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' atid perbeeit it} { tit } i AY hist ’ fat 7) ' ityenl ne { i! perfil Het PEP ] MIVILYPAL TRESTLE Vivre Lesa ‘ ie} i rane ath itn PTH ESET TCEEECE OEE RD iI} Hy NETPRLCLE TETRA EL ) reeeeeny wil Vi ran) iI win TETRARAAT ALATA j eee sects ‘ ira) a0 ity] sigyi it) 1) j PORTE ECELE EL Hay atest tial itn i yet i j ii payee rereneeeel if Plepwae dita bee tihis it ; i MAALELT ATA LAD LEA AAA ADD A REL } ") atta { pieeebil it i! 4 PLL rrraeaeitil i iit i Hideepeyy ! ‘ ( itt ptt} matihh it? { FULT EPRETE Oetet tihitiy TELEUDN tad ne i hi WETa SR PaEt a | i HH Wi Wiih ‘yeni prey ' " iT} TESST AMTICO RODPUAA RASS DAD PABLT REEL, i enitl Nios ' i" f Biante Tee { apaadtartt tine HiT ann | ) ‘ ! l geiitiny tie on i} | ; i ett } i { tit ‘ hi i t (ue wil | i rine \ i} SHPeCeaueahy ed tians ) iit ‘ 4 visceeesel Ou b HUY agiaceeel SpeLaseegbyeygel 1 us thi 1 aereaetititaniey f we yey (st I highs | } PPA) \ i} Littl adstiey Ly) nuit 5 TY i thy went } ' i pppdiaue ( jit i ART RAEAL re i Cy} i MMPACTATORATIOTCGRIataN }! ! 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Phiesatycladhaigyy VAEVEHGAEEAD ELAR EE “ Unie TESIDERESRAAD TORSO I SISSEI TEPER tL TrrSTeaaal BBM UEH Fi ij Rave tcuactaddis SECUUETOPOD OPER CUES TOTO COCO UGR LEG Va LOPES UPUERCOMG NTR ba baae basa MG AT ESEHT waar ASCE ECCUODRR DET TP VEL TEC et POLECCUDEUDEDTECURRES PRED ELS RUDD EET TOTO AER Hae ELE she HT: p fps iti CUPLASSBRAUA LRU DRLELUES EGS ODES BD babel tlascni Wsciiitis Hit deebbPb Lage hae vtelautast STLEUUURV EDD dee qed CUCUDDDSpDALLGAUAUASBEDUUCAAHAATERE 4 SaSTELEEARTSTTLELEGNTD ya Latta HHH URATACTRNSER TAT CLECA VOSEEPT UC TTP SE TERR EERBASISUCRRSISIDOSID SORRELL ReD VUGCUAPOD AREA TECRCRES SBR SERE PUALas dyad ots banes ches chs i40G 1 PUSTTENORECLLIT LIED aaa UAC REPEC PH RT TRUREVINITERSU TS SPeres SORT PRTTST REE CCORUOORRT ESET AUDO ST Rtg PSS UPUUCUCGU TED PEEP CUE SELL HTH Hy a Ty UD PRRE SS OARSCRSEROSIACO Ra yabbhanne PPESTITOSIRTICSCISTSORS Lee COLD VDETEROLCEDECEUGUDDUDBDBDD ‘ PFT irri tiiies EH ~ TIO Ope NVNYIT TT TET DELETE CEUV SEB ELE qivsstat baal SEE EO TTR ATIEEY sechaehe WHT RTH DEPVUPECCAUSRNCR TATOOS ESTED URGDSSTCCEER EST TTEE Gata ani PeSSS PILI GReRP TAT Tee ies tists Hinata APD OHARUP EDR sODUAURUSE Lecce abeatiaeaberi ete Beet UU RU Weer ei ehhh PPR AT SPURA TC DDU LSS ORRRR RD yn 1 TOLSMETEae? PUUDPAAERSADDSERE LT CEORECITOSSIID SUCCEED yaeata " VY IVUNESSPEPTESID ELE TDI TEES CORD EER POLED a t HN OREUREAITOMDIT ERRORS ET SUE MIST E ia ATT GSE SHUNGANAEDDBESRATS A DUAEERE DUELCERUDYP DST UUSUUMAEEEGEGREDD DSP PEP CERT ITE DUE LO OOO OEE RR HOT AAC UUOSREATETERSSSOIED EE LOR EVEL ECUT ELE? VOCUORETERINGUCURDARD LOD UTRCCN aD OPER haauany peciagenaeayy HEN Pieieaesiriiil PPPS a TEN TUUCAES PES Tu eae PeRSeRSeDEeE! Tt ae pqcaspspapieeal wit hatin Nit POVPTONUTEOTRETETAORSSECUVRTSITTIVICVI TIN. ChisiteRIPERT PSOE TT CREME DEER EET Wd te nat on uh Hide on) EUCCUEDCCCCOUUDPOS EOS MESP DEST ROGUES ERG. EUBPOD TTT AGEESDOT Cea P REDE N EDS SRR TE shad a PUG;ESTAPDUDORALCGOVUPECG(CUSUPDDO EOD BOGUT BDSG CUS TUS COEEEEECECUDOE COMPEU COUPEE ATURE MERDPDD RR abs eas saeeeaneeued PUUAUHVCEEREECODARDDDUGDDDDDEPUSPLOOPEETERRS GUD) TTR COMERES ED MCU CER NTT We sta THOME I Hit un ssihe SUSTOPCPEP APOE CGCC OEP EEE GM DS PEERS A BD DDD SUES PPTOET TY) PISSEPEI FEI CRERS DCCL BOR HA tin Hi ‘ Hit FAM Ly LUT LEMS CCRARVUECRECOUODDDE COUTERDEOQQURS UBDEPSGQUCDUCDPOPPCCCCHEES EITC OUPEMBS EPG GRGURSE aa PUPERACCGRDOPEDE EE ETA a baaS 2 > > ‘4 ie “ eho Va . ir - BOR THE RE OREE BORSE DVGATION BOR SCIENGE NGopy.. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY % = et ti Moe re Ven y ely" yee RAHN IRAE S I We WSU Ray ‘ tS Aout Bris rae ed U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Department Bulletins WITH CONTENTS AND INDEX. Prepared in the Division of Publications. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOE, 1916, Nos. 176-200, G3:DOG 4 4 3 \ Rw iO: ANITA CONTENTS. «2 ae ee ee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 176.—GROUP CLASSIFICATION AND VARIETAL DESCRIP- TIONS OF SoME AMERICAN POTATOES: Page. 0) SORG AWOL. ABR Re cc + ir SMe sie ices Birt Raa nes Ro 1 Pemycheameal Classiitentione: 2-226. . 02028 VOLO E Tee a ee if . Beaposediaystem of clasifieation:- 2-2... 82252-5532 4c5-8 0652s 3 (EES 2 DSCs etches a A 2 ga la a 13 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 177.—THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF DaIRy Provwcts: OTD AL. =... 18 SESS SS PCR. Sena oe ee a eh Me 1 SeuenaeeminrrmcuT VoOCOUUCIS. 5.25 3). - TR oe oe ete ee 1 DRMeE Tema ICY DLOOU CIS: 2a. pe Gar. See ac te wie k SOLS Sh Ree Ee ee. S 9 Special study of consumption of milk and butter.............-.--.------- 17 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 178.—CooPERATIVE ORGANIZATION Business MeruHops: SINNER ee en a pt ants ee ela sh dls Mgrs aos al ene ce sty PERE 1 MeEIBPMSTE TCC OUUES 2 seo ea a ote kL SRE Cy eel ee 2 REEEEDRTTERIESRLIONED ES too lc nso Se nae aloe osha cgliey ashen ERS eT Sern ote 4 Mbomincemanacer. 22s. ee a AB Sn tee Ne ol thal Je NSA ara 4 lions Wa at 8 5 LE SCL Zee Pe SS ii ed igs rina By, of re a Bs EAS BL 6 Oe De TEE INT SS ER Te I Sa SIA Nae geen 7 LL ini TH DE EsG) NOTE eeges Aaa og angi ATO, deal ty ty aR ae es rh if 8 8 9 SE UNGER ESS ats Cae ea RES CR tS. BE EEL OG Re ton he oh ee LL + SELLS teed ta Ara ants spomiels wren! = Rrareys ee tie yee SEERCLTAO TIN AL PUSDCTAVALLC, V Bios a0 - aie =\n = nice =,c inj c.eisin e.aiveieele Ditieiays epee ges Investigations at French Creek, W. Va..........-.-.-.-- JOSE SC OSES Se REMEMRICAIIOUR AL LICKENS W.! Vawoe. «sees ono clone cial 0 eisata ome eieiaiab tate mie Résumé of rearing experiments in Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia. Number of first-brood larve transforming first season......-...--.--------- Effect of differences in altitude and latitude upon the development of the 6 AEST ES See) Sac See ee ee PAR, STi re th Relative numbers of larve ascending and descending the trees...........-. Seasonal effect of weather conditions on the different stages of the codling etn e st Ses cre | MN, Meee ee tt Te Lis 51 ER OLB LTE EY Cannibalism among codling-moth larve............--..------ tT OO SERIO CE) tt ots ew. Serer et: Panetta he PELE BOISE SO INO NNN ce 0 Loe Rk oo > = Seas oa biniy e baie e a tas Lidia ce oe eer ed MEO, DerartmMent Buiieti~ 190.—Tne DrainaGe or IrriaatED LAND: NNN ee ee i es Bg nase ae mle slit ole aad ens Manifestations of poor drainage conditions..............--..-.--++e0+: bey METER MULAN Co. gk ose Sif Pk aaa im pnw Re espe ak eae ersieie pe tury MIPIGREUH LOW ORIXPATIONA. «> ans a's bipyrinia sae. be oe bores om fie in wim ain mn EERIE SI ES etree sei he baiee er rele a ta oly @ cinielir'e nr nin x sir)s)>, steers Bie hese, nie, IIMB CATLINIR SE har tc ct AEE TIGN «Mer sice eke eters ayeiecietely viniss is otTs'e ate crane, PICA NS a Sa cia d hie aisle nid} are'aisals we wale aims dora LON MIC rh teeta seth Spied Naa dias o shield apie slain Gn isis'ellisie'eie« Depth and location of covered drains.....................- Conon fnwnNwnre | ell sed 6 (J DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 176-200. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 190.—THE DRAINAGE oF IRRIGATED LAND—Contd. Protective devices for open. canals: ...b2.2.....0.01 Se ee - Protective devices.for covered. drains.4. -....... 20). ae ee ee Construction of draims: 6 ..1.\..2).02 so. eee ee od 2 ee ee ee | Maintenance: 337.22. cei. Ae ee os Subsequent treatment of Jand 22. ..- - Szeese ee What drainage accomplishes... ::....2).2...2U! 5) ae Costiot/ draimimgs rp. cee.. jeer ee erin ee, Cooperative ‘drainage.....22 2503-01)... geee oe oon... ee: Conclusion: : 2202s c cee A, DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 191.—DEMURRAGE INFORMATION FOR FARMERS: Introductlons #3 din 2 Ck ch. ee ee. os ee Definition and history, of demurrage: . = -2.44.)....22. 22222) eee The farmer’s interesfiin demurrage...@.-.-.....-.----- -.5 ope =) ee Regulation’ by: the States: 8.2252.) ae. ee eee epee Interstate repula tion: 32.2322. s22 25. Boeken sso. dose ee Provisions of the uniform demurrage code__:.....2........---- sae Exceptions to the amiformjcode. -..... .Byees. te... 4.- 42. ..- Avgeneral survey of State codes...... .@ees. 2-2 2.2 4.2:5-<)- =... =e “Reciprocal demurrage”): 33.2 .ifc': Bee. ois: Bae ae ee on eee Other provisions of the State codes_ .-42e225---— 4 --a-- 2-2 Special features of State codes: .......Slaee2se =. ee ee er Weniurrage’ bureaus... 0.2 62.20. so. ee ee ee ee DEPARTMENT BuLuETIN 192.—INsEcTS AFFECTING VEGETABLE CROPS IN Porto Rico: Introduction... 2.0228 L ghee 4 ieee Se Thysanoptera and hemiptera, or sucking incects..........-.------------- Orthopteras: ic..-8 2 ee ee sok. ee See le Coleoptera oo ooo eevee es eh Sn 5 ee Ss ee Lepidoptera. 5. osc. se cen so =n ee - - BE ee ee Hymenopterau. 5 fsoss2 2 ses lies 22: se Be ne ee Dipterazc. See ek ta oe abn, eee, Ae ne a Summary... See 2. ee SN RO ee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 193.—THE DRAINAGE OF JEFFERSON County. TEX.: Imtroductiomies oe oak es ee gD ETN General description of Jeiierson Countys. .<°--9----24-4- 42 4-25 The:survey i! Ws. ee A or The drainage problem 54.2.5)... ge ee ee Rutty: 5. es i SR EE he Proposed planof draimage....... 2... 2222, ee er Mstimate of cost.2.... 222. ese. Be, ee Conechusioni. 82553245 228 SUG Se ee Appendixs:. 9.0.25. 2.22 S ite l lee LO Re DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 194.—THE FLow or WatTER IN IRRIGATION CHAN- NELS: Necessary field data for values of 7... 25.) jeje 2 qocie)- - ee eee Scope. of experiments... 2e2.)4:fe -.2k)- =. Serye ol Seed Sasa es te Equipment and methods employed for collecting field data......-...-.-.- Correction for velocity heads. ..... - -. £34. Ageen seee ae eee Elements of field tests to determine retardationdactors in Kutter and Chezy POPTNU AS cs! cid! Ga laa ee | a So na rr Description: of channels... 0... .. -... 3 dose osees - eae =.= rr Pie use Ok ValwesiOl 2... - 2222s | oo eee ee tee Recommendations for values of v for different kinds of channels........-- HatumMation Chants. = 25... .2..20 2. fo. ee eee nee ee coe ne er Variations ot 7 aimethe same channel. 22922. 922222224265 = oo ee eee Gonchusions:-. sae tee ke a ee ee Acknowledementisss: 2 sic. ceo bois. Baek Soee eo eel oe eo Page. — SSTOOUNH aonnre ona ARN rR eS on) 28 CONTENTS. q i, DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 1904.—THE FLow oF WATER IN IRRIGATION CHAN- : NELS—Continued. Appendix: Page. Menerete Hininiod >: +k 4 en he aS! See S ‘etre pect sala: 62 Mieseneininics 7+ 52 See ee vane eee cee elo Se CUES 64 a Mei aivies With’ SMOG INLCHION Poy e nose te eae ee 64 . Metal flumes with projecting interior bands......................... 64 , Me eeMIMNeS With! COFUPAICO ITON I esc ee ee ee eee ce eee 65 ; een linied Recigonasses 45 ho) NS er PON MOLI Vice? 65 pee twetrariniels: oe we eer a. =< ess te ets EOE AL 65 Mapnte-bottomidivtchestie. sss... . foi 255s se csshesee ssa est flee IMRk: 68 DeparTMENT BULLETIN 195.—PorTaTo BREEDING AND SELECTION: 2 EUR Sec. he lalele AsegO o SEEN ie resi hee ikon be pgs erie amas 1 Potato breeding and selection defined. ..... ies Delia Nia alts Des areca es 2 2 Pineianousion breeainevancd Selection: Be 52 yi Senos ty Ne 2 Emery aicemipts at potato breeding. ee eS 3 PEE Oh Pettit OTCCOINm. 6-2 Lets 8 Po eae ee ceca eens 6 pe I TIEPUARICUICS! 2 92 0-22 > 3 Sec. hens Sele xen sn eye Seely 9 Pcigwexnerimenta) crossing i). SOE oO ee 11 TEL SUSE ES ES ta alll le AA eae ARR ae Sa ee ec ae ee ee 15 EPMRINTER EE 2s ee FS SENS) VANS eae oe Se suk yas SER 16 4 Peeemerosses niade 1m: LOO 220s free ils Ba Ses x etal EO OOS 17 Method of growing and testing seedlings. -..... ARS NNUAL SO PUB LUAl A Ve SM Sat 18 Seedling inheritance in the F, generation...........-..----------+--+----- 20 amamnprovement by selection. ........-:--2--26.0-20-0s-escteeeeseeee 21 . DERE IOM Ee XPETIMNCN IA. 5222225. ' ese le ee AN eka 22 oe 8 2 ATE DS LOC Ie BA SSO 2 ae ee ee St 27 i 4 Seeererecnioniny estications. 6.28 i sae ee ates See 29 H Denn 2. hs 2a S55 tk mie eee Ae bette ia a a A Ns De 35 PY DEPARTMENTAL BULLETIN 196.—MertTHODS FoLLOWED IN THE COMMERCIAL iz CANNING OF Foops: Modern factory equipment and methods............-....----.-------+-- 1 tt aTanse teppei Meee aglt eee ll ii = 2a Pins opclis SU msenteben suena oie 10 2 GL 2 ch Aiea seal edly tga a pe enrol me oe PRLS eI = 12 RE MEMIESEITIN RC ATENC( ie oy oo: «upp ayae s he eet ts ea er lay a Ryan) 13 MEE ec er ee. Set AS A Ny 2 BU ia Mme ta aha 13 SRMOIMRISU TO COM 22 oo) meyer. Pens on we tcl cine eo ey lelare 2 14 Seen or canned foods compared with fresh.....-...2.0..2-)24- ng. b-e2 ees 15 Extent of the canning industry in the United States.....--.....-------. 16 MCI REASONS... ....---.-.-+.--=-< = HRS ORO a er Se ye PO ra: eRe RA 16 BUMPER AL WOT ers eres. ene oe eae DS Rae LS Belen) ate oe 19 Detailed consideration of the various products. ....-..------------------ 21 DerartMeNT Butterin 197.—Homemape Liwe-suLpHUR CONCENTRATE: Experiments at Berryville, Va.............-. ECs cchta nd AS ate KE A wee: ats ne 1 REEEEICTHICS AL WWANCROSLOL, Nia. Hou. \. Seer a oa 2 eee t ls cathe dows sec 2 maemments 1b Eacetstown, Mdis.:.--.-:----2.-+2+-22--222 ies et isis Ae 3 SCRA UL AV LOUNA VAs i... WER = Mii A aan) Se Sahat ho a ~ saps ste ces alea 4 Experiments at Benton Harbor, Mich................---.--- eee Sieh Atha 4 Directions for preparation of lime-sulphur concentrate............---.-.-- 5 Preparation of highly concentrated lime-sulphur solution...............- 6 DC oS Ar RISE ME. paper Wa eae Ae a ah ae ce PIM aiaidi wae alan 6 Department Butvetin 198.—Report Uron tHe Cypress CREEK DRAINAGE District, DesHa AND Cuicor Counties, ARK.: LI CSA UET Chae eo a fs SP NH ER Le) RM esc nd 1 LACE CRYINOT & iti S255) chao: Sa aya often Achill SED Whelan. 2s 6) oa telbie! ele eon’ 2 RCRENIVATAINACE CONMILIONAs i. Suu. = -(aephagel a Arp aatalaldin min op 8% dnjs whan wie alae 6 RTs Bice 0 JGR Dutt «> aien Fe ots Ee AR es es MME Secchi 7 SPENT ETIG CONAIOCTOR <0). Mire = «Penis Ay vine We amibiale fie ths Bielnnd dew ma asa 10 I PIITIPA ODN ole 5s BE ide SaGridian ai dad wedi d niet om’ MMe Sie oie wen a 13 ICME P20 2 ding AAS cs Cae R 6 AG as Rave MAKER kde teas 19 A comprehensive drainage system needed. ........-..-22.20eeeeeee seers 20 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 176—200. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 199.—Loss In TONNAGE OF SUGAR BEeEts BY Dryinc: Introduction:. eed: seo ow ood. . Coos ee eee | Experiments in pulling and drying sugar beets.................... pene Effect of drying upon the sugar content of beets...-.-.................-. The drying of sugar beets in very large open piles...-............-.....-- Relation of shrinkage tovmoney loss... aecs Selec): -:-\-) eh DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 200.—A Maacot TRAP IN PracticaL USge—AN EXPERI- MENT IN HovuszE-FLY CONTROL: Introduction... 2 -)2)/62/5,.-/-). 55442: Bees. + ot oh Local conditions with regard to fly prevalence and breeding places..-.-.-..-. Plan of experiment. (0.022. 2k: eee ee oe er ihe mageot trap. 2... 22) aes - Be eteils 2ee2 2 sare ine ae rr The method adopted in using the maggot trap...........-.---.-.-------. The percentage of maggots destroyed Wo). 2-56. ..-.-1- yes = eee eee Influence of other breeding places on the number of flies at the college...... pome‘deiects oi the magcotitrap.ne.- -Seeeee eee - + eae Re ee Some advantages of the maggot trap. 22225. eee oem fee ee w= 7 The influence of the maggot trap on the value of the manure. ae Conclusions soe ee ane SG) a Oe ene eared er ee - fate eee Soe References to literature. ........... = SPSS BANE ve 3 i doo Page. be CcoOn~nhr ft tt et Ot C9 bD OO COW ROO Oo HE bade ia) 4 areca EN: DEBE. Balen Page. Acacia farnesiana. See Huisache tree. Accounting— forms, cooperative marketing organization, suggestions. . 178 4-5 method for cooperative marketing organization......-..- 178 10-17 Accounts— auditing, cooperative marketing organization.........-- 178 18-20 dairy farm, system in Germany, notes...-.......------- 182 26 |SVASIUETIDIE Re lc 2 i a Onn a Up i Re ee Bee aN 178 2-4 Adams, John, development of ‘‘christopher”’ for washed IES, Sore he test tou air pure hee IRE 180 14 Agallia tenella, occurrence on v egetables, Porto Rico. eae 192 2-3 Agomyza parvicornis, occurrence in Porto Rico. ..-..----.-- 192 10 Asricultural alcohol. See Alcohol, agricultural; Alcohol, industrial. Agricultural products— marketing, cooperative organization business methods..) » 178 1-24 percentage of railway tonnage, OU De ae tee eae 191 2 Alabama, demurrage regulations, variations from uniform TEEUE, G05 2 af 6 EN ey ene Rae eae ae Rn a 191 13, 15, 16, 25 Alabama River, movement of soil material, annual. ....-..-. 180 23 Alcohol— agricultural, manufacture in Germany, studies........-. 182 1-36 consumption for technical purposes, growth in Germany. 182 6-11 denatured. See Alcohol, industrial. industrial— UEEr sl zyaisy nial Cy crasck:) oy dee surnemigets 3 enh) el aya Seale 182 3-7 studies of industry in Ger many, plansand purposes..| . 182 1 tax refunds in Germany, influence on Capen UCR ae tse mat ois ot SS SE oes Een Beet 182 6 industry— economic situation in Germany. Ro pospendesaeesnes 182 3 Germany, development... 5... \ ee ie oe. 182 4-5 manufacture— mash-capacity taxation, Geman, StUCIeS: 25st ee 182 3-5 taxation methods, Germany.. ee rary poe popey ante 182 3-3 market, relation to type of distillery... ee ae 182 15 marketing, cooperation in Germany...-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-. 182 8-11 potato, industry in Germany, development, agricultural BisrIletIICe CLC oie as Ea eee. eee oe eee 182 2, 7-8 Pee MIM CEMIATNY \TIOLE 0 toe ere 2s - Diese, aire niarjeres ci 182 33 production— wo Germany, L905—190G62 2/2). So er peiecercres es 182 14 on the large estates of Germany, data..-.-.-.-..-.- 182 18: relation to agricultural interests in Germany, studies. 182 11-35: taxation methods, Germany.....-......-..5--.--.---.-- 182 22, 25, 33 taxes in Germany, effect on production and consumption. 182 5-6 technical. See Alcohol, industrial. Alfalia, crop for irrigated alkali land, advantages........... 190 31 Alkali land— eupenon lumber box drains... 82.0.2 cee ese ac6 < 190 5 irrigated— Pau Lee Tt] 0) Yan ad (eR Rae eg, A ai A hae 190 31 BR CAUELO I Us sseaetel stata Ue atti nal= taiehen g. outiay trata aca nied 190 20-31 leaching, effect on salts content..............--------- 190 30 IRIE eas Pee cc eee’, Get cog cnn fi 190 30 64952—16——2 9 nekO) DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 176—200. elem Page. Ant, red, destruction of codling-moth larve....- SBE tee 5 189 46 Aphis gossy pu— damage to vegetation in Porto Rico.-...---..-..-------- 192 3 destruction by JORUEZISINI ei Dee PROMOS 2736 Ania Aaeeenie « 192 3 Appalachian region— ' eodling moth, SUUGIES ses cose ricacls = s+ Jeers oo. SOR 189 1-49 soils, character, susceptibility to erosion, Cheer ies octane 180 18-20 Apples— canned— in United States 1899, 1904, 1909, quantity and RU UKCP MEMES n= - 2) aes oe ees, Soe aaa epee 196 16 presence of microorganisms. -.......--..------------- 196 53 canning at factories, selection, and preparation........- 196 32 packing seasons— dit, CADNEHICSS DY (OlALeS == = 92-4. eee eee. 196 lie IMPSNBIISNS 60 Hs Ss ole sese sesh sontodesssccee as donee 196 16 waste at canneries, percentage and uses......-.........- 196 32 Apricot— butter, canning, preparation. .....-.....------.-.-.--- 196 33 pits, disposal AiiCANNeTICS: <5 /)- te eee eee 196 35 Apricots— canned— effect of standing on weight of solids and sirup.....- 196 23, 24 effect ot various erades Ob SIFUP = = mee eaee eee 196 33-35 in United States, 1899, 1904, 1909, quantity and value. 196 16 presence of microorganisms.......-.......-.-.--..--- 196 53 canning— at factories, selection, preparation, and treatment. - 196 32-33 underripe fruit, objections Pye oes apie 5 OP anes eee 196 32-33 pradine device ket ater asec aris eieie:= sine ee ee tee eee 196 32 packing seasons at canneries, by States...........-..--- 196 16 shipping to cannery, practices, ODIJEChONS ete es eee 196 32, 38 waste at canneries, percentage and uses.......-.....-..- 196 34-35 Arctic term, migratory habits eect. st. apes ee eee ee 185 9-10 Arizona, demurrage regulations, variations from uniform code, SHE Ve ee Cn EOS: RS = ae a 191 13, 14, 16, 25 Arkansas— demurrage regulations, variations from uniform code, Co KC a Noe pee NE SNe RN, CRS as Siae 191 13, 14, 16, 25 Desha .and Chicot counties, Cypress Creek drainage CIStrict TepPOrtae ee yi ee eee eee = ees ee ee 198 1-20 southern rainfall, storm periods, run-off investigations, (2) Ce PS Sea RN RRS SENS A'S ee 198 7-10 Asparagus— canned in United States, 1909, quantity and welirse ses 196 16 canning— history, practices at factories, ete: : 25... see aaa 196 53-66 selection) preparation: (Cheeses) =e. ete 196 54-56 effect of standing after cutting, on quality of canned product; experiments:: 2a -s2 seen ee: eke eee eee 196 55-56 erowing, soil and cultural requirements............---- 196 54. iharvestine method. s2ia5. sere er eeee. --eare eee eee 196 54 packing— im round" cansy Obl echonsess—--- ee - eo ee eee eee eee 196 56 industry, establishment in East and in California. . - 196 83-54 season)at canneries, by Stateso2)-5- see eee eee eee 196 16 tips, canning, origin of industry, cost, etc.....--..-.--- 196 5d - Assassin bug, enemy of diabrotica graminea, note.....----.--- 192 5 Austria, potato lands, percentage and acreage per 10,000 AM Aabitambts WOOO sss 2 ee sarasota. eee ee enter 182 12 Avocado weevil, destruction in seed, fumigation experi- MMOIGSs sete Mees ys ot ot a icie eles cise elie a ee areas 186 4 Baked beans, packing seasons at canneries, by States....... 196 16 INDEX. ac emeunvorometer: Hotei. 96. E ee Be Ska Baltimore, oyster canning USS MOE \aepet aes A eh chee Barley, grain— aleurone layer, functions------+-.---..-+-+----+++-+--. conversion oi the endosperm, statements of investigators, Sere lopment, | 2 (ae h pees tort. eee CT ean ae diastase content, relation to bYPEr = = oasis. sees endosperm conversion, efficiency, relation to types..... enzym-secreting area improvement by cultural methods, TES TEST CUT OY ot Sea ie Eee en. Ae Read ne el PP tree AION. PMOCESSCS-— Fe S411.) Bee Bs a se morphology with reference to its enzym-secreting areas. . ReGEeINGMAmlOcmMOU mn es os ee oo MRM ls. ke source of diastase ferments, investigations and theories. . Arenuraland functional anatomy). 2322.22.20.222 2.222 Barleys— American, diastase content, variation in different types. Brisiatie power of certain types..-..-..--. 252.2252... foreign, adaptation to American requirements, discus- Peretenipeat, value for canning: © =:- 22... ~)-':--/-)- caine cles Baumé hydrometer, comparison with specific gravity and MpEMDIIMERTENCTI LG 22 hn er eee le ak Baxter, O. G., and others, bulletin on ‘‘Report upon the Cypress Creek drainage district, Desha and Chicot Coun- HUGS, ENERT ITER ST ES i SO oot A SR Oe eg Beach plum— mnpecerepiionsand: occurrence. -2/..s52 2. ces seeeecieekes Satueenre WARICIICS, ANG USeESHy_ os Ses =e ace ees 2: horticultural history AA eco els ACRE | OEIC Pee Bean leaf-roller, occurrence on vegetables in Porto IRNCOeaoce Beans— baked— canning, prac tices Abia CLOT CSM c= Menten skin an ark ee ' packing seasons at canneries, by States-.........--- canned in United States, 1899, 1904; 1909, quantity and Sire UD Tig wear ee he cies ae RAL ee | Seereee tee one re aa canning, preparation, grades, etc......-.-------------- mMscemeuemiesiiny Porto Ricoss: #2252. Meee Loe ees Lima, packing seasons at canneries, by States....-.-.-.. string— can-filling device, use at canneries.........---..-.-- canning at factories, management...-...-..-.----.-- Memand won camied™ productis.-.- ee sste sass] sce grading device, use at canneries......-....----.---- packing seasons at canneries, by States............- selection and preparation for canning........-...-- CUERPO ATT eae ara ee RE Hs REN: RE at ie sett me he See also Lima beans. Beauty of Hebron potatoes, origin and value......-.......-. POCO MUNTIGAGICTOIT LCT OS 5 52 Steet eee SO MEM a oat tone Beetles, species destructive to codling moth larvee.......... Beets— canning, selection, preparation, etc..........--/..---.-. ptagine device, Use at camMerlies:.- 2). fc je sesiig s cele el packing seasons at canneries, by States................. sugar— effect of drying on sugar content, experiment...... HAP CsirewOTenDOd-ttc aah. fevtee:, Maeaeys at ch ern ess loss in weight by drying after pulling, experiments. LORS OMLOUMA CA ims liscam erect.) oilers Seles, sa, ore le aye ok prices at factories, flat rate and sliding scale........ shrinkage, relation to money loss...............-.-- iB ufetin Page. 196 26 196 71 183 18-19 183 9-12 183 5-8 183 21-27 183 21-27 183 28-30 183 8-9 183 1-32 183 17-18 183 12-17 183 2-27 183 27-28 183 19-21 183 30-31 196 46 196 26, 28-32 196 1-20 179 55-56 179 56 179 Tf 192 i 196 77 196 16 196 16 196 Ul 192 | 2-3, 4,5, 7,8, 9 196 17 196 56 196 56, 57 196 56 196 56 196 7 196 56, 57 196 57 195 5-6 184 1-9 189 46 196 57 196 57 196 17 199 7-8 199 J-2 199 2-6 199 1-12 199 10-11 199 10-12 12 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 176—200. Perea Page. Bench marks, department, description, and location in Big Black iver reclamationiprojectac= 42.4 -)- Saeeee = seca 181 57 Berries canned in United States, 1899, 1904, 1909, quantity Suave ee NG eV es 5 SEE SE 78 he A eee ee Glee eS S 196 16 Berthault, Pierre, potato selection for improvement of char- CDE LS ee poke SRC ph WiSal ya (Seete Sac / a ei , MNaaemene ornle Fis! Bate 195 26-27 Bibliography, American species of prunus............------ 179 72-75 Big Black River, Miss., reclamation of overflowed lands, methods amd costyne Obits a: =e eee ye eae Sean ae LIS a 181 1-39 Big-tree plum— description, growth habits, and distributions 0 ee eS 179 29-31 early history and Wonca ee aM LS 179 26-27 Bird— census, 1914— circular ofimstrietion tes 5-425... See ee Sees 187 3-4 N ae a States, work and results.............. 187 peal las UAE cee SN ES aece ae , eet g ee 187 2-4 censuses, 1901, 1907, 1914, differences, etc...........--.. 187 2 cherry, description, erowth habits, distribution, CuOSSG es 179 60-61 expenditure of energy in flight, comparison with aero- [OC HOT een Sy eegey Us eg ee ae REAL 2 Meas Bae 185 30 TUM OVA CLOD sys sy BI R e ee a Ceeg e Beren 185 1-47 population, increase, possibilities, methods, etc.......-.- 187 oat Birds— census of United States, preliminary.................-.-- 187 1-11 day auipramts 398522222 Mise ya e Sete Sees Ne 185 5 destruction i TApMON ota tionMe yas 6 Nh oy Mee menses ah 72 185 31-33 exhaustion by migratory fights) discussious.. 42 2922-2 185 33-39 migration— CAUSES) ISCUSSIOMe Gea Ses vance. Ns an iets 185 2-4 daily flight, Testing) Periods selGs-- = eee sata eee 185 5-7 Gis taTC ee sa see ie so eRe ley. Sane ge ee ccd 185 Teall relation to moltimes:-3202 2). 42552. Se A Sie ese ae 185 31 rélation to weather, discussion.................-- Ee 185 4-5 TOULES 22 oe Beye oats ad Ges bee aan ciate tee le 185 11-25 sense of direction, discussion. ey. peas Sepa pee 185 27-31 ani ohy Mi ora MGS 352 See NS ela yaa). Amen ern ae 185 5 Northeastern States, pours abundance of species --.--- 187 9-10 number— in United States, preliminary census.........-.---- 187 1-11 pairs to square mile, 1901, 1907, 1914.............-- 187 2 plumage, change, relation to migration es Vas 31 5 eta 185 31 speed of migration seieecteg ietays Kismet cic! Le 4 eee 185 43-47 Bittine, A. W., bulletin on “Methods followed in the com- mercial canning Ob foods? a7 eis ae A) re 156 7s) Bixpyplum), horticultural history. 3-0-2: - sees. eee 179 16 Black-and-white warbler— breeding, range, migratory habits, etc......-....---.---- 185 34, 36 MisTatlon TOUTES AES Me Lh mae Sc: ene Sn 185 25, 26 Blackberries— canned— effect of standing on composition....-...---------- 196 23, 24 effect of varying degrees of sirup-.--.--------- eae 196 36-37 effects of various methods of treatment............- | 196 30-37 Presencejol Micreorecanisms y4552- 02 epee eee eee 196 53 canning— expermmentalaw ore t=) Ja 5 cee... apie eens ante 196 39-37 handling; preparation, ete’: 20552. . See ee nes = 196 | 30-37 Cans suitable ins) eee Se oe ent Ra ae aes 196 | 35 packing seasons at canneries, by States........----.---- 196 | ale production; value forjeanning, ete... 2) Ja eee eee ee 196 35 INDEX. 13 ee Page. Black-poll warbler— breeding range, migration route, etc........------------! 185 14,19 speed of migration RE Oe CUS O CO BEBRE - Sc boeEOrCoe Ere! 185 43-44 BraxkEstes, E. B., and F. E. Brooxs, bulletin on “Studies of the codling moth in the central Appalachian region” 189 1-49 Bluebirds, abundance, relation to ouher) binds. 224.22 -4ec4e- 187 10 Bobolink, change of migration route......-....-----.------ 185 37 Bobolinks, migratory Habitats: MRO en ih ad 185 9; 135,25 Bonds, surety, premiums, superiority over personal bond, etc. 178 Bookkeeping— cooperative marketing organization, accounting method. 178 10-18 single entry, comparison with double entry, objections, RMAs yeas)... QOL ONOD Oi vary 178 system for cooperative marketing organization, require- PCT ys eee repr aise AON ee ah > oa ee ene ky Wa Go it UE 178 3-4 Boon mille sipply, hails; ete.,. 2222. Sgee.. 2 ees. 177 13-14 Box, fruit. See Fruit boxes. Breeding potatoes and selection......4....-.--------------- 195 1-35 . Bresee, Albert, production of Early Rose potato......-..... 195 3-4 Eades, construction over drainage ditches, requirements, ea a Se thr fate Meet MN Sa 193 21-22 Brix ‘hydrometer, comparison with specific gravity and Semen MAATATNEM tS. 008s PN erro deren n etre OM 196 26, 28-32 Broad-nosed grain weevil, destruction in seed, fumigation EV EILID SOG Us ee eR ee ee ae Rh a eee ee 186 4-5 Brooks, F. E., and E. B. BLaxEstE®, bulletin on ee of the codling moth in the central Appalachian region”’.. . 189 1-49 Brown thrasher, abundance, relation to other birds. ........ 187 10 Brownell, E. S., potato breeding, work........-...-.-.....- 195 4,5 Bruchus sp., destruction i in seed, fumigation experiments. :.. 186 5 Bulb mite, destruction in bulbs, fumigation experiment..... 186 5 Bulkheads, construction, underdrainage system...... au alsa as 190 18 Burbank, Luther— production of Burbank potato ...-.-...-.....-.-.-.-.-. 195 5 UEIY, OPT 7 BES MO Peas? 5 Rape aoe iet ALA ea ter aaa 195 5) potatoes, group characters, varieties, etc......... aiseteee 176 4,9 Burns, F. L. nied census of Pennsylvania, MOLES seeier twats 187 2 Business methods, cooperative organizations. .....-.--.---- 178 1-24 Butter— consumption on farms, per capita, per household, and total, by geographic divisionae |-< See MN Ca In Dh: 177 18 deficit, supply by North Central States, note......-... 177 iy factory, production, 1870-1910, changes, etc.., remarks. . 177 8 farm consumption, annual average......-...-.-..------ 177 10 prices, fluctuation, relation to price of milk, etc., New Bit OLhy, 1O09-—-LOL2 ee 2 MERE eae cele nae sels ale 177 15 production— in United States, by geographical divisions and by decades, ISWOA9IO Fr Bess ARCO en ie 2-4 maaneuee of marketmilic. 243.5). W's ease ee cece 177 12-13 milk required for one pound, variance in different SOPUIOURE Deas bac itns haere «Be nds FEAT ES $A TT 18 Guiardis, per capita, and total. <7. ee eae 177 18 per capita, by geographic divisions and by decades, cde eS Ws aD es iat De eae ae Petr ed Sou Rete La pes MHL 6-7 per cow, variation in average, etc.,remarks........ 177 8 Cabbage— insect enemies In Porto, Rico. .....-.-2-e---ss00e0 Bene 192 5, 6, 9 sauerkraut manufacture, processes........-...:.-.-+-- 196 78 California, demurrage regulations, variations from uniform ER Oe RE ai ae ART on eek Sea 191 13, 14, 16, 25 Callinectes hasta, canning, commercial methods...........-. 196 71 14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 176-200. Canada ‘goose, micratory: habits 2-5-2. - + sae eee Canada plum— description, growth, habits, and distribution. .......... early history, ‘and ‘varleties= to. 45. -aebers s.io 2's. see ee hortienlturalahistony St pe see seem - EE) Bier oa 2 Canal, open— drainage for irrigated land, construction......-... ae Sere drainage of irrigated lands, aia a {22a ss © 3 location for drainage of irrigated dand . eee be koa 8 protective devices. velocity of water, description of channels in which tests have been made by agencies other than O. E. S Cane, sugar, insect enemies in Porto Rico....-..-.-.-.-.... Canned— COM, Onleinyolpn dustry so: ieee). 6 ya: - : eee eee eee food, injury from heat and cold. . foods, spoilage, causes, appearance of cans, etc.........- mOanned:/Userohgerm 2225 2 eacs Les. ee ee eee ee ee Canneries, packing seasons for various products, by States. - Cannery, equipment and methodsi-)5,..5 - -.- Asie sseee ese oat Canninge— experimental work with fruits, equipment, scope of WOT CLC Hae. tee els eT eh cle ayor: Demme plate Bee food, temperature determination in processing commer- cial methods. . - - foods— packing seasons for various products, by States. .... processing and cooling, commercial methods. ...... fruits, filling cans, practices and suggestions........-... imdustry, extent amyUmited.Statese. --aesee ae ere methods, commercial. . . Cans— enameled, requirements for certain food products.....-. enamel-lined— requirements for certain canned food products. . . -. value tor.certaia 10 0USae. = - se ser Ree seeer eee filling by hand and by machine, caution, etc. gs lacquered, requirements for certain food products reba linings for shri LRM PA Chal Tig yea. arta) -- Merete epee see sealing and testing for leaks, commercial methods. - .... tin, standard sizes s and capacities Sra 2) a se eR “Captain” plum} orisimtimoteseee afee 202) at eee ee Car— Demurrage rules, National, drafting, work of commit- LEYS SPA C1 © gaia tree RAS One Gy An ERR et den etne |S Sees Le supply by railways, interest of farmers.......-.....---- Carpocapsa pomenella. See Codling moth. Carrier, E. A., potato improvement by selection, work....-. Castor bean, insect enemies in Porto Rico............-..--- Catbirds, abundance, relation to other birds................ Celery, insect enemies in Porto Rico...............--.----- Cement tiles, drainage of irrigated land, requirements...---.- Cerotoma denticornis, occurrence on vegetables in Porte Rico. Chaetocnema apricaria, occurrence on vegetables in Porto KG O RS eA aL oN ea i. A ee INL aD eR ae Ree bi ONE SM ae Changa, damage to vegetables in Porto Rico......--.-.....- Cheese— factory production, 1870-1910, changes, etc., remarks. - production— in United States, by geographic divisions and = dewades 5: eS ee 2 Rae ee ee Pe ‘ eee 0 Or be bo OUNT © HB CO ie > Top) e) 12-13 INDEX. Bulletin No. Cherries— American species— BERGEN DONG! 2.2. 5h oa eae] 3c: = Be epee Beeb ds 179 REeppcismnd key ene}. Ses at) ace sots 179 canned— : [a ae guile ae RU pOr varyene derrees.| \. Me esos sss eine on weight of solids and sirup. .-.....-- 196 in United States, 1899, 1904, 1909, quantity and VTLOE Coe oe ROS SOS OOO e re SORE! OE CBee ee Se ie nts 196 PRCKENCEIOL MICTOOTZANIGMS +). / 2 s92}94 - ws sss Bald ee 196 canning— pee Bin aUibWOR 652. 2. 5. gee page ene eee 196 Relecion, preparation wets). 2)... gssnc's- adosd- by = 196 native American species of prunus.......---------+---- 179 packing seasons at canneries, by States ...........-.---- 196 waste at canneries, percentage and uses........-.------- 196 Cherry— bird, description, growth habits, distribution, etc... ... 179 Peipiss ppParentage, CbC. - so. 55) Se eee ole hk | 179 pin, description, growth habits, distribution, etc. ...... 179 LS. SES a ES eee ee ee eee 196 Heoyal Arne, value for canning. -_...2...+....---+.-.-5- 196 sand, description, growth habits, occurrence. .-...----.- 179 Chesapeake Bay oyster— Seer PMSA ATICE Pie AEE fie Se. CaN Feet 5 hdc od 196 2 LE EEVE Dong TST eae i one 196 i Chezy formula, use in designing closed irrigation channels. . 194 Chicago, milk supply, 1870-1911, transportation lines, etc. - - 177 Chicksaw plum— Besenpnon -erowth habits, etc... 22/2... 5.22 Db2a8n54- 179 history, distribution, and varieties.......--..--.------- 179 aaaree ti Garalsnistory:..'.<\.\-2.- j22iasesee lows se dsackwe. se 179 Chimney swiit, migration and disappearance.............-. 185 **Christopher,’’ description, construction for prevention of cs LST Ties) cS gael a a ea ee ee ae 180 Christy, Harrison W., pioneer in tomato canning industry, UE 2 ens EE Re ene IRIE ere en Sena, Fis ALPS at 196 Clay tile, drainage of irrigated land, requirements. ........- 190 7-8 Pemmmrtiow, totpration route-.).. 02... ee oe Sees) 185 { 19-20, ia Cloudburst, Donna Ana Mountains, movement of soil mate- Th a ap ARS AST RS | SE © ee ne ee 180 i) Clover, sweet, crop for irrigated alkali land, advantages..... 190 31 Cobbler potatoes, group characters, varieties, etc............ 176 4, 5-6 Codling moth— effect of— ; altitude and latitude on development.............. 189 42-44 weather on different stages..........-.-2.-.00--5.- 189 45 mseer enemies and parasites... 2.0... .6c. 62 een eae - 189 46-47 investigations, localities, nature, and extent in central PIAL UIEATE TR STOT eo aie ae «Meinl wlan’ SOLIS MLOLND 189 2-3 larvee— LE OE CU TEAS RB et RE aR RETR RR a 2) OED 189 45 REIS 6 « oo ale date, Yiasabmidy s cid aaa weed sete Aniela td). 189 44 OMe Sh ae ae RMU | AY ET Fa 189 46-48 rearing experiments, 1912, 1913, résumé of work in Mary- axe Virginia, and West Virginia 2... nee ow ee le 189 40-42 studies— 5-6, 8-10, 16- 17, 19-20, 22 band-record experiments in various localities... ... 189 ~24, 26-28, ~ 29-31, 34-35 37, 38, 39-40 16 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 176—200. Codling moth—Continued. studies—continued. in central Appalachian region................------ terminology, explanation .*...\-.. Geo sae Cohoe salmon, value for canning, note-....-.--...-..------- Colorado, demurrage regulations, va:iations from uniform COdeMETC hs Soe eee ee et: ee Es SE Compass cherry, description and parentage..............-- Condensed milk canned in United States, 1904, 1909, quan- Ay AMG VAN C eee = ac ott ta rapa) gtr ret tata t=) = A Ie cer Tore Sater Connecticut warbler, breeding range, migration route, etc. . Conotracholus, sp., destruction in seed, fumigation experi- PVOTUEG Seo Fey se occ ok a leteterate ate late tot ater fats = eee tetera ors meee Containers, preservation of foods, descriptions and value of VariOUs KINGS he. 2 ee es es 2 se eee Bonen Cooke, WeELts W., bulletin on— ‘Bird mierakion” - ise s os: - <2 Ee eee eee ‘Preliminary census of birds of the United States”... -- Cooking foods for canning, requirements of different products Cooperation, business-methods organization. .........------ Coptocycla signifera, occurrence on vegetables in Porto Rico. Corn— canned— in United States, 1899, 1904, 1909, quantity and Value ees ese SEN Oe BES oes ict aa at eee ee Maine style... -cosckoiwinc eis coer Mary land'sty lessee <2 22) =< eee varateretote are 2 at canning— , early methods and development..............------ industry, extent, note. 2-.<). --eeeeeae se eee machinery, and methods ear-worm, damage to corn in Porto Rico.....-...-.....-. hominy manufacture, selection and treatment........... mpect enemies:in Porto Rico:!. 2: 2.25. eee packing seasons at canneries, by States................. sweet— growing and harvesting for canneries........-...--- packing industry, histo selection and preparation for cannin yield at San Antonio experiment farm, 1911-1914.....- Corn-leaf blotch miner, occurrence in Porto Rico...........- Corythaica monacha, occurrence on vegetables in Porto Rico. Corythuca gossypii, occurrence on vegetables in Porto Rico- . Cotton lands, “lying out,” susceptibility to erosion, man- agement, stisgestiOnss..2-. 222... 222.5) Vee. eee OOUMiS.. OVSLCr, Use Ol term: 2.8255... ee eee Coven Oysters ise) Oliberms.s.0e14- sn )5 = eee eee eee Cover crops, winter, prevention of soil erosion in South..... Cowpeas, insect enemies in Porto Rico............-.-------- Cows— dairy— mumberof farms Teporting. 405k. S22 see wee eee relation to population by geographic divisions and by decades? 1870-19 10. ess eee nee United States, number by geographic divisions, and byndecadess 1870-1910 Ree See se ere eee eee number on dairy farms, average..........------------- relawonatowpoOpulalOne: |e cee eee eso eee Coy, E. L., production of Beauty of Hebron potato..-..-.-.-..- Crabs— canning, preparation, etc., commercial methods.-.-.-... extraction of meat for canning, methods........-.----..-- Crazy ant, destruction of vegetable seed in Porto Rico-..-.-.. Bulletin oe Page. 189 1-40 189 3-4 196 73 191 13; 16525 179 66-67 196 16 185 18, 21 186 4-5 196 10-11 185 1-47 187 1-11 196 1-2 178 1-24 192 6 196 16 196 59 196 59 196 57-58 196 57-58 196 58-59 192 7 196 78 192 2,34, 0; 7,10 196 if 196 58 196 57-58 196 58-59 188 1-2 192 10 192 4 192 4 180 21-22 196 72 196 73 * 180 13-14 192 3,9, 1,9 177 17 177 6 177 2-4 177 | 10. Iie 4 6 195 5-6 196 | 71 196 | 71 192 10 INDEX. 7 | pletion Page. Pemermecora-”” canning methods... <<... segast.6 been lie - 196 58-59 Creameries, butter and cheese production, 1870-1910, bree mries LOMATKH. = 5. hese wie, 6 2 le nce Sew 177 8 Creek plum— description, growth, habits, and OCCULTEM CCM sere lac =c= 179 3940: DLE ITEY.2. f ERR ee oc Re | oe eee eee 179 40 Cross pollination, potato breeding, management.............- 195 6-9 Cryptorhynchus batata, occurrence on vegetables in Porto LAGOS Se Sree Cte mre 192 6 Cucumber, insect enemies in Porto Rico.......-.-.-------- dh 92 5, 8 Cucurbita— Ovijera, Canning, commercial methods..-....-..-.-..+---|--- 22-4 63. pepo. See Pumpkin. Culvers, requirements in drainage system, notes.....----...- 193 22 Cunette, value in open canal Gini iainabalbey, - yakbe ea bang 190 15 Currants— canned— BFEseMCe, Ol MICTOOTSANISMS. 26 =~ senses steele 196. 53 LEGS SEC SEE A eee UY ee erin I ee ey ey Re 196 40 canning experiments, effect of varying degrees of sirup, Pare elo yee ee re aia eens ele cue AME Elsa Miced w/a Aale oh = 196 40 ezapisnitabletior packing... . = :2)e hn foee oe lee as 196 40 packing seasons at canneries, by Stennigieu see: RIDE Rel is Ne 196 17 Seemeintie USe,1n CANNELICS. 5.260 oso ye ee be se: 196 59, 63 Cypress Creek drainage district— Arkansas run-off, determination of coeflicients......-. 198 9-10) Desha and Chicot counties, Arkansas, report...-......-- 198 1-20: topography, condition, drainage problems, etc........... 198 2-7 Dahlem royal estate, Germany, location, management, IAEEITOON ETI, LCS: 6. 4 2080s B28 Oi Me er NNN 182 20-24 Dahlewitz estate, Germany, location, management, alcohol “LUA SUUELEL,, i EB Baer i ae ee ar ree 182 24-27 Dairy— | iarming, Dahlem royal estate, Germany, management... 182 21-24 iar wuimber Of COWS; Average. ---- eee le U7 10) industry— conditions in different geographic divisions, 1870— OE CCAU CH es ett. ame MA tL Rea 177 4-5. growth, TRTOLTOUG) tok. SRe td! CUO AEE PNR 77 1-9. products— ; disposal, distribution, supply to different regions, etc. 77 9-17 production and consumption..-.....-.......-------- Wid 1-19: Dairy cows. See Cows. Davis, R. O. E., bulletin on ‘‘Soil erosion in the South”... 180 1-23. Delaware, State traffic regulations, note........-....--....- 191 25. Demurrage— bureaus— headquarters and jurisdiction, etc.....-..-....--.-- 191 24 “Gyisfd PORT 1a RE) ee Spaeth oko Beal Ne Line rhe 191 18-20) code— Banal eal. OX COPLOUs: oe. seer etn tre tic 191 9-10) TUIOTMP a DLO VISIONS. 2 eis fae: (eee eit meee ere nee 191 5-9 Pouce, oLaie, Ceneral SUTVeY,.---.-+25--e tote te ee 191 10-12 Commission, New England, establishment and powers. - 191 18-19 PERLATIOUUOL tAtilens= = sn. acy eee eee meres 19) 1-27 ralway shipments, free time... 2... 191 6-7, 8, 14-16. rates, recommendations by officers..............-.-.---- 191 19) “reciprocal,” practices and results. .....:.2...........-- 191 12-14 regulations De ee aes ee dee diridts ae ales Petes « Biditin ee ge vn oid 191 3-4 EE EI RS GN oe 2 a Eo ame CY oA a A 191 4-5: use of term, application to railroads, etc............-... 191 1 §4952—16——3 18 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 176—200. Bene Page. Denatured alcohol. See Alcohol, industrial. De Soto plum, horticultural history cece | eee OURS 179 16 Diabrotica— bivittata, occurrence on‘ vegetables in Porto Rico.....-... 192 5 gramines, description, occurrence on vegetables in os | SKC Oe ne Vy SN aA HORM Go APE 192 5 innuba, occurrence on vegetables in Porto Rico......... 192 5 Diamond-back moth, occurrence on vegetables in Porto Rico. 192 9 Diaphania hyalinata, occurrence on vegetables in Porto Rico. 192 8 Diastase, sources in barley grain, location ama), ise 183 12-18 Distilleries— agricultural— | Classi CatlOM ine ey lees. . Camera ce Bea 182 16-17 studies on various estates in Germany...........-..- 182 20-35 cereal, in Germany, 1908, number and capacity. ....... 182 ek? cooperative, economictertures ©.) .. Wi ha i) 182 20 domestic, in Germany, objections, discussion............ 182 18-20 German, number, capacity, and output, 1908........... | 182 17 molasses, in Germany, 1908, number and capacity... --- 182 17 Perlach estate, Germany, types, Capacity, eter. 02.2.2: | 182 32-34 potato— in Germany, 1908, number and capacity.........-- | 182 17 number in operation in Germany................-- | 182 14 Distillery— alcohol, economic importance in Germany......-..---- 182 16-20 cooperative, Perlach, Germany, operation, output, etc. . 182 34-35 potato— HEE, CASS BhaCl IOCAMOIN. as Sus osoawn so SSwascoasoscous 182 2 relation to agricultural progress in Germany.....-.-. | 182 16 SPenit-mashasibye pO Wet aces 1 = ere ee eee 182 16 type, relation to alcohol market, discussion........-.-.. | 182 15 Ditches— | cobble-bottom, velocity of water in various irrigation | MON CUS, Chemin weese. enceeessccoecace sds anes | 194 43-45, 68 drainage— | : of Jefferson County, Texas, sizes and earthwork. -.-| 193 33-40 of marsh lands, Texas coast, construction, berms, | MISH GE Glywayeretemee es seas las 2 Speen een ee 193 18 earth, velocity of water in various irrigation projects, | OPS PUTT STNG SR eee IS 0 ae esas Ee | 194 36-43, 65-68 irrigation— | channels, flow of water, measurement tests, formu- | LAS ROTC Hee eae NE IN Le «RR Sn enrages | 194 2-27. POW OE Wa bere CR: 2 UA Saat. Tales aetna es | 194 1-68 Dominum Neuguth-Heinzenburg estate, Germany, location, | manasementalcoholiproducttons. 22 )ae 25 gee een 182 27-29 Drainage— Big Black River— bottomplands: {problems 625 4.2 ase a) eeeeme arene 181 i project survey otland amd souls. 22422 eee eer 181 6-7 Channel ssimmaimibe nam Gene mien ops Sil inne me eae 198 19-20 cooperative, advantages and management Uae) ca aa 190 33-34 cost by districts, Jefferson County, ’ Texas, estimates. .... 193 24-32 Cypress Creek district, Arkansas— | COstittalle Or ibemise ee wake: a a mene Mea | 198 18-19 plans, considered and recommended......--.------ Pi fia Tee} 10-20 Desha and Chicot Counties, Arkansas, report .-.-----.-- | 198 1-20 ditches, construction in marsh lands, Texas coast-....--- 193 17-18 double-line system for irrigated land..............------ | 190 23 irrigated— | Ue) co REPS US sean, gee te a UR SES ah a | 190 1-34 land: adivamtacesn a he tibia ati 5 0. sess: 196 26 use in determination of density of sirups for fruit packing. 196 26, 28-32 Hymenia fascialis, occurrence in Porto Rico........--.------ 192 8 idaho, Siate tratiic reculations; note:..-.... 2... ./ebe. is 6% 191 25 Tllinois— ipirdgeensuses:, Notes. s5h eee aee 5 32s e Se ace 187 2 meabemraiic resulationsy; motes! 2... ites ease 191 25 Indiana, State traffic regulations, note....-.-.-.....-------- 191 25 Insecticide, homemade lime-sulphur concentrate ....-..---- 197 1-6 Insects— affecting vegetable CropsanpeortoyRICOme pee years 192 1-11 destruction in seed— SEE LSR SIS. 2 Soop e cece eee oe dota sac ae 186 4-5 mRNPeRTOMMe LOM! se 42s Uhl Ga VAN a 8 186 1-6 Interstate Commerce Commission, demurrage regulations, Wl - occioded des SEBUE EEA a Oo ean eer atria enten cancun 191 4-5 Towa, State traffic regulations, note_.....................--- 191 25 Ireland, potato lands (with Great Britain), percentage and - ing Ber OLO0Oamhabrtants; GOO 2s)... L ee a ee 182 12 Ss — Cobbler potato, yields irom hill selections, records. ..... 195 33-35 potatoes. See Potatoes. Trrigated— land— GC UHATNO EO ee re EON ESO) FREE eet pd eRe Seam Ore ee home oe 190 1-34 waterlogged, source and movement of damaging THAIN co ele ee ee am ee eras ey MEME petun 190 3-4 lands, waterlogged and alkali, reclamation methods..... 190 1-34 Irrigation — “canals, crossings by bridges, flumes, and drains.....-... 190 15 channels— | concrete-lined, velocity of water in various locali- THEA We XS PETUMCTIUS est) ONT | A oe 194 28-32, 62-63 HOWAO MW ALeH sO Lle tim lets Male UN saree eee bei 2 194 : 1-68 flow of water, measurement tests, formulas, etc .--..- 194 . 2-27 flow of water, measurements, equipment, and mephods, feldt data tebe sss ke 5 sy ue Ne Se lh ge 194 7-15 flow of water, retardation of velocity, determina- Tiger PETINICN LS) te ne aes | PO ee eee kd 194 16-60 masonry-lined, velocity of water in various locali- FICS eX DETLINE MLSs ale opie assert =a aioe aes Sele 194 35, 65 flow of water in channels, velocity heads, correction in Salt River Valley canal, Arizona, data, etc. : 194 15 water retardation in channels of various kinds, estima- MOUS eV ATIALLOTIB CHATES A CUC sie 451... hue schecte ais ees 194 45-60, 62-68 Ito plectis marginatus, description, enemy to codling-moth CELT L 2 hl Des ae AS Taye TA MaimeRe °° PR aNRmND Jeb STURN LEA ARN 189 46, 47 James River, movement of soil material, annual............- 180 22 JONES— L. A., and others, bulletin on ‘‘ Report upon the Cypress (reek drainage district, Desha and Chicot counties, J GAS CEYCIE ae Bo ean a Sh a J) =| 1 a ee 198 1-20 Lewis A., W. J. Surck, and ©. E. Ramser, bulletin on ‘*A report on the me “thods and cost of rec ‘laiming the overflowed lands along the Big Black River, Missis- | SSR PEDO OA. AUB RE S30 Nelo J RE aid eke Ob wake ‘ores 181 1-39 THomas H., bulletin on ‘‘Insects affecting vegetable crops in ey TA Sepnogs Aaalader a i Ace aia ea 192 1-11 BIIDERTOLN ADILG. sys aisle OL oe. ee hull oka tis eo ava ae | 185 9 Kale, insect enemies in Porto Rico....... opt UAC Ons ns a 192 6 94 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. Kansas, demurrage regulation, variations from uniform code, Kensett, Thomas, pioneer in oyster canning industry, note. - Kentucky, State traffic regulations, note.....-.--...------- Kerr, W. H., and G. A. Nahstoll, bulletin on ‘‘ Cooperative organization business methods” ...:.-.-...--..----------- Kingbirds, abundance, relation to other birds.......---..-- Kipp, H. A., A. G. Hatt, and S. W. Frescoun, bulletin on ‘The drainage of Jefferson County, Texas””’.........-.------ Kohler, A. R., classification of potato varieties, work.....- Kremers, Epwarp, bulletin on ‘‘Agricultural alcohol: Studies of its manufacture in Germany”’......--..-....---- Kutter’s formula, use in designing open irrigation channels. - Labels, canned foods, requirements, discussion.....-------- Labor— oyster shuckers and peelers, wages .......--.------------ shrimp jpeelers, wages: 222822222... snes eee see ome Laire— Abraham, introduction of Laire plum............-.---- plum, orem description, ete--2e- -- see ere eee eee reclamation, cost, experimental! tract In Tennessee. . Reclamation measures os) s- eee eee nie improved— acreage in United States, by geographical divisions, and: decades, T8701 ONO! 520i 2 RaeeE eer weer mee relation of acreage to population..-......-.--------- urigated. See Irrigated land. Lands— eroded ty pes Souter. 2 ieee eee beet overflowed, on Big Black River, Mississippi, report on methods and cost of reclaiming....:..--....-.--------- Laphygma frugiperda— occurrenc: on vegetables in Porto Rico...----..------- ArASTIAC CME TATED’! hme tge ms ashe LU 7) “AR KE Ore Ue Lasius niger, destruction of codling-moth larvae......--.---- Leafhoppers, damage to vegetables, Porto Rico-.....-.------- Levees— construction along Big Black River, Mississippi, plans, IRELOUMUREHAAEV ON FS KOSeuGU IL EL A eM ens oo bse odas marsh Jands on Texas coast, requirements and con- S tae GOS so se Se IR WR RN EY oR, rob Pama eens Level-bench terrace, description and advantages .....--.-.-- Liberty Statute, New York, destruction of birds....---- ae Lighthouses, destruction of birds in migation........-...-.- Lights, artificial, effect on birds in migration ........---.---- Lima beans— canning, selection, preparation, etc ..-...j\..-/-..------- oragime deyice. uselat cammeniesss is: Jee. 2 aos hea ae packing seasons at canneries, by States.............-.-- Lime, hydrated, use in lime-sulphur washes, note....--..--- Lime-sulphur— concentrate— homenmadere: Vanni. cre oe nine «eau meme Nees Oh preparation direcwions: sere, = see ae ee ee wash, highly concentrated, preparation and cost.......- washes— different formulas, cooking tests at various places... formulas; cookameutests sete: - see ee ee nate eee e eo} lor) Page. 13, 16, 25 72 26 INDEX. 95 elton Page. Loganberries, canned— effect of varying degrees of sirup-.---...-...-.--------- 196 42-43 BECHCRES GH MICTOOFPANISMS. 245-52. .deo oes nodose 196 53 Loganberry, origin, description, nature, etc.-...-.-.-.--..--- 196 42 Louisiana, State traffic regulations, note................--.- 191 26 Lycopersicon esculentum. See Tomatoes. Maggot trap, house fly— Cossiarmen and operations: JyNoo.. Mee... Se OL 200 3-8 EGG iret ee PELIMOULS 2-285 p33 ( 2S das noo SE 200 1-16 defects, advantages, and suggestions...........-.------ 200 9-13 Elrerito eis. Job eee 32 oe er re cee ee 200 4-6 Maine, State traffic regulations, note.-..-.....-----.----+-- 191 26 Malanga, insect enemies in Porto Rico..........-...-..-- Hoa 192 3 Mangum— P. H., development of Mangum terrace type.-.---.------ 180 12-13 terrace, description, construction, and advantages. ..... 180 12-13 Mann, Apert, and H. V. Haran, bulletin on ‘‘ Morphology of the barley grain with reference to its enzym-secreting i eR Reeme es SC SARS Oa oo ed 183 1-32 Manufactures, percentage of railway tonnage, 1912.......... 191 2 Manure— peat rd, influence of maggot traps on value..........-- 200 13-14 eaps— breeding places for house flies, management for trap- pine masrotss st S082 2s ee PLM EMO OF RR TE 200 3-8 changes, relation to presence of house-fly larvee..... 200 5-6 Marianna plum, history, parentage, etc. ......-.-.--------- 179 46-47 Marine— food products, canning, commercial methods........-..- 196 70-76 Prodmeismcauned'. classes =. sso e seule Bek 196 70-71 Market milk. See Milk, market. Marketing— agricultural— products, cooperative organization business methods. 178 1-24 products, cooperative organization officers, duties, mere puoresitoneys: 2 kit eRe.) BAe a at ital 178 5-8 eCaoperative, accounting method s..2--22254-24.4. 2254.22 178 10-17 industrial alcohol in Germany, cooperation of distillers, RH AMAL EINEM b CUCL tale soins sree cys aye taleieinrns os SS 182 8-11 Martin, purple— PR EME COMES OLE ju 2 in cies ese rtis ce sei tinje eesaeicie awe 185 tl MNPEOEY MAD ILS! / SILL Ai ee Si Mae ees ed 185 9 Maryland— Agricultural College, house-fly pest, influence of mag- Pomiitap, cuperimichts..-. 82. 3g.2. ibe ewe twos. 200 1-20 Hagerstown, codling moth studies, 1911-1913........... 189 12-21 Siate trate Tepulations, note-...2.+..-.222--s6te Potatoes—Continued. | classification— Paphmetoniss wORkK CLG. Loser eo. See Slee ei 176 1=3 RCI Sik Salers RAS aL SL SS I Sys SUNS 176 4-5 Cobbler group, characters, varieties, etc ........-------- 176 4, 5-6 demand for varieties suited to various localities......... 195 | , 2 distillation in Prussia, quantity, 1855, 1865.......-...-- 182 4 Early Ohio, group characters, varieties, bOI EN IRE 176 4,8 Green Mountain group, characters, varieties, etc....-..- 176 4,10 groups, Characters and varieties... 2.225.922). 0.2002 20% 176 4-13 Hebron group, characters, varieties, etc.......-..------- 176 4, 8-9 hill-selection— 20) HUIS UIs gop ecen: Gores eee SABE Ae Umea ae 195 32-35 RSE DTOVEMMEI G51 SEE ie UI UGG Le 195 27-28 improvement by selection, discussion and experiments. - 195 21-29 EM MEPUTnY, MMOUC Lo = 5 a9 2 nails PUI Se Hey tee! 195 10 eeipim of popular varieties, history... =. .5 2-2-6: 195 3-6 Peachblow group, characters, varieties, etc........-.-.-- 176 5, 12-13 ; Pearl group, characters, varieties, etc.............-.-.-- 176 By TL ay ¥ pollen-producing, scarcity, quality of product, etc....-- 195 9-10 ; production and consumption per’capita, comparison 1 LS SBE TTT Ty Aa EE erect Iam PE 188 Oa 195 1 ; BCCI ENC ANCLOSSCH sTCCOLGS:1 8 ecu SESE kis LPN 195 15-16 j Rose group, characters, varieties, etc...........-.......-- 176 4,7-8 Rural group, characters, varieties, etc.........-.---.---- 176 5, 10-11 seedling inheritance, experiments..-.......-.-.-------- 195 20-21 selection— experiments, deviation from bY Pes) C6C2or.22-eies2s 195 22-27 ioc maprovement, methods): .-... 2.222. e0-4d004 195 27-29 Fanplhismielizationin, Germany:...25.- 522.2624 s..55e25 5: 182 11-16 Triumph group, characters, varieties, etc.........-.----- 176 4,6 tuber-unit— plants, yields from different varieties, records......- 195 30-32 election pexperiments: 2S l2 ii ae See ee aS. 195 29-32 selection for IMPTYOVEMEUL: 5.24 2-s2 ce ae et se cesses 195 et 27.28 Potomac River, movement of soil material, annual......... 180 22 _ Pouree, tomato, manufacture, methods. .................-- 196 70 Prenolepis longicornia, destruction of “vegetable seed in Rea ME RICCO ere ples Ue euler 192 10 Preece 1G.)G,, potato breeding, work. .4:-..2..202.2525 24). 195 4 Processing foods for canning, commercial methods.........-- 196 1-4 Prodemia ornithogalli, good plants, note.................-...- 192 8 Protoparcte carolina, occurrence on vegetables in Porto Rico - 192 7 Prunus— alleghaniensis— davisii, description, occurrence, and value.......... 179 51-52 Sceemonon,, GIstribUtiOn, etc. .i20 20): Jobe lie intienie oe 179 50-52 Pint CAtANICS yMOtE. Hey i221): TERS Psa eiecioyner es 179 2 ; American species— and hy brids; descriptions: :.i2 2522). J2epee ak. 179 21-72 F SRL DATEL TL TINA se, © et. Spek NO | ISM ae abcde 179 23 | americana— description, habitat, early history, varieties, etc..... 179 24-29 OMICS LOGY c.2 3-2 co.cjetin tc ios~ Serio ANE Tenn ee packing seasons at canneries, by States...............-- Ribes rubrum. See Currants. Rice weevil, destruction in seed, fumigation experiments. - . Roanoke River, movement of soil material, annual.......... Robin— abundance in Northeastern States. ...............-.-.-- PMCMRLOLOMADIISY. SUL ok vs Wie eae o Se tee ees Beast SBCECUOLIIPTATION soc teks dei oe eet mae e set tee Rose snow goose, breeding range, migration route, etc...... Rose-breasted grosbeak, breeding range, migration route, etc. Royal Anne cherry, value for canning.................---- Rubus— idaeus. See Raspberries. occidentalis. See Raspberries. villosus. See Blackberries. 33 Page. 34 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 176-200. Puletin Page. Run-off— | formularandeap plication: 221.5. '. 2. |. eevae a=. cl eee 193 | 12-13 measurement, factors affecting, drainage requirements, (Shoei Dee eo ai ceo er oy Ee) EMS ee a Be ae 2 193 10-13 rate— factors influencing, method of measurements, etc. . 181 7-8 factors, method of measurements, etc-......-.------ 181 | 8 USE VON GETTIN sess Me RA ee yt otk 5s es ce aU ee Eg 193 | 10 Rural potatoes, group characters, varieties, etc.-.......--.-. 176 5, 10-11 Russia, potato lands, percentage, and acreage per 10,000 Ima etants: OOO 2st Meee 2k. 2) ep eee leg payee 182 12 Saccharimeter, Balling’s, value in testing sirup in canned {De U CSO er ee en ee ePIC 2) LE a eee 196 31-32 Salmon— canned in United States, 1899, 1904, 1909, quantity and | NGI Oe Sige ae eee MERI Der 5 acts acinar IE 196 | 16 canning— industry, development, magnitude, etc............ 196 73 Dreparation/and packing...°-. oye ee eee oe 196 74 processes and methods at camneries...-...-..-.-..-- 196 74 fishing, equipment and management......-....-.-..--- 196° 73-74 pack. sPacitie coast, valle). sos... -- ees Ue at oe ane 196 73 Species /ol,commercialiivaltle-. .26-.-)- eee eee 196 73 Salt River Valley canal, change in velocity heads, influence Molmeormection data el@ss-c-5 oes ee = Ree eee 194 15 San Antonio— experiment farm, milo growing, experiments........... 188 3-20 region, milo growing, importance of thick seeding..-.... 188 1-21 Sand cherry— description, growth habits, occurrence.......---------- 179 65-66 western, description and growth habits..........-...---- 179 68 western, horticultural history and occurrence....-......- | 179 68-69 Sand plum— | description, growth habits, occurrence, etc......-.----..- 179 | 44-45 VDI) CHAO DAAMNNIGY WVOIrese oe pos Soe ye Sa 5enboclesaescoe aay ALK) 45 Sanitation, cannery, requirements... <--- 22. ss. eee see ee 196 4-6 Sardines canned in United States, 1899, 1904, 1909, quantity SELVA Rs eee se Sa ee Dec S02 > 2 RR em me 196 16 Sasscer, E. R., and Lon A. Hawkxtns, bulletin on ‘A method). or dumiratine seed: 2.0... 2. Mele eee ne ls 186 1-6 Sauerkraut— canning— directtonpye! e822 2 22 st. ee ee | 196 78-79 experiments pon’ the -tll”?.... 22 ue se sere 196 79 MM OMNEeL ERS EuaVel (CANTINA 6 oko nes es coc obece scsocscace 196 78 packing seasons at canneries, by States....-......------- 196 18 Savannah River, movement of soil material, annual......-- 180 23 Scale insects, damage to truck crops in Porto Rico.--.---.-- 192 4 Seatletitanager) migratory habits:s)2 0... 408022 ee eee 185 25 ScuHiicx, W. J.— and others, bulletin on ‘‘ Report upon the Cypress Creek drainage district, Desha and (hicot Counties’?.......- 198 1-20 Lewis A. Jongs, and C. E. Ramser, bulletin on ‘‘A re- port on the methods and cost of reclaiming the over- flowed lands along the Big Black River, Mississippv’’. - 181 1-39 ScoBeEy, Fred C., bulletin on ‘‘ The flow of water in irrigation CHanmel sig ha ye os Mae ae GL se eo 194 |. 1-68 Scolytid beetle, destruction in seed, fumigation experiment. 186 5 Scoter, white-winged, breeding range, migratory habits and TOWLE S eae ee eran bas mee ae Pe) SSR RINE NS ey chil 185 20, 21 Scorr, E. W., bulletin on ‘‘ Homemade lime-sulphur concen- trate ue pscteRUe usin hm ever ARUN 8s ha lh 197 1-6 INDEX 35 Buen Page. Seed— REA IOn.wuMe thod sete ie cee Ble ke a GE Ltt ye 186 16 viability after vacuum fumigation against insects, tests. - 186 4-5 Seeding milo, San Antonio region, requirements, experi- ments, Dies Bd 6 ee ME 2 ee bes eee tee ee 188 1-21 Seepage, lateral and vertical, interception methods for irri- Pea! Vein hay eed 2 See eI BE SAR 8 UN Ay Aer wea 190 18-20 Semes, shrimp fishing, description.......---......--------- 196 75-76 SHaw, Harry B., bulletin on “ Loss of tonnage of sugar beets by drying Pam a AI LS TL y Ce ORNL ae Se A ample omen eratl, ey! 199 1-12 Shipments, intrastate, demurrage regulations by States... .-. 191 3 Shipping regulations, ‘demurrage LOG t NGIAN Sn oda ep 191 5-9 Shorebirds, ‘migratory GR ON UESS Cae hstes ete REA TE Re ea eS Reet EEE 185 9 Shrimp— canning— industry, development, and distribution...........- 196 75 PeErratvon packing jetcas tie. ee 196 76 fishing, equipment and management.......-.....--.-... 196 75-76 Gulf, description, value for canning, etc................ 196 75 BIE CIETS MAW OS ett ie ce tr UE Oe SRO bel 196° 76 Pec ine spnacesses, wages, ete. 02206004 fe) 196 76 pickled, FORE OAL O Meg eke eo a Caml A inlet e 196 76 Peiteetomousien |Wwares. 9. sy es 8 196 73 Shucking oysters, management at canneries............-.-- 196 12-13 Sirup— fruit-packing, effect of different weights on various prod- \ 196 ee ee ; oe : ve Coed 50, 51, 52 grades for canning fruits, requirements, etc..-......-.-- 196 24-32 Sirups, fruit- packing— changes in volume at different temperatures............ 196 27 Ciece OL vAtIOUS oTades/on apricots... seaeeeene dateees 196 33-35 grades used at canneries, testing, etc..--....-.---..---- 196 25-26 sugar content, determination by various hydrometers. - - 196 28-32 sugar requirements for various degrees.......-.----...--. 196 26-27 weight and composition in canned apricots, variations. - 196 34 weights of different grades per gallon and per can-..-.-.-.-. 196 27 Sloe— description, growth habits, etc....---. Feta eee eee, MeN 179 | 52-53 Northern, description, distribution, CLG pb iis = aE eioee ss 179 50-52 Sloes, American species, descriptions and habitat........... 179 50-55 Smith, I. V., pioneer in hominy-canning industry.......... 196 78 Snow goose, Ross, breeding range, migration TOUte, Cteee- == 185 23 Snowflake— utd manora tony, habits sae. es Wise whi. acmiaethen, 4 242 185 9 potato, Oiioiama nd eval ee ey petal ieee ower tnc ee eal Re 195 4 aptael of German Distillers, organization, purpose, and work 182 9-11 (6) — erosion— sila WMS) S15, 511 a Vee ernie RR Oe TRE LVN Mpa ye zs Yue ee 180 1-23 See also Erosion, soil. hardpan, substratum, drainages: .- 12222445... sa 190 20-21 material— movement by cloudburst in New Mexico. ......-... 180 5 movement by streams, economic losses in dredging, ORE A tae eH AN a Sa an NID eal A 180 22-23 movement by streams, source and quantity..- 180 4—5 movement by wind, Gisetissionies feu Renpeniti 180 5 translocation by streams, factors influencing.....-- 180 3-4 translocation by streams, relation to velocity eee ACM etey Mencia say tsh store ava) atspmrayps oe anes ansimn wenn attra 2 180 3 water-transported nature... 222-222 ee ee ee sees 180 2-3 “36 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 176-200. pes Page. Soils— absorption of water, relation of composition and structure. 180 6-9 formation) processed 222222 2252.5. 1 SAMeMaE ts) 1) DAYAR wae | 180 1-2 residual! formation se see ele ee (ANN =. ERIN AS a 180 1-2 translocation by water, nature of material, etc.......... 180 2-4 transported, movements, sources, etc. ..--.----.-.....- 180 2-6 Solanum nigrum, insect enemies in Portowbicoiiee. conus | 192 4 Solenopsis— | germinata, occurrence on vegetables in Porto Rico.....-| 192 4,9 molesta, destruction of codling-moth larve .-........... | 189 46 Sorghum—_ grain— branching and tillering, causes and ea vanleeests 188 2-3 damage by sorghum midge, 1913, 1914-............. 188 3 low yields, causes in San Antonio TEPUOM oe are fae 188 2-3 thin seeding, effect on plant and maturity.-......... 188 2-3 midge— iiages HOLS) TOM een: . 2: epee eens ane Tat 188 3 injury to gTain sorehums, Note. seeeme eee ty eee 188 2 Sorghums, crops for irrigated alikali-landeuelnanl es deiae one | 190 31 Soups— | canned) varieties sseeren =. n=. = 7 eee morn ea ase eee 196 79 Canning. (dine ehlOnSepeeze a2 sks 2 <5 2 Sea RAD nee ee | 196 78 preparation for GHINIUIN Goes ogee soso soaccsdessessas= 196 79 South Carolina, demurrage regulations, variations from uni- | form code, etc. . ah Oe ef eR 8. hese eer eel 191 |18, 14, 15, 17, 27 South Dakota, demurrage regulations, variations from uni- | | form code, So ae 9 ae RI | Sa eS | 191 | eG 27) South, soil rosin ies Bie as Gis ie | 180 | 1-28 Southern beet webworm, occurrence on vegetables in Porto | RICO. Cs). Pe 2 RRA es ae. |) eee ewe 192 8 Sparrow, English. See English sparrows. | Sparrows, micracoby habiise-e= 9... - eee eee a ee 185 9 Spartocera batata, occurrence on vegetables in Porto Rico.. 192 4 Specific oravity hydrometer, comparison with Brix and | | BAUS INSETS TGS pe etn A Re 196 26, 28-32 Spinach— | | canning— cut-out for specific fills, experiments.....-.....-..-- 196 64 selection and preparation, commercial methods..... 196 64 Sorowing for Camneniess sa: cee «2114. | SAD net ae ote 196 64 packing seasons at canneries, by States..............-..! 196 18 Spinacia oleracea. See Spinach. Spray, homemad2 lime-sulphur concentrate.. : Be 197 1-6 Spring migration of birds, relative positions “of different Species) suas. Cini eth Miro weiys eis 2 ey JR 185 40-41 ‘‘Springer,’’ canned food, use of term...............-..---- | 196 14 Squash— | canning, commercial ymethods-...-. 02. 222m ee see 196 63 inISeCL ENE mLes in HOTUOMEN COR: = s)2-\: 4/2 722 Seer eee ee 192 3, 5, 8 packing seasons at canneries, by States................. 196 18 “Squirrel cage,”’ use at canneries, deseription, ete 3222s. 8 196 60, 63 Sterilization methods, commercial canning of foods.>....-.--) 196 i Stevenson, Charles H., classification of canned marine Produetavss. i: S$. co. 2 LT RR aia SRN eit ea ha 196 70-71 SiOEms, Peat mMonts Lex ..2 5 sais a aaa oor Wy Ane emer esores So | hog wales il Strawberries— | canned— . eff ct ot varying degres of sirup---.------.-.-.---- | 196 52 presence of microorganisms.........-.-------------- | 196 53 canning— | method"ormiulling Ganiestseo is sees see eee | 196 51-52 Selection epreparaioneetea-- ane eee ee ee eee: 196 51-53 INDEX. 37 | Bulletin No. Page Strawberries—Continued. packing seasons at canneries, by States...-....-.--.---- 196 18 BEEP CRIMECAT . 22/0 ne OLR gh ee shai a aie jag 196 53 Stream-gauging investigations, Cypres’ Creek drainage dis- coos) SU Skevngn ga a aT ach aU Ra Ae aaa 198 8-9 Streams— flood periods, time of rising and falling after rains, de- ductions from hydrographs... 28 181 20 movement of soil material, annuaily i in United States. . Bek 180 4 translocation of so:l material, relation of veloc.ty to CEIVED Ot OO Wie ares meee a area a) ie ten ea I 2 Wd 180 3 String beans, packing seasons at canneries, by Statesses 2 esee 196 17/ STUART, Wirr1aM, bulletin on— “Group classification and varietal descriptions of some INIMCTICATIMPOLA TOES ie sas a) 215i) Saja Seine ete hay Hsing les ace 176 —56 “Potato breeding and sel2ction”.............---..-.-- 195 1-35 Succotash— canning, preparation and practices at canneries........ 196 64 packing seasons at canneries, by States...............-- 196 19 Sugar— ; beet, comparison with cane sugar Ee ee er eae ee ea eee 196 32 beets. See Beets, sugar. cane, comparison ‘with beet BUC are ye Hes os 196 32 Susquehanna River, movement of soil material, annually.... 180 4 A : 9, 19- Pertlows mniPTAtOrY NADItS....-.-. 0. sens ces cele cen cee ae 185 { 20, 21, 26-27 Sweet clover, crop for irrigated alkali land, advantages...... 190 31 Sweet potato, insect enemies in Porto Rico.........-....-- 192 4, 6,9 Sweet potatoes— canned in United States, 1899, 1904, 1909, quantity PEL, WET costae soon ebeob oot eCCURA BBO BEE aE OHH abr eH 196 16 canning— prading and jprepartion.asfeemz4 42s) eGieie 252 .8e5% 196 64-66 BTS eSiLOMam. Seed Mahesh stan 91 oad epierseo aay Dalya 196 65-66 packing seasons at canneries, by Stateste ere jee: 196 19 “‘Sweet-potato root-borer,’’ occurrence in Porto Rico........ 192 6 “‘Swells,’”? cannedfood, use of term..:..:...-..022.05-.004- 196 13 Swiit, chimney, migration and disappearance......-.-..-. = 185 47 Sword bean, insect enemies in Porto Rico................-- 192 4,8 Tanager, scarlet, migratory habits.........................- 185 9, 25 reesaticohol, in Germany, studies. 022.2. 92522522 220 0¢3 182 3-8 Taylors Bayou, Memas¥icostot draimagel se) mee ee BAA ody ay. 193 22-24 Technical alcohol. See Alcohol, industrial. Tennessee River, movement of soil material, annual........ 180 Ze Tennessee, State traffic MeMUENTOME, TMs sscscobedoooeeeue 191 27 Tern, arctic— flights in migration, nesting habits, etc................- 185 9-10 MME TIEN GAGS: foe :2 io. 22/2) JS Sebel cade daa 185 9-10 Terrace— building to prevent erosion, management, types, etc. . 180 11-13 construction, use of “A” frame, LOOTMOLERE HEE {ae eer 180 12 types for prevention of erosion, ‘construction, Chee aa 180 11-13 Texas— BEATIN OM MOA Dle Stonmsuet 4) iain a Eta SEN a 193 11 demurrage regulations, variations from uniform code, etc. ISL ASS alts), aN Gy abr 7 Jefferson Count agric adifialand IMGustiiialpTOMUCS: \-)- 2 22 weiss 21< 193 2-3 description, topography, soils, climatic, and drain- age c pruigitionsi vias ciane..-hryh Phot. tle 193 1-7 PrANAce Metis. oe ee a a tualae PB ster 193 1-40 PE AIMACE PROWL MIS io 8). oo aso. .c pianists etalk LOE» wee | 193 8-9 natural vegetation and useS...-...-.-----c2--se--- 193 6-7 pani, adwart, horticultural history...:..:..2.2:.0.25.02: 179 8 38 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 176—200. eee Page Theban estate, Germany, location, management, etc........ 182 29-30 Thrasher, brown, abundance, relation to other birds........ 187 10 Thrips tabaci, occurrence on vegetables in Porto Rico....... 192 2 Thrush, gray-cheeked, migratory habits....... dhs a I 185 38 Ahlavapel Nes, calearNer eorse ks ee eee 185 9, 38 Tile drains, irrigated land, requirements.................... 190 7-8 Tobacco— growing, injury by legume humus, note....... He aang 180 21-22 Imsect enemilesim Ue Orlov ICON sees Sine ees 192 7 Tomato— canning) industry .enowths 279225400 AS ale WEIR ET 196 66 condensed, manufacture, methods........,.........--. 196 70 industny, Stowbaamdeesbembe oy): ae ie wie 0 see Raag 196 66 pastes, manufacture andiuses. )- 0322 sce 196 70 pulp, manufacture, commercial methods............... 196 69-70 Tomatoes— can-filling.machines, types. ..........-.--- Des ee tem 196 68 canned— Classes: 220808 Sls loi 7s emanate CHURN nae 196 70 cut-out weight of solids when varying quantities of added tall ewes alee tye. oan ani yeh ame 196 69 in United States, 1899, 1904, 1909, quantity and Value wer De Pe mesh es. la en eee a PD 196 16 presence of microorganisms............---.-....... 196 53 canning, selection and preparation, commercial methods. 196 66-70 demand by ketchup manufacturers........-........... 196 66 harvesting and handling for canneries. ................ 196 66 insect enemies in Porto Rico.........................- 192 3, 4, 7 packing seasons at canneries, by States................. 196 19 waste at canneries, utilization.........2002..2.2.-..0.22 196 69-70 VICI Per ACK MAAS WAM a Wwe ed seer oily sesh Weaemepeye pate epee aNd os 196 — 66 Tortoise beetle, occurrence on vegetables in Porto Rico..... 192 6 Traffic, demurrage regulations, information for farmers. ..... 191 1-27 Trap, maggot, house-fly control, experiments............... 200 1-15 Triumph potatoes, group characters, varieties, etc.......... 176 4,6 Turnip, insect enemies in Porto Rico...............----...- 192 a) Tussock moth, destruction by fumigation, experiments. ..... 186 5 Utah— ; Ogden, temperature and precipitation, Nov. 1 to Jan. 5, DRS USTED Ya toca ed cs cca et CRO gry eal eau Ie 199 9-10 State trate resulations) mover. -—- |: 0a: ae eee es 191 27 Vegetable crops, Porto Rico, insects affecting. .--......-... 192 1-11 Vegetables— canned in United States, 1899, 1904, 1909, quantity and | ACEH NO Ne Ana Mia ea Bick ee Ts vs RMR RR PR Sik ya ye 196 16 canning— 5 at lactones! prachiCesac ity) -2 2 ee) 5 eee eles 196 03-79 requirements for various products...........------- 196 53-79 packing seasons for various kinds, by States........... 196 16, 17, 18, 19 Porto Rico, alphabetical list with insect enemies. ....-. 196 10- Vermont, demurrage regulations, variations from uniform Codenehen ic nh CU hc Me yy a) sete Al ORSON LL) ES 191 14, 27 Vilmorin, C. P. H. L. de, classification of potato varieties, ROVE GASSED UA ARSE ae Re ig Gl Mee I ys, MG 176 1-2 Vireo, red-eyed, breeding range, migratory habits, etc....... 185 | 37, 40 Virginia— codling moth— studies at Charlottesville, 1911-1913............... 189 4-11 studies at Fisherville, 1911-1913.........2...--..--- 189 28-32 studies at Greenwood LOI2 2 occ e ree eee ee 189 11-12 studies at Winchester, 1912, 1913.............--... 189 21-28 demurrage regulations, variations from uniform code, etc. 191 13, 14, 17, 27 Vatis vinifera. See Grapes. INDEX. 39 Bully Page. Wages— UAT ERIRAUCKErS © aoc ears oneness ashe has = 196 73 RHPMRTIPCCICTS: solos tk EE Nee os Se ee Seeeeines esc s- 196 76 Waid, C. W., potato improvement by selection, work on TL ELL. TE GTEE TSC Se SRR SL SDE a 2 IR es 195 25 Warbler— black-and-white— breeding range, migratory habits, etc..........-.--.- 185 34, 36 BeEAIION TOULCSH se a= = sss] = = Fels 2S isiapeieioierelarss 185 25, 26 black-poll— breeding range, migration route, etc.........-----.- 185 14,19 migratory habits.......... piel Sdotoeacqapoaasance 185 9, 19-20 Connecticut, breeding range, migration route, etc..-...- 185 | 18, 21 Warblers— FST MGUETONeS, GISCUSHION...--.-.. 2)... eee 185 39 PamEUMRAMOM TOULES 00. oil. Seo see oe e 2 185 29-30 Washington— demurrage regulations, variations from uniform code, etc. 191 13, 27 Monument, destruction of birds in migration............ 185 32 Water aow in irrigation channels.............--..-...----6- 194 1-68 Waterlogged irrigated lands, reclamation methods. ......... 190 1-34 Watermelons, insect enemies in Porto Rico..............--- 192 3,9 Wattle. See Huisache tree. BMP PEUTIC OS nee Sei UE Ne RON SA Pe MENA So 196 57 Webber, H. J., tuber-unit method of potato selection....... 195 27, 28-29 Weevils, destruction in seed, fumigation experiments...... 186 5- Weihenstephan estate, Germany, location, management, etc. 182 30-32 West Virginia— codling moth— studies at French Creek, 1911-1913................. 189 32-37 Piaoiedati Pickens, 19TI—19IQ nce uo aes oe 189 37-40 State traffic regulations, note............---- ees Uae ea 191 27 Western tanager, breeding and wintering ranges...........-- 185 22,23 Western wild plum. See Wild plum, Pacific. Whiskey manufacture, restriction by European Govern- Sea PEACE CRSILY =| NOLG 2-202 oe Scicis Se oo wifes Wigrers a cbniodnecie« 182 2 White fly, damage to vegetables in Porto Rico..........-...-. 192 3-4 Waite, G. C., bulletin on ‘“‘Demurrage information for SR STEGT Sci oh BC CIe Ie ROU I ea A UM yg an 191 1-27 White potatoes. See Potatoes. White-winged scoter, breeding range, migration habits, and POTTS nn coat SOS eS ee ery IES I SOA NLS An 185 20, 21 Wicut, W. F., bulletin on ‘‘Native American species of PEELS ue Sled eee CREA TG RAAT UT IY NSE UP OLD MERE Sae Eg ALS 179 1-75 Wild goose plum— 1 OJP GEL 0 00 15 6) A RN a a Be donk 179 15-16 Omeed aaa disseminatlon 2). aye OPE 179 15-16 Wild plum— description, growth habits, and distribution...........-. 179 24-26 eatly history and varieties. ..... 228... 5.....: URS AE AN! 179 26-27 RE EDIESAC AL NSLONY 125 2228 ys), Re me nie i) bd 179 7,9 Pacific, description and growth habits................. 179 31-32 PACHIC TCIStLD ELON Vale ELCs. 20). te hese) meal eigie oie 179 32-33 western. Sce Wild plum, Pacific. Wind, transportation of soil material, remarks............... 180 5 Winslow, Isaac, originator of ‘‘canned corn,” work.....-.-.- 196 57-58 Wisonsin, State traffic regulations, note..................... 191 27 Wise, Morgan R., report on huisache girdler...............-- 184 5 Wrens, house, abundance, relation to other birds. .......... 187 10 Wyoming, State traffic regulations, note.................... 191 27 mepromyges eridania, food plants... 2120020. c0esee car eneaenaes 192 8 40 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 176—200. YARNELL, D. L., and others, bulletin on ‘‘ Report upon the Cypress Creek drainage district, Desha and Chicot Coun- GIES) VATICAMSAS TH BARN Mi One yanc te uN.) 0 Aime sia pam s errant 25 (0 AU Yawtia! insect enemies im Portoshicoy pueda he. See Yellow egg plum, canning, preparation, effect of various GesreesiOMsInUp eLCe Meee si Mare Cie apa a) 20) nea ED eee Mellowthroatswuiloratorynapiiseeee cose eel. aera se ee Zea mays. See Corn, sweet. _ S Zelus rubidus, enemy of drabrotica graminea, note.......-..-- O Bulletin | 0. Page. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN Ne. 176 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief ' Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 27, 1915 GROUP CLASSIFICATION AND VARIETAL DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME AMERICAN POTATOES By WILLIAM STUART, Horticulturist CONTENTS Proposed System of Classification . . Varietal Descriptions WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1915 Soe re epee: PRE reciting 4 deo dime Me t : BULLETIN OF aHE US DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE & No. 176 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. March 27, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) GROUP CLASSIFICATION AND VARIETAL DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME AMERICAN POTATOES. By Witi1aM Stuart. Horticulturist, Horticultural and Pomological Investigations. INTRODUCTION. To those familiar with the present almost hopeless state of potato nomenclature it is apparent that there is a growing need for some simple and fairly reliable method by which the student and grower can recognize varieties well enough at least to place them in the fam- ily or group to which they belong. The classification of varieties into groups or families is admittedly the first step toward a satisfactory or intelligent study of the varieties themselves. The increasing neces- sity for such study is clearly demonstrated by the large number of old varieties offered to the public each year under the guise of new names. This practice has naturally led to much confusion, and the task of restoring order out of the present chaos is a difficult one. EARLY EFFORTS AT CLASSIFICATION. One of the earliest and most careful attempts to classify varieties into groups which has yet come to the writer’s notice is that of Vil- morin,' who in 1882 and again in 1886 and 1902 published the results of many years’ observations of a very complete collection of potato varieties. These varieties were grouped into 12 classes in 1886, and the 12 classes were further subdivided into 30 sections. In the 1902 edition only 9 classes were made, but these 9 classes were subdivided into 40 sections. The classification of the main groups is based on the color and shape of the tubers; that of the sections is based on the color, shape, and size of the tubers and the depth of the eyes, the color of the sprouts in the dark, and the color of the flowers. 1 Vilmorin,C. P.H.L.de. Catalogue Méthodique et Synonymique des Principales Variétés des Pommes de Terre. Paris, 1882. Jd. 2, corr. et aug. de plus de 200 variétés, 51 p., Paris, 1886. Ed. 3, refond. et aug. de plus de six cents variétés, 67 p., Paris, 1902. Notr.—This bulletin is of value to plant breeders and potato specialists in all sections of the country. 73463°—Bull. 176—15——1 ) BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The 9 classes are as follows: (1) Yellow, round. (4) Flesh colored, oblong. | (7) Rose or red, long. (2) Yellow, oblong. (5) Rose or red, round. (8) Violet colored. (3) Yellow, long. (6) Rose or red, oblong. (9) Streaked (mottled). The varieties included in class 1 are divided into ten sections, of which section 2 is perhaps a representative example. Section 2.—Tubers yellow or white, round; flowers colored, often abundant; flesh white; sprouts violet, more or less colored. One of the ablest attempts at group classification in this country is that of Kohler,1 who, in March, 1909, published the first results of his studies on the classification of potato varieties. His grouping of the varieties is based upon the following points: (1) Characteristics of vines; (2) shape of tubers; (3) color of tubers. Eleven groups were described in 1909, viz: (1) Tuberosum group. (7) Early Michigan group. (2) Rural group. (8) Milwaukee group. (3) Endurance group. (9) Russet group. (4) Seedling B group. (10) Ohio group. (5) Green Mountain group. (11) Early Market group. (6) Carman group. In a subsequent publication, April, 1910, Kohler retained the same number of groups, but submitted new names for four of them, his 1910 list being as follows: (1) Tuberosum group. (7) Green Mountain group. (2) Wohltmann group. (8) Michigan group. (3) Rural group. (9) Russet group. (4) Endurance group. (10) Ohio group. (5) Factor group. (11) Cobbler group. (6) Sharp’s Express group. In many respects Kohler’s grouping is satisfactory, but one might question the advisability of giving to any one group the name ‘‘Tuber- osum.”’ If all of the cultivated varieties are to be regarded as belong- ing to Solanum tuberosum, a group of only a few varieties can not be considered as exclusively entitled to such a designation. HWxception might also be taken to three of the 1910 groups—Wohltmann, Factor, and Sharp’s Express—which derive their group names from foreign varieties. It would seem desirable that the type variety should be one of American origin. In 1912 Milward ? mentions three groups‘as representing distinctive types. These he called the round-white, the long-white, and the Rose groups. 1 Kohler, A. R. Potato experiments and studies at University farm. Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 114, p. 311-319, 1909. Kohler, A. R. Potato experiments and studies at University farm in 1909. Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 118, p. 90-100, illus., 1910. 2 Milward, J. G. Commercial varieties of potatoes for Wisconsin. Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 225, p. 7, 1912. ss AMERICAN POTATOES: CLASSIFIGATION AND DESCRIPTIONS. 3 While this is an easy and simple classification to follow, particu- larly in the Rose group, it is impossible to make any close study of varietal relationship based on the shape of the tuber alone. Milward’s classification is, of course, only intended to represent three standard market types of potatoes which are commonly recognized by the dealer when purchasing table stock. All of the varieties of the Rural and Green Mountain types fall into the round group, and these are generally known as Rurals. Those of the long-tuber type are gen- erally known as Burbanks. The Rose group includes all varieties having elongated or ovoid tubers with flesh-colored or pink skin. In some respects this classification is most unfortunate, since it does not encourage the purification of varieties as regards mixture. Unscrupu- lous dealers have taken advantage of this situation and have disposed of such stock for seed purposes, thereby contributing in a large meas- ure to the present nomenclatorial difficulties.! The object of this bulletin is to furnish a working plan which may be used in determining the group or family to which a variety belongs. It is hoped that in many cases it will also make possible the determi- nation of the varieties themselves. PROPOSED SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION. In presenting the following classification key and group descrip- tions, no one realizes more clearly than does the writer that there is still much to be desired. It is hoped, however, that this classifica- tion will serve as a starting point upon which to base further studies. It is quite probable that the groups here presented will in many cases resolve themselves into one or more subgroups or sections which are based on finer distinctions than those given for the group as a whole. It is equally certain that some new groups will have to be made in order to include those varieties which do not at present seem to fit into any of the classes now proposed. The value of studying varietal groups, rather than a collection of varieties as a whole, can not be too strongly emphasized. When the yarieties falling into such groups are planted in adjacent rows the comparative differences, as well as similarities, are more easily noted. The recognition of old varieties under new names is almost certain ! Since the preparation of this manuscript, the Agricultural Extension Department of the Iowa State College of Agriculture has published Extension Bulletin No. 20, entitled ‘‘Identification of Potato Vari- eties.” The author of this bulletin, C. L. Fitch, makes the following statement: ‘‘ The identification of varieties of potatoes will be considered under three heads: 1. The varieties of interest to lowa growers and merchants, pp. 3-4. 2. Tubers described and tuber parts named; the influence of conditions on shape and color, pp. 5-14. 4. Varieties described and identified by the tuber form and color markings, pp. 14-32.”’ Under part 3 the author discusses seven groups, or classes, as follows: Rural, Early Ohio, Irish Cob- bler, Green Mountain, Burbank, Peerless or Pearl, and Bliss Triumph. Each group is well illustrated by photographs showing the range of variation in shape of the tubers. Taken as a whole, the bulletin is an exceedingly interesting one and should prove of considerable value in the study of potato varieties. 4 BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to result from such a study and should tend to discourage the pres- ent practice of some of the seedsmen who manufacture new varieties out of old ones. : CLASSIFICATION KEY.! Group 1.—CoBBLER. Tubers: Roundish; skin creamy white. Sprouts: Base, leaf scales, and tips slightly or distinctly tinged with reddish violet or magenta. In many cases the color is absent. Flowers: Light rose-purple; under intense heat may be almost white. Group 2.—TRIUMPH. Tubers: Roundish; skin creamy white, with more or less numerous splashes of red, or carmine, or solid red; maturing very early. Sprouts: Base, leaf seal and tips more or less deeply suffused with reddish violet. Flowers: Very light eee Group 3.—Earity MICHIGAN. Tubers: Oblong or elongate-flattened; skin white or creamy white, occasionally suffused with pink around bud-eye cluster in Early Albino. Sprouts: Base light rose-purple; tips creamy white or light rose-purple. Flowers: White. Group 4.—Rosz. Tubers: Roundish oblong to elongate-flattened or spindle-shape flattened; skin flesh colored or pink, or (in the case of the White Rose) white. Sprouts: Base and internodes creamy white to deep rose-lilac; leaf scales and tips cream to rose-lilac. Flowers: White in sections 1 and 2; rose-lilac in section 3. Group 5.—Earty Onto. Tubers: Round, oblong, or ovoid; skin flesh colored or light pink, with numerous small, raised, russet dots. Sprouts: Base, leaf scales, and tips more or less deeply suffused with carmine- lilac to violet-lilac or magenta. Flowers: White. Group 6.—HEBRON. Tubers: Elongated, somewhat dattencd: sometimes spindle shaped; skin creamy white, more or less clouded with flesh color or light pink. Sprouts: Base creamy white to light lilac; leaf scales and tips pure mauve to magenta, but color sometimes absent. Flowers: White. Group 7.—BURBANK. Tubers: Long, cylindrical to somewhat flattened, inclined to be slightly spindle shaped; skin white to light creamy white, smooth and glistening, or deep russet in the case of section 2. Sprouts: Base creamy white or faintly tinged with magenta; leaf scales and tips usually lightly tinged with magenta. i Flowers: White. ‘ Group 8.—GREEN Mountain. Tubers: Moderately to distinctly oblong, usually broad, flattened; skin a dull creamy or light russet color, frequently having russet-brown splashes toward the seed one. Sprouts: Section 1—hase, leaf scales, and tips creamy white; section 2—base usually white, occasionally tinged with magenta; leaf scales and tips tinged with lilac to magenta. Flowers: White. 1 The color values are based upon the chart published by the French Chrysanthemum Society, Paris, 1905. Bul. 176, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Fia. 1.—FOuR VIEWS OF IRISH COBBLER POTATOES. Fic. 2.—Four ViEWS OF EXTRA-EARLY EUREKA POTATOES. POTATOES BELONGING TO GROUP 1. ‘0218 poos [BvopT puv odAy orqvartsop y "| dnNou¥d ‘SdOLVLOd Ys1gEG09 HSIu] 33SYH 1 YUTEHOO HSTET re ee A te re Bul. 176, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Bul. 176, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. sv no und 01 AoUNpUd} VB SMOYS FYSII ‘pus pses poyutod oy} Aq pooueprAd 9} UO Joqny oy, ‘“doop 00) av yey} sade sey ‘odvys UL e[qRIIsap a[TYA\ ‘WJoT oy WO Jaqni oyy "| dnouy ‘SaOLVLOq ¥318d09 HSIv] OML La Bul. 176, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fia. 2.—FourR VIEWS OF TRIUMPH (BLISS’S) POTATOES. POTATOES BELONGING TO GROUP 2. PLATE V. Bul. 176, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. aly y Le 4 A "€ dNOUD ‘S3OLVLOd NVBIHOI) ATYVA IVOIdAL 3SYHL pit | bal bles mt a Bul. 176, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. Fig. 1.—FOuR VIEWS OF EARLY ROSE POTATOES GROWN IN MAINE. Fic. 2.—FOuUR VIEWS OF EARLY ROSE POTATOES GROWN IN MINNESOTA. POTATOES BELONGING TO GROUP 4, SECTION 1. i eae ae AMERICAN POTATOES: CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTIONS. 5 Group 9.—RURAL. Tubers: Broadly round-flattened to short oblong, or distinctly oblong-flattened; skin creamy white, or deep russet in the case of section 20. Sprouts: Base dull white; leaf scales and tips violet-purple to pansy violet. Flowers: Central portion of corolla deep violet, with the purple growing lighter toward the outer portion; five points of corolla white, or nearly so. Group 10.—PEaRL. Tubers: Round-flattened to heart-shape flattened, usually heavily shouldered; skin dull white, dull russet, or brownish white in section | or a deep bluish - purple in section 2. Sprouts: Section 1—hbase, leaf scales, and tips usually faintly tinged with lilac; section 2—hbase, leaf scales, and tips vinous mauve. Flowers: White. Group 11.—PEAcHBLOW. Tubers: Round to round-flattened or round-oblong; skin creamy white, splashed with crimson or solid pink; eyes usually bright carmine. Includes some early-maturing varieties. Sprouts: Base, leaf scales, and tips more or less suffused with reddish violet. Flowers: Purple. In deciding upon the name by which each group shall be known an. attempt has been made to select that of the variety which seems most nearly to represent the group as a whole and which, at the same time, is most widely known. In the group descriptions which follow an effort has been made to sive the general characteristics of the vines and tubers for the group as a whole. It is realized, however, that in all probability the de- scriptions more closely approach the characters of the variety fur- nishing the group name. All descriptions of the color of the sprouts are based on the observa- tion of tubers sprouted in a dark chamber. 1.—COBBLER GROUP. The Cobbler group represents a class of early-maturing potatoes. The Irish Cobbler is by far the most extensively grown variety of this group, being almost universally raised for an early crop in the Norfolk and Eastern Shore trucking districts of Virginia and Maryland. It is also rather extensively grown in other trucking centers and is gradually supplanting such varieties as the Triumph and the Spaulding No.4. Large quantities of Irish Cobblers are also grown in northern Maine to supply seed for southern truck growers. Plates I, IL, and ILL illustrate different types of potatoes belonging to group 1. Description.—Matures early. Vines medium to above medium in size, with some- what spreading habit of growth. Stems dark green, stocky, and rather short jointed. Leaves large, flat, more or less flaccid, and a medium dark green. Flowers numerous, rather large, light purple or rose-lilac; under intense heat the color may be practically unexpressed. Tubers roundish with blunt ends, the stem end often being notched rather deeply and giving a shouldered appearance to the tuber (PI. I, figs. 1 and 2). Eyes medium in number, varying from shallow to rather deep, particularly in the 6 BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. bud-eye cluster (Pls. II and III). Skin smooth and of a light, creamy white color. Sprouts short and rather stubby, varying in color at the base from a very faint red- dish violet or magenta toa perceptible coloration; the tips and leaf scales are usually tinged with the same color. Occasionally the color seems to be almost, if not entirely, absent. The following varieties belong to this group and are, to all intents and purposes, identical: Early Dixie. Extra-Early Eureka (PI. I, fig. 2). Early Eureka. Flourball. Early Petoskey. Trish Cobbler (P1.I, fig. 1; Pls. II Early Standard. and III). Early Vicktor. Potentate. 2.—TRIUMPH GROUP. The Triumph group is composed of a few very early varieties hay- ing roundish tubers and a dwarf habit of growth. Only one member of this group, the Triumph, can be regarded as having any consider- able commercial importance. Both the Triumph and the Quick Lunch potatoes are illustrated in Plate IV. Description.—Ripens very early, but the yield is usually low. Vines dwarfed and fairly compact, not much branched. Stems short, stocky, dark green. Leavesmedium large and dark green. Flowers purple or rose-lilac. Tubers round with blunt to obtuse ends, slightly to distinctly shouldered (Pl. IV, fig. 1). Eyes medium in num- ber and depth; bud-eye cluster generally deeply set. Skin creamy white, occasion- ally with pink eyes or splashes (as in the White Triumph), with few or many splashes of crimson (as in the Quick Lunch and Noroton Beauty), or solid red, or occasionally splashed with carmine (as in the Triumph). Flesh a creamy white. Sprouts have base, leaf scales, and tips more or less deeply diffused with reddish violet. The varieties which seem to belong to this group are the following: Honeoye Rose.’ Triumph (Bliss’s) (Pl. IV, fig. 2). Noroton Beauty. White Triumph. Quick Lunch (PI. IV, fig. 1). 3.—EARLY MICHIGAN GROUP. This group has been provided for the purpose of accommodating certain early white-skinned varieties which, owing to their habit of growth, color of flowers, and color and shape of tubers, could not be included in any of the other groups. Thus far the study which has been given to the possible members of this group has been insufficient to permit a description which would fairly represent them. Plate V shows three typical Early Michigan potatoes. Description.—Matures early. Vines of medium size, resembling those of the Early Ohio group. Flowers white. Tubers oblong-flattened to elongate-flattened or ovoid. Eyes numerous. Skin white or creamy white or, in the case of the Early Albino, occasionally suffused with pink around the bud-eye cluster. Sprouts light rose- purple at the base, with the scales and tips creamy white or tinged with light rose- purple. 1 The first three varieties are considered identical. AMERICAN POTATOES: CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTIONS. 7 The varieties in this group which have been studied are the Early Albino, Early Michigan (PI. V), and Early Puritan. Further investigation will doubtless result in the inclusion of a number of other varieties. 4.—ROSE GROUP. In point of numbers the Rose group is one of the largest, if not the largest, group under this classification. With the exception of the Extra-Early White Rose, all of the varieties in this group have pink-skinned tubers, and all save the Late Rose may be classed as early-maturing varieties. . In order to accommodate certain varieties which apparently belong to this group, but which differ either in shape of tubers, color of sprouts, or flowers, it has been found necessary to make three sec- tions, in the first of which are included the true Early Rose types. The vine description of the Early Rose in section 1 will serve reason- ably well for all. Plates VI, VII, and VIII illustrate the different varieties belonging, respectively, to sections 1, 2, and 3. Description.—Section 1: Vines of medium height, with stout, rather erect, dark- green stems and medium to large leaves. Flowers rather abundant, white. Tubers elongated or oblong, usually flattish at the center and tapering gradually toward each end; stem and seed end rather blunt. In the North, tubers tend to become shorter, thicker, and more nearly round. (PI. VI, figs. 1 and 2.) Eyes numerous, shallow to medium in depth, but sharply marked; sometimes protuberant. Skin smooth and, except in the Extra-Early White Rose, of a rather deeper shade of flesh color or pink than the Early Ohio. Flesh creamy white, sometimes streaked with red. Sprouts rather long, medium thick, the base not much enlarged (PI. IX, fig. 1) and usually clearly tinted with rose-lilac; leaf scales and tipscreamy white or tinged with rose-lilac. The following varieties are thought to belong to section 1: Clark’s No. 1. Extra-Early Fillbasket. Early Durham. Extra-Early Vermont. Early Fortune. Extra-Early White Rose. Early Maine. Houlton Rose. Early Norther. Late Rose. Early Rose (Pl. VI). Northern Beauty. Early Roser. Rochester Rose. Early Thoroughbred. Somers’ Extra Early. Early Vermont. mnorouri ; Early Walters. Section 2: Vines largerand more luxuriant than those of section 1. Flowers white. Tubers broad-roundish to short-oblong, flattened (PI. VII); Eyes not very numerous and rather shallow. Skin slightly deeper colored than that of the Early Rose. Sprouts shorter and thicker and usually considerably enlarged at the base; color of sprouts mauve; leaf scales and tips deep mauve or magenta. The varieties classed under section 2 are the Manistee (Marly and Improved) and Spaulding No. 4 (Pl. VII). Section 3: Vines quite similar to those of section 1. Flowers purple or rose-lilac, Tubers oblong, rather broad and thick, more or less flattened, large (Pl. VIII), Eyes 8 BULLETIN 176, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. numerous, usually deeply colored. Skin much deeper pink than that of the Early Rose. Sprouts short, stubby, and showing about as much color as those in section 2. The varieties now thought to belong to section 3 follow. Crine’s Lightning. New Ideal (Pl. VIII). Extra Early Red Rose. New Scotch Rose. Jones Pink-Eyed Seedling. Old Early Rose (Pl. VIII). Leée’s Favorite. Seneca Beauty. Livingston. 5.—EARLY OHIO GROUP. This group is relatively more important than that of the Rose, owing to the fact that the Karly Ohio variety is much more exten- sively grown. In the potato-growing regions of the Middle West the Early Ohio is still one of the leading commercial varieties. This is particularly true in the Red River Valley of Minnesota and North Dakota and in the valley of the Kansas (Kaw) River; it is equally true in other less well-known localities. While in many respects the varieties in this group are very similar to those of the Rose group, there are certain distinguishing characters which make their recog- nition comparatively easy. Plate IX, figure 2, and Plate X show different views of the Early Ohio. Description.—Vines very similar to those of the Early Rose in habit of growth, character of foliage, and color of flowers; they mature a little earlier, however. Flowers white. Tubers round-oblong with full, rounded seed and stem ends (Pl. X). Eyes numerous, rather shallow, but strong, sometimes protuberant. Skin or flesh light pink, except in the case of the White Ohio, with deeper color around the eyes, par- ticularly around the bud-eye cluster. Surface of skin more or less numerously dotted with small corky dots (lenticels). (Pl. X, tuber 157.) These dots either do not occur at all or are relatively inconspicuous on the Rose varieties. Sprouts short, much enlarged at the base (PI. IX, fig. 2), color varying from carmine-violet to violet-lilac or magenta-lilac. Apparently most of the varietal members of this group are simply renamed Early Ohios; at least this statement is true of the first four varieties in the following list: Karly Ohio (Pl. X). Early Acme. Karly Market. Early Six Weeks. Prize Harly Dakota (Pl. X). Late Ohio. Ratekin’s Red River Special. | White Ohio. 6.—HEBRON GROUP. The varieties in the Hebron group are chiefly distinguished from those in the Rose group by the color of their tubers. Most of them are early-maturing varieties. The Early and Late Beauties of Hebron were rather extensively grown a quarter of a century or more ago, but are now seldom grown commercially. Their decadence has been largely due to the fact that they are very susceptible to the late-blight. Another factor which may have had some influence in this direction is the shape of the tuber, which is undesirably long. = Bul. 176, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. cen eeaee 24. 94 2. 68 9.31 a EULA BS Se Seen eee = nee ae 19. 86 2.42 8.21 MAN MRN lens on

