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POUR se Oy Le

<< oy
Z F
THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

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Sn ee en Se ae

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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Department Bulletins
Nos 201-225, Ga.cclo)

WITH CONTENTS
AND INDEX.

pie Stee. Stee Fe

Prepared in the Division of Publications.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1916.

CONTENTS.

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 201.—NatIvE PasTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED
STATES.

l Fes Heo GO CIS Soa Secale Ae ee SA Na anet emiReh Geter el eae ign pause ol AS ree
Generaliconsideraiomset M0) SPN BE NU eins oN cose ane Tada ee bee eye gat ae
ere tiextOnGHSCCIONs.- ket <n seis. Meh ey ee LG Le eo eh ae

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 202.—THE Atconont TEsT IN RELATION TO MILK.
Heer AnH UT ett Oa eee eee ate ae one A py a Ue eS Ri PANE ea aL Ds i ABET
Biren Ou tints Wonk soo tr ies eR ead 5 5 ON pa i
Meme an makine tue alcohol tesths205> see see ae SELL BA ey,
The alcohol test in relation to fresh milk from a single cow or herd....-..-.
Ghevaleohol test in relation to market milk. -2392332- 2 Wei oth See ee
The titration method of applying the alcohol test-...............-----.---
MpNeee EAA OMLES ts su a\siare Stl Sees OE ep BN ae teat ae nee NU gh eae
(CHOTA SITET OLAS Me RRS Rac SEIN MUA NEON Cee MIMS Ey eMC ei seein
ILigneveniipirecihneys Weenies ON A ee aaa ie et Seer nts Pan abort e Rina eee ara sete l Giese oa fai"

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 203.—FIELD STUDIES OF THE CROWN GALL OF SUGAR

BEETS.

StS OL Ce by oak Sie ras ae oe Peg tales nec ale a le Pe a lv Nite
Pacmerujionsol beet ealiss Pail ric. Boe SN se ik OS Se
PND eatumce Ol Heet Calls es ae NaS S tte ae ot eisai tora taro h mere ore
pen mUCee CaAligee eh vee eS ee tye. ee RCIA SLADE AY DIVER LRA OD

Birrtblenmolunee reals. s 2545 acs erie COMES Ae URS ORE OTe UE OE a eteee

Effects of galls upon quality and size of roots..-........-----------------
MOMIMOlGMDCEL CAs tae cas ote tre arn apenas Seen te ween ehatrn iG 5

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 204.—REPORT ON THE Gipsy Mora Work In NEw
ENGLAND.
bro CiOMNAs 22 oan oes aaah ea iene ONS) CERN eS Neate fh
Ere ennme Ii WORK: 2 cou ee NR, IR eh ihe Mi aes BPRS SE
Diloem@buuraliwOrke. osteo ca: Rieke eh Maer aa. LC ene OP atti ee
SPECHT Kee eae Base ait yaar CMe ac 2 gilt LON sO sy SO
CCL UT FT AVES 570 el he Ua A Gn eG eae "Rr ae aL RR EE ELC? 2S
BP EEAIUC WOLKE. 52cm e's coco sae wanes ea ee Sos is Se Se
CHSTR CLS SSS SSI RSS a 1 tN Hah Ra URL OD 9S

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 205.—ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK Foops.
HIGeAUL ACC TILT Ce LL NN en ay es te PNP 0 oc ALCON a ate NRO RAS SN HUE IE a SAT

PRUIMAPIBELV Eh: soak nit WL er ci ai Ck ys ROT OR
SEL SUES a Une pe a lire ll 3 LGR? Ma 9) a Oa Ob ee 8
DEF CT a Del yl ge ae I, AG A a Pe Pee
Pee ions ror Guek formset (80 Bie Mey yl ace CPM ts OI oe ea ee
UTR ORE> SIPES Si lhe AS MUL Sg es i, RN SM REIT A

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 206.—THE WOOLGROWER AND THE Woo. TRADE.
ea OM UTE LTOME yer ae eA TOES y SAR iil ch MAROON i Ri ae eee! OPE A PADD
Present methods of disposing of wool by the growers..........--.---------
Factors that determine the value of wool:........0..-...-222222-2-.-.2-2--
iy ert Moreen ee 2 hen Cue M i SeecN) Gols' a Ra, Ses by eta
LAL TEST: AiG Ka) 9 RONEN) IEA Bf at aR 2S UNM Mery fe CUE cf
PRETO Ole ne ce Olt ene AILS Lc eres Ltbie eh e abet fie!
Eeundsiol wool-per pound. of cloth: .-.:.csccc5.0s2 LOU Nee oS 8s

wo 0 bo
BHOMITWHY DH

ROrPPvwnres

4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201—225.

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 206.—THE WoOLGROWER AND THE WooL TRADE—
Continued. :
The need of improvement in handling American wools...............-----
How American methods of handling wool may be improved............--
Bundamental rules’for the woolerowensel ys seme we. 2 Skee de a apie
Glossary-of terms used im the wooljtrade: 23.8900) 22

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 207.—THE CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF THE
Rocky Mountain ReEaIon.
Scope ot ithe Ioilletim sy is ey ee ae een il dee alan tt AE
Class and family relationship of cypresses and junipers...........--.--.--.
Genenie:characterstics of cypresses aye same oan wee Yee cae
Generic characteristics: of junipers. Wee ie esac cist See

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 208.—YIELDS oF Native Prickniy PEAR IN SouTH-
ERN TEXAS. :

General conditions affecting yields............. =e EIEN MR TTR OT Ee SY NM SEM

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 209.—TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA
REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES.
Tmibrod uc tions sis eee ek GR et sete Vr Ge PE TE Se Aliya ar
Cooperative experiment vineyards and their nature........1-...-.--.-----
Acreage in the California experiment vineyards...-.-....----------------
General plan of planting in the experiment vineyards»......--.----------
Phen olosieal records syue sy ays AeCl SG ac a0 i ite aedioea ea has alle aac ee ties a
Destruction) obtivame yards eet s <2 Mee kee, SM AGI nl aay vale dN ee apa
AC LOUS HARESIS Ty ine Gea eC U ee Gc, 2, RIINS A AC P na
Adaptation to soil, climatic, and other conditions.............-..---.-----
OPENS RT CUS Ae es ee Oa aN CA! SRT IL URI REL HRA SAG GU | A a ne ar
Growth ratings of resistant vines and direct producers......-.-.-----------
Congeniality andiadaptapilityeofwanestena 4. 22 sacs eae oe ea eee
Behavior of grapes grafted and on their own roots..-..--.-.------ sesbesee
Conclusionsiand suggestions. 2.5.0 . yee iets ence ous acs Ely. aed eee

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 210.—SEED PRopuUCTION OF WESTERN WHITE PINE.
Problems involved in determining seed production......-.--....---------
Method employed in measuring the seed crop...----..-.--------- a iat
Seed production of western white pine......-.-.-.-----------------+-e-0-
Wonelusious : see rnin. 3 a i MS UCN LIN OE cA ace e a eae eee gee

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 211.—Factors AFFECTING RANGE MANAGEMENT IN

New Mexico.

PVR OCLC EL OMM eet ee Si ORR eS OA Ga
(Che topesgraphyiot New: Mexicor 4. eens sine cie a salele since 4 = aera eee
COU eto seem AL AP eS PURSE A I Oats 2
RSTO) (cha asian Ae RRNA CURRIN Fey Na AN. NRO LEADED ease MSRM DM are
Subdrvisionsroltmenlamdy och: Meee any craegehs cial 2 ci 2 2 cle ai eae aa
Relative imaporvamee Gl stocks raisin ceeee ses seen rere) eis cerns are
Mevaletatusiot the sousimess se) Ll: 30M we Cyl NN) Vee asa Weer eit
Nature of the forage crop and its distribution...................---------
Wmdestralple mamcemplanitsen: sense... ieee eee) etree eee yee ie nie oan
OTA OST VT os furs oes eS ES RO as ORR SLE al 2 ae ee eae
Name am anagement. (kee sev mmneeisin,. SMe i020). Sc crac el as eNeys lamlege eyes aioe

_ Character of the present opposition to control...............:.-----------
SKU LOON ECE eg ees Sea ON ANR ce See HM esig CaN ieee eS EO
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 212.—OBSERVATIONS ON THE PATHOLOGY OF THE

Jack Pine.

Tenants che tal aE Sse Sk RS ce Ce EARN Huo aie «Se BS
HID ISEASES ee SNe nhc MeN Raia 2 MU Lt Ne ESSN ea lee et VC ego
Saprophyghie homes. 52k eae els ie epee he eet i eee te Io) ose ayaa
Ihaupoberrsys) @kviey tor oe aera chistes). | SMe a A a Oe a
Gon GlistOms e.g iae i! ects Cy ARR gk oC aN Aa een eg cesta

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 213.—THE Usr or LAND In TEACHING AGRICULTURE
IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
MEO GUI CHIO MG eae ee RRS | NB ae eC NG aR Tae ee aN came 5
Schools reporting school farms and farm animals.....-...-..--------------
Size and jenimre of the tare kee as aeRO Oe epee arene iL yada ee ys) hevewe
Wsetamader of thet teams SoG sO On ANRC le a a se aac Se GL

coo ONE

CONTENTS. «

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 213.—THE Use or LAND In THeacHInG AGRICULTURE
In SECONDARY ScHOOLS—Continued.

Management Ghenerschooiarm 2 cs) (ie ee OIA an VU
Kinds of work pupils engage in..... BPO Set Merion cryeene Biel Bee Sn ers eg
‘Use of land to teach general principles.....- ESO a Ret YRS OU oes RG CUR
PEL SATE! OV RO) LEY ASUS ch es AG ea eg tee a RNa Ns oe PAE nena FL AG
Parension) workot agricultural instructor: . oc .2-ebe eo) hs scislec Seto ne
Source and distance from school of pupils studying apriculure epee ia
Relative proportion of boys and girls studying agriculture in high schools.
The period between graduation and starting farming on own account... .-
Agricultural school and the shifting-tenant problem............-.-.-..----
Bincency in aoneuliural prod uctlon. 3. 20 Je se abe socials a eines oie oes
The place of personal efficiency in agricultural instruction......... SOR Ae
SUMTITOD TS Ses GS Ae eGR en eS Ee AIA gaa

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 214.—SprRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA:
RELATION OF CULTURAL MerHops TO PRODUCTION.

Jtonieremed Hiro ero YEN Ce A eral seer eae Cre UR Up Br eM ERE a NOK: _ va Cane Ma Us
C LEUEAaE@/ GrOTENG Lge) ase) Ra eO Sa IE EE OE ecm AMON Vly AURA SDB ORAS naey MBean M nN Mh CU
Genera leolancOh GAC IMVeSsMOAtLOMS ses | Reno L er: 0 ied yy Boye ae unl
Comparison of cultural methods on the basis of cost......-....---.------
RESUS UL UE YSeNeral StablOmis sie [+ exces es Sagas ALUN ge esl oean a ks liane
General discussion of Toys} OER Sy Aa tee rll MON ANC aris lec Bn At ge ge) Seeger urn SO
CGC TST O VE) AGN aI NEC Up a Rn a NUR NER ee PD TY NAD ct ay AUTEN

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 215.—ComposiITiON or Corn (Maize) Meat Manv-
FACTURED BY DIFFERENT PROCESSES AND THE INFLUENCE OF ( OMPOSITION ON
THE KEEPING QUALITIES.

[sranitiemrchioue travail Se) 6 aes DOOR ET et Cae an nL LeU NO ang IDOM Ea ey ceca Og SY
Gonanmaptronkoitconmem ease see 02 ail, aloe area a a aL We ae
Mee MGC VOM CONUS. al 0 ls re we Nh NL alli ACW ea atlas
PeereL Sen @ORMEUOTULIAG 2) 4 Ee ea ha pe Mees Pe EE tous ey pe al
Composition of the products.of corn: milling... 2... 24 Sees een eb:
SHIPMAGE OAC Paes ote en Ute eb aia Umea a ara yes) ey eich
Relation of moisture content to keeping quality of degerminated, bolted,

OMRON RG MT a a EN tg A A CIN) I SC Re I al cae aye
Comparative keeping quality of whole-kernel stone-ground meal and

degerminated, bolted, roller- SHOWING Teale ee kya 3, He SEN ee ee
Suminary . Lo Pe AI ALG A RAT CS eae SALAAM RENE EL AR SARL TARDINESS Sit AR aM

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 216.—C oTTON WAREHOUSES: STORAGE FACILITIES NOW
AVAILABLE IN THE SOUTH. i

La EGRO YG LCST ETO MOE) Cie ek Re a a URC PUR UIs Uc TiS) le Mee asus SRR Ve Oa ne
Importance of the warehouse in financing the cotton crop. ......--.-------
General discussion of storage fac SUNT G1O BUN Oe RLU Petey ics de aed Pea

torave facilities now giv ailalle. coh ccs MMMNS i RA eae Cele talc gap UG Uh
nsumamcematesvamdi cost of buildames. =. ey) eu Se i eens
(Gemerralll: Gammel lng ronayeye oie sO Ue RRR ee ULES at iy UU eenh rates A Mey aan
1S (ULTMGUA OWA Tel ge SR ce ne (UR TS ea TO PAARL A Vera ha

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 217.—Morvtatiry AMONG WATERFOWL A ROUND GREAT
SALT LAKE, UTAH.
BTR CILCOET OM spe PE a, | UNNI It 3 CIRRUS Aa ye MMA ee CAEN orci Lc ace oy
TETIGHOTE A 24.515 NRE Ra BAUS US aN TSA NO et ene Due eipesin tS OMNI come oe tire OL CAL ee
Memtom covered in investigations... .. 23.4.2. cates seme ee be eta) Be
INIGHTEARS: OnE eave merRouhll CMVENG aa gape tas Pe tam ap RO Skates US carer ance NC STs esate
PIMOS ASe UOC AU GOP ese epee WE 8. ARs 0 er Me arel eat sec Nk ny ULNA,
eane ne POISON as THe CAUSE ei. ee Se Re a ae
SCPE! TETAS HST NA ge aA Nec Abate Se ae

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 218.—OarTS IN THE GREAT Puatns AREA: RELATION OF
CuLrurRAL Meruops to Propuctron.
HRermberteo@hiin Gate ues Sen A TY geet iog dB Reg cc 9 uD ae os eel SNe eigen Bena
mgeamuclidedan these investigations... -ce8 22. ih Wego ae Bees c oe
COlinmmnararrartence mn GIN OTN yy es LU Se gto Pt Uke eGR Uae a yeas
Ceaecadyplanionthemnvestivaionsy. sees keds eae eke ee ee es
Ponoparisonvore minal method sais <u)... waee seis sce tie be ence chic Ss
vesimlGaeatumMensenmenrallstatlomsei sy ies 2 sae Neen bal Spe nana near
Generaliaisenssionvonresults 402 es. os rave wl Uh cece 2 Daan eer seh) ee a
SCT TSAO SEE SNES Ca RUNS UU Nae en NCE ha UL a oe FAs a

Page.

IW

PS Ov

6 _ -DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201-225.

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 219.—CORN IN THE GREAT Piains AREA: RELATION OF
CuLtTuRAL MrTHoDS to PRODUCTION.
Introductions cscs ED A mee, BO Os Ga e eeUINE S ahora SEH) NOI ale
Area covered by these studies: 23! Gap eee pyseni i imate belek AMIN sae |
GQhimatiekcoindiitions’. ASSOC NIN eaves Nea niNen Im: Asean HL pk bc Mhar ba 8
Generaliplan of the imvestigations 3 eee secu ye re icy hh Tea eel
Gomparnson of: cultural methods: sales 4 tameen Ae ane Wea oe bh pte
Resultsrotindivadualysta tions 2) sas MaMa ai. A) ce ere ee) cpaeinyTh aie
General discussionot results :-.0404: Cae PeL ee ues U a ET Gi aE eng |
Goncelusiome ss 25ie ue rio) sae iis css 22 laa GA aR ae SU SUDA gh els he ERY 2

‘Atelltorael oeilaoyel-olrioyneh lowalkobiees 5k os oe Quek eee
Lotationvandaltonmemt: oe 5.758 2 BUEN ier peice tty alte came ie ee aa
Houndation,/or sulberade) and ‘shoul Gens. Seek ay stn oe meee ee ee ee
Barthvandisan d-clany.ro aise: (2. Wie him ORG N11) Le Aine en ut
Reavy TO AG Sere sea coe RC eh 2 DL ur A TO ES
PAWVEVCRNG eon Rayne chap ees aise ALR) De UA ca eM Mea Bl Bae chy et iy d 2 P a
Centenf concrete: roads 4 NA Rt ek) PAT SN Se) EC ee eae
Bituminous concrete roads—‘‘ Topeka specification’’..................-.---
Pavedsroads;onierboam Conerete nt! | 9 VONee ew) erence mien eaened Ley ee
Guibvents and Dries tae eesti jee. camera cine ete tae ade gs. aR EER OE
J ENC LSKGUSTUGU SN Irie El COVES ON Reith venga tera Wegner, 4 ADs eU a vans WW nec aearah ce ge ne Daa / NIE
voadymachiiineriyy: ex kyerege 8 ie RT ae E i CCF 1e UNC re MG dll aot EU 6y Sy Nan

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 221.—THE SOUTHERN CorN LEAF-BEETLE.
} Sa ATROXS DIS SUDO ag fa Ne A RR a Is ORL alle 2 Mel lee party Na rMey a US oa yh
Ae WRSIO?O) esi tet ie RA LE Uh a ASIEN AON AML TGh ed oon dh SUR aaa
DIR avert Ox ea Kanade a eee cae ares aA een SU MONE IER CME Nc eae ee MOAT Les Ay a WPM nga tty CE)
Diseripiiom andi lute; history Motes a. ee ese )2)2 ei aeeaean ee eee Ney reps en me
Mopar ama ge cee hee Lee sles. es ads 80. AM LY HERO PA MIAN RCL Wty UES Lae
DSSS TON UTD AT OMe ewe Re eye eke ncate nsec. ARDS VME Cort aes Thal Td Begs Been ae
TRG TIVC GLUCOSE NCEE Ee AUN EEC VCR N EEE LTE ERY Th So Me ava
AAS TALUTOU@ 1 be Ge selene een so Sela). Aileen shin Vee gana) Sac STOOL NL a

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 222.—BARLEY IN THE GREAT Pains ARBA.
JEraule ox Wo KE AKON alta esate ee eee ne Sa Ore iar os cet ava ian Sa Let Ualnes AIL el
imaportareeon panleytasta craimi chopra yee. sche ieee aes enn eae
Area included in these investigations....................-......-..--.---
@himatie\comdutions2925- 2455-25552 2-28 eres ee AISNE at BY AEE ea a
Cremer olen Ol Ways mays BOs U4 wanadascdsobussaaueeeeescuohoace
Comparison of cultural methods on the basis of cost. .-..-...-....-------
Resuiltsiatitherseveralustati ome 2... pe yeeeis Wee WEES ek i2h Cie meee Nee
Generali diseussiomvofenestltses sia. ieee ee sre tee ieee ae nian erie i 2 ee eae
OOuaveNHUUST Cy esses aes Ae eo Tas NM coe ene SIG Na es le a Sha ee MAR aa MED MANN Re

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 223.—BoTANICAL CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE
Dare PAatm Usep tn DISTINGUISHING CULTIVATED VARIETIES.
Dinter In eee ONE AS UDRP ED SARS giorno ae UE ANY CI iha oe ah erie
iivexdiatertneets weve a5 een ie Raa SSM Seen am raat MEAT A ERPS AHS eat OBL SEU
ibyeeue Clneyaarciverds) One aver Glanweys o)S SY Baa SS ee a iS ae Se HOEY raed
Use of the field protractor. ........--- aCe UE ree NDP RFE NNE CEE Sy aS PSS I ON
IENGYFODIS) OIE [ANS O|NSSIAVEle S) WIR so bosa ee Saas ue eee VE Oe eo
Application of the system to the Deglet Noor variety and its seedlings. ..... -

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 224.—A SrupyY oF THE PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND
Drizp Eaas IN THE PropuctINnG S&CTION.
Tani Gone GIG IAe Ps Neen MAN acy) 1A Sone RM LE Bs oa pA SE HO Yn Seen rua
Review of the ege-breaking houses as seen in 1911_..-......-.--.-------
Elan for theexpenmental work of 1QI22)suehe assis ee cen Te) ae
General statement of the investigation and the results.....-...--..-------
Classes of eggs presenting special problems...............----....---+----
Comparative study in two houses on eggs before and after dessiccation. - . -
Comparison of the liquid product from three houses in 1912.............-.
General summary of laboratory results on commercial samples, 1912....-.
COMENUIBTOTIS es Sa Pg cces EASA pr, SMe Ae Dace ETE Miran Sanna gS. Seon BSL UL a

See
SmOanmohwmwH

=

CONTENTS..

.

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 224.—A StupyY OF THE PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND
Drigep EGGs IN THE PrRopucING SEcTriIon—Continued.
(GUOREEIGV 2 6 SES See ceSs Vere Se Urge ee SEI Re Se Oe rk oe Bee ia ee aay
AAS TE RIBS Sa oo epee Ml 2 RII i Smt eo RRR at) A RNa Rr Ue ae CR
Details of experiments in each cooperating house, 1911 and 1912.......
peo ual artim UME UnIM Tim eg Re eC STS EN RR LE SUN re eh Se SpA ASS gah

DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 225.—A peaeu OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE
Fruit ASSOCIATIONS

PATO GRU G1 OT Uy eee RS ieee = ae SRR te IN eae es nae se
Qbyects2 POR RSEN: Deters Mee Lie) DEE ME a ATM ANA eR et
Jel Sapa araaaa Go SOA EVENS HENS Ne Oe ES SR i 2 AP NO a TP at
TE SsSth) emcee ovey eee pias AN ey Ae Ny PUA DS ey eS ROTM AU UN tA
Bookwand special’ forms: 22025... 200 525k: Bet NARA SATA CGA RUN NR bag

SR PrTATA GIB NOOO Kaa tere cheer 0 ARE. UM US US Cra) BU GT ah 3

Svat AeCOUMtS TONKEE DE a. Sac 2. ae. eae eee a tin, a
SelOSin Ene DOOKSe Je cee as en Bees Se Misyaca re a epg ew bie em a caine gale
SSRI ENG | TOYS ETT AYO G ne tea ea ea a EI = OS A a
ea Shs MUMSELMCTNES ire cers sce eeneale.- Mares ana mpm en! eH salir dere nian SUE
PBC NSIS HP PINICTIGS a ee ae | Scns ates «ie. pee te cain ec ee enn 3
Trial ee Nias Ns gras Cs SLD pea US GARIN SARA A a BaP SCs ete eg aaa Ea
Binders. raps mal lea eee aka Lah Ge pane aa a SUS ALMOND wisn Lu eg A MS VR

INDEX.

2:1

Bulletin. Page.

Accounting systems—

cooperative fruit associations, books and special forms..... 225 | 5-15, 23-24

cooperative fruit associations, bulletin by G. A. Nahstoll

SUITE UNMIS OTT wh oe eee res a Age ph aR aS ae 225 1-25

ESAMEPRORMCIN A Ct LiAtES al roe ro at cok Mis Ui ic or, se ae 225

Achyrodes aureum, habitat, value and analysis...........----- 201 29
_ Agricultural instruction—

pieeot personal efficiency .-:-- ---.-.-- -2e=- see ia eae <i- ici 213 it

extension work on school farms in various sections. .-..-- 213 7-8

home-project work and number of pupils, various sections. 213 6
Agricultural production, efficiency, discussion. ..........-..- 213 10-11
Agricultural student, period between graduation and starting

Pin orOn MisiOowWw lM 2CCOUNTS 25-250. 2 4 See bee ee. 213 9

Agricultural students—
distance from school, relation to farm work, etc......-...- 213 8
ETNETS UCL SOUNCER SS =f Saris aise ey «Mrs opt cose ays Sa 213 8
Pareporiioniot boys andeirls 1.2.05 +. . 2.22 nese feo ssien 213 9
Agriculture, teaching in secondary schools, use of land, bulle-

Prom e ene Meritt: jo. ai ns - o= - Does ep ey des 3 213 1-12
Agrilus bilineatus, injury to oak trees, investigations.........- 204 19
Agropyron smithii, description, habitat, and value..........-. 201 4
Agropyron spicatum. See Bunch grass.

Agropyron tenerum, description, habitat, and value.........- 201 5
Agrostis asperifolia. See Bent grass, rough- leaved.
Agrostis hemalis. See Bent grass.
Alabama—
cotton storage facilities, survey, method, and reliability
MEOR Kee a 2a 2oseltsiia tesa bakes Sees ie nee cee 216 1-2
cotton warehouses—
DSTITEE) 11 0 a ed ee nee mm Ra ge PS) Sea ee 216 9
BEOFAS ClEADACI LY kee telaete aS iclatos oo See care welsh ec aoe 216 14, 16, 17
Alcohol—
test in relation to milk, bulletin by William T. Johnson, jr.,
and 8. Henry Ayers UT ie ati... = Meany a PA eho 202 1-35
test with milk, titration method, application............. 202 25-30
Alcohol test—
SU BADCO: Trig te SN el RR eg 0 0 I, te pe oe 202 2
relation to fresh milk from a single cow or small herd...... 202 3-7
Alfalfa fields, Arizona, occurrence of Hordeum murinum, man-

agement, 2h, | ET RE CRATE ERIE Ni 201 28
meee nest mitelation to milk... .....---de--ee--b- canes ae 202 30-32
Alkali grasses, descriptions and value of various native species. 201 { Pav 4

d ?

Alkali saccaton, habitat, value and analysis. ....-.-.-..----- 201 43-44
Alligator juniper—

aexenpion and characteristics. .....-+2j2-062-L tease 207 | 30-31

Securrenceand crowth habits: :...---.. 22-2 -/s.sehseees 207 | 31-32

wood, prereterand uses. 2.0. a 207 | 31
Alopercurus fulvus, description, habitat, andigalie. Pee: 201 6
Alopercurus occidentalis, ERMAN YSIS Sc okey set. . < Semen | Miles Ma 201 | 6
Asphalt blocks, nature and value for road POND ages se 2 220 | 18-19
Anacharis. See Water weed.
Anastatus bifasciatus, zips: y-moth parasite, description, method

Mee iteretOCCHELeNCe 2 02 2503.1 oo. eee aoune Se ec ee 204 5
60802—16——2 9

10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201-225.

Bulletin. |

Andropogon furcatus. See Blue stem, big.
Andropogon scoparius. Sce Blue stem.
Andropogon spp., habitat, value and analysis. .......-.------
Andropogon torreyanus. See Beard grass, white-topped.
Andropogon virginicus, description, habitat, and value......-..
Apanteles lacteicolor—
brown-tail moth parasite, description and habits........--
colonies liberated, spread, work, etc..-...........-...--
Apanteles melanoscelis—
parasite Olerpsyemoth value). 22 eee wee toe eels
Wworkan relation toeipsy. moths. We. Meee! ea
Aristida californica. See Needle grass. z
Aristida longiseta. See Poverty grass.
Aristida spp., habitat, value and analysis::......2..4....--.--
Arizona cypress—
description; and characteristics. 22. Met a eS ek 2 ee
oecurrence: andcrowiLhulalolts: ase se sae eee. eee
Arizona wool, quality and characteristics. .......-.-.--------
Arkansas, cotton warehouses—
astra uitromsS 02 Leas Nasa UNM aN ki SRC y RCN ARYA See See A
SLONASE GAD ACTEY she Jet d eit ale alec «+ ESA SPREE ST
Arroyos—
arid Softh west, nature,cause, etc.-2..2----.-.2-25-22-25
AU OMA ICMAR ACE TNOII GS xia. ee. MEY AN eae 2) ele
Ariplen SCmIOMECata, MOLE <== lx i. Se ee WORN Os OSE
PAVENUD MOLL WADE YSIS tee say keer Citronella
Avena spp., habitat, value and analysis. ........-.------.---
Ayers, 8. Henry, and Witiiam T. JoHNnson, JR., bulletin on

subheralcoholetestunerelations: tomill<, essere ee ean ;

Babinton’s curse. See Water weed.
Bacterium beticolum, cause of beet tuberculosis.............--
Bacterium tumefaciens, cause of beet tumors..........---..----
Baling, wool, advantages and objections...........--.-.------
Banding trees, gipsy-moth control, note......--.-....-------
Banks—
cotton belt, advantages of organized system of cotton ware-
RO USES aun Nua mR ay 1a cee as. Me pie aerate A ao Ga
loans on cotton, rates, desirability, etc., discussion......--
Barley—
cultural methods in Great Plains, comparison on cost basis.
Great Plains area, relation of cultural methods to produc-
tion, bulletin by E. ©. Chilcott, J. 8. Cole, and W. W.
TUE ese ye NCL oot SR Oe EL ae yo OCR ANSE OCT Tad
growing at 14 field stations in Great Plains, yields and
profit or loss by different methods.....-..-.-.-.----.----
growing in Great Plains—
area, and plan of investigations.....-:-...-.----------
cost of various farm operations per acre...........-..-
LMportance’as STaim crop: =e oes. eee tae sete See
prices at farm granary, 1905-1914, Great Plains, by States.
quality, requirements for brening........---------------- |
Barnyard grass—
LTVBUS TS WP aes csc eek A RNA Ca aN UR Ee ee ST ad |
habitat, value’and syield:... 5.cec4-_ A aoe Tee Ses
Bear crass, white-topped; analysis........-.--2.----2--.-2--)
Beard grass, habitat, value and analysis..........-..--+------ |
white-topped, analysis se cyQe fee Spe Tee eRe ere ate |
white-topped, description, habitat and value......----..-

Bee plant, Rocky Mountain, occurrence on range lands....-..-- |
Beet call Comtroly so F620 ee aes) Re RAG a cee ana |

Page.

9, 10
5-7
Toe

19-20

14, 16,17

21-22, 25-26
Sey

3

11

10, 11

1-35
4

INDEX, § » 18

Bulletin. Page.

Beet galls—
development and appearance...........-..---.------:.-- 203 2-3
kinds, cause, effect on beets, etc..-....-..---:----------- 203 1-8
Beets, sugar—
crown-gall infection, sugar test8......-----..-.------------ 203 4-5
field studies of crown-gall, bulletin by C. O. Townsend... .. 208 1-8
Felation’toralls, quality and size... -...---.--.+-.-2e22 203 5-7
Bent-grass—
ERR OYES Ss ott ola Pe teal 2h by NS PG 2 ee RSE TRE 201 6
Gevetiption, habitat,and: values: i... 2... eee es eee. 201 6
ROOM LcaVeneatalyGis 4 Asie o Mo toe = Ra Nios aSels Meee 201 5
rough-leaved, description, habitat, and value......-.-.-- 201 5
Bibliography, alcohol test in relation to milk..... AWS) 202 34-3
BIDWELL, GEorRGE L., Davin GRIFFITHS, and CHARLES E.
GoopricH, bulletin on ‘‘ Native pasture grasses of the United
SUBIR ie Ee ee ty ee ee em See tS gene, a) ee 201 1-52
Big-berried juniper—
descnipioniand characteristies.02'.4 0.260. eee eee eser 207 28-29
Sceurrence and eTowtm habitss 22624 -.2 22 20 2 ee 207 29-30
Binders, magazine, for account books, descriptions and prices. 225 25
Black grama—
growth habits, associated plants, etc.............-.-..... 201 33
Pamiativeiue, and anabysisi 22... -2eceee le ekels Sk. 201 32-83
Blake, Eli Whitney, inventor of stone crusher........-.------ 220 22
Bluestem—
PTL SL 2 ee ee PL aR ae oe ey | Rede RY Ce PE 201 7,8
description, habitat, and waltie: 2)... 04: 2 0 Sawseets 222 .k 201 7,8
LS. VGN Ni STTS|: get ota ras ene Cn SERRA cee he ot he ee eae ine Ie 201 7
pig, description, habitat, and value. ..-25-..:-.6. 22120. ce 201 7
Bookkeeping, system of accounting for cooperative fruit asso-
CLE /HOIIS. C505 = Se eee aie ee ee ee <a dene Opn EY oe 225 1-25

BornMAnn, J. H., A. L. Winton, and W. C. Burner, bulletin
on ‘‘Composition of corn (maize) meal manufactured by dif-
ferent processes and the influence of composition on the
REE piu atialines) 52 02k aed ae eo SEE Os ma Serelanie eee 215 1-31

Bouteloua curtipendula. See Grama, side-oat.

Bouteloua eriopida. See Grama, black.

Bouteloua hirsuta. See Grama, rough.

Bouteloua parryi. See Grama, hairy.

- Bouteloua spp., habitat, value, and analysis........./-.------ 201 11-12, 1

Boutelouma rothrockit. See Grama, mesa.

Boys, agricultural students in high schools, numbers, by geo-

CARROL OWN vatsy (0) AY ert MI Bee eae les PRAM Ou le Sure me 213 9
Ei ric Onin nM amlIre ANC UBe och os poets ok cee va a 215 5, 8-9
Brand marks, market wool, disadvantages, cost of picking, etc. . 206 7-8
brains sheep, paints desirable-...2.....-.22.-.-42-s../N.2 206 7-8

Bcmnmmnodnabits, notes sisi eal. BR A) ee | 205 13-14
Breeding stock, on ranges, disadvantages, suggestions, etc... . 211 34-35
ETO MerseInN Cals NALUTCL: uae ake ees wets ad on SA Saag 215 5
IBrickatoras construction. fc 2 ee ee ee a 220 19-20
ate enn shway, CONStTUCHON,<- 2.20225. - 25 - Hil OSes 220 20-21
Brome-grass, value of different species, analyses, etc..--.-.--.- 201 14-16
Bromus marginatus, value and analysis..............---------- 201 15
Bromus, spp., habitat, value, and analysis..................... 2011 14-15, 16
Bromus villosus. See Tucolote.

Brooklime, description, occurrence, and propagation.......-.- 205 21
Broom sedge—
IDG SCTE Ss UN ga i ae SO DAI MRat A aR ASAD Ss ek MCP OU 201 8
desenpionvnabitat and values.) dys. Loge lS as 201 8
Brown cress, description, occurrence, and propagation........ 205 21
ite n-tael moth, parasite work. 9l6 7. aks. ae toes ee 204 4-15
Buffalo grass— :
DEH PST BOM 0 ors RY Dek ON EM. Se EL 201 17

: Del SMES Bera PAWN ese PAA SS nN ape | Aa ea a a 201 16-17

12

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201—225.

Buildings, cotton warehouses, types, cost, insurance, etc......
Bulbilis dactyloides, analysis, habitat, and value..............
Bunch grass—
2) oS A RN) Re, Ss.
description habitat, andkvalue.. 22. - sae e pene the
Bureess, A. F., bulletin on ‘“‘Report on the gypsy moth work
ziral SRS Veal 6X agate een meg VS OE Me a a
Burnet, W. C., A. L. Winton, andJ. H. Bornmann, bulletin
on ‘Composition of corn (maize) meal manufactured by dif-
ferent processes and the influence of composition on the
ASCOT OH OATES 1 aioe secs ott seals = ee Oe yous 2d |
Burr, W. W., E. C. Cuitcort and J. S. Conz—
bulletin on ‘‘ Barley in the Great Plains area, relation of
cultural methods to production” ..................-..--
bulletin on ‘‘Corn in the Great Plains area, relation of
cultural methods toyprodwetion sy. sees. soso se ce
bulletin on ‘‘Oatsin the Great Plains region, relation of |
culturalmnethods ito, productions. ee). =.) ee se eee
bulletin on ‘‘Spring wheat in the Great Plains area, rela-
tion of cultural methods to production” ...............-.

Calamagrostis spp., habitat, value and analysis................
Calamovilfa longifolid. See Sand grass, big.
California—
Fresno district, importance in raisin and wine production. .
Napa County, production of dry-wines, note......-......-.
vineyards, cooperative experiment, location, nature, etc- -
waterfowl, mortality in San Joaquin Valley.......-.-..-..-.
SOOlsqualitvaramdieradese sa Ui Ren cies tae daw ae
Calosoma sycophanta—
colonies liberated, spread, work, etc......--.--------.---
parasite of gypsy and brown-tail moths, habits and value-.
Canadensis, description, occurrence, and propagation.......--
Canary. grass, reed, habitat, growth habits, value, and analysis. -
Catenpilllarcrance motes saya. Maes 2 ee ee te
Cats-tails, description, occurrence, and propagation.....-...--
Cattle—
New Mexico, numbers, distribution, and importance, 1909-
NOH eres CURE AOR arte UN ies ee Oe Lead eee aaa
TPMNGI OS VO Ovi TepaVClareavenn ae GL ee eae nee
Cattlemen, competition with sheepmen on range lands........
Cedars, Rocky Mountain region, varieties, descriptions, etc. -.
Ceratophyllum demersum, description, occurrence, and propa-
tT OT te ae Re eye ASE Oa guwegie so eaoda oss qa aeeus 5
Chaetochloa spp., habitat, value and analysis..........-..-.-..-
Charmille. See Elm, water.
Chataignier. See Elm, water.
Cheat, hay grass of California, value and analysis............-
Cuitcort, EK. C., J. S. Cone, and W. W. Burr—
bulletin on ‘‘Barley in the Great Plains area, relation of
cultural methods tosproduchon’. Wk. 3. 2 see ie
bulletin on ‘‘Corn in the Great Plains area, relation of
enlinralamethods to produchiony, .. 22 seas een aerate:
bulletin on ‘‘Oats in the Great Plains region, relation of
cultural methods to production” .....-..-.--------------
bulletin on ‘‘Spring wheat in the Great Plains area, rela-
tion of cultural methods to production”’...-. SB ibe HAL
Chloris spp., habitat, value and analysis..........-..----------
Choke pondweed, description, occurrence, and propagation .- -

@lothinewoolsmanket orades! oer sis aaron eis eye aie ities
Colaspis denticollis. See Leaf-beetle, southern corn.

Bulletin.

Page.
216 21-22
216 16
201 5
201 4-5
204 1-32
215 131:
222 1-32
219 1-32
218 1-42
214 1-43
201 17, 18
209 4
209 4,10, 11
209 2-10
217 3
206 16-17
204 11-12
204 7
205 99-93
201 36
204 10-11
205 22.93
209 11, 12, 14
211 26
211. 17-18
207 | 18-20, 23-25
205 24-95
201 18, 19
201 14-15
229 1-32
219 nest
218 1-42
214 1-43
201 19
205 99-93
206 15, 18

INDEX. 13
Bulletin. Page.
Couz, J. S., E. C. Catncort, and W. W. Burr—
bulletin on ‘‘Barley 1u the Great Plains area, relation of
eultutabmethods to production? 2.40.2. 058). eee: 222 1-32
bulletin on ‘‘Corn in the Great Plains area, relation of
enlturalgmethods tosproductiony? «55..552.222 25.2052 05238 219 1-31
bulletin on ‘‘Oats in the Great Plains region, relation of
i culjuralinethods to production 72. 2-5 8) 2i 2. aaa ae 218 1-42
bulletin on ‘‘Spring wheat in the Great Plains area, rela-
tion of cultural methods to production”.............--- 214 pea}
Colorado—
’ barley growiug at Akron field station, yield and cost per
Bere oy diierent methods. i... 5 Ae ee ea: 222 23
x bluestem—

STEINER Se Eel ee Ne eee en Me CRN Bee i 201 A

Gesenpiuon, habitat, and valies oA 22 ees sa 201 4
corn, growing at Akron field station, yields and cost per

aeteuoy. ditrerent methods... h..ch i 00 oe een Es 219 22-23
oats, growing at Akron field station, yields, and cost by
SE MeL TOT OMS se eee SU i ade Se eel 218 28-30
spring wheat growing at Akron field station, methods,
Spies ANAC CORE eee RE ee ea ia 214 28-30
wool cuality, aud characteristics. ..22¢2/.50o) 9) biiee: 206 19
Colosimum mule ettect on alcohol test. :-22.. 22-22 ee 202 4-5
@onaorms wools,, market grades. 2). s.gs.2.2 lose Lessee lle 206 15, 18
Compsilura concinnata—
colonies liberated, spread, work, etc........-...----..---- 204 9-11
parasite of gipsy and brown-tail moths, description and
LT) SESS ete 2 UIA RAS SVU Ree OC Roe ote nese at eT 204 6-7
Coon tail—
description, occurrence, and propagation....-.. SRS es ts, 205 24-25
BiMnn er CMC Ka TOO rete nk ys a8 im UIE se 205 24
Cord-grass—
kotha value, and analysis. (25.2 20305. SRA tok ened 201 42-43
mimi napitat, value, and analysis: 2.205222 0.26 005202. 201 42
Corn—
composition of products of different sections........:....-. 215 9, 10-11,
12-13
composition of white and yellow..:......2..-..2.i25242-41 215 8
cost per acre of production by different methods, Great
| TPIS a RN ag lA ae ape ce natea 219 13
MGMT aMO Uses. Sassy etl ee 215 5,8
Sermie Mature. composition, and uses....-.-2-.-2..22..2-.-% PANS} 5,8
Great Plains area, relation of cultural methods to produc-
tion, bulletin by E. C. Chilcott, J. S. Cole, and W. W.

NOTTS a Che 5 noes Ae eg 219 1-31
SHUI SFO Meal, Processes. es. ete Ie a 215 4-5
growlng—

cost of various operations, Great Plains.-..........--.. 219 ih

cost per acre of various operations, Great Plains...... 219 dia

experiments at 13 field stations in Great Plains, meth-
OGSEI COS UH eLO!: BMS ace ES Pu ialet Ais aura oatanyen ly Gl 219 13-26
fourteen field stations in Great Plains, yields and cost,
e by different methods.......... Bisco MR staph ne nes ane 219 13-31
in Great Plains—
ATER VOLMMVesIPAtOMs: 06. le RB ae ee 219 3-4
methods and management.......................- 219 6-10
yields, profit and loss at 13 field stations.......... 219 26-31
leaf-beetle—
southern, bulletin by H..O.G. Kelly)... .0:....2...2: 221 1-11
See also Leaf-beetle.
iy meal, manufacture by different processes, and the influ-
ence of composition on the keeping qualities, bulletin
by A. L. Winton, W. C. Burnet, and J. H. Bornmann. . 215 1-31

ie meal. See also Meal, corn.

/
14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201—225.

Corn—Continued.
milling—
CoM posianyor products... )_ 2) seaeee sees oo).
PIOdNGiseeete ee PSR... Se eens 2. LER
prodigy amalysis-” ">... aeteepeniels 2) -/- ioe
moisture determination, methods...............---------
planting to avoid leaf- beetle... Seen = oo heae
prices at farm, 1905-1914, Great Plains, by States.......--
roller-mill products, analysis MO ae, | 8 a
spoilage, causes, and detection methods..............-----
Stone-mill products; analysis. 2. Ayes) les
varieties used for meal and OMI... eee as. Se
yellow. (Composition: <.22ss- 0 Son: Meee. ee
Gormicake, nature and uselasdeed. 2 202. Ses. oc ee oes see
Corn feed snature and ineredients\.: 252 eeen ee eek ee
Cottea pa ppophoroides, habitat, value, and analysis..........--
Cotton—
crop, financing, importance of warehouse.......-.....-..--
farmer—
advantages to farmer of organized system of cotton
WOARCHOUSES A seweh ay tcc. « .ee ere ne eee Ga
credit system for farmer with supply merchant, objec-
LTS RA ae a et ae Ae RR sr aus, Bh Li
mills, number and storage capacity, by States.............
selling through factors, practices and disadvantages.......-
storage—
difficulties under present conditions................--

facilities in the South, sources and methods of securing |

facilities, need of improvement, suggestions, etc.......

warehouse—
importance in financing the cotton crop..............-
SySteM SUPSCS HONE lye os . . LUM emcee > Sia eee
warehouses—
Gooperalives SUSPEsiTOnsas tes: ea SAN ee as
cost; bypes, equipment. (eters. . 2 oem scam lacie <= ae
aastrib ero es eh ae eet. |. Sep se is Saeirerrete ee eee
equipment with automatic sprinklers, advantages,
INSUTANCE TALCH CLC a saene ser. - Bee poe als oe sleaee ete

TMSUTANCE MALES! ye 4. oe. See 2 Se eee be eee Sea see

plans, equipment, and cost of different types...-.-
storage capacity See ae sis ope s 4 eeelere erie a ecee aimee ave
storage facilities now available in the South, bul-
letin by Robert#Le Nixon. ® *: tects ceee Ui a) oe
Cotton-mill warehouses, number and capacity, by States. ......
Crab-grass—
habitat, value, andravialysisen 2.1 gaeere oy Naas Fe oe
occurrence in orange orchards, note..................-----
Crashes, description, propagation, ‘value as duck food ........
Cress, description, propagation, value as duck food......-..-..-
Cronartium quercus. See Peridermium cerebrum.
sage eee Belle Fourche field station, plan and treatment
Tela eA SS Le Sa ee es cs eno eds ake
Crown-gall, sugar beets, field studies, bulletin Dy: C. O. Town-
(E010 he SORE na, e422 De Rn Sener MPR so Sens ayes eS
Culverts, highway, construction.................-- sizenal eT
Cupressus arizonica. See Arizona cypress.
Cupressus glabra. See Smooth cypress.

Cut-grass, habitat, value, and amalysis.....-.....-.--------.--

Cypress—
Rocky Mountain region, bulletin by George B. Sudworth. -
wood, characteristics and values./: Sa Rha) oe gel

Bulletin.

215
215
215
215
221
219
215
215
215
215
215
215
215
201

216

216

216

216
216

216

216
216

216
216

216
216
216

216

216 |

216

216 |

216
216

201
201
205
205
218
203
220

201

207 |
207 |

\

Dwarf juniper. See Juniper, common.

INDEX. 15
Bulletin. Page.
Cypresses—
class and family relationships. .........-....-.-+--+----- 207 3-4
Pode me eaeracterishics 22° Sonos 6 Sie wee Seale Sols i: 207 4-11
Rocky Mountain region, species. descriptions, etc......-- 207 5-11
Date palm—
botanical characters of the leaves used in distinguishing
cultivated varieties, bulletin by Silas C. Mason........-.- 223 1-28
foliage characters of founryaricties\e). 0 ok queer eck 223 18-28
RPE MATACLETSS fo. 8 HL ORE ass Rc ST, TL 223 3-16
eee PE IOME DOLEW Once gee ec ces Lek Le ee sad 2 223 3
Deglet Noor date palm, foliage characters.........------------ 223 16-22
Deschampesia cxspitosa, analysis, habitat, and value.......---. 201 20
Desiccated eggs—
ammoniacal nitrogen content, comparison with liquid be-

Breebiesicetiiod ) tae. oes ee MO Mines © aren 224 15-16

bacterial content, comparison with liquid before desicca-

TBC io ha, hi OR ga re a celal SI fe ean eee ae 224 15-16
Dippin sheep, effect on wool_....-.../.2.-.2-.22 222.2... 2 22 206 10
Disking—

parley i pee ceuy PANS fe so te) eee a PEL WON ecu 222 10
eora land:*cost, per acre; Great Plains. . 12-22. j55.2.220-)2 219 ipa
SeSS TN GPE 1S EATS ap ae Se ee ee eee ae Ae 218 9
Meee dis anid, COSb Per, acre_2. 5208 ek ere ele eas ek 214 10
Distichlis spicata. See Salt grass.
Ditch-grass. See Wigeon grass.
Ditch-moss, description, propagation, and value as duck food. . 205 22-23
Domestic wools, Se" OL FERNS: Sue ed: oe ame se pee me suiek Bae 206 16
Mare toad. LVpes. 22) 092-0 er wie Sa ae ue 220 8-10
Drilling, cost per acre—
PamlewuiGteat Plains: 22. 9o. 1 1). 2. Loe tee ae ae 222 10
Rammban Great Plains) sess 0etist 10. visteMe ye gies 280). Ue 219 11
PEePMetO CAI LINN: 2. 2) eae = Selo ys oes ae 3 218 9
SRST A AR ae eget, ye oe 214 10
_Drooping juniper—
Gesenipion and icharacteristies.-_-.-... 3-22 Jaen 5 oe 207 32-33
occurrence and growth habits. ....-..- oie) on ahs: alapate, Sahat REM 207 34-35
wood, character ‘and WBCR ee see eee wi ANE Bn Veen 207 34
Dry wines, production in Napa County, Cal., note.........--- 209 4
-Dry-land grasses, descriptions and value of various native 01 { 18, 24, 30,
SUCCES Geo ee Sen eee SSRI UN Fos Nt Te, Ae 71 31, 32, 41, 51
Duck diseases—
Great Salt Lake and Joaquin Valley, remedies.........-- 217 8-10
prevalence around Great Salt Lake and in Joaquin Valley,

nature, and causes, investigations..........-.------.-.- 217 4-8
Duck farms, food OLE NS ESiA aI ae a SR <i, SNL Ee Lomein 205 19-25
Duck, mallard, importance in Louisiana, note.-.-...---.-.---- 205 9
Ducks—

death from duck disease around Great Salt Lake, history... 217 2-3
LOOMED ANS OMG UCKATMS= -4e6. 522 ca... wale se Seek ee 205 19-25
recovery from duck diseases of Great Salt Lake, experi-

TD S| BS es Os ee aa i Ue YS el 217 9-10

wild—
death in various localities near Great Salt Lake, his-
PORE PUTED DCTS seLC aime Ma)... ese crerte saree nls 217 2-3
foods important, "bulletin by W. L. McAtee.. Py hae 205 1-25
mortality around Great Salt Lake, Utah............. 217 1-10
Duck’s meat—
UAT HOM CUCK Weed an See oes Qe Le oS eae 205 4
See also Duckweeds.
Duckweeds—
descriptions, occurrence, value as duck food, etc.----..--- 205 3-5
DEO DACA LO Msae Mery peyee ee ae Ne lene. OEMS MRA Sere aie ey 205 5

16

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201—225.,

Bulletin. Page
Earth roads, maintenance, directions. -.....-.--......-.----- 220 10-11
Echinochloa spp., character, value, and analysis...........-.-- 201 21
Echinochloa crus- “gall, analysis, habitat, value and yield...... 201 21
Education, use of land in teaching agriculture in secondary
S{CiN1G11 Sg cana RRR NS am AES, SR 213 1-12
Eel-grass—
description, occurrence, and propagationss2 Bene 22-2 2.2 205 15-16
walkie as duckitocdeasan a. 2) IMR res eh ya Lin 205 13-15
Egg-breaking—
industry, evolution in construction, equipment, and
By RO DeTratlOoMsewamee Selene... 2: ee.) eeneN ee ope an ae 224 5-9
plants—
construction and equipment, improvement, work of
Department in three establishments. ..-...-....--- 224 3-14
experiments in cooperating houses, 1911 and 1912. ... 224 22-99
planstamepracticegmrcs .- -.)/ Jeu SU te to ee 224 2-4
terme used clossaiysaeet 42 ia c.s Gai ee eee ese aa 224 21
SPeeCG Packansme ss thames. 2 ode ae) ee 2S 1 a teen 224 8
Eggs—
bacterial content of commercial product, seasonal varia-
[MONT 2 5 5 2 ee, eR MMH Sa gs (EE Se 224 8-9
bad, presence in breaking-room, detection, caution, hand-
ling SSI aed ERP 2 ec Nn Na A 3 224 7-8
breaking, experiments, comparisons, etc............----. 224 48-49, 56-57
classes in egg-breaking plants, composition, bacteriologi-
CAlTCOMLETIEMEL Cs eee are a. AR eR CoS aa a 224 18-21
frozen—
and dried, a study of the preparation in the producing
section, bulletin by M. E. Pennington, M. K.
Jenkins, W. A. Stocking, S. H. Ross, E. Q. St.
John, Norman Hendrickson, and W. B. Hicks...-. 224 1-99
composition and bacterial content of commercial
SEEN Gay 03 Nest aN Es AECL i ee Be ye a aE 224 92-93
grading—
experiments, comparisons, ete... 2.222. 222222222 22 224 26-27
AMON AKERS? TOON Ge cer epee ais bel Tee aaa 224 7-8
AM EPACkMMOMMOUSES ss) tie. eas aloe ee eee 224 6-7
5-6, 26-27,
handling, sanitation, management..........-.- NN weg ae 224 © ne
58-59, 61
leaky—
bactentolosicalidata na... 21 waaay eas 2) he 224 11
composition Olfcommercral}samplessay sao.) eee 224 i
handling and grading at ege-breaking plant.........-- 224 oli
liquid and dried, composition and bacterial content of } 924 ee .
seomimercialsamiplese=cs ses nec. 2. Meme enn. oe eee "64-91
liquid, chemical and bacteriological content of commercial
TOUNOLOUUUCR ASSIS epee es Man A EL tr AGM oe URS 224 16-17
mixed, bacterial content of commercial samples, seasonal
variation EBs RU va ADSM Nee LN eee SAE A 224 g
packing-house receipts, per cent rejected. ....-.----.----- 294 6
“‘soft,’? nature, and bacterial content of 13 samples........ 224 12-13
studies before and after desiccation.............---..--. 224 15-16
tanners’, nature, bacterial content, GRRE a O' 224 18-14
Elm, water—
description, occurrence, value as duck food, etc-.-....-.---- 205 9-12
MO PDAG AGO ay es eee see os 0 SAE a aR RUN US 205 11-12
Elodea, description, propagation, and value as duck food.....-. 205 22-23
Elymus condensatus: See Rye grass. :
Elymus triticoides, habitat, value, and analysis. ........-.----- 201 23
201 22, 23

Elymus spp., habitat, value, and analysis.............-.--..-

{

60802—16——_3

INDEX. 1
Bulletin. Page
Elynus virginicus, habitat, value, and analysis.....-.--.-.---- 203 23-24
. Eragrostis spp., occurrence, value, and analysis.....-...------ 201 24
Ericoma cuspifata, analysis, habitat, and value.......-...---- 201 24-25
Erosion, arid regions of Southwest—
AISCS MM ALURC weLCMiepenrs wee nee ninals cra css. melene eetaks ah lis 211 20-26
1B, PiRGEASY Man aM pena esos ies aA pe Pee IMR ar GE Ue Da 211 25-26
Euproctis chrysorrhoea, parasite work.........------------+---- 204 4-15
Exhibits, road models, various expositions, 1909-1915.......-. 220 1-2
AREER DISUSE Ol Geld) cic pase ay eS NE An Se ee 206 16
Farms— ;
school, size, tenure, and importance in the teaching of
UCU RCE ensue tt ie aches Limits wayete a che Clee Sakae 213 2-3
tenant problem, relation to agricultural schools... --.-.-.--- 213 9
See also School farms. i
Fescue grasses, descriptions, habitats, and analyses of various
BARRE Smee PhS eee ON ok SL Se Su ea (2c lacal ee 201 25-26
Festuca spp., habitat, value, and analysis....- es ea pia ao 201 25, 26
Fish-blankets, description, propagation, and value as duck food . 205 24-25
hekeawvayh sipsy-moth work, . 22s ee ee. 204 2-3
Hleecernwoolswuserol term 4200002) s ce ae wa 206 16
Fleeces—
buck, characteristics, packing, spinning value. .......-.- 206
utty treatment for cleamimg. 200: 22. yo. s 725.61 s 26 2S oe 206 8-9
eoured onmatted, treatment-o: 21.222. e8 sees ee 206 10
deamacepmommprand marae sy sai is 22) OM CRs ier einer als 206 7-8
Bkirtine, practices.and advantages... ..--- 6202 -42.22 22 206 28-29
tying with sisal twine and jute, objections...-.........-... 206 9
Ween tTenecnOnsand StOTINS 2.20. eel ee Sk Be 206 4
Florida, cotton warehouses, storage capacity..-....----------- 216 14, 16, 17
lone cone maine! and Uses 2.25 5s) so sy IN 215 5, 8
Forage—
en CROTASSES! VALU Le yLORs bia... ne | tee a ye) Se eye 201 4-52
New Mexico range lands, nature and distribution.......-- 2a 20-22
Forestiera acumenata, description, occurrence, propagation, and
Baer mrme Sears Sie i a aor a aN 205 12-13
Forest survey, Massachusetts, Middlesex County. .......-.--- 204 23-24
Forest trees—
seed production, determination, problems........-....-- 210 1-2
seed production measurement, method,employed......... 210 2-5
Foxtail—
halttieneavalmexan dyamalyeis\ se) e-.4 2... sae aaa aia ee 201 19
Bini AM AMA lSIS: Gres cn ee) ee eM ANNE ea 201 6
mountain, description, habitat, and value..........--.--- 201 6
EMTICDUNPENTIAY SIS Gs ee yee cS cys ao MMR de ons, chk oe 201 6
small, description, habitat, and value-....--..- Ue arene aba toe 201 6
France, road building, influences, types, and construction. - .. 220 | 3-4
reneh roads. types and construction... - 242.22... 42) 22..4.- 220 3-5
Beene experiment vineyard, California, soils and conditions. . 209 4-5, 10, 11
rogbit—
description, occurrence, and value as duck food..........- 205 5-6:
IBROPESAOM Are iat sae aie ila) Os Me ae) Me Ne 205 6
Frozen eggs— :
composition and bacterial content of commercial samples. - 224 92-93
Recond-orade./bacterial content... 5. / 250i 2 2 ae a 224 13
Frozen-egg industry, need, permanency, and problems........ 224 4-5,
Fruit associations—
cooperative, system of accounting, bulletin by G. A.
Nes tolled eWay aKenn ae 7 eG, Sa es 225 1-25.
sales book, memorandum records, practices. .-.---.:----- 225 3-4:
Fungi, saprophytic, occurrence on jack pine......-. a Me PAA &

18 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201—225.

Gall—
tuberculosis of sugar beets, description: SES) a7 ae ae a pee
tumor of sugar beets, description EN RISE eS N
Galleta— |
Bromma habits, andlysisyetes,..... 5- Aaya eee At
mAMibat. Cescriptign, <andivalwe. 2-0. Manne
Galls, sugar-beet, kinds and distribution....._-...........-.--
Georgia—
cotton production in 18 counties, 1913...............----
cotton warehouses—
distribution and storage capacity, in 18 counties. ....
Numbenameycapackiye: . = 2° Ot” Meee meen ne
SOLAR Mean emis HklYN 11 ee aa 4 tric Ne
een facilities, survey, method and reliability of
WOT c Severs poy ee ies <A ME le REE
Germany, acreage cultivated by one laborer, comparison with
(GHITRS GI IS Rese SR 2 2/4 UR do
Gipsy moth, control—
EOOMEEAL IVE ROR Kee were moar e © ha Liammnes.- Bape 2 Byer Ceara eldeatvay ere
GISPersloMMVEstioahrons ey! MWe) uf ae) Nagi h lia whee
CXPELIMMEMMLalmwOnkee. Saree NNN a Wbsaluit NIUE Ue cane eae
FOOd- Plant AM VvestiPalloONs aie): Seow. ne Ne Oe ee ae
increase im the field, determination, experiments and
HOO ea oh SN ECOL Ye ne de RPS oe ne eC cee EN
naturabicontroltactors im) Wuropes . +. eee .2 222-2 e eee
parasites—
colonization. NOI miOL4 statistics aus ie eee
descriptions, introduction, experimental work, etc... -
wilt disease, investigations in New England..............
work, cooperation with State of Massachusetts. :
work in New England, report, bulletin by A. F. Burgess. !
Girls, agricultural students in high schools, numbers, by. geo-
graphic CES VIPS IV OV SVS Put tsa Gs ok Se pm Nea anaes ete eb
Goats, New Mexico, numbers, diseabation and importance of
industry, TESTO AES A ESA RR Ll at sly ANIME A eae AL a
Golden-top grass, habitat, value, and analysis...-...-....-...-
GoopRIcH, CHARLES E., Davin Gairriras, and Guorce L.
BIDWELL, bulletin on ‘Native pasture grasses of the United
SHUR TICEIST De NA Nee SA OAS OR Sack Oem AMM he ioe Ae me a
Grading eggs, experiments, comparisons, etc.....-..-.-.------
Graiting, grapevine, congeniality and adaptability of vines...
Grama—
black—
Peo is) PSG eas eats Ais UNC ia RUN. 5 A gB Ne Soe ta es a
description, habitat, and value... -.- SN cts ies
description, habitat, and value of native varieties... ..--
grass, value in crowding out snakeweed on range lands....
hairy—
apalysts: BER ciheal AP ALCOA RO ARS ASSEN. | SOUR MR acy reyes AA Lace ate

mesa—
A GERINY SENS \s ese aegis ayia RO het es eS AUN
deserptron,;, habitat; andi value._22)0 20022 5288. :
rough—
SUITE Senne RN I Seek Ls Nain eT 1 SR SE yee eveyeete
description, habitat, and value......-.....----.-.---
side-oat— ;
UTIL VSS Se eres AT Peete SS MAES A act
description: bubrtat, andivalue: fees. 2 2 eee

. Grape—

hybrids, production of resistant stock, work...-....--.-.
varieties, testing in the vinifera regions of the United
States, bulletin by George C. Husmann....-.......---

Bulletin. Page.
203 1
203 | 1
|
201 38
204 | 37-38
203 | 1-2
216 6-7
216 6-7
216 lt
216 14, 16, 17
216 1-2
213 10
204 31-32
204 18-19
204 2-20
204 14-18
204 16-18
204 3
204 12
204 4-15
204 12-14
204 2-3
204 1-32
213 9
211 11, 15
201 29
201 1-52
224 26-27
209 26-27
201 13
201 12-13
201 12-14
7A 23
201 14
201 14
201 14
201 14
201 13
201 13
201 12
201 12
209 16
209 1-157

INDEX.

os,

Sy OSH wy eng PON a eee Atel gg SE 8 a Ce a Re

Bulletin. Page.
Grapes—
American—
and Franco-American, varieties under test on their
own roots, experiments in California. ......--..... 209 24-26
test as resistant stock, cultural data. -.-.........-...- 209 14-15
comparison oi graited, and growing on their own roots... . 209 27-154
growing, suggestions. BNE ENS ES So trance ita ay Hew = ARs LMF) RANE 209 155-157
Grapevines—

' adaptation to soil, climatic, and other conditions. ........ 209 12-15
grafting, congeniality and adaptability of vines. : 209 26-27
phylloxera-resistant, growth ratings of different varieties

Pe PeMMmeN VIN Yards <2 x 8S. ee ee 209 16-26
resistance to phylloxera, PAGLOUS ee esis: | awe \ ppt Jie Ui 209 12-13
Grasses, native pasture, of the United States, bulletin by David
Griffiths, George L. Bidwell, and Charles E. Goodrich. ..... 201 1-52
Gravel roads, construction, [ovebaVesy 9) Kets)ey ar aeree ms a 220 12-13
Grazing land, New Mexico, acreage and relative importance,
HEDIS 4 US Rae atest SO Lh ana eee ana a 211 11-14
Great Plains—
barley growing— ’
peace mimMatle conditions, ete! 2a Vi Se 222 3-5
relation to cultural methods to production, bulletin by
EK. C. Chilcott, J. 8. Cole, and W. W. Burr. ......-- 222 1-32
SRNR CE OTOILIONS. Stil Neve bit sls 2 EIN MS Ny 219 4-6
corn growing, relation of cultural methods to production,
bulletin by E. C. Chilcott, J. S. Cole, and W. W. Burr. . Pau 1-31
frost-free periods, 1A Meld, stations. 2 sy-4 aes OPS as ait “219 5-6
oats, growing, yield, and cost by different methods, exper-
dments in 14 field stations...........-2.0.-.09..... 6... 218 11-37
precipitation—
annual and seasonal, at 14 field stations. eM ae 249 4
annual and seasonal at 14 stations.-.-................ 218 4
with evaporation at 14 field stations.........- ia Wear 222 5)
Great Plains area—
climatic conditions at 14 experiment stations............. 214 4-5
spring wheat, relation of cultural methods to production,
bulletin by E. C. Chilcott, J. 8. Cole, and W. W. Burr.. 214 1-43
Great Plains region— :
Pree TNe COUGEIONS: 42% 350022 tes hcca epee fs Ree. ON 218 3-4
oats, production, relation of cultural methods, bulletin by
KH: C. Chilcott, J. 8. Cole, and W. W. Burr....-........ 218 1-4
_ Grebes, mortality around Owens Lake, Cal..................- 217 3
Greene, Edward L., discovery of Arizona cypress............ 207 5-6
GRIFFITHS, Davi, bulletin on “‘ Yields of native prickly pear
vig is a eee, Tallin conten 208 1-11
GrirrirHs, Dayip, Grorce L. Bipwert, and CHartes FE.
Goopricu, pulletin on “‘Native pasture g orasses of the United
Shor 2 2 Se ee pea ae ee eee Mas 207 5-6
Grist mill, comparison with other SVD OSes 2 eae mE ea ND is 215 4
Grits—
brewers’, composition of products of corn from various sec-
(RLS — oo Ee 2a ks A a ee aan ee ER a 215 15
RA AEERE LE TIAC EU SOS apt S102 tals Rd Sn UAE hd! Aa MAL! CNC IEVI rae 215 5, 8, 2
table, composition of products of corn from various sections. 215
Ground cedar. See J uniper, common.
Harrowing—
corn land, cost per acre in Great Plains................... 219 11
cost per acre—
barley growing in Great Plains...................-- 222 10
paisicrowmeuni Great Plana) 9009 Jah i es 218 9
214 10

AG) DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201—225,

Harvesting—
barley, cost per acre for, various operations, Great Plains.
corn, cost of various operations, Great Plains...........-.-
oats, cost per acre for various operations, Great Plains... . -
wheat, COStMperAere Ls \. oil AMR Roy S) aaa
Hay—
farm prices, Great Plains.
FediMeroMNeh-ordss! NOL...) =. Beeman. elke Sole
injury to live stock by Hordeum murinum, note......----

Waluevomsevieralukciaids: sO ess ys) epee eee ee eyes

Heer, L. L., and F. R. Marswatt, bulletin on ‘“‘The wool-
erowerand the wool: trade esse «See ein tea ys egcee
TE MULeLeG, OlUOIMesMOLCS ee aes ne ae a J anna nen
HeEnvricKson, Norman, M. KE. PenninaTon, and others, bul-
letin on “‘A study of the preparation of frozen and dried eggs
HIRE Ne MLO CIMOTSCCHION? Wass kiss. wel ee aoe es
Heteropogon contortus, habitat, value and analysis. - :
Hicxs, W. B., M. E. PENNINGTON, and others, bulletin on a
study of frozen and dried eges in the producing section,’
Hilaria cenchrpides. See Mesquite, curly.
Holcus lanatus, habitat, value, and analysis...........-...---
Homalacenchrus oryzoides, habitat, value, and analysis........-
Hominy. See also Grits.
Hordeum juratum, habitat, value, and canellvaty piaapsrays Nga
Hordeum spp., habitat, value, anid) analysis hese hae esa eieres
Hornweed, description, propagation, value as duck food......
Hornwort, description, propagation, value as duck food......-.
Horses, New Mexico, numbers, distribution, and importance,
OO OES O aS ea couaes Lena PW eee a ce aM See Na chea ls Add el SL ol
Husmann, Georce C., bulletin:on ‘‘Testing grape varieties in
the vinifera regions of the United States. .............-----

Idaho wools, quality and characteristics. -
Indian millet—
ATELY SS Sie ey MU ON SSAA 2) Som UR Gs! . URLS eG eau leg Ty
habitat, growth, habits, ATUL ace LT Ra a 0) AE RY eA SA EN
Indiana, wools, quality aula ivorra Cleat ehs ape wes (eae hie aa
Insurance, cotton warehouses, rates for different types, etc. .--

Jack pine—
GIB SABES NER oe hea NA VN bes SIN | SRR ORS en AR Ne a ea
INBH OEE CHONG COCDITTSINGOS 5 soe 4H eens s oust eebe oreo eae sacle
iinibvey lene tity a cease sabe PS ge bees soc c eaee See on ss
injury by rodents.....-.....--- A cls oer ees Bee
AUIS EHV Sele Cio! Of/SIbek 2 ee ene Stee eet te ee
observations on pathology of, bulletin by James R. Weir. .
occurrence of saprophytic fungi SARA ney NV HN SOM Bente es
occurrence of ‘“ witches’-brooms”’ :
JENKINS, M. K., M. E. PENNINGTON, ‘and others, bulletin: on
iA. study of the preparation of frozen and dried eggs in the
producing section’? .)ioe5 Fees il. ae ae ees ee ae
JoHNson, Witi1AM T., Jr., and 8S. Henry Ayers, bulletin on
“The alcohol test in relation to milk”..........2222222-+0-
June-grass—
analysis® tive te cle ch iele dbase eee as aan
Habit erowth habits, bndivalue: aut. 0 te tin vaae
See also Coon tail.
Juniper—
common—
occurrence and growth habits. ........--.-.- eet
‘varieties. characteristics: ebC.. sees. 2 ese sees oer
Rocky Mountain region, bulletin by George B. Sudworth. -

Bulletin.

222
219
218
214

219
201
201

201

206
204

224
201

224

201

201

201
201
205
204

211
209
206

201
201
206
216

212
212
212
212
212
212
212
212

224

202

201
201

207
207
207

10, 11
1

9
10

12
50

28

14, 17, 18,
19, 21, 22,
27, 29, 37,
39, 42, 43—
44, 50-51-
1-32

10, 11

ee: ye es ea
Peers . :

INDEX.

- Junipers—

class and family relationships. ...... fe tirad ie pag ba ic sgt le) cba
Pomorie GharaCleristies. 2 2Aen 2. \aGeien ea apiiecit eon ae
RES TNO) (SY DSCC WSIS aaNet eat SS od a aes ore a
Juniperus sabina prostrata, description and habitat. .......---
Juniperus scopularum. See Red cedar, mountain.
Juniperus spp. See Juniper.
Juniperus utahensis. See Utah juniper.

Kansas— ;
barley growing, yield and cost per acre by different methods

corn growing—
Garden City field station, yields and cost per acre by
Miliecente menhodss .-sewace ote. . IAN Boe oka
Hays field station, yields and cost per acre by different
1 HHL OO iE Re GC Pe egies Oana age me caae
oats, growing—
Garden City field station, yields and cost by different
Tay EAETOVOVG NSE AON Oo EU AIC Ay A eae
Hays field station, yields and cost by different methods
spring wheat growing—
Garden City field station, methods, yields, and cost..
Hays field station, methods, yields, andycosteeee se se
wool, quality and Charachenina Gia) eia,!c Mee aly eres al
Ketty, E. O. G., bulletin on ‘The southern corn leai-beetle. -
Kentucky, wools, quality and grades. --........-...-.22-+-----

Kerr, W. H., and G. A. Nausroxr, bulletin on “A system of

accounting for cooperative fruit associations’’............---
King, Vernon, statement on occurrence and habits of southern
eopigleatpeetle+-...obcre. .ilee 2. A ees aes See

Koeleria christata. See June-grass.

Lamarckia aurea, habitat, value, and analysis. -

Lambs’ wool, production i in Tennessee and Kentucky, note.

Land, use in teaching agriculture in secondary schools, bulletin.

by Eugene Naat a ER OOS ic ceed, MRA

Leaf-beetle, southern corn—
Pablenaoy HO. Gi. Kellys vicce tial ebb oft i Lee
REAR MER MINE COMO Sree ic, ino te cing SOG AAs
Besemanonband life Nistory, .....2 22-0. eels. 22 Bee
PS mn Aes es Baas... ee) eee Bi eee
PV eRR NOM weme se: Piss sea Ne el es a eee ee SES.
SU ObVeTIGNGIStrE DU GON eis .2 5.2 jue. = - ee eee Se odie
ie Me eRe ee aa aby etek} a PL Ein. Lj imge aiats Aid eee
DRTLEC TOSSES Les MDE eee oe Ie ae Si

Lemoine, M. Louis, invention of steam road roller............

“Leef,’’ occurrence in date palm, nature and value........-.

Leptochloa spp., habitat, value, and analysis. -.-.- alee tig keane
umeweed. mame formusk grass:........--.-- sss. 222s 252s:
Limnobium spongia, description, propagation, and value as

QiLG TOOL So Le SSI Nes 2 Aa ie tala oC gm CU RN CARE ONT ond 5

LInmnodcea arkansana, habitat, value, and analysis...........--
Listing—
cost per acre for barley in Great Plains..................-
costsperacre tor corman Great (Plains 2.22 4855.22 lk.
EoOsinpenacre for oats iniGreat Plains: Seow. 03. iso
CAsiMOetIAchetOrswiheaitens oe Se muy soci eis Serene We) apa a sii
Live stock—
breeding on range, disadvantages, suggestions, etc.......-
business, New Mexico, legal status, use.of public lands,
puVdlecessmmanacement, (CLE =)... janie ns eeeraaee Aa ae
control of number on range, importance...........--------
control on range lands, importance, and suggestions.......
disease eradication on range, difficulties..............----

21

Bulletin.

207
207
207
207

221
220
223
201
205

205
201

222
219
218
214

211

211
211
211
211

Page.

22

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201—225,

Live stock—Continued.

industry, New Mexico, relative importance... J
losses in dry seasons on ranges in Southwest, ‘causes and
BUC PESLLOMS AY seme Meri 0 2,1. GN DVT eave aire ts a
New Mexico, 1909-1913, numbers of various kinds. .......
Liverworts, food of wild ducks, note... é :
Loco weed, occurrence on sheep ranges of. California, ‘eradica-
tion method, JOYOUS) a 2 at RRR MN eal ei

Louisiana, cotton warehouses, storage capacity...

Lycurus phleoides, habitat, value, and analysis. .. aoe aaney Riba tue ap |

MacAdam, John Loudon, road construction, method..........
Macadam roads—
COMB TUICELOME Uae URE cee Shae APN dt oe tdci A eRe
construction and maintenance.......... Benn teh EG Tha NOU oe a
Wachineny, road Gescrip toms!) <2. Wo Alc coils Bes Sy ta
Maize meal. See Meal, corn.
Mallard duck, importance in Louisiana, note...............---
Market, milk—
alcohol test, influence of various conditions and bacteria. -
application of alcohol test in European countries.......-..-
Market products—
change of-route after shipment, practices. ....-......-.--
shipping, diversion of shipment, practices, causes, etc.
Market wool, ‘erades AUTEN 1 3 Mie aoa I ees Oe aed ATE Be
Marsh millet, habitat, value, and Py aed igablicys) ch tenner a ee eT UN
MARSHALL, F. R., and L. L. Hetrer, bulletin on “The wool-
erower and the wool trade”
Mason, Smas C., bulletin on “Botanical characters of the
leaves of the date palm used in distinguishing ‘cultivated
varieties”
Massachusetts, forest survey of Middlesex Countyi se ha ae
McAteer, W. ne bulletin on “Eleven eee wild-duck
yo men Samia (OOS OU S| SO rei CR a MRT
Meal—
brewers’, nature..........- ULES 2. 5 iat aes ies xian ugar eens
corn—
bolted, degerminated, roller-ground, composition ...-.
bolted, undegerminated, analysis..................--

COMSURIpPtION] forms! . P54 ess ssa esis Bea Nee cel

IMAMULACUUITE PLOCesses=.- eee. s ee ae Sas es eee eee
manufactured by different processes, composition,
and the influence of composition on the keeping
qualities, bulletin by A. L. Winton, W. C. Burnet,
VIMO LIS id gs edd BOY DUA TEE RG Oley AND 2 nied Siete ee
methods,of amalysis-.22- 22°12 SRR, A Os as in’
spoilaze factors ind memenna 2: | wees Yee eee
stone ground—
cherseteristics oa e SO... MAIN eile CRIES
comparison with roller-ground........-.-.-------
storage-experkmaemts 5 ys suis Peele ma GaN ae ats 3
whole-kernel stone- eround, composition of products
Ove ATENANOL OLS) ArAKOlE HOM (CON y Gee oa coe Gao Le nee
whole-kernel stone-ground, keeping qualities, com-
parison with degerminated, roller-ground meal, ex-
permentss 2.2. aes. Ue RT Sey Dene
degerminated corn, relation of moisture content to keep-
ing qualities, experiments SMR A Mat te ana Oe ke,
processes of production by, roller mm tlises. 2. fa ire
white corn, roller-ground and stone-ground, composition. .
yellow corn, roller-ground, composition oat Sica OL ed ae
Melic grass, habitat, value and ATAly SIS ueuse tt Ney Le Bee
Melica, spp., habitat, valueandsanalyaiga sie esl as eee

Bulletin.

22-30

16-21
7

8,9

8, 11, 12, 13
31

31

23

INDEX.
Merchants— :
cotton belt, advantages of organized system of cotton ware-
2 PUSS US US Re ONE Seen Io Ee RU

’ erent system. to cotton farmers. 2.23.2 Ss) ie sk Sl ee
Merrirr, EvcGene, bulletin on “The use of land in teaching
aemeuiture inisecondary schools”... 2-2----22.J6 2229424
Mesquite, curly—
LS SLE o55 Ie emer mR eR TES occ
habitat. etowth habits and value. .!....:2.sc22. 22.250 -
GN MeV ANALVAIS- co. 13-6 52 Bae SER AS dle week
Meteorus versicolor, parasite of brown-tail moth, value, note... -
Michigan, wools, quality and grades...................+---+--

alcohol test, bulletin by William T. Johnson, jr., and

PepEMetny Ayersem yam) Sonos ck be a Se eee ts cate
colosinim:.eftect on alcohol, testo-2 2222. 202.05 2. Rees
market—

application of alcohol test in European countries... --
“og 27—

mMIEC-COBUMMTOCESSOS. | Noi cel aes SOO ek
Rate CORN PTOCESSCS@1 fs s\)5c cou aes Sues ste well ucla eS
Millet, native, value and analysis
Millinge—
corn—
Poller process... 2.0)... 2 alae meee 2s Sas tehesine
BLOHE RD LOCESS ae ce wins Se eles eset ato eet te sei he ie
eceesses tor prinding: corms. 738... eee ee MY
Mills—
cotton, number and capacity, by States.................
roller, corn milling, processes and products..............
SNE CUT ee aa ee aie ten, SE
iy Pesmor cringing cormmeals 25352. 5,Vseee!. eee
Millstones, kinds used in grinding corn for meal
Mississippi cotton warehouses—
distribution... .. Pe tae oe ees awe anes fy ee St
SRD AZ = GR ]D ECA Re NS CARR A IS yi ae ea
Missouri, wools, quality and grades...........-...---...--5-.-

ee ey

Monodontomerus aereus, note...........--.----+--- Th Ree a a
Montana—

barley growing, yield and cost per acre by different

PETERS se NS Wa es ee Li. SED RR Bey

corn growing—
Huntley field station, yields and cost per acre by
UULELCTE LT MACTHOG SINE A siaack iki a A INT al dot escape Ui age
Judith Basin, yields, and cost per acre by different
PRL OO Sei ote ON ae a hci ae atelare ie it a

oats growing—
in Yellowstone Valley, yields and cost by different
reaver nVO{0 Fy aM ee SE Oe Ramee. 1S Ranh ees alee
Judith Basin, yields and cost by different methods...

spring wheat growing—

Huntley field station, methods, yields, and cost......
Judith Basin, methods, yields, and cost..............
wools quality. and characteristics.....%c2 552254. 2542 140
Morass-weed, description, propagation, and valueas duck food.
poe con tail, description, propagation, and value as duck
i COLO LO nee, SEPP OS i Ee Teed oe eed OES pan Une ne ie ea Len Ae

Bulletin.

216
216

213

201
201
201
204
206

202
202

202
202

202
202
202

215
216
201

215
215
215

216
215
215
215
215

216
216

206
204

222

219

219

218
218

214
214
206
205

205

Page.

9

14, 16, 17
16

ne

12-14

14-15
13-14
13-14
11-13.
14-15
11-14
18-19
24-29

24-25

94 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201—225.

x Bulletin. Page.
Moth—
brown-tail, \parasigemworles... -- 20a seen ere ie). a 204 4-15.
gipsy. See Gipsy moth.
nun, attack by gipsy-moth caterpillar, note............-. 204 13°
Mountain cedar—
deseriptionandenaracteristics. .-- . ese ee ee eke 207 23-24
occuimence/and erowth habits. . 22. BeBe Sse ee seo fee 207 25
wood; characterand durability... Peete osbc-2 2225 cl. 207 24
Mountain juniper. See Mountain cedar.
Mountain timothy— —
CEH hy STS IAS OSA pepe eemense re Ca |S anata Bar 201 37
habitat, description and value..-.-..........-...------- 201 37
Muhlenbergia portert. See Black grama.
Muhlenbergia, Spp., habitat, value, and analysis..........-.--- 201 31-32, 33.
Musk grasses—
desenptionsoccnmence ete: 35), Mee” oe eh. aebois ae 205 1-3.
PLOpACAton Wwureehlomsue yy). Ses elma ee | soak 205 2-3
Valiteag) ducksiood: sinh \is Ani Pn Ace Ts 205 | 1
Myochrous denticollis. See Leaf-beetle, southern corn.
Naustoit, G. A., and W. H. Kerr, bulletin on ‘fA system of
accounting for cooperative fruit associations”...........-.-- 225 1-25
Nativemrools.auserot terms bse 85 Lo Re a) ee ue a 206 16
Nebraska—
barley growing, yield and cost per acre by different
rine Gly spa as ys ots Dake Ny EI a i ce eno cane 222 20-22
corn growing—
North Platte field station, yields and cost per acre by
ditterent met hod sue sia) cee aes wet hes Se 219 21-22
Scottsbluff field station, yields and cost per acre by
different mrethoudsmerssGr eo | SOR emia ele Nee peta 219 20-21
oats growing—
North Platte field station, yields and cost by different
SOUS ELA VOTO Kopi eesies ae CA -5 ae Nea an aU ac a: 218 26-28
North Platte irrigation project, yields and cost by
different methods ye) ay Ee Re ERS FA Lay eons Dy, 38 OS 218 24-26
spring wheat growing— —
North Platte field station, methods, yields, and cost.. 214 26-28
Scottsbluff field station, methods, yields, and cost... 214 25-26
wool, quality and Characteristics. Oe SMa a) 206 20
Needle grass—
SIA lysis se eee Ne ec ae ER i aa ie RS 201 9,10
description, habitat, and “alte 52 Jeo Ss ee 201 9, 10
habitat, value, and analysis RDN RS NMR 2 oo Se 201 - 50
injury to live stock, TUG Le mew yet Li CS oe) AS Re 201 50
Nevada, wool, quality and characteristics..............------- 206 19
New England, gipsy-moth work, report, bulletin by A. F.
TES URSA SISIS|S SUES SNAG Nate GP WSN eS ERED Et Dee Ba 204 1-32
New Mexico—
acreage of grazing, agricultural, and farm lands, 1909-1913. 211 11
elumaiicvan d, soll con@idions 4251s Sees, Mate hee 211 3-8
Government land, control, uses! ete__ 222222 2 seecus 211 9
DerVCURS MO RAIN SES TOTIS (3!) Siar I 4 2 ee ange a a ae 211 8-9
property, classes, and valuation, 1909-1913. . ity 211 or da
range lands, topography, nature, and distribution of forage. 211 20-25
range management, factors affecting, bulletin by ~ O.

Wiogtomee mem cu.) 20 Naa SAC RNS oar 211 1-39
OPOLTAPHye Pee hie Seis Aoi aA We ne ea 211 2-3
wool; qualitviand eharacteristicss..2%sett. 22 oes eee dec 206 19-20

New York, wools, quality and grades...-.....-......--.------ 206 16
Nigger wool, description, propagation, value for duck food... 205 16-19
Nigger wool, other name for Musk ptass: Wee se chee a ee 205 2
Nixon, RoBert L., bulletin on ‘‘Cotton warehouses: Storage

facilities now available in the South”............------.+- 216 1-26

INDEX.

25

North Carolina—

Bulletin.

cotton production in 16 counties, 1913..........-.---.---

cotton warehouses— ;
distribution and capacity,

in 16 counties...... SW ete

distribution in various States................2...--.--
Bp Der ANG CAPsCtbyn = 2222 mec oee na he eae

storage capacity........--
North Dakota —

barley ‘growing at Williston field station, yield and cost
Henacrel by. different methods 4). 92. Ale. Sheds ie

corn growing—

Dickinson field station, yields and cost per acre by
EME TEE MOR SY ase ERR ae De as Reale ye
Edgeley field station, yields and cost per acre by

different methods....-..-

Williston field station, yields and cost per acre by
Gaterent meas: - ce Sere cise iy eae. Sei eet WRG

oats, growing—

Dickinson field station, yields and cost by different

oa etil ny0(0 Feyai aire Due eae Pir eae

Edgeley field station, yields and cost by different

methods Fore penee tats, WRN hey 5

THERM OCS yas sects otek

Williston field station, yields and cost by different

mIebNOdSe Ls 1 zpos lt
spring wheat growing—

Dickinson field station, methods, yields and cost. .-.-.
Edgeley field station, methods, yields and cost... - 4:
Hettinger field station, methods, yields and cost......
Williston field station, methods, yields and cost......

wool, quality and characteristics. MN
Nun moth, attack by gipsy-moth caterpillar, note........-.---

Oak trees, attack by Agrilus bilineatus...2.00). 02 22-314 522

Oats—

cost of production per acre for various operations, Great

TPT aTiraS sats 2 ina ys Ve ra

Great Plains region, relation of cultural methods to pro-

duction, bulletin’ by E. C.
W. W. Bure bon hs
growlng—

Chilcott, J. S. Cole, and

cost per acre of various operations ...-.-------- Bee
field stations in Great Plains, comparison of yields
and cost by different methods................-.-.-

Great Plains—
area of investigations -

comparison of cultural methods..............--.-
experiments at 14 field stations..............----

treatment of land. ..-.-

See ee ee er

prices, at farm granary. 1905-1914, Great Plains...........
wi

analysis Gb dilferentispecies: . i Wh a,
de-empiuon, habitat, and values... 8922020 2k

Ohio, wools, quality and grades nos
Oklahoma, cotton warehouses—

distribution 5p SAE) ALES RESIS NTE ERO RNIN a ame 8° OT AUR St ST

storage capacity...-..........
One-seed | juniper—

description and characteristics.

occurrence and growth habits -
wood, character and durability

218
218
218

218
218
218
218
218

201
201
206

216
216

207
207
207

Page.

9-10
ets
14, 16, 17

14-20

5-8
10

10, 11
10-11
12-13

9
14, 16, 17

20-22
22-23
22

96 - DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201-225,

Bulletin.
Opuntia lindheimeri, growing at San Antonio, Texas, planting,

waeld. ete: Sie er eee nae 208
Opuntia spp., description, planting, and yield in southern

(Wey) aM) 8 YS. Ve a Sen hae 2) oes Se a 208
Oregon, .woolssqualityiand srades...2). 5-22 Re sebs Gees koe 206
Oyster grass. ‘See Musk FOR YSIS SRM NOE ed ns Bray 205
Packing, wool, suggestions to woolgrowers............----.-- 206
Palm, date, botanical characters of the leaves used in distin-

euishing cultivated varieties, bulletin by Silas C. Mason...- 223

Palm date. See also Date palm.
Panic erass, habitat, valueand analysis. *e28 S200j6 2. 2.) 5-1 201
Pamnicularia spp., habitat, value, and analysis. - Ripa Uagig 3. hts 201
Panicum spp., habitat, value, and pi cb /silse «Sun ie ame tee 201
Pappophorum apertum, habitat, value, and analysis..........- 201
Paspalum spp., habitat, value, and analysis Ug ATE NMRA Y SS eehAIDS & 201
Pasture grasses, native, of the United States, bulletin by David

Griffiths, George L. Bidwell and Charles E. Goodrich....... 201
Paving blocks, byipes; svelue, cd suse ee Se ava REL eiele ek ig 220
Pear, prickly. See Prickly pear.

PENNINGTON, M. E., and others, bulletin on “‘A study of the
preparation of frozen and dried eggs in the producing sec-

LTOTI ae ie ee aA Date 21 SY Pe gig MS Ac APO RST yal We 0S 224
Pennsylvania, wool, quality and grades........--.---.------- 206
Peridermium cerebrum—

disease of jack pine, description, damage, spread, develop-
TNE NGM eats bce ue ee a a ata see a OLS ope a nel See 212
extent of damage and control measures. .--.---.--------- 212
Peridermium comptoniae, injury to jack pine..........-......- 212
Renacnmium iEpp., ralbermate shostsaus. _ ae eey sie en eile 212
Perishable products. See Fruits; Market products; Meats;
Vegetables.
Peter grass, description, propagation, value as duck food...... 205
Phalaris arundinacea, habitat, growth, habits, value, etc......- 201
Philotria, description, propagation, value as duck food.......- 205
Phleum alpinum, description, habitat, value...-......-.-.--- 201
Phragmites communis, habitat, value, and analysigetsa ee oar. 201
Phylloxera—
damage to vinifera vineyards, control, and eee ae 209
resistance of grapevines, factors.......-. pee ay 209
Pine—
jack. See Jack pine.
western white—
crown Classification and seed production.......---.-.- 210
distribution of seed crop by crown classes.....------- 210
seed production, bulletin by Raphael Zon......-..-.- 210
seed-bearing characteristics -.---.--------+------+--- 210
white, value in gypsy-moth regions.....-.--------------- +0 204
Pinus divaricata. See Jack pine.
Planer tree, description, propagation, value as duck food....-. 205
Planera aquatica, description, propagation, value as duck food... 205
Pleuraphis mutica, habitat, description, and value.........--- 201
Plowing—
cost per acre—
barleyain-Great Plains aes: .-2 eee. aa eeeeeeee 222
com: crowing im Greatvblaims. 4. 2) se. =). ype 219
oatsieTrewing im Great elaine... lo) 2 one ee ee ee . 218
oats growing in Great Plains, methods.......-.----------- 218
maneat: land.” Costsper aera: ter oo: jl bce \” te ee ee 214
Poa spp., habitat, and amalivisig sc )co <2 ges ee ape ae ee es 201
Poison, bait for corn leaf-beetle, preparation, use and value... 220
Polypogon monspeliensis, habitat, value, and analysis. .....--- 201

Polyporus schweinitzii, injury to jack Pumas ee ae eee 212

Page.

INDEX,
Bulletin.
Porthetria dispar. See Gipsy moth.
Poverty grass— <
TDG SSS 2 eee Ae Se ee ee oe 201
Pespripnonthabitat, amd: Value... 2); ix 2) 0):njaiek)apsiatetrorayer ee 201
Prickly pear—
diseases, a ealencen TH southern: Vexas oo. es Sys Steep 208
growing at San Antonio, Tex., planting, ‘yields, Ce eos 208
harvesting dates, and yields at Brownsville, Tex., 1912,
Li LS 2hg ee ee a ar eee eet canes Meare ceca 208
native yields in southern Texas, bulletin by David Grif-
THis es EE eee ert gs as a oe a om sere 208
planting BOOLC WIE VALION. 6.228 22 los 3 es See ge ee 208
yields, conditions affecting.....-.---.--- Bs Sa Hihar4 gates 208
Privet, swamp—

description, occurrence, and propagation. .-.-----.--.---- 205

Meme CUCKOO! 0 yo. scree ee cee fee lew ne payne ee ejats 205
Protractor, field, description and use in recording date leaf

SDE HGS a as AS a ee mee regi eee 223

PECL MIGISHCOTCONIS: NODC 26 oe ayy erase Hae es Setere s/ sjarals uy Sots 204
Puccinellia airoides, habitat, value, and analysis..........----- 201
Puldoo grass, description, propagation, value....-.-----.----- 205
Quarantine, gipsy-moth in New England......-.-:...-..-.--- 204
Rabbit brush, value in crowding out snakewood on range lands. 211
Ranchmen, work on southwestern range.......- Sy ee ya Ne Bd 211
Range—

arid Southwest, reserve feed for dry seasons, management. 211

breeding stock on, need of better management...........- 211

EOWA), TEC LE ges SN ESET reat li a te NN A pe ial

lands—

ieweine Need, altd ad vantages) >. 2309. 2. 2 ees 211

New Mexico, control by stockmen, practices.........- 211

water development, practices, importance, and sug-

PRS TAETS e nopenO ee ee 8 211
management—

New Wissen Aer atlsucs: soc e cis ss. oi Man edo pa Ald

New Mexico, factors affecting, bulletin Dygubine ©:

WOOLUMEE me toweu eens eo SEMEL Se Tae ee SOS el 211
overstocking, preventive measures, discussion...........-. 211
plants, undesirable, occurrence and distribution in New

REE 23 2 ea an a Ne eR ma PIs. 2 one ln 211
productivity, reduction by close pasturing, studies.....--. | zal
summer feed, utilization, management..............-..... | 211

Ranges lands, improvement, Gicission. | eee Pa ee | 201
Red cedar, mountain— |
description and Characteristics: .te:2-))..:— econ: * oe bas poe len ZOn
durability of wood......-- Pee Gui Mee ss i, Saar eats - Sloe wets 207
dequeecuce and growth, habits... 225... ..2. 0) 242 es 207
Reed grass, purple panicled, habitat, value, and analysis.....) 201
Rennet, influence on alcohol test with Tile, See eee 202
Reseeding, range lands, management and suggestions..-.....-- | 211
oad—
Appian Way, construction, dimensions, age, rei ae} | 220
araeeonsirnction and Use... -_--- <2. betes ae jae heen 220
praciae Cont peR mille. cs 2006 ool. ee le a 220
graders, description and operation........--.-+-.-.--+-+-- 220
BIACHINETY, CESCHipMOOS ie. o.oo ce! ahs a Sais preiie is Micka 3 eb 220
models— |
bulletin by Roads Office...........2-...--- spe apaee byes | 220
exhibits at various expositions, 1909-1915............ | 220
» roller, steam, invention, and value. -........0/----.2---+.| 220

{3

27

Page.

