EE MLEL ots Hit Yu retaess9) qeagycsauetest spp Thy (sy 4 v aq TINE (aint if LLP pel ace siy } i ait . Vast ay ea nt a i i) { ype th py ith nyt tott pay an} thit itt 3 qcahiae {f(t} tesyyyds 1 Gd5eat 5 i Wurtisas Yate PP TUS iiss ingar (eG Walt HEIRS SUNT cas att iia Att? yet Leaiiahs n aa ’ yy istatiseppe ; \ { \ SHA IERD yy tit { aepeeppiret ; ‘ ) H TIRESD PAD VPA Hen isn Hil Pelee seatayty Syne Vasittes ' a Fone wee TASS ALEVE RM Soe bs be ae FOR: THEsPEOPRLE FOR EDVCATION NCELI ery OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Department Bulletins Nos. 151-175, WITH CONTENTS oe, AND INDEX. Prepared in the Division of Publications. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1916. ‘oat 32 18- Tune 6G ~ CONTENTS. Page. “BPARTMENT BuLLETIN No. 151.—EXPERIMENTS IN CROP PRODUCTION ON Fattow Lanp AT San ANTONIO: trode HOTNESS Ne eae Toes: . ee SER LR tence swe ee 1 Climaticleonditionss tees nescccs cc... Pee re nih a Soe ose rae ae 1 Solllconaitions Ve ee ae 2 Pee A eS OS Petes ee wet 2 Pallowanovexperunentsss.. 282 soo =. (usa se sane toss e Jee OLY 2 Vegetative growth of crops on fallowed land...........---.-----..------ 4 Soll-moisture studies a3. - 555.6 - 5 Re Se a LRT oats. 6 5 SUT AT ye) A 1 SE 2 DS, 0) TE EIS Sua Dales 10 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 152.—THE EASTERN HEMLOCK: limtrodetiomet Se ELS Ree OS RN bere cle oie rae mater s ete a io il GreOGI IDNA WAND. 2 < cos ose san cedancacosou sce sonasensseasacnsesssds 2 Comtirercial range. fee ere tere} ee ae eae eee trek sw ema FATE 3 Amount of standing timbers ease ees SAN RAS AN Se Oe Me ete 4 Walnexoitstandine hemlock 22! 25252 hat shee nea ne meee eae e eee 5 Wiihizatronvofhemlocks 420. so. MISE. ko MRI es Bee Stes Stee roa eR 7 Structure and development of the tree...--....-....---...-.--+-.-.--2-- 15 BSsOOeieG! DEC hss 522 s2cash esos 9ee> 2s nebo Seas soses at sascsecdiaccosodc 21 Effect of light, soil, and moisture on the composition of the stand......... 22 INEPLOMUCWOMe tys2 Age soas: jocsiss MRE SS ons 5 See Soa gas 55 NI 23 abel ono wiihe i220 se s252 ds oca. nes «gabe sess 555554555 EEL RSs Ae ee 24 Susceptibility voamypurye o< cSeedoreeossbeHbSesocoeeorous 3 Machine-bandedapipe eee era - = -\- eee eee areas err 24 Durability of wood pipe and factors affecting it. ......-.-..-.-----....-- 33 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULS. 161-175. DEPARTMENT BuLLETIN No. 156.—WIREWORMS ATTACKING CEREAL AND For- AGE CROPS: Introduction adcesice gas seha cele c é.be see ee enigup =e Ce SOE eee eee Kinds of w ireworms ee ef A Bee De SOOO nA Natural enemies: .-. =... 260225 -0¢ SR a Se. eee eee Remedial measures: o..2024222.42. 25. eRe nee eee ocr eee eee eee DEPARTMENT BuLuEeTIN No. 157.—TILLAGE AND Roramion EXPERIMENTS AT Nepui, Uran: Introduction stajsis Be Dblajar Sse ahiS eSeew - + HE ate aoe eee Se neene eee Description of the substation: <.. - <- flees. -erscee eee Hixperunentall WOU sess = a-<— = «see te alee SMMMMRIAY. = 3505245 oso segsccondadded = sscecccssessosossosceseccocrecs: DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 158.—TuE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS: Introduction... =2 --- - .\Sess-5= =e =< - 2 ee eee The North Atlantic Coastal Plain... ; ...Bbeinese eeoce J Sc ieee eee eee Sassafrasisand 2s). Shoe ees - ee eee so eee eee Sassafrasjloamy(sand: 2 2023)-0 Je. 5). See eee eae o-oo pape eee Sassafras fine sande ts. c2 .eo0 55522. ae eee oe ee eee Sassafras gravelly: loam. ...-..0.--2)-.,- . sels- ae!) 2 eee Sassafras sandy, loam: 3..o-4.0 52.50: - Seco e tas ota see ae eee Sassafras finejsandy loam.) 522...-~% -Seee nee oe 6 Ee Oe eee Sassafras loamy. sss ccccce fs ee arte c's ¢ os Ro eee ce a Sassafras: silt loam i oo bese 2 3k: 3 ee oe ee eee eee Crop uses and adaptations: .......... geen ee oes ee SuMMAry.. 2 2. se se ee ee ose e's Sete == ee ee eae ees DEPARTMENT BuLtuetin No. 160.—Cactus SoLuTion AS AN ADHESIVE IN ARSENICAL SPRAYS FOR INSECTS: Introduction: 23, 5235.22/ 20.45 5.2)... ae eee ee Serpe aeeeee cs Experimental work with, cactus. ©. <2 sgesesse= = 2 52] eee ee eee Cactus compared with whale-oil soap as an ad] sive.....-.---.---.------- Copper sulphate as a preservative for the cactus........-...-------------- Experiments with other preservatives: -------...-----.----4-5------------ The common prickly pear cacti and their chemical composition.-.....--- Superiority ol cactusirom dry land. See eee Advantages in the use of cactus as an adhesive..................--------- Quantity of cactus'to use 2.2225. 25... . eee eee Zine arsenite as'an, insecticide. 2.... /Saaeee 25) 5222 eee eee Ferrous arsenate as an insecticide-.- - 3aeeeeee a eee Tron arsenite as an insecticide...... o = eee 251 53a ee eee Final results from) spraying. --.2. 2.) #aeeeee eee.) een eee Recommendations for'control----.--. eee eee DEPARTMENTAL ButietTiIn No. 161.—TuHe MerpirERRANEAN Fruit FLy IN BERMUDA: Introduction. 622-4).5. Seon ee. Pe ee Hustory, of the fruit fly in-Bermuda. Sassen er ere Tate history. 22-0 s.g2 02 Sect cee See ee Host fruits in Bermuda sc.)-2.2.... eee eee Posaibility. of eradication.--...=.....-:. Se ee Bermuda as a source of danger to the United States..............-------- Conclusion were cee ee eecee sos ec cee tec ee ese - -- ee cee eee ecco eee eee eee ee eee eos Page. NO OW HH CONTENTS. DEPARTMENTAL BULLETIN No. 162.—HortTIcULTURAL EXPERIMENTS AT THE SAN Antonio Freip Station, SOUTHERN TEXAS: Onn See ae etic o SAAS E ES ie BV Bes Cae! Bee OR ee ree BOX: Ree aaa Seoperolsibeiexpentmentsss..55.. 255 See eee oe eee eee wee Report of the American Veterinary Medical Association on the ophthalmic COS Gre eet sera et i ensue net atu ual 3)" ER Mepetia YS Muay a. Mla ree Arata Sar meer na DEPARTMENT ButiEeTIN No. 167.—PARADICHLOROBENZENE AS AN INSECT FUMIGANT: TE TOC CEL O Ine Sa 87 RR ens 98: HR ea as ay Se Co ec ae ea ee Kitecisormlalaionioichenyapors---- -seeeeee eee eee eee eee eee iRaradichilorobenzene! as anmnsecticide seeme at erne aes se eerie ee IE Tne ost oe Betien see ae injury by pear thrips, character, and extent....... Apricots— growing in San Antonio region, experiments and REMAKES ss foes OSs wa ces oes | A ee Ss injury; Dy pearbhrips, Notes. 62-4... - See ase Arginine, isolation from processed fertilizer, method .... Armillaria, genus, characters, descriptions of species, etc. Arsenate— ferrous— use and value as insecticide............-....... uses with cactus solution against cucumber pectles.-experiments4 2... . «qeeeessene cee iron— use and value as insecticide. ......-....--.... use with cactus solution against cucumber beetles experiments 25°)... seers as aahe lead, use with cactus solution against cucumber beetles, experiments. -........-----...----.- zinc, use and value as insecticide. ...............- Arsenical insecticides, value of different kinds........_- Arsenite, zinc, use with cactus solution against cucum- perbectlesyvexperments. - “ee -eenae-.'. eapeeee ae oe Asaphes decoloratus, clover pest, note.....-........... Ascomycetes, key to family...........--.-----......... Ash— green— forest plantation, cost, yield and profits on different; soils): 22 92. 2... . 61217°—16——2 Bulletin. 156 175 175 168 156 156 153 162 173 175 162 158 162 162 162 159 173 162 173 158 175 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 156 175 153 153 153 10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULS. 151-175. Bulletin. Ash—Continued. srowbhuhabits. 42 -o-- nse aes see 153 white— planting, requirements, management, etc..-.--- 153 soil requirements and growth habits. .......... 153 Asparagus, growing on sassafras soils...............-- Ase 159 Atlantic coastal plain, north, topography, geological formation, CtChc:eecc-ce see seas 2 b= = - eee eee 159 ‘“Autocultivators,”’ use of term-.....----.-+----------- 174 ScAuItop lows) aalise Ol terme nse er eens - = — oe 2 174 Back, E. A., bulletin on ‘‘The Mediterranean fruit fly ineBermuday/s- os. seess ss fas2 8 ee ere 161 Bark beetles, damage to lodgepole pine..-.--.-.-....--- 154 Bark, hemlock, use in tanning, prices, etc.---.....-... 152 ““Base goods ”— chemical— changes ene processin ges. = 252 2a - ee seer 158 examination. --coscco ntsc See eee eee eee 158 definitions ate eects oo oa een eee 158 nitrogen content— before and after treatment..........-.-.-.------ 158 determination, forms, ete 222-22. esses 225. - 158 organic compounds, isolation and determination, methods; ete: 2: 224-242 Se 2 eee 158 treatment forfertilizerss 42-2. ->--- Seen 158 Beat, F. E. L., bulletin on ‘‘Food of the robins and bluebirds of the United States”....-..--.---.- ipl Beans, string, relation to vanillin in the soil, experiments. 164 Beef tongue fungus, description, occurrence, and value. 175 Beefsteak fungus, description, occurrence, and value... 175 Beetles, control, use, and value of paradichlorobenzene. 167 Belt” horsepower, use of term)s2_22---- - . eee eseeeee 174 Bermuda— fruits hosts of Mediterranean fruit fly...............- 161 Mediterranean fruit fly— eradication, suggestions, possibilities, etc-...... 161 situation, investigations -J22----.- - -==ee ae 161 peach industry, damage by Mediterranean fruit fly. 161 Bibliography— Hvetria: buoliang = ci c-se6-loet hose esses eee Cree 170 forest planting 2.2.2 s2.-2sescee occ + See eee 153 mushrooms, for amateurs................----.-..-- 175 Birds— enemies to wireworms, list..-........-...---...--- : 156 robins and bluebirds of United States, food........- 171 Bird’s-nest fungi, key to family.-...-.-.-........-----.- 175 Bitter panus, mushroom, description and occurrence... 175 Black locust. See Locust, black. Bratr, 8. E., and SterpHen H. Hastings, bulletin on ‘Horticultural experiments at the San Antonio field station, southern Texas”................. 162 Bluebird— eastern, habitat, food habits, etc..............----.- 171 Mexican. See Bluebird, western. - mountain— destruction of injurious insects, note.....--.--- 171 habitat;food habits: ete..----.....- sae eeeeeeee 171 western— habitatsfood habits, etcs:cses-- .- eee eeeeeee 171 service in‘California.--.2-.-2..! eee 171 subspecies: ....5--...- 0225422. 2 171 INDEX. Bluebirds— food (with robins) in United States...-...-.-..---- western, examination of stomachs, contents, etc. - Boletus— genus— characters, occurrence, etC.22.----.22---2-.222- descriptions of species.-------.---.------------ luteus, description, occurrence, and value.....--.-- BoNSTEEL, J. As bulletin on “Soils of the sassafras BERLES haart ces le eo RN 8 Boring machine, wood pipe, invention and use, note. Bovista, genus, characters and description of species. . “Brake” “horsepower, use of term as. sh 2 te ee Bridgeton area, geological formation and deposits....-.. Broad-gilled collybia, mushroom, description and occur- Bulgaria, genus, characters and descriptions of species. Burbank plum, characters, adaptability to San Antonio LELTOM, (CCL... 2-222 shee Sa RE Re as een Buscx, Aucust, bulletin on “‘The European pine-shoot moth: serious menace to pine timber in PAG CTC A sass 5 aralccte ERLISTE, BMPR EEL SOU Cactus— advantages as adhesive in sprays. .....-.---.....-. dry-land, advantages as adhesive in sprays. _ singeing foneattletced#enoter = 54) anny I solution adhesive in arsenical sprays for insects........ adhesive in sprays, comparison with whale-oil SOa Pye PeTUMeMibsy reyes cles: - alae tert preservatives, experiments. .-. - £ spiny, gluten content, comparison “with spineless VATICbY OMe iiss. 2. JRE FERRE Cea use as adhesive in sprays, proportions. ............ Ceesar’s mushroom, description, common names, com- parison with fly amanita.......-.5:-....--.- = California— farm tractors, number, effect on industry, financial investment. etes | [a esse. _ eee pear thrips, life history and habits. s Santa Clara Valley, depredations of pear thrips. . : Calvatia, genus, characters, descriptions of ee ete. Canning mushrooms, directions. - « SPR 9 Cantaloupes, growing on sassafras soils............-..-- Cantharellus, genus, characters, description of species, etc. _ Cape May area, geological formation and deposits... ... Carbon, P. V., bulletin on ‘Tillage and rotation experi- ‘ments at Nephi gUitahy eas... ee Carnations, growing, damage by wireworm, Dope Carrol, Eugene, statement on durability of stave water TOWOS Es IEA Sinem lo ool Soy See | 5 Co eee ee Castellow, W. C., statement on destruction of straw- berries) DiyatODINS «=. acck esata ee al ton Catalpa, hardy— growth habits, soil requirements, etc.........-...- planting, eastern United States, cost of stock,etc. . Catastoma, genus, characters, and description of species. Catsup, mushroom, preparation. 3 «cc Coe ee Cattle, lime- sulphur dipping baths, field test. Cauliflower, growing on sassafras vitae Cebrio bicolor, description, occurrence. ...............- Bulletin. Page. 12 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULS. 151-175. Ceratitis capitata. See Fruit fly, Mediterranean. Cereal crops, wireworms attacking (with forage crops)... - Cereals, winter, seeding, time, methods, rate, etc.-.... Cereals. See also under specific name of product. Chanterelle, mushroom, description, value, occurrence. Cuarin, Roser M., bulletin on ‘‘A field test for lime- sulphur dipping baths”. .... ---------------- CHARLES, VERA K., and Fiora W. PaTTEerRson, bulletin on ‘“‘Mushrooms and other common fungi”.....- Cherries— destruction by robins, note. -.-.------ 2 3 s2g5e5222" growing in San Antonio region, experiments, notes. injury by pear thrips, character and extent......- Cherry thrips. See Pear thrips. Chestnut— Chestnut-backed bluebird. See Bluebird, western. Chinese date, growing in San Antonio region, experi- ments, MOlCSs:- -- 32h.cse oe Sos: eee eee Chilorosis, (cause notes] toeece.- Lee =. eee eee Citranges, growing in San Antonio region, experiments. Citrus fruits, growing in San Antonio region, experi- ments angdIscussion=. 2 >> >... - pees eee Claudopus, genus, characters, description of species, etc. Clavaria— genus, characters... =.= + 42c204-|9: -- : eee eee pistillaris, description, occurrence and value. ..---- Clavariaceae, key to family, descriptions of species, etc.. “Click-beetle,’’ source of wireworm, note. .-.........-- Clitocybe, genus, characters, descriptions of species, etc.. Clover— crimson, growing on sassafras soils of various types.. growing on sassafras scils of various types. ....---.- relation to vanillin in the soil, experiments... .--. Coastal Plain, North Atlantic, topography, geological formation, etc Collared— mushroom, description and occurrence wireworm, description, occurrence.......1......--- Collington soils, comparison with sassafras soils, note... .- Collybia, genus, characters, descriptions of species, etc.. Colorado, lodgepole pine region, weather conditions at different elevations Cones, lodgepole pine— behavior in different conditions...............---- production per tree, seed scales, size, ete Conifers— imjury from’ ‘red! belt? :-.-e225s- 22. oe ee transplanting, suggestions....-.............--..--. See also Fir; Hemlock; Larch; Pine; Spruce. Continuous stave pipe. See Pipe, continuous stave. Cooking, recipes for mushrooms...... ..._...........- Cooper, ee statement on destruction of olives by robins Bulletin. 156 157 175 163 175 UAL 162 173 152 153 153 152 175 162 162 162 162 175 175 175 175 156 175 159 159 164 159 175 156 159 175 154 154 164 154 153 175 171 152 160 175 Page. 46 46 46 1 14-16 ‘19, 24, 27, 30, 36 \f19, 24, 27, 30, { 32, 36, 41 23 4-16 2d 24-25 rune 17-19 4,5 9-11 11 25-26 6 INDEX. 13 Bulletin. Page. Coral fungi, key to family, descriptions of species, etc... 175 46 Cordwood, consumption, value, suggestions.......------ 153 2 Corn— classification, authority for establishing grades. - - .. 168 1 cracked classificationaes: -c2-- 0 - ~~ -seee sae aace. 168 8-9 damaged, grades, types, and determination. ....--- 168 6-8 foodsplantioftwireworm.........-... .... RE eee ee 156 8 grades of commercial stock......-..-..-.---------- 168 111 o— t=} color determination and classification. ........ 168 8-11 determination of various factors, methods-...--- 168 2-11 MULES epee esis Sits ae ce tn e.c Gene cic 168 12 growing— on fallow land, San Antonio, Tex., experiments. 151 2,3, 4,5 on Sr ie soils of various types, yield, etc., 159 Fe fil ae ae Degg” scare oo > * ~ aaa aaa ter 41, 42, 44, 49 ATNAUTyA Dye WATe WORMS = 52605 oo ee = see leer \ 156 ae ta Z A sa intertilling with wheat, yields, experiments. -..-.--- 157 41, 42, 43 moisbunetests<:5 =.= = 2s. SASS ee 168 5-6 samples for grading, size, screening, etc..--------- 168 3-5 sampling from bulk for determination of grade..... 168 3-4 sweet, growing on sassafras soils...........--------- 159 42 wireworm— description, life history, injury to crops... .-.-- 156 1-9 description, life history, occurrence, etc.....-- 156 16-18 remedial measures, suggestions.......--------- 156 18 Corymbites— caricinus, injury to fruit blossoms, note. ...--..---- 156 2 cylindriformis, occurrence in Maryland..-..-.-.------ 156 9 inflatus, description, life history, occurrence, etc- - - 156 10-12 noxius. See Dry-land wireworm. species, descriptions, nature, and damage to crops. - 156 9-12 tarsalis, injury to fruit blossoms, note...--..-.----- 156 2 Cotton— food plant/of wireworms. J22252 122) ./-Rae ees 156 8 growing on fallow land, San Antonio, Tex., experi- WHEW) c AsHoseg esos eo egos souedaades s4ccccKe ese 151 2,3, 4,5 TnjULyey WikeWOrmMs:. . 5.288 202 62 D2.) SEN ae 156 8 wireworm, description, life history, injury to crops. 156 io Cottonwood— plantation, cost, yield, and profit on different soils. - 153 24 planting in groves, requirements, yields, and re- (HUN oococoocose sees sass aseogsee sec s5e555c5" 153 23-24 SE cee cebee 162 14-15 on. @assatras/souls, note: 2... -- epee es cee 159 23 Diabrotica balteata, control, use of arsenical sprays with cactus solution, experiments $3566 2225c5e5525555 160 2-12 Diamino acids, sources in ‘‘base goods”.........---.---- 158 14 vag bag genus, characters, description of species, ot 225s i2is2525222 2222525252 55525222225522-52 175 47-48 Dillon, .. ‘R , dewberry growing in San Antonio region, experience 2222055222225 52222956 2255572252222 162 14-15 Diospyros— lotus— resistance. 10/ChlOrosis=-2---0- => - pee eee 162 15 stock for persimmons in San Antonio region..-- 162 22 texana, stock for persimmon in San Antonio region, (OS PETIIeURE oe eee - eee 162 virginiana, grafting stock, objections.....-.....----- 162 Dippei? pee, lime-sulphur, “for sheep and cattle, field Bee J2 Ss ae 2 Se oe SEE = = = no 3 3 163 Dinbente damage to seeds and roots in sandy soils-...-.-.... 169 injury— to pines and weeds, tests of various kinds. .--.-- 169 to seed and roots, experiments at Halsey, Nebr. 169 Doremus, A. F., statement on durability of bored wood water pipe... >~-o.--fae i: . 2... eee ee 155 Douglas fir, planting, eastern United States, remarks --. 153 Drasterius, spp., descriptions, occurrence, life cycle, etc. 156 ‘“‘Drawbar” horsepower, use of term......---..-------- 174 Dried mushrooniss 22 2 ee es ae Ne 175 Drupe fruits, growing in San Antonio region, experi- 162 mental work.......- Lee EZ) 2:5 ee ee ee C2 { Drupe fruits. See also Almonds; Cherries; Peaches; Plums. Dry-land wireworm— description, life history, occurrence, etc-............ 156 remedialimeasntes:o2--e ee... . eee ee 156 Duckett, A. B., bulletin on “‘Paradichlorobenzene as an insect @umigant7_-2.2--.-2)<.. aes Se 167 Duvet, J. W. T., bulletin on “‘Grades of commercial COM 2 Ae en oe fae 2s = = - een BS 168 Eastern bluebird, habitat, food habits, etc ...2........ 171 Edson, John M. , statement on destruction of field peas-. 171 EIcHHORN, ADOLPH, and JoHN R. Mouter, bulletin on | Z ‘Ophthalmic mallein for the diagnosis of glan- ARS se eee S=- _ - - ree 166 Elater, large-eyed, Indian name “‘tuiskuwa”.-.-..-...-- 156 Elateridae, source of wireworms....-.---..--..--...--- 156 Eleodes, enemy to cereal crops, occurrence.-.--.-------- 156 Elkton soils, comparison with sassafras soils, note..----- 159 Endothia parasitica, menace to chestnut timber, note. . 153 Engine, tractor. See Tractor. INDEX. 15 | Bulletin. Page. Entoloma, genus, characters, description of species, etc. Europe, pine-shoot moth, damage to pine forests.-...... European pine-shoot moth— menace to pine timber in America......-.....----- See also Pine-shoot moth. Euthrips— é MSG Ol Gere sie. c cis = satis alc scin sin. = « Se isis ee See also Pear thrips. Evetria buoliana— biblioeraphiye 22.5. ates joes s- - Sees aoa eoe sts SYMIOUNVANY, aE ass mi Paiaie aie a = = « EE te See also Pine-shoot moth. Exidia, genus, characters..-.. - eer aioe» +2 Mm Rr Experiment— farm, Nephi, Utah, cooperation with Bureau of Rilanitgindustrys.sess¢2-2 cis 5 = + = pee ae eels substation, Nephi, Utah, establishment, directors, CbCieee re wsas wit tein ays os a/< t Seepepeecepetsiers ose Fairy-ring fungus, description and value. ......-.--..- Fallow— crop production at San Antonio, Tex,. experi- MNANS- canqucanees oc dep Sone See oR ofcepCeebeoues economic considerations, San Antonio region . ..-.-- experiments, San Antonio, Tex., treatment of Plats, yields, etes.: 22-02 s2ene. . ieee eel eee Land— cultivation, influence on moisture, yield, etc. . vegetative growth, observations at San Antonio, moisture tests on different dates and depths, Nephi expenmentiarm, Wiah=- 2... esos 55 3 soil moisture, comparison with continuously cropped land, San Antonio experiment farm......-.-..---- MISE OMGETMN PBF ic os as eb aSie eh ac) ie Seco s False chanterelle, mushroom, description and occur- Farm— experience with the tractor .-....-.-.--- ere Race land, improved, decline in eastern United States. . lands— abandoned, ‘acreage. 2525-6 < +s +4 33a Soe oosse= abandoned, utilization for forest planting... --. abandoned, value for Scotch pine forest.......- worn-out, value for ash plantation........-....-- worn-out, value for Norway pine plantation... .-. nursery, forest, suggestions. ......------------------ Farmers, use of tractors, opinions.........------------- Farming, traction, effect on industry, opinion of busi- Ferrous arsenate— insecticide, use and value..-.......-.------.-----.-- use with cactus solution against cucumber beetles, ECXDCHIMENTS: <.. 2. <0... = == js Ee See aS Fertilizer, processed, isolation and identification of compounds, methods, etc.......-.........--.. Fertilizers— organic, availability of nitrogen..................... processed, nitrogen of.........-.-.---.- ose ee useion sassairasisouls: 202.252... -- - -- See no - = utilization of nitrogenous trade wastes, chemical Principlesseesee ccs osedaee ls... Se ele stee 175 170 170 173 170 170 175 157 157 175 151 161 151 157 151 157 151 161 175 174 153 153 163 153 163 153 153 174 174 153 160 160 158 158 158 159 158 | 28 2-3 1-11 22 8-19 19-22 1-24 42, 43 22-23 16 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULS. 151-175. Bulletin. Page. ui A ee oe Field mushroom, description, occurrence, and value. --- 175 32 Figs, growing in San Antonio region, experiments, and discussion. --- -- te ee ROBE is 58 lo eaoe 162 19-20 Finkle, F. C., statement on durability of redwood 7 stave water pipe in California. .-....--.-------- 155 35 oc Douglas— injury from smelter fumes. ....---------------+-- 154 23 planting, eastern United States, remarks. --..--- 152 35 use for water-pipe staves..--.---------------+---+--- 155 6 value for water pipe, tests. ..----------------++-+---- 155 35-37 Fire, protection of forest plantations..------------+------- 153 21 Fires, forest, injury to lodgepole pine standsesse---- ser 154 19 Fistulina, genus, characters, and description of species. - 175 42 Flies, egg-laying habits, note-....---------------++----- 161 2 Fly— amanita, description, poisonous nature and uses..-- 175 7-8 Mediterranean fruit— in Bermuda.....-.-------------22---+-+° 7272 °7- 161 1-8 See also Fruit fly, Mediterranean. Fomes, genus, characters, descriptions of species, etc. - - 175 40 Forage crops, wireworms attacking (with cereal crops)-- - 156 1-34 Forest— fires, effect on reproduction of lodgepole pine. .---- 154 14-16 nursery stock— planting methods, considerations, practices, and suggestions. ..----------+----;------777" 153 7-12 requirements in forest planting in eastern United States........-----------------err ee: 153 6-7 officers, State, list......-.-------------22ee50007 7 153 36-37 plantations— PAD ys) Sage a ae SCR eRe 3 oS ORS 153 13-18 cultivation, practices, cost, and profits: 22 2/27 = 153 13-14 establishment in eastern United States, methods and suggestions. ...--------------+-+-----77° 153 6-12 mixtures, advantages, list.....----------------- 153 18-19 mixtures, mistakes, instances. ----------:------ 153 21-22 pruning young trees, management, caution. --- 153 16-18 thinning, suggestions. ....--------------------- 153 14-16 yields and returns...-.------------22207--777- 153 22-23 young, injury from livestock =--—seeeeee]-—-- = 153 20-21 young, sources of injury, protective measures, ete! eee neo oe i ee ann 153 19-21 planting— bibliography. +: = --2a22--~-----=-ee ee ooo oe 153 37-38 by farmers, assistance of States, methods... --- 153 2-3, 5 direct seeding, methods. .--.-------------+---- 153 8 eastern United States. ....----------------+---- 153 1-38 methods in eastern United States. .-.----------- 153 7-12 prairie regions, practices, progress, etc..------.- 153 3-5 various soils and regions, eastern United States, methods, and species......--------:-- 153 35 seeds and seedlings, injury by disinfectants in sandy Soils. ce 82. 9esete eee ee accra 169 35 Formalin, injury to pine seed and seedlings and weeds in sandy soils, tests, and discussion. --- - Teed 169 |23, 24, 25, 29-30 Fortier, S., statement on durability of stave water pipe atUDeuvel--- sete ee amen 155 33 Foster, S. W., and P. R. Jonzs, bulletin on “The life history and habits of the pear thrips in Califor- PEI Git ae) ends 3 Ae BA RE «9 3 CB ROD EOS 173 1-52 Fraxinus— : americana. See Ash, white. lanceolata. See Ash, green. INDEX. TG PUERPERAL SRR NT ea AS ES NN So Fruit— fly— Mediterranean, in Bermuda............------- Mediterranean, introduction from Bermuda, dis- cussion Socom CUE DAoS OOS oOo Een soos SoBe ce Mediterranean, life ae in Bermuda.....---.- Mediterranean, lifes bistonyoei os. s Sa eee growers, losses from pear thrips, Santa Clara Valley. growing, San Antonio region, variety tests......... injury by wireworm, arr ON ninemsn credke trees— growing on “black land” of Texas, disadvan- WEE Sashoosssboaboueseucbseeeas + so qdeedone San Antonio region of Texas, diseases........- See also under name of specific product. Fruits— Bermuda, hosts for Mediterranean fruit fly......-.-- FGOG! Or WOLMMMS. < ooaSeewes ans besceessse! as s5usececs growing in San Antonio region, testing resistant BLOCKS eee ss 2 ceare ee a ea uialel (SMa Nb ae menace by pear thrips in San Francisco Bay region. . Ruel swimactoreneimess we aies heey. kn. cae Re ee Fumigant, insect, para dichlorobenzene.............--- Fungi— injurious to lodgepole pine.................-.-.-.- mushrooms and other common fungi.........-.....- ore keyito famaliys ss ey te. ko eee ace ai Garbage tankage, nitrogen content..............-...-.- Gas tractor— advantages over steam tractors, demand, etc...... . demand, relation to horse supply.. Ra ch eM use of OPET Ge ak Ree a SLT N : Gasoline tractor— JUS CLOMQUCTIN fois 5/u2i5)!o 2.250! s (7s orc ya che eye ic «| ee NLe paeree use with tractors, comparison with kerosene....... (casteromycetos,. key to orders. 2... ee eG ee Geaster, genus, characters, and description of species. - Germany, pine-shoot moth, outbreaks, damage to pine FORCSES eLCHe cer Meter. . A aie a eae NV AUIULE Me Maeve nya rat Bie Sena Ne Ne (5S at's 35. Sauna ye MON Glanders— diagnosis, use and value of opthhalmic mallein. . ophthalmic mallein test— method, reliability, effect on animals, etc..-.. report: of American Veterinary Medical Asso- COE H AON As AR SAN eae IR 0 d Glossary, mushrooms. .... H Gonzales plum, characters, ‘adaptability to San Antonio RESTON. CCC ease VAI RT No eceeh si eV eben Goodrich, Edward E., statement on destruction of olives by ODE. ee a Grapes, growing— in San Antonio region, tests of varieties............ in San Antonio region, use of native stock, experi- MOLE HOS 5 He gseE Ge oR Eeoepeeee’ 22 scl boaee 61217°—16——3 1-11 56-58 IL dies JAS? 14 22 31 18 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULS. 151-175. | Bulletin. | Page. Great Basin, wheat growing, time of seeding, rate, methods 2eLCes cess sla FS se = Se 157 pes Green— ash. See Ash, green. gill, mushroom, description, poisonous nature, etc. - 175 10-11 Guanine, isolation from processed fertilizer, method.... 158 12 Guepinia, genus, characters, description of species, etc. - 175 45-46 Gyromitra, genus, characters, description of species, etc. - 174 55 Hair tankage; nitrogen content.2..-.....-s¢ics2:22 2) 158 3 Hairy lentinus, mushroom, description and occurrence. - 175 26 Hardwood region, unproductive lands, utilization for for- est planting, practices, and suggestions. ....... 153 4 Hardwoods, planting, use of sprouted nuts............. 153 8 Hardwoods. See also Ash; Chestnut; Locust; Maple; Oak; Pecan; Walnut. Harrowing, wheat in spring, effects............2...... 157 33-35 Hartiey, Cart, bulletin on “Injury by disinfectants to seeds and roots in sandy soils”............. 169 1-35 Harvest, wheat, at different stages of maturity, yields, experiments 20. 2.02 See: eee 157 36-37 Hastines, STEPHEN H., and R. E. Bratr, bulletin on- ‘Horticultural experiments at the San Antonio field station, southern Texas”’................. 162 | 126 Hay, growing on sassafras soils, yield, etc.............. 159 { shee a | ? Hemlock— associated species, effect of environment on stand, | ClCi os Shae = see eee ees, : <= ements. eee 152 | bark, use in tanning, consumption, prices, etc.. com- parisons with other species, 1900, 1905-1909... .. 152 botanical characters. 2-2)... Sep eee 152 COxOWHOMs piiced = S252 20 SS SL.) | RE ee 152 CASSCIN See eee ee ots asia os mee se oe 2 See eee 152 distri bUbOnetas = eso eee ere Ss 5 ee eee 152 habitat and commercial range....-.-.--........ 152 lumberscut: 1899=1915i sn fc. eee 152 lumber cut, by States, percentage of total, etc., L909HIGISE Ses Oe eee tS ee 152 standing timber, amount, proportion of forest, etes, bye States 2-2 52 ae ee 152 stumpage value, comparisons with associated BPOciesHLOl2 si a ee see ee 152 stumpage value, 1889, 1899, 1907, 1912, by WLALCSE thee Fae Sah ee et eee ote oe 152 TGLeCS AA ARE MICH eee nee ee ea eee ee 152 growth, habits, reproduction, etc................-- 152 injuries from insects, disease. wind, etc............ 152 logs— c prices, L910 1913 8 sepa Se - 2 eee = 152 season checks, catise of waste, note. .-.....-.--- 152 lumber, value by years and States, 1899-1912....... 152 pulp— manufacture, sulphite process...........-....-- 152 RISERS eee ce eee el eke ee = == ene men re Sees 152 seed, description, weight, germination............- 152 tanning extract, consumption, 1900, 1905-1909. .... 152 timber— — measurement tapless) 5 oSs2s les. see eases 152 ~ Utilizatinne sce ~ sek Reet: |: See es 152 tree, structure and development...........-...---- 152 INDEX. MW) Bulletin. Page. Hemlock—Continued. waste from ‘‘wind-shake”’ and ““DUEtiTOU Game eames oe 152 28-29 wood, characters, strength and durability.......--- 152 8, 16 Hieu, M. M., bulletin on “Cactus solution as an adhesive in arsenical Sprysior insects’ *?- -weeEss ashes 160 1-20 Hirneola genus, characters and description of species... . 175 45 Histidine, isolation from processed fertilizer, method... . 158 9 Hog plum, stock for San Antonio region........-------- 162 23 “Hog wallow” land, description, nature, value, etc..-.. 161 2, 5-9 Honey- colored mushroom, description and varieties. ...- 175 1% Honistonotus uhlerii. See Corn wireworm; Cotton wireworm. ‘Horned toad,’’ enemy to wWireworm...................- 156 27 orsentillage: acreage... 25.2 so..." ARE 6 SCENES EEE. 174 38 Horsepower— comparison of horses with machine motors..........- 174 5-6 Bey Chonan unm OG) sevens Was earn oN * Senn tens = 174 5-6 MISCVOUMLERIMIE se ioe eialia wee cle esi... se epa es telete et: 174 5-6 Horses— displacement by tractors on western farms.-.-.....- 174 37-39 glanders, use and value of ophthalmic mallein in CAO MOSISA ee a tana Lecter Pete cee ctecrers, «Mees Grae eae ee 166 1-11 supply, relation to demand for gas tractors. .......- 174 4-5 testing for glanders with ophthalmic mallein, micihoddaosace letcy es nh eee Ce, 166 5-8 Horticultural experiments, San Antonio field station, SOUGRerM MOKas yer eee ae fo. Sere nae: 162 1-26 Hosea, R. M., statement on durability of stave water [OOS eS a ek A is Hi OR OR RS SR ete 155 ; 36 Hydnaceae, characters and key to family..-...-...--.. 175 48 Hydnum, genus, characters and descriptions of species. -.. 175 43-44 Hydrochloric acid, injury to pine seedlings and weeds in sandy soils, TESTS Aorta ne a eer Sate Mere, 169 |23, 24, 25, 26-27 Hygrophorus, genus, characters, descriptions of species, (CC a IPS ae nes Maree RRR OR. 3, iE AN 175 23-24 Hypholoma, genus, characters, descriptions of species, SPY apne 2 Seta mee Waals alte 6 cls ayer a el 175 34-35 Ee ornithine isolation from processed fertilizer, MICH OG eae Ses en ots > = a Re tate 158 12 Hystop, J. A., bulletin on “Wireworms attacking cereal and forage CEOS ence cree oe cS En, Nees 156 1-34 Idaho, wireworm depredations, notes................--. 156 10,13 Illinois, wireworm pest, occurrence...........-...-...-- 156 24 Indiana, wireworm pest, notes...--...-...- ees SVN el a 156 17, 13 Inflated wireworm— MCECEIPIONE jayo-- 22 2ece ss nla eie (a; 0: =: » SNCF stele 156 1-3 fopeyplantcse remedies. 07 /sss 0... +. eee oe 156 10-11 life history, hosts and distribution................. 156 10-12 Inky cap, mushroom, description, occurrence, and value. 175 30 Insecticide— contact, value of quassiin, experiments............. 165 1-8 paradichlorobenzene Aes Seto OES =. Se ae 167 Ley Insecticides, arsenical— sprays, use of cactus as adhesive, value, etc., ex- [OCICS Ses ea eer ee. 2S i we 160 1-20 venue, onditferent kinds... |. 324. - 2 See etre cic, 160° 18-19 Insects— arsenical sprays, use of cactus solution as adhesive... 160 —20 eontrol, value and use of paradichlorobenzene....-- 167 1-7 food of ‘Oregon BOM A ae. cee RAE 171 17 Injurious to lodgépolespine.. 5-52... saepeeseee esc 154 20-21 20 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULS. 151-175. Bulletin. Page. Intertilling, potatoes with wheat, yields, experiments. . 157 41, 42, 43 lowa— farm tractors, number, effect on industry, financial INVeEStMent ete --- 2b sees... =<. eee eee oe 174| | 6, 8,9 WATE WOFM pests; MOLES: koe cc o- -- eleeeminse secs 156 iby Tron arsenate— anvecticide! yalue: oo Peo oss = a elo 160 18-19 use with cactus solution against cucumber beetles, Sxpelimenis. £65020) oes)... > eee nee : _160 12 Irpex, genus, characters and description of species------ 175 44 Irrigation water, conveying in wood pipe...--.--------- 155 _ 140 Ithyphallus, genus, characters and description of species. 175° 48 Ixoreus naevius. See Robin, Oregon. JAYNE, S. O., bulletin on ‘‘Wood pipe for conveying Water forinrivaAtlony ® 22.2.2. 2 = eee oer 155 1-40 JonsEs, P. R., and S. W. Foster, bulletin on ‘‘The life history and habits of the pear thrips in Califor- BAUR pes saan) ~ nisin e/a smleisieiele om iaia lo o ones os oimioe ie ase 173 1-52 Juglans— nigra— stock for Persian walnut, San Antonio region... 162 | 22-23 See also Walnut, black. rupestris, stock for Persian walnut, San Antonio re- OD: E39 cies) to tReet 3's «Se 162 22-23 Jujube, growing in San Antonio region, experiments | HOLS a sone ee eee sac oee <<. eer eee 162 20-21 Kansas— farm tractors, number, effect on pee financial ARV CSLINENIE CLCHon << pee cen seis. . SMe eae oe 174 wireworm depredations, TIGLES= 22 oo. - « Se ae 156 Kentucky, wireworm pest, note.....-.....---.-..-+..- 156 ‘* Kerosene tractor,’’ use of term.-........------.------- 174 Kerosene, use with tractors, comparison with gasoline... 174 King, Vernon, statement on corn and cotton wireworm, damAse4oiCrops, Clee 2. o8..-. s Beene ase aoe 156 Lacon rectangularis, wheat pest, note.....-..----------- 156 Lactarius, genus, character, descriptions of species, etc-- 175 Land— fallow. See Fallow. PALO WANE, PUTPOSE > Sci. = - pie b een tes ee eae ae 151 “improved,” use Of term >..U. 2. Seen coc on 153 Lands, waste, utilization for forest planting............- 153 Larch, European— planting in mixtures, soil requirements, etc....-... 153 MBCSiOUM ATG 8 Se Fh. hs nee eee Seen a 153 value for telephone poles, prices, demand.......... 153 value in forest plantations, cost, etc..............-- 153 Lariz europaea. See Larch, European. Laturop, EvBert C., bulletin on ‘‘ The nitrogen of pro- cessed fertilizers 72 se a eee eee 158 Lead arsenate, use with cactus solution against cucum- ber beetle, epee ti ee eee 160 Leaf coral, fungus, "description and value.....- fem 5 ee 175 Leather, roasted, Bitror en COnLENL => <=. Meee ee eee 158 Lentinus, genus, characters, descriptions of species, etc. - 175 Leotia, genus, characters and descriptions of species. - - - 175 Lepiota, genus, characters, description of species, etc. -- 175 LETTEER, C. R., bulletin on ‘‘ Experiments in crop pro- duction on fallow land at San Antonio” ....... 151 INDEX. Leucine, geolation from processed fertilizer, method. . -. Lime— pe ecation| to sulphuric-acid treated soils, effect (GHD, FONE WANES) See I ie Me Sci aed ‘ Lime-sulphur— baths for sheep and cattle, testing methods and AOD ALALUB SRC a ie tN pe aie SS | ae BL dipping baths for sheep and cattle, field tests... ..- LTimonius— californicus, injury to alfalfa...........-....------- discoideus, injury to fruit blossoms, note. eee species, description, occurrence, food plants. - Live stock, damage to young forest plantations...-.....- _ Lizard, enemy of 7 wireworm, habitat, etc....-.-.------- Locust— black— character and value for posts...........-.------ planting, eastern United States............---- borer, menace to black locust plantations in eastern Wmited Statesho. Jat sea ckis a: feta ee ee Lodgepole pine— ASS Bi) MS ON WES osesoosos be odes = seacal sees Baa Clabes PECLESe = teat ee ee - eee eee beetle, injury to forests in Colorado and Wyoming. . elimatic-and soil requirements: :..... .8. 02020. Je cones, production, behavior under different condi- dition Seed scales elC ius sep a 4-4) eee FOTESES:| MAPUTYICAUSCS eas) 1- = ocho oes =~ ere se ke ae seapraphicalidistribmiom. 25.225 dees ae ees erowth— LEH OMI SCR RS es Sie cee Sc ee eR ne injury— byrwaldvanimals. <2 02252220). 2. ee. eee irom smelter fumes. -- 2. 4255. eee BS Si life history in the Rocky Mountains. ..-........... DERMANENCELON ty PC! oto pascal. ~ See re range, botanical, altitudinal, and commercial. ..... Recon, climate, datari.. 22 a2 0.0). jee oe ee poproduction, requirements, density of stands, effect OSI O ese 2,3 ie Me Mes ya ane =, ane sere an rae ae seed, production, dissemination, etc.........----.. stands— AerClASsOS! ahs ahy a /e,s.< cidio =| -'- SRR See density, manacement -4.-.-.--- eee anes ee PROUMORCOW CR. ea cinco eiret.c ~ 4. ~ eee es thaaminesetlect: <2. sete t 5: - + eee ee yield, factors influencing, etc., discussion and EDIOLES ES Net SUNS lense. » PR ANCA I ye pandiall Veusceptibilitys 90.5... 2. - ees ve Logging, breaking SAMS MOC 421... -'.:- eee oa ar ee Long Island area, geological formation and deposits. - Lounsberry, C. W., statement on durability of stave water pipe in different souls... see Se ks iiiotiextine, oll gor tractors -/22...-- s-- -aeeee ssc. _ Ludius— EPATLCUS; MOUS << |= < <1n'a, oaln n= = aicies eee ie hes - SDE CIES MOCO tea aa irae: sra lo 2 os (ates a5 «ee aetna Lukfata grape, origin, adaptability to San Antonio Bulletin. 158 169 159 163 163 156 156 21 Page. 10-11 20-23 30, 36, 39 22 ' DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULS. 151-175.’ | Bulletin. Page. Lumber— eastern hemlock— cut of 1909-1913, by States, percentage of total, Clee en ise SERIES Se Soir Se ee noe 152 3 production 1899-19 tol-42- >... ee ee 152 7 hemlock, value, by years and States, 1899-1912. .-.. 152 9 Lycoperdacez, key ‘to Foren] yee ere 2 a es oar 175 48-49 Iycoperdon, genus, characters and descriptions of species. 175 49 Lysine, isolation from processed fertilizer, method...--- 158 9 Machine— boring, for wood pipe, invention and use ........- 155 2-3 Bpray ite, compressed alt 222 22.---. ~ eee ee 160 5, 6 Machinery— farm— experience with tractor 2... i-\- sae cee cs 174 1-44 See also Tractor. Mallein— ophthalmic— for diagnosis of glandérs.......-..225.2-22--2-2 166 = Gi preparation for diagnosis of glanders, methods, CL ee ee eee 166 5 test for glanders, report of American Veterinary Medical Association: 222 +. - . gah ee. - oe: es 166 10 Maple, silver— Bhumpace walde! 92250202 oe. ee en ee 153 25 value for forest plantation requirements....-.-.-... 153 25 yield value and profits from plantations on differ- ent) sols: 2525... eee eee ee. ee eta eee 153 Marasmius— genus, characters, description of specise, etc.....--. 175 rotula, description and Occurrence. : + 2585222. 2-2 175 Maryland wireworm pest, eters oo) -|- eeeeee 156 Mason, D. T. , bulletin on ‘‘The life history of lodge- pole pine in the Rocky Mountains” ..........- 153 Mealworm, larva of Tenebrio moliter, occurrence......-.. 156 Mediterranean fruit iy— aa ermudaess 5 ioe eee . . eee ere 161 See also Fruit fly, Mediterranean. Melanophila fulvoguttata, injury to hemlock... ..--...- 152 Melanotus, species, occurrence, life history, remedial INICASUTES 2 ee el) sean te. Serre rt 156 Melons, growing on sassafras soils....-.-..-.-------.--- 159 Merulius, genus, characters and description of species - .. 175 Metarrhizium anisopliz, enemy to wireworms, note... -.- 156 Mexican bluebird. See Bluebird, western. Michigan, wireworm pest, notes.....-.-..-----------:-- 156 Minnesota, farm tractors, number, effect on industry, financial investment, Cte 52: ee ee 174 “Mission pear,’’ description, occurrence and chemical COM PORHIOW 2-7 22. sae C- ~ a ee 160 Missouri, wireworm outbreak. ...-.-....-.----------:- 156 Mistletoe, infestation of lodgepole pine............-----! 154 Mo#teER, JOHN R., and ApotpH EicHHorN, bulletin on ! P “ Ophthalmic mallein for the diagnosis of f PIANISTS He Soe aiclaie ecco ele. ee ee 166 Monoamino acids— isolation from processed fertilizers, method......--. 158 Bources int “pase POOUS (2 es 2202. - ~: . - eee 158 : Monocrepidius— auritus, description and occurrence .....---------- 156 bellus, descriptiori and distribution... .-39.2-52..-3 156 liv idus, description, oecurrence:: =]... 2aeeeses a. 156 species, descriptions, occurrence. -...------------- 156 vespertinus, description, occurrence...1...------.-- 156 20, 21-2 INDEX, Montana— farm tractors, number, effect on industry, financial investment, SU Bee SE ERE SUE eR GEE lodgepole-pine region, weather conditions at differ- Entieleva bons! ALS AaW a) EIS 1 SIRI jar Morchella, genus, characters and description of species. - Moth, European pine-shoot— history, outbreaks, and injury to forests in Europe... menace to pine timber in America........-.------- See also Pine-shoot moth. Moths, fumigation with para-dichlorobenzene, effect... - Mountain— bluebird. See Bluebird, mountain. pine beetle, damage to lodgepole Pine... eee eyes Mowry, H. H., and ArNow P. YerRKES, bulletin on “Farm experience with the tractor’@ hese 4 Mushroom— EA SUp MORE Pala WOM Lh sisi yao aa 2:5 uta. ae eae ate salads, preparation. ---------------.-__-.-.-----..... Mushrooms— AMUOTher common fUNEIa sess eee ee eee eee biblicgraphy tor amateurs ete. -c-25-. Meee eee cannine Wdinectionss a ese See. ee colleetionstearey moter ese ac cnaseie os eee descriptions, elossary ay Lune RAS is. SS SMe a CGI E CG bce eS SI at Re RIM eS aE morphological structure..--.......--.-------------- (DUS INOUE, Weis 555 4255 5esc5nssose sage sss Sc5sa5 preservation— ; iMOUENGIReCtIONss =. sms 56 coe es L.A es WECHSE WON COCRINS: soo 3 6 sega ssapen: <5 JS 55405 species, list and descriptions REIS. ~ 8 Mester mS study by public, encouragement by foreign govern- WOKS ae See oo Eee porwome a5 ose use while fresh. importance! -40 53522 eet Mutinus, genus, characters and descriptions of species... - Mycena, genus, characters, descriptions of species, etc- .- Nebraska— farm tractors, number, effect on industry, financial Inv esti Mts ele a seseee ase Oc i. os 2 ee ee Halsey, forest nursery, effect of disinfectants on seeds and roots in sandy soils, experiments. --.. wireworm depredations, notes. ....--...----------- Nectarines, growing in San Antonio region, experiments, INOUE a SASS CRASSA SOSA Oe yes Ae oe Same Nephi substation— description, location, soil, climatic conditions, etc... experimental work in tillage and rotation. _....---.. New England, forest planting, practices, conditions, etc. New Hampshire, farm lands abandoned, acreage..--- eh New York, wireworm outbreak, note-...-..-.--.--...-..- failariacese, Key tguamiblys. 2220280... 2 ie itric acid, effect on pine seedlings and weeds in sandy SONS Gaels ty A eee os Eee eR Slee QUO sete tan SESS a Cer ie Ae Areas «(= c ASirSieeetaee forms in ‘‘ base goods’’— determination by Van Slyke method.......... partition, methods, ete. ---22..--.-.-2222-22..-- PLOGCESsed: ferhUIZeEs Gai) <2 ainls Scie bic 0. - cpelaiwisieselee Bulletin. 174 154 175 170° 170 167 154 174 175 175 175 23 Page. 24 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULS. 151-175. . Bulletin. Page. “Nopal azul,’’ occurrence, description, chemical com- ; POSTEO, CLC hi. Seay. Bey a ee ee 160 15, 16 “Nopal de castilla,”’ description, occurrence, and chem- 1¢al-COMpPOSItlON.. 22.) AOU. 2 h..3 e eeee 160 15, 16 “Nopal,”’ description, occurrence, and chemical compo- SITIONS bootie vse ee et ee ses cos eee see 160 15, 16 North Dakota— farm tractors— custom work, annual repairs, etc.-..-..-.---..-- 174 16-17 number, effect on farming industry, service, - 7174 is 8, 9, 12, 14, length Obdlife etc et. * Fa ee hehe) \ 15, 16, 17 profitableness, fuel used, motive power main- LENANCEe: CLCLI5 esc osk eee se. See eae 174 ' 14-15 6,8,9,12,14-15, use, profitableness, etc., investigations......... 174 |; 16-19,22,24,25, 26, 29,34, 39, WHITE WOM Pest, NOLES. - sts. cocs +s «ccs seme seiics 156 17 Norway— pine— prowth habits, note 2%. 22..s.sbemesc oecn seo se 153 29 . See also Pine, Norway. spruce. See Spruce, Norway. Nurseries— forest, injury to seed and roots by disinfectants in sandy SOURS eee 5 ae eas. . Neamt: sie 169 1-35 injury of seed and roots by disinfectants, preventive IM CASTINES Es eles an ae Ses ep oe aes 2PM eevee neers 169 9-12 location on sassafras soils, note ...............-..... 159 36 menace by European pine-shoot moth, occurrence, distribution on stock, ete: =. 22-2. eel ee see ee. 170 4-5 Nursery stock— forest— planting, cost with different species, methods, and soils, stalbles = 2 serie cee!) eee eee 153 ) RECECRM DIGS SEs a eee ee Nee wo. = | SOE, tem As 153 36 planting in eastern United States, requirements - . 153 6-7 Nut culture, San Antonio region, experiments Ae at dene, 3 1623) 0% 20 Nuts, sprouted, pladting.-. 2 :ansisscs. . paee eet eese 153 8 Oak— bark— consumption, 1900, 1905-1909.................. 5 152 18° use for tanning extract, comparison with hem- TOCK see eS ake oe ees hen oe eh 152 13 use in tanning, advantages..........-......-.. 152 12 red— characters, growth habits, and value for forest : (olamtiniess 2 228 oo Meee So SS: ene bd 153 33 planting, eastern United States................ 153 33 tanning extract, consumption 1900, 1905-1909...... 152 13 tongue fungus, description, occurrence, and value. . 175 42 Oats— See By WATE WOM NOLES: +=. 5s. see REE ee ee 156 ; 10 owin: 2 on ies land, San Antonio, Tex. , experiments. 151 1, 2,3,4 on sassafras\s0ils............-.....:220--s2e---. 159 29, 41 Ohio; wireworuupest, Noes.) 5.24... - cee ce Le eee 156 Wi, Oil, lubricating, fOrAtTACLOrs Ses ees Se eee 174 23 Olives, destructionjby robbins. 52): 3... -'.- ae eee 171 10-12 Omphalia, genus, characters, description of species....-- 175 16 Ophthalmic mallein— test for glanders, report of American Veterinary Medical Associations a. 2se---. Seagate > Soe 166 10 use in diagnosis of glanders............---------.--- 166 Ii INDEX. 25 Bulletin. Page. Opuntia lindheimeri. See Prickly pear. Orchard— fruits, production on sassafras soils, decline of in- GIR A/S AGS SEB GOOSEN Cn NPS Meiers est. calico ie 159 23, 31, 33, 36 management, San Antonio region, suggestions.....-. 162 24-25 pear, injury by pear thrips........--.....---------- 173 4 San Antonio region, space between trees....--..--- 162 25 Oregon— ‘robin. See Robin, Oregon. Wallowa and Whitman National forests, lodgepole pine, damage by mountain pine beetletes. 22) 154 20 Oyster mushroom, description and occurrence......--.-- 175 13 Panxolus, genus, characters, description of species, etc. 175 37 Panus, genus, characters, description of species, etc. 175 26 Paper, quality from hemlock pulpwood!)': .. .". ._ | ees 155 25-28 wood, use for municipal water supply, objec- Gon 00 | een 155 26 woods used, construction, couplings, etc ....-.- 155 24-33 stave, joining to steel pipe, methods.........-.--..- 155 16-17 wood— carrying capacity, measurement formula. ...--. 155 5 jomung, methods. _.. 2°". 2)”. eee one 155 16-17 Joints, types, descriptions......-.....-......-- 155 11-12 use for conveying irrigation water_........-- 155 1-40 Pistache nut, growing in San Antonio region, experi-_ mental work... --).2i22.:.. 162 20 Pissodes strobi, injury to white pine.................--- 153 29 Planesticus migratorius. See Robin. Planting, forest nursery stock, methods, cost, ete....... 153 7-12 Platopuntia— engelmannii, occurrence and chemical composition . 160 15, 16 lindheimeri, description, occurrence, chemical com- position, etc 2°. -.2:.:7) 22... . a 160 15, 16 tuna, description, occurrence and chemical compo- sition! Sl le... aes 160 15, 16 Pleurotus, genus, characters, descriptions of species, etc. 175 12-13 Plowing— cost of fall and spring work, comparisons...........- 157 10-11 wheat growing, experiments with different methods at Nephi experiment farm, Utah.-.............. 157 6-16 Plum— American, stock for San Antonio region........... 162 23 orchard. distance between trees, San Antonio TESION, St hee oe -- - 162 25 Plums— derivation from native American species, varieties. - 172 1-44 geographical origin, by States...........-...--.-.-- 172 2-3 growing in San Antonio region, tests of varieties. .... 162 11-12 hybrid varieties, parentage, etc.........----------- 172 6-8 hybrids and varieties, list.................--------- 172 8-44 native varieties and hybrids— list, sources of material in preparation. ........ 172 9 origin and species, list.......-.-....----------- 172 8-44 parentage of varielies.-{___----.._. .]aeeeeeeeeee 172 34 species, abbreviations used in designation. -.-.--.-- 172 9 stock for San Antonio region...-........------------ 162 23 varieties, classified by species.............--------- 172 4-8 Pluteus, genus, characters, description of species, etc. - 175 27 Poison oak, California, dissemination of seed by robins. . 171 14-15 Polyporaceae, characters of family, key, etceieee =e = 175 37-43 Polyporus— - genus, characters, descriptions of species, etc...--.- 175 40-42 schweinitzit, damage to lodgepole pine......-------- 154 21 Polystictus, genus, characters, descriptions of species, ete.) fa tsesece ML: ree 175 41-42 Pomegranate growing, San Antonio region, experiments, varieties tested, ete... -.:......._- ae 162 20 “Poor man’s weather glass,’’ description and occurrence. 175 51 Poplar, haga planting in eastern United States, re- Populus Melia See Cottonwood. Porcupines, injury to lodgepole pine........-..-------- 26 Portsmouth soils, comparison with sassafras soils, note- - 159 2 INDEX. Potatoes— growing on sassafras soils of various types, yield, etc. . injury by wireworms, notes..:.-.-.--.-:-Js--2 - Scabies, cattle and sheep, lime- sulphur dipping baths, neldytest=t8ec. cess scene teste): ss + eee een © Scaly lentinus, mushroom, description and occurrence. - Schattenberg, G. A., pear growing in Texas, expe- Sclerodermaceae, characters of family.................. Secretary of Acriculture, authority for establishing eradesiOl (COMM. =. scp sete eee. = eee Seed— hemlock, description, weight, germination.......... lodgepole pine, production, dissemination, DiGstocs Wecds destruction) method 97525227... 7 Wan aeeris Seeding, winter cereal, time, method, rate, etc...-.... Seedling peaches from Mexican seed— experiments at San Antonio, Tex.........- RemeEee growing at San Antonio, description of ten varieties. - Seedlings, injury by use of disinfectants in nursery, Ges Crip GOW ee iano cei = - -- eye Seeds, injury by disinfectants in sandy soils-......... Shaggy mane, mushroom, description and occurrence. Sheep, lime-sulphur dipping baths, field test........... Shingles, hemlock— durability . Sos bebduddemuece Ce SSpdeeEBes sooseé sec e production andavalue. . 3. ss.ce. .-. |. eee eee Sialra— currucoides. See Bluebird, mountain. mexicana. See Bluebird, western. - sialis. See Bluebird, eastern. Sieves, corn, use in orading corn, description and re- quirements. (eS boc ben Se SSUeeepemEe odeccbiagcee Silver maple. See Maple, silver. SKINNER, J. J., bulletin on ‘‘ Field test with a toxic soil consittuemttaaVemlllan ce eye: 2. 1.) Se eeeepeeyees jokipaack, ¢ source of witeworm: -----. .- 2a eee = Smelter fumes, injury to forest trees. ane eanoes Smooth lepiota, mushroom, description, caution. .....- Snapping beetle, source of wireworm, note............. Snow, Roswell, statement on durability of stave water pipeamiditierent soils.) 52 _. --.-Jeeeeeeeeee Sodium benzoate, preservative for cactus solution, ex- petiMentsmper ete e ses... - See Soil, cy le lands” of Texas, formation, lime content, @KOs so coocccossscoeessrosooboeedSesscocccesd Soil-moisture— data at Nephi substation, Utah, methods of collec- ROM ep tctans cin aicis- abisieiee cca acai =o eee eee studies— fallow land at San Antonio exper farm... San Antonio experiment farm. He Sea eae tests— of land plowed to different depths, eet ex- periment farm, Utah...... se seseee spring and fall plowing, N ephi, Utne 159 159 159 175 153 153 163 175 162 175 175 168 152 154 156 157 162 162 169 169 175 163 152 152 168 164 156 154 175 156 155 160 162 157 151 151 157 107 32 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULS. 151-175. Soils— Elkton, comparison with sassafras soil, note....... forest nursery at Halsey, Nebr., and Morrisville, Pa., characters, analyses, etc....---..-------.----- sandy, damage to seeds and roots by disinfectants in forest MMUTSETICS). =<)... 4) 4-(s.= See eee eee eee sassafras— crop uses and iene ed eT coo distrib wien eee | = eee eee eeee ee el ake ae = ee Se - -, 3 2 ee Sirens series, ‘occurrence in North Atlantic coastal plain. - wishe inet ne sbelacqecidye + =2 ee are ee series, types, characters, and productive value- - series, types, occurrence, crops suitable, man- ACCTICH ICU Hpi ie eee ee tee San Antonio experiment farm, types, nature, vamilin relation to plant lite,, field test---s-ccs-- =e South Dakota, farm tractors, number, effect on industry, financial investment; etC.;.. .7-|--se eee eeeee eee Sparassis crispa, description and value . Ese 8 2 Sparassis, genus, characters - Spraying machine, compressed air, for quassiin solution. Sprays, arsenical, for insects, cactus solution as adhesive. - Spruce— Norway— planting in mixtures! ©. _..... . epee eee ee planting, soil requirements, value, etc.-......- stumpageivalue......\02--2 =... - - - eee ee white, planting, eastern United States, note. ....-- Staves, water pipe, dimensions, requirements, etc... .-- ““Steamiutractor,; ise of terme: © 26-7: ...- . Seeeereee sae ce Steel bands— protective coating on wood pipe.....-..------.---- wood pipe construction, requirements. ....------.- Stone fruits, growing in San Antonio region, experi- \ mentalwork i422 sachass252.:- 3 ee eee Strawberries— destruction by robins, note.--.......--------+------ growing on sassafras soils of various ty pesherescc=\-- = Strobilomyces, genus, characters, descriptions of spe- cles) etCees. sees s nhac a2: oe eee eee Stropharia, genus, characters, description of species, etc. Subsoiling, cost, comparison with plowing.-......-.-.-.--- Sugar-beet wireworm, damage to alfalfa.........-.----- Sulphuric acid— application to nursery soil, method, effect on seeds and.roots, Ct@zie. sf222ce. - 3: Eee disinfectant for forest nurseries, injury to seeds and roots in sandy soils. 7) - 2-5... |: een effectionavanious plantsss----- .-----eeeeeeeeeoreee Sun scald, injury to lodgepole pine.............-------- Sunderland area, geological formation and deposits... -< Sweet potatoes, growing on sassafras soils of various UY PCS- docose sc sees Soa Saecs:s - ee Eee eee Taeniothrips pyri. See Pear thrips. Talbot area, geological formation and deposits. .-..----- Tanbark, consumption, 1900, 1905=1909..........------- Tankage, nitrogen content of different kinds....... sia(a ots Bulletin. Page. { 5-12, 18, 21, 23-24 4-5 22-23, 31-32 2-9 21, 31, 47, 49 11-18, 14, 15 13 3 33 INDEX. Bulletin. Tanning— extract, consumption and prices 1900-1909, com- parison of hemlock, chestnut, and oak.......... 152 use of hemlock bark, consumption, prices, etc... .-- 152 Telephone poles, European larch, value, prices, demand. 153 Tenebrio molitor, occurrence.......-.-.-.-----.--------- 156 Tenebrionidae, source of wireworms.........-.--.------- 156 Tenehah plum, stock for stone fruits, value in San Amboniomestoms.- 2325 5..48 shes ee 162 Texas: — crop production on fallow land at San Antonio, EXP CRIMICTILS 4. tan Sats SVS So «Came ar as 151 San Antonio region, climatic and soil conditions. . . - {162 southern, horticultural experiments at San Antonio Heldkstatiom. «cece seq sens | RSs Ee 162 Thrips, pear— life history and habits in California...............- 173 WISETO lat ORIN 5 Meet CES Ae Ee SRY «ED 173 See also Pear thrips. Thrush, varied. See Robin, Oregon. Therevidae, enemies to wireworm, note.............--- 156 Tillage— acreage per horse and per horsepower of tractor COMMpATISOM ea. see erases selec 2s (ia tide 174 expenmentsat Nephi Witaht2: 2-5-2. eer 157 Tintorson, ©. R., bulletin on ‘Forest planting in the HastermaUmitedsStatess,---2.--)4 \aseecoaeeee se 153 Timber, hemlock. See Hemlock timber. Tobacco, smoking, growing on sassafras soils of various by DOB ya ete eyo taaiecche Seas sane tha|s 2/2 eS 3d ST 159 Tomatoes, growing on sassafras soils of various types, AyAlel OER Sete Ae Sea ne Sree oS Aaa 22 8 aes 159 Toxic salts, injury to pine seedlings and weeds in sandy SOUS CESS eas 2s ectaie scr ere S Sie) Pe ay 169 Traction farming,-effect on industry, opinions of business MVE CIS SEED ios sicia aris cr atetaneve oie ae! tS SN UR 174 Tractor— farm— as investment, opinions of business men and OWAMCTS is j4 paves See ooo SN a gd 174 experiences: waline ais sso oi <5 45s See ee ee 174 farming, conditions essential to success, discussion. . 174 gas. See Gas tractor. THEVA UOVEAS eae ay el Olean Oe aN en eM le ee 174 steam, disadvantages, decline in use, etc-........... 174 tillage acreage per horsepower.........--------...- 174 Tractors— designation of various kinds. ...................-- 174 farm— annual repairs... -aseseke ee ks. s Hoss 174 custom work, number, profitableness........... 174 distribution west of Mississippi River, by States. 174 experience with, sources of data............-.. 174 fuels used, North Dakota and other Western Slatess.s.ss4b at ec eeelee see el ee 174 profitableness, fuel used. motive power, main- taINed. ete Stee ee 174 service rendered annually, length of life, etc., OHYWESLEEMULATING . Jccisic\cieis <'+ soleeeeeiieaici= 174 Page. 28 38 1-45 1-38 30, 33, 43 a 24, 36, 42, 48, 49 84 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULS. 151-175. Bulletin. Page. Tractors—Continued. repairs, annual, percentage of cost..--.-.-.......- 174 36 use by ijarmers, effect on financial standing, opin- Jons of bankers=. .- 2-2. . = 5--.43953 ee 174 7-8 Trade wastes, nitrogenous, chemical principles in utili- ZORION Sees es c/s begeo , --,- —rn a ae 158 22-23 Trametes pini, damage to lodgepole pine......-......-. 154 22 Transplanting, forest seedlings, methods, time. cost, etc. - 153 7-12 Tree planting, forest plantations, mistakes, instances. . >. 153 21-22 Tremella, genus, characters, description of species, etc. - - 175 45 Tremellaceae, characters, key, and descriptions of ppecies= £3 Ps 2 i. 2 42... +. - ee ee 175 44-46 Tremellodon, genus, characters, description of species, etc. 175 46 Tricholoma, genus, characters and descriptions of species- 175 1617 /(20, 22, 26, 27, Truck crops, growing on sassafras soils of various types. .- - 159 iz 36, 45, 46, 47 Tsuga— canadensis. See Hemlock, eastern. Carolinians nabitat, NOLe! =... ==) = eee eee 152 1 “Tuiskuwa,’’ Indian name for large-eyed elater.......... 156 1 Tyrosine, isolation from processed fertilizer, method - ---- 158 11 Urnula, genus, characters and description of species. - - - 175 54, 55 Utah, Nephi, tillage and rotation experiments.........-- 157 1-45 Vanillin— effect on wheat, experiments’. - eee 164 34 occurrence in veretation.......-...-- eee 164 il presence in soil, persistence, effect on plants six months aiter application, investigations. ....-- 164 7-9 toxic— effects on vegetation and leguminous crops. - .-- 164 2-3, 4-7 soil constituent, field test..............---.-.- 164 1-9 Valhallah grape, origin, adaptability to San Antonio FESION 2 Rib bem os Sse 5 oo. + - 162 14 20. 22, 26, 27, Vegetables, growing on sassafras soils of various types. - - 159 fp 36, 45, 46, 47, 48 See also under specific products. Veneer, hemlock, consumption, value, ete...---...----- 152 14-15 Vermont, wireworm pest, note....--.---=-sesse-55--5- 156 17 Virginia, wirewormpest, note. . ... .-..---25eeee 156 17 Vitis candicans, stock for grapes, San Antonio region. ..--- 162 14 Volvaria, genus, characters and description of species. - - - 175 Zi Wallowa National Forest, damage to ae pine by mountain pine bectle............ oes 154 20 Walnut— black— forest plantation, yield, and profit on different SOUS! 2h 22 = 3c Seidel sees - > - - 2 ee - 153 31 growth habits, underplanting, etc..--..-------- 153 30-31 planting, soil requirements, etc.-.-.-----.------ 153 30-31 stock for Persian walnut, San Antonio region. - 162 22-23 Persian, growing in San Antonio region, experi- mental work .....-. |... 162 22-23 Walnuts, growing in San Antonio region, experimental WOrk 898 =. boston 232s 2. - eee 162 20 Washington, wireworm depredations, notes----.--------- 156 10, 12, 13, 17 Waste— farm lands, value for Scotch pine forest------------ 153 27-28 lands, utilization for forest planting......---------- 153 4,5 INDEX. Water— : Lie, conduits, wood pipe, use in irrigation............-- pipe— wood, coating, practices, advantages, etc.....-. wood, decay, causes and preventive measures. . wood, early use and manufacture, history. .---- See also Pipe, continuous stave; Pipe, ma- chine-banded; Pipe, wood. Watermelons, growing on sassafras soils........-------- Weed seed, destruction, method Weeds— destruction by;culphuric acid. - 225-22. . = Seeee-en effect of various disinfectants, tests........-..----- growth in plats treated with sulphuric acid followed yslimrewexperniments assesses. 4. = =e eeee eee West Virginia, wireworm pest, note..--..-.-....-------- Western bluebird. See Bluebird, western. “Wet mixed” fertilizer. See ‘‘ Base goods.”’ Wheat— damage by wireworm, notes............------------ growing— expermenisiat, Nephi} Witahee = ...328aes4. 4555 in Pacific Northwest, wireworm pest, note...... intertilled crops, experiments, yields, etc-...... on sassafras soils of various types, yield, etc---- harvesting at different stages of maturity, yields, EXPELMMEN US acc sia spose alae «oH ee ter ele relation to vanillin in different soils, experiments. . Turkey winter, growing at Nephi experiment farm, EXPenimMentss .. sate EOL: 2 ee a > winter, seeding, time, methods, rate, etc., Nephi experiment farm, Wtahigesee\. Jo SoS20 2... wireworm— description, life history, remedial measures..... LOO GplANTSE Sse tae wale (om cis ets)a\e c= = cee yield— factors influencing, experiments at Nephi, Utah. from fall-plowed and spring-plowed plats, Nephi expenment farm: pease 2 4-2/2). eee te on plats plowed to different depths, Nephi ex- PeriIMent Harmer es sac e re. 2... eee ee on summer cultivated fallow, comparisons. ..... relation to time of sowing, experiments. -.-..... yields from continuous and alternate cropping, Nephi experiment farm, Utah..........-.-.-..- White pine. See Pine, white. ‘‘White rot,’’ injury to lodgepole pine, nature and de- Vie lOpMe Miss seer essen aes cie sete. eae ease Whitewash: userot prickly peate-.-.--....\sasseeenas Whitman National Forest, lodgepole pine, damage by mountam;pineibeetless.5 e355. =-eneeee oe = Wicomico area, geological formation and deposits. ....-- Wiaeut, W. F., bulletin on “‘The varieties of plums de- rived from native American species” .........-. Windbreaks, trees for, notes............-.---..--.------ ‘SWind-shake?’” imjury to hemlock: .........-228----.-.-- Wireworm— iniestawon of child-anstance- ee ----- - -. sees ee oo vitality, nature of damage, danger of importation, GlhOs ho Se BEB SG UES DOE BO OE OH Uee ene HSS aWABSom Bulletin. 155 155 155 155 159 156 169 169 169 156 156 157 156 157 159 157 164 157 157 156 156 157 157 157 157 157 157 154 160 164 159 172 153 152 156 156 30 Page. 1-40 38-40 37—40 2-3 22, 48 15-16 16-17, 19 23-26 21, 22 i 8, 10, 13, 17, 22, 24 5-20 4 41-43 19,24,25,27,29, 33,35,36,41, 42 36-37 3-4 5-20 21-28 4-7 6-7 32-43 10-11 11-13. 14-16 22 ya) 22-23 37-39 21 2 20 12,13, 14 1-44 28, 30, 35 28-29 3-4 2-3 36 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULS. 151-175. Wireworms— attack on cereal and forage crops.-...............---- 156 1-34 economic status. --....2..2.-..--- rs: 156 2 ENEMIES. 220 Fi ias.tosecs- +. ee eee 156 25-29 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 16, & food plants_ 2/2... =---.-.-42---- =. -. eee 156 20, 21, 92° 23, 25 minor species, descriptions, occurrence, etc.......-- 156 | 18-25 remedial measures, experiments, and results....._.. 156 31-34 sources, description, and characters...............-- 156 1-3 species, nature of damage, occurrence, etc........-- 156 34 Wisconsin, wireworm depredations, notes................ 156 20 ae broom, ”” Infestation of lodgepole pine......... * 154 22 aes hemlock, characters, structure, etc..............--- 152 16 pipe— use for conveying urigation water........-.-..- 155 140 See also Pipe, continuous stave; Pipe, ma- chine-banded; Pipe, wood. - pulp— : hemlock, percentage manufactures by various PYOCeSSES. .--- 2 -)- -b 5 < ..- eee 152 10 sulphite, price per ton. -....... epeeeeeeeesee 152 10 “Woodland,” use of term... :......>~.. -Seeeeneeeeee 153 1 Wyckoff, A., invention of boring machine for wood pipe. 155 2 Wyoming, lodgepole-pine region, weather conditions at different elevations... 22..2..... -3esege ses sae 154 4,5 Yellowstone National Park, weather conditions at differ- ent elevations. 2...-.-c2: 5. :--- eee 154 4,5 YERKES, ARNOLD P., and H. H. Mowry, bulletin on ‘“‘Farm experience with the tractor”.......--.-- 174 1-44 _ Youngs, L. B., statement on durability of Douglas-fir water pipes... 22.i2.i2:2..... =e 155 36 Zinc— arsenate, as insecticide, use and value. --.-----.---- 160 18 arsenite, use with cactus solution against cucumber beetle, Pau ee Lito. eee 160 2-4, 10-11 Ziziphus owing in San Antonio region, experi- : Bi THe nt oe Leek, Cree Sage SONS oat 162 20-21 , BULLETIN OF THE ‘ p USEDARTHENT OF AGICUTU & =I) No. 151 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. September 19, 1914. EXPERIMENTS IN CROP PRODUCTION ON FALLOW LAND AT SAN ANTONIO.’ By C. R. Lerresr, Assistant, Office of Western Irrigation Agriculture. INTRODUCTION. The practice of fallowing land varies widely in different regions. In the experiments conducted at San Antonio, Tex., and reported in this paper the word “fallow” is used to mean thorough cultiva- tion of the land from the time it is plowed after the removal of a crop throughout the next season and until the crop is planted at the beginning of the second season. The fallow period at San Antonio varies from 16 to 19 months, depending on the crops grown. The chief ostensible purpose of fallowing in this region is to store in the soil for the benefit of the next crop the moisture which falls during the fallow period. | In order to determine whether or not this practice is to be recom- mended in the San Antonio region, the experiments reported herein were started in 1910. > CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. The climatic conditions at San Antonio are much different from those in the dry-farming regions farther north. The conditions fluctuate irregularly from semiarid to humid. Droughts of many weeks’ duration are common and may come at almost any season of the year, but they are more frequent and more serious during the summer months. The mean annual rainfail at San Antonio for a period of 33 years, as reported by the United States: Weather Bureau, is 26.83 inches. The mean annual rainfall for the 7-year period from 1907 to 1913, inclusive, as measured at the San Antonio Experiment Farm, 5 miles south of the city, is 24.66 inches. While the normal precipitation would appear to be sufficiently large to make crop production fairly certain, yet on account of the unequal distribution of the rainfall and the high 1¥rom January, 1910, to October, 1911, the experiments here reported were under the direct supervision of Mr. S. H. Hastings, superintendent of the San Antonio Experiment Farm. Mr. C. R. Letteer has had direct charge of the work since October, 1911. 52770°—14 2 BULLETIN 151, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. evaporation the effect of the precipitation is much lessened. The mean annual evaporation from a free water surface, as measured at the experiment farm for the 7-year period specified, is 65.88 inches. The winters are mild, yet periods of cold weather or “‘northers” are not infrequent during the winter season. The thermometer seldom registers a temperature below 15° F. in winter, and conse- quently plant growth continues practically throughout the year. SOIL CONDITIONS. The San Antonio Experiment Farm is located on what is called locally black “hog-wallow land.” This local name is due to the fact that the soil, when drying, shrinks and opens long, wide cracks, and the filling of these cracks with loose surface soil results in irregular depressions, which resemble hog wallows. The soil is a black clay loam, having a rather small proportion of sand and becoming very sticky when wet. It is classified by the United States Bureau of Sous t as Houston black clay loam and San Antonio clay loam. The first 3 feet of soil is fairly uniform in character and is under- lain with a white gravelly material which is rich in lime. This under- lying gravel has a relatively low moisture-holding capacity, while the surface soil has a high moisture-holding capacity, averaging from 25 to 30 per cent. When wet, the soil has a tendency to pack and become impervious, so that during torrential rains the loss of water from run-off is high. The soil is rich in mineral plant food and produces abundant crops when supplied with sufficient moisture. FALLOWING EXPERIMENTS. In 1910 experiments were inaugurated for the purpose of studying the effect of producing a crop only on alternate years, as compared with producing a crop every year on the same land. The crops of 1910 were grown on land which had not been previously fallowed, so that the results for that year are not considered here. The results here presented are from the years 1911, 1912, and 1913. The crops used in these experiments were corn, cotton, and winter oats. For this purpose six 1-acre plats were used, as follows: Plats A4-1 and A4-2 were used alternately for cotton, one plat bemg cropped and the other fallowed each year. In a similar way plats A4-3 and A4—4 were used for corn and A4—5 and A4—6 for winter oats. For purposes of comparison with these biennially cropped plats, use has been made of results obtained from three plats which are part of another experiment. These three plats are cropped each year and are given the same tillage treatment as the alternately cropped plats, except that the fallow period is 12 months shorter. The plats that are cropped annually have been under test since 1909, when the large 1 Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1904. CROP PRODUCTION ON FALLOW LAND AT SAN ANTONIO. 3 rotation and tillage experiment of which they are a part was started. The plats which are continuously cropped are as follows: B5-1, corn; B5-3, cotton; and B5-8, oats. The plats are each 264 feet long and 41.25 feet wide, and they are separated by alleys 43 feet wide. TREATMENT OF THE PLATS. Figure 1 shows graphically the cropping system practiced on the plats considered in this report, from the time the biennial cropping experiments were started until the close of the year 1913. The winter oats were seeded early in November and harvested in May, the corn was planted the latter part of February and harvested 4/0 Lh SWE SHF AN APR. JULY OCT, JAN APR JSULY OCT JAN AAR SULY OCT. SAN._APR. SLY OCT LAN Vin = PLAT AStAS COTO. FLAT APE = = i / = FLAT. BE-F | EB BE AERIOD WV CROP. EXPLANATION. WHEE. FERIOD 1 STUGELE. Ss 227/00 HALLOW Fic. 1.—Diagram showing the cropping system practiced on the plats where biennial cropping has been tested in comparison with continuous cropping at the San Antonio Experiment Farm. in July, and the cotton was planted early in April and the harvest completed in October. In all cases except plat B5-8 (oats cropped annually) the plats were plowed about 8 inches deep as soon as practicable after the crop wasremoved. Plat B5—-8 was left unplowed until just before planting time. After plowing, the plats were harrowed after the first heavy rain came, to soften the clods. They were then harrowed or disked after each rain of consequence and also whenever it was necessary to keep them clear of weed growth and to maintain a soil mulch. For the most part the spike-tooth harrow was sufficient to maintain an adequate mulch throughout the greater part of the fallow period. 4 BULLETIN 151, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. YIELDS OBTAINED. Table I gives the yields of various crops from the plats cropped biennially, as compared with the yields of the same crops on plats cropped annually, and the average yields of the various crops from all plats planted to each crop in the rotation experiments. The aver- age yields are obtained by considering all of the plats in the rotation experiments and should be fairly representative of results from good farming in that region. TasLe I1.—Crop yields from plats cropped biennially, as compared with plats cropped annually and with all plats used for these crops in the rotation experiments. Average of all rota- Biennial cropping. tion plats. ! | Annual Year and crop. | | al | | | Percentage | croppms. | Number of Actual. | of annual | Yield. | plats | | Cropping. | | averaged. 1911 | Gren aoc Sine Pie eel seems hee bushels. -| 3.2 | 59.2 5.4| 10.6 29 ACEO St PS Soe pounds..| 318.0 } 71.3 446.0 | 483.0 B BE ea an pg ple bushels. .| 10.1 | 160. 5 6.3 8.5 11 1912. | | acres ens ce ae ee a ee pushels..| 24.7 | 92.9 .6| 34.1 26 Cottons 2 Bees eee ec fesse ce ee a pounds. - 448.0 | 94.6 474.0) 621.5 25 CVats eco see ene mate nee Tae bushels 37.0 | 181.5 20.4 26.75 10 1913. | Porn. Byes Be Ee 3 Ie bushels. 30.7 | 92.8 33.1] 349 a COLLOIES 22 3 are ee ia ee .-pounds..} 350.0 53.9 508.0} 560.1 30 Osten ace sac ncseeee been e 22 eee eee eS bushels. . 38.0 | 369. 0 10.3 | 1.7 | 9 AVERAGE, 1911-1513. i | i 1 ee ee nerd eee Neen eee ene. bushels 19.5 | 89.9 1A 0028.5 |. Oey rite yates a ees oe Bee Aa pounds 372.0 | 78.2 AGO} 554.9) |" 27 ee 3 PR ie Seer al ine Sem oA DNR NINERS bushels 28.4 | 231.0 iowa els. 7 ~ | 2 ea 1 The rotation experiments are conducted on $2 quarter-acre plats. They include continuous cropping, biennial cropping, and 2-year, 3-year, and 4-year rotations, combined with various tillage methods, manur- ing, and green manuring. In general, it would be expected that the average yields in these experiments would be larger than those obtaimed from the continuously cropped piats. It is shown in Table I that in no instance has cotton or corn yielded as much on biennially cropped as on annually cropped land. The average yields of cotton and corn on all the rotation plats have been higher than those secured from either biennial cropping or annual cropping, indicating that neither fallowing nor continuous cropping for corn and cotton is to be recommended as a general practice under San Antonio conditions. On the other hand, winter oats on land biennially cropped have consistently yielded higher than where planted annually on the same land and higher than the average from all oat plats in the rotation experiments. . VEGETATIVE GROWTH OF CROPS ON FALLOWED LAND. It has been observed during the past two years that during the greater part of the growing period oats made a less rank growth on the fallowed plat than on the plats in the rotation experiments. CROP PRODUCTION ON FALLOW LAND AT SAN ANTONIO. 5 This comparatively light vegetative growth appears to have been favorable to the production of grain. In 1912 and 1913, especially the latter season, oats on the rotation plats lodged badly, owing to excessive vegetative growth. It has been found at San Antonio that any treatment which has a tendency to retard the early vegetative growth of the oat plant results in increased yields of grain. An instance substantiating this statement is afforded by the unfavorable results from manuring on land planted to oats to be harvested for grain. Ina 4-year test with oats, manuring has noticeably decreased the yield of grain in two out of the four years, while in the other two years the yields were practically the same as those obtained from unmanured land. It appears, therefore, that the increase in yield of oats on fallowed land has not been due to the fact that conditions were more favorable to growth, but rather to a depressing effect on the vegetative growth. Crops grown on fallowed land have invariably shown irregular and slow early development as compared with the same crops on other plats. The corn and cotton on the fallowed plats have been notice- ably smaller than on the other plats in the rotation experiments, and the plants have lacked uniformity in size and appearance. Observa- tions on other plats: of the experiment farm where cotton has been grown on fallowed land corroborate this conclusion. While the differences with oats have not been so marked, in 1913 the oats on fallowed land were smaller and made slower growth than on land continuously cropped or having other treatments. On account of the difficulty with the lodging of grain crops, as already indicated, the depressing effect of fallowing on the growth of the plants results in high yields of oats, while it has the opposite effect on corn and cotton. SOIL-MOISTURE STUDI#S. Soil-moisture determinations have been made on the fallowed plats considered in this report and also on the continuously cropped plats devoted to the same crops. Samples have been taken monthly or oftener during the summer throughout the three years. , | North Vir- aEReEE Caro- Vir- sissy Caro- ginia. “| lina. ginia. “| lina. Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- | Aver- | Aver- | Maxi- | Aver- | Aver- | Aver- mum. | mum. | age. age. age. | mum. | age. age. age. Serie = 1A) 3.1 See 4.2 6.2 Z 8.0 10.5 Pease 12.4 15.9 20: dated -O6| = 29:01. 450,)-22 oe 20 34 2D Rea ee RR eT 2 1.2}. 157.0 3.0 24.0 29.0 580 jae Se es 39 56 gb ieee een ea ye See ee 1.6} 188.0 4.8 31.0 36.0 130 ae seoee 60 79 TAO es 8 HES RE Ease 2.2 | 220.0 7.0 38.0 44.0 910 ||| 22. 555s 85 100 TSO ER B25. Jo Seed ota ease oe 2.8 | 257.0 10.0 46.0 5220 | 1, 130 ees =e 110 130 S60 Si tee Beles see 3.5 | 297.0 13.5| 54.0! 60.0} 1,380 10 150 160 DIOS eae AOR eh Ok 4.3 | 340.0 17.7 64.0 68.0} 1,650 22 190 200 ESO arenas ee. Shee Ss seen | 5.2} 381.0 22.0 74.0 77.0} 1,920 39 230 250 190 Be ee Ont eRe one 6.1 | 422.0 27.0 86.0 86.0 | 2,170 58 270 300 QO a = Sen Se ares tore 7-1 | 460.0 32.0 98.0 94.0 | 2,400 80 310 350 1 Based on the following data, collected by Walter Mulford, 1905-1906: West Virginia, Greenbrier County..........-..---- 47 trees, 137 to 200 years old. Tennessee, Johnson County.............---------- 131 trees, 111 to 200 years old. North Carolina, Mitchell County...............--- 308 trees, 89 to 200 years old. THE EASTERN HEMLOCK. HOG TaBLE 10.—Growth of hemlock in Otsego County, N. Y:! Diameter breast-high. Height. Volume. Age. Inches. Feet. Cubic feet. Board feet. Mini- | Aver- | Maxi- | Mini- | Aver- | Maxi- | Aver- | Maxi- | Aver- | Maxi- mum. | age. | mum. }]mum.| age. |mum.| age. | mum.| age. | mum. Years. 2D) Neecnocss 0.4 ah aR Es 7 DL ees MSS Maite se] Pe eas sl Be ene 30 0.1 9 2.9 5 10 PAC (ame AE ye S| ees a Ib Soe el Be et 40 .3 1.4 4.4 6 13 SOS Noeg a ay Bae seh oe al Ay ae eae | tS ee 50 53 1.9 5.9 a 16 AG) aap nbs Paci Ras sta seh Ree ae 60 sit 2.5 7.4 8 20 588/24 55 CG? a [al PAN 70 9 3.3 8.9 9 24 GGn|Seeeoes: GIL te el 30 80 1.1 4.0 10.5 10 28 (esd Beene TSS eee et 55 90 1.3 4.7 12.1 11 32 DOR ama esees 26050) Serene 86 100 1.5 5.5 13.8 13 36 84 7, Bh) esoocoee 120 110 1.9 6. 4 15. 4 15 40 88 3.1 CUE eupoaton 170 120 PA 7.3 17.1 16 45 91 5.0 60.0 |.-.----- 230 130 2.4 8.3 18.7 17 50 94 7.9 75.0 16 300 140 D7 9.4 20. 4 19 54 97 11.1 91.0 29 380 150 3.0 10.5 22.1 20 59 100 15.5 | 108.0 44 480 160 3:3 11.6 23.9 22 63 102 20.0} 126.0 61 590 170 3.7 12.7 25.7 23 66 105 24.0 | 145.0 80 710 180 4.1 13.5 27.4 25 69)\-Aosseels PR Nescoeecic 100 850 190 4.4 14.3 29.1 27 Tilt ee are B40 eee 120 | 1,000 200 4.9 15.1 30.9 29 (Pay epee & BYLO beeascac 140 | 1,150 1 Based on measurements of 176 trees, 48 to 420 years old, made by J. G. Peters in 1902. TaBLE 11.—Growth of hemlock in Vermont.? (Average.) Diameter Age. preast-high. Volume. Years. Inches. Ba. ft. 130 To) |lsscacdasesad 140 8.0 34 150 9.0 48 160 10.2 69 170 11.4 100 180 12.6 140 190 13.9 180 200 15. 2 230 2 Data contained in Vermont Experiment Station Bulletin 161, ‘‘Hemlockin Vermont,” by A. F. Hawes. Volumes scaled by Vermont rule. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INJURY. As before stated, hemlock is extremely sensitive to sudden changes in the density of the forest. Middle-aged and full-grown trees appear to be the most susceptible. The most destructive of the insect enemies of hemlock is the flat- headed eastern hemlock bark borer, Melanophila fulvogutiata Harr. According to Mr. H. E. Burke ® this insect “has caused the death of 3 “Tnjuries to forest trees by flat-headed borers.’? Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture, 1909; pp. 405-406. See also following articles by Dr. A. D. Hopkins: ‘Catalogue of exhibits of insect enemies of forest and forest products, etc.,’’ Bul. 48, Bureau of Ento- mology, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1904, p. 38. . “On the study of forest entomology in America,” Bul. 37, Bureau of Entomology, 1902, p. 22. Sears 28 BULLETIN 152, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a large amount of hemlock timber throughout the Appalachian and Northeastern States. It mines the bark on living, injured, and dying trees and kills them outright or hastens their death.”” Whenever large quantities of hemlock are found to be dying, search should be made for the work of this insect, and, if found, special advice in regard to combating it should be obtained from the Bureau of Ento- mology, Division of Forest Insects. Hemlock is comparatively free from serious parasitic fungous diseases. Damping-off, the great enemy of many conifers in the seedling stage, is almost unknown with this species. While there are several diseases of the living tree, they seem never to occur in serious epidemics. This is no doubt largely due to the fact that the tree usually grows in mixed stands. The timber when cut is very sus- ceptible to decay, and a large number of saprophytic fungi attack it.1 The shallow-rootedness of hemlock makes it very susceptible to fire. A ground fire which burns through the humus will usually kill hemlock trees, though deeper-rooted species may escape with slight injury. Even a severe surface fire may dry out the humus or damage the roots sufficiently to kill the tree outright, or at least to lay it open to attack by fungi and insects. Severe crown fires are invariably fatal. Fires of all kinds are most to be feared after logging opera- tions in adjacent timber, when the ground is covered with the dry and highly inflammable tree tops and branches. The best safe- guard is to burn this débris under conditions making it impossible for the fire to escape. The danger can be lessened by lopping away all branches from the tops, and either piling them or scattering them close to the ground. Because of its relatively short, stout, tapering trunk, hemlock is less subject to windfall than its shallow root system would lead one to expect. Where it grows as an understory among taller neighbors it is rarely thrown except by winds strong enough to overthrow all species alike. Severe damage is often done, however, to stands con- sisting principally of hemlock, especially when located on shallow soil and in situations exposed to the wind. In September, 1896, a heavy storm near Wilkes-Barre, Pa., blew down over 6,000,000 feet of hemlock in one tract, and similar cases are not uncommon. Where the roots are fairly secure, the trunk or the crown may be snapped off by severe winds. The most common and in the aggregate the worst injury to hem- lock from wind is the so-called “wind-shake,”’ which is a separation of the rings of wood caused by the tree being rocked back and forth. Wind-shake is always found in the butt, which is thereby rendered 1 This paragraph regarding diseases was prepared by Perley Spaulding, pathologist, Investigations in Forest Pathology, Bureau of Plant Industry. Further information on fungous injury to hemlock is con- tained in ‘‘ Diseases of the eastern hemlock,’ by Dr. Spaulding, in Proc. Society of American Foresters Vol. IX, No. 2, pp. 245-256. Bul. 152, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. SUPPRESSED HEMLOCK SAPLINGS IN A MATURE STAND OF HEMLOCK. These will fill openings left by the remoyal of old trees, but too sudden an opening of the stand will kill them. THE EASTERN HEMLOCK. 29 unfit for lumber. In connection with the prevailng “butt rot,” this has made necessary the custom of cutting high stumps and sawing off the butts until they reveal solid wood. Where there is a market for pulpwood, high stumps and butts left in the woods represent a great deal of unnecessary waste. HEMLOCK IN FOREST MANAGEMENT. Hemlock grows too slowly and is of too little commercial value to be recommended for planting or for encouragement among natural second growth as a timber tree. An understory of hemlock, how- ever, like one of spruce or fir, is useful for soil protection, especially in stands of oak, chestnut, pine, and other species, when these do not themselves cast a sufficiently heavy shade. As a decorative tree for parks it is very desirable, and its heavy foliage and shade endur- ance give it exceptional value for the protection of stream sources. — The management of hemlock will ultimately be restricted to lands useless not only for agriculture but also for growing many kinds of commercial timber. Poorly accessible mountain lands, where log- ging is difficult and expensive, can well be devoted to raising hemlock and other slow-growing timber through long rotations and to large sizes. The expense entailed by such a procedure, however, will ordi- narily be too great to warrant private investment, and the manage- ment will therefore be a State problem. In such places lumber pro- duction will tend to become secondary to protection as an object of management. Hemlock’s tolerance of shade adapts it for growth as a subordinate stand among other kinds of timber. In such cases it materially in- creases the yield per acre and at the same time protects and enriches the forest soil, thereby tending to accelerate the growth of the other species. To increase the proportion and accelerate the growth of hemlock in the mixed stands where it is now found, the selection (‘‘single- tree’) method of management is best. This involves the removal at stated intervals of scattered mature trees or small groups of trees, and should not open up the stand enough to endanger it from wind- fall or from too sudden access of light and air. On steep slopes the cutting must be especially light, to prevent erosion. Besides accel- erating the growth of the hemlock understory by admitting light, the system also insures a constant growth of timber without the long, unproductive period of reestablishment which follows clear cutting. In all selection cutting the branches should be lopped and scattered. Pure or nearly pure hemlock second growth should be thinned very lightly and often, so as to insure to each tree a good supply of light and growing space. Additional thinnings should be made when- ever the crowns close together. 30 BULLETIN 152, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A great deal of the remaining old-growth hemlock timber occupies fertile soil, suitable either for agriculture or for raising timber crops of rapid-growing species. The expense of selection cuttings to favor hemlock on lands of this quality is not warranted. Clear cutting, therefore, is the best in such cases. Attempts to secure hemlock reproduction in the ensuing second growth, however, are obviously out of place. Unless the land is claimed for cultivation, some of the more rapid growing species which appear in the second growth are usually of more promise as the principal crop. The management of hemlock on level lands thus becomes a prob- lem of the best use of the existing timber, with no special effort to secure hemlock reproduction. What constitutes best use is deter- mined by market and labor conditions in any given region. The util- ization of all species constantly becomes more intensive, and the pre- mium once placed on waste both in the woods and at the millis growing less as new uses are introduced and the value of wood increases. Paper-pulp and fiber-board manufacture has presented good opportu- nities for profitably disposing of waste. In some regions hemlock is going into pulp instead of lumber. Itisin connection with pulpwood logging that tanbark gathering can be done most economically, since peeled logs are more suitable for pulp and less suitable for lumber than unpeeled. The use of hemlock for pulp has the further ad- vantage that it includes crooked and small logs of little or no value for lumber and of knotty tops and broken and defective logs that would otherwise be left in the woods to rot. Quantities of hemlock slabs are now sold to pulp mills by sawmills; but much low-grade hemlock lumber is still produced, the value of which is often less than that of an equal wood volume made into pulp. Among the economies of the future one of the most important will be a closer discrimination between logs and portions of logs which will make high-grade lum- ber and those which will pay better for pulp. APPENDIX. Tables 12 to 15 show the volumes of average hemlock trees, in board feet, Scribner rule, in the Lake States and the Southern Appalachian region. These are based both on the total height of the tree and on the number of logs. Table 16 gives both the cubic-foot and the board- foot volumes (by actual measurement, not by log scale) of small- sized hemlock in northern New Hampshire. Table 17 gives the mer- chantable cubic volume of hemlock (including bark) in the Lake States. Cubic volumes may be reduced roughly to cords by dividing by 90. The volume without bark can be obtained approximately by deducting 19 per cent from the total volume for Lake States figures and the following per cents for Southern Appalachian measurements: F Bark volume pear ere in proportion St-ngh. | to total volume Inches. Per cent 6- 9 10-15 17 16-21 18 22-27 19 TaBLE 12.— Volume of hemlock, in board feet, Wisconsin ( Marinette and Vilas Counties) and Michigan (Gogebic County). [Based on total height of tree. Scaled by the Scribner rule.] Height of tree—feet. L Diam- Die eter 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 inside | Basis. breast- bark LEED pe | of top Volume—board feet. Inches. Inches. | Trees. 8 5 a 13 20 25 oO) Meese tel lefes 8 si Sema 53 8 14 22 29 35 BOUL SR ee a 6 72 10 12 22 32 40 47 GPE Sell a Meee a 6 56 il 16 29 42 51 60 67 (ae Beste 6 53 12 20 37 53 64 76 84 Chi sac Sa u 46 13 25 46 65 78 94 100 LTO) ER es 7 35 14 30 56 77 95 | 110 130 40) 13 eS. 7 18 15 36 65 90} 110] 130 150 WA) Neososses 8 31 16 41 76 | 110) 1380] 160 180 190 200 8 25 aU a a se 87 | 120] 150} 180 210 220 240 8 30 aD Bee eke 100 | 140} 180! 210 240 260 280 8 14 19) os eee Ee 160 | 200} 240 280 300 320 9 16 20) ease a eee 180 | 230} 280 310 340 360 9 20 PU Fe es es a 200 |} 260) 310 350 380 410 9 11 P77 eB esse 220 | 290] 350 390 430 470 10 13 PY BR Ba La eae Ba a 330 | 380 440 480 520 10 4 PUD RS Ba eee 360 | 420 490 540 580 10 6 25 eee ome eeosae lace 390 | 460 530 600 650 10 9 210} es bce Sonecal eceraee 430 | 510 580 660 720 11 4 21 erste | Bere cytaltee t sc 470 | 550 640 720 790 11 8 28H eet leeeate Wreicisiors 500 | 590 690 780 870 il 6 Paes Goel Geren] See 540 | 640 750 850 940 ll 3 SO) eercers | Bee eee bein 570 | 680 800 920 | 1,030 12 1 31 32 BULLETIN 152, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 12.—Volume of hemlock, in board feet, Wisconsin ( Marinette and Vilas Counties) and Michigan (Gogebic County)—Continued. Height of tree—feet. Diam- Las eter : | | | es : preast- 30 40 50 |; 60 ; 70 | 80 | -90 | 100 inside | Basis. : bark of top. Volume—board feet. { Inches. | 5 Inches.| Trees STH aie bc Lt Si | es So | 720 860 990 | 1,110 12 2 Oe ees See eee Bee as eS 760 930 | 1,070 | 1,200 12 1 B53) bea ee | |e | | Sere ei 810 990 | 1,140} 1,290 12 3 BAg|. 3 Seulaets seek ee? ise? | 850 | 1,050] 1,220] 1,380 13 1 20 (ai al ie P| tea ES aa I A 1,120 | 1,300} 1,480 13 1 Tig | ol Le i [sae 1,180 | 1,380] 1,570 16 es Ae 37 ssl Eels eC [3 cal ae Bee eee 1,470 | 1,670 Ba es ees Bt eal ee pees eee feeeeee | cosheoe 1,550 | 1,780 (Bes aee | 542 | | | } Scaled from taper curves, mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs. Stump height, 2 feet. TaBLE 13.— Volume of hemlock, in board feet, Wisconsin (Marinetteand Vilas Counties) and Michigan (Gogebic County). [Based on number of 16-foot logs per tree. Scaled by the Scribner rule.] | Number of 16-foot logs. | - Diam- Tees | | eter 1 14 2 23 3 33 |~ClC4 44 5 inside | Basis. breast- | high | bark ; of top. Volume—board feet. | | Inches. | Inches.| Trees. Sil 13h yess. Os i| esses [ere ese | Sesercee ome [ae cent [bs acm sc ce rears a 6 53 Qi 278197] Fe SOT eta Sse ee Eide set [oo Aa Pa Poh Ne ee | eet 6 72 10) | 20 u| eS OR) 87 ig G0 r |e ne We tei re ae oJ os oe eee 6 56 14) O83) 57492 dees eee | ve eee ee eal eee 6 53 123) e250 W451 | GON ne Sn ALON ee en ee eee ere 7 46 TE: ec he eet embaai7yt fea (0a 8) Weep I jee ee [ER RS | ee ae 7 35 14| 28] 63) 92] 120} 140 1703). 5.2 | ee ee Pe 7 18 15| 30| 72} 110} 130} 170 DV Bee me el Pare =| ean ee 8 31 16, 32,1] s2)| 120] 150} 390 |~ 290 |e Paes MarR as Di ee GF 17| 34| 94! 140] 180] 210 FE he pees a Laas 5 8 30 ig| 36] 110} 160) 200| 240 280 SP ease ae ol (ERD 18 8 14 19| 38]| 120) 180} 220} 270 310 ele te Cee 9 16 20| 40] 130| 200} 250| 290 340 300 | es tbe 9 20 7A eee 150 | 230| 280] 330 330 CETTE coer 3 Neaellinre Ca 9 11 574 | eee 170 | 260| 310] 360 420 450) } 24530) |e. =. S 10 13 551 ee ol Bee 230 | 340} 400 460 530} 600 |.2...-.- 10 4 ay Sie | eee 310 | 370] 440 10g pee DSO || eRNGGO SE ose 3 10 6 2 ee =| BRE 400 | 480 560 | G40 Nga 7300 be obs 10 9 GD Cie Ji Re 360 | 430| 520 600 | 700! 310 920 11 4 Oe eae (alia (Se | 470| 560 660| 770 880 | 1,000 11 8 FFA (age Oe (ees (5° Fee | 500] 600 710} 830 960 | 1,090 11 6 |- 7 ee 9 (eee |: =: Sa | 530] 640 760; 900] 1,040/ 1,180 li 3 BT eee | Peed Eee | 560} 680 820, 960} 1,110] 1,270 12 1 | = (| (ela S| Pee cea! ails 720 880 | 1,040} 1,200] 1,370 12 2 Bi eee aes | RO fib! | mee 770 930} 1,110 | 1,280} 1,460 12 1 so ee ae 2 eee 9 820 990 | 1,180 | 1,370| 1,560 12 3 34, [ee ee [bee ere 870 | 1,050] 1,250] 1,450! 1,670 13 1 By [ays ee RG FS oe A |S 1,140} 1,340] 1,550] 1,760 13 1 7G bee, eae ae SS | ae ae | epi Ieee Sse 1,210} 1,420] 1,640] 1,870 jy Beh eke 375). 0a speed | ie 1,500 | 1,730} 1,970 13 | see i ea ot 3 ea a ieee ie ee we Fe 1,580 | 1,830} 2,080 5 ey Sane 542 Scaled from taper curves, mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs. Stump height, 2 feet. THE EASTERN HEMLOCK. TABLE 14.— Volume of hemlock in board feet, Southern Appalachian region. [Based on total height of trees. Scaled by Scribner Decimal C rule.] Height of tree—feet. ; Height | eter eter | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | 110 | 120 | of | inside | Total breast: stump.| bark | 45'S: igh. of top Volume—board feet (in tens). Inches. Feet. | Inches. | Trees. 10 1 1 2.1 7 6 11 2 2 2.2 8 3 12 3 4 2.2 8 9 13 4 5 2.3 9 23 14 6 7 2.3 9 33 15 7 8 2.4 10 59 16 9 10 11 13 16 19 2Auo Le ae 2.4 10 64 17 10 12 14 16 19 23 28) Pee 2.4 11 65 18 12 14 17 20 23 27 Ooi Bene 2.5 11 77 19 14 17 20 23 27 31 36 41 2.5 12 83 - 20 17 20 23 26 31 35 41 46 2.5 12 68 21 19 23 26 30 35 40 46 51 2.5 13 80 22 22 26 30 34 40 45 51 57 2.6 13 81 23 25 29 34 39 44 50 56 63 2.6 13 86 24 29 33 39 44 50 56 62 69 2.6 14 67 PN eonce 38 43 49 55 62 69 76 2.6 14 81 9B ecccos 42 48 54 61 68 75 83 2.6 15 62 27h sae 47 53 60 67 74 83 91 2.6 15 64 285 Saee 52 59 66 73 81 90 99 2.6 15 67 29 earns 58 64 72 80 89 98 | 108 2.6 16 54 a0) eaGobe 63 70 78 87 97} 107 | 117 2.6 16 34 76 85 95 |} 105 | 116 | 127 2.7 17 33 82 92 | 102) 114| 126] 138 2.7 17 37 88 99 { 111] 124/ 136] 150 2.7 18 29 94} 106} 120} 134] 147] 162 2.7. 18 33 100 | 114|) 129] 144] 158) 174 2.7 19 19 Biel beet beeen ean ae 122 | 138} 154] 170] 187 2.7 19 21 fy ere el neti ara 131 | 148] 165] 182] 200 2.7 19 9 8 hae hal eae eens 140 | 158] 176} 194} 212 Pl 20 10 BAU | eae) LO are ba 149 | 168) 187 | 206] 225 2.8 20 8 AON eke he es ee 158 | 179} 198) 218] 238 2.8 21 7 COL Li ere LSS Bese Ge eecie 189 | 209) 230) 251 2.8 21 5 ADE spn Clie Se. BalfeNTe Aae ik 199 | 220 | 242] 264 2.8 22 5 CEB gel eaeese] Fercae Geeece 209 | 232) 254] 277 2.8 22 6 Ce OR eal Hepadd) beac oceor 220 | 244] 267} 290 2.8 23 4 Ayn | RS HS are a pe 2 Pe A 230 | 255 | 279} 303 2.8 23 3 AGH | Sab ea | eee ase tele See Slee 266 | 291 |) 316 2.8 24 1 yl escpcdl beacon sepocd Gecaas tocass 278 | 303 | 329 2.8 25 t COSSES SelbonGug babaselaeobodiessece 289 | 315} 342 2.9 25 2 CO Rec dl bodes HESRSa beomse Gee som 301 | 327 | 355 2.9 26 1 beaten bouton HeaBas) Hemacel recess 312 | 340] 368 2.9 26 2 1, 402 1 From data secured under the direction of Walter Mulford, 1905-6. 34 BULLETIN 152, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 15.— Volume of hemlock in board feet, Southern Appalachion region: [Based on number of 16-foot logs per tree. Scaled by Scribner rule.] Number of 16-foot logs. Diam- eter inside | Basis. bark of top. 1} | 2 | 2 3 E [ea fie ee [a lie Volume—board feet. Inches.| Trees. 18)" 229) "40 - 52a Glee 2 ele Ree el ee es ee ee ee mg we Se > ae ReSS& 2geSsh SSSRS SRRRR BS BENS SAIISR 30 eos _ ~I i=) NNNNe sess S83e5 § we Bri QoARE oo Ss aE 890)... --- Pek eed Coes 970) | aime | Rear & 1,080} 1,190)......]... 1170) p4 300 aoe eee 1,270 1,410) 1550/82 1,370} 1,510] 1,660)...... 1,470} 1,630) 1,790) 1, 950 1,580} 1,750) 1,910) 2,070 1,700] 1,870) 2,060) 2,240 1,820} 2,010} 2,200] 2,390 1,930) 2,150! 2,360] 2,580 2,050] 2,270) 2,490) 2,710 2,170) 2,410) 2,650) 2,890 2,300| 2,560] 2,820! 3,090 2,420] 2,700) 2,960) 3, 250 2,560) 2,840] 3,130] 3,410 2,690] 2,980] 3,270! 3,550 2,820] 3,120] 3,420) 3,720 2,960} 3,280) 3,600) 3,930 3,100] 3,440] 3,770) 4,100 3,250] 3,600) 3,960] 4,310 3,400) 3,760] 4,140) 4,510 3,550] 3,940) 4,330) 4,720 3,710] 4,110] 4,520) 4,940 3,880] 4,300) 4,730! 5,150 4,030| 4,480] 4,930) 5,360 4,200) 4,670) 5,140) 5.630 1 From data secured under the direction of Walter Mulford, 1905-6. © 000000 = OONMIMINID DODD er a ee eS ee eae | THE EASTERN HEMLOCK. 35 * TasLE 16.—Volume of hemlock in cubic feet and board feet, southern New Hampshire. [Based on total height of tree.1] Height of tree—feet. Barone ian Diam- Posed : ler eter ee inside . breast- 30 | 40 | 50 60 | 70 per 1 | bark of| Basis. high. cube lest ‘00 0 Volume of used length. of log. 3 Cu.ft.|Bd. ft.| Cu.ft.| Bd. ft.| Cu. ft.|Bd. ft.| Cu. ft.|Bd. ft.| Cu. ft.|Bd. ft ie Tnches: Eee 5 Pi Bees SY Ml ROnEee SSricos| |= SSace| bbacdal baekar - : 20} 5.0 30) 6.3 AQ A asoleecaee 5.0 4.4 17 28 | 6.6 39} 8.1 GN Seeneeenes eres 5.3 5.1 40 36] 8.4 49 | 10.0 60 | 11.8 |...... 5.5 5.3 57 46 | 10.6 59 | 12.5 71 | 14.3 86 5.6 5.7 57 58 | 13.0 72 | 15.2 86 | 17.3} 103 5.6 5.5 41 72 | 15.4 86 | 18.2} 103 | 20.8} 123 5.7 6.0 42 88 | 18.3 | 104 | 21.5} 124 | 24.3 | 148 5.7 6.7 17 107 | 21.2 | 125 | 25.0] 147 | 28.2) 173 5.8 6.1 14 126 | 24.4 | 148 | 28.8] 172; 32.8] 204 5.9 6.4 14 148 | 27.6 | 171 | 33.0] 200 | 37.5] 240 6.1 6.7 6 satsck|seewce pee cioe|sebeee 30.8 | 197 | 37.7 233 | 42.8] 281 6.2 5.9 8 317 1 Prepared by C. A. Lyford and Louis Margolin, 1906. The volumes in board feet are for actual saw cut, sud therefore run much higher than if they were based on log scale. The volume in cubic feet includes ark. TaBLE 17.— Volume of hemlock in cubic feet (including bark), Wisconsin ( Marinette and Vilas Counties) and Michigan (Gogebic County). [Based on total height of tree.] Total height of tree—feet. 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 Basis. Volume—cubic feet. 1.6 1.2 1.7 2.0 2.6 3.3 3.1 4.1 5.2 4.1 5.5 7.3 5.4 7.4 9.3 7.0 9.5 11.9 8.6 11.8 14.6 10.6 14.4 18.0 12.5 17.0 21.0 14.8 20.0 24.0 17.0 23.0 28.0 19.3 26.0 32.0 SEES ial Goer 36.0 SSR onwal eis Sora 41.0 Mees eal Seine Sale 45,0 sect Seren 50.0 Based on taper curves. Volume includes stem with bark between a 2-foot stump and a 4-inch top. Bark forms 19 per cent of the total volume of the stem. ~ 36 BULLETIN 152, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table 18 shows the average amount of bark obtainable per 1,000 board feet from hemlock trees of different sizes in the Southern Appalachians. TaBLE 18.—Cords of bark per 1,000 board feet (Doyle-Scribner) for hemlock trees of different sizes in the Southern Appalachians. Diameter | Cords per | Diameter | Cords per | Diameter | Cords per breast- |1,000board} breast- |1,000board}| breast- | 1,000 board high. feet. high. feet. high. feet. Inches. Inches. Inches. 12 2.8 18 1.1 25 0.6 13 2.3 19 1.0 26 6 14 1.9 20 -9 27 a) 15 1.6 21 -8 28 5 16 1.3 22 .8 29 -o 17 1.2 23 Au 30 4 8 ES SS| Mesa ceca 24 ed ate oe NS LENE Ale Se eke eer 1 From data secured under the direction of Walter Mulford, 1905-6. TaBLE 19.— Volume of hemlock bark, in cords, for trees over and under 100 feet in height, Southern Appalachian region. Trees 100 | Trees 100 Trees 100 | Trees 100 fev eud feet and fet aud feet and Diameter under. over. : Diameter under. over. ZA breast-high. Basis. breast-high. Basis. Volume of bark. Volume of bark. Inches Cord. Cord Trees. Inches. Cord. Cord Trees 1 (1a 0 a D2 ee ee 1 31 0. 42 0. 48 26 11 6 (Oe enone 1 32 . 43 50 18 12 1G Tae See See 2 33 45 52 23 13 IGN SS ee See 5 34 47 55 20 14 15} to Pee eee 12 35 48 57 14 15 14 0.18 14 36 . 90 59 14 16 15 .19 20 37 52 62 8 17 17 21 30 38 53 . 64 11 18 19 #23) 35 39 55 . 67 & 19 21 a2 33 40 56 . 69 5 20 23 Bate NG 28 41 58 .72 4 21 25 . 28 » . 36 42 60 ao 6 22 27 .30 35 ABTA ses aoe eeaee a - 78 1 23 29 02 50 ZV |e ene as SIP |b see 22 58 24 30 . 34 30 LNG\S |e ee Fea 84 1 25 32 -36 36 LG) a 2 sae ee een Ati 2 26 34 .38 33 ATA Sey eet eee 91 2) 27 35 . 40 38 AS al ecto oe 94 2 28 37 . 42 32 29 39 44 22 682 30 40 46 27 1 Prepared under the direction of Walter Mulford, 1905-6. THE EASTERN HEMLOCK. 37 TaBLe 20.— Volume of hemlock bark in stacked cords— Vermont. Diameter | Volume of || Diameter | Volume of breast-high. bark. breast-high. bark. Inches. Cord. Inches. Cord. 8 0. 03 21 0. 25 9 05 22 - 28 10 06 za a u 07 2 12 08 25 37 13 09 26 - 40 14 10 27 43 15 12 28 46 16 14 29 - 50 17 16 18 .18 19 . 20 20 22) 1 From ‘‘Hemlock in Vermont,” by A. F. Hawes, State forester; Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bulletin 161 (Janu- uary,1912),p.8. The table was constructed by ‘‘subtracting the volumes of the trees inside the bark from their volumes outside the bark, and multiplying by 0.4, on the assumption that 40 per cent of an average stacked cord of bark is solid bark.’’ The accuracy of this factor (taken from Schenck’s ‘‘ Forest Mensura- tion,” 1905, p. 14) was borne out by investigations of a few piles of bark. : The following taper tables give diameters inside bark at different heights for average hemlock trees of various sizes in the Lake States and Southern Appalachians. The distances from the ground are in units of 8.15 feet above a 2-foot stump. These units represent the half of a 16.3-foot log. The practical use of these tables is to permit scaling trees of given size in terms of any desired log rule, but they also serve as a basis for comparing hemlock with other species in regard to form. The tables were prepared from existing measurements by ‘W.B. Barrows. TABLE 21.—Dvameters inside bark at different heights above the ground for trees of different sizes, based on measurements of 614 trees in Wisconsin ( Marinette and Vilas Counties) and Michigan (Gogebic County). [The heights above ground represent 16.3-foot logs and half logs, plus a stump height of 2 feet.] 30-foot trees. 40-foot trees. | 50-foot trees. 60-foot trees. Diameter Height above ground—feet. breast- high out- side bark. | 10.15 | 18.3 | 10.15] 18.3 | 26.45] 10.15] 18.3 | 26.45] 34.6 | 10.15] 18.3 | 26.45] 34.6 | 42.75 so Diameter inside bark—inches. Inches. A BEES SON LAA A Sells Dearie Gall 5202s [Acts ie Ua ae I Re SISOS URE ed CS TEMA ean Ra tale et Eye ley ae ae pO QAO gt toe [erosele [probs SIs 2 LL Se US ae Rg aR ree aN SE Reais (ie eas ae ZEN PhO CEB eeO PAO Geet eh GEG I) Bad oe adledeusdleooce lecosudiseeceallesce Ue Ses 5.6} 3.2] 5.7] 4.7) 3.1] 61] 5.3] 41] 2.8) 6.0] 5.5] 4.7] 3.6] 2.4] 1.3 See se oN 2 6.4] 3.9] 66] 5.3) 3.6] 69] 61) 48] 3.2) 68] 62) 5.3] 42] 2.9/1.5 Oe dae aes 7.4) 4.5) 7.5] 60] 41] 7.7] 6.8] 5.4] 3.6] 7.6] 6.9] 61] 4.8] 3.3/1.7 0) ee 8.1] 5.1] 83) 68) 46) 85] 7.6) 61] 40) 8&5] 7.8] 6.8] 5.4] 3.7] 2.0 Deere ake Dalen he 9.2] 7.5] 5.1] 9.3) 83] 66) 44] 9.2] 85) 7.5] 60] 41/]2.2 PD! 33 33 Fellas see | ea gS 10.0) 82) 5.7} 10.1) 9.0] 7.3) 4.8]10.0)] 9.5] 8.3] 66] 4.6] 2.4 LS ee ee en Bee Sd ae 10.9] 89} 6.2; 10.9) 9.8] 7.8] 5.2] 10.8) 10.1] 9.0] 7.2] 5.0] 2.6 LA Peo SA as. 28 11.8] 9.6] 6.8] 11.6] 10.5] 8.5} 5.6] 11.6] 10.9] 9.7] 7.8] 5.5] 2.9 GS SUL Se LG ee el te ai 12.7} 10.3] 7.3 | 12.3 | 11.2} 9.0] 6.0] 12.5] 11.6] 10.4] 8.4] 5.9] 3.2 9.7} 6.4] 13.3 |] 12.5] 11.1] 9.0] 6.4] 3.6 0.2) 6.9 714.1] 18.2] 11.8] 9.5] 6.8] 3.7 0.8 | 7.3} 14.8 | 14.1] 12.5] 10.1] 7.3 | 4.1 : 10.7] 7.7 | 4.4 b INES | eho 7 pa lblde b : 11.9} 8.6] 4.8 5 i 12.5} 9.0] 5.0 a EN IA A AES EI ES BUS OE eae et ON See ent 67.2 Lifer 1} of di (Marinette and Vilas Counties) 80-foot trees. 18.3 [2945 34.6 | 225] 50.9 59.05 Height above ground—feet. Diameter inside bark—inches. 614 trees in Wisconsin f BULLETIN 152, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 70-foot trees. 1 AMINO O MOOMH HOANHWO MAO HO § MINE ON WOHOM ODHANH OHOHM NKhO Ve Sac. WE gies a . . * * * . . . * . . . . . Ui yelav@. ca. * * * * « . - os ss . . . fe . AAANNS Sood ddididid Woods NX 1 Sodcdwidt weaidiidid WiGosos CONN Xr TOMO MAINA MAHON NONDO IMO PHiGiGSS OMEMD HGAAGS SOHN Adios SO oO Oe fe oe OD | Beer ee fe Jee guise ‘ OOWON OMINOW ONNOIN AMMAIn Od + od ett tid BOOM MOHDIAS ABSOSHH AN HHIDOW OMOWMH DOMOW HOnON Ono 67. a af 5 MONI COMMINSD OMI HHONO IDO * ° Cepcpcecd ee ee Coa eed : Ah cn AQ A CO CO i IS, 00) 00) ae SAA AN ot Hidnid Or —— fee. A 4 t : i : i H ' a 4 : t : r ton ‘ RRA AAAs Wie 3 apes OID DIO DINHMON MINOON MoO e = if iNobeide divas dade druid oad Po HOODOO ANISH OOM COMOM tH . ir) erecrsn en m J : . . - a * . . . . : * . Ce fe Te WY . . a AN 1 400 GW 00 =H poo EEE SBE BRIE ESE RIER UE: cpr Gasan Teu ness Goce tam —_ £ SB Patt Ee eh helices ARA QAR oa a to ee oe Lb HH COIDARO MOM minriciIg 00 fat 9 ap iglseves Syeoh ORGAO wr Arco PS Tet peepee eee GSR aah an oc Site 5 3 ate ROCs sigh ‘ Vi nddds Sidi wWisicr ndogs di || & of 1) BRAS BASS SAAS RaANe SSN aa s ore TP SOMOS RHO DONMIN GDOMOM WAC 1) HOINMH MINNOM™ MOnMH -NOKNRM OO Uy RCH RED sett dood dad S ocd es : nid WOO OAS | WO. ne Ot ACHE AURA TO RV OREG SO OG ORO SOE cy GRC F x PA Litdddes Sassen Sota ANRAA MRR vane Pe Oe I Oe Be os Fe EB on EB | SSRaR AA ry Ex} q Sara MAMM™~O MHROWD ACOOWN Aetrim ONO ° 3 tet AANA Soro BS Yoo Hadid «Sm 05 ‘ : RHAOM HAAM ONWOO trimwo moo T 8 q ee ee SRsan Neaee aaa 1) OGAONA Amadis OSM odd PSRann QR Le} Gr) | Pee OHNO QIN AweWMDO DIMM O OMe iets Sees ANA Ae RRR OR N od ay, Lt AN Sas BONA ASH Swiss & . (Tay q re bef eet tee SRANS RAGS PEs 1 1 MNOOID MHOWH MOMOH NAM HE ) | 8 | OAM AO MINDWAD MINA Hm oO MIND SL ASHHAAN Sadidd SrdaG Sanaa be 5 Pht Addis Choos Sram z SOE OBS eu WAAR A Re RAN is =} ‘i wpa! TO tt et et et et RANKS SaaS RRA ——__——~ — ae u Hc rio Ao WOMAN OCONMO MAHON 1 OO A a RA eet et nk Shag ates cy att ae ae cot kes ae Solel clededeil watelisid SSIS NeNRaS odat aA AAAs coded didididis Ooo & iS re —— o EE ———————————eE—E—E—EEEE_———— EEE oy nN S DDO OWOND ONOME ARMOWO NOOWD AN . oe act Sgt Reiasrp eas EA RONG Ae eon O1N MMOMM™ NOHINM WOMMmH 19H 1 ~ Fs| Odd idid isos MEMS BASSOS dddalg od05 i ° eet if ORR oc sat RRA TEN ee) . o C=} See aa weet Golick Oc) se ea nee SIS ied GPa as se jen] 12 Ks MON HINSINH MMOMA WOMMID NOAM C mmc 00 VeRO RS Se) Santen Sireman AISA Be nary C A IDG SOHAHG BDSSOHH Angad widdor mado OOO IDM AO HHONM MOMHO NOM re Lee hee idee ll ih hel li Raises Mx BSS SHISS didcda Weiss a Be SH Ce I aS wth oded t Se ee ee eee Vases s oo | . ire (OS OOOO Sr MN eS Sea WAN QM BHAI AROAS Omar OS s fe BUR IGG Gln Wh Gea Khai eR phon adiie: “cc SicceRpte e's sane nee Re oye > a8 isles! cotoniod xy BG Cr OWa Ssand 08 xf oH 1d co ESO) ce) os] MOD OSSIAN SIIas SaUAsSs Randa Rea ~~ a | >" S Oo EnAN GeTAO OMOmN AON NHOWA He HH DINMHO OMOON HOWE MOH & Bao Et MOEG un SSeS CEN GiaiaQienal: aise SN NAISS Haase dissin doses 3 ess _ ees Soidded WeSen AAIRs ANNRA ARK Sen Os Bs ee ee Oe Oe Oe Oe ee Be | for) Bx} OMe MiaAMDh WHiwWOION MOM™DHO WOMMOM DMI Been alder Snel ser aen cee eeletetet ep Pa a Ra ea Ha a rn . BSH AAG dH HOON O BCOOndnH nn AD OHNMM~ HHOIDH MAMOIn Nod & SD Bc ce hn Ph PO oD MARA NRRA8 Baa ie CISS eH A od of wi is IBS ix x 06 33 5 oD AG TAHAOD ONDA OTAROS DOWNA ah RTE aR LT MASCOT Bee Sasa : yen ce Soo Nits Songs SenaN KAANe Raw based on measurements o and Michigan (Gogebic County)—Continued. sizes, breast- Tasie 21.—Diameters inside bark at different heights above the ground for trees 0 high out- side bark. 102s| 18.3 2045 34.6 422 | 50.9 59.05 | 10.15 38 Diameter R10 MAD 1D NOMmMHN DMOMOMm WHA Es} COMM NOMWH AOMOM OWMMDO MOWINM MMO Stes ae ach ect oa ais Se Na Ua era here San Site aa ee ~ ~ : dd Id cmos od aH 19 16 6 oe rea ee CTR tas 3 HHS SHASS SSkas RANNR ANNAN AAR amie ag She gate no 0 Non 2 ton oo Do th on § id Hod We tee Rene eth h Won Neen obeo beg tae ot N ee ool ' e sor ' VSS) on | cert Pee We TL ' ee oon ‘ (hdd LV eee) Roan tn heb kb pened gi Oe tn DoReR QSOs Dan EO I eNeno TS open note ven dea wen ote oe ulD Lt Pie 8 tal ig Yad) Atal Se Ue @ Bi ee Thad °o te ts YY 2e GA VY ot Td ve ha ead AP Sees SS US Bal Peat Tong | On OG fn 8 O hea Ope Oo 83 qi2 Hae Cey OuIN) a Uetia 1s Ope Urelientts pea Qae(y custo ba laytee Cus Ugatke Oietten’ RICO desk. Dektrd ott te Gene AvOto MO Dut = thegh 2" LTR CeO OMe D ORNS etarns TeOe IN Damien StiecmeOa chet sO [fee sien Te GLY gC ee ae Pee ery C8 bis meal CLL Pa en (ie Pe BC R62 bey we) CO eT LAV 6 aU a INR Ca Si OURO rm 0oO ir.) Y HID OMmOMNO X PQ AAA SAAR ANRAR RNA Ar Ae MMi SRGR ANRAR RANKS SHBIS BSS 39 40-foot trees. Height above ground—feet. Diameter inside bark—inches. THE EASTERN HEMLOCK. [The heights above ground represent 16.3-foot logs and half logs plus a stump height of 2 feet.] Diameter breast-hign outside bark. TABLE 22.—Diameters inside bark at different heights above the ground for trees of different sizes, based on measurements of 1,548 trees in the Southern Appalachian region. © ONMErD NAMOOM OMNNO Aten ro . . PRA oss oO A SSE OR CEE SE aE Eg a Roto Bat i triad Aso wigs S pan Bond ANNO oot didi ON 6 . . wn . . 00 0-0 tee —a a ee ee a oo is ib PIDOM® HOON O1HOMO wOMOmM Om 1 1OM HROMHO OMA iS tt ANNO WHI6SOS NEWS GBSOSOHH Ha NOW WAS SH Shad nN oo Saeed Nod GD SH AD 6 L- 00 D&D a O10 ines DO 0 ond a0 — ae L$ SOAMIGH ABMOHNRD® ONARNA MONNt OO 11M HOOINM NAHMOO . * 68 MOMS GOMWH BOSOHN Asti SS Os On ear tee eI eC Ts) BOG ete Ky x cen) Sea AAAs Se 11H HINOMmO DOOr oO oe) soe 1 Do Ihe Eh | # ‘ H ae O ne ees) use a 3 es S§ WHIASH WMOHWOD WHOM NoOnwe 0019 MHO0O Mined soe & SH 8 MOAHID SS NWBIAS ANAS wWinSrNo do ee ee OP DS 0-0 (Yo) Oe-0 reser Retest rir PANO OD Ido 8 ts S ee ta Si sige : ’ ‘ ’ ' s . ’ 8.2bee ge - ee oe oI = a Sb HOM OM INWAHA Moto MOMMA om Hoon or ddsa Ee O TERS 2 2 i) +) MIGSSONM DHOHH Awswtiss Oraoaas Sx oe Oo 0.0 5 oO 0 0 00 a=| Ot g lhe le OO oe ee ee hn N rere aloo eetetie 0 6 1 0 | 1 O° Ee ae a ess gett y | fe i Dea ed 4 , eet eaters Beane tres) : Dae Hest 3 i a 1 § OwWoIn MHOON OWS OMOxMe HO Oo Oo a oes ar ; Drs petty cere Sion neal a ear Kiar ene he hTe ee Te ete Serre 3. Die teed ES 4 fe) 88 IdIGOMO HOnHN Sxtinome NMOOSH A Oo 9 "a4 ' wo. AO ‘ o oO ee Se os Bh os Bo | Sn Be Boe | os oe et N N er peste eeu ; ai S S an Ho Then Care ne che) realy bo f S HS; Hane RAL CHES eee certs Cats Teas cau Dae et Sa eta | ecraieen| ea Remer i: ae ay SRE ES RE ee ea . G0 G50 ( aa : =| or = CH OCNGNA AMOAN WROMMm +i sis ‘ eae D ee en teat Hin u ~ S 8 =) Mens ANNAN owiti F ; RODS R ae Heats Are aD Dy ® 1 : Oe 2.0% Sb Deo a ace » q Ode 0-0 ; {als Su ns RSET aC heats BRIT ‘ as (eae) URE Noe a TRO Penbntc Wee SEO enero N er ier Q Bee eB CoO IOC) su i eet HAI ine eas eet a ; 3 ar ANS dwidcs Noa Gt 00 Fi te. ak oeeiees gests an naa ; } ian et oleh Mat eee rece 8 o ton) Ott God 0 Oso eae Dee OB i ‘ 4 Ooo UO FSSA ex Oe ois Has Uo eae otto = a SH MOOMR ONSOOM SOHO Firs 4s ibe er aaueesiat herve eat aide et atta a ne Si AN GOHxwidis SGNHOWS SSHAN | | O00 Dec istel eae be: ee ier america Re} es rl rd rt oD 8 ° 6 : bag tet O00 ten ; i oO oR S ' a! Sites ‘ i Seueate Creal Sash seeking Sela AOE et, cee nee Ra Dano Puc the: Oats eee iia : Sehr eee reser ne at | feet | Mara fr re | Cale ae wn er are eee Ieee nm NET OT TT i ‘Saye teeakenat nettle Bigot . Xe) Ox NADWOOH NOCWOOH MADE ' D0 ' Oe Uae ee Dane ctea 0 8 OO fe As tididSnN BSSBSOH Nowe iia: ‘ GO 0 -0°°0 ' ' v0 ' 29} — | Se I a oe ee ’ ress 4 Shen vo i Deedee 0 Tait Odette en be as] [bee ane 2 fies cela | SE ee Spee |e Sach ac ee 2s a a ee eee coats ang enty te vost D Oa Teese apd eet ee nee ao ; —— Pgh ut tng ou aitctuegticas oom =a eS CDH OOOHH AHROO OWMHO Frias an Vides Ceo ntEcese naive eker cM oie Herta wits bat Ot wise d GBSOSOHN SOxtinSom sii ‘ Sie ha Cie es eee Oe tate SR TO S Valorie) ANN) Se G0 Oona ‘ oO 0 O09 VAD Oe 0 <0 md ' mr . vid ; v 4 H Fe. Oe id 0 tee D, te piehentnte aon ‘ ' ' ‘ ' ’ . ' ’ ' ’ ' ESS Eee Se ee SE ¥ MN ne by 20S Ono vecearenet 5 PSos Ve SO aso LOR ROOT To oO OD Geo od bet moe i msl beet OR Ge ae at so nC Oh oh Oe acer Te GekOATDMUME RMR EE Gee e en ogo Gy B ’ ’ . o . ’ ' ’ ' ' D Wo A . ' ' ' ‘ co . ‘ s ) ' ' ‘ ‘ ’ ' ‘ ' . 20 Oe 2 -OL-Db ND eave 2, eG ee 5 i i ee ey : TONE Rie Malay cera asym Mabey Tammy @ AT td Sana Pa Le Care coaee shes ret ae efor chee eat ga eae Yt ee kes in = oso yore e cere ee 9224 S 0 0 ' . nO oo Caen) eo oo oo cu oe ’ ’ ‘ ‘ ' ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ 4 ' e ’ ’ ' ' ’ ’ , ' ‘ ' ' ‘ ' ’ ’ ' ’ ’ ' Diattotta Rode Ne Once enimte Geen 895,0 PSOE ketenes Gon. auan Nha Mabeanen rere Penn. othe te yee ye eae ao 6.5 (a\ hq 2 a Go -0 5°) 0 oo O70 ao of G0 oo a 0 0 oo i} ’ e i} ' ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ o ’ ' Q ' ‘ ' ’ r) ' ’ . . ‘ ’ . ' ‘ ’ . . . . ‘ . . ’ e = AO CO 00 rN ID OD RIGOSHES) KOC IENES) | fea) 84) nD) IEC) fel Slededtey SISA ENGR es 67.2 . 35 80-foot trees. 7.5] 6.9 10.15 | 18.3 | 26.45 | 34.6 | 42.75 | 50.9 | 59.05 Height above ground—feet. Diameter inside bark—inches. 50.9 | 59.05 34.6 | 42.75 eRUCy Wah vepiadh “ree Ke) ve Dare t ele uuscn ote) cen SG Tel astas eel) -lewie “eo apge RU ees ia le enie eh a) esa eeste@e Ve) poten selec slate gm Jee le Werte 50.9 5008] 67.2 | 73.35 83.5 91.05 70-foot trees. BULLETIN 152, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 10.15 | 18.3 | 26.45 sizes, based on measurements of 1,548 trees in the Southern Appalachian region—Con, high outside TABLE 22.—Diameters inside bark at different heights above the ground for trees of different bark. Diameter breast- 40 Se AAAS ARN AAAS wo HOMMr-ONW ONDOMNH mein nt 6 TAN iI lercapaaghos eoeieeisa man) rele arate eee Realm a a gas v4 MIND AOMNSOS MAHNHE ADMOM Ar~MoOns 3 q OO OD HAD ID IM CO CHOP I~ 00 00 00 D Qa ne Ie De NEE ORO EOS AD TL ST ER aS =e a re u D090 00 Dd Al SESEMCIEH CSE) Grasso) SSSI Cais Tl | Shea eS 6a a] Jo cligt Saga eieaere cee rniee ay cea Or clia RS S/o PANS HHH OMAONW AOCHMO BWOONS a q ad St 9 Leg CE) ESBS OO} Ca iC relia CaCO Senay Soa RUgRe Aaa Na He 1b AG AOR Se CoD) bea}los fas | Gcfesr SHEETS eee ES ANAAN 2 iS) 8 Sona Gum Asoo ae 50 OSS ae CS SG ie Scien a RTCA LSS MoS Z| SSreds asda alofetis | é WN xHaids om COPS ARRAS BESSA SRARAN RRAAA 2 B E 3 a ha u COMNOTH Mt eH FHEMOO SES Ge GPR GHE Rm RN a ae 2 ia SRHHIS Sridiaid wxigss | stag om a in Om POSaN gases SoeSS RANANR ARRRA iy fj I WHAHOD MNnMNO ALOT HOWomM MHOOm 4 © 3 Tee Cea SECC RUBIN REGIA Ee NEL! men Selianey a wb EEe OO SD page rye RCG SRBC = A re SSAA SASS SRSRN ARRAR RARRR or) A WROD RATERS DOAN DHMOR Ain: + ae] AANMO Oridiwiid winises OMEN n Ooo 1 + S wos —= ANAOO WOON OD ANOSWA MANOR OM +1: of} WHIGIGS COME OD BAGEGSOSSO BANNAN G+: + 2) rere reese rit of elle ATH ON CONDH SCHON HMOWO HO vs: 10 WOKS BASSH ANG winisss mos: i eer So Bh oe Bh oo oe oe | Sets re ap oe ie S tt AED AQM-OHN A-MOMm WOMMO WAIN OM REOSS SHANG HinisoKr MOOD woe o re See So Eh oe Bh oe Eh oe oe reese Ne Le} Deb 4S} FOR HAWN HOMAGE WAROM ON ss 2 Soe Sled iad SS riodod SS SiG an =| OCS Spiral (05 [os cfs rt Er eS me ab ° at tan q DAHNO OLONO HOTNG OTMOn ON: = SASHN Aswtis6sS CRAaGd SHINN ID onan : CO Nes oso SESE RAAN AN ped ‘ WARHOL OMMHO O-OMDM AO NO . $8 SOMA SHadN NASGSH ANS GRii: Neal is] SS eahectinal SIA N ANRAa ANN e 3 TO = co eke ota. E caret ne esd Gihea hbase A rt AN OD st AD 6 6D 6D OD CD a“ THE EASTERN HEMLOCK. 41 TaBLE 22.—Diameters inside bark at different heights above the ground for trees of different sizes, based on measurements of 1,548 trees in the Southern Appalachian region—Con. 90-foot trees. Height above ground—feet. Diameter breast-high outside bark. 10.15 “8s | 26.45 | 34.6 | 42.75 | 50.9 | 59.05 | 67.2 | 75.35 | 83.5 | 91.65 Diameter inside bark—inches. 22.2 | 20.7 | 19.7] 18.6 | 17.2] 15.3 | 12.9] 9.8] 6.1] 2.6]...... 23.0 | 21.5 | 20.4 | 19.3] 17.9 | 16.0] 13.4] 10.2] 6.5] 2.8]...... 23.8 | 22.3 | 21.1 | 19.9 | 18.4] 16.5] 13.9] 10.6| 6.7] 2.9]...... 24.7 | 23.1} 21.9 | 20.6 | 19.1] 17.1] 14.4] 11.0] 7.1] 3.1 ]...... 25.5 | 23.8 | 22.6 | 21.3 | 19.7] 17.6] 14.9] 11.4] 7.3] 3.2 ]|...... 26.3 | 24.6 | 23.3 | 22.0 | 20.3 | 18.2] 15.4] 11.8] 7.6] 3.4 |.-..... 27.2 | 25.4 | 24.0 | 22.6 | 20.9} 18.6 | 15.8] 12.2} 7.8] 3.5 ].. 28.0 | 26.2} 24.8 | 23.3 | 21.5} 19.2 | 16.4] 12.6] 8.1] 3.6].. 28.8 | 27.0 | 25.5 | 24.0 | 22.1] 19.7] 16.8] 13.0] 8.4] 3.7 ]-. 29.6 | 27.7 | 26.2 | 24.6 | 22.7 | 20.2] 17.3] 13.4] 8.6] 3.8 ]..-... Ley ee MS a pe Oe Seas ae eee ge 30.5 | 28.6 | 26.9 | 25.4 | 23.3 | 20.7] 17.8} 13.7} 8.8] 3.9 |--...- CH RS aed Sr aris ye Na seca RR ES De Gad 31.3 | 29.3 | 27.7 | 26.1 | 23.9 | 21.2 | 18.3 | 14.2 9.2] 4.0 ]--.-.. SESE SOHC NESSIE ea ei aesyet ees 32.2 | 30.1 | 28.4 | 26.8 | 24.6 | 21.7] 18.7} 14.6] 9.4] 4.1 ].....- ae ee Sy SERS ee pear ee a ee Oe eA 33.0 | 30.8 | 29.1 | 27.4 | 25.2 | 22.2 | 19.2] 15.0} 9.7] 4.2 ]|...... HA SES CS oSA eee an aaesciaie cae 33.8 | 31.6 | 29.8 | 28.1 | 25.7 | 22.7] 19.6] 15.3) 9.9] 4.3 ]...-.-- AN eerste roa a ene ts naa ENS 2 ANE 34.6 | 32.4 | 30.6 | 28.7 | 26.4 | 23.3 | 20.1} 15.7] 10.3] 4.6 |...--- Ot A 7 Ae arg ae eae ae aoe 35.4 | 33.2 | 31.3 | 29.3 | 26.9 | 23.8 | 20.5 | 16.2 | 10.8] 4.8 |...--. 2: Ee a ee ea ee Set DU 36.2 | 34.0 | 32.1 | 30.0 | 27.6 | 24.4 | 20.9} 16.6] 11.1} 5.0 ]...... 100-foot trees. 10.3| 9.9] 9.4] 8.9] 8.3] 7.6) 6.7] 5.4] 4.0] 2.6 1.3 11.2 | 10.7} 10.1} 9.6] 9.0] 8.3] 7.2] 5.9] 4.4] 2.9 1.5 12.0} 11.5 | 10.9} 10.3) 9.7] 8.9] 7.7) 6.3] 4.7] 3.1 1.6 12.9 | 12.3} 11.6 | 11.0] 10.4] 9.7] 8.3] 6.8] 5.2] 3.4 1.8 13.8 | 13.0 | 12.4] 11.8 | 11.1] 10.1] 8.9] 7.3] 5.6] 3.8 2.0 14.6 | 18.8 | 18.1 | 12.4] 11.8] 10.8] 9.5] 7.9] 6.0] 4.0 2.1 15.5 | 14.6 | 13.8 | 18.1 | 12.3) 11.4] 10.1] 8.4] 6.4] 4.3 P29) 16.2 | 15.3 | 14.5 | 13.8 | 13.0 | 12.0 | 10.7} 8.9] 6.8] 4.6 2.3 17.1 | 16.1 | 15.3 | 14.5 | 13.6 | 12.6 | 11.3} 9.3] 7.2] 4.8 2.4 18.0 | 16.9 | 16.0 | 15.2 | 14.4) 13.3} 11.8] 9.9] 7.6] 5.1 2.5 18.8 | 17.7 | 16.8 | 16.0 | 15.0] 13.9 | 12.3] 10.3] 8.0] 5.3 2.6 19.7 | 18.5 | 17.5 | 16.6 | 15.7} 14.6 | 12.9] 10.8] 8.3] 5.6 2.8 20.5 | 19.2 | 18.3 | 17.4 | 16.4] 15.1 | 13.5} 11.3] 8.7] 5.7 2.9 21.4 | 20.0} 18.9 | 18.1 | 17.1] 15.8 | 14.0] 11.8] 9.0] 6.0 3.0 22.2 | 20.8 | 19.7 |] 18.7 | 17.7 | 16.3 | 14.6] 12.3] 9.4] 6.2 Shi 23.1 | 21.6 } 20.5 | 19.6 | 18.5 | 17.0 | 15.2] 12.8) 9.8] 6.5 3.2 23.9 | 22.3 | 21.3 | 20.2 | 19.1] 17.6 | 15.8 | 13.3] 10.1] 6.7 8% 33 24.7 | 23.2 | 22.1 | 21.1 | 19.9 | 18.3} 16.4] 13.8} 10.5] 6.9 3.5 25.5 | 24.0 | 22.9 | 21.8 | 20.5 | 18.8 | 16.9 | 14.3] 10.8] 7.1 3.6 Oe Se setae Bes mie gee as ia eS 26.4 | 24.7 | 23.6 | 22.6 | 21.2] 19.4 { 17.5] 14.8] 11.2] 7.4 3.7 Se wil pate eile Se else ois SUN Epa os 27.2 | 25.5 | 24.4 | 23.3 | 21.9 | 20.1 | 18.1] 15.2] 11.5] 7.6 3.8 8 re eee Rn Pn ory ep nS Ae ea 28.1 | 26.3 | 25.2 | 24.1 | 22.6 | 20.7 | 18.7] 15.8 | 12.0] 7.9 4.0 OS ee Ieee a a Na ae a Raa a oo 28.8 | 27.0 | 25.9 | 24.8 | 23.2 |} 21.3 | 19.2 | 16.3 | 12.3] 8.0 4.1 CSS Ae Eee Sante ae em entos cy 29.7 | 27.8 | 26.7 | 25.5 | 23.9 | 22.0] 19.8 | 16.8 | 12.7] 8.3 4.3 BON ace erie Sate | Ae REEL a 30.5 | 28.6 | 27.4 | 26.2 | 24.6 | 22.6 | 20.3] 17.2} 13.1] 8.6 4.4 Y/R SHS UE SD aCe anABeE GUGet SEE 31.4 | 29.4 | 28.2 | 26.9 | 25.3 | 23.2 | 20.9] 17.7] 13.4] 8.8 4.5 SO ee Sok ae Mei cae nti ae ae 32.2 | 30.1 | 28.9 | 27.6 | 25.9 | 23.8 | 21.4] 18.1] 13.7] 9.1 4.6 oO eee a ae Si aye a Dh ee 33.1 | 30.9 | 29.6 | 28.3 | 26.6 | 24.5 | 22.0} 18.6] 14.1] 9.3 4.9 AQ Nesey tse oer icin aus che sch eee oe 33.8 | 31.7 | 30.3 | 29.0 | 27.3 | 25.1 | 22.6 | 19.1] 14.4] 9.5 5.0 Ay ee eI ae eS lara ve ae ayais Sok 34.7 | 32.4 | 31.1 | 29.8 | 28.1] 25.8 | 23.1] 19.6] 14.8] 9.7 5.1 AD Bis ee See oe ies oie Se ae 35.5 | 33.3 | 31.8 | 30.5 | 28.8 | 26.4 | 23.7] 20.1] 15.1] 9.9 5.2 BS 2 De Me ae PN PRR So 36.3 | 34.0 | 32.5 | 31.2 | 29.5 | 27.1 | 24.3 | 20.6 | 15.5 | 10.3 5.4 BAD coe Seen ee ete Boe ati 37.1 | 34.8 | 33.2 | 31.9 | 30.2 | 27.7 | 24.9 | 21.1] 15.9] 10.5 5.5 BOE seleeca aL ee a aoe eee ale 37.9 | 35.5 | 34.0 | 32.6 | 30.9 | 28.4 | 25.5 | 21. 16.3 | 10.9 5.7 49 BULLETIN 152, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 22.—Diameters inside bark at different heights above the ground for trees of different sizes, based on measurements of 1,548 trees in the Southern Appalachian region—Con. 110-foot trees. - Height above ground—feet. CW AOWrOD WROMDW FPOUIRW COODRNW COMMUN DOMUNWa Diameter breast-high outside bark. = 19,45 | 18.3 20.48 | 34.6 le 7 | 50.9 |59.05 | 67.2 175.35 | 83.5 |91. 65 | 99.8 7.9 Diameter inside bark—inches. , 5 : } Bt le 6:61|) 4.9 || ed : } F : } S63 0a720\) 522 103.3 E ; L L : 9.2] 7.5| 5.5] 3.5 ; ‘ L j 9.7| 80] 5.9} 3.7 3 ; i 10-3] 85] 6.3! 3.9 : f : 10.8| 9.0] 6.7] 41 ; : : ” 11.3] 9.5] 7.1] 44 ; E ; ; 11.9] 10.0] 7.4] 46 : t i ; 12.4) 10.5] 7.8] 4.9 } ; [ ; 13.0] 11.0} 83] 5.2 5 ana eile, eager 21.3 | 20.1 | 19.2 | 18.4] 17.5 | 16.5.| 15.2] 13.5) 11:5] 8.7) 5.5 aE Ot A Pie BO 22.2 | 20.8 | 19.9 | 19.1 | 18.1] 17.1 | 15.8 | 14.1] 12.0] 9.1]-5.8 Tg ee ae 3 2.1 | 21.7 | 20.7] 19.9] 18.9] 17.8] 16.4])147|12.5} 9.5] 61 Dee A RE” eek eos cde 23.9 | 22.5 | 21.4 | 20.5] 19.6 | 18.5] 17.0] 15.3{12.9|] 9.8] 6.4 DY ovat Se teeny Ae aie, 24.8 | 23.3 | 22.2 | 21.3 | 20.4 | 19.2] 17.7] 15.9 | 13.4] 10.1] 6.7 BO Ve EE Oe 25.6 | 24.1 | 22.9 | 22.1 | 21.1 | 19.8] 18.3] 16.4} 13.8] 10.5] 6.9 Sj Wee) ereed Eewe ue oh 26.5 | 24.9 | 23.8 | 22.8 | 21.9| 20.6 | 19.0] 17.0] 143/109] 7.2 ADEA PQ pet 5 tek Bigs 27.3 | 25.7 | 24.5 | 23.5 | 22.5 | 21.2] 19.6] 17.5|14.7] 11.3] 7.5 SO ta AR 8 ac See 28.1 | 26.4 | 25.3 | 24.3 | 23.3] 21.9 | 20.3] 18.1] 15.3]11.8]| 7.8 ees ge a a 29.0 | 27.2 | 26.0 | 25.1 | 24.0| 22.7 | 20.9] 18.6] 15.7]12.2|] 31 Bee RS orale ee age 29.9 | 28.0 | 26.9 | 25.9 | 24.8| 23.4 | 21.6 | 19.2 | 16.3]12.6| 8.4/]- B6:5se2 BAe SL SO 30.7 | 28.7 | 27.6 | 26.6 | 25.5 | 24.1 | 22.2| 19.7] 16.7] 13.0] 87 S37 Ee ae ae 31.5 | 29.5 | 28.4 | 27.4 | 26.3 | 24.9 | 22.9 | 20.3 | 17.2] 13.3] 9.0] 4 CT een te oe ae ae YS 32.3 | 30.3 | 29.2 | 28.2] 26.9 | 25.5 | 23.5 | 20.9] 17.6| 13.7] 9.3] 5.0]_..--- .1 | 31.1 | 30.0] 29.0 | 27.7 | 26.2 | 24.2] 21.5118.1]}140| 9.7] 5.3 |_----- .9 | 31.9 | 30.7 | 29.7 | 28.5 | 26.9 | 24.8 | 22.1)18.6)144] 10.1] 5.5]_.---- .7 | 32.7 | 31.5 | 30.4 | 29.2 | 27.6 | 25.5 | 22.7] 19.1 | 15.0] 10.3] 5.7|_...-- .6 | 33.5 | 32.3 } 31.2 | 29.9} 28.3 | 26.1 | 23.2] 19.6] 15.3] 10.6] 6.0|._...- .4| 34.2 | 33.0 | 32.0 | 30.6 | 29.0 | 26.8 | 23.9 | 20.1] 15.7] 11.0] 6.2 3.| 35.0 | 33.8 | 32.7 | 31.4 | 29.7 | 27.4 | 24.4 | 20.6 | 16.1 | 11.3] 6.4]. 1 | 35.8 | 34.6 | 33.5 | 32.1 | 30.4 | 28.1 | 25.1 | 21.1] 16.5] 11.7] 6.8 120-foot trees. 13240 | 2/40) 474 | 441015017923 (950) 728.) 6:2-| 4.4 |) Bes 13.94 13.2 | 12.5] 11.9] 11.2|10.4] 9.6] 84] 67] 48] 29] 1. 1457. | 1359) | 1352 |) 19561) 1230) | 4150 |) 1052!) 98.95), 70 eo seas 15.5 | 14.7 | 13.9 | 13.3] 12.6 | 11.7|10.8] 9.5] 7.7| 5.6] 3.6] 1. 16.3 | 15.5 | 14.7] 14.0] 13.3 | 124/11.4/100] 81] 5.9| 37] 2 16.9 | 16.3 | 15.4 | 14.7] 14.0] 13.1] 12.0]106] 86] 63] "40| 2 17.7 | 17.0] 16.2 | 15.4] 14.8 | 13.8] 12.6] 11.2] 91] 66] 43] 2 18.5 | 17.8] 16.9 | 16.2] 15.5 | 144] 13.3]11.7] 9.6] 7.0] 46] 2 19.3 | 18.6 | 17.7 | 16.9 | 16.2 | 15.1] 13.9] 12.3]10.0] 7.4] 49] 2. 20.1 | 19.3 | 18.5] 17.7] 16.9] 15.8 | 14.5] 12.9] 10.6] 7.9] 5.2] 3. 20.9 | 20.1 | 19.3]. 18.4] 17.6} 16.5] 15.2] 13.5]11.1] 83] 5.5] 3. 21.7 | 20.9 | 20.1 | 19.3} 18.4] 17.2] 15.8] 14.0] 11.6] 88] 5.8] 3. 22.5 | 21.6 | 20.9 | 20.1} 19:1] 17.9] 16.5]14.6/12.1] 9.2] 61]. 3. 23.2 | 22.4 | 21.6 | 20.9 | 19.9 | 18.5 | 17.1] 15.2]12.6] 9.6] 6.5] 3. 24.1} 23.2] 22.5 | 21.7 | 20.6) 19.2] 17.7! 15.8] 13.2110.0| 6.8} 4 24.8 | 24.0} 23.3 | 22.5] 21.4] 19.9] 18.4] 16.4)13.7|105| 7.1] 4 25.7 | 24.8 | 24.1 | 23.3 | 22.1] 20.8/ 19.1]17.0|14.2] 11.0] 7.5] 4 26.5 | 25.6! 24.9 | 24.0! 22.9] 21.5! 19.7] 17.5} 14.7] 11.4] 7.8] 4 27.3 | 26.4 | 25.6 | 24.8] 23.6 | 22.3 | 20.4] 18.1]15.3]11.9| 82] 4. 28.1 | 27.1 | 26.4 | 25.6 | 24.4 | 22.9 | 21.0] 18.7] 15.8|12.4] 85] 5. 28.9 | 27.9 | 27.1 | 26.3 | 25.1 | 23.6 | 21.6] 19.3 | 16.3] 12.8] 8.9 5. 29.6 | 28.7 | 27.9 | 27.1 | 25.9 | 24.3] 22.3] 19.9] 16.9] 13.2] 9.3] 5. 30.5 | 29.4] 28.6] 27.8} 26.6] 24.9 | 22.9| 20.5] 17.4] 13.6) 9.6] 5. 31.2 | 30.2 | 29.4 | 28.6} 27.3 | 25.7 | 23.6 | 21.0] 17.9] 14.1] 10.0} 6. 32.0 | 31.0] 30.2 | 29.3] 28.0] 26.4 | 24.2] 21.6] 18.4]146]103] 6. 32.8 | 31.7] 31.0] 30.1 | 28.8| 27.1 | 249 | 22.2] 18.8] 15.0/107] 6. 33.6 | 32.5 | 31.7 | 30.8 | 29.5 | 27.7] 25.5 | 22.8] 19.3] 15.4] 111] 6. 34.4 | 33.3 | 32.5 | 31.5 | 30.2 | 28.5 | 26.1 | 23.3] 19.8] 15.9|11.6] 7. 35.2 | 34.1] 33.3 | 32.3 | 31.0 | 29.2] 26.8) 23.9] 20.3]16.3]11.8]| 7. 35.9 | 34.8 | 34.0] 33.0] 31.6 | 29.9 | 27.4| 24.4] 20.8|168]122] 7. 36.8 | 35.7 | 34.7 | 33.7 | 32.3 | 30.6] 28.1 | 25.0] 21.3] 17.1|/12.5] 7. 37.6 | 36.4 | 35.5 | 34.5 | 33.1 | 31.3] 28.8 | 25.6] 21.8|17.6|129] 8 TABLE 22.—Diameters inside bark at different heights above the ground for trees of d sizes, based on measurements of 1,548 trees in the Southern Appalachian region— a Height above ground—feet. breast- high | | outside | 10.15 | 18.3 | 26.45 | 34.6 | 42.75 | 50.9 | 59.05 | 67.2 | 75.35] 83.5 | 91.65 | 99.8 |107.95 | 116.1 | 124.25 bark. Diameter inside bark—inches. Inches S i oe Reet PS UA Sees 38) | Sed 264 Le 1029) |) OSS Sid is e460!) 406) 1: 9353) |) 20H see. Ke ees LGS4AS LoS Sr 456) | ls..9 i 1852) | P255 tT LONG Me Oh Sal S.Ob G.0) | On0N) 2onGn|) Qaouen ene Dera stai= 17.3 | 16.1 | 15.4 } 14.7 | 14.0 | 13.3 | 12.5 | 11.3] 9.9} 8.6) 7.1) 5.5] 3.9] 2.4 |___. FAL aSaee ASS RETO! 6527) 15: 50/1428) 4d 13853) | 2A ON e952) eageG) |) GO|) 4220) CONG) |e 774m elses 18.9 | 17.7 | 17.0 | 16.3 | 15.6 | 14.8 | 14.1] 12.8] 11.4] 9.8] 81] 6.3] 4.5] 2.8)_.._.. anise = 19.9 | 18.5 | 17.8 | 17.1 | 16.4 | 15.6 | 14.8 | 18.6 | 12.1 | 10.4} 8.6] 6.7] 4.8] 3.0]|..__._. We scsss PAUEY/ |) WEB) EEG) EO Wee ARE I GE ES e/a teal veal Gert | Be or Ena Ds Sace 2 21.6 | 20.2 | 19.5 | 18.7 | 18.0 | 17.2 | 16.4 | 15.0 | 13.5} 11-7 | 9.7) 7.5] 6.4] 3.4 }__...- DBE antes a 22.3 | 21.0 | 20.2 | 19.5 | 18.8 | 18.0 | 17.1 | 15.7 | 14.1 | 12.4 | 10.2} 7.9] 5.7] 3.6 ]}_.._.. PA SSBESO 23.2 | 21.8 | 21.1 | 20.4 | 19.7 | 18.9 | 17.9 | 16.5 | 14.9 | 13.0] 10.8} 8.4] 6.0] 3.8]...... 2B ijasc = 24.0 | 22.7 | 21.8 | 21.1 | 20.4 | 19.6 | 18.6 | 17.2 | 15.5 | 18.6 | 11.2} 8.7] 6.3] 4.1 |_.__.. 20 a Gixicoe 24.8 || 23.4 | 2227 | 22:0 | 21.3 | 20:5 | 19.4 | 17.9 | 16.2) 14.2 | 11.8] 9:2] 66) 4.9 |[220., 305.22 25.6 | 24.2 | 23.4 | 22.8 | 22.1 | 21.2 | 20.1 | 18.6 | 16.9 | 14.8] 12.3] 9.6] 6.9 | 4.4 |___... oleae 26.5 | 25.0 | 24.3 | 23.7 | 22.9 | 22.0 | 20.9 | 19.4 | 17.6 | 15.5 | 12.9] 10.0] 7.3] 4.6 |...... OA viaie'ose 27.3 | 25.8 | 25.0 | 24.4 | 23.7 || 22:8 | 21.6 | 20.1 | 18.3 | 16.1} 13.4 | 10.4 | 7.6 | 4.9 |.2.2.: aeeeaee 28.2 | 26.6 | 26.0 | 25.2 | 24.5 | 23.6 | 22.3 | 20.8 | 19.1 | 16.8 | 18.9 | 10.9] 8.0] 5.1 |___._. Bos seeel2 29.0 | 27.4 | 26.7 | 26.0 | 25.3 | 24.4 | 23.1 | 21.6 | 19.7 | 17.4 | 14.5] 11.38] 8.3] 5.3 |_..... Oda 30.0 | 28.2 | 27.5 | 26.8 | 26.1 | 25.2 | 23.9 22.4 | 20.5 | 18.0 | 15.1 | 11.8] 8.7] 5.6 |...... 368.5 sss 30.8 | 28.9 | 28.2 | 27.5 | 26.8 | 25.9 | 24.7 | 23.1 | 21.1 | 18.6 | 15.6 | 12.2] 9.0) 5.8 ]...... aVib ene 31.7 | 29.7 | 29.1 | 28.4 | 27.6 | 26.7 | 25.4 | 23.8 | 21.8 | 19.2 | 16.1 | 12.7] 9.4] 6.0 ]_..... Soccer = 32.5 | 30.5 | 29.9 | 29.1 | 28.3 | 27.4 | 26.2 | 24.5 | 22.4 | 19.7 | 16.6 | 13.1] 9.7] 6.3 |.....- 392 ss. 33.4 | 31.3 | 30.7 | 29.9 | 29.1 | 28.2 | 27.0 | 25.2 | 23.1 | 20.4 | 17.1 | 138.6 | 10.0] 6.4 }|__.... 402532. 34.2 | 32.1 | 31.4 | 30.7 | 29.8 | 28.9 | 27.7 | 25.9 | 23.7 | 20.9 | 17.5 | 13.9 | 10.3] 6.6 }|___... Alcea: 35.1 | 32.9 | 32.2 | 31.5 | 30.6 | 29.6 | 28.4 | 26.6 | 24.5 | 21.7 | 18.1 | 14.4] 10.7 | 6.9 |...__- a2 ssc 35.9 | 33.7 | 33.0 | 32.2 | 31.3 | 30.4 | 29.1 | 27.2 | 25.1 | 22.2 | 18.5 | 14.8 | 11.0] 7.1 |____.- Le eee 36.8 | 34.6 | 33.7 | 33.0 | 32.1 | 31.0 } 29.8 | 28.1 | 25.8 | 22.8 | 19.0 | 15.2 | 11.4 | 7.3 |... 22. 44...... 37.6 | 35.3 | 34.5 | 33.7 | 32.8 | 31.8 | 30.5 | 28.7 | 26.4 | 23.2 | 19.4 | 15.6 | 11.7 | 7.6 |_.._.. Abe eis s= 38.6 | 36.3 | 35.3 | 34.5 | 33.5 | 32.5 | 31.2 | 29.4 | 27.0 | 23.9 | 20.0] 16.1 | 12.1 |] 7.8 )|___... 46ers 39.3 | 37.0 | 36.1 | 35.3 | 34.4 | 33.2 | 31.8 | 30.0 | 27.7 | 24.4 | 20.4 | 16.4 | 12.3] 7.9 |_____- BMloaacse 40.3 | 37.9 | 36.8 | 36.1 | 35.1 | 34.0 | 32.6 | 30.7 | 28.4 | 25.1 | 20.9] 16.8 | 12.6] 8.1 |__.... 140-foot trees. 74 SE 20.6 | 19.4 | 18.8 | 18.4 | 17.7 | 16.8 | 15.7 | 14.6 | 13.4 | 12.2] 10.7] 9.1] 7.4] 5.6 3.6 DO eiciscs 21.5 | 20.2 | 19.6 | 19.2 | 18.5 | 17.6 | 16.4 | 15.3 | 14.1 | 12.8] 11.3) 9.6] 7.7] 5.8 3.7 26s ake: 22.3 | 21.1 | 20.5 | 20.0 | 19.3 | 18.3 | 17.2 | 16.0 | 14.8 | 13.5 | 11.9] 10.1] 8.1] 6.0 3.9. pee as 23.1 | 21.8 | 21.3 | 20.7 | 20.0 | 19.1 | 18.0 | 16.8 | 15.5 | 14.1 | 12.5] 10.5] 8.4] 6.3 4.1 PAS ae 24.0 | 22.6 | 21.9 | 21.4 | 20.7 | 19.8 | 18.8 | 17.5 | 16.2 | 14.7 | 13.0] 11.0] 8.8] 6.5 4.2 Pt eee 24.8 | 23.4 | 22.8 | 22.3 | 21.5 | 20.6 | 19.6 | 18.4 | 17.0 | 15.4 | 13.6 | 11.4] 9.2] 6.8 4.5 BOs ae 25.7 | 24.3 | 23.5 | 23.0 | 22.3 | 21.4 | 20.3 | 19.1 | 17.8 | 16.0 | 14.1] 12.0] 9.5] 7.1 4.7 SU SaE as 26.5 | 25.1 | 24.4 | 23.8 | 23.1 | 22.3 | 21.2 | 19.9 | 18.4 | 16.7 | 14.7 | 12.4] 9.9] 7.4 4.8 Boe ces 27.4 | 25.9 | 25.2 | 24.6 | 23.9 | 23.1 | 22.0 | 20.6 | 19.1 | 17.3 | 15.3 | 12.9} 10.3] 7.6 5.0 eBat Gace 28.2 | 26.7 | 26.0 | 25.4 | 24.6 | 23.9 | 22.8 | 21.4 | 19.8 | 17.9 | 15.8 | 13.4] 10.7] 7.9 5.1 BW scene 29.1 | 27.6 | 26.8 | 26.2 | 25.5 | 24.6 | 23.5 | 22.2 | 20.6 518.6 | 16.4 | 13.9 | 11.1] 8.2 5.3 Bowsade 29.9 | 28.3 | 27.5 | 26.8 | 26.1 | 25.4 | 24.3 | 22.9 | 21.3 | 19.3 | 17.0 | 14.4 |] 11.4] 8.5 5.5 BORSosae 30.8 | 29.2 | 28.3 | 27.6 | 26.9 | 26.1 | 25.0} 23.6 | 22.0 | 19.9 | 17.5 | 14.8] 11.8] 8.7 5.7 Ole cess 31.6 | 30.0 | 29.1 | 28.4 | 27.7 | 26.9 | 25.7 | 24.3 | 22.6 | 20.5 | 18.1 | 15.3 | 12.2] 9.1 5.9 BS ec c= = 32.5 | 30.9 | 29.9 | 29.2 | 28.5 | 27.6 | 26.5 | 25.1 | 23.4 | 21.2} 18.7 | 15.8] 12.6 | 9.4 6.1 Sas sees 33.4 | 31.6 | 30.7 | 29.9 | 29.2 | 28.3 | 27.3 | 26.0 | 24.2 | 21.9 | 19.3 | 16.3 | 13.0] 9.7 6.3 AQ = 2 Se 34.3 | 32.5 | 31.5 | 30.7 | 29.9 | 29.0 | 28.0 | 26.7 | 25.0 | 22.6 | 19.8 | 16.7 | 13.3 | 10.0 6.5 Cite hae 35.2 | 33.3 | 32.3 | 31.5 | 30.7 | 29.9 | 28.7 | 27.4 | 25.7 | 23.3 | 20.4 | 17.1 | 13.7 | 10.3 6.7 Ce 36.1 | 34.1 | 33.0 | 32.3 | 31.5 | 30.6 | 29.5 | 28.1 | 26.5 | 24.0 | 20.9 | 17.6 | 14.1 | 10.7 7.0 chee 37.0 | 34.9 | 83.9 | 33. 32.3 | 31.4 | 30.2 | 28.9 | 27.1 | 24.7 | 21.6 | 18.1 | 14.5 | 11.0 7.2 Ce 37.9 | 35.7 | 34.6 | 33.8 | 33.1 | 32.1 | 31.0 | 29.6 | 27.9 | 25.3 | 22.1 | 18.5 | 14.9 | 11.3 7.5 CO oe 38.8 | 36.5 | 35.4 | 34.6 | 33.8 | 32.9 | 31.8 | 30.4 | 28.6 | 26.0 | 22.7 | 19.0 | 15.3 | 11.7 Chol 46525205 39.7 | 37.4 | 36.2 | 35.4 | 34.6 | 33.6 | 32.4 | 31.1 | 29.4 | 26.7 | 23.2 | 19.5 | 15.6 | 12.0 7.9 Oiks Sarerat 40.5 | 38.2 | 37.1 | 36.2 | 35.2 | 34.3 | 33.2 | 31.9 | 30.1 | 27.4 | 23.8 | 19.9 | 16.0 | 12.2 8.1 AB ae code 41.5 | 39.1 | 37.8 | 37.0 | 36.0 | 35.0 | 34.0 | 32.8 | 31.0 | 28.0 | 24.3 | 20.3 | 16.4 | 12.5 8.3 BO) aials 42.3 | 39.9 | 38.8 | 37.8 | 36.8 | 35.9 | 34.8 | 33.5 | 31.6 | 28.7 | 24.9 | 20.9 | 16.8 | 12.8 8.5 SU eS Pes 43.3 | 40.8 | 39.5 | 38.6 | 37.6 | 36.5 | 35.5 | 34.2 | 32.4 | 29.3 | 25.5 | 21.3 | 17.1 | 13.1 8.7 THE EASTERN HEMLOCK, 130-foot trees. 43 eae on. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE > 1915 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv BUBBLE VIN OF THE 2) USDERTENT ORACLE No. 153 Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester. January 28, 1915. FOREST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. By C. R. Trttotson, Forest Examiner. OPPORTUNITIES FOR FOREST PLANTING. Nearly every farm includes one or more pieces of land which can be more profitably planted to timber than to an agricultural crop. Such an area may be some small corner not easily accessible, or else a piece of poor, sandy, _ swampy, or worn-out land, or it may be an old woodlot in poor condition and not fully stocked with growing timber. The 1910 census shows that the average farm in the United States contains 138 acres, of which 75 are re- corded as improved and 63 as unimproved, the latter consisting of ‘‘woodland”’ and ‘‘all other unimproved land.” * The woodland and other unim- proved land covers the enormous total area of 400,346,000 acres. Of this nearly 245,000,000 acres are in the States east of Texas and the Rocky Mountains, about 175,000,000 acres of which are in wood- lots. There remain about 70,000,000 acres of unforested and un- improved land in this eastern portion of the country, most of it best suited for growing timber. This area will be reduced by draining the swamp lands potentially adapted to agricultural crops, but will be increased by the addition of lands becoming worn out and unfit for erowing field crops. Since 1870 in New England the proportion of improved farm land has gradually declined as follows: In 1870, 61.3 per cent; in 1880, Fia. 1.—Sketch map of the United States, the shaded area showing section studied in this bulletin. 1“Woodland’’ includes all land covered with natural or planted forest trees which produce, or later may produce, firewood or other forest products. “ All other unimproved lands ”’ includes brush land, rough or stony land, swampy land, and any other not improved or in forest. Notre.—This bulletin is of interest to landowners throughout the northeastern United States, as shown by the shaded portion of the sketch map on this page. 60370°—Bull. 153—15——1 2 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 61.2 per cent; in 1890, 54.4 per cent; in 1900, 39.6 per cent; in 1910, © 36.8 per cent. These figures indicate a tendency to discontinue the © use of land for purposes for which it is unfitted. Most of the un- improved farm land in the East and the Middle West is best suited to the growing of timber. Conditions in this region, moreover, are © { particularly favorable for fire protection, intensive management, and — a maximum yield. Timber brings the highest price, of course, where the natural supply is becoming scarce. In 1900 the average value of sawlogs in the United States was $6.28 per thousand feet, board measure; in lowa, Indiana, and Ohio it was $12.16, $9.39, and $9.47, respectively. The higher prices in these States were due partly to local scarcity and partly to the fact that the timber consisted almost entirely of the more valuabie hardwoods. Lumber is manufactured usually in the locality of the standing timber. Wood-manufacturing plants in some States formerly rich in certain kinds of timber are now compelled to obtain their raw mate- rial from neighboring States. At one time four-fifths of the area of Indiana was covered with forests of valuable hardwoods. In 1900, 82 per cent of the lumber manufactured in that State came from outside. The price of fence posts of the more valuable species has doubled in some places during the last 20 years. To what extent the price will continue to advance is difficult to say, because of the introduction of preservative treatments for the poorer, cheaper kinds of timbers, making them fully as useful as the higher grade timbers untreated, and also because of the increasing use of concrete posts. Wooden posts will always be needed for temporary fences, however, and many farmers will undoubtedly always prefer them for permanent ones be- cause of their light weight. A farm of 160 acres requires annually 75 to 100 posts for the repair of fences and often additional ones for temporary fences. A small plantation of trees suitable for fence posts appears, then, to be a very desirable farm asset. Another class of forest products for a timber plantation is that of cordwood for domestic use and for sale. The annual consumption of cordwood in the United States to-day is about 86,000,000 cords.2 In large cities—those of 30,000 inhabitants or more—at the present day, the average value of firewood is about $7 per cord, and in cities of 1,000 to 30,000 population this value averages about $4 per cord. A number of the States, through demonstration areas and the distribution of stock free of charge or at cost, are taking active steps to encourage forest planting. Sixteen States” have sought further 1 Forest Service Circular 181. 