onicin ob es. |. Bere 22.81 PAE 8. 23 SRAM Med B15 o/s UL o, 2 op is ds wimmte eho iaa «2 XL ce ee oe 26. 73 3.18 8. 41° CHICAGO’S RECEIPTS AND SHIPMENTS OF BUTTER. Prior to 1875 the receipts of butter at Chicago were less than 40,000,000 pounds. The average receipts for 1890 to 1894 were 136,000,000 pounds, and 15 years later this quantity had more than doubled. A small proportion of this butter was consumed within the city. 16 BULLETIN 177, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. od Prior to 1875, shipments of butter amounted to less than. 20,000,000 pounds, but in the next five years they had reached 35,000,000 pounds and in 1911, 285,000,000 pounds. Of the 1910 shipments 75 per cent were forwarded over ‘‘eastern lines” and, presumably, were consumed in the North Atlantic States. In 1911 the shipments of butter over ‘‘eastern lines”’ exceeded the entire farm and factory production in. the North Atlantic States. TABLE 9.—Receipts and shipments of butter at Chicago, 1870-1911. Receipts. Year . . x ‘ Chicago & ae Chicago, Rock | Chicago, Bur- North West- ee nO iS Cen: Island & Pa- tinea & ern Ry. y- cific Ry. Quincy R. R. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. _ Pounds. OOO £5 een ee Aer e area ea BL 72,341,368 15,091,300 16, 945, 148 17, 042, 055 IE) ES SPUN EN Pe 67,504, 965 16, 157, 000 12, 953, 692 22,440,240 QOD Ee EAS Ny eye cia ee er eae ER 70, 756, 785 15,545, 900 9,630, 909 21,511,390 SOO ea eel eae se ea, Eee ead 74,394, 032 14,512,200 14, 839,751 19,697,800 O04 RS eg ah! ARE SB Ue Cay cee 74, 163,297 18, 707, 620 20, 605, 673 18,529, 708 IG Oa 3 ree 3 IN Re Sa ae ae 77, 386, 276 20,039, 400 40,318, 260 23,272,195 Eee serine Soa Ee BGEeACOReEee Hence ments 62,352, 403 23, 682, 800 33, 802, 475 33, 694, 683 THOS Nea NS Sa er A or aA Vas pe 71, 327, 391 22,968, 265 27,794,396 47,907, 105 TRO OSS ae NPG Pa a ea IE aN 82, 140, 322 19,774, 100 28, 995, 256 65, 287,598 TE eee a ales Der ENED BoC Re a ce aM? 79,079, 399 19, 419, 500 17, 426, 093 57,144,541 LOT QAR ee kite tee ati einer Sintec polis 105, 892, 369 16,818, 200 19,870,309 57, 429, 012 TOT ee eae Reng Sie SPS Rb cue Te 106, 174, 300 10, 652, 300 20,675, 900 58, 418, 200 Average: NSCOR (4 as es aera ese es men aes ee SH Os0 CSB Isocoossooncuease 1,596,560 5, 047, 724 14, 830,358 6, 705, 835 2,355,528 6, 055, 937 20, 859, 824 11,512,078 8,596,308 7,557, 451 34, 987, 966 14,630, 295 13, 680,105 12,810,383 35,601, 770 12,574, 276 21,772,140 12,145, 476 67, 707, 672 16,332,074 30, 992, 093 20, 027, 476 71,832, 089 16, 002,804 14, 995, 035 19, 844, 239 74, 457, 158 21,176,813 29, 667, 296 45, 461, 224 Receipts. Total ship- Year. Chicago, Mil- ae waukee, & St. | Other routes. Total. Paul Ry. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 89,586, 700 33,378, 619 244, 385, 190 208, 536, 699 98, 205, 060 36,548, 286 253, 809, 243 245, 488, 028 65, 649, 800 36, 137, 758 219, 232,542 201, 787, 285 63, 108, 400 45,480,301 232, 032, 484 197, 620, 859 62, 446, 200 48,671,648 243, 124, 146 249, 359, 694 65, 252,973 45, 645, 699 271,914,803 254, 130, 889 48,679, 084 46, 436, 653 248, 648, 098 252, 807,516 47,947,342 45,770, 143 263,714, 642 252, 005, 932 74,041, 760 46, 455, 746 316,694, 782 |. 269,178,313 71, 048, 129 40, 429, 173 284,546, 835 235, 648, 837 71, 490, 137 47, 485, 473 318, 985, 500 266, 288, 900 64, 326, 100 74, 685, 600 334, 932, 400 285, 685, 400 7,510, 102 2, 702, 835 40, 160,595 37, 234, 087 21, 493, 212 1,842, 147 71, 861, 020 68, 644, 705 30,302, 740 7,093, 265 113,504, 754 114, 995, 773 38, 901, 702 15, 449, 152 136, 444,516 148, 425, 031 TRO = 1899 oe ae ee ee ie ee ee ee 75,910, 798 9,532,719 220, 502, 832 200, 973, 969 1900=19042. SEE Lee ee 75, 799, 232 40, 043, 322 238,516, 721 220,558,513 TODS = 1909 Bese ee Ct ea Seo ae 61,393, 858 44, 947, 483 277, 103, 832 252, 754,297 PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS. 1g RECEIPTS OF BUTTER AT NEW YORK CITY. The receipts of butter at New York City amounted to 75,000,000 pounds in 1880 and increased to 125,000,000 in 1910. At the earlier date the shipments east of Chicago amounted to less than 60,000,000 pounds, so that New York City could not have been entirely depend- ent upon butter shipped from Chicago. However, in 1911 there were shipped east 240,000,000 pounds, or nearly twice the amount received at New York. Therefore, it is readily seen that western butter must go into other eastern markets as well as New York City. Taking the difference between the average per capita production for the United States as a whole and the average per capita con- sumption, the North Atlantic States would show a deficit of nearly 200,000,000 pounds; while the North Central States would have a surplus of 325,000,000 pounds; so it will be seen that the latter group supplies the deficit, not only for the Northern Atlantic States, but also for other parts of the country. SPECIAL STUDY OF CONSUMPTION OF MILK AND BUTTER. QUANTITY OF MILK USED ON FARMS. . A circular letter was sent to correspondents of the Bureau of Crop Estimates asking for the number of persons in a household and the average daily consumption of milk and of butter. Replies to this letter indicated that the average person in a farm household con- sumes about three-fourths of a quart of milk per day. This in- eludes milk used for cooking, as well as that consumed raw or used with tea or coffee. The average household of the farmer was found to be 5.3 persons, so that altogether they consumed over 4 quarts per day. If the average consumption per farm for the year is multiplied by the total number of farms reporting dairy cows it shows that nearly 8,000,000,000 quarts of milk are used on farms for consump- tionraw. This amount nearly equals the quantity received by butter, cheese factories, and condenseries. TaBLE 10.—Milk consumption on farms. Average milk con- Average sumed— number of Farms Estimated ee eg * total milk Geographic division. members) | =————____ | repoming ° per Per house- | , ... | dairy cows,| Consumption household.| hold per | Per capita on farms, year, per year. Quarts. Quarts. Number. Quarts. ey yaa th OES ee 5.3 1,425 271 147,028 209,514, 900 MitnlovAtianitic....-..-......00.--.20200- 4.6 1,059 231 400,478 | 424, 100, 907 pogey North Central. 00.000 e cee were cons 4.7 1,111 238 1,009,479 | 1,121,531, 169 West North Central EE ee EP OD EE 5.4 J 436 267 989,135 | 1,420,397, 860 SMAI MAGIOUS 28S ooo cap anes aee'ee oleae 5.3 1,568 297 794,716 | 1,246, 114, 688 asp south Central..........-...2----2-- 5.5 1,780 326 815,423 | 1, 451, 452, 940 mvOey SOUtH Contra... 0.002. ccccose rece 5.9 1,862 317 724,466 | 1,348, 955, 692 Mountain.. ON ES tp in SAA eA ACRE 6.2 1, 986 319 120, 328 938) 971, 458 RLM Sasa 598 on a2 ay aeidetatee othe co's 4.9 276 139, 821 190,715,844 1,364 1, 488 288 | 5, 140,869 | 7,651,755, 458 a 18 BULLETIN 177, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUTTER CONSUMPTION ON FARMS. Returns from this inquiry also indicate that the average person on the farm consumed a pound of butter every 10 days, or that the average farm family consumed over a half pound per day. If this average per family for the year be multiplied by the total number - of farms reporting butter production, it would equal nearly 900,- 000,000 pounds. An additional question was asked of those corre- spondents who made butter, namely, “How many quarts of milk does it require to make a pound of butter?’’ The average for the United States was 9.6 quarts; varying from 8.1 for the West South Central States to 10.7 for the West North Central. If the total sales of butter by farmers is added to the total home consumption as obtained above, and the result multiplied by the average number of quarts of milk necessary to produce a pound of butter, it shows © that farmers use at home, for butter, over 12,000,000,000 quarts of milk annually, or over 40 per cent more than was reported by butter and cheese factories and condenseries to the Thirteenth Census. TABLE 11.—Butter consumption on farms. Average butter con- - sumed. ee of nou pee ic divisi reporting otal con- Geographic division. me ys er eres Gatiee pros | salar meee Nes eanata hold Per capita | duction. farms. “| per year. | Pet year. Pounds. Pounds. Number. Pounds. 160 Newslinglan d cyt) dieses Jet 25 -bee ee 5.3 30 94, 858 15,177, 280 MiddlevAtlantiGnea seems esse eee 4.6 182 40 267, 085 48, 609, 470 Hast NortaiCentraleesssas. pose ssseeee es 4.7 176 38 802, 909 141,311, 984 Wiest North @entrale pes ese seeee cree: 5.4 210 39 841, 084 176, 627, 640 South) Audantic 22 ees ee a2oss eae ee 5.3 181 34 772, 972 139, 907, 932 inasisouthiCentralesasasee-- eases a oaeee 5.5 190 35 820, 015 155; 802, 850 West South Central............----.---- 5.9 214 36 705,549 | 150,987,486 Mountains eee aaa aacseaebe es cc ecee 6.2 222 36 101, 777 22,594, 494 IPACiiC’: ste. seers Ne eee eee ener 5.0 158 32 109, 036 17, 227, 688 Total, United States ....-..------- 5.3 192 36 | 4,515,285 868, 246, 824 TABLE 12.—Consumption of milk in cities. Cities of 25,000 and over. Cities of 2,500 and over. Geographic division. Yearly Estimated Yearly - Estimated per capita | “total con- | Pet capita | “total con- shes art sumption. Berra sumption. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. |. Gallons. Newelineland (as Scans ate sence eee epee so oe 35.709 | 115,874, 669 35. 794 195, 268, 619 MiddlevAglantic: oo. 5-5: soseer ose coe ee tiene Sosa 33 .854 | 362,598, 650 33. 270 456,576,620 MastiNorth: Central ic) = tio eck ee ce bocce ae 29.379 | 185,551,154 25. 397 244, 249, 832 Wiest North Central. ease. ct eee eee 20. 030 47, 623, 108 20. 888 80, 914, 180 South Aglanticn---68<- jean ce so -cepiae see ecisee 21. 428 40,379, 095 20. 677 63, 936, 448 asi South Central 2: epee emcee en ae cnet 18. 656 16, 554, 719 18.590 29, 264, 917 West South Central. - 4p =. = 52: ss hspeeess = 4 ose 17.529 17, 106, 358 17.519 34, 292, 672 Mountain, 2-sec)-ces cepa ens eos ce se beeeees- eee 24, 974 11, 097, 846 22. 369 21, 194, 874 IPACIIC Rec sctece cas ae {Soe Hee at eee p eases Cee 31.781 54, 116, 115 31.151 74, 211, 931 Total United States . (eh Paee beeen ay Meee Eee 2 12 eS URN Le See ee Sp eee es 29. 00 NUS 1 SAT © Gy oe a ee eal re eel Rr 18. 00 Office supplies and stationery_.______ geen ale 2 118. 00 NGG Raye nS) Pn eae pe I EE ee a el nak eee 260. 00 Elona nis ee oe less emer tas a BRS 460. 00 ERM ST@ TOTO WUC. Seto a 2 eis neg lk he Re a OR. RR oe ee 320. 00 BED OVS Lea pa ee SS SE Ee a ee ee ee 246. 00 jaionipheas awaters ANG Uces m= stem es eee eee eee 162. 06 Bainbingskinds Tepallss2a eo 2 eee ow Ae ea 230. 00 GAaPTA@e ces Ue wet Wee es, et ee COST (2 Wea GSN RY SRL eal: yd RE eel ao Pe 56. 00 IDITECTOUS? ROC S i= een oor ee eae ee 110. 00 ANUGMOIS? Slleeles Ls ee as ee ee 100. 06 IN@I 222 a eo a ee ee eS SSeS SS Sees MiscellaneolS-2 02 este e See Ss eee es 46.00 MO Pails Gass SSN beWe REE ee ae ae 2 ie. Pe eee 4, G00. 00 AUDITING. The purposes of an audit are for protection against fraud, for the detection of errors and omissions, also to determine if the business is conducted along the most economical lines and in accordance with COOPERATIVE ORGANIZATION BUSINESS METHODS. 19 statute and constitutional provisions of the organization, and for a certification to the correctness of assets, abilities, and losses and gains as shown by the financial statement. Such an audit also helps. in maintaining the highest financial standing, furnishing evidence of the organization’s safety and prosperity. Auditing by a competent accountant not only tests the accuracy of the accounts but it secures an analysis of the business which promotes practical economy, in that the results of the year’s business, as shown by the accounts, will display any weaknesses in the methods of operation and any needless or excessive expenditures. No one thing connected with the busi- ness of any corporate body is more important than the proper auditing of the accounts. A great many cooperative organizations are inefficient in the matter of auditing, and every organization should provide for a system of internal audit, which can be carried on by a committee of the directors or members, and for an external audit, which should be made at least once a year, such external audit to be made by an expert accountant. INTERNAL AUDIT. For the internal audit it is usuaily customary for a committee of two, appointed by the board of directors from among themselves or the members, to come into the office each month and make as thorough an examination as possible of the receipts arfd expendi- tures, and note the general policy in carrying on the business. Such a committee audit brings the directors into closer touch with the policy of the management and has a tendency to make them fee! a more direct responsibility. This examination will do much to- ward instilling confidence and keeping the business open to the members through the monthly reports of this committee. For the internal audit, the larger organizations have an eflicient office man who is regularly employed and who carries on a contin- uous internal audit. This is an excellent arrangement when the amount of business done by the organization warrants the expense. EXTERNAL AUDIT. The number of defalcations in business organizations occurring annually may be traced frequently to the fact that no andits by competent parties were made. The internal audit by a committee has many advantages, but is incomplete and not sufficient in itsel/ as a protection against fraud nor for the proper analysis of the accounts. It is therefore necessary that an audit conducted by an expert public accountant be made at least once each year. Many organizations have incorporated in their by-laws a clause requiring the employment of a public accountant to make a thor- 20 BULLETIN 178, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ough audit of the year’s business before the annual meeting. Should the expense of a public accountant be prohibitive owing to the small amount of business transacted, a person who is thoroughly ecom- petent to carry on an audit should be employed, preferably some business man of high standing in the community who is not in- terested financially or otherwise in the organization. AUDITING CIRCLES. In the grain and dairying sections there are great numbers of cooperative elevators and cooperative creameries within a radius of a few miles. If each of these organizations were to employ an expert accountant to audit the books the cost would probably be excessive. Small associations or circles could be formed, however, by the cooperative organizations within a certain radius, who could enter into a contract with a competent auditor to do the auditing for all of the organizations. Such an arrangement would bring the services of an expert auditor to the organizations at a comparatively small cost. CONCLUSION. It is not unusual to read in a report concerning the failure or sus- pension of a business concern, that not until experts have been at work upon the accounting records for several days or weeks can the exact condition of the assets and liabilities be ascertained, or the amount of loss be discovered. The frequency with which this state- ment is made naturally suggests a connection between accounting and success. This connection will be found, on examination, to be existent in a large proportion of all business dite es. The accounting problems connected with the cooperative organiza- tions in the United States generally do not receive the attention they deserve. The accounting system of any organization has a far- reaching effect upon the success or failure of the enterprise and upon the rights of the members interested therein. It is therefore neces- sary for the greatest success that the accounting system of any busi- ness enterprise be based upon the proper fundamental principles and conducted with the maximum degree of efficiency. SUMMARY. 1. For the successful conduct of a cooperative business enterprise a complete business system is essential. Accounting records form a most important part of any business system. 2. A business system may be defined as a prearranged plan of operation governed by the general laws of business practice. COOPERATIVE ORGANIZATION BUSINESS METHODS, a 3. Bookkeeping may be defined as the systematic and srenvenes recording of financial transactions. . | 4. The double-entry method is the best for keeping any set of books, as it allows an equalization of debits and credits which affords a complete check on all entries. 5. The great number of books now used in recording financial transactions are forms of the journal and ledger, and the principles of double entry should apply to all books used for the recording of financial transactions. 6. It is of the utmost importance that a trial balance be taken each month. The trial balance is the best method of proving the mathe- —. accuracy of the books. A convenient method of preserving the fia balance for future eee is that of using a trial-balance book. 8. Essential requirements for a system of accounting records for a cooperative marketing organization are— (a) A complete set of financial records showing the business trans- actions and the results thereof. (6) A record of each member’s transactions with the organization. (ce) Capability of taking care of a maximum amount of business during the shipping season. (d) Capability of returning to the members the proceeds from their products within a reasonable time. (e) Clear pooling records when kept, so that any discrimination can be shown quickly. — (f) Auxiliary records which will give statistics and valuable in- formation for the conduct of the business. These records must be accurate. 9. No two cooperative organizations are exactly alike. It is neces- sary, therefore, that a system of accounts, to be most successful, be devised to fit the business for which it is intended. 10. Care should be exercised in devising columnar forms, in order that columns which will be used rarely are not added, making the forms cumbersome. All statements showing returns or ledger ac- counts to growers should be so headed and constructed that they may be perfectly plain and intelligible at first glance. There are numerous labor-saving devices for reducing the cost of accounting which may be used. to great advantage by cooperative organizations. 12. Every cooperative organization should have an accountant who is thoroughly familiar with the business, in order that he may con- duct the office e properly. 13. Minutes in proper form of all stockholders’ or members’ and directors’ meetings should be kept. 22° BULLETIN 178, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 14. Notice of meetings should be regulated by the by-laws. Notice by publication and through the mail are the most common and best metheds. 15. By-laws should contain measures of safety to regulate the handling of all organization funds. 16. Surety bond should be had for all employees handling funds. 17. A good system of filing for correspondence is essential for every office. 18. Proper filing of accounting records is necessary, i order that instant reference may be afforded and that valuable information regarding claims, accounts receivable, etc., may not be lost. 19. A regular system for safeguarding the cash should be adopted by all officers, and adhered to strictly. (a) All entries of cash should be explicit, and items supporting such entries should be filed so that they are accessible for reference and verification. _ (b) No entries should be recorded in the cashbeok which do not relate to cash. (c) The full receipts of each day should be deposited in the bank. (7) All canceled checks should be filed in numerical order. (e) Duplicate checks should always be covered by indemnity bonds. (7) Reconciliation should be made each month between cash or check register and bank pass-book balances. (7) Permanent record of these reconciliations should be made. (h) Checks, sales slips, receipts, etc., should be numbered with a numbering machine. Any which are spoiled should be marked void and left in the book. (4) A regular system should be used for the acknowledgment of all cash sales, or miscellaneous cash items received. 20. All petty cash payments should be made on the Imprest System. 21. A good plan for handling expense items 1s to carry a general expense account, making a segregation in a columnar book. 99. The wear and tear on an asset is a cost of doing business, and the true condition of a business is not shown accurately upon the books unless provision is made for depreciation in the value of the assets. The extent of depreciation should be estimated as closely as possible, and an amount to cover credited to a reserve for deprecia- tion account at the end of the year. This allows for the replacement of the assets. 23. Cooperative organizations should make arrangements to set aside specific amounts, or a percentage of profits, fer the increase of working capital. 24, Annual statements should be prepared in such form as to be readily comprehensible to all members. These statements should be ‘COOPERATIVE ORGANIZATION BUSINESS METHODS. am in such detail that all expenditures are itemized properly and profits shown in such a way that it is easy to determine just where they originated. 25. No one thing connected with the business of any cooperative body is more important than the proper auditing of accounts. Both an internal and external audit should be made at regular and fre- quent intervals. The internal audit is generally conducted by a committee of the members. The external audit should be made by an expert accountant and should be complete. 26. Auditing circles can be formed to great advantage when there are several cooperative organizations in the same territory. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (Dates not given owing to frequency of revisions.) ALPMATER. CARL LEWIS. Commercial correspondence and postal information. New York, Macmillan Co. AMERICAN TECHNICAL SocrzTy. Cyclopedia of commerce, accountancy, business administration. In 10 volumes, Chicago, American Technical Society. Banks, ELEANoRA. Putnam’s Correspondence handbook. New York, Putnam Sons. BENTLEY, Harry C. The Science of accounts. New York, Ronald Press. BenTLtey, Harry C. Corporate finance and accounting. New York, Ronald Press. - CARNEY, W. A. New Secretary’s manual. Los Angeles, W. A. Carney. Coie, WILLIAM Morsr. Accounts; their construction and interpretation. Bos- ton, Houghton Mifflin. CoNyNeTON, THOMAS. ‘he Modern corporation. New York, Ronald Press. ConyNeton, THomAs. A Manual of corporate management. New York, Ronald Press. CORPORATION SeERvice Company. The Corporation secretary; Sections 1-2. Boston. DickKsEE, LAWRENCE R. Bookkeeping. (Hneyclopedia of Accounting. Volume 1.) New York, Ronald Press. DICKSEE, LAWRENCE R. Auditing. American Edition. New York, Ronald Press. ™ GANo, D. Curtis. Commercial law. New York, American Book Co. Goopwin, J. H. Improved bookkeeping and business manual. New York, J. H. Coodwin. HAtrrieLp, Henry Ranp. Modern accounting. New York, Appleton Co. Krister, D. A. Corporation accounting and auditing, Cleveland, Burrows Co. Lyons, J. A. Commercial law. Chicago, Lyons and Carnahan. Matrueson, Ewina. The Depreciation of factories, mines, and industrial un- dertakings and their valuation. New York, Spon and Chamberlain, taAnminn, J. J. Corporation accounting and corporation law. Fresno, Gal., J. J, Rahill. toner’, Henry Martyn. Mules of order for deliberative assemblies. Chicago, Scott, Foresman Co. Sonvuize, J. WitttAm. The American office. Its organization, management, and records. New York, Key Publishing Co. Tir¥ANY, H. 8. Digest of deprecilations. Chicago, H. 8S. Tiffany Co, 24 BULLETIN 178, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Trpson, FREDERICK 8. The Theory of accounts. New York, Mendoza Book Co. Van CLEVE, CHARLES M. Principles of double-entry bookkeeping. New York, Kempster Printing Co. peer WALTON, SEYyMouR. Auditing and cost accounts. Part 1: Auditing, by Sey- mour Walton. Part 2: Cost accounts, by Stephen W. Gilman. (Modern Business. Canadian Edition. Volume 11.) New York, Alexander Hamilton Institute. ; WILDMAN, JouwNn RAymMonvD. The Principles of accounting. New York, Hewitt Press. : Woop, ALrreD. The Cooperative secretary. Manchester, England, The Co- operative Union, Limited. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 179 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 2, 1915 NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES OF PRUNUS By W. F. WIGHT, Botanist CONTENTS ; Page Page SPS tare aaa 1 | Horticultara] History and Develop- EMM a Yates) oe! ia) o | Iss" 0) 16! 1 PMERE Hye ie, : cola ih) e.ljnoipatiuioWls whee mie 6 Variation and Adaptability ‘s 2 | Systematic Botany ...... . 17 Early History of American Plume. . 2 | Literature Cited . . . ..... 73 Early Botanical Descriptions . .. . 5 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1915 wife ¢ #1 hy Wy May BUTT) ot Aaah a AR APY capica tl iN BULLETIN OF THE USDEPARTMENT OPAGRICULTURE No. 179 \ —N WW > Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. April 2, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) — NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES OF PRUNUS.' By W. F. Wicut, Botanist, Horticultural and Pomological Investigations. INTRODUCTION. The present study embraces only those species of the genus Prunus which haye an umbellate or corymbose inflorescence and which pro- duce plumlike or cherrylike fruit, these being the ones principally of interest, either from the standpoint of their fruit production or their utilization as stocks in the propagation of other species. Indeed, the American species belonging to the subgenera Padus, Laurocerasus, and Emplectocladus seem sufficiently distinct to warrant the recog- nition of these groups as genera. If connecting species exist, they are to be found among the Asiatic representatives of the genus, and no satisfactory conclusions can be reached regarding generic limita- tions without a careful study of the species in the Old World. DISTRIBUTION. The genus Prunus is widely distributed in America, being repre- sented in some portion of every State by one or more species. One species is found in northeastern Mexico, and one or more occur in nearly all of the southern provinces of Canada. Eight species are found within the limits of Texas, and it is probable that the greatest abundance of individuals is in the region comprising Missouri, eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, western, Arkansas, northwestern Loui- siana, and eastern and northern Texas. The species naturally grow mainly in open situations, some of them scarcely at all with other woody plants, and rarely under forest conditions. In some sections of the country the clearing of the forests and the use of such areas 1 This manuscript was prepared in 1911 while the writer was associated with the Office of Taxonomic and Range Investigations. Nore.—This bulletin is intended for horticulturists in all parts of the United States, especially those who are studying varieties or doing work in plant breeding. 742A6°—Bull. 179—15——1 1 2 BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for pasture have afforded favorable conditions for a considerable increase in the number of individuals. In other localities the abandonment of cultivated fields has afforded very similar oppor- tunities, with a like result. In still other regions, areas are being placed under cultivation, and by this or other means the number of individuals is being decreased. The horticultural literature of the Northwest contains so many references to the destruction of plum thickets that it is probable that m that region at least the genus is less abundant than when settlement began. The actual number of species may also soon be lessened, since a few of them are extremely local, and at least one of the latter, Prunus alleghaniensis, is known recently to have disappeared in some of the localities where it for- merly existed. VARIATION AND ADAPTABILITY. There is great variation within the species in the size and quality of the fruit and apparently in the productiveness of individual trees. Any systematic attempt to improve the native plums should begin with a study of the species in the field in at least a portion of the range of each. In this way forms may be secured which so far surpass the usual quality of the species that they could otherwise be obtained only after many years of selection in the orchard. Several of the American species bear fruit that is distinctive im character and that possesses qualities of value. Their hardiness and adapta- bility to the regions in which they are native render some of them indispensable if those regions in which the Old World species are not successfully grown are to be supphed with home-grown fruit. Some of these may eventually be so improved that they will even find a place in localities where they will compete for dessert purposes with varieties originating from Old World species. EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICAN PLUMS. The history of American plums, so far as Europeans are concerned, probably begins with the visit of John de Verrazano, a Florentine voyager, who sailed from the vicinity of Madeira on January 17, 1524, under orders from the French king, FrancisI. He reached America at about latitude 34° north, and proceeded northward along the coast to latitude 50°, when he departed for France. The explorer’s account of his voyage is dated at Dieppe, July 8, 1524, and in his enumeration of American products observed at about 41° north, or the latitude of southern New York, he states (29, p. 362):1 “‘We found Pomi appii, damson trees, and nut trees.” The voyagers apparently nowhere went far inland, and the ‘‘damson trees” were with little doubt Prunus maritima, since this is the only species in 1 Reference is made by number to “ Literature cited,”’ p. 73. NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES OF PRUNUS. 8 that region having foliage at all comparable with that of the damson plum. The fruit could not have been much more than formed at the time and, in fact, no mention is made of it. A few years later, in 1534, Jacques Cartier (43, p. 17; 68, p. 31) observed some time during the month of July what was probably the fruit of Prunus nigra. ‘‘They have also plums, which they dry as we do for the winter; they call them Honesta.” The fruit even of this species must have been brought some distance, for it is not known to occur far below the vicinity of Montreal, and no other in that region has fruit large enough to be dried in the manner described. On his second voyage (43, p. 35), plums were again observed by Car- tier in the vicinity of an island which the explorers named Isle de Bacchus, and which is now known as the Isle of Orleans. ; The account of Roberval’s voyage (29, p. 294) in 1542 also mentions plums, as follows: And in all these Countreys there are okes, and bortz, ashes, elmes, arables, trees oi life, pines, prussetrees, ceders, great wall nut trees, and wilde nuts, hasel-trees, wilde peare trees, wilde grapes, and there have bene found redde plummes. Another explorer, De Soto (16, p. 43, 61), landed in Florida on May 30, 1539, and the narrator relates that on October 27 they came to Anaica Apalache, which was probably not far from the present site of Tallahassee, Fla., and says: . There were other towns, where was great store of maiz, pompions, french beanes, and plummes of the countrie, which are better than those of Spaine, and they grow in the fields without planting. * * * There met him on the way [to Canasagua] twenty Indians, every one loaden with a basket ful of mulberries: for there be many, and those very good, from Cutifa-Chiqui thither, and so forward in other provinces, and also nuts and plummes. And the trees grow in the fields without planting or dressing them, and are as big and as rancke as though they grew in gardens digged and watered. The first-mentioned trees, those seen in the autumn of 1539, may have been Prunus americana, since that species occurs in the locality specified, and in that section is the latest one to ripen its fruit. The second reference is perhaps to P. angustifolia, as the fruit ripens at the time mentioned, which was about the first of June, 1540. At Coga, or Coosa, about July 26, 1540, the author writes (16, p. 68): There were in the fields many plum trees, as well as of such as grow in Spaine, as of the countrie * * *, Cutifa-Chiqua appears to have been on the Savannah River below Augusta, Canasagua on the northern boundary of Georgia, and Coosa is supposed to be the locality now represented by Old Coosa on the Coosa River, in Georgia. Plums are again mentioned as having been observed, probably in June, 1541, at the Indian town ‘‘Casqui” (16, p. 94). This locality was west of the Mississippi, but commentators differ as to its location. 4 " BULLETIN 179, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Monette (56, p. 48) places it on the White River, about 150 miles above its junction with the Mississippi, McCulloh (48, p. 526), on the Red River beyond the ‘‘Wachita.”’ It was evidently the custom of the Indians of the Southwest to dry fruit for use at other times than when it could be gathered fresh from the tree, for De Soto’s narrator says (16, p. 119): For when they came downe from Nicola, they saw on the other side of the river new cabins made. John Danusco went and brought the canoes loden with maiz, French beanes, prunes, and many loaves made of the substance of prunes. This is supposed to relate to a locality on the Mississippi not far from the mouth of the Arkansas, and to have been in the latter part of April, 1542. Plums are mentioned by Réné Laudonniere (29, p. 369) in ‘‘The Description of Florida,” 1565; by William Strachey in Virginia, writing about 1610; by Francis Higginson, in ‘‘ New England’s Plan- tation,’ 1630; by William Wood, in ‘‘New England’s Prospect,” 1635; and by a number of others (5, p. 170-173). A little less than a century after the above-named authors gave their accounts, John Lawson (41) gave a much better description of native fruits, as follows: | The wild Plums of America are of several sorts. Those which I can give account of from my own knowledge, I will, and leave the others till a farther discovery. The most frequent is that which we call the common Indian Plum, of which there are two sorts, ifnot more. One of them is ripe much sooner than the other, and differs in the bark; one of the barks being very scaly, like our American Birch. These trees, when in blossom, smell as sweet as any jessamine, and look as white as a sheet, being some- thing prickly. You may make it grow to what shape you please; they are very orna- mental about a house, and make a wonderful fine shew at a distance, in the spring, because of their white livery. Their fruit is red, and very palatable to the sick. They are of a quick growth, and will bear from the stone in five years, on their stock. The English, large black plum thrives well, as does the cherry being grafted thereon. The American damsons are both black and white and about the bigness of an European damson. They grow anywhere if planted from the stone or slip; bear a white blossom, and are a good fruit. * * * Ihave planted several in my orchard, that came from the stone, which thrive well amongst the rest of my trees, but they never grow to the bigness of the other trees now spoken of. These are plentiful bearers. There is a third sort of plum about the bigness of the damsons. The tree is taller, seldom exceeding ten inches in thickness. The plum seems to taste physically, yet I never found any operation it had, except to make their lips sore, that eat them. The wood is sometimes porous, but exceeds any box, for a beautiful yellow. The native plums were observed by John Bartram (7, p. 19) on his journey from Pennsylvania to central New York in 1751. Our way from hence lay through an old Indian field of excellent soil where there had been a town, the principal footsteps of which are peach trees, plumbs, and excellent grapes. Plums were not infrequently found by early voyagers about Indian villages, and in some instances they may have been planted NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES OF PRUNUS. 5 and rudely cared for. The manuscript account by Conover (31, p. 58) of Sullivan’s expedition indicates that when the village of Kanadasaga was destroyed, orchards of apples and plums were found crudely cultivated. Wiliam Bartram (8, p. 38) also refers to the cultivation of plums, although in a less convincing manner, as follows: I observed, in the ancient cultivated fields, 1. diospyros, 2. gleditsia triacanthos, 3. prunus chicasaw, 4. callicarpa, 5. morus rubra, 6. juglans exaltata, 7. juglans nigra, which inform us, that these trees were cultivated by the ancients, on account of their fruit, as being wholesome and nourishing food. These observations seem to have been made in. the vicinity of Wrightsboro, eastern Georgia. Again, in northwestern South Carolina, not far from Keowee (8, p. 331), “appeared the remains of a town of the ancients, as the tumuli, terraces, posts or pillars, old Peach and Plumb orchards, &c., sufficiently testify.” At the ancient town of Sticoe (8, p. 343), Bartram again says, “here were also old peach and plum orchards; some of the trees appeared yet thriving and fruitful.” Tn all these instances in which plums are mentioned as being found in orchards, they were either with trees introduced by Europeans or were near settlements of Europeans. Earlier authors appear to have found groves of plums about Indian villages, but say nothing to indicate that the trees or seeds were intentionally planted or cared for, and perhaps this was not done until the coming of the white man. The Indian villages may have been established in proxim- ity to plum groves, or these may have sprung from seed thrown away after the fruit had been brought for use from other localities. EARLY BOTANICAL DESCRIPTIONS. The first species to receive a botanical description was probably Prunus americana, for it is apparently this species which Plukenet (61, p. 306) describes as ‘Prunus sylvestris Virginiana fructu luteo rubente rotundo, ossiculo lato & compresso,’”’ and which he figures in his Phytographia, tome 216, as figure 7. The leaves are figured with acute serrations and are about the form of those of Prunus americana, while the description of the fruit and stone also accords well enough with this species. In 1739, a little more than 40 years afterwards, two species were included in Clayton’s Flora Virginica (28, p. 54), ‘Prunus sylvestris humilior, fructu rubro praecociori & minori, radice reptatrice,”’ and “Prunus sylvestris, fructu majore rubente.” Although Linneus is credited with the authorship of Clayton’s Flora, these species are not included in the Species Plantarum. It is difficult to say whether Clayton’s descriptions really represent more than one species or, 6 BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE. if only one, whether it is Prunus angustifolia or P.americana. Thomas Jefferson (34, p. 63) identified “Prunus sylvestris fructu majori” as the ‘‘Cherokee plumb,” and “Prunus sylvestris fructu minori” as the “Wild plumb” (Prunus americana). The next species to receive attention by a botanist was Prunus pumila, which had been introduced into the gardens of France and was described by Duhamel (19, p. 149) about 1755, as follows: Cerasus pumila, Canadensis oblongo angusto folio, fructu parvo, Cerisier nain a feuilles de Saule. Ragouminer, ou Nega, ou Minel de Canada. Prunus pumila was the first to be given a binomial name, which distinction it received in 1767. Humphrey Marshall (51, p. 110-114), who was the first author to treat any considerable number of species, described the following: Prunus americana, ‘‘Large yellow sweet plumb”; P. angustifolia, “Chicasaw plumb”; P. mississippi, ‘Crimson plumb”; P. maritima, ‘‘Seaside plumb”; P. declinata, ‘‘Dwarf plumb”; and ‘‘Prunus-Cerasus montana, Mountain Bird-Cherry- frees One of Marshall’s species, P. mississippi, is not identifiable; the descriptions of the others are characteristic, however, and they are still recognized as distinct species, although some of them had been earlier described. A few of the species now known were unrecog- nized until recently, and perhaps others yet remain to be distin- guished. HORTICULTURAL HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. Turning now to the recognition and development of native plums by pomologists, it is found that they were at first slow to recog- nize the value and distinctness of the American species, although in later years they have been almost the only ones who have studied the genus critically. The earliest works devoted to fruits and fruit growing in America do not appear to make any reference to the native species, the first accessible reference being by Bernard M’Mahon (50, p. 588), who, in 1806, at the end of a list of plum varieties lists ‘‘Chicasaw, Prunus chicasa,” but gives no description or note concerning the species. Another author, William Coxe (15, p. 232), writing in 1817, says that plums are— Natives of the United States, in many parts of which they are found in great abun- dance, in numerous varieties of Colour, form and size, many of them in good flavour. According to the same author, who lists 18 varieties, those cultivated in the gardens were either brought from Europe or produced from the stones of imported plums. A few years later James Thacher (70, p. 223) says: Ttisa fortunate circumstance that there are, according to Mr. Prince, of Long-Island, some kinds of plum not subject to the attack of the insect [the curculio] which are the NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES OF PRUNUS. 7 following: Chicasaw, Early Coral, Golden Drop, The Cherry plum, Flushing Gage, Yellow Egg plum, Balmer’s Washington * * *, The “Chicasaw”’ is the only one of these varieties that can be rec- ognized as a native, and Thacher is perhaps the second author to refer in an American horticultural work: specifically to a native, although the name ‘‘Chicasaw” may have appeared before in one of William Frince’s catalogues, as well as in M’Mahon’s work. Prince (63, p. 22), in 1828, mentions but does not describe the ‘‘ Yellow and Red Chicasaw,” and ‘“‘ American Red and Yellow,” these being pre- sumably Prunus angustifolia and P. americana. Three years later the same author (64, p. 104, 108) described “‘ Red Chicasaw Pr. Cat. Prunus chicasaw Mich.” as follows: This fruit is nearly round and of good size; the skin is of a fine cherry colour; the flesh yellowish, soit and melting when at full maturity, with a pleasant and peculiar flavor. This plum ripens from the 20th to the end of July. The tree is naturally low set and bushy, being inclined to spread its branches but a short distance from the ground. It also throws out short spurs, with leaves on them, each of which is termi- nated by a sharp-pointed thorn. Numerous suckers spring up from the root and serve as a-means of propagation; but the trees which are inoculated on other stocks attain the handsomest form and make far the best appearance, and they have also the advan- tage of not generating suckers to the same extent. There is another variety which produces yellow fruit, but it differs only in respect to colour. Prince also describes the Beach plum, and says: The fruit is globular, often an inch in diameter, of a purple colour, with a glaucous bloom; it is pleasant for eating, and in flavour similar to the common plum. This may seem rather extravagant praise of the Beach plum, yet there can be no doubt of the species, for he says: Its natural location is near the salt water, along the coast and onislands. The fruit ripens in August and September. Gen. Dearborn, the enlightened and distinguished president of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, has himself discovered several varieties of it growing in a wild state, two of which are purple, but vary in respect to size, and a third of a shining crimson colour; and it is to his liberality that I am in- debted for the trees in my collection. Prince does not describe Prunus americana in his Pomological Manual. A native species is mentioned again in 1833 by William Kenrick (37, p. 256), a nurseryman at Newton, Mass., who includes presuma- bly Prunus miyra under the name “Canada Plum.” Kenrick says: The tree is of medium vigor, diffuse in its growth; fruit small, oval, fiery red; flesh coarse grained and sour; juice abundant and aromatic. It is supposed to possess me- dicinal qualities. This species is omitted by Kenrick in the edition of his work pub- lished in 1835, but it is referred to briefly by Fessenden (24, p. 246), who says: A wild kind, found in the woods of Vermont, grows large and fair, but its fruit con- tains little saccharine matter. No doubt it might be improved by culture, and may furnish stocks for grafting. 8 BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Kenrick again refers to a native in 1841 (38, p. 230), when he describes the ‘‘Dwarf Texas Plum” as follows: A low, dwarfish tree or shrub, rising 2 or 3 feet or more; the blossoms white, profuse, of a beautiful appearance, and in early spring resembling snow; the fruit of different colors, according to the variety, some being yellow, some red, and some purple; the flesh of delicious flavor; the produce most abundant. This new tree, or shrub, was lately introduced to our country from a small district in the colder part of Texas, and the upper Colorado, by my friend John B. Russell, Esq., of Cincinnati, Ohio. He is persuaded it must prove hardy. This description suggests very strongly Prunus angustifolia watsoni, but possibly might also refer to P. reverchonir. It is almost certainly one or the other of these two. If it is really the sand plum, it is a little curious that it should apparently not again come to the atten- tion of horticulturists until about 1890. It was, however, grown in gardens to some extent in Kansas and probably also in Nebraska, as early as 1880, or perhaps even earlier. Thomas Bridgeman (11, p. 339) in 1840 and Michael Floyd (42, p- 303) in 1846 also mention native species and discuss them briefly, and an early edition of Thomas’s American Fruit Culturist includes the ‘‘Red Chicasaw (Prunus chicasa)”’ (71, p. 347-348), which the author describes and says is “a native of the western states.” Thomas is evidently more familiar with P. americana, concerning which he says: There are many wild varieties of this species, the fruit varying from roundish to oval, and presenting various shades of color, mostly ight red. Some have a pleasant, rich, sweet or subacid pulp. ‘Tree 10 to 15 feet high, leaves ovate, coarsely serrate, branches somewhat thorny. Ripens latter part of summer. The quality of the fruit is improved by cultivation. It is sometimes used as stocks for the plum and apricot. Thomas also describes the beach plum rather briefly and mentions these natives in some of the later editions of his work, but in that of 1867 all reference to them is omitted. Native plums were dis- cussed by Elliott in 1854 (21, p. 402), who said Prunus americana was much used by nurserymen as a stock, seedlings of it often answering to work the same season. Elliott also throws some light on the attention that had been given at that time to the development of new varieties in general, in the following statement: New varieties have thus far been produced from chance seedlings; no persons, to our knowledge, in this country, having exerted themselves to the production of varieties with any special view to the preservation of separate or combined characters. Elliott lists the beach plum among his varieties, but says it should be discarded. ‘This author in a later work (23, p. 95) discusses the native varieties a little more fully, and what he says concerning them indicates a more thorough knowledge of their merits and adaptability than is shown by almost any other author of a pomological work up to that time. Elliott’s book is also one of the earliest general works to give a list of the native varieties known. The author says: NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES OF PRUNUS. 9 There are besides the cultivated varieties, known botanically as Prunus domestica, many others, native of our own country. They are known under various botanical terms, Prunus Chicasa, Prunus Americana, Prunus Maratima [maritima], and in general terms called Chicasaw, to the latter of which belong the varieties called Wild Goose, Newman, Mountain Plum, Indian Chief, one of the Chicasa family. The North and the South can depend for hardiness only upon what we call native varieties. Vermont can do little with our cultivated varieties, except in certain localities, and so with all the extreme North; while the records from South Carolina, Georgia, Ten- nessee, etc.. give place only to our native wild varieties. Ohio and westward had originally many varieties of wild Plums, from round to oval, color from dark purple to red and yellow, time of maturity from September to midwinter, if the latter were not gathered. The trade in these native wild plums was at one time a large source of profit, but the clearing up of the country has destroyed them as it has blackberries. Writing a little earlier than the publication of this later work of Elliott, D. W. Beadle (10, p. 118) evidently considers that there are possibilities in the species native to Canada, for he says: Wild Plums are found growing in all parts of the Dominion, and may by judicious cross-fertilization become the foundation of a very hardy and valuable race of Plums. Returning to an earlier work, one might expect in so compre- hensive a publication as ‘‘The Fruits and Fruit Trees of America,’ by A. J. Downing (18, p. 263), to find the native species treated more fully than by most other authors. The whole discussion, however, is given in a footnote, in which the author says: There are three species of wild plum indigenous to this country of tolerable flavor, but seldom cultivated in our gardens. This is followed by descriptions of the three species Prunus chicasa [angustifolia], P. americana, and P. marituma. Downing refers the “Dwarf Texas Plum” of Kenrick to P. angustifoha. The edition of this work issued in 1890 still contains the statement originally made concerning the native species. Barry (6, p. 120-121), in 1852, treats of the American species in the following brief manner: The Canada or Wild Plum, which abounds in Ohio, Michigan, and other Western States, are distinct species, and reproduce themselves from seed. The seedlings of some grow extremely rapid, making fine stocks in one year on any good soil, * * * and we have no doubt some native species, as for instance the Beach and Chicasaw plums, small trees, will make good dwarf stocks. I am inclined to think, however, that very nice garden trees may be raised on the smaller species of the Canada plum. The first year’s growth and even the second are quite vigorous on them, but after that the vigor diminishes, and the trees become quite prolific. This and the cherry plum will probably become our principal stocks for dwarfing. Perhaps the earliest pomological work in which varieties originating from native species are described is that of 8. W. Peek (60, p. 186), published in 1885. The author of this work was the proprietor of the Hartwell Nurseries, at Hartwell, Ga., and doubtless his southern location accounts for his interest in these varieties, which are, with two exceptions, of southern origin. The varieties described are the 10 BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bassett, Cumberland, Marianna, Miner, Newman, Weaver, and Wild Goose. Only a few years later Eliphas Cope (14, p. 8) published at New Lisbon, now simply Lisbon, in eastern Ohio, a pamphlet of 45 pages devoted entirely to plums, but here again the native varieties are dismissed with a single paragraph: The native plums should not be planted but sparingly, only when they have been tried and given satisfaction. North of 40° latitude we question if they will give sat- isfaction or remuneration forlabor. The author of this statement must have been quite unfamiliar with the development and utilization of the native species taking place at that time in the States of Ilnois, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, where they were rapidly becoming of great importance. The brief discussions of the native species by the authors quoted above show that after two centuries of occupation by Europeans the native species held a relatively very unimportant place in American pomology. In 1850, a few years earlier and later, respectively, — than the publications of Barry and Downing, the center of population in the United States was near Parkersburg, W. Va. The people of the Southern States were little engaged in fruit raising, and the industry was therefore mainly confined to the States east of the Great Lakes and north of the Ohio and Potomac Rivers, a region in the greater part of which the varieties of domestica and insititia origin are grown with success. As the population of the country increased and spread westward beyond the region in which European varieties of plums were successfully grown, attention began to be directed more and more toward the utilization of native species, and this interest was accelerated by reason of the ravages of the curculio and the belief of many people that native plums were less affected by the insect. The first efforts at plum culture, however, even in the States of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa were mainly with those varieties of the Old World species that had been known in the Eastern States. Failing with these, the attention of fruit growers was of necessity turned to the native varieties, and a few were quite optimistic as to the outcome. Among these was J. S. Stickney (69), of Wauwatosa, Wis., who, in an address before the Iowa Horticultural Society in 1877, said: I am dreaming that among these [native plums] there is something valuable; their endurance, productiveness, and perfect hardiness should and must be made useful to us, and we have no right to rest or flag in our efforts until we have an orchard of native plums that shall command in market two to four dollars per bushel, and yield crops as abundant and frequent as the wild ones in our thickets now do. About the pos- sibility of this there is very little doubt * * *. A little later D. B. Wier, a prominent horticulturist at Lacon, IIl., grew all the native varieties he could secure, while in Iowa, J. L. Budd, Capt. Watrous, and others very early recognized the value of NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES OF PRUNUS. 11 the native plums and contributed in a marked degree to their intro- duction and development. At this time, however, the native species were poorly understood, some of them were undescribed, and informa- tion concerning their hardiness and adaptability to certain regions could be had only by growing them. Although the need of some scientific basis for the classification of varieties was recognized, it was not until 1892 that anything of the kind was seriously attempted, and perhaps no other single event so stimulated and influenced the culture of the varieties of the native species as the publication by L. H. Bailey (2) of ‘‘ The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries,’”’ which was the first real scientific work on these fruits to appear in many years. Horticulturists in other agricultural experiment stations, following the passage of the Hatch Act, also became active in testing and to some extent in breeding varieties, so that in the years from 1888 to 1900 there appeared more than 70 bulletins devoted wholly or in part to this subject. Haying followed the development and utilization of the native species throughout the greater part of the last century, as shown in the general works on the culture of fruit in America, it is of interest to turn to the development of horticultural varieties from these species. The history of this development is to be found mainly in the proceedings of horticultural societies, in horticultural and agri- cultural journals and papers, and sometimes even in nursery cata- logues. Many able and enthusiastic horticulturists have been con- cerned in this development, and among those who took a prominent part in this important work in Minnesota were O. M. Lord, J.S. Harris, H. Knudson, Peter Gideon, Martin Penning, Charles Luedloff, and C. W. H. Heideman. In Iowa, H. A. Terry began to grow the native plums more than 40 years ago, and he has originated more varieties than any other individual. Edson Gaylord and, more recently, N. K. Fluke have been prominent in the introduction of varieties, while C. G. Patten has originated a few and tested many more. Theodore Williams was for many years active in Nebraska, and N. E. Hansen is at the present time doig an important work in South Dakota. While this work in amelioration was going on in the West, J. W. Kerr, on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, had been making a specialty of native plums since 1872, and had found among them the most profitable varieties he could grow. Farther south, J. S. Breece, of North Carolina, within the last few years has introduced a number of varieties, these being mainly hybrids with the Japanese plums. Horticulturists in Texas also early began to turn their attention to the native species, and Gilbert Onderdonk, T. V. Munson, and A. M. Ramsey have each introduced a number of varieties, while 12 BULLETIN 179, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. more recently F'. T. Ramsey, A. L. Bruce, and D. H. Watson have originated a number. Many other growers have cultivated and originated new varieties, but the names here mentioned will serve to indicate where the great- est activity has been and what influences have aided this develop- ment. The contribution that each of these men has made toward the utilization of the native species is not, however, to be measured merely by the number of varieties that have been introduced, for an equal or sometimes greater service has been rendered by growing the untried varieties and freely making known the results of this experience before horticultural societies and elsewhere. It would probably be very difficult to tell when the first recog- nized horticultural variety of native origin received a name, but excluding such terms as “Red and Yellow Chickasaw,” “Red and Yellow American,” and “Beach Plum,” which are group names and can scarcely be considered as horticultural varieties in the same sense as the Weaver, De Soto, Miner, and Wild Goose, the first variety to receive this distinction was apparently the Miner. This variety was first known by other names, and the use of the name Miner may have been no earlier than the application of other names to other varieties of about the same period. ‘This event is of so much importance in the development of American plum varieties that it deserves as complete a history as may be given, and of the several accounts, differing in details and even sometimes in essential facts, the following one by Mr. Giddings (26, p. 332) is generally credited as being authentic: The Miner plum.—t have been kindly asked by a number of members of this society to write the history of the Miner plum. There is no fruit that has been talked of more of late at the West and of which so little is really known as the Miner or Hinck- ley plum. Its origin having become a mooted question, I will endeavor to give you a true history. I know that Charles Downing gave credit to Mr. Miner for originating it; but let us give credit to whom credit is due. This plum has been traced into Mr. Hinckley’s hands several times by different parties, but no further. It is thought he bought it of a tree peddler, and perhaps he did, but I am now inclined to think he didnot. At any rate, if Mr. Hinckley bought it of a peddler, he was not the first man who brought it to Galena. Though not known to have been cultivated in any nursery, it is now known to have been disseminated by sprouts among the farmers for more than 50 years in the State of Illinois; and Mr. Hinckley’s peddler could easily have picked it up at some farmer’s house. We here give the true history: In 1813 one Wm. Dodd, then an officer under Gen. Jackson, found this plum growing among the Chickasaw Indians at the horseshoe bend on the Talaposa creek. His attention was called to it by the beauty, size, and excellence of quality of the fruit. In the year 1814 he brought the seeds of this plum with other valuable fruits collected by a friendly Chickasaw Indian chief to Knox county, Tenn. Here he planted his seed and raised the first trees. In Knox county, Tenn., they went by the names of ‘Old Hickory” and Gen. Jackson. About the year 1823 or 1824 Wm. Dodd moved to Illinois and settled near Springfield. He brought with him some sprouts ‘NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES OF PRUNUS. 13 of “Old Hickory” plums. He planted these in some newly broken sod, and they did not do so well. Having left a brother in Knox county, Tenn., to come to Illinois the next spring, he wrote to him to bring more sprouts of the noted ‘‘Old Hickory.’’ His brother left Tennessee the spring of 1824-5, and instead of going to Sangamon county he went to Galena, taking with him a bundle of the plum sprouts intended for his brother. Finding himself so far from his brother, the sprouts were given away or sold, and for aught I know Mr. Hinckley may have received some or all of them. Anyhow it can be abundantly proved this is how this now noted plum first came to Galena. Some of Wm. Dodd’s trees in Sanganion county finally got to growing, fruiting, and sprouting, and they were distributed to some extent among his neighbors, but not, so far as known, among nurserymen. In Sangamon county the plum was called “Wm. Dodd” and ‘‘Chickasaw Chief.’’ Some time after moving to Illinois Mr. Dodd, hearing of some very fine plums near Galena, sent for some cions, and behold he got the identical Wm. Dodd plum. Upon putting this and that together, of course Mr. Dodd felt satisfied that the famous plums at Galena had sprung from the sprouts taken there by his brother in 1824 or 1825. In those early days no one disputed the fact that Mr. Dodd really brought this plum from Tennessee. If any more special proofs are wanted for the facts (for facts they are) we have given, it can be gained by applying to Wm. Dodd’s grandson, living at Flint, Mahaska county, Iowa, or his mother’s sister—now over 70 years of age—near Springfield, Ill. Another account by H. H. McAfee (44, 45, 46), a resident of Free- port, Ill., and later of the University Farm, Madison, Wis., differs somewhat from that given by Mr. Giddings. Mr. McAfee says the plum was known under various names, “Miner, Townsend, Isbell, Peach, Chickasaw, etc.,’’ and relates its history as follows: In 1832,a man named Knight brought from southern Ohio, by boat to Galena, a stock of small trees, which he disposed of to the late Major Hinckley and others. The trees planted by Major Hinckley are still in full vigor, and bearing, and may be seen at his old place nearGalena. The year following the first importation, Knight brought a second lot of trees, and planted most of them on Mr. George Townsend’s farm, in the eastern part of Joe Daviesscounty. From these stocks the most if not allof the trees disseminated under the various names mentioned above have sprung; and as Major Hinckley was largely instrumental in securing the general planting of the plum, gen- erously giving them away to his neighbors and friends, and as he grew them first in the west, it was decided by that society [Northern Illinois Horticultural Society] that the name “Hinckley” could with more propriety than any other be applied to all these plums springing from Knight’s importation, except the seedlings. The name ‘‘Miner,’”’ applied by Mr. Barber at a late date in honor of the man from whom he derived his trees, is not defensible on any rules of pomological nomenclature; and the other names mentioned above are in a like manner objectionable. It appears from a later account (47) that trees were disseminated by Maj. Hinckley, and the variety came into the possession of a Mr. Townsend, who grew the trees in a nursery for sale. From this cir- cumstance the variety was often known as the Townsend.” ae Mather, Physical Geography of the United States East of the Rocky Mountains; Am. Jour. Sci., 49, 14284 (1845). : 3 Humphrey and Abbott, Surveys of the Mississippi. . 4 Dole and Stabler, U.S. G. S., Water Supply Paper 234, 84 (1909). 5 Bul. Geol. Soc. Am., 2, 130 (1894). SOIL EROSION IN THE SOUTH. 5 near its confluence with the Mississippi, 176,000,000 tons, with cor- responding amounts carried by various other rivers. Enormous as these figures are, they do not represent by any means the total losses from the soils drained by the streams. No estimates of the total amount of material actually moved through the agency of water has been made, but it must be many times greater than the amount which reaches the sea in suspension. A ease is reported by Tarr * describing the intense action of a flood in an arroyo in the Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico, due to a local cloudburst in the Donna Ana Mountains of about half an hour dura- tion and extending over an area of less than 6 square miles. Such large quantities of material were brought down from the hills that several acres were covered with silt and gravel. An adobe house about 10 feet high was buried to within 2 feet of the top. Several thousand tons of earth must have been transported during this sudden rush of water. Tolman? describes the transporting of material by streams of the arid region. The quantities of sand being carried to the sea are discussed by Marsh.? In addition to the solid particles carried to the sea by the streams, the quantity of dissolved material is also enormous. It is estimated that the Mississippi River carries annually to the Gulf of Mexico 86 tons of dissolved salts from every square mile drained by it. The rivers of the West carry much larger quantities than this. MOVEMENT OF SOIL MATERIAL BY THE WIND. The total amount of soil material moved by water is large, a fact well known, but the fact that almost equally as large amounts are moved through the agency of the wind is not generally appreciated. The wind exerts its action in any direction or in any climate. While it is true that the greatest effect is shown in arid or semiarid regions, the wind of the humid regions always carries a burden of suspended soil material. The dry material of an arid climate is more easily moved, and hence the greater effect produced. In considering the transporting capacity of wind, Free‘ has esti- mated from experiments by Udden® that the capacity of winds blowing over the Mississippi basin is probably at least a thousand times as great as the transporting capacity of the river. The wind, however, is usually loaded to only a small fraction of its capacity, so that the amount of material transported is very much less than its capacity. It is certain that the quantities actually moved by the wind are very large, and this movement contributes much to the change of soil surface conditions. 1 Tarr, Am. Naturalist, 24, 456 (1890). 2 Tolman, Jour. Geol, 17, 142 (1909). 4 Marsh, The Earth as modified by Human Action, Ed. 1888, p. 528. 4. E. Free, Bureau of Soils Bull. No. 68, p. 46 (1911). 6 Jour. Geol., 2, 326 (1894). 6 BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXCESSIVE TRANSLOCATION OF SOIL MATERIAL. The methods of translocating soil material either by wind or water have played important parts in the geologic history of the earth. The complex relations between topography, climate and erosion, and transportation and sedimentation can not be discussed in a paper of this character, but these relations are clearly brought out in articles by Joseph Barrell. It is not with this movement of material in its natural condition that we are especially concerned, but with conditions in which man has for some purpose, either for agriculture, lumbering, mining, or power, interfered with the natural-process, so that an excessive removal of soil material results. Since it is necessary to follow the vocations that disturb the balance established by nature between rainfall, slope, and erosion, methods of minimizing this disturbance as much as possible should be determined and employed. CAUSES OF EROSION. Erosion of land surface is produced by water flowing over its surface or by wind action. Wind erosion has been studied and described by Free and the general principles underlying soil erosion by water have been described by McGee,? so that only a short statement is here necessary. In the South it is of course the action of water that plays the more important part in soil translocation. Water reaching the surface of the soil either sinks into the soil, evaporates, or runs off the surface. That portion which evaporates enters into the formation of clouds and is later returned to the earth; the portion that sinks into the ground increases the underground store of water, a part of it reaching the streams and wells by seepage and a part being returned through capillary action to the surface, where it may be utilized in the growth of plants, or may join the evaporated portion. This downward movement into the soil causes a slight movement of particles, resulting in the alteration of the mechanical composition of the soils and subsoils,? but this is small in comparison to the movement of soil material by the water which runs off the surface. It is this water which lifts and carries along soil material, cutting into the soil surface and leaving it bare and gullied. The water running off the surface of the soil has been estimated in a number of cases. The Illinois experiment station* reports that 48.9 per cent of the rain falling in the Savannah River basin reaches the sea. Of the rain falling in the Potomac drainage basin it is esti- dl 1 Jour. Geol., 16, 159, 255 and 363 (1908). 2W J McGee, Soil Erosion, Bul. No. 71, Bu. of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agr. (1911). 3 Davis and Fletcher; Distribution of Silt and Clay Particles in Soils. 8th Internat. Cong. of App. Chem., 15, 81 (1912). 41. Expt. Sta. Cire. No. 119 (1908). SOIL EROSION IN THE SOUTH. fi mated that 53 per cent reaches the sea. When the mean annual rainfall on mountain topography is 40 inches, the run-off approaches 30 inches; if the rainfall is 25 inches, the run-off is about 12 inches; and if there is 15 inehes rainfall, the run-off is less than 5 inches. All effort should be directed toward lessening the surface run-off and increasing the quantity of water soaking into the soil. If all the water falling on the surface of a given area were absorbed by the soil, there could be no erosion. It is the water flowing over the surface that must be controlled to prevent damage from excessive soil washing. The amount of water which the ground absorbs depends upon the slope, the character or condition of the soil, the nature and amount of vegetal covering, and the amount and character of precipitation. Perhaps the slope has the greatest influence of any of these factors, but even this may be more than balanced by the character of soil, the precipitation, and the vegetation. As has been previously pointed out doubling the slope results per se in greatly increasing the erosion, but the increased velocity of water flowing down the slope makes the erosive power about 32 times greater. The character of a soil greatly influences the amount of water ab- sorbed by it. Soils vary in composition from light or sandy soils to heavy or clayey soils. The difference is in the size of particles composing them. The loams lie between the two extremes and rep- resent varying mixtures of the coarser and finer particles of soil. While it is true that the actual pore space in a clay soil is much greater than that in a sandy one, the size of the individual spaces is much smaller in the case of the clay, so that the movement of water within the clay is slower than in the sandy soil. The sandy soils, therefore, absorb rainfall more readily than the heavier soils. The power of a soil to absorb water rapidly depends not so much upon the total amount of pore space as upon the size of the individual spaces. Of course, the absorptive capacity should be such that all of the inter- spaces are not filled by the rainfall at any particular time. The size of the interspaces may be increased in the heavier souls by the introduction or incorporation of organic matter. Upon moderately rolling land the following classification shows the relative capacity of the soils for absorbing an ordinary rainfall: ’ . 44 Amount of water ab- Class | Co I08 dl leas lass. ym position sorbed. SE aa varavs asics's cosas | Less than 20 per cent silt and clay; 25 to 50 per | Nearly all. cent sand. ‘ PPS MOBIUNG 6. socesccrus penne | 20 to 50 per cent silt and clay, 25 to 50 per cent] Large part. sand. Loams, silts, and clay loams...| 50 per cent silt and clay, less than 30 per cent clay.| Very little absorbed. ! From values given by Whitney, Bul. 78, Bureau of Soils, U. 8. Dept. Agr., p. 12. 8 BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This classification holds for only very limited conditions. It shows the relative absorptive power of the soils named, other condi- tions being the same. The depth of the soil is the ultimate measure of the amount of water it is capable of absorbing. When the soil is saturated the addi- tional water falling on it runs off over its surface, carrying away soil particles. A thin layer of soil, underlain at shallow depths by an impervious layer, becomes saturated quickly and erosion at the sur- face is most active. The depth of plowing in cultivated areas has much to do with the depth of the soil and the amount of water neces- sary to saturate it. Vegetation affects the amount ae water absorbed by the soil by retaining the water for a longer time on the surface, giving it a better opportunity to be absorbed. An additional effect is that the soil is kept more or less open by the roots penetrating it, and these roots form channels along which the water may be conducted to the sub- soil. The vegetation further affords protection to the soil in that it retards the movement of the water flowing over the surface and prevents the removal of soil particles. _ All these factors influencing the absorption of water by the soil are under the control of man, with the single exception of the pre- cipitation. However, this factor is fairly constant as to quantity, although slightly less so as to character, for any given locality. If 2 or more inches of rain fall during 24 hours, much of it will be ab- sorbed by the soil, but if the same amount of rain falls during 1 or 2 hours, only a small part will be absorbed. Since the movement of water within the soil meets with considerable frictional resistance, this movement is rather slow. If the water moves into the lower layers at a rate slower than that at which water is furnished to the surface, the upper layer of soil soon becomes saturated and the addi- tional water runs off over the surface. Again, if precipitation occurs in the form of rain, it is much less likely to be totally absorbed than if in the form of snow. The melting snow supplies water to the soul so gradually that it has ample time to be totally absorbed. In the Southern States probably the most important factor influencing absorption is the character of the precipitation. This is mainly in the form of rain and is quite heavy at times. This means that generally this factor is most unfavorable for the retention of water by the soil and to prevent its flowing off the other factors must be made as favorable as possible. In the mountainous regions of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee vegeta- tion exerts great influence. Where the forests have been cut off the steep hillsides rapid erosion has followed, and in some places the soul has been removed down to the underlying bare rock. Other Bul. 180, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. TREES IN GULLY, CHECKING EROSION AND TENDING TO NATURAL RECLAMATION. Bul. 180, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. Fic, 1.—NATURAL RECLAMATION BY GROWTH OF SHRUBS AND PINES ON ERODED LAND. Fic. 2.—NATURAL RECLAMATION BY VOLUNTEER GROWTH. Bul. 180, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. FiG. 1.—GULLY WITH SLOPING SIDES AND ROUNDED EDGES. PLATE III. Fic. 2.—GULLY WITH VERTICAL SIDES AND CAVING BANKS. PLATE IV. Bul. 180, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "WNLVULSENS AGNVS Ad NIVIYSON(] AVID 30VAYNS SOIL EROSION IN THE SOUTH. 9 localities, which will be described later, show the predominating influence of some other factor. THE NATURE OF EROSION. The erosion of the soil occurs mainly in two ways which are mark- edly different (1) as sheet erosion and (2) as the gully type of erosion. In sheet erosion the water falling on the surface of the soil carries off with it a small amount of soil material from every part of the field. In advanced stages there appear incipient gullies, parallel to each other, known as shoestring gullies. This type of erosion is not so destructive of the field on which it occurs as the gully type, for the removal is more uniform and, if a field is continually cultivated the physical evidence of erosion may be slight. A common result is the occurrence of a rounded knoll showing a difference in the character of the soil on the top and at the base, and often this difference extends to a difference in productiveness, the top of the knoll being less productive than the base. This type of erosion in advanced stages develops gullies with sloping sides and rounded edges. It is often spoken of as old-field erosion of parallel gully type. The region in western Virginia extending to the Tennessee line commonly erodes in this manner. In some sections the soil wash is not serious enough to interfere with the cultivation of rather steep hillsides without contouring or terracing. However, on bare fields which remain out of cultivation for a few years, the gullies form and grow to considerable size. In eastern Tennessee the washing of the soil is somewhat greater, but here, even in the hills, terraces are hardly known. This same sort of erosion occurs in the Appalachian region of North Carolina and South Carolina and in northern Georgia and Alabama, but in the last-named States the formation of gullies is more rapid and the destruction greater. The second type of erosion, or the gullying, develops where, owing to the occurrence of natural depressions, the water runs off in the form of streams. These cut into the soil and soon develop gulches of great depth with nearly vertical sides, which grow in length, breadth, and depth with every rain. This type of erosion is the most difficult to check, and renders the land on which it occurs practically valueless. RESULTS OF EROSION. Excessive erosion results in a change in the physical condition of the soil. As already pointed out, the bodily removal of soil particles takes place from the surface. There is a sorting of the soil particles, the larger and heavier being deposited first and the smallest last. The result is an impaired physical condition of the soil wherever this sort- 74681°—Bull. 190-152 10 BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing action is taking place. Soils composed almost entirely of either sand or clay particles are not so good as those with a fair amount of each. The quality of the soil is greatly impaired by the continual process of erosion. Rapid leaching takes place, removing a large part of the soluble salts; the surface soil is often washed down to the lowlands and sometimes out to the sea; gullying so defaces the land that it becomes difficult to cultivate. The organic matter is one of the first losses of eroded soils. Abandonment of the field follows, because the land is considered too poor for agricultural use, having lost its productiveness through the process of erosion. The gullies in a field act as drainage ditches. The land between such gullies drains too rapidly, the water-table is lowered, and it is difficult for the crops to obtain sufficient water for proper growth or to withstand even a moderate period of drought. As these gullies occur on hillsides, the natural drainage is ample, if not excessive, so that the additional drainage furnished by the gullies is a positive disadvantage. This removal of the best soil material and the impairment of that remaining results in the occurrence of much waste land. In the South the abandonment of land is traceable more often to erosion than to any other cause. In some of the States vast areas amounting occasionally to 50 per cent of the arable land of those sections have been abandoned to the ravages of water wash. THE PREVENTION OF EROSION. The necessity for the prevention of erosion is obvious. There is every indication that the public conscience is being quickened in this: respect, and several States are beginning to appreciate the necessity of conserving their soil. The State of Tennessee is making a serious effort in this direction. The State geologist, with the aid of soil and forestry experts, is waging a campaign of education to teach the farmers how to prevent erosion and reclaim eroded lands. Some of these lands with proper care can be reclaimed for agricultural use, while others can be utilized for forestry. It is the function of the experts to determine the best use of eroded lands in various sections of the State. ; A number of papers on the subject of erosion and its prevention! point out the damage from erosion and the general means of con- trolling it. METHODS OF PREVENTION. Methods employed for the prevention of erosion must embody either one or two principles: They must increase the capacity of the soil for absorbing water or must decrease the velocity of the running 1 Farmers’ Bul. No. 20, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Ill. Expt. Sta. Cir. No. 199; Soil Rept. No. 3, Ill. Expt. Sta. —— oe SOIL EROSION IN THE SOUTH. 11 water. The most effective methods make use of both principles. The porosity of the soil may be increased by the incorporation of organic matter and by breaking the soil to considerable depth. Deep plowing alone is not so beneficial as when used in conjuction with the meorporation of organic matter in the soil. The organic matter promotes a granulation of the soil particles and thus produces a soil with larger spaces between the soil granules. The rate of absorption is greatly increased and the storage capacity enlarged. Tillage operations which move the soil to considerable depth tend to lessen erosion. They furnish a larger reservoir for the reception and retention of water. Preliminary experiments in this laboratory indicate that the dust mulch may have no advantage and is, possibly, a positive disadvantage. The fine particles of dust, when sub- jected to a sudden shower, are beaten into a thin layer of puddled soil on the surface which prevents rapid absorption and allows water to flow off the surface of the soil. The methods that decrease the velocity of the running water are those in which impediments are placed in the path of the run-off. For every given velocity of running water there is a maximum amount of material that can be carried in suspension, and this amount in- creases with the velocity. If, then, flowing water carrying its maxi- mum load has its velocity reduced it becomes overloaded and must deposit part of the load. If the velocity remains low the carrying power of the water is small. With the methods intended to check the velocity of the water belong the construction of various forms of terraces and the growth of vegetation or the placing of any impedi- ments in the path of the water. LAYING OFF TERRACES. Terraces, no matter of what kind, should be laid off level or nearly so. The most common way is to use a leveling instrument and a rod with target attached. In laying off the terrace, the instru- ment is set on the highest part of the land and the bubble brought to the middle ofitstube. Therodis placed by the level and the target moved to a height 3 feet above the line of sight. The rod should then be moved downhill until the target is in the line of sight. The bottom of the rod will then be 3 feet below the position of the level. Other points at the same level, 10 or 15 paces apart, should be located and through these points the terraces constructed. After the line of one terrace is located, the level may be set upon one of the points marked, proceeding as before. The terrace lines will then follow the contour of the hills. If slight depressions occur between two points, it is best not to change the terrace line, but to fill in the depression. Instead of using a level, good results may be obtained with an imple- iy BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ment known as an A, which does not require any special skill in oper- ating.1 KINDS OF TERRACES. There are several kinds of terraces in use, such as the guide row, the level bench, and the Mangum terrace. The euide-row terrace is formed by throwing four furrows together along the contour line of a hill, the furrows following the line of the guide row. A row may be planted on top of the terrace to avoid the waste of any land. There is generally a drop of 3 feet between terrace rows. This type of terracing is used on rather open soil which will readily absorb the rainfall, and where the slope does not exceed 10 per cent. The level-bench terrace is constructed on steeper lands and is so cultivated that the soil is moved from the higher to lower portions. In this way the terrace becomes practically level in a few years. By plowing with a hillside plow the furrows may all be thrown down hill. Quite often this type is developed from the guide-row terrace. Each bench must be cultivated separately and farm machinery or wagons must not be driven across the terraces, as this will result in their quick destruction by forming trenches which develop into gullies. Care should be exercised to prevent the growth of weeds along the terrace lines, though the presence of grass is often necessary to hold the soil. The cultivation may be done in furrows following the con- tour, or furrows may be run straight. This latter method results in some short rows, to which many farmers object. Probably the best method to prevent erosion is to follow the contour. The Mangum terrace is one that has attracted considerable atten- tion lately because of the fact that it eliminates the uncultivated lines between the terraces and cultivating or harvesting machinery may be driven across from one terrace to another. This terrace was first constructed and developed by Mr. P. H. Mangum, of Wake County, 1 Any frame in the shape ofan A willdo. The legs must have the same length and the crosspiece must beat equal distances from the ends of the legs. A plumb bob with string attached to the top of the A com- pletes the apparatus. The center of the crosspiece should be determined, as the A will be in a level position when the line of the plumb bob passes through the center of the crossbar. Tn laying off a terrace, one leg of the A is held on a point and the other revolved about it until the plumb line crosses the point marking the center of the crossbar. This process is continued from point to point. By constructing the A with certain dimensions, it may be used also for determining the grade or slope of afield orroadway. The sides are 16 feet long and the crossbar 13 feet 9inches. A brace 16 feet long may pbeattached by a leather hinge. The ends of the A will then be 16 feet 8 inches apart when set up. To use in determining grade, find the center of the crossbar and mark it zero. Then drive two pegs in the ground 16 feet 8 inches apart and on a level and set the Aon them. The plumb line crosses at zero. Raise one end 2 inches and mark where the plumb line crosses the arm 1 per cent. Raise the same end 2inches more and mark 2 per cent on the arm, and continue until the one leg has been raised several feet. Then repeat the operation on the other side. After thecrossbar has been marked, if the A is placed on any slope,the plumb line will indicate the grade. The low side of the bar may be marked 2 inches, 4 inches, etc., corresponding to 1 per cent, 2 per cent, ete. A 3-foot fall between terraces may be obtained by moving one leg of the A downhill until the plumb bob reading is 36 inches. To obtain differences in elevation between two points, run over the line, keeping records of the plumb-line reading, all values going down- hill in one column and uphill in another. Add the two columns and the difference between the sums will give the difference in elevation of the two points. SOIL EROSION IN THE SOUTH. 