27-30,
3-35, 36, 37
16-20

30-32

28 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS,. 201—225.

Bulletin.
Roads—
CONECLELE! CONSURMObIONs os. 5. . ics eye Slee ae 220
construction requirements for different Rees ees) ee ae 220
foundation, requirements and suggestions. . Bak Uae ae 220
French, types AUGUGONSEHUCtION Ae se eee sey...) 220
location and alignment, requirements and suggestions... . 220
DAVed. Ey pes, CONStTUCLION, CLC... hasan = ee 220
TROLMOE HOLS COMETH ADO NKo) OU ua Rae MERE 3 8c a i he us Oe 220
Roadside trentinent) (025. ois... 5.4 MiMi) Do 220
Rock cedar. See Mountain cedar.
Rocky Mountain—
bee plant, occurrence on range lands. .-.........-.---... Pall
region, cypress and juniper trees, bulletin by George B.
PUCWOR EIS sue ia ea No Ee i Mee eS eS. Sel ee eas 207
Roman toads..constructioms: 2: <n. Aap ane Ae eee 220
Ross, 8. H., "M. E. PENNINGTON, and others, bulletin on “A
study of the preparation of frozen and dried eges in the pro- |
GWCIMey Sec tua Sy She So he2 se ae ll ae Ne os I Se 224
| Ruppia maritima, description, propagation, and value........ 205
. Russian thistle, occurrence on range lands, spread, objections,
ES een SiN a Le AN ae RE ER) A LATS CRUE a aap, SSR 211
~ Rye grass—
awned, habitat, value, and analysis.:.............-.-.-. 201°
description, value, and analysis, of various species......-- 201
paamtaramel ly sige ke eats eae a RS RR SUE SS ees ede Vat RUE 201
habitat, growth habits, and value.................-.-.-- 201
Rye grasses, descriptions, ‘habitats, and analyses of various
ES) OKEYGRICE hese ite ct eas yA Alaa SS en es le NL Lek BURR OR a 201
Rye, wild, habitat, value, and analysis.............-... east 201
Sacahuiste, habitat, value, uses, and analysis. .......--.--.-- 201
Sacaton—
description, habitat, and importance.........--..-- Sena ie 201
allure amid farina yisiapy tare espe, 02 uae lee ence he ea oe 201
Salt grass—
AINE STS AeeR ae RVR a) RMR RMU Mla AS ASANO EAA SI CES a cae 201
description and value........-.-... BCU OR ae icrevetayet nates 201
ound isecretionsy Noterass scm. ss Sas eens se eee ee 201
Salt grasses, descriptions and value of various native species. . 201
Saltbushe Australia, Totes .\ os cae ese ee ie Se ce 201
Sand grass, big—
Maly SLs eee MNES oh 2 A Nga ENR, pa ge 201
mature and valiae iss ose ee | ARMM IN UE ke etre 201
nature, habitats amdsveslwekss x ss. Cee aes ON Se ee Bia 201
Sand grasses, descriptions and value of various native species... 201
Sand storm, effect on weight of fleeces, instance..-.-.....-.-- 206
Sand-clay road, construction, principles. BPA sid ok hse 220
Sanitation—
ego) brenkime plat oi cers Seah a i2 TR Sa ES 224
ege handling, effect on product........-.-.------------ ty! 224
Schedius kuvanae, gipsy-moth parasite, description..-..-....-. 204
Schedidius kuvanae, colonies liberated, spread, work, etc..-.-.. 204
School farms—
advantages for teaching sere lure Pear ey en By MEP Me 213
CUONS) SOW Sage se coo Shops eas 3x mie.d pleas hae ean e eee 213
difivenltiestin:operations #2 4sene aha Looe eee Loe 213
home projects, number, and per cent of schools in various
ESCEYOUIE UO) OSE, 2k ca CoM NS cone OPAL SR RL SS Ua Er AE aif apa
management, difficulties..............---. Seek Cc Ones 213
work olistudents. 2.222.520 225452 500" Say ee oh ae 213

20, 30, 41,

24, 31, 36,

29

INDEX.
Bulletin. Page.
Schools—
agricultura]—
numbers and sources of pupils. ...-.-.-.-- Pre ere ars arate 213 8
using farms, number and locations). lhl gi ice 213 1-2
secondary, use of land in teaching agriculture, bulletin by
irom CWVECIT GU sic. Ss Sel cola shea om cos orate Cee pa ele 213 1-12
Scleropogon brevifolius, habitat, value, and analysis........... 201 41
Scoured wools, sources, quality, and grades SAL at NEB Sos 206 16-23
Scouting work, moth control, management, and methods-...-.- 204 24-28
Sea grass, description, propagation, Wale Esty Neer te te 205 16-19
pede: broom, description, habitat, value.........-.....--.-- 201 8
eon
production of western white pine, bulletin by Raphael :
Tete eter are aie SVEN. Wiesner wars Stew cate aloie 3 SSeS 210 1-15
pure-bred, production on school farms, practices. .......-- 213 4
western white pine—
amount collected by Forest Service, percentage of
(EOGMWIOIMOM, Che. 3 och occas 4+ s5 sso os saRe see ne ceace 210 15
germination, relation to size, and to weight of cone. 210 14-15
size, germination percentage, ClO Rees AE REE 210 14-15
Seed moss, name for duckweeds............-..--.-2---+-+---- 205 4
Shearing sheep, machine work, comparison with hand work... 206 10-11
Sheep—
branding, suggestions to woolgrowers.....-.-.------------ 206 7-8
BNP CHE CHOI WOOLK Je 42.0 bneticew ee eis sniaelew eens 206 10
fescue, habitat, value, and analysis........-.----:------- 201 26
grades of wool from VATIOUSt need sae es eee eee yee aaa 206 21
grazing on prairies, danger from Stipa comata......------- 201 48
injuries and loss from machine shearing, caution.......... 206 10-11
New Mexico, numbers, distribution, ‘and importance of
industry, 1909-1913. BAS see seks i eee aee See Ae By 211 11, 18, 14
ranch, work of TamcHtiane 60k 2 rok yn miaue tM a hy. 211 27
weed, occurrence on range lands, eradication methods. ... 211 23
Sheepmen, competition with cattlemen on range lands...... Shale sal 17-18
Shrinkage, wools, causes, tests, effect on prices, etc-..-.:.-.-- 206 3-5, 17-18
Silkworm, danger from gipsy-moth wilt disease, note...-...-.- 204 13
Silvicultural work, gipsy-moth districts.......-.-.--------+-- 204 20-24
Sisymbrium nasturtiwm -aquaticum, description, propagation,

Reiner meksood uy sso le AU SC Oe 205 21-22
Sittanion spp., habitat, value, and analysis............-.---.-- 201 41, 42
Skunk grass. See Musk grass.

Sleepy grass. See Needle grass.

Smooth cypress—
desermpuon and characteristics...22..2.:.2228222 Jose. 6. i 207 8-10
occurrence and growth habits.................- Oe a es 207 il
Wood, Glue rihinvepich Wsesisa= ooh sosguedeasssconseeoscdes 207 10

Snakeweed, occurrence on range lands, eradication methods,

CG = cs SGREE SL ie Ete A ces SERIO sh Seng AIT a ak eee 211 23
medaeopiinesswool, use of term...) 22.0... 5. blo. 2.c-e ele t 206 19
South Carolina—

corn meal in the diet, importance. ..-.......----.------- 215 5
cotton warehouses—
SISO UT CIO Mt eee tee oS are ee eye) See Soma oie eens 216 g)
SEOrACEnGaaCityi2e Wes eeee nts ser ree Meee elem ey GEA 216 14, 16, 17
South, corn meal consumption, forms, importance in diet, etc... 215 - 2-3
South Dakota—
corn, growing at Belle Fourche field station, yields and
cost per acre by different methods..........-.....-.-.-- 219 19-20
oats, growing on Belle Fourche reclamation project, yields
and cost by different methods........---.----.-------- 218 22-24
spring wheat, growing at Belle Fourche field station,
mC thOds;VWieldse and COSty sees en 5 eee eee eee 214 23-25
wool, quality and characteristic. ..-. sh is apneen tes TNS 206 20
201 42-43

Spartina spp., habitat, value, and analysis..........-...----.

30 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201-225.

Bulletin.

Split-log drag, consteyemon and use’... eae eee ccc se ee 220
Sprobolus spp., habitat, value, and analysis.................-- 201
Sporobolus wright, description, habitat, value..........-- cs ha 201
Squirreltail—
fescue, habitat, value and analysis...................--- 201
grass, habitat, value, and analysis...............-......-- 201

St. Joun, E. Q., M. E. Pennrneron, and others, bulletin on
““A study of the preparation of frozen and dried eggs in the

producing section’’..... 6S 8 EN EE CCEA HSE 224
Stipa spp., habitat, value, and analysis................-...-- 201
Stipa vaseyi. See Needle grass.

Stock—
controlonwange: needs). 5 2 Ue eee aes 2. i SOs 211
disease, eradication on range, difficulties........-...----- 211
feeding on range, practices and suggestions....-..-------- 211

Stocnine, W. A., M. E. Pennineton, and others, bulletin on
“‘A study of the preparation of frozen and dried eggs in the

PLOGUGIMEASEE VOT? Beaty ee re a0 eR pe a 224
Stockmen, use of range lands in New Mexico, practices and
POTLVILE OS pany yr a) Mee NED 5 AON s Speimne granny ah A oN a 211
Stone crusher, invention, types, operation, etc.....-.----..-- 220
Stonewort, Mame for musk erass... 22.22.14 2.2-- 222s tense 205
Storage, cotton, facilities in South, need of improvement, etc-. 216
Stover, corn—
pricedin Great Plaine 5.512052. pee Ie ISR eS Ate 219
aseloistenmelre yee Ri aeiais 2a, 5 Sign etait tet, Exe rere 219
Subsoiling—
corn land, cost per acre in Great Plains.........-..-..---- 219
cost per acre—
parley cro wineumiGreat) Plains. peer ssss5 ee 4 eee 222
oats! crowanewan.Greatphlains: <2 5eno-- 4 eee eee 218
wihea't sl eial cd: Meee See ce We Seen ee 214
SupwortuH, Georce B., bulletin on ‘‘The cypress and juniper
trees of the Rocky Mountain region”. ......-.----- [ee 207
Sugar beets. See Beets, sugar.
Summers, John N., gipsy moth work in Germany. .-....--.-..- 204
Swamp privet, description, propagation, value...........---- 205
Switch grass, habitat, value, and analysis......--.--..-...--- 201
Syntherisma sanguinalis, habitat, occurrence, value......-.--- 201
Tags, wool, value, suggestions to woolgrowers. ...------------ 206
Tanglefoot, use in banding trees for gipsy-moth control......-. 204
Tanners’ eggs, nature, bacterial content, etc..-...-------.---- 224
Tassel grass and Tassel weed, description, propagation, value. - 205
Tassel pondweed, description, propagation, value......-.--..- 205
Telford, Thomas, road construction, methods....-...-..--.---- 220
Tenant farming, relation of agricultural schools, notes......-... 213
Tennessee—
cotton warehouses, storage capacity. .!......----.------- 216
wools!qualiityjandioradess soe. - eee. cee ee eee 206
Texan timothy, habitat, value, and analysis..........------- 201
Texas—
barley growing, vield and cost by different methods. --.- 222
Brownsville, prickly pear plantings and yields, experi-
maen tall works Ve meee nein 25s, Keke GRAMS SE AO aa te 208

corn erowing—
Amarillo field station, yields and cost per acre by.

different methodse sows Ses eee eee ily ete 219 |
Dalhart field station, yields and cost per acre by | .
diferent: methodsseetee see ee lee Se eee 219
cotton warehouses—
RES GYD Po tah rn: a Yt ee 216

Bierage CapaGity 6.2 oe. Pe ae ene ee ee eee 216

Page.

14, 16,17
16

30-31
26-28.

25

10
14, 16, 17

INDEX.

Texas—Continued.

oats growing—
Amarillo field station, yields and cost by different
TEECEY-1Y 0) 3 Us anata dy cen ee PON ee Gu Annes mene

ITE LOO Soe clever peterayes ha es nsaire ee pea eels
southern, yields of native prickly pear, bulletin by David
Griffiths oC fis As Gi a sR Perey WOUETORRO ae eam ag et Yan ied
spring wheat growing—
Amarillo field station, methods, yields and cost..-...--
Dalhart field station, methods, ylelds, and cost......

wools, quality and grades DE eat aS DER re meme em oe
Thalia—

description, occurrence, and value as duck food..-....-.-.-

dwaricata, description, occurrence, propagation, and

CAEL AEA I eke eR ee eee es ee

“LDU TRIER aie ae ean Ee ee ras ge Sy ae ee gee me

ewuateh plant, valueand durability... : 1... s.....-...22te-2--

Thyme-weed. See Water weed.
TOWNSEND, C. O., bulletin on “ Field studies of the crown-gall
SUPE D 1GE5 Qe ales | eee eee Sen Refers Sermo ee ae
Trametes goer enyary tO jack PING =< 762+ see aes.) 'o a) | = i
Trees, banding for control of gipsy moth, use of tanglefoot.....
Trésaguet, Pierre Marie Jerome, road construction, method . .
Triangle wools, TUISE)(0) Re) mao eae ea ee eee ee Pe ee
Trichlorosis fasciculata, habitat, value, and analysis......-....-
Tridens spp., habitat, value, and analysis eds BS archtals whee pe sista
Tucker, E. 3. , note on occurrence of southern corn leaf-beetle

Tucolote—
ES ISS. Se 6 ois ies iO ge eS Oe
Dea MaLL ey WANE, PASTING, | CLG i. poss) Wee he's bis die es
Tussock grass— ;
STL SVISE SS Re eA AP Oe ae Pa ger ra
Bra eneammpvalie- "=. 2. sei e cs 2 basa soe a apes ae =

tion. ota Sep BEERS ALO eS eS Se ee See ee Tne

Urbahns, T. D., statement on occurrence and habits of southern
Gina Hise CiLenmM MOXAS se ol Si is. ee a

Utah—
juniper—
desenption and characteristics. ...- 14202 +s-s0<-+-+-
occurrence and growth habits. ...............-...---
wood, characteristics and uses...........--.-..--.:--

waterfowl around Great Salt Lake, mortality, bulletin by
Pate Se MCTMONC sores se eon ie eis ee a en eek
wools, quality and characteristics........--...-.-.-..-:--

Valota saccharata, habitat, value, and analysis................
Vasey, George, recognition of mountain red cedar...........--
Velvet grass, habitat, Walue and analysis-03 2425.2 /2ee steno
Vineyards—
cooperative experiment, nature, location, etc...........-.
destruction in California, causes, note.-..............-..-
experiment in California, acreage, phenological records,
tommperatine and raintall: YF. a2 Vise ee ee ne
Vinifera regions, United States, testing grape varieties, bulletin
by George Oe LEGG e e220 sa eh Se A a 0 GE ee eee
Virginia, cotton warehouses, storage capacity Sa eee ey eel
Viticultural investigations, testing grape varieties in the vinif-
era regions of the United States, bulletin Dy George C.
Husmann .

Bulletin.

31

Page.

26-27
27-28
27

1-10
19
52
18
27

2-9
11-12

10-11
1-157
14, 16,17

1-157

oe DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201-225.

Bulletin.
Warehouses—
cotton, storage facilities now in the South, bulletin by
Robertals: Nixomaeeiat se!) 352 ese Sy pe RES RN 216
cotton-mill, number and capacity, by States..........--. 216
See also Cotton warehouses.
Warren, G. F., statement of factors in efficient farming... ..-. 213
Washed wools, use of term, quality and appearance..........-- 206
Washington, wool, quality and characteristics............--- 206
Water cedar and water cypress. See Arizona cypress.
Water elm. See Elm, water. |
Water lentils, name for duckweeds.................-------- 205
eeWiatenmes|t A iseron mermnewy | 22 Nas. aiemenatn Ua <6) BI i 215
Water-cress—
description, occurrence, and propagation...........----- 205
Walle sas LTC: LOO Gy Him Navi. SRR tae ONS 205
Waterfowl, mortality—
Great Salt Lake, Utah, bulletin by Alex Wetmore......-- 217
Utah and California, territory investigated.............- 217
Water-grass, description, propagation, value .........---.-.--- 205
Watering places, range lands—
maintenance by stockmen, requirements.........--.---- 211
New Mexico, importance in control of range by stockmen. - PAN I |
Water-kars, Water-karse, and Water-kers, description, propa-

ALOT HV NTS cee eet as SUCRE ALAA. OE AIS SEES RD MeCN Big 205
Water-thyme, description, propagation, value.........----.-- 205
Water-weed—

description, occurrence, and propagation. ...-.....-.-.---- 205
valuefasiduck stood see acer! BOM NIL NRG ERNE 205
Webster, F. M., statement on occurrence and habits of southern

ConnMleatsin ee tle ie ilar meme ia iil 5k ei Me ane MUN Zola Oey 221
Weeds, native grasses valuable for pasture. ...-...--..------- 201
Werr, James R., bulletin on ‘Observations on pathology of

thegack pine 2-23.20 5 (AOSD 30121 RAR LEN REE ae PD
Well-cress, description, propagation, value as duck food ...... 205
Well-grass, description, propagation, value as duck food .....- 205
Western juniper—

description and characteristics) 2 2288 2b 2 ao 5. eee 207
Occunmence andi crowthvhabiisaen. saa oees focal 207
Wetmore, Atex., bulletin on ‘Mortality among waterfowl
aroundsGreatroallitmoalce : UW tala temas eeaeioreny tery ook pa 217
Wheat— ;
cost of production in Great Plains region, basis of calcula-
tion for various methods of culture. .---...- jones 2a: 214
land, Great Plains area, treatment for growing spring
wheat, comparison of different methods. --...-.-.------ 214
spring— ‘
cultural methods in Great Plains area, comparison on
DABIBFOL COREG Lae ee RR AUT IE oleae 214
growing in Great Plains area, cost of various operations. 214
growing in the Great Plains area, plan of investigations. 214
in the Great Plains area, relation of cultural methods
to production, bulletin by E. C. Chilcott, J. S.
Colle amd sWis We umn. =. Seal aene ) ee peo 214
prices at farm granary in Great Plains area, by States. 214
yields and cost of production by different methods at
the several field stations in Great Plains area... - -- 214
Wheat grass, slender— :
AMAL VST SAH ee eer Aas ULES RNG N Aly A RROGM AS oat NES etna 201
description habitatnand value so aees ts eee rece 201
Wigeon grass—
description, occurrence, and propagation...-.--......--- 205
Valiveras uc katOo dere ays sans ©) Te Sees otal anita sneer 205

Wild-duck foods, eleven important, bulletin by W. L. McAtee. - 205

{

Page.

INDEX. 33
Bulletin. Page
Wilt disease, gipsy moth—
DMM OCMN OTN 3h 2c MSL RU NN ec Oe ea ko 204 12-14
nature, enemy of native caterpillars, note. s 204 13
WINTON, Nee , W. C. Burnet, and J. H. BoRNMANN, pulle-
tin on ’« Composition of corn (maize) meal manufactured by
different processes and the influence of composition on the
ee ples ePIC 71) 2 acs = eerie ea 9 aes ie ee ol 215 1-31
Wisconsin, wools, quality and grades. . eplalbeiray series Leu ease 206 16
Witches brooms, occurrence on jack pine COATS Megan ets os ape eae 22 7
Wool-—
appearance and condition of market of America, com-

Pamrougwrit torelen wool i. 2/6 oo ee se 206 1-2
pick. valle. packing,tand uses. ..2- 52.25. e ee eens 206 10
EAISEEE 2 5S ERM IGS SA aa A a ea oe og 206 5-6
BACON CIGTIONY 7 SEV Or bermnn a) kiN. oe VM By ak 206 3-4
apamemalue: Dacking (eles ois sedge le uae ek 206 11
BRCCMOU ENCED GIDS: 25.2 -o se is etme ns we ig Sale ee dele 206 10
EAE KE TOV ORS eelict 1S ies ERD eects eres ra a og Le ene 206 6
grades from various breeds of sheep...-......-.---------- 206 21
grading, management, and importance.......-...-------- 206 11-12
ltan@asheared., Obj ectlons 55.2200... 7325. ose ee nde. Sos 206 10-11
machine sheared, advantages... 0.02... chee. ee Se see 206 10-11
NEED VE HEOTAC OS lave Sirens Ce nny Silene SN eeMeeR naae I / i 206 14-21
marketing by woolgrowers, methods. ............---.-.--- + 206 2-3
packing, suggestions to woolgrowers......---------------- 206 il
picking for brand marks, cost, and disadvantages........- 206 7-8
presence of sand, importance on sandy ranges. ....-.-.--- 206 4
prices, clean and raw stock, comparison. .............-.- 206 5
prices of American, effect of Diya for market...-... 206 1-2

_ Tequirement per pound of cloth. RST Me anes sean, 206 24
sorting, management, and importance. Bu a 206 21-23
feuger causes and use of term. +... 2.202022 .cec582 64. - 206 7
“territory, ” quality, grades, shrinkage, etc............--- 206 17-20
trade—
and the woolgrower, bulletin by F. R. Marshall and
The! Tas TS (Ce BS easiest A Gn A RE A ee 206 1-32
fers Uso MO LOSSAIYRON- 22s aes oo a ee es oe le 206 31-32
VaAlireniaeLorsim determination. . 2. s2.5. se. .eee sees oe 206 3-11
RYE MRCLATT A OCS CL Cy sear eta s cs ay ak cone I AN a 206 8
Woolerower—
and the wool trade, bulletin by F. R. Marshall and L. L.
AUTO ay BEE Rus Ul PG TN DN ge Ne eC AL av ese 206 1-32
RPP PNM ONS LOT a2 oo). cto secs) =n ons use ecleie eee ecine sche 206 29-30
Woolgrowers—
eastern, methods of disposing of wool. ..---........-.--.- 206 3
western, methods of disposing of wool..........-------.- 206 2-3
Wools—
domestic, market grades, value, etc...........--....----- 206 14-20
foreign—
grades, comparison with American grades........-.- 206 20-21
RUN ATE ee ROTA OS eres ue ag sa iohec ds Vets gem stp Cea yc inc) 206 20-21
handling American, need of improvement, suggestions,

BUG ore Big 5 5 es eS Ia) ere Gerd PAU 206 24-29
TE MGE LUM AIM CTICHT so phe cS SNM Sad Mea 206 29
shrinkage, causes, test, effect on prices, etc.............. 206 3-5
spinuing qualities OM VaTIOUS evades eo meee oer gee 206 20

Wooton, E. O., bulletin on “Factors affecting range manage-
menpiniNew Mexico’, 0.0.00 10 ON 211 1-39
- Worsted cloth, wool requirement eT PONTIC Seiere oes 206 24
Worthley, L. H. , gipsy-moth work in Saunt AL aya Oe 204 2.0
Wyoming, wools, quality and characteristics............-... 206 19

34 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 201—225,

Bulletin.

Yerba del vibora, occurrence on range lands, eradication
ELMO'S 2 ihe MO eae ERM iii GPa ene Ee bag AU a 211
Yew-wood. See Smooth cypress.

Zachau, Arthur H., discovery of smooth cypress..........--- 207
Zizaniopsis miliacea, habitat, value, and analysis.......-..... 201
ZON, RapwHaEt, bulletin on ‘‘Seed production of western

Ni OU iropy OTe OV Ie A a ages ae me, SSMS 5) kN EAM & 210
Zostera marina, description, propagation, value..........--.. 205

Page.

©

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
‘BULLETIN No. 201

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief,
and the Bureau of Chemistry, CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER May 26, 1915

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES. OF
THE UNITED STATES

By
DAVID GRIFFITHS, Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management,
Bureau of Plant Industry, and GEORGE L. BIDWELL,

' Chief of the Cattle-Food and Grain Investigation

Laboratory, and CHARLES E. GOODRICH,
Assistant Chemist, Bureau of Chemistry

CONTENTS

Discussion of Species

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915

BULLETIN OF THE

CUSTER ARTE

ee
: No. 201

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief,
and the Bureau of Chemistry, Carl L. Alsberg, Chief.
May 26, 1915.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES.

By Davin Grirrirus, Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management, Bureau of Plant
Industry, and Grorce L. Biowett, Chief of the Cattle-Food and Grain Investigation
Laboratory, and CHARLES E. Goopricu, Assistant Chemist, Bureau of Chemistry.

CONTENTS.
Page
I Esmeserayg vie oa iE I RSI eh SI a A SOIT AT I aS Sea ia 1
Cement CON SIC CLA CLOMS pee nike es ate ta ea ie Ng ea Stoel a\ ey te rel 2
MIISEISSIOM OL SPCCLES © cnet Loatr es SMM ye BSE 4
INTRODUCTION.

On account of the widely varying conditions, the meagerness, or
often absence, of information relative to the economic value of the
numerous range forage plants entermg into the beef, mutton, and
wool producing rations of the range animals of this country, it has
become desirable that a great deal of original investigation and much
compilation should be made. In order that this information may be
_ available, it is highly desirable that it be brought together and made
sufficiently comprehensive to furnish a general reference.

It was with these ideas in mind that these investigations were
begun several years ago. A large part of the work has been done on
the saltbushes, the legumes, the browse plants, sedges, and rushes,
the nonlegume and nongrass herbaceous forages, and the miscella-
neous plants from all groups.

The field work is done in connection with other investigations in
the Office of Farm Management of the Bureau of Plant Industry and
the laboratory work by the Cattle-Food and Grain Laboratory of
the Bureau of Chemistry.

- This installment of the work, dealing with a part of the grasses,
treats of the most important group of native forages, but of course
only a fraction of that group is included.

Nott.—This bulletin contains the results of investigations and compilations, mainly of experiment-
station literature, that will be of value to chemists, agricultural writers, and ranchmen,

82080°—Bull. 201—15——_1

2 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In the analyses, the methods of the Association of Official Agri-
cultural Chemists, as published in Bulletin No. 107 of the Bureau of
Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, have been employed.
The analytical work in large measure was done by Mr. C. E. Good-
rich, assistant chemist, Cattle-Food and Grain Laboratory. About
one-fourth of the determinations were made by various other analysts
in the same office.

The work is confined to the continental United States, and the
references cited are mainly from departmental and experiment-
station literature. Discretion has been constantly exercised in the
admission of data from all sources. Many analyses found in the
literature have been omitted from our compilations on account of
incompleteness, doubt as to the identity of the species dealt with,
evident errors, and other reasons. To obviate such uncertainties in
connection with our own work, museum specimens have been pre-
served. These, in all cases, can be located by the aid of the serial
collection son ber of the senior writer of this paper, given in each
table as ‘‘Our sample No.”

It appears that nothing 1 is to be gained by attempting any scientific
arrangement of the species discussed, and few botanical data are given.
It is considered that an asiateinoall arrangement will be more con-
venient, and that the indices to the different parts will be much more
‘serviceable to the one using the paper than an arrangement in con-
formity with botanical usage.

Chemical analyses of feeds are used by all feeders in calculating
rations and by investigators in performing digestion experiments.
Nearly all experiment stations maintain a laboratory to make
analyses of feeds in connection with their experiments on the feeding
value of various farm products.

It has been shown by numerous experiments that a plant varies in
composition with age. On this account care has been exercised to
indicate definitely the condition of growth of the samples analyzed
by us. This fact must be considered in any comparisons made.
Failure to record such data is a fertile source of irregularity in much
chemical work done on natural feeds.

While these analyses do not show all that is desirable, they do
show relative values, when taken in connection with the notes, and
they enable a comparison of the species here enumerated to be made
with better known feeds. The compilations of other analyses will
simplify the labors of agronomists, agriculturists, and agricultural
writers generally who have occasion to employ such data.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

It has been quite conclusively shown that the range question in
this country is preeminently one of management. The greater part

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 3

of our range land capable of economical improvement through seed-
ing with any plants whose seed can be secured successfully is worth
more for farming purposes than for uncultivated pastures. Land
capable of being farmed is called for; consequently, pastures capable
of artificial improvement by easy displacement of native vegetation
are rapidly decreasing.

The more moist situations, usually small in extent, where the use of
certain seed, such as that of timothy, redtop, and bluegrass, without
thorough cultivation, will produce economic results are, however,
in the aggregate extensive. (PI. I, fig. 1.) These moist mountain
and other meadows can be improved greatly, and they constitute
the main areas where the use of seed upon land, without placing that
land under thorough cultivation, has been productive of economic
results.

It is true that many introduced plants are of very great importance
upon some of the western ranges to-day, but those intentionally
introduced have as yet become of only minor importance, with the
exception of possibly some of the bur clovers, and even these can
scarcely be expected to become of greater importance than the com-
mon accidental introduction of very early date. The Australian
saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata), from which so much was once ex-
pected, is now known to be very much restricted in importance.
This is not saying that plants may not yet be found which will
increase the feed upon some of the western uncultivated pastures.
Every effort should be made to introduce such crops. But it is
evident from past experience that over most of the native pastures
of our country we must depend mostly, if not entirely, upon the
native forage plants indigenous to the different regions (Pl. VII,
fig. 2). It is, therefore, highly important that these natives, which
are manifestly to furnish in the future, as in the past, the most
important part of the feed supply of the stock ranges, should receive
continuous and careful study. This paper is intended as a contri-
bution toward a better knowledge of the problems of these feeds.

The immediate problem, as in agriculture generally, is one of pro-
duction. The copious literature on the subject of native pastures
which has been issued by the Department of Agriculture and the
State agricultural experiment stations clearly shows that the pro-
duction of feed has decreased and has been so modified upon acces-
sible lands as to furnish a poor indication of the production and the
aspect which once obtained. At present, it is only in areas where
ingenuity has not yet devised adequate water supply, or where
areas have been protected, that present feed production resembles
the original either in quality or quantity (Pl. I, figs. 1 and 2).

4 BULLETIN 201, U S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DISCUSSION OF SPECIES.

AGROPYRON SMITHII Rydb.

Agropyron smithvi is an important species, familiarly known as Colorado bluestem.
All in all, it is undoubtedly the most important native hay grass of the western Plains
region, extending into the mountains of northern Arizona. It is closely related to
the quack-grass of the cultivated East, to which its habits are very comparable; like
quack-grass, it is benefited by partial cultivation. For this reason throughout the
Dakotas it is a familiar thing to see this species making a very decided increase in
growth in the edges of cultivated fields. Here it comes in contact with the undis-
turbed prairies, where it once grew in abundance, either pure or mixed with the
gramas and buffalo grass. In some situations, where water is available for irrigation,
especially along the eastern slope of the Black Hills of South Dakota, meadows have
been cut for 10 years, yielding an excellent quality of hay from this grass, to the extent
of 14 tons to the acre. Although its seed habits are good and the seed production
abundant, it is seldom that it reproduces from seed under natural conditions, although
under cultivation it is readily grown in this way. Indeed, upon the native prairies
it is common for it not even to head out, seed production taking place only in favorable
years. Its reproduction is almost entirely by running rootstocks. In 1897 crops of it
were excellent throughout the Dakotas and Montana, many areas of uncultivated
lowland prairies having a perfect stand and resembling fields of grain more than native
hay. It certainly could be easily domesticated and might prove a valuable grass for
cultivation. Ithas already been extensively grown in small plats by the State experi-
ment stations and reports of it are generally favorable.

No. 8810 was collected near Fargo, N. Dak., August 10, 1907.

Water-free basis (per cent).
5 Percent-
Material analyzed. age of B
moisture. Aan Ether Crude DORE rote Pento-
extract. fiber. Excicn sans.
Our sample No. 8810.....------- 7. 88 11.58 2.32 32. 27 43.73 10.10 24.13
Average of 19 others !...........|-...-.--.- 8.05 2.93 34. 41 44,98 O4631) 2 3322 9ee4
Average ol allt. ffeil ease 8.23 2.90 34.30 44,92 O65 seuss

1 Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul. 19, pp. 28, 32._ Colorado Bul. 12, p. 130. Iowa: Bul. 11, p.
464; Bul. 56,p.465. Montana Report, 1902, p. 66. South Dakota: Bul. 40,p. 150; Bul. 114, p. 551. Wy
ming: Bul. 65, pp. 10, 11; Bul. 70, pp. 11; Bul. 76, p. 11; Bul. 87, p. 14.

AGROPYRON SPICATUM (Pursh) Rydb.

Agropyron spicatum is the famous ‘‘bunch-grass” of the Columbia Basin, and in
many sections of that general region it covers the ground in big bunches. When un-
disturbed it often resembles a field of grain at a distance. Considerable work has
been done by the Department of Agriculture and some of the State experiment
stations in securing seed of this native species and attempting to introduce it in other
situations, but with indifferent success. The difficulty has been largely one of germi-
nating the seed. The regions in which it grows are somewhat arid, and the plant in
its natural habitat is accustomed to get along without the use of seeds; in other words,
it is perennial and seldom has occasion to renew from seed. Under favorable con-
ditions of cultivation it reproduces readily. On account of greater ease in handling,
selections from the awnless forms are best adapted to cultivation. .

No. 8850 was collected near Summit, Mont., August 15,1907. The sample represents.
the plant when the seed isin the early milk. It was cut 3 inches from the ground.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES, 9)

Water-free basis (per cent).

Wie Sa Rereent:
Material analyzed. age o .
moisture. en Ether Crude N ROBEY Eronen Pento-
extract. fiber. Sana. sans.
Our sample No. 8850.........--- 6. 26 4,49 2.26 31.73 55. 42 6.10 24.96
AiveraccOls OLNErs 222 022 joc Seec| bees ss se 10. 67 3.13 30. 71 49.33 CHG eae:
Aweraccofallen 2 cosh sei ol ke 9.90 3.02 30. 84 50. 09 G15 |Paee

1 Colorado Bul. 12, p. 65; Oregon Report, 1903, p. 47; Washington Bul. 72, p. 15; Wyoming Bul. 76, p. 16.

AGROPYRON TENERUM Vasey.

Agropyron tenerum is generally known as slender wheat-grass in experiment-statiou
and departmental literature. It has been given considerable prominence as a promis-
ing grass for cultivation, and its seed has been placed on the market by seed firms. It
has good habits, makes a good quality of hay, and is palatable to stock. There are
many varieties of it, some of the natives from the Rocky Mountain region being much
ranker and taller in their habits of growth than the forms which have been upon the
market.

No. 8791 was collected near Fargo, N. Dak., August 8, 1907. No. 8837 was collected

at Havre, Mont., August 13, 1907. This sample Was a tall, rank, robust form, growing
in large bunches; it was mature, but all green except the heads.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Heceeny

Material analyzed. age 0 3 : :

moisture| 4 5, Ether | Crude Siegen Protein, | Pento-

extract. fiber. extrac sans.

Our sample No. 8791..........-- 6. 64 6. 65 2. 62 33. 73 50.10 6.90 25. 88

Our sample No. 8837.......--.--- 5. 41 6. 64 3. 24 37.49 46. 49 6.14 26. 49

Averace of 9 others 12.2... 22. -|--.--.---2 eid, 2, 07 34. 79 47.73 Si 2Ar licicin te we
Average onalls ii! ids. |e Be oos 7.08 2. 23 34, 94 47. 82 Vick Bie Ieee

1 Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul. 19, pp. 28-29. Colorado Bul. 12, p. 64. Montana Report, 1902,
p. 66. South Dakota: Bul. 40, p. 147; Bul. 69, p. 27. Wyoming: Bul. 65, p. 14; Bul. 87, p. 15.

AGROSTIS ASPERIFOLIA Trin.

Agrostis asperifolia (rough-leaved bent-grass) is especially common in moist situations
from the Mississippi River westward. It is readily grazed by all classes of live stock,
but is never abundant enough to receive serious consideration. It inhabits the edges
of running streams or fresh-water pools, where the ground may be covered with water
for some little time. In such situations small patches of it grow, but the areas are
never extensive.

No. 8867 was collected near Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. This sample was col-
lected in blossom and cut close to the eround. No. 8890 was collected at Hood River,

Oreg., August 23, 1907. The seeds in the sample were all ripe, and half of the leaves
were dry. This sample was cut 2 inches high.

Water-free basis (per cent).
el ety Pee
aterial analyzed. age 0 , "
moisture. Neh Ether Crude negeen Protein Pento-
extract. fiber. assent. sans.
Our sample No. 8867.........-.- 5. 86 6. 55 2, 33 32. 60 45. 93 12. 59 23.51
Our sample No. 8890...........- 5.56 15. 03 1.97 30. 26 47.71 5. 03 22. 18
Average OF4 others). - 222-2 25.2--s|2<2.-2--- 8.11 2. 64 24, 89 53. 95 OSA Me erie nee
Mverare Of alles es os ee oe 9.01 2.47 27.07 | 51.57 OhiseY paesaeoeae

1 Colorado Bul. 12, p. 40; Connecticut Report, 1879, p. 155; Montana Report, 1902, p. 66; U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture Wana No. 32, 1884, p. 127.

6 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

AGROSTIS HIEMALIS (Walt.) B. S. P.

Agrostis hiemalis (bent-grass) is very likely to take possession of situations in the
mountains which for some reason have become completely denuded of other vegeta-
tion. Its extensive purplish panicles make it very conspicuous in such places, for it
often grows almost pure. It is a species of comparatively little value, although often
erazed in close pastures.

No. 8847 was collected at Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The sample was col-
lected in late blossom and cut close to the ground.

=

Water-free basis (per cent).

Sree oe Bercent
aterial analyzed. age o A
moisture.| 4.4 Ether | Crude Brineeees Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. extract. sans.
Our sample No. 8847.....-..---- 5. 62 7.31 4. 85 30. 03 51. 85 5. 96 24.70
Average of 4 others!............].-......-. 7.18 2. 96 32. 30 ASKOG) Meee o100)1 see eee
Average Of alle). 22. sels seed 7.21 3. 34 31. 84 49. 54 SOT. epee

1 South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 81. Wyoming: Bul. 70, p. 18; Bul. 87, p. 19.
ALOPECURUS FULVUS Sm.

Alopecurus fulvus is a much smaller species of foxtail than the one that follows and
isofmuch lessimportance. It inhabits low, wet, loose soils of high mountain meadows,
and, like the other species, it sheds its seeds from the top downward immediately after
they ripen. It may often be found growing in the water, but not in stagnant pools.
While furnishing considerable feed in limited areas, it is not nearly as important as
the other species. (PI. II, fig. 2.) :

No. 8864 was collected at Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The sample was per-

fectly green and succulent, although half of the seeds had dropped off. It was cut
close to the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent-
Material analyzed. age of 4
moisture.| 4 4, Ether | Crude NEE Protein, | Pente-
extract. fiber. eneice sans.
Our sample No. 8864........-..- 7. 87 6.90 2. 89 29, 51 52. 39 8.31 20. 39
Average of 2 others... 2... -- --|ic- c= 2 12. 12 3.75 27.19 A6. 64 NON SO sls Sree
Average otiallls oth eee oem secce 10. 38 3. 46 27.97 48, 55 O64 Ne 27

1 South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 72; Wyoming Bul. 70, p. 23.
ALOPECURUS OCCIDENTALIS Scribn.

Alopecurus occidentalis (mountain foxtail) is an important grass in high mountain
meadows of the Rocky Mountain region. It resembles more closely than any other
common grass the cultivated timothy. It frequently makes practically pure crops
of considerable extent in wet situations. It commonly attains a height of 24 feet
and will often yield 2 tons of hay to the acre. The areas where it grows most satis-
factorily are usually too wet to be either grazed or cut in early summer, but by August,
when the grass matures, these are often so well dried up that:they can be harvested.
It is probably more valuable for hay than for grazing.

No. 8862 was collected at Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The specimen was

overripe, about half of the seeds had fallen, but the culms and leaves were still green.
It was cut about 2 inches above the ground.

(

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. vi

Water-free basis (per cent).

ae Percent- a
aterial analyzed. age of Ether Canis itrogen- P
moisture.| Ash. free Protein. enle-
extract. fiber. asaamnele. sans.
Our sample No. 8862........-.-- 5. 04 6. 29 2.15 29. 91 54. 08 7.57 23. 53
One other sample!....-.-...-.-|.--+------ 7. 06 2.57 28. 41 54, 37 Ms OOP Vepe spate Se spas
Aseragerotuboth jas. -ne-c|e- 2555-4. 6. 68 2. 36 29.16 54, 22 (ote bocosonenoe

1 Montana Report, 1902, p. 66.
ANDROCPOGON FURCATUS Muhl.

Andropogon furcatus (big bluestem) is very characteristic of the grass flora of the
prairie region of the Great Plains, but its distribution is much wider than this. It is
particularly abundant in the edges of bottom lands in the Dakotas and Montana, but |
farther south and east, where the rainfall is more abundant, it inhabits the open prairies
and uplands. Very good pasture is produced by it early in the season, but after the
stems begin to stretch it is not particularly relished by stock. Itis one of the important
ingredients of prairie hay from the Dakota-Oklahoma region and is considered of fair
quality. The species withstands burning better than almost any other grass. While
mowing to rid the ground of the old dead stems would undoubtedly be conducive to
better growth, it has withstood repeated burnings throughout central Kansas and
Nebraska for a great many years and still produces well.

No. 8827 was collected at Williston, N. Dak., August 11, 1907. The sample was in

early maturity and was cut close to the ground. It contained, therefore, the entire
. culm and all the root leaves, which are abundant.

Water-free basis (per cent).
; eae Percent- |-
Material analyzed. age of Eth Grid Nitrogen- :
moisture.| Ash. Oe PKS free Protein. Pento-

extract. fiber. oxen. sans.
Our sample No. 8827.......----- 4.73 5. 83 1.89 33. 87 54.15 4, 26 28, 24
Average of 19 others !...........|....-----.- 6. 70 3. 26 33. 81 49.09 VRAGEN) teh tete care
AsveragorOl alli: 2). fase | he Sobee = = 6. 66 3.19 33. 81 49, 35 GOB) esadaccece

1 Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul. 19, p. 32. Colorado Bul. 12, p. 96. Connecticut Report, 1887,
P 103. Iowa: Bul. 11, p. 458; Bul. 56, p.474. Mississippi Report, 1895, p.90. South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 28.
. 8. Department of Agriculture Report No. 32, 1884, p. 126. West Virginia Report, 1890-91, p. 36.

ANDROPOGON SCOPARIUS Michx.

' Andropogon scoparius is a species of bluestem easily distinguished from the preceding
by its greater tendency to grow in bunches and its smaller stature throughout. Its
distribution is not essentially different from the larger species; likewise, it has a pur-
plish color early in the season. While grazed readily before it begins to head, it gets
woody even earlier than A. furcatus and then is not relished. It is not large enough
to amount to much as a hay crop.

No. 8825 was collected at Williston, N. Dak., August 11, 1907. The sample was cut
close to the ground and represents the plant in early maturity.

Water-free basis (per cent).

A GhGeiih = |
aterial analyzed. age of Eth Crud Nitrogen- Pent
moisture.| Ash. oe ae free Protein. ool
extract. fiber. Oxnnictl sans.
Our sample No. 8825...........- 5. 48 6.19 2.36 32.95 53. 87 4.63 26. 69
Average of 18 others!...........].......... 6. 05 2.29 34. 47 51.15 65042 | Raee ee:
PAWera ce Of alla yes ess ee) 6. 05 2.29 34.39 51.31 BCS leaeneece oe

1 Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul. 19, p. 32. Connecticut Report, 1879, p. 153; 1887, p. 103.
Towa: Bul. 11, p. 460; Bul. 56, p. 476. Mississippi Report, 1895, p. 90. South Dakota Bul, 40, p. 26.
U.S. Department of Agriculture Report No. 32, 1884, p. 126. Wyoming Bul. 87, p. 24.

8 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ANDROPOGON SCRIBNERIANUS Nash.

Andropogon scribnerianus, the beautiful bluestem of the dry pine regions of Florida
and adjacent States, furnishes considerable feed early in the season, but, like the
remainder of the bluestems, the feed is of second quality.

No. 8725 was collected near Jacksonville, Fla., June 8, 1907. The sample was
secured in full blossom, the plants being cut at the surface of the ground. Its per-
centage of moisture was 5.66. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as fol-

lows: Ash, 3.02; ether extract, 2.11; crude fiber, 39.38; nitrogen-free extract, 51.87;
protein, 3. ‘62; pentosans, 28. 44.

ANDROPOGON TORREYANUS Steud.

Andropogon torreyanus (white-topped beard-grass) is conspicuous upon prairies,
in the edges of swales, upon railroad embankments, and along roadsides where the
. ground has been stirred or there is an accumulation of moisture, from Arizona to
eastern Texas and northward to Kansas and Nevada. It furnishes a large amount of
grazing, and in some situations, even in the valleys of southern Arizona, it furnishes
at times considerable crops of hay. While common upon the prairies in the eastern
limit of its range, in more arid regions it grows mainly in depressions or in places
which receive an accumulation-of water from the nature of the surface drainage. In
the desert regions it is strictly a summer grass, starting to grow about the first of July
and maturing its seed in late September or early October, corresponding with the
rainy season. Farther east, in Texas, its period of development is entirely different.
There it may mature as early as June.

Under proper conditions it grows readily from seed, and were it net for the fact
that its seed habits are poor (that is, the seeds are difficult to gather) it would be a
promising grass for cultivation. Like many other valuable native species, however,
its seed habits are such that it would be very difficult indeed to thrash the plants
after they are harvested, although the seed itself is produced in good quantity and is
unusually fertile. The grass is peculiar in having a distinctly characteristic and
pleasing aroma. (PI. IV. fig. 1.)

No. 8394 was collected near Green, Tex., August 14, 1906. The sample was a trifle
overripe; about half of the seed had fallen, but the plant was still green. A few dead
leaves were attached to the lower part of the clump, which was cut 2 or 3 inches above
the ground. Its percentage of moisture was 8.37. Other constituents (on a water-

free basis) were as follows: Ash, 7.16; ether extract, 1.64; crude fiber, 36.78; nitrogen-
free extract, 48; protein, 6.42; pentosans, 23.51.

ANDROPOGON VIRGINICUS L.

Andropogon virginicus, the broom sedge of the East and South, is commonly looked
upon as a pernicious weed which gradually works into permanent pastures and
neglected places, driving out more valuable plants. Still it is persistent and fur-
nishes a great deal of fairly good pasture early in the season, and it often enters into
the composition of hay upon long-established meadows.

No. 8727 was collected near St. Petersburg, Fla., June, 1907. The sample consisted

of root leaves only from burned-over ground; consequently, the analysis represents a
most favorable composition.

Water-free basis (per cent).

7 percent:
aterial analyzed. age 0 Ni z|
moisture. nen Ether Crude N ppeet rote Pento-
extract. fiber ecci ans.
Our sample No. 8727........-..- 8. 29 8. 40 3.70 33. 57 44. 48 9.85 23. 89
Average of 6 others1............|....-.-4.- 6. 80 2.11 37.04 47.82 Ge2oM Peeieseieiais
Aversa cero alll eh eins se Lee gek) | tea E 7.03 2.33 36. 54 47.35 6: 7a eter Ae

1 Connecticut Report, 1879, p. 153; 1887, p. 103. Mississippi Report, 1895, p. 90. North Carolina Bul. 90b,
has WES Department of Agriculture Report No. 32, 1884, p. 126. Virginia Bul. 180, p. 9

Bul. 201, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

Fia. 1.—A PRIMITIVE WayY OF PUMPING WATER FOR STOCK ON THE MEXICAN BORDER.

Fig. 2.—A COMMON WAY OF |IMPOUNDING THE RUN-OFF WATER FOR STOCK PURPOSES.

Bul. 201, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II

Filia. 1.—A WEEDY MOUNTAIN MEADOW IN CALIFORNIA, WHERE THE SEEDING OF
TIMOTHY AND REDTOP WOULD BE HIGHLY ADVANTAGEOUS.

FiG. 2.—ALOPECURUS FULVUS IN A POCKETLIKE DEPRESSION IN THE GRAND COULEE,
WASH.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES, 9

ARISTIDA CALIFORNICA Thurber.

In southern Arizona Aristida californica, a species of needle grass, is of some value,
occupying, as it does, gravelly ridges of the foothills. It is closely grazed by cattle
and commonly makes two appreciable crops during the year. The main growth, of
course, isin the summer rainy season, but there is usually a considerable development
of root leaves in the spring, which is not true of many of the perennial species of this
region. Its perennial culms add decidedly to its value.

No. 9588 was collected in the Santa Rita Mountains of Arizona, September 16, 1908.
Its percentage of moisture was 3.27. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were

as follows: Ash, 8.05; ether extract, 0.90; crude fiber, 34.50; nitrogen-free extract,
50.54; protein, 6. 01; ‘pentosans, 25.67.

ARISTIDA LONGISETA Steud.

Aristida longiseta, a species of poverty grass, is very conspicuous on dry hills and
rolling prairies of the western Plains and Rocky Mountain region, extending south-
ward to northern Arizona. Very often large areas may be seen, but it seldom grows
pure. While it sometimes reaches a foot in height, it iscommonly only about 6 inches.
This, however, depends upon the season and the character of the locality in which it
grows, the drier situations producing, of course, much smaller plants. It is readily
grazed with other vegetation in both dry and green conditions, except for a short
period after the plant approaches maturity, when the awns are troublesome. ;

Nos. 7089 and 7090 (Wooton) were collected near Las Cruces, N. Mex., October 4,

1912. No. 8873 was collected near Kalispell, Mont., August 16, 1907. This sample
was in late blossom; some old leaves were included, and it was cut close to the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

= a Percent-
aterial analyzed. age of 2

: moisture. ete Ether Crude Nicragen eaten Pento-

; extract. fiber asgipna : sans.

Our sample No. 7089 (E.O. W.). 3.55 9.71 1.56 35. 40 44.32 9.01 26. 63
Our sample No. 7090(E.O. W.). 2.60 | 8. 40 i).8P 36. 79 45.47 8.02 27.39
Our sample No. 8873.........--- 5.73 5. 82 1.51 33. 73 52.70 6. 24 28. 54
Qne other samples... 6522.02 5-|2..22-2 =e: 8. 47 1.31 41.55 42.21 GE4G |eeicseee tet

PAMOT AS OOL AN oie coe sna eves cose 8.10 1.42 36. 87 46.18 Dea em clreraeae

1 Wyoming Bul. 87, p. 26.
ARISTIDA MICRANTHA (Vasey) Nash.

In southern and southwestern Texas Aristida micrantha furnishes half of the grazing
over large areas and is a persistent palatable species, growing in large tufts about 15
inches high. Generally it grows best in open brushy regions and in reasonably fertile
loamy soils. This is one of the few grasses of the Southwest which has perennial
stems; for this reason its value on a previously unstocked range is apt to be overesti-
mated.

No. 8387 was collected at Encinal, Tex., August 12, 1906. The sample was fully

mature, was cut at the surface of the eround, and contained about 5 per cent of old
erowth.

Water-free basis (per cent).

angie eas Eerceni
aterial analyzed. age 0 :
moisture.| 4 ., Ether | Crude Mitiggen Protein, | Pento-
H extract. fiber. assitnc ; sans.
Our sample No. 8387...........- 8. 88 11.37 1.43 31. 60 49. 36 6.24 24.90
One othersample}..............)......-.-- 6. 85 2.59 24. 88 61. 36 RE aaa dane
Average of both:.........).-sc-2..:. | 9.11 2.01 28.24 55.36 De DOM ee aeinn cae

1U. 8. Department of Agriculture Report No. 82, 1884, p. 126.

10 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ARISTIDA SCABRA Kth.

Aristida scabra is closely related to A. scheidiana, but is a larger, coarser plant, com-
monly inhabiting the 4,500 to 5,000 foot levels of the mountains of southern Arizona,
where it grows mostly in large, isolated bunches. Inhabiting as it does rough, rocky
hill and mountain sides, it is not usually grazed as closely as the other species and
probably is not quite as good feed.

No. 8590 was collected in the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz., September 27, 1906.
The specimen was completely dried up with the exception of a small portion near
the base. It was harvested about 3 inches high. Its percentage of moisture was 4.62.
Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 7.15; ether extract,
1.54; crude fiber, 31.59; nitrogen-free extract, 53.37; protein, 6.35; pentosans, 25.49.

ARISTIDA SCHEIDIANA (T. and R.) Vasey.

Aristida scheidiana, a species of needle grass, is abundant from western Texas to
Arizona. It inhabits, in Arizona especially, the upper foothill regions and extends
in many instances into the mountains to an altitude of about 6,000 feet. Often the
amount of feed produced by it is unequaled in quantity by any other species over
considerable areas. It is at present invariably closely grazed, and in situations where
the ground is not too rough it could be made into hay of fair quality at the rate of a
ton to the acre. It is most abundant in the open foothills of the isolated mountain
ranges at an altitude of about 4,000 feet. It is now seldom conspicuous upon the
open range, because it appears to be quite easily injured by trampling and close
grazing. In the large inclosure made by the Department of Agriculture in the Santa
Rita Mountains several years ago it is exceedingly abundant and productive over
considerable areas, and it produces probably as heavily to the acre as any other species
which grows in as pure stands as this does.

Although the whole genus Aristida is commonly referred to as poverty grass and
consists usually of species which produce a poor quality of feed, this one is a decided
exception. It is perennial in character, produces a good quantity of leaves, and,
although quite rigid and hard, is evidently relished by stock. However, it is not
erazed nearly as readily as the gramas with which it is commonly associated.

No. 9521 was collected at Prescott, Ariz., August 31, 1908. The sample was in
blossom, and cut between 2 and 3 inches high. Its percentage of moisture was 6.93.

Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 7.20; ether extract,
2.55; crude fiber, 34.89; nitrogen-free extract, 49.71; protein, 5.65; pentosans, 24.59.

AVENA BARBATA Brot.

Avena barbata is botanically a different species of wild oats from the one that follows,
but to the rancher this is unimportant, since no distinction is popularly made between
them in the California region. Both are known under the same name. ‘This differs
in having a little stricter and narrower panicle and a smaller and narrower seed, while
the brown hairs with which both are clothed are somewhat less prominent and lighter
in color.

No. 8264 was collected at Colton, Cal., May 8, 1906, when the entire plant was green
and most of the seed in the milk condition. The plants were pulled up and the roots
then cut off below the lower leaves, which were all preserved. The sample grew in a
rather favorable situation; consequently, it was greener than most of the plants upon
the native ranges. No. 8313 was collected at Garvanza, Cal., May 19, 1906. The
sample was cut about 3 inches high and was in about the same stage of maturity as
No. 8264.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent-
Material analyzed. age of P i
moisture.| 4 4 Ether | Crude Pbnoeen Protein. | Pento-
extract. fiber. extract. sans.
Our sample No. 8264............ 5. 26 7.26 2. 69 36. 56 44.78 8.71 24. 58
Our sample No. 8313.........--- 6. 45 8. 06 2. 68 36. 27 47. 38 5. 61 25. 16
Average of both.......-.. 5.86 7.66 2.69 36. 41 46.08 7.16 24.87

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 11

AVENA FATUA L.

Avena fatua, commonly known as wild oats, is a weedy grass introduced from Euro-
pean countries. It is rather common in cultivated fields in all of the small-grain
regions of the West. In California it is especially abundant, having found conditions
favorable for its spread and development upon uncultivated lands, where it often
forms an almost pure stand. There it is made into hay, often yielding 1 to 14 tons to
the acre of excellent forage, if cut in season. It is an annual, reproducing from seed
each season. This limits its value as a range plant to the regions which are turfless,
for the seed could not become sufficiently covered or, if covered, could not gain a
foothold and thrive in competition with perennial grasses which form a turf. In
California, where it attains its best growth, it is a winter annual, maturing its seed
about May. Without doubt it should be classed as one of the most important wild
forage plants of California from both a grazing and a hay standpoint. The curing of
the hay to produce the best quality is considered to be more difficult than with many
crops. However, in a region like the one in which it grows this is not a serious matter,
for the atmosphere is dry and rains have usually ceased before the crop is ready to cut.

The plant is found rather frequently in the mountains of southern Arizona, especially
in the Huachucas, where it was doubtless introduced by the military operations con-
ducted there, but it does not find conditions suitable to its becoming sufficiently
abundant to produce any appreciable quantity of feed. The mountains receive only
sufficient rainfall for it to grow at all, and they are too cold for its winter development;
consequently, only a few plants in favored localities are able to thrive. Upon the open
lands of the foothills and deserts the rainfall is insufficient and occurs in too hot a
season for it to thrive. Experiments conducted in the Santa Rita Mountains in the
introduction of this grass upon native pastures have yielded only negative results.
Tn occasional seasons a few stray plants mature in favored situations, but around cabins
and in small irrigated gardens plants are frequently seen. It is also abundant in the
Pacific Northwest.

No. 8301 was collected near Banning, Cal., May 15, 1906; in early maturity, but
straw still green; cut about 3 inches above ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent-
Material analyzed. age of : :
moisture.| 4 Ether | Crude Nifpogen: Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. ast sans.
Our sample No. 8301.....-.--.-- 8. 79 11.23 3. 60 29. 86 47.42 7.89 25.09
Average of 1lothers!...........|-.-.------ 7.98 3.14 30. 61 51.28 SPC Fay) RR
PAvorageotalle ect css sl) sel sa a 8.25 3.18 30. 55 50. 95 EO Taleo ee

1 California Bul. 132, p.5. Oregon Report, 1904-5, p. 70. Washington: Bul. 72, p. 17; Bul. 82, p. 10.
BOUTELOUA ARISTIDOIDES (H. B. K.) Thurber.

Bouteloua aristidoides is one of the ‘‘six weeks’ grasses’’ of the Southwest and has a
wide distribution from Texas to California and south to South America. Itisan annual
with seed habits perfectly adapted to make it an aggressive plant in an unsodded region.
Being an annual, its forageis of low value, but its seed production is large. It occupies
the lower foothills and mesas in the southwestern United States, and when the season
is favorable it makes nearly a ground cover over extensive areas and reaches the higher
altitudes of 6,000 feet or more. Like many annuals, it pulls up readily; con-
sequently, it is not relished by stock even in the green stage, although extensively
grazed then-and in the dry condition when other feed is scarce. During its maturity
it is especially annoying to sheep on account of the spikes, which fall readily and pene-
trate the fleece and feet of the animals, sometimes disabling them. In spite of these
drawbacks, however, it is extensively grazed, and in many situations, where the more

12 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

valuable grasses have been exterminated, it constitutes the main feed, aside from that
furnished by the shrubs. (PI. III, fig. 2.)

No. 9618 was collected in the Santa Rita Mountains of Arizona, September 22, 1908.
The sample was mature, but only a few spikes had fallen off. It was cut close to the
ground. Its percentage of moisture was 2.44. Other constituents (on a water-free

basis) were as follows: Ash, 6.84; ether extract, 2.12; crude fiber, 35.11; nitrogen-
free extract, 46.96; protein, 8.97; pentosans, 23.16.

BOUTELOUA BURKII Scribn.

Bouteloua burkii, a species of grama, is one of the most abundant of the pasture grasses
of central to southern Texas. It is a perennial, seldom growing over 10 inches high,
and usually only about 6 inches, but it produces an abundance of root leaves and fur-
nishes a very large percentage of the forage of the native pastures of the region. It
neyer gets large enough to be considered as a hay crop. Like the vast majority of
gramas its seed habits render it useless for cultivation.

No. 8398 was collected near Green, Tex., August 14, 1906. The sample was overripe,
the seed having all fallen, and half of the plant was dead and dry. It was cut close to
the ground. Its percentage of moisture was6.81. Other constituents (on a water-free

basis) were as follows: Ash, 12.89; ether extract, 1.82; crude fiber, 30.54; nitrogen-
free extract, 46.70; protein, 8.05; pentosans, 22.13.

BOUTELOUA CURTIPENDULA (Michx.) Torr.

Bouteloua curtipendula, the side-oat grama, as it is popularly called, is the most
promising ef the gramas for cultivation. It makes a taller, ranker growth than any of
the other species, but like the others has poor seed habits for an agricultural grass.
It has a wider distribution in the United States than any of the other gramas except,
possibly, B. hirsuta, which is of much less value. Some efforts have been made to
domesticate it, and this species is one that was always included in the tests made
during the grass-garden period of experimentation of 12 to 15 years ago. A stand
of it is not difficult to obtain from seed, but in all cases of cultivation whole spikes,
as they were stripped from the plant, were invariably sown or drilled in. The
separation of pure, clean seed is not to be considered.

The species is conspicuous and is an important pasture plant mainly upon the
rougher portions of the Plains region. Insouthern Arizona it inhabits similar situations
at altitudes mainly between 3,000 and 5,000 feet.. However, when sown and fur-
nished sufficient water, it thrives upon the desert mesas at 2,000 feet or less. The con-
trolling factor in its growth is moisture. When this is properly supplied, it adapts
itself to almost all other conditions.

No. 8589 was collected on the north slope of the Santa Rita Mountains of Arizona

September 27, 1906. ‘The straw in this sample was ripe and dry; some of the seed had
fallen.

Water-free basis (per cent).

y Percent-
Material analyzed. age of GaiGaee Luan a oe
moisture. itrogen-
Ether Crude é A Pen-
Ash. extract. | fiber. free ar Erotein. tosans.
Our sample No. 8589.....-.-.--- 4. 60 8.31 1.59 32.49 53. 28 4.33 25. 88
Average of 5others!...........-|..---.--.- 9. 76 1.85 37. 76 45. 05 SEES sone oos ss
Average ofall. tia. ce ob ees 9. 63 1.94 32. 86 49. 23 Ga84e sc weee Ee

1 Colorado Bul. 8, p. 11; Iowa Bul. 56, p. 461; New Mexico Bul. 17, p. 36; Wyoming Bul. 87, p. 28.
BOUTELOUA ERIOPODA Torr.

Boutelouaeriopoda, the black grama of New Mexicoand the woolly-foot of other regions,
is a species of varying importance from Colorado south and irom Texas to California.
Over the greater portion of its range itis strictly a pasture grass, but in portions of south-
ern New Mexico it is frequently cut for hay in almost pure stands from the upper, open

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 13

grassy mesa slopes just below and extending to the foothills of the mountains. In
southern Arizona it is also limited to gravelly ridges, the better soils of the gently
sloping mesas being occupied by other species. However, the present distribution
may be largely the result of artificial conditions of grazing. There are indications that
the species will occupy greater areas when stock is kept off, probably simulating condi-
tions which once existed. Where it grows in sufficient abundance, it is very valuable
during long droughts, on account of the perennial character of its culms. On this
account, also, it is more likely to be injured during the dry season by close grazing.

No. 8946 was collected in the Santa Rita Mountains of southern Arizona, September
24,1907. The sample was nearly mature and was cut 2 inches high.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent-
Material analyzed. age of ; 5
moisture. Ken Ether Crude N MnO erayenta Pento-
extract. fiber. Oma, sans,
Our sample No. 8946...........- 7. 38 9. 20 1. 68 34. 22 49, 84. 5. 06 23. 96
One other sample!...........-..[..--.----- 11.34 1.79 33. 61 47. 69 De Olesen ap ears
Average of both. ....-....|-....-.--- 10.27 1.74 33. 92 48. 76 Gy ell hocodauee

1 New Mexico Bul. 17, p. 36.
BOUTELOUA FILIFORMIS (Fourn.) Griff.

Bouteloua filiformis is another grama of good quality which furnishes a large amount
of feed in about the same situations as B. rothrockii, but at rather higher elevations.
Next to B. gracilis it is probably the most important pasture species of this important
genus, furnishing a large quantity of most palatable grazing, and at times it is cut for
hay. It is one of the important species of southern Texas and extends from there to
Arizona and southward far into Mexico. Along the entire Mexican border, from
Laredo to Quitovaquito, it is one of the most important pasture grasses. It stands
trampling a little better than B. rothrocki, but not nearly as well as B. gracilis.

No. 8591 was collected in the northern foothills of the Santa Rita Mountains of
Arizona, September 21, 1906. The sample was completely dried up when gathered
and was cut close enough to include all the root leaves. Its percentage of moisture
was4.48. Other constitutents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 7.64; ether

extract, 1.87; crude fiber, 30.94; nitrogen-free extract, 54.84; protein, 4.71; pentosans,
26.07.

BOUTELOUA HIRSUTA Lag.

Bouteloua hirsuta (rough grama) occurs between the Mississippi and the Rockies from
British Columbia southward, reaching its highest perfection and importance from the
southern Plains region southward far into Mexico. It also occurs in many places east
of the Mississippi and is abundant in some parts of the prairie regions of Florida. The
habits of the species render it of much less value than its close relative, the blue grama,
but on account of its very wide distribution and abundance as a filler over large areas
it is a very important species. It is not a well-rooted species, and consequently does
not withstand trampling by stock very well.

No. 8951 was collected in the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz., September 23, 1907. The
sample was cut close, in nearly mature condition.

Water-free basis (per cent).
eee patel Percent- b
aterial analyzed. age of A
moisture. Ash Ether Crude Nenceen Protein Pento-
extract. fiber. eactraets sans.
Our sample No. 8951..........-. 5.97 12.01 2. 62 37. 10 41. 62 6. 65~ 23. 75
One other sample}l..............|....-.---- 10. 14 2.55 32. 84 48. 59 De SSu [eae eerie
Average of both: 22-22. 2. |.2 2.20. ae. 11.07 2.59 34. 97 | 45.10 | CHOON AN Iet Biara meses

pen [eae LO Ln eet LRT hee iee USL Py ee ed oP

14 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BOUTELOUA -PARRYI (Fourn.) Griff.

Bouteloua parryi (hairy grama) never occurs in sufficient abundance to be a first-
quality grass, but it often furnishes half or more of the feed on small areas. It has
several more or less distinct habits, like many other species of the genus. In favorable
situations it may become 2 feet high, while in barren situations the whole plant may
not be over 2 or 3 inches tall. It is one of the most handsome grasses of the genus, of
good grazing quality, but of minor economic importance on account of its sparse growth.

No. 7095 (E. O. W.) was collected in the northern foothills of the Santa Rita Moun-
tains of Arizona, October 9, 1912. Its percentage of moisture was 3.49. Other con-

stituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 7.96; ether extract, 1.90; crude
fiber, 35.56; nitrogen-free extract, 48.58; protein, 6.00; pentosans, 26.13.

BOUTELOUA ROTHROCKII Vasey.

In some situations in southern Arizoza Bouteloua rothrockii (mesa grama) makes
almost pure stands over large areas of the gently sloping upper mesas, just below the
mountain foothills. It is especially abundant on the northern slopes of the Santa Rita
and Santa Catalina mountains. In favorable seasons it often yields a ton of hay to the
acre. Itisa very handsome, tall species, growing rather thinly, but under protection
from overgrazing—as has been done in the Santa Rita Mountains—it has thickened up
wonderfully and crowded out the less valuable Bouteloua aristidoides and Aristida
bromides, witich had gained ascendency. It does not stand trampling as well as some
of the other species of the genus and as a consequence does not yield abundantly to-
day in many situations where it formerly predominated. (PI. III, fig. 1.)

No. 8592 was collected on the northern slope of the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz.,
September 27,1906. The sample was taken after the plant had completely dried up,
but the seed had not yet shattered. Its percentage of moisture was 3.55. Other

constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 6.53; ether extract, 1.58;
crude fiber, 36.67; nitrogen-free extract, 50.55; protein, 4.67; pentosans, 25.68.

BROMUS CARINATUS HOOKERIANUS (Thurb.) Shear.

Bromus carinatus hookerianus is rather coarse, tall brome-grass, which adds a great
deal to the feed in the region where the sample was collected. It grows scatteringly
and also often inhabits very limited areas to the exclusion of practically everything
else. It is regularly grazed by cattle in this section, even when old, and probably
does not differ materially in pasture value from some of the cultivated species, but
it has a decided advantage over the weedy introduced annuals which occupy the
ereater part of the land in this region.

No. 8302 was collected near Banning, Cal., May 15, 1906. The seed of the sample
was nearly mature. The culms were cut about 2 inches from the ground. Its per-
centage of moisture was 7.01. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as fol-
lows: Ash, 9.36; ether extract, 2.52; crude fiber, 29.20; nitrogen-free extract, 53.62;
protein, 5.30; pentosans, 24.28.

BROMUS HORDEACEUS L.

Bromus hordeaceus, a species of cheat, cultivated as a hay grass in some sections, is
an important introduced annual weed of California west of the Sierras. It makes a
fair quality of feed and is adapted for either pasture or hay. It does not possess the
disadvantageous characteristics of the tucolote and some of the other species.

No. 7107 (Wooton) was collected at Red Bluff, Cal., April 7, 19138. No. 8315 was

collected near Santa Barbara, Cal., May 21, 1906. The sample was taken when the
seed was in the milk. It was cut close to the ground.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES, 15

Water-free basis (per cent).
erect:
Material analyzed. age o PRN
= moisture! 4.4 Ether | Crude Ninpeen Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. seine 7 sans.
Our sample No. 7107 (EZ. O. W.). 6.30 8.37 2. 86 27. 60 50. 83 10.34 21.78
Our sample No. 8315......------ 6. 70 9. 46 1. 66 36. 81 42.99 9.08 25.18
Average of 5 others1............|---..----- 11.49 5. 60 28. 53 37.34 Lise |lacinsescoce
Pxveraee onalles 585.2 eoae anne = 11.15 4.95 29. 91 38. 28 DS fla Semverss Ser

1 Iowa Bul. 56, p. 443.
BROMUS MARGINATUS Nees.

The distribution of Bromus marginatus, a native species of brome-grass, is not
remarkably different from that of B. richardsoni, and the quality of the feed produced
by the two is somewhat similar, but this species is much coarser than the other.

No. 8846 was collected near Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The seed was in
early dough and the plant was cut 2 inches high. No. 8887 was collected near Dee,
Oreg., August 23, 1907. The sample was fully mature, the upper part of the culm
being dead and dry, but the leaves were all green. It was cut about 3 inches above
the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent-
Material analyzed. age of E
moisture. en Ether Crude Nimogory iPeotetn Pento-
extract. fiber. acini sans.
Our sample No. 8846.........--- 6. 23 6. 89 1.91 35. 10 49.91 6.19 23.97
Our sample No. 8887......---.-- 7.34 10. 55 2.07 40.11 42.99 4. 28 21. 22
Average of 14 others!.....-..-..)--.------- 10. 65 3. 61 29. 93 40.05 587.6 eeeerseiseesare
MVeraAe COL alle: = 6 2e. Vesicle Pos ee 10. 41 3.41 30. 89 40.85 W444: esse ieee

1Jowa: Bul. 11, pp. 465, 474; Bul. 56, p.440. Montana Report, 1902, p.66. Nevada Bul. 71, p. 23. South
Dakota Bul. 69, p. 13. Wyoming: Bul. 70, p. 28; Bul. 76, p. 22.

BROMUS POLYANTHUS Scribn.

Bromus polyanthus is a valuable tufted perennial species of brome-grass, inhabit-
ing the open wooded areas of the Rocky Mountains. It has a wide distribution in the
West, extending northward to Saskatchewan. So far as known, it never forms any-
thing like a complete stand, but on the contrary is found in isolated patches scattered
among other species. It is, however, an important component of the pasture lands,
mountain meadows, and dry hillsides throughout the region. In the San Francisco
highlands it has been practically killed out by grazing except where protected.

No. 8860 was collected near Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The seed of this
sample was in milk, and the plants were harvested about 3 inches high. No. 9536

was collected in Prescott, Ariz., September 1, 1908. This sample was in late blossom
and was cut 2 inches high.

Water-free basis (per cent).
“efi ae Percent-
aterial analyzed. age of +
- | moisture. en Ether Crude Nitrogen: Protein. | Pento-
extract. fiber. arsine, sans.
Our sample No. 8860.........-.. 4,22 4.12 2.04 34.01 53. 24 6. 59 25.00
Our sample No. 9536...........-. 6.39 10. 88 1.59 37. 56 41.89 8.08 19.38
One other sample l. 3,-2.2. ...5-|-..---2--- 5.57 ie 7Al 35. 09 47. 22 TO Sai er orate
PMVETA SC OLoall = cee or sey Seas 6. 86 1.78 35. 55 47.45 S236) Sosecesese

1 Wyoming Bul, 87, p. 32.

16 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BROMUS RUBENS L.

While not possessing the deleterious characteristics described under Bromus villosus
to quite as serious a degree, B. rubens nevertheless causes considerable injury in the
same way. On the whole, it is a grass of very little value. It is not as good feed as
B. villosus in either its early or its mature stages. The injuries caused by it are not
quite so pronounced, but the ranges would undoubtedly be better off without it.

No. 8263 was collected near Colton, Cal., May 8, 1906. The sample was mature and
harvested about Linch high. Its percentage of moisture was5.02. Other constituents

(on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 4.16; ether extract, 2.07; crude fiber,
33.24; nitrogen-free extract, 55; protein, 5.53; pentosans, 28.20.

BROMUS VILLOSUS Forsk.

Bromus villosus, a weedy annual, popularly known as tucolote, is one of the many
species of Bromus introduced into the western United States. It is more abundant
and conspicuous in California than anywhere else, and its presence in such quantity
is undoubtedly a detriment to the California ranges. The feed produced by it when
young, before it is headed out, is equal to that produced by any of the other weedy
brome-grasses which have been introduced throughout the region, but as soon as the
seed has ripened it is of very little value as feed, and in many cases it is positively
detrimental to stock which happen to graze upon an area where it occurs abundantly.
It is an aggressive grass and has a tendency to drive out the other annuals that compete
with it. The injury done is mainly to the sheep industry. The sharp-pointed seeds
work into the fleece, the feet, and even the eyes of the animals, often causing them to
lose the eyesight entirely. On this account the herdsman considers it imperative that
his flocks be removed from the tucolote areas of the valleys and fvothills before this
plant ripens its seed. The seeds also work their way into the feet of the animals,
causing them to become lame and in some cases unable to travel. This is the very
characteristic which enables the plant to obtain the mastery. over other species. The
seeds are rather sharp-pointed and slightly barbed, so that they will work their way
into the ground. The sharp-pointed seeds are even more injurious to stock than
the awns. (PI. IV, fig. 2.)

No. 8262 was collected near Colton, Cal., May 8, 1906, and the sample was then
practically ripe. The seed was mostly in late dough, with the leaves fast turning

color, but bynomeansdry. The stems had turned color also, but were still full of sap.
The culms were cut off 1 to 2 inches above the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Leen relia pio
aterial analyzed. age oO A
moisture. Ash Ether Crude Buizogen: rater Pento-
extract. fiber. eect a
Our sample No. 8262......-....- 6. 22 5. 20 1.79 29.14 59. 51 4.36 26. 60
Onevother sample Vee ae oe a eee eee 13.82 3.99 28.18 40. 24 1327) | oases
Average Ofjbothi:<- 2224s |scsee8 se -- 9. 51 2.89 28. 66 49.88 9.06. ije us scaee

1 South Dakota Bul. 69, p. 16.
BULBILIS DACTYLOIDES (Nutt.) Raf.

Bulbilis dactyloides (buffalo grass) is strictly a pasture species, distributed from the
Dakotas to the Rocky Mountains and south into Mexico. Popularly, several other
species are confused with this one. Bouteloua gracilis, especially when not in head,
is very similar and frequently mistaken for it. On this account the true buffalo grass
is very much overestimated in importance, because there are so many things included
with it in the popular mind. Much of the credit given this species is due to the
gramas, which in age especially look very much like it. On the other hand, the
species is an important one throughout its range. Upon the Plains it is a very short
grass, seldom getting over 2 to 4 inches high, but in southern Texas, where conditions

Bul. 201, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

ete

Pie ee ao

Fic. 1.—BOUTELOUA ROTHROCKII UNDER PROTECTION JUST BELOW THE NORTHERN
FOOTHILLS OF THE SANTA RITA MOUNTAINS, ARIZ.

FiG. 2.—BOUTELOUA ARISTIDOIDES IN A FAVORABLE SEASON ON DESERT MESAS, SOUTH
OF TUCSON, ARIZ.

Bul. 201, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fia. 1.—ANDROPOGON TORREYANUS FROM SEED SOWN THE PREVIOUS SEASON ABOVE
A Low EARTHEN DAM, THROWN UP ON DESERT MESAS NEAR TUCSON, ARIZ.

Fic. 2.—NATIVE PASTURE LANDS IN THE FOOTHILLS, FRESNO COUNTY, CAL., SHOWING
INTRODUCED BROME-GRASSES THAT ARE ALMOST ENTIRELY WEEDY.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 17

of heat and moisture are more favorable, it may become a foot high. In spite of this,
however, its importance upon the Plains is greater than in southern Texas, for two
reasons. Upon the Plains it dry-cures and furnishes excellent winter grazing. In
south Texas the rainfall is more irregular, making the use of dry-grass pasture of
shorter duration and much less importance. There is probably very little difference
in the value of this species and Bouteloua gracilis for dry grazing.

No. 9315 was collected near Bellevue, Tex., June 26, 1908. The sample consisted

of the staminate plant mostly and was cut close to the ground. It was a little out
of blossom.

Water-free basis (per cent).
Percent-
Material analyzed. age of :
moisture.| 4 sh Ether Crude pea Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. etic sans.
Our sample No. 9315.......-.-- 6. 18 10. 25 1. 23 25. 74 57. 08 5. 70 20. 56
Average of 6 others !_......-...-]..----...- 10. 55 2. 26 25. 22 54.35 TRA ae ee
ASTOR CIEE Le Senn eee ee 10. 51 2.11 25. 29 54. 74 Use eocsesouee

1 Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul. 19, pp. 28-29. Colorado Bul. 12, p. 130. North Dakota Report,
1904, p. 35. South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 102. Wyoming: Bul. 76, p. 28; Bul. 87, p. 36.

CALAMAGROSTIS CANADENSIS (Michx.) Beauv.

Calamagrostis canadensis is a species that inhabits moist meadows of the northern
United States. It has some differences in the floral structure and on the whole is
somewhat less stout than C. langsdorfii. It is more erect, but of approximately equal
feeding value.

No. 8863 was collected at Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The specimen was
cut before blossoming and at a height of 2inches. Its percentage of moisture was 5.44.

Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 6.92; ether extract,
2.15; crude fiber, 34.92; nitrogen-free extract, 46.88; protein, 9.13; pentosans, 26.29.

CALAMAGROSTIS CANADENSIS ACUMINATA Vasey.

Calamagrostis canadensis acuminata, the familiar purple-panicled reed-grass, has a
wide range of distribution in the United States, extending from Maine to California and
southward to North Carolina. It is one of the most important of the mountain grasses
in moist cool situations, along streams and lakes, and in mountain meadows. It
produces a fairly good quality of both hay and pasture, and its habit of growth is such
as to well adapt it to being cut for hay in places where it is sufficiently abundant for
this purpose.

No. 8854 was collected at Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The specimen was
rather immature and a little under blossom. It was cut 2 inches high.

Water-free basis (per cent).

2 Percent-
Material analyzed. age of .
moisture.) 4 cy Ether Crude eg Protein. | Ee2te-
extract. fiber. | extiact! j sans.
Calamagrostis canadensis:
HARSEples see out Uo oe 7.47 2. 86 35. 37 45. 71 SO Meee
Calamagrostis canadensis acu-
minata:
Our sample No. 8854......-- 5. 98 6. 29 2.70 35. 01 46. 82 9.18 22.96
Average of 3 others 2........|...--.--.- 9. 44 2. 57 34. 44 45. 02 Geos dees oene
Average of the 4 samples..].......... 8. 65 2. 61 34. 59 45. 46 S569" ae ey setiewe
Average of the 18 samples -]........-- 7.73 2. 81 35. 20 45. 66 SHGON Mee es ae

1 Connecticut Report, 1879, p. 153. Iowa: Bul. 11, p. 462; Bul. 56, p. 512. Maine Report, 1888, p. 86;
1889, p. 38. Massachusetts Report, 1885, p. 97. South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 86. Wyoming: Bul. 70, p. 21;
Bul. 87, p. 36.

2 Montana Report, 1902, p. 66. Wyoming: Bul. 70, p. 22; Bul. 76, p. 35.

82080°—Bull. 201—15——2

18 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CALAMAGROSTIS MONTANENSIS Scribn.

Upon the prairies of the Dakotas and eastern Montana, Calamagrostis montanensis is
a plant of low stature, inhabiting high prairies entirely. It attains a maximum height
of 7 or 8inches. In favorable situations, however, it may be 1} feet in height and can
contribute very decidedly to the pasturage of the region. It is a tough, wiry species,
but readily grazed by all kinds of live stock. It never forms a turf or anything
approaching a complete stand. It is found scattering among species of Agropyron,
Bouteloua, and Sporobolus.

No. 8818 was collected at Devils Lake, N. Dak., August 11, 1907. The specimen
was a robust one, 15 to 18 inches high, and was cut close to the ground. It was over-

mature, but the whole plant was still in a green condition, with the exception of the
lower leaves. The seeds were very badly ergoted.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent-
Material analyzed. age of ‘
moisture. Ren Ether Crude Oe Paayenn Pento-
extract. fiber. oxic. sans.
Our sample No. 8818....-.------ 6. 21 11.10 2.78 32.68 48.77 4.67 27.53
One other sample 1.........-..--|-----=---- 10.01 1.99 33. 08 49.09 Du83" |Neaene sees
Wvyerage of HOtHesse 2 5-2n4|> sence 10. 55 2.39 32. 88 48. 93 BROS Tee seeks ee

1 South Dakota Bul. 69, p. 19.
CALAMOVILFA LONGIFOLIA (Hook.) Hack.

Calamovilfa longifolia (big sand-grass) 1s a species conspicuous in sandy regions
from British Columbia to central Arizona and eastward to Indiana. It is especially
at home upon sandy lands of the Plains regions and 1s common in many situations in
northern Arizona. Its rapid spread by running rootstocks renders it of some value
in holding sands and makes it quite a persistent grass for sandy regions. It is coarse
and harsh; consequently, it is not relished by stock while finer feeds are available.
In portions of western Nebraska and the Dakotas it forms a large part of the winter
grazing, and on this account is, of course, very important. When cut in season it
makes a fair quality of coarse hay.

No. 8828 was collected at Williston, N. Dak., August 11,1907. The specimen was
in late blossom and was cut at the surface of the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).
e Percent-
Material analyzed. age of Nitro
. \ gen-
moisture.) Ash eine Gude free | Protein, | Pento-
Z : - | extract. sane:
Our sample No. 8828.........--- 6.79 4.80 2.08 37. 64 50. 18 5.30 25.18
Average of 3 others 1!........-.--|-.-------- 6. 93 1.73 40. 24 44.79 BGT HA ear seee
Asverace of all saee seek occ ee eects 6.39 1.82 39. 59 46.14 GEOG Ee ee
1 Montana Report, 1902, p. 66; South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 88; Wyoming Bul. 87, p. 38.
CHAETOCHLOA GRIESBACHI (Fourn.) Scribn. ;

Chaetochloa griesbachit is an upright, smooth, rank, perennial native millet, distri-
buted from Texas to Arizona. It is especially abundant upon dry, sandy situations
in southern Texas. While frequent in southern Arizona, it is not of nearly as much
importance. It is an important grass in Texas, furnishing a large amount of palatable
grazing. Nothing is known of it asa hay grass.

No. 8384 was collected at Encinal, Tex., August 12, 1906. The sample represents
the plant when fully matured, but before any of the seed had fallen. It was cut about
2 inches high. Its percentage of moisture was 10.58. Other constituents (on a water-
free basis) were at follows: Ash, 11.58; ether extract, 1.70; crude fiber, 11.49; nitrogen-
free extract, 65.51; protein, 9.72; pentosans, 22.05.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 19

CHAETOCHLOA VERTICILLATA (L.) Scribn.

Chaetochloa verticillata (foxtail) is a common, introduced weed in waste places and
cultivated fields in many parts of the United States. It often furnishes some grazing
and is sometimes included with hay.

No. 8792 was collected near Fargo, N. Dak., August 8, 1907. The sample was in
late blossom and cut close to the surface of the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).
: : pievne
Material analyzed. age o =
moisture.| 4 4 Ether | Crude NOE ED: Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. Oe sans.
Our sample No. 8792.......---- 7.47 11.98 2.38 30. 40 41.86 13. 38 24.27
Oneothersamplos: 25.2. 6h2.- fee aise: 13. 43 2.32 35.15 31.91 GL On Wpateee) os
Average of both....--....|.--.--.--- 12.70 2.35 32.77 36.89 WSS29)) | ase see tae

1 South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 41.
CHLORIS CUCULLATA Bisch.

Chloris cucullata is distinctly a sandy-land perennial, extending from Texas north-
eastward. It is a valuable species, producing a large quantity of root leaves of good
forage value.

No. 8401 was collected near Green, Tex., August 14, 1906. The sample represents
the plant in a state of overmaturity, two-thirds of the seed having shattered, the culms
being nearly all dead. The root leaves, however, were all green. It was cut close
to the surface of the ground. Its percentage of moisture was 6.11. Other constituents
(on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 12.37; ether extract, 1.89; crude fiber,
29.12; nitrogen-free extract, 45.77; protein, 10.85; pentosans, 23.81.

CHLORIS ELEGANS H. B. K.

Chloris elegans is an annual plant growing 1 or 2 feet high, depending upon the situa-
tion in which it develops. Itisa grass of great importance throughout the Southwest,
oftentimes taking up spaces which were formerly occupied by perennials and making
considerable of a volunteer crop of good pasture or hay in neglected places and along
inrigated fields. It produces an abundance of fertile seed and is consequently easily
established whenever the season is sufficiently moist, often upon lands which were
formerly stocked with perennials that have been largely killed out by overstocking.
In some situations the six-weeks grama and an annual species of Aristida occupy such
areas. In other places this grass goesin. Quite frequently, in portions of the Sulphur
Spring Valley in Arizona, over limited areas in favorable situations, 14 tons of hay
to the acre of this grass may becut. It adapts itself well to cultivation and were it not
for the awns upon the seeds it would be much more promising for domestication. Of
course, it does not cure up as well when drought strikes it as the perennial gramas.
(PIL; fig--2.)

No. 8578 was collected at Green, Tex., September 24, 1906. The sample represents
a very rank growth of the species in early maturity. It was cut close to the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).
Material analyzed ecole
aterial analyzed. age oO =
moisture.) 4 Ether 4 Crude Rana Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. ect sans.
Our sample No. 8578_......---. 4.22 13.13 2.18 27.99 45. 34 11.36 24.59
One other sample!_.........-..].--------- 12.73 1.74 36.39 39. 53 HG Hey | ee ee
Nverageol Doth! = a 5sen lee seas soe 12.93 1.96 32.19 42.44 LORS) [ees

1 Arizona Report, 1902-3, p. 349.

20 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

COTTEA PAPPOPHOROIDES Kunth.

Cottea pappophoroides is a handsome species, growing in bunches of moderate size,
12 to 18 inches high, from western Texas to Arizona. It is not abundant enough to be
seriously considered, except as a filler which adds an occasional palatable morsel in
the general forage supply. At the present time it is much more abundant where pro-
tected by shrubbery than elsewhere, owing probably to the fact that it has been
largely killed out by overgrazing.

No. 9617 was collected in the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz., September 22, 1908.
The sample was nearly mature and was cut ld}incheshigh. Its percentage of moisture
was 2.54. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 5.90; ether
extract, 1.66; crude fiber, 33.21; nitrogen-free extract, 51.76; protein, 7.47; pentosans,
20.17.

DESCHAMPSIA CAESPITOSA (L.) Beauv.

Deschampsia caespitosa (tussock grass) is common in the wet meadows of all the
Northern States, and extends in the mountainous regions even into central California
and northern Arizona. While producing tussocky formations in some of the North-
eastern States, its habit is usually very different in the western moist mountain regions.
There tussocks are seldom formed, the grass growing scatteringly among other species
with no semblance of tussock formation. It is a handsome silvery-topped species,
which enters very largely into the composition of both hay and pasture meadows. Its
quality is good, and it is relished by stock.

No. 8859 was collected at Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The sample was in blos-
som and was cut 3 inches high.

Water-free basis (per cent).

“ : nin Heteents
aterial analyzed. age Oo .
moisture.| 4 Ether | Crude NIB E Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. eiracte sans.
Our sample No. 8859........--.- 7.70 7.29 1.67 32. 31 52. 63 6.10 25. 57
Average of 9 others!............|----.-.--- 7. 20 1.56 36.12 47. 31 (RA Beason sos
‘AcverarelOlalls nee see ea Ee eet 7. 21 NAB 35. 75 47.84 PAIR Sarena

1Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul.19, pp. 28, 32. Colorado Bul. 12, p. 72. Wyoming: Bul. 65,
p. 34; Bul. 70, pp. 54, 57; Bul. 87, p. 44.

DISTICHLIS SPICATA L. Greene.

In some portions of the country, Distichlis spicata (salt-grass) is considered of no value
asa forage plant. However, upon large areas of alkaline soils throughout the arid West
itis the principal grassand furnishes continuous pasturage to thousands of stock through
the entire summer season. It is true that itisa tough, wiry species, but cattle eat it
readily and apparently thrive where they have no other feed. It is also grazed in the
dry condition, that is, after it is dry-cured upon the ground. What its value is in this
condition, as compared with other grasses which mature in the same way upon the
western prairies, no one has investigated. In spite of the fact that it is often tabooed
as of no value it must be considered as one of the important native grasses of the arid
West, and especially is it important, since it often inhabits soils upon which very few
other plants would live. This is one of several species of grass which has been noted
in recent years as secreting a gummy acid substance. This is very noticeable in some
situations in the arid West, and it is so abundant as to gum the clothing of a person
walking through it.

No. 8725a was collected near Tampa, Fla., June 12, 1907. The sample was in full

blossom and was cut at the surface of the water in which it grew, about 3 inches above
the ground. :

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 21

ote Water-free basis (per cent).
Percent
Material analyzed. age 0 ra u
moisture. Aghh Ether Crude aeegen eroroia Pento-
extract. fiber. aaa. sans,
Western samples:
Our sample No. 8725a ....--. 4.27 7. 60 1.43 31. 66 61.71 7.60 28.12
Average of 7 others}. .-..--.|-.-------- 11.10 2.25 28. 69 49.18 Sai Oe lente pe
Average of 8samples.-.-.|..-.----.- 10. 66 2.15 29.06 49.50 SAGs eee
Eastern samples:
Average of 3samples?......].-..--.--- 8.61 2.61 27.33 54.07 Cates Wak ceaa spn
Average of 11 eastern and
western samples..-..--.-|-.-------- 10.11 2.27 28. 59 50. 74 bao) Pe ea Shes

1 Colorado Bul. 12, p. 105. Montana Report, 1902, p. 66. New Mexico Bul. 17, p.36. South Dakota
Bul. 40, p. 118. Washington Bul. 72, p.15. Wyoming: Bul. 76, p. 38; Bul. 87, p. 45.
2 Hatch Station Report, 1903, pp. 15, 87; Connecticut Report, 1889, p. 244.

ECHINOCHLOA COLONA Link.

Echinochloa colona is a common weedy species introduced throughout the warmer
sections of this country, but it reaches its best development in the irrigated South-
west, where it often enters in an important way into the composition of both hay and
pasturage. It is a smaller plant and produces a much finer feed than the coarse
barnyard grass.

No. 8567 was collected near Phoenix, Ariz., September 24, 1906. The sample
represented the plant in early maturity. Its percentage of moisture was 4.16. Other

constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 15.33; ether extract, 1.92;
crude fiber, 30.84; nitrogen-free extract, 44.08; protein, 7.83; pentosans, 20.51.

ECHINOCHLOA CRUS-GALLI (L.) Beauv. (Panicum crus-galli).

Echinochloa crus-galli (barnyard grass, or barnyard millet) is an introduced weed
common throughout the country. It furnishes considerable quite palatable grazing
in waste places, and in moist, rich, loose, soils it commonly forms an important ingre-
dient of hay. In some sections of the irrigated West, where water is used injudi-
ciously upon newly planted alfalfa and other forage crops, this grass volunteers for
several years to the detriment of the crop seeded. Often it persists to some extent
continuously. The hay produced by it, if cut in season, is of very fair quality,
although rather light. In exceptional cases, where conditions are proper, it has been
known to make a yield of 14 or 2 tons to the acre. (PI. VIII, fig. 2.)

