but has been attempted on a small scale as a strictly by-products plant, with satisfactory preliminary results. The equipment, as has been pointed out in a foregoing paragraph, consists essentially of retort cookers, a hydraulic press, and a drier of suitable form, heated by steam or hot air, as the experience and wisdom of the designer indicate. From a “one-line” cannery, or one with a maximum capacity of 900 cases per day of 12 hours, would be obtained a maximum of 18 tons of waste. This figure is based on the estimate of 40 pounds waste per case. The by-products plant possibly should have sufficient capacity to render this volume of waste in a run of six hours; that is, a capacity of 6,000 pounds UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 45 per hour. Such a high capacity is suggested in order that it may be insured that the steam required for cooking can be supplied by the cannery boilers. It is believed that the requisite steam surely can be withdrawn from these for a period of 6 hours out of the 24. This appears especially probable in view of the fact that the cannery is shut down almost invariably during some period of the day, and that while still running a varying demand is made on the steam capacity of the boilers. As has been observed in a foregoing para- graph, the dressing force may be at work and the machinery which they tend may be in operation when the steam boxes and cooking retorts, requiring a large amount of steam, are idle. Hf it can be shown that sufficient steam is available to operate the cooker for a longer period than the 6 hours suggested, the capacity of the render- ing apparatus, and perhaps its cost, can be reduced proportionately. In addition to the three above-mentioned pieces of apparatus, there would be required conveyors, a storage bin to receive the day’s supply of raw materials, vats in which to recover the oils and stor- age capacity for the oils produced, and a house sufficiently large to inclose the apparatus and provide room for bagging and storing the output of dry scrap. Unless the conditions are such that the waste can be sluiced directly, by gravity, into the storage bin, a conveyor must be pro- vided to carry this from beneath the floor of the fish-cleaning house. The structure of this will depend on the angle at which it is required to work. Thus, if the conditions are such that a horizontal con- veyor can be operated, all that is needed is a water-tight trough through which pass blocks or boards of wood, suitably attached to and actuated by the movement of a chain belt, to direct the flow of the waste and the water in which it is immersed. The cuttings from the “iron chink” may be made te fall into a hopper placed beneath, which deposits the waste upon the conveyor; likewise that from the other cleaning operations may be directed, in any suitable manner, upon the conveyor. From the storage bin the material is to be lifted by elevator and fed into the retorts. Therefore the bin should be constructed with a sloping bottom so that the last of the material contained therein will feed afitomatically into the con- veyor. Strainers of woven wire should be inserted in the sides of the bin to permit the excess water to drain away. ‘To accommodate the day’s output in waste the bin must have a capacity of about 20 tons. Two retorts of the upright, cylindrical form should be provided of about 5 tons capacity each, two offering the advantage over one of greater elasticity of operation. The daily output in waste of a one-line cannery, amounting to about 18 tons, could be rendered by the two retorts of the capacity suggested in two cookings each. AG BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Whether the retorts should be of open type or closed to make possible cooking under pressure is debatable, as equally satisfactory resuits apparently are had from both types. Beneath the retorts a “slush box,” or bin, should be constructed, of sufficient capacity to hold the cocked fish from at least one retort, and provided with steam coils to keep its contents hot. As the ma- terial is to be drawn off from this conto frames for the press, it should be provided with suitable gate valves for that purpose and should be built at such a height that the material could be run onto the frames directly by gravity. . For pressing, at present the method previously described, involving the use of “hop cloth” envelopes for the material to be pressed and hydraulic power (“rack and cloth” press), must be recommended. This is slow and laborious, but effects an efficient separation; and at present it has the distinct advantage over all other methods of pressing salmon of having been demonstrated as entirely