13 N. C. It differs from the others in that the terrace lines are not level, but contour the field at a grade of 14 inches to 14 feet. This terrace is a broad bank of earth with gently sloping sides. It is con- structed along the lines laid off by back furrowing and pulling the soil to this line, thus forming a low dike. This terrace has been described in detail in a Government publication.’ It gives a gradu- ally sloping side both above and below its highest point, so that culti- vation may be carried on across the ridge in any direction. While providing protection to the land it also eliminates the waste land and breeding places for insects afforded by the weeds or grass growing on the terrace ridges. For most agricultural lands it is the ideal ter- race, but it may not be suitable for some soils of a light character. OTHER METHODS OF PREVENTION. In addition to the use of terraces to prevent washing of the soil it is generally advisable to plow deeply. By plowing deeply the soil is so loosened that the rate of absorption becomes much greater and the land is enabled to take care of a heavier sudden rainfall. The same thing is accomplished by incorporating organic matter in the soil or by use of tile drams. In fact, any method that will assist in the efficient drainage of a soil will also do much toward the pre- vention of excessive erosion. The interstitial spaces become larger in a well-drained soil, so that the movement of water through the soil is more rapid. Hence a heavy precipitation may be absorbed as rapidly as it falls. Prevention of erosion is accomplished by having some vegetation cover the entire surface of the soil. This offers resistance to the water flowing over the surface and retains it long enough for the soil to absorb larger quantities than would be possible under clean culture. The expedient of alternating strips of cultivated soil with grass strips is sometimes resorted to, and on moderately rolling land this is fairly effective. Again, land that would be unsuitable to clean culture may be utilized for orchards with a cover crop on the soil. The use of winter crops should find application especially in the Southern States. The winter precipitation, which constitutes a large part of the total, is largely in the form of rain, and in many cases it falls on land barren of any crop. The use of rye or some winter crop would be of great advantage in holding the soil and preventing the destructive erosion resulting from the winter rains. The method of using hillsides for orchards and maintaining a grass cover crop has given rise to considerable discussion as to the relative value of the orchard with such a crop or with clean culture. As a means of preventing wash, the grass is effective, but the general ' Cir, No. 94, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. 8. Dept. Agr. 14 BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. question of the better orchard practice is stilla mooted one. Such use for hilly lands is described by Smith * and by Seymour.? CHECKING EROSION. In places where erosion has begun, but has not advanced beyond the formation of small washes, it may be checked by filling these incipient gullies with brush, straw, or leaves. . Contour plowing across such places is necessary under clean culture to prevent washing. Any field which is steep enough for the development of gullies should be terraced. A method which has been used, so far as known, in only one locality is the construction of ‘“‘christophers.” (See fig. 1.) This consists of building across the mouth of the incipient gully a dam of earth or stone to hold back the surface run off and keep it on the field. The distinctive thing is the way in which the storm waters are disposed of. Passing through the dam is a sewer pipe connected with an upright pipe on the upper side of the dam. The water fills the valley until it reaches the height of the upright pipe, when it flows through this into the next field. The water left stand- ee aiuz Fig. 1.—A ‘‘christopher’’ with tile drain connection. ing below the mouth of the upright pipe is removed gradually by a tile drain laid along the valley and connected to the sewer pipe. Rushing water is checked in the valley and deposits its burden of sediment; the water is removed largely by seepage into the tile drain and the ground remains in good condition for tillage. This method is too expensive for ordinary use, but in cases where it is necessary to use tile drains and the soil washes badly, this is an excellent means of preventing the wash. This method was developed by Mr. John Adams, of Johnson County, Mo., and has been adopted by a number of farmers in that locality. Figure 1 shows the construc- tion of the “christopher.” RECLAMATION OF ERODED LAND. In the reclamation of eroded land it is necessary to make use of all the methods employed in prevention and to make every effort to stop the advance of the gullies into new lands, and even greater 1 Smith, J. Russell, Plow and Poverty, Sat. Evening Post, 182, p. 14 (1909); Apples without Plowing, Country Gentleman 79, 778 (1914). 2 Seymour, E. L. D., The Fruitful Land, Country Life in Amer., July, 1913. SOIL EROSION IN THE SOUTH. 15 efforts are required to bring the gullied land to a productive state. In fact, there are many places in which the latter object can not be accomplished economically if at all. The land is generally reclaimed either for agriculture or for forestry, depending upon the character of the soil and the extent of erosion. For the purpose of forestry it is necessary to study the native vegeta- tion and with the advice of a tramed forester, to plant the kind of trees best suited to the climatic conditions of the particular locality. The trees must be generally deep rooted, on account of the lowering of the water table of gullied land, and the extremely rapid drainage afforded by the gullies. Shrubs and grasses may be utilized, and vines afford a protection on the nearly perpendicular face of a deep gully, or on steep slopes. Most frequently land which is too badly eroded for agricultural use must be reforested in order to be reclaimed. ‘The first effort is to stop the erosion. Trees should be planted thickly in the mouth of and as far up the gully as possible. These will afford an impediment to the water, and the soil material will be deposited. Thus there will be a gradual refilling, and the work should be pushed back toward the head of the gully as rapidly as the washing will permit. The relation of forests to rivers has been discussed by Ashe.! It is generally best not to attempt the reclamation, for agricultural purposes, of land which is very badly eroded into gullies. With small washes, the growing of pasture grass, fillmg the wash with brush or litter and covering with soil is beneficial. In some cases the building of small masonry dams is necessary. If the land is put in cultivation it is wise to begin at once the construction of terraces, to incorporate a large amount of organic matter in the soil, to plow deeply, and, at the outset, to plant deep-rooted crops, such as rye. This produces a, physical condition suitable for the ready absorption of water. Im- mediate results can hardly be expected, as it will take several years of good treatment and constant attention to bring the eroded soil into a state of productiveness. In the rotation of crops practiced on land which is being or has just been reclaimed from erosion, it is well to include as often as possible crops of rye, grass, and clover, which may be used for pasture. Two noteworthy examples of the reclamation of eroded lands were observed in the erosion. districts of the South. In one case a tract comprising 38 acres, near Johnson City, Tenn., was purchased in 1911 for $53 an acre. At that time the Jand was badly eroded, and the owner described it as having then a gully 8 or 10 feet deep. The gully was filled with débris and soil, 200 loads of manure were applied, and the soil was plowed to a depth of 10 inches and planted to rye. ——_____ — ooo, 1 Rept. of the U. 8. Inland Waterways Com., 60 Cong., 2d session, 8. Doc. 325 (1908). 16 BULLETIN 180, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The rye was being turned under at the time the place was visited, and the soil seemed to be in good physical condition. The owner kept an account of the cost of reclamation, and the total expenditure amounted to $376, or an average of about $10 an acre. An offer of $100 an acre had been refused. ‘The deep plowing and the incorpora- tion of large quantities of organic matter left the soil im such condition that practically all the water falling on the surface was absorbed. Another example of similar character was encountered near Knox- ville. A steep hillside of several acres, which had been badly eroded, was under cultivation by a truck grower. It had been reclaimed by starting terraces and cutting hillside ditches, and when this place was seen it supported an excellent crop of strawberries. The owner had not kept an account of expenses, but had bought the land at a very low price. His greatest trouble was in preventing further erosion. Re- clamation at best is an expensive, though not a hopeless, process. It is infinitely better to use preventive measures in the first place. NATURAL RECLAMATION. Nature attempts to check excessive soil waste by supplying a nat- ural growth of vegetation to lands abandoned to soil erosion. Trees grow voluntarily in the ditches, and grasses and briers spread over the sides of gullies, retarding the extension of the gullies by erosion. The . roots penetrating the soil give it more coherence and increase its resistence to water action. The leaves and other parts of the plants add to the organic matter m the soil, making it more absorptive of the precipitation. This vegetation constitutes an impediment to the water flowing over the surface. The velocity is checked and a part of the burden of soil material is deposited. In this way there is a slow building up of ditch bottoms and.a tendency to flatten out the land surface. The natural reclamation begins at the mouth of the gully and extends back to the steep areas. It is not uncommon to find immense gullies with this process taking place, often with large trees growing in them. ‘This is illustrated in Plate I, figure 1. Nature, however, does not wait for large gullies to form before making an effort to check the erosion. wo ame coe + 4 BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Numerous creeks and ravines drain into the river; these vary in size from streams with watersheds of 150 square miles to those draining but one or two square miles. Figure 2 (in pocket at end of bulletin) shows the location and extent of each of these tributaries. Their channels, though smaller, are similar to that of the river. CLIMATE. The climate is typical of that of the Gulf States. Frequently during the summer the temperature reaches 95° F. and maintains that height for a considerable length of time. The winters are usually mild, and it is very seldom that the temperature falls to zero. The records of the United States Weather Bureau at the Yazoo City station show a maximum temperature of 107° and a minimum of —2°, with a mean annual temperature of 65°. The mean annual precipitation during the past 12 years was 48.1 inches. The rainfall is well distributed throughout the year, the least occurring during the cotton-picking season of September, October, and November. A more extensive discussion of rainfall will be found in the section of this report dealing with run-off (p. 7). AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. Throughout the Big Black bottoms the soil is very uniform in character, being composed of asilty loam underlain by clay. The type _is called ‘‘meadow”’ by the United States Bureau of Soils and is de- scribed by the bureau as follows: + The surface few inches of the material composing the meadow consists of a brown or drab siltloam. This is underlain by a drab, gray, or bluish silt or silty clay. In local areas and especially near streams there is considerable sand present in both soil and subsoil. * * * The type is still in process of formation, each successive flood bringing with it material that is leit as a thin deposit over the bottoms. The soil is very rich, and if cleared, ditched, and diked would be capable of producing large yields. At present itis of value only for its timber and the pasture it affords. The soil of the uplands is largely a brown or light brown loam, underlain by a brown clay. It is considered fertile, but is very easily eroded. The bottoms, which are at present unsuitable for tillage, were originally covered with a heavy growth of timber consisting of water oak, black and sweet gum, sycamore, beech, and some cypress. The greater part of the valuable timber has been cut, and a second growth, together with a heavy stand of cane, brush, and briars, now covers the bottoms. With regard to lands bordering streams in Mississippi, it is generally recognized that heavy growths of timber indicate lasting productiveness of the soil, and that rank growths of under- brush, cane, and vines, such as occur in these bottoms, are seldom found on poor land. 1U.8. Dept. of Agr., Bureau of Soils, Soil Survey of Holmes County, Miss., 1909. RECLAIMING OVERFLOWED LANDS IN MISSISSIPPT. 5 As in most of the Southern States, cotton is the principal agricul- tural product, its acreage exceeding that of all other crops combined. Next to cotton, corn is the most important crop, although the pro- duction scarcely meets the local demand. Oats, cowpeas, and sugar cane are all grown to a limited extent, but are gradually increasing in acreage. In the vicinity of Durant the trucking industry has been developed to some extent, considerable quantities of strawberries, cabbage, peas, beans, etc., being profitably grown. ‘The planters are becoming interested in live stock and small quantities of lespedeza and alfalfa are being planted. The injurious effect of the boll weevil on cotton has led more toward diversified cropping during the last five years. TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES. Several railway lines traverse various portions of the district. At each of the larger towns bordering the district and at one or two other points public highways are maintained across the bottoms. In all cases where any attempt is made to promote traffic during the winter months the cost of maintenance is very great, and even then many of the roads are impassable during the winter and spring sea- sons. Drainage improvements will, to a large extent, remedy these conditions. PRESENT DRAINAGE CONDITIONS. Under present conditions a heavy rainstorm, lasting from two to three days and extending over the entire watershed of the Big Black River, will cause a severe flood, covering from 75 to 100 per cent of the bottom lands to a depth of from 3 to 8 feet. Unusually heavy local rains, although extending over only a small part of the water- shed, will often cause floods over the adjoining bottoms below the area affected by the storm. Floods occur most frequently during the winter and spring seasons, the water often covering the lowlands fora month atatime. From May to November overflows are less frequent, although several ruinous summer and fall floods have occurred. Thus there is great risk in planting crops on the lower land, and it is not entirely safe to plant on the more elevated por- tions of the bottom. So often have losses been sustained that it is now difficult to find anyone who will finance the working of the land. Throughout the district the bottom lands of the streams tributary to the river are overflowed at all seasons of the year to a depth of from 1 to 3 feet. In the smaller creeks, from 1 mile to 8 or 10 miles in length, the overflow usually starts a short time after a heavy rain begins, and continues from four to five hours after the rain ceases. On account of their more extensive watersheds the lowlands along the larger tributaries, such as Bywy, Apookta, and Doaks Creeks, are flooded from one to two days after each severe storm that lasts a day or more. 6 BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Below the Alabama & Vicksburg Railway bridge the river has been declared navigable and the landowners are urging the United States War Department to improve the condition of the channel. There are a great many drifts in this section of the river, and the carrying capacity of the stream undoubtedly would be increased if its conditions were improved. No extensive attempts at drainage have been made in the district investigated. One or two property owners have constructed small ditches to drain their fields after the floods have receded, and others have protected small fields by the construction of levees. THE SURVEY. In making the survey, base levels were first run along the railroads bordering the valley. Bench marks were established at intervals of 1 mile or less on railroad mileposts or other convenient objects. The flood lines or edges of the overflowed land were located by compass and stadia. Lines of levels were run across the bottoms at intervals of approximately 1 mile, and all of the streams and larger sloughs were meandered. Levels were carried on all of these meander lines and bench marks established at intervals of approximately 1 mile. Cross sections of the streams and sloughs were taken at frequent intervals to determine the sizes and capacities of the channels. Soil borings 15 feet deep were taken at intervals of one-half mile on the cross lines in order to ascertain the character of the soil to be encountered in excavation. Department bench marks were set near a number of the towns, their locations being shown on the map (fig. 10), and their eleva- tions and locations being given in Appendix I of this report. These bench marks consist of iron pipes, 34 feet long and 3 inches in diam- eter, set in the ground to a depth of 3 feet. The top of each pipe is covered with a bronze cap on which is stamped “Office Experiment Stations, U.S. Dept. Agr. Drainage”’ and the elevation of the top of the bench mark to the nearest foot. Al bench marks set were of a permanent nature. Those placed on trees were made by cutting a notch in the root and driving in a spike, the elevation being taken on the head of the spike. A few bench marks were established on bridge piers and tops of culverts. All of these, other than the depart- ment bench marks, are inscribed ‘U.S. B. M.,’’ followed by the initial of the instrument man and a serial number. Their numbers and location are shown on the map and their elevations may be had by application to Drainage Investigations. All elevations refer to Gulf datum as established by the United States Geological Survey. Very little time was spent in locating land lines, and as the original corners and lines have practically become obliterated it was necessary to tie the survey to known objects, such as railroad mileposts, roads, etc. The land lines shown on the map were obtained by adjusting RECLAIMING OVERFLOWED LANDS IN MISSISSIPPI. 7 the original field data secured by the General Land Office to fit the location of corners as determined by the drainage survey. The main watershed boundary was obtained from data given on the township plats prepared by the General Land Office. All data gathered during the survey were plotted before the field was abandoned, and are shown on the map (fig. 10). None of the proposed improvements was located on the ground. THE DRAINAGE PROBLEM. To obtain relief from present flood conditions along the Big Black River an adequate outlet must be provided for the water that flows from the hills on to the bottom lands after each heavy rain. The tortuous river channel, choked with drift and brush, is wholly insuffi- cient as an outlet, and the heavy growth of underbrush and cane makes it impossible for the water to flow over the bottoms with any degree of rapidity. The problem is to open a waterway of sufficient capacity to carry the water off as rapidly as it reaches the bottoms. This must consist either of (1) a system of ditches and channel improvements to carry the water below the ground surface, (2) a system of levees and a floodway to carry the floodwater above the surface of the ground without damage to adjoining land, or (3) a com- bination of (1) and (2). The remaining pages of this report are devoted to a treatment of the various features entering into the design and con- struction of an efficient drainage system for these overflowed lands. Hydraulic problems are discussed, the feasibility of a number of drainage plans examined, and detailed cost estimates for the recom- mended plan given. RUN-OFF. Run-off is that part of rainfall which flows over or through the ground to drainage channels. The success of drainage improvements depends upon their ability to care for the run-off, hence it follows that the determination of the rate of run-off is of the utmost impor- tance in the design of such improvements. This rate is ordinarily expressed in the number of cubic feet per second removed from each square mile, or in depth of water, considered as distributed uniformly over the watershed, removed in 24 hours. In this report the rate of run-off is usually expressed in the number of second-feet per square mile of drainage area. FACTORS AFFECTING RUN-OFF. Since all run-off is due to precipitation, it is obvious that the latter is the most important element in the study of run-off. Other factors that have more or less effect upon the rate of run-off are the size, shape, and topography of the watershed, character of soil and vege- tation, rate of evaporation, and the water storage capacity of the streams, sloughs, and bottoms. 8 - BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DETERMINATION OF RATE OF RUN-OFF. By the establishment of a sufficient number of measuring stations over the watershed, the amount of rain falling durmg any period of time may be determined with comparative accuracy. However, the rate of run-off is influenced not only by the total amount of rain falling, but also by the duration, intensity, frequency, and distribu- tion of storms, it being the composite effect of the rainfall occurring during the overflow together with that of other recent storms. Thus it may be seen that the determination of the maximum rate of run-off becomes a complex problem. The most reliable method of ascertaining the maximum rate of run- off for any district consists in making accurate measurements of the amount of water flowing from the district during its highest flood. Since in most cases it is impossible to obtain this information for the stream under consideration, recourse must be had to other methods. Fairly reliable data may be obtained by investigating some stream in the same locality with the one in question whose channel and water- shed are of similar size, shape, and slope, where the soil and vegeta- tion are similar, where rainfall records are available, and run-off measurements have been made. No run-off measurements for the Big Black River watershed have been made, but such measurements have been taken on the Pearl River watershed which adjoins that of the Big Black on the east, and which is quite similar in size, shape, topography, character of soil, and vegetation. The rainfall data collected at the Weather Bureau stations near the divide between these rivers are applicable to both watersheds. It was therefore decided to investigate the run-off of the Pearl River and to apply the results obtamed to the Big Black watershed. As the size, shape, and topography of the watersheds, character of soil, and vegetation are quite similar, it was assumed that the effect of these factors would be the same on both watersheds. RUN-OFF FROM PEARL RIVER WATERSHED. A gauging station was established by the United States Geological Survey on the Pearl River at the county highway bridge near Jackson, Miss., June 24,1901. From that date until the present time continu- ous daily gauge readings have been recorded and numerous discharge measurements have been made for river stages ranging from that of minimum flow to within a few feet of the maximum recorded by the gauge. From these data a discharge curve was constructed, and by extending this the corresponding discharges for higher gauge heights’ were estimated. The maximum discharge obtained in this manner is the probable maximum discharge that will occur under existing drain- age conditions. If drainage improvements were made, a greater rate of run-off would result, since the water falling would immediately be RECLAIMING OVERFLOWED LANDS IN MISSISSIPPT. 9 remoyed from the surface of the ground instead of being allowed to accumulate over the bottoms as storage. In order to ascertain this increased rate of run-off it is necessary to make a careful study of ee 7h LOL aie Gece Stes oS Ces [oan == a SH! {bean | | |e | te eae Pitt tT | | MUI nas ie 4l4 | | Bla HEH | _— June | | i | | | | 2 4 » o ~ Co ia } = Yo NO iators 52025 8 1018 Mar 5 10182025 Fic. 3a.—H ydrograph of Pearl River and daily precipitation in vicinity of Big Black River, 1902. 5 10152025 IS he "ok LDP rainfall and run-off conditions on the Pearl River for the maximum storms and flood conditions recorded. The rainfall records of the United States Weather Bureau for sta- tions on the Pearl River watershed show that the two greatest pro- tracted and general rains occurring since 1898 were in March, 1902, BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 10 The maximum river stage recorded at Jackson since and May, 1909. the next highest ? 1901 occurred on April 1, 1902, being 37.2 feet Flood stage as fixed reading recorded was 35.3 feet on May 30, 1909. by the Weather Bureau is 20 feet on the gauge. WEILE TVLOL "S06T ‘IOATIT WI Stq jo Ajrurora ur Roy Soae Auep pure IOATY [Ieeg jo ydeisoipAH— qe “D1 HEMOEUOE BEE BEDE EEE JAGR RRO RRRRER BREE DR Ta os] | | rete JI Bosc aea es zee EST 19 mais Saoaee ESbake Eoenaeas) | eS [saa] | SIRE ermnneaseet MCC LE | losiW NOSMOVP LY YFAIH co enw May ° auncr $207 S101 uecr A study of the gauge readings at Jackson (fig. 3a to fig. 31, inclusive) shows that the river reached flood stage 18 times in the 12 years for which the records are given, and that the floods occur at all seasons of the year, the summer and fall floods reaching practically the same RECLAIMING OVERFLOWED LANDS IN MISSISSIPPI. 11 heights as the winter floods. By studying the rainfall data plotted below the hydrograph, and by referring to the watershed map (fig. 2), a clear idea can be obtained of the intensity and extent of the rainfall causing the floods, features that are of great importance in determin- WMEEE _960r ETE {GEL TVLOL TASES. in a Ds 3 LE fet HEE ae TELE | att i | Worecara, | tHE lal J x Ww =e See re i — Dn i ae Sea 7 | I | r a 5 \0 15 20 25 June roe Ser) | a el le LA Se Paes a i 5 a al ae a cal la DE nnn ew fa ie ie a a oo ey ee —SSS5Se 285 , rear Taaialanea Al SPEEA ae A Ft LT inn LT ai Laan i i | HT HI 4 || | Fie. 3c.—Hydrograph of Pearl River and daily precipitation in vicinity of Big Black River, 1904. UELEECECEEEELEEE i HEBREBEE ope Baa Pe Slee URKeal En AeeaaHeaanreatanra | || alata] | | falalol | | falafel | | ieleir TT fs UT aol | teecore| TT TTT al as) t st feet atta ay ST Me ae a TST aa 4 x z r SERRER GREE LT ateloy [TT PTT TT | | fateh | | al EREREREPRRELE | | Talal TTT PT 3) iy NN / ab09 \OASMISOY 2 z S S 43 x S SE = ~ WE ts S ing the maximum rate of run-off. A method of determining the probable maximum rate of run-off by the use of the hydrograph of the Pearl River at Jackson was suggested by C. E. Ramser, assistant drainage engineer, and is given below. 12 BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The hydrograph shown in figure 4, A, is that for the Pearl River at Jackson, Miss., covering a period from May 18 to July 17, 1909; - it indicates all fluctuations in rate of run-off during that period. The “hor OG 9S pGE 09 MGID YARED ACLS TVLOL a yi) D i=) Kp) oO on = o S Rs) ae LS Ge) i) Sa wo a CO ay D = = 23 a S ES) t = FS ow oo i NN SS 1S = i=) rt) for} pal a = 19) cS) = OS £ On oO Sn c Lo| = GP) Su Pe Os a) 2 “2 2 = = iv vs) — o 3 8 =e = Teale = — = Fa fot 9 N ~ ~N st oO pet oe C= : = = - x 2 1 ae ae : os > i) So) es) RS) aS 3% KI GS) oO oa CO S aS On x Si S + = 1S : q wo & 2 4 SS = SS D o ise) at) is) = Se iz & + Ss Ge) S ES) 8 S G9) So) iS So) a FF! ) 3 ro) = 5 19 x a os ©) o ia) “9 ies) cs) = pes Sia ecne I ES) t = i cz S ay alm N iS N oo 9 ue) =a | & q Cs = w <8 z= ~~ a9) pice) SS) £ on ar NC ~ = oO OO Ae se rs} Ba oO S oO m4 6 8 Oo 4 SEN] : ‘ Ay ce 9 = im oO iss) s Slab ee) ~ © SI ° o S E E ES = im 7 rs] ep s Ol (=) *o0 ice) i=) 3 Ou [F5) So a oO eS) mt Se xt us is i in . ko} isn) a“ . : = ca ~ = fo a8 Ce) D ws D = ey Le im = a Re} = em 00 & 1 <3 Es) _ ITs) iS) G2 _ = i= [ ~~ PT ILL CN 4 3| i a | | (a EERER Ieee S| | | lalziol | | ialolef | | iz UBER BEGEEE Pe | Fig. 3e.—Hydrograph of Pearl River and daily precipitation in vicinity of Big Black River, 1906. cs [avs is |e [oS] | | | ilo) | lelzjel_| | filatry | aoe HELL | tila] [| fel afoy [| fuel] | WW I i | | fi [ | a A ==5 i Ei i 0S a EL fies ia | SAE] [2h] NIE a — eee ee Sb HS NN Ym N %) ~ a a 2 5 % N NON gy biay ebo9 OSMIVN 774 HINT ALID OOZUA practically no rainfall equal to the period May 24 to July 17, a point of beginning on this hydrograph being taken where the discharge equaled that of May 24. The area between the upper and lower curves represents the total amount of run-off due to the period of 14 BULLETIN 181, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rainfall considered. This area equals 23.35 square units. Onesquare unit being equal to 4 days (reduced to seconds) multiplied by 8,000 cubic feet per second, or 2,764,800,000 cubic feet, then 23.35 square 4 i 4 “wo ALG It MES cOlF L890 SELL TVLOL » os ot ~ mS) On 2 = = = = BE Ge) a oe) 9) a) a T PSL = =) STs) : ze | Ga wo is eo = a | 5 © = aS | 19 i) O S (en oO» : =D) 2 + ~N ~ a4 Oe 2 Ss = a SI = Ss =~ iz) " = be ~ =poT = Ho | ae + = SS ico) = joa) a a 8 si Sa Ni d ES ns x = | So t f= a x ! 3 ! cen { r3) i Lo cO > OB - = 5-2] 2 Ee a eS =| ol | 3) + ES £ xe | x Ss st a9) Ni Ww a o L & ~~ ~ +} WJ a L = >e | Sa ice) PS Pst = in a, =p [aS oO] oO fo) Oo a) 3 Se KR « SS [9 : = Sf & o “ a fo) t & a NG H i= 3 os Oo TI y >| = ic) = oS oD So = |Q [I = So) fs) oS is} 3 a = Ni Sisk wi =I aoa nal S e oS & wo Lal x ~~ ~ Ww > =o) —4 23 | so ES) oO ~ = a Se | ) = w cm) 7 o2 | ~ = D G2) se im S = a) oO YH NN YM NN mA NS Vgygy a “ybiay ab09 \OMSMISOY FOIIOHS NOSHIV/) Pig ALD oozvA units represent a total of 64,500,000,000 cubic feet of run-off for the period from the watershed area of 3,120 square miles, which is equiv- alent to.a total run-off of 8.9 inches in depth. The average rainfall on the watershed for this period, as recorded at the Weather Bureau stations at Louisville, Kosciusko, and Jackson, RECLAIMING OVERFLOWED LANDS IN MISSISSIPPT. 15 was 16inches. To this rainfall is attributed the 8.9 inches of run-off computed above. The run-off was therefore equivalent to 55.6 per cent of the rainfall. a CS SSA cl ea a BE RMS Ee ERS SS BSS ES Se GS EE iS ESE Bae) (ESE) fa fc Fra) (SP eo DSR SSM BemGaty [icc ex a ea als|_| | (2! i June. 2 ~ co = sD - = » Ee a fal aE ra BEG aaa Goo ar PELE SSR WE CGE ST FURRa) Rell BEE Pinal alee (ele ee ele |e|eI/eIPIETE Fig. 3g.—Hydrograph of Pearl River and daily precipitation in vicinity of Big Black River, 1908. [| Islols}_| foljlelsi | | lelelet {| ali (7 PET ETT PE IBS ERE Til VGA “ 4 > “$4800 surpeo -o.1d Jo 18101, 006 |— {0&2 |&z 1g 91 00S '€ |T 019 ‘T |T9T 16 +9 000‘ |E 0&6 |&6 2s oos‘s le joo¢‘e jose ‘ise. 00s‘z |g 1026 |26 62 00z‘T {tT |06g‘T \68T £6 002 ‘F je jose‘s jsez ~—s€. 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C. AT 30 CENTS PER COPY Vv OKTIBBEHA CO. CR RHO " i) \ | Ke 2 : N WARREN , COUNTY. Pig } irae Wo i “(\ okSB 7 5) i) : wu ja ane K URG \ ane We ia rs | Vili ee f / / a g | / Ee HY , if is bsp a Bova ( d ary chip TE Py | yea 8) 2 oe Beal We bh [MN ee a / ey oo i : a0 y Lt We l ) Wiggs WATERSHED AREAS ASSERTED NI LOCATION SQ. MILES 4 | Mouth of Little Black River....-.---- /40 >. OKTIBBEHA Co. “ Mouth of Calabretia Creek_________ G45 foK LORRI : Mouth of Poplar Creek.....________ G25 We XX © Wes Pony Mouth of Hays Creek_____.._______._ TAG) V we en A OARATAD SJ VOM OM acter /180 . “ Mouth of Doaks Creek.____________. 1750 SS > YRCEM: Vay eee Ee Be A270) ae DS a S Yazoo-Warren County Line... 24.95 aS SS aS TAL C8 WA TRAN, PEM ANGI ne 2675 SS Wig. 2.—Watershed map of Big Black River, Mississippi, and index of map, figure 10 Will D Nichols, del Bore) A anrari ey Sy District Numbers _ Proposed Levees. __ Proposed Flood Gates. Proposed Ditches Ditch Numbers Station Numbers. . Bench Marks. High Water LEGEND 26 County Line ....---------- es = Township Line. === Soe Section Lint --+-—+ Proposed Channel Clearing. <== DAMGee Hill Line_--.----------- ~~~ Timber Line Public Roads______.----- = Surface Elevations (Gulf Dotum)._ ses Bottom Elevations. .-~- --~---- - (1623 Width of Channels... poPrem----—---8 las rar / \2¢r2 Hetrha/ pf AE as NS Cree k US DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE. BUL Ia DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS Ye wawrze / 4. Fig. 10 SHEET | of 8 Sheets S.H.MSCRORY, CHIEF MISSISSIPPI SHOWING PROPOSED PLAN OF FLOOD CONTROL Prepared to accompany a Report upon the Reclamation of the Overflowed Lands along the Big Black River, Mississippi LEWIS A. JONES, DRAINAGE ENGINEER Assisted by WJ.SCHLICK, Drainage Engineer, and GERAMSER, Assistant Drainage Engineer 1914 SCALE OF FEET OFFICE OF EXPERIVENT rece =o wee ATIONS: BIG BLACK RIVER VALLEY Will DNichols, del Wi/1 D. Nichols, del. “pitta ease (ERY, Bye NC: ex —_——----——-- + pee ites STP aan tots = eg v SRD feu MEET GES A REIOU CSI ~ “A 7 KILMICHAEL ire to Kilmichael | Va eZ Lo ep foon!, Suen. \ wns to Varden eB Ie ey, “Aste \ aN \ guys in 4 awe Sia) ie i b ces eda ura a : f aN 308.1 early J: eo / 3098 early si See > 3/08 early 1892 3 S y Ye 3 x > \ 8 . 8 XX ERR M O re oe, 3 f Pellez Y ' | ; Pex / _S ca Fig. 10 f SEUSS 5 PR pS z | SHEET 2 of B Sheets aniseys * e Stewar? Road \ i TE 4€ 2 G ‘ = 2 ~ SO nr A eat US DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE. BULI8I OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS S.H.MSCRORY. CHIEF BIG BLACK RIVER VALLEY MISSISSIPPI SHOWING PROPOSED PLAN OF FLOOD CONTROL Prepared to accompany 4 Report upon the Reclamation of the Qverflowed Lands along the Big Black River, Mississippi \ LEWIS A. JONES, DRAINAGE ENGINEER Assisted by WJ SCGHLICK, Drainage Engineer, and (GE RAMSER. Assistant Drainage Engineer 1914 LEGEND = SCALE OF FEET District Numbers _ ee County Line ___. ree ewe ve a oe Ce Wy Proposed Levees _ g is Line. Proposed Flood Gate ats 2 Section Line. Proposed Ditches Hill Line- Ditch Numbers __ -ABC12 Timber Line- Station Numbers___ or a2. Public Roads... Proaosed Charnel Clearing <== Surface Elevations (Gulf Datu Bench Marks.___ __ amaze Bottom Elevations. _____ HighWater ___ Sew Width of Channels.__Te / XW Nichols, del. Fig. 10 SHEET 3 of 6 Sheets | US DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE BUL 1p OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS | | DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS | S.H.MSCRORY. CHIEF x / oN 1 1 af 7G 4 BIG BLACK RIVER VALLEY ye SN VAIDEN MISSISSIPPI Te SHOWING PROPOSED PLAN OF FLOOD CONTROL Prepared to accompany 8 Report upon the Reclamation of the oo > = aN y Overflowed Lands along the Big Black River, Mississippi ae eae . y . LEWIS A. JONES, DRAINAGE ENGINEER ~ Noe eaten ZA S Wh mA vy Ss J . X Yu Assisted by WJ SCHLICK, Drainage Engineer, and annog A 4 7 N y, ~ fn Vaiden Gi RAMSER Assistant Drainage Engineer Re stent M207, PLAN OF FLOOD CONTROL Prepared to acedmpany 8 Report upon the Reclamation of the } —_. slong the Big Black River, Mississippi U.S DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE BUL TET DRAIh 5 A. JONES, DRAINAGE ENGINEER SCHLICK, Drainage Engineer, and A Assistant Drainage Engineer | ’ 1914 av aye or mr Q) Pu 6 iia Ses Fife = a LEGEND District Numbers __ 26 County Line .....--..-- | Proposed Levees ___ Township Line... Proposed Flood Gates. Section Line... Proposed Ditches. = Hill Line Dileh Numbers ______-.. ABC 12 Timber Line Station Numbers.._______ as Ba Public Roads...._-- a Proposed Channel Clearing. <== Surface Elevotions (Gulf Bolum) Bench Marks..._._._ --_ an auesze Bottom Elevations (624 High Water HW. Width of Chonnels. _ oP 2 ‘ & a= | =o - Wil Nichols. de) | Fo NN od %~ th Ax | hed eft ent fe ce OW iss PAA . Y o Fawn ‘40 Naga 0) (SG 8 a» "s LEGEND Oistrict Numbers_ Proposed Levees __ Proposed Flood Gates. Proposed Ditches. Ditch Numbers --ABC/2 Station Numbers_____ == az Proposed Channel Clearing === Bench Marks... ____- HighWater....______ Section Line. Hill Line___- Surface Elevations (Gulf Datum). s6a7 Bottom Elevations. ____ Width of Channels. 7 - 20 xX f Ny (Cie “site \ uaa iy see oS ESS CEPA a 72 Fig. 10 SHEET 5 of 8 Sheets U.S.DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE.BUL 181 OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS S.H. M&CRORY, CHIEF BIG BLACK RIVER VALLEY MISSISSIPPI SHOWING PROPOSED PLAN OF FLOOD CONTROL Prepared to accompany a Report upon the Reclamation of the Overflowed Lands along the Big Black River, Mississippi LEWIS A. JONES, DRAINAGE ENGINEER Assisted by WJ SCHLICK, Drainage Engineer, and CE RAMSER, Assistant Drainage Engineer 1914 ———— SCALE OF FEET 1000 ooo 7008 aoe co ro [aT U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICY Wil! D Nichols, de/ AD) es tzzcrs Proposed Levees Ditch Numbers Bench Marks... High Wofer Seelanay ctigg ianra District Numbers Froposed Flood Gates... Proposed Ditches Station Numbers __ == Proposed Channel Clearing LEGEND County Line Township Line... _- Section Line Hit Line-_..- “tc Timber Line... =. - git? Public Roads___. ----- = Surface Elevations (Gulf Datum) __ sear Sotfom Elevations. Width of Channels Top..___ 4 Bottom 8 # \ EKO) @), * SS ms Fig. 10 SHEET 6 of & Sheers ’ U.S DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. BUL 18! OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS: DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS S.H.M©CRORY Chie BIG BLACK RIVER VALLEY J MISSISSIPPI SHOWING PROPOSED PLAN oF FLOOD CONTROL Prepared 10 accompany a Report upon the Reclamation of the Qverflowed Lands along th 318 Black River, Mississippi LEWIS A. JONES, DRAINAGE ENGINEER Assisted by WJ SCHL IC} Engineer, and GIERAMSER.Assistant Drsinagelngineer Lvs; se 40 aoe, in SS Will D Nichols del: -— = aere a_i SS eG EE “ \ Wi// D Nichols, de ory NS et Nanas District Numbers _ Proposed Flood Cates. Proposed Ditches... ___ Station Numbers __ Bench Marks. -- a aia PENS ia 8 i‘ a we le, S ol any 2 1310, [be won i Sy) ey oe er) LEGEND County Line.__..------- 3 Township Line... -- a Section Line..___________ HiT Line __.. Timber Line Public Roods.._.___-_.__. 2 Surface Elevotions (Gulf Datum) ___ sear Bottom Elevations. _____ =.= 629 Width of Channels 4 US DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE BUL 181 DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS Fig. 10 SHEET 7 of 8 Sheets S.H._MSGRORY, CHIEF BLACK RIVER VALLEY MISSISSIPPI SHOWING PROPOSED PLAN OF FLOOD CONTROL Prepared to accompany a Repor! upon the Reclamation of the Qverflowed Lands along the Big Black River, Mississippi LEWIS A. JONES, DraiNAGE ENGINEER Assisted by W.J SCHLICK Drainage Engineer, and CE RAMSER Assistant Drainage Engineer 1914 SCALE OF FEET . Se FEO 7oce 2009 woo coy N T Y OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS Will D Nichols, de/. EROMAVED ANG MHiTETEr LEGEND County Line.----------- SeS5 Township Line.--~- ——— Section Line----- - _+-—+ Hill Line. =e =a Timber Line oN Public Roads ween ee wy INR RY N G Oa Surface Elevations (Gulf Datum)___. 1687 J v Bottorn Elevalions..- - - ~—-- (1624 Bench Marks Ea _5 AMO2d High Water. ——---_=—- HW. 0) = “a Width of Channels... BoP. - # aN ii Sy Eugae e N e754 Cleo, Ne Ere re. Se 64 \ S «3 AUS Wald Vie a VS * Ns \ (e 9 Fig. 10 SHEET 8 of 6 Sheets US DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE, BUL IBI OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS S.HiM°CRORY. CHIEF BIG BLACK RIVER VALLEY MISSISSIPPI SHOWING PROPOSED PLAN OF FLOOD CONTROL Prepared to accompany 4 Report upon the Reclamation of the Overflowed Lands along the Big Black River, Mississippi LEWIS A. JONES, DRAINAGE ENGINEER Assisted by W.) SCHLICK, Drainage Engineer, and CF RAMSER. Assistant Drainage Engineer 1914 SCALE OF FEET 100 ee 7009 008 we80 oo 0 t08 Will Nichols. del. No.| NOZ 1 PON YHIDSO f/f ihe AOM/JOdf UIBY{N05 POOL PL00F-0fS1 YOY ‘NO = $ “a 28 @ 3 $ tT Nyt Qt to) ) a) . POY HOUND, 2 -WO{SIL4Opy \ r = rc) i es 32'|Bottom -->+-25 Bottom +18 Bot/6 Bor --- ~e-- WM YHOP? TORINO 45 Bottom 320 STATIONS 0 100 200 | i Fig tl i = Profile of Ditch No.4, District No.! 5 Dorr gr cmCATSE BA Ie) OFTEE OF EXPERMENT STATIONS DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS SH M¢CRORY CHIEF BIG BLACK RIVER VALLEY “ a ; | MISSISSIPPI = SHOWING PROPOSED PLAN OF FLOOD CONTROL 79M, 208 Gutletgt chine | in Railway Sta25?-Qutlet of D/teh Na / Prepared to accompary 0 Report upon the Reclamation of the co) Mo ‘Oreeflowed Lands along the Big Black Fiver, Mississipos LEWIS A JONES, DRAINAGE Encin Cen uo [Assisted by WS SCHICK Drwinage Engineer, and rT) ICE PAUSEA Assan OrsvateEntioee | : = 60'| Bottom a 46 |Bortam sp" 4SBetfam| ---—=-- _32'[Botom +25 8s{fom = MBean Ba 1914 1000, «Oo eo 700 co 300 “400 EJ 700 YOO «STATIONS: wo | Perations refer te Oulf Datum . a 5 : Profile along General Course of Proposed Levees 4 - Sha 2 3 4 §S-2 5 Se } => = : 5 fa 1 . | > = z ae? 5 =\— ‘ i € = a 35-5 = rs e iS = 3 3 = we = . 3 = is 5. a5 rai-pilsiper mile i - f . 2 MS ie = ee phon Oss Stations aS || € $ i : A 3 3 F 708 a0 | € 300 } F Hotiper mile ae | 3 =: mae, : 3 | : ; : mJ = - a < [eae g is = & 5 i z | | § Re | 8 *P u zie Pe ns | | | | al $ ale ao re ae es) | —— Fy 2 ee ‘ Ground STE = sg “lh F jsoiexe mle [ | 3 2 Sis) s | Gonagzaloiny Siaven 3200 = & = care S85 rs Yo | | s —* _t © na a aS Gi x0 $ 2 a 9 < i = ! ~ x 4 2-8 fe ae a | E § iS ines i % = | | / J 7 pei Nias pepe ae $$$ ot onSraren 108 eT mm, a | eee ! ae ii 0 4 om - 1 | = i = | el t ai +— | tall = — — | iS = == s = e = es = oe — anal } | a to a = ; H —s| | — — ze ie veces | le t —4 3 I 4 ere TaD Tareas Soho Lets BE Ground Surface. i) a= & $ | = 0 : Se uy ut | & ae in : : af yl ani | 10 | = lh IL = J ne — sce $500" 3000 —= (pora — Si Q< QS ma SJ : —fal/—280 ff per. mile STATIONS 0 Station-12650—Fall-0.92 “4 -peh Pasa oon?” ——} 7 83 — Ssallt aii H 2 z Fy 3 z z = 3 2 z : Ed = = g & 3 i g z = = = 3 Hi Ei = % % - 4 i peau pouey, c ; inl ala t =r] | | | | inal lh : | | 14 | huey r09 ahpiag Aomybip a06//y ; ; ++ al ie H i a } i | | | | | i Eke = Leen bed ‘09 S3W10H = 3 =a} 5 2—- ‘ ] | mrodns Wey, 3H = | | e | = | s| i 5\\ q 3 3 + =I! 3 (pelt im ES q bprsig Komyb)y v0j42/9/5 262/49 24/0 2M q q is 5 | D R b) — | nine I st i i im sienina vr I 5 3 E) 3 NI : bree ts) ie | y ut | 3 ( 00 N3UBWA ls A | Bl i ‘Y2DID ALO 9/0W 3 3 3—- tf alr + rl 6p. kyo. 2 a i 00 YiIWily | : Rae rare 7 alia | pepsa@ arid 242144 | zt = 1| ‘09 O0ZVA ‘09 NOSIOVN Ty peo wa0/ey § year buy S| 2a poou voussoy ala HL if |_| odo = | oeeeeg tet 7 yooug sejdey 2 He Ht Ld 9219 eiyoody iN et x ) jt } "alia all ii ll q ass be, hey Sankara q T st ae. ry peuiselteensans athe sg 5 i | Ide aI) x Timmins T |W veaeaied 1) abet : os i § 4 s| a Ee HA s 8 s i a M =" R 3 | 3S N 3 4 S a | : Ls : ; ; ze y R 2 8 | yorug 8834049 b/g q \ 2 yoru & | } q / yeovereu/ a c a OWS} a S| 4 a HOU | E inal imi iT 4 5 | i 18 if . 3 > | I cH 26pLIg BY ig su0un, : — 6p) Myon aX \ - : iva mnounipomgs ite ST 3 3 5| {| x x 3 2 5} ¢ S SSioisinl : 2 a2 } | I {| a 4 e i 5 u 200119 Koayoyy wey 6o 5 ae 3 BATRA ATT (iaaiael a opiag NaHEY : i x | iD ere i, i 3 At =i 3 i. 3 lagen, | files Hae | ! | | | mom - | he L| [papal sted ee | E 1 | Ng! }__| I (apiaetes | é moeleay Wu¥a3| mepasota| if eC Se 1 + i * | | 3| 3 | | | |re972 sre0o | | | | | | | | CESS 1} | | 1 realy Aue) | r pa | : / Ly Sy : | Pals i | c g Zax 2 i) | | 3 | | AMANODINOW, M8 | i | | | | | Ll | SA oe 4 | | | | | | k 1 | | | Ry | | S| | Jaspus bee nia tl | | yal i | | elma 2 A {4 | | |B | | 2 ‘| i aiwi See + waae z r ml Aimna te | | ii | yxoroe\| | |) | | | 5 int \ | | es ea | ! | | 3 | | i } | | 4 } | si} \ \ \ q 4.09 TOYHYD z ur ali ms vccwl lab 5] ; maka — : | | | = | 4 } | | ned ' Orneage Enguseer: Bhp Lig £avay vas | | | Station 1515 te Srath Drvinage E Fig.12 iy ® Report Upon the Reclamation of the Overflewed Lands slong the Big Black River. Minsanlpgt SH MIGRORY CHier KK RIVER VALLEY MISSISSIPPI SHOWING PROPOSED PLAN OF FLOOD CONTROL LEWIS A JONES, DRAINAGE Ewer cen 1914 Blows rans rete te Cuil rtm Aasisted by Wd SOMLICK | ‘ CERAMSER Assatan DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS: ae AVL90H9 | 02 AUZKOSINOW paasanoal my A ee Da | Ws on bog | { | { Prepares 16 accempar BLAC Breet ‘ x US OCT OF AmEKAT | BIC ie BULLETIN OF THE D. ) USDEDARINENT ORACLE ‘ Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. February 2, 1915. Oo. 182 (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL: STUDIES OF ITS MANU- FACTURE IN GERMANY.’ By Epwarp KREMERS, Special Agent, Plant Physiological and Fermentation Investigations. REVIEW OF THE PROBLEM OF MANUFACTURE. INTRODUCTION. The brandy (Branntwein) which in the fourteenth century was brought over the Alps from Italy to Germany found in the fifteenth century a competitor in a whisky (Kornbranntwein) which was made from cereals. The distilled fermented grape juice (wine) of 1 Barly in the fiscal year 1907-8 the Bureau of Plant Industry began an investigation of the problem of utilizing the waste and surplus products of American farms as a source for the manufacture of denatured alcohol. In view of the vast possibilities of this in- yestigation, involving important questions not only of agricultural but likewise of economic and social import, it was deemed wise first of all to seek guidance from European experience. -It seemed especially desirable to study the situation in Germany, where for a considerable period of time industrial alcohol from agricultural sources has been most conspicuously successful. Accordingly, arrangements were made to send Dr, Edward Kremers, of the University of Wisconsin, aS special agent to visit those coun- tries of Europe in which agricultural alcohol has been most prominently developed and to study as thoroughly as his stay would permit those factors likely to prove most im- portant to America. As was anticipated, relatively little practical aid was obtained on the agricultural phases of the problem from England, Belgium, Holland, or France, and the greater part of Dr. Kremers’ attention was given to the conditions to be observed in Germany. The preparation for publication of Dr. Kremers’ report was undertaken by Dr. Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge of the Office of Plant Physiological and Fermentation Investigations, of this bureau. This report brings out the fact that the success of agricultural alcohol in Germany is the result of long-continued experimentation, backed by a determination on the part of those high in authority that the project should sueceed. Private enterprise patrioti- cally combined for this definite purpose rather than for private gain seems to have been a factor hardly less effective. The development of agricultural alcohol is found to be based on the principles of operation characteristic of manufacturing enterprises, and it bears little resemblance to the small farm enterprise to which many in this country have looked forward. Alcohol is seen to be not a separable source of income to the German landowner but a necessary factor in a large agricultural operation, the profits appearing rather in enhanced land yalues, larger yiel’s of grain and forage crops, and in the dairy products made possible by the crops produced, It is perhaps not to be expected that America can proceed along the same lines as Germany, but in our attempt to solve this problem of crops to afford light, heat, and power there is much of value in the German experience.—WmM. A. TayLor, Ohef of Bureau. 74027 ° —Bull. 182—15——-1 2 BULLETIN 182, U.,S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the Mediterranean countries was replaced by the distillate of a fermented infusion (beer) from cereals of the more northern States. The consumption of the whisky became so widespread that restric- tive measures had to be adopted by governments, not only for ethical and social reasons (Gildemeister and Hoffmann, 1899, p. 34),1 but for economic reasons as well, it being feared that in years of poor harvests too large a quantity of the cereals might be withdrawn from their more legitimate use in bread making (Brockhaus, 1894, p. 501). ; The first potato distillery was operated in Monsheim in the Pala- tinate as early as 1750, but the alcohol industry in Germany up to 1840 was based almost exclusively upon the use of cereals as crude material. The industry has developed primarily in the cities on a small scale (Kleingewerbe), and even as a side issue to other indus- tries (Nebengewerbe). However, with the expansion of the culti- vation of the potato—which gives a larger yield of starch per acre than the cereals—the distillation of alcohol became largely an agri- cultural industry. The western provinces of Germany with their more clayey soils were favorable to the cultivation of the sugar beet, whereas the light sandy soils of the eastern provinces (Branden- berg, Posen, and Silesia) were especially benefited by the cultiva-_ tion of the potato. For this reason the distilleries in the western part are to-day primarily grain distilleries and are located at or near the cities. In south Germany (Baden, Wurttemberg, and Alsace- Lorraine) apples and other fruits, according to quantity of the crops obtained, are utilized in the distillation of alcoholic beverages. As in France, this industry, which is scarcely deserving of the name, is a home industry and is conducted on only a very small scale. The agricultural significance of the development of the potato- alcohol industry as worked out in Germany is manifold: (1) All of the ingredients taken from the soil by the potatoes are returned to the soil. (2) The spent mash (Schlempe), which is the product obtained after the starch has been converted into alcohol and the latter has been removed by. distillation, is a valuable feed for cattle. This enables the farmer to main- tain a larger number of cattle than would otherwise be possible, and they in turn provide the manure so necessary for the light soil. (3) The introduction of a cultivated crop (Hackfrucht) into the rotation has been of the greatest benefit, because it has made possible larger yields of grain even where the area devoted to cereal cultivation had to be reduced for the sake of the potato. (4) Last, but not least, it has enabled the farmer to convert the unstable potato crop, especially of those varieties having poor keeping qualities, into a stable product, alcohol, which may be held as surplus stock for several years. 1 For citations to the literature, see the list at the end of this bulletin. = || AGRICULTURAL | ALCOHOL IN ‘GERMANY. 3 THE ECONOMIC SITUATION. It would appear that as soon as the production of alcohol became an industry it was placed under governmental control. Not only for ethical reasons was this necessary, but for economic reasons as well. The fact that although alcohol as a beverage is not a physiolo- gical necessity, but that nevertheless there is a strong demand for it by man, makes it an especially opportune object for raising internal revenue. Under such conditions it is self-evident that the develop- ment of the alcohol industry in any country will be materially in- fluenced by revenue and other legislation. While the increased tax on alcohol used as a beverage placed a national check upon its consumption and therefore upon its manu- facture, the rapid strides which have been made, especially in the improvemert of the crude material, are directly attributed to the operation of a certain phase of the laws taxing the finished product. MASH-CAPACITY TAXES, 1820 AND 1868. The tax which up to 1820 was levied upon the still was in that year replaced in Prussia and in others of the North German States by a mash-capacity tax. To control the output of alcohol and to tax this directly was not considered feasible, although theoretically it was the simplest and most equitable method. Inasmuch as the ratio between the volume of mash, as made in those days, and the finished product was fairly well established, the taxation of the mash capacity, while indirect, appeared more equitable and fair than a tax on the distilling apparatus, a much more variable factor in the pro- cess of manufacture. The average yield of alcohol about 1820 was computed at 2.5 per cent of the mash, a very low figure when compared with the results attained since then. Immediately, therefore, it became an object to the manufacturer to crowd as much fermentable material as possible into each unit of his mash-tub capacity. This was accomplished on the one hand by thickening the mash and on the other hand by choosing those potatoes which were richest in starch. As will be seen later, this second factor led to the general cultivation of potatoes richer in starch; and, since it was much to his advantage to secure the most complete fermentation possible, the distiller was led to a more careful study and manipulation of the yeast. The inevitable result was that the original tax on the basis of a 2.5 per cent alcohol yield became antiquated and had to be increased gradually in accordance with the improvements made in the tech- nology of fermentation. With each increase in the rate of taxation 4 BULLETIN 182, U.\S.: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a further incentive was given the manufacturer to improve the process as well as the material. In 1868 the law regulating the mash-capacity tax, which had ap- plied to Prussia and only a part of the other North German States, was extended to all of the States of the North German Federation. From the following figures the development of the alcohol in- dustry under this mode of taxation is readily shown. Previous to 1857, the year in which the Association of Spirit Manufacturers of Germany (Verein der Spiritus Fabrikanten in Deutschland) was organized, but few data are available. The low yield of 2.5 per cent, on which the rate of taxation was based in 1820, speaks for itself. In 1853, 5,962 distilleries were operated in Prussia (Meitzen, 1869, p. 553). Of these, 4,701 were located in the country and 1,261 in the cities. Within the same territory in 1907 there was but little deviation, the number of distilleries being 5,995 (Behrend, 1907, p. 395). However, the growth of the distilling industry can not be measured by the number of plants. For example, a reduction of the number of small stills in Bavaria and their replacement by larger, more rational outfits meant a positive advancement. A more correct indicator of the growth is found in the quantities of crude material used. For Prussia in 1855 and for the corresponding territory in 1905, the figures, expressed in pounds ay oldupolsyy are shown in Table I. TABLE I.—Potatoes and grain used for distillation in Prussia. Material used. 1855 1905 POGALOOS Joie a Rok to io oe. eine eee ee eee oc ce (eee Domne 1,915, 800, 000 4, BA GTI re oe pe sic eg eo earls ae oes eR a pce ‘ 308, 640, 000 | 518, 080, The consumption of potatoes, therefore, has increased 24 fold during the past 50 years, and that of grain 14 fold. In this con- nection it should also be remembered that the starch content of the potatoes has been increased. The best indication of the growth, however, is found in the out- put of the finished product. Assuming an alcohol yield of 8 per cent in 1855—a rather high figure—Behrend (1907, p. 395) computes an output corresponding to 32,757,700 gallons (124,000,000 liters) of absolute alcohol. Figured on the same pias the production in 1860 may be estimated at 42,003,825 gallons (159,000,000 liters) and in 1865 at 52,570,825 gallons (199,000,000 liters) of absolute alcohol. In 1907 the production of spirit in the German Empire exceeded 105,670,000 gallons (400,000,000 liters), and in the territory corre- sponding to the Prussia of the earlier days it exceeded 79,252,500 gallons (300,000,000 liters). The production of spirit since 1855, AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. 5 therefore, has increased fully 24 fold. If it be remembered that the percentage of yield assumed for 1855 was taken rather higher than was in all probability obtained on the average, this ratio becomes favorable. TAXES ON THE FINISHED PRODUCTS, 1887. While the tax on the mash capacity, therefore, had had a very beneficial effect on the technology of alcohol and on the industry as a whole, the legislation of 1887 had, at least at first, a very different effect. In addition to the mash-capacity tax, a tax was levied on the finished product when disposed of (Verbrauchsabgabe). This sec- ond tax was higher than the first and was graded according to the quantity of whisky produced. A certain amount (Kontingent), supposed to equal the consumption for beverage purposes established on the basis of the statistics of the previous period of 5 years, was taxed at the rate of 50 cents per gallon. The surplus alcohol above this estimated amount (Ueberkontingent) was taxed at the rate of 70 cents per gallon. The alcohol used for industrial purposes was not affected by this legislation, since the tax paid was refunded, as will be shown later. The considerably increased price for whisky resulted in a corre- sponding diminution in the consumption. The amount consumed shortly before this law went into effect has been estimated at 79,252,500 gallons (300,000,000 liters) (Wittelshéfer and Behrend, 1906, p. 363), whereas in 1887 it dropped to 57,325,975 gallons (217,000,000 liters), that is, about one-third. In the long run it did not pay to produce more alcohol than the demand called for. A con- siderable reduction in the quantity of alcohol produced had to be the inevitable result. Such a setback to a most important agricul- tural industry was equivalent to a setback of agriculture at large. In this setback the South German States (Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden) did not share to the same extent as the North German States, since this law applied only to the northern group. In order to persuade the southern States to accept the same taxation and to join the whisky-tax union (Branntweinsteuergemeinschaft), thereby making it effective for the entire German Empire, these States were given a more liberal assignment at the lower tax rate. As a result, the distilleries of these States produced but very little surplus alco- hol; that is, practically all of their alcohol was taxed at the rate of 50 cents per gallon (50 marks per hectoliter) and but very little at 70 cents per gallon (70 marks per hectoliter). The setback which was the immediate effect of the law of 1887 was, in part at least, counterbalanced by other effects which were the indirect outcome of the legislation. While the German distilling industry possibly never faced the problem of prohibition, the legis- 6 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - lation of 1887 clearly taught the lesson that the future growth of the consumption of distilled alcohol as a beverage would not be permitted to keep pace with the actual growth in population. Other outlets for the use of alcohol had to be sought, for the industry was greatly in need of expansion. TAX REFUNDS ON INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL, 1879 AND 1887. The law of 1879 had already empowered the Council of the Rep- resentatives of the German States (Bundesrath) to grant the same refund of taxes on industrial alcohol that was granted to exported spirits. The first statistical data concerning the consumption of alcohol for industrial purposes date from this period. During the fiscal year 1880-81, 2,462,111 gallons (9,820,000 liters) were thus consumed. This quantity increased until in 1886-87 it amounted to 4,837,044 gallons (18,310,000 liters) ; that is, it had almost doubled in six years. Yet this amount is insignificant when compared with the drop in consumption of 21,134,000 gallons (80,000,000 liters), due to the tax levied on the finished product when disposed of (Abgabesteuer ). While the law of 1887 had introduced the heavy tax on the finished product, it also brought absolute relief from taxation of all alcohol for purposes other than as a beverage within the boundaries of Germany. ‘The inconveniences which hampered the free use of the tax-free alcohol granted in principle by the law of 1879 were removed, and the completely denatured alcohol became as free as any other commercial commodity after 1887. Though the price of alcohol consumed for beverage purposes was greatly in- creased through the laws of 1887, the price of that used for technical purposes was lowered. The results are best expressed in figures. As already stated, the quantity of technical or industrial alcohol used in 1886-87 in the States which were included within the whisky-tax union as consti- tuted before 1887, was 4,834,402 gallons (18,300,000 liters). The quantity thus used immediately jumped to 8,215,842 gallons (31,100,000 liters) for this territory, and to 10,223,572 gallons (88,700,000 liters) for the entire German Empire. INCREASE IN TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS OF ALCOHOL. After 1887 there was a constant increase in the consumption of alcohol for technical purposes. However, an increase in consump-- tion which would correspond to the demand for expansion was attainable only when this alcohol could be produced at a suffi- ciently low price. It was soon recognized that the most important field in which this consumption could be looked for was in its appli- cation to the production of heat, light, and power. Its use for the AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. i production of heat was an old field in the application of alcohol. Alcohol burners and alcohol cooking apparatus had been used for a very long time. Its application for illuminating purposes and for generating power were, however, new. The courses to be pursued were indicated on the one hand by the invention of the incandescent mantle by Auer von Welsbach, in consequence of which such rapid strides were made in gas illumination, and, on the other hand, by the invention of the internal-combustion motor. However, in order to accomplish anything of real importance, the price of alcohol had to be reduced to such a point that it could compete with petroleum, the most widely distributed substance used for a like purpose. DISTILLATION TAX OF 1895, AND BONUS ON INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL. The mere freedom from taxation did not suffice for the purpose desired. Other means had to be sought to attain this end. In con- sequence, there resulted the idea of the distillation tax (Brenn- steuer), which was incorporated in the law of July 16, 1895. The distillation tax is a progressive tax on production, levied on the products of the distilleries.) The revenues from this source are utilized for paying the refund (Riickvergiitung) ; that is, a sort of premium or bonus paid on alcohol used within the German bound- aries for other than beverage purposes. In other words, the money necessary for this cheapening of industrial alcohol was raised within the distilling industry itself. The effect of this distillation tax became apparent at once. Whereas the alcohol used for industrial purposes in 1894-95 amounted to 18,967,765 gallons (71,800,000 liters), in 1895-96 it amounted to 21,345,000 gallons (80,800,000 liters). INCREASE IN POTATO CULTURE. During the decade after the enactment of the law of 1887 the production of alcohol remained fairly constant. With one excep- tion it varied little from 73,969,000 gallons (280,000,000 liters) a year. The exception occurred during the industrial year 1895-96, when the production rose to more than 79,252,500 gallons (300,- 000,000 liters). From the year 1897-98, however, the production of alcohol in Germany made enormous strides. As a result of the progress made in the cultivation of potatoes, harvests increased to an extraordinary degree. Those yields which formerly were re- garded as enormously high were looked upon as barely average. From 1896 the potato crops increased annually until in 1901 they culminated in a harvest of. 107,841,970,000 pounds (17,890,829,000 bushels), a yield that was attained a second time in 1905. That this development should prove of consequence to the distill- ing industry was inevitable. The excess of potatoes naturally was 8 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, forced into the distilleries, thereby increasing the production of alcohol. This was made the more possible because the improved methods of cultivation were yielding potatoes richer in starch and the improvements in technology were causing a large yield of alcohol. In 1897-98, 79,252,500 gallons (300,000,000 liters) of alcohol were produced, while in 1901-2 not less than 112,010,200 gallons (424,- 000,000. liters) were manufactured. Owing to the decrease in the potato harvests during the next few years, the production of alcohol dropped somewhat, but it reached its zenith in 1905-6 with a produc- tion of 115,444,475 gallons (437,000,000 liters). For several years after the enactment of the law of 1887, the pecuniary success of the alcohol distilleries was not great. The price per gallon had dropped about 10 cents as compared with the prices obtained before 1887. The “ Kontingent” did not afford a sufficient substitute for this reduction in price, since the large majority of distillers, at least in North Germany, were compelled to produce a considerable quantity of alcohol paying the higher tax rate of the “ Ueberkontingent.” 'To this must be added the fact that the dis- tillers did not realize the actual average price for the year, but one considerably below the average. The prices of alcohol were fixed by the Chamber of Commerce of Berlin and were so regulated that they were relatively low during those months in which the alcohol was in the hands of the distiller, but they were raised as soon as the producers had disposed of their products. The result, therefore, was that the dealers and not the producers enjoyed the greatest pecuniary benefits from the manufacture of alcohol. COOPERATION IN MARKETING. It was soon recognized that relief would result only from a cooper- ative disposal of the alcohol produced. The basis for a cooperative union had been laid with the establishment and assignment of alco- hol production under the lower rate of taxation (Kontingentirung). While attempts in this direction were made at once, they did not result in the desired success. In spite of the greatest efforts, a com- plete union of the entire industry did not immediately result. A number of provincial sale associations (Verkaufsgenossenschaften) , cooperative organizations for the sale of alcohol, were organized, some of which still exist and constitute, as it were, the centers of crystallization about which the present large organization has de- veloped for the disposal of the alcohol produced in Germany. It was only with the third attempt, at a time when the position of the alcohol market had become untenable, not only for the agricultural distilleries (Brenner), but also for the distilleries and rectifiers in the cities (Spiritusfabrikanten), that these efforts were crowned with striking success. AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. 9 ORGANIZATION OF THE CENTRAL ASSOCIATION. In 1899 there was organized the Society of German Distillers for the Disposal of Alcohol (Verwertungsband deutscher Spiritusfab- rikanten), which included not only practically all of the agricultural distilleries, but the most important of the city distilleries and refiners as well. The members of this new organization entered upon a pre- liminary contract for nine years with the Central Association for the Disposal of Alcohol (Zentrale fiir Spiritusverwerthung), which also was a new corporation, with limited habilities, to which belonged almost all the rectifiers of alcohol. The members of the Distillers’ Society (Verwertungsverband) pledged themselves to turn over to the Central Association for the purpose of disposal all of the alco- hol manufactured by them. The Central Association in turn prom- ised to dispose of the alcohol in the best manner possible, for a cer- tain compensation which the members received primarily for the rectification of the alcohol thus obtained. The essential feature of the new cooperative organization was that the cooperating agricul- tural distillers would receive the full year’s value for their product and that fluctuations in the price would no longer result exclusively to the benefit of the dealers. On September 15, 1899, the new cooperative arrangement went into force. A limitation of the production of alcohol by contract was not contemplated. The peculiar nature of the agricultural distilla- tion industry (Brennereigewerbe) did not lend itself readily to such a limitation. Besides, the position of those distillers who remained outside of the arrangement would have been strengthened, since these distillers would not have been subject to such a limitation. It there- fore became apparent from the very beginning that the Society of Distillers would soon have to face the disposal of large quantities of alcohol, and that this disposal could not be sought in an increase of the amount of spirit used for drinking purposes. The future of the distilling industry, therefore, lay first of all in the increased use of alcohol for technical purposes, and especially for those purposes to which petroleum was applied. The Central Asso- ciation from the very beginning of its organization regarded the increase in this demand as its prime object. A special department, the technical section of the Central Association (technische Ab- teilung der Zentrale fiir Spiritusverwerthung), was created, having manifold duties. It was to test existing apparatus which had been constructed for developing heat, light, and power from alcohol; to establish stores in which such apparatus might be offered for sale to the public; to start a literary campaign for the application of alcohol to household needs; to send outfits to exhibitions; and to organize a retail trade in denatured alcohol, thus assuring the public that the 74027°—Bull, 182—15——-2 10 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. alcohol was of the required strength and that it could be had at a stable price. Much has been accomplished in this way, and they do not assume too much who claim that what has been attained is due in the first instance to the Central Association and its technical division. But this activity, important and fruitful of results as it has been, could not have proved satisfactory without such a reduction in the price of alcohol as would allow it to compete with petroleum. Its sale at a price equal to that obtained for beverage alcohol was, therefore, not expedient; and a differentiation in the disposal of the product, according to the use to be made of it, had to be established. Inas- much as it could not be assumed that any individual would dispose of his products except at the highest price attainable, such a differ- entiation could be accomplished only by an organization which, like the existing dealers’ trust (Verwertungsunternehmen), could control the sale of the bulk of the alcohol produced. A large organization which exercises such control can do this, because the loss resulting from the sale of industrial alcohol at a lower price can be made up by the higher price at which alcohol consumed as a beverage is disposed of. Yet it was because of this differentiation im price be- tween alcohol sold for technical purposes and alcohol used for beverage purposes that those who remained outside the Distillers’ Society (Verband) enjoyed certain advantages. For example, they did not have to contribute to the sacrifices made on behalf of the alcohol consumed for industrial purposes. That such a situation should become a source of unpleasantness was but natural. SUCCESS OF THE CENTRAL ASSOCIATION. The striking success with which the activity of the Central Asso- ciation has been crowned becomes apparent from a few statistical data. In 1898-99, the year in which the Central Association was organized, the consumption of alcohol for technical purposes amounted to 23,511,575 gallons (89,000,000 liters). During the first year of the existence of the association it rose to 26,153,325 gallons (99,000,000 liters), and by 1905-6 it had risen to 39,097,900 gallons (148,000,000 liters). The increase, no doubt, would have been much greater had it not been for the fact that the association had to pass through two crises: (1) In 1901-2, when the development of the technical consumption had to overcome the serious obstacle of the removal of the distillation tax, and (2) in 1904-5 when, in consequence of the failure of the potato crop, the retail price for denatured alcohol had to be increased. Nevertheless, in spite of the increased use of industrial alcohol, it became exceedingly difficult to establish an equilibrium between production and consumption AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. 11 because of the enormously increased potato production. Indeed, the surplus of alcohol carried over increased from year to year. - VOLUNTARY REGULATION OF PRODUCTION. In October, 1902, the surplus for which no use could be found amounted to 26,417,500 gallons (100,000,000 liters), approximately double the quantity that had to be carried over in any previous year. Something had to be done to diminish this surplus if a crisis which would affect the entire distilling industry was to be prevented. The consumption could not be sufficiently increased to reestablish the equilibrium, especially since the amount used as a beverage decreased rather than increased. Another measure, therefore, had to be re- sorted to, namely, the regulation of production. The agreement be- _tween the agricultural distiller and the association did not permit of such a regulation by contract. An appeal, however, to the agricul- tural distillers was not made in vain. The large majority of dis- tillers realized that it would be more profitable for them to produce smaller quantities with reasonable profits than to distill large quan- tities at a loss. The representatives of 90 per cent of the agricul- tural potato industry voluntarily agreed to inflict upon themselves a reduction of 18 per cent, calculated on an average production for the years 1896-97 to 1900-1901. The result was that the surplus car- ried over the next fiscal year dropped to about 7,925,250 gallons (30,000,000 liters). The production agreement henceforth became a standard feature of the distilling industry. The 9-year contract entered upon in 1899 between. the Society of German Distillers and the Central Association expired in 1908, and the renewal of this contract for another nine years was accomplished. While the existing situation was thus assured, the distilling industry nevertheless anticipated the future with some curiosity if not anxiety. THE POTATO THE PRINCIPAL SOURCE OF ALCOHOL. The cultivation of the potato in Europe is of quite recent date when compared with that of grain, which has been cultivated two thousand years or more. Toward the end of the sixteenth century, the potato was brougnt from America to certain parts of Spain and Engiand. At first it was considered a curiosity, and for a long time attracted but little attention when cultivated in gardens. Grad- ually, however, the value of the potato as a nutritious food became known and its cultivation increased accordingly. The great extent to which the cultivation of the potato was car- ried on in Prussia during the second half of the eighteenth century was due to the efforts of Frederick the Great, who appreciated thor- oughly the great politico-economical significance of its cultivation. 1; BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In importance it no longer competes with the cereals; it exceeds them. Of 64,860,000 acres (26,250,000 hectares) of arable land in the Ger- man Empire, 8,150,000 acres (3,300,000 hectares), or 12.5 per-~cent, were planted with potatoes during the year 1901, a proportion which was maintained essentially unchanged during the five succeeding years. The cultivation of cereals was relatively slight, amounting in 1901 to 3,090,000 acres (1,250,000 Hoctanes)) that is, about 4.75 per cent of the total farming area. Compared with all other civilized countries, Germany has the most extensive potato lands in proportion to both its area and the number of inhabitants. Table II shows the acreage of potatoes cul- tivated in various countries during the year 1900. TABLE II.—Area of potato lands in various countries in 1900. s Calculated on} Area grown Countries. a totalarea |for each 10,000 of 100 acres. inhabitants. Acres. Acres. Germany 5.4 158. 88 Austria. . 3.9 110.70 Hungary 1.8 75.60 EPETICO Re ele ree cee ae ea oie a Re eee oe ee eas 2.9 97.36 Great Britain and Ireland 1.6 30.64 DEES Eee oS ee IE ARES ORS a Soe Se A SaaS eee... 1s SSRER OSES SSE Ree cigs Ave 81.54 United States pal 34.10 For several years the potato crops of Germany have increased enormously, not only in the quantity produced on a given area, but also in the total amount, as is shown in Table III, covering the years 1896 to 1907, inclusive. TABLE IJI.—Potato crops of Germany for the years 1896 to 1907, inclusive. Crop yield (bushels of |} Crop yield (bushels of 60 ds). 0 ‘ Area cul- pound) Area cul- 60 pants) Year. tivated Year. Gan (acres). Per acres). Per Total crop. sya Total crop. sere 1 SOG mel is Sek 7,543,444 | 1,187,875, 000 1OieO) ||| LOD lee= eee ee ae 8,008,511 | 1,595,490,000 | 199.1 {SOT eer tce 7,580, 440 | 1,241,040, 000 163 27).|) 1003 See eee 7, 998, 627 1,574,930, 000 196.8 1R9Stee ess 22 7,612,158 | 1,349, 250, 000 AT S2'i\|\ 190422 ee nee 8, 124,648 | 1,332,090,000 | 163.9 TROON Sass eke: 7, 737, 845 | 1,414, 100, 000 1827/1) A905 eee a ene 8,196,307 | 1,773,940,000 | 216.4 1900253 Se sate Se 7, 953, 598 1 491, 220, 000 187215 |) T9OBSE-- eeer ee 8, 159, 242 | 1,576,220,000 | 193.05 1901 See Ee 8, 200, 834 1,788, 920, 000 21301 || ASD aes ee eee 8, 146, 887 | 1,671,700,009 | 205.08 Longer periods of time likewise reveal an enormous increase in potato crops, as is shown by the following 5-year averages for a period of 20 years: From 1887 to 1891, 999,780,000 bushels; 1892 to 1896, 1,230,900,000 bushels; 1897 to 1901, 1,460,540,000 bushels; 1902 to 1906, 1,570,530,000 bushels. The increase in the average for the last period over that of the first period amounted to 570,750,000 bushels, or 57 per cent, representing a value in excess of $90,000,000. AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. 13 The value of the potato crop in Germany is shown by the following figures, which give the average amount of raw food material pro- duced by the various cereal crops from 1896 to 1901, as compared with potatoes: Rye, 14,726,738,000 pounds; wheat and spelt, 6,790,- 168,000 pounds; all grains, 21,516,906,000 pounds; potatoes alone, 19,246,158,000 pounds. It becomes apparent, therefore, that potatoes furnished but 10.5 per cent less raw food material than all the cereal products combined. The potato crops gathered from land which was cultivated ac- cording to rational methods exceeded by far the average potato yield. According to statistics collected by the Association of Ger- man Distillers for the Disposal of Alcohol, there were harvested in some instances crops of more than 535 bushels per acre, while yields of 300 to 375 bushels per acre were quite common. While it is true that such crops as these were produced only by very intelli- gent agriculturists and under very favorable conditions, the possi- bility of attaining these results proves that the total yields will increase considerably in the future, for the experience which the . pioneers in this direction have obtained in cultivating potatoes will naturally become common knowledge in the course of time. Where the cultivation of potatoes is carried on extensively, it _ forms one of the best supports for rational methods of agriculture, especially where circumstances are unfavorable to the cultivation of the sugar beet. This is the case in the larger part of Germany. While potatoes require good soil and considerable manuring, the care in this direction is rewarded by large crops and an excellent condition of the soil for the next crop, whatever that may be. The growing of largely increased crops has unfortunately one drawback, namely, the danger of overproduction. Inasmuch as it is not advisable to diminish the area cultivated except in special cases and in a limited manner, it becomes necessary to find outlets for the surplus. For many years the popular method of utilizing potatoes has been as a crude material in the chemical industries. The most important ingredient, starch, is used either for the manufacture of pure starch or for the transformation into alcohol by means of fermentation after previous saccharification. The process culminates in distilla- tion, in order to separate the alcohol formed from the other sub- stances of the tuber. In both cases the result is a product of almost unlimited sta- bility, representing a high value in small quantities and providing an article easily convertible into money. The by-products of estab- lishments working with potatoes furnish large quantities of nu- tritious feed, and therefore potatoes form a valuable crop when, in connection with the agricultural operations, the starch-making and distilling industries are combined. 14 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Distillation is the more important and extensive of these two branches of agricultural industry. The manufacture of spirits is the only form of potato utilization concerning which we possess reliable statistics. It appears that with the increased potato pro- duction. the use of this product for. the manufacture of alcohol has also increased. Behrend (1905, p. 30) estimates that in 1905, cal- culating on an average total crop of 1.578,530,000 bushels, 5.8 per cent of the crop. or over 90,000.000 bushels, were used in the manu- facture of spirits. At first thought this quantity does not seem large. but it gains in importance when we consider to what extent the distillation of potatoes exists as an agricultural industry in the German Empire. Many such distilleries are situated in the eastern part of Ger- many. the principal centers being in the Prussian Provinces, Posen, West Prussia, Pomerania, and Brandenburg. In these eastern re- gions the price of spirits regulates the price of potatoes. ‘The fact that these agriculturists are accustomed to dispose of their - surplus potatoes in the western regions, where the demand is greater than the supply. proves how important a factor such distilleries are. When considered from another pomt of view the alcohol dis- tillation becomes the more important as a branch of agriculture, since it alone renders a rational method of agriculture possible in those regions which possess a light soil and are situated, as most of them are. at a distance from business centers. Indeed, thon- sands of agricultural undertakings owe their existence to these dis- tilleries. About 6.000 agricultural potato distilleries are in operation in the German Empire. 4.000 of which represent one of the chief activities of the respective farms, whereas the remaining 2,000 have a secondary place. The production of spirits from other substances, such as grain, fruit. and molasses, is insignificant in comparison with that from potatoes. During the year 1905-6, 115,629,397 gallons (437,700,000 liters) of pure alcohol were produced in distilleries of all kinds (Behrend, 1907, p. 401). Of this quantity, 92.947,035 gallons (351,- 800.000 liters) were produced in agricultural potato distilleries, representing over $36.000.000 as total receipts. This is calculated on an average value of about 39 cents per gallon, a price slightly lower than that of the Central Association for that year. The spent mash, valued at 15 cents for a quintal of potatoes (220.26 pounds), must also be considered, since it represents a value of over $3.150.000. The total value of products derived from agricultural potato distilleries. therefore, amounted in that year to nearly $40.000.000 in gross receipts. AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOE IN GERMANY. BS THE DISTILLERY AS A FACTOR ON THE MARKET. Tt is generally admitted, even by ardent advocates of the agricul- tural distillery as an economic factor, that alcohol from the numer- ous agricultural distilleries costs relatively much more than the same article manufactured in the larger distilleries. This conclusion is the direct result not only of general observation, but also of careful computations made at the Institution for Fermentation Industries (Institut fiir Gahrungsgewerbe). This is true in a measure of even the larger agricultural distilleries. Even the casual visitor to the general agricultural distilleries, who Inows nothing of technological computations, must be impressed with the correctness of this statement. Most of the estates have not more than a double operation (Betrieb), whereas a working day of 12 hours would admit of a fourfold operation. The efficiency of the plant, therefore, is but one-half what it might be. On an equipment of $40,545 (170,000 marks), or even of $19.080 to $21.465 (80.000 to 90,000 marks), this certainly is an important industrial factor. From the purely industrial point of view, therefore, taking into account the interest on the principal involved, the depreciation of the machinery but half utilized, and the cost of labor not fully utilized, the reason becomes apparent for the statement so often made, even by the strongest advocates of the agricultural distillery, that the distillery does not pay. It should be added, however, that whenever alcohol brings a better price, as was the case during the campaign of 1907-8, even this aspect of the situation is regarded as more hopeful. However, the owners of estates would not maintain these distil- leries if they did not pay in some way; new distilleries would not be built if they were regarded as losing investments, and the Govern- ment would not be justified in stimulating these institutions if they were not regarded as an economic factor of importance. While, therefore, the question of the direct industrial value of these agricultural distilleries is a debatable one, the question of their indirect economic value does not seem to be questioned. The extended cultivation of the potato—extended so largely for the very reason that the quantity produced over and above that needed for culinary and other usual purposes can be converted into aleohol—has made possible the profitable cultivation of large tracts of light, sandy soil in eastern Germany. One of the other principal uses to which this soil is put is that of forestation (pine), but although timber is very valuable in a way, it does not add to the food resources of the country. Not only has the extended cultivation of the potato made larger tracts of land productive, but the land already under cultivation has been materially improved by the use of potatoes in the proper rota- tion of crops. Thus, for example, the yield of grain is increased 16 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ~ when potatoes are cultivated every third year. Since the potato demands deep cultivation this crop accomplishes for the eastern provinces what the sugar beet does for the heavier soils of the west- ern provinces. Furthermore, the alcohol distillery makes possible the ready conversion of an unstable product into a stable one. At best, potatoes can be kept only until the warm weather of the next season sets in, whereas alcohol has been kept by the Central Associa- tion for several years following an overproduction. Besides, the po- tatoes can be sorted, as is done; for instance, in the neighborhood of Berlin, and the best can be put upon the market for eating, while the small and otherwise inferior ones—that is, those which are dam- aged or which reveal poor keeping qualities—can be taken to the distillery. Again, as soon as the potatoes show signs of decay the capacity of the distillery can be increased. Thus a large part of the waste of an important product of the farm can be saved, for even those potatoes which are already partly decayed can be utilized. The spent mash—by far the most important by-product of the dis- tillery—and the skins and watery wastes (Abwisser) are important adjuncts to the food rations of cattle. The cattle in turn furnish fertilizers to the soil, and are thus profitable aside from the pecuniary advantages derived from the milk and the meat. In order to fully appreciate the value placed on the manure, the by-product of the dairy barn, it is necessary to see with what scrupulous care it is pre- served as well as with what large expenditure of time and labor the fields are manured. Thus everything works hand in hand. After having seen all this, one begins to appreciate more fully why such an organization as the Society of Distillers for the Disposal of Alcohol, consisting almost exclusively of agriculturists, should be willing to spend so much money and energy in finding new industrial outlets for alcohol and for improving and popularizing the present outlets. This class are not trying to improve their situation by stimulating the consump- tion of alcohol as a beverage but by devoting their entire resources to the increased use of technical alcohol, as it is called. In this way they are not only helping themselves, but they are also striving to make their country independent of Russia and of the United States in so far as the use of petroleum is concerned. Besides, the rapidly growing population of Germany demands that every acre of land be cultivated as intensively as possible. It is interesting to note that. whereas the agriculturists as a class show considerable foresight in this respect the average owner of an estate has not yet- learned to stimulate the consumption of alcohol by using it for technical purposes on his own premises. For the sake of convenience the agricultural cistilleetre of Ger- many may be classified into three groups, as follows: AGRICULTURAL, ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. (1) The larger distilleries on the domains, estates, and large farms. (2) The small outfits on the small farms. (3) The larger cooperative distilleries. According to the Landwirtschaftlicher Kalendar for 1908, Part II, page 22, there were 14,356 agricultural distilleries in Couey dieing the season of 1905-6 as opposed to 791 nonagricultural distilleries, and 53,050 stills employed principally in the production of brandy; also 28 distilleries producing alcohol from molasses. Table IV gives a detailed statement of the capacity of these differ- ent classes of stills and shows the total output of each class. Taste 1V.—German distilleries, showing their number, in 1908. 17 capacity, and output Capacity classification, based on annual produc- tion, computed as abso- lute alcohol (gallons). | libel ee 2, OF Le | Fo i Sean z PAIR EOL ET ae 26,400 to 31,680.........-.-. 31, 680 to 36, BM fal =. 