2 Alabama, Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Maine, Minnesota, Nebrasta, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington, Wisconsin, Wyoming. FOREST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 3 to induce planting by systems of tax exemptions, bounties, or prizes. Such provisions, however, have not always been carefully drawn. In some cases the application of the law has been restricted to a cer- tain list of trees from which valuable species well adapted to planting have been omitted; the number of trees per acre specified for planting and the regulations regarding thinnings have not always been drawn in accordance with scientific principles of forestry; the period of exemption, or bounties, has sometimes been too short, applying only when the trees are small and the taxes on them normally light. Assessors, moreover, have sometimes adopted the practice of adding enough to the assessment of some other property of the timber owner to make up for the reduction on his plantation. Laws of this kind, however, even though they may have shown little in the way of results, indicate a willingness on the part of the various States to encourage forest planting. STATUS OF FOREST PLANTING IN THE REGION. PRAIRIE REGION. The settlers in the prairie region came from wooded countries and knew the value of trees for protective purposes. In consequence, they planted timber trees primarily for protection against the cold winds of winter and the hot, drying winds of summer. Wood pro- duction was a secondary consideration. By 1885 Kansas had 147,340 acres of forest plantation, and Iowa, at about the same time, had 100,000 acres. From 50 to 75 per cent of the trees set out were the hardy, rapid-growing cottonwood, silver maple, and willow. Among the other species represented were green ash, black walnut, butternut, balsam fir, European larch, Norway spruce, white spruce, black cherry, arborvite, red cedar, Scotch pine, white pine, black locust, osage orange, honey locust, and hardy catalpa. In one portion or another of the prairie region each of these species has found conditions favorable for growth. However, the hardwoods that were most generally planted are not so good for windbreak purposes as are the conifers, which retain their foliage through the winter. Because of this fact, and also because many of the older plantations are maturing, the latter are now being removed. Much of the land they have occupied is worth from $100 to $150 or more per acre when put in agricultural crops. For this reason forest planting is no longer being carried on to any- thing like the extent it once was, though extravagant claims made for hardy catalpa by certain tree agents have resulted in a consider- able quantity of this species being set out recently for post and pole production. branches, but the leader from year to year seems to develop as commonly from one of the lateral buds as from the termmal one, resulting in a crooked boie. The ash plantations examined have grown too slowly to make pruning a profitable operation, but if especially straight stuff is desired it can be obtained either by very close spacing or by pruning. Ash will grow fairly straight if spaced closely, and pruning should accomplish the same result as close spacing. One method of pruning is to cut off each year the lateral shoots which threaten to compete with the leader; another is to pinch off the lateral buds formed near the tip on the terminal shoot. The branches of European larch die early, but are very persistent. Pruning this tree does not pay, however, because the products of the plantation (chiefly posts and poles) are almost, if not fully, as valuable when somewhat knotty as when clear. Cottonwood prunes itself exceptionally well, and soft maple, black cherry, and Scotch pme also lose their branches readily. The oaks, as a Tule, are not good self-pruners, but they grow so slowly that pruming is not a profitable operation. MIXTURES. Comparatively few plantations of mixed species have been set out in the region under discussion, and in the few cases where this has been done the mixture has usually proved unsuccessful. This has been due, however, more to the planters’ ignorance of the require- ments of the species planted than to any essentail defect in the method itself. A mixture of two or more species is often desirable. Some trees, such as cottonwood and European larch, need to be spaced widely, while others, like black walnut and black locust, have such a scant foliage that they do not shade the ground com- pletely enough to prevent the growth of a heavy sod of grass. In such cases a mixture will more completely utilize the area planted, thus increasing the yield, and at the same time will bring about better forest conditions in the plantation. Mixtures are desirable for other reasons. Planting stock of such species as white pme and European larch is expensive, and a less valuable species mixed with the maim crop, and removed later mn thinnings, will keep down the first cosi. If a species to be planted is susceptible to serious insect or fungous attack, as is white pine or black locust, the mixture of another species not susceptible will provide for a stand of trees on the area in case the pine or locust js killed. When suchspecies as European larch, white pine, or black walnut are widely spaced, in order to promote the most rapid growth, it may be advisable to interspace the area with some more folerant and slower-growing species. A number of mixtures are given below which should prove suc- cessful on soils adapted to both species of the mixture, and which FOREST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 19 are likely to have one or more of the advantages cited. The prin- cipal species in each mixture is named first; and where they take equal rank the fact is indicated by an asterisk (*): 1. Cottonwood and silver maple. 11. White pine and hard maple. 2. Cottonwood and Norway spruce. 12. White pine and red oak. 3. Cottonwood and white spruce. 13. Black walnut and white spruce. 4. Cottonwood and green ash. 14. Old open stands of black walnut 5. * European larch and white pine. underplanted with white pine. 6. * European larch and red oak. Many of the old groves, particularly in 7.. European larch and white spruce. Iowa, are of soft maple. These may be 8. * European larch and Norway spruce. gradually replaced by underplanting 9. White pine and Scotch pine. with white spruce and removing the 10. * White pine and Norway pine. maple. PROTECTION. INSECTS. The locust borer has completely destroyed many plantations of black locust; the white-pine weevil kills the leading shoot of white pine; the gipsy and brown-tail moths defoliate the hardwoods, par- ticularly the oaks, and in some cases have attacked conifers; while the sawtly has defoliated and killed much of the native larch and has attacked also the European larch. Before setting out any trees the prospective planter should communicate with the Bureau of Ento- mology of the Department of Agriculture, or with the State experi- ment station, in order to find out whether insect enemies of the species he proposes to plant are prevalent in the neighborhood. At the first sign of insects in an established plantation the owner should likewise communicate with the Bureau of Entomology to ascertain the best methods of combating them. FIELD MICE AND RABBITS. Young trees are sometimes girdled by field mice and rabbits. Where these pests are numerous it is almost impossible to prevent them from eating the bark of trees during the winter when green food of other kinds is absent. If the grass around the tree is killed by cultivation there will be less danger from field mice, since these work largely under the grass covering. Poisoning is not always an efficient method of getting rid either of mice or rabbits; and poisoned food may kill some valuable domestic animal. WIND, SNOW, AND FROST. High winds often break or twist off the trees in a plantation. Such damage may be avoided to some extent by planting wind-firm species around the edge of the plantation, or by spacing the trees more closely on the windward sides. 20 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Snow and frost may also cause considerable damage; the former weighs down and breaks off branches and leaders; the latter, when occurring late in spring or early in autumn, may kill the succulent wood. Damage from snow is less likely with hardwood trees than | with conifers, because the bare branches of the former do not permit as much of it to accumulate. Frost damage may be partly avoided © by planting hardy species or by utilizing sites on north, northeast, or northwest slopes, where growth begins comparatively late in spring and stops early in the fall. Low sites on which there is poor circu- lation of air should be avoided. GRAZING ANIMALS. Sheep, cattle, or horses should never be allowed in a young planta- tion. They browse upon leaves and tender shoots and trample the trees, which become crooked, branchy, and dwarfed. If pasturing is continued the trees will eventually be killed. Bulletin 200 of the Wooster (Ohio) Agricultural Experiment Station,sums up, for Ohio, the damage from this source: The acres of young forest which have been needlessly destroyed within the State — foot up into the millions. Their value, had they been protected from live stock, would to-day amount to double the sum which has been realized from the pasture. This is demonstrable, for the investigations of the experiment station have shown that the value of young forest-tree growth exceeds the value of woodland pasture more than two toone. There is no such thing as profitable woodland pasture. The combination of grass and forest isincompatible. Cattle derive but little, ifany, benefit from brows- ing or from the shaded innutritious grasses, but they do damage the trees.. The losses from this practice are larger to-day than ever before because of the constantly increas- ing value of the trees which are destroyed. -In a plantation of green ash at Kanawha, Iowa, trees which had been protected from cattle were from 10 to 17 feet high, while others of the same age which had been browsed by cattle were for the most part only 4 feet high. In a 5-year-old plantation of black locust in Michigan, grazed by both sheep and cattle, ungrazed trees had reached an average height of from 8 to 14 feet, when those browsed by the stock were only from 2 to 3 feet high. Jn a 10-year-old plan- tation of black walnut in Indiana, grazed by cattle, 25 per cent of the living trees had been broken by stock, and averaged from 5 to 6 feet in height; the unbroken trees were from 19 to 25 feet high. The owner stated that the trees were pretty well tramped out at one time, which accounts for the fact that of the trees originally planted 78 per cent are now missing. in older plantations the damage done by stock consists largely in packing of the soil. As a result of the stock running at large, the humus is destroyed and the roots of the trees exposed and perhaps wounded, while the soil becomes impervious to water. The stand, of course, suffers accordingly. Moreover, fungi may enter the trees through wounds around the base or in the roots. FOREST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 21 Hogs root up the soil and expose the tree roots to the air, or even devour the roots themselves. In Iowa hogs completely destroyed one plantation of European larch in this way. Young trees are very likely to be rooted completely out of the ground. If shade and protection for stock can be obtained in no other way, the animals can be admitted to one portion of a plantation and excluded entirely from the other portions, which should be devoted exclusively to the growing of timber. FIRE. Whenever there is any danger from fire, definite steps should be taken to guard against it. Most of the smaller plantations already established are located near the owner’s residence, where they can be kept under observation, but in some of the larger plantations, where a close watch has not been kept, fires have done considerable damage. The owner of a large plantation should certainly make some provision to protect it, especially if it is near a railroad or is likely to be visited by picnic parties. Fire lines might be constructed, and a general watch should always be kept. Roads often make good fire lines, and _ when so used should be kept free from grass. Where no roads pass through the tract, fire lines from 6 to 8 feet wide may be plowed around the area, or else a strip of this width burned or otherwise kept cleared of allinflammable material. A fire line ceases to be a fire line wherever it becomes covered with litter or a heavy growth of grass. DISEASES. The diseases to which the different kinds of trees are subject and the methods of combating them can best be ascertained by consulting with the Office of Forest Pathology, Bureau of Plant Industry, Wash- ington, D.C., or the State experiment station. Prospective planters are strongly advised to do this before purchasing their trees. Nursery stock, particularly that from abroad, is often diseased. MISTAKES IN TREE PLANTING. Forest plantations have too often been started by those with little knowledge of the requirements of the trees set out, and who were often influenced in their choice of species by advertisements of tree agents. It is little wonder, then, that mistakes have been made. Planting operations should not be undertaken until a thorough inquiry has convinced the owner as to which species is best adapted to his pur- pose and which will succeed on the planting site selected. Advice and aid can be obtained by prospective planters from their respective State foresters, a list of whom is given in the Appendix. The Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture also gives advice in regard to the best species to plant and methods of planting. 22 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To enable planters to avoid errors made by other planters in the past, some of those observed in the course of the study are described: (1) Planting European larch and silver maple in mixture killed the larch, which is the more valuable tree of the two. (2) Planting black walnut under green ash killed the walnut, which must have iull sunlight in order to succeed. (3) Catalpa planted under black locust grew very slowly. Catalpa requires full sunlight for good growth. (4) European larch planted under catalpa did not live. Larch zequires full sun- light. (5) Box elder planted in mixture with green ash at first grew more rapidly than the other species and shaded out much of it, though ash is the more valuable tree. (6) Cottonwood planted on a gravel knoll did not live. The situation was too dry for it. (7). The roots of cottonwood planted in a ‘‘blowout”’ insandy soil were exposed by the shifting of the sand; the trees, when observed, were very scrubby and dying. (8) Catalpa planted on a gravel knoll was only about 2 feet tali after 7 years. Such soil is not suited to catalpa. (9) Catalpa trees planted in soil with a hardpan about 8 inches below the suriace were only 3 or 4 feet high after 7 years of growth. Catalpa requires a deeper, well- drained soil. (10) Ash planted ina ‘‘blowout”’ in pure sand, while still alive aiter 5 years, was not much larger than when set out. A pure sandy soil is not suited to ash. (11) Black walnut and green ash planted in low wet ground made a scrubby growth. The soil was not well enough drained for either of them. (12) Osage orange planted in pure sand failed to survive. Osage orange requires a fairly good soil. (13) Three-year-old ash stock, which cost a good deal in the first place, and had to be set in by the most expensive methods, grew so poorly that it was necessary to cut the trees back to the ground after a couple of years. The stock was too large when planted to succeed well. YIELDS AND RETURNS. The yields in products and the money returns to be expected from plantations are given in the tables for individual species (pp. 24 to 32). Existing plantations do not, as a rule, afford a good basis for estimating possible yields and returns from plantations started now, for species have often been planted on inhospitable sites, spacing has been too wide or too close, almost no attention has been given to proper thinnings, and live stock has been allowed to run among the trees. Moreover, the cost of planting stock has often been excessive; $20 a thousand for European larch and $20 to $25 a thousand for hardy catalpa is unduly high. It has been practically impossible to obtam wholly reliable cost data for a given plantation or the exact amount of products secured from it prior to the time when it was exam- ined. In many cases the original planters have died or moved away, or have kept no accurate record of costs or returns. In reckoning the cost of an income from plantations, interest has been calculated at 3 per cent, compounded annually. The land values and tax rate assumed are undoubtedly lower than those now in effect, but it should be remembered that neither averaged as high during the FOREST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 23 ‘life of the plantation as the present figure. In estimating future ‘returns from plantations started to- day, the land values assumed should be as high as those at present in effect, and even somewhat higher if the general trend in land values of the region is upward. Hiven at the low interest rate of 3 per cent growing trees on land worth $100 to $150 an acre for the sole purpose of obtainmg lumber and other products will not, at the present stumpage prices, prove a profitable undertaking. But if the plantation serves also as a pro- tection against wind such planting should pay very well. It has been found that due to the protection afforded by the most efficient grove windbreaks the yield in farm crops is increased to the extent of that grown on a strip three times as wide as the height of the trees... The protection afforded by his grove of ash and maple has been estimated by one farmer in Iowa to save him $300 per year in feed for his stock. In view of advancing stumpage prices, it seems safe to estimate the yields from future plantations as being equal at least to the highest yields from plantations made in the past on similar sites. Timber products, moreover, will almost certainly advance in value, though it is open to question whether this advance will be sufficient to offset oe rapidly increasing value of the land. INDIVIDUAL SPECIES. COMMON COTTONWOOD (Populus deltoides Marsh.). The common cottonwood is the most rapid growing of the trees commonly planted. It is not exacting in regard to soil, but requires an abundance of moisture. It is very hardy and is especially adapted for planting on poor, sandy river-bottom sites where the water table is within from 4 to 6 feet of the surface. When 30 or 40 years old the trees begin to die in the tops and the stand to deteriorate. For its best development cottonwood requires an abundance of sunlight, and, if planted in groves, a wide spacing of 12 by 12 to 12 by 15 feet is needed. Closer spacing not only adds to the initial expense but results in the death of many trees from crowding before they are large enough to be of much value. When planted in groves, however, cottonwood should be underplanted with some such species as silver maple, in order fully to utilize the ground. This would insure better forest conditions than are generally found in open groves of pure cottonwood, and would promote the production of clear timber of a fairly high value. The main product derived from cottonwood is lamber, and from maple, cordwood. A stumpage value for cottonwood of $8 per thousand board feet is considered low. In Lowa it brings from $10 to $12. For inside dimension timbers cottonwood is as good as higher priced material. The timber has been used for corncribs and barns. Heavy cotton- wood planks, because of their toughness when seasoned, are especially desirable for the sides of horses’ stalls. 1 Forest Service Bulletin 86, ‘‘ Windbreaks.” 24 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Cottonwood cordwood is difficult to split after it becomes dry, but considerable quantities, in addition to lumber, are produced in groves or in rows. A value of $2.50 per cord on the stump is considered a fair average for the tree throughout the region in which it has been planted most extensively. Cottonwood is easily propagated from cuttings. It has done well in lowa, and probably would thrive throughout the whole eastern region, even to the New England States. Table 3 gives the yield and value of cottonwood in Iowa. In this table and in the tables for the other species the total costs to date are determined by means of the formula, Cost=(S+E+C) 1.0p"—(S+E), where S=average value of land per acre, E=capi- Annual taxes C rate of interest’ (preparation of soil, cost of stock, planting, and cultivation), and 1.0p"=amount of $1 compounded annually at 3 per cent for a period equal to the age of the plantation. Total profit or loss per acre equals the amount by which the present value of products per acre exceeds or falls below the total amount of costs to date when com- puted at 3 per cent compound interest. Positive amounts are an excess profit above 3 per cent; negative amounts indicate the sums by which the profit fails to equal 3 per cent. Annual profit or loss per acre equals the total profit or loss per acre divided by the amount of $1 per annum at 3 per cent compound interest for a period equal to age of plantation. talized value of taxes = =cost of initial operations TaBLe 3.— Yield and value of cottonwood (Populus deltoides) in Iowa. | [2 |2 5 Isa ls igs | | 5 |s Yieldperacre.|5.3 | 8, oa | Pane (+) or | | = 3 | 2 Ilge | loss (—)per goa ee gw, ass 12. lee ane | - eee S = Is ae Og |Prg | ¢ | 25) 84/4 ZEa\c= | Ss [FS | Age. | Soil. 8 as Ea Sh So Ee #2 ge | | | a, SS / p54! 6 = 3 O/S5 Pa ted ie et a | } z ao a SuSies | 38 Fes Ss |2 & S| a SHS/78 Re je 3d | oI = Ss a Also Bos = £12 (8 18) 8 ael8ss1s i282] 2 | 2 a es 2 > 5 |BSS|RS"|6o EAS) © 5 SO |e |4 [4] 8 (6° 4 Je ea | < 1 - | )-.- | — } — ] | ——__ | —___ | Yrs. Ft. | Ins. | Ft, | Bd. ft. | Cords. | 12 | Sandy black loam.../53x 8 | 372} 8.4] 54, _ 3,900) 23. 79/870. 00/839. 90/890. 68| + $50. 78/-+$3. 58 17 | Black loam 5 x 8| 291; 9.2] 66 10,350] 16.37| 70.00] 63.241123. 72/4 60.48/+ 2.78 28 | -|5 x 6| 204 11.4} 56! 12,320) 17.38] 65. 00/100. 32/199. 33/4 99.01|+ 2.30 29 -|22% 3] 370] 10.0} 58] 10,860) 29.17} 60. 90/102. 09/159. 80|+ 57.71|+ 1.27 30 -|62x 72! 66] 13.9] 68] 6,400] 7.19} 60.00/113.00| 69.18|— 43.82) .92 34. 6 x 73| 126] 14.5] 87} 23,850] 12.20] 50. 00|103. 70|221. 30/+-117. 60|+ 2.04 34 | Clay loam........... 7x7 { so7alt 14.0| 85] 10,850] 59.07] 20.00] 55..49/234. 4814178. 99|-+ 4.06 35 | Loamy sand........ S$x 83| 137| 13.3] 77] 24,500} -9.34| 40.00) 87.77/456. 85|+369. 08/4 6.10 35 | Black loam......... 8 x 8| 160} 12.1] 72) 10,850) 17.69] 50. 00/119. 92/131.03|+ 11.11|+ .18 36 |... -- Hotere ase ea 5 x10| 125] 13.4] 74} 15,820] 6.35] 60.00|144. 25/149. 43|- 1.82/03 40 |} Quite sandy loam...}2 x 36 233) 17.6! 100) 49,926) 55.47 40. 00/116. 88/538. 07 +421.19/+ 5.58 41 | Black sandy loam...|6 x 6 193} 12.3) 93) 14,700 7.74| 30.00 92. 50/136. 95)-+ 44.45/+ .57 43 | Black loam........- BS 74} 15.9] 71) 12,600) 5.38) 40.00|135.67/115.25|— 20.42|— .25 50 | Black sandy loam...|8 x 8 89] 13.9] 65] 15,500!...._. 30. 00|136. 73/124. 25|— 12.48\—_. 11 435 | Black loam.........|...----- 137| 19.3] 82! 32,900| 29. 41| 50.00 106. 33) 336. 50|+230.17\+ 3.81 d 1 + 30.064 - 1 In additior to the board feet shown in preceding column. 2 Cottonwood. 3 Maple. 4 Single rows reckoned as 50 feet wide by 871 feet long=1 acre. Bul. 153, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. wees Sai SIGE «, a PLATE Il. COTTONWOOD PLANTATION, IOWA. TREES MATURE AND LARGE ENOUGH FOR SAWING INTO DIMENSION TIMBERS. ‘a10 SUVAA Zo ‘SIONITI| ‘NOILVLNV1d HOYV] Nvadouny—'sS “SI PLATE III. iss ae! ~ - Bul. 153, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “ONILNVId SWAYNEGNIAA HOS STavuISSq LI SAMVI) DNIHONVYgG asnaq “VMO| ‘NOILVLNV1d JONYdS AVMYON—"] “DI4 FOREST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 25 SILVER MAPLE (Acer saccharinum Linn.). | Silver maple is a rapid-growing tree, probably ranking next to ‘cottonwood in this respect among the species discussed. It is also very hardy and comparatively free from serious insect or fungous attack. The tree, which reaches maturity in from 35 to 40 years, forms a rather crooked, twisted bole, and so yields very little lumber. Its chief value is for cordwood, or to insure a windbreak in a short ‘time. Silver maple is occasionally used for posts for temporary fences, but is not durable in contact with the soil, and unless treated ‘with a preservative, will not last more than two or three years. _ Since silver maple is easily and cheaply propagated, it is a good ‘tree to plant for the production of cordwood in the Middle Western ‘States, and probably also in any part of the Northeast, provided the plantation is made on well-drained soils which are not subject to excessive drying out. A spacing of 6 by 8 feet is close enough. | In Table 4 $2.50 per cord has been assumed as the average stump- ‘age value for the species. TasLe 4.— Yield and value of silver maple (Acer saccharinum). nv eo) A oS 1 ® Ee Seago 4 ae .| Profit (+-) or B Ie Bohs | Ss |68@| loss (—) per = |g OT S| ial Se acre o 184 Bei on 168 lsd : ! orig 36 /°8| w [Eecled | es [Sz ' Age. | Location. Soil. aeel a3 on| & |fsm a5q|2e2 lesa pac- SH | 02 ro) SSS 6/95 |aar ’ ing, |ASleS| SF lass) os] da lrus epe|Fa| o Jone oFs8] Sn 138 3 | HO} am |G,00| mae Dees o 2 3S o |o SB g2S/S.8)/ aloes! a 3 2 | |e eeiieaals lest] +s I : AY 38/6 HAS ° = fe) a |< 4) | |o < Be |e = < Yrs. Ft. Ins. | Ft.| No.| No.| Cords 18) Iowa..| Sandy loam....| 4 x4] 923] 4.9] 27|....| 336] 13. 73/$65. 00)$97. 58/$47. 33|—$50. 25|—-$2. 15 27|...do...| Black loam..._. 4 x4] 506) 7.2} 46] 296] 299] 11.74] 60.00)143.35|146.04/4 2.69|4+ .06 OEE}. al: sess dose 34 x 6 {1,107 3.7} 40) 110). 15.56} 30. 00/104. 83) 43.46|— 61.37/— 1.43 28}. Gonn=.||dioamice ol 232.2. 4 x4 /1,120| 4.3) 35]..--| 110] 19.69] 35. 00/206. 31) 30. 79|\—175.52/— 4.09 28] Iowa..| Black loam..... 10 x12} 189) 9.2/ 43) 180) 132] 1.89] 65.00/117. 15) 65.79|— 51.36,— 1.20 Dh 2d Oren | Seo sd Ose see 8 x8} 487| 7.6] 47| 363} 92] 10.41] 65. 00/132. 27/164. 31/4 32.04/4+ .75 31|...do...| Clay loam...-.. 4 x5] 526) 7.6] 57| 351) 429] 10.48] 60. 00/147. 12/226. 03/+ 78.91/+ 1.58 33/iConnas| suoams sees ae 4 x6] 380] 6.4; 70) 330) 240] 9.35] 14. 00/172. 05/289. 85/1117.80|+ 2.14 33) Mass.1|--..-do.....-_-- (?) 212} 6.5| 53] 124} 39] 4.94] 15.00)171. 45} 56.34|—115.11/— 2.09 35|...do...| Whitesand..-.| 4 x4] 527| 6.6| 43] 219] 140] 12.48! 15.00] 49. 23/111. 88/+ 62.65/+ 1.03 535 | mend Obes eee Obsuenzo=s 4 x4 |1,324| 4.5] 29! 27) 216) 20.97] 15.00) 49.23) 47.97/— 1.26)/— .02 _ 35| lowa..| Black loam..... 8 x8] 221) 10.0) 57| 214) 170} 3.97] 50.00'131.57|172. 42|+ 40.85/+ .67 Shi Ger donee aed Osment cae: 7k X 7%, 192) 11.2} 57] 191] 155} 3.00} 50. 00/133. 68/205.05;+ 71.37|/+ 1.18 S5N-- done bs edowsraascue 4 x6] 498} 7.4| 44! 325] 305] 10.33] 60.00/163. 02/157.58)— 5.44, .09 35;...do...| Clay loam....-- 3 x7| 475| 7.4) 68] 466] 308} 10.72} 25. 00/112. 20/275. 42/4163. 22/4 4.35 37|...do...| Black loam..... 4 x4] 330) 8.9] 57| 308) 330] 6.26] 50.00/194. 41/252. 46/+ 58.05|/+ .88 Signs Aes dOeeen sees (2) 571) 7.7| 54} 391) 462] 12.10] 80. 00/272. 59/214. 50/— 58.09|— .80 . 39] Iowa.- PRE sandy | 34x33] 522) 7.0| 53] 378) 269] 12.91] 60.00|235. 15/150. 51|— 84.64/— 1.17 oam. 40|...do...| Black loam...-. 4 x4] 398] 8.3] 52] 342] 193] 7.44] 30. 00/160. 78/212.04|+ 51.264 .68 Ail ed oss |e dottuias ee 4 x4] 299} 9.4} 45! 274] 429) 10.48] 30. 00/147. 12/226.03|+ 78.91/+ 1.58 41\_..do..- Blac sandy |8 x8] 292) 8.3] 64] 285] 435! 6.51) 40. 00/137. 28/223.01/+ 85.73|/+ 1.09 oam. 3 50| Mass..| Whitesand....| 6 x6] 316) 7.3] 49] 264] 71] 6.71] 10.00} 84.36/103.61)+ 19.25/4+ .17 60|...do...| Clay loam... .-. 6 x6] 155! 9.7] 62) 153] 162| 2.96] 10.00)117.58]/110.06/— 7.52|\— .05 228) Iowa..| Black loam..... 5 |1,000| 10.6) 50] 608) 340} 5.81) 65.00|115.32/189.92/4+ 74.60|4 1.74 1Jn addition to the poles and posts shown in preceding columns. 2 Single row reckoned as 25 feet wide by 1,742 feet long = 1 acre. SCOTCH PINE (Pinus sylvestris Linn.). ' Scotch pine will grow in all sections of the eastern United States, and is well adapted for sandy soils too poor for agriculture or even for the growth of white pine. The tree seems to do equally well on the poor, sandy, Norway pine lands of Michigan and on old worn- out lands of New England. For the first 15 or 20 years Scotch pine makes very rapid height growth, often from 20 to 30 inches a year. Because of its hardiness and freedom from disease, it is to be regretted that the Scotch pine already planted consists largely of a variety from central Germany, the trees of which, when about 20 years old, become crooked, irregular, ragged, and of very poor tim- ber form, yielding only one or two logs per tree. In Europe, on the other hand, trees grown from seed collected in the Scotch pine forests of the Baltic provinces of Russia, ordinarily called the Riga variety, have straight, cylindrical, well-developed trunks, and yield wood of a higher quality than the Scotch pine of central Germany. Unless, therefore, the Riga variety can be secured, the planting of Scotch pine is not recommended. 28 BULLETIN 153, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, The tree is decidedly intolerant, and a rather wide spacing, 6 by 8 or 8 by 8 feet, is advisable, or it may be planted in mixture with white pine on soils adapted to both species. In the latter case a spacing of 6 by 6 feet, with the two species alternating, will probably give the best results. Stumpage values for Scotch pine in the Middle Western States are placed at $8 per thousand board feet for lumber and $2 per cord for cordwood. TaBLe 6.— Yield and value of Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris). | Seki Yieldper|£.| % |Ze | Profit (+) or ach D = acre. SE Te Ro loss (—) per | | v3) 2 eS 2 sa acre. | | 2 os 2 Ss steals (zr Slee | | a = Kee bees = a ee) | Loca- } 2 eae = i233) se a |e Age. | ‘tion. A 6 |48|/22/4 e°ei us| eel3e. s- (8° (04 13 i43|S2)85 |e8e D = 2 Isl ¥|/ en | oe |saw = & 2 o| -; |@s8l5u0| aa |2cs 3 | | = a i) =) I oes and os ose a lhe I 3 12 |6 |$| 4 Besl"sle |e28| a: ioe =e |2 | |@) 8 (eS| sets 1888 /-3 5 |-o |& |< [4/8 6 <= Bide || Ee = a hares Yrs. | ee {| She 37| lGWae Bleek I loam.) 4x4 884 4) 49 2, 478 60. 00/340. 00/$127. 67|$139. 82|+-$12. 15|+-$0. 18 39) - - - “oss 4x8 497 8.4 44 6,971, 31.11} 50.00) 179.58) 117.99|— 61.59;— .85 i) do. “ae -| 8 xil 362) 9.6 a 7, 943) 24. 43) 50. 00) 183. 80) 112. 40|— 71.40|— .95 41) Ill BBE a do. 7 x163} 375) 8.5 5, 781, 26. 74) 80.00) 233.72) 99. 73)—133.99|— 1.70 ee Mass. 7 Poor sand. 6x6 521; 6.8 2 soetes|--+-s-|' 10..00)-22 = -)32eees-1S cee ccleaner J 1In addition to the board feet shown in preceding column. WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus Linn.). White pine seems well suited to the climate of the whole eastern portion of the country from New England to Iowa. It is not par- ticularly exacting as to soil, but requires good drainage. It flourishes on the worn-out pasture lands of New England, on the almost pure sands of Cape Cod, and on the good agricultural soils of the Middle West. It will is6 undoubtedly thrive on some of the poor, sandy farm lands of the Indiana and Ohio region. White pine is fairly tolerant, and in order to secure a clear bole very close spacing, 4 by 4 feet or 4 by 6 feet,is necessary. In practice, © however, a spacing of 6 by 8 feet to 8 by 8 feet is usually close enough. In a stand 50 years old, spaced 6 by 8 feet, the branches die to a height of 40 to 50 feet, and though they persist, the knots are usually sound and the timber of fairly good quality. In a three-row wind-— break in eastern lowa, 52 years old and spaced 6 by 7 feet, the owner cuts timber which, although somewhat knotty, sells as lumber for from $36 to $38 per thousand feet board measure. White pine is recommended for windbreak planting in the Middle West, since it is” an excellent tree for the purpose and produces a large amount of — timber of good quality. Bul. 153, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. . i cae PUPS Be Fe igen PLATE IV. Fic. 2,—NORWAY AND WHITE PINE IN MIXTURE, NORTHEASTERN IOWA, 43 YEARS OLD. ORIGINAL SPACING 1 BY 6 FEET. FLOOR CONDITIONS AND RATHER T YPICAL CROOKED GROWTH Fic. 1.—SILVER MAPLE GROVE, lOWA, SHOWING GOOD FOREST OF THE SPECIES IN THIS REGION. Bul. 153, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V Fic. 1.—SCOTCH PINE PLANTATION, CAPE Cop, MAss., 35 YEARS OLD, ON VERY SANDY SOIL. Fig. 2.—TWENTY-T HREE-YEAR-OLD PLANTATION, IOWA. SCOTCH PINE ON RIGHT, WHITE PINE ON LEFT. SHOWS CHARACTERISTIC APPEARANCE OF SCOTCH PINE IN THIS REGION AFTER AGE OF 20 YEARS. FOREST PLANTING IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES, 29 Where white pine grows well there is no object in planting it in mixture with other species. In certain regions, however, particularly in New England, the tree is subject to attack by the white pine weevil (Pissodes strobi Peck), which kills the top of the leading shoot through a year or two of its growth. A new leader is ordinarily formed by one of the side shoots, which in turn is subject to attack. The result is a crooked, unsightly tree, whose vaiue for timber is considerably impaired, especially in stands grown on a short rotation, when there is not sufficient time for the crooks to be covered through growth of the bole. Wherever the weevil has appeared it would be better to plant Norway pine with the white pine than to plant the latter species alone. Young Norway pine grows as rapidly in height as the white, and though its lumber is less valuable, it is less subject to attack by the weevil. In Table 7 the white pine plantations listed are all in the Middle West. Similar figures for New England plantations appear in other publications of the Forest Service and of various New England States. For the Middle West white pine stumpage has been given a value of $10 per thousand feet for stands with an average diameter under 11 inches, and of $12 for stands 11 inches and over, both of which are very conservative. White pine is usually cut by small portable sawmills, and the felling and sawing together do not cost more than $12 per thousand feet board measure for lumber which brings from $36 to $38 per thousand. TABLE 7.— Yield and value of white pine (Pinus strobus). n = b= iI nd ® % B ae 2 |S | Profit (+) or 8 2 2 188 |2- |e | loss(—) per 5 3 Bias 2.\|Sa acre. Slee eee a ef | £8 lsc : Senn Se et Pest ar, |e t=| Galicia mei etoptey ealtsi Age. | Loca Soil. 8 g2| S|) § |s5q| He [ge 8 ion. S 5 ga |e 3 | o8 ae aoe a Plo lol 8 lobs| #5 Zee : s = 1) cw} & (mS! aa (Ss: 3 a= g g S|ouc |S. 8) = i Seals 3 ® |8 18 || 3 |Sssi8 |es.| a x 5 P| & |e aal 6 2 a0 iS) A Oo | |< Pp Jalalp as] oe |2a0] 6 5 o) AY colo} ms be 2a) 3 |g Sssja8 |B [ss | Profit (+) or = BPS Ge | 2 == loss (—) per ou le Tro .|/Sau QA.|own acre. o = Ssilsise 82 |5e F - 19 Oss SIO $3 Stcig see eee » 188 Solas l sc uloe | os (Sa. - = 2e 2 3d|o0 oD Age. | Location Soil. s |ee ES = segise |E8 2a% | Qo So io gS ow S|f 2o las ae Ge oy Sl.ealPs | 338 [Fes Ss a g |8|8S.iged!| 4 less ad: & Ais |S lgiaise OEP LIFE HISTORY OF LODGEPOLE PINE IN ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 21 Hopk.). A few trees apparently killed by its attack have been found on the Medicine Bow and Bighorn National Forests in Wyoming, and on the Arapaho Forest in Colorado. The attack was confined mainly to the bases of the trees and to unhealthy individuals. The Oregon tomicus was also found, but it is probable that the dendroc- tonus made the first attack. A weevil similar to the eastern white pine weevil (Pissodes strobt) has also been found on the Arapaho National Forest. This insect destroys the terminal shoot, resulting - in crooked and forked trees. FUNGI AND MISTLETOE. Lodgepole has, on the whole, suffered comparatively little damage from fungi. This is due chiefly to the dry climate of its range and to the fires which have renewed the stands from time to time, thus preventing any extensive development of the fungous diseases. Often badly fire-scarred trees may remain sound as long as 40 or 50 years, except for a small amount of blue stain along the edges of the scar. One of the two most common diseases of lodgepole is that caused by the ring scale fungus (7rametes pint), often called by woodsmen “white rot” or “red rot.” Another common disease is caused by the fungus Polyporus schweinitzii. The ring scale fungus attacks chiefly the older trees, which it may enter at almost any point where a dead limb or wound affords an opening. From the point of infection it sometimes extends throughout the trunk. The wood at first turns a dark reddish brown, the trees at this stage being known to lumber- men as “red rot” or “red heart” timber. Later the color of the wood becomes lighter and small white spots and strands appear, increasing in size and number until the entire heartwood is filled with small holes lined with the thin, white cellulose of the wood which has not been used as food by the fungus. The wood never rots entirely away, but eventually becomes a mass of soft, spongy tissue. The fungus Polyporus schweimiteu usually causes a heart rot at the butt. Since it is confined to the first or second logs it is less destructive than the ring scale fungus. When the roots are infected the tree may fall; in other cases it may break off close to the ground before the rot has had time to spread far into the trunk. The affected wood turns a light yellow and gradually dries out so that numerous fissures appear. In overmature lodgepole stands from 7 to 10 per cent, or on limited areas even 15 to 20 per cent, of the timber may be affected by one or both of these fungi to an extent rendering it unmerchantable. It is seldom, however, that an entire tree is made worthless by rot, and one or more sound logs or ties can usually be obtained. The blue stain, which may appear almost immediately in the sapwood of fire-killed or insect-killed trees, does not render them unfit for use. 22 BULLETIN 154, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In some localities a rust (Peridermium montanum) attacks the leaves of lodgepole, causing them to fall prematurely. Another rust (Peridermium NT ee attacks lodgepole in western Montana, causing galls to form on the trunk and branches, which stunts and sometimes kills the tree. One of the false mistletoes (Razoumfskya americana) is often found on lodgepole, but does little serious damage except in certain localities, where it may greatly affect the growth of the tree. It usually attacks young stands, and in dense ones most of the trees may be infested. Mistletoe causes an abnormal growth at the point of — attack, which on side branches forms a compact, bushy mass of twigs commonly called “witch’s broom.” In small trees infested stems or branches are sometimes swollen to twice their natural | diameter. é SMELTER FUMES. | - + The Washoe smelter at Anaconda, just outside of the boundary of : the Deerlodge National Forest, is the largest copper smelter in the world, handling approximately 10,000 tons of ore daily and pro- ducing 25 per cent of the copper output of the United States. Chem-— ists have estimated that at least 2,500 tons of sulphur dioxide and at © least 25 tons of arsenic trioxide are daily thrown into the atmosphere ~ from the top of the stack. The arsenic does not damage the timber, — but when deposited on the forage is injurious and sometimes fatal to grazing animals. Sulphur dioxide is injurious to vegetation in general. Experiments have shown that as little as one part of sul- phur dioxide with a million parts of air will kill pine seedlings when the trees are exposed for any length of time. Even at a distance of many miles from Anaconda the air in the smoke stream may contain — as many as 80 parts of sulphur dioxide to a million parts of air. At_ a distance of 10 miles from the smelter the sulphur is often so strong as to cause persons to cough. Sulphur dioxide injures trees by destroying the chlorophyll in the — leaves, which first turn yellow and later red-brown. The damage usually extends over several years, especially if the trees are at some distance from the smelter. At first only the weaker leaves are killed, but later the younger ones succumb to repeated baths in the smoke stream. Three stages in the defoliation of trees by smelter fumes have been recognized. The first is when the older leaves die and fall prematurely, the tree still retaining a considerable amount of foliage and the appearance of health. In the second stage the foliage be- comes decidedly thin, and in the last or acute one only the needles of the current year are left green on the tree. (Plate V, fig. 1.) These latter are usually badly damaged or killed during the winter, and the tree may fail to put forth fresh leaves in the spring. In some cases, however, the acute stage lasts for several years. The an- — ee a LIFE HISTORY OF LODGEPOLE PINE IN ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 23 nual rings of trees injured or killed by smelter smoke usually show a graduated decrease in size for the last six or eight years. With respect to their susceptibility to injury from smelter fumes, the species in the lodgepole region may be grouped as follows, the most easily killed coming first: Alpine fir. Douglas fir. Lodgepole pine. Engelmann spruce. Juniper. Limber pine. As between Douglas fir and lodgepole pine, the two most impor- tant species in the smoke zone, the former is considerably more sus- ceptible than the latter. Nearly all the lodgepole trees will remain green when practically all the Douglas firs in the same locality have been killed. Susceptibility varies among different individuals of the same species. A few green and flourishing Douglas fir trees will often be found after practically all the other firs in the vicinity have been killed. The injury is not the same in amount at all places equally distant from the smelter, since the smoke is carried by the prevailing wind along channels formed by the topography. Damage decreases both : with distance from the smelter-and distance from the main channels. Tn places the smoke seems to eddy in a peculiar manner, killing trees in isolated groups. The greatest damage, of course, is close to the smelter, but at places 9 miles distant most of the lodgepole is now dead and the remainder seriously injured. Slight damage at a dis- tance of 30 miles has been observed. WINDFALL, SUN SCALD, ETC. Lodgepole pine is generally regarded as being decidedly susceptible to windfall. While to a certain extent this is true, there is a tend- ency to exaggerate the danger. The extent of the development of the tree’s root system, as in the case of any other species, varies with the soil conditions and the density of the stand. On deep, fresh soil trees in moderately open stands develop good root systems, while on very shallow or very moist soils the root system is correspndingly shallow and the tree less wind firm. With the same soil conditions, the development of the root system varies inversely with the density ‘of the stand, so that the denser the stand the less windfirm are the individual trees. Experience shows that heavy thinnings in dense stands are very likely to result in serious windfall unless the situa- tion is well protected. For this reason the leaving of seed trees, either alone or in small groups, seldom works satisfactorily. On _ the more exposed situations, with shallow or wet soil, even unthinned 24 BULLETIN 154, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stands may be blown down. As a rule, however, solid stands, even when overdense, are windfirm, provided they are of sufficient ex- tent—not narrower than the height of the trees. Light or even heavy thinnings can usually be made without danger of windfall by con- forming the operation to the height, age, and density of the stand, the character of the soil, and the exposure. Haphazard thinnings made on the Deerlodge Forest from 13 to 25 years ago in the course of ordinary lumbering operations show a remarkably small amount of windfall. On only 2 of the 18 blocks examined was any windfall evident, and in each of these cases the stand had been very heavily thinned by the removal of 82 per cent of the original number of trees and 66 per cent of the cubic volume. On the remainder of the areas the stand was not so heavily thinned, though the cutting was heavier than vould be considered advisable in present-day Forest Service timber sales. In one of the early For- est Service sales on the Deerlodge Forest, on an area partly exposed and partly protected from the wind, where the soil was deep, fresh, and firm, a selection cutting removed about 40 per cent of the total number of trees and 59 per cent of the cubic volume. In the five years following the cutting only 3 trees out of the approximately 5,000 left blew down. All of these were on the exposed portion of the sale area, and in each case a defective root system, due to fire injury, was the main cause of the fall. These and cther observa- tions indicate the importance of removing trees with defective root systems. Another climatic factor which may cause damage to individual seed trees is sun scald. In many cases seed trees which have with- stood the wind for a number of years have died apparently as a result of too great exposure to sun. Owing to the thin bark of lodgepole the cambium on the insolated side of the tree is killed first. Many ~ of the trees crack open on the sunward side before they die. The drying out of the ground when it is exposed to the sun probably helps to kill such trees. If trees are left so that their trunks do not receive full sun during most of the day, the likelihood of damage from sun scald is very small. Frost cracks sometimes appear in lodgepole pine, and when they take a spiral form lessen the value of the tree for saw timber. Strong winds sometimes open these cracks in a way to form large seams or checks which afford ready entrance for insects and fungi. The damage appears to be more prevalent in overmature than in younger stands, and is more often encountered in Wyoming and Colorado than in Montana. Frost may also cause injury by heaving 1 or 2 year old seedlings out of the ground. Snow, accumulating on the tops of lodgepole trees 4 inches or less in diameter, especially when in dense stands, often bends the PLATE V. Bul. 154, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘ule}8 oY} WMoIy poddoip savy plo svat 9oIq] UVY} OLOUT SOABAT OY} JO [1B YB OS[TY *s007} POIN(Ul-19} [OWS YJIM PorRduULOd SB YIMOIT SIvdA DdIY} JSVl UO OSBI[OF JUBLINXN[ OJON “opBvUL sBAL oINqoId 9} B1OJOd SUOSBES SUIMOIS 9dIY} PolINd00 osvUIVp OU, “GQSYSAO00RY FONIS LN «‘LIag aay,, Ad GabvWVq SNITGSSS 310da9qd07—'g ‘SI4 IO] [OUIS OY} ULOIJ OUT] IB UB UL SOTTUT 6 UdxBL ‘soTOUBIC JOSTLOYM W990 9DUBISIP 191048 Aq UMOYS SIBOA MOF ISBT UL YJMOLS JYSIOY JO 04¥I BUISBOIO -oq ‘ivod JUOIIND OY JO YB} ATWO ‘asBI[O} JUBOS OY} O10ON "SOVLS «ALNOY,, NJ “SONS YALTSNS Ad GSYNPN| SONIIGASS a10da9q07q—"} “dI4 w LIFE HISTORY OF LODGEPOLE PINE IN ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 25 poles to the ground or breaks them off at a height of from 10 to 20 feet. Snow-break may be beneficial in overdense stands which are in need of thinning, but may also do considerable damage in thinned stands where the individual trees can no longer rely on their neighbors for support. The so-called “red belt” injury is manifested by the sudden red- dening and subsequent death of practically all the needles on the exposed portions of the trees in a well-defined altitudinal belt. Some are killed outright, though usually the buds remain uninjured and the trees later recover, in some cases after complete defoliation. The most extensive damage of this nature on record occurred in Jan- uary, 1909, when large areas were affected in the Black Hills and throughout the Rocky Mountains from Montana to Colorado. The belt was generally from 200 to 400 feet in width between elevations of 6,500 and 7,000 feet in the lodgepole region, and at lower eleva- tions in the northwestern portion of Montana. Trees on all aspects were affected, but the greatest damage was done on southerly slopes and in situations exposed to the wind. The injury resulted from un- usual weather conditions during the winter. In 1909 it was caused by a chinook of several days, when the ground was frozen and cov- ered with snow. The air was quite warm and the sun very hot, especially when reflected from the surface of the snow, causing the leaves of the trees to transpire all of their available moisture. Since the roots were frozen and additional moisture could not be obtained from the ground, the leaves withered, and in some cases the buds also dried out excessively. The most satisfactory explanation of the occurrence of the injury in an altitudinal belt is that early in the winter, before the ground froze, snow fell at the higher elevations above the zone of injury. Later the ground in the belt froze solid, but not the ground in the zone below it nor that in the zone above it. Later still the entire area was covered by a heavy fall of snow. In this way the belt was the only part of the region in which the ground was solidly frozen and no soil moisture was available to replace the water transpired by the leaves. Hedgcock grouped the species of the lodgepole region in respect to their susceptibility to this injury as follows, naming the most susceptible first: Yellow pine. Douglas fir. Lodgepole pine. Limber pine. Engelmann spruce. Alpine fir. Juniper. Douglas fir unquestionably suffered more than did lodgepole on areas where the greatest damage occurred. Many Douglas fir 4 trees were killed outright, while even those lodgepoles which had their leaves killed retained their buds and put out new leaves the following spring. Lodgepole saplings affected in 1909 now present a peculiar banded appearance, that part of the stem which was above the snow at the time of the injury being bare of leaves, while that part below it, which was covered by snow, and that part above it, which has grown since, are green. The red belt injury has sometimes been confused with damage from smelter fumes, but its nature is entirely different. (Pl. V, fig. 2.) Trees killed by the former die quickly as compared with those killed by the fumes. Weather-damaged trees which have recovered show a quick resumption of normal growth rate and a general healthy appearance, a marked contrast to the trees suffering from the smoke fumes. 26 BULLETIN 154, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ANIMALS. Porcupines damage lodgepole to some extent by gnawing the bark in order to get at the tender cambium. They confine their efforts chiefly to young or middle-aged trees, though trees as large as 18 inches in diameter have been found completely girdled. Usually the bark is gnawed near the base of the tree, but occasionally animals work in the tops, as high as 50 or 60 feet from the ground, causing the trees to become stag-headed. Small branches are sometimes girdled near their junction with the main stem. Sometimes the attack may result in a beneficial thinning in an overdense stand, but porcupines have done considerable damage to trees on the Routt National Forest, Colo., where more than half of the trees on areas from one to several acres have been girdled, and in several localities on the Bonneville National Forest, Wyo., where 25 per cent of the trees have been injured. Rabbits often bite through the main stem of young seedlings, particularly the slender ones in overdense stands. Squirrels may cause a slight decrease in the rate of growth by biting off a number of the cone-bearing twigs. They also eat considerable quantities of seed, the result of which may be harmful in places where reproduc- tion is not up to the required density. Sheep grazing unrestricted may damage seedlings and very young growth by trampling. ASSOCIATED SPECIES. Over most of its range lodgepole pine occurs in almost pure stands. Other species, however, often grow in mixture with it, particularly at the upper and lower altitudinal limits of the lodgepole zone. At the lower limit its chief associate is Douglas fir, which tends to take possession of areas too dry for lodgepole. Fir reproduction often occurs under the latter, and many areas now covered with lodgepole LIFE HISTORY OF LODGEPOLE PINE IN ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 27 would doubtless long since have given way to the more tolerant fir had it not been for recurrent fires. On south slopes and on dry, rocky knolls and ridge tops the fir may extend almost to the upper limits of the lodgepole belt. At the upper limit of the zone the chief associates of lodgepole are Engelmann spruce and Alpine fir, which come in on the moister sites. Spruce sometimes follows stream courses far down into the lodgepole type, where it takes pos- session of the moist bottomlands. Both the fir and spruce are much more tolerant than lodgepole, and reproduce under dense shade. At the higher elevations Alpine fir is apt to be more abundant in repro- duction than spruce, but the latter is a longer-lived tree and of much greater importance in mature stands. Both species when growing with lodgepole assist to a large extent in pruning the latter of its side branches. ~ In Colorado and Wyoming limber pine and aspen also grow with lodgepole, though to a rather limited extent. In Montana white- bark pine is usually mixed with lodgepole toward the latter’s upper limit. PERMANENCY OF LODGEPOLE TYPE. Many of the present stands of lodgepole undoubtedly occupy areas previously covered with other species which have been driven out by repeated fires. If fire were kept entirely out of the forests, therefore, the lodgepole would in many situations be replaced by the original species—at the lower altitudes by Douglas fir, at the upper ones by Engelmann spruce and Alpine fir. All of these species are more tolerant than lodgepole, and for this reason are able to crowd it out on sites adapted to all of them. It is likely, however, that there is a middle belt considerably narrower than the present lodgepole zone where conditions of soil and climate are more favorable to it than to competing species, and where it would probably be able to form a permanent type. In connection with the ability of lodgepole to maintain itself in competition with other species, it is interesting to know that Knowl- ton, in his studies of the paleobotany of Yellowstone Park, found in Tertiary deposits a serotinous cone of a tree species which he named Pinus premurrayana, because he considered it the immediate an- cestor of the lodgepole of to-day. A fossil cone, perfectly preserved, is slightly longer and narrower than typical lodgepole cones of the present. In Yellowstone Park Knowlton also found the fossil re- mains of species of Sequoia, Juglans, Hicoria, Fagus, Castanea, Ficus, Magnolia, etc. Of all the species now present in the park lodgepole is the sole survivor from the Tertiary age. 1The form of lodgepole pine occurring in the Rocky Mountains, now known as Pinus contorta, has also been known as Pinus contorta, var. murrayana, and as Pinus mur- rayanda. 28 BULLETIN 154, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GROUND COVER. Lodgepole stands, particularly in Montana and northern Wyoming, have a ground cover of grasses and weeds, many of which are val- uable as forage. These include pine grass (Calamagrostis rubescens) in very large amounts, timber oats grass (Danthonia intermedia), lupine (Lupinus serviceus) , fireweed (Chamaenarion augustifolium), Indian paintbrush (Castilleja chromosa), etc. Other plants worth- less for forage include huckleberry (Vaccinium scoparium), which is especially abundant on the poorer sites, arnica (Arnica cordifolia), and elk grass (Xerophyllum tenax). In moist places alder (Alnus tenuifolia) and willow frequently occur as underbrush. The forage plants are less abundant in Colorado and southern Wyoming and the huckleberry more prevalent. .Ordinarily fallen leaves disintegrate so rapidly that there is no accumulation of duff from this source. In mature stands there is very little litter as a rule, and one can ride through them almost anywhere. AGE CLASSES. A striking characteristic of lodgepole-pine forests is their even age. This, of course, is due to the fact that most of the present stands have originated as a result of fire, followed almost imme- diately by reproduction. Asarule,the burned areas thoroughly stock in a few years, though sometimes the reproduction is very open, the blanks filling in slowly with young growth and so producing an uneven-aged stand. Young stands often contain a few older trees, most of them limby and fire-scarred at the base, which have man- aged to escape destruction. Clear cutting is usually followed by even-aged stands, though the reproduction is apt to be slightly slower in establishing itself, par- ticularly if fire is kept out. Some areas cut over 20 years ago now have their blanks filled from seed produced by the rather scattered reproduction which followed the cutting. All the trees in even-aged lodgepole forests are not necessarily of the same size. Unless the stand is so dense as to cause stagnation some seedlings, especially on the more favorable sites, get a better start and develop more rapidly than others. A small, suppressed tree often may be as old as another more vigorous one at its side two or three times as large in diameter. Fires have been so frequent in the region that they have brought about a wide range of age classes in the lodgepole zone as a whole. In Montana most of the stands are comparatively young. Figures collected there show that approximately two-thirds of the timbered area is now covered with nonmerchantable, immature growth, while the merchantable timber on the remaining third is partly immature, LIFE HISTORY OF LODGEPOLE PINE IN ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 29 partly mature, and partly overmature. In Wyoming and Colorado there is a much larger proportion of mature, and especially over- mature, lodgepole stands, a difference which leads to the conclusion that in the past fire has been less prevalent in Colorado and Wyoming than in Montana. YIELD. FACTORS INFLUENCING YIELD. The yield per acre of any stand varies with its age, density, and the quality of the site on which it grows. Ordinarily the better sites and older stands produce the heaviest yields, provided deterioration has not set in. With lodgepole, however, the yield, particularly in board feet, is determined more by the density of the stand than by either its age or the quality of the site. It is not unusual to find _ young, properly stocked stands of lodgepole with larger yields than _ older, overstocked stands on better sites. The effect of density on yield is illustrated in Table 6, which gives the results of measure- Z ments of 10 sample plots, all of approximately the same age. { j e a7 Taste 6.—LHffect of density on yield per acre of Io ere pine, Deerlodge National Forest, Mont. : Diameter of av- Trees per acre. Yield. Ratio | erage tree. of . Height board | Scale timber, | feet,6 | aver Sample plot. Age. top oe inches aes Entire | Main | mia]. uate bath 10 pe (dbh.8] An | Main stand. | stand.1 ——_——lio cubic} 12-)- | trees. | stand. 6 8 feet. inches. | inches. Years.| No. No. Cu.ft. | Bd. ft. | Bd. ft. Feet. | Inches. | Inches. 110 501 293 | 4,187 | 10,542 | 3,217 2.52 59 1.2 8. 4 109 701 325 | 5,441 8,682 | 1,580 1.60 67 6.5 8.1 109 764 338 | 6,286 | 19,440 | 4,387 3.09 71 6.6 8.4 108 810 338 7,331 | 20,400 | 2,456 2.78 72 6.6 8.6 107 960 250 | 5,614 | 15, 260 1,190 2.12 69 i 7/ 7.9 107 987 303 | 6,178 | 12,070 | 1,610 1.95 69 | 5.9 7.8 107 |} 1,249 149 | 5,080] 2,980 |........ 59 67 5.0 7.5 104 1,495 124 4, 840 25480 Es s2e 5. 51 57 4.7 71883 101 1, 564 124 | 4,668 | 2,480 }...__... 53 58 4.6 7.5 105 1, 805 73 4,405 1460s |Pas see 33 57 4.2 7.4 1 Includes all trees 7 inches and over in diameter, breast high. The table shows that an increase in the number of trees per acre beyond a certain point results in a marked decrease in the number of trees which will make scale timber, in the average diameter and height, and in the yield, especially in board feet. Much denser stands existed than any of those shown in the table, with corre- spondingly smaller yields. One plot 160 years old, for example, con- tained approximately 3,500 live trees per acre, not more than 4 Inches in diameter. Such a stand produces only lagging poles. Other stands of the same age are still denser, producing nothing of value. v 30 BULLETIN 154, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. # AVERAGE AND MAXIMUM STANDS. Reconnaissance estimates covering 65,000 acres on the Deerlodge National Forest, which may be considered as fairly representative of the lodgepole region in Montana, show that the average stand of merchantable timber for all ages, densities, and sites is approximately 5,064 board feet per acre.t_ In Wyoming and Colorado the average stand of merchantable timber is estimated to run from 5,000 to 8,000 board feet per acre. Average stands on timber sale areas are apt to run much higher than this, because they usually consist of the better timber, and also because the reconnaissance figures apply to a con- siderable amount of cut-over land and to areas covered with young growth that is barely merchantable. Average stands actually found on timber-sale areas on the different National Forests are shown in Table 7. TABLE 7.—Average stand per acre of lodgepole pine and associated species on timber-sale areas in Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. Yield per acre. National Forest. Lodge- Other pole. species. Total. Ara paAhON Colo se. sees sas Meee et eee eae cee See acne eee eC eee 19°410) |S ae 19,410 Cochetopas Colo gsc pa he Jae ema ee eee See eee ato sea ae eee Ce de 6, 880 900 7, 780 GeUMMISON COLO Seer eects ee ee aie re oe ae Re ee ce oe ee ee ep tie 2, 500 925 |. 3,425 Medicine Bow, Wyo 14225) ease ees 14, 225 Hayden; Wy0t2s-------- 8,884 |: 22 sass ae 8, 884 Bighorn, Wyo... ae S300 Ree eee 8,300 Bridger, Wyo... ay 2,771 2,571 es WMecriodze-MMont-os5. 3 ie ye ae ere oe Se es ae eee ea a 14530805 sess 14,318 While the stands on the Arapaho, Medicine Bow, and Deerlodge National Forests are considerably better than the average, they are not as heavy as the stands sometimes found on limited areas in virgin forests. Five of the heaviest stands yet measured contained the fol- lowing amounts of lodgepole, together with small quantities of Engelmann spruce, Alpine fir, and Douglas fir: Board feet National Forest: per acre. Ara pal O; = COl Ot xs cent = co eee SN ae at Dy ae Sc se 27, 791 EVO UU EKO 0 aa Ps ea ee eee 24, 400 Wire River, (Colo lua 1s Siig s0e, Se ra db SS ae A eee 36, 335 MeCAICINE HE OW Wiy.Os 2 es a a EE LS Se eee 34, 512 Heerlodve: Monti! 5 53 Re ee ha Ce 35, 935 In addition to the 35,935 feet of green lodgepole pine, the stand on the Deerlodge Forest, which was 200 years old, also contained 4,610 feet of Englemann spruce and Alpine fir, and 8,090 feet of dead lodgepole, a total for live and dead timber of 48,635 board feet per acre, 1 All stands were considered merchantable which contained 2,000 board feet per acre or more, based on a minimum log 16 feet long and 6 inches in diameter at the smaller end. Many 7-inch lodgepole trees will yield such a log. LIFE HISTORY OF LODGEPOLE PINE IN ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 31 DENSELY STOCKED STANDS. Table 8 shows the yield of stands which are densely stocked, but ‘not so crowded as to cause stagnation of growth. The figures were obtained on the Deerlodge National Forest on the best quality of ‘site. Most of the sample areas measured were 1 acre each. )PABLE 8.—Average yield per acre of densely stocked stands of lodgepole pine at | different ages on the best sites (Quality I), Deerlodge National Forest, Mont. Annual growth. r Basal ate ee Bee |) cree, 1ame- | height, Yield. eats oa Entire | Main Be main Mea Peri- | ay Peri- eet. |stand.t|stand.2| 71" | stand. M- | odic ca odic stand No. No. No. |Inches.| Feet. | Cu.ft. | Bd.ft.2| Cu.ft.| Cu.ft.| Bd. ft. | Bd. ft. (10) eee 106 | 1,550 50 7.0 SOL 400) Peeeeere Be Fayettn SeepeRae eses| | Tees eae buenas | a 128 | 1,250 175 7.5 46) 2525 0) ime 45 Fil a: UMass --- 144 1,000 225 We'll 56 | 3,100} 4,800 52 85 SOK ee eee Mee Ss... 156 82. 255 8.1 60} 3,800} 6,200 54.3 70 89 140 BUR(o c=. 166 725 280 8.5 64 | 4,350] 7,500 54.4 55 94 130 Bees 2 =. = 174 650 300 8.8 66 | 4,900) 9,000 54.5 55 100 150 OMS =. .-... 180 600 320 9.0 68 | 5,400 } 10,800 54 50 108 180 Oe... -..- 184 535 330 9.4 70 | 5,800 | 12,600 53 40 115 180 2) 188 500 345 9.6 72 | 6,200} 14,800 52 40 123 220 30) 3ooaeeeee 192 460 350 10.0 74 | 6,550 | 17,200 50 35 132 240 i) 194 430 355 10.3 75 | 6,850 | 19, 800 49 30 141 260 HE... -- 196 415 360 10.5 76 | 7,150 | 22,200 48 30 148 240 i) ae 198 400 370 10.6 77 | 7,400 | 25,000 46 25 156 280 1 Includes all trees 3 inches and over in diameter, breast high. 2 Includes all trees 7 inches and over in diameter, breast high. 8 To a 6-inch top diameter limit. NORMAL STANDS. _ Normal stands are those which at maturity give the maximum yield possible to obtain under a given method on a given quality site. In ‘the case of lodgepole pine properly or normally stocked stands are ‘Tare. Reconnaissance data, covering many thousands of acres of young growth in Montana, show that nearly 80 per cent of the area is overstocked, and that on the average the young growth is from one- half to six-tenths normally stocked. Because of its slow mortality lodgepole must start in comparatively open stands in order to yield the maximum amount of merchantable material at maturity. Such ‘stands, however, are not dense enough to insure rapid, natural prun- ‘ing. As already pointed out, the number of trees per acre adopted as the criterion of normality is 1,000 at 10 years, 500 at 30 years, 300 at 90 years, and 250 at 140 years. With these figures as a guide, and tak- ing into account the total yield of the stand, Table 9 has been con- structed from the figures obtained from those plots in Table 8 on which the stocking appeared to be most nearly normal. The amount of data is not sufficient to make the table anything more than indica- tive of what may be expected from normal stands of different ages on the best and on average sites. The original figures were secured on quality I sites, and the yields for quality II sites have been derived by road 32 BULLETIN 154, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ° multiplying the yields for quality I sites by 60 per cent, which see a fair reducing factor. In the case of board-foot wiclds strictly aceu- rate results are not obtained when the same reducing factor is use for all ages and stands. The method is, however, sufficiently accura to result in figures which indicate in a general way what results may be expected. ages, Deerlodge National Forest, Mu ont. 4 : | BEST SITES—QUALITY T. g ‘Yield. Annual growth. oe Cubic feet. Board feet scaling in top to— Age in cae Cubic feet. - 6 inches. 8 inches. 6 inches. | 8inches.}| Mean. | Periodic. )}—-—-—-—@-————— @@_ |_—______+—__. Mean. | Periodic.| Mean. | Periodic. 10220 koe 7. eee SOQ nse = oe rt eal Os i Sees eee Ul eoeaasee E SOLS es B 90223255. é i 100 6,800} 18,200 2,500 68 50.0 182 240 25 25( ri (i ese ee 7,200 | 20,500 5,000 65 40.0 186 230 45 25 ib ae ae 7,450 22, 700 7,600 62 |. 25.0 189 220 63 1 Et eee 7,600 24, 600 10, 700 58 15.0 190 190 82 31 ASN eS 7, 750 26, 400 14, 000 55 15.0 189 180 100 33 Title secmes 7,850 | 28,200] 17,300 52 10.0 188 180 115 33( GOS eee 7,900 29, 800 20, 400 49 5.0 186 160 127 31( iy (Deamon 7,925 | 31,200] 23,300 47 2.5 184 140 137 29( ROE Stet 7,950 32,600 25, 800 44 2.5 181 140 143 25( TT ieee ee 7,975 33, 600 28,000 42 2.5 177 100 147 22 200 Es eae 8,000 34,600 30,000 40 2.5 173 100 150 20( JAG pee o 2 8,025 35, 600 31,500 39 2.5 170 100 150 15( DIN ea See | 8,050 36, 600 32, 800 37 2.5 166 100 149 13( J : 4} AVERAGE SITES—QUALITY TI. “4 4 = Annual growth. Ratio a f A « board — Age in years. Yield. ; | feet taal Mean. | Periodic.| Mean. | Periodic. | cubicfeet Cu. ft. | Bd. fi Cu. ft. Cu. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. SQ Sosa ee es eS eee 90. [ose 22-e2 9 9: | 2262 s225.-|beseeess52| eee ime A Sees eee Me eet 270) Eee 13 18 inc. 22.22 eh eS ee 3 {sien pee Bee tee 570 | 540| — 19 30 18 54 0. AOS eater ee ae Se Ace 1,140 1,920 28 57 48 138 1 DS ec tees eee ere ie eaLease 1,830 3,360 37 69 67 144 1 Ge 2 See ce CRE ee ee 2, 400 4,860 40 57 81 150 2: AO ee es ee oe eee eae ae 2,940 6, 420 42 54 92 156 2. BO ie ee ee Ae. SET ie a 3,360 8, 040 42 42 100 162 2.3 SL SSE eas ae RR 3, 780 9, 480 42 42 105 144 2.51 OOS Ses ee ess tee eee 4,080 10, 920 41 30 109 144 2. SAO se Ss Sere mete se oS 4,320 12, 300 39 24 112 138 2 ye ee pe Seep aes ee 4,470 | 13,620 37 15 113 132 3. RO oe es Seok eet Sone as 4,560 | 14,760 35 9 114 114 3.24 ADEE SREB ae en ee eat 4,650 15,840 33 9 113 108 3.4] ADO sae bre Ss oe eee ae 4,710 | 16,920 31 6 113 108 3. NGO Ao... Seas 8ts ssa. eee 4,740 17, 880 30 3 112 96 3. 1 Board feet scaled to 6 inches in the top wee ; LIFE HISTORY OF LODGEPOLE PINE IN ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 33 _ It should be noted that these normal yields represent the best that have been found in unmanaged virgin forests, not the best which it is theoretically onal to obtain under proper methods of forest ‘management. Table 2, for example, shows that a dominant tree at ‘the age of 140 years is able to reach a diameter of about 12 inches and a height of about 75 feet, with a volume of 120 board feet. To determine in an approximate way how many trees could be produced /per acre with the right kind of thinnings at proper intervals, the “average space in the stand occupied by a tree of this size was meas- ‘ured in a number of instances and found to average approximately 166 square feet. At this rate there should be 262 such trees per acre; ‘with a yield of 31,400 board feet, which is 19 per cent greater than /that given in the table of normal yield for 140-year-old stands on |the best sites. While it is probable that such a yield could seldom | be obtained even under intensive management, the illustration serves to show the possibility of securing better results with improved , | spacing. | EFFECT OF THINNING. _ The marked effect which thinnings often have in increasing the ‘rate of growth of individual trees is also notable in the case of stands. This effect is seen in a number of cut-over areas on the Deer- | lodge Forest which were culled from 18 to 25 years ago. In every ' ease the loggers removed only such timber as suited their purpose, in | some cases taking the larger material for ties, in others, removing the ' smaller trees for fence posts. Some of the trees left had thrifty - ' crowns, and for this reason could be expected to benefit from the ' increased light; while others were very badly suppressed, with small crowns, and could hardly be expected to accelerate their growth to any extent. In collecting the data summarized in Table 10, average _ trees were selected for measurement irrespective of the probability of _ their showing an increase in the rate of growth. The various periods _ which had elapsed since the different cuttings were made averaged 20 years, and for purposes of comparison the figures were all worked up on the assumption that the cutting was done just 20 years before the date of the investigation. 34 BULLETIN 154, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 10.—Effect of thinning on yield per acre of lodgepole pine in individual sample plots on the Deerlodge National Forest, Mont. PLOTS SHOWING NO INCREASE IN RATE OF GROWTH. Stand 20 years ago. a 2 Periodic annual |Increase oe SSS ee ee ae Gort Ageat | 1° es Average years) oftrees | | time of sue Trees. Volume. ernie left. thinning ning in years. | “i, years. Before | After Total.| Cut. | Left. | Total. | Cut. | Left. Cut. Left. | thin- | thin- | ning. | ning. Num-\ Num-| Num- ber. ber. ber. | Cu.ft.| Cu.ft. | Cu.ft. | Inches. | Inches.| Cu.ft. | Cu.ft a 18 550 290 260 | 1,955 52 1, 434 = 2 v_ a2 pipe lines of the Rad?” | Kings Hill irriga- fad, Bolt Circle43”' . tion system in Idaho, l and they appear to be well designed. On some pipe lines the 2 by 12 inch mudsills are continuous; on others, blocks 18 inches long are used. The use of short blocks in this way is more economical of material, and requires less grading. The cradles of the type shown by Plate IV, figure 1, were spaced 6 feet center to center under a 54-inch pipe, and to support a pipe 100 inches in diameter cradles of the same type of 8 by 8 inch material 61133°—Bull. 155—14—3 — 18 BULLETIN 155, U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were used with 6-foot spacing. Supports similar to the other cradle “shown (fig. 7, B) have been used on a number of pipe lines. The Logan (Utah) city power pipe line rests on such cradles spaced 4 feet center to center, with no mudsill blocks beneath the 6 by 6 inch » , N / VAN, on AA Detail of A. CELI SSM “a a j 6 “k- 12" 12" | EO ss wes xl ie i: 2) A: U L Oe K-13’ & é G Foot B N sa * ASS Wg oot Doar oO | ° ° pe WE FETE | We es ! I | 452" — ! a CO Fic. 7—Cradles for carrying stave pipe. timber. The 48-inch pipe of the Portland, Flouring Mills Co., at Dayton, Wash., is carried on cradles 12 feet apart, and while this spacing is unusually wide the support appears to be ample. Some large wood-pipe lines carried across rivers and ravines on bridges, or trestles of steel, are supported by cradles also of steel. WOOD PIPE FOR CONVEYING IRRIGATION WATER. 1S) The Snake River crossing of the Kings Hill project, near Bliss, Tdaho, and the new trestles of the Denver Union Water Co., afford good examples of such cradles (fig. 7, C). The 84-inch pipe of the Pueblo, Rocky Ford Irrigation Co. is in places supported on rock cradles set about 15 feet apart. ANCHORING PIPES. In order to secure surface pipes against water thrust at sharp horizontal curves, and to guard against the tendency to creep on steep inclines, anchorage in some manner is sometimes necessary. One method of anchoring a 44-inch pipe, as well as the way of de- signing an angle too sharp for the curvature of wood pipe, is illus- trated by Plate IV, figure 2. Another method is to build around the pipe a pier or mass of concrete or masonry to serve as anchorage. LOCATION OF CONTINUOUS STAVE PIPE LINES. The location of a pressure pipe line is very often a simple matter, particularly where the distance traversed is short, but in the case of long lines of wood pipe a proper and satisfactory location may involve a number of important considerations. This is particularly true if the line is to traverse a rough, mountainous region. Many such pipe lines have been built without due knowledge or apprecia- tion of the importance of certain factors, and failures or unsatisfac- tory service may frequently result from faulty location. As a rule, a pipe line must follow more or less closely the varia- tions of the ground surface, but in both plan and profile sharp curves should be avoided as much as possible. The introduction of sharp curves tends to increase the cost and difficulty of construction as well as of maintenance and repairs and to decrease the carrying capacity. - Horizontal and vertical curves should not be placed in the same section of pipe, and a tangent between curves is always desirable, The degree of curvature permissible depends largely on the diameter of the pipe and upon the thickness and kind of staves. A radius of 60 times the diameter of the pipe is usually taken as a measure of allowable curvature, though sharper curves are not uncommon. A woeden pipe should be located so as to be under all conditions entirely below the hydraulic gradient, and in making extensions, or © in taking off branches at any time from a line already established, care should be taken not to lower the hydraulic gradient so as to leave the original pipe above it. Carelessness with reference to these ~ considerations has in some instances been the cause of serious damage and expense. On the point as to what the minimum distance below the hydraulic eradient should be, engineers differ in.opinion. Assuming that pres- sure sufficient to keep the staves well saturated is necessary to pre- o 20 BULLETIN 155, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. : vent decay, some engineers advocate 50 feet as the minimum so far as it is possible to secure such location, while others place it at 25 feet. With reference to the relation of pressure to durability of the wood, much may depend on other conditions of the location, par- pene as to whether or not the pipe is placed in contact with the soil. if the pipe is placed in the ground or in contact with the soil, a pressure head of 50 feet or more is preferable to anything less, but if it is kept free from contact with the soil, 15 feet below the hydraulic gradient is as good as 50. By locating the pipe close to the hydraulic gradient fewer bands are required, but nothing is saved in keeping the pressure lower than 20 feet of head. Evidence based on the experience of the past 20 years appears to be sufficient to show that, in general, continuous stave pipe lines should be located above ground and free from all contact with it, though opinions diametrically opposite with reference to this point have prevailed and still prevail. By those who favor locating pipes in the ground, it is argued that they are thus better protected from injury nme fire, freezing, falling rocks, falling trees, landslides, ete., and that the life of the wood willbe prolonged. In answer to which it may be claimed that a pipe line properly patrolled and maintained is seldom in serious danger from fire; the velocities as a rule are a sufficient safeguard against freezing in most places where such pipes are used, though wood pipes, even if frozen, may be easily repaired; in a region so rough that danger from landslides or falling rocks is a matter for consideration, the cost of excavating a trench is usually very great and material suitable for backfilling difficult or impossible to obtain, so that other means cf protecting the pipe from such injury may be much more economical; and while under ideal conditions as to char- acter of soil, depth of covering, pressure, etc., the life of a pipe in the ground might be longer than that of one fully exposed, ex- perience shows conclusively that in practice there 1s great uncertainty as to conditions; that they are seldom ideal in all respects, and that burying has shortened the life of many pipes, both by decay of wood and by corrosion of bands. The conditions of a pipe above ground may be easily determined at any time, and if repairs are required they can be made with much less difficulty and expense than would otherwise be possible. If, however, reasons appear sufficient to justify placing a pipe in the ground, as they may in some instances, it is best to insure a deep covering of a nature that will most nearly exclude air from the pipe, particularly if the water pressure is light. Gravel, shell rock, or other porous material is not Ser for backfilling. Summits and depressions in the line should be avoided as far as consistent with economical location. Where water courses are to be WOOD PIPE FOR CONVEYING IRRIGATION WATER. 91 - crossed it is usually best to carry the pipe line over the stream rather than under it. This facilitates draining the pipe, and repairs can be more easily made. CONSTRUCTION OF CONTINUOUS STAVE PIPE. Where the pipe is to be built in a trench, the excavation is made from 1 to 2 feet wider than the diameter of the pipe. Then the staves of the lower half of the pipe are set up in a U-shaped form made usually of 14-inch gas pipe bent on a curve equal to the outside diameter of the pipe. Another piece of gas pipe bent into a circle, of diameter slightly less than that of the wood pipe, with the ends overlapped and spread so that it will stand alone, is set on the lower staves already placed, and serves as a form for the upper part. If wooden cradles are used and two-piece bands, the lower section of the band, set in a cradle, is sometimes used as the bottom form instead of - the gas pipe. A few bands sufficient to hold the staves in place are then slipped on, and the final banding is completed by other men, the spacing of each section being marked along the pipe according to tables or profiles in the hands of the foreman. During the progress of lining up and partially tightening the bands, the pipe is rounded out evenly and the staves are driven up to make the butt joints tight. Wooden mallets are used for the “ coopering,” and in driving home the staves iron-bound hardwood blocks are used with sledge hammers. The end driving must usually be done repeatedly as the bands are tightened, care being exercised not to bruise or injure the staves. The final cinching may be delayed somewhat and should be done with careful judgment, particularly where the spacing is close, in order to avoid crushing the wood or shearing quarter-sawed staves. Special braces or wrenches with long shanks and short leverage are generally used for this work, each builder, as a rule, designing his own tools. Curves are made by crowding or pulling the partially banded pipe to the desired position with jackscrews or blocks and tackle. A pipe-laying gang usually consists of from 8 to 16 men, the num- ber depending on the closeness of banding, etc. The speed of con- struction depends upon the size of the pipe, spacing of bands, curva- ture, etc. On a 48-inch pipe built at Clarkston, Wash., in 1906, 250 feet was the most that was laid in 10 fours, and the am6unt ran down to as low as 50 feet where work was difficult. According to J. D. Schuyler,t 150 to 300 feet of 34-inch pipe was made per day by a crew at Denver, Colo., the number of bands placed ranging from 700 to 1,000, while on 44-inch pipe 500 bands were placed per day. In 1910 a 48-inch pipe, 10 miles long under a 1Trans. Amer. Soe. Civ. Engin., 31 (1894), p. 135. 22 BULLETIN 155, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. maximum head of 130 feet, was built for the Denver Union Water Co. The contracting firm states that this was done in 75 days, with a force consisting of 150 men and 100 teams, and that this included hauling 30,000 tons of material an average of 10 miles on wagons. This is considered to be very rapid construction for a pipe of this size laid in a trench averaging 7 feet deep. In building a long line of continuous stave pipe it is customary to employ several crews at convenient intervals of a thousand feet or more. The different sections of pipe so built are joined by cut- ting staves to fit, allowing about one-eighth-inch extra length so that when sprung in place the end joints come tight. COST OF CONTINUOUS STAVE PIPE. The cost of continuous stave pipe of any particular size varies so much according to design, spacing of bands, location relative to trans- portation lines, conditions affecting erection, etc., that it is impos- sible to give general costs, but some data of a specific nature relative to certain pipe lines which have been built may be of value for purposes of comparison. Eighteen-inch.—At Astoria, Oreg., 74 miles of 18-inch pipe built in 1895.7 Staves, fir, 12 inches thick, milled from 2 by 6 inch lumber. Bands, seven- sixteenths inch diameter upset to one-half inch at threads. Clips No. 12, B. W. G., 14 inches wide, treated. Shoes, Allen patent, malleable iron, weight 10 ounces each. Contract prices of steel in bands, 4.8 cents per pound. ium- ber, gross measurement, $35.40 per 1,000 feet 6. m. Average spacing of bands, 5i% inches. Cost of pipe to the city, 90.33 cents per linear foot, including acces- sories or 76 cents excluding them. These figures are not the actual cost of building the pipe. as Mr. Adams says: “It is presumable that the contract prices represent a profit of from 124 to 15 per cent.” The approximate cost of replacing this line with one of the same size and length in 1911 was $75,000, redwood staves 14 inches thick being used in the new pipe. The cost given includes engineering expense. ; Thirty inch——At Denver, Colo., in 1889,” a 30-inch pipe 16.4 miles long re quired 1,869,000 feet b. m. of Texas pine, which cost $5199.28, at $27.50 per M, and 271,900 half-inch bands, which cost $54,299.55; erection of pipe by contract, at 5.1 cents per band, $13,866.03; total, $119,564.86, or $1.864 per linear foot. Trenching cost 483 cents per foot in addition to foregoing. At Jerome, Idaho, 1912, 1,529 feet; 30 inches diameter; fir staves, 18 inches thick; bands, one-half inch diameter; pressure, 0 to 47 feet; average haul, 10 miles; built in trench and buried 2 feet deep. Cost, including everything except engineering and administration;.$2,922, or $1.91 per linear foot. At Idaho Falls, Idaho, 1905; 800 feet; 30 inches diameter; fir, one-half inch bands; maximum head, 34 feet; supported on wood cradles. Cost, $1.55 per linear foot, including everything. - At Kennewick, Wash., 1908; 9,490 feet; 30 inches diameter; head, 0 to 180 feet; built by contract on prepared foundation for $1.85 per foot. Includes delivery of material at railroad point, but no haul or earthwork. 1Trans, Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 36 (1896), p. 1. 2 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 31 (1894), p. 145. WOOD PIPE FOR CONVEYING IRRIGATION WATER. 23 Thirty-two inch.—At North Yakima, Wash., 1894; Redwood siphon 940 feet long; 32 inches diameter; maximum head, 90 feet; bands, one-half inch diam- eter; built by force account for $2,500, equals $2.66 per linear foot. Dupli- eated by contract, 1903, for same figure. At Filer, Idaho, 1901; 1,300 feet; 32 inches diameter; fir staves, 13 inches thick, at $40 per thousand feet b. m. on basis of 2 by 6 inch lumber; bands, one-half inch diameter, 57 cents each; malleable iron shoes, 4 cents each; tongues, ¢ by 13 by 5z@ inches, 3 cents; pressure head, 0 to 40 feet; work done by force account; wages, $2.50 for 10 hours, and foreman $5; hauling material 8 miles, $75; erecting on top of ground, approximately $250. Cost of staves and steel laid down at Filer, $1.35 per foot of pipe; haul and erecting, 25 cents; total approximately, $1.60 per foot. Thirty-si# inch.—At Jerome, Idaho, 1912; 650 feet; 36 inches diameter; head, 0 to 438 feet; staves, fir, 13 inches thick; band, one-half inch diameter; built in trench and buried 2 feet deep; average haul, 4 to 5 miles. Cost, including everything except engineering and administration, $1,596, or $2.46 per foot. Forty inch.—At Jerome, Idaho, 1912; 3,118 feet; 40 inches diameter; head, 0 to 100 feet; fir staves, 12 inches thick; bands, one-half inch diameter; built in trench and buried 2 feet deep; average haul, 10 miles; cost, $8,933, or $2.87 per foot, including everything except engineering and administration. Forty-two inch.—At Jerome, Idaho, 1912; 980 feet; 42 inches diameter; head, 0 to 51 feet; staves, fir, 12 inches thick; bands, one-half inch diameter; built in trench and buried 2 feet deep; average haul, 4 to 5 miles; cost, $2,556, or $2.61 per foot, including everything except engineering and administration. Forty-four inch.—At Wenatchee, Wash., 1902-8; 9.000 feet; 44 inches diam- eter; maximum head, 235 feet; bands, one-half inch diameter ; fir staves, 12 inches thick; laid in trench, and om bridge across Wenatchee River; contract price for pipe, $2.20 per linear foot. Excavating and backfilling not included. At Palisades, Colo., 1909-10; 3 fir pipes, 44 inches diameter; 2,850 feet; 1,055 and 1,150 feet in length; cost by contract, $3.15, $3.25, and $2.90 per linear foot, respectively. No earthwork included. Forty-eight inch.—At Palisades (orchard mesa), Colo., 1909-10; for 6 pipes 48 inches in diameter and varying lengths and heads, the unit prices ranged from $2.40 per foot up to $4.75 per foot, the average of the six being $3.52: mate rial, fir. At Deer Park, Wash. (about 1909), 94,000 feet of fir pipe; head, 0 to 70 feet, built in trench; contract price, $2.85 per foot, includes delivery of all material at railroad point and erection of pipe, but no haul or earthwork. Forty-eight inch.—At Clarkston, Wash., 1906; fir staves, 12 inches thick, 4-inch bands; built in trench by force account, for light head; cost, $2.25 per foot, no earthwork included. Foreman received $3.50 per day and other men $2.50 for 10 hours. a Fifty-eight inch.—At Pueblo, Colo., 1907; 2,277.5 feet; cost by contract, $6.14 per foot, no earthwork included. Siaty inch.—At Pueblo, Colo., 1907; on 17 fir pipes the unit price per foot ranged from $4.19 to $6.58, averaging $5.51. The combined length of 17 pipes equals 19,821.5 feet, making the average price per foot on this basis equal $6.27; earthwork not included. Sizty inch.—At Nissa, Oreg., 1912; 6,700 feet; average head about 65 feet; bands, 2 inch diameter; staves, fir, 2 by 6 inches; built on wooden cradles; con- tract: price, $4.25 per foot, included material, erecting, and freight, but no haul or earthwork. 24 BULLETIN 155, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Highty-four imch.—At Pueblo, Colo., 1911; 18,000 feet; maximum head, 70 feet; fir staves, 22 inches thick; bands, # inch diameter; maximum spacing, 10 inches; minimum, about 4 inches; contract price, $6 per linear foot, including everything except hauling and earthwork. Line very crooked, with 14 vertical curves. Much of it is about one-half in ground. Total cost of line was about $9 per foot, everything included. Fir staves at Seattle, Wash. (December, 1912), were quoted at $30 to $32 per thousand feet b. m., according to size, etc. They take the same freight rate as lumber of the same class. Redwood staves at San Francisco were quoted at about $45 per thousand. The price of malleable iron shoes, at Marion, Ind., was approximately $3.75 per hundredweight on lots of from 1,000 pieces to a carload, with an additional charge of 10 cents per hundredweight if dipped in rust- proof paint. Drop forged steel shoes 34 inches long were quoted at 22 cents to 34 cents each at Ballard, Wash., and 5-inch shoes at 34 cents to 4 cents each. Bands made at Pueblo, Colo., were quoted f. o. b. Spokane, Wash., at $2.97 per hundredweight for carload lots, 10 cents per hundred- weight additional being charged if required to be bent and dipped. Steel tongues are quoted at the same prices as bands. Pipe coating of a well-known brand used as a dip for bands was quoted. at $57.50 per ton f. o. b. the Chicago factory. MACHINE-BANDED PIPE. Machine-banded pipe is being very extensively manufactured on the Pacific coast and at several points in the Eastern States. The principal factories of the West are at San Francisco, Cal.; Portland, Oreg.; Tacoma, Wash.; Seattle, Wash.; and Vancouver, B.C. Other factories are at Elmira, N. Y.; Bay City, Mich.; Williamsport, Pa.; and Alexandria, La. Redwood is used for the pipe made at San Francisco, while fir is used exclusively at the other western points mentioned. The eastern factories use white pine and tamarack, principally, for water pipe, and hard maple, beech, and birch for special mining purposes. In Louisiana, water pipe is made from SES, which wood is used also for steam-pipe casing. The original machine-banded pipe consisted of logs turned in a lathe, machine bored, and then wound with continuous flat steel bands. Pipe of this type in sizes from 2 to 6 inches in diameter is still manufactured in Michigan, but most of the machine-banded pipe is now made up of staves, the sections ranging in length from 8 feet to 12 feet in the East, and to 20 feet in the West. Diameters run from 2 inches up to 48 inches. Western factories, however, build little pipe of this kind more than 24 inches in diameter. WOOD PIPE FOR CONVEYING IRRIGATION WATER. 25 The thickness of the staves varies to some extent. The redwood pipe in usual sizes is about 1 inch thick and the fir pipe 14 inches. The eastern pipe is usually 1% inches thick, while for pressures of 40 pounds or more and in sizes from 24 inches up, the shell of some of it is made 3 inches thick. Galvanized steel wire is used exclusively on the Pacific coast for banding. The size of the wire varies from No. 8 to No. 0, and the closeness of wrapping is regulated according to the pressures for which the pipe is designed. These may range from very low heads up to 400 feet or more. The eastern factories band their pipes with hot rolled steel 14 or 16 gauge, 1 inch wide, and No. 16 and No. 18 gauge, 14 inches wide. The banding is done with a machine which imposes on the steel a tension sufficient to make a very tight contact with the wood, and may even indent the staves somewhat where wire is used. The ends of the bands are secured with staples or clips. After the pipe is banded and the ends are milled for couplings, each section is dipped in a hot asphaltum preparation which thor- oughly coats the bands and exterior of the pipe, then it is rolled in sawdust or shavings to form an outer covering, which renders it more agreeable to handle. COUPLINGS. Couplings for machine-banded pipe are of several types. Of these one of the commonest is the “inserted joint.” To make this cou- pling a tenon is milled on one end of a section of pipe and a mortise on the other, so that the connection is made by simply inserting the tenon of one section into the mortise of another and driving together. - In the western pipe this form of coupling is used principally for low pressures. Where greater strength is required reinforcement may be applied to this joint by using individual bands. For another form of coupling tenons are made on both ends of each section ef pipe, and with each joint a wooden stave collar or sleeve is used, into which the tenons are inserted. These collars for small pipes are machine banded the same as the pipe, but for the larger sizes individual bands are used. Collars of riveted steel or iron were used with such pipe in the earlier days of its manufacture on the Pacific coast, and cast- iron collars have been employed glso in many places. The latter material is still used for bends, crosses, tees, reducers, and other specials, but for collars it has been almost wholly supplanted by the other forms mentioned. The wooden collars are cheaper, but because they often decay quickly are much inferior to those made of iron. USE OF MACHINE-BANDED WOOD PIPE. Machine-banded wood pipe has had its most extensive use in the Pacific coast and Rocky Mountain States for municipal waterworks systems, where there is scarcely a city or town of any consequence 26 BULLETIN 155, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. but what has at some time put in more or less of it, and the demand for this purpose continues to require a large output from the fac- tories. It is also used a great deal in conveying water supplies for manufacturing purposes and fire protection for factories and mills, for railway tanks, for power plants, hydraulic sluicing operations, etc., and during recent years there has been a great deal of it used for irrigation purposes, particularly in the Northwestern States. In the East it is used to some extent for municipal water supplies, considerably for various purposes in the mining regions, and for oil conduits, insulated wire conduits, steam pipe casing, etc. For municipal waterworks the low first cost of machine-banded wood pipe as compared with that of cast iron or steel pipe has in most instances been the consideration leading to its use, and many communities which now have an abundance of water for domestic purposes, fire protection, etc., would still be unsupplied had not some such cheap type of pipe been available. While possessing some advantages other than that of low first cost, machine-banded pipe, according to the experience of many localities, has been found inferior in many respects to cast iron and steel for city mains and connections. The complaint most fre- quently expressed with reference to its use for this service relates to trouble arising from leaks, which occur mainly at the joints. Such leaks may develop as the result of decayed collars, from carelessness in putting the pipe together, from increasing the pressure above that for which the pipe was designed, or from other causes. While in many cases even a considerable leakage may be permissible, in others any material loss is highly objectionable. Leaks are particu- larly objectionable where pipes are located in paved streets, and owing to the difficulty in avoiding leaks, as well as because its life is usually shorter than that of metal, wood pipe is usually replaced before paving, and in the larger cities its use for distributing systems is now being very generally discontinued. For service of a more or less temporary nature, such as hydraulic sluicing, dredging, etc., where absolute tightness is not essential, but where low cost, ease of transportation, facility of putting together, removing, and relaying at small expense are desirable considerations, machine-banded wood pipe is peculiarly well adapted. The use of machine-banded wood pipe in connection with irriga- tion work is confined to the West, particularly the Northwest, where hundreds of miles of it have been installed for delivery pipes of small pumping plants, for inverted siphons, etc. In a number of places the entire water supply is conveyed through such pipes, de- livery being made to each unit of area, often as small as 5 acres or less. And beyond this, many farmers use wood pipe instead of WOOD PIPE FOR CONVEYING IRRIGATION WATER. iT head ditches or flumes, tapping it and inserting small hydrants at the head of each tree row or at closer intervals. These hydrants usually consist of three-fourths-inch galvanized- iron pipe which is screwed into the shell of the wood pipe, and equipped with a cheap valve for regulating the discharge. The cost of such outlets, including the threaded nipples 18 inches long and the valves, is about 40 cents each. The conditions of irrigation service are in perhaps a majority of cases unfavorable to a long life of this kind of pipe, and where the pipe is empty for several months out of the year decay is often very rapid, but except for this disadvantage no substitute has been found which meets so many of the other requirements of irrigation service. COST OF MACHINE-BANDED WOOD PIPE. The cost of machine-banded wood pipe varies with the head for which it is made, fluctuations in the market prices of materials, the kind of wood used, etc.,and will differ also in accordance with freight or transportation charges from the factories to different points. The following prices f. 0. b. cars at Seattle, Wash., quoted for estimating purposes, only, will give some idea of the present prices of fir pipe, and from the weights given the freight charges to any point may be ascertained by consulting railway rates. A minimum carload is 30,000 pounds. Table showing prices and weights per linear foot of machine-banded wood pipe, f. o. b. cars, Seattle, Wash. Diameter. |Head.} Price. | Weight. || Diameter. |Head.| Price. | Weight. || Diameter. |Head.| Price. | Weight. Pounds Pounds. Pounds. 2-inch.....| 50 |$0.087 3.1 || 10-inch...} 50 |$0. 268 13. 18-inch...} 50 |$0.597 26.9 100 | .090 3.2 100 | .347 14.7 100 | .750 30.8 150 | .092 3.2 150 392 15.7 150 884 34.6 200 | .100 3.4 200 455 17.3 200 992 38.0 250 105 3.5 5 250 479 18.4 250 | 1.266 45.6 300 | .116 3.6 300 | .503 19.4 300 | 1.528 54.8 4-inch.....} 50 | .129 5.8 || 12-inch...| 50] .322 16.8 || 20-inch... 50] .655 29.6 100} .131 5.9 100 413 18.9 100 828 34.4 150 | .134 6.0 150 450 19.8 150 | 1.033 40.0 200 | .166 6.3 200 532 21.7 200 | 1.192 44.0 250 | .176 7.0 250 618 23.8 250 | 1.428 52.0 300 | .18& 7.3 300 | .660 25.3 300 | 1.615 57.5 6-inch..... 50} .163 8.3 || 14-inch...| 50] .445 21.3 || 22-inch... 50 | .778 33.9 100 168 8.9 100 | .550 23.0 100 | .990 40.1 150 184 9.1 150 | .629 25.3 150 | 1.184 45.2 200 226 9.6 200 | .745 28.2 200 | 1.415 52.7 250 242 10.0 250 834 29.9 250 | 1.710 59.8 300 258 10.4 300 | .916 32.3 300 | 1.845 65.5 8-inch..... 50 203 10.3 || 16-inch...| 50] .547 24.7 || 24-inch...| 50] .855 37.3 100 224 10.5 100 | .639 26.9 100 | 1.075 44,0 150 292 12.8 150 | .734 29.3 150 | 1.334 51.0 200 332 13.7 200 | .871 33. 4 200 | 1.627 59.3 250 366 15.6 250 | .987 36. 2 250 | 1.934 67.8 300 387 16.2 300 | 1.132 40.2 300 | 2.100 74.3 i i The cost of wood pipe is in most places materially less than that of cast iron or steel, though direct comparisons are difficult to make. At the time the waterworks were built at Astoria in 1895, Mr. Adams 28 BULLETIN 155, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. estimated that the use of wood effected a saving of 43 per cent over steel pipe of similar size, No. 12 gauge, and nearly 50 per cent over one of equivalent carrying capacity. In discussing the waterworks of Denver, in 1894, J. D. Schuyler states: At a moderate estimate the saving effected by the Citizen’s Water Co., by the use of wooden pipe for their main conduits has been no less than $1,100,000 over the cost of cast-iron pipes of equal capacity. The interest on this amount at 6 per cent would renew the mains every five or six years, or duplicate them as often as that if necessary. S. Fortier1 gives the bids for supplying material and laying the following pipes at Salt Lake City, Utah, in 1900: 30-inch stave pipe, $2.95 and $3.10; 30-inch cast-iron pipe $10.20 and 410.85; 30-inch riveted steel pipe, $8.65 and $9.15; 24-inch stave pipe at $2.60 and $2.55; 24-inch cast-iron pipe, $7.45 and $8.15; and 24-inch riveted steel pipe, $5.75 and $6.05. ; At Spokane, Wash., the relative prices for small pipes are about as follows:* 6-inch wood pipe, 25 cents per linear foot; 6-inch steel pipe, 63 cents per linear foot; 6-inch cast-iron, 72 cents per linear foot. The price per ton of cast-iron pipe at Spokane is about $48 (1913), and somewhat less at Pacific coast points. LAYING MACHINE-BANDED WOOD PIPE. Laying machine-banded wood pipe is a very simple operation, and as no calking of joints is required it may be done by unskilled labor. Nevertheless, much dissatisfaction in the use of pipe of this kind may result from carelessness in handling and laying. In shipping from the humid Puget Sound region to the arid or semiarid districts east of the mountains wood pipe may shrink very materially if allowed to lie exposed to the sun and wind for any considerable time, and for this reason it should be protected from such influences so far as possible before laying. Otherwise it may be difficult to get the pipe tight after water is turned in. Care should be exercised in handling the pipe, so as to avoid bruising or in any way injuring the tenon ends. The tenons should be carefully examined as the pipe is being put together, and, in case bruises or scratches occur, the section should be turned so that the injury will be on top where it can be easily plugged if a leak should develop. Pipes up to 4 inches in diameter may be driven together with a ‘maul,-a tampion being used to protect the end of the pipe. Pipe 6 inches in diameter and larger can best be driven with a ram which 1U. 8. Geol. Survey, Water Supply and Irrig. Paper 43, p. 71. 2 Ann. Rpt. Water Diy., Dept. Public Utilities [Spokane, Wash.], 1911. WOOD PIPE FOR CONVEYING IRRIGATION WATER. 29 may be made of a heavy piece of timber about 5 feet long. The pipe is usually driven from the coupling or mortised end. Deflections of from 2° to 6° per joint can be made with this kind of pipe, but a straight line is desirable, and crooks in either vertical or horizontal alignment should be avoided as far as possible. Where curves are necessary, short sections of pipe may be obtained for the purpose. Greater deflections can be made with small pipe than with large sizes. > The backfilling around curves should be thoroughly tamped or puddled, as a precaution against blowing out under pressure, and metal bends and plugs should also be well staked or reinforced, for the same reason. To make best progress in laying this kind of pipe a crew of from four to eight men is required, the number depending on the size of the pipe. The amount that can be laid in a day varies with the size of the pipe, experience of the crew, and other conditions. The Pacific Coast Pipe Co. estimates the cost of laying western pipe at from 14 cents per foot for 4-inch to 5 cents per foot for 24- inch, exclusive of all distribution along ditch and earthwork. The Portland Wood Pipe Co. estimates the cost of laying different sizes as follows: 4-inch, 1 cent per foot; 6-inch and 8-inch, 14 cents; 10- inch, 2 cents; 12-inch, 24 cents, distribution and earthwork not in- cluded. P. A. Devers, manager Pasco Reclamation Co., Pasco, Wash., gives the cost of laying pipe at Pasco, as follows: For sizes from 8 inches to 14 inches in diameter the labor cost for excavation and installation varies from 8 cents to 10 cents per linear foot, ac- cording to size. Trenches for some of the larger pipes were exca- vated by contract at 25 cents per cubic yard. For installing several miles of 6-inch pipe, the trenching and other labor cost was about 6 cents per linear foot. The rate of wages is not given, but presumably laborers were paid from $2 to $2.50 per day of 10 hours. Trenches were probably not more than 2 feet deep, and the material excavated was mainly a sandy soil. In gravel the cost was increased 15 to 20 per cent, according to the statement of Mr. Devers. MAINTENANCE OF WOOD-PIPE LINES. It should not be assumed that large continuous stave pipe lines when once installed will forever after take care of themselves. Reasonably frequent inspection is advisable, and whenever leaks are found, or injuries of any nature are sustained, they should be re- paired without unnecessary delay. Negligence in this respect and failure to appreciate the importance of such inspection has not only shortened the life of many pipe lines, but has in some instances sreatly increased the cost of repairing. The continued impinging of a grit laden jet from a small leak has been known to sever steel 30 BULLETIN 155, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. bands five-eighths of an inch in diameter, while the failure of a sec- tion of machine-banded pipe due to the wire being cut in this way is not uncommon. Small leaks at the joints or seams of wood pipe are usually stopped with wooden wedges. In the case of leaks around the wooden cou- plings of machine-banded pipe, the wedges are driven into the staves of the coupling sleeve, and not between them and the pipe. If a section of machine-banded pipe or a collar fails on account of the cutting of the wire, individual bands with coupling shoes similar to those used for the large continuous stave pipe can be obtained for making repairs. An assortment of these might well be kept on hand where likely to be needed. The repairs of a large pipe may call for considerable ingenuity and unique methods. When several five-eighths-inch bands of the 48-inch Mabton (Wash.) siphon were cut by a leak, allowing the ends of two staves to spring out and break off, a diver was em- ployed to make the repairs. At the bottom of the Yakima River, 15 to 20 feet under water, steel plates with gaskets, one on the inside and one on the outside of the pipe, were clamped together with bolts so as to stop the leak. Under ordinary circumstances the repair of continuous stave pipe is not difficult. The removal and replacement of staves or portions of them is a matter of frequent occurrence. It is only necessary to remove a few bands, take out the defective stave, spring another into place, and reband. If the pipe bas been buried and the threads on the bands have become badly rusted, as they frequently do, any change in the position of the nut may necessitate the use of a new band, though if the body of the band is fit to be used again a new thread may be welded on. This has been done by the Butte Water Co. Where a pipe is above ground any landslides coming in contact with it should be cleared away as a precaution against decay, par- ticularly if it is at a point where the pipe is under light pressure. If supported in cradles, mudsills or footings should be renewed as decay progresses, in order to avoid injury to the pipe from set- tling. Weeds permitted to grow along an exposed pipe may, when dry, be a source of danger from fire, and on this account if for no other reason they should be kept down so far as conditions will warrant. On many irrigation systems it is necessary to empty the wood pipes in the fall, as a precaution against damage from freezing. Where this is the case they should be kept full as late as possible, and be filled again in the spring just as soon as conditions will per- mit. In some instances irrigation managers close the inlets and out- lets of wood pipes when emptied in the fall, so as to prevent the WOOD PIPE FOR CONVEYING IRRIGATION WATER. Sil circulation of air and the consequent drying of the wood during the winter. In the operation of pipe lines, especially irrigation “ siphons,” conditions frequently favor the admission of air, which may very materially reduce the carrying capacity, and sometimes it is suf- ficient to cause pulsations or vibrations so violent as to be a menace to the life of the pipe. This difficulty is usually remedied by the introduction of air vents at the top of the pipe near the intake, carrying them back up along the pipe itself, or perhaps to one side of the line to a point above the hydraulic gradient. The cost of maintenance in the operation of wood pipe lines varies greatly. In many instances where there has been a careful selection of materials, good construction, and favorable conditions of service, the expense of maintenance may be for many years an almost neg- ligible amount, while again, where the above conditions do not ob- tain, the cost for repairs and upkeep may be considerable. It is usually less during the first few years than it is later on in the life of a pipe. A. P. Merrill, manager of the Utah Power Co., in connection with his experience in operating a number of pipe lines aggregating 10 miles or so in length, writes as follows: The maintenance of pipe lines depends, of course, on the manner in which they are constructed. At this time I have no definite maintenance costs which can be given to support any statements that I might make. In general, how- ever, I should say that a wood pipe line properly constructed with Kelsey joints and laid under sufficient pressure requires practically no maintenance, at least during the first 10 years. We have had comparatively new lines, however, where the construction was somewhat faulty in some respects, and where the butt joints were not used, which require more or less maintenance work during each year. Eugene Carroll, manager of the Butte Water Co., in writing con- cerning the pipes built at Butte in 1892, 1899, and 1900, makes the following statement :* The pipe connects our reservoirs, one 18 miles and the other 22 miles out, with our reservoirs in town. The watchman, which we have to keep at each reservoir, makes a trip over the pipe line once a week. Occasionally in making these trips it is necessary to dig out the pipe for small leaks, such as worm holes on butt joints, but with two exceptions we have never had to use more than two men in repairing leaks, and have never had to shut off the water. Our two exceptions are, first, during the winter of 1893 ice formed inside of our pipe line, being caused from the fact that our reservoir was not completed, and a jam was caused inside the pipe, bursting it, requiring the shutting off of the water and about 12 hours to repair it. Last spring on our new pipe line a leak developed near one of our valve chambers, and before it was discovered and the water shut off a bad washout took place, which washed the supports away from the pipe line for about 1,000 feet, necessitating the rebuilding of the line, taking about four days to do it. 1Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 58 (1907), p. 73. 32 BULLETIN 155, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Writing again seven years later, Mr. Carroll repeats that one man on each of these lines is all the labor required, the inspections being made about once a week, and he says: I attribute our low cost of maintenance to the careful and frequent inspec- tions we make of the lines. The cost of repairs on the 12 miles of conduit at Astoria, Oreg., for 10 years after its construction is given by A. L. Adams as follows: Cost of repairs on 12 miles of conduit. T Year. Cost. Year. Cost. Year. Cost. Year. Cost. Year. Cost. 18958 S22 $108.58 |} 1897...-... $63.67 |) 1899......-. $46.10 |} 1901.......|$243.18 |] 1903...___. $350. 18 1896 oes: 15.90 || 1898.....-.. 65.50 || 1900......- 71259) [1902 253-55 314.03 || 1904......-. 895.10 The foregoing figures include the expense of repairing the damage resulting from two landslides. Aside from this, most of the cost was charged to the 73 miles of wood pipe. The total cost of repair- ing 27 perforations which occurred in the steel pipe in 1902, 1903, 1904, and 1905 was $297. For repairing staves in 48-inch pipe near Clarkston, Wash., in January, 1912, R. A. Foster, engineer and manager, Clarkston system of Lewiston-Clarkston Improvement Co., gives the following detailed cost data: Cents Milling? Staves.22 2/2262 Se. Se St ost ee ee ae 3. 04 Havling- 1182 ton-miles ato (09 See eee 18. 24 Removing oOldiipipe=22-2 = 22 ee ee ee 3. 24 Repairing -olds bands 2. = —* ae a ee Ben ORAS Subdelivery (of material 2: —- =) ee eee EY a Fa ea ie oi ce aces | RR eee pel a as 9. 12 Replacing bands, 555, at 8.11 cents per band______________ 12.16 Cook 2268 b22 23 Ai ee ie ee Oh ee ee eee 3. 04 Hood, «45 cents pertAlon= = 13. 42 EsOSE: Gimme, OF: Tren se so a ae ha ES Sy ks 4.73 MOSEL. time, OL: hears ee oe ee 1. 92 Piling of.old. lumberisa veda == ewe Hl eaifes Superintendence:2 {= Ske Sau eee eee See 4, 83 Cost of lumber, $28 f. 0. b. Lewiston —_—-=-- ~=— 81. 20 TINO Ged 8 es 164. 87 Making total cost per foot, $1.65. Wages of men, 25 cents per hour. 1Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 58 (1907), p. 69. ‘ Sgt hte ee B joiitgl/D WOOD PIPE FOR CONVEYING IRRIGATION WATER. 88 For replacing 280 feet 40-inch pipe, January, 1911. Cents Item. Cost. per foct. Hanlin gistavess/Siton-maill esuig3 725 0 sea aor aad eee eee Saye ele eae $29.30 10.4 Excavating and tearing downs Onis, ORNS eta nati te 41.00 14.4 153) Payya tae 6 ie een Oe ea Hoodie aceaceassssssea esses 4 13.90 13.95 17.63 11.25 |) 14.18 | 5| 11.15 14.15 17.05 8.97 |} 12.88 | 6| 10.37 14.50 16.55 15. 49 | 14. 23 Avenger te petnerrutne feeseneate 15.70 | 15.02] 17.69 | 13.84 [aeccceet | 15.56 | 1 One plat only. In each of the other years the figures given are the average of two plats. 2 Stormy weather prevented the sampling and seeding of these plats. It will be noticed in Table IX that there was no great difference in the average moisture content of the plats. The surface foot, usually very dry in the first few inches, varied in moisture content to some © extent, owing partly to rainfall, but even in this foot the variation is within the limits of experimental error. Moisture in the first foot of soil is of chief importance at seeding time, because it is here that the plant starts life, and for this reason some relation between the moisture content of the first foot of soil at seeding time and the yield of the crop might be expected. This relation failed to appear, however, in any one year. That it was not apparent in an average for the four years from 1909 to 1912 is shown in figure 14, in which the average moisture content of the first foot of soil on the six different dates of seeding, and the average yields of two varieties of winter wheat seeded on those dates are graphically presented. Figure 14 shows an apparent relationship between the moisture content of the first foot of soil and the yields of the plats seeded on the two earler dates, but for later dates the curves run almost parallel to each other. A discussion of the physical factors influenc- ing the time of seeding will aid in explaining this condition. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE TIME OF SEEDING. On the dry lands of the Great Basin the best time for seeding winter wheat is greatly limited by climatic conditions. The long, dry summers exhaust the moisture of the fallow soil nearly to the depth to which the land is plowed, leaving the surface soil almost TILLAGE AND ROTATION EXPERIMENTS AT NEPHI, UTAH. 25 dusty to a depth of 4 to 8 inches. This condition, combined with continued lack of rainfall, often prevents the sowing of wheat until very late in the fall, sometimes until farmers are compelled +o sow in order to have the seed in the ground 29 before snow falls. It is impracticable to sow seed in the dry soil, be- cause it would not ger- minave until rain fell, /, and then, if the storms brought insufficient moisture for continued ;> growth, the plant very x likely would die after 5 sprouting. Thismakes /’ 7 early seeding in dry soil & ~ x a) AVEFAGE YIELD IN BUSHELS PEP ACRE obtained from such seeding when it is fol- Q ,, lowed by sufficient , moisture for germina- € tion and continued Y ,s G 12 growth. en at N EXPLANATION \ It is almost impos- & Ae BoE CEN IAN sible to place the seed = /”/ BO Dey OE \ W below the dry soil, and, Ce ae ae if it were possible, it is ———— WAGE YIELD OF not practicable, be- 7? cause small seeds placed so deep often have difficulty in get- ~% x % a ® < ting their first leaves © N f eS . . to the surface. These 2 6) a N) 0 < facts explain why DATE OF PLANTING farmers generally walt Fic. 14.—Graph showing the average percentage of moisture in the ; for rain to wet the sur- first foot of soil at seeding time in the fall and the average yields 6 of two varieties of winter wheat used in the time-of-seeding tests face soil before they at the Nephi substation, 1909 to 1913, inclusive. sow their wheat. in order to obtain the highest yields from winter wheat in the Great Basin, however, it is essential that the plants make at least a fair growth before winter begins. To get the desired growth, the seed should be sown 26 BULLETIN 157, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. not later than October 1. When seeding is delayed until very late in the fall there is great danger of injury to the young plants if germination occurs, from what may be termed “fall killing.” They are In a very critical condition when freezing weather arrives. An open winter following this injury results in almost total failure of the crop, regardless of the tillage methods used in preparing the land and of the amount of moisture stored in it. As practical examples of the poits brought out in the preceding discussion, the past four seasons, 1909-10 to 1912-13, are worthy of consideration. The seedings on August 15 and September 1, 1909, were made when, owing to recent rains, there was plenty of moisture in the first foot to cause good growth. The yields of these plats in 1910 were high in comparison with those of the plats sown later, when the weather was dry and cold. The seedings on Sep- tember 15, 1910, were made under conditions similar to those in August, 1909. The yields on these plats were higher than those seeded “in the dust’’ in August and those sown late in October. In the fall of 1911 and again in 1912 the weather was dry until early October, after which time there was plenty of moisture, but the weather was cold. As a result of these conditions the yields of both early-sown and late-sown crops were low. Figure 15 shows the relation of precipitation to yield in this instance. The black- ened portions of the figure illustrate the daily precipitation from August 1 to November 30, inclusive, and the curves represent the yields in bushels per acre of the two varieties of wheat seeded on different dates during these months. It will be seen that early seeding if done in wet weather gave high yields, while it gave low yields, and sometimes almost failures, when done in dry weather. It is also shown that late seeding, even when there was -plenty of moisture, often resulted in serious loss because of injury to the tender plants by freezing. There seems to have been some difference in the effect of these climatic condi- tions on the two varieties. This may have been due to a difference in the time of germination between the hard (Turkey) variety and the soft (Koffoid) variety. The writer is of the opinion that this difference in germination is largely responsible for the differences in yield. The soft wheat seems to germinate more rapidly than the hard wheat, and for this reason it is more advanced on a given date than the latter variety. This may not always be advantageous to it, as it may be in a tender stage of growth when drought or cold weather strikes it, and thus it may be injured more than the un- germinated seed of the hard variety. On the other hand, the soft wheat may be sufficiently far advanced to protect it from injury, while the slower germinating Turkey wheat may be still in a tender stage of growth. . TILLAGE AND ROTATION EXPERIMENTS AT NEPHI, UTAH. math The climatic and soil conditions under which these results were SEASON £909 -/9/0. AUGUST SLEPILIMIGER OCTOBER NOVEMIGER oLERRSSLLT TSS LRR AS Ho VVg Os yer tN al X 3O “ \ 9 N 20 dics 20 a CAPPS ESTE of pepe slit se (SBS Be | | L TANS ee See Sos Sas qe aie: Place Lee 6 NI 8 SEASON /9//-/W/2. ‘ R | : Y, Q > t S N " c Q NS ‘| qos) : S q q . aa cal 2 i BF i ie hE , la} I peae es" HS | eee. Tl a, Fig; 15.—Diagrams showing the aEecpiiation at seeding time in the fall and curves showing the annual yields of two varieties of winter wheat used in the time-of-seeding tests at the Nephi substation, 1909 to 1913, inclusive. obtained present problems of a different nature than those so far 28 BULLETIN 157, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. studied. Early seeding, not later than October 1, seems desirable, but as this is not always practicable, owing to a dry seed bed, the chief problem seems to be a mechanical one involving some im- provement of the machinery now used in seeding the grain. The improvement believed to be necessary comprises a means for open- ing a furrow through the dry surface soil, sowing the seed in moist earth at the bottom of the furrow, and leaving the furrow partly open so that the plants will not have to force their way through several inches of dry soil. It is believed that seed could be sown with good results in dry weather by this method, as the seed would germinate rapidly and a good stand of grain would be established before winter, thus greatly increasing the possibilities of a good crop. BARLEY, OATS, AND EMMER. In the fall of 1911 date-of-seeding tests with winter barley, winter oats, and winter emmer were begun. Four dates were used for each grain, namely, September 1, September 15, October 1, and October 15. All grains were sown at the rate of 6 pecks per acre on the ‘‘oats”’ side of the drill. As has already been explamed in connection with the discussion of the time of seeding winter wheat, there was much winterkilling in the seasons of 1911-12 and 1912-13, and, conse- quently, the results obtained from these experiments with barley, oats, and emmer are of little value. The tests are being continued, however. DeptH oF SEEDING WINTER CEREALS. Depth-of-seeding tests with winter wheat have been in progress since the fall of 1908, while similar tests with winter barley, winter oats, and winter emmer were begun in 1911. In all the tests, seed has been sown at three different depths, 1.5, 3, and 6 inches, the drill being set in the first, second, or third notch, according to the depth desired. In all respects other than depth of seeding, the plats in each test were treated uniformly. Each fall the plats were seeded at what was considered the best time. Sometimes, as in 1909 and 1910, it was possible to sow the seed early enough to obtain a fair growth before winter and, as a re- sult, good yields were obtained. On the other hand, as in 1908, 1911, and 1912, seeding was not possible until very late in the season, resulting in poor yields, for reasons already explained. The yields of winter barley, oats, and emmer were so small in 1912 and 1913, because of late seeding and subsequent freezing, that they are not dependable and need not be presented here. The yields of winter wheat in 1913 also were very small, but as they are important in connection with the results of the preceding four years, the yields for the five years are presented in Table X. . q * ys e TILLAGE AND ROTATION EXPERIMENTS AT NEPHI, UTAH. 29 TABLE X.—Annual and average yields of winter wheat sown at different depths at the Nephi substation, for the years 1909 to 1913, inclusive.} Yield per acre of grain (bushels). Depth planted. 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 | Average. About 1.5 inches (drill in first notch) oS RES EL OCE EES | 4.30] 20.20] 27.70] 16.30 3.20 14. 34 About 3 inches (drill in second notch) ........-...---. 24.07} 16.60} 28.50] 16.30 2 13. 49 About 6 inches (drill in third notch)...........-.--- 2.10) 15 27.20 | 19.10 2 13. 08 1The Koffoid variety (C. I. No. 2997) was used in 1909, while Turkey (C. I. No. 2998) was used from 1910 to 1913, inclusive. 2 Average’ aie of seven check plats. The results of five years as recorded in Table X show very little difference in the average yield of winter wheat seeded at different depths. The yields of 1910, a good season, favored shallow seeding. Those of 1911, a better season, showed a slight advantage in favor of a medium depth of seeding. In fact, it seems that depth of seed- ing is less important than time of seeding, which, as has been shown, is governed at present by soil and climatic conditions. MerHop oF SEEDING WINTER WHEAT. Tests designed to determine the relative value of broadcasting, ordinary drillmg, and cross drilling have been carried on at Nephi for several years. After what has been said concerning the soil and climatic conditions which usually obtain at seeding time in the fall, it is easy to see why broadcasting has been not nearly so successful as drilling. The broadcast plats have been practically failures, each season that method of seeding has been tested, while the drilled oe yielded from 20 to 25 bushels per acre. On the cross-drilled plats the drill was first drawn lengthwise and then crosswise of the plat. On one plat the usual rate of seed- ing, 3 pecks per acre, was used, while on the other twice the usual rate, or 6 pecks per acre, was used. In the one case the drill was set to sow at the rate of 1.5 pecks to the acre and in the other at the rate of 3 pecks, the cross drilling making the quantities sown double those just mentioned. Near these two plats there was always one seeded in the usual manner at 3 pecks per acre. This plat, being usually a check plat, was not always seeded at the same time as the others, however, and so its yields are not strictly comparable with those of the cross-drilled plats. All are presented, however, in Table XI, which gives the annual and average yields for the five years from 1909 to 1913, inclusive. 30 BULLETIN 157, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE XI.—Annual and average yields of winter wheat drilled in the ordinary manner and cross drilled at the Nephi substation, for the years 1909 to 1913, inclusive. Yield per acre of grain (bushels). Method and rate of drilling. Average. 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 5 years.) 4 years. Ordinary drilling at3 pecks per acre .........-- 24.07 | 16.60) 22.30! 16.30 5.17 | 12.89 15. 09 Cross drilling, 1.5 pecks per acre each way-.----- | 3.50] 18.50} 26.70| 17.10 6.00 | 14.36 17. 08 Cross drilling, 3 pecks per acre each Way...-----|-------- 17.80 | 28.380! 17.60 Dro \iseeeae 17.39 1 The Koffoid variety was used in 1909, while the Turkey was used from 1910 to 1913, inclusive. 2 Average of seven check plats. Table XI shows that the difference between the yields of the cross- drilled plats and those drilled in the ordinary manner, both seeded at the rate of 3 pecks per acre, is very small, almost insignificant when the comparative cost of seeding is considered. It is not known whether the difference in yield favoring the cross-drilled plats is caused by cross drilling or by a possible increase in the rate of seed- ing which may have occurred owing to the double seeding, i. e., the drill may have seeded more than 3 pecks when set to sow 1.5 pecks each way of the plat. It is believed that the mcrease in the rate of seeding is responsible for the higher yield of the plats seeded at 6 pecks per acre, since these results agree with those of the rate-of- seeding tests with winter wheat. RATE OF SEEDING WINTER WHEAT. Rate-of-seeding tests with winter wheat were conducted at Nephi for the three years from 1909 to 1911, inclusive, and they were repeated in 1913. There was no test of this kind in 1912. In each year six different rates of seeding were used, namely, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, and 6 pecks per acre. All plats in the test were treated uniformly in every way except as to the rate of seeding. The annual and average yields in bushels per acre obtained are presented in Table XII. TasBLe XII.—Annual and average yields of winter wheat in the rate-of-seeding test at the Nephi substation in 1909, 1910, 1911, and 1913.} Yield per acre of grain (bushels). : Average. Rate of seeding per acre. 1909 1910 1911 1913 3 years 4 years.| (1910, 1911, and 1913). 16.00 | 23.50} Failure. | 10.92 13.17 15.30 | 28.50 | Failure. |.....-.- 14. 60 19.30 | 21.30 PAY tal eas 14. 42 19.30 | 28.70 3.00 | 14.69 17.00 19.30 | 33.70 2.83 | 15.16 18.61 17.00 | 30.30 3.00 | 13.16 16.77 1 The Koffoid variety was used in 1909, while the Turkey was used in 1910, 1911, and 1913. TILLAGE AND ROTATION EXPERIMENTS AT NEPHI, UTAH. 3l The principal fact brought out by Table XII is that the higher rates of seeding have given the largest average yields. This is rather contrary to the belief of dry-land farmers in the Great Basin, who fear that heavier seeding than 3 pecks to the acre would be disastrous to the crop in extremely dry seasons. That this view is not well founded is shown by the fact that in 1910 and 1911, the two driest years at Nephi since 1898, the highest rates of seeding gave yields as high ‘as, or much higher than, the lower rates. The results available indicate that a 4-peck or 5-peck rate is the most profitable. It is likely that 3 pecks per acre would be sufficient if all seeds sown produced plants that matured, but it has been found at Nephi that the average winter survival among fall-sown cereals is about 65 per KIELD 1M BUSHELS PER ACRE a /0 l2 [4 16 eh (40) = (ES Fa. Ae} Co 4909 19. Ald 195 _LLLLLH LL ALLLX LLL LLRX co ae _ LLLA LAHAT LLIRCTER | [a ae 14: a= < 279 = Lj ELLLX LX ELS ZL HLLEX LH LH ELLA HE 149 WILL in LEE We WH Esai) oe Lola ————. ZL EXPLANATION: WE CULWVATED NORMALLY ULLZA NOT GULTVATEL. & | 76.0 : uo 17.1 WEEE EEE Fic. 16.—Diagram comparing the annual and average yields obtained in the spring-cultivation tests of winter wheat at the Nephi substation, 1909 to 1913, inclusive. 19/13 ari NE are cent,' in which case only about 30 pounds of the seed produce plants that mature. SPRING CULTIVATION OF WINTER WHEAT. Two adjacent plats have been used each year since 1909 for testing the value of spring cultivation of winter wheat compared with no cultivation. These plats were treated uniformly in every other respect. Normal cultivation consists of harrowing the crop, usually with a spike-toothed harrow, as early in the spring as advisable, repeating this operation, if necessary, before the plants are in boot. The chief value of spring cultivation, it was thought, would be found in its favorable influence upon the yield of the crop by breaking the crust which usually forms upon the surface of the ground during the winter and early spring. The destruction of this crust was 1Cardon, P. V. Cereal investigations at the Nephi substation. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 39, p. 34, 1913. 32 BULLETIN 157, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. expected to create a mulch which would prevent the evaporation of soil moisture and allow the plant greater freedom for growth. These factors constitute the basis of a great deal of argument in favor of the spring cultivation of winter wheat, a practice which is rather gen- eral in the Great Basin area. ‘The results obtained are quite contrary to those which were expected. YIELD OF GRAIN. The annual and average yields of the plats for 1909 to 1913, inclu- sive, are given in Table XIII and are shown graphically in figure 16. Tasie XIIT.—Annual and average yields of winter wheat obtained from cultivated and uncultivated plats at the Nephi substation, for the years 1909 to 1913, inclusive. Yield per acre of grain (bushels). Treatment. Z 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 | Average. Cultivated -2caiias: tance ete eee ee Tee era 8.33 | 19.00 | 27.90] 14.90 9. 83 15.99 Noticultivated $4. 327225825 sgt rece eenee sen 12.66 | 19.50 | 27.70 | 14.90} 10.50 17.05 1 The Koffoid variety was used in 1909, while the Turkey was used in 1910 to 1913, inclusive. It is of peculiar interest to note that in four of the five years there has been practically no difference in the yields obtained in this test. The yield of the noncultivated plat has been higher in three of the five years, while in 1911 the difference of 0.2 of a bushel per acre favored the cultivated plat. The yields of 1912 were identical. The difference in the average yield of 1.06 bushels in favor of the noncul- tivated plat is largely due to the greater yield of this plat in 1909. EFFECT ON SOIL MOISTURE. Soil samples were taken each year from each of the plats, usually at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of the season. Six- foot samples were taken, and the moisture content of each foot section was determined in the manner previously described in this bulletin. The results are presented in Table XIV, which shows the annual and average percentage of moisture in each foot and for the entire 6 feet in the spring, in the summer, and in the fall. ; Table XIV shows a marked uniformity in the moisture content of the two plats at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of the season, the seasonal loss from both plats being about the same. The greatest difference was shown in 1909, when the cultivated plat with a thin stand of grain lost moisture less rapidly than the noncultivated plat, on which the stand was thicker. In all other years the stands were more nearly alike. Figures 17, 18, and 19 illustrate graphically the results shown in Table XIV. It is apparent that spring cultiva- tion of winter wheat did not conserve any appreciable amount of eee ee ee ee eee al | TILLAGE AND ROTATION EXPERIMENTS AT NEPHI, UTAH. 33 moisture in the 6 feet of soil sampled and that, so far as moisture con- servation is concerned, no advantage was derived from ‘the cultiva- tion of the crop. TaBLE XIV.—Annual and average percentages of moisture in each of the first 6 feet of soil on the plats used in the test of spring cultivation of winter wheat at the Nephi substation, samples taken in spring, summer, and fall, for the years 1909 to 1913, inclusive. Depth of sampling. Treatment and date of determi- nation. AV erage: 1 foot.’ | 2 feet. 3 feet. 4 feet. 5 feet. 6 feet. CULTIVATED. 1909: UMMOROM see cic sees cheeee ss 12.60 16. 25 18. 02 18.50 19. 25 17. 63 17.04 IND EAC e Se ae eo enoocoserrs 12.75 15. 20 15. 45 18. 98 16. 70 12. 82 15. 31 0: May dasweloeede lace uses 13. 05 16.30 17. 33 17.70 18.15 19.95 17.08 UI OPA See emacs dis eicic es 10. 38 12. 63 11. 33 11.18 13. 30 16. 90 12. 62 AUGUSE 6.252 Doce ee sess, 8. 53 11. 35 11.10 11.15 13.10 11.38 11.10 itp April 2G ae ee ee Nae eic aoe 18. 28 21.90 20. 46 18.90 17.80 15.65 18. 83 September 20........-.-.-.- 9.12 12.13 11. 95 11. 48 14.72 13. 42 12.14 1912: Maybe eee hoe toes so 20.17 21.51 20.17 17.99 15. 21 17. 04 18. 68 UTC 27s ee ee ee esate sg 9. 92 13.11 12.14 14. 25 15. 23 16. 23 13. 48 AUBUSE ZN iceeoraseeiisecte toe as 9. 48 13. 65 12. 24 11.52 13.99 17.30 13. 03 913: Maye ie seek soe ee ae 20. 50 22. 22 21.38 18. 32 15. 98 15. 54 18.99 PUTO OE ee eh cee 10. 83 15.77 15. 63 15. 73 15. 54 15. 06 14. 76 September 6..........----.. 10. 67 13. 49 12. 24 11.43 13. 58 12. 49 12. 32 Average in spring......... 18. 00 20. 48 19. 84 18. 23 16. 79 17.05 18. 40 Average in summer....... 10. 93 14. 44 14. 28 14.92 15. 83 16. 46 14.72 Average in fall...........- 10. 11 13. 16 12. 60 12.91 14. 42 13. 48 12.78 NOT CULTIVATED. 13.15 16.15 17. 20 17. 28 16. 85 15. 22 15.97 10. 65 12.90 12. 20 10.15 11.05 13. 45 11.73 14. 35 17.65 18.95 18. 20 18.35 19. 45 |- 17. 82 12. 98 11. 83 11. 78 11.05 13. 20 17.95 13.13 8.75 11. 88 11.65 11.75 13. 10 17.85 12.50 18. 79 22. 69 21.79 19. 60 19.07 17.78 19.95 8.91 13. 39 13. 08 12.51 15.13 13. 25 12.71 16.77 21.35 20. 21 20. 22 19. 21 17. 20 19. 16 12. 04 14.15 14.05 .18. 00 16.17 15. 99 15. 07 10. 61 13. 69 12. 62 12. 67 14.78 16. 72 13. 52 18. 88 20. 59 20. 20 19. 10 17.12 19. 04 19.16 10. 73 15. 80 17. 21 15. 91 16. 23 16. 95 15. 47 11, 30 12. 88 12. 29 12. 05 15.18 13. 83 12.92 Average in spring... 17. 20 20.57 20. 29 19. 28 18. 44 18. 37 19. 02 Average in summer. uy 12. 23 14. 48 15. 06 15. 56 15. 61 16. 53 14.91 Average in fall....-.-....- 10. 04 12.95 12. 37 11. 83 13. 85 15. 02 12. 68 EFFECT OF CULTIVATION ON THE PLANTS. As already stated, the spring cultivation of winter wheat was ex- pected to allow the plants greater freedom for development. It is not known to what extent this result obtained, but it is reasonable to believe that the surface of the soil was placed in better condition for plant development than where the crust was left unbroken and the plants compelled to push through it. It is, however, almost impos- sible to break the crust without injuring some plants. Whether this injury is offset by the benefit to others is difficult to determine, e 34 BULLETIN 157, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. though the yields of the past five years indicate that it is not. An effort was made in 1913 to determine the exact extent of the injury to the plants by harrowing with a spike-toothed harrow, the teeth of which were set almost perpendicularly. At this time there was a heavy crust on the ground, which the plants were penetrating with difficulty. On May 21, when the plants were from 3 to 4 inches high, four - areas were staked off on plat 22D, and the plants in each area were counted before the plat was harrowed. Each area was 3.3 feet square, thus containing =;, of an acre, so that the total area of the 7909 4793/0 1344 IWIZ ro oF > Set ee lar xe J = Sia 2a fe | | | | | | | ] } j j j j j | ] | oe <7 ents ae 9 i | nN 9 Np IC Sa -—— PER CENT OF MOISTURE IN & SA sels : i | aa Wa EFLANATION | |CULTIVATED NOPPTALLY ——— | iis i i (NOT CULTTATED ———— ——- | ye NM (Se a a | m7 | | Fic. 17.—Graphs showing the average percentage of moisture in the first 6 feet of soil at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of the crop season, as found in the spring-cultivation tests of winter wheat at the Nephisubstation, 1909 to. 1913, inclusive. | four units equaled -3,, of anacre. About one week after harrowing, the plants in each area were counted agaix and the loss due to har- rowing was determined. On the basis of the figures obtained, the stand was 218,000 plants per acre before and 193,000 plants per acre after harrowing, a loss of 25,000 plants, or 11.54 per cent. This loss alone would allow the plants greater freedom for development, and it might be expected to increase the number of culms per plant. To determine the effect of harrowing on the production of culms the total number per unit area was determined just before harvest and the average number of culms per plant calculated. The average IPSS. BSA ay EET 5 ete te, TILLAGE AND ROTATION EXPERIMENTS AT NEPHI, UTAH. 35 number on the cultivated plat was 4.17, while on the uncultivated plat it was 4.05. The particular areas which were counted on the uncultivated plat, however, showed a thinner stand than those on the cultivated plat, so that the number of culms per plant does not show entirely the difference in development. The number of plants per acre on the uncultivated plat, as indicated by the areas counted, was 165,000 with a total of 663,000 culms. On the cultivated plat, the stand was 193,000 plants to the acre, with 805,000 culms, which was over 21 per cent more than on the uncultivated plat. On only one of the four uncultivated areas counted was the stand as thick as on the cultivated areas. On this area the average number of culms SPRING SAMPLING SUMMER SAMPLING FALL SAMPLING x 5 PER? CENT OF MIO1/STURE 1N SO/z. N VOT CULTIVATED. / — 3 4s Ss 6/ 2 og F S DEF-TST AIM Ea Fic. 18.—Graphs comparing the average percentage of moisture in each of the upper 6 feet of soil at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of the crop season, as found in the spring-cultivation tests of winter wheat at the Nephi substation, 1909 to 1913, inclusive. per plant was 3.74. On a cultivated area, with practically the same stand, the number of culms per plant was 4.14, an increase of 11 per cent. On the same areas on the uncultivated plats the average yield per unit area 3.3 feet square was 156 grams of straw and 103 grams of grain. On the areas in the cultivated plats the yields were 199 grams of straw and 114 grams of grain. These figures indicate that cultivation caused a marked increase (27.6 per cent) in yield of straw, but a much smaller increase (10.7 per cent) in yield of grain. The yields obtained on the unit areas are contradictory to those from the entire plats, as shown in Table XIV, which shows a decrease in yield on the cultivated plat of 6.4 per cent. 36 BULLETIN 157, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TIME OF HARVESTING WINTER WHEAT. During the period from 1909 to 1912, inclusive, a test of the effect of the time of harvesting upon the yield and quality of winter wheat was conducted. The milling and chemical tests of the wheat were made by the division of chemistry of the Utah station, but the data are not available at this time. Only the data on yield will be pre- sented here. CULTIVATED NORMALLY NOT CULTIVATED. PEP CENT OF AIO/STUPE (IV SO/L. —-—- SUMMER ———— FALL Rit Bight GA SR NRE He. 1 Fa Se DEPTH 1M FEET: Fic. 19.