No. 8396 was collected near Green, Tex., August 14, 1906. The sample was a

robust form growing in waste places. It was fully 4 feet high. The plants were
considerably under maturity and were cut about 4 inches above the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).
a : 3 Pereeue:
aterial analyze age of . .
moisture. etn Ether Crude pr eaen, Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. asain, sans.
Our sample No. 8396...........-. 5.15 15.06 2. 28 37. 86 36.30 8.50 19. 41
Average of 29 others!.........../.....-..-- 9.79 2. 28 30. 85 47.49 CS ed ee eee aed
Psveracejotallen coc nce tale sacs le 9.96 2.28 31.08 47.12 S856 |Pascieenees

1 Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul. 19, pp. 28, 29. Connecticut Report, 1879, p. 155; 1887, p. 103.
Hatch Station Report, 1901, p. 35; 1903, p. 91. Towa Bul. 56, p. 483. Kentucky: Bul. 87, p. 116; Bul. 104,
p. 302. Massachusetts Report, 1884, p. 110; 1893, p. 326. New Jersey Report, 1906, p. 37. New Mexico

ul. 17, p. 36. South Dakota: Bul. 40, p. 38; Bul. 69, p. 21. Storrs Refort, 1896, p. 280. U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture Report No. 32, 1884, p.125. Vermont Report, 1893, p. 115; 1895, p. 195; 1896-7, p. 188.

a2 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ELYMUS CANADENSIS L.

Elymus canadensis is a familiar drooping, awned rye-grass which, like EH. con-
densatus, has a very wide distribution and is an important forage plant, especially
throughout the Plains region. It inhabits commonly the moist situations of the river
valleys, where it forms an important ingredient in both hay and pasture meadows.
In pastures it is relished only while young, and to make the best quality of hay it
must be cut before it is woody. Its general habits are favorable for cultivation.
Its seeds are abundantly produced, but the long, persistent awns would be difficult
to thrash out. It is, at best, a rather hard, coarse grass for either pasture or hay.

No. 8801 was collected near Fargo, N. Dak., August 10, 1907.

Water-free basis (per cent).
Percent-
Material analyzed. age of :
moisture. Nan Ether Crude sated Protein Pento-
extract. fiber. extract sans.
Our sample No. 8801.........-- 5. 61 9. 28 2. 28 21.94 48. 95 7.55 24. 61
Average of 10 others 1..........-|....---.-.- 8. 81 2. 22 34.77 45.97 Se 2S i eee mire ee
Averago of all.....-......|-....----- 8.85 2. 23 34.51 46. 24 Fea 7 fal ey a kee

1 Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul. 19, p. 32; Colorado Bul. 12, p. 58; Iowa Bul. 11, p. 467; Montana
Report, 1902, p. 66; South Dakota Bul. 40, D- 158; "Tennessee Bul. 3, vol. 9, p. 111; U: S. Department of
Agriculture Report No. 32, 1884, p. 128; Wyoming Bul. 87, p. 48.

ELYMUS CONDENSATUS Presl.

Elymus condensatus is the giant rye-grass which extends from Montana to Arizona
and has a very wide altitudinal distribution. Like many other species it has two
distinct habits of growth. In some situations it grows in scattered, large bunches,
often 7 or 8 feet high. In other places it is scattered uniformly over the area in which
it grows and frequently makes almost a complete stand. It is a very coarse, rank,
smooth species, which, if used for hay, must be cut before it gets too woody. Like
many other species, the estimate placed upon it varies with the locality in which
it is found and with the general quality of the feed of that locality. In portions of
Montana and Wyoming it is pronounced absolutely worthless, and while it is not
used nearly so widely in those States as it is in the Great Basin, where extensive
areas of it are cut for hay, it is, nevertheless, usually considered of very good quality.
Its seed habits are very good, and it is quite probable that something could be made
of it under cultivation. It ergots very badly, however, and sometimes deleterious
effects upon stock are said to be produced on this account. Horses running in pas-
tures of it are very partial to the ripe seeds. It is a common thing to see them graze
off the heads and pay little attention to any other feed when the plant is mature.
These heads are commonly 6 inches in length and are almost a solid mass of seeds,
which, of course, are practically the same as grain. (PI. VI, fig. 2.)

No. 8830 was collected near Havre, Mont., August 13, 1907. The sample was ma-

ture, but was all green with the exception ‘of the head. It was harvested about 4
inches high.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent-
Material analyzed. age of : :
moisture. Ash Ether Crude Ne eeet Protein Pento-
extract. fiber. assinneth sans.
Our sample No. 8830.....-....- 8. 29 6.41 2.40 34.95 48. 40 7.84 25.45
FAN CLAP Oy OL A OUNCLS oem sean eee eee 8.34 2.91 38. 48 40.31 OSG |essaedecee
AVeTAC OOM eae seni Meese Eee 7.96 2.81 37.77 41.93 Ged eae RC UAT

1 Montana Report, 1902, p. 66. Nevada Bul. 62, p. 28. Wyoming: Bul. 70, p. 38; Bul. 87, p. 50.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. US

ELYMUS GLAUCUS Buckl.

Elymus glaucus is a species of rye-grass, common and important, especially in the
edges of open mountain meadows and among shrubbery, from Michigan to California.
Its habit of growth depends upon the environment. It is always a comparatively tall,
coarse grass, with a fairly good leafage. In some situations it may grow scatteringly
among species of Poa, Danthonia, etc. In other situations it has been seen fully 6
feet high growing in large clumps. It is seldom that it makes a pure growth. The
seed is produced in abundance, and it is usually of very good quality, but the awns are
a drawback. In the locality in which one of the specimens was collected it is com-
monly very badly attacked by smut (Tilletia). This, however, has not been observed
elsewhere.

No. 8851 was collected near Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The seed was in the
milk stage and this sample was cut 2 inches high. No. 8893 was collected near
Albany, Oreg., August 25, 1907. In this sample the upper portion of.the culm and

many of the leaves were dead and dry. The specimens were 6 feet high and were
cut 6 inches above the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).
4 erent:
Material analyzed. age Oo .
moisture.| 4 sy Ether Crude pee Protein, | Pente-
extract. fiber. apanRely. i sans,
Our sample No. 8851.......---- 7. 60 4.59 2.16 32. 59 53.18 7.48 23. 70
Our sample No. 8893...-------- 4.17 8. 47 1.97 35. 22 50. 89 3. 45 21. 69
One other sample?.............|..-------- 9. 61 2. 79 36. 36 43. 62 ME G2H has eye
Aweraverotallie cs sseiod . oye ee ee 7. 56 2.31 34. 72 49, 23 Coa Ha oe a

1 Montana Report, 1902, p. 66.

ELYMUS TRITICOIDES Buckl.

Elymus triticoides resembles in many ways the Colorado bluestem. It has under-
ground stems and very similar seed habits and appearance, although placed by bota-
nists in a different genus. It prefers to grow in alluvial, nonsaline edges of sinks and
along river courses. It reaches its best development in the Great Basin and is of less
importance in the interior valleys of California. It is an excellent hay grass, often
cutting two tons of hay of good quality, which resembles that of the Colorado bluestem,
but, unlike that grass, this species grows where the lands overflow once or twice in a
season. There is no more promising grass for domestication, as the seed habits are
excellent and both the quality and the quantity of seed produced are first class.

No. 8322 was collected near Bakersfield, Cal., May 27, 1906. The sample was in full
blossom and was harvested about 2 inches high. Its percentage of moisture was 6.72.

Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 6.33; ether extract,
1.97; crude fiber, 39.55; nitrogen-free extract, 46.32; protein, 5.83; pentosans, 25.61.

ELYMUS VIRGINICUS L.

Elymus virginicus is a species of wild rye, widely distributed throughout the United
States. It never becomes important except in moist woodlands and in nonalkaline
situations along river banks. Insuch situations patches of small extent are commonly
found growing to the exclusion of practically everything else. In the natural condi-
tion, however, it is of secondary importance on account of the limited areas in which
it grows. It produces a good leafage, its seed habits are first class, and it is well
adapted to cultivation. Like nearly all of the rye-grasses, it is somewhat coarse, but
not so coarse as many of the species.

No. 8794 was collected near Fargo, N. Dak., August 8, 1907. The specimen was in
late blossom and was cut close to the ground.

24 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Water-free basis (per cent).

F Beruent
Material analyzed. age oO z
: moisture. 4 Ether Crude Natrorer Protein, | Pente-
extract. fiber. Seen. sans.
Our sample No. 87941_.......-- 6. 40 11.10 2.55 28. 08 46. 52 lt 25 20. 52
AVeEAPOIOL S OUNCIS 2) sen- acne |aeees = see 7.15 2. 89 32. 37 48.97 B02 |e ase se ee
Acyerage lof allse sac sto en|s seer en ae 7.59 2. 85 31.89 48. 71 SXOG Ee eee

1 Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul. 19, p. 28; Connecticut Report, 1889, p. 245; Iowa Bul. 56, p. 498;
Mississippi Report, 1895, p. 91; South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 157.

ERAGROSTIS LUGENS Nees.

Eragrostis lugens is a tall, hard, perennial species, strictly a filler only and of
secondary quality. It occurs mostly on rocky, exposed situations and produces feed
that remains green quite late in the season. It is not-eaten until other more palatable
feed has been used.

No. 7091 (E. O. W.) was collected in the San Andreas Mountains near Las Cruces,
N. Mex., October 6, 1912. Its percentage of moisture was 5.79. Other constituents

(on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 9.03; ether extract, 1.77; crude fiber,
32.58; nitrogen-free extract, 49.82; protein, 6.80; pentosans, 25.46.

ERAGROSTIS SECUNDIFLORA Presl.

Eragrostis "secundiflora is distinctively a sand-grass, being characteristic of dry,
sandy areas from Florida to the Pacific coast. While extensively grazed, it is not of
first quality, either in abundance or palatability. Itis wiry in its nature and rejected
by live stock until more palatable feeds fail.

No. 8390 was collected at Encinal, Tex., August 12, 1906. The sample was a little
underripe, but contained considerable old dead leaves, although nothing was included
but this year’s growth. It was cut off about half an inch above the ground. Its per-
centage of moisture was 5.87. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as
follows: Ash, 15.15; ether extract, 2.12; crude fiber, 30.39; nitrogen-free extract,
45.70; protein, 6.64; pentosans, 23.96.

ERAGROSTIS SPICATA Vasey.

Eragrostis spicata is a tall, conspicuous grass, not abundant enough in the United
States to be seriously considered as a native forage. It is a hard, rank species, not
particularly relished by stock, although grazed in close pastures.

No. 8402 was collected at Green, Tex., August 14, 1906. The seed was ripe, but not
fallen, and all herbage was green and fresh. It wascut4incheshigh. Its percentage
of moisture was 10.30. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows:

Ash, 8.77; ether extract, 1.20; crude fiber, 36.31; nitrogen-free extract, 47.44; pro-
tein, 6.28; pentosans, 23.28.

ERIOCOMA CUSPIDATA Nutt. !

Eriocoma cuspidata (Indian millet) is a grass peculiarly adapted to the loose,
sandy soils of the arid West. Although not particularly confined to such situations,
it is here that it reaches its most striking development. It is distinctively a brunch
grass, growing scatteringly and often in very large bunches in the most sterile of soils,
often upon unstable sands. It is a highly prized and valuable species, the only
objection to it being that it does not grow abundantly enough. Nowhere is it found
forming anything like a ground cover. Sometimes in the edges of cultivated fields,
upon railroad embankments, beside roadways, and in other situations where the
ground is loosened up, its growth is very much facilitated. It is not a grass that
bears grazing very well, being easily pulled up by the roots or tramped out by stock.

No. 8340 was collected near Ashfork, Ariz., May 30, 1906. This sample represents
the plant in early maturity. This is true, however, of not over half of the plants,

1 More recently written Oryzopsis hymenoides (R. and S.) Ricker.

-Bul.-201, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

Fic. 1.—HORDEUM JUBATUM, WALLA WALLA, WASH.

argae

y Al

Fic. 2.—CHLORIS ELEGANS IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA.

Bul. 201, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.

Fic. 1.—MUHLENBERGIA EMERSLEYI IN THE MOUNTAINS OF SOUTHERN ARIZONA.

Fi@. 2.—ELYMUS CONDENSATUS CUT FOR Hay IN NORTHERN NEVADA.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 25

most of them being still green. They were harvested 2 to 24 inches high, and all dead
herbage was excluded. No. 8834 was collected near Havre, Mont., August 13, 1907.
This sample was cut 2 inches high and consisted of large mature plants growing in a
favored locality where they had received some cultivation.

Water-free basis (per cent).
e, Bevceaty |
Material analyzed. age of | p 2
moisture. | iat Ether Crude Nittoren Protein Pento-
extract. fiber. eminec. sans.
Our sample No. 8340.......---- 6. 72 14. 72 ile Sit 32. 25 45.16 6. 56 10. 59
Our sample No. 8834........---- 5. 51 4, 47 2A BE) 36. 52 52. 66 4.00 29. 03
Average of 9 others!............|.--.------ 7.76 2.31 31. 69 48.17 LOS0 74 whee eres
PALperarororable 325 ot46a-.|$eete a22 Ss 8.09 2. 22 32.19 48.30 95207 seers eles

1 Colorado Bul. 12, p. 92. Montana Report, 1902, p. 66. Nevada: Bul. 62,p.19; Bul. 66, p. 46. Wyo-
ming: Bul. 65, p. 18; Bul. 76, p. 11, 40; Bul. 87, p. 50.

FESTUCA CONFINIS Vasey ( Festuca kingii).

Festuca confinis is a characteristic and valuable species of fescue of the Rocky Moun-
tain and Sierra Nevada regions. It seldom, if ever, makes pure growths over any
extended areas, but, on the other hand, grows in large bunches scattered among other
species of Festuca and Agropyron. It is a rather coarse grass—indeed, one of the
coarsest of the genus—of about the same texture and stature as the common cultivated
English bluegrass. It is readily grazed and constitutes a valuable adjunct of the
pasturage, especially of the Rocky Mountain region.

~ No. 8849 was collected at Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The sample was cut 4
inches high when the seed was in stiff dough.

Water-free basis (per cent).
; Sc Recent,
Material analyzed. age o :
moisture.| 4 4, Ether Crude N Bs Proteins Me eeo-
extract. fiber. arena sans.
Our sample No. 8849.........-.. 6. 51 7.48 2.79 34. 69 47.65 7.39 24, 28
Average of 4 others !..........--).2..-2.--- 6. 13 2. 80 36. 81 45. 91 hes) lleeeoasicess
PANVETA ZOOL AIL! > jose see Pe ase 6. 40 2.79 36. 39 46. 26 BEIGE ee esse

1 Nevada Bul. 62, p. 14. Wyoming: Bul. 70, p. 40; Bul. 87, p. 51.
FESTUCA MEGALURA Nutt.

Festuca megalura, sometimes called squirreltail fescue, is one of the characteristic
introduced weedy annuals of the California region and may be found at altitudes of
6,000 or 7,000 feet in the mountains. As a filler in the native pastures it is of some
importance early in the season. Like all other annual species of this group, it pulls
up readily by the roots and is consequently objectionable to stock. After the seeds
become mature it is not relished, and it never gets large enough to be cut for hay.

No. 8700 was collected at El Toro, Cal., April 16, 1907. The sample was in blossom

and was cut off at the surface of the ground. No. 7108 (Wooton) was collected at
Willows, Cal., April 8, 1918. Sometimes known here as poverty grass.

Water-free basis (per cent).

ee abi Percent
aterial analyzed. age oO . il
moisture.| 4 4, Ether | Crude Aire Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. aan. sans.
Our sample No. 8700..........-- 6. 53 6. 82 1.33 35. 23 50. 34 6. 28 27.79
Our sample No. 7108 (E. O. W.) 5. 69 5. 66 2.01 27.12 56. 66 8. 55 24. 84
Average of both.........- 6. 11 6.23 1.67 31.17 53.50 7.42 26. 32

26 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FESTUCA OVINA INGRATA Hack.

Throughout the entire Rocky Mountain region, from the San Francisco highlands
in Arizona northward, there are large numbers of closely related forms of fescue, of
which Festuca ovina ingrata may be considered economically typical. In the southern-
most portion of this highland region they grow at an altitude of about 7,000 feet. Far-
ther north they come down to the 4,000-foot level and may spread out to the adjoining
bare foothills and mesas. They are characteristic grasses of bare hills and mountain
sides, where they often grow to the exclusion of practically everything else. They
constitute an exceedingly important group of native forage plants which will stand ©
trampling by stock very well, although they have been killed in many sections by
excessive stocking. Some very closely related forms are now in cultivation, and
it would doubtless be a comparatively easy matter to domesticate some of the forms
whose seed habits are just as good as those now under cultivation. They are all
popularly known as sheep fescue. (PI. VII, fig. 1.)

No. 8848 was collected at Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The seed of the sample
was in the dough. It was cut close to the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).
; Fe Percent- 3
Material analyzed. age of a
moisture.| 4 sy Ether Crude Tees Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. a. sans.
Our sample No. tote): Vase eS eae 5. 11 4.89 3.13 34. 33 52. 12 5. 53 26. 68
One other sample!.......--.---|---------- 7.72 1.04 37.30 49.19 AST sassecs t=
Averageof both. -.22)-.2.|-..-.----. 6.30 2.09 35. 81 50. 66 DHEA Tee eiseisa se

1 Washington Bul. 82, p. 11.
HETEROPOGON CONTORTUS Beauv.

Heteropogon contortus, a beard-grass with long, twisted, dark-brown to black awns,
is very characteristic of the native grass flora of many situations from central Texas
to Arizona and southward into Mexico. It produces a quality of feed very similar to
that of some of the larger species of Andropogon. On the whole, it is probably not
grazed so extensively as those species. Some sheep growers in southern Texas espe-
cially deplore its presence on account of the injury which the awns do in working
into the fleece and flesh of their flocks. Anyone who has walked through a patch of
this grass when mature will readily recognize the injury that it may do to sheep.
However, cattle in southern Arizona graze it to the ground very frequently. In some
situations, in the sandy arid mountains, it grows thick over small areas, but usually
it is distinctively a bunch grass, growing only in scattered bunches among other
vegetation.

No. 8397 was collected at Green, Tex., August 14, 1906. The plants were in early
maturity and were cut about 3 inches above the ground. Many of the lower culm
leaves were dead. No. 9589 was collected in the foothills of the Santa Rita Mountains,
Ariz., September 16, 1908. The sample was duplicated on account of the viscid,

sweet, eummy secretion which appeared upon the inflorescence of the plants. This
is a very common phenomenon in this section.

Water-free basis (per cent).
nt = percent
aterial analyzed. age 0. .
moisture.| 4 Ether | Crude Tee: Protein, | Pente-
extract. fiber. PocRTaCh sans.
Our sample No. 8397........---- 9.06 7.44 1.34 34. 47 51.93 4.82 27. 46
Our sample No. 9589..........-- ie 4.58 1.54 32.10 57. 65 4.13 24.00
Average of both ....-..---- 5.40 6.01 1.44 33. 28 54.79 4.48 25.73

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 7a |

HILARIA CENCHROIDES H. B. K.

Milaria cenchroides (curly mesquite) is one of the characteristic grasses of the South-
western United States and of Mexico. In habit it simulates very closely the buffalo
grass (Bulbilis dactyloides), spreading by slender, creeping rootstocks. It never grows
large enough to be cut for hay, but is a very important pasture grass in many situa-
tions from Texas to Arizona. It seldom attains a height of 12 inches; more often it is
only about 6 inches tall. It produces, however, an abundance of root leaves and
grows whenever the rainfall is sufficient. In southern Arizona the species grows only
during the rainy season of summer, maturing in late September. In many situations
west of central Texas there are large areas where this species forms the main pasturage.

No. 9200 was collected at San Antonio, Tex., April 18, 1908. The sample was
mature, but still perfectly green. It was cut close to the ground; hence it included
the root leaves, creeping stocks, and upright stems, as well as a few old dead leaves.
Its percentage ‘of moisture was 8.16. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were
as follows: Ash, 9.37; ether extract, 2.09; crude fiber, 24.51; nitrogen-free extract,
55.26; protein, 8.77; pentosans, 21.13.

HOLCUS LANATUS L.1!

Hoilcus lanatus (velvet grass), like many other aggressive species, has many warm
friends, and it has bitter enemies. It is widely introduced throughout the United
States as far south as the Carolinas. While commonly considered to produce a feed
of low grade, many ranchers in the Pacific Northwest, the only place in which it is
abundant, find it a very valuable grass. It inhabits moist meadows and furnishes
both hay and pasturage of medium quality.

No. 8891 was collected near Hood River, Oreg., August 23, 1907. The sample was

mature, one-half of the culm dry, but the leaves were all green. It was cut 3 inches
high.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Si ; aie betes
aterial analyzed. age Oo : a
moisture. hein Ether Crude Neoeen Protein Pento-
S extract. fiber. aCe 2 sans.
Our sample No. 8891 .........-- 4.89 12. 24 2.83 27. 42 51. 47 6.04 21. 63
FAVCEASC OL SOENOTS 2. oso 52- 22 eles eee 9. 42 2.97 29. 68 47.98 OG ae eae ae
Average of all......-- 5A ave | anv ea 9.73 2.95 29. 43 48.38 tUcay bi ee res ee

1 More recently written Notholcus lanatus (L.) Nash.

2 Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul. 19, p. ae Kentucky Report, 1902, p. 302; Louisiana Bul. 19
series 2, p. 553; Mississippi Report, 1895, p. 91; U. Department of Agriculture Report No. 32, 1834’
pp. 127, 136; Virginia Bul. 180, p. 96; West Virginia Sul 23, Pp. 36.

HOMALACENCHRUS ORYZOIDES (L.) Poll.

Homalacenchrus oryzoides, the cut-grass with which every boy is disagreeably ac-
quainted, is commonly pastured by cattle along streams and fresh-water lakes through-
outitsrange. It never grows abundantly enough or pure enough to enter appreciably
into the composition of hay.

No. 8793 was collected at Fargo, N. Dak., August 8, 1907. The sample was 2 to 24
feet high, but had not quite headed out. It was cut close to the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

eae een Percent-
aterial analyzed. age of .
moisture.| 4 4, Ether | Crude ee Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. airactl sans,
Our sample No. 8793 .........-- 10. 24 17.35 2.71 32.17 37.04 10. 73 21.11
Average of 4 others1............]......---- 13.73 PAR: 29. 90 44. 87 7 (a ee
veracelofallss.-.2¥ ope bee. 14.45| 2.33] 30.35| 43.31 Gece) ene

1 Kentucky: Bul. 87,p.116; Bul. 104,p.302. Mississippi Report, 1888,p.33. South Dakota Bul. 40,p. 52.

28 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

HORDEUM GUSSONEANUM Parl. (Hordeum maritimum With.).

Hordeum gussoneanum, like H. jubatum, is an introduced weed, but it inhabits
lower, moister situations and is not so abundant and widely distributed in this country.
The situations in which it is found are mostly low, moist places where water stands for
a portion of the year, thus killing out other plants. Its feeding value is approximately
the same as /7. jubatum.

No. 8319 was collected near Stockton, Cal., May 26,1906. The sample represents the
plant in the milk state. It was cut close to the ground. Its percentage of moisture
was 6.35. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 11.77
ether extract, 1.96; crude fiber, 33.02; nitrogen-free extract, 44.65; protein, 8.60;
pentosans, 26.19. F

HORDEUM JUBATUM L.

Hordeum jubatum is the common squirreltail grass which inhabits saline, moist
situations as far west as the valley of the Little Colorado in Arizona. West of this it
gives place to H. murinum, or wall barley, discussed elsewhere. The quality of the
feed produced by H. jubatum is about the same as that produced by the other species
and approximately the same remarks apply to it. It is often a troublesome weed in
meadows in situations best adapted for its development. (PI. V, fig.1.)

No. 8356 was collected in cultivated irrigated fields and meadows on the bottoms
along the Little Colorado River near Winslow, Ariz., June 1, 1906. Here this grass
appears to gain a foothold in the lower, poorer tilled portions of alfalfa fields and
eradually spreads from here to occupy more and more of the field. The sample was
in early blossom and was cut 14 inches high. No. 8799 was collected near Fargo,

N. Dak., August 10, 1907. The sample was somewhat rusty and the seed nearly
ripe. It was cut close to the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

z Percent
Material analyzed. age o .
moisture.| 4 Ether | Crude Nittesen, Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. aE sans.

Our sample No. 8356.........-..- 7.24 15. 08 1.96 28. 23 47. 26 7.47 12. 60
Our sample No. 8799...-....-..- 5.21 12.11 2.67 32. 49 42.77 9. 96 25.58
Av erare Oils Others aes sees soa seeees see 10. 41 3.56 32.13 41.99 LAO. || saaee~s2e

Atveras evo tall eieae nee ae | sep eae 10. 83 3.39 31.90 42. 40 UD S48nieee sscncce

1 Colorado Bul. 12, p. 118. Iowa: Bul. 30, p. 320; Bul. 56, p. 533. Montana Report, 1902, p. 66. South
Dakota Bul. 40, p. 156. Wyoming: Bul. 65, p. 25; Bul. 87, p. 56.

HORDEUM MURINUM L.

Hordeum murinum is a very persistent and pernicious annual weed, introduced from
the Mediterranean region. It grows in the most favorable places on uplands, as well
as lowlands, throughout California and extends eastward into Arizona. In California
it has found congenial conditions upon uncultivated lands. In Arizona, however,
where conditions are less favorable, it inhabits cultivated and irrigated areas, being
especially troublesome in alfalfa fields. On this account, it is a common practice of
the renter to require that the first crop of alfalfa be cut, in order to get rid of as much
as possible of this weed. While it may be classed among the weeds, it nevertheless
furnishes a large amount of quite valuable forage. It is readily grazed up to the time
that it heads out; after that time the awns are very annoying to stock. When it occurs
in hay, these work in between the teeth of horses and cattle and often cause consider-
ableinjury. Reports show that there is a way to feed it successfully, however. Some
have chopped it up with a hay cutter and moistened it for 12 or 24 hours, when the
awns are so softened that they produce no deleterious effects.. Pasture meadows
having very much of this grass in them should be mowed about the time that it begins
to head out, thus getting rid of the awns and sharp fruit.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 2)

No. 8300 was collected near Banning, Cal., May 15, 1906. The sample was in early
maturity and was harvested 1 inch above the ground. Its percentage of moisture
was 6.70. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were us follows: Ash, 6.86;
ether extract, 2; crude fiber, 35.99; nitrogen-free extract, 47.72; protein, 7.43; pen-
tosans, 26.84.

KOELERIA CRISTATA (L.) Pres.

Koeleria cristata (June-grass) furnishes very important grazing throughout the
Plains regions; it extends from British Columbia to Arizona and from the Alleghanies
to the Sierra Nevadas, according to the common acceptance of the species. It is very
doubtful, however, whether the prairie forms of the Dakotas and Montana should be
considered under the same name as the ones which grow in the mountains of the
Southwest. Upon the Plains, from the Dakotas to the Panhandle of Texas, it grows
in scattering bunches among other prairie grasses, forming often one-fourth to one-
eighth of the vegetation, mostly upon the rolling hillsides. In the mountains of the
Southwest it grows in scattering bunches, mostly in thin-growing scattering timber,
and matures its seeds in late September and early October; upon the prairies of the
Dakotas its seed ripens in early June. Its abundant root leaves, 5 to 10 or 12 inches
in length, and its early maturity upon the prairies are characteristics which render it
a valuable pasture grass. As a hay plant it is of only medium quality, because the
culms are mostly bare and many of the root leaves are lost in the cutting.

No. 7120 (Wooton) was collected at Moorpark, Cal., April 18, 1913. The specimen
was just forming the panicle. No. 8839 was collected at Havre, Mont., August 13,
1907. This sample was cut close to the ground and represents the composition of the

plant when the culms are well dried up and only about half of the root leaves are
green.

Water-free basis (per cent).
hee sme Percent-
aterial analyzed. age of F 3
moisture.| 4 Ether | Crude Niozen Protein, | Pento-
| extract. fiber. amine. z sans.
Our sample No. 7120 (2. O. W.). 4,96 9,26 2.46 34. 45 44.69 9.14 26.80
Our sample No. 8839....-.---.-- 4.47 9.65 2.99 34.32 48. 56 4.48 24.91
IAWWerac@rOrs Ouners 2. - 22. -5-/2--|-ssi02-c6 7.18 3.03 33.90 46.77 Qu 2 Paneer als
PACTS O OLA Ser ee. aisle Sefee se = 7.45 3.03 33.94 46, 98 SHGO) Re eeerserrets

1 Canada Central Bee Farm Bul. 19, p. 28. Colorado Bul. 12, p. 110. South Dakota Bul. 40,
p. 116. Wyoming: Bul. 70, p. 44; Bul. 76, p. 48.

_LAMARCKIA AUREA (Dalech) Moench.!

Lamarckia aurea (golden-top grass) is a handsome species that is native to the Medi-
terranean region of the Old World. It is widely introduced in southern California
where, together with wild oats, the brome-grasses, and other introduced weedy
annuals, it furnishes a large amount of grazing. It can not be considered a first-
quality grass, because, in the first place, it is an annual and, in the second place, it
is low in stature, seldom becoming a foot in height. It is, however, probably fully
as valuable as many of the brome-grasses, but is not to be compared with wild oats.

No. 8314 was collected at Garvanza, Cal., May 19,1906. The sample was at nearly
full maturity and was pulled up, the roots being then cut off close. Its percentage of
moisture was 7.40. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash,

25.79; ether extract, 3.17; crude fiber, 29.90; nitrogen-free extract, 36.21; protein,
4.93; ‘pentosans, 23.94.

1 More recently written Achyrodes aureum (L.) Kunze.

30 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

LEPTOCHLOA DUBIA (H. B. K.) Nees.

Leptochloa dubia is a species said to be distributed within the limits of the United
States from Florida to Arizona, and it extends southward far into Mexico. In the
Southwest, where it reaches the greatest perfection, it inhabits the higher valleys
and lower mountain areas, making a very striking and favorable growth, often 3 feet
in height. It never produces a perfect stand, but grows scatteringly among the gramas,
muhlenbergias, and similar species. Its seed habits are good, and it is considered a
promising species for cultivation. It is rather coarse, but the leafage and habit are
both good, and really it is but little coarser than timothy or English bluegrass.

No. 8950 was collected in the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz., September 25, 1907.
The specimen was nearly mature. It was cut 3 inches high. Its percentage of mois-
ture was 6.57. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 10.23;

ether extract, 1.74; crude fiber, 33.36; nitrogen-free extract, 47.98; protein, 6.69; pen-
tosans, 22.62.

LEPTOCHLOA FILIFORMIS (Lam.) Beauv. (Leptochloa mucronata).

Leptochloa filiformis is a common and conspicuous species in the edges of streams,
ponds, and neglected irrigating ditches throughout the Southwest. It is especially
partial to alkaline soils; and, in some situations in the San Joaquin Valley of Cali-
fornia, upon lands which have been abandoned for ordinary crops on account of the
accumulation of soluble salts in the surface soils, so long as the ground is irrigated
and not invaded by Bermuda grass and other perennials which choke it out, this grass
is known to yield a large amount of forage. It seems to make a fair quality of feed,
but its annual habit and its being adapted to peculiar special conditions make it of
only secondary importance.

No. 8577 was collected near Tempe, Ariz., September 24, 1906. The specimen
was in early maturity and was harvested close to the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

4 i nae Percents
aterial analyzed. age 0 . :
moisture. Agha Ether Crude Nit eae Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. extract sans.
Our sample No. 8577......------ 2.26 14.79 1.88 22.36 52.27 8. 70 15. 43
Average of 4 others!.....-......|---.------ 10. 95 2. 28 30. 94 43. 32 ole ee eenere oe
Average otal sss |aeeeasaaee 11.72 2.20 29. 22 45.11 abbr Gyleasaseese

1Connecticut Report, 1879, p. 155; Mississippi Report, 1895, p. 91; U. S. Department of Agriculture
Report No. 32, 1884, p. 127.

LIMNODEA ARKANSANA (Nutt.) Dewey.

Timnodea arkansana ranges from Texas to Florida and enters largely into the com-
position of dry upland pastures in southern Texas. It appears to bea valuable species,
which when in the vegetative condition is grazed by stock as readily as the gramas.
When dried, however, it seems to lose substance. In some seasons in southern Texas
(and this was true especially in 1908) it grows large enough to be cut for hay in un-
grazed upland pastures.

No. 9204 was collected at San Antonio, Tex., April 20, 1908. The specimen was in
late blossom and was cut 2 inches above the ground. Its percentage of moisture was
8.47. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 9.56; ether
extract, 2.18; crude fiber, 34.48; nitrogen-free extract, 46.10; protein, 7.68; pento-
sans, 20.86.

LYCURUS PHLEOIDES H. B. K.

Lycurus phleoides is a species of the arid Southwest which has been popularly called
“Texan timothy,’’ and it really does have a faint superficial resemblance to timothy,
the cultivated hay plant. It is a common species from Colorado to Texas and west-
ward to Arizona. In southern Arizona, where we are most familiar with it, this grass

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 31

inhabits gravelly ridges of the foothills region midway between the desert mesas and
the moister mountains. Nowhere does it form a complete ground cover, but it is
commonly found in bunches scattered among other grasses and is consequently not
a grass of the first importance, although readily eaten by stock in both dry field-
cured and green conditions.

No. 9518 was collected near Prescott, Ariz., August 31, 1908. The sample was in
late blossom and was harvested by being cut close to the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

; = Pees
Material analyzed. age o .
moisture.| 4 4 Ether | Crude AiirOben: Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. enc sans.
Our sample No. 9518......-.---- 7.07 7.25 2.00 34. 08 50. 06 6.61 19. 74
Oneothersample!l:.-...----..--|---55----+ 7.55 2.28 34.16 49. 80 G2215 Baseeeeee
Average otboth. 22522. .-/.|5.2.--.--- 7.40 2.14 34. 12 49. 93 OeAte ee ceeeecce

1 New Mexico Bul. 17, p. 37.
MELICA BULBOSA Geyer.

Melica bulbosa (melic grass) is a Pacific coast species of importance only as a filler.
It is a tall, coarse species with bare, hard culms, growing scatteringly among other
grasses and shrubbery, but it is always grazed where opportunity offers. This is one
of the native bunch grasses which have been almost exterminated. The fact that it
is to be found rather abundantly along the railroad right of way in some places indi-
cates that it might come back on much of the range country if given a chance.

No. 7106 (E. O. W.) was collected at Red Bluff, Cal., April 6, 1913. Its percentage
of moisture was 4.65. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash,
8.76; ether extract, 2.94; crude fiber, 30.36; nitrogen-free extract, 45.16; protein,
12.78; pentosans, 24.74.

MELICA IMPERFECTA Trin.

Melica imperfecta is one of the original perennial bunch grasses of California which
was no doubt much more abundant formerly than it is now. At present it is found
mostly in the protection of shrubbery. It is relished by stock and is therefore always
closely grazed.

No. 7118 (E. O. W.) was collected at Moorpark, Cal., April 18, 1913. Its percentage -
of moisture was 4.93. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash,

8.70; ether extract, 1.94; crude fiber, 36.95; nitrogen-free extract, 43.60; protein, 8.81;
pentosans, 27.

MUHLENBERGIA ARENICOLA Buckl.

Muhlenbergia arenicola is strictly a sandy-land species, at times very conspicuous
because it follows up other species which have been grazed out. Although at times
abundant over considerable areas, it is not relished by stock.

No. 7084 (E. O. W.) was collected on sand hills northeast of Las Cruces, N. Mex.,
October 3,1912. Its percentage of moisture was 4.52. Other constituents (on a water-

free basis) were as follows: Ash, 9.03; ether extract, 2.05; crude fiber, 33.80; nitrogen-
free extract, 48.31; protein, 6.81; pentosans, 26.58.

MUHLENBERGIA EMERSLEYI Vasey.

Muhlenbergia emersleyi is a typical Mexican species which extends into the moun-
tains of the southwestern United States, forming a coarse, harsh forage resorted to
by cattle when other more palatable feeds fail. It grows in large bunches, often 24

feet high and having aspread of similar dimensions. Insouthern Arizona it invariably
inhabits the oak belt in the mountains, from the open, gently sloping, upper mesas to
an altitude of approximately 5,000 feet. It never gets down to the desert mesas.
It is a very handsome grass and, were it possible to cultivate it, might make a valuable

Si) BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ornamental. The first number listed below is considered to be typical of the species,
However, the group has not been carefully worked out. Segregations in the future
may separate the second number as a distinct species from the first. (PI. VI, fig. 1.)

No. 8952 was collected in the upper foothills of the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz.,
September 25, 1907. The sample was in late blossom and was cut 3 inches high;
hence it included all of the material that could possibly be eaten by stock. Indeed,
the stubble of the sample collected would represent conditions under very close
grazing. No. 9600 was collected in the northern foothills of the Santa Rita Mountains,
September 18, 1908. The sample was in early blossom and prepared about the same
as the previous number.

Water-free basis (per cent).
wy : re Eipeeent :
aterial analyzed. age oO .
moisture.| 4 4, Ether Crude Sree Sypiata Pento-
extract. fiber. ae sans.
Our sample No. 8952.......----- 5.72 7.19 1.79| 30.72| 55.46 4,84 25. 95
Our sample No. 9600......-.---- 3. 01 9.05 1.05 41.34 43. 56 5. 00 24, 92
Average of both.-.....--. 4.37 8.12 1.42 36. 03 49.51 4,92 25. 43

MUHLENBERGIA GRACILIMA Torr.

Muhlenbergia gracilima is a dry-land species extending from western Texas to Cali-
fornia and northward to Colorado and Nevada. It is a conspicuous ‘plant upon the
semisodded mesas and foothills of the region. It occupies neither the moister nor the
drier situations, but rather the medium lands on the dividing line between sodded
and unsodded conditions. Where it occurs it usually forms a mat of tangled stems
and leaves upon the surface of the ground, thus producing a semblance at least of a
turf. While of a great deal of importance on account of its wide distribution and
abundance, it is not a first-quality grass. It seldom gets over 3 inches high before
the bare culms stretch up a foot or less beyond this. The culms invariably break off
easily and are seldom grazed by live stock. Associated with the species are usually
found buffalo grass, the gramas, and the bluestems, all of which are more palatable
to stock. In spite of this, however, the species is grazed to extermination in many
situations and is more or less relished by stock when other feeds become scarce.

No. 9515 was collected near Prescott, Ariz., August 30, 1908. The sample was in
early fruit and was cut close to the ground, some old dry leaves being unavoidably
included. Its percentage of moisture was 8.57. Other constituents (on a water-free

basis) were as follows: Ash, 12.36; ether extract, 2.53; crude fiber, 31.03; nitrogen-
free extract, 46.31; protein, 7.77; pentosans, 18.41.

MUHLENBERGIA NEOMEXICANA Vasey.

Muhlenbergia neomexicana is a low, tufted, hard, wiry perennial, at times of consid-
erable value on account of its abundance, but it isa filler only. In limited localities
in the Southwest, however, it is abundant enough to give character to the pasturage.
It usually occurs on rocky exposed ridges in the mountains of southern Arizona, New
Mexico, and western Texas in the woodlands or open coniferous forests up to about
7,000 feet elevation.

No. 7094 (E. O. W.) was collected in the San Andreas Mountains near Las Cruces,
N. Mex., October 6, 1912. Its percentage of moisture was 5.61. Other constituents

(on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 5.65; ether extract, 2.39; crude fiber,
37.55; nitrogen-free extract, 48.28; protein, 6.13; pentosans, 26.90.

MUHLENBERGIA PORTERI Scribn.

Muhlenbergia porteri (black grama) although of less importance by far than many
other southwestern grasses, is in many ways most interesting. At the same time it is
so important that it never should be omitted from a list of forage grasses of the region
from western Texas to California and northward to Colorado and Utah. In the Santa
_ Rita Mountains of southern Arizona it always grows in tangled masses in bunches of

Bul. 201, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

Fi@. 1.—FESTUCA ARIZONICA IN OPEN PARKS IN THE WHITE MOUNTAINS OF ARIZONA.

Fi@. 2.—A GooD MOUNTAIN PASTURE IN SOUTHERN ARIZONA, CONSISTING OF SPECIES
OF BOUTELOUA, ANDROPOGON, LycuRuS, ETC.

Bul. 201, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII.

Fic. 1.—SPOROBOLUS WRIGHTII ON THE VALLEY FLOOR, ERODED INTO TUSSOCKS,
\SOUTHWESTERN ARIZONA.

Fia. 2.—ECHINOCHLOA CRUS-GALLI, A VOLUNTEER Crop, NEAR WESTFALL, OREG.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 33

shrubbery, cat’s-claw, hackberry, mesquite, etc., where it remains unmolested by
stock as long as other feeds are available with less annoyance from the shrubby spiny
protectors. In the Organ Mountains of New Mexico it grows in clumps ofshrubbery
also, but more often in the open.

Eight or nine years ago, when a large tract of range land was fenced by the United
States Department of Agriculture in the northwestern foothills of the Santa Rita Moun-
tains in southern Arizona, this grass was nowhere conspicuous. It was invariably
closely cropped except where it was impossible for stock to get at it. Now tangled
clumps 3 feet high and 6 or 8 feet in diameter are not uncommon, generally produced
since the field was inclosed. In times past it was a common thing for the Mexican
people to cut large quantities of this grass in the upper foothills along the Mexican
border, packing it to villages and mining camps on burros.

The species is in reality ashrub. It makes a growth approximately equal each year
to some of the other grasses, but instead of dying to the ground each winter, only the
leaves, flowers, and smaller branches die, the older hardened culms remaining alive.
In time, therefore, a tangled mass, such as that described above, representing portions
of the growths of several years, is formed. Although several years old the stems are
not so woody as one might expect. Indeed, they are not so woody but that cattle will
eat them even if they are 3 or 4 years old. It can be easily imagined how fond stock
are of these green clumps in winter when other vegetation is dead and dried up.

No. 8940 was collected in the foothills of the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz., Septem-
ber 23, 1907. The sample represents the nearly mature plant of the current year’s
development. This season’s growth, about 10 to 12 inches, was taken with very little
of the olderculms. Its percentage of moisture was 5.76. Other constituents (on a water-

free basis) were as follows: Ash, 6.53; ether extract, 2.28; crude fiber, 35.63; nitrogen-
free extract, 49.59; protein, 5.97; pentosans, 26.25.

MUHLENBERGIA WRIGHTII Vasey.

Muhlenbergia wrightii grows in large bunches upon the second bottoms of mountain
streams and dry washes of northern Arizona. Its affinities are with Sporobolus brevi-
folius. The leaves are a little more abundant, and the plant throughout is less wiry
than that species. In this region it adds considerable to the pasturage, since it is
resorted to by stock and readily grazed when more palatable feeds fail.

No. 9554 was collected at Prescott, Ariz., September 7, 1908. Its percentage of
moisture was 6.58. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash,
8.39; ether extract, 1.91; crude fiber, 32.14; nitrogen-free extract, 50.50; protein,

7.06; pentosans, 27.39.
PANICULARIA GRANDIS (Wats.) Nash.

Panicularia grandis is a soft, spongy stemmed, sprangle-topped reed-grass, inhabit-
ing low, moist, alluvial grounds in the edges of swamps and streams from Labrador to
California. It never grows abundant enough to be of any great economic importance,
but furnishes very acceptable grazing wherever it occurs. Usually it is more or less
pure in small patches, but it may also be found scattered among sedges, rushes, and
other water-loving plants.

No. 8795 was collected at Fargo, N. Dak., August 8, 1907. The sample was cut
close to the ground when in late fruit.

Water-free basis (per cent).
; : Percent-
Material analyzed. age of -
moisture.) 4 4 Ether | Crude |N peeeee Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. eetract: : | sans,

ec T TE Tea aaa Rh es Ta eT ee r |
Our sample No. 8795.........--- 7.19 17. 31 2. 22 26. 71 43. 38 10. 38 17.79
Averaceiofo others 2: 2520 2 aes joe 9. 48 1. 74 33. 39 45. 42 Oe Gil ane aera

Ayeragerof ally faith well bet eben - 10. 78 1,82 32. 28 45. 08 LO! OS: |e ee acces

1 South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 134. Wyoming: Bul. 70, p. 35; Bul. 87, p. 64.
82080°—Bull. 201—15 3)

34 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

PANICULARIA PAUCIFLORA (Presl.) Kuntze.

Panicularia pauciflora is a soft, water-loving species of smaller stature than P. grandis.
It also never becomes abundant, but commonly makes almost pure stands in the edges
of fresh-water ponds, streams, and marshes, especially in the high altitudes of the
Rocky Mountain regions. The areas are all small, however, being seldom over a few
rods in extent, and usually they are much smaller in area than this. What there is of it
is readily grazed by all classes of live stock.

No. 8868 was collected at Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The sample was cut
close to the ground when the seed was in early maturity. Its percentage of moisture
was 6.34. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 10.01; ether

extract, 5.27; crude fiber, 25; nitrogen-free extract, 46.23; protein, 13.49; pentosans,
20.37.
PANICUM FASCICULATUM Swartz.

The main economic interest in Panicum fasciculatum is derived from the fact that it
often produces a heavy aftermath of good quality in grain fields or in waste places in
our irrigated Southwest.

No. 8568 was collected near Phoenix, Ariz., September 24, 1906. The sample rep-
resents the plant when the seeds are fully mature. Its percentage of moisture was
4.68. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 15.19; ether
extract, 2.01; crude fiber, 25.91; nitrogen-free extract, 46.99; protein, 9.90; pento-
sans, 19.44.

PANICUM FILIPES Scribn.

Panicum filipes resembles more closely than anything else a somewhat dwarf-leaved
form of switch-grass (P. virgatum). It grows abundantly in dry situations in southern
Texas and forms a valuable part of the pasturage, growing in scattered bunches. It
can not be considered of much consequence in native hays, but its delicate panicle,
abundant leafage, and rather small culms render it of considerable importance as a
pasture grass.

No. 8403 was collected near Green, Tex., August 14,1906. 'Thesample represents the
plant with the seed fully mature and half of the leavesdead and dry. It was harvested
about 2 inches high. Its percentage of moisture was 5.44. Other constituents (on a

water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 9.66; ether extract, 1.89; crude fiber, 32.57;
nitrogen-free extract, 50; protein, 5.88; pentosans, 26.09.

PANICUM HALLII Vasey.

Panicum hallii (panic-grass) is of a great deal of importance as a filler on the open
mesas and rocky hills, as well as in poorly cultivated fields from Texas to Arizona.
It is a species of secondary quality.

No. 7087 (E. O. W.) was collected on the mesas near Las Cruces, N. Mex., October 4,
1912. Its percentage of moisture was 3.42. Other constituents (on a water-free

basis) were as follows: Ash, 10.77; ether extract, 1.56; crude fiber, 31.93; nitrogen-free
extract, 50.29; protein, 5.45; pentosans, 25.05.

PANICUM OBTUSUM H. B. K.

Panicum obtusum is a common and familiar grass, sometimes known as vine mes-
quite, extending from Colorado to the Gulf of Mexico and westward through Arizona.
It usually inhabits waste places, alluvial bottoms, and other moist situations, com-
monly to the exclusion of everything else wherever it gains a good foothold. Its ability
to develop by long overground stems, which root at every joint, gives it a great advan-
tage in soils which are comparatively loose. It seldom is in condition to be cut for
hay, but in a few situations it has been seen making a growth which would yield, if
cut with the mower, fully 1 ton to the acre. Near Seligman, Ariz., during the autumn
of 1908 there were considerable areas of it, in one place 5 or 6 acres which would make
1 to 1} tons to the acre. This situation, however, was an exceptional one. A large
quantity of earth had been washed down from a dam which broke in the early summer,
depositing from 1 to 6 inches of loose earth over the entire area. It is in situations
where the soil is of this nature that the plant shows to best advantage. It makes but

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 35

a fair quality of hay and is not usually grazed where other palatable feeds occur.
(Pl. IX, fig. 1.)

No. 9551 was collected near Seligman, Ariz., September 6, 1908. The sample was
in full blossom and was harvested close to the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent
Material analyzed. age 0 F i
moisture.| 4 ch Ether Crude Nitr eer rotor Pento
‘ extract. fiber. cater : sans.
Our sample No. 9551.....--.--.- 6. 43 9. 44 4.45 30. 20 39.32 11.52 21.21
Average of 3 others !.......-.--.-|---------- 9. 49 2.38 32.74 47.45 Wea ae ere dye
IGT COND A BE ee as 9. 48 2.90 33. 37 45. 42 S383 beak nec

1 Connecticut Report, 1879, p. 155; New Mexico Bul. 17, p.37; U. S. Department of Agriculture Report
No. 32, 1884, p. 125.

PANICUM VIRGATUM L.

The common switch-grass (Panicum virgatum) is familiar and conspicuous on account
of its large stature. It extends from the East to the Middle West. In the Plains
region it mostly inhabits the moist situations. It seldom forms a pure growth over
any extended areas, but is commonly found in large bunches several feet across and
3 to 4 feet high. It is a coarse, rank, smooth species, with good seed habits, and it
adapts itself to cultivation very well. It has been considered by some as rather prom-
ising for domestication.

No. 9337 was collected near Henrietta, Tex., July 1, 1908. The sample was just
beginning to head out and was cut 4 inches high.

Water-free basis (per cent).

; es Rereeltts
Material analyzed. age o : ‘
moisture. Jagth Ether Crude N Hyeen Protent Pento-
extract. fiber. oeferct sans.
Our sample No. 9337....-------- 5.95 5. 64 2. 05 37. 20 50. 44 4.67 21.63
Average of 16 others!..-.-- SERA aeeeeaane 6.30 2. 26 33. 28 51. 60 G856R Pecase eee
AveraAteOn ale on. 335. =| scciniem etc 6. 26 2.25 33.52 51.52 G34 5 Peer EEE

1 Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul. 19, p. 28. Colorado Bul. 12, p.30. Connecticut Report, 1879,
p. 155; 1887,p.103. Iowa Bul. 56,p.480. Mississippi Report, 1895,p.92. North Carolina Bul. 90b, p. 4.
South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 36. Tennessee Bul. 3, vol. 9, p. 112. U.S. Department of Agriculture Report
No. 32, 1884, p. 125. est Virginia Report, 1891, p. 35. Wyoming Bul. 87, p. 68.

PAPPOPHORUM APERTUM Munro.

Pappophorum apertum is a perennial bunch grass with a long, white, spikelike head,
common in the moister situations from western Texas to Arizona. It is never very
abundant and almost never forms a continuous growth. On the other hand, it is found
scatteringly among other species, thus simply adding to the sum total of the feed and
not imparting any distinctive character to it.

No. 8393 was collected near Green, Tex., August 14,1906. Thesample was overripe,
the seed having very largely dropped off, and there were some dry leaves at the base.
It was harvested about 3 inches above the ground. Its percentage of moisture was
8.29. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 8.85; ether

extract, 1.68; crude fiber, 34.87; nitrogen-free extract, 48.26; protein, 6.34; pento-
sans, 24.11.

PASPALUM DILATATUM Poir.

Paspalum dilatatum is a coarse, wide-leaved, perennial species, widely distributed
from Virginia to Florida and westward to the arid portion of western Texas. It is
partial to low, moist grounds and produces in such situations a valuable part of the

36 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

pasturage. Like other species of the genus, however, the forage produced is of sec-
ondary quality.

No. 8726 was collected near Tampa, Fla., June 12, 1907. The sample was in full-
blossom and was cut at the surface of the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

i Fy Percent-
aterial analyzed. age of A
moisture. Aah Ether Crude pee Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. Peciicts sans.
Our sample No. 8726... Pan 7.07 7.49 2. 42 35. 72 45. 60 8.77 22. 83
Average of 4 others1............].......--- 10. 40 2.77 30. 82 48.11 TS 90'S. cee eee
Averaceron-allss@ Saes2 eae cee 9. 82 2.70 31. 80 47. 61 CS il Paeeneeaes

1 Louisiana Bul. 114, p. 23; Mississippi Report, 1895, p. 92; Texas Report, 1888, p. 30.
PASPALUM STRAMINEUM Nash.

Paspalum stramineum is a low, ascending, spreading species, of a great deal of
importance in some localities upon sandy lands. It has some value as a sand binder
and furnishes very early feed. It is found upon loose sands in circumscribed areas
from Nebraska to New Mexico and southward.

No. 7078 {E. O. W.) was collected in the San Andreas Mountains, N’ Mex., Septem-
ber 23, 1912. Its percentage of moisture was 4.72. Other constituents (on a water-

free basis) were as follows: Ash, 7.17; ether extract, 1.37; crude fiber, 34.31; nitrogen-
free extract, 52.73; protein, 4.42; pentosans, 24.83.

PHALARIS ARUNDINACEA L.

Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) is a common, stout, rank, smooth, leafy,
perennial grass, widely distributed from Nova Scotia to Tennessee and westward to
California. It inhabits marshes and low, wet meadows in general, often growing in a
foot of water fora considerable period. It is seldom that it forms pure growths, usually
being found scatteringly among other grasses and sedges in river bottoms and other
moist situations, where it is a valuable adjunct to the native hay and pasture crops.

It adapts itself well to cultivation and, although growing in moist situations natu-
rally, develops well on dry cultivated uplands. The serious objection to it as a culti-
vated plant is its seed habits. It produces an abundance of fertile seeds, and they
are free from any wool, lint, or chaff which would make them objectionable in gather.
ing, but they are very loosely attached to the plant and drop off immediately when ripe,
Maturing as they do from the top downward, the upper seeds are often shed before the
lower ones are fit to harvest.

No. 8323 was collected at Bakersville, Cal., May 27, 1906, when the seed was mature
but the entire plant was still green. It was cut 3 inches above the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent-
Material analyzed. age of P ith
moisture. Ash Ether Crude Nitrogen rotate Pento-
extract. fiber. enact sans.
Our sample No. 8323..-..---.--- 6. 05 8. 04 1. 41 31. 09 55. 73 3. 73 20. 39
Average of 17 others 1.........-.|------22:- 8. 34 3. 06 30. 20 47. 67 LON oy ances ene
Averagelotiall iss oe soca peace seers 8. 32 2.97 30. 25 48. 12 LOSS 47 oe eee

1 Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul. 19, pp. 28, 32. Colorado Bul: 12, p. 88. Connecticut Report,
1879, p. 153. Towa Bul. 11, p. 457. Kentucky Bul. 87, p. 116; Report, 1902, p. 302. Montana Report,
1902, p. 66. North Carolina Bul. 90b,p.4. New York Report, 1886, p. 342; 1887, p. 407. South Dakota
Bul. 40,p.54. Vermont Report, 1889, p. 86. Washington Bul. 72, p. 15.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. Or

re PHLEUM ALPINUM L.

Mountain timothy (Phlewm alpinum), native to both hemispheres and to both the
North American and South American continents. resembles very closely the culti-
vated timothy. It can be easily distinguished, however, by its shorter, stouter
heads and smaller stature throughout. It usually inhabits the drier portions of moist
mountain meadows. Growing scatteringly among other grasses, it can not be consid-
ered as a forage plant of prime importance in these situations, because it is never
sufficiently abundant to impart its own character to the vegetation. So far as it goes,
however, it is probably as valuable as the common cultivated timothy, which is widely
introduced throughout the mountain ranges of this country, furnishing in many places
vastly more feed than this smaller native.

No. 8845 was collected at Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907, when the upper florets
were in early maturity. It was cut 1 inch above the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).
Perey:
Material analyzed. age Oo :
moisture.| ch Ether Crude Nirogen: Eoin Pento-
extract. fiber. asda. sans.
Our sample No. 8845...-.------- 6. 51 4.19 2. 50 32. 55 54. 64 6. 12 24. 94
Average of 7 others1...........-|---------- 4.92 Zou 32. 15 51. 26 ON360 | Sareea en
Awerageion ally. bx 5. 2 2a afte tales ates < 4.83 2. 33 32. 20 51. 69 SOD des ee eee

1 Colorado Bul. 12, p. 113. Nevada Bul. 62, p. 24. Wyoming: Bul. 70, p. 48; Bul. 76, p. 50; Bul. 87,
p. 70.

PHRAGMITES COMMUNIS Trin.

Phragmites communis, commonly distributed in the United States, and indeed
throughout the entire Northern Hemisphere, is a characteristic species of reedlike grass,
inhabiting marshes and edges of ponds and streams. It is not usually considered
much of a forage plant, but in closely grazed regions it is frequently resorted to in
times of scarcity and furnishes really a great deal of supplemental feed. In some
situations, where the soils are wet in spring and dry in midsummer, the grass is cut
for hay and makes a, fair quality of very coarse roughage.

No. 8808 was collected at Fargo, N. Dak., August 10, 1907. The specimen was in
full blossom and was cut | foot high.

Water-free basis (per cent).
P ; Percent-
Material analyzed. age of -
moisture.| 4 oh Ether Crude Wy nee: Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. extract. sans.
Our sample No. 8808...---.----- Days. 8.48 2.97 32. 91 46. 93 8.71 24. 70
Oneother sample. 22-2225) leaned a5. 7. 14 2.87 39. 02 41.86 Oita | Ae pee
Average of both...---....|.........- 7. 80 2.92 35. 97 44.40 SS Ole es cee

1 South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 106.
PLEURAPHIS MUTICA Buckl.

Pleuraphis mutica is the galleta of the southwestern United States and is in many
respects a very valuable species. Like the closely related tabosa (Hilaria jamesit)
of regions a little farther north, it comes into prominence during seasons of excessive
drought. It is peculiarly adapted to shallow swales, which catch or retard a portion

38 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the run-off of the desert during the rainy season. In such situations in southern
Arizona, often upon desert mesas, small crops of this grass are sometimes harvested
as hay. The prime importance, however, of this and closely related species is from
a pasture standpoint. It is a hard, brittle-stemmed, brash species, but the stems
are perennial, remaining green from year to year, the new growth springing from near
the base. On this account it furnishes a feed that is often more palatable to stock
after long periods of drought than even the gramas. Taking it all in all, it is not to be
compared as a feed with blue grama or with Hilaria cenchroides, but the perennial
character of the stems renders it exceptionally valuable after other feeds have become
desiccated so as to be of little value.

No. 7014 (Wooton) was collected near Congress Junction, Ariz., February 18, 1912.
This sample represents the grass in its winter condition and was prepared by taking
the lower 4 or 5 inches of the stems and leaves, cut abcut 1 inch above the ground.
No. 8600 was collected near Deming, N. Mex., September 29, 1906. The specimen

was overripe, but all excepting the upper portion of the culm was still green. It was
so harvested as to include nothing but this year’s growth.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent-
Material analyzed. age of . ‘i
3 moisture} 4, Ether | Crude Nigtogen Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. asa : sans.

Oursample No. 7014 (EB. O. W.). 5. 96 7.27 115 1i2/ 34. 68 52. 68 4,20 26. 72
Our sample No. 8600....---.-..-- 4.37 8.55 2.06 29. 70 52.17 7. 52 24. 52
One othersample!.........-..-|.--..----- 7. 80 1.26 35. 83 48.47 6.644) 3 SH

Avierareotall cise. ssa s|sasossees 8.17 1. 66 32.77 50. 32 CAs} Beare ta

1 New Mexico Bul. 17, p. 37.
POA ARIDA Vasey.

In many respects Poa arida is one of the most remarkable species of this genus. It
has methods of propagation exactly comparable to the common cultivated Kentucky
bluegrass, but its rootstocks are much longer and it is a salt-loving species of excellent
quality. In many situations in the Rio Grande Valley, especially north of El Paso,
and in the Pecos Valley, in the vicinity of Roswell, it is found abundantly mixed
with Distichlis spicata and Sporobolus airoides. It never makes a perfect stand, but
grows scatteringly, as indicated above, among other salt-loving grasses, and it is cer-
tainly relished by stock. It grows large enough to be cut for hay, and its seed habits
are as good as those of Kentucky bluegrass.

No. 8363 was collected near Albuquerque, N. Mex., June 2, 1906. The specimen
was in a rather overripe condition and was cut off close to the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent-
Material analyzed. age of F J
moisture.| 4 an Ether Crude Nivogen Protein Pento-
extract. fiber. asi sans.
Our sample No. 8363...-.------- 4.02 7.02 1.99 33. 51 51.88 5. 60 25. 43
(Average OOfZiOtherst as42 22-2 4-4| eee 7.20 2. 87 38. 38 45. 92 5.'63'}|s255oeeee=
Atverarelolallimesa2 see s8| en aeeees 7.14 2.58 36. 76 47.90 OsO2M Eee sete

1 Montana Report, 1902, p. 60; South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 28.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 39

POA BIGELOVII Vasey & Scribn.

Poa bigelovii is a typical species of the Mexican-boundary region of Arizona. What
its habits were originally we do not know, but at the present day it grows almost
invariably in the protection of shrubbery in the foothills at an altitude of 3,500 to
5,000 feet. It seems to desire protection from the sun as well as from live stock. In
these situations it furnishes a small quantity of grazing of a fairly good quality. It
undoubtedly is not as good feed as the perennial species of Poa, but it grows in this
region as a winter and early-spring annual when the stock feed is made up almost
entirely of weedy, nongrass forage plants.

No. 9167 was collected in the foothills of the Santa Rita Mountains, Arizona, April
10, 1908: The sample was nearly mature and was cut close to the ground. Its per-
centage of moisture was 9.30. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as
follows: Ash, 7.35; ether extract, 2.93; crude fiber, 24.39; nitrogen-free extract, 58.26;
protein, 7.07; pentosans, 16.37.

POA LAEVIGATA Scribn.

Poa laevigata, although somewhat distantly related to the common cultivated blue-
grass, is quite wiry, but it is still a very important pasture and hay grass in the edges
of moist bottoms of the interior Great Basin and Rocky Mountain regions. The situa-
tions most suitable for its development are those which receive one or possibly two
good floodings during the year. This is characteristic of the heavy, hard, adobe soils
between the lower moist bottoms and the surrounding ridges in the eastern part of
this range and of the sinks and swales of the Great Basin. In such situations, this
species often grows luxuriantly, in almost perfect stand, and will sometimes cut 14
tons of hay to the acre. It makes a good quality of hay and, when properly handled,
a good grade of pasture. Its seed habits are as good as those of Kentucky bluegrass.

No. 8840 was collected at Virdon, Mont., August 14, 1907. The specimen was over-
mature. It was cut about | inch above the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).
. ‘0m Percent-
Material analyzed. age of F
moisture.) 4 Ether | Crude Nitrogen: Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. ence sans.
Oursample No. 8840..-...------ 4.36 5. 04 2.56 33. 96 55.11 3. 33 Dime,
One other sample}!..............|..-------- 10. 96 2. 17, 38. 27 42. 87 Dsloy| seis oaceice
Averageof both--......-..|-.-------- 8. 00 2. 37 36. 11 48.99 CTS eee ae

1 Montana Report, 1902, p. 66.
POA NEMORALIS L.

Poa nemoralis is a valuable species which reaches its characteristic development in
woodland meadows and has a wide distribution in both the North American and
Eurasian continents, There are few species that possess such an altitudinal varia-
tion of distribution. It ranges from 2 or 3 inches in height at the snow line to 2 feet
or more in favored situations at the base of the mountain. While it is an important
grass and one relished by all kinds of live stock, it is never abundant enough to be of
firstimportance. It commonly grows in large isolated bunches in favorable situations
at lower levels; higher up in the mountains the bunches are smaller and the plants
more dwarfed. In palatability to stock and general characteristics of value it stands
very close to Kentucky bluegrass. Its habits of growth, however, are not as good.
Its seed habits are just as desirable for a cultivated species as those of Kentucky
bluegrass.

No. 8869 was collected at Summit, Mont., August 15, 1907. The specimen was
in early blossom and was cut close to the ground.

*

40

BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Water-free basis (per cent).
Percent-
Material analyzed. age of lax
moisture.! 4 oy Ether Crude pee Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. Sevier, sans.
Our sample No. 8869....-.-.---- 7.52 5. 89 1.69 31. 06 52. 84 8.52 22. 84
Average of9 others Lore: . 32525. 3s es see 6.30 2. 69 32. 01 51. 47 Wedobl'seeti=eeeee
Averageofiall: 422 325. es Bee 6. 26 2.59 31.92 51. 60 AGSAS. Site EEE

1 Connecticut Report, 1888, p. 101; 1889, p. 248. Mississippi Report, 1895, p. 92. Montana Report, 1902,
p. 66. New York Report, 1886, p. 365. South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 130. Wyoming Bul. 87, p. 82.

POA ORCUTTIANA Vasey.

Poa orcuttiana is a species which is characteristic of the western slope of the southern
Sierras. Itisa highly prized, important pasture grass. Like some of the other species
of the P. buckleyana group, it grows in large bunches. At the present time the weedy
bromes and fescues are the most conspicuous grasses in the upper foothills, where this
species grows, and are much less palatable to live stock. This grass is, therefore,
closely cropped upon all the pasture lands of the section. In the localities where the
specimen cited below was secured, it grew in almost. pure stands on steep, bare,
northern slopes of the mountains.

No. 9103 was collected at Caliente, Cal., March 24,1908. Thesample wasin very early
blossom and was cut as close to the ground as practicable. Its percentage of moisture
was 1.65. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 7.96;

ether extract, 3.21; crude fiber, 31.72; nitrogen-free extract, 48.02; protein, 9.09;
pentosans, 24.29.

POA SCABRELLA Benth.

Poa scabrella is a palatable species of bluegrass, but strictly of secondary importance,
because it never occurs abundantly. It is found in open gravelly ground and also in
partial shade of timber throughout the Pacific States from Oregon southward. It was
doubtless formerly of much more importance before the native plants were replaced by
the introduced annuals now everywhere dominant in the region.

No. 7116 (EK. O. W.) was collected at Moorpark, Cal., April 18, 1913. The specimen
was just coming into flower. Its percentage of moisture was 6.59. Other constituents

(on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 5.30; ether extract, 2.24; crude fiber,
35.22; nitrogen-free extract, 50.68; protein, 6.56; pentosans, 26.50.

POLYPOGON MONSPELIENSIS (L.) Desf.

Polypogon monspeliensis is a foreign, annual, short-bearded grass, widely introduced
in this country from Maine to California. It is especially abundant in moist alluvial
soils of the Great Basin and California regions. Its best growth is attained in the
edges of fresh-water ponds and streams where the warm waters are but 2 or 3 inches
in depth. In such small areas it often forms a pure growth and attains a height of 12
to 24 inches. It is readily eaten in the green eyidition by stock.

No. 8879 was collected near The Dalles, Oreg., August 22, 1907.
completely dried up and was cut close to the ground.

The sample was

Water-free basis (per cent).

i : ' Percent-
aterial analyzed. age of F ei
moisture. heh Ether Crude Aer Protea Pento-
extract. fiber. ane sans.
Our sample No. 8879.........--- 6. 99 11.26 2.21 26. 93 53.39 6. 21 21.99
Onerothersam ples is. se ee | eae 11.88 2.95 21.89 50. 95 12ES3 (Pe A
INA ETRY) (0)! ]XOUN Gasol eas acoso secs tuk Gy/ 2.58 24.41 52.17 Qo 27 lecees ese

1 Colorado Bul. 12, p. 99.

Bul. 201, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |X.

Fia. 1.—A GENERAL VALLEY PASTURE, MADE UP OF PANICUM OBTUSUM, CHLORIS
ELEGANS, SPECIES OF BOUTELOUA, AND VARIOUS WEEDY PLANTS.

FIG. 2.—VALOTA SACCHARATA IN MOUNTAIN FOOTHILLS, SOUTHERN ARIZONA.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 41

PUCCINELLIA AIROIDES (Nutt.) Wats. and Coult.

Puccinellia airoides is distincily a salt-grass, and it is much more palatable to stock
than most grasses which inhabit salt marshes. It is not only able to withstand
large amounts of soluble salts in the soil, but will grow in situations where water holding
a large amount of the same ingredients in solution stands on the ground for a month or
more at atime. Indeed, it is in the edge of salt waters of this kind that the species
appears to be at home. When found, it is usually growing almost to the exclusion of
everything else, but commonly in very restricted areas, from northern Arizona north-
ward through the Great Basin and Great Plains regions.

No. 8814 was collected at Devils Lake, N. Dak., August 11, 1907. The sample was

from overripe specimens growing in the edge of brackish waters. It was cut at the
surface of the water 2 inches above the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent-
Material analyzed. age of F
~ moisture.| 4 oh Ether Crude pee: Protein. | Pento-
extract. fiber. extract: sans.
Our sample No. 8814..........-. 4.58 7. 86 2. 67 31.72 49. 20 S505 25.89
Averacreiof 2iothers tooo 52-525-2-|-eeess- += 7.50 2.44 33. 46 51.19 534 ee eee
Avjenage of alls.......:.... PML eh) 7.62 2.52| 32.88] 50.53 62457 eee

1 Montana Report, 1902, p. 66; Wyoming Bul. 65, p. 30.
SCLEROPOGON BREVIFOLIUS Philippi.

Schleropogon brevifolius is a peculiar-awned, stoloniferous, rigid-leaved species,
inhabiting the drier situations of the arid Southwest. Sometimes it is the only vege-
tation over considerable areas, and it makes almost a continuous cover only in rare
instances. It is difficult to conceive of stock being driven to such an extremity as to
eat this species. Such, however, sometimes is the case, but it is only rarely observed
to be touched.

No. 8601 was collected near Deming, N. Mex., September 29, 1906. The sample
was all green with the exception of the spike, which was entirely dead and dry. Many
old leaves were attached to the base of the culm and consequently were included in
the sample, which was cut close to the ground. Its percentage of moisture was 3.56.

Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as as follows: Ash, 8.59; ether extract,
2.02; crude fiber, 30.41; nitrogen-free extract, 51.20; protein, 7.78; pentosans, 26.94.

SITANION BREVIFOLIUM J. G. S.

As a filler in barren places, among rocks, andin the shade of bushes Sitanion brevi-
folium is of secondary importance only. It extends throughout the highland region
from Wyoming into northern Mexico.

No. 7142 (E. O. W.) was collected in the San Andreas Mountains, N. Mex., May
23, 1913. The specimen was in full head, but not yet in blossom.

Water-free basis (pér cent).
oA ’ ’ Percent-
aterial analyzed. age of P
moisture.| 4 4 Ether Crude Navopet: Protein, | Pente-
extract. fiber. asain. sans.
Our sample No. 7142 (E. O. W.) 4.48 9.52 2. 24 34. 50 45. 56 8.18 27. 70
One other sample}. ............]....------ 10. 68 2.31 36. 72 A0. 84 Oe Gye eee oe
Average of both. .........|.........- 10.-10 2. 27 35. 61 43, 21 SESH te eae

1 Wyoming Bul. 87, p. 86.

42 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SITANION LONGIFOLIUM J. G. S.

The genus Sitanion in general does not contain grasses which are considered to be
of much value for either pasture or hay. Sitanion longifolium, however, grows in
large clumps and furnishes a small amount of very valuable grazing up to the time it
heads out. After this the awns and brittle spikes are very annoying, but when these
have disappeared, in late maturity, it is again relished by stock. The feed produced
by it appears to be of very fair quality early in the season, but it is small in amount.

No. 9555 was collected near Prescott, Ariz., Sept. 7,1908. Its percentage of moisture
was 7.08. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 7.02; ether

extract, 2.18; crude fiber, 35.08; nitrogen-free extract, 47.89; protein, 7.83; pentosans,
26.69.

SITANION PUBIFLORUM J. G. S.

So far as forage value is concerned, the remarks under Sitanion longifolium apply
equally well to S. pubiflorum.

No. 8341 was collected near Ashfork, Ariz., May 30, 1906. The specimen was com-
pletely headed out, but was mostly under blossom. It was cut 14 to 2 inches high.
Its percentage of moisture was 8.13. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were
as follows: Ash, 19.51; ether extract, 1.55; crude fiber, 31.64; nitrogen-free extract,
38.59; protein, 8.71; pentosans, 12.18.

SPARTINA CYNOSUROIDES (L.) Willd.

The giant cord-grass (Spartina cynosuroides) is a familiar species in lowland pastures
and meadows of the States as far west as Colorado and Texas. Like the other two
species of this genus discussed in this report, it is rank, tough, and wiry, but in spite
of this it makes a very fair quality of hay and is readily grazed by stock, especially
when young. The hay it produces, if cut in proper season and when not too rank, is
of very good quality and weighs heavily. Its natural habitat is in moist bottoms and
swales, where it may often be found growing almost pure, but never forming tussocks.
On the other hand, like S. gracilis, the culms are isolated, and it propagates almost
entirely by running rootstocks.

No. 8796 was collected near Fargo, N. Dak., August 10, 1907. The sample was in

late blossom in an entirely green and fresh condition, but coarser than is usually cut
for hay. It was harvested 3 inches above the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

Percent-
Material analyzed. age of “is
moisture.) 4. Ether Crude Niuean: Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. pier sans.
Our sample No. 8796...--------- 5. 03 7. 20 1.77 37. 50 46. 16 7.37 26. 04
Average of 19 others!_..........|-.-------- 6.10 2.27 36. 75 47. 22 (AOS, Benekeeae
Averageiohall’- nas ae 2 2 oo es 6. 16 2. 25 36. 79 47.16 (364 ecco

—

1 Canada Central Experiment Farm Bul. 19, p. 32. Connecticut Report, 1889, p. 245. Iowa: Bul. 11,
pp. 456, 478; Bul. 56, pp. 506, 507. Montana Report, 1902, p. 67. South Dakota: Bul. 40, p. 94; Bul. 114,
p. 546. U.S. Department of Agriculture Report No. 32, 1884, p. 125.

SPARTINA GRACILIS Trin.

Spartina gracilis is the species commonly known as the small cord-grass, in contra-
distinction to the giant cord-grass (S. cynosuroides). Unlike the larger species, this
one seldom, if ever, grows in pure stands. On the other hand, itis found in scattering
individuals among other vegetation, from the Dakotas and Kansas westward to Cali-
fornia. It is almost invariably found in somewhat alkaline soils, in moist situations
in river and: lake bottoms, and other places of a similar nature. It is a tough, wiry

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 43

species, but in spite of this it isa valuable adjunct to the hay crops where it is included
and is readily grazed by cattle.

No. 8881 was collected at The Dalles, Oreg., August 22,1907. 'Thesample represents
the plant in a state of early maturity, cut 2 inches high.

Water-free basis (per cent).
= , ater Percent-
aterial analyzed. age of .
moisture.| 4. Ether | Crude Btrogens Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. extinct 5 sams.
Our sample No. 8881. ........-.-- 6. 05 9. 58 1.92 31.95 |. 51.79 4.76 23. 80
Average of 3 others!............|..---...-- 7.00 2. 02 36. 30 46. 39 SH29) ieee
Average ofalles. ty iod joie eels ee 7.65 2.00 35, 21 47.74 EAD) |B SS

1 South Dakota Bul. 69, p. 9. Wyoming: Bul. 76, p. 58; Bul. 87, p. 88.
SPARTINA JUNCIFORMIS Engelm. and Gray.

Spartina junciformis is also a salt-loving plant, being found along the Gulf coast
from Texas to Florida. It is usually accepted by stockmen as an indication of the
presence of common salt in the soils. Among the Mexican population of southwest
Texas the grass is universally known as sacahuiste, and this is the common popular
designation of the plant even among the Americans. It is an exceedingly important
and useful grass from many points of view. It is largely grazed along the coast and is
often the mainstay during long periods of drought, and some herds live on it continu-
ously. Cattle and horses will eat the old growth when driven to it, but the common
way of handling it is to burn the old grass off in small areas at intervals of two or three
weeks, thus covering the entire pasture and furnishing fresh growth during the entire
season. Stock appear to be fond of this young growth.

This species has been in the past, and is to some extent yet, extensively used as a
thatch plant, and it appears to the casual observer much better adapted for this
purpose than for forage. Its durability is certainly remarkable when properly laid
upon roofs. Buildings have been seen which were thatched with this grass over 30
years ago and are still in fairly good condition.

Like Sporobolus atroides, which inhabits alkaline soils in more interior situations,
Spartina junciformis has two distinct habits of growth. About the inland limit of its
development it is likely to be found in very large, compact bunches, while closer
to the coast, where conditions are more favorable and its growth is consequently more
abundant, its bunch character is to a large extent obliterated.

No. 9064 was collected near Cactus, Tex., March 12, 1908. The sample consists of
young growth, 4 to 6 inches high, and probably none of it was over three weeks old.
Its percentage of moisture was 3.67. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were

as follows: Ash, 12.33; ether extract, 1.97; crude fiber, 31.05; nitrogen-free extract,
46.28; protein, 8.37; pentosans, 23.59.

SPOROBOLUS AIROIDES Torr.

Sporobolus airoides, to which the name alkali saccaton has been applied by some,
is one of the most important native pasture and hay grasses of the alkaline river and
lake bottoms from South Dakota to Texas and westward. In some sections it is known
as salt-grass. It has two distinct habits of growth. In portions of the valley of the
Rio Grande and its tributaries, particularly the Pecos, it forms a continuous, smooth,
quite uniform growth, approaching a turf. In other situations it grows in bunches.
On the whole, the latter is the more common and characteristic aspect. While able
to withstand large amounts of soluble salts in the soil, such conditions do not appear
to be necessary for its perfect development. Upon the saline bottoms of the valley of
the Little Colorado in Arizona, for instance, it may make a uniform growth, or it may
grow in bunches 2 feet high; and upon the sandy bluffs and hillsides, under still

44. BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

more arid conditions, the plants, although scattering, may be fully as tall, although
bearing fewer culms. It withstands much abuse in the shape of close grazing and
trampling by stock, especially upon the bottom lands where soils are heavy and hard.
In sandy areas, of course, it is easier to kill out. In the Pecos Valley in New Mexico,
injury has been done to cattle by allowing them to graze upon this grass at certain
seasons of the year. It is the opinion of close observers, however, that the grass was
not at fault, but that the injury was done by the soluble salts in the soil, these salts,
by creeping up the grass stems during moist weather and by being eaten along with
the grass, produce the deleterious effects.

There are very extensive areas of this grass in the Cheno Valley of northern Arizona,
which, owing to overgrazing, resemble the tussocky condition of Sporobolus wrightii,
described later. It is evident that the condition produced by overgrazing, if con-
tinued, will gully out the valley to such an extent that the bottom lands will be as
unproductive as the hills surrounding. In the year 1908, 1 to 14 tons of hay to the
acre of this grass could be cut upon the lands which had not become tussocky.

No. 8324 was collected at Bakersfield, Cal., May 27,1906. The specimen grew on
apparently nonalkaline, well-drained, sandy-loam soil, where the ground had been
disturbed somewhat, producing magnificent large bunches of the plant. The sample
was cut when the seed was in the dough, 2 to 3 inches above the ground, care being
taken to include all of the root leaves. No. 8575 was collected at Tempe, Ariz.,
September 24, 1906. The sample grew in what appeared to be strongly alkaline soil.

Tt was a much smaller sample than No. 8324 and was cut close to the ground when the
seed was nearly mature. :

Water-free basis (per cent).
a Deron
Material analyzed. age O P i
moisture. Nein Ether Crude ae eranein Pento-
extract. fiber. etc: sans.
Our sample No. 8324.......----- 6.10 9. 62 1. 63 32. 56 48. 20 7.99 25, 92
Our sample No. 8575..--.--..--- 2.79 12. 48 1.62 33. 04 46.17 6. 69 24. 04
Average of 7 others!.-----.-..--|22--.-2-.- 7. 63 1.83 32. 02 49. 41 Or see e
PAV OLAS CHO l alee eimee seers teem eee 8. 39 1.78 32. 19 48. 92 Ser 2iul eee nies cee

1 Colorado Bul. 12, p. 74. New Mexico Bul. 17, p. 36. Wyoming: Bul. 76, p. 60; Bul. 87, p. 89.

SPOROBOLUS ASPERIFOLIUS Thurber.

Sporobolus asperifolius is a species that can be justly considered one of the salt-
grasses of this country. It is almost invariably found in salty bottom lands from the
Mississippi westward. Its habit of growth, by creeping rootstocks, and its partiality
for heavy adobe soils make it one of the most persistent grasses under heavy grazing.
It is not as much relished by stock as many species, but it probably is about equal to
the familiar salt-grass Distichlis spicata. It never gets tall enough, excepting when
growing among other grasses, to be cut for hay, and when in pure stands it is almost
impossible to cut it with a mower.

No. 8819 was collected at Devils Lake, N. Dak., August 11, 1907. The sample was
cut close to the ground and represents the species in early blossom.

Water-free basis (per cent).

a ; ' Percent-
aterial analyzed. age of Cra eee
moisture.| 44, | Ether | Crude Niiroeen | Proteim, | Pento-
extract. fiber. eels sans.
Our sample No. 8819...-....-..-- 7.43 9. 69 2.92 27. 83 52. 84 6.72 | ~ 28.94
Average of 2 others!...1.......-|.-.-.----- 6. 80 2.00 36. 64 49. 04 GPeve Gercens sso
AVEDA2e Ol allawee eek amiss exes cmecice 7.76 2.31 33. 70 50. 31 GEeR) ||--ocescewe

1 Mississippi Report, 1888, p. 33; South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 80.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 45

SPOROBOLUS AURICULATUS Vasey.

Such species as Sporobolus awriculatus are in the aggregate of considerable impor-
tance, as they add a great deal to the sum total of the pasturage. This one is never
abundant enough to give character to the vegetation. It is apparently of limited
distribution in southwestern Texas and southern New Mexico. It commonly occurs
on more or less alkaline soils.

No. 7083 (E. O. W.) was collected on the mesas near Las Cruces, N. Mex., October
_3, 1912. Its percentage of moisture was 3.85. Other constituents (on a water-free

basis) were as follows: Ash, 10.46; ether extract, 2.26; crude fiber, 33.42; nitrogen-
free extract, 48.11; protein, 5.75; pentosans, 25.72.

SPOROBOLUS BREVIFOLIUS (Nutt.) Scribn.

Sporobolus brevifolius is a short-leaved, tough, wiry, low, drop-seeded grass, a
common and even conspicuous species upon dry second bottoms, hillsides, and
upland prairies, especially of the Great Plainsregion. Itformsa complete ground cover
in only very limited areas, but is commonly scattered among other grasses and is an
important ingredient of the make-up of the forage cover of the rolling prairies. The
quality of feed produced by it, whether hay or pasture, is low, probably largely on
account of its tough, wiry nature. Under conditions of short pasturage, however, it is
always closely grazed.

No. 8829 was collected at Williston, N. Dak., August 11,1907. The sample represents
the plant in early maturity, cut at the surface of the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

: iby Fercent:
Material analyzed. 2 age 0 ; i
moisture. err Ether Crude N doen rote Pento-
extract. fiber. asin sans.
Our sample No. 8829......----.- 5. 76 9. 94 2. 83 30. 88 50. 87 5. 48 26. 83
Average of 4 others!............|...------- 6. 47 2. 29, 33. 90 50. 24 dine Osea Sass gee
Nrerace olallin: 3/5. asses eatin 7.16 2. 40 33. 30 50. 37 GTi casl ete eat ce

1 Montana Report, 1902, p. 66. Wyoming: Bul. 70, p. 32; Bul. 87, p. 88.
SPOROBOLUS CRYPTANDRUS (Torr.) Gray.

- Although tough and wiry, like the other species of the genus, Sporobolus cryptandrus
is of great importance, along with some of the closely related forms, especially upon
the sandy bench and mesa lands of Arizona and New Mexico. Its distrfbution, how-
ever, is very wide, extending from here to New England. It furnishes a great deal of
feed in the Southwestern States.

No. 8395 was collected near Green, Tex., August 14, 1906. The sample was fully
mature, but only a little of the seed had shattered. It was cut about 2 inches high.

No. 9553 was collected at Prescott, Ariz., September 7, 1908. The plant was ripe,
but still green, and it was cut close to the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).
' tt Percent,
Material analyzed. age 0 F
moisture.| 4 4, Ether | Crude Aeeeet Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. See. sans.
Our sample No. 8395........---- 6. 59 7. 48 1.38 34. 71 47. 66 8.77 23.07
Our sample No. 9553........- ue 6, 43 6. 36 1.30 31.30 54. 09 6. 95 20. 09
Average of 2 others1............/......--2- 7.19 1.80 33. 98 49.17 Uoeiioloe ease aa
PAVOCAL OrO fell seme ors sys eee et 7.05 Uney/ 33. 49 50. 03 Wor lemaae soe oe

1 Montana Report, 1902, p. 66; Wyoming Bul. 87, p. 90.

46 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SPOROBOLUS FLEXUOSUS (Thurber) Rydb.

Sporobolus flecuosus is a familiar species of rather wiry but palatable grass, inhabit-
ing sandy lands from southwestern Texas to Nevada. It grows in scattering small
bunches, 2 feet or more high. In some situations it grows almost pure, but it never
makes a thick stand. Commonly on the looser sands it is found only in scattering
bunches among other species. It is palatable to stock in all stages and is conse-
quently closely grazed.

No. 7073 (E. O. sie was collected near Las Cruces, N. Mex., September 21, 1912.

No. 8602 was collected at Deming, N. Mex., September 29, 1906. It was fully mature,
but still green. It was harvested about 1 inch high.

Water-free basis (per cent).

oe 1 ey Percent-
aterial analyzed. age of :
moisture. Eat Ether Crude arogen Eroteid Pento-
extract. fiber. exits sans.
Our sample No. 7073 (E. O. W.). 3.57 6. 00 1.23 35. 94 51. 29 5, 54 24, 64
Our sample No. 8602.......----- 4,57 6. 99 1.39 32. 07 50. 97 8. 58 22. 86
Average of both........-- 4.07 6. 49 1.31 34. 01 51.13 7. 06 23. 75

SPOROBOLUS GIGANTEUS Nash.

Sporobolus giganteus is one of the most striking of the species of ‘‘dropseed,’’ grow-
ing invariably in sandy, loose lands, especially in New Mexico and western Texas.
It grows scatteringly in large clumps with culms 8 or 4 feet high and furnishes a large
amount of pasturage.

No. 7068 (E. O. W.) was collected on the sand hills northeast of Las Cruces, N. Mex.,
September 8, 1912. Its percentage of moisture was 4.32. Other constituents (on

a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 5.77; ether extract, 0.98; crude fiber, 43.47;
nitrogen-free extract, 45.46; protein, 4.32; pentosans, 25.63.

SPOROBOLUS INDICUS (Trin.) R. Br.

Sporobolus indicus, a characteristic species of the Southern States, is said to have
been introduced from tropical regions, although it often has all the appearance of
a native species. Being coarse and early becoming woody, it is a grass of secondary
importance, but where feed is scarce, and especially in waste places and partially
disturbed ground, i toften makes a good growth and furnishes considerable grazing.

No. 8724 was collected at Jacksonville, Fla., June 8, 1907. The sample represents
plants in full fruit, but perfectly green. They were cut at the surface of the ground.

Water-free basis (per cent).

i 1 fea Boveent
aterial analyzed. age 0 F a
moisture] 4 op Ether | Crude Nitegen Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. emtract sans.
Our sample No. 8724..........- 5. 50 8.18 1.94 29. 88 54. 43 5. 57 27. 68
Average of 3 others!.........-../--..------ 6. 99 3. 80 23. 87 53. 05 WL DEQ A Nero 2k
Average ofall...........-|---.------ 7. 29 3.33 25. 37 53. 40 TOKE Reese case

1 Connecticut Report, 1879, p. 153; South Carolina Report, 1888, p. 132; U.S. Department of Agriculture
Report No. 32, 1884, p. 126.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 47

SPOROBOLUS GRACILIS (Trin.) Merrill.

Sporobolus gracilis is a tough, wiry species to which some have applied the name
rush-grass. Indeed, it resembles in texture some of the wiry rushes and produces a
feed not unlike them in texture. So far as our experience goes, it is not a grass rel-
ished by stock. It inhabits dry, sandy areas from Virginia southward. It is espe-
cially common in open pine woods.

No. 8731 was collected at Sutherland, Fla., June 14, 1907. The sample was col-
lected in full blossom by being cut close to the ground. Its percentage of moisture
was 6.55. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 3.43; ether
extract, 2.05; crude fiber, 35.35; nitrogen-free extract, 53.88; protein, 5.29; pento-
sans, 30.29.

SPOROBOLUS NEALLEYI Vasey.

Nealley’s rush-grass is a hard, wiry species, inhabiting the gypsum soils of western
Texas and eastern New Mexico. It and Bouwteloua breviseta grow thriftily upon stable
‘““oyp” soils, containing as high as 95 per cent of calcium sulphate. It is of value
only because it is one of the few grasses which will grow in such situations and so
produce a forage crop where otherwise none would be possible.

No. 7099 (E. O. W.) was collected upon the white sands west of Alamogordo, N. Mex.,
October 21, 1912. Its percentage of moisture was 6.16. Other constituents (on a

water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 9.27; ether extract, 1.61; crude fiber, 36.26;
nitrogen-free extract, 43.60; protein, 9.26; pentosans, 21.79.

SPOROBOLUS RAMULOSUS Kunth.

Sporobolus ramulosus is one of the annual species of drop-seeded grass of very little
value, although it is grazed to some extent by sheep. It grows only in loose tem-
porary sand washes and depressions. It is small, light, delicate, and not of much
value.

No. 9538 was collected at Prescott, Ariz., September 1, 1908. Its percentage of
moisture was 6.88. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash,

7.35; ether extract, 2.22; crude fiber, 30.56; nitrogen-free extract, 50.08; protein,
9.79; pentosans, 23.93.

SPOROBOLUS STRICTUS (Scribn.) Merrill.

Although rather tough and hard, Sporobolus strictus is a very important pasture
grass in many of the sandy regions of Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas. It is
well adapted to dry, sandy soils, where it grows scatteringly to a height of 2 to 24
feet, producing for the region a large quantity of apparently nutritious feed. It is
readily grazed by stock, and where close pasturing occurs it is invariably closely
cropped.

No. 8947 was collected in the foothills of the Santa Rita Mountains, Ariz., Sep-
tember 24, 1907. The sample, although green, had fully matured its seed. It was
a rank specimen and was cut 3 inches high. Its percentage of moisture was 7.14.

Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 6.87; ether extract,
1.18; crude fiber, 35.42; nitrogen-free extract, 50.93; protein, 5.65; pentosans, 21.59.

SPOROBOLUS VIRGINICUS (L.) Kunth.

Sporobolus virginicus is a familiar grass of the Southern States that grows mostly in
medium-sized bunches and propagates by running rootstocks. Like most species of
this genus, it is tough and wiry, but it appears to be quite extensively grazed where
the specimen was collected. It is of especial interest, inasmuch as it secretes a salty
substance with which the entire vegetative portion may be covered, much like
Distichlis spicata, Leptochloa viscida, and some other western grasses.

No. 8732 was collected at Sutherland, Fla., June 14, 1907. The sample was col-
lected when the plant was in full blossom, and was harvested close to the ground.
Its percentage of moisture was 8.46. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were

as follows: Ash, 13.27; ether extract, 2.28; crude fiber, 29.41; nitrogen-free extract,
46.44; protein, 8.60; pentosans, 25.88.

48 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SPOROBOLUS WRIGHTII Scribn.

Sporobolus wrightti is the ‘‘sacaton’’ of the Mexicans, and it is confined to the
southwestern United States and Mexico. In former times it was a beautiful, charac-
teristic species of the river bottoms of the Southwest, forming dense growths 6 and
even 8 feet in height, through which it was difficult to ride on horseback. At the
present time there are but faint traces of this magnificent growth left. Some notion
of its habit of growth can be obtained from Plate I in Bulletin No. 4 of the Bureau
of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. Like Sporobolus
airoides, it has two distinct habits of growth, depending upon the location in which
it is found and the treatment which it receives. As near as can be judged, it made
a quite uniform stand over portions of the Santa Cruz bottoms in southern Arizona in
early days, but of late years it grows almost invariably in large tussocks and at present
there is very little of it left. In the valley east of the Baboquivari Mountains in
Arizona, we have a fine illustration of the effect of overgrazing on this grass; likewise,
a good illustration of its importance in preventing erosion. There are here pastures
which were formerly covered with a tall, smooth, uniform growth of saccaton. The
grass is now in huge bunches and this bunched condition is directly traceable to
paths cut in every direction by cattle. Invariably, when this species is grazed this
condition is produced, until the tussocks are often a foot in height. Of course, when
the grazing is carried to sufficient excess, one or more of these paths become cut to a
sufficient depth in the center of the valley to carry off the water very rapidly. Side
branches form and the tussocks are left high in the air, receiving but scant moisture.
Under this condition they soon die, and a great deal of the bottom land in southern
Arizona is to-day in this condition. In many places the tussocks have disintegrated
and disappeared altogether. (Pl. VIII, fig. 1.)

No. 8400 was collected near Green, Tex., August 14, 1906. The sample was collected
in full blossom, the entire plant being green except the lower leaves, which were
dead and dry. It wascut4inches high. Its percentage of moisture was 8.59. Other

constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 8.53; ether extract, 1.70;
crude fiber, 32.27; nitrogen-free extract, 47.93; protein, 9.57; pentosans, 25.89.

STIPA COMATA T. and R.