feasible. In actual practice at least two men are required to operate the press. This number probably could not be reduced, as the placing of the frames and especially of the “ hop-cloth ” squares scarcely could be done by one man, as is true also of the removal of these after the pressing has been finished. An additicnal cbjection to this method of pressing is the difficulty of cleaning the frames and cloths. Dur- ing the pressing they become covered with the finely divided cooked. fish. This spoils readily unless removed. To clean them by hand, as now practiced, is a tedious method which certainly could be improved. Adhering, again, to demonstrated forms of apparatus, the steam drier must be suggested (Pl. VI, fig. 1). A form employed with success in one small cannery by-products plant has the shape of a drum, 6 feet in diameter and 24 feet deep. It is steam jacketed and therefore must be insulated. For heating it, steam under 20 pounds pressure is requisite. Paddles for stirring are attached to a ver- tical shaft which is actuated through suitable gearings by a small steam engine. A rotary fan serves to remove the moisture-charged air. An opening in the top is designed for filling, with another near the bottom for emptying. The latter operation is accomplished auto- matically when the paddles are revolved with the lower door open. The drier of the above dimensions receives a charge of 1,500 pounds of wet material. With this apparatus a small steam engine would be required. One of 15-horsepower capacity has been found sufficient to operate the drier and the conveyors of the plant. As this drier has a rated capacity of only 1,500 pounds of wet mate- rial, and as it requires two hours in which to effect the drying, which is equivalent to 750 pounds per hour, its usefulness is limited to a plant of small capacity. To provide drying capacity for the maxi- UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 47 mum possible daily output of raw materials from a “ one-line” caa- -nery, amounting to 27,000 pounds, at least four of those would be re- quired, a number which scarcely could be operated economically. This estimate is based on the supposition that the driers will be op- erated only six hours per day. There are other forms of steam driers of more or less desirable design which could-be adapted to the small-scale drying of scrap. However, no steam drier should be considered which does not pro- vide for evaporation under vacuum or for the removal, at frequent intervals or continuously, of the moisture-saturated air. The efli- ciency of any other form necessarily must be low. We believe that there are other possible forms of apparatus which could be operated more economically, and others again which would yield a higher efficiency, but these lack demonstration in actual prac- ‘tice and for the sake of conservativeness and fairness to all concerned are not recommended here. We have in mind, in this connection, continuous mechanical cookers and screw presses, of small capacities, eapable of rendering in about 6 hours the waste resulting from a 12- hour run of the cannery. For a “one-line” cannery, packing 900 cases per day of 12 hours, it has been seen this would be i8 tons for the day, or 6,000 pounds per hour (900 cases, 40 pounds per case, rendered in 6 hours). To operate with these, a suitable drier, prefer- ably continuous and automatic, must be installed. For this purpose a hot-air drier is recommended, one designed to utilize the waste heat from the boiler fires, or, more simply, a rotary, direct-heat, cylindri- cal drier, heated with petroleum burners. This, in order to keep pace with the cooker and press, would be required to have the capacity of about 1,800 pounds wet or 900 pounds dry scrap per hour. ‘The lat- ter figure is cbtained by taking 15 per cent of the weight of the crig- imal raw cuttings as its equivalent in dry scrap. In the press the moisture of this would be reduced to about 50 per cent. Requisite mechanical conveyors for trafisporting the raw materials from the storage bin to the cooker and from one machine to another would make the entire operation automatic and would reduce the labor required to a minimum. Another form of apparatus for small-unit rendering plants is the one-operation apparatus, referred to in a foregoing paragraph, which prescribes the cooking of the material to be rendered in a closed retort, under pressure of steam and with revolving knives or macera- tors, the withdrawal of the water and oil which rises to the surface, and the evaporation to dryness, under vacuum, of the solids remain- ing. Heat. fcr both cooking and desiccation is supplied by steam. As the entire operation is performed in a