—Graphs showing the average seasonal decline in the percentage of moisture in each of the upper 6 feet of soil, as found in the spring-cultivation tests of winter wheat at the Nephi substation, 1909 to 1913, inclusive. The four plats used in this test lay side by side and were treated uniformly up to and subsequent to the time of harvesting. One of these plats was harvested when the kernel was in the green-dough stage and one each week thereafter until all were harvested. In this way the grain was cut in four different stages of maturity, namely, green dough, hard dough, fully ripe, and overripe. The annual and average yields of the plats for the four years are given in Table XV. TILLAGE AND ROTATION EXPERIMENTS AT NEPHI, UTAH. 37 TaBLe XV.—Annual and average yields of winter wheat harvested at four different stages of maturity at the Nephi substation, for the years 1909 to 1912, inclusive.. Yield per acre of grain (bushels). Stage of maturity when harvested. 1909 1910 1911 1912 | Average. Givaein Gl FEM) |S ska soe bacon sssdessoccausoeoosouuHedss-s0ccs0 7.83 | 8.80 | 20.30) 6.50 10. 86 IS GyKGl GOAN W adebensqaooudedauios - seu saduaEasbogaooeoosoccE 8.83 | 14.00 | 26.40} 10.20 14. 86 ID\olihy we). Sasso oe os bc obo secon sz00eKb ade cHodoHosesoesss5 6.33 | 13.80} 24.60 | 11.50 14.06 OVERDO doscc scaccssseses soe soeoosbacocdesopabesesoasesesos 8.50 | 12.70 | 20.70 | 11.80 13.43 Table XV shows that with one exception the yield each year favored harvesting in the hard-dough stage, though the differences are not great. The earliest harvest gave the smallest yields, due probably to the shrinking of the grain. The small decrease in the average yield from hard dough to overripe was probably due to shattering at harvest time. FREQUENCY OF CROPPING LAND TO WINTER WHEAT. One of the first tests begun by the Utah experiment station on the Nephi farm was planned to determine the relative return from cropping land to winter wheat continuously, every second year, one year in three, and two years in three. This test was conducted on four fifth-acre plats until the fall of 1907, when five tenth-acre plats- were added, to allow the production of a crop under each condition each year. Since 1907, then, nine plats have been used. The total yields per acre of the four fifth-acre plats obtained pre- vious to 1908, the annual and total acre yields of all the plats from 1908 to 1913, and the total yields of the fifth-acre plats from 1904 to 1913, inclusive, are reported in Table XVI. Taste XVI.—Annual and total yields of winter wheat obtained from continuous and alternate cropping and from growing one and two crops in three years at the Nephi substation, 1904 to 1913, inclusive. Yield per acre of grain (bushels). Frequency of crop. aaa Total, | Total, 1904 + a 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1908 to | 1904 to 1907.1 1913. | 1913 Continuous...... 60. 20 13. 41 14.58 7.80 5. 70 6. 00 4.50 | 51.99 | 112.19 Alternate.......- 50. 80 32.66 | Fallow. 9.90 | Fallow. 4.80 | Fallow. | 47.36 98. 16 ND Xo) Shah ae petal ESE Fallow 2.50 | Fallow. 28.00 | Fallow ISS I GPLSBM4odndode Two crops in i three years....| 25.10 32.74 13.42 | Fallow. 23. 60 3.90 | Fallow. | 73.66 98. 76 OARS. LAE nS EE. Fallow. 2.50 10.30 | Fallow. 6. 50 GNSSh 2 Gloe | eaee eee OS Ae ae ee ee 21.16 | Fallow 8.20 8.10 | Fallow Poa ls BEBO) Woe sooes One crop in three WEES Ren ese oe 49.10 | Fallow. | Fallow. 5.00 | Fallow. | Fallow. Tale? ||) aa ayy 5. 27 IDO Oe SSaca sd saebeese Fallow 3.50 | Fallow. | Fallow. |. 10.80} Fallow. W453. OF Peeps ae LD XY PCNe SEPA a ee 19.16 | Fallow. | Fallow. 27.00 | Fallow. | Fallow. 46516) Eaeaceee i Taken from Bulletin 112 of the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station. 38 BULLETIN 157, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The data presented in Table XVI are not wholly dependable, prin- cipally because winterkilling so reduced the yields in some years that their comparative value was almost wholly lost. The volunteer crops on the continuously cropped plat and the plat cropped two years in three were less affected by winterkilling than the sown crops, for the reason that they made more growth in the fall. Asa result, uncontrollable factors, such as thin stands, weeds, ete., caused wide variations in the results, which did not indicate the true value of the methods employed. The continuously cropped plat has nat failed completely, however, in any year, even in the very dry years 1910 and 1911. In 1911, when there was very little winterkilling and good growing conditions prevailed, the continuously cropped plat and that cropped two years 1903 | } | ———ALTERNATELY CROPPED @9IMILZGF5 6 DEFTHA IV FEET Fic. 20.—Graphs comparing the average percentage of moisture in each of the upper 10 feet of soil at the beginning of each season, as found on the alternately cropped and continuously cropped plats at the Nephi substation, 1909 to 1912, inclusive. in three fell far below the others in yield. Under favorable condi- tions, it appears that the plats. that have been fallow one or two years will give the best resuits. So much depends upon the time of planting, winterkilling, etc., however, that continuous cropping sometimes appears to ce promise owing to the survival of volun- teer grain. The severe winterkilling in some years completely offsets the advantage of some plats in high soil-moisture content. This is well ulustrated by figure 20, from which it will be seen that in 1909 the difference in moisture content of the continuously cropped plat and the alternately cropped plat was greatly in favor of the latter at the beginning of the season, yet, because of a better stand, due to the volunteer grain, the continuously cropped plat yielded nearly seven times as much as the other, as is shown in Table XVI. In 1910 the differences, though less marked, were much the same as those of TILLAGE AND ROTATION EXPERIMENTS AT NEPHI, UTAH. 39 the previous year. In 1911, however, under favorable conditions, the yields were consistent with the soil moisture. In 1912 there was little difference either in moisture or yield. These results indicate that where a good stand is obtained in the fall and little winterkilling follows, the crops following fallow will yield more than those grown on continuously cropped land. 'To determine the relative value of the two systems of cropping, the cost of growing a crop and of maintaining a fallow must also be taken into consid- eration. In the vicinity of Nephi, the cost of growing and harvest- ing wheat is about $3 per acre more than the cost of maintaining a fallow throughout the year. This extra cost must be charged against the crop which is obtained in alternate years on the con- tinuously cropped land. On this basis, the 14 bushels greater yield per acre in 10 years from the land continuously cropped have been obtained at a cost of $15, for the $3 extra cost has been incurred five times in the 10 years. This extra cost is greater than the value of the increased yield, which is further evidence that alternate crop- ping and fallowing is preferable to continuous cropping to wheat. INTERTILLED CROPS COMPARED WITH FALLOW IN ALTERNATION WITH WINTER WHEAT. The most direct attempt made at the Nephi substation to find a successful substitute for the alternation of a cereal crop and summer fallow has been in a simple rotation in which winter wheat was grown after fallow and after corn, peas, and potatoes in rotation. As this test has been in progress since 1908 sufficient data have been accumulated to justify consideration at this time. An outline of the rotation is given in Table XVII. TaBLeE XVII.—Rotation of intertilled crops and fallow alternating with wheat. | Plat. 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 TFBS ees at al IC IS ea MC Wheat....| Fallow....| Wheat....| Fallow....| Wheat....| Fallow. IBS SoBe Sete oe oe aoe ne eerie Pa CO ny a ee Conese BeEGO es Peas.....- EEO eens Potatoes. RAE eee eee et LS Weedon sae ROtatoeSae ae dOne ees OLMe eee doeiea Peas TEN E32 ARS Sob eo See safe SIC Pe Goesses eas: 2528 dopa Potatoes. - dow ALe Corn IOs) ee ee aed a DEE Ree ate Seeese Fallow....| Wheat....| Fallow....| Wheat....| Fallow--..-| Wheat. HO CR eee ee see Rotateeses|s4-don ee eae Comeea BE Oa a Peas :.2255- Do. WAC Bet es cen ca Sea Ape Saar Pease: 2 axle sae Potatoes. -.}...do.....- Comes Do. LEC = SEOs a SR ue CoE 2 et Come Me Uo Kaye ieee Pease S553 Coenen Potatoes. - Do. TREATMENT OF PLATS. The four plats which had grown wheat were plowed in the fall of each year to a uniform depth of about 8 inches. The land then received no cultivation until the next spring, when it was double disked or harrowed sufficiently to destroy all weeds and make a good fallow or a good seed bed. The plat to be summer-fallowed was treated normally in the sprmg and throughout the summer. The 40 BULLETIN 157, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. corn, peas, and potatoes were planted in rows far enough apart to permit intertillage, the cultivation during the summer being prac- tically the same for the cropped and the fallow plats. The corn and peas were drilled in rows about 35 inches apart, while the potatoes were dropped behind a plow in hills 24 inches apart in rows 3 feet apart. After the crops were harvested from these plats in the usual manner in the fall, winter wheat was sown on them and on the fallow plat at 7) | WALA Pe Ae PAL ANG Ee Wimale By ye | EXPLANATION. FLAT 12 C Se Goede SN oe Ee AVERAGE FER CENT OF MOVWSTURE /N SIX FEET OF SO/EL | | | | = a g Q 8 N \ % 2 9 > ~ = ~ Siihe RARER RUSE snes aildeemeee SDA ai SG ESE ete 2 2 a8 g 2 9 3 Q = 8 > a x ~ nN a = N° < = ~ a iN z x EI ea pee Pe Snr SMe a te" ah Se etal in ae De Se as Sod Nearnaa. ut Wan Sc oc hey ates Se SHS HRS Rin BR Qi Roe ic Ricr Sir RSS S € 3 § teres ice Nit, Sia 2 “YS igen SM SR oye S DAFS SAMPLED Fic. 21.—Graphs showing the average percentage of moisture in the first 6 feet of soil at the beginning and at the end of each season, as found in the rotation experiments at the Nephi substation, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. ; the same rate and on the same date. The subsequent treatment of the plats was identical in every respect. MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE SOIL. Soil-moisture determinations were made on the plats in the rota-_ tion during each year of the test. The plats growing wheat were sampled at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of each season, while the other plats were sampled about once a month during the season. The moisture content of each foot of soil to a depth of 6 feet was determined in the usual manner. The results indicate that there was very little difference in the inoisture content of any foot of soil on the different plats. The varia- — TILLAGE AND ROTATION EXPERIMENTS AT NEPHI, UTAH. 4l tions favored one plat one year and another plat the next, changing so frequently that no one plat had any marked advantage. The average moisture content in the first 6 feet of soil on all plats in the rotation at the beginning and end of each season from 1908 to 1913, inclusive, is shown graphically in figure 21. It will be noted that the average moisture content of the plats was usually surprisingly uniform, and that no great difference existed in any case. During the wheat years the moisture content of all plats was reduced to a minimum, but during the alternate years the moisture content re- mained reasonably constant. © YIELDS OBTAINED. The yields of the various crops obtained in these rotation experi- ments are presented in Table XVIII. No attention should be paid to the yields of wheat from the “‘B”’ plats in 1908, as they were occupied by four different varieties in the regular varietal test, and varietal differences probably affected the yields. In all other years the same variety was used on all plats. TABLE XVIII.— Yields obtained in tests of winter wheat 1 in alternation with fallow and with corn, peas, and potatoes in rotation at the Nephi substation, for the years 1908 to 1913, inclusive. [Yields per acre (wheat and potatoes in bushels, corn and peas in pounds).] 1908 1909 1910 Plat. Crop Yield Crop. Yield. Crop Yield PD ee ee A 0 Wheat........ 272500 eRalloweeeeee-s laa ee ee Wiheat=-e-ee= 13.7 1B eh cek OHS. coe ent eee aener Gok ie 25.83 | Corn (fodder)-| 1,240 |..-.. CO eoecooees} 258 LAE ren me ee I oN S11 a doesn. 30.16 | Potatoes...... SA do teese, 7 LSI eee es Nec oe ae at dors 22.66 | Peas (vines)-.-] 1,050 |..-.-- does 18.3 TAO cee eee ns Soe see Wallowa eee eae oe Wihea tease A566)|) Halloweseeeee. seen eee TROLL CEs eae 5 ee eee a eS Eouetoes Seerere ; Gas SOniaeeee doxsts. 38: 2.50 | Corn (fodder).| 40 ines.... TACOMA, sire a oe Yih hn Beas\ ead 21080 Meeiido. 20) 2.16 | Potatoes...... 7.35 (Ge Com{ Goer cea Ie MP doseudi 6.50 | Peas (vines)... 35 1911 1912 1913 Plat. Crop. Yield. Crop. Yield. Crop. Yield. TAD A 5 Ae ee ae TUT Oe Noe ee Ie aeons Wheat....._.- 4a Hallowee ate oe Se oe TIE = SS as ISIS Re 2) Pease yc eye Failure. |... -- Osea BE 17.8 Potatoes SEES 34.5 THES eee 95 11213) sis) eA eens Sere Corn (fodder)... AQE |e Sees Cl) aes U eae 18.8 Peast Sead baie) 90 % Fodder. - - - 550 TUS}1 Bs a ee ae a Potatoes. ....- A | ap pe Gos Aner: 18.7 | Corn; Unshelled grain... 200 IDC cad cachet eee nene Bae ee Wheat._.....- 30 Halow. SE ase | Sak ee Bre Wiheateeeanee see 2.0 ines... 225 110) ceuslaa tenes aaa Nee Geena |iny oes Peas{ ood aa a Veeed Dae 4.2 THEOL St a a ere Be ae te aS Clonee ore 32.1 | Corn (fodder)..| 1,420 |._..- Clo as ates 4.4 1510) copes et ete Bree Se md te oe at okies ceke 29.5 | Potatoes....-- Bye a ae dor sees ae 4.2 1 Tn 1908 the wheat plats were a part of the regular varietal test, so that the results for that year should be disregarded. The varieties were as follows: On plat 12B, Crimean (C. I. No. 1433); plat 13B, Crimean (C. I. No. 1435); plat 14B, Crimean (C. I. No. 1436); and on plat 15B, Koffoid (C. I. No. 2997). In 1909 the last-named variety was grown on all plats, while in 1910 and succeeding years the Turkey variety (C. I. No. 2998) was used. 42 BULLETIN 157, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wheat after corn gave the highest yield obtained in 1909, while wheat after fallow yielded better than wheat after either potatoes or peas. The yields of 1909, however, were extremely low because of excessive winterkilling. Consequently they would be practically worthless if they were not relatively the same as those obtained in later years. In 1910 wheat after fallow yielded much less than wheat after any intertilled crop. In 1911 wheat after potatoes gave the highest yield, while there was little difference in the yields of the other plats. Wheat after fallow again gave the lowest yield in 1912 and 1913. A summary of the wheat yields obtained in this test for the five years from 1909 to 1913, inclusive, is given in Table XIX. TasLe XIX.—Annwual and average yields of winter wheat obtained after corn, potatoes, peas, and fallow, at the Nephi substation, for the years 1909 to 1913, inclusive. | Yield per acre of grain (bushels). Rotation. | 1909 | 1910 1911 1912 1913 | Average. Wiest alter Cormeece. seen cee e: pee oe eee ese 6.50 | 19.30 | 28.50/] 18.80 4.40 15.50 Wheat after potatoes: 5--- 22. 232222 Bee sees ee 2.50} 17.20 | 32.10| 18.70 4.20 14, 94 Wheat after peas:c .< 25520. oases 2-2 Jeobaroesbnees 2.16} 18.30! 29.30] 17.80 4.20 14.39 Wheat after tallow... -225-ssics5045- =r oe ee eae eee 4.66 | 13.10} 30.00 | 14.7 2.00 12. 89 Table XIX shows that the average yield of wheat for five years was less after fallow than after corn, potatoes, or peas. A summary of the total crop yields of all plats since the test began is given in Table XX, where it will be noticed that plats 12B and 12C, wheat after fallow, have given the lowest total returns per acre. TaBLeE XX.—Summary of total crop yields from the intertillage and fallow rotation plats at the Nephi substation, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. Total yields per acre. | | Years and plats. lay | Corn. Peas. Wheat ; Potatoes. Grain. |Fodder.| Seed. Hay. 1909 to 1913: Bus Bus Lbs Lbs Lbs Bus 1) 3 a eee See eee er eee ere i (eee onc Ul i eS eel Piel eee PPR teem [Meier cynic loamina~ 2S Bee eee oe oes oe re ee aot eee ee 37.10 | None. } 1,240 | Failure. | Failure. 34. 50 NA Ah ee ce Ae ae eee hee e amen oe | 36.00 | None 5 84. 70 TG 358 ey SER Se eee 75 a ee aes a ee 37.00 2.9 550 | None. 1,050 4.00 1908 to 1913: LOM eee be ee soe eeee eek seen ee 36. 66 |-22-----)- 2-2 2-2 -|----- +222] eee eee -|- ee ee eee iS (CEG GREENE SE it LIES Ny ae | 35.20 | None. | 40 90 225 42.50 TAG PERRIN Sees CUT SL a eel Oe | 38.66 | None. | 1,420 220 1,080 7.35 LO LEE = cequt ae SS Se 4 Repo aE See Danae | 40.20} 17.5} 630 | None. | 35 32. 40 Table XX shows that the wheat yields on the ‘B” series are greatly in favor of the plats which produced an intertilled crop in alternate years, the differences in acre yields varying from 8 to 9 bushels. In addition to yielding as much wheat as plat 12C, the TILLAGE AND ROTATION EXPERIMENTS AT NEPHI, UTAH. 43 other plats on the ‘‘C”’ series have given good yields of the intertilled crops. From these results it appears that the production of inter- tilled crops had some effect on the soil which was beneficial to the following wheat crop. It is difficult to determine the nature of this effect, but that it was present can not be doubted. The intertilled crops were sometimes unprofitable, in some instances total failures, but the losses thus accruing were offset by profitable yields in more favorable seasons. The cost of growing these crops was somewhat higher than the cost of maintaining fallow, but the yields of the intertilled crops and the higher wheat yields following made up for this difference in cost. It is quite impossible to deter- mine with any great degree of satisfaction the relative value of these rotations, since the total yields of some of the intertilled crops were so small, and because the production of such crops on the dry lands of the Great Basin is practically unheard of,. there is no standard for estimating values. Perhaps the greatest value that will come from the results of the above experiment will be to point out the possibili- ties of such a rotation and to encourage greater effort in the develop- ment of better varieties of intertilled crops or better methods of pro- ducing the varieties now used. SUMMARY. The Nephi substation is located in the Juab Valley, in the eastern part of Juab County, in central Utah. The soil in this locality is very deep. It ranges from clay to sandy loam. In the virgin state it is covered with a dense growth of black sagebrush. The average annual precipitation in the Juab Valley during the past 16 years was 13.40 inches. During the progress of the experi- ments reported herein (1908 to 1913), the precipitation in 1908 and 1909 was above normal, while in 1910, 1911, 1912, and 1913 it was below normal. The winter and spring precipitation is the heaviest of the year. The rains of summer have been small and consequently of little value to the growing crops. The average evaporation at the Nephi substation during the six . months from April to September, inclusive, has been about 45 inches. The average wind velocity for any one dls has not exceeded 10 miles per hour. Protracted hot winds are unknown. Only two months of the year, July and August, have been free from frost. Normally, however, there are from 90 to 100 days in the frost-free period, ex- tending from about June 15 to September 15. Most of the experiments reported upon have been in progress since 1908. A few are of longer duration, while some were begun as late as 1911. The tests have dealt with stubble treatment imme- diately after harvest; time and depth of plowing; cultivation of 44 BULLETIN 157, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fallow; seeding, cultivation, and harvesting the crop; frequency of cropping; and diversity of crops in rotation. The tests dealing with stubble treatment immediately after harvest were begun in the fall of 1911. The results so far obtained are not conclusive enough to warrant publication. The average results for five years, 1909 to 1913, inclusive, show that spring plowing was better than fall plowing for moisture con- servation, in yield of grain, and in cost of producing the crop. Spring plowing gave an average yield of 18.5 bushels per acre, as compared with 16.8 bushels for fall plowing. Owing to this difference in yield and the lower cost of producing the crop, spring plowing gave a net acre profit of $3.03 more than fall plowing. The results of five years show that there was no advantage in deep plowing or subsoiling over shallow plowing so far as moisture conservation is concerned. There was no material difference in the yields obtained from plats plowed at different depths, varying from 5 to 18 inches. The highest average yield was obtained from plats plowed 10 inches deep, and the lowest average yield was from the plats subsoiled 18 inches deep, while the 5-inch plowing yielded higher than the 15-inch subsoiling. One year’s results from a test of deep fall plowing and shallow spring plowing compared with shallow fall plowing and deep spring plowing show no difference in soil moisture and but slight difference in yield. The results of five years’ experiments on fall-plowed fallow show that the moisture of the cultivated plats remained practically the same throughout the season, while that of the uncultivated plats rapidly declined, until by fall it was reduced to a comparatively low point. It is probable that weeds and volunteer grain were important factors in this loss of moisture. The average acre yield of the cultivated plats was 17 bushels, as compared with 13 bushels on the uncultivated plats. The results of one season on spring-plowed fallow show no differ- ence in the moisture content of the plats cultivated or not cultivated. The yields, 11.9 and 9.5 bushels per acre, favor the noncultivated plat. The results of 10 years show no correlation between the time of sowing winter wheat and the yield, but the best yields have usually been obtained from plats seeded between September 1 and October 15. There was no significant difference between the average mois- ture content of the plats for any one or for all years. The chief problem in the time-of-seeding tests of winter wheat now seems to be a mechanical one involving some improvement of the machinery used in seeding. It is believed that this will obviate the necessity of TILLAGE AND ROTATION EXPERIMENTS AT NEPHI, UTAH. 45 waiting for rain before seeding, thus permitting early seeding, which seems desirable, and allowing the crop time enough to make a fair growth before the advent of winter. Late planting is often followed by much winterkilling, which completely offsets the value of any tillage method used in preparing the land and of the quantity of moisture stored in it. The average result of five years’ tests shows no difference in the yields of winter wheat seeded at different depths. The yields were ereatly influenced by conditions at seeding time. : The ordinary drilling of winter wheat has given more profitable yields than broadcasting or cross drilling. The results of three years’ experiments show that winter wheat sown at the rate of 4 to 5 pecks per acre is more profitable than when sown at 3 pecks per acre, the rate ordinarily used on the dry lands of © the Great Basin. The average yields of five years favor no spring cultivation of winter wheat. The noncultivated plats yielded 17.05 bushels, as compared with 15.99 bushels from those cultivated. There was no apparent difference in the moisture content of the plats. A test made in the spring of 1913 showed that 11.54 per cent of the plants were killed by one harrowing. This loss offsets all benefits that might have come from harrowing. The results of four years favor harvesting when the grain is in the hard-dough stage. Where a good stand was obtained and little winterkilling followed, winter wheat after fallow yielded more than winter wheat on con- tinuously cropped land. This depended largely upon the season, however, and the continuously cropped plat, owing to volunteer erain, yielded as well or better than other plats in the test in seasons of much winterkilling. The average acre yield of winter wheat for five years was less after fallow than after corn, potatoes, or peas. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS ' GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv BULLETIN OF THE V USDEDARIVENTOFAGRCLTIRE % No. 158 Contribution from the Bureau of Scils, Milton Whitney, Chief. November 10, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) THE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS. By E.spert C. Lararop, Scientist in Soil Fertility Investigations. INTRODUCTION. Organic compounds have lately taken on a deeper significance in their relation to the complex problems of the soil and of crop produc- tion, for not only do they affect the physical conditions and chemical reactions of the soil but they also have been shown. to be directly con- nected with fertility or infertility, some of them being essentially bene- ficial to the growth of plants, while others are distinctly harmful. Of the organic compounds thus far isolated from soils, a large number contain nitrogen, and of these nitrogenous substances, some have been found rather widely distributed in soils varying as to location, climate, methods of cropping, etc. These nitrogenous compounds occur either as plant constituents or arise from the decomposition of plant or animal protein, brought about by the various biological and biochemical agents in the soil. Not only compounds of this class found in soils but also many other protem decomposition products have been studied, both alone and in conjunction with the three fer- tilizer elements, in respect to their action on plant growth, and they have been shown in a number of cases to exert a beneficial influence; furthermore, these complex compounds are available for use by the plant without first being changed by chemical or biochemical means into ammonia and then to nitrates. That these facts have an immense practical bearing on fertilizers and the fertilizer industry, both from the standpomt of the producer and of the consumer, is at once obvious. The old high-grade nitrog- 1A Beneficial Organic Constituent of Soils: Creatinine. By Oswald Schreiner, E. C. Shorey, M. X. Sullivan, and J.J. Skinner. Bul. 83, Bur. Soils, U.S. Dept. Agr., 1911. Nitrogenous Soil Constituents and Their Bearing on Soil Fertility. By Oswald Schreiner and J. J. Skinner, Bul. 87, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1912. This investigation is a contribution to the knowledge of the nature of the changes brought about in the manufacture of some of the processed fertilizers, and of the character and availability of such processed goods in mixed fertilizers when used in farm practice. 63138°—Bull. 158—14——1 | enous fertilizers, such as cottonseed meal, dried blood, fish scrap, etc., are being used more and more for feed purposes, and the time! can not be far distant when their use as fertilizers will cease to be economic; thus a necessity for other and cheaper fertilizers of this — type arises. Coupled with this is the desire of the chemist and the manufacturer to utilize in one way or another all waste products, whatsoever their nature, so that the number and kinds of nitrogenous © materials which are used in the manufacture of fertilizers is on the increase. Described in the patent literature and found on the market are a large number of fertilizers which may be characterized } as ‘‘processed,” that is, the crude materials, not in themselves per- | missible as fertilizers, are made to undergo some decided chemical — change to render them suitable as plant nutrients. It has been found that the ‘‘availability” of the crude substances is nearly al-— ways greatly increased by such processing and that a much larger percentage of the nitrogen in the finished product is soluble in water, although the actual chemical changes produced seem to have re- ceived little attention. The chemical compounds in processed fer- tilizers which are here shown to have direct fertilizer significance have not been determined, other than to show that ammonia is formed during processing and that ammonia is more readily pro- duced from the processed goods. Since the wastes from which this type of fertilizer is made contain © more or less protein, or proteinlike substances, it seemed quite | obvious that the finished fertilizers must contain more or less of the © chemical compounds which would arise by such treatment from pure — proteins in the laboratory. Since the action on plants of many of © this class of compounds has been determined it is evident that the finding of such compounds in the fertilizers would throw much light on the question of the “availability” of the nitrogen in the fer- tilizer itself. BASE GOODS A TYPE OF PROCESSED FERTILIZER. gts BULLETIN 158, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a . For a chemical study of processed fertilizers a sample of ‘wet- mixed’’ or ‘“‘base goods”’ fertilizer was chosen as a representative of this type of fertilizer material. The base goods was obtained directly © from the factory for use in this investigation. This fertilizer is made — by the treatment of various trade wastes and refuse, such as hair, gar- bage tankage, leather scraps, etc., with rock phosphate and the requisite amount of sulphuric acid. These materials are mixed to- gether in a “‘den” and the resulting mass is allowed to stand for sev- eral days, until it is cool enough to be conveniently handled. In the course of the reaction the mass reaches a temperature approximating 100° C., and the identity of the original substances is almost or en- tirely lost. Under these conditions it is certain that more or less |_| THE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS. 3 hydrolysis of the proteins in the crude materials takes place, with the formation of proteoses, peptones, polypeptides, or the simple amino acids, the kinds and number of products formed necessarily depending on the proportion of the different proteins in the original materials, on the amount and strength of the acid, the length of time of the reaction, and the temperature reached during the treatment. Hartwell and Pember ‘ have recently made a study of base goods in order to determine the availability of the nitrogen contamed in it as compared with that of the high-grade nitrogenous fertilizers. The product which they used was made from hair tankage, garbage tankage, and roasted leather, together with rock phosphate and sul- phuric acid. From their report the following figures for the analysis of the crude materials used in producing the fertilizer and of the finished product are taken: TasLe 1.—Total nitrogen in cruae materials and finished product. (Hartwell and Pember.) Nitrogen. Per cent. EDT GE 0) 5d ato SOSS Ee Ba SUE BEE AO REE aCe ees ie eS nOe HCE 6 Se SrCao ap COACCe SOC SEGoRccne s RVOASteCUleCanM Chatters cas nse ne voce cence atite «5 oc sais ew eins oe ee 2 wesc is wise eclemeiseeiemsecte 6.49 (Ana COA Meat 0 ore Spans at terse = espe Rei unas e => See se eee ee osisiee sisieeisee ess does eeeeeae 2.87 ise POOUs MBC UG meine aADOVOs = nose e osc a ees + Soe mece em ner tes Seceisian s/esiee soclswaese cee ee 1. 68 Water soluble nitrogen in ASO IP OO CSS. its castes. ee icy a ee Se ee eae ee Somn 1.28 Water msoluplenitropeniin) base SO0dS: -- 7-0 = snare oie eiceiee ovina = su ceieeiciatis= ne ceisieis ele © aris -40 Tasie II.—Percentage of the total nitrogen present in different forms. (Hartwell and Pember.) Before put- Atee Fe: ting into f re the den. rom the den. Pathe arh nl OTM epee ee yack so cas aerate = be Sins ov b aoe Ree Setee bUseme eration eee 6.5 14.3 MW Ate SOMO OLPanic MALLELS. - 2222s ccc ncs oe bce s s cecee tease cme eenecsccce 7.8 57.7 aby ctletinsolwmblevoreanic Matter. cc. sccccocccs scenes aeecue ee poem cemee ee sence 85.7 28.0 The experimental work of the present investigation was along two separate lines: (1) Analytical, involving total nitrogen determinations and the separate estimation of the various forms in which nitrogen may occur; (2) a determination of the definite chemical compounds present in the fertilizer by suitable methods of isolation and identifi- cation. THE CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF BASE GOODS. TOTAL NITROGEN AND AMMONIA. Total ntrogen.—The total in the base goods was determined by the Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold ? method and was found to be 1.61 per cent. 1J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 4, 441 (1912). 2U.S. Dept. Agr. paae of Chemistry, Gir, 108, 15 (1912); T. C..Trescot, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 5, 914 (1913). & 4 4 BULLETIN 158, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Ammonia.—Considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining concordant results in the determination of the nitrogen in the form of ammonium salts. Boiling weighed amounts of the base goods with water and magnesium hydroxide, according to the official method,? for the determination of ammonia in fertilizers, did not give duplicate results sufficiently close for the purpose of this research. Owing to the acidity of the sample, it was impractical to use barium carbonate, but litharge was used with varying results. Finally, the determina- tion was made by using the vacuum distillation method, which gave concordant results. This method, which gives only the nitrogen found as ammonia or as ammonium salts, is used for the determina- tion of amide nitrogen in the products of acid hydrolysis of proteins. A weighed quantity of the fertilizer was placed im a Claisen flask con- nected up with a cooled receiver of 1 liter capacity and a small guard flask of 200 cubic centimeters capacity. Both flasks contained 0.1 N sulphuric acid. To the fertilizer was added 100 ec. c. of neutral 95 per cent alcohol and 100 ec. c. of distilled water, together with enough 10 per cent suspension of calcium hydroxide to make the mixture decidedly alkaline in reaction. The ammonia was then distilled under a pressure of from 10 to 12 mm., the temperature of the bath not exceeding 40° C. In the table which follows are given the results obtained by the three methods here used for the determination of ammonia. TasLe II1.—WNitrogen in the form of ammonia oreammonium salts. | -_ | Expressed in Expressed in | Method. | per cent of el eons of | base goods. | i> hase coeds, | ase goods. | Magnesium hydroxide distillation............ iueeate iasae nese scans See it 0. ee Zr a Lead oxide distiition!. 4.212. /2-24/2.- 58:5: aco ee ee if a. ee Vacuum distillation: =p 52 5—e. eee eee ee Se Lee te eee eee cased: it ; a a 2 An examination of these results shows that by boiling with mag- nesia or litharge, somewhat more nitrogen is found as ammonia than really exists in this form in the base goods. It is therefore probable, that there are in the base goods nitrogenous compounds which are broken down into ammonia by the action of these alkaline reagents at a temperature of 100° C. The use of magnesia at boiling tem- perature for the purpose of determining the amount of ammonia split off by acid hydrolysis from certain proteins which contained cystine, was found to give unreliable results.2. The reason for this 1 Bul. 107, 9 (Revised), Bureau of Chem., U.S. Dept. Agr. 2Embden, quoted by Giimbel, Hofmeister’s Beitriige, 5, 297 (1904): Hart, Zeit. physiol. Chem., 33, 354, 1901); Folin,ibid., 39, 476 (1903); Denis, J. Biol. Chem., 8, 427 (1910). $ THE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS. 5 was found to be that magnesia under such conditions changes a part of the amino nitrogen of cystine into ammonia. In this laboratory it was also found that by boiling cystine with lead oxide one of the amino nitrogen groups of this compound was split off almost quanti- tatively, with the concurrent splitting off of hydrogen sulphide. Furthermore, it has been shown that if the amide nitrogen from protein hydrolysis is determined by distillation with a weak alkali, such as calcium: hydroxide, at a temperature not to exceed 40° to 42° C. in the bath and at a pressure of from 10 to 12 millimeters, no decomposition of cystine takes place. In the manufacture of base goods the hair which is used contains proteins which on acid hydrolysis yield a high percentage of cystine. This fact, together with the analytical results just discussed, suggest rather strongly that there is present in the base goods more or less cystine, although this evidence can not be considered conclusive, since it is possible that in such a heterogeneous mixture there may be present other nitrogenous compounds which would be decomposed by magnesia or litharge with the liberation of ammonia. NITROGEN PARTITION. For the purpose of determining the different forms of nitrogen present in the base goods the method of Van Slyke? was followed in its essential details, except that the determination of cystine, was not made. The method for the determination of this compound, according to the procedure used by Van Slyke, depends not upon a nitrogen determination but upon the determination of the amount of sulphur in the compounds precipitated by phosphotungstic acid. This determination when made on the hydrolytic products of acid digestion of pure protein may give quite satisfactory results, but the raw materials from which base goods are made contain many organic compounds other than proteins or protein decomposition products, and this is of course particularly true in the case of garbage tankage. It is well known that many plant and animal substances contain sulphur in a variety of linkages, and garbage tankage no doubt con- tains sulphur in other forms than that of cystine. The hair and leather used have both undergone some decomposition before the acid treatment and it is not impossible that the cystine originally present in the proteins may have been changed into sulphur com- pounds of a different chemical nature. No doubt some sulphur com- pounds other than cystine are precipitated by phosphotungstic acid, so that a determination of cystine depending on the sulphur content of the phosphotungstic acid precipitate would be of uncertain value in dealing with material of unknown origin and of such a hetero- geneous character as fertilizer goods. 1 Gumbel, Hofmeister’s Beitriige, 5, 297 (1904). 2J. Biol. Chem., 10, 15-55 (1911). ~- 6 BULLETIN 158, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It should also-be stated that although the results from the Van Slyke analysis are expressed in the usual way, arginine N, histidine N, etc., that it is not intended to convey the impression that these fractions contain pure arginine, histidine, etc., smce as will be shown later, other compounds are included under these analytical terms. However, the nitrogen so expressed is that which is contained in compounds which give the various reactions upon which the Van Slyke method depends. Two 20-gram samples of base goods were extracted for analysis. The first sample was extracted with boiling water until the extract ceased to give an acid reaction. The second sample was boiled for 24 hours with hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. 1.115, the resulting solution was filtered by suction and the insoluble residue washed with hot water until the washings ran free from chlorides. The two extracts were then concentrated to the consistency of a sirup in vacuo to expel the free volatile acid, and each was finally made up to a volume of 250 ¢. ¢. Total nitrogen.—Total nitrogen in solution was determined by sub- jecting 50 c. c. of the solution to Kjeldahl analysis. The water ex- tract contained 1.372 per cent and the hydrochloric-acid extract 1.435 per cent of the base goods. Amide nitrogen.—Amide nitrogen was determined by distilling in vacuo the remaining 200 c. ¢c. of solution, to which were added 100 c. ¢. of 95 per cent alcohol and 20 c. c. of a 10 per cent suspension of cal- cium hydroxide, as described under the determination of ammonia. The water extract contained 0.374 per cent and the hydrochloric acid extract 0.882 per cent. Humin nitrogen.—The residue from the amide nitrogen determina- tion was used for the determination of humin nitrogen. The precipi- tate, formed by the addition of calcium hydroxide, was filtered off and washed with distilled water in the same manner in which Van Slyke directs that the phosphotungstic acid precipitate be washed. The washing was continued until no reaction for chlorides or alkalinity was obtained. The nitrogen remaining in the precipitate and in the filter paper was then determined by Kjeldahl analysis. The humin nitrogen was 0.031 per cent for the water extract and 0.074 per cent for the hydrochloric acid extract. Diamino acid nitrogen.—The combined filtrate and washings from the humin precipitate were neutralized with hydrochloric acid, con- centrated in vacuo to a volume of about 100 c. c. and then transferred to a 300 c.c. Erlenmeyer flask. To this solution were added 18 c. c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid together with 15 grams of purified phosphotungstic acid * and the whole diluted with water to a volume of 200 c.c. The flask was placed on a steam bath and heated until 1 Winterstein, Zeit. physiol. Chem., 34, 153 (1901). THE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS. G the phosphotungstates were almost redissolved, when it was set aside for 48 hours in order to allow them to recrystallize and fully pre: cipitate. The precipitate was then filtered, washed, and dissolved in 45 per cent sodium hydroxide as described by Van Slyke. The phosphotungstic acid was precipitated with barium chloride and filtered off. The filtrate and washings from this precipitate were concentrated in vacuo and made up to a volume of 200 ¢. ¢. Arginine nitrogen.—Arginine nitrogen was determined in 100 ec. ec. of this solution by boiling with 12.5 grams of solid potassium hydroxide for six hours and collecting the ammonia formed in 0.1 N sulphuric acid. Under these conditions one-half of the nitrogen in the arginine and 18 per cent of the nitrogen of cystine is split off as ammonia. * Total nitrogen in the diamino acid solution.—Total nitrogen in the diamino acid solution was found by subjecting the solution remaining after the arginine determination to Kjeldahl analysis and adding to the ammonia so obtained the amount obtained from the arginine nitro- gen determination. Amino mtrogen.—Amino nitrogen was determined by means of the Van Slyke apparatus.' From these three figures the nitrogen was calculated as arginine N, histidine N, and lysine N according to the two formulas: (1) Histidine N=1.667 non-amino N—1.125 arginine N; (2) Lysine N= total N — (arginine N+ histidine N). The results obtained were as follows: For the water extract argi- nine 0.111 per cent, histidine nitrogen 0.117 per cent, and lysine nitro- gen 0.081 per cent; for the hydrochloric-acid extract they were 0.104, 0.070, and 0.117 per cent, respectively. Total nitrogen of the monoamino acids.—To the combined filtrate and washings from the phosphotungstic acid precipitate 45 per cent caustic soda was added until the solution became turbid by the pre- cipitation of lime; acetic acid was then added until the solution cleared. This solution was placed in a 500 ¢. c. flask and made up to the mark. Total nitrogen was estimated in 100 c¢. c. portions, using the Kjeldahl method. Amino nitrogen.—Amino nitrogen in che form of monoamino acids was determined by use of the Van Slyke apparatus. From the two figures obtained the amount of nitrogen present as non-amino nitrogen 11 monoamino acids was found by difference. The amino nitrogen in the form of monoamino acids in the water extract was 0.543 per cent and in the hydrochloric acid extract 0.546 percent. The non-amino nitrogen in the monoamino acid fraction of the water extract was 0.114 per cent and in the hydrochloric acid extract 1t was 0.133 per cent. 1 For the description of this apparatus and the details of the procedure employed, see: Van Slyke, Jour. Biol. Chem., 12, 275 (1912). 8 BULLETIN 158, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 7 wt Van Slyke has shown that certain corrections must be applied in the method, owing to the fact that the phosphotungstates of the diamino acids are slightly soluble, and these corrections have been applied just as though the fractions contained only the hydrolysis products of pure proteins. In Table V the combined results of the analyses are given. The above analytical procedure which separates the nitrogen into different groups, gives results than can only be rigidly interpreted © when the products of the acid hydrolysis are known. The results of the analysis of base goods by this method can only be clearly under- stood when further facts regarding the compounds, in which the nitrogen is contained, are discovered. A description of the methods used in isolating and identifying certain of these compounds follows. ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF DEFINITE COMPOUNDS FROM THE PROCESSED FERTILIZER. Ten pounds of base goods were extracted by boiling for 1 hour with 20 gallons of water in a steam-jacketed kettle. The solution was filtered from the insoluble residue, made exactly neutral with caustic soda, the precipitate formed filtered off, and the filtrate concentrated in a steam kettle to a volume of about 3,500 ec. c. This solution contained phosphates, sulphates, and much other mineral matter. In order to separate as much of these salts as pos- sible from the organic compounds a cold saturated solution of barium hydroxide was added to the solution until no further precipitation took place. The heavy precipitate which formed was filtered off by suction and washed many times with water. The filtrate was exactly neutralized with sulphuric acid and concentrated to a volume of about 2,000 c. c. After cooling, this solution was made acid to 5 per cent with sulphuric acid and a solution of phosphotungstic acid was added to slight excess, and the mixture allowed to stand. After 3 days the precipitate which formed was filtered off and washed with water containing about 5 per cent sulphuric acid and a little phosphotungstic acid. The precipitate was carefully dissolved in 45 per cent caustic-soda solution, using phenolphthalein as an indi- cator and adding at no time more than two drops of the alkali solution. Water was added so that a volume of about 1,500 c. c. was reached, and barium hydroxide solution was added until the phosphotungstic acid was precipitated. After filtering off the barium phosphotung- state, the free alkali was just neutralized with sulphuric acid, and the solution was then evaporated almost to dryness with barium carbonate in order to expel all of the ammonia. The residue was taken up in about 1,000 c. c. of hot water and filtered, and the precipitate washed with hot water. The filtrate was placed in a 5-liter flask and treated while hot with solid silver sulphate, which was added slowly until the — THE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS. 9 solution contained sufficient to give a yellow precipitate, when a drop was removed and tested with a solution of barium hydroxide. The solution was then filtered, and the separation of the three hexone bases was carried out according to the method of Kossel and Kut- scher. The solution was cooled to 40° C. and saturated with finely powdered barium hydroxide. The precipitate which was formed was collected and stirred up in a mortar with solid barium hydroxide, when it was again filtered off and washed with barium-hydroxide solution. This precipitate contains the silver salts of histidine and arginine, while the filtrate contains the lysine. Lysine —The above filtrate was acidified with slphate acid and freed from silver with hydrogen sulphide. Lysine was precipitated from this solution as the phosphotungstate, and the free base was obtained by decomposing this salt with barium hydroxide. From a concentrated solution of the base, which was strongly alkaline in reaction and which showed no tendency to crystallize on standing, the picrate salt was prepared. This compound showed the solubility, characteristic crystalline appearance, and properties of lysine picrate.? When taken up in boiling water and allowed to crystallize slowly, it formed in rather large yellow prisms, but when in small amount the crystals assumed a fernlike appearance. The lysine was further identified by the meee from the picrate of the hydro- chloride salt, C,H,,O,N,.2 HCl, and the platinum chloride salt, C,H,,0.N, HLPt Cl, +0,H, OH.° The silver Se cniate which would contain the arginine and histi- dine was suspended in water acidified with dilute sulphuric acid and broken up with hydrogen sulphide. The silver sulphide was filtered off, the sulphuric acid was removed with barium hydroxide sclution, and after filtering the solution was made slightly acid with nitric acid. Silver nitrate solution was added until a test drop with barium hydroxide gave a yellow precipitate. Histidine was completely pre- cipitated as the silver salt by the careful addition of barium hydroxide solution. The precipitate was washed with barium hydroxide solu- tion until the washings ceased to give a test for nitrates. Histidine —The histidine silver was suspended in water acidulated with sulphuric acid and treated with hydrogen sulphide. The pro- cedure described by Kossel and Kutscher was followed, and the histidine was finally separated as the dihydrochloride salt. The method of obtaining this compound and the characteristic crystal- line form of the dihydrochloride salt? are sufficient to establish its identity as histidine. a Zeit, auyaol: Ghar. , 1, 166 (1900). b Kossel, Zeit. nhyciol: Chem., 25, 180 (1898); 26, 586 (1899). ¢ Hedin, Zeit. physiol. Chem., "21, 299 (1895). dSchwantke, Zeit. physiol. Chem. , 29, 492 (1900); Kossel, ibid., 22, 182 (1896). 631388°—Bull. 158—14——2 10 BULLETIN 158, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Arginine.—The method of isolating arginine is simply a further step in the method used in the isolation of histidme. Arginine was isolated first as the acid nitrate salt, which crystallized in the form of plates,t and was further identified by preparing the neutral nitrate salt and the copper nitrate salt both im characteristic crystalline form. Monoamino acids.—The filtrate from the phosphotungstic acid precipitate was made alkaline with barium hydroxide in order to remove the sulphuric and phosphotungstic acids, and filtered. The filtrate was concentrated and nearly neutralized with sulphuric acid. This slightly alkaline solution, about 500 c.c. in volume, was treated by boiling with freshly prepared copper hydroxide, and was then poured into about 3,000 c.c. of 95 per cent alcohol and allowed to stand over night, in order that the insoluble mineral matter might settle out. The deep-blue alcoholic solution was then filtered, the insoluble salts redissolved in water, and reprecipitated by pouring into alcohol as before. The alcoholic solutions were combined and evaporated to dryness, the residue was taken up in hot water and the copper removed by treatment with hydrogen sulphide. After filtering from the copper sulphide, the solution, which contained considerable color, was boiled with animal charcoal. The filtered solution was made faintly alkaline with ammonia and treated with freshly precipitated copper hydroxide, keeping the volume of the solution at about 1,000 c.c. The solution was filtered from the excess of copper hydroxide and evaporated to dryness on the steam bath. The solid residue was then scraped from the sides of the dish and extracted in a Soxhlet extractor with absolute methyl alcohol until no further blue color was imparted to the alcohol. Leucine.—The alcohol insoluble portion was dissolved in a large volume of boiling water and the copper removed with hydrogen sulphide. The solution was filtered, boiled down to a volume of about 50 c.c. and treated with ammoniacal lead acetate until no further precipitation took place. The precipitate was washed with 95 per cent alcohol and was finally decomposed with hydrogen sulphide after suspending in water. On concentration of a portion of this solution the characteristic crystals of impure leucine formed. These crystals separated in concentric nodules closely resembling fat, but which were composed of concentrically grouped highly refracting needles. These crystals were redissolved in water and added to the original solution which was boiled up with animal charcoal until the color disappeared. The leucine was then purified as before by the forma- tion of the copper salt and the basic lead salt. On concentrating the solution obtained from this purification, crystals of pure leucine were obtained. These crystals formed in pearly scales, which somewhat 1See Gulewitsch, Zeit. physiol. Chem., 27, 178 (1899). ' THE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS. iE resemble cholesterin. When dry the crystals were light, had a satiny glossy appearance, and were not easily wet again with water, They were extremely soluble in hot water and quite easily soluble in cold water. Leucine was further identified by the fact that it sublimed,! and by the crystalline form and solubility of the copper salt,? and by its two color reactions with quinone,’ red with a solution of leucine and quinone and violet when in addition sodium car- bonate was used. Tyrosine.—The methyl alcohol solution of the copper salts was evaporated to dryness, and the residue taken up in water. The copper was removed with hydrogen sulphide and the solution was boiled with animal charcoal. After filtermg, the solution was con- centrated and long thin silky needles began to separate. These. needles, which closely resembled tyrosine, were filtered off, and the filtrate further concentrated, when another crop of needles was obtained. These were filtered off and added to the first fraction and were then extracted with boiling 70 per cent alcohol. The crystalhne residue was recrystallized from water a number of times and dried on a porous plate. This compound crystallized in the-stellate groups of long slender silky needles which are characteristic of tyrosine. These crystals were relatively insoluble in cold water,* very insoluble in cold 90 per cent alcohol, easily soluble in hot water, and were -tasteless, colorless, and infusible. The compound was further identified as tyrosine by the formation of the copper salt, which was rather insoluble in cold water and fairly easily soluble in hot waiter, by the fact that a solution of the compound gave a red color when boiled with Millon’s reagent,® and that a sulphonic acid prepared from the compound gave a violet color with ferric chloride.® Purine bases.—Five pounds of base goods were boiled up with 10 liters of water, filtered, neutralized and concentrated to a volume of about 2,500 c. c. The solution was made strongly alkaline with sodium hydroxide and the purime bases were precipitated with Fehling’s solution and dextrose according to the method of Balke.” The supernatant liquid was decanted from the copper precipitate and this was washed, until free from alkali, with a solution of sodium acetate, by repeated decantations. The precipitate was filtered, freed from sodium acetate by washing with alcohol, and the copper removed by suspending the precipitate in water and treating it with hydrogen sulphide. After filtering off the copper sulphide the solu- tion was concentrated and the purine bases reprecipitated by means 1Schwanert, Liebig’s Ann., 102, 224 (1857). 2 Hofmeister, Liebig’s Ann., 189, 16 (1877). 3 Wurster, Centrlb. Physiol., 2, 590 (1889). ' 4Erlenmeyer and Lipp., Liebig’s Ann., 219, 161 (1883). 5 Millon, Compt. rend., 28, 40 (1849); Lassaigne, Ann. Chem. Phys. (2) 45, 435 (1830). 6 Piria Liebig’s Ann., 82, 252 (1852). 7 Jour. prakt. Chem. [2], 47, 537 (1893). 12 BULLETIN 158, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of a solution of silver nitrate and ammonia. After washing with water the silver precipitate was boiled with 10 c. c. of nitric acid, specific gravity 1.1, and filtered. From this solution, on cooling and standing, crystals were deposited which were filtered off. The filtrate was diluted with water, made alkaline by the addition of ammonia, and asolution of silver nitrate added. No precipitate was formed showing the absence of xanthine. Guanine.—The precipitate from the nitric acid solution was washed with water, suspended in water, and decomposed with hydrogen sulphide. The solution was filtered and concentrated to about 10 c. c. when strong ammonia was added producing a white gelatinous precipitate which was filtered off and washed with a little cold water. The precipitate was dissolved in’a little warm hydrochloric acid and tested for the presence of guanine by means of the xanthine reaction and Weidel’s test, both of which were positive. From the remainder of the solution the characteristic picrate of guanine described by Capranica + and the dicromate described by Wuiff? were prepared. The method of obtaining this base, its solubility in water, ammonium hydroxide, and hydrochloric acid, the solubility of the silver salt in nitric acid, specific gravity 1.1, the color reactions, and the formation of the two characteristic salts, the picrate and dichromate, are suffi- cient to establish the identity of the compound as guanine. Hypoxanthine—The filtrate from the ammonia precipitation of guanine was boiled to expel all the ammonia and to a portion of the solution a solution of picric acid was added, but no precipitate was immediately formed, showing the absence ofadenine. To another por- tion of the solution hydrochloric acid was added and the solution was concentrated when crystals resembling those of hypoxanthine hydro- chloric separated out in whetstonelike crystals or bunches of prisms. Hypoxanthine forms a characteristic silver nitrate salt? and a char- acteristic silver picrate salt* both of which are crystalline and rela- tively insoluble in water. Hypoxanthine does not give the xanthine reaction, but when treated with nitric acid and bromine water a yellow color is produced which on addition of sodium hydroxide turns red, and on heating acts like the xanthine reaction. By means of these reactions the substance was identified as hypoxanthine. THE CHEMICAL CHANGES INVOLVED IN PROCESSING. The compounds which were isolated from the base goods are tabu- lated in Table IV according to the sources from which they have been derived and the chemical groups to which they belong. While it was not possible to isolate these compounds in a strictly quantitative manner, nevertheless it was evident that the purine bases were 1 Zeit. physiol. Chem., 4, 233 (1880). 2 Neubauer, Zeit. analyt. Chem., 6, 34 (1867). 2Ibid., 17, 477 (1893). + Bruns, Zeit. physiol. Chem., 14, 555 (1890). THE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS. 13 present in exceedingly small quantities, although the method used in their isolation was subject to no more error than some other of the isolation methods; this would indicate that the nitrogen of the purine bases makes up but a small percentage of the total nitrogen present in the fertilizer. TaBLe IV.—Organic compounds isolated from sample of base goods. Compound. Chemical group. Source of compound. a } ee possesses | Diamino acids or : ; : : aevaine SETS. | hexone bases. Products of protein hydrolysis by acid treatment of raw materials. peeing cain Monoamino acids. - Guanine ..__....- Purine base......- Plant constituent, or product of hydrolysis of nucleoprotein. Hypoxanthine...|..... doh eo aeew eee Plant constituent, or product of conversion of nucleoprotein-base. Purine bases.—It will be noticed that the two purine bases are listed in the table as coming from different sources. It is a well- known fact that the purine bases may exist in plant tissues and plant extracts as such; that is, they are not linked up in more complex compounds in such a way that their peculiar chemical identity is lost. In the garbage which has entered into the manufacture of the fertilizer there were doubtless many sorts of plants or plant remains which contained some or all of the purie bases, and this fact alone would account for the presence of hypoxanthine and guanine in the finished product. This, however, is not the only source of the purine bases. Levene’ and his associates have demonstrated that some of the purines enter into the composition of the nucleic acids, which are decomposition products of nucleo- protein and that they may be obtained by a process of hydrolysis from these nucleic acids. Of the four purine bases commonly en- countered, only guanine and adenine have been found to be con- stituent parts of the nucleic acid molecule, it matters not whether the nucleic acid be a decomposition product of animal or plant nucleoproteins. But it has been shown that the two purines found in the nucleic acids may be changed, both by chemical and bio- chemical agencies, into the two other purine bases, xanthine and hypoxanthine, so that these are frequently encountered. Thus by the treatment of guanine with nitrous acid Fischer? changed it into xanthine and in the same manner Kossel* changed adenine into hypoxanthine. Furthermore, Schittenhelm and Schroéter* have shown that the putrifactive bacteria, especially the colon bacillus, 1Levene and Jacobs, Ber., 44, 746 (1911); Biochem. Zeit., 28, 127 (1910); Levene, Abderhalden’s Bio- chem. Arbeitsm., IT, 605 (1910); Ibid., V, 489 (1911). 2Liebig’s Ann., 215, 309 (1882). 3Zeit. physiol. Chem., 10, 258 (1886). 4Zeit. physiol. Chem., 41, 284 (1904). 14 BULLETIN 158, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were able to convert adenine and guanine into hypoxanthine and xanthine. They also show that the bacteria have the power of split- ting the nucleic acid itself. This same change is also brought about by the action of certain enzymes, such as erepsin, on nucleic acid. With these facts at hand it is possible to draw the following con- clusions as to the source of the two purine bases in this fertilizer: The guanine and hypoxanthine may be derived from plant remains which originally contained these two compounds; the guanine may arise by the acid hydrolysis of certain vegetable or animal nucleo- proteins which were present in the original materials; and the hypoxanthine may have been formed by the processes of natural ’ decomposition, such as the action of bacteria and enzymes, which had taken place in the crude materials before they were subjected to the acidulation process or during the process itself. It is not improbable that the guanine and hypoxanthine come from all of these sources. Diamino acids—Of the three diamino acids lysine was obtained in much the largest amount, arginine next, and histidine in the smallest amount. These compounds are products of protein hydrolysis by acids, but may also be produced under certain conditions by the action of bacteria. Since one or more of the diamino acids have been found to be present in every protein so far examined, and since the method for the analysis and the isolation of these bases is almost quantitative, the determination of the number and amounts of the diamino acids present in a mixture of protein hydrolysis products is of importance in deciding the nature and character of the onzinal material which entered into the processed goods. Monoamino acids.—Al\though leucine and tyrosine, which are pro- tei decomposition products, were found in about the same quanti- ties, the methods of isolation were so far from being quantitative that this relationship is of no significance. The isolation and identi- fication of the other monoamino acids from the complex products of protein hydrolysis can only be accomplished, in the majority of cases, by means of the esterification method of Emil Fischer. This method is not a strictly quantitative one and requires large amounts of materials for a successful separation, and consequently was not used in this investigation. The use of methods other than that of esterification failed to isolate any other monoamino acid in quantities large enough for identification. As will be shown later, a number of monoamino acids besides the two isolated must be present in the processed goods. Establishing the presence of these products of acid hydrolysis of proteins, namely, the diamino acids, arginine, lysine, and histidine, and the two monoamino acids, leucine and tyrosine, in the amounts in which they were found is of itself sufficient evidence to demonstrate that by the acid treatment of the crude materials used in the manu- bin). kanes THE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS. 15 facture of the base goods the proteins contained therein have been changed. This change is shown to be a deep-seated one, since five of the compounds which are known to be final products of protem hydrolysis by acids are found. This, however, can not be taken to mean that the proteins have been completely hydrolysed by the acid treatment since it is possible to have present in the product of partial hydrolysis of protems not only the diamino and monoamino acids, but also such intermediate compounds as polypeptids, peptones, proteoses, etc. In this connection the results obtamed by use of the Van Slyke method, which are given in Table V, are of particular interest. As has been already stated, the base goods were extracted (1) with boil- ing water and (2) with boiling acid. In the former case only slight further hydrolysis of the materials in the base goods is to be expected since the free acid in the fertilizer is extremely weak, and the boiling temperature, 100° C., is that which was reached in the process of manufacture. In the case of the second extract complete hydrolysis of all the proteins or proteinlike materials is certainly to be expected, since in addition to the original hydrolysis the material was boiled with strong hydrochloric acid for 24 hours, which treatment in the case of most proteins is sufficient for complete hydrolysis. The dif- ferences in the results obtained from the analyses of the two extracts may, therefore, be expected to throw some light on the question of the completeness of hydrolysis of the original proteins by the acid " processing. Taste V.—WNitrogen forms as determined by the Van Slyke method. Results expressed in per cent of total N in base goods. Results expressed in per cent of base goods. Form of nitrogen. H,O extract. | HCl extract. | H.O extract. | HCl extract. OE CUURIN Ss pve SP HN YN oc ae aap RH 2 1.610 WE GLO) Weel eee stare te sie piu eae haa PROTA SONTDISUNG ey eee ret a ee ere au Ci 141.372 1. 435 185. 24 88. 64 MotalinsolMplevNe yas see ee eee teens ova ae 1,238 1,175 114.76 111.35 LNPANO KE INI Set es Sel en es lea als ag AN tee .374 882 23. 23 23.70 BED Un TT TEIN ye apie eee pe ec oe ik - 031 . 074 1.9 4.61 Diamino acid fraction: AroumiMe NE ete heen eaie Se eh siaaieleniee aa she ee 111 . 104 6. 89 6. 46 METIS 1 I SHIN Pee eae URI UE an er ave 23 117 -070 7.26 4.38 IU yfsHt SRN |S a Ce Rin Sy ea a - 081 117 5.06 7.26 Monoamino acid fraction: TIVO SIN ee Se Ma OER dt Soren = 543 546 Bah 33. 92 NOTA TIT OUN es a Ne, MU ee a ee 114 133 7.1 8.27 1 Obtained indirectly. First it will be noticed that total soluble nitrogen in the hydro- chloric acid extract is 88.64 per cent of the total N, while that of the water extract is 85.24 per cent, showing a difference of 3.4 per cent soluble N produced by further hydrolysis of the materials in the base goods. Correspondingly there is a decrease of insoluble N. 16 BULLETIN 158, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There is an increase of 0.47 per cent amide N in the hydrochloric acid extract over that in the water extract. This is due to the splitting off of ammonia from some nitrogenous compounds by the hydrochloric acid and suggests the presence of some product of par- tial protein hydrolysis in the fertilizer which contains an acid amide linkage. _ The statement has already been made that nitrogenous compounds other than arginine, histidine, and lysine are included under the fig- ures given for these compounds in the table. This is due to the fact that the phosphotungstic acid which is used as a precipitant of the diamino acids also precipitates peptones, proteoses, etc., as well as — the purine bases, cystine, and possibly other compounds. Since ni- trogen compounds other than proteins existing in the original ma- terial and susceptible to decomposition with hot acid, would have been already broken up in the processing, it follows that the changes produced by further boiling with acid would result from peptones, proteoses, etc. The difference noted between the results obtained from the two extracts for the diamino acids are therefore due to some interferring substances of the nature of proteins and not to such substances as the purines or cystine. Moreover, the latter com- pounds will produce the same relative error in analysis in the case of both extracts. Of the diamino acids the only one determined directly is arginine. Its determination depends on the fact that when arginine is boiled for some time with strong potassium hydroxide, half of the nitrogen ~ of the arginine is split off as ammonia. However, if cystine is present 18 per cent of its nitrogen is evolved as ammonia, together with the arginine nitrogen. As has already been stated this figure should be the same for the two extracts providing that there is present in the base goods no substance precipitated by phosphotungstic acid, and giving off ammonia when boiled with strong alkali or strong hydro- chloric acid. A comparison of the results obtained for arginine in the two extracts shows that the figure for arginine in the water ex- tract is higher than that of the hydrochloric acid extract by 0.43. In other words, there appear to be present in the diamino acid frac- tion compounds which on boiling with -alkali give off ammonia amounting to 0.22 per cent of the total nitrogen. These compounds are broken up by the further hydrolysis with acid. Further information may be obtained by a consideration of the figures for lysine and histidine, which are obtained not by a direct determination, but by calculation from the figures obtained for argin- ine N, total N in the fraction, amino N and non-amino N. Lysine contains only amino N, histidine contains one-third amino N and two- thirds non-amino N, while arginine contains one-fourth amino N and three-fourths non-amino N. Since histidine N is in a measure eee ee tee ee ee THE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS. 17 obtained by difference from the non-amino N and the arginine N according to formula (1) on page 7, it is evident that if there are pre- cipitated by the phosphotungstic acid compounds which contain non- amino N other than arginine and histidine, such nitrogen will be classed as histidine N, because the arginine N is determined directly. A comparison of the results for histidine shows that there is 2.88 per cent less N calculated as histidine in the hydrochloric acid ex- tract than in the water extract and at the same time there is an increase in lysine N in the hydrochloric acid extract amounting to 2.20 per cent. This shows that by the hydrolysis with hydrochloric acid some substance which reacted as though it contained non- amino N has been decomposed with the formation of an almost cor- responding amount of amino N. Here again the indications are that this substance is of the class of compounds related to the proteins. This is further borne out by the fact that in the monoamino acid fraction the nitrogen listed as amino N has increased in per cent 0.17 and the nitrogen as non-amino N has increased in per cent 1.17 by hydrolysis with hydrochloric acid. A comparison of the figures for humin N shows an increase of 2.66 in the hydrochloric acid extract, but since the nature of the com- pounds in which this class of nitrogen exists is not understood no inter- pretation can be given to this figure. Proteoses.—In order to prove the presence of some intermediate product of protein hydrolysis, which is thus indicated by analytical methods, an aqueous solution of about 2.5 pounds of base goods was made and the diamino acids were precipitated with phosphotungstic acid, in the presence of 5 per cent sulphuric acid. The precipitate which formed was allowed to stand over night and after filtering off it was washed well with 5 per cent sulphuric acid. The precipitate was dissolved in sodium hydroxide, the phosphotungstic acid precipi- tated by adding barium hydroxide solution, and after filtering the excess of barium was removed by adding sulphuric acid until a neu- tral reaction was obtained. Portions of this solution were tested for peptones, proteoses, etc., with the following results; The biuret test was positive; a precipitate was obtained on saturation of the solution with ammonium sulphate, or with sodium chloride; when the filtrate from the latter solution was treated with acetic acid a cloudy precipi- tate developed. Precipitates were also obtained with sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphomolybdic acid and with phosphotungstic acid. A precipitate was formed on the addition of alcohol to the solution. This precipitate was filtered off, dissolved in dilute alkali, and on addition of very dilute copper sulphate solution the biuret reaction was again obtained. These reactions are those which are given by proteoses and by the protems and confirm the conclusions 18 BULLETIN 158, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. arrived at from the results obtained with the Van Slyke method. The Millon reaction and the Hopkins-Cole reaction were both nega- tive, showing the absence from this proteinlike compound of the tyrosine and the tryptophane radicles. A very large number of compounds intermediary between the pro- tein and its primary hydrolysis products may occur, depending on a great variety of conditions so that the actual identification of the com- pound under discussion would be a difficult matter. However, the nature of this compound may be approximately determined by the results obtained in the study of the two extracts by the Van Slyke method. These results have been already discussed and they indi- cate the presence in the base goods of a compound of a proteose na- ture, which because it gives a biuret test, must be composed of at least three amino acids. The results indicate still further that the compound is composed of acid amide radicals, diamino acids, particu- larly lysine, and monoamino acids, those containing amino nitrogen and especially those containing non-amino nitrogen. Since the fig- ures obtained by the nitrogen partition method are subject to a cer- tain amount of error when applied to such a mixture the figures can . only be taken as approximate for the various forms of nitrogen which make up this compound. The figures given for arginine in the table are probably only influ- enced by any cystine present. Attempts to isolate cystine from the base goods failed, although it seems unlikely that this compound can be absent. The figures for histidine and lysine are undoubtedly too high, since they include all of the other nitrogenous compounds pre- cipitated by phosphotungstic acid, so that the absolute amount of these compounds in base goods can not be correctly determined by this method. The figure given for the amount of amino nitrogen present as monoamino acids may be a little high, while the non- amino nitrogen figure is open to considerable error. In Table VI are given the primary hydrolysis products of a number of proteins which may be present in the base goods. These results were obtained by the esterification method and show how the differ- ent proteins vary in the nature and amount of the units composing them. Many monoamino acids, besides leucine and tyrosine, occur in these proteins, and there must consequently be present in the base goods amino acids other than the two isolated. This is apparent from the composition of the various proteins shown in the table. Owing to the large amount of amide nitrogen present in the fertilizer, which was split off by the acidulation of the original proteins of the trade wastes, it may be concluded that considerable quantities of aspartic or glutamic acids are present in this sample of base goods. The conclusions which are to be drawn from the results obtained by the examination of this fertilizer by means of the analytical and THE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS. 19 isolation methods are as follows: The process by which the nitrogen of certain trade wastes, such as hair, leather, garbage, etc., is made more available, is recognized as a process of partial hydrolysis of ths complex protein contained in such materials, resulting in ammonia, amino acids, etc., all of which are more available than the original protein material. This hydrolysis is almost complete, the nitrogerous compounds formed being principally the primary products of protein hydrolysis, together with a small amount of proteoselike compound which has not been fully decomposed. TaBLE VI.—Products cf acid hydrolysis of various proteins. “Synotin’’ | “‘ Keratin”’ | ‘‘ Keratin”’ | “ Keratin”’ Cones Commound from from from from Halibut Ox ey eae ; P : cattle sheep’s sheen’s horse’s | muscle.5 | muscle.6 | 1% | “Tom. flesh.1 horn.? wool.3 hair.4 er Gilycime 8% seca acre 0.5 0.5 0.6 4.7 0.0 92.11 0,4 JUTE osseseaseoe 4.0 1.6 4.4 1.5 (?) 3.7 21 9 4.5 2.8 .9 8 C a .8 5.3 1.5 Uoll 4 it. ooo oO. . . . OR ORO as ose 4a Seemeerede Ee na ae nets Memes renee al nee meses at Aspartic acid 8........ A) Glutamic acid 8......- 13.6 1 IR OUO FTO S305. deel Soeoosuseseel Boeeuucbeadel AcE cesoccces| Gemcsaasecce (+ FAT PINNING) ose es. - sone 2 0. ) 6. 7. 2 1. 0. _ Dotaleeesseeee- 47.3 62.3 49. 2 39. 6 oN “I (or) bj i, Abderhalden and T. Saski, Zeit. physiol. Chem. sone 404 (1907). 12,3, E. Abderhalden and A. Voitinovici, ibid., 52, 348 (1907 4’. Abderhalden and H. G. Wells, ibid. 46, 31. Css), A, Argiris, ibid., 54, 86 (1905). 6 T. B. Osborne and F. W: Heyl, Amer. J. Ehysiol EP 433 (19 08). 6T. B. Osborne and D. B. Jones, ibid., 24, 437 (1909 7T. B. Osborne and F. W. Heyl, J. Biol. Chem. 295 loz (1908). = conae. action on plant growth has been determined and reported in Bul, 87, Bureaz of Soils, gr AVAILABILITY OF THE NITROGEN OF ORGANIC FERTILIZERS. The question of the availability of the different kind of nitrogen contained in organic fertilizers is one that has caused considerable discussion. A number of methods have been proposed for determining this factor, and while some of them give helpful results, all excepting the plant method are open to more or less objection. The reason for this is that the methods are empirical and the nature of the compli- cated compounds in which the nitrogen is linked in the fertilizer is unknown or only guessed. When these nitrogen compounds are known and their action on plants as well as the action of the com- pounds which will be formed from them during their decompo- sition in the soil, has been determined, then the question of the availability of the nitrogen of organic fertilizers can be understood. Originally it was held that plants were only able to use nitrogen when 20 BULLETIN 158, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it was offered to them in the form of nitrates; this idea, however, was modified when it was discovered that under certain conditions plants used ammonia or ammonium salts without their conversion into nitrates quite as well as they used the nitrates themselves. During the past few years it has been clearly demonstrated that plants not only use nitrogen in the form of nitrates and ammonia but that they can also use nitrogen in the form of complex organic com- pounds.t The action of a number of these nitrogenous compounds has been tested in this laboratory in conjunction with the three fertilizer elements and it has been found that in some cases the nitrogen compounds are not only used as a source of nitrogen for the growing plant, without any change in the compound, but that these compounds were apparently nitrate sparers; that is, the plant used them in preference to the nitrates. Instead, then, of only one kind of nitrogen compound, nitrate, or at most two, nitrate and ammonia, there appears to be a very large number of nitrogenous compounds which have properties of physiological importance to plant growth. The question of the availability of nitrogen compounds can therefore be answered only when the nitrogen compounds contained in the fer- tilizer can be determined in amount and at the same time classified according to their physiological action on plant growth. Itis hardly necessary to state that such a method does not exist at present and that the physiological action of only a part of the total number of nitrogenous compounds present in fertilizers is known. The physiological action on plants of all of the nitrogenous com- pounds isolated from base goods has been determined by means of water cultures? and the results obtained may be stated briefly, as follows: Both of the purine bases are used by the plant as a source of nitrogen and are beneficial to plant growth; furthermore, the hypoxanthine acts as a nitrate sparer, there being less nitrate used by the plant in the presence of hypoxanthine than when the hypo- xanthine is absent. Histidine, arginine, and lysine® are all bene- ficial to plant growth, causing nitrogen increases in the plant, and the two first diamino acids act as nitrate sparers; this may also be true of lysine, although this property of lysine has not been studied. Leucine is also beneficial to plant growth, and tyrosine, in the light of later investigations, is somewhat doubtful in action. Of the other monoamino acids which may be present in base goods, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and glycocoll have been found to be beneficial. The action of alanine is somewhat doubtful, it apparently being bene- ficial in low concentrations, and the action of phenylalanine is re- ported as harmful. Thus we see that six of the seven compounds 1 Hutchinson and Miller, Centralbl. f. Bakt., 30, 513 (1911); Schreiner and Skinner, Bul. 87, Bureau of Soils, U.S. Dept. Agr., 1912. 2 Bul. 87, Breau of Soils. ® Unpublished data. 3 i WES 2 a red rot se ah lip ay ee THE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS. oi isolated from the base goods are actually available to plants as such and have a beneficial action. Of the monoamino acids, other than the two isolated from base goods, which have been studied in regard to their action on plant growth, three have been found to be ee one doubtful, and one is reported as being harmful. The high-grade nitrogenous fertilizers, such as dried blood, are Poendond to have a ah availability ovine to the fact that the nitrovenous materials when placed in the soil quickly undergo the process of emmonification and nitrification, the nitrogen thus being changed into a form which can be immediately used by the plant. In fact, Lipman ‘ has proposed a method for the determination of the availability of the nitrogen of organic fertilizers, depending on the amount of ammonia produced under certain conditions in a given length of time. It is evident from the above consideration that such a method does not tell the whole story, since in the decomposition of protein materials like dried blood intermediate compounds are formed which are undoubtedly in themselves beneficial to plant erowth. In order, therefore, to understand the complete action of the nitrogenous materials in the base goods it is necessary to know how the compounds contained in it are acted upon by ammonifying bacteria. Jodidi? has shown that the amino acids, and acid amides are quite readily ammonified when placed in the soil, the rate of ammonia formation and the amount of ammonia formed depending apparently upon the chemical structure of the particular compound uncer consideration. In general, he found that the simpler the chem- ical structure of the nitrogen compound the more quickly and readily it was ammonified. In the light of these facts it appears that poly- peptics, peptones, proteoses, and protems would be ammonified still more slowly than the amino acids since their structure is increasingly more complex. . Hartwell and Pember® in their study on the availability of the nitrogen of base goods, by means of plant tests found that it had apparently as high an availability as dried blood; the water soluble nitrogen having even a higher availability. From the nature and amounts of the compounds present in the base goods this might be predicted. In the case of the dried blood, the nitrogen is practically all in the form of complex protein material which must be broken down into simpler compounds by bacterial action, with the formation of ammonia and other nitrogenous compounds, some or all of which may be of physiological importance to plants. With the base goods the case is a little different, the greater part of the nitrogen is at once available for plant use, and at the same time these available compounds may be changed more easily and quickly by the bacteria 1B 1. 246, New Jersey Expt. Sta., 1912. 2 Research Bul. No. 9, lowa Expt. Sta. 3 Loc. cit. 29 BULLETIN 158, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the soil into ammonia and nitrate, which in turn are used by the plant. The soluble nitrogen of base goods should therefore be in a more readily available form than the nitrogen of dried blood or other nitrogenous fertilizers which are entirely of a protein nature. THE CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE UTILIZATION OF NITROGENOUS TRADE WASTES. In these days of conservation and scientific management more and more attention is being paid to the trade wastes from the various industries and to the municipal scrap heaps. Things which were formerly thrown away are now often made to pay for the entire cost of production. After the resources of the chemist and inventor have failed in finding any other use for some industrial waste, if it be of a nitrogenous nature, the fertilizer industry is turned to as a last resort. Here, however, all is not plain sailing since many of these nitrogenous substances are of such a nature that the nitrogen is said to be ‘‘unavailable”’ for plant use, that is, the substance is of such a nature that it is not readily decomposed by the natural agencies at work in the soil, so that for the purpose of plant nutri- tion the nitrogen of such substances is worthless or of little value. In order to render available this type of nitrogenous material many different kinds of treatment have been suggested, and the patent literature abounds in inventions of this sort. It has already been stated that in order that the plant may make use of the nitrogen of even high-grade organic fertilizers, it is necessary for the proteins therein to be at least partially decomposable by the biological and biochemical agencies of the soil. The low-grade organic nitrogenous fertilizers resist decomposition by these biological and bio- chemical soil agencies, and their nitrogen is therefore considered to be less available for plant use. The guiding idea behind the processes proposed for the treatment of trade wastes, which will not decompose easily in the soil as such, is to change the nitrogen compounds con- tained in them in such a way that ammonia is formed and that their decay in the soil is more rapid. Much of the nitrogenous materials in trade wastes is of a protein nature, since the products from which these wastes are derived are either of animal or vegetable origin. Such is the case with the wastes used in the manufacture of base goods. It has been shown that by the process used in the case of this fertilizer the nonavailable nitroge- nous materials have been made highly available, not only because the nitrogen compounds can be ammonified quickly in the soil, but also because these compounds are directly utilizable by plants. This change in the nature of the nitrogen compounds has been brought about by the partial hydrolysis of the proteins contained in the various trade wastes used in the manufacture of the fertilizer. When proteins THE NITROGEN OF PROCESSED FERTILIZERS. 23 decompose through natural conditions, be they in the soil or out of it, a certain amount of hydrolysis of the proteims takes place and if the decomposition is allowed to proceed long enough under proper condi- tions complete hydrolysis will result. The principle involved in making the nitrogenous material in the soil available and in increasing the availability of low-grade nitrog- enous materials by factory treatment is therefore the same. In other words, the general chemical principle to be applied in making ayail- able the nitrogen of low-grade fertilizers, trade wastes, etc., is that of complete or partial hydrolysis by any suitable means of the proteins contained in the wastes. Partial hydrolysis of proteins may be accom- plished by means of heat, boiling, steaming, heating under pressure, and both partial and complete hydrolysis may be obtained by treating with strong acids or alkalis, either in the cold for a long time or heating to a high temperature, the extent of hydrolysis depending on the sev- eral conditions. In a number of processes already in use various of these treatments are practiced, resulting in different degrees of hydrol- ysis of the original proteins. While the availability of the nitrogen of a fertilizer depends on the substances in which the nitrogen is con- tained, it also depends on the extent of hydrolysis of the proteins used in the manufacture. It may be stated that in general the more extended and final the hydrolysis the more available the nitrogen of the com- pounds formed, since as has been shown, the final products of hydroly- sis are utilized by the plant as such and are at the same time more readily changed into ammonia by bacteria, etc., than are the interme- diate compounds produced by partial hydrolysis. SUMMARY. The base goods used as a type of processed fertilizers is an organic nitrogenous fertilizer which contains acid phosphate. This product is produced by the action of sulphuric acid on certain trade wastes; the heat is generated by the interaction of the acid with the organic wastes and rock phosphate in the course of the manufacture of acid phosphate. It is here shown that the hydrolysis of the protein is almost complete, the. nitrogenous compounds in the finished fer- tilizer being principally the products of primary protein decomposi- tion, together with a small amount of a proteoselike compound which has persisted. From the sample of base goods were isolated the following nitrog- enous compounds, two purine bases, guanine and hypoxanthine; the three diamino acids, arginine, histidine, and lysine; and two monoamino acids, leucine and tyrosine. A proteoselike compound was also obtained and its general nature established. By means of the Van Slyke method the approximate proportions of the different forms of nitrogen contained in the fertilizer were 24 BULLETIN 158, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. estimated, and the extent of the hydrolysis of the original proteins was determined. It was also shown by this method that the proteose- like compound was composed of acid amide radicals, diamino acid radicals, especially lysine, and monoamino acid radicals, particu- larly the monoamino acids which contain non-amino nitrogen. The question of the availability of nitrogen is discussed and from a consideration of the amount and the physiological action on plants of the different forms of nitrogen present in the fertilizer it is con- cluded that the water soluble nitrogen of this fertilizer should have an availability equal to or greater than the nitrogen of dried blood, or other high-grade fertilizers. These results are in accord with the results obtained by the plant method of determining availability. The general chemical principle which underlies the method for rendering available the nitrogen contained in most trade wastes, which are to be used as fertilizing materials, is shown to be either partial or complete hydrolysis of the protein of the wastes by any suitable means. ; The more complete the hydrolysis the more available the nitrogen in the fertilizer becomes, since the products of complete hydrolysis of proteins are not only utilized by the plants themselves as nutrients: but they are more easily ammonified when placed in the soil than are the more complex compounds, such as peptones, proteoses, and the proteins themselves. This investigation aims only at an explanation and exposition of the general chemical principles involved in the treatment of trade wastes and other organic material to render the nitrogen contained therein more available for agricultural purposes. It does not aim to present the research methods here employed as general methods for analyzing such fertilizers, nor can the quantitative figures obtained be expected to apply to all products of similar manufacture, for the reason that the different kinds of nitrogen compounds will necessa- rily show different proportions according to the nature of the mate- rials which enter into the mixture. ADDITIONAL COPIES ©F THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1914 BULLETIN OF THE UB) USOARTENTORAICTRE No. 159 Contribution from the Bureau of Soils, Milton Whitney, Chief. January 14, 1915. SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. By J. A. BONSTEEL, Scientist in Soil Survey. DEFINITION OF THE SERIES. The soils of the Sassafras series are distinguished by the charac- teristic brown or yellowish-brown color of the surface soils and by the yellow or reddish-yellow color of the subsoil. At depths ranging from 2 to 3 feet the deeper subsoil is frequently sufficiently tinged with red to become a pale orange. In the dry condition both the surface soils and subsoils of the more sandy members of the series. are decidedly yellow, but when moist the deeper brown shade is usually developed. A fresh cut in the subsoil of practically every member of the series will usually show a distinct reddish coloration below a depth of 2 feet. Practically all of the typical occurrences of the soils of the Sassa- fras series show the existence either of a distinct bed of medium to coarse gravel or of fine gravel mixed with coarse and medium sand at depths which range from 24 to 5 feet. In the case of large areas of the Sassafras silt loam the underlying gravel bed is covered to a depth of 8 to 10 feet by the heavy, compact, silty loam soil and sub- soil. It is generally true that the gravel is coarser and the beds are more continuous and thicker near the inland border of the region where these soils are found, becoming thinner and grading into fine gravel and coarse sand as the seaward margin of the various types is approached. In certain localities, as on Long Island, along the lower courses of the Delaware River, and opposite the mouth of the Susquehanna River, large blocks of stone or bowlders derived from various forma- tions of the Appalachian and Piedmont regions are found within the underlying gravels or scattered sparingly over the surface of the different soil types. Otherwise the different soils of the series are characteristically stone-free. All of the difierent types consist of water-laid materials, chiefly formed as marine, estuarine, and fiuvial terraces, although some of 63555°—Bull. 159 —15—_1 2 BULLETIN 159, U.\S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the areas consist of closely related outwash material deposited in connection with the glaciation of the Long Island area and others seem to be derived from older coastal plain deposits. The materials entering into the formation of the soils of the Sassafras series have been derived from the Appalachian Region, the Piedmont Plateau, from glaciated areas immediately to the north of the principal areas of their occurrence, and from the underlying Coastal Plain deposits reworked in some cases. The latter materials are dominant in the sections nearest to tidewater while the mingling of materials from other sources is more pronounced along the inland border of the general region in which these soils occur. The soils of the Sassafras series are distinguished from those of the Norfolk series by the predominant gray color of the surface soils and the yellow color of the subsoils of the latter series and by the reddish color and presence of the underlying beds of gravel or coarse sand in the case of practically all areas of the Sassafras soils. The soils of the Elkton series, which are found closely associated with those of the Sassafras series, are marked by the gray color of the surface soils and the mottling of yellow and gray in the sub- soils. They are characteristically not so well drained as the soils of the Sassafras series. The soils of the Portsmouth series, which are also associated with those of the Sassafras series, are distinctly dark gray to almost black at the surface and light gray in the subsoils. They are always poorly drained in their natural state. The soils of the Collington series are darker in color at the sur- face and usually show a greenish tinge, due to the presence of green- sand marl in the subsoil. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The soils of the Sassafras series are confined to the northern por- tion of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. (See fig. 1.) Considerable areas of the soils of this series have been mapped in the central and west- ern portions of Long Island. ~-| Fie. 1.—Soils of the Sassafras series. The ‘soils of the Sassafras series are extensively developed in the eastern counties of Maryland from the mouth of the Susquehanna River to the Delaware line and southward. In these counties, also, d BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. t other soil series become more extensive toward the south. . The soils of the Sassafras series, however, dominate in area all the Maryland- Delaware Peninsula from the tea of Chesapeake Bay to the lati- tude of the southern boundary of Delaware. To the west of Chesapeake Bay, in the Maryland counties which he between the bay and the Potomac River, the soils of this series are found in considerable area although they do not dominate the section. They are principally found along the lower forelands and terraces which border the bay and along the estuarine rivers which empty into it, although some areas also extend across the lower divides separ ating these waterways. South of the Potomac River the soils of the Saeeate as series are chiefly confined to low terraces along the tidewater estuaries and to the low divide separating the Potomac and Rappahannock River drainages. The soils have not been mapped in detail in any of this territory. A small area of one type has been found in the vicinity of Norfolk, Va. It is not believed that any large areas of the Sassa- fras soils will be found south of the Rappahannock River, since the materials and manner of derivation of more southern Coastal Plain soils would not be expected to give rise to soils of this class. It will be seen that the total area within which the soils of the Sassafras series have been encountered is restricted to an elongated oval whose broader southern extremity lies approximately in lati- tude 37° N., and its narrow northern extremity is found upon Long Island in latitude 41° N. The extreme length of this region from northeast to southwest is approximately 300 miles, while the extreme breadth, in the lati- tude of Washington, D. C., is a little over 100 miles. Within the region outlined, the soils of the Sassafras series occupy approximately one-third of western Long Island; one-half of the Coastal Plain portion of the soil survey of the Trenton area, New Jersey; nearly three-fourths of the area included in the soil survey around Salem, N. J.; from 50 to 80 per cent of the various soil surveys in the Coastal Plain region of the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula as far south as the southern line of Delaware; only about one-fourth of the soil survey area of Worcester County, Md.; more than one-half of the soil survey of Anne Arundel County, Md.; and from 15 to 25 per cent of the areas which have been surveyed south of this county and on the western side of Chesapeake Bay. THE NORTH ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN. The northern part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain consists of a low- lying, gently sloping region which intervenes between the coast line and the more elevated interior. It is only within the portion of this physical division which extends from the southern end of Chesa- - SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. oO peake Bay to the western end of Long Island, N. Y., that the soils of the Sassafras series have been encountered. In general, the coast is fringed by long, narrow stretches of Coastal beach between which and the main land there are included narrow sounds and bays and stretches of Tidal marsh. The main Jand rises gently inland through the greater part of the coast coun- try, although low coastal bluffs are locally found and the Navesink Highlands, with an elevation of 276 feet, approach within a mile of the shore line in east-central New Jersey. Elsewhere the rise toward the interior is gentle and for the first few miles does not usually exceed 5 feet to the mile. Near the interior margin the rate of slope rapidly increases to 10 or even 20 feet per mile. From the vicinity of Raritan Bay to the Delaware River and thence near the inner line of the Coastal Plain as far as the Potomac River there is a sharp slope toward the interior and the main body of the Coastal Plain is separated from the Piedmont Plateau and from other Coastal Plain deposits along its front by an irregular valley. The general trend and extent of this depression is outlined by the direc- tion of the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore & Ohio Railroads, which follow it from Newark, N. J., to Washington, D. C. In part this valley is a land feature, as across central New Jersey and from Baltimore to Washington, but in part it has been occupied by estu- arine waters as along the Delaware River from Trenton to Salem, N. J., around the headwaters of Chesapeake Bay, and in the west- ward bend of the Potomac River immediately south of Washington, WC. From the vicinity of Fredericksburg, Va., southward this valley feature is lacking and the elevated interior margin of the Coastal Plain directly overlaps the Piedmont Plateau. Within this northern section of the Atlantic Coastal Plain there are four subdivisions which possess different details of elevation and relief. The portion which lies west of the Chesapeake Bay, from the James River to the mouth of the Susquehanna River, consists of an elevated inner section of the Coastal Plain, which is deeply dis- sected by broad estuarine stream valleys. Both in eastern Virginia and in the southern counties of Maryland the remnant of the higher portions of the Plain takes the form of narrow or broad plateaulike ridges, which are locally known as “river necks.” These have an elevation of 100 to 250 feet along the inner edge of the region, but their axes sink gradually toward Chesapeake Bay until they are terminated by a low escarpment or end in wave-cut cliffs along the bay shore. The larger estuarine rivers within this section are usually bordered on one or both sides by low-lying terraces. The lowest terrace rises from the water as a gentle slope or is bordered 7 by a low cliff. Thence its surface rises very gently, seeming almost a plain, to an inner escarpment, whose base is 30 to 40 feet above tide level. Frequently another terrace intervenes, at an altitude of 50 to 80 feet, between the lowest terrace and the inner plateau. In fact, the entire section consists of a series of steplike terraces rising from tide water to the general level of the upland except where wave or river cutting has destroyed the lower terrace forms. Such terracing is shown in Plate I, figure I- The section lying between the Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay, generally known as the Maryland-Delaware peninsula, possesses somewhat different topographic forms. The eastern shore of Chesa- peake Bay from near the mouth of the Sassafras River, southward, is bordered by a tract of low land which corresponds in elevation with the lowest of the terraces on the western side of the bay. This swings eastward and forms the greater part of the peninsula south of the Delaware State line including, also, the southeastern portion of Sussex County, Del. It forms the lower portion of both shores of Delaware Bay and Delaware River as far north as Trenton. It is probably represented along the Atlantic coast of New Jersey by the belt of lowland, extending from Cape May nearly to the Navesink Highlands. Along the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay this lower terrace is bounded, inland, by a low escarpment which extends from near the mouth of the Sassafras River southward past Easton, Md., to the ‘mouth of the Choptank River. Between this low ridge and the shore of Delaware Bay the higher terrace stretches as a gently undulating to nearly level upland. The highest elevations are found in the western portions of Cecil and Kent Counties, Md., where altitudes of 80 to 100 feet are attained. From these the general slope is gently seaward. In southern New Jersey the surface features are somewhat dif- ferent. As has been indicated, the lowest terrace of the Chesapeake Bay region extends along both shores of the Delaware River and Bay as a distinct topographic feature. It is possibly found along the Atlantic coast in the form of the low slope which rises from tidewater to an elevation of about 50 feet. In New Jersey the marked topographic feature of the Coastal Plain is formed by the ridge of dissected hills which extends from the Navesink High- lands on the northeast to the vicinity of Bridgeton, N. J., on the southwest. From this ridge the land surface declines rather rapidly toward the interior valley, separating the Coastal Plain from the Piedmont Plateau. The descent toward the sea is long and gentle in extreme southern New Jersey but short and steep as the eastern end of the ridge is reached in the Navesink Highlands. 6 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. Te On the western end of Long Island, N. Y., the narrow belt of Coastal Plain rises rather steeply from the coast line to the front of the ridge which forms the northern border of the island. The plain terminates against the front of this ridge at elevations of. 100 to 240 feet above tide level. Within this sloping plain there are also outlying hills and ridges, consisting of old glacial moraine, which rise to considerable elevations above the surrounding sur- face. These roughly divide the plains into a higher interior plain: and a lower coastal slope. These coalesce through intervals in the ridge. Otherwise the plain is interrupted only by shallow stream channels which are normally dry during a greater portion of the year. The materials which constitute the older deposits of the North Atlantic Coastal Plain are chiefly unconsolidated gravel, sands, loams, clays, and marls, although there are local occurrences of in- _durated clays and iron-cemented sands and gravels of little thickness and of limited extent. These sediments of varying degrees of coarseness have been de- rived from the adjacent, interior land areas, transported to the older shore lines, and deposited at various periods of geologic time as successive layers or strata in the older marine or estuarine waters. The surfaces of all of these older deposits are marked by a seaward slope and the oldest formations reach the surface along the inner margin of the Coastal Plain while the younger ones are successively encountered at or near the surface in a seaward direction. These older formations, from the Cretaceous to the Miocene in geologic age, form the basal structure of the Coastal Plain. They reach the surface chiefly along the lines of greatest erosion near the inner. margin of the region and they are very extensively covered by later deposits, forming the terraces and the greater part of the seaward slopes of the present land surfaces. These later deposits are referred by geologists to the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods. They im- mediately preceded the present geologic time. The soils of the Sassafras series are chiefly derived from the de- posits of the Pleistocene age. This is the latest completed geologic period before the present time. It was marked in the northern por- tion of the area under discussion by two or more invasions of glacial ice. During the period of ice occupation, and particularly while the ice sheet was melting and its front receding, large amounts of ma- terial were deposited near its front in the form of glacial outwash. At the same time other glacial material was carried down all of the larger streams of the region to be deposited as a part of the material of the Pleistocene terraces, which were being formed at the same time along the coast. 8 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Even the streams considerably to the south of the region directly affected by glaciation were considerably swollen and their courses were blocked by river ice during portions of the year. This gave rise to the transportation of considerable amounts of coarse gravel, and even of stones of large size, which were carried in floating ice. When the ice melted along the coast or in the estuarine waters this. coarser material was mingled with the finer grained sediments brought under normal conditions of erosion and transportation. Thus the Pleistocene sediments along the margin of the glaciated region, and even to a considerable distance to the south, have been directly or indirectly influenced by the glaciation of the more northern region. Long Island, N. Y., hes within that portion of the region which was directly invaded by the ice during the glacial period As a result all of the older formations were overridden by the sheet of glacial ice, which advanced at one time as far south as the line of hills that extends from the vicinity of Westbury to Montauk Point. These hills represent the deposition of material as a terminal moraine while the ice stood along this line. Later the glacial ice receded and then readvanced to a position along the more northern belt of hilly territory, which follows the northern shore of the island, where addi- tional morainal material was deposited. At the time of this halting there was spread out over all of the southern portion of the island the thin sheet of gravelly, sandy, and loamy material which constitutes - the present surface of the land. The sloping plains which intervene between the two lines of morainal hills and which sink below the water level along the southern shore of the island were formed at that time by the deposition of material partly transported by the ice from mainland to the north and partly derived from the older for- mations, which formed the surface upon which the ice rested. A large part of this deposition took the form of cross-bedded sands and gravels and of rather coarse sand, washed out by water from the melting ice. Where these coarser materials form the present land surface they give rise to the areas of Sassafras sand as mapped upon the western end of Long Island. The higher, interior plain and a large part of the marginal plain which intervenes between the north- ern hills and the south shore west of Farmingdale are occupied by a gravelly silty loam formed at a late stage of the deposition of this material. This gives rise to the extensive areas of the Sassafras gravelly loam mapped there. Small areas of loamy material were deposited immediately to the West of Jamaica Bay. This forms the Sassafras loam. A large part of the material built into these deposits is undoubtedly of direct glacial origin. 1 Professional Paper No. 82, U. S. Geol. Survey. The Geology of Long Island, N. Y., by M. L. Fuller. SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 9 Tt is certain that the Delaware River carried a large amount of material from the glaciated area around its headwaters to its sub- merged lower course, thus contributing glacial material to the marine and estuarine sediments which were being formed along the coast line. The Susquehanna River was also affected by glaciation along its upper courses and carried glacial material in some volume to be con- tributed to the deposits near its mouth. While the rivers farther to the south had no direct connection with the glaciated area, yet conditions of erosion and transportation were so affected that large amounts of the fine-earth materials from the Appalachian and Piedmont sections were carried seaward and deposited through the Chesapeake Bay region. With these finer sediments small amounts of coarse material in the form of gravel and large blocks of stone were transported and deposited. The lat- ter constitute the only direct evidence of the changed climatic con- ditions since they were evidently carried within or upon floating masses of ice of ¢onsiderable size. To the west and south of the mouth of the Hudson River the land area which now constitutes the surface of the Coastal Plain was formed at different stages of submergence and emergence, chiefly in the form of successive terraces. It is probable that each of the different terraces represents a period of submergence of the land area followed by emergence. In general the oldest terrace at pres- ent occupies the highest elevation and each younger terrace is found at successively lower elevations. The different terraces are developed to very unequal extents in the different portions of the North Atlantic Coastal Plain from south- ern New Jersey to tidewater Virginia. In New Jersey the terrace-form development of the later Coastal Plain deposits is generally indistinct except in the case of the latest and lowest terrace. This has been called the Cape May formation by the New Jersey Geological Survey.t. It fringes the Atlantic coast in a narrow border rising from sea level to about 50 feet in elevation. Its chief development is found from Cape May north- ward along the Delaware Bay and River to the vicinity of Trenton, N. J., where its deposits merge with those brought down by the river from the glaciated region to the north. From this circum- stance it can be correlated with the latest glaciation of the more northern region. Along the water front the elevation of this terrace varies from marshy stretches at tide level to low cliffs of 5 to 10 feet in height. The land surface of the main portion of the terrace is nearly level +See N. J. Geol. Survey Ann. Rept. 1898, and Trenton and Fialadetegts Folios, U. S. Geological Survey. 63555°—Bull. 159 —15—_2 10 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. although streams have cut shallow channels within the terrace and low ridges and swells give a shghtly undulating character to the surface. There is normally a gentle rise toward the interior and the landward margin of the terrace along the Delaware River side is marked by a sharp rise or by steeper slopes. In the Atlantic coast portion of southern New Jersey this interior escarpment is not marked or may be entirely lacking. In the Delaware Valley phase of this formation the upper level of its deposits lies between 35 and 50 feet above sea level. The interior margin of this forma- tion is frequently bordered by delta deposits accumulated where the larger streams brought other Coastal Plain material to the shore of the estuary which was formed along the Delaware embayment. These are usually sandy and gravelly in their character. They have been derived from several of the older Coastal Plain deposits. Within the level area of the Cape May terrace the materials consist chiefly of gravel, sand, and loam, with small areas of stiff clay in some localities. ‘These materials have been derived both from the other Coastal Plain deposits and from the giacial material which was brought down by the Delaware River. There has also been a con- siderable contribution of wind-blown sand which was either spread out as a thin sheet over the surface of the water-laid deposits or even heaped into low mounds and ridges. In general the surface material of the Cape May formation is rather sandy and the soils which are derived from it consist largely of the Sassafras sand, fine sand, and fine sandy loam. The Sassafras silt loam is also developed to quite an extent in some parts of the formation, notably near Salem, N. J. Even the level areas of the Sassafras sand and fine sand are frequently underlain by this heavier material and in some localities by Miocene and Cretaceous clays, and it is probable that in such situations they constitute a surface deposit of wind-transported material laid down over the older sediments. ; The next higher and older formation of Pleistocene age in south- ern New Jersey has been called the Pensauken by the New Jersey Geological Survey. It occupies elevations from about 50 feet above tide level to an altitude of more than 200 feet in different parts of the Coastal Plain. The Pensauken formation is most extensively developed along the flanks of the Delaware Valley and on the slope from the Coastal Plain toward the Piedmont Plateau between Tren- ton and New Brunswick. Considerable areas are also found on the slope between the high ridge within the Coastal Plain and the margin of the Cape May formation along the Atlantic. The Pensauken formation is chiefly made up of cross-bedded gravel and sand having a thickness ranging from 2 or 38 to 50 feet. Over some portions of this coarser material there has been deposited SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. jl a thin layer of silty loam, which is not considered as an essential part of the formation by the New Jersey Geological Survey. It is very similar to the heavier loam found in the Cape May forma- tion and gives rise to the same soil type, the Sassafras silt loam. The coarser materials of the Pensauken formation give rise to the gravelly and sandy members of the Sassafras series. The soils of this series are thus found in almost continuous development from near tide level in the Cape May formation to altitudes of 150 to 200 feet in the area covered by the Pensauken formation. It is worthy of note that the soils of the Sassafras series have been encountered in their widest development in the State of New Jersey within the Delaware Valley and upon the slopes of the valley which separates the main body of the Coastal Plain from the Pied- mont Plateau. These soils thus occupy a position where their ma- terials were affected during deposition by contributions from the glaciated area immediately to the north. They may consist, in any one locality, of material largely derived from older, underlying Coastal Plain formations, but where typically developed there is usually evidence that the glaciation to the north contributed a con- siderable amount of both fine and coarse material while a still larger amount was originally derived from both the Piedmont and Appa- lachian regions. The oldest deposits of the Pleistocene age in the New Jersey por- tion of the Coastal Plain are called the Bridgeton formation by the New Jersey Geological Survey. They cap the higher hills in south- ern New Jersey above an elevation of about 150 feet. The materials are largely gravel and sand, although large bowlders give evidence that this formation was also affected by the earlier glaciation of the land areas to the north. It is probable that this formation gives rise to considerable areas which will be correlated with the soils of the Sassafras series, Areas of the different soils of this series are also found to coincide closely with the portions of these three terraces found on the western side of the Delaware River in the extreme southeastern part of Pennsylvania. In the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula the terrace form of the de- posits of Pleistocene age is marked and three terraces have been iden- tified by the Maryland Geological Survey.’ The lowest and youngest of these terraces has been called the Talbot formation within this State. It is continuous with the Cape May terrace of the New Jersey Geological Survey and can be directly correlated with it. It forms a low, nearly level terrace along the entire eastern boundary of Delaware, narrow in the northern part and broadening to a width 1See Maryland Geol. Survey, ‘ Pliocene and Pleistocene,’ and Dover Folio, U. §. Geological Survey. ~ 12 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . of 15 or 16 miles in southern Delaware, and completely occupying the greater part of the peninsula south of the Delaware State line. Thence it is developed as a broad, low-lying plain along the southern part of the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay as far north as the mouth of the Choptank River. From this vicinity to the mouth of the Sassafras River it becomes narrower but occupies all of the fore- lands and islands. North of the Sassafras River to the head of Chesapeake Bay it is but sparingly represented by lowlands along the water front. Throughout the peninsula the Talbot (Cape May) terrace rises gently from the water level either with a low slope or by a low wave- cut scarp. Its surface is a very gently sloping plain, which is chiefly relieved by the tidewater channels of streams which cross it and by ‘low ridges which merely serve to render the surface gently undulat- ing. The terrace is continued for some distance up the channels of the estuarine rivers which are the chief tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay from the eastern shore. The portion of the Talbot terrace which lies along the Delaware Valley and the Atlantic Ocean rises to an altitude of about 45 feet above sea level, where it merges into the next higher terrace, usually without any marked topographic break. At most a low slope or scarp may occur locally. On the side toward Chesapeake Bay the inner margin of the terrace is much more sharply marked by a low scarp of 10 to 25 feet in elevation, which extends interruptedly from near the mouth of the Choptank River to the mouth of the Sassafras River. The Talbot terrace is also extensively developed as a low front land along the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay from the mouth of the Susquehanna River to the mouth of the Patapsco River. The materials which enter into the structure of the Talbot terrace are all unconsolidated and consist of gravel, sand, loam, and some areas of clay. It is probable that a large part of this material was brought to its present position from the Piedmont and Appalachian regions by the Delaware and Susquehanna Rivers. The presence of large ice-borne blocks from both of these regions is noticeable along the upper waters of Chesapeake Bay and even some of the finer material bears close resemblance to the existing surface materials in the adjacent Piedmont region. There can be little doubt that the Talbot formation of Maryland and the Cape May formation of New Jersey are one in origin and mode of formation, and it is probable that both are of about the same age as the youngest glacial material found upon, the western end of Long Island. The Talbot formation contains large areas of soils which have been correlated with those of the Sassafras series. The areas of Sassafras sand and loamy sand along many of the estuarine embay- ments of the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula and the Sassafras sandy SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 13 loam, loam, and silt loam of the better-drained portions of this for- mation all cover large areas. The next higher and older terrace of the Pleistocene is known as the Wicomico formation in Maryland. Within the peninsula it occu- pies all of the higher interior portion from a line drawn between Wilmington, Del., and Elkton, Md., southward a little beyond the southern line of Delaware. As has been noted, it is separated from the Talbot terrace only by low slopes or indistinct scarps on the seaward side. Thence its sur- face rises gently nearly to the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay, but sinks sharply to the surface of the Talbot formation or to the waters of the bay along its western margin. A few small remnants of this terrace are also found along the steeply sloping boundary between the Piedmont and Coastal Plain from the vicinity of Wilmington to that of Baltimore. 6 The materials which constitute the Wicomico formation in this section consist chiefly of bowlders,, gravel, sand, and loam. The coarser materials are generally found at the base of the formation, _and these are usually overlain by either a sandy loam or a rather heavy silty loam surface deposit. Generally the gravel constitutes a basal stratum rather sharply bounded by the underlying materials of various older formations, while it grades upward into the loamy covering which forms the Sassafras loam and silt loam. The slopes, where somewhat eroded, give rise to a mingling of the loam with underlying gravel, forming the Sassafras gravelly loam. Around the head of Chesapeake Bay some areas of the Sassafras sand are found within the limits of this formation. The highest Pleistocene terrace is represented on the Maryland- Delaware Peninsula only by fragments, which are found along the ridge of high land on Elk Neck and to a limited degree along the steep slope which marks the inner border of the Coastal Plain around the mouth of the Susquehanna River. This highest Pleistocene ter- race is called the Sunderland formation by the Maryland Geological Survey. A small portion of its surface is composed of materials giving rise to the Sassafras silt loam. The Maryland-Delaware Peninsula constitutes the region within which the soils of the Sassafras series are most widespread. They are found at all elevations from the vicinity of tide level to altitudes of more than 100 feet, while small remnants occur along the inner margin of the Coastal Plain at elevations up to 240 feet. The materials which give rise to these soils consist of a mingling of earthy .matter from the Appalachian region and the Piedmont Plateau with other materials derived from the underlying and older Coastal Plain formations. In general, the coarser gravel and sandy 14 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. materials form a basal bed underlying loam or silt loam coverings, although extensive areas of sandy surface material are found along the estuarine rivers of the section and within the seaward margin of the Talbot formation. The influence of glaciation to the north is shown by the presence of large ice-borne blocks within all parts of the terrace formations. The Talbot terrace is continued to the west of Chesapeake Bay in the peninsula lying between the bay and the Potomac River. This region is locally known as southern Maryland.t. The lowest terrace is fairly well developed from Baltimore south to the northern end of Calvert County, Md., as a gently sloping front land rising from water level to an altitude of 40 or 50 feet. Its shore line is either low or defined by a wave-cut cliff of a few feet in height. ‘The terrace itself constitutes a slightly relieved plain with a gentle slope toward tide water. From this region south to the mouth of the Patuxent River it is almost entirely wanting, having been cut away by the active erosion of the waters of Chesapeake Bay. it is again developed along both shores of the Patuxent River to a limited degree and much more extensively along the shores of the estuarine portion of the Potomac River. In all of these localities it forms the low front lands interruptedly bordering these estuaries. The origin of the materials of the Talbot formation in southern Maryland is approximately the same as upon the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula, although a larger proportion of material derived from older Coastal Plain formation is incorporated. The succession of materials is about the same and the base is marked by gravels and coarse sand, while the present surface is formed by silt loam, loam, and rather fine sandy coverings. Wherever this formation is well drained, considerable areas of the Sassafras soils are encountered. The next higher terrace, the Wicomico, is rather sparingly de- veloped in southern Maryland. It occurs at elevations ranging from 50 to 80 feet in the estuarine valleys and along the bay shore. Its surface also rises with the gradient of some of the tributary streams until elevations of 100 feet are attained near the Piedmont border. In general the surface of the Wicomico terrace is separated from both the Talbot and Sunderland terraces by a distinct scarp. In some instances the narrow remnants of the formation have been so eroded that neither the flat surface nor the bounding scarps may be readily distinguished. In almost all instances this formation occurs as narrow, fragmentary benches of small area in this section of the Coastal Plain. The materials entering into the composition of the Wicomico terrace are chiefly gravel, sand, and the capping of loam or silt loam, 1See Patuxent, St. Marys, and Nomini Folios, U. 8. Geol. Survey. N % SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 15 which. is characteristic of this formation east of the Chesapeake Bay. The chief areas of the Sassafras silt loam found in southern Mary- land occur upon its surface. The highest Pleistocene terrace in southern Maryland is called the Sunderland formation. It occupies a large part of the broad, nearly flat interstream areas, especially along the Chesapeake Bay and the lower reaches of the Potomac River. It is in reality a gently sloping plain which has been dissected into broad, irregular plateaus, sepa- rated by the present tidewater estuaries. A considerable proportion of the area of the Sunderland formation in southern Maryland consists of materials that do not give rise to soils of the Sassafras series. The heavy, silty soil of gray color which predominates on the plateau surface is classed as the Leonardtown loam. Upon somewhat more rolling surfaces and along certain of the uplands there are found soft sandy loams and fine sands derived from this formation and formed by its partial erosion and mingling with underlying materials which have been correlated as the Sassa- fras sand, fine sand, fine sandy loam, and loam. These areas are of somewhat mixed origin, but owe their chief characteristics to the influence of the material derived from the Sunderland formation. A large area in the northern part of southern Maryland is occupied by the highest Coastal Plain terrace, referred to the Lafayette forma- tion, and by the exposed outcrops of some of the older Coastal Plain strata. None of these give rise to soils of the Sassafras series. All the occurrences of the soil of the Sassafras series in southern Maryland are confined to the areas of the Pleistocene terraces, except where erosion has partially removed these formations and mingled their remnants with older materials. The largest areas of the soils of this series are found along the upper waters of Chesapeake Bay and along the forelands which border the principal estuarine rivers, particularly the Potomac. Only the better-drained areas of these terraces give rise to soils of this series. Examinations of the soil materials of the region south of the Potomac River show that the Potomac and the Rappahannock Rivers are discontinuously bordered by the lowest terrace, known as the Talbot formation in Maryland. It is also evident that the Wicomico terrace is represented at intermediate elevations and that the rolling or flat-topped interstream areas belong in part to the Lafayette formation. These different formations are closely related to the similar occur- rences in southern Maryland, and soils referable to the Sassafras series occur toa limited extent along the low forelands upon the lower courses of the rivers. Considerable areas of the Sassafras loam and et See Nomini and Fredericksburg folios, U. S. Geol. Survey, and Bul. IV, Virginia Geol. Survey, Physiography and Geology of the Coastal Plain Province of Virginia. 16 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. silt loam are also known to exist upon the low flat-topped divide between the Potomac River and the Rappahannock River, at least as far inland as the western boundary of Westmoreland County, Va. Farther to the south, in tidewater Virginia, other soil series occupy both the terraces and the interstream divides. These have been classed as the soils of the Wickham and Norfolk series. A small area of the Sassafras sandy loam has been mapped on the low terrace formed by the Talbot formation between Nor- folk, Va., and the Atlantic coast. It will be seen that the various soils classed in the Sassafras series may, almost without exception, be referred to formations of Pleis- tocene age in the northern portion of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. In the extreme northern portion of this section the relation of these soils to glaciation is direct. Farther to the south and west this relation- ship is chiefly shown by the presence of limited amounts of ice-borne material mixed with the materials brought in from the Appalachian and Piedmont regions and with material derived from the older for- mations of the Coastal Plain. These have been deposited as a series of marine, estuarine, and fluvial terraces which constitute the low- lying section between the coast line and the more elevated land to the interior. While the soils of the Sassafras series do not occupy the en- tire extent of these geological formations they are quite generally found along the interior margin where the glacial material and the fine earth from Piedmont and Appalachian sources were mingled with sediments derived from the older Coastal Plain deposits. All these classes of soil-forming material were sorted and rear- ranged during the processes of transportation and deposited so that the coarser materials are most frequently found at the base while the surface materials may range from heavy silt loam to medium sand. Only the well-drained portions of the different terraces are occu- pied by soils of the Sassafras series. Less well-drained areas give rise to soils classed in the Portsmouth or Elkton series. The area of material referable to the soils of the Sassafras series is usually greatest in positions around the mouths of streams which issued from the glaciated areas to the north or whose headwaters were affected by glaciation. As the terraces are followed to the west and south other soil materials become predominant, and the higher terraces are occupied by soils of the Norfolk, Leonardtown, and Wickham series. SASSAFRAS SAND. Considerable areas of the Sassafras sand have been mapped in the soil surveys of western Long Island, the Delaware River section of New Jersey, in the Maryland-Delaware peninsula, and in the south- ern Maryland counties lying between the Chesapeake Bay and the PLATE | of Agriculture. . Dept. S) U Bul. 159 Fia. 1.—WHEAT ON THE SASSAFRAS LOAM, WICOMICO TERRACE, IN SOUTHERN MARYLAND. Fi@. 2.—RYE ON THE SASSAFRAS SAND, CAROLINE COUNTY, MD. hry PLATE II. U. S. Depi. cf Ag.iculture. Bul. 159, SE SO ae a Fic. 1.—EARLY TOMATO CROP ON SASSAFRAS SAND, SOUTHWESTERN NEW JERSEY. ue vi Sees . Sen ER oe, regen aE Sn A Aa ne Seed eek on SL eRe PHD OTE RP KP oct ae ae TR Reames ed eke Set en ee OTHER TRUCK CROPS IN THE BACKGROUND. SERV PE PELL PT {DERE OL EAA FELIS PEE AULT OOGT IS espe arta" care arent kas aera Fig. 2.—PiICKING STRAWBERRIES, SASSAFRAS SAND IN SOUTHWESTERN NEW JERSEY. 