36, 960 to 42, Aaa ce ttl 42, 240 to 47,520 LS RE Oe 7? a CUP | ee 52, 800 to 58, (TiS aoa 58, 080 to 63 "360 ge Aes ee 63,360 to 68 "640 Lp ae ae 68,640 to 73,920 ae aneeosaoe GEDA IO 0. 2 ain vtais's n= 06 79,200 to 105,600.......--... 105,600 to 132,000 132,000 to 158,400........... 158,400 to 184,800........... 184,800 to 211,200........... 237,600 10 264,000..........- 264,000 to 290,400.....---... 290,400 to 316,800..........- 316,800 to 343,200...-...---- | 448,800 to 475,200...-.-..--. 660,000 to 636,400 Total number of dis- Number of distilleries. Classified according to crude material principally consumed. Potato. Indus- Agricul- trial. tural. 445 237 192 CL a ae Total product ion,com- puted as absolute alcohol. ...gallons. a Of these, & are industrial dis tilleries. b Of these, I is an in dustrial distillery. ¢ Of these, 6 are industrial distilleries. 74027°—Bull, 182 ~ 9 15 oO | .| 92, 675, 892 |271, 228 |7, 888,503 | 11,794,040 } d Of these, é Of these, Cereals. Molasses. Agricul- Tndus- tural. trial. 4, 466 Ti aseeenoaae 1,051 Gh RR Naki ara 516 U(n| aemeesooae 252 Oi Mose eee 174 1a eee ae eae 148 ee a 299 17a eas 342 Lal Bee smiaie 214 (ARE aB Sere 115 BY Setanta 114 36) |oaeineee ents 80 40 1 120 49 1 58 BOm| seacat cia as 58 20 ees es ece. 19 UT eee ce eae 44 Wipe Sie is nines 22 10 il 11 9 2 10 8 2 7 Ay Rees oid 4 5 1 3 4 3 2 4 3 1 GE PF Ie ae 6 3 1 1 1 1 Sara aiars Sparel 2 3 aie Beas = 13 3 1 THEA One pene 1 5 4 in Ia kote 4 1 Jo tadiemee's Oiletoated ese Beene 1 1 sone bee IM tte cap xe BA. AB 11 Ao ye S65 Siew se Bale tates weet Pe Oe PA eae eee Bre een Le leaeceuraes 8, 169 758 28 2,286; 780 Other sub- stances. 806, 896 | 3 are industrial distilleries. 35 are industrial distilleries. 53,050 Total,all . classes. 68, 405 115, 621, 340 18 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DISTILLERIES ON THE LARGER ESTATES AND DOMAINS. A better understanding of the part which the distillery plays in the economics of the estate can no doubt be obtained from a few ex- amples. For this purpose data bearing on the agricultural situa- tion as a whole are here tabulated for three estates, two located in the sandy soil of the Mark Brandenburg, not far from Berlin, and the other in the Province of Silesia, in close proximity to soil sufli- ciently heavy for the cultivation of sugar beets. TaBLeE V.—Alcohol production on the larger estates of Germany. Estates. Item. Dahlem. | Dahlewitz.| Neuguth.1 Sige OLeStater eee ee een tery ea * ... acres. | 875 1,375 22,812 IATER.Of POLAtOES CttiVaLed ese eee oe eee ea eee ee dome] 250 400 3 312 Average yield of potatoes per acre.-.....-.----.-----.----- bushels.-| 187 to 213 266 267 Makalyloldte sty sake) st 2 ee ya ene cdg. Beale OSS \ 100, 000 83, 333 Usedianidistillenystess eo 5235-80 eae oa teetic ine eee do....| 13,333 33, 000 50, 000 IMSS HICAPACiYestsse sa -eeeee eee ee nO ear eee rae eee eee ree doze 385. 695 581. 185 792. 525 Operation (Betrieb) 25222-2205. eese ole eel ee eee Twofold. | 4 Twofold. Twofold. OKontingvent?7 ose sacc ce sscccccae seen eee se ee ee eee ee bushels. .| 10, 825. 892 (6) 12, 152. 05 Expected:to beidistilled 2) os 52) ase 2 en ee eee ee = oe do...- (7) (7) 36, 984.5 Cattle on the estate: COWS Soe a sae eens aac tise ae acne cis eat ee Seren ae eee eee 210 100 100 (O40 bac 5 sb oe Se SaaS e sda esses cs seEshanassossssosocsSct oben sabes = 28 40 50 Calvesisiicocscassee as oe cask eee oe Zeca dees tio eee ee see ae eee None. Many. 150 1 Does not include forest. 2 There is an equalacreage of forest land. Of the 2,812 acres, 2,175 acres are under the plow, the balance meadow, lake, and garden. 3 A larger area is cultivated with clover, lupine, and saradella; 60 acres with sugar beets, ete. 4 Part of the time this distillery is expected to operate threefold. - 5 The amount allotted to the distillery in question. 6 The ‘‘ Kontingent”’ for this distillery had not been decided definitely. 7 These two distilleries being located near Berlin, the managers themselves did not know how much would be distilled. Berlin naturally influences the potato market in the neighborhood much more than the market is affected at the more distant estates. DISTILLERIES ON SMALL FARMS. The large majority of the stills in Germany are used, as are those in France, for the production of alcoholic beverages from the juice of grapes, apples, prunes, etc., and not for the manufacture of alcohol as such. Practically all of the distilleries enumerated in Table IV under the heading “ Other substances” are stills of this class. Their size and capacity can be judged, in large measure at least, by the an- nual output of beverage computed as absolute alcohol. Of the total 53,050 stills of this class not less than 47,478 have an annual output of only about 13 gallons of absolute alcohol. In other words, they produce 25 gallons of brandy of approximately 50 per cent strength or about 35 gallons of brandy of approximately 33 per cent strength. These distilleries, or more correctly the domestic stills, have nothing to do with the production of alcohol as such, and even where there are small distilleries for such production of alcohol, they are not con- sidered even as a possible factor in the production of alcohol from AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. 19 waste products on the farm. Such a use of small stills is regarded as financially impracticable even in countries like France and Ger- many, where the peasants have long since learned to live most eco- nomically and do not allow anything to go to waste. There are, however, a number of small stills in ees when compared with those just mentioned, but small when compared with the smallest distillery regarded as representing the minimum practical efficiency—which utilize potatoes and cereals for the pro- duction of alcohol as such and are maintained in large part for the purpose of supplying spent waste as forage for cows. Several of these distilleries are still found in southern Germany. With the abolition of bondage during the early part of the nineteenth century, many of the peasants became small individual farmers. In parts of Bavaria, for example, the division of the larger tracts, both municipal and private, into diminutive farms resulted in the decima- tion of cattle because each farmer desired to cultivate as much of his land as possible. The result was that the land, no longer properly fertilized with stable manure, became more or less exhausted. To counteract this tendency, the cultivation of potatoes was stimulated by the installation of the so-called Pistorius distilling apparatus. Of these stills, mounted near the middle of the nineteenth century, some may yet be seen in operation. However, they are rapidly giving way to larger continuous stills and to a more rational mode of oper- ation through cooperative means. In the village of Perlach, near Munich, where about 15 years ago there were 35 of these stills, but 4 were in operation at the beginning of the season 1907-8, and one of these was abandoned in December, 1907, the owner having purchased an interest in the local cooperative distillery. - Not only are these distilleries hampered in their operation because of their small size, but they are not continuous apparatus and hence involve considerable loss of time in charging (which is done with the aid of a bucket instead of a pump) and heating. Moreover, the men who operate these stills, although they may have had years of ex- perience, have not, as a rule, a technical training. Naturally they can not undertake the production of the necessary yeast; hence, this must be obtained from the nearest brewery. This involves not only a loss of time, but it frequently means poor yeast and consequently poor fermentation. Even if the farmer be a man of somewhat greater intelligence than his distiller, he does not compute profit and loss and either he is satisfied to receive a certain amount of food daily for his stock and to receive money at regular intervals for his alcohol, or he listens to the agricultural lectures and abandons individual operation. The latter course, as already indicated, has become so common of late that there now remain but relatively few of these 20 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. small agricultural distilleries which actually produce alcohol as such. This should teach the lesson that false hopes should not be engen- dered in our farmers. Yet even these distilleries are not operated -ephemerally, nor are they fed with what might properly be called waste material. They demand a constant supply of crude material and the constant attention of an operator, whose work often begins at 4 o’clock in the morning. ' COOPERATIVE DISTILLERIES. As already stated, the smaller distilleries engaged in the produc- tion of alcohol, not alcoholic beverages, are being replaced rapidly by cooperative distilleries. It is instructive to note at the outset one characteristic feature of the plan, namely, that the unit of coopera- tion is not expressed in shares having a certain money value nor in hundredweights of potatoes to be supplied, but in the amount of spent mash which the shareholder is privileged to call for daily. It is this feature of the cooperative enterprises which, possibly more than any other, clearly indicates where the value of the agricultural distillery lies, viz, in the maintenance of more cattle, which are so essential to the light, gravelly soils. This condition is found at Perlach, in the valley of the Isar, where one of the largest of the cooperative enter- prises is located. A somewhat detailed account of this cooperative distillery is given elsewhere. Suffice it here to say that the contrast between a rational enterprise conducted on a scientific and economic basis and an irrational operation conducted by rule-of-thumb methods could not be greater than the contrast between this cooper- ative plant and the small still in one of the outhouses of a near-by farm. It should also be pointed out that cooperation in such a place as Perlach is made easy by the proximity of the farm buildings to each other, for the farmers of Perlach are for the most part village neighbors, who, while they work their outlying farms individually, follow their social instincts by living very close together. REPORT OF VISITS TO AGRICULTURAL DISTILLERIES. It was deemed wise in connection with this investigation to visit personally a number of agricultural distilleries representing the different types of conditions under which the problem of the produc- tion of alcohol has been worked out. Several estates were visited and such points of significance were noted as would be permitted by a single visit. It was clearly impossible to make exhaustive studies of these estates, but 1t is believed that the data obtained will prove of value. DAHLEM. The royal estate of Dahlem lies northwest of Berlin, between Steglitz and the Grunewald, a royal forest of more than 18,750 acres AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. : 21 (30,000 Morgen). It is one of the few of the numerous estates belonging to the State which are not rented or leased but are man- aged by the State itself. The new Botanical Garden has been created from a part of the original domain. The Pharmaceutical Institute and other public buildings have been erected on ground formerly belonging to it. Other parts have been sold to private individuals, so that at the time of the visit there was a colony of- about 2,000 persons in Dahlem. Therefore, in view of the certain ultimate extinction of the estate by the ever-growing city of Berlin, it is natural that only such improvements should be made as are necessary. _ The old homestead of the family of Wilmersdorf was erected in 1680 and now serves as a dwelling for the superintendent and as _a bureau for the clerical force. The person highest in authority is the Wirklicher Geheimrath, an important government officer, who resides in a villa on the estate and who is an officer of one of the ministries. For the reasons mentioned above this estate was of special interest because it shows what can be done under conditions by no means the most favorable. At the time of the visit the area of this estate, aside from the large forest, comprised 875 acres (1,400 Morgen). Of this area, 315 acres were under rye cultivation, 252 acres under potatoes, 150.5 acres under oats, 94.5 acres under beets, and 63 acres under clover and other green forage crops. The rye and oats were sold and the straw used as bedding for the cows, etc. The beets, of which there were several varieties, were used as fodder, especially in the winter, the leaves being fed in the fall. The clover and green forage crops were fed to the cattle. There were 210 cows in two stables. For field work there were 14 yoke of oxen. There were 46 horses, 26 of which were employed in the fields, 18 were used to draw the milk wagons, and 2 were used for saddle purposes. Pigs, chickens, etc., were raised only for estate purposes. Because of its proximity to Berlin, the estate was operated pri- marily as a dairy farm. On an average, 161.7 gallons of milk were obtained daily. Because of the absence of meadow lands no cattle were raised. Fresh cows were purchased, and after nine months or a year (monthly tests as to yield of milk being made) they were sold in a fattened condition to the butcher. In like manner the oxen were bought when young and after three years of service were sold in a fattened condition without loss. The milk was delivered to retail customers in Berlin, and only in cases of oversupply, as, for example, during the summer months when the customers were away on their vacations and the sale of the 92 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. milk was therefore reduced, were the milk, potatoes, etc., sold to intermediaries. The profits, therefore, were not divided with any one except in cases of necessity. As the production of the cereals serves two purposes, that of pro- viding grain, which finds a good market in Berlin, and straw for bedding the cattle, so the potato also serves two purposes. The good tubers are sold, while the small and defective ones are kept for the distillery and ultimately furnish a by-product which is fed to the cattle. Several varieties of potatoes are cultivated, with reference to the local market and with reference to their value as crude material for the distillery. Some of the table potatoes brought as high as 55 cents per bushel, others only half that sum. The average for the sorted product of the season of 1907 was about 44.4 cents per bushel. _ The summer of that year in Germany was cold and cloudy and was not very favorable for the potato crop. The proximity to Berlin and the possibility of selling the better potatoes directly to the consumer act favorably on the price to be obtained. The smaller and poorer potatoes are valued, as crude material for the distillery, at 37.5 cents per bushel of 60 pounds. To this should be added 6.8 cents per 100 pounds, which is the estimated value of the spent material, as a cattle food. The importance of the distillery as an agricultural industrial fac- tor on this estate is readily indicated by its location. It was erected 25 years ago next to the old cow stable, and has a mash-tub capacity of 385 gallons. It was operated not with reference to reducing the cost of operation to a minimum but to spreading the production of the spent mash over as long a period as possible. Being an old distillery, it has but few modern improvements. Although it is equipped for a fourfold operation, it was operated only twofold, for the reason that while the Government allows the agricultural distilleries 249 days for operation, the allotment assigned by the Central Association to this distillery for the year 1907-8 was only 10,825 gallons of alcohol. On this quantity a tax of $12.50 had to be paid. On the excess distillation, that is, on all alcohol produced over this quantity, there was a tax of $17.50. The 250 acres (400 Morgen) of potato land yielded on an average from 200 to 240 bushels of potatoes per acre, or about 50,000 to 60,000 bushels for the whole area. Of this total, about 1,850 bushels were used for table purposes on the estate. When harvested, the potatoes were roughly sorted in the field. Those which were to be sold at once were shipped to Berlin, and the balance were stored in the fields, to be brought to the distillery as needed. The use to which these were to be put“and the time AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. De when they were to be used depended in part upon uncontrollable factors, such as their keeping qualities and the market price. With this in mind, it becomes apparent why the distillery should have a fourfold equipment and also why at some times it should be run as a twofold operation and at other times as a threefold opera- tion. These considerations also make it clear that for the sake of the cattle, as well as for the purpose of saving rotting potatoes, an excess distillation, on which the direct profits are greatly reduced, may be produced in a given campaign (distilling season). To summarize: The Dahlem estate is operated as a dairy farm. Cattle are not raised, but cows and oxen are bought and as soon as their services cease to be remunerative are sold to the greatest advantage. Grain is cultivated with the dairy system in view. The straw is used for bedding cattle, and the grain (rye and oats) is sold in Berlin, while the flour for home consumption is bought. Barley, of which about 575 bushels are needed for malting, is not raised, because the yield on the sandy fields is said to be too low. Russian barley was bought for the campaign of 1907-8. Potatoes are cultivated and the distillery operated with the same end in view, namely, to provide warm feeding material for the cows during as many of the cold months of the year as possible. The production of alcohol, therefore, is conducted only as a side issue. It is for this reason that the State has regulated the tax on alcohol as it has with reference to agriculture. A distillery operated like the one at Dahlem could not compete with a large modern plant in which the cost of production is reduced to a minimum. And yet the Dahlem distillery, small as it is, had as its “ Kontingent ” at that time four times the quantity assigned to what may be called the small agricultural distilleries, and more than the maximum for that class. The small distilleries producing 10,000 liters (2,641.75 gallons) or less of alcohol pay nothing under the progressive tax (Brenn- steuer). Indeed, the distillery at Dahlem, as well as all agricultural stills, does not pay this tax on the first 10,000 liters which it pro- duces. On each additional 10,000 liters the tax increases. Only the mash tax is paid on the first 10,000 liters, and later, when the alcohol is released, if it is to be used for beverage purposes, the delivery tax (Abgabesteuer) is paid. While each distillery has the right to hold back certain quantities of alcohol for technical purposes, this privilege is not exercised at Dahlem. The machinery operated on the estate is run by steam or electricity—by steam when such can be conveniently had from the boilers of the distillery, and by electricity when the cost of keeping up the steam would be too great for the services rendered. The prox- 24 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. imity of the estate to Steglitz makes electrical service convenient not only in the distillery but also in the creamery and in the grain shed - for thrashing, etc. We have here an instance in which the most expensive kind of power is preferred, because it is cheaper for the service to be rendered than the power obtained from the alcohol manufactured as a by-product on the estate itself. At the time of the visit to Dahlem the personnel of the estate con- sisted of 140 persons: Seventy “ Einheimische,” that is, such as are at home on the estate or in the neighborhood; and 70 “ Auswartige,” that is, imported labor (largely Poles). There was a superintend- ent and three assistants. The superintendent is a sort of engineer who has general charge of the machinery. To this he can direct more of his time during the summer months.. When the distilling opera- tion is but twofold the distillations are ended by noon or shortly thereafter, so that his afternoons are available. When the operation is fourfold the working day lasts from 5.30 in the morning to 6.30 in ~ the afternoon without interruption. It is estimated that. the dis- tillery is operated about 50 days. DAHLEWITZ. The station of Dahlewitz lies about 12 miles south of the Potsdam Belt Line Station of Berlin (Potsdammering). A 15-minute walk from the local station brings one to the former “ Rittergut” or ma- norial estate. At the time of the liberation of the serfs the original estate was partly parceled out. One-fourth was assigned to the village, an- other fourth to the former serfs, and the remainder, roughly esti- mated, constitutes the present estate. This was bought about 1879 for the present owner. At that time the distillery was reequipped, a large brick warehouse was constructed for grain, press cake, etc., and at the time of the visit a part of the old homestead was being rebuilt. It was said that the buildings on the farms, with their equipment, represented as large a value as that of the land. The estate comprised 1,360 acres (550 hectares), of which, however, about 123 acres were leased to others. Of the remaining 1,237 acres, 1,114 acres were under cultivation, and 123 acres were used as meadow. These figures do not include the forest land belonging to the estate. Of the 1,114 acres of cultivated land, 395 were for potatoes, 370 for winter rye, 247 for barley and summer oats, and 102 for clover, beets, etc. One acre of potato land yields about 297 bushels of potatoes, making a total of 117,315 bushels for the entire area culti- vated. Of this amount, about one-third were small and defective potatoes, which were used in the distillery. Of the remaining two- thirds of the crop, part was sold, part kept for seed potatoes, and AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. 25 part distributed among the workmen for use as food or to be fed to the pigs. The grain for the most part is sold in Berlin, the straw being kept for bedding, etc. Whereas at Dahlem barley was not raised but had to be bought for the distillery, at Dahlewitz more than the quantity required for the distillery is raised, the surplus being sold in Berlin. In the malting process, oats are used with the barley in the proportion of 1 to 3. The grain is not mixed in this proportion at the time of malting, but when it is sown in the spring. It is be- heved that the natural mixture is better for the process of malting than the artificial mixture. There were on the estate at that time 100 milch cows, 20 draft oxen, a considerable number of calves, 26 field horses, 6 coach and riding horses; also pigs and 300 chickens. While the estate was run largely as a dairy farm it was by no means as exclusively such as the Dahlem estate. The cows were allowed to calve twice before being disposed of, the bull calves were sold when two weeks old, and the others were raised. Thus the stock was replenished on the estate. The calves were pastured for a part of the time, but the bulk of the 123 acres of meadow land was used for hay (Heuwiese). The cattle bred were the black Dutch. All of the buildings looked very substantial, but the distillery, which was about 80 years old, was of a specially heavy construction. The interior was rebuilt about the time the present owner took pos- session. Most of the parts, therefore, are modern, and the general impression was very favorable, although naturally the arrangement is not as convenient as it might be, because it had to be adapted to the existing space. From the malting vaults to the receiving tank of the finished product everything had the appearance of order and cleanliness. “One fact observed was of special interest as showing the operation of the method of taxation. The agricultural distillery is still taxed in part in accordance with the mash-tub tax laws. This law has been regarded as of special benefit to the distilling industry because it stimulated a number of improvements, as, for example, the thick mash. In order to utilize the mashing space to the utmost, this dis- tillery has a contrivance which removes the skins, etc., from the mash, thereby slightly reducing the volume. While such a contri- vance would not be necessary in the United States, it shows how even in one of the smaller distilleries every step is taken to reduce the tax to be paid. The capacity of the mash tubs is about 580 gallons (2,200 liters) per tub. About 500 tubs are fermented during the distilling season of 84 months, using a twofold operation. About 1.215 gallons of spent mash are obtained daily, so that with 100 milch cows each cow 26 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. receives from 10 to 13 gallons of spent mash daily. The daily aver- age yield of milk per cow is about 2.3 gallons. Five men are employed in the distillery—one master distiller, one assistant, two laborers, and a fireman. The master distiller is also a sort of general-utility man, having general charge of all the ma- chinery, the superintendence of the buildings, etc. Moreover, he must be something of an electrical engineer, as he also has charge of the dynamos used for both light and power, including field power. Here, as in Dahlem, no alcohol is used on the estate for technical or industrial purposes, electricity and steam being employed. In this connection attention should be called to the electric rail- way operated on the estate. It has already been stated that it is about a 15-minute walk from the station to the estate buildings. These buildings are connected with the State railway by a track on which cars are hauled by an electric locomotive. Thus coal is brought directly to the distillery, and the alcohol, when released by the revenue officer, is hauled by rail in carload lots directly to Berlin, each car containing about 15 barrels having a capacity of about 119 gallons each. Another matter of general interest is the system by which the ac- counts are kept. These are systematized, it would seem, by account- ants of the agricultural society. Thus the dairy was charged with $2,875 for the previous year, including liberal items for fodder raised on the estate, for management, etc. If, on an average, 237 gallons of milk are obtained daily and 210 gallons are sold in Berlin at a little over 5 cents per quart (0.25 mark per liter), the income from this source may be estimated at $42 per day, to which should be added the price obtained for the fattened cows when they cease to be valuable for milking purposes. According to the statement of the owner, the distillery in itself does not pay, but when it is regarded as part of the entire estate it does pay. In the foregoing estimate of expenditures of the dairy business of the estate, the distillery receives a credit of 4.1 cents for the spent mash derived from every bushel of potatoes used. The owner stated that in spite of the fact that the estate has 100 milch cows, 40 oxen, and 32 horses, besides calves, pigs, and chickens, he is still compelled to buy stable manure. In addition, he uses large quantities of artificial fertilizers, a fair-sized building being de- voted to the latter. The soil about Berlin is very light and sandy, and evidently needs much stimulation to produce crops that it will 1Recently Prof. Delbriick warned peainet trying to introduce the manufacture of alcohol on too small a scale. In this connection he has figured out the cost of a gallon of alcohol when made in a smali distillery and compared it with the cost of the same quantity when made in a large distillery. These figures, he said, were decidedly against the small distillery and were used by others as an argument against the agricultural distilleries. The justification of the small agricultural distilleries lies in their relation to agriculture as a whole. AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. Pat pay to handle. Whether it would pay to mise grain so near Berlin without the tariff on cereals, the writer does not know. The personnel of the estate of Dahlewitz consisted of about 30 men and 40 women. During the potato harvest 40 persons are added to this number, and during the winter it is reduced by 30 persons. During the potato harvest the children help the adults, who are paid for their work by the hundredweight of potatoes handled and not by the length of time consumed. In addition, the children are also employed during the summer afternoons to pull weeds. A number of families reside on the estate, and about 30 of the emploved are outsiders (Poles, etc.). DOMINIUM NEUGUTH-HEINZENBURG. A 4-hour ride on one of the fast trains between Berlin and Breslau brings one to Liegnitz. If it were not for the pine forests most of the country southeast of Berlin would seem like a large sand waste from which people here and there are trying to make a bare living. It is really necessary to spend the larger part of a brief winter’s day in traveling through this country in order to appreciate what has been accomplished, for example, at Neuguth. From Liegnitz it is a good half-hour’s ride by rail to Leuben, a quaint old Silesian town. From Leuben it is a 2-hour ride by wagon to the Dominium Neuguth-Heinzenburg. The dominium, having been enlarged by the purchase of ten small peasant farms (Bauern- giiter), now comprises over 5,670 acres of land (9,000 Morgen), of which about 2,835 acres (4,500 Morgen) are forested, mostly with pine. Of the slightly larger area not forested, 2,205 acres (3,500 Morgen) are plow lands (Ackerland), 787.5 acres (1,250 Morgen) are meadow land (all hay), 25.2 acrés (40 Morgen) are occupied by ponds or very small lakes, and 63 acres (100 Morgen) are garden land. Diversified farming is practiced. During the season of 1907 the crops were as follows: Rye, 756 acres; potatoes, 315 acres; oats, 157.5 acres; wheat, 63 acres; barley, 63 acres; lupine, 220.5 acres; sara- della,’ 189 acres; clover, 157.5 acres; beets, carrots, etc., 63 acres. The inspector, who had served an apprenticeship of five years with a scientific agriculturist from Halle, stated that he regarded 3815 acres of potatoes a necessity in order to secure proper soil conditions for the necessary rotation of crops of the estate. Every third year cultivated crops (Hackfrucht)—that is, potatoes or beets—should be used. The result is that 350 pounds more of grain are harvested per acre. On the other side of Leuben, where the soil is heavier and admits of the cultivation of sugar beets, an increase of 525 pounds of grain is obtained. 1Saradella is preferred to lupine for light soil. 28 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The average yield of potatoes was over 291 bushels per acre, re- sulting in a total of 91,660 bushels. Of this amount, 55,110 bushels were used for the distillery, 7,350 bushels were reserved as seed potatoes, 18,300 bushels were ened among the laborers, 1,800 bushels were sold, and 9,100 bushels were used as feed. In the year 1907 the potatoes for the distillery were valued at 18.6 cents per bushel, including the spent mash. These potatoes were not sorted. The new distillery, constructed by a Breslau firm after the plans of the building section (Bauabteilung) of the Society for Spirit Manufacturers in Berlin, cost about $42,500. The net profits im 1906 were $1,200, but the computation does not include the interest on the investment and a 10 per cent depreciation. of machinery, due to wear and tear. According to the inspector the value of the distillery, therefore, lay in the utilization of the potatoes whenever desirable. This crop, however, as has been pointed out, is a necessary factor in the proper cultivation of the light soil. The allotted output of the distillery i is 12,150 gallons.t_ The mash- tub capacity is about 790 gallons with a fgokell operation and with the possibility of a dhneetola operation. Eight gallons of spent mash are fed daily to each milch cow and about 59 gallons to the young stock. In addition to the spent mash, hay, etc., each cow gets the following ration: 1 pound of wheat husks, 1 pound of peanut cake, 1 pound of cottonseed cake, and 1 pound of sunflower cake.* As a result of this plan of feeding a daily average of over 2 gallons of milk per cow is obtained, averaging 34 per cent of fat. The milk is sold to a dairy which pays in accordance with the fat content. About 660 gallons of milk are used on the estate, and about 50,190 gallons are sold to the dairy in Polkwitz (about 44 miles distant) at an average of 2.5 cents per*quart. The owner, who is also one of the principal stockholders of the dairy, receives between $200 and $225 in dividends as additional profit. In addition to the 100 milch cows there were on the estate 150 head of young cattle, 50 draft oxen, 40 horses, 500 sheep, 100 chickens, and 100 geese. Pigs are kept on the estate only by resi- dent servants. The value to the estate of these numerous animals can best be appreciated if one sees what quantities of manure are spread over the fields. The carting is done by the men and ce spreading by the women and girls. 1 Formerly it was 15,850 gallons, but it was diminished because of the erection of new . distilleries. This increase in the number of agricultural distilleries would seem to in- dicate that the estate owners are convinced of their value, even though the benefit de- rived be but indirect, at least in certain years. 2These materials are now purchased through a large corporation, an agricultural con- cern with headquarters at Berlin, which not only has branch depots in all large railroad centers but which also controls both price and quality by having analyses made. This cooperation has proved a serious loss to certain traders but is of benefit to agriculturists. AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. 29 To judge accurately and in detail the agricultural value of these estates might be difficult even for an expert agriculturist. How- ever, a layman can see what is being done on such an estate and can comprehend the difference between the fields which are carefully fertilized and cultivated and the broad sand wastes through which one passes by rail. But these estates are not merely farms—that is, they do not serve agricultural purposes solely. They are the homes of the nobility, at least in great part, and while some of the nobility no doubt are good agriculturists, others (and even the good agri- _ culturists themselves) regard their farm profits as secondary to game preservation. This was well illustrated by conditions seen at Neuguth. This was the first of the estates visited by the writer on which he found that at least a small part of the alcohol produced was used industrially. The owner has a high-speed automobile which he runs with alcohol, and in this way more than 1,000 gallons (4,000 liters) are consumed annually. The castle, the distillery, the wagon barn, the cow stable, the saw mill, and the carpenter shop, are lighted by means of alcohol. The distillery has an alcohol motor for pumping water and for running the grist and flour mill during afternoons when the steam is kept low and also during the summer months when there is no steam. The alcohol consumed on the estate an- nually exceeds 5,000 gallons. TREBEN. The Dominium Treben, owned and managed by Baron von Leesen, is about an hour’s ride by wagon from Lissa, in the Proy- ince of Posen. Schwetzkau, a large village with a post office, main- tains communication with Lissa by mail coach. The Province of Posen is that part of the former Kingdom of Poland which in the partition of that State was assigned to Prussia. The soil appears to be of a somewhat heavier quality than that of Neuguth, corresponding possibly to that found beyond Leuben, since it admits of beet cultivation; but evidently it is much lighter than the soil of the typical beet sections to the west of Berlin toward Magdeburg. In the absence of the inspector the superintendent of the dis- tillery acted as guide. He also serves in the capacity of paymaster and subinspector at Treben. The inspector has general charge of the two estates, Treben and Petersdorf, which together constitute the “ dominium.” The data which were obtained were given by the superintendent. The distillery was erected at a cost of between $19,000 and $21,500, and was completed in 1906. Although not as fine a structure as the 30 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. one at Neuguth, it was equipped very much along the same lines, having been built by a Westphalian firm in accordance with plans and specifications provided by the building-technological division of the Society of Spirit Manufacturers. In completeness of detail it was not as perfect as the one at Neuguth, but it showed that a fine, up-to-date distillery can be built for little more than half the cost of the one in Silesia. The mash-tub capacity is about 792 gallons per tub and the operation a double one. For each operation 110 bushels of potatoes are used, making a daily consumption of 220 bushels. The spent mash (about 1,500 gallons) is fed to the cattle at Treben and Petersdorf. The distillery had no allotment, but received a rebate for 264 gallons. During a run of six or seven months under the double opera- tion they expected to distill about 26,400 gallons of alcohol. None of this was used technically on the estate. The employees of the distillery consisted of a master distiller and three assistants. The two estates of Treben and Petersdorf comprise about 1,575 acres (2,500 Morgen) of cultivated land and the same area of wooded land. On the two estates about 20 men and 50 women are employed. During the summer months there are 15 additional laborers (Galicians). At Treben there are about 60 milch cows, 16 draft oxen, 14 horses, and from 160 to 180 pigs. The number of animals at Petersdorf was not ascertained. The young cattle are kept there in addition to some milch cows. The potato waste from the distillery is fed ex- clusively to the cattle, the pigs receiving raw potatoes as part of their food. The amount of milk and the price received therefor were not ascertained. The bulk of the milk was hauled to the dairy, a distance consuming about two hours. Here also the distillery was not regarded as a paying institution in itself, but its indirect value was twofold: (1) It put the dairy on a better financial basis, because the cows and oxen after having served their purpose were in fine condition to be sold. ‘The cattle were also a necessity because of the manure they furnished. (2) The potatoes in this case were more valuable when converted into alcohol than when sold as potatoes. In the fall of 1907 they were valued for alcohol purposes at 17 to 18 cents per bushel, whereas in the market they brought only 9 to 103 cents per bushel of 60 pounds and had to be hauled a considerable distance. The potatoes in turn were needed for a proper rotation of crops. WEIHENSTEPHAN. The estate of Weihenstephan is the seat of the Royal Bavarian Academy for Agriculture and Brewing. It is located just outside the village of Freising, in Upper Bavaria. Its new experimental 1 Beets were also cultivated, but they had to be hauled to the nearest sugar factory, a distance consuming about two hours’ time. AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. a1 distillery is equipped with two distilling outfits: (1) A modified hand equipment—that is, a still ordinarily operated without ma- chinery, such as pumps, etc., and therefore of necessity interrupted after each operation—and (2) a modern equipment on a larger scale. Even this, however, is smaller than a minimum-efficiency apparatus should be in accordance with the computations of the engineering department of the Institute for Ferment Industries at Berlin. In order to get the Bavarian distillers to adopt the plan of alcohol allotment, various concessions had to be made. Therefore, they occupy a favored position of which the northern distillers are envious. They are also permitted to utilize maize (from the Balkan States) whenever the potato crop is insufficient. They are, there- fore, not agricultural distillers in the strict sense of the legal defini- tion of this term as used in Prussia. Moreover, it has been the tendency of the State governments to favor the small distillers in proportion to their smallness. Whereas in the northern States and Provinces the hand equipment has been replaced almost entirely by mechanical operations, in Bavaria there are still a number of small distilleries. This appears to be due to two or three factors, namely, to the large number of small farms and to the conservatism of the farmers. At the close of the eighteenth century the central Government of Bavaria permitted the villages to dispose of their communal prop- erty in small parcels to the villagers, a policy which was also ‘adopted by other German States, but in no State was this process carried out in so short a time as in Bavaria. The result, from an agricultural and economic point of view, was very detrimental. A single instance may here be mentioned. Large tracts of land for- merly used as meadow were placed under cultivation, and in a short time the cattle of Bavaria were literally decimated. The reaction on agriculture as a whole was harmful. As an indirect outcome of this condition, the Bavarian system of agricultural education during the period near the middle of the nineteenth century lagged far behind that of other German States, although at the beginning the Bavarian Government had made a good start in the education of the newly created farmers. A hundred years ago their education by means of bulletins, etc., was out of the question, because the large majority here, as in many other places, could not read. Systematic education was even less _ possible. Therefore, education by example had to be resorted to, but even then the farmers availed themselves so little of the opportunity that at Weihenstephan it was abandoned for a time. This condition of affairs not only explains why there are so many small distilleries in Bavaria, but it also explains the attitude of the scientific institutions which constitute their technical advisers. Side 32 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by side, therefore, with a rational modern equipment one finds in the experimental distillery at Weihenstephan a modified hand equip- ment—that is, a small plant run in part by machinery and with a still operated by steam and not by direct fire. The object of this equipment is not to encourage the farmers to introduce even this improvement on their antiquated equipment, but to demonstrate that with their inefficient system of management they secure only a part of the alcohol which they ought to get. Even when this modified plant is operated under the most favorable conditions imaginable, the maximum yield on the average is but 10 per cent, instead of 12. In addition to this small apparatus, the new experimental distil- lery is equipped with an outfit which has a mash-tub capacity of 275 gallons, worked on the single-operation basis. A threefold oper- ation is possible and would be more rational. PERLACH. Periach is a village 10 miles southeast from Munich, lying in the same broad valley in which that city is located. The Bavarian Alps, 30 miles to the south, form a beautiful panorama. The valley is covered with but a thin layer of soil, beneath which is gravel. The light soil about Munich is especially adapted to potato culti- vation, the Freising edible potato being especially esteemed. This soil needs considerable manure, which accounts for the fact that the development of the alcohol industry about Munich since 1850° has been in connection with the dairv farm and with the cultivation of potatoes. Perlach afforded an especially favorable opportunity for study- ing in a practical way the conditions in Bavaria. The distilleries here found were of three classes: (1) Four small distilleries (the so- called fusel distilleries), (2) three medium distilleries with stills operated by steam rather than by direct fire, and (3) one coopera- tive distillery (Genossenschaftsbrennerei), the largest in Bavaria. These three classes, therefore, which mainly come into consideration in Bavaria, could here be studied side by side, which was exceed- ingly satisfactory, because a direct comparison under like conditions — was thus made possible. Had they been separated by only a short distance, minor factors might have entered which would have been difficult to balance properly. One of the four fusel distilleries was visited first. Concerning the estate on which this distillery was located a number of details were secured. The farm consists of 84 acres of plowed land (100 Tage- werk) and somewhat less than 33 acres (40 Tagewerk) of meadow and forest. About one-third of the cultivated area, that is, 25 acres, was planted with potatoes, the harvest of the previous season having AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. 33 amounted to somewhat less than 5,512 bushels (1,000 Scheffel). All of the potatoes except those reserved for the house and for seed purposes were used in the distillery. One large structure serves as home, barn, granary, etc., but the distillery is in a separate building. The equipment dates from 1848 and is of the Pistorius type. Work began at 2.30 a. m., and the pay was $2.38 per week with meals while at work. The season began in September and was supposed to last until May. About 20 bushels of potatoes were used each day. After being steamed they were mashed in a hand mill, the saccharine fermenta- tion was started with malt prepared in the cellar of the house, and the alcoholic fermentation was started with brewers’ yeast. The capacity of the three tubs amounted, respectively, to 246, 272, and 248 gallons. The yeast, which was kept in a large vat outside the building, looked more like the liquid in a manure pit than like any well-prepared or preserved yeast. From the fermenting vats the mash was lifted by means of buckets into a trough which carried it to a warming apparatus (Vorwirmer). This in turn served to con- dense the water from the still, thus concentrating the spirits. The large flat still was heated with direct fire. The distiller’s book showed that the average yield of alcohol was from 5 to 7 per cent. The strength of the spirits obtained was from 48 to 50 per cent. Two revenue officers, who were visited later, stated that 5 per cent was rarely, if ever, obtained, at least in their district. The waste material went to the barn, where it was fed to the cattle. At that time 20 milch cows and 5 oxen were being fattened. About 150 to 160 pounds of milk a day were obtained, which sold for 3.6 cents per quart to the milk seller, who peddled it in Munich. Po- tatoes were valued at the cooperative distillery at 19 to 20 cents per bushel. Alcohol sold at 61 cents per gallon, with a tax of about 9.9 cents per gallon. As to whether the distillery paid, the distiller had no idea other than that the spent mash or waste was necessary for the cows. That the same by-product could be had from the cooperative distillery he evidently did not consider. Of the medium-sized distilleries only one was visited. The farm on which it was located had about 247 acres of cultivated land. There was a very large building, which served all purposes from a dwelling for the family to a stable for the animals, and it all made an excellent impression. On the whole, the conditions on a large farm differ but little from those observed on the small estates in the North. The main differ- ence is probably that the proprietor himself works with all the mem- bers of his family. The distiller on this farm had no assistant, but 34 BULLETIN 182, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. possessed sufficient technical skill to prepare the yeast himself. He claimed to obtain a yield of 10 to 11 per cent of alcohol, which com- pares very favorably with that of the smallest distilleries. The strength of the alcohol obtained was about 90 per cent, somewhat lower. The cooperative distillery at Perlach has existed as such since 1886. The distillery itself was erected and equipped in 1880 by private means at a supposed cost of about $95,400, and was pur- chased by the cooperative corporation in 1886. A share in the co- operative society consists in the right to draw 264 gallons of spent mash, and represents a stock value of about $600. There are 20 of these shares, representing a total stock of about $12,000. The plant was bought for about $28,620, there being an original indebt- edness of about $16,600. The actual value of the plant was said to be four times the sum paid for it, but the stock had not been watered, neither did the books of the company show a higher value. Pre- miums were paid in a semiprivate way. While there can be but 20 shareholders, a share may be divided among two or more persons, only one of whom, however, can be the actual shareholder, the others being associates. Thus, the smaller farmers were enabled to take a part share, the total number of par- ticipants at that time being 36, some of whom lad only a tenth of a share. For each tenth in which a farmer participated he drew 26.4 gallons of spent mash, as already indicated. Potatoes were bought outright. During that season the prices fluctuated but little, lying between 19 and 26 cents. The mash capacity of the distillery is 1,268 gallons per tub. The allotment admits of a threefold operation for two days, alternat- ing with a 34-fold operation every third day. This was the best utilization of an equipment that had yet been seen. It was made possible, no doubt, because of the fact that the Bavarian distillers were favored with a relatively high “ Kontingent” in order to get them to cooperate with the distillers of the northern States and Proy- inces. Of this the northern distillers constantly complained. Be- sides, in the distribution of the “ Kontingent” every five years the 36 farmers belonging to the cooperative plant naturally exercised a greater influence collectively than if each one were fighting for himself and against his 35 neighbors. The yield of alcohol averaged 12 per cent, and the spirits obtained averaged 90 per cent. Owing to a variety of circumstances, such as improvements, the low price of alcohol, etc., the company paid no cash dividends that year. Each farmer, however, had received his spent ‘mash, which was valued at 2.7 cents per gallon. The farmers also received 1.2 cents more per bushel for their potatoes than did the outsiders. If po- tatoes gave out they could use maize, of which the distillery had AGRICULTURAL ALCOHOL IN GERMANY. 35 used in one year as much as 80 carloads of 393 bushels of 56 pounds each. It was expected that they would use only about 30 carloads in 1907, partly because of the good crop of potatoes and partly because of the high price of Roumanian corn. This corn, which is satd to be richer in starch than the American La Plata corn, had formerly cost but $1.30 per 100 pounds, but at that time the price was $1.83 per 100 pounds. This increase was partly due to an increase of 71.5 cents in the duty on foreign maize. If, as stated by the superintendent, the dividends had been only as high as 4 per cent in good years, the high value of the stocks could be explained only by the value placed on the spent mash. The superintendent of such a distillery, as may be expected, is a very different sort of man from those found in the distilleries which are hand equipped or even in the medium steam-operated plants. As has been pointed out, the larger distilleries are taxed much more heavily, and in order to obtain the same returns on the investment they must be operated much more economically and must produce a larger percentage of alcohol. LITERATURE CITED. BEHREND, W. 1905. Deutschlands Kartoffelerzeugung und Verbrauch in Gegenwart und Zukunft. Hine Volkwirtschaftliche Studie, 47 p. Berlin. 1907. Wirtschaftliches. Jn Jahrb. Ver. Spiritus-Fabrik. Deutsehl. [ete.], Jahrg. 7, p. 398-407. 3ROCKHAUS, FP, A. 1894. Ikonversations-Lexikon. Aufl. 14, Bd. 3. Berlin and Wien. GILDEMEISTER, HDUARD, and HOFFMANN, FR. 1899. Die aetherischen Oele, 999 p., illus., 4 maps. MErItzEN, AUGUST. 1869. Der Boden und die landwirtschaftlichen Verhaltnisse des preussischen Staates nach dem Gebietsumfange vor 1866, Bd. 4, 652 p. Berlin. WITTELSHOFER, P., and BEHREND, W. 1906. Statistische Materialien tiber die wirtschaftliche Lage der Spiritus- industrie im Jahre 1905. Jn Jahrb. Ver. Spiritus-Fabrik. Deutschl. [ete.], Jahrg. 6, p. 355-391. 36 8 O UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 183 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 13, 1915 MORPHOLOGY OF THE BARLEY GRAIN WITH REFERENCE TO _ ITS ENZYM-SECRETING AREAS By ALBERT MANN, Plant Morphologist, and H. V. HARLAN, Agronomist in Charge of Barley Investigations CONTENTS Introduction Function of the Aleurone Layer . . Structure ofthe Barley Grain .... Greater Diastatic Power of Small-Berried Development of the Barley Grain . . . and High-Nitrogen Barleys Germination Efficiency of Conversion Conversion ofthe Endosperm . . American Barleys Résumé of the Conclusions of Other lien: Modifications Possible by Culture . . . vestigators Foreign Barleys Source of Diastatic Ferments Location of Diastase Secretion . . . . Source of Cytatic and Proteolytic Fer- WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1915 y, te PW A aaa b BY ae & ‘AA Be ere ON Or TEE gj) UNDEPARINENT OPAGRICULTORE o. 183 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. April 13, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) MORPHOLOGY OF THE BARLEY GRAIN WITH REFERENCE TO ITS ENZYM-SECRETING AREAS. By Avsert Mann, Plant Morphologist, Office of Agricultural Technology, and H. V. Haran, Agronomist in Charge of Barley Investigations, Office of Cereal Investiga- tions. CONTENTS. Page. Page. LTT CNG a Sa re eee 1 | Source of cytatic and proteolytic ferments. . - 18 Structure of the barley grain...............-. 2 | Function of the aleurone layer ............-. 18 Development of the barley grain............. 5 | Greater diastatic power of small-berried and “ROTEL SIR SES eae pe ees 8 of high-nitrogen barleys.........-..-.-...-- 19 Conversion of the endosperm..........-....-- 9p iifiiciency, of conversions eee eee ee 21 Résumé of the conclusions of other investi- Atmericani barley ss2—.ceenissecc cer seaasciete: 27 PTS eee eet eee POR rh ate een 10 | Modifications possible by culture...........- 28 Source of diastatic ferments.-...... ad 12))|| eHloneipmibanleys=sseerecee cee selena ct 30 Location of di:stase secretion .............-- U7 > | SUMMARY ee sawieseinne sito aee sae Se eicicee ee 31 INTRODUCTION. The value of the barley crop to the American farmer depends upon two factors, the yield per acre and the price per bushel. An increase of revenue is as readily effected by one as by the other. The yield is necessarily an agricultural problem; the price is also, within certain limits. Although the daily price of any market product ordinarily varies over a considerable range, higher values are placed upon those offerings which most perfectly meet the requirements of consumers. A superior quality is the equivalent of a greater quantity. The nearer a farmer can come to producing a product ideally suited to its uses, the higher will be the price which he will be able to command. By far the greatest demand upon the barley crop is for the purpose of malting. This operation consists essentially in the breaking down of the cell walls of the endosperm of the barley grain so as to leave its starch grains exposed to later enzymatic actions, and also in the abundant production of these enzyms, both the diastatic and pro- teolytic. The abundant formation of diastase has long been con- Note.—This paper is intended for distribution to agronomists, station directors, brewery chemists, and selected maltsters Piel 75719°—Bull. 184—15-—-1 bo BULLETIN 183, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sidered to be one of the most important functions of the malting pro- cess. In small-berried malts the excess of diastase 1s often used in brewing to convert quantities of inert starch in addition to that found in the grain itself. In some large-berried malts it may be so used; in others, it is best used in conjunction with the other ferments to convert a Jarge endosperm and thereby obtain a high percentage of extract. The possibility of this improvement in quality was the cause of the special study made of this grain. Harly in the investigation it was realized that the desirability of any barley must rest largely on its morphology, because the physiological changes must owe their origin to morphological sources. An extensive study of the barley grain, both at rest and in germination, was outlined. It was later found that the investigation had to be extended to include the embryology of the grain, in order to explain certain features of its © resting condition. The Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, where a large part of these investigations was carried on, was of great service in obtaining for study samples of barleys from almost every country of the world. The primitive barleys of Asia and the most specialized productions of Europe were compared in structure and in the details of germination. |i hevunknown ae sceecaacscsa eee nccee eae 4? INTRODUCTION. The mystery of bird migration has proved a fascinating subject for speculation and study from earliest times. Long ago it was noticed that birds disappeared in fall and reappeared in spring, but, not know- ing where they spent the intervening period, many fanciful theories were advanced to account for their disappearance, as hibernation in hollow trees or in the mud of streams or ponds. Within the century stories were current of whole flocks that were seen to disappear beneath the waves of the Mediterranean to winter in its depths. With later years, however, has come a fuller knowledge of migration, especially of the particular region in which each species passes the cold season, and more definite information in regard to the routes followed in the spring and fall journeys. But fuller knowledge has served to increase rather than to lessen interest in the subject. More persons to-day are watching birds and noting their times of arrival and departure than ever before. Indeed, the Biological Survey has received migration notes from more than 2,000 different observers, Nore.—This bulletin discusses the subject of bird migration. Of interest to nature students and to investigators of the economic relation of birds to agriculture, 76048°—Bull. 185—15——1 9 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, showing how widespread is the recent development of this important phase of nature study. The Survey has been collecting data on bird migration for more than 25 years. Investigations by its field naturalists extending over the North American Continent from Panama to the Arctic Circle have resulted in voluminous notes, and in addition assistance of ornitholo- gists throughout the country has been enlisted, so that each year reports are received in spring and fall from hundreds of experienced observers. Lighthouse keepers also have supplied valuable informa- tion concerning the destruction-of birds at their lights. The facts gathered—over 500,000—from these various sources form the largest amount of data on bird migration ever collected in this country and permit broader and safer generalizations than have hitherto been possible. A knowledge of the times of migration of birds is essential as a basis for intelligent study of their economic relations and is equally necessary in formulating proper legislation for bird protection—two subjects which form important parts of the work of the Biological Survey. y CAUSES OF MIGRATION. For more than 2,000 years the phenomena of bird migration have been noted; but while the extent and course of the routes traversed have of late become better known, no conclusive answer has been found to the question, Why do North American birds migrate? Two different and indeed diametrically opposite theories have been ad- vanced to account for the beginnings of these migrations. According to the more commonly accepted theory, ages ago the United States and Canada swarmed with nonmigratory bird life, long before the Arctic ice fields advancing south during the glacial era rendered uninhabitable the northern half of the continent. The birds’ love of home influenced them to remain near the nesting site until the approaching ice began for the first time to produce a winter—that is, a period of inclement weather which so reduced the food supply as to compel the birds to move or starve. As the ice approached very gradually, now and then receding, these enforced retreats and absences—at first only a short distance and for a brief time—aincreased both in distance and duration until migration became an integral part of the very being of the bird. In other words, the formation of the habit of migration took place at the same time that changing seasons in the year replaced the continuous semitropical conditions of the preglacial eras. As the ice advanced southward the swing to the north in spring migration was continually shortened and the fall retreat to a suitable winter home correspondingly lengthened, until during the height of the glacial period birds were for the most part confined to Middle and $ BIRD MIGRATION. 3 South America. But the habit of migration had been formed, and when the ice receded toward its present position the birds followed it northward and in time established their present long and diversified migration routes. Those who thus argue that love of birthplace is the actuating im- pulse to spring migration call attention to the seeming impatience of the earliest migrants. Ducks and geese push northward with the beginnings of open water so early, so far, and so fast that many are caught by late storms and wander disconsolately over frozen ponds and rivers, preferring to risk starvation rather than to retreat. The purple martins often arrive at their nesting boxes so prematurely that the cozy home becomes a tomb if a sleet storm sweeps their winged food from the air. The bluebird’s cheery warble we welcome as a harbinger of spring, often only to find later a lifeless body in some shed or outbuilding where the bird sought shelter rather than return to the sunny land so recently left. As a matter of fact, however, only a small percentage of birds ex- hibit these preseasonal migration propensities. The great majority remain in the security of their winter homes until spring is so far ad- vanced that the journey can be made easily and with comparatively slight danger; and they reach the nesting spot when a food supply is assured and all the conditions of weather and vegetation are favora- ble for beginning immediately the rearing of a family of young. If, however, a longing for home is considered the main incentive to their northward flight, there arises the question as to why birds desert that home so promptly after the nesting season is over. Data recently collected at the Florida lighthouses by the Biological Survey show that southward migration begins at least by the 10th and proba- bly as early as the Ist of July. Indeed, most birds start south as soon as the fledglings are able to shift for themselves. The orchard oriole, the redstart, and the summer warbler of central United States and the nonpareil of the South all begin their southward . journey early in July, long before the fall storms sound a warning of ap- proaching winter and when their insect menu is particularly varied and abundant. According to the opposite migration theory, the birds’ real home is the Southland; all bird life tends by overproduction to overcrowd- ing; and, at the end of the glacial era, the birds, seeking in all direc- tions for suitable breeding grounds with less keen competition than in their tropical winter home, gradually worked northward as the retreat of the ice made habitable vast reaches of virgin country. But the winter abiding place was still the home, and to this they returned as soon as the breeding season was over. ‘Thus, in the case of the orchard oriole mentioned above, many individuals that arrive in southern Pennsylvania the first week in May leave by the middle of July, spending only 24 months out of the 12 at the nesting site. 4 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Whichever theory is accepted, the beginnings of migration ages ago undoubtedly were intimately connected with periodic changes in the food supply. While North America possesses enormous summer supplies of bird food, the birds must return south for the winter or perish. The overcrowding which would necessarily ensue should they remain in the equatorial regions is prevented by the spring exodus northward. No such moyement occurs toward the corre- sponding southern latitudes. South America has almost no migra- tory land birds, for bleak Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego offer no inducements to these dwellers of the limitless forests of the Amazon. The conclusion is inevitable that the advantages of the United States and Canada as a summer home and the superb conditions of climate and food for the successful rearing of a nestful of voracious young far overbalance the hazards and disasters of the journey thither. For these periodical trips did not just happen in their present form; each migration route, however long and complex, is but the present stage in-development of a flight that at first was short, easily accomplished, and comparatively free from danger. Each lengthening of the course was adopted permanently only after experience through many generations had proved its advantages. RELATION OF MIGRATION TO WEATHER. It may safely be stated that the weather in the winter home has nothing to do with starting birds on the spring migration, except in the case of a few, like some of the ducks and geese, which press northward as fast as open water appears. There is no appreciable change in temperature to warn the hundred or more species of our birds which visit South America in winter that it is time to migrate. It must be a force from within, a physiological change warning them of the approach of the breeding season, that impels them to spread their wings for the long flight. The habit of migration has been evolved through countless gener- ations, and during this time the physical structure and habits of birds have been undergoing a process of evolution in adaptation to the climate of the summer home. In spring and early summer climatic conditions are decidedly variable, and yet there must be some period that has on the average the best weather for the birds’ arrival. In the course of ages there have been developed habits of migration, under the influence of which the bird so performs its migratory movements that on the average it arrives at the nesting site at the proper time. The word ‘‘average’’ needs to be emphasized. It is the average weather at a given locality that determines the average time of the bird’s arrival. In obedience to physiologic promptings the bird migrates at the usual average time and proceeds northward at the BIRD MIGRATION. 5 usual average speed unless prevented by adverse weather. Weather conditions are not the cause of the migration of birds; but the weather, by affecting the food supply, is the chief factor which deter- mines the average date of arrival at the breeding grounds. After the bird, in response to physiological changes, has started to migrate, the weather it encounters en route influences that migration in a subordinate way, retarding or accelerating the advance by only a few days, and having usually only slight effect upon the date of arrival at the nesting site. Local weather conditions on the day of arrival at any stated locality are minor factors in determining the appearance of a given species at that-place and time. The major factors in the problem are the weather conditions far to the southward, where the night’s flight began, and the relation which that place and time bear to the average position of the bird under normal weather conditions. Many, if not most, instances of arrivals of birds under adverse weather conditions are probably explainable by the supposition that the flight was begun under favorable auspices and that later the weather changed. Migra- tion in spring usually occurs with a rismg temperature and in autumn with a falling temperature. In each case the changing temperature seems to be a more potent factor than the absolute degree of cold. The direction and force of the winds, except as they are occasionally intimately connected with sudden and extreme variations in tem- perature, seem to have only a slight influence on migration. DAY AND NIGHT MIGRANTS. Some birds migrate by day, but most of them seek the cover of darkness. Day migrants include ducks and geese (which also migrate by night), hawks, swallows, the nighthawk, and.the chimney swift. The last two, combining business and pleasure, catch their morning or evening meal during a zigzag flight that tends in the desired direc- tion. The daily advance of such migrants covers only a few miles, and when a large body of water is encountered they pass around rather than across it. The night migrants include all the great family of warblers, the thrushes, flycatchers, vireos, orioles, tanagers, shore- birds, and most of the sparrows. They usually begin their flight soon after dark and end it before dawn, and go farther before than after midnight. Night migration probably results in more casualties from natural causes than would occur if the birds made the same journey by day; but, on the other hand, there is a decided gain in the matter of food supply. For instance, a bird feeds all day on the north shore of the Gulf of Mexico; if, then, it waited until the next morning to make its flight across the Gulf in the daytime it would arrive on the Mex- ican coast at nightfall and would have to wait until the following 6 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. morning to appease its hunger. ‘Thus there would be 36 consecutive hours without food, whereas by night migration the same journey can be performed with only a 12 hours’ fast. Migrating birds do not fly at their fastest. Their migration speed is usually from 30 to 40 miles an hour and rarely exceeds 50. Flights of a few hours a night, alternating with rests of one or more days, BREEDING RANGE WINTER HOME _.-.FAST AND WEST_LIMITS 1 ie OF MIGRATION ROUTE er ns ae ys Tic. 1.—Distribution and migration of the bobolink, reedbird, or ricebird (Dolichonyx oryzivorus). Of late years the bobolink has been extending its range into newly irrigated districts of western United States (indicated on the map by small encircled areas). Here we can witness the process of a growth in the length of a migration route. So far those individuals, which have added a thousand miles to the route and range into western Nevada, return over the old route and show no tendency to shorten the trip by a direct flight across New Mexico to the Gulf coast of Texas. (See p. 37.) make the spring advance very slow, averaging for all species not more than 23 miles a day, but with great variations of daily rate among the different species. The exact. number of miles which a particular bird makes during one day’s journey has not yet been determined, and can not be ascertained until the tagging or banding of birds by means of metal rings is carried out on a far more extensive scale than has yet been possible. If migration were a steady BIRD MIGRATION. a movement northward with the same individuals always in the van, numerous careful observations might make it possible to approximate the truth; but instead of this, most migrations are performed some- what after the manner of a game of leapfrog. The van in spring migration is composed chiefly of old birds, and as they reach their nesting places of the previous year they remain to breed. Thus the vanguard is constantly dropping out and the forward movement must depend upon the arrival of the next corps, which may be near at hand or far in the rear. Moreover, in our present state of knowl- edge we can not say whether a given group of birds after a night’s migration keeps in the van on succeeding nights or rests and feeds for several days and allows other groups previously in the rear to assume the lead. It is known that birds do not as a rule move rapidly when migrating in the daytime, but from the meager data available it may be inferred that the speed at night is considerably greater. During day migration the smaller land birds rarely fly faster than 20 miles an hour, though the larger birds, as cranes, geese, and ducks, move somewhat more rapidly. The result of timing nighthawks on several occasions gave a rate of 10 to i4 miles an hour, the former being the more usual speed. This slow rate results from the irregu- larity of the flight, caused by the birds’ capturing their evening and morning meals en route. In the evening the flight lasted about an hour and a half and in the morning about an hour. Thus a distance of approximately 30 miles would be traveled by each individual dur- ing the morning and evening flights. Night migrants probably average longer distances in most of their flights, and this is known to be the case with some species. The purple martin, during the spring of 1884, performed almost its entire migration from New Orleans to Lake Winnipeg during only 12 nights— an average of 120 miles for each night of movement—and some late migrants, like the gray-cheeked thrush, must make still greater dis- tances at a single flight. That most of them can fly several hundred miles without stopping is proved by the fact that they make flights of 500 to 700 miles across the Gulf of Mexico. DISTANCE OF MIGRATION. The length of the migration journey varies enormously. APRIL 2 -- Fic. 10.—Migration of the western tanager (Piranga ludoviciana). The birds that arrive in eastern Alberta May 20 can not have come by way of Colorado and Wyoming, as would be expected (see fig. 9), for on this date the van of migration along the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains has only just reached northern Colorado. The isochronal lines of migration point to the conclusion that these birds migrate north through California and then cross the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia to Alberta, though at this season (May 20) these mountains are largely covered with snow. (Seep. 23.) The opposite extreme, a narrow migration route, appears in the case of the rose-breasted grosbeak (see fig. 13). The breeding range extends from Nova Scotia to central Alberta, 2,500 miles, and the migration lines converge until the grosbeaks leave the United BIRD MIGRATION. 95 States along 800 miles of the Gulf coast from western Florida to central Texas. The case of the bobolink is typical of many species nesting in North America and wintering entirely in South America (see fig. 1). The summer home extends from Cape Breton Island to Sas- katchewan, 2,300 miles, and the migration lines converge toward southeastern United States and then strike directly across the West Indies for South America. In this part of their journey the migration path contracts to an east and west breadth of about 800 miles, and a very large percentage of the birds restrict themselves to the eastern half of it. In South America the region occupied during the winter has about one-fifth the breadth and one-third the area of the breeding range. The route of the scarlet tanager is an extreme example of narrow- ness of the path traveled twice a year between winter and summer homes (see fig. 14). The breeding range extends 1,900 miles from New Brunswick to Saskatchewan. The migration range is con- tracted to 800 miles from Florida to Texas as the birds leave the United States. The migration lines continue to converge until in southern Central America the limits are not more than 100 miles apart. SLOW AND RAPID MIGRATION. The black-and-white warbler presents some interesting phases of migration. It winters in Central America, Mexico, the West Indies, and the peninsula of Florida (see fig. 15). Ordinarily it would not be possible to distinguish the spring migrants in Florida from the wintering birds, and the advance of migration could not be noted until the migrants had passed north of the winter range, but records of black-and-white warblers striking lighthouses of southern Florida indicate the beginning of the birds’ northward migration flight from Cuba. This occurs on the average on March 4, and the birds do not appear in southern Georgia beyond their winter range on the average until March 24. Thus a period of 20 days is taken for the van of migration to move 400 miles across Florida, an average rate of 20 miles per day. This rate is about the slowest of all North American birds and is only slightly increased throughout the whole spring migration up the Atlantic coast to Nova Scotia (see fig. 16), where the birds arrive about May 20, having averaged less than 25 miles a day for the whole 77 days after leaving Cuba. Migration along the western border of the range is fully as slow as along the Atlantic coast; on the average, the first arrive at Kerrville, Tex., March 9 and in northern North Dakota May 10, having trav- eled 1,300 miles in 60 days, or 22 miles a day. Thence the speed is more than doubled to the northwestern limit of the range in the Mackenzie Valley. (See fig. 16.) 26 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Incidentally it may be remarked that the black-and-white warbler is one of the very few migrants which arrive in Texas and Florida before they appear at the mouth of the Mississippi. The van of most species reaches southern Louisiana earlier than southern Texas. BREEDING RANGE WINTER HOME + Fic. 11.—Distribution and migration of the Ross snow goose (Chen rossi). This is apparently the only species that breeds on the Arctic islands, migrates south in fall through the Mackenzie Valley, and when it reaches the United States, instead of passing south and east to the Mississippi Valley, turns west- ward, crosses the Rocky Mountains, and winters in California. (Seep. 23.) The cliff swallow is another species with a slow migration schedule (see fig. 6). It must start northward very early, since by March 10 it is already 2,500 miles from the winter home and yet averages only 25 miles a day for the next 20 days while rounding the western end of the Gulf of Mexico. It more than doubles this rate while passing up the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys. The crossing of the Alle- gheny Mountains comes next, and there are only 200 miles of progress BIRD MIGRATION. o% to show for the 10 days’ flight. By this time spring has really come east of the Alleghenies, and the swallow travels 60 miles a day to its summer home in Nova Scotia. It is to be noted that the swallow works up to high rates of speed only when it is traveling on the diag- onal, and that except during the 10 days spent in crossing the moun- tains each 10 days’ travel covers approximately 5 degrees of latitude. One of the best examples of rapid migration is that of the gray- cheeked thrush. This bird remains in its South American winter home so long that it does not appear in southern United States until late April—April 25 near the mouth of the Mississippi and April 30 in northern Florida (see fig. 17). The last week in May finds the bird in extreme northwestern Alaska, the 4,000-mile trip from Louisiana to Alaska having been performed in about 30 days, or about 130 miles a day. Generally the later in the season a bird migrates the greater is its average speed, but not necessarily the distance covered in a single night. The early migrants encounter much bad weather and after one night’s migration usually delay several days before making the next flight. The later migrant finds few nights too unfavorable for advancing, so that short flights taken on successive nights greatly raise the average migration speed. HOW BIRDS FIND THEIR WAY. How do migrating birds find their way? They do not journey haphazard, for the familiar inhabitants of our dooryard martin boxes will return next year to these same boxes, though meanwhile they have visited Brazil. If the entire distance were made overland, it might be supposed that sight and memory were the only faculties exercised. But for those birds that cross the Gulf of Mexico, and more especially for the golden plover and its ocean-crossing kindred, something more than sight is necessary. Among day migrants sight probably is the principal guide, but it is noticeable that these seldom make the long single flights so common with night migrants. Sight undoubtedly does play a part in guiding the night journeys also. On clear nights, especially when the moon shines brightly, migrating birds fly high and the ear can scarcely distinguish their faint twitterings; if clouds overspread the heavens, the flocks pass nearer the earth and their notes are much more audible; and on very dark nights the flutter of vibrant wings may be heard but a few feet overhead. Nevertheless, something besides sight guides these travelers in the upper air. In Alaska a few years ago members of the Biological Survey on the Harriman expedition went by steamer from the island of Unalaska to Bogoslof Island, a distance of about 60 miles. A dense fog shut out every object beyond a hundred yards. When the steamer was halfway across, flocks of murres, returning to 28 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bogoslof after long quests for food, began to break through the fog- wall astern, fly parallel with the vessel, and disappear in the mists ahead. By chart and compass the ship was heading straight for the PEE Se fi SS 4) BREEDING RANGE WINTER HOME ween EAST AND WEST LIMITS OF MIGRATION ROUTE Fic. 12,—Distribution and migration of the redstart (Setophaga ruticilla). An example of a wide migra- tion route. Redstarts cross all parts of the Gulf of Mexico and pass from Florida to Cuba and through the Bahamas, so that their migration route has an east and west width of more than 2,000 miles. (See p. 23.) The opposite of this (a narrow migration route) is shown by the distribution map of the rose- breasted grosbeak, fig. 13. island, but its course was no more exact than that taken by the birds. The power which carried them unerringly home over the ocean wastes, whatever its nature, may be called a sense of direction. We recognize in ourselves the possession of some such sense, though BIRD MIGRATION. ; 29 imperfect and frequently at fault. Doubtless a similar but vastly more acute sense enables the murres, flying from home and circling wide over the water, to keep in mind the direction of their nests and return to them without the aid of sight. But even the birds’ sense of direction is not infallible. Reports from lighthouses in southern Florida show that birds leave Cuba on cloudy nights, when they can not possibly see the Florida shores, and safely reach their destination, provided no change occurs in the weather. But at fickle equinoctial time many flocks starting out under auspicious skies find themselves suddenly caught by a tempest. Buffeted by the wind and their sense of direction lost, these birds fall easy victims to the lure of the lighthouse. Many are killed by the impact, but many more settle on the framework or foundation until the storm ceases or the coming of daylight allows them to recover their bearings. A favorite theory of many American ornithologists is that coast lines, mountain chains, and especially the courses of the larger rivers and their tributaries form well-marked highways along which birds return to previous nesting sites. According to this theory, a bird breeding in northern Indiana would in its fall migration pass down the nearest little rivulet or creek to the Wabash River, thence to the Ohio, and reaching the Mississippi would follow its course to the Gulf of Mexico, and would use the same route reversed for the return trip in the spring. The fact is that each county in the Central States con- tains nesting birds which at the beginning of the fall migration scatter toward half the points of the compass; indeed, it would be safe to say all the points of the compass, as some young herons preface their regular journey south with a little pleasure trip to the unexplored north. In fall most of the migrant land birds breeding in New England move southwest in a line approximately parallel with the Allegheny Mountains, but we can not argue from this that the route is selected so that mountains will serve as a guide, because at this very time thousands of birds reared in Indiana, Illinois, and to the northwestward are crossing these mountains at right angles to visit South Carolina and Georgia. This is shown specifically in the case of the palm warblers. They winter in the Gulf States from Louisiana eastward and throughout the Greater Antilles to Porto Rico; they nest in Canada from the Mackenzie Valley to Newfoundland. To migrate according to the “lay of the land,” the Louisiana palm warblers should follow up the broad open highway of the Mississippi River to its source and go thence to their breeding grounds, while the warblers of the Antilles should use the Allegheny Mountains as a guide. Asa matter of fact, the Louisiana birds nest in Labrador and those from the Antilles cut diagonally across the United States to summer in central Canada. These two routes of palm warblers 30 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, cross each other in Georgia at approximately right angles. It is possible to trace the routes of the palm warblers because those nesting to the east of Hudson Bay differ enough in color from those nesting farther west to be readily distinguished even in their winter dress. NSS 5 26£0/NG _RANGE WUA WINTER HOME EAST AND WEST LIMITS OF MIGRATION ROUTE Fie. 13.—Distribution and migration of the rose-breasted grosbeak (Zamelodia ludoviciana). An example of a narrow migration route. The breeding range has an east and west width of 2,500 miles, while in migration the birds converge until they leave the United States along a line of the Gulf coast only 800 miles wide. (Seep. 24.) The opposite of this (a wide migration route) is shown by the distribution map of the redstart, fig. 12. It must always be remembered, however, that from a common ancestry these two groups of palm warblers came to differ in appear- ance because they gradually evolved differences in breeding grounds and in migration routes and not that they chose different routes because they were subspecifically different. BIRD MIGRATION. 31 The truth seems to be that birds pay little attention to natural phys- ical highways except when large bodies of water force them to deviate from the desired course. Food is the principal factor in determining migration routes, and in general the course between summer and win- ter homes is as straight as the birds can find and still have an abun- dance of food at each stopping place. MIGRATION AND MOLTING. It is interesting to note the relation between migration and molting. Most birds care for their young until old enough to look out for them- selves, then molt, and when the new feathers are grown start on their southward journey in their new suits of clothes. But the birds that nest beyond the Arctic Circle have too short a summer to permit such leisurely movements. They begin their migration as soon as possible after the young are out of the nest and molt en route. Indeed, these Arctic breeders are so pressed for time that many of them do their courting during the period of spring migration and arrive at the breed- ing grounds already paired and ready for nest building, while many a robin and bluebird in the middle Mississippi Valley has been in the neighborhood of the nesting site a full month before it carries the first straw of construction. Various peculiar changes of plumage are presented by certain species during migration. - The young golden plover are white breasted as they fly over the Atlantic Ocean in fall. This has given place to jet black as they cross the Gulf of Mexico in spring. - The bobolink (PI. I) goes south in fall obscurely marked with buff and olive; he returns next spring the well-known black and white denizen of the marshes. The scarlet tanager (Pl. IV) performs his fall migration in a suit of uniform greenish yellow known to only a small number of his human friends, who welcome him as an old acquaintance when he returns the next spring in his striking black and scarlet. CASUALTIES DURING MIGRATION. Migration is a season full of peril for myriads of winged travelers, especially for those that cross large bodies of water. Some of the water birds making long voyages can rest on the waves if overtaken by storms, but for the luckless warbler or sparrow whose feathers become water-soaked an ocean grave is inevitable. Nor are such accidents infrequent. A few years ago on Lake Michigan a storm during spring migration forced to the waves numerous victims, as evidenced by many subsequently drifting ashore. If such mortality could occur on a lake less than 100 miles wide, how much more likely even a greater disaster attending a flight across the Gulf of Mexico. Such a catastrophe was once witnessed from the deck of a vessel 30 miles off 32 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the mouth of the Mississippi River. Large numbers of migrating birds, mostly warblers, had accomplished nine-tenths of their long flight and were nearing land, when caught by a ‘‘norther,”’ with which most of them were unable to contend, and falling into the Gulf they were drowned by hundreds. During migration birds are peculiarly liable to destruction by striking high objects. The Washington Monument, at the National Capital, has witnessed the death of many little migrants; on a single morning in the spring of 1902 nearly 150 lifeless bodies were strewn IWS srecoine RANGE WINTER HOME wanes FASTAND WEST LIMITS OF MIGRATION ROUTE Fic. 14.—Distribution and migration of the scarlet tanager (Piranga erythromelas). An example of an extremely narrow migration route. The breeding range has an east and west extension of 1,900 miles. The migrating lines converge untilin southern Central America the limits are not more than 100 miles apart. (Seep. 25.) For a less narrow and a wide migration route see figs. 13 and 12, respectively. around its base. As long as the torch in the Bartholdi Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor was kept lighted the sacrifice of bird life it caused was enormous, even reaching a maximum of 700 birds in a month. Every spring the lights of the lighthouses along the coast lure to destruction myriads of birds en route from their winter homes in the South to their summer nesting places in the North. Every fall a still greater death toll is exacted when the return journey is made. Light- houses are scattered every few miles along the more than 3,000 miles BIRD MIGRATION. 33 of coast line, but two lighthouses, Fowey Rocks and Sombrero Key, cause far more bird tragedies than any others. The reason is two- fold—their geographic position and the character of their lights. Both lights are situated at the southern end of Florida, where count- _ less thousands of birds pass each year to and from Cuba; and both are lights of the first magnitude on towers 100-140 feet high. Fowey Rocks has a fixed white light, the deadliest of all. A flashing light frightens birds away and a red light is avoided by them as would be a danger signal, but a steady white light looming out of the mist or darkness seems like a magnet drawing the wanderers to destruction. Coming from any direction they veer around to the leeward side and then flying against the wind strike the glass, or more often exhaust themselves like moths fluttering in and out of the bewildering rays. ARE BIRDS EXHAUSTED BY LONG FLIGHT? During the spring migration of 1903 two experienced ornithologists spent the entire season on the coast of northwestern Florida, visiting every sort of bird haunt. They were eminently successful in the long list of species identified, but their enumeration is still more remarkable for what it does not contain. About 25 species of the smaller land birds of the Eastern States were not seen, including a dozen common species. Among these latter were the chat, the redstart, and the indigo bunting, three species abundant throughout the whole region to the northward. The explanation of their absence from the list seems to be that these birds, on crossing the Gulf of Mexico, flew far inland before alighting and thus passed over the observers. This would seem to disprove the popular belief that birds under ordinary circumstances find the ocean flight excessively wearisome, and that after laboring with tired pinions across the seemingly endless wastes they sink exhausted on reaching terra firma. The truth seems to be that, endowed by nature with wonderful powers of aerial locomotion, many birds under normal conditions not only cross the Gulf of Mexico at its widest point but even pass without pause over the low swampy coastal plain to the higher territory beyond. So little averse are birds to an ocean flight that many fly from eastern Texas to the Gulf coast of southern Mexico (see fig. 2, route 5), though this 400 miles of water journey hardly shortens the distance of travel by an hour’s flight. Thus birds avoid the hot, treeless plains and scant provender of southern Texas by a direct flight from the moist, insect-teeming forests of northern Texas to a similar country in southern Mexico. That birds are not exhausted by their long flights will be evident upon consideration of the origin of these protracted journeys. All migratory movements must have begun with changes of location 34 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, which were very slight, whether over land or water. From this short migration benefit accrued to individuals or to their posterity. Migration became a fixed habit, and the distance covered gradually— very gradually—increased as each succeeding extension proved advantageous. It is not to be supposed that every attempted Se i BREEDING RANGE WA WINTER HOME Fig. 15.