closed vessel and as ail gases and liquids are conducted out of the building in pipes, the process is inodorous. While it is automatic it is discontinuous. Low initial oe 48 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. expenditure for equipment and economy in operation are claimed for the process by its exploiters. From a priori considerations there appears no reason why the process should not fulfill its promised performance, though it does appear a little doubtful whether the oils can be liberated sufficiently by maceration and washing without bringing the material to such a fine state of subdivision that a great deal would be lost in the water drawn off with the oil, or too long a time would be required to permit the solids to separate by settling. At present, this apparatus has received no trial in the actual commer- cial rendering of salmon cuttings, and a positive opinion concerning it is not justified. , A comparison of the reports of analyses of salmon and menhaden scrap, respectively, as reported in this paper on page 33, will show that the amount of oil remaining in the salmon scrap is much higher than that in the menhaden. While this may be due to the difference in the respective methods of drying the two (an explana- tion further suggested by the lower oil content cf the two samples of salmon scrap dried in hot-air driers and involving the supposition that oils are volatilized in drying), it also may be due to the fact that the oils are not so easily recovered from salmon as from men- haden. This censtitutes an additional reason why some method, if feasible, should be adopted whereby a more complete recovery of the oil is possible. The limits of the press easily are reached. With the abandcnment of the press, the adeption of a system in- volving the use of an extractive recommends itself. The extraction of the oils with gasoline theoretically should be quantitative, and the exploiters of processes based on the use of this extractive ‘claim a very high efficiency. The method consists of cocking the material to be rendered in closed retorts with steam. At the end of the cooking the water in the material is evaporated under vacuum. When the evaporation is complete, the dry residue is washed thoroughly with gascline, which removes all but about 1 per cent (more accurately, 1 per cent of the weight of the dry scrap, according to the claims made for the process) of the oils present. The gasoline extract is drawn off from the scrap and distilled. The oil remains as a resid- uum, and the evaporated gasoline is condensed and recovered. It is reported that there is but a slight loss in gasoline. An additional advantage of the method is that all of the nitrogenous constituents of the fish are saved, while in the other methods there is an indefinite loss due to the solubility of certain of these in the water drawn off of or expressed from the cooked fish and thrown away. A further modification of the system, known as the Cobbwell system, is based on cooking in oil the material to be rendered, the oil being obtained from previous extractions. After cooking, the excess of oil may be drawn off, when the remainder is extracted with gasoline. UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 49 The output in scrap of the by-products department of the average cannery, one putting up 50,000 cases, would be not more than 115 tons for the season, or, on the basis of 900 cases for the maximum daily pack, not more than 5,000 pounds per day. For bagging this small amount of scrap no special apparatus need be installed, though bagging would be facilitated if the scrap were elevated to and de- livered into a storage bin from the bottom of which it could be drawn off into sacks by the bagger as desired. As a sack is made to hold 100 pounds, 50 bags would be required for the maximum daily out- put. Adequate floor space must be available for spreading the scrap for cooling when first removed from the drier. Vats for receiving and fer the subsequent treatment of the oil and water removed by pressing must be provided. These should be on a level below that of the press so that the oil and water can be delivered into them by gravity; or if this arrangement is not convenient, a pump should be provided for raising the liquids to the vats. In either case, some sort of vat must be constructed beneath the presses as a temporary re- ceptacle for these. To separate the water and oil, the mixture should be allowed to stand in a vat, being kept hot by steam coils. The oil rising to the sur- face should be permitted to flow over a weir into a second vat, while the water is drawn off through a lower opening. If found desirable, an arrangement may be provided