Stipa comata is a coarse species of needle grass of the western Plains region, where it
replaces the more eastern S. spartea. The pasturage and hay produced by it are
both of medium quality, but when found in hay meadows it is difficult to cut the grass
at exactly the proper time for the best quality of hay. The sharp-pointed fruits of
this grass sometimes injure stock to some extent. On this account, cutting the grass
after the seeds have fallen has been recommended. At this stage, however, it has
deteriorated somewhat in value and, inasmuch as it matures earlier than the other
prairie grasses, it can not be cut before the seeds have become old enough to be
injurious. Sheep grazing upon the prairies are sometimes injured by having the
seeds of this grass work into the fleece. Mowing, close grazing, or the removal of the
flocks from the localities where the plant grows at the time it is maturing its seed are
the remedies which have been suggested. Fortunately, the seeds drop to the ground
very soon after they mature and cause no further annoyance.

No. 8824 was collected at Williston, N. Dak., August 11, 1907. The culms of the

sample were all dead and dry and the seeds had fallen, with the exception of those
included in the expanded sheath. It was cut at the surface of the ground.

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES, 49

| Water-free basis (per cent).
fe - Aor Foreent;
aterial analyzed. age oO F cl
moisture.| 4 4 Ether | Crude Aaoeen Protein, | Pente-
extract. fiber. aia f sans.
Our sample No. 8824,......-..-- 5. 83 6. 62 3.65 33.09 50. 66 5.98 f 29. 67
PANVEra ce Oiro OUNCIS 1.22 25 c.f Salen eee 6.71 PIs} 34. 56 49.61 6:97 ote sore
Average ofall... ....<---.-|-2..--.s.- 6.70 2.31} 34.40 49, 73 (BETH S Hemocaeer

1 Colorado Bul. 12, p. 70. Montana Report, 1902, pp. 60, 66. Nevada Bul. 62,p.22. South Dakota Bul.
69,p.17. Wyoming: Bul. 76, p. 62; Bul. 87, p. 93.

STIPA EMINENS Cav.

Stipa eminens (needle grass) is one of the original valuable perennials of California,
which is found as far east as Texas and south into Mexico. It isa valuable, palatable
species, but has been so much reduced in quantity by close grazing that it is now of
very secondary importance. It occurs commonly as a filler in rocky, broken country,
and is of some use as a spring feed.

No. 7069 (E. O. W.) was collected upon limestone hills in the foothills of the San
Andreas Mountains, near Las Cruces, N. Mex., September 8, 1912. Its percentage of
moisture was 4.82. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash,
6.53; ether extract, 2.37; crude fiber, 38.57; nitrogen-free extract, 45.38; protein, 7.15;

pentosans, 28.19.
STIPA RICHARDSONII Link.

Although it always grows scatteringly upon dry hillsides and in open pine timber,
Stipa richardson furnishes many a relished morsel of feed to cattle throughout the
region in which it thrives. It always grows in scattering large bunches and is
invariably closely grazed.

No. 8878 was collected at Columbia Falls, Mont., August 17, 1907. The sample was
mature and was cut close to the ground. Its percentage of moisture was 6.06. Other

constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 6.45; ether extract, 2.07;
crude fiber, 35.88; nitrogen-free extract, 50.54; protein, 5.06; pentosans, 28.37.

STIPA SETIGERA Presl.

Stipa setigera is decidedly conspicuous in southern California, growing like many
of the other species of the genus in large, tall, spreading bunches often 3 feet in height.
It appears to make a very fair quality of pasturage, but is never abundant enough to
give a distinctive character to the forage outside of very circumscribed areas, and
nowhere does it form a complete stand.

No. 7040 (E. O. W.) was collected near San Luis Obispo, Cal., April, 1912. No.

8288 was collected near Banning, Cal., May 14, 1906. This sample was nearly mature
and was cut about 2 inches high.

Water-free basis (per cent).
' ae Percent-
Material analyzed. age of «
moisture. ion Ether Crude A ageck: Protein. | Pento-
extract. fiber. oie. sans.
Our sample No. 7040 (E.O. W.) 5. 29 10.35. 1.50 34. 64 46.32. 7.19 28.35
Our sample No. 8288.......--.-- 6. 75 6.11 1.64 39.16 47.87 5. 22 29. 76
_ Average of both......---- 6.02 8.23 1.57 36.90 47,20 6.20 29.05

82080°—Bull. 201—15——4

50 BULLETIN 201, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

STIPA VASEYI Scribn.

Stipa vaseyi (common needle grass) is widely scattered throughout the Rocky Moun-
fain region from southern Montana southward. Although commonly very closely
grazed and in many instances nearly, if not quite, exterminated by stock, it has a very
bad reputation in some localities. It is known in the Southwest, especially through
portions of New Mexico, as sleepy grass, and it is said to have at certain times a very
deleterious effect on live stock, especially horses, which graze upon it. The reliable
information concerning it, however, is very meager, and requires confirmatory exper-
imentation. It is an interesting fact that the species is very closely related, and,
indeed, is considered by some to be doubtfully distinct from what has repeatedly been
pronounced a valuable species in the Northwest, namely, Stipa viridula. There ap-
pear to be no complaints against this latter species from the Dakotas, Montana, or
Wyoming, where it is most abundant. In places, the sleepy grass is quite a conspic-
uous ingredient of native hay. No complaints have come to our attention regarding
its effect upon stock when fed to them in a dry condition. In some seasons, compara-
tively large quantities of it are included in the hay cut upon native meadows in the
Cimarron Canyon of New Mexico. :

No. 9468 was collected in the Sacramento Mountains of New Mexico, August 5, 1908.
The specimen was in early blossom and was cut 3 inches high. Its percentage of
moisture was 8.10. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash,

7.80; ether extract, 2.77; crude fiber, 34.08; nitrogen-free extract, 41.30; protein,
14.05; pentosans, 20.17.

¢ STIPA VIRIDULA Trin. \

As has been stated, Stipa viridula is closely related to and sometimes considered
indistinguishable from the sleepy grass of the Southwest. It may be looked upon as
the northern extension of that species, butt apparently lacks any injurious qualities
which the other may have. It grows commonly in large bunches in dry soils and is
especially partial to soils which have been somewhat disturbed by scanty cultivation.
It has been called feather bunch-grass, but the name is not in very common use. The
quality of its hay appears to be very good and it is readily grazed by live stock.

No. 8813 was collected near Fargo, N. Dak., August 11, 1907. The sample repre-

sents the plant practically mature, half of the seed having dropped off. It was har-
vested 2 inches high.

Water-free basis (per cent).
Percent:
Material analyzed. age 0 P :
moisture.| 4 Ether | Crude Nees Protein, | Pento-
extract. fiber. asain sans.
Our sample No. 8813... -- ieee 6. 24 9.79 2.34 33.18 46.36 8.33 25. 67
Average of 4 others}...........-|-..---.--- 7.61 2. 68 30.30 50. 61 B80) |e aee overs
pAviera ge Of alle sse eee sacisy=neete eee 8. 04 2. 61 30. 87 49.77 CE Ae eetecsacee

1 Colorado Bul. 12, p. 66; Montana Report, 1902, pp. 60, 66, 67; South Dakota Bul. 40, p. 58.
SYNTHERISMA SANGUINALIS (L.) Dulac.

The crab-grass (Syntherisma sanguinalis), like many other species, is a vile weed in
some sections; in others it is a valuable forage plant. It is remarkable in its persist-
ency and volunteers from seed year after year, often against such tenacious species as
Kentucky bluegrass, which may often make a beautiful lawn in the spring only to be
disfigured later in the year by brown patches of this weedy crab-grass. It is an intro-
duced species, widely distributed throughout the country at the present time. In
portions of the South it is cut for hay, always as a volunteer crop. In many of the

NATIVE PASTURE GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES. 51

erange orchards of Florida, where it volunteers abundantly and makes a tremendous
growth after the heavy fertilization given the trees, large crops of a fair quality of hay
are taken off in the fall. It also volunteers in different sections in cornfields, with
other fall hay crops, and usually forms an important ingredient of the fall crop of for-
age throughout the South.

No. 8730 was collected at St. Petersburg, Fla., June 13, 1907. The sample was at

full maturity and was cut close to the ground. It grew in a favorable situation in a
cultivated field.

Water-free basis (per cent).

“ ; we Beret:
aterial analyzed. age 0 A :
moisture. ent Ether Crude NUmogeR Prater Pento-
extract. fiber. peice sans,
Our sample No. 8730..--.----.-- 5. 67 9.13 2.39 25. 55 55. 31 7.62 17.11
Average of 20 others !...........|.....--.-- 10. 42 2.98 29.39 46. 70 LORS IS | Emer
PAVETAPO Of Alles 32k cs cicc|Seieeeccnte 10.35 2.95 29. 21 47,12 LOPS Tel eee oae

1 Alabama Bul, 127, p. 5. Connecticut Report, 1879, p. 155. Florida Bul. 11, p. 18. Georgia Bul. 6,
pe 108. Iowa Bul. 56, p. 486. Kentucky: Bul. 87, p. 116; Report, 1902, p. 302. Louisiana Bul. 34, p. 1175.

ississippi: Bul. 39, p. 159; Report, 1895, pp. 80, 81,92. Tennessee Bul. 1, vol. 4,p.7. U.S. Department of
Agriculture Report No. 32, 1884, p. 125. Virginia Bul. 180, p. 96.

TRICHLORIS FASCICULATA Fourn.

The distribution of Trichloris fasciculata is usually given as dry plains and mesas, but
in our experience it commonly inhabits rather favorable situations in the edges of
shallow washes, where it receives some benefit from irrigation. It is distributed from
Texas to Arizona and southward into Mexico. It sometimes produces a magnificent
growth in limited situations in the Salt River Valley of Arizona, where irrigation or
seepage water escapes to lands where it has obtained a foothold. In such situations
it impresses one as being a favorable grass for cultivation. Its seed habits, however,
are rather against it, although these are better than in a good many species of the Chlo-
rides. When it gets sufficient moisture, as it often does under artificial conditions
in irrigated districts, 1t will produce two crops a year, one in spring and the other in
midsummer. Upon the open ranges of the Southwest at the present time very little
of it is seen except an occasional stray stalk 3 feet or more high growing in the pro-
tection of thorny shrubs.

No. 8385 was collected near Encinal, Tex., August 12, 1906. The sample was col-
lected when the seed wasfully ripe. A great deal of it shattered, but the straw, leaves,
and culms were perfectly green. Many of the root leaves, however, were dead and
dry and were included in the sample, which was cut 2 inches high. No. 9426 was
collected near Devils River, Tex., July 23, 1908. The specimen was overmature,

the seed having all fallen, but the remainder of the plant was green and succulent.
It was cut about 1 inch high.

Water-free basis (per cent).

see sae Bercents
aterial analyzed. age o .
moisture. iar Ether Crude NuITOpen Protein Pento-
extract. fiber. asset. sans.

Our sample No, 8385...........- 9.05 11. 24 1.92 12.51 66. 76 7.57 21.65
Our sample No. 9426............ 7.59 9.11 2.55 27.06 50. 26 11.02 19.35

Average of both........-. | 8.32 | 10.175 | 2.235 | 19.785| 58.51] 9.295 20.50

if

52 BULLETIN 201, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TRIDENS MUTICUS (Torr.) Nash.

About the same can be said for Tridens muticus as for T. nealleyi, but the former is
more abundant and, on the whole, a more valuable species. It has a wider range,
extending from the Pacific coast to Texas and north into Colorado.

No. 7065 (E. O. W.) was collected upon limestone hills in the foothills of the San
Andreas Mountains, near Las Cruces, N. Mex., September 8, 1912. Its percentage of
moisture was 5.86. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash,

6.04; ether extract, 1.72; crude fiber, 35.05; nitrogen-free extract, 49.75; protein,
7.44; pentosans, 25.27. ;

TRIDENS NEALLEYI (Vasey) Wooton and Stand.

In many situations in the mountains and upon stony ridges and knolls in southwest-
ern Texas and southern New Mexico Tridens nealleyi assumes considerable importance
on account of its abundance. It furnishes considerable grazing and is a persistent
species. Like the other members of the genus it is of second quality in palatability.

No. 7097 (E. O. W.) was collected in the San Andreas Mountains, near Las Cruces,
N. Mex., September 23 to October 10, 1912. Its percentage of moisture was 4.55.

Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 5.98; ether extract,
1.16; crude fiber, 38.02; nitrogen-free extract, 49.05; protein, 5.79; pentosans, 29.13.

VALOTA SACCHARATA (Buckl.) Chase. (Panicum lacnanthum).

Valota saccharata, a conspicuous and attractive cotton-topped species of the south-
western United States and of Mexico, is of decided importance to stock interests. Its
seed habits, however, are bad, the seed being covered with long silky hairs, rendering
it very difficult to handle. It is therefore of doubtful value for domestication. In
many situations, especially in the moister places in the desert foothills of Arizona and
the plains of Texas, it grows almost pure over large areas and makes a striking appear-
ance. It grows quite readily from seed, notwithstanding the difficulty of handling.
The date of its maturity is very variable in the region indicated above, maturing in
central Texas in June if conditions are favorable, or in August if they are not. In
southern Arizona its period of development is during the rainy season of summer, in
July, August, and September. (PI. IX, fig. 2.)

No. 8399 was collected near Green, Tex., August 14, 1906. The sample was in early
maturity, but no seeds had fallen, and the whole plant was perfectly green. It was
cut 14 inches high. Its percentage of moisture was 7.85. Other constituents (on a

water-free basis) were as follows: Ash, 11.96; ether extract, 2.38; crude fiber, 29.97;
nitrogen-free extract, 45.72; protein, 9.97; pentosans, 20.46.

ZIZANIOPSIS MILIACEA (Michx.) Doell and Aschers.

The marsh millet (Zizaniopsis miliacea) inhabits swamps and banks of streams from
Texas eastward and northward to Ohio. It is a tall, rank species, resembling super-
ficially the wild rice of more northern latitudes and from a forage standpoint corre-
sponds very closely to that species. It is always grazed in closely fed pastures, but not
until more palatable feeds fail.

No. 9205 was collected at San Antonio, Tex., April 20, 1908. The sample was in
blossom and was cut off at the surface of the water about 2 feet high. Its percentage
of moisture was 8.77. Other constituents (on a water-free basis) were as follows: Ash,
9.46; ether extract, 1.53; crude fiber, 32.20; nitrogen-free extract, 43.17; protein,
13.64; pentosans, 17.11.

O

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. BULLETIN OF THE
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No. 202 AH Rs

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Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief.
May 12, 1915.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK.

By S. Henry Ayers, Bacteriologist, and Witu1AM T. JoHNSON, Jr., Scientific Assistant,
Dairy Division.

INTRODUCTION.

The alcohol test as generally used consists in the mixing of equal
volumes of alcohol and milk. Usually 2 cubic centimeters of 68 per
cent alcohol are added to 2 cubic centimeters of milk and shaken
gently in a test tube. The test is considered positive when a precipi-
tate is formed, or in other terms, when a coagulum is produced.
When a positive test is obtained with fresh milk from a single cow or |
small herd, it is generally believed that it indicates an abnormal milk,
due to physiological or pathological conditions in the cow. A positive
test with market milk is supposed to indicate that changes have been
produced in the milk as a result of bacterial fermentations.

According to Fleischmann (11)! the first account of the alcohol
test was published by Martinn in 1890 in the Deutsche (Berliner)
Molkerei Zeitung. It is stated that Martinn used 68 per cent alcohol
with equal parts of milk. Hd6ft (13) in 1898 used the alcohol test to
give anideaof theacidity of milk. He found thatthe higher the acidity
the greater the amount of coagulation by alcohol. In the same year
Petri and Maaszen (24) made use of the alcohol test to determine the
quality of pasteurized milk, and Weber (31) in 1900 studied the alcohol
test in relation to the so-called sterilized milk.

Since 1900 numerous investigators, mostly in Europe, have studied -
the alcohol test. Of those who have worked with this test Morres is
probably its most ardent supporter. He strongly advocates the
alcohol test in combination with the alizarin test, which he calls the
alizarol test. This test will be described later. Morres and the
other advocates of the alcohol test claim that it is of great value,
since it affords a simple and quick means of determining the condition
and keeping quality of milk. :

In this country the alcohol test is used by only one large company
which manufactures milk powder. Any milk which shows a precipi-

1See list of citations to literature at end of bulletin.
82832°—Bull. 202—15——1

2 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tate when mixed with equal volumes of 75 per cent alcohol is rejected
by this company. We are not aware that any practical use of the test
is made by any one else in America. In Europe the alcohol test is
more generally used, but we are unable to state to what extent the
test is employed at present, although Farrington and Woll (9) say
that in European creameries and city milk depots the alcohol test is
often applied to every can of milk received; milk that is sufficiently
sour to be noticed by the taste will coagulate when mixed with an
equal volume of 70 per cent alcohol.

The Berlin police seg dues, of 1902 (32) regarding the sale of milk
and cream required that cow’s milk coming from a distance must,
at the time of delivery to the consumer, stand without soperlivicn
the cooking or alcohol test (mixture of 70 per cent alcohol by volume
with equal parts of milk). According to Devarda and Weich (6),
only fresh milk, which shows no precipitate or only a very fine coagu-
lation with the alcohol test, is accepted in the Vienna market.

OBJECT OF THIS WORK.

The principal object of this work was to determine the practical
value of the alcohol test as a test for the quality of market milk. As
incidental to our primary object, it was our purpose to determine
some of the causes for the precipitation or coagulation of milk by
alcohol.

METHOD OF MAKING THE ALCOHOL TEST.

In our work we have used the single alcohol test; that is to say, a
mixture of equal volumes of alcohol and milk. A few investigators
have used the double alcohol test, in which two parts by volume of
alcohol are mixed with one part of milk. In general equal volumes
of 68 per cent alcohol and milk are mixed for the test, but in our
work 75 per cent, 68 per cent, and 44 per cent alcohol were used.
Three tests were made on each sample of milk, 2 c. c. of alcohol
being mixed with 2 c. c. of milk in a test tube. The milk was always
at a temperature of from 15° to 20° C. After adding the milk to the
alcohol the tube was shaken and examined for the appearance of a
precipitate. The precipitate appears as flakes the size of which were
recorded as follows: VS for very small, S for small, M for medium-
sized, and L for large.

The different percentages of alcohol were obtained by diluting a
high grade of absolute alcohol with distilled water. Reiss (27) has
shown that alcohol should always be tested for acid before using in
the alcohol test, as acetic acid sometimes found in the alcohol may
make the milk sufficiently acid to cause a coagulation with alcohol.
The acidity was determined by titrating 10 c. c. of milk with N/10
NaOH, and is expressed throughout this paper as per cent of normal acid.

ne special methods employed in this work ce be discussed when
mentioned i in the text.

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK, 3

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO FRESH MILK FROM A SINGLE COW
OR HERD.

While reviewing the literature on the alcohol test it became evi-
dent that the value of the test must be considered from two stand-
points: First, its relation to fresh milk from a single cow or small
herd, and, second, its relation to mixed market milk. Although
our work on this subject deals principally with the relation of the
alcohol test to mixed market milk, we feel justified, after a careful
survey of the literature, first in briefly discussing the test in itsrela-
tion to fresh milk from a single cow or herd.

In the consideration of fresh milk from a single, normal cow we
must omit the changes in milk due to bacterial growth and the in-
fluences of the changes on the alcohol test. The changes as a result
of bacterial activities are of greater importance in the relation of the
alcohol test to the mixed market milk and will be discussed later.

It is evident from the results of other investigators and from our
own tests on milk from a few cows that fresh, normal milk occasion-
ally coagulates with 68 or 70 per cent alcohol when mixed in equal
volumes. Henkel (12) found, after an examination of more than
1,600 samples of milk from a single cow, that 6 showed a coagulation
with 68 or 70 per cent alcohol. This is a very low percentage of
positive results and he concluded that, generally speaking, the milk
of a single animal does not coagulate with 68 or 70 per cent alcohol.
After an extensive study of the alcohol test Auzinger (2) concluded
that the alcohol coagulation of fresh single milk is not so rare as
Henkel had observed. Auzinger (2) also found great fluctuations in
the alcohol test (70 per cent) with milk from single cows. Occa-
sionally milk from the same cow gave a positive test in the morning
and not in the evening, or vice versa. The test might be positive
one day and not the next, but might reappear on the third day.
Sometimes he found that the first and last milk from a single cow
showed fluctuations in the alcohol test. Auzinger also found that
milk from single quarters may coagulate with alcohol independently
of the other quarters, although these cases were rare. He concludes
that the alcohol test in normal milk from a single cow is independent
of the acidity and when the test is positive it is caused by a change
in the milk salts, especially the calcium, in their relation to the milk
proteids. His opinion as to the reason for the occasional coagula-
tion of fresh, normal milk is strengthened by one of his experiments,
in which calcium phosphate was fed toa cow. It was found that the
milk from this cow coagulated with a smaller volume of alcohol or
with a lower percentage of alcohol than did the normal milk.

When fresh, normal milk from a single cow coagulates with 68 per
cent alcohol it is evidently due to some slight change in the com-
position of the milk. What the exact changes are it is impossible at
present to state.

4 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

When we speak of fresh, normal milk we mean fresh milk from a
healthy cow in the middle of the period of lactation. Milk in the early
period of lactation, that is, colostrum milk, or milk taken late in the
lactation period—‘‘old’’ milk, as it is sometimes called—usually
coagulates with the alcohol test. Henkel (12), Metzger (17), and
also Auzinger (2), found that the milk from a cow in the first of the
lactation period, while apparently normal, may show a positive alcohol
test at irregular intervals. Auzinger (2) believes that the high albu-
men and globulin content of colostrum milk and the calcium salts are
responsible for the positive alcohol reaction.

EFFECT OF COLOSTRUM AND OF “OLD” MILK ON THE ALCOHOL TEST.

In Table 1 are shown the results of the alcohol tests which we have
made on colostrum milk from two cows. Three tests were made,
using 75, 68, and 44 per cent alcohol. The results show clearly that
colostrum milk gives a positive alcohol test and that the stronger the
alcohol the longer the test will be positive. It will be noticed that the
milk froni cow 16 gave a positive test with 68 per cent alcohol for 24
days, although the acidity was low after the fourth day. It is evi-
dent from these results and from those obtained by other investi-
gators that the coagulation of milk in the first of the lactation period
by alcohol is largely independent of acidity.

TABLE 1.—Alcohol tests with colostrum milk.

Alcohol test.

Cow | Days after «as
No. | calving. Acidity.

75 per cent. | 68 per cent. | 44 per cent.

4 2 2. 61 14+L +L +VS

3 2. 45 +L +L +VS
4 2. 25 +L +M —
5 1. 87 +L +8 —
6 1.80 +M = =
8 1.50 +M — —
9 1.70 +M - —
10 1.55 — =— —
11 1.52 +S — —
12 1.50 +M =— —
13 1.31 +S — =
19 1.35 — —- _—
oe 2.10 — — =
22 1.12 — — =—
16 1 2. 40 +L +L —
2 2. 20 +L +S =
3 2. 70 +M +M -
4 2. 26 +L +S —
5 1.60 +M +8 —
6 1. 84 +M +8 =
13 1.36 +L +M —
15 1.65 +M +58 —
16 1.53 +M --M —
19 1.57 +M +58 —
22 1.70 +M +8 —
23 1.60 +M +8 —
24 1.50 +M +8 —_
25 1.45 +M — —_

1Tn this and succeeding tables the initial letters denoting the degree of the positive (+) tests signify:
L, large flakes; M, medium flakes; S, small flakes; and VS, very small flakes. Minus sign (—) signifies
negative test.

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK. 5

In order to determine whether or not the alcohol test would be
positive in a mixed colostrum and normal milk, one experiment was
performed. Colostrum milk from two cows 24 hours after calving
was mixed in various proportions with fresh, normal milk which gave
a negative alcohol test. The results of this experiment, in Table 2,
show that from 80 to 90 percent of colostrum milk had to be mixed with
normal milk in order to cause a positive test with 68 per cent alcohol.
When 75 per cent alcohol was used the test was positive with as low
as 25 per cent of colostrum milk from cow 5, but when colostrum
milk from cow 16 was used, a mixture of 80 per cent was required to
give a positive reaction with 75 per cent alcohol. It seems evident
from these results that the mixing of colostrum and normal milk
would not cause a positive alcohol test unless a very large percentage
of the milk were colostrum milk.

TaBLE 2.—The alcohol test with a mixture of normal and colostrum milk.

Colostrum | Peteentage FUCaEE SS Alcohol test.
0
milk ay normal | colostrum
SO ANG milk. milk. | 75 percent. | 68 per cent. | 44 per cent.
5 10 90 141 Lay, vs
20 80 + +V8 ae
25 75 +M ee i
50 50 +8 a Ei
7 25 48 Es a
90 10 — = -
16 10 90 +M + M _
20 80 +5 — —
25 75 _ — —

1 See footnote under Table 1.

Having discussed the relation of the alcohol test to colostrum milk,
let us consider its relation to milk drawn at the last of the lactation
period, or what is known as “old” milk. Several investigators have
shown that ‘‘old’”’ milk gives a positive alcohol test. It is well known
that milk changes in composition toward the end of the lactation
period, and it is undoubtedly these changes which cause the coagu-
lation with aleohol. While no definite changes have been attributed
to the positive alcohol reaction, it is believed by some to be due to
the high content of solids (not fat). Henkel (12), however, found
that this could not explain in all cases the coagulation by alcohol.
Auzinger (2) believes that on account of the variation of solids (not
fat) the alcohol test has no significance in milk from “old” milk
cows.

SUMMARY OF CAUSES FOR POSITIVE TESTS IN MILK OF SINGLE COWS.
It is apparent that fresh milk from a single cow may occasionally

give a positive alcohol reaction with 68 or 70 per cent of alcohol.
Colostrum milk gives a positive reaction, and the same is true usu-

6 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ally of ‘old’? milk—that is, milk from a cow in the last of its lac-
tation period.

The causes for a positive alcohol test may be summarized by the
opinion of Ernst (8) who states that a positive alcohol test of fresh
milk from a single cow indicates a physiological or severe patho-
logical condition of irritation of the milk glands. There is, how-
ever, a difference in the opinions of various investigators as to the
reaction of the alcohol test to pathological conditions of the udder.
Rubhm (28) noticed the alcohol test in milk from cows with in-
fected udders. In some cases he found the test was positive during
the infection and frequently a positive test was observed for three
or four weeks later when the milk had a normal appearance and
taste. He points out that in udder infection the milk may vary in
many ways, and in consequence the alcohol test varies. Auzinger
found that there was no relation between streptococci in infected
udders and the alcohol test and that a positive test is produced
through chemical changes in the secretions. Rullmann and Tromms-
dorff (29)-also observed a positive alcohol reaction in milk from cows
with infected udders, but according to these authors the alcohol test
shows no definite relation to the leucocyte count. They point out
that the variation in ash salts and high albumin content probably
influences the alcohol test. Campbell (5) also believes that the alcohol
test is of value in determining the diseased condition of the udder.
Besides udder infection Auzinger (2) states that the general infections
and infections of the vaginal canal may cause a positive alcohol test;
also that milk from cows which have aborted may coagulate with
alcohol. Metzger (17), however, after a study of the alcohol test
with milk from sick cows concludes that the milk from them shows
no relation. between the acidity and alcohol test. According to this
author fever had no influence on the acid and alcohol tests. There
was no relation between tuberculosis of the animal and the alcohol
test. When animals were very lean from disease the milk inclined
toward coagulation with alcohol. Infectious inflammation of the
vagina was without influence on the test. Infection of the uterus
shows almost regularly with the alcohol test, but not without ex-
ception. Metzger also found that there was no relation between the
alcohol test and various forms of indigestion. He points out that
the chief value of the test lies in its use for the freshness of milk.

We have not had an opportunity to study the alcohol test in its
relation to the milk from sick cows, but from a study of the literature
on this subject we are inclined to believe that the alcohol test would
be of but little value as a routine test of the milk from a single cow
or from a small herd. If the alcohol test were used regularly to test
fresh milk of single cows a positive reaction would indicate some

change in the milk from normal. Subsequent examination of the

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK. 7

cow might reveal some pathological condition, or there might be
some physiological reason for a slight variation in the composition
of the milk. If the test were performed on the milk from a few cows
a positive reaction might be caused, as Auzinger (3) believes, by the
mixing of milk which is changed by physiological or pathological
conditions with milk from normal cows. If there were a large per-
centage of abnormal milk which gave an alcohol test with a coagula-
tion with large flakes, the mixed milk might show a positive alcohol
test in which the coagulation would be in the form of small flakes.
When mixed milk from a large number of sources gives a positive
alcohol test it must be interpreted in an entirely different’ manner,
and this leads us to another phase of the subject.

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MARKET MILK.

Since 1900 a considerable number of papers have appeared on the
use of the alcohol test in its relation to market milk. According to
Kirchner (15), Morres in 1905 showed that the alcohol test was of
value for determining the keeping quality of milk and indicating its
acidity. Reiss (26) in 1906 pointed out the practical value of the
test, and Morres (18) again in 1909 showed the value of the alcohol
test as a means of determining the keeping quality of milk. He added
2 c.c. of milk to 2 ¢.c. of 68 per cent (by volume) alcohol, and states
that if the milk coagulates with alcohol then decomposition has
already started and the extent is shown by the size of the flakes.
If the precipitate is in fine flakes then the acidity corresponds to
A degrees Soxhlet; however, the coagulation may not be due to an
increase in acidity, but may be due to the action of rennet-forming
bacteria. In later work Morres has combined the alcohol and
alizarin tests. This will be discussed later. Morres considers that
the coagulation of mixed market milk is due largely to the formation
of acid or the action of rennet-forming bacteria-or to a combination
of both. Henkel (12) concludes from his work that the alcohol test
does not afford a proper means for determining acidity, but that the
value of the test lies in the fact that it gives a knowledge of the souring
and other changes in the properties of milk or in variations from the
normal properties which the acid test does not show. Other investi-
gators believe that the alcohol test is of value only as a preliminary
test. Fendler and Borkel (10) after a large number of tests to
determine the relation of the acidity of milk to the alcohol test con-
cluded that the double test with 70 per cent alcohol was not a proper
criterion for the freshness of market milk, including infants’ milk
and superior grades of milk. They state that the double test using
50 per cent alcohol is suitable as a preliminary test for food in-
spectors, but the milk should be submitted to further tests. These
authors also found that no consistent relation existed between the

8 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

alcohol test and the acidity of milk. Rammstedt (25) also agrees
with Fendler 4nd Borkel, so far as he found, that no consistent
relation existed between the alcohol test and the acidity of milk.
He considers that the test gives preliminary knowledge of the hygienic
quality of a milk.

It is evident from the literature that in a mixed market milk the
acidity plays a part in connection with the alcohol test, so that in
considering the factors which influence the test we may first take up
the question of acidity.

THE INFLUENCE OF ACIDITY ON THE ALCOHOL TEST.

In our first experiments the acidity of milk was raised by the
addition of N/10 lactic acid. The results of two experiments recorded
in Table 3 show that a very slight increase in the acidity of milk may
cause a positive alcohol test with 75 per cent and 68 per cent alcohol,
but a considerably higher acidity is required to cause a positive test —
with 44 per cent alcohol.

These results show clearly that the alcohol test is sensitive to slight
changes in acidity when these changes are produced by the addition
of lactic acid. Since an increase in acidity will cause a positive
alcohol test it is evident that the growth of acid-forming bacteria in
milk will cause a positive test.

TABLE 3.—Influence of acidity on the alcohol test.

N/10 lactic Alcohol test.
acid added oa
Acree niollcs Acidity,
of milk. 75 per cent. | 68 per cent. | 44 per cent.
CA@s
0 1.81 — = 2
0.5 1.88 = cad
1.0 1.94 1+M +M pe
3.0 2.21 +L +L ax
By) 2.38 +L +L -
4.0 2.47 +L +L +M
0 1.70 — = seh
38 1.76 +M = =
1.0 1.84 +M 48 =
2.0 2. 00 +L Seb; =
3.0 2.20 AIL) aeip, es
3.4 2.25 +L 70) ae
3.5 2. 26 +L +L +few VS
4.0 2.31 +L +L | +few L

1 See footnote under Table 1.

In order to determine the relation between the number of acid-
forming bacteria, the acidity, and the alcohol test, two experiments
were performed, using a pure culture of a lactic-acid-producing organ-
ism. The culture was inoculated into sterile skim milk and incubated
at 37° C. A bacterial count was made while the acidity and the
alcohol test were determined at the same time. From the results
shown in Table 4 it may be seen that in Experiment I the alcohol
_test was negative even after seven hours of incubation. At that time

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK. 9

the acidity had increased from 1.98 to 2.14, and the bacteria from
from 82,000 to 15,100,000 per cubic centimeter. It is interesting to
note that an extensive multiplication of lactic-acid-forming bacteria
may occur without causing a positive alcohol test. In the second
experment, also shown in Table 4, a heavier inoculation was used, and
it will be seen that the milk at the beginning of the mcubation period
contained 480,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. The 68 per cent
alcohol test was not positive until the bacteria had increased to
31,400,000 per cubic centimeter.

These figures show that when a pure culture of lactic-acid-forming
bacteria is grown in skim milk there must be a very great increase in
order to produce acidity enough to cause a positive alcohol test. In
these experiments there were no positive alcohol tests until the bac-
teria had increased from less than 500,000 to over 16,000,000 per cubic
centimeter. From these results it is apparent that the growth of
acid-forming bacteria in milk may, through the formation of acid,
cause a positive alcohol test. However, when there is sufficient acid
produced to cause a coagulation with 68 per cent alcohol the number
of acid-forming bacteria would be very high.

TaBie 4.—Influence on the alcohol test of acid produced by the growth of a pure culture of
lactic-acid bacteria.

‘ Alcohol test.

Age of Bacteria A ee Se |
culture per cubic AIG eee Se |
in hours. | centimeter.

Experi-
ment No.

75 per cent. | 68 per cent. | 44 per cent. |

I 0 82, 000 1.98 — — =
2 DIS O00 peo sae ee —- — =

4 1,510, 000 2. 06 - —- _

5 4,300, 000 2. 08 — _ =

6 11, 700, 000 2.09 - = a

7 15, 100, 000 2.14 - = =

II 0 480, 000 1.94 - -_ =
2 1060 O00 lessee ceases — - —

4 7,500, 000 2. 08 - — —

5 16, 100, 000 2. 08 145 _ -

6 31, 400, 000 2.30 +L +M —

7 46, 000, 000 2.47 +L +L —

1 See footnote under Table 1.
EFFECT OF PHOSPHATES.

We have so far discussed in a general way the effect of increasing
the acidity of milk by the addition of lactic acid and by the generation
of the acid in milk. Since the acidity of milk when titrated with
phenolphthalein is due partly to acid phosphates, it will be of interest
to show the effect on the alcohol test of the increase in acidity by
acid phosphates. In Table 5 are shown the results of a few tests,
using sodium and potassium acid phosphate. Various amounts of
a 5 per cent solution of these salts were added to 50 c. c. of milk. It
will be seen from the table that when the acidity was increased by
sodium acid phosphate from 2.15 to 3.33 the alcohol test with 75

10 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

per cent alcohol was positive. At an acidity of 4.27 the milk coagu-
lated with 68 per cent alcohol but the flakes were very small. In
order to cause a coagulation with 68 per cent alcohol with medium-
sized flakes it was necessary to increase the acidity to 6.16. When
potassium acid phosphate was used the results were about the same.

These results show that it is possible by increasing the acidity of
milk with acid phosphates to cause a coagulation with the alcohol
test, but the acidity has to be increased to a high degree and there
would never be enough acid phosphate in a mixed market milk for
it to be entirely responsible for a positive alcohol test.

TaBLE 5.—Influence on the alcohol test of the addition of acid phosphates to milk.

Sodium-acid phosphate. Potassium-acid phosphate.

Amount Alcohol test. Amount Alcohol test.
of 5 of 5
per cent per cent
solution solution 4
ofacid | Acid- ofacid | Acid-
whe. ity. | 75 per | 68 per | 44 per phos: ity. | 75 per | 68 per |°44 per
added to cent. | cent. | cent. added to cent. | cent. | cent.
50 c. c. of 50 c.c. of
mil milk,
Cu c. C.c.
0 ail - - — OB ease - - —
1 2.75 - - - 1 2.52 _ — —
2 3.383 |1+M ad — 2 3.13 |1+M — —
3 4,27 +M +VS - 3 4.00 +M +VS | —
5 5. 50 +M +VS =- 5 5.20 +M +VS |] —
6 6. 16 +M-} +M +VS 6 62 +M | +M +VS

1 See footnote under Table 1.

In some cases where we increased the acidity of milk by adding
lactic acid it was noticed that a very slight increase in acidity caused
a positive alcohol test. At other times the acidity had to be in-
creased to a considerable extent before the milk coagulated with
alcohol. It occurred to us that the explanation for these differences
might be that there were different amounts of dibasic phosphates
present in milk and that the acid converted the dibasic phosphate into
acid phosphate, which increased the acidity but did not cause a posi-
tive alcohol test. In order to test this theory one experiment was
performed, the results of which are shown in Table 6. Two flasks of
milk were used, each containing 50 c. c. of milk. One flask was left
normal and 0.5 per cent dibasic sodium phosphate was added to the
other. Various amounts of N/10 lactic acid were then added to each
flask. As may be seen from the table, when 3 c. c. of N/10 lactic
acid was added to the normal milk, the acidity was 2.37 and the
alcohol test was positive with both 75 per cent and 68 per cent alco-
hol. The flakes were large and medium, respectively. The same
amount of acid added to the milk with dibasic phosphate increased

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK. 11

the acidity to 2.55 and yet the alcohol test was negative. When 7
c. c. of N/10 lactic acid was added to the normai milk, the acidity was
increased to 3.00 and the milk coagulated with large flakes with all
the different percentages of alcohol. When 7 c. c. of N/10 lactic
acid was added to milk with dibasic phosphate the acidity was
increased to 3.05 and only the 75 per cent alcohol test was positive,
and the coagulation was in the form of small flakes. When 8 c. c.
of acid was added to the milk with dibasic phosphate the acidity
was 3.19 and the alcohol test with both 75 per cent and 68 per cent
alcohol was positive. It was found by titration that 10 c. c. of a
0.5 solution of dibasic phosphate required 1.56 c. c. of N/10 lactic
acid to convert the dibasic into the monobasic phosphate; therefore
50 c. c. of milk containing 0.5 per cent of dibasic sodium phosphate
would require 7.8 c. c. of N/10 lactic acid to convert the dibasic
into the monobasic phosphate. It will be seen from Table 6 that
when from 7 to 8 c. c. of N/10 lactic acid was added to the milk
with dibasic phosphate, the alcohol test became positive; that is, when
the dibasic phosphate had been converted into monobasic phosphate
then further increase in acidity caused a positive alcohol test.

As a very general explanation of this result it may be said that when
acid is added to milk it converts the dibasic phosphate into the
monobasic phosphate. It follows that the acid and also the monobasic
phosphate probably affect the casein and thereby change it into a
condition in which it is possible to precipitate the casein by alcohol
and cause a positive test. This action on the dibasic phosphate prob-
ably explains in part the positive alcohol tests with different low
acidities.

TaBLe 6.—Influence on the alcohol test of the addition of dibasic phosphate to milk.

Normal milk Normal milk + 0.5 per cent

N/10 ; dibasic sodium phosphate.
lactic
acid
paded Alcohol test. Alcohol test.
()
50 c. c. ee eae g
of Acidity. 75 68 44 Acidity. 75 68 44
milk. per per per per | per per
cent. cent. | cent. cent. | cent. cent.
CYC:
0 1.85 — = _ 2.03 = = =
1 2.01 |1+8 _ _ 2.13 =- = =
3 2.37 +L +M = 2.59 — _ —
5 2. 63 +L +L +8 2.81 | — - —
6 2. 80 +L +L +M 2.92 | — _ _
7 3. 00 +L +L +L 3.05 | +S _ _
By | Seams meee ee ata cis cha (ie ocinese 3.19 +L +M _
O'y jt Se Pe A eeaese- |Pssetas i ee anes 3. 43 +L L _
GB Fess Sha ah nn ee ss 3.97 +L L +L

1See footnote under Table 1.

12 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RESULT OF MIXING SOUR AND NORMAL MILK.

Since a positive alcohol test may be produced by increasing the
acidity, several investigators have pointed out that a mixture of sour
and normal milks will give a positive test. The amount of sour milk
which can be added to fresh milk without causing a positive alcohol
test will, of course, depend upon the acidity of the sour milk. In
one experiment, the results of which are shown in Table 7, various
percentages of sour, raw, and pasteurized milk were added to fresh
milk. The addition of 1 per cent of sour milk caused a positive test
with 75 per cent alcohol, 2.5 per cent caused a positive test with 68
per cent alcohol, and the addition of 10 per cent of sour milk was
necessary to cause a positive test with 44 per cent alcohol.

It must be taken into consideration in this experiment that the
sour milk had a high acidity. If the acidity had been low a much
higher per cent could undoubtedly have been added to the fresh
milk without increasing the acidity sufficiently to cause a positive
alcohol test.

TasBLe 7.—The alcohol test with a mixture of normal and sour milk.

Addition of sourraw milk. Acidity 10.23. | A@ition of sous, pasteurized milk.

Alcohol test. Per Alcohol test.

Per
cent of Acid-
it;

sour |“; sour | “i
milk Y- | 75 per | 68 per | 44 per | milk Y- | 75 per | 68 per | 44 per
added. cent. | cent. | cent. | added. cent. | cent. | cent.

1 See footnote under Table 1.

In connection with the relation of acidity to the alcohol test the
question arises as to whether or not the acidity of a sour milk can be
neutralized so that the alcohol test will be negative. Some investi-
gators have shown that the neutralization of the acidity does not
cause a positive test to become negative, although the size of the
flakes in the coagulation is somewhat reduced. We have tried one
experiment in which various amounts of normal lactic acid were
added to fresh milk, after which the acidity was reduced to the original
acidity by the addition of sodium hydrate. From the results which
are shown in Table 8 it will be seen that when the acidity was in-
creased to 4.3, then neutralized to 1.90, the 68 per cent alcohol test
was positive. The positive alcohol tests with 68 per cent alcohol
could be made negative at acidities below 4.30 by reducing to about
the original acidity of the normal milk.

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK. 138

TaBLE 8.—Effect on the alcohol test produced by neutralizing the acidity of milk.

Amount Alcohol test. Alcohol test.

of normal
tic Acidity

acid Acidity. after neu-
added to 75 per | 68 per | 44 per | tralizing.| 75 per | 68 per | 44 per
50 ¢. c. eent. | cent. | cent. cent. | cent. | cent.

of milk,
C.c.
0.0 1. 84 - - Se eee ae ree See aiss olee ous ds
0.1 2.08 |1+M +M —- 1.80 - — —
0.3 2.42 +M +M - 1.81 _ _ —
0.5 2.99 +L +M | +VS 1. 64 _ — —
0.8 3.54 +L +L +M 1.60 +VS — —
1.0 3.94 +L +L +L 1.60 +S — —
1.5 4.30 +L +L +L 1.90 +L +M —

1 See footnote under Table 1.
EFFECT OF HEAT COMBINED WITH ACIDITY.

As a matter of general interest we may mention the effect of heat-
ing milk which gave a positive alcohol test. Auzinger (2) found
that a milk which gave a positive test at 15° C. sometimes did not
give the test when heated for 30 minutes at 60° C. Then again he
found that the test might remain positive in milk heated to boiling.
In Table 9 is shown the result of an experiment showing the effect
of heat on the alcohol test with milk of two different acidities. No
effect of heat was found on the sample of milk with an acidity of
2.30, but there was a marked effect when the acidity was lower.

We have no explanation to offer for this negative result of the test
when the acidity is low. This action of heat might be of importance
when the alcohol test is applied to pasteurized milk.

TABLE 9.—Effect of heat on the alcohol test which is positive on account of acid action.

Alcohol test.

Milk heated | Acidity,2. | Acidity, 2.30.
ne

75 per | 68 per | 75 per | 68 per
cent. cent. cent, cent,

°

Ubsecdsssqasas +M +VS +L +L
SOB er see eel +58 - +L +L
Ulecasoecceees = = +L +L
HV scuscasaeae — _ +L +L

1 See footnote under Table 1.

14 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
INFLUENCE OF THE ACTION OF RENNET.

The relation of the alcohol test to the acidity of milk shows that
acidity is one factor which may cause a positive alcohol reaction,
but from the work of other investigators it is evident that it is not
the sole cause. Morres throughout his papers points out that the
alcohol test may be caused by an acid fermentation or by a rennet
fermentation or by a mixture of both fermentations.

In order to determine the effect of rennet action in relation to the
test, we first tried the effect of prepared rennet. Four flasks of fresh
milk were used and to each a different percentage of rennet was
added. The milk in each flask was tested by the alcohol test at
intervals of one hour. It will be seen from Table 10 that four
different percentages of rennet were used, ranging from 0.00005 per
cent to 0.0015 per cent. The acidity of the milk mcreased during
the four hours from 1.64 to 1.70; therefore the influence of acidity
can be neglected, since it is only a slight change.

The results show that the action of rennet in milk may preddce
changes which cause a positive alcohol test and that two main factors
are of importance, namely, the amount of rennet and the length of
time the rennet has to act. Undoubtedly a third factor must be
taken into consideration; that is, the temperature at which the milk
is held. In our experiments the milk was held at room temperature.
These results confirm those obtained by other investigators and
indicate that the action of the rennet-forming bacteria might cause
a positive alcohol reaction.

_ Tasie 10.—Influence of rennet on the alcohol test.

Alcohol test.
Hours. pene
75 per 68 per 44 per
cent. cent, cent.
Per cent.
0 - 00005 — _ —
- 00025 — 7 —
. 0005 — — —
- 0015 — _ _
1 . 00005 _ _ _
- 00025 — _ _
- 0005 _ - _
- 0015 14M +M =
2 - 00005 — _ =_
- 00025 — — _—
- 0005 +M +M =
- 0015 +L +L +M
3 - 00005 — _ —
- 00025 +M +M —
- 0005 +M +M —
0015 +L +1 +M
4 . 00005 — _ =
- 00025 +L +L L
. 0005 +L +L +VS
0015 (?) (?) (?)

1 See footnote under Table 1.
2 Milk curdled by rennet.

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK, 15

In order to show the effect of rennet of bacterial origin, the action
of a pure culture of a rennet-forming organism was studied. Two
flasks of sterile skim milk were inoculated with different amounts of a
pure culture of a rennet-forming organism. These flasks were
incubated at 37° C., and the bacterial increase was determined at
definite intervals, together with the alcohol test. The results are
shown in Table 11. From a study of the table it is evident that
rennet-forming bacteria will cause a positive alcohol test, but there
must be a large bacterial increase to produce rennet enough to cause
a positive test.

The acidity was also increased during the incubation, but we believe
this acidity played a minor part in causing the positive alcohol test.

TaBLE 11.—Influence on the alcohol test of rennet produced in milk by the growth of a pure
culture of a rennet-forming organism.

Alcohol test.
Experi-| Age of | Bacteria .
ment | cul- per cubic Acid-

No. ture. | centimeter, AY 75 per | 68 per | 44 per
cent. cent. cent.
Hours.
0 34, 000 1. 98 — _ —
2 62,000 |-.....-- — — —
4} 4,700,000 2.02 - _- —
5 | 9,000, 0CO 2.06 | 1+L — =_
6 | 21,000, 000 2.10 +L +L —
7 | 31,000, 000 2.11 +L +L +L
II 0 147, 000 1.94 - - _
2 200, 000 |.-..-..- — - —
4 | 15,000, 000 2.10 +L +L +S

1 See footnote under Table 1.
DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN ACIDITY AND RENNET ACTION.

The fact that reducing the acidity did not cause a negative alcohol
test, as mentioned above, led us to believe that it might be possible
to differentiate between a positive alcohol test caused by acidity and
one caused by rennet action. In order to determine whether this
was true two flasks of sterile skim milk were prepared. One was
inoculated with a pure culture of a lactic-acid-forming organism and
the other with equal amounts of a pure culture of lactic-acid bacteria
and rennet-forming bacteria. The two flasks were then incubated at
37° C. As may be seen from Table 12, the milk containing the
lactic-acid bacteria had an acidity of 2.23 after 3 hours’ incubation
and the test was positive with both 75 per cent and 68 per cent
alcohol. When the acidity was reduced to 1.49 all the alcohol tests
were negative. The milk containing a mixed culture of lactic-acid
bacteria and rennet-forming bacteria after 3 hours’ incubation had
an acidity of 2.32 and the alcohol test was positive with 75 per cent
and 68 per cent alcohol. In both cases the coagulation was in the
form of large flakes. When the acidity was reduced to 1.70 the

16 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

alcohol test remained positive, although the size of the flakes was
reduced. This milk after 54 hours’ incubation had an acidity of 4.38
and the milk coagulated with large flakes with each percentage of alco-
hol. When the acidity was reduced to 1.49 the alcohol test remained
positive, the only change being with the 44 per cent alcohol, in which
case the size of the flakes was reduced. This experiment was re-
peated, as will be seen from Table 12, and the results confirmed
those of the first experiment. These results indicate that it may be
possible to differentiate between an acid and an acid-and-rennet
fermentation in milk, provided the acidity is not high.

TABLE 12.—Differentiation between an acid and a mixed acid-and-rennet fermentation by
neutralizing the acidity and using the alcohol test.

After incubation at 37° C. for 3 hours. | After incubation at 37° C. for 54 hours.
Ex-
peri- | Pure culture Alcohol test. Alcohol test.
ment of—
No. Acidity. Acidity. |
om 75 per | 68 per | 44 per 75 per » 68 per | 44 per
cent. | cent. | cent. cent. | cent. | cent.
I. | Lactic - acid 2. 23 14+ +L — 3. 21 +L +L} +L
bacteria.
Neutralized to — - - Neutralized to - —_ -
1.66. 49,
Mixtureof 2.32 +L +L — 4.38 +L +L +L
rennet-
forming
and lactic-
acid bacte-
ria. :
Newiielved to +8 | +VS — Neutralized to +L +L +S
70. 1.49.
ESS ACh Ch= QOIdi| = Sastse ot wees pecans eee cesel samc ees 22.70 +L +M —
bacteria.
Mixtureof 32.00 +L +M — 23.42 +L +L} +L
rennet-
forming
and lactic- > ‘
acid bacte-
Tia.
Neutralized to — - —- Neutralized to +L +M]+VS
1.80. 1. 60.

Notr.—Acidity of ncrmal milk in experiment T, 1.75; in experiment TI, 1.78.

1 See footnote under Table 1.
. 2 After 43 hours incubation at 37° C.
3 Acidity after adding pure cultures to milk and before incubation.

EFFECT OF HEAT COMBINED WITH RENNET ACTION.

Warlier in this paper we have shown the effect of heat on the alcohol
test with milk of high and low acidity, and as a matter of general
interest the effect of heat on the alcohol test produced by rennet
action may now be considered. The results of two experiments
shown in Table 13 explain themselves clearly. Sufficient rennet was
added to two samples of milk to cause a positive alcohol test with 75

and 68 per cent alcohol.
that at 90° C. the milk no longer gave a positive alcohol test.

experiments showed the same results.

The milk was then heated, and it was found

Both

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK. .- Eat

TaBLE 13.—LHffect of heat on the alcohol test with milk in which the positive test is due to
rennet action.

Alcohol test.
Milk heated 75 per cent. 68 per cent.
1o— |
ne
Experi- Experi- Experi- Experi-
ment I. ment IT. ment I. ment IT.
¢ .
Not heated... ILL +L +L +L
AQ retard. ts) +L +L +L +L
(5 Dae ce ant +L +L +L +L
Oe ey ae +L +L +L +L
SOR oe oes +S +VS +8 +VS
90 bee gS Eee. — — = —

Note.—Acidity of milk in experiment I, 1.82; in experiment IT, 1.84.
1 See footnote under Table 1.

The results which we have shown on the effect of rennet action in
relation to the alcohol test confirm the work of other investigators,
and it is evident that the rennet-forming group of bacteria in milk
can play an important part in the production of a positive alcohol test.

INFLUENCE ON THE ALCOHOL TEST OF CARBON DIOXID IN MILK.

There are probably numerous minor factors which influence the
alcohol test with market milk. While the two principal factors are
probably acidity and the effect of rennet action, it is believed by some
investigators that carbon dioxid plays a more or less important part.
Auzinger (2) found that milk one hour old which gave a positive
alcohol test gave a negative test after it had been held for 18 hours.
He believes that carbon dioxid might be partly responsible for such a
change.

We have passed carbon-dioxid gas into milk many times and have
always been able to cause a positive alcohol test. In one experiment
carbon-dioxid gas was passed into milk until the acidity was 2.36
(titration in cold milk with phenolphthalein as an indicator), and a
positive alcohol test was obtained with 75 per cent and 68 per cent
alcohol. As is shown in Table 14, this milk was heated at different
temperatures up to 100° ©. With the increase in temperature the
acidity was reduced, due probably to the expelling of the CO,. Barillé
(4) has shown that carbon dioxid forms a very unstable compound,
which he calls carbono phosphate of calcium and is easily broken up
by heat. When the temperature reached 70° C., the alcohol test with
68 per cent alcohol was negative and the acidity had been reduced
from 2.36 to 2.05. At 90° C. the acidity was 1.91 and the alcohol
test was negative with 75 per cent alcohol.

There can be no doubt as to the fact that carbon dioxid may cause
a positive alcohol test, provided there is a large enough amount in the

82832°—Bull. 202—15——3

18 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

milk. In order to determine how much carbon dioxid was required
to cause a positive test with 68 per cent alcohol, the gas was passed
into a flask of fresh milk until a positive alcohol test was produced.
The amount of CO, in this milk and in the original milk was then
determined.’ It was found that the normal milk contained 0.76 per
cent of CO, by volume at 32° C., and the milk through which the gas
had been passed contained 13.05 per cent of CO, by volume. In this
experiment it was necessary to increase the CO, content to 13.05 per
cent by volume in order to cause a positive alcohol reaction with
68 per cent alcohol. According to Kastle and Roberts (14) carbon
dioxid is present in milk to the extent of 3 to 4 per cent by volume
and partly escapes into the air when the milkisdrawn. This being the
case, it is evident that there is not enough carbon-dioxid gas in normal
milk to cause of its own accord a positive alcohol test with 68 per cent
alcohol. Of course, the presence of CO, may assist other factors to
cause a positive alcohol test and in the case of bacterial fermentation
where the gas is produced it might play a small part, but we believe
that when 68 per cent alcohol is used in the test the influence of CO,
im mixed market milk would be very small, if it has any effect.

TaBLe 14.—Effect of heat on alcohol test with milk-made acid to phenolphthalein with
carbon dioxid.

Alcohol test.

Me eueated |. Acioitys
75 per cent. | 68 per cent.
PG:
Not heated 2.36 141 +L
40 2.32 +L +L
50 2.30 +L +M
60 2.19 +L +VS
70 2.05 +M —
80 2.05 +VS -
90 1.91 — —
100 1.92 _ _
Original milk 1.90 — —

1 See footnote under Table 1.
THE RELATION OF THE ALCOHOL TEST TO THE BACTERIA IN MIXED MARKET MILK.

Having discussed the effect of acidity and the effect of rennet
action on the alcohol test, let us consider the relation of the test to the
bacteria in market milk. Since an increased acidity and also rennet
action may cause a positive test, it is natural to suppose that there
may be some definite relation between the alcohol test and the number
of bacteria in milk, as the increase in the acidity and the rennet in
milk is the result of bacterial growth.

It is claimed by some authorities that the alcohol test is of great
value for determining the freshness of milk, and as this is a question

1 We are indebted to Dr. Clark, of the Dairy Division laboratory, for this analysis.

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK. 19

of great importance we have examined a number of samples of market
milk which had been held for a number of days.

In Table 15 are shown the results of the examination of four samples
of market milk. One was raw milk and the others were pasteurized.
Each bottle of milk was obtained from a different dairy and was held
in a refrigerator at a temperature of about 9° C. The acidity and
alcohol test were determined daily and bacterial counts were made on
the first day and again when the 68 per cent alcohol gave a positive test,

It is evident from the results obtained tuat the alcohol test (68 per
cent) does not show the freshness of milk. The samples were held
from 8 to 13 days at 9° C. before the alcohol test became positive, and

during that time the bacteria had increased to more than 100,000,000
per cubic centimeter.

TaBLe 15.—EHffect on the alcohol test of holding milk at 9° C.

i
| Raw milk. Pasteurized milk A.
Days Alcohol test. Alcohol test.
— ae lceatiaeaiic sas alae | oactenia -, |——————_|_ Bacteria
S| as | es | ae | -perenbic | AR | os | og | ag | pereubic
per fir jpae | Eee : per per | per | centimeter.

14 +1L.]} — | 146,000,000] 2.75) +L.] +L. | +L. | 626,000,000
Pasteurized milk B. Pasteurized milk C.
D ays Alcohol test. Alcohol test.
eld. : STE | a ee EC LCL . canal eee bacteria)
Acid- . Acid- :
ity 75 6g | 44 | Pereubic |i | 75 68 | 44 | Pereubic

per per per centimeter. per er per centimeter.

cent cent. | cent. cent cent. | cent
0 — 133, 000
1 EU Go Vinnintiosieae |
2 a | | Nera Cheeta ec
3 Hye | OT ae REE eRe ee
4“ ootice.dl BEA Sasso HOSSSeet] beset s sete mecca es pee ARERR Caeser en he eng ee
5 s - Se (a SEO See eras
6 5 — So Ieee ea ae
7 5 - lly | Reg os ee
8 5 — +M +M. _— 221, 000, 000
9 ; — +L Syd see CPOE oe a
10 FE S| EMEA EO A ee | CES UE 2.77| +L.| +L. |-+M.| 650,000,000
12) 245) +L.) +L. |+M.| 700,000,000 |.-.-2 2)
Fils ew eve Lue te Ged eB eee cel RRO MPR PKs 62) LMG 3 ol Tue Ie cera

1 See footnote under Table 1.

20 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
EFFECT OF HOLDING THE MILK AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES.

The temperature at which the milk is held would, of course,
affect the length of time before the alcohol test becomes positive.
To show the effect of temperature we held samples of raw and pas-
teurized milk at 9° C. and also at room temperature, and examined
them in the same manner as in the preceding experiment. The
results are shown in Table 16. Im order to have about the same
bacterial content in the milk held at the different temperatures, a
quart of milk was thoroughly mixed and placed in sterilized pint
bottles.

The results show clearly that the temperature at which milk is held
has a marked influence on the time when the alcohol test will be posi-
tive. Also, as shown by sample of raw milk C, the bacterial content
of the milk is an important factor. In all the samples it will be no-
ticed that the bacterial counts show an exceedingly high number
when the 68 per cent alcohol test was positive.

TABLE 16:—Comparison of the alcohol tests with milk held at 9° C. and at 24° C.

| Raw milk A. Pasteurized milk B.
Temper- ;
atur 5 at D ays Alcohol test. Alcohol test.
WDE eld. : Bacteria per P Bacteria per
held. AGI cubie centi- ACEC cubic centi-
ity. | 75 68 44 maton ity. | 75 68 44 maten
per | per | per ‘ per | per | per :
cent. | cent. | cent. cent. | cent. | cent.
het Ceres 0 | 1.85 = — — = — = 139, 000
1} 1.85 _ _ =— = _ =e Quiet eke eee
2)1.90) — — _ = = =
3 | 1.80} — = =— - _ _
4/1.79) — _ _ = - -
Ca Si Repeat Pape een BNR ot | Se] WR MES EN er (Ea Fag coe Ne ea ay
6} 1.85] — — - — — =
711.90} — - — — — =
8} 1.80; — _ _ — _ -
Cilla a ee ot = a ves
10/ 1.80; — — _ — - -
TI TS UNE - — = 1+$s - -
II PSUR Sysco Pete a ee a Na Sanaa (INES oe Sale| ates Ue lot Geel Mero lente a
13 | 2.70} +L |/+M)}) — +h) 4+M) —
oe ee ee = = Sten | Rae see Sere (Pome Meneses INAeiee rs Arey Si Mn beats = iS he
17) 4.1 |} +L] +L] +L Spl Srl [PSE | pSososcnese8s -
Room
tem-
pera- :
ture!2 0/1.85) — — - 2,900 | 1.65} — - - 146, 000
1(9a.m.)| 1.909} — fhe Pile sel Sasi re msi a 1, G8) |, SES) |) — | 32,600,000
13p.m.)} 3.1 | +L | +L | +L | 534,000,000 | 3.70) +L | +L | +1 | 694,000,000

1 See footnote under Table 1.

2 About 24° C.

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK. 21

TasLE 16.—Comparison of the alcohol tests with milk held at 9° C. and at a C.—
Continued.

Raw milk C.
Temper-
ature at D ays. Alcohol test. -
waic eid. a eee CLONE
held. age cubic centi-
ity. 75 68 44 aaetor
per per per :
cent cent. cent.
99 Clo. 0 1.85 — —_ — 7, 870, 000
1 1.80 — — oral Gas
2 1.95 |1+8 — — 93, 000, 000
3 2.35 | +M +S — 130, 000, 000
4 2.36) +L +L — 188, 000, 000
Fy Te eS od Bae RSS| Ise Perea EU Actes Caled Ris ettec2. ya ee ee Pea
g 2.88} +L +L +M_ | 480,000, 000
Fe Pes Io NO | eee ce | Eis ARR ev ge Pe ra a pa
bY Pia BaT 2s 2 Yt |e eenemieee | (iy pa emai |e She eninge) i Be es paneer as
WCU) Dae 1s Ps Cop edge | (ec SR a Ds) of Seen YF Io ay ees ae
UN) tae 0a oe ae ER res HE (na A A
1 IPAM hae PIR ra Bc WS core trae TPR gts ee PS ae UN [eC
CDM a Socal a gs SN SI ec RCI Uae ae
GLEAN a li eA |e EP POR COT Se Ra ree ee
TUG Ea SS S| A SE 3 A 2 Ny oa
Room
tem
pera
ture? _ 0 1.85 - - — 7,610, 000
1(9a.m.) ANOQOBIN a= a Se Hee vurdled.
1 See footnote under Table 1. 2 About 24° C.

At various times different investigators have used the alcohol test
on market milk. Aurnhammer (1) in an examination of 250 samples
of market milk during July and August of 1907 found the 68 per cent
alcohol test positive in 82 samples. In a study of market milk in-
Philadelphia, Campbell (5) found that 37 of 100 samples of milk gave
a positive test with 68 per cent alcohol. Of these 37 samples 17
contained less than and 20 more than 1,000,000 bacteria per cubic
centimeter. It was found by Nurenberg and Lythgoe (23) during an
examination of 2,600 samples of market milk that only 63 gave a
positive test ain 68 per cent alcohol.

We made alcohol tests on 236 samples of Washington market
milk during the period from March 20 to June 4, 1914. These
samples and their bacterial counts were supplied yg the Health
Department, District of Columbia.’ Of the 236 samples we found
that 37 gave an alcohol test with 75 per cent alcohol, 20 with 68 per
cent alcohol, and 5 with 44 per cent alcohol. The samples which
gave a positive test are tabulated in Table 17 with their acidity and
bacterial counts. There were 177 samples of raw milk and 59 samples
of pasteurized milk in the 236 samples examined. As may be seen
from the table, 35 of the raw-milk samples gave a positive test with
75 per cent alcohol and only 2 of the 59 samples of pasteurized milk.

1 We take this occasion to express our thanks to Dr. Kinyoun and Dr. Dieter, of the Health Depart-
ment, for the samples of market milk and their bacterial counts which they so kindly furnished us.

22 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 17.—Raw and pasteurized market milk which gave positive alcohol tests.

. Alcohol tests.
oe Bacteria per
Milk. num. | Acidity. cubic
ber centimeter. 75 44
. per cent. | per cent. | per cent.
Rawincc2 ssc 1 2.01 2,100 |1 +M =
2 2.30 7,000} +L —
3 2.00 12,000 | +M _
4 1.60 14,000 | +M —
5 1.97 18,000 | +M —
6 1.92 24,000 | +M +VS
7 1.91 24,000} +S —
8 1.70 29,000 | +S —
9 1.62 51,000 | +M _
10 2.30 67,000 | +L _
11 1.79 121,000 | +M +VS
12 1.75 156,000 |} +S —
13 2.00 200,000 | +M —
14 1,94 350,000 | +M —
15 1.90 442,000 | +S _
16 2.06 464,000 |} +L —
17 1.95 1,200,000 | +M —
18 1.76 1,300,000 | +VS —
19 1.75 1,500,000} +S —
20 1.80 1,600,000 | +M —
21 1.7 2,100,000 | +M —
22 2.03 2,120,000 | +S _
23 1.90 2,200,000 | +S =
" 24 1.95 2,300,000 | +M —
25 2.45 2,600,000 | +L +VS
26 1.95 4,100,000 | +M —
27 1.93 4,700,000; +VS —
28 2.15 7,200,000 | +M —
29 2.19 8,600,000 | +M —
30 3. 65 10,200,000 | +L +L
31 1.90 10,500,000 | +M —
32 2.05 20,200,000 | +M —
33 1.95 20,400,000 | +M —
34 2.55 20,600,000 |} +L +L
35 2.10 21,200,000 | +L -
Pasteurized . . 1 1.68 2,000 | +S _
2 1.90 8,000 | +M —
1

1 See footnote under Table 1.

RESULTS OF TESTS WITH SAMPLES OF KNOWN BACTERIAL CONTENT.

When we consider the alcohol test in relation to the number of
bacteria in milk, a short survey of the results is sufficient to show
that there is no definite relation. Of the 35 samples of raw milk
which showed a positive test with 75 per cent alcohol, 16, or 45.7
per cent, contained less than 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter.
Of the 19 samples positive with 68 per cent alcohol, 8, or 42.1 per cent,
contained less, and 11, or 57.9 per cent, more than 500,000 bacteria
per cubic centimeter. Of the 5 samples positive with 44 per cent
alcohol, 2 samples, or 40 per cent, contained less, and 3, or 60 per cent,
more than 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. The number of
bacteria in samples which gave a positive alcohol test ranged from
2,100 to 21,200,000 per cubic centimeter.

The samples of pasteurized milk which showed a positive alcohol
test had a very low bacterial count.

In order further to show that the alcohol test has no definite
relation to the bacterial count, there are tabulated in Tables 18 and 19
the samples of raw and pasteurized milk which gave negative alcohol

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK. ae

tests, together with their acidity and bacterial counts. We wish to
call particular attention to the bacterial counts of 142 samples of
raw milk which ranged from 2,000 to 19,600,000 bacteria per cubic
centimeter. Of these 142 samples none gave a positive alcohol test,
yet 86, or 60.6 per cent, contained less than and 39.4 per cent more
than 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter.

The bacterial counts of the samples of pasteurized milk which gave
a negative alcohol test ranged from 1,200 to 3,600,000 per cubic
- centimeter, as may be seen from Table 19.

From our results we believe that there is no definite relation between
the alcohol test and the bacterial count, except in special cases where
the bacteria have developed to a point where there is sufficient acid
produced or where rennet-forming bacteria have acted sufficiently
to influence the test.

TABLE 18.—Acidity and bacterial count of samples of raw market milk which gave negative
alcoho! tests with 75 per cent, 68 per cent, and 44 per cent alcohol.

Sam- . Bacteria Sam- : Bacteria Sam- : Bacteria
ple ee per cubic ple ae id- per cubic ple elds per cubic
No. Y- | centimeter. || No. Y- | centimeter. || No. y- centimeter.

i|| asa 2,000 49] 1.82 82, 000 97 | 1.95 812, 000
2 2.10 5, 000 50 1.75 86, 000 98 1. 85 840, 000
3 1.85 6, 000 51 1.08 92,000 99 1. 80 860, 000
4 1.75 7,000 52 1.90 93, 000 100 1.60 880, 000
5 1.82 8, 000 53 1.85 93, 000 101 1. 62 906, 000
6 2. 05 8,000 54 1.60 105, 000 102 1.69 910, 000
7| 2.05! . 8,500 55 | 1.70 109,000 || 103] 1.90 910, 000
8 1.83 11,000 56 1.93 115, 000 104 1.90 910, 000
9 1.92 13,000 57 2.00 118, 000 105 1.80 920, 000
10 1.97 13, 000 58 1. 87 120,000 106 1,75 1, 040, 000
11 il 75 14, 000 59 2, 06 120, 000 107 1.75 1, 100, 000
12 2.00 14, 000 60 il 75) 130, 000 108 1.75 1,170, 000
130) 2515 16, 000 61} 1.75 132,000 || 109] 1.65] 1,200,000
14 2.10 18, 000 62 2. 00 147,000 110 1.70 1, 200, 000
15 17h 21,000 63 1.85 149, 000 111 1.90 1, 210, 000
16] 1.95 21, 000 64| 1.90 150, 000 112} 1.70| 1,400,000
17 1.62 22,000 65 1.90 157, 000 113 1.85 1, 400, 000
18 2.15 22,000 66 1. 48 160, 000 114 1. 85 1, 460, 000
19 1.80 25, 000 67 2.00 164,000 115 1. 80 1, 600, 000
20 1.52 26, 000 68 1.85 172, 000 116 2. 08 1, 600, 000
21 1.80 26, 000 69 1. 80 206, 000 117 1.70 1, 630, 000
22 1.95 26, 000 70 2. 00 210, 000 118 1.98 1, 710, 000
23 1.89 27,000 71 2.03 212, 000 119 2. 20 1, 800, 000
24) 1.65 29, 000 72| 1.90 214, 000 120} 2.10] 2,120,000
25 | 2.00 32, 000 73| 1.85 216,000 || 121] 1.74] 2,210,000
26| 1.60 33, 000 74.|. 2.00 220,000 || 122] 1.75 2,260,000
27| 1.84 33, 000 75 | 1.82 238,000 |} 123] 1.85] 2,340,000
28 1.65 34, 000 76 1. 83 238, 000 124 1.90 2,580, 000
29! 1.76 34, 000 771 2.00 242, 000 125] 1.85] 2,710,000
30] 2.10 35, 000 73 | 1.70 266,000 || 126] 1.71] 2,840,000
31 1.90 36, 000 79 2. 02 268, 000 127 1.70 2, 900, 000
32 1,97 36, 000 80 1.90 270, 000 128 1.80 2,920, 000
33 1.74 37, 000 81 1.80 278, 000 129 1.70 3,300, 000
34 1.75 37,000 82 1.80 310, 000 130 2.07 3, 800, 000
35 |. 1.55 38, 000 83 | 1.80 350, 000 131 | 1.85] 4,300,000
36 1.80 38, 000 84 1.75 360, 000 132 1.96 4,800, 000
37 | 2.00 39, 000 Sails ouaes 422,000 |} 133] 2.15 | 5,100,000
38 1.75 42,000 86 2.10 451, 000 134 2.05 5, 300, 000
39 1.81 42,000 87 1. 80 506, 000 135 1.80 5, 700, 000
40 1.70 43,000 88 2.05 510, 000 136 1.80 6, 400, 000
41 1.80 46, 000 89 1.90 560, 000 137 1.85 6, 900, 000
42| 1.78 51, 000 90} 1.75 610,000 |} 138] 1.90] 6,900,000
43 1.90 54, 000 91 2.10 620, 000 139 1.80 8, 800, 000
44 1. 86 56, 000 92 1.88 624, 000 140 1.90 | 12,600,000
45| 1.60 63, 000 93 | 1.70 640,000 || 141] 1.85 | 12,700,000
46 1.75 69, 000 94 1.74 740, 000 142 2.15 19, 600, 000
47| 1.90 74, 000 95 | 1.75 740, 000
48| 1.71 79, 000 96} 2.00 800, 000

24 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 19.—Acidity and bacterial count of samples of pasteurized market milk which
gave negative alcohol tests with 75 per cent, 68 per cent, and 44 per cent alcohol.

Sam- . Bacteria Sam- : Bacteria Sam- . Bacteria
Heid per cubic || ple Afids per cubic le pes per cubic
No. * | centimeter. || No. ‘Y* | centimeter. 0. * | centimeter.
1] 1.85 1, 20) 1.75 15, 000 39 | 1.85 104, 000
2 1.77 1, 200 21 1.70 16, 000 40 2. 05 110, 000
3 1. 66 1,900 22 1.65 16, 000 41 1.65 114, 000
4 1.75 3, 000 23 2.05 16, 000 42 1.76 120, 000
5} 1.66 4,000 24) 1.69 17, 500 43} 1.80 133, 000
6 1. 80 5,000 25 1.78 21, 000 44 1.75 194, 000
7 1.85 7, 000 26 1. 66 1,000 46 1.73 264, 000
8 1.85 7, 600 27 1.80 24, 000 47 1.70 284, 000
9 1.80 8,000 28 1.83 32, 000 48 1.90 340, 000
10 1, 80 9,000 29 1. 67 37, 000 49 1.76 446, 000
11] 1,71 9, 000 30] 1.96 41,000 50 | 1.85 720, 000
12] 1.75 11, 000 31] 1.75 52, 000 51 | 1.65 740, 000
13 1. 85 11,000 32 1.90 59, 000 52 1.75 940, 000
14 1.70 11,000 33 1.85 62, 000 53 1.74 1, 280, 000
15 1.65 12,000 34 1.85 64, 000 54 1.60 1, 660, 000
16 1.85 13, 000 35 1.70 65, 000 55 1.97 2, 460, 000
17 i, 7/55 14,000 ||’ 36 1.75 68, 600 56 1.60 3, 100, 000
18 1.75 15, 000 37 1.80 71, 000 57 2. 00 3, 600, 000
19 1. 80 15, 000 38 1.70 74, 000

In the early stages of the growth of acid-forming bacteria in milk,
when the numbers are low, there is a period in which a rapid increase
in numbers takes place without any increase in acidity which can be
detected by ordinary chemical methods, or it may occur with only a
slight increase in acidity; consequently if the alcohol test were made
during that period there would be a high bacterial count and yet not
high acidity enough to cause a positive alcohol test. The same is
true of the action of the rennet-forming bacteria in their growth and
action, as we have shown earlier in this paper when dealing with the
relation of acidity, and also the effect of rennet on the alcohol test.
Besides these facts there are other groups of bacteria which may
develop in milk and yet have no influence on the alcohol test, as, for
example, the alkali-forming group of bacteria. We have tried cul-
tures of this group of organisms and found that they did not produce
a positive alcohol test. There are other groups of bacteria in the
flora of milk, such as the inert group, which also would probably
develop without influencing the alcohol test in any way. When we
consider all these facts it is not strange that there is no definite
relation between the bacterial flora of milk and the bacterial count.

When the 68 per cent alcohol test is positive with a sample of
market milk, it is evidence that there is some change in the milk from
normal. In some cases it may be due to an increased acidity and in
consequence a change in the casein of the milk, due to bacterial
action. In other cases it may be due to a pure rennet fermentation
or there may be a combination of an acid-and-rennet fermentation.
In such eases the bacterial count would undoubtedly be high. How-
ever, there still remains to be explained the reason for a positive
alcohol test in samples of market milk with a low bacterial count and
low acidity.

fa ee I my.

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK, 25

We can not see that the alcohol test is of any particular value in
the control of a market milk supply except as a means of evidence
that milk from a particular source is abnormal in some way and
should be examined by other tests. It might be of value ata re-
ceiving station as a means of detecting sour milk, but the test would
be expensive compared with the use of alkaline tablets for the rapid
determination of acidity as described by Farrington and Woll (9).

THE TITRATION METHOD OF APPLYING THE ALCOHOL TEST.

From the simple alcohol test in which a definite volume of a definite-
percentage alcohol is added to an equal volume of milk there has
developed a method in which a definite volume of milk is titrated
with certain percentages of alcohol until a coagulation of the milk is
produced.

Loéhnis (16) has found this titration method to be of value as a test
for the quality of market milk. He found that there was quite a
definite relation between the titration with 80 per cent alcohol and
the bacterial content of market milk. He titrated 2 c. c. of milk in a
beaker against a black background with 90, 80, and 70 per cent alco-
hols, the titration being made at a temperature of from 15° to 20° C.
The first appearance of flakes was considered the end point.

We have used this method in the titration of 116 samples of market
milk furnished with bacterial counts by Dr. Kinyoun and Dr. Dieter,
‘of the Health Department of the District of Columbia. In our
titrations of 92 samples of raw and 24 samples of pasteurized milk we
have not found any definite relation between the titration with 90
per cent and 80 per cent alcohols and the bacterial count. In Table
20 is shown the acidity, bacterial counts, and alcohol titration of 92
samples of raw milk, and in Table 21 the results of an examination
of 24 samples of pasteurized milk. The bacterial counts of the raw
milk ranged from 2,100 to 20,600,000 per cubic centimeter, and the
pasteurized milk from 1,200 to 3,100,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter.
Consequently we were able to titrate samples having a great variation
in their bacterial content. If a study is made of the bacterial counts
and the alcohol titrations shown in Tables 20 and 21 it will be seen
that there is no definite relation between them. In order to bring
this point out more clearly the titrations of samples containing more
than 500,000 and less than 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter
have been averaged, as shown in Table 22. The average titration
with 90 per cent alcohol of 46 samples of raw milk containing more
than 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter was 1.95 c. c., while the
average titration of 46 samples containing less than 500,000 per cubic
centimeter was 2.39 c. c. The average titration of 46 samples with
80 per cent alcohol was 4.61 c. c. when the bacterial count was more

26 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

than 500,000 per cubic centimeter and 5.61 c. c. when the counts
were less than 500,000 per cubic centimeter. The average titrations
of the pasteurized milk samples showed even smaller differences.
The small differences in the average titration of samples with a high
and a low bacterial count show that there is little, if any, relation
between the alcohol titration and the bacterial count. This is shown
even more strikingly in Table 23, where the range in titrations
among samples grouped according to bacterial counts is recorded.
With these extreme ranges among samples of milk with high and low
bacterial contents it would be almost impossible to interpret an
alcohol titration in terms of bacteria.

TaBLE 20.—Alcohol titrations of raw market milk.

Alcohol titra- Alcohol titra-
Bacteria tion. Bacteria tion.
a Acid- | per cubic car Acid- | per cubic
5 ity. centi- a ity. centi-
é meter. | 90 per | 80 per i meter. | 90 per | 80 per
cent. | cent. cent. | cent.
Cc. C. che: cuc: Cc. Cc.
1 2.01 2,100 1.03 1. 86 47 1.80 | 506,000 1.50} 1.80
2 2.30 7, 000 -ol - 93 48 1.75 | 610,600 2.93 | 5.25
3 1.75 7, 000 2.17 5.30 49 2.10 | 620,000 1.80 | 5.10
4 1. 82 8, 000 2.76 4.54 50 1.88 | 624,000 2.91 | 9.20
5 2.05 8, 500 2.00 5.30 51 1.74 | 740,000 2.96 | 6.80
6 1.75 14, 000 2. 21 4.67 52 1.75 | 812,000 1.91 | 6.76
7 2.15 16, 000 2. 80 7. 60 53 1.80 | 860,000 1.62} 3.00
8 1.95 21,000 2.70 7. 43 54 1.62 | 906,006 1.68 | 3.30
9 1.91 24, 000 1.59 3.08 55 1.69 | 910,000 2.08 | 6.13
10 1.80 25, 000 3.29) 11.738 56 1.80 | 920,000 1.85 | 4.50
11 1.52 26, 000 3.12 7. 28 57 1.75 |1, 040, 000 1.92 | 4.37
12 1.65 29, 000 2.68 | 10.07 58 1.75 |1, 100, 000 2.36} 4.00
13 2.00 32,000 3. 64 9. 59 59 1.75 |1, 170, 000 2.20 | 6.04
14 1.60 33, 000 2. 56 5. 55 60 1.65 |1, 200, 000 1.90 | 5.76
15 1.65 34, 000 2.48 5. 61 61 1.76 |1,300, 000 2.72 | 6.59
16 2.10 35, 000 1.24 2.71 62 1.70 |1, 400, 000 1.63 | 3.74
17 1.75 37, 000 2. 26 4.40 63 1. 85 |1, 400, 000 2.36 | 4.42
18 1.80 38, 000 2.71 6. 50 64 1. 85 |1, 460, 000 3.04] 9.61
19 1.55 38, 000 3. 06 6. 92 65 1. 80 |1, 600, 000 1.23} 5.40
20 1.75 42,000 3.00 4.28 66 2.08 |1, 600, 000 2.51 | 5.94
21 1.80 46, 000 2.78 9. 68 67 1.70 |1, 630, 000 2.40 + 6.00
22 2.30 67, 000 - 50 1.1 68 2. 20 |1, 800, 000 1.30 | 2.37
23 1.75 69, 000 2. 58 5. 98 69 1.70 |2, 190, 000 1.16] 1.60
24 1.90 74, 000 3.03 6. 33 70 2.03 |2,120, 000 1.16} 2.34
25 1.71 79, 000 3. 50 6. 91 71 1.74 |2, 210, 000 2.10 | 3.96
26} 1.85] 93,000] 1.57] 4.36|| 72| 1.75 |2,260,000| 1.81] 4.12
27 1.70 | 109,000 3. 04 5. 20 73 1.85 |2, 340, 000 2.42) 4.78
28 1.87 | 120,000 2. 46 5. 80 74 2.45 |2, 600, 000 13 97
29 1.75 130, 000 1. 60 3. 20 75 1.71 |2, 840, 000 2.95 | 3.97
30 1.75 132, 000 2.12 10. 45 76 1.70 |2, 900, 000 2.12 6. 36
31 2.00 | 147,000 1.72 3. 80 77 1. 80 |2, 920, 000 3.00] 6.85
32 1.85 | 149,000 3. 54 8.17 78 1.70 |3,300, 000 2.80 | 6.30
33 1.80 | 160,000 1. 48 2.49 79 2.00 |3, 600, 000 1.90} 5.40
34 1.80} 206,000 3.16 5. 52 80 1.85 |4, 300, 000 2.05 | 5.00
35 2.00} 210,000 2.68 7. 00 81 1.93 |4, 700, 600 1.40 | 3.90
36 2.03 212, 000 2.35 5. 70 82 1.96 |4, 800, 000 1.46 | 2.70
37 1.90 | 214,000 1.68 4.52 83 2.05 |5, 300, 000 1.60 | 2.68
38 1.82} 288,000 2.75 7. 00 84 1. 80 |5, 700, 000 2.94 | 7.25
39 2.00 242, 000 1. 24 2.90 85 1. 85 |6, 900, 000 1.01 2.41
40 1.76} 266,000 1.95 3.94 86 2.19 |8, 690, 000 -92| 1.86
41 2.02 268, 000 2.57 5. 20 87 1. 80 |8, 800, 000 2.96 | 10. 83
42 1.90 270, 000 2. 74 4.45 88 1.90 |12,600,000 1. 83 5.10
43 1.80 | 278,000 3. 22 8.70 89 1.85 |12,700,000 1.40] 2.43
44 1.80 | 310,000 2.34 4.58 90 2.15 |19,600,000 1.56 | 3.10
45 1.80} 350,000 2. 68 4.67 91 1.95 |20,400,000 . 86 1.40
46 1.75 | 360,000 2.35 5. 20 | 92 2.55 |20,600,000 - 52 . 60

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK, ON,

TaBLE 21.—Alcohol titrations of pasteurized market milk.

Alcohol titra- Alcohol titra-
Sam- Bacteria tion. Sam- Bacteria tion.
le | Acid- | percubic |__——————CSs|séspile:*|:«Acid- | per cubic
Ro. ity. | centimeter. No. ity. | centimeter.
90 per | 80 per 90 per | 80 per
cent. cent. cent. | cent.
GNC: exes exes Cues
1 ile 1,200 2.20 5. 74 13 1.70 65, 000 2. 88 5. 04
2 1.70 11,000 2. 84 6. 76 14 1.75 68, 000 2. 40 5. 50
3 1.65 12,000 3.08 8.80 15 1.80 71, 000 2. 50 4.49
4 1.85 13, 000 1.56 4. 43 16 1.85 104, 000 2. 43 3. 96
5 1.75 14, 000 1.65 3. 10 17 1.70 120, 000 2.10 5. 96
6 1.75 15, 000 2522, 3, 42 18 laf) 194, 000 3.05 6. 01
7 1.70 16, 000 2.76 4.10 19 1.73 264, 000 2. 24 3.00
8 1.78 21,000 2.33 5.91 20 1.70 284, 000 2. 86 5. 48
9 1.80 24, 000 1.69 6. 10 21 1.76 446, 000 1.82 5.34
10 1.90 59, 000 ao 3. 68 22 1.60 | 1,600,000 2.10 4.78
11 1.85 62, 000 2.23 5.47 23 1.97 | 2,460,000 2.08 3. 66
12 1.60 63, 000 2.53 3. 24 24 1.60 | 3,100,000 3.53 7.07

TABLE 22.—Average alcohol titrations of samples of raw and pasteurized market milk in
tables 20 and 21.

Average alcohol
titration.
d Number | Bacteria per cubic
Milk, of fice cyt
samples. centimeter.
90 per 80 per
cent. cent.
Cx: caice

RAW acess 46 | More than 500,000 . 1.95 4, 61
46 Less than 500,000. . 2.39 5. 61

Pasteurized . . 3 | Morethan 500,000.. 2.57 5.17
21 | Less than 500,000. - 2, 28 5.02

TABLE 23.—Range in alcohol titrations of market milk shown in detail in tables 20 and 21.

Alcohol titration.

Bacteria per cubic centimeter. 90 per cent. 80 per cent.

Lowest. | Highest. | Lowest. | Highest.

cules O5 (2 Coie cic:
26 samples with less than 100,000. ....- 0.51 3. 64 0. 93 11.73
30samples with from 100,000 to 1,000,000 1.24 3.54 1.80 10. 45
36 samples with over 1,000,000......-.- ~52 3.04 - 60 10. 83

For the sake of clearness we have plotted in figure 1 the bacterial
counts and the 90 per cent alcohol titration. In this figure the
titrations of 116 samples of milk were plotted as ordinates and the
logarithms of the bacterial counts as abscisse. The numbers 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, and 8 represent the mantissa of the logarithms of the bacterial
counts. Consequently from 3 to 4 was plotted the logarithm of
samples with a bacterial count of from 1,000 to 9,999, from 4 to 5
counts from 10,000 to 99,999, and so on, as may be seen from the
figure. By this method of plotting it is possible to plot bacterial
counts ranging from low to high numbers, which would otherwise be

28 “BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

impossible in a limited space. A glance at the plot which shows the
90 per cent alcohol titration and the bacterial count of 116 samples
indicates clearly that there is no definite relation between them. In
figure 2 we have plotted in the same way the 80 per cent alcohol

a ; Ss C 7 j o

ZF
LOGISTHIA OF GACTEFRMAL COUNTS. :
AACE |, 4000~ 9,989 +L 14,000-99,999 «1» 100,000 999,999 +000, 000 -9.993,999 }-gc0qo00 339933994}

fh %

90% ALCOHOL.
“

ra)

CUBIC CENTIVIETERS OF

COUNTS
Fic. 1.—Relation o faleohol titration to the bacterial count of milk. Titrations of 116 samples of raw
; and pasteurized market milk with 90 per cent alcohol.
titration and the bacterial counts. It may be seen that among the
116 samples plotted there is a wide range in titration of samples
with low and high bacterial counts. Some samples with a low count
show a low titration and others a high titration. Among samples
with a high count some show a low and others a high titration.

LSACTERTAL
Couns » 4000-3999 +s 2000-33.999 + 109000-993,989 +> s00g000-3999999 > 12.009.000-82.99939994

Fic. 2.—Relation of alcohol titration to the bacterial count of milk. Titrations of 116 samples of raw
and pasteurized market milk with 80 per cent alcohol.

Our results indicate that there is no definite relation between
alcohol titration and acidity unless the acidity is more than about
2.20. This is shown in figure 3, where 116 samples are plotted ac-
cording to their acidity and titration with 90 per cent alcohol, and
also in figure 4, where the 80 per cent titrations and acidities are

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK. 29

plotted. The plots show that there is a wide range in the alcohol
titration at all acidities until they reach about 2.20, after which the
alcohol titration becomes lower in general as the acidities increase.
This fact holds true for the small number of samples at these high

1470 180 490 20 2/0 220 230 240
AGCATY.

Fic. 3.—Relation of alcohol titration to the acidity of milk. Titrations of 116 samples of raw and pas-

teurized market milk with 90 per cent alcohol.

2.50

CUBIC CENTIIFZETERS OF
IGOR ALCOVIOL.

acidities and would probably have been brought out more clearly if
we had had a larger number of samples with acidity above 2.20.

If we were dealing with pure cultures of organisms which influence
the alcohol test the titration with alcohol might be of value in giving
an idea of the bacterial numbers, as is shown in Table 24, from the

s+ § 8

S

S

My

Sy

N

(.)

G

250 460 470

430 490 <.00 2/0 220 250 240 250
ACIOITYX.

Fig. 4.—Relation of alcohol titration to acidity of milk. Titrations of 116 samples of raw and pasteur-

ized market milk with 80 per cent alcohol.

XK.

iS)

ty

CUBIC CENTIMETERS OF 0% ALCOVIOL.

N

~2

results of experiments in which we used pure cultures of lactic-acid
and rennet-forming bacteria. In milk, however, we have a varied
bacterial flora to contend with and we can not see from our results
that the alcohol titration method is of much greater value than the
simple alcohol test.

30 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 24,—Alcohol titrations of milk inoculated with pure cultures of bacteria.

Alcohol titra-
tion.
5 a Age of F Bacteria | a
Bape Culture. milk ten per cubic | 99 per | go me
culture. centimeter. canetallicantite
2c.¢. of | 2c.c. of
milk
Picateisd Lactic-acid bac- | Hours. c. ¢ c. C.
Olle ee se cee 0 1.95 64,000 3.08 | 8.88
2 1S Bococaoosace 2. 86 9.13
3 1.90 131,000 3.14 9. 42
4 1,95 120, 000 2.60] 9.52
5 1.95 361, 000 3.05 | 9.40
6 2.05 736, 000 3.05 | 8.85
63 2.07 | 1,660,000 1.85 | 7.08
Rennet-forming
bacteria....... 0 Ce in| met ie tera 3.12 | 9.02
2 1.90 1,600 3.03 | 9.52
3 1.95 70, 000 2.50] 9.48
4 2.03 230, 000 2.44] 9.83
5 2.04 | 2,850,000 3.20} 9.90 u
6 2.04 | 9,300,000 2.80} 8.12
63 2.07 | 11,100,000 1.87 | 6.18
Dime =k Lactic-acid bac-
Sarre es 2) tale 0 2.00 25, 000 3.33 | 12.55
2 2. 00 184, 000 3.58 | 13. 82
3 2.08 475, 000 3.52 | 11.18
7 4 2.04 | 1,710,000 3.73 | 9.85
5 2.18} 4,900,000 2.00 | 7.32
6 2.26 | 8,400,000 2.00} 5.50
7 2.33 | 22,500, 000 1.06} 1.79
Rennet-forming
bacteria....... 0 2.00 6, 100 3.32 | 18.95
2 2.00 51, 500 3.40 | 13.36
3 2. 00 234, 000 3.98 | 10.52
4 2.00} 1,325,000 3.57 | 9.35
5 2.00} 1,300,000 1.56 | 8.98
6 2.04 | 13,000, 000 1.25 | 2.93
7 2.20 | 21,800,000 0.83 | 1.21

THE ALIZAROL TEST.

When the alcohol has alizarin added to it to act as an indicator
for the acidity the alcohol test is known as the alizarol test. This
name was given to the test by Morres (21). The use of alizarin as
an indicator for the acidity of milk has been known for a long time,
but Morres (19) was probably the first to combine the alcohol and
alizarin test. He pointed out that the alcohol test was of more value
than the litmus test and that the combination with alizarin was
better than the combination of litmus and alcohol. Morres (20)
used a 68 per cent alcohol with 1.2 grams of fresh alizarin paste, or
0.4 gram of dry alizarin to 1,000 c. c. of alcohol. Two cubic centi-
meters of this alizarin-alcohol solution are mixed with 2 c. c. of milk,
the same as in the alcohol test. This author found that from the
coagulation by alcohol and the color of the alizarin it was possible
to obtain a picture of the condition of the milk. According to
Morres (20) the alizarol test shows the following conditions:

1. Lilac-red color. (Milk titrated 7° acid.)
(a) With no coagulation. The milk should keep sweet more than 6 hours.
(6) With fine flaky coagulation. The beginning of rennet production is shown
here.

(c) With heavy flocculent coagulation. This indicates advanced rennet forma-
tion.

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK. 31

2. Pale-red color. (Milk titrated 8° acid.)

(a) With no coagulation or only very fine coagulation. This shows the beginning
of lactic-acid fermentation.

(6) With flaky coagulation. Acid and rennet fermentation is indicated.

(c) With coagulation with very thick flakes. A mixed fermentation is indicated
with advanced rennet and the beginning of acid fermentation.

3. Brownish-red color. (Milk titrated 9° acid.)

(a) With coagulation with fine flakes. Well-advanced pure acid fermentation is
indicated.

(6) With coagulation with thick flakes. A mixed fermentation with advanced
rennet and strong acid fermentation is indicated.

(c) With coagulation with very thick flakes. A very advanced rennet production
and little less important acid fermentation is indicated.

4, Reddish-brown color. (Milk titrates 10° acid.)

(a) With flaky coagulation. Advanced pure acid fermentation is indicated.