—Summer and winter homes of the black-and-white warbler ( Mniotilta varia). A very slow 1ni- grant. The isochronal lines of migration indicating the rate of speed are shown in figure 16. (See p. 25.) extension was successful; in fact, it is more probable that only a small part of the experimental pioneer routes were permanently adopted. Moreover, it must be borne in mind that the time occu- pied in the establishment of present migration habits and routes is to be measured by geologic ages, and there is no reason to suppose that changes took place during these ages any faster than they do BIRD MIGRATION. Sp now. Therefore when one of these experimental routes proved detrimental it was abandoned. In this connection it may be well to consider the actual amount of energy expended by birds in their migratory flights. Both the soaring and the sailing of birds show that they are proficient in the use of several factors in the art of flying that have not yet been mastered either in principle or practice by the most skillful of modern aviators. A vulture or a crane, after a few preliminary wing beats, sets its wings and mounts in wide sweeping circles to a great height, overcoming gravity with no exertion apparent to human vision even when assisted by the most powerful telescopes. The Carolina rail, or sora, has small, short wings apparently ill adapted to protracted flight, and ordinarily when forced to fly does so reluctantly and alights as soon as possible. It flies with such awkwardness and apparently becomes so quickly exhausted that at least one writer has been led to infer that most of its migration must be made on foot; the facts are, however, that the Carolina rail has one of the longest migration routes of the whole rail family and easily crosses the wide reaches of the Caribbean Sea. The humming bird, smallest of all birds, crosses the Gulf of Mexico, flying over 500 miles in a single night. As already noted, the golden plover flies from Nova Scotia to South America, and in fair weather makes the whole distance of 2,400 miles without a stop, probably requiring nearly if not quite 48 hours for the trip. Here is an aerial machine that is far more economical cf fuel— i. e., of energy—than the best aeroplane yet invented. The to-and- fro motion of the bird’s wing appears to be an uneconomical way of applying power, since all the force required to bring the wing for- ward for the beginning of the stroke is not only wasted, but more than wasted, as it largely increases the air friction and retards the speed. On the other hand, the screw propeller of the aeroplane has no lost motion. Yet less than 2 ounces of fuel in the shape of body fat suffice to force the bird at a high rate of speed over that 2,400-mile course. A thousand-pound aeroplane, if as economical of fuel, would consume in a 20-mile flight not the gallon of gasoline required by the best machines but only a single pint. EVOLUTION OF MIGRATION ROUTES. It has already been stated that each of the present migration routes, however long, has probably been of slow growth from an originally short flight. In the case of many routes it is easy to trace the probable steps in evolution. Thus the route across the Gulf of Mexico, from the mouth of the Mississippi to Campeche, at the end of the glacial era was undoubtedly a trip by land through Texas. As the land now the Eastern States arose from the ocean or 36 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, was freed from the overlying ice cap, the tendency would be for the migration route at its northern end to turn and be extended east- ward to enter the new and as yet uncrowded districts. The route at this stage would be a half circle, and a tendency would soon develop to shorten some of the curve through Texas by a short flight over the western end of the Gulf of Mexico. This short flight would Fic. 16.—Isochronal migration lines of the black-and-white warbler ( Mniotilta varia). An example of a slow and uniform migration. Isochronal lines indicating the advance of the van during each 10-day period of spring show an average speed of about 20 miles a day in March in Florida and about 25 miles a day for the whole trip to southeastern Canada. (See p.25.) The opposite (a rapid migration) is shown by the gray-cheeked thrush (fig. 17). gradually be lengthened and its points of arrival and departure at the mainland carried eastward until eventually the curve would be replaced by a straight flight across the Gulf. Some migration routes have been so recently developed that they still plainly show their origin. The red-eyed vireo, a striking example,. is a_woodland bird and as such is essentially an inhabitant of the . BIRD MIGRATION. By 7 States east of the Great Plains; but an arm of the breeding range — extends northwestward to the Pacific coast in British Columbia (see fig. 18). It is evident that this is a late extension of the range, that it has taken place by a westward movement from the lower Missouri Valley section, and that the nesting birds of Washington and British Columbia retrace in spring and fall the general route by which they originally invaded the country. The origin of this vireo’s route is also indicated by the isochronal lines shown in figure 19. On March 20 the vanguard is just entering the United States from the winter home in South America. North- ward progression is fairly uniform for the next 5 of the 10-day peri- ods, carrying the birds to eastern Nebraska, southern Michigan, and southern New England. But then a change becomes evident. The eastern birds continue their lines of flight and pass almost directly to their summer homes. Some of the western-born individuals, how- ever, begin to turn at a wide angle from their previous course and proceed on a long northwestward slant to the Pacific. It is especially to be noted that as these individuals change their course they quicken their speed until they travel on the average more than twice as far a day as their eastern brethren. In the'case of the bobolink the evolution of a new extension of the migration route is now occurring before our very eyes. By nature a lover of damp meadows, the bobolink was formerly cut off from the Western States by the intervening arid region. But with the advent of wrigation and the bringing of large areas under cultivation, little colonies of nesting bobolinks are beginning to appear here and there almost to the Pacific. Some of these colonies are shown by encircled areas on the map in figure 1, and the probability is that the not dis- tant future will witness a large increase in the number of bobolinks west of the Rocky Mountains. NORMAL AND ABNORMAL MIGRATION. The relative position of the northern and southern groups of indi- viduals of a species during the two yearly migrations is one of the obscure points that late investigations help to elucidate. The sup- position is that in the case of species which adopt what may be called normal fall migration, birds which nest farthest south migrate first and proceed to the southern end of the winter range; those that breed in the middle districts migrate next and occupy the middle of the winter range; and, finally, those of the northern part of the breeding range migrate last and remain farthest north for the winter. In other words, the migration is a southward movement of the whole species during which the different groups of individuals or colonies retain in general their relative positions. This has been commonly believed, but only of late has it been clearly proved for any particular species. 38 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. An example or two will make this clear. The black-and-white warbler breeds from South Carolina to New Brunswick (see fig. 15). Jn the southern part of its range it nests in April. New Brunswick, however, is scarcely reached by the earliest birds before the middle of May (see fig. 16), as the species occupies about 50 days in crossing Fic. 17.—Isochronal migration lines of the gray-cheeked thrush (Hylocichla aliciz). An example of rapid migration. The whole 4,000 miles from Louisiana to Alaska is passed over in about 30 days, or about 130 miles per day. The last part of the route the speed is several times what it is in the central Missis- sippi Valley. (See p. 27.) For an example of the opposite, a slow migration, see the black-and-white warbler (fig. 16). the breeding range. It is probable that 60 days is about the shortest possible time in which such a bird could build a nest, rear its young, molt, and be ready for the return journey; and if so, then no New Brunswick black-and-white warbler is ready to start south before the middle of July, and 50 days for the trip would bring the earliest migrants to the Gulf States in September. Yet both old birds and BIRD MIGRATION. 89 young of the year have been seen by the middle of July at Key West, Fla., 500 miles south of the breeding range; on August 10 in Costa Rica; and on August 21 on the northern coast of South America. These dates point to the conclusion that early migrants south of the United States could not have been birds from the northern part of the range, but must have been those from the southern part. Black-throated blue warblers reach Cuba in fall just about the time other migrants of the species appear in North Carolina. The infer- ence is that the arrivals in Cuba are the birds that nested in the south- ern Alleghenies, while those appearing in North Carolina are from the latitude of northern New England or beyond. Redstarts and sum- mer warblers arrive on the northern coast of South America so early (August 27 to September 2) as to indicate that they represent the southern breeding birds. Indeed, these representatives of the species are seen in South America just about the time the earliest, of the northern breeding birds reach Florida. Recent investigations have shown also that many species of birds do not follow this ‘‘normal”’ order of migration. The most southern- bred Maryland yellow-throats are almost nonmigratory, residing throughout the year in Florida; those breeding in the middle dis- tricts migrate only a short distance; while those from Newfoundland zo to the West Indies, passing directly over the winter home of their fellows in the South. The red-winged blackbirds of the middle of the range in northern Texas are almost stationary, but are joined in winter by migrant red-wings from the remote Mackenzie Valley. The palm warblers of the interior of Canada in the course of their 3,000-mile journey from Great Slave Lake to Cuba pass through the Gulf States early in October. After the bulk have passed, the palm warblers of the Northeastern Provinces come slowly to the Gulf States and settle there for the winter, content with only a 1,500-mile trip. Some of the blackpoll warblers that pass in spring through Florida proceed northeast 1,000 miles to breed in northern New England, while others, traveling northwest more than 3,000 miles, summer in Alaska. Among the Maryland yellow-throats nesting in western Pennsylvania are undoubtedly individuals that during the winter are scattered in the Gulf States, the West Indies, and even Central America. These examples show that no invariable rule, law, or custom exists in regard to the direction or distance of migration, The winter distribution can not certainly be determined from the summer home,. nor does it positively indicate that home. The statement can be made still stronger. Kach species is composed of many small groups, each of which in regard to summer and winter home and route of migration is a law unto itself, and the knowledge of these facts with regard to one group offers little or no basis for 40 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, judgment in regard to members of other groups. Thus, although a cer- tain general tendency is observable, each species presents a separate problem, to be solved for the most part only by patient, painstaking observation. 3 yon tas . SS [e} ‘te i KS BREEDING RANGE aa Oe | ZB winter nome oe Haar | =e) INST AVMIDIMAESTIO ILI NTRS OF MIGRATION ROUTE Vic. 18.—Distribution and migration of the red-eyed vireo ( Vireosylva olivacea). An example of a lately extended breeding range and migration route. It is evident that the species has only recently invaded Washington by an extension almost due west from the northern Mississippi Valley, and that it still migrates spring and fall along the route originally traversed in thisextension. (See p. 37 and also fig. 19.) RELATIVE POSITION DURING MIGRATION. Spring migration has its own special features, and no such syn- chronous movement then occurs as has been described as ‘‘normal BIRD MIGRATION. Al migration” in fall. With many birds, probably the majority of land birds, the first individuals of a species to appear at a given locality are old birds that nested there the previous year; these are followed by others that nested in the region just to the north; and the last to appear are those whose homes are in the most northern part of the breeding range. The above statement applies only ,to old birds; in what order or at what time young of the previous year migrate has not yet been discovered. If, then, for any species, the southern- nesting birds lead the van in both fall and spring migrations and the rear guard in each case is composed of northern-breeding birds, it follows that some time between October and April a transposal of their relative positions occurs, and that the more southern birds pass over those whose migration ‘farther north is delayed by winter still holding sway in their summer dominions. Just when and where this transposition occurs is a problem of migration reserved for future solution. Nor is it yet settled whether northern-bred birds remain strictly within their winter range until after their more southern congeners have passed by, or whether they begin an early migration so slowly as soon to be overtaken and passed by their more impetuous cousins. Still later in spring another transposition occurs. The northern birds pass across the southern part of the breeding range, where the southernmost birds are already busy with their domestic duties. Spring migration seems, therefore, to be for most species a game of leapfrog, the southern birds first passing the northern and the northern passing them in turn. RELATION BETWEEN MIGRATION AND TEMPERATURE. The Canada goose is typical of what may be called regular migration. This bird fulfills the popular notion of bird migration, i. e., it moves northward in spring as soon as the loosening of winter’s fetters offers open water and a possibility of food. It contimues its progress at the same rate as spring, appearing at its most northern breeding grounds at the earliest possible moment. The isotherm of 35° F. (see fig. 20) seems to be the governing factor, in the rate of spring migration of the Canada goose and, as shown on the map, the isotherm and the vanguard of the geese are close traveling companions through- out the entire route. Moreover, the isochronal lines representing the position of the van at various times are approximately east-and-west lines during the whole migration period. But this so-called regular migration is performed by a very small percentage of species, the great majority choosing exactly the oppo- site course—to remain in their winter homes until spring is far ad- vanced and then reach their breeding grounds by a migration much more rapid than the northward advance of the season. The summer 42 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, warbler is a good example of this usual habit. Some summer warblers that return to the Great Slave Lake region to breed after spending the winter m, Central and South America arrive at their nesting grounds when the average daily temperature is about 47° F. Accord- ing to the movements of the Canada goose, these summer warblers might be expected to pass up the Mississippi Valley and on to their fic. 19.—Isochronal migration lines of the red-eyed vireo ( Vireosylva olivacea). An example of a recently extended migration route. The birds which are to nest in New England advance along the Atlantic coast in approximately a straight line and at a fairly uniform speed, while those which are to nest in Washington advance up the Mississippi Valley at about the same speed untileastern Nebraska is reached, when they turn sharply to the northwest and more than double their speed as they journey along this recently extended route to the far northwest. (See p. 37 and also fig. 18.) summer homes at the same time as the northward-moving tempera- ture of 47° F. But if this were so they would never leave the United States, for the average temperature of the coldest month of the year at New Orleans is 54° F. As a matter of fact, the summer warblers of Great Slave Lake are probably too well content with the warm, humid, insect-laden air of the south to brave the arctic blasts before BIRD MIGRATION. 43 necessity compels. They linger in the Tropics so late that when they reach New Orleans, April 5, an average temperature of 65° F. awaits them. They now hasten. Traveling north much faster than the spring does, they cover 1,000 miles in a month and find in southern Minnesota a temperature of 55° F. In central Manitoba the average temperature they meet is 52° F., and when they arrive late in May at Great Slave Lake they have gained 5 degrees more on the season. Thus during the whole trip of 2,500 miles from New Orleans to Great Slave Lake these birds are continually meeting colder weather. So fast do they migrate that in the 15 days from May 11 to 25 they tray- erse a district that sprmg requires 35 days to cross. This outstrip- ping of spring is habitual with all species that leave the United States for the winter and also with most northern birds that winter in the Gulf States. Careful examination of migration records of each species of the Mississippi Valley shows only six exceptions—Canada goose, mallard, pintail, common crow, red-winged blackbird, and robin. The robin as a species migrates north more slowly than the opening of the season; it occupies 78 days for its trip of 3,000 miles from Iowa fo Alaska, while spring covers the distance in 68 days. But it does not follow that any individual bird moves northward at this leisurely pace. The first robins that reach a given locality m spring are likely to remain there to nest, and the advance of the migration lines must await the arrival of other birds from farther south. Therefore each robin undoubtedly migrates at a faster rate than the apparent move- ment of the species as a whole and does not fall behind the advancing season. ‘This is true of most if not all of the other seemingly slow migrants. Late and rapid journeys of this kind offer certain advan- tages; fewer storms are encountered, the mortality rate is lowered, food is more plentiful along the way, and the birds reach the nesting site full of energy and in good condition to assume the cares and labors of house building and brood raising. An extreme example of a late and rapid migration is that of the black-poll warbler (see fig. 5). The birds enter the United States in southern Florida April 20, when the average temperature there is 72°F. Ten days later the van has reached the central Mississippi Valley, where the temperature is 60° F., and the birds continue to advance faster than the progress of spring until at the time they reach their Alaska breeding grounds on May 30 they find there an average temperature of only 45° I. VARIATIONS IN SPEED OF MIGRATION. The immense variation in the speed with which migrants travel different parts of the broad bird highway extending from the Gulf to the Arctic Ocean by way of the Mississippi and Mackenzie Valleys is a recent determination of special interest. The black-poll warbler 44 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. furnishes one of the best examples (see fig. 5). Wintering in north- central South America and migrating in April across the West Indies to Florida, some individuals pass on northwest to the Mississippi Valley, north to Manitoba, northwest to the valley of the Mackenzie, and thence almost due west to western Alaska. From the Gulf of Mexico to Minnesota a fairly uniform average speed of 30 to 35 miles a day is maintained; southern Indiana and Missouri are reached the first week in May, southern Iowa early in the second week, and southern Minnesota is entered by the middle of the month. Then Soe USOMME HY Qe BO- (z —— /SOCHRONAL MIGRATION LINES Fria. 20.—Migration of the Canada goose (Branta canadensis). An example of migration keeping pace with _ the advance of spring. The earliest Canada geese arrive in central Hlinois when the average temperature is about 35° F., and they reach their most northern breeding grounds at about the same temperature, having advanced northward at approximately the same rate as the advance of spring. (See p. 41.) comes a ‘‘spurt’’; within another week the black-polls appear in the central part of the Mackenzie Valley, and the following week they arrive in northwestern Alaska, many individuals undoubtedly averag- ing more than 200 miles a day during the latter part of the journey. Thirty days are thus occupied in traveling the 1,000 miles from the Gulf of Mexico north to southern Minnesota, and scarcely half that — time in traversing the remaining 2,500 miles northwest to Alaska. The directions of migration are emphasized because the change of direction is intimately connected with the great increase of speed, as will be explained. ! BIRD MIGRATION. - 45 A similar increase of speed is shown by many other species. The average speed of migration from New Orleans to southern Minnesota for all species is close to 23 miles a day. Sixteen species maintain a daily average of 40 miles from southern Minnesota to southern Mani- toba, and from this point 12 species travel to Lake Athabaska at an average speed of 72 miles a day, 5 others to Great Slave Lake at 116 miles a day, and 5 more to Alaska at 150 miles a day. The reason for these remarkable differences is very simple: The speed increases as the birds move northward because the advance of the season is more rapid in the northern interior than on and near the southern coast. The farther removed a district is from the ocean the greater the extremes of its temperature. At New Orleans the average daily temperature of January is 54° F’., and that of July is 82° F., while at Winnipeg, Manitoba, the corresponding average tem- peratures are: January,—7°F.; July, 66°F. Hence during the period the temperature at New Orleans is rising 28 degrees, that at Winnipeg rises 73 degrees. Consequently as a given isotherm moves north during spring in the Mississippi Valley it continually increases its rate of advance. The isotherm of 35° F., corresponding to the commence- ment of spring migration, advances north at the rate of 3 miles a day from January 15 to February 15, 10 miles daily during the next month, and 20 miles daily during the followmg month. But an additional explanation must be sought for the wonderfully quickened speed with which birds pass northwestward from Minne- sota to the Mackenzie Valley. Along the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains isotherms travel north faster than at corresponding latitudes farther east. From February 15 to March 15 the isotherm of 35° F. (the line of spring) passes along the foothills from New Mexico to northern Colorado at the rate of 12 miles a day. During the next month, under the influence of the Chinook winds, its rate of northward progress is increased to 40 miles a day, so that by April 15 it has reached Lake Athabaska. Spring has come with a rush in this western interior country. The result is that during the height of the migration season, from the middle of April to the middle of June, the southern end of the Mackenzie in Saskatchewan has just about the same temperature as the Lake Superior region 700 miles farther south. These conditions, coupled with the diagonal course of birds across this region of fast-moving spring, necessarily exert a powerful influence on bird migration. The robin’s average temperature of migration is 35° F.; that is, the bird puts in an appearance soon after snow begins to melt and streams to open, but before vegetation has made any marked advance. These conditions occur in the central Mississippi Valley about the middle of February, and it is the first of March before spring and the robins cross northern Missouri and arrive 46 BULLETIN 185, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. together in southern Iowa. Thence a whole month is consumed by the birds in their slow progress (13 miles a day) to central Minnesota. Their pace then quickens to keep up with the northward rush of spring, and another 10 days at doubled speed brings them to southern Canada. Here they must make an important choice. To the north and northeast lies a land that awakens slowly from its winter’s sleep, and where the sun must wage a protracted warfare against the cold of the ice masses in Lake Superior and Hudson Bay. To the northwest stretches a less forbidding region already quickening under the influence of the Chinook winds. Most of the robins from Missouri that pass through western Minne- sota elect to turn to the northwest, and now they must not only keep pace with the rapidly advancing season but must do so on a long- drawn diagonal. Their daily average rises to 50 miles (four times that in southern Iowa) and later, when the course of the birds bound for western Alaska becomes nearly due west, the rate in- creases to 70 miles a day—more than six times the speed with which the journey began. The Alaska-breeding robins are the only ones that develop high speed. Robins bound for Newfoundland move leisurely along the Atlantic coast at the proverbially slow rate of the oncoming of spring in.New England, and, scarcely exceeding 17 miles a day, they finally arrive at their destination the first week in May, when their Alaska-bound relatives are already 1,200 miles farther north. An interesting migration route is that of the robins nesting in southern Alberta, which arrive too early to have come from the south and southeast; hence they must have come from the south- west, though this route has necessitated their crossing the main range of the Rockies while the mountains were still in the grasp of winter. Robins remain all winter on the Pacific coast, north to southwestern British Columbia, which has about the same winter temperature as St. Louis, 700 miles farther south. Hence the win- tering robins of British Columbia are already far north at the advent of spring and do not need any hurried migration to reach Alberta on time, so that they average only 8 miles a day, the slowest rate for the species. It may fairly be asked, How do we know that the Alaska robins have come all this long distance from the central Mississippi Valley, instead of the far shorter distance from British Columbia? It happens that the robins of the two sides of the conti- nent slightly differ in color and in pattern of coloration. Birds of the western style are not known north of southwestern Saskatche- wan, central British Columbia, and southeastern, Alaska, while the whole country to the northward is occupied by birds whose charac- teristics prove that they came from the southeast. BIRD MIGRATION. 47 Tt does not necessarily follow that any individual bird makes all these changes in its speed of migration. The flight of the individual can not be traced or timed under the present system of obtaining records, and in the above statements it is meant that the general advance of the van of the birds is marked by these great changes in speed. It is quite likely that the first robins which reach central Minnesota at an average speed of 13 miles a day stop there and nest, and it is possible that those which continue the advance to southern Mackenzie at an average speed of 40 miles a day are individuals that have waited later in the winter home and have covered the whole distance at the higher rate. That individual birds do increase their daily rate of progress as they proceed northward seems probable from the records of the gray- cheeked thrush (see fig. 17). The earliest migrants of this species _ travel from southern Louisiana to northern Iowa (1,000 miles) in about 15 days, or over 60:'milesaday. As at this time they are passing over a country in which they do not breed, there is no reason to infer that the same birds do not keep continually in the lead. Hence 60 miles a day may be considered the actual average speed of individuals forming the van, of this species. Two weeks later the earliest gray- ' cheeked thrushes appear in northwestern Alaska, 3,000 miles from Iowa, and it seems unreasonable not to conclude that the same birds that averaged about 60 miles a day as they moved north in the lower Mississippi Valley have greatly imcreased this speed as they con- tinued their journey northwestward and finally westward to Alaska. THE UNKNOWN. Interest in. bird migration, goes back to a remote period; marvelous as were the tales of spring and fall movements of birds, as spun by early observers, yet hardly less incredible are the ascertained facts. Much has been learned about bird migration, in, these latter days, but much yet remains to be learned, and the following is one of the most curious and interesting of the unsolved problems. The chimney swift is one of the most abundant and best-known birds of eastern United States. With troops of fledglings catching their winged prey as they go and lodging by night in tall chimneys, the flocks drift slowly south joining with other bands, until on the northern, coast of the Gulf of Mexico they become an innumerable host. Then they disappear. Did they drop into the water or hibernate in the mud, as was believed of old, their obliteration, could not be more complete. In the last week in March a joyful twittering far overhead announces their return to the Gulf coast, but their hiding place during the intervening five months is still the swift’s secret. WASHINGTON | GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE } 1915 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V ore Pi N Or THE i MY D UINDEPARTNENT OPAGRICULTURE No. 186 yy. Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief, and the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. February 27, 1915. A METHOD OF FUMIGATING SEED.' By E. R. Sasscer, Chief Inspector, Federal Horticultural Board, and Lon A. HawKIns, Plant Physiologist, Plant Physiological and Fermentation Investigations, INTRODUCTION. A perfectly reliable method of destroying insects present in seeds imported into this country, without injury to the seed, is much needed. The exclusion of insects by a careful selection of apparently uninfested seeds at the port of export is impracticable, because many injurious insects pass their larval and pupal stages and a portion of the adult stage inclosed within the seed and on this account might easily escape notice when the seeds were inspected. Furthermore, seeds are frequently received from localities where injurious insects are not well recognized, and, also, insects which are only slightly injurious in their native habitats occasionally become destructive pests when estab- lished in this country. The ordinary methods of destroying insects in stored seeds, such as subjecting them to heat (with or without moisture), carbon bisulphid, and hydrocyanic acid in the presence of air, have -been tried and found unsatisfactory for this purpose. It occurred to the writers to create a partial vacuum in the con- tainer in which the seeds had been placed and fill the chamber with some gaseous insecticide, such as carbon, bisulphid or hydrocyanie acid, in the belief that a much larger amount of gas might thus be forced into the crevices of the seeds and into the insect galleries than would be possible if the entrance of the gas were dependent upon diffusion under normal atmospheric pressure. This method was suc- cessfully used with a number of different kinds of seeds and insects, and a convenient chamber, described later, was devised for fumigation under reduced pressure. ‘This work was carried on in cooperation between the Federal Bortionttaral Board and the Oftice of Plant Physiological and Fermentation Investigations, Bureau of Piant Industry, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 75871°—Bull, 186—~—15 2 BULLETIN 186, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FUMIGATION CHAMBER. The fumigation chamber (fig. 1 and fig. 2, 6) is of iron tubing, 36 inches long by 12 inches in diameter. One end of this cylinder is per- manently closed with a heavy iron cap (fig. 1, a). The other end is fitted with a flange and can be closed with a brass plate (fig. 1, 5), which is held in place by clamps. One face of the plate is ground to fit the flange, which is also ground. A wide rubber gasket is placed between the two faces when the plate is clamped in position. The chamber is designed to lie with its longest axis in a horizontal position. On, the side of the chamber intended to lie uppermost three openings are made, one being in the center and one at each end. The opening. NG ~ UZZ2 g W (JLiaikthhALeLihabinatiLaningaaaathit WAIBBABBBAARBEBASBEERS BASALT REALE SREEEELEEELEEREEELEEEERERELAEELRES NAAS ML Fic. 1.—Diagram of fumigation chamber: a, Iron cap; b, brass plate clamped on end of chamber; c, gas cock for attaching suction hose; d, vacuum gauge; ¢, dropping funnel, by means of which the sulphuric acid is introduced into the chamber; f, beaker to contain cyanid. near the capped end is fitted with a gas cock (fig. 1, ¢), so that the suction hose of a vacuum pump can be readily attached. A vacuum gauge, registering the decrease in pressure in units equivalent to inches of mercury, is placed in the center opening (fig. 1, d), while a tubula- ture is placed in the opening near the flange. The tubulature is closed with a perforated rubber stopper bearing a dropping funnel (fig. 1, e) so arranged that the bulb and stopcock are outside the chamber, while the tube extends down inside the chamber nearly to the bottom. The rubber stopper and dropping funnel can be readily removed when seeds or other material to be fumigated are placed in the chamber. An air pump, driven by a motor and capable of reducing the air pressure to the equivalent of about 0.05 of a millimeter of mer- cury, is used to secure an almost complete vacuum (fig. 2, @). A METHOD OF FUMIGATING SEED. 3 When this apparatus is used for fumigation, the seeds, contained in either a cloth bag or an open vessel, are placed in the chamber, and the requisite amount of sodium or potassium cyanid in a small beaker is so arranged that the neck of the dropping funnel extends down into the beaker (fig. 1, f). The cover is then clamped on and the chamber exhausted. In extracting the air from the chamber, the suction is continued until the gauge registers 30 inches or more that is, the air in the chamber is exhausted until the pressure is the equivalent of some fraction of an inch of mercury. The suction is then cut off by means of the gas cock, and the required quantity of diluted acid, which has been previously placed in the bulb of the Fie. 2.—Air pump (a) and fumigation chamber (6) used in the experiments described in this bulletin. dropping funnel, is allowed to flow slowly upon the cyanid in the beaker within the chamber. The hydrocyanic acid is thus prepared in the chamber and no trace can get out. After the seeds are exposed to the gas for the required time, the stopcock of the dropping fun- nel is opened to let the air into the chamber. As the discharge pipe of the air pump extends outside the building, the mixture of hydrocyanic acid and air can not escape into the room. As soon as convenient, the stopper and funnel are removed and, by means of the air pump, air is sucked through the chamber, thus washing the hydrocyanic acid out of the chamber before the cover is taken off and the seeds removed. In the experiments described 4 BULLETIN 186, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. here the seeds were examined carefully at several different times to see whether all insects were killed. The viability of the seeds was then tested. Part of the germination tests recorded in this paper were made by Mr. W. R. Lucas, of the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Intro- duction, but in most cases tests with treated and untreated seeds were carried out by Mr. W. L. Goss, of the Seed Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry. In these experiments the duration of the exposure and the con- centration of hydrocyanic acid were varied in order to determine the minimum exposure and concentration of hydrocyanic acid which would insure the death of all the infesting insects. It was also con- sidered of interest to determine whether the seeds would be unin- jured if exposed longer and with a higher concentration of the hydro- cyanic acid than that necessary to kill the insects. The duration of the exposure and the amounts of sodium or potassium cyanid are given in the description of the experiments. The 1-1-2 formula was used for potasstum cyanid and the 1-14—2 formula for sodium cyanid. The iron fumigation chamber already described was used in most of the experiments. In some of the preliminary work, however, desiccators or bell jars were used instead. The essentials of the method were the same in either case, and no description of these pieces of apparatus seems necessary. EXPERIMENTS. The summarized results of these experiments are here given in tabular form for comparison (Table I). TasLe I.—Summary of experiments in fumigating against insects. Kind ofeyanid | 747 Material. Infested with— and amount expo- Result. Germination test. used. sure. | | Avocado: Hrs. 26 seeds. | One adult avocado | Sodiumecyanid,| 1 | Insect dead......-. 22 out of 26 seeds germi- weevil ( Heilipus 4 gm., in des- | nated. lauri). iccator. 29 seedSs|peeene eines = ayavsieie Ce cascec of Fea tesecceeeccerees 20 out of 29 seeds germi- | nated; 21 out of 25 germinated in con- | trol test. 5seeds..| Larvae of avocado wee- |.-..-. GS Sab sadd 1 | All stages dead....| Seed cut up to deter- | vil (inelosed in a cot- mine mortality of in- ton - plugged vial) sects and not plant- and broad - nosed ed. grain weevil (Caul- | ophilus latinasus). ANSE bonseincnccecoebas>cosses|soa5¢ GOs eee (GP eese do Geicmscreers | No germination. Wp ea|bnacheasscosoecios soenese leeane Ghiss Sascor ae WP leoasc GO So.a5-68 sos Do. 6seeds..| Larvee of Conotrache- | Sodium cyanid, al eee CO aase5c05s- All seeds germinated, lus sp. and broad- 4 gms. nosed grain weevil, | all stages. 10'seedS!|54. Otte eereeeslneeae GO aecc see 1| No insects alive Do. out of 50 exam- ined of all stages. A METHOD OF FUMIGATING SEED. Taste I.—Summary of experiments in fumigating against insects—Continued. Kind ofeyanid | 727°) Material. Infested with— and amount expo- Result. Germination test. used. sure. Avocado: Hrs. | 4 J 7seeds..| Larvee of Conotrache- | Sodium eyanid, 4/1 'grain-weevil lar- | Not planted. | lus sp. and broad- 2 gms. | va alive. | nosed grain weevil, | all stages. 6Gseeds... 4 with all stages of |...do........... 34| All stages dead....| 3 seeds planted and all broad-nosed grain germinated. | weevil; 2 uninfested. | =10seeds.| Scolytid..............|-.--- On ae peers % | Out ofseveral hun-| Not planted. : dred specimens = | 1 live adult was } found. DOs a5 GO wicccocee ce seas- Sodium cyanid, 3 | All stages dead..-- Do. 4 gms. Sorghum | Bruchus sp......------ Sodium cyanid, + | Insects alive...... 75.5 per cent germina- seed. ; 2 gms. tion; seed badly in- fested. DOs. 52. Bruchus sp. and rice | Sodium cyanid, 4 | Allstages dead....| 71 per cent germina- weevil (Calandra 4 gms. tion; seed badly oryza). eaten. Doe sscs|s---< GBS e Se neceSeane ances GOs cascce ce iS iGased GOvaeeesesccee oe per cent germina- 5 ion. Do -| Rice weevil and ca- | Sodium cyanid, pasos OP eee Of four grades fumi- ; delle ( Tenebroides 4 gm., in des- gated, the percentage mauritanicus). iceator. of germination was as follows: 78.5; 86.5; 88; 83. D5 ee Peete (3 C5 oe ee eer COL oeemes 4 alee eee dose setcake Germination of fumi- gated seed superior to that of untreated seed. IO 5. <)'-- RACE WEOVAl . 35-2 - 225-2 Potassium cy- | 30° |..--- UCss ee aceee eee Seed thoroughly in- anid, 2 gms. fested with insects previous to fumigat- ing and only 15 per cent germinated. Bins... --- Bulb mite (Rhizogly- | Sodium cyanid, 1 | All mites dead....| Bulbs thoroughly in- phus hyacinthi). 4 gm., in des- fested and unfit for iccator. planting. ; Cotton seed.) Adults ofthe red grain | Sodium cyanid, 1 | Allinsects dead....| Not planted. beetle (Cathartus ge- 14 gms. mellatus). Gleditsia si-! Bruchussp. (adults)..| Sodium cyanid, 34 | All insects dead, !} Percentage of germina- nensis in | | 2gms, both in and out tion approximately seed pods. of seed pods. the same with bot fumigated and un- treated seed. O82 eee Clie eee AEe, eee Sodium cyanid, Wile ese GO Nae ms aes Do. 4 gms. Phaseolus} Bruchus sp...-..--.---- Sodium cyanid, 1 | Allinsects dead...| Germination of fumi- vulgaris. 4 gm.,in des- gated seed superior iccator. to that of untreated seed. Pineapples .| Pseudococcus sp..-.-...|.---- GOme.---see a asoee Gositae-ee cee Not planted. | Tussock | moth (Hemero- | camypaleu- costigm): PAM 2 as cao sis Oa ee Sodium ecyanid, 4}Somelarv se masses 2 gms. hatched several days after expo- sure, 250 egg |..-- .| Sodium cyanid, 4 | Nohatching...... 4 gms. masses. | The results given in Table I indicate that the fumigation of seeds by the introduction of hydrocyanic acid into an air-tight chamber, from which the air has been practically exhausted, is effective, provided the exposure is not less than half an hour. An exposure of one-fourth hour is effective with the apparatus employed in these experiments if four or more grams of cyanid are used. 6 BULLETIN 186, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY. Fumigation by the method described in this bulletin was found to kall insects without injury to the seed and with a considerably shorter exposure than is necessary in the usual method of seed. fumigation. Further experiments will be conducted with special reference to the use of carbon bisulphid, which is not considered in this paper. y ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915 ULLETIN OF THE DEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE *, No. 187 Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, Henry W. Henshaw, Chief. & February 11, 1915. PRELIMINARY CENSUS OF BIRDS OF THE UNITED STATES. By Wetts W. Cooke, Assistant Biologist. INTRODUCTION. During the summer of 1914 the Biological Survey took initial steps toward’a census of the birds of the United States for the pur- pose of ascertaiming approximately the number and relative abun- dance of the different species. In view of the recognized value of birds to agriculture, such information can not fail to be of great value. An added reason for this census was that the Congress has recently placed the Department of Agriculture in charge of migratory game and insectivorous birds, so that it is necessary that exact informa- tion be secured in regard to their present numbers as a basis for determining the adequacy of the present laws for their protection and whether the several species are increasing or diminishing. The census will need to be repeated for several years and on a much larger scale before a satisfactory basis can be obtained for safe generalizations. It is hoped that all who can aid in the work will notify the Biological Survey in order that later necessary instruc-— tions and report blanks may be furnished. It will be understood that the bureau has no funds to pay for this work, and it must therefore depend upon volunteer observers. Bird observers in the West and the South are particularly requested to cooperate, as these sections have not been sufficiently covered in past observa- tions. The circular of instructions for 1915 will be sent out early enough in the spring to allow ample time for making well-considered plans. Nore. —This bulletin isa a ary report on the number or relative dieatance of wild birds. Tt is for the information of those interested in the protection and increase of birds. 76541°—Bull. 187—15 2 BULLETIN 187, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PREVIOUS BIRD CENSUSES. The first publication of the results of a bird census on a large scale in the United States was in 1901, at Berwyn, Pa., where F. L. Burns reported 588 pairs of native birds breeding on 640 acres.t This is in very close agreement with the 583 pairs found to be the average for the present census under comparable conditions. There was no such agreement, however, in regard to the English sparrow, Mr. Burns finding 106 pairs to the square mile as compared with about 60 pairs as the average for the 1914 census. In the summer of 1907 the University of Llinois conducted a series of statistical bird studies,? and during the month of June found 600 native birds per square mile as the average for southern Tllinois, or less than half the number found to be the average in the national census. The method of conducting the Illinois census, however, was so radically different from that used by the Biological Survey that the two sets of figures are scarcely comparable. The Illinois census finds for the whole State 114 English sparrows to the square mile as compared with about 120 sparrows per square mile for the national census; but here, again, the differences are really greater than the above figures would indicate, for in the Inois cen- sus a large number of the English sparrows counted were young birds. The differences between these three censuses are most noticeable in the case of the English sparrow. For every 100 native birds enumer- ated in the bureau’s census of typical farms of northeastern United States, seven English sparrows were found. The Berwyn census and the Illinois census showed 18 English sparrows per 100 native birds, but, as already stated, many of these in the latter census were young birds. PLANS FOR THE 1914 CENSUS. The first season’s work must necessarily be regarded as largely pre- liminary, and the present publication, which may be considered in the nature of a report of progress, is issued for the double purpose of giving information as to the actual accomplishment in the prelimi- nary survey and of increasing public interest in the matter so that next season the work may be greatly extended. A bird census of a tract of land near Washington, D. C., had been taken for several years and the experience thus gained was used as a basis for the following circular of instructions: 1 Burns, F. L. CO ae ee ee ia cp el 2) SOO GCS ha a a in a ee ee | HN BD ee ae _- SES eee eee \, ED EDS eee eee aa pe ee NNS ECP Meee > SSMU Pa Gee hye SSI SESS io cae el ea a ee <5 |_| Yserive eroom\ | | Jriasr arooX KI | | | etd a alot cee alc ula Wha DSS Se GSI SISO Bi cies Sun SS ug 9 uy SN uN APRIL MAY WE. JULY AUGUST Fig. 3.—Diagram to illustrate emergence of spring-brood and first-brood moths of the codling moth at Charlottesville, Va., in 1913. Taste V.—Number of larve of the codling moth taken from bands and reared at Char- lottesville, Va., in 1913. (See fig. 4 Number of Number of| dead from pas of | Number of 5 ths larve Date of collecting larve. larvee handling, aoe ging, over- collected. Sue 1913. wintering. ORG | RR RF Ao eee ee ce Baer ep i arenes mn deat 6 Qi l\A aonb Aas less osaset ee Ts ote ee Pesci st Nona ots cL hersate = Pia sos) sich 20 7 IR ieee eens Tiere Re aera tes AL Miler re adi ed iy A) wl teh et 33 11 OP Ne as ates or ee we te LF I ee See Ee Se oo 18 i) a1 yy oeeeerse as Te pO aS FIRE SEE ES, eI Deity ee Dee” Oa 35 19 aK SSN Sees Pa ee ene sD Sy OS Raed ite oh A 90 32 57 1 Ay Ea Re SR RR RC ete 37 10 Nin lecaaeeeae soe 224 ce eee NR RST § dt C5 oh hn Ses SAN 54 27 25 2 “eget Ee AEE ea ea Pe Set a 2 AO gp Be 25 85 52 31 2 AER Ste omen che Acaee ces oelse muciemelee 19 8 9 2 Too ree SE OMe amie malta 23 3 20 | eeerctecwrcn ete 2 2 SD ee bee OU tela eam | OLE AML 15 7 a Bose teroeane (it he EE 22 ee eee

> vicniein thea re Ree ek ot fab ds ote cee 3 ee orc 2 19. 6 Ly «|S pvate reese & ate ie 5 BE ok sack <>: See ee Ree eied ol is EE N | ee Ae eer Bee Met hee 9 ae a ANS gvov rogue oe ou % nt DUNE SUL? a eu SEPT. Fig. 4.—Diagram to illustrate band collections of larve of the codling moth at Charlottesville, Va.,in 1913. or 41.14 per cent, of which perished in the rearing cages; 49.82 per cent emerged as moths the same season, while 9.14 per cent spun up and wintered. As has already been explained, the comparative numbers of wintering and transforming larve given in Table V must not be considered usual. At Charlottesville in an ordinary season a large proportion of the first brood transforms, giving rise to a rela- tively large second brood, and with a fair crop of fruit the larve of the second brood taken under the bands should far exceed the first in numbers. SUMMARY FOR SEASON OF 1913. Spring-brood moths began emerging at Charlottesville on April 18. First-brood larve might be expected to have entered the fruit by April 28-30, though not in any number until several days later. CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. VEIL First-brood larvee were taken under the bands June 5, and by August 1 probably most of them had left the fruit. First-brood moths appeared in the rearing cages on June 14, and in numbers June 23. Second-brood larve must have been entering fruit June 25-30, and were leaving by the last of July to the first of August. INVESTIGATIONS AT GREENWOOD, VA. DESCRIPTION OF LOCALITY. Greenwood is situated about 18 miles west of Charlottesville, in a section of the Blue Ridge Mountaims where commercial apple growing has been well established for years. In a mountain orchard section, such as this, there is considerable variation in the elevation of orchard sites. The orchard in which band-record experiments were conducted was at an altitude of about 900 feet above sea level. The work in this section for the season of 1912 is given in part only, the moth emergence of that summer being considered of suffi- cient importance to find a place in this report. INVESTIGATIONS IN 1912. SPRING-BROOD MOTHS. Table VI contains the emergence records of 180 moths as they occurred in the rearing cages at Greenwood in 1912. The first visit of the season to Greenwood was made on May 8, and the table shows that three moths were found in the jar of wintering larve at that time; while these may have emerged two or three days pre- viously, from the number appearing two days later (May 10) it can be assumed that moth emergence was just beginning on May 8. Taste VI.—Emergence of spring-brood moths of the codling moth at Greenwood, Va., in 1912. (See fig. 5.) : oe Number : ds Number Ryan Ot OLE of moths spaeeot obser: of moths : P emerging. z emerging. May (Sere oe: 3 MSY? 80 os 552.0 34 LOW aces aes 11 DUST O We Berets a sia 15 1 ee Ae oeee 18 (ape eee 5 | IB ve asdos so 28 | ——— 7 Pee eR ae 20 Mopalece. ca. 180 LAS tie dota aida aie 46 Some time was spent in the orchard in an unsuccessful search for eggs and young larvee, and their absence indicates that moths had at least not been appearing in the field in numbers up to that time. Maximum emergence did not occur until May 26, although moths were appearing in some numbers during all of the period from May 10 to June 3. None emerged in the rearing cages after June 7, although, had more insects been under observation, an occasional adult would probably have appeared later. 12 BULLETIN 189, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FIRST-BROOD MOTHS. The first collection of larve in 1912 was delayed until June 12, though as none of those taken under the bands at the time had pupated, the beginning of first-brood moth emergence was not seri- ously affected thereby. In all 639 moths appeared in the rearing cages between June 23 and August 28. (See Table VII.) | | serine\eroop | FIRST BRO ae eee fl | Fr Flan ail PGIR uli | Ae sh Fic. 5.—Diagram to illustrate emergence of spring-brood and first-brood moths of the codling moth at Greenwood, Va., in 1912. Taste VII.—Emergence of first-brood moths of the codling moth at Greenwood, Va.,in 1912. (See fig. 5.) & Number Number | pate of obser Oimotne pate. des of moths oer emerging, a emerging. YieiaPRy a5 sueee = 6 UAT. se ce sebe oe 41 eee 4 De hae ne 40 Ahothye ales ees ee 17 Derecisis cee oe 24 Seaaceees 62 TG Pd pa 75 LO eee Seacey as 71 Weinert eer 53 US aereaoaes 67 DU cee 18 ate raratan ee 29 DAE By reece Gk 9 7A peat) See 27 PAS ey a een tre 0 Dialer sae 65 ZO ae ce ae 30 Motaliee es: 639 The seasonal appearance of the two broods of moths is given in figure 5. Work at Greenwood was discontinued in 1913, the transformations of the codling moth being apparently so nearly the same as at Char- lottesville that almost daily observation would be necessary to distinguish any variation at all, and according to the plan of work followed it was impossible to take records oftener than every three or four days. CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION, 13 INVESTIGATIONS AT HAGERSTOWN, MD. Hagerstown,- Md., DESCRIPTION OF LOCALITY. is situated on a comparatively level portion of the lower Ciena Valley. The country is more or less roll- ing, but the relative differences in altitude are not great, the ac- tual elevation above sea level of most of this section being from 500 to 600 feet. There are a few large orchards in the vi- cinity, but fruit grow- ing in a commercial way has not received much attention un- til recently. How- ever, Hagerstown is not far from some very important fruit- erowing districts on the east, the west, the north, and the Teas Spee ease Sees eee ea PFU eS bal iv Gla le ie (lal) i/o lel bea ie il) Lot at ll al tl a a at a ET SP FHEEEAEEEEEEEE PaE Cee oe a (2 Co a ye fap “OXY SLEHONSH = 9 y 9 so 509 2 yeae AUGUST SEPT. NUMBER OF MOTHS Fic. 6.—Diagram to illustrate emergence of first-brood moths of the codling moth at Hagerstown, Md., in 1911. south. Band-record experiments were carried on in this section for 1911, 1912, and 1913. INVESTIGATIONS IN 1911. FIRST-BROOD MOTHS. The long intervals between observations in 1911 (10 to 12 days) make the records of that year of rather doubtful value, and while they are included for Hagerstown and Pickens, it must not be under- stood that they are comparable in oa but a general way to the data obtained in the two following years’ work in these sections. TasLe VIII.— -Emergence of first-brood moths of the codling moth at Hagerstown, Md., in 1911. (See fig. 6.) Number Di aye on over Us of moths es emerging. July 2 Bacon tee 82 Total, sas 208 14 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The collection of larve from the bands, and the summer-brood moth emergence given in Table VIII, can be better appreciated by reference to figures 6 and 7, and it is doubtful if much could be added by a detailed mieotanicn of the season’s work. INVESTIGATIONS IN 1912. SPRING-BROOD MOTHS. It will be noted that the records for spring-brood moth emergence given in Table [IX were obtained at Smithsburg, Md., and therefore do not represent accurately what took place at Hagerstown. The Smithsburg section is 9 miles east of Hagerstown, at the foot of the Blue Ridge Mountains, and at a considerably higher elevation, and AC PCAN MAHEANGHEAUUHRUAAEEER CUCL CEECTPE TEE | nda | Nop Neate CECE STE ICCC EEEECECEDSOLET S60 IO 420 350 OF LARVAE ‘28O 2/0 /40 NUMBER 7O 9’ 90 9 S46 5 9 ers is) 9 9 AH Gh ey a ee er ) 6 ES © JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCT. Fig. 7.—Diagram to illustrate band collections of larvee of the codling moth at Hagerstown, Md., in 1911. the seasonal conditions at Hagerstown are somewhat in advance of those at Smithsburg. ‘However, no satisfactory record of moth emergence was obtained at Hagerstown in the spring of 1912, and as this was practically the only record of any value secured at Smiths- burg, it is included in the report of the work in the former section. Tasie 1X.—Emergence of spring-brood moths of the codling moth ot Smithsburg, Md., 7 1912. (See fig. 8.) : Number 6 Number Dat oa Longer eOthie Dateiatopser. RanoThe ear” emerging. aiecses emerging. May 302. saee 2202: 2 TUNE OG eeue Ne 10 JUNOYS2 oases a 9 DE ae Sis Se 4 ate ctaies bso 17 ib ne 23 Total 85 15S scat ee 20 CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 15 It will be seen from figure 8 that emergence began on May 30, and reached its maximum on June 11, after which time the moths de- creased in numbers, ceasing to appear altogether after June 23. It would probably be safe to say that the first-brood larve were entering fruit by June 1, or very soon thereafter. FIRST-BROOD MOTHS. The emergence records of 148 moths given in Table X were obtained from the material collected in the orchard at Hagerstown and repre- sent fairly well the occurrence of the summer or first brood of moths in the field. The 148 moths accounted for in this table comprise all that transformed during that season of the 1,706 larve reared, a fact —— a fara =e (Senos ean Se oe eo eee eee eee | Ere NIT LL VL prmaeyeree? | PARA YAN Jeecraral 10 Fe ala Bl ome wl alse eS an eas cal NUMBER OF MOTHS ~ io > ~W~2%H94H0 8% 5 ) Siig" Oo) B'S a Ovi S | Oo = O may JUNE UULY AUGUST Fig. 8.—Diagram to illustrate emergence of spring-brood moths of the codling moth at Smithsburg, Md., and first-brood moths at Hagerstown, Md., in 1912. which probably accounts for the relatively small number of second- brood larve that appeared under the bands later in the summer (sce fig. 9). TABLE X.—Lmergence of first-brood moths of the codling moth at Hagerstown, Md.,in 1912. (See fig. 8.) Date of obser- Number Date of obser- Number vation. of moths Watton of moths emerging, ‘ emerging, July 13: 4.42.5; ; 3 || Aug. 13. ata dip odds 20 (faa see 36 ifladsis are serait 9 21 11 Whi sodden A bbinleiside a eet 71 see ee 13 Die ahit a ndivihe lua wwia gis apes Miirepsi sss | 28 Wad aeuywiepls 2 AUfe Uecgeedece 1s 10 —-—- — Diisegepde sat 1) | LOUD wis dan 148 Vereasvecsss 5 | ' 16 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. First-brood moths began to emerge on July 13, and emergence continued throughout the remainder of July and the fore part of August. Two adults appeared as late as August 29, though emer- gence had practically ceased August 17. The codling moth is very sensitive to weather conditions, its development being especially retarded by cold, and the irregularity in the emergence curve of first-brood moths in figure 8 is due, in part at least, to extreme tem- perature variations of the season. . Second-brood larve probably began entering fruit at Hagerstown in 1912, about July 23 to 27. BAND COLLECTIONS. Altogether 1,706 larvee were taken from the bands at Hagerstown in 1912. (See Table XI.) The trees used were of the York Imperial variety, about 15 years old, smooth bodied and loaded with fruit. Bands were placed in the fore part of June and examinations made every three or four days, beginning June 15. TasLe XI.—Numober of larvx of the codling moth taken from the bands and reared at Hagerstown, Md., during the summer of 1912 and the spring of 1913. (See fig. 9.) Number of Number of} dead from | Number Number Number Number Date of collecting larve. larvee col- | handling, | emerged, |overwinter-| winter- emerged, lected. cannibal- 1912. ing. killed. 1913. ism, ete. JUNC 2029515. Se ase eee 11 4 1 Bi PORES Pee SAR sornl me cbcod sec July: Le. ose ke eee Be lee Se ee SR ee dioe set os See eee eal See See eens See ESE nOuE CouO co saaebe tafe}? paeee Aen < Doe 42 16 if 9 eee re eee oe 8 Gee 55 24 28 3 a eee eee ea Sosa date eRe 144 27 42 75 24 51 7k SRS eS See Ge tee 240 53 15 172 109 63 De eee Sold © at See 183 44 2 137 137 |. os Noe DD eons See a need oes ere Oe 207 61 10 136 100 36 pt) aia eR pte, Sees, Ae iP 228 75 2 151 112 39 LOTS ene Se Seen Seana See 117 QO. scecsmeee es 95 : 40 55 DS Bae ic, ae Mas Soe Ae 97 16}, | Eecoo sae nec 79 25 54 Qs ese ee Nera e! 59 1A apieeaetss 47 36 il dE Gee Series = CHES oORD see 35 HD | ees Se Soe 30 23 7 1 RSE oo ee Sess Soe eer 30 Dio cnc Sates 28 11 17 D) To aOR One ae 15 LO eS cee ee oD) ere St Sc 5 Qi essere soseecieinet once 60 3 be eae res ees 29 19 10 SORE ea eee meets 30 Bi, Sacer sateces 22 2 20 Sentatgwesare as deepen Marke 48 hy (eee hereon 26 19 7 ‘ Gra 2et isa sechine oaeeee 16 Ouse ene eeeeee 7 7 | Wksaeeeeeeee 1 Sie Ste aaosecaseaee 21 if, WES eee BAe 14 7 7 eee ae ane ee 16 A nines Seo oo 12 8 4 Ue sien sekieeer cee eeee e 28 See ee fees 20 13 af Di LE ERE ee RES ES 8 DF as See roc 6 4 2 FROtAUE ears eer eee oe 1, 706 448 148 1,110 706 404 Per Gentwoncee eee | 100 26. 26 8. 68 65. 06 41.38 23. 68 From figure 9 it will be seen that the first larvee appeared under the bands on June 29, the numbers gradually increasing through July. From August 1 to 21 the collections decreased, increasing again slightly after the latter date, and it is probable that second-brood larvee were beginning to leave the apples about this time. Only ° 8.68 per cent of the first-brood larve transformed to moths, which explains the relatively small second brood of larvz shown in figure 9. CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 17 Comparison of figures 7 and 9 would suggest that, in the relative num- bers of the two broods of larve appearing under the bands, the sea- sons of 1911 and 1912 were very similar. As has already been said, only 8.68 per cent of the 1,706 larve taken under the bands at Hagerstown in 1912 transformed to moths that summer. The percentage of 26.26 that died in the rearing eages from handling, cannibalism, disease, immaturity, and other causes compares closely with that observed at other points, and the rearing work was evidently done with as much eare and under as favorable conditions as in the localities where a much larger pro- portion of the first brood transformed; 65.06 per cent wintered, 41.38 per cent were winter-killed, and 23.68 per cent emerged as moths Je GB ay WSR eee eens Beet Wile eb bol et otek CERT ae ORES RR TGA UE Ee BOCUIEUN GEE Te ees FIRST BROOD IN SECOND BROOD aay A> AAMMAROAAMAS CACHAN et i ° Gy, son en ae 9m 9 uw Ny . 8 ty SES Be peace SUNE Guu AUGUST. SEPTEMBER OCTOBER 0) 9 NUMBER OF LARVAE & © .°) 9 Fic. 9.—Diagram to illustrate band collections of larvze of the codling moth at Hagerstown, Md., in 1912. in the spring of 1913. The percentage of winter-killed larve at Hagerstown was much larger than in other localities that year. SUMMARY FOR SEASON OF 1912. Spring-brood moths began emerging in rearing cages at Smiths- burg, Md., om May 30 (probably several days later than at Hagers- town). First-brood larvze were probably entering fruit 10 to 12 days later (soon after June 1, at Hagerstown). First-brood larve were leaving apples in the field from June 25 to 29 to August 17 to 21. First-brood moths began emerging from field-collected material on July 13. Second-brood lJarve probably began feeding soon after July 23, and were leaving the fruit in numbers soon after August 21. 77013°—Bull. 189—15——3 18 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INVESTIGATIONS IN 1913. SPRING-BROOD MOTHS. Table XII gives the emergence of moths of the spring brood at Hagerstown in 1913. -TaBLe XIT.—Emergence of spring-brood moths of the codling moth at Hagerstown, Md., in 1918. (See fig. 10.) i Number Number Datei fobser of moths paige fobser of moths : emerging. ; emerging. May ilo a. meee 2 VUNG! Oop asees 2 45 b Sees ive | 6 oe ea 22 7 Sere 12 bE Raat seees 25 DAT. eee 9 Pd Ee eee 81 | Di ow een ee 38 20. Alaa | 77 [hota ae 404 | | The first moths appeared in a rearing cages on May 15, but maximum emergence did not occur until May 30 to June 2. Garahul ATT Q7S = HEE EET PEE 60 h 45 rik HEMSGHEELERLLE ‘ 30 sa) 1S ght. asin 3 ae 4 al a li ul) Pe SH SH FYUSHYoHSHOH OY Fu ar MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST Fig. 10.—Diagram to illustrate emergence of spring-brood and first-brood moths of the codling moth at Hagerstown, Md., in 1913. records were taken every three days up to and including June 11, but from June 11 to June 27 observations were discontinued, as indi- cated by the dotted line in figure 10. However, of 404 moths accounted for in Table XII, all but 81 had emerged by June 11, and the break from then until June 27 does not seriously affect the value of the records. Allowing 10 to 12 days for egg laying and incubation, first-brood larve were evidently beginning to feed by May 25 to 27. FIRST-BROOD MOTHS. The relation of the two broods of moths emerging at Hagerstown in 1913 is clearly illustrated in figure 10. Adults appeared in the rearing jars with more or less regularity from July 8 to August 10. Emergence ceased altogether on August 28. (See also Table XIII.) CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 19 TaBLe XIII.—Emergence of first-brood moths of the codling moth at Hagerstown, Md., in 1913. (See fig. 10.) Number = Number a alent obser- ofmoths | Paleiot obser of moths mon emerging. | ; emerging. } t LLY? USS i 3-2 See 2 LASS Ween BBaS 20 Le eos Qh Heer tol Oren cone ees 8 Me ee eee 11 135 Bien ere ca 3 WT fos Behe 8 Gee seke ss 1 BL ees Soh ke 13 WO. ees 0 gawsteseeas 10 Doane. ees 6 7 ae aS 29 | Pare 0 Q9 obese s we 23 28s Sethe 2 bo Auge, Tete S os 53 —_—_—_—— re eee 31 Motalee i. - 222 Probably a few second-brood larvee were entering fruit in the field by July 20 to 25. BAND COLLECTIONS. In Table XIV are given the records of the collections and rearings of 2,756 larve taken under the bands at Hagerstown in the summer of 1913. Taste XIV.—Number of larve of the codling moth taken from bands and reared at Hagerstown, Md., during the summer of 1913. (See fig. 11.) Number of i Number of | dead from | N ee of) Number Date of collecting larve. larvee handling, oneaan overwin- collected. | cannibal- ‘opm a eters ism, ete. ji ERR rh cts ee tharat rinses Sh Rr NE 3 | 1 Die asaretonaverseer = Ae oo te ESE ee ee, AE aa RAR SEE 12 4 Sule sqetie eee emanate gate asaaet oat eet 38 2 17 9 Pe Nb 2 hs Sh es Ce ee 30 6 18 6 Dt cee se eas ee a an aay Sa Eiri ge aa ik 7 19 24 35 ine is che sic me Se ae ee eae Ane Eig Ee &6 31 34 21 ince te ge eS Se ee ee eS ee | 136 38 41 57 I i ey oer ean, 2 en nets 95 22 24 49 nia) bpd SLY Se ES ¢ aS a2 ee Meg Ce 181 53 28 100 1 in arta i = t,o eS a 116 22 14 80 ise Sos BERS LAE eee Beales See Mees Oe 150 77 7 66 AN PN re oe sa cis altace BAP et ait or xi Siw 5 Soe 108 Ad 4 60 0 Ge neers alae ee oe Oe eee Se 105 BOS eee 3 65 hn i 2 Sa ES I ee ORS eS ie a en Ae i | 73 il 1 61 128. fAES te EROS S OE. Wh ae Me Eee 109 36 3 70 1. 2 e re a re ee e 7 e 108 27 1 80 Ee 2 ee ee eel BEE 101 Vu HRA fe 2 A 90 Nee es I aa oe Rae EE Oe 148 49 1 98 19 EM Mies oo scot eto ome Soda cat he kek cee e le 12] ct Be eee eae ae 80 defee 8 Spee Ee Seabee hl, ae ea eae nes Sek 110 ASB ERE RITES Weare 82 Aa 7 EARS oe any See ed ha 7 id So Ee are ZONE Chee. OUiCHey he eld 5, 20 po aie sind said ola ois md Re he Ato Mim ed os Gia ee He OS ioe ee 24 POE ade s moan we euc eis has conser a: AEE 9 GD Riese ree aA 76 NS eee ce 203 AS Waite 155 og | SESE OR Pee sone, | Se 3: Oe ee eee ee 111 Bares ears tee 77 Ne ea gs Ney, ee EE ae on nc 127 1G eC 66 LS 44-3 pans SOs Eee ee Regt Cee Sd 0 SES ees | 42 PHO Fn A hoes ee 34 a) Saar a nS 9 SES a ee a, Bee 82 Wile eee eee 20 18 SE Manihcns = 6 bso 5:4 5b alte aes PELE Sod ba dn Soles 14 Alas. See ae 10 ook Sea ee tene a) 5S Osa eam Te 18 Bleck aeenaee 10 25 eS 5s Siy ss a G0 woos Sale COLORES te eho ph ante 9 Bile Pe seat 4 bese ces'e iain o dle alae was’ ante ee Se Be oe 17 (1 eS a st Oe 16 oe ie Ait ae Ba Me re he aie RS ee eee J 9 De asetuae 6 OO ESSE aes ee Se oe ay © ana a | Bil emsad estat, Seamer ae. 5 Dede ds case tee alenr sce Te ee 5 1 | SR aba A tg 4 OS A eT EP eee Oo) Sa Se a —eearee. Gilde sate palanitel s comtats te dew 6 Cs Le 9 Ae ERIC) Ly | A vn ee ee a RE al at 2 os ee ES 5 SEN BARRON Sa a A Ne i pee C6 Cet raat ter sree «see Geer ra eave sitiee Total OO CTI AO POPPER eee 2, 756 | 883 227 1, 646 ON ae ee Fa Daaie seg adie eb on 'p st 6 oad 100 32.04 8, 24 59. 72 ! Eaten by mice, 20 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Larve began to appear on June 27, and were taken under the bands in numbers through the remainder of June, all of July, and part of August. It will be noticed that on August 25 (fig. 11) there was a sharp decrease in the number of insects collected. Considermg the time first-brood moths began appearing in the rearmg cages at Hagerstown, and correlating with what was taking place at Win- chester and elsewhere, second-brood larvee very likely began appear- ahs Bases eeeee | ESE ST SS ea ee a en a hin VBR iiee hemes Babalu el 2/0 195. IN F/as7 Brood | | | WseconaX\arooo | plc a oe | eno ee Feel rl el Pr Pl el el el Per PP Ae GHoOHO9H FHOH DH ~HO o ag Slag FRU ee SS ees = a | Fic. 11.—Diagram to illustrate band collections of larvee of the codling moth at Hagerstown, Md., in 1913. ing under the bands soon after August 25, though an unusual over- lapping of the two broods of larve is apparent in the collections. Records were discontinued about October 25, though no larve appeared under the bands later than October 18. The 8.24 per cent of transforming larve taken under the bands at Hagerstown in 1913 compares closely with the 8.68 per cent that transformed in 1912. The 32.04 per cent of larve that died from handling, cannibalism, ete., in 1913 is much higher than has usually been observed, due in part to the fact that one jar of larve was devoured by mice, and discarding consideration of this cage the loss is brought down to 29.37 per cent. The 59.72 per cent of wintering larvee is only slightly less than the 65.06 per cent obtained in 1912. SUMMARY FOR SEASON OF 1913. Spring-brood moth emergence began May 15 and closed June 27. Allowing 10 to 12 days from emergence to hatching of first eggs, we might expect that first-brood larve began entering the apples May 25 to 27. First-brood larve appeared under the bands on June 27. First-brood moths began to emerge in the rearing cages on July 8, CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. on though not in numbers until July 11 to 14. Second-brood larve were probably beginning to enter the fruit about July 20 to 25 and were leaving in numbers after August 25. INVESTIGATIONS AT WINCHESTER, VA. DESCRIPTION OF LOCALITY. Winchester, the county seat of Frederick County, Va., is one of the principal shipping points for a large and well-developed apple-pro- ducing territory in the northern part of the Shenandoah Valley. The altitude of most of the country immediately surrounding Winchester varies from 650 to 800 feet above sea level; thus the relative variations in elevation are not great and the seasonal conditions are fairly uni- form for the whole section. The life-history studies of the codling moth in this section for the seasons of 1912 and 1913 follow. In Table XV are included the emergence records of 94 moths that issued at Winchester in the spring of 1912. INVESTIGATIONS IN 1912. SPRING-BROOD MOTHS. TABLE XV.—Emergence of spring-brood moths of the codling moth at Winchester, Va., in 1912. (See fig. 12.) Number Number Datoied obser of moths Date of obser: apne emerging. : emerging. May: 222: etd, Z| panes Sse eee 8 Se ae 4 Us} Bees a 2 oS 4 BO ss ceewewess 19 A be ee ores 1 JUNO Se ees ds 26 DBs calete aes 3 E wiaioaneisee 26 PAL he se 1 Total: eeeee 94 The first moth appeared in the laboratory rearing cages between May 18 and 22, though observations indicate that moths emerged several days earlier in the field. On the 24th of May eggs were rather common in the orchard, and two newly hatched larve were found just entering apples. Certainly moths were emerging in the field, in 1912, not later than May 15. By May 30 first-brood larvee were ob- served entering fruit in the orchard in considerable numbers. The last spring-brood moth emerged June 27. The fruit was unusually large when attacked by the codling moth in 1912, and it is of some interest to note that curculio cuts and rough spots om the apples were more frequently used by the first-brood larvee as points of entrance than was the calyx end of the fruit. The first of the 1912 summer or first-brood moths emerged on July 9. Eggs were laid by moths in confinement on July 13, by moths emerg- ing during the period from July 9 to 13, but since one moth issued 2p BULLETIN 189, U. 5S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. July 9 it is possible oviposition began two or three days earlier in the field. Moths emerged in the rearing cages until August 21. Table XVI.) FIRST-BROOD MOTHS. (See TasLe XVI.—Lmergence of first-brood moths of the codling moth at Winchester, Va., “ Number Renae of moths : emerging. Jlyf 9S eeGeaas-e 1 ibys a ee ee 20 Meet aah ase 25 205 ee 27 PES ee 27 201 Soe 33 | | | : in 1912. (See fig. 12.) Date of obser- Ee vation. Oh ges emerging. NT PAS Ine, 92 aBee 25 Gees ESaean 8 Wags sence 23 Wess aoe Saaee 18 Ubic aggzccne 3 13 de Saumeee 8 Mota esee 228 The relation of the two broods of moths can be better understood by reference to figure 12, where their seasonal appearance is repre- sented graphically. BAND COLLECTIONS. An old unsprayed orchard located about a mile south of Winchester was used for the band-record experiments of 1912. NUMBER OF MOTHS \ BROOD FIRST BROOD ~ ° 9 ria ah 20 (OES ea Y JUNE VULY | | Na sda la Wd liad a )™ O49 a The trees a o AU6UST. IG, 12.—Diagram to illustrate emergence of spring-brood and first-brood moths of the codling moth at Winchester, Va., in 1912. were of late fall and winter varieties well laden with fruit, and the infestation was very extensive, practically every apple bemg attacked by one or more codling-moth larve at some time durmg the season. CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 23 a One larva was taken under the bands on June 19. The number collected increased throughout the remainder of June and the first half of July. By referring to figure 13 it will be noticed that during the fore part of August there occurred a series of very small collec- tions, and about this time evidently most of the first-brood larve had left the fruit, while those of the second brood were still feeding. On July 15 newly hatched larve were observed entering fruit in the field in sufficient numbers to exclude the probability of their belong- ing to the first brood, especially since the last of the spring-brood moths appeared on June 27. The second-brood larve did not hatch in the laboratory until July 19, but this was probably three or four days behind field conditions. Allowing for a normal feeding _ Sees eee eee fe ee ie lata fe aT IBS cl Cece. cla ST pees sete emo BBY E CER CCE ECA UNG eee mo ae) enh er Ne = dS ol ee Ae Fiasr BRooDN| | | Jszcona BRooo\ | | | 5 ea i em ws a a F/O er ei On Se eh: oy MES eS )Y OH OW = A 0 NY un uN Ny le ANN JUNE SULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER Fig. 13.—Diagram to illustrate band collections of larvee of the codling moth at Winchester, Va., in 1912. period, some of the second-brood larve should have been leaving the apples about August 9 to 13. The collections increased through the latter part of August and the first half of September. No larve appeared under the bands after October 18. During the season of 1912 at Winchester 798 larve were taken from the bands and reared. Of these 27.19 per cent were killed in handling or were devoured by their fellows after being placed im the rearing cages; 28.57 per cent emerged as moths of the first brood; 1.38 per cent were parasitized; 42.86 per cent of the larvee collected wintered, and 15.04 per cent were winter killed; 27.44 per cent passed the winter successfully and emerged the following season, while 0.38 per cent represents the proportion of parasites that issued in the spring of 1913. (See Table XVII.) 24 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie XVII.—Number of larvx of the codling moth taken from the bands and reared at Winchester, Va., during the summer of 1912 and the spring of 1918. | Number | (See fig. 13.) Emerged, 1912. Emerged, 1913. of dead Number | Number Date of collection, paber from of larve | of larve oll vil handling, overwin-| winter- . comectee-|cannibal-| Moths. | Parasites.| tering. killed. | Moths. | Parasites. ism, etc. ; June July Aug. Sept. 6 Oct. MOtaESs ee eee 798 217 | 228 11 342 120 219 3 Rericent= 2225" 100 27.19 | 28.57 1.38 42. 86 15.04 27.44 0.38 SUMMARY FOR SEASON OF 1912. Spring-brood moths began emerging in the laboratory May 18 to 22, and probably two or three days earlier in the field. First-brood larvee began entering the fruit in the field May 24. First-brood larve began leaving the apples June 19. First-brood moths began emerg- ing July 9; second-brood larvee were observed entering fruit in the field on July 15, and a few had finished feeding by August 9 to 13. INVESTIGATIONS IN 1913. SPRING-BROOD AND FIRST-BROOD MOTHS. The seasonal conditions of the spring of 1913 were considerably in advance of those of 1912, and the appearance of the spring-brood moths was correspondingly earlier. Moths appeared in numbers on May 6 and maximum emergence occurred three days later. CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 95 Taste XVIII.—Emergence of spring-brood moths of the codling moth at Winchester, Va., in 1913. (See fig. 14.) Number Number D dia BE OLSeE of moths Bale 2s of moths emerging. emerging. 18 NO eo eee eee 14 38 bere Sey 10 6 hee Sena 6 16 Ls Soh ee 3 30 4 es 7 29 | Ly oson eee eeee 3 8 DAS RE Seana 1 16 14 Total. 219 Moths continued to issue in the rearing cages until June 20. The irregularity of the emergence curve in figure 14 is due in most cases SS See ee eee ee eee Nia i) it ee i i i a i Le eS _ ARR RS Seas Ae oe ees J RRS es | ia liighisils |i) | adlee! 7) SU ea ee = Sees Gane Sa Soc 2 ca aie Cee Frei | Faia auenenau its Joesiiseue \ Pm Win aC Laveen 9 Po 9 94) = PSQaqg OP Slago Slag arse P MAY SUNE YULY AUGUST Fic. 14.—Diagram to illustrate emergence of spring-brood and first-brood moths of the codling moth at Winchester, Va., in 1913. to fluctuations in temperature. The first moth emergence in con- finement occurred 16 days earlier in 1913 than in 1912, but since adults were probably appearing in the field in 1912 not later than May 15, we may assume that spring-brood emergence began in the field only 10 to 12 days earlier in 1913. The seasonal appearance of the two broods of moths can perhaps be best appreciated by referring to figure 14. The emergence of 326 moths of the first brood are given in Table XIX. The first adults of this brood appeared in the laboratory in 1913 on June 30, nine days earlier than in 1912. However, not until July 5 to 8 did adults appear in any numbers, and in reality the difference in the time of appearance of summer, or first-brood, moths in the two seasons is 77013°—Bull. 1899-———15——4 26 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. very slight. Maximum emergence was not attained until one month later, or about August 1. The last of the fitst-brood moths emerged in the rearing cages on September 1. TaBLe XIX.—Emergence of first-brood moths of the codling moth at Winchester, Va., in 1913. (See fig. 14.) Number Number Patelct obser: of moths patent Oke mamotte emerging. emerging. June)s0lseseseaeee 1 AUS: 54 Senso 28 July 2.. 0 EL | Fo ey Ore Se eer 28 (ease See 3 LOS aes 37 AS ee ey 19 WS e a ae caae 3 uh Re A oe 10 1 So sees 5 DAE atria 5 19a aseas 2 iy (ate cane 9 Pen i 2 DORECE Esa 10 Doss. ene 2 4 23. 16 29% See sas 2 26. 33 Soph seetseceae 1 4! eae ee ee 45 | Aug. 1 62 BAND COLLECTIONS. In 1913 bands were placed on 12 old apple trees in an orchard located about 2 miles south of Winchester. The rough bark was poh al red aT Ti el eT a tec | aT | aS NU SS ee ERR hes| ss USER Es CAG) eS Se a ee SERRE eae ee. al ae a ai AP Ee aD fe IN Sh Se TE esa aS EE el) eee all eso | al PE rept nea PSST COAGP alc [Nea CEN eV LON a ° || Fest BRoop | | | seeonovaroooINC AL TL ltl lid dlaladhulaal aitlletithalalialie eee SHOKFTHOH OH FHOHOH OQ iy 0.10 4) nee S28 8 2a OS ae OS ae eee JUNE SULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCT, Fig. 15.—Diagram to illustrate band collections of larve of the codling moth at Winchester, Va., in 1913. scraped down and other hiding places of the insect destroyed, and on the whole probably most of the larve that left the fruit during the season found their way under the bands. The record of collec- tions is given in Table XX. CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 27 TABLE X X.—Record of codling-moth larve taken from the bands and reared at Winchester, Va., in 1913. (See fig. 15.) Number of Emerged, 1913. i Number of} dead from Number Date of collection. larve col- | handling, overwin- lected. ran Moths. | Parasites. tering. "ETE Ti ne ae a Se ee ae Ber eeeaet OM is ee See DTI cae Nl. Sista acta sees MoSSee 5 3 232 Se ee Se eee ee ee eee 22 4 ery eee. Dek. BEE ce aR or a 25 9 Eo. Re UE ee Seas or arene eee tee 27 5 FEL AS Ae ee aaa eee ee 15 6 Fa SAR RE eee SER AY oe reer Te 38 23 ee NE eR Me TR eS ei 68 14 ill aS A ae Puen ay toe Se Bn 60 8 Taha LOS FS Se eos See ee 59 19 ee ic Sa a SER ae 43 8 2 icp Ge Re BE a A ree 57 6 25 ASE a Pre See be IRONS DE TT 2 a 84 9 PAPE os ice pe ise OM 2 ES Ee eS eh ed a 63 3 24. Sai BE eee eee 38 14 os ict Jil 2 0 SANE a Saeed ae ee eee 14 a FE eS Scare tM R A a 23 6 Fin & CREME Cee oh Ae ieee ee SME eA sed 36 11 9 6 9 9} 9 5 2 Sept. 16 7 7 “LGio + Da = Bales SSS eS eer cee ane LS ORR ae reece OWS Semen ee ae SY WViig IS SRA ane eee rie ea eter 971 234 326 Gp) ae 346 HOR COUT eee. as vas 3 aoe ee 100 24.10 33. 57 6. 70 35. 63 Careful examination of the bands was made, beginning about June 1, but no larve were taken until June 17, only two days earlier than in 1912, in spite of the fact that the first of the spring-brood moths were probably 10 to 15 days earlier than in the former season. From June 17 the collections increased until about August 1, when the numbers of insects collected decreased slightly, the proportion of those wintering increasing, and probably by August 7 to 10 most of the larve taken were of the second brood. The fact that the second brood did not equal the first in numbers and were somewhat irregular in. their appearance under the bands is explained by the short fruit crop of the year. Altogether 971 larvee were collected and reared. Of this number 24.10 per cent were killed by handling, cannibalism, etc., the loss from this source being about the same as the 27.19 per cent that died from similar causes in 1912; 33.57 per cent were transformed to first- 28 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. brood moths and 6.70 per cent were parasitized. The light fruit crop already noted reduced the number of wintering larve to 35.63 per cent. SUMMARY FOR SEASON OF 1913. Spring-brood moths began to emerge May 6, and a few first-brood larvee were probably entering the fruit by May 16. First-brood larve began to appear under the bands in the orchard June 17, and from these larve a few first-brood moths emerged in the laboratory on June 30. Second-brood larve were probably entering fruit in numbers by July 15; they began leaving fruit about August 13. INVESTIGATIONS AT FISHERSVILLE, VA. DESCRIPTION OF LOCALITY. Fishersville is the shipping point for a part of the Shenandoah Val- ley, in which commercial fruit growing has for years been of consider- able importance. While in approximately the same latitude as Char- lottesville, the seasonal conditions of this section are decidedly differ- ent chiefly on account of the much higher altitude; in fact, there is a much greater similarity of conditions between Fishersville and Win- chester, both of which are in the Shenandoah Valley, than between Fishersville and Charlottesville, between which two points the Blue Ridge Mountains intervene. Differences in bumidity and other cli- matic conditions occur between these two regions that may effect the development of the codlimg moth and that may not be entirely accounted for by differences in altitude. The band-record experi- ments were carried on in locations 1,400 to 1,500 feet above sea level, which is probably about the average elevation of orchards in this section. INVESTIGATIONS IN 1912. SPRING-BROOD MOTHS. In a limited way the emergence dates of 119 moths given in Table XXI probably represent fairly well the occurrence of the spring brood at Fishersville in 1912. The rearing material was collected from the bands in the fall of 1911. TaBLe X XI.—Emergence of spring-brood moths of the codling moth at Fishersville, Va.,in 1912. (See fig. 16.) : Number Number Date of obser- | of moths Dated honeer- of moths ° : emerging. || . emerging. f j } May 18-28% 22.. 5e ||unedbssss se -2e- | 1 Oh a ee 136 || Be Oe SE aes [ee ee 262 ae 2. 282 14 Py ee eet a ES Sd 30: Bee 42 TH eae Te 1 JUNE Oo weet ase. 27 See ee eee 5 poe aa 119 it ELS eee 11 CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 29 Emergence began on May 18 and reached its highest numbers on May 30, 12 days later. However, since first-brood larve appeared under the bands on June 11, it is probable that moths emerged in the field several days prior to May 18. The moths continued to emerge through the remainder of May and in lessening number through the most of June, ceasing to appear altogether after June 27. The records of the appearance of 273 moths of the first brood that issued from band-collected material at Fishersville in the summer of 1912 are given in Table XXII. FIRST-BROOD MOTHS. Taste XXII.—EHmergence of first-brood moths of the codling moth at Fishersville, Va.,in 1912. (See fig. 16.) Number Number ee eas of moths Eee a Deas of moths ; emerging. g emerging. BulbyyG226 sats ae 5 Antes ih aoe eas. 15 et arainettinteiot i Beste s\eesiees 13 CEE aes Sore 35 Qe eee cia 16 je a rae 30 Lee occince ers 1 Ais Soe ts 55 issesasecRe 3 PALS ae mene 35 DATE eee nes 1 pie eee 31 7, Pe oe oe 26 Rotaliaseseee 273 The work at Fishersville in 1912 was carried on under very ideal conditions, and July 2, the time when the first-brood moths began emerging in the rearing cages, represents field conditions as nearly as is possible with band-collected rearing material. The time of first appearance for the first-brood moths was seven days in advance of Winchester, while between the first emergence of spring-brood moths there was a four-day difference in the two sections. Moths appeared in numbers through July and the first half of August, attaining their maximum on July 17. The last moth ap- peared in the rearing cages on August 21. The relative time of appearance of the two broods of moths at Fishersville in 1912 is shown in figure 16. BAND COLLECTIONS. About 12 smooth-bodied young York Imperial and Ben Davis apple trees were banded at Fishersville in 1912. On the whole the records given in Table XXIII and figure 17 represent fairly well the time the two broods of larvee were leaving the fruit that season. Three larve were taken under the bands on July 11 and the number increased in the succeeding collections until about July 1, when the number gradually decreased until the fore part of August. By August 1 a large part of the first brood had left the fruit, as is evi- denced in the band-record curve of figure 17. 30 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Since first-brood moths emerged in the rearmg cages on July 2, larve hatching from eggs laid by these moths might reasonably be expected to begin feeding by July 12 to 15. After August 9 the Aes Si ls Shalala olla obo a oe te a A Wa ee to SSN Ss eS IN Teo So Be NTs ea enter ero oN sa 2 oy a dace liad Sk ala aaa Ne een AOE ODES ona eee sess S12 | fspaine\\srooo| J rinsr eroon \ | | | S Cahilan bull Meubd@ul aul Lullulah bean 9 = gH» 949 9 Oro = 9 O°) = Sa OS Swain eS oN Oe MAY JUNE SULY AUGUST Fie. 16.—Diagram to illustrate emergence of spring-brood and first-brood moths of the codling moth at Fishersville, Va., in 1912. collections increased to the middle of September. Second-brood larve continued to appear under the bands until November 1, when the fruit was picked and the records discontinued. PUTT PEEP Ce EA SUCCEEDED TST tala See ee) al Be ee el ee RAE LLTETTETEAEEEe See Pe laa Ne aa {aaa MT Pena ae USUAL eer BROOD \ SECOND BROOD AL AiVaandR AM ANCM ERAS A BE RO at A Bus OLS BESnO a eee iv) qu ™ ~~ AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER 135 /20 105 90 75 60 45 NUMBER OF LARVAE a) Fig. 17.—Diagram to illustrate band collections of larvee of the codling moth at Fishersville, V2., in 1912. In Table XXIII are recorded the numbers of larve taken in the orchard at different dates through the season. Altogether 1,418 larvee were collected and reared, of which 12.90 per cent were killed CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. dl by handling or devoured by their fellows in the rearing cages; 19.96 per cent emerged as adults during the summer of 1912; 67.14 per cent wintered and 24.19 per cent were winter killed; and 42.95 per cent emerged as moths in the spring of 1913. Taste XXIII.—Number of larve of the codling moth taken from the bands and reared at Fishersville, Va., during the summer of 1912 and the spring of 1913. (See fig. 17.) Nambecet Number of | Number of | Number of | Number of | Number of Hecting 1. eae dead from | moths larvee larvee moths Date of collecting larve. TI Ve q. | Cannibal- | emerging, | _ over- winter | emerging, COPE NE sins etc 1912. | wintering. | killed. 1913. June 27 July 5 Aug. Sept. PANS Senos sth. soe eb te 1,418 183 223 952 343 609 SUMMARY FOR SEASON OF 1912. Spring-brood moths began emerging in the laboratory May 18 and probably several days earlier in the field. Ten to 12 days later first- brood larve were probably beginning to enter fruit. First-brood larvee began leaving the fruit June 11. First-brood moths emerged July 2 to August 21, and second-brood larve probably were entering fruit by July 12. Soon after August 5 to 9 the number of larve appearing under the bands increased, and most of the larve taken after this date may be considered to be of the second brood. 32 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INVESTIGATIONS IN 1913. SPRING-BROOD MOTHS. Figure 18 represents the occurrence of 608 moths of the spring brood that appeared in the rearing cages at Fishersville in 1913. Moths emerged first on May 3, but maximum emergence was delayed until May 30, the emergence curve in figure 18 for Fishersville being very different in this respect from the spring-brood curve at Win- chester, aS it appears in figure 14. Adults continued to emerge until June 27. (See also Table XXIV.) TaBLe XXIV.—Emergence of spring-brood moths of the codling moth at Fishersville, Va., in 1913. (See fig. 18.) Number || Number ea en Oper ofmoths |) ete ot eer of moths < 2 emerging. : emerging. May P32 eeee es Ois|ile dU), Be cocosese 44 622 Ee re a SaaS 10 OL ees 7 3 || Tie Bes aE 9 | SS Resets 9 Ue aie 22 Tee en 11 || L7R es 10 iSoereeies 53 || i) ap ee Ne 7 VA eos Ss 28 || 245 SesSeenss 3 D8 co eee 94 || DT eds oe 2 Dia eaee 91 | —-———_—— Sl EEeSesipers Ss 124 Motaleeeanaee 608 JMNOM 22a ec=sssce | 81 First-brood larvee were probably entering the fruit in the field by May 10 to 13, from eggs laid by moths emerging May 1 to 3. On account of the light crop of fruit in 1913 the records at Fishers- ville for the remainder of the season are of little value and are not included in this report INVESTIGATIONS AT FRENCH CREEK, W. VA. DESCRIPTION OF LOCALITY. French Creek is located near the lower border of the Transition Life Zone in a hilly region not far from the center of West Virginia. Commercial apple growing is just beginning to attract attention, and several orchards of considerable size are being planted in that general locality. Bearing orchards of from 5 to 25 acres are not uncommon. The orchards from which banding records were obtained are located at an approximate elevation of 1,600 feet above the level of the sea. INVESTIGATIONS IN 1911. On June 19, 1911, 15 suitable apple trees in an orchard that had never been sprayed were banded, but it was found that the bands were placed too late in the season to obtain a complete record of the time of emergence from the fruit of the first-brood larve. The bands CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 33 furnished a supply of wintering larve to be used for emergence records of the spring brood of moths in 1912. Predaceous and parasitic enemies of the codling moth were possibly more abundant here than in any other orchard in which banding records were made during the investigation. The second-brood larvee were very ex- tensively parasitized by hairworms (Jer- mis sp.). Of the lar- ve of this brood, 71 out of 159, or nearly 50 per cent, died from this cause. The first-brood moths began to-ap- pear in the jars on July 5, when five were found. The maxi- mum was reached on July 8, and from that time the numbers gradually diminished until September 13, when the last two of Fia@. 18.—Diagram to illustrate emergence of spring-brood moths of the the season appeared. codling moth at Fishersville, Va., in 1913. INVESTIGATIONS IN 1912. SPRING-BROOD MOTHS. On account of the high mortality, due to parasites and other causes, only about 50 wintering larve were alive to pupate in the spring. Pupation took place from April 22 to 28. Taste XXV.—Lmergence of spring-brood moths of the codling moth at French Creek, W. Va.,7n 1912. (See fig. 19.) ae ee Number Number | ps 9 pele of moths eee or obec of moths ; emerging. ‘s emerging. MayilGt. samc ne: = 1 May 20.20 aac 6 16 Lt Pp eeeter 2 7. foe papel eee 4 PG?! eae 3 PUGS TL scat tb ocinse 2 7) te ph eS 8 —— Total, >. ts. 36 Table XXV shows that the first moths of this brood issued on May 13, the last on June 1, and the greatest number on May 25. Theo last petals were dropping from apple on May 10, so that the first moth 34 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. appeared 3 days after the blossoms were off and the maximum moth emergence occurred from 10 to 12 days later. FIRST-BROOD MOTHS. As indicated in Table X XVI, first-brood moths made their appear- ance in the jars on July 20, when seven were found. The number increased up to July 28, and from that date until August 17 maximum CCE (Liste) alll Ba ale % 20 MOTH ~ Q SPRING BROOD ot case | au, : AP ANUERUGREP=AV/YAPOONE [Al P fudaal ae Nn (9). Wp) joe NS) S 9 9 o 4 % 9° TORS US SVG eee WQS » Ob VOmE SOLS | AUGUST SEPT. Fa ~ 10) NUMBER O. ay MAY Fig. 19.—Diagram to illustrate emergence of spring-brood and first-brood moths of the codling moth at French Creek, W. Va., in 1912. numbers appeared. After the latter date the numbers decreased until September 11, when the last one issued. TasBLE XXVI.—Emergence of first-brood moths of the codling moth at French Creek, W. Va.,in 1912. (See fig. 19.) Number Number Datectob Bae of moths Date of ob SoS of moths y emerging. z emerging. Jitthy Lv scdeecuas 7 BAN ODA: peur oe 7 PAS See ere Heal: 28.cs-icwoces 2 2S 16 DU Saye ee ace es emetere INDIES MAGS Soasace il Septardey 8. ie oe 2 Dele sine eee ee er rae Ree Sais Paes ser Oarmauans 12 1D ES eee aoe 1 TIBIA EA See 4 ——. Teor icpeensee 13 Mo callers | 82 Dis Soe rape laReoatia Aon | | BAND COLLECTIONS. About the middle of June, 12 apple trees were banded in an old orchard that had never been sprayed. The bands were examined twice each week. This year the larve were later by at least a week in beginning to leave the fruit than in 1911. The extent and dates of the collections are set forth in Table XXVII and figure 20. CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 3D Taste XXVII.