for drawing off likewise the finely divided solids which settle to the bottom of the vat. For effecting a simple purification of the oil, the second vat should be equipped with steam pipes with perforations so that steam may be bubbled into the oil. Then it may be drawn off into a tank for storage, or directly into barrels for shipment. The total output in oil from the sug- gested plant would not be more than 20,000 gallons, assuming a yield of 25 gallons per ton of raw material rendered; or, 450 gallons as the maximum daily output. COST. APPARATUS. While the cost of a plant will be determined, of course, by a number of interdependent circumstances, the following estimates will serve to convey some idea of the outlay required to equip a by- products plant for a one-line cannery. Vats of sheet iron of about 5 tons capacity are obtainable for $350 each. » A press may be ob- tained for as little as $300, or $800 may be paid for it, depending on the nature of the press. Driers of the type mentioned cost not more than $600. For a capacity of 4,500 pounds per six hours, six of these would be required. For the purchase of conveyors and other sorts of equipment, such as pipes, etc., and their installation, it is estimated that $1,000 would be adequate. A building 20 feet 50 BULLETIN 150, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by 50 feet doubtless would be large enough, which could be erected, perhaps, for about $2,000. In the following table the probable costs are itemized : Costs of apparatus. RetOris, 28 $3002.22 eer See ee ere $700 TOSS 5 > Se eee ee eS oe 2 ee ee 550 Driers 2 sabe bbQ0 = 9.2 ss 22 oo Saale Se et ee Eee ee 1, 200 BINS THES MLOV OPEL tr CLL Ce a ee ee ee eee eee ee ee 350 TR CIGG TM CAS a2 oa. 2. ote eee Se ee a ee 1, 000 IQ USO e522 st nk a Wh SS 2 Se oo ee 2, 000 ERO elie eee ee ee ood Se SSE Ee Ss OOO) GPERATING EXPENSES. As the hypothetical plant is to be run at night, or at times when the cannery boilers are not carrying their maximum load, it is prob- able that an extra engineer and fireman would have to be employed. In addition to these, three other laborers should suffice. At $100 per month for this engineer and $75 each for the fireman and the three laborers, the outlay for labor for the two months would be $800. To sack 115 tons dry scrap, putting 100 pounds in a sack, 2.300 sacks would be required. These, at 10 cents each (a price which in- cludes the cost of the necessary string also), would amount to $230. From 750 tons of raw material, the amount rendered per season, about 19,000 gallons of oil would be produced. To contain this vol- ume 380 barrels, of 50 gallons capacity, would be necessary. These are purchasable at $1.85 each, necessitating a maximum outlay of about $700 for barrels. To render garbage, it is stated, 25 pounds of bituminous coal is re- quired per ton of garbage rendered. On this basis, to render 750 tons of cannery waste, 9.5 tons of coal would be required. This would cost, on the Alaska coast, $76 (9.5 tons at $8 per ton). An additional cutlay for cecal, for estimating which reliable data are lacking, would be occasioned by the operation of conveyors and driers. An additional estimate, of doubtful value, of the amount of coal necessary to dry the cooked scrap can be secured by considering the actual amount of water to be evaporated in drying this and the quan- tity of heat necessary to evaporate a given quantity of water. The wet material coming from the presses consists of about 50 per cent of water and 50 per cent of solids. To prepare 120 tons of dry scrap, an equal weight of water must be evaporated. To evaporate this in a closed vessel would require 12 tons of coal, on the basis of 1 part of coal to 10 of water. This would cost $96. A further item which must be considered in Alaska is freight charges on products. UTILIZATION OF THE FISH WASTE OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. 51 The running expenses, then, may be put as follows: Interest on investment, $6,000, at 10 per cent_____________ $600 Depreciakionwatey lO wper, Cems. sp Cabs ae yes caer 600 Wages, 1 man at $100, 4 at $75 per month, 2 months________ 800 SECC aoa eo Sues eAud esl |e TSU SS to Uta AT NOS agente US RR ee 230 PEGA IFe Search Us eels ts tepll te Sc eee ee ner RN UE eet cater Peens vada Se 700 Goalestorarenderine WO TONS at pew | ae ee ae ee SO ComMenoredinyin sss Ons) ate sea ewe eee Sa ea 96 Freight (from Alaska) on 120 tons scrap at $4____________ 486 _Freight (from Alaska) on 380 barrels oil, 75 tons, at $4____ 300 Day ita Uae Se ig By Es PN) ae SG cS RAN 2s SY, 3, S86 The proceeds may be estimated as follows: SIGIR, | TUT ay (OTM ET ese MO) a a Sa $4, 609 Oils QOO0 callons at S0