1 a ie. SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. L7 Potomac River.t. A.total area of 337,346 acres has been mapped in these various surveys. It is probable that the entire geographic range of the type has been outlined, but the total area of this soil is undoubtedly considerably greater than the area already included within the limits of the soil surveys. he surface soil of the Sassafras sand to an average depth of about 9 inches is a brown or reddish-brown, medium to coarse textured sand. Frequently the surface color may grade into yellow or gray tints and the texture is sometimes somewhat loamy, especially where a considerable amount of organic matter exists in the surface soil. The subsoil is most frequently a yellow or reddish-yellow sand, usually rather incoherent just below the surface soil, but becoming more loamy at a depth of 2 to 3 feet. Frequently the immediate sub- soil is underlain at a depth of 3 feet by very coarse sand or by sand and gravel mixed. The deeper subsoil is also frequently tinged with red so as to become orange or brown in color. In some areas small amounts of fine gravel are mingled with both the soil and subsoil, especially upon steep slopes, where erosion has exposed underlying beds of coarser material. In a few localities indurated, iron-cemented gravels give rise to plates and blocks of “ironstone,” which appear most numerously upon slopes or where this soil type merely persists as a capping on partially eroded hills. Typically the surface soil is a uniform, medium sand in which the ehief variations consist of more or less organic matter and in a shehtly variable amount of the finer-grained soil particles. The Sassafras sand is distinguishable from the Norfolk sand, with which it is sometimes associated, through the generally gray appear- ance of the surface soil and the yellow coloration of the subsoil of the latter. The Sassafras sand occurs in quite a variety of topographic posi- tions, but the greater part of the areas of the type thus far mapped is found upon gently sloping terrace plains or upon the slightly inclined surfaces of delta deposits. Within these areas there is usually a small percentage of the type which occupies the sloping sides of streamways or the marginal slopes of the deltas or terraces. Tn some instances, also, erosion has left small areas of the Sassafras sand as isolated cappings upon the higher hills. Areas of this character are liable to be rougher and more sloping than the char- acteristic occurrences of the type. The most extensive areas and those of the highest agricultural value exist as gently sloping plains and nearly level terrace areas. In such positions the level of the ground water is frequently near the surface of the land. This is the case along the southern shore of Long Island and along the low +In some of the earlier surveys no distinction was made between the sand and fine sand, and both were mapped as Sassafras sand. 63555°—Bull. 159—15 2 (3) 18 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. terraces which border the Delaware River and the banks of many . of the estuarine streams of the Maryland-Delaware peninsula. This circumstance frequently modifies the natural moisture-holding ca- pacity of the type and renders it capable of producing a wider range of crops than its rather coarse texture would seem to indicate. Generally, the Sassafras sand is well drained, both on account of its sandy texture and because it is found in areas where stream drain- age has been well established. The higher lying part of the type is even somewhat excessively drained and is therefore rather more limited in its crop uses than the lower lying areas of which mention has been made. While there is thus some variation in the circumstances of attitude and of natural drainage within the total extent of the type, the Sas- safras sand is generally level to gently undulating in its surface features, well drained to somewhat droughty, and usually rather restricted, because of these facts, in the character of crops which may successfully be grown upon it. The extent to which the Sassafras sand has been occupied for -agricultural purposes varies considerably with the geographical loca- tion of the different bodies of this soil. Im all areas near to the great centers of population, such as the areas in central and western Long Island, those in central and southwestern New Jersey, and those in some parts of southern Maryland, the greater proportion of this soil has been cleared and placed under intensive forms of cultivation. In other regions more remote from the great markets for vegetable and fruit crops, and where the means for rapid trans- portation is lacking, considerable areas of the Sassafras sand remain in forest growth of pine and scrubby oak, or the areas are farmed with varying success for the production of the cereal grains, hay, and vegetables for home consumption. It is probable that 75 per cent of the type in the vicinity of the larger cities of the northern Atlantic coast is occupied for intensive forms of crop production, while diminishing percentages are utilized for any agricultural pur- pose in more remote locations. It may be roughly estimated that not more than one-half of the total area of the type thus far encoun- tered in the soil surveys has been utilized for crop production. The development of the remaining areas will probably not occur until the use of such lands is made desirable by the extension of trans- portation facilities and an increased demand for the growing of special vegetable and fruit crops. Because of the generally porous and unretentive character of both the soil and subsoil of the Sassafras sand, it is not found to attain to any high value for the production of the staple crops. In fact, in localities where such crops are the only ones whose production is attempted upon this soil, the yields obtained are usually below SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 19 the normal averages for the general region, and it is only where some unusual circumstance of saturated subsoil, seepage from higher lands, or the existence of a denser underlying loam or clay is of local influence that corn, the small grains, or the ordinary meadow grasses are grown to any marked advantage. This is so general that large areas of the Sassafras sand still remain in forest wherever local con- ditions do not favor special crop production. Corn is more generally grown upon the Sassafras sand than any of the other cereals. The yields secured range from less than 20 bushels to 40 bushels per acre. The latter yields are only obtained in the seasons of heavy and well distributed rainfall, or upon por- tions of the type favored by an unusually high water table, -the presence of retentive materials below the subsoil, or by specially good methods of soil management. Wheat is locally grown on the Sassafras sand in some portions of Maryland. The yields are usually low, rarely exceeding 10 or 12 bushels per acre. The crop isnot at all suited to such a porous soil, _ and is usually grown merely as a part of an established crop rota- tion. Rye is grown to a limited extent and produces fair yields, ranging from 12 to 20 bushels per acre. It is probable that it is the small grain best suited to this soil. Where the straw can be sold to ad- vantage, the growing of rye is more profitable than the growing of wheat. A good crop of rye grown on the Sassafras sand is shown in Plate I, figure 2. Crimson clover is coming to be grown as a winter cover crop upon portions of the Sassafras sand along the Maryland-Delaware line. This crop not only gives an excellent winter growth for protective purposes, but it also is cut for hay at a time sufficiently early in the spring to permit of the planting of an intertilled crop for the sum- mer season. It has also led to increased fertility of the Sassafras sand, where it has been used consistently. This is particularly the case where the crimson clover stubble or the remainder of the crop after it has been grazed during fall and spring is plowed under as a manure for the succeeding corn or tomato crop. Cowpeas produce good yields of hay upon the Sassafras sand, and they are grown to an increasing extent as a summer hay crop. It has also been found that the peas may be produced for seed upon this soil, especially in the eastern counties of Maryland, and that the yield of seed constitutes a profitable cash crop, while the cowpea straw may be used as a valuable fodder. None of the meadow grasses are grown to advantage upon the Sassafras sand, although a fair stand of red clover may be obtained for one year. Clover is sometimes seeded with the small acreage of wheat grown upon the type. The yields of hay are low. 20 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. While the Sassafras sand does not constitute a valuable soil for the production cf the usual grain and hay crops, its warm, porous condition renders it an especially valuable soil for the growing of the special vegetable and small fruit crops. Large areas of the type on western Long Island are located so clese to New York City; other areas in central and southern New Jersey are so favorably situated near the Camden and Philadelphia markets; and even some areas in Maryland, located near to Balti- more, are so accessible to city markets that a considerable use is made of them in the production of small fruit and vegetables. For the purposes of the market gardener and the trucker the Sassafras sand is a very valuable soil. Because of its coarse texture and through natural drainage, it is a warm, early soil, which may be worked at an early date in the spring and which forces the vege- tables and fruits to a rapid growth and an early maturity. When heavily manured and properly managed, it gives satisfactory yields of a considerable number of such special crops. The type is recog- nized through extensive experience as one of the most desirable soils of the North Atlantic coast region for trucking and market gardening. Added to the warm, well-drained character of the soil and the location of important areas of it near to market and to favorable transportation facilities is the fact that it lies at low elevations, and frequently within the protective climatic influences of large bodies of tidewater. This is the case with the areas found upon western Long Island; it is generally true of the mcst important areas in New Jersey; and it also applies to the areas of the type found near Baltimore, Md. These circumstances give rise to availability for crop uses early in the spring and to a lengthening of the grow- ing season to such an extent that two or more crops are produced in one season from the same ground. The vegetable crops grown upon the Sassafras sand frequently reach maturity at a date from four days to one week in advance of the same crops from the same localities grown upon other finer- grained and more retentive soils. § The Sassafras sand occupies the same relative position as an early truck crop soil in the northern Atlantic Coastal Plain that the Nor- folk sand occupies in localities farther south. Both are the earliest soils of their respective regions. A bewildering variety of vegetable crops is grown in rapid suc- cession upon the Sassafras sand in all of the developed trucking sections of Long Island and southern New Jersey. No census sta- tistics are available to give definite acreages of the different crops. In general it may be stated that early Irish potatoes, tomatoes, and sweet potatoes occupy the largest areas among these crops. ~~ SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 74 )\ Upon western Long island early Irish potatoes are the most exten- sive crop grown upon this type. The yields vary considerably under the management of different growers and under different seasonal conditions. It may.be said that the high fertilization and careful cultivation given the crop usually result in yields ranging from 125 to 150 bushels per acre. The latter yield is sometimes exceeded. The early Irish potatoes grown upon the Sassafras sand in both New Jersey and upon Long Island are usually smooth, mealy tubers, which command a high market price. They reach the market in succession with the Irish potatoes grown in the Norfolk section, in ' the eastern shore counties of Virginia, and immediately after the crop from central Delaware. The New Jersey crop usually comes on the market in late July and early August, while the Long Island crop is marketed in greatest quantity from the latter part of August to early September. The crops grown upon other soil types in these same regions are usually a week or more later in date of maturity than the potatoes harvested from the Sassafras sand. The Sassairas sand exerts a strong influence upon the production of sweet potatoes in New Jersey. From Trenton, N. J., southward to the vicinity of Bridgeton, N. J., extensive fields of sweet potatces are annually grown. This is the northern limit of production for this crop upon any extended scale. It is only upon the more sandy and warmer soils that the crop is successfully produced in this latitude. Hence the Sassafras sand and the associated Sassafras fine sand come to be the chosen sweet-potato soils of the New Jersey growers. The importance of the sweet-potato crop upon the Sassafras sand is clearly shown through the fact that 55 per cent of the total acreage in sweet potatoes and nearly 60 per cent of the total yield for the State of New Jersey are grown in the counties of Gloucester and Salem, largely upon this type and upon the Sassafras fine sand. The average yield of sweet potatoes for the State is approximately 142 bushels per acre, but the average yield from Gloucester County, which may be taken as representing very closely that of the Sassafras sand and fine sand, is in excess of 162 bushels per acre. Both early Irish potatoes and sweet potatoes also constitute im- portant crops upon the Sassafras sand in Anne Arundel County, Md. Tomatoes, both for direct marketing and for the purpose of can- ning, are grown to some extent upon the Sassafras sand. In New Jersey the crop is chiefly grown for direct marketing as early in the season as possible. The soil type is conveniently located near to im- mediate markets and the tomatoes are frequently transported by wagon from the fields to the retail or wholesale markets of Camden and Philadelphia. A field of tomatoes on the Sassafras sand is shown in Plate IT, figure 1. 22 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Both in Anne Arundel County, Md., and in the Eastern Shore — counties of Maryland tomatoes are eens grown for the can- ning factories upon this and associated soil types. The Sassafras sand is used to some extent for the growing of watermelons in both Gloucester and Salem Counties, N. J., where it is recognized as the soil best suited to this crop. Good yields of sweet, early melons are secured. Some melons are also grown upon the type in the different areas of its occurrence in Delaware and Maryland. Cantaloupes are less extensively grown than watermelons on this type, but give fair yields of melons of excellent quality. For the production of extra early garden peas as a truck crop the Sassafras sand is only excelled by the Norfolk sand. In Anne Arun- del County, Md., many acres of early peas are annually grown upon this soil. In the New Jersey trucking counties and upon Long Island early peas are also an important crop. In all of these localities string beans are grown to some extent. Both crops take a regular spring place in the succession cropping which marks the intensity of truck- ing methods, and it is a common sight to see the rows of peas and string beans so spaced that cucumbers or cantaloupes may be inter- planted, making their growth and fully occupying the tract after the early peas and beans have been harvested. There is probably no soil in the more northern trucking regions which is so well suited to the production of an extra early crop of asparagus as the Sassafras sand. The shoots are ready for cutting — at an early date, they are easily harvested, and they are easily blanched to the creamy white demanded by certain markets. While i { 3 Pi MR ALA AD asparagus is not grown in any large acreage upon the Sassafras sand yet the crop is one of high value, and it is very frequently found in small plots upon the market garden and truck farms located upon this soil type. ) Numerous other truck crops. are grown upon this soil. Among — these may be enumerated eggplant, which is found to be weil suited © to this soil in the southwestern New Jersey counties; cucumbers, grown on Long Isiand, in New Jersey, and upon the Eastern Shore of Maryland; peppers, chiefiy produced upon it in New Jersey: sweet corn, lecally grown in small acreages upon many truck farms; and even extra early cabbage, carrots, turnips, beets, and spinach and kale. The strawberry is the most widely grown and valuable small — fruit produced upon the Sassafras sand. The type is chiefly used for growing such varieties as the Superior for early market and the — Klondyke for midseason markets. The Gandy, a distinctly late — berry, is grown only to a limited extent upon this soil. It is better suited to production upon the more loamy types of the Sassafras series and to the mucky, moist conditions of the Portsmouth loam SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 23 and sandy loam. Since these soils are commonly associated with the soils of the Sassafras series in the region of its most extended development on the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula, the later berries are decidedly restricted to these other types. A good field of straw- berries on the Sassafras sand is shown in Plate IT, figure 2. Both dewberries and biackberries are planted successfully on the Sassafras sand. In Anne Arundel County, Md., the dewberry has become somewhat a specialty upon this soil. In former years peaches were grown to quite an extent upon some portions of the Sassafras sand, but the cfop is now of diminishing importance. Early fall varieties of apples are grown upon it, but the Sassafras sand may not be considered as a type well suited to apple orcharding. To summarize the uses of this soil type it may be said that the value of the special crops grown upon it in the various localities probably exceeds the value of the general farm crops produced, although the acreage is decidedly smaller. The type may be char- acterized as below the average in agricultural value for the produc- tion of the cereal grains and the common meadow grasses; fairly well suited to the growing of crimson clover and cowpeas; and especially well suited to the production of a wide variety of vege- tables and small fruits where areas of the soil are conveniently situated with respect to transportation and market. SASSAFRAS LOAMY SAND. The Sassafras loamy sand has been mapped to a total extent of 57,024 acres, found chiefly in the Easton area, Md., but to a limited extent in Anne Arundel County, Md. It is undoubtedly a type of limited geographical extent and of restricted agricultural impor- tance. The surface soil of the Sassafras loamy sand to a depth of 6 or 8 inches is a dull-brown loamy sand. The medium to coarse grades of sand form a considerable part of the whole mass and give a coarse gritty character to the material. A small amount of white quartz gravel is also found in the surface soil. There is present a sufficient amount of finer grained material to cause a moist sample of the soil to cohere slightly, but when dry the surface soil is loose and uncom- pacted, although not quite so incoherent as the Sassafras sand. The upper part of the subsoil possesses about the same texture and structure as the soil, but is hghter in color, being a pale yellow. At a depth of 15 inches there is a perceptible increase in the amount of fine material and the deeper subsoil gradually becomes a moderately heavy sandy loam. It is coherent when moist, but crumbles into granular aggregates when dry. 24 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Sassafras loamy sand is an intermediate gradation between e the Sassafras sand and the Sassafras sandy loam. For the general farm crops it ranks below the latter and above the former. The most extensive areas of the Sassafras loamy sand are level to gently undulating in surface topography and sufficiently elevated to be well drained to droughty. There are some areas where the deeper subsoil is rather poorly drained, but these are of limited extent. A considerable part of the Sassafras loamy sand has been cleared and occupied for the production of the general farm crops. More recently areas located near*to canning factories or to shipping facili- ties have been used to some extent for the growing of tomatoes for canning, of sweet potatoes, and of melons and cantaloupes. Among the grains, corn is most extensively grown. The yields obtained are low under ordinary systems of management. Wheat also gives low yields upon this soil. Some crab grass is cut for hay. Crimson clover has been tried upon this soil and gives fair yields of hay, especially when a light application of lime is made with the seeding. Cowpeas are also grown to some extent, chiefly as a hay - crop. It has been found that the other general farm crops produce larger yields following a crop of crimson clover, and the practice of using this legume as a winter-cover crop and for the purpose of green manuring should be extended. Where tomatoes are grown for canning moderate yields are secured. Crimson clover is frequently grown as a green manure in connection with this crop, giving markedly increased yields. Buckwheat and rye are grown to a very limited extent. The Sassafras loamy sand may be characterized as a rather low- grade general farming soil which is much better suited to the grow- ing of special crops where a market for such crops, especially toma- toes, sweet potatoes, and melons, exists. This type is normally deficient in organic matter, and the use of stable and green manures is to be recommended. SASSAFRAS FINE SAND. The Sassafras fine sand has been mapped in the Trenton area, in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and in Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties, Md., to a total extent of 78,302 acres.t_ In the Trenton area this soil type is found on both sides of the Delaware River from the vicinity of Trenton southward. In Maryland no areas of the Sassafras fine sand have been encountered, except along the upper course of the Patuxent River. It is probable that the type is not of widespread occurrence outside of the localities where it has already been mapped. 1 Considerable areas of this soil were included with the Sassafras sand in the Salem area, New Jersey. SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SHRINS. °° 020°) 25 The soil of the Sassafras file sand, to an average depth of 8 or10 inches, is a brown or reddish-yellow fine sand.. It is: friable and powdery when dry but slightly adhesive when moist. “The subsoil is a lighter colored, yellow or pale orange fine sand -which is usually _ rather incoherent to a depth of 2 feet or more but may be somewhat cohesive below that depth. A - The surface configuration of the Sassafras fine sand varies con- siderably in the different localities where it is found. Along the Delaware River it occupies level-topped to undulating terraces at elevations varying from 10 feet to 80 feet above tide level. In the Maryland counties it occurs as level terraces at various elevations above the Patuxent River and also as rolling to’rather hilly country at some distance back from the river. In all of these positions there are numerous steep slopes within the limits of the ‘type. The ter- race occurrences present considerable areas of level arable land, while the rolling areas frequently show not more than half of the surface sufficiently level for tillage purposes. Im all positions the natural drainage of the type is good and sometimes excessive. -On the steeper slopes there is constant danger from excessive erosion and this limits the uses to which the land may be put as “well as the total area which may be used for tillage. The steeper slopes are usually forested with mixed hardwood growths. In New Jersey and Pennsylvania the areas of the Gaceatr as fine sand exist near to large city markets and there has been a consider- able development of this type for the purposes of market gardening and trucking. Very little use is made of it for the production of general farm crops. In Maryland, however, it is not favorably located with respect to market or to transportation, and the crops grown are those of the general agriculture of the community. It is probable that nearly three-fourths of the entire area of the Sassafras fine sand has been cleared and occupied for some form of agricul- tural production. The class of crops grown upon the Sassafras fine sand depends chiefly upon the market facilities. Thus, upon the larger areas of the type along the Patuxent River, corn, wheat, grass, and the Maryland pipe-smoking tobacco constitute the chief crops. Corn gives moderate to low yields, ranging from 15 to 30 bushels per acre. Wheat gives yields which range from 10 to 15 bushels. Hay is not generally grown, but where produced yields of less than 1 ton per acre are common. The quality of the Maryland pipe-smoking to- bacco produced upon this soil is fair to good, but the yields are fre- quently low. In fact, the water-holding capacity of the type under normal conditions is not great enough to mature large yields of the staple crops. Cowpeas and crimson clover have only been grown to a small extent upon the Sassafras fine sand. The general introduc- 63555°— Bull. 159—15——4 26 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tion of these crops both for forage and Bren manuring purposes should be encouraged. The Sassafras fine sand can not compete van the Sassafras sand in maturing truck crops at a very early date, but the crops grown are usually satisfactory with regard to yields. For the production of early tomatoes, of sweet potatoes, and of garden peas and string beans the Sassafras fine sand is well suited. It is used for the growing of these and other market garden crops in southwestern New Jersey. It is also used for the growing of cantaloupes and is well suited to this crop. In general, the Sassafras fine sand is somewhat too porous and well drained to be classed as a successful general farming soil. Areas suitably situated with regard to market are used for segelablsy crops and canteloupes. In all cases the sandy character of the soil renders the use of organic manures and green manuring crops advisable. SASSAFRAS GRAVELLY LOAM. The Sassafras gravelly loam has been mapped to the extent of 164,678 acres, chiefly upon western Long Island and in southwestern New Jersey. Only small areas of the type have been found else- where, chiefly in the Maryland counties on both sides of the upper reaches of Chesapeake Bay. _ The soil of the Sassafras gravelly loam to a depth of 8 to 10 inches is a brown or reddish-yellow sandy loam containing from 20 to 40 per cent of small, white, quartz gravel, intimately mixed through the mass of finer grained material. This is usually un- derlain by a yellow or reddish-yellow silty loam which also contains considerable gravel. The whole mass rests upon beds of fine or medium gravel at depths ranging from 2 to 3 feet. The surface features of the Sassafras gravelly loam are somewhat variable in the different areas of its occurrence. The extensive area mapped on western Long Island constitutes a gently sloping plain with a maximum elevation of 200 to 240 feet above tide level where it abuts against the latest glacial moraine ridge along the northern shore of the island. ‘Thence it slopes gently seaward to the south shore, being interrupted by the ridges and hills of an earlier moraine in the central part of Long Island. The surface is little broken by stream channels although a few dry gullies carry off excess water in times of heavy precipitation or of melting snow. The natural slope of the land and the presence of the underlying, porous beds of gravel give the type complete drainage throughout its occurrence upon Long Island. ee SE BAO AAEM LGEA AS BULA RIBAS E A ae Soa... 2 Oe a soir tite! vs A Oy ee z eh. See tes Oe CE tet SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 27 In southwestern New Jersey some areas of the Sassafras gravelly loam occur chiefly on upland ridges and sloping plains, where erosion has partially removed the original covering of silt loam. It also occurs in narrow belts as a gravelly outcrop along stream slopes. In both positions it is rather excessively drained because of its coarse texture and because of the presence of underlying beds of sand and gravel. Upon the more level areas, where erosion has not been so severe, there still remains a sufficient amount of silty fine earth to render the type capable of fairly successful agri- cultural occupation. The other areas of the Sassafras gravelly loam are chiefly local tracts, where an unusually high content of gravel is found in mate- rial resembling either Sassafras sandy loam or the loam. Considerable portions of the type are too sloping and too com- pletely drained to constitute good farm land. The more level areas, such as that upon Long Island, have been utilized to quite an extent for the production of special crops. In general the staple farm crops are not extensively grown upon the Sassafras gravelly loam. In the Maryland areas, however, corn gives yields of 20 to 35 bushels per acre upon portions of the type which are not too sloping and gravelly to retain sufficient moisture for maturing the crop. Wheat is grown in the regular crop rotation, giving yields of 12 to 15 bushels per acre. Clover is usually seeded with the wheat, returning yields of 1 ton or more per acre. Locally cowpeas are grown to a limited extent. Some tomatoes are also grown in localities near canning factories. Owing to its proximity to great city markets and to the fact that the soil is well drained and warm, the market garden and truck crops are grown upon it in large acreage on western Long Island. Early Irish potatoes are extensively grown and the yields obtained with liberal use of manure and fertilizer range from 100 to 200 bushels per acre. The crop reaches the market late in August and is chiefly marketed as fast as it matures. Cabbage for the summer and early fall market is also grown. Sweet corn for direct sale con- stitutes another important crop, while tomatoes are raised to a small extent. In New Jersey few general farms crops are grown upon the Sassa- fras gravelly loam. In some localities plantings of peaches, plums, cherries, and pears have been made. They have been fairly success- ful. The growing of market garden and truck crops has also been undertaken during the last 10 years and small areas of the type are thus. utilized. For the production of either the vegetables or fruit crops it is essential to select only those portions of the Sassafras gravelly loam which contain a considerable amount of silt and clay in both the 28 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. surface soil and subsoil and to avoid the areas of the type under- lain at a shallow depth by thick or compacted beds of gravel. Where the surface layer of loamy and gravelly soil and subsoil amounts te 3 feet or more the type possesses a considerable agricultural value. Elsewhere it is too completely drained and the gravel bed interferes too seriously with root development. — In general the Sassafras gravelly loam is not well suited to the staple farm crops. Certain special fruit and vegetable crops are grown where the loam content is greatest and where the local demand furnishes a good market for early vegetables or fruits. Tn all areas the Sassafras gravelly ioam is benefited by the aditiiien of organic manures. SASSAFRAS SANDY LOAM. The Sassafras sandy loam has been mapped to the extent of 332,410 acres in the soil surveys which have been made in southern New Jer- sey, Delaware, eastern and southern Maryland, and in the vicinity of Norfolk, Va. It is one of the most extensivély developed and agri- culturally important types in the Sassafras series. It is probable that additional soil surveys in these general localities will show the existence of other areas of this soil. The soil of the Sassafras sandy loam to an average depth exceed- ing 1 foot is a brown, granular sandy loam. It is characterized by a fairly even distribution of the coarse, medium, and fine grades of sand with a relatively large proportion of silt, which gives a decided coherency to the soil mass. The subsoil is a reddish-yellow or brown raha loam decidedly heavier and more coherent than the surface soil. This extends to a depth of 2 or 3 feet, where it is normally underlain by coarse sand or fine gravel. There are areas of limited extent where the more pervious deeper layer is not found and some portions of the type, par- ticularly in the New Jersey occurrences, are underlain by a stiff clay. These are not strictly typical of the Sassafras sandy loam. Upon portions of the type which slope down to stream courses a small amount of quartz gravel and occasionally a few small stones are found. Such areas are of decidedly limited extent, and the type as a whole is a remarkably uniform medium sandy loam. All of the more extensive areas of the Sassafras sandy loam possess a nearly level or very gently undulating surface topography. They occur principally within the low-lying coastal terraces which border the Delaware River and Bay and in the broad, gently sloping plain which lies between Delaware Bay and Chesapeake Bay. The abso- lute elevation of the surface of the type ranges from 5 to 10 feet above tide level near the coast line, to altitudes of 70 or 80 feet above tide upon the more elevated inland ridges. West and south of Chesa- SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 29 peake Bay the areas are of small extent and are found upon low coastal or river terraces. In all the areas of its occurrence the Sassafras sandy loam is well drained in its natural condition and only a very small proportion of the type requires artificial drainage to render it suitable for agricul- ture. The generally level or slightly undulating surface renders the use of power machinery possible over practically the entire extent of this soil. It is thus admirably suited by its natural characteristics for the development of many classes of farming. It is probable that more than 80 per cent of the total area of the Sassafras sandy loam has been cleared and utilized for some form of agriculture. The class of farming developed depends to a consider- able degree upon the location of the particular area of the type with respect to markets and transportation, since the soil itself is fairly well suited to the conduct of a high class of general farming or to a more intensive form of special crop production. For both of these classes of farming it is held in high esteem and is consequently very generally under cultivation. Only local areas of considerable slope are left in natural forest. Among the staple farm crops, corn is more extensively grown upon the Sassafras sandy loam than any other. The yields of corn re- ported from this type range from 35 to 40 bushels an acre under normal circumstances, while yields of 65 bushels or more have been attained under especially favorable conditions of season and where extra care was used in the preparation of the land and in the culti- vation of the crop. In the latitudes in which the Sassafras sandy loam occurs the dent varieties of corn are almost exclusively grown for the field crop. Wheat is most extensively grown among the small grains and gives yields which range from 12 to 18 bushels per acre under normal con- ditions, but with authentic yields in excess of 30 bushels per acre. The Sassafras sandy loam is rather porous and sandy to be classed as a first-rate wheat soil, but the yields obtained show that the crop may be used successfully in the general farm rotation. Oats and rye are both grown to a small extent upon this soil. The yields are not sufficiently high to warrant increasing the acreage. Cowpeas are grown to some extent on the Sassafras sandy loam in Delaware and the Eastern Shore of Maryland. The crop is not common, however. Crimson clover, or “scarlet” clover, as it is locally termed, has been grown upon the Sassafras sandy loam and associated soils for nearly 30 years. Excellent fields in eastern Maryland are shown in Plate III, figures 1 and 2. Within the past 10 years the area, annually seeded to this crop has been greatly increased, and the value 66 30 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. | of crimson clover both as a forage crop and as a soil renovator has led to its quite general introduction into the crop rotation of the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula. The crimson clover is sown in the growing corn at the last working or at a special working in early August. It is also sown in the tomato fields. After the corn is harvested the clover makes a good fall growth and then lies dormant during the winter. In early spring it grows rapidly and is ready for cutting for hay by the middle of May. This allows the cutting ~ of a hay crop, ranging from 14 tons to as high as 3 tons per acre, and the plowing down of the stubble in time for the planting of an- other crop of corn, tomatoes, or cowpeas. Some farmers Bean a crop of corn, follow with a seeding to wheat, and after the wheat is harvested either plow or disk harrow the Ebert stubble, seeding to crimson clover. The next spring the clover is either cut for hay or it is grazed off by hogs, sheep, or cattle, in which case a considerable residue of the plant is available to be plowed under as a green manure for a succeeding corn crop. The favorable effect of crimson clover upon the Sassafras sandy loam in securing increased yields of the other stapie and special crops has led to a gradual extension of its production, especially in cen- tral Delaware and in adjacent parts of Maryland. The yields of corn grown upon a crimson clover sod are materially greater than where the crop is grown on land upon which no winter cover crop has been planted. It has been found desirable to apply lime to a field where crimson clover is first to be seeded. This may be done at the rate of 1,000 to 2,000 pounds per acre of quicklime, or at the rate of 1 or 2 tons per acre of ground limestone. Medium red clover is quite commonly seeded in the spring on wheat upon the Sassafras sandy loam. The clover usually gives a good hay crop, ranging from 1 to 2 tons per acre. To a limited extent timothy and ciover are used for seeding for mowing lands and a fair yield of mixed hay results. The success attained with crimson’ clover and with red clov er, however, restricts the area seeded to mixed grasses. A very small acreage of buckwheat is grown upon the Sassafras sandy loam, chiefly as a catch crop or as a winter cover crop. In the couthern Maryland counties the Maryland pipe-smoking tobacco is grown to some extent upon the Sassafras sandy loam. The yields range from about 1,000 pounds to as much as 1,500 pounds per acre. The quality of the tobacco is usually good. . While the general farm crops occupy by far the larger acreage upon the Sassafras sandy loam, special vegetable and fruit crops are also grown to a considerable extent, especially in central Delaware and the eastern counties of Maryland. SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 31 Early Irish potatoes are produced to fair advantage upon this soil. _ The yields are extremely variable, ranging from 75 to 250 bushels per acre. The general average is about 100 bushels. The potatoes from this type in Delaware reach the northern markets during July and succeed the shipments from points farther south. Wherever the type occurs, from the vicinity of Norfolk, Va., to the Delaware Bay region, it 1s recognized as a soil well suited to the growing of early Trish potatoes. The extension of the production of this crop has been rather rapid during the last 10 years. Sweet potatoes are also grown in considerable acreage upon the Sassafras sandy loam. The yields are fair to good and the quality of the potatoes is usually excellent. Tomatoes are grown both for shipment to city market and for supplying local canning factories. Yields range from 4 to 6 tons or more per acre, and the crop has generally been found to be profitable. Sweet corn is grown both for direct sale and for canning. Peas, cucumbers, cantaloupes, watermelons, and asparagus are all grown nese anllee but in alt acreages, upon the Sassafras sandy loam. In central Delaware the Sassafras sandy loam has been developed as the most important fruit soil of the region. Pears occupy the largest acreage, and the Kieffer is the principal variety. It is used for canning chiefly. Peaches were extensively grown at one time, but the acreage has greatly decreased during recent years because of the trouble ex- perienced from various diseases, principally yellows and little peach. The Elberta peach is the standard variety in the present orchards. Many varieties of early summer and fall apples are successfully produced upon the Sassafras sandy loam. Among the early varieties may be mentioned Yellow Transparent and Early Ripe. Williams is grown for the summer market, while Stayman Winesap, Nero, Paragon, Winesap, York Imperial, and Rome are planted to supply the fall and winter markets. Very considerable plantings of apple orchards have been made upon the Sassafras sandy loam in central Delaware during the last 20 years. It has been found that this soil brings the trees to bearing age in 5 to 12 years. A young apple or- chard and a planting of blackberries on the Sassafras sandy loam are shown in Plate IV, figure 1. Grapes are bene planed to quite an extent in the vicinity of Dover, Del., largely upon the Sassafras sandy loam. Moores Karly and Concord are the varieties chiefly grown. Practically all of the fruit is shipped for table use. A vineyard in the vicinity of Dover, Del., is shown in Plate IV, figure 2. Among small fruits the strawberry occupies the largest acreage upon the Sassafras sandy loam. The early variety is chiefly the < 32 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Superior, while the Klondyke is grown as a midseason berry. The later varieties are not grown with as great success upon the Sassafras sandy loam as upon the more mucky and darker colored soils of the Portsmouth series. Dewberries and blackberries occupy a minor acreage upon the Sassafras sandy loam. 3 SASSAFRAS FINE SANDY LOAM. The Sasasfras fine sandy loam has been mapped to a total extent of 101,676 acres in the different soil surveys which have been made in the northern portion of the Coastal Plain. The largest areas of the type are found in the Maryland counties which border the western shore of Chesapeake Bay. Small areas are also found along the lower courses of the Delaware River and on the eastern shore of Maryland. The surface soil of the Sassafras fine sandy loam, to an average depth ranging from 9 inches to 1 foot, is a brown to yellowish- brown fine sandy loam. In some areas a small amount of quartz gravel is found in the surface soil, particularly upon sloping areas. There is also an appreciable amount of silt in the lower portions of the surface soil in such positions. In general the soil is soft and friable, but somewhat coherent when moist. The subsoil in all cases is a heavier and more compact yellow or reddish-yellow sandy loam, which normally extends to a depth ex- ceeding 3 feet. In many areas the subsoil grades downward into a more sandy layer which underlies it at depths varying from 3 to 5 feet. In some cases, especially where the surface is fiat and the total depth of subsoil is considerable, the deeper subsoil may be compact and rather poorly drained. Im such cases it is sometimes mottled yellow and gray. The surface configuration of the Sassafras fine sandy loam varies eonsiderably in the different areas of its occurrence. Along the Del- aware River and at the lower elevations on the Eastern Shore of Maryland and bordering Chesapeake Bay the type occupies low- lying, nearly level topped terraces, which extend from the vicinity of tidewater to elevations of 25 or 30 feet. These terraces are gen- erally fairly well drained, although small depressions or level areas somewhat remote from local drainage ways may be semiswampy in their natural condition. In Anne Arundel County, Md., where the greatest area of this type has been encountered, the surface is rolling to sloping in character and lies at altitudes of 40 to 150 feet above tide level, and drainage has become well established over practically all of the type. Probably three-fourths of the entire extent of the Sassatras fine sandy loam is well drained. Bul. 159, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fia. 1.—CRIMSON CLOVER ON SASSAFRAS SANDY LOAM IN EASTERN MARYLAND, READY FOR CUTTING. Fic. 2.—HARVESTING A HEAVY CROP OF CRIMSON CLOVER HAY BEFORE PLANTING CORN ON THE SAME LAND, EASTERN MARYLAND. — PLATE IV ure. 4 re Bul. 159, U. S. Dept of Agricul Fic. 1.—YOUNG APPLE ORCHARD AND PLANTING OF BLACKBERRIES ON SASSAFRAS SANDY LOAM IN CENTRAL DELAWARE. Fic. 2.—VINEYARD ON SASSAFRAS SANDY LOAM IN CENTRAL DELAWARE. SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. oe Nearly all the well-drained areas of the type have been cleared and placed under cultivation, and only the more level and poorly-drained areas remain in forest. Corn is more extensively grown than any other grain crop upon this soil, and the yields obtained range from 20 to 40 bushels per acre, probably averaging about 30 bushels for the entire type. The dent varieties are almost exclusively grown. Wheat also occupies a large acreage upon the Sassafras fine sandy loam. The yields of this grain range from 12 to 15 bushels per acre to as high as 20 bushels. The general average for the type may be stated at about 15 bushels. The Sassafras fine sandy loam is generally recognized as being well suited to the production of the Maryland type of pipe-smoking tobacco, and this crop is quite generally grown as the cash crop upon this soil in all of the southern Maryland counties. Its produc- tion is confined to these counties and none is grown east of Chesa- peake Bay. The yields of tobacco range from 1,000 to about 1,200 pounds per acre, and the quality is generally good. Oats and rye are only grown to a limited extent. A seeding to mixed timothy and red clover is frequently made with the wheat crop and fair yields of hay, ranging from 1 to 14 tons per acre, are obtained. In some localities clover is seeded alone and gives yields of 14 tons per acre or more. Where areas of the Sassafras fine sandy loam are located in prox- imity to canning factories it has been found profitable to use the land for the production of tomatoes. Fair yields, ranging from 4 to 7 tons per acre are obtained, and the production of the crop is being extended in such localities. Truck crops are grown to a small extent upon this soil, chiefly because the greater proportion of the type is not well located with respect to transportation. It has been found that early Irish pota- toes, sweet potatoes, cantaloupes, and cucumbers may be success- fully grown upon it where market facilities are available. In the majority of the areas of its occurrence the Sassafras fine sandy loam has been used to some extent for the growing of peaches, pears, apples, and plums. Where the local air and water drainage are good the tree fruits may be grown with fair success. Whether the Sassafras fine sandy loam is to be used for the pro- duction of general or special crop it has been found that it requires the use of considerable amounts of organic manure to give large yields. Generally, not much live stock is maintained upon the type so that the supply of stable manure available is small. The practice of growing green manuring crops is not general upon this soil. _ It has been shown that both cowpeas and crimson clover make good 34 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. crops upon the type and the production of both for hay, and as — green manuring crops, should become more general. The Sassafras fine sandy loam may be characterized as a fairly good general farming soil, capable of considerable improvement through the introduction of leguminous green manuring and forage crops into the normal rotation of corn and wheat. It is also a fairly good soil for growing some of the vegetable crops wherever market facilities are available. It is moderately good soil, in the localities where it occurs, for the production of some of the tree fruits, although not to be recommended for extensive commercial plantings. SASSAFRAS LOAM. A total area of 128,356 acres of the Sassafras loam has been en- countered in the soil survey work. By far the greater part of the type is found in the eastern counties of Maryland, between Delaware Bay and Chesapeake Bay. Small areas are also found on Western Long Island and in southern Maryland.* The surface soil of the Sassafras loam to an average depth of 8 inches or more is a mellow brown or yellowish-brown loam. It is soft and silty in character. It grades downward into a stiffer and more compact yellow loam subsoil which becomes distinctly reddish in tinge at depths of 24 to 32 inches. The subsoil is usually under- lain by fine gravel or coarse sand at depths ranging from 2 to 34 feet. The character of the soil and subsoil is such that a considerable smount of moisture is easily retained for crop production while effective drainage is promoted over the greater proportion of the type by the presence of the coarser material lying at greater depth. Under ordinary conditions of cultivation the surface soil is easily worked and friable. Where the organic matter content of the surface soil has become reduced and especially where the land has been grazed when the soil was too wet there is a tendency toward compacted surface soil and toward breaking into clods and lumps when the land is plowed. - The Sassafras loam is chiefly developed upon the low, rolling uplands of the eastern counties of Maryland and upon the nearly ievel surfaces of the interstream ridges in the counties west of Chesapeake Bay. The small area on western Long Island lies at low elevations and is gently sloping to nearly level. In general there are few steep slopes within the area of this soil type. The recognized value of the Sassafras loam as an excellent general farm- iIt is probable that considerable areas of the Sassafras loam have been included in the areas of the Sassafras silt loam in the surveys of Cecil, Harford, and Kent Counties, _ Md. These can not be separated at the present time. SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 35 ing soil has led to its almost complete occupation for the production of various staple crops. Throughout the entire extent of its development the Sassafras loam is naturally well drained, although minor areas which occupy depressed positions or very flat surfaces remote from stream drain- age may be somewhat poorly drained and in need of tiling for the best results in crop production. Usually the somewhat elevated position of the type, its occurrence in regions of well-established stream drainage, and particularly the general existence of the more porous underlying sandy layer give rise to perfect natural drainage. The Sassafras loam is essentially a soil well fitted for the growing of the staple field crops which constitute the basis for general farm- ing in the areas where it occurs. Wheat is the crop most extensively grown upon the Sassafras loam. It is probable that it occupies nearly or quite one-half of the total area of the type which is annually planted to crops. This arises from the fact that a 5-year rotation is in common use which consists of corn, followed by wheat with seeding to clover. The clover is cut one year and then plowed for another seeding of wheat. Clover is again sown on the wheat, cut for one year and the rotation returns to corn. While this rotation is much practiced, the 3-year rotation of corn, wheat, and clover is also common. The acreage statistics in counties where the Sassafras loam is an important soil type bear out the indication that wheat is the most extensively grown grain crop. While there is considerable variation in the average crops of wheat secured it may be said that the yields range from 15 to 30 bushels per acre with a general average of about 20 bushels. The quality of the wheat grown upon this soil is usually better than the average and the general opinion is held that wheat is one of the crops best suited to the Sassafras loam. It is a notable fact that the counties in which this soil and the closely related Sassafras silt loam are most extensively developed have increased the acreage and produc- tion of wheat during the past 25 years. The Sassafras loam may safely be ranked as one of the types best suited to wheat in the northern Coastal Plain region. Corn is the second crop in acreage and importance upon the Sassafras loam. It is probably nearly equaled in extent of acreage by the various grass crops, although the failure to seed to grass with a portion of the wheat crop annually reduces the area in grasses. The yields of corn reported from the Sassafras loam range from 40 to 75 bushels per acre. It is probable that the general average for the type is in the vicinity of 45 bushels per acre. Tt is stated in the Soil Survey of the Easton Area, Md., that— Where the soil is kept in a good state of productiveness, as under a 5-year rotation of corn, wheat, grass. wheat, and grass, applying barnyard manure 4 36 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. + and 40 bushels of lime to the broken grass sod preceding corn and about 306 pounds of good commercial fertilizer to wheat, average yields of 60 bushels of corn, 20 bushels of wheat after corn, and 28 bushels after grass, and 14 tons of hay per acre are readily secured. While these returns are distinctly above the ordinary yields of the type they represent its capabilities as a grass and grain- producing soil under the unusually good methods of management given. A considerable acreage of hay is annually grown upon the Sassa- fras loam. Where a regular crop rotation is used and the wheat crop is adequately fertilized the yields of clover or of mixed clover and timothy range from 1 to 24 tons per acre. Oats are grown to a very limited extent upon the Sassafras loam. Rye is an uncommon crop. Cowpeas have been successfully grown in some cases, and the type seems well suited to the production of this crop. Crimson or scarlet clover is coming to be grown upon the Sassafras loam, but the crop is not nearly so common as on the more sandy members of the series. The yields obtained are good, ranging from 14 to 3 tons per acre. It has been found by progressive farmers that the use of lime on the Sassafras loam is a profitable practice. The lime is usually applied in the form of lump, quick lime, which is slaked in the field. Applications vary from 20 to 40 bushels per acre. The chief benefit of liming is held to be in the increased crop of clover secured after its application, which later results in improved grain crops grown upon the clover sod. It is probable that finely ground limestone or oyster shells applied at the rate of about 2 tons per acre would be equally beneficial. Tomatoes are grown to quite an extent on the Sassafras loam, and the yields range from 4 tons per acre upward. The crop is chiefly grown for near-by canning factories. Market garden and trucking crops are grown upon some areas of the Sassafras loam where markets are available. Beans, peas, cab- bage, and cantaloupes are the principal crops grown. The Kieffer pear is most extensively grown among orchard fruits, although Winesap, York Imperial, and other varieties of apples are reasonably successful upon this soil. Large nurseries are located upon one part of the type and many varieties of fruit trees are grown and distributed. Peaches were at one time extensively grown, but yellows and other diseases have led to the practical abandonment of the crop upon nearly all of the Sassafras loam. Among the small fruits, strawberries, dewberries, and blackber- ries are grown in some localities to a small extent. The Sassafras loam is characteristically a general farming soil, well suited to the growing of corn, wheat, and grass. The knowl- SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 37 edge of the adaptation of this soil to these crops is general and the agriculture of the type is chiefly based upon the production of these three crops. Only locally is the Sassafras loam used for the grow- ing of tomatoes and other special crops. The vegetables are chiefly grown for home use or to a small extent for special markets. Considering the excellent yields of corn and grass attained from the Sassafras loam there is a rather small amount of any live stock aside from work animals maintained upon the type. Some dairy cows are kept as an adjunct to grass and grain farming and a few steers are fattened, but the total number of neat cattle kept upon the type is small. Nearly every farm principally consisting of this soil maintains a few hogs, while some sheep are seen upon it. Yet the live-stock industry is subordinate over the greater part of the Sassafras loam. Few Coastal Plain soils equal the Sassafras loam for the uses _ which have been indicated. SASSAFRAS SILT LOAM. The areas of the Sassafras silt loam which have been encountered in the soil survey are confined entirely to the Coastal Plain portions. of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. A total area of 518,142 acres of this type has been included in 12 different soil surveys in these 4 States.1 It is probable that the soil type does not occur farther north than New Brunswick, N. J., nor farther south than Norfolk, Va. The breve soil of the Sassafras silt loam, to an average depth of 9 or 10 inches, is a soft, friable, brown silt loam, occasionally con- taining small amounts of fine gravel. This is underlain to a depth of 36 inches in nearly all cases, and frequently to a depth of 7 or 8 feet, by a yellow or reddish-yellow heavy silt loam, which is gen- erally sufficiently heavy to be called a clay in the localities where it occurs. At a depth varying from 3 feet to 8 or 10 feet this subsoil ig frequently underlain by beds of gravel or gravel and sand, which separate the mass of soil and subsoil from underlying formations. This feature is shown in Plate V, figure 1. In the southern por- tion of the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula, however, this gravel bed is frequently lacking, and the subsoil rests not infrequently on beds of sand. While the subsoil is rather stiff and heavy, it is still sufii- ciently granulated and friable to give moderate underdrainage, and it is only in case of depressions occurring within the type that drainage is likely to be deficient. Throughout the region in which it occurs the Sassafras silt loam occupies low, undulating plains or nearly level terraces, which slope 1It*°is probable that portions of the type as mapped in Cecil, Harford, and Kent Counties, Md., should be included with the Sassafras loam. 38 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from the inland regions gently to a rather steep frontal escarpment, where the type ordinarily terminates, and is replaced at lower levels by other soils. In southern New Jersey the soil type is found at an altitude of 25 to 50 feet on the low terraces which border the eastern shore of the Delaware River and Delaware Bay, and it rises gently inland to a higher level at about 140 feet altitude. Some por- ~ tions of the type between the low and the higher terrace are rolling to sloping in their surface features. In the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula the highest altitudes of the type are found in the form of narrow terraces where the Coastal Plain section borders on the Piedmont. Some of these higher terraces rise to an altitude of 200 feet or more. In general the highest altitudes of the Sassafras silt loam within the Coastal Plain proper are found at about 100 to 110 feet above tide in the vicinity of Chesapeake Bay, and the surface slopes gently eastward toward Delaware Bay through Maryland and central Delaware, reaching its lowest level of about 10 feet above tidewater in the east-central part of the State of Delaware. In southern Maryland the Sassafras silt loam exists along the west shore of Chesapeake Bay and along the main tidewater embayments tributary to the bay in the form of distinct terraces, having an alti- tude of 60 to 100 feet above tidewater. Some of these terraces extend a considerable distance inland along the principal streams, and their surface rises gently with the slope of the stream bed to altitudes of over 100 feet. In all regions where it occurs the surface is so level that power machinery may be used upon all parts of the type when it is properly cleared of its natural hardwood growth. The altitude above the local water level renders the natural drainage effective over the greater proportion of the type. Slight hollows and level tracts remote from the drainage courses constitute the only exception to this general rule. Although the Sassafras silt loam is remarkably uniform in its inherent characteristics from its most northern extension to its southern limits, there are noticeable variations in the yields of the general farm crops which are produced upon the type. In the more northern regions, where this soil is highly esteemed for general farming, it has been the subject of the most careful tillage and treat- ment. As a result the yields of all the farm crops are high, and the soil is rarely sold at a price lower than $75 to $100 an acre. Farther south, where a different and less effective system of farming has been in use, the yields are less, the price of the land is not more than one-third as great, and the surface soil is more yellow and lacks sufii- cient organic matter. It is also more likely to be compacted and clodded when cultivated in a moist condition. These differences in its condition indicate the chief limitations upon the producing ca- pacity of the Sassafras silt loam. Where a careful and systematic SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 39 crop rotation is practiced, where stable manure and other organic manures are used, and particularly where moderate amounts of lime are applied in connection with the seeding down of the grasses and clover, maximum yields are always obtained, and the soil is found to be in its best condition. On the contrary, where organic manures are not used, where liming is never practiced, and where hoed crops are cultivated year after year upon the same area, the soil is much less productive and much less esteemed for the production of crops. The introduction of better methods in the regions last referred to will slowly increase the producing capacity of this soil and render it as fertile and as valuable as in the locations where it has received better treatment in the past. In all cases the natural capacity of the soil is above the average for each region where it occurs. The necessary steps for the improvement of crop yields upon this type have already been indicated in the discussion of the limitations of such yields. One of the paramount necessities is the application of all stable manure which is available, and in case this supply is not sufficient to meet the needs some leguminous crop lke crimson clover or the medium red clover should be produced for the sole pur- pose of being plowed under to increase the humus content, preferably with an application of 2,000 pounds of lime per acre. In certain localities difficulty has been encountered in securing a good stand of clover upon this soil type. Liming will largely overcome this difli- culty, and better results can be obtained by seeding the clover with- out a nurse crop. There are small local areas within the general area of the type where additional artificial drainage would prove beneficial. These usually consist of small saucer-shaped depressions or of flat inter- stream areas where the headwater drainage of the streams is only partially established. Practically every available acre of the Sassafras silt loam has been brought under cultivation in the various regions where it occurs. It is one of the most highly prized general farming soils of the North Atlantic Coastal Plain section, and the original hardwood timber was cleared from its surface from 100 to 200 years ago. The soil type was early sought for the production of corn, wheat, and grass, and certain special crops have been produced upon it with success as transportation facilities and market demands increased. While there is considerable variation in the yields produced, owing to more or less efficient mane eT it is naturally an ielient soil for general farming. It is apparent from the textural characteristics of the Sassafras silt loam, from its level to gently undulating surface topography, and from the classes of crops best suited for production upon this soil that the equipment required for its most economical tillage will 40 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. differ very materially from the equipment to be used upon the more sandy Coastal Plain soils. The Sassafras silt loam should be plowed to a depth of 8 or 9 inches, and if the natural soil is not so deep as this the depth of plowing should be gradually increased from year to year until the desired maximum is reached. Economy in the conduct of tillage operations demands that at least two-horse teams where each animal will weigh from 1,300 to 1,500 pounds should be used, and the most economical working of land of this class would justify the four-horse hitch, which is used to special advantage upon the heavy general farming soils, such as the limestone soils of Maryland and Pennsylvania and the prairie soils of the Central States. For the same reasons the lightweight turning plow used upon the more sandy soils of the Coastal Plain is totally inadequate for the proper tillage of the Sassafras silt loam. In its place there should be used either the one or two gang sulky plow or the two or three blade disk plow. These implements, drawn by adequate horsepower, are capable of turning and thoroughly pulverizing the surface soil to the required depth of 8 or 9 inches. Less powerful equipment, either of team or tools, is not competent to bring out the best quali- ties and the full efficiency of the soil. The use of adequate tillage implements is shown in Plate V, figure 2. Both the soil and subsoil require frequent stirring, and it is desired to use such implements as the disk harrow, the spring-tooth harrow, or the spike-tooth harrow to secure this preparation of the land. Wherever possible, horsepower machinery should also be used for the planting and intertillage of crops. In the same way that heavier teams and tools are iced for the proper tillage of the Sassafras silt ioam, so also are more expensive and commodious farm buildings requisite. These exist in New Jersey and on the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula, where the soil type is most profitably tilled. The storage of grain, hay, and straw and the proper housing of tools and work stock, even in the absence of the dairy industry or of cattle breeding, require the more elabo- rate equipment of buildings and barns. Typical farm buildings are shown in Plate VI, figure 1. Thus the nature of the soil and its characteristic properties de- termine the character of the best farm equipment in the form of work stock, machinery, and buildings. The Sassafras silt loam is probably the best general farming soil to be found in the northern part of the Coastal Plain regions. Its level surface, its soft, friable surface soil when properly handled, the considerable depth of both surface soil and subsoil, and the ade- quate drainage features of the type all tend to render it suitable for Bul. 159, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fic. 1.—GRAVEL BED WHICH IS GENERALLY FOUND UNDERLYING THE SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES, KENT COUNTY, MD. Fic. 2.—Disk HARROW USED IN PREPARING THE SEED BED ON THE SASSAFRAS LOAM AND SILT LOAM. PLATE VI. EASTERN MARYLAND. Fic. 2.—CoRN ON SASSAFRAS SILT LOAM IN KENT County, MD. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ’ Fic. 1.—TYPICAL GROUP OF FARM BUILDINGS ON THE SASSAFRAS SILT LOAM IN Bul. 159 SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 41 the production of the principal farm crops of the latitude in which it occurs. The Sassafras silt loam is extensively used for the production of corn. The dent varieties are principally grown, and the yields obtained depend upon the previous preparation of the land and its treatment for a series of years. Where the land has been properly manured with stable manure, where lirfie has been applied at least once in the rotation, where a regular rotation of crops has been prac- ticed for a considerable period of time, the yields of shelled corn range from 50 to 80 bushels per acre. The latter yield, of course, is only obtained by the best farmers under the most favorable circum- stances. It is probable, however, that the average yield for the type upon well-tilled areas will be in excess of 50 bushels per acre. Excellent fields of corn grown upon the Sassafras silt loam in northern Delaware are shown in Plate VI, figure 2, and Plate VII, figure 1. Corn is grown not only for the shelled grain but also for silage purposes, particularly in southern New Jersey. Yields of silage corn frequently exceed 12 tons per acre, although the ordinary yield may be stated as from 10 to 12 tons. Winter wheat is more extensively grown upon the Sassafras silt loam than any other grain crop. It is probable that nearly one-half of the cultivated area of the type is annually sowed to wheat. In the more northern areas, especially in southern New Jersey, wheat yields from 20 to 25 bushels per acre, and yields of 35 and even 38 bushels are not infrequently obtained when the land is in the best condition and the season is favorable. In the eastern coun- ties of Maryland and in Delaware yields of 15 to 25 bushels are secured, with an average production of about 18 bushels per acre. Such a wheat field is shown in Plate VII, figure 2. The yields in the southern counties of Maryland average 12 to 20 bushels on this soil. A good grade of hard winter wheat is produced, and even where the value of the land is unusually high the excellent yield of wheat and its good quality warrant its production upon the Sassafras silt loam. Oats are not seeded extensively upon the Sassafras silt loam, but the yields per acre are good wherever the crop is grown. In some of the eastern Maryland counties yields of 40 to 50 bushels per acre of oats are reported, and it may be said that a yield of 35 to 45 bushels may normally be expected. Both timothy and red clover are commonly seeded with one or the other of the small grain crops in regular rotation in order to furnish hay. In general, clover makes a good stand, especially if the land has been limed, and timothy is equally satisfactory. The mixed hay will yield from 14 to 2 tons per acre, and where the soil is in par- ticularly good condition this yield, even, may be exceeded. 49 BULLETIN 159, U; S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Z These principal farm crops are usually grown upon the Sassafras sult loam in regular succession. There is some diversity in the order of the crop rotations, but in general the sod land is fall plowed and fitted in the succeeding spring for the production of corn. In this fitting the application of stable manure, either upon the sod before plowing or upon the plowed land before the planting of the corn, is the usual practice. In the latter case the manure is thoroughly harrowed in to the surface soil. Commercial fertilizers are also used in connection with the stable manure and a complete fertilizer, carry- ing 3 or 4 per cent of nitrogen, usually about 4 per cent of potash, and 10 to 12 per cent of phosphoric acid, is quite commonly selected. The quantity applied varies considerably in different localities, rang- ing from 250 pounds an acre to as much as 500 pounds an acre in the more intensively farmed districts. Frequent cultivation of the corn during the growing season is the rule where the largest crops are obtained. Corn is usually followed by wheat either for one or two crops. The second crop of wheat is not infrequently displaced by oats. In either case the land is seeded to timothy and clover with the second crop of grain and remains in grass for two years or more. In the Chesapeake Bay region, where the Sassafras silt loam is extensively developed upon both sides of the bay, a considerable can- ning industry has been developed. This type of soil has contributed largely to the maintenance of the industry through the extensive production of sweet corn and of tomatoes. The canning corn is picked in the husk and'sold, usually by the ton, to the local factories. The yield varies from 24 to 34 tons per acre under normal conditions. Prices, of course, vary, but the crop usually brings in a cash return of $25 to $85 an acre. The blades and stalks remain as rough forage to be fed upon the farm, and constitute a valuable by-product to those farmers who feed beef stock or dairy cows. Tomatoes are produced extensively on the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula, and around the head of Chesapeake Bay in general. The soil is usually prepared for tomato growing by the application of » such stable manure as is available and by the application of a com- plete commercial fertilizer. The plants are set to be cultivated in both directions and are not supported in the field. Yields vary materially. Where the ground has not been occupied previously for the production of this crop the Sassafras silt loam has been known to produce 12 tons or more of tomatoes per acre. In gen- eral, average yields, however, run-from 6 to 8 tons upon this type of soil. The tomatoes are well known for quality and flavor, but constitute a late crep suitable for canning purposes rather than an early crop for market shipment. SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 43 The medium to late summer crop of Irish potatoes is also largely produced upon the Sassafras silt loam, both in southern New Jersey and upon the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula. The preparation of the land does not differ materially from that of the preparation for corn, although spring plowing is possibly more generally prac- ticed for the potato crop. In the fertilization commercial fertilizer is used in larger quantities, applications of 1,000 pounds or more per acre being made by the best growers. A fertilizer high in potash content is usually employed. The yields vary from about 100 bushels per acre for the early crop to more than 200 bushels for the later crop in a favorable season. Locally, both in southern New Jersey and on the Delaware-Mary- land Peninsula, asparagus is produced to a considerable extent upon the Sassafras silt loam. The beds are long-lived and productive, but the asparagus, although excellent in quality, is not ready for marketing as early in the spring as the crop which is grown upon the more sandy soils. The Sassafras silt loam was at one time extensively used on the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula for the production of peaches, and proved its value for this crop. Owing to the invasion of certain diseases many orchards have been cut out and their area is at present devoted to the general farm crops. Recently the Sassafras silt loam has been extensively planted to pears, the Kieffer being the variety usually selected. The Kieffer is fairly resistant to blight, makes a strong growth, and usually gives a heavy yield. In both Maryland and Delaware thousands of bushels of Kieffers are annually canned in the local canneries. A considerable proportion of this crop is produced upon the Sassafras sit loam. A young orchard of Kieffer pears is shown in Plate VIII, figure 1. The Sassafras silt loam is undoubtedly one of the best soils for apple production in the Maryland-Delaware Peninsula and in south- ern New Jersey. Several varieties are adapted to this type, but it is probable that Winesap, Stayman Winesap, Paragon, and Grimes Golden are best suited for this particular soil, under the climatic conditions existing in those sections of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and of the Chesapeake Bay region where the type is developed. Wherever apples are to be planted upon this type the site should have some elevation and good natural drainage, both for water and for air. Where the Sassafras silt loam is encountered in southern Mary- land a considerable amount of the Maryland pipe-smoking tobacco is still grown upon it. The soil is generally considered rather too heavy and retentive of moisture to produce the best quality of leaf and the area planted to tobacco is gradually being reduced. q oI 44 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tt will be seen from the foregoing discussion of the crop adapta-_ tions of this soil that it constitutes one of the best general farming types in the Atlantic Coastal Plain. In fact it is generally preferred above all others in the North Atlantic district for the production of the crops enumerated. It is a strong, fertile, well-drained, level- surfaced soil, and every acre of it has usually been cleared and © placed under cultivation. In the hands of skillful farmers its crop- producing power has been increased from year to yedr until yields higher than the average for other soils in its localities are habitually produced. It is practically the only soil in the Atlantic Coastal Plain that compares favorably with the soils of the Limestone Valleys for the production of corn, wheat, and grass. It is one of the best soils in the Coastal Plain for the production of apples, pears, and peaches. It is well suited to the production of Irish potatoes, and of tomatoes and sweet corn for canning purposes. Its improvement may easily be accomplished through the restora- tion of organic material to the surface soil, aided by the application of lime. As a natural consequence of the suitability of the Sassafras silt loam to the production of corn, oats, the grasses, and the leguminous forage crops, the type is one of the best soils in the North Atlantic Coastal Plain to serve as a basis for the establishment of the. dairy industry. An excellent dairy herd on the Sassafras silt loam is shown in Plate VIII, figure 2. Where the price of land is high, ranging from $65 to $100 or more an acre, the business should be run upon a decidedly intensive basis. Pasturage should only con- stitute part of the regular rotation, and no land of this type should be set aside as permanent pasture. It is possible so to arrange the crop production of a farm upon the Sassafras silt loam that the corn silage and corn for the grain, peas, oats, and barley as soiling crops, rye or winter wheat as an early soiling crop, and the mixed grasses, cowpeas. crimson clover, crimson clover and: rape, or even alfalfa may all be produced for forage purposes. The capability of producing these crops, taken together with good transportation facilities and the abundance of fresh pure water throughout the region, renders the soil ideal as a basis for dairying and stock raising. Wherever rough land or pasture land of lower value is included in a farm made up principally of the Sassafras silt loam, sheep rais- ing is also a profitable industry. The keeping of sheep in connection with the dairy industry has proved profitable in several locations. CROP USES AND ADAPTATIONS. All of the soils of the Sassafras series occur within a region char- acterized by a medium to long growing season, an abundant rain- fall for the production of the majority of field crops, and generally SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 45 by a topography which permits of the cultivation of a large pro- - portion of the land surface. In consequence of these natural advan- tages, a relatively high proportion of the total area of each of the soils of the series has ee brought under different forms of agricul- tural occupation. The crops grown and the systems of agriculture followed vary in different regions with variations in the character of the soil and with differences in the market and transportation conditions. It is also true that traditional forms cf agriculture have to some degree influenced the characteristic crop production of some areas where these soils occur. If consideration is given to the total acreages occupied by the chief erops grown upon the soils of this series it is probable that the areas given to corn, wheat, and hay and forage crops greatly exceed the areas devoted to all of the special crops combined. When the total value of the different crops is considered, the special crops take high rank, although the regions of their production are decidedly limited by market demands and the facilities for transportation. The area occupied chiefly by the soils of the Sassafras series may, for convenience, be divided into several districts, within which major differences in cropping are characteristic. On the western end of Long Island the area devoted to the pro- duction of miscellaneous vegetables as truck and market-garden crops exceeds that given to any other crops. The area planted to Irish po- tatoes is second in importance. Relatively small areas are devoted to hay and forage and to the cereal grains. Among the latter, corn predominates. When consideration is given to the value of the product, it may be said that the combined values of the miscellaneous vegetables and potatoes amount to considerably more than one-half of the total value of crops grown. Because of the immediate proximity of this section to the great metropolitan markets, and because of the existence of rapid means of transportation to market and of a large mileage of good roads, the special forms of agriculture have largely supplanted the older systems of grass and grain growing, and the soils of the Sassafras series on Long Island have become special crop soils wherever they are so situated as to be used for any agricultural purpose. The market-garden and truck farms on the western end of Long Island are usually of small size, and they are laid out in plots of small acreage, upon which a constant succession of vegetables is kept growing. It is the aim of the market gardener to keep the land constantly occupied during the growing season. In the early spring kale, spinach, and rheubarb are marketed. Later onions, radishes, and lettuce are sold. Their place is taken by early peas, sweet corn, and early potatoes. Later in the season crops of tomatoes and cab- bage are grown. Kale and spinach are also planted for a late fall and early winter crop. 4 A large part of the market-garden crops grown within a radius. of 25 to 30 miles of the city markets is transported to them by spe- cially constructed two-horse market wagons. The vegetables are usually picked in the afternoon, transported to market during the night, and the produce sold on the wholesale market in the early morning. The direct sale of vegetables to the consumer is only un- feta by a very few growers. The chief specialization in cropping with reference to soil adapta- tions in this district consists in the selection of the Sassafras sand for the growing of the extra early market garden crops, wherever it is available for such uses. The Sassafras gravelly loam is also used for market gardening and trucking, but its special value as an early Irish potato soil has led to its extensive use for the growing of that crop. It is probable that a large part of the potato crop grown on Long Island is produced on this soil. There is such a demand for every acre suited to the growing of the different special crops that the truckers utilize the available land for the crops which their experience proves to be profitable, depend- ing upon special skill in soil manipulation to a large degree for their success in crop production. The opportunities for soil selection for special crops is, therefore, somewhat limited or obscured. The belt of territory in central New Jersey which is chiefly occu- pied by the soils of the Sassafras series is also well located with re- spect to great city markets and well provided with means of trans- portation. Within this region there is quite a wide variety in the character of the available soil types and the different uses of the soils of the Sassafras series for characteristic cropping systems is rather clearly marked. Upon the heavier soils, especially the Sassafras silt loam, the grow- ing of hay and forage and the production of corn and wheat con- stitute the chief industries so far as acreage occupied is concerned. Excellent yields are obtained and the farming tends toward a rather intensive form of grain and grass production, generally diversified by the growing of one or more special crops for cash sale. Early Irish potatoes are most generally grown for this purpose, with tomatoes for market probably second in importance. Dairying is carried on to some extent for the production of market milk. The more sandy soils, such as the Sassafras sandy loam, fine sand, and sand, are much more completely occupied for special forms of crop production. This arises both from the fact that they are nat- urally well suited to the uses of the market gardener and trucker, and also from the fact that the larger areas of these types are un- usually well situated with respect to market and transportation. 46 BULLETIN 159, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SOILS OF THE SASSAFRAS SERIES. 47 facilities. Considerable areas of all of these soils are found along the low forelands adjacent to the Delaware River and Bay within _ easy hauling distance of the Camden and Philadelphia markets, or else in such positions*that rail transportation is available. Other large areas of these types le along the main lines of rail communi- - cation between Philadelphia and New York, and are extensively utilized for special crop growing. Early Irish potatoes occupy the largest acreage given to any one crop. Those grown upon the Sassa- fras sandy loam, fine sand, and sand give fair yields of potatoes of good quality at a period when the southern New Jersey region can occupy the city markets between the shipments from points farther south and those from Long Island. The crop is planted early, early varieties are chosen, and the first shipments to market are frequently made by the middle of July. The movement of the crop from the more sandy soils continues until about the 1st of August. It is usually succeeded by shipment from the heavier soil types, especially from the Sassafras silt loam. This later crop is marketed from about the first to the middle of August. The dates of marketing vary with seasonal differences. The production of sweet potatoes is decidedly localized and ap- proximately one-half of the entire acreage grown in New Jersey is produced in Gloucester and Salem Counties, chiefly upon the Sassa- fras sand and fine sand. The special value of these types for sweet- potato production is well understood. They constitute warm, well- drained soils upon which good average yields are secured, and the potatoes are of excellent quality. The miscellaneous vegetables occupy a considerable acreage upon all the soils of the Sassafras series in this region. They are most extensively grown upon the Sassafras sand, fine sand, and sandy loam where these occur within short distances of transportation facilities especially along the Delaware River south of Trenton. Tomatoes for market shipment are most extensively grown. The sandy soils produce moderate yields of early tomatoes while the Sassafras silt loam gives a somewhat larger yield but a later crop. Watermelons, cantaloupes, sweet corn, early peas, and beans, egg plant and asparagus constitute the other crops chiefly grown upon the more sandy soils of the Sassafras series in this region. Straw- berries and other small fruits are also grown. The greater part cf the special crop production is carried on upon small farms which are intensively tilled to these crops. The fer- tility of these sandy soils is maintained by the use of large amounts of stable manure shipped into the district from the cities and sup- plemented by heavy applications of special commercial fertilizers. This is shown in Plate TX. Sos t St See 35. EE BEE SEE ee ee ees 10 9 1 6 4 ; Nj eTe Lb A Pee ES eet 3 Pere MELE OD Si en diee FIN EIL ELEN 10 8 2 7 3 a PTs Oe 2 o5 Sye s SS Pe, eee OEE, 10 8 2 4 6 @ LAT: FS ee ae a a EAE Sa DE SES 9 6 3 6 3g prs wo tes thas SO Ja et Ns EES eel ee ESS | 9 5 4 5 4 Feeding was very heavy on this plant, which had been growing for some time in the pot and had been seriously attacked by aphides on two occasions. Iron arsenite has some value as an insecticide, but not as much as ferrous arsenate, even when properly made up, and unless an effort is made to apply it in uniform coating on the foliage it has little value as an insect’ destroyer. CACTUS COMPARED WITH WHALE-OIL SOAP AS AN ADHESIVE. On February 20, 1914, while conducting spraying experiments against the belted cucumber beetle and cabbage looper (Autographa brassice Riley) on cabbage on the farm of Mr. George Federhoff, near Brownsville, Tex., it was decided to make a comparison of whale-oil soap and cactus as adhesives, without considering the cost of the two products. One acre of cabbage was sprayed with 1 pound of zine arsenite (in powdered form) to 60 gallons of water, with the addition of 35 pounds of cactus. The cactus was sliced and put in the water on February 19, and had given up its glutinous matter to the solution by the time spraying was begun the following day. This mixture spread and adhered exceedingly well. The next acre was sprayed with the same amount of poison, but whale- oil soap was substituted for cactus. This was done both for a comparison of adhesive qualities and to observe the effect of the soap on the cabbage aphis (Aphis brassice L.), as in several spots CACTUS SOLUTION AS AN ADHESIVE. 13 in this acre the aphis was making its appearance. The soap was used at the rate of 3 pounds to 60 gallons of water. Very careful notes were made on the sticking qualities of the soap, and it was found that when compared at close range with the cactus spray the soap equalled the cactus in spreading power, although lacking in adherence. This information was obtained by observing sprayed plants with and without a lens. It was soon seen that the cactus spray adhered and dried on the foliage better than the soap spray. This favored the cactus, since the heavy dews in the Rio Grande Valley will wash poison having but slight adhesive qualities from the fohage in a short time. COPPER SULPHATE AS A PRESERVATIVE FOR THE CACTUS. On April 6, 1914, 50 pounds of cactus were cut into small pieces and placed in a barrel with 24 gallons of water, and on April 7, 1 pound of copper sulphate was dissolved in 4 gallons of water and added to the barrel which was numbered lot 6.. The solid portion of the cactus or prickly pear was removed before adding the copper sulphate. This made 28 gallons in solution. No chemical action was observed. The solution kept perfectly for about four weeks, when it had to be discarded to make room for other experiments. The temperature during this time averaged about 70° F. COPPER SULPHATE USED WITH ZINC ARSENITE. ° Aiter using the copper sulphate as a preservative for the juice extracted from the prickly pear, the possibility of a chemical reac- tion upon the addition of the arsenical to the solution was tested. Upon the addition of powdered zinc arsenite at the rate of 1 pound to 60 gallons of water a slight chemical reaction was noticed, evi- dently the copper changing places with the zinc to a small degree. A slight precipitate was formed, but not enough to cause any trouble when a good pressure was maintained in the tank of the sprayer. The precipitate was not increased after the mixture was allowed to stand for three hours. No difference was observed in the effective- mess of the arsenical, either with or without the addition of the copper sulphate. | COPPER SULPHATE USED WITH LEAD ARSENATE. The use of lead arsenate in combination with prickly pear with- out the addition of some other chemical has never been a success. A _ precipitate is always formed which makes it impossible to use the _ mixture to advantage asa spray. The same proportion of cactus and copper sulphate utilized in the zine arsenite spray was here em- 14 BULLETIN 160, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ployed. On April 13, 1914,1 pound of lead arsenate in the paste form was placed in 20 gallons of cactus water which contained copper — sulphate in the amount of 1 pound to 28 gallons of water. It was at once noticed that the copper sulphate retarded the precipitation — of the lead arsenate, so much so that the solution could be used as a spray with some success, at a normal pressure with a hand pump. — This was encouraging, as it had been impossible to use lead arsenate alone in combination with cactus as an adhesive. The writer would recommend, however, that the foregoing combination be tsed on a large scale only when a strong pressure can be maintained through- | out the operation, or the results will be unsatisfactory. The mortality in the experiments was practically the same as when the arsenical was used alone. Had more experiments been made in the field, in all probability a higher mortality would have been observed in the end. COPPER SULPHATE AND FERROUS ARSENATE. The use of copper sulphate as a preservative for the cactus, com- bined with ferrous arsenate to form a spray, did not appear to pro- duce any chemical changes, no noticeable precipitate being found — that would prevent the use of the solution as a spray. It had been expected that more of an action would take place when the ferrous : arsenate was added to the cactus water containing copper sulphate. _ The ferrous arsenate was not altered in insecticidal value when mixed . with sulphate of copper. ¢ EXPERIMENTS WITH OTHER PRESERVATIVES. SALICYLIC ACID. Cn March 13, 1914, 45 pounds of cactus were sliced and placed in © 32 gallons of water, and in another ict 30 pounds were added to 24 — gallons of water. The following day the sclid portion of the cactus © was removed from the two lots and the water poured from both into — another receptacle. This made 56 gallons of the liquid to be pre- served. One-fourth of a peu of salieylic acid was dissolved “a added to the cactus water, and ‘the mixture was allowed to stand — exposed to the air. On April 1 the mixture was found to be in perg ; fect condition. A bluish-white scum was noticed to have formed on | the surface shortly after the acid was dissolved in the water. To 4 dissolve salicylic acid a certain amount of alcohol is necessary. At first the acid was dissolved in a 10 per cent sclution of alcohol, but — it was later found that cactus water served equally well for this purpose after fermentation was well under way, although action was somewhat delayed. S| CACTUS SOLUTION AS AN ADHESIVE. 15 SODIUM BENZOATE. Sodium benzoate was used in a limited way as a preservative for the cactus solution. On March 14 one-fourth of a pound was dis- solved in a small quantity of alcohol and added to a barrel contain- ing 40 gallons of water in which 50 pounds of cactus had been placed March 13, after removing the solid portion of the pear. The mixture was stirred vigorously for five minutes and later covered. On April 2 an examination was made and the liquid used as a spray with zine arsenite. Only slight fermentation had taken place, and no difli- culty was encountered in applying the spray. The first disadvantage in using sodium benzoate for such a purpose is its cost. It is somewhat more expensive than other chemicals of this class, and the element of cost is a primary consideration. Another feature is that it is not easily dissolved, and unless it is thoroughly dissolved its powers as a preservative are considerably lessened. On April 2 sodium benzoate was again used in the proportion of 1 pound to 200 pounds of cactus in 100 gallons of water. This was ~ quite a concentrated mixture, but it kept in perfect condition for two weeks, at the end of which time it was used up. The average temper- ature a part of the time was 80° F. THE COMMON PRICKLY PEAR CACTI AND THEIR CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The common cactus or prickly pear of southern Texas is a variety Known as “nopal” or “nopal azul” (Platopuntia lindheimeri Engelm.). This is the variety with flat, rounded leaves and growing about 4 or 5 feet high, and it is found well distributed over southern Texas. It is a native species which varies considerably in coloration of spines as well as in its general habit of growth. The fruit is purplish throughout, more so than the more spiny variety, Plato- puntia engelmannit Salm., which is very similar in habit of growth, but usually occurs farther west than the region occupied by this species. The large spineless cactus frequently cultivated, but ordi- narily not occurring abundantly in the cactus plains of southern Texas, is a species which has been called Platopuntia tuna Will. It grows much taller than the common “nopal” and is known in California as “mission pear” and in Texas as “ Nopal de castilla.” It frequently grows 10 to 15 feet in height, with the trunk 12 inches in diameter, and the joints in shape are more elliptical than rounded. The fruit is considerably larger than that of the common “nonal” and greenish throughout. ~ 16 BULLETIN 160, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The chemical analyses of these plants, taken from Bulletin No. 60 of the New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, are as follows: TABLE XVII.—Chemical analysis of Platopuntia lindheimeri. : | Green. | Air dry. | j Sample Wonsste: seer. top eee eS ee | 7515 | 7516 7567 | 7515 | 7516 7567 | Sasa. = | Per cent., Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.\ Per cent. O40) | Seeesene? 0. 42 ed Lorde ca 2. 60 87.36 79. 88 84. 82 5. 65 5.20 6.55 2.82 4.98 2.27 21.05 23.45 13.95 Crd OprOLeli= = sono oe ee een ee -60 -45 - 96 4.49 2.12 5. 92 Cede Tate tO e! ser ose s ces ok tees | -26 -20 30 1.95 95 1. 82 Nitrogen free extract ----.-..-..---2-- =.=: 7.54 9.55 9. 84 56. 26 44.98 60. 61 Ord evtibersse=ess eee sont ceee ee feee oes | 1.42 4.94 1.81 10. 50 23.30 11.15 Oreinic ni abpensoe. = ep eee eee oa | 9. 82 15.14 12.91 73.30 71.35) 79.50 ANALYSIS OF THE ASH. [Sample No. 7515.] Carbon eas sales azen See cmean a Asose seo ae ase meet 3 Sees a ee aces | eRe ae ee ee ei percent.. 0.14 Sands». days oes sega. ela eit se st 2 eee. ae es ae ese 5 eee eeee eae eae | hae doh 2229) Per cent in pure ash: SOlabIS silica (S10) mere pease es fee a pee ee eee a a ee eee Tron) (Wee 3-2 =5-- tte 2 See. eee ee eee eee ee ee ee eas Eee eee Avyaminum (Al)..- Manganese (Mg)... Potassium (K).... SOUEnTM GN) 2 oat sane see eee ie ae 2 = ean See ane aoe ae ae oe eee Phosphoric acid radicle ( PO.) : : Sulpharieacid radicle (SO) 52% | Lee ee eee ee ee ere Se St: 02 Be ee sae eee 1.15 Chlorine 5.3 bse snias 25 52h soos sae be nie Sea eae aa Se < Sa ee eee ees ae ee ee 2.15 Carpome acid radicle (COz) ere | = S52 se hee et ae ee eae ee Be ee eee |e eee 49.12 Green. Air dry. SamplowNo 22.2 25 see eee eee 65621 6575 7810 78411 | 65621 6575 7810 7SA11 IPN CED NWP. Chee PA Cen er eb Pet P. ct PX Cb. eis Cb SPINES) eee ss sepa geese eof Sees 0.32 0: 04 | 2. oes 2|-oec2 See 3.33 0.33 ]5-2 22 2ee IWiaters S520es 258s. 2c SSSE See | 89.09] 91.07] 89.41 | 85.41 6.20 7.33 6.83 3.97 INST 35 Fb DE aoe 8 oe eee Be -91 2.00 1.60 -77 7.80 | 20.80} 14.05 5.07 Crude proteins. 2. 22 2535-2 ee ase -48 32 -35 - 46 4.16 3.29 | 3.07 3.06 Crud eats ee se ee eee -33 -A2 -23 -33 2.85 1.20 2.00 2.20 Nitrogen free extract...............-- Palncou 4.95 7.21} 10.03 | 62.84| 51.43 | 63.48 72. 58 Crudofiber: 4.208 52 oe Fs se | 1.88 1.54 1.20 3.00 | 16.15 | 15.95] 10.57 13.12 Orpanie matters so ee ee ee 10.00 6.93 8.99 | 13.82 | 86.00} 71.87 | 79.12 90.96 TABLE XIX.—Chemical an4lysis of Platopuntia tuna | Green. Air dry. PALL IGTING Sse eet eee ee ce Tee ea ae aM ae ere ae | 7519 7577 7519 7577 Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. DDILCS 2 eer oise See eee PCE ne Lee Men. BEE oe OSGi se 1.824.530 ee RECT Si. Seah ee a2 ee EDT od ls oe ee eS ee 81. 86 92.25 5.18 8.12 NS Ho is Oe See ee ENE Ae, oe ee CNG, . Se eA eG 4.29 1.75 21.65 20. 80 Crude procein 3 ss. t PS ae ee ee as. ee ees 1.32 - 63 6. 68 7. 53 Crudeitatee 22s ee. se ea Bee ee aaa a. See ees -28 -16 1.40 1.85 INifrorentires @xtracts.. 22s. to ee eee, eet Seema tee oe 8.88 4.02 44. 56 47.60 Crude fibers 352 oo. ae ie dwanec aes . See eee: 4.07 1.19 20. 53 14.10 Orranie matter. 22) 2. =. Ba ie SE eee: 14. 55 6.00 73.17 71.08 1 Griffiths, David, and Hare, R. F. Prickly pear and other cacti as food for stock, II. N. Mex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 60, 134 p., 7 pl., November, 1906. _ CACTUS SOLUTION AS AN ADHESIVE. 1g; SUPERIORITY OF CACTUS FROM DRY LAND. It has been found that cactus growing near resacas and in low wet places yields less glutinous matter to the gross pound than it does when growing on high dry soil. Thus time is saved in making up a spraying solution if the cacti are collected from the higher re- gions, and not in or near standing water. On April 13, 1914, 75 pounds of cactus were placed in 40 gallons of water. Twenty-four hours later the cactus was removed and al- lowed to drain for about one-half hour. It weighed 85.5 pounds, or 104 pounds more than when placed in the water. Another lot of 110 pounds was increased in weight to 124 pounds by leaving it in water 24 hours. However, when the cactus is sliced and allowed to remain in water until fermentation is well under way, there will be a slight decrease in weight. This will not happen where a pre- servative is used. ADVANTAGES IN THE USE OF CACTUS AS AN ADHESIVE. By the use of cactus as an adhesive not only do the arsenicals give better and more lasting results, but considerable expense may be saved in another way.. In the Southwest, where all insecticide material must be shipped in from a great distance, the expense of transporting this material is often more than the cost of the in- secticide itself, so that material of a poor quality is often used in- stead. For some years arsenicals in the paste form have been exten- sively used by fruit and truck growers on account of their better adherence and lasting qualities, but where a good adhesive is used the writer much prefers arsenicals in the powder form. In conduct- ing experiments in the insectary and in the field at no time have the powdered arsenicals proved less effective, and at times the mor- tality would be considerably above that shown in another experiment conducted at the same time with arsenicals in the paste form. Better results have been obtained in using 1 pound of zinc arsenite in pow- der form with cactus than by the use of 3 pounds in the paste form to the same amount of water. Thus equal results may be obtained, with a reduction of 66 per cent in express and freight charges paid in securing arsenicals from a distance. QUANTITY OF CACTUS TO USE. The amount of cactus that may be used with good results varies with the environment under which the plants have been growing. If the plants have been growing in or near water it will be neces- sary to increase the quantity of cactus used to each gallon of water. In general, the correct proportion will range from 4 pound to 1 18 BULLETIN 160, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pound to every gallon of water used in making up the spraying mixture. These proportions have given the most favorable results im all experiments conducted so far. When amounts in excess of 1 pound to each gallon of water are used the adhesive powers do not appear to be increased to any great extent, and on the other hand difficulty is experienced in applying the spray, particularly where very fine nozzles are employed. ZINC ARSENITE AS AN INSECTICIDE. Zine arsenite has been used both in the paste and powder forms with much success for the belted cucumber beetle, as well as for some other insects of this class. It has proved to he one of the most effective sprays for use in humid climates, as it appears to last longer. No other arsenical has given better results, and in the majority of cases the mortality has been higher than with any other arsenical spray. The powder when used with cactus to make it adhere is to be pre- ferred for general use over any arsenical now on the market. This spray in the writer’s opinion surpasses in lasting qualities any of the arsenicals and at the same time gives a higher mortality. In action it is somewhat slower than Paris green, but it gives better results in the end. The writer would not recommend, however, that zinc arse- nite be used on plants that are nearly ready for market, for the poison does not wash off easily. FERROUS ARSENATE AS AN INSECTICIDE. Ferrous arsenate has given very good results in combination with cactus to increase its adhesive powers. No serious effects from its use on the most delicate foliage have been observed. The cost of the product at the present time places it beyond general use as an insecti- cide. The ferrous arsenate in the powder form is very easily brought into suspension, requiring less time than some of the other arsenicals now more extensively used to destroy biting insects. Another feature in the use of this arsenical is that it remains in suspension exceed- ingly well and settles very slowly to the bottom of the tank. ‘This makes it a most desirable poison for use with small sprayers not equipped with agitators. IRON ARSENITE AS AN INSECTICIDE. Tron arsenite was given a trial against the belted cucumber beetle only, and was found to give varying results. The powder was made into a spray and applied both with cactus as an adhesive and without the cactus. The iron arsenite is quite hard to bring into suspension and soon settles to the bottom of the spray tank unless constantly 5 } § : # i i pate: , ela ta Ha Sr er > Sauapact elec anges rea. SOc Be gray xe eS Aa eteng- VR kes ee es CACTUS SOLUTION AS AN ADHESIVE. 19 agitated. Its effectiveness as an insecticide was disappointing; in fact, it is so low that it is doubtful that this arsenical can ever come into general use as a spray. Much difficulty was experienced in ob- taining uniform distribution over the surfaces sprayed, even when ‘used with cactus. The cactus increased its adherence and spraying ‘qualities, but not sufficiently to remedy matters completely. The foregoing experiments show its effectiveness as compared with fer- rous arsenate, zinc arsenite, lead arsenate, and Paris green. FINAL RESULTS FROM SPRAYING. The pot experiments carried on in the insectary for the belted scucumber beetle and the other species concerned were undertaken to assist in checking up results in the field. They served for more than this, however, for in a short time it was possible to accumulate much data as to the effectiveness of each spray that otherwise could not have been secured in nearly so short a time, while the estimates jas to mortality in each of the experiments made would have been much less conservative. It was found that the beetles could be best controlled by spraying jwith zinc arsenite or with Paris green. The other arsenicals em- ployed, while effecting a control in most cases, did not give as high jmortality as the two arsenicals mentioned. The number of appli- jeations rendered necessary varied with the location of the sugar beets, 1. e., their distance from crops where the beetles were breeding jin large numbers. One plat of sugar beets was sprayed only once, while on the other hand several plats of beets, spinach, and cabbage. Were sprayed from two to four times in order to prevent the crop |from being badly stunted in growth. The greatest damage is done from the time the beets begin coming up until the leaves have reached a height of 10 inches. Attention should be given the crop from the jtime the seeds are planted, in order that no serious damage may be jdone before remedial measures can be put to practice. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONTROL. The control of such pests as the belted cucumber beetle does not jrequire the attention necessitated by some of the noxious caterpillars jand sucking insects. But to keep the injury down to the minimum frequent observation should be made while the plants are small, as ‘this is the time when the beetles are capable of doing the greatest amount of damage. If the beetles are present in sufficient numbers partially Ag defoliate ja few plants, it is time to begin spraying. It may be necessary to |spray only once in order to effect control, but this will depend upon ithe surrounding vegetation as well as upon the weather conditions. 20 BULLETIN 160, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 7 q Any of the arsenicals may be used in the form of a spray to control ; this beetle. If arsenite of zinc in paste form is to be used, the writer will recommend 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water, in combination $ where possible with some adhesive, in order that best results may be — obtained. In the Southwest the prickly pear serves the purpose best, — because better results have been obtained where it was used than with any one of several other adhesives. From an economic stand- point, also, it has first rank as an adhesive and spreader. It has been — ascertained that zinc arsenite in the powder form in the proportion ~ of 1 pound to 50 gallons of water in combination with cactus gives a little higher mortality than 3 pounds in the paste form, and a more extensive use of this powdered form is to be recommended, particu-— larly in the cactus-growing region or where the glutinous matter of. this plant can be had for use in the spray. XN WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 a i r Es Y ne ee ee er BULLETIN OF THE D USDEDARTMENTOFAGRICUIURE © ZAS Z ZANE No. 161 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. December 18, 1914. THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN BERMUDA. By E. A. Bacx, Entomological Assistant, Mediterranean Fruit-Fly Investigations. INTRODUCTION. This paper is the result of an investigation of the fruit-fly situa- tion in Bermuda, made by the writer during December, 1913, at the request of Mr. C. L. Marlatt, Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Ento- mology and chairman of the Federal Horticultural Board, in order to gain at first hand information that might be of value to the Horticul- tural Board in framing its quarantine regulations against this pest. HISTORY OF THE FRUIT FLY IN BERMUDA. The Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata Wied., was not recorded in literature from Bermuda until 1890, when Riley and Howard report receiving specimens of infested peaches from St. George. However, it had been known as a pest in Bermuda many years before this date, as Mr. Claude W. McCallan, who forwarded these specimens to Washington, stated in his accompanying Jetter of April of that year that peaches had been subjected to its ravages during the 25 years previous. About the year 1865 a vessel carrying a cargo of fruit from the Mediterranean regions, bound for New York, was forced by severe storms to discharge her cargo in Bermuda, and it is the general belief that at that time the pest gained its foothold in this English possession. But whatever the source of infestation, it is a well-known fact that for nearly 50 years the peach industry of these islands has been a ruined one, and that at the present time the fruit fly is generally distributed over the islands ready to infest all host fruits coming to maturity. LIFE HISTORY. Those wishing a detailed description and life history of the Mediter- ranean fruit fly should refer to the publication of Quaintance,? pub- lished by the Department of Agriculture. 1Riley, C. V., and Howard, L. O. The peach pest in Bermuda. ( Ceratitis capitata Wied.) Order Diptera: Family Trypetide. In U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Insect life, v. 3, no. 1, p. 5-8, 2 figs., August, 1890. 2 Quaintance, A. L. The Mediterranean fruit fly. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent. Circ. no. 160, 25 p., 1fig., Oct. 5, 1912. Note.—This bulletin discusses the history of the fruit fly in Bermuda, the life history of the insect, and the possibility of eradicating it from Bermuda; the bulletin is of interest to entomologists. 66697°—14 2 BULLETIN 161, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EGG, LARVA, AND PUPA. Col. W. R. Winter, in his bulletin entitled ‘The Fruit Fly,” pub- lished by the Bermuda Department of Agriculture in 1913,! gives the only data secured in Bermuda on this pest up to that date. He states that he has found that to pass through the egg, larval, and pupal stages the fly requires from 17 days, during the heat of August, when the monthly mean temperature averages about 81° F., to 6 weeks in winter, when the mean temperature averages about 63.2° F. With the assistance of Mr. E. J. Wortley, Director of Agriculture of the Bermuda Department of Agriculture, the writer found that the pupal stage alone in Bermuda, when the daily mean temperatures ranged between 62.5° and about 64.8° F., might be lengthened to about 31 days under normal conditions. Back and Pemberton have found that a temperature varying from 58° to 62° F. increases pupal life to from 29 to 31 days. They have likewise found that while eggs hatch in from 2 to 3 days in Hawai at a mean temperature of about 79° F., hatching may be delayed until 6 days after deposition when the mean temperature drops to about 71° F., or until 7 to 14 days when the temperature ranges from 54° to 57° F. It has also been found in Hawaii that while the larval stage may require a minimum of 5 to 6 days at a mean tempera- ture averaging about 79° F., it requires from 36 to 53 days in apples at temperatures ranging from 56° to 57° F. _ These data are given to substantiate the belief of the writer that the duration of life from the egg to the adult in Bermuda where the winter mean averages about 63° F. issomewhat over two months, and may even be three months under unfavorable circumstances. THE ADULT. In the Hawaiian Islands, where the summers are somewhat cooler and the winters slightly warmer than in Bermuda, adult flies have been kept alive over five months. While the majority do not live this long, the belief has been expressed that a few flies may live to be over six months of age, especially during such cool weather as ob- tains in Bermuda during the winter. Both sexes are sexually im- mature when they emerge from the pupa. At temperatures varying from 76° to 78° F., the sexes mate when 5 to 8 days old, though not until 2 weeks old at 61° to 64° F. One prolific female deposited on an average of about 4.5 eggs per day during the first 18 weeks of her life, and had not then reached her egg-laying capacity. As many as 25 eggs have been laid by asingle female in one day. Female flies do not lay a large number of eggs at one time and then die, as many believe, but lay quite regularly a few eggs nearly every day throughout life. 1 Winter, W.R. Thefruit fly. Bermuda,1913. 14p. (Bermuda Dept. Agr., E. J. Wortley, director.) a ; | MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN BERMUDA. 3 HOST FRUITS IN BERMUDA. Col. W. R. Winter, in the bulletin previously mentioned, lists 47 fruits subject to attack. To this list for Bermuda should be added the ball kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum), the prickly pear (Opuntia sp.), and the acordia. While the list of host fruits given is so large that one receives the impression that the fruit fly has an abundance of fruit in which to develop, conditions are quite the opposite in Bermuda. After having carried on a clean-culture campaign against this pest in the Hawaiian Islands, where there exists a very great abundance of many host fruits, the writer was surprised at the scarcity of host fruits in Bermuda. In Table I is recorded the vegetation found growing in portions of the city of Hamilton. TABLE I.— Vegetation in Hamilton, Bermuda, with reference to host fruits for the Mediter- ranean fruit fly. Number of different trees on various properties.? Kind of tree. 1 23 4 5 6 7 8 SAPO N PU Lata et PALO DLE raise aes nee ee eae eee seyatae ene |- Seclosociooocl! HU owns Nicalephae cess setae ethos cess sack essere SN ener | a To ea re esos) a a) ow 7 PATION A ys cae sae ore See eles et Oe nee eets ads bec Beenie cce 1 Bese oe bal ecb ce 1 PATA GATIAep sais tee ae cee eee seas seas er Bee Soe eee cele sel ae glecar loses Beoe Sebel eee) fed dese PAWOCH One ene ean e ios ela or lats Sem eee Beye) ceal|| dL Sea pee es en | eye eae De UW Gl iat PES AT iy ae ie Paes Se one ep mete eee al aoe 3 Ue oes Uh Ue ea aL |) es Be Wedarshy yet eee 95 abs 2) Oe em aaae eee iD lt) thi) oa SS eo Ul Fae Gal el Pal iat a By 1 23 1 hima ernye meee ee cee eee eee ee 1 1}. Dele leona [ieee Aas Shel aed (QUE TIS se Se ee ee es eee eae yes eee Nia We eee eee ote 8 ber COEE eee ens os SRS 1}. eat Pneace llega ees | Se Crape myrtle BE ERENE « 5 pee lS Sere (aca ball ae VA el Var Uy 1 Croton =e a pads | Ayeseleceel!) Ucsol Tees TO Gl) A Hugenia.......-.. asus on ind BL eres eee eens Aa eerie eer Ll sees Rese Qhe aie Fiddlewood...... eee Ae se ARR | Lee Me ee Mies Soe La ae eel ee yl oe |p Ot | eee Guava ea Sees bap et PRET ees PPS Ry es ete leche [os SP Bic al esl Se Sure Be PEMA ISCUS ae Be Pea ae Baeee Se cat eRe TT yea i] es ca Wes Vi | Tes eb Tie 3 4 Kamani, ball Fa a se) py ft LH | aes Peon I ale ores ae Dy | ge en PCCIN ONY DUNG COs Soe. ae cme eee Bees Be Eee ellsaas| seme Bace ess [taal ea eae Davee es seers OQUALS ae Bee eee eo eisac Sates cen sels Seeeeee 1 Ud eG eee ieee i || a TL 22 LG MONG O See Ro Meme ne ie eae ee seston ee Soe UW eee se eecel laces Hee) Peeal naa 1 IMU DeLry ets ae yoceene -ceteks © See ce eeee ... Prunus munsoniana.......-...-.--------- 4 Do one Star.-..---...||..-.- Gowan tre Prunus angustifolia........-...--.--.----- 2 | Poor McCartney ..--.-....|..--- COE awBoulasere Oey aia: «| Veep yarererere ee ae = a a 4 | Good Pottawattamie.....|....- Oz pace st Prunus munsoniana........-..-.---------- 2 | Poor. Terrelle ee Ge Hybrid. .....- Bruns; trifiora xX @)eeeeeeeee eee eee eeeeeee 4 | Fair to good Transparent (yel- LOW: yee ees toes American... .- iPrunusvansustifoliaweeeeeer-se-aee | eee 4 Do. Wickson........--- Hybrid. ...... Prunus triflora Prunus simonii.... ----..- 3 Do. Wooten.......-..-- American... .. Prunus munsoniana.......--.---.--.------ 2 | Fair. 1 The origin of the plums was obtained from ‘‘ Plums of New York,” by U. P. Hedrick, assisted by R. Wellington, O. M. Taylor, W. H. Alderman, and M. J. Dorsey. The most successful plums in the test, orchard quality and produc- tivity considered, are the Gonzales, Burbank (fig. 4), Wickson, Eagle, and Terrell varieties. The Transparent and Wooten are Ameri- can sorts, and, although they yield good fruit for home use, they are not as valuable to the average grower as those of the Japanese class or some of the hybrids, 12 BULLETIN 162, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Gonzales and Burbank varieties are rather inclined to over- bear, often requiring thinning to produce the best fruit. The season of 1913 was unfavorable for plums because of a severe spring frost, which occurred March 17 and killed the fruit of many of the varieties. In spite of this frost the Terrell plum set a fair crop, while the Gon- zales made an excellent yield of fruit. As these varieties were in blossom on March 1 and March 5, respectively, it would seem that they are more resistant to the cold than other varieties. It should be borne in mind that there are several other varieties of the Japanese sorts, as well as of hybrids between them, that are Fic. 4.—A bearing tree ofthe Burbank plum. This variety is welladapted to the San Antonio region of Texas, being of good quality and a reliable bearer. (Photographed July 8, 1912.) not included in the table. As all representatives of these groups that have been tested have proved successful, it is probable that there are still other varieties that will do well. It is very evident that these three groups of plums are adapted to a much wider range of climatic conditions than are the peach varieties that have proved reliable in the San Antonio section. PEAR. Little work with pears has been done on the experiment farm, but observations made on neighboring farms, particularly that of G. A. Schattenberg, at Boerne, Tex., form the basis for some conclusions, —_—. HORTICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS AT SAN ANTONIO. 13 Some few plantings of pears have been made in the vicinity of San Antonio and have given varied results. The soils richest in lime, especially those with limestone gravel very near the surface, are not adapted to the culture of pears. The following varieties have been tested: Bartlett, Kieffer, Kruger, Le Conte, Magnolia, Russet, Sand, Smith, Vermont Beauty, and Early Wilder. From the behavior of these varieties it would appear that the pear is less promising than the peach and the plum. The trees respond vigorously to a slight increase in altitude. Black lands lying north of San Antonio can produce successfully fruit of the Le Conte and Kieffer varieties, the latter being the more successful. Either of these varieties appears to succeed best when worked on Le Conte seedling stock. A recent oriental introduction of wild pear is being tested, which gives promise of exceptional value as a stock for species of Pyrus or Malus grown in this soil. . Pears in this locality are not free from the disease known as pear twig-blight, but climatic conditions are such that the disease is not severely destructive, and many seasons pass without its appearance, even in infected orchards. Mr. Schattenberg, of Boerne, has been testing pears since 1892 and during the period has grown a large number of varieties. Boerne is located at an elevation of about 1,400 feet, about 700 feet higher than San Antonio, and though the rainfall is somewhat greater the soil is very similar. Mr. Schattenberg believes that from a com- mercial standpoint the pear is more promising than any other fruit in sections having similar conditions. As a class the European varieties do not fruit well, and the fruit is of such poor quality that difficulty is found in marketing the crop. There are, however, a few exceptions to this, as, for instance, the Bartlett, Howell, Duchess, and Guyot varieties. The Bartlett and Angouleme develop such awkward shapes and grow so large that they are frequently unmarketable. The Howell, when dwarfed by work- ing on quince root, is a valuable variety. The best of them all, how- ever, is the Guyot. The oriental hybrids are the best and most reliable. While rather low in quality, they bear regularly and abundantly. Mr. Schatten- berg believes that the Kieffer is the best of this group. Besides the Kieffer the other varieties recommended are the Le Conte, Smith, Garber, Katy (of Texas), Golden Russet, and Magnolia, but for profitable commercial orcharding the Kieffer is far superior to all others in quality and as a market pear. The trees of this variety are inchned to overbear, and severe thinning has to be practiced in most seasons. It is the opinion of Mr. Schattenberg that pear growing in western Texas on a commercial scale is a profitable venture when the under- 14 BULLETIN 162, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. taking is backed by experience, provided the right varieties are chosen and care is used in selecting the locality. His 30-acre orchard, 22 years old, with trees planted 20 by 20 feet apart, which is too close, has frequently borne 200 to 250 bushels to the acre, and some indi- vidual trees in favorable situations have borne from 8 to 10 bushels to the tree. This orchard doubtless would have done better had it been possible to irrigate during some of the long, dry periods, although it received clean cultivation after reaching the bearing stage. GRAPE. Grape growing in the immediate vicinity of San Antonio has been limited to varieties of rather poor quality, which are used largely for the production of wine. The better varieties of table grapes that have been under trial have not survived the adverse soil conditions. Their failure is due largely to root-rot. Chlorosis, which occurs fre- quently, also indicates that the lime in these soils is in excess of the tolerance of the better varieties of the table grape. The country about San Antonio is rich in species of native grapes which thrive under these conditions. Some of the most successful of the named varieties under trial are those that have resulted from crosses between cultivated varieties and native species. However, there is an exten- sive area of red sandy-loam soil adjoining the black lands on the south that should produce excellent grapes if root-rot and chlorosis can be avoided or controlled. The following grapes have been tested on the experiment farm: Bell, Berckmans, Brilliant, Champanel, Cloeta, Eden, Flowers, Goethe, Headlight, Lukfata, Mericadel, Mish, Norton, Thomas, Valhallah, Wapanuka, Wise, Xenia, and Gapotum. Most of these have been unable to survive, because of their susceptibility to root-rot and chlorosis. The varieties that have proved best adapted to this region are Valhallah and Lukfata, although the qual- ity of the fruit is not high. Except for home consumption or for the production of wine, no varieties of grapes have been found that are altogether satisfactory. In this connection it is of interest to show the parentage of the two grapes mentioned above, as given by the late Mr. T. V. Munson in ‘‘Foundations of American Grape Culture.’”’ Lukfata was obtained by crossng Vitis champini, a native Texas species, with Moore. Valhallah is a cross between Elvicand and Brilliant, and Elvicand is a cross between Elvira and Vitis candicans, the native mustang grape. DEWBERRY. While none of the small fruits, such as berries, have been tested at the experiment station, it seems advisable to mention the dewberry because of its adaptability to this section, being a native of Texas, It appears to be tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions. Mr. T. R. 4 HORTICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS AT SAN ANTONIO. 15 Dillon, who has been growing dewberries for several years a short distance south of the station, has been successful on, soil that is some- what more sandy than that at the experiment farm. The area devoted to the crop has varied from 5 to 10 acres. Mr. Dillon con- siders this one of the most profitable fruit crops for this locality. At the present time he has four varieties—Haupt, Austin May, McDon- ald, and Rogers. Of the four, he considers Austin May the best, with Rogers second. The Rogers is a particularly desirable variety, as it ripens early. There is some danger of late frost injuring the crop, and occasionally the yield is materially decreased because of early flowering. PERSIMMON. A collection of 12 budded varieties of the Japanese persimmon was placed in the experimental orchards in 1906 and 1907. These in- cluded both the astringent and the nonastringent types, as follows: Astringent—Yemon, Okame, Hachiya, Tsuru, Triumph, Tanenashi, and Costata; nonastringent—Taber’s 129, Yedoichi, Hyakume, Taber’s 23, and Zeng. A number of these varieties have done very well, fruiting regularly since reaching bearing age, and some have produced exceptionally heavy yields for small trees. The varieties that have proved the best are the Okame, Tsuru, Taber’s 129, Yedoichi, Hachiya, Hyakume, and Zengi. Of these varieties, the trees of Okame and Taber’s 129 are the most prolific and vigorous. Other very highly prized varieties have been added to the collection recently, but as yet have not reached the bearing age. The persimmon is very susceptible to chlorosis, and many of the varieties under trial have been severely injured by this disease. The Diospyros virginiana, which has been used generally as a stock for the Japanese sorts, is very susceptible to this disease and should not be used as a stock in this section. Several recent importations by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction that are under trial here promise to be valuable additions to the list, both for fruit production and for stocks. Among them may be mentioned Diospyros lotus (S. P. I. 17906), which has been found to be the most resistant to the soil difficulties of any of the different sorts under trial. (See figs. 5 and 6.) The fruit of this tree is very small and is of little value, however. PECAN. No other branch of horticultural endeavor in the San Antonio section promises to afford so broad a field for selection and improve- ment as the nut trees. Already a large number of recognized varieties are being tested in this part of the State and undoubtedly there are now in the forests 16 BULLETIN 162, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. numerous individual trees bearimg nuts of sufficient merit and in sufficient quantity to justify their being propagated as new varieties of special promise for this section. Twelve standard varieties are growing at this station. The original experiment embodied 19 varieties planted in 1909. These are being tested with much care under good dry-farming conditions. Such results as are indicated here, together with wide and varied obser- vations of the nat- ural home of bear- ing trees and the behavior of compar- able plantings in other situations, all indicate that care should be exercised in selecting loca- tions for pecan plantings. Success- ful tree growth and fruiting should not be expected when the pecan is planted in a soil where un- derground water is not within reach of theroots. Thesur- face application of water on most of the higher land of this section does not ap- pear to fulfill the needs of the pecan. As the tree ap- Fic. 5.—A treeof Diospyros kaki, or Japanese persimmon, which is nearly proaches b earin g dead from chlorosis. This tree has been in its present location for eight : seasons. The only persimmons that have been found thatareresistant @2€, the roots must to chlorosis and root-rot are the native Diospyros terana and D. totus. penetrate dee Pp ly Compare with figure 6. (Photographed September 16, 1913.) : y 5 : ; into soil which is drawing water from the underground water table; then the pecan succeeds and grows to be the most stately tree of Texas. The conten- tion advanced by some enthusiasts that since the pecan is native it can be grown under a great variety of conditions is erroneous. It should be borne in mind that the pecan in this part of Texas is dis- tinctly a river-bottom tree and that the mere application of hght sur- face irrigations sufficient for many other trees will not satisfy its needs. HORTICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS AT SAN ANTONIO. V7 THE LESS IMPORTANT FRUITS. The fruit crops already enumerated are all that the writers are now prepared to recommend for planting in farm orchards or gardens. Not all of them will be found suited to every farm, but it is believed that some of them may be used on each farm, and in most cases all of them may be used if desired. In addition to the lists of fruits which have been enboned many others have been under experiment at the San Antonio Field Sinton. Fia. 6.—A tree of Diospyros lotus, an importation from China, which is a very promising stock for the Japanese persimmon. These trees appear to be immune to chlorosis and resistant to root-rot. The one here shown has been growing in its present location for seven seasons. Compare with figure 5. (Photographed September 16, 1913.) Some of them have been found unsuited to local conditions, and the experiments with others have not yet progressed far enough to war- rant final conclusions. There is apparently widespread interest in regard to the possibilities of many of these fruits, and requests for information regarding them are frequent and insistent. In order to meet this demand the following notes are included. It should be ”" 18 BULLETIN 162, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. understood, however, that the work is still in progress and later results may modify the conclusions here given. Prune.—Prunes have not been on trial long enough to produce fruit. However, the young trees are vigorous and appear to be well adapted to the conditions, although this does not signify anything of importance. The varieties on trial here are the Italian, Giant, French, Epineuse, Tragedy, and Pond. Apricot—The Cluster, Royal, Moorpark, Early Golden, and Onderdonk apricots have been under trial since the spring of 1906. Several favorable seasons have passed since these trees were of a bearing age, but only a few fruits have yet been produced by any of the varieties. To judge by its behavior, this fruit is not adapted to San Antonio conditions, although a few seedling trees in the neighbor- hood are said to produce fruit regularly but of rather poor quality. Very often the apricot crop is ruined by frost because of its early flowering season. Cherry—tThe list of cherries that could possibly be of value ages San Antonio conditions is very small. From the behavior of those tested and those observed elsewhere, the indications are that this fruit is not adapted to this locality. The Advance, Eagle, Napoleon, and a wild cherry from China were set out in the spring of 1911. The Compass (not a cherry in the pomological sense, as it is a cross be- tween the Miner plum and the Dwarf Rocky Mountain cherry) and the Baldwin were set out in the following spring. Nectarine and plumcot.—Such other drupe fruits as the nectarines and plumcots have been but little tested. The Crosby nectarine set out in March, 1907, has borne only one crop of fruit since it began to bear four years ago, and it behaves much the same as peaches of the unadapted type. A seedling nectarine occurring in the Mexican seedling orchard has made a vigorous tree, but has borne fruit spar- ingly and has a tendency to very irregular ripening. This nectarine, however, is of fair quality and may prove to be a good variety for some other locality. Its behavior in the seedling orchard as a tree and as to flowering and fruiting habits resembles closely that of the peach varieties not adapted to this section. Apple.—Apples have been tested only in a small way at the station, but the behavior of other near-by plantings in similar soils has been observed. Very few trees have produced any fruit. Apparently this region is not suited to apple production. Many apples fail to grow into trees, remaining dwarfed and bushy. The only varieties observed that have been partially successful are the earliest sorts. Citrus fruits—It is very doubtful whether even the hardy Satsuma orange grown in parts of Texas will thrive as far north as San Antonio 1 The testing of citrus fruits at this station has been carried on in cooperation with the Office of Crop Physi- ology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. HORTICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS AT SAN ANTONIO. 19 unless grown in well-protected situations. A number of plantings have been made in this section, but none of the trees has survived. Plantings of other sorts have been made, but the only citrus trees that have proved hardy are certain varieties of citranges. These fruits were originated by crossing the common sweet orange with the hardy trifoliate orange.! The following varieties of these citranges have been under trial: Coleman, Cunningham, Morton, Rusk, Rustic, Savage, and Thornton. Of these the Rusk is the only variety that appears to be adapted to these conditions. The others either have died or made a very poor growth. This variety is bearing fruit for the first time this season. One interesting feature in connection with this group of fruits is that the trees appear to be immune to the root-rot fungus, so fatal to many other fruit trees. Plantings have been made since 1908, but none of the trees has died from this cause so far as it was possible to observe, although several varieties died from other causes. There is reason to believe that the Rusk citrange may make a good stock on which to work other citrus fruits in parts of Texas where the trifoliate stock is not adapted. This species has not done well at the experiment farm, whereas the Rusk citrange on its own roots has made an excellent growth. In addition to furnishing a useful fruit, the citrange can be used as a hedge, resembling very much the trifoliate orange, and it should be planted here in preference to that species. Fig—A collection of several varieties of figs, including the Mis- sion, Magnolia, and others, has been grown without irrigation. The results indicate that the fig can not be grown successfully in this section without irrigation, and even with irrigation it is a doubtful crop because of winterkilling, except in protected situations. The plant is apparently exceptionally free from chlorosis, but is very sus- ceptible to root-rot, and this disease may be a limiting factor in grow- ing this fruit crop on a commercial scale, even under irrigation. While San Antonio is near the northern limit of the zone where the fig can be grown in Texas, because of low winter temperatures, still, when grown in sheltered situations near buildings or other protection, the trees will survive where temperatures fall much lower than those ordinarily experienced in San Antonio. The fig should by all means be included among the fruits produced for home consumption on the farm. It should be grown, if possible, where some protection is afforded and where an occasional irrigation is possible. The Mission and the Magnolia are the two varieties most generally grown in this vicinity, but several other varieties of the Adriatic typeseem to be well adapted. The Smyrna type of figs can not be fruited in 1 Webber, H.J.,and Swingle, W.T. New citrus creations of the Department of Agriculture. Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1904, p. 221-240. 20 BULLETIN 162, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this climate, for the reason that the Blastophaga, the insect necessary for the fertilization of the fruit, will probably not endure the winter temperatures. Walnut—Another possibility of nut culture is the Persian walnut, which has already made rapid growth when budded or grafted on the native walnut, although the effort to grow it is at present wholly in the experimental stage. A number of grafts and buds have been worked on the native Juglans nigra, both at the station and for Mr. F. F. Collins, who has cooperated in this work. While the trees worked have not yet reached the bearing age, still with the exception of the first year, when they were severely frozen back, the Persian walnuts have made an excellent growth on this stock. Almond.—Al\though doubtful for fruit production, owing to its early-blooming tendency, the almond makes a vigorous tree. A few nuts of the Nonpareil variety were secured in 1912 from a tree two years from planting. Pistache.—A_ rather complete collection of pistache trees, from which the pistache nut of commerce is obtained, is being tested here. None of the trees has fruited yet. Most of the species appear to be unadapted to these conditions, owing largely to their susceptibility to root-rot. Many of the trees have died from this disease. Pomegranate.*—Although not producing a fruit of much commer- cial importance, pomegranates have proved to be as well adapted to the particular local conditions as any orchard plant tested, being very resistant to the adverse soil conditions fatal to many fruit trees. As ornamentals or for a hedge plant they are very useful, although occa- sionally there are winters when they will be injured by frost. A variety test of 12 named varieties is being conducted, and also seedling pomegranates covering half an acre are being fruited with a view to obtain other varieties. A few pomegranate plants in a home garden will not be amiss, for good specimens of the fruit are delicious and refreshing. The varieties that have been fruited are the Radinar, San Pipetos, Jative, Hermosilla, Papershell, Sweet, Ruby, Dessia, and Subacid. The varieties in this collection that have produced the best fruits are San Pipetos, Jative, and Dessia, while the Radinar, Papershell, and Subacid varieties have matured the heaviest crops. Plants of the San Pipetos and Jative have made the heaviest growth. Jujube——The jujube, or Chinese date (Ziziphus sp.),1s one of the more promising new fruits, and the hardy types appear to be well adapted to San Antonio conditions. Two species, Ziziphus mauri- 1 The testing of pistache trees at this station has been carried on in cooperation with the Office of Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. 2 The testing of pomegranate varieties at this station has been carried on in cooperation with the Office of Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. ee ee EE ——— eee ere leer eer es HORTICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS AT SAN ANTONIO. 2a: tiana (S. P. I. 28129) and Z. ozyphylla (S. P. I. 28130), are not hardy. Both Ziziphus satwa and Z. jujuba are perfectly hardy and have made an excellent growth. Many of the better varieties so highly esteemed in China are beg assembled at this station. As yet this fruit is more of a novelty than a product of commercial value, but when properly prepared it is considered a delicacy in this country as well as in China. Quince.—Only one variety of quince has been tested, and it has not made a satisfactory showing. It is very probable that this fruit is out of its zone here. Olive.—The Chemlaly and Aberkan olives have been grown here for several years, but the climate appears to be too severe for them. Date.—Although it is probable that the San Antonio climate is entirely too humid for the date to ripen fruit, the seedlings grown are quite hardy, and the tree is valuable as an ornamental. 'Tempera- tures of 12° F. have been experienced without killing the plants, although the leaves are generally injured by temperatures below 20° F. TESTING RESISTANT STOCKS. One of the most promising and important lmes of horticultural investigation at the present time is the determining of stocks resistant to the local soil troubles. Not only is there a great difference in the power of resistance in different species, but there is also a very notice- able difference in the resistance of different varieties of the same spe- cies. As an illustration, many of the seedlings of the Spanish race in the Mexican peach orchard are quite immune to chlorosis, while almost invariably those of the South China group are very susceptible. Certain varieties of persimmon are resistant, while others are severely affected. The richness of the native flora in economic plants, some of which may be utilized as stocks and others for hybridizmg experiments, together with those which have been assembled from this country and by the importation of those which have indicated their suscepti- bility or resistance to soil disorders, forcibly emphasizes the import- ance of this line of effort. This work has received special attention the past three years. The preliminary results indicate very dis- tinctly not only that many of the better varieties of fruit which are not considered adapted to these conditions may be utilized, but that additional fruits not commonly grown here may be added to the list. Persummon.—One of the most interesting new stocks now under test is the native Texas persimmon (Diospyros texana). This is being used as a root for both the American and the Japanese persimmon. It has been found very difficult to work other persimmons on this stock, and many previous attempts have resulted in failure where ordinary methods were used. During the spring of 1912 a number of 22 BULLETIN 162, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. good unions were made by the inarch-graft method. These are now growing in the experimental orchard. Both the American and the Japanese sorts seem to be growing fairly well on this stock, but the danger feared is that Diospyros virginiana and D. kaki will both out- grow the root of D. tezana, or at least that the trees will be dwarfed and checked in growth for this reason. Diospyros texana is distrib- uted over a wide stretch of semiarid country in southwestern Texas, where soils are shallow and very calcareous. The tree has never been known to die from root-rot. Its drought resistance is exceptional, but it apparently responds to a more generous supply of moisture. A recent importation of a wild persimmon from China, Diospyros lotus (S. P. I. 17905 to 17907), by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, is extremely promising as a stock. (See figs. 5 and 6.) Five trees set out in the spring of 1907 have made an excel- lent growth and are quite resistant to the soil difficulties. The behavior of the trees thus far indicates that this species is entirely at home here. It may prove to be as good a stock as the native per- simmon. because it seems to be quite as resistant to the soil difficulties, and it may prove to be even better because of its more rapid growth. Pyrus betulaefolia (S. P. I. 21982), a wild pear from China which has been previously referred to, gives indication of being a good stock for pears in this section. The appearance and growth of the trees here indicate that the species is more resistant to those soil difficul- ties that noticeably affect the pear on its own roots. Grape.—At this time there are no table grapes of special value that can be grown here on their own roots. The crown grafting of the native mustang grape (Vitis candicans) has been successful, although on the uplands this grape does not do as well as some of the cultivated varieties. There may be other native grapes or hybrids between them and the cultivated varieties that will do well for stocks, but of the many tested at this station none has appeared so promising as the variety known as Lukfata. Eight vines of this variety have been under trial for six years, and none of them has shown suscep- tibility to either root-rot or chlorosis, the two most serious diseases affecting the grape. There is good reason-to believe that by the utili- zation of these resistant stocks the list of grapes adapted to this sec- tion may be materially increased, thus giving an entirely new out- look for grape production. Walnut.