—Record of codling-moth larve collected wnder bands at French Creek, W. Va., during the season of 1912. (See fig. 20.) J Date of | Number of Date of | Number of Date of | Number of collection. larve. collection. larve. collection. larve. June 24. . 2 || Aug. 5... 7 || Sept. 18--. 20 26... 0 QU S: 8 2s. 22 29. - 2 13. 10 25 24 deithyiose= 5 Vice 12 28 13 Ga. 7 Die 12 || Oct. 2 8 10.. 19 24 = 6 5 14 ie Wee 12 QB 7 9 8 UG 16 oles “§ 12 5 20: ; 10 || Sept. 4.... 17 16 2 pt 16 eee 11 28.2 13 ith 2 10 Total 339 July 3l2_<- 5 14... itil The first two larve were found on June 24. After June 26 the numbers increased with each collection until July 10. From that 30 NUMBER OF LARVAE ~ 9 Y FIRST BROOD SECOND BROOD LUMA He Aalto linea HteAtE lity H aby 9 9 = 9 ‘N Fic. 20.—Diagram to illustrate band collections of codling moth larvee at French Creek, W. Va., in 1912. date until July 28 the size of the collections remained fairly constant. Collections were smaller from July 31 to August 13, after which time they increased until September 25, decreasing thereafter until Octo- ber 16, when the last two were taken. INVESTIGATIONS IN 1913. SPRING-BROOD MOTHS, The details of the spring-brood moth emergence are set forth in Table XXVIII and are also shown graphically in figure 21. 36 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE XXVIII.—2£mergence of spring-brood moths of the codling moth at French Creek, W. Va., in 1918. (See fig. 21.) : Number | Number Ae o eee aimothenl|| iD gets of ORES aianoke ; emerging. |) emerging. May (Ga csice see ol Di PUNO talis scat ee ll eee ne il Be eee 0 1 Be oseeaes| 4 4. cee ane 8 i Ly eer eae ae 18 Ui sine feiss 6 DS Seegoe ae 25 Lee PAN Shs 5 DAL ete 2 4 02 EE See 2 [ PA PRB 1S 11 Shee tees coe 9 Total 134 afibhovsy: Bisa ee ee 19 © 25 mer SPRING BROOD a = 20 | 15 HA AL HH | FASE Ser 1 ee HAE AN ECE EHEC EE ll lel tll ald WS WPA s OS S Veo GB aage te | meme ~~ WN (0) ~ rN NN nn ~S MAY YVUNE ae AUG. Fig. 21.—Diagram to illustrate emergence of spring-brood and first-brood moths of the codling moth at French Creek, W. Va., in 1913. The first moth was found in the jars on May 6, the maximum num- bers from May 17 to June 7, and the last on June 24. A freeze occurring on the night of April 20 caught the apple trees just coming into full bloom, practically destroying the entire crop of blossoms. The first moth appeared 16 days after the date of the freeze, and the maximum emergence was a little more than four weeks Boe the freeze. FIRST-BROOD MOTHS. Owing to the light crop of apples only a few larvee were obtained, and the number of first-brood moths emerging was insignificant. Table X XIX shows the number that were obtained. 37 CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. TaBLE XXIX.—Emergence of first-brood moths of the codling moth at French Creek, W. Va., in 1918. (See fig. 21.) Number Number Date or otser a of moths pateoiyp Bors of moths 5 : emerging. : emerging. July 2353 2eehicsck 2 Aue Goes eee 6 2Genssineeccee Gin |Itop e Oe a eee 5 BOW see es 20 AST Die Sosa 2 MRotaleapaes 41 Tt will be seen from this table that only 41 first-brood moths were obtained. Of these the first emerged on July 23, the maximum num- ber on July 30, and the last on August 9. BAND COLLECTIONS. A period of cold, occurring April 20 and 21, when the temperature dropped to 20° F., followed by another drop to 25° F. on the night of May 10, destroyed practically all the apple crop in the locality. One old orchard containing a few bearing trees that were not sprayed was found and eight of the trees were banded on July 1. Table XXX shows the number of larve collected under these bands. TaBLe XXX.—Record of codling-moth larve collected under bands at French Creek, W. Va., in 1913. Date of collection. eee Date of collection. pean Date of collection. Huraber BOG Bios oo 5a 6 AGT Oa = ee a2 6 SOD Us Onneee ts nee 4 fale ae ee 17 eae ae 4 TOR ies 1 2 19 i ee ee 7 1 ee ee dee 2 AE ee ee 18 15S ei Soe 6 ee soca 2 Ct ee 5 A ee ats 7 20 seneeens 0 2A Se eee 8 232 Re 6 Dash SWS Ses ke 1 2 ao Ee 10 271. east 4 ieee Seep 3 BO ee seecs 4 Total 143 1 1 BOD Olson seamen 2 This table shows that the first larvee were found under the bands on July 5, the greatest number, which was 19, on July 12, and the last on September 24. The second-brood larvee were few in number, the collections being nearly uniform from August 6 to 23, after which time they decreased until the last was found. INVESTIGATIONS AT PICKENS, W. VA. DESCRIPTION OF LOCALITY. The orchard at Pickens in which banding records were obtained in 1911 and 1912 is located in a mountainous region at an elevation of 3,500 feet above the level of the sea. The native flora and fauna of the immediate locality indicate the junction of the Transition and 38 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Canadian Life Zones. Fruit growing is not extensively engaged in, although a considerable quantity of apples is produced and disposed of in lumber camps and other local markets. The codling moth was less abundant here than in other localities where banding records were made. This was probably due to the higher elevation and the consequently shorter breeding season. Data were collected only in 1911 and 1912, the apple crop bemg an entire failure in 1913. INVESTIGATIONS IN 1911. On the 22d of June, 18 apple trees were banded in the orchard of Mr. Lewis Wunchner, 4 miles southeast of the village of Pickens. The. orchard had never been sprayed and most of the trees banded were bearing heavy crops of fruit. BAND COLLECTIONS. The first larvee were found under the bands on July 7, on which date 27 were collected. The maximum num- ber were found on July 19. The last were : NTT PN NUMBER OF MOTHS 1) g i) a 0 9) 9 < found on September JUNE oo 29, at which time the fruit was gathered Fig. 22.—Diagram to illustrate emergence of spring-brood moths of from the trees by the the codling moth at Pickens, W. Va., in 1912. owner of the orchard. The number of larve found had dropped from 75, on September 11, to 17 on September 29, and it is probable that only a few more indi- viduals would have gone under the bands had the fruit remained on the trees longer. The details of the band collections are shown more fully in Table XX XI. Taste XX XI.—Record of codling-moth larve and pupx collected under bands at Pickens, W. Va., in 1911. Number Per cent Total. of larvee of larvee wintering. | wintering. Number Number Date of collection. Gunma of pupe. SWAP andae Sco: = Dice | ee ae on ae 7A Oe Bee Al USES SNS i ease sede 25 82 36 118 4 3.5 Pacis 35500 2 36 7 43 6 13.9 TNUPAS ees 56u-- 5 23 6 29 15 51.7 OTE eae 58 3 61 47 77 Osi agate 28 1 29 23 79.3 Sept lisse Tin BEER eee osc 75 75 100 nconcoaed: Uf Wesgseaccoss= 17 ul7/ 100 CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 39 FIRST-BROOD MOTHS. Table XX XIT shows that of the 59 first-brood moths reared the first were found in the breeding jars on July 29, the maximum num- bers from August, 8 to 28, and the last on September 11. TABLE XX XII.—Emergence of first-brood moths of the codling moth at Pickens, W. Va., during the season of 1911. : Number Number Date of obser: of moths DarwoLopser: of moths ; emerging. z emerging. duly (29sec ~ soe 14 SAN Oem AS ancy ers 5 AIRES Soe eas! 20 Op temhleemeset sen 1 1 eee 19 Motels a 59 INVESTIGATIONS IN 1912. In 1912 the same orchard was used for the banding records as in 1911, although in most cases different trees were banded. Twelve trees were used. SPRING-BROOD MOTHS. Table XX XIII indicates the numbers and dates of emergence of this brood of moths at Pickens. Taste XX XIII.—2mergence of spring-brood codling moths at Pickens, W. Va., during the season of 1912. (See fig. 22.) | Date of obser- one || Date of obser- Suman vation. emerging. | vation. emerging. BUH) 13. eee 5 | July see. seer 17 a2 scat St 3 Se. 5. see 8 PA Nt a cp 1 2-4. Soeee 1 75 PR ee ae 15 ie SESE 1 Yap 2 pn eens 21 Mopal's Nanas 72 Moths from the larve that had wintered in the rearing jars did not begin to emerge until nearly the middle of June, as-is shown in the table. The first were found in the jars on June 13, the greatest num- bers from June 25 to July 3, and the last on July 17. BAND COLLECTIONS, Larve were exceedingly scarce, as is shown in Table XXXIV, only 47 being taken under the bands during the entire season. The first was found on July 24 and the last on October 5. The numbers are so few that no distinct line can be drawn between the first and second broods. 40 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XX XIV.—Record of codling-moth larvx collected wnder bands at Pickens, W. Va., during the season of 1912. Date of Number Date of Number Date of Number collection. | of larve. collection. | of larve. collection. | of larvee. July 24.. 1 Aug. 24 2 30-- 2 28. . 1 iNet Hs) 65s550sa55¢ giles 4 10... 2 Sept: 4. 3 14.. 1 7 2 bee 1 ee 5 21. . 2 14.. 1 INVESTIGATIONS IN 1913. SPRING-BROOD MOTHS. Of the 47 larve collected in 1912, 28 wintered and transformed to moths in 1913. Table XX XV shows the time of emergence. TasBLE XXX V.—Emergence of spring-brood codling moths at Pickens, W. Va., during the season of 19138. Number Number Dato jobset, of moths Datecs Bier, of moths a emerging. r emerging. June 2Z1eeses5- ee ee 0 July Al sce eee 8 24.. 8 OS aaaA oe See 4 ASF MS te 8 Pere See Aa, 0 Motalzeeenes 28 The jars in which the larve had wintered were examined twice a week and on June 24 eight moths, which were the first of the season, were found. The same number were found on June 28, and also on July 1. The last were found on July 5. RESUME OF REARING EXPERIMENTS IN MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, AND WEST VIRGINIA. Tables XXXVI nl XXX VII summarize the rearing ra of 1912 and 1913 in the different localities. TaBLE XXXVI.—Résumé of rearing experiments on the codling moth at five points in Virginia, West Virginia, and Maryland in 1912. French Hagers- Winches- Fishers- | Charlottes- town, Md. ter, Va. ville, Va. ville, Va. Sea) Total. Observation. = Num-| Per |Num-| Per [Num-| Per [Num-| Per |Num-| Per |Num-| Per - ber. | cent. | ber. | cent.| ber. | cent.| ber. | cent.} ber. | cent. | ber. | cent. Larve collected...........- 1, 706/100. 00 798|100.00} 1, 418}100.00 905/100.00) 339/100.00) 5, 166/100.00 Larve dying from hand- ling, cannibalism, etc. 448} 26. 26 217) 27.19 183} 12.90 164} 18.12 80] 23. 60) 1,092) 21.12 Moths reared same season - 148) 8.68) 228) 28.57] 283] 19.96) 247] 27.29 82) 24.19} 988) 19.12 Moths reared following sea- BWtSc Sopegoce seuccmosageS 404| 23. 68 219) 27. 44 609} 42.95 355} 39. 23 134} 39. 53) 1,721) 33.31 Wintering larvee........... 1,110} 65.06) 342) 42.86) 952] 67.14} 494] 54.59) 172) 50.74) 3,070) 59. 42 Winter-killed larve........ 706} 41.38) 120] 15.04) 343] 24.19) 139) 15.36 38] 11. 21) 1,346} 26. 06 Parasitized larvee le: 2.22 oi 3io 2 2.28.2. ie Barta) Balasore a sero taesinonl ocrae 5) 1.47 19) .36 CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 41 Taste XXXVII.—Résumé of rearing experiments on the codling moth at four points in Virginia, West Virginia, and Maryland in 1913. - French Hagers- Winches- | Charlottes- town, Md. ter, Va. ville, Va. Creek Total. Observation. Num-| Per |Num-] Per |Num-| Per ;|Num-] Per |Num-j] Per ber. | cent.| ber. | cent.} ber. | cent.| ber. | cent.| ber. | cent. Larve collected.......... ssecesecse ooHae 2, 756/100.00} 971)100.00) 542/100.00) 143)100.00} 4, 412)100.00 Lary dying from handling, cannibal- ONT. GUE. . 2. Ae ese pee pa eee eo a eee saUeeee 883} 32.04} 234] 24.10} 223) 41.14 48) 33. 58) 1,388} 31.46 Moths emerging same season...--------- 227) 8.24) 326) 33.57| 270) 49.82 41] 28.67} 864] 19.58 MII GEIB IAT Vel S| oo 5 aw wn cise ee ses seek 1, 646) 59.72) 346] 35.63 49] 9.04 51] 35. 66) 2,092) 47.38 TED QT STI20 UR nD a ee Rae | bree Lee @a OW accsceliascacc 3 al 68| 1.55 Tt will be noted that the proportion of larve dying in the rearing cages, due to handling, cannibalism, disease, etc., varied from 12.90 per cent to 41.14 per cent. The latter figure, however, is unduly high, the average loss from this source being 21.12 per cent in 1912 and 31.46 per cent in 1913. The proportion of larve transforming the same season as that in which they were collected varied from 8.24 per cent at Hagerstown to 49.82 per cent at Charlottesville, with an average of 19.12 per cent in 1912 and 19.58 per cent in 1918. For 1912 from 42.86 per cent to 67.14 per cent of all larve collected spun up and wintered, the average for all pomts bemg 59.42 per cent. The proportion of wintering larve in 1913 was abnormally small on account of the light fruit crop of that year. Loss from winter killing amounted to from 11.21 per cent to 41.38 per cent, the average for all points being 26.06 per cent. Observations on parasitism were made only at Winchester and French Creek, the highest recorded being 6.70 per cent at Winchester in 1913. It must be remembered, however, that the foregoing facts are taken from observations of insects kept in confinement, and only in a limited way indicate what occurs under normal out-of-door conditions. Table XXXVIII gives the numbers of codling-moth larve col- lected and reared in the course of the work in the different localities. Taspite XX XVII1.—Number of codling-moth larve collected and reared in the different localities in Virginia, Maryland, and West Virginia during 1911, 1912, and 1918. pepe or se of : | wae arv col- ali be a ary 2 Ccol- Locality. Year. lected and Locality. Year. Testadiand reared. reared. ee a ] 2 Lt SH, | eel ta Charlottesville, Va........... 1911 1,218 || Hagerstown, Md.............. 1911 1, 761 1912 905 1912 1,706 1913 542 1913 2,756 Greenwood, Va........--..-. 1911 1,979 || French Creek, W. Va......... 1911 633 1912 1,862 || 1912 339 Fishersville, Va..........2-.- 1911 910 1913 143 1912 1,418 || Pickens, W. Va....>.<200-05. 1911 399 Winchester, Va...........-.. | 1911 2,079 || 1912 47 1912 798 || 1913 971 || DOs fav eletan teed aticleteucs de 20, 466 49 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. NUMBER OF FIRST-BROOD LARVA! TRANSFORMING FIRST SEASON. Table XX XIX shows the numbers of transforming and wintering band-collected larvee of the first brood for several localities. These data are tabulated for their value in determining the relative size of the second brood of larve. TaBLe XX XIX.—Number of first-brood larvx of the codling moth transforming to moths the first season. Number of Au parol first-brood | Percent | Number of Locality. Year larve larve transform- | first-brood naan transform- | ing first larvee qivinetto. ing first | season, | wintering. *| season. Paavo, Wat es ao 26) Seer soos tee 1912 259 247 95. 37 12 Soe eres coe ee oe seearetweecece ees aeee eee 1913 278 269 96. 76 9 Hagerstown, ING REAR Se sere boar eso scoecasaee 1912 1,122 147 13.19 974 SqOnSbos saaeob cote taaoscascnboadaneacbe 1913 1,356 227 16. 74 1,129 Fishowville, Wier aos Oaae ee ee nee nose eee 1912 308 278 90. 26 3 Winchester, ad. SORE ae ey Sea | ene an 1912 266 228 85. 71 38 DOR ey acceso eS cae eee fees cer ee eee 1913 476 325 68. 28 151 Key Sere We Viake’ scl Reeecteme ecu ee sees 1911 226 221 97. 78 5 French’ Creek, IWiet Viz SE Sneha: oem eee secre 1911 202 201 99. 50 1 lela ace Se Sa Ea oe ESTAS oe Serene ore 1912 93 81 87.10 12 Pigkang: Wie Vid-wisitooe)= sente eee cigs ee Rees 1911 154 59 38. 31 95 Mota sce 2S se oS Saas See eee eee [Oe eeenee 4,740 2, 284 48.19 2, 456 Since an indeterminate number of larvee always die in the jars on account of artificial conditions, only those that lived to emerge as moths are considered in this table. It will be seen that there is a great variation in the percentage of the larve wintering in the different localities, and that in no case did all the first-brood larve transform to moths the first season. At Charlottesville, Fishersville, Keyser, and French Creek the proportion transforming the first season was so great as to insure nearly a full second brood of larve, while at Hagers- town and Pickens the large proportion wintering would indicate only a partial or scant second brood. Where the banded orchards were bearing a full crop of fruit and other conditions were favorable for normal development of the larve, the relative sizes of the first-brood and second-brood band collections support the conclusions to be drawn from the data given in the table. EFFECT OF DIFFERENCES IN ALTITUDE AND LATITUDE UPON THE DE- VELOPMENT OF THE CODLING MOTH. The stations at which the codling-moth rearing work reported in. this paper was conducted comprise a range in altitude of 3,100 feet and in latitude of practically 1° 40’, or about 115 statute miles. In correlating the data from the various stations an effort has been made to determine whether or not definite differences in altitude and latitude have a corresponding and constant effect on the time of metamorphic changes in this species of insect. The results indicate CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 43 that the codling moth in its development is so responsive to transient weather conditions and other local disturbing factors that the time of appearance of a-certain brood in one locality can not be determined with certainty by any mathematical calculation based on the known time of appearance of the same brood in another locality of a known difference in altitude or latitude. It is probable that local differences in humidity, susceptibility to sudden changes in temperature as effected by topography, and, possibly, soil conditions, are more or less direct factors influencing the time of developmental changes in the insect. In Table XL the results of these observations are given. In this ‘table use is made of the law laid down some years ago by Dr. A. D. Hopkins that in phenological phenomena a fourth of a degree of lati- tude, or 100 feet in altitude, is equal to one day of time. The table shows that in this particular case the law does not apply. Charlottes- ville, being at the lowest altitude and the mostsoutherly of thestations, is taken as a base and the other points considered in their relation thereto. In considering this table it should be borne in mind that data were collected but twice a week and that the dates given for the first appearance of the insect in its various stages may be from one to three days later than the actual occurrence. Differences in latitude that are equivalent to less than half a day are not considered; those equivalent to more than half a day are counted as full days. Taste XL.—Effect of differences in altitude and latitude on the time of appearance of spring-brood and jirst-brood codling moths and first-brood larve. Date of Date of | Date of a z rst emer- . evation gence of ibaa. Elevation wali gence of above Locality. Year. 5 ah collected | _ first- BEOvO SEs Charlottes- Brad’ under | brood é ville. iain: bands. moths. i: ; 3 Feet. Feet . seville V: 1912 ay 7) June 6] June 20 AQOW ET. aeseecee te Charlottesville, Va.............--------- { 013 Apr. 18| June 5| June 14. 400\ | elena, Genenwood. Va 1912 | May 8] June 6] June 23 900 500 eer ee ti manson erecincs© as “Eel 1013) 1]. c5 ee penne cra (Le vay ie | hao [Reh dee eS ee 1912 | May 30] June 29} July 13 500 100 Hagerstown, Md.........--...-.------+- 1913 | May 15| June 27| July 8 550 150 Fie etn UY. 1912 May 22] June 19} July 9 750 850 Winchester, Va........-..-.-.-------+-- 1913 | May 6 | June 17 | June 30 750 1389 > PP 7. 1912 | May 18| June 11} July 2 1, 500 100 Pishersville, Va.....-.----+--+-0+-++0000 1 1913 | May 3| June 14 |.......... 1,500 1) 100 . nr igh ya \f 1912 | May 13] June 24 | July 20 1, 600 1, 200 French Creek, W. Va....-..---+++---++- (1913 | May 6] July 5 | July 23 1) 600 1) 200 Mokena WV; if 1912 | June 13 | July 31 | Aug. 20 3, 500 3, 100 Pickens, W. Vit.....4--+-++e0+-0eerereee ETSY prints, 270) oD AS ae Ole POC eR 8 mera eee: Hese 44 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste XL.—Effect of differences in altitude and latitude on the time of appearance of spring-brood and first-brood codling moths and first-brood larve—Continued. Distance north of | Number | Actual number of days later Charlottesville. | of days than Charlottesville. later than Char- £ ets Loeality. Year. ville . * 2 Degrees aay First First First Saal Iles se iG. spring- larve | summer- snigiaien | jae Gf | brood | under | brood : latitude moths. | bands. | moths, and altitude. ° , Charlottesville, Va......---2-+.+++-+ Tf eave animes en | |S Greenwood Vansaa2t=scea- dees ae Os e4 Dyna, sige ts Mee: } Same pics 3 Hagerstown, Md). <2 522-22 ose. Sates Tae 1 40 115 E 8 A 33 Winchester, Va.......-.--------e-s- sae \ 1 10 80 |{ 8 1 1B 4 Wishersville; Va.s-- 5 3--==se--scens AE On 4 5 { it ‘ 5 {anne e Wrench Creek; sWi) Vass. eee nese ae 0 50 60 { i is aa e Pickens, W. Va......ssss2esde-0eu-+ Tie |} 9 20 ABN ul Be a. ee Peel tera a RELATIVE NUMBERS OF LARVAL ASCENDING AND DESCENDING THE TREES. In 1911 several trees in a number of orchards were banded around the trunks and also around the bases of the larger branches. The lower bands were used to secure larve that had dropped with the infested fruit and ascended the trunk to spin up, and the upper bands were used for those that left the fruit before it dropped and descended toward the trunk for the same purpose. The following table shows the relative number of larvee secured under the two sets of bands in the six orchards. In considering Table XLI due allow- ance should be made for an unknown number of larvee that crawled across the bands or that spun up under the bark before reaching the bands. Taste XLI.—Relative numbers of codling-moth larve collected from bands around the trunks and bases of branches, season of 1911. Number of larvze collected. Per cent. Locality. = z On n On trunk. prenichies! Total. On trunk. branches. — Hagerstown; Md <-32:os-sepeescsgase. <5" 543 602 1,145 47. 42 52.58 pmlithsburg, Md 2202 ee eee ees 2 eee 179 619 798 22. 44 77.56 Lee a We co secassce + osaseaeuetbe- 75 91 166 45.18 54. 82 Wishers ville, Va css. cis ee ee Seems oe nie 96 68 164 58. 54 41.46 Wrench) Creek, vWi0Via-2-.- een nae a 146 96 242 60. 33 39. 67 Pickens! Wades en Men eee 29 30 59 49.15 50.85 ROLLS seme ace e eee et 1, 068 1,506 2, 574 41, 49 58.51 CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 45 SEASONAL EFFECT OF WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE CODLING MOTH. The beginning of emergence of the spring-brood codling moths varies greatly from season to season, depending in any given year upon the temperature conditions that prevail during March, April, and May. Tt will be noted, however, that in spite of the wide variation in the time of emergence of the spring-brood moths in 1912 and 1913 there was a tendency for the later stages of the insect to appear at more nearly the same periods both years. This is probably due to an equalization of midsummer weather conditions subjecting the later stages of the insect to the influences of a more constant seasonal temperature factor. At Winchester, where the codling moth was under closer observation than at other points, we find that while spring-brood moths emerged at least 10 days later in 1912 than in 1913, the second-brood larve began entering the fruit at practically the same time both years. Hammar, in his report on the codling moth in Pennsylvania, gives the following in his general summary: The time of the emergence of the spring brood of the moths is variable under differ- ent seasonal conditions and depends largely upon the relative lateness of the spring. The time of emergence of the summer brood, or first brood, of mothsis fairly constant and generally commences about the Ist of August. From the results of the band records and rearing work of 1912 and 1913 it would seem, therefore, that in all except very unusual seasons we may expect the feeding of second-brood larve to begin in the different sections about as follows: Charlottesville, Va., July 1; Fishersville, Va., July 10; Winchester, Va., July 15; Hagerstown, Md., July 25. CANNIBALISM AMONG CODLING-MOTH LARV. During the progress of these studies it was noticed frequently that when a collection of codling-moth larvee was confined in a rearing jar a considerable loss in their numbers from cannibalism was likely to occur. This habit, of the stronger larve devouring their weaker fellows, has been commented on by Hammar.’ He states that can- nibalism among the larve probably takes place also under normal conditions. In the jars the loss from this cause during the present investigations was frequently sufficient to amount to a considerable factor in influencing the number of moths to appear later. ' Hammar, A.G. Thecodling moth in northwestern Pennsylvania, U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur, Ent., Bul, 80, Pt. VI, p. 111, 1910. Hammar, A.G. Life-history studies on the codling mothin Michigan, U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Mnt., Bul. 115, Pt. 1, p. 1-86, 1912, Seep. 83, 46 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. NATURAL ENEMIES. PREDACEOUS INSECTS. It seems probable that many codling-moth larve, after leaving the fruit, are caught and destroyed by ants. A small red ant (Solenopsis molesta Say) was frequently met with on the bark of apple trees and under the bands engaged in killing and devouring the larvee. Colonies of these ants that had their homes in the vicinity of banded trees seemed to form a habit of visiting the bands to obtain food. The collections of larve from trees in several localities were very consid- erably reduced in numbers from this cause. Lasius niger L. var. americana Emery, a species less abundant about the trees than the other, was also found killing the larve. These ants were determined by Prof. W. M. Wheeler. Several species of beetles were found to be predatory on the larve and pupe at the various stations. The most abundant of these was Tenebroides corticalis Melsh., both the larvee and adults of which were frequently found under the bands devouring the larve and pupe. Another beetle, Hololepta lucida Lec. (Pl. I, fig. 2), was found at Win- chester with a codling-moth larva in itsjaws. ‘Two species of carabid beetles (Calanthus opaculus Lec. and Platynus angustatus Dej.) were common under the bands but were not observed to be feeding on the codling-moth larve. These beetles were determined by Mr. E. A. Schwarz, of the Bureau of Entomology. A coleopterous larva, which was determined as a species of Telephorus by Mr. H. S. Barber, was observed in the act of eating a codlmg-moth larva at Hancock in 1911. HYMENOPTEROUS AND DIPTEROUS PARASITES. Six species of hymenopterous parasites were reared from the cod- ling-moth larvee in the jars. Of these, Ascogaster carpocapse Vier. (Pl. I, fig. 1) was found at Winchester, Hagerstown, Smithsburg, Keyser, and French Creek, and outnumbered all others. An undeter- mined secondary parasite was found to be destroying this species in considerable numbers at Keyserin 1911. Jtoplectis marginatus (Prov.) (fig. 23) occurred at Greenwood, Hagerstown, Winchester, and French Creek. A female of this species was observed on the trunk of an apple tree at French Creek ovipositing in a larva that had spun up under a scale of bark. Macrocentrus sp.t was reared at Greenwood in July, 1911; Meteorus sp.,? at French Creek in July, 1913; (MMicrodus) Bassus, n. sp. (PL. I, fig. 4), at Smithsburg in July, 1911; and Phanerotoma - tibialis Hald. at Charlottesville in 1911. The last species was deter- mined by Mr. H. L. Viereck and the others by Mr. R. A. Cushman, of the Bureau of Entomology. 1 Quaintance No. 7457. 2 Quaintance No. 7569. CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 4Q A dipterous parasite, reared from codling-moth larve at Keyser in 1911, was determined by Mr. W. R. Walton, of the Bureau of Ento- mology, as (Hypostena) Tachinophyto variabilis Coq. (Pl. I, fig. 3). Only a few specimens of this species were obtained. HAIRWORM PARASITES.? Hairworm parasites of the codling moth (PI1.I, figs. 5, 6) were found at Greenwood, Keyser, and French Creek, being abundant in the second-brood larvee at the latter place in 1911. These parasites were within the bodies of the codling-moth larve at the time collections Fia. 23.—Itoplectis marginatus, a parasite of the codling moth. Enlarged. (Original.) were made from the bands and usually issued from their hosts 10 days or 2 weeks after the larvee were placed in the rearing jars. Occasionally dead larvee, surrounded by a mass of dead hairworms, were found under the bands, and in a few cases the hairworms were found within apples borne by the banded trees. It was evident that infestation occurred at an early stage in the larval development and that all infested indi- viduals died as full-grown larve. Most of the parasitized larve died within 10 days after being placed in the rearing jars. The hairworms were from 24 to 5 inches in length, and three or four were frequently observed to inhabit one larva. In leaving the host they passed through the anal opening or broke through the * Mermis sp. Material was referred to Dr. B. H. Ransom, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, but as the specimens were all immature, they could not be determined specifically. 48 BULLETIN 189, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. skin at some other point. After freeing themselves from the host, all that were observed writhed about actively for a few minutes and then died. Many of the hairworms did not escape from the codling-moth cocoons, but were found, at the time of the regular examinations of the jars, knotted together and dead, beside the flattened and shriveled larval remains. Table XLII shows the extent of parasitization at French Creek in 1911. - TasieE XLII.—Extent of parasitization of codling-moth larve by hairworms at French Creek, W. Va., in 1911. Number | Number P t Date larvee were collected. of larvee of larvee er eo A collected. | parasitized,| P2t@sitize AU) on ot aa oednneaotoduebauesESaysos ace sue staosceseounsbcdossoneT 139 Onl sSeseeze ses AGI gS eee ee GRE a aaa relay Mel aman eee Haine MS SUN Soo Set ae neck fomae 68 ODE creer DU NS ea eer PEe Rae eM Bane ne alam eye Aas Mea Bale ie cas 48 6 12. 50 OA eet Re eee ee err OS helene me Sais sae caoeac aad mecae aoa 24 1 4.17 SN ee See so Bee es Gem nee Rae A an wen Baus sind don ced 76 54k Ssuroasobaec 14 3 21. 43 UNOS GES be aan MER Seles Barrie eh Mak een acoas ad saSe sees peSHone 51 7 13. 72 (UO R ete ae aE eee oe nea Kann Oe aea ao Iaaaeind meme Eason & 34 11 32. 35 SO OAV aem CUS eeCe ERA eae eae Mase adn e ee SY doen mmeee aa oee 36 23 63. 90 SCO nd SES ser aCe SY SRUMAAASeAne nese ae dace do SonomeaSusubaGodades 43 21 48. 84 Sep ts, 19 sree ie ree ea Aye ae aa eta a eerie esta ee 23 10 43, 48 ON te OSA SRB ERE EEE Or ene as mi ok Gel A cnn amin u ao mab se GMOs 22 6 27. 27 Tho Galle Se Sys sy seis lace cea SOE SANS OEM IRE ee eiele 502 88 17. 53 SUMMARY. The foregoing account of the codling moth is based upon band- record studies conducted in 1911, 1912, and 1913 in several different localities of Virginia, West Virginia, and Maryland. The stations at which the investigations were conducted comprise a difference in latitude of about 1° 40’ and in altitude of about 3,100 feet. The most southerly and least elevated station was at Charlottesville, Va., the most northerly at Hagerstown, Md., and the one at highest elevation at Pickens, W. Va. The chief features of the investigations consisted of banding suitable apple trees with strips of burlap, collecting at regular periods the larve that went beneath the bands to spin up, and rearing these larve in jars kept in the localities where the larve were collected. Examinations of the bands and rearing jars were made every week or ten days in 1911 and twice a week in 1912 and 1913. No detailed life-history studies were attempted. During a single year the codling moth, in the region covered by the present studies, produces one full brood of larve and a partial second brood, the size of the second brood depending more or less on the latitude and altitude of the locality. The studies show a marked difference in the time of appearance of the different broods in different localities. Charlottesville gave the earliest records for practically all broods and Pickens the latest. Bul. 189, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE CODLING MOTH (CARPOCAPSA POMONELLA). Fig. 1.—Axscogaster carpocapsac. Fig. 2.—HHololepta lucida deyouring codling-moth larva. Fig. 3 Uyposena) Tachinophyto variabilis, Vig. 4.—(Microdus) Bassus i. sp. Fig. 5.— Codling-moth larvie killed in cocoons by hairworms (Mermis sp.). Fig. 6.—Mass of hair- worms (Mermis sp.) taken from rearing jar, French Creek, W. Va. (Original.) CODLING MOTH IN CENTRAL APPALACHIAN REGION. 49 There seems, however, to be no constant rate of difference between the earlier and later localities. This seems to be largely due to the responsiveness of the species during its metamorphic changes to local and transient weather conditions. During the time of the investigation the first-brood larve began entering the fruit at Charlottesville from April 28 to May 15, and second-brood larve from June 25 to July 1. At Pickens first-brood larve began entering the fruit from June 20 to July 1, and second- brood lary about August 10. Between these two localities there is a greater difference in the time of the regular periodical changes of the insect that occur late in the season than of those that occur early in the season. This is probably due to the cumulative retard- ing effect of the more frequent unfavorable weather conditions at the higher point. . For any given locality the variation in the time of appearance of spring broods in different years is greater than that of correspond- ing summer and fall broods of the same years. Records of the numbers of larve collected from trees on which bands were placed around the trunks and also around the bases of the larger branches indicate that 41.49 per cent drop to the ground and then ascend the trunk to pupate and 58.51 per cent crawl down the branches from the infested fruit to pupate. Where a collection of larve is confined in one jar there is apt to be a considerable loss due to cannibalism. It is probable that the weaker larve are sometimes devoured by their fellows under normal con- ditions. Two specimens of ants (Solenopsis molesta Say and Laswus niger L. var. americana Emery) were found in several localities devouring codling-moth larve. Larve and adults of the beetle Tenebroides corticalis Melsh. were found frequently feeding on codling-moth larve and pup. Six species of hymenopterous and one of dip- terous parasites were reared in the jars. Of these the most de- structive to the codling moth were Ascogaster carpocapse Vier. and Itoplectis marginatus Prov. Uairworm parasites (Mermis sp.) were abundant in one locality and very materially reduced the number of wintering larve in the year 1911. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V wb aoe ad hese oe Hed . ota AIOE Kya) hadlaa? me UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 190 Coniribution from the Office of Experiment Stations A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. April 24, 1915 THE DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED LAND By R. A. HART, Supervising Drainage Engineer CONTENTS Page | AIOE o's 1a) S| sii1ee, hia 6 Protective Devices for Covered Drains . Manifestations of Poor Drainage Condi- Some Typical Problems and Their Treat- ai oh ie ment a Construction of Drains Preliminary Investigations . Maintenance PO MRESANS, Fh) 62 a! ioe! OBSERVATION WELLS. If little sand be present, rendering sand traps unnecessary, it is still desirable that opportunity be afforded for observation of the flow at various points throughout the system. Nothing serves this purpose better than a vertical stack of large-sized tile, extending from a little above the surface of the ground to a foot or more below the tile line, and having holes cut in the lower length to accommodate the drain. Such a device is shown in figure 9. As may be seen, a small settling space is provided from which sediment may be removed from time to time by means of a telephone spoon. A cover should DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED LAND. 17 always be provided. This device costs little and occupies but small space. If desired, the top section may be removed at any time, a cap provided, and cultivation carried on directly over the top. Such a device may also be installed between regular manholes, for inspection purposes. Figure 17, page 22, illustrates the application of observa- tion wells. SURFACE INLETS AND FLUSHING WELLS. A vertical stack of tile is also useful as a surface inlet and flushing well. Figure 10 shows how it should be installed. The bottom Grave/ Stee/ Chain or tron Band with Pings Grounad,-F > Surface iy on eee andladlock ZW WHA 7D WY Po WO Wi US SED SUZZ>\\ EZ, If ( ASS = YS Ground Surface SIN HA ; STAC INI wy Iron Cover) iS Wf NL) WN SY v i NN ‘ Qin We 124 E iS) re ISS Wi Q i a\ Za NNT ‘Bh Q a ier Se ri SY Ry ANd ays Pe an SS] gy ye SU iS 07 I il q S Pp e all j Sah iS Ny Sy Wy Ss IAN =x Dp. ig) & Ie “ S fe wa 3 BS SN Wn AG a iE Lf yy > VA\\n WEY x jw WIN H G J ~ Ve “ Ns > La = Zs o4 im wy WS IY 1G iy Ga an = & EX <4 4a iT SS ZY aS oe Cn zy z i. [24 N Y (Sy Si. “& Ws i e. S] DD es: Avi NS; rE cycle He. S| ia a) 4 == || == WG = s yiNS MBAS, INIA AR Fi ZSAUCuSUN HIN mz CUnlet Tile 5° Outlet Tile vy 4’ Tile| Drain | if =i yi Bias WS i AO aa Ss vg Ya TANGINE Sy AS ia" i@ Ay" Fi y) He Z Z Z 22) we rel@elex? Ht} Le a iewen se ys LY SSB Fic. 9.—Observation well and sand trap con- Fia. 10.—Standpipe, built of tile, for flushing structed of tile. drain or to act as surface inlet. should be paved with coarse gravel and the top provided with an iron grating and a mound of gravel or crushed stone. Such an inlet should be installed wherever a drain crosses a depression or flat, so that the waste water or storm water may not pond for a sufficient length of time to puddle the soil or “burn” the crop. One of these should also be placed at the upper end of each branch line as is indicated in figure 17, page 22. FLUMES. Flumes should be provided for all canals and ditches that cross underdrains, and care should be taken to prevent large quantities of water from flowing across these drains, particularly during the first two seasons after the installation of the latter. 77733°—Bull, 190—15——3 18 BULLETIN 190, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BULKHEADS. A bulkhead should be constructed at the outlet of the underdrainage system to avoid injury from frost and caving of the banks at that point. This may be made of concrete, brick, or timber. Care should be taken that it has a good foundation, in order that it may not be undermined. Figure 11 shows a concrete bulkhead which may be easily and cheaply installed and which will give satisfactory SS service. A network of ic wires or small rods of los copper or iron should Beane = ny mm be placed across the 7 i TMIMUU outlet to keep ont BS; small animals. iS ISG UNG Te.| “PY yon ai Wz , QN 7 Us Ze — ie ZN SZ i WAY is ip l, SOME TYPICAL PROB- = I)\N=\\W IT Y= i! Ss Seed ype YIKS) LEMS AND THEIR N TREATMENT. INTERCEPTION OF LATERAL SEEPAGE. Ge I Figure 12 is a map and cross section of a typical case of water- Wag ie A. TT} MMe —— Fy i) “oe 3 = ail le ze logging due to seepage ae | LAY from higher lands, to == : IM i | | ase » which the interception ee a Crh method of drainage = 0n0200:8: . = ae should be applied. Fall | The dama ging water is conducted through aN) YD” indicat LLM depth, and owing to a Fie. 11—Concrete bulkhead for protection of outlet of tile-drainage change in slope from a | eae steep to alighter grade this water is forced to the surface.t. The drain should be located at the change in slope, as shown, and should be run diagonally across Lad SSS i ir =i SS 1 The slopes of the land are indicated by lines drawn across the map, any one of which lines passes through points of the same elevation, this elevation being that shown on the line. These are called contour lines. The lines shown on the map are at 1-foot vertical intervals, and may be compared with the successive shore lines of a pond of water which is rising or falling 1 foot at a time. It is plain that the degree of slope of the land is indicated by the frequency of the contour lines, the latter being close together on steep land and spread apart on land of slight slope. DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED LAND. 19 the slope and connected with an outlet drain. One of the com- monest locations of seeped lands is this belt of comparatively level land at the foot of a steeper portion, and there is no place where drainage may be more economically applied. A single drain line will usually intercept the flow from outside sources, and the pervious stratum, being relieved of its water, serves as a drainage system to take care of the water applied to the tract itself. The pervious stratum may well be consid- 1320" ered a great sheet drain. : INTERCEPTION OF VERTICAL Flat Slope CRAWUN SEEPAGE. 2 NaS A special case, involvi 4 pecial case, involving 42 es) . ° & °, 2 the same principles as the S Heus S\ e one just mentioned but in- %, Nigaes Sak troducing a peculiar condi- Sa \ tion and a unique method of al \ solution, is shown in cross a 5 5 = % Sie section in figure 13. Nomap ade | \ Outlet Tile Line __ ManHoue)y to\ Outer Y ce Us Eee KROADE 2 mae vie <§ OZ) a oN ae ve wl } i UCTS MANHOLE _ ff SSATIG\ . WM WHASUAYGS SN MISN wf ES, < y S NN SAAN ANAAAANS ‘ DYVSROO8SK68WKw8%ww$p oOony Section Fic. 12.—Plan and section showing typical case of water-logging due to seepage from higher land. is given, as the surface topography is similar to that shown in figure 12, and the drains have the same location and depth. The water moves down theslope from higher lands through a very deep pervious stratum. At the change of slope the pressure forces the water to the surface. Owing to the considerable depth from which the water must rise, it is spread over a large area and there is little in the appearance of the ground surface to indicate its source. The condition may be relieved by a single drain, located as shown in figure 12, and connected by means of relief wells to the pervious substratum. The water rises in the relief wells, owing to its pressure, and flows out of the drains. This situation is not infrequently met with, and until subsurface conditions are thoroughly explored the problem appears baffling. 20 BULLETIN 19, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Ordinarily, a satisfactory relief well may be bored with an 8-inch post-hole auger. It should be cased with tile or pipe, or filled with Drain 6 freer ope he ie Ht x a co. } =F —— Ground S opie e Z eT antl | T, cat a ce Ai a : i i ih i | soe | sine te cil i si ni a @ li “ : | : | a ere Aoi rN ng eh aise : in iif s ff (| == SS — —= o Be = Va. ———$— => i Bes Nope ee ===; i Si SS === > — grea sal i a cara ii ia Fic. 13.—Section showing relief-well method applied to the drainage of lands receiving water from a deep pervious stratum. coarse gravel. Relief wells in gravel, however, develop so much water that it 1s necessary to excavate a pit and build in a lumber or concrete box. X Sa fg NAD) eR R= hy Time MIZ SIRS, VISITS a ISIS Lye Der ZUG wz US] N ANN, AN AIRS 0) Wiz} Rs) LO YEW AISNENI SSE SILL Wa CEPTING A ae ain BY 2, ‘ral Nis WY S ras Ly ILD RIS by LES g LE NN TO SSSA AU i Yj WY Yj OX Ge Ue Tak aves KZ\\\\ Oy LOX PRON Vx ZUS; AIG NY) We "] n, SORRY: YY LEH ON Gilie® REO A Yj A ll y Fic. 14.—Section showing method of draining soils underlain by hardpan at a shallow depth by the use of relief wells. Intercepting drain cuts off seepage carried on the top of the hardpan. = IN ae ASV Ni g 4 | DRAINAGE OF SOIL HAVING HARDPAN SUBSTRATUM. Another case in which relief wells may contribute toward efficiency is shown in figure 14. In this case, which is frequently met with, a stratum of hardpan is found at a shallow depth, this being underlain DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED LAND. HL by astratum of water-bearing material in which the water is generally under pressure. The hardpan is very difficult to penetrate with a trench, and the underlymg material makes a poor beddimg for tile. Moreover, the hardpan is practically impervious to water and to plant roots, so there is no need for deep drainage. The drain is laid on top of the hardpan and relief wells are bored through at frequent inter- vals, as shown in figure 14. The pressure causes an artesian flow which is carried away by the drain. Should there be seepage on top of the hardpan it may be intercepted at the upper edge of the tract. DRAINAGE OF GRAVEL POCKETS. Relief wells are especially useful in the drainage of soils underlain by gravel beds or pockets, particularly at the foot of benches, where the bottom land contais so much quicksand that it is difficult to lay a drain at the proper depth. Figure 15 shows the method of Ground SUP WII F SIT Vip ACM G IZ, VAS AviANINZ xi 0 0 40.9:0; 9/00: freee Eas Fie. 15.—Section illustrating relief-well method applied to drainage of soils fed from gravel deposits. application. The relief well should be sunk into the gravel. Knor- mous quantities of water are developed in this way; there is a case on record where a single well drained 100 acres of very wet land. DRAINAGE OF SHALE KNOLLS. Another application of the relief-well system is shown in figure 16 in which case the source of seepage is a buried shale knoll. The seep- age is carried between the shale layers and is under pressure which is relieved by means of wells, these being connected to outlet drains. APPLICATION OF THE UNIFORM SYSTEM. There are some conditions where the uniform method of arranging the drains as used in the humid section is applicable. Among these is the case of a tract lying nearly level, having a fairly homogeneous soil or perhaps a substratum of sand at moderate depth, and receiv- ing but little water from outside sources, the excess water being that due to the irrigation of the tract itself. The gridiron system, as shown in figure 17, is a most efficient plan, under such conditions, the drains being placed from 200 to 450 feet apart. The latter figure 22 BULLETIN 190, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. would apply to lands underlaim by a sand stratum at from 4 to 6 feet below the surface. The drains should cut through this sand stratum, which itself thus becomes a great sheet drain. Under this Branch If arrangement three lines of Ge tile to the 40-acre tract, or less than 100 feet of tile per acre, will drain fairly tough clay soil. APPLICATION OF THE NATURAL SYSTEM. The natural system of NY NU ING a) LASS ace TIS Sait NNW SA S ul f \ MD) \ Zell) SKY = SWI] ~ = os SGP AV 6/2s38 TRS CS be: °2 Fia. 19.—Cross section showing modification of natural system in which two lines of tile are employed, one on either side of the wide depression and cutting through the pervious layer at the line of pinching out. A single drain in the center of this depression would accomplish very little. difficult. Often the formation is so stratified and shattered that the natural drainage seems to be very good. Water enters the spaces very readily, however, and the rock masses themselves absorb but 24 BULLETIN 190, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, little so that the ground-water table rises very rapidly when irriga- tion is applied and soon creates a demand for dramage. The dam- aging water must be cut off as it leaves the rock formations and before it enters the soil, or it may be tapped by means of relief wells. Another situation that presents difficulty is that in which the irri- gation canals have been constructed in old watercourses and natural drainage channels. These channels are often higher than the sur- rounding lands, due to the fact that they have overflowed from time to time, and the soil adjacent to them is coarser than that at a dis- tance. Seepage from the canals waterlogs the adjacent soil and causes alkali salts to appear at the surface. Waste water and seepage from irrigation of the land find their way to the depressions and form ponds, or swamp the farm lands. To remedy these conditions, drains must be constructed through the lower portions to carry off surface water, waste water, and seepage, and to provide an outlet for tile drains-on the higher portions. Intercepting drains must also be constructed parallel with the irrigation canals, to catch the direct seepage. It is usually feasible to construct these in the borrow pits adjacent to the irrigation canals. The main outlet drainage canals should not be placed in such locations, however, as they would not then afford an outlet for tile systems nor take care of the water that reaches the depressions. CONSTRUCTION OF DRAINS. The soils of the arid region are usually semi-fluid when wet, due largely to the absence of humus, and the construction of drainage systems therefore often requires the exercise of considerable patience and ingenuity. Special methods and devices have been called for and special machinery has been needed to overcome these difficulties. OPEN CANALS. In the construction of open canals in the irrigated section it has been found that the use of teams and scrapers is generally not feasible, owing to the considerable depth that must be obtained and to the miry condition of the soil. Hand labor is equally out of the ques- tion, owing to the excessive cost. The most satisfactory method of handling the work is by means of some efficient excavating machine. A number of these machines have been developed, but few of them are suitable for work in the irrigated section. A discussion of the comparative merits of the different machines is not within the scope of this paper. In general, the choice of the type of machine should be left to the contractor or other party doing the work. Construction work should always start at the outlet of the drain and proceed up the slope, so that the water developed will drain away. DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED LAND. 25 The spoil should be placed well away from the channel and may be deposited on either or both sides. Openings in the spoil banks should be left wherever lateral or waste ditches are to enter. The contractor should be required to give the canal as true a form as possible, as irregularities are likely to become more pronounced. It is well to excavate a little below grade to allow for silting and spalling. If it is found impossible to give the banks the proper slope, owing to the bad condition of the soil, it is well to excavate in terraces and leave the final form to the action of the elements. Asa rule it is not advis- able to attempt to cut out a canal by means of water, but this has sometimes proved effective where the fall was sufficient. Little clearing for right of way is required in the irrigated section and little rock is encountered. Rock and frost should be broken by means of dynamite before an attempt is made to use a bucket. COVERED DRAINS. In installing covered drains either hand labor or trenching ma- chinery may be used. On small projects hand trenching is frequently cheaper, but on larger projects the machine generally can do the work more rapidly and economically. In either case methods and devices adapted to the nature of the soil and to other local conditions must be employed. If hand labor is used it is necessary to operate with small gangs, never more than a half dozen men to the line, as the trench must be opened from top to bottom as rapidly as possible and the tile laid and blinded before caving takes place. The men must work as closely together as is practicable; and it is generally advisable to do rapid, systematic work for a short time or until a given length of drain is completed, and then to rest for a few minutes and be prepared for another vigorous attack. Each man should remove a spading and move backward. The man removing the last spading should also grade the trench bottom. He should not step on the finished bottom, and no one should stand near the edge of the trench. The tile should be laid at once and should be blinded by means of a few inches of earth caved from the edges of the trench. If the banks tend to cave off in large chunks or slabs it will be necessary to brace them apart with planks separated by stout crosspieces or by trench jacks. A very troublesome condition is that in which the presence of a wet, pervious stratum near the bottom of the trench causes a lateral and upward movement of the soil in the bottom of the trench. In such a case it is necessary to provide a tight cribbing to shut out the oozing material. A design for such a cribbing is shown in figure 20. It consists of two heavy timbers, held apart by means of trench jacks, behind which is driven lumber sheeting properly matched and bev- eled at the lower ends to insure a tight fit. The sheeting may be 26 BULLETIN 190, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. driven by means of a heavy maul and may be removed by a three- legged derrick and a special grabhook,-as shown in the figure. If the soil in the bottom of the completed trench be so soft that it will not support a man’s weight, boards should be laid under the tile to keep them in line and on grade. For large-sized tile the planks should be built into a triangular trough; or, if conditions are exceed- ingly bad, piles should be driven and planks secured to them in the form of a cradle. Under such conditions it is often advisable to employ sewer pipe in place of drain tile, as the bells aid in keeping the line intact. Second-quality pipe is suitable and may generally be purchased at about Forged DHE Cap CLM AUER Ln thesame cost as drain - with iron bands op [ %: Be eds i as tile. Under ordinary A oe i l i ny. a conditions, however, io ie i : eg the use of sewer sec- onds is not recom- mended, as the cost of freight and haul- ing is higher than for drain tile and the former are heavier and more difficult to handle. Also in sta- ble ground it is nec- essary to dig out places for the bells, which considerably increases the cost of trenching. The tile should be hauled and distribut- ed in one operation Fig. 20.—Method of sheeting trenches of moderate depth (Miller and should be strung : system). i’ .Grab-hook —ils il for conan drawing Sheeting | EF é out end to end in a line about 10 feet to one side of the proposed trench, with an occa- sional length laid down to allow for breakage. Lines and grades for drainage work should be carefully established by surveys. To obtain a guide for hand trenching, a cord or wire should be stretched along the ground at one edge of the proposed trench, and to afford a convenient method of determining the proper depth at all points grade planks should be set up at each 50-foot sta- tion, as shown in figure 21. These planks should all be of the same height above the proposed grade of the trench, so that a cord stretched over the center of the trench will be at a uniform height above grade. DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED LAND. Et A pole gauge of this length may then be used to establish the grade at each tile, as shown in the figure. To ascertain the height above ground at which each grade plank must be set, it is only necessary to subtract the calculated cut at that station from the length of the gauge pole used, say 7 or Sfeet. For machine trenching, poles should be erected at frequent stations and target arms set at a uniform height above grade upon which sights may be taken by the operator of the machine. Tile should be laid true to grade and in straight lines. No attempt should be made to judge grade by the water in the trench. It is easy to vary a foot from the proper grade in a short distance in this man- ner. Tile should be 0 laid within a half mch . of true grade under or- dinary conditions, and it is possible to do even better than this. In laying tile the joints should be placed as close as possible. Tf = Gi» =-$dial the soil be semifluid fa mp F: and contains much } sand and silt, it will be necessary to provide some means of keeping the oozing material from entering the tile joints. Almost all of the water entering the tile lines makes its way through the joints, practically none en- tering through the walls of even the most porous tile, so the covering for the joints must provide for the ready passage of the water. Straw makes a very good filter when new, but it is likely to decompose and to form a sort of cement over the joints. Brush and willows are not satisfac- tory and render any subsequent removal of tile very difficult. Graded gravel, ranging from coarse sand to pebbles an inch in diameter, makes an excellent filter, but is not always available. Cinders also are satisfactory. Strips of burlap wrapped about the joints give good service. For genuine quicksand perhaps the best material is cheesecloth, which should be doubled once or twice and wrapped very carefully about the joint. This material soon disappears, but in the meantime the soil becomes compacted so that the purpose, is served, Ag y rls ris 1a ie l = a ae = iS au spew Cur ions oe tl /p / Fic. 21.—Method of establishing grade by means of cord and gauge. 28 BULLETIN 190, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The more pervious material excavated should be placed adjacent to the tile. The backfilling may be done by means of a plow with three or more horses and a long pole evener, or by means of a scraper or ‘‘go-devil.’”’ All the spoil should be returned to the trench and should be banked over it so that future settling will not leave a depression over the drain. | Various types of trenching machinery, some of which are suitable for use on irrigated land, are on the market. The choice of machine may well be left with the contractor, however, and the question will not be discussed here. MAINTENANCE. Tf a canal is to retain its efficiency it must be well maintained. At least twice each year (more often if necessary) vegetation should be removed from the channel and banks, and such material as has fallen into the channel taken out. Any damaged places must be repaired to prevent further trouble. Tumbleweeds are a source of much diffi- culty, and it seems practically impossible to keep them out of drainage canals. They soon form serious obstructions and it is necessary to remove them at frequent intervals; this is generally done by men equipped with forks and rakes. Fortunately, these weeds generally disappear when drainage is accomplished. Perhaps the most difficult thing to deal with is ‘blow sand,” which, during a high wind, may ~ completely obstruct a canal in a few hours. From the very nature of the conditions maintenance is difficult and costly, and it follows that every endeavor should be made, during construction, to reduce the amount of maintenance necessary. When it is realized that the annual cost of maintaining open canals is often 10 per cent of the first cost, the need for correct design and careful construction is apparent. A properly designed and well-constructed tile system requires little maintenance. Obstructions in the line, and vegetation that may develop dangerous water roots, must be removed. Holes and de- pressions in the backfilling must be filled and the burrowing of animals prevented. A number of types of tile-cleaning devices have been developed. These are useful during construction in keeping the suspended matter in movement until the flow of water is large enough to create sufficient velocity to carry the material along. After the system is put in opera- tion they may be used to clean out water roots that may have pene- trated the tile line through the joints, or to clear the line of obstruc- tions caused by sand or silt. One of these devices is in the nature of an auger, while another kind is built like a small hoe. For the removal of roots an apparatus involving a spiral cutter is used, or _better still, a sort of wire brush. The latter is also useful in removing other obstructions and may easily be made by wrapping a piece of DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED LAND. 29 leather belting around a cylindrical wooden rod, first having driven the belting full of nails of such length that the outside diameter of the completed brush is somewhat smaller than the inside diameter of the tile to be cleaned. These devices may be operated most conveniently by means of jomted sewerrods. The latter are made up in 8 or 4 foot sections which are fitted with couplings so arranged that they may be jomed when two sections are placed at right angles, and are locked together when the two sections are in line. Working in a manhole 4 feet square, a man can easily put together and operate several hun- dred feet of rodin a tile line. Figure 22 shows a set of sewer rods and cleaning devices that have given satisfaction in operation. SUBSEQUENT TREATMENT OF LAND. While drainage is essential to the reclamation of water-logged and alkali lands, subsequent work is necessary for the complete redemp- ise in a Ma SY aii heat xe ! Ol ; ta : “ (Tt ip Hi bg ley a , \ aR D mete ay Ui AP Sy) yo i +e } i 7 : y : aay an ee a Naan Demurrage Commission, with headquarters at Boston. It was estab- lished as one of the results of a general investigation in 1910 by the Interstate Commerce Commission of demurrage practices in New England. All the lmes in New England are members of it and, while each line publishes and files its own demurrage tariffs, a demurrage commissioner has general oversight of demurrage matters. The com- DEMURRAGE INFORMATION FOR FARMERS. °- 19 missioner was designated by the Interstate Commerce Commission and appointed by the railroads “to arbitrate all doubtful or disputed cases growing out of the application of the demurrage rules, which the ship- pers or the railroads desire to refer to him.”’ As an impartial investi- gator to whom both sides may refer, his efforts are to secure from the railroads their best possible service and from shippers cooperation by the prompt release of cars in order that commerce may be facilitated and that efficiency of transportation may be increased. The growing importance of demurrage is being generally recognized. The necessity for a more careful supervision of it and for a closer study of the subject is making itself apparent in many ways. An example is the recent appoimtment by the American Railway Asso- ciation of a demurrage supervisor for the State of Texas. RECOMMENDATIONS OF DEMURRAGE OFFICERS. The fact that the managers of the demurrage bureaus are dealing exclusively with only one phase of the railroad question puts them in a position to know the details of that one phase very thoroughly. Their opinions individually and their recommendations collectively, as the American Association of Demurrage Officers, are deserving of careful consideration and have had great weight in influencing demur- rage practices. Communications addressed to each of them have developed the fact that 13 of them favor the abolition of the average agreement. Fourteen of them favor an increase in the demurrage rate. One advocates a $3 rate on refrigerator cars, one the same rate on hay and straw, and four a $3 rate on all cars. One suggests that the charge be assessed for Sundays and holidays after the expiration of the free time. The rate of $3 per day is suggested by the fact that that is the rate at present in effect on interstate shipments in Arizona and Califor- nia. June 19, 1909, the California State rate was raised by statute from $1 to $6 per day. May 1, 1911, it was reduced to $3 by order of the State commission. Records of the Pacific Car Demurrage Bureau showed greatest car efficiency under the $6 rate and efficiency almost as great under the $3 rate. In January, 1912, the manager of this bureau filed with the Interstate Commerce Commission a tarift raising the interstate rate to $3. The commission, on its own motion, suspended the tariff. After hearings and much testimony, with little opposition from shippers, the case (I. & S. Docket Nos. 83 and 834A, 25 I. C. C. 314) was decided December 2, 1912, and the $3 rate allowed to stand. The chairman of the commission dissented, holding that arate of $1 per day was sufficient, as a general rule, anywhere through- out the country. Another member held that the increased car efli- ciency on State traffic under a $3 rate was due not to the rate, but to the activity of the manager of the Pacific Car Demurrage Bureau. 20 BULLETIN 191, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, The manager of the bureau, in a statement issued February 14, 1914, comparing results in California with results in the territory of the Intermountain Demurrage Bureau, where the same roads oper- ate, distinctly disclaims whi, and insists that to the rate alone a are hie the results of greater car efficiency. CONCLUSION. If, in times of acute car shortage, the shipper who needs cars and is unable to get them could actually see all the other car users at all the other stations in his immediate section who are taking from two to seven days to load and unload cars, when it could and should be done in as many hours, no doubt there would be a speedy reformation among car users and a radical revision of some of the demurrage regulations now in effect. If his vision could be enlarged so as to take in the entire country the effect would be magical. Most, if not all, of the difficulties experienced in connection with car supply and car detention and the demurrage remedies proposed to alleviate the evils of car shortage have arisen from a lack of breadth of vision on the part of shippers, railroad officials, and legislators. No car user has any moral right to detain a car one moment longer than is necessary to load or to unload it. Unfortunately the propor- tion of shippers who take this view of the situation, when they them- selves are the detainers, is very small. Every shipper holds this view when it is some one else that is detaining the car. Car users who detain cars through carelessness, indifference, or ignorance of. the meaning of “car shortage”’ and “congested terminals” are few. The people responsible for car detention are that vast body of highly intelligent business men who find it more profitable to use cars for storage purposes than to provide other storage facilities. Other rea- sons for car detention by this class of shippers are comparatively insignificant. It is not good business to use for storage, space which costs 50 cents per cubic foot to construct, when better storage space can be had for one-third that cost or less, and especially when the higher priced space can earn so much more as a freight car than as mere storage. Storage space does not need costly trucks, steel underframes, auto- matic couplers, and air-brake equipment. Shippers must realize that, from one point of view, they and not the railroads are the owners of the cars of the country. So long as they insist on using them as storage warehouses they must be prepared to pay the cost without complaint. Moral suasion has so far failed to induce them to con- struct their own storage warehouses when they could get apparently cheaper storage in freight cars. The next step in remedying car shortage should be to limit more closely the free time allowed and DEMURRAGE INFORMATION FOR FARMERS. 21 to impose a demurrage charge sufficiently high to make storage in cars clearly unprofitable. These statements are made as applicable to every class of cars, but it is recognized that refrigerator cars present some exceptions to the general rule. The fact that the lading of these cars is so fre- quently under refrigeration and that so many consignees are not provided with refrigerated storage space of their own increases the tendency to hold shipments in cars until sale is effected. The cost of renting refrigerated storage space, the cost of hauling to and from such plants, and the deterioration due to the hauling and to changes in temperature during the hauling are to be considered as against the demurrage charge. With the purpose of increasing its perish- able tonnage, if not of monopolizing the carriage of perishable to some market, there are instances of where a carrier has in the past ~ offered unusually liberal concessions to dealers in the matter of track sales privileges and the detention of refrigerator cars. Such prac- tices discouraged the providing for themselves of storage space by dealers and consignees at a time when it could have been more cheaply provided than at present. The withdrawal of former concessions and the imposition of more rigid restrictions now are protested with some show of justice by interested car users. On the other hand refrigerator cars are not in demand the year round to the extent that other classes of cars are. The tendency is to limit more closely purchases of them, and the supply of refriger- ator cars is possibly more inadequate than the supply of any other class of cars. _The contention that the perishable nature of its con- tents fixes a very brief maximum period that a refrigerator car can be held at destination under load is as forcible an argument for releas- ing the car all the more quickly as for allowing the maximum possible time at the ordinary demurrage rate. While it is being held under load at one market destination perishable commodities are ripening at many originating points of production and spoiling for lack of a refrigerator car in which to transport them to other markets in need of them. Refrigerator cars are now paying the nominal demurrage charge of $1 per day and, in some cases, additional charges for track storage. The proposal to impose higher and other charges, in addition to track storage and ordinary demurrage, as a penalty for the detention of refrigerator cars, is a move in the right direction. It will do more than anything else to solve the problem of shortage of refrigerator ears. It will also give an impetus to the erection by municipalities, railroad companies, and private capital of terminal markets with track connections and ample cold storage facilities. Cold storage for perishable commodities is necessary and the economy of providing it 22 BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. as cold-storage space instead of in refrigerator cars would appear to require no argument. Any discussion of a charge based on the value of a car is useless because of the impossibility of determining what the value is. The value of a car will vary with the kind of car, the commodity handled, the season of the year, the location of the business, and whether it is being considered from the standpoint of the interest of the owning road, the using road, or that of the owner of the lading. It is simply a question of whether it is cheaper for a shipper to use cars for storage than to provide storage elsewhere. It is a very simple matter to determine a rate that will make car storage unprofitable. Every effort to increase the demurrage rate brings forth a loud pro- test from the misusers of cars on the ground that vested rights and * long-established customs are being interfered with. No demurrage charge need be burdensome to shippers. As a rule, it is voluntarily assumed and can readily be avoided by prompt loading and unloading. From one point of view the railroads are between the upper and nether millstone of the man who has the car and the man who wants it. Each abuses the road for the shortcomings of the other. In the last analysis of the case both are the same man, unable or un- willing to see that a car can not be a stationary warehouse and a movable vehicle at the same time. The railroads would gladly forego all revenue from demurrage in return for prompt release of cars. In fact the charge is not intended as a revenue producer, but as a stimulant to speedy release of equip- ment. The excess of demurrage charges over the immediate cost of collection does not take into consideration the economic loss from car shortage and the economic waste involved in switching blockaded yards. This loss and waste it is impossible to calculate in terms of dollars and cents. Under the totally inadequate demurrage charge prevailing through- out the greater part of the country there have grown up indefensible practices, altogether wrong in principle. This is especially true in the case of the coal brokers, grain dealers, commission men generally, and big manufacturing plants. In periods of acute car shortage and con- gested terminals there is an almost universal demand that carriers be compelled to increase their car supply, enlarge their termial yards, and provide increased switching facilities, when it has never been | shown that they are not already adequately equipped in these respects if cars were used for transportation solely and not used for storage warehouses. Increased expenditures for additional cars, more switch engines, and bigger yards mean increased interest charges which the commerce of the country must bear. Farmers are not large receivers of carload shipments and many of the products which they forward are perishable and must on that DEMURRAGE INFORMATION FOR FARMERS. 23 account be loaded promptly. To this extent then their responsibility for unnecessary car detention throughout the country is lessened. As has been shown, however, they suffer most from car shortages. Some of the State demurrage codes contain provisions apparently designed as special concessions in favor of the farmer. No doubt other industries would not very readily give up any special conces- sions in their favor on the strength of the farmer voluntarily giving | up his. It would seem, however, the proper thing for farmers to insist on the elimination from all demurrage regulations of all special concessions in their favor. Then they could with greater force de- mand the abolition of concessions in favor of others. This would mean a minimum of car detention, more cars for all shippers, and greater prosperity for the farmer. APPENDIX. Below are two tables showing variations from the uniform code on interstate and intrastate traffic. The uniform code is taken as the normal and the only two features of it included are the free time allowed for loading and unloading and the demurrage rate. Time allowed for reconsigning, completion of load, and other purposes men- tioned in rule 2 of the code are not taken into consideration here either under ‘‘nor- mal time” or ‘‘additional time,’’ nor are such features here considered in detailing the variations from the uniform code. When no entries are shown in the various columns it is to be understood that the uniform code applies, or that the corresponding provisions of State codes are the same as those of the uniform code. Table I contains a list of all the demurrage bureaus, together with the headquar- ters and a general description of the territory embraced in the jurisdiction of each one. This information is taken from the Official Railway Equipment Register. Some of the bureaus are confined to a particular State, as, for example, Montana, North Carolina, and Tennessee. However, no one bureau necessarily includes all the roads in any one State nor is any one State necessarily confined to one particular bureau. Tennessee has two bureaus within its borders, while Illinois has four. On the other hand a single road may be divided among several bureaus, the Santa Fe System, for example, having portions of its line under seven different bureaus. The Lake Superior Demurrage Bureau is confined practically to the two cities of Duluth and Superior. Some are shown as operating in a certain State when in reality they may include only a few stations on some particular road in that State. The Illinois and Jowa, as an example, has in Kentucky only the station of Paudcah on the Chi- cago, Burlington & Quincy Road. Attention is called to the fact that the demurrage bureaus, on intrastate traffic within the various States, administer the provisions of the State codes. Consequently Table I shows variations from the uniform code on interstate traffic only. Table II contains a list of all the States and shows which ones have railroad com- missions. It shows also in which ones demurrage is regulated by statute and in which ones it is regulated by orders of the commission. As to ‘‘reciprocal demurrage” the three most important features are shown, namely: Time allowed carriers in which . to furnish cars, the basis for extension of time where there is a sliding scale, and the penalty imposed for failure to furnish cars within the time allowed. Inasmuch as “reciprocal demurrage” applies on intrastate traffic only, all reciprocal features shown are necessarily variations from the uniform code, 24 BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Tasie I._—List of demurrage bureaus, their headquarters and jurisdiction, and variations from the uniform code on interstate traffic. [Uniform code: Free time, 48 hours; demurrage rate, $1.] Demurrage bureau. Headquarters. AIS DRAIN seueaessec ce Birmingham Wontral ss coset se ese els tt St; Wows. s=- Chicagottecescusesececcec Chicazo-s22--- Colorado=seee. se semeeseee Denver....... East Tennessee........-- Chattanooga... Illinois and Iowa......-- Pe0rla cece Intermountain..........- Salt Lake City Lake Superior.........-- Duluthaeess- MOUWIS VILIGE ete meee aes Louisville. .... Missouri Valley......-.-- Kansas City... MOntAM as cecase ee esac IButtesssee ees North Carolina.........- Raleigh......- Nontherne\s 223288 oceans Minneapolis. . - PAcifics ieee sede s sajna San Francisco. Pacific Northwest......- Seattle........ Southeastern...........- Atlanta......- Mennesseesc-- sense ncinee Nashville. .... Virginia and West Vir- | Richmond.... ginia. WV EStErns. fhe cise eee Omahas-sssere WHSCONSIN Sosa ace cece Milwaukee...-. 18 Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi. Illinois and Missouri Illinois, Indiana, Ohio. Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyo- ming. Georgia and Tennessee Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Missouri, and Wisconsin. Colorado, -Idaho, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming. Minnesota and Wisconsin........... Indiana and Kentucky Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. Montana: - vaaceeiccescack tas sen coer Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. Arizona, California, and New Mex- ico. Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. ...]........|......-- Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina TONNESSCE:.. «2 LS oneal ascieeees ree Eee ee eee Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Tennes- see, Virginia, and West Virginia. Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota, and Wyoming. Michigan and \Wasconsin.- 255-4->-.s¢| eee eee ee Eeeeeeee 1 Allows 96 hours for unloading ore and concentrates. 2 Charges $5 pee day on certain high explosives. 3 On flax an grain demurrage begins to accrue day following placing of cars. 4 Allows 72 hours at Butte and East Helena for unloading shipments of coal, coke, concentrates, lagging, lime, lime rock, lumber, ore, and stulls. ® Allows only 24 hours for unloading tank cars. 6 Charges $3 per day on all commodities in Arizona and California and on tank cars in New Mexico. 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OUT} [BUONIppy aerq | -inm | SON | —Aq perendey ee19 2d | ‘eSBLIMUOp [Bo01d}00 yy | | (‘1g ‘0781 OSeLMUIEp ‘soy gF ‘OMT oeI sepoo uTIOFIU) “auf .ug a7DISDLIUL Uo apoo Udofiun ay) wolf suoymud pun ‘eboimuap poooudwas 07 sv suorisiaoid ‘yone ur paynynbas sv ebv.inwep moy Su.noys ‘samg fo wvy—[] ®1aAVL ar. = © BULLETIN 191, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 26 Sanne Rar eeaee ESO oa ae eae SP oe ye a re et OM Ge cel eR Scars [peer ee I Wore: ieee OD tran i |panae DUCT oponen poorer | mater: | eas Sierra so Onl SS ie |e ys a abe gees qo tne re op ower cbs Sens Sate Stee toe Me lower ike Vea (G) | hee OD eee eal pene ee CLUGAT ASUS ET se he aes SUG che eg oi naire cameramen mona onoreen Ona —. OS ee "Peek ea HO ooo 4) Suey well beoesedseeceac i Tul Bi (Gell Seeecnon| saree see sesaccs| Soeotccealy ease eee) 00°T (2) STOUR Hat 8h -- 1O1}B]S WOT] SOLU G UV} e10UL poyLooyT sreddrys pomol[e error ll OP BOOUSETO lates Pera | Ries tetas Brae oe ia ee eee a (Me tat oa eee Caen ARE Pi eT RS aT RET eR eae Or ce aafiee eee (Gp) ee | eee LOLSSULENECTOG) Wie eee eee OTT) OORG Fal Peo | ee ee ee ae SUTLOU GLH etc Se eee eat ania are Rich gee aM” Te PAE Sa EARS eRe RAM PO eee Ee Saye Spl pa en Mellon cet Soares CH GUUEHIS) |e ee ejoyed WION = SS 6Q059 SOUE a roc bho ad nbeo Adc SnC 6G 509089 2500q OOOO R SOOO OB0r CPCS CeO OST OR TO OORC GSO SBOE ye dnc maa CDOS OS OCHA co| OCIS mcCeiCtr (7) |°° >" “WOrIssruTm0D |- ~~~ -Burporeg YIAON pigeons | sinlelal= tale | penicicie eclectic ene ia Sa | ah aaa a a es eR ers Dae ope ge ge fs es Paes eine wey pie Ml cate hey Cori) | ae ae os a ae Seo ReANO NT sPesen alms eel iciaaels | cis eel rales tei) icl> be ehensle elo wlo) cae sie [homing Sis miele oes ad eg See eae en pee oy aca, rea Se aa | REIN | ee (Gis) al ee a ee | ee eee OOLX OT PMONT Sear (aN | aR oN ae hc Seed | isn Seo Shel aa eo Sia cia oe A SS Rigen oo ete SAG Deal aber | paiaen ca meagan eco T1 a is | Riese EA OSITO [ANG NT FB OBOSOT AOE wer FIC IG OBAIIOE GOO CI RAEI SII ICSI RN a EP acc nT a ars ay ea [ea Z| a (qq) |---->>****"op>----|*- -eimysdurepy, MeN Sa | era Uo ee a ame hice are ee ied eke acai | mo Ago ecg ee aaa cee ey er RS eee og = eee mone sips sy See [lae en (o'5) |°°""WOISsTuIUIOD |"--"-"---"- "epeaoNy “sro JO SurystuImMy 84} JOAOD JOU Op 03N}R4S Peo pra oae ey} JO somjvoy peoordioey |--~-~~~-"smo} Og JO sseoxe UT PopeoT sed PoTUN OF peaorpe simoy 09 | “SM 9g |---| ogngeyg, | = = BaSBIGON, “s]T}S pue ‘yoor vorpIs ‘eto ‘1oquIMy ‘oor OUT AOC R SC (SSA PO COCO OCP obo aes ae ‘sum ‘Suts3ey] ‘so}e1}We0MON ‘ayo ‘VOD PBOTUN 0} PoMorye sMmoy ZL |---| (e) Ss] OTsstumuoD |*~- "~~~ ~~~ BuBqyuOyy (EDA T= a ROSSER AS PORE SOE OCHS Oo SAG) pil | aoe aaa $U01 YF JO SSOOXO UL POPVOT SIBO PLOTUN OF POMOTIV SMOY ZL | - YP Shim KS! ee sosooccm. LIMOSSIT Bonk Se obs SUO} OF JO SSedXO UL PepvOT SIV PBOTUN 0} PaA\O][*v SIMoy J) TiO ees | ess Sec cae eee eee. eee es skep ; ‘SO[IM OT WBY} 910M SooueYSIp 10J SAVP 2 PUB UOI}e1S TOIT See SIRI FG Sime ie aes as (eel MOISSHUNUOD > 557 = = 5 Td dIsstsst py SOTIUI OT UBY} SSO] PUB SO[LUI ¢ WEY} O1OUL SedUSISUOD PeMoT[B Shep ¢ “‘symod ee secreeeslscoseeee] eure} ye ATO _SMOq gf AGH SSSR Tas Una 0j201, Or aU pesolte SHE eee aue kee Baniasiagg pesHorad |eonove7o PRRaraEeS eynqeyg |---7*o2°7- B]OSOUUTY 00"Ts MSL) -umy ‘may ‘omy YNq ‘Twos snoureaMyrq pBoruN 0} paarorye smmoy ZL *S[OSSOA JUSISUBI} SUT[ON} 1OJ [Bod peorun 0} skep gy ‘sour 4v [Bod [Iq pus “YsIoM Deo] 01 pur A Sjiod eye, 18 SUIVVULSIIO JoqumMy, peojun oO} Shep g ‘sioUsISUOD snoriea Aq papeor emMyTUIy 10 JoqUIN] Pesserp JO S1vo POXTUA PUB ‘TelJo}eUL xOq ‘[ele}eU Surystay eprsut ‘spulyq ‘stoop ‘qses ‘suaAO ayOo OJ [eoo peorun 07 skvp PF ‘yreque}y pus ‘1equiny ‘seo WOIy eee aioes | asia msiein [sine cise. eae secesee-se------/nonreay TAM SSO] ‘exoo ‘eon ‘feooreyo PeorUN 0} pomore sep gE |---—--- "Pope ope sss] re STOLL siectatatales [in arco ninc= einiciaie olnnscgeiead aes si cian) \°/ ming ooo le| (> fole eka ahi a hahaa locos Dae gC ra tae Sc eel gS 5 er ears ina eaee eeGa ge. ie ees [Pe anny ee (Op se lis == S19 9Ssngoesse P2208 COO IS TISEO ROC BORCE PRES C (CORRS Ie OAC ag eG BEG COS e OSCR CRO redo ROO Ro BO AEE Bre ah O AG bro GRO aaa eam i ikea (Gy Sulescbe sec Op recs sheers ae DUBLATe TT aiaimmeiedals | ait |eicia aie spesrin 0 Sa oe aia are a oa | eae eens age ee oa aoa Lee EEG CLO 8 Gane eet rs gape (co) | Spams OD aaa eames 3-200 By 50S CRETE] OMRE.S Sein ROOOREGS SRG SSSCC 236 GAG TOP Gr Ceid ot nS Ge One Oe DOA Raa Reg hi OO ER BSR S SCA aR aan S NP ASS reap mn toes) medal lentes a (De | es OO Die a | teen BIRT SINLOGT FOOT OE) MOBSIIN SSS OR OTC AT ORCC OE DE GSA Tih) Ib Os GORI A EO AO OIE tL AA OA i oo herein | bata aoa | kyr aoe (;) |°°**"mWorIsstumumo0g |---~* ~~~ -"AxonqUEyy, ce ete “seo ack usd | _ £10 A SULYSIULINY IO POMOT[S SULT, ‘oun ede “OUIT} [PMOL}IPP V aart | -mta | C10N —fq poyensey “94219 ~C ‘eSVLIMMOp [80010 100yy i ponu1y.10))—on/f7 DAZ OYDISD.QUA UO apor WLOfiUN ay} wolf SUOYDLLDG PUD ‘sbo.inwuap pn20Ld rad 0] SD suorsrao1d ‘yona Ua pany nbas si abp.ninuap Noy buanoys ‘sa7n1,5) {0 IsVJ— JI ITAVY, 27 DEMURRAGE INFORMATION FOR FARMERS. 00°T 00° ST6T : HOIAAO DNIGNIYd CGNAWNUYAAOD : NOLONIHSVA ‘oaTyerodouou ATTeooeId st TOM 09n}21s e Aq popraoid somnyeey Teoordiey y “UOISSIMIULOD OY} JO SIopIO 10 o9ny7e4s Aq JayYIE ‘peqrioseid seyn4I eSeiIMUlep ON oy *QOIAIOS UIBI} JO ADueNnDed] pues poIUeA soe ¢ “SUOI}e[NdeL eqT1oseid 07 AIIIOYANe Sqt postosoxe JoA JOU SLY WOISSIMIULOD g : *perlepiO sied JO JaquUINN ; J9A00 0914818 AUe seOp JOU ‘MOISSIMIUIOD PLOT OW SBY 2IB1G 9 ‘norsstummioo Aq Aros(ndurod epeur jou yng ‘pepusetmuoded pus poroidde opod wiI0FIUA « “OMF BI} 07819 WO epod MAI0j1un Ajdde speoy ; ‘OUNT} 8eTf JO WOTedxo oY Jaqye SXvp ¢ 4sIy 9T} JojJe Avp sed ZE st esILYD ¢ ‘epoo TAI0;TUN sy} Jo worjvordde ,speoi poydesoe sey WOIsstuIMOD ‘suOT}BNSe1 Aue Surqrioseid ynNoyIM ¢ “epod TA10j1un oy} poy dope sey WOIssTuIULOD + Nae 7 "WOISSTuMMIOD [>>> >> > >" UTSTROOST AL fae ae artes | laine a ea a oR ae a acy Tim smears = lake ale (ste, = (eis ie iim lmlelmie jafelaim\nimtataiat alm) Metin te si 2 siatbe ahninnceneue So nS" 'S)* ss eminence) Cae) RS eS er nl os a “OUII] O[(euosvel B UINIIM. 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C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY BULLETIN OF THE e) USDEDARIMENTOPACRICULURE No. 192 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. Apmil 8, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) INSECTS AFFECTING VEGETABLE CROPS IN PORTO RICO.’ By Tuomas H. Jonzs, Entomological Assistant, Truck Crop and Stored Product Insect Investigations. INTRODUCTION. The following article can not be considered to include references to all the many insects which attack vegetable crops in Porto Rico. Undoubtedly there are many other insect species which are pests on plants, commonly classed as vegetables, that are grown on the island. Nevertheless it seems well to present the data available— data which have been obtained from references already published and from observations made by the writer since November, 1911, while a member of the staff of the experiment station of the Porto Rico Sugar Producers’ Association. Especially does it seem timely to publish this paper because of the effort being made by the United States Department of Agriculture to obtain information upon the obnoxious insects lable to introduction into the United States, and because of the steps that are being taken to prevent them from being introduced. While it will be noted that many of the species men- tioned in the following pages already occur in the United States, several are not known to be present on the mainland. The determinations of the insects mentioned as having been ob- served by the writer have been made, with few exceptions, by spe- cialists of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture. The names of several of the wild host plants and of the fungi have been supplied by Mr. J. R. Johnston, pathologist of the experiment station of the Porto Rico Sugar Producers’ Association. It may be said in general that vegetables suffer severe injury in Porto Rico from insects. The vegetables grown are, for the most part, the same as those of the markets of the United States, although 1 The observations on which this paper was founded were conducted by the author while a collaborator in Porto Rico. Nore.—This bulletin enumerates the more common insects attacking vegetable crops in Porto Rico; of interest to entomologists. 78774°—Bull, 192—15 2 BULLETIN 192, U. 61. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, there are some with which ‘the visitor from the North is not familiar. Among these may be mentioned « cucurbit, the “chayote”’ (Sechium edule); the “lleren’’ (Calathea allowya), a canna-like plant with edible tubers; and the various members of the genera Xanthosoma Colocasia, known as “yautias,’”’ the latter known also as the “‘dasheen’’ in the southern United States. The following figures, taken from the Summary of Transactions in the United States Customs District of Porto Rico, show the value of the vegetables brought into Porto Rico during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1912: Vegetables, dried, canned, and pickled, imported by Porto Rico during fiscal year ended June 30, 1912. Domestic merchan- | Merchandise im- dise from United ported from for- 2 States. i ies. Commodity! ates eign countries Quantity.| Value. |Quantity.| Value. Bushels. Bushels. iBeansianddried peas: =! 22 ase esate ee cael omer teat aa 179,181 | $543,577 7,315 $21, 020 ONIONS) ooo eee ee eee eee ee eee seen en eee ee eee 16, 446 25, 624 42,574 33, 224 Potatoes dgtinn on an dye pasaien aired aus daly Seo eine. 4 OKs» 0b stale ae 5.0 825, 000 Ne hound ae cet a at as ee Me sw DM SOM ry, nc BY win! a5 ue eocta oul ittac we cans 4,938, 000 24 BULLETIN 193, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The total cost of the four sections would be, at 6 cents per cubic yard below Mayhaw Bayou and 8 cents per yard for the upper section, $302,780. If the cost of each section is to be divided among the districts dramed through that section in proportion to their areas, the total cost to each will be, according to the estimate: District No. 3, $61,175; No. 10, $36,450; No. 11, $151,174; No. 12, $15,639; No. 13, $4,860; No. 17, $1,215; No. 18, $9,112; No. 19, $5,637; and No. 20, $17,518. The improvement of Taylors Bayou will necessitate building a bridge across the new channel at La Belle. This bridge is estimated to cost $7,100, which sum should be distributed among districts Nos. 3, 11, 12, and 20, in proportion to their areas. The amount to be charged to each would then be as follows: District No. 3, $910; No. 11, $4,770; No. 12, $710; and No. 20, $710. The cost of this bridge has been included with that of excavation for the Taylors Bayou improvement in the ‘Estimate of cost’ rather than with the estimates for other bridges. ESTIMATE OF COST. The summarized estimate of total cost for each drainage district proposed for Jefferson County is given herewith, including the cost of operating each pumping plant. The acreages benefited do not include the areas covered by ditches and spoil banks. Clearing right of way for all ditches located in the woods has been estimated at $50 per acre; this includes the cost of blasting all stumps 12 inches or more in diameter in the path of the dredge ditches and of grubbing all stumps, large and small, from the paths of the lateral ditches. The purchase cost of right of way 100 feet wide for the outlets for districts Nos. 20, 25, and 28, at $5 per acre, is included in the estimates. Excavation of ditches 8 feet or more in bottom width is estimated at 8 cents per cubic yard and smaller ditches at 10 cents, but the enlargement of Taylors Bayou below Mayhaw Bayou and on Hillebrant Bayou below Bayou Din is estimated at 6 cents per cubic yard. These prices are based upon average contract prices where payment is made in cash and not in bonds of the district which the contractor must accept at par and sell at a discount. The amounts of excavation were estimated by determining the average depth of cut, to the nearest half foot, from the profiles of the ditches. Where the material is to be placed in a levee, the price is increased 2 cents per yard to provide for putting all dirt on one side of the ditch and smoothing the embankment. The cost of drainage pumping plants varies widely with the type of machinery, the character of foundation, and the expense of trans- portation to the site. The costs estimated for the plants in Jefferson County are average values from a large number of estimates made DRAINAGE OF JEFFERSON COUNTY, TEXAS. 25 by an eminent firm of contracting mechanical engineers for engines, pumps, and foundations, plus estimates for the buildings. It is possible that actual costs may vary considerably from those given. The annual costs of operation given include fuel, repairs, engineer’s salary, and depreciation. A table prepared by the above-mentioned engineers showing comparative fuel costs of several different types of pumping plants was used in estimating the cost of fuel oil for each district. The cost of legal, engineering, and incidental expenses was esti- mated at 10 per cent of the cost of construction. COST BY DISTRICTS. Drainage district No. 1: Clearing right of way, 158 acres in woods, at $50 per acre.......------ $7, 900 Excavation— 65,500 cubic yards, at 8 cents per yard: -.... 20 028.2 908. tei Je. 5, 240 179,900 cubic yards /atil0 cents*per yards .Woiih Maeceuo ke Be: 12, 990 menaivins Eine Island (Bayou: sec 7 Oe an Ee a Poe 1, 605 Grigves, etc., | railroad bridge 60 teetie! Means Mii PL iar ie 2, 850 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent......-..--..----------1-- 3, 058 L102 RRS an Caen BP ober Gbevets SU tye OEM ar at Hers pune @ 33, 643 Acres benefited in district, 5,790. Average cost per acre, $5.80. Drainage district No. 2: Clearing right of way, 146 acres in woods, at $50 per acre....-..--...- 7, 300 Excavation— 173,600 cubic yardsjatiS cemis per yard $4) 83 OP cle Bs 13, 888 a52,690-cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard =... 22... 2 22 Qacdue dees 35, 265 Serovins Pine island Bayou aii vies. tA cee eu see a 3, 870 iares: etc. 2 pridmess Gucullivertsesec. sale eras cla. oa oath alee 5, 650 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent............-.------+-,--- 6, 597 Tybee; permis airmen e ey as Dyan Cea heey SoS ve cos igo 72, 570 Acres benefited in district, 13,980. Average cost per acre, $5.20. Drainage district No. 3: (Plans by private engineers; construction work completed.) Drainage district No. 4: Clearing right of way, 190 acres in woods, at $50 per acre........--.-- 9, 500 Excayation— 138,050 cubic yards; at S conis per yard... 2... ee ee eee wee 11, 044 623,300 cubic yards, at 10,cents per yard..........-.......-.-+-- 62, 330 Paxipravine: Pine: Talang BAVOU. occas ssc ois ei ne ed ee es ite 5, 325 sridges, etc., 1 bridge, 14 culverts, 3 flumes...........-...-.-------- 10, 575 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent...............----------- 9, 875 OO SR ie Sen es iacd ck a ae RM GI gre a ce ld os ate ret 108, 652 Acres benefited in district, 19,200. Average cost per acre, $5.65. 26 BULLETIN 193, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Drainage district No. 5: Clearing right of way, 108 acres in woods, at $50 per acre............