(6) With thick flaky coagulation. Advanced acid fermentation and the begin-
ning of rennet production is indicated.

(c) With very thick flaky coagulation. A proportional mixed fermentation
which is well advanced is indicated.

5. Brown color. (Milk titrates 11° acid.)

(a) With thick flaky coagulation. Pure acid fermentation isindicated. Milk is
sour; to be detected by smell.

(6) With very thick flaky coagulation. Some rernet production and well ad-
vanced acid fermentation is indicated.

6. Yellowish-brown color. (Milk titrates 12° acid.)
(a) With very thick flaky coagulation. Acid fermentation is indicated. Milk
tastes acid.
7. Brownish-yellow color. (Milk titrates 14° acid.)
(a) With very thick flaky coagulation. Sour taste is distinctly noticeable.
8. Yellow color. (Milk titrates 20° acid.)

(a) With very thick flaky coagulation. Pure acid fermentation is indicated.
Milk smells and tastes strongly acid and is near the normal coagulation
point.

9. Violet color. (Milk titrates 7° acid.)
No fermentation is indicated, but the milk is abnormal.

Tt can not be disputed that a simple test which will picture con-
ditions in milk, as claimed by Morres, would be of considerable value.
But will the alizarol test indicate all that Morres claims? Devarda
and Weich (6) in 1913, after working with this test, decided that it
had no value over the alcohol test. In a later paper Devarda (7)
draws conclusions as follows:

1. For market control the alcohol test is satisfactory for the determination of the
quality of milk.

2. The assertion of Morres that the alizarol test can show a pure rennet and mixed
fermentation is without scientific or practical significance.

3. Ina pure lactic fermentation the alizarol test stands close to the acidity in its
color relation, but for the determination of the keeping quality of milk it is of slight
significance.

4. The diagnostic value of the alizarol test is limited to an empirical test for milk,
principally as to its suitability for cheese making which was already employed by
Eugling in 1882.

Th6éni (30), in a study of the milk supply of Berne, found that 12
of 85 samples examined were more or less abnormal, according to

32 BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the alizarol test. Among the other 73 samples of milk, which ac-
cording to the alizarol test were normal, there were samples which
had a high bacterial content and which were abnormal according to
the leucocyte and other tests. From his results Théni believes that
the alizarol test is not sufficiently delicate for use in market-milk
investigations. However, he believes the test is of value as a quick
means for detecting udder infection in animals.

It is evident that there is a diversity of opinion as to the value of
the alizarol test, and our experiments have not been extensive
enough for us to form a definite opinion in regard to it.

We have tried the test on a number of samples of milk and have
not been able to obtain all the color changes which are described by
Morres. When the acidity was slightly above normal we found a
change from lilac red to pale red and brownish red. In one sample
of milk we increased the acidity by the addition of lactic acid and
obtained the colors named below.

Amount of N/10 lactic rae :
= Svatseal AED @. OGG HIT. Acidity. |Color of alizarol test.

Normal milk........- 1.85 | Lilac red.

DCN OSs oo oe 2.10 | Pale red.
ASCRCS sain oer Nas 2.42 | Brownish red.
CONCHA Ce eee es mete 2.73 Do.

SiCUCHEE See ect a nee 3.00 Do.

1.5 ¢. ec. normal acid... 5.15 Do.

From our results we believe that alizarin will show slight changes
in the acidity when the acidity is low, but that the indicator did not
seem to be very sensitive to high acidities in milk. Morres (22), ina
paper in 1913, also states that alizarin is of greatest value in indi-
cating the first changes in acidity and that the color change is so
eradual at acidities over 16° that the test is of no particular value.

In regard to the value of the alizarol test we believe that wherever
the alcohol test can be considered of value, the addition of an indi-
cator, such as alizarin, may increase the value of the alcohol test by
possibly giving additional information as to acidity.

On account of the complexity of the bacterial fermentations in
market milk we do not believe that the alizarol test gives any very
valuable information as to the conditions existing in the milk.

CONCLUSIONS.

In conclusion, we wish to point out again that the alcohol test
must be considered from two standpoints: First, in its relation to
the milk from a single cow or small herd, and, second, in its relation
to mixed market milk.

As to the relation of the alcohol test to milk from a single cow, it
seems evident from the work of other investigators, which is con-
firmed to some extent by our results, that a positive 68 per cent

THE ALCOHOL TEST IN RELATION TO MILK. 33

alcohol test indicates some change in the milk from its normal con-
dition. In our opinion the value of the alcohol test with milk from
a single cow or small herd lies in the fact that it would show that the
milk was abnormal, and in consequence a careful examination should
be made of the herd.

When the relation of the alcohol test to mixed market milk is dis-
cussed, we must consider it on an entirely different basis. In this
case the test with 68 per cent alcohol may be positive as a result of
changes produced in milk through bacterial action. The results of
our work confirm some of the results of other investigators and show
that the alcohol test may be positive as a result of the growth in milk
of lactic-acid and rennet-forming bacteria. When the growth of
these bacteria has reached a point where the acid or rennet is pro-
duced in sufficient quantities to affect the casein, a coagulation is
produced when equal volumes of 68 per cent alcohol and milk are
mixed. Our results, however, do not show that there is any definite
relation between the alcohol test and the number of bacteria in milk.
During an examination of 177 samples of raw milk we found that 20
samples gave a positive test with 68 per cent alcohol. Of these 20
samples 8, or 42.1 per cent, contained less than 500,000, and 11, or
57.9 per cent, more than 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. It
was also found that 39.4 per cent of 142 samples of milk which gave
no positive alcohol tests contained over 500,000 bacteria per cubic
centimeter. That there is no definite relation is probably explained
by the fact that bacteria may increase in large numbers before there
is much acid or rennet produced. Consequently, if an alcohol test
were made during that period there would be a high bacterial content
and yet not enough change produced in the milk by acid or rennet
to cause a positive test. Besides this point it must be remembered
that in market milk there is a bacterial flora representing many dif-
ferent species, many of which may increase without eutinencing the
alcohol test.

As stated before, generally speaking, when the bacterial fermenta-
tions have Pam to a point where chemical changes are produced,
the alcohol test will be positive as a result of lactic or rennet fermen-
tations, or a mixture of both. In such cases the alizarol test may
be of more value than the plain alcohol test, so far as it may give
additional information as to the kind of fermentation. From our
results it seems evident that the acid-and-rennet fermentations may —
be differentiated by means of neutralization of the acidity by sodium
hydrate.

The alcohol titration method according to our tests seems to offer
no particular advantages over the alcohol test. In a study of 116
samples we were not able to find any definite relation between the
alcohol titration and the bacterial count.

34

dys

13.

14,

15.
16.

“Aye

18.

19.

BULLETIN 202, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

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Rammstedt, O. Kochprobe, Alkoholprobe und Séuregrad der Milch. Jn Zeit-
schrift fiir Offentliche Chemie, vol. 17, no. 23, p. 441-455, Plauen, Dec. 1911.
Reiss, F. Ueber eine schnellere und billigere Ausfithrung der Alkoholprobe in
den Milchhandlungen. Jn Molkerei-Zeitung, vol. 20, no. 3, p. 50-51, Hilde-

sheim, Jan. 20, 1906.

Reiss, F. Wie musz der Alkohol zur Priifung der Milch auf Kochfihigkeit
beschaffen sein? Jn Molkerei-Zeitung, vol. 18, no. 35, p. 831-832, Hildesheim,
Aug. 27, 1904.

Rihm, G. Untersuchungen iiber das Vorkommen und die Haufigkeit der Strep-
tokokkenmastitis bei Kthen. Jn Wochenschrift fiir Tierheilkunde und .
Viehzucht, vol. 52, no. 7, p. 125-130; no. 8, p. 147, Munich, Feb. 18, 1908.

Rullmann, W., and Trommsdorff, R. Milchhygienische Untersuchungen. In
Archiv fiir hygiene, vol. 59, no. 3, p. 224-265, Munich und Berlin, 1906.

Thoéni, J. Untersuchungen iiber die hygienisch-bakteriologische Beschaffenheit
der Berner Marktmilch mit Berticksichtigung des Vorkommens von Tuberkel-
bacillen. Jn Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde und Infektions-
krankheiten, Erste Abteilung, Originale, vol. 74, no. 1/2, p. 11-69, Jena,
May 27, 1914.

Weber, A. Die Bakterien der sogenannten sterilisirten Milch des Handels, ihre
biologischen Eigenschaften und ihre Beziehungen zu den Magen-Darmkrank-
heiten der Siuglinge, mit besonderer Berticksichtigung der giftigen peptoni-
sirenden Bakterien Fliigge’s. In Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheit-
samte, vol. 17, p. 108-155, Berlin, 1900.

32. Die neue Polizeiverordnung, betreffend den Verkehr mit Kuhmilch und Sahne

in Berlin. Jn Molkerei-Zeitung, vol. 16, no. 13, p. 225-226, Hildesheim, Mar.
29, 1902.

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a Th i ac ee

RPE TT

fy BULLETIN OF THE

co ) USDEDARTNENT OFACRCULIURE®,

No. 203

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
April 30, 1915.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

FIELD STUDIES OF THE CROWN-GALL OF
SUGAR BEETS.

By C. O. TowNsEND,
Pathologist in Charge of Sugar-Beet Investigations.

KINDS OF BEET GALLS.

There are at least two distinct but clearly related kinds of growths
occurring upon sugar beets which may be considered under the name
of galls. These have been designated as ‘‘tumors’’ and ‘‘tubercu-
losis’? in Bulletin No. 213 of the Bureau of Plant Industry. While
these two kinds of outgrowths are similar in external appearance,
especially in their early stages of development, their internal ap-
pearance and their subsequent behavior serve to distinguish the
tumor from tuberculosis. Internally, the outgrowths known as
tuberculosis of the beet show small, brownish, water-soaked areas,
as mentioned on page 194 of the bulletin cited, while the tumor is
free from these discolored areas. Externally, both kinds of galls
are usually smooth at first, but the tuberculosis galls eventually
become decidedly rough, cracked, and very dark, and finally decay.
This decay of the galls often causes the beet itself to rot, thereby
entailing more or less loss on the grower, according to the prevalence
of the disease. On the other hand, the tumor remains comparatively
smooth, seldom cracks, does not usually decay, and frequently
retains its firmness until the beets are harvested. The quality of the
galls and.their effect upon the beets from which they arise, as given
in this paper, relate for the most part to the tumor variety.

DISTRIBUTION OF BEET GALLS.

The abnormal outgrowths known in this country as crown galls
have been observed upon beet plants from time to time for more than
50 years. Indeed, as early as 1839 attention was called to these

1 Smith, Erwin F., Brown, Nellie A.,and Townsend, C.O. Crown-gall of plants: Its cause and remedy.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 218, p. 105,194. 1911.

82778°—B ull. 203—15

2 BULLETIN 203, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

peculiar growths upon beet roots, which were spoken of at that
time as warts. In 1859 some of these galls were described as larger
than the beet roots themselves and were looked upon as curiosities
and monstrosities. It appears from a study of the literature upon
the subject and from observations in the field from year to year
that this disease of the sugar beet has increased rapidly in recent
years and that it is still om the increase. Its presence has been re-
corded in many of the beet-growing countries of Europe, and in our
own country it has been found on the sugar beet from Virginia to
California. (Fig. 1.) In many localities where only a small number
of cases were observed a few years
ago, there are now hundreds and
sometimes thousands of galled beets
each year, especially if beets have
been followed by beets for several
years in the same field. On the
beet itself the galls may appear at
any point from the top of the crown
Fig. 1.—Map of the United States, the shaded to the extreme tip of the root. How-

portions showing the areas where sugar-beet ever, by far the largest number of

eoleeg pecn observed. galls are to be found at or near
the surface of the ground, and for this reason these growths have been
termed crown galls.

APPEARANCE OF BEET GALLS.

The outgrowths, or galls, on the beet do not usually appear until
the beets are from one-fourth to one-half grown; that is, until mid-
summer. From that time on, they may appear at any time until the
beets are harvested. Consequently, we may find at harvest time
galls in all stages of development, from tiny protuberances that have
just begun to grow to what might be called the full-grown gall,
several inches in diameter, as shown in Plate I, Ato K. Frequently,
these galls push out from the surface of the beet without any distinct
line of demarcation between the gall and the beet proper, as seen in
Plate Ii, B. In other cases the outgrowths are attached to the beet
by very slender necks or threads, and between these extremes may be
seen the full range of variation in relative size of the connecting
tissue. Whether large or small, the connections are short, so that
the gall almost invariably lies close to the beet from which it springs.
Sometimes but a single gall is produced on one beet, as shown in
Plate I, F to K, while in other instances several or many galls may
develop on the same beet, as illustrated in Plate II, A, B, C, and F.
In the latter case the galls may be distinct and separate (PI. I, A) or
they may occur in groups (Pl. II, B). It is not uncommon for the
entire crown of the beet to be covered with a mass of galls (Pl. I, £).

FIELD STUDIES OF THE CROWN-GALL OF SUGAR BEETS. 3

Usually the galls with slender attachments occur singly, although there
may be several on the same beet, while the galls occurring in groups
usually have broad bases without any distinct line between the gall
and the beet. In the early stages of development—that is, when the
galls are young—their surfaces are bright, resembling the surface of
the beet proper and indicating active growth; but as the galls grow
older they become darker, especially if they are above the surface of
the ground. In this way their relative ages may be easily determined.
When galls have begun to form they usually increase in size most
rapidly on those beets that are making the most rapid growth.

CAUSE OF BEET GALLS.

The primary cause of the formation of crown galls on the sugar
beet and many other plants was for a long time in doubt. Few plant
diseases have given rise to more extended investigations than has
the so-called crown-gall. Different investigators have assigned the
origin of these abnormal growths to a great variety of causes, ranging
from slime molds to mechanical injuries. However, the investiga-
tions set forth in Bulletins Nos. 213 and 255 of the Bureau of Plant
Industry’ prove conclusively that a bacterium or several closely
related bacteria are responsible for the origin and development of
these outgrowths belonging to the class of so-called crown gails.
The organism producing ‘‘tumors” is known as Bactervum tume-
faciens (Smith and Townsend) and the one producing ‘“‘tuberculosis”’
is designated as B. beticolum (Smith)?

The most extensive work on mechanical injuries as the cause of
gall formations on sugar beets has been carried on by Spisar.? There
seems to be no proof, however, that the organism which is capable
of producing galls on sugar beets was not present in the fields in which
Spisar carried on his experiments. It is apparent that a mechanical —
injury offers a favorable place for the organism to enter the plant,
yet the indications are that gall formations will not result from
mechanical injuries unless the gall-producing organism is present.
In the field studies on the crown-gall of beets carried on by the writer
for several years, it has been frequently noted that when galls begin
to appear on the beets in a given field they are at first few in number,
increasing from year to year if beets continue to be grown in that
field. It has also been noticed that if badly infested fields are

followed one or two years with a grain crop and then returned to

1 Smith, Erwin F., Brown, Nellie A., and Townsend, ©. O., op. cit.

Smith, Erwin F., Brown, Nellie A., and McCulloch, Lucia. Thestructureand development of crown-
gall: A plant cancer. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 255, 60 p., 2 fig., 109 pl. 1912.

2 These organisms are described in Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 213, which may be obtained from
the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, for 40 cents, 10 cents additional being
required for postage to foreign countries.

3 Spisar, Karl. Uber die Bildung des Zuckerriiben-Kropfes. In Ztschr. Zuckerindus. Béhmen, Jahrg.
36, Heft 1, p. 1-17, fig. 1-6; Heft 2, p. 57-72, fig. 7-11. 1911.

4 BULLETIN 203, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

beets, the galls are greatly reduced in number after one year in grain
and practically eliminated after two years. It is true that when galls
are present in a field of beets they are frequently more numerous
near the ends of the rows, where the greatest amount of mechanical
injury is produced by the horses and cultivator in turning. (See
Pl. Il, H and F.) However, adjacent fields and even parts of the
same field not previously in beets, but in which the beets at the time
of the observation were subjected to the same mechanical injuries,
were free from galls (Pl. II, PD), regardless of the fact that the soil,
climatic conditions, and cultural methods were the same. While
certain plant galls and callus formations may be produced by other
agencies, all extensive laboratory, greenhouse, and field studies on the
crown-gall of sugar beets lead to the conclusion that in this country
the true crown-gall formations of this class are produced by bacteria.

QUALITY OF BEET GALLS.

In topping beets from which sugar is to be obtained, it is customary
to cut off the.crowns at the line of the lowest leaf scar. The reason
for rejecting the crowns, as generally known, depends on the fact
that as a rule they contain a high percentage of salts, which tend to
prevent the sugar from crystallizing in the mill. In the process of
topping the beets it frequently happens that a part or all of the galls
that occur on the beets are so located that they are left on the root
(Pl. I, F to K) and are, therefore, put through the mill. . In order to
find out whether or not the galls might affect injuriously the juices
in the mill, a series of tests was made to determine the quality of the
galls as compared with the beet crowns and roots. The results of
these tests are given in Table I, the analytical work for this and the
succeeding table having been performed at the Garden City, Kans.,
laboratory by Mr. C. A. Hauser. -

TasBLe I.—Sugar tests of beets affected with crown-gall.

Average | solidsin | Sugar i
garin | Coefficient | Sugar in
Part of beet tested. ae ocd juice. juice. of purity. | part tested.
Experiment 1: Ounces. Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
CTU ished ot See Rea UE OR I Rap a Ae FY 2 3.2 15.32 9. 00 58. 74 5.0
OWA See etsy ett ELIS 13.6 14.10 10.10 71. 63 8. 90
TVOO TSH A Sere ye ee a 24.0 14.30 11.00 76. 92 10. 00
Experiment 2:
Gallspe ee eee e kik eee Reh eee eee 2 4.0 15. 60 8.10 51.92 4.60
CLO WTS ES ore hee nn ene ne Sey ype eg 11.2 12.70 8. 20 64.56 7.50
TOOLS ese aoe a- S aoa meee eee 25.6 14.10 11.00 78. OL 10. 20
Experiment 3
ee ORNS Sere c BORA oe ete Ee Sar 352 16. 00 9. 20 57.50 7.10
Crownshschss Sees aie eae ee eee 13.6 15. 40 10. 80 70. 20 10. 20
HVOOTS eae cise sae eee Be ee ie 29.8 15. 00 11.40 76. 00 10.70
Experiment 4;
(GINS) i ea a RE Soa COR Sr 5.6 15.30 7.80 50. 98 7.00
TO WAIS Pe eee ee Re ene eit Se Nate 18. 4 13.10 9. 00 68. 70 8. 40
JRVOO ASE SA th BIO Ste nr cleats i Mere eC fe 32.8 13.10 10. 10 77.09 10. 00
Experiment 5
ELS ie SS a ah te ae 8.0 16. 60 9.10 54. 81 5.90
Cro Wr ee eT ae ee nea 18.4 14. 60 9.90 67. 80 8.50
MOOS eee sac sean ve be inde Geek eee 44.8 14.10 10.50 74. 46 9.00

Bul. 203, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

seedy
kas

sh re

ones

¢

GALLED SUGAR BEETS, SHOWING THE VARIOUS LOCATIONS OF THE GALLS.

Bul. 203, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

SUGAR BEETS, SHOWING GALLS APPEARING SINGLY AND IN GRoups (A, B AND C) AND
THE RELATION OF INJURY TO GALL FORMATION (D, E, AND F).

{

FIELD STUDIES OF THE CROWN-GALL OF SUGAR BEETS. 5

TasLe I.—Sugar tests of beets affected with crown-gall—Continued.

Average | golidsin | Sugar in | Coeffici gar i
: gar in oefficient | Sugar in
Part of beet tested. TEN juice. juice. of purity. | part tested.
Experiment 6: Ounces. Percent. | Percent. | Percent. | Per cent.
Gillis. 5 Sgt ae SS es eee ae eee eee .2 17. 46 11.10 63.57 10. 40
CURES ISS 6 SS Re a ee 8.0 18. 40 14. 40 78. 26 12.50
LOO EME Shere ree codes oe eee one 30. 4 19.56 16. 80 85. 88 14.00
Experiment 7
GAPS} Jy SE len SS See Se 2.4 17.20 9.10 52. 90 8.30
(CTO See ee ee 7.2 18.76 15. 40 82. 08 13.10
INGCUS ogee ee eee 22. 4 17.76 14. 80 83.33 13.50
Averages: °
(STIS caer peel a a gee ae ee 4, 23 16. 21 9.05 55. 60 6. 90
REISE nyse (is en's cos sta Saban see 12.91 15. 29 11.11 72. 03 9. 87
GUIS 255009 See eae 29. 97 15. 41 12. 23 78. 81 11.06

In preparing the material for the analyses which form the basis of
this table badly galled beets were taken in groups of five in order to
get a sufficient quantity of juice from the galls to make purity as
well as sugar determinations of the galls themselves. After removing
the leaves only, the beets were thoroughly washed afd weighed. The
galls were then carefully removed and the beets again weighed. The
crowns were then removed and the roots weighed. The three lots of
material from each group of five beets were prepared and put through
the test for sugar and purity as quickly as possible after the beets
were taken from the ground. A study of Table I shows that the
galls are decidedly lower in both sugar and purity than even the
crowns. It is evident, therefore, that any considerable number of
galls on the beet roots would be decidedly injurious to the sugar
recovery in the mill, since the large amount of salts in the galls, as
indicated by the low purity coefficient, would keep approximately
one and a half times as much sugar from crystallizing. Hence, it
would be advisable to remove any galls that are attached to the
beets below the crowns at the time of topping the beets.

It might not be out of place in this connection to call attention to
the high quality of the crowns in some cases, as shown especially in
experiment 7. It is possible that the salts were taken up by the
galls to the improvement of the crowns to some extent. On the
other hand, it is possible that the quality of the crowns might be
greatly improved by proper selection, so that the matter of crown
tare would not be such an important factor in handling factory beets
as it is at present. }

EFFECTS OF GALLS UPON QUALITY AND SIZE OF ROOTS.

In an effort to get some definite information regarding the effect of
the galls upon the quality of the roots to which they are attached, a
series of comparative tests was made between galled beets and beets
free from galls. In selecting the beets for these tests a badly galled

6 BULLETIN 203, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

beet was taken as soon as it was loosened by means of the plow at
harvest time, and for comparison another beet was chosen, free from
galls, but as nearly the same size and shape as could be found growing
in the same row, close to the galled beet. After selecting in the
manner described the 26 pairs of beets which form the basis of
Table If, each beet was topped, washed, and the galls carefully
removed from the galled beet of each pair. The individual roots
were then tested for sugar and purity, with the results shown in
Table Ii.

TaBLe I1.—Comparison in sugar content and purity of galled beets with beets net so

affected.
ket Solids in Sugar in | Coefficient | Sugar in
Condition of beets. juice. juice. of purity. He HERE
Test No. 1: Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
13. 70 10. 00 72.99 8. 30
18.10 13. 80 76. 24 12. 20
13.90 10. 50 75. 35 9. 20
18. 00 13. 80 76. 66 12. 80
17. 60 14. 50 82. 38 11. 70
21.92 18. 60 84. 85 16. 80
15.77 13. 20 83. 70 11. 20
21.50 18. 70 86. 97 16. 80
15. 70 12. 80 81. 52 10. 90
20.20 17.10 84. 65 16. 80
16. 30 13.10 80. 36 11. 40
20. 20 17.10 84. 65 16. 80
16. 47 13. 20 80.14 11. 20
20.17 16. 40 81.30 15.10
10. 85 9. 30 85. 71 8. 50
18.90 15. 60 82. 53 14. 00
15. 27 12. 40 81. 20 11. 70
16.77 13.90 82. 83 13. 40
CRIT ae Sears sd 9 ete ae Se 1 a ep a Se 16. 40 13. 80 84.14 13.10
FINO Feral S ee ee Gs Seah Pe ES Oe eerie epeeeiesye ae en 15.77 12. 80 81.16 12.00
Test No. 11:
(EE MIVEYs eres is elles eS eG ay CRE CS aR 16. 23 12.10 74. 55 11. 20
INOT IGE See aase Sor oeEEeeS er emneEne as cS sAaueben ee 22. 56 19.10 84. 66 18. 50
Test No. 12:
CGH Wey | SAU Ss iss Pp tee Seem pS eS Tk 3 Si ena 18.77 14. 00 74. 58 11.50
ANID Teal SMCS sO Aa PES RE S eea 22.99 18. 20 79.13 17.30
Test No. 13: :
(CN A Ueto nO Me ian Dra NR Hey ACL Meee A «Gh ian Se 18. 20 14. 80 Siysl i 14.10
SINOG al SUNS Os oie, Sie SURES A nel 18.77 15. 00 79.91 13. 80
Test No. 14:
CERI PSRs 5 ees inn mine eee See mae es rel ye ream tay 5 17. 60 15.40 | 87. 50 14. 30
NON AALS eae eH ak 9a NEES EE EE ee 19. 40 16. 40 84. 53 16. 00
Test No. 15:
(CIE LE VG Ieee Nene ~ he atpens On 2 CIN AU Ceci Ne Wee ee CoS 18. 07 14, 50 80. 24 13.10
SING Nees Se ele ea SE ps ante Ra) ee 19. 50 16.10 82. 56 16. 00
Test No. 16:
(GSH eys nee ND ues ae Nee ae aaa | eal eh Le OTN ae 8 18. 27 15. 10 82. 64 14.10
INORG ALS ea es Ae Dery Se ioe CA Spe en oe D100) 16.00 78.04 15. 70
Test No. 17:
GAT Gis score ee ep ar ala a Oe NB 18. 60 14. 80 79. 56 13.10
INO (oalisHeS 5. te Oe he oe Sa a a eee I Se ee ee 22. 43 19.00 84.70 18. 20
Test No. 18:
(GN Gia toe Set ee a ee i pe ae ne ake a 21.00 17.00 81. 42 15. 40
INO gale: CUSMe Ieee NAS See Cee ee oe 21.30 17.90 84.03 16. 80
Test No. 19:
CCUG Ue Se Ae eet ea oe ee SNe ee eee Ae 22. 40 18.90 84.37 17. 20
IN OF aU Soe aE e Seal ee ras pape GL SEN eh ae petted vectra 23. 00 19. 20 83. 47 17. 20
Test No. 20: 3
CATA yo) ell TA OPI et ene ce eit Oye en So 16.92 14.00 82. 74 14.00
IN OPaTIS Eran: see ace e Sone Cane eee ee cameron mes 14, 40 12.10 84.02 11. 80

{

FIELD STUDIES OF THE CROWN-GALL OF SUGAR BEETS. 7

Tasie I1.—Comparison in sugar content and purity of galled beets with beets not so
affected—Continued.

aps Solids in Sugarin | Coefficient | Sugar in
Condition of beets. juice. juice. of purity. | the beet.
Test No. 21: Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
Gaede Sasa ae ae Hoss ea aoe oo ee ce wee eS 18. 80 16. 50 87. 76 16. 30
No galls S25 f222bte2- esi lt Jew annie Sas seeeeee See 18. 32 15.90 86. 79 15. 20
Test No. 22:
GA CC pee ey ct kk Che ee aernn Secs nce ene Dae e ee 16. 42 13.30 80. 99 12. 60:
IOP Sal Se eee Vee ei ince meta ems ee aeinie cas sce Sea ae 16. 62 13.90 82. 39 12. 40:
Test No. 23
rN CU eee ese se ates ae celine ceeloncee Seana core 16. 50 13. 40 81. 21 11. 70:
ING SUSE Soe ee He Ses ae SA ee ee re a eee at 17.72 14. 60 82.39 13.90
Test No. 24
CUE aes ae Sean ae anionic wis memes owes Salas 18. 70 15.30 81. 81 14, 20
IO GRIGY CS cada peseeeaetceneauacsoceRncseacuseapae ae 22.12 18.00 81.37 16. 70
Test No. 25
(Gaillag | 2S ease a oka ndem Sp peee Secs SEee naBe lesa aeSan 14. 87 13.00 87. 42 12. 20
IN GelllS. 5222s cos asesesa9ssshses eset esoseseccasnss 22.97 19.30 84. 02 17. 60
Test No. 26:
Gallet = aah Se despeSsaetecc see per ose serene resize 19.07 15. 20 79. 70 13.90
IN® Malle: Sse seberedaessoschsopdee sa aauns Semmedsoscan 16.07 13. 60 84. 62 12. 50
Average :
WEG eS os se apneic iiae at oamigeeh Soe eee ce lee 17.01 13. 85 $1.35 12. 54
ING GgllBy sos sscccbenonsesececcasacess Beccaceraon 19. 66 16. 21 82.15 15.18

A study of Table II indicates that gall formations on sugar beets
have a tendency to reduce both the sugar content and the purity
of the roots. The effect upon the sugar content seems to be more
marked than upon the purity. Everyone who has studied the indi-
viduality of the sugar beet knows that there is a difference in the
sugar content and purity of healthy beets growing side by side in
the same row. It is not surprising, therefore, that an occasional
pair shows qualities favorable to the galled beets, as in tests Nos.
10 and 21 of Table II. It is safe to say, however, that in the great
majority of cases the formation of galls upon the roots of sugar beets
has a decidedly injurious effect upon either the purity or the sugar
content or upon both these factors of quality in the beet root.

It seems to be practically impossible to obtain any accurate data
regarding the effect of galls upon the size of the roots affected. We
find the largest as well as the smallest beets more or less seriously
infested with galls, as shown in Plate I, A to £, and it is impossible
to know whether the galled beets would have been larger or smaller
if they had been free from galls. In some infested areas the larger
beets are more generally galled, while in other infested areas the
smaller beets are the ones most generally affected; and since the
individuality of the beet embraces the size and shape, as well as the
quality of the roots, a satisfactory comparison of the weights of the
galled and not galled beets has not been practicable in any of the
areas that have come under the observation of the writer. So far
as one can judge from general field observations, however, the galls
do not seem to have any marked effect upon the size of the beets.
Consequently the tonnage or yield of beets per acre does not seem
to be appreciably affected by the disease except in those cases in which
the galls cause the beet roots to decay.

3 BULLETIN 203, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CONTROL OF BEET GALLS.

From our present knowledge of the cause of the crown-gall of
beets, combined with the field observations already made upon this
disease, its elimination or control becomes comparatively simple.
As already suggested, a beet field badly infested with the crown-gall
organism may be freed from the pest by growing some other crop
in that field for two or more years before returning to sugar beets.
It is necessary only that the rotation crops other than beets shall
be such as are not readily attacked by the crown-gall organism.
In Bulletin No. 213 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, already men-
tioned, it is pointed out that the crown-gall organism will attack
a large number of plants in a great variety of families, but there are
plants which are attacked with difficulty, if at all, by this organism.
In the test mentioned in this bulletin the crop grown was oats, but
it is safe to say that any of the small grains, corn, kafir, milo, or
sorghum would do well. If only those crops are grown upon which
the organism can not feed and thrive, it must eventually. die out
and the field be left free from the pest. The elimination of crown-
gall is, therefore, a simple matter of wise crop rotation, which as a
matter of good farming should be practiced by every farmer regard-
less of the presence of crown-gall.

SUMMARY.

(1) There are at least two distinct types of sugar-beet galls.

(2) The crown-gall of sugar beets is caused by a bacterium or a
number of closely related bacteria.

(3) Sugar-beet galls appear to have an injurious effect upon the
quality of the roots.

(4) The galls themselves are low in purity and therefore detr-
mental in the milling processes.

(5) Sugar-beet galls sometimes cause the beet roots to decay,
but, so far as general field observations can determine, they do not
appear otherwise to affect the tonnage.

(6) This disease may be held in check by a proper system of crop
rotation with grain-producing plants.

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WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1915

BULLETIN OF THE

USDEPARTNENT OFAGRICULIURE

No. 204

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Ge

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CZ

CR SOs

Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief,
May 21, 1915.

REPORT ON THE GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW
ENGLAND.’

By A. F. Bureuss,
In Charge of Gipsy Moth and Brown-Tail Moth Work.

INTRODUCTION.

On March 1, 1913, the gipsy-moth work conducted by the Bureau
of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, was reorgan-
ized, and the writer was placed in charge under the direction of the
chief of the bureau.

The object of this Federal work is to use every measure possible
to prevent the spread of the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth?
to uninfested parts of the United States.

The main office, which is maintained at 43 Tremont Street, Bos-
ton, Mass., furnishes quarters for the men in charge of the main
projects and the necessary clerical force. The Gipsy Moth Labora-
tory, which serves as headquarters for the experimental work, is
located at Melrose Highlands, Mass., although one branch of this
work is conducted at the Bussey Institution at Forest Hills, Mass.
During the past two years a summer laboratory has been main-
tained for special experiments at Worcester, Mass. A storehouse is
located at Melrose Highlands, Mass., where the necessary tools and
equipment are stored and repaired.

The work is divided into two distinct lines: (1) Field work, con-
sisting of scouting, and applying hand methods for controlling these
insects, as well as a thorough inspection of the plant products shipped
from the infested area, and (2) experimental work, which includes
the introduction of parasites and natural enemies, together with care-
ful studies of the food plants and other factors, in order to devise
more efficient and effective methods of control, as well as an investi-
gation of the relation of silviculture to the gipsy-moth problem. A

1 This publication is prepared to show the different lines of work which are being taken up and the
results that have been secured.

2 The life history, habits, and methods for controlling these insects haye been published in Farmers’
Bulletin 564, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

82942°—Bull. 204—15——1

2 BULLETIN 204, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

general outline of the problems and investigations and the differ-
ent activities of the work has already been published! in the Journal
of Economic Entomology.

During the fiscal year which ended June 30, 1914, an average of
275 men was employed. The greater number were engaged in
field operations, but a force of approximately 40 men were employed
on different phases of experimental projects.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK.

In carrying on measures for the control of any imsect pest it is
necessary to conduct many experiments in order to determine the
means which are most feasible for reducing the damage. For more
than 20 years experiments have been carried on more or less con-
tinuously by the State of Massachusetts and other States to which
the gipsy moth has spread, as well as by the Bureau of Entomology,
for the purpose of perfecting field measures for holding the insect in
check, and from time to time improvements have been made which
have reduced the cost of handling infested areas. Spraying ma-
chinery has been developed so that at the present time it is entirely
practical to treat large areas at a moderate cost. The banding of
trees with tanglefoot has largely replaced the use of burlap bands
and reduced the cost of this method of treatment. In fact, so much
work has been done along these lines that the best methods of treat-
ment are well understood and practiced in the areas where the gipsy
moth is prevalent. Minor improvements are being made from time
to time but in general satisfactory methods of hand suppression
have been adopted. 5

In 1905, when the Federal gipsy-moth work was being organized, it
was considered very necessary and desirable to introduce the parasites
and natural enemies which occur in foreign countries of both the
gipsy moth (Porthetria dispar L.) (Pl. 1) and the brown-tail moth
(Huproctis chrysorrhoea L.) (Pl. 11). The idea was prevalent that
by securing and liberating these natural checks on the increase of
these species, it would be possible greatly to reduce the damage, and
it was hoped that the parasites would bring the pests as well under
control as is the case in Kurope. Accordingly arrangements were
made by Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology, for
the collection of a large amount of parasitic material in various
Huropean countries, and later similar arrangements were made with
entomologists in Japan. This work was carried on for the first five
years in cooperation with the State of Massachusetts. Several agents
of the Bureau of Entomology have been sent to Kurope on different
occasions to investigate conditions and forward to this country as
large an amount of parasitized material as could be collected. For
two seasons this work was conducted by Mr. W. F. Fiske, who was
assisted in the summer of 1912 by Mr. L. H. Worthley. Various

1 Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 7, No. 1, p. 83-87, Feb., 1914.

GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 3

assistants and collectors were engaged to obtain parasitized material
which was forwarded to the Gipsy Moth Laboratory at Melrose
Highlands, Mass. After the completion of the foreign work in 1912,
it appeared that not only were the parasites, and a contagious dis-
ease known as the ‘‘wilt,’”’ prime factors in controlling the gipsy
moth in Europe, but in addition to these a pronounced obstacle to
the increase of the pest arose from the fact that forest conditions,
particularly in Germany, furnished in the main unfavorable food for
the caterpillars. The observations indicated that this factor, in
addition to the natural enemies already mentioned, was responsible
for rendering the gipsy moth of slight importance to forest growth
except at periodic intervals.

In 1912 a number of areas were under observation by Mr. Worthley
in the forests of Germany, and at that time the infestation was severe.
Deciduous trees in these areas were defoliated and in some cases
many trees completely denuded of foliage. Similar studies were
made by Mr. Fiske in Italy, where a few infestations were found
which were more serious, if possible, than those observed in the Ger-
man forests. During the summer of 1913 no agent of the bureau
was engaged in making foreign observations on the gipsy moth. It
seemed best in the spring of 1914 to have the areas in Germany
revisited for the purpose of determining the result of the previous
infestations and to secure data on the increase or the decrease of the
species. Accordingly, early in the spring of that year, Dr. John N.
Summers, who for a number of years had been in general charge of
the parasite work at the Melrose Highlands Laboratory, was detailed
to visit the areas mentioned and to secure all the data possible on the
fluctuations of the gipsy moth, as well as to obtain parasitic material
for shipment to this country, in case it could be found in collectible
quantities. The result of this work has been reported by Dr. Sum-
mers, and it appears that in no place in Germany where the insect
was reported in 1912 was there a severe or even moderate infestation
in 1914. It was impossible, therefore, to obtain parasitized material,
and in most cases the insect was so rare that little data beyond the
mere fact that it still existed in the areas could be secured. .

About the middle of June a report wag received that a heavy infes-
tation of the gipsy moth occurred in the Province of Bereg, Hungary.
This information was received from Dr. Josef Jablonowski, and Dr.
Summers was instructed to take up his investigations in that region.
Unfortunately it was impossible for him to arrive in the infested
forest until after the feeding of the caterpillars was finished and most
of the eggs for the new brood of moths had been laid. Parasites were
not present to any marked extent at this time, which was not sur-
prising, owing to the fact that the observations were made too late
in the season. Some evidence was secured that the wilt disease was
present in the area, but a fairly good increase of the species was noted
except at points where the trees had been completely denuded and
where the caterpillars had died from starvation or had moved to

4 BULLETIN 204,.U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

adjoining tree growth in search of food. Dr. Summers estimates that
not less than 5,000 acres were almost completely defoliated in the
forests in Hungary where he made his observations. The growth
consisted entirely of hardwoods; the oak predominating, and a
species of Carpinus, beech, and maple occurring in the order men-
tioned. A few elm trees were also present.

The results of the European investigations carried on during the
past few years, aside from furnishing a good supply cf parasitic
species, has proved beyond question that as far as the forests are
concerned the character of the growth is of prime importance from -
a gipsy-moth point of view. Coniferous forests predominate in Ger-
many, and these are not injured by the gipsy moth. The deciduous
forests in that country are not large, and the injury is periodical and
severe. In Hungary large deciduous forests are present and the
infestation is more or less common from year to year. Severe defolia-
tion usually continues for about three years before a marked decrease
of the moth is observed, and then a few years pass before another
outbreak is noticed. This information, with certain data which have
been collected in this country for the past few years relative to the
increase or decrease of the gipsy moth under New England forest con-
ditions, together with a careful study of the feeding habits of the
gipsy-moth caterpillar in all its stages on the various species of tree
growth, and the beneficial influence which is bemg felt to a greater
extent each year as a result of the increase of the parasites and
natural enemies of the moth and the severity of the wilt disease, all
point the way to more effective methods of handling the gipsy-moth
problem. :

The different phases of the experimental work, as it is being carried
on, will be touched upon briefly in order to indicate the changed con-
ditions which are being brought about in the infested area in New
England.

PARASITE WORK.

As has already been stated, the first attempts to introduce the
parasites and natural enemies of the gipsy moth and brown-tail moth
were begun in 1905. In all more than 30 enemies of these insecis,
which are present to a greater or less extent in their native homes,
have been introduced into New England. More than half of the
species have been received in sufficient numbers so that colonies
could be liberated under field conditions, and they have had an
opportunity to demonstrate their ability to withstand climatic con-
ditions and to become established in this country. As should be ©
expected, a large number of the species have failed to survive~ A
few have been recovered from year to year, showing that while they
have the ability to maintain themselves, they have not yet been
able to increase to a sufficient extent to become a useful factor in
controlling their hosts. A few species have become established and
are increasing satisfactorily. In fact, some of them are making sufh-
cient headway so that they have already become a very appreciable

Bul. 204, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

THE Gipsy MOTH (PORTHETRIA DISPAR).

Upper left, male moth with wings folded ; just below this, female moth with wings spread ;
just below this, male moth with wings spread; lower left, female moth, enlarged; top
center, male pupa at left, female pupa at right; center, larva; on branch, at top, newly
formed pupa; on branch; just below this, larva ready to pupate; on branch, left side,
pup; on branch, center, egg cluster, on branch, at bottom, female moth depositing egg
cluster. All slightly reduced except figure at lower left. (From Howard and Fiske.)

Bul. 204, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

TJovensrs piy Ke

THE BROWN-TAIL MOTH (EUPROCTIS CHRYSORRHOEA).

Upper left, hibernating web; just below this, small larvee feeding at left, larger larva at right;
just below this, female moth depositing eggs at left, egg mass at right; lower left, egg mass
with eggs exposed ; top center, male pupa at left, female pupa at right; upper right. cocoon
ineased in leayes; lower right, male moth above, female moth below. All slightly reduced.
(From Howard and Fiske.)

GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 5

factor in reducing the infestation of the gipsy moth even under our
adverse food-plant conditions. The most valuable species will be
mentioned briefly in order to give an idea of their habits.

Fie. 1.—Anasiatus bifasciatus: Adult female. Greatly enlarged. (From Howard.)

Two species of minute hymenopterous parasites which attack the
eggs of the gipsy moth have become established in New England.
One, Anastatus bifasciatus Fonsc. (fig. 1), occurs in Europe and
Japan, and although only one brood of this insect is reproduced each

Fig. 2.—Schedius kuvanae: Adult female. Greatly enlarged. (From Howard.)

season, it has succeeded in maintaining itself and increasing in prac-
tically every locality in which it has been liberated. The other
species, Schedius kuvanae How. (fig. 2), was imported from Japan.

6 BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A brood of this species develops under favorable weather conditions
in about four weeks. The first brood appears in August and the
Insect continues to breed until cold weather sets in. Owing to the
fact that several broods develop in a single season, the insect increases
very rapidly. It can be reared in the laboratory for the purpose of
colonization, and this work is being done each year. Unfortunately
the insect does not always survive the winter in good condition, so
that its occurrence in the colonies where it is liberated is by no means
as uniform as that of Anastatus.

Apanteles lacteicolor Vier. (fig. 3) is a small hymenopterous parasite
which deposits its eggs in the small caterpillars of the brown-tail
moth in August. The eggs of the parasite hatch in the body of the
small caterpillar, but development is very slow during the fall.
Caterpillars that are attacked in
this way feed and enter the hiber-
nating web with their more for-
tunate comrades. They pass the
winter and emerge with the others
early in the sprig. As soon as
they have become active and
begin feeding the Apanteles larva
also begins feeding and by the
time the caterpillar is about one-
fourth of an inch long this inter-
nal parasite has become large
enough to destroy it. The Apan-
teles larva then makes its way
from the body of the caterpillar,

forms a cocoon (Pl. III, fig. 1),
Fic. 3.—A panteles.lacteicolor: Adult female and co- z
coon. Much enlarged. (Original.) and early in June the adult para-
site emerges. This is the time of
year when small caterpillars of the gipsy moth are feeding, and the
parasites attack these caterpillars and pass through one generation
with the gipsy moth as a host.

Another species which attacks both the gipsy and brown-tail
moth caterpillars is a parasitic fly known as Compsilura concinnata
Meig. (Pl. ITI, fig. 2). This msect is about the size of the house
fly, although its habits are strictly those of a caterpillar parasite.
Karly in the spring the female fly deposits a small maggot in the
body of the larva of the brown-tail moth which feeds inside the
body of the caterpillar and becomes full-grown early in June. At
this time the maggot burrows through the epidermis of the host
and forms a*puparium from which, in about a week, the adult fly
emerges. This brood attacks the gipsy-moth caterpillars, the adult -

GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 7

flies emerging early in July. One or more broods may follow
before cold weather in case native larve are at hand to serve as
hosts.

A species of Apanteles (A. melanoscelis Ratz.), which was received
in small numbers from Italy in the summer of 1912, was liberated
near the laboratory at Melrose Highlands, Mass. Itis double-brooded,
both generations being passed on gipsy-moth caterpillars. This
species has maintained itself since its introduction and promises to
be a most valuable addition to the enemies of the gipsy moth. It
has not been imported or recovered in sufficient numbers from the
colony liberated in this country so that other colonies could be
established, but is considered a very valuable species.

The Calosoma beetle (C. sycophanta L.) (Pl. IV), while not strictly
a parasite, is at the present time doing more effective work against
the gipsy moth than any single introduced species. This large
green beetle hibernates in the ground during the winter and emerges
about the first of June. It feeds on the caterpillars and pupz of
the gipsy moth and brown-tail moth, as well as on such native spe-
cies as it may find. These beetles climb trees and are continuously
searching for food. They live two or three years and after mid-
summer burrow into the ground where they remain during the winter.
On the average, 100 eggs are deposited in the ground annually by
each female. The beetle larve hatch in about a week. They are
proficient tree climbers and feed constantly on the caterpillars and
pupe of the gipsy moth or other insects until they become full grown
about the middle of July. This species has increased and spread
in a most satisfactory manner, and has made great inroads on the
gipsy moth in many localities. Both the beetles and the larve attack
the caterpillars of the brown-tail moth, so that double benefit results.

Another parasite, one which attacks the brown-tail moth only,
is a hymenopteron known as WMeteorus versicolor Wesm. It has
become well established, but is seldom found in great numbers.
It is possible that this species may increase rapidly later on, but
at the present time it does not appear to be as beneficial as those
that have previously been mentioned. Several species of introduced
tachinid flies are recovered occasionally, but in such small numbers
as to indicate that they are not at the present time doing effective
work.

An enormous amount of careful study and a large number of
detailed experiments have been carried on in order to determine the
life histories, habits, and utility of the different species which have
been introduced. It has been necessary from time to time to develop
new methods of handling these species in order to get the data
desired, and practically all the equipment and breeding devices

8 BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

used at the laboratory are of original design and have been constructed
for the purpose of furthering the gipsy-moth imvestigations. Much
valuable information of a biological nature has been secured which
is not only of direct value to the parasite phase of the gipsy-moth
work but has been found useful in connection with insect problems
in various parts of the country.

RECENT COLONIZATIONS AND RECOVERY OF IMPORTED PARASITES.

During the past two or three years careful investigations have
been carried on to determine the increase and spread of the different
parasites. In the summer of 1914 this work was in charge of Mr.
S. S. Crossman. As large a number as possible of the different
species have been liberated in the remote parts of the infested area
for the purpose of securmg the establishment of these valuable
species over the entire territory at the earliest possible date. In.
the fall of 1913 Anastatus bifasciatus was recovered from 41 towns
and the parasitism in the collections secured averaged about 30
per cent. -From one collection over 43 per cent of the eggs had been
destroyed by this insect. As a result of the collection made during
the winter, 1,561 colonies of this species, totaling 1,561,000 speci-
mens, were liberated; 1,047 of the colonies were placed in 12 towns
in Massachusetts and 514 in three towns in New Hampshire. This
insect spreads very slowly, hence it is necessary to liberate many
colonies. The plan which is being used is to place a sufficient num-
ber of colonies in a town so that no further colonization in that town
will be necessary. The work on this insect required the collection
in the fall of 1913 of about 7,500 gipsy-moth egg clusters and these
were secured from over 100 eeler eal localities.

In the fall of 1913, 833 towns were colonized with Schedius kuvanae.
The number of colonies placed in a town varied from 1 to 10, depend-
ing on the gipsy-moth infestations. Most of the colonies were liber-
ated in the southern part of the infested territory in Massachusetts,
as it was believed that this section would be favorable for the survival
of the species during the winter. In all 110 colonies were liberated,
containing over 375,000 individuals. This species spreads more
rapidly than Anastatus, so it is not necessary to place as many
colonies in a given area. Over 14,000 gipsy-moth egg clusters were
collected from about 100 selected localities within the area bounded
by Exeter, N. H., and Berlin, Bolton, and Mashpee, Mass. This ©
material was used at the laboratory to secure records of the percentage
of parasitism in colonies that had been liberated in previous years.

The spring of 1913 was very favorable for Apanteles lacteicolor, and
it was recovered from 69 towns. ‘This was the result of collections
of 92,000 brown-tail moth webs, a supply coming from every one of

Bul. 204, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

Fia. 1.—COCOONS OF APANTELES LACTEICOLOR IN MOLTING WEB OF THE BROWN-TAIL
MOTH. (ORIGINAL.)

FiG. 2.—THE COMPSILURA FLY (COMPSILURA CONCINNATA): ADULT FLY, MucH EN-
LARGED, AT LEFT; PUPARIA, ENLARGED, AT RIGHT. (ORIGINAL.)

ee

Bul. 204, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Teveqer y [aw

THE CALOSOMA BEETLE (CALOSOMA SYCOPHANTA).

Upper left, eggs; lower left, adult beetle feeding on gipsy moth caterpillar; upper right, gipsy
moth pups destroyed by Calosoma larve; center,Calosoma larva, ventral view; right center,
Calosoma larya, dorsal view; lower right, Calosoma pupa in cayity in ground. (From Howard
and Fiske.)

err
= ay =
Pasay

MAP SHOWING DISPERSION
OF
APANTELES LACTEICOLOR

NEW ENGLAND
1914

ea Towns from which recoveries have been made

abat
aaa eos

7 4 ; . i, a a er ari
tg hen a eg AE eg Me A lions heels te eee

yee ee

MAP SHOWING DISPERSION
OF

COMPSILURA CONCINNATA

NEW ENGLAND

were liberated in 1914

where col

©@ Towns

oa Nv!

Wat a alc

on i eee

vines

AR peli ote

1 en i alt

GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 9

the New England States. Fifty-six colonies were liberated in 48
towns, a total of over 76,000 cocoons being placed in the field. During
the winter of 1913-14 collections of brown-tail moth webs were made
in 72 towns scattered over the infested area in New England. The
recovery of the parasite indicates that it has become established as
far north as Monson, Me.; west as far as North Adams, Mass.; and
south as far as Waterford, Conn. About 2,500 cocoons were liber-
ated in the spring of 1914 in three of the Connecticut Valley towns
in Vermont. Our work on this species was supplemented by cooper-
ative work which was carried on by Prof. W. C. O’Kane, State ento-
mologist of New Hampshire. From collections made by his assistants
he was able to colonize Apanteles in 11 towns, 1,000 specimens being
put in most of these colonies. Similar work is carried on in coopera-
tion with the gipsy-moth laboratory by Maj. E. E. Philbrook, State
moth superintendent of Maine, but a definite statement of the num-
ber of colonies liberated can not be given at this time. An arrange-
ment was made during the fall of 1913 to continue cooperative
parasite work between the laboratory and the entomologist of the
Dominion of Canada, Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt. In the spring of
1914 he detailed one of his assistants, Mr. L. S. McLaine, to take up
work in Massachusetts, usmg the gipsy moth laboratory as head-
quarters. Mr. McLaine secured several assistants, and as a result of
his efforts about 1,000 Apanteles cocoons were sent to the brown-tail
moth infested area in New Brunswick for the purpose of colonizing
the species. Similar efforts were made the previous year and colonies
were liberated in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, and in several of
these places the species survived the winter of 1913. (Pl. V.) In
general it should be said that the winter of 1913-14 resulted in a
marked decrease in the abundance of Apanteles. An unusually
high mortality of caterpillars in the brown-tail webs accounts for this
decrease. The exact cause of the mortality of the brown-tail moth
caterpillars can not be definitely stated, but it seems to be attributable
to an unusually severe winter, the presence to a greater or less extent
of internal parasites in the caterpillars, and the effects of the brown-
tail fungus, a disease which also affects the larvee of this species.

The parasitism of the gipsy moth by Apanteles lacteicolor was not
nearly as high in 1914 as during the previous year, and was of course
a direct result of the failure of the brown-tail moth caterpillars to
bring through the first generation of the parasite.

During the summer of 1913 Compsilura concinnata was recovered
from 54 new towns. Eleven of these were in Maine, 14 in New
Hampshire, and 29 in Massachusetts. In the summer of 1914 this
insect was found in 44 new towns—2 in Maine, 21 in New Hampshire,
20 in Massachusetts, and 1 in Rhode Island. It is possible that

82942°—Bull. 204—15——2

10 BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Compsilura is present in more localities in Maine, but we have been
unable to secure definite records to that effect. The following table
is interesting, as it shows the general rate of dispersion of this para-
site. The spread recorded is based on distance from Melrose High-
lands, Mass., and is mostly due to natural spread, although a few
small colonies have been liberated outside of the area where the
species was known to occur in 1913.

Taste 1I.—Dispersion of Compsilura concinnata. Distance recovered from Melrose
Highlands, Mass.

1913 1914
From Melrose Highlands: Miles. Miles.
North Sees sara eet ee 2: 75 100
INortheashi yey ae ee 100 130
SOULD SS or A asa 50 50
SOUL WEStAEE Eee eeeee 40 55
IWIESTSS 5s Cee I eRe) 50 65
IN@MAN WES ossoscseasccan 70 80

It is undoubtedly true that this species is now present over an
area which would be represented by connecting the points indicated
by the directions and distances given in the table for 1914. (PI. VI.)
Four thousand five hundred and sixty-five Compsilura were liber-
ated in 10 new towns in 1913 and 10,000 were placed in 21 new
towns in 1914, as follows: Hight in New Hampshire, 5 in Vermont,
2 in Massachusetts, 2 in Rhode Island, 3 in Connecticut, and 1 colony
was forwarded to a substation of the Bureau of Entomology at
Koehler, N. Mex., in order to test the value of this species as an
enemy of the range caterpillar (Hemileuca oliviae Ckll.), an insect
which is causing enormous damage to the grazing lands in that State.
In addition to the number of specimens of this species colonized in
1914, about 5,000 were secured by Mr. McLaine and shipped to New
Brunswick; about 3,000 were secured by Mr. R. S. Ferguson, assist-
ant in the moth department of the State of Maine, who, with several
assistants, were collecting for the purpose of establishing colonies in
that State, and over 2,500 were collected and colonized by Prof.
O’Kane’s assistants in New Hampshire.

Three hundred and sixty-five sample collections of gipsy-moth
larvee which were secured during the summer of 1914 from scattered
localities in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Rhode
Island, consisted of over 99,000 caterpillars. This material required
the use of over 500 rearing trays at the laboratory and the constant
attention of several assistants to feed the larve in each tray and
record the parasitism, mortality, and other data.

Based on 25 collections of gipsy-moth larve taken at widely seat-
tered points in the gipsy-moth-infested area and aggregating 46,000

Bee aa Sa acl ct

GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 11

specimens, an average of 20 per cent of parasitism by Compsilura
was found to exist. Several large single colonies showed a degree
of parasitism ranging from 40 to 50 per cent. The results secured
with this species durimg the summer of 1914, based on the number of
parasites obtained from the collections, indicate that the distribution
of this insect is more likely to be local than general, since in areas
where it was abundant in the summer of 1913 it was recovered in
very small numbers in 1914, in spite of the fact that a moderate
infestation was present during the latter year.

Apanteles melanoscelis, a species already referred to, is showing
considerable promise. As high as 19 per cent of the second stage
gipsy moth larvee collected at Melrose Highlands during the summer
of 1914 were parasitized. This species was recovered from two new
towns this year, namely, Stoneham and Saugus.

Considerable additional data have been secured from other imported
parasites which have been colonized in this country and have sur-
vived in more or less numbers. The details are not given, however,
inasmuch as it has not been demonstrated thus far that they are of
particular value as parasites of either the gipsy moth or the brown-tail
moth.

Pteromalus egregius Forst. has been recovered in small numbers
from many parts of the territory infested by the brown-tail moth.
The larva of this insect works as an external parasite of the small
brown-tail moth caterpillars in the webs. Monodontomerus aereus
Walk., a parasite of gipsy and brown-tail moth pup, is known to
occur throughout most of the area infested by these insects. It has
been reared in small numbers from tachinid puparia and undoubt-
edly has other unrecorded hosts.

Calosoma sycophanta has been found during the summer of 1914
over a much wider area than that previously recorded (PI. VII).
Owing to the ease with which the beetles and their larve could be
coliected in the field it has been possible to liberate 37 colonies in
New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.
These were placed outside the area where the species was previously
known to occur. In addition, colonies of Calosoma have been liber-
ated in Maine and New Hampshire by State officials. Colonies have
been liberated in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Quebec as a
result of collections made by Mr. McLaine and his assistants, and
1,700 specimens were collected by Mr. H. E. Smith and forwarded
to Koehler, N. Mex., to test their value as an enemy of the range
caterpillar.!

17This work was carried on by arrangement with Mr. F. M. Webster, who is in charge of the Cereal
and Forage Crop Insect Investigations of the Bureau of Entomology.

12 + BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

As a result of the Calosoma scouting work carried on during July
and August, 1914, it has been found that this species exists in 18 towns
in Maine, 93in New Hampshire, 170 in Massachusetts, 3in Rhode Island,
and 2 in Connecticut. Data concerning this insect obtained during the
present year indicate that the species is able to maintain itself in con-
siderable numbers in areas where the gipsy-moth infestation is slight
and that as a rule the species continues to be abundant after it once
becomes established in a locality. Owing to the weil-known habits
of the beetles in migrating considerable distances, it was thought
that territory with light infestation would be deserted in favor of
areas where caterpillars occurred in abundance. This does not prove
to be the case and it is another feature which increases the value of
this beneficial insect.

The table below shows the colonization of the principal parasites
during 1913 and 1914:

TasLe I1.—Colonization of natural enemies in 1918 and 1914.

oe

Number of colonies | Number of individuals | Towns where colo-

liberated. liberated. nies were placed.
Species.
1913 1914 1913 | 1914 | 1913 | 1914
Anastatus bifasciatus!.............--- 1, 500 1,561 | 1,500,000 | 1,561,000 242 15
Schedius kuvanae .......-....-.---.-- 110 502 352,000 | 2,083,254 33 111
Apanteles lacteicolor 1...............-- 5 14 76, 000 13, 119 48 14
Compsilura concinnata1............-.. 10 28 4, 565 23, 638 10 26
Calosoma sycophanta! ...........--.- 45 49 6,175 8, 104 42 38

1 A part of the coliections and colonization were made by cooperative arrangements with the State officials
of Maine and New Hampshire, with the Dominion Entomologist of Canada, and with Mr. F. M. Webster
of this bureau.

2 In many of these towns only a few colonies were liberated.

The results of the work accomplished by introduced parasites of
the gipsy moth during the past year have been excellent. It is true
that the increase of Apanteles lacteicolor has been seriously retarded
but the other species have given a good account of themselves. The
fact that Compsilura and Calosoma are becoming established in the
remote parts of the area infested with the gipsy moth and are able
to maintain themselves under these conditions is very encouraging,
as the work of these species will tend to reduce the infestation and

be an important factor in preventing the spread along the outside
border.

WILT-DISEASE INVESTIGATIONS.

In connection with the parasite work and having a distinct influence
on the increase of the gipsy moth in the field, an elaborate series of
experiments has been conducted by Mr. R. W. Glaser and several
assistants for the purpose of securing information on the identity
of the wilt disease (Pl. VIII) and the factors which are favorable to
its increase in the field.

MAP SHOWING DISPERSION
OF

CALOSOMA SYCOPHANTA

NEW ENGLAND

has been found generally distributed in the territory between the red line comms

and the Atlantic Ocean

jis species

Bul. 204, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII.

THE WILT DISEASE OF THE GIPSY MOTH. (ORIGINAL.)

Note the typical way in which these caterpillars hang when affected by this disease.

GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 13

This work has been carried on at the Bussey Institution, Forest
Hills, Mass., and a sublaboratory in charge of Mr. J. J. Culver has
been maintained during the summer at Worcester, Mass., where
special experiments have been conducted to determine the relation of
favorable and unfavorable food plants to the development of the
disease. A series of field experiments was also conducted in a selected
area at Lunenburg, Mass., by Mr. A. W. Young and Mr. R. T. Webber,
who made continuous observations in a limited area on the develop-
ment of the disease under field conditions, with particular reference
to the relation of temperature and humidity. Several other pomts
were selected in Massachusetts where continuous temperature and
humidity records were secured, as well as at the Lunenburg area,
and a careful compilation of this data is expected to give informa-
tion as to the weather conditions which are most favorable for the
- development of this disease.

For a number of years the wilt disease has been found in the field
in nearly all places where heavy gipsy-moth infestation exists.
During the last year or two it has occurred in light infestations and
very few localities in the infested area are known where it is not
found to a greater or less extent.

The results of the season’s work indicate that the disease has been
slightly less prevalent during the past summer than the previous
year and this was particularly true during June and the first part of
July. Cool weather prevailed at this time. Late in July the large
caterpillars in many places were seriously affected, so that the in-
crease of the gipsy moth was not as great as was anticipated early
in the season.

The technical studies on the wilt disease are very difficult to con-
duct because it is almost impossible to secure healthy material for
experimental purposes. The organism is believed to be a filterable
virus and is so minute that it easily passes through the finest bacterio-
logical filters that have yet been devised. It belongs to the same
class of organism as yellow fever and a number of other contagious
diseases, although all of these were, at one time, supposed to be
caused by bacteria. The period when gipsy-moth caterpillars of
moderate size are available for experiments covers about six weeks,
and this adds to the difficulty of carrying on investigations on account
of the limited time when material can be secured. During the past
year it has been determined that the wilt disease, or a similar organ-
ism, affects eight of our common native caterpillars in addition to
the gipsy moth. It is also known to attack the silkworm (Sericaria
mory L.) and nun moth (Porthetria monacha L.), a fairly common
European species which is very destructive to pine. Good results
have been secured this year, but a large amount of work is necessary

14 BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in order to establish the essential facts concerning the identity of
the organism and the conditions most favorable for its increase and
development.

FOOD-PLANT INVESTIGATIONS.

As has ‘already been pointed out, the species of tree growth have
an important relation to the ability of the gipsy moth to increase
and cause serious damage in the field. Nearly 20 years ago food-
plant experiments were conducted in this country to determine the —
species upon which the gipsy moth would subsist, and a long list of
food plants was published by Forbush and Fernald in their excellent
book on the gipsy moth. Most of these experiments, however, were
carried on by using large caterpillars and feeding them in jars or cages
in the laboratory. At that time it did not seem important to deter-
mine whether there was variation in the feeding habits of the cater- |
pillars in different stages. As early as 1908 it was observed and
proven by an extensive field experiment that the first-stage cater-
pillars of the gipsy moth could not develop on white pine in the
absence of other food. This naturally led to the question of unfavor-
ability of other species to gipsy moth attack. In 1912 a careful
series of food-plant experiments was begun. Mr. F. H. Mosher took
charge of this work and has been furnished with a number of assist-
ants during the feeding season. The feeding was carried on in indi-
vidual trays, which were specially constructed for the purpose.
One hundred first-stage caterpillars were placed upon a branch of
foliage in each tray. In this way the feeding habits could be observed,
the foliage renewed daily, and it was possible to determine which
food plants were least subject to attack under laboratory conditions.
Similar experiments were carried on with caterpillars in the succeed-
ing stages. This work was continued in the summers of 1913 and
1914, so that up to the present time about 250 species of trees and
shrubs have been tested.

As a result of these experiments some of the more common species
are rated as follows:

I.—Species favored by the gipsy-moth larve in all stages:

Alder, speckled. Oak, black.

Ash, mountain.! Oak, chestnut.
Aspen. Oak, post.!

Balm of Gilead.! Oak, red.
Basswood. Oak, scarlet.
Beech. Oak, swamp white.
Birch, gray. Oak, white.

Birch, paper. Poplar, big toothed.!
Birch, red.} Shadbush.
Boxelder.! Willow.

Larch. Witch hazel.!

1 Species of low commercial value.

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GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 15

II.—Species favored by the gipsy-moth larve after the first stage:

Chestnut. Spruce, black.!
Hemlock. Spruce, Norway.
Pine, hard.! Spruce, red.
Pine, red. Spruce, white.*

Pine, white.

I1I.—Species not favored by the gipsy-moth larve but capable of
supporting it:

Beech, blue. Maple, red.
Birch, black. Maple, silver.!
Birch, yellow. Maple, sugar.
Cherry, black. Pignut.

Eln. Sassafras.?
Gum, black.? Shagbark.

Hornbeam, hop.!

TY.—Species unfavored by the gipsy-moth larve in all stages:

Arborvite. Fir, balsam.}
Ash, black.? Hackberry.!
Ash, white. Locust, black.
Butternut. Locust, honey.
Cedar, red.! Sycamore.
Cedar, white. Tulip.

1 Species of low commercial value.

During 1914 many food plants were tested which do not ordinarily
occur in New England except when planted for ornamental purposes.
They grow to a greater or less extent in other sections of the United
States, and it was desired to make these tests in order to determine
whether these plants would be seriously damaged by the gipsy moth
in case it should spread from New England. The information is also
useful as a guide to the method of treatment which should be applied
in case a small colony should become established in some region
outside the present infested area. During the first two summers
that these experiments were carried on a sublaboratory was main-
tained at Worcester, Mass., where check experiments were con-
ducted. The food-plant work is now nearly completed and the
results will be brought together shortly for publication. In con-
nection with these experiments it should be said that a large number
of observations have been made in the field each summer relative to
the favorability of different species of trees and undergrowth to
gipsy-moth attack. This information serves as a check on the
laboratory experiments which are carried on under artificial condi-
tions. ‘The observations in the field have in the main been made in
definite areas, which were selected for an entirely different purpose
and will be considered under the next experimental project.

16 BULLETIN 204, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

EXPERIMENTS IN DETERMINING THE INCREASE OF THE GIPSY MOTH IN THE FIELD.

In view of the importance of parasites, disease, and unfavored
food plants in reducing the increase of the gipsy moth, it seemed
desirable to secure definite data on the normal increase of this insect
in the field and the increase where these deterrent elements were
present in varying degrees. The most feasible way to determine the
increase is to compare the number of egg clusters in a given locality
from year to year. In order to do this arrangements were made in
the fall of 1911 to study field conditions in a systematic manner.
About 250 areas which have been designated as ‘‘observation points”
were selected throughout the infested area. This gave an oppor-
tunity for ascertaining the effect of latitude, seasonal variation, and
altitude on the increase of the species. In selecting these points an
attempt was made to secure as many pure stands of forest growth as
possible; also, to obtain areas of mixed growth where the proportion
of favored food plants varied. Areas were also secured where
different species of parasites had been liberated and where the wilt
disease had- occurred abundantly or in a small amount during the
previous year. The degree of infestation was also considered in
making a selection and a number of points were obtained where the
trees had previously been defoliated to check against some where no
defoliation had resulted and the infestation was very light. After
an area was selected a tree was marked for a center and a circle 100
feet in diameter was laid out. Each tree within the circle was
numbered consecutively and a note made of its species, size, and
condition. In the fall, as soon as the foliage had dropped, a careful
count was made of the egg clusters on each tree. These results have
been secured and tabulated as well as exact information relative to
the number of egg clusters found on the ground and undergrowth.
Records have also been kept on the condition of the trees from year
to year, and the number of trees which died in each area has been
carefully noted. The condition of the territory surrounding these
points, as regards infestation, has also been noted. This work has
been supervised by Mr. C. W. Minott, but it has not been carried on
for a sufficient number of years to give all the exact information
desired.

The following table gives the gross number of egg clusters found in
the points each year, and will be of interest as indicating mm a general
way the severity of the infestation from 1910 to 1914.

It will be noted that 170 points are given in the table. The balance
of the 250 which were originally selected have been discontinued,
owing to destruction by fire, promiscuous cutting by the owners, or
for other reasons. The area in the points aggregates 30.18 acres,
and the surrounding territory which has been watched brings the
total under observation up to 863.1 acres. For convenience, the

{

GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 17

infested territory has been divided into five sections, and the towns
in which the pomts were located are indicated on the accompanying
map.

Taste III.—Gipsy moth egg clusters recorded in observation points, 1910-1914.

Egg clusters.
is Number
Locations. of points.
1910 1911 1912 1913 1914

Eastern New Hampshire and Maine....... 32 2, 074 31, 751 29, 637 26,147 18, 234
Western New Hampshire...............-. 33 14, 885 23, 032 28, 618 9, 603 13, 228
Northern Massachusetts............--.---- 34 29, 399 47, 419 30, 345 17, 603 31,316
Western Massachusetts..............--.--- 30 10, 742 26, 409 28, 301 9, 763 17, 159
Southern Massachusetts.................-- 41 11, 486 39, 319 42, 451 8, 222 31, 068
ATCA OOM SIACTES: oon econ oes 170 68,586 | 167,930 | 159,352 71, 338 111, 002

The count of the egg clusters recorded under 1910 was made in the
fall of 1911 and covered all clusters which were found to have hatched
and therefore belong to the 1910 brood of moths. This count was
more or less inaccurate, as many of the egg clusters were removed
from the trees after a year’s exposure to the elements. The count
indicates, however, that there was a large increase in infestation
between 1910 and 1911, and that in 1912 the gross infestation was
slightly reduced. A heavy reduction occurred in 1913, while in 1914
a considerable increase was noted but not nearly as great as was the
case from 1910 to 1911.

The conclusion which will inevitably be drawn from these figures
will not apply to other localities in the infested area. There are many
locations where a marked increase was noted in 1913 or where a
marked decrease was noted in 1914, but taking the territory as a
whole it gives a general idea of the trend of increase or decrease for
the period covered.

Knowing the conditions, one can not fail to be impressed with the
results that have already become apparent from the introduction of
parasites and the work of the wilt disease. Although the season of
1914 was not as favorable to the natural enemies as was the case in
1910, the proportional increase in the number of egg clusters was
considerably smaller. Unfavored food plants have, of course, been
instrumental in holding down the increase in some of the points, but
the amount of infestation in points where unfavored food predom-
inates has remained rather constant, so that it has not been as great
a factor in the reduction noted as the other elements just mentioned.

Much careful work has been required to secure this data. For
about six months in each year upward of 20 men have been engaged
in this work. Durmg the summer a part of the men made observa-
tions on the feeding habits of the gipsy moth caterpillars on different
food plants in their sections. Observations on the presence of

18 BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

natural enemies were also made and from time to time collections of
egg clusters or caterpillars near the points were obtained and sent
to the laboratory in order that the percentage of parasitism might be
determined. This work should be continued in order to determine
whether after the natural enemies become firmly established the
outbreaks of this insect will be periodical over a large territory or
whether, as is the case at the present time, the smaller colonies will
increase so that stripped areas will be found scattered over the entire
region.
DISPERSION WORK.

For the past three or four years considerable attention has been
paid to the means by which the gipsy moth spreads. As the female
moth does not fly it is apparent that the dispersion of the species
must be very slow unless it is carried by other means. Egg clusters
may be transported on lumber, forest products, Christmas trees,
or other material which is likely to be shipped long distances from the
infested area. This matter has been given careful consideration and
means have been taken to prevent the spread of the moth in this way.
Information concerning methods used are given under the quarantine
part of this report.

In the spring of 1910 a number of experiments were conducted which
showed that first-stage gipsy-moth caterpillars may be carried by the
wind, and the information secured at that time has been published.

Since this work was carried on more elaborate experiments have
been conducted by Mr. C. W. Collins and assistants, to obtain long-
distance records on the spread in this manner. A study has also been
made of the likelihood of the insect being spread by caterpillars drifting
in streams, or by wood or other material which is infested with egg
clusters floating in rivers and becoming lodged in territory which was
not infested. At present wind spread seems to be the chief natural
means by which the insect becomes established in new territory.
The trend of the spread is toward the north and northeast on account
of the fact that the warm prevailing winds before the first of June,
when the caterpillars are in the first stage, usually blow in those
directions. This has resulted in a large increase in the area infested
in Maine, and the territory in that State will probably continue to
extend as long as large areas are seriously infested in New Hampshire
and Massachusetts. The western spread of the insect has probably
been greatly retarded by reason of the fact that low temperature,
causing the caterpillars to be inactive, has prevailed when the
winds came from the east or northeast. Heretofore serious infesta-
tion did not occur in southeastern Massachusetts or Rhode Island;
hence winds from the southeast were not an important factor in

1 Burgess, A. F. The dispersion of the gipsy moth. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bul. 119, 62 p., 16
pl., 6 fig., 1map, Feb. 11, 1913.

i.
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GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 19

causing spread into Connecticut or the area in Massachusetts south
of Worcester. Recently, however, the infestation has increased to
a great extent in southeastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island,
and unless vigorous means are taken to abolish these sources of sup-
ply, rapid infestation of eastern Connecticut and territory in Massa-
chusetts lying immediately north of that State will result. In fact,
during the past season a large increase has been found in the western
tier of towns in Rhode Island and the eastern tier in Connecticut.
In eastern Connecticut the white oak, which is one of the most favored
food plants of the gipsy moth, is exceedingly common in the wood-
lands, and the difficulty of controlling the moth under these condi-
tions is very great.

A series of experiments has been conducted to determine how far
male moths will be attracted by the females. The purpose is to deter-
mine the probability of scattered females being fertilized if they occur
at a long distance from a gipsy-moth colony.

SECONDARY INSECT INVESTIGATIONS.

In the fall of 1912 large numbers of oak trees in the areas that had
been defoliated by the gipsy moth were found in a dying condition.
Examination showed that many of the trees had been attacked by a
bark borer, which proved to be Agrilus bilineatus Web. The matter
was taken up with Dr. A. D. Hopkins, in charge of Forest Insect
Investigations of the Bureau of Entomology, and arrangements were
made for cooperative study of this insect. Dr. Hopkins was to direct
the work, and the salary and expenses of an assistant, Mr. H. A. Pres-
ton, who was to give his entire time to the work, were to be paid by
this branch. Investigations have been carried on and the life history
of the insect worked out. It appears from the information secured
that continuous work on this project is not necessary, and the coopera-
tive arrangement was discontinued July 1, 1914. The data relative
to the life history and habits, as well as control measures, is in the
hands of Dr. Hopkins and will doubtless be published at an early date. _

For the information of woodland owners who wish to preserve their
oak trees ft can be stated that all trees which are in a dying condition in
September should be marked so that they can be cut during the winter.
The wood should be removed from the lot and if it can be used for
fuel the hibernating larvee will be destroyed. Inasmuch as the oak
is very favored as a food plant by the caterpillars of the gipsy moth and
as the Agrilus beetles prefer to attack weakened trees, it would seem
rather difficult to preserve oak growth unless considerable expense was
involved in spraying or treating gipsy-moth egg clusters in order to
keep the trees in a vigorous condition. This is impracticable in most
woodlands in the infested area. Park or ornamental trees can be
handled in this way and the cost is not prohibitive.

20 BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK.

Many of the experimental projects which have been undertaken are
nearing completion and detailed reports will be published later.

The information on food plants will now form a definite basis for
practical work, and as has been brought out by the observations in
Europe on both parasites and food-plant conditions, it will be neces-
sary to bring about in our forests a great reduction of the favored food
plants of the gipsy moth before natural enemies can be expected to
keep this insect within reasonable bounds.

The parasites and wilt disease, as has already been shown, are doing
effective work, but the results would be greatly amplified by eliminat-
ing favored food plants.

The study of the increase of the moth in the field furnishes valuable
data on all phases of the forest control problem, while the work on
dispersion is of special value in connection with the field control work
which is being carried on.

Secondary insects are important inasmuch as they may prevent the
recovery ofmany trees which have been defoliated and which would,
under normal conditions, gradually recover.

SILVICULTURAL WORK.

During the time the gipsy moth has been known to exist in this
country it has done an immense amount of damage to tree growth of
the infested region. The injury has caused the death of many of the
trees attacked or the retardation of their growth and development,
and has produced conditions favorable to the increase of secondary
enemies. The tree growth affected may be divided into three classes,
(1) fruit trees, (2) shade or ornamental trees, and (3) forest trees.
All have suffered severely, but owing to their greater value and
relatively smaller numbers it has been possible to prevent a large
amount of the injury by applying hand methods of suppression to
fruit and shade trees. Gipsy-moth damage to forest trees, however,
can not be controlled in the same way owing to the great expense
involved, hence the problem of preventing damage in woodlands is a
serious one. In some European countries this has been solved to a
considerable extent by growing species which are not so susceptible
to gipsy-moth attack. The imvestigations on the food plants and
feeding habits of the gipsy moth indicate that the work of eliminating
the most susceptible and encouraging the growth of those that are
not favored as food by this insect is likely to give good results. As
this work involves, to a considerable extent, the practice of silvicul-
ture, the Bureau of Entomology requested and received the coopera-
tive assistance of the Forest Service, and these two branches of the
Department of Agriculture are now working together on this problem.
Mr. George KE. Clement, who was formerly an assistant in the Forest.

{

j
|

GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 21

Service, has been appointed to take charge of the investigations along
this line. The table given under the “‘food-plant experiments”’ indi-
cates in a general way the degree of susceptibility to moth attack of
some of our more common forest trees. Certain species, however,
are of little commercial value, and it is desired to discourage their
growth, as well as those that are particularly susceptible to gipsy-
moth attack. In the case of valuable species that are susceptible to
attack and for the growth of which a large portion of the infested region
is favorable, the only step which can be taken is to determine whether
or not they can be sufficiently protected from serious damage by
associating with the less susceptible species in small proportions. Of
course, the presence of these species may jeopardize the safety of the
associated species which would otherwise be immune. However,
before abandoning these species careful experiments will be made to
determine whether there are associations with which they can join with
safety.

The chief fact that reduces the liability of certain species of trees,
particularly conifers, to gipsy-moth attack is that the very young cater-
pillars do not feed upon them. Therefore, if there are present no trees
or undergrowth upon which the young caterpillars will feed and thereby
develop to a size which enables them to attack conifers or similarly
susceptible species, they will not be attacked. Thus it appears that
certain species can be grown pure or in exclusive association and be
free from gipsy-moth attack. Any system of forest management
should endeavor to produce in a given area only trees of commercial
value, and the foregoing lists (pp. 14-15) indicate the most suitable
species for selection.

In converting a given stand of timber into one which shall be im-
mune from gipsy-moth attack, the different classes of trees should be
considered for removal in the following order:

(1) Trees of naturally low commercial value and susceptible to
gipsy-moth attack.

(2) Trees of low commercial value on account of growing in un-
favorable situations and susceptible to gipsy-moth attack.

(3) Trees of commercial value, favorably situated, and subject to
gipsy-moth attack.

(4) Trees of naturally low commercial value, but not lable to
gipsy-moth attack if properly associated.

(5) Trees of low commercial value on account of growing in un-
favorable situations and not lable to gipsy-moth attack.

(6) Trees of commercial value favorably situated and not lable
to gipsy-moth attack.

Silvicultural conditions in the woods of the infested region are very
poor. Through repeated fires and heavy and inconsiderate cutting,
the growth of weed trees has been greatly favored and the growth of

22 BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

some species has been favored in situations quite unsuited to their
requirements. This is particularly true in the case of the oaks and
gray birch. These species constitute a very large proportion of the
deciduous growth of the region and are very susceptible to gipsy-
moth attack. On a great deal of the area now covered by these
species the white pine would grow to much better advantage, would
yield a much more valuable product, and if pure, or nearly so, would
prove immune to gipsy-moth attack. The white pine reproduces
itself readily under favorable conditions, and is already fairly
abundant in numerous localities. - For these reasons the white pine
recommends itself very strongly as a substitute for the existing moth-
susceptible species, and this species has been considered to a very
large extent by this department in its experiments to create a safe
stand of timber. ‘The deciduous species which are of value and im-
mune to gipsy-moth attack require most favorable situations for
their profitable development, and such situations are very few and of
small area. An exception in the case of chestnut may be made in
this connection. ‘This is a valuable tree and one well suited to grow
over a considerable area. Its growth is not recommended on account
of its susceptibility to the widespread and fatal chestnut blight. But,
like the red oak, it may be found possible to grow it satisfactorily in
small numbers with other species.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK.

The experimental work has been conducted by means of small
areas known as ‘‘sample plats.’”’ These vary in size from one-half
an acre to 6 acres and occur both scattered and grouped in different
parts of the infested region. ‘They are necessarily located on the
lands of private owners who are willing to submit their lands to this
use.

An effort has been made to distribute this work as widely as pos-
sible over the infested region. (Pl. 1X.) In this way the greatest
variety of conditions is encountered and the results are available to
the greatest number of woodland owners. Each sample plat varies
from another in one or more of the following points: Composition of
stand, age of stand, degree of infestation, and method of treatment.
Each sample plot generally consists of two parts. One of these is
the portion upon which actual experimental work is done and the
other serves as a control or check plat. Upon the latter nothing
whatever is done, as its purpose is to provide a means of comparing
results under natural and artificial conditions. The corners and
boundaries of all plats have been plainly marked, and the areas
surveyed and mapped. All trees 1 inch and over in diameter have
been calipered on each plat and control, and the measurements
recorded. Forest descriptions of each plat have been written.

me 9 oe

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.

GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 23

Where small white pines have occurred in any quantity they have
been counted and the numbers have been recorded by foot-height

classes. The best available indication of the degree of gipsy-moth

infestation seems to be the number of egg clusters, and for this
reason the egg clusters have been counted on each plat. Egg
clusters will be counted periodically in the future in order to determine
the effect of treatment upon the infestations.

After the foregoing steps have been taken, the growth on each of the
managed areas has been thinned. Different silvicultural systems have
been used, but in general the object has been to remove the greatest
number of susceptible trees consistent with the silvicultural require-
ments of the trees to be left. In some cases the bulk of the stands
consisted of susceptible species, and in these the thinning made was
preluminary to a later clear cutting.

After cutting, the number of trees of different diameters and species
have been counted and recorded, the amounts of products have been
measured and recorded, brush has been piled and burned, careful
notes of the changed conditions have been made, and an effort has
been made to compute the cost of the work and the value of the prod-
ucts on each plat. In some cases numbers of smali naturally pro-
duced white pine have been supplemented with planted 2-year-old
seedlings from the nursery. In cases where plantings were made the
cost of the seedlings and the planting was borne by the owner of the
woodland. In addition to the sample plats already mentioned, one
10-acre tract has been selected in each of the following towns in New
Hampshire: Peterboro, Franklin, Warner, and New Durham. The
erowth on all these plats is largely inferior hardwoods which are par-
ticularly hable to gipsy-moth attack. The infestation in each case
is not heavy. As there is more or less white pine growing among the
hardwoods the plan is to cut the latter clean and to replace these
trees by planting enough white pine to produce a stand which will be
free from gipsy-moth damage. ‘The results of these experiments will
not be available for several years, and during this period careful notes
on conditions will be made.

MIDDLESEX COUNTY FOREST SURVEY.

In order to get some definite information concerning the distribu-
tion of the various kinds of timber stands in the region, a rough forest
map of the county of Middlesex in Massachusetts has been made.
This work has shown that the forest growth is very uneven and com-
plex, and that there is a wide variation in the composition of stands
within relatively small areas. The existing growth of trees on any
area Indicates very infrequently the growth for which the conditions
on the area are best suited. From data secured by this survey and
observations made througthout the infested region, the crying silvi-

24 BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cultural need of the woods is obviously a great reduction of their
diversity and the replacement of a large portion of the species by
those which have a greater commercial value, and for which the con-
ditions for growth are much better adapted. The steps needed to
accomplish this are in many instances precisely those which appear
to be necessary in controlling gipsy-moth attack by silvicultural

practice.
PROPOSED FOREST EXPERIMENT.

In order to determine the practicability of carrying on an experi-
ment over a large area preliminary surveys have been made of the
forest growth in the town of Winchendon, Mass. This work has been
attempted in cooperation with the State forester of Massachusetts,
Mr. F. W. Rane. The original growth in this town was undoubtedly
coniferous, but there has been considerable cutting and as a result
hardwood growth of various species has become established. Oak
does not predominate, however, in this region and it is hoped that
sufficient cooperation can be secured from the woodland owners in
the town to handle the forest area so as to bring it into a growth
which will not be susceptible to gipsy-moth attack. The preliminary
survey has been completed and the data are now being compiled with
a view to determining whether a plan of this sort can be worked out
on an extensive area.

SCOUTING WORK.

The scouting work consists in examining the territory along the
outside border of infestation, and in treating the gipsy-moth colonies
adjacent to the border for the purpose of preventing spread of the
insects to other parts of the United States. This work is in charge
of Mr. L. H. Worthley, who is assisted by Mr. H. L. McIntyre. The
territory is divided into six sections with the following men in charge
of asection: Mr. D. G. Murphy, Worcester, Mass., H. A. Ames, Athol,
Mass., H. N. Bean, Keene, N. H., F. W. Graves, jr., Bradford, N. H.,
F. W. Foster, Plymouth, N. H., and C. E. Totman, Canaan, N. H.
Parties consisting of five trained scouts in charge of a foreman are
detailed to make the examinations and treat the infestations, each
general foreman having from 5 to 10 crews of scouts under his super-
vision. In order to check up the thoroughness with which the work
is done in the lightly infested territory, a party, usually consisting of
two experienced men who are known as special scouts, examines the
work after the regular inspection has been made in order to see
whether egg clusters of the moth have been missed and that the
work was thoroughly done by the scouts. Each scout is required to
place a characteristic mark on every tree examined by him so that
the responsibility for leaving egg clusters can be readily determined.
By following up this plan the force is maintained at a high degree of

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SILVICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS ARE BEING CONDUCTED
1914

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MAP SHOWING AREAS IN NEW ENGLAND
THE GIPSY MOTH AND THE BROWN-TAIL MOTH
1914
ees Encloses area infested with the gipsy moth

eee Encloses area infested with the brown-tail moth

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GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 25

efficiency, the careless and negligent men being dropped from the
rolls. When large colonies are found crews of woodchoppers are
employed temporarily to cut out the worthless trees and clean up the
undergrowth in order to render the area in condition for effective
operations.

The accompanying map (Pl. X) shows the territory which was
known to be infested by the gipsy moth in the fall of 1913. In organ-
izing the work a large party of scouts was sent to Maine for the pur-
pose of determining whether the infestation had spread beyond this
line. The results of the examination show that a large number of
towns are infested outside the border previously established. The
work was continued until late in December, when it was necessary to
transfer the men on account of deep snow and extremely cold weather,
the temperature for a number of days being as low as 20° to 25°
below zero. In all, 155 towns were scouted in Maine, and of these 81
were found infested. The increase in the number of towns over that.
of previous years is largely explained by the fact that during the
winter of 1912-13 the scouting work was not completed on account. .
of snow and also because of the undoubted dissemination of the moth
by means of the spread of the small caterpillars by the wind. The
manner of this kind of spread has already been explained in this
report. Suffice it to say, the general trend of dispersion of this insect.
has been toward the north and northeast on account of the fact that
the prevailing warm winds during the time the caterpillars are
hatching blow from the south and southwesterly directions. The work
was continued from January until April in New Hampshire, Massa-
chusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

On February 3, 1914, a report was received that several gipsy-moth
ege clusters had been found on an estate at Bratenahl, Ohio, a suburb
of Cleveland. The matter was at once investigated and two experi-
enced scouts were detailed to make an examination of the estate and
the surroundings. At the time the work was done there was con-
siderable snow:on the ground, making inspection work difficult.
Seven new egg clusters were found and treated and later in the season
the colony was burlapped and the trees sprayed. The work in Ohio
was done in close cooperation with the Ohio Agricultural Commis-
sion, and work in the colony since the original scouting was done has
been carried on by the assistants of Mr. N. E. Shaw, State nursery and
orchard inspector.

On May 7, 1914, a report was received from Mr. George G. Atwood,
chief of the division of horticulture of the State of New York, that a
eipsy-moth colony had been found at North Castle, Westchester
County, N. Y. Inspectors from this office were detailed to treat ege
clusters, and several experienced scouts were transferred to assist in
stamping out this colony. The principal infestation occurred on a
large estate, and the caterpillars began hatching soon after the first

26 BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ego clusters were found. A considerable area was scouted around the
infestation, and egg clusters or caterpillars were found over an area of
about three-fourths of a square mile. Many of the trees were growing
on rough and rocky soil, so that it was very difficult to do thorough
work. About15,000 egg clusters were treated during the month of May.

In addition to the scouting work already mentioned, a special
examination was made of the entire town of Geneva, N. Y., but no
gipsy-moth egg clusters were found. In 1912 a small colony was
found in this city. It has been very thoroughly treated by the
assistants of the commissioner of agriculture, and it is now believed
that the insect has been exterminated. The scouting party detailed
for the Geneva work spent one week in examining trees in Seneca
Park, Rochester, N. Y., but no traces of the moth could be found.

Special scouting work was carried on in the towns of Lenox, Stock-
bridge, and Great Barrington, Mass., during the winter. Infestations
have previously been found in these towns, but the examination
resulted in finding but one egg cluster in Great Barrington, one in
Stockbridge, and two in Lenox, indicating that good results have been
secured from the treatment which had been applied during the pre-
vious season. A careful inspection was also made in the town of
Wallingford, Conn., which was found infested some years ago, but no
ege clusters were discovered.

The following table shows the number of towns which have been
scouted for the gipsy moth and the number of new towns which
were found infested during the winter of 1913-14.

Taste 1V.—Scouting operations for the gipsy moth during the winter of 1913-14.

Towns Newly

State. scouted. infested.
Maine teennen csc ece 155 81
New Hampshire..... 73 6
Massachusetts.......- 36 7
Rhode Island....._.- 19 17
Connecticut.......... 13 10
ING WAiOnkeeeee eee 3 1
COMO seeR eS aaSosn ae 1 1

In nine towns in New Hampshire and two in Massachusetts, infested
in 1912-13, no infestations could be found the following winter, and
recommendations were made that these towns be excluded from the
quarantined area. This was approved by the Federal Horticultural
Board, and the border towns of the area quarantined for the gipsy
moth include only those that have been found infested during the
past winter.

The plan of the work has been to examine the territory in Maine
chiefly for the purpose of securing data as to where the quarantine
line should extend. It is impossible to prevent the spread of the
small caterpillars by the wind, and it has therefore been deemed
advisable to confine the clearing-up work along the border to the ter-
ritory in New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connec-

GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. Pa

ticut. Accordingly early in the spring arrangements were made to
place tanglefoot bands on trees in all the colonies about three towns
wide along the border and from the time this work began the greater
part of the scouting force was transferred to the work of applying
and patrolling these bands.

In the colony in Westchester County, N. Y., 6,000 tanglefoot and
4,000 burlap bands were applied by the inspectors of the State depart-
ment of agriculture. The State purchased a high-power spraying
machine and very thoroughly sprayed the infested area and surround-
ings. The colony in Ohio was similarly treated by the State officials,
and in both cases excellent results have been secured. ‘This office has
kept in constant touch with the work in these States and has also had
a representative directing the work in the Berkshire Hills infestations
in Great Barrington, Stockbridge, and Lenox.

Inasmuch as many of the new infestations were found on apple
trees during the winter, a record has been kept of all such trees
inspected and of the number of miles of roads scouted by the men.
This information is given in the following table:

TABLE V.—Results of scouting operations for the gipsy moth.

; Miles of | Tanglefoot
Towns | Colonies | Egg clus- | Apple trees s
State. scouted.| found. | tersfound.| inspected. | 72d trav- | bands ap-
eled. plied.

Maine...... wi A ie ea V5 5s [arses cera | orate ers 764, 081 A (OSU errs ere areas
New Hampshire.............--- 73 1,656 25,427 | 1, 354, 908 4,334 68, 336
Massachtsetis:c oc. -----2--2--: 36 794 11, 987 484,731 2,553 58,315
Hhodewslandi 2.2.5.2 55.. 5.22 19 1309 1207 232, 190 987 5,324
Conmechcuteece caso so52 fee ess 13 1157 1124 332, 036 884 4,767
PROTA pees nose horns Sei 296 2,916 37,745 | 3,167,946 13,526 136, 742

1 In a number of these colonies pupa cases only were found.

The following conditions found in 1913 and in 1914 are of interest.
In New Hampshire no egg clusters were found in 198 of the colonies
that had been treated during the previous years, and in 641 of the
1,656 colonies found in the winter of 1913 no larve were found in the
spring of 1914. In Massachusetts no egg clusters were found in 68
of the colonies that were treated during the winter of 1912-13, and in
124 of the 794 colonies located in the fall of 1913 no larvee were found
in the spring of 1914. In Rhode Island 276 of the 309 colonies found
and treated in the fall of 1913 failed to produce larvee in the spring of
1914. In Connecticut 136 of the 157 colonies treated in 1913 failed
to produce larvee the following spring.

During the summer of 1914 woodland scouting was carried on in
Thompson, Conn., and Rutland, Mass. The former town is heavily
wooded and is nena al to contain about 30,000 acres of forest, a con-
siderable part of which is oak growth. As a result of the examina-
tion of the woodland in this town 73 gipsy-moth colonies were discoy-
ered. All of them were smail infestations, indicating that the species
is established and is well scattered through the woodland.