—The Persian walnut is not grown in this part of Texas at this time. Repeated trials have been made, which resulted only in failures. This was due undoubtedly to the fact that the walnut was worked on a stock that was not able to survive these soil con- ditions. Both native species of the walnut, Juglans nigra and J. rupestris, are proving to be adaptable stocks for the Persian walnut. Experiments in the propagation of the Persian walnut on these HORTICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS AT SAN ANTONIO. 23 stocks indicate that patch budding and crown grafting are the most successful methods to be employed. Ring budding gives reasonably good results, but with this method more buds are lost after the union has been formed than is the case with patch budding. A large number of seedlings of the native black walnut (Juglans migra) were grown by Mr. F. F. Collins, and several of these trees have been budded. With the exception of the first year, the winter of 1911-12, when the young growth was frozen back, a good growth has been obtained. A sufficient number are being grown at this time to demonstrate the value of this stock. Stone fruits——Native plums are being used experimentally as stocks for stone fruits. The sorts commonly known as Tenehah Fig. 7.—Two rows of A mygdalus davidiana, a peach from China introduced by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, which is a very promising stock for stone fruits. These trees were set out in January, 1909. (Photographed September 16, 1913.) (Prunus munsoni), American (Prunus americana), and hog (Prunus rivularis) are included in this test. It is not expected that all of these species will be useful on a large scale, but the vigorous growth of the different species under very adverse conditions on the lme- stone hills about San Antonio proves their hardiness. A wild peach from China (Amygdalus davidiana, 8S. P. I. 21227), which bears a fruit of no value, has proved to be unusually well adapted to San Antonio conditions. (See fig. 7.) So far it has proved to be resistant to both chlorosis and root-rot. One orchard of about 30 trees, set in January, 1909, has survived without the loss by disease of a single tree. This species is being tested as a stock for peaches, plums, almonds, and apricots. The only serious drawback of this tree so far noted has been its failure to produce 24 BULLETIN 162, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seed. In this respect it behaves in this locality not unlike the unadapted peach varieties. ar. Trees of the Spanish group in the Mexican seedling peach orchard are relatively resistant to the soil difficulties and give every indica- tion of furnishing a better stock on which to work stone fruits than peaches of the unadapted type. This orchard is now being kept chiefly for the production of such seed, in order to supply desirable stocks for local peach plantings. SUGGESTIONS ON ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. Cultwation.—Orchard cultivation of all kinds around San Antonio without irrigation must necessarily be much more intensive than in Fic. 8.—Orchard cultivator used in the experimental orchards to establish a mulch and keep down weeds. Clean culture is absolutely necessary for successful fruit production in the San Antonio section. (Photographed July 12, 1912.) more favored sections because of the uneven distribution of the rain- fall. Clean culture, especially when the trees have reached the bearing stage, is absolutely essential, for all available moisture must be conserved. As much care must be given the orchard as is given cotton or corn, if successful results are to be obtained. The best method of orchard culture, rigorously practiced at the San Antonio Field Station, is to keep a 3-inch or 4-inch earth mulch on the ground throughout the growing season. After every rain of any conse- quence, from early spring until fall, the orchards have been gone over, either with an orchard cultivator (fig. 8) or a spike-tooth harrow. If the orchard cultivator 1s equipped with sweeps to sup- plement the ordmary shovels and these sweeps are used when the HORTICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS AT SAN ANTONIO. 25 weeds appear, there will be practically no necessity for hand labor in keeping the orchard free from weeds, except near the trees. Planting distances.—The distances apart of planting the trees should be greater than is customary in regions of greater rainfall. In the test orchards the trees were spaced 15 to 17 feet apart, but this is much too close for the trees to do well after they reach full size. Peach trees should be not less than 25 feet apart, and a greater distance may be advisable. Plums may be planted somewhat closer together, but it will be found in the end that wide spacing will give more satisfactory results. Green-manure crops.—The soils of the San Antonio region are often lacking in organic matter. Green-manure crops or stable manure will do much to correct this condition. Cowpeas were first used as a green-manure crop, planted late in July. As that is the season of the year when droughts are most likely to occur, it was found that this crop was not wholly satisfactory. Later, Canada peas were introduced as a winter-cover and green-manure crop. This has proved the best of any so far tried. The Canada peas should be pianted as soon after the first of October as possible, or at about the time oats are ordinarily sown. Satisfactory results have been obtained by planting with an ordinary grain drill, seeding at the rate of about 90 pounds per acre. The crop is plowed under the latter part of February or early in March. The best variety so far tested is known as the Golden Vine G. P. I. 30134). It has been grown here for the past two winters in comparison with several other varieties and 1s the only one that has survived a temperature as low as 15° F. above zero. SUMMARY. There is comparatively little authentic information regarding the possibilities of fruit culture in the vicinity of San Antonio. Conse- quently, the greater part of the farming population is poorly supplied with fruit. The horticultural work of the San Antonio Field Station included not only the testing of a large collection of varieties, but tests of resistant stocks have also received much attention. A number of limiting factors govern fruit production in this region. The soil conditions are unfavorable for many fruits. The climate is too severe for such fruits as oranges and olives and too mild for apples and cherries. The rainfall is sufficient for most fruits if the trees are spaced at somewhat greater distances than in more humid climates. The early attempts at peach growing were made with seedlings from the early Spanish importations. The later introductions con- sisted largely of varieties of the North China, Persian, and Peen-to races, none of which has proved wholly sneoesettll With the introduction af the Honey peach a new type was found which has proved particularly well adapted to the conditions. The 4 26 BULLETIN 162, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Pallas, Honey, Imperial, and Climax have proved to be the most reliable and promising of the varieties so far tried. A large number of varieties of the American and Japanese classes of plums do well. The best among the 14 varieties under trial are the Gonzales, Wickson, Burbank, Excelsior, Eagle, and Terrell. Of the other stone fruits tested, which include cherries, nectarines, and plumcots, it was found that none of the varieties under trial has given good results. Pears do fairly well on the higher lands. The Kieffer is the best variety for general planting. Native grapes are abundant in the San Antonio area, and some of the cultivated varieties that are related to these wild species may be gvrown. None of them, however, possess qualities that justify their use as table grapes. Of the small fruits, dewberries have been found to return good prefits when properly cared for. None of the citrus fruits has done well, with the exception of the Rusk variety of citrange. This variety is perfectly hardy and has made good growth. Figs seldom go through the winter without being injured by cold, except in protected locations. The Mission and Magnolia are proba- bly the best varieties. Persimmons are included among the fruits that do well. The varieties that have given the most satisfactory results are the Okame and Taber’s 129. The native pecan is distinctly a river-bottom tree. When grown where underground water is available it does well, but results on the uplands have been disappointing, even with irrigation. The Persian walnut does not do well on its own roots, but when worked on either Juglans rupestris or J. nigra it makes a good growth. Almonds have a tendency to flower so early that they are injured by frost and rarely fruit. Pistache trees, while making a vigorous growth, are so susceptible to root-rot that it is doubtful whether they can be grown successfully. Pomegranates make a vigorous growth and fruit well, but are occa- sionally injured by cold. The jujube, or Chinese date, is one of the promising new fruits. Although the date palm can be grown, the climate is probably not suitable to the production of the fruit. The cultivation of orchards must be more intensive than where there is a greater rainfall. Clean culture during the summer is abso- lutely essential. Canada peas have been found to be the most satisfactory green- manure crop. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V7 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 ee al ‘ be ie ye ~ -_ wa 7 . : x BULLETIN OF THE USDEDARINENT OFAGRICULTURE % No. 163 Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief. January 12, 1915. A FIELD TEST FOR LIME-SULPHUR DIPPING BATHS. By Rogert M. CHarin, Senior Biochemist, Biochemic Division. INTRODUCTORY. The purpose of this paper is to describe a portable testing outfit devised by the writer and employed by the Bureau of Animal Industry for estimating the strength of lime-sulphur dipping baths used in official dipping under regulations now in force.t' A description of the outfit will be of interest to Federal and State officials concerned with the supervision of dipping, to private parties who wish to control the composition of their dipping baths, and to manufacturers whose dips are subjected to test. This method, however, is intended only for field use; it can not replace in the laboratory the more accurate methods of analysis approved by the Association of Official Agricul- tural Chemists. Lime-sulphur dipping baths, whether homemade or proprietary, are essentially composed of two substances in solution, both of which contain sulphur, namely, calcium polysulphid and calcium thiosulphate. The Bureau of Animal Industry has no present proof that calcium thiosulphate is of any value for the treatment of scabies in either cattle or sheep, and pending further investigation, accord- ingly, must attribute the efficiency of dipping baths solely to the sulphur present in the form of calcium polysulphid. _ Many factors may influence the strength of lime-sulphur dipping baths. In the first place, one of the raw materials, lime, is a sub- stance of notoriously uncertain composition as commercially obtain- able, and, further, it deteriorates on storage, so that a homemade concentrated dip may turn out much weaker than its maker has cause to suppose. In the second place, solutions of calcium poly- sulphid are decomposed by contact with air, so that a bath may notably deteriorate even during a single day’s dipping. In the 1 Bureau of Animal Industry Order 210, issued June 18, 1914; reg. 3, sec. 9, p. 19, and reg. 4, sec. 5, p. 23. Note.—This bulletin describes a portable testing outfit for estimating the strength of lime-sulphur dipping baths; it is of interest to makers and users of such baths, as well as to officials charged with the enforcement of dipping regulations. 66920°—15 2 BULLETIN 163, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. absence of a test one faces the alternatives of strengthening slightly used baths by guesswork or of discarding them entirely. A field test is therefore essential to the prosecution of dipping in a manner which shall be at the same time effective and economical. METHOD OF EXECUTING THE TEST. The test here described employs the well-known reaction between soluble sulphids and iodin‘ in neutral solution, whereby sulphur is precipitated and a metallic iodid is formed. It therefore directly estimates, not sulphur, but the metal—in this case calectum—com- bined with sulphur in the form of sulphid or polysulphid. Only in case that sulphur is combined with metal in unvarying proportion can the method also estimate exactly the amount of sulphur present. Theoretically this requirement is not met in the case of lime-sulphur baths, the ratio of lime to sulphur in the mixture of calcium poly- sulphids which may be present being susceptible to considerable variation. As a matter of fact, however, practical experience of the: Bureau of Animal Industry with the test in the field indicates that the ratio in baths prepared after the formulas specified for use in official dipping is near enough to a fixed figure to render the test of entirely adequate accuracy for practical purposes. The ratio provisionally adopted is 4.6 atoms of sulphur to each atom of calcium, or, by weight, 147.5 parts sulphur per 40.07 parts calcium. Briefly, the method of test involves the addition of standard iodin solution to a measured quantity of bath until the resulting liquid no longer gives color with a dilute alkaline solution of sodium nitro- prussid, showing that calcium polysulphid has been entirely decom- posed. The amount of iodin added to reach this point is then a measure of the amount of AAP sulphur” in the bath. The outfit is pictured in figure 1, and bae parts composing it will be described in detail. PREPARATION OF THE OUTFIT. I. The case-—The carrying case for the outfit is a rectangular box with a hinged cover, made of ;3;-inch oak, of inside dimensions 74 by 54 by 1% inches. The jierion construction, of softer wood, is sufficiently iwdinaited in the diagram. The case must be strongly mortised or nailed together, not simply glued, and should be var-_ nished or painted.’ 1 Titration with iodin for determining the “‘monosulphid equivalent’’ of lime-sulphur dips seems to have been first seriously proposed by Harris (Michigan Agric. Coll. Exp. Sta. Techn. Bull. No. 6, Jan., 1911). There may be some question regarding the accuracy of the method for exact laboratory analysis, but the uncertainty is not of sufficient seriousness to affect its usefulness for the present purpose. 2 The cases used by the bureau are painted yellow (yellow being the color of sulphur) to avoid confusion with the similar test case used for arsenical baths (see Department of Agriculture Bulletin 76) which is merely varnished. La) FIELD TEST FOR LIME-SULPHUR DIPPING BATHS. DEPARTMENT oF AGRICULTURE . TEST FLUID LIME-SULFHUA BATHS. 4 BULLETIN 163, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On the inside of the cover of the case is glued a printed instruction sheet, protected by a pyroxylin varnish, which reads as follows: UnitED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bureau of Animal Industry. TEST OUTFIT FOR LIME-SULPHUR BATHS. 1. Mix bath well, let settle for a few minutes, then fill clean, dry graduate with bath, setting top edge of surface on the zero mark, and pour (draining out drops) into clean, wide-mouthed bottle. Di nee graduate with clean water (or with a little of the test fluid) shake out adhering drops, and fill to zero mark with test fluid. 3. While gently swirling bottle containing the bath pour in test fluid from the graduate until the yellow color of the bath becomes faint. Then let the contents of the bottle come to rest and gently drop on the surface one drop of indicator solution from the dropping bottle. Note if a violet color appears where the indicator solution mixed with the bath. If color appears add a little more test fluid from the graduate, mix, and test again with a drop of indicator solution. Continue thus until a drop of indicator solution fails to produce any color, avoiding the addition of excess of test fluid. The number of cubic centimeters of test fluid added to just reach the point where color with indicator solution fails to appear represents tenths of one per cent of “‘sul- phid sulphur” in the bath. Note.—The indicator solution should not be more than one week old. Prepare fresh solution by dissolving one ‘‘tablet for indicator solution” in 15 c. c. clean water in the bottle. Il. The utensils—Bottle A’, fittng mto compartment A of the case, isan ordinary 3-ounce wide-mouth bottle of clear glass. Measuring cylinder C’, fitting into compartment C, may be of ordinary type though preferably it is graduated to read down only, and is provided with an especially deep lip to prevent the liquid from - running down the outside when small quantities are poured out. C’’ is a bristle brush for cleaning. It will be noted that the partitions of compartment C are cut away as indicated to admit the foot of the cylinder. At the point (p) on the back wall of the case 1s cemented a %-inch pad of cork to protect the cylinder from breakage. The brush C”’ is put into compartment C after the cylinder, thus protect- ing the latter from contact with the cover of the closed case. III. The reagents —The ‘“‘test fluid,’—that is, the standardized iodin solution—is contained in the bottle D’, which may be a special square bottle to fit compartment D, or, more readily obtainable, a 4-ounce standard-shaped ‘‘sample oil” bottle, preferably of amber glass, and provided with a ‘‘flat-hood” glass stopper. The test fluid is of such strength that in the actual performance of the test each cubic centimeter of it employed represents one-tenth of 1 per cent of sulphid sulphur in the bath. Allowing for the meniscus, etc., it | FIELD TEST FOR LIME-SULPHUR DIPPING BATHS. 5 may be assumed nearly enough for practical purposes that the amount of bath delivered by the cylinder is 24 ¢. c. Each cubic centimeter of test fluid therefore must be actually equivalent to 0.024 gram of sulphid sulphur in order to be apparently equivalent to 0.1 per cent in the execution of the test. Now, a ‘‘normal” solution of Ca:4.6S would contain 0.07376 gram sulphur per cubic centimeter; that is, the strength of the test fluid should be eae =0.325N. In preparing it 44 grams iodin and 88 grams potassium iodid are dissolved in water and made to 1 liter, and the strength of the solution is then adjusted against sodium thiosulphate or arsenious oxid. For example, 50 ¢. ¢. of a tenth-normal solution of either of the above standards should require 15.38 c. ¢. of test fluid of correct strength. The test fluid should, of course, be kept in glass-stoppered bottles only, and in a dark, cool place. The tablets for indicator solution are prepared after the following formula: Grams Milks Sioa POW Cele deer cir.) coo vac... an ee eae ot epee dye cio eee 12 Soulumypnrcroprussic. Powdered | 012 10.) NaS Lee ke 20 Sodium carbonate, monohydrated, powdered........_.. PUPAE WSN PSA 9 ees TERS ate 100 Mix, moisten with 50 per cent alcohol, granulate, and dry at room temperature, then mix granules with 3 per cent of powdered talcum and compress to tablets of 0.255 gram. The tablets are put up in a small glass tube or vial, reinforced against breakage by a glued strip of paper rolled several times around it and folded in at the bottom. After corking and labeling the whole is dipped in paraffin. The tablet vial is put into the left-hand side of compartment B, followed by the rubber-stoppered bottle B’’ for indicator solution. This is the standard ‘‘TK” dropping bottle, flat stopper, 15 ¢. ¢. size, and must be made of amber glass, since the indicator solution is rapidly decomposed upon exposure to light. The glass stopper B’’’ of the dropping bottle is carried in the hole at the right-hand side of com- partment B, since if left in the bottle for a considerable length of time it may stick fast through the action of the alkaline solution upon the glass. If the test can not be executed at the vat side the sample of bath should be taken at the vat side in the bottle in which it is to be for- warded. The bottle should be filled to the neck, tightly stoppered, and the stopper and lip of the bottle should be dried and well covered with sealing wax or some similar material, in order to exclude air. Even with these precautions the test must be executed with as little delay as possible, for it has been found that some samples of used 6 BULLETIN 163, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. baths decompose upon standing in stoppered bottles, with the result that hydrogen sulphid is formed, and the accuracy of the test is consequently vitiated. The cause and mechanism of this change calls for further study, but there is at present reason to believe that it may be brought about through the action of microorganisms in the bath. Obviously, if the outfit is used for testing concentrated dips, such should first be diluted with sufficient water to bring the probable content in sulphid sulphur to not much over 2 per cent. Such dilu- tions may readily be made with the measurmg cylinder and wide- mouth bottle provided in the outfit. UTILIZATION OF RESULTS AFFORDED BY THE TEST. The object of using such a test as that described is to maintain dipping baths at uniform and effective strength. The test merely indicates the actual strength of the bath, and if the bath is found to be too weak there then remains the task of calculating how much concentrated solution must be added in order to bring it up to the proper strength. Therefore the following tables* have -been pre- pared to render the desired information obtainable with a minimum of calculation. The use of the tables is very simple. For instance, suppose a sheep bath amounting to 1,250 gallons to contain 1.1 per cent sul- phid sulphur, as shown by the test, and suppose that a concentrate containing 24 per cent sulphid sulphur (dilution figure 1 to 15) is to be used to strengthen the bath. The table for standardizing sheep baths shows directly that for every 100 gallons of bath in the vat there is needed 1.8 gallons of concentrate, or for the whole, 12.5 xX 1.8=22.5 gallons of concentrate, which quantity is sumply to be measured out and added to the bath already in the vat. However, since the bath continually becomes weaker, it is advisable to add somewhat more concentrate than just enough to attain standard strength. 1 The formula used to calculate the figures in these tables is s=100 et in which a=percentage of sul- phid sulphur found in the bath by test; b=percentage in the concentrate, and c=standard percentage in bath for dipping. FIELD TEST FOR LIME-SULPHUR DIPPING BATHS. STANDARDIZING LIME-SULPHUR DIPPING BATHS FOR SHEEP. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 8 Ss nS 4 8 is Rm) S > iS 3 = — a i) 1D. OS 00 19 SH OD HO O00 00 & 0 019 1 HH HOD OD 3 = iS) COON AAT AM IOI AT OOONN OO 1919 HH at aH OD p S ae a ANN ana AH SOSSOSOSSSOSSOSSSS Sen a a MOANCANHMAR HAHAH OOSCSOOSOSSSSSSS Bs. Sete Sea l 5 J Se 6 a SHOSMARMMONCHOMMAMHORHNOrES Ss al = aos Ss a bo Wrivicd OANA Addis Sdoddd o a0 >s atk ° as p=) @ S LOD OAHHOMDOnRMANORLINMANHOOMOORNRN S o & Q =| SS S83 Es i} 26 Ss SPO stiridtiaaG saiciaididddddddddcdcdcddd S's = bt q Sy BASE ee RIE Ee att oy ea ee) po} Bs eS Bb el r) OO MIMO HHMOMANANS AA AAA oO q ~ fo) 2 g f gol a Sere EES, ss 3 ko} a SS a ° SWOM-ANr-MOHOOMHARINCOMMHONA 36 Q ws ® SMHOMEKAKOCHOOMHOMNNODRNAMANHHO n SS =) Re} 5 SOB BIS OMAN odo as q = S| SHHNS SiG wa Hoda AAAA Ad rinininini SS a 4 be) Sie pees a ray i) 3 B&B os gq — 3 { cs} Per nee E ==] ".8 i 4 is 3 SOOT MN HMOOMNDOHDOMOMHAWOKO fae} ~» DBs Reese OS Bete a ew cel Seton opted te ora eta Naw a we Te LT atbieTa eoete peat petaeciote Ws gale Sea 3 s Hs) a og SSSChKANSLAMAHHOMORNNHOAON OI Hd Ss S fl ot 2 4 SS ae Cad EOP OOOO OOD Belial) Rs 3 = ais BAGASHANS Gis tdiviac i AAAiAt ddd SSS & |_| ?s § Ss ro i Benes Z 8 5 5 aS es SSOCSCOAGHNOMOONMEMORMMHOM H GAO A Und Da Dae o So ne R a ano BAG SG oe > 5 =a A, 3 & g at a WoGAASHASMSS Ow ai sos oaiaaa ar S19 = S 2 SOSSCSCOMHMTNHOHOAKRMOHONANHORON Bs X ate ae on a —& 3 MHBANHSHBHrSSHHHHAHMHANANAAA SS a 555 a oD s) DAO IOI EME MSHI NOS ONIN EHD) GON ae i te] alii Neral 2 ~~ a af ~ TOMMATDOOMEOMIOINAMMMANNAAN as 5 | 5 sas = fs | Sd. op °O OSS eee ss 8 a g SOSSCSSSCOMOMKAROHOOMHORMHAHO a Ss = a iB BOOS SIO DPA GEN A SSS GO ep") S aim 2) [re CS) 18 a Son nan hice nO SOON Or OCHRE Dirmeh Siero ent sp iGreen ears oS . oO SHSBHNHOHMHON OSI i6tdtHMOAAA ais g S 2 QHOwWHAASHOMOOW IGM Te AAAANA AA A = SCOSSCHCOOOCOCOH MR HMMOMNDONMHA 95 = oH 2 @ BASHAM IGHGHHAOCBAN NE C196 +H Hod O35 Od od cs) a eee S KS id) ANAS ASS oe: Nt HY na Onno sH Ob 00 (=) os Sons AN AA co oo cot Sg IO SR OMS ANSE RAaS g aS SAT Soa Par Ge ae Saiicaciaes © Boss esecoseoeoeoecooosooooscsogoaggoeooooSd N ae, ANA Alcs 6 oot TIDIDO ON OOM SAM > BHESs PHEPHHP HH HF HFS HFHFHSEHHFsesessHSssesesss | >s of da 8 Ss Tho So Os I ee Me eee he ee ek nc non fan) 3 3 poser BEA “sgee geese gsageogees2 Ss i Ago fom} 3 “) S as Ce S < x Qe So A SS ads sé LAD oe sso SS aegasas Ria Amoowoinmowonowmonomowonoworn z Sabo ee nH eo ads SHAW SSSSNAIDSSHAGDSSCHSHAMISNAOSOH = p= ea 1D oooooscoo SS | gosseck Lam SEARS AANARNAS | Se BS oe sas SLR SGAeR ee Reooaae sone & e¥ce2das a Qs Seose ss SASS AA AA ON O96 cD 5 i) He goes s 8 BSigeag eS oo ou SS 2 La} SES 8 3 ee 4A “ Oh 2 es 4 Fhe ay ve RED apse: ae aan C7 4 aah Be See ree im et * hate 2 ey a i) we # yee ater at rege 2 eee oe ae eee Sipe SSE Qe Ss a> pay pannel Se tlie Se taeee en BULLETIN OF THE USDEPARIMENT OF AGRICULTURE No. 164 WIZ es y fi a QY Contribution from the Bureau of Soils, Milton Whitney, Chief. January 30, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) FIELD TEST WITH A TOXIC SOIL CONSTITUENT: VANILEIN. By J. J. SKINNER, Scientist in Soil Fertility Investigations. INTRODUCTION. The presence of vanillin in soils and in a number of plants has led to a study of its effect on growth. Its harmful effect on wheat plants in water and nutrient culture solutions has been demonstrated, while the experiments reported in this paper deal with its effect in soils on crops grown in the field and in pots in the greenhouse. Until recently vanillin had not been definitely isolated or identified in soils, but much information had been obtained in the work of this laboratory to indicate its presence in a number of soils. The isolation of vanillin in crystal form from certain soils and its definite identi- fication has now been accomplished ! and its effect on soil fertility has become an interesting subject for investigation. Vanillin has been reported in the seeds and roots of oats,’ seeds of white lupine,? asparagus shoots,‘ in raw-beet sugar,® and in the leaves and roots of a number of other plants. It has recently been reported to occur in rotten oak wood, in pineapples, in lawn grass, in ungermi- nated wheat, in wheat bran, in the roots, tops, and seeds of wheat seedlings, and in water in which wheat seedlings grew.® Its presence in wood and various forms of vegetation has led to the conclusion that vanillin in soils has its origin in vegetable débris. Vanillin has the characteristics of an aldehyde, and, like the salicylic aldehyde already reported,’ is toxic to plants, though to a less degree. i Shorey, E.C., J. Agr. Res. 1, 357 (1914). 2 de Routon, Compt. rend., 125, 797 (1897). 3Campani and Grimaldi, Chem. Centr., 1, 377 (1888). 4Von Lippmann, Ber. Chem. Ges., 18, 3335 (1885). 6 Scheibler, Ber. Chem. Ges., 13, 335 (1880) Lippmann, ibid. , 662. 6 Sullivan, M. X., Jour. Indus. and Eng. Chem., 6, 119 (1914). T Schreiner, O., and Skinner, J. J., Bul. 108, U. S. Department of Agricuiture, 1914. Notre.—The effect upon plant growth of vanillin, a toxie soil constituent, as demonstrated in pot experi- ments and field tests, is described in this bulletin. 67216°—15 2 BULLETIN 164, U. 8) DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is harmful to wheat’ seedlings in water cultures, even in such low concentrations as a few parts per inillion, and the plants are killed in solutions of 500 parts per million in a few days.!_ The toxic effect is less marked upon the tops of the wheat plants than upon their roots. Vanillin is also harmful in nutrient culture solutions composed of cal- cium acid phosphate, sodium nitrate, and potassium sulphate. It is an oxidizable substance and is less harmful in solutions of some of these nutrient salts than in others, especially those high in nitrate.” Sodium nitrate and calcium carbonate,*? which themselves induce oxidation, ameliorate the harmfuiness of vanillin. The isolation of vanillin from soils and its harmfulness to plants in aqueous solutions has made a study of its effect in soils and under field conditions essential. The results of such experiments with cowpeas, garden peas, and string beans will now be given, together with the action of vanillin on clover in soil in pots and with wheat plants eco in several soils of different characters. EFFECT OF VANILLIN ON CLOVER IN POTS. An experiment to determine the effect of vanillin on clover was made by growing clover in Chester loam soil in large pots. Ordinary clay flower pots holding 6 pounds of soil were used. One pot was untreated; the other had a total of 300 parts per million of the vanillin added to it. When the soil was potted, 100 parts per million of the vanillin was added and clover then sown, 0.5 gram of seed per pot. The clover was sown April 12, and came up well. On April 28, 50 parts per million of vanillin were added in solution through a funnel passing into the soil nearly to the bottom of the pot, thus avoiding direct con- tact with the tops or roots of the clover. On May 15 another 50 parts per million were added, and on June i and June 10, 50 parts per million were added, making the total application 300 parts per mil- lion. The experiment was discontinued June 21,1912. The effect of vanillin was noticeable from. the first. . The harmful effect of the vanillin is shown by comparing the un- treated pot and the vanillin-treated pot shown in Plate I. The vanil- lin-treated plants were healthy in appearance but stunted in growth. The green weight taken at the termination of the experiment was 8 grams from the untreated pot and only 3.8 grams from the vanillin- treated pot, a decrease of 53 per cent. TP ARE : The soil used in this experiment was a soil of moderate productive- ness, and vanillin applied to it at different periods of the growth of the plants was distinctly harmful. Other experiments were made to 1 Schreiner, Reed, and Skinner, Bul. 47, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. (1908). — 2 Schreiner and Skinner, Bul. 77, Bureau of Soils, U. 8. Dept. Agr. (1911). 2 Schreiner and Reed, Am. Chem. Soc., 80, 85 (1908). ; DP UBICAN FIELD TEST WITH A TOXIC SOI CONSTITUENT: VANILLIN. 3 test the effect of different amounts of vanillin in several soils, each having different properties and being of different geological origin. Tn the following experiments wheat was used as the test crop and the total application of vanillin was made before the soil was potted and seeds planted. EFFECT OF VANILLIN ON WHEAT IN POTS. z In this experiment the effect of vanillin in several soils was studied by growing wheat in pots. The soils used were infertile Florida sand, an infertile sample of Susquehanna sandy loam, and a good sample of Hagerstown loam. The paraffined wire pot method‘! was used, six wheat plants were grown in each pot, and two pots were used for each treatment. The plants grew from May 5 to May 24. Photo- eraphs of the growing plants were taken, which show the action of vanillin in each soil. At the end of the experiment the green weight was determined. The Florida sand used in this experiment had grown citrus fruits in the field and was unproductive. A laboratory examination showed the soil to be acid. Vanillin was isolated from this soil in the inves- tigations referred to above. ‘The Susquehanna sandy loam was taken from an infertile area in Maryland. The natural growth on this soil was poor, and its response to fertilizer and cultural treatments was only moderate. Its oxidizing power and life activities were found to be very weak. The Hagerstown loam is a fertile soil. The soil was’ taken from a productive field of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Exper- iment Station. The soil is neutral in reaction, has strong oxidizing power, and grows thrifty plants in pots. Vanillin was used in amounts of 100 to 500 parts per million. It was applied to the soil by dissolving in water and mixing the solution in the soil before potting. The results of the experiment on the effect of vanillin in the Florida sand, Susquehanna sandy loam, and Hagerstown loam are given in Table I. The actual green weight of the plants grown in the two pots are given for each treatment and the relative weight with the growth in the untreated soil taken as 100. TasLe |.—Effect of vanillin on wheat plants in pots grown in Florida sand, Susque- hanna sandy loam, and in Hagerstown loam. f Florida yellow | Susquehanna sand sand (infertile loam (unproduc- Tee gent sand). tive soil). DAOCTCUINE SO). Treatment. Green | Relative} Green | Relative| Green | Relative weight. | weight. | weight. | weight. | weight. | weight. Grams. Grams Grams. Shon! (ua ook woe sees code boc suanoesE 1. 40 100 1.80 100 1.98 100 Soil + 100 p. p.m. vanillin..............-- 1.32 94 1.85 103 1.87 94 Soil-+ 200 p. p.m. vanillin....-.......-..- 1.32 94 1.70 94 2. 02 102 Soil+ 800 p. p.m. vanillin............-.-. 1.35 98 1.33 74 2.05 108 -Soil + 400 p. p. m. vanillin................ 1.20 86 1.30 72 1.96 99 Soil + 500 p. p. m. vanillin,.............-. 1.18 84 1.02 57 1.95 99 1Cir. 18, Bureau of Soils. 4 BULLETIN 164, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The vanillin was quite harmful in amounts of 400 and 500 parts per million in the Florida sand and was only moderately harmful in amounts of 100 to 300 parts per million. _With the Susquehanna sandy loam the vanillin reduced growth considerably when applied at the rate of 300, 400, and 500 parts per million. It was slightly harmfui with 100 and 200 parts per milion. Vanillin had no harmful effect in the Hagerstown loam—two of the treatments wereslightly above the check and three slightly below. The growth in the un- treated soil of the Hagerstown loam was better than in the Susque- hanna sandy loam and considerably better than in the Florida sand. The effect of vanillin in the three soils is shown in Plate II. It is seen from this experiment that vanillin is harmful in two of the soils and has no effect in the third. Vanillin is easily oxidized and changed under favorable conditions, and if this took place the action on plant growth would not be noticeable. The Florida sand was found to contain vanillin when sent in from the field and, as would be expected, added quantities of vanillin would not be changed and it would remain as such to have its effect on plants grown in the soil. The Susquehanna sandy loam is also a soil having small oxidizing power and low life activity, and added quantities of vanillin appar- rently remained as such and had their effect on plant growth. The Hagerstown loam is a soil of entirely different characteristics, being highly productive, which indicates good life activities and good oxidizing power. Vanillin when added does not have harmful effects on plants grown in the soil, as it probably does not remain in this soil as such, but is changed or destroyed by the oxidation which is going on in soils of this character. In order to study further the action of vanillin in soils and its bearing on soil fertility, the effect of vanillin under field conditions was tested in plots. Three leguminous crops—cowpeas, string beans, and garden peas—were grown to maturity in this experiment, with the following results: EFFECT OF VANILLIN ON COWPEAS, STRING BEANS, AND GARDEN PEAS GROWN IN THE FIELD. The effect of vanillin in soils under field conditions was tested on plots at the experiment farm of the Agricultural Department at Arlington, Va. Three crops were grown, namely, cowpeas, string beans, and garden peas. These experiments were made during the summer of 1913. The treated plot was adjoimed on each side by an untreated plot growing thesamecrop. Each plot was 8} feet square, or one-fourth of a square rod; that is, one six hundred and fortieth of an acre. PLATE I. Bul. 164, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (‘UlT[TUBvA ‘Z ‘ON ‘po}eorjun ‘Tf ‘oN) "USAO19 NO NITIINVA SO 103449 ato a er ee ae >= Bul. 164, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. Fic. 1.—EFFECT OF VANILLIN ON WHEAT JN FLORIDA SAND. ‘No. 1, Soil untreated; No. 2, vanillin 100 p. p. m.; No. 3, vanillin 200 p. p. m.; No. 4, vanillin 300 p. p. m.; No. 5, vanillin 400 p. p. m.; No. 6, vanillin 500 p. p. m.) Fic. 2.—EFFECT OF VANILLIN ON WHEAT IN SUSQUEHANNA SANDY LOAM. (No. 1, Soiluntreated; No.2, vanillin 100 p. p. m.; No. 3, vanillin 200 p. p.m., No. 4, vanillin 300 p. p. m.; No. 5, vanillin 100 p. p. m.; No. 6 vanillin 500 p. p. m.) Fic. 3.—EFFECT OF VANILLIN ON WHEAT IN HAGERSTOWN LOAM. 2, vanillin 100 p. p. m.; No. 3, vanillin 200 p. p. m.; No. 4, vanillin 300 p. p. m.; No. 5, vanillin 400 p. p. m.; No. 6, vanillin 500 p. p. m.) (No. 1, Soil untreated; No. 2, Bul. 164, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Ill. Fic. 1.—EFFECT OF VANILLIN ON COWPEAS IN THE FIELD. Fic. 2.—EFFECT OF VANILLIN ON GARDEN PEAS IN THE FIELD. Fic. 3.—EFFECT OF VANILLIN ON STRING BEANS IN THE FIELD. Bul. 164, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Untreated wee & Vaniltin & } : Fia. 1.—YIELD OF COWPEAS, VINES, AND PODS ON CHECK PLOT @ AND ON VANILLIN- TREATED PLOT. Garden Peas Vanillin Fic.2.—YIELD OF GARDEN PEAS, VINES, AND PODS ON CHECK PLOT @ AND ON VANILLIN- TREATED PLOT. Vanillin Untreated Fi@. 3.—VIELD OF STRING BEANS, VINES, AND PODS ON CHECK PLOT @ AND ON VANILLIN-T REATED PLOT. FIELD TEST WITH A TOXIC SOIL CONSTITUENT: VANILLIN. D The soil on which these experiments were made is a silty clay loam, low in organic matter. The ground is level and has surface drainage. The soil throughout these plots and their controls is uniform, so the results secured should not be considered as unduly influenced by irregularities due to nonuniformity of the soil in different plots. The soil is of an acid nature. The land was plowed early in May and prepared for seeding. | Four applications of vanillin were made. The first on May 20, one day before the planting of seed. The other three applications were made periodically during the growth of the crops—May 28, June 5, and June 24. The vanillin was applied by dissolving in water, sprinkling the solution uniformly on the surface of the ground before planting, and raking the soil thoroughly. The remaining applica- tions were made after planting by sprinkling the solution between the rows of plants, the soil being subsequently cultivated. The total application was at the rate of 285 pounds per acre, in four equal parts. The crops germinated uniformly. The effect of the vanillin was noticeable from the beginning and throughout the experiment. The growth was stunted, though the plants grew slowly to maturity, and were harvested. EFFECT OF VANILLIN ON COWPEAS. The cowpeas were sown May 21, 1913, the plots having been previously prepared, and were harvested September 7, 1913. The plants in the untreated plots made more vigorous growth and had a better color than those in the vanillin-treated plot. The vanillin- treated plants had a pale-green color and grew slenderer than those on the untreated plot. The appearance of the plants on June 27 is shown in Plate III, figure 1. The four rows of plants growing on the left are on the vanillin-treated plot, and the four rows on the right on the untreated plot. The picture shows that at this stage of growth the vanillin has greatly affected the cowpeas. This effect was even more marked as the crop approached maturity. When mature the peas were picked from the vines and weighed. The weight of the cowpea vines was taken, and after drying the weight of the cured hay was also determined. In Plate IV, figure 1, are shown the vines and pods as taken from the untreated and treated _ plots. The effect of the vanillin im depressing yield is here also apparent. In Table IT are given the yields obtained in this experiment with vanillin and cowpeas. The weight of vines and pods is given as obtained from the individual plots and also in terms per acre. 6 BULLETIN 164, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie II.— Yield of cowpeas as affected by vanillin in the field. Yield per plot. Yield per acre. Treatment. Vines. Vines. Pods. Pods Green. Cured. Green. Cured. Biisclep ets. ths} Vita PCa oS 10. 6.6 3.20] 2.11 HOCK D) .0 tie ie OS eR OE ay ene 23.0 8.5 5.6 7.36 2.72 1.78 AV ErACe CHECK a es ee oF ae 25.5 9.3 6.1 8.16 2.96 1.95 Viiv tllrieeee Goer eee eee eer Bes Le ae 17.0 D7 4.0 5. 44 1.82 1.27 3.6 251! 2.72 1.14 | 68 From the table it is seen that the average production of the two check plots was 8.16 tons per acre of green pea Vines, or 2.96 tons per acre of cured hay, while the vanillin plot produced only 5.44 tons per acre of green vines, or 1.82 tons per acre of cured hay. This isa reduction of 2.72 tons per acre of green vines, or 1.14 tons per acre of cured hay due to the vanillin, a reduction of 33 per cent of green vines and 39 per cent of cured hay. The average production of the two check plots was 1.95 tons per acre of pods, while the vanillin plots produced 1.27 tons per acre, a reduction of 35 per cent. EFFECT OF VANILLIN ON GARDEN PEAS. The garden peas were sown in the untreated and vanillin-treated plots May 21, the germination was good, and a good stand was ob- tained. The vanillin checked the growth of the peas from the start and the difference was pronounced throughout the entire period of growth. The crop was harvested June 30; the vines and peas were weighed separately. The appearance of the plants in the early stages of their growth is shown in Plate III, figure 2. The weights and measurements of vines and peas are given in Table III. TaBLe ITI.— Yield of garden peas as affected by vanillin in the field. | Yield per plot. Yield per acre. Treatment. j | Vines. | Peas. Vines. Peas. [aot age eke ' Founds. | Pounds.| Pints. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pecks. CHECKS aes et a et ee 7. 1.66 4.50 1,101 1,062 180 CECE Ge ee ee ree ae Ts 1.50 1.48 4.0 950 947 AVETASO CHECK kes go sce 22 Ss 1.61 1.57 4.25 1,030 1, 004 wy (er tits LEG Seam SS Ss ye ate cn a eta i i 1.14 3.00 717 730 Ditterence= sees his ey oe .49 43 ib ak 313 | 27. As seen from the table, the yield of the vanillin plot is far below the check plots. The average production of the two untreated plots was 1,030 pounds per acre of vines and 170 pecks of peas per acre, FIELD TEST WIEH A TOXIC SOIL CONSTITUENT: VANILLIN. 7 while the vanillin plot produced 717 pounds per acre of vines and 120 pecks of peas. This is a reduction of 30 per cent in vines and 20 per cent in marketable peas, due to the presence of vanillin. Plate IV, figure 2, shows the harvested crop grown in the untreated plot and in the vanillin plot. EFFECT OF VANILLIN ON STRING BEANS. String beans were also affected by vanillin. The beans were sown May 21, 1913; they germinated well and came up uniformly. The plants in the untreated plot grew better and were more thrifty than those in the vanillm plot. Plate III, figure 3, shows the comparative growth in the early stage, and from this it is seen that the untreated plants are much larger. The crop was harvested July 22. The beans were picked from the vines and measured. The results are given in Table IV. TaBLe IV.— Ye%eld of string beans as affected by vanillin in the field. Yield per plot. Yield per acre. Treatment. — Vines. Beans. Vines. Beans. Pounds. | Pownds.| Pints. | Pounds. | Pouwnds.| Pecks. Checks ere aia ts Nene Ne eh ee 3.55 1.90 4.75 2,272 1, 236 190 CLS SE Oe I Then es ge a IY 2.94 1.66 4,15 1, 882 1,062 166 _—— ee ss INGEN) CCC le ne ao eee es a ee ee ae 1.4 1 74 Garden ipes plota sess fs pe So Sout. 282. AR cae ee Ce 1.47 1.10 75 1, 54 1.10 71 SLE Pe DCATINDID Et. Se eee ho ae 2 ek ee Ale eo ee Ne The table shows that the soils from the vanillin-treated plots were harmful to wheat in soil collected six months after the vanillin had been applied. A similar experiment was made with these soils, except that the crops grown in the pots were identical with those which had grown in FIELD TEST WITH A TOXIC SOIL CONSTITUENT: VANILLIN, 9 the field the preceding season; that is, cowpeas on the cowpea soil from the checls plot and from the vanillin plot, string beans on the string bean soil from both check and treated plots, garden peas on the garden pea soil from both check and treated plots. Two pots were used in each case and two plants in each pot. The plants grew from December 11 to January 6. The vegetative growth made in this experiment is given in Table VI. TaBLE VI.—Growth of cowpeas in pots of soil from cowpea field plot; garden peas in soul from garden pea field plot; string beans in soil from string bean field plot; collected six months ofter treatment with vanillin. Green weight of plants | upon— Relative Plot. | growth, Soilfrom | Soilfrom | check-=100. plots un- vanillin treated. plots. Grams. Grams. |! Cowpeasiplotie te = nay es se nats eee nc eae dota | eae 4.30 3.05 71 GardenspCassplOuee esa seme saaer See ee ene oe fo, enna 5. 60 4.00 71 SS bRiM Sal ean SLO tee ee eee ee mene San eee eee 7.80 7.35 94 The figures in the table show that vanillin was still harmful to the respective crops six months after the application of vanillin, and after it had produced the same crop in the field. These experiments show that vanillin persists in this heavy silty clay loam soil and affects its fertility for a considerable length of time. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULIURE ut be NU A _No. 165 AGL Gouenieee his the Bier of Entomology, L. O, Howard, Chief. December 31, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) QUASSIIN AS A CONTACT INSECTICIDE. By Wiut1am B. PARKER, Entomological Assistant, Bureau of Entomology.* INTRODUCTION. Quassia chips, the active principle of which is quassim, have been employed for many years in the preparation of spray solutions for the control of the hop aphis (Phorodon humuli Schr.). Several formulas have been followed, and there are .several methods of preparation according to these formulas. Several factors have brought about the variations in the formulas, (1) instability in the percentage of quassim in the chips, (2) the total amount of available quassiin in the chips probably not extracted, due to the method of preparation, and (3) the fact that there appeared to be no fundamental data accumulated on this subject. The writer accordingly commenced the investiga- tion, which has been taken up from an insecticidal standpoint, and any chemistry that is mentioned other than very simple matters is taken from the various sources. Acknowledgments are due to Prof. George P. Grey, of Berkeley, Cal., and Mr. G. H. P. Leichthardt, of Sacramento, Cal., for valuable suggestions, and to Mr. R. E. Camp- bell, of the Bureau of Entomology, who ably assisted the writer in dtemnne the efficiency of the seem formulas. During the investigation of the life history and control of the hop aphis ? it was observed that there were several formulas for the use of quassia chips. These all appeared to give satisfactory results when carefully prepared and applied, but it will be observed from the following formulas that if the weaker one killed the aphides, the use of the stronger one resulted in a waste of material and extra expense. | 1 Resigned August 31, 1914. 2 Parker, Wm. B., The Hop Aphis in the Pacific Region. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent. Bul. 111, 39 p, 8 fig., 10 pl., May 6, 1913. Nortre.—The results of an investigation to determine the most suitable solution of quassiin for use as a spray for the control of the hop aphis are discussed in this bulletin. 67215°—14 ot ae 2 BULLETIN 165,,U. 8S; DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The following formulas are typical examples of the variation in the amount of ingredients and the cost per 100 gallons: | No.1. || No: 2. | No. 3. QiTassia Chipsys see a8e pepe Oe a py Gk eee lea Ok SN Seema hai. Wah eR ee pounds. . 2.8 8 9 Wihale-olll/ Soap aoa ee SETS See 2 NS et I ae ieee ee Sea ees ae en dome 1.6 6 6 Wiarton setae Se Se crepe Beets Se eR RAY Dep UP A See on pean gallons.-| 100 100 100 Cost perl OO gall oss tee, eee te selec ee rene Sot ats 4 eee ie ete ae epee IS cents.-| 31 69 74.2 These formulas are concocted differently by different growers. Some soak the chips 24 hours in a barrel of water and then boil them for 2 hours. Some boil them for 2 hours without previous soaking, and others boil them with the whale-oil soap. The several formulas and methods of preparation all have their advocates among the hop growers. CHEMICAL LITERATURE ON QUASSIIN. The quassia chips commonly used in preparing spray solutions are the wood of the Jamaica quassia (Picrasma excelsa Swz.). The literature on the chemical nature of quassiin, the active principle of quassia wood, was found to be very limited, but the few important references that the writer was able to obtain are discussed below. The wood of Picrasma excelsa (Swz.) Planch. (Quassia e Swz.; Q. polygama Lind- say; Piceaena e Lindl.; Simarubae D. C.) or of Quassia amara L. (Fam. Simarubacez). Description.—Jamaica quassia. Occurring in various forms, usually chips, raspings, or billets, yellowish white or pale yellow, and of rather coarse texture; odor slight; taste intensely bitter; medullary rays containing tetragonal prisms or small, arrow- shaped crystals of calcium oxylate. Billets of Jamaica quassia are usually 12.5 cm. or more in diameter; in tangential section the medullary rays are mostly 3 to 5 rows of cells in width. Surinam quassia. Occurring usually in billets not exceeding 7.5 cm. in diameter; the wood is heavier, harder, and more deeply colored than that of Jamaica quassia, and the medullary rays in tangential section are mostly 1 or 2 rows of cells in width. Constituents.—Although Jamaica quassia is said to contain traces of a yellowish alkaloid, giving a fine blue fluorescence with acidulated alcohol, the important bitter principle is a neutral, crystalline substance, commonly known as quassiin, but deter- mined by Massute to be a mixture of two crystalline bodies, which he denominated a—and f- picrasmin. Quassiin is extracted by neutralizing the aqueous infusion with soda, precipitating with tannin and decomposing the precipitate with lead oxide or lime. It is commonly said to exist to the extent of only 0.05 to 0.15 per cent, but really exists in much larger amount, Wiggers says0.75 percent. This discrepancy is probably due to the fact that it is difficult to procure in the pure state, and that the purification processes involve considerable loss. Quassiin crystallizes in needles or prisms, and is soluble in alcohol and in chloroform and in 1,200 parts of cold water. Its bitternessismost intense. The @-picrasmin (C3;H4g0,) melts at 204° C. The #-picrasmin (C3sH4sO19) at 209° to 212° ©. (408.2°-413.6° F.). The bitter principle of Surinam quassia is closely related and of similar action, but not identical.t To it the name quassin is commonly applied. 1 Hare, H. A., Caspari, C., and Rusby, H. H. National Standard Dispensatory, ed. 2, revised and enlarged, p. 1334, Philadelphia, 1909. | QUASSIIN AS A CONTACT INSECTICIDE. 3 Quassine, the active principle of Quassia amara, is amorphous or crystalline. It has been isolated by Winkler. It is colorless, inodorous, opaque, and inalterable in the air, slightly soluble in water, much more soluble in water charged with salt or organic acids, and in alcohol. Action on plants: Plants are not injured by spraying with aqueous extracts of quassia.? Quassia.—Constit.: Wood: Picrasmin, ©,;H,,O,9: quassin, C,9H,,03 (or, C3.H4.019 [°1); quassol, CyjH;O—-H,0; alkaloid; resin; mucilage; pectin.—Bark: Quassin; alkaloid; resin; pectin. (Quassia amara contains 4 bitter principles; Picrenua excelsa contains only 2): quassol,—* » “Quassiin (C35H4,0,)) may be obtained in a fairly pure state by exhausting quassia- wood with hot water, precipitating the solution with neutral lead acetate, removing the excess of lead from the filtrate by sulphuretted hydrogen and shaking the filtered liquid with chloroform. On evaporation, the quassiin is obtained nearly colorless, and, with some difficulty, in a distinctly crystalline condition. Quassiin has an in- tensely and very persistent bitter taste. It is sparingly soluble in cold water, more readily in hot water, and is easily soluble in alcohol. its best solvent is chloroform, which extracts quassiin readily from acidulated solutions. An aqueous solution of quassiin does not reduce Fehling’s solution cr an ammonio- nitrate of silver. The solid substance gives no coloration (or merely yellow) when treated with strong sulphuric acid, or with nitric acid 1-25 sp. gr.; nor is any color produced on warming. * * * A solution of quassiin gives a white precipitate with tannin. The reaction is used by Christensen, Oliveri, and others, to isolate quassiin from its solutions, and by Enders to separate it from picrotoxin. In the author’s hands the reaction has not proved satisfactory. The liquid is very difficult to filter, and the filtrate still retains an intensely bitter taste, showing that the precipitation 1s very incomplete. As an analytical method the reaction is useless, but it is of some value as a qualitative test. The test must be made in cold solution. Possibly a more complete precipitation of quassiin by tannic acid might be effected in an alcoholic solution. Quassiin gives a brown coloration with ferric chloride. The reaction is best observed by moistening a quassiin residue in porcelain with a few drops of a weak alcoholic solution of ferric chloride, and applying a gentle heat. A fine mahogany-brown coloration is produced.”’ ? The quassiin used in the followmg experiments was extracted according to directions given by Allen.* It was further found that when boiled in alcohol a precipitate formed. This was fil- tered off, the filtrate evaporated to dryness over a water bath, and the resulting dark resmous material extracted with boiling water. When extraction was complete a dark brown crusty material remained. The resulting extract was light yellow and perfectly clear. It was found to be intensely bitter. When. cool this aqueous soluticn was extracted with chloroform, evaporated over a water bath, and weighed and made into a per- centage solution. 1 Bourcart, E., Insecticides, Fungicides and Weedkillers, p. 376. London, 1913. 2 Merkes 1907 Index, ed. 3, p. 8366. New York, 1907. 3Allen, A. H., Commercial Organic Analysis, ed. 2 revised and enlarged, v. 3, pt. 3, p. 187-188, Phila- delphia, 1896. 4 Except the solution was not acidulated before extraction with acid. 4 BULLETIN 165, U. 8S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In studying the use of quassiin as a contact insecticide it became desirable to determine in what solvents and solutions this com- pound was soluble. Table I gives the results of the experiments which were carried out with this purpose in view. TaBLe I.—Results of solubility tests for quassiin. No. Material. Action. 1 aChiloroformeasss serene ere eee Readily soluble. 2) sethers eee Sea Sse ete eee Not soluble. 3 | Methylalcohol..........----. Readily soluble. 4 | Ethylaleohol. -.-.:-...-.--- Do. 5) |\ablotiwaterwece ass. aes Do. Ga Coldiwaters=ss-e-ee-o 5 see Sparingly soluble 11,200. Oe WKeroSenee. esses Seeenc see Not soluble. Soi (Gasoline). See Sees ee Do. 9 | Carbon tetrachlorid....-...- Do. dot |Benzine: ee sashes ae Do. 10D | Mburpentine sss—sesee see Possibly soluble. RESULTS OF TESTS WITH SOLUTIONS. 12 | Potassium hydroxid....-.-- Readily soluble, solution yellow. 13 | Sodium hydroxid.......--.- Do. 14 | Calcium hydroxid.....--..-- Do. 15 | Potassium cyanid....---.-.- Do. 16 | Sodium carbonate.....--.-.- Do. 17 | Hydrocyanic acid.--.....-.. Do. 18 | Ammonium hydrate.....--. Do. 19 | Whale-oil soap (alkaline). --. Do. 20 | Sodium chlorid............-- Apparently insoluble. 21 | Hydrochloric acid....-..--.- Do. 22 | Sulphuric acid g Do. 230m ONICHA CIC === see 2 Do. JAS eAceticiacide sass seer Be Do. | The foregoing table represents the results of experiments which were conducted with quassiin in an attempt to determine some cheap solvent or solution, other than hot water, by which it could be extracted from the wood. EXTRACTION OF QUASSIIN FROM SOLUTIONS. It was found that when the solutions of potassium hydroxid, sodium hydroxid, sodium carbonate, etc., with quassiin, were acidulated with sulphuric acid, the quassun could be readily removed in chloro- form. This process would apply when testing the percentage of quassiin in such solutions. DETERMINATION OF PURITY OF QUASSIIN USED. Since the purity of the quassiin used in spraying experiments is an important factor in figuring proportions, an attempt was made to determine the amounts of material other than quassiin which might be present in the stock solution. Following a suggestion in Allen, tannin was added to an aqueous solution of quassiin taken from the stock solution. A fine precipitate appeared, but unfortunately it passed through an ordinary filter paper. QUASSIIN AS A CONTACT INSECTICIDE. 5) It being observed that tannin is not extracted from an aqueous solution by chloroform, an attempt was made to collect.the chloroform- soluble material which was not precipitated by the tannin. The solution was accordingly shaken with chloroform, and the chloroform separated in a separating funnel. When replaced in aqueous solu- Fic. 1.—Compressed-air spray machine used in applying quassiin solution. (Original.) tion, the extracted material was found to be intensely bitter and gave all the appearance of being quassiin. It is evident that all of the quassiin is not precipitated by tannin. Because the material used proved effective as an insecticide at dilutions of 0.4 grams to 1,500, 1,800, and 2,000 cubic centimeters, the writer believes that 1t was comparatively pure quassiin. INSECTICIDAL VALUE OF QUASSIIN. The determination of the insecticidal value of quassiin is the main object of this investigation. In accomplishing this object an attempt is made to compare the action of quassiin to the action of a standard contact insecticide. Nicotine sulphate is taken as the standard, 6 BULLETIN 165,,U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and in these experiments is used at the rate of 1-2,000. The nico- tine sulphate used was standardized to 40 per cent and the solution of quassiin was used so that it would correspond with the 40 per cent solution of nicotine sulphate. For instance, instead of using 1 gram of quassiin to 2,000 cubic centimeters of water, 0.4 gram was used to 2,000 cubic centimeters of water. During the early part of the work it was discovered that the whale- oil soap, even when used at the greatest dilution at which it had any spreading effect (1 pound to 100 gallons), killed a certain percentage of the aphides. Since a spreader is necessary, experiments were inaugurated to find one that would have no effect upon the insects treated. It was found that the soap bark solution which was being used in some other work was an excellent spreader and did not affect the insects in the least. In all of the following experiments a water decoction of this material was used at the rate of 2 pounds of soap bark to 100 gallons of water. In applying the solutions, a compressed-air spray machine (fig. 1) which maintained 50 pounds pressure and handled as small an amount as 200 cubic centimeters was used. A fine mist nozzle was so adjusted to this pressure of 50 pounds that a washing rather than a mist spray was produced. In conducting the experiments detailed in Table II prune twigs infested by the hop aphis (Phorodon humuli Schrank) and the prune aphis (Hyalopterus prunit Fab.) were brought from the field and, after being sprayed with the solutions, were set in moist sand. By placing the pots of sand containing the sprayed twigs on sheets of paper the percentage of the insects that were killed by the solu- tions were readily obtained. Check twigs were kept to make sure that there was not a marked mortality from some other cause. Table II gives the results of the spraying experiments with quassiin in aqueous solution and also in solutions of certain alkaline sub- stances. Taste Il.—Results of experiments with quassiin as a contact insecticide. SERIES NO.1. WITH SOAP BARK IN LABORATORY. Number of | Per cent of Formula. aphides aphides sprayed. killed, O:Serams Tost 0iCe seers 5/2552 4 5.2 aie ee AS eee ee soe er Ten a at ee | 904 85.1 OAiramsitos000 cee eee 72 aa. eee \ Oe a ae Sein eae ele eee 8, 060 93. 02 Ooramsitodes00leehs so) Gene coi oto ape ae |. eee ie ieee eee nthe emma pe | 1,119 94.6 O:Berdm stor S00 e hares hoy 1 En fee EP ne ie ee 9 yee ge 1,310 93:9 L 1, $31 99.7 O:4:prams (Fos 0000 oss 22 ete ei citas ere ee ne oe ee eee SERIES NO.2. WITH WHAL#-OIL SOAP IN FIELD. O:Airams tO 000ICCks sana ae ace Le... | pune Geet |e ee sta cee | 1,776 99.4 0:4 grams Fo! 1800 Cex. 220 aie RE Re ee ee es eee | 3,197 99.8 3,546 99.8 O:Averams, tod. 500(Ce shen a eee gs ee eee | SE eee Speke gL Tee Openers | QUASSIIN AS A CONTACT INSECTICIDE. Ol TasiE I].—Results of experiments with quassiin as a contact insecticide—-Continued. SERIES NO.3. WITH SOAP BARK ON PRUNE APHIS IN FIELD. Number of} Per cent of Formula. aphides aphides sprayed. killed. QubeRENINS HO) PHOOO Os 555555353 ao sone seeedanerseseosnessece > soocseossosseseassedue 1, 923 97.5 ODeramSntOwmeSQO\C Ce cyesscejcre are ce sie wie re are cede eis soe eee Pere se lcts sels ae 721 99.2 CHECK SERIES. Whale-oil scap, 3 pounds to 100 gallons. ........--..--..------+-------+--+-2----- 1,030 1284.6 Sono loa, 2 joo wuavelss wo) OO) epullWonns) so cosnaconoebodeceackboccosscacesnoacudoesad 1,202 121 Nicotine sulphate, 0.4 grams to 2,000 cc., with soap bark, 2 pounds to 100 gallons. -. 930 96.9 1 These were the largest percentages obtained for the check materials. 2Tn field. From the foregoing table it will be readily seen that quassiin used at the rate of 0.4 grams to 2,000 cubic centimeters, or 64 ounces of 40 per cent solution to 100 gallons, was almost as effective against the hop aphis and the prune aphis as nicotine sulphate, 0.4 grams to 2,000 cubic centimeters, or 64 ounces to 100 gallons. The difference is approximately 3 per cent, while quassiin, 0.4 grams to 1,000 cubic centimeters, is fully as effective. The writer has not so far tested this material upon insects other than those mentioned, but believes that it will prove effective else- where if used in proportions corresponding to the amounts of nicotine sulphate that are known to be effective. CONCLUSION. Picrasma excelsa Swz. (quassia wood) is a native of Jamaica, and, . according to data obtained, is available in considerable quantities. The percentage of quassiin in the quassia wood varies somewhat, and does not appear to be definitely known. Supposing it to be 0.75 per cent, as given by one author, to use the quassiin at an effective rate of 0.4 grams to 2,000 cubic centimeters, it would take only 14 pounds of the chips to 100 gallons of spray. To be on the safe side, double the amount of chips calculated to be necessary, and we have the following formula ‘+ and cost per 100 gallons of spray: Quassia chips, 0.75 per cent quassiin, 3 pounds, at $0.04. .................... $0. 12 Winalle-oulksoap mr omooumialsiiat BOLL: s. | 7s 5. ampere teen eroye meters Liye) ray 0) oe 2 Motalncosirommaterial sper lOO call oss ey amet ae ere amet ee 24 Quassiin can be readily extracted from quassia wood, Picrasma eacelsa Swz., in a comparatively pure form. (See p.3.) It probably could be more cheaply extracted in an impure water-soluble form by using sodium carbonate solution. The percentage of quassiin could be determined and the material evaporated until a standardized solu- tion was made. Such a material could be diluted and used with 1 This formula corresponds very closely to formula No. 1, page 2. 8 BULLETIN 165, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. whale-oil soap, or some other spreader, as in the case of nicotine sul- phate. The writer believes that quassiin has possibilities as a com- mercial insecticide and that it could be cheaply prepared and possibly sold at a lower price than some of the materials that are now on the market. | The foregoing data were obtained under conditions existing at Sacramento, Cal., and may not hold for a more humid climate. The efficiency of the quassiin should be determined for some other locality before a commercial recommendation is made. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1914 BULLETIN OF THE oo) UNDEPARTMENT OFAMRICULTURE No. 166 Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief. January 22, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) OPHTHALMIC MALLEIN FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF GLANDERS. By Joun R. Mouser, Assistant Chief of Bureau, and ApoteH EicHHorn, Senior Bacteriologist, Pathological Division. INTRODUCTION. It is no longer doubted that in the work of controlling glanders the destruction of the infected animals should be given prompt con- sideration, and, if possible, the infection should be traced to its origin. Unfortunately, the nature of the disease is such that only a compara- tively small proportion of the cases can be recognized by the ordinary clinical examination, and as long as we limit our efforts to the destruc- tion of these cases the disease will continue to spread. An effective control can be accomplished only by the elimination of all centers of infection of glanders. Therefore it is essential primarily to have a means of diagnosing accurately all forms of the disease. Numerous publications have been issued on the various methods of diagnosis, and it seems that while some favor a certain method or methods, others appear to produce sufficient evidence to point out the inadequacy of these methods. There is no question that in the last decade important progress has been made in the diagnosis of this disease. Since the discovery of mallein, competent investigators have fruitfully studied this phase of the question of the control of glanders, and at the present time we possess several methods by which we are reasonably sure of diagnosing practically all cases of glanders. A minimum percentage of failures will probably always have to be con- tended with, as a good many factors enter into the execution of any test. In judging a method which would be the most satisfactory for the diagnosis of glanders various things have to be taken into considera- NotEe.—This bulletin points out the advantageous and satisfactory use of the ophthalmic mallein test in the diagnosis of glanders and the necessity for prompt action on reactors to this test in eradicating this disease. Of interest to veterinarians and State !ive-stock sanitary authorities. 68247°—15 2 BULLETIN 166, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tion, but especially the reliability of the test. It should be conven- ient, the results should be manifested as early as possible, the reaction should be distinct and well marked, and, probably the most important of all, it should be possible for the practicing veterimarian to apply the test. The last condition must be seriously considered, since the standing of the veterinarian in the community and the confidence of the public in his work would be more manifest if in suspected cases he could personally decide on the diagnosis instead of having to depend entirely on the results of serum tests made at some distant laboratory. VARIOUS METHODS FOR DIAGNOSING GLANDERS. It would require a great amount of space to enter into the history of the various methods of diagnosis and to enumerate the data we possess on the different tests. The advantages and disadvantages of the various methods, especially of the subcutaneous mallein tests, have been repeatedly published and are accessible to all those who are interested in the subject. There is no question that the sub- cutaneous mallein test is one of the valuable diagnostic agents for glanders, but no one can any longer deny that failures from this test are more numerous than are desirable. As a matter of fact, the uncertainty of the results from this test caused numerous investi- gators to seek some other method which might replace the sub- cutaneous mallein test. Besides the failures resulting from it, the technic of executing the test, together with the time required for its determination, make it unpopular with many veterinarians and sani- tary officers. Of the other tests which from time to time have been devised for the diagnosis of glanders, the precipitation, the opsonic, and the ¢on- glutination tests will not be considered, since the results obtained from them are not encouraging. For laboratory tests the combined agglutination and complement- fixation test will no doubt remain the most satisfactory, and should always be applied in cases where doubt arises as to the results of other tests carried out by the practicing veterinarian. These latter should be considered as accessory tests and provision should be made everywhere so that in case of doubt the serum could be subjected to the laboratory test mentioned, and the final decision should rest on its outcome. THE OPHTHALMIC MALLEIN TEST. During the last few years the ophthalmic mallein test has gained great favor in the diagnosis of glanders. The popularity of the test is rapidly gaming wherever it has been applied, and among its sup- porters we find at the present time the greatest authorities on the OPHTHALMIC MALLEIN FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF GLANDERS. 3 subject of glanders and on clinical diagnosis. This method of testing is at present officially recognized in Austria, and the indications are that ere long it will constitute the official test in other countries. The results obtained in Austria, where the test’ has been employed for several years, are very gratifying, and Prof. Schnurer, of that country, one of our greatest authorities on glanders, claims that the control of the disease can be very satisfactorily carried out by the application of the eye test, supplemented in doubtful cases by the agglutination test. Bavaria has recently adopted this method of diagnosis for official testing. In Germany the method is also gaining in favor, and current veterimary literature contains expressions of satisfaction with this test from many German authorities. In the United States the Bureau of Animal Industry, in consideration of the favorable results obtained, has recognized this method of diagnosis for interstate shipments of equines. The test has also been officially recognized by the Canadian authorities, and thus far no sanitary offi- cial connected with any of the States in this country has declined to approve this test. The favorable results which have been obtained with this diagnostic method can no longer be denied. Its practicability is apparent, and its use in the control of glanders sRpeas to be now an absolute necessity. SIMPLICITY OF PROCEDURE. The ophthalmic test has a great advantage over others because of its very simple application. It may be readily executed by any veterinarian, and its other advantages are that the results are obtained im a comparatively short time and are, as a rule, distinct and definite. The simplicity of its application is plainly manifest when compared to the subcutaneous test, as it is only necessary to drop two to three drops of concentrated mallein into one of the eyes of the animal to be tested, or, by a still simpler procedure, to dip a camel’s-hair brush into mallein and introduce this into the conjunctival sac of the animal. The reaction usually commences in five to six hours after the intro- duction of the malleim and lasts from 24 to 36 hours. A positive reac- tion is manifested by a purulent secretion from the tested eye. This may be very profuse or slight, sometimes associated with a severe conjunctivitis and edema of the lids, and at other times without any inflammatory symptoms being present. At times only a very small quantity of pus may be present in the inner canthus of the eye. At other times the reaction may manifest a true pyorrhea. The reaction manifests itself in varying degrees in the animals, but the intensity of the reaction has no relation to the extent of the dis- ease in the reactor. 4 BULLETIN 166, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RELIABILITY OF THE TEST. The available data on the ophthalmic mallein test are sufficient to draw conclusions as to the reliability of the method, and in Austria alone it has been applied on many thousands of cases with uniformly good results. In considering the good results obtained and the advantages: of this method of testing, a concentrated mallein has been prepared for _this purpose by the Bureau of Animal Industry, and this was made available to a number of practicing veterinarians who desired to give this method of testing a thorough trial. It has also been employed by inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry in their field work, and reports are accessible regarding its action for diagnostic pur- poses on more than 18,000 cases. “The results from all sources were uniformly satisfactory. Practicing veterinarians who have given this method a trial have reported very favorably on the results, and the tests conducted by the bureau inspectors on several thousand animals were also satisfactory. The method has been applied here in Washington whenever possible, and recently in some immunizing tests of glanders conducted by the Bureau of Animal Industry there was a good opportunity to repeatedly employ this test. In all these instances the results were uniformly good. In cases of glanders there appeared a marked purulent conjunctivitis, and the reaction at times was so severe that the animal could not open its tested eye. BEST RESULTS WITH RAW MALLEIN. The essential factor in obtaining satisfactory results from the test appears to be in the use of the right kind of mallein. It must be by all means a concentrated mallein, and apparently the best results follow the use of raw mallein, which, as a rule, represents the mallein obtained after the concentration of the filtrate from the bouillon cul- tures of the glanders bacilli. The ordinary mallein used for subcu- taneous testing is not adaptable, and the failures which have been reported in the literature were without doubt, in the majority of cases, due to the fact that the mallein employed was not sufficiently concentrated. Marioth* correctly asserts that the reaction does not depend as much on the quality and quantity of the mallein as on its concentration. Our experiments in preserving such mallein with the. ordinary quantity of 0.5 per cent carbolic acid showed that it does not interfere with the results of the test, although the lacrimation which follows immediately after the introduction of such mallein is more profuse than when carbolic acid has not been added, but this disappears within one or two hours after the application of the test. 1 Monatsh. f. prakt. Uerheilk., bd. 24, hft. 7/8, p. 340-373; hft. 9/10, p. 426-456. Stuttgart, 1913. j OPHTHALMIC MALLEIN FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF GLANDERS. 5 . PREPARATION OF THE MALLEIN. The concentrated mallein which has been used for our work and which gave such satisfactory results was prepared at the request of the authors by and in cooperation with Mr. A. M. West, of the Biochemic Division, as follows: The media consists of bouillon containing 5 per cent glycerin, 1 per cent peptone, and 5 per cent NaCl. The reaction is that of the natural acidity of the meat, no acid or alkali being added. The flasks of media are inoculated with virulent cultures of Bacillus mallet and placed in the incubator at 37.5° C. for a period of two months or more. The stock cultures of B. mallei are kept on agar, and their virulence is re- newed when necessary by passage through a series of guinea pigs. The well-grown cultures show a heavy mass of organisms, which generally sinks to the bottom of the flask. This growth is of a whitish color splotched with brown. The cultures are then removed from the incubator and heated for one hour in the Arnold sterilizer. Then they are stored for two weeks in a dark closet to settle. The clear liquid is then carefully decanted and the growth proper is discarded. A measured amount of the decanted liquid is concentrated over a steam bath to one-third its volume. It is then filled into flasks and sterilized and again filtered while hot, first through one then through three paper filters. Next the clear liquid is passed through a Berkefeld filter. This is followed by a concentration to one-tenth its original volume and by sterilization. To the raw mallein, concentrated to one-tenth its original volume, is added 0.5 per cent carbolic acid and 20 per cent glycerin. Then the liquid is again concentrated to one-tenth its original volume, filtered while hot through filter paper, and sterilized. It is kept in a dark place for a week, and if upon inspection a precipitate is found the mallein is again passed through paper filters and sterilized. The finished product is a clear, sirupy, dark-brown liquid; with a disagreeable odor. The mallein is then bottled, under aseptic conditions, in small vials and is ready for use. It is advisable to provide the mallein for the tests in small vials, each containing about 1.5 ¢. c. of mallein, which is sufficient for testing 15 horses. After the vial has been opened and part of the contents used for testing, especially if the mallein has been taken out with a camel’s-hair brush, the remainder should not be used for tests applied on subsequent days, but should be discarded. THE USE OF DRY MALLEIN. _ Another form of mallein which has been used quite extensively for the eye test is the mallein siccum, or dry mallein. This represents an alcoholic precipitate of mallein. It is a fine gray powder and must be dissolved in water before itis used. The solution loses its effective- ness.in a very short time and must be prepared fresh on the day of the test. Dr. K. F. Meyer, formerly of the University of Pennsyl- vania and now of the University of California, has used the dry mallein extensively, and at the present time this preparation is em- ployed in Pennsylvania for the application of the ophthalmic test. For this purpose two vials are sent out from the laboratories of the Pennsylvania Livestock Sanitary Board, one containing the pow- 6 BULLETIN 166, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. dered mallein and the other sterile or saline water in quantities which will make a 5 per cent solution of mallein. The content of the bottle containing the fluid is poured into the bottle containing the mallein powder and the test solution is thus prepared. The results with this form of testing in Pennsylvania appear to be highly satisfactory, as may be seen from a publication by Dr. Meyer on the ‘“ Conjunctival reaction for glanders,’’ in the May, 1913, number of the Journal of Infectious Diseases. The advantages of the use of one as compared with the other of these forms of mallein for the eye test are not marked, as equally good results were obtained from the application of both forms of this product. The fact that the preparation of the raw mallein is less laborious and expensive than the mallein siccum and that it is ready for use on opening the vial would probably give this product a greater popularity. Itis only natural, however, that in the event subsequent extensive testings show the superiority of the dry mallein, it will be given preference over the raw product. METHOD OF APPLYING THE TEST. Before the application of the ophthalmic test the animals should be carefully examined to ascertain whether the eye shows conjunctivitis or other changes which are associated with suppuration. Should such be present the test should not be applied. The test consists in introducing into the conjunctival sac of the - eye several drops of either undiluted raw mallein or a solution of pre- cipitated mallein (0.1 to 0.2 ¢. c. per horse). This may be introduced either with the aid of a camel’s-hair brush or with an eyedropper. Only one eye is treated; the other serves as a control for comparison of the reaction. For the testing of horses in the same stable the same dropper or camel’s-hair brush may be used for all the animals. The results of the test should be recorded as follows: N=Negative—eye unchanged. S=Suspicious—seromucous discharge. P+ =Positive—seromucous discharge with purulent flakes. P+-+= Positive—distinct purulent discharge. ~ P+-+-+= Positive—purulent discharge with swelling of the eyelids. P4++4+-+=Positive—strong purulent discharge with swelling and gluing together of both lids. : OPHTHALMIC MALLEIN FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF GLANDERS. 7 The following is a copy of Q. D. Form 69, Record of Ophthalmic Mallein Test, which is used by the Bureau of Animal Industry to record all official tests: [Obverse.] RECORD OF OPHTHALMIC MALLEIN TEST. lee Sex | Time! Re (stal- ofin-| Timeof | Temperatures, aes nes eae lion, stilla-lobservation.| if taken. ee ab or 0 4 i tion. “mor ani- markings. ae Age. | Weight symptoms. tots mal g g or c cl- (Give date and Be- , ; mare) | hour.) cad After sion (Decision should be recorded in accordance with results obtained, by use of: changed. flakes. {S]=Suspicious, seromucous discharge. [P+-+]= Positive, distinct purulent discharge. swelling of the eyelids. of the lids.) e tal [N]=Negative, eye un- [P+]= Positive, seromucous discharge with purulent {[P+++]= Positive, purulent discharge with [P++++]= Positive, strong purulent discharge with swelling and gluing together (Identify each animal by complete description; if necessary use two lines for an animal.) oo. BULLETIN 166, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. [Reverse.] RECORD OF REACTORS. Rik DEY Fs heer es Pee Se Re oS a No. of | Disposition of reac- | al tors (slaughtered) Place of slaughter: .........--.. ‘| or quarantined) 1 | | (Q. D. Form 69.) U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, | BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Record of ophthalmic mallein test. Sats Sees Sass Seeder = et se See ieee ee aan ae soe see te Owner® < +2525 538 ste ae eee | Number passed: -.-----------.-.-.---- | 1 } sugosaen |--- 222-22 onan ee ne ofe eee ee eee nee en ee eee eee nen | los eae | Number/suspicious: 22 2-22 ----eeeeeee | Total number tested: ............---.- | | Z t EFFECT OF THE TEST ON GLANDERED AND HEALTHY ANIMALS. As soon as the mallein is introduced into the eye practically all animals show a lacrimation, increased reddening of the conjunctiva, and slight photophobia. No significance should be given to these symptoms. They disappear in one to two hours. , Glandered animals are hypersensitive to mallein in a way that the administration of small quantities of mallein produces local inflam- matory processes. In larger quantities it produces a febrile general reaction. The hypersensitiveness appears as a rule during the third week after the infection, and reaches its height in the first few months after the infection. In the subsequent course it may subside in retrogressive cases even to the degree observed in healthy animals, but even in these cases various conditions may bring on an increased sensibility. The characteristic manifestations of the reaction for glanders commence as a rule in from 5 to 6 hours and last 24 to 36 hours, some- Bul. 166, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Fig. 1.—P + = Seromucous discharge with Fig. 2.—P+ + = Distinct purulent discharge. purulent flakes. Fig. 3.—P +++ = Purulent discharge with Fic. 4—P +++ +=Strong purulent dis- swelling of the eyelids. cuaree with swelling and gluing together of both lids. VARYING DEGREES OF REACTIONS IN THE OPHTHALMIC MALLEIN TEST FOR GLANDERS. OPHTHALMIC MALLEIN FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF GLANDERS. 9 times longer. The reaction consists of a purulent discharge from the conjunctival sac which is typical, as well as swelling and gluing of the eyelids. It is advisable to examine the tested animals in a good light from i2 to 24 hours after the application of the test. Varying degrees of reactions are illustrated in Plate I, figures 1 to 4. A suppurative discharge of varying quantities is considered a positive reaction. The conjunctiva and the eyeball should also be included in the examination after examining the discharge. A pseudo-reaction can be produced by artificial or accidental irrita- tion of the eye. On the other hand the purulent discharge may have been removed (either by the stable attendant or by the animals licking each other, etc.), and the positive result thus obliterated. In such cases dried pus may be frequently found on the parts around the eye. Generally the positive ophthalmic reactions are not accompanied by fever or systemic disturbances. Occasionally, however, affected horses are hypersensitive to such a degree that even the few drops of mallein placed in the eye may enter the circulation and produce fever. Therefore it is advisable, when possible, to accompany the ophthalmic reaction with temperature readings. For this purpose the temperature should be taken twice, the first time when the eye test is being made and the second time when it is judged. In a doubtful eye reaction, where there is an increased temperature of 14 degrees F., the test should he considered positive if the animal had a normal temperature at the time the test was made. As stated before, it should be remembered that the intensity of the reaction has no relation to the extent of the disease in the animal tested. In the absence of any secretion the test should be considered nega- tive. When there is a mucous secretion or lacrimation durmg the period of reaction the test must be considered as atypical, and in such cases it may be repeated the same day, when, as a rule, the results are more confirming. The application of the ophthalmic test should not be repeated more than three times on the same animal within three months, as experiments show that the reaction after the third application within this short period usually loses its intensity in positive cases, and on subsequent tests may be entirely absent. In cases where the results of the second test immediately following the first test are atypical, the blood of such animal may be drawn and forwarded to a labora- tory for the serum diagnosis. From experience gained with the eye test such a procedure would become necessary only in a compara- tively few cases. In the control of glanders, animals may be retested every six months with satisfactory results. 10 BULLETIN 166, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REPORT OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION ON THE OPHTHALMIC TEST. The special committee on the control of glanders of the American Veterinary Medical Association has issued a most excellent report on the various phases of diagnosis of glanders. The conclusions on the value of the eye test offered by this committee are in perfect accord with our findings, we therefore deem it advisable to include them in this paper, as follows: 1. The ophthalmic test not only meets all the requirements, but is without doubt the most convenient diagnostic method at our command. 2. Its reliability compares favorably with any of the other tests available. 3. The reaction is usually very distinct, and doubtful or atypical reactions are rather infrequent. 4. The ophthalmic test has the advantage that it does not interfere with subsequent serum or other mallein tests if such are deemed necessary. 5. The test may be repeated within 24 hours on same or control eye. Ji another retest Is necessary, it should not be made in less than three weeks. 6. The ophthalmic test should be recognized by State and Federal authorities, since its reliability can no longer be doubted. 7. Inall atypical and doubtful cases of the ophthalmic test, the combined comple- ment-fixation and agglutination or subcutaneous mallein test should be utilized for confirmation. Such a procedure would minimize the failure and would assure the best results in the control of the disease in a single stable or in an entire community. CONCLUSION. s -The results achieved in Austria with the ophthalmic test have been remarkably successful and deserve the most earnest considera- tion. The report of Prof. Schnurer on The Results of the Diagnostic Procedure in Glanders in Austria is a convincing proof as to the value of the eye test in the control of glanders. The senior writer received a communication only a short time ago from Prof. Schnurer, and since it deals principally with the diagnostic value of the eye test, a quotation from the letter will no doubt be permissible: lam at the present contemplating collecting the results of the eradication of glanders in Austria during the last three years (1910-1912). During this time 60.894 tests were undertaken on 47.973 horses. Of 272 cases which were found on post-mortem to be affected with glanders 240 (88.2 per cent) were positive, 21 (7.7 per cent) gave an atypical reaction, while 11 (4 per cent) were negative, Oi the 47,701 healthy horses, 189 (0.39 per cent) were positive or atypical, the remaining 47,512 (99.61 per cent) gave a negative reaction. According to these results, therefore, the eradication of glanders is only a question of organization—that is, the malleinization of horses at the border and conscientious following up of all suspected horses. Such procedure would, without doubt, result in a complete eradication of glanders. At the Veterinary School of Austria we now have difficulty in showing the student cases of glanders, and for demonstration pur- poses we are compelled to infect horses artificially, whereas several years ago we had every week at least one case of glanders in our clinics. I use as mallein at the present time a product which I, myself, prepare, which represents a bouillon filtrate irom seven different strains of glanders bacilli which has been concentrated to one-tenth of the original volume OPHTHALMIC MALLEIN FOR THE DIAGNOSIS OF GLANDERS. 11 The optimistic view of Prof. Schnurer is certainly justified from the results he achieved, and clearly shows that with proper organiza- tion in the control work of glanders the eradication of the disease is only a question of time. The eradication of outbreaks of glanders can not, of course, be altogether attributed to the eye test, since from the report of Never- mann, veterinary councilor of Prussia, glanders has diminished remarkably in that country, where they employ the combined complement-fixation and agglutination test for the diagnosis, while McGilvray has practically eradicated glanders from the Province of Manitoba by means of the subcutaneous mallein test. The method of testing by means of complement-fixation and agglutination is undoubtedly the most accurate of any available, but since ‘it can not be as conveniently applied as the eye test, its disadvantages are apparent. There is no doubt that with the application of either the eye test or the combined complement-fixation and agglutination tests, equally good results may be obtained provided that the work is conscientiously carried out and that all the reactors are destroyed without hesitation. As long as the authorities will limit themselves to the destruction of clinical cases only and will not take immediate action on reactors of the occult and latent character, glanders will not only continue to exist, but it will spread. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1915 Lone a ae sagt “ARE HEM Re ie Speen sqoig Asi Feds eee aS. k bavatte =A ah Seeaskhagal '. i Oo een ciate : Vel reece eed rie nae 43 Suet a HP Pete Pilate ge ike ese ne 5 esl Terr ekg aes Behe re geet gg 30 oer ost feo |, quusge Fese ous. 1h . ee se piainies’y ancl: emits, Berets weet Avionigs scuemie * oe ee Minter sada. qolqura.d yeast arn “G80. tee Be ah ips abo ; fa Ma Bie s i» Ohh TOT te a miami haa ing tite, be / Bee eS he eats $4 + Heth, fanotk et abstaly: bajaad sd Bier: ae ey A ee ted (< Pivsihdostts ant Ss aden} arb euanglnodis, dlc aah as Me ee Heate pd Firbtin bok’ notte eBAbdehaghipiiin’’ ks :erepatcg eh ins ‘ Aas. ra “Ott tyre gidaifere yun to Eseris aia Poet, ani Wate ot rhe pel Aenea “at ja53 2) ee Bhi As eat ight BETO al - ae “gud t ieuchsip Jocsigitaadha de oat dite. Teds ify y Ofteie ie Pee whtoiianilvtyan “fan: pulbescnawletand. pre ee g Sibir gt ty As hobiv deep fine etdensd-y aan Bihan reonad f babs (aresb wid odiias> ahd ite" wit! ute io bares aiout 1 a) ee ath. (Rese + ke re LN ae) Lt = i Si actests ai DI engl GRAIL dts fiat lig ster tee ah au $GtrhoE fe oktow odnibege sui iin Avis Hagar Dinas, ener ee sites aad, RCS “Zito lou Clin 21s bate. a issn Aaaal bite thipses x for a : i Une ae eee Havre iti it Sack & . 4 - Z ae fi : . iahabons : ee eters elt i a3 remy e 147 Reet end is 7 = Gaye? re a? Pat. > 4 ie Rs age oaths Bye jae ; ‘ . aN3S: ra a F wee. aris gine? i: Te ge E Beas BS cok ow Ba eur, tone ay ee a she. cx: Bt p -! +i Sr inn ak eb oi a natin I ea et eke te See sy 1 DAR att we a -* i - : te ; * Pa r, MARTE: e-5e © * E »< aro 6 CA 8 icing we ieee hal i4ry ap ets or tae ee UStetiage:. Oe, Diese ae ae ae : 7 te oe BAA oo areg © oe eae ee SEF (SS fete RRS BM Vig A L 4 , aw Eur 4 ee. eb hs oe Ser cig) ee ae ay Ip ARE on: ere as. or sat > Ea peal TP Tie wee otha te _s a) a ee 7 =a ” “, 1 : Ss 7 es a " a = ro ¢ a ree: Dye ns AH rant Sao me ter’ ake wit Seré * Sie a af oe - 7 4 c =. < lea a re 4 y,2e b st rf ie bay yet ee- iy ae gmpiee ts rt = ; > a ar ao a - a Peery ee +0 4, a es = Fe ip ee ad. Jee mbtl b see 2 £ s ; ae iy "y a yar — ae = it rs es at . { BULLETIN OF THE Be} USDEPARIMENT OFACRICUITIRE * qt Zi WS FATE Gobitke Gee AD No. 167 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. February 10, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE AS AN INSECT FUMIGANT. By A. B. Duckett, Scientific Assistant, Truck Crop and Siored Product Insect Investigations. INTRODUCTION. The purpose of the following pages is to determine the insecticidal value of para-dichlorobenzene as a fumigant, as well as to ascertain the injury, if any, to cloth fabrics and the effects of the vapors on plant life as well as upon the germination of seeds. Para-dichlorobenzene is a definite chemical compound, known for many years, but only recently used as an insecticide. It is a color- less, erystalline substance which volatilizes very readily as a colorless vapor with a peculiar ether-like odor. The vapor is harmless to human beings and domestic animals under ordinary conditions, but in many instances it is a specific poison for insects. It has an addi- tional advantage over the many other fumigants in that the odor does not cling to fabrics, etc., the characteristic ether-like smell rapidly disappearing upon exposure of the fumigated substances to the open air. Probably the greatest advantages that para- dichlorobenzene possesses over other fumigants are its absolute noninflammability and its comparatively low cost of purchase and application in proportion to the result obtained. EFFECTS OF INHALATION OF THE VAPOR. As stated, para-dichlorobenzene possesses only a weak ether-like smell, which, owing to the volatile nature of the substance, will pass off in a few hours if exposed to the air. Dr. Curschman, at the Greppin Works in Germany, concludes from a series of experiments that para-dichlorobenzene, when used as an exterminator for moths, etc., is virtually harmless to human beings, perhaps even superior to naphthalene in this respect. He goes further by stating that poisoning by para-dichlorobenzene to human beings through contact with the skin is impossible and that inhalation of the vapors of this product is perfectly harmless. According to him, para-dichloro- 71117°—Bull. 167—15 2 BULLETIN 167, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. benzene is harmful to human beings only in cases of internal applica- tion of large quantities, say from 30 to 40 grains. It is not advisable for sensitive persons to remain for a long time in a closed room where para-dichlorobenzene is freely exposed, as the odor may cause annoyance. On the other hand, para-dichloro- benzene can be used in closed or occasionally opened cupboards and even in sitting rooms without causing any inconvenience whatsoever. PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE AS AN INSECTICIDE. Experiments were conducted by the writer with para-dichloro- benzene to ascertain the practicability of its use and. its insecticidal value against various insects. Para-dichlorobenzene as an insec- ticide is applicable to a large variety of insects, but under certain conditions depending on the variations in life history and enyiron- ment, and therefore necessitating specific methods of application. In a general way para-dichlorobenzene is effective only where its vapors can be closely confined, and when used in a higher tempera- ture than 74° F.; furthermore, it is recommended only where poison bait and contact sprays are either impractical or undesirable. The vapor is diffused through the air very rapidly and must, therefore, be closely confined in order to maintain a sufficient proportion in the air to prove fatal to insect life. The amount of material required, under ordinary conditions, to bring about the desired effect is about 12 ounces of para-dichloro- benzene to every 100 cubic feet of space. The writer, however, suggests the use of a larger amount, 1 pound to 100 cubic feet, which will take effect more quickly and diminish the chances of revival, although revival is aberrent. At temperatures between 75° and 85° F. an exposure of at least 36 hours is necessary for best results. Temperatures above 85° F. require only 24 hours exposure, due to the fact that heat facilitates the diffusion of the vapors. Most warehouses and repositories contain several species of insects which possess yery great, tenacity of life, either in the adult or larval stages. In view of the fact that unless para-dichlorobenzene is used in enormous quantities or is permitted to remain in the respository over 48 hours, it does not injure plant life or render fruit, etc., inedible, we should, by preference, use as large a dose as possible for the com- plete eradication of the insects in the shortest possible time. As generally employed, the time would vary inversely to the amount of para-dichlorobenzene used. Since this substance is comparatively cheap and all unvolatilized material can be kept indefinitely, with very slight deterioration if the proper precautions are exercised, the additional amount of material required for a larger dose would be an insignificant item. Para-dichlorobenzene is insoluble in water and does not deliquesce when exposed to the air, but completely volatil- izes, and should therefore be kept in an air tight can or glass jar. PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE AS AN INSECT FUMIGANT. 3 DIFFUSION OF THE VAPOR. Para-dichlorobenzene is very volatile and the vapor is extremely heavy, being more than five times that of an equal volume of air and more than twice as heavy as carbon bisulphid vapor. Although it diffuses quite rapidly through the air, as evidenced by the perception of its odor, the vapors will, like carbon bisulphid, tend to work rapidly downward, outward, and eventually upward. From the fore- going fact it is ascertained that the greater density of vapor is at the lower levels. This property is obviously very beneficial when para- dichlorobenzene is used as a fumigant for bags of grain, stored products, carpets, and rugs, and in all cases where it is desirable to use a gas that will penetrate the lowest levels and force its way into cracks and crevices in floors, walls, and similar locations. DIRECTIONS FOR USING. Para-dichlorobenzene is applied in most instances in the same manner as camphor and naphthalene. It is not, however, necessary to sprinkle it around in corners or over rugs and other material, as is often the case with camphor and naphthalene, but merely to expose a sufficient quantity in one or two open or partially cpen receptacles, placed over, or higher, than the infested cases, goods, and material which require fumigation. HOW PUT UP AND COST. Para-dichlorobenzene at the present time is sold in 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 pound and barrel lots, the prices for which are as follows: 23 cents per pound, in 5, 10, and 25 pound lots. 18 cents per pound, in atunaniad lots. 17 cents per pound, in 100-pound lots. 15 cents per pound, in barrel lots. If any considerable quantity is to be used, it is much betterto purchase of some wholesale druggist or direct from the manufacturers. APPLICABILITY TO VARIOUS INSECTS. Para-dichlorobenzene is applicable to many insect pests living under various conditions and environment, and therefore requires specific methods of application, and, unlike carbon bisulphid, it is at the present time used only indoors and in other places where its vapors can be closely confined. As there is a great variation in the tenacity of life among insects, the existing conditions should be care- fully noted before para- “jichlon obenzene is applied. Beetles, such as the rice weevil (Calandra oryza L.), granary weevil (Cdlandra granaria L.), the confused flour beetle (Tribolium con- fusum Duv.), the cadelle (Tenebroides mauritanicus L.), the yellow 4 BULLETIN 167, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mealworm (J'enebrio molitor L.), and a few others less common are particularly hard to kill when in the adult stage. The larve of the mealworms, Tenebrio molitor L., Tenebrio obscurus L., and closely allied species, are likewise found by experiment to possess great tenacity of life. It is therefore recommended that a proportionately larger amount of para-dichlorobenzene be used when combating these species. Moths, flies, roaches, ants, and aphides are readily killed by para-dichlorobenzene when used in the ordinary strength recom- mended under the heading “‘Para-dichlorobenzene as an insecticide.” The action of para-dichlorobenzene on insects is primarily upon their nervous systems. This property is readily,manifested when a moth is exposed to the vapors for a few seconds. It first displays great excitement and uneasiness, followed closely by spasmodic con- vulsions, and finally turns cver on its back. While in this position violent nervous and muscular reflex action is noticed until life is extinct. The moths on which this gas has been tested include the Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella Oliv.), Mediterranean flour moth (Ephestia kuehmella Zell.), Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella Hbn.), meal snout moth (Pyralis farinalis 1..), and the case-bearing clothes-moth (Tinea pellionella L.). EXPERIMENTS WITH PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE AS A FUMIGANT. During the spring of 1914, while stationed at Washington, D. C., the writer, working under the direction cf Dr. F. H. Chittenden, per- formed a series of experiments with para-dichlorobenzene as a fumi- gant for stored-product insects. The chemical was first used on a small scale, and results were afterwards checked up in a specially con- structed air-tight fumigating box having a capacity of 100 cubic feet (Pl. I.) The average temperature was computed from the records of a thermograph placed in the box, and the para-dichlorobenzene exposed in shallow piepans or the tops of 5-gallon lard cans, since these shallow receptacles present a much larger surface of the chemical for evaporation. These pans were placed about 4 feet above the material to be fumigated, which was contained in muslin bags of variable capacity (see Pl. II) and which had previously been ascer- tained to be free from live insects. Into this material, consisting of wheat, cornmeal, flour, rice, and other cereals, were then introduced living insects, the number and species of each being recorded on an attached tag. The respective amounts of para-dichlorobenzene used in each experiment and the tabulated results follow. Bul. 167, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. (ORIGINAL.) | j | | | i i | | Sek SN SCOMNE CNS Re u 3 FUMIGATING Box USED IN EXPERIMENTS WITH PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE. Bul. 167, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE lI. ae nied G United States - ey; parinient Ga SL ey eae Be! Stored oe BAGS CONTAINING INFESTED GRAIN READY TO BE FUMIGATED WITH PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE. (ORIGINAL. ) _PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE AS AN INSECT FUMIGANT. 5. Experiments with para-dichlorobenzene as a fumigant. Avel- | Tength| Date Para- | per Experiment ; age | dichloro- Rae amgl 4D. Insects introduced. temper. eset pee eae ene ee Remarks. ature. i - used. : meee Hours. No. 1, Mar. 25, 1914 | No. 2, Apr. 7, 1914. No. 3, Apr. 18, 1914. No. 4, Apr. 28, 1914. No. 5, Apr. 29, 1914. No. 6, May 1, 1914. No. 7, May 4, 1914. No. 8, May 11, 1914. No. 9, May 14, 1914. No. 10, May 15, 1914. No. 11, May 18, 1914. Tribolium confusum Duv.; T.ferrugineum Fab.; Calandra oryza L.; C. granaria L.; Silvanus surinamen- sis L.; Rhizopertha dominica Fab.; Laemophloeus mi- nutus Oliv.; Tenebrio molitor L.; Sitotroga cerealella Oliv.; Plo- dia interpunctella Hbn.; Ephestia kuehniella Zell. Same as in experiment No. 1. Same as in experiment No. 1. Tribolium confusum Duy.; T.ferrugineum Fab.; Calandra oryza L.; C. granaria L.; Silvanus surinamen- sis L.; Rhizopertha - dominica Fab. ; Sito- troga cerealella Oliv.; Plodia interpunc- tella Hbn.; Ephestia kuehniella Zell.; (Bruchus) Pachy- merus 4-maculatus Fab. UGACH ES esses ee es ass Mites on corn......--.-- Slugs, snails, sowbugs, millipedes, ants. Tribolium confusum Duvy.; Calandra ory- \ za L.; Silvanus sur- inamensis L.; Sito- troga cerealella Oliv.; Plodia interpunc- tella Hbn.; Ephestia kuehniella Zell.; Laemophloeus minu- tus Oliv.; Tenebrio molitor L. Same as in experiment No. 8. 8 ounces.| None. Oo Cr bs 24 | May 20 | 2 pounds 20 | May 16 | 8 ounces. 20 | May 19 | 8 ounces. | | Allrevived. Pre- -liminary ttest. Temperature too low. Va- pors diffused very slowly. Eggs, larve, pups, and adults used in the case of Ephestia kueh- niella and Plo- dia interpunc- tella. Capacity of fumigating box used, 7 cubic feet. Allrevived. Pre- liminary test. Temperature toolow. Fumi- gating box used, 7 cubic feet. 20 | Unsatisfactory. Preliminary test. Fumigat- ing box used, 7 cubic feet. 100 | 100 cubic feet fumigating box used for this experiment. 5 cubic feet fumi- gating jar used. 5 cubic feet fumi- gating jar used. 100 cubic feet fu- “migating box ° used. 100 cubic feet | fumigating box used in this. experiment. Four bricks were heated’ to a high temper- ature and placed in box in order to ob- tain higher temperature. 70 | Unsatisfactory. Temperature too low. 100 cubic feet space. 100 cubic feet space. No. 12.. May 19, 1914, 4 ounces of finely ground para-dichlorobenzene were sprinkled over pieces of woolen cloth and placed in a 100-cubic-foot fumigating box for a period of 24 hours, at an average tempera- ture of 76° F. Upon examination it was discovered that the fine crystals adhered to the lint of the wool but were readily brushed off with a whisk broom. After two hours’ exposure in the open air the odor of para-dichiorobenzene was barely perceptible. No. 13. May 20, 1914, a test on the germination of seed was made. One pint of Argentine corn, about half of which had previously sprouted, was put in a 7-inch flower pot containing 4 inches of moist fertile soil. The pot was then introduced into a 100-cubic-foot fumigating box and exposed to the vapors of para- 6 BULLETIN 167, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, dichlorobenzene for 24 hours at an average temperature of 79° F. Two days later the seed was examined and showed no material injury from the experiment, sprouting about as usual. NoTE.—Preliminary experiments with para-dichlorobenzene have been conducted along the following lines: 1. Para-dichlorobenzene introduced into insect collection boxes for the eradication of museum pests. 2. Para-dichlorobenzene in combination with formaldehyde and potassium permanganate as an insecticide and germicide. 3. Para-dichlorobenzene made into a paste by adding paraffin and resin in the presence of heat, as a substitute for grafting wax. The above paste to be applied in the burrows of borers in shade trees. 4. Further experiments on the effect of para-dichlorobenzene, if any, on tender plants. 5. The effects, if any, of para-dichlorobenzene on animals, when taken internally in small doses. In these experi- ments green food, such as kale, cabbage, and clover, were putin a jar heavily charged with para-dichloro- benzene vapors and fed twice daily to herbivorous animals, such as rabbits and guinea-pigs. In these experiments the writer has not as yet reached any definite conclusions, and therefore reserves their pub- lication until further experiments along these lines are completed. CONCLUSION. From the foregoimg observations and experiments the writer concludes that para-dichlorobenzene, used as directed in the preceding pages, acts as an excellent fumigant against the following insects: (1) Stored-product insects. (2) Case-bearing clothes moths. (3) Roaches and ants. (4) Museum pests. (5) Miscellaneous house insects, including flies, carpet beetles or buffalo moths, book lice, silverfish, mosquitoes, centipedes, and miscellaneous larder insects. It is also an effective substitute for potassium cyanid in collecting bottles. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE. At the request of Dr. Chittenden the following data were kindly furnished by the Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory, Miscella- neous Division, Bureau of Chemistry: We have made an examination of the sample of dichlorobenzene submitted by you for examination on December 22, 1913, and find that this product is practically pure para-dichlorobenzene (C,H,Cl,). We have looked up some references in the litera- ture in regard to this substance and give you the following information based thereon: Dichlorobenzene is a product derived from benzene by the replacement of two of the hydrogen atoms by chlorine. There are three dichlorobenzenes, designated ortho, meta, and para, the structural formulas of which are: Az cL ee Cc Cc fF ae 4 o. & o. a Oo. ¥ od > $ bi) 45 oe be at S H z cl ORTHO META PARA All three have the empirical formula C,H,Cl,. Ortho and meta dichlorobenzenes are liquids, the former boiling at 179° C. and the latter at 172° C. Beilstein, in his Handbuch der organischen Chemie, III Auflage, 1896, Band II, page 44, gives three methods for the preparation of para-dichlorobenzene (in the German, p-dichlorbenzol): PARA-DICHLOROBENZENE AS AN INSECT FUMIGANT. x ( (1) By the action of chlorine on benzene (C,H,) in the presence of iodine. A little ortho-dichlorobenzene is also formed in this reaction. (2) By the action of phosphorus pentachlorid on para-chlorophenol. (3) By the action of phosphorus pentachlorid on para-phenolsulphonie acid. He gives the melting point of this compound as 53° ©. (127.4° F.) and its boiling point as 172° C. (341.6° F.), but quotes Mills (Phil. Mag. (5) 14, 27) as giving 52.72° C. for the melting point. Para-dichlorobenzene crystallizes from alcohol in monoclinic leaves, it sublimes at ordinary temperatures, is soluble in hot alcohol in all proportions, sail: is easily solu- ble in ether, benzene, carbon bisulphid, etc. ‘Tn regard to lisse otic properties, Francis and Fortescue-Brickdale ! state: The benzene halogen derivatives have a slight odor, are insoluble in water, vola- tilize without decomposition, and are very stable. * * * Corresponding to their stability it is found that the halogen is not split off in the organism, and that they do not show hypnotic properties. “With the entrance of chlorine the antiseptic prop- erties increase * * * Chlorbenzene acts on the spinal cord to a greater extent than benzene. The following figures in regard to para-dichlorobenzene are from calculations made by R. C. Roark: Moleculariweighty. se 4awemeese es oe ed 146.952 Densitysok thenvapog= ees ee 4.592 if oxygen equals 1. 72.892 ifehydrogen equals 1. 5.1025 if air equals 1, assuming the mo- lecular weight of air to be 28.8. In other words, assuming no dissociation or association, a given volume of para- dichlorobenzene in the form of a vapor would be 5.1025 times as heavy as an equal volume of air at the same temperature and at the same barometric pressure. The vapor of para-dichlorobenzene will flash at about 70° C. (158° F.), but even when held in a very hot flame and ignited the substance will not continue to burn after the flame is removed. Thus the substance is not combustible, but is decom- posed by heat into substances which partially burn with copious deposition of soot when directly in a flame. As the vapor pressure of para-dichlorobenzene has never been determined, it is impossible to state how much of its vapor air at any temperature short of 172° C. (341.6° F., its boiling point) would take up. At 172° C. (841.6° F.), barometer 760 mm., 1 liter of para-dichlorobenzene gas would weigh 4.0257 grams, or 1 cubic foot, would weigh 4.0208 avoirdupois ounces. 1 Francis, Francis, and Fortescue-Brickdale, J. M. The Chemical Basis of Pharmacology, p. 99, London, 1908. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1915 ahem “ath Yogi seh a Ha on ber H rintcubeein ii hae A {ee Sot yet Ae REED my el xarmbe felix rie bi ‘fie Bs cee ay ph teh Leo ae pty KOE AY wot) a beh mises srrets.\ ih ees fr ee i f ; v lie rip ik ica ial <4 cha ited ee Ce vidaiee 2 fe ep Bi) roo 2 ORI RE TORSTS +49 plgbieeersy Ba al Talley t6h oh ereile Wnenit! LOLS ad, Biya aetier & ‘an anit oy at Fok At aston tend dicks: Ae NR Oa si oa Gein 6% WAS ae EON haw ta oe ey ahh pi eaal io Vp neetadie SNe yee e Bar bhi hs hs adn Vieovewda abtnitay oe sa Bier aint ow baad’ ge Le yar a ieee Gti “ep ho ie tt aa, if Ayer Alga ate. st = pee ek eerie tune i ine a me Dee Ge 4 one satan Ss ae eh FA ey ite 4 FLD A RA va: Ae nS ses: “ A tea bat: Noae if Mee He es a gil : Fn el * a ‘ ae j A ‘i Ye wget pene pry epbe rs hit . es sifu i BULLETIN OF THE US DEPARTMENT OFAGRICULIURE No. 168 Ni Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. July 15, 1915. GRADES FOR COMMERCIAL CORN. By J. W. I. Diovan, Crop Technologist in Charge of Grain-Standardization Investigations. CLASSIFICATION OF CORN. By virtue of the authority vested in the Secretary of Agriculture by the acts of Congress of June 30, 1906 (34 Stat., 669), and of March 4, 1913 (87 Stat., 828), to fix definite grades of grain, the grades for corn shown in Table I were fixed and promulgated on January 3, 1914, to take effect on July 1, 1914. | . TaBLeE I.—Girade classification of white, yellow, and mixed corn, showing maximum allowances of moisture and other factors. Maximum allowances of— Foreign | ¢ aioe material, encaed Grade class- including | jYoiudine ification. dirt, cob; ane Moisture. Damaged corn. other Beak ae orelat corn. (See i general broken | rule No. 9 corn, etc. | - 9.) Per cent. Percent. | Percent. INOS ees ee 14.0 | 2 per cent (exclusive of heat-damaged or mahogany IR@rWCS))) oo. evpeys cigar igs siawis 3s Cera eee eRe 1 g INI@s Hess 15.5 | 4per cent (exclusive of heat-damaged or mahogany Ignll))5 Goncse so cseoeopscnode suc cocsdesossocceeuesecce 1 3 INjo? 32-2 17.5 | 6 per cent (exclusive of heat-damaged or mahogany Ik) GV) 6 se aaeemcaremen se cers toon oseo so ngeaoombosecans 2 4 No. 4... 19.5 | 8 per cent (may include heat-damaged or mahogany kernels not to exceed one-half of 1 per cent)......--..--- 2 4 INOS <25 222 21.5 | 10 per cent (may include heat-damaged or mahogany kernels not to.exceed 1 per cent). ../2..--..---.--2.--)- 3 5 INO (Ose Saree 23.0 | 15 per cent (may include heat-damaged or mahogany kernels notito exceed 3 per cent)... 5-..-2-------2--.-- 5 7 Sail omar [nese ne a peeleeneral raleINos 6 for Sanupleromacl ers sere ra era |e eal re ee GENERAL RULES. (1) The corn in grades No. 1 to No. 5, inclusive, must be siveet. (2) White corn, all grades, shall be at least 98 per cent white. (8) Yellow corn, all grades, shall be at least 95 per cent yellow. (4) Mixed corn, all grades, shall include corn of various colors not coming within - the limits for color as provided for under white or yellow corn. 71227°—Bull. 168—15——_1 2, BULLETIN 168, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (5) In addition to the various limits indicated, No. 6 corn may be musty, sour, and may also include that of inferior quality, such as immature and badly blistered corn. (6) All corn that does not meet the requirements of either of the six numerical erades by reason of an excessive percentage of moisture, damaged kernels, foreign matter, or ‘“‘cracked” corn, or corn that is hot, heat damaged, fire burnt, infested with live weevils, or otherwise of distinctly low quality shall be classed as sample erade. (7) In No. 6 and sample grades, the reasons for so grading shall be stated on the inspector’s certificate. (8) Finely broken corn shall include all broken particles of corn that will pass through a metal sieve perforated with round holes nine sixty-fourths of an inch in diameter. (9) “Cracked” corn shall include all coarsely broken pieces of kernels that will pass through a metal sieve perforated with round holes one-quarter of an inch in diameter, except that the finely broken corn, as provided for under rule No. 8, shall not be considered as ‘‘cracked” corn. (10) It is understood that the damaged corn, the foreign material (including dirt, pieces of cob, finely broken corn, other grains, etc.), and the coarsely broken or ‘cracked’? corn, as provided for under the various grades, shall be such as occur naturally in corn when handled under good commercial conditions. (11) Moisture percentages, as provided for in these grade specifications, shall con- form to results obtained by the standard method and tester described in Circular No. 72, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. HOW THE VARIOUS FACTORS SHOULD BE DETERMINED. In order that producers, dealers, and consumers throughout the United States may fully understand the correct interpretation of the Government corn grades, somewhat detailed explanations are given in the following pages. In the practical application of these grades it is fully appreciated that even with definite limits for the more important factors poimts will arise on which the best of experts may differ. For example, there are all degrees of damage and wide variations in color, so that some arbitrary line must be drawn as to what shall be considered as commercially sound or what shall be considered as white or as yel- low. Similar conditions exist on other points. It is believed, how- ever, that by the honest adherence to the instructions which follow differences in grading will be reduced to a minimum and that the erades can be uniformly applied throughout the United States. While these explanations are given somewhat in detail and definite limits have been fixed for the more important factors, it is not con- templated that actual determinations shall be made in the grading of every lot of commercial corn. In a large number of cases a com- petent and experienced inspector or grader, after he has once become familiar with the various limits fixed and established in these grades, can estimate the percentage of the various factors with sufh- cient accuracy to determine the grade thereof on the basis of his judgment. GRADES FOR COMMERCIAL CORN. 3 SECURING A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE FROM THE BULK. In the grading of commercial corn no factor is of greater importance than the securing of a sample representative of the bulk. Likewise, no factor is more frequently neglected. In the application of these grades to car-lot shipments of corn it is recommended that not less than five probes with a suitable grain trier be taken in such a way that the composite sample thus secured will represent the average of the car as nearly as practicable. On cars not uniformly loaded, such additional probes should be made as, in the opinion of the sampler, may be necessary to secure a representative sample. In cars that show distinct evidence of having been ‘‘plugged,” and in all cases of marked variation in the quality or condition of the corn in different parts of the lot being examined, a separate composite sample should be taken to represent each such portion. If only a part of the grain secured by the various probes is taken to a central office for more careful examination and final grading, the mixing of the individual sample at the car should receive most careful consideration. Very satisfactory results can be secured by emptying the contents of the trier each time on a piece of canvas and, after all probes have been made, thoroughly mixing the samples on the canvas, finally rolling the sample on the canvas, somewhat as an expert would roll a cigarette, except that the canvas should be held by two opposite sides, which two sides should be securely fas- tened to a stick or rod. The larger composite sample can then be readily divided into two approximately equal parts by seizing the fold of the canvas from beneath with the thumb and index finger; then, emptying one portion into the car, the other is retained for the office sample. Representative samples can not be secured by emptying the con- tents of the trier, after each probe, on top of the grain, then roughly mixing and taking a portion thereof, usually including a part of the surface corn, as a composite sample for the basis of grading. Such samples not only fail to represent the bulk, but are misleading, especially from the standpoint of dirt and cracked corn. Likewise, composite samples made up by emptying only a part of the contents of the trier into the can or sample bag can not, as a rule, be consid- ered representative. In the sampling of large lots of grain, such as occur in the loading of steamers, at least one representative sample made up of a series of samples from the various drafts should be taken for each 5,000 bushels. In the sampling of ear corn, where the moisture content is the important factor, at least 20 representative ears should be taken at random for each 1,000 bushels. In wagon lots of 100 bushels or 4. BULLETIN 168, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. less, at least 10 representative ears should be selected for test. In all ear-corn samples where it is impracticable to shell completely all of the selected ears, an approximately equal portion should be shelled from the same point or points on each ear. A simple and satisfactory method is to break the ears near the middle and then shell from the broken ends. In ear corn the damage can usually be very closely estimated by classifying a limited number of ears, but for a more exact determination it will be necessary to shell the selected number of ears completely and determine the percentage of damaged kernels in the regular manner. ° | MIXING SAMPLES FOR DETAILED ANALYSES. Care should be taken to see that the samples used for the detailed analyses are representative of the larger sample as drawn from the car or other bulk. A special sampling or mixing machine for this purpose has been developed. This mixing machine will be described in detail in a later bulletin of the Department of Agriculture. SIZE OF SAMPLES. The samples taken from the car or other bulk on which the grading is to be based should consist of not less than 1 quart of shelled corn. The samples for the more detailed analyses, taken from the larger sample representing the bulk, should be as follows: Moisture content.—100 grams for each single test. Color.—Not less than 100 grams of screened corn. “Cracked” corn and foreign material, dirt, etc—At least 200 grams of the carefully mixed sample. In using a 200-gram sample it must be remembered that the weight in grams of each of the two factors must be divided by 2 to ascertain the percentage. Dumaged corn.—Preferably, on the whole of what remains of the sample after remov- ing the cracked corn, the foreign material, dirt, ete. In this connection it should be remembered that the percentage of damaged corn should be based not on the weight of the screened sample but on the weight of the sample taken for analysis before removing the cracked corn, the foreign material, dirt, etc. Forexample,ina 200-gram sample showing 3 per cent of cracked corn and 2 per cent of foreign mate- rial, dirt, etc., there would remain 190 grams to be analyzed for damaged kernels. Damaged kernels weighing 20 grams based on the original 200-gram sample would therefore be equivalent to 10 per cent, whereas if incorrectly based on only 190 grams the percentage of dirt would show as 10.4 per cent. SIEVES FOR SCREENING SAMPLES. The sieves for screening the samples should be made of metal perforated with round holes. The holes in the upper or first sieve should be one-quarter of an inch in diameter and the holes in the lower or second sieve nine sixty-fourths of an inch in diameter. Figures 1 and 2 show these holes of natural size and the approximate GRADES FOR COMMERCIAL CORN. 5 distance from center to center. The thickness of the metal should be from 0.025 to 0.035 of an inch. Round sieves from 10 to 12 inches in diameter or rectangular sieves 9 by 11 inches have been found very satisfactory and easy to manipu- late. For the most efficient work, the two sieves with the bottom pan should be made to nest, so that all screening can be done at one vperation. It is recommended that the sieves be made of brass, aluminum, or other suitable metal, pressed from one piece, although sieves made by soldering or nailing the perforated metal to any suitable frame will give satisfactory results if kept in good repair. If made to nest, as shown in figure 3, the depth of the first sieve should be 14 inches, the second 2 inches, and the bottom pan 24 inches. Fig. 1—Section of sieve with perforations one- 1G. 2.—Section ef sieve with perforations nine fourth cf an inch in diameter, the distance from _sixty-fourths of an inch in diameter, the distance center to center of holes being approximately from center to center of holes being approxi-< eleven thirty-seconds of an inch. mately thirteen sixty-fourths of an inch. If made of metal, at least the bottom pan should be of aluminum, to reduce the weight, thereby facilitating the ease of handling. MOISTURE TESTS. In determining the moisture content, it is desirable that all im- portant samples be tested in duplicate whenever practicable and the final result based on the average of the two tests. Results of tests need not be expressed closer than one-tenth of 1 per cent, and the erain should be given the benefit of the doubt in computing aver- ages. For example, in taking the average of two tests, one showing 19.3 per cent and the other 19.4 per cent, the true average would be 19.35 per cent, but when used in connection with these grades the moisture content should be recorded as 19.3 per cent and not 19.35 per cent. Likewise, in single tests any reading in the second decima! place may be ignored in moisture determinations. Owing to the numerous methods of making moisture determina- tions and the wide variations in the results obtained by the different methods, the tester and method described in Circular No. 72 of the 6 BULLETIN 168, U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, have been designated as the standard on which the grades have been based. Copies of this circular can be secured upon application to the United States Department of Agriculture. This in no way pre- cludes the use of other methods of making moisture determinations, so long as‘ the results are corrected to conform to those secured by the standard method specified. Figure 4 represents a sectional view of the standard tester that is recommended. The United States patent covering this tester has been donated to the people of the United States, so that the tester can be used, manufactured, or sold by any citizen within the United States without the payment of royalty. DAMAGED CORN. As shown in the grade classification (Table I), the grades 1, 2, and 3 may a not to exceed 2, 4; and 6 per cent, respectively, of demmeeea corn, such as “‘cob-rot- ten”’ corn, “blue eyes,” etc., but these fas three grades shall not include heat-damaged or mahog- any kernels. Grades 4, 5, and 6 may contain not to exceed 8, 10, and 15 per cent, respectively, of damaged corn, a portion of which may consist of heat-damaged or mahogany kernels. The heat- damaged or mahogany kernels Fig. 3.—Nest of two sieves and bottom pan used in permissible BD a part of the dam- grading corn. ¥ aged corn suu!l not exceed one- half of 1 per cent in No. 4 grade, 1 per cent in No. 5 grade, and 3 per cent in No. 6 grade; but the total damaged in these three grades shall not exceed 8, 10, and 15 per cent, respectively. Types of damaged kernels—An attempt has been made to show in natural colors by means of kernels numbered 1 to 26 in Plate I types of kernels which should be classed as damaged. These types of damage range from the badly ‘‘silk-cut’’ kernels, shown in No. 1 (front and back of same kernel), to the very badly ‘‘cob-rotten” kernels shown in No. 26. These types also include badly shriveled kernels which have failed to ripen (shown by kernels numbered 14 and 15). However, skeleton kernels similar to this type, when con- sisting of nothing but the skin of the kernel or of such a character that they would be removed by light blowing or fanning, should be classed as foreign material and not as damaged corn. Types of such skeleton kernels are shown in figure 5 | Bul. 168. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE | UVES OP, COLOR A.HOEN &CO_ BALTIMORE, TYPES OF KERNELS OF CORN FOR USE IN GRADING. t~ GRADES FOR COMMERCIAL CORN. K pa CORN 190°C. FOUEBER STOPPER NES ONE HOLE FUBEEF STOPPER MOS IL LL GAUZE WITH WIRE y CENTER ASGESTOS y ~ V a ZLETMD FO GZ Moo RS See Ee \ . N : |——2 4.—Sectional view of standard moisture tester. Fig. 8 BULLETIN 168, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Heat-damaged and mahogany kernels—Corn which has become dis- colored as a result of heating due to fermentation or fire damage shall be classed as “heat damaged.” Badly discolored and darkened kernels shall be classed as “mahogany” corn. No heat-damaged kernels are shown in the colored plate. DETERMINATION OF DAMAGED CORN. The percentage of damage should be made on the screened sample, preferably by using the entire quantity that remains after removing the foreign material and “cracked” corn. In order to simplify the determination for damaged corn and to avoid a double penalty, the damaged “‘cracked”’ corn, as used in these grades, shall be considered simply as “‘cracked” corn; that is, the small quantity of damaged “cracked” corn should not be picked out after screening and classified as a part of the damaged corn. An excess of damage in the “cracked” corn will be evidence of a will- ful adulteration and a viola- tion of general rule No. 10 of the grades. FOREIGN MATERIAL. The foreign material, in- cluding dirt, pieces of cob, other grains, finely broken corn, etc., as provided for in column 4 of Table I, should include not only material that skeleton kernels which would be d as foreign material. (Natural size.) : : 2 reign materia ural size.) with holes nine sixty-fourths of an inch in diameter, as shown in figure 6, but should also im- clude the coarser foreign material, such as is shown in figure 7. It will be found after a little experience that the coarse material shown in figure 7 can be taken out very quickly by hand picking after the finer material has been removed by screening, whenever such hand picking is necessary to determine correctly the grade of the grain in question. CRACKED CORN. As provided for in general rule No. 9, all coarsely broken pieces of kernels that will pass through the metal sieve perforated with round holes one-quarter of an inch in diameter (first sieve) and are re- tained on the sieve with the smaller perforations (second sleve) shall be considered as ‘“‘cracked’’ corn, as shown in figure 8. More- z or blowing ane should therefore will pass through the sieve ~ atti db Late Sh YS .? . —e soa ae —S oe Oe er ee ee Se GRADES FOR COMMERCIAL CORN. 9 over, this is the only broken corn which should be so classified in these grades. The finely broken pieces which will pass through the sieve with the smaller perforations should be classed with the for- eign material, and the large pieces which remaim on the sieve with the quarter-inch holes should be classed with tne whole kernels. However, it is not intended that all ma- terial remaining on the sieve with the smaller holes shall be classed as ‘‘cracked”’ corn. Allsmall whole kernels, such as those that are shown in figure 9, which will Peek fei ae Fig. 6.—Foreign material, including dirt, chaff, other grains, finely go through the sieve broken corn, ete., which will pass through the sieve with the smaller with the qu arter-inch perforations, nine sixty-fourths of an inch in diameter. (Natural holesshould be picked ae out after screening and classed as whole corn. Likewise, any ‘‘other grains,’ pieces of cob, or other foreign material remaining with the ‘‘eracked”’ corn on the sieve with the smaller holes should be picked out and added to the foreign material, dirt, etc. In applying these grades, no separation should be made of the sound and the damaged ‘‘cracked”’ corn, but the whole should be classed only as ‘‘cracked”’ corn. COLOR. Color determina- tions should be made on not less than 100 grams of the screened Fig. 7—Coarse material, which will not pass through the sieve wilh the smaller perforations, nine sixty-fourths of an inch in diameter, sample; that is - after but which should be picked out of the sample and included with the the ‘‘eracked’’ corn foreign material, dirt, cob, other grains, etc. (Natural size.) : P and foreign material have been removed. All grades of white corn require that at least 98 per cent, by weight, shall be white, as stated in general rule No. 2, and all grades of yellow corn require that at least 95 per cent shall be yellow, as provided in general rule No. 3. In most 10 BULLETIN 168, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cases, when examining white corn it will not be necessary to make weighings unless there are more than 5 kernels of corn of other colors, and on yellow corn, unless there are more than 12 kernels of Fig. §.—*Cracked” corn, consisting of pieces of kernels which will pass through the sieve with the quarter-inch perforations. (Natural size.) other colors, in a 100-gram sample, as 5 kernels will usually be less than 2 per cent and 12 kernels less than 5 per cent. More difficult problems arise, however, in dealing with special types or varieties of corn or with individual kernels, such as ‘‘straw- Fig. 9.—Small whole kernels which will pass through the sieve with the quarter-inch perforations, but which should not he classed as “cracked” corn. (Natural size.) colored,’’ ‘‘red-cast’’ yellow, etc., which are difficult to classify. At most, such classifications can be only arbitrary and in keeping with the best commercial practices. In order to bring about the greatest uniformity of application, some of the more important types of ker- nels from the standpoint of color are shown in Plate I in natural GRADES FOR COMMERCIAL -CORN. Julk colors, as nearly as it is possible to reproduce them. Kernels num- bered 1 to 9, inclusive, under types of color, have been classified as white corn. It will be noted that some of the kernels at the right in this first series are of a very light straw color, but not sufficient to justify their bemg classed as of other colors when found in a grade of white corn. Kernels with a tinge of pmk over white (not shown ir. the plate) should be considered on the same basis as straw-colored kernels; that is, where the pink color is only very slight they may be classed as white; otherwise they should be elimmated. In kernel No. 10, however, the yellow color is more pronounced, and such ker- nels should not be classed as either white or yellow corn. The same is true with all kernels numbered 10 to 18, inclusive. Kernels num- bered 10 to 14, inclusive, are intended to represent white-capped pale yellow, kernel No. 19 represents a pale yellow of the lowest type, and kernel No. 27 represents a “‘red-cast’’ yellow of the most pronounced type which should be classed as yellow corn. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY A WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINVING OFFICE ; 1915 BULLETIN OF THE )USDEARTRENT OF ARIE i No. 169 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. 8} February 20, 1915. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS IN SANDY SOILS. By Cart Hartiny, Pathologist, Investigations in Forest Pathology. INTRODUCTION. For several seasons the writer has conducted experiments in the application of disinfectants to pine seed beds for the purpose of con- trolling damping-off. Formaldehyde and various inorganic acids and salts have been tested. The work conducted at two of the nurseries with seed beds sown in the spring and summer has now been completed. The practical results of the disease-control work have already been briefly summarized. Because of the interest of soil investigators as well as plant pathologists in the behavior of dis- infecting agents in the soil, the data on injury to pine and weed seedlings by disinfectants are here published separately. Data on the effects of the disinfectants on the growth rate of pine seedlings are still being gathered from three nurseries, and it is hoped to pub- lish these later. Acknowledgments are due Dr. F. K. Cameron and others, of the Bureau of Soils, and Drs. Rodney H. True and F. D. Heald, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, for helpful suggestions. SOIL CHARACTERS. The nursery where most of the work was done is at Halsey, Nebr., in a valley among sand hills. The soil throughout the nursery area is quite uniform, both soil and subsoil being classed as fine sand. There is a fair amount of humus in the upper 10 to 12 inches, in some places extending to nearly 20 inches below the surface. Below 12 inches there is no humus in most of the nursery. The soil at the other nursery, that of the Pennsylvania Railroad, near Morrisville, Pa., is a light-gray sandy loam, with a fine, reddish, sandy subsoil which is rather nearer the surface than the subsoil at Halsey. Exami- 1 Hartley, Carl, and Merrill, T.C. Preliminary tests of disinfectants in controlling damping-off in vari- ous nursery soils. In Phytopathology, v. 4, no. 2, p. 89-92, 1914. 71222°—Bull. 169—15——1 2 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. nation by the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture shows the presence of the usual soil-forming minerals. The chemical and mechanical analyses are given in Table I. Tasre 1.—Chemical and mechanical analyses of the nursery soils at Halsey, Nebr., and Morrisville, [The soil samples were taken from the upper 6 inches; ee from depths of 15 inches at Halsey and 12 inches at Morrisvi Percentage of soil. | F roa ee of sub- Analyses. Morris- Morris- Halsey. | “ville. | Halsey- | “ville, ae constituents: MNO oo sso eed softs ten ssote 23 op see se cesen cece -aaseee eee 0. 24 0.21 0.18 0.19 Gs Oras = feeds ce see cape ace cabo esene eee ee eeeeee ep eeeaees 3.08 1.60 2. 85 1.30 pOgr ar eee ees eck sted dee c cise set ooo denne ese eeeee 14.93 8.72 14.95 6. 20 KipO oo So eiiee seston tance te benesoaess eas eo ee eee 4.48 1.68 - 80 1.88 1 BON 0 Re py ie es ete pe ae Pe a ot od pee Trace. Trace. .48 ot CAO Se so ene ree ae nore eee me oe oe cena cas eerie seme eps - 86 2.23 3.79 1.35 Total salts by, bridge... .- 4s sscreb sce cee esses ees sesewess 21 -39 09 08 Bee Seer ese ees s deeise wn eaensa eee eee nen eee ne ae tae -07 . 03 - 09 -05 CO2(Gromicarponates) 4234 348 Set PL ee Sse eae None. None. None. None. Ignition loss (two determinations averaged) 2.22 scs-seee es 2.41 2.93 .55 1.96 Lime requirements (CaO) per acre.-.--..--------- pounds. . 2,450 1,750 2,450 1, 750 Mechanical constituents (size of particles): Kine sravel,.2'to 1mm 2 4. 