- $5, 400 Excavation, 165,200 cubic fone at 10.centsiper yards... 45-24 yi 16, 520 Bridges, etc., 19 culverts... : AE eI SR IS 6, 475 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent.. Sah: ie ie eae Nt 2, 840 Rotale oe ee eek Ak ELIE IEE Fai GRO TTY 1! PaNoRS Acres benefited in district, 6,560. Average cost per acre, $4.75. Drainage district No. 6: Clearing right of way, 226 acres in woods, at $50 per acre.......:..... 11, 300 Excavation— 98,700 cubic yards, at 8 cents per yard...........-........-.-... 7, 896 456, 100°cubichyards: atilOjicents per yard -2 ee) ee eee 45, 610 iPumaiprns plant, icommple tic. 5 egeeas yam et ee ayer acum oye 2c Oe 34, 000 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent.............-..---..--.-- 9, 881 Motel: day 28 MPM AL CORE sis: is EERE ana. Sea ee oF a 108, 687 Acres benefited in district, 2,670. Average cost per acre, $40.70. Annual cost of operation: Total, $3,875; per acre, $1.45. Drainage district No. 7: Clearing right of way, 110 acres in woods, at $50 per acre.........--.. 5, 500 Excavation— 67,500 cubic yards, at 8 cents per yard...........---..---...--.- 5, 400 193,000 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard.....................2-! 19, 300 Pumping plant Vcomplete: 22 i sc sane ueeia. eer seeps oe enenee 38, 500 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent...........-.-..---------- 6, 870 cl Bc Eek ae OR ees Bi ergs Cae SIRI nL, RENN i Ana ae 75, 570 Acres benefited in district, 2,100. Average cost per acre, $36. Annual cost of operation: Total, $3,895; per acre, $1.85. Drainage district No. 8: (No plans prepared. een p. 15.) Drainage district No. 9: Pxcavetion 136,900 cubic yards, at § cents per yard.-_...--2..:.-.5.-252.222. 10, 952 688,600 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard..........----.4--..---- 68, 860 BEd Ses ete a, Zi MUM es oe ence rast te elena eee ee ee 600 Pumping plant, (completes ssc). 2 (sya: sauce mate ene ens Se 37, 000 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent......-....-....---+.---:- 11, 741 MP Oba, So Na ea anaes ore ets ge oe nents a ec ene See ea 129, 153 Acres benefited in district, 6,440. Average cost per acre, $20.05. Annual cost of operation: Total, $4,960; per acre, $0.77. Drainage district No. 10: Clearing right of way, 748 acres in woods, at $50 per acre...........-- 37, 400 Excavation— 2,812;450 cubic yards, at 8 cents per yard...........-..----.----- 224, 996 2,694,550 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard...........-......----- 269, 455 1,201,700 cubic yards, at 6 cents per yard.......-.....-.-.----.:- 72, 102 Bridges, etc.: 31 bridges, 103 culverts, 3 flumes.............-..------- 73, 265 Paylors Bayou 1mproyement) 25.2 Sseecc oo es eb ee ee 36, 450 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent...........-....---------- 71, 346 MPOtal se Soe ML ys EE a See 785, 014 Acres benefited in district, 90,110. Average cost per acre, $8.70. DRAINAGE OF JEFFERSON COUNTY, TEXAS. Drainage district No. 11: Clearing right of way, 697 acres in woods, at $50 per acre. -.....----- Excavation— 5,142,500 cubic yards, at 8 cents per yard........-...-----,---- 3,111,750 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard. -.-.-..-..-.--------- Peranrauine Lay lorssbayOUns sae see ae Sa Ne ee ee Bridges, etc., 36 bridges, 77 culverts, 13 flumes...................--- Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent. ....-....-..---2------- Acres benefited in district, 95,820 Average cost per acre, $11.45. Drainage district No. 12: Clearing right of way, 10 acres in woods, at $50 per acre. ...--------- Excavation— 46,300 cubic yards, at 8 centsper yard... -- -< 55: -¢e% 552) eee 455,700 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard.....-..----...-------+- manrovins Taylors Bayou...--5- ec: see. seek epel mace Gris Bemnerreic.. 2 bridves.’S culyertssst2) 55 cee nocd sae tec he asks aos Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent.....---...-..---------- Acres benefited in district, 13,940. Average cost per acre, $5.55. Drainage district No. 13: Excavation— daa-600 cubic yards, at 8' cents per yard..2222222020 2222222 221,100 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard..:---.--.-.2-2.------- Pron cubic yards, at 12'centsper yardis 2628200 ee PMN EAVIOTS DAV OU oe Pome Seo esae ties eee nen PerEEcio..5 bridves:, 14 culyertss.cess: s222 9 52554 4N5en 0 aooes oe Panne plant, completes...) oe 4 520 - =o Ses see ot TEBE, SE Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent. ......-.---.----------- Acres benefited in district, 12,490. Average cost per acre, $12.95. Annual cost of operation: Total, $5,640; per acre, $0.50. Drainage district No. 14: Excavation— 1,140,100 cubic yards, at 8 cents per yard......-..-...- Hh a eal 123,100 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard. .).2.-- 2. 5-22-2202 ee dee Peres, CLC. 10 DYIGGES) op CUIVEDIA sone mi erie So aie emo cyeia SPUADINE TLS, COUMUD LOLs ee ons fc eee es ciate aie fes i dh nos ea Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent.................------- Acres benefited in district, 25,160. Average cost per acre, $10.15. Annual cost of operation: Total, $8,400; per acre, $0.33. Drainage district No. 15: Excavation, 103,750 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard............-.-- Briages, etc., 5 culverts, i fumes oe. oe dt ee oe ro wie OL eee Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent..................---+---- Acres benefited in district, 2,850. Average cost per acre, $4.95. Ch “i $34, 850 411, 400 311, 175 155, 944 84, 830 99, 820 1, 098, 019 500 42, 852 32, 110 21, 672 4, 860 6, 600 39, 000 14, 709 161, 803 72, 310 298 BULLETIN 193, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Drainage district No. 16: Excavation— 223;100 cubic yards, at:8 cents per yard -.2--<--..---------sosae8 $25, 848 657,700 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard..2...- --!..2----+- 2 ee 65, 770 ibnidves, ete., 4 Culverts. 22. eka ee Bee eg he oan Sec ee 750 Fompine plant;"complete-. so --@ 2e4- sai ee iat ann 45, 000 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent. ...-.--....------------ 13; 737 TO Ga eae ooo oo ma apse varanasi RE SEE ee See See ee 151, 105 Acres benefited in district, 11,220. Average cost per acre, $13.45. Annual cost of operation: Total, $6,520; per acre, $0.58. Drainage district No. 17: Excavation— 225,950 cubie yards, at o cents per yards---- 422 --eeee 18, 076 337,400 cubie yards, atl O\centeiper yard. 2 ee ae eee 33, 715 ‘Pay lors-bayouamprovement.vssaemen vee eee Me eee eee eee ee 1, 215 Pumping plant, complete....-- AMES SARS BE A: aE ee eee 23, 000 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent. .-....----------------- 7,601 Totals ooaie on sane Oe alee eae ore een. 83, 607 Acres benefited in district, 3,620. Average cost per acre, $23.10. Annual cost of operation: Total, $3,745; per acre, $1.03. Drainage district No. 18: ; Excavation— 1,017,500 cubie yards, at 8:¢ents per yards = 222. -2--2 3) eee 81, 400 428,950 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard.....-..---.--.:.----4- 42, 895 Taylors Bayou improvement..23 402402255248 e toe 9, 112 Bumping plant,-completes 30: 4. o ar eee 39, 500 Hngineering and legal expenses, 10 percent. 2. 222--73oee 2p eee 17, 291 Totals sscce Shs ots Sea eee aaah ert 2 eee 190, 198 Acres benefited in district, 22,560. Average cost per acre, $8.45. Annual cost of operation: Total, $8,045; per acre, $0.36. Drainage district No. 19: Excavation— 174,340 cubie yards ates ‘cents per yard ..-:- 22-5) = eee 13, 947 227,400 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard..-....-...........-...- 22, 740 Improving Taylors Bayou......------ Spies moe esi eee ee 5, 637 Pumping plant,‘completesiic: iss sesse eee ee ee 20, 500 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent...........--..----------- 6, 282 otal ss 322. Sse ee Ae OE fe ier rs eae ee peta ee ed 69, 106 Acres benefited in district, 4,530. Average cost per acre, $15.25. Annual cost of operation: Total, $3,950; per acre, $0.87. Drainage district No. 20: Excavation— 60,900 cubic yards, at 8 cents per yard..............---+-------: 4, 872 1,455,750 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard....-.......----------- 145, 575 99,200 cubic yards, at 12 cents per yard..-.....--..--.-----+-2-- 11, 904 Improving Taylors Bayou... 5.02 osu k je: Woes Se saee Ges ee 18, 228 Right of way for outlet, 92 acres, at $5 per acre...........----------.- 460 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent.........-...------------- 18, 104 Total cme see ae 199, 143 Acres benefited in district, 15,400. Average cost per acre, $12.95. DRAINAGE OF JEFFERSON COUNTY, TEXAS, 29 Drainage district No. 21: Excavation— 976,700 cubic yards, at 8 cents per yard...-..-.....2.--......... $78, 136 325,000 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard.......-.--...-......--- 32, 500 Bap plant, complete... -s<2s<2222222224-- UNI 30, 500 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent.................--------- 14, 114 Moblin toe Ses a eR eee toes kee te ei e. PAVERS Bie vol ME Si 155, 250 Acres benefited in district, 16,820. Average cost per acre, $9.25. Annual cost of operation: Total, $6,430; per acre, $0.38. Drainage district No. 22: Excavation— ai): CUbIC. yards, at S cents per yard-soe- ee SDI) eh oe 41, 856 Bi7.400, cubic yards, .at 10 cents per yard sri si eo Ben ee 57, 740 meters plant: COMPplete. 2 sant seen se ee Re ae 24, 000 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent............-------------- 12, 360 pBerist lt o: Eee 2 ee ees Seen eee ee ete eee ees 135, 956 Acres benefited in district, 10,480. Average cost per acre, $12.95. Annual cost of operation: Total, $6,525; per acre, $0.62. Drainage district No. 23: Excavation— 997,790.cubie yards, at 8’cents per-yard2 822 2k 79, 820 455,300 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard...-.......-.-..-....... 45, 530 CEO ETE Ere A Os Fe fe eS I ie ilo ae ORS a 1, 600 Pere pone plant, COMpPlete 2 = at aie eo rp ee cites oH. =) Se SS 28, 500 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent.....-.......-.----------- 15, 545 TE Ye Lame aN RRR ERI cen eek aya ae 170, 995 Acres benefited in district, 14,440. Average cost per acre, $11.85. Annual cost of operation: Total, $5,830; per acre, $0.40. Drainage district No. 24: Excavation— 1,536,850 cubic yards, at 8 cents per yard.........-......-----..- 122, 948 36,400 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard -.5-):- = = 2.52%)... tacts. - 3, 640 mumps (plant, conrpleiesy or. ress se « SPE AS ae ail ays 35, 000 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent..........-.-----..----..- 16, 159 AW | a eS ED TS. ET ON A SI cM ab iD las 177, 747 Acres benefited in district, 19,590. Average cost per acre, $9.10. Annual cost of operation: Total, $7,250; per acre, $0.37. Drainage district No. 25: Excavation— 59,400 cubic yards, at 8 cents per yard.......................--- 4, 752 1,484,250 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard.........-........--.-- 148, 425 33,600 cubic yards, at 12 cents per yard.......................-- 4,032 Right of way for outlet, 36 acres, at $5 per acre...........-.......-.-- 180 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent..... 15, 739 Ba ee o oy 7! Pare ae pabltory Ad yD UN ha ae ca a 173, 128 Acres benefited in district, 10,970. Average cost per acre, $15.80, 30 BULLETIN 193, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Drainage district No. 26: Excavation— 935,700 cubic yards, at 8 cents’ per yarde:: 2 15: 1222.2 0i72 $74, 856 227,150 cubic yards, at 10 cents per yard: 2 9s. Shas. - 5.05 ese 22, 715 Bumping plant, completes... cco .c tence o eh beetle o nee eee 29, 500 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent..........-.-..--.-------- 12, 707 TO tAN S) sroseSyere, 6 Steje oes 2 os Oe eet eiloveie is nish ererepaeleetere, aie area eee 139, 778 Acres benefited in district, 15,830. Average cost per acre, $8.85. Annual cost of operation: Total, $6,125; per acre, $0.39. Drainage district No. 27: Excavation, 1,570,350 cubic yards, at 8 cents per yard................ 125, 628 Pumping plant,complete. ). 2.3 ee see eres 2 Se ee ee 34, 000 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent.........-..--.-.------.-- 15, 963 Hl Bay IE eee age a peel ara ey eo eS GNA LO tO a es OS lly sino: 175, 591 Acres benefited in district, 19,490. Average cost per acre, $9. Annual cost of operation: Total, $7,105; per acre $0.36 Drainage district No. 28: Excavation— 2,270,400), cubie yards, at 10 cents per yards -_-----2-54-4-5-2 eee 227, 545 6,000 cubic yards. at 12 cents per yard.-2---.-. 2-2 =) eee 720 Right of way for outlet, 26 acres, at $5 per acre........-..-.-.-------- 130 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent. .......---.-.---------- 22, 827 TOtale eek te eines Sense Roce Sy ane eS 251, 222 Acres benefited in district, 14,160 Average cost per acre, $17.75 Drainage district No. 29: Excavation— 1329-5300’ cubie yards: at 8 cents per yards. 24-22% .-ea seer 106, 344 339,000) culbie yardshatm Olcents peryand: -teee) sees ae 33, 850 Pumpime plant; ‘completes:s. 2 X-s..5255-2.- 45 5-—-- ee 35, 000 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent.....--...---.---------- 17, 519 AD @ Gea Jag ti ain in ry see beeen SAR SV at pe i a ee MEE ce 192, 713 Acres benefited in district, 19,930. Average cost per acre, $9.65. Annual cost of operation: Total, $7,275; per acre, $0.36. Drainage district No. 30: Excavation— 1183.50 cubic yards; at $ cents peryard::)--eu- see see 2a eee 94, 684 318;500icubic yards, /atal0 cents penvyardas:e. "2 -a4seee eee eee ~ 31, 850 Pumping: plant completes: acc 25-2082 eeeos ae oe ace aes Gee eee 31, 500 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent. -......----------------- 15, 803 Dota lite spe 2 chee cura allt RN a eo Re acer at ee 173, 837 - Acres benefited in district, 17,100. Average cost per acre, $10.15. Annual cost of operation: Total, $6,535; per acre, $0.38. DRAINAGE OF JEFFERSON COUNTY, TEXAS. 31 Drainage district No. 31: Excavation— BIO gal CUBIC yards, alo Centsyper yard... 508.420 See ees $55, 260 n64,200\cubie yards,.at 10,cents per yard: ... 2-2 4.42.4-4 525.3. 5- 56, 420 Eee plant COM Pletes. Jn ee ei aioe ip cc tS Se Re 26, 000 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent. .......-..-----.------- 13, 768 TNQSELL SOS 2 aE et Rep ee SA lg ee aan oO 151, 448 Acres benefited in district, 12,800. Average cost per acre, $11.85. Annual cost of operation: Total, $5,370; per acre, $0.42. Drainage district No. 32: Excavation— 2700 cubic yards, at. Sicentsiperryard...02 02 ope 22, 268 Basi cubicuyards, ab LOicemisuper yard ie ses. 4 o5.te cere 8, 680 peepee plant. COMplete ssc es eae es fia ie ays en ee inion Soe 20, 500 Engineering and legal expenses, 10 per cent......------------------ 5, 145 2 ? LE (EEL RR eo aR RE ee ee tea) ee 56, 593 Acres benefited in district, 4,620. Average cost per acre, $12.25. Annual cost of operation: Total, $3,420; per acre, $0.74. SUMMARY OF AREAS AND COSTS. Areas. Cost. : Length No. of district. Open of prairie Tim- Bene- | ditches. . i and Marea: Total. fited. Total. | Average. marsh. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Miles. Per acre. lo: Oe LOL aa ee gee 850 5, 100 5, 950 5, 790 16.9 $33, 643 $5. 80 2 =. pee eee nat nae 10, 720 3,620] 14,340] 13,980 43,4 72, 570 5. 20 eRe ee 46760 rence sence BG AG Ter seer ees ol ease tra cine (eee nin ee | LL eo eS ere 10, 490 9,100] 19,590] 19,200 58. 0 108, 652 5.65 iS Je 1,320 5, 350 6,670 6, 560 T7883 31, 235 4.75 Rpseiee bee Ss 32 pay, se 2,870] 12,870 2,870 2,670 14.7 108, 687 40, 70 +. ak penitent 2999 |, 11,520) 27920 | 2,100 9.4 75, 570 36. 00 “ECR Se aan ae ee ae (ent Pee ae TEIN a auean En ik pen HE OT eee a) ele TE “onic A RS a C720 leo serene 6, 720 6, 440 23.3 129, 153 20. 05 “Tot oe na gia 78,260 | 14,200] 92,460] 90,110 303. 2 785, 014 8. 70 Ch ne 2 EE aR a ese 2 5 81,470 | 17,000] 98,470} 95,820 307.8 | 1,098, 019 11.45 ae SA Pe Oe ee, dar 13, 380 820} 14/200] 13/940 40, 2 77, O57 5.55 (la Se aS ee IDA eae ane 12, 900 12, 490 47.7 161, 803 12. 95 BR re gee ies osces oe D5 70) sade see cee 25,770 | 25, 160 75.5 255, 357 10.15 ip ls Sigel, a Sm aes ae PHVA) eee 2, 900 2, 850 8.7 14, 053 4.95 Mie epee ss. View bod ses sine 11;,650))| ss2ee sia 11,650} 11,220 41.4 151, 105 13. 45 ee Bie a oe pee peo ie Dy HOU a | amtctetelata iat 3, 830 3, 620 17.3 83, 607 23. 10 OO cope, Cane en eee ee eae 23; 060s|:c7soe ye: 2 23,060 | 22, 560 44,6 190, 198 8. 45 SSS ot Siti tall One SiS: 71 ap aos Se 4, 600 4, 530 14.6 69, 106 15. 25 1) See een ee 15, 880: |i2b ce eben 15,890 | 15, 400 58.5 199, 143 12. 95 2, LL Eee mR CP a oat 17,410) |e 17,410 | 16,820 43,2 155, 250 9, 25 oo Eee peer ee 10: S80\|"22.0 sees 10,880} 10, 480 33. 2 135, 956 12. 95 2 ES RR AEs eS 15,000 [os oes soe 15,000} 14, 440 46,3 170, 995 11. 85 0 Se ee eae P eee 20,230 | 19, 590 42. 0 177, 747 9. 10 22 eR Es ie 11/300 |oeuteccwes 11,390 | 10,970 44.4 173, 128 15. 80 iG 255 i ck neneac vais «2 16320: |} secraintitea 16,320 | 15, 830 33.3 139, 778 8, 85 HS Ea ara eaeie | 20/080 |ozeecentee 20,030} 19, 490 40, 2 175, 591 9. 00 oo, EPs See oe en eee ee i ee 14,600] 14, 160 59.3 251, 222 17. 75 ee, Beene re DOV B0 vanes crece 20,730 | 19,930 54.1 192, 713 9. 65 I Es ho sind soe oxo aste 1 VET 000 Its oreae. 2 17,660 | 17,100 41.2 173, 837 10,15 BN eins cao nceuetie reoane 1S 60 caver ccscd 13,260 | 12, 800 37.9 151, 448 11. 85 eee ere cs 4 SO0rl a aes we ce 4, 800 4, 620 12, 2 56, 593 12, 26 Outside of districts (includes | WOMGT SIOR) o.oo: cance cov enne [isiwin\wis njenle,o| 4 6 0'0'tinie'mis Nt LT BRO aren oo pip ania aim wcajeinioinieve| a nw) e-o)aieidviniys ella n:4 w min =a, « JG ES Ra die Bs 539,120 | 59,580 | 611,900 | 530, 670 | 1,630.3 | 5, 598, 249 10.55 1 Timbered marsh, 32 BULLETIN 193, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CONCLUSION. SUFFICIENCY OF THE DRAINAGE PLAN. The various improvements for each gravity district in Jefferson County have been planned to provide every part of such districts with sufficient outlet to insure against injury from excess of water except during and immediately following extraordinarily heavy storms. The ditches are so arranged that few points will be more than a quarter of a mile from a lateral. The design provides con- venient and adequate outlets for tile drains or field ditches that landowners may wish to install. In the pumping districts the ditches are planned 1 mile apart to serve the present needs of the county, and at a later date when the lands are put under thorough cultivation additional ditches will be needed to give complete drainage. The pumping plant for each district was designed to remove the excess water promptly after heavy rainstorms, to a depth of 4 feet below the ground surface at the site of the pumping plant, when the entire district has been thoroughly ditched, although canals 1 mile apart will not carry all this excess water promptly to the pumps and therefore the drainage will be much slower under the present plan than when the addi- tional ditches and field laterals shall have been constructed. VALUE OF DRAINAGE IN JEFFERSON COUNTY. The money value of drainage is not easily measured, but the cost of this work is a permanent investment which must be added to the cost of the land if the proper returns are to be obtained from the first investment. As only 10 per cent of the area is timbered, the cost of clearing will be comparatively small. The worth of dramage may be measured by the increase in land values which it produces. If the land is as fertile in Jefferson County, Tex., as in some other localities along the Gulf coast, which can easily be determined, the net increase in crop values when the land has been reclaimed may be expected to yield very profitable returns upon the cost of purchase, drainage, and any other measures necessary to put the land into cultivation. Farming operations may be conducted more economi- cally on drained than undrained land. Rice growing is the principal industry of the county, and this requires drainage as well as irriga- tion. Drainage is also insurance against loss of crops by excessive wetness. Localities where malaria exists will be benefited through - the removal of stagnant pools that are the breeding places for mos- quitoes which spread this disease. Drainage is also necessary if the good highway system, of which Jefferson County is proud, is to be economically maintained and extended. .—-— - = * APPENDIX. DITCH SIZES AND EARTHWORK. Width Ditch Nos. |[Length.| of bot-| 0°" tom. +] ~> : District No. 1: 1 to 10, im-| Feet. | Feet. Feet. elusive....| 71,480 216 to 7 i ae 4 Sn 18, 000 50/10 to 15 Sieietioy- oFi2 fee ps ~ =| OR oe District No. 2 tt too: in- elusive ee 40, 760 2 6 3, 000) 8 8 6 2, 800 12) 7 Logeassa snes 7 4] 6hto 7 Ria | 6, 500 2] 6k to 7 7 to 8, in- clusive....; 7,600 2 6 9 i 3, 500 4 6} 2722 ROSSEE \\ 5,700 216 to 74 10 to 13, in- clusive....| 31,700 2126 to 7 14 7, 000 4| 64to 7 ~ eet a 6, 200 2 6 15 7, 000 416 to 7 ; 2 CI ail 6, 800 2 6 3, 500 4 63 16... ------- 9; 500 216 to 6h 17 to 22, in- clusive....| 39,500) 216 to 64 15, 400 30} 8hto 9 5, 600 25] 8h to 9 eed eae 13, 300 20| 8h to 9 7, 900 18| 74 to 8 3, 100 2| 6h to 7 1) 2) ee CRE epi) eee meets] SA. eee District No. 3.3 | District No. 4: | eee.” { I opl | nohe: tong 2and 3..... | 14, 800 216 to 6} 4 lf 5,600 4| 64to 7 eownnn= = - \ 3,000 2 6 4 See | 5,800 2 6 f 3, 200 10| 7} to 8 Uleras BEB 2 2,600 6 7 \| 3)800 216 to 6 Zand 8..... | 14, 400 216 to 7 if 5,280 8 ) Papa ae J 10, 720 416 to 8} | 5,000 2 6 J 4, 500) 6} 8 to 9 cS ee 5, 500 4| 6)to 8 7, 200 2 6 11 and 12...1 15, 200 2}6 to 64 Soothe Exca- vation. Cu. yds. 129, 900 165, 500 72, 150 } = 152, 300 526, 250 4121, 150 27, 500 \ 20, 200 10, 300 33, 700 28, 000 69, 100 48, 450 27, 900 ! Willow Creek saves 458,700 cubic yards, 2 Cotton Creek saves 292, 400 cubie yards. * Plans and estimates not made by Drainage Investigations. saves 25,000 cubic yards. 6 Bird Gully saves 14 800 cubic yards. 4 Trahan Gully ¢ 6 Old Gully saves 3, 550 cubic ards, ditch No. 1. 7 Brakes Bayou saves 9, 1 cubic yards. Width - Aver- | Exca- Ditch Nos. |Length. oho age cut. | vation. District No. 4— Continued. Reet. | Feet. | Feet. wu. yds. 8, 000 4) Zito 8 13....-.---- 13,120 16 to 7 i 54,350 12) 000 4| 7 to 7% 14..2...---- { 5, 800 2 6 \4 6,250 8, 500 416 to 63 stats sae 8 200 5 5 i 31, 300 9, 500 416 to 63 1658 e ese 3. 700 9 6 28, 900 17 to 20, in- clusive....| 16, 200 2 6 28, 850 2, 200 6 8 PL age ata 4, 500 4| 7 to 8 |-*®31, 150 11, 100 2) 6 to 7% PYLE aT eased 7, 400 2 6 13, 150 2, 500 4 6 D3 ca) Race { 7. 300 4 6 \ 18, 900 24 to 26, in- clusive....| 29,700 215 to10 56, 900 6, 000 416 to 8 yee eee 5 0 3 \ 35, 200 , 500 41 6 to 10 28..--5------ { 5, 000 2 6 feet 30, 100 Potalsre 2 |". Bese. Te ekels cok coe. 761, 350 District No. 5: 1 to 10, in- clusive....| 70,700 2| 6 "e 8 | £118, 900 8, 600 4) 6 to 6 er AED a { Peon ; 28, 600 12 and 13. 9, 940 2 6 | 17,700 Rotel in 2-|2s se able cases eee. 165, 200 District No. 6 7 Sas tees es 6, 200 10} 64 to 8 29, 200 De ove Sans SH 5, 500 12} 6 to 7 25, 800 Ovens dei ose 9, 000 10} 6$to 8} 43, 700 12, 700 30} 9 to 10} Ao eee ee eee { 13) 000 1017 to 8 \ 243, 500 Deere 31, 500 10] 84 to 103) 212, 600 Ota Wc =|¢h-aoonelbe deen el tomas sae 554, 800 District No. 7 ra Sarre Tees eae 2, 800 10] 64t0 7] 11,500 1 a ee 6, 500 12) 6 to7s 32, 000 3 and 4..... 9, 700 10] 64to 74) 43,800 8, 200 14| 8h to 9 Bice eee: 3, 500 12] 8h 104, 500 8, 600 10| 7 to 8 Ort teem ws 13, 500 10) 7 to 84) 768,700 WOtHle es aal sas aeoesl ee ceeetele eae ex ae 260, 500 District No. 8.3 Tae No excavation stations 0 to 25, ditch No. 3. 33 Exca- vation. Aver- age cut. Width of bot- tom. Length. =a oawto ot SO wh ao Wrr +t SS Hw sf Orns me N & OD of oO o N nN moO} & Sak oe ee te te ee tee ee ete een a INR ' ™_ Sosro '“Sonoekonornkoononmoto ooodovoo ~ S ‘ Syston tee sg 2 ge g & ‘ in nn nin 000 16 Oo > a) oO © Re} oes ee Sececses Paaeres a eS Se © Sete sts ote for} oD ho o for) aAomnmwtaa oo SHON oO N N oD oD ws THN a a_ no CoDsoODOOM ORK ROO £ se Re) co oO SSSSRSReSSSRSsRS Ce a gi Ol oe N ne nl 16, 550 2| 6 to 6} RAR A COoonnnroo © Sronoosoo g ge Be tee eee © es © So CNUSHICN ICN SNS CO | SHEN ATAANAHAN An RGeeesesses Aeesnesee NNR NA Cee LS SINAN ides NM ide soo Ditch sizes and earthwork—Continued. BULLETIN 193, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 34 1D 1 See S222 Se Se SS yYS— ye Ses ers en ie eo eee een Ses — TO S——“— ' . ' ' ' . ' ' . ‘ ' . ' ' . ' oo . . . ' . ' . . . ‘ Ali Seams Fe Bay Wd Reber Abe heey sie ema Pt cg) gee oct ri : SEL ag reek 5 ELT RE teat fate cep se wees ; ee Ole try — CREE 2 OP ies ee core eee Te ti SN Ole rl i :Eo | vee S Bie ED ear —*> Cham er ence eee ee : ‘ sh t ee io vtneentie cies enna ocShetenete tN og A pore ieee ed ewer). GeO OC) SOF = hea) Cea camel emer aanr 0 50080 SO = 0 SR O° orto ENS e hh 08 tees} ee en a OG piles ‘ CaslIet OL ne = A, oo Z Payal a oD & 6 , ' ’ . . oo . ' 3: . ' ' . ’ . . ie ove mer 1o4 + q ‘ ‘eos : Oa Ge salts). BRE Uist, Ons iac aRCeea DSO D. Mteeps (walang ep ey Oma les yeme nie Snel \lmneticte star ng eis! Gg i Airtel ode Me Oe ete Ss SHE) ty eee Gee ako 980 ec ets Opes 0 Sete eae Bai ip ae Be Sy 2 ay Sees ans ox oO rHS oO Roig 5 od AN Re} om H a= OH B= 688 BBE SE BSS SBBSSEBSE REBKB SBBSSEGSESAS SSE Ae SI S| Sl Sp Ger Ge SS Sr Q ae ; 3 S sas is BR S ' SBS BSSS S88 s 3 8 8 SSS 8 88 % irs} 1D 18 ' 1D wm 1A 38 RE S 3 S 8 % 3 om ee HT 1 & 1D Am om SS S GC) CH Si ©) Go) GA Ce Gr a} See S ~ = < Eats Ate Ae Pre PANS Maes SSR Pores ‘ or aye cass Se A amet STA Epi MAES a Se eg Sn Sn c Ne} o mo S 16 a i ETwor Te oH wt o ~~ SS wh oD oO ra SS S g nN a aR a mr Doa A a S N ‘ mM AN A OD ~ nN DN No N a a we ow oO or a oD g N AS on AN oO ot ————" (a ee, ——S SS SS eee eee SS me a et te et tee ellen wn ' RIN RN In INPIN ay HN + uN rn made ARN an ad 1» GOES G0.00 ' ROKnoe ore COON ORE RON NHS SH HMOMNO HH SOs 1s CWO LOM OMOMONOHEM SOrMoros | ous ' ' A o ivy 0 ¥ ‘ ' ° S So SS Reo so Says 8g £& S888888 e 8 8 89 S82 828 8 SS See SB 8 ' S———_—_— —— Ses ees eee eer ee os ee eer a SS Ss eel ' ' ' ‘oe onaipe eee ie ; i eso cee eeary ee hates i nea : t ean | be] eo gs tats Pele ist camera coe = [Tees ae g a) ‘ tees 33 1, On Seer ‘ D eet Oo {219 ey i ec 0 a od : oS 3 fel oo dee : ‘ FOES tGe Ses inne aN Caan 1D 4 Ze ' Soy my tel oe cy ‘ ‘ ' ' qn Gu Oot ns cose ‘ . ' 5 4 ‘ ro un 2 ' 5 A 0 TSS > oe Gye verte i i ‘ 1 0 eel nS eo o. “vo ry ence ann ey 3) Sem 6 Sica tee au Tele ok eee : gt raat ote ae 7 HE as eon ate Re Oe 27 eek ey ne ee ~ =e ‘ To ‘ ' ‘ sH © ~ © (—) mm N oD o st OO rm m6 oD 1D i aS S&S fa) Br =) ~ so st 19 Om Ss 8 2 8 4S A ARARA 2 of OD 2auaas & $US GBB iz ees | A fa) DRAINAGE OF JEFFERSON COUNTY, TEXAS. 35 Ditch sizes and earthwork—Continued. 1 Including 8 cut-offs. 2 Johns Gully saves 9,000 cuble yards. 4 Hillebrant Bayou saves 395,300 cuble yards. Width Width A Aver- | Exca- A Aver- | Exca- Ditch Nos. |Length. of bot age cut.| vation. Ditech Nos. |Length. onpor age cut. | vation. District No. 10— District No. 11— Continued. eel. Feet. pee Cu. yds. Continued. Feet. | Feet. | Feet Cu. yds. 4 4| 64 to 73 5, 000 4| 6k to 7 ae Sacas 5,800 2| 6 to uh Wad ae were 10, 000 lp seul, eo ee 4 to 147, in- 15 to 18, in- clusive....| 26,7 2 6| 47,600 clusive...| 26, 500 21 6 to6}| 47,800 Co sah Fis ee \ 30, 900 Om ote ee a 56 to 63| 24,650 ? , one 3,000 4 6 15, 000 4| 6 to9 Pee end) 4! 2 400 5 3 \ 21, 550 D0 poe 7 300 F \ 58, 700 “i es 9, 500 2 6 | 16,900 21 to 28, in- | i 4 6 clusive...| 12,900 2 6| 22,900 en veeee- 7, 400 2 6 if 14,450 a { 15,000 al 63 to 72) Sawer fie eT Te eg Sl ee a ie OE ai ll (oe ar ota j male we clusive....| 31,800 2 6 56, 500 25 17, 500 4| 6 to ai 61. 050 Hillebran t Bes ge spo aaa 6, 000: 2 6 ? maya be- 26 = { ee 3 61 to 7 \ 53. 550 Tar Pra] ha SS Pa TS Ue ee 0 hes cp aa ? tot B..... 39,000] 50} 19 14,201,700 27. Aen 10, 300 21 6 to 6s! 19, 600 2 1 “300 el Tete 8 Fi cosas: { Fool 2} ta er|t 22,500 13,000] 12 7 to 9 29 to 32,in- |” ss Mam A. —_-- 3, 500 10| 7410 8 gee elusive... 16, 500 2 6| 29,300 8| 6 to * 000 4| 7 to 73 128m) aia soit ete a ae 7 0 63 a aa Se re ee 5 7 0 10! 4 64 3,000} 40 10 to 11 35--+------- 7,000 21 6 to él 26, 300 5 1 ee ee cee ee ain B..... 4/000/ 20 g | (71:867,650 os 7, 000 4| 7 to ual 30 Si 6,700| 16 ig || Paugeticmat te ope 6, 300 2 , 3/8001 14| 74 to 84 3) 500 4 6h 3,600] 12 i ee { Zool 2 bp 24250 2; 900 4 6 5,000] 14 8} 5, 800 2 sotths al at 4400} 12 8 |} 106, 550 6,000} 30) 9 to 10 15, 600 4| 6 to8 11,000| 351 9 to 93 40 and 41...| 13,000 1 6 to7| 24,500 a ee Gone aay AED soa ees 7,500/ 16| 9 to 10 43 and 44...| 10, 800 2 6| 19,150 Main C..... 1000] = 14 g | (£287; 150 He 14; 000 4| 6} to 8 \ aren 3/7001 10 Oy yl OARBEE s eG a ’ pie eh oO Be { Gm) 3 6 wonp S80 Le se oe as Pe Kab ae © | 12, | 5 ro 20, 000 4) 6 to 72/59, 300 10,000} 14) 73 to : 164, 550 Magma sete a 3, 500 A 81 to 91 2...-------- 8, 500 in 7 to 6 ale Oe sa0 4 7h to 81|- 94,100 Be) 7hto 83 nth Boo) 2] 6 to7 s 6,000] 14 6} to ie ins” IBN Weegee (ino | > 1. , ae dll Seah 0 e Mains B eer 151, 900 11,500 2 10} 73 to9 , 14) 7} to 8 |\ 196 900 eS Soe a 35| 10 to 103) 824, 800 4 { re 10) 63 to 7 25 ey 10,000 14| 74 to 8 |\ 145 999 AEE hoe |1, 615, 850 2 10 64 to 7 7 Total. -...|......--|-------|-- 5. + 2-2-2 22 11, 500 ay 5; 000) ie a 7*| 97,500 i 10. 000 14) 64to 7 , District No. 21: 6.---------- 3” 500 12) 6 1 to 4, inclu- to 83} 151,800 13” 000 16) 6$t0 7 \\ 79 799 Sivek 30, 000 10 6} pe) er { 3” 000 12: 6 ean 5 to 8, inclu- 5 to 7} 121,000 : 97000 12! 6 to 63 3 9 Stvernes == ss! mee 63! 157750! gand9..... 19, Ditch Nos. District No. 24— Continued. 2 to 22, in- we ween eee DRAINAGE OF JEFFERSON COUNTY, TEXAS. Ditch sizes and earthwork—Continued. Exca- vation. Cu. yds. 615, 700 1,573, 250 \ 38, 400 209, 550 742, 450 515, 750 1,577, 250 71,000 1, 162, 850 385, 600 288, 600 25%, 100 Width Aver- h.| of bot- Lengt tom. | age cut. Feet Feet. Feet. 5,7 50 10 5, 700 40 93 5, 700 35 9 5, 700 30 83 5,7 20 8 18, 500 10} 64 to 73 5, 000 4| 7ito 8 8, 500 2}6 to 9 112, 260 2 6 15, 800 35 11 21, 000 28) 133 5, 200 2 63 31, 680 25) 13 8, 440) 18 12 5, 220) 2 10 15, 840 8| 64 to 7 5, 280 t 15, 000 16] 8i to zy 5, 000 14 vl 15, 000 12} 6 to 63 10, 000 18] 84 to 9 10, 000 14) 7} to 8 3, 000 12 7 7, 000 10} 6} to 8 10, 000 18} 8k to 9 8, 000 14) 7} to 8 10, 000 10} 64 to 7 5, 000 14 8h 10, 000 12) 73 to 8 11, 000 10} 64 to 7 15, 500 10} 5 to 7 7, 500 16} 74 to 8 6, 000 10} 64 to 7 5, 500 30 10 5, 500 24 9} 5, 500 16 9} 11,500 8} 8h to 9 11, 500 30) 94 to 10 7,500 25) 104 to 11 2, 000 20 94 1,000 18 9 1,000 16 8 2, 500 14 7 |. 14,900 12 6 4, 000) 18 9 2, 000 16 10 10, 000 14|10) to 114 3, WO 12 9h to 10 21, 500 10) 64 to 9 20, 000) 18) 8} to 9} 5, 000) 4 7h 14, 000 10} 64 to 7 10, 000 16 8) 10, 000 14| 7) to 8 16, 800) 10) 64 to 7 10, 000 16 8h 10, 000 14| 7} to 8 12, 500 10) af to 7 | 5, 00 28 10 5, 600 22 9 11,300 12 9 216, 100 189, 800 237, 150 | | | i h, 570, 150 Ditch Nos. District No. 28: 1 to 9 inelu- Main B TOL: . 2. Width Length.| of bot- tom. 39 Feet. 10, 000 4, 400 66, 500 5, 700 11, 400 5, 700 5, 700 2, 800 5, 700 11, 400 5, 700 5, 700 5, 700 Feet. Aver- Exca- age cut. | vation. Feet. | Cu. yds. 6 to 7| 100,000 1 malt 20, 400 64 Ae uly 24, 950 alt 24, 100 6} sal 24, 100 ral 24, 100 64 al 24, 100 64 al 24, 100 63 ral 24,100 64 at 24,100 B |} 24, 100 63 p|t 24, 100 6 to i zb 950) atone o \ 154, 600 he 3"|{1,686,950 8 \ 101, 100 2,281, 450 6kto 83] 55,700 6 to 8| 52,300 7s to 83 6ito 7 |+ 70,300 6 7hto 8 6k to 7 |' 70,300 6 7kto 9 7ito 8|\ 77,900 6ito 7 9 7hto 8 |b si,100 64 to 7 Sito 9 1 a fo SIF 84,300 6 8} 74 to || 75, 900 rh 63 to if) 7k to 8 |+ 78,800 6h to 7 "1 oles \ 73,400 6410 8 5, 400 6} to elt 72, 500 2| 266,000 10 9 to 94 9 | 243,000 8) 8] 10 9 to 94 9 800, 900 8) 8 Voc aleeswaeslesuenesas 1, 667, 800 40 Ditch sizes and earthwork—Continued. BULLETIN 193, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Width Ditch Nos. |Length.} of bot- tom. District No. 30: 1to3,inclu-| Veet. | Feet. SIVOL wens 24, 100 12 4, 500 18 4 3, 500 16 are 2,000 14 4,500 12 2, 500 16 Boe Ieee ee 4, 500 14 6, 500 10 Giee=teereiss 14, 500 12 1,000 20 Deets Be sees 2,000 18 5, 500 12 2, 500 16 ieee i Menem 2, 500 14 7, 500 12 9 5, 500 16 Tan Got Bete 7,000 12 10 { 10, 000 14 Shaves 2,000 12 1lland12...} 29,700 12 7, 400 50 5, 800 48 , 14, 500 49 Main A..... 3,100 30 5, 700 25 5, 700 14 4,800 8 6, 700 16 Main B..... 13, 300 12 9,000 10 Motals oe syaeecealseee ees Aver- Exca- age cut.| vation. Feet. Cu. yds. 6 to9} 110,400 83 to9 74 to 8 64 to 7 94, 250 6 84 73 to 8 | 78,800 64 to 7 5 to6 49, 550 8) Fi 46, 750 6 73 to 8 63 to7 |+ 66,600 6 1 See \ 65,900 Brod \ 63, 600 6 to7]| 124,400 10 2 6 to 9s 6 to 84] - 623, 700 8t 8 13 94 7s to 9 |r 194,100 6s bees 1, 502, 050 Ditch Nos. District No. 31: District No, 32: 1 to 4, inclu- Totals: =| 835... |eeees ae Width Length.| of bot- Feet. 5, 000 2, 500 7, 600 { 4,500 49, 200 15, 000 tom. Feet. 10 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. 15 CENTS PER COPY Aver- | Exca- age cut. | vation. Fect. | Cu.yds. 84 to 94 73\- 97,050 * to A 74 to8 of 16 i - 63, 650 7% to 8! 64 to 7 48, 400 6% to 74) 40,900 6 to7| 122,900 63 to 7 14, 550 8 7k to 8 ihe 43, 800 64 to 7 84 to9 74 to 8 64 to 7 84 to 94 64 to 74|+ 227,150 6 aa 9 8h 493, 100 63 to 8 1, 254,950 254, 950 64 to.93] 244, 150 8 to93| 121,000 365, 150 N © Cc E R B J L LEGEND Proposed Drainage District Boundaries. ~ Proposed Drainage District Numbers... -- Proposed Ditches--:-----—-. Proposed Levees-—--— Fig 3 & U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE BUL.193 OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS ° DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS S.H. MECRORY. CHIEF Proposed Channel Improvements Proposed Cutoffs for Old Channel Bench Marks Sree Contours aad Sea Level Elevations... Bluffs. - err Railroads and Stations BEES Gon eon —— MAP OF Irrigation Canals. a — SH Properly Lines and-Names---—.0... | JNO.SMITH | WP wr LEYATION 2 ro.t FT Present Bottom Elevations: ee m a Proposed Pumping Plants-<<-—----. tre S Timber Bound = Cs) PR PERACOLLIER'S FERRY JEFFERSON COUNTY TEXAS SHOWING TOPOGRAPHY AND PROPOSED DIVISION OF THE COUNTY INTO DRAINAGE DISTRICTS @ WITH SYSTEMS OF DITCHES, CHANNEL IMPROVEMENTS AND b LEVEES FOR EACH DISTRICT € PREPARED TO ACCOMPANY A REPORT AND ESTIMATES OF COSTS Jy BY cei HA Koper, Drainace Encineer in Cuarce or Prosect FERRY WILLIAMS) TroOW Ge IN { Sis coi ) WW, = ee C i poor] + NEON, | Jk shuesy\-SAbUEN Assistep By A.G. Hatt, Draiace Encineer ( ( aXaonron veacue GERFISH, XSI ’ sit Z ; 1914 y Sauter LEAGUE faci coil rr SCALE OF MILES at Sy op REITs BOON. (Qo ¢ — — ——— 1 + 40 1 2 3 4 5 ee 0 Toy B.RC.Nog f] Hl = © . {{ BAC Nosh \) T BvCCARROLL y a7 ORR.Noh BAC.Nos) “RN 2 ras vy Sj, BAC.No3! apse ] A Varney hea Ref BAC z Bears / ; f Carr ; acta) 9X sa] \Nel ff aK ey CA es OZ (Wi MEPARTAND. League \ \ es a Lor \ipss $ j T1C$ y : re Moo \ BAKE 1S Ol c.(LAWHORI NOY iste in pon mlcorD re Veer j VS ei ok rN AS 3 VAL SPIVITOT LEAGUI WES erent) / y Mey / AO) ENV ie Breeze s| nN Whites ® = Ranch 7, High Island 8, BURTON LAG) ALLIAM AUTLEOS w dl [recta IMEFADDIN \ i i> SAN GERONIMO IRRIGATING Co (aa Revo PHBELL } ——— ~ Si Mrs. J/CRWIN o a ° ° 3 < z st ic ‘S.C. CARTWRIGHT. SARAH A. PANNELL. \ E.Lmoone eT °. | [Nam evene An | Teunncau | Ne SS SS \aromirn Vous ET cuoworrn, DEL Fig.2 , BUL. 193 -OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS AGE INVESTIGATIONS / ~~. \ WATERSHEDS OF STREAMS q == == eee ss High Island Fig. 2 US DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. BUL. (93 OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS MAP SHOWING WATERSHEDS OF STREAMS AFFECTING THE DRAINAGE OF JEFFERSON CO. TEXAS SCALE OF MILES | : | bs ae ma THE HOMAI3 PETERS Co, WASHIHUION, De UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 194 Contribution from the Office of Experiment Stations A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER May 10, 1915 - THE FLOW OF WATER IN IRRIGATION CHANNELS By FRED. C. SCOBEY, Irrigation Engineer CONTENTS Description of Channels The Use of Values of n Recommendations for Values of n for Different Kinds of Channels Estimation Charts Equipment and Methods Employed for Variation of min the Same Channels . . Collecting Field Data Conclusions Correction for Velocity Heads . . Elements of Field Tests to Determine Re- tardation Factors in Kutter and Chezy WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1915 BULLETIN OF THE 2)» USDEDARIMENT ORAGRICOLTURE oO. 194 Contribution from Office of Experiment Stations, A. C. True, Director. May 10, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) THE FLOW OF WATER IN IRRIGATION CHANNELS. By Frep. C. Scosry, Irrigation Engineer. CONTENTS. Page Page L200 DUS 1 | Description of channels...................... 28 _ DRL rt ihe eee eet a eet 2) Theiuse of valuesiof n.. 2222... .28220 6.0.2.2 45 JOY DUS. = 2 2 | Recommendations for values of n for different Necessary field data for values of n.........- 4 KIngsonchannels:* sass oa scccemeen ce oateee 47 Scope ofexperiments.......................- TA MEStIMeavONICRALtS 22 os _Scjccnaee see eee eee see 52 Equipment and methods employed for col- Variations of n in the same channel.__...._... 58 PopmrnPoneln GAtac-) 2+ 3222.25 5...83i So: 7 |wConclusionsss44. 25) wan ON br ves ty es ca velo 60 Correction for velocity heads................. 155 | Acknowledgements: . 0.6 52- - BEE AERTS eee do--=. 40::09 RMEMEE LIONS Do hse Ss Seis aia tie ioe Ae RR do.... 43.35 Discharge, found by current meter... . . ....second-feet.. 131. 33 Mean area throughout reach, A ..---. ees oe square feet.. 42.16 Mean velocity throughout reach, V...... feet per second.. 3.115 Mean velocity at station 0... -.-.-4)-..--44---¢-22-+- do.... 3.40 PE POLOCILY AG CATION. 9 oo Ai ini aye mie mane donee awa. Oe Velocity head for velocity at station 0...........--foot.. . 1797 Velocity head for velocity at station 9......-...-.- doy . 1427 Prarerence in. velocity heads..3.:.2.5 2 cakes emcee oni ddeser . 0370 This difference added to fall, —00.681-++ 0.0370= ...do.... . 718 Slope, s, without correction for velocity heads............- . 00075667 Slope, s, corrected for velocity heads..............-.-..-- . 00079778 Mean wetted perimeter throughout reach.........-- feet.. 19.52 Mean hydraulic radius throughout reach.......... Goute sit 2158 Using the above data and solving equation 4, page 4, the value of 0.0217 is found for n if the slope as found by the level, uncorrected for velocity heads, is used. If the corrected slope is used, a value of 0.0223 for isfound. The change due to this correction is academic rather than practical for the lower velocities, but in such as are found in some flumes and concrete sections the change is very material and should not be disregarded, 16 BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ELEMENTS OF FIELD TESTS TO DETERMINE RETARDATION FACTORS IN KUTTER AND CHEZY FORMULAS, In the following pages are arranged a table (Table I) showmg the hydraulic elements followed by text matter giving brief descriptions of the general conditions obtaining at the canals measured by the writer and his associates during the season of 1913 with a few tests made in the two preceding years. In both the table and descriptions the experiments are arranged in groups according to the material of the containing channel, while the order within each group follows an ascending value of n, except where several tests were made on the same reach of canal with various discharges of water, in which case tests on that particular reach are not separated. EXPLANATORY NOTES ON TABLE I. Column 1 gives the consecutive numbers, which refer to the order followed in the discussions in the following pages and in the appendix. The small letter a after the number refers to the appendix. Previously unpublished experiments by members of the force of this office are discussed in the text, while the essential data secured from other sources are abstracted in the appendix. Column 2 shows the authority and his experiment number where such was carried. The symbols referring to members of this force are as follows: B refers to Don H. Bark, irrigation engineer in charge of work for this office in Idaho. F refers to Burton P. Fleming, of the department of mechanical engineering, State University of Iowa. G refers to W. B. Gregory, irrigation engineer, head of department of experimental engineering, Tulane University, La. H refers to Sidney T. Harding, at that time irrigation engineer in charge of work for this office in Montana. McL refers to Walter W. McLaughlin, at that time irrigation engineer in charge of work for this office in Utah. S refers to the writer, Fred C. Scobey, irrigation engineer at large, in charge of experiments on the flow of water in channels. The symbols referring to other sources, most of which are publications, are as follows: RS refers to the United States Reclamation Service, through whose courtesy we were allowed access to the records of experiments conducted by various members of the service. JBL refers to J. B. Lippincott.! VMC refers to V. M. Cone, in charge of the work of this office in Colorado.? SF refers to Samuel Fortier, Chief of Irrigation Investigations.* W refers to C. C. Williams, professor of railway engineering, University of Kansas.‘ Column 3 refers to the classification, showing the relative weight to be given the data, A signifying first-class conditions for experimentation. B and C show second and third class conditions, such as too short a reach, a doubtful method of measuring discharge, proximity of disturbing features in the canal, and so on. Column 5 shows the general shape of the canal cross section, referred to in figure 2. When considered in connection with columns 6, 7, 8, 9, and 11, an idea of the water section may be secured. 1 Tests described in Engin. News, 57 (1907), No. 23, p. 612. 2 Tests selected from Colorado Sta. Bul. 194 (1914). 3 Tests selected from U.S. Geol. Survey, Water-Supply and Irrig. Paper 43 (1901). 4 Tests described in Univ. Colo. Studies, 7 (1910), No. 4, p. 237. THE FLOW OF WATER IN IRRIGATION CHANNELS. 17 ey TOR SSS SS Be eS SASS Sc Fred C Scobe FG. 2.—Typical shapes of channels used in classifying data in column 5, Table 1, 79256°—Bull, 194—15——2 18 BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Column 10 shows the method of securing all depth determinations from which areas and perimeters were secured. ON refers to office notés. Taken in connection with elevations secured at time of test. SG refers to a special gauge of some form. Those noted were quite accurate. LR refers to a difference between level readings on arod. This obviates all defects of water climbing up the rod, and is the best method, in the opinion of the writer. S refers to soundings with a graduated stick or rod and although quite accurate in low velocities is uncertain where water climbs up the rod. T refers to measurements by tape on the outside of a flume. Column 14 shows the method of securing the discharge meas- urement. M refers to a current meter. I signifies the integration method was used. Extensive tests showed that full weight may be accorded this method. VC signifies that the mean ve- locity was secured by means of the multiple-point method in- terpreted through vertical ve- locity curves. —2-+8 signifies the mean of the velocities obtained at 0.2 and 0.8 depths in each vertical was ac- cepted as the mean of the vertical. Extensive experiments showed this method may be given full weight. —6 signifies the velocity ob- tained at 0.6 of the depth below the surface was accepted as the mean for the vertical. Extensive experiments show that the results of this method as a rule are too high and for this reason tests made in this manner are not given full weight. RC signifies the discharge was taken from a rating curve. W refers to a weir measurement, under standard conditions. C after the W signifies that a trapezoidal or Cipolletti weir was used. Column 15 shows the typical shape of the vertical velocity curves, referred to in figure 3. Column 23 shows the various wind conditions: C signifies calm; U signifies upstream; D signifies downstream; and A signifies across. Fig. 3.—Typical vertical velocity curves and depths at which meter was held. See column 15, Table 1. Where of sufficient importance to seriously affect results, additional information is given in the text. The other columns are considered self-explanatory. 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"=H >" SqQ9p “po prwy "Toop T[eUs |-- ¥ 160° ' 9FL000° FB“ TB °ZT IO AAW '08'Sh PRL '2L°TE I" UT HITS 108% 10ST O96 T at 1" peg pemMoods prvy “OQ >" V 28 BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. -DESCRIPTION OF CHANNELS. The descriptions in the following pages are to be considered as supplementary to the table beginning on page 19, which gives all the information necessary to a clear understanding of the hydraulic conditions holding at various tests with the exception of a detailed description of the channel, which would have made the table too cumbersome. The descriptions of the channels follow the same order and are numbered like those in the table, with the exception that data obtained from other sources than the work of this division are abstracted in the Appendix commencing on page 62. CONCRETE LININGS. No. 1, Expt. S-26, New York Canal, Payette-Boise project, U. S. Reclamation Service, Idaho. A large canal, in concrete, rough as an orange, with plastered expan- sion joints. Experiment rated as class C, because water issues from an open check in canal about 600 feet above station 0 and the canal passes into an earth section about 100 feet below station 6. (See Pl. I, fig. 1.) Cross sections developed from office notes of United States Reclamation Service through courtesy of W. G. Steward. Impossible to determine condition of bottom with water in canal. There is a slight curve in the reach which disturbs the filaments of current. For additional data on this canal see Nos. 2 and 3, Table I. Coefficient n=0.0101. No. 11, Expt. B-4, Ridenbaugh Canal, Nampa-Meridian Irrigation District, Idaho. This test was made two years before and covered about the same reach as in test No. 13 below. Mr. Bark found a slightly lower value for slope than later experimenters, which accounts for the lower value of n found. The preponderence of evidence would indicate that a value of about 0.0125 is right for this nearly perfect piece of concrete, to include both tangents and curves. Coefficient n=0.0110. No. 12, Expt. 8-24. This lining in the same canal as No. 11 is a very smooth, hand-troweled, cement wash on a base of concrete 34 inches thick. The reach is on tangent with about a 6° curve beginning at station 9. The lining was placed in slabs 16 feet long with iron dowel pins and strips of tarred paper between slabs. After the forms were removed the joints were poured with a neat cement. Asa rule the joints are as smooth to the hand as any other part of the lining (PI. I, fig. 2), though slight cracks are opened during cold parts of the day. This is an exceptionally well-made lining, and this, coupled with the fact that the curves are spiraled into the tangents, accounts for the very low value of n as found by all experimenters. For additional experience on this canal see Nos. 11 to 15, Table I. Coefficient n=0.0121. No. 13, Expt. S-24a, was made on the same canal as S—24, but the reach included not only the 901 feet of tangent as above, but also the above-mentioned curve, which was about 600 feet long, and a short reach of tangent below the curve, making the total reach 1,819 feet long. As is to be expected, the value of n is a little higher than on tangent. The slabs on curves were but 12 feet long. Coefficient n=0.0129. No. 14, Expt. F-3. This experiment was made on approximately the same reach of canal as 8-24, but was 1,020.6 feet long, with one slight curve in the reach. The slopes of the surface in this and experiments 26 and 28 were found by a line of levels run between the ends of reaches as usual, but the water surface was found by means of a gauge constructed on the piezometric principle. The hydraulic grade as given in the table is the mean of 23 tests. An instrument of this form should give the surface at the time of reading very closely, but the experimenter must be sure that this slope is the same as the one held at the time of the discharge measurement. Coefficient n=0.0124. Bul. 194, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fie. 1.—NEW YORK CANAL, UNITED STATES RECLAMATION SERVICE, IDAHO. (No. 1—Downstream. Station 0 is just above meter bridge.) FIG. 2.—RIDENBAUGH CANAL, IDAHO. (Nos. 12-13—Upstream from Station 15.) Fic. 3.—NORTH SIDE TWIN FALLS CANAL, IDAHO. Note top of lining above water line. (No, 25—Downstream from Station 0,) Bul. 194, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. Fic. 1.—DAVIS AND WEBER COUNTIES CANAL, UTAH. Note projecting expansion joint strips. (No. 29—Downstream from Station 2 plus 49.) Fic. 2.—HAMILTON MILL FLUME, MONTANA. (No. 31—Upper part of concrete section.) - f . faces eM. DoS Py Fic. 3.—SANDERFER DITCH, CALIFORNIA. i (No. 35—Upstream from Station 3.) Bul. 194, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fi@. 1.—MODESTO IRRIGATION DISTRICT MAIN CANAL, CALIFORNIA. No. 41—Upstream from Station 3 plus 64, on meter bridge.) Fic. 2.—SANTA ANA AND ORANGE CANAL, CALIFORNIA. Note deposit below high-water line. (No. 42—Upstream from Station 12.) Fia. 3.—Los Nie€TOs CANAL, CALIFORNIA. Note deposit. No. 45—Upstream from Station | plus 50.) Bul. 194, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fia. 1.—ARROYO DITCH, CALIFORNIA. (No. 44—Upstream from Station 8.) Fic. 2.—NORTH CANAL, BEND, OREG. (Nos. 46, 48, and 50—Downstream from Station 5. Meter station in distance.) Fig. 3.—MAIN CANAL, SOUTH, ORLAND PROJECT, UNITED STATES RECLAMATION SERVICE, CALIFORNIA. Concrete section (No. 51) in distance. Earth section (No. 184) in foreground. THE FLOW OF WATER IN IRRIGATION CHANNELS. 29 No. 25, Expt. S-19, North Side Twin Falls Land & Water Co.’s main canal near Milner, Idaho. As shown in Plate J, figure 3, this concrete lining fills out the main irregularities in a very rough laya-rock cut. An examination of the section below the water line was impossible at the time of making the experiment, and the various cross sections from which the value of R was deduced were taken from office notes. These covered bottom widths and elevations of the bottom at both sides and in the middle. A study of these notes shows that the bottom is undulating and that while the high velocity would prevent the accumulation of sand deposits, and lava rock does not slough off débris to any extent, yet the velocity is retarded by the disturb- ance in the filaments of current due to the undulations. Coefficient n=0.0138. No. 26, Expt. F-1, Davis and Weber Counties Canal, Utah. This experiment was conducted in the same canal as tests Nos. 28 and 29, but about 8 miles upstream and about 1 mile below the head gate from the river. Condition of bottom could not be determined, but was probably about the same as in No. 28. The concrete on sides was smooth and unbroken. The hydraulic grade was taken as the mean of five tests with level and piezometer and found to be 0.000413, while constructed grade of this portion of canal was 0.000445. Coefficient n=0.014. No. 27, McL., Davis and Weber Counties Canal, Utah. See Nos. 26-28-29, Coefii- cient n=0.0144. No. 28, Expt. F-2. This experiment was on a reach 468.5 feet long, which was included in the reach 1,000 feet long described in No. 26. The hydraulic grade was taken as the mean of level lines run between 12 settings of the piezometer instrument spoken of under No. 14. The mean of these 12 observations gave a slope of 0.0006168, while the constructed grade of the canal, as stated by the chief engineer, was 0.000626, and in No. 29 the writer found the surface slope to be 0.000629. In the description of conditions B. P. Fleming states that the patches of gravel consisted of all sizes up to 5 inches in greatest dimension and that probably 10 per cent of the area was covered with them, mostly adjoining the toes of the side slopes. This experiment was made about six weeks after No. 26. Coefficient n=0.0146. No. 29, Expt. S-13, Davis and Weber Counties Canal, Utah. This canal furnishes an example of the retarding effect of wooden expansion joints if they are not so set that they can not project into the canal section (PI. II, fig.1). The lining was laid in slabs varying in width from 8 to 16 feet. Strips of wood a little larger than building lath were placed between the slabs with the idea that they would eventually be pulled and the space filled with asphalt. This has not been done, and at present the strips project from 0 to 14 inches into the section. However, the velocity at the bottom was retarded by small patches of gravel which have probably sloughed off the hillside cut in which the canal runs. This condition will probably be present each season, even though the canal be cleaned out once a year, but the friction factor n can undoubtedly be reduced one or two units in the third decimal place by carrying- out the original idea contemplated in the construction. Coefficient n=0.0154. No. 30, B-10, King Hill Canal, Idaho. This test was made on a reach covering both tangent and curves. The concrete was not surfaced, but left as hand tamped to grade. After surface coat had set, the 2 by 4 inch end forms were removed and the groove poured with a 1 to 1 mixture of sand and cement. The surface is described as quite rough, especially at the joints. The canal was clean of detritus and moss. Coefficient n=0.0143. No. 31, H-29, Hamilton flour mill flume, Montana. This flume was constructed recently of a 1 to 7 mixture of cement and sand with some fine gravel. The coat has a few blowholes, but is usually smooth. The concrete was deposited against wood forms and not plastered. The alignment is as follows: 10° curves at stations 4 and 6. Small curves at stations 8+-50, 11, 14, and 20+-50. The rest of the distance was on tangent (PI. II, fig. 2). Coefficient n=0.0149. 30 BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. No. 35, Expt. S-69,-Sanderfer Ditch Co.’s main canal, near Whittier, Cal. As shown in Plate II, figure 3, this reach is straight and quite uniform. The bottom is slightly dished. As is the case of all small lined ditches in southern California, the sides and bottom are covered with a rough deposit which entirely vitiates the good results which would be anticipated by using a smooth cement wash such as the one on this ditch. This deposit appears to accumulate on either smooth or rough concrete, so the added expense of the former does not appear to be warranted in view of the results. The water in this ditch was clear and did not carry an appreciable amount of sand. Coefficient n=0.0155. No. 37, Expt. S-37a, lateral 12, Orland project, United States Reclamation Service, central California. This is a small lined section of general trapezoidal form, but with a slight dishing in the bottom. About 50 feet above station 0 is the lower end of a chute drop, and the ditch below station 2 plus 06. turns to the right 90° in a curve of 34 feet radius. The surface of the channel was a good grade of concrete, but not smooth washed. There was a slight deposit of slimy silt, which would have allowed a low value of n but for gravel scattered throughout the ditch section, which had a great influence on velocity, as the section is small. Coefficient n=0.0160. No. 38, Expt. 8-37. This experiment is on the same lateral as No. 37 but covers a straight reach immediately below the right-angle curve noted above. In the opinion of the writer the value of n in this experiment is better for the gravel condition in a small lined section than that found in the shorter reach used for No. 37. This gravel ranged in size from fine to that of a walnut and had a marked influence in retarding the velocity, as there was more or less movement of the gravel down the channel, which retards velocity more than does stationary gravel. Coefficient n=0.0192. No. 40, Expt. S-11, South Cottonwood Ward Canal, near Murray, Utah. This isa lined stretch about 450 feet long between an earth section, and a wooden flume. There isaslight curve at the upperend. A deposit of about 0.07 foot of fine sand and rootlike growths covered the bottom and modified the original section of rather rough concrete. A slight deposit of moss and slime also modified the sides of the channel. A reach 350 feet long was chosen in the middle of the lined stretch. Coefficient n=0.0171. No. 41, Expt. 8-55, Modesto Irrigation District main canal, near Lagrange, Cal. As shown in Plate III, figure 1, this reach of canal is on an approximate tangent. There is a very sharp curve about 50 feet below the reach tested. The lining is a very good erade of concrete, being about as rough as an orange. For the small amount of water in the canal when tested the value of 7 is high, because of the presence of a number of pieces of slate rock that have fallen into the canal from the adjoining cliffs. This influence would probably be materially reduced when the canal is carrying water to capacity. However, this experiment shows the value of cleaning the canal as often as practicable in order to maintain a high carrying capacity which is much desired by this district. Coefficient n=0.0174. No. 42, Expt. S-63, Santa Ana and Orange Canal, near Orange, Cal. In the reach tested, 1,082.8 feet, there was a gentle curve between stations 5and 7. As shown in Plate III, figure 2, which was photographed from a position about 200 feet below station 10, this canal has the rough deposit and moss common to southern California ditches. Jn addition the concrete lining of the bottom has been completely covered by a deposit of soft sand from 0.1 to 0.2 foot deep. The carrying capacity of such ditches could be materially increased by the introduction of numerous saud gates of some form. This lining had originally been a reasonably smooth piece of work, but the deposits had destroyed much of the usefulness of the smooth concrete. Coefficient n=0.0176. No. 48, Expt. S-70, Los Nietos Water Co.’s main canal, near Whittier, Cal. Thesur- face of the original lining in this canal is fairly smooth, but the deposit common to this region has so changed its character that, aided by the rolling sand, a high value of n is THE FLOW OF WATER IN IRRIGATION CHANNELS. 31 found. This sand was about 0.03 foot deep. The clear water emerges quietly from the lower end of a siphon under a road about 100 feet above station 0. The canal turns at right angles, without curvature, about 100 feet below station 6. However, the depth at the various cross sections remains quite constant, showing that the water was not appreciably checked up by this turn. As shown in Plate III, figure 3, there was a very slight retarding effect due to grass and weeds dragging on the surface of the water near the edges of the channel. Coefficient n=0.0188. No. 44, Expt. 8-67, Arroyo Ditch & Water Co.’s main canal, near Whittier, Cal. As shown in Plate IV, figure 1, this rough-finish concrete section has accumulated a deposit of rough mossy growth that greatly retards the velocity of the water. Ina few places throughout the reach tested the lining was irregular and not in true align- ment, which also tended to increase the value of n. The reach was on tangent, with a sharp angle about 50 feet above station 0 and a gentle curve about 100 feet below station 10. See discussion under Nos. 35, 40, and 42, above. Coefficient n=0.0188. Nos. 45 to 50, Expts. S-31, 8-30, S-32, Central Oregon Irrigation Co.’s North Canal near Bend, Oreg. These experiments were conducted with varying discharges, on consecutive days, in identical reaches; (a) is on a tangent 240 feet long between a 15° curve above and a 14° curve below; (6) embraces 157 feet of tangent, then 154 feet of 14° curve to the right, then 90 feet tangent, then 109 feet of 15° curve to the leit, then the tangent that includes (a) 240 feet long, then 178 feet of 14° curve which passes into a very rough lava-rock cut about 200 feet below station 10 plus 26. This lining is a clean-scoured, very rough, and deeply pitted concrete made in a — rough lava-rock cut. As shown on Plate IV, figure 2, the cross sectional form is even and the filaments of current are not disturbed except by the curves, but the inherent roughness of the lining accounts for the high values of n. The grade of the bottom of this canal was constructed 0.001 feet per foot. This lining was a 1 : 4 : 5 mixture, deposited behind shiplap forms against a hand- laid rock wall, filling the cavities in a rough rock cut. Expansion joints of } by 4-inch lumber were placed on sides and bottom every 12 feet and left in the concrete. No. 51, Expt. S-38, main canal, South Orland project, United States Reclamation Service, California. As shown in Plate IV, figure 3, this lined section comes between two earth sections of the canal. The concrete is quite rough and pitted, with slight growths of moss, but not nearly sufficient to account for the high value of n found. The writer can only account for this value because of retarding influences due to the earth channel below the lined reach. Coefficient n=0.0211. No. 53, Expt. S68, smail ditch from pumping plant, California. Although con- structed with a smooth-finished cement wash, this ditch shows a high value of n because a dark, crinkly deposit has changed the condition of the walls. Vegetation on the banks dragged in the water and retarded velocity toa slight extent (Pl. V, fig. 1.) This test is not given full weight because the ditch is too small to give a first-class current-meter measurement. The mean of three measurements was used. Coeffi- cient n=0.0220. No. 54, Expt. S-75, Riverside Water Co.’s Lower Canal, Riverside, Cal. This experi- ment gives a good example of a cement-wash lining in which under favorable con- ditions in southern California a friction factor of about 0.018 might be expected with- out eradicating the sand which appears to be ever present in the canals in this vicinity. If the sand were removed by the addition of numerous sand sumps and gates this factor would be reduced to 0.016 or thereabouts. At the time of making the tests on this canal, as shown in Plate V, figure 2, the lining had been broken in scattered spots, allowing vegetation to root and grow. In the bottom of the channel were scattered deposits of loose sand, covering possibly 10 per cent of the bottom area. In some of these deposits moss and water grasses flourished. OG 0% 0 oo © So Ul oO an nas roy = Rj SN NN XR ES == =e aes SiN | ue ng et Ga os fo) Ss‘ rr eS V+ <= = y4 8 R= - Hydraulic Ra a ius. ai Ww - yl ANOOS “Depth of Channel,in feet. F1G. 4.—Areas, in square feet; hydraulic radii, in feet and hydraulic economic dimensions ‘Cheken line) for rectangular channels, 54 BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 6 stops, up to 0.3, or 30 feet per hundred. Third. For very rough materials, for earth channels and for cobble-bottom ditches (fig. 8). The values of n range from 0.015 to 0.030 while the slopes cover all ranges likely to be encountered. On this chart the values of n cover Le) 15 ee STH Nn Hh Zor, IM E20, UT DIOR 2? eM Mu 'e0 “TOT TIA Ay, 5 ae ee, VIA VA VELL WALA er Ay 1 GB Ae a QV BHR HAN I BY AA 6: Ee ee a KE LVM VIAN VR AT VAY Ala: S000 04. | RTM VAL WM TY V, fit pute abanen salmminens ot PATA VPA A AAT A OT ET IV AT NT AT SAA eae ‘MS AM). VAG ABS, SALE a AY A =|! Ey 4 LG GAL lO+) TIAL ATA TTI WY IYI AA AY AAA AAA TA ATA EWC V a AANA, AV QD ADAP AN ANA OB LAL. HA, ate MELA A ant AON i meni A on yA MA ALC PAA NY i so LTA Buierie BeciWee es fr) 2 yaa, UlyaUUDYD JO ee = PF UAT DMWS Desth SCHAAR in feet. Fig. 5.—Areas, in square feet; hydraulic radii, in feet and hydraulic economic dimensions (broken line) for channels having side slopes of 14 to 1. such a wide range that the guide lines through any particular zone have not quite the same slant, but the results obtamable from any of these charts are more accurate than the agreement between pre- liminary figures and results.of tests made after construction. ay) THE FLOW OF WATER IN IRRIGATION CHANNELS, Sa el al 0° iD WK ETN ON LE Wie ti RE kL LA a r Vs) 0° Fig. 6.—Chart for use in designing ordinary concrete, wood, or steel channels on moderate slopes. From the intersection of R and n follow guide lines to intersection of 8 and V. 56 BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, R= tydraulic _Radius. ie aN ) ‘eo ® VD aVoa ty “o °° aa NNNANN ON UINAIACUTAATN NING ee 43, NNNUNRRRANNUNY NARA ARRAY 5 3. \ ho Y SSS RG TATA AN \ SAY De 08 68X09) Boitehed St Shs DS 9 Kaa 4 AA Aan Ras j age rt ] Ys WS \\ iN WS SSS TSI HSA os NN A hs SN ig by + “AN NN M Nese <\\ ‘i 6! xs aoa KX y \ \\\ \y iS w HY Ni SRO AK Woy XY y nhs oriaiel SENN 0? Sy S \ Kis 3 3 SAN JX iN 0 WN WS K NK Sy o7f AWN x) > 1 ; A o ‘S J Sy SiS = 06 XK sis Ne RAY 1 O° TDK ay * 2 SOP SN t o Ls) Gg UD aati ons SOY a DKK) sot oul x = i, ANDES 5 : i ASS o0 SOD ; ° 2 . 0 Si SHON NN * “< SPD TS v1) © 73 SONGS SK “ \ = SIS NN o SANS Ne - sy SA ; ish MN NN My os : SINS KS 02 SO KS Ks ss kc ~ RAR MN Siw OATS RD 9s L) DATO ISA SDPO TS EARS Ah at 9 \y 00 Wwe 908 ay 4 eS 00° ~ Fic. 7.—Chart for use in designing concrete, wood, or steel channels on very steep slopes; particularly for chute drops. From the intersection of R and 7 follow guide lines to intersection of S and V. 57 THE FLOW OF WATER IN IRRIGATION CHANNELS. Gs) ° G 0 G — — s Z S) gk BOOS AIR BELLE ELIE g SOA OOOO oO I2ZI2EZZZZZZ SZ Eas SEE DLEE SEES ZF SEEISEZE 9 ISEB SSS SSS ELE Py ULL ISSA IEE SIE DEL ICICLE g't "Q° Vay O-L7a SSO ET IN DI DIEEEE EEE ESS SF fe) A VOLT SLES Sik So EEE SEES SEESCSCESE BE £2 ob OESZLSL, SSS SO SSO OO I IOS IEEE ESS © SECFLLILL LS OIE EI EIEEIL EEE IIS EE EBS XS wr LLL LR SIS SEE EEE ESE S SS GLEESON RAN WctUaw > ULLAL LLL fs EES ERT RR IAIN © UL LLLLILAS EEE EER LR YS wh ‘ NAN x 38 8 LLL EONS NANA WSL LAX | go 9 © LA LEGLLILLLI ESSE EEE ROE LL cyro = DOLLS LLL LLB SEES FeSO WEAN 2 = LEAL SESE ESR LLL ELIA © YI SS OT ELE gt I JLLLLA ASSESSES SONA AS AUN Se 3 iS 32 U = > © = a it ae ag a Mf | A 2 oO ) Kutter’s n Fria. 9.—Diagram showing variation of n with varying velocities (open circles) and with varying hydraulic radii (dots) as the dis- charge is varied in the game reach of the same channels at the same time of year. 60 BULLETIN 194, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are designated by open circles and numbered to correspond with the numbers in column 1, Table I. For the same tests the values of R as ordinates are also plotted as dots. As a general statement there is a distinct tendency for n to decrease as the velocity and hydraulic radius increase, although in some cases the opposite effect is noted. The slope of the decrease in n is rather uniform, but the writer did not feel that the evidence was sufficient to attempt to deduce a formula to cover it. A chart showing this change for values of n usually assigned to earth channels has previously been published. CONCLUSIONS. A careful study of the data on the previous pages and of the ex- periments carried out by others appears to warrant the following general conclusions: (1) That Kutter’s formula is applicable to the design of any open channel. : (2) That the recommendations of the earlier writers concerning the values of n to be chosen were in the main correct. Any weak- ness was due to the fact that there was not sufficient distinction made between the various categories and that materials of construction are now used which were not covered by the tests from which early de- ductions were made. ‘The influence of curves was not as a rule in- cluded. Concrete lining covered but one value of n, whereas in prac- tice there are many shades of roughness, all applicable under the general head of concrete. (3) That the factor nm must include all the influences which tend to retard velocity. The principal of these influences are undoubtedly (a) rubbing friction between the water and the contaiming channels, and (b) vegetable growth extending into the main body of the water. The lack of carrymg capacity in many channels is probably due to the fact that the first influence was the only one considered. Of- secondary importance, but nevertheless deserving of careful consid- eration in about the order named, are the following: (c) Angles and sharp curves in the alignment. (d) Influences which tend to disturb parallel filaments of current. The concrete lining in a rough rock cut may be quite smooth to the feel of the hand and yet be so undu- lating as to cause heavy cross currents which retard velocity. All projections and irregularities in the bank of a canal disturb the fila- ments of current in addition to having a large area exposed to rub- bing friction. (e) Sand and gravel cause heavy loss in velocity when allowed to enter and accumulate in shifting patches on a lined canal bed. Fine sand drifts downstream in deep, irregular pockets and 1C, T. Johnson and R. D. Goodrich. A Formula and Diagram for Determining the Velocity of Flow in Ditches and Canals. Engin. Rec., 64 (1911), No. 19, p. 542. THE FLOW OF WATER IN IRRIGATION CHANNELS. 61 may entirely change the character of the bottom of a smoothly lined canal. On the other hand, a water laden with fine silt flows far more freely after the silt has deposited in a slick coat over minor irregu- larities than in a new, though clean, canal. A canal carrying such a water may be designed for a far higher velocity through the same kind of soil than would be the case if the water were clear. It is necessary only to run but low heads in the new canal until a thick waxy deposit has been placed on the canal bed, after which the velocity may be nearly doubled over that which would have scoured the material in which the canal was originally excavated. (f) The prevailing wind direction may be given some consideration. A study of vertical velocity curves shows a marked change in form with change in wind condition. A downstream wind aids the flow of surface water to the extent that it has the maximum velocity in the vertical, while an upstream wind so shapes the velocity curve that the surface velocity is as slow as that near the bottom. (4) That there is a tendency toward a lower value of n as the ve- locity and hydraulic radius increase. Any experiments that are in- tended to bring out conclusively the extent of the variation and whether it is due to the change in velocity or the change in hydraulic radius must be conducted in very long, straight channels, in wood, or concrete, or steel, where the character of the wetted perimeter will remain unchanged as the water becomes deeper and deeper in the channel. Proper corrections must be applied for any slight changes in the mean velocity at the two ends of the reach tested. The reach must be far removed from all influence of curves and structures. (5) That a value of n must be chosen that will apply to the canal in question at the critical period of the season. For instance, most canals are cleaned once a year. A growth of moss may become very heavy by July or August, but the water supply or demand will prob- ably be much less than during the early days of June. If the canal is designed to carry its peak load on the basis of its being in good condition, there will still be sufficient carrying capacity for the smaller discharge when moss has appeared. (6) That in the design of earth channels having a trapezoidal form when constructed, the value of R should be computed on the basis that the canal] takes an elliptical form within a short time and there- after maintains this shape unless altered artificially. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The writer and his associates desire to acknowledge indebtedness to the various engineers and managers of irrigation and power systems who permitted the use of canals under their charge for the tests and to the engineers of the United States Reclamation Service who al- lowed access to much original data on tests made by their engineers. APPENDIX. The following pages are devoted to abstracts of descriptions of canals on which tests have been made in recent years by other agencies than irrigation investigations of the Office of Experiment Stations. The first number refers to the corresponding num- ber in Table I, page 19. Next follows the symbol referring to the experimenter, as listed on page 16. Tests marked * are described in detail in Engin. News, 57 (1907), No. 23; those marked ** are described in United States Geological Survey Water- Supply and Irrigation Paper 43 (1901); those marked *** are described in United States Reclamation Service Reclamation Record, 4 (1913), No. 7; those marked + are described in Colorado Station Bulletin 194 (1914); those marked ++ are de- scribed in University of Colorado Studies, 7 (1910), No. 4. CONCRETE LININGS. No. 2, R. 8., 14***, main canal, Boise project, United States Reclamation Service. Rather rough, in places disintegrated by frost. Fairly clean but still some rock in bot- tom. Other tests in same section gives values of n from 0.0129 to 0.0148. Coefficient n=0.0130. No. 3, R. 8., 8***, main canal, Boise project, United States Reclamation Service. Rough troweled. Small deposit rocks and gravel in bottom. Coefficient n=0.0154. No. 4, R. S., 36***, Sulphur Creek wasteway, Sunnyside unit, United States Rec- lamation Service. This covers one of four tests in same section, with discharges from 45 to 247 second-feet. Corresponding values of n are the same, within 0.0002 for all discharges. Wood forms used; no retouching of surface. Circular section, radius 4 feet. Coefficient »=0.0108. No. 5, R. S., 33***, Sulphur Creek wasteway. Similar to No. 4 above, but on 2° curve. One of three tests with discharges from 52.5 to 247 second-feet. Correspond- ing values of nm same within 0.0004. Coefficient n=0.0140. No. 6, JBL-6*, main supply conduit for Los Angeles, Cal. Covered conduit. In . use four years, one curve in section tested. Where wetted, section was very smooth. Apparently of 1 to 3 cement-mortar plaster on concrete. No deposit or growth. Co- efficient n=0.0108. No. 7, JBL-5*. Description and reach tested same as No. 6 above. Coefficient n=0.0111. No. 8, JBL-2*, tunnel 23, San Gabriel plant of Pacific Light & Power Co., Cali- fornia. Covered conduit. In use eight years. No growth. Deposit conditions indeterminate. Slight curves near each portal. Slope determined by correcting office notes of floor grade by depths of water. Coefficient n=0.0113. No. 9, VMC-+, Dry Creek flume, Handy Canal, Loveland, Colo. In good condi- tion. Lined in 1906 with cement mortar, trowel finish. Coefficient n=0.0115. No. 10, JBL-1*, tunnel 15, San Gabriel plant, Pacific Light & Power Co., Cali- ornia. A tunnel similar to No. 8 above. Slight curve at upper portal. Sharp angle 20 feet below lower portal. Deposit conditions indeterminate. Coefficient n=0.0128. No. 15, R. S., 20***, Ridenbaugh Canal, Idaho. Description similar to Nos. 12-18 intext. One of three tests with discharges 50, 103, and 230 second-feet. Correspond- ing values of n are 0.0132, 0.0130, and 0.0122. 62 THE FLOW OF WATER IN IRRIGATION CHANNELS. 63 No. 16, R. S., Lizard chute, Boise project, United States Reclamation Service. Straight, very smooth and uniform. Sides battered 1 in 12. Meter measurement in canal below chute. The chute is 900 feet long, in three slopes. Coefficient n=0.0124. No. 17, R. S. Same section as No. 16 above with different discharge. Coefficient n=0.0130. No. 18, VMC+, Long Pond chute near Fort Collins, Colo. < JUNC sie fee cen ee eee esse erie 3 0 0 0 0 Apollo: L912. drom*accession No; £....; Valletya2-<------ = «=> se aces see eee aoe eee eee 3 Thocality,; Hpi see heck te See Cee ey ee siby =< Gacdet eden bees. 252229] 2s ee ee eee - Hill selected contained ...... tubers, of which .....- were large (weight, ..-. Ibs., .-.-0Z.); ....-- were small (weight, -..-.-. IbSseeeee Os) Rusnaes were true to type. Progeny record of tuber unit.—No. .....- se Weighties--2- oz. Planted ....... Plants not uniform; vigor- ous, weak; large, small;:erect, decumbent; healthy, diseased. Vines ripe........ Harvested -.-..... Number of tubers from each plant of unit not uniform -....... 5 WALY ATOM soe e eee to 23.22" , size not uniform, shape not uniform, --...... true to type. Total tubers ...-..-.- , Of which ........ were large (weight, -..--- LD Soper -f- OZ.) 2 tas were small (weight, ....-. Ipsiyzeer oz.); total weight, ....-- TpSgeeateee oz. Average weight per plant, -.....- Ibssyece. oz. Not desirable to continue another season. ODS CTV ET noe erie = sia a ne S's lnc siecrajelate's beige a= /-releleleiepsielelsisiele wise le eisi=ieiei= mie eia\2]7 Se aE See ee ce Cee FCM AT Sa was s aera ei eA aes Se celta wee ele oie Sane ste eee eee en eine ane eee eee eee Potato tuber-unit progeny record (1st year selection). Accession No. ....-.. Variety, 24. see Selected:by 2 elU ele Cee Selected tubers plantedt@seese 22 pase nese seeeereeaceseseee 7 191..,P. O. address, :... 2335-2 Gharacter Of SOS 2 fo ees asia o saa =i loiw mere viene eit aetelotem one ae see ele os isia fo eae ate aaa ae g | Sprouts Plants. Tubers. 3 Voce ) , 3 Rowe o H |Weight./¢ |Weight.| Total. | © S ; : é Hi 3 | go 28 2 g. : E s 3 S Bo | Hea les | se Bl al al ele) alo | Sage es 2/212 |s | ea] 52 Ae [pe |a £16 ie Elé6iel6|5 Be Soman Nes (ae OO eek Me Seen Meare ee lee ares ( Se Bem ace i eee peer Peas ee cae Greneral observations.— i). Sees 3 oases cee ee aoe a ae Seas so ore eee een eee eter al ete ee ae eee POTATO BREEDING AND SELECTION. Potato tuber-unit progeny record (2d or .. year selection). Accession No. ..---.. Tuber-unit No. ..-.-.. WMariety neice SSA Selected=.0 2.2 5.55.2555 5% 191. RIIOHETTRBH ACCS DY os 22s e's 22. Layade seas SR Se bd PEE OMA GG TESS see aes fe Ae aI hs RS Selected unit yielded ....-. tubers, of which ...... were large (weight, ....-. MOSS Bacote O25) se cams were small (weight, .--...- Ips.) S22 oz.) Selected tubers planted, .......-.-..........--, 191 Character of Soil sooo acreticisicinis seas ne Sees oeme & Sprouts Plants. Tubers = = H ~~ SP] Ss} | a ] 1 1 2 = 2 © g Weight. q Weight.) Total E s Sal Se | F = o|2'3 GS A 2 Bees ia | 2 |e | Se Pee | ae ee lsle | eile |e heres 2 eb Diet A S| Sa | SS SS es SS is Sis|/g]/elha|sis = . & | es Ss |SSlSEl2S SE\P | 8 qe Say Sy eg = a BS 3 & 24) ss | oA Aala ts) g io) ts) =| a |= = |aF | 4 lab |Ra|be|Ab lee la lola |alolalo|p TA res ieee Werte ie tn PI ola oa eee te eve ee De sae ale SR CR FE gi it | cee ag re leg) IMO RR LP re . / 7 SES ees eget Secinae see ests SSS SRS PS EE re ee ee aac P | | | “Hie || my alt Oe eR Ee ta ago chews He leanne oer i ee evn 'enhtl a il SAMIR SE 9 0 SSAA tal | |b ee: emma te | 5 SNS IE ipa | sel sola eae ; | Total... ccc cyt ) coilgials en ae = FS |2)s |e) 2) 8 4 2 ee a iS) pa ° Ey iS) ° &l/ofe | a Sifia|s |} es pe homme 4245 | Beauty of Hebron.....-.......- ALO) 105) “5s 5) 2.901 W242 bp Ola) 059) SON alee Ontatern LORS IA Cbiat Git INGE Mote sees aoe keen PA) AUS! ARPA CE oe EP ne Ssiiemeisliggens 14) .14 AGT) |i GOLA CO Lasers sere meee eae 3.4; 2.0} 5.4) 3.0 AGI REN od PO ee eas .25| .65 4968 | Green Mountain...............- STE SUS BP OLD CGN PRG Wau POE) aa 1 leon 8686 |.-..- Oe hee See oe BE eae irae 4.3 3] 4.6448 Pie Dipaa kay fel eect -8 Pits] Mees 04; .04 AQTO) || “trish: Cobbler 22245552 se a Sao eA al nl7al beoOlieeend -9| 1.0} 1.9] .25) .38| .63 5036) PECOD ena mae eee aeneer eee OG) 220). ASG BAO Il SEP Sh 7 Giles - a6) Olesen -02) .02 GISS5 eMC Commi ckse eae eee 2-8|- V3) A TP OST TAN OSS IES > S| ses eo eee 5460) | AINOLCLOSSHee =f nceecee ce eee ee een 3.9} 1.4) 5.3] 3.94, 1.1 | 5.04]..__. 30) 55] eee -03} .03 546271522 Co Lo eeyreel ape ee nee ae is See ay ATA ete Ale yes | elated cual evsteoa eee 9 9 12} .08) .2 GAO TRibib! Sa sea eee ee 1.5] 2.7] 4213.91 .64! 4.54 2 3) 15k 04 sock 6690 | Twentieth Century..-..--.....- SRR RIO PAs 71h 64h Ses4aiee ok}” ‘SOpee Release Potak Lt) 5333355: ees 40. 2} 16.8] 57. 0/38. 44)11.37|49.81} 3.0} 9.4) 12.4) 1.77) 2.73) 4.50 AN ORE IC 555 go) sc ee 3.35} -1.4| 475 3.2 | .95| 4.15] .25! . 78) 1.03) .15) .23) .38 Two-year tuber-unit average: Strong plants—3.28 pounds primes; 1.18 pounds culls; total, 4.46 pounds. Weak plants—0.20 pound primes; 0.51 pound culls; total, 0.71 pound. Gain in primes in favor of strong plants, 1,540 per cent; total.gain in favor of strong plants, 528.2 per cent. The average yield of merchantable or prime tubers from the strong . . = 7 plants was 3.35 pounds in 1911, with 1.4 pounds of culls, while the yield from the weak plants was 0.25 and 0.78 pound, respectively. In 1912 the yields were 3.2 pounds of primes and 0.95 pound of culls from the strong plants and 0.15 and 0.23 pound, respectively, from the weak plants. The average production for 1911 and 1912 was 3.28 pounds of primes and 1.18 pounds of culls from the strong plants and 0.20 pound of primes and 0.51 pound of culls from the weak plants. These yields represent a gain in primes of over 1,500 per centin favor of POTATO BREEDING AND SELECTION. SE the strong plants and a total gain of over 500 per cent. The graphic chart shown in figure 1 illustrates quite clearly the marked differences in vine and tuber production. It would be misleading to leave the Average Vield pet Unit (/2Mand 19/2) N™ he ™~ © ~ S Seebaniicerdraniiiilicardeanticeutean! NN NS NY NN NS he mm on ‘a ; mA Re a H TWLME? CLI0 (Acc -N2 6690) VA2 ME Cormick (Acc-N? 6/58) \/9/2 Wish Cobbler (Acc-N24970) —_— G G SNidieeupes Shs Pura! BlUS/? (Acc-NW?5480) Carat MNF / (Acc-N24235) Aea0e/ (Acc-N 25036) Green Mountain § (Acéc-N?2 E686) VOM Green Moura? (Acc-N?24968) (Acc-N2 5460) /9/1 Go/d Co/n (Acc-N?4972) Leatyor Hebron (AcC-N°AZAS) NOC OSS = | | Bra Norcross Qe | (Acc-N? S462) \/9/2 20 Was ~ Primes /~SIrONg C~colls 2-Weak Fic. 1.—Diagram showing the relative yields between strong and weak tuber-unit plants at Honeoye Falls, N. Y., in 1911 and 1912, impression that these data represent the gains that are likely to accrue through selection. The lesson that these data should convey is that tubers from weak, unproductive, or diseased plants produce similar or even worse progeny and that the greatest benefit derived 32 BULLETIN 195, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from selection work is the weeding out of these undesirable strains. It is not at all unlikely that from 5 to 10 per cent of weak, diseased, or unproductive plants may be found in all unselected seed potatoes. It is also equally certain that in nine cases out of ten in ordinary field Sth S DES N38 8S Wye NON AVEl ASC b/s of primes perAcre —/7.38 : ) | | | | | COME. ims tol IID | | | | | | | Ace ® N R@NN GND ANS Bb/s of primes per Acre ~ 6382 ene CUS) ae a — 2948 ~~ iS b/s of primes per Acre — GOOG No CONS Fa atin em iow a oh) WS 37h 4 8D OW & Se 2m / \38 | Bb/s of primes per Acré ~ 22.66 yw TG L//S - -24,.86 ZY2 7 3 bbls of primes per Acre ~/0./2 BO Gills ~~ ees AMZ, = 3 Bb/s of primes per Acre ~ 28/6 7 BRE COS ACN, OE eae ANZ = y &b/s of primes per Acre ~ ZOIO ; 2h) BONNE uN 1 = ZOFO / Ea : ; D2) ewes] aa} ois] - £Bb/s of primes per Acre —° 0.00 9e- GUYS) — > See, G42 wet ae ee & bbls of primes per Acre ~ 85.58 ? By 2 IOS 2 | ia me Bb/s of primes perAcrée ~ 7986 ne CC / sae ¥ — 26.52 { 3 TT Ue Bbls of primes per Acre — 54/2 2 PEGG = a ~ BL6C4 Bb/s “Dimes perAcre ~ W550 “CM CU/La REEL Gy” N Llls oF primes perAcré — 33.88 AOR COMS, Nite Meany Lbis of primes pel Acre ~ 67.98 we RCO — Z86/ x b/s of primes per Acre ~ GOA. CO// Sauna 2 = SAGE! 8 Sens Da oe 4bfs of primes per Acre — 65.78 CnCC//1S a y ~— 2442 teem 27/776S CUS Fig. 2.—Diagram showing the hill-selection performance record, season of 1912. practice these are unrecognized, because the weak or diseased plants are scattered here and there throughout the field and are obscured by surrounding healthy plants. Their resultant effect on yield is also unnoted and will probably remain so until we demand a practi- cally perfect stand. Bul. 195, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVI. Fic. 1.—PROGENY OF THREE TUBER UNITS EACH OF HILL SELECTIONS Nos. 2 AND 25. The upper cut shows the progeny of selection No. 2, the center one that of No. 25, and the lower cut the combined progeny of No. 25 on the left and of No. 2 on the right. Fic. 2.—VARIATION IN YIELD BETWEEN TUBER UNITS FROM THE SAME HILL. The upper cut shows the progeny of two tubers from hill selection No, 85; the lower cut that from hill selection No, 4. Bul. 195, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV. TH MTM nea ‘ Fic. 1.—STRONG AND WEAK TUBER UNITS OF THE GOLD COIN VARIETY OF POTATOES. Nos. 1 and 2 represent strong and weak tuber units in 1911; Nos. 3 and 4 represent yields from tuber units 1 and 2; Nos. 5 and 6 represent yields in 1912 from five tuber units of Nos.3 and 4. Fia. 2.—STRONG AND WEAK TUBER UNITS OF THE RURAL BLUSH VARIETY OF POTATOES. No. 1 represents a strong tuber unit in 1911, with its 1911 yield and the 1912 yield from five of its tuber units. No.2 represents a weak tuber unit in 1911, with its 1911 yield and the 1912 yield from five of its tuber units. POTATO BREEDING AND SELECTION. .. ; 33. HILL-SELECTION STUDIES. _ In June, 1911, the writer, through the courtesy of a potato grower near Portsmouth, Va., was enabled to make some hill selections in a field of trish Cobblers. These selections were made with two objects in view: (1) To increase the yield and (2) to determine the feasibility of carryimg over the first-crop seed for the next season’s planting. Unfortunately, the results of this work were practically eliminated by a severe freeze in April, 1913, which cut the young shoots to the ground, killing many of them outright. The 1912 crop was so prom- ising, however, that it seems worthy of mention. The 1911 selections were all planted on the tuber-unit basis. Plate XVI and figure 2 show the results secured from some of the more promising. Of the 16 selections shown in figure 2, Nos. 6, 7, 9, 25, and 34 are-the most promising, and among these No. 25 is far superior to the others. The 1912 yields of the 16 selections, computed on a per acre basis from the average of the units planted of each selection, are as follows: Selection No. 1, 3 units planted, yielded at the rate of 22.7 barrels primes and 24.9 barrels culls. Shee Re Selection No. 2, 3 units planted, yielded at the rate of 10.1 barrels primes and 28.8 _ barrels culls. Selection No. 3, 3 units planted, yielded at the rate of 28.1 barrels primes and 39.4 barrels culls. Sys Selection No. 4, 4 units planted, yielded at the rate of 20.9 barrels primes and 20.9 barrels culls. Selection No. 5, 3 units planted, yielded at the rate of 0 barrel primes and 22.2 barrels culls. Selection No. 6, 3 units planted, yielded at the rate of 85.7 barrels primes and 30.6 barrels culls. Selection No. 7, 3 units planted, yielded at the rate of 79.9 barrels primes and 36.5 barrels culls. Selection No. 8, 2 units planted, yielded at the rate of 17.4 barrels primes and 49.9 barrels culls. Selection No. 9, 4 units planted, yielded at the rate of 83.8 barrels primes and 29.5 barrels culls. Selection No. 16, 3 units planted, yielded at the rate of 60.1 barrels primes and 35.6 barrels culls. Selection No. 24, 4 units planted, yielded at the rate of 54.1 barrels primes and 35.6 barrels culls. Selection No. 25, 3 units planted, yielded at the rate of 115.5 barrels primes and 36.7 barrels culls. Selection No. 32, 4 units planted, yielded at the rate of 33.9 barrels primes and 48 barrels culls. Selection No. 33, 5 units planted, yielded at the rate of 68 barrels primes and 28.6 barrels culls. Selection No. 34, 4 units planted, yielded at the rate of 80.7 barrels primes and 30.6 barrels culls. Selection No. 35, 5 units planted, yielded at the rate of 65.8 barrels primes and 24.4 barrels culls. 34 BULLETIN 195, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is evident from the data presented that other causes than that of inherent unproductiveness must have operated to lower the yield in selections 1 to 5. This fact is made still clearer by the behavior of selection No. 4, in which the first unit gave a reasonably good yield of primes or merchantable tubers, while the remaining ones did not produce any. Itis believed that the seed tubers from the 1911 selec- tions were either infected with some obscure disease or happened to have been planted in previously infected soil. All the selections were grown in the same or in contiguous rows, so there is little likelihood that the moisture or plant-food content of the soil was deficient in the one case and not in the other. The behavior of the plants durmg the growing season strongly corroborated the disease theory and sustains a previous statement in this bulletin in connection with varietal tuber-unit studies, namely, that the chief value of such studies consisted in the elimination of diseased and weakened plants. It would seem probable from the behavior of No. 25 that a strong, vigorous, and productive strain had been isolated. The term “‘prob- able” is used advisedly, because, as previously stated, the best selec- tions, including, of course, No. 25, were unfortunately cut to and below the ground by a very severe freeze late in April, 1913. The injury sustained was so severe that very few of the plants survived, and those that did survive made a very unsatisfactory growth and crop. These selections have therefore been lost, and a new start has become necessary. Thus far, all selections that have been made for disease resistance have proved undesirable, as they either did not retain this quality or else they were unproductive commercially or otherwise. The highest degree of success can only be attained from either the tuber-unit or hill-selection method by working with rather large numbers. It is hardly conceivable that there exist many strains within a variety that are especially productive or commercially desirable, or that are mark- edly resistant to disease. Occasionally one may be fortunate enough to isolate such a strain with a minimum amount of effort, but the chances are strongly in the opposite direction. This statement is not made for the purpose of discouraging anyone from attempting to improve his seed stock by up-to-date seed-selection methods. The intention is rather to encourage the selectionist to make a larger num- ber of selections and thereby increase his chances of securing a supe- rior strain. The selection of a large number of high-yielding hills which are then thrown together for mass planting the ensuing year is not likely to result in any marked improvement except by the elimination of the diseased or the unproductive plants. The only certain method of securing a superior strain is to plant each selection separately, as rec- POTATO BREEDING AND SELECTION. 35 ommended in Circular 113 of the Bureau of Plant Industry and Farmers’ Bulletin 533, United States Department of Agriculture. Every progressive potato grower should have his selection plat, in which to grow his yearly selections; and, in addition, he should have his increase plat, where the promising so ooh oe may be increased for the field-crop planting. SUMMARY. The data presented seem to justify the following statements: (1) That the potato crop of the United States is of sufficient economic importance to demand a most careful study of all favorable and unfavorable factors influencing the yield. (2) That the economic use made of the potato in this country is relatively unim- portant when compared to that of Germany. (3) That deterioration of our cultivated varieties through improper cultural practices and through disease necessitates the improvement of existing varieties through the exercise of greater care in the selection of the seed and through the development of new seedling varieties possessing greater disease resistance or better commercial qualities. (4) That the term ‘‘plant breeding,”’ when applied to the potato, should be con- strued as sexual rather than asexual reproduction. In other words, it is believed that a distinction should be made between ‘“‘breeding” and ‘“‘selection.”’ (5) That the work of Goodrich as a potato-plant breeder was epoch making, in that it resulted in giving us the progenitor of the world-famous Early Rose. (6) That while the growing of seedling potatoes may offer greater possibilities than selection alone, the latter method can be practiced with much greater ease than the former. Breeding can be indulged in only by the few, while selection may be engaged in by the many. (7) That the almost total failure of our present-day commercial varieties to produce seed balls is due to male sterility rather than to imperfect pistils or ovaries. (8) That the commonly accepted theory regarding the inadvisability of allowing more than one or two seed balls to develop on a cyme, on the assumption that weak seedlings would result, is not substantiated in crosses 8708, 8709, and 8718, which developed five and six seed balls apiece. (9) That the data secured from some of the crosses indicate very strongly that some varieties are prolific seed bearers, while others are not. (10) That the tuber-unit and hill-selection methods of seed selection are chiefly valuable in pointing out the weak, unproductive, and diseased seed tubers. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY Vv ee ip: Pied . ah aes US nh an oye Sane HA > ety Pt UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 196 Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief / Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER May 29, 1915 METHODS FOLLOWED IN THE COMMERCIAL CANNING OF FOODS h By ® A. W. BITTING CONTENTS Page Modern Factory Equipment and Methods Extent of the Canning Industry in the United States Packing Seasons Use of the Term “‘ Canned” 3 | Experimental Work Spoilage Detailed Consideration of the Various Effect of Heat and Cold Products WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1915 Bb ULE RRR ee ELE US DEDARINENT OF AGRICULTURE No. 196 Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry, Carl L. Alsberg, Chief May 29, 1915. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER. , METHODS FOLLOWED IN THE COMMERCIAL CANNING OF FOODS.'* By A. W. Birtine.. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Modern factory equipment and methods.....- 1 | Extent of the canning industry in the United (2 DLL. ee 10 States. : Secee aap eet eee Reel, Per ey 16 MRT S56) ~ co on(S'sjs oan esos EEE HEpE Gree June 15to Aug. 1 DUE WTC... 663-264 Repo nesaneBepSeeroed bocescocoscooceoroece hulyae itonualyes20)s |e ae eee Georgia......--.-.- July ito Aug: 1 |2) 8222-2 yeast ose FuNneM LO towune 20) sessese eee eee 2 bert is 2 sore cod) aeoe socssepsebocapsad boson stecsoencoccntoasi|ososacooasesocosnoaso6 June 15toJuly 15 Indiana.......-...- sune!