28 BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

GENERAL RESULTS SHOWN BY SCOUTING WORK.

The scouting work for the season has shown very encouraging
results. In addition to the large number of towns along the outside
border where the infestation has been greatly reduced or where it has
been cleaned out during the past year, an excellent showing has been
made in a number of badly infested towns in Massachusetts and New
Hampshire which are just inside the border. In a large number of
these towns which were found severely infested in the winter of
1912-13, a large decrease in the number of ege clusters has been found
this year. In the town of Bradford, N. H., where over 3,000 egg

clusters were treated during the former year, only 200 were found this
season. In Hillsboro the records show a reduction of from 8,000 to
500, although the number of small colonies, many containing a single
egg cluster, has increased. In Henniker and Warner, N. H., a large
decrease has also been noted and the same is generally true in the
border towns where work is being carried on.

The work on the tanglefoot bands during the entire season gave
very gratifying results, and a very large number of the colonies where
caterpillars were present early in the season showed no caterpillars
or pup at the close of the work on tanglefoot bands on August 1.
Only a few caterpillars were found in the western part of the area in
New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

No caterpillars were found in Lenox, Stockbridge, or Great Bar-
rington, Mass. About 400 yards from the old infested area in the
latter town 43 egg clusters were found in a rock heap during the cater-
pillar season which, of course, was under the snow when scouting
work was done. Some very thorough work was done at this infesta-
tion, and only one pupa was found this season. Of course there is
danger of some spread from it, and during the coming season some
very thorough scouting will be done in this vicinity.

No caterpillars were found at Wallingford, Conn., this season.

In the badly infested woodland colony in Orange, Mass., where
some 1,000 ege clusters were located, there were but 1,182 larve
found during the summer.

The spraying work during the summer gave very satisfactory
results, treatment being applied in border towns from Hubbardston,
Mass., as far north as Andover, N. H. Many of the localities where
spraying was applied were difficult to reach on account of being
inaccessible from roads or water supply, but owing to the careful plans
mnaade by the foremen the work was not greatly handicapped on this
account. In a number of cases the owners of the areas which were
infested offered every cooperation possible in facilitating treatment.
A few cases have been found, however, where spraying could not be
attempted on account of the unwillingness of the owners to have their
pasture trees treated because the grass was needed for grazing stock.
In instances of this sort the infestations were cared for by creosoting
egg clusters and destroying the caterpillars under tanglefoot bands.

(a

st

MAP SHOWING
GIPSY MOTH QUARANTINE DISTRICTS
1914

Siar ty <igGdn. ot

‘

|
:

GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 29

BROWN-TAIL MOTH SCOUTING.

The spread of the brown-tail moth is not easily controlled by arti-
ficial means unless the insect can be reduced to minimum numbers.
Owing to the large territory over which the insect has spread, it is
not possible to carry on extensive scouting or control work by the
use of hand-suppressive measures. During the year a considerable
area, however, has been examined in Maine, New Hampshire, Ver-
mont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York, and areas have
been found infested where the insect was not known previously to
exist. The work of the commissioner of agriculture of Vermont and
his assistants has been very effective in reducing the infestation in
that State. The principal new infestations were found in Connec-
ticut, and a greater part of these were located by the assistants of
the State entomologist. Several webs have also been found on
Fishers Island and Long Island, N. Y., so that, in all, four towns on
these islands are known to be infested. The New York infestations
were discovered by the inspectors employed by the State department
of agriculture, and several scouts from this office were sent late in
the spring to check up the work and cover a part of the area

concerned.
QUARANTINE WORK.

The quarantine work is supervised by Mr. D. M. Rogers, who is
assisted by Mr. Harry W. Vinton, and the operations are confined
to the territory in New England and New York which is infested
by the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth. As a result of the
provision of the Federal plant quarantine act, which was passed
by Congress August 20, 1912, a domestic quarantine‘ has been
declared by the Federal Horticultural Board, covering the territory
infested by each of these insects. While the legal authority for
declaring quarantine is vested in the board, the cost of adminis-
tering the work is defrayed by the appropriation for the Bureau
of Entomology for ‘‘Preventing the spread of moths.’’ The object
of this work is to prevent egg clusters or larvee of the gipsy moth,
or winter webs of the brown-tail moth, from being carried out of
the infested areas on shipments of trees or forest products. The
regulations for enforcing this quarantine provide that all material of
this character before being accepted for shipment to points outside
the infested district must be inspected and must be accompanied
with an official certificate of the Federal Horticultural Board stating
that an examination has been made and that the material is free
from infestation. Shipment of Christmas trees and similar material
to points outside the quarantined area is prohibited. In order to
facilitate the work, the infested territory has been divided into 22
sections and a competent inspector has been placed in charge of

1 For details, see Notice of Quarantine No. 17, of the Federal Horticultural Board, effective Aug. 1, 1914.

30 BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. |

each. (Pl. XI.) Itis the duty of each inspector carefully to examine
all lumber or forest products, cordwood, telephone poles, railroad
ties, tan bark, etc., which may be shipped from any points in his
district to points outside the infested area after the proper application
has been made and to issue certificates of inspection if no infestation
is found. In accordance with the provisions of the quarantin
regulations, transportation companies are required to reject ship-
ments which are not accompanied with proper certificates. Durin
the season when nursery stock is being moved, examinations are
made of all woody plants which are consigned to points outside the
quarantined area. A number of special inspectors are employed for.
this purpose in addition to the men engaged on the regular lumber-|
inspection work. In order that this work may be of the most thor-
ough character so as to safeguard purchasers in other parts of the
United States, a tree-by-tree inspection is made of all trees and
plants growing in the nurseries before they are dug for shipment.
Another inspection of the plants is made at the time they are being
packed for shipment. During the fiscal year 1914, 17,076 shipments
have been examined and 4,476 specimens of the gipsy moth -and
1,435 specimens of the brown-tail moth in their various stages have
been found and the insects destroyed. This has resulted in preventing
these pests from spreading to many localities not now infested. The
destinations of these shipments ranged as far south as Jacksonville,
Fla., as far west as Prineville, Oreg., and as far north as Montreal,
Quebec.

The destination of shipments on which infestations were found
and destroyed are given below:

Number of Number of Number of
State. shipments. State. shipments. State. shipments,
Colorad ons oye see eescecionee ee AS MGINe Yee sane ae eee a sce ie 125) Pennsylvania ese nese eee 10
Connecticuiseeeereee se eeee: Ha) Mb OloikNs GonoooneosocuseodoS 4 | South Carolina............--- 1
District of Columbia.......-- iS PMEISSOUTAG Se otis oeiseieiseciaee S lViermonte. ee sscecere seseeeisce 35
MVORIGA Asem ee escent cece 3 | New Hampshire..........--- Yoel) NimabUEY OS Soceccopcaesoaoed 2
Georgia septs este: eleisieyelolee Itt N@ay UeRENosceseoocecoscdnos IAL) Opn) om noosanenehsseasecc 6
inbbisreneh ae eases adamodosecnee TEIN) INNA NOK eae see anaGooddaacae S4alebmolandeseeeeeece eee 1
TOW Aer eee eae e nates | NorthiCarohnassetee-eeeee eee 1 “O14
Gra GhIGls = -eposeeeanoooReee #5 | Ol See se ores ce Sscocconose 12
Massachusetts......--------- 24) OLTCLON ees eae eee eet me. 1

BROWN-TAIL MOTH QUARANTINE.

The enforcement of the brown-tail moth quarantine is conducted in
connection with the inspections carried on to determine whether ship-
ments are infested with the gipsy moth. It is not necessary, however,
to inspect lumber for this purpose. Deciduous nursery stock is
examined and all webs of the moth destroyed before shipments are
permitted. In order to prevent as far as possible the carriage of the
adult female moths on trains, inspectors have been placed at several
main railroad junctions along the border of infestations to examine
the trains during the time the moths are flying. These insects are
strongly attracted to bright light and the results which have been

¢

GIPSY MOTH WORK IN NEW ENGLAND. 31

secured from these inspections have been very satisfactory. The
inspection work in 1914 began on July 6 and was continued until
July 31.

The stations where trains were examined and the number of adults
found are given below:

Brown-tail Brown-tail
Station. moths found. Station. moths found,
BrellpomsmbiallsoWG 5525-22 ce. 2+ o2s ced. ek TG North Stratiord INGE seen a= sees are eee 6
Gueomuelde Mass. (ise. 525s use nb eck Sees Oo Meprinetield | Masss sae eeat ase er oe 1
Gober Neiie sn Se 0 eS kl ek ee Gel St WORMS Uys, Vibert eee eee eee 457
g B15 (3, (CLOVER Sap ee ae a Ob | OWielissBuivier, Witt eye: tne eee doe eae ae 247
Newaltondon, Conn. 5.222. 2 -.2.a<s2s-0005- (eo Wihitestiver JUnehOn Vite sos5-s-eeeeeeer 1,484

In addition to the foregoing, 296 adults were found and destroyed
at are lights in White River Junction, Vt.

RESULTS OF QUARANTINE WORK.

The results of the quarantine work have been very satisfactory.
Only one infested shipment of plant products has been known te
pass out of the territory and it was promptly returned.

Several carloads of stone and quarry products have recently been
found infested with gipsy-moth egg masses and a quarantine was
declared by the Secretary of Agriculture on October 23, 1914. Such
products must now be inspected and certified the same as plant
products.

Considering the number of infested shipments that have been
found and the wide range of country to which they would have been
sent if the egg clusters had not been found and treated, it is safe to
assert that this work has resulted in enormous saving of money
value to the agricultural and forest interests of the United States.

COOPERATIVE WORK.

Since the Federal work was commenced, active cooperation has
been secured from the States in which operations were being carried on,
While the organization of the State force and that of the Government
force are entirely distinct the work is planned in such a way as to avoid
duplication and to secure the best results. The general plan is for
the Bureau of Entomology to concentrate its efforts in stamping out
colonies in the territory along the western border of infestation from
Lake Winnipesaukee to Long Island Sound, and to carry on as much
work as may be necessary in eliminating the isolated colonies that
have been found in New York, Ohio, western Massachusetts, and
Connecticut. The State officials concentrate their efforts in the ter-
ritory inside the border towns. Owing to the hearty spirit of coop-
eration that has existed between the Bureau of Entomology and the
officials in New York, Ohio, and Connecticut, where isolated colonies
_ are present, it has not been necessary for this office to expend much
_ money for control work, as the States concerned have made every
effort to stamp out these colonies. A system of following up and

O22 BULLETIN 204, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

checking over the work done by these States has been adopted, so
that very satisfactory work has resulted. In the distribution of
natural enemies arrangements have been made to cooperate with the
State officials, and this has resulted in the establishment of more)
colonies of parasites than would otherwise have been possible. An
arrangement has been made with the Massachusetts State Board of
Agriculture so that speakers will be furnished to discuss the gipsy- |
moth problem at farmers’ institutes.

In the spring of 1914 a colored poster was prepared showing the )
life histories of the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth and several
of the introduced natural enemies. These posters have been dis-
tributed to all the post offices in the infested district, to granges,
libraries, and educational institutions. Reproductions from this poster
have been made in the form of post cards and distributed to schools
and parties interested in the work.

During October, 1914, an exhibit covering the gipsy-moth work
of the bureau was made at the Boston Pure Food and Domestic
Science Exposition, as a part of the Government exhibit. Living
parasites were on exhibition as well as mounted specimens and « ‘her
information.

Efforts are continually being made to advise property owners
concerning the methods which should be taken by them to prevent
serious damage to their trees, and good results are being accom-
plished along these lines.

CONCLUSION.

The gipsy-moth work of the Bureau of Entomology is well organ-
ized and each section is accomplishing good results.

‘The scouting work and the quarantine work are doing efficient
service and preventing the spread of the gipsy moth, but on account
of the enormous area which is infested it is impossible to cover much
of the woodland. This has resulted in a gradual spread of the insect.
It has been possible to restrict this spread very materially toward
the westward.

The work of natural enemies, including the parasites, predacious
enemies, and disease, have helped materially in “decreasing the
amount of infestation, and it seems probable that these influences
will become more potent factors in the future.

The importance of bringing forest lands into a growth which is
unfavorable to the development of the gipsy moth can not be too
strongly urged, as the work of natural enemies is likely to fluctuate
from year to year on account of adverse conditions or the decimation
of the beneficial species by other parasitic forms. Every movement
toward bringing about more unfavorable forest growth is therefore a
step in solving the gipsy-moth problem.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICBS ; 1915

BULLETIN OF THE

;USDEPARIMENT OFAGRICULTURE

No. 205

Uy 7) <
AGC

Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, Henry W. Henshaw,Chief. &
May 20, 1915.

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS.
By W. L. McArex, Assistant Biologist.
INTRODUCTION.

Accounts of the value, nature, range, and methods of propagation
of various groups of plants having importance as wild-duck foods
are contained in a series of contributions of the Biological Survey
to publications of the Department of Agriculture, of which this bulle-
tin is the third. Eleven groups here discussed include 2 assemblages
of fresh-water plants of universal distribution in the United States;
2 of more southerly range; 2 trees of southern swamps whose abun-
dant seeds are eagerly eaten by ducks; 1 strictly salt-water duck
food, the first thus far recommended by the bureau; 1 brackish-
water plant; and 3 others of such luxuriant growth as to be especially
adapted for use on duck farms.

MUSK GRASSES.
VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

Parts of musk grasses (alex, Characee) have been found in the
stomachs of the following 14 species of ducks: Mallard, black duck,
pintail, wigeon, gadwell, green-winged and blue-winged teals, buffle-
head, goldeneye, ruddy duck, little and big bluebills, ringneck, and
redhead. Thesmall tubers of these plants are eaten in large numbers;
more than 1,100 were contained in the stomach of one goldeneye and
more than 1,500 in that of a pintail. However, all parts of musk
grasses are eaten. Certain ducks spending the late autumn on
Currituck Sound, Nerth Carolina, were feeding extensively on these
plants. Three-fifths of the food of 70 little and 35 big bluebills taken
in that locality in November, 1909, consisted of musk grasses. The
stomachs of 3 pintails collected in the same locality in September
contained on the average 52 per cent of musk grasses, and of 2 in
October, 90 per cent.

NotEe.—This bulletin is for general distribution, and shows how 11 groups of plants may be successfully
used as food for wild ducks in localities where now unknown, and is the third in a series on this subject, the
preceding being Circular 81, Biological Survey, which treated of wild rice, wild celery, and pondweeds; and
Bulletin No. 58, Department of Agriculture, which treated of the delta duck potato, wapato, chufa, wild
millet, and banana water lily. The groups described in this bulletin are musk grasses, duckweeds, frogbit,
thalia, water elm, swamp privet, eel-grass, wigeon-grass, water-cress, water-weed, and coontail.

83175°—Bull. 205—15——1

2 BULLETIN 205, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS.

Musk grasses belong to the great group of plants known as
alge, which include forms commonly known as frog spit, green
slime, and seaweeds. Most of the musk grasses (Characeex) live
in fresh water and are among the most highly organized alge that
do so. They are attached to the bottom, and over it often form a
fluffy blanket a foot or more in thickness. Small round white tubers
occur in numbers on the rhizoids (root-like organs) of some species.
The slender stems are jointed and bear at the joints whorls of fine
tubular leaves, which usually
have a beaded appearance (fig.
1), due to the reproductive
organs growing there. These
are of two sorts: the anther-
idia, which are spherical and
red when mature, and the
odgonia, which are ovoid and
black, more or less overlaid
with white. The o6gonia cor-
respond to the seeds of higher
plants, and are about half a
millimeter in length.

These plants are translucent
and fragile, dull green in color,
and often (Chara) incrusted
with lime. This has given
them one of their common
names, limeweed. Other
names are stonewort, fine moss
(Michigan), oyster grass and
nigger wool (North Carolina),
and skunk grass (Massachu-
setts). The latter name and
that here adopted for the
plants, namely, musk grass, refer to a strong odor given off by a mass
of the plants when freshly taken from the water.

Fic. 1—A musk grass ( Chara).

DISTRIBUTION.
Probably no part of the United States entirely lacks representa-
tives of Chara or Nitella, our two genera of Characee. They require
lime, however, and hence reach their best development in regions
where that mineral is plentiful.
PROPAGATION.

For transplanting, musk grasses should be gathered in quantity in
late summer or fall, when some or all of the oégonia are mature. For

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 3

shipment they should be packed in small units (as in berry crates)
open to the air on all sides. This will prevent fermentation; a little
drying will not hurt. If they are to be transported long distances,
the package should be iced. For planting, bunches of the plant may
be weighted and dropped to the bottom. Growth should appear the
following summer. Musk grasses will grow on almost any kind of
bottom, but it must be remembered that they will not thrive perma-
nently in the absence of lime.

DUCKWEEDS.
VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

Duckweeds are abundant only under special conditions, but these
conditions exist in some of the favorite haunts of our wild ducks.
In the still recesses of southern cypress swamps, where duckweeds
cover the entire water surface, these plants contribute to the support
of all species of wild ducks. <A statement of the duckweed content
of two lots of stomachs collected at Menesha, Ark., in November and
December will serve to show the importance of these plants in that
locality. In the first lot were 8 mallards, and duckweeds composed
an average of more than 62 per cent of their stomach contents. The
proportion in other species was as follows: Spoonbill (1 stomach),
55 per cent; redhead (10), 50.3 per cent; and little bluebill (6), 8.33
per cent. In the second lot were 64 mallards, and they had eaten
duckweeds to the average extent of more than 49 per cent. Fifteen
rinenecks had consumed on the average 21.7 per cent each, and two
wood ducks, 95 per cent. In the woodland ponds also of the North-
ern States duckweeds abound. Here in the breeding season the wood
duck still manifests its preference for these little plants. Some
stomachs are filled exclusively with them, thousands being present.

Duckweeds are relished by most of our ducks and have been
found in the stomachs of the following species additional to those
above mentioned: Pintail, gadwell, black duck, wigeon, blue-winged
and green-winged teals, and big bluebill. As duckweeds sink at the
approach of cold weather, they are available in the North during only
the warmer months. In the South, however, they remain at the
surface practically all the year.

DESCRIPTION OF PLANTS.

The duckweeds most commonly seen are the green disks (some-
times more or less tailed on one side, fig. 2, a, 6, c, d) which cover the
surface of quiet and usually shaded waters. These disks are really
leaves, the plants being reduced to a leaf, with one or a few roots on
the under side. Duckweeds multiply largely by budding, and the
parent plant and offsets often cling together in clusters. Individual
plants vary in size from one-twelfth to three-fourths of an inch in
diameter.

4 BULLETIN 205, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Two genera of duckweeds lack roots. One of these ( Wolfiia, fig. 2,
e, f) contains the smallest flowering plants. These appear as green
granules, one twenty-fourth of an inch or less in diameter, and are
often abundant among other duckweeds or about the margins of
lakes and ponds. When the hand is dipped into the water large
numbers of the plants adhere to it. They look like coarse meal,
except for their green color, and feel like it, so that a good name for
them would be water meal.

The other genus of rootless duckweeds ( Wolffiella) consists of strap-
shaped plants (fig. 2, g, h), narrowed at one or both ends. They are
from one-fifth to
three-fifths of an inch
in length and com-
monly cohere in ra-
diate bodies or in
large masses of less
definite structure.

Duckweeds are
known also as duck’s
meat, water lentils,
and seed moss. The
latter term, in fact, is
used in Arkansas to
cover all components
of the vegetation of
the water surface.
oe, Besides duckweeds,
oe this mass includes
i that green or red, vel-

vety, mosslike plant,

Azolla caroliniana,

Fic. 2.—Duckweeds: a, b, Spirodela; c, d, Lemna; e, f, Wolffia; g, h, and the branching
Wolffiella.

a]

straplike liverworts,
Ricciella. Both of these are eaten by waterfowl along with the duck-
weeds, but being less plentiful are of minor importance.

DISTRIBUTION.

Most of the species of duckweeds are wide ranging. Of the single-
rooted kind (Lemna, fig. 2, c, d), 3 species occur throughout the
United States, 2 others are confined to the southern part, and 1 to
the eastern. The one many-rooted species (Spirodela, fig. 2, a, 6),
is of universal distribution. The granulelike rootless forms ( Wolffa,
fig. 2, e, f), so far as known, are confined to the eastern half of the
country, and the straplike rootless species ( Wolffiella, fig. 2, g, h)
to the southeastern quarter.

{

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 5
PROPAGATION.

The seeds of duckweeds are minute and seldom mature. The
plants, therefore, must be transplanted bodily. There is no diffi-
culty about this, for if they are not crushed or allowed to ferment
or dry, duckweeds are perfectly at home from the moment they
are placed in a new body of water. Fermentation may be prevented
by shipping in small units freely exposed to the air. Plants which
are to be transported a long distance should be iced.

It is useless to put duckweeds in large open bodies of water.
They thrive best in small pools and ditches where the water surface
is rarely disturbed. In ponds entirely surrounded by forest growth
and wooded swamps duckweeds also abound, but they are equally
at home in small pools and other openings among the reeds and
sedges of marshes. They are strictly fresh-water plants.

FROGBIT.

VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

Frogbit and the three species next described (thalia, water elm, and
swamp privet) are at present known to be of only local importance
as wild-duck foods. Frogbit is an abundant inhabitant of some
of the shallow cypress-margined lakes in Avoyelles Parish, La. It
produces spherical fruits filled with gelatinous matter in which are
a multitude of seeds, eagerly sought by ducks. Nearly 18 per cent
of the food of 308 mallards collected in that locality from October
to March, inclusive, consisted of these seeds. From 8,000 to 10,000
were found in each of several stomachs and one contained 32,000.
Other ducks found feeding on frogbit seeds were the pintail and
ringneck. Twenty-five stomachs of the latter species collected in
December contained on the average over 35 per cent of these eagerly
sought seeds.

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

Frogbit (Limnobium spongia) floats in shallow waters, extending
its roots into the muck below, or it may grow on soft mud itself.
On stalks from a few inches to a foot in length are several heart-
shaped leaves (fig. 3), which have 5 to 7 longitudinal veins springing
from the base, and numerous cross-veins. The underside of the
leaves is sometimes purplish. Numerous spongy runners help to
support the plant in the water, and they also form new plants at
the joints. The flowers emerge from conspicuous sheaths, and appear
to have 3 sepals which are broader and sometimes reflexed and 3
petals which are narrow and more erect. The stamens, 6 to 12 in
number, are given off at different heights from a central column.
The stalks supporting the berrylike fruits are thick and recurved.
The berry, as previously noted, is filled with a mixture of seeds and

6 BULLETIN 205, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

gelatinous substance. The seeds are covered by minute tangled
processes which cause them to cohere in masses. The fruit ripens
in August.
DISTRIBUTION.
Frogbit is a local plant, especially in the northern part of its
range. It has been found at Braddock Bay, N. Y., Monmouth

Fig. 3.—Frogbit.

County, N. J., and in Delaware, but the normal range probably is

from North Carolina and Missouri southward. The range here

mapped (fig. 4) is not complete, since the plant has been found in

Mexico.
PROPAGATION.

Frogbit is extensively used in aquaria and water gardens, and
may be obtained from dealers in plants for such purposes. The
plants themselves should be set out in water a few inches deep over
a mucky bottom or in soft mud near the water’s edge.

{

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. vl

THALIA.
VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.
The writer’s only experience with thala (species dwaricata) as a
wild-duck food was on St. Vincent Island, Florida. Here a slough

filled with a tall growth of these elegant plants was a favorite resort
of ducks, especially mallards, which could always be flushed from

Fig. 4—Range of frogbit.

this place. However, at the time of the writer’s visit only one
bird was obtained and its stomach contained a few thalia seeds.
Another mallard collected at a later date in the same place, by the
late Dr. R. V. Pierce, had fed almost exclusively on these large seeds,
and its gullet and gizzard were well filled by 144 entire seeds and
fragments of others.

The evidence is sufficient to show that thalia has great possibilities
as a wild-duck food. The seeds are large and nutritious and are

8 BULLETIN 205, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

borne in great abundance. They ripen in July and August and are
available to ducks throughout the winter, if the water is not frozen
over.
DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.
A single plant of Thalia divaricata is a stout, one-leaved stalk from
4 to 15 feet in height, rising from a large tuberlike root, and the stems

ly
aM

'
My

i

ve Y

\

Aen

vit
I
OU)
; wate
\

ayyi'?
’

Fig. 5.— Thalia divaricata.

are usually clustered (fig. 5). The leaf is much like that of canna, is
stalked, and may measure 5 inches wide and 15 inches long. The
top of the stalk divides and subdivides into a large fruiting head which
may bear from 200 to 300 seeds. The ultimate branches of the fruit-
ing head are strongly zigzag. The flowers and seeds are borne in
husks, each of which is formed by two purplish
bracts, one much larger than the other. The oblong
seeds (fig. 6) are plump and vary in length up to
three-eighths of an inch. They have thin, closely
fitting individual husks, are slightly curved, and
bear numerous longitudinal rows of small irregular elevations which
are lighter in color than the rest of the surface.

Fic. 6.—Seeds of thalia. ~

DISTRIBUTION.

Thala divaricata is native from Florida to southern Arkansas and
Texas and southward into Mexico, and doubtless it will thrive as far

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 9

north as South Carolina and Missouri. Two other species (T’. dealbata
and T. barbata) occur in the region from South Carolina and Missouri
south to Florida and Texas. Their value as duck food is unknown.

PROPAGATION.

Thalia can be propagated from either seeds or rootstocks. The
seeds have a thick shell and the rootstocks are massive, so that neither
should be injured if transported with ordinary precautions. Thalia
occurs in greatest abundance in muddy sloughs, but it will grow in
open water from 2 to 3 feet deep.
If planted directly into open
water, rootstocks should be used.
Seeds should either be placed in
shallow water or sprouted in a
protected place and the young
plants set out after they have at-
tained some size.

WATER ELM.

VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

That trees should produce
food for wild ducks is at first
thought surprising, but many do,
as oaks, thorns, hollies, ashes,
hackberries, and others; none is
of more value for this purpose,
however, than the water elm.

The most common wild duck
-in central Louisiana is the mal-
lard; in fact it outnumbers all
other species combined. Foods
important to it, therefore, are
the important duck-foods of the region. One hundred and seventy-
one mallards collected in the vicinity of Mansura and Marksville,
during October, November, and December, had fed on the seeds of
water elm to the extent of 45.5 per cent of their total subsistence.
The largest number of seeds taken by a single duck was upward of
200. These tightly filled the whole gullet and gizzard.

Other species of ducks seem to be fond of the seeds, judging from
smaller numbers examined from this region. These include the
black duck and the rmgneck. Water-elm seeds are eaten by Arkansas
mallards also.

83175°—Bull. 205—15——2

Fic. 7.—Leaves and fruit of water elm.

10 BULLETIN 205, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

The water elm thrives in swamps and on the margins of sluggish
streams. Normally it grows in water which is permanently 2 to 3
feet deep, but it survives prolonged inundation of much greater depth.
The tree seldom exceeds 40 feet in height and 20 inches in diameter,
and usually is much smaller.

The bark is much like that of the hop hornbeam or ironwood, and
the leaves (fig. 7), while obviously similar to those of our other elms,
are smaller and have blunter marginal serrations.

Fig. 8.—Seedlings of water elm.

The water elm flowers very early, from February to April, and the
fruit usually ripens and falls in a month or six weeks, but occasionally
is found on the trees as late as August. The extreme length of a
single specimen of the fruit is about a third of aninch. It consists of
a plump seed with a shiny blue-black coating, inclosed in a burrlike
hull (fig. 7) which is ridged and provided with numerous fleshy pro-
jections. The fruits, which are very numerous, drop into the water
immediately upon or even before ripening. Seedlings (fig. 8) come
up by the thousand in midsummer and young plants in all stages of
growth are abundant, proving that, for increase, seed is the main
dependence of the tree.

The water elm is also known (in books) as planer tree, and among
the French-speaking people of Louisiana as chataignier and charmille.

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. IL
DISTRIBUTION.

The range (fig. 9) of the water elm (Planera aquatica) extends from
the lower Wabash Valley in Indiana to the river bottoms of eastern
Texas, and from western Tennessee and southeastern North Carolina
to Florida.

Fig. 9.—Range of water elm.

PROPAGATION.

Seeds of the water elm do not seem to be ripe at the time they
usually fall; the real ripening probably occurs as they lie in the water
beneath the parent tree. While it is difficult, therefore, to collect
seeds in proper condition for planting, young plants of water elm
abound and if carefully lifted and packed should stand shipment
well. Great care must be taken to prevent the roots from drying.
They should be embedded in balls of earth and sewed up in burlap.

12 BULLETIN 205, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Transportation should be as rapid as possible and the young trees
should be set out or heeled in immediately upon receipt. Transplant-
ing should be done when the trees are leafless.

SWAMP PRIVET.

VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

The swamp privet is included principally on account of the testi-
mony of numerous hunters as to its usefulness. Wood ducks in
particular are said to feed extensively upon its seeds. Weeks before
other species of ducks arrive these birds are abundant in the country
where swamp privet grows and are said to consume most of the
crop of seeds, leaving
little for other ducks.
The seeds have been
found in numerous
mallard stomachs, but
in quantity in only
one. :

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

Swamp privet (for-
estiera acuminata) or
bois blane, found in
the same kinds of lo-
calities as the water
elm, is a smooth-
barked shrub (some-
times a small tree)
usually with drooping
stems, which fre-
quently take root at
the tip. The smooth, light-green leaves (fig. 10) are opposite, oval,
taper-pointed at both ends, and with rounded serrations which are
more prominent on the apical half. The fruit of swamp privet is a
blue watery berry from one-half to three-fourths of an inch in length.
Greatly subject to insect attack, it is usually distorted. The pit is
nearly as long as the berry, pomted at both ends, and has numerous
lengthwise, fibrous ridges. The seed within is white and smooth.
The flowers, borne in clusters, bloom in March and April, and the
fruit is ripe in May and June.

As is the case with seeds of the water elm, those of the swamp
privet may remain under water for a long period without apparent
deterioration. Probably most of the seeds are exposed by the annual
lowering of the water level and germinate the summer they are pro-
duced. (See fig. 11.) Whether those which fall in deeper water ever

Fig. 10.—Leaves of swamp privet.

{

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. i)

germinate is unknown, but it is certain, so far as utility as duck food
in concerned, that they keep in perfect condition far into the succeed-
ing spring.
DISTRIBUTION.
Swamp privet is native from central Illinois and Tennessee, near
Nashville, south to Texas and Florida (see fig. 12).

PROPAGATION.

Fruits of swamp privet fully ripen upon the tree. The seeds,
being protected by a fibrous cover and the pulp of the berry, undoubt-
edly will stand shipment for ordinary distances. Prompt handling

Fia. 11.—Seedlings of swamp privet.

is advisable, however, and the usual precautions against fermentation
should be taken. The seeds should be sown in well-watered beds
and the young plants grown to some size before setting out. Col-
lected young plants and the offshoots produced by the rooting of the
tips of branches of older ones may be handled like those of the water

elm.
EEL-GRASS.

VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

e
Few who have written of the habits of sea brant have failed to
mention its fondness for eel-grass. The relation between this spe-
cies of bird and plant seems to be as close as, if not closer than,
that existing between the noted fresh-water pair, the canvasback

14 BULLETIN 205, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

duck and wild celery. So far as investigations of the food of the
brant are concerned the published record is thoroughly substanti-
ated. All normal stomach contents of the common brant thus far
examined consisted exclusively of eel-grass. Other salt-water fowl
also feed on eel-grass, as the surf and white-winged scoters. Six birds
of the latter species collected at Netarts Bay, Oregon, had made 43
per cent of their last meal of it. The list of other ducks feeding on
the plant includes the golden-eye, old squaw, bufflehead, mallard, and
black duck, the last-named species sometimes devouring the seeds of

Fic. 12.—Range of swamp privet.

eel-grass in large numbers. The stomachs of 5 black ducks collected
at Amityville, Long Island, N. Y., in October and November,
contained on the average more than 66 per cent of eel-grass seeds, the
number of seeds per stomach varying from 700 to 4,000. Eleven
birds taken at Scarboro, Me., during the same months had eaten
enough eel-grass seeds to make up 51 per cent of their food. In three
cases fully 2,000 seeds had been taken. Thirteen ducks of the same
species collected in Massachusetts in January and February had
taken eel-grass, including both seeds and leaves, to the extent of more

(

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 15

than 11 percent of theirfood. The
wigeon, a species which prefers foli-
age to the seeds and roots of aquatic
plants, sometimes visits salt water
to feed upon this plant. Five of
these birds taken at South Island,
South Carolina, in February, had
made one-fourth of their meal of
the leaves of eel-grass.

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

Kel-erass (Zostera marina) con-
sists of bunches of long tapelike
leaves which rise from a jointed
fibrous-rooted creeping stem (fig.
13). The leaves bear a strong
superficial resemblance to those of
wild celery, but they are rarely
more than a fourth of an inch wide,
while those of wild celery are seldom
as narrow. ‘The leaf of eel-grass,
furthermore, is tougher and more
leathery than that of wild celery.
When a mature leaf is torn across,
numerous white fibers may be seen
at the broken ends. Wild celery
lacks these. The color of eel-grass
leaves is olive or dark green, that
ct wild celery clear light green.!

The leaves grow in small bundles
from the end of the rootstock or its
branches, and may reach a length
of 6 feet. The rootstocks, which
usually are reddish, have joints
about every half inch, at which
they are easily broken. The num-
erous fibrous roots spring from
these joints. Seeds of eel-grass are
formed in sheaths alongside the
leaves. They are about one-eighth
of an inch in length, are placed end
to end, and are barrel-shaped, with
the surface conspicuously longi-

Fig. 13.—Eel-grass.

1 Under the microscope the leaves of these two plants are very unlike. The chlorophyll granules of
Zostera are arranged in regular longitudinal rows, and the edge of the leaf is smooth. The chlorophyll
granules of Vallisneria, on the contrary, are irregularly arranged and the edge of the leaf is sparingly beset

with minute teeth.

16 BULLETIN 205, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tudinally ribbed (fig. 14). Hel-grass has numerous common names,
among which we may cite sea-wrack or grass-wrack, sea-, sweet-,
barnacle-, turtle-, and wigeon-grass.

DISTRIBUTION.

Hel-erass is strictly a maritime species. In its natural habitat it is
cosmopolitan. In North America it is found from Greenland to the
Gulf of Mexico, and from Alaska to California.

PROPAGATION.

This plant grows only in salt water. It is common along shores
facing the open ocean, but also grows in bays and even lagoons where
the water must be far less salt than the sea. The seeds are not well
protected against drying and for that reason are unsuitable for trans-
planting.! Moreover, unless they can be sown in a very quiet place
the chances are against securing a catch.
The rootstocks, however, are rather tough
and resistant and, furthermore, can be
fastened to the bottom. They must not
be allowed to dry, but should be shipped
wet and handled as rapidly as possible. Bury or fasten to the bottom
in water a few feet deep where there is little surf. Once established
the plant will spread to more exposed areas.

Fia. 14.—Seeds of eel-grass.

WIGEON-GRASS.

VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

Wigeon-grass is of rather restricted range, but of considerable
importance as a duck food almost everywhere it grows. In no
locality, so far as known, is it more important than on the coast
of Texas. Here the bays that have kept their wigeon-grass have
kept their ducks; those in which the plant has been destroyed by
influxes of mud and filling up of inlets have lost them. At Rock-
port, Tex., wigeon-grass still holds its own and is the main depend-
ence of the visiting vegetarian ducks. About 64 per cent of the food
of 33 pintails collected at Rockport in December was made up of
rootstocks, leaves, and seeds of wigeon-grass. This plant furnished
also two-thirds of the food of 3 wigeons, and more than 54 per cent
of that of 37 redheads taken at the same time.

Records of the food of ducks on St. Vincent Island, Florida, show
two other species of ducks to be very fond of this grass. Nineteen
little bluebills collected in January had eaten it, principally the seeds,
to the extent of over 63 per cent of their food, the number of seeds
per stomach varying from 500 to 4,000. The food of 17 gadwells

1 They undoubtedly can be preserved by cold storage in salt water, but considering the limited use that
can be made of seeds on account of the heavy wash along most shores, this probably would not be profitable.

if

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. IG

taken at the same time and place was 84 per cent wigeon-grass; and
the stomach of a redhead contained about 5,120 seeds.
- Most of the duck stomachs received by the Biological Survey from
South Island, South Carolina, have contained wigeon-grass. It com-
posed 41 per cent of the food of 3 blue-winged teals collected there in
March, and 27 per cent of that of 8 gadwells obtained in February
and March. In Currituck Sound, North Carolina, wigeon-grass grows
among too great a profusion of other valuable duck foods to have the
importance attained in less favored localities; nevertheless, it is a plant
of considerable value. Practically 10 per cent of the food of 35 big
bluebills collected there in November was composed of wigeon-grass,
as was about the same proportion of the diet of 70 little bluebills.

At Back Bay, Virginia, 17 per cent of the food of 9 pintails collected
in February consisted of wigeon-grass, and at Virginia City, Va., 16
per cent of the food of 14 mallards taken in January was of the same
composition.

Other ducks found feeding on wigeon-grass are the Florida duck,
black duck, green-winged and cinnamon teals, spoonbill, canvasback,
ringneck, bufflehead, old squaw, ruddy duck, surf scoter, and hooded

merganser.
DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

Wigeon-grass (Ruppia maritima) is similar in habit to sago pond-
weed or foxtail.1 Both have long, slender, filamentous leaves on
widely spreading, much-branched stems. In wigeon-grass the basal
parts of many of the leaves are enlarged (fig. 15), and this, upon
close inspection, gives the plant quite a different appearance from
saco pondweed. The seeds of sago pondweed are compactly grouped
on a central axis, while those of wigeon-grass are borne singly on
rather long stalks which radiate from the top of the fruiting peduncle
(fig. 16). The latter organ usually is spirally coiled in wigeon-grass;
in sago pondweed it never has more than a simple curve. The
rootstock of wigeon-grass is tougher than that of sago pondweed,
more frequently jointed, and often angled at the joints. There are
no tubers. The seeds are black, rounded triangular in outline, with
-a small pit on each side near the apex, and on one edge an oblong lid
which is forced out during germination. Pondweed seeds have a simi-
lar lid, but are usually larger than those of wigeon-grass, never black,
and lack the apical pits.

Wigeon-grass is usually referred to in books as sea- or ditch-grass;
it is also called tassel-grass, tassel-weed, tassel-pondweed, nigger-wool,
puldoo-grass, and peter-grass. The last two names are compounded
from terms by which the coot is known in southern States, and indi-
cate that wigeon-grass is highly relished by that bird.

1 Described in Biological Survey Circular No. 81, pp. 12-16,

18 BULLETIN 205, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DISTRIBUTION.

Wigeon-grass is a brackish-water plant. It grows in salt water,
but probably never in that of full ocean strength. It also grows in
water that passes for fresh, as in the upper part of Currituck Sound,

SSS

f=
/

'}

A

Fig. 15.—W igeon-grass.

North Carolina, but inlets from the ocean to this part of the sound
have existed in recent years and high tides at times cross the narrow
beach. Salt in the soil or salt springs, even if covered by fresh water,
also give wigeon-grass the conditions necessary for existence; this

{

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. - kG

explains its scattering distribution in the interior of the country
(fig. 17). Along the coasts wigeon-grass occurs from the base of
the Alaska Peninsula and the Gulf of St. Lawrence south to Central
America.*

PROPAGATION.

Wigeon-grass may be propagated from the seeds, which ripen in
late summer and early autumn. These should be gathered with
about 6 inches of the upper part of the plant, as the foliage tends to
keep them from drying. This material should not be packed in large
masses, but free circulation of air should be provided to prevent
fermentation. As
little time as pos-
sible should inter-
vene between
gathering and
planting. If it is
desired to keep the
seeds for some time
they may be placed
in wet cold storage.

After soaking the
seed until it will
sink, sow broadcast,
In quiet but not
stagnant water over
mud bottom. Wi-
geon-grass rows
in water varying in
depth from a few inches to 10 feet. It should be sown where the .
water is permanently 1 to 2 feet deep.

Fic. 16.—Fruits of wigeon-grass.

THREE PLANTS FOR DUCK FARMS.

The plants considered under this head are distinguished by rank-
ness of vegetative growth, comparative unimportance of their seeds
as duck food, and lack of fleshy rootstocks and tubers. These quali-
ties render the plants generally undesirable for propagation as wild-
duck foods, but they are the very things which make them valuable
for duck farms. As a rule abundant green food is available to wild
ducks, but the birds usually have to search for seeds, fruits, tubers,
and like forms of concentrated nutriment. The conditions on a game
farm are just the reverse. The birds are supplied grain food con-
stantly, but need roughage, particularly of naturally suitable kinds.
Plants of rapid, luxuriant growth are necessary and all requirements
are fulfilled by water-cress, water-weed, and coontail.

1 Authorities hold a variety of views regarding the numberof speciesof Ruppia which occur inthis area.
The purposes of this publication, however, are best served by grouping all the forms under one name.

7

20 BULLETIN 205, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

USE OF THESE PLANTS.

The three plants just mentioned are not recommended for planting
in waters where any other growth is desired, since they are such rank
growers that they are apt to take complete possession. One of them,
namely, coontail, has considerable value as a wild-duck food, how-
ever, and may be tried in waters where other plants have failed.

a
\

| |

Uva
L>

Fic. 17.—Range of wigeon-grass.

On duck farms best results will be obtained if the unit system of
ponds be adopted. Ducks can be turned into one pond at a time,
and when a pond is eaten out it may be resown, screened off, and
allowed to make a new crop. Under favorable conditions water-
weed and coontail will grow 6 inches a day.

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. pal

WATER-CRESS.

VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

Knowledge of the importance of water-cress as a duck food is
derived entirely from breeders of wild ducks, who almost without

exception consider it a valuable
plant for a duck farm. Not only is
it relished, but it is said to grow so
fast in some places that the ducks
can not eat it out.

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

Water-cress (Sisymbrium nastur-
tium-aquaticum) either floats in the
water, rooted only at the lower end,
or creeps along on mud or in shal-
low water, throwing out roots at
every jomt. It is a smooth, fleshy
plant, with divided leaves and small
white flowers (fig. 18). The leaves
consist of 3 to 9 symmetrically ar-
ranged oval or roundish segments,
of which the apical of each leaf is the
largest. The pods vary from one-
half to one and one-fourth inches in
length, are shghtly curved, and con-
tain numerous small seeds. There
is a constant succession of flowers
and pods throughout the growing
season. The plant sometimes is
strongly tinged with olive-brown,
suggesting one of its common names,
brown-cress. Other names are
well-cress or -grass, water -kers,-kars,
-karse, or -grass, crashes, and brook-
lime.

DISTRIBUTION.

Water-cress occurs practically
throughout the United States.

PROPAGATION.

Water-cress usually is propagated
by seed. This may be obtained

BS

( \\
(
*
Wr
Ne

i
Yy
yj
\

SS
"|

Fig. 18.—Water-cress.

from most seedsmen. The plant is also easily transplanted by cut-
tings. It grows in springs, brooks, small streams, and shallow ponds.

22 BULLETIN 205, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Waters in which it is found are usually cool and have some current.
It may be sown in similar situations at any time during spring
or summer.

WATER-WEED.

VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

Evidence for the value of water-weed is of the same nature as for
water-cress. The density and luxuriance of its growth are such that
water-weed maintains its stand even when fed upon daily by a large
number of ducks. Small quantities of the plant have been found in
stomachs of the mallard, blue-winged teal, and goldeneye.

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

Water-weeds (figs. 19 and 20) have long, branching stems with
luxuriant foliage and are of a beautiful translucent green color. The
leaves, which are set upon

BAS the stem in whorls of from
wo 2 to 4 (usually 3), vary
ok 2

from ovate tostrap-shaped,
and may be pointed or ob-
tuse, and are sometimes
finely toothed. They are
from one-fourth to oneinch
or more in length and from

Age xy i

xe one-twelfth to one-eighth
(ean of an inch in width. The
WY small flowers are borne on

rather long stalks and open
J Yi at the surface of the water.
ae, & A ry Ian The fruit, which is rare, 1s
Oza \ a7 few seeded and ripens un-
Oo) Nay Mp (Gas <i \ CLES der water.
va oWY LAY wee
ABA oy This plant was intro-
SS wy i duced into Great Britain
Fie. 19.—Water-weed. A compact form. in the middle of the nine-
teenth century, and spread
rapidly, making such rank growth that it soon became a pest, fillmg
ornamental waters, mill races, and canals. It became known there
as American water-weed and Babington’s curse (because introduced
by a botanist of that name). Other names applied to the plant are
ditch-moss, water-thyme, thyme-weed, cats-tails, and choke pond-
weed.

Some botanists consider that there are several different species of
water-weed in the United States. But, having in mind the entirely
different aspect wild plants of water-weed assume when transferred
to an aquarium, one is inclined to think that differences in the forms,

if

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. oe

which have been thought to represent distinct species, may be largely
due to conditions under which the plants were grown. -
Water-weed has had various scientific names applied to it, and the
following may be encountered in trade catalogues: Philotria, Elodea,
and Anacharis. The specific name that has been most commonly
used in this country is canadensis. Dealers in aquarium plants usually
list a form of water-weed known as Anacharis canadensis gigantea.

Ss Ye
Ch. y
oN ™"
K <a “WS ) >
ESS i
d AY Wr
NV a |
\\ a

Fig. 20.—Water-weed. A diffuse form.
DISTRIBUTION.
Water-weeds grow naturally throughout most of North America.
. PROPAGATION.

Water-weed propagates itself from pieces of leafy stem or root. It
is tenacious of life, and if shipment in good condition is achieved, no
trouble will be experienced in obtaining a stand of the plant. Bury
the roots or bases of stems in the bottom in shallow water for quick
results. The plant will grow, however, if only thrown in water
shallow enough (3 feet or less) to allow it to send roots to the bottom.
It likes a loam or sandy loam and does not grow in clay. Either still
or running waters are suitable. When established it will spread to
water up to 10 feet in depth.

24 BULLETIN 205, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

COONTAIL.

VALUE AS DUCK FOOD.

The seeds of coontail are eaten by practically all wild ducks, but
the foliage by a much smaller number and less frequently. Ducks
known to feed on this plant are the following: Hooded merganser,
mallard, black duck, Florida duck, gadwell, wigeon, green-winged
and blue-winged teals, spoonbill, pintail, wood duck, redhead,
canvasback, little and big bluebills, rmgneck, goldeneye, buffle-head,
old squaw, white-winged scoter, ruddy duck, and the whistling swan.

The following instances show the local value of coontail to some of
these species of ducks:

About 30 per cent of the food of 171 mallards collected about

Mansura and Marksville, La., from October to December consisted
of coontail, and as
many as 150 seeds
were found in a sin-
gle stomach. Much
more than the ordi-
nary proportion of
wi daN igs? stems and leaves of
WN LE ee Ee the plant were taken
LZ L—L————_ a by these birds.
Z z Another illustra-
tion of foliage eat-
ing is furnished by
8 mallards and 1
SM; ZepgAeve black duck collected at Big Lake, Arkansas,
. ne all (ee in December, 1912. More than 85 per cent
v LE ip i of the food of the mallards was made up
Ze of the foliage of coontail, with a few seeds,
while 90 per cent of the black duck’s food
consisted exclusively of coontail foliage.

Sixty-four mallards collected at Mene-
sha, Ark., in November and December, 1909, had fed on coontail seeds
to the extent of 7.23 per cent of their diet. Fourteen of the same
species of duck, taken at Lake Wapanoca, Arkansas, in November,
1910, had eaten enough seeds, with a little foliage of coontail, to
form on the average more than half of their food.

The plant thus has considerable local value as a wild-duck food.
However, its tendency to crowd out more desirable species makes
transplanting unwise, unless in particularly difficult cases where other
plants have failed. The very qualities of coontail that make it a
nuisance in natural waters commend it to duck farmers.

adbat ct
alg ige
;

Fic. 21.—Coontail. A compact form.

ELEVEN IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 25

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT.

The stems of coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum) are thickly
clothed with round, dense masses of foliage (figs. 21 and 22), which in
shape amply justify the common name
so widely used in the South, and which
is here adopted for the plant. Coontail

is a submerged plant, but only excep- MW | Zs
tionally is it attached to the bottom, as y=
it has no roots; it usually grows in rather N\\ ae
quiet waters from 2 to 10 feet deep. WAS
The leaves are composed of slender but Ss
rather stiff filaments, twice or thrice . W)
eS ay pee pees with \ \ ‘;
small acute projections. ey grow in SS
whorls of ae 5 to 12, and = fretislls hy
much crowded on the upper part of the “< y
stem. Ay)

The fruit of coontail (fig. 23) is com- S Ze
posed of a rather large, flattened seed, |
wedge-shaped at one end and rounded — |
at the other, inclosed in a thin covering Vy
which bears various tubercles on the NJ
surface and spines on the margin. A WA

common form has one spine at the apex

and one at each basal angle of the fruit.

One may examine many plants without

finding fruit ; nevertheless, the frequency

with which ducks find it proves that a —F1. 22—Coontail._A diffuse form.
good crop is produced. Coontail is known also as hornwort, horn-
weed, morass-weed, coontail moss, fish-blankets, and June grass.

DISTRIBUTION.

Coontail is practically cosmopol-
itan and occurs throughout all but
the extreme northern parts of North
America. ;

PROPAGATION.

Pieces of coontail broken off from
the parent plant promptly make
new colonies, a characteristic which
makes transplanting easy. Care
need be taken only to see that the

Fig. 23.—Seeds and fruit of coontail. plants do not lose their vitality
either through drying or fermentation during shipment.

Plant in quiet water. As the plant has no roots, itis enabled to
thrive over hard or sandy bottoms where many other plants can not
establish themselves.

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THiS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.

AT

5 CENTS A COPY

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE; 1915

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 206

Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry
A. D. MELVIN, Chief

Washington, D. C. May 25, 1915

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE
WOOL TRADE

By

F. R. MARSHALL and L. L. HELLER
Animal Husbandry Division

CONTENTS

Page Page

EMELOCHICHION fret) (oe) (aye) seh ichies a ike 1 | Pounds of Wool Per Pound of Cloth . . 24
Present Methods of Disposing of Wool The Need of Improvement in Handling

bythe Growers ... 2 American Wools Sued
Factors That Determine the Value of How American Methods of Handling

WON aia air oinen eG ol hve eye eis Wool MaybeImproved . ....- 27

Wool Grading Fundamental Rules for the Weolgrower. 29
Market Grades Glossary of Terms Used in the Wool

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915

THe

ROAR Sco iyhea eae

a i Ned Ae tea} LPR ROT BES “

q

BULLETIN OF THE

USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE

No. 206

= =a
Vs =

Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief.
May 25, 1915.

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE.

By F. R. Marswatt and L. L. Heiter,
Of the Animal Husbandry Diwision.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page
Br GROGUGUOM emt eeteccins ace cece esa cesea =n 1 | Pounds of wool per pound of cloth.........-- 24
Present methods of disposing of wool by the The need of improvement in handling Ameri-

CRON GhS. Sob eSccebec eee Ses eC eee ose eeOB eee 2 CATlWOOIS aa tieseenine seman Saat aoe oem ee 24
Factors that determine the value of wool...- 3 | How American methods of handling wool
NiGolrrACIn eRe case oi 60s oe oon ee i Wavy b Sr proved sae wes sacs eer 27
MarROtgoTAUCS ae\oa lala ne ae wn esis nesses 14 | Fundamental rules for the wool grower..-..-.. 29
SOAS WOO S ce Cee eee eI eee 21 | Glossary of terms used in the wool trade....- 31

INTRODUCTION.

The United States ranks as one of the principal wool-producing
countries of the world. The amount of wool imported by Ameri-
can manufacturers is equal to more than one-half of the home-grown
clip. American and foreign wools are often offered for sale at the
same time in the warehouses of Boston and other wool-marketing cen-
ters. Some American wools are equally as valuable as the best foreign
wools of the same class. On the whole, however, the appearance
of American wools compares quite unfavorably with that of most
of the foreign wools. The difference is due nearly altogether to
the growers’ methods of preparmg the wool for shipment. Foreign
woolgrowers, and Australians in particular, maintain a uniformly
high standard in the handling of their wools. This care in preparation
and the certainty as to the character of the contents of the bales has
given their wools a high reputation that insures their bringing full
value at the time of selling to the manufacturer.

Persons familiar with the buying and manufacturing of home-
grown and foreign wools assert that on account of poor preparation

NotTE.—This bulletin discusses the preparation of wools for market and explains the effect upon the
value of wool of the factors under the control of the grower. It is of interest to all sheep owners,

83237°—Bull. 206—15——1

2 BULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

American wools net the grower from 1 to 3 cents a pound less than
their actual value. This is due to the failure to classify the wool
before selling and to defects from the use of improper twine, brand-
ing paints, and other minor causes.

The undesirable features which manufacturers have come to look
for in American wools constitute a fixed charge which is borne by the
producer. There seems to be little doubt that most of the work
necessary to place American wools upon a parity with imported wools
in our markets can best be done at the time of shearing.

Prevailing methods of selling do little to acquaint the grower with
the manufacturers’ complaints in regard to his output. In the range
States where the clips are large the individual grower may establish
for his wool a reputation that will enhance its selling price. To
establish fully and realize the benefit of improved methods some form
of cooperative effort is necessary. Especially is this true with farm
wools where the single clip is small, and ordinarily passes through the
hands of a number of uninformed dealers or local buyers and reaches
the manufacturers only as part of an offermg made up from a large
number of clips, varying widely as to quality and care in preparation.

PRESENT METHODS OF DISPOSING OF WOOL BY THE GROWERS.

Western wools.—In the range States sheep are shorn either in sheds
located on the premises of the sheep owner or at plants owned by
individuals who employ shearers, fleece tiers, and sackers, and shear
sheep from various owners at an agreed charge which includes all
labor and material necessary to deliver the wool in sacks to its owner.
Each individual owner attends to the selling of his own wool. Ina
few cases manufacturers send their buyers out to purchase wool ©
direct from the growers, but the most of the clips are sold to buyers
representing eastern dealers. There is no public market or wool
exchange in this country. All transactions in the field or at the
points where wool is concentrated by the dealers to be resold to manu-
facturers are made privately. The newspapers and trade and agri-
cultural papers, upon which the grower must depend for information
as to the value of his clip, base their reports of the wool market upon
such facts as can be gathered from buyers or sellers at the main wool-
selling centers, which are Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, New York,
and St. Louis. In some seasons wool is contracted for before shearing.

If unwilling to sell at the price offered at home the wool grower
may consign his wool to a commission house and take chances upon
the market falling or rising. Many concerns will either buy wool
on speculation or accept it to be sold on commission. In neither
case do the wool grower and the maufacturer come in contact with
each, other, and the former understands the defects of his wool and

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. 3

its handling only as there is chance opportunity to learn of them
through the speculator or the distant commission agent.

During the past six seasons a growers’ semicooperative selling
agency has been in operation in Chicago, with branches in Boston
and Philadelphia. The establishment has handled considerable wool,
but according to report its growth and service have been less than
might have been realized if growers had adhered to the policy of
consigning their wool to it instead of using it as a lever to secure
higher prices from buyers in the field.

Eastern wools.—The fact that much of the wool produced on farms
of the Central and Eastern States is considered as secondary to mutton
production does not lessen the need of giving the highest possible value
to the grower. Here the producer is even farther removed from the
manufacturer than in the case of the range sheepman, who can usually
deal with some one acquainted with the values of wools and capable
of distinguishing between clips varying in grade and quality. Con-
siderable farm wool is sold to country storekeepers at a uniform
price to accumulate into lots of sufficient size to be sold to a traveling
buyer. In Minnesota and Wisconsin cooperative selling agencies
have been established. The managers of these agencies put the
entire amount received into suitable grades for selling to the manu-
facturers and set a fair price upon each lot of wool received.

Lack of contact between the manufacturer and the wool grower is
largely responsible for the latter’s failure to place his wool upon the
market in such a way as to secure its full value. In order to dispose
of wool to the best advantage growers must know the shrinkage and
the proper class and grade names for their wools and be able to under-
stand the reports of the market as published.

The pages that follow deal with the factors that determine the
value of wool, market reports, grading, sorting, and methods of
effecting improvement in the preparation of wool.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE VALUE OF WOOL.
SHRINKAGE.

It is the buyer’s first duty in inspecting an offering to make an
estimate of the yield of clean or scoured wool. American wools
may shrink from 25 to 80 per cent. Since more than 300 pounds of
grease wool may be required to produce 100 pounds of scoured, the
importance of shrinkage in the eyes of the buyer is readily recog-
nized. Some of the wastes that occur during manufacturing can be
used in other types of fabrics, but the loss in scouring is a complete
loss.

Shrinkage is due first and chiefly to the oil present in varying
quantities in all natural wool. The term ‘‘condition” has a special
use in the wool trade, referring to the amount of oil or yolk and

4 ‘BULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

foreign matter and not to strength or color. Wool from sheep of
the breeds that have been bred chiefly for fineness and weight of
fleece carries much more oil than that from so-called coarse breeds,
or those bred for mutton and having wool of relatively coarser fiber.
The weight of a heavy, soggy, greasy fleece may gratify the grower,
but the actual commercial value depends solely upon the amount
and quality of the clean, scoured wool. American breeders as a rule
consider that a large amount of oil is necessary and desirable in the
production of a fine quality of wool. It is true that our best wools
come from fleeces that shrink rather heavily from oil. At the same
time much of the Australian wool shrinks very much less than that
of the same fineness produced in this country.

Sand, dust, dirt, burs, and seeds also lower the yield as well as
affect the value of the clean wool. The sand present is due to the
storms that are experienced in some parts of the West. An instance
is related of a sand storm making it necessary to suspend operation
at a shearing corral for half an hour. At the end of that time the
average weight of fleeces had risen from 6 to 9 pounds, which could
hardly be attributed to growth of wool during that time. It is
impossible to produce other than heavy-shrinking wools upon some
of the sandy ranges, but if there is to be any profit from the opera-
tion the wools must be of good character otherwise.

In figuring shrinkages in this country there is no common standard.
Some concerns scour cleaner than others, and scour different wools to
varying degrees of cleanliness, according to the purpose for which
they are to be used. Neither is there any standard as to the amount
of moisture present after the wool has been dried. Hot tests are taken
immediately after the wool is dried, while in the cold tests the wool —
has been allowed to “condition,” or regain moisture for a time.

The dealers often have sample lots scoured for their own informa-
tion, and the mills, before buying, may also make a test. Sometimes
the shrinkage in the two tests will vary from 1 to 2 per cent, it being
to the advantage of the mill to get out every vestige of grease in
such a test. <A good grader is supposed to estimate within 1 per cent
of the actual shrinkage. It has been said that short-fibered wools
shrink 2 to 3 per cent more than longer ones of similar character.
This statement is in accord with what one would naturally suppose,
but there are no available data to show this amount of difference. |

Table 1 (prepared by the National Wool Warehouse and Storage
Co., of Chicago) indicates the important part that shrinkage plays
in fixing prices. At the top are the prices per pound of clean
or scoured wool. These are applicable to wools worth from 40 to 70
cents, which limits will cover all ordinary cases. In the column to the
left are the percentages of shrinkage. These run from 55 to 75.
Take a case of clean wool being worth 40 cents. If it shrinks 60

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. 5

per cent the wool is worth 16 cents in the grease. On the other
hand, if the shrinkage is known and also the grease value, the clean
value can be calculated readily.

TaBie 1.—Relative prices of scoured and raw wool at varying percentages of shrinkage.

Price of clean or scoured wool (cents)—

Shrinkage.
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Do
Per cent. Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.| Cts.
: . 9} 19.3} 19. 8} 20.2) 20.7) 21.1] 21.6) 22.0) 22.5] 22.9) 23. 4) 23.8) 24.3) 24.7
i . 5} 18.9} 19. 4] 19. 8} 20. 2} 20.7) 21.1) 21.6] 22.0) 22.4) 23.9} 23.3) 23.8} 24.2
é . 1) 18.5} 18.9} 19.3) 19. 8} 20. 2] 20.6} 21.1) 21.5} 21.9) 22, 4) 22. 8} 23.2) 23.7
h . 6| 18. 1} 18. 5} 18.9} 19.3] 19.7] 20.2) 20.6] 21.0) 21.4) 21.8) 22.3) 22.7) 23.1
e ; . 6} 18.0} 18.4] 18.9} 19.3] 19.7} 20.1) 20.5) 20.9] 21.3) 21.7) 22.1) 22.6
. s .2| 17.6} 18.0} 18. 4] 18. 8} 19. 2) 19. 6] 20.0} 20. 4) 20.8) 21.2) 21.6] 22.0
y : . 8| 17. 2) 17.5} 17.9) 18.3] 18.7} 19.1) 19.5) 19.9] 20.3] 20.7} 21.1) 21.5
b b . 3} 16.7) 17.1} 17.5} 17.9] 18.2) 18.6} 19.0} 19. 4) 19. 8} 20.1] 20. 5} 20.9
2 : .9| 16.3] 16.6} 17. 0} 17. 4] 17. 8] 18.1] 18.5} 18.9] 19.2! 19.6] 20.0} 20.3
: : 5.5} 15.8] 16.2} 16. 6) 16.9} 17.3) 17. 6) 18.0} 18. 4) 18.7) 19.1] 19. 4) 19.8
2 - - 1} 15. 4) 15.7} 16.1) 16. 4] 16.8) 17.1) 17.5} 17.9] 18.2) 18.6] 18.9} 19.3
(xe sc See eee 13. 6] 13.9] 14.3] 14.6] 15.0} 15.3] 15.6} 16.0] 16.3} 16.7} 17.0] 17.3] 17.7] 18.0) 18.3} 18.7
(C7 (s eee ee 13. 2} 13. 5} 13.9} 14.2] 14.5) 14.8] 15.2) 15.5] 15.8) 16.2) 16.5) 16.8) 17.2) 17.5) 17.8] 18.2
(Teens Se Sere ees aes 12. 8] 13.1) 13. 4] 13.7] 14.1) 14.4) 14.7) 15.0} 15. 4) 15.7} 16.0) 16.3) 16.6] 17.0) 17.3) 17.6
O55 SR RA hea oe 12. 4] 12.7) 13.0} 13.3] 13.6] 13.9) 14.3] 14.6] 14.9} 15.2) 15.5] 15.8) 16.1] 16.4] 16.7} 17.1
70: < aS 3 eee e a Sees 12. 0} 12.3) 12.6} 12.9] 13. 2) 13.5) 13.8] 14.1] 14. 4| 14.7] 15.0) 15.3) 15.6} 15.9] 16.2) 16.5
Tt NE Seen Se See 11. 6} 11.9} 12.2) 12.5] 12. 8) 13.0} 13.3] 13.6] 13.9) 14.2] 14.5) 14.8) 15.1) 15. 4) 15. 7) 16.0
T= a et Sarees 11. 2} 11.5) 11. 8} 12.0} 12. 2) 12.6) 12.9] 13.1) 13. 4| 13.7] 14.0} 14.3) 14.6} 14.8] 15.1) 15.4
TE sl AS ent ana 10. 8} 11.0] 11.3] 11.6} 11.9} 12.1] 12. 4) 12.7} 13.0) 13.2) 13.5} 13.8) 14.0} 14.3] 14.6] 14.9
ere ste eae se 10. 4} 10. 6) 10.9} 11.2) 11.4) 11.7) 11.9} 12.2] 12.5) 12.7} 13.0) 13.3} 13.5] 13.8] 14.0} 14.3
Dee se Bowe ss 10. 0} 10. 2} 10.5} 10.7) 11.0) 11.2} 11.5} 11.8) 12.0) 12.2} 12.5) 12.8) 13.0] 13.2] 13.5} 13.8
Price of clean or scoured wool (cents)—
Shrink-
age.
56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Per ct GisralOisn | Ctsenll Crise Cis Ciss IM Gtss | Otseal Css | iOtses|) Giseul Cts: | Ots. | Cts. | Cts
LN eee 25.2 | 25.6 | 26.1 | 26.5 | 27.0 | 27.4 | 27.9 | 28.3 | 28.8 | 29.2 | 29.7 | 30.1 | 30.6 | 31.0 31.5
Ow So5% 24.6 | 25.1 | 25.5 | 26.0 | 26.4 | 26.8 | 27.3 | 27.7 | 28.2 | 28.6 | 29.0 | 29.4 | 30.0 | 30.4 30. 8
see 24.1 | 24.5 | 24.9 | 25.4 | 25.8 | 26.2 | 26.7 | 27.1 | 27.5 | 28.0 | 28.4 ] 28.8 | 29.2 | 29.7] 30.1
DOA eee 23.5 | 23.9 | 24.4 | 24.8 | 25.2 | 25.6 | 26.0 | 26.5 | 26.9 | 27.3 | 27.7 | 28.1 | 28.6 |] 29.0 | 29.4
DON eS 2 23.0 | 23 4 | 23.8 | 24.2 | 24.6 | 25.0 | 25.4 | 25.8 | 26.2 | 26.7 | 27.1 | 27.5 | 27.9 | 28.3 28. 7
60ep reas 22.4 | 22.8 | 23.2 | 23.6 | 24.0 | 24.4 | 24.8 | 25.2 | 25.6 | 26.0 | 26.4 | 26.8 | 27.2 | 27.6 | 28.0
(leper 21.8 | 22.2 | 22.6 | 23.0 | 23.4 | 23.8 | 24.2 | 24.6 | 25.0 | 25.4 | 25.7 | 26.1 | 26.5 | 26.9 | 27.3
6255 21.3 | 21.7 | 22.0 | 22.4 | 22.8 | 23.2 | 23.6 | 23.9 | 24.3 | 24.7 | 25.1 | 25.5 | 25.8 | 26.2 | 26.6
G32 5 oe 20.7 | 21.1 | 21.5 | 21.8 | 22.2 | 22.6 | 22.9 | 23.3 | 23.7 | 24.0 | 24.4 | 24.8 | 25.2 | 25.5 25.9
645 Ae 20.2 | 20.5 | 20.9 | 21.2 | 21.6 | 22.0 | 22.3 | 22.7 | 23.0 | 23.4 | 23.8 | 24.1 | 24.5 | 24.8) 25.2
GHP oe 25 19.6 | 20.0 | 20.3 | 20.7 | 21.0 | 21.4 | 21.7 | 22.1 | 22.4 | 22.8 | 23.1 | 23.5 | 23.8 | 24.2 | 24.5
(jaa 19.0 | 19.4 | 19.7 | 20.1 | 20.4 | 20.7 | 21.1 | 21.4 | 21.8 | 22.1 | 22.4 | 22.8 | 23.1 | 23.5 23.8
Gi es = 18.5 | 18.8 | 19.1 | 19.5 | 19.8 | 20.1 | 20.5 | 20.8 | 21.1 | 21.5 | 21.8 | 22.1 | 22.4 | 22.8] 23.1
68......| 17.9 | 18.2 | 18.6 | 18.9 | 19.2 | 19.5 | 19.8 | 20.2 | 20.5 | 20.8 | 21.1 | 21.4 } 21.8 | 22.1 22,4
Gea 17.4 | 17.7 | 18.0 | 18.3 | 18.6 | 18.9 | 19.2 | 19.5 | 19.8 | 20.2 | 20.5 | 20.8 | 21.1 | 21.4 PAIS 7
HOMES. 16.8 | 17.1 | 17.4 | 17.7 | 18.0 | 18.3 | 18.6 | 18.9 | 19.2 | 19.5 | 19.8 | 20.1 | 20.4 | 20.7} 21.0
a et 16.2 | 16.5 | 16.8 | 17.1 | 17.4 | 17.7 | 18.0 | 18.3 | 18.6 | 18.9 | 19.1 | 19.4 | 19.7 | 20.0 | 20.3
(HE Bocce 15.7 | 16.0 | 16.2 | 16.5 | 16.8] 17.1 | 17.4 | 17.6 | 17.9 | 18.2 | 18.5 | 18.8 | 19.0] 19.3] 19.6
(Beas 15.1 | 15.4 | 15.7 | 15.9 | 16.2 | 16.5 | 16.7 | 17.0 | 17.3 | 17.6 | 17.8 | 18.1] 18.4]18.6] 18.9
(ae 14.6 | 14.8 | 15.1 | 15.3 | 15.6 | 15.9 | 16.1 | 16.4 | 16.6 | 16.9 | 17.2 | 17.4 | 17.7 | 17.9 18. 2
He aiereis. 14.0 | 14.3 | 14.5 | 14.8 | 15.0 | 15.3 | 15.5 | 15.8 | 16.0 | 16.3 | 16.5 | 16.8 | 17.0 | 17.3 | 17.5

CLASSES OF WOOL.

The value of wool is influenced more or less by its length and it is
classified accordingly. The longer wools are known as “combing”’
and the shorter ones as “clothing.” These classes are shown in
PlateI. This classification is founded upon the English or Bradford
system of manufacture, which requires a wool to be about 24 inches
long to be successfully combed. The lower grades of combing wools
are usually considerably longer than this, as the coarser wool generally

6 BULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

has more length. Clothing wools are shorter. Of late years a class
midway between the two has sprung up, known as “baby combing.”
The French combs handle this length of staple quite satisfactorily.

The combing wools are used in worsted manufacturing. Only the
longer straightened fibers are used and these are placed parallel in
the yarn. The short, broken, and tangled fibers are removed and
make up the ‘“‘noils.”” Not only is length required, but also strength.
Tender wools will not stand the combing process and are unfitted
for this purpose, regardless of length. None but virgin! wools are
used in the manufacture of worsteds.

Clothing wools are used in the manufacture of woolens, felts, etc.
The fibers are laid in every direction, and instead of attempting to
arrange them parallel as in worsteds, the opposite extreme is desired.
Noils, shoddy, etc., can be used in this process of manufacture.

The difference in value between combing and clothing wools is
from 2 to 6 cents per scoured pound in favor of the former.

Coarse, low wools more or less resembling hair are classed as
carpet wools. A very small amount of these are produced in America,
most of those used being imported from Asia. Some Navajo wool
is used in carpet manufacture.

The factors that determine the length of the wool are not all under
the control of the flockmaster. The wool does not grow so long on
old sheep as it does on a young animal, but short pasture and faulty
methods of herding tend to decrease the normal length. ‘Some sheep
have been bred for longer staple and naturally produce a greater
length of fiber than others

GRADE.

Wool is graded according to fineness, and generally the finer the
grade the better the price per scoured pound. Because of their low-
shrinking qualities, coarser wools in the grease may sell for as much
as or more than the finer ones, but when cleaned there may be as
much difference as 20 cents a pound in price. The various grades
are discussed on pages 14 to 21.

CHARACTER IN WOOL.

Character in wool will scarcely admit of definition, yet it is very
important. Sometimes this may only be acknowledged by prefer-
ence, or a greater demand at the same price, but at other times
there is a difference in price. Color would come under this heading.
A white wool is often desired rather than one of a creamy tinge,
as the latter tint often shows up after scouring. A wool with lots
of ‘‘life” or ‘‘nature,’’? which means that the fibers are sound and
lustrous and that the yolk is of a uniform consistency rather than
clotted, is desirable. ‘‘Lofty” is another word used to describe a

1 See glossary of wool terms at end of bulletin for explanation of technical words and phrases.

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. i

superior wool of considerable crimp that is uniform in character.
Lofty wools possess considerable elasticity and spin higher than
those lacking this quality. In well-grown wools the staples or
locks are more distinct and the fibers are more nearly parallel than
in the frowzy wools. Fleeces from poorly bred sheep show greater
variation in diameter of fiber and are more likely to ‘‘run out”
on the flanks, and this wool is consequently not so valuable. Black
fiber shows up occasionally among mutton-bred sheep, and it is
objectionable. Kempy wool is worth several cents a pound less
than a similar quality free from this defect which denotes poor
breeding.

TENDER WOOL.

Wool that has a weak part somewhere in its length must generally
go into the clothing class, and in some instances it is inferior even
for this. The exact cause of ‘‘tender” wool is not always known.
It is generally agreed that sickness, a sudden shock from a blizzard,
lack of feed, a rapid change from green to dry feed, or vice versa,
and overfeeding often cause this condition. Sickness will often
cause a distinct ‘‘break” in the fiber throughout the fleece. In
general, better care and housing conditions decrease the percentage
of tender wool, yet this is not always the case. Sheep that have
been largely allowed to rough it, but having plenty of feed, have
been known to produce better clips than the flock closely housed.
““Wrowziness’’ often indicates tender wool. After the wool has been
clipped it may become tender through becoming wet. Tender wools
are worth several cents per scoured pound less than sound wools.
Plates II and III show well-grown, tender, and frowzy wools.

USE OF PAINT FOR BRANDING.

The practice of branding the sheep with paint is very generally
established throughout the range country. The brands are usually
placed upon the shoulders, side, or back—the most valuable parts
of the fleece. Under some conditions it is doubtless necessary to
brand, but tar brands should be avoided and the brands used
should be as small as possible. At the present time most of
the American dealers recognize no brand as soluble in scouring,
but regard all paint locks with distrust. The damage done by
the paint can scarcely be estimated. It is not only the damage
to the locks directly affected, but the fibers carrying the paint
are more or less mixed throughout the fleece, and it is almost
impossible to get them all out. The amount of damage. done
varies with the kind of wool and the use to which it is
put. One of the prominent felt manufacturing concerns that
uses large amounts of the Texas wools for fine felts tries by every
means to eliminate the paint. The painted wool is separated in

8 BULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

sorting, and yet the scoured wool contains so many specks that it is
necessary to ‘“‘hand pick’ it. This process costs from 3 to 5 cents
per scoured pound, and with the quantities handled by this firm
in one year the expense amounts to between $8,000 and $10,000.
This concern will pay one-half to 1 cent extra for wool suitable
to its need guaranteed free from paint. Another manufacturer
writes: ‘If the brand marks on a lot of wool were unfailingly and
altogether soluble it would enhance its value to us about one-fifth
of a cent per pound, the usual cost of clipping.’ It is good prac-
tice to clip off the brands before shearing.

TAGS.

Tags are worth about one-third as much as good wool, depending
somewhat upon condition. Ordinary tags shrink much more in
scouring than the fleece proper taken from the same sheep. Most
clips have the tags on the inside of the fleeces. In buying
wool containing tags the buyer usually discounts enough so
that he will be safe. It is generally better to remove the tags
so that the exact amount can be ascertained, as the grower
will generally fare better under this system. It must be admitted,
however, that the custom of discounting 1 per cent for tags even
after they have been sacked separately does not recognize the value
of separate sacking. Another very serious objection to allowing
tags to remain in the fleece is that they are likely to stain the
surrounding wool, especially when it is wet.

WET WOOL.

Wet wool has been known to “‘take fire,’ and there are numerous
instances where it has been damaged to the extent of from 1 to 2
cents per pound. The damage is not altogether due to the weak-
ening of the fiber, but also to staining, especiaily when there are
any tags present.

Often wool must be hauled for long distances and piled up along
the tracks waiting for shipment. In such case it is sometimes sub-
jected to heavy rain, and while the bags apparently dry out where the
air has access, there is no chance for drying inside the pile. When the
bags once become wet it often takes months for them to dry out. It
is said that as much as 10 per cent of the wools from one of the western
States was damaged by moisture in 1913.

WOOL CONTAINING BURS.

Burry fleeces should be separated from the others if there are very
many burs present. The hard burs can usually be knocked out during
the process of manufacture with a little extra work, but the soft burs
entail considerable extra expense. They often open up in a spiral or

Bul. 206, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

ComBING (UPPER) AND CLOTHING (LOWER) WOOLS.

Bul. 206, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE II.

WELL-GROWN WOOL.

Bul. 206, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

Fia. 1.—FROWZY WOOL.

FIG. 2.—TENDER WOOL, SHOWING BREAK.

Bul. 206, U.S.

Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE IV.

WOooL PACKED IN OLD SACKS AND POORLY SEWED.

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. 9

corkscrew shape and can not be separated in carding. Such wools
may be run through a bur picker, which, together with the bur guards
on the card, removes them. In the shorter extremely burry wools
the process of carbonizing is practiced. ‘This consists of treating with
sulphuric acid or aluminum chlorid and heating to about 200° F.
The burs and vegetable matter are charred and then removed by
crushing and dusting. The process costs from 14 to 3 cents a pound
and results in an average loss of about 10 per cent in weight. Often
the shrmkage due to burs is much more than this. Combing wools
that are extremely burry are rarely if ever carbonized, as this injures
the wool to a certain extent, even under the most favorable

circumstances.
IMPROPER TYING OF FLEECES.

The evil of tying the fleeces with sisal twine is constantly recurring.
Volumes have been written against this curse of the wool trade, but
it is continually coming up again, although of late years it has not been
so uniformly common. The ‘‘fleece”’ or farm wools are worse in this
respect that the ‘‘Territory.’’ A discrimination in price of from 1 to 5
cents a pound and the refusal of some dealers to handle wool thus put
up have not eliminated this practice. The pieces of sisal twine adhere
to the wool through the processes of manufacture and seriously injure
the finished fabric. The large rough jute twine is also undesirable
because of the fibers coming off in the fleeces. Growers should insist
on haying the fleeces in-compact bundles that will not open in the
ordinary processes of packing.

Locks.—Locks are loose pieces of wool that fall out when the fleeces
are handled. They may represent some of the best qualities of the
wool, but because of their being in small pieces they are difficult to
sort, hence the buyers object to them when they are present in large
quantities. Their presence can be avoided by proper tying.

PACKING THE BUCK FLEECES.

Probably the average sheepman can see no reason for keeping the
bucks’ fleeces separate; nevertheless there is one. These fleeces,
especially among the fine and medium wooled sheep, are considerably
heavier in grease, and it is undesirable to have too great a variation
jn shrinkage among fleeces of one grade. The buck fleeces are as a
tule easy to detect; they are large, have a strong, musky odor, and
the yolk of the fleece has a greenish cast. The statement has been
made that the spinning qualities of bucks’ fleeces are also lower, but
there are no good grounds for this contention. A discount of 50 per
cent is often charged against the buck fleeces in western selling con-
tracts. Discrimination to this extent is seldom warranted for buck
fleeces sold in the grease.

$3237°—Bull. 206—15 —2

10 BULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BLACK WOOL.

No other of the ‘‘off sorts’”’ do more damage by being packed with
the other wool than the black fleeces. After wool has been packed in
bags for a time the fleeces ‘‘freeze”’ together more or less; that is, locks
from one fleece adhere to neighboring ones. A lock of black wool
in any wool intended for white goods is capable of doing untold dam-
age. To be sure, not all wool goes into white goods, but the dealer,
when he is having the wool graded, often does not know to whom it will
be sold, nor for what purposes it will be used. The only way to be safe
is to pick off all the black locks from the adjacent fleeces. Black wool
has been in demand for making a natural gray in the past, but at the
present time it is not especially sought after and it sells at from 1 to 2
cents a pound less than the corresponding grade of white wool. When
shearing takes place the blacks should be cut out and sheared by
themselves, and their wool packed separately and so labeled.

COTTED OR MATTED FLEECES.

The badly cotted or matted fleeces should be placed separately,
because it is necessary to run them through an opener, which is not
done with ordinary wool. This necessarily causes the breakage of
fibers to increase. There are really two kinds of cotts, hard and soft.
A soft cott, if it is not in too bad condition, may go through with the
other wool.

EFFECTS OF DIPPING.

The effects of dipping upon wools are not always the same. In the
Southwest, where there is considerable sand and dirt in the fleeces, it
tends to lighten them, while in the Northwest it is said that dipping
increases the weight. Most of the dips that have been used do not
have any very harmful effect upon the wool, but dealers and manu-
facturers claim that lime-and-sulphur and caustic-soda dips are
harmful. However, no tests have been made in America upon the
spinning qualities of dipped and undipped wools.

HAND AND MACHINE SHEARING.

The practice of hand shearing is still quite common in parts of the
West. Ridges of wool are left over the sheep’s body, and the short
wool of the head and belly is largely left on the sheep. Much of the
wool is shorter than it would be if machine shorn, and a considerable
portion of it is double cut. The large amount of short and cut
fibers results in a greater percentage of noil in the combing wools
and reduces their value accordingly. Many wools grade as clothing
instead of combing solely because of being hand shorn.

In some sections where rapid changes of weather are experienced,
the sheepmen object to machine shearing on the ground that the
sheep will blister during hot weather if shorn too closely. Losses

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. 11

due to a cold wave following close shearing have also been reported.
However, machine shearing does not necessarily mean close shearing,
as thicker combs can be used and the fiber cut at a greater distance
from the skin; but it does insure more uniformity. A great deal of
the prejudice against machine shearing has been aroused by im-
proper handling of the machines.

PACKING WOOL.

Packing lamb, ewe, and wether fleeces together militates against
higher prices for wool. Lambs’ wool is usually more valuable be-
cause of lighter shrinking qualities and because of the fact that it
will spm higher than wool from older sheep. Sewing the bags with
sisal or other unsuitable twine also creates a bad impression in the
mind of the buyer, as there is always the possibility of the sisal
fiber getting into the wool and causing damage. Much wool is lost
through the bursting of the bags. This is caused by the use of poor
twine. A stronger twine used for sewing, such as Andover six-ply,
is recommended for this purpose. Examples of poor packing are
shown in Plate IV.

Packing dead wool (wool from dead sheep) with good wool is also
far too common. The dead wool is usually worth about half as much
as the corresponding grade of good wool. Another feature in bad
packing that should be discouraged is the tyimg of the fleeces to-
gether. In many cases the two fleeces are not of the same grade
and they must be separated by the grader before being assigned to
any pile.

Occasionally one hears of frauds being practiced by putting stones,
etc., in the center of a fleece or sprinkling sand over the wool after it
is shorn, but the actual cases of this kind are very rare. It is true
that foreign materials have been found in wool sacks, varying from
spectacles to oil stones, but such occurrences are more often due to
accident than to intent to defraud.

WOOL GRADING.

Most American-grown wool is sacked just as the fleeces come from
the sheep and sold at home to dealers. Before offering wool to the
manufacturer the dealer makes up from his various purchases a num-
ber of piles, each containing only fleeces of similar character and
value. This work constitutes grading and should not be confused
with the sorting done at the mill. In the dealer’s warehouse the
fleeces are not untied, but are graded on the basis of judgment of
the fleece as a whole. (Plate V.)

The grading itself is an art with which few American sheepmen
are familar, yet it has many points of interest for them. Passing
through the lofts and merely seeing the fleeces go over the grading

12 BULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

board is not enough to give one an insight into the complexity of a
trade that requires at least three years’ apprenticeship. Days and
even weeks must be spent there before the importance and signifi-
cance of numerous points that arise can be appreciated.

The grade has much to do with fixing the price of wool, and every
woolgrower should be competent to know how his own wool will
grade in the market. The various grades are described later on in
connection with the market report following the outline of the work
of the grader. Some clips of finer wools, very uniform in character,
are resold to the manufacturer in the original bags. This is practi-
cable when the mill produces a variety of fabrics for which different
grades of wool are required. (Plate VI.)

AT THE GRADING TABLE.

About the grading table or board are a number of large baskets or
box trucks, one for each grade. The wool sacks are rolled up by
the table, the ends and one side ripped or cut down, depending upon
the kind of sewing, and the fleeces turned out in a roll. \The fleeces
are separated by helpers, who throw them upon the table. Other
helpers bring up the bags and empty the baskets containing the
graded fleeces, piling them ceiling high where the wool can be ex-
amined by the prospective buyers.

The different grades are merely arbitrary divisions more or less
clearly recognized and defined in trade. There is some variation from
year to year and among the different houses. The mills often have a
higher standard of qualities than the dealers, and the ‘“‘half-blood”’
of the dealer may represent the millman’s idea of a ‘‘three-eighths
blood.”’ Fineness is the dominant factor; but many other things are
considered in grading.

The grader does not determine fineness, as might be supposed by
examination of individual fibers. The handling of innumerable fleeces
has given him an intuitive sense of quality, so that he accomplishes
in an instant what would take an untrained person a much longer
time. For example, say that a half-blood combing fleece has been
thrown upon the board. This grade has in general certain charac-
teristics, such as a certain degree of crimp (the finer the crimp the
finer the wool, except in very fine wool), and a certain arrangement
of the fibers in locks or staples that the grader notes as soon as his
eye rests uponit. This gives him something as a guide, but the grade
is not yet decided. When his hands come in contact with the fleece
he has another source of information. The feel of the different grades
is more or less characteristic, and this sense is highly developed in the
grader. Illustrating this, a blind buyer formerly operated upon the
market with considerable success. He could not only make pur-
chases and distinguish the grade by the touch, but by the odor he

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. 13

could also tell the section of the country from which some wools came.
Finer wools usually shrink more than coarser wools, and too wide a
range of shrinkage is not desired in any grade, as the scouring liquor
is made up of a strength suitable for the average shrink of the grade;
thus a higher shrinking fleece would not be suitably scoured.

The grader knows also that a half-blood fleece usually shrinks
around 60 per cent, depending upon the season and the location
where grown. If the fleece in question is heavier-shrinking, say 65
per cent, the grader will probably take a second look to be sure that
he has not “Jost his eye.” If his first impression as to fineness was
correct and the fleece is typically half-blood, or perhaps a trifle high,
it will probably be thrown a grade higher, that is, fine medium, on
account of its heavy shrinking qualities. The next fleece might offer
another problem. Say this one is what is known as a “line” fleece.
It is midway between the three-eighths-blood and the quarter-blood.
It can go either way. The chances are that if the three-eighths-blood
wool has been sold and the dealer is well satisfied with the sale, this
fleece will find a resting place on the three-eighths-blood pile. Other
conditions might decree it to be a quarter-blood. If the market de-
mands for three-eighths-blood wool were high and the supply a trifle
short there would also be some ‘‘crowding” of the grades and the
three-eighths-blood as a whole would probably average a little lower.
There are also ‘“‘line”’ fleeces midway between combing and clothing.
These are sometimes made into a separate grade known as French
combing. It is thus seen that the grades manifest more or less elas-
ticity, depending upon market conditions.

Another fleece might be puzzling because of the wool of the “‘britch”’
being much coarser than that of the shoulder. For example, the
shoulders might be half-blood quality or higher, while the ‘“britch”
was quarter-blood. The grader would simply use his best judgment
and trust to chance that the fleece would remain as he throws it.
At best the grades can only contain fleeces which contain a large pro-
portion of the quality of wool represented by the grade names.
Graded wool ready for sale is shown in Plate V, figure 2.

14 BULLETIN 26, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
MARKET GRADES.

The following is a copy of a common form of market report as pub-
lished in trade and agricultural papers in November, 1914:

BOSTON WOOL MARKET. BOSTON WOOL MARKET—Contd.
Domestic Woots. ScovureD Basis.
OHIO AND PENNSYLVANIA FLEECES. TEXAS.
Delaine washed............- 28 @29 | Fine 12-months............- 56 @ 58
XX ie CSE cirert va ORNS alse 27 @ 283 | Fine 8-months.............- 53 @ 54
Fine unmerchantable...._..- ZOO aa imine allie mca a. toktae ane @ 47
4-blood combing.........-.-. 28 @2
#-blood combing-:.....-.-..- 28 @29 CALIFORNIA.
4-blood combing. ::2....2 24. - 263 @ 274
Fee et) CLObRULARE bis. a3.< os Seay 2B) i@) s- Northern "a SUGAR Ss WE Tas Re Pe bf @ 55
Delaine unwashed........... 23 @ 24 Middle County............... 51 @52
Fine unwashed.....-.....--.. 23 @24 Southern................... 48 @ 50
Common and braid........... 23 @ 24 Fall free. . en ANG ic ea Tepe ee She 46 @ 48
; Hall defective.-2..:4.- 7.4.) 38 .@ 40
MICHIGAN AND NEW YORK FLEECES.
Fine unwashed............... 23 @.- ean
Delaine unwashed..........- 213 @ 22 Eastern No. 1 staple......... 60 @..
2-blood unwashed..........- 27 @28 | Bastern Clotting ee eu eae 57 @58
3-blood unwashed.......-.-- a Oe vaee Ave eee el on 48 @, 50
SLAP Uae near tiie ERG AU \iNralleyNioe 26. 0 epeues cul: 44 @ 45
3, 8) 4 clothing. . . SSoceccacas 21 @ 22 Valley INO AG am eins sel ee 39 @ AO
Common and braid........... 23 @ 24
WISCONSIN AND MISSOURI. TERRITORY,
Ra LOOG Hey sea u oe ec Meo. 6 I @yOTea |p Een Osta] Cb seen sera 60 @ 62
+-blood....-.........-.---.-. 26 @ 264 | Fime medium staple.......... 58 @60
Pare A saree eared Ietmey 22 (GO) 230 bane clo unine aaa eee is eae 57 @58
Black, burry, seedy cotts..... 18 @19 | Fine medium clothing....-.. 55 @ 57
Georgia ty Se 2 ee ag 22°.@) ) 244 -bleodtcombing: 4st: sua. 59 @ 60
i $-blood combing...........-- 49 @5lL
KENTUCKY AND SIMILAR. Sealed cocbine te 53 @ 5A
4-blood unwashed......----- 28) (@ ee
3-blood unwashed.........-- e@.e
+-blood unwashed........... 2 Oy oc
Common and Braid.......... 23 @ 24

DOMESTIC WOOLS.

Ohio and Pennsylvania.—In the foregoing report, which is typical
for American wools, the Ohio and Pennsylvania fleeces head the
list. These really include the West Virginia clip also. The fine —
wools from these States are the strongest in the world and they are
the most valuable of American wools. More than half of the flocks
are of Merino breeding. The sheep pasture upon well-covered sod
land and the wools contain little sand or dirt. The entire shrinkage
is therefore due to the natural grease. A complete classification of
these. wools is as follows:

(

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADB. 15

COMBING WOOLS. CLOTHING WOOLS.
Delaine. XX and -X, washed or fine unwashed.
Half-blood. » Half-blood clothing.
Three-eighths-blood. Three-eighths-blood clothing.
Quarter-blood. Quarter-blood clothing.
Low quarter-blood.
Braid.

All of the above grades are not always given in the market report.
Sometimes not all of them are to be found upon the market and
they are eliminated.

Many years ago there were two higher grades, Picklock and XXX,
representing, respectively, the wool of the Silesian Merino and the
American and Silesian Merimo cross. These grades are no longer
used upon the market, but they are occasionally seen in some of
the mills making very fine woolens. More often these qualities
occur only as sorts representing parts of fleeces. The amount of
this wool produced, however, is very small and is still diminishing.

The XX grade represents the fineness or quality of an ideal Amer-
ican Merino. Delaine wools are combing wools of this and of X
quality. Sometimes they are quoted Fine Delaine, being X quality
and above, and Medium Delaine, being about half blood in quality.
They are not necessarily from the Delaine type of Merino. The
X quality is supposedly the wool from a sheep containing three-
quarters Merino blood. It is sometimes referred to as three-quarters
blood. Market usage has decreed that XX and X as grade names
shall be used only in referring to washed clothing wools, but the
terms are sometimes used to indicate the same degrees of quality in
other wools. Fine unwashed contains these same qualities, but these
wools are heavier shrinking.

Half-blood, three-eighths-blood, and quarter-blood grades, as the
_ terms were coined, referred supposedly to wools from sheep of half,
three-eighths, and quarter Merino blood, but they have no such
significance now. Wools grading as high as half blood can come
from sheep having no trace of Merio blood; the purebred South-
down, for instance, produces wool that sometimes grades that high,
and this breed has been kept pure from outside blood for centuries.
On the other hand, quarter-blood would rarely come from a sheep
containing any Merino blood. Low quarter blood is a grade lower
than quarter blood, and braid is the lowest grade of all. It usually
refers to luster wool, such as might come from a Lincoln or a Cotswold
sheep.

Washed wools.—The practice of washing the sheep has given rise
to the terms of washed, unmerchantable, and unwashed. The
unmerchantable wool is not unsalable wool, but that which has been
poorly washed—sometimes the sheep are merely ‘‘driven through the

16 BULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

creek.’’ Such fleeces shrink more than those property washed and
could not be fairly placed in an offering of washed wool, as their loss
in scouring would be much greater. Fleeces may be unmerchantable
for other reasons. These terms do not always mean that the washing
operation has actually taken place, the practice of washing being on
the decline, but sometimes refer solely to shrinkage. The washed
wools are lighter in color and condition, shrinking 3 or 4 per cent
less than the unmerchantable, and the latter shrinks about the same
amount less than the unwashed.

Michigan and New York.—Michigan and New York have the
same classification and the wools are quite similar, some of them
being fully as good as Ohio and Pennsylvania wools. As a whole,
however, they are not quite up to this standard. The wools from
the above States are quite frequently spoken of as the ‘‘fleece,”’
‘“domestic,’’ ‘‘native,’’ or ‘‘farm”’ wools.

Kentucky and similar.—Kentucky, Indiana, Missouri, and Wiscon-
sin wools are not so fine in character. They rarely grade higher
than half or three-eighths blood, as most of the sheep are of the
mutton type. The pasture is much the same as in the ‘‘fleece”
wool States. The term “‘bright” is sometimes applied to the wools
of these States.