255— Sense Soe pees: eee Stee ae 0 1.0 0 0.5 Coarse'sand, 1.10 0:5 Min 22s oo. oo Ao aoe sees toons eee 3.0 10.9 3.5 8.6 Medium sand, 05.40 0 250MM. oe. seers oe eee see sae 9.5 16.1 15.4 13.4 Fine sand, O27 pot mre: oS es eee 58.1 28.9 61.3 30.5 Very fine sand, 0.1 to 0.05 mm.........----.--------------- 21.0 19.2 17.5 23.5 Silt, 0.05 to 0. 005 TOV oo sc eee Pctere Seen aaeete ere = Meee 6.5 18.5 1.5 18.1 Cc y, 0:005 1mm and Winer: 227-2532 5S Jas eee =e eee 2.1 5.5 .8 5.2 The wilting coefficient, determined by the indirect method of Briggs and Shantz,! was 3.42 per cent for the surface soil and 1.5 per cent for the subsoil at Halsey, and 4.92 per cent for the surface soil and 4.73 per cent for the subsoil at Morrisville. The samples examined from Halsey were taken from 10 different points in the nursery, while the samples from Morrisville represent three different points. EXPERIMENTS AT HALSEY, NEBR. Experiments at the nursery at Halsey have been carried on in cooperation with the United States Forest Service during the past five years. Mr. Robert D. Rands assisted the writer during the year in which most of the data were secured, and Messrs. R. G. Pierce and Fred R. Johnson, of the Forest Service, rendered material assistance in the work. DISINFECTANTS USED. Part of the sulphuric acid used in the followimg experiments was C. P. (chemically pure), but most of it was a clear commercial grade, the acid used in most of the work here reported having a specific gravity of 1.84 and that used for the latest work a specific gravity of 1 Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H. L. The wilting coefficient for different plants and its indirect determi- nation. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 230, 1912. INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 3 1.83. Repeated parallel tests of C: P. and commercial sulphuric acid failed to develop any difference in their effect on the seed beds. A part of the hydrochloric and nitric acids used was C. P. and part com- mercial. The ammonia used was the strongest commercial ammonia water obtainable from local druggists (ordinarily 26° Beaumé). The formaldehyde used was the so-called 40 per cent commercial solution. Because of the need of distinguishing between pure formaldehyde and this commercial solution the latter will be referred to as formalin. The general use of the term ‘‘formalin” for the commercial solution appears to have become approved by custom,’ despite the fact that this term formerly applied only to the product of an English firm. The lime-sulphur used was a commercial solution with a specific gravity of 1.31. The mercuric chlorid used was C. P. and the cupric sulphate was the fully hydrated crystalline form. The copper acetate was neutral, containing a single molecule of crystallization water. The zinc chlorid was a technical grade, granular, guaranteed from 95 to 98 per cent pure. All lime used was air-slaked. The unit of measure used throughout is the fluid ounce (29.574 ce. ¢.) for the acids, formalin, ammonia, and lime-sulphur solution, and the avoirdupois ounce (28.35 grams) for the other substances. Except where otherwise stated, all of the disinfectants were applied in aqueous solution. When lime was used the powder was spread dry on the surface of the bed and was worked into the upper 2 or 3 inches with arake. Two or three pints of water per square foot of seed bed was found a convenient vehicle for applying the disinfectants. Because of the variable moisture content of the soil the degree of dilution of the solution before application is not of the greatest significance. The amount of the disinfectant used per square foot of soil surface is given in all cases as the measure of the strength of the treatment. PLANTS UPON WHICH OBSERVATIONS WERE MADE. The seed beds on which disinfectants were used were sown with different species of pine. Jack pine (Pinus dwaricata) was the species used in most of the work, while western yellow pine (P. ponderosa), _Norway pine (P. resvnosa), and Corsican pine (P. laricio) were also used, the relative frequency being in the order named. Weeds of various types appeared in the seed beds in addition to the pines, and data as to their tolerance of disinfectants were also obtained. Cryptogams were represented by a large-stalked species of Equisetum, the alge conspicuous in many nurseries being present to but a slight extent. Monocotyledons were represented by various grasses, Hragrostis cilianensis ? being much the most common, while Echinochloa crus-gall, Panicum barbipulvinatum,? and Chaetochloa 1Perkin, W. H., and Kipping, F. S. Organic chemistry, new ed., p. 124. London, 1911. See also Webster’s New International Dictionary, 1913. 2 Determinations made by Mr. P. L. Ricker. 4 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. viridis ' were also more or less common. The nurserymen pulled up most of the weeds before flowering, so that it was not possible to determine positively the relative frequency of the different grass species for each plat. The commonest dicotyledons were Mollugo verticulata,: Portulaca oleracea,| Amaranthus retroflerus,: A. hybridus, A. graecizans,! A. blitoides,t and Euphorbia glyptosperma.t INJURY TO PINES BY SULPHURIC ACID APPLIED AT OR AFTER GERMINATION. In the following cases sulphuric acid was applied to the beds after some pine seedlings had come up. Because of the great irregularity of germination in many beds the time of germination can be given only approximately. lt represents as far as possible the date by which enough seedlings had appeared to constitute a fair stand. Most of the experimental plats were sown with jack pine. The results with this species appear in Table II. Tasie I].—Effect of sulphuric acid on seedlings of jack pine, at Halsey, Nebr. Num- ounce of | x, ber of Time of treatment. acid per | Volumes Result. plats square of water. treated foot On date of germination.............-..------ 0.172 . 6 days after germination....-............----- - 086 li 128 | All Killed. on eli POTMINAWON! 5 os --==-=-22>2-5-2 : 2 days alter germination...) loa |f 512 | Germination, 11.8 per cent. 2 |p days atter germination. ..2c2cclllc2.] lou |} 402 | Germination, 13.8 per cent. NN eaes scores tase e Sotoet oS oe te Sent ee eee re eee NOTION Ie 26 oe se8 Germination, 14.7 per cent. Half of the plats in Table II which were given the stronger solu- tions were sprinkled lightly with water immediately after each treat- ment. This watering had no evident effect in the plats treated with the 128-volume solution, but in four plats which received the 256- volume solution, followed by sprinkling, the stand of seedlings was more than twice as great as on four adjacent plats which were given the acid treatment only. The results in the plats treated with the 512-volume solution indicate that a total of 0.043 ounce of acid per square foot applied before germination was complete was sufficient to prevent the appear- ance of some of the latest germinating seedlings, while 0.021 ounce in two applications had little or no effect. Further tests would be necessary to prove that injury can be caused by these very weak treatments. 1 Determinations made by Mr. P. L. Ricker. INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 5 Acid was also used after germination on seed beds of western yellow pine. In the first test the percentage of the seedlings which died during the first 33 days alter sentient was determined for four plats, as follows: Plat VIII-A.—On the twelfth day after germination, 0.086 ounce of acid in 128 volumes of water; repeated on the fourteenth and nineteenth days. Loss, 72 per cent. Plat VIII.—Same acid treatment as VIIJ-A, but sprinkled lightly with water after each application. Loss, 33 per cent. Plat 27.—On the sixth and sixteenth days after germination, 0.086 ounces of acid; 12, 14, and 19 days after germination, 0.043 ounce of acid; solution in 256 volumes of water. Loss, 21 per cent. Plat 28.—No treatment. Loss, 23 per cent. While the loss in plat 27 was slightly less than that in the untreated plat there is clear evidence that the acid killed the seedlings, as the parasitic loss in this plat was very much less than in the untreated plat. The treatments on Plats VIII and VIII-A were practically dupli- cated on a seed bed 13 days younger, with the result that the losses for the first 20 days were 45 and 47 per cent, respectively, as com- pared with 16 per cent in the nearest check. Further tests of sulphuric acid on germinating yellow pine were made during the two following seasons. In the first case, acid in 256 volumes of water was tested on beds which had received 0.188 ounce of formalin per square foot 40 days before sowing, a treat- ment which in itself had no appreciable influence. The results were as follows: Plat 402-S.—Seven and again twenty-five days after germination, 0.125 ounce of acid. Germination, 64 per cent; loss after germination, 44 per cent. Plat 402-N.—Seven days after germination, 0.125 ounce of acid. Germination, 51 ‘per cent; loss, 30 per cent. Check plat—No acid. Germination, 68 per cent; loss, 62 per cent. In this series, the effect of the acid was clearly to prevent the appearance of the latest germinating seedlings and to kill the young- est seedlings which had already broken through the soil. The heavier loss in the untreated plats is due to heavy parasitism, which the acid treatment almost entirely prevented. The following season, using a solution of one part in 256 volumes of water, the following amounts of acid were applied to yellow-pine plats: 0.047 ounce per square foot on two plats three days after ger- mination; the same amount on two other plats six days after germi- nation; and 0.063 ounce on three plats seven days after germination, No noticeable injury occurred, though counts of the seedlings indicate that afew were probably killed by the acid. Most or all of the injury caused by applications after the begin- ning of germination was due to injury to the roots. The light sprin- kling with water just after acid applications, which in a number of 6 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cases resulted in lessening injury, presumably exerted its effect through an immediate further dilution of the acid in the surface layer of soil. While part of the apparent freedom of the aerial parts of the plants from direct acid injury may be due to the slight tendency of liquids to adhere to pine seedlings, drops of 1 to 256 acid solution by volume (0.71 per cent by weight) frequently remained caught in the center of the whorls of cotyledons of yellow-pine seedlings. This localization of solution was not accompanied by any noticeable localized injury. The experience of Craig,’ indicating direct injury to the foliage of grapes, plums, and apples out of doors by a solution containing but 0.25 per cent of the acid, was more closely duplicated in the case of seedlings of a grass resembling a common native species of Panicum, which occurred in some of the plats. Definite character- istic spots of dead leaf tissue were noted on the grass plants in a few cases in plats treated with a solution of 1 to 512 by volume (0.36 per cent). The solution adhering to the leaves is, of course, concen- trated by evaporation of the water after application, so the injury from spraying with solutions is actually caused by a much stronger solution than that applied. The tests outlined in the foregoing statement indicate that after the seed begins to germinate, any application of sulphuric acid suffi- cient to affect materially the activity of the damping-off parasites will cause the death of the radicles of some of the pine seedlings. In applications after the beginning of germination, the concentra- tion of the solution applied, as well as the amount of acid used per square foot, seemed distinctly related to the amount of injury to the roots of the seedlings. This indicates that the injury occurred very promptly after the application of the solution, before diffusion between the upper and lower layers of soil had time to equalize quantities and concentration of the soil solution. The younger parts of the roots were still in the upper 1 or 2 inches of soil in most cases at the time the injurious solutions were applied. INJURY TO PINES BY SULPHURIC ACID APPLIED AT THE TIME OF SOWING. In applications made at the time of sowing it was found that stronger treatments could be given without injury to the pines than when the treatments were delayed until germination. -Stronger treatments were also required in order to control parasitic fungi, so that 1t was necessary in these tests also to work with treatments strong enough to cause injury to seedlings. Because of the numerous advantages of acid treatment at sowing, from the standpoint of disease prevention and nursery practice, a detailed study of the injury it causes to seedlings was undertaken with a view to pre- vention. 1Craig, John. Effects of dilute sulphuric acid on foliage. In Canada Exp. Farms, Rpt., 1893, p. 101- 102, 1894, INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 7 The procedure followed in treatment at sowing time was to (1) prepare the seed bed, (2) soak it with the disinfectant, (3) sow the seed broadcast, (4) cover with one-fourth inch of dry soil, and (5) apply the rest of the solution. The seed bed was not stirred up after the application of the solution was commenced. In no case in spring-sown beds has there been any indication that the treatments injured the pine seed before germination started, although the treat- ment, in strengths varying from 0.125 to 0.375 fluid ounce of acid per square foot, has been tested during the past three seasons in 19 different experimental series of jack pine, in 4 series each of yellow pine and Norway pine, and 1 series of Corsican pine. The proportion of germination in acid plats was nearly always higher than in the untreated plats (due to the prevention of parasites rather than to stimulation), and as high as in plats of soil disinfected by heat. In jack-pine plats in which germination was reasonably prompt (12 to 14 days) and no special measures were taken to prevent injury to seedlings, many seedlings were killed or injured after germination began on plats which had received, respectively, 0.125 ounce and 0.141 ounce of acid per square foot at sowing, while 0.188 ounce per square foot always resulted in injury unless special protective measures were taken. DESCRIPTION OF THE INJURY. Injury to the seedlings in plats treated at or before the time of sowing took the form of damage to the growing apices of the radicles, with the result that extension of the root was stopped. Whether the meristematic apical cells were actually killed or simply lost their meristem qualities was not determined, though the former is the more probable. In most cases, root apices rendered incapable of growth retained their normal cream color for a few days after the injury and often recovered, though in severe cases they turned dark very soon. Plate I and text figures 1 and 2 show chemically injured seedlings. Plate I, figure 1, shows a healthy seedling, younger than the injured seedlings in figures 2, 3, and 4 of this plate, so that the darker color of the upper parts of the roots of injured seedlings is chiefly due to difference in age, rather than to the effects of the acid. The dispropor- Fe. 1.—Pinus ai- tionately short roots of the injured. seedlings are espe- ee oa cially noteworthy. growth has just Ordinarily the growth of cells just back of the apex — Pemresumed by was not entirely prevented, so that the root tips be- 11 days suspen- came truncated as a result of the uneven growth. “™ *™ (Pl. I, fig. 2.) Distorted growth was also common. The capacity for absorption was usually retained by the injured roots for some 8 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. time. Although injury to root apices commonly took place before the seedlings appeared above the soil, most injured seedlings came — up, and when the soil around the short root was kept moist the growth of the stem and leaves continued for some time at a normal rate. All of the development of the aerial paris of the seedlings shown in Plate I, figures 2, 3, and 4, was made after the extension of the root had been stopped by acid. Injured seedlings ordinarily lived till the surface of the upper part of the root became brown and presumably impervious, as in the older parts of the root in healthy seedlings after two or three weeks. In the worst in- jured seedlings this root browning seemed to take place somewhat earlier than in healthy plants. The decrease in diameter which is no- ticed in the older parts of normal roots at the time of browning was seldom observed in acid- injured roots. Because the injured seedlings were not able to develop new root tissue, ab- sorption ultimately became impossible and death from drought ensued. The seedlings shown in Plate I, figures 2 and 3, have prac- tically reached this condition, though both still appeared to be growing normally when they were dug up. Plate I, figure 4, shows a seedling injured at the same time as that in Plate I, figure 3, which has recovered by recom- mencing root growth. Where the roots of injured seedlings were very short, the plants died very soon, either because the soil was allowed to dry out to be- low the level reached by the short root or be- Fic. 2—Pinus ponderosa in- cayse the short root did not afford sufficient ee a es ees mechanical support for the top-heavy stem, sumed by a number of later- and the seedling fell over or was washed out als. (Natural size.) 4 3 see in watering. In the cases where injury was earliest, so that the radicle had scarcely emerged from the seed coat by the time its tip was killed, the seedlings failed to appear above ground at all. In a good many cases seedlings which had extended their roots a centimeter or more before injury ultimately recovered, either be- cause of a resumption of terminal root growth, as shown in Plate I, figure 4, or by laterals starting just back of the apex, as in text figure 1. In such cases the parts of the seedlings above ground at no time showed any effect of the acid, and the only way in which the existence of injury could be detected was by examining the roots. Renewal Bul. 169, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Liles Hartley HEALTHY AND ACID-INJURED PINE SEEDLINGS. Fig. 1.—Pinus divaricata, healthy seedling. (X2.) Fie. 2.—P. divaricata, acid injured. (X2.) Probably not capable of recovery. The root growth was stopped before the seedling came up. The entire development of the stem and leaves above ground has taken piace since the cessation of root growth. Fie. 3.—P. laricio, acid injured. (X 2.) Injured when so little root had developed that there was no possibility of a resumption of growth. Illustra- tion made 10 days after the killing concentration occurred. Fie. 4.—P. laricio, acid injured. (X13.) Recovering by terminal resumption of root growth, as shown by the white root tip. INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. ; 9 of root growth in injured seedlings was most commonly observed from 8 to 12 days after the original cessation of growth. Dr. Perley Spaulding has advised the writer that a year prior to the observations here reported he found this resumption of growth by laterals in injured western yellow-pme seedlings in experimental plats at Burlington, Vt. It is seldom possible to recognize acid injury immediately Pion occurrence. Even after death takes place it is not possible to dis- tinguish the deeper rooted injured seedlings from those killed by parasites, as by the time the seedling gives indications of death above ground the roots are too badly decayed to show what caused death. The best way to detect acid injury is to dig up healthy- looking seedlings in different parts of a plat a week or ten days after the first seedlings come up. ‘The roots of the seedlings will be found to have the following characters: (1) Acid-injured seedlings (PI. I, figs. 2and 3). Length, one-fourth to five-eighths ofaninch. Color, if brown at all, tip will be as brown as the rest; root firm throughout. (2) Healthy seedlings (Pl. I, fig. 1). Length, 1to3inches. Color, upper part may be brown, but tip will be white. (3) Damped-off seedlings (attacked by parasites). Length, usually same as healthy, but lower part may be entirely decayed, making root appear short. Some part of root examined will ELE SE be found soft from decay, while acid-injured roots are firm throughout. Notrre.—Care is needed to distinguish between the short root of an injured seedling and a healthy root which has been broken off short by accident. With a little prac- tice, the difference between a root tip and a broken end can be easily recognized. PREVENTION OF INJURY BY LEACHING. The first attempt to prevent injury to germinating seedlings from the residue of acid applied at sowing was by leaching. To different plats in a bed which had received 0.188 ounces of acid at sowing three days earlier, 4, 8, 12, and 16 pints of water per square foot, respectively, were applied. The plats were thereafter given sprin- klings equal to 0.3 of an inch of rain often enough to insure germina- ~ tion, which -took place 11 days after sowing. The heaviest initial watering, equivalent to 3.2 inches of retained rainfall, prevented most of the injury which occurred on the other plats, but not all. The plat receiving but 4 pints (0.8 inch) suffered. heavily, while the amount of injury in the 8 and 12 pint plats was intermediate. Ina second test, with an acid treatment of 0.211 ounce at sowing, fol- lowed by germination in eight days, a 6-inch watering was given three days after sowing. The bed was purposely allowed to become quite dry on the day of germination, and later examination showed that a small number of the pies were injured. In a third test, this 6-inch watering was used on a bed which had received 0.313 ounce of acid. The bed was allowed to become somewhat dry 10 days 71222°—Bull. 169—15——2 10 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. after the acid treatment (1 day before germination), and a number of seedlings were injured. It was evident from the results obtained that these heavy applications of water leached out enough acid mate- rially to reduce acid injury. Leaching is evidently not practicable as a method of preventing injury at most nurseries when germination isprompt. Ina sandy soil when the weather is cold and germination requires 18 or 20 days, leaching soon after the application of acid may be a practicable method of preventing injury. PREVENTION OF INJURY BY FREQUENT WATERING. Fortunately two definite relationships which opened the way for developing a practicable method of controlling the injury to the pines were found. It was found that the amount of water in the soil at the time of germination bore a direct relation to the amount of injury, and that injury seldom occurred after the seedlings had sent their roots down five-eighths of an inch into the soil. The length of root shown in Plate I, figure 3, is typical of mjured seedlings in general. The stoppage of growth of root apices in treated beds always occurred at times when the upper soil became relatively dry and while the root tips of germinating seedlings were still in the upper five-eighths inch of soil. Although the nurserymen water the beds often enough to prevent drought injury to the seedlings, great varia- tion in the moisture content of the surface soil occurs. The upper one-fourth inch of soil at this nursery just after watering has fre- quently been found to contain 21 to 25 per cent of moisture, while at the same points the soil when dry has contained but 1.96 per cent of water, the average of 12 determinations made on different occasions. In a single period of 11 hours the moisture content of the surface soil at four different points in the seed beds dropped from 12.02 to 1.85 per cent. This of necessity caused great variations in the concentration of the soil solution. While beds were not ordinarily allowed to become as dry as this during the germinating period, they often became quite dry at the surface. A little below the surface the mois- ture content of the soilis morestable. The mostrapid loss of moisture found in the seed beds from 1 to 2 inches in depth durimg the period in which determinations were made was a drop from 17 to 114 per cent in a period of approximately 36 hours. This explains the relative safety of roots which have penetrated below the upper half inch of soil. That the root above the tip should resist relatively high con- centrations of acid is in agreement with the results of Heald * and other investigators, who find the tip of the root to be the portion most sensitive to poisons. The difference in resistance between the very 1 Heald, F. D. On the toxic effect of dilute solutions of acids and salts upon plants, In Bot, Gaz., Vy. 22, no. 2, p. 130, 1896, INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 11 tip of the root and the tissue just back of it is well shown by the location of the new laterals developed by the seedling in figure 1. In addition to the increased concentration of the acid solution already in the surface soil, due to the decrease of the solvent, acid from lower levels is presumably brought up to the surface by the capillary rise of the soil solution to replace that lost by evaporation. When the treated soil is soaked thoroughly with water and subjected to continuous evaporation for several days, but at a rate slow enough to avoid drying the surface soil entirely and breaking the capillary connection, this continuous upward movement of solution ultimately results in killing concentrations in the surface soil, even while it is still very moist. The’ problem of preventing injury to seedlings therefore becomes one of not only keeping the surface soil moist, but of maintaining a fairly constant downward movement of soil moisture, or at least of preventing a continuous upward movement for any considerable period, until after the roots of all seedlings have extended half an inch into the soil. Experience has shown that this can be done more easily with frequent light waterings than with heavier and less frequent applications. A very few hours’ delay in watering at a critical time has in some cases been enough to cause the killing of root tips by acid. Under certain conditions, as outlined in the foregoing paragraph, injury occurred before the beds appeared at all dry at the surface. Since appearances could not be relied on to show when watering was needed, systematic watering was tested. Furthermore, variation in individual judgment made necessary the use of measured quantities of water. Daily waterings equivalent to 0.4 of an inch of rain were not in all cases sufficient to prevent injury entirely. However, half this quantity applied twice as often, with the soil wet to begin with, was found sufficient to prevent all injury from moderate amounts of acid, even in very hot, dry weather. For large beds at’ this nursery which have received 0.188 ounce of acid at sowing, watering equivalent to 0.3 of an inch twice daily during the germina- tion period has been recommended for summer use, so as to make certain that in the necessarily uneven large-scale work all parts of the bed will get at least 0.2 of an inch at each watering. For work in cold spring weather, when the germination period is long, the expense of this special watering becomes considerable, and it further cools the soil to such a point that germination may be still more delayed. No such frequent watering is necessary to prevent injury in cool weather, but because of occasional hot, dry weather in early spring it is not safe entirely to abandon watering twice daily. A rather extreme instance of the variable temperature at Halsey was the rise of the temperature, as shown by a Weather 12 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bureau thermometer under a shelter 4 feet from the ground, from 37° F. at 8 a. m. to 98° F. at noon of the same day in April. The evaporation from white porous-cup atmometers set in the seed beds has varied from 14 to 59 c. c. for 24-hour periods 10 days apart, and still greater variations are to be expected from the darker soil surface. Hot, dry days increase the danger from acid injury both by increasing water loss and consequent acid concentration and by hurrying germination before the acid solution in the upper soil has had much time to decrease in strength. In view of the variability of weather conditions, the system now followed in prevent- ing acid injury is to water daily in ordinary spring weather, every other day or even less often in misty or rainy weather, and twice daily when the temperature exceeds 80° F. In clear weather, waterings are to approximate 0.3 of an inch, while in cold and cloudy weather 0.2 of aninchis to be used. This watering system has proved practicable, and has been entirely successful in preventing injury to pines from acid applied at the time of sowing. RELATION OF STRENGTH OF TREATMENT TO EXTENT OF INJURY. The degree of dilution of the sulphuric acid in applications at sowing had no apparent relation to the amount of injury likely to result to the seedlings; that is, if 0.25 ounce of acid per_ square foot was applied, it made no difference, so far as noticed, whether it was dissolved in 64 or 192 volumes of water. There was not a sufficient number of tests with this factor as an independent variable to estab- lish an entire lack of relation, but it is quite certain that within the limits given the amount of water used in making up the solution is not an important variable. The first results indicated a rather surprising lack of constant rela- tion between the amount of acid used per unit of soil surface and the amount of injury. In an early test of varying amounts of acid, all of which caused considerable losses of seedlings, the final stands in the plats were as follows: Series 501.—Jack-pine plats; all except the check plats were treated with acid at sowing. - Eight check plats untreated. Final stands ranged from 71 to 163 per square foot; average, 122. One plat, 0.125 fluid ounce of acid per square foot at sowing. Final stand, 216. One plat, 0.141 ounce of acid. Final stand, 118. Two plats, 0.188 ounce of acid. Final stands, 191 and 143; average, 167. Three plats, 0.234 ounce of acid. Final stands, 107, 110, and 80; average, 99. Two plats, 0.250 ounce of acid. Final stands, 23 and 153; average, 88. One plat, 0.313 ounce of acid. Final stand, 94. Two plats, 0.375 ounce of acid. Final stands, 11 and 116; average, 64. In this series, as in those reported in the remainder of this paper, the plats received weights of seed proportional to their area. INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 13 In this series the variation between individual plats is great. Especially in the cases of the 0.250-ounce and the 0.375-ounce plats the variation between plats given the same acid treatments is much greater than the average variation between plats given different treatments or between the untreated plats, which are subject to much heavier variation from the action of parasites than the acid- treated plats. However, the averages indicate a distinct increase in the amount of injury as the quantity of acid is increased. The great individual variation between plats with the same acid treatment is to be explained by two factors which were not controlled. In the first place, different plats germinated at somewhat different times. Some plats therefore had a much greater average root length than others at the time the killing concentrations of the soil solution occurred. This greater root length resulted in the sensitive tip being farther down in the soil, where the acid solution does not become as concentrated as in the soil at the surface. It may also have been true here, as found by McCool? in his work with barium, strontium, sodium, and ammonium, that the root tips of seedlings a few days old are less susceptible to injury than those of seedlings which have just germinated, so that the age of the seedlings may have been even more important than the location of the root tips in making the older seedlings more resistant. Furthermore, those with the longer roots were not only less likely to be injured but also had a better chance to recover. (Compare Pl. I, figs. 3 and 4.) A more important variable factor in causing different results in plats with identical acid treatments was the watering during the germinating period. While all plats were watered at the same time, no attempt was made in series 501 to secure special uniformity in watering, and some became drier than others. A later test of different amounts of acid was made with plats sprinkled with measured quantities of water twice daily during the germination period. Germination took place nine days after the plats were treated and sown. The results are given in Table III. TaBLeE III.—Relation of the amount of acid applied and the thoroughness of subsequent waterings to the death of pine seedlings on plats treated with sulphurie acid at the time of sowing. [Seedlings per square foot surviving 44 days after germination. ] | Treatment (ounces of acid per Square foot). Water per square foot. 0.211 0.250 0.313 2pints ab. Cach) Watering 4.9.27. -sas=eseen: Sees) 5 pae ences seedlings isco maeeeee 179 142 15 pints at each watering--.-.-._-.------..----------------------- te) 281 151 91 lipintiatieach watering.) 2m see sac se hens cess son aae eine seen donee: gies 64 AT 1McCool, M.M. The action of certain nutrient and nonnutrient bases on plant growth. N. Y. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Mem. 2, p. 159-162, 1913. 14 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The decrease in stand both with decreasing amounts of watering and with increasing amounts of acid was sufficiently consistent in this experiment to establish beyond a reasonable doubt the relation- ship, both of the amount of acid used and of the amount of watering done, to the acid injury. In the weakest acid plat with the inter- mediate watering, no appreciable injury occurred. Because of the varlation in germination aside from the influence of acid, the results were not always quite as consistent as in this series, but no reason has been found to doubt the relation between the amount of acid and the extent of injury in beds treated at sowing. INJURY TO PINES BY SULPHURIC ACID APPLIED BEFORE SOWING. In treating beds with sulphuric acid to kill fungous parasites the attempt was made to evade toxic action on the seedlings by applying the acid a number of days before sowing. Jack pine was also used in most of these tests. In such cases the beds were ordinarily hoed and raked just before they were sown, so that the upper 2 or 3 inches of soil was well mixed after the acid was applied. In the plats treated at sowing there was the possibility that the injury was limited to the surface five-eighths of an inch of soil, simply because this layer of soil had acted as a trap for the acid, absorbing most of it at the time of application. In the case of plats treated before sowing there was no such possibility. The seeds were in most cases covered with about one-fourth of an inch of soil taken from the upper 1 to 14 inches of the soil of a near-by area that had been given the same treatment as the plat sown. Considerable injury occurred in plats which received 0.25 and 0.375 ounce of acid nine days before sowing (20 days in all elapsing before germination), although the treated plats received approximately 1.6 inches of water five days after sowing, followed by 0.3 to 0.4 of an inch daily till after germination. The slight drying of the surface soil which resulted in the injury on these plats took place the first day after germination, 21 days after the application of the acid. In another series, using the same species of pine, amounts of 0.281, 0.375, and 0.687 ounce of acid per square foot were applied 11 days before sowing, two plats receiving the latter amount. Four days after sowing, the plats were given approximately 1.6 inches of water, followed by waterings of approximately 0.3 to 0.4 inch on the sixth, eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh days from sowing. Germination took place on the eleventh day, 22 days after the application of the acid, and on the morning of this day the soil surface became somewhat dry, but not dry enough to cause appre- ciable drought injury in the nonacid plats. As shown by later examination of the length of the acid-injured roots, injury took INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 15 place at this time. It was most serious in the 0.375-ounce plat, mainly because it had become somewhat drier than the rest. Even the 0.281-ounce plat seemed more injured than the 0.687-ounce plats, which were not seriously affected. The activity of parasites, mostly, probably, Pythwwm debaryanum, in the soil in these plats during and after the time that this injury was occurring to the seedlings is a matter of some interest. The slight relationship between the amount of acid used and the amount of injury taking place in these plats 22 days after treatment emphasizes what has already been said as to the apparent equalization of strength of acid solutions of different original strengths in the soil as uke con- centration decreases. Plats of jack pine which had been entirely killed by applications of 0.172 ounce of acid at the date of germination and 0.086 ounce six days later, 0.258 ounce in all, were resown, with the same species 23 to 24 days after the first treatment, germination taking place 34 to 36 days after the first treatment. No serious injury occurred to the seedlings in this second sowing, though no special watering was given. Similar results were obtained with yellow pine in plats treated with 0.3 ounce of acid 39 days before sowing (50 days before germination), no serious injury occurring despite the entire lack of any special watering. In all cases, acid applied before sowing can be kept from causing injury quit2 easily by the watering methods used for beds treated at sowing. The tests indicate that if germina- tion takes place at any time during the first month after 0.25 ounce of acid is applied to the beds it will be necessary to give more than the usual nursery watering during the germination period in order to insure freedom from injury to the seedlings. Though it is some- what easier to prevent acid injury in beds treated several days before sowing, treatment at the time of sowing is so much more effective against the damping-off parasites that it is considered preferable. RELATIVE RESISTANCE OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF PINE TO SULPHURIC ACID. There was considerable difference in the amount of injury caused by similar acid treatments on different species of pine. Jack pine, as a rule, seemed most liable to serious injury, while yellow pine was least often damaged, and Norway and Corsican pines were intermedi- ate. The resistance of yellow pine as compared with jack pine was especially evident in beds treated shortly after germination. Most of this apparent difference in resistance is due not to variations in the capacity of the root tips to endure acid, but to a difference in the rate of growth. Yellow pine has a seed approximately ten times as heavy as that of jack pine and sends its root down much , 16 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. faster at the start. By the time a yellow-pine seedling breaks through the soil cover its root has gone down much farther into the soil than with jack pine at the same age, and the application of a disinfectant to the soil surface at this time is therefore much less likely to injure the yellow-pine root tip. "When disinfectants are put on the soil at sowing, the root tips have not yet emerged from the seed, and yellow pine has no such distinct advantage over jack pine. There is still a difference in depth of planting, however, as yellow-pine seeds are usually covered deeper than those of jack pine and the root tips thus start at a lower level. The more rapid growth is also of some advantage in beds treated before germination, as injury occurs only at times of surface concentration. The root tips of yellow pine may get down far enough to avoid injury from a con- centration which occurs before the tips of jack-pine roots have reached the safety zone. While yellow pine has been less often injured than jack pine by acid applied at the time of sowing, concen- trations occurring while there was a large porportion of yellow-pine root tips in the surface soil have killed large numbers of seedlings. In one extreme case, in which 0.250 ounce of acid per square foot was applied 28 days before sowing and repeated at sowing, with germination following five to six days later, only two-thirds as many seedlings came up as in untreated plats, and of these over 90 per cent died, nearly all as a result of acid injury. On the whole, while yellow pine has been much less often injured by acid treatment, the evidence indicates little, if any, greater resistance of its root tips than that shown by jack pine. Corsican pine shows injury in the same way as jack pine (PI. I, figs. 2 and 3). It has a seed smaller than yellow pine, but still much larger than jack pine and producing a faster initial root growth. It therefore seems a little less liable to injury than jack pine, for the same reasons that yellow pine is less liable. Norway pine on the other hand, though having a larger seed than jack pine, makes a much slower initial root growth at this nursery. Its slightly longer germination period gives the acid more time for dissipation, but the indications are that the root tips of this species possess a slightly greater acid endurance than those of jack pine. Corsican aud Nor- way pine have not been tested as much as the other two species, and the evidence obtained as to their relative resistance has less value. INJURY TO MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS BY SULPHURIC ACID. The watering given pine seed beds at the Halsey nursery resulted in the germination of great numbers of previously dormant weed seeds of the species listed on pages 3 and 4. These ordinarily began to appear a little later than the pines and continued to come up in con- INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 17 siderable quantities for the first two or three weeks, after which time the number which came up decreased. Most of the data on the effects of sulphuric-acid treatments on weeds were obtained on beds treated at the time of sowing. The observations indicated marked differences between the species observed in their ability to grow in soil recently treated with acid. It was evident throughout that the pines were less easily injured than most of the weed species. On plats which received no special water- ing till after germination, 0.125 ounce and 0.141 ounce of sulphuric acid per square foot, respectively, at the time of seeding entirely prevented weed growth. The untreated plats in this series were fairly well covered with Portulaca and grass species and with a few plants of Amaranthus. At sowing in another series on a plat given very frequent watering, 0.125 ounce of acid failed to reduce per- ceptibly the number of common weeds. Another plat given the same treatment, which had also received 0.125 ounce of acid 13 days before sowing, showed entire freedom from weeds, with only partial injury to the pines. In repeated tests during successive seasons, treatments of 0.188 ounce of acid at the time of sowing regularly prevented practically all weed growth for the first three weeks after the germi- nation of the pines. In some cases no weeds came up in treated beds until a month after the appearance of the pines. Beds treated with acid and so watered as entirely to prevent injury to the pines were nevertheless so free from weeds as a result of acid application that the cost of weeding the treated beds during the whole season has been only one-third that of untreated beds. The appearance of Equisetum in acid-treated plats was of some interest. In an insufficiently watered acid plat on which the pines were seriously injured and on which not a single phanerogamic weed appeared, more Equisetum developed than in most of the untreated beds in the nursery. Equisetum was not a common weed anywhere, - but it occurred more frequently in the acid beds than in the beds not treated. The grasses throughout gave evidence of greater ability to endure the acid applied to the soil than did the dicotyledons. They were usually the predominant weeds and often the only ones in acid plats. This greater predominance of grasses over dicotyledons in the acid plats left little doubt as to their superior endurance of this treatment. Unfortunately, few data were secured as to the factors which con- trolled the varying capacity of the different plants observed to endure acid applied to the soil. Most of the injury to the weeds did not occur in just the same way as to the pines. In the pines the commouest phenomenon was root injury, which allowed the seedlings 71222°—Bull. 169—15—3 18 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, to come up, but caused them to die a few days later. With the weeds, nearly all that came up were quite certain to survive. The extent of the injury to weeds was shown chiefly by the small number of weeds which appeared on the acid plats as compared with the checks. The failure of seriously injured weed seedlings to appear above ground, as did most of the injured pines, may be due in part to a larger amount of stored food material in the pine seed and in part to a greater depth of soil over many of the weed seeds. It is barely possible that many still dormant weed seeds were killed at the time of the applicatioa of the acid. Some of the weed seeds in late-sown plats commence germination at or before the time of acid application, and are therefore probably killed at the time of application. The frequent occurrence of healthy Equisetum in beds where the acid killed the pines may be due entirely to the presence of old rootstocks and not to superior tolerance of acid. It has been suggested that the survival of grass where acid prevented the appearance of dicoty- ledons may be due to the branching habit of the grass roots, which makes injury to the tip of the primary radicle of less importance than with the plants which depend largely on a main taproot. Despite the qualifications in the preceding paragraph it seems quite certain that a great many germinating weed seeds which were dormant at the time of the application of the acid and were deeper in the soil, and therefore exposed to lower concentrations of acid than the pines, were killed in much the same way as the pines by amounts of acid which would not injure the pines. The experiments indicate not only a distinctly greater tolerance for sulphuric acid in the pines than in the angiosperms most commonly represented in the beds, -but within the angiosperms a somewhat smaller difference in tolerance between the grasses and dicotyledonous species was ob- served. Tests in water culture would be necessary to establish the- - differences in resistance of the various species observed in these experiments and to give the differences a quantitative value. Treatments several days or weeks before sowing also had consider- able effect on the number of weeds found in the seed beds during the first few weeks after the germination of the pines. The use of 0.3 ounce of acid 14 days before sowing, with sufficiently frequent watering after sowing to prevent injury to yellow pine, prevented the appearance of any dicotyledons for at least 43 days after treat- ment and allowed only a few grass seedlings near the edge of the plat and a couple of Equisetum plants. Mollugo, grass, and Portulaca seedlings were common in all the check plats in this series, and Ama- ranthus and Euphorbia were present, while Equisetum was at least no more common in the checks than in the acid plats. INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 19 In another series, in which watering was frequent enough to pre- vent injury to most pine seedlings, 0.25 ounce of acid nine days before sowing kept the plat free from all weeds except three grass plants for 14 months, and 0.375 ounce applied at the same time prevented weed growth of any sort. While grasses predominated in the un- treated plats, they also contained many plants of Mollugo, Portulaca, . Amaranthus, and Euphorbia, their frequency being in the order named. In another series watered in the same way, 0.281 ounce of acid 11 days before sowing and heavier treatments applied to three other plats at the same time entirely prevented weed growth till 47 days afterwards, while the checks contained the same pues as those in the former series. In series 519, plats A, C, and D (Table VI), 0.25 ounce of acid had a distinct effect on the weed flora, practically the same as 0.375 ounce, in plats examined 66 days after application. In another series, watered quite frequently after sowing in order to prevent acid injury, acid applied 14 days before sowing the pines was tested. On adjacent plats the upper 6 inches of soil was par- tially sterilized at about the same time by heating in a moist condi- tion to above 80° C. in an oven, all parts of the soil being brought to at least that temperature and kept there for not less than 10 minutes. The results are presented in Table IV. TaBLE 1V.—Weeds which appeared in plats disinfected by heat and by acid. Treatment (ounces Plat. of acid pe saat Weeds found 42 days after treatment. 00t). Mounmcheckssere ee NONeseees esse ee 60 to 100 per plat; grass commonest, Mollugo and Portulaca fre- quent, Amaranthus occasional. Jandy Keser Tea toda a aceissy< Grass much as in checks, and making more vigorous growth; 2 or 3 Portulaca plants, ’and 1 Amaranthus in each plat. OES ea waane nee 0.25 | 5 grass seedlings, with several Mollugo near edge. ME aia Ba aids aa .375 | 5 grass, with 1 “Portulaca and 1 Mollugo near edge. (ah li eS ea 8 .375 | 4 grass, LD wa Sie eee ai) 3 grass. Evidently, unless the grass seed survived a temperature of 80° C. or more, it had been blown into plats J and K after treatment, and migratory ability may explain part of its predominance over the dicotyledons in acid-treated plats. The results in general, neverthe- less, indicate that it is somewhat more resistant to acid than the dicotyledons. RELATION BETWEEN TIME OF APPLICATION AND AMOUNT OF INJURY. The foregoing experience with pines and other plants in beds treated with acid at the time of germination, at sowing time, and at various times before sowing, shows clearly, as would be expected, that 20 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the time of germination is when acid applied to the beds will do the most damage to pine seedlings. The longer the period before or after germination takes place that the acid is applied the less danger there is of acid injury. The free acid in the soil solution would normally be decreased by diffusion or leaching downward into the subsoil, by adsorption or solid solution by the soil, and by chemical interaction with other constituents of the soil or soil solution. No attempt has been made to determine the relative importance of these different processes in the removal of the acid from the solution. It has seemed rather surprising that even with applications of acid as small as 0.25 ounce per square foot enough acid remains free in the surface soil three weeks after application to kill the tips of jack-pine roots and prevent the growth of most dicotyledonous weed species for 14 months. In soil containing large quantities of carbonates there could be no such length of persistence of free acid. The amount of injury occurring in plats treated at different lengths of time before germination and the comparative lack of relationship between the amount of acid used and the extent of injury in cases where more than 15 days elapse between treatment and germination indicate that the rate of dissipation of the free acid in the soil solution decreases rapidly as the concentration decreases. Very small amounts of acid have proved extremely injurious to root tips in the soil at the time of application. While they lose this extremely toxic character in a very few days after application, the final reduction to a point where no injury occurs requires a relatively long time. The apparent relative stability of very low concentrations of acid in the soil solution is in agreement with the general course of removal of a solute either by diffusion or chemical reaction. ADDITION OF NEUTRALIZING AGENTS AFTER THE APPLICATION OF THE ACID. In different experimental series, plats treated with sulphuric acid before sowing were later treated with neutralizing agents to prevent acid injury. This procedure greatly decreased the effectiveness of the acid treatment against the damping-off parasites on whose account the work was being conducted, and so it was not exhaustively tested. In no case was lime applied to the extent of equivalent weights of the acid used. The indications are that injury to pmes may be prevented by small amounts of lime put on the beds a few days after the application of the acid. The results of the treatments are given in Table V. INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. Dh TaBLE V.—Injury to roots in plats treated with sulphuric acid 12 to 16 days before sowing and later treated with lime. Days from | 5 Ss 3 CS = Treatment (per | acid teat. [2 3, | 2 q ° ment to— | a B S bs | 35 = 4 ne 1 2 a 3 4 o Plat S. § 3° § 1 es gz 3 Weeds present 13 months after ‘I g = kei = eI 8 g on a acid application. a3 |8/23./S8| S [se_| 28] 2 ms) e 2 S bel Te ape ma @ (S| HAS | oS] 2 Bac) ge > uo} 2) os8 | 4 [Sas 8 5 2 id lr oS |i BR lhe] oo i & & |< 4 o m 5 Pinus ponder- osa (Series 504-E).....-- 0.375 | 2] 0.250 14 25 0. 240 36 | None. | Half as many as in check plats P. divaricata of same series. (series 507): bivelehecks)s|/sNones }=25) UNONes |i aes-] 2 ees [ema s-|asaee eel eteeriank Grass and Mollugo abundant; some Amaranthus, Portulaca, and Euphorbia in each plat. Mies. : -375 | 3 . 250 3 20 a 36 aaa oe "300| 4] 1383] 9| 24| laa] 36 |...do..|| Very, few, mainly grass and Doe :500| 4] .200| 7| 22| 1392 Di ido. yg Ae nueon but stow tl ues enn SRO al al ReB ip tell Cad Alay ES sets ee eae Ep Se besos 750 | 2 . 500 u 22 | .481 36 |...do.. ‘ O -750 | 6 . 500 7 22 | .481 36 | Slight ee 2 INones ee 53\e 25) Pose os) Sc- |e ee ee eee None.. CRs BAEC O as | eee) iach Oh | eye sain | icie=: abl vane esl eter | les do...||More weeds than in untreated ee Se CEE Pa accel TM OOLO) | bacaua beaeoe | sosces|-souecce bee do...|{ plats, in vigorous condition. UAE POE ge eae O00} we eens | oa cce eee memeeees doses P. resinosa series 514): hecks ....-- None .s)|2.\- 3 |ENonely |= 2-72 3/2. eats oye oes eee rier. Grass, Mollugo, Euphorbia, Portulaca, and Amaranthus. H | Beets -500 | 2 . 333 5 24 | .321 36 | None. | Less than in checks; grass, Mollugo, and Euphorbia. IGEN Sess .500 | 4 . 250 5 24 | .365 27 \|...do..| Less than’ in checks; grass, Euphorbia, and Amaranthus. N See aleNone=d ls 3/4 4,500. hese: Gee. = eeeeen| eee ee ..-do..| As for check. 1 Based on equivalent weights, assuming for the commercial sulphuric acid a maximum specific gravity of 1.84 and a purity of 95 per cent. No allowance is made for impurities in the lime. It appears that at least in plats M and O the acid applied was not reduced to two-fifths of its original amount during the first six or seven days after application. The injury in plat M, with its acid excess of only 0.24 ounce, when compared. with the lack of serious injury in other plats with a greater excess of acid (notably plat E, with an excess 2% times as great), is a further indication of the relative stability of weak acid solutions in the soil. In the case of series 514, acid injury occurred in a plat treated with a relatively small amount of hydrochloric acid, and it is quite certain that only the hme prevented injury in plats J and K. Ammonia was also tested, following sulphuric acid. On jack pine, 0.750 fluid ounce of acid applied 21 days before sowing was followed a few days later by 0.469 ounce of the strongest commercial grade of ammonia. No injury to pines occurred. Watering in this series was very frequent, so injury might have taken place with ordinary watering despite the lime used. In series 514, a red-pine plat treated with 0.562 ounce of acid 13 days before sowing, followed by 22 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 0.5 ounce of ammonia eight days before sowing, suffered no injury. In this case the heavy acid treatment would probably have resulted in injury had not the ammonia been applied. From the practical standpoint, the prevention of injury from acid in pine seed beds by the use of neutralizing agents at this nursery 1s not a success, because beds so treated are often as badly infested by para- sites as beds which have received no disinfectant treatment. The action of heavy applications of lime on the beds is also somewhat in question. Amounts up to 0.5 ounce per square foot, as used in the neutralizing work, have, however, been used alone without any bad . effect. In one case 0.73 ounce per square foot (equivalent to 1 ton per acre) used on jack-pine beds at or before seeding in two different series was followed by a serious decrease of germination, and in the other case by a marked increase in the number dying after the seed- lings came up. Whether the effect was a direct injury to the seed- lings or a stimulation of the parasites which attack them was not determined. The effect on weeds of acid followed by lime is also shown in Table V. Much injury to weeds occurred despite the neutralization several days later of two-fifths of the acid applied. However, it is quite certain, especially in the case of series 504, plat E, that much more injury would have occurred had not the lime been applied. Three- fourths as much acid applied to another plat in this series at about the same time, and not followed by lime, prevented the growth of angio- sperms on the plat. The extremely rapid growth of the weeds on the acid-lime plats a few weeks after the application of the lime indicates that most of the remaining acid had been broken down by the lime. If enough lime had been used to neutralize one-half or three-fifths of the acid applied, it is entirely probable that all of the acid remaining at the time of the lime application would have been broken down and the soil rendered entirely safe for sowing any crop plant desired. Because the lime applied was not sufficient to take up at once all the acid remaining in the soil at the time of application, as indicated by the injury to the pines in series 507, plats M and O, the question as to whether the acid prevented weed growth largely by killing dormant seed or entirely by killing germinating seed, as with the pines, remains undecided. Ammonia, 0.469 ounce per square foot, was used in 3 pints of water a few days after the application of 0.750 ounce of acid, with watering sufficient to prevent injury to jack pine even on unneutralized acid plats. Examination approximately 45 days after the ammonia appli- cation showed an entire absence of weeds on the acid-ammonia plat, as on the acid plats, while the four checks all contained plants of grass, Mollugo, Amaranthus, and Portulaca. For 37 days after the ammonia was applied 0.562 ounce of acid followed by 0.5 ounce of ammonia five INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 23 days later resulted in preventing most weed growth, but not all. Ammonia alone, 0.5 ounce per square foot, had no effect on the weed stand 65 days after application. TESTS OF MISCELLANEOUS DISINFECTANTS. Tests were also made with disinfectants other than sulphuric acid. These are summarized in Table VI, together with enough sulphuric-acid tests to afford a basis for comparison. Because a plat can be directly compared only with the others sown at the same time, the plats are grouped by series rather than by disinfectants. TasBLE VI.—Injury to pines and weeds by miscellaneous disinfectants. Days from Disinfectant. treatment to— Plat. Per square | Injury to pines. ee eet ue | Sulbsignes 0G | Sow- Weed used. | ing. z Ounces! Bolu nation. | Germination re- | Pints. duced to Less than one-sixt Pinus divaricata:1 peers ouaie) \ 0.017 |l 4 4 of that in checks. Qed seesceors lL Avarerarosaita : 975 oir Vu lease eet Nearly all seed- | acter el lings which | came up were : ; severely injured. (Paretiscetecae Sulphuric acid 72| 1.4 Olea sets2 Injury not serious. (Pla etbewsetae aeoee doses 22 > oH als 4! disease ences dos See eee P. ponderosa:1 Bite cise Formalin. .... ee 243) 2 (V5) pce Germination re- | duced to less than one - quar- ter that on other plats. No death due to disinfect- ant after germi- nation. 125 | 2 29 ALGOMA seen) do. H{ eeerle ° \ eas None. P. divaricata:! | Series 501 (8 | None Ee ie ca deel sea pal Pacer clssocoraolsagbeccauedaeaeunene Portulaca and checks). } grass abundant; ? Amaranthus re- : trofleruscommon. 1 See ee Hy drochloric -188 | 2 O} RS0=31Se None geese eae eae One - half or two- acid. thirds as many as in checks. (Os pate ie Nitric acid... -3f0 | 3 0 | 30-31.-} Slight or none.---- Grass rare; Portu- laca, 2 or 3 plants. Bea es Sulphuricacid| .125| 2 0 | 30-31_.| Slight. ..-....--... None. | Daeg (= Sea OWoscacesa| ol ali pate’ 0 | 30-31..| Moderate to heavy. Do. ED ee oatel| oe aes do. -188 | 2 0 | 30-31..| Moderate. -.-...-- A single trifoliate legume. Meare nesses dormer: 25 2 0 | 30-31..| Very heavy.......| None. 5 P. ponderosa: 4 Serieso04 (On| Non@s eee cen | ssc as| Ss Sac |aoscoe| See eee eee eer cist iomite Mollugo, grass, and checks). Portulacaabund- ant; Amaran- thus and Euphor- : bia frequent. i Peer .-| Formalin’....) .562] 3 443 eee INONG’ care eases Half as many as in checks, mainly grass. A. -| Sulphuric acid E2812 W4! | 4sece Sal soee 2 Coma eyeene ee Grass,at edge only; Equisetum, 2 plants. Cs ee sae do. -188! 3 Wee eos ae dositeasee-geee Grass, 2 plants. 1 Watering as in ordinary nursery practice. 2 Germination exceptionally rapid. 3 <¢ Abundant”’ indicates usually 100 or more plants per plat; ‘‘frequent’’ indicates 20 or more ;‘‘common’’ indicates intermediate numbers. 4 Watering very frequent. 5 Plats covered tightly for 3 days after treatment to prevent too early evaporation. All plats measured 2 by 4 feet. 24° BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE VI.—Injury to pines and weeds by miscellaneous disinfectants—Continued. Days from Disinfectant. treatment to— Plat. Per square Injury to pines. foot. w Substance Sow- Weed: used. aa ing. | pation Ounces. Paarl P. divaricata:1! Pints. Series. 1508567. |GNones= 282s. a/b Sees] ae ee Ee Sa es ee Re ea yee checks). -| Formalin2....| 0.375 | 3 8 Seeders dose .375 2 8 Pxsae OCW cce acca) OH | £E8 8 yk ee cas o He 3 ia 43-51..| None detected. ees (ol eee arse lime ae 3 6 eee GOs sree 900 8 14 cepa Goss ee arl00) 4 14 Sulphuric acid aoD 2 9 | 438-51..| Moderate. ........ Sree O menses ae .375 2 9) | 43-51. 2|-=--- Oe ee sansa INONGs He ee Se es oe ets eee alee fee oes ohne ee ee ee checks). GE Sara Hydrochloric . 25 2, 10 INONGE A fesse Oe acid. Were cee aceli ered GOe er a asx) > 3 10 Very slight.......- 47-48. . Deeks Aen esos Oz acca 562 | 3 10 Slight to moderate. o Nia ae | ee tea dss 22. 75 4 10 2d Ose Eee eee (Os Sates Nitric acid. _-- 318 3 10 Moderate. ....---- GE caeele sees Goniasetee 1.00 4 10 Very slight........ INS eS Sulphuric .281 | 3 11 Very heavy ...---- acid.4 1 Ede Shey mee aes do. .375 | 4. 11 Tea viys b= eee ee Wifes Scie casey | eee (Oli ee eeper ss .688 | 5.5 11 Moderate. .....-- Wiss seeere| | Seee do .688 | 2 11 BREET Opes as a anh Seriescol4 605i) (None: soe.822leaseccelee sce | eens Seeee aie once ae camecemteeee e checks. Ween se cee Hydrochloric 75 2 13 49! “NONG@. 2.5 632 52-552 acid. = . Gee reek doxetee: sif8 2 13 AD eS oh tase ee eee ieee Sulphuric acid |{ -]22| 4 13 \ 42 | Heavy; }affected.. CPB noes Merce Gost 2e3: : a 3 #3 \ 42 | Heavy; 3 affected. . -25 2 13 DAL eel Se dose ee { "1951 9 0 \ 42a ae dokescentsedee 1 Watered daily, 0.3 to 0.4 inch. 3 Plats covered tightly for 3 days after treatment to prevent too early evaporation. 3 Watered daily; dry at surface on date of examination. 4 This plat became extra dry at time of germination. 3 5 Watered daily, 0.15 to 0.3 inch, until 3 days before germination. Surface dry at that time; watering done twice daily thereafter. Weeds present in plats. Grass abundant; Mollugo, Portula- ca, Amaranthus, and Euphorbia follow in ‘the order named. Grass, 8 or 10 plants in each formalin plat; other spe- cies rare. Grass, 3 plants. None. Mollugo, common; grass, Portulaca Amaranthus,and Euphorbia fol- low in the order named. Grass, a dozen or more plants; Por- tulaca and Eu- phorbia still less abundant. Grass, 16 plants; Portulaca, 2; Eu- phorbia, 2. Grass, 4 plants; Portulaca, 2; Mollugo, 1. Grass, 6 plants; Portulaca, 2. Grass, 4 plants; un- known, 1 Do. Grass abundant, followed by Mol- lugo, Euphorbia Portulaca, an Amaranthus in the order named. Grass, 14 plants; Mollugo, 3 or 4. Grass, 11 -plants; Mollugo and Eu- phorbia, several plants around edge of plat. None. * Do. Do. INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 25 TaBLE VI.—Injury to pines and weeds by miscellaneous disinfectants—Continued. Days from Disinfectant. Gestanent o— Plat. Per square Injury to pines. bey my oot. ‘ Substance Sow- ed used. ae ing. -| nation. Ounces.) tion P. resinosa—Con- Pints. Grass, 15 to 20 tinued. Sulphuricacid || 0.50 4 13 “ouluNone lants; Euphor- 1 Ga a Air-slaked ee betsy Bralifs Riom econ [ae espcheas shapers cies ia and Portu- lime. a laca, 1 Ou 2 cel: Copper acetate!) 9} 3] 42 ‘as in checks, but y i : : 1 aac Bae {ast aked | ORM 8 \ 42 | Slight or none...-. in much less vig- 7 orous condition. SeriestolGl(2ieNones cere se ease ees alot ole sea eee eae ethane crs 2 atete Grass abundant, checks). followed by Mol- lugo, Portulaca, and Euphorbiain the order named. PAR Ue Hy drocblonic - 562 3 0 28 (2) Grass, 4 plants. acid. Cae) Nitric acid....) .562 3 17 45e | NOn@s 2/25 |Eesak: Few BVA ace! (6 (aes eae Same as for H. 1 Watered 0.3 inch, twice daily. 2 Plats covered ti ghtly for 3 days after treatment to prevent too early evaporation. 3 Nearly all seed killed; heavy injury to those which germinated. 4 Uae 24 inches of soil heated. pper 6 “inches of soil heated. DISCUSSION OF MISCELLANEOUS DISINFECTANTS. HYDROCHLORIC AND NITRIC ACIDS. Hydrochloric and nitric acids were used in series 501, plats C and J; 512, plats A, C, D, F, G, and K; 514, plats F and G; 516, plats A and C; 518, plats F and P; and 519, plats M, O, and P (Table VI). Injury by them seems to take place in just the same way as that caused by sulphuric acid, and the injured seedlings presented the - same appearance as those injured by sulphuric acid. (See Pl. I, figs. 2 and 3.) Pine seeds were not killed by the amounts used at sowing, but the apices of the radicles in some plats were killed by the acid residue in the surface soil after germination began. Injury may be prevented, as with sulphuric acid, by waterings sufficiently frequent to prevent the concentration of the acid in the surface soil. INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 27 Volume for volume, the hydrochloric and nitric acids used did not ‘seem to differ greatly in their effect on the pine seedlings or weeds, the hydrochloric acid appearing rather the more dangerous. The tests offer little opportunity for direct comparison. As with sul- phuric acid, pines were less injured than weeds, and the grasses pres- ent seemed more resistant than the dicotyledons. The difference in the effect on jack pine, grasses, and WMollugo verticillata shows especially well in series 512 and 519, in whose checks Mollugo was the most common weed. The tests show clearly the low toxicity of these acids in this soil as compared with sulphuric acid, volume for volume. Comparison of plats C and J of series 501 with plats B, D, and H in the same series indicates that sulphuric acid is three or more times as danger- ous to both pines and weeds as nitric acid and much more dan- gerous than hydrochloric acid. In series 512, sulphuric acid seems two or three times as active against the pines as the other two acids, while the disparity in the action on weeds appears still greater. In series 516, results in plats A and D treated at the same time indicate that sulphuric and hydrochloric acids are equally toxic to the weeds when the amount of hydrochloric acid used is three times the amount of sulphuric. In series 518, plats P and Q, 0.375 ounce of hydro- chloric acid per square foot appeared considerably more active against weeds than 0.125 ounce of sulphuric acid used on the adja- cent plat. Weight for weight, the disparity between the two acids is much less. While the strengths of the acids used were not deter- mined, a statement of the amounts used indicating relative concen- trations of ionic hydrogen would have further decreased and might have entirely obliterated the apparent disparity in action between the three acids, as was found by Kahlenberg,! True,? and Heald ? in their work with these acids in water culture. For instance, using for comparison sulphuric acid containing 90 per cent H,SO, and mak- ing no allowance for impurities, nitric acid containing 60 per cent HNO, would contain, volume for volume, but 43 per cent as much ionic hydrogen, and 30 per cent hydrochloric acid but 31 per cent as much, assuming equally complete dissociation in the dilute solu- tions of the three acids. TOXIC SALTS. Copper sulphate, tested only twice, gave rather contradictory results. In series 518, plat G (TableVI), 0.188 ounce per square foot 17 days before sowing caused little or no injury to pines and consid- 1 Kahlenberg, Louis, and True, R. H. On the toxic action of dissolved salts and their electrolytic disso- ciation. In Bot. Gaz., v. 22, no. 2, p. 81-124, 1896. 2True,R.H. The toxic action ofa series of acids and of their sodium salts on Lupinus albus. In Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 4, v. 9, no. 51, p. 183-192, 1900. 3 Heald, F. D. On the toxic effect of dilute solutions of acids and salts upon plants. In Bot. Gaz., v. 22, no. 2, 1896, p. 130. 28 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. erable injury to weeds, while in series 519, plat K, an amount 50 per cent greater, 34 days before sowing, with more frequent water- ing, caused considerable injury to pines and had little effect on weeds. Copper sulphate injured pines just as did the acids, by stopping elongation of the radicles shortly after they emerged from the seed. Recovery took place in many cases. A marked case of the production of laterals in recovery from copper-sulphate injury is seen in a seed- ling taken by Dr. T. C. Merrill from a bed in a similar soil at Garden City, Kans., which had been treated heavily with copper sulphate at sowing and again after germination (fig. 2). Normal yellow pine at this age should have a single straight taproot going down at least five times as far as the one figured and with relatively little develop- ment of laterals. Ferrous sulphate (series 519, plat L) gave little evidence of toxic action in the soil as compared with other substances used. Further tests are necessary to give comparable data as to the behavior of copper acetate in the soil and the effect of lime in pre- venting injury by copper salts, the test made (series 514, plat P) being insufficient. The results in series 518, plat N, indicate that zine chlorid is as dangerous to weed roots in this soil as copper sul- phate, or slightly less dangerous. Mercuric chlorid in the amounts used acts differently from any of the substances previously mentioned, in that it kills dormant ‘pine seed in the soil at Halsey at the time of application. In series 519, plat V (Table VI), the seeds which failed to germinate were taken out of the soil and carefully examined, both with a hand lens and with a com- pound microscope. No indication was found that they had ever com- menced germination. The difference is presumably due to greater penetrative power. Mercurie chlorid in the soil is injurious both to the roots of seedling pines and to weeds in quantities, which in the case of the other salts tested would have no effect. The addition of common salt to the mercuric chlorid at the time of application appears to increase the damage it does in the soil, possibly by delaying the entire breaking down of the disinfectant until it has time to act on the plants. (Compare 518-C and 519-U with 518—D and 519-V.) The additional toxic effect could hardly have been directly due to the 0.188 ounce of common salt per square foot applied, since 0.2 ounce of salt per square foot applied dry to a jack-pine bed three or four days before sowing in an earlier series had no effect on the pines or on the grass and Mollugo common in the series. The addition of sodium chlorid also makes the disinfectant more convenient to work with by greatly increasing the rapidity of solution. The addition to series 518, plat A, of an amount of air-slaked lime equal in weight to the ~ mercuric chlorid applied four days earlier prevented most of the injury to weeds which occurred with smaller amounts of the chlorid in plats not limed. ———— rr INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 29 With these salts, as with the acids, the pines appeared on the whole more resistant to toxic action than the angiosperms present. There was less evidence in the experiments of a difference in susceptibility to salts in general between the grasses and the dicotyledons. Heald’s tests of the resistance of corn and peas to copper salts 1 showed for. these plants a reversal of their relative resistance to acid, the peas being able to grow in twice as strong copper solution as corn, whereas with four mineral acids they could grow in solutions only one-fourth as strong. _Ammoniacal copper carbonate was also used with jack pine. A plat of this pine was given a solution made up of 0.006 ounce of copper carbonate and 0.099 fluid ounce of ammonia per square foot the first day after germination, and this was repeated two days later. Hight days after germination the plat was again treated, using 0.014 ounce of carbonate and 0.22 ounce of ammonia per square foot. Practically all the seedlings were killed by these treatments. Most of the injury appeared to be done by the first two applications, in which a total of 0.012 ounce of carbonate per square foot was ap- plied. This plat, which received a total of 0.026 ounce of copper carbonate, was resown 16 days after the last application. No serious injury occurred to the second sowing. Another plat treated just before sowing (plat 60, Table VI) fur- ther indicated a very great toxicity for ammoniacal copper carbonate if only the amount of copper contained is considered. The injury to pine in this plat was much more severe than in plat 64, which had been treated with sulphuric acid more than 25 times the weight of the copper carbonate used on plat 60. It is probable that the extremely toxic action of this fungicide was due more to the action of the ammonia than to the copper. The known tendency of ammonia to prevent the precipitation of copper salts from solution may, how- ever, result in more prolonged activity of the copper in this disin- fectant than when simple aqueous solutions of copper salts are applied to the soil. : FORMALIN. Like mercuric chlorid, formalin is capable of killing seed outright if applied at the time of sowing. In a test of yellow pine in which the disinfectant was applied at sowing (plat 415, Table VI) most of the seeds were killed before they gave any outward evidence of commencing to germinate. So far as could be learned, those which were able to start germination were uninjured. In plat 416 (Table VI), which received the same amount of formalin, half at the time of sowing and half at an interval of a month earlier, no injury could be detected. In all other cases, formalin was applied several days 1 Heald, F.D. Op. cit., p. 152. 30 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. before sowing and did no perceptible damage to pines or pine seed. This was true even in series 508, plat G, in which 0.75 fluid ounce per square foot was applied six days before sowing and evaporation allowed for only three days before sowing. The effect of formalin on the weed stand seemed approximately equivalent to that obtained with one-half or one-third the volume of sulphuric acid. As the weight of H,SO, per fluid ounce of acid used was at least four times as great as the weight of HCHO in the formalin, the formaldehyde appears rather more effective, weight for weight, in keeping down weeds. The radical difference in the type of action of the formalin against the pines renders impossible any direct comparison with acid. LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION. The results in series 519, plats R and S (Table VI), are contra- dictory. Injury to pines from fairly heavy applications of lime-sulphur at the time of sowing can probably be prevented by sufficient water- ing during the germination period. The injury to weeds occurred despite heavy watering. EXPERIMENTS AT MORRISVILLE, PA. During the season of 1912, in pursuance of recommendations by the writer, tests with sulphuric acid were conducted by Mr. R. E. Lee, under the direction of Mr. John Foley, forester of the Pennsyl- vania Railroad, at the nursery near Morrisville, Pa. Sulphuric acid only was used. All treatments tested resulted in a decreased stand. The results of very weak treatments on beds given ordinary nursery watering are shown in Table VII. TaBLe VII.—Evidence of injury to pines by sulphuric acid applied at the time of sowing, Morrisville, Pa. eee Final | Decrease ber of Sowing | Acid per Sten ss au Plat. plats Species. to germi-| square Watering. 8 ee q aver- nation. | foot. sibeeors Fe y aged. of checks ue to as 100. acid. Days. | Fluid oz. Per cent. 1 | Pinus ponderosa....| 6to 9 0. 031 91 9 Series 631.. EAE = 2 GOES 4 < t22s52ee 6to 9 - 042 95 5 Silexeise dogs stsbenseeea: 6to 9 - 083 90 10 Series 632. . 16 | Pinus resinosa...... 9 to 10 - 083 55 45 Series 633. - 21 | Pinus strobus.....-. 16 to 21 - 083 27 73 Series 634... 7 | Pinus sylvestris... .. 7 -083 |}Only as in ordi- 74 26 Series 635. . ib | ees Ove a asencete 9 to 12 - 083 nary nursery 63 37 Series 636. . 7 | Picea excelsa.....-.- 11 . 083 practice. 56 44 Series 637. . 14 | Pinus sylvestris. ...- 8 to 10 - 083 62 38 Series 638: / See 1 Sa GO :)sas rave cents Ae 5- eS. sbees . 188 34 66 De... 26 1 2 Gols ads rce aches Shee ee .25 26 74 Cre ih a (ee eae S00 ame ae 375 4 96 s Merits 5 ee ay BEROSEAH See aq) reo ebice az oe 0.15 inch, twice 2 ro wee i |S Sildoiiee. see Sage ee 375 || daily. 45 55 INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 31 The relative resistance of Pinus ponderosa to the acid is probably due to its rapid growth, as at Halsey. The severe injury to P. strobus is rather surprising in view of the length of time which elapsed before germination. The consistent relation in series 638 between the de- crease in stand and the amount of acid used and the evidently helpful effect of frequent watering leave no reasonable doubt as to the agency of the acid in causing the decreased stand. In all of the series ex- cept 631 the treated plats were uniformly poorer than the checks. In series 638, fewer seedlings appeared in acid plats than in the checks in all cases, the deficiency being greatest in the ordinary watering plats, and the amount of death just after the seedlings came up in the ordinary watering plats was very large. The amount of germination and early loss for the other series was not determined. The evidence of the experiments at Morrisville as a whole shows that at this nursery the amounts of acid necessary to cause injury were much smaller than at Halsey. GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION. It is evident that the toxicity of dismfectants to the roots of plants in soil at Halsey, Nebr., varies greatly in response to a number of different factors. The amounts of water in different parts of the soil at different times and the movements of soil water, which result in concentrating the soil solution at particular points, must be con- sidered, as well as the concentration of the solution applied. The depth of the root tips in the soil at the time of greatest concentration of the soil solution is also of prime importance, and the time of appli- cation is a very important variable. In general, while it is evident that disinfectants do not act on plant roots in soil to the same extent as in liquid cultures, they seem to act in much the same way. If only the free poison in the soil solution is considered, it is doubtful whether a great difference in degree of toxicity can be found in soil and in liquid cultures. However, the activity of poisons in the soil solution should not be expected to equal their activity in pure water cultures. Antitoxic relations which have been found by various workers to exist between numerous substances in water cultures may be expected to exist between most disinfectants and various components of the soil solution. An in- vestigation of antagonism between substances obtained in soil ex- tracts and some of the substances used in soil disinfection should yield some interesting results. Most poisons are of necessity rather unstable substances, and even where leaching is prevented, as in pot experiments, and nonvolatile substances are used, the loss of free poisons from the soil solution by combination with soil con- stituents and by other absorptive processes is undoubtedly great. 32 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. That acid solutions, in fact, are much more toxic just after applica- tion is clearly shown by the experiments at Halsey. That the rapidity with which disinfectants are rendered inactive in the soil should vary greatly in different soils is to be expected, in view of the great differences which exist in both their physical and chemical constitution. However, examinations of soils by the usual methods of chemical and physical analyses and lime requirement and wilting- coefficient determination do not give much indication as to how sul- phuric acid may be expected to behave in different soils. A soil with a low wilting coefficient may be expected to have a rather low aver- age water content under field conditions and therefore to require small amounts of disinfectants to raise the soil solution to a killing concentration. Coarse texture indicates low absorptive power and a consequent small capacity for disinfectants without injury to roots. A high hme requirement may indicate soil acidity, but it may also be found in a nonacid soil which has high absorptive capacity. Both on theoretical grounds and from the results obtained at Halsey with sulphuric acid and mercuric chlorid treatments followed by lime, the carbonates present should have a decided influence in preventing injury by acids, and probably by many toxic salts as well. Experi- ments are under way at several nurseries at which preliminary re- sults indicated a distinct relation between determinable chemical and physical characters and the behavior of disinfectants. But between soils as much alike as those on which the foregoing experi- ments were conducted, the physical and chemical examination made gives no clue to any difference which can explain the different be- havior of sulphuric acid on the two. Neither soil yielded CO, by the method employed in the examination by the Bureau of Soils. The surface soil at Morrisville contains more CaO, has a higher igni- tion loss, a higher wilting coefficient, and a lower lime requirement than the Halsey soil, all of which would seem to indicate a greater capacity for acid at Morrisville. The experiments show throughout that the reverse is the case. While the tests made at the two nur- series are not absolutely comparable, comparison of the plats of series 501 (Table VI), which received from 0.125 to 0.25 ounce per square foot, with series 631 to 637 inclusive (Table VII), in which from 0.031 to 0.083 ounce was used, indicates that at Halsey the amount of acid required to cause injury is three times that required at Morrisville. It seems probable, in view of the semiarid conditions at Halsey, that the Morrisville soil was more acid or less alkaline than the Halsey soil. An attempt to get an indication of different reaction between the two soils a year after the samples were taken failed, both soils giving 1Cameron, F.K. The Soil Solution, the Nutrient Medium for Plant Growth, p. 65, footnote1. Easton, Pa., 1911, INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 33 negative results with the potassium nitrate and iodin test outlined by Loew‘ and turning blue litmus red, the latter phenomenon likely indicating absorption rather than acid reaction for either soul.? Titration of extracts from fresh samples of these soils should give more indication of the real cause of the different behavior of acid at the two places. If difference in reaction of the two soils explains the different results, it is probable that the difference in capacity for disinfectants would be less marked or even reversed with such disinfectants as copper sulphate. Further evidence of the failure of chemical analysis or physical characters to show what action disinfectants will have on roots in different soils is seen in the difference between the results in these nursery soils and the results obtained by Lipman and Wilson * with a soil described as sandy and having a chemical constitution showing no very radical differences from those reported in the foregoing. On this soil they found that there was no evidence of damage to either wheat or vetch seedlings by sulphuric acid in the amount of 600 parts per million of water-free soil applied several days before sowing. While these experiments, conducted in pots, can not be directly compared with those of the writer, it is sufficiently evident that the results are very different. At Halsey, 0.125 fluid ounce per square foot, followed by the ordinary watering given germinating seed beds, entirely prevented the growth for at least a month after application of the monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous weeds rep- resented in the seed beds. Assigning to the commercial acid used a Maximum strength, which may be assumed as having a specific gravity of 1.84 and purity of 95 per cent, and to the soil a minimum weight, which for this fine sand may be taken as 80 pounds per cubic foot, we find that even if all the acid applied were held mm the upper 4 inches of soil the weight of H,SO, used was only 534 parts per mil- lion of soil. That this treatment should have prevented all growth of weeds, in which both monocotyledons and dicotyledons were repre- sented, while 600 parts did not even decrease the growth rate of wheat and vetch on the soil used by Lipman and Wilson, indicates a very considerable difference in behavior of acid in the two soils. As injury to pines is caused on the Morrisville soil by amounts of acid only one-third of that required to injure pines at Halsey, the contrast in the results between the Morrisville soil and that used by Lipman and Wilson is still more marked. The observations made by the writer on the species of Equisetum, pines, grasses, and dicotyledons most common in the seed beds at 1 ew: Oscar. Studies on acid soils of Porto Rico. Porto Rico Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 13, p. 6, 1913. 2Cameron, F. K. Op. cit., p. 66. 3 Lipman, C. B., and Wilson, F. H. Toxic inorganic salts and acids as affecting plant growth. In Bot. Gaz., v. 55, no. 6, p. 409-420, 1913. 34 BULLETIN 169, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Halsey indicated a considerable variation in resistance to sulphuric acid between species of these four phylogenetic groups, exceeding the variation between different species in the same group. It further appeared that, for the four main groups represented, the higher the group in the evolutionary scale the greater the susceptibility of its representatives to injury, not only by sulphuric acid but by hydro- chloric and nitric acids and by some of the toxic salts. It is under- stood, of course, that these differences would not be expected to obtain with all species of these groups, and parallel water-culture tests with the species observed by the writer would probably show that some of the differences in susceptibility indicated in the nursery tests were due to other factors than variable protoplasmic resistance. The experiments reported in the foregoing were devised primarily for developing disease-control methods, and interpretation of many of the direct effects on the seedlings is of necessity difficult. From the practical standpoint, it seems probable that sulphuric acid can not be used alone as a disinfectant for sandy soil soon to be sown with truck crops. This is at least true if the plants to be grown prove as susceptible to acid injury as the dicotyledonous weeds encountered in these experiments seemed to be. However, acid can probably be applied with safety on most soils several days before sowing if air-slaked lime sufficient to counteract three-fifths or more of the acid used is raked into the surface soil just before seed sowing. Sulphuric acid is so much cheaper than formalin that if subsequent lime neutralization is found practicable this acid may in many cases supplant both heat and formaldehyde as a soil disinfectant for work in which immediate reinfection with parasites is not feared. The writer’s experience indicates that, aside from the destruction of _ parasites, soil treatment with acid followed by lime results in a considerable increase in the growth of many plants, in some cases being more prompt and marked than that following heat disinfection. SUMMARY. Sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids, and copper sulphate used in disinfection of seed-bed soil caused injury to the roots of pine seedlings and prevented the development of many species of angio- spermous weeds. All cause injury to pines by killing the growing apex of the radicle immediately after the seed germinates. They can be used to disinfect pine seed beds only if the operator knows how to recognize and prevent such injury to the pines. Typical healthy and acid-injured seedlings are shown in Plate I, figures 1, 2, and 3, and a method by which injured seedlings can be distinguished from others is described on page 9. Many injured seedlings later resume root growth and recover (PI. I, fig. 4, and text figs. 1 and 2). Injury is due to the concentration of the disinfectant in the surface soil INJURY BY DISINFECTANTS TO SEEDS AND ROOTS. 35 consequent on the capillary rise of the soil solution and the evaporation of water from the soil surface. It is found that in a sandy Nebraska soil all injury can be prevented by very frequent watering during the germinating period (pp. 11-12). It can also be prevented in the case of acid applications by adding lime to the soil shortly after treating with the disinfectant (pp. 21-22). . The lime method, while undesir- able in the case of pines, is probably the only one which will prevent injury to angiospermous seedlings. The acids can be applied to seed beds at the time of sowing without any injury to dormant pine seed. Formaldehyde and mercuric chlorid in sufficient disinfecting strengths must be used several days before seed sowing, as they are able to kill dormant pine seed in the soil. Formaldehyde applied at or before seed sowing never causes the injury to germinating pines that is caused by the acids and salts. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 Fee Merwe Rye: aos ‘ zi ’ y aig ea ee se 10) ieee chee WATE TUDE Asa, ara eal iY Gia ' BULLETIN OF THE 1) USDEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE * No. 170 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. February 9, 1915. THE EUROPEAN PINE-SHOOT MOTH; A SERIOUS MENACE TO PINE TIMBER IN AMERICA. By Aucust BuScE, Entomological Assistant, Forest Insect Investigations. INTRODUCTION. One of the most injurious insects to pine forests in Europe is a small orange-red moth, the larva of which eats out the new buds and kills or deforms the young twigs of pine trees, so as seriously and permanently to lower their timber value. This European pine- shoot moth, which is known under the scientific name /'vetria buoliana Schiffermiller, has within very recent years been accidently intro- duced into America on imported European pine seedlings and has unfortunately become established in several widely separated locali- ties in the eastern and middle western States. Early last summer (1914), a correspondent of the Bureau of Entomology complained of a serious insect injury to European pines under his surveillance on Long Island, and sent examples of the injury and of the larvee causing it; the latter could not be identified as those of any of our known American pine pests, and the writer was therefore authorized to visit the affected localities in order to ascertain the extent of the injury and to obtain sufficient live ma- terial for study and rearing. From this material a large number of moths emerged during the latter part of June and these were at once recognized as the famous Kuropean pine-shoot moth. Subsequent surveys, undertaken by the bureau through Mr. Carl Heinrich and the writer, established’ the fact that the species has been repeatedly introduced on European nursery stock, and that it has be- come established in nurseries and parks in several localities scattered over nine States. In view of the experience with other introduced European insects, and considering the very serious financial loss caused abroad annually by this insect, its introduction into this country gives just cause for alarm, because incalculable injury may result to the vast American forest interests if this insect is permitted to become generally estab- lished on our native pines. 71551°—15 92 BULLETIN 170, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Some idea of the extent and permanent character of the injury which this insect is capable of inflicting may be gained from the illustration (Pl. 1) of a European pine forest which has been infested by it for several years in succession, with the result that a majority of the tree trunks are so twisted and crooked that their value as tim- ber is materially lessened. HISTORY OF THE SPECIES IN EUROPE. The species is a constant menace to pine forests in Europe and an- nually causes serious depredations, especially to young plantations of pine, in spite of continual preventive work against it. It has been the subject of much study and of an extensive literature from the time it was first described by Schiffermiller in 1776 to the present - day. The species was named in honor of a Vienna entomologist, Baron Buol, who studied its injurious work during the latter part of the eighteenth century; since then numerous accounts have appeared of particularly severe outbreaks in many parts of Europe, from England to Russia, and from Scandinavia to southern France. It also occurs in Siberia. One such outbreak in Denmark, in 1805-1807, is recorded by Nie- mann (1809).1. This was so serious as nearly to cause pine culture to be abandoned in that country as hopeless. It is interesting to note that at that time the same preventive means were resorted to as are now employed against the imsect, namely, the wholesale pruning and burning of all infested twigs. The German forest entomologist, Ratzeburg, counted Evetria buoliana one of the most injurious forest insects and gave a detailed account (1840) of the life history, structure, and economic impor- tance of the species. He mentioned especially an unusual outbreak in 1836-1838, which covered many parts of Europe. In the province of Furstenau the Rochesberg Mountain, which was covered with pines, became so seriously infested that it was under consideration by the authorities to burn it off and plant new trees. Other localities were only saved by strenuous systematic collecting of the infested twigs; thus, in the small province of Kesternich ere 150,000 larvee were gathered and destroyed. Judeich and Nitsche (1895) state that the injury caused by Hvetria buoliana is often fatal to the pine plantations. To quote from these authors, “If the attack is slight, it results in the branching of the tree, but if the attack is more severe and continued for several years, as we have seen it, then hardly any bud is spared and the pines become stunted into miserable small bushes from which numerous 1 Dates in parentheses refer to ‘‘ Literature,” pp. 10-11. THE EUROPHAN PINE-*SHOOT MOTH. 3 branched shoots and large needle tufts stick out.” These authors record many severe outbreaks and mention especially one in 1883— 1885, in the Royal Forest Reserve, Pillnitz in Saxony, where nearly 75 acres of young pines planted in 1878 became infested to such an extent that hardly a shoot was spared, and in 1884 the entire planta- tion presented a pitiful, crippled appearance. J. E. V. Boas (1898), who has made original investigations of the insect in Denmark, considers it one of the most injurious insects affecting forest trees. Among other outbreaks he mentions one in Jutland, Denmark, extending through several years around 1870, which “ threatened the total destruction of the pine plantations.” The Belgian authority on forest insects, G. Severin (1901), regards Evetria buoliana as the most injurious insect to pines in Europe, and emphasizes the lasting injury to the timber resulting from even slight attacks of this insect. All other European handbooks on entomology or on forestry con- tain similar accounts of this insect and express the same opinion as to its destructiveness to pine. FOOD PLANTS. Evetria buoliana is confined to pine and does not attack other coniferous trees, as spruce or larch, even though these grow along- side of the infested pines. While the species is most often men- tioned on the yellow pine, or Scotch pine,' in Europe, because this is preeminently the forest tree of importance there, it attacks all species of Pinus indiscriminately, according to Ratzeburg and other authori- ties, and the American infestations have come in on European seed- lings of the Austrian pine? and on mughus pine ® quite as often as on Scotch pine. According to Ratzeburg and Severin, it also attacks and is equally injurious to‘ American white pine, which is cultivated in Europe; and Mr. Carl Heinrich found the species, on a small lot of another native American pine,’ which was growing immediately surrounded by infested European pine seedlings. These latter records are particularly significant, as they prove be- yond question that the pest will spread to our native American pines if not prevented. The species attacks mainly young trees between 6 and 15 years of age, but it is often excessively destructive to younger plantings and seedlings and injurious also to older trees, though trees of 30 years or older are rarely seriously affected. 1 Pinus sylWwestris. ® 4 Pinus strobus. 2 Pinus laricis var. austriaca. i 5 Pinus resinosa. 3 Pinus montana var. mughus. + BULLETIN 170, Us S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INTRODUCTION AND, DISTRIBUTION IN AMERICA. American nurseries have imported many thousands of pine seed- lings annually from Europe, especially from France, Belgium, Hol- land, Germany, and England. Importations normally take place in the fall, winter, and early spring. At this time of the year the young larvee of the pine moth he dormant within the buds, so that an infestation is easily overlooked. It is evident that the pest has been present in a number of shipments of late years and that it thus has been introduced repeatedly into American nurseries. In a great majority of these cases, however, the species has been unable to estab- lish itself and has died out during the first year. Many of the larvee die from overheating en route, or from various other unfavor- able circumstances incident to the handling and transplanting of the seedlings under different climatic conditions. Only by a combina- tion of favorable conditions would the few surviving larve have been able to develop into moths and succeed in establishing the species in this country. ‘This is probably the reason why the species as yet has become established in comparatively few American localities. It appears that such established infestation has taken place only in very recent years and especially within the last two years, or since the demand for European pines has become general. Up to the present time the European pine moth has been dis- covered in only 32 nurseries and private estates, representing 20 localities in 9 States, namely: State. | Locality. Discovered in— HlMois® S255 Sey is See Chicaso s3i22e ses. Bi3-25! Private grounds. WOf esis fo et ee. eee Glenview)oi 25. s2.c2ee: - Sek One nursery. DOE Deer saree eee ake ee DuUnGeess2 Jeo see = Do. Doses Bou oy ee Western Springs. ..-£------ Do. DOSS 5 SUSE RE eee ee Deerfield= 32> 317s. Bees Ss Do. j WDD Ieee ee See oe aes Kenilworth yao. 252 ee be Two private grounds. Dots. g. ass: vier eee Bloomington: ! 2-7... #2222. One nursery. OBI sae een ee ee ae Tippecanoe City. .--2------- ko! * Wiest pVarcania Se Fen Ep 598 ee Pim Groves -255/ 08. Be) fe Do. PENnSylVAnIA. ee eee Pitispun@as: 365% 5 Be aes Private grounds. Do seeieaes fea 5 7c a oes Philadelpaia = 22: Be One nursery. INGwJersey. = 505. 32M ates tee Someryilie= 2. . T2220 ees: One estate. ING wr Monks. Set sos eS Gong Island: --- 20 ae Nine nurseries and estates. OS eaeath het en eet aaa es PATTY LOWD sso hes oe Leese One nursery and one estate. DOs sees tes eas Blmsports yu. 28 55.2 eee One estate. ASSAGCHTISE LES >) hee ane See Dedham 7 2 .j3-¢ 2a. 7 One nursery. HO? spss tae North Abington--... 3 Sanus Do. DOE ase sek eek LOLS es Worcester: 52.225. Nines Do. Gonnerticu fates. Loe se New Canaan® 252552 sa ee Do. Rhodevistand ss 22. eee Newporte 2) 22. Ga ks 4 ae esue Two nurseries and one estate. In none of these localities, except on Long Island, has the species existed for more than the last two years, and in. most of them it has become established only within the last year. But the survey for this insect» has so far covered only about 60 localities, which could be reasonably suspected to harbor the pest because it was known that importations of European seedlings had , Se nil = a Bul. 170, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. WorK OF THE EUROPEAN PINE-SHOOT MOTH (EVETRIA BUOLIANA). Section of European pine forest showing deformations in the trunk of Pinus sylvestris resulting from several consecutive years’ injury. (After G. Severin.) PLATE II. Bul. 170, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Wage y THA By Vf //f, Wf] STAGES OF THE EUROPEAN PINE-SHOOT MOTH. (Original.) J arged. Moth and full-grown larya; both greatly enl [Drawings by Miss Mary Carmody.] (-[BUISNO) ‘s2.4ysaagis sng JO Spnq OY} UL BAIL, suUNOA OY} JO FIOM [[BL "HLOI| LOOHS-SNIq NVSdOUNA AHL JO MYOM PLATE III. ericulture. Bul. 170, U. S. Dept. of A Bul. 170, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. WORK OF THE EUROPEAN PINE-SHOOT MOTH. Malformations in pine resulting from injury by this pest. (Original.) PLATE IV. Bul. 170, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. WORK OF THE EUROPEAN PINE-SHOOT MOTH. Twisted growth of European pines caused by the work of this insect. (Original. ) PLATE VI. Bul. 170, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (yeurs10) [omynonsy yo yuowyIwdog YOR MON oy} JO ‘spuvg 'O "Hay Aq sydvasojyoyd]) ,cUIOTISOd ,, TO ,,OFVOUTLOLL,,, SV uadouy Yoosur sryg Aq Arnfur Avvurad oy} zojyye ‘ourd yo ypAors Sivek party} puv ‘puooos “say. pwordA y, "HLOI) LOOHS-ANId NVAdOUNA AHL AO MYO/A 4 \ \ \ THE EHUROPEAN PINE-SHOOT MOTH. 5 en place, and the indications are very strong that the pest has be- ne established in several other widely distributed localities, either direct importation from Europe or by distribution from infested nerican nurseries. This is particularly to be suspected of locali- s where large importations and plantings of European pines have mn made. As yet the pest has been found only in nurseries and private parks »plied by these infested nurseries. In no case has it yet been ind on forest trees in America. The species is therefore at present inly a nursery problem in this country and consequently may yet controlled and possibly even eliminated by proper measures under deral and State supervision. That this condition can not long lure and that the pest, if not checked, will soon multiply and ‘ead to native pines outside of nurseries and pass beyond the pos- ility of elimination is clearly indicated by all the evidence on nd. LIFE HISTORY. In Europe the moths (PI. II, upper figure) issue in July, some- ies as early as the end of June, and in the warm evenings they arm around the pines in large numbers. During the day they sit ietly on the branches, as can be ascertained by giving the tree a rp jolt, which will cause the moths to fly out. When the insect sits 1 on the food plant it is not easily discovered, for the apparently iking orange-red color blends well with the natural surroundings 1 therefore must be classed as a protective coloration. Early in gust the eggs are laid singly on the new buds for next year’s ywth, the terminal cluster of buds being nearly always chosen for iposition. The young larva soon hatches and eats its way into the d, making itself a roomy cell by devouring the live inside part. It ains a length of only a few millimeters during the fall months, and arwinters within the hollow bud. At this stage its presence is ily overlooked, though a trained eye will discover a small exuda- n of pitch over the entrance hole differing from the normal exuda- n of the buds. (See Pl. III.) In May, as soon as the sap begins to rise in the trees, the larva » buds. (See Pl. IIT.) ves its winter quarters and bores into the bud next thereto, in nn destroying this and as many others as it needs for food. As » remaining buds adjoining begin to grow into young shoots the ‘va attacks them. It eats the entire inside of the youngest shoots d these consequently die. The more developed shoots are injured ly on one side, and these sometimes continue to grow, but are bent wnward at the injured spot. The larva (PI. I, lower figure) feeds ly on the soft growth on which the needles have not yet appeared, d by the time the needles have developed all, or nearly all, of the ots in the infested cluster have become dead or injured. The 6 BULLETIN 170, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. larva then makes a silk-lined chamber within one of the hollow shoots and here it pupates. After about three weeks the spiny pupa pushes itself half way out through the dry wall of its chamber and ~ the moth, or adult, issues. The full life history of the species in America has not been ascer- tained, because a full year has not elapsed since it was first dis- covered here. While in the main it is the same as in Europe, a very distinct difference has already been noticed, due to the longer and warmer summer and fall in this country. In Europe the young larva attacks only one bud and attains very little growth before it enters the dormant winter season, but in the warmer climate of America the larva eats out two, three, or more buds and attains nearly half of its growth before winter. This, of course, tends to make the species even more injurious here than it is in Europe. While it is altogether probable that the species has here only one generation annually, as in Europe, the possibility is not absolutely excluded that on account of the longer season it may eventually de- velop two generations annually lke the allied native species. This, of course, would greatly increase its power for injury. CHARACTER OF INJURY. During the entire spring the infested twigs are very noticeable by reason of the dead and injured buds and young shoots, and the empty pupa skin sticking out of the destroyed shoot is also a familiar and easily noticed sight during the summer months; but the extent of the injury caused by this insect is only realized later in the season, when the new growth is found to be either quite destroyed or perma- nently injured. As may be gathered from the foregoing account of the life history, each one of these insects does very considerable damage, not only by destroying a large number of buds and young shoots but by injuring the adjoining shoots which remain and which normally should sup- plant the destroyed leaders; thus the trees are permanently disfigured. These injured shoots bend downward and outward and afterwards grow upward again in a curve, in the attempt to continue the normal _ upward growth of the tree. This results in a characteristic malfor- mation (Pls. IV, V, VI), so familiar in European pine forests that it has a popular name in each country—as “ posthorn” and “ waldhorn” in Germany and Holland and “ baionnette ”in France, while the few examples which have so far occurred in America have suggested the name “ Dutch pipe” to those who have noticed it. This injury does straighten out somewhat during the successive years’ growth, but never can be fully remedied and will always be noticeable and a seri- ous detriment to the timber (Pl. I). Injury of this character is the result even when the species is present in only small numbers, the THE EUROPEAN PINE-SHOOT MOTH. a repeated infestation of the leading twigs during several consecutive seasons producing additional malformations which result in a much distorted tree of little commercial value. If the pest becomes more abundant, then the trees are transformed by the effect of the injury into unsightly crippled bushes with no commercial value. DESCRIPTION. THE ADULT. (Pl. II, upper figure.) The European pine-shoot moth is a small, gayly colored moth, about one-half inch long and measuring about three-fourths of an inch across with the wings extended. The head and its appendages and the thorax are light orange-yellow, and the abdomen is dark gray. The forewings are bright ferruginous orange, suffused with dark red, especially toward the tips, and with several irregular, forked anastomizing, silvery crosslines and costal strigule; the hindwings are dark blackish brown. The legs are whitish, the anterior ones reddish in front. THE EGG. The egg is very small, flat, whitish in color, and is laid singly at the base of a bud. Dissection of a female abdomen proves that upwards of a hundred eggs are laid by each female; this is a rather greater fecundity than is normal in this group of insects. THE LARVA. (Pl. II, lower figure.) The young larva is dark brown with deep black head and thoracic shield, the latter divided by a narrow central line. The body of the older larva becomes somewhat lighter, but is still much darker than the larva of any of our allied native species. The full-grown larva is two-thirds of an inch long. THE PUPA. The pupa is stout, robust, hght chestnut brown with darker head and back. The wing covers reach to the end of the fourth abdominal segment. The abdominal segments are armed with rings of short, sharp, blackish-brown spines. ALLIED AMERICAN SPECIES. There are in this country several indigenous species closely allied to Evetria buoliana, and like it confined to pine. Some of these already constitute a serious problem and periodically do considerable 8 BULLETIN 170, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. damage to pine forests and more often to pine nurseries. They are the more capable of injury because there are two generations an- nually and they thus have two chances each year to accomplish their damaging work. None of these native species can, however, even with this advantage, be compared in destructiveness to the European species just introduced. This is partly due to the larger size of the introduced species and to the greater voracity of the larva, but is mainly due to the difference in the attack, which causes a different reaction of the tree. The larva of the native species of the genus confines itself to a single twig and finds its food within this or within a single bud. or at most a few buds. This bud or twig dies, but the tree responds with ‘the natural growth of the next set of buds and very often recovers from the injury without permanent disfigurement. The resulting injury to the trees is serious only when these native species are present in unusually large numberse Moreover, each of the native American species is more or less confined to a single or a few species of Pinus, but the European pine-moth thrives indiscriminately on all species of Pinus and has consequently a greater chance to become excessively abundant. While several of the native species are continually of some economic importance and periodically become a serious menace even to larger trees, it is mainly when they cccur in large numbers in nurseries that they become really troublesome. Large trees become checked in their growth by the loss of terminal twigs, but are not necessarily seriously deformed in their future growth, although an undesirable forking of the tree top is a quite common result. On the other hand, the larva of the European pine-shoot moth is very voracious and not only destroys a number of buds and young sprouting shoots by eating their interior, but it invariably damages the remaining shoots in the cluster by nibbling their bases on the inner side. The subsequent growth of these injured shoots, in the effort to supplant the destroyed leader, causes greater permanent injury to the value of the tree than if they were entirely removed. NATURAL ENEMIES. Evetria buoliana in Europe is, to some extent, kept in check by a large number of parasitic enemies. As early as 1838 Hartig? recorded 14 ichneumonid wasps and 1 tachinid fly? which he had reared from pupz of the pine-shoot moth. It has since been ascer- tained that there are several other parasites; among the ichneumonids Ratzeburg considered the following three, which he himself had reared, as the more important: Pristomerus vulnerator Panz., Cre- mastus interruptor Grav., and Orgilus obscurator Hald. 1 See “ Literature,” p. 10. * Actia pinipennis Fallen. THE EUROPEAN PINE-SHOOT MOTH, 9 To promote the good work of these parasites specially constructed rearing houses have been erected in Europe during bad outbreaks of the pine moth. The infested twigs are collected in these small houses, which permit the escape of the parasites but not of the moths. It is reasonable to suppose that some of the native parasites on some of the native species of Evetria will in time also attack Hvetria buoliana in this country—in fact, parasitized larve have already been observed—but these native parasites can not be relied upon to keep in check their natural hosts, the American pine moths, which sporadically become very abundant and injurious in spite of the parasites, and presumably will be less effective in controlling the newly introduced host. METHOD OF CONTROL. The larva of the European pine-moth is so effectively protected within the buds that it can not be reached by any insecticide, and the only method of combating it is that used in Europe for more than a hundred years, namely, the pruning and destruction of the in- fested buds and twigs together with the larve they contain. Such hand picking is practiced every year in the government-controlled forest reserves of Europe. This pruning must be done while the insect is within the twigs, and while it may be done throughout the entire year, except during the midsummer months when the insect is in the adult stage, it can be most profitably done in the fall and winter months while the young larve are yet within the undeveloped buds, because the prun- ing at this time will enable the secondary set of buds to develop in the spring without delay. The only drawback to the collecting of the larve in the fall and winter is that the infested buds are then less noticeable than in the spring when the injury is further devel- oped. A little practice, however, soon enables instant recognition of the infested buds, even by an unskilled laborer; the slight exuda- tion of pitch at the base of the bud covering the entrance hole of the larva (PI. III) is very characteristic and easily recognized when once known. In the spring, when the buds develop into young shoots, the in- jury is very much more apparent, and anybody can then distinguish the infested twigs at a glance. For this reason it is advisable to have the trees gone over again in the spring, so as to remove any infesta- tion which has been overlooked in the fall. In America the work of the larva in the fall (September, October, and November) has pro- gressed far more and is much more easily discovered than is the case in Europe, where the larve have attained very small proportions and 10 BULLETIN 170, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. have attacked only one or two buds before the winter resting period intervenes. : The fact that this species is stationary during the greater part of the year and only found within definite parts of certain kinds of trees, namely, in the next year’s buds of pines, makes effective con- trol work much easier than is the case with insect pests which are general feeders and which are not confined to definite parts of the food plant, as, for example, the gipsy moth or the brown- tail moth. While the European pine-shoot moth is confined to nurseries and private parks and has not spread to the native pines, it should prove a comparatively easy task to eradicate the species absolutely within any limited area. At the present time it would even seem possible completely to stamp out this dangerous pest in America, and forestall the infestation of our native pine forests, provided that the danger of-new infestation is removed. But when once the species has multiplied sufficiently to become generally dis- tributed on the native pines the possibility of eradication will be past. SYNONYMY OF EVETRIA BUOLIANA SCHIFFERMILLER. Tortriz buoliana Schiffermiller, Syst. Verz. d. Schmett., p. 128, 1776. Coccyx buoliana Treitschke, Schmetterlinge von Europa, vol. 8, p. 140, 1830. Tortrix (Coccyx) buoliana Ratzeburg, Die Forst-Insecten, vol. 2, p. 202, 1840. Retinia buoliana Guénée, Europaeorum Microlepidopterorum index methodicus, p. 46, 1845. Coccyx buoliana Herrich-Schiffer. Bearb. d. Schmetterlinge von Europa, vol. 4, p. 221, 1849. Evetria buoliana Meyrick, Handbook of British Lepidoptera, p. 470, 1895. Evetria buoliana Rebel, Catalog der Lepidopteren des palaearctischen Faunen- gebietes, T. II, No. 1851, 1901. LITERATURE.* 1776. Schiffermiller, I. Systematisches Verzeichniss der Schmetterlinge der Wiener Gegend. Wien. Original description of Evetria buoliana. 1809. Niemann, E. Forststastistik der Danischen Staaten, Altona. Describes outbreak in Denmark in 1805-1807, and the collecting of larve in the effort to control the species. 18388. Hartig, T. Tortriz buoliana. In Jabresberichte tiber die Fortschritte der Forstwissenschaft und forstlichen Naturkunde, Jahrg. 1, Heft 2, p. 267-268, Berlin. Records the rearing of 15 species of parasites from Hvetria buoliana. 1840. Ratzeburg, J.T. C. Die Forst-Insecten, T. 2, p. 202-207, Taf. XIV, fig. 4. Berlin. ; 7 Detailed account with illustrations of the life history, work, economic im- portance, remedies, natural enemies, and literature of the species, with notes of severe outbreaks in Germany, 1835-1838. 1 This is not intended to be a complete bibliography of Hvetria buoliana; a large num- ber of special articles have appeared in various publications in Europe, and every hand- book on insects or forestry contains more or less exhaustive accounts of this pest. 1895. 1897. 1897. 1898. 1898. 1901. 1912. 1913. 1914. THE EUROPEAN PINE-SHOOT MOTH. 11 Judeich, J. F., and Nitsche, H. Lehrbuch der mitteleuropaischen Forst- insektenkunde, Bd. 2, p. 1004-1008. Wien. Condensed (5 pages), life-history ‘and economic importance with original figure of the injury done by the species. Lovink, H. J., and Ritzema Bos, J. Schade in jonge dennen bosschen teweeg gebracht door rupsen uit het bladrollergeslacht Retinia Gn. (‘ dennenknoprups” “ dennenlotrups ” ‘‘harsbuilrups’”’). Jn Tijdschr. Plantenziekten, Jahrg. 3, Afl. 4, p. 88-183, figs. 6, pls. V—VII, Oct. Detailed account of the species and its injury, with colored plates. Severin, G. Insectes. Extrait du Catalogue détaillé et illustré du Pa- villon des eaux et foréts 4 l’Hxposition internationale de Bruxelles- Tervueren, p. 46-49, pl. X. Bruxelles. Contains short illustrated account of Tortrix (Retinia) buoliana Schiffer- miller and its injury: Plate I of the present paper has been copied from this article. Boas, J. H. V. Dansk Forstzoologi. Copenhagen. Condensed life history, injury, and references, with original observations and figures. Hess, R. A. Der Forstschutz, ed. 3 enl., v. 1, p. 492494, figs. 174-175. Leipzig. Condensed handbook information on Tortriz (Retinia) buoliana Schiff. Severin, G. Le genre Retinia, Pyrale des pommes, des bourgeons, de la résine. Jn Bul. Soc. Cent. Forest. Belg., t. 8, p. 598-605, 674-685, 2 pls., 7 figs. Monographic account of the three most important injurious species of the genus Hvetria in Europe, with text figure and colored plate of Hvetria buoliana. It should be noted that the larva figured under and credited to Evetria buoliana belongs to Hvetria resinella, figured on the next colored plate, and vice versa. Gillanders, A. D. Forest Entomology, ed. 2. Edinburgh and London. Condensed handbook information. Niisslin, O. Leitfaden der Forstinsektenkunde, 2. neubearb. und verm. Aufl., p. 417-418, figs. 350, 352. Berlin. Condensed handbook information on Grapholitha (EHvetria) buoliana Schiff. Busck, August. A destructive pine-moth introduced from Hurope (Hve- tria buoliana Schiffermiller). Jn Jour. Econ. Hnt., v. 7, no. 4, p. 340—- 341, pl. IX, August. j First notice of the pest in America. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V e WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1915 ora sib ite 4p Ui Soh: QyaR Myer hans) 4 bi yoda) taorg. aostavnia Ac We R34 een nigh RR OER” ROR AEs enh ue caiy aeeie erNom: the Wel es Gi ; id eos siege Gi, Deh Mews ccs Teyana Wc 3 DAY, Haivt es ¥ ; sitar Fy ry fee Pee ib ‘nd ii B ne eine athe ie ei Ath a Pha Myso tea ts hod, : he FOS Rr Lae) uli array: ‘Ming ion os ‘ ihvers 3 cb, } B§ des eT 2 “t TAT le Ak He Sy BULLETIN OF THE 5. } USDEEARINENT OPAGRICULURE | } No. 171 Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, Henry W. Henshaw, Chief. February 5, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) FOOD OF THE ROBINS AND BLUEBIRDS OF THE UNITED STATES. By F. H. L. Bran, Assistant Biologist. INTRODUCTION. Few native American birds are more universally cherished than those well-known harbingers of spring, the robins and bluebirds. On esthetic grounds alone they receive full protection, partly from the romance that clusters-about them in story and legend and partly because of their graceful shape and movement, bright color and pleasing song, and close association with man and his works. Quick to realize their safety the birds nest and rear their young about human abodes, and at times becomes very abundant, their numbers frequently reaching such proportions that apprehension is felt that they may become dangerous to agriculture and horticulture. A study of their economic status therefore is of the utmost importance, especially when it is considered that a bird’s reputation is very often affected one way or the other merely by hearsay evidence. Investigation discloses that in addition to their pleasing qualities robins and bluebirds perform a very useful function in reducing the hordes of insect life constantly preying upon the crops of the farmer. In this work a large part of their food consists of insects and they feed their young upon them almost exclusively. It is recognized that birds are one of the necessary checks provided by nature upon the increase of the vast number of insects produced each year; that without them there would be a greater destruction of vegetation; and that certain crops of the farmer now regularly matured would, if raised at all, be raised only with increased difficulty and added labor. Prominent among the insect eaters are the thrushes, the group which includes the robins and bluebirds. In the thrush family of North America are 11 species, but passing by the less familiar members, the thrushes proper (J/yadestes and Notr.—This bulletin discusses the value of robins and bluebirds as insect destroyers and shows how the small damage done by the former may be reduced by supplying wild fruits to meet their requirements. It is for general distribution. 72255°—Bull. 17115 1 2 BULLETIN 171, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Hylocichla), there will be discussed in the present paper the food habits of members of the five species of American robins and. blue- birds—the common robin (Planesticus migratorius), the varied thrush, or Oregon robin (/xoreus nevius), the eastern bluebird (Stalia sialis), the western bluebird (Sialia mexicana), and the mountain bluebird (Szalia currucoides). While the ranges of these birds in their subspecies extend entirely across the continent, the best known are the common robin and the eastern bluebird. Time and the further advance of cultivation into wilder areas may bring the other species into greater prominence. . The American robin (Planesticus migratorius and subspecies) is one of the most familiar birds of the whole United States; and in the extreme northwest there is found also the varied thrush, or, as it is locally known, the Oregon robin (/xoreus nevius and subspecies). The eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis and subspecies) occupies the whole of eastern United States west to the base of the Rocky Moun- tains, and occurs also in southern Arizona; it is replaced beyond the mountains by two western species (Sialia mexicana subspecies and Sialia currucoides), which have much the same appearance and habits. As robins and bluebirds are usually abundant wherever found the matter of their food supply deserves careful consideration, for wherever nature’s lavish provision fails these birds must seek their subsistence either from cultivated crops or from the wild varieties especially left or provided for them by their human friends. A determination of the nature of their food therefore becomes of con- siderable economicimportance. In the following pages is discussed in detail the economic status of the five species of these groups of birds. ROBIN. (Planesticus migratorius and subspecies.) The common robin is probably the most familiarly known bird in the United States and has embellished the literature of its rural life to a greater extent than all other birds together. Having been made the object of a transferred affection it has received the love and pro- tection which the ancestors of the American people formerly lavished upon the robin redbreast of Europe. The subspecies Planesticus migratorius migratorius is found throughout the United States east of the Great Plains and north of the Gulf-States; and elsewhere are two closely related subspecies, one of which, Planesticus migratorius propinquus, is well known in the valley regions of the Pacific coast in winter and throughout the higher mountains in this section in summer; and the other, Planesticus migratorius achrusterus, is found . in the higher regions of southeastern United States. The range of the species extends northward into Canada and even into Alaska. FOOD OF ROBINS AND, BLUEBIRDS. 3 While for the most part migratory in the northern half of the country, individuals remain all winter in many localities where shel- ter and food are assured. In eastern Massachusetts and at some places farther west there are cedar swamps which offer an abundant supply of wild fruit, and robins remain there throughout the winter in considerable numbers. Most of the species spend the winter from latitude 40° southward, and begin to move northward as soon as snow disappears. They arrive in New England in the latter part of March or early in April and in the northern States of the Missis- sippi Valley somewhat earlier. It is difficult to say just when the fall migration begins, as the first birds to leave are replaced by others from farther north. They are often very abundant in the latitude of Massachusetts during the first half of November, but by Fig. 1.—Robin (Planesticus migratorius). the last of the month all have either left for the south or retired into winter quarters. In its breeding habits the robin is very domestic, having learned to place a good deal of confidence in its human neighbors. It com- monly selects orchards as nesting places, or fearlessly builds upon a projecting shelf of a piazza or under an open shed where persons pass many times during the day. Stone walls and stump fences are often utilized, and in one case known to the writer the nest was placed directly upon the ground. The bird’s confidence is rarely abused and it is allowed to rear its brood undisturbed wherever the nest may be. Four young are commonly raised in a brood and two or more broods are reared in a season. In the northern part of the country, especially in New England, the bird is thought so well of that one is rarely killed or disturbed. 4 BULLETIN 171.'U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Owing to the complete protection the species enjoys, it sometimes becomes overabundant for the best interests of horticulture, and its depredations upon small fruits are so extensive as to try the patience of its whilom protectors and friends, the fruit growers. In spite of this the law still extends its protecting arm over the bird in most parts of the country, and fruit growers have to guard their crops as best they can. Many who grow fruit for home consumption declare that the robins take more than half the crop, and some have testified that they often take the whole. Robert B. Roosevelt, writing from Sayville, Long Island, N. Y., says: We have seven or eight cherry trees * * * in fair bearing of the finest sort. We never get a cherry! I mean this exactly. The robins eat or ruin the whole just before they get ripe enough for the human taste. They also take grapes and strawberries, but not on so wholesale a plan. W. G. Castellow, of Waterloo, Me., writes: | When strawberries are cultivated in small patches of two or three rods in extent, the robins will take them all unless the berries are picked when hard, or the birds scared away by dogs, children, etc. f These are fair examples of much testimony received by the De- partment of Agriculture. There is no doubt that the bird often commits extensive ravages among small fruits, but there is reason to believe that the damage is limited to certain localities and is not general. In the following details of stomach examination it will be noticed that a large percentage of the robin’s vegetable food consists of wild fruit. This does not seem to have been true in the case of birds examined by earlier investigators. If, however, as appears from the present investigation, the robin prefers wild fruits to cultivated varieties, we have at once a probable explanation of the fact that some parts of the country enjoy almost complete exemption from the ravages of which others complain. For a number of years the writer was engaged in the cultivation of small fruits in Massachusetts, and although robins were abundant about the farm they did no appreciable damage. On the farm where the writer lived when a boy was a fine collection of the choicest varieties of cherries. The fruit first to ripen each year was shared about equally by the birds and the family, but that which matured afterwards did not attract the birds, probably because in that sec- tion the woods and swamps abound with many species of wild fruits. Reports of depredations upon fruit by birds come principally from the prairie region of the West. This is just what might be expected, for but few prairie shrubs produce the wild berries that the birds prefer and for lack of these the birds naturallly feed upon the cultivated varieties available. Reports of fruit losses caused FOOD OF ROBINS AND BLUEBIRDS. 5 by birds in the East are usually from the immediate vicinity of villages or towns where there is no natural fruit-bearing shrubbery. From this it follows that an etfective remedy for the ravages of birds upon cultivated fruits is to plant the preferred wild varieties. In the list given farther on (p. 183) are a number of species that are ornamental and usually are easily obtained. On the western coast the habits of the robin appear to be the re- verse of those of its eastern relative, for in summer it migrates north- | ward or up into the high mountainous regions where it breeds, and in fall it returns to spend the winter in the valleys about orchards, vineyards, and cattle corrals; so that while in the East the robin is a summer bird, in the far West it belongs to the winter fuuna. Food.—The robin is omnivorous and feeds upon pretty much every eatable accessible. In spring when insect and other animal life begins to stir, this bird is on hand to take the first angleworms, snails, or sow bugs that show themselves. Then when the weather is a little warmer he takes the first beetles that appear, and so estab- lishes a reputation for destroying useful Coleoptera (Carabide). At this time he eats the waste fruit left on the tree over winter, but when the early service berries (Amelanchier) ripen in June he feeds upon them, and later as the early cherries begin to color he tries them for variety. In July raspberries tempt his appetite and in August he fills up on grasshoppers. Thus each month brings something to supply his wants. In investigating the food of the robin 1,236 stomachs from 42 © States, the District of Columbia, and 3 Canadian Provinces were examined. They represent every month in the year and include the three subspecies generally recognized—migratorius, propinquus, and achrusterus. Analysis showed that the food consisted of 42.40 per cent animal matter and 57.60 per cent vegetable. Animal food.—As the robin is an early migrant from the south he naturally preys on the first insects that come out from winter quarters. Useful Carabide, or predaceous ground beetles, which are among the earliest insects to appear in spring, form a very im- portant element of the food of the first spring migrants among the birds. These beetles form 12.78 per cent of the food of the robin in April, and 8.57 per cent in March. After April, when other prey becomes more abundant, fewer appear in the food, but they are taken to some extent in every month and aggregate 5 per cent for the year. Beetles of the May-beetle family (Scarabeeide) are eaten to the extent of 5.48 per cent of the yearly food, but in May, the month of their greatest abundance, they amount to 32.29 per cent, or nearly one- third of the diet. Various species of these beetles were found in 274 stomachs. Of these, Lachnosterna, the progenitors of the white grubs 6 BULLETIN 171, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that eat the roots of grass and other plants, were found in 64. Sey- eral other species of the family nearly as harmful were identified. The Colorado potato beetle was found in 2 stomachs, and both the striped and spotted squash beetles were identified in others. Larve of the Lampyride or fireflies, which live in the ground and so fall an easy prey to the robin, were found in several stomachs to the extent of upward of a hundred in each. Several species of weevils or snout beetles, including the two clover weevils (Phytono- mus punctatus and Epicerus imbricatus), the corn weevil (Spheno- phorus zee), and a number of others, were identified. In June, 1911, 10 stomachs of robins were collected in Utah in the region in- fested by the newly imported alfalfa weevil (Phytonomus posticus) and 6 were found to contain these weevils in varying quantities. In all, the birds had taken 17 adults and 195 larve, which amounted to an average of 35 per cent of the food of each. This shows how readily birds avail themselves of a new kind of food. Beetles col- lectively amount to 16.72 per cent, of which Carabide make up 5 per cent and Scarabeeide 5.48 per cent. Weevils or snout beetles amount to 2.13 per cent, and all others 4.11 per cent. The robin evidently is not a lover of Hymenoptera (bees, wasps. etc.) as the total consumption is only 2.60 per cent. Of these, 1.57 per cent are ants and the remainder, 1.03 per cent, wild bees and wasps, except a few bits of a single worker honey bee (Apis mel- lifera). This is in strong contrast to the food of birds of the genus Hylocichla, which consists on the average of over 12 per cent of ants. Tt is evident that the robin does not care for ants: and as it is not adept at capturing active creatures it is not surprising that it does not eat many wasps or bees. Hemiptera (bugs) constitute only 2.20 per cent of the robin’s food, but are taken to some extent in every month. February and April are the months of greatest consumption, with something over 5 per cent in each; March and May stand next with more than 3 per cent. While eight families were identified, the Pentatomidez (stinkbugs) greatly predominate. Probably the most interesting member of this order eaten by the robin is the chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus). This injurious insect was found in two stomachs, and its presence was suspected in several more. Diptera (flies) are represented in the food of the robin almost entirely by larve of the March flies (Bibionide). Bibio albipennis, the species most often eaten by robins, breeds in colonies in the ground, feeding cn grass roots. Naturally they are not found by the birds so often as if they were more generally distributed, but when found the whole colony is eaten. While several stomachs contained less than 100 each of these larvee, at least 12 contained from 100 to 200; one contained 270, and another the remarkable number of 1.040. ] FOOD OF ROBINS AND BLUEBIRDS. if In this last case the bird probably had the good fortune to find sev- eral colonies. March flies are not considered very harmful insects, but are prolific breeders, and that they do not do more damage is probably because they are so persistently preyed upon by robins. In February and March the number of these larve eaten is about 10 per cent of the bird’s diet. In other months it is considerably less. The average for the year is 3.14 per cent. A few crane flies (Tipulide) and a few bits of other Diptera were taken by robins, but they do not constitute an appreciable percentage of the food. Lepidoptera (mostly caterpillars) form a regular and fairly abundant constituent of the robin’s diet. The maximum consump- tion occurs in May, when this item amounts to 23.96 per cent of the food. After this it gradually decreases to a little more than 1 per cent in November, when it again rises toward its maximum. Owing to the soft nature of these insects, very few can be identified. The army worm (feliophila unipuncta) was recognized in six stomachs, but was probably represented in many more; the codling moth caterpillar (Carpocapsa pomonella) was found in two stomachs; a cabbage worm (Pontia protodice) mn one; and the yellow-necked apple-tree worm (Datana ministra) in three. Undoubtedly many more destructive species were contained in the food, though un- recognizable, but as practically all caterpillars are harmful, any de- struction of them may be set down to the credit of the bird. The total consumption amounts to 9.04 per cent of the food. Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) as a general rule are ac- ceptable food for insectivorous birds, and when abundant are eaten by almost every species. The robin, however, does not display any special fondness for them except during the short time when they are most abundant. The west-coast robin evidently relishes these crea- tures even less than does his eastern relative, but this perhaps is partly accounted for by the fact that but few stomachs of the west- ern robin can be taken in the summer, as the bird spends that season either in the far north or in high mountain regions. It is remark- able, however, that as a general rule western birds do not eat grass- hoppers with the gusto shown by the corresponding eastern species. The robin consumes the greatest quantity of grasshoppers from June to September, when 73 per cent of the total number taken during the year are eaten, or somewhat more than 10 per cent of the whole food. In August, as would be expected, the consumption is greatest and amounts to 17.33 per cent. In the same months the meadowlark eats grasshoppers to the extent of 67 per cent of his monthly diet. The average annual consumption by the robin is only 4.76 per cent, while with the meadowlark it is 28.30. It is evident that during most of the year these insects are eaten by the robin only when noth- ing better is at hand. Melanoplus devastator, a near relative of the 8 BULLETIN 171, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Rocky Mountain locust, was identified in one stomach and was prob- ably represented in many more. Miscellaneous insects of various orders, none of special interest, make up 0.37 per cent of the food. Spiders were eaten to the extent of only 0.83 per cent and Myriapods (thousand legs), 1.21 per cent. Various other animals such as sow bugs, snails, and angleworms were taken occasionally and make up the remainder of the animal food, 1.53 per cent. , Following is a list of the insects and other items of animal food with the number of stomachs in which found: HYMENOPTERA. COLEOPTERA—Continued. Pimpla marginata ___________~-~- Lhilptarpalustspss: Sf bend Node oe 5 Camponotus pennsylvanicus_____-- 1 | Selenophorus pedicularis_________ 1 Apis nella feTg 2 2 222 tae a 1 | Stenolophus conjunctus ________ 2 Stenolophus ochropezus__________ of COLEOPTERA. Stenolophus dissimilig ___________ Be Anisodactylus discoideus_________ Ll Cicindela hirticolligs______________ 1 | Anisodactylus carbonarius _______ t Cicindela punctulata_____________ 1 | Cnemidotus callosus__-__________ I Oychrus leconicrs 2 aes A BtGCSSUS! CUIMNIS 22 ae ee ee 1! Cychrus obliquus__——-—- =~ 1 WeHCLODLOTIS Spe == ae slays aes iff Flaphrus riporius_________--=---- 1 | Hydrocharis obtusatus___________ t SLOTS SSD een eee Verne I PR 2 | Cymbiodyta fimbriata___________ if IPOSUINOGHUS Spee ant ee Ee EE 1 | Spheridium scarabeoides_________ ql Scarites subterraneus_______-____ 1, | Stlipha lapponica _- 2 Dyschirius basalis-_—_____ IN PStiphe Tamose 2. 2 2 Se eee Z IDUSCHITULS ASD 2 oe ee eh ASpha) Spz = 2): et Se ee, Clivina punctulata______________— 1 | Staphylinus vulpinus _--—_~_- ay China bimistulata ___—_-- --_-_-- 2| Philonthus hepaticus ____________ t Podabrus aterrimus ____-_________ 1 | Philonthus fusiformis____________ alt Pterostichus morio _2-—--_--=-=— 1 | Philonthus occidentalis __________ 1 Evarthrus ‘soddalis __---— == 1 | Leptacinus grandiceps___________ a EAT TRTULS tS — es es a IL MStCHUS (SP=2-) Seas 2 if Amare mpunchicollis._— 2 | Orthopterus scutellaris_________-__ 1 Amara interstitialis______________ 6 | Hippodania convergens__________ f AMO Spe Ss 33 aes ea 8 | Hippodamia sp____________ pie 8) 57s Calathus gregarims _ 22). 2s 1 | Cocemella 9-notata _____-___-_ af Platynus brunneomarginatus ____~ 1] Chilocorus bivulnerus.._- 22) af Plots, lambatus—_ 2 = 1 | Longuria mozardi__________ eerie ae PLOWS ONCOUIS = 26 = 22 ee 1 | @ritoma anguidta.__.--_-= 2 1 CGUVCTUC OS hn no ee eee nee 40| (easter: SCWOtUS 22> 2 eee 2 COU Speen et BIR Tes Sa he tee, AS to) Hister harrist_2 22a et a Chiwniis sp se nes Sele 2 hister wnniinnis sts Pe 53 Geopinus incrassadtus____________ i Aister, abbrevintis: ses en 2 Cratacanthus, dubius._=-= > Di |) GIASELCT SINT AS eS if Agonoderus lineola_—_-—~-_——- of. | pester © CUNTCTUS —2 ee eee E Agonoderus pallipes _____-__- 10)| Basten 16-Siriais eee 5 AQONOCCTUST SI re as ee 1 | Hister americanus. _- = es 14 Harpalus herbivagus_____________ Waster” L7-siridtus 2 ae ae 1 Harpalus pleuriticus___._________ fi! aster: Sp: Shs. is sen ol ae ee 1 a ——— FOOD OF ROBINS COLEOPTERA—Continued. TDS fUSCLUCWS* oe eee eee 5 Ga tweUsnseriGeus| sass. Ue eee 2 IBOLT TMOWRULUIS aa 1 HOACONNTECLONGULOTAS == Se 1 Monocrepidius vespertinus _----~- 2 Monocrepidius auritus____-----~- 4 Monocrepidius bellus ______------ 3 DG USHETMUSMULUCIIS = 2s a eee alt I DRUSUGOUS. QUAY US 3 DD ROSUCTUL ST AS Deter een ee es 1 Dolopius tavernas. ee Be Melanotus eribricollis____-_-__ 3 Limonius subauratus _________--- 1 Corymbites cylindricollis_________ 3 Telephorus bilineatus____-_----__ 2 NMELEDNOTMUSIASD =e = ee 2 Conthonssimpl er == SS al OGRE OH SS SSE ah cs lea ss 1 LOG UROSUGHTON, Sia 63 Anomala flamipennis ———-— te 1 ANON ONL === sas 5 Annona COliiee = See eas aft EU NOTIO ANG Os = See eee ie ee 4 THO DOC RIGS OL See ee ee il Ninangalhia luteicornis=- = es aft Chiamys plicata ss 22) eee 4 72255°—Bull. 171—15——2 AND BLUEBIRDS. COLEOPTERA—Continued. Pachybrachys hepatica___________ Myochrous denticollis____________ Typophorus camels. Graphops nebulosus_______--- Colaspis brumneg 222-2) ee Leptinotarsa 10-lineata___________ Calligrapha similis ______________ JEG NOGKE CO) DOrACHS 2 Galerucella americana ___________ Diabrotica 12-punctata___________ LDGAO ROU DOTA Ceroioma injurcota ess @Gdionychis interjectionis ________ Disonycha crencolis es DES ONY CIUGNS ee eT ESL Odontotaidoersdls eS ae Haltica fuscoenea LELHRHICOE COMUDUCO Mh SOSUCTUS GUO oe Chetochnema denticulata ________ COSSHOUD WECTTTUM, 2 Epitragus canaliculatus ________ EEC O CSS Joyner ONGEN USS] 0 a ee a Blapstinus abbreviatus___________ Blapstinus pratensis __—- EUODS HIDES SO eS Oe IOUOLRUIS COKE AVKOKE DIS Notorus hepaticus == sae INIGEOLUSES DU ee NS ee Soe NWEGESTEHINUS, MAME OUS) = oe LUCCESECTAUUS USD ee a a Eipicerus imoricdtus — Graphorhinus vadosus _---_______ AN TOG SOM) SOIC ANNNVESUC, |S] ene ce SSA eee eee TAR AUS, UOC TIS 2 WE MOZEMIS: SOCCHUIS Be ee Geoderces melanothrig____ Cercopeus chrysorrheus Otiorhynchus ovatus_____________ Tanymecus confertus Aphrastus teniatus Sziones ineelluss = eee SOTOMAS GHFOR DUCE 2 SULOMESW LOAUESCENS eee Sitones Mspidulus © Sitones binellus __-______________ SZLONES\ Sp A et Sea Phytonomus punctatus Phytonomus NAG IUEOSUUS maa a 10 BULLETIN 171, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COLEOPTHRA—Continued. NEUROPTERA. Phytonomus posticus____----_--~- S| CRAIN Sa I fi ME OGTOPS AST ee oe ee a ee EE 8 Cleonus 4-Vineatuses ss) beens 1 HEMIPTHRA. CleOns Spee oe Se ele eee ese alt ay) ; ote ae Pinions 1 Tubicen septendecim —=_— === = = 2 [Ate Oe ire he aN CRARR TP COREY a 1 Dreculacephala reticulata________ i oO Pde ees ER OF Xerophlea viridis ___--- 1 Conotrachelus anaglypticus__——-- 2 ETN iat INGER: OUST alt Conotrachelisesp = =e eee 1 YNICGHLOH 0 ARS) OP eae URN Miin so talse est eee Cg UES il AN COHNOS. GUSH US, os 1 h HRS Ape MP OLU. 1 Prowys punctulatus —__---__-______ 1 a Sa EE SN ep Gee 1 IBLSSUS) LEUCGODLEKIS — = ae p y f Danae TAR aN Myodocha serripes___ = 4 Tyloderma baridiuwm__—-—--------- 1 THORANOCA NOL GOMKAUKO? 1 Tyloderma angustatum_____-----~ 1 i Rhi Ru oer er 2 Leptoglossus oppositus___________ Be B ee . ae POCO spe 1 Metapodius femoraius ___-_______ 3 ye tn ie TE aM Maee 1 Corizus mgristernum —--_----- as IBOLONUNIS (Spee = ee NS ORTHOPTERA. Sphenophorus parvulus _-_------- 11 : Sphenophorus ze@ _______--_-_-- 9 | Tettigidea lateralis var. polymor- Sphenophorus sp__-------------__ 3 ph ____—-_~-~-~-~-----~------- 1 Melanoplus devastator ___-__-___ 1 DIPTHRA. COMUCO VOU Sts aL Bibiowlboipennis == ss ee 24. ARACHNIDA. LEPIDOPTERA. TEAK O IS) ORIGKO, SEN ee 1 TED ELD) {OUD ES AL MOLLUSGCA. PRUE ORS eee ate ee 1 Mamestra swojumcta —____ || 20GB OWT 1 Heliophila unipuncta ____________ || OROUKANIE SHEIOSU A il Catocclassp wes te aL || SICCUeee TACOMA 2 it IN REGO GU Me = 1) SSOCHMEG BOs a es ali NCRIZUNG COUNCIL) ae saa se a ee DS || SPOONS TOL LICITR ca ed II af IDOSURG TORUSURD Se SE es 3 | LUTE GASP) SES ara ala ea Carpocapsa pomonella ___________ 2 ielampus bidentata 22222 ss iL Vegetable food—Over 50 per cent of the robin’s food consists of fruit and more than four-fifths of this are wild species, even if straw- berries, raspberries, and blackberries are classified as cultivated, which is not always the case. Many complaints have been made against this bird on the score of fruit eating and in many cases they are well founded. In the vicinity of towns where cultivation and improvements have swept away the wild fruits, or when for any reason the crops of wild fruit fail, the birds are forced to resort to cultivated varieties, and disaster to the farmer results. While such cases are not numerous or of very great importance in the East, it is quite otherwise in California, where the robin is a winter bird and is abundant at just the time when wild fruits are largely out of bearing, except such as retain their fruit over winter. In years when this customary food is scarce, robins appear in the valleys in immense numbers and eat olives so eagerly and persist- FOOD OF ROBINS AND BLUEBIRDS, © 11 ently that the loss is often serious and occasionally disastrous. Sometimes, indeed, it is only by the most untiring efforts with con- siderable outlay of labor and money that any part of the crop can be saved. Fortunately, such extensive damage is not done every year, although here and there the olive crop may suffer. There is probably no more striking example of this exceptional and intermittent damage to fruit by birds than that which occurred in the winter of 1900-1901. In that year olive orchards in various parts of California were invaded by immense numbers of robins, which ate the fruit and in some instances destroyed the whole crop. Even in orchards where persistent effort was made to kill them or drive them away they ruined from one-fourth to one-half of the yield. Olive orchards in Santa Clara Valley were especially afflicted. Paul Masson, who owned two orchards near Saratoga, as quoted by the San Jose Mercury of January 17, 1901, says: In my largest orchard of about 500 trees adjoining a larger orchard of about 50 acres on the E] Quito farm, which is owned by EH. EH. Goodrich, are thousands of robins, which are destroying all the fruit on the trees. About two months ago I estimated that my trees would yield about 4 tons of olives, but Sunday, when I visited my orchard, I found the fruit would not be worth picking. I killed some of the robins, and upon examination found as many as five or six whole olives in the crop of each bird. Besides those which the bird had swallowed whole, many olives are pecked so that they are spoiled for market. Sunday there were not less than 50,000 robing on my place, and they are equally as plentiful on El Quito farm. Edward E. Goodrich, owner of the El Quito farm and olive orchard, quoted by the same alithority, states: The so-called robin is a destructive pest to an olive orchard. A crop can nor be saved when the migration of the robin corresponds exactly with the maturity of the olive, as it does this year, except by immediate picking, which is prac- tically impossible, or by shooting so constantly as to prevent steady consump- tion. * * * Jn 1898 my crop was 130 tons, and should have made about 4,000 gallons of oil. Owing to the lack of rain the result was about 2,750 gal- lons, of the value of $11,000. Now, that crop could have been wiped out in 10 days by robins if they had been here as they were this season and ho shooting had been done. So far as my foreman could estimate, before the birds descended upon the place, he placed the crop at a probable 3,000 gallons, which means when sold from $12,000 to $16,000, according to prices, and that would have been utterly destroyed but for the constant shooting the last 10 days. As it was, Mr. Goodrich placed his loss on the olive crop through the devastations of the robins at 25 per cent of the whole, or about $5,000. The San Jose Mercury also states: A representative of the Mercury visited the El Quito olive orchard to see what the facts were in this matter. He found a force of men picking the fruit ~ as rapidly as possible, and he also saw thousands upon thousands of robins doing the same thing. On his way out he occasionally saw a Single bird on the 12 BULLETIN 171, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fence or in a prune tree, but when he reached El Quito the sky was streaked with robins flitting about and having a gala time of it. Men were scattered about through the orchard with guns, and every few minutes the report of one of these would set the robins to flying, but in an instant they would settle down again and resume their feast. Ellwood Cooper, of Santa Barbara, a prominent producer of olives on the Pacific coast, in a letter dated January 25, 1901, says: The robin is a terrible pest to olives. The birds do not always appear to come to the coast. My first experience was some 15 years ago. The olives were late in ripening. I was as late as March making oil. The robins appeared to - come in by the thousands. My last orchard that year was about one-half mile in length. The pickers were at one end. I had a man with a gun at the other, but they would attack the middle, and when the gunner would reach them they would fly to the end he left. This year they have been particularly bad. My boys reported that the birds, mostly robins, picked more olives than they could. The foreman of the pickers told me that he had knocked from a tree one-quarter of a sack and went to dinner; when he returned not an olive was on the ground. I know that on the ground in one orchard where the rain had caused to fall as many olives as would fill a bushel basket, in a week not one would be seen. The robins do not seem to be able to pick the olives so rapidly from the trees, but peck at those that are commencing to dry, knock them to the ground, then get them. The birds at this writing are in all my orchards by the thousands. They do not appear every year. It has been my theory that the native berries in the Sierra some years are not in sufficient quantities for food. In the last sentence Mr. Cooper has probably struck the root of the trouble. There is a crop of olives every year and the number of robins fiuctuates little. Robins rarely attack olives because usually their native food abounds, but where this fails the hungry birds shift about until they find a substitute. The most common complaints against the robin in the past have been on the score of eating cherries. Where a few trees are planted for family use it is not unusual for the birds to take all the fruit; especially is this the case in a village or the suburbs of a large town where wild berry-bearing shrubs have been destroyed. On farms distant from towns this seldom happens, though the birds are apt to take toll from the tree first to ripen its fruit. This seems to satisfy their taste for fruit, and after. that they take only an occasional “lunch. Reports are not wanting that the robin damages not only strawberries, blackberries, and raspberries, but also larger fruits, as pears, peaches, prunes, and grapes; but such cases are occasional and local and due to circumstances that also are occasional and local. In a region where fruit raising is new, pioneers in the business fre- quently suffer severe losses from birds that seem to be attracted by the novelty. — Of wild fruits properly so called the robin’s dietary contains about 65 species, while the cultivated varieties amount to only about 10. The robin eats also seeds, but so few as plainly to show that they are not a favorite food. Of grain it eats rice, corn, oats, and wheat, FOOD OF ROBINS AND BLUEBIRDS. 13 but in such small quantities as to prove that they are not greatly relished. Apparently robins never are satisfied for any length of time without fruit or berries. Sparrows, blackbirds, and many other species thrive on dry seeds; not so robins. If berries are not at hand they move on to seek them. Sparrows remain in the north in severe weather, even when the ground is deeply covered with snow, if they can obtain plenty of seeds for food; but robins require for northern winter quarters a swamp where cedar, smilax, holly, etc., promise both shelter and food. The robin among birds is one of the most efficient disseminators of fruit seeds. While small seeds like those of the raspberry and strawberrv pass directly through the alimentary canal, larger seeds, like the stones of cherries, dogwood, pepper berries, china berries, and hackberries, are disgorged after the pulp is digested. In the Southern States it is common to see rows of cedar trees along fences where seeds have been dropped by perching birds, and lines of trees often mark the site of a fence which has long since dis- appeared. Seeds that have ,passed through the alimentary canal of birds or other animals do not appear to have their vitality im- paired, and it has even been asserted that they germinate more readily than those sown directly from the tree. Following is a list of vegetable substances found in the food of robins and the number of stomachs in which found: Saw palmetto (Sabal serrulata) —_ 2) Mistletoe berries (Phoradendron Western juniper (Juniperus mono- GMO CII) 2 ee 3 SOOO sa MEN 2) | DOeke CR UIMED SPs) = wml eke wheal 1 Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) 18 | Pale persicaria (Polygonum la- Common juniper (Juniperus com- (OMA OOOOH LO), aes en 3 TODAS) N geese os, NID AR I UC NEG a 3 | Smart weed (Polygonum sp.)_---_ 1 Panie grass (Panicum sp.) —------ 3 | Amaranth (Amaranthus sp.)—--~- 2 Pigeon grass (Chetochloa sp.)_-_-_ 3 | Pokeberries (Phytolacca decan- Rice (Oryza sativa) _~___-_------ a CRO) VA se Ve SAN re 15 Corn) ((Zearmays) 222 2 eee 8 | Stellaria (Alsine sp.) _~__________ 1 Oats (Avena sativa) __—_-__-_____- 2 | Barberries (Berberis vulgaris)___ 1 Wheat (Triticum vulgare) ——_---- 3 | Red bay (Persea borbonia) _______ 1 Carrion flower (Smilax herbacea)- 2 | Spice berries (Benzoin benzgoin)__ 8 Green brier (Smilax bona-nor)_-_ 15 | Sassafras (Sassafras variifolium)_ 1 Saw brier (Smilax glauca) _______ 3 | Currants (Ribes sp.) _------_____ 12 Cat brier (Smilax sp.)-__________ 17 |.Apple (Pyrus malus)__~_-________ 8 Bay-berries (Myrica carolinensis)_ 6] Crab apple (Pyrus diversifolia)_.... 1 OU CHG SAS IO!) ee IN i 3 | Mountain ash (Pyrus americana). 7 Western hackberries (Celtis occi- Western June berries (A melanchier EWE CLAS) eit Ae Ss Ss Soe NES 22 SAR ON UCL OD a NS Te EAN ANU ESRI OS eT 2 Mississippi hackberries (Celtis mis- Alder-leaved June berries (Amelan- SiSSippiensis)) == 2 ee eee 24 chier alnifolia)——______________ 2 Hackberries unidentified (Celtis | Service berries (Amelanchier cana- SY 015) pe a ee 8 LENS 7S) HNMR ENB A HON PES 12 Mulberries (Morus sp.)-------___ 19 | June berries (Amelanchier sp.)__- 3 14 English hawthorn (Crategus oxry- COULTON) Rie SPORE EBON ES sell oe Strawberries (Fragaria sp.) —----~ 6 Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus STDs) Poe ee a aS el ee 47 Domestic cherries (Prunus cera- SUS) pane eee eta te 1 Nig GUA Pee BS a ee: 34 Domestic prunes (Prunus domes- (HEC) SNe eet a Pepe tle SE 2 Wild black cherries (Pruns sero- LTO) pesteee Hod Dia SEE ES Ee ee Ee 28 Chokecherries (Prunus virgin- LONG) i 4 ee Say Ee, 9S 12 Bird cherries (Prunus pennsylva- WGC) Rte ena Sele ea, ee 8 Cherries unidentified (Prunussp.)~ 7 China berries (Melia azederach)— 58 Wood sorrel (Ozdlis sp.) —-------- aft Staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina)_-— 53 Smooth sumac (Rhus glabra)_--__ 19 Dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina)_-— 10 Poison ivy (Rhus radicans) —~----- 3 Small-leaved sumac (Rhus micro- — TOU LUG)) es SAR ESTE ERE TS al Sumac unidentified (Rhus sp.)--- 12 Pepper berries (Schinus molle)__ 20 American holly (Zlex opaca)_—---- 19 Deciduous holly (Jler decidua)___ 12 Black alder (Jlex verticillata)_-_- 38 Holly unidentified (Ilex sp.) -----= 6 Strawberry bush (Hvonymus CUTOUT GOI) ain INO By a tt Sol 2 Burning bush (Hvonymus sp.)---- 1 Roxbury waxwork (Celastrus SCOMMLEIIS) oe oa a es ee _ SS 2 Supple Jack (Berchemia volu- BLES ie 3 Sees hoe Se ee eee ee 9 Cascara sagrada (Rhamnus pur- RIL) = ee eee alt Woodbine (Psedera quinquefolia)_ 21 Northern fox grape (Vitis la- OTUSCON ee Te ie SO ae ft Summer grape (Vitis estivalis)___ 1 Frost grape (Vitis cordifolia)_____ 1 BULLETIN 171, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. California wild grape (Vitis cali- fOTniCd) == 2 eee eee ee Unidentified grapes (Vitis sp.) ___ Flowering dogwood (Cornus flor- Rough-leaved dogwood (Cornus as- DETAFOWUW), 328 stays 5 oes ee Panicled cornel (Cornus panicu- LOU), Se ee Alternate-leayed cornel (Cornus aliermjond) Es Black gum (Nyssa sylvatica) _____ Tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) _________ Huckleberries (Gaylussdcia sp.) —~ Small cranberries (Vaccinium oxy- COCCUS)) 222) 2O Res ee ee Blueberries (Vaccinium sp.) ----~ Persimmons (Diospyrus virgin- Button weed (Diodia teres) ______ Japan honeysuckle (Lonicera ja- DPONTCH) ete et SO ee Snow berries (Symphorocarpos TUCCMNOSC)\ Ais =e Se a eee Arrow-wood berries (Viburnum dentatum) Black haw (Viburnum pruni- fOolium 222s Bese ee Viburnum unidentified (Viburnum SD.) 42235242 ee eee Black elderberries (Sambucus Canadensis) 2282) eh eee Red elderberries (Sambucus pu- Elderberries unidentified (Sambu- CUS) Sp.) 2225524 Seat. ee Common ragweed (Ambrosia ar- Other ragweeds (Ambrosia sp.) ——- Sunflower (Helianthus sp.)------ Dandelion (Taraxicum sp.) ------~ Fruit not further identified_______ 17 59 42 22 Before dismissing the subject of vegetable food it is of interest to note that seeds of the California poison oak- (Rhus diversiloba) were not found in the stomachs of west-coast robins. This appears the more singular when it is noted that the birds feed freely upon other species of Rhus; that this species is one of the most abundant shrubs in California, and in full fruit in the wintertime, when the robins are there; and that it 1s a favorite food of many species of winter birds. As the seeds of this plant are either regurgitated by birds or FOOD OF ROBINS AND BLUEBIRDS. 15 passed uninjured, it follows that birds are the most efficient dis- seminators of these noxious shrubs. This is one evil of which the western robins apparently are guiltless, though the eastern ones eat a few seeds of the poison ivy. Among the stomachs examined were those of a to nestlings about half grown. Their food was not found to differ essentially from that of the adults except, perhaps, that the predominance of animai matter was more pronounced, and any great number of stomachs would have shown a considerably higher percentage. One somewhat peculiar feature of the stomach contents was a “wad” of grass or other vegetable fibers in a close tangle and large enough to half fill the stomach. This was found in nearly every stomach of the nes- tlngs, and has also occasionally bisa observed in the stomachs of young of other species. Summary.—While the animal food of the robin includes a rather large percentage of useful beetles, it is not in the consumption of these or any other insect that this bird does harm. Cicindela punctulata ____________ Omophron labiatum _____--___-_- Omophron mndin Omophron americanum__——------ OmoDNT On SVs ets te ese See Carabus meander. =2=s2_2 2 Caras onc s_ COTCUUS PSD Eee tee rrt . ee es Dyschirius globulosus_______-_-—— DYSCHITIUS MENCUS == = ee Scarites subterraneus ________-__ Bembidium maculatum _____---_-— Pterostichus lucublandus________~ Pterostichus femoralis___________ ADOT SCLONUO WUE = a0 3a EE ts Amara impuncticollis____________ ATLONG. SOUS Se ee ee 8 ee Amora interstitialis 2 ANTE NO UCSUe settee, Avis ets aA xh EE AUOTAL § CHOLCE G2 es OF bar) Sie PAMTUOUET: SSP) ak ll 28 Re Pel Spe heard Platynus punctiformis ___________ “Galerita YOMUS. te ees 2 See Chlenius pennsylvanicus_________ Chlenmus tomentosus —_—_— COTES ES SENS Dire ena Sea BT Gratacanthus dubs 2=2- 2 2 Agonoderus lincola == a ese Agonoderus pallipes —-2 2. AGONOUCTUS “Spee Se es Hearpalus viridienus Harpas wagons. ae ea Harpalus pennsylvanicus __--____ Harpalus herbivagus __—_-- LOT DOSS Sys a ae ee ae COLEOPTERA—Continued. Stenolophus Spe. es See af Anisodactylus rusticus__________- 4 Anisodactylus nigrita____-_______ As Anisodactylus opaculus__________ af Anisodactylus agricola_..________ 3 Anisodaciylus sp —~________--_____ 3 Coptotomus longulus _----_____ cL Xantholinus obsidianus _________ il Scaphisoma punctulata _________ 1 Hippodamia parenthesis _________ 1 Anatis 15-pinctate —_ > ee 1 Phelister subrotundus ___________ 2, Saprinus> fraterniss Sess 1 Oytilus S6rigguse = See ee 1 BUTTS: Spee se=~ 4 A ee 1 Lacon rectangularis____ il Monocrepidius auritus___________ Fe Drasterims elegans = SS Zh Drasterius Qorsalis 22S ae 1 Corymbites cylindriformis________ 3 TniMnonins griscuis==2 = eS = eared, Chauliognathus marginatus_____-~ aif Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus___ 3 Chaulhognathus sp. --__ = We Relephorvusssp Ls ee eee a Caonthon tleconte = ae ak Onthophagus hecate ______-_______ 5 Onthophagus tuberculifrons______ 1 Onihophagus spe ae 6 ALES JCOOnIHUS os aes 1 ADROMMS fOS8SOT=_= = eee 2 Aphodius fimetarius______-_____- 43 ADhOUUS TACO. ae i Aphodius granarius__—_ = == 1 Aphodius inquinatus____-________ 48 ADNOCUS: (Spee eS ee eS BOVOOCEROSI{OTGiIS= == eae eh Geotrupes -splendidus___________~ ll EQCHNOSVCTNURITISUS= ee es al. Hachnosterna sp eee 3 Anomala binotata=2— = es 3 Anomala varians._2 es 2 LiGQyuis g1000s1s=— eee 2 ApRONUS Sp): «ad aa ee Eee if Euphoria sepulchralis___________- of FOOD OF ROBINS AND BLUEBIRDS. COLEOPTERA—Continued. [ROW DOWIE AGO) A Sy De a os LOOK RUGHS $SV Oe a Tetraopes tetraophthalmus_______ CHlamyspUChI == aa Myochrous denticollis____________ Colaspis brunnea flavida_________ Zygogramma suturalis___________ Zygogramma disrupta___________ LYJOOTAMMNG Spl 2 PAGGOCera vinidiss sa IDIROTROKEE Cui ees Oerotoma trifurcata_____________ LDYSOROGIL™ BO Leo NN SE ENOL COnChONOCOL = ae a Epiina cucumeris—. = Systena elongata ee Spermophagus robinie___________ Tribolium ferrugineum __________ Crymodes discicollis; === Ss NOOLUS CLO VOTH = Mele angusticollis LAOS CUTIGE) OSU ORS a se es Epicauta lemniscata.__— 3 COA US OI MOPKCAHIVIS = ANGMeHS GriSEO == RONYINECUS LOCENGy == MAORYIMEGUS, CONferniUs== ee SORORES UGGS a Sitones, hispiduluss Sitones flavescens Phytonomus punctatus___________ Macrops witticollis “2 esa NT OGTEGD SHS [Ose eet ea is Nes eS AS a IPUSSOUGS “SUTFOWM Sa Pachylobius picivorus_. 2 Conotrachelus seniculus _________ COMOURTOVGIIS R= a ee Ryloderma anid 2 Balaninus caryatrypes___________ Balamimus nasicus. 22-2 e ee ES OULOIUUTUUUS |S) pes is wh Se EELS YE Rhodobenus 13-punctatus________ Sphenophorus sculptilis __________ Sphenophorus parvulus __----_-___ Sphenophorus compressirostris ___ Sphenophorus venatus _--_- PWRrHEHEDPNHHHE HHH WH = COLEOPTHERA—Continued. Sprenophorus callosus ___________ SO MENOPNO TUS INS yeaa eee DIPTERA. Gonia capitata DtOSOpRila, (Spe eee LEPIDOPTERA. LTO VETO, WO —— MK EVICUUAGIUG CKGUOA Spilosoma virginica _~---—— AOTROWUS “RG Mepholodes wolans— Nadata gibbosa HEMIPTERA. VAN UTA Gag Sop sea aec Camirus porosus Tetyra bipunctata Cydnus communis Apatelicus maculiventris ________ BYyG@eus tureicus = ss ee eee MNOSOUS CHORSCHUUIS Lee ISOSSOKS UGUICODUGTUIS 2 Alydus pilosulus SOA CHOU GTM OMDOOFOGWOS SO 2 Corixa burmeisteri Notonecta undulata ORTHOPTHERA. MeCCOCMCORUGECT CS) ae eae re Hippiscus tuberculatus Melanoplus femur-rubrum —_—-___ Melanoplus bivittatus Melanoplus atlantis: 222 as UOdeopsylla nigra. ss ss hPeee Gryllus pennsylvanicus__________ Miogryllus saussuret_______ PLECOPTERA. IPerlG, (Sp Sao oe a er eres eae vee NCNM OUL ES De eae eee nae eter ARACHNIDA. ETA OLD DUS 6 Se ae eee ieee Ue ee 23 1 Vegetable food—tThe vegetable portion of the eastern bluebird’s food is largely fruit and mostly of wild species. Practically all of the domestic fruit taken was in June and July. Cherries and rasp- berries or blackberries were the only fruits really identified, though 24 BULLETIN 171, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. some pulp may have been of cultivated fruit. The most important vegetable food of the bluebird is wild fruit. The maximum quan- tity is eaten in December, when it amounts to 57.64 per cent. Janu- ary comes next, but after that month the amount decreases rather abruptly to zero in May. No fruit, either wild or domestic, was found in the 58 stomachs taken in that month, but after that time the amount taken increases rapidly to its maximum in December. The average for the year is 21.85 per cent. At least 38 species of wild fruits were identified and probably more were present but not recognizable. The fruit-eating period of the bluebird is not in sum- mer when the fruit is fresh on the tree, but from October to Febru- ary, inclusive, during which months three-fourths of its fruit eating is done. From this it appears that fruit is really the winter food of the bluebird, tiding it over until insects are again abundant and taking the place of seeds eaten by so many birds at this season. Seeds, however, are eaten by the bluebird, but only occasionally and sparingly. Apparently taken in spring, fall, and winter when nothing better offers they average for the year only 0.67 per cent. There is nothing to fear from the bluebird on the score of its eating grain, for this food was found in only two stomachs, one taken in January and the other in July. The first contained two kernels of wheat and nothing else, and in the second was found what appeared to be the ground-up pulp of wheuti the total percentage for the year is 0.32 per cent. Under the head of eigeollncenes vegetable food are included the seeds of sumac, both the harmless and poisonous kinds; the seeds of the bayberry; and a little indeterminate vegetable refuse and rub- bish. The average for the year is 7.84 per cent, but for the five months from October to February these constitute a very fair pro- portion of the food. At this time of year seeds of the poison ivy, the poison sumac (in New England called dogwood), and the other sumacs are usually abundant and seem to be relished by many winter birds. Following is a list of the various articles of vegetable diet identi- fied in the stomachs of eastern bluebirds and the number of stomachs in which found: Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana)_ 15 | Cat brier (Smilax sp.)___---_____- a Panic grass (Panicum sp.)_--_-4- 3 | Bayberry (Myrica carolinensis)__ 28 Pigeon grass (Chetochloa sp.)_-___ 1 | Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis)__ 12 Wheat (Triticum vulgaris) __----_ 1 | Southern hackberry (Celtis missis- Asparagus berries (Asparagus offi- SUD DUCTUSIS) puss Nee ae ee x CUNOTS) = ee EASED WAY! SECS 1-| Mulberry (Morus sp.) = 5 2 False Solomon’s seal (Smilacina Mistletoe berries (Phoradendron POGOMOSO) aaa eee ye 2 JLOVESCENS ao) on a ee ee 8 Green brier (Smilaz bona-norz)_-_ 1 | Sorrel (Rumez sp.) ——__---------- 1 Round-leayed brier (Smilagr ro- Smart weed (Polygonum sp.)----- 2 TUNG OU) 222 Sees eee 1! Amaranth (Amaranthus sp.) ----- 1 ee — ee FOOD OF ROBINS AND BLUEBIRDS., 25 Pokeberries (Phytolacca decan- Sarsaparilla (Aralia sp.)_----____ 1 (U0) Yo aE EOL RP PU aN WW piers Foe ee 23 | Flowering dogwood (Cornus flor- Red bay (Persea borbonia) __---- 2 HGH OT) Ea SAE 20 RO DO 30 Currants CHIVES SDs) ee ee 1 | Rough-leaved dogwood (Cornus as- Hawthorn (Crategus sp.) ----_---- 1 Fay BA ef OCI) kp a aN Na A set alah Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus Panicled cornel (Cornus panicu- 1) Ae ar Ea es a ta 19 EE) fA AACS SR ALAA Een eh 4 Rose haws (Rosa@ sp.) -—---__------ 1 | Alternate-leaved cornel (Cornus al- Wild black cherries (Prunus sero- ECU OU) ew ey ASSEN le LEE 2 [BIOL A NY SS Su AM sh ia 4 | Other cornels (Cornus sp.)_----_- 2 Chokecherries (Prunus virginiana). 4 | Black gum (Nyssa sylvatica) —____ 4 Bird cherries (Prunus pennsylva- Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.)_. 4 VIGO) EOE ECOL SIRE EE. 1 | Blueberries (Vaccinium sp.) —-~--__ 15 Other cherries (Prunus sp.) —----- 1 | Persimmons” (Diospyros virgini- Staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina)—- 10 TUG) pees Le SA ea EUS cee ye ali Smooth sumac (Rhus glabra) —____ 2 | Night shade (Solanum sp.) —------ ak Dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina)_-— 11 | Button weed (Diodia teres) ______ ak Poison sumac (Rhus verni«z) —____ 2 | Partridge berry (WMWitchella re- Poison ivy (Rhus radicans)__---~ 19 DES A Ors iad aS ee A Ud aL Dahoon holly (llex cassine) —_----- 3 | Tree cranberry (Viburnum opu- Deciduous holly (Jlex decidua)_-~ 1 YES 3) | ane UA ee EL if Black alder (Jlex verticillata)_-___ 2 | Arrow wood (Viburnwm sp.) _-_-- aL Ink berry (ler glabra) 222" ss 385 | Black elderberries (Sambucus cana- OthershollyaCileary spy) 2222s vial TENSES ei ce NO Leben ea LL OR Strawberry bush (Hvonymus amer- Ragweed (Ambrosia sp.)_---___-_ 6 UC OUYY/UL/S)) 4 ek UN pA A EY a ea a 2 | Fruit not further identified_______ 19 Roxbury wax work (Celastrus Vegetable refuse or rubbish______ 28 YUEN (ES) es SAB 6 | Seeds not further identified______ 10 Purple haws (Condalia sp.) _~---- TAS ING TES ag SANDE a AUTOR so MS ly il Woodbine (Psedera quinquefolia)_ 31 Summary—Examination and analysis of the food of the eastern bluebird fully justifies the high esteem in which the bird is held. It does not prey upon any product of husbandry or in any way render itself injurious or annoying. During spring and early summer, when strawberries, cherries, and other small fruits are at their best, the bird subsists upon insects to the extent of five-sixths of its food, and in this period it eats more insects than at any other time of the year; in short the fruit-eating period of the bluebird is from late fall to early spring, when insects are scarce and waste fruit is available. The one point that has been urged against the bird is that it destroys a number of predaceous beetles. The harm done in this, however, is more apparent than real. WESTERN BLUEBIRD. (Sialia mexicana subspecies.) The western bluebird (Sialia mexicana occidentalis), a subspecies of the Mexican bluebird (Sialia mexicana mexicana), occupies the Pacific coast from central California to Washington, and east to 26 BULLETIN 171, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. western Montana; another subspecies, the chestnut-backed bluebird (Sialia mexicana bairdz), is a bird of the Rocky Mountain and Great Basin region from Wyoming southward to northern Mexico; while a third form, the San Pedro bluebird (Sialia mexicana anabele), ranges from northern Lower California to southern California. The three forms will be treated together, and for convenience referred to as the western bluebird. It has the same gentle, quiet demeanor that characterizes its relative of the Eastern States and, although not quite so domestic, is much inclined to frequent orchards and the vicinity of farm buildings. While the eastern bluebird usually nests either in a hole of an orchard tree or in a box provided for its use, the western species has not fully abandoned forest trees as nesting sites and often may be found in lonely canyons or among hills far from the abodes of man. The orchards of the west coast are hardly old enough to offer many hollow trees as nesting places so attractive to this gentle friend. In time, however, this bluebird will without doubt become as domestic as the eastern species. In fact a nest was once found by the writer in a hollow tree in the home orchard of a ranch only a few rods from the house. The six young contained in this nest would seem to indicate that in fecundity the western species resembles its eastern cousin. The western bluebird is less migratory than the eastern and does not entirely desert the United States in winter; so its good work is continuous. As insects are active in California in every month the bird is able to support life even without other food. Moreover, the bird renders a great economic service in the reduction of these pests at this season, for insects that live through the winter are the stock by which the species is perpetuated, and the destruction of a few at this time is equivalent to the death in summer of hundreds or even thousands. Food—For the investigation of the food of the western bluebird 217 stomachs were available. While the greater portion of these were collected in California a number are from Oregon, a few from _British Columbia, and one from Texas. Every month in the year is represented, though several not. so fully as desirable. The food was found to consist of 81.94 per cent animal to 18.06 per cent vegetable matter. Animal food.—Useful beetles, mostly Carabide, with a few lady- birds (Coccinellide), were eaten to the extent of 8.56 per cent, a little less than the record of the eastern bluebird. Other beetles, all more or less harmful, amount to 15.44 per cent. No special prefer- ence for any family was shown. While ants constituted 5.38 per cent of the food, none were found in the stomachs taken in May or December, and they appear to be distributed rather irregularly; July, for instance, has nearly 19 per cent, and August only 1 per cent. Other Hymenoptera (wasps and bees) amount to only 1.26 = FOOD OF ROBINS AND BLUEBIRDS. 27 per cent. No honey bees were found. Hemiptera (bugs) were found in the stomachs taken every month but April and August, but the quantity in each month varied greatly and irregularly. The average for the year is 6.38 per cent. A: small quantity of black olive scales (Saissetia olew) were found in one stomach. Caterpillars appear to be one of the western bluebird’s favorite foods. These and a few adult moths were found in the food of every month except May, but as only two stomachs were taken in this month the omission is probably accidental. Their appearance in the stomachs is very irregular, but it would probably be more uni- form if more stomachs were available. March is the month of greatest consumption (50.18 per cent), but August has nearly as much, and April and November are not far behind. ‘The average for the year is 20.25 per cent. No special pest was identified, but practically all caterpillars are harmful. Grasshoppers, which constitute the largest and most regular item of the western bluebird’s food, are not eaten quite so freely as by the eastern bird, although in the Pacific coast region they can be obtained at all times of the year. The least consumption occurs in January, with 1.81 per cent of the whole food, and the greatest in May with 49.50 per cent. In the East the maximum of grasshopper eating with nearly all species of insectivorous birds is in August or there- about. The average for the year with the western bluebird is 21.29 per cent, a little less than the record of the eastern species in a much shorter season. Diptera (flies) are evidently not a favorite food of the western bluebird. In four months none were found, and in March, only, do they amount to 1 per cent; in that month they are eaten to the extent of 5.64 per cent of the diet, but the average for the year is only 0.72 per cent. A few other insects not included in the foregoing amount to 0.44 per cent. Spiders were found in the stomachs taken every month, but not in large quantities, the average for the year being 1.94 per cent. Myriapods (thousand-legs) were eaten still less than spiders. They appeared in the food of only five months, and amount to only 0.17 per cent. A few angleworms, snails, and sow bugs amount to 0.11 per cent, and complete the items of animal food. Following is a list of the animal constituents of the western blue- bird’s food as far as identified, and the number of stomachs in which found: HYMENOPTERA. COLEOPTERA—Continued. Messor andrev (ant)= = 1 | Hippodamia convergens__________ 10 S Coccinella californica ——_ 3 COLEOPTERA. Lebasiella maculicollis___________ il LNT, UUROR Ae ee PN) WORRLUR HIG, TDOWAROW Des ee 1 SUDO GONLOSO = anaes ee TBO Cdon, (SCOUTS Beene toe See ee af 28 BULLETIN 171, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COLEOPTERA—Continued. COLEOPTERA—Continued. Aphodius granarius _____________ 3 | Blapstinus pulverulentus_________ 6 Aphodius lwidus 1 SBOpStiniils "sp Ae! Oo Sees eee 4 Aphodius inquinatus________— S222 On| RNG ODS effT ache ao: ia in ee 3 Aphodius pardalis —-.- ee 1 | Sttones hispidiceps _-_-__ 1 ADU OMI SE TALOT VSI NL Ss eyes 3'| Sitones hispidulus ___-_-_- ll PALO CUS OS) 29 es5 aA Seip ete te LOB OLUNINAL SS Si) tea eee t CHRUSONLELDL Sno = en eae ee a 1) Hulabis pubescens___- a) HEMIPTERA. Blapstinus BUCUSIS OL BS x : p are Bu TG = ieredilliiae SOZSSCIL0: OLE U7 a at aan ey ee ih Blapsiimus dilatatus —- 2 2 : is f 3 Siew Miadend, —_ tae ee 1 Blapstinus pratensis_____________ ll Vegetable food—tThe vegetable food of the western bluebird, like that of its eastern relative, consists largely of fruit, and mostly of the wild species of hillside and canyon. Grapes, which may have been cultivated, were found in 16 stomachs, all taken in late fall and winter. Rubus fruits (blackberries or raspberries) were found in 4 stomachs, prunes in 1, cherries in 1, and figs in 3. Most of these were taken in late summer or fall and do not indicate extensive ravages upon cultivated fruit. Of wild fruits, elderberries, found in 25 stomachs, appear to be the favorites. Mistletoe berries made up the entire contents of 7 stomachs, evidently a preferred article of diet when they can be obtained. Fruit altogether amounts to 14.79 per cent of the food and nearly all is either wild or waste. Weed seeds were eaten sparingly and irregularly, and amount to only 1.25 per cent of the food. No grain of any kind was found. A few edd items like poison oak and other Rhus seeds, with a little rubbish, make 2.04 per cent, and complete the vegetable food. Following is a list of the various items of vegetable food, with the number of stomachs in which found: Elderberries (Sambucus sp.) --___ 2D se cune. CErMuyisesp)_ eee 1 California mistletoe (Phoraden- Gherry (Prunus sp.)\- of GON COMfOTIIGH = ee f- | tGrape OVAIS SPs) = = = = eee 16 Wecke (HUMCE Sp) oo = il Dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina)__ 2 Smartweed (Polygonum sp.)~---- 2 | Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba)__— = 1 Service bush (Amelanchier alni- Pepper tree (Schinus molle)_-___ 2 OU) i aakes hae ope 2 pn Sh ay ape) hh 2 | Nightshade (Solanum SS se il Blackberry or raspberry (Rubus HSS CHLGS ISD) es ee ee Ss Sj OF) MA Re ee ee 4 Food of young—Among the stomachs of western bluebirds exam- ined were those of several nestlings about a week old. These were of interest as showing how large a proportion of animal food is given to the young. In one brood of six the only vegetable food found was a single piece of plant stem, probably given accidentally with other food, and properly classed as rubbish. The real food consists of grasshoppers and crickets, 90 per cent, and beetles, 3 per FOOD OF ROBINS AND BLUEBIRDS. 29 cent, the remainder being made up of bugs, caterpillars, and spiders. In another brood of four, grasshoppers and crickets constituted 97.5 per cent of the food, and one stomach contained nothing else. The remains of 11 grasshoppers were found in one stomach and 10 grass- hoppers, a cricket, and a beetle in another. The only vegetable matter in the four stomachs was a single seed of Polygonum. Summary.—That the western bluebird is an eminently useful species is so patent that it hardly needs to be pointed out. What- ever harm fruit growers have suffered from birds, none can be laid at the door of the western bluebird. MOUNTAIN BLUEBIRD. (Sialia currucoides.) The mountain bluebird occupies in general the United States from the Rocky Mountains westward. A bird of the higher altitudes, it comes to the low valleys only in winter or during the prevalence of severe snowstorms in the mountains. As settlements encroach upon its range it adopts the habits of the eastern species and utilizes unoccupied crannies for nesting sites. In this the bird is said to be modifying its distribution, for it frequently finds such favorable localities for its nest that it remains and breeds in the lower alti- tudes instead of retiring to the mountains as formerly. Food.—Only 66 stomachs of this species were available for inves- tigation and these were not very regularly distributed, none being collected in May and November and only one each in February and October. The contents consisted of 91.62 per cent animal matter to 8.38 per cent vegetable. This is the highest percentage of animal matter of any member of the thrush family herein discussed and is equal to some of the flycatchers. It consists almost entirely of in- sects and a few spiders. The vegetable food is made up of fruit. Animal food.—Beetles collectively amount to 30.13 per cent of the food and make the largest item. Of these 10.05 per cent belong to the three useful families—predaceous ground beetles (Carabide), tiger beetles (Cicindelidee), and ladybirds (Coccinellide). In these items the food of the mountain bluebird exceeds that of any other species of thrush previously discussed. Weevils or snout-beetles (Rhyncho- phora) were eaten to the extent of 8.11 per cent, the highest record for any American thrush. As these are all injurious insects and some of them the worst pests in the insect world, this record for weevil destruction in some measure offsets the eating of useful beetles. The remainder of the beetle food was of more or less harmful families. Ants were eaten by the mountain bluebird to the extent of 12.51 per cent. This record is not exceeded by any other bluebirds or robins. They were taken rather irregularly and in July amount to 36 BULLETIN 171, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 31.50 per cent, or nearly one-third of the whole food. They made up 64 per cent of the contents of the one stomach taken in October, indicating that they are acceptable food when found. Other Hy- menoptera (bees and wasps) amount to 3.80 per cent, a record fully up to the average of thrushes in general. Like ants they were taken rather irregularly and the maximum, 11.50 per cent, occurs in July. Hemiptera (bugs) amount to only 3.89 per cent and are not a very regular article of diet. In July they amount to 23.75 per cent, which is more than the combined amount for all other months. This record resulted from the fact that the contents of two stomachs collected in that month consisted almost entirely of small cicadas. Besides these, stinkbugs, negro bugs, assassin bugs, and jassids were taken. Diptera (flies), almost conspicuous by their absence, were found in the stomachs collected in April and September only, and amount to only 0.92 per cent for the year. Lepidoptera (mostly caterpillars) are a rather regular article of food, amounting to 14.45 per cent for the year and constituting a large part of the food of every month in which stomachs were collected. In April they amount to 22 per cent and in September, in two stomachs taken, 48 per cent. It is probable, however, that the maximum consumption occurs in the early summer months. Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets) are, next to beetles, the largest item of the food. Very curiously January shows the greatest consumption, 70.33 per cent; August, the normal grasshopper month, stands next with 53.86 per cent. The season seems to open in January and holds out with a good percentage in every month until it ends abruptly with 38.50 per cent in September. The average for the year is 23 per cent. This is higher than the record of any other thrush, though the other two bluebirds do not fall far behind. A few of the rarer insects, some spiders, thousand-legs, and a tick make up the rest of the animal food, 2.92 per cent. Following is a list showing the insects identified and the number of stomachs in which found: COLEOPTERA. COLEOPTERA—Continued. Amara interstitialis _______-_---- 1| Centrioptera muricata___________ 1 HOrpalus NeLUpStS= 2 eas dine cesternnus (Spee eee 2 SPR OROP CCE =the Sai es UE its | AED AG OdEres) Spee ss eee 1 Hippodamia convergens___-_-_--~ 1) iehigopsis eijracta- = 5 TAT DATE. SD aS 1| Trichalophus alternatus___----~-- 1 Cardiophorus luridipes __________ | SMGGrODS| Spies wee ee 1 OntROPhAGUSH Sp asses ee ae ee 1 Aphodius fimetarws _______------ il eg ae Aphodius inquinatus_________-___ Al Gels Gena die 1 Dichelonycha sp——-------_------- | Sinead diademak oo Se ae 1 Chrysometa’ tunata —-2- = = 2a 1 FOOD OF ROBINS AND BLUEBIRDS. BL Vegetable food.—As with most of the other thrushes, the vege- table portion of the food of the mountain bluebird consists princi- pally of small fruit. The currants and grapes found were in all probability domestic varieties, but as the grapes were from stomachs taken in December and January, and the currants from one taken in April, they can have but little economic significance. Following is a list of the various items of vegetable food and the number of stomachs in which found: @urrants) (Rives, sp.) 22 Pes A Grapes CVMELS ESPs) eee eerie 5 Plderberries (Sambucus sp.)----- 1 | Unknown seeds _________________ 1 Sumac seeds (Rhus sp.) _--------- ASS SSE UTD To IS ne eae cae ath Aste Oe 4 Summury—The mountain bluebird has probably not yet come in touch with the products of husbandry extensively enough to demon- strate its real propensities, but the nature of its food does not indicate that there is much to be feared from the bird. In the season of fruit and grain it subsists mostly upon insects and eats fruit and other vegetable food only in the season when nothing but left-over and waste products can be obtained. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C, AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv WASHINGTON : GOVBRNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 Bebo ‘Ade fen ae Pir ete: rn ee Yat wy dayee 4 at neg Be “a te (ior cea. a ae dina wi weg Sahn bapavenene!l OF sessrbios rE het Re aaa Src i iL Erie asib dh yes bios stn Ne Ralme nse ts rsh ars ae Be wad, jet psig yi ase tH ‘ae . : safe sie oe ia e Be: ni es ‘oe fail i" 4 sy ag Py Keel oH Y ie y ¥ Abe gr ae are Abas tok sth ve aya st ay \ he shi apr» Oe gig SH SMa laneion . UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 172 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 13, 1915 THE VARIETIES OF PLUMS DERIVED FROM | NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES By W. F. WIGHT, Botanist, Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations CONTENTS Page Page Antroduction ..°<,<.0< is), 6 sss) eens 1 | Origin and Species of Native Varieties of Geographical Origin of Varieties .. . 2 Plums and of Hybrids .... . 8 Parentage of Varieties ....... Boal Explanation: oi a0) plant tissues where the juices flow more readily rather than to select new areas for feeding. This continual macerating of the fruit by the pear thrips for a period of several days causes on deciduous fruits what is known as the characteristic pear-thrips scab, which Srelinneteniecinenrentesereneencsieenspe nents 1 The mandible in the Tubulifera is shorter and more bent than in the Terebrantia. Bul. 173, U. S. Dept. ot Agriculture. PLATE I. Z SA ZZ a Vy, : — SS : aia TY saSseesaees sas: al i} ee TE \\ \\ \ \\ \\S A < NS CW SS \S —- 6 THE PEAR THRIPS (TAENIOTHRIPS PYRI DANIEL). Fic. i.—Adult. Fie.2.—Eggs. Fic.3.—First-stage larva. Fic, 4.—Full-grown larva. Fic.5.— Pupa, first stage. Fig. 6.—Pupa, last stage. Fic. 7.—Side view of head showing mouth parts. All greatly enlarged. (Original.) PLATE II. op) zal sl (vz < 4 | at @ |= a oO a =~ ae < i : o oOo 3 Zz © = wl we S = iS) a) l= Pa faa) ; uw = 2 (cr 00) = Oo [og Te [= jaa) [ee oc o < a e sf fa (ea) = © Ss |= a LL > WwW oc TE >) Fe =) Zz Fic. 2.—TOMATO-SHAPED PEARS RESULTING FROM FEEDING BY ADULT PEAR THRIPS IN Bul. 173, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Filia. 1.—MATURE PEAR SHOWING INJURY RESULTING FROM FEEDING OF LARVA OF THE THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. IL? is very noticeable when the fruit is picked in the fall. Although at this time the insects in question have been in the ground three or four months, the injury becomes more apparent with the maturity of the fruit, and the scabbing or scarring shows as the result of the early spring feeding by this species. The most serious injury to deciduous fruits by the pear thrips is caused, first, by the feeding of the adults; secondly, by the feeding of the larve, and thirdly, by the deposition of eggs in the plant tissue by the adults. The effect of this last injury is more apparent upon the fruits of prunes and cherries than upon the other deciduous fruits. Numerous cases have been observed by the writers in both prune and cherry orchards where the trees blossomed heavily and there was promise of the setting of a good crop of fruit, but where practically all the fruit dropped, solely from the effect of having too many eggs deposited in the fruit stems, thus weakening the tissues, and because the larve, feeding directly on the fruit and foliage, so weakened the tree that it would not support a heavy crop of fruit. Perhaps the chief injury to cherries is caused by the deposition of eggs in the fruit stems. The long and tender stem of the cherry presents a most favorable place for the deposition of a great number of eggs. Injury to the various fruits by adults and larve is different, but, classed in regard to bud structure, those fruits in which only a single blossom is produced in a fruit bud, such as the almond, apricot, and peach, seem to be less lable to severe injury than are the fruits which which form a cluster of blossoms amd later produce a cluster of fruits, such as pear, prune, cherry, and apple. If the thrips had their choice of food plants, pears would probably be attacked first in the spring and destroyed; also, other things being equal, a given number of thrips would do more injury no doubt in a pear orchard than in a cherry or prune orchard. INJURY TO PEARS. The greater injury to pears is caused by the feeding of the adults in the bud clusters before blooming. Coming out of the ground in great numbers in the spring as the fruit buds are swelling, the thrips soon work their way underneath the bud scales and there attack the individual buds. The feeding is not a biting and chewing process, but the thrips, by rasping the tender surfaces in the developing buds with their hardened or chitinous mouthparts, rupture the skin, and the exudation of sap begins. If only a few thrips are present this injury may be slight and the buds may develop and bloom, producing fruit of normal size, although sometimes short-stemmed, or scarred and misshapen. (See Pl. II, fig. 1.) Plate LI, figure 2, shows two Bartlett pears which grew from a cluster that was badly injured but 14 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. not entirely destroyed. Plate III, figure 1, shows a mature Bartlett pear the one-sided appearance of which was caused partly by adults and partly by larve. When thrips are more numerous a greater amount of the bud surface is injured, consequently there is a greater loss of sap. If this loss is sufficient to cause the cluster buds to “bleed” (sap to drop from the end), fermentation quickly sets in and the entire cluster is soon destroyed. (See fig. 3, in comparison with fig. 2, which shows the cluster buds developing normally.) In many cases blue molds gain a foothold in this fermenting sap and greatly accelerate the injury, causing complete destruction of all fruit buds. The dead clusters later dry up without opening. (See Pl. III, fig. 1, and compare it with Pl. III, fig. 2, which is from a photo- eraph of the sprayed portion of the same orchard, taken on the same day.) These dead buds may remain on the trees for months unless washed off by rain or blown by winds. The writers have seen many orchards so severely injured that it was difficult to find a single healthy blossom, and the entire orchard from a dis- tance presented at blossoming time a brownish color and dead appearance, due to these blasted buds. Weather conditions influ- ence to a great extent the de- struction following the injury Fic, 2.—Cluster buds of Bartlett pears developing caused by the thrips. For Sacer instance, the weather of 1909 in the interior valleys during late February and the first 20 days of March was open and comparatively dry, with more or less wind blowing, giving quick evaporation throughout the day. Many clusters of buds that were kept under observation throughout the season, with from 10 to 20 thrips in the cluster, developed many of their buds and produced fruit, a large percentage of which was first class. During this period for 1910 there was considerable rain and the atmosphere was warm and humid with very light evaporation. From many observations in Contra Costa and Solano Counties it was shown conclusively that in every case where as many as 10 to 15 thrips THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 15 gained entrance into the bud cluster early in the season, and were left unmolested, the entire cluster was sufficiently injured to prevent the appearance of a single blossom. In 1909 there was greater evapora- tion, comparatively little of the characteristic bleeding showed at the tips of the buds, and far less of the blue molds appeared in any place. Also the thrips came out of the ground more slowly than in 1910. The latter year thrips were held back to a slight extent by cold wet weather, but once the emergence from the ground commenced, thrips came very rapidly. Then, too, they were more numerous throughout the entire section in 1910 than they were the previous year. The serious nature of this insect can be understood when it is re- alized that in a badly infested pear orchard it is far more usual to find from 75 to 150 and often as high as 200 thrips to the cluster than only 10 to 15. Any spraying to be effec- tive must be done before these thrips have remained long, in numbers, inside the bud clusters. A delay of four or five days in spraying the badly infested orchards in the spring of 1910 meant the loss of the entire crop, and in many cases a delay of two to three days for the first application meant a loss of more than half the crop. In the ability completely to de- stroy the crop the adult is of more importance than the larva, and in many large orchards the destruction of the developing fruit buds by the Fic. 3—Work of the pear thrips on pear at San adults has been so complete that Tea Mune by the time the trees would normally come into bloom there was left no possibility for a crop of fruit. The larva, together with the injury which has been caused by the deposition of the eggs by the adult, can lessen the prospects of a good crop of fruit after it has appar- ently set. To secure the best results it is always desirable first to apply efficient treatment against the adult in order to reduce the early injury to a minimum so that the trees may bloom, and later, to make additional treatment against the larve. This will usually result in increasing the value of the crop from 10 to 25 per cent for 16 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pears and 40 to 50 per cent for prunes. If remedial measures are not successfully used against the adult but only against the larve, it is not to be expected that 50 per cent of a crop will be saved; but the additional treatment against the larvye after the adult treatments have been applied will cause from 10 per cent to 50 per cent more of the crop to remain on the trees. Without taking into account the after effects of migration, good results can be had in pear orchards by spraying against adults alone, if thorough work is done at the proper time. INJURY TO PRUNES. Next to the pear, thrips injure prunes most severely; and, as the larger fruit area in the Santa Clara Valley is devoted to this kind of fruit, and since the pear thrips has caused the failure over large areas of the prune crop for several years, growers in the Santa Clara Valley have commonly called this particular species the prune thrips. The large acreage of prunes and the general distribution of the pear thrips over the valley, together with the fact that the majority of the thrips are out before many of the buds of the French prunes have started to spread, make it very evident that these little insects, which are waiting on the outside of the twigs in enormous numbers, will at the first sign of life of the prune buds bury themselves into the very heart of the tenderest parts, and rapidly carry on their work of destruction. The numbers that will get inside of a prune cluster is really aston- ishing. Many times the writers have, from a single cluster, taken more than a hundred of these little insects feeding upon the tender blossom stems, the tips of the petals, and the stigma and style of the blossoms when they have opened. These parts mentioned seem to be the choice bits for the adults when feeding upon the prunes. The rapidity with which the thrips can destroy the whole year’s crop is astonishing. Many a time orchardists have gone into their prune orchards at the time the buds were about ready to spread, and, with 4 only casual observation, have failed to see these minute, dark-colored . insects crawling around or at rest upon the twigs and buds. Upon inspecting the orchard four or five days later, expecting it to be in full bloom, they have been astounded to find practically all the buds destroyed, leaving no hope for a crop that year, the entire orchard presenting a brown, burnt appearance, with only a stray blossom now and then, a sight which is well known now to the majority of the prune growers of the Santa Clara Valley. Anyone who has ever seen one of these prune orchards with the burned, browned, and blasted appearance beside another of snowy whiteness will never forget the contrast. (See Pl. IV, comparing fig. 1 with fig. 2.) Again there may be a very severe larval injury on prunes, such as was the case in 1911. Very few adult thrips occurred in comparison with Bul. 173, U. S Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fic. 1.—UNTREATED PORTION OF PEAR ORCHARD, SHOWING Loss OF PEAR BLOSSOMS RESULTING FROM ATTACK OF THE PEAR THRIPS. (ORIGINAL.) et S X Ss oe. ine} s FiG. 2.—SPRAYED PORTION OF SAME ORCHARD, SHOWING TREES IN BLOSSOM. (ORIGINAL.) INJURY TO PEAR ORCHARDS BY THE PEAR THRIPS. Bul. 173, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fic. 1.—UNSPRAYED PORTION OF PRUNE ORCHARD IN WHICH BLOSSOMS ARE COM- PLETELY DESTROYED BY THE PEAR THRIPS. (ORIGINAL.) FiG. 2.—SPRAYED PORTION OF THE SAME ORCHARD, SHOWING TREES IN FULL BLossom. (ORIGINAL.) INJURY TO PRUNE ORCHARD BY THE PEAR THRIPS. Bul. 173, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fic. 1.—PRUNES SCABBED AS A RESULT OF FEEDING BY PEAR THRIPS LARVA. (ORIGINAL) Fic. 2.—NORMAL FRUIT, UNINJURED BY THE PEAR THRIPS. (ORIGINAL.) PRUNES INJURED AND UNINJURED BY PEAR THRIPS LARVA. THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. iy 1910, and they did not accomplish much injury in the Santa Clara Valley, but larvae were present in large numbers everywhere and riddled the foliage (fig. 4) and weakened the fruit stems, making the financial loss amount to about half as much as in 1910. In regard to varieties, Imperial prunes seem to be attacked first and injured, on the whole, more severely than French prunes in the Santa Clara Valley. This may be explained in several ways: For one thing, the acreage of this variety in the Santa Clara Valley is much less than that of the French prunes and the blossoming period is usually about a week or more earlier; then, too, the small develop- Fic. 4.—Prune foliage riddled by pear thrips larvee. (Original.) ing fruit stems of the Imperial prunes seem to be more tender and not so able to withstand the attacks of the thrips as are those of the French prunes. Sugar prunes, which blossom at a period interme- diate between the blossoming periods of Imperial and French prunes, are, from a financial standpomt, not mjured so greatly as are either of the other varieties. This is partly due to the fact that this variety sets an unusually large amount of fruit and is therefore able to with- stand the loss of a considerable portion of it and still produce a fair crop. The scabbing of the prunes on this variety, however, is often so deep as to cause a large exudation of gum and to render a large 73390°—Bull. 173—15—3 18 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. portion of the fruit unmarketable. Plate V, figures 1 and 2, shows photographs of sprayed and unsprayed prunes, the prunes having been picked from trees when full grown. Robe de Sargent prunes blossom about the same time as French prunes, and are injured to the same extent as that variety. INJURY TO CHERRIES. Cherries, as a whole, are not injured so severely by the feeding of a given number of adults as would be the case for the same number of thrips upon pears and prunes, but certain varieties, especially the black cherries, suffer comparatively as much from a monetary stand- point as either pears or prunes. Probably the worst damage accom- plished on cherries is by the deposition of eggs in the long fruit stems and in the leaves, and by the feeding of the larve upon the foliage. The deposition of eggs in the fruit stems has at times caused a large percentage of the cherry crop to drop, and it is a common sight to see the foliage entirely riddled by the larve, thus greatly weakening the trees. Many other instances are on record where the adults have injured the fruit buds to such an extent that only a few blos- soms appeared. Late varieties of cherries, such as the Royal Anne, escape serious injury more than the earlier bloomimg black varieties. Fortunately the manner of bud growth and blossoming of cherries permits effective penetration of different spray solutions more ad- vantageously than is the case with either pears or prunes. INJURY TO APPLES. While there are not many instances of great commercial injury to apples, yet individual cases have been known where the adult thrips have killed all of the buds in the cluster except the central one. This was especially noticeable in an orchard of the Newtown Pippin variety in the vicinity of San Jose in 1910. Some small orchards in Sacra- mento County were rather seriously injured during the same year. INJURY TO PEACHES. Following the apple, peaches come next in importance as regards possibility of dangerous injury, the-early varieties suffering the greater loss. The more seriously injured varieties are the Muir, Nicol-cling, Crawford, Foster, and Lovel, in order of damage done, injury being more severe on the first two varieties mentioned. On account of the hairy pubescence on the young peach fruits, the thrips prefer to feed upon the nectary glands and the inside of the calyx cups; this pre- vents proper pollination, and the young fruits drop to the ground a few weeks after the blossoming period. Where the injury has been severe, peaches are sometimes prevented from blooming, and the larve feeding upon the tender leaves cause them to curl and become dis- THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 19 torted somewhat in the same manner as does peach leaf-curl. Some- times the larve feed on the young fruit, but rarely to the extent of causing any great loss. INJURY TO APRICOTS. Apricots have not, as a rule, been injured commercially except in cases where there are a few young trees around home grounds or near an infested pear or prune orchard. They are sometimes injured to about the same degree as peaches, and in some cases isolated trees have been observed which failed to bloom as a result of the work of the thrips. Larval injury to the young fruit is usually more exten- sive than is the case with peaches and may at times be serious. How- ever, apricots are apparently not favorite breeding places for thrips. INJURY TO ALMONDS. Almonds are injured less by the thrips than any of the foregoing fruits. On account of the early blossoming of the trees and the rela- tively greater amount of exposed leaf surface at the time the thrips are out in numbers, together with the character of the blossom, which is similar to that of the peach, feeding by the thrips very rarely causes much commercial loss in almond orchards. DESCRIPTION. EGG. The egg when first deposited is bean-shaped, translucent white, measuring on the average about 0.416 mm. in length and about 0.166 mm. at its widest part in the middle. (Pl. I, fig. 2.) Just before hatching it decreases in length, appears swollen, has a slight brownish tint, and is faintly striated longitudinally where the antenne and legs are folded to- gether. The dark brown spots, the eyes of the young larva, are apparent at one end. LARVA. FIRST STAGE (LARVA | DAY OLD). Length 0.646 mm.; width of head 0.166 mm.; width of mesothorax 0.183 mm.; width of abdomen 0.15 mm.; length of antennz 0.2 mm.; length of antennal segments: I 20u, [1 40u, III 454, 1V 100%. General color translucent white. General shape fusi- form. Antenne, head, and legs large in proportion to the rest of the body, and unwieldy. Antenne distinctly four-segmented, first segment short, cylindrical; second segment about twice as long as first, oval cylindrical; third segment slightly longer than second, urn-shaped; fourth about as long as rest of joints together, acutely conical. A few very fine inconspicuous hatrs present on all joints, more prominent on segment 4; Head subquadrate; eyes reddish brown. Thorax about as long as abdomen, slightly wider. Abdomen gradually tapering, 10-segmented, first eight segments subequal, [X and X longer and more abruptly tapering, with a fringe of long, white, nearly inconspicuous hairs. Legs stout; femora and tibize nearly equal in length; tarsi one-jointed, ending in a single black claw. (PI. I, fig. 3.) 20 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SECOND STAGE (FULL-GROWN LARVA). Total length 1.833 mm.; length of head 0.15 mm., width 0.1083 mm.; length of prothorax 0.1833 mm., width 0.2166 mm.; length of mesothorax 0.1833 mm., width 0.466 mm. Length of antennz 0.2833 mm.; segment I 26, II 50u, III 76y, IV 66y, V 14u, VI 16, VIL 33. Antennze: Segment I short cylindrical; II obtuse spindle- shaped; III spindle-shaped, about as long as I and II together; IV nearly as long as III, broader than the rest, subconical; V short, narrow cylindrical; VI slightly nar- rower and longer than V; VII twice as long as VI, narrower and cylindrical. All joints transversely striated and with a few inconspicuous white hairs. General color faintly yellowish white, obtusely fusiformin shape. Body longitudinally and laterally faintly striated. Head quadrate; eyes prominent, dark reddish brown, situated a little in advance of the middle; mouth cone broadly rounded, nearly as long as the head, extending to the middle of the prosternum. Prothorax large, slightly wider than long, diverging posteriorly. Mesothorax and metathorax short and broad, twice as wide as long, subequal, in length about as long as prothorax. Abdomen broad, gently rounded, 10-segmented, broadest at segments V and VI; first eight segments subequal; segment IX distinctly longer, tapering to apex, the posterior. edge armed with a circle of strong, short, thick wedge-shaped spines, the two medio- dorsal and medioventral ones shorter and smaller; segment X slightly tapering, not quite as long as segment IX. Lateral edges of abdomen finely serrated, also with a few long inconspicuous white hairs which are more prominent onsegment X. Legs strong; femora and tibize about equal; tarsi one-jointed, ending in a single black claw. (P1. I, fig. 4.) NUMBER OF MOLTS; DEVELOPMENT. When first hatched the larve are active and start feeding imme- diately and soon become more robust. At the end of about seven to eight days they molt into second-stage larvee, where (see description) they are still more robust and show also other differences. The total time required for the development of the larve is about three weeks, although this period is shorter during warm weather. PUPA. PREPUPA (FIRST STAGE). Total length 1.333 mm.; length of head 0.1 mm., width 0.116 mm.; length of pro- thorax 0.183 mm., width 0.266 mm.; width of mesothorax 0.35 mm.; length of abdomen 0.666 mm., width 0.383 mm. Shape similar to adult; color translucent white, deeply tinted with brown. Head subquadrate,.about as broad as long, eyes dark reddish brown. Mouth-cone broadly rounded, extending to about one-half length of the pro- sternum. Antennz extending backward on each side of head, apparently four-jointed; first three segments nearly subequal in length, about as broad as long, thick and unwieldy; segment IV about as long as remaining joints, clublike, and tapering to an obtuse point. Antennze with a few inconspicuous white hairs. Prothorax nearly twice as long as the head, broadly rounded posteriorly. Mesothorax broader; wing pads short, those of first pair of wings extending to distal edge of third abdominal segment. Abdomen 10-segmented, widest at III and IV, segments gradually tapering from there posteriorly. First eight segments subequal, IX and X longer, distal end of IX with broad spines somewhat similar to those of second-stage larvee but shorter and smaller. Legs stout, similar to those of full-grown larva, whole body with sparse, light-colored, inconspicuous hairs. (PI. I, fig. 5.) ice a dee crete ntcgemtneC meen THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. Pall PUPA (SECOND STAGE). Total length 1.416 mm.; length of head 0.183 mm., width, 0.166 mm.; length of prothorax 0.166 mm., width 0.25 mm.; width of mesothorax 0.35 mm.; length of abdomen 0.783 mm., width 0.416 mm. Shape similar to adult, which is visible beneath the thin transparent shell. Apparently brownish in color, caused by adult within. Head broader than long; eyes large, dark brown; mouth-cone of adult within extending to posterior edge of prothorax. Antenne large, cumbersome, laid back on the head and extending past middle of prothorax, four-jointed; I short; II elbowed, about twice as long as I; III short, cylindrical; IV longer than III, sides uneven as knotted club gently tapering to obtuse apex. Joint I of adult is in joint I of pupa, joint II of adult in joint II of pupa, and III of adult within III of pupa; remaining joints of adult within IV of pupa; 3 or 4 white, inconspicuous hairs pro- jecting cephalad from elbow on joint II. Prothorax broader than long. Mesothorax about one and one-half times as broad as prothorax. Wing-pads extending to distai margin of eighth abdominal segment, fore pair not quite so far. Abdomen widest at third and fourth segments, tapering from there to obtuse apex. Posterior edge on ventral side of segment IX with four strong spines resembling a meat fork, This is apparently the cremaster. Legs stout. Entire body with numerous inconspicuous white hairs. (PI. I, fig. 6.) ADULT. Length of head 0.13 mm., width 0.15 mm.; length of prothorax 0.13 mm., width 0.2 mm.; width of mesothorax 0.28 mm.; width of abdomen 0.31 mm.; total length 1.26 mm. Length of antennal segments: I 33y, II 45y, III 634, IV 54, V 33p, VI 66u, VII 94, VIII 12, total 0.31 mm. Color dark brown; tarsi light brown to yellow. Head slightly wider than long, cheeks arched, anterior margin angular, back of head transversely striate and bearing a few minute spines and a pair of very long prominent spines between posterior ocelli. Eyes prominent, oval in outline, black with light borders, coarsely faceted and pilose. Ocelli approximate, yellow, margined inwardly with orange-brown crescents, the posterior ones approximate to, but not contiguous with, light inner borders of eyes. Mouth-cone pointed, tipped with black; maxillary palpi three-segmented; labial palpi two-segmented, basal segment very short. Antenne eight-segmented, about two and one-half times as long as head, uniform brown except segment III, which is light brown; spines pale; a forked sense- cone on dorsal side of segment III, with a similar one on ventral side of segment IV. Prothorax about as long but wider than head; a weak spine at each anterior and two large, strong ones on each posterior angle; other spines not conspicuous. Mesothorax with sides evenly convex, angles rounded; metanotal plate with four spines near front edge, inner pair largest. The mesonotal and metanotal plates are faintly striate. Legs moderately long, uniform brown except tibiz and tarsi, which are yellow. Spines on tip of fore and middle tibiz weak; several strong spines on hind tibie. Wings present, extending beyond tip of abdomen, about twelve times as long as wide, pointed at tips; costa of forewings thickly set with from 29 to 33 quite long spines; fore vein with 12 to 15 arranged in two groups of 3 and 6, respectively, on basal half of wing and a few scattering ones on distal part; hind vein with 15 or 16 regularly placed spines; costal fringe on fore wing about twice as long as costal spines. Abdomen subovate, tapering abruptly toward the tip from the eighth segment; longest spines on segments 9 and 10; abdomen uniform brown, connective tissue yellow. (Pl. I, fig. 1.) 22 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SYSTEMATIC POSITION. The pear thrips belongs to that suborder of the Thysanoptera called Terebrantia, which differs from the other suborder, the Tubulifera, in the possession by the female of a sawlike ovipositor; also, the terminal segments of the abdomen are conical and the wings are not equal in structure, the fore pair being the stronger. The mem- brane of the wings, also, has microscopic hairs. This species is placed in the family Thripide and is separated from the /Molothripide in that the antenne usually have from 6 to 8 segments, the wings usually are narrow and pointed at the tips, and the ovipositor is downcurved. It is placed in the genus Teniothrips of this family because the body is free from reticulation and the abdomen not closely pubescent; the head nearly or quite as long as wide, with a pair of long bristles between the anterior and posterior ocelli; the cheeks swollen, curving abruptly to the strongly protruding eyes; the antenne eight-segmented, with the last two segments (the style) shorter than the sixth; the maxillary palpi three-segmented, the prothorax very slightly, if at all, shorter than the head, with two long bristles at each posterior angle; the fore tibiz unarmed; the bristles on the veins of the forewings not equidistant, and the last abdominal segment of the female conical and without a pair of short, stout bristles on the dorsal surface. Until recently this species was placed in the genus Euthrips Tar- gioni-Tozzetti, which most American authors had used in the sense of Physothrips and Odontothrips, Teniothrips and Frankliniella. Hood? has recently shown that the name Euthrips Targioni-Tozzetti (1881) was first used in a subgeneric sense as a substitute for the name Thrips, which had been used for a subgenus of Thrips Linné (1758), and that it is consequently a synonym of that genus. The pear thrips he places in the genus Teniothrips Amyot and Serville, the orange thrips in Scirtothrips Shull, and, partly following Karny,? the various other species formerly assigned to Euthrips in the genera Physothrips, Odontothrips, and Frankliniella. ANATOMY.? OVIPOSITOR. The ovipositor is attached to the ventral side of the eighth and ninth abdominal segments and is composed of four distinct plates, the under pair attached to the eighth segment and the upper or posterior pair to the ninth abdominal segment. The ovipositor in 1 Hood, J. Dougias. On the proper generic names for certain Thysanoptera of economic importance. In Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., v. 14, no. 1, p. 34-44, 1914. ‘ 2 Karny, H. Revision der von Serville aufgestellten Thysanoptera Genera. Jn Zoologische Annalen, Bd. 4, Heft 4, p. 322-344, 1912. 3 For a description of the mouthparts see discussion under ‘‘ Manner of feeding and type of mouth- parts,”’ p. 11-13. THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 23 the pear thrips is curved downward. The passageway between the plates is grooved so that the eggs can pass through readily. The upper edge (of the upper plates) is fitted with sharp sawlike teeth, while the lower plates have similar teeth for most of the way but also bear a number of broad cutting teeth. The end of the ovi- positor is sharp and pointed. When this is inserted into the plant tissues, the slit or opening is enlarged by the action of the hard ser- rate edges of the ovipositor as it is worked up and down by the rather powerful muscles of the abdomen. The ovipositor when not in use is protected in a sheath along the ventral side of the last two segments of the abdomen. WINGS. The wings are long and slender, membranous, with a fringe of fme hair upon both the anterior and posterior margins, and are never folded. Both pairs of wings are quite similar and when at rest are laid back flat upon the abdomen, the pairs lying parallel in the Tere- brantia. The wings of the family Thripide, to which the pear thrips belongs, are slender, and taper from the base to the tip, which is pointed; they bear a general resemblance to sabers. The veins in the family Thripide are not so prominent as in the family Holo- thripid, and only one or two longitudinal veins are present, the cross-velns being very obscure. FEET. The legs and feet of thrips form one of the chief characteristics which separate this order from the various other orders of insects. They are composed of the usual parts of an insect leg, namely, coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, and tarsus. There is nothing unusual in the formation of the first four parts, the femur and tibia usually being quite long and somewhat cylindrical. The tarsus is the most peculiar structure on the leg, and may be either simple or of two segments, and usually ends in one or two claws. In the family Thripide, they belong to the former type. The remarkable bladder- like structure, which for many years gave the name Physopoda to this order, is protrusile from the end of the last tarsal segment. It is present in both adults and larve. The end of the tarsus is cup- shaped, and into this cup the delicate membranous bladder is attached. When the foot is at rest the bladder is invisible and is withdrawn into the end segment. The bladder is protruded and brought mto action when the adult is resting on some surface or walking around. The mechanism of the bladder has been partially worked out by Jordon and Uzel, but as it is somewhat intricate it will not be described here. If a swollen bladder is pricked or rup- tured, the blood pours out and the bladder collapses quickly. The 94 BULLETIN 173, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. blood is probably what causes the protrusion of the bladder. Vari- ous agencies have been used in experiments to hinder the thrips in walking about on the surfaces of the plants they are attacking, with the view that if m some way the mechanism of the bladder was affected, either by causticity or by absorption, the bladder would not be able to perform its function, and the insects would fall from any surfaces that were so treated. This has not been successful from the writers’ experience, as they have observed on numerous instances thrips crawling around on sticky surfaces, even on tangle- foot, which was to all appearances and to the touch very sticky. This bladderlike formation is probably so delicate that surfaces which appear smooth or sticky or caustic to the naked eye and human touch are rough and uneven to the thrips and are neither adhesive nor caustic. The writers have never seen thrips stuck to any sur- face by the ends of their tarsi, but only by their bodies, legs, or wings. It is apparent that they are able to walk on practically every kind of surface, especially after this treated surface has been exposed to the atmosphere for a few hours. LIFE HISTORY AND HABITS. ADULTS IN SPRING. EMERGENCE FROM GROUND. The first form of the pear thrips to be seen by the orchardists during the growing season is the adult (PL. I, fig. 1), which emerges from the ground during the last winter months and the early spring. The period in which they first appear upon the trees in Santa Clara, Contra Costa, Solano, and Sacramento Counties is variable. Certain sections in each territory are earlier than others and some orchards are in advance of others in regard to blossoming conditions. In the Santa Clara Valley during the year 1909 the first adult thrips were collected February 15. (See Table IV.) By February 18 they were quite numerous in one of the orchards under observa- tion and were common in all orchards by February 25. Maximum emergence began about February 19 and lasted until March 18. They continued to emerge until the first three days in April. In Contra Costa County first thrips were out at the laboratory February 12 and in the field February 16, emerging in numbers by February 20. Maximum emergence was over by March 15 and all were out by March 27. During the season of 1910 the first thrips taken in the field in Santa Clara County were observed on February 7, while the first In emergence cages appeared on February 9. They were common in the field from February 15 on. Thrips appeared in maximum numbers from the cages (see fig. 5) begmning February 22 and ending March 10, with the last stragglers coming out as late as March 20. The emergence season for 1911 at first gave promise THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. ; PS) of being very early, as the first thrips were found in the field on January 29 and in the emergence cages February 1; but the heavy rains following in February and March caused it to be very back- ward, so that thrips were not common in the field until March 14, which was about the time of the true maximum emergence. In Contra Costa County during the season of 1909 the maximum number of thrips emerged in cages, which were put in the ground in the yard at the laboratory, from February 23 to March 4. (See Fic. 5.—Type of soil cage used for soil samples in obtaining emergence records of the pear thrips at San Jose, Cal. (Original.) Table VI and fig. 7.) In cages placed under trees (see fig. 6) in the field the thrips emerged in maximum numbers from February 26 to March 12 (see Table V and fig. 8). During the spring of 1910 the first thrips found to emerge in the cages at the laboratory were out on February 18 (see Table VI and fig. 9) and in the field cages on February 21, reaching a greater daily emergence by March 1, and continuing to emerge in considerable numbers until March 15, the maximum emergence being March 7 (see Table V and fig. 10). By comparing figures 7 and 8, which show the emergence records for 73390°—Bull. 173154 26 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1909, with figures 9 and 10, showing the record for 1910, it will be seen that the time of emergence in any considerable numbers was much shorter in 1910 than was the case in 1909. No actual daily emergence records were kept in 1911, but no thrips were found in the field until February 18 and then only very few in one early almond orchard. On February 24 a few scattering specimens were found in two pear orchards. Not until March 12 were they appearing in any noticeable numbers, but the emergence was very rapid after this, reaching the maximum between March 15 and 20. The emer- gence of adults was mostly over by March 30. ATTA AT Hit) ITERATE Fic. 6.—Type of wooden cage used for field emergence records of the pear thrips in orchards at Walnut Creek, Suisun, and Courtland, Cal., 1909-10. (Original.) Emergence records and field observations in the Suisun Valley of Solano County (see Table VII and fig. 11) show that for the season of 1910 thrips came out of the ground in numbers on about the same dates as for Contra Costa County. They were out in numbers in the Courtland district of Sacramento County from two to four days earlier. Further observations in 1911 showed the emergence in these two sections to be about the samé time as for Contra Costa County. Records of the emergence for the years 1909, 1910, and 1911 are summarized in Table IV. From this table it will be seen that in Santa Clara County in 1909 most thrips appeared on March 3 while in 1910 March 4 yielded the highest number, with March 3 and 2 THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. OF, following close behind. The increase in emergence during the season 1909 (fig. 12) and the tapering off in the same year was more gradual es Bean Ema een =o Apia anit ashe Awa l2 14 16 /8 20 22 242626 2 46 & /0 Ge ae Pye GL 22 24 26 29 FEBRUARY Fie. 7.—Curve illustrating emergence of adult pear thrips at laboratory, Walnut Creek, Cal., 1909. (Original. ) than during the season 1910 (fig. 13). This difference was most probably influenced during the latter season by the temperature. 2 a a lS es sd SRS PE Ed Se cel mead SoG a Pee es) eee eee 800 750 700 650 Bengt a Atel alalel alae cp ttt th tT AT PS an a SN i 7 SE Be ater imeCetlecereca: c 7) A ee ee BREE SEE e she Sean aR eee Rese SEER aSe SSSR s Feels > SERRE See? Rees SS eeeeon CURE Eeey peuucees Ceneeaae 150 nob eek erm See ee ne EE Fee. FEBRUARY M44 Fic. 8.—Curve showing emergence of pear thrips in cages under trees in field at Walnut Creek, Cal., 1909. (Original.) RELATION OF EMERGENCE TO TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL. The average mean temperature for February and March, 1911, or the two months when practically all of the thrips emerged, was 28 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 50.7° F., or about the same as in 1909, and the emergence probably would have been very similar to the emergence for that year but for the abnormal precipitation in February and March, especially in the latter month. 1000 a Be bei oie aoe ete Ei Te Ea See /4 1/6 18 20 22242626 2 46 @ 10 l2 14 16/8 FEBRUARY MAPCH | Fic. 9.—Curve showing emergence of adult. thrips at laboratory, Walnut Creek, Cal., 1909. (Original.) Tae II.— Mean temperatures for the months of February and March, 1909, 1910, and Ou Ca Sy Eyer IN) 9 TIIt: sot Mean maximum temperature for month of February, 1909.....---.------------ 59. Mean minimum temperature for month of February, 1909-..----.-------------- 42. Average mean temperature for month of February, 1909...--------------------- dL. Mean maximum temperature for month of March, 1909.....-------------------- 60. Mean minimum temperature for month of March, 1909. ------------------------ 40. Average mean temperature for month of March, 1909....--..------------------ 50. Mean maximum temperature for month of February, 1910.-..------------------ 58. Mean minimum temperature for month of February, 1910.-.--.---------------- 38. THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 29 Average mean temperature for month of February, 1910...................-...- 49.0 Mean maximum temperature for month of March, 1910................---....-- 66. 2 Mean minimum temperature for month of March, 1910...........-.----------- 44.5 Average mean temperature for month of March, 1910...-.......-.-............ 55.0 Mean maximum temperature for month of February, 1911...........-......-.-- 56.5 Mean minimum temperature for month of February, 1911........-....---...--- 37.3 Average mean temperature for month of February, 1911................------ 46.9 — Mean maximum temperature for month of March, 1911....-..---.--..-------- 63. 3 Mean minimum temperature for month of March, 1911.............-------.---- 46. 0 Average mean temperature for month of March, 1911.................----...-- 54. 6 ee AEs i ee eae SAE ay Be FEBAUAL Fie. 10.—Curve showing emergence of adult pear thrips in cages under trees in field, at Walnut Creek, Cal., 1910. (Original.) It will be seen from the temperature records (Table II) that while February, 1909, had 2 degrees higher average mean temperature than February of 1910, March of 1909 had 5 degrees less average mean temperature than March of 1910, making the average mean temperature for the months in which most of the adults emerged 50.5° F. in the year 1909 and 52° F. in the year 1910. Another factor which held back the emergence greatly the former year was the 30 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. greater rainfall, the month of February, 1909, having 4.87 inches precipitation while February of 1910 had only 0.83 of an inch. A comparison of the amount of precipitation for the three years 1909, 1910, and 1911 (see Table III) shows a large amount for 1909, eS ES GE OE ES ce Ne ea PS ei Pa | /4/6 18 20 22 2426 FEBRUARY Fig. 11.—Curve showing emergence of pear thrips at Suisun, Cal., 1910. (Original.) which with the low average mean temperature for the two emergence months caused the emergence to be drawn out. The season 1911 was very abnormal in the large amount of precipitation, especially sia SES Sri o SS al [\|_| py tN aa eal Ae a oe SE _| see FEE NSE 7A a i NC a 4A /6 18 20 22 ee /& ZO eee 52 RES Fic. 12.—Curve showing emergence of pear thrips at San Jose, Cal., 1909. (Original.) during the latter part of February and early March, causing a late blossoming season, and holding the thrips back to such an extent that comparatively little injury was caused by the adults. THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 31 TABLE III.—Total precipitation for the years 1909, 1910, and 1911 at San Jose, Cal.,. laboratory. Precipitation in inches. Month. 1909 1910 1911 February....------ 4. 87 0. 83 2.03 Marchi ase sere 207 2.84 |. 6.26 One curious fact about the emergence for 1911 was the double maximum, one the latter part of February, from the 18th to the 26th, and another from the 8th to the 15th of March. (See Table IV and 4400 oot VS ee ea ao oe eee es a eS eae EERE EH Bey oo Jee SY eee ee eas oo eee WH nae See Ee ee peg ee ea i ee 2800 Hee SRE Sa Bec Poe ie 2600 2400 ee ea eZ ee aa SNS 10 f2 14 16 8 20 22 24 2628 2 #4 6 E& 0 /2 14 6 18 20 2e 24 2628 FEBRUARY MAFPPCH Fic. 13.—Curve showing emergence of pear thrips at San Jose, Cal., 1910. (Original.) fig..14.) From February 26 to March 11, inclusive, it rained every day from 0.02 of an inch to as much as 2.45 inches. Probably a number of the thrips which emerged in February were killed by the heavy rains in early March, or at least were not permitted to cause much injury. The pear thrips emerges from the ground during rainy weather, but not in such great numbers as during warm, sunshiny days, which was the case during the latter part of February and the early part of March of the year 1910. Whether the soil is clean or covered with weeds and grass at this time of year influences the time 7 32 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of emergence by some two or three days. This was particularly noticeable in pear orchards used in cultivation experiments in Contra Costa and Solano Counties. In the plowed portions which were free from weeds, the surface dried out and warmed up more rapidly and thrips came out in numbers and into the trees three days earlier than on the unplowed part of the orchard, which was covered with a rank growth of vegetation. The dundine of the soil by the vegetation seems to wesc: in holding the thrips within the ground several days later, or else they spend some time on this succulent growth before going into the trees. The following tables give the emergence records for the years 1909, 1910, 1911, and 1912 for Santa Clara County (San Jose, Table IV): 2/0 eff el aU fee] Io Se a A Pin aha Ree he see meh PRS Ebr! Sa es MEST SE Sad Sc] TI i sa ei aH SRT VT ea a a eae eR eeaee TERR Bee Ae 8 (a BS | Hi BSISe! att TI i es | BuBTRRE ER hee te) PEERS CCE eo balleiLales BSS RRvaeteaeeh /8 22 26 Pe 18 22 26 30. ae ae er gee came = FEBRUARY MARCH Fic. 14.—Curve showing emergence of pear thrips at San Jose, Cal.,1911. (Original.) for 1909 and 1910 in Contra Costa County (Walnut Creek, Tables V and VI), and for 1910 in Solano County (Suisun, Table VII). These tables show the total number of thrips emerging on the given dates from soil in the cages. For the San Jose records, all the cages con- taining soil samples from infested prune orchards were placed in the ground at the laboratory. For the records in Contra Costa and Solano Counties, part of the cages were brought to the laboratory and buried in the ground and part were left in the ground under the trees in infested orchards. (See fig. 6 for type of cage used for the field emergence records in the northern counties.) It was not pos- sible to take the emergence every day, but,so far as possible, counts were made at regular intervals. THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 33 TaBLeE 1V.—Total emergence of pear thrips from all the cages kept at the laboratory at San Jose, Santa Clara County, Cal., during 1909, 1910, 1911, and 1912. Number | Number |} Number | Number Number | Number | Number | Number of thrips | of thrips | of thrips | of thrips of thrips | of thrips | of thrips | of thrips Date emerging | emerging | emerging | emerging Date. | emerging emerging | emerging | emerging a in 1909 in 1910 in 1911 in 1912 x in 1909 in 1910 in 1911 in 1912 from 18 | from 18 | from 4 from 4 from 18 | from 18 | from 4 from 4 cages. cages. cages. cages. cages. cages. cages. cages. Feb. 1 0 0 2 1 Mar. 9 776 144 1 366 2 0 0 7 1 10 497 100 32 442 3 0 0 0 0 11 498 73 54 81 4 0 0 0 0 12 338 il7A 71 83 5 0 0 0 1 13 313 45 56 161 6 0 0 1 5 14 248 20 22 313 i 0 0 28 3 15 27 7 17 433 8 0 0 5 6 16 259 4 9 239 9 0 25 1 9 17 152 20 2 158 10 0 18 4 9 18 42 7 4 596 11 0 16 1 9 19 61 2 0 209 12 0 16 22 21 20 28 2 0 144 13 0 4 0 15 21 2 0 3 | 106 14 0 88 0 33 22 6 0 6 | 114 15 18 22 11 37 23 13 0 1 103 16 0 27 5 65 24 3 0 1 68 17 52 34 2 104 25 2 0 0 52 18 192 33 17 242 26 3 0 1 39 19 192 14 62 490 27 7 0 1 38 20 169 23 41 384 28 7 0 0 61 21 75 62 32 325 29 0 0 0 17 22 119 129 33 440 30 2 0 0 14 23 135 375 25 422 31 0 0 0 14 24 552 272 26 515 Apr. 1 3 0 0 28 25 459 297 18 800 2 0 0 0 19 | 26 444 455 8 504 3 1 0 0 9 | 27 414 574 0 762 4 0 0 0 7 28 781 657 0 1,694 5 0 0 0 4 OT epee ae ares | eerste coms leet late rebene eiavcreys 1, 169 6 0 0 0 4 Mar. 1 781 1,975 0 1,721 Gi 0 0 0 26 2 535 3, 592 0 276 8 0 0 0 5 3 1,299 3,011 2 284 9 0 0 0 3 4 714 4,217 4 399 ‘10 0 0 0 iL 5 508 1, 402 0 | 400 11 0 0 0 il 6 362 1,595 0 | 585 12 @. | 0 0 0 a 438 539 1 1, 227 [eee ow 8 219 275 21 1, 052 Total. .| 11,998 20, 350 660 17, 968 TaBLe V.—Emergence of pear thrips from cages placed in ground under trees in pear and prune orchards, Walnut Creek, Contra Costa County, Cal. Number of Number of Date. thrips Date. thrips emerging. emerging. 1909. 1910 Feb. 13 0 || Feb. 21 1 16 20 23 4 19 37 25 23 22 30 27 36 26 110 || Mar. 1 56 Mar. 2 615 3 237 5 679 5 1,170 10 752 7 2,110 12 273 9 892 16 65 11 1,773 20 33 13 557 22 4 15 198 27 11 17 71 19 3 21 6 PHY ) 34 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste VI.—Emergence of pear thrips from soil samples taken from orchards in December and January and kept in cages at laboratory, Walnut Creek, Contra Costa County, Cal. Number of Number of Date. thrips Date. thrips emerging. emerging. 1909. 1910 Feb, 12 3 || Feb. 18 11 15 42 20 16 16 56 22 0 17 38 24 12 18 56 26 30 20 89 28 75 23 125 || Mar. 2 377 25 185 4 918 2 246 6 937 - Mar. 1 196 8 165 4 237 10 114 7 51 12 47 10 52 14 0 14 13 16 4 19 0 22 0 TasLe VII.—mergence records of pear thrips for Suisun, Solano County, Cal., 1910. Emergence of thrips Emergence of thrips faven ieee Oe from cages placed chards in Decem- re ground under | ber and January rees in orchards, sevél TRG Suisun, Cal [Ou Tn Gas 7 ; at laboratory, Sui- sun, Cal. . Number of Number of Date. thrips Date. thrips emerging. emerging. Feb. 17 3 | Feb. 16 1 19 0 17 3 21 0 18 2) 23 0 19 6 20 1 20 1 27 20 21 1 Mar. 1 47 22 4 3 121 23 2 10 484 24 5 16 1 25 11 26 1 27 14 28 41 Mar. 1 105 2 247 3 243 7 612 12 357 16 82 19 8 The latest dates on which adult thrips were collected in the field were about the same for the years 1909 and 1910, the last ones being found from April 15 to April 25. In 1911 livmg adults were found as late as the middle of May. They were very scarce, however, after May. The number of living adults as a rule decreases rapidly after April 1. The time adults will feed before they begin ovipositing varies. Those individuals which emerge early and which do not have a suit- THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 35 able place for ovipositing will feed from 15 to 20 days before placing any eges, while individuals which emerge at a later date, as, for in- stance, from March 5 to 20, do not as a rule feed more than one or two days before depositing eggs. Individuals which were taken from emergence cages and placed in mica chimneys were observed ovi- positing the day following their emergence. It is possible that in the field thrips begin depositing eggs more quickly on certain varie- ties of fruits than on others. This would be governed very largely by the presence or absence of available tissue suitable for oviposition. For this reason on the early bloomimg varieties of cherries thrips prob- ably feed for a shorter time before oviposition commences than is the case with other fruits. PERIOD OF EGG LAYING FOR INDIVIDUALS. The egg-laying period for individuals does not usually last for more than three weeks. Individual thrips confined in mica chimneys on March 5, 1910, did not deposit any eggs after the latter part of March. The full period of egg laying for the entire brood throughout all the mfested areas extends from about February 20 until near April 10, or a period of six to seven weeks. LENGTH OF LIFE OF ADULTS. Adult thrips confined in vials without food lived on an average three days, while those confined in vials with food lived about two weeks. Adult thrips confined on the trees within mica chimneys lived from three weeks toone month. The length of life of individuals in the field has not been observed accurately, but probably ranges in duration from three weeks to one month and a half. RELATION OF EMERGENCE TO BLOSSOMING OF TREES. The emergence period extends from early February to early April and is closely associated with the blossoming periods for the different varieties of fruits. Budding and blossoming of the different fruits is as follows: Almond buds begin to swell durmg the latter part of January and early February, and this variety of fruit is in full bloom between February 8 and 24. Apricots show first blossoms from Feb- ruary 12 to 23, and most varieties are in full bloom by from March 3 to 10. Peaches show first blossoms about February 23 and many varieties are in full bloom from March 8 to March 17. Black Tar- tarian cherries reach full bloom by March 15 to 20, while the Royal Anne variety has not at that time opened its buds. French prune buds are beginning to swell between March 8 and 11 and first blos- soms appear by March 20. They are usually in full bloom between 36 BULLETIN 173, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. March 26 and April 8. The Sugar and Imperial varieties precede the French by about one week. Bartlett pear buds begin to swell the last of February or the first of March, the first clusters usually spread- ing from March 10 to 15 and are in full bloom for quite an indefinite period between March 20 and April 10. Pears, prunes, and cherries, which are spreading their bud clusters just after the maximum numbers of thrips are coming from the ground, are the fruits most seriously injured by the pear thrips. MIGRATORY HABITS. Evidences of the migratory habits of the pear thrips have been noticed at times during the last three or four years. However, no definite observations concerning their migration had been made until the year 1910. Hitherto it had been noted that in some orchards the adults were very numerous early in the season and doing extensive damage. Later observations at an interval of four or five days showed very few adults present, and the entire orchard had the characteristic browned and burnt appearance. It was quite evident that after destroying all the fruit buds the thrips had migrated to other orchards in search of food. It was possible to obtam more definite knowledge regarding migration in the year 1910 than had heretofore been known, for the reason that the thrips were unusually numerous throughout all the infested areas that year and weather conditions were such that practically the entire brood emerged from the ground in a few days. Also, following their emergence in great numbers, the weather was sufficiently warm that the destruction of the fruit buds in the various orchards was accomplished in much shorter time than is usually the case. Observations so far indicate that thrips migrate in swarms only on bright, warmdays. Numerousinstances of supposed migration were mentioned to the writers at various times during the season, the reports stating that the pear thrips were flymg in swarms, but most of the cases reported lacked authentic evidence to bear them out, such as the saving of specimens. However, in the afternoon of March 28, 1910, the junior author drove out from San Jose toward Saratoga and had great difficulty in keeping both hands on the reins on account of the great numbers of thrips which, flying through the air, filled his eyes and covered his clothes. The prevailing direction of the wind on this day was not observed; no distinct migration or swarm was noted, however, although individuals were numerous flying across the road and could be readily seen when the observer looked toward the sun. They were more numerous on roads running north and south, and extended overa territory of 4 or 5 miles; they were the most numer- % q ee —E—————— THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 37 ous at the west end of Hamilton Avenue and along the San Tomas and Santa Clara and Los Gatos Roads. On March 30, 1910, still more definite information was gained, and this is probably the most unique record of thrips migration which has yet been taken. The day was bright and rather warm and ended with the evening warm and a gentle breeze blowing from the south. Mr. E. L. Fellows, who was in Santa Clara on this day, started home about 5 o’clock in the afternoon. About 5.15 p. m., out on the Saratoga Road, he noticed a number of small, black insects which covered his face and hands, his hat and clothes, and got into his eyes. When he was one-fourth of a mile north of Meridian Corners he met the thickest part of the swarm, which appeared literally lke a black, glistening, seething mass moving up and down lke heat waves. From this place the insects became less numerous as he went toward home, which he reached about 6 p.m. He thought the swarm to be about 8 miles long and 4 miles wide, from 4 to 15 feet high, moving at the rate of about 10 miles per hour northward toward San Fran- cisco Bay. As he was not sure concerning the identity of this insect, he gathered several hundred specimens in a paper bag and submitted them to the junior author for identification. They were found to be the pear thrips, Txniothrips pyrt. This same swarm was noticed by the junior author and by several fruit growers, but they did not have the opportunity to view the whole swarm as did Mr. Fellows. Continued observations during the season of 1910 showed that the usual time for migration was from 3 to 6 p.m. on bright, warm days during the latter part of the period of maximum oviposition, which was also about the time many orchards have been so badly injured that the trees will not bloom. This migratory habit is undoubtedly influenced chiefly by a desire for a new supply of food, better places for deposition of eggs, and suitable weather conditions, especially the temperature. The direction in which thrips will migrate depends upon the direction the wind is blowing, and the distance at which suitable feeding places are found. No distinct migration of the whole brood has ever been observed, such as is the case with some species of Orthoptera. The migra- tion from certain badly infested orchard localities has been in- fluenced, without doubt, by the early destruction of the fruit buds in these orchards. Many instances are known where thrips are numerous and their injury severe in an orchard one year and not very numerous the succeeding year, but they are usually highly injurious again the third year. This phenomenon is more noticeable in pear than in prune orchards, due probably to the fact that a pear 38 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. orchard in which all fruit buds have been destroyed is poor feed- ing ground for both adults and larve and reproduction is at the minimum under such conditions. This reappearance in damaging numbers the third year makes it evident that the orchardists should not allow their orchards to go untreated. It should be noted that the years 1907 and 1910 were the only seasons in which the pear thrips migrated to any great extent. No migration was known in the season of 1911, although it was watched for. MANNER OF REACHING TREE TOPS FROM GROUND. Most of the adults when emerging probably crawl around for a while on the ground until their wings get sufficiently dry and then fly up into the tree. Some, however, must undoubtedly crawl up the trunk, as a few have been caught by tanglefoot bands. This, however, can not be used as a method of control, since very few go up this way; moreover, the thrips would not be caught unless the bands were renewed every day or so, because the bands do not remain sufficiently sticky after a short exposure to the atmosphere. REPRODUCTION. According to Bagnall ‘ an example of the male pear thrips was found by him among some specimens of this species taken from plum blossoms at Evesham, England, and submitted to him by Mr. Col- linge, director of the Cooper Research Laboratory at Berkhamstead. His only description is that ‘‘It is much smaller than the female and the wings considerably overreach the tip of the abdomen.” ‘This is the first report of the existence of the male of this species, and in California very extensive observations by the writers and other workers have failed to show a single male, and the only type of reproduction known is by parthenogenesis. In all of the life-history experiments to secure data upon the length of the egg stage indi- vidual females were taken directly from the emergence cages and isolated. It is highly probable that practically all of the eggs which are deposited hatch, as no sterile eggs have ever been found. OVIPOSITION. Moulton? states that he has observed the adult in ovipositing to make first a hole in the epidermis of the plant tissue with the mouth before depositing the egg. Repeated observations by the writers of a large series of adults during oviposition have failed to 1 Bagnall, Richard 8. A contribution to our knowledge of the British Thysanoptera (Terebrantia), with notes on injurious species. Jn Jour. Econ. Biol., v. 4, no. 2, p. 33-41, July 7,1909. Seep. 39. 2 Moulton, Dudley. The Pear Thrips (Euthrips pyri Daniel). U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bul. 68, pt. 1, rev., p. 7, Sept. 20, 1909. THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 39 show a single one going through this procedure. The usual method as shown. by observations during the season of 1910 is as follows: The female starts the ovipositor into the tissue by working the abdomen up and down, gradually forcing the ovipositor its full length into the tissue. After this is done the thrips remains quiet for a short interval while the egg is passing out between the plates of the ovipositor. When finished, the female vibrates her antennae and jerks out the ovipositor. The prevailing posture during the whole period of oviposition is with the abdomen arched and the legs spread apart wider than when in walking. The average time required for the operation by a number of individuals observed during the season of 1910 ranged from three to five minutes. After depositing an egg the female usually resumes feeding for a short interval, but some indi- viduals have been observed to deposit two and three eggs in suc- cession without any feeding between times. The number of eggs that a female can deposit in a day is probably not over seven or eight, as the abdominal cavity is not large enough to hold more at one time. EGGS. PLACE OF DEPOSITION. The eggs are always placed in the tenderest portions of the plant tissue, such as exposed blossoms, fruit stems, leaf stems, ribs of the leaves (preferably the midribs), and the leaf edges. Still others are placed in the young fruits. The pear thrips apparently prefers to oviposit upon cherries if a cherry tree is at hand, as the fruit and leaf stems, on account of their length and tenderness, offer excellent places for oviposition without making it necessary for the thrips to move over a large area. However, the small prunes and the stems, as also the stems and midribs of the young leaves of both prunes and pears, are well suited for oviposition by this species. The counts in Table VIII were taken upon leaf stems and fruit stems of French prunes and - show the comparative percentage of eggs deposited in each; they also show the inability of the different spray mixtures to kill the eggs within the plant tissues, as these stems im question had been sprayed two days previously with a combination of tobacco extract and dis- tillate emulsion. 40) BULLETIN 173, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLeE VIII.—Comparative percentage of eggs deposited in fruit stems and leaf stems of French prunes, San Jose, Cal., season of 1910. Number Number = N z = N e = No. of ob- pevaesn of eggs in |) No. of ob- eae of eggsin servation. lesz re fruit servation. havea fruit ‘| stems. *| stems. | 1 2 7 44 | 1 12 2, 1 10 45 0 11 3 5 5 46 7 8 4 0 12 47 3 8 5 2 13 48 if 9 6 1 6 49 5 11 7 3 8 50 2 9 8 0 8 51 12 9 9 0 8 52 10 11 10 1 9 53 2 9 11 1 8 54 3 10 12 2 10 55 7 12 13 2 4 56 0 6 14 5 6 57 9 10 15 3 10 58 5 10 16 2 11 59 12 4 17 0 5 60 5 11 18 3 12 61 0 17 19 3 10 62 6 9 20 1 8 63 2 13 21 0 6 64 4 9 22 0 3 65 5 12 23 3 10 66 8 6 24 1 9 67 0 7 25 1 5 68 11 8 26 2 13 69 8 9 27 1 10 70 5 16 28 1 5 71 9 7 29 1 9 72 3 8 30 2 8 73 2 9 31 0 16 74 2 i 32 2 8 75 9 11 33 2 4 76 17 8 34 1 15 77 6 10 35 0 9 78 11 4 36 0 11 79 12 8 37 1 7 80 9 14 38 4 19 81 8 9 39 i 16 82 2 § 40 2 13 83 1 11 41 5 i 84 0 il 42 3 12 43 3 9 Total... 299 786 It will be seen from this table that the average number of eggs placed within fruit stems of prunes is more than twice the number placed in the leaf stems. In pears a very large proportion of eggs is placed in ribs and veins of leaves and a comparatively smaller per- centage in the fruit stems. FIRST EGGS. The first eggs that were noticed in the vicinity of San Jose and in Contra Costa County were placed about March 10 for the season of 1909, while most eggs were being placed about March 15 to 25, and the last eggs in early April. The first eggs were deposited in 1910 in the field about March 9, while maximum oviposition was from March 18 until about April 2. The last eggs were observed to be placed in the field toward the middle of April. In the interior counties, espe- cially Sacramento and Solano Counties, eggs were being deposited in large numbers by March 15, and continued to be deposited in num- bers until the latter part of March, a few being found in early April. THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 41 LENGTH OF EGG STAGE. Moulton! records the length of the egg stage to be approximately four days, but detailed observations during the season of 1910 at San Jose show it to be considerably longer. The length of the ege stage was first ascertained by inclosing twigs with paper bags before thrips emerged so as to get no outside infestation. Later, when thrips were ovipositing in the field, a considerable number of adults were placed in mica chimneys which had been specially constructed to fit over the twigs in such a manner as to give them as nearly natural conditions as possible, and to permit the eggs to remain in living plant tissue because they usually dried out when the twigs were removed from the tree. These chimneys were made by sewing pieces of strong white cloth in the shape of tubes about 5 or 6 inches long and gluing one end of a cloth tube thus made to each end of the mica chimney. When placed upon the tree, ends of the cloth were tied securely around the twig so that no insects could get in from the outside. The thrips kept for oviposition remained in the cages over night and were removed the next day. To make sure that none would remain in to continue ovipositing, new cages were placed on the twigs in each case. Table IX shows the length of the egg stage. TaBLe 1X.—Length of egg stage of the pear thrips, San Jose, Cal., 1910. Average Cage Date de- Date Number Length mean | Prevailing No. posited. | hatched. hatehed etanee tempera-| weather. 5 ture. Days. oH I Mar. 10 Mar. 16 25 6 56 Cloudy 17 6 a 57 Do. 18 9 8 58 Do. 19 8 9 57 Do 20 3 10 57 Do 22 10 12 52 Do 23 3 13 52 Do 24 1 14 52 Do I Mar. 10 Mar. 16 13 6 56 Cloudy 17 27 7 57 Do. 18 30 8 58 Do. 19 35 9 57 Do. 20 8 10 57 Do Ii Mar. 10 Mar. 16 27 6 56 Cloudy 17 4 7 57 Do. 18 9 8 58 Do. 19 14 9 57 Do. 20 10 10 57 Do 22 4 12 52 Do 23 1 13 52 Do 24 1 14 52 Do IW Nove, 7 Apr. 14 3 uf 55 Clear V | Mar.29 | Apr. 5 1 7 56 | Clear 8 1 10 56 0) 10 1 12 56 Do VI Mar. 29 Apr. 7 2 9 56 Clear | 9 1 11 56 Ce) | 10 1 12 56 Do 12 1 14 55 Do 1 Op. cit., p. 8. 49 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe 1X.—Length of egg stage of the pear thrips, San Jose, Cal., 1910—Continued. | | | | u | Average | Cage | Date de Date | Number Lengel mean | Prevailing | No- posited. | hatched. | natered | ee _tempera-| weather. i | | a =)" tare: Days. eee Vil Mar. 29 Apr. 3 1 5 56 Clear. 8 1 10 56 0. Vil Mar.29 | Apr. 7 1 9 56 | Clear. 8 7 10 56 Do. 9 3 il 56 Do. 10 4 12 | 56 Do. IX | Mar.29 | Apr. 2 1 4 | 57 | Clear. 6 1 8 | 56 Do. if 1 9 | 56 Do. 1 8 4 10 | 56 Do. 10 4 | iA) 56 Do. 14 At it 16 55 Do x Apr. 6 Apr. 12 1 6 54 Cloudy. XI Apr. 6 Apr. 13 1 7 54 Cloudy. | xm | Apr. 6 | Apr. 13 2 7 54 | Cloudy. i J SUMMARY. Time | Time Number eggs deposited. | required for || Number eggs deposited. required for | incubation. || incubation. Days. Days. | LIE eee re eee eerie Remy See ae 4 OA ies ste Sse coe eae Se Pee ee 10 TORE SOM wh dhyana 22 9s d Se Fa || Na eee cele pe med ae Beaters 2 ey io O66255 02 ba eb 2st esas aga sacs deen Ge DAS esee 2 ab eee ee eer ee 12 AW oS ae pre arent pit hey i eee eee or eee ee ae SE ys 13 ie eee Sr eapet Saeed eatceie re Sana ao cee 2 Lt ee eee 14 Glan oc: fs sas ek esas sade tees sede 9 Do ter h en esa see ee 16 For the 296 eggs under observation, the maximum length of the egg stage was 16 days, and the minimum 4 days, making 8.3 days the average time required for incubation. The eggs of the pear thrips are undoubtedly affected by tempera- ture conditions, but rainy weather as compared with clear weather seems to make no difference when the mean temperature is the same, as all eggs are embedded in the moist plant tissue and do not require additional moisture from the atmosphere. It is evident that all of the eggs are not in the same stage of develop- ment at the time they leave the abdomen of the female, since eggs deposited upon the same day ranged from 4 to 16 days in the length of the egg stage. An examination of the average mean temperature for the various cages shows usually several degrees less mean tem- perature for a long egg stage in comparison with a short egg stage. The maximum and minimum temperatures influencing the different lots of eggs are given in Table X. THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 43 Taste X.— Maximum and minimum temperatures during period of incubation for eggs of the pear thrips, San Jose, Cal., 1910. Maxi- Mini- Maxi- | Mini- mum mum mum mum Date. temper- | temper- Dietie temper- | temper- ature. ature. ; ature. ature. ° F ° a ° vy: ° FE Wiehe, Ul). 5 S622 525ecsccce 73 Ads ||| (Mian 28 pes See ae eer rar 64 40 Sera stern etek 72 48 I) seeapenabecnaseeoe 69 40 UQies eeecere Sees 57 48 OO Be eins) -1 Se aerae 76 41 ipyee ae osateasaosace 71 44 econo asee 78 43 1 ee Pe 2 68 49 Aptalad. GI 00°O0T | T OGRGGIS | 5 Oteen| Renmenann ia | OP a. || Zt > peapectat atl bee Lecter FG '86 | ST 6F 66 | 9 SSHSG eI OU Re) alias sau ata sel [Per ney etm i= |e FAL 68 66 T 06°66 | T 00 O0T | € VIEWS |) Ge rere oy || eee ame 06°96 | OF 6F 66 | 0 69°96 | IZ QOL OD Jie) |p Seis van ieee see ve ca peas pam PUREE P= e488 6S 66 G Tf 86 | 9 86 “86 if CORT SEO Gee les Sos cae PL 26 | OF 6F 66 | 0 1G °S6 18 FS 66 PE) WAR eS cae =a CUINE =] >= = VeIL 66 66 L G96 | 6 19°26 | LT 60°22 | If 00 O00T | € 02°98 | 19 6h 66 | Z 19°%6 | CLT gc s6 | Lh 00 O0T | € JOE a SUE 9G 86 Sig 0S'98 | 8 F816 | GF F099 | 8S 94°16 | 8F POLL | VL 86°86 | € ¢8 "98 | 89T 68 G6 | 8¢ 0G°246 | 2 OE OReas | eae OF GL °16 CEL 91°08 | 9 Le IL | &8 OF OS | TZ 99°19 | IT 29°29 | SOL 96°96 | OT 81°18 | SOE 9F'C6 | SES 99°16 | IZ 68 | 6 €1 GL TOT 6E"SZ | Se QF Sh | 16 LOTE | SP SL Fo | 68 89°€S | 89T 1616 | ¢ 28°0L | TOS 96°84 | 196 LU PL | 6Z Se eee en: 612 SPT gg-gg | gg OF LT | FE FI '6L | 68 90°F | 2 680 | 9ET OF 68 | 18 F6°€S | 668 €1°€9 | OFS 00°0¢ | 6€ Lin Oem eine, PE SE ized! O06 TT | FT 08 °¢ L 698 66 6L°ST | & LECT | PS Gh er | 62 G6°SG | 81 IG 6h | €6¢ OGLE | LT Griese ae) G9 “ST 68 62 °0 T Ths L 08 ‘0 iS 0¢ 'T G a GE $98 9T TF '8 6F6 TO°26 | G6 €8" i Cyan | Ree ane ISG (Ae | iene te ~~") GOT Stag its Ses hal carom 0 0 180g | 9 0¢ 0 I 0 0 G66 TAT 0 0 AS. | 7 “SOYyouy ‘eA0ge |‘sdrmqy) ‘eAoqe | sdr1mqy| ‘ovoqe | sdraqy| “eaoqe | ‘sdraqy| ‘eaoqe | sdrmmy| -eaoqe | sdtryy} ‘oaoge | ‘sdrayy| -oaoqe | sdraqy| aaoqe | ‘sdray) -oaoqe | sda} 93B1 JO doq | 038) |joroq| o8e2 |yJorsq| o8e, |joreq] a8e, |joraq}] o8v, | yjor0q | o3v | jor9q| o8e, |joseq | o8e4 |Joaoq} o8e, | Jo aq “Usedl9q |-WNN |-Weos0g | -UINN |-Wed1eg | -WN Ny |-Wed10 J | -WINN |-Wed10q | -WNN |-Weddeg | -UMNy |-ted10g | -UINN |-Weddeg | -uMy |-WedJ0J | -WIN |-ueodeg | -uNy “soydures fF “sor dures F ‘soydures F “soydures 9 ‘sordures F ‘soydures 8 *‘soydures Z% *soT dures OT “soydures fF “soyduies F A “IoC “yydeq | jo 10q ; x : ; ‘aqope ‘aqope f ; BULILN hooucioy 2 WOT TU1BOT TAROT WvOT ; TROT AreyueUI peg ureo] Apues Avo Aavoy Aejo Savoy =| Apues Aavoyy en nee hers RAGS Areyuemiped ureoy Aqewer) Avo Lavy *pieyo.o *pareyoro *paxeyo.r0 “paeyorio *paeyoro *p.aeyo.0 *pareyoro0 *pareyo.1o “pareyaio *preyoio 9111009 “WT SISO.I0g inyyty ues0g Amo SUIYIC ET uosuyor wopue'yT oun yy puomyony 09 ‘fqunog ning mung ‘sajdups jos snowpa wi sdisyy snad ayy fo xasn) fo yzdap avynlvdWMoj— TX AAV J, 48 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Contra Costa County the greater portion of the orchard area is on the distinctively adobe soil. It is a noticeable fact that the larvee penetrate this soil to a greater depth than they do the hard gravelly soils, probably owing to the greater prevalence of cracks. An examination of Table XII, which is the record of the results of soil examinations from five pear orchards and one prune orchard during the winter of 1908-09, shows that all of the larve in the hard gravelly soils were within 8 inches of the surface, while in the adobe soil only 79 per cent were found at this depth, the other 21 per cent being between 8 and 13 inches below the surface. Tassie XIJ.—Comparative depth of larvex of the pear thrips in various soils near Walnut Creek, Contra Costa County, Cal. 4 Pear and prune orchards. Wescottand H. H. Anderson, F. A. Bancroft, and Whit- Bancroft (pear) man (pear), and Jones (prune) orck- orchards. Hard, ards. Heavy loam to adobe. sandy, gravelly | soil. 24 samples. 12 samples. Number Depth. of layer. Number | Per cent | Number | Per cent of thrips.| above. | ofthrips.| above. OS ste 2=-2 2c 3 3. 33 Oees oe esos | 3 6. 66 ie eee | 9 14. 44 76 10.33 | 18 36. 66 27 47.83 | 33 73. 33 152] 68.70 | 18 93. 33 82 79.98 | 6 100. 60 48 86.23 | Nes) Pee rors 32 90. 57 | ee Se os 42 96. 28 OM Es See eeee 24 99. 55 0. s|Es:S2 case 4 | 100.00 Ve ese eae 130) Ne aise esa 00) 5-2 cs 52 Average number | of larve per | square foot.__-- | LP5 he) eee Soe 30 Milesseste see | AREA AROUND DIFFERENT TREES IN WHICH THRIPS ARE MOST NUMEROUS. The area around trees in which thrips are most numerous would usually be within a radius of 6 to 8 feet of the base in prune orchards © where the trees are from 22 to 24 feet apart. Under prune trees which are from 18 to 20 feet apart, and where the branches overlap, the area infested will be more uniform, and more thrips will be present midway between the rows than nearer the base, as such trees, growing close together, usually do not have so many smaller limbs in the center of the tree as nearer the end of the branches. Pear trees are more upright and compact in growth; hence the greater percentage of the larve are near the trunk of the tree, and in the | | | | THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 49 average Bartlett pear orchard most of the larvee in the ground are within a radius of 2 to 3 feet of the base of the tree. TIME SPENT AS LARV# IN GROUND. The time spent by larve in the ground before pupating varies. The minimum time is about 2 months, with a maximum of about 8 months, while most of the larve will spend about 5 to 6 months within the soil before pupating. Of many examinations of soil samples in Contra Costa and Solano Counties no larvee were found after November 29; all had pupated prior to this time. PUPA. STAGES. As soon as the white larva gets ready for transformation it sheds its skin and develops. into what is.called the prepupa, which is also white and resembles somewhat the full-grown larva, although also having some features of the adult. In this stage the legs resemble slightly the legs of the adult and the short wing pads extend to about the end of the third or fourth abdominal segment. The antenne in this stage do not project over the back, as in the case of the pupa or second stage, but project latero-caudad. The exact length of time spent in this prepupal stage has not been ascertained, but from observations made upon other Thysanoptera by the writers this stage is usually very short and in the pear thrips probably does not last more than a week or 10 days before the prepupal skin is shed and the insect passes into the second pupal stage or real pupa. TIME OF FIRST, MAXIMUM, AND LAST PUPATION. The earliest pupz are found during the month of May, and these are very rare. It is possible that these will form late-emerging adults, but more than lkely they are premature larve that are sickly or infected with some fungous organism which causes them to develop prematurely. All of these early pupz probably die and fail to reach the adult form. A few pupz can be found the latter part of July, and there is a gradual increase in numbers through August and September. During the month of October, however, pupation reaches its maximum and may continue through Novem- ber and into December, by which time it has practically ceased. Samples taken from orchards in July and August show some pup, while sometimes large numbers of samples taken from the same orchards in September fail to show the presence of any. Table XIII shows the relative number of early pupe and of larve found in the Santa Clara Valley during the summer of 1909. Two samples of soil were taken from each orchard for each examination. 50 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe XIII.—Comparative number of pupx and larvx of the pear thrips found in the soil during July and August, 1909, San Jose, Cal. Landon and Cottle prune orchards. Larve. Pupe. Sample | Date ex- | Nos. amined. Number. | Per cent.| Number.} Per cent. | | 30-33...| July 15 556 | 99 66 1 34-37... 20 127 | 100) {| Sears Soe: |S ae See Dl 28 | 67 86 11 14 42-45___| Aug. 3 | 44 94 4 6 4649 17 2 || Lt ey [ee em ee) ee ee BE 50-53__-| 17 | 165 87 22 13 5457 23 6 | 80 13 20 53-61 23 | 93 82 18 19 The time of pupation varies considerably with different orchards; for instance, in orchards where irrigation is practiced in the early fall, pupation probably starts at an earlier date than in orchards where this custom is not followed. Furthermore, from a number of exami- nations made the past two years it seems evident that pupation begins earlier in those orchards having a heavy sedimentary soil than in orchards which have a light, gravelly soil. Fall plowing would necessarily be more effective upon orchards which have a gravelly soil on account of this habit of late pupation, which would enable the owners to wait until the fall rains have started before plowing, and also because a larger number of thrips are near the surface. EFFECT OF WEATHER CONDITIONS UPON PUPATION. It is hardly probable that temperature conditions affect the length of the pupal stage of the pear thrips very greatly, since the ground does not freeze in the winter, except in the Eastern States, and the mean temperature at 6 to 9 inches below the surface for the year around is probably more even than it is above the ground. An early, wet fall would probably cause the thrips to pupate earlier than would be the case in a dry season. The time spent in the pupal stage varies from one to four months, while the normal time for most of the pupe is about two months. ADULTS IN WINTER. The first adults appear in the ground in late October, the number increasing gradually until December to early January, by which time practically all pupe have transformed to adults. The time spent in . the ground as adults before emerging and appearing on the trees varies from a minimum of one month to a possible maximum of five months, averaging, however, about three months. THE PEAR THRIPS IN CALIFORNIA. 51 SEASONAL HISTORY. Adult thrips first appear in early February upon the fruit buds and continue to emerge until in the early part of April, appearing in maximum numbers from February 22 to March 10, thus covering the entire period of swelling of buds and blossoming of trees. By the time the fruit buds have swollen sufficiently to separate slightly the bud scales at the tip the adults force their way within, feeding upon the tenderest parts of the buds. Egg laying usually begins when the first leaf surface or fruit stems are exposed, depending somewhat upon the variety of fruit attacked. First oviposition usually occurs the latter part of February and the last toward the middle of April, while maximum oviposition occurs from about March 10 to April 1. The majority of eggs are deposited in the fruit stems, young fruit, and leaf stems, and require from 4 to 16 days to hatch, averaging about 8 days. By the time Bartlett pear and French prune trees are breaking into full bloom the adult thrips have done practically all of the injury they are able to accomplish. Injury by adult thrips is distinctly associated with the fruit buds before blossoming. Larve first appear in numbers toward the latter part of March and can be found upon the trees up to the middle of May. They appear in maximum numbers from April 1 to April 15. The larve feed upon the foliage and young fruit, causing on the latter the well-known thrips scab, and individuals remain on the trees for two to three weeks in attaining their growth, the entire brood of larve requirmeg 8 to 10 weeks from the first-appearing to the last-disappearing individuals. All of the larvee have dropped from the trees by the middle of May and. penetrated the soil to a depth of from 1 to 26 inches, depending upon the type and condition of same, in most cases the majority being within 8 to 9 inches of the surface. Sometimes in July a few larve transform into the tender pupe, and by October the pupe are in maximum numbers, the last larve pupating in November. The pupal stage lasts from one to four months, the usual time being about two months. Early in February adults, which, in some instances, have remained as such for several months in the ground, appear upon the trees and wait for the first opening of buds, when they begin the work of destruction. NATURAL ENEMIES. Probably no single order of insects of such great economic impor- tance has so few effective natural enemies as the Thysanoptera. This is partly due to the small size of the insects belonging to this order, their manner of working, their great activity, their unique life history, and the fact that not more than six or seven species in the order have ever accomplished any great economic damage. Practi- 52 BULLETIN 173, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cally all the attempts to control the thrips by artificial means have been within the United States. Of the few natural enemies of Thy- sanoptera that do exist, the most important seems to be Triphleps imsidiosus Say, which feeds upon thrips by impaling them upon its beak and sucking out the juices. Megilla maculata De G., chrysopid larvee, and syrphid larve have also been found feeding upon thrips. Uzel* has found Triphleps minutus L. preymeg on thrips and credits Heeger with the finding of Scymnus ater Kug., Gyrophaena manca Er., and some fly larve feeding in the same manner. Hinds? mentions having found some small scarlet acarid attached to the membranous area of the body of Anaphothrips striatus Osborn. Uzel! and Quaint- ance * have both found eggs of nematode worms within the bodies of adult thrips. J.C. Crawford‘ in December, 1911, gives a short account of Thripoctenus russelli Crawford, a new internal parasite of Thy- sanoptera and later Russell® publishes a more complete account of the life history and habits of this parasite. The first recorded host of T. russelli was Heliothrips fasciatus Pergande, but it has been reared from Thrips tabaci Lind. and Frankliniella tritici Fitch. Its oviposition has been observed in Heliothrips femoralis Reuter and H. haemor- rhoidalis Bouché. Great hopes were entertained by Mr. Russell! for its colonization among related injurious Thysanoptera. Of plant parasites, Thaxter ° has taken an Empusa fungus destroy- ing a species of thrips in the larval, adult, and pupal stages, and Petit’ and Hinds*® have found a fungus which they thought was causing some of the species of thrips to die. No effective natural enemy has been found preying upon the pear thrips. Moulton ® mentions some raphidians feeding upon the younger forms of this species and has also found a species of ant killing individuals. He mentions a fungus which he regarded as parasitic during the season of 1905 and 1906, but the last three or four years have failed to show that any appreciable amount of benefit has been derived from it. Very little of the fungus has been observed during the years 1908, 1909, and 1910. 1 Uzel, Heinrich. Monographie der Ordnung Thysanoptera. KOniggraétz, 1895, 472 p. 10 pl. See p. 362. 2 Hinds, W. E. Contribution to a Monograph of the Insects of the Order Thysanoptera Inhabiting North America. In Proc. U.S. N. Mus., vol. 26, p. 119, 1902. 3 Quaintance, A. L. The Strawberry Thrips and the Onion Thrips. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 46, p. 79-114, 12 figs. July, 1898. 4 Crawford, J.C. Twonew Hymenoptera. In Proc. Ent-Soc. Wash., v. 13, no. 4, p. 233-234, 1911. 5 Russell, H. M. An Internal Parasite of Thysanoptera [ Thripoctenus russelli]. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Tech. Ser. no. 23, pt. 2, p. 25-52, figs. 11, Apr. 27, 1912. 5 Thaxter, Roland. The Entomophthoreae of the United States. Im Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vy. 4, no. 6, p. 134-201, pls. 14-21, Apr., 1888. Seep. 151, 172, 174, pl. xvii, figs. 200-219. 7 Pettit, Rufus H. Some Insects of the Year 1898. Mich. State Agr. Coll. Exp. Sta., Bul. 175, p. 341-373, 20 figs, July, 1899. See p. 343-345, figs. 1, 2. ® Loe. cit. 3 Moulton, Dudley. The Pear Thrips (Euthrips pyri Daniel). U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bul. 68, pt. 1, rev., p. 14, Sept. 20, 1909. 10 Op. cit., p. 15. O UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 174 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief _ Washington, D. C. April 15, 1915 FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR By ARNOLD P. YERKES, Scientific Assistant, and H. H. MOWRY, Assistant Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management CONTENTS Introduction Designation of Tractors Steam and Gas Tractors The Gas Tractor and the Horse . . . Tractor Ratings Source of Data Observations of Business Men . Opinions of Tractor Owners - Reports of Satisfied and Dissatisfied Owners . Gasoline and Kerosene Tractors Fuel Supply Fuel Consumption. . . .. Lubricating Oil Cross Section of Plows Drawn and Area Plowed by Tractors ....... Breaking sapeonic: ci ceiiencalieteues) elite Combination Work Depth of Plowing . Packing Soil by Tractors Comparison of Different Sizes of Tractors Size of Farm Use of Tractors at Night Custom Work Repairs Displacement of Horses by Tractors . . Conditions Essential to Success with the Tractor WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1915 ; A Shonen % yt mf Tait een oe ee hae exon = ~~ aie Sioa BULLETIN" OF THE USDEPARINENT OFAGRCULURE & No. 174 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. April 15, 1915, FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. By Arnowp P. YERKES, Scientific Assistant, and H. H. Mowry, Assistant Agricul- turist, Office of Farm Management. CONTENTS. 3 Page. Page MT ROCMUCHON hetero enae hcceeeence cee eeee oT) | gee erica oe rae eae Ie eae ee a 24 Designation of tractors.............-..----.-- Oe Conlpina hone wiOlkeess se eee er: rarer eee 25 Steam-and gas tractors......-.-.---.-------- SP ye OuM Ohi jollonyaey OO ee oan pcoeGntaseoese 26 The gas tractor and the horse............-.-- 4 | Packing soil by tractors.........-...--,----- i ERRAGLODTALINOS: see squash ee sete 5 | Comparison of different sizes of tractors. ---.-- 28 Souncerohdatar; 29e al Sees ee oe Gi MStizerotttanmat se sae eee NN oa Nee RRL Sp 30 Observations of business men....-..-.-.---.-- (| aWsevoistiractors atmigh tessa s eee eee ee 33 Opinions of tractor owners.-......-..---.----- Si | M@uUStOMbworks: Su lien ee tine sce are 34 Reports of satisfied and dissatisfied owners. . HO) (sepairsuen ee eek Pe eee toed corte Se eel as es 35 Gasoline and kerosene tractors...-.....-..--- 18 | Displacement of horses by tractors..........- 37 PENG IES TID Pliyzs 1 ester se ia ata ieee eis 20 | Conditions essential to success with the Fuel consumption _.......------.-.-.---...- 21 REACtORS 12 9: Uees 5 eee eee 39 MU bRIC ate OU aso et Oe oe 28), | OSUTRUTIVA Tay oes ee 0s rep ene en ara gt 41 Cross section of plows drawn and area plowed | ID VAULACbOLS pc jbie as eejsieisie io Sete ecis tae eine 23 INTRODUCTION. Modern agriculture requires an enormous amount of power to per- form the annual farm operations, and there is a continuous, potential demand for any device that will afford cheaper and more convenient power on the farm. This situation has stimulated the production of many types of mechanical substitutes for the farm horse. Although mechanical power outfits for farm operations have been used in large and increasing numbers for several years, there have been very few reliable data available to the public on the perform- ance of these outfits under ordinary service conditions. Much of the information which has been offered has originated from sources which would indicate that the presentation of the subject would be a biased one or has been furnished by men who were obtaining good, perhaps Note.—This bulletin is intended to make available to farmers who contemplate buying a tractor the experience of many other farmers who have already used one; it is suitable for distribution west of the Mississippi River. il 2 BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. exceptional, results from their outfits. At the same time, men who | have not succeeded are not usually inclined or afforded an opportunity to make their experiences generally known. It is necessary to con- — sider carefully the.results obtained by all users, whether they have — succeeded or failed, in order to obtain correct information as to the present status of the farm tractor. The data in this bulletin are based upon the experience of a large number of users in both classes. It is important for everyone interested that a reliable and impartial survey be made available. The relative efficiency of various makes of tractors is not considered in this bulletin. It is obvious, however, that this factor of the efficiency of some particular machine may be a most important one to the individual farmer. DESIGNATION OF TRACTORS. Owing to the numerous terms used to designate tractors in various sections, it may be well to state that in this bulletin the term “gas tractor’ is used to designate those machines which derive their power _ from an internal-combustion engine burning a vaporized fuel (regard- _ less of the kind of oil burned), which are designed for pulling imple- ments and for doing stationary work. When the term “gasoline tractor” occurs it denotes an outfit of the kind just mentioned in which gasoline is regularly used for fuel. Similarly, the term “ kero- sene tractor” is used to denote a “gas tractor” in which kerosene is _ the ordinary fuel. By a “steam tractor” is meant an outfit deriving _ its power from steam generated in a boiler, heated by means of a fire © of coal, wood, straw, or similar fuel. The smaller machines, designed especially for cultivation, plowing, etc., commonly known as “autoplows’”’ and “autocultivators,’ in | which the tillage implement and power plant are combined in one ~ unit, have not been considered in this bulletin, as these do not prop- — erly come under the title of tractors. While there are numerous types | of these small self-propelled plows and cultivators intended particu- larly for use on small farms, few of them have been in actual service — long enough and in sufficient numbers to demonstrate their ability © to perform the work for which they are intended. . Nor should the data or remarks contained herein be considered as | applying to the various types of small tractors designed to pull two ' or three plow bottoms and selling at a comparatively low figure, large © numbers of which have been placed on the market during the past few months. These small, low-priced outfits represent the latest phase of the development of the farm tractor and may fairly be con- sidered as belonging to a different class than those under discussion in this bulletin. While they give promise of proving an economical source of power for a great deal of the field and stationary work on FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 2 the average farm, they have not been in actual use under service conditions for a sufficient length of time to demonstrate their utility conclusively. STEAM AND GAS TRACTORS. The self-propelled steam thrashing engine was the prototype of the modern steam tractor, the latter differing from the former mainly in the size of the drivewheels and transmission gears. -In other words, the steam tractor, generally speaking, was an outfit designed pri- marily for stationary use, but it was gradually adapted to the heavier work of hauling implements and to other work requiring power. A number of years were required for its development, but it finally proved its value on the large areas of prairie opened up for settlement in the West. At its best, however, it had several serious disadvantages. It burned bulky fuels, of which it could carry only a limited supply and which required considerable time and labor in conveyance. It con- sumed a large amount of water, which in a dry country was fre- quently a serious handicap. It was heavy and cumbersome and required a man of considerable ability to operate it properly. It ordinarily employed a crew of three to five men and of two to four horses. A delay of half an hour or more was often experienced in getting up steam pressure sufficient to commence work, and consid- erable fuel was consumed in keeping up steam during stops. In many cases the fire would be maintained all night in order to have the engine ready for work the next morning. These objectionable features were practically overcome by the gas tractor. It burned a fuel of less bulk and attained a higher thermal efficiency, so that it could easily carry sufficient fuel for a half day’s run, and in many cases for much longer. One 2-horse load of fuel would keep the engine in operation for several days. It used com- paratively little water, and, if desired, a low-priced oil could be sub- stituted for water in the cooling system. It weighed less per unit of power than the steam tractor, was shorter, and could therefore turn in less space. While it demanded a thoroughly competent operator in order to secure the best results, he could easily attend to the entire operation of the engine and would frequently find time to operate the plows as well, although the crew usually consisted of two men and occasionally of three men and two horses. The motor could be started in a moment’s time, and no fuel need be consumed when the outfit was idle. After the steam tractor had been used for plowing for several years, an insistent demand developed for a plowing outfit without the disadvantages of the steam tractor. The early gas tractors were builé largely to meet this demand. The gas tractor has therefore 4 BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. been developed primarily as a plowing engine, with belt work a sec- ondary consideration. Although it was actually superior to the steam tractor in the ways mentioned, it was nearly a decade before it developed sufficiently to prove this superiority and became a real competitor with the steam tractor. Most of its growth has occurred during the past 11 years, and in considering the rapidity with which it has been made it might at first appear that it must have been due to its superiority over both the horse and steam tractor as prime movers for the farm. As to its superiority over the steam tractor there is no doubt. The sales of steam tractors for farm work other than thrashing fell off as those of the gas tractor increased, and the steam tractor is seldom found to-day except in sections where suit- able fuel is cheap and convenient, thus giving it an advantage over the gas tractor. The decline in the number of steam tractors used for farm work is shown by the age distribution of those reported: One year old, 37; 2 years old, 65; 3 years old, 65; 4 years old, 88; 5 years old, 76; 6 years old, 33; 7 years old, 25; 8 years old, 24. THE GAS TRACTOR AND THE HORSE. While the gas tractor has almost completely replaced the steam trac- tor, as has been stated, neither the steam nor gas tractor has affected the sale or use of farm horses to any great extent. (See Tables XXII and XXIII.) A careful study of the subject shows clearly that the rapid growth of the gas tractor was not due to its superiority over the horse, but to the fact that large tracts of unbroken prairie land were being opened up in the West and that sufficient horses were not available to break the ground and bring it under cultivation. Gas tractors could be, and were, manufactured in a much shorter time than it would have taken to raise the necessary horses for this work. But as this new country developed, horses were rapidly imported, colts were raised, and more and more of the farm work was performed with horses. Quite frequently the tractor which had broken the prairie and brought it under cultivation was entirely replaced by them. A similar condition existed recently in Kansas. An nuiene diminished the number of farm horses in that State by thousands, and the number remaining was insufficient to perform the field work. Immediately hundreds of traction engines were shipped into the State to meet the power requirements. Whether these machines will retain the ground thus opened to them remains to be seen. Under similar conditions in other States they have not done so, indicating that they are either not as satisfactory as horses for farm work or are more expensive. The failure of the gas tractor to maintain its position as the prin- cipal prime mover in those sections where it was first introduced was FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 5 >) apparently not anticipated by those interested in its production. On account of its failure to maintain this position the heavy demand for gas tractors in those sections was only temporary, and an over- supply of tractors was placed upon the market, resulting in depression in the industry. Similar overproduction due to lack of foresight has occurred in other lines of farm equipment, one of the best exam- ples being the oversupply of grain harvesters during the period of rapid multiplication of the improved models. Generally speaking, the farm tractor has thus far merely supple- mented the work of the farm horse and relieved him of the heavier work; it has not actually replaced horses to any considerable extent. TRACTOR RATINGS. When internal-combustion tractors were first introduced, there was considerable confusion among engine users as to their ratings, owing to the fact that several methods were used in computing and desig- nating their horsepower. There are still several formulas used in computing the power developed by the motor, but the terms by which the power is denoted have become more uniform and more generally understood. The terms ‘‘brake” or ‘belt’? horsepower are used to denote the total amount of power which the engine will develop and transmit to a belt for stationary work, such as thrashing. This amount of power may be computed or ascertained by actual meas- urement with a proper apparatus. The ‘‘drawbar”’ horsepower is the belt horsepower minus the amount of power required to propel the weight of the tractor. Most tractors require approximately 50 per cent of the total power devel- oped by the engine to move its own weight, leaving the remainder available for pulling other implements. The amount of power which is actually exerted on the drawbar varies, of course, with the weight and construction of the tractor, and may be either com- puted or measured with a dynamometer. The tractor ratings are ordinarily expressed by writing the brake horsepower after the draw- bar horsepower; thus, “30-60” would indicate a tractor having a pull of 30 horsepower on the drawbar and developing 60 for stationary work. The term “horsepower” denctes an amount of power equivalent to that developed by a 1,500-pound horse moving at the rate of 24 miles per hour and exerting a pull equal to one-tenth of his own weight, or 150 pounds. This represents a power output capable of raising a weight of 33,000 pounds to a height of one foot in one minute, and these figures are commonly used in computing the power developed by an engine. A pull equal to one-tenth of his weight is considered a normal load for a horse. As most farm horses weigh less than 1,500 pounds, it is apparent that they do not ordinarily furnish a 6 BULLETIN 174, U: S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, full horsepower. A 1,200-pound horse moving at the rate of 24 miles per hour and exerting a pull of 120 pounds (one-tenth of his weight) would develop only four-fifths of a horsepower. Thus, an engine delivering 20 horsepower at the drawbar would be exerting a stronger pull than 20 horses (averaging less than 1,500 pounds in weight) normally do hour after hour. It should be borne in mind, however, that the engine is capable of delivering at the drawbar in an emergency but a fraction in excess of its rating of 20 horsepower, while 20 average horses are able for a short time to pull several times their normal load; that is, the engine might be overloaded to deliver 25 horsepower, while the 20 horses can be so urged as to deliver 30, 40, 60, or more horsepower for very short periods of time. SOURCE OF DATA. In obtaining the data on which this bulletin is based, several hundred owners in sections where tractors are most widely used were personally visited, and conditions were observed and interviews had with farmers using tractors as well as with those who did not use them. At the same time the opinions of business men with regard to the use of tractors by farmers in their vicinity were secured and brief histories of the experience of users were recorded. A letter was addressed to all bankers located in the farming sections of the United States lying west of the Mississippi River, requesting their opinions as to the effect of the tractor on the farming industry in their vicinity, the desirability of the tractor as an investment for a farmer, their practice regarding the loan of money for the purchase of a tractor, and related questions. (See Table II.) A letter was addressed to more than 13,000 tractor owners, inclosing a list of questions to be answered, the replies to which were tabulated and are shown in the following pages. The distribution of these tractor users by States is shown in Tabie I. Replies were received from about 40 per cent of the men addressed, but many of the reports were discarded because tractors had not been used for a sufficient length of time to enable their owners to form an opinion as to their merits. However, more than 2,000 men who had operated their outfits for one or more seasons furnished detailed reports. TaBLe I.—Distribution of tractors in States west of the Mississippi River, showing the approximate number of owners reported by bankers. | Tractor Tractor . Tractor EES | owners. State. owners. ene: owners. North Dakota.......- ] SHQ00KH Re xase: 2 eae bss 8 ae 650 || Arkansas.....-....--- 80 South Dakota......-- 2.1001) Missouri *. 22 fee 245 |) Arizona: _--.>.-.2.-<-= 20. Kansas... .. eee 1,205 || Oklahoma........-..- 335 || New Mexico. ........- 15 Lowes 25a. a eae 1,200 |} Colorado......-.-...-- 265:|) Nevada... = -ss2s8a5e- 5 Minnesota.-....-.----- 1,060 |) Wyoming..........--- 1305 |\Wtahe=s.. ten ies 5 Montana: ssh. cteoee 950:'|| Oregon? .t=5. 5). .28F: 125 Nebraska): si eases | 7300 aldalho es seh = Hee 105 TO (ANSE sees 13,327 FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 7 OBSERVATIONS OF BUSINESS MEN. Most of the inquiries to business men were addressed to bankers. It is believed that bankers have a more intimate knowledge of the financial standing of the farmers of their community than most other classes of business men and are also more likely to furnish an unbiased and unprejudiced opinion, based on their knowledge of the financial success of the men who are farming with horses and those who are using tractors. The prosperity of the bankers of a community depends largely upon the prosperity of their patrons, and they naturally keep well informed on all factors influencing the welfare of the com- munity. It appears from many of the answers that the writers had been carefully observing the effect of farm tractors for several years, and their conclusions were based on actual knowledge of the general prosperity of the men who farmed with horses and those who used tractors. The replies received from all classes of business men showed that where tractors had been used to any great extent or for a considerable length of time the business interests have become prejudiced against them and beheve they have had an injurious effect on the farming community and general prosperity of the country. Hundreds of facts and arguments were furnished in support of these opinions, which were not in a form permitting tabulation. The principal reason advanced seems to be the fact that a great many men who have purchased tractors have failed to make them pay, and a large percentage, having bought expensive outfits on time, lost their entire property through foreclosure proceedings and judgments on notes. Tt is unfair, however, to ascribe all of these failures to the ineffi- ciency of the tractor, as faulty operation had its share. A very important contributing cause has been the poor business management and judgment of the farmer in incurring an obligation nearly or quite equal to the entire value of his property with no means of meet- ing it except the production of a good crop or the possible performance of a large amount of lucrative custom work. While a good crop might save him from bankruptcy, he would be more properly termed “lucky” than a good manager. The failure of a crop the first year after the purchase of the tractor has often been sufficient to ruin the owner, while serious breaks or other accidents have frequently accomplished the same result. Without referring further to the reasons for their opinions, most of the business men consulted do not consider the tractor a good invest- ment for the average farmer. The opinions of bankers as to the effect the tractors have had on the farming industry and their desira- bility as an investment for the average farmer are shown in Table II. In this table the States are arranged according to the number of 81435°—Bull. 174—15——2 8 BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tractor owners known to the bankers, but this is probably the order in which they would appear if they were arranged according to natural conditions most favorable to the tractors and possibly also as to the | length of time during which such machines have been used in these States, respectively. TasLe I1.—Bankers’ opinions regarding the tractor. Answers of bankers to questions indicated below. on fe nists Do you consider a trac- : tion engine a good in- ae Free vestment for the aver- States (arranged according to number of tractor owners ae dustry in your vi} 28¢ farmer in your own to bankers). cinity? neighborhood? - Oey Favorable. No. Yes. INOrEn yD akotatt (2a ss aes Set Oe te ee ee Se 343 57 422 20 South Dakotascss oot Se es Pe ee eee 124 58 225 48 Kansas Sie. SSS hae ee See tees Ss 83 87 172 26 OW ase Nose cece ote cee eo aeioe fete ee eee e eee eee = Lae 17 59 65 17 Minnesota....../.... 57 53 144 il Montana.........- =I 87 26 116 8 Nebraska........ -e8 22 35 61 Teer California....... 4 90 43 34 Moexas-e5 7b ee cee: 23 51 61 23 IMASSOUT ICS eee eo te SEN ee 18 16 28 3 Oklahoma els 5 2. ea sores Sas See es AS 18 23 49 5 Golorsd oye. SPN PE SA Re eS a i6 17 33 3 IW y Quai se O2E see pias ses be tS Suen aes ee ace Re A ee 6 12 17 4 Oresonl eee. oe ase oe Se eee ea Se 5 11 12 2 Tdang ee eRe Eee ee te See ea ee 5 5 11 4 Washingtoner:. £422 5s42. 2 Ss soe Sk CBee Seen 7 4 11 2 SN CAMSASEEA ee oe jos). Seek ee OR Oe ae a ee ee 2 5 5 4 AUTRE ES 2 Fa Eg 8 ae EA eo eed) eee 5 4 li 1 Motalestssse Ae ae ek ee Aono ce esi oe | 842 613 1, 486 225 Each of the bankers whose answers are included in this tabulation knew at least three users of tractors, while most of them knew a much greater number, the average being about 10. It will be observed from this table that while 842 bankers believe the tractor has had an unfavorable effect on the farming industry and 613 state the effect to be favorable, the number of bankers who are of the opinion that the tractor is a good investment for a farmer is only 225, while 1,486 think that it isnot. Bankers realize that the tractor has been a benefit to the community in helping to break and open up to cultivation large tracts of virgin land, but they also realize that the risk of this enter- prise, as well as much of the expense, has been borne by the indi- vidual farmer. Nearly 87 per cent of business men who have had an opportunity to observe the results of tractor farming consider that a tractor is a poor investment for a farmer. CPINIONS OF TRACTOR GWNERS. The opinions of the men who have used tractors corroborate the views of the bankers. In reply to the question, ‘Do you consider a traction engine a good investment financially for a farmer in your FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. ~ 9 vicinity ?”’ there were 876 who answered ‘‘no”’ and 891 who answered “ves.” Of those answering this question, 748 had used their tractor for only one season. The answers of the men who had used the tractor through two or more seasons show 592 negative and 427 affirmative replies. Practically all of the men from whom replies were received were using tractors at the end of 1913, and those who had previously tried them but had discontinued their use are not, therefore, included. It may safely be assumed that nearly all of the latter class would answer the above question in the negative, which would more than double the number of men answering “‘no,”’ as there are hundreds of men who have discontinued the use of the tractor after a trial. Accurate figures on this point are difficult to secure, owing to duplication among the past users of tractors reported, but a conservative estimate obtained by using the number reported by bankers located in widely separated sections of Montana indicates that more than 400 men have discontinued the use of the tractor for farm work in that State. The answers of present owners of tractors to the above questions are shown in Table III. Taste II1.—Answers of tractor owners to the question, ‘‘Do you consider the traction engine a good invesiment financially for a farmer in your vicinity?” First season. | Second season. | Third season. | Fourth season. State. ap Ty Se GSS ke Te RRR Yes. No. Yes. No. Yes. No. Yes. No. INGE MAD EV coe sees ene Ba 108 106 73 154 25 86 15 32 Boru Wakotarss ess: ea ee 39. 28 28 22 16 19 15 14 “RDS YS Se SA ee See ee ee 56 22 26 22 9 9 5 5 PUBTTITRGS OU. cane Se eyes oto ee Ty 24 27 37 35 13 12 3 7 IGN Rey SSR SS ie © Sei ee ere 26 26 23 38 Ui 12 2 12 IGT s5 hi See TRA SE LO ea aes eta 52 17 14 13 9 6 3 3 IDK AYOKOSE Ears ee oe eee eee 42 4 15 9 1i 2 Qo letesetsietoe MGlerrrasica eee here Pete pees Peete ly! 22 13 il 14 4 1 ae 3 TRESS 5 ON ee aero eee ata De ate lias 25 13 4 8 1 OF Sede oapalteaeeres NWS c(h eo ey See oe he a ieee 15 5 3 3 i i Dy Rae ee OC iO Sik ieee een Eee os Repeater 55 23 16 19 9 4 3 4 TOUR EEL cae REP eee ees S AEE 464 284 250 337 105 155 50 80 JEe Cia ae ED Ee Ee eS 62.0 38.0 42.6 57.4 40. 4 59.6 38.5 61.5 Table III shows that the percentage of men who believe that the tractor is a poor investment increases with each season’s use, until, after four years, 61.5 per cent of the owners are of this opinion. If the opinions of those who have discontinued the use of the tractor could have been included, this percentage would doubtless be in- creased to 85, thus approximating the judgment of the bankers. For example, 65 per cent of all present tractor owners in Montana have had more than one season’s experience, and 65 per cent of these answer the inquiry in the negative. If 65 per cent of the 950 users reported for Montana in Table I, or 617, be taken as the number in that State having more than one year’s experience, then 65 per cent of the Ss ea 10 BULLETIN174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. latter number, or 400, represents the number of present users who report unfavorably after one season of experience. If to this be added the 400 who have discontinued the use of the tractor im Montana, there appear to be 800 out of 1,017 who hold unfavorable opinions, or about 80 per cent. In analyzing the reports of users it early became apparent that Opinions and estimates furnished by men who had used a tractor for only one season could not be accepted as representing average results, as their answers invariably gave more favorable averages than did those from men who had had experiences of two or more seasons. This is partly due in all probability to the fact that their machines were of better quality than those of previous years, but the differences between the averages are far greater than those existing between the tractors sold early in 1913 and those sold one year previous. The principal reason for these favorable answers is doubtless a natural enthusiasm resuiting from the acquisition of new and interesting machines, of which great achievements are expected, but which have not been used for a sufficient time to demonstrate their actual value. The experience gained by the end of the second season, with the novelty gone, the outfit showing the effect of wear and not running so satisfactorily as when new, and the probability of more or less repairing having been necessary, makes the owner better qualified to express an opinion as to the tractor’s actual value. The tractor’s efficiency decreases with use, on account of wear. The reports show, however, that it is durimg the first year of its use, © when it should be rendering its maximum amount of service and giy- ing a minimum amount of trouble, that the largest percentage of men change their opinions of the tractor from favorable to unfavorable. It is a reasonable supposition that every purchaser of a tractor believes he is making a good investment at the time of purchase. The data show that after one season’s use only 62 per cent retain this opinion, so that it would seem that the results were such as to cause 38 per cent to change their opinion on this point after one year. After two seasons’ use more than 57 per cent of present tractor users believe the tractor is a poor investment, and with longer experience this percentage increases. REPORTS OF SATISFIED AND DISSATISFIED OWNERS. In order to ascertain whether the owners who expresssed favorable opinions regarding the tractor were actually obtaining better results than those holding opposite views, tabulations were made of the data furnished by these two classes of men, and the averages obtained are shown in Tables IV to VIII, inclusive. The data compiled from reports of tractor owners shown in Tables IV to VIII are separately given for North Dakota and for all other 1 . bs FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR, | ~ 11 States west of the Mississippi River.t. This separation was made for the following reasons: Sufficient replies were received from owners in North Dakota to give reliable averages. The conditions under which tractors are used in North Dakota are very similar throughout the State, being generally favorable to the tractor on account of the large, level farms, where the types of farming followed are well adapted to the use of mechanical power. Gas tractors have been used in considerable numbers in North Dakota for a greater length of time than in the other States. SERVICE RENDERED BY TRACTOR. Table IV shows the average amount of service rendered annually per tractor, together with estimates as to the average hfe of farm tractors. The figures showing days used per year include custom work of all ads. as well as stationary work on the home farm. I+ will be noticed that the number of days the tractor is used per year grows slightly less, as a rule, from year to year, and at the same time the hours lost per die increase. Tm connection with the estimated life of the tractor it may be noted that for the group of States the averages are higher for the men who have used the tractor but one season, while in North Dakota they are slightly lower. This is probably site due to the fact that in mak- img the estimate the men were asked to judge by ‘‘observations and experience.’’ In North Dakota many men who had used a tractor fer only one year could make a fair estimate of the average life of a tractor from observations of outfits which had been used in their ee 2erood, while in other States they have not been so widely used and the estimates are made to a greater extent from personal experience only. There are also other reasons, which will appear in connection with subsequent tables. Only 24 reports from North Dakota were received from men who had used their tractors more than four years, and about the same num- ber came from the other territory. The age distribution of the tractors reported from North Dakota was as follows: One year old, 278; 2 years old, 283; 3 years old, 131; 4 years old, 55; 5 years old, 15; 6 years old, 5; 7 years old, 2; 8 years old, 2. It is known that the number of 4-year-old tractors reported is a very smail percentage of the number of tractors actually sold four years ago, much smaller than the percentage reported for the 1 and 2 year old tractors. This would apparently indicate that many of the tractors sold four years ago are no longer in use, and, together with the decrease in the number reported for the third year, might be 1 The data in the upper half of Tables IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII are all based on the same group of farms, and by combining these parts of tables the complete tabulation for the group may easily be obtained. The same is true of the lower half of these tables. T= 12 BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. considered as evidence that the estimated life of the tractor, as fur- nished by the tractor owners reporting, is too high. TasLe IY.—Service rendered annually by tractors on farms in North Dakota and other States west of the Mississippi River, showing the length of life as estimated by the owners. ; [Arranged according to the opinions of owners as to the tractor’s desirability as an investment.} In THE STATE OF NortTH Dakota. | Hours in field per | Farms where night day. | work was reported. = Average | mate = Result of investment as reported | “on aal Wess Number erage Average by owners. use. | “lite of |2¥F@8€4-) percent ee: Spent. Lost. tractor. age oi al! | of nights ; tractors. | operated per year. Men having one season’s experi- ence: Days. Brotiable #232. s-piaega ees 87.1 12.5 1.2 168 14.6 31.8 Unprofitable:-.25. 25.2245 2- 69.2 12.4 2.1 106 tS57 12.9 Men having twe seasons’ experi- ence: Profitable: 2 229632 eae 97.3 13.1 1.4 73 23.1 26.9 Unprotitable: 225-48 - 525% 76.6 12.9 PY 154 10.7 16.0 Men having three seasons’ expe- rience: Profitable. 235 foo B.S 85.2 12.8 1.5 25 30.0 17.3 . Unprotitable- oo. ose. 75.6 12.8 2.7 86 12.9 11.7 Men haying four seasons’ expe- rience: iProtitaplen-2 5. 28 5a ea 92.5 12.6 1.6 15 10.0 60.0 Unprofitable: =... 72. 2222-2: 73.4 12.0 2.8 32 8.0 22.5 In ALL STATES WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER EXCEPT NORTH DAKOTA. | t Men having one season’s experi- ence: fergie) (eee eee eerie 105.8 11.4 l 1.3 10.2 356 21.3 26.5 Unprofitables 2.2222. .5-2 2222 77.9 1E£5 2.2 6.4 178 16.5 13.7 Men having two seasons’ expe- rience: Prontable> Pe. as a dees eee a= 102.1 11.7 14 9.7 177 28. 6 34.7 Wuprofitable:/.2: --2-29.2 2: 73.9 11.8 2.2 3.0 183 16.0 22.2 Men having three seasons’ expe- rience: ; Brotitable. 22-6. =-5ssenn 98.9 11.6 1.4 9.9 80 16.9 38.9 Unprofitable..-2 22.25.3253. 73.0 11.6 2.5 7 69 5.2 12.3 Men having four seasons’ expe- —rience: | Promtable=-- 22-22 242-522-5 93.5 11.6 1.6 9.3 35 10.7 22. Unprofitable....-...........| 65.2 1.4} 26 5.9 48 aA 338, j To judge by the estimates, the average life of a tractor in North Dakota is approximately only 6 years, while the average estimated life in other States is about 8 years. It is believed, however, that in the case of estimates on the life of tractors for States other than North Dakota, some allowance must be made for the fact, already mentioned, that most of these estimates are based entirely on the owner’s personal experience, which the figures show has been a short one for 80 per cent of the men reporting, whereas for North Dakota the figures are to a great extent based on observation of neighboring tractors as well. we FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR.’ 13 However, the life of a tractor can not be properly expressed in years alone. The tractor is a machine; and, like all machines, its life depends on the amount of work it does and on the care taken of it. This life can be shortened by lack of proper care and by abuse in operation. The number of years a tractor will be available for work on a farm, therefore, depends only partly on the hours it will be required to work each year. But if the machine is given proper care, both when idle and when in use, the amount of work done per year will be the principal factor in determining its length of useful life. Table IV shows that during the working life of a tractor in ordinary farm service the amount of service obtained covers from 3,600 to 11,000 working hours, including both traction and stationary work. From these figures it is apparent that a tractor might be worn out in less than two years if operated day and night continuously, while, on the other hand, if used only intermittently its life may be extended over a number of years, with proper protection from deteriorating influences when not in use. It might seem at first thought that a tractor could be made to last indefinitely by replacmg worn-out parts with new ones, but there comes a time when the cost of such replace- ments becomes prohibitive and it is more economical to discard the old tractor and purchase a new one. ‘The tractor’s life is, then, the length of time it can be used before the repairs become so expensive as to make its further use uneconomical. While Table II] showed the number of owners who believe the tractor to be a profitable investment, there were two related questions submitted to the owners which are not shown in the tabulations. These were ‘‘All things considered, is the tractor more satisfactory than horses?’’ and ‘‘Is it cheaper?’’ The answers received to these questions agree In many cases with those shown in Table III, but it is interesting to note that among the men who believed the tractor to bea good investment the number reporting the tractor to be cheaper than horses is greater than the number stating that it is more satisfactory than horses. On the other hand, among the men believing that the tractor is an unprofitable investment, the number stating that it is not cheaper than horses is less than the number stating that it is not as satisfactory. This would seem to indicate that among the successful owners the tractor’s economy has been a greater factor than its general utility, while among the unsuccessful owners the expense has been a more important consideration than its unsatisfactory operation. FUELS USED. Table V shows the number of engines in each group which burn gasoline, kerosene, and motor spirits, respectively. From this table it will be seen that the percentage of kerosene tractors is slightly 14 BULLETIN 174, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ereater in each group where the owners believe the tractor is profit- able than in the groups where the owners state that the tractor is unprofitable. While this difference is in no case greater than 13 per cent, it is invariably present, which indicates that it has probably had some influence on the opinions of the owners. A further com- parison of gasoline and kerosene tractors will be found in Table IX. Tasie V.—Tractors using different fuels on farms in North Dakota and other States west of the Mississippi River. [Arranged according to the opinions of owners as to the tractor’s desirability as an investment. IN THE STATE OF NoRTH DAKOTA. Gasoline. Kerosene. Motor spirits. Result of investment as reported Fuel not by owners. Percent- Percent- Percent- Number} ageof | Number} ageof | Number] age of reported. using. | number | using. | number |] using. | number reported. reported. reported. First season: RROntaplese reso s--eeeeeeeee 37 48.7 33 43.4_ 6 7.9 32 Unprofitable. -..2-22------- 50 63.3 27 34, 2 2 2.5 27 Second season: Profitable nen. sss~4dasenees 30 49.2 29 47.5 ; 2 3.3 12 Um proktaples sic eee eee 77 62.6 45 36.6 1 8 31 Third season: Proftablensc sce hsseee cess 14 60.9 8 34.8 1 4.3 2 lWUnproiitables-sess= 2 -aee" 41 64.1 21 32. 8 2 3.1 22 Fourth season: Broftables 34 eee seers 6 46.2 7 53.8 (Or Ph at ea A 2 Wmprotitabless--sses-e eee. 16 59.3 il 40.7 Oi racists 5 In ALL STATES WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER EXCEPT NORTH DAKOTA. First season: IBTOUTADIe Ree ree Heee noes 117 46.2 133 52.6 3 ey) 49 Unprofitable ss s-ase---eees 78 53.4 65 44.5 3 2.1 25 Second season: Prontaple sy cee eee se ae se 70 52.2 60 44.8 4 3.0 26 Wmprotitaplessiecsseoce see 86 59.3 59 40.7 OD ssctecdsstes 29 Third season: Profitapleses aster eee 34 60.7 20 SB 7 2 3.6 12 Umprofitablen< 3-5 eae 39 72.2 15 27.8 ) \lecodcsssss 13 Fourth season: Rrotutablers 2 ek eer 14 51.9 13 48.1 Oslkee Spee 5 Wnprofitable seas: os-ess-e 19 52.8 17 47.2 ON Pe as teces 12 AMOUNT OF MOTIVE POWER PER FARM. In Table VI are comparisons of the amount and value of motive power maintained by the two classes of tractor users which are being considered, together with thé value of special equipment purchased for use with the tractor and the average size of farms for each group. Little difference is shown in the average sizes of tractors, in their cost, or in the value of special equipment for the tractor. But the men who find the tractor profitable, although they show a greater average acreage, do not keep so many horses as those who reported unfavorably. A comparison of results obtained on different sizes of farms is shown in Table XIX. FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 18 Taste VI.—Comparison of the average amount and value of motive power maintained by tractor users on farms in North Dakota and other States west of the Mississippi River. [Arranged according to the opinions of owners as to the tractor’s desirability as an investment.] IN THE STATE OF NORTH DAKOTA. Value of Horses kept. : : : Drawbar special Size of Result of investment as reported by horse- Cost of equip- farms Owners: pager of tractors. | ment for | Present | Value. | (acres). eh ; tractors. | number. First season: IProtitableseeeee eet ace cit maces ae 22.9 $2, 474 $617 8.9 $1, 526 785 Wmiprofitabletess esac s ses ces seca 23.2 2,467 650 11.1 1,849 763 Second season: : Profitable se yee teers ee eye eae 24.7 2; 621 753 10.4 1,831 924 Wit MORMON iced ssoedeesscesceusoceees 24.3 2,548 720 13.8 2,241 870 Third season: (Brofitalpblemnc sass ors venice eine comes aoe 23.0 2,572 670 10.3 1, 724 783 Wmprotitalews sees scree cee eet 24.6 2, 604 725 10.4 1, 689 719 Fourth season: RO tta lees. le en le cie eine Bsr ae tS 23.2 2,247 706 11.6 1,896 896 Ga OROT MOG eas Seek acetates Sea ene « 21.4 2,430 725 13.7 2, 203 846 In ALL STATES WEST OF THE MissIssippIl RIVER EXCEPT NORTH DAKOTA. First season: LEYRON OER ZH ONS) eh ete Chee mee 21.9 $2,348 $496 8.8 $1, 405 666 Warprofita bless. ssn jest esteeaeeer PROT 2,330 528 10.1 1,565 | 548 Second season: TEV OV aL eRN OV seers as es ee ae ea 22.9 2, 426 574 8.7 1,398 682 Wmiprofitablessrces-secs-c aera sane cee 22.8 2, 454 613 10.1 1,595 664 Third season: : PTO LNG AO Ces aerate seared tetra 22.8 2,549 601 13.8 2,010 847 Wanprofitables cs 2h ausy Soe scene secs we 21.8 2,478 620 10.5 1,607 759 Fourth season: IRBON Tab loge te! tae eer mien eee eas Soe 19.3 De, ay 529 Wit 1, 794 714 mprofita plese eseeseee eee ee eee 22.1 2,322 688 10.8 1,671 614 CUSTOM WORK. Table VII shows the number of owners in each of the two classes that are being compared who use their tractors for custom work. From these it will be seen that the percentage of men who do custom work, as well as the percentage of men who state that custom work is profitable, is larger among the owners who find the tractor profitable than among the second class of owners. The difference in the prices - received is not very marked nor very regular and apparently bears little relation to the percentage of men reporting custom work unprofitable. For a comparison of averages from men who state that custom work is profitable and from those who find it unprofitable, see Table XX. 81435°—Bull. 174—15——3 16. BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe VII.—Custom work done by tractor owners on farms in North Dakota and other States west of the Mississippi River. [Arranged according to the opinions of owners as to the tractor’s desirability as an investment.] InN THE STATE OF NORTH DAKOTA. | - Finding custom ; Number Doing custom work.) ork profitable. Result of investment as reported by owners. Teport- ing. Number. | Percent. | Number. | Per cent. Men having one season’s experience: PTrONtables sas 62s eset se aoe eae Se oe eee Se 104 76 73.1 64 87.7 (Wnprofitablers.- fa. ecto be oe eee eee =e 103 56 54.4 21 43.7 Men having two seasons’ experience: 4 Protitables 4. ss. peo. sas aoe eo ee eens ee 72 59 81.9 48 87.3 , Unproiitable:: 2 - peo so ct aces sec eepe eee eee 149 95 63.8 22 27.8 Men having three seasons’ experience: Profitablesic. 22) be 52s US bet Sees cee eee es 8 25 21 84.0 19 95.0 Unprofita ples ctaee oes se Paes sins eee eee oes 85. 52 61.2 13 27.7 Men having four seasons’ experience: Profitablen ss se o-pecee= =o ae oe A-eeeee esa 15 10 66.7 8 88.9 TUMPEOHLADIO:. 323. et ee hss ob aeotic oo eee pce soe 32 25 78.1 9 39.1 In ALL STATES WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER EXCEPT NORTH DAKOTA. Men having one season’s experience: Profitableso ce db. ganache oreeedaF 341 237 69.5 199 88.8 Umnprofitabler:.- 3.2 ao55-2-kaaee- Sess ate a eee 172 120 69.8 60 54.5 Men having two seasons’ experience: Profitables. 2 3-4 sak 522i b ae 2 eee ee 170 130 76.5 102 87.9 Unprontable:®. 22) 05555. 525. gee 2 Sse ape ent ees 177 115 65.0 43 41.0 Men having three seasons’ experience: Profi tale ee. Ap nes ope a os ee ee P 78 59 75.6 50 89.3 (Umprontaplor =. 5-2 ass cnet ase eee ae 67 46 68.7 14 34.1 Men having four seasons’ experience: Profitablas 32--4-s-vsce ee nee Coe eee sees 34 29 85.3 | 22 81.5 Umprotitabie: 2-24). asc os oF sae cas tee ee 48 28 58.3 | 13 50.0 In Table VIII is a comparison of the annual repairs reported by the two classes of owners under consideration, together with the total repairs. In this connection it should be noted that a number of the men who reported the total amount of repairs for their tractors did not report the repairs by years. The total repairs, therefore, do not agree exactly with the sum of the annual repairs. — Considering Tables IV te VIII as a whole, it is seen that the greatest differences existing between the averages for the two classes of owners represented are those between the estimated life of the tractor in years, the average amount of time lost per day, and the repairs. These items show that decidedly better results are being obtaimed by the men who state that the tractor is a_profitabie investment, as they lost considerably less time per day on account of engine trouble, had much lower repair charges, and, in their opinion, they will obtain approximately one more year’s service from their tractors than the men who believe the tractor is unprofitable. — FARM. EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 17 Taste VIII.—Annual repairs for tractors on farms in North Dakota and other States west of the Mississippi River. [Arranged according to the opinions of owners as to the tractor’s desirability as an investment.]} IN THE STATE OF NortTH DAKOTA. First year. Second year. Third year. | Fourth year. Bycranc) otal repairs.t Result of investment as Per z er Per Per Per Per reported by owners. eent- cent- cent- cent- cent- Amount.) age |Amount.| age |Amount.| age |Amount.| age |Amount.) age of of of of of value. value. value. value. value. Men having had one sea- son’s experience: Profitables: -hm- =>. $26.30)1 Uok. [seo ee onc. «ae eects ater aoe oe | Ccietemite ee | erases $26. 33 ial Unprofitable.......-. SiS ee 9a eee a Ra | ea eo read bem oeracal lasers 72.54 2.9 Men having had two sea- sons’ experience: iBrofitables- ass. 2 .- 21.29 -8 | $64.00 S71 Unprofitable...--...- 69.53 | 2.7] 144.55 9.0 Men having had three seasons’ experience: Proitaple..- 2. sca. 32.70 | 1.3 87.39 | 3.4] $91.83 198.35 Ted Unprofitable.......-. 81.56 | 3.1 | 125.62} 4:8) 175.35 359.22} 13.8 Men having had four sea- sons’ experience: Pofiia lesen cs. . 52. 16.36 nif 52:23 | 253 85.06 | 3.8 | $71.41 | 3.1} 230.05} 10.2 Unprofitable.......-- 39.73 | 1.6 63.29 | 2.6 91°12 || 3.8 $4.58 | 3.9] 442.52] 18.2 Ty Att States WEST OF THE Mississippi RIVER EXCEPT NORTH DAKOTA. Men having had one sea- son’s experience: Brotitabletssso--s-s- $36.44 PaDiGclatecc ces |. sepeleeeeece ool sa soenlseaeee see sasoes $36. 44 1.6 Unprofitable-....-..- CAA te Real sO eRe Bseisod| so aneoatal meme Selmemtery malls Seocie 73.29 Bye Men having had two sea- | sons’ experience: Profitablesst <<... - 4. 27.43 | 1.1 | $65.95 4.2 Unprofitable.......-- 60.40 | 2.6 | 122.41 8.0 Men having had three seasons’ experience: Profitable: 2/2 on.e5- 36.46 | 1.4 G03) || SHOR ES OOM 125 Si | ere eel rere 196. 99 7.7 Unprofitable--.....-. GPE || endef delismtcle Ive Caste, |) desViqgesss |) Ge8) |icoacosesclisonson S2on Gre maton Men having had four sea- sons’ experience; Protablesose. - Seas ee eee oe ae ae see “days... = 82 88 Average time spent in the field per day-.----2.-----2-22-2s---2--<-2---- hours... 13 13 ime lost iperday for repairs, ete. 32 5-2. 5202 7. See 3a do.-... 2.2 1.9 Average drawbar AUER ES SUS AS horsepower... 24.6 23.0 AVELase SIZe'0L farm. Se Poach eet cee see os - See os ee ae ae acres.. 841 866 Number of horses kept: Before purchase of tractor......-.------------ BO 35 Jee ioe Ose te eee = 15.3 17.8 At ter purchase Of BracClol. =< 2. sce see cee ae eee eo ee haa etre cole eee 11.6 12.3 Average namberiof horses displaced 220 5s. nee = = oe ee ed eee 4.2 5.5 Owners who do custom work - 25.5. eee eee. + ee eee eee en enna per ioe > ye 74 Owners doing custom work who find it profitable..--.-.-.---------------- do.... 67 AV CTAZC COSL OL (TACLOL. = 205 2 =f pase See EE ee eae seen dollars..} 2, 373. 00 2, 469.00 Average cost of repairs required: - ITSt SCASON, 2c 5 S20 So ee ae ak Seen. Sf. ee es ee eee ee does. 61.00 33.00 SeCONG: SEASON 3304 eS So eae ee Re ae coe er ee een epee do.... 123.00 81.00 Average value of special equipment purchased -....-_--.------ = ee do.... 692. 00 734.00 Price received per acre for plowing ..._.---------------------------------- dou. 1.87 1.88 ‘Price recetved per acce for breaking 2-59) 222 oie 2* . eee eee ete eee do.... 3.54 _ 3.56 It is believed that the comparison made in Table IX is the fairest and most reliable which it is possible to make, and a similar method has been used in preparing several of the tables that follow. From the comparison made, it will be seen that the figures are slightly in favor of the kerosene tractor in almost every case, the FARM EXPERIENCE With THE TRACTOR. 19 most important differences being in the estimated life and the cost of repairs required annually; but the percentage of replies, days used annually, hours lost, horses replaced, and percentage finding custom work profitable, all of which are favorable to the kerosene tractor, are worthy of note. While this table shows that the amount of equipment per tractor is greater for the kerosene than for the gasoline tractors, the difference being $42, this figure is really favorable to the kerosene tractor, as it is shown in Table X that the kerosene tractor pulls a greater cross section of plows, etc., than does a gasoline tractor of equal rating. It will, therefore, require a larger gang to provide a full load, and consequently the cost cf the equipment is slightly higher. Table X presents a comparison of the operating factors for gasoline and kerosene tractors of 15 and 30 horsepower, drawbar rating. These figures were furnished by men in North Dakota with only one year’s experience and are therefore probably slightly more favorable to the tractor than would be the case if the owners were men of longer experience. The reason for using figures furnished by men with only one season’s experience is the fact that among the reports for tractors which had been used for two seasons there were very few for gasoline and kerosene tractors of exactly the same ratings for which complete information had been furnished. While the number of these machines among the 1-year-old tractors is not large, it is believed to be sufficient to insure a fairly reliable comparison. TABLE X.—Comparison of results obtained on farms in North Dakota with gasoline and kerosene tractors during their jirst season’s use. Drawbar ratings of tractors. Item of comparison. 15 horsepower. 30 horsepower. Gasoline. | Kerosene. | Gasoline. | Kerosene. iINunibenon tractors reported 22. --- =~ - 2. --------- seer 28 24 41 27 POG GCL ICGh INobte. 4 pgcoseboooobuScscoceseesrepee - acres. - 4 1.5 2a BS IS GUNG ON RT0 Goce ba scoseoe hee ac Se Seas eae inches- - 5.9 6.2 6.1 6.3 Wradtintot plows 22 2625<52- saussees ogee te. - ese doze iad 80.6 110.8 = 17.83 Width of harrow drawn at same time as plows..-.do---- 98.1 102.9 96.3 107.7 Distance traveled per hour.....--...----.------- miles. 2a 2.1 2.3 2.2 HG@eltised nerd ayecsac cos ccc ce seo eee gallons. - 33.0 44.0 57.9 66.5 © Costofiuelusedsper(day-. 2 a2 2.222 2- 2c 2-=-" dollars. - 6.41 5.50 10. 26 8.78 Cylinder oil used per day....-.--.------------- gallons. - 2.5 3.3 4.1 4.6 Cost of cylinder oil used per day.-.------------- dollars. . 91 1,29 1.69 1. 84 Table X shows that the acres plowed per hour, the depth plowed, width of plow, and width of harrow are all greater for the kerosene than for the gasoline tractor. The amount of fuel consumed is greater for the kerosene tractor, but the cost is less, on account of the lower price per gallon. Both the amount and value of the lubri- cating oil used are greater for the kerosene tractor, however. 20 BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FUEL SUPPLY. The showing made by the kerosene tractors in comparison with those burning gasoline is of special interest in view of the compara- tively recent introduction and development of the kerosene tractor. A few years ago the supply of gasoline could not be imereased rapidly enough with the distilling systems then in use to meet the requirements of the thousands of gasoline engines of all kinds bemg manufactured. As a consequence, the price of gasoline gradually increased. The engine manufacturers, therefore, fearing that the rise in the price of gasoline would hurt the sale of their product, devoted their efforts to developing an engine which would burn the heavier and cheaper oils. At the same time the oii refiners bent their efforts toward developing a precess which would produce a larger quantity of the lighter fuels from the crude oils. Both have apparently accomplished their purpose. Engines are now on the market which apparently handle the heavier fuels with even better results in some respects than are obtained from the engines burning gasoline, while the oil refiners can now vary the quality of petroleum products at will. On account of a misunderstanding which seems to be quite general as to the present status of the fuel resources of this country, a short discussion of the subject will be of interest. There seems to be a rather prevalent opimion that the supply of fuel oil is rapidly nearing exhaustion, that the percentage of the lighter fuels, especially gasoline, which can be obtained from the crude oil, is growing less, and that the price of gasoline will there- fore soon increase to such an extent as to prohibit its use in farm engines. Statements to this effect are quite common and frequently appear in print. While appearances may have indicated such a con- dition a few years ago, recent developments in the petroleum indus- “try prove that such statements have no foundation in fact at the present time. : In the opinion of Dr. David T. Day, of the United States Geological Survey, the known oil supply of this country will in al! probability be sufficient for the next 100 years. Dr. Day has been in charge of the petroleum investigations of the Geological Survey for a number of years and is qualified to speak with authority on this subject. As to the percentage of gasoline that can be obtained from the crude oils, Dr. Day, in a recent address before the Franklin Institute, spoke as follows: This consideration naturally suggests the vital question of an adequate gasoline supply. Even if we produce 25,000,000 barrels of gasoline in the next year this would probably be too little for a year or two of further automobile progress. FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 21 The means for meeting the demandare in sight. * * * In the first place, recent developments in knowledge of the resources of the United States make it probable that there will be no great decline in oil production in the future; therefore no decline in gasoline supply is likely. As to the necessary increase, this will come from synthetic gasoline ebiaeret from petroleum itself. Several years ago £ found that if these oils are distilled under pressure the yield of gasoline is still greater, and that the unpleasant odor, due to deficiency in hydrogen in the composition of the oils, can be remedied by actually combining hydrogen with the oil in the still under the influence of a catalytic agent. Recently the demand for any kind of gasoline has waived the requirement of good odor, and other processes are producing much synthetic gasoline. By such means, low-grade residues have been made to yield from 20 to perhaps 70 per cent of their weight in material which will serve as gasoline. 1) The ‘‘ low-grade residues ’’ of which Dr. Day speaks in the last paragraph quoted are the oils from which the regular amount of gasoline has been distilled under the old processes. Under the new process probably 75 per cent of nearly all of the crude oils may be converted into gasoline. It is therefore safe to assume that the price of gasoline will not advance in the next few years because of scarcity, for sufficient gasoline can be readily produced to meet all requirements. In other words, the oil-refining industry has reached a stage where the quan- tity of any petroleum product may be increased or diminished at will, to meet the requirements of the trade; that is, if the demand for gasoline increases and that for kerosene decreases, part of the raw product which in the past has been distilled into kerosene will be converted into gasoline instead. The heavier oils possess more heat units per gallon, but practically the same per pound as the hehter ones. The more heat units a given quantity of fuel contams, the more power it should develop; therefore, if the heavier products could be as readily burned as the lighter ones they should command a higher price per gallon. The heavier fuels present difficulties in starting the engine when cold, however, usually requiring it to be run for a short time on a lighter fuel until it becomes hot enough to handle the heavier one satisfac- torily. Recent improvements in design promise to overcome this objection. FUEL CONSUMPTION. The consumption of fuel per hour by tractors of different ratings is shown in Table XI. According to these figures, the amount of fuel consumed per hour varies from about 31 gallons for the 20- horsepower tractor to 5} gallons for the 30-horsepower outfit during the first year. For the 2-year-old tractors the range is from 34 to about 64 gallons per hour. In five out of the seven groups the amount is greater for the second year than for the first, which would seem natural, as after wear has commenced in the motor the fuel consumption will not be so economical. oe BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. While the figures in Table XI would appear to indicate that the consumption of fuel per drawbar horsepower is considerably greater for the small tractors than for the large ones, Table XIV shows that the small tractors are usually loaded more nearly to their ful capacity than the large ones, and the consumption of fuel per unit of work done is shghtly less for the 12 and 15 horsepower tractors than for those of 30 horsepower. | TaBLe XI.—Average consumption of fuel per hour by different sizes of engines and per drawbar horsepower hour on farms in North Dakota. Fuel consumption per hour. | Drawhar rating of engine (horsepower). { 12 15: 120) 4 * 22 25 30 49 } First year: | | Perenginte!: ce. sneer soos eee gallons.-| 3.264} 3.462 | 3.211] 5.419 | 4.725 | 5.761 5. 684 Per drawbar horsepower..........-do.-.-| .272 BAH! S160) 246 Paes . 192 . 142 Second year: | IReTj engine a. eae eee sepa ee ese do....| 3.854 | 4.177 | 3.140 5.885 | 5.858] 5.675 6. 367 Per drawbar horsepower..----.---- GGzn- | doe os 218.) ator, . 268 . 234 - 189 - 159 | } There appears to be considerable irregularity in the figures shown, but this is not really the case, as the reasons for the varying con- sumption for the different sizes are as follows: The 15, 22, and 30 horsepower groups all contain a larger percentage of kerosene tractors than the 12, 20, 25, and 40 horsepower groups, and, as has already been shown, the kerosene tractors consume a greater quantity of fuel than the gasoline tractors. There are also more kerosene tractors in the 12-horsepower group than in the 20, and several of the outfits included in the 20 and 25 horsepower groups are apparently over- rated, to judge both by their fuel consumption and by the amount of work done, as shown in other tables. The fuel cost per unit of work varies, of course, with the price per gallon. The prices for the different fuels vary considerably in dif- ferent States. The averages of those reported are shown in Table XII. The general averages per gallon for the four fuels commonly used were as follows: Distillate, 8.17 cents; kerosene, 10.08 cents; motor spirits, 15.86 cents; gasoline, 18.94 cents. The distillate and motor spirits are not extensively used, as the table shows. TaBLe XII —Average prices for fuels, per gallon, as reported by farm tractor owners. | | State. Gasoline. | Kerosene. | oes Distillate. | Cents Cents. | Cents | Cenis Montana 5. 92225 ke 2 ee eee 2 ee eee eae 22.99 15:30) |o os see S| sae ee North Dakota 19.51 11.79 | 16253 See South Dakota as 18.47 9.86 | 145 39). ee ee Nebraska? * 32S] 33 18. 06 G44, |. .2 2853.4 2-3 eI ee MimTIeS Oba. 8 oc oe ee ee ea eee een eae 17.72 Or SE eee 2k)! eee eee California! 229. SAO SS Be ae art) 172502 ae! Ba (SEES st Ee | 8.29 PROXAS. 2. BS. 5 eee 2 po a a a eek 17. 50 GRY Dee: eoeebast } 6. 25 Missouri 2) 98s fF. FIR: SPREE ES eee ee: 17.00 ga Va ie eee 22 Pee Sin £2 2) ACAMISAS: 23 Us ee Be Ry ee ee Gee. ae 16. 23 Yat id Bete tees foc bee ee Average oe Se ecce ee ee So ee ae 18.94 10. 08 15. 86 ele FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. - 93 LUBRICATING OIL. The quantity of lubricating oil required is another question of con- siderable importance in connection with the operation of a tractor. The average consumption per hour for tractors of different ratings is shown in Table XIII. The increase in the amount of oil consumed shows closer relation to the increase in the horsepower of the tractor than did the fuel, although there are some irregularities, most of which are explained by the remarks in connection with Table XI. The price per gallon for lubricating oil not only varies in different sections, but varies according to quality. The prices paid per gallon range from 25 to 60 cents, the average price being about 40 cents. TasLe XIII.—Average consumption of cylinder oil per hour for different sizes of farm engines and per drawbar horsepower hour. ; Drawhbar rating of engine (horsepower). Cylinder-oil consumpticn per hour. aes 12 15 20 22 25 30 40 First year: ; IREGONGINe I er ce 3.) toss ee gallons..| 0.168 | 0.267 | 0.291 | 0.302 0.325 | 0.401 0. 424 Per drawhar horsepower.......---- do....| .014 -0178 | .0145 | .0137 -013 | .0134 - 0106 Second year: IRCTON GIN Oise Yow Pare oa ee edneee Goes = 3280 - 282 . 276 - 408 .302 | .338 4TT- Per drawbar horsepower.......---- do....| .0233 | .0188 | .0138 | .0185 .012 | .0112 - 0119 The figures shown include all lubricating oil used, whether for cylin- ders or other purposes, but do not include the cost of greases. This is a comparatively small item, and it is difficult to obtain figures for it. CROSS SECTION OF PLOWS DRAWN AND AREA PLOWED BY TRACTORS. The cross section of plows drawn by tractors of different ratings is given in Table XIV, showing that the area of the cross section of plows drawn by the different sizes of tractors bears a close relation to the quantity of fuel used. In this table it will also be seen that the 20 and 25 horsepower outfits do not pull plows commensurate with their ratings, to judge by the loads drawn by the other tractors. Attention is invited to the remarks made in connection with Table XI regarding the rating of tractors in the 20 and 25 horsepower classes and the percentage of gasoline and kerosene tractors in the remainder (p. 22). The area of the cross section of plows drawn by the tractors which have been used two seasons is generally less than the area the first season. There are several possible explanations of this, but the most probable one is believed to be that before the end of the second season many owners have learned that it does not pay to overload a tractor. Table XIV also shows the average number of acres plowed per hour by tractors of different ratings on farms in North Dakota. These 24 BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. figures show a close relation to the cross section of the plows, as given in the upper half of the same table. The irregularities already noted in the case of the 20 and 25 horsepower tractors also occur. In five out of the seven classes of tractors there is shown a slight decrease in the amount of work done per hour by the tractors which have been used two seasons. TaBLeE XIV.—Average area of the cross section of plows drawn and area plowed per hour in North Dakota by different sizes of farm engines. Drawhar rating of engine (horsepower). Plows and plowing. 12 15 20 22 25 30 40 Area of cross section of plows drawn: First year— IPEVeneINe sp -eeRee = .-Square inch..| 447.21 | 474.86 | 474.69 | 716.86 | 625.37 | 726.68 | 908.92 Per drawbar horsepower..-..-- do...-| 37-27} 31.66 | 23.73 | 32.58 | 25.01 | 24522 22.72 Second year— IRGIMENLINGZ peo oes HOSE eee do....| 464.62 | 459.43 | 455.81 | 662.72 | 665.03 | 736.03 | 748.68 Per drawhar horsepower. --.---- do....| 38.72] 30.60 | 22.79] 30.12} 26.60] 24.53 18.71 Area plowed per hour: For 1-year-old tractors— - PePengine. 23.2% ase Jeossceses acres..| 1.248} 1.410} 1.405] 1.946} 1.637] 2.175 2.374 Per drawbar horsepower.....-- Gosee. .104 . 094 . 070 - 088 . 065 -073 - 059 For 2 year-old tractors— Perenging ss ose see eee dos -2-|) T3867 15350") 1s27 42753 1 926n) = 2e28 2.165 Per drawbar horsepower. ------ doe . 116 - 090 - 066 - 080 -077 - 068 054 While these averages are in harmony with the other figures regard- ing the operating factors, attention is invited to the fact that an average amount of work for a tractor in North Dakota may be either a great deal more or a great deal less than for some other section where conditions are different. There are so many factors which influence the amount of work which can be accomplished with a tractor that average figures are of use only in the section from which they were obtained or under conditions almost identical. The figures for North Dakota represent, for the most part, extremely favorable conditions for tractor plowing. BREAKING. id The conditions which obtain in breaking sod, are even more various and produce wider variations in the amount of work done than those which are found in plowing. The number of reports on breaking received from any one section was too small to merit publication of the averages obtained from them. In North Dakota, where the. sod is broken with comparative ease and where there is little brush to interfere, the average acreage broken per hour varied from about eight-tenths of an acre for the 12-horsepower tractors to 14 acres for the 30 and 40 horsepower tractors. Many men report the same acreage per day in breaking as for plow- ing, as the breaking is not done so deep as plowing and the tractor wheels find a better grip. In most cases, however, the acreage broken per day is only about two-thirds of that plowed. ' FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 25 COMBINATION WORK. The percentage of tractor owners who reported combination work with their tractor, i. e., performing two or more operations at one time, such as plowing and harrowing, was much smaller than might have been expected. The figures in connection therewith for the States of North Dakota, South Dakota, lowa, and California are shown in Table XV. From this it would seem that combination work is practiced considerably less in the semiarid regions than in the more humid sections, although the total number of owners who attempt other operations than plowing and harrowing at the same time is very limited. There are several reasons for this lack of combination work. Usually there is not much excess power available for other imple- ments if the plow is the full width of the tractor, and, too, additional implements require more attention and this frequently causes more delays, a stop for one implement meaning a stop for the entire outfit. TaBLE XV .— Use of farm tractors for combination work in the States of North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, and California. Using plows and | Using plows, havr- Using plows only. harrows. rows, and drills. Number reported. State. Number. | Per cent. | Number. | Per cent. | Number. | Per cent. Men having one season’s ex- perience: 266 North: Dakotas eh tee - 155 58.3 106 39.8 5 1.9 82 SoubheDakotase ee aase 47 57.3 35 42.7 ONE wee eee 82 TORY ais fs ps A ee a 19 Bo. 2 33 76.8 CsI ke we Saale ee 44 Walifornianss--b peers some. 10 22.7 34 77.3 c1)e) ieeeeead oda Men having two seascns’ ex- perience: 262 North, Dakota aac tices 03 140 53.4 1i8 45.1 4 1.5 59 South Dakotaees-- see eene 3 50.9 29 49.1 Quieres 34 TOWMAE apro-=s otras ge she ed 4 11.8 29 85.3 il 2.9 27 @alifonntay ace e ee one 6 22.2 20 74.1 if Buu Men having three seasons’ ex- perience: 124 INonfhaDakotate. --54 52. 68 54.8 52 42.0 4 3.2 39 HOM WokOlede = ces ease er 19 48.7 18 46.2 2 Gy it 17 LOA ary ee ey th Retro, es 4 23.5 13 76.5 Oid eo eon e 15 ColitormMlae merece cae cess 2 13.3 12 80.0 1 6.7 Men having four seasons’ ex- perience: 55 INortheb akotamepan: sence 22 40.0 32 58.2 1 1.8 38 ae 19 50.0 i8 47.4 1 2.6 9 5 55.6 4 44.4 Oli eee ee 0 OM Eres 2228 Op ee sae ats (3h) Le 2 But the principal reason is probably the fact that it is difficult to have the implements follow each other in proper alignment, especially on curves and at corners, which causes poor work to be done. ‘This is especially true in drilling, and most farmers prefer to do this work with horses in order to have it done properly. The harrowing is not so important, as ground missed by it does not so materially affect the crop and does not show after the crop has grown. There is a distinct advantage in the case of many soils in eee the harrowing done promptly, yet it appears, considering the four States as a “hiss that only about 52 per cent of tractor owners pull harrows with the plows: i a ————e 26 BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DEPTH OF PLOWING. In order to ascertain whether plowing is usually deeper when done by tractor than when done by horses, Tables XVI and XVII were prepared. Table XVI shows the average depths of tractor plowing in nine States for the number of seasons for which reliable — averages could be obtained. While the variations seem to be slight, they are greater than would appear at first glance. Each depth shown represents an average of a large number of reports, most of which are, of course, close to the final average; therefore, in order to increase or diminish the final average even one-tenth of an inch requires a general increase or decrease in the individual reports. TasLte XVI.—Average depth of tractor plowing on farms in various States. ; Average depths reported (inches). | ‘ Average depths reported(inches). State. | l State. | First |Second| Third | Fourth First peed Third | Fourth | Season. | Season. fae es season. [SeesUse | season. | season. | season. { North Watrors sel erin S. 8s | ede 6t8E|| Towa2 =. hee = 6.35: | 6.40: South Dakota...| 6.47] 6.44] 6:57 6.58 | California...____- 6285-4" ~G2774| aes ere ‘Kansase 2. | 6.30 §.47 6250; |... 2-2mee Nebraska..____-- 6.7 G: 02 |b 2222 a eee Minnesota....... ("16:20 [* 5.87 1° 5-55. |<... ee Nezash Fakes | 6:19 | 25722, ee eee G17)" -G509))5, ae Montana = 22527) 16599 The distribution of the individual reports for all States west of the Mississippi River is shown in Table XVII. The concentration of the reports on the 5, 6, and 7 inch depths will be seen. The reports for the second season show a decided decrease in the percent- age reporting 7 inches or more, with a corresponding increase for 6 inches or less. In the third and fourth seasons there appears to be a gradual return to the greater depths, but.in connection there-_ with it must be borne in mind that the men who have used tractors for three or four seasons have been the most efficient operators; in fact, they are the survival of the fittest, for the first two seasons serve to eliminate many of the mefficient operators, as well as many of the defective outfits. TABLE XVII.—Percentage of tractor plowing done at various depths on farms in all States west of the Mississippi River. l = | Fourth | | Fourth ; ape d E ? d Depth of plow- | First |Second) Third. sake : First Second! Third A | subse- || Depth of plowing. subse- ing. | Season. | season. perce quent season. season. season. | Guent | Seasons. | | seasons | Aimehes= ss 5-e2 1 ss 4.94 | 5.17 5. 94 || 8 inches.._..-..- 11.54] 7.84] 11.72 8. 22 OS ldches- 22 2-2 se 16.85 | 23.51 | 20.34 14.61 |) 9 inches.......-- 272 160 3.45 - Of Ganchesz 3252s: 37.22 | 41.66 | 36.55 41.10 |} 10 inches. ......- 204 Nene soaa|bsete cee 5. 94 7inches...._.... | 24.32] 1872] 20.34] 21.46 | | | | ! FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 27 While no averages showing the depth of plowing done by horses which are entirely comparable with those shown in Tables XVI and XVII are available, a comparison of these averages with such averages as were available for horse plowing indicates that the difference in depth of plowing, if any exists, is rather in favor of the horse. The reason for so httle deep plowing with the tractor is very evi- dent upon a slight examination into the matter. Most tractors are incapable of slime a plow cutting the full width of the tractor and turning more than a 6-inch furrow under ordinary conditions. There- fore, if deeper plowing is to be done the gang must be decreased in width, 1. e., one or more plow bottoms must be raised, when the gang will no longer cut out the full width of the tractor’s track, which will probably result in the tractor’s wheels passing over the same ground twice, causing excessive packing of the soil. But the greatest difficulty is that the gang plow which is not as wide as the tractor must be hitched to one side of the longitudinal center of the machine, in order to permit the drivewheels to travel on the unplowed land. Such a hitch not only makes the tractor diffi- cult to steer, but exerts a twisting strain on the tractor’s frame, which is conducive to short life and heavy repair charges. If such a plow is hitched to the center of the tractor, one drivewheel must travel on the plowed land im order to bring the plow close enough to the land side, thus requirmg more power to propel the tractor and making steering difficult. Most tractor owners, therefore, prefer to use a gang plow wide enough to permit its ene siindned to the center of the tractor frame and at the same time sles the drivewheels to travel on the unplowed land, regulating the depth of the plow by the amount of power available. PACKING SOIL BY TRACTORS. With the early steam tractors the packing of the soil by the trac- tor’s wheels often caused serious injury to the crop. This feature of the early tractor was much advertised and caused considerable prejudice in the minds of many farmers against all tractors, both gas and steam. While some gas tractors, under certain conditions, have injured the crop by packing the soil, this is not ordinarily the case. The answers of 135 tractor owners who were personally interrogated on this point have been compiled. These men were located in various States in the Northwest. In answer to the question ‘‘ Does the packing of the soil by tractor wheels injure the crop?” only 9 men state that the packing of the soil is injurious, while 101 say that it is not, 22 of this number declaring it to be beneficial. Of the 135 owners answering, 25 replied: ‘‘If the soil is wet, yes; if dry, no.” 28 BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It may be safely stated that on most soils, when they are im fit condition to be worked satisfactorily with horses, the modern gas tractor will cause no injurious packing. Theslippage of the tractor’s wheels in soft ground will probably be a more serious matter than the packing. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT SIZES OF TRACTORS. Table XVIII was prepared in order to ascertain what influence the size of the tractor has on the results obtamed with it. In this table the tractors working in the State of North Dakota have been shown separately from those in other States, and only figures furnished by men having two seasons’ experience have been shown, for reasons already given. In tabulating the data by sizes of tractors 1t was found advisable © to group them to a certain extent, in order to have a sufficient number in each class to give reliable averages. They were accordingly arranged in five classes, as follows: (a) 8 to 14 horsepower, (6) 15 to 19 horsepower, (c) 20 to 25 horsepower, (d) 26 to 30 horsepower, and (e) 40 horsepower and over. These classes were arbitrarily arranged so as to place a considerable number in each group and at the same time to keep the most common sizes in separate classes. The average rating of the tractors in each group is shown in the table. Thus, the 8 to 14 horsepower class includes three common sizes: 8, 10, and 12, although there is not a very large number of any of these sizes: The 15 to 19 horsepower class consists almost entirely of 15 horsepower tractors. The 20 to 25 horsepower class includes three common sizes: 20, 22, and 25, but, like the first class, none of these sizes has a very large number. The 26 to 30 horsepower class contains 30-horsepower tractors almost exclusively. No machines with drawbar ratings between 30 and 40 horsepower were reported, and the tractors in the fifth class are _ mostiy 40-horsepower outfits, as yery few larger sizes were reported. From this tabulation it would appear that the 15-horsepower tractors have a longer life than those of other sizes. The length of life seems to decrease slightly with the increase in size of tractors over 15 horsepower, while for the smaller sizes it is a little less than for the 15-horsepower tractors. The larger sizes of tractors lose more time per day than those of 15 horsepower or less, the less increasing with the size of the tractor. The amount of special equipment required increases with the size of the tractor until the 30-horsepower size is reached. The amount of special equipment for the 40-horse- power tractor is less than for those of 30 horsepower. Previous tables have shown that the amount of work done by the 40-horse- power tractor, as well as the load drawn, is not commensurate with its rating, but no reason is known why the value of its equipment should be less than for the 30-horsepower tractor. FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 29 TasLe XVIII.—Comparison of tractors of different sizes, which have been used for two seasons on farms in North Dakota and other States west of the Mississippi River. In THE STATE OF NORTH DAKOTA. Drawhbar rating of engine (horsepower). Item of comparison. eee Less rc an than 1. 15 to 19. | 20 to 25. | 26 to 30. over. Number of tractors reported... - -22..-222-2---225- 20 34 105 99 24 Average drawhar rating of engines_...--horsepower.. 11.6 15.0 21.2 30.0 40.7 Bosh otenate. Sry e ia steer es Serer Eke un dollars..} 2,010.16 | 1,928.92 | 2,360.41 | 2,902.05 | 3,153. 25 Cost of special equipment... _..:...---2.2--2--- do....) 457.08 557. 36 714. 72 836. 56 826. 95 Life of tractor (estimated) -...-.-------.------- years... 6. 2 7.0 6.4 6.6 5. 0 ISCdIDer Yeates eae eileen = cto wena Se days.. 57.1 88.3 85.1 85.9 61.1 Time spent in the field per day.........-----. hours. . 12.4 13.4 12.9 13.0 12.7 Time lost in the field per day......-..-..------ dole. Ba7, 2.3 2.1 2.0 2.4 FRVORACOISIAA OMPABERSoS 2. oc. 2555). 2 fae 5500S aeres..<— | Gazg 613.9 792. 6 995. 2 1,156.0 Horses now kept: INT Cle eects cle tao vinfacie sao oes sot be ee oe } s1054 9.2 11.3 3.6 17.3 Well. 5a che Se sob eee see ee eee dollars..} 1,834.72 | 1,381.78 | 1,883.80 | 2,259.54 | 2,706.57 Fuel used in engines: GasOlMCsas eine: oacec seine sacene ede coset per cent... 66. 7 20.6 67.5 49.4 92.9 LUBRISGING).- = Hiab eee leenaonqonesueerpnenceass doz-ce 33.3 79.4 28.9 45.6 teil IMGEORSDUIGIES A 5 = (oss anes) 2 scien ss es aie do.... 0 0 3.6 5.0 0 Cost of repairs required: HBT SUSCOSOM ela as ta aepine sciences dollars... 30. 64 33. 53 44, 63 52. 67 105. 59 ecm Season =6).! Ls. Jsotc ee 2s oe docs. 75. 85 84,71 103. 10 122. 25 102. 32 Owners stating that tractor is a good invesi- ie 0 (eo Bees Bee ee AS ae ae eae Ree per cent... 13.3 39. 1 30.8 38. 0 18.7 Mepggos Night WOrk........2-.<-025:-95.5-25 dozss: 0 18.2 17,1 16.9 5.6 Average nights used by men reporting night work.-.-|......-..- 22.0 16. 4 22.7 6.0 Owners doing custom work........-.------ per cent.- 70.6 75.8 65.4 73.7 61.9 Men doing custom work who find it profitable, TOE CI pnchecne BCE AEE Sep EBc CORA Rees EE Se se ame 40.0 70.8 48.2 63.9 38.5 In ALL STATES WEST OF THE MissIssipPI RIVER EXCEPT NoRTH DAKOTA. iNunsbher of tractors reported . 2.5245. .2.6.2022i. 22.02 x 60 73 153 107 41 Average drawbar rating of engines....... horsepower 10.8 iby! 207 30.0 40.4 MSGSIHORCH ING... ASI Le LG Lig sees dollars. .} 1,654 ¥, 820 2,356 2, 876 3, 616 Costiofspecial equipment... ...2...2.+-.----- ----| 281.35 461.05 600. 61 763. 56 719. 23 imueiort tractor (estimated) .. 2! ...2) 22.2 Loess. years... 8.9 9.1 8.1 7.2 6.8 USE TGR EE) ae ee ee eee ays..- 75. 4 88. 9 83. 6 86.3 122.9 Time spent in the field per day 1.1 11.6 12.2 11.7 11.5 Time lost in the field per day... eae ee 2 1.5 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.9 Vverace Sizelof farms.) ..2 25. 2524. 2is5222 2-28 5. «| 39% 563 576 875 1, 246 Horses now kept: INGER eee . S495. REE hE. 9.9 8.9 10.8 13.5 WONG C5 Se aE See Cede dollars. .| 1,147.02 | 1,540.54 | 1,420.10 | 1,758.42 | 2,242.50 Fuel used in engines: (HES IG ROE eR eee eee eee per cent-.- 69.8 12.3 58. 4 57.3 88. 2 GrOsGne). s2fe ae: bo Pap 3. FECES doess: 30. 2 86. 2 40.0 41.7 5.9 UPC ERS EIDE US (oats se = epee crete aden easier do.... 0 1.5 1.6 1.0 5.9 Cost of repairs required: ipimsiaS@aSOD ese oe ssiectsceee neces oenige es dollars. - 23.36 13. 92 35. 54 41.34 97.54 RACHHehSGaSOn (56 shots iste ts. ot S88 do2ss: 40. 01 33. 05 93. 25 75. 88 207. 68 Owners stating that tractor is a@ good invest- ment.....- Se eee piae Ee A ee es eee a per cent. - 47.0 64.8 43.9 |. 43.9 62.5 Reporune night work... -..- coi ohs2--se-5- do..-. 6.5 17.5 19.0 17,2 45.5 Average nights used by men reporting night work... 8.3 20. 7 28. 2 36.8 54.1 Owners doing custom work.......--.------ per cent... 56.1 72.9 74.1 75. 7 80.0 Men doing custom work who find it profitable, GCC Hes sans es 2 es LE. RNS io Cate we a 75.0 78.3 66. 3 54.3 67.9 Tt will be noticed that the 15-horsepower tractors have the lowest repair charges, those for the 40-horsepower tractors bemg more than seyen times as great as for the 15-horsepower outfits. A larger per- centage of owners of 15-horsepower tractors than of any other size report that the tractor is a good investment. The next largest per- centage of favorable reports is from the 40-horsepower class, while the percentage of favorable reports from the intermediate classes is considerably below those for the 15 and 40 horsepower groups. ; 30 BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. These facts, together with others shown in the tables, seem to — indicate that the 15-horsepower tractor is giving better average © results than any other size. It willbe seen that the 15-horsepower tractors also give more favorable operating figures than any other — size of tractor. While the figures for the different sizes of tractors in Table XVIII show other variations, it is believed most of them are due to causes other than the size of tractor. For example, the number of horses kept, the percentage of night work done, and the percentage of custom work done, increase with the size of the tractor, but this increase is probably due largely to the fact that the larger tractors are usually — found on the large farms, as will be noticed by the average sizes of the — farms shown in the table. SIZE OF FARM. In North Dakota, tractors are seldom found on farms of less than 320 acres, the average size of the farm on which tractors are used in that State being between 700 and 800 acres. In other States, par- — ticularly in Iowa, tractors are frequently found on farms as small as © 160 acres. As will be seen from Table XIX, however, a very large percentage of tractor owners do custom work with the tractor, indi- cating that the home farm does not furnish sufficient work to keep | the tractor busy during the entire working periods. It will also be — noticed that the farms ot less than 480 acres show a greater percentage of owners dcing custom work than do those of larger size. _ Table XIX was prepared in order to ascertain what effect the size of the farm had upon the results obtained from the tractor. The figures used in its preparation are those furnished by tractor owners in North Dakota who have used their outfits for two seasons. A similar table for other States was not made because of the many types of farming which would be represented, as it was believed the many and varying factors involved would vitiate the results obtained. In North Dakota, however, as has already been stated, the conditions are very similar throughout the State, and the averages in the table are believed to show the relation of the size of the farm to the results obtained, as far as it is possible to do so. In this connection, attention is invited to the fact that there is a close relation between the size of the tractor and the size of the farm, the larger tractors usually being found on the large farms. In both the tabulation by size of farm and by size of tractor, therefore, it is impossible to determine to just what extent each of these factors influences the result. From the table it would appear that slightly better results are being obtained on the larger farms. It will be noticed that the percentage of owners reporting that the tractor is a good investment is greatest a FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 31 for the farms of more than 640 acres, although it will also be observed that these men show a rather high percentage of kerosene tractors, which may be partly responsible for this, as well as other favorable averages for the larger farms. While the estimated life of the tractor is slightly higher for the small farms, it should be borne in mind that these farms for the most part have comparatively small tractors, especially the 15-horsepower size, and this tractor shows a high average life in Table XVIII. There is no appreciable difference in the number of days used per year, which would indicate that the smaller farms not only have a greater percentage of owners who do custom work, but that the amount of custom work per farm is also greater. TaBLE XIX.—Relation of the size of the farm to the results obtained with tractors. Size of farms (acres). Item of comparison. 161 to 321 to 481 to 641 to 1,001 to 320. 480. 640. 1,000. 2,000. MUM ber Oufarms RepOLrtedhisss- 9S 2se EE Pee eis ans 3. 25 33 58 83 55 PeVerASe SIZ C,OU TatlOSh).\- 6 = one lei een -acres--; 300.2 424.2 583.2 846.4 1,411.5 Owners stating that tractor is a good investment, PN GIAG CMe sete sass So Ss = eles Sci e?ais eee iee Legale cine 10.0 30.8 22.2 39.7 40.0 Drawhar rating of engine........-....-- horsepower. - 20.0 22.5, 22.8 25.0 27.4 Ostromen in Ovscre * iis Ge Pe OI yaa dollars. .| 2,286.19 | 2,497.72 | 2,416.49 | 2,579.45 | 2,730.56 Cost of special equipments.....-...--..-------- Goseee 624. 98 641.18 635. 04 766. 59 799.37 Cost of repairs required: MepyhirSt Seasone sii 3. eRe sases see eee aeaie ce doze: 30. 89 20.47 50. 49 58. 01 59. 62 Secondiseason- ae <2 see sete esses doss-- 106. 74 82. 28 90. 01 82. 84 177. 04 Horses now kept: : IN/(UDIN) SRE Sais Se dece oadeeaucbeo soc. boosonoSaSgEnES 5.7 6.9 9.0 11.6 19.2 WIRE AEE RAS SBR Sen eo ao asangpete ase dollars..| 957.73 | 1,135.88 | 1,427.59 | 2,004.75 | 3,100.57 Life of tractor (estimated).........--------.-- years. . 7.3 Up 6.0 6.3 6.6 lWisedipennyieanice 22358: eta eee eee ee sass days. - 80.8 78.3 79.1 86.8 Fifa 1 Time spent in the field per day.........--..- hours. . 13.2 12.3 12.9 13.3 ILC Time lost in the field per day......--.-..------ dozen. 2.4 2.1 2.0 253 2D Fuel used in engines: Geso lide eee ec saeRecetesaacncooeted percent..|° 47.8 71.9 58.7 49.2 44,2 INGROSEM OC he eta retee ie ce = A tnee ee eo deans doze 47.8 25.0 39.1 45.9 55.8 MGTORSPIRMIS 2505 se sner ae eee eee ae eal dolce 4.4 Bel 2.2 4.9 (0) Reporting night work......-----..--..----- per cent. - 15.8 14.3 14.0 11.9 19.6 Average nights used by men reporting night work... 13.0 12.8 13.0 14,1 33.2 Owners doing custom work.......-...----- per cent... 79. 2 84.8 64.9 78.5 46.4 Men doing custom work who find it profitable, MG Cenb eevee na setts tae sate eee enacehaat aciestesiess es 56.2 48.1 36.7 67.9 61.9 The percentage of owners who use their tractor at night is greatest for the farms of 1,000 to 2,000 acres, and these men likewise use their tractors for the greatest number of nights per year. From this fact it would appear that only on the larger farms is there sufficient work to utilize the full capacity of the tractor during the busy season, and even on these large farms more than 46 per cent of the owners do custom work. As would be expected, the cost of the tractor increases with the size of the farm, owing, of course, to the increase in the size of the outfit. The repair charges and value of special equipment likewise increase with the size of the farm for the same reason. But while the cost of special equipment undoubtedly bears a close relation to the size of the 82 BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARFMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tractor, the mvestment cost per acre is of great importance. Table - XIX shows that on the smaller farms of approximately 300 acres the cost per acre for mechanical power is about $7.60, while on the larger farms, averaging about 1,400 acres, the cost per acre is less than $2. Similarly, while the smali farms show an investment of about $2 per acre for special equipment, the large farms have only one-fourth this amount. In this connection, the value of work horses per acre should also be noted. For the 300-acre farms the cost for work stock is about $3 per acre, while for the 1,400-aere farms it is only $2 per acre. Especial attention is invited to the difference in the ratio of the investment cost per acre for the two kinds of power. For mechanical power the investment per acre for the small farms is more than 34 times as great as for the large farms, while for animal power it is only 14 times as great. The reason for this difference is probably the fact that a stable of horses, consisting of a number of individual units, can be regu- lated in size to meet actual requirements, the price per unit being practically uniform no matter in what number purchased. On the other hand, the tractor is a complete unit and must be of sufficient power to fulfill the maximum demands which may be made upon tf, while the cost per horsepower is greater in the small sizes than m the large ones. In other words, the ewner of a 600-acre farm who pur- chases a 30-horsepower tractor will have a lower investment per acre for power than the owner of a 300-acre farm who purchases a 15-horsepower tractor, because the 15-horsepower tractor costs more per horsepower than the 30-horsepower outfit; while the owner of a 600-acre farm who purchases one work horse for each 30 acres of land, or 20 horses, will have the same investment charge per acre as the owner of a 300-acre farm who purchases one work horse for each 30 acres of land, or i0 horses, the cost per horse being nearly the same, no matter in what number purchased. From Table XIX it will be seen that the total investment per acre for power on the 300-acre farms is about $10, while for the 1,400-acre farms it is only $4 per acre, although the 300-acre farms have a unit of power for every 12 aeres, while the 1,400-acre farms have one unit for every 32 acres. It is evident, therefore, that either the 300-acre farms have more power per acre than is necessary and economical or that the 1,400-acre farms have an inadequate amount of power. From a careful study of the data shown, in conjunction with other information available, it is believed that the large farms have a normal acreage per unit of power and that farms of the grain type which have a smaller acreage per horsepower are overequipped and therefore less economically equipped. The owner of a 300-acre farm who has an invested capital of $10 per acre for power and one unit of power for FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 33 every 12 acres can not hope to produce crops as cheaply as his neighbor with a 1,400-acre farm who has an invested capital of only $4 per acre and who tills 32 acres with each unit of power. Tt is not surprismg, therefore, that the owners of farms containing 640 acres or less do considerably more custom work than those with larger farms, as the excess power must produce some income in order to justify its maintenance. In this connection, it should also be noted that the repairs per acre are considerably less for the large farms than for the small ones, which naturally follows, in view of the difference in equipment. It is probable that the repairs bear a closer relation to the size of the engine than to the size of the farm, in view of the shght difference in the number of days used. USE OF TRACTORS AT NIGHT. The number of men who used their tractors at night was found to be surprisingly small (about 11 per cent m North Dakota and 14 per cent in other States) and in most cases the number of nights used per year was comparatively insignificant. While the tractor is theoreti- cally capable of working night and day, it appears that night work is seldom done. The explanation of this probably lies in the fact that in normal years there is little need for operating at night, unless it be during harvest, when it may be desirable to rush the work as much as possi- ble in order to prevent loss from storms. However, tractors are not extensively used for harvesting except in those sections where it is practicable to use a combined harvester. Another reason for the small amount of night work is the necessity of having two operating crews for the outfit. This is obviously impractical in most cases. In order to ascertain whether any loss of efficiency occurs when operating at night, a number of tractor owners who had operated at night were asked for estimates as to the percentage cf efficiency compared with work done in the daytime. The average of these estimates was 93.3 per cent. . This slight loss in efficiency appears to be due almost entirely to inability to watch the operation of the outfit as well as 1t can be done during the day and the additional time required to make any adjust- ments which may be necessary. Among some 70 men who were interrogated regarding night work the opinion was almost unanimous that the motor developed more power at night than during the day, some estimating the increase to be as much as 20 per cent. i This information was voluntary, the men haying been asked simply for an estimate as to the efficiency ofthe tractor atnight. They offered their observations as to the increase of power at night as a phenomenon which they could not explain. In view of the varying opinions of gas-engine experts on this point, the unanimous observation of tractor operators that such an increase does occur is of interest. 34 BULLETIN 174, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CUSTOM WORK. In order to ascertain what difference, if any, existed between the figures furnished by men who did custom work with their tractors and found it profitable and those who did custom work but did not make it pay, Table XX was prepared. From this it would appear that the principal factors which operate to make custom work un-— profitable are the time lost by the engine and repair charges, which are, of course, closely related, as making repairs and replacing parts take considerable time. It will also be noticed that the men who say that custom work does not pay show slightly less investment in © equipment in each case, although not sufficiently less to draw any © definite conclusions therefrom. Little difference exists in the prices received per acre for custom work by the men who report it profitable and those who find it unprofitable, which would seem to indicate that this factor had little © influence on the result. This, together with the fact that nearly 50 per cent of the tractor owners who have tried custom work state that it is unprofitable, would seem to justify the assumption that the prices received for custom work, namely, about $2 per acre for plowing and $3.70 per acre for breaking, are very close to the actual average cost of performing this work, assuming that the cost for fuel, oil, interest charges, etc., were the same for each class of. owners, which would probably be the case. TABLE XX.—Comparison of figures furnished by farm tractor owners in Norih Dakota who had done custom work. [Columns headed ‘‘Yes”’ include figures from men who stated that custom work was profitable; those headed ‘“‘ No” include figures from men who stated that custom work was unprofitable.] - First season. | Second season. Third season. Fourth season. Iiem of comparison. Yes. No. Yes. Number answering......-..-.-| 118 40 92 Average drawbar rating of ; actor. = e-ee horsepower.-} 23.8 23.2 5 Average price of tractor, dullarse-ccte. foe eae eee 2,525.36 |2,460.85 |2,563.70 |2,557.19 |2, 615.68 |2,694. 41 |2,376.32 |2, 431.00 Average time lost in the field, Worst. 6 238s se oe eee 1.4 1.9 1.5 2.4 1.9 2.8 127 2.9 Average cost of repairs Antes es oe ee oe 33. 60 68.09} 88.03 | 249.87} 197.35 | 411.00} 227.49] 681.74 Average value of equipment | ‘ a cn Be Area oe 648.23 | 636.78 | 733.16 | 721.70| 761.34] 748.64] 756.50 | 745.73 Average size of farm...-acres..| 730.2 796. 0 804.9 708. 4 692. 8 806. 2 682.3 820.0 Average price per acre received for Poet Essense dollars. . 1.97 1,80 1.91 1.91 2. 03 2. 21 2. 03 2. 08 Average price per acrereceived é. ae wee Je See dollars. - 3. 66 3. 48 3. 68 3.46 3.71 3.71 3. 81 3.63 In this connection it should be noted that very few farmers m_ figuring the cost of performing work of this character take into con- sideration interest and depreciation charges, which previous tables _ have shown to be very heavy for the average tractor. FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE: TRAOTOR.” ah) REPAIRS. The cost of repairs has always been an item of considerable impor- tance in connection with the farm tractor. Not only have the repairs been expensive, but the time lost in obtaining new parts and inserting them has been a serious matter. This feature has frequently been pomted out as one of the greatest disadvantages of the tractor and one which practically precludes its use on the average farm. It is only fair to the tractor, however, to state that a very large percentage of the repairs are made necessary through inefficient operation. The statement that any man can operate a gas tractor efficiently after only a few minutes’ instruction is so far from the truth that it would seem that its falsity should be apparent to even the uninitiated. Yet this erroneous idea has been responsible for hundreds of failures and an enormous amount of repair charges, the effect of which has been detrimental to the tractor industry. If every man who used a tractor during the years of its development had been thoroughly competent to operate it, the history of the farm tractor would be very different. While the average farmer’s familiarity with many machines and their operation should make him an apt pupil in the study of the gas tractor, it is in no sense a complete education therein. There are many tractor owners at the present time who, while operating their tractor with a certain degree of satisfaction, are unfamiliar with many details of its mechanism; in fact, it is the exception to find a tractor owner who fully understands one of the most important parts of the tractor—the ignition system. It is this ignorance regarding details, some of them apparently trifling, which all too frequently causes expensive delays. An inter- nal-combustion engine is extremely simple in its operation, but it is simple only to one who understands it fully. No one but an experi- enced operator can obtain the best results with a farm tractor, and the necessity for an owner carefully studying the principles of the internal-combustion engine and the operation of his own tractor before undertaking to operate the outfit can not be overemphasized. The lack of such preparation is clearly shown in the cost of repairs to tractors during their first season’s use. As has been stated, although in nearly every case all repairs required the first season which are not caused by the operator are furnished free, it was found that the repairs for which owners are required to pay during the first season average about 2 per cent of the first cost of the tractor. While previous tables have shown the amount of repairs for various groups of tractors, it was thought a table showing the general average repairs for tractors might be of value. It would be mani- 36 BULLETIN 174; U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. festly unfair to the modern tractor to consider repairs on outfits placed on the market several years ago, while the repairs required during the first season on tractors of one, two, and three years of age do not vary to any great extent, and Table XXI was prepared to show the repairs on tractors up to three years of age. The repairs required on tractors located in North Dakota and California have been shown separately, while the remaining States west of the Mississippi River are grouped. It will be noticed that the repairs for tractors m California are much heavier than for the other States. This is due mainly to the difference in the types of tractors most generally used, a large per- centage being of the track-laying type. These are usually more expensive outfits, as will be seen from the table. These figures show that during the first season, when all repairs not caused by the operator are ordinarily furnished free, the average tractor owner spends for repairs an amount varying from 1.7 to 4 per cent of the tractor’s cost. TaBLeE XXI.—Tractor repair charges per year, with percentage of first cost, on farms west of the Mississippi River. First season, Second season. Third season. f p Average Sa ey Pee Average Percent- Average Percent- Average Percent- repairs. ape oF repairs. ace repairs. een | H For 1-year-old engines: } Noth akota eee eset eee $2, 465 $44. 86 1.8 joss sce epe| eens coon seemeee cole eee eee "California: 3 Co) f233. et Ske 3,181 127.18 BOO NEE jeie data |e an 2 a's tata ate hs ee hate eee ae Other States «sos -seceeeces 2,279 38. 94 Ln 7 noses octclascce peace secceses seleeee ee eee For 2-year-old engines: North Dakota.............- 2,542 49.37 1.9 | $107.15 Ley RSE Ses ener son California__.... 3,620 142.37 3.9 306. 68 ae ee ee ee se Other States..... 2,261 34. 66 1.5 72.89 eH Sere cll eds eee For 3-year-old engines: North Dakotas sesss--2-s--= 2,590 62.17 | 2.4 168. 44 4.2 $138. 39 5.3 Califor... :223b2 21268. 3, 604 150.13 | 4.2 186.50 5.2 220.50 6.1 OpheriStatesssee-saseec reas 2,430 43.62 1.8 104.09 4.3 | 98. 24 4.0 During the second season the repair charges show a variation between 3 .1 per cent and 8.5 per cent of the tractor’s cost, while for the tractors which have been used three seasons the percentage is more favorable, varying from 4 to 6.1 per cent. From this it would appear that a ploepe ye purchaser of a tractor should expect during the three seasons’ use repair charges of at least 10 per cent of the first cost. The repair charges given throughout this builetin include only the cost of the new parts. The cost of installing these parts is often considerable, but it is sometimes done by the tractor owner and sometimes by hired machinists. It is therefore difficult to ascertain the value of the labor expended in making the repairs. Se ee eee wa ee Pe FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. Bt DISPLACEMENT OF HORSES BY TRACTORS. It is difficult to determine to just what extent the tractor has influenced the use of horses on the farm, on account of the other influencing factors in the shape of automobiles, motorcycles, auto- trucks, and binder engines, all of which are doing work formeriy done by horses. In spite of all these competitors the farm horse has increased considerably in numbers and value during the past few years. The United States Census report shows that in 1900 there were 11,513,649 horses and mules on farms located in States west of the Mississippi River, while the Bureau of Statistics of the United States Department of Agriculture states that on January 1, 1914, they numbered 14,287,000, a numerical gain of 2,773,351, or 24.1 per cent in 14 years. During the same period the increase in the valuation of these animals was much greater, viz, from $493,454,902 to $1,427,074,000, or 189.2 per cent; but here again there were numerous influencing factors, the principal ones probably being a heavy export demand and the breeding of horses of a far better quality. The gains mentioned occurred while the number of gas tractors was increasing from less than 100 to perhaps 13,000. A comparison of the increase in the number of farm horses and of tilled acres in the States west of the Mississippi River would be desirable, but accurate figures on the increase in tilled acres are not available, and, furthermore, improvements in farm implements and in the management of farms have tended to increase the acreage tilled per horse. A study of the conditions existing on farms where tractors have been introduced is of especial interest in this connection. The result of such a study is shown in Table XXII. The data contained in this table were obtained by personally visit- ing the tractor owners. The records for the farms represented were selected without reference to the number of horses displaced, the only point which was considered in selecting them being to ascertain whether the information furnished was complete. Therefore, the fact that of the number thus selected 39 belonged in the group where horses were displaced by the tractor and 43 in the group where no horses were displaced by the tractor would seem to be a rather reliable indication that in about 50 per cent of the cases the tractor does not actually displace horses on farms where it is introduced. These farms average approximately 900 acres in size and should therefore provide a large amount of work for the power employed, whatever iis kind. They are mostly of the grain type, exceptionally well adapted for the use of a tractor. The average age of the tractors 38 BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is less than two years, which shows that for the most part they are very modern outfits. The tractor did not entirely displace the horses on any farm. TaBLe XXIJ.—Displacement of horses by tractors on farms. Farms on which horses were— litem of comparison. 7 All farms. Dis- | Not dis- placed placed oo Nun Der OFiArMSs - S20 heen ees ee oe ee ca See Reese ssa eee | 39 43 82 Asveragesize Olfartis... ee eae see ease te ne ee eee ee eee See acres..| 924 875 896 Average area tilled! par fartis S 2s sa ae se oa see ee tee kee do....| 844 661 748 Average number of horses per farm: : - Beiore purchase Of tractor 2 nasa =~ = = eee ee eee eee aes 25.3 13.2 18.9 After purchase of tractors 455 a: 8 Ss - - - See eee eee 8.8 13.2 11.1 Average number of horses displaced per farm.....-..-..---.-------------- A Riel ee sescicce 7.8 Value of horses displaced per farm....-.......-..-=-------------- dollars. -'3,115.86 |...-.-.--- 1, 423. 89 Average’ value: per Horse: .22 2 ceiseae as oe = =< ooo eee eee do...-| 188.84 176.10 182.55 Average drawhar rating per farm....-...----..------------- horsepower--| 26.1 24.3 - 25.1 -AVCTASC COST OL LACLOR Mee == rere ea ene =o - == eee mane eee dollars. -'2,635.00 {2,775.00 | 2,702.00 ‘Lotalpresent rating sper farmic: 22 ae 325) eee ee horsepower.-; 34.9 37.5 36.2 Average area tilled per drawhbar horsepower of tractor.....-.---.-- acres.-| 32.3 27.2 29.8 Average area tilled per horse: id Before purchase of tractor e Bet 33.4 50.0 39.5 /A Tier purchase Of LAClOn. oom seas os eane ep eee see =2002. 2] ¢95. 9, 50.9 67.3 Average area tilled per total horsepower after purchase of tractor...do....| 24.2 iW eT i 20.5 Ay race age: Of tracCtOnss oe see a eee eee ee ee years. - 1.8 1.9 ils) Average use of tractor per year.---------------.-- >. OaySs)) “O425 120.2 101.6 Cost of maintaining 2 horse per year (estimated) dollars 84.09 105.56 96.81 Average price oriuel percaulonoere = mest -- >. - See nee =e ae Onn 147 185 167 Average ‘price of oll per salons 2222-5. 22 ee 3-2 sees tee eee de:_=4 . 423 - 383, 405 While the value of special equipment which would be required with the tractor is not shown here, from previous tables itis evident that the value of such equipment would not be less than $700 per farm; there- fore, cn more than 50 per cent of the included farms the purchase of the tractor increased the invested capital approximately $3,500 and on the remainder the horses displaced would lack about $300 of _ equaling the value of the tractor and its necessary equipment. On the farms where horses were displaced, the tilled acreage per horse before the purchase of a tractor was 33.5, which is believed to be about the normal area. Although the acreage per drawbar horse- power of the tractor on these farms was only 32.3, yet an average of 8.7 horses per farm was retained, making the tilled acreage per unit of power 24.2 acres. On the other hand, the tilled acreage per horse on the farms where horses were not displaced was 50 acres, and the tilled acreage per drawbar horsepower of the tractor purchased was 27.2 acres, or an average of 17.7 tilled acres per unit of total horse- power. The tilled acreage per total horsepower for both of these groups would appear to be too small for the most economical operation. In Table XXIII are shown some further data relative to the dis- placement of horses by tractors. This table was prepared from figures furnished by tractor owners in North Dakota who had used their tractors for two seasons. FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 39 TaBLeE XXIII.—Displacement of horses on farms in North Dakota where tractors have been used for two seasons. Farms on which horses were Farms on| displaced—drawhbar rating — which no| Of engine (horsepower). Item cf comparison. horses picke oN placed. 20 or ; 5 30 or less. | 2/1029.) over. INGE eMmotsiarmsireporvedass=.sse0 = se eee a eee. ooo ee 82 40 16 29 Average number of horses used: Before purchase er tractor. ). 23825... 28 ee. Se 16.6 13.8 15.9 20. 7 Aiton UTchase Of tra ChOnee epee se se eee. yee 16.6 8.4 9.2 peal Horses displaced: PASVICR AZO REUULIND Olio ate ses Sere alae ees Re Sem ces ras EE oe ne 5.4 6.7 8.6 Average value..... sJesee ” Owmersid oineicustonl work os-s6 o- -e-scece canes = per cent-. 52.4 78.9 75.0 85, 2 Men doing custom work who find it profitable........-.-.- dole} > 37.8 51.9 60. 0 72.2 TRIG DONA Tana ae Ay Old Cle Ban ae eee AG ori eee eee dosze= 9.4 26.7 18.2 18.2 Average nights used by men reporting night work............-- 31.5 25.4 17.5 17.30 While the percentage of farms on which horses were displaced is greater than for Table XXII, this is explained by the fact that many tractor owners in filling out the form on which the information was furnished gave only the number of horses used after the purchase of the tractor, the space for the number previously kept being left blank. It is very probable that many of these were intended to indicate that the number was the same, but in the absence of positive information on this point the data were not tabulated. On these farms the number of horses displaced is considerably less per farm than for those shown in Table XXII. In no case is the value of the horses displaced equal to 50 per cent of the first cost of the tractor. There appears to be little difference in the results obtained by the two classes of owners. The most significant variations seem to be found in the percentage of owners who report that the tractor is a good investment, the percentage doing custom work, and the per- centage doing night work. In these three cases the men who did not lay off horses after purchasing the tractor show much lower percent- ages than those who report that horses were displaced by the tractor. CONDITIONS ESSENTIAL TO SUCCESS WITH THE TRACTOR. The fact that some men have found the tractor a profitable invest- ment is proof that under certain conditions it can be used successfully for farm work 40 BULLETIN 174, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The physical condition of the land determines largely the degree of success which can be obtained with 4 tractor. The ideal conditions are large, level fields, free from obstructions, such as trees, stumps, rocks, holes, and ditches, with a soil firm enough to furnish a solid footing for the drive wheels, yet not sufficiently hard to make an exces- sive draft on the plows. ‘But the most important qualification is efficient management and operation. This has been touched upon, but can not be overempha- sized. For the operator to be able to start and stop the motor and to steer the outfit skillfully is not enough. He must understand his tractor thoroughly, and not only be able to locate quickly any trouble which occurs and remedy the same promptly, but he must be capable of avoiding a great many of the troubles commonly experienced with tractors, by frequent inspection of the bearings, ignition system, etc., thus keeping them in first-class condition at all times. Not only in the actual operation of the tractor does the efficient tractioneer contribute to the success of the outfit, but by carefully studying the work to be done and planning it so as to allow the trac- tor to work to the greatest advantage at all times. If the land is rolling he will so lay out his work that the tractor will ascend on the easiest grades and descend on the steepest. If the farm is laid out in square or irregular fields he will replan it so as to have the fields as long as possible, thus lessening the number of turns which will be required. He will fill in holes and ditches where practicable and remove obstructions in order to facilitate the tractor’s work. He will recognize the fact that work can not be done with a tractor in exactly the same manner as with horses, and to attempt to do so is not only unfair to the tractor but is inviting failure. In many cases a change in crop rotation will be of great advantage. Where a: tractor is used the crops raised should be such as can be planted and harvested with the tractor, thus reducing the number of horses which must be kept. The necessity of havimg tractor owners properly trained for the operation of their outfits has been recognized by most manufac- turers, and several have established schools for their customers where they can be instructed by experts in the care and operation of the tractor. The tractor salesmen have also realized that in selling outfits to men who are incompetent to operate them they are not only injuring their own interests, but those of the tractor trade in general. A number of agricultural colleges have added courses in tractioneer- - ing, and there are several privately conducted tractor schools. It is believed that most farmers who, contemplate purchasing a tractor would find it well worth while to take a short course in tractioneering FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. Al. at some one of these schools. It will be time and money well spent. ‘The knowledge gained will be of great assistance in selecting a tractor, as well as in operating it. The time and money which the course requires will be saved in many cases during the first two seasons. Another important factor in determining the success or failure of a tractor is the amount of capital invested in it. The average farmer can not afford to increase his power investment to any great extent. In purchasing a tractor he should not, therefore, spend as much for it as he can realize on the horses it will displace, for the reason that the working life of a tractor is only about half that of a horse, while there are many operations for which the tractor can not be used. The first cost of a tractor should on that account be correspondingly less. It is unsafe to rely on an increase of crops from better work with the tractor, as in most cases this is not realized. Tt is significant that many farmers who have bought second- hand tractors at low prices have been very successful with them. It is also significant that the sales of the larger and more expensive outfits have fallen off, while those of the smaller and comparatively cheap ones have largely increased. While there have been numerous influences which combined to produce this result, there is a sound economic reason for it. The average farmer is not only conserva- tive, but he realizes that he can not afford to increase his investment in power too much. While the cost of fuel and oil per unit of power is less than the cost of feed for horses, the overhead charges, due to interest on investment, depreciation, repairs, etc., more than offset this on the expensive outfits, except under conditions unusually favorable to the use of the tractor. By reducing the first cost the interest and depreciation charges are correspondingly reduced, and it is to be supposed that the cost of repair parts will be proportionate to the first cost. It is apparent that the price of tractors has been too high in the past to permit the average farmer to use them successfully. The indications at present point to a general reduction in the price of these outfits and an in- creased sale as the price is lowered. ~ With a decrease in the price of farm tractors and an increase in their mechanical efficiency, simplicity, and durability, all of which seem to be assured, together with more efficient operation by men who have been properly traimed for their work, it is safe to predict that the tractor will soon become an important factor in reducing the cost of crop production on the average farm. SUMMARY. While the data included in this bulletin represent the experience of a large number of users of gas tractors, it must be borne in mind that they are a record of a machine in the process of development 4 42 ‘BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and not the record of a completed and perfected outfit. Further- more, most of these tractors have been operated by men who were not properly trained and equipped to handle them efficiently, and during the first few years of the development of the gas tractor the machines placed on the market were mainly large outfits, which were necessarily expensive, and failure meant a heavy financial loss. Tt is generally recognized that the gas tractor was of great value in rapidly breaking up large areas of prairie sod in the West at a time when horses were not available, but after the sod was broken they proved an unprofitable investment for the individual farmer in a large percentage of cases. A few owners have found the tractor a very profitable investment, domg its work more satisfactorily and much cheaper than could be done with horses, while a great many discontinued its use after a trial. The percentage of owners reporting favorably regarding the tractor decreases with the length of time they have used their outfit, due partly to the fact that the older machines were not as good as the later ones, but mainly to a better realization of the tractor’s value in their work. As would be expected, owners who report unfavorably regarding the tractor obtain poorer average results than those who state that the tractor is a good investment. The repair charges reported by both classes of owners indicate that this is due to a considerable extent to less efficient operation by the owners reporting unfavorably. The average life of a tractor as estimated by owners in North Dakota is about six years, while the average life as estimated by owners in States other than North Dakota is “about eight years. To judge by the small percentage of reports received for tractors three or more years old, it would appear that a large number of outfits three, four, and five years old are no longer in use, indicating that the average life is even less than six years. The plowing done with tractors has been litle, if any, deeper than that done with horses. Combination work is not practiced to a great extent and usually is limited to harrows or drags after the gang plow. The percentage of tractors which are operated at night is com- paratively small, varying, from 11 to 44 per cent, although the tractor’s efficiency at night is very good. No injurious packing of the soil is caused by the tractor’s wheels if the soil is in proper condition to be worked. | The item of repairs has been one of considerable importance in connection with the use of farm tractors, but the data indicate that a large percentage of such repairs have been caused by inefficient operation. ; FARM EXPERIENCE WITH THE TRACTOR. 48 The necessity for the operator of a gas tractor being thoroughly trained for his work, if a tractor is to prove a success, is obvious. Failure to comply with this requirement has been the cause of many faslures:) 12: The tractors which have been operated by kerosene show, as a whole, slightly better average results than those operated by_gaso- line, indicating that the heavier fuels can be burned at least as satis- factorily as the lighter ones. The amount of kerosene used per unit of work, however, is usually slightly more than for gasoline, which would appear to indicate that the combustion of the kerosene is gen- erally not as perfect as that of the gasoline. This is partly due to the fact that many owners are burning kerosene in tractors equipped with ordinary gasoline carburetors. The necessity of a tractor being equipped to operate on either heavy or light fuels is not so great as 1t was a few years ago. Modern proc- esses of refining make it possible to convert approximately 75 per cent of any crude oil into gasoline or heavier fuels, as desired, and it is stated by an excellent authority that the supply of crude oil available is ample for several generations. Therefore, the question of fuel supply need give the tractor owner no concern. The data apparently show that the tractors with drawbar ratings of 15 horsepower are giving slightly better resuits than either the larger or smaller sizes. The tractor has not, as a rule, displaced its equivalent in work horses, as regards either power or value. its purchase, therefore, usually increased the investment in power, as well as in certain kinds of equipment. The necessity for a large acreage, if the invested capital per acre is to be kept within a safe limit, is very apparent, although in many farming communities a tractor may prove profit- able on a small acreage, provided the owner can obtain some lucrative . custom work for the tractor when it is not required on the home farm. A great deal of the custom work which has been done with tractors has proved unprofitable to the tractor owner, however. The modern gas tractor of 10 or more horsepower has thus far, within its limited area of use, proved to be an auxiliary of the farm horse rather than a substitute. When properly handled, it is often of great value in permitting one or two men. to perform a large amount of work within a limited length of time. With further development, a lower first cost, and in the hands of a conservative class of farmers who have been carefully trained in their operation, tractors will undoubtedly continue to growin number and efficiency, extending their . field of work into new territory. The heavy demands for power to break new land are practically over, and the growth of the tractor will hereafter be due more to its merit than in the past. 44 BULLETIN 174, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The present trend of the tractor industry points to the development of cheaper and smaller outfits, designed to pull only from two to four plow bottoms. The studies here presented merely aim to set forth in a broad way tractor conditions as now found on the farm. A study of these data should be made by every farmer contemplating the purchase of a tractor. Up to the present time the tractor appears to have made for itself no important place in the agricultural economy of this country. Ina few limited localities in the West where conditions especially favor its use large tractors are used by some men with apparent profit. The general situation, however, indicates that the large tractor is not to be a factor in increasing farming by extensive methods and on a large scale, for a few years at least. Instead, there are indications that the tractor of the future must make possible more intensive agriculture on farms of moderate size, though the large outfits will probably con- tinue to be used on some of the exceptionally large farms in the West. It is worthy of note that some of the successful users of tractors were able to reduce the number of their farm horses. This fact suggests that there may be a field for farm reorganization to make possible the economical utilization of the tractor. Such development depends upon the production of a smaller and cheaper outfit, costing consider- ably less per unit of drawbar power than its equivalent in horses, thus offsetting the difference in their working life. It must be nimble, simple, and absolutely certain in operation when properly handled. Given such an outfit, the average farmer can afford to reorganize his farm work so as to discard one or more teams, and by utilizing the tractor for heavy field work and for driving machinery be able to reduce the cost of crop production. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Sig UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 175 — Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. April 29, 1915 MUSHROOMS AND OTHER COMMON FUNGI By FLORA W. PATTERSON, Mycologist, and VERA K. CHARLES Assistant Mycologist, Office of Pathological Collections ‘and Inspection Work CONTENTS Page Introduction . . - - -, 1 | Gasteromyceies So Morphological Se aeitiee ‘of IMasheoouia Phailaceze (Stinkhorn Fang) nie and Certain other Fungi 5 6 oe Lycoperdacee .. = ‘Descriptions of Species . . . .. . Sclerodermacez . Agaricacee . .. ee yeinee Nidulariacez (Bird’s-Nest Fung) Polyporacez (Pore Fungi) 5) one ON ea Ie Ascomycetes . Hydnacee .. anciniiis Tee Poisonous or Siapested Muakrconis, Tremellaceze (Jelly ee A EG Glossary . . : Clavariacee (Coral Fungi) . . Sos Recipes for Cooking Mashodus = : - Reference Books Useful to the ance WASHINGTON | GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1915 BULLETIN OF THE 2) USDIPANIMENT OFAQNCULTU No. 175 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. Apnil 29, 1915. MUSHROOMS AND OTHER COMMON FUNGI. By Fiora W. Patrerson, Mycologist, and Vera K. CHARLES, Assistant Mycologist, Office of Pathological Collections and Inspection Work. CONTENTS. Page Page Introduction 22 322.5-2-- 22. cS-e-cecsee ete Vy) Gasteromy.cetes <<... +225 ee aeeiar 47 Morphological structure of mushrooms and Phallaces (stinkhorn fungi) -..-..--...- 47 certain other fungi................-......- 3 ycopendacee ss ss22-4- sese =e eee 48 Descriptions of species......-..-.--.-------- 4 Sclerodermaces ....--..----------------- 52 PMpaniGaCeiee vase see: SeM notte es pen 5 Nidulariacece (bird’s-nest fungi)......-.- 52 Polyporaceze (pore fungi)......-.-.-.-------- 37) | PASCOMYGebeS Settee tassels eee ee -eeeeeee 54 ea MM ACRE te eta eeet ee) cheat ice ta nese 43 | Poisonous or suspected mushrooms. ..-.-.-.- 56 Tremellaceze (jelly fungi) ......-.-.-....----- 44° | >Glossany esc ccskceess otek ese e eee eee 56 Clavariaceze (coral fungi).........--.-.------ 46 | Recipes for cooking mushrooms......------- 58 Reference books useful to the amateur-..-...- 64 _ INTRODUCTION. The desirability of a Government publication for free distribution by the aid of which the amateur collector may distinguish poisonous and edible species of fungi is suggested by the present-day tendency to popularize science, the increased general interest in nature-study subjects, and the special interest manifested in the subject of mush- rooms. The writers make no claim to originality or to the contribution of new and interesting observations on the subject of mycology, but if this bulletin furnishes the amateur collector or nature student with a means of identifying certain common species and differentiating poisonous and edible varieties its purpose will be attained. The keys to aid in locating the genus or species are only intended and applicable for use with the species described. Questions of rela- tionship are sometimes necessarily sacrificed for the sake of rendering identifications easier for the amateur. There has been no effort to include the descriptions of a large number of species, but a few have been selected from each of the most familiar genera. The descriptions are brief and plainly written, the object being to mention the salient features or the distinctive characters of a particular fungus and to avoid as far as possible the 73431°—Bull. 175—15—1 a a a eeeeeeOOOOOOOOOOOOOEEESEeS—E——E———E—E—E——E—E—E—E—Eerr 2 BULLETIN 175, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. use of technical terms or statements which would require for verifi- cation the assistance of a compound microscope. By referring to the appended glossary and with the aid of a hand lens, the amateur collector can expect to recognize a large number of the fungi described in these pages. For some years certain foreign Governments have been endeavor- ing to teach their citizens the food value of mushrooms. AI! over France, but especially in Paris, exhibits are given of desirable species. In Rouen during the season, daily lectures, illustrated by many fresh specimens, are prepared for the benefit of the country residents. In the elementary schools of Saxony systematic instruction is given to families and children, and a permanent exhibit of specimens is also maintained. To judge from the statements of early authors, for many centuries wild mushrooms have been eagerly collected and eaten, especially in Germany, France, and Italy. Perhaps the only recorded voice of absolute protest came from the ancient Hindus, who considered those who ate mushrooms, ‘‘whether springing from the ground or growing on a tree, fully equal in guilt to the slayers of Brahmins.” Although early history records the use of mushrooms and the high esteem in which they were held by the ancients, it is true that their nutritive value has been greatly exaggerated and is not high and that they are not as life sustaining as meat, in spite of the frequent assertions of enthusiastic mycophagists to the contrary. The mushroom most commonly grown and employed for canning is Agaricus campestris, but not all canned mushrooms are of the cultivated variety. In France there has been established a large business in preserving wild species in that manner, and they have for some time been for sale here. Tons of dried wild mushrooms are also imported from China. Too emphatic a statement can not be made as to the absolute impossibility of ‘‘telling the difference between mushrooms and toad- stools” by any of the so-called ‘‘tests.”’ The only way to discriminate between edible and injurious fungi is by studying each species from a botanical point of view. By paying strict attention to certain constant features, as pointed out by an expert, the acquaintance of several species may readily be acquired during each season. It is well to look with suspicion upon every mushroom which is not positively known to be edible. The absolute necessity of eating mushrooms when perfectly fresh can not be too strongly emphasized. In collecting mushrooms the plants should not be pulled from the ground by the stem, but they should be lifted out of the earth by the aid of a knife or pointed stick. By this means the form of the base of the stem, a feature of great importance in specific identification, MUSHROOMS AND OTHER COMMON FUNGI. 3 can be determined and the presence or absence of a volva demon- strated. Careful notes of prominent features should always be made at the immediate time of collection, as some characters are extremely transient. If the opinion of an expert is required, such notes should accompany the specimens. If possible, several of each species should be collected in order to show variation. The plants should be separately wrapped in paper, paraffin preferred (not tissue or raw cotton), and all placed in a wooden box if to be sent by mail. MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF MUSHROOMS AND CERTAIN OTHER FUNGI. The parts common to most mushrooms and certain other fungi are the cap and the stem. The cap, or pileus, is the apical, fleshy part which on its lower surface bears gills in Agaricacex, pores in Poly- poraceee, and teeth in Hydnacex. The stem, or stipe, is present in many genera and is normally central; but it may be abbreviated or wholly absent, in which case the plant is said to be sessile, or resupi- nate if attached by the back, and the attachment may be excentric (not centrally attached) or lateral. The shape of the cap is described as umbilicate when it has a central depression, infundibuliform when funnel shaped, and umbonate when it has a central elevation. The margin may be involute (rolled in) or revolute (rolled out), repand (wavy), etc. The spores, the microscopic bodies analogous to seeds, are developed from the hymenium or spore-bearing tissue, which covers the surface of the gills in Agaricaces, covers the teeth in Hydnacez, and lines the pores in Polyporacee. The gills, or lamelle, are the thin, bladelike, radiating structures borne on the lower surface of the cap. Their color is generally determined by the color of the spores. The method of attachment to the stem is various, and they are described as adnate when attached ~ squarely to the stem, adnexed when reaching the stem but not attached by the entire width, free when not reaching the stem, sinuate or emarginate when notched or curved at the junction with the stem, and decurrent when extending down the stem. The gills are said to be attenuate when their ends are narrowed to a sharp point, acute when they terminate in a sharp angle, obtuse when the ends are rounded, arcuate when arched, and ventricose when broadened at the middle. In the early stages of development the margin of the cap lies against the stipe. In certain genera, as Amanita, Lepiota, Agaricus, and others, a thin veil is present, uniting the margin of the cap and the stem. This structure, known as the veil, consists of fibers grow- ing from the margin of the cap and the outer layers of the stem. It, or a portion of it, may persist as a firm movable or nonmovable annulus (ring), as in the genus Lepiota, or in the form of remnants 4 BULLETIN 175, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. attached to the margin of the cap, as present in Hypholoma appen- diculatum. The volva, or universal veil, is the term applied to the membranous envelope which in some genera entirely incloses the cap and stem. In certain species it ruptures at maturity, leaving a cup-shaped base, while often a portion adheres to the pileus in the form of warts or scales. DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES. In this paper the general plan has been to give a description of the class or family, then a key to assist in the identification of the species herein discussed, and lastly descriptions of the individual genera or species. Descriptions of the following species will be found on the pages indicated. Agaricus arvensis. -..... 32 | Clitocybe laccata....-.- 15 | Hydnumrepandum.... 44 Agaricus campestris.... 32 | Clitocybe monadelpha. 15 | Hydnum septentrionale 44 Agaricus placomyces... 32 | Clitocybe multiceps ... 15 | Hygrophorus chrysodon 24 Agaricus rodmani...... 33 | Clitocybe ochropur- Hygrophorus coccineus. 24 Agaricus silvicola. ..... Sous PULCAR Tet cies! Feels 15 | Hygrophorus conicus... 24 Agaricus subrufescens.. 33 | Collybia butyracea.... 18 | Hygrophorus eburneus. 24 Amanita caesarea...--- 7 | Collybia dryophila..... 18 | Hygrophorus hypothe- Amanita muscaria..... 7 | Collybia platyphylla... 18] jus.........22.-2.2. 24 Amanita phalloides.... 8 | Collybia radicata....-.. 19 | Hypholoma appendicu- Amanita rubescens.... 8) Collybia velutipes..... 19 lafum32s5 5 Ao 34 Amanita solitaria.....- 9 | Coprinus atramentarius. 35 | Hypholoma perplexum 35 Amanita strobiliformis. 9 | Coprinuscomatus.....- 36 | Hypholoma, sublateriti- Amanita verna.......- 9 | Coprinus fimetarius.... 36 tn | 3 _ ce LOU ae 35 Amanitopsis farinosa... 9 | Coprinus micaceus....- 36 | Ithyphallusimpudicus. 48 Amanitopsis vaginata.. 10 Cortinarius cinnamo- Irpex fusco-violaceus .. 44 ‘Armillaria mellea.....- i? )| meus |+~ See eee 30 | Lactarius chelidohium. 20 Armillaria nardosmia .. 12 | Cortinariuslilicinus.... 30 | Lactarius deceptivus-.. 21 Armillaria ventricosa .. 12 | Cortinarius sanguineus. 31} Lactarius deliciosus.... 21 Boletus bicolor...--.-.- 38 | Cortinarius violaceus... 31 | Lactarius fumosus ..... 21 Boletus chrysenteron .. 38 | Crucibulum vulgare -.- 53 | Lactarius indigo....-.- 21 Boletus edulis........- 39 | Cyathus stercoreus.. -.- 53 | Lactarius piperatus.... 22 Boletus felleus.....-.- 39 | Cyathus striatus. .-.---- 53 | Lactarius torminosus... 22 Boletus granulatus....- 39 | Cyathus vernicosus.... 53 | Lactarius volemus..... 22 Boletus luteus......--- 39 | Daedalea quercina....- 42 | Lentinus lecomtei-...- 26 Bovista pila.........-- 50 | Dictyophora duplicata. 48 | Lentinus lepideus .-... 26 Bulgaria inquinans.... 54 Dictyophoraravenelii-- 48 | Leotia chlorocephala... 55 Bulgaria rufa.........- 54 | Entoloma grayanum .-.- 28 | Leotia lubrica.......-.- 55 Calvatia cyathiformis.. 50 | Exidia glandulosa -.... 45 | Lepiota americana.._.- 10 Calvatia gigantea...... 50 | Fistulina hepatica-.-.. 42 | Lepiota morgani....... 10 Cantharellus auranti- Fomes applanatus -...-- 40 | Lepiota naucina.....-. 11 ACISE A= <2. eee 14 | Fomes lucidus -...-..- 40 | Lepiota procera .....-- 11 Cantharellus cibarius .. 14 Galera tenera ......... 31 | Lepiota rachodes ...... 11 Catastoma circumscis- Geaster hygrometricus - ol Lycoperdon gemmatum 49 BUM 2S see tes 51 | Guepinia spathularia .. 46 Lycoperdon pyriforme. 49 Claudopus nidulans.... 27 | Gyromitra esculenta... 55 | Marasmiuscohaerens... 25 Clavaria pistillaris. .... 46 | Hirneola auricula-judae 45 | Marasmius oreades....- 25 Clitocybe amethystina. 14 | Hydnum coralloides... 48 Marasmius rotula...-.- 25 Clitocybe dealbata._..- 14 | Hydnum erinaceum ... 43 | Merulius lacrymans.... 43 Clitocybe illudens..... 15 | Hydnum imbricatum.. 44 | Morchellaesculenta.... 55 Mutinus caninus..-..... 48 Mutinus elegans......-. 48 Mycena epipterygia.... 19 Mycena galericulata... 20 Mycena polygramma... 20 My cena purart is... 0. 20 Naucoria semiorbicula- TLS HPPA Io Stach atte 31 Omphalia campanella.. 16 Panaeolus retirugis .... 37 Panus stipticus........ 26 Paxillus atro-tomento- SUSiacjac sisioaisaeee 28 Paxillus involutus..... 28 Paxillus rhodoxanthus. 29 Pholiota adiposa.....-. 29 Pholiota caperata....-- 29 Pholiota marginata .... 29 Pholiota squarrosa. ---- 30 Pleurotus ostreatus.... 13 Pleurotus sapidus...... 13 Pleurotus serotinus.... 13 Pleurotus ulmarius.... 13 Pluteus cervinus ...... 27 Polyporus betulinus... 41 Polyporus frondosus ... 41 Polyporus gilvus .....- 4] Polyporus sulphureus.. 41 Polystictus cinnabari- DUSS2h5 Joss 2cebaess 4] Polystictus pergamenus 41 Polystictus versicolor .. 42 Psathyrella disseminata 36 Russula emetica.....-- 22 Russula ochrophylla-... 23 Russula roseipes..-..-- 23 AGARICACE. Russula rubra......... 23 Russula virescens.....- 23 Scleroderma geaster.... 52 Scleroderma vulgare... 52 Sparassis crispa.......- 46 Strobilomyces strobila- COUSAI Solisis .\sibe te 40 Stropharia semiglobata. 34 Tremella frondosa ..... 45 Tremellodon gelatino- SUN ee ea 46 Tricholoma equestre... 16 Tricholoma nudum .... 17 Tricholoma personatum 17 Tricholoma russula.... 17 Tricholoma terreum ... 17 Urnula craterium.....- 55 Volvaria bombycina... 27 The classification for the genera of Agaricacee discussed in this bulletin is based upon the color of the spores. paratively easy matter to form an opinion regarding the color of the spores, but if any difficulty is experienced a spore print may be made. The process is very simple, and the results are quite satisfactory. The stem is removed from the specimen from which a print is desired and the cap placed face down on a piece of paper of contrasting color, covering it with a tumbler. fall in radiating lines on the paper. It is generally a com- When the spores are mature they will If a permanent spore print is desired, an alcoholic spray of white shellac may be employed. This is prepared by making a saturated solution of white shellac and then diluting it 50 per cent with alcohol. Key to Agaricacex. WHITE-SPORED AGARICS. Plants soft or more or less fleshy, soon decaying, not reviving well when moistened: Ring or volva or both present— Volvaandiraneybothipresent.. 2-25 eeeee eee ae AMANITA. Volva present, ring absent........------ nT DOSE TR AMANITOPSIS. Volva absent, ring present— Gills free from stem. 5....025... << 25-OROn ne eee ae LEPIOTA. Gillsvatiachediito;telstem=a-sesmeeee rer =e ee ARMILLARIA. Ring and volva both absent— Stemuexcentric or lateral?t yess SUS A ek Se PLEUROTUS. Stem central— Gills decurrent— Edge blunt, foldlike, forked. .................... CANTHARELLUS. Edge thin, stem fibrous outside. ............ apes CLITOCYBE. Edge thin, stem cartilaginous outside. ........... OMPHALIA. Gills sinuate, general structure fleshy. ............... TRICHOLOMA. Gills adnate! or adnexed— Cap rather fleshy, margin incurved when young...CoLLyBIA. 1See the Glossary, pp. 56 to 58, for definitions of the technical terms. 6 BULLETIN 175, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Plants soft or more or less fleshy, etc.—Continued. Ring and volva both absent—Continued. Stem central—Continued. Gills adnate or adnexed—Continued. Cap thin, margin of the cap at first straight, mostly bell shaped .o22.5 eee esses. VR Oe Mycena. Cap fleshy, gills very rigid and brittle, stem stout— Malic present... cmwifacd2 oases ste te Sh bee LAcTARIUS. Millabsent.. 2. -e-sligeescieted. St. aliee RUSSULA. Gills various, often decurrent, adnate or only adnexed, edge thin, thick at junction of cap, usually distant, SBN ARN AE LS Soca ae cing wes ono Ie HyGRoPHORUS. Plants coriaceous, tough, fleshy or membranaceous, reviving when moistened: Stem generally central, substance of the cap noncontinuous with that of the stem, gills thin, often connected by veins or ridges. . MARASMIUS. Stem central, excentric, lateral, or absent, substance of the cap continuous with that of the stem— Edge of gills toothed or serrate....-...-..---------------- LENTINUS. Edge of gills not toothed or serrate..........-.------------ PANUs. Edge of gills split into two lamine and revolute. .........ScHIZOPHYLLUM. Plants corky or woody, gills radiating. .........-...-.-.---------- LENZITES. ROSY-SPORED AGARICS. Stem excentric or absent and pileus lateral ..........-.--.------- CLAUDOPUS. Stem central: Volva present, annulus wanting.........-.-.----.------------ VOLVARIA. Volva and annulus absent— Cap easily separating from the stem, gills free............- PLUTEUS. Cap confluent with the stem, gills sinuate...............-- ENTOLOMA. OCHER-SPORED AGARICS (SPORES YELLOW OR BROWN). Gills easily separable from the flesh of the cap: Margin of the cap incurved, gills more or less decurrent forked or connected with veinlike reticulations..........-.. es Bape PAXILLUS. Gills not easily separable from the flesh of the cap: Universal veil present, arachnoid..-.....:--.-.-22--2--------- CorRTINARIUS. Universal veil absent— Ang present .sss98 bs each Soe eo see: oss oe eee eee PHOLIOTA. Ring absent— Stem central— Cap-tarned in. 3 22 o> ae rena eee Pee Navcortia. Cap not tirned in! 227-222. -. steers Se ee GALERA. Steniexcentric'or NONE 222 Fs Looe te Se ERE CREPIDOTUS. BROWN-SPORED AGARICS. Cap easily separating from the stem, gills usually freé-.....-..-.--- AGARICUS. Cap not easily separating from the stem, gills attached: Ring present. ,.2..220., 2b 22 ee te ee eee STROPHARIA. Ring absent, veil remaining attached to the margin of the cap. . HypHoLomA. BLACK-SPORED AGARICS. Gills deliquescing, cap thin, ring present in some species. .-..-.---- CopRINUS. Gills not deliquescing: Margin of cap striate, gills not variegated...........-.-------- PSATHYRELLA. Margin of cap not striate, gills variegated.........------------ PANAEOLUS. MUSHROOMS AND OTHER COMMON FUNGI. 7 AMANITA. The genus Amanita is easily recognized among the white-spored agarics in typical species or early stages by the presence of a volva and a veil. Young plants are completely enveloped by the volva, and the manner in which it ruptures varies according to the species. The volva may persist in the form of a basal cup, as rings or scales on a bulblike base, or it may be friable and evanescent. ‘The cap is fleshy, convex, then expanded. The gills are free from the stem, which is different in substance from the cap and readily separable from it. This is a most interesting genus, on account of the great beauty of color and texture of many of its species and the fact that it contains the most poisonous of all mushrooms. While there are some edible species in the genus, the safest policy for the amateur is to avoid all mushrooms of the genus Amanita. Amanita caesarea. Czsar’s mushroom. Cap ovate to hemispherical, smooth, with prominently striate margin, reddish or orange becoming yellow; gills free, yellow; stem cylindrical, only slightly enlarged at the base, attenuated upward, flocculose, scaly below the annulus, smooth above; ring membranaceous, large, attached from its upper margin; stem and ring nor- mally orange or yellowish, in small or depauperate specimens sometimes white; flesh white, yellow under the skin, and usually yellow next to the gills; volva large, dis- tinct, white, saclike. Cap 24 to 4 or more inches broad; stem 3 to 5inches long. (PI. I, fig. 1.) This species is variously known as Ceesar’s agaric, royal agaric, orange Amanita, etc. It has been highly esteemed as an article of diet since the time of the early Greeks. It is particularly abundant during rainy weather and may occur solitary, several together, or in definite rings. Although this species is edible, great caution should always be used in order not to confound it with Amanita frostiana, which is poisonous. The points of difference of these two species are conveniently compared as follows: Species. Cap. Gills. Stem. Volva. Amanita caesarea..| Orange, smooth, oc- | Yellow..........-. Yollow2-cs