* Lito) Ochs: 1 Pes eas eee aac ees a Ses eee Wa eos a sD Kansas..........-.- ane? 8 to uly: 27 |p es es Ba esse le Se me steee wala ae eee ee ERE BE Maryland.......... duly 10'to: Aug; 20° |22s-2223-2e sees July 4toJuly 20} June 8toJune 30 Michigan..........- June 10 to Sept.15 | July ito Oct. 1] July 15 to Aug. 24 | June 25to Aug. 10 LST TTD 5g OS aOR ee ane MENG) ANU O Cin?” | scgncopsbesaceeasosg banguceemnoodoe spasot Nebraska. -......-.-. 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Aug. 11 to Sept. 5 RE Pir 8 eine A SACD CG OM ON OPO OEe Deer Sept. 10 to Oct. 10 1toSept.30 | June LtoSept. 20 |...0... 06. c. cece c cone Ve saeecandnup tei sashe| aiavean Apia dace ded ety Sept. 1to Oct. 1 DO TAS ICUEAD Noid cc tndaded ¢ add dedabs Aug. 25 to Oct. 20 « MOTO OLDS CO senaivoveceed souvee Aug. 10 to Aug. 31 Seslsouanpseepemetaur seks ddacdciWetsasdddedate Aug. 10 to Oct. 10 July 20to Aug. 20 June 15 toSept. 1 Sept. 6to Oct. 6 Aug. 1to Oct. 15 July 15 to Sept. 30 eri eee eee eee ee ee ee ee eee Pee ee ee eee eee eee ee ee 18 BULLETIN 196, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Seasons for packing various products in the different States—Continued. State. Peas. Pears. Pineapples. Plums, California.......... 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Relation of Brix, specific gravity, and Baumé—Continued. ‘ Per Per Per Specific) Degrees|| cent | Specific) Degrees|| cent | Specific] Degrees} cent | Specific] Degrees gravity.|Baumé.|| of (|gravity.|Baumé.|| of |gravity.|Baumé.|| of |gravity.|Baumé. sugar. sugar. sugar. 1.1111 14.4 32.6 | 1.1422 39.1 | 1.1748 21.4 45.6 | 1.2088 24.9 1.1116} 14.5 32.7 | 1.1427 39.2 | 1.1753 | 21.5 45.7 | 1.2093 |} 24.9 1.1121 14.5 32.8 | 1.1432 39.3 | 1.1758 | 21.5 45.8 | 1.2099 | 25.0 1.1125 14.6 32.9 | 1.1437 39.4 | 1.1763 21.6 45.9 | 1.2104 | 25.0 1.1130 14.6 33.0 | 1.1442 39.5 | 1.1768 | 21.6 46.0 | 1.2110 | 25.1 1.1135 14.7 33.1 | 1.1447 39.6 | 1.1773 21.7 46.1 | 1.2115 | 25.1 1.1140 14.7 33.2 | 1.1452 39.7 | 1.1778 | 21.7 ||. 46.2 | 1.2120 25.2 1.1144 14.8 33.3 | 1.1457 39.8 | 1.1784} 21.8 46.3 | 1.2126 25.2 1.1149 14.8 33.4 | 1.1462 39.9 | 1.1789 21.85 || 46.4 | 1.2131 25.3 1.1154 | 14.9 33.5 | 1.1466 40.0 | 1.1794 | 21.9 46.5 | 1.2136 | 25.35 1.1158 14.9 33.6 | 1.1471 40.1 | 1.1799 | 22.0 46.6 | 1.2142 | 25.4 1.1163 15.0 33.7 | 1.1476 40.2 | 1.1804 | 22.0 46.7 | 1.2147} 25.45 1.1168 15.1 33.8 | 1.1481 40.3 | 1.1809 22.1 46.8 | 1.2153 25.5 1.1172 15.1 33.9 | 1.1486 40.4 | 1.1815 22.1 46.9 | 1.2158 25.6 Pea ywi ose 34.0 | 1.1491 40.5 | 1.1820 22.2 47.0 | 1.2163 25.6 1.1182 15.2 34.1 | 1.1496 40.6 | 1.1825 | 22.2 47.1 | 1.2169 | 25.7 1.1187 15.3 34.2 | 1.1501 40.7 | 1.1830 | 22.3 47.2 | 1.2174 | 25.7 1.1191 15.3 34.3 | 1.1506 40.8 | 1.1835 22.3 47.3 | 1.2180 | 25.8 1.1196 15.4 34.4 | 1.1511 40.9 | 1.1840 22.4 47.4 | 1.2185 25.8 1.1201 15.4 34.5 | 1.1516 41.0 | 1.1846 22.4 47.5 | 1.2191 25.9 1.1206 15.5 34.6 | 1.1521 41.1 | 1.1851 22.5 47.6 | 1.2196} 25.9 1.1210 15.55 || 34.7 | 1.1526 41.2 | 1.1856 22.5 A7.7 | 1.2201 26.0 1.1215 15.6 34.8 | 1.1531 41.3 | 1.1861 22.6 47.8 | 1.2207 26.0 1. 1220 1 Gy 34.9 | 1.1536 41.4 | 1.1866 22.65 || 47.9 | 1.2212 26.1 1.1225 15.7 35.0 | 1.1541 41.5 | 1.1872 | 22.7 48.0 | 1.2218 | 26.1 1.1229 15.8 35.1 | 1.1546 41.6 | 1.1877 22.75 || 48.1 | 1.2223 26.2 1. 1234 15:8 || 35.2 | 1. 155! 41.7 | 1.1882 50.8 48.2 | 1.2229 26.2 1. 1239 15.9 || 35.3 | 1.1556 41.8 | 1.1887 | 22.9 48.3 | 1.2234 | 26.3 1.1244 15.9 || 35.4} 1.1561 41.9 | 1.1892 22.9 48.4 | 1.2240 26. 35 1. 1248 16.0 35.5 | 1.1566 42.0 | 1.1898 | 23.0 48.5 | 1.2245 | 26.4 1. 1253 16.0 || 35.6} 1.1571 42.1 | 1.1903 23.0 48.6 | 1.2250 | 26.45 1.1258 16.1 35.7 | 1.1576 42.2 | 1.1908 | 23.1 48.7 | 1.2256 | 26.5 1. 1263 16.1 35.8 | 1.1581 42.3 | 1.1913 | 23.1 48.8 | 1.2261 26.6 1. 1267 16.2 || 35.9 | 1.1586 42.4) 1.1919 | 23.2 48.9 | 1.2267 | 26.6 1.1272 16. 25 | 36.0 | 1.1591 42.5 | 1.1924 Zoe 49.0 | 1.2272 26.7 1.1277 16.3 36.1 | 1.1596 42.6 | 1.1929 | 23.3 49.1 | 1.2278 | 26.7 1. 1282 16.4 |, 36.2 | 1.1601 42.7 | 1.1934 | 23.3 49.2 | 1.2283 |} 26.8 1. 1287 16.4 || 36.3 | 1.1606 42.8 | 1.1940 23.4 49.3 | 1.2289 26.8 1.1291 16.5 || 36.4 | 1.1611 42.9 | 1.1945 23.45 || 49.4 | 1.2294 26.9 1. 1296 16.5 36.5 | 1.1616 43.0 | 1.1950 | 23.5 49.5 | 1.2300 | 26.9 1.1301 16.6 || 36.6 | 1.1621 20.1 43.1 | 1.1955 23.55 || 49.6 | 1.2305 27.0 1.1306 16.6 36.7 | 1.1626 20.1 43.2 | 1.1961 23.6 49.7 | 1.2311 27.0 1.1311 16.7 || 36.8 | 1.1631 20.2 43.3 | 1.1966 | 23.7 49.8 | 1.2316 | 27.1 1.1315 16.7 || 36.9 | 1.1636 | 20.2 43.4 | 1.1971 23.7 A9.9' | 1.2322'| 27.1 1.1220 16.8 37.0 | 1.1641 20.3 43.5 | 1.1976] 23.8 50:0! | 1.2327 | 27.2 1.1325 16.85 || 13.1 | 1.1646 20.35 || 43.6 | 1.1982 23.8 50.1 | 1.2333 27.2 1.1330 16.9 || 37.2 | 1.1651 20.4 43.7 | 1.1987 23.9 50.2 | 1.2338 27.3 1.1335 17.0 || 37.3 | 1.1656 20.5 43.8 | 1.1992 23.9 50.3 | 1.2344 27.3 1.1340 17.0 37.4 | 1.1661 20.5 43.9 | 1.1998 24.0 50.4 | 1.2349 27.4 1.1344 17.1 || 37.5 | 1.1666) 20.6 44.0 | 1.2003 24.0 50.5 | 1.2355 27.45 1.1346 17.1 37.6 | 1.1671 20.6 44.1 | 1.2008 24.1 50.6 | 1.2361 27.5 1.1354 17.2 37.7 | 1.1676 20.7 44.2 | 1.2013 24.1 50.7 | 1.2366 27.55 1.1359 17.2 37.8 | 1.1681 20.7 44.3 | 1.2019 24,2 50.8 | 1.2372 27.6 1.1364 17.3 37.9 | 1.1686 20.8 44.4 | 1.2024 24.2 50.9 | 1.2377 27.7 1.1369 | 17.3 38.0 | 1.1692 20.8 44.5 | 1.2029 24.3 51.0 | 1.2383 2050 | i 1.1374 17.4 38.1 | 1.1697 20.9 44.6 | 1.2035 24.35 || 51.1 | 1.2388 27.8 1.1378 | 17.4 38.2 | 1.1702 20.9 44.7 | 1.2040 24.4 51.2 | 1.2394 27.8 1.1383 17.5 || 38.3 | 1.1707 21.0 A4.8 | 1.2045 24.45 || 51.3 | 1.2399 27.9 1.1388 17.55 || 38.4 | 1.1712 21.05 || 44.9 | 1.2051 24.5 51.4 | 1.2405 27.9 1.1393 | 17.6 88.5 | 1.1717 21.1 45.0 | 1, 2056 24.6 51.5 | 1.2411 28.0 1.1398 1 Ny Fy ¢ 38.6 | 1.1722 21.15 || 45.1 | 1.2061 24.6 51.6 | 1.2416 28.0 1.1403 17.7 || 38.7 | 1.1727 21.2 45.2 | 1.2067 24.7 61.7 | 1.2422 28.1 1.1408 17.8 || 38.8 | 1.1782 21.3 45.3 | 1.2072 24.7 61.8 | 1.2427 28. 1 1.1412; 17.8 || 38.9 | 1.1737 21.3 45.4 | 1.2077 24.8 51.9 | 1.2433 28.2 1. 1417 17.9 59. 1.1743 21.4 45.5 | 1.2083 24.8 52.0 | 1, 2439 28.2 ; rr SSS 30 BULLETIN 196, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Relation of Brix, specific gravity, and Baumé—Continued. Per Per Per Per cent | Specific] Degrees|| cent | Specific| Degrees|| cent | Specific|Degrees|| cent | Specific) Degrees of |gravity.|Baumé.|| of |gravity.|Baumé.|| of jgravity.|Baumé.|| of /gravity.|Baumé. sugar. sugar. sugar. sugar. 52.1 | 1.2444 | 28.3 58.6 | 1.2816 | 31.6 65.1 | 1.3205 | 34.95 || 71.6 | 1.3610 | 38.2 52.2 | 1.2450] 28.3 58.7 | 1.2822 | 31.7 || 65.2] 1.3211 35.0 71.7 | 1.3616 | 38.2 52.3 | 1.2455 | 28.4 58.8 | 1.2828 | 31.7 65.3 | 1.3217 | 35.05 || 71.8 | 1.3623 | 38.2 52.4 | 1.2461 28.4 58.9 | 1.28384 | 31.8 65.4 | 1.3223 | 35.1 71.9 | 1.3629 | 38.3 52.5 | 1.2467-| 28.5 59.0 | 1.2840 |} 31.85 || 65.5 | 1.3229 | 35.15 || 72.0 | 1.3635 | 38.3 52.6 | 1.2472 | 28.5 59.1 | 1.2845 | 31.9 65.6 | 1.3235 35. 2 72.1 | 1.3642 | 38.4 52.7 | 1.2478 | 28.6 59.2 | 1. 2851 31.95 || 65.7 | 1.3241 35. 25 || 72.2 | 1.3648 | 38.4 52.8 | 1.2483 | 28.65 || 59.3 | 1.2857 | 32.0 65.8 | 1.3247 | 35.3 72.3 | 1.3655 | 38.5 52.9 | 1.2489 | 28.7 59.4 | 1.2863 | 32.05 || 65.9 | 1.3253 | 35.35 || 72.4 | 1.3661 38.5 53.0 | 1.2495 | 28.75 || 59.5 | 1.2869 | 32.1 66.0 | 1.3260 | 35.4 72.5 | 1.3667 | 38.6 53.1 | 1.2500 | 28.8 59.6 | 1.2875 | 32.15 || 66.1 | 1.3266 | 35.4 72.6 | 1.3674 | 38.6 53.2 | 1.2506 | 28.85 || 59.7 | 1.2881 32. 2 6652 | 1.3272") 3525 72.7 | 1.3680 | 38.7 53.3 | 1.2512 | 28.9 59.8 | 1.2887 | 32.3 66.3 | 1.3278 | 35.5 72.8 | 1.3687 | 38.7 53.4 | 1.2517 | 28.9 59.9 | 1.2893 | 32.3 66.4 | 1.3285 | 35.6 72.9 | 1.3693 | 38.8 53.5 | 1.2523 | 29.0 60.0 | 1.2898 | 32.4 66.5 | 1.3291 35. 6 73.0 | 1.3699 | 38.8 53.6 | 1.2529 | 29.1 60.1 | 1.2904 | 32.4 || 66.6 | 1.3297 | 35.7 73.1 | 1.3705 | 38.9 53.7 | 1.2534 | 29.1 60.2 | 1.2910 | 32.5 66.7 | 1.3303 | 35.7 73.2 | 1.3712 | 38.9 53.8 | 1.2540 | 29.2 60.3 | 1.2916 | 32.5 66.8 | 1.3309 | 35.8 73.3 | 1.3719 | 39.0 53.9 | 1.2546 | 29.2 60.4 | 1.2922 | 32.6 66.9 | 1.3315 | 35.8 73.4 | 1.3725 | 39.0 54.0 | 1.2551 | 29.3 60.5 | 1.2928 | 32.6 67.0 | 1.3322 | 35.9 73.5 | 1.3732 | 39.1 54.1 | 1.2557 | 29.3 60.6 | 1.2934 | 32.7 67.1 | 1.3327 | 35.9 73.6 | 1.3738 | 39.1 54.2 | 1.2563 | 29.4 60.7 | 1.2940 | 32.7 67.2 | 1.3334 | 36.0 73.7 | 1.3745 | 39.2 54.3 | 1.2568 | 29.4 60.8 | 1.2946 | 32.8 67.3 | 1.3340 | 36.0 73.8 | 1.3751 39.2 54.4 | 1.2574} 29.5 60.9 | 1.2952 | 32.8 67.4 | 1.3346 | 36.1 73.9 | 1.3757 | 39.3 54.5 | 1.2580 | 29.5 61.0 | 1.2958 | 32.9 67.5 | 1.3352 | 36.1 74.0 | 1.3764 |] 39. 54.6 | 1.2585 | 29.6 61.1 | 1.2964 | 32.9 67.6 | 1.3359 | 36.2 74.1 | 1.3770 | 39.4 54.7 | 1.2591 | 29.6 61.2 | 1.2970 | 33.0 67.6 | 1.3365 | 36.2 74.2 | 1.3777 | 39.4 54.8 | 1.2597 | 29.7 61.3 | 1.2975 | 33.0 67.8 | 1.3371 36.3 74.3 | 1.3783 | 39.5 54.9 | 1.2602 | 29.7 61.4 | 1.2981 33.1 67.9 | 1.3377 | 36.3 74.4 | 1.3790 | 39.5 55.0 | 1.2608 | 29.8 61.5 | 1.2987 | 33.1 68.0 | 1.3384 | 36.4 74.5 | 1.3796 | 39.6 55.1 | 1.2614 | 29.8 61.6 | 1.2993 | 33.2 68.1 | 1.3390 | 36.4 74.6 | 1.3803 | 39.6 55.2 | 1.2620 | 29.9 61.7 | 1.2999 | 33.2 68.2 | 1.3396 36.5 74.7 | 1.3809 | 39.7 dso de2625 a) 62959 61.8 | 1.3005 | 33.3 68.3 | 1.3402 | 36.5 74.8 | 1.3816 | 39.7 55.4 | 1.2631 30.0 61.9 | 1.3011 33.3 68.4 | 1.3408 | 36.6 74.9 | 1.3822] 39.8 55.5 | 1.2637 | 30.05 || 62.0 | 1.3017 | 33.4 68.5 | 1.3415 | 36.6 75.0 | 1.3828 | 39.8 55.6 | 1.2642 |} 30.1 62.1 | 1.3023 | 33.4 68.6 | 1.3421 36.7 75.1 | 1.3835 | 39.9 55.7 | 1.2648 | 30.15 |) 62.2 | 1.3029 | 33.5 68.7 | 1.3427 36. 7 75.2 | 1.3842 | 39.9 55.8 | 1.2654 | 30.2 62.3 | 1.3035 | 33.5 68.8 | 1.3483 | 36.8 75.3 | 1.3848 | 40.0 55.9 | 1.2660 30.25 || 62.4 | 1.3041 33.6 68.9 | 1.3440 36.8 75.4 | 1.3855 40.0 56.0 | 1.2665 | 30.3 62.5 | 1.3047 | 33.6 69.0 | 1.3446 | 36.9 || 75.5 | 1.3861 | 40.1 565 | 12678 30.4 62.6 | 1.3053 | 33.7 69.1 | 1.3452 | 36.9 75.6 | 1.3868 | 40.1 56.2 | 1.2677 | 30.4 62.7 | 1.3059 | 33.7 69.2 | 1.3458 | 37.0 75.7 | 1.3874 | 40.2 56.3 | 1.2683 | 30:5 62.8 | 1.3065 | 33.8 69.3 | 1.3465 | 37.0 75.8 | 1.3880 | 40.2 56.4 | 1.2688 | 30.5 62.9 | 1.3071 33.8 69.4 | 1.3471 37.1 75.9 | 1.3887 | 40.3 56.5 | 1.2694 | 30.6 63.0 | 1.3077 | 33.9 69.5 | 1.3477 | 37.1 76.0 | 1.3894 | 40.3 56.6 | 1.2700 | 30.6 63.1 | 1.3083 | 33.9 69.6 | 1.3484 | 37.2 76.1 | 1.3900} 40.4 56.7 | 1.2706 | 30.7 63.2 | 1.3089 | 34.0 69.7 | 1.3490 | 37.2 76.2 | 1.3907 | 40.4 56.8 | 1.2712 | 30.7 63.3 | 1.3095 | 34.0 69.8 | 1.3496 | 37.3 76.3 | 1.3913 | 40.5 56.9 | 1.2717 | 30.8 63.4 | 1.3101 34.1 69.9 | 1.3502 | 37.3 76.4 | 1.3920 | 40.5 57.0 | 1.2723 | 30.8 63.5 | 1.3107 | 34.1 70.0 | 1.3509 | 37.4 76.5 | 1.3926 | 40.6 57.1 | 1.2729 | 30.9 63.6 | 1.3113 34, 2 70.1 | 1.3515 | 37.4 76.6 | 1.3933 | 40.6 57.2 | 1.2735 | 30.9 63.7 | 1.3119 | 34.2 70.2 | 1.3521 37.5 76.7 | 1.3940 | 40.7 57.3 | 1.2740 |} 31.0 63.8 | 1.3126 | 34.3 70.3 | 1.3528 | 37.5 76.8 | 1.3946 | 40.7 57.4 | 1.2746 | 31.0 63.9 | 1.31382 | 34.3 70.4 | 1.3534 | 37.6 76.9 | 1.3953 | 40.8 Bie) Ree etal 64.0 | 1.3138 } 34.4 70.5 | 1.3540 | 37.6 77.0 | 1.3959 | 40.8 57.6 | 1.2758 | 31.1 64.1 | 1.3144] 34.4 70.6 | 1.3546 | 37.7 77.1 | 1.3966 | 40.8 57.7 | 1.2764 | 31.2 64.2 | 1.3150 | 34.5 70.7 | 1.3553 | 37.7 77.2 | 1.3972 | 40.9 57.8 | 1.2769 31.2 64.3 | 1.3156 34.5 70.8 | 1.3559 37.8 77.3 | 1.3979 41.0 57.9 | 1.2775 | 31.3 64.4 | 1.3162 | 34.6 70.9 | 1.3565 | 37.8 77.4 | 1.3986 |} 41.0 58.0 | 1.2781 31.3 64.5 | 1.3168 | 34.6 71.0 | 1.3572 | 37.9 77.5 | 1.3992 | 41.0 58.1 | 1.2787 | 31.4 64.6 | 1.3174 | 34.7 “1.4 | 12357 37.9 77.6 | 1.3999 | 41.1 58.2 | 1.2793 | 31.4 64.7 | 1.3180 | 34.7 71.2 | 1.3585 | 38.0 77.7 | 1.4005 | 41.1 58.3 | 1.2799 31.5 64.8 | 1.3186 34.8 71.3 | 1.3591 38.0 77.8 | 1.4012 41.2 58.4 | 1.2804 | 31.5 64.9 | 1.3192 | 34.8 71.4 | 1.3597 38.1 77.9 | 1.4019 | 41.2 | 58.5 | 1.2810 | 31.6 65.0 | 1.3198 | 34.9 71.5 | 1.3604 | 38.1 78.0 | 1.4025 | 41.3 ee COMMERCIAL CANNING OF FOODS. 31 Relation of Brix, specific gravity, and Baumé—Continued. Per ¢ Per Per : Per cent | Specific Degrees} cent | Specific| Degrees|| cent | Specific| Degrees|| cent | Specific) Degrees of |gravity..Baumé.| of |gravity.|Baumé.|| of |gravity.|Baumé.|| of j{gravity.|/Baumé. * sugar. sugar. sugar. 78.1 | 1.4032 | 41.3 80.1 | 1.4165 | 42.3 82.1 | 1.4800 | 43.3 84.1 | 1.4437 | 44.2 78.2 | 1.4039 41.4 80.2} 1.4172} 42.3 82.2 | 1.4307 43.3 84.2 | 1.4443 | 44.3 78.3 | 1.4045 | 41.4 80.3 | 1.4179 | 42.4 |! 82.3] 1.4314] 43.4 || 84.3] 1.4450] 44.3 78.4 | 1.4052 | 41.5 80.4 | 1.4185 | 42.4 |) 82.4 | 1.4820 | 43.4 || 84.4] 1.4457] 44.3 78.5 | 1.4058 | 41.5 80.5 | 1,4192 | 42.5 || 82.5 | 1.4827 | 43.5 84.5 | 1.4464 | 44.4 78.6 | 1.4065 | 41.6 80.6 | 1.4199 | 42.5 || 82.6 | 1.4834 | 43.5 84.6] 1.4471 | 44.4 78.7 | 1.4072 | 41.6 80.7 | 1.4205 | 42.6 82.7] 1.4341 | 43.5 84.7 | 1.4478 | 44.5 78.8 | 1.4078 | 41.7 80.8 | 1.4212 | 42.6 82.8 | 1.4848 | 43.6 84.8 | 1.4485 | 44.5 78.9 | 1.4085 | 41.7 80.9 | 1.4219 | 42.7 82.9 | 1.4354 | 43.6 84.9 | 1.4492 | 44.6 79.0 | 1.4092 | 41.8 81.0 | 1.4226 | 42.7 83.0 | 1.4861 | 43.7 85.0 | 1.4498 | 44.6 79.1 | 1.4098! 41.8 81.1 |} 1.4232 | 42.8 83.1 | 1.4368 ! 43.7 85.11 1.4505 | 44.7 79.2 | 1.4105 41.9 81.2 | 1.4239 42.8 83.2 | 1.4875 | 43.8 85. 2 | 1.4512 44.7 79.3 1.4112] 41.9 81.3 | 1.4246 | 42.9 |! 83.3 | 1.4882 | 43.8 85.3 | 1.4519 | 44.8 79.4 1.4119 42.0 81.4 | 1.4253 42.9 83.4 | 1.4388 43.9 85.4 | 1.4526} 44.8 79.5 | 1.4125 | 42.0 81.5 | 1.4259 | 43.0 || 83.5 | 1.43895 | 43.9 85.5 | 1.45383 | 44.9 ' rs 79.6 | 1.4132 | 42.1 81.6 | 1.4266 | 43.0 || 83.6 | 1.4402] 44.0 85.6 | 1.4540 | 44.9 79.7 | 1.41388 | 42.1 81.7 | 1.4273 | 43.1 83.7 | 1.4409 | 44.0 85.7 | 1.4547 | 45.0 79.8 | 1.4145 | 42.2 81.8 | 1.4280 | 43.1 83.8 | 1.4416 | 44.1 85.8 | 1.4554 | 45.0 79.9 | 1.4152 | 42.2 81.9 | 1.4287 43.2 83.9 | 1.4423 44.1 85.9 | 1.4561 45.1 80.0 1.4158 | 42.2 82.0 | 1.4293 | 438.2 || 84.0] 1.4480] 44.2 86.0 | 1.4568 | 45.1 Correction for the readings of Balling’s saccharimeter, on account of temperature. TO BE SUBTRACTED FROM THE DEGREE READ. temp. Per cent of sugar in solution. 13 | 0.14 | 0.18 | 0.19 | 0.21 | 0.22 | 0.24 | 0.26 | 0.27 | 0.28 | 0.29 | 0.33 | 0.35 0.39 14 12} .15} .16) .17} .18| .19| .21| .22| .22) .23| .26) .28| .32 15 SOO LL | 12) PE es Oe On media ere Oule CLT ii LO |) 20! 2025 TO BE ADDED TO THE DEGREE READ. Noe SESS ° _ = — _ = on 5 bO ht nSe _ 4 _ oo _— i) . _ oo _ © _ o = o — o _ = SSN SKES ~~ =) Be a = de ke 4 5) — S aw 2) a S S co f:) SS ~I o a — wv o so) oS No While the Brix or Balling spindle gives the percentage of sugar in a sirup, this is not true for the fruit sirup, where the reading indicates soluble solids and is always higher than the actual sugar content. As will be seen in following the tables on fruits, the Balling reading serves, however, as an excellent index for the sirup used, and in the establishment of grades should be used on the cut-out, rather than the quantity of sugar claimed to have been added. In the trade fruits graded as extra and special extra are put up in heavy sirup; extra standard and standard, in medium sirup; and 32 BULLETIN 196, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sometimes standard and seconds, in light sirup. Those packed without sirup are known as water or pie fruit. There is no chemical difference between a high-grade granulated sugar made from sugar cane and one made from sugar beets, though canners have been taught that there is a difference in favor of cane sugar and pay a premium of from 10 to 20 cents per hundred pounds for it. Some of the best packers make no discrimination now except on the basis of price. Both kinds of sugar were used in the experimental work and no difference was observed except in one case of beet sugar, in which the difference was apparently due to the sulphids present. A rather ashen gray color was given to white cherries and the delicate color in some of the berries was destroyed. Chemical tests showed the presence of sulphid, and leaving a silver or aluminum spoon in the sugar overnight was sufficient to cause blackening. How far such troubles extend in canning is not known. APPLES (PYRUS MALUS). Apples used for canning should be of varieties that cook well. They should be slightly acid, smooth and sound, and without bruised spots. Poor apples can not be used in canning and make a first-class product. The peeling is done by hand or power peelers and the core removed by the same operation or with a coring machine. Apples which are intended for dumplings are left whole and graded into sizes to give a certain number to the can, but those intended for pies or other cooking purposes are sliced in quarters or smaller pieces. The peeled apple is placed in cans as quickly as possible and hot water added to make the fill. If the apples can not be packed in the can at once, they are held in tubs of cold water to prevent their oxidizing or turn- ing brown. The process on apples is about 8 minutes at 212° F. for No. 3 cans and about 10 minutes for No. 10 cans. The waste in the proportion of good apples will be from 20 to 40 per cent, depending in a measure upon whether they are cut into small slices for pie stock or allowed to remain whole for dumplings. The waste is used for jelly stock, and dried for chops and vinegar. The method of utilization depends upon the quality. APRICOTS (PRUNUS ARMENIACA). The apricot is produced for canning and drying in its highest state of development in California. It is one of the good fruits with a distinctive and agreeable flavor, although this is not developed until the fruit is ripe and ready to turn soft. If packed at this stage and a proper sirup used, it is delicious. If packed while immature, it possesses an astringent and peculiar bitter taste that is unpleasant. If it is allowed to become overripe and soft, it melts down under the process and does not have an -attractive appearance. The period for proper canning is therefore short, which accounts for much of the inferior product found upon the market. The fruit is grown, hand picked, and boxed for the factory as peaches are. At some factories they are graded for size by running the fruit over screens having openings 40, 48, 56, 64, and 68 thirty-seconds of an inch in size. The apricot is not usually peeled; it is pitted and thoroughly washed, and any black spots (called soot or smut) on the surface are care- fully trimmed off. The great bulk of the crop is simply split along the pit mark and left in halves, a few are peeled, and a few are sliced for a special or fancy trade. The cans are filled by hand, the fillers using some care in separating fruit for quality alter it has come to them graded for size. Fancy stock must be evenly ripened, of good color, and free from spots or defects. The underripe, soft, and badly smutted pieces are separated for seconds and water-stock. The fruit receives the appropriate sirup, is exhausted until hot, and processed for from 6 to 12 minutes. An experiment was made to compare underripe and ripe fruit, the stock being selected from the same source and picking. The fruit which was in prime condition for canning was separated into one lot, and that which was evidently green, but which COMMERCIAL CANNING OF FOODS. 390 would have been used in the factory, was separated into another lot. The treatment of the two lots was identical, a 10° sirup being used in canning. A second experi- ment was made to compare apricots ripened on the tree with those ripened in storage. Fruit was again selected from the same source and picking and the prime-ripe canned at once, the green being held in boxes and ripened in the laboratory. The prepara- tion and treatment were the same as in the first experiment, but a 30° sirup was used. Both sets show very clearly a difference on the cut-out in appearance and flavor, and _this is confirmed by the chemical examination. The green fruit shows in the paler and greener color greater solidity, sharper-cut edges, and pronounced acid taste. The characteristic green taste persisted in the storage ripened and was only slightly less marked than in the fresh green fruit. A difference is shown chemically in acidity and in the form in which the sugar is present. This work was duplicated in 1913 under slightly different conditions but with the same general result, showing clearly the superiority of tree-ripened over green or storage-ripened fruit. The use of underripe stock is largely the result of the form of contract which the canner makes with the grower. It calls for the entire crop from an orchard, and at picking time the trees are stripped when the great bulk is ripe, with the result that some of those fruits which should have been left are taken. After the fruit once reaches the factory there is the same impetus to pass on. Of all the immature fruits examined the apricot is probably the most objectionable. The apricot is decidedly acid and requires a rather heavy sirup to make it accept- able to most persons. Packing in light sirup means that the consumer must add sugar at the time of consumption, when it will require more to secure the same result than if it had been added in the can. An apricot that will not justify the use of a 20° sirup is hardly worth the canning. Apricots are also packed kettle cooked, or in the form of a heavy sauce or butter. The fruit selected for this purpose is usually soft ripe. It is rubbed through a screen to remove the skins and secure smoothness, and evaporated in a jacketed kettle until the desired consistency is obtained. Sugar may or may not be added. For a certain trade halves or slices of firm fruit are added just before the close of the cooking. This makes an excellent product, but is better known abroad than in this country. The effect of varying densities of sirup upon the apricot is shown in the following table: Effect of varying degrees of sirup on apricots and the “cut-out” sirup. | | | | Density ofsirup | Gross |Weight of) Weight of/Weight of, Brix Reduc- (degiees). weight. contents.| fruit. sirup. | reading. |ing sugar. Sucrose. | Acidity. 1. Moor park; weight of fruit, 480 grams;! examined July 17, 1912, and Apr. 10, Grams Grams. Grams 1913: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Degrees. \per 100 cc.\per 100 cc.\per 100 cc. lo 5 94* 805 455 350 9. 41 2.075 2. 66 0. 52 10 sf 995 855 472 383 14.4 4.75 5. 57 - 80 gg Ean he al aad \\ 995 R55 480 375 14.5 5. 75 4,75 81 20 f 1,020 880 450 430, 25.8 6.75 14. 85 72 OT a lead 1,015 875 460 415 25.3 10. 50 9, 02 81 Po } 1, 065 925 452 473 | 33.5 6.37] 23.17 67 als Lala lacinliid | 1,055 915 480 435 30. 4 10, 50 13. 78 78 50 lf 1,085 945 458 487 37.0 6. 25 26. 07 79 ee eee "75" | 1,085 945 455 490 35.3 13. 25 16, 39 69 ry) if 1,105 965 410 555 41.2 7.50 29, 45 70 ii alalealeaaiaa 1 1,090 950 460 490 39.3 20. 25 15. 44 73 ' Through an error in setting the scale, the weight of fruit obtained was 480 grams, which is below com- mercial practice, and therefore the proportions of fruit and sirup are not quite correct, though the physical and chemical changes are properly shown. 79258°—Bull. 196—15——3 34 BULLETIN 196, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Effect of varying degrees of sirup on apricots and the ‘‘ cut-out’’ sirup—Continued. Density of sirup { (degrees). Weight. 2. Royal apricot; weight of fruit, 550 grams; examined July 2, 29,1913, and Jan. 20, 1914: Grams. 995 Wiater-| F106 39.5 964 34.4 546 19.5 418 14.9 1. 021 4 1,107 39.5 969 34.6 507 18.1 462 16.5 1. 020 6 1,108 39.5 972 34.7 481 17.2 491 17.5 1.018 8 | 1,098 39. 2 963 34.4 422 15.1 541 19.3 1.018 10; 1,091 39.0 953 34. 0 399 14, 2 544 19.4 1.017 12 1, 063 38.0 932 33.3 380 13.6 552 19.7 1.014 14 | 1,055 37.7 904 32.3 303 10.8 601 21.5 1.013 16 1,040 veil 899 32.1 274 9.8 625 22.3 1.011 1 Solid pack, 1911. Much better tomatoes than those which follow of the 1912 pack. The manufacture of pulp, either as a main product or as a by-product in canning, should receive special consideration. First, there is the necessity for careful sort- ing, and, second, for thorough washing. Both of these operations are much more important than when tomatoes are canned, for in that case the peel, with any adher- ent dirt or defective material, is removed. In the making of pulp as a by-product more or less of this objectionable material is rubbed through the sieve and can not be eliminated. For this reason sorting must be done as the first step, for it is not practicable to do it after scalding or for the peelers to doit. The washing should be of the most thorough character—first by placing the tomatoes in a hopper containing water to soak the dirt loose, and then by passing the tomatoes under pressure sprays so that all parts are exposed to the action of the water. The ordinary grasshopper or dump washer does not accomplish this end. The best washer is that used for cleansing lye-peeled peaches. It consists of a cylinder made of perforated, corrugated iron, mounted and rotated as a squirrel cage. A pipe with fish-tail nozzles directs streams of water upon the fruit at intervals of about 10 inches. The tomatoes can not slide through but must roll over, and are not handled roughly. The treatment is more vigorous than is necessary for canning operations, but is right for pulp or ketchup. With proper preliminary treatment and careful work upon the tables, trimmings need not be objectionable for pulp and are a proper source for good food material. Where tomatoes are very large and badly wrinkled the loss in solid packing reaches as high as from 50 to 60 per cent, whereas a considerable portion might be saved. The trimmings from the tables should be worked through the cyclone promptly; otherwise fermentative processes will take place. In the manufacture of pulp as a main product, using the small, irregular, cracked, and soft-ripe fruit, the same care should be given to sorting and washing. The tomatoes may or may not be run through a scalder and go at once to the cyclone. The scalding gives a better result than the use of a crusher without scalding. The paddle beaters in the cyclone should be set back and not be made to force everything through the screen except hard fiber. By being set back the hard parts are not torn to pieces; green butts, brown mold, and corky parts are thrown over the end. On the two operations of washing and cycloning alone the difference in the amount of organisms in the product may be influenced 50 per cent or more. A large proportion of tomato canners could advantageously sort only the finest fruit for peeling and work all other sound stock into pulp. It would eliminate from the cost of peeling much that is expensive to peel, would reduce the waste to the mini- mum, and lessen the number of employees required. The first operation in preparing tomatoes for soup in the kitchen is to run the contents of a can through a sieve and con- centrate over the stove. This work could be done better by means of proper equip- ment at the factory. The contents of a No. 3 can would be reduced to that of a No, 2 70 BULLETIN 196, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. can, with saving of labor, cost of cams, and freight. There is little excuse for packing seconds and pieces of tomato in juice? for soup stock when a better quality can be pre- pared in a more concentrated form, and the water can be obtained at home at less expense. The cooking of the pulp may be done with coils or in jacketed kettles, there being a preference for the former. It may be only slightly boiled or it may be condensed more than 50 per cent, depending upon the trade for which it is intended. Heavy pulp is canned in No. 1 and No. 2 cans for family use and light pulp in 1-gallon and 5-gallon cans for ketchup manufacturers. No standards have been made for pulp, and as a consequence there is no uniformity in the products found upon the market, The boiling pulp is run directly into cans and sealed; the process varies with the con- sistency and length of time taken for condensing; No. 2 cans generally receive 25 minutes at boiling temperature, and 1-gallon and 5-gallon cans, 30 minutes at 190° F. A good many packers steam the 5-gallon cans, fill them while hot, seal, and do not give a subsequent sterilization. This practice, however, is dangerous. Until recently the tomato was packed almost exclusively in No. 3 cans, but with the introduction of the open-top cans No. 1 flat, No. 2, and No. 24 cans are rapidly coming into use, as they furnish more nearly the amounts required in household use. There is also a large quantity of so-called gallons put up for hotel trade. Condensed tomato or purée prepared from sound material has many advantages for some purposes over the regular canned article, and its use should be cultivated, especially for soups, etc. At the price paid for the standard grade of tomatoes a better article can be obtained as a purée or paste. Some purée is made from peel and waste from the canning. If the material is clean and sound there is no objection to its use, but too often this is not the case, as is made evident by the presence of microorganisms, broken tissue, and products of decomposition. A paste which is made from the whole tomato and from trimmings by a system of spontaneous fermentation and salting is used largely by foreigners. This article is no longer permissible in interstate trade. Another grade of paste is made by evaporating the pulp until it becomes very stiff and heavy. The straining of the juice or pulp from the seeds and hard portions can be done better and with less waste by special machinery than in the kitchen. Tomatoes are sold under various trade grades, as extra choice, extra select, choice, select, extra standard, standard, and seconds. It is unfortunate that there are so many ways of designating the contents of a can, particularly when the prefix is mean- ingless. What one packer calls his “extra choice”’ or “extra select’? may be no better than an extra standard or a standard of another packer. The real grade at present is dependent upon the packer’s name, not upon what he claims. There should be but two grades—selected or first grade, and standard or field run for the second. ) fen i) S NIK in) 1) S So DOR NOUN Re tt ye 09 ek SS 09 09 G9 AR tN ND NO GO UR G9 1 Acts of Arkansas, 1909, Act 279, sec. 28. 2 Includes earth dam in Walnut Lake, sec. 11, T. 10 S., R. 4 W., $5,000, and earth dam in Caney Bayou, sec. 33, T.10S., R. 4 W., $300. 4 3 pouupEises 49.24 miles heavy clearing, at $2,000 per mile, and 0.51 mile clearing and grubbing, at $3,000 er mile. 4 Includes 672,500 cubic yards deep excavation, at 9 cents per cubic yard. 5 Includes earth dam in Coon Bayou, sec. 18, T. 11 S., R. 3 W., $1,000, and closing openings in banks of Bayou Macon, $7,000. 6 Includes earth dam in Oak Log Bayou, sec. 30, T.9S., R. 2 W., $150. CYPRESS CREEK DRAINAGE DISTRICT, ARKANSAS, 19 Table of cost—Continued. 3 Length. Right of way. | Clearing channel. Excavation. Ditch No. ee pte Feet. Miles. | Acres.| Cost. Miles. Cost. aa we Cost. ae 24,900} 4. 140, 300 $11,224 | $12,364 See 24,900] 4. 128, 400 10, 272 11, 412 38, - 20, 900 3. 105, 100 8, 408 9,368 Phe. a 21,000} 3. 107, 300 8, 584 9, 544 Ae. 18,500} 3. 94, 760 7,576 8, 416 Atte... . 14,400} 2. 76, ae 2 ue 6, B04 42 Coes 13,300 2. 70, 40! , 032 : AZ RSE 4 194,800} 36. 17,272, 200 586,485 | 2 623,615 22, 400 4. 104, 600 8,368 8, 368 13, 200 2: 69, 100 5, 528 5, 528 5,300 1. 28, 300 2, 264 2, 504 6, 600 1. 37,9C0 3,032 3,332 5,300 fe 38, 300 2, 264 2, 504 6, 600 ie 35, 200 2,816 3,116 10, 600 2. 56, 600 4,528 4, 988 15,300 iz 82, 500 6, 600 7, 280 7,900 ie 42, 200 3,376 3, 756 6, 600 1. 34, 709 2, 77 3,076 12,900] 2. 66, 900 5, 352 5, 932 8,100} 1. 44, 400 3,552 3, 932 5, 800 1. 31,600 2, 528 2, 788 8,200 |> 1. 42, 800 3,424 3, 784 5,300 1. 28, 800 2,304 2,544 7, 200 16 36, 900 2,952 3,272 4,400 : 23, 900 1,912 1,912 14,700| 2. 72, 400 5, 792 6, 452 17, 800 3. 64, 200 5,136 6, 936 4,700 : 25, 160 2,008 2, 228 ee 7, 800 fe 41, 700 3,336 3, 696 JiR B Ss ae 8, 900 1. 38, 800 3,104 3, 424 SMR ss =. 2 44,900 8. 205, 600 16, 448 18, 048 7 = ee 54,100 | 10. 207, 200 16,576 23, 666 Lo 19, 600 3h 94, 1C0 7, 528 8, 408 ee 10, 200 1. 95 49,900 3, 992 4, 452 Peers a 2 14, 500 2. 78, 900 6,312 6,912 (i) 3,920 ie 21, 800 1,744 1, 924 (2 ae 16, 000 3. 0: 88, 600 7, 088 7, 788 ae 18, 000 3. 97, 600 7, 808 8, 608 (, SS 35, 400 6. 187, 900 15, 032 16, 532 ‘$e ae 45, 500 8.6 278, 800 22,304 24, 104 [i 74,500 | 14. 237, 000 18, 960 27, 550 ee ee so «= - 20, 900 3. 124, 300 9,944 10, 904 ees... 7-300 | 3! 113, 700 9, 096 9, 896 oe 25,000} 4. 180, 100 14, 408 15,508 Seen ==. - 25, 500 4.8 143, 700 11, 496 12, 756 le 212,270 | 40.20 735 14, 700 | 317.67 14, 530 | 43,137, 500 217,376 246, 614 Total. -P 226,730 | 421.72 | 6,279| 125,580) 83.75 130,870 | 22,600,700 | 1,825,874 | 2,102,374 RMREICUION AS SU0VO . u's - do: = 2 527 See Be oes wc ee netcniehec da decease canccsece $2, 102, 374 DEEMED COnINALOS 5 per Colt 52.4. .: 2. Wee sn ce bee eon sa ca aa nace chelimenansee ck worwueste 105, 119 RMR re os So n)- Fala) ola - RRO ee Toe Te oe siowe's Halse sawceateaes ce 2,207, 493 Average cost per acre, $7.49. 1 Includes 470,900 cubic yards of deep excavation, at 9 cents por cubic yard. eee concrete drop, sec. 31, T.108., R. 2 W., $5,600, and earth dam in Cypress Creek, sec. 31, T.98., " -, $1,000. # Includes 6.28 miles light clearing, at $500 per mile. 4 Includes 53,200 cubic yards team work, at 20 cents per cubic yard. ‘ MAINTENANCE. All drainage channels eventually require attention if they are to maintain their maximum efficiency. The ditches should all be exam- ined at least once every year, preferably just before the rainy season, and all stumps, logs, brush, and other débris which obstruct the channel and retard the flow of water should be removed. No fences, fish traps, or piling should be permitted in the channels. The actual ae ee SS Ew, , vy i 4 J 20 BULLETIN 198, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. work necessary to keep the ditches in shape will not be very great if it be attended to each year, but if the ditches are not properly main- tained they will deteriorate rapidly and in a few years will require extensive and costly repairs. The officials of the drainage district should provide for regular inspection of all the channels and other construction and arrange to do promptly any maintenance work that may be needed. A COMPREHENSIVE DRAINAGE SYSTEM NEEDED. Before Desha County can be developed to any considerable extent, efficient drainage must be obtained. The diversion of Cypress Creek and the closure of the gap in the levee will be the first vital step toward that end, but that will not be sufficient. While it would be possible to do that much by making only one diversion channel along the route considered in the plan of the Mississippi River Commission, the work could not be done economically, it would be of practi- cally no value to the major portion of the district except in such extraordinary floods as those of 1912 and 1913, and it would cost much more than the recommended plan in proportion to the bene- fits resulting. The construction of ditches Nos. 13, 18, 19, 43, and 81, as described in this report, would not only permit the levee gap to be closed and provide adequate outlet channels for the whole district, but also would permit the immediate improvement of a considerable area along those watercourses. The cost of those five ditches is summarized below: Cost of ditches. Ditch No. Length. Cost. Miles. 11 ret Ss eee a Sia 14.79 $181, 300 Bsa seats nssoesere 16. 97 68, 664 NG she Ripe See le Sees 76. 04 406, 571 Actinic cherie ayartare terete 36. 8&9 623, 615 Bs cee cad ecmancerme yeram 40. 20 246, 614 184. 89 1,526. 764 Contingent expenses, HPioae Celiactissaaconcouasesadcse 76, 338 HNO) Ebi Sane SS oebaase asec 1,603, 102 While the submains and laterals can be constructed at any time after the main ditches, the cost will be less if the whole project is carried out at once than if a part is deferred. ‘The construction of these smaller ditches will add only 38 per cent to the cost of the five main ditches just enumerated, and in view of the low total cost, estimated at $7.49 per acre, it is recommended that the construc- tion be continued from the beginning to the completion of the entire system for which the plans have been made. ©) 444 Of. vy, / C4 fA LAMM GA VAA SLL LNA 7 F DISTRICT Fig.2 TURE BUL.I98 — OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS AINAGE INVESTIGATIONS OVERFLOWED IN 1912 S CREEK DRAINAGE DISTRICT Ib ESHA AND CHICOT COS., ARK. }p opening in levee at mouth of Cypress Creek Prepared to accompany a report p Drainage of the Cypress Creek District SCALE OF MILES ___ G.F.POHLERS, del. LEGEND Faded Area shown thes. Elevation and Date of Food Water. ¢, Elevations are referred to Desha County Survey Oatjm, Which is 735 fe below Memphis Datum Abpraximate ares Hooded = 202,300 Acres. i yl oF DIS Fig.2 U.S.DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE BUL198 — OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS AREA OVERFLOWED IN 1912 CYPRESS CREEK DRAINAGE DISTRICT DESHA AND CHICOT COS., ARK. Overflow due to opening in levee al mouth of’ Cypress Creek Prepared to accompany areport ‘On the Drainage of the Cypress Creek District SCALE OF MILES = a 2 Wz 3 G velpisa tea 75) Nea : ‘ zs : Me rd x\ & ae oe ae ere ee z he i he on Toe HOW aes ClNa 159) v3 : lseame 7 2 sen bevne OC. cahiae 7 pone re! \ TORT gs SIL SS C7 CESAR iUNIEY Me iced ra 6°: 17 ‘Ss Ol L Fig. 3 U.S.DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE BUL.198 —— OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS SSISSIN MAP OF S CREEK DRAINAGE DISTRICT DESHA AND CHICOT COUNTIES, ARKANSAS Prepared to accompany a Report on the Drainage of the Cypress Creek Drainage District DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS CYPRES by D.L.Yarnell,and L.A.Jones, Drainage Engineers «es ost, aR pany? c os \ 2 = pL — — ib ES any — Lee Years v0ci| os 3 if ane 06/| oname citi 5 Priam YTRTERT NM Ais jo o yee] a H & Po > ool ye ee” hae | f see fo 9c 2 re 1A cy 27 LEGEND Proposed Ditches... AS} zl) dh Willi idle. ‘Streams Not Mean Railroads __ Roads... _.__ Watershed Boundaries Section Lines. _ Proposed Channel Clearing Levee. District Boundaries_ County Lines. Township Lines... Surface Elevations _ C7) Bottom Elevations of Streams Elevations of Top of Levee. Elevations of Top of Rail BenchMarks...___ 0.G. Baxter, mphis datum NOTES — To reduce elevations to Me add 7.35 feet. Width of Channels ___ Information on South Lines of Sections /3 1912 oy fet a ---/ Ditch Numbers.___ ned from R. 2 W. obfa/ T/4S, Chico County Drainage District 70.30 inclusive, Scale of Miles x XR O W. 5 6 W. 7/ MiddleCane 2y Oia It 15 28 Wild Cat Lage 33 BULi 32 J Caw W951 Ii = os c VL sswg c © fszswg S = Eze f CE), [Biffy | MWY Y SPISWET /éi/) 10 15 22 ou pitch SH : § Cal BMAZB 1788 2) (699) 18 19 14. 4 16 22 7 20 18 WS (2) 30 2b 26 28 a = ul [o) LJ =] S N 3 nc} 3 + S = Arkansas River Levee.........---- 8 S s iS) 8 8 s Elevations of Bottoms...----.--.- Bench Marks_......--.----- G.F.POHLERS,¢el = SNI1 VHS3d a ey e Pa | Se 05 : —--L. eS 5 ~ — — Tee ALNNOO] NALOSNTT] G I ; = x 2 $ © 3 pepe ia | GY gyo) 2 RS 99) = ra] avwg sjz ed = S 3 & 3 = 3 ey Oo] 999, Oo: PTZ | zg) 3. e9)) 2 A] & 3 S 4 ‘ 1 , A | \) 0 é __|y0 X) C) =. #0. ) \ oy | eee" gy AWD | os | 8199) Bs ay © a E] 3 2 3 3 919) wage | | SV WE + 1 | 9891 =| roo 5 o gs —l! | 703) #91) 3 = ii SI a 2 a 3 os | Wie ro Ol} de \ —————— | 289) c i 5/4) | Dy Hs \X =| Cay = Ca) = © “yWg One 2 p>: 8 2 SY j = Hell a PAA S __¢oul { eS es = inn | ELL VY os g | = IU Sy = | | oed/ = F £54) | AN rel fe 14 | Goll ee | GL P| | 7 | 3 Cus c | | cH aa = | G ° 0 \ D ~ S ° = anv a E s 1 Ss % IS = y | a a Ms | = Bw ira pe ul 2 3 | ud E s = S = 7 a oO a | x Zz o "oe Mme Ss Se Og 5 3 = cS) as s ay es Ele 5 3 a 2 Be | ic o pe (e) o ss i [= Nan © 3 Na Ls) th et Se J yn mm < >Sd = aes, S| OMSL aa lane = 2) 2 See aie zo Zl/eeel|oal@iu @ S LJ 3 ) pia | Some iS Olan ~T = qj = 35 DITCH 19 2 Ed s 3A = = N 2 S 32, 2 23 8 = Sy as x 3 = ae 2 2 iS S tate S y s 2 o a5 se BE 5 “eo srone 3 < : 33 ae a3 are oy eG ay eS 5 § é 3s Se | 3 chee at EG : Se GS i |! | Sia 9 378 tar Bayou abe pe = | | eeerre eas al! = [surface or Hrubbed, = fal ii Gat = = — SE rr ee = t Botem| of Prososed| |Dieh | | ral) Jaasa | pen| mire | coon BAYOU) oe NOTES Line Taam ery Creek “ie | reer Sibu Meeeachen tn yardage Tar i [ | E 3 — ] | wees, Pers 3 a Erion tlt Bara WathBep Bor Ba — Bar BOF Baron Wah ST FxeeWane7R| Slo Tobe | 761 | a een i, Berea ener eZ? 2a ste | Wi esarseeeiar | ieestueety a eee sie et RTS Sears d aH] S9 ST claret 2 feb = 4 400 $00 600 00 B00 Stations 100 206 300 , | Gross Sectian Amos Bayou Sto 782 Gross Section Amss Bayou Sta 815 (GT jsp GoanBayou Sia 980, 60 150 150 ise aS ie \40) 140 LS o- 100 0 100 200 300 400 eal 0 100 200, 300) doo) 500 0 100 200 390 400. 500 | 2 x i) es RR ee o gig : ne 3B as fy \40) | Prebabre high warenaUrvacs 430 120 1 = i - =| 0 7 E BIE = | = == [=a t : | = a 3100 ~ 3200 7 aa | Hog 2300 7400 2500 2600 2700 2800 300 3000 Z a = 2 5 | C ci ny z z a 23 5 3 f & 2 e EDITCH & : y 58 2 £ sie 3 ¢ g 7 q ¥ s nw s ss 8 hss OR Gr | aS Gee @ § 2 Be & & & cos | ne ¢ axAR ORK OS 4 ROE oe a aes) CuBr ets 6 4 = 3 3 Pes 3 Ge 2 5 os § Pes us ag Say ss iS Sac Soy § y 3: Ca Cs US ST HS Se i Ey 5 = dt | SS ~ fa 3 : = ok\Log Bayou = = S = ~ 2 L | a ae SSS aes = — Peal aL | Pa cee =e | T 79705: | | Salata Pay len et geso Tamcoea t = | | | 130 Da ZB II | | = ee ee = as A Bora ry; Bae RAE —— aE oi a 793 | jatiens 0 Bain Wi 28h ATR Bors8h S27 5 Pare |p esr ie Secreta ial iat ial Se Sear = 5 % TRL — — ae + ~ | iG Cress Section Ook Loy Bayou Sta 25 ae COGS Pes), OPED aot + eegeen er | SG ie fatatmiastetetal ao ae I 140 ; | 500 130 ID II | ‘0 100 100 200, 300, 400 | == fs z= | BI oe Re os yess yee | & g . 8 & Th gee $ = > oo ESS | a, 3 3 > vg g are ¥ H § Er 3/3 | en fo ag eae Be fen ae | i Ie TS SS | 150 ath Cypress Creel [ sao Pel esatiction brome FW = > eal aw Fall pple | 13657 Tet/a of Wravosed ite Pz, TS Wea Fa O79, \ 130 IL 120 Bitisre Width 14?) Fetter Wrath 20% Side Slaves.) 1. lee Slapes:/ 1 + iio FASE Falions Bip Ca ‘SimmStanions 0 Fallenis Gypcets Oreck Sta 447 to 760. Clearing Charaphenbpimprovement needed yap chelens Hepay Gutphrard Bepay Fay fi 300 500 600 700) 800 40 oP SHB (pgCSI8' |, CSN |, 65.10) 4,5 Be Uy SS6) 4, 65.4 Woes 59.593 908-87, 49 CS. 85. 65.85 MSHS NG SSNa ihe RE A Eh } a { o 100 0 100 o 100 0 100 0 100. t) 100 0 100° 200 0 100 0 100 0 100 100 = = = Oo” 00 2 = “ a = 3 DITCH 18 3, + s > EN Z, ¢ < a a 5 Se a 2 3 2 i 4 4 3 a OU ; ° 8 2 d x ae < ta B S fe 53 8 8 3 bn Bo 2 2 wn Ho SRE co <2 3) dm = © = 23 Py) oo ne tH digs) S&S eu & és oe 2 oe S32 De, re ey Se aS Ge E sabes 4 Ei EY Ed js 3s A 140 6504 130 130 : en 7 leavou ewe epee | tame Te Weaish Teton WACOV Th FT eos Saieape! 5 “fasenjel ni __Stanens 700 200 300 sd ial 00 120 5st 130 Sot lbp ee fy SS reo 120 \20} 0 100 Q 100 200 300 0) 100 209 = == z= 25 = prs © za Ze Ca B = DITCH 13 aa a4 LEGEND FOR Ee = a2 on = s x Ee oo Q% no BE | as ss a iid Ba 3. = = 7 fs on 235 an 393 at { | 3 PG 23 ve ay 5 = a3 ae eyes ce epee A ee iB ga BE 4 ' { | Clay — | | Ir i bable high wate, Surface Y\—-—-— = | 150 i == = = “s7t) Bata Prpseaea LIFTS Voor a BS Ss = =e= = = ae Oo — Ie 5 A bal ed ES Bayou \ LAE ey AL Las et OR i Pe wpe oe) Sfations 00 300 saci Sies 00 Leper 600 700 0 CS Susuo CS Sty 405 tol a eua NOTE — To reduce elevations =e == => an nee 28S 20 5E = S $e BEd _ ab is 3B “a fas Ets 4 a | | = Se ee ee eee ipa = 3 ee MAC O|N, BAYOU Sse | Sh =———} a SS = [S70 CRA EA afar ig chennel land clesing Breaks 7m Berk} ae oacaamantsy neces [| Bottars Width BE : [J ee id 1200 1300 1400 2200 weaBoyou StaliS6 |<, _ Gruss Section Macon Bayou Sia /278. 200 weg es eee a a ae | - = i 140 i | Fig. 6 700 400 500) 600 0% 100 200) 300, 400) 500 600, 700 US.DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE BUL. 198 OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS es 2 S338 Sin 2 ee CYPRESS CREEK DRAINAGE DISIPRICT 5 Eres 22 28 ap bac ae _ 35 8. 34s of 150 DESHA AND CHICOT COUNTIES, ARKANSAS is Profiles of Proposed Ditches = == = 130 Qo 10/442 10 |40/5, Clearing channe/ |and closing reals 74enk are the only |mprerementy needed = = me VACON 120 19 12 LAKE E | Ho el i - = I 100 5 500 3600 3700 3800 3300 4000 == =z ae 326 23 O30 $2 es "3 ez a Be GE OER.S on 28 aS aS $355 ne “8 ri 35 no Ue ar) ae y fy ogo fs 8 eo ERR B 6 4 nee bt 33 cee | Se UE So a2ss oe OE oe go adfo SE oe Ee Gn 5 Bit wis le aha oe 4 he Ee ie ie — + —— — 150 -—" a 140 =; = SSS = 130 a Uy 120 ——— ——— Lall| No404 Figen mile Clay Boyou Wash Ae Ee Aid 1200 1300 1400 1500 2 : = 4, 3 G ssi s Fs S a n cole a3 e a8 ck 3 2 HES tae BR 2) gf 3st bie 3 @ sng 28 Sa 2 HE o ee R S 5 ne me qita S FY ae oy ag re i BR Bo ate EI = as ee HES) Sl rela ee ke DAs Ag AS _ 3 As = +— 50 220 FING 970 per L ae 7180 IC | ane] ti 2. 110 i | lan} em Wid jet. if foto Wr ren 7 | Peer eerie eases © emcee eT Ser STTE Alfons Bagey Lake Sea 1360 6 [700.0 Charis Chonndlank Plaeeme SALT Pata ane aaa! Dic 1200 7300 *—~ {400 1500 16 7700 7800 2600 505. 79 poesa42l jg CS99 |, CSa8 45 csice | esol cs 26 |e peace WeReSHE, 6 (Sit) 5c pe yy OSI 10} 120 i Ey 120] 120} 120 120) t 120 | eof LA 120 120 reo 120 120 ENS { 200 2 200) 1000 Oy) 100) 200 0) 100 0 100) 200 0) 100200, |!9) 200) 100) 0 100) 0) 100° 0 joo) 0 100) 0 00 O y 3 0) 100 200, 300 ° 0 = = = DITCH G6 A 22 on 32 7 : : fede ace 2DITCH 6 a4 $ & Zl aS ae) a 3 ay edes i} Ss : Hy S82 Ges os ' = f WW Sw 2 = Ge me 22 3 =n 5 a $3 a a] Be 5 : <= = FS IC Md Ligh Water sactace V—|———¥— | — CLEA HAH ene “Neco Probable Aigh wan surface RED| FORK BAYOU Pedros Sen Ber Da Fall 1056 tr fae = 140 [Fase Faj! b 520 three fae 2 permite | 340 Fal Ts8E7p LE ISOPEN 470 SS ee ITS ST pap 7 130 Tater WT 1 EE - i ai j Fpiea HT, A Bea Mame cero ae 200 300 400 20 fee Se zie | a Saecestal | i Crass Sectisa of Lake Cheatham 150 C214 5p CS 12 jg CS. 11 150 CS12, 59 05.9 Cs 8 cs 7 cS6 Te IE ry) 140 140 wo A 40 140. 140 140, 100) 200) 300) 400 S00 600) 700 0 10 70) 0 200 100 0 7000 Tito 130. | 139} 130+ Fa == 1000 700 0 109 3 3 =e $ Bo 39 oe -. DITCH 76 2 O1L BORINGS 35 5 rf He : 2 3 33 bid 32 Ba fa = » 3 2 bd s ie Sis sans 3 5 = 3 3s as = 3 Su 385 3 ae 2 2 g at a - ra Py Fo Sandy Clay Sand 4 1 | J cS) (mms a = Ls 140 faa rrr ee Zz — Preacsea DI | permite te - | 120 Bey LC fol/ 0528 7 per pire Wath Taf L See IC 0 Stations 100 200 300 Memphis datum add 7.35 feet. ‘en ESE pe eee | 120 Ne 200,00 0 42 (100 «IO 0 Be boriN Of THE €e USDRPARINENT OF ACICLIRE © No. 199 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. Apmil 7, 1915. LOSS IN TONNAGE OF SUGAR BEETS BY DRYING. By Harry B. SuHaw, Assistant Pathologist, Cotton and Truck Disease and Sugar-Plant Investigations. INTRODUCTION. It is common knowledge that an appreciable loss of weight occurs through the evaporation of the water content of sugar beets, as well as of other fresh vegetables, during storage. In the case of fresh vegetables the actual monetary loss can be measured by the shrink- age in weight. Some of this may or may not be compensated for by an advance in the price of the stored vegetables. With beets it does not follow that the loss in dollars and cents necessarily cor- responds to that in weight, because beets owe their value chiefly to sucrose. The sucrose does not pass off with water during evapora- tion. Yet numerous studies in European beet-growing countries, especially in Germany and France, on sugar beets piled in so-called silos by the growers or stored in the covered sheds of the beet-sugar factories have shown that sugar, while in the beet, is by no means a stable compound. Inversion and decomposition take place. This inversion may be relatively more or less rapid than the loss of water through evaporation, according to the method and duration of stor- age. Under the present methods of extraction, beets frequently are delivered at the factory much more rapidly than they can be worked up, and they must therefore be stored by the sugar company until the factory is able to handle them. The losses occurring during such storage are recognized by the manufacturer. They do not directly concern the beet grower. One phase of this question does concern the beet grower, but it has hitherto received little considera- tion and no experimental investigation. Probably the best practice in harvesting sugar beets is substan- tially as follows: With a suitable beet plow or digger the beets are Note.—This bulletin takes up the subject of the losses incurred by allowing sugar beets to lie in the field. The data apply specifically to conditions in the Western States, such as Kansas, Colorado, Utah, Nebraska, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, portions of California, and Arizona, but they are equally applicable to the regions having relatively higher humidity. $1737°—Bull. 199—15 BULLETIN 199, U. S..DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. first torn from their root anchorage and lifted several inches in the soil, which is at. the same time loosened. As soon as several rows have been dug, laborers pull the beets entirely out of the ground by hand, throwing those from five, seven, or nine rows into piles at convenient distances apart in the line of the center row. Another squad of- laborers immediately follows and tops the piled beets, throwing the tops to one side of the pile of beets. Finally the wagon comes, and the beets are loaded into it and at once hauled to the factory scales. It is thus possible to haul the first load within about an hour after the digging is begun. Most beet growers, however, are not able to organize the work so well. For one reason or another several days may elapse before the beets reach the scales. After the beets are torn from their root system, transpiration still continues, but the water thus lost is no longer replaced by the roots. Evapo- ration also takes place from the underground portion of the beets in TUESDAY. WEDNESDAY. THURSDAY. FRIDAY. SATURDAY. SUNDAY. ¥ y y yy 4 Fares =p F Fe Snre + E == 2 H = Fic. 1.—Temperature curve, October 14 to 19, 1912, Ogden experiment station, Ogden, Utah. the: now loosened soil. After the beets have been pulled, the evap- oration is greatly augmented, whether or not the beets have been _ topped. Commonly, the beets after bemg topped are thrown into open piles of no great bulk, remaining there until Joaded into wagons. It.is obvious that much loss of weight may occur between the dig- ging and the weighing of the beets. The experiments described in this bulletin were carried out to ascertain the extent of these losses. EXPERIMENTS IN PULLING AND DRYING SUGAR BEETS. THE DRYING OF BEETS PULLED BUT NOT TOPPED. At Ogden, Utah, October 17, 1912, the writer dug and: pulled » several rows of iboats, After coolete off the adhering soil these beets were at once weighed and spread on the surface of the ground in the rows from which they had been pulled. They were gathered and weighed again the same evening; then spread out and left until the following morning, when they were weighed for the last time. The mean temperature during this experiment was 43.29° F. . (See fig. 1.) Ihe results are given in Table I. ati LOSS IN TONNAGE. OF SUGAR BEETS BY DRYING. “3 TaBLE I.—Results of drying experiments with sugar beets not topped, at Ogden, Utah, an 1912. Loss. Time of . Date. weighing. Weight. = | Exposure. Pounds. Per cent. Per ’ Pounds. Hours. COLT TCI? TI ee See rR ee eS EE 10.00 a. m. Alls aaa ee cae eee: Oo oe ae 1217 <3 Se eae ee er ee Oe 1.50 p.m. 388. 25 29. 75 Teak 38 Wiggers 82 Bee Jeet de ke 2 3 | 5.30 p.m. 376.5 11. 75 MS | 74 CO egy sre0e TUS nae ee Se gn AY a 10.00 a. m. 374. 75 17 .42 24 TTD. 2b s@on See Bae OBER eS hoc ce ates oneness | ie es el re 43. 25 10. 32 THE DRYING OF BEETS PULLED, TOPPED, AND LEFT IN RATHER SMALL PILES. On the morning of October 17, 1912, four other rows of beets were dug, pulled, and topped as rapidly as possible. The tops and beets Fic. 2.—Topped sugar beets.in medium-sized piles (in the foreground) and in small piles (in the back- ground), referred to in Tables II and II, respectively. were weighed separately. The beets were thrown into small open piles (fig. 2) according to a common practice among beet growers, and the tops from the four rows were laid in a single windrow. At intervals the beets and tops were weighed. The mean temperature during this experiment was 50° F. (See fig. 1.) This experiment was repeated on the following day. The loss in weight of beets and tops together was 5.19 per cent. The mean temperature during this experiment was 62° F. (See fig. 1.) The results are shown in Table IL. f BULLETIN 199, U./ 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tanie 1L.—Results of drying experiments with topped sugar beets in small piles, at Ogden, Utah, in 1912. Loss. Material and date. otis Weight. — | Exposure. Pounds. Per cent. Roots: Pounds. Hours. OctoDearul [ene eet aaiece coe eee ace eee 10.35 a.m. 232,25) |. cn oetdel Sook eee ten Ce DO eee cisectee 20s 4 See Pee 2.15 p.m. 231 1.25 0. 54 32 Tops: PO CLOSET ee =o ase. ee 10.20 a. m. 95.5. |.accecsceeosleueee- eee: | D One een ee Sach ee ee 2.00 p. m. 83. 25 12. 25 12.8 33 Doe So oe. aan 5.30 p.m. 74, 25 9 9.4 7% Ney ee Sake den oeEoeesSce + s052||>ss5epHoooDd anocdsocade 21. 25 22,2) || 223 aoa Roots: October Sen moses eee cease ee ce eas 11.00 a. m. 382. 25 lc one se ce seee| se oeecee ooee pee 1D NEAL, ARR ee ease Re ee eee ei 5.30 p.m. 373 9. 25 2.42 64 Tops: October/lSisetso cee ee een eee cee 11.00 a.m. 185. 75 | oosacsetsaculteehn eee eee TD) OSAMA Rites SS Seales oes he Stee 5.30 p.m. 165.5 20. 25 10.90 63 On these occasions six rows of beets were used, the tops from the six rows being thrown into one windrow. Since they were more thickly piled, naturally the evaporation was less than in the preceding experiment, in which beets were exposed only during the morning hours, before the maximum temperature had been reached. THE DRYING OF BEETS PULLHD, TOPPED, AND LEFT IN PILES OF MEDIUM SIZE. On the morning of October 17, 1912, several other rows of beets were dug, topped, and thrown into two piles of medium size after being weighed. (See fig. 2.) These were weighed at intervals, with the results shown in Table III. The mean temperature during this experiment was 43.25° F. (See fig. 1.) A similar experiment was carried out by Dr. C. O. Townsend, at Garden City, Kans. This was begun on November 10,1912. These results also are shown in Table III. - TABLE III.—Results of drying experiments with topped sugar beets in medium-sized piles at Ogden, Utah, and Garden City, Kans., in 1912. AT OGDEN, UTAH. Loss. Time of . Date. pretahinc Weight. Exposure. Pounds. Per cent. Pounds. Hours (OY cL Ha) 012) oh ae eh ars SN eae 2 Sear 9.30 a. m 606 fence eb eeli ce oe kee: | aaee eee OSS ee es. Se A ee 2 ae AR 1.30 p. m 588. 25 17.75 2.92 4 DD) Oe icctoeleyie eine eo ee eee ae | 5.10 p.m 581 7.25 1.20 7% October lessons ae ee ee 9.30 a. m De 3.50 58 24 Totale. Set Set cE ora ee ee ee | RR 28. 50 4.70 LOSS IN TONNAGE OF SUGAR BEETS BY DRYING. 5 Taste ITI.—Results of drying experiments with topped sugar beets in medium-sized piles at Ogden, Utah, and Garden City, Kans., in 1912—Continued. AT GARDEN City, Kans. Series 1. Series 2. Date. Exposure. Loss. Loss. Weight. Weight Pounds. | Per cent. Pounds. | Per cent. Days Pounds Pounds. Novnmibent0n se - one 2s 8-225: |asa-ces see NGG) TM bo docneeel secre sobee G10) So Pay opera tee eee sy ol Novaliber tl. 2 a2 2. << sscsse.-.5)- 1 148 8 Gil 131.5 7.5 5.4 Novenutiarntoe:.).....-.....42: 2 140.5 7.5 4.8 121.5 10 7.2 ye ti 8 3 128.5 12 7.75 110.5 ll 7.9 Noyveninamian oo 3555s ssensk 4 117 11.5 7.37 101.5 9 6.47 OTS Se Se eee Sec eReecion| Seeemtaeae 39 915,07) IScanasuass 37.5 26.97 Mean daily loss in weight: Series 1, 6.23 per cent; series 2, 6.74 per cent; of the two series, 6.48 per cent. In the experiments at Garden City, Kans., the beets were topped as soon as they had been plowed out, and the workers piled them just as in regular field practice. The temperature conditions during these experiments are given in Table IV. Tasie 1V.—Temperature at Garden City, Kans., November 10 to 14, 1912. Date. Maximum.| Minimum. Date. “Maximum. Minimum. November 101............- 67 33 || November 13.........-.--- 53 24 November 1l.............. | 61 10 || November 14..........---- 64 29 Noveninenie.. oo. sntce | 31 4 ‘ 1 One-half inch of snow. THE DRYING OF BEETS PULLED AND PILED WITHOUT BEING TOPPED. Simultaneously with the experiments at Garden City, Kans., Dr. Townsend caused other series of beets to be thrown into piles without topping them. The results of these experiments are shown in Table V. Tasie V.—Results of drying experiments with untopped sugar beets in two piles, Garden City, Kans., 1912. Series 1. Series 2. Date. Exposure. Loss. Loss. Weight. - Weight. Pounds. | Per cent. Pounds. | Per cent. Days. Pounds. Pounds. November 10: oo. 5-25 ess Sore al | ae grate colette LOO. Dial cteatete: o leyell deci ote woe NOE Beageaccodaddodre.: ».. November 11........------.+--- i 95 5.5 5.47 106.5 | 6 5.33 NAV OULDGIL SG) 2 25s Yessewatemea 2 90 5 4.97 100 | 6.5 5. 78 PIGVOUIDOE ED. ti2c os durtauiceret ys 3 80 10 9.95 90.5 9.5 8.44 Mavemibellhe..:.04-. 2-002, { 68 12 11.94 a | 8B 8.44 GUE a tak cov decevsmeabhetel vars deanenlacedes . 7am 32.5 BOO amie ale efelaiaie 31.5 27.99 Mean daily loss in weight: Series 1, 8.8 per cent; series 2, 7 per cent; of the two series, 79 percent. The temperature conditions were as shown in Table IV. BULLETIN 199, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE DRYING OF BEETS PULLED, TOPPED, THROWN INTO LARGE PILES, AND LEFT FOR SEVERAL DAYS. On October 14, 1912, a plat of sugar beets was dug with a special beet plow. As rapidly as possible the beets were pulled and topped, care being taken to shake off the adhering soil. About 100 pounds of the beets were then thoroughly rinsed with cold water to wash off the remaining soil. They were then spread out on a lawn until their surfaces were dry and again weighed to ascertain the tare. The topped beets were at once weighed and piled in two piles of about 500 pounds each and left uncovered in the open field. The mean temperature during the experiment was 47° F. (See fig. 1.) Fia. 3.—A pile of sugar beets covered with beet tops to prevent evaporation and a similar pile left uncovered, About 500 pounds of beets are in each vile. (See Table VI.) They were weighed at intervals, as shown in Table VI. The beets of experiment No. 390 were thrown into two large piles, just as in exper- iment No. 389, but as soon as piled they were covered with beet tops. Both conditions are shown in figure 3. Taste VI.—The drying of beets pulled, topped, and thrown into large piles, open and covered. Experiment No. 389; piles Experiment No. 390; piles | | left uncovered. covered with beet tops. aide Time of | Expo- Series and date. weighing. sure. Loss. Loss. | Weight. Weight. | Pounds. | Per cent. Pounds. | Per cent. Series 1: | Hours. | Pounds. Pounds. October 14-2 222- 2 Pep} |lEn dS sosn se 1 arg SOG 525: Baie see | ee ae 508: 25) | 352266505 eee eee October Tos a25- Bsa Ko) eee 24 478.50 17.75 3.59 505. 50 2.75 0.54 October 16 ......- =e AOr ese 48 456. 00 22.50 4.53 501.00 4.50 - 885 October19). 2222-2 |= POL wee | 120 421.50 34.50 6.94 487.00 14.00 2.775 Botalwsid ays rales cee oe es | ame tne RY 74.7 15 706ul eae 21.25 4.180 Series 2: | | Octoberil4:-----: HGP eerste. eee ASG525 .|\G- Sarcasm ee 458219: loons )=s SS = Fic. 1.—Map of vicinity of the Maryland Agricultural College showing the location of the college kitchen (K), the stable (S), and the proximity of other breeding places of flies (A, B, C, D, etc.) (Original.) entirely removed every two or three days and taken to a near-by farm, where it was fed to hogs. The breeding ground nearest to the kitchen was the pile of manure heaped just outside the college stable. This is nearly 200 yards northwest of the kitchen. It is probable that a large majority of the flies at the kitchen came from this source. Upon examination at various times during June and July the fresher portions of this heap were always found heavily infested with larve. Puparia were also found in great abundance in the loose soil and in the manure at the periphery of the pile. Three horses were kept in this stable, and two of them were standing in the stalls during the greater part of each day. Flies were also very numerous in and about the stable, and during the day the horses were continuously tormented by them. A MAGGOT TRAP IN PRACTICAL USB. 3 With the exception of the college stable, there were no breeding places for flies within 400 yards of the kitchen. The stable, indicated by the letter C on the map, is approximately 400 yards from the kitchen and about 200 yards from the college stable. Other stables are located some 400 to 500 yards west of the college stable, the dis- tance from the kitchen being about 100 yards greater. Another extensive breeding place was found in the large collec- tions of manure at the barns of the experiment station, located about 700 yards northeast of the college. This is indicated on the map by the letter A. PLAN OF EXPERIMENT. With these conditions prevailing, it was planned to construct a maggot trap large enough to take care of the entire manure produc- tion at the college barn, with the idea that if the trap proved effective there should appear a marked decrease in the prevalence of flies, not only at the barn but at the college kitchen. To determine whether or not the trap was effective the following three lines of observation were undertaken: (1) By collection and careful estimate of the larvee caught by the trap and subsequent search for puparia in the manure, to get some idea of the percentage destroyed; (2) by making numerous fly counts during the season to find out whether the prevalence of flies at the kitchen and stable was decreased; and (3) to determine whether any of the flies at the college came from near- by breeding grounds (A, B, C, etc.) other than the manure heap at the college stable. THE MAGGOT TRAP. « The maggot trap used in this experiment was designed and con- structed as follows. First, a concrete floor was prepared 22 feet long and 12 feet wide. Around this floor was a rim or wall of concrete 4 inches high and 4 inches thick. An outlet pipe 4 inches in diameter was fitted in one corner toward which the floor sloped a little so that water would run out easily. Water was retained in the concrete floor by stopping the pipe outlet with a plug of soft wood. The pipe outlet led to a small cistern 5 feet square and 4 feet deep, the walls and floor of which were made of concrete. Standing on the floor of the conerete basin was constructed a wooden platform 20 feet long and 10 feet wide, supported on legs 1 foot high. The framework of the platform was made of 2 by 4-inch studding. There were 6 of these pieces running lengthwise 2 feet apart, and one fastened across each end. Each of the long pieces was supported on four legs set at intervals of nearly 7 feet. Across the top of the framework were nailed strips 10 feet long by 14 inches thick and 1 inch wide. These strips were nailed 1 inch apart. Plate I shows most of the details 4 BULLETIN NO. 200, U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of construction. Plate II gives another view, including also the outlet pipe (in this case consisting of 4-inch terra cotta) and the pump in place over the cistern. On account of various obstructions it was necessary to place the cistern some distance away from the trap, although, as will be pointed out later, it is desirable to have the cistern close to the trap and the pump so arranged as to return the contents of the cistern to the manure heap on the platform. THE METHOD ADOPTED IN USING THE MAGGOT TRAP. The maggot trap was put into operation on July 25. On this date the manure pile which had accumulated in front of the barn during June and July was hauled away and spread on the fields, so that, beyond the hatching out of the pupz and larve already present, it ceased to exist as a breeding ground for flies. On and after July 25 each day’s production of manure was heaped on the platform. Beginning at the end farthest from the barn door, the manure was piled up to a height of from 34 to 4 feet. The heap was maintained at about this height, and with the daily additions it kept increasing in length. Plates | and II show the appearance of the heap after a little more than four weeks’ accumulation. The platform was found large enough to hold a little more than two months’ production of manure from three horses and could easily have been made to hold the total production for three months by making the pile higher. Each day, after the addition of manure and litter from the stable, the manure on the platform was sprinkled with enough water to moisten it thoroughly without causing any leaching. Water was run into the concrete basin below the platform, so that the floor beneath the manure was covered to a depth of 4 inch in the shallowest part. Larve migrating from the manure dropped into the water below and were drowned. _ At least once a week, and sometimes oftener, the water was drawn off from the basin into the cistern and the floor was washed clean by a strong stream of water from a hose. The larve which had fallen into the water, together with the débris which had sifted through the platform or fallen from the sides, were collected at the cistern end of the outlet pipe in a strainer. The matter thus retained in the strainer was then spread out on a smooth concrete surface near by, and the number of larve present was carefully estimated. The outlet was then plugged, and the basin again partly filled with water by pumping back what had run into the cistern. THE PERCENTAGE OF MAGGOTS DESTROYED. Without going into details of the weekly or biweekly counts, it will be enough to state that during the period from July 25 to October 1 a total of about 112,000 dead larvee were collected in this way. A MAGGOT TRAP IN PRACTICAL USE. 5 But this number does not represent all that dropped out of the manure into the water below. A flock of young turkeys roamed at large during the summer over the college grounds and adjoining fields. Having once found the maggot trap they made frequent visits and were seen to devour the larve with great avidity, sometimes com- pletely clearing the floor except where the water was more than 2 or 3 inches deep or when it was so badly discolored as to conceal the larve. Sparrows also were seen frequently on this floor, but one could never get close enough to see whether they actually devoured any larve or not. It is more than likely that they did. The actual number of larvee which were destroyed by the maggot trap was s undoubtedly much greater than 112,000. After October 1 the writer and an assistant examined all the manure on this platform in search of puparia. The manure was thrown off, a few bushels at a time, onto a smooth éoncrete surface near by and very carefully examined, all straw being shaken out and all solid parts being finely broken up. In a very literal sense this was like looking for a needle in a haystack. A few scattered puparia were seen in various parts of the heap, but in only two spots were they to be found in the characteristic clusters or ‘nests’? which can be found so readily at the edges of manure piles on the ground. These two nests were found at the end of the platform where the most recent additions had been made. The manure at this end had not been sprinkled with water after the day 1t was put on. Failure to keep this moist as long as larvee were present is, in the writer’s opinion, the explana- tion of the pupation in this part. One nest contained about 400, and the second about 700 puparia. Allowing for some that may have escaped notice, the number of puparia may be given in round numbers as 1,500. No larve whatever were found in any part of this heap, the oldest part of which had been on the platform for two months, and even the freshest portion of which had been standing for at least. 10 days before it was examined. If, then, 1,500 represents the total number which pupated in the manure and 112,000 the number which was destroyed by drowning, it shows a percentage destruction of about 98.5 per cent of the possible total. This is illustrated in figure 2, above. Taking into account the larve devoured by turkeys, ete., it is probable that the effectiveness of the trap could be rated as above 99 per cent. In a former bulletin the claim was made that manure will be prac- tically free from maggots after standing 10 or 12 days. Special attention was given to this point during the course of the experiment, and all observations tended to support the claim. Moreover, there was no evidence that larve ever migrated from the fresher portions of the manure to the older parts to pupate. That old manure does not serve as a breeding place for flies is a point that deserves 6 BULLETIN NO. 200, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. some emphasis entirely aside from its bearing on the practical use of the maggot trap. The explanation is probably to be found in the changes which take place in the manure heap during storage. As the pile stands it settles considerably, with a consequent decrease of air spaces, and, especially if watered, air does not penetrate far below the surface. Dehérain and Dupont (1900) have shown that in manure well heaped so that air can not penetrate readily, the confined gases consist largely of carbon dioxid and methane, and that oxygen is not found except near the surface. It may well be that the lack of oxygen and the abundance of carbon dioxid render old manure unfavorable for the breeding of flies. It may also be that the com- position of the gases in the manure is one of the factors which in- fluence migration and the choice of a place for pupation. “LARVAE DESTROYED BY THE MAGGOT TRAP SEN ve ASCE OANA Wie Gas Sonia Men 2 Bee, oT M2:000. ty if X IQ) |WOMBER WHICH PUPATED IN THE MANURE: iN /500 N AVERAGE OF 10 COUNTS AT KITCHEN BEFORE AUGUST /0.) AVERAGE OF 10 COUNTS AT KITCHEN AFTER AUGUST /O. 'y “692 ‘kK S Q d X AVERAGE OF 9 GOUNTS AT STABLE BEFORE AUGUST /O. Mies ae OSS: AVERAGE OF 9 COUNTS AT STABLE AFTER AUGUST /0. Fic. 2.—Graphical representation of the work of the maggot trap and its effect on the prevalence of flies. (Original.) EFFECT ON THE FLY PREVALENCE AT THE STABLE AND KITCHEN. Turning now to the second line of observation, it will be of interest to determine to what extent the maggot trap influenced the number of flies at the stable and kitchen. An answer to this is to be found in the series of fly counts made during the season, both before and after the trap was started. In taking these counts “tanglefoot” sticky fly paper was used. The papers were exposed for 24-hour intervals and counted immediately at the end of that period. Figure 3 is a graphic representation of these series of counts at the stable and kitchen. In each case the number given is the total caught on two papers exposed at the same time. At the kitchen the two papers were always exposed in the same way on top of the garbage pails, and at the stable one paper was put on the floor just outside the A MAGGOT TRAP IN PRACTICAL USE, 7 door and the second just inside the door, which faces the east. On several occasions papers were exposed, but the counts are not given in the diagram for the reason that a shower of rain or a strong wind spoiled some of the papers. The numbers which are plotted are those obtained on clear, warm days, on which the climatological conditions were nearly the same except for the direction of the wind. This will account for the irregular time intervals between the successive counts. It is recognized that this method is not all that could be desired as an accurate index of fly prevalence. The use of a small number of fly papers in this way is nothing more than a method of sampling, but since the papers were exposed always in the same places and under nearly the same climatological conditions, the method may be con- sidered as reliable as any method of sampling used in other lines of 2500. T TI = 2500 RTT 1 Ht [ HH ag! i | naa { zoo TTT HH | c | ae x ia LE 4 13200 T > a tit s200\4 4+ <— S eee & | Sy | 3 I & 00 F Non fafa T hi} T / J H = 009; =, a F tit 900} ith St c L er ws 200-4 1% , tT h Spool} S Thit | | uy 60o— t — 3 : Lt Uy tiiid | ty ged | 1ty I 1} ty a IN 4 peed 0008 | f§ POTTY | R } 200} : 65 od SEPTEMBER Fic. 3.—The broken line connects series of fly counts at the garbage pails near kitchen; the solid line, those at the stable. (Original.) work. The use of a few fly papers in this way would not of itself have any appreciable effect on fly prevalence. It was thought that the use of fly traps would complicate the situation in that any appar- ent reduction in the number of flies might be ascribed to their use rather than to the maggot trap. A study of the fly counts shown in figure 3 reveals that there was a decided drop in the number of flies both at the kitchen and stable very shortly after the maggot trap was put into operation. Assuming that all the flies at the stable and kitchen at the time the experiment began (July 25) were freshly emerged and that they would all die off within three weeks (there is some evidence that flies seldom live longer than this in midsummer), one would expect to find a reduction in the number of flies about August 10 or 12. As a matter of fact this is what occurred. Although the counts fluctuate considerably after » 8 BULLETIN NO. 200, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this date, in no case do the highest counts rise to the level of the lowest counts made before August 10. In one respect these counts hardly give a fair indication of the effect of the maggot trap, this for the reason that the college kitchen was closed from August 7 to September 7. It will be seen that flies almost completely disappeared from the kitchen during the latter part of August, but as soon as the garbage pails were again in use the fly counts go up fairly high, although not as high as the lowest count at this place before the experiment started. It is interesting to:note that while the kitchen was closed the fly counts at the stable were somewhat increased and that after the kitchen reopened the flies almost disappeared from the stable. Taking the counts at the kitchen, we find that the average of the 10 counts before August 10 is 2,131, while the average of the 10 counts after August 10 is 692, an average reduction of 67.5 per cent. At the stable the average of 9 counts before August 10 is 1,038, and the average of 12 counts after August 10 is 248, an average reduction of 76 per cent. The behavior of the horses standing in the stalls was also a fairly good index of fly prevalence in the stable. As noted above, the horses were constantly tormented during June and July. During the day the stamping of feet and switching of tails was incessant. After the maggot trap had been in operation for some time there was a noticeable change. The horses stood much more quietly, and their efforts to get rid of flies were less continuous. Several men at the college observed this and volunteered the information. INFLUENCE OF OTHER BREEDING PLACES ON THE NUMBER OF FLIES AT THE COLLEGE. If the maggot trap was really destroying 98 per cent of the flies breeding in the manure at the college stable, why is there not a corre- sponding reduction in the number of adult flies instead of an average reduction of from 67 to 76 per cent? The third series of observations points to a probable explanation of this. As indicated on the map, there are several breeding places within 700, yards of the college, and 700 yards is well within the range of flight of flies, a fact which has been proved by several workers. A few flight experiments with marked flies were carried out during the season, not with the idea of determining the range of flight, but merely to make sure whether or not flies from these various breeding places found their way to the college stable and kitchen. First, about 600 recently emerged flies were thoroughly dusted with finely powdered red crayon and liberated on August 31 at a point near the stable indicated by the letter B (fig. 1). The point of liberation was about 400 yards west of the college stable and perhaps 500 yards from the kitchen. In spite of the presence of several houses Bul, 200, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ([BUISII0) ‘pedvey st oinueM YoIyA oO WI0F{B[d UEpooOM 9} PUB ‘PoUMOIP OLB VAIVE YO!YAA UL 1JoYVA SULUTLIUOD UIseq 0401009 oy} SUIMOYS ‘dvaj JOSSBUL 9Y} JO Mat “IOULNOD AT4-SSNOH YOS dVY¥] LODOVI| V A PLATE II. Bul. 200, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ([BULSIIO) “UISBq oJo10U00 OY} O} Youd 10yBVAd oorLOF OF posn dumnd oy} puv ‘U194STO [RWIS OY} 0} surpvoe] odid oy] surMoys “JOULNOD A14-3SNOH OS dVHL LODDV V ‘ dvi JoSsvut 04) JO MOoLA JOqQoUY PLATE III. Bul. 200, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘uo. (=) 3 (‘[BUISIIO) “SeTH TOF punoIs Surpooasq ysoq oy} aoyo our} ours ou} 18 pue O1}LU JO SSOT 4S97VOIS OY] LOAVT YOIYA SUOTIPULd OY} SuwAIsnT[] “yZdap oI] SuIAvY pu vare as5I¥[ B SUTIAAOD ofId oINULU ¥ ‘dVY] LODSVIA) SHL SO 3S| AP SANOOYSAO SHV HOIHM SNOILIGNOD A1gVYISSGNA ee ae ee we A MAGGOT TRAP IN PRACTICAL USE, 9 and stables in the immediate vicinity, some of these marked flies found their way to the college barn. Here two of this lot were recovered within the first 24 hours, and a third one during the third 24-hour period. That no flies were recovered at the kitchen is to be explained by the fact that the kitchen was closed and there was nothing there to attract flies. A second lot of about 500 flies, sprayed with rosolic acid, were liber- ated at the dairy barn (A) of the experiment station, 700 yards due east from the college stable. The distance from the kitchen is slightly less. They were liberated at 3.30 p.m. September 1. On September 3 two marked flies were found on papers exposed at the dairy barn, but none was recovered at the college stable or kitchen. A strong southwest wind was blowing at this time and may have had some influence on the result. It is hardly to be doubted that when the kitchen is in use numbers of flies from this source are attracted to it. The manure pile back of the dairy barn was found to be heavily infested at all times during the summer, and flies bred out here by the thousands. In a third experiment about 800 flies marked with powdered red crayon were liberated on September 15 at the stable marked by the letter C (fig. 1). Within the first 24 hours 11 marked flies were recovered on fly papers at the garbage pails, and two more during the second 24-hour period after liberation. No marked flies were recovered at the college stable in this experiment. The kitchen was in use at this time, and it must be considered significant that the flies were recovered only at the kitchen, although they had to pass right by the stable. This indicates the sharp rise in fly counts at the kitchen when it reopened in September. The same thing happened on September 22. A lot of about 600 flies sprayed with rosolic acid had been liberated on September 21 near the stable marked on the map by the letter D (fig. 1). None of these were recovered at the college stable, but three were found within the first 24 hours on papers exposed on the garbage pails at the kitchen. These few experiments indicate that a large number of the flies which congregate at the college kitchen and stable come from near-by breeding grounds other than the manure pile at the college barn. And it may be said that a reduction of from 67 to 76 per cent in the average number of flies, in spite of the proximity of these other breeding places, speaks well for the efficiency of the maggot trap. SOME DEFECTS OF THE MAGGOT TRAP. The experience during the past season with the platform maggot trap has directed attention to certain defects in its practical working. These defects, however, are not of such a serious nature that they 10 BULLETIN NO. 200, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. can not be overcome. In the first place, some trouble resulted from smaller particles of manure sifting through between the cross strips and accumulating in the water below. This was especially the case when sawdust and shavings were used for bedding instead of straw. If this material were allowed to accumulate there would finaliy be enough of it to provide a breeding place on the concrete floor, where the maggots should be killed by drowning. Much of this sifting could be prevented by placing the cross strips closer together, so that only 43-inch or even }-inch spaces were afforded. It is not at all likely that }-inch spaces would interfere with migration; but in spite of such improvement there would be, even with the most careful handling, a certaim amount of straw or small particles of manure which would fall from the sides of the heap or from the fork at the time it was put on the platform. It will always be necessary to clean out the concrete floor more or less regularly, and for this purpose a long-handled stable broom will be satisfactory when the water sup- ply does not permit the use of a strong stream from a hose. To facili- tate the cleaning of the floor the platform should not be less than 1 foot high nor more than 10 or 12 feet wide. The solid matter which happens to be washed into the cistern will decompose in time and be pumped back with the liquid onto the manure heap. In dry weather evaporation of the water on the concrete floor will leave large areas of floor surface dry. Larve falling from the manure above onto the dry floor will crawl away and can crawl up the vertical sides of the surrounding rim; in fact, they could crawl up this surface even if it were as smooth as glass. To insure that all larve are drowned it is necessary to keep this in mind, and every day, when the manure is added to the heap, more water can be supplied if necessary. This operation will consume very little time. The most serious defect was found in the fact that mosquitoes bred very freely in the water standing in the concrete basin and in the cistern. In order not to have one pest multiplying at the expense of another, it is necessary to run all water out of the concrete floor at least once a week and to clean the floor at this time; if then a little oil is poured over the surface of the liquid in the cistern, mosquito breeding will be prevented entirely. This method was used during the last weeks of the experiment with satisfactory results. If the cis- tern were carefully and tightly covered, perhaps the use of oil would not be necessary. No counts or estimates were made of the larve destroyed during October and November. It is known, however, that larve continued to appear in the water on the floor during the most of October and during the warmer parts of November. On December 10 the manure was examined without removing it from the platform, and therefore A MAGGOT TRAP IN PRACTICAL USE, 11 not as thoroughly as on the former occasion, but there were found at the fresher end of the pile at least four nests of several hundred puparia each. It is not possible to estimate the percentage destroyed, but it was quite plain that the trap was not as effective during the autumn asin thesummer. This may have been due partly to carelessness in the matter of watering the heap, but more probably to the lower air temperatures of this period. When the outside temperature is low, the difference between the air and the temperature of the manure heap is so great that the larvee will not leave the heap; and if the low temperatures prevail for a long period the larve will eventually pupate in the manure. The following experiment shows the effect of low air temperature. This experiment was conducted at New Orleans, La., in December, 1913. A small wire basket was filled with fresh horse manure on December 1 and was continually exposed to flies. The number of larve caught and the temperature during the period are tabulated below. Experiment to show effect of low air temperature in preventing migration of house-fly larve, New Orleans, La., December, 1913. Mini- Maxi- Number Mean oflarvee |, eee t aaueon) tempera- caught. tempera- | tempera- ida. ture. ture. °F. oer 2 12s DA eo eee ee oe ae eee 12 57 74 65.5 225 Se See eS ees 115 ee 15 56 67 61.5 Wo. -.-- 2th = eS Se ea ee ee eee 47 57 68 62.5 i 2 a2 eS ES eee ee eee eyes See 199 56 73 64.5 Rp nt en its ere ais anime se Ses ae\ecise sles yess 745 57 70 63.5 48 61 55 40 61 55 3285 50 41.7 34.5 56 45.3 38 59 48.5 41 65 53 47 68 5B} 58n5 73 65.8 49 66 57.5 50 62.5 56.2 52 69 60.5 ne 60 57.8 61 58 54.5 ! Approximate. Counts of Dec. 8 and 15 include catch of preceding day. Probably most of those that were caught on December 8 had migrated during the night of December 6. Not much migration from the manure takes place during the day, because of the maggots’ nega- tive reaction to light; therefore the minimum temperature is probably more significant than the daily mean temperature. It will be seen from the table that minimum temperatures of 40° F. or less will stop all migration from the heap. it may be said, then, that the maggot trap has another defect in that it is not effective when temperatures are low, and that it is not at all effective when the air temperature is below 40° F. 12 BULLETIN NO. 200, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SOME ADVANTAGES OF THE MAGGOT TRAP. Some of the advantages of the maggot trap are obvious enough and need be only briefly mentioned here. It is an exceedingly simple arrangement, and the initial cost of construction need not be very great. Once having been constructed, no continuous money outlay for its maintenance is necessary. The concrete parts are permanent, and the wooden platform would require renewal only at intervals of several years, depending partly on the kind of wood used. The writer is of the opinion that im the long run the maggot trap would be less expensive than the investment which many farmers now make in screens for their dwellings and repellents, sprays, and fly nets for the protection of their animals. The labor required in the operation of the maggot trap is a very smallitem. It is just as easy to place the manure on the platform as | to dump it on the ordinary pile. It requires only a few minutes each day to see to it that the daily addition is carefully and compactly heaped and the entire heap well moistened. The work of cleaning out the floor below the platform will require about one-half an hour once a week. It is very easy to run a wagon or manure spreader close alongside the maggot trap, as a glance at the photographs will show, and it would be just as easy, or indeed easier, to load from such a platform than from the ground. To facilitate loading as well as the cleaning of the floor below, the platform should be no more than 10 or 12 feet wide. The maggot trap can be adapted for use on farms where the daily production of manure is very great. As was stated on a preceding page, the trap used in this experiment would hold the total production from three horses for three months. Now the problem of construct- ing a trap of reasonable size to take care of the manure of 40 or 50 horses is not as hopeless as might at first appear. The production of manure per horse per day may be safely estimated at 2 cubic feet. It will be seen that a platform 10 by 20 feet would hold manure produced by 50 horses during a period of 10 days if the heap is made 5 feet high. If two platforms are arranged as suggested in figure 4 they could be eperated as follows: Platform No. 1 would be gradually filled up during the first 10 days; then, while this remains on the platform, the manure produced during the second 10 days would be placed on plat- form No. 2; at the end of 20 days the manure on platform No. 1 would be hauled away and the platform refilled during the third 10-day period while heap No. 2 was standing the length of time required to rid it of maggots. In this way the two piles would alternate, the one being in the process of formation and the other standing till practi- cally all maggots had left it. It would be convenient, as indicated in A MAGGOT TRAP IN PRACTICAL USE, 113} the diagram, to have a cistern located between the platforms and a pump that could be used in applying water to both piles. In making plans for a maggot trap one must take into consideration the volume of manure produced and the length of time it must remain on the platform. As previously stated, it will be safe to estimate that the production of manure per horse per day is 2 cubic feet and that after 10 days it will be practically free from maggots, provided it has been well watered. THE INFLUENCE OF THE MAGGOT TRAP ON THE VALUE OF THE \ MANURE. Plate III illustrates an all-too-common method of keeping manure. It covers a large area of ground, and no attempt at heaping has been made. The manure in such a pile is loose and shallow, and air penetrates into practically all parts. These are the conditions te 3-4 Fic. 4—Imaginary cross-section of an arrangement suggested for use where manure production is large. a, Pump; ¢, concrete floor and walls of cistern; 0, outlet pipes leading from floor of maggot trap to cistern; p, platform maggot trap; ¢, cistern for liquid manure; g, ground level. (Original.) which give rise to the maximum loss of ammonia and nitrogen. It also happens that the conditions which tend to the loss of nitrogen are the same which favor the development of fly larvee. An immense surface is exposed for deposition of eggs, and the penetration of air makes it possible for larve to feed in practically all parts. The fresher portion of the manure shown in this photograph was found heavily infested all through the season. It has been shown that the losses occurring in manure thus care- lessly stored will vary from 30 to 64 per cent of the total amount of nitrogen (Beal, 1906), and that by careful methods of storage this loss may be reduced to 15 per cent. Several methods of storage for the purpose of preventing loss of ammonia and nitrogen have been proposed. Among others is that recommended by Dehérain, Beal, Thorne, Ringelmann, and others, which consists in keeping the manure compactly heaped and well watered. Both heaping and watering tend to prevent the penetration of air and thus check the destructive 14 BULLETIN NO. 200, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. aerobic fermentation. This method is used to a considerable extent in parts of France and Germany and is fully discussed by Ringelmann. A cistern is provided into which drain all the liquids from the stables, and the manure heap is watered by pumping the liquid manure from the cistern from time to time. It is the writer’s intention here merely to point out that the disposal of manure on the platform maggot trap is but a sight modification of the method just mentioned. Figure 4 differs from a diagram given by Ringelmann only in the platform and in the outlets through which the drowned larve may be washed into the cistern. Here is shown the cistern in which the liquid manure collects. Watering with the liquid manure adds to the heap the valuable constituents of the urme and promotes the anaerobic fermentation. If it is true, as just suggested, that lack of oxygen and the presence of carbon dioxid render the manure unfavorable for the development of the larve, it follows that compact heaping and watering, by excluding air and increasing the moisture content, also insure the greatest percentage of migration. As a matter of fact, compactness and high moisture content are the very factors which make the maggot trap most effective, whether the explanation is to be found in the temperature, or moisture, or lack of oxygen. CONCLUSIONS. In this paper we have described the structure of, and the method adopted in using, a platform maggot trap. All the manure from a stable in which three horses were kept was stored on this platform. The results obtained during August and September seemed to show that at least 98 per cent of the larve breeding in this manure were destroyed. Fly counts made before and after the trap was installed indicated an average reduction of from 67 to 76 per cent. That the reduction of flies did not correspond to the percentage of larvee destroyed was probably due to the presence of several other breeding places well within the range of flight. Two difficulties were experienced in the practical working of the trap, viz, the accumulation of a certain amount of straw and débris on the floor under the platform and the breeding of mosquitoes in the water used to drown the fly larve. It was also found that low air temperatures hinder migration and consequently decrease the efficiency of the trap. Among the merits of the maggot trap were mentioned (1) the com- paratively small initial cost and absence of money outlay necessary for its maintenance, (2) the very small amount of additional time or labor required in its operation, (3) the ease with which wagons or manure spreaders can be loaded from the platform, and (4) its adaptability for use at stables where the daily production of manure A MAGGOT TRAP IN PRACTICAL USE. 15 is large. Fimally, it is suggested that the same conditions which render the trap most effective are the ones which tend to preserve the value of the manure. REFERENCES TO LITERATURE. Beat, W. H. 1904. Barnyard Manure. (A revision of Farmers’ Bulletin No. 21.) U.8. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 192, 32 p., 4 figs. Brown, P. E. 1913. Farm Manures. Agr. Expt. Sta. Iowa State Col. Agr. and Mechanic Arts, Cire. 9, 16 p., illus., April. DeneErary, P. P., and Dupont, C. 1900. Sur la composition des gaz confinés dans le fumier de ferme. Jn Ann. Agron., Paris, t. 26, p. 273-294. Hewrrt, ©. G. 1914. Further observations on the breeding habits and control of the house fly, Musca domestica. In Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 7, no. 3, p. 281-293, figs. 20-21, June. Howarp, L. O. 1911. The House Fly—Disease Carrier. New York. Hutcuison, R. H. 1914. The migratory habit of house-fly larve as indicating a favorable remedial measure. An account of progress. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bul. 14, 11 p., Feb. 28. Levy, E. €., and Tuck, W. T. 1913. The maggot trap—A new weapon in our warfare against the typhoid fly. In Amer. Jour. Pub. Health, v. 3, no. 7, p. 657-660, illus., July. RINGELMANN, Max. 1913. Aménagement des Fumiers et des Purins, 187 p., 103 figs. Paris. (Nouv- elle Bibliothéque du Cultivateur.) THorRNE, C. E. 1913. Farm Manures, 242 p., illus. New York and London. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1915 ‘se Paeiy e ARETE ered or | Povie weretar ta i $0 ee As if ; mf i “a We) ‘ Wists i, ry ee eee eee oe he : ‘ — hg - i Ph bok oy ® Fi + A ors , ‘ 4 pt Nek ry, \ x, i 7 es v9 ° 1 , , , # et ae ‘ i yan . Pal : : f ; j 4 i j ; ' * ’ Bee a ale i Pit a = r t \ of ¥ wy a * a , rs ; 4 P ’ 4 if we \ r - i v 4 ¥ ey : Pies | y t + of af ave. Dike F » i ee r ; 4 - an a I Ill 35