Parts of Tennessee and Virginia are given over to the spring-lamb
industry and they produce some wools of a medium quality. Much
of it is consumed by local knitting mills. This is some of the lightest
shrinking wool in America, some of it not going higher than 35 per
cent. Georgia and some of the other Southern States produce some
rather coarse, light-shrinking wools.

SCOURED BASIS.

Texas.—Wool from Texas and the “ territories’’ is usually quoted
on a scoured basis. The reason for this is that there is such a wide
variation in shrinkage in different localities and also from season to
season that the clean basis is more satisfactory. In Texas shearing
twice a year is often practiced. ‘These short wools are probably
the best American felting wools. They are also highly regarded in
certain branches of woolen manufacture. The 12-months clip of
Texas is probably as near the Ohio type of wool as any western wool.
The Merino blood is still strongly dominant here. These wools
sometimes shrink as low as 56 to 58 per cent. The average for the
entire State, however, has been estimated at 66 per cent. The spring
and fall Texas wools come to market untied.

California.—The California wools are quoted as northern, middle,
and southern counties. The northern counties wool usually repre-
sents a year’s growth, and is the most valuable. In the middle and
southern counties the wool shrinks more, and shearing is often prac-

PLATE V.

Bul. 206, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Fig. 1.—GRADING WOOL AT WAREHOUSE

Fia. 2.—GRADED WooL READY FOR SALE.

PLATE VI.

Dept. of Agriculture.

Bul. 206, U. S.

OV IVNIDINO JHL NI AV1dSIG NO 100M NVOINSWY

Bul. 206, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

Bul. 206, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII.

=, = nr ee ee

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. 17

ticed twice a year. There are spring, or 8 months, and fall, or 6
months, wools from these sections. The spring wool is usually longer
and it shrinks less than the fall. Both spring and fall wools are
highly regarded for felting purposes. This is due to the fact that they
contain a high percentage of Merino blood and also to the fact that
they are short. In the southern part of the State the mestiza bur
is very common and many of the wools contain it in varying quanti-
ties. ‘These wools are quoted as ‘‘defective” in distinguishing them
from the ‘‘free’’ wools. This bur can not be removed by mechanical
means; hence the wools must be carbonized. The short wools are
not tied up in fleeces, but come to market in a loose condition. Some
of the California wools are baled to facilitate shipping.

Oregon wools.—Oregon produces some excellent wool, though it is
somewhat high in shrinkage. The best of it will grade 80 per cent of
staple or combing wool. Excepting the valley wool, it is largely of a
fine and fine-medium character. The Lakeview wools of this State
are sometimes spoken of separately. The valley wools are quite
different from the ordinary clip. They are largely from long-wooled
sheep. They are quoted as valley No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3, correspond-
ing roughly to half-blood, three-eighths-blood, and quarter-blood,
respectively. These numbers have this same general significance
when applied to wools from other sections. The valley wools are
somewhat akin to the luster wools of England. Some buyers claim
that the heavy rainfall of the valley discolors the wool to a certain
extent, but others deny this. These wools are the only western wools
that lose weight under normal conditions when being shipped east.
They lose from 1 to 2 per cent. Most other wools if dry when
shipped gain this amount or even more in transportation.

ey TERRITORY WOOLS.

Under “territory wools’’ are grouped all those wools produced
west of the Missouri River, and they derived their name from the fact
that this section of the country was formerly made up of Territories
in distinction to the States of the central and eastern sections. Cer-
tain of the wools, however, have more or less distinct characteristics
which separate them from the main lot, and they are no longer
included in the territory wools. Among these are the clips of Cali-
fornia, Oregon, Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. .

The States that produce the territory wools—Montana, Wyoming,
Idaho, Utah, Nevada, Colorado, and Washington—are in the main
the range States. A great deal of fine-wool blood is present in the
flocks, but the use of medium and long wool mutton rams is steadily
increasing, and this is having its effect upon the character of wool
produced. Considerable sections of the range are more or less sandy

18 BULLETIN 206, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and the grass is not as thick as in the central and eastern part of the
country. The wind blows with considerable force, creating sand
storms in some sections, and much sand and dirt are deposited upon
the sheep. ‘These conditions give rise to a heavy-shrinking wool, as
would naturally be expected. The wools containing sand usually
shrink more than those containing mountain dirt. Occasional fleeces
from this district shrink more than 80 per cent, and the average for
the different States ranges from 63 to 70 per cent. There is often
considerable variation in shrinkage from year to year in the wools
from any particular locality. When there has been snow on the
ground during the winter, the clips are often 5 per cent lighter than
when the range is bare. The selling of territory wools upon the mar-
ket is consequently upon a clean or scoured basis.

Classification and grades of territory wools.

COMBING. CLOTHING.

Fine staple Fine clothing.

Fine medium staple. we Haby Ob giacle. Fine medium clothing. usually one grade.
Half-blood staple. Half-blood clothing.

Three-eighths-blood staple. Three-eighths-blood clothing.
Quarter-blood staple. Quarter-blood clothing, or short quarter-
Lowquarter-blood staple. blood.

Coarse, common, low, or often one grade.

braid.

Practically all three-eighths-blood and quarter-blood wools are of
combing length.

The term ‘“‘staple”’ as applied to a territory wool refers to a comb-
ing wool. ‘‘Ordinary”’ is sometimes used to designate clothing wool
in this section instead of referring to quality. The terms of fine, fine
medium, medium, and low medium have arisen and are used in a
general way in referring to territory wools. They are often used in
referring to original lots and are largely equivalent to the following:

d)

Fine =X X and X qualities, or fine staple and fine clothing.
Fine medium=X, half-blood and three-eighths-blood.

Medium =Three-eighths-blood and quarter-blood.

Low medium=Low quarter-blood and braid.

It is rather difficult to attempt to characterize the wools from each
State, as they grade almost imperceptibly into one another. Often
differences appear in the wools that can be Sele but are diffi-
cult to describe.

Montana.—Montana wools as a whole are probably the best of the
territory clips. They are light-shrinking compared to the wools of
the neighboring States, of good length, and attractive in appearance.
They have a slightly creamy tinge which shows up even after scour-
ing. Their felting qualities are good. It is sometimes claimed that

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. 19

wools from this State are more likely to be tender than some of the
others, but if this is true the other grade qualities, such as length and
quality, overbalance it.

Wyoming.—Wyoming wool has not the soft characteristic feel of
the Montana wools. It is somewhat ‘‘wild”’ or harsh in nature.
This is said to be due to the influence of the alkali soil over which
many of the sheep pass. Wyoming wool scoures out very white. It
is quite strong, robust, and of fair length, but is a heavy-sbrinking
wool. The shrinkage varies widely from year to year. Because of
its scouring out so white some manufacturers prefer it to Montana
when its heavier shrinkage is discounted.

Idaho.—The Triangle or Soda Springs wools come from a section
around the town of the latter name in Idaho. The three points of
the triangle are Ogden, Utah; Pocatello, Idaho; and Granger, Wyo.
The wools from this section are somewhat lighter-shrinking than the
surrounding ones.

The wools from western Idaho are long and fine (often grading 80
per cent staple), but in the eastern part of the State they are gener-
ally somewhat shorter.

Utah, Nevada, Colorado, and Washington.—Much of the Utah wool
is rather short, there being little staple nit. Overstocking the range
is said to be responsible to a certain extent for the poorer qualities of
the wools from this State. Nevada is a high-shrinking wool of fairly
good quality.

Colorado wool has little character, being a nondescript wool often
shrinking from 70 to 72 per cent. There are, however, some lighter-
shrinking wools (around 60 per cent) of good quality from certain sec-
tions of the northern part of the State. The wool from this State in
general is often described as being “‘breedless.’”’ It rarely grades
higher than one-half-blood. In southern Colorado the sheep are
sometimes sheared twice a year, this short wool coming to market
untied.

Washington as a whole probably produces the heaviest-shrinking
wools of any western State. It is estimated that the average shrink-
age is around 70 per cent. This high shrinkage is due to natural
grease, of which there is a great deal in the wool of this section, and
to dirt, etc., in the fleeces.

New Mexico and Arizona.—New Mexico and Arizona wools are
very uneven in character. The care given the flocks is often very
slight, while many of the sheep are poorly bred, and the fleeces run
out and kempy. The wools are often very poorly put up. The
shrinkage varies from 40 to 75 per cent, though dipping often lightens
the wool from these States. It is said that wool from flocks owned
by Americans, on account of better handling, is worth an average of
2 cents a pound more than that from flocks of Mexican owners. The

20 BULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Navajo wool is very uneven. It comes to market untied, the low
quarter-blood mixed with the fine grade.

Dakotas, Kansas, and Nebraska.—The wool from the Dakotas,
western Kansas, and Nebraska are sometimes included in the territory
wools. They are really midway between the ‘“‘ bright” and the terri-
tory in condition, having more sand and dirt than the bright but not
as much as the territory. The term ‘‘semibrights” is sometimes
applied to them.

Terms used in other market reports.—The reports of the St. Louis
markets often refer to the shrinking qualities of the wool as light-fine,
heavy-fine, etc. The amount of vegetable matter present is also indi-
cated by burred, slightly burred, etc. Some other terms are also used
that are usually self-explanatory.

FOREIGN GRADES.

Basis of foreign classification.—The quality of English and many
other foreign wools is often designated by the counts or number of
hanks per pound. The coarser wools are represented by the lower
counts, as 18’s, 24’s, 36’s, etc., and the finer ones as 64’s, 70’s, 80’s, etc.
These numbers or counts represent the hanks per pound of top to
which the wool is supposedly capable of being spun, each hank
representing 560 yards. Thus, wool of 50’s quality should spin
50 x 560 yards per pound of top, if spun to the limit. This classifica-
tion is based on the worsted system of manufacture.

TABLE 2.—Foreign wool classes and corresponding counts for American grade.

Foreign classes—| Counts often

American grades. top-maker’s spun to in

quality. America.
PHITIO Spee See ees SPE RS See eA CL LIS RGN IN LARA BSD Se eR CEL 60’s-70’s 50’s-60’s
FEV FSV OO ey ey ON a eR a Tae inlay Se email inca Upset ates 56’s-60’s 40’s
‘Mhree-cighthsi blood ese ee Soe eee, SUSE ae a 50’s-56’s 36’s
Quartersploods see cae cies eee eee el NE al NON a IS Tata es sot er 46’s-50’s 32’s
TOwaAquarter=plOOd ys Mees ee a a a ei fea rece 40’s—46’s 20’s
Low, coarse, common, or braid.................--.--....-.--------.---- 36’s-40’s 16’s

As a matter of fact the top-maker’s quality does not actually repre-
sent the counts to which the wool can bespun. The lower grades will
not spin up to their number, while the finer ones will spin much higher
than their designated numbers. Some fine American wools have been
spun to 200 counts for exhibition purposes. Short wools will not
spin as high as similar wools of greater length, hence this factor also
influences the counts to which the wool will spin.

Another fact worthy of mention is that the wools are rarely spun to
their limit, that is, to as fine a yarn asis possible to spin. Wool can be
spun several counts higher in England than it can in America. This
is due to the fact that the air is moister there and that the labor of the

{

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. 21

mills is more capable than in the United States. This does not imply
that American fabrics are inferior to imported, as a better cloth results
if the wool is not so highly spun.

GRADES OF WOOL FROM VARIOUS BREEDS OF SHEEP.

It is impossible to assign wool to a particular grade solely upon the
basis of the breeding of the sheep. In the mutton breeds especially
there are wide variations within a single breed and within flocks. The
following list shows in a general way how wool from the various
breeds would be likely to grade:

BREED. GRADE OF WOOL PRODUCED.
' Merino (eastern States)........-- Delaine, XX, X, or fine unwashed, etc.

Merino (range States)..........-- Fine and fine medium staple or clothing.

amivowillet..: 2252222 oeece ses Fine and fine medium staple or clothing and a
small amount of half-blood.

‘SIGUE ENG 0 0 le ae en Half and three-eighths blood (chiefly three-eighths
combing or clothing, chiefly clothing).

Shropsluire. ins bees Seen ee Mainly three-eighths-blood, combing or clothing.
Some quarter-blood.

HEligrampenIPe) se ee Three-eighths and quarter blood combing or cloth.
ing.

Worse Cesena on eet CSREES IEE Three-eighths and quarter blood combing or cloth-
ing.

SSrtnincolllcge WEG eptienin Fates anit ol veg. ee Three-eighths-blood combing and clothing.

(Cte VAO SE Bic se he ees oa Quarter-blood combing.

Oxford.................--.---.- Quarter and low quarter-blood combing.

Clomste claillo a0 ene ees at Three-eighths-blood combing.

CORRENTE Se er ee ea ge se

Wamicotnets Saree Oh eae Low quarter-blood combing or braid.

WeIeeStGEM: Vac 4: WSS eh yes oes tse

Crossbred: Long wool on Merino or

amapouillet sen erss e 2. obese Half-blood, three-eighths-blood, and quarter-blood

combing.

Crossbred: Shropshire or Hamp-
shireon Merinoor Rambouillet. Half-blood and three-eighths-blood combing or
clothing.

SORTING WOOL.

While wool is graded at the warehouses, as a rule sorting is done
only at the mills. Its object is to secure lots of wool having greater
uniformity as to fineness than could possibly be obtained if the
fleeces were not divided. The wool as it grows upon the sheep’s body
varies in length and quality; consequently the fleeces can not be
uniform in quality throughout. There is usually a wider range
of quality in the coarse wools, such as Lincolns and Cotswolds an
the crossbreds, than among the fine wools. Coarser fleeces might
be of a three-eighths-blood grade or even half-blood on the shoulder,
while the ‘“‘britch’’ would be a quarter-blood. The shoulder wool
is considered the best for strength, quality, and length, the sides

22 BULLETIN 206, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

are next best, and the quality decreases passing backward until
the ‘‘britch”’ is reached, which is the coarsest part of all. The wool
from the back is likely to contain hayseed or chaff, and it is not
of as good quality or strength as that from the shoulder. It is
also often shorter. The belly wool is usually finer than any, but it
is short, ‘‘frowzy,” is not so strong, and it lacks character. The wool
from over the head is short, coarse, and in the black-faced breeds is
likely to contain black fibers. Modern machinery could probably
handle these different qualities of wool in the same lot, but more
uniform yarn can be made and the wool spun to a finer thread if it
is sorted, hence it is an economical advantage to do the sorting.
. The work is not as exacting as it once was; as a rule not as many
sorts are made now as formerly.

The sorting is done over a table that has either a slatted or wire-
mesh top, so that the dirt will fall through. The fleeces are untied,
shaken out, and piled up beside the table and then passed over the
board. A good light is necessary to do the work properly.

The number of sorts made from a fleece or from a bag of wool and
the quantity of each will naturally vary with the quality of the wool,
the mill where the sorting is done, and the goods for which the wool
is intended. Ordinarily four to five major sorts would take care of
the bulk of the wool, along with as many more off sorts. There is
no uniform system of designating the sorts; each mill uses its own
names or numbers.

The regular sorts are made mainly upon quality and length. A
little extra length will sometimes cause wool to be thrown higher
because of resulting higher spinning qualities. Often the best of a
sort, the longer wool, will be separated and used for warp, as a stronger
yarn is needed for this purpose than for fillmg. The off sorts are
usually something out of the ordinary. In a worsted mill they are
sold for other purposes, as they can not be manufactured on the
worsted system.

RESULTS OF SORTING A SAMPLE BAG OF WOOL.

The percentage of the various sorts may vary considerably. The
proportion of the main sort varies from 50 to 80 per cent of the
weight of a lot of fleeces of a common grade. This is because the
quality, condition, and length of the different wools vary, and the
dealers’ and millmen’s ideas concerning grades are not always the
same. The market conditions and the quality of the goods into
which the wool is to be made may also influence the sorting.

The following is the record of an actual case of sorting a bag of
wool, showing the weight, percentage, and value per pound of each
sort. This bag contained fleeces that had been graded in the ware-

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. 23

house as “half-blood.” The gross weight, was 245 pounds; weight
of bag, 44 pounds; net weight ofwool, 2403? pounds.

TABLE 3.—Results of sorting a bag of half-blood Montana wool.

’ Value
Sort. Weight. | Percent-| “per

ge. pound.

Regular sorts: Pounds. | Per cent. Cents.
X or three-quarters- 10) (aka be to Ses ee ee has Se es ee Ie 11. 21 4.66 21.0
HATE DIO NM COMIN Eee Sas eee ea aaa ns ea Se pe eg ee NS Boe 88. 69 36. 84 22.7
EFT TL OOGIGLOG HIM Oe yar eee ge ey ae Cpe Se IB ays 12. 90 6. 36 21.6
fUhree-eiehths-blood Combing e225. 2 52 208 tee eee oss tees ces ae 64. 76 26. 90 23.0
Gee ths- biged CHU oo ocacubnosedosouessedae as ouoceunue suor 24. 33 10. 11 20. 0-
OTranter bl OOGiCOM pin ges tee ae eee 2 ee Oe eo a eens 12. 90 5. 36 19.0
DHORMEUALLCT-DIOOd= = sees sce ere en PEE | OR ae Pa 4.55 1. 89 17.0
thamacarver-DlOoOd ss52 62 Sans eek ie eaten ee Sou ee ae eae es 55 - 23 16.0

Off sorts:

Biained ATC STAY ates cet res ee ti fo od Ne a ee .55 14.0
SLIGTHIS oc pRB Heo caer Ue SCibi ere Se eae eae aS ne heap te ane ee ees ar 8. 90 1.62 10.0
Pris 5¢ ah Be JSSsE at SAS BRED OED HO BAe BOO OS SBC eRe Cra PSE teehee et eenieteor ars 3.32 1.38 5.0
MOH S eee eee or ea tains scence cise ook a2 Sones Seven ts Senate 2.76 1.15 1.0
SERIE Mepeeer eps 9 eee re SA -Siniaecebee eiciaini-& 2 fb aan ciusceinee ae BOE 1.37 Of eacsiseeacis
EOS SeteeS OHM ume sets Serafin s oneem tes ac cine Sle eels ae EME Race a oe 8. 90 BE10) [ease eee

DESCRIPTION OF SORTS.

Little need be said concerning the regular sorts. They merely
represent a more complete division according to quality than was
possible in grading. Regarding the off sorts, the ‘‘stained and gray’’
sort is not usually made, except when white goods are to be manu-
factured and it is necessary to separate them out of the main lot.
Their character is implied by their name.

Shorts consist of short wool such as grows about the face and eyes.
Part of it may also be due to double cutting in shearing. Fribs areshort,
sweaty, and dungy locks. Clips are locks so incrusted with foreign ma-
terial that the wool can not be freed in scouring, but must be clipped
off. ‘The string cut from the fleeces is practically valueless, since con-
siderable paper twine is used. The loss of weight in sorting depends
upon whether the wools contain much sand or dirt. Other off sorts
are often made from wools of various sections. Tags are a very
common one. They are sometimes separated at shearing time, but
quite often they are separated by the sorters. They are large dung
locks and are worth less than half of the value of the other wool.

Paint locks are another quite common sort. The free wool is
clipped from the paint, and the short fiber containing paint is sold
to hat manufacturers, etc. It is worth about 14 to 2 cents a pound.

Seedy wool is a sort containing weed seeds, soft burs, etc., that will
not be removed by the manufacturing process. It must often be
carbonized before using. These carbonized wools are used largely
for woolens, felts, etc.

About 25 per cent of the wool bags can be used again; the rest are
sold and bring from 5 to 10 cents a pound.

24 “ULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

POUNDS OF WOOL PER POUND OF CLOTH.

Some printed statements convey the impression that the entire
fleece goes into the production of a garment, so that the amount of
finished cloth is equal to the amount of scoured wool. This impres-
sion is erroneous, not only because of a certain amount of wool of
other sorts than the main ones being present, but also because there is
more or less loss all the way along the process of manufacture. ‘True,
these other sorts are of value, but they are not generally worth nearly
as much as the main lot.

As the weight per yard of goods varies, it is not feasible to give
the amount of wool required to manufacture a garment, suit, or so
many yards of cloth, but the pounds of wool per pound of cloth can
be given. A number of tests reported by different mills and pub-
lished in the bulletin of the National Association of Wool Manufac-
turers show that for woolen goods from 3 pounds to 4.64 pounds of
grease wool, with an average of 3.73 pounds, were required to make 1
pound of cloth. The average amount of scoured wool required was
1.37 pounds. For worsted cloths from 2.56 pounds to 4.55 pounds
of grease wool was required, with an average of 3.66 pounds. The
average amount of scoured wool for 1 pound of worsted cloth was
1.55 pounds.

THE NEED OF IMPROVEMENT IN HANDLING AMERICAN WOOLS.

_ From the discussion in the foregoing pages it can readily be seen
that dealers and manufacturers confront many difficulties in handling
the average clip of American wool.

PRESENT CONDITIONS.

In October, 1913, the Animal Husbandry Division of the Bureau
of Animal Industry, in cooperation with the Bureau of Crop Esti-
mates, made a canvass of a number of sheep owners in Western
States to determine the extent to which growers follow the best
practices. Because of the way in which the names were secured
it is probable that the 383 replies received were from men whose
methods are superior to those generally followed in the same local-
ities; consequently the percentages shown at the foot of the table
are much higher than would be reported if it had been possible to
receive replies from all wool growers in the States shown. The
results of this canvass are shown in Table 4.

PLATE IX

S. Dept. of Agriculture.

U,

205,

Bu

Low QUARTER-BLOOD ComBING WOOL.

PLATE X.

Bul. 206, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

BRAID WOOL.

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THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. 95

TaBLe 4.—Resulis of investigation of methods of western sheepmen in marketing wool.

Number
who +
Number of sacked | Number Number Namber
sheep Number ewe, who Number who inant
State shorn in of per- | lamb, sacked who sacked ociate
1913 by | sons re- and blacks used. tags ae
persons | porting. buck |. sepa- paper sepa- mide
reporting. wool rately. twine. rately. | for tags
sepa- es:
rately
INTIZON ASE ee a niin asec = 134, 422 18 9 6 2 9 3
WAINOMB soe Ne= eras 22a = 125, 302 26 10 5 8 4 a
Woloradors 2. 2es 55252 e285 109, 695 13 6 8 8 3 4
GIANG) SoS se aoe ee eee 336, 249 62 32 48 49 45 26
Montanates2=25-225-2----52:-2 518, 049 82 46 28 44 51 37
News Mexicotss-s-5 = Joe sass. 92, 011 13 6 10 3 EA Beeeereces
Orcronees er ee 195, 246 37 25 23 34 26 1
Witahwereceee a saetbe sess lee 309, 583 71 17 58 61 24 36
NWasbinetones = 3-225 5-222- - 77, 419 13 Wilaseiemetene 11 3 4
WW OHTA ete ee oo = | 371, 029 48 32 40 39 33 13
PRO GAL ico ses oni 2, 269, 005 383 190 226 259 203 141
RENICERbORLOLALE eee a2 Solas ese tacncles «<2 esse 49.3 59.0 67.6 GRE | Renacsnace

Practically one-half the correspondents separated ewes’, lambs’,
and bucks’ wool when sacking; 59 per cent put up the black wool
separately; and 53 per cent sacked the tags separately. It must be
borne in mind, as stated before, that these percentages are undoubt-
edly much higher than would be the case if it were possible to secure
replies from all woolgrowers in any section or State.

The American wool clip is sold by the growers unclassified and in
the main very poorly handled. The way in which each of the various
defects injures the manufacturing value of the weol has been explained
in previous pages. These defects have come to constitute a fixed
charge against American wool, which does not apply to wools coming
to this country from Australia and some other countries.

Probably the lack of any form of classifying or grading before selling
causes the greatest loss to our woolgrowers. The buyer, whether he
represents a mill or a firm that buys wool to be sold again after grad-
ing, is expected to place a fair valuation upon clips in which there
may be many sacks each containing three-or four grades of wool.
The difference in the scoured values of those grades may not be so
serious, but the difference in shrinkage, say, between quarter-blood
and half-blood fleeces, is a very great one, and there is no possibility
of doing more than making an estimate of the average shrinkage and
value of the clip as it is offered. Manifestly the buyer must place the
shrinkage estimate sufficiently high to protect himself from loss. In
order to get a certain quantity of a particular grade he must buy,
even of graded wools, a lot containing other grades that must be sold
after sorting.

26 BULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
MANUFACTURER’S TEST OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC WOOL.

Even after grading in the eastern warehouses American wools often
sell below foreign wools of similar grade and quality because the latter
have been skirted and carefully classified before baling, while Ameri-
can fleeces go to the mills in the same shape as they leave the shearing
floor, being graded so far as is possible without untying the fleeces.

Comparative results from two lots of wool, one American (Idaho
Soda Springs) and one foreign (Australian 50’s crossbred), of the same
grade and the same value on a scoured basis, as given by a Philadel-
phia manufacturer, are shown below:

TaBLE 5.— Sorting and scouring test of domestic and foreign wool.

| Soda _ | 50’s cross-
Item. Springs. | bred.

Costiimverease sie se aerate Nz deal tare) el Liars yale ahha aes Ze rue ye Lee cents..| 18.5 28.0

AG OSSHUM OLE IG sis ae I ann oD ata the rip ce tie eT riccpen pine Ie Ai per cent... 1.96 87
Shortsystringsschips low, eccsemecee cece oisceee ene eoleian eee eee enor do...-} 11.25 oils
EC EIT AGO) le Sue OC E ES ue GENE COS EISE ISR ae ae aE Re oa Sree ene ees lars do...-| 86.79 98. 96
Actual shrinkage main sorts from total weight of wool purchased ............-- do.... 57. 89 37.36
Shrinkage of net weight of wool scoured................-...------2-20-- eee eee do....| 51:46 36. 71

Actual Cost'main sorts In grease. /2/ 68.2.2 .2 2 2 Sse ee ee ee cee one e cee cents..| 20.06 28. 29
Costiperzcleerayyy Guiry Aya se Se ea ee Ig eee eS ee do....| 41.32 44, 69

As is shown by these figures, the manufacturer bought the Ameri-
can wool for 3.37 cents per clean pound less than exactly similar
foreign wool. This was possible mainly because the former lot
contained only 86.79 per cent of what was really wanted, against
98.96 per cent in the case of the foreign wool that had been skirted
and put up without string. The amount and value of the off sorts
in American wools varies, and to the extent of that variation the
purchase of these wools involves uncertainty that partakes of gamb-
ling and necessitates buying at a figure low enough to cover loss in
use or sale of the part not wanted and the greater expense of sorting.

It is the grower who eventually pays all penalties and suffers most
of the loss due to inferior preparation of wool. It must not be over-
looked that the Australian sheep raiser incurs considerable expense
in his method of preparing his wool for the market. He enjoys some
advantages favoring the production of extra quality, most marked
in the case of fine wools. In the case above cited the wools were of
the same grade and the comparison is wholly fair, as the net result
shown is on the scoured basis and for wools of equal clean value.

METHODS OF BUYING AND SELLING.

It is the time-honored and oft-repeated statement that buyers pay
little attention to the individual clip. Instances are cited in which
the dealer buys clips without having seen the wool. However, the
dealer may know more concerning the clip than the grower is aware of.
He knows the amount of shrinkage for the section for a number of

{

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. OT

years previous. He knows of the weather conditions, whether or not
the winter has been an open one, and he estimates the shrinkage
accordingly. He knows whether or not there has been a blizzard and
if the wool is likely to be tender. He knows something of the breed-
ing of the sheep and how the owner runs them, for these are all
matters of knowledge throughout the country. In fact, he has many
sources of information that act as a general guide to values. Yet the
grower very often receives little or no benefit for extra pains taken in
growing and preparing the wool, and he has just grounds for com-
plaint. In this connection he must appreciate the fact that com-
paratively few clips are large enough to yield the amount of wool of
any one grade that is called for at one time by a manufacturing con-
cern. This being the case, the “fine staple” or the “half blood” of
one clip has to be thrown with that of one or more other clips to form
a commercial parcel. Unless the buyer of the individual clips is pos-
itive that each one has been put up in the same good way he can not
insist upon receiving a greater price from the millmen, because they
will not relax their safeguards while there is danger of even a very
small amount of damage from paint, poor twine, or any one of the
vexatious causes that experience has shown are to be looked for.

HOW AMERICAN METHODS OF HANDLING WOOL MAY BE IMPROVED.

If some plan can be worked out whereby American wools can be
prepared for market in a manner similar to foreign wools, while they
are still the property of the growers, it should be to the advantage

of all concerned.
GRADING ON THE RANGE.

It has been claimed that on account of the American growers’
comparative nearness to market he should make no attempt to grade
his clip. How sound this claim is depends upon how cheaply and
how well the work can be done on the range. There is no question
that the wool is in better condition for grading immediately after
shearing than at any later time. Grading without baling has been
practiced in several instances in the west, but the only resulting
advantage has been to enable the owner to determine more nearly

the value of his clip.
BALING ON THE RANGE.

The statement has been made that baling western wools would
militate against higher prices because of resulting poorer appearance.
Some southern Wyoming wools have been baled ungraded for a
number of years, and a dealer who handles a considerable portion of
these says they have not been damaged. Possibly if this wool was
baled to the density of foreign wool without being graded and the
tags removed, injury would result. The reason these wools have been

28 BULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

baled is because they received the benefit of a more favorable freight
rate.

Ordinarily the sheep owner can not know as much about the de-
mands of the market and how the wool should be graded as does the
wool grader, or, as he is called in Australia, the ‘‘classer.”” This man
must always work to the same standard. Attempts of various
- owners by whom he might be employed to make his work conform
to their own ideas would render impossible that uniformity in the
classer’s work which is necessary to hold the confidence of the buyer
as to the put up of the clips.

SKIRTING THE FLEECES.

Skirting fleeces consists in the removal of the belly and the other
less valuable parts. When wools are skirted the belly is separated

BOD GO FLEECE

Fic. 1.—Diagram showing portion of fleece ordinarily removed in skirting,

by the shearer and skirting consists of the removal of the parts indi-
cated in figure 1. The belly wool has already been removed from
the fleece shown in this figure. The advantage of this lies in the fact
that some manufacturers needing higher qualities of wool can buy
the bodies of the fleeces alone when they would not care to incur the
trouble and expense of separating and reselling the inferior parts, as
is necessary when entire fleeces are purchased.

THE WOOLGROWER AND THE WOOL TRADE. 29
MARKETING GRADED AND SKIRTED WOOL.

The grading and skirting of western American wools is not likely
to be economical or satisfactory where less than 10,000 to 20,000
sheep are shorn at one plant. This number need not be the property
of one individual, but the wool from such a number should be put up
by the same standard and that standard should be the same as
applies in other plants in the same territory if our wools are to be as
highly esteemed in the markets as foreign wools of the same scoured
value.

It is wholly desirable and practicable that small sheep owners,
where suitably located, should combine to erect and use a common
shearing plant to be conducted upon a high standard. If the practice
of grading and skirting is to be adopted some provisions other than
those now prevalent will be necessary. The skirtings, locks, and
tags from each flock will have varying values, while the main part
of the clip will contain not less than two or three grades varying too
widely for use by a single mill. An individual woo! seller would,
therefore, have even greater need than at present of being posted
regarding wools and the markets. He would also need to have con-
nection with various branches of the trade in order to dispose of each
of the various lots of wool into which his clip was divided. In case of
cooperation in ownership and management of the shearing plant
the same organization might also be used in effecting the sale of the
wool, or each grower might sell at home as opportunity offered or
consign to the establishment appearing likely to give the best service.

Marketing farm wools.—For farm wools the greatest advantage is
likely to come through such cooperation as will insure the grower’s
receiving the value of his wool after grading and sale along with
other clips sufficient in amount to allow of selling in lots containing
not less than 4,000 or 5,000 pounds of each grade.

FUNDAMENTAL RULES FOR THE WOOL GROWER.

Until further improvement can be wrought there are a number of
rules that no grower on either farm or range can afford to neglect
in order to enhance the reputation of his clip and also—what is equally
necessary—the reputation of the wool of his section. These are:

1. Adhere to a settled policy of breeding the type of sheep suitable
to the locality.

2. Sack lambs’, ewes’, wethers’, and all buck or very oily fleeces
separately. If the bucks or part of the ewes or wethers have wool
of widely different kind from the remainder of the flock, shear such
separately and put the wool in separate sacks so marked.

3. Shear all black sheep at one time, preferably last, and put the
wool in separate sacks.

30 BULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

4. Remove and sack separately all tags, and then allow no tag
discount upon the clip as a whole.

5. Have slatted floors in the holding pens.

6. Use a smooth, light, and hard glazed (preferably paper) twine.

7. Securely knot the string on each fleece.

8. Turn sacks wrong side out and shake well before filling.

9. Keep wool dry at all times.

10. Make the brands on the sheep as small as possible and avoid
tar brands.

11. Know the grade and value of your wool and price it accordingly.

12. Do not sweat sheep excessively before shearing.

13. Keep the floor sweepings out of the wool.

14. Do not sell the wool before it is grown.

15. When all these rules are followed place your personal brand
or your name upon the bags or bales.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THE WOOL TRADE.

Black wool.—Includes any wool that is not white.

Braid wool.—Grade name, and synonym for luster wools.

Britch wool.—Wool from the lower thighs of the sheep; usually the coarsest on the body.

Carbonized wool.—That which has been treated with a solution of aluminum chlorid
or sulphuric acid to remove the vegetable matter. Carbonizing is rarely practiced
with worsted wools. -

Carding.—Consists of opening the wool staples, separating to a certain extent the
fibers, and condensing and delivering the opened wool in a continuous strand or
sliver.

Carpet wool.—Low, coarse wool used in the manufacture of carpets. There is very
little produced in the United States.

Combing.—An operation in worsted manufacture which straightens the fibers and
separates the short, weak, and tangled fibers known as noils from the continuous
strand of long parallel fibers known as top.

Come-back.—In America this refers to a wool fine in quality and having more length
than would ordinarily be expected. In Australia it is the result of breeding cross-
breds back toward pure Merinos, one of the parents being a pure Merino.

Condition.—Refers to the degree of oil in grease wool. It largely regulates the
price. In scoured wool it is used to indicate the degree of moisture.

Cotted fleeces—A cotted fleece is one in which the fibers are matted or tangled.
The cause may be ill health of the anee or the absence of the proper amounts of
yolk or grease in the wool.

Cow tail_—A very coarse fleece, more like hair than wool.

Crimp.—The natural waviness of wool fiber. Uniformity of crimp indicates supe-
rior wool.

Crossbred wools.—In the United States the term generally refers to wool from a
longwool and finewool cross.

Defective —Denotes that something will show disadvantageously after the wool is
scoured. Fire, water, or moths may cause defective wools. California burry wool is
quoted as defective.

Delaine wool.—Delaine originally referred to a fine type of women’s dress goods.
Delaine wools are fine combing or worsted wools, from Ohio and vicinity, but not
necessarily from the Delaine Merino.

Fall wool.—Wool shorn in the fall where shearing is practiced twice a year, as in
California and Texas. The fall wool is usually dirtier than the spring clip. It rep-
resents from four to six months’ growth.

Filling (weft) —Threads that run crosswise and fill in between the warp.

Fribs—Short and dirty locks of small size. Dungy bits of wool.

Frowzy wool.—A lifeless appearing wool with the fibers lying more or less topsy-
turvy. The opposite of lofty wool:

Grease wool.—Wool as it comes from the sheep with the grease still in it.

Hogget wool.—English term for the first wool from a sheep.

Kemp.—Not a dead hair, but an abnormal fiber made up entirely of horny material,
such as is on the outside of ordinary wool fiber. It will not dye as well as the ordi- .
nary fiber and does not possess spinning qualities.

Line fleeces.—Those midway between two grades as to quality or length.

Lofty wool.—Open wool, full of ‘‘life.’’ Springs back into normal position after
being crushed in the hand.

Luster wool.—That from Lincoln, Leicester, and Cotswold sheep. It is known as

luster wool because the coarse fibers reflect the light. es

32 BULLETIN 206, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Modock.—Wool from range sheep that have been fed and sheared in the farm States.
The wool has qualities of both regions.

Noil.—A by-product of worsted manufacture consisting of short and tangled fibers.
Tt is used in the manufacture of woolens.

Off sorts.—The by-products of sorting. In fine staple or any other grade there are
certain quantities of short, coarse, stained, and colored wools. These are the off sorts.

Picklock wool.—Formerly a grade above XXX. Picklock was the product of Silesian
Merino blood. There is no American market grade of that name at present; a little
of this quality of wool is produced in West Virginia.

Pulled wool.—Wool taken from the skin of a slaughtered sheep’s pelt by slipping,
sweating, or the use of depilatory.

Quality.—The diameter of the wool. It largely determines the spinning quality.

Run-out fleece.—One that is not uniform but much coarser on the ‘‘britch’’ than
elsewhere. It may be kempy.

Shafty wool.—Wool of good length and spinning qualities.

Shearlings.—Short wool pulled from skins of sheep shorn before slaughtering. Also
English term for yearling sheep.

Shivy wool.—A somewhat broad term. It refers to the presence of vegetable matter
in the wool.

Shoddy.—Wool that has been previously used for manufacturing purposes, torn
apart and made ready to use again.

Skirting.—Skirting fleeces consists in removing the pieces and the low-quality wool
of the britch from the edge of the fleece.

Spring wool.—Six to eight months’ growth; shorn in the spring where sheep are
shorn twice a year.

Stained wool.—That which is discolored by urine, dung, etc.

Staple.—(a) A lock or bunch of wool as it exists in the fleece. (6) Western combing
wool.

Stubble shearing.—Shearing some distance from the skin, leaving a ‘‘stubble.”’

Suint.—Excretions from sweat glands deposited in the wool.

Sweating sheds.—Sheds in which sheep are ‘‘sweated’’ before shearing. The pur-
pose is to raise the yolk and make shearing easier.

Tags.—Large dungy locks.

Territory wools.—Territory wools are in general those that come from the territory
west of the Missouri River.

Tippy wool.—Wool in which the tip or weather end of the fiber is more or less
incrusted.

Top.—A continuous untwisted strand of the longer wool fibers straightened by
combing. After drawing and spinning it becomes worsted yarn.

Top-maker’s qualities or counts.—Top-maker’s qualities or counts are the numbers
used in designating the quality of certain foreign wools. They range from 12’s upward.
The numbers are supposed to indicate the number of hanks of yarn a pound of top
will spin to. Each hank represents 560 yards.

Tub washed.—Wool that has been washed after having been sheared. Very rare
in America; was formerly practiced in Kentucky.

Virgin wool.—Wool that has not previously been used in manufacturing.

Warp.—The threads that run lengthwise in cloth.

Washed wools.—Those from which the suint has been removed by washing the sheep
before shearing.

Wether.—In English wools it refers to wool other than the first clip from the sheep.
In sheep, a castrated male.

Yolk.—The fatty grease deposited upon the wool fibers from the oil glands.

O

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 207

Contribution from the Forest Service
HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIGNAL PAPER July 17, 1915.

THE CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES
OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN
REGION

By
GEORGE B. SUDWORTH, Dendrologist

CONTENTS

2 Page :
Scope of the Bulletin . . . . 2... > 1 | Generic Characteristics of Junipers—Con.
Class and Family Relationship of Cy- Qne-seed Juniper (Juniperus mono-
Bressesand Junipers . .....-. 8 sperma (Engelm.) Sargent) . . . 20
Generic Characteristics of Cypresses . . Mountain Cedar (Juniperus sabi-
Arizona Cypress (Cupressus arizon- noides (H., B.and K.) Nees). . .
ica Greene) . Utah Juniper (Juniperus utahensis

Engelm.) Lemmon) ... .. >»
Smooth Cypress (Cupressus glabra “ Es é a
Sipe aks’, Bg Knight Juniper (Juniperus knightii

Bae ee 3 Nelson) .
Generic Characteristics of J unipers .. Big-berried Juniper (Juniperus me-
Common Juniper (Juniperus com- f

mbes galocarpa Sudworth) .... -«
munis Linnzus) Alligator Juniper (Juniperus pachy-
Western Juniper (Juniperus occi- phicea Torrey) .......-s
dentalis Hooker) Drooping Juniper (Juniperus flac-
Mountain Red Cedar (Juniperus cida Schlechtendal) ......
scopulorum Sargent) . ... . Keyto Species . . 2. 2.» «© we 2 2

Page

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING CFFICE
1915

Ut

Uae)

vi}

i a a

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
~ NN

Contribution from the Forest Service
HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. July 17, 1915.

THE CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF THE ROCKY
MOUNTAIN REGION.

By Grorce B. Supworts, Dendrologist.

CONTENTS.
Page. | Page.
Seope ofthe bulletin..:....2.....-..---2----- 1 | Generic characteristics of junipers—Cont’d.
Class and family relationship of cypresses One-seed juniper (Juniperus monosperma
PICS MMA OL SHas. isc. ties fees ol acieew sual Ye 3 (Engelm.) Sargent). .....-.---2-...-.- 20
Generic characteristics of cypresses-...------- 4 Mountain cedar (Juniperus sabinoides
Arizona cypress (Cupressus arizonica (He Brandy.) Nees) lace sescece ac scce 23
Greere) eee eee SSeS ai Se ae 5 Utah juniper (Juniperus utahensis
Smooth cypress (Cupressus glabra Sud- (Engelm.) Lemmon).................- 26
WeCOY LEON) SE a a ea Knight juniper(Juniperusknightii Nelson) 26
Generic characteristics of junipers..-.....-- 11 Big-berried juniper (Juniperus megalo-
Common juniper (Juniperus communis | canna Sudworth) ee seeseee sec ceeeeece 28
WENAEETIS) een aise ccs nse cis Sosy ee sole 13 | Alligator juniper (Juniperus pachyphlea
Western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis TM OLE OY) Sarseseie eae cmos ews Sa sees 30
HEHOOKCT) eee ree eee oe Mase ote sate 15 Drooping juniper (Juniperus flaccida
Mountain red cedar (Juniperus scopu- Schiechitendal)iis Sr eetes sess see 2
LonwT Sateen) ete \o. 2. css esse seeks 18 | Key to'speciés-.2 22-5. csc 2a ote eee 36

SCOPE OF THE BULLETIN.

This bulletin describes the distinguishing characters, geographic
distribution, and forest habits of all the known species of cypress
(Cupressus) and juniper (Juniperus) growing within the Rocky Moun-
tain region. The region embraces western North and South Dakota,
Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, western Nebraska, Colorado, Utah,
Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas. Such outly-
ing regions as the Dakotas, western Nebraska, and western Texas
are included because a few species extend from the main Rocky
Mountain region into them. For the same reason Canadian territory
lying directly north of the Rockies and Mexican territory adjacent
to our Southwest are alsoincluded. Canada has no cypress or juniper
trees that do not occur at some point within the United States.
Mexico, on the other hand, has both cypress and juniper trees that

84703°—Bull. 207—15—1

2 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

are not found anywhere in this country. Such species, however, are
not considered in the present bulletin.

So far as possible the use of technical descriptive terms has been
avoided, and only such distinguishing characters (color, texture, etc.)
are defined as can not be shown clearly in a black and white drawing.
The illustrations represent foliage, fruits, seeds, and other important
parts of the trees in their natural size, so that the element of size, so
often distinctive, as well as the form in the specimen studied, can be
easily compared with the drawing. To insure accuracy in details
practically all of the illustrations are line drawings of photographs.

The maps showing the geographical distribution! of the different
species are photographic reductions of the large folio sheets upon
which the distribution data were originally platted, thus affording a
more accurate outline of range than is apparent from the small size
of the map. These data include all the published and unpublished
information now available in the Forest Service.? The greater part
comprises field notes and unrecorded observations and reports of
Forest Service officials who, in the exploration and administration of
the National Forests, have special opportunities for gathering such
data.

Additional information was obtained from field notes accom-
panying specimens preserved in the forest herbaria of the Forest
Service and the National Museum, Washington, D. C., while through
the courtesy of officials in charge similar information was gathered
from the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., the Field Museum
of Natural History, Chicago, Ill., and the University of Nebraska,
Lincoln, Nebr. Field notes, forest photographs, and specimens col-
lected by members of the Bureau of the Biological Survey have also
contributed new and valuable range data.’

1 Only the botanical range is shown, it being impracticable to combine with this the commercial range
of timber-producing species, the supplies of which are constantly reduced by lumbering operations.

2The Mexican range of cypresses and junipers isso imperfectly known at present that but few authentic
locations are given for them in thatregion. ‘These locations are shown by small circles of solid color.
Further provisional range of these trees in Mexico is indicated by short parallel lines and is based only
on reports which have not been verified.

3 Grateful acknowledgment is made in this connection to Dr. C. Hart Merriam, formerly chief of the
Bureau of Biological Survey; to Dr. H. W. Henshaw, present chief of that bureau, and to Dr. A. K. Fisher,
Chief of the Division of Economic Ornithology; also to Messrs. Vernon Bailey and H. C. Oberholser, mem-
bers of thesame bureau. To Prof. Charles S. Sargent, director of the Arnold Arboretum, and to Prof. J. G.
Jack of the same institution, the author desires especially to acknowledge his hearty appreciation for the
loan of herbarium specimens and other helpful courtesies. The writer’s cordial thanks are here expressed
to Dr. Charles E. Bessey (now deceased), of the University of Nebraska, and to Dr.C. F. Millspaugh, of the
Field Museum of Natural History, for the privilege of compiling range data from the herbaria in their
departments. For helpful information regarding junipers in Texas acknowledgment is made to Prof.
William L. Bray, now of the University of Syracuse, N. Y. Acknowledgment is due also to Mary C.
Gannett for the compilation and preliminary mapping ofa part of the range data, and to W. H. Lamb
and Georgia E. Wharton, of the Section of Forest Distribution, who revised and completed this compi-
lation and prepared final copies of the distribution maps. Finally, the writer wishes to express his
grateful appreciation of the assistance received in various ways from Forest officers and other members of
the Forest Service.

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 3

Naturally the ranges of the better known and more useful trees
are more complete than those of the smaller, relatively unimportant
ones. Altogether, however, our present knowledge of the geographic
distribution of Rocky Mountain cypresses and junipers is still incom-
plete. It is hoped, therefore, that the publication of range data now
available will stimulate the collection of further information.

A key for the identification of junipers is provided on page 36.
_ One for the cypresses is deemed unnecessary, because the two species
considered are so strikingly different that they can be quickly identi-
fied by consulting the descriptions.

In this connection the writer wishes to say that trees, as is the
case with other plants, can be satisfactorily identified only by first
becoming familiar with the character and appearance of their foliage,
flowers, fruits, bark of the trunk and branches, wood, and habit of
growth. Knowledge also of their natural habitat and associates is
helpful and an essential part of the life history. Naturally such
information can be obtained best by studying trees where they grow.
Representative specimens of the different parts of the tree are useful
for further study, and should be collected whenever possible. Merely
a few sprigs hastily taken in passing a tree will not be a sufficient
means of determining and knowing the species.

CLASS AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIP OF CYPRESSES AND JUNIPERS.

The cypresses and junipers belong to a class of plants technically
known as Gymnosperms, which are distinguished by their resinous
wood and in the fact that their ovules (destined to become seeds)
are borne naked or without the usual covering peculiar to the other
ereat class of seed-bearing trees called Angiosperms. Familiar
examples of the Gymnosperms are the pines, spruces, firs, etc., while
the Angiosperms include the oaks, walnuts, hickories, etc., which
do not have restmous wood. Gymnosperms produce wood which is
formed in concentric layers or rings of growth, one ring being laid
on each year and outside of the preceding one and just beneath the
bark. The age of Gymnosperms can, therefore, be accurately told
by counting the rings shown on a cross section of the stem cut off
at the ground just above where the root is given off.

According to the character of their fruits, Gymnosperms are divided
into two families—(1) Conifer, trees which bear cone fruits (pines,
etc.), and (2) Taxacee, trees which bear an olivelike fruit (the seed
inclosed in a fleshy sack), as in the yew trees.

Because their fruits are true cones, cypress and juniper trees belong
to the family Conifere. Other generic groups of this family are the
pines (Pinus), spruces (Picea), larches or true tamaracks (Larix),
hemlocks (Tsuga), false or bastard hemlocks (Pseudotsuga), firs or

4 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

‘balsam trees” (Abies), ‘‘bald,”’ or deciduous-leafed cypress (Taxo-
dium), arborvites or ‘‘cedars” (Thuja), and redwood and bigtree
(Sequoia). All of these trees except the junipers bear a fruit
which is a distinctly woody cone, with from two to several naked
seeds under each of its overlapping or otherwise closely joined scales.
The junipers, however, produce a berrylike fruit, which, though not
woody, is, nevertheless, morphologically a cone, the external resem-
blance to a berry being due to the joining of its fleshy cone scales. The
seeds of most conifers have a thin wing, which helps them greatly
to be scattered by the wind far from the parent trees, thus providing
for their rapid reproduction over a wide area. On the other hand,
seeds of some conifers have no wings or merely rudimentary ones,
which do not materially aid in distributing the seeds, this being
accomplished through the agency of flood waters and animals.
Junipers are examples of this class, their wingless seeds and the berry-
like fruits contaming them being largely dependent for their distribu-
tion upon birds, which eat them for the fleshy outside pulp,’ and
upon flood-waters, which carry them away from the parent trees.

The leaves of some conifers are scalelike and very small, as in the
case of leaves that clothe the twigs of junipers, cedars, and cypresses,
while the leaves of all other conifers are needlelike and long, as in the
case of the leaves that clothe the twigs and branches of pines, spruces,
etc. Of our conifers, all but the bald cypress (Taxodium) and
larches (Larix) have leaves that remain green and adhere to the
trees for several years, a feature which has given them the popular
name of ‘‘evergreens.”?’ The number of seed-leaves? (cotyledons)
produced by conifers varies from 2 to about 18.

GENERIC CHARACTERISTICS OF CYPRESSES.

The term ‘‘cypress’”’ is popularly applied to three distinct generic
groups of North American trees: Taxodium, of the southeastern
States; Chameecyparis, represented in the South Atlantic and Pacific
coast forests; and Cupressus, of which native species are found in the
southern Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast regions. Strictly
speaking, the name cypress should be applied only to the trees of the
genera Chamecyparis and Cupressus, both of which are closely
related. Species of Cupressus differ from those of Chamecyparis in
having quadrangular twigs instead of flat ones, and sprays arranged not
in one plane but irregularly (Pls. I. andV).* The overlapping, minute,
scalelike leaves of the trees of both groups are arranged in alternately
opposite pairs, but those of Cupressus are minutely toothed on their

1 The hard seeds of the junipers lose none of their germinative vitality by passing through the digestive
organs of birds. ; f

2 Seed-leaves are the first foliar organs appearing above ground when the seeds germinate.

3 Compare these with figures 65, 66, and 67 in “‘ Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope.”

PLATE I.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

‘spees ‘9 ‘eto uedo peyoejoep ‘q :seuod pouedti APMON “D
“SSANOQD G3SO19 GNV 3DVITIOY ‘VOINOZIYV SNSSAYdND

PLATE II.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

CUPRESSUS ARIZONICA.

ale flower buds (in autumn); d, seedling three months old

(one-half natural size).

BO, Ti

s of old cone

a,b, Different form

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 9)

margins, while in Chamecyparis the margins of the leaves are entire
or smooth. In Cupressus the leaves of each season’s growth remain
on the trees from three to four years. The minute flowers, which
appear in early spring on the ends of the twigs, are inconspicuous,
especially the female flowers. The male flowers, which bear pollen
only, and the female flowers, which produce cones and seeds, are
borne on different twigs of the same tree. The cones mature at the
end of the second season,! and bear about 15 or 20 seeds under each
fertile cone scale, instead of only 4 or 5 seeds, as in the case of Chame-
cyparis. Seeds of native Cupressus differ fundamentally from those
of Chamecyparis in being without thin, membranous wings. The
cones of Cupressus are strongly attached to the branches and remain
on the trees for a great many years, while those of Chamecyparis are
lightly attached to the twigs and usually fall from the trees within
one or two seasons. Seed-leaves of Cupressus are from 3 to 5, and
in Chamecyparis only 2.

The strongly aromatic wood of Cupressus is remarkably durable,
but the small size and poor timber form of most native species make
it of little commercial value. As forest trees, these cypresses are of
considerable importance in assisting to form a protective cover on
wind-swept, sandy coasts or dry, arid slopes and in sparsely wooded
canyons.

Six species of Cupressus are found in the United States. Four of
these are confined to California, while the other two occur in the
southern Rocky Mountain region, one extending into Mexico. Trees
of this genus are of ancient origin, representatives, now extinct, once
growing in Greenland and western Europe.

ARIZONA CYPRESS.
Cupressus arizonica Greene.

COMMON NAME AND EARLY HISTORY.

This little known species has no accepted distinctive common
name. Usually it is called ‘‘cypress”’ by the few who know the tree
in its mountain habitat, though its occurrence sometimes in moist
situations or near streams has earned for it the local name of ‘‘ water
cypress”’ or ‘water cedar.”’ The name ‘‘Arizona cypress,” based on
the technical name, is suggested as appropriate because the tree first
became known to botanists and foresters through its discovery in
southeastern Arizona, where, in 1880, Dr. Edward L. Greene found

it “on the mountains back of Clifton, in the extreme eastern part of

1 Until quite recently this was believed to be another distinction between Cupressus and Chamzecyparis,
the latter being thought without exception to mature their fruit in one season. The fruiting habit of
Chamezecyparis nootkatensis is now known to be biennial. See Martin W. Gorman, in Nineteenth Annual
Report, U.S. Geological Survey, Part V, 339, 1899; Elwes and Henry, Trees of Great Britain and Ireland,
V, 1194, 1910; Sudworth, in Review of Forest Service Investigations, II, 7, Pl. I, 1913.

6 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Graham County.’ Dr. Greene named and described this species in
1882. Later Dr. Rusby discovered an abundant growth of it in
canyons on the north slopes of the San Francisco Mountains, central
Arizona.! :

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS.

Trees growing in the most favorable situations have narrow, sharply
conical crowns with large horizontal branches, straight, rather rapidly
tapering trunks, and long slender leaders, characteristics which dis-
tinguish the species at a distance from other associated trees. Such
trees are from 50 to 80 feet in height, with from 20 to 30 or more fect
of clear trunk. Young trees of this type are particularly straight,
with very sharp, pointed crowns and horizontal branches. Trees in
exposed and otherwise unfavorable situations develop broad, rounded
or flat crowns, and seldom reach a height of more than 25 or 30 feet,
with very little clear stem. Diameter growth of Arizona cypress
varies from 14 inches to nearly 4 feet. (PI. III, right.)

The trunk bark of large trees is from 1} to 14 inches thick, and of
small ones from one-half to three-fourths of an inch. In color the
bark is a dull, ashy brown on the outside and pale to dark cinnamon-
brown when broken. It is firm, somewhat fibrous, and sharply and
deeply furrowed, the main narrow, flat, continuous ridges being con-
nected with small lateral ones. Bark on the branches, twigs, and
very young trunks 1s loosely scaly, the fresh smooth bark beneath the
scales being reddish to a dark yellowish-brown. The minute, scale-
like, sharp-pointed leaves (Pl. I) have a whitish bloom, which gives
the foliage a pale silvery hue, especially pronounced in young trees.
The leaves are mainly without pits on the back; very rarely with
resinous glands, which when they do occur are exceedingly small.
This latter feature and the general absence of pits distinguish the
foliage of Arizona cypress from that of smooth cypress (Cupressus
glabra), -which is commonly marked with large glandular pits.
Bruised twigs and foliage of Arizona cypress exhale a strong polecat-
like odor, while the trees themselves give off an odor which sometimes
can be detected at a distance of 100 yards.

Mature cones of Arizona cypress (Pl. I, 6), which ripen by Septem-
ber of the second season, vary in diameter from seven-eighths of an
inch to an inch, and remain on the trees for many years (PI. II, a, 5),
changing with age and exposure from a dark umber-brown to ashy
gray. The conspicuous bosses, or protuberances, of the cone scales
are usually small and almost pricklelike on cones just matured

1 Cupressus arizonica was introduced into England, France, and Germany about 32 years ago, where,
according to Elwes and Henry (Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. V, 1184, 1185, 1910), it grows thriftily
and has reached a height of from 15 to about 30 feet.

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 7

_ (PL. I, a, 6), and larger! and hornlike on the older fruit (Pl. II, a).
The deep purplish-brown seeds (PI. I, c) are somewhat triangular in
form and irregular in size, but usually about one-eighth of an inch
long. The seed-leaves are from 3 to 5 (Pl. II, d, lowermost long
leaves).

The heartwood of Arizona cypress is a very light brownish-yellow,
and the sapwood a pale straw-color. It is moderately soft and of
~light weight, narrow-ringed and straight-grained, splitting easily.
Dry, freshly cut wood has a slight cedarlike odor. When thoroughly
seasoned it is fairly durable in contact with the soil, but is used only
to a limited extent in supplying local demands for shakes, posts,
corral poles, and rough house logs, because the available supply is
small and difficult to obtain. The best grades, however, are suitable
for sash, doors, blinds, and other building purposes. The lumber
seasons well and is readily held in place.

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS.

Arizona cypress grows in moist or rather dry, rocky, shaly, or
gravelly soils on mountain slopes, and in the bottoms and on the sides
of canyons, at elevations between 4,500 and 8,000 feet. It is espe-
cially fond of moist north-slope gulches and benches where the growth
is more dense than in drier situations. For the most part it forms
pure or nearly pure stands, quite dense on the more favorable sites.
The largest and best formed trees occur on north slopes, in coves,
and on benches in protected localities, where the soil is moist, deep,
and more permeable, while short stunted trees are found in exposed
places where the scanty soil is drier and less permeable. Arizona
cypress is occasionally associated with Arizona pine, and at higher
elevations with huckleberry oak. In some parts of its range repeated
forest fires have destroyed the stand over large areas, so that the tree
occurs chiefly in patches and in rather small, isolated bodies.

Seedlings and young trees are apparently able to endure dense shade
without having their height growth retarded. Later in life trees
may still maintain themselves indefinitely under rather heavy top
shade, but in such cases growth in diameter and height is very slow.
The lateral branches persist for a long time even in very close stands.

Arizona cypress is a prolific seeder and in some localities bears
cones every year. Fresh seed shows a moderately high percentage
of germination, but the seedlings are likely to come up tardily at
irregular intervals. When seeds remain in unopen cones on living

1 This appears to be due to the growth of tissue about the base of the bosses after the cone matures, and
sometimes also throughout the cone and its stem. Cones of Cupressus macnabiana and Cupressus glabra
exhibit the same characteristic. (See “Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope,’’ p. 165.) Dried cones, in which
the living, spongy, green tissue has become shrunken, do not show this enlargement as conspicuously as
cones recently collected.

8 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

trees they may retain their vitality for at least several years.1 Re-
production takes place abundantly where the exposed mineral soil is
moist and not subject to washing by mountain floods. Seedlings
are scarce, therefore, on steep, rocky slopes, only appearing where
the seed has lodged in pockets and crevices. A small amount of the

seed is eaten by rodents. :
LONGEVITY.

The exact age attained by Arizona cypress is not at present known,
but, judging from the few records available, it is evidently long-lived.

Trees from 12 to 38 inches in diameter, m full enjoyment of top
light, are from 100 to 310 years old, while suppressed, slow-growing
trees from 44 to 5 inches in diameter may be from 50 to 65 years
old. The largest trees known would doubtless prove to be from
375 to 400 years old.

SMOOTH CYPRESS.
Cupressus glabra Sudworth.

COMMON NAME AND EARLY HISTORY.

The first reference to this new and handsome cypress was published
in 1895 and was based on the discovery of a grove on Pine Creek
at ‘‘Natural Bridge,” central Arizona, by Prof. J. W. Toumey, who
believed the tree to be a form of Arizona cypress.? It was not dis-
tinguished from the latter tree, however, until February, 1910, when
it was named and described * from a grove of trees discovered by
Mr. Arthur H. Zachau on the north slope of a small tributary stream
on the west side of the Verde River Canyon, about 16 miles south-
east of the town of Camp Verde, Ariz. This grove covers an area
about 6 miles long by 14 miles wide.t In size and development the
trees there are fairly representative of the species. In 1910 Mr.
Willard Drake reported finding the species on the Coconino National
Forest, growing with Arizona cypress, while in the same year Mr.
R. L. Rogers observed it in the Coronado National Forest. Recently

1 No systematic tests have yet been made to determine exactly how long such seeds will retain their
germinative vitality. In many cases, however, the author has found perfectly sound seeds in closed cones
that have been attached to living trees for eight or nine years. It is probable that still older seeds could
be found.

2 Garden and Forest, VIII, 32,1895. While Prof. Toumey referred to the Pine Creek trees as C. arizonica,
he nevertheless expressed doubt as to their being the same as the Arizona cypress of the Chiricahua Moun-
tains, for he observed that the bark of the Pine Creek trees ‘‘peels off in long shreds.”

Prof. Toumey’s reference to this characteristic of the bark led the writer to suspect the “Natural
Bridge” cypress to be the same as the Verde River Canyon tree. Prof. C. S. Sargent has recently
examined specimens of Prof. Toumey’s “Natural Bridge” tree and finds it to be C. glabra, so that this
grove can now be added to the tree’s range.

3 American Forestry, XVI, 88, 1910.

4 This grove is partly on a ranch belonging to William A. Tinsley, and approximately in township 11
‘north, range 5 east, where Mr. Zachau saw it first in 1907, and called the writer’s attention to the fact
that the trees there had very different bark from that of the Arizona cypress, common in the Chiricahua
Mountains. Special credit is due Mr. Zachau for this most important observation, which resulted in an
investigation of these trees by the writer and in the discovery then that they are of a distinct species.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE III.

CUPRESSUS ARIZONICA (RIGHT) WITH CHARACTERISTIC FURROWED BARK,
CUPRESSUS GLABRA (LEFT) WITH SMOOTH SCALY BARK.

nN
rH ‘
r
\

PLaTE IV.
, 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,

CUPRESSUS GLABRA: FOLIAGE AND CLUSTER OF NEWLY RIPENED CLOSED CONES.

a, Cluster of very old cones; b, seeds (natural size and enlarged twice natural size).

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 9

Mr. Alfred Rehder detected’ Cupressus glabra in Oak Creek Canyon,
about 20 miles south of Flagstaff, Ariz. In the same year Mr. R. D.
Forbes found this species at various points in the Tonto National
Forest, Arizona. Further search is likely to reveal its existence
elsewhere in Arizona and possibly also in New Mexico and Mexico.

The name “‘smooth cypress’ is adopted here as descriptive of the
tree’s most conspicuous characteristic, its smooth, purple-red bark
Settlers in the Verde River Canyon knew this tree long before its
technical discovery and called it ‘‘yew-wood,’ doubtless because
the bark of the trunk resembles that of the western yew (Taxus
brevifolia) .

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS.

In general appearance the foliage of smooth cypress resembles
that of the Arizona cypress, though the former species can be dis-
tinguished from the latter by the compact, narrowly oval, or some-
what pyramidal crown. The branches of smooth cypress, particularly
of younger trees, are strongly upright. Old trees grown in the open
develop long, lower branches, which from their great weight are less
upright than those of trees of the same age in a close stand. In
height the trees range from 25 to 30 feet, and in diameter from 10 to
14 inches, though much larger trees probably exist.?- The trunk is
slightly tapering, while the upper portion is sometimes divided into
several branches, in this respect differing from the usual undivided
stem of Arizona cypress. Only about one-fourth to one-third of
the trunk is clear of branches (PI. ITI, left).

The most distinctive characteristic of this tree is its thin, smooth,
dark purple-red bark. Each season’s growth of bark, from one-
sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch thick, breaks irregularly into
small, curled, scalelike plates, which fall away during the succeeding
autumn and winter, leaving the trunk smooth. Vigorous trees shed
their bark more rapidly and completely than less thrifty ones. The
foliage is a bright blue-green (glaucous). The minute, scalelike,
- acutely pointed leaves (Pl. IV), about one-sixteenth of an inch long
and closely pressed on old sprays, are thickened and keeled on the
back, where in practically every case there is a comparatively large
resin gland, a characteristic which distinguishes the leaves from those
of Arizona cypress. Young shoots bear closely pressed leaves from
one-fourth to one-half of an inch long, with very keen and more or
less spreading points (PI. V,a). The leaves die during the second
year, turn a bright red-brown, and remain on the twigs for about 4
years, after which they are shed slowly, and later these small branches

1 Reported to the writer in letter by Prof. C. S. Sargent, Nov. 6, 1914.

2 According to Prof. J. W. Toumey (loc. cit.) some of the trees in the “Natural Bridge’’ grove (which
must now be considered to be C. glabra) are 3 feet in diameter.

10 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

become ashy gray. The spherical cones! (Pls. IV, V) are borne on
stout stems from one-fourth to one-half of an inch long (Pl. IV, a),
and mature at the end of the second season. In diameter they
range from seven-eighths to one-eighth of an inch, and are composed
of from 6 to 8? scales, armed with large incurved, somewhat flat-
pointed bosses.

The mature cones are smooth, but conspicuously wrinkled, and
covered with a deep blue-gray bloom, which when rubbed off reveals
a rich dark-brown color beneath. Very old cones (Pl. IV, a) are
ashy-gray, with bosses much less conspicuous * than in newly ma-
tured cones (Pl. V). Immature cones of one season’s growth are
light reddish-brown, with areas of pale-bluish bloom. Mature cones
may remain on the trees unopened for from 14 to 18 years, and
possibly even longer.‘ The red-brown seeds vary greatly in shape
from a rounded to a triangular and somewhat rectangular form, and
may be from three-sixteenths to five-sixteenths of an inch long, more
often the latter. Each cone contains from about 70 to 112 seeds, the
largest number occurring in cones with 8 scales. The large size of
the seeds at once distinguishes them from those of Arizona cypress,
though in color and form the two are similar. Seed-leaves vary in
number from 3 to 4.

The sapwood of smooth cypress is a pale straw-color and the heart-
wood a very light brownish-yellow. Seasoned wood is hard, rather
heavy, strong, and with very narrow rings of growth. As in the case
of Arizona cypress, the freshly cut, dry wood has a slightly cedarlike
odor, which is less pronounced in green wood. Thoroughly seasoned
wood is moderately durable in contact with the soil, fence posts last-
ing about 20 years, and corral poles 30 to 35 years. Cabins built of
the logs 40 years ago are still in a good state of preservation. The
small size of the trees and the limited supply have confined the use
of the wood mainly to local needs. It has been employed to a
limited extent for fence posts, corral poles, and rough house logs,
fuel, telephone poles, and mine props.

1 Male flower-buds (Pl. V,a) were abundant when the trees were seen in late autumn. The writer has
had no opportunity for examining trees in the spring, so that female flowers have not been obtained.

2 Very young cones may have 10 scales, but at maturity 2 of the basal ones become abortive.

3 Due to the thickening of the tissue through growth after maturity. In the case of Cupressus glabra
the formation of green spongy tissue in old cones appears to enlarge or thicken only the main body of the
cone-scales without increasing the size of the bosses, while in the case of C. arizonica this growth enlarges
the bosses as well as the body of the scales.

4 No systematic tests have yet been made of the germination of seeds from cones of different ages. A
physical test, however, showed the majority of seeds in the oldest cones to be in a perfectly sound and
apparently germinable condition. ‘The almost phenomenal preservation of these seeds can be accounted
for only by the green state of the cone, which supplies and maintains an equable amount of moisture, and

by the presence of a considerable amount of tannin in the woody parts of the cone-scales which prob-
ably prevents decay of the seeds.

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 11
OCCURRENCE AND HABITS.

In the Verde River Canyon grove smooth cypress grows abund-
antly in gravelly and shaly soils on benches, gentle slopes, and low
ridges at elevations between 3,700 and 5,500 feet. It is best devel-
oped in protected watered gulches and on the gentler slopes and
benches where the soil is moist. At low elevations it is associated
with Pinus monophylla, Pius edulis, Quercus chrysolepsis, and Rhus
laurina, while higher up it forms nearly pure stands.

Little is known at present regarding the light requirements of
smooth cypress during its early stages of growth, but in later life,
judging from the greater density of its crown, this species should be
as tolerant of shade, if not more so, than Arizona cypress.

Smooth cypress is a prolific seeder, usually producing cones every
year. The fresh seed shows a moderately high percentage of germi-
nation, while the vitality of older seed probably declines rapidly after
the fifth year.

LONGEVITY.

The extreme age attained by this species has not yet been deter-
mined, but it is probably as long lived as Arizona cypress. The
largest trees found so far are at least 200 or 250 years old.

GENERIC CHARACTERISTICS OF JUNIPERS.

The junipers are evergreen trees that in general appearance some-
what resemble the cypresses, though their berrylike fruits at once
distinguish them from the latter. The adult foliage of most junipers
covers the branchlets closely and consists of short minute scalelike
sharp-pointed leaves arranged in groups (whorls) of three or in oppo-
site pairs, each of the latter alternating in position around the stem.
In some species all of the adult leaves occur in threes instead of in
pairs and are then much longer, needlelike, standing out loosely at
regular intervals (Pls. VI, VII). The margins of the leaves are
smooth or minutely toothed. The juvenile or primary foliage pro-
duced by seedlings and older young plants of the first group of junipers
noted is more or less similar in general appearance to adult foliage of
the last group mentioned. This primary foliage gradually gives way,
however, as the plants grow older to the adult scalelike form of
leaves. The close scalelike type of leaves very often have a pit or
resinous gland on the back (Pl. XIII). When bruised, the foliage of
junipers emits a pungently aromatic odor.

The needlelike seed-leaves of junipers are 2 to 6 in number
(PI. XTX).

12 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

The minute inconspicuous flowers of junipers are of two sexes.
Male, or pollen-bearing flowers (Pl. XII, a), and female flowers, which
develop into fruit, are each borne chiefly on different trees, or in the
case of some species on the same tree (XXIV, a).

The fruits, popularly called “berries,” are morphologically cones,
the pulpy berrylike covering being made up of the fleshy flower
scales which unite as the fruit develops, so as to inclose the hard
seeds (1 to 12 in number; Pl. XI). The points of the flower scales
usually project from the surface of the fruit. Most of our native
junipers mature their fruit in from one to two seasons (two summers
and one winter), while one species requires three seasons (two sum-
mers and two winters).1_ When ripe, the berries are dark blue, red-
brown, or copper colored, and except in the case of one Texas juniper
the surface is covered with a whitish bloom, which is easily rubbed off.
The pulpy flesh of the berries is slightly juicy or mealy, sweetish, and
often strongly aromatic, due to the presence of resin cells. Both
birds and mammals, especially the former, eat the berries and thus
play a most important part in the dissemination of the seeds.? . Other-
wise their distribution would be exceedingly slow, for the berries are
too heavy to be carried far from the mother trees except on washed
slopes.

Junipers are further characterized by their narrow-ringed aromatic
durable wood, the ‘“‘heart” portion of which is dull yellow-brown in
some species and a clear rose-purple red in others. The trunk bark
is rather soft and distinctly stringy, one species only having brittle
checkered hard bark (Pl. XX).

Junipers are small or at most only medium-size trees unfit in most
cases for saw timber except for some minor purposes, although the
wood itself is suitable for general use. It is used largely for fence
posts, fuel, especially in localities where no other trees grow. From
the forester’s standpoint junipers are important because of their
ability to grow on dry barren slopes and exposed situations where
few if any other trees will thrive.

Twelve tree junipers inhabit the United States, nine of which
occur within the Rock Mountain region. Of the other three species,
one is confined to California, while two are found only in the eastern
United States.

Junipers are of ancient origin, remains of them in Tertiary rocks
showing that they inhabited Europe ages ago.

1 Prof. John G. Jack was the first to point out that in New England the common dwarf juniper (Juniperus
communis) requires three seasons for ripening its “‘ berries’’ (Bot. Gazette, X VIII, 369, Pl. XX XIII. 1893).
It is not known whether or not the species has a different habit elsewhere in its wide range.

2 The hard bony coverings of the seeds are entirely unafiected by digestion except, as is believed, facilitat-
ing in some degree their germination.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

CUPRESSUS GLABRA: FOLIAGE AND NEWLY RIPENED CLOSED CONES.

a, Male flower buds (in autumn); b, new shoot showing large form of leaves.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI-

JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS: STERILE BRANCH.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

!

[|
iv

YaZ

Y,

JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS: FERTILE BRANCH AND RIPE FRUIT.

a, Seeds (natural size and enlarged twice natural size) divested of the pulp.

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 13

COMMON JUNIPER. !
Juniperus communis Linneus.

COMMON NAME AND EARLY HISTORY.

The common or dwarf juniper is the most widely distributed tree
inhabiting the northern half of the globe.? It was technically named
and described in 1753, probably from specimens obtained from north-
ern Europe. Apparently, however, it was previously long known
in Europe and in Asia. It is difficult to determine when it was first
found in North America. The earliest botanical account of it, how-
ever, as a native of this country appeared in about 1803. Juniperus
communis has a long botanical history in which various forms have
been described under about sixteen different specific and varietal
names. ‘Thirteen varieties are now distinguished in cultivation, the
best marked one being J. communis sibirica. The generally accepted
vernacular name of this species, ‘‘common juniper,” is derived from
its technical name. Occasionally it is called ‘‘dwarf juniper” and

“sround cedar.”
"i DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS.

Throughout its wide range in North America common juniper
attains tree size only in a few counties of southern Illinois, where it
grows to a height of from 15 to nearly 25* feet and a diameter of
from 6 to 8 inches. Elsewhere it is a shrub less than 5 feet high,
with numerous slender, half-prostrate stems forming a tangled mass
from 5 to 10 feet across. Its very unsymmetrical trunk has con-
Spicuous rounded ridges and intervening grooves at and near the
ground. It is clear of branches for only a few feet, and the crown,
narrow and very open, has short, slender branches trending upward.
The bark, in color a deep chocolate brown tinged with red, is less
than one-eighth of an inch thick and composed of loosely attached,
extremely thin scales.

The dark, lustrous green, keenly pointed, needlelike, or narrow,
lance-shaped leaves (Pls. VI, VII), are chalky white on their upper

1 The prostrate, high mountain form of this species must be considered a variety, J. communis sibirica
(Burgsd.) Rydberg. It differs from J. communis L. in being wholly prostrate, and also in the fact that
its foliage is often shorter than that of J. communis.

Another prostrate shrub juniper, more or less common from Maine and New Foundland to Hudson
Bay and the eastern slopes of the Rockies in Montana is Juniperus sabina prostrata (Pers.) Loudon. J.
sabina, of which this prostrate shrub is held to be a variety, is generally distributed through central and
southern Europe and Siberia. It is distinguished from the North American variety by being a strictly
upright shrub, or occasionally a small tree. The freshly cut wood and crushed twigs of these plants have
acharacteristic, rather disagreeable odor. They are further distinguished from J. communis and its variety
J. communis sibirica by having the short scalelike, pointed leaves in alternately arranged pairs, the points

of the leaves more or less spreading and free. The needlelike leay es of J. communis are arranged in groups
of three.

2 Tt also grows naturally in northern, central, and eastern Asia, as wellas in northern and central Europe.

8 In Germany and Norway it is said to attain 30 to 40 feet or more in height.

14 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

side, a characteristic which clearly distinguishes this juniper from all
other native species. The leaves spread widely from the triangular
branchlets in groups of three at rather regular intervals, those of each
season’s growth persisting for five or six years. Young plants of
other species, especially of Juniperus virginiana, have sharp-pointed
leaves similarly arranged, but much shorter and more slender. Male
and female flowers are usually borne on different twigs of the same
tree, though sometimes on different trees. The “berries” (Pl. VII)
are mature at the end of the third summer, when they are very dark
blue, almost black, and coated with whitish bloom. The top of the
“berry” is conspicuously marked by three blunt projections, which
are points of the ovules (Pl. VIL). The soft flesh of the ripe fruit is
dry, resinous-aromatic, and sweet, and sometimes contains one, but,
commonly, from two to four hard, bony seeds. Birds and mammals
eat the berries greedily and thus assist in disseminating the seed; other-
wise the fruit may remain on the branches during the following
winter or spring, occasionally even until late summer, sae falling
to the ground.

The heartwood of common juniper is pale, yellowish brown, heavy,
rather tough, very narrow-ringed, and exceedingly durable. Even
the largest tree form of this juniper known in the United States is too
small to be of any commercial value, though the more common
shrubby type forms a low, matted ground cover on the highest and
most exposed slopes and crests, effectively holdmg masses of snow
until stored water is gradually given up to the soil.

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS.

Common juniper occurs on dry knolls, sandy flats, rocky slopes and
ridges, interspersed among spruce and aspen, at elevations between
about 2,700 and 10,000 feet. Generally, however, it grows at alti-
tudes between 4,500 and 8,000 feet. Itis extremely tolerant of shade,
where, however, its growth is very much slower and its foliage less
- dense than in full light.

Common juniper is a fairly abundant seeder. Seed crops, some-
what larger than the ordinary, occur at irregular intervals of from two
to three years. On the whole, reproduction is rather sparse and
irregular, due no doubt to the fact that most of the berries are eaten
by birds, comparatively few of them reaching the ground in the imme-
diate vicinity of the mother plants, where conditions for germination
are most favorable. The fact that berries of this juniper require so
long a period to mature may also account in some measure for the lack
of natural production.

1 The vertical range of the common juniper varies enormously throughout its world-wide distribution,
from sea level on the Pacific coast to 14,000 feet in the Himalayas.

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 15
LONGEVITY.

Small trees from 2 to 4 inches in diameter, such as occur in this
country, are from 25 to 33 years old. Records of trees grown in Nor-
way show that one 13 inches in diameter was 114 years old, while
another 124 inches through was 300 years old. Sixteen-inch trees
ranged from 130 to 150 years in age, and a 14-inch tree had attained
216 years. Dr. Whittmack! speaks of a tree of this species, 4 or 5
feet in diameter at the base, cut in the parish of Kokenberg, in Livland,
Sweden, which had reached the extreme age of 2,000 years.

WESTERN JUNIPER.
Juniperus occidentalis Hooker.

COMMON NAME AND EARLY HISTORY.

Throughout its natural range this high mountain species is called
‘‘juniper,” seldom being distinguished from other juniper trees of the
same general region. The name ‘‘western juniper,’”’ adopted here,
is coined from the tree’s technical name.

Juniperus occidentalis is only sparmgly represented in the Rocky
Mountain region, its main range lying in the Pacific States. There
appears to be no record of the earliest discovery of this tree, which
was probably seen by Lewis and Clark on their expedition to our
Northwest in 1804 to 1806, for their route took them through a part
of itsrange. The tree received its present technical name, Juniperus
occidentalis Hooker, in 1839. Some of the early writers confused the
first specimens collected of mountain red cedar with J. occidentalis,
but only three other technical names have been applied to it during
the nearly 100 years it has been known to science.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS.

Western juniper has a round-topped, open crown, extending to
within from 4 to 8 feet of the ground, and a short, thick, conical
trunk. In the Rocky Mountain region its height varies from 15 to 20
feet, or occasionally even to 30 feet. Much taller trees, 60 or more
feet high and with diameters sometimes as large as 60 inches, occur
in protected situations in the Pacific region.

The short chunky stem is ridged and grooved, but is usually straight,
or, in the most exposed sites, sometimes bent and twisted. The tree
develops enormously long and large roots, which enable it to with-
stand the fierce winds of high mountains. Huge lower branches
often rise like smaller trunks from the base and middle of the stem.
Other branches are large and stiff, standing out straight or trending

1 Gartenflora, xxxvi, 139, 1887.

16 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

upward from the trunk, while there are also many short ones. Some-
times the top is divided into two or three thick forks, giving the tree
a broader crown than usual. In such cases, if the trees grow on flats
with deep soil, the crowns are dense, symmetrical, round-topped, and
conical, and extend down to within 6 feet of the ground. Young
trees have straight, sharply tapering stems and narrow, open crowns
of distant, slender, but stiff-looking, long, upturned branches. In
old age the lower and middle-crown branches often droop, but their
tips continue to turn upward. The firm stringy bark of the trunk is
a clear, light cinnamon-brown, one-half to 14 inches thick, distinctly
cut longitudinally by wide, shallow furrows, the long flat ridges being
connected at remote intervals by narrower diagonal ones. Bark of
branchlets that have recently shed their leaves is smooth, very thin,
and clear reddish-brown, but later, as the twigs grow larger, is divided
into loosely attached, thin scales of lighter red-brown.

The short, pale ashy-green, scalelike leaves (Pl. VIII) clasp the
stiff-looking twigs closely, the longer, sharper leaves of young, thrifty
shoots spreading slightly at their points (Pl. VIII, a). Allleaves have
a prominent, glandular pit on the back, the abundant whitish resin of
which marks the twigs conspicuously and is a distinguishing character. _
The leaves are arranged on the stems in successive groups of three,
thus forming rounded twigs with six longitudinal rows of leaves.
The margins of the leaves are minutely toothed. Those produced
each season die in about their second year.

Male and female flowers are borne on different trees. The ‘‘ber-
ries’? (Pl. VIII), from one-fourth to one-third of an inch in diameter,
mature about the first of September of the second year, when they
are bluish black with a whitish bloom. The skin is tough, and only
slightly marked at or near the top of the berry by the tips of the female
flower scales. The sweetish, pungent aromatic flesh of the ripe berries
is scanty, dry, and contains from two to three bony, pitted, and grooved
seeds (Pl. VIII, 6, c,d). Seed-leaves, two in number, are needlelike,
sharp pointed, and about an inch long. Seedling leaves are similar
in form, but much shorter, spreading in groups of three at close inter-
vals. The leaves produced in subsequent years are successively
shorter and closer in their arrangement, until about the third or fourth
year, when a few twigs bear leaves of adult form.

The wood of western juniper is pale brown, tinged with red, with a
slight aromatic odor, very narrow-ringed, and, like that of the other
brown-wooded junipers, remarkably durable. It is soft and brittle,
and splits easily, in this respect resembling the wood of the eastern
red-wooded pencil cedars (J. virginiana and J. barbadensis). The
short, often very knotty trunks, are much used locally for posts and
fuel, but furnish poor saw timber, though they would give good blocks

for pencils.

PLATE VIII.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

‘dnd jo pojsearp (9021S [vIN}VU GdIM\} POSIv[US PUL OZIS [eIN|eU) spoes JO JoquUINU 9[qeIIvA SurMoys ‘p ‘9 ‘q {soAvET JO WLIO] OSIv] SUTMOYS JOOUS MON ‘D
J I 1S | ! t J TMOYS 7 1 J [ sul {Ss {Oo N

"LINYS AdIY GNV SNVITIOS -SITVLNAGIOOO SNYAdINOL

wine Csacdiety ss
REL, nee

vee
anes

Bul. 207, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX.

aaa

oS

aes
Se

x

aaa

eS

Se

be.
am ax 6

Ma
tae

yy

ma

is
2

PL
SES AY

9;
a
S050:

5
TIE
fa:

JUNIPERUS SCOPULORUM: FOLIAGE AND RIPE FRUIT FROM TREE IN PROTECTED SITE.

a,b, Variable number of seeds in different berries (natural size and enlarged twice natural size).

Bul, 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X.

&
me

LORUM: FOLIAGE AND RIPE FRUIT FROM TREE IN
EXPOSED SITE.

JUNIPERUS SCOPU

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION, 17

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS.

Western juniper grows on exposed high mountain slopes and sides
of canyons, in dry gravelly and rocky soils, and sometimes in crevices
of bare rocks. In the Rockies! it is found generally at elevations
between 2,000 and 9,000 feet, though most often between 6,000 to
8,000 feet, where the best growth occurs. It usually forms very
open but practically pure stands, and is sometimes scattered
among other trees of its high range. As a rule, pure stands are
limited to from a few to 40 or 50 acres. Western juniper is forestrally
important because it thrives at high elevations, in dry wind-swept
situations, where few other trees can exist. It always grows in the
full enjoyment of light, and appears to be decidedly intolerant of
shade. Even seedlings in partial shade are much less vigorous than
young plants growing in full light.

Western juniper produces its fruit abundantly, yet the seedlings
are always much scattered and occur only in pure mimeral soil.
As in the case of other junipers many of the berries are eaten by
birds, which assists in distributing the seed; but very tardy germina-
tion of the seed under the particularly unfavorable conditions within
the tree’s habitat, as well as the fact that seedlings can not grow in
better soil under the shade of other trees, probably accounts for the
sparse reproduction.

LONGEVITY.

While the extreme age this tree may attain is not yet fully deter-
mined, it is known to be exceedingly long-lived. Both height and
diameter growth are slow when the tree is rooted in crevices of rock
and exposed, as it usually is, to fierce winds. Even in such situa-
tions, however, it grows persistently, producing a trunk that is out
of all proportion in thickness to its height. The wood of such trees
is very narrow-ringed (one-sixth to one-tenth of an inch), indicating
great age. In protected mountain coves and on flats with deep
washes of loose earth, diameter growth is more rapid and the annual
rings wider. ‘Trees of this type, from 20 to 48 inches in diameter,
are from 125 to 300 years old, while in general the age of full-grown
trees is estimated to be between 500 and 700 years. The largest
trees grown in exposed places are probably from 800 to 1,000 or more
years old.

1 Elsewhere in its range this juniper has a widely varying vertical distribution from 600 to about 10,500
feet, the highest elevation attained being in the California Sierras. Its commonest occurrence there is
at elevations between 6,000 and 9,000 feet.

84703°—Bull. 207—15 2

18 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MOUNTAIN RED CEDAR.
Juniperus scopulorum Sargent.

COMMON NAME AND EARLY HISTORY.

Mountain red cedar was for a long time supposed to be a western
form of the red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) of northeastern United
States. The two species resemble each other in the general appear-
ance of their foliage and fruit and especially in the dark purple-red
color of their heartwood, but the mountain red cedar differs funda-
mentally from the eastern cedar im that its berries require two sea-
sons to mature, while those of the latter species mature in one.

Mountain red cedar was first discovered in 18041by Lewis and
Clark while on their memorable expedition? across this continent.
The first technical name applied to the tree is Juniperus excelsa
Pursh,? which was published in 1814. From 1838 to 1897 other
authors referred to this tree mainly as J. virginiana and sometimes as
J. occidentalis, while specimens shown at the Centennial Exposition
in 1876 were described as J. virginiana var. montana Vasey.* Prof.
C.S. Sargent * distinguished the tree from J. virginiana in 1897
and named it J. scopulorum. A noteworthy fact is, however, that
in 1876 Dr. George Vasey, the first botanist of the United States
Department of Agriculture, gave to this tree the distinct common ~
name ‘‘Rocky Mountain red cedar,’ ® and also pointed out the
fundamental differences between its crown form and the eastern
red cedar. His recognition of these distinctions would seem to
show that Dr. Vasey was really the first author to separate this tree
from its eastern relative and but for his unfortunate use of a pre-
occupied name (‘‘var. montana’’) Dr. Vasey’s name for the tree
probably could now be maintained. ’

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS.

In open, exposed situations mountain red cedar is somewhat bushy
and from 10 to 20 feet high, with a short trunk from 6 to 10 inches
in diameter, and a rather narrow, rounded crown of large, long limbs
trending upward. Often the very short trunk is divided into several
stems. In sheltered canyons and other protected places, however,
the trunk is straight and sharply tapered, while the tree has an open,
slender-branched crown, and attains a height of from 25 to 30 or
more feet and a diameter of from 12 to 30 inches. In this form the

1 Fide Sargent, Silva, XIV, 94, 1902.

2 History of Expedition under Command of Lewis and Clark, ii, 457 (ed. Coues).
: 3 This name is unavailable for the mountain red cedar, because Bieberstein applied it toan Asiatic juniper
ee preoccupied by Aiton, who in 1789 applied it to a form of the common juniper (Juniperus com-
munis), thus making it unavailable for the Rocky Mountain tree.

5 Garden and Forest X, 420, fig. 54, 1897.
6 Report U. 8. Dept. Agr. 1875, 185, 1876.

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 19

ends of the branches and twigs are often so drooping, or even pendent,
that the tree is locally called ‘‘weeping juniper.’”’ The somewhat
stringy bark, shallowly cut into a network of narrow seams and
ridges, is grayish on the outside and red-brown within.

The minute, scalelike, pointed, often long-pointed, leaves (Pls.
IX, X) cover the slender four-sided twigs in four rows of alter-
nately opposite pairs. The back of each leaf usually has a long,
indistinct pit (gland). The margins of the leaves are smooth. The
foliage varies in color from a dark to a light green, the latter shade
being emphasized by a whitish bloom.

Male and female flowers are borne on different trees. The mature
berries (Pls. IX, X) are smooth, and clear blue in color, due to a
whitish bloom over the blackish skin. They usually contain 2 seeds,
but sometimes 3, and occasionally 1, in a sweetish, resinous pulp.
The seeds (Pl. IX, a, 6) are pointed at the top ends, conspicuously
grooved, and marked at the base with a short two-parted scar (hilum).
The number and character of the seed-leaves are at present unknown.

The wood of mountain red cedar is a dull red, or more often rather
bright rose-red, with irregularly disposed yellowish-white streaks.
It is narrow-ringed and has a thick layer of whitesapwood. Just how
durable the heartwood may be is not known, though fence posts made
from it are known to have been in a good state of preservation after 20
years of service. It is likely that well-seasoned posts of mountain
red cedar would be as durable as those of eastern red cedar, which
may remain sound in contact with the soil for 30 or 40 years. The
color, ‘‘grain,’’ working qualities, and structure of the two woods are
very similar. Mountain red cedar is adapted to the same uses to
which eastern red cedar is put, but except in a few parts of its range
the supply is rather scarce and scattered. The tree is desirable for
planting within its natural range, since it thrives on dry soil and pro-
duces wood suitable for pencils.

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS.

Mountain red cedar grows on dry, exposed mesas, low, dry moun-
tain slopes, and in rather moist canyon bottoms (where it reaches its
best development), in rocky, sandy, or gravelly soils, though seldom
in the latter. Within our Rocky Mountain region it occurs at eleva-
tions between about 5,000 and 9,000 feet, the lowest elevation being
characteristic of the northern distribution, and the highest of its
central and southern range. It is most commonly found between
5,000 and 7,000 feet, and is rather rare above 8,000 feet.+

Single trees or small groups are usually scattered among pifion pine,
one-seed juniper, mountain mahogany, gambel oak, and narrow-leaf
cottonwood. Sometimes it is associated with Douglas fir, Engelmann

1 Tn its Pacific slope range this species occurs sometimes from sea level to about 3,200 feet.

20 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

spruce, and western yellow pine, while small, practically pure stands
are occasionally interspersed with pure stands of pifion pine.

The exact light requirements of mountain red cedar are as yet im-
perfectly known. It endures rather dense shade during the seedling
and early sapling stages in moist, cool situations. Later, however, it
seems to require top light for height growth, because in close, pure
stands and under the dense side shade of other species the trunk
branches die. It develops a distinctly thmner and more open crown
in protected and shaded situations than in full light. While in early
life it has about the same degree of tolerance as eastern red cedar,
later on it appears unable to endure as much shade as the latter tree.

Mountain red cedar is usually a very prolific seeder, especially when
erowing in the open. Some seed is borne practically every year, but
particularly heavy crops are produced at intervals of from 2 to 5 years.
Reproduction, however, 1s generally sparse, which may be due prima-
rily to the tardy germination of the seed. The moist soil in pockets,
rocky crevices, and on the borders of constantly watered canyons
furnish the best seed-beds and are the sites on which seedlings are
most often found. Large quantities of the berries are eaten by birds,
which assist in distributing the seed. .

LONGEVITY.

Little is known regarding the extreme age attained by mountain
red cedar. It appears to grow very slowly and to be rather long-
lived. Trees from 6 to 8 inches in diameter are from 130 to 175
years old. Under favorable conditions of growth, this cedar probably
reaches an age of at least 250 years, possibly 300 years.

ONE-SEED JUNIPER.
Juniperus monosperma (Engelm.) Sargent.
COMMON NAME AND EARLY HISTORY.

This species is commonly called merely “cedar” or ‘‘juniper,”’ lay
people as a rule not distinguishing it from Utah juniper, with which
it often grows. The name one-seed juniper, derived from the tech-
nical name of the tree, is appropriate because the small berries usually
contain but one seed. This one-seed character, however, can not be
depended upon to distinguish Juniperus monosperma from Utah
juniper and Juniperus megalocarpa, since both of these have one-
seeded fruit. .

There is no record of when this tree was first found by early explor-
ers of the southern Rocky Mountain region. The first botanical
account of it was published in 1877, when it was named “Juniperus
occidentalis var. @ monosperma Engelmann,’ under which varietal
name it was known to botanists until 1896. Investigation then
showed it to be distinct from J. occidentalis in its smaller twigs, one-

_ seeded fruit, and in its more southern range.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI.

JUNIPERUS MONOSPERMA: FOLIAGE AND RIPE FRUIT.

a, Seeds (enlarged); b, young terminal shoot.

PLATE XII.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Pe
SS SRS
re

BRANCH SHOWING (@) MALE FLOWER Bups (IN AUTUMN).

JUNIPERUS MONOSPERMA

PLATE XIII.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

ri

\\

is

<:

===

Ses

JUNIPERUS SABINOIDES: FOLIAGE AND RIPE FRUIT.

a, Variable forms and number of seeds in different berries; 6, young shoot with large form of leaves.

PLATE XIV.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

JUNIPERUS SABINOIDES: TYPICAL TRUNK AND CROWN FORM OF TREE GROWN IN OPEN STAND.

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. QQ]
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS.

One-seed juniper commonly produces several small trunks from a
single rootstock, these stems varying in height from 6 to 20 feet
and in diameter from 3 to 6 or more inches. The general appearance
is often that of a low-crowned, overgrown bush. Single-stem trees
are rare, occurring chiefly in protected places. Their height varies
from 30 to 50 feet, or occasionally more, with a diameter of from 12
to 24 inches. In all cases the trunk is rather short, often deeply
fluted, and widely buttressed. The crowns are open and irregular,
owing to the presence of one or several very large branches near the
ground. This is a marked characteristic of the species. In the case
of trees growing in sheltered situations the large branches leave the
trunk above the ground, while in the desert type of tree such branches
are given off either at the very base of the stem or at a point below
the surface of the ground. Where one-seed juniper and Utah juniper
grow together, the latter species may be recognized by its com-
monly single trunk, which contrasts sharply with the apparently
several-stemmed trunk of one-seed juniper.

The bark of the trunk and large branches is ight ashy gray on the
outside, and a pale reddish or cinnamon brown beneath. On large
trees the bark varies in thickness from one-half to three-fourths of
an inch, but on smaller trees it rarely exceeds one-fourth of an inch.
Tt is distinctly soft, fibrous, and stringy, narrowly and deeply divided
on older trees by slitlike furrows, the narrow, flat ridges being con-
nected with thin, lateral ones. On smaller trees and large limbs
the bark is irregularly divided.

The foliage is a pale grayish green and roughish to the touch, due
to the slightly spreading points of the scalelike leaves (Pls. XJ, XII).
The twigs have a notably squarish form, due principally to the pro-
jecting points of the leaves, which as a rule are arranged in pairs,
though very occasionally in threes. The ordinary leaves of adult
twigs (Pl. XI) are about one-eighth of an inch long, sharp-pointed,
slightly spreading, and sometimes marked on their keeled backs
with a minute, resinlike gland, which may be lacking in other cases.
Leaves of thrifty leading shoots (Pl. XI, 6) and of seedling trees are
from one-third to five-eighths of an inch long, with very keen, spread-
ing points, and a resinous gland on the back.!. The margins of the
leaves are minutely toothed.

Male and female flowers are borne on different trees. The thin-
fleshed, sweetish berries (Pl. XI), from about one-eighth to one-fourth
of an inch in length, are usually copper-colored, though sometimes
bluish, and covered with whitish bloom. They are mostly one-seeded,

1 Resinous glands occur quite regularly on the backs of leaves borne by vigorous leading shoots, while
in the case of the smaller or adult foliage of older trees the glands may be present om some leaves and lacking
on others.

29; BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in exceptional cases being two or threeseeded. The fruit of some trees
is peculiar in having the top end of the seed partly exposed. The
seeds (Pl. XI, a) are pale chocolate-brown and marked at the base
with a two-lobed, whitish scar (hilum). The seed-leaves are two
in number.

The wood of one-seed juniper is very narrow-ringed, hard, and
heavy, with a slight cedarlike odor. The sapwood is nearly white
and from three-fourths to about 2 inches thick, usually much thinner
in old trees than in young ones. The heartwood varies in color from
dull yellowish-brown to pale reddish-brown. When thoroughly
seasoned it is very durable, and is one of the best and most frequently
used woods for fence posts and fuel in arid parts of the Southwest.
The fact that the tree is small, crooked, and knotty confines use of
the wood to such local but important purposes. Heartwood of old
trees grown in protected situations is fairly soft and straight-grained,
and blocks would be suitable for certain grades of lead pencils.

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS.

One-seed juniper grows in the dry, rocky, or gravelly soils of high
desert plains and mountain slopes, at elevations between 3,500 and
7,000 feet, though it occurs most extensively between 5,000 and 6,500
feet. It forms an open woodland type of forest, and sometimes pure
stands of limited extent, but it is more often mixed with Utah juniper,
alheator juniper, pifion, and single-leaf pines, and occasionally with
western yellow pine and Pinchot juniper (Texas).

Little is known of this juniper’s requirement of light. It can
probably endure considerable shade in the seedling stages of growth,
but the fact that the older trees invariably have open crowns indi-
cates that it requires full sunlight for its later development.

One-seed juniper is a prolific but irregular seeder, and young
plants are found only where through washing or in some other way
the seed has become buried in mineral soil. Scanty reproduction is
due without doubt to the usually dry and generally unfavorable
condition of the soil on which the seed falls. A large part of the
seed probably never finds sufficient covering or enough moisture to
induce germination.

The tree’s persistent growth on high desert plains and mountain
slopes makes it important in the maintenance of protective woodland
cover in the Southwest.

LONGEVITY.

In the more favorable situations the growth of this species is gen-
erally uniform and fairly rapid for a juniper. In arid soils and on
exposed sites, however, the growth is irregular and often extremely
slow. The exact age that one-seed juniper may attain has not yet

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 23

been determined, but it is probably very long-lived. The oldest
trees doubtless reach an age of at least 400 or 500 years. Trees from
5 to 7 inches in diameter are from 170 to 195 years old, and those
from 10 to 12 inches are from 315 to 375 years old.

MOUNTAIN CEDAR.
Juniperus sabinoides (H., B. and K.) Nees.
COMMON NAME AND EARLY HISTORY.

Strictly speaking, mountain cedar is not a Rocky Mountain species,
since it occurs mainly in central and southeastern Texas and adjacent
parts of Mexico. It is included here, however, because its geographic
range has climatic and topographic features similar to those in parts
of Arizona and New Mexico, and also in order to include all of the
junipers occurring west of the one-hundredth meridian, which
roughly divides the forest regions of the West from those of the
East. The tree has no generally recognized common name, being
known in some parts of its range as ‘‘mountain cedar” or ‘rock
cedar,’ and in others as “‘mountain juniper,” or even “juniper
cedar.”’ The name ‘‘mountain cedar” is the one most commonly
applied by those who use the wood of the tree. It is appropriate
also because it indicates the general nature of the tree’s habitat in
Mexico, though in the United States it grows mainly on limestone
hills.

Mountain cedar was discovered first in Mexico and subsequently in
Texas, but the exact dates of these discoveries are unknown. The
earliest technical names applied to the tree is ‘‘Cupressus sabinoides
H., B. & K.,” published in 1817. Subsequently other botanical
names given to it were published, from 1826 to 1877. It was not
until 1847 that its present name, Juniperus sabinoides (H., B. & K.)
Nees (based on Cupressus sabinoides), was permanently established,
and for the reason that the name “‘Cupressus sabinoides H., B. &
K.” was not generally recognized as applying to our mountain cedar.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS.

The crown of old mountain cedar trees is broadly rounded, while
In young ones it is widely conical. Old trees develop very open
crowns, while those of younger trees-are more compact. The tree
is seldom more than 18 feet high, though in sheltered or otherwise
favorable situations it may attain a height of 35 or more feet and
a diameter of from 12 to 18 inches. Seldom more than one-third
of the trunk is free of branches (Pl. XIV), and in very dry, exposed
places the tree is often only a many-stemmed, widely spreading
shrub, the crooked stems occasionally sprawling upon the ground.
In general, the trunks of this juniper are rarely straight and cylin-

24 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

drical for any considerable length, most of them being crooked or
variously bent and with irregular ridges and hollows. It is rare for
old trees to have single stems. As a rule, the trunks are divided
near the ground into large, crooked, sharply ascending branches.
The bark is characteristically thin, about one-fourth of an inch
thick on small or medium-size trees and from one-third to one-half
of an inch on large, old ones. It weathers to a brownish-gray,
beneath which the layers of bark are a deep chestnut-brown. It is
very stringy and fibrous, and irregularly broken into laterally con-
nected, narrow ridges and deep furrows. Long-persisting loosened
shreds of bark often give old trees a more or less shaggy appearance.
Bark of the branches is dark brown mottled with white.

The deep bluish-green foliage of mountain cedar is rather roughish
and prickly to the touch. The slender twigs are noticeably four-
sided, due to the four-ranked arrangement of the scalelike, sharp-
pointed, closely overlapping leaves, which occur in pairs and are
about one-sixteenth of an inch long (PI. XIII). The laterally com-
pressed upper ends of the leaves give a keeled appearance to their
backs, and emphasize this four-sided feature. The edges of the
leaves bear minute, irregular teeth. Vigorous terminal shoots and
young plants have very keenly pointed leaves, from one-fourth to
one-half of an inch long, the points of which are often slightly spread-
ing. The backs of the leaves are marked with a minuted pit or
bear a resinous gland (Pl. XIII).

Male and female flowers are borne on separate trees. The ripe
berries (Pl. XIII), matured in September at the end of one season’s
growth, are deep blue and with a whitish bloom. They have a
tough skin and a thin, pungent, sweetish pulp. As a rule, only the
points of the female flower scales are visible on the surface of the
berries. The berries contain from 1 to 2 hight brown, shiny seeds
(Pl; XIII, a), which are pointed, shghtly grooved at the top end, and
marked at the bottom with a low, narrow, scalelike scar (hilum).
The seed-leaves are two in number, and narrowly lance-shaped.
Seedlings continue to bear the long awl-shaped form of leaves for
3 or 4 years, when these are gradually succeeded by the shorter,
adult form. :

The wood of mountain cedar is moderately heavy (about 43 pounds
per cubic foot, seasoned), rather hard, exceedingly narrow-ringed,
and of a clear cinnamon-brown color, interspersed with irregular
paler streaks. The sapwood is very thin, seldom more than one-
half of an inch thick. Freshly cut, dry, or green wood has a strong
cedarlike odor. The heartwood is very durable, and the best
sticks are useful for fence posts, telephone and telegraph poles, and
light-traffic ties. It is much used locally for fuel. The wood of old
trees is brittle and can be cut with an easily parted chip, qualities
that make clear sections suitable for pencil wood.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV.

JUNIPERUS UTAHENSIS: FOLIAGE AND RIPE FRUIT.

a, Narrow side of seeds; b, broad side of seeds (natural size and enlarged twice natural size).

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVI.

JUNIPERUS UTAHENSIS: BRANCH FROM YOUNG TREE SHOWING LARGER OR JUVENILE
FORM OF LEAVES.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVII.

Ky

/ LO Se
4: Via

DERI MD
[ide Be AY
Ng wore,

cares

Hf

T«

JUNIPERUS MEGALOCARPA: FOLIAGE AND RIPE FRUIT.

a, Showing flat side of seeds (natural size); 6b, showing opposite (narrow) side of seed (natural size and
enlarged twice.natural size).

PLATE XVIII.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

1

YW

26 INCHES IN DIAMETER AND 50

(

JUNIPERUS MEQALOCARPA: SHOWING TYPICAL BARK OF LARGE TREE

FEET HIGH)

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 25
OCCURRENCE AND HABITS.

In the United States mountain cedar forms very dense, pure, or
nearly pure, stands, sometimes of vast extent, as on the semiarid
limestone hills of the Edwards Plateau in central Texas. It usually
grows in dry rocky, gravelly, or sandy soils, often in crevices of
bare rock. Mountain cedar also grows both in pure stands and in
mixture with other species in lower, sheltered situations in deep-
washed soil of good quality. Interspersed with mixed stands are
often groups and scattered trees of one-seed juniper, Pinchot juniper,
Mexican walnut, live oak, Spanish oak, Durand oak, cedar elm, and
hackberry. The dense, sometimes almost impenetrable, stands of
this juniper on limestone are locally known as “cedar breaks.’ _

In this country mountain cedar occurs chiefly at elevations between
600 and 2,000 feet. Little is known of its range and habitat in
Mexico, where it is said to occur much more extensively and at
higher elevations than in the United States.

Mountain cedar is very tolerant of dense shade during the seedling

and early sapling stages, as shown by the existence of extremely
dense thrifty stands. It appears to be much less tolerant later in
life, when its crown becomes thinner and more open (PI. XIV).
In ability to endure shade, however, it compares favorably with red
cedar (Juniperus virginiana), but probably it would not maintain
itself under long suppression as does the latter tree. Local reports
of mountain cedar having come up on an area immediately after a
full stand of oak had been cut off give further evidence of its toler-
ance during early life, since on such areas it must have existed for a
number of years in a suppressed condition, and recovered when the
oak was removed.
’ Mountain cedar bears seed abundantly, and reproduction is plen-
tiful in loose, permeable soils, and in broken, rocky formations, and
also in soil-filled pockets and crevices of bare rock. The sweetish
berries are eaten by birds, which assist greatly in a wide distribution
of the seed.

LONGEVITY.

Juniperus sabinoides is moderately long-lived, though the extreme
age attained is at present unknown. Trees from 5 to 7 inches in
diameter, on exposed, rocky sites, are from 150 to 180 years old,
while trees from 8 to 10 inches in diameter, in sheltered places on
deep, permeable, sandy or gravelly soil, where growth is most rapid,
may be only from 95 to 125 years old. Large trees occasionally
found in the driest situations are probably at least 250 years old.

1 Popularly the allusion probably is to the fancied similar lowland ‘‘canebrakes,’”’ but properly this

name appears to refer to the physiographic nature of the plateau region in which dense growths of moun-
tain cedar occur,

26 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
UTAH JUNIPER.!
Juniperus utahensis (Engelm.) Lemmon,

COMMON NAME AND EARLY HISTORY.

Like most of the other brown-wooded junipers, Juniperus utahensis
has no distinctive common name. In the region where it grows, the
people usually call it merely “juniper” or sometimes “cedar,” sel-
dom if ever distinguishing it from the other species of its kind. The
discovery of this tree in Utah led to its being given the technical name
‘““Utahensis,”’ from which the common name employed here is de-
rived. While Utah juniper is the most distinctive name that can be
suggested, it is not entirely appropriate, because the tree is not con-
fined to Utah, a large part of its range, in fact, lying outside that
State.

Utah juniper was discovered sometime between 1867 and 1869,
during the exploration of Nevada and Utah by the United States
Geological Survey. The botanical history of the tree shows that its
distinguishing characters were imperfectly known until comparatively
recent times. The earliest account of it was published in 1871 under
“Juniperus occidentalis Watson,” the writer supposing it to be a
form of the western juniper. In 1877 it was described as “J. cali-
fornica var. utahensis Engelm.,’’ and finally, in 1890, as “J. utahensis
Lemmon.” The tree is distinct from the California and western juni-
pers both in its botanical characters and geographic range.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS.

Utah juniper is commonly a low, very short trunked, or many-
stemmed, bushy tree, from 6 to 12 feet high,? and from 4 to 8 or more

1 In 1897 Prof. Aven Nelson found a “‘shrublike tree”? juniper in Wyoming (Red Desert region from Sem-
inole Mountains to Green River) which in 1898 he named Juniperus knightii (Bot. Gaz. xxv, 198, fig. 1, 2,
1898).

The writer has not seen authentic specimens of this juniper, and was, therefore, unable personally to
decide what final disposition should be made of the tree in the present work. Several authors have, how-
ever, reduced Juniperus knightii to a synonym of J. utahensis. Judging from Prof. Nelson’s description
and illustrations of J. knightii it would seem to be very closely related to J. utahensis and J. megalocarpa.
It resembles the former species particularly in the low-branched several-stemmed habit of its crown, and
both of these junipers in its large fruit and single large seed. The “‘copper-colored”’ fruit ascribed to J.
knightii is not, however, strictly speaking, characteristic of J. utahensis and J. megalocarpa.

The author’s technical description (loc. cit.) of J. knightii, slightly condensed, follows:

“4 scraggy shrub or small tree, usually much branched from the base—i. e., trunkless or breaking up
into several subequal trunks also freely branched, branches widely spreading, the lowest close to the ground
and almost resting upon it, round-topped, 3-7 meters high or possibly in places exceeding this; leaves 3-
ranked, closely appressed * * * entire or rarely minutely denticulate, neither pitted nor glandular
* * * berrylike cones blue-green or copper-colored * * * broadly oval, 7-10 millimeters long, dry,
the coalesced scales thin, in dried specimens closely and tenaciously adherent to the large single seed; the
seed ovate, obtuse, slightly grooved above, rounded or swollen at the base; fruit possibly not maturing till
the second year.’’ .

2 The several-stemmed forms of Utah juniper are similar in general appearance to jike forms of the one-seed
juniper. In the majority of cases, however, if not in all, the trunklike branches of Utah juniper leave the
trunk near or above the ground, while in the case of one-seed juniper, the two or more stems usually arise
from the main root-stock, or collar, at or slightly below the surface of the ground.

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. Q7

inches thick near the ground, with a wide, rounded, rather open
crown of numerous upright, twisted limbs. The short trunk is apt
to be one-sided with conspicuous hollows and ridges. Its thin,
whitish bark, from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch thick on
large trunks, is cut into long scales.

The minute, sharp-pointed, scalelike, pale yellowish-green leaves
(Pl. XV), generally without a pit on the back, are arranged mostly
in alternately opposite pairs, and closely overlap each other in four
rows on the slender, stiff-looking twigs. Sometimes there are six
rows, in which case three leaves occur together at a point. Leaves
of vigorous leading shoots are much larger and keenly pointed (PI.
XYV1!), while those of seed lings are needlelike. The margins of the
leaves are minutely toothed. The twigs have a roundish appear-
ance. Leaves of each season’s growth .persist from 10 to 12 years,
or even longer. The bark of larger twigs which have recently shed
their leaves is pale reddish-brown and scaly.

Male and female flowers are usually borne on different twigs of the
same tree, though sometimes the male flowers are borne on one tree
and the female on another. Ripe berries (Pl. XV), matured in the
autumn of the second year, have a smooth, tough, red-brown skin,
covered with a whitish bloom, which gives the berries a bluish tint.
The pulp of the berries is thin, dry, and sweet. They usually con-
tain but one seed (occasionally two), pointed at the top, rather sharply
angled (Pl. XV, a, 6), and marked nearly to the top by what appears
to be a scalelike, basal covering (hilum). The surface of the berries
shows projecting points, which are the ends of minute female flower
scales. The pointed seed-leaves are usually 5 in number, but vary
from 4 to 6.

The hard, heavy wood of Utah juniper is generally very narrow-
ringed, the rings in stunted trees being extremely narrow. The sap-
wood is very thick and white, while the heartwood, of a light yellow-
ish-brown color, is less pungent in odor than that of other junipers.
When thoroughly seasoned the wood is exceedingly durable. Utah
juniper is too small and imperfect in form for commercial purposes,
though where it is abundant the wood is much used for fuel and
fence posts.

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS.

Utah juniper grows on desert foothills and mountain slopes in dry
rocky, gravelly, or sandy soils, at elevations between 5,000 and 7,000
feet. It forms extensive, rather open, pure stands, and also grows
mixed with single-leaf pine, one-seed juniper, and desert shrubs.
Like its associate, one-seed juniper, the tree is important to the
forester through its ability to form a woodland type of cover in arid
regions.

28 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Little is known regarding the tree’s light requirements or its repro-
duction. In the intolerance of shade, it appears to be very similar
to the western and one-seed junipers. It produces an abundance of
berries at intervals of about two years, a few being borne nearly
every year. Reproduction is usually sparse and widely scattered,
due to the failure of most of the seed to germinate in the exceedingly
dry soils of the region where the tree grows.

LONGEVITY.

Utah juniper is rather long-lived, the maximum age being about
300 years. Trees from 6 to 10 inches in diameter are from 145 to
250 years old.

BIG-BERRIED JUNIPER.
Juniperus megalocarpa Sudworth.

COMMON NAME AND EARLY HISTORY

This recently discovered juniper is not. distinguished by settlers
in its range from other southwestern junipers and ‘‘cedars.”’ The
common name ‘‘big-berried juniper,’’ adopted here, is derived from
the technical name in reference to the large size of its fruit, a striking
and distinctive characteristic.

It was discovered by Mr. W. R. Mattoon of the Forest Service on
September 22, 1906, in the southwest corner of the Datil National
Forest, Socorro County, southwestern New Mexico, where only about
25 trees were found.!

The tree was named and described in June, 1907, from specimens,
field notes, and a photograph obtained by Mr. Mattoon.?

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS.

Big-berried juniper is one of the largest and best formed of our
southwestern junipers. It varies in height from 30 to 50 feet, and
in diameter from 2 to 4 feet. The crown is compact, broadly pyrami-
dal, with short, stout branches. ‘The trunks are clear of branches for
from 15 to 20 feet, or more, and have dark reddish-brown, finely
fissured bark, shredded on the surface (Pl. XVIII). The branchlets
(Pl. XVII) are short, very dense, and clothed with pale yellowish-
green, sometimes bronze-green, foliage, On young trees the foliage

1 This station, approximately in section 11 or 14, township 9 south, an unsurveyed region, is on the west
bank of the San Francisco River at a point about halfway between the towns of Alma and Frisco, and 3
miles above the ‘‘Widow Kelley’s Ranch.”

Forest Supervisor William H. Goddard later reported having seen a juniper, which may prove to be
J. megalocarpa, on a small tributary of San Francisco River at a point about 6 miles west of Pleasanton,
N. Mex., some 20 miles from Mr. Mattoon’s type locality and near the east border of Arizona. The
writer has not seen specimens of this tree.

Prof. C.S. Sargent also informed the writer (Nov. 6, 1914) that several years ago he collected specimens
of this tree on the rim of OakCreek Canyon, 20 miles south of Flagstaff, Ariz.,and that three or four years
later Prof. Percival Lowell also collected specimens at Angell, near Flagstaff, Ariz.

Further explorations should extend the tree’s range.

* Forestry and Irrigation, XIII, figs. 1 and 2 (1907).

PLATE XIX.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

JUNIPERUS PACHYPHLOEA: FOLIAGE AND RIPE FRUIT.

g one year old.

o

a, Seeds showing variation in form and number in different berries (natural size and enlarged
twice natural size); b, seedling 10 days old; c, seedlin

PLATE XX.

Bul. 207, U S, Dept. of Agriculture.

SHOWING TYPICAL BARK OF LARGE TREE(37 INCHES IN DIAMETER).

JUNIPERUS PACHYPHLOEA

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXII.

¥

ith wh K
Miil(ahi at
Ninna Ammonis :

Z : ae
\

Secatint
“NYA
y A\
i

wt }

=

BZ

SEEZEE

SS

SEED

= SS =
5 => = - =
=

a EE=

ANA i
1) EF
i "I

WAY i vas. i

Pili ~
NON Ai Mh

Pr NGA / i \ RA ENUIIC

JUNIPERUS PACHYPHLOEA: SHOWING TYPICAL STUNTED FORM OF TREE GROWN IN EXPOSED SITUATIONS.

PZ

——;
t,

Ss

BLESS

BEE

S
EZ

PLATE XXIl.

Bul, 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

=
SS

(o>
CAS
SI tO.
1.

EE

JUNIPERUS FLACCIDA: FOLIAGE AND Ripe FRUIT.
cement of seeds (enlarged

a, Detached large fruit; b, berry with top removed showing tiered irregular arrang >
one and one-half times natural size); c, d, detached seeds (natural size and enlarged four times natural

size); €, male flowers in autumn (natural size).

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 29

often has a whitish tinge. The sharp-pointed, scalelike leaves occur
in twos and threes, closely overlapping each other, and usually
marked on the back with a pit, which often contains a rather con-
spicuous resin spot. The leaves of vigorous leading shoots have
slightly spreading, somewhat slender points and long (decurrent)
bases. The margins of the leaves are provided with irregular, minute
teeth.

Male and female flowers are borne on separate trees. The fruit
of Juniperus megalocarpa matures at the end of the second season.
It is spherical or slightly elongated in shape and of exceptionally
large size, varying from about nine-sixteenths to eleven-sixteenths
of an inch in diameter or length (PI. XVII). The surface of the berries
is roughened only by the united female flower scales and their rather
tough skin is reddish-brown and coated with whitish bloom. The
sweet flesh of the berries is thick, dry, and firm, and in old and
fully matured berries scarcely resinous, though from the presence of
old resin cells in the pulp it is evident that immature or newly ripened
fruit has a distinct resmous flavor. The berries usually contain but
one glossy, chestnut-brown seed—rarely two—marked at the base by
a conspicuous 2-lobed scar (hilum), which has distinct short pits or
shallow grooves. The top end of the seed is usually abruptly flattened
on its two broad sides so as to form a chisellike edge (Pl. XVII a, b,
view of opposite sides). The seeds readily fall out of the dry pulp
when the latter is cut or broken open. The number of seed-leaves
is unknown.

Juniperus megalocarpa resembles J. utahensis in its large one-
seeded fruit and also in the general appearance of its foliage. The
much longer vertical creases and furrows and the pointed top of the
seeds of J. utahensis distinguish this species from J. megalocarpa.

The wood of big-berried juniper has not been collected, but it is
known to have a rather strong, cedarlike odor and to be yellowish-
brown in color. Scarcity of post material and fuel in the region
where this juniper grows should make it valuable for these purposes.

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS.

_ The trees found on the Datil National Forest were scattered singly
and in small, open groups on deep washed, rather rich, sandy loam
or gravelly soils of benches and terraces, from 50 to 150 feet above the
bed of the San Francisco River, where the elevation is about 5,400
feet. Interspersed with them were pifion, one-seed juniper, and
Emory oak, while mountain red cedar, Arizona oak, and blue oak
occur in the same general region.

Big-berried juniper appears to be similar in its requirements of
light and reproductive capacity to Utah juniper. No seedlings were
found in the vicinity of the fruiting trees, which produce an abun-

30 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

dance of berries. The absence of young trees may have been due,
however, to the overgrazed state of the ground, which doubtless
prevented germination of the seed.

This species is suitable for planting on dry foothills and lower
mountain slopes of the Southwest, where it should succeed at eleva-
tions between 2,500 and 6,000 feet.

LONGEVITY.

Complete information is not available regarding the longevity of
big-berried juniper. Judging from the size of the trees produced
in the comparatively dry habitat, however, it probably attains an
age of not less than 250 or 300 years.

ALLIGATOR JUNIPER.
Juniperus pachyphlea Torrey.
COMMON NAME AND EARLY HISTORY.

Alligator juniper is unique in the thick, sharply checkered bark
of its trunk (Pl. XX), the resemblance of which to the body scales
of an alligator suggested its widely accepted common name, a charac-
teristic which also distinguishes it sharply from all other native
junipers. It is sometimes known as ‘‘oak-barked juniper”’ and
“thick-barked juniper.”’

Alligator juniper was discovered in 1851 on the Zuni Mountains
of northwestern New Mexico by Dr. S. W. Woodhouse, then a member
of Capt. Sitgreaves’s exploring party, which descended the Zuni and
Colorado Rivers. An account of this discovery was published in 1853,"
and the tree was technically named and described in 1858.

Three garden varieties of alligator juniper, recently established by
Barbier,” are distinguished in cultivation, namely, Juniperus pachy-
phlea conspicua, J. pachyphlea elegentissima, and J. pachyphlea

ericoides.
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS.

This species is one of the most massive of our junipers. In early
life the crown is open and broadly conical, and in old age, dense
and round. The trunk is short and clear of branches for 6 or per-
haps 10 feet. As a rule, the tree attains a height of from 30 to 40
feet, and a diameter of from 14 to 34 feet. Exceptional trees are
from 50 to 65 feet or more in height, and from 4 to 6 feet in diameter, |
with from 15 to 20 feet of clear trunk. In exposed dry situations it
is stunted, the trunks often dividing at the ground into several
twisted stems (Pl. XXI). The deeply furrowed bark, from one-half

1 Report of an expedition down the Zuni and Colorado Rivers under the command of Capt. L. Sitgreaves,

30, 1853.
* Mitteil, Deutschen Dendr. Gesellschaft 1910, 139, 289.

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 31

of an inch thick on trunks 6 to 8 inches through to about 34 inches on
the larger ones, has its flat ridges sharply cut into rectangular plates
(Pl. XX). Externally it is usually weathered to a bright ashy-gray,
beneath which the color is a dull, dark chocolate-brown. When the
slender twigs shed their leaves, they have smooth, reddish purple-
brown bark, which becomes scaly as the branchlets grow larger.

The foliage is a pale blue-green; the alternately opposite pairs of
minute, scalelike leaves (Pl. XIX), closely pressed and overlapping
each other, are arranged in four ranks, giving the twigs a four-sided
appearance. Each leaf bears a tiny but conspicuous resin-gland on
its back. Leaves of young shoots and seedlings (Pl. XIX, 0, c) are
narrowly lance-shaped and keenly pointed. The margins of the
leaves are minutely toothed.

Male and female flowers are borne on different trees. The berries,
which are matured by October of the second year, vary in shape
from spherical to slightly elongated, and may be from about three-
eighths to nearly one-half of an inch in diameter or length. Their
surface is more or less marked by the points of united female flower-
scales, and further roughened by irregular little knobs (Pl. XIX).
The firm, deep purplish-brown skin of the berries is covered with a
whitish bloom. ‘The flesh of mature berries is dryish and resinous,
that of immature ones being very resinous. They contain from 1 to
4 brownish, pointed, distinctly grooved seeds (Pl. XIX, a), the bases
of which bear a short, two-lobed scar (hilum). The seed-leaves are
two in number, pointed, and about one-half an inch long. Ripe
berries are shed rather slowly, in some cases continuing to fall during
the winter and summer following their maturity.

The wood of alligator juniper is rather light, soft, brittle, and very
narrow-ringed. The sapwood is comparatively thin and of a pale
straw-color; the heartwood is light brown with a faint reddish tinge,
irregularly marked with paler streaks. Seasoned heartwood is dur-
able. Alligator juniper is locally much used for fuel and fence posts,
a number of which are often split from large clear logs (Pl. XX).
The wood ‘“‘cuts” freely, with an easily parted chip, a quality which
would make it useful for lead pencils, and the probable future use of
the best grades for this purpose is likely to give the wood considerable
commercial value.

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS.

Alligator juniper is of frequent occurrence throughout its range,
sometimes in very scattered, open, pure stands, but oftener mixed
with Emory oak, Arizona oak, blue oak, pifion, and Mexican pifion.
It grows in the driest rocky and gravelly soils on mountain slopes,
plateaus, and canyon sides, where it is likely to be much stunted and
distorted. The best developed trees are found in moist, deep washed

aD BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

soils of canyon bottoms and in protected places on the lower moun-
tain benches. The tree’s vertical range extends from about 4,500 to
nearly 8,400 feet elevation, but it is most abundant between 5,500
and 7,000 feet. Because of its great hardiness this species is one of
the most useful of southwestern junipers for maintaining a protective
woodland forest on exposed arid hills and lower mountain slopes.

Alligator juniper endures moderate shade during the seedling stage
and for a few years afterwards, but requires full overhead light for
later development. Continued, dense side shade produces a long
clear trunk, and a short, thin-branched, open crown.

This tree bears seed abundantly almost every year, and reproduces
itself plentifully whenever the berries find lodgment in washed or
broken soil. Reproduction is especially good in light shade where
old trees have been cut out. Severely pollarded trees and high-cut
stumps often sprout vigorously. Birds eat considerable quantities of
the berries and thus assist in disseminating this species, while in
seasons when food is scarce squirrels and other rodents eat a good
many of the seeds.

LONGEVITY.

Alligator juniper is a very long-lived tree. It grows slowly, how-
ever, even in the most favorable situations, and is extremely slow on
the least favorable sites. The exact age of very large trees has not
been determined. Trees from 12 to 20 inches in diameter are from
165 to 290 years old, while those from 3 to 5 feet in diameter must be
from about 500 to 800 years old.

DROOPING JUNIPER.

Juniperus flaccida Schlechtendal.

COMMON NAME AND EARLY HISTORY.

Although very distinct in its general appearance from other
southwestern junipers, this species is doubtless unknown to many
lay people, and unfamiliar even to a good many foresters and botan-
ists, chiefly because in the United States it grows in an isolated and
little frequented section of the country. It is, in fact, essentially a
Mexican species, the principal part of its range being in Mexico.
The few stockmen and prospectors who have seen the tree know it
only as ‘‘cedar”’ or ‘‘juniper.”” The name ‘‘drooping juniper,” derived
from the technical term flaccida, seems both appropriate and dis-
tinctive, in that it refers to the nodding or pendent habit of the
branchlets, which is a conspicuous and distinctive characteristic of
this tree (Pl. XXVI). ‘‘Loose-growing Mexican juniper’ and
“‘loose-growing juniper’? are book names applied about 50 years
ago, but neither of these appear to be appropriate, nor has either
been adopted in this country.

(

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIII.

IND Y at

a vn

ANA Ea
CDV PAA
ae: 3 fA ky
Ae Ne
ak ‘

JUNIPERUS FLACCIDA: SHOWING DROOPING HABIT OF BRANCHLETS OF TREES IN
EXPOSED SITES.

a, Detached leaf showing resin gland on back (enlarged five times natural size).

PLATE XXIV.

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

AN

=

es

Parra

JUNIPERUS FLACCIDA: SHOWING PENDENT BRANCHLETS OF TREES IN SHELTERED SITES.

a, Female flowers (in autumn).

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXV.

JUNIPERUS FLACCIDA: PRIMARY FOLIAGE OF SEEDLING (ABOUT 6 YEARS OLD),

PLATE XXVI.

“eo i ae ARE, Wy) MU y DON = —

. LE ANA) . Se — Uy} Wy ys SS)
Pl Mee)

Pes ; | a Ly : Dey

Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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{
JUNIPERUS FLACCIDA: SMALL TREE SHOWING CHARACTERISTIC OPEN CROWN AND DROOPING HABIT
OF BRANCHLETS IN SHELTERED SITE (ABOUT ONE TWENTY-FIFTH NATURAL SIZE).

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 33

Drooping juniper was first discovered in Mexico by the German
botanist Schiede, who found it in June, 1830,' at ‘‘Atotonilco el
Chico,” ? State of Hidalgo. Ehrenberg is also said to have found
the drooping juniper at Regla and at other points in Mexico at ele-
vations between 6,000 and 8,000 feet. It first became known to
botanists as a Mexican tree in 1838, when it was technically described
and named Juniperus flaccida Schlech. The French botanist
Carriére informs us that the tree was brought to Europe in that
year for purposes of cultivation. The first discovery of drooping
juniper within our border was in 1885, when Dr. Valéry Harvard,
United States Army surgeon and botanist, found the tree in the Chisos
Mountains? of southwestern Texas, which is the only location now
known for it in the United States.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS.

Drooping juniper varies in size from a bushy tree 8 to 15 feet in
height and 3 to 6 inches through to one of medium size, from 20 to
25 feet tall and 12 to 20 inches in diameter. The best developed
specimens have straight trunks, clear of branches for from 10 to 15
feet, and rather open, narrowly pyramidal crowns. Trees growing
in dry, exposed places are rarely over 10 feet high, densely branched
to the ground, and have.a dome-shaped crown. The crown is com-
posed of wide-spreading’ liséending branches, at the ends of which
the slender, droopmg twigs (Pls. XXIII, XXIV) give the tree a
graceful, weeping appearance. In the case of trees growing in deep
shaded canyon bottoms (Pl. X XVI) the drooping habit is especially
pronounced, the pendent branchlets often being a foot or more in
length. Trees on exposed, drier slopes have very much shorter
twigs (Pl. XXII).

The trunk bark is externally grayish brown in color, while within
it is a purple or russet brown. On large trunks the bark is fibrous
but firm, and distinctly marked with deep furrows and narrow
anastomosely arranged ridges. It varies in thickness from one-half
an inch on small trees to 14 inches on larger trees. The bark of
twigs that have recently shed their leaves is a russet-brown or:
purple-brown, composed of easily detached, very thin scales. Bark
of the branches is also scaly, but grayish-brown.

The pale yellowish-green foliage is somewhat prickly to the touch,
owing to the slightly spreading, keenly pointed leaves. The ordinary
adult scalelike leaves are about one-eighth of an inch long (PI.

1 Schlechtendal in Linnza, Zwolfter Band, 495. 1838.

2“ Atotonilco el Chico,” also once called ‘‘E1 Chico,’’ a small mining town in Mexico, is now known as
Atotonilco and lies due north and near Patchuca, the capital of Hidalgo.

3 Dz. Harvard’s note upon this species (Proceedings of the U.S. Nat. Mus., viii, 504, 1885) is exceed-
ingly brief: ‘‘Small tree, only seen in the Chisos Mountains.” .

84703°—Bull. 207—15——3

34 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

XXIII, a), while leaves of terminal or rapidly grown shoots are from
one-fourth to nearly one-half an inch long. The margins of all
leaves have very minute teeth. Adult leaves are arranged alter-
nately in pairs in four ranks, with a prominent resinous gland on the
back of each (Pl. XXIII, a). The bristlelike, spreading leaves of
seedlings, however, are usually arranged in threes (Pl. XXV), but
sometimes in twos, these types of leaves persisting for several years.

Male flowers (Pl. XXII, e) and female flowers (Pl. XXIV, a) are
borne on separate trees. The berries mature in the autumn of the
second year and are spherical or elongated in shape. The firm, hard,
purplish-brown skin is covered with whitish bloom, and hive
marked by the turned-back points of the united fal: flower scales
(Pl. XXIT). Sometimes the surface is also marked with small knobs
of irregular shape. The berries vary in diameter or in length from
about three-eighths to five-eighths of an inch, the largest fruit being
produced by trees in shaded situations, and the smallest in dry
exposed places. A striking character of the berries is the several-
tiered arrangement of the 6 (rarely 4) to 12 irregularly shaped seeds
(Pl. XXII, a, b, c, d), of which only a few, or sometimes none, are
fully developed. The flesh of the berries is hard, dry,.and only
slightly resinous. The seed-leaves are pointed, two in number, and
about one-half of an inch long.

The wood of drooping juniper is a cleal’ yellowish-brown, with a
rather thick layer of nearly white sapwood: It is moderately hard
and heavy, straight-grained, and very narrow-ringed. Freshly cut
wood has a strong cedar odor. Seasoned heartwood is very durable,
and has been extensively used locally for mine timbers and to a
limited extent for fence posts. Cattlemen and miners familiar with
the Chisos Mountains assert that 40 or 50 years ago this juniper was
much more abundant than now, and that large numbers of the best
trees were then cut and used in mines near Boquillos, Mexico. The
present rather limited occurrence of this species in the United States,
however, will prevent further commercial and even local use.

OCCURRENCE AND HABITS.

While in this country the range of drooping juniper is confined to
the Chisos Mountains of southwestern Texas, it occurs frequently in
all of the canyons there, and stretches up even to the tops of the low
divides. It grows alike in the deep, washed, gravelly, and sandy soil
of watered canyon bottoms (where it is most abundant and best
developed), and on dry, rocky benches, slopes, and ridges, becoming
more and more stunted as it ascends to the latter situations. It is
usually found at elevations between 6,000 and 7,000 feet, probably
not going higher. The limits of vertical range in the Chisos Moun-

CYPRESS AND JUNIPER TREES OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 35

tains, however, have not been determined. In its Mexican range
drooping juniper is said to grow at elevaticns between 6,000 and
8,000 feet. In the Chisos Mountains it occurs in small groups or as
scattered trees, commonly associated with alligator juniper, Mexican
pifion, Texas oak, Mexican mulberry, and Texas madrone. Within
its vertical range are found Rocky Mountain scrub oak, Emory oak,
western yellow pine, one-seed juniper, stunted Douglas fir, Arizona
cypress, and Texas ash.

Drooping juniper bears fruit abundantly, especially when growing
on open slopes. Some berries are produced practically every year,
and especially large crops are borne at intervals of from two to three
years. Reproduction is sparse on dry, rocky slopes, but abundant in
moist canyon bottoms and on deep-soiled benches. The seed is
probably not disseminated to any extent by birds, as in the case of
some of the other junipers, because the berries are dry and unpalat-
able. The relatively small number of perfect seeds in each berry
also account for the slow reproduction of this tree.

Seedlings and young trees grow thriftily in dense shade. Pole-
size trees can maintain themselves almost indefinitely under such
conditions, though their growth is exceedingly slow. The crowns
of shaded trees are much thinner and the foliage less robust than in
the case of trees enjoying full light. Dense side shade and moderate
top light produce the tallest and clearest trunks, with open crowns.
Full sunlight gives short trees, with little or no clear trunk and very
dense crowns.

LONGEVITY.

Drooping juniper gives evidence of being a very long-lived tree.
So far, however, it has been possible for the writer to determine the
age of only one tree, 5 inches in diameter at the collar, which was
approximately 200 years old. During the first 150 years of its life,
this tree appears to have grown in dense shade. During the last
50 years its crown seems to have received direct light, and in this
period its growth nearly equaled that of the previous century and a
half. The largest trees (from 14 to 20 inches in diameter) so far
found in the Chisos Mountains are growing under somewhat more
favorable conditions of light, so that they are probably between 400
and 500 years old.

36 BULLETIN 207, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

KEY TO SPECIES OF JUNIPERUS.

Trunk bark divided into squarish plates......-...-.....----- Juniperus pachyphlea.
Trunk bark longitudinally furrowed and ridged:
Leaves minute, scalelike, closely pressed upon twigs:
Branehilets droopimee ee xe) oe soc Gee eae ner

Branchlets not drooping:
Heartwood purplish or rose-red........----------- Juniperus scopulorum.

Heartwood yellowish-brown:
Berries large, mostly over one-fourth of an inch in diameter and
bluish:

One-seeded:
Seeds round-pointed, furrowed, and creased from top to
DOLEOMD SUN ee, SAS Eek Ae Sea ake Juniperus utahensis.?

Seeds usually chisel-pointed, furrowed only at bottom.
Juniperus meyalocarpa.
Neveral:seededi <5 o. 0 ele ae Ss Juniperus occidentalis.
Berries small, mostly less than one-fourth of an inch in diameter,

and bluish or copper-colored:
One=secdod ye a ene se Measles hs Juniperus monosperma.

Severaleseededy tas. us eee sees Juniperus sabinoides.

Leaves néedlelike, spreading or standing out loosely on the twigs. ©
Juniperus communis.

Juniperus flaccida.

1 The rare ‘‘ weeping ”’ form of J. scopulorum may be easily distinguished frem J. ji ccida by its rose-red

heartwood and small bluish berries.
2 See J. knightii, p. 26.

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.

AT

25 CENTS PER COPY
V

Bul. 207, U S. Dept. of Agriculture Map No. 1

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CUPRESSUS ARIZONICA: GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

[The distribution shown in Mexico by hatched areas is based on reported oecurrences not
yet verified ; solid dots show localities where specimens of this species have been collected. ]

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on

Map No. 2

Bul, 207, U S. Dept. of Agriculture

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120°

90°

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GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

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Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

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JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS: GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

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Map No. 4

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JUNIPERUS OCCIDENTALIS: GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

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Map No. 5

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Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

JUNIPERUS SCOPULORUM: GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

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_ Bul. 207, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture eine "Map No.6

PIV) 50

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JUNIPERUS MONOSPERMA: GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

[The distribution shown in Mexico by hatched areas is based on reported occurrences not yet verified. |

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,

Bul, 207, US. Dept. of Agriculture Map No. 7

D RG t
IST ATT
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JUNIPERUS SABINOIDES: GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

[The distribution shown in Mexico by hatched areas is based on reported occurrences not
yet verified ; solid dots show localities where specimens of this species have been collected. |

Sev editde

y

Mae No.8

Bul, 207, U S. Dept. of Agriculture

JUNIPERUS UTAHENSIS:

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

Map No. 9

Bul. 207, U S. Dept. of Agriculture

aN

Ad

A

JUNIPERUS MEGALOCARPA: GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

Mar No. 10

85°

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/

15°

cs

JUNIPERUS PACHYPHLCEA: GEOGRAPHIC’ DISTRIBUTION.

[The distribution shown in Mexico by hatched areas is based on reported occurrences not
yet verified ; solid dots show localities where specimens of this species have been collected. |

Ae Nie
“.

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Map No. 11

aed | |
a

JUNIPERUS FLACCIDA: GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION.

[The distribution shown in Mexico by hatched areas is based on reported occurrences not
yet verified ; solid dots show localities where specimens of this species have been collected. |

en
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BULLETIN: OF THE

Sc) USDEARTIENTOPACRICTIE ¥

Y

oOo. 208

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
May 13, 1915.

YIELDS OF NATIVE PRICKLY PEAR IN SOUTHERN TEXAS.

By Davin Grirritus, Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management.

INTRODUCTION.

When information regarding the value of prickly pear began to be
demanded some years ago next to nothing was definitely known
about the handling of the crop on an economic basis. Indeed, so
far as known, the species of southern Texas had never been system-
atically planted as a crop. In consequence, some very elementary
investigations were necessary in order to furnish the required infor-
mation. First, it was imperative to determine the yields which
could be obtained from the various economic species under cultiva-
tion. Data on this phase of the investigations have accumulated
to such an extent as to warrant the publication of a summarized
statement of yields secured under variable and difficult conditions.
The difficulty was due mainiy to meager facilities and lack of sufficient
constancy and continuation in organization. Although the conditions
under which the various yields have been obtained are very variable,
they are perfectly interpretable, and some of them at least approach
ordinary farm conditions very closely.

Yields for the first plantings made were reported in Bulletin 124
of the Bureau of Plant Industry. In this first 2-year period a yield
of about 23 tons per acre was secured for each year. Since that
time further observations and tests have been possible with plantings
at San Antonio as well as at Brownsville. These two localities are
representative of the coastal region of heavy rainfall and of the more
inland situation of much more uncertain distribution of moisture.’
Tn both places the rainfall is irregular, but at San Antonio it is smaller
in quantity. It is neither possible nor necessary here to go into
details, but the rainfall at San Antonio is not only on the average
smaller in quantity but also of more irregular distribution than at
Brownsville.

1 For a discussion of the relation of the climatic conditions of the San Antonio region to prickly-pear
culture, see Bulletin 124 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, entitled ‘‘The Prickly Pear as a Farm Crop.”

84730°—Bull. 208—15

2 BULLETIN 208, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

YIELDS AT BROWNSVILLE.
THE FIRST PLANTING.

In March, 1908, the first planting of native varieties of prickly pear
was made on a small scale at Brownsville. At this time two 8-foot
rows 458 feet long were established on one side of a varietal collection
planted the same summer. Single-jomt cuttings were plowed under,
as described in previous publications, at a distance of 3 feet apart in
the row. This planting was given moderately good cultivation.
The middles were kept clean, but often Bermuda grass and other
vegetation were allowed to grow in the rows.

In the latter part of October, 1909, or at the end of the second
growing season, row 2 was cut and weighed. In harvesting this row,
a good stump (PI. I, figs. 1 and 2) consisting of one to four cuttings,
but never over one cutting high, was left attached to the original cut-
ting, set 19 months before. The total material harvested in this
manner weighed 17,060 pounds, or 8.53 tons. This showed a yield
at the rate of 100.721 tons to the acre for two seasons’ growth, or
50.36 tons per acre per annum.

The first row was not harvested at this time, but was reserved
until the following February to be cut and used in establishing a
6-acre planting. This row is believed to have yielded considerably
more than row 2, harvested in the fall.

-In considermg these yields, attention should be given to several
conditions. It is estimated that not less than 2 tons per acre were
left on the ground in the stumps, besides the original cuttings.
The increase in weight between October and March, when the 2-year
period would be complete, would, in the absorption of water and in
growth, amount to several tons per acre. The harvesting was done
at a time when the pear contained the least moisture, for it followed
a very long dry season. In short, this test is hedged about by such
conditions that the results in yield as given appear to be ultra-

conservative.
SPECIES PLANTED.

As previously stated, the native species of prickly pear of the Rio
Grande delta are unfque (PI. II, fig. 2). They differ from any that
have been encountered elsewhere. What is more, they were entirely
unstudied when our investigations were begun. A reference to them
is found in one of the works of Dr. Engelmann, but this is all; he had
never seen any of them.

A general survey of the species of the immediate vicinity was made,
and finally two species were selected which appeared to be the most
promising. For the sake of comparison a third was selected from a
resaca bank near Brownsville. The first two species were secured at
Loma Alta, about 6 miles east of Brownsville. They were selected
on account of their thrifty, compact growth in nature, the character

NATIVE PRICKLY PEAR IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 5:

and number of the spines being left entirely out of consideration.
The two species are very similar in stature and general habit, forming
a hemispherical shrub about 4 feet high when fully grown. Since
their selection and planting, they have been described—one as
Opuntia gommei and the other as Opuntia cyanella.

Opuntia gommei is a bright, more or less glossy, yellowish green
species with yellow flowers.

Opuntia cyanella, on the other hand, is glaucous or waxy blue-
green, with flowers opening deep red but soon changing to purplish.

Both species have yellow spines and spicules in large numbers; in
fact, all the native species of the delta region are among the most
spiny of any of the economic species of this genus of plants, their
spines and spicules being not only numerous, but large and stout.
The spines are so large and stout and die and become inflammable so
tardily that these delta species are among the most difficult in the
genus to prepare properly as food for stock.

The first two rows previously discussed were planted to a mixture
of these two species in about equal quantities.

Besides these two, a third species, which has not been botanically
named, having a tall habit of growth and differing in several par-
ticulars from the others, was planted in another row, largely for
comparison and to verify the writer’s judgment of the species most
profitable to grow. In other words, it was desirable to determine
whether one with a little experience can go into a prickly-pear region
which is little known and by ordinary observation unerringly select
the species of most economic worth.

At the same time that the plantings of these native species were
made a single row of approximately the same length as the others
was set in the same way to an introduced species frequently culti-
vated by the Mexicans about Brownsville. It is the same as one of
the Mission varieties so commonly grown in southern California. It
is the spiny ‘‘tuna blanca”’ of the region of San Luis Potosi, Mexico,
and the “‘tuna teca,” or ‘tuna blanca teca,’” of the eastern Jalisco
and Aguascalientes regions.

YIELDS.

The third row of the field was planted to this third species (the
unnamed one) and it was harvested a week before row 2. The row
was 463 feet long and the yield, when harvested precisely as the
other, was 13,190 pounds, or at the rate of 77.03 tons to the acre for
two seasons’ growth. This means an average annual growth of
38.51 tons per acre, as contrasted with 50.36 tons in the case of a
mixture of Opuntia gommei and Opuntia cyanella.

The introduced Mission pear yielded at the rate of 42.75 tons per
acre per annum, which was greatly in excess of our expectations.

= BULLETIN 208, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

However, the results here are not quite comparable with those in the
other cases, for this species was cut close to the ground. The yields,
however, are good enough and close enough to those made by Opuntia
gommet and Opuntia cyanella so that the species becomes one to be
considered as an economic possibility, especially as it is much more
easily singed than the native species. It also produces a fine quality
of fruit, but the fruit often does not set well in this climate, probably
owing to the excessive rainfall which is likely to occur when the
crop is in blossom.

After this harvesting, all but the first two rows (a mixture of Opuntia
gommet and Opuntia cyanella) were rooted out. Those left were
cleaned up with cultivator and hoe and kept well tilled again for the
next two years. They were harvested the second time between Octo-
ber 21 and December 27, 1911, or approximately 24 months from
the first harvesting. (Pl. I, fig. 2.) The first row yielded at the
rate of 191.088 tons per acre and the second at the rate of 236.286
tons, or 95.544 and 118.143 tons per acre per annum, respectively.
Averaging these, we have a yield at the rate of 106.843 tons per acre
per annum of green, succulent feed.

Late in February and early in March, 1910, a 6-acre planting was
established upon an area contiguous to the above. This was planted —
on poorly prepared land, a part of which was flooded at times and
all of which contained more or less Bermuda grass. For the next
two years this area was cultivated, but it was, of course, not possible
to give it the best tillage, because of the existence of the Bermuda
grass and the refractory character of the Cameron clay which ex-
tended in a shallow swale diagonally across it. This planting, made
to meet the requirements of a feeding experiment conducted by the
Bureau of Animal Industry of this department, was harvested
according to the demand for the feed between October, 1911, and
May, 1913. On account of its being harvested over the entire grow-
ing season of 1912 it is not possible to include all of the data, but
the weights at the time of harvesting were kept by rows. Conse-
quently, only those rows harvested during the dormant season are
available and comparable with other figures obtained elsewhere.

Although this crop can be harvested and fed at any time of the
year, estimates of its yield can best be made during the season that
the plants are the most dormant, and in order to be exactly com-
parable they should be made during the same time of the year.
Dormancy is only a relative term here, for while no apparent new
growth takes place during the winter months, except in heavily
pruned plants, there is little doubt that they actually do increase in
weight during their dormant period.

As stated above, the harvesting of the 6-acre planting was done as
the feed was needed. This planting was contiguous to a varietal

Bul. 208, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE lI.

Fila. 1.—A FIELD OF CULTIVATED NATIVE PRICKLY PEAR AT BROWNSVILLE, TEX.,
SHOWING THE GROWTH FROM SINGLE-JOINT CUTTINGS AT THE CLOSE OF THE
SECOND YEAR, ONE ROW HAVING BEEN HARVESTED.

Fie. 2.—ANOTHER VIEW OF THE FIELD ILLUSTRATED IN FIGURE 1, SHOWING THE
GROWTH OF TWO YEARS FROM THE STUMPS LEFT AT THE FIRST HARVESTING.

Bul. 208, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.

Fic. 1.—A 6-ACRE PLANTING OF NATIVE PRICKLY PEAR AT BROWNSVILLE, TEX.,
ABOUT THE MIDDLE OF THE SECOND SEASON’S GROWTH.

Fic. 2.—NATIVE UNCULTIVATED PRICKLY PEAR GROWING NEAR BROWNSVILLE, TEX.

NATIVE PRICKLY PEAR IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 5

collection of prickly pear and agaves, the rows being numbered con-
secutively, the 6-acre planting beginning at row 20. The yields of
rows 20 to 48, inclusive, together with the time of harvesting and
the other data necessary to computations and a proper interpretation
of them, are given in Table [.

TaBie 1.—Dates of harvesting and yields of native prickly pear at Brownsville, Tex.

No. | 7 Total Annual
F Yield Length . :
of Date of harvesting. | eld per | yield per
a 8 | per row. | of row. eae vy Ree.
1912 |
3 | Pounds Feet. Tons. Tons.

SAD) |) UBT UCI) SAS AOS aac cee es ns ete eee aga oe | 7,340 501 39.615 19. 807
lan | UE PUART OIA oc\ Stes SU SR mele oes So a cise Soon See ogee Skalaee | 6,576 501 35. 492 17. 746
OP || Uae 20 LOS ESS Se cee ee ee eee een eee miase a ge 9, 302 501 50. 204 25. 102
Pm ulclmlarOMIZh - zattat wet Sei 2 etn ain woe oa ee bee ek UY | 12,062 499 65. 362 32. 681
ih |) ING. Teo) SE ee ree ee ae eerie a eis aera) 13, 626 500 73. 689 36. 844
Dome Nicirplab Onl jeer a ake ee le ons aS Dae us | 12,591 501 67. 956 33.978
2G, | Dicker TIES a) hy re a rae 13, 885 499 75. 240 37.620
aie || eset loa A ae electra a ASA NOL ah NE od | 17,662 498 95. 899 47.949
ee crc area] | HES ooo:
Qs oo Sete ese eee Sats SMe SS See Sr Sie et perks esssS5sesa-

Sip, |. veep 20a) aye pa Den 23, 476 494 | 198.500 |..........
Pim PauM Mayol OS Soe. ohh 2 se. Sa eekee sae | 24,169 490 | 133.373 |....-.-.--
a, || Lisalye Tis ei gNimteg era a oem TL | ...| 25,957 Za | WTOP |e a
33 || AUG NO OS ore ee EE a eee eS | 22,531 489 | 124.588 |.........-
BEM BOOM Us COLO CEAZE a. iis Ute Su suk Mes ele ee eS 33, 470 CY ||) LEDS CBI lee enaneses
SpE WOcirerLOUNOVe tans... 8a. yee Sree Ave ee ee | 23,525 484 131. 428 43. 809
215) NOVAS TOURS aeeH ese Sacer err Soe mec Se UPtn reais any 30, 224 498 | 164.108 54. 703
WM NONMA MN LOMeGe me tesa alae ke tec EEN Se RS Peta eae 24, 239 481 | 136.262 45. 420
BS |) INOW 52H LOBULE een oe Sete mE Cees. eo eenerne impasse | 22,708 487 | 126.083 42.027
BOT MOCwIabOh ieee eee aie SS Le acini c lelele | 27,306 475 | 155.443 51.814
AQMD CH piOnlSaie cee as es Sie el ee es vad 25, 268 471 | 145.063 48. 354
ANID) COMP SIL ORN ese nici cle lie we eto caigenec dead sckmece cies 19,488 468 | 112.597 37. 932°
4D |) DEG: US WOE A ee eee eee nee ane ia eee eee 25,476 464 | 148.463 49. 487
GSS |i ID ayes DAES HO) PASS ea Ri ene ye et Pe eel eet 22,005 459 | 129.633 43.211

1912-13.

HAD DEC ROOMOMal pase oS k EU ees Nea ol 24, 249 463 141. 618 47. 206
AS || Cava, URo 7 soes esse eae Se Sees el arte eee members | 23,718 460 | 139.421 46.474
AN || VETO: STO) TO eR ENO eee ee eas ern Ce yea ea ae Ae | 17,160 456 | 101.756 33.918
Alm MME HON ieee cee ani eee oe Soe ye <= Se eas isa siien owen | 20,216 451 | 121.206 40. 402
ED. || ABV RE TUS TO PR Se eek A sara ee Ok ge te AOE ee a gg 27,078 451 | 162.347 54. 116

It will be seen that the yields are very variable. This is due
principally to the varying conditions of the soil. Attention has
been called on another page to the low depression running diagonally”
across the field. This was of stiff Cameron clay, very refractory and
difficult to cultivate and flooded at times. Another cause of the
differences in yield was the greater prevalence of Bermuda grass in
some places than in others.

With reference to rows 20, 21, and 22, it should be stated that the
low yields were due to still another factor. The stock for planting
these three rows was, contrary to expectations, secured from material
cut and dumped into a waste pile several months before. The cut-
tings were badly withered, and, being planted in very dry soil in a
season followed by a long dry summer, they did not start well.
Many of the cuttings failed to grow, making the stand poor. During
the entire two seasons it was very noticeable that these rows were
much lighter than the contiguous rows of the same species but of
goed stock.

6 BULLETIN 208, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In the last column of Table I the annual yield has been omitted in
those rows harvested during the growing season, for reasons already
stated. An average of the others gives a yield for the portion har-
vested during the crop’s dormant season of 40.463 tons per acre per
annum. Omitting rows 20 to 22, inclusive (which is justifiable on
account of the poor stand), the average yield per acre per annum is
43.557 tons. It should be borne in mind that a part of this is aver-
aged for two years’ growth and a part for a three-year period. In
other words, rows 20 to 27 were harvested after two seasons’ growth
and rows 35 to 48 after they had attained the growth of three seasons.

The species of prickly pear grown in these experiments were a
mixture of the three discussed on page 3, but Opuntia gommei and
Opuntia cyanella greatly predominated. The quantity of the other
species grown was negligible.

In addition to what has been said regarding the handling of this
plantation, it should be stated that no cultivating at all was done
after the second season. Cuttings were set in this planting, as in
the other, in 8-foot rows, no attempt bemg made to space them
exactly. Under these conditions, the plants had bridged over the
8-foot rows at the close of the second year’s growth to such an extent
that animals could not pass through and cultivation had to be
abandoned. (PI. II, fig. 1.)

CONDITION OF THE PLANTATION.

The condition of the plantation was first class during the entire
period up to late in the winter of 1913. At this time the common
fungous diseases of the region began to be alarmingly prevalent;
indeed, so much material had to be discarded in feeding that accurate —
estimates of yields could not be secured after the first of March.
The cause of this condition was not difficult to interpfet. The season
of 1912-13 had an abnormal rainfall and a winter temperature with
a high minimum. Weeds and grass grew thick among the plants
and remained green for the most part during the entire winter. The
pear itself had grown into an impenetrable thicket, furnishing the
best conditions possible for the development of the fungi.

In this region it seems as though the age of the plantation when
harvested will have to be considered more than in any other in which we
have worked, because of the liability of the development of various
diseases when the thicket becomes so dense as to prevent the aeration
of the inner delicate vegetative parts. It is possible that when grown
under usual conditions it will be necessary, in order to secure the best
results, to harvest at from 18 to 36 months rather than let the crop
stand for longer periods, as is possible in the San Antonio region or
farther inland in general. The common diseased condition of the

| prickly pear in the brush about Brownsville points to its suscepti-

NATIVE PRICKLY PEAR IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 7

bility to disease in this region. In ail regions, however, much
erowth is lost after the plants attain a certain size. Even at San
Antonio the joints that are heavily shaded in the center of the plant
either rot or dry up when the plant is about 3 years old. This
means that these plants, like trees and shrubs in general, go through
a process of natural pruning which lets light and air into the center
of the plant. This natural pruning takes place everywhere, but
much more tardily when growth is less rapid.

A summary of the conditions and of the yields obtained at Browns-
ville is given in Table II.

TasBie I1.—Summary of yields of native prickly pear grown from cuttings or old stumps
at Brownsville, Tex..

A asi Yield per
Time harvested. eres ie aaee ees Species grown.
Tons
Werober W909 est fs. (Good esaaseseee oer Cuttings...... 50.32 | Opuntia gommei and
: Opuntia cyanella.
DOMME EEE sate Soe Wty GOs eee Sees ee do....-...-| 38.42 | Unnamed.
IDO ae Sey RAE Bn peel Meters GOs ey tee coe do.........| 42.75 | Mission.
Gery2iatoWecti27, LOI eee ee GO ese eee eee SLEDS setae 106.843 | Opuntia gommei and
Opuntia cyanella.
Dormant seasons of 1912-13...| Good for two sea- | Cuttings...... 40.314 | Mainly Opuntia gommei
sons; none there- and Opuntia cyanella.

after.

YIELDS AT SAN ANTONIO.

Since the publication of the last bulletin * detailing the conduct of
experiments at San Antonio, Tex., 8 acres of prickly pear, mainly of
Opuntia lindheimeri, have been grown and harvested from time to
time as the condition of the plantings appeared to warrant. An
effort has been made on all occasions to make the test practical and
comparable with other crops grown in the same vicinity. Although
it has not been possible to secure the cultivation deemed necessary,
possibly even this brings a closer approximation to usual conditions.

During the entire time that the experiments have been carried on
the cultivation has been poor. It has been below the average for
farm work in the region; indeed, in nearly every period there was a
year with no cultivation at all, and in no case did cultivation to the
extent of conserving moisture obtain at any time. The handling
has been what could very properly be called poor farming.

YIELD WITHOUT CULTIVATION.

On March 3, 1911, a harvesting was made of an acre of uncultivated
planting established five years before. In this instance furrows were
opened up with a plow on the native unbroken sod of the region after
the mesquite and other shrubs had been grabbed off. The cuttings

1 Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 124, 1908.

8 BULLETIN 208, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. e

were distributed at the side of the furrow and partially covered by
pulling the sods back on their bases. No attention was paid to this
acre of ground after it was planted. The area was fenced, however,
in order to keep stock out of some varieties which were originally
planted in an adjoining acre of ground, but the handling in this respect
was not at all uniform, for part of the time the cattle were allowed
access to the field, when the grass and other vegetation on the plat
were grazed closely, like the other native pastures on the place and in
the vicinity.

This plat of ground, besides furnishing information on this particular
subject, throws important light on the handling of pastures in general.
Its irregular, periodical harvesting by dairy cattle, which were herded
on the acre of ground on two occasions, showed conclusively that this
acre, besides growing the crop of prickly pear, actually furnished more
grazing than any other like area of native pasture on the farm.
This result was due to periodical as contrasted with continuous graz-
ing. Of course, an exact quantitative comparison between this plat
and the remaining native pastures of the farm is obviously impossible,
except in so far as one is able to judge from the total results of the
farm pastures as compared with the number of animals fed for single
days on this acre.

Under the above conditions, which are the same as those of the
native cleared pastures of the region except in so far as the periodical
grazing and the actual planting of the cuttings may affect the growth
of the pear, there was a very low production as compared with even
the poorly tilled soil, The growth was of such a character as not
to warrant harvesting until after it had attaimed an age of 5 years
instead of 3 years in poorly cultivated and 2 years in well-cultivated
ground.

At the end of a 5-year period this acre of ground yielded a crop of
58,920 pounds, which is 29.46 tons, or 5.89 tons per acre per annum.
The harvesting was done in a manner comparable with other harvest-
ings discussed elsewhere, leaving small stumps for future growth.
The distances apart here were the same as in the cultivated plantings.

Three years later a representative number of rows were again har-
vested from this area, the growth being, of course, from the old
stumps left at the previous harvesting. The yield this time was at
the rate of 9.8 tons to the acre each year. Here, as in all other ex-
periments thus far conducted, the growth was considerably greater
from old stumps than from freshly set cuttings. This is simply due
to the greater productivity of well-established plants.

A few representative rows of this uncultivated acre were harvested
at the end of the second growing season and reported upon in Bulletin
124 of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The yield obtained was at the
rate of 2.83 tons per annum.

NATIVE PRICKLY PEAR IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 9
YIELD WITH CULTIVATION.

In April and early May, 1909, there were harvested 3 acres of prickly
pear planted in March, 1907. The ground was put in a good state of
cultivation when the cuttings were planted and was kept fairly well
cultivated the first year. The second year it was given no cultivation.

It was not possible at this time to get weights. The best that could
be done was to determine the length of time the area would feed a
definite number of dairy cows all the roughage they would consume.

During the feeding there was an extraordinary amount of waste,
for here, as in all other cases which have come under our observation,
cattle, when their feed is abundant, reject the young growth until the
joints are well filled out. The fact that the harvesting was done late
in the third growing season does not, therefore, in all probability, in-
troduce any appreciable error into the calculations if the current season
is discarded in our reasoning. All the roughage consumed for 1,510
cow-days was furnished by these 3 acres of a 2-year-old crop. This is
equivalent to a production of roughage for five cows on 6 acres of
ground. When the entire lack of cultivation and the second and only
moderate cultivation the first year are taken into account, this yield is
comparable with more accurate harvestings made by weighing on
another occasion. '

In March and April, 1910, another 3 acres of the same field were
harvested by being cut and a representative area was weighed. This
area was handled the same as the other 3 acres the first two years, and
was left and cultivated again the third year. The yield was at the
rate of 14.32 tons per acre per annum.

This field was fenced and cattle kept out until the plants were well
started; then the gates were left open and cattle allowed to enter the
field at will. They did much to keep down certain weeds and native
grasses.

In March, 1913, 1 acre of a 3-year-old crop, set from single-joint cut-
tings in the usual way in the spring of 1910, was cut and weighed.
The crop was grown upon land which had been set to a varietal collec-
tion for four or five years. It was in a good state of cultivation when
planted, so far as weeds were concerned, but it was very dry and cloddy.
During the first year the cultivation was satisfactory; the second year
it was all but abandoned, and during the third year an ineffectual at-
tempt was made to keep the weeds down. Im all, the tract was not
over half cultivated during the entire period.

The harvesting was done from March 12 to March 25, 1913, and
good stumps were left for future growth. The yield under the circum-
stances was very satisfactory, a total of 124,114 pounds being secured.
This is at the rate of 20.685 tons per acre per annum.

1See Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 124, 1908.

10 BULLETIN 208, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It should be stated that this growth was not all from cuttings.
About four rows of the old varietal plantings were preserved, and to
this extent the crop was from stumps which had previously had a crop
taken from them. The plantings here, as in the other cases at San
Antonio, are made approximately 24 feet apart in 6-foot rows. The
varieties grown here are the same as those discussed in previous
publications. Opuntia lindheimeri has been the principal species, but
there has been a small admixture of O. ferruginispina, O. oda
and other less important species.

In April, 1914, another harvesting of a representative area was made
by cutting and weighing two 8-foot rows 416 feet long. The yield for
the three-year period from the well-established stumps of the previous
harvesting in 1910 was at the rate of 28 tons to the acre each year.
During the season of 1910 this area was plowed with a turning plow
and cultivated with a spike-tooth harrow three times, which, because
of the harvesting and burning over of the previous spring, put the
ground in“fairly good condition, especially for the penetration of
moisture. All the cultivation given consisted in going over the land
two or three times with a spike-tooth harrow in 1911. The increase
here over the other harvestings, due, it is believed, to the greater vigor
of the old established plants, is striking. The beneficial effect of
placing the land between the rows in good tilth, even if it be only once
in four years, is also shown without doubt. Attention should be
called to the fact that no handwork was done in this field after the
planting.

A summary of the conditions and of the yields of native prickly
pear obtamed at San Antonio is given in Table ITI.

TaBLeE III.—Swmmary of yields of native prickly pear grown from cuttings or old stumps
at San Antonio, Tex.

| viola per

F Character of Cuttings or :
Time harvested. Somers + acre per Species grown.
cultivation. stumps. STnaaypLTAy,
Tons.

October Mo07seeee-eee eae NON» Tees: fe Cuttings.....- 2.83 | Opuntia lindheimeri.
April and May, 1909.....--..- Weryz poor eee eeeleocee doweeteee (1) Do.

Pjoveiilly TRONS SAR Se Ae Ne ey ake er eal CKO aes SEs hol ISbees Goes e sh 14.32 Do.

March, SOM a tievrereecten cect Nomen. os) Saas eeaes Osea 5. 89 Do.

March, 1 eS aaa uHueeandos LOO re eras abs has alleen Gop sh se! 20.685 | Opuntia lindheimeri

mostly.

PATE MOLE eS ee ee see Rok Ope See Stumps....--- 28.00 | Opuntia lindheimeri.
Spring 14 yee eee ee INOnes Sei. Sac oer Clos Saute 9.8 Do.

1 Roughage for 1 cow on 14 acres.
GENERAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING YIELDS.
As shown by the figures cited, other conditions being equal, the
yields of prickly pear at a particular place have generally been in

direct proportion to the care given the plantation. The most potent
factor after the plants are once thoroughly established is cultivation.

NATIVE PRICKLY PEAR IN SOUTHERN TEXAS. 11

The pear does not seem to require anything like a dust mulch or deep
cultivation, such as is so commonly practiced with other crops in dry
regions. All that experience seems to indicate as necessary is to keep
down the weeds, which interfere with the growth of the pear the same
as with any other crop. Shallow cultivation appears to be sufficient,
but, owing to the fact that our plantations at San Antonio have at
times become very weedy, a shallow furrow has been turned toward
the rows and subsequently leveled with a spike-tooth cultivator. In
our two situations, the maintenance of a dust mulch has not seemed
necessary, even in the driest seasons.

Tn one of our varietal plantings at Brownsville, established upon an
old Bermuda-grass sod, a good dust mulch of 2 to 4 inches seemed to be
very detrimental. In this case we were dealing with resaca-bank
loam in a perfect state of tilth for two years. Under this treatment
there was a constant and abundant supply of moisture in the soil.
The growth of all species was very rapid for a short time, but they
soon rotted off at the surface of the ground, and this condition con-
tinued at an alarming rate for two or three seasons after the estab-
lishment of the plantation. The spineless and introduced species
suffered most, but the native species rotted off also. They simply fell
over and took root again on top of the ground, thus becoming
reestablished and still making a phenomenal growth. Under these
humid conditions a deep dust mulch was decidedly detrimental.
Treatment which allowed the soil to dry out more readily was pro-
ductive of better results. In short, upon the heavier lands of south-
ern Texas, represented by the regions in which this work has been
done, a dust mulch does not seem to be essential, but it is necessary
to keep down the weeds and give sufficient cultivation to allow a good
penetration of moisture at the time of rainfall.

At Chico, Cal., where the summers are long, hot, and dry, all species
except those from our driest deserts have withered badly when weeds
were not kept out, but when cultivated sufficiently to keep them down
no wilting occurs. The desert forms have shown no signs of wither-
ing at Chico, even when no cultivation or irrigation was given. Even
with poor cultivation, plantings of native prickly pear at Brownsville
have never suffered from drought, although the same plants occa-
sionally wither in the brush in the vicinity. At San Antonio our
poorly cared for and weedy plantings were often considerably with-
ered. The cultivation there has never been sufficient to do much in
the way of conserving moisture, but has usually been enough to
cause a good penetration of the rainfall. When no weeds were pres-
ent the evaporation of this rainfall from a poorly cultivated surface
has not caused the plants to wilt.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1915

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.

AT

5 CENTS PER COPY

UN ITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 209

A Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
aN. _ WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER August 6, 1915.

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE
-VINIFERA REGIONS OF THE
UNITED STATES

By

GEORGE C. HUSMANN, Pomologist in Charge of
Viticultural Investigations

CONTENTS

Page Page

Introduction . . 2. . 2 « 2 © @ « e 1 | Adaptation to Soil, Climatie, and Other
Cooperative Experiment Vineyards and Conditions . 2. . 2 «© 2s s+ « «© « « 12
PUNGIFANALUEOE) 25. eN'o\ o)) 6. 1s le eh ioc ie Bi] ERY DEIES oc ey aie sles ey aie aiiience 16

‘| Acreage in the California Experiment Growth Ratings of Resistant Vines and
a WAV AEM eis sl sali eal Sate ei ente 10 Direct Producers ....-+e-«s > 16
General Plan of Plantingsin the Experi- Congeniality and Adaptability of Vines . 26

ment Vineyards . . . 2. . «2 « « 10 | Behavior of Grapes Grafted and on Their
Phenological Records. . . . 2... - 10 Own Rootes) ele, ex lint) of i olivate se 27
Destruction of Vineyards ...... 11 | Conclusions and Suggestions . ... .» 155

Factorsin Resistance ...... .- 12 ;

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1915 |

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.

Chief of Bureau, Witt1aAM A. TAYLOR.

HORTICULTURAL AND POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
L. C. CORBETT, Horticulturist in. Charge.
PROJECT LEADERS.

G. B. Brackett, Pomologist. C. A. Reed, Assistant Pomologist.

C. P. Close, Pomologist. A.D. Shamel, Physiologist.

8. J. Dennis, Refrigeration Technologist. D. N. Shoemaker, Horticulturist.

H. P. Gould, Pomologis:. William Stuart, Horticulturist.

George C. Husmann, Pomologist. H. C. Thompson, Horticulturist.

E.R. Lake, Pomologist. W.W.Tracy,sr., Superintendent of Testing Gardens.
F. L. Mulford, Landscape Gardener. William F. Wight, Botanist. ;

H. J. Ramsey, Pomologist.

SB oe ;

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

4; BULLETIN No. 209

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER August 6, 1915.

“TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA
REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES.

By Greorce C. Husmann,

Pomologist in Charge of Viticultural Investigations, Office of Horticultural and Pomo-
logical Investigations.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
Pa ROGIUCHONS <o.a6 2 se sages eee re oc oma sds 1 | Adaptation to soil, climatic, and other con-
Cooperative experiment vineyards and their GUOMGER sae seems sos Jade assemasseieeesiee 12
ii DINGS SSC aS ee Re eee Oe eer ae Dea ay DTI Se serserelathercii eicc.c cise cisane aaciearcle sat 16
Acreage in the California experiment vine- Growth ratings of resistant vines and direct
PERC Seep ee sy eeaeboe arc noe Ls ee lel a patie 10 ORO GUCOTS Ry ee ey ce een ia ve eran gers aciae 16
General plan of plantings in the experiment Congeniality and adaptability of vines....... 26
Wi Gh die 24 Setos soe eee C Orne ee narS 10 | Behavior of grapes grafted and on their own
iehenolosicalerecordS..<- ce sees see cece cess 10 TOOUS 2 28 sane op ein se igs ocOis HHHS Se sais oase 27
Destruction of vineyards......-..--.-.-.---- 11 | Conclusions and suggestions................. 155
HACLOTSMMESISLANCes . . 5522 - ws sf ffajo oe 12 5
INTRODUCTION.

A résumé of the viticultural investigations in the Vinifera regions
of the United States up to 1910 was reported in Bulletin 172 of the
Bureau of Plant Industry. The present publication supplements
that bulletin and gives additional data on the investigations then
under. way, as well as reports upon researches started since the date
of that publication. The fundamental problems of the Vinifera
region, as determined by the early surveys, were found to require (1)
a comprehensive test of the resistant varieties of vines to determine
their adaptability to the different soils and climatic conditions; (2)
a study of the congeniality of Vinifera varieties to the different
resistant-stock varieties; (8) a study of the behavior of fruiting
varieties to determine those best adapted to the different localities;
and (4) a consideration of all classes of grapes with reference to their
resistance to destructive insects and diseases and, if found necessary,
the origination of an entirely new class of grapes better adapted to

85756°—Bull. 209—15—1

2 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Pacific coast conditions. These questions still remain the broad
cardinal problems, but the facilities for their solution have been much
enlarged and a number of subordinate problems that developed in
the prosecution of the work have been taken up as far as the means
and facilities of the Department of Agriculture permitted.

COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENT VINEYARDS AND THEIR NATURE.

To afford facilities for solving these problems, the Bureau of Plant
Industry has established 12 experiment vineyards on the Pacific
coast. One of these is at the Plant Introduction Field Station, Chico,
Cal., and 11 are located in various other grape-growing centers in
cooperation with growers.

A brief description of the purpose, location, soil, and climatic con-
ditions at or near each of these vineyards follows. (Fig. 1.) Those
desiring correlation and mechanical analyses of the soils and fuller cli-
matic data are referred to Bulletin 172 of the Bureau of Plant Industry.
The soil descriptions are from data furnished by the Bureau of Soils,
while the weather data are taken from records furnished by the San
Francisco office of the Weather Bureau, through Prof. McAdie, and
from observations made in the experiment vineyards.

MAIN VINEYARDS.

Three primary vineyards of 20 acres each are located near Oak-
ville, near Fresno, and at Guasti, Cal.

At the Oakville, Fresno, and Guasti experiment vineyards viticul-
tural material introduced from foreign countries is tested. In these
vineyards the adaptability to different localities and the value of
erape varieties for different uses is determined; the relative resistance
of grape varieties to destructive insects and diseases is inquired into;
the congeniality of grape varieties to the different resistant sorts is
determined; and grape varieties not now grown in the Vinifera regions
of this country are tested, with a view to the possibility of their sup-
planting some of the varieties now grown. Experiments to determine
how the various varieties should be propagated, grafted, pruned,
trained, and otherwise cared for are under way. These vineyards
offer some opportunity for the broad viticultural research and experi-
mental work that is needed, and furnish practical object lessons in
viticulture and facilities for solving some of the many commercial
problems of the industry.

OAKVILLE EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

The Oakville Experiment Vineyard (PI. I, fig. 1) was established in
the spring of 1903, and is located 1 mile west of Oakville, Napa Co.
Cal., on the property of the To-Kalon Vineyard Company, at an ele-
vation of 161 feet above sea level. The soil is a dark-brown or black

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. 3

gravelly clay loam or heavy loam, containing a large quantity of
organic matter formed in a swamp or lagoon extending in past geo-
logical ages up Napa Valley from San Pablo Bay, typical of the greater
part of the soils in the valley floor. On weathering, the shales, sand-
stones, limestones, lime conglomerates, and large quantities of usually
lenticular or angular gravel with little erosion of edges are washed
down from the steep hills or mountains surrounding Napa Valley on

COUNTIES INDIGATED ON MAP
8Y NUMERALS AS FOLLOWS

SAW BERNARDINO 36

f COLUSA
hy / Jos i
EURE) DEL NORTE SAN DIEGO.
. Lone 77) j 7
ON: RE DING?
S by Ges oun :
. \

PSH/K

Dea ids
MSSN ong, Y
Pewsey G
oN a os es
Ss ahs Xe
San Feanescd AND

reas 72) ar VER OR
~ REDWOOD
rei

PALO AL 7O% = er gz
wep WV. dos NHL
ge als Ze aa. 26 om

STA SNLLERP

GASTROVI Af ore Bae
Se .

PACIFIC GROVES;
~ ek

NW
; Rae
Dp? :

eesti We ER 9 ty,

Fig. 1.—Map of California, showing (by large black dots) the location of the twelve experiment vine-
yards of the Bureau of Plant Industry.

all sides except the south, and tend to form a heavy or clayey soil with
only small quantities of sand. No hardpan or alkali appears. The
surface is undulating, affording a fairly rapid run-off of surplus rain-
water, though in places the subsoil is quite wet during the spring
months. No irrigation is necessary. The clay and silt in the sub-
soils greatly aid in retaining moisture in spite of the large quantity of

4 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

gravel (20 to 40 per cent) they contain. Cultivation reduces the sur-
face to a good mulch. When grape culture in Napa Valley and the
adjoining foothills became important, a reputation for the superior
qualities of its dry wines was rapidly made, especially for the excel-
lence of the white wines. This reputation has been sustained, and
Napa County has remained one of the leading dry-wine sections of the
State.

FRESNO EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

The Fresno Experiment Vineyard (Pl. I, fig. 2) was established in
the spring of 1903. It is located 3 miles east of Fresno on the prop-
erty of the Fresno Vineyard Company, at an elevation of 290 feet
above sea level. The soil is the San Joaquin sandy loam. The fact
that it is an outlying isolated portion of soil of this character accounts
for the increased depths to hardpan and the sandier subsoil imme-
diately above. The San Joaquin sandy loams are confined to lands
adjacent to the lower foothills on the eastern side of the San Joaquin
and Sacramento Valleys, where 75,000 acres near Fresno; 6,000 acres
near Stockton, and 265,000 acres about Sacramento have already
been mapped. The soil is light red in color, granitic in origin, and
composed largely of sharp, angular particles. The surface is rolling
and generally covered with hog wallows and small mounds.

In the experiment-vineyard plat two varieties of soil were recog-
nized, namely, adhesive sandy loam, closely approaching a true loam,
and a friable sandy loam. The former retains moisture longer than
the latter, which is a deeper soil of lighter texture. Leveling the plat
disturbed the natural soil conditions, decreasing the depth of the
sticky, adhesive sandy loam in spots and exposing free sandy loam in
others, causing the hardpan underlying the plat to occur at depths
varying from scarcely 20 inches to over 6 feet, whereas the average
depth at which it occurs is 34 to 4 feet below the surface. This hard-
pan, which always accompanies San Joaquin sandy-loam soul, is a red
iron-sandstone substance cemented by hydrates of iron and alumina
combined with clay. When this occurs at 2 feet or less below the
surface, blasting is necessary. Trees and vines thrive when the hard-
pan is broken or where it lies at a sufficient depth below the surface.

The soils of the plat above the hardpan contain alkali varying from
less than 0.05 to more than 20 per cent; but in the lowest grade soil
no alkali is visible. Of the salts, over 90 per cent are chlorids, as fol-
lows: Calcium, 50; magnesium, 25; sodium, 15; and potassium, about
2 per cent. The remainder consists of calcium sulphate and bicar-
bonate of soda. The depth of the water table on the tract averages
3 feet. ;

Fresno is in the center of the raisin industry of the country, and is
also one of the most important wine and brandy producing districts
of California.

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. 5

At Oakville there are being assembled and tested on resistant stocks
all the grape varieties of the world thought to be of value to the Pacific
slope, while at Fresno similar tests are made of raisin, currant, zat
fleshy varieties.

GUASTI EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

In view of the entirely different conditions prevailing south of the
Tehachapi Pass, especially in the desert region, the Department of
Agriculture in the spring of 1904 established another experiment
vineyard of like importance and acreage in the San Bernardino
desert, at Guasti, Cal., 950 feet above sea level, on the property of the
Italian Vineyard Company. (See Pl. I, fig. 3.) The soil mapped as
Maricopa gravelly sand is a gray-brown gravelly sand of very uni-
form texture to an unknown depth. The surface is compact when
untilled, because the sharp, angular sand composing the soil becomes
somewhat cemented by the organic matter occurring in the topsoil.
At a depth of 3 feet the soil is more concentrated and often yellowish
from the oxidation of iron in the soil. The soil is almost entirely
granitic, and is washed from the Sierra Madres. It contains quan-
tities of undecomposed potash, feldspar particles, which should
insure abundant potash for the maturing of grapes. The soil covers
most of the San Bernardino Valley floor, and when thoroughly culti-
vated holds moisture well, the fine sand and silt giving the soil capil-
lary power to bring water up from below. Two of the largest vine-
yards of the world are in this valley, on similar soil. As the phyl-
loxera is not known to exist here, the plantings in the experiment
vineyard are principally Vinifera varieties.

CHICO VARIETAL VINEYARD.

The Chico Varietal Vineyard is located at the plant-introduction
field station, 3 miles east of Chico, Butte Co., Cal., and is about 196
feet above sea level (Pl. II, fig.1). The soil, an alluvium, is composed
of material brought down from the mountains and hills on the east
and is from 8 to 12 feet deep. It is underlain by a body of sandy
water-worn gravel and bowlders, which always carry water. The soil
is of light texture, varying from light loam to heavy, fine sandy loam,
the heaviest being loam. It is well drained and easily cultivated.
The heavy, fine sandy loam consists of from 30 to 36 inches of fine
sandy loam, underlain by very fine sandy loam, usually containing
some gravel. The light loam has from 10 to 15 inches of fine sandy
loam or sandy loam underlain by a heavier structure closely approach-
ingloam. The largest area of this soil is found about Chico, but simi-
lar soil occurs in the Feather and the Bear River Valleys.

At the Chico vineyard are being assembled and maintained two
plants each of grape varieties that prove of special value for specific

6 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

purposes, together with grape immigrants from all parts of the world
introduced by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction. The
first plantings were made in the spring of 1906, and the collection here
already comprises 308 resistant and direct-producing sorts and 141
Vinifera varieties grafted on resistant stocks.

SMALLER VINEYARDS.

In addition to the main plantations, outlying vineyards of 10 acres
each have been established to test varieties at different altitudes, at
varying distances from the ocean, bays, and other bodies of water,
under different climatic and other conditions, and on the leading types
of vineyard soils not found at the Oakville, Fresno, and Guasti

vineyards.
BRAWLEY EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

The Brawley Experiment Vineyard was established in the spring of
1911 on the New River, 1 mile west of Brawley, Imperial Co., Cal., on
the property. of Mrs. Mabel Oakley, about 110 feet below sea level.
(See Pl. II, fig. 2.) The soil, Imperial loam, is sediment brought
down by the Colorado River and deposited in strata either while the
area was still submerged or from the overflow waters as they spread
over the plain. Before irrigation these strata, varying from 1.1 to
2 or 3 inches in thickness, are quite hard and look like shale, but water
softens them readily. This soil after irrigation is a sticky reddish
loam, a little heavier than a silt loam, having a depth of 4 to 6 feet and
resting on a clay or clay-loam subsoil, which in turn is underlain by
alternate strata of lighter and heavier material to an indeterminate
depth. The surface is usually smooth and level and almost devoid
of vegetation. The soil often contains considerable organic matter
and when irrigated is productive. Alkali is found in all of it and
often greatly in excess of what even the most resistant plants can
stand, thus making much reclamation work necessary. This soil is
by far the most extensive type in the Imperial Valley. It extends
from about the middle of the eastern boundary across in a northwest-
erly direction into the Salton Sink. A large part of the area west and
southwest of Imperial and large tracts between Mesquite Lake and
the Mexican line are of this type of soil.

The Imperial Valley is said to be the earliest fruit-ripening district
in the United States, and as no phylloxera have been located in it the
plantings of 280 grape varieties in this vineyard are all Vinifera.

COLFAX EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

The Colfax Experiment Vineyard was established in the spring of
1906, on the property of Mr. Louis Cortopassi, in the Sierra Nevada,
2,412 feet above sea level, 14 miles southwest of Colfax, Placer Co.,
Cal. (See Pl. II, fig. 3.)

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. Mt

The soil, hilly, usually fairly deep, and well drained, originated in
the decomposition of the Mariposa formation, consisting of dark shales
or slates, sandstones or quartzite sandstones, and conglomerates.
The large amount of iron present from decomposing volcanic-rock
material, where exposed to perfect weathering, gives the soil a deep
red color. Dark, shallow, conglomerate rocks sometimes outcropin
spots, and rock fragments occur. The first few inches are often dark
red from the accumulation of organic matter. The first 8 to 18 inches
are usually brownish red clay or clay loam, underlain by 8 to 6 feet of
red clay or clay loam, with partially decomposed and weathered rock
formations, giving the subsoil a yellow appearance.

Rock outcrops of conglomerates, chert, and slate occur in the higher
portions. The native vegetation is manzanita, chaparral, live oak
and yellow pine.

The Colfax district is unique in the diversity of the fruit grown on
sidehill locations.

GEYSERVILLE EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

The Geyserville Experiment Vineyard was established in the
spring of 1904, on the property of John D. Bosch, just east of Geyser-
ville, Sonoma Co., Cal., against a range of high hills (Pi. III, fig. 1),
236 feet above sea level. To a depth of 24 to 3 feet the soil consists
of a uniform dark gravelly loam with a subsoil of light or yellowish
brown color, similar in texture to the topsoil. The soil is very mel-
low and carries considerable humus, which enables it to retain
moisture well. This type of soil extends over considerable areas
along the streams and the floor of the Sonoma Valley, having been
washed down from the shale, schist, and conglomerate hills.

Soils of this type produce some of the choicest dry wines, both red
and white, of the State.

LIVERMORE EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

The Livermore Experiment Vineyard was established in the spring
of 1904, on the property of Mr. C. H. Wente, 3 miles south of Liver-
more, Alameda Co., Cal., at an elevation of about 450 feet above sea
level. (See Pl. ILI, fig. 2.) The vineyard has a very uniform, level,
alluvial soil, derived from decomposed shales and schists, and is full
of rounded gravel washed down from the surrounding mountains.

The surface soil is a dark-brown gravelly loam; the second, third,
and fourth feet gravelly sandy loam, replaced by gravelly sand in
the fifth foot. The humus decreases with the depth, while the gravel
increases, varying from 30 to 59 per cent. The proportion of clay
is greater than that of sult. This gives the soil a very heavy appear-
ance, the gravel sticking together very tightly when dry orpacked. No
alkali exists, but ground water is encountered at 5 or 6 feet in some

8 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

places. These soils are common over the Livermore Valley and pro-
duce a superior white wine of the sauterne type. This experiment
vineyard was discontinued on July 1, 1914.

LODI EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

The Lodi Experiment Vineyard was established in the spring of
1904, on the Lawrence & Murray property, about one-fourth of a
mile northeast of Lodi, San Joaquin Co., Cal., about 55 feet above
sea level. (See Pl. III, fig. 3.) A large body of this soil exists
between Lodi and Acampo. .

There are two variations on the plat. Phase No. 1 is a brown, free,
sandy loam, underlain below 44 feet by a more adhesive light-brown
or yellowish sandy loam. Occasional iron concretions give the sub-
soil a mottled color. The soil has good capillarity and the water
table occurs at 5 to 6 feet. Phase No. 2, an adhesive sand, was
formed by an old stream channel. This is light-brown sand to a
depth of 3 feet, the subsoil water-washed sand, much looser in tex-
ture and lighter in color, and dry to a depth of more than 6 feet, as
the soil texture is too loose to exert much capillary force. There
is no hardpan or alkali. The soils are, however, deficient in lime;
otherwise, they are very productive, comparatively level, unirri-
gated, and easily tilled. This locality is well known for its table
grapes and as a table-grape shipping point.

MOUNTAIN VIEW EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

The Mountain View Experiment Vineyard was established in the
spring of 1904, on the property of Mrs. Caroline Distel, 2 miles west
of Mountain View, on the west side of the Santa Clara Valley, 76 feet
above sea level. (See Pl. IV, fig. 1.)

The soil is a gravelly Placentia sandy loam. The first 12 mches
is a dark-brown, gravelly sandy loam, dark from humus; below this, ©
to 4 feet, the subsoil becomes redder, sandier, and more gravelly
until sand is encountered. It is well drained, but inclined to become
too dry in summer and fall. The surface soil at times becomes quite
compact, and when plowed breaks up into hard clods. When tilled
at the right time it works into a very mellow condition. These soils
are from washings of granitic sandy shales and schist rocks. Before
the destruction of vineyards by phylloxera and other agencies the
Santa Clara Valley was the banner dry-wine producing section of
California. The following areas of Placentia sandy loam have been
surveyed in California: San Jose, 61,500; lower Salinas, 74,000; Los
Angeles, 66,000; San Bernardino, 87,000; San Gabriel, 48,800; and
Santa Ana, 16,800 acres. Soils of this series occur through the coast
range of mountains from San Francisco to the Mexican line, occupy-
ing undulating portions of valleys close to the hills. The Mountain
View Experiment Vineyard was discontinued on July 1, 1912.

Bul. 209, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUR
BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.
EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

Fia. 1.—OAKVILLE EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

: Fia. 2.—FRESNO EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

Fia. 3.—GUAST!| EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

Bul, 209, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.

Fic. 1.—CHICO VARIETAL VINEYARD.

Fia. 2.—BRAWLEY EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

Fic. 3.—COLFAX EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

Bul. 209, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. . PLATE III.

Fia. 1.—GEYSERVILLE EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

Fic. 2.—LIVERMORE EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

CC

Fic. 3.—Lobp!I EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

Bul. 209, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fic. 1.—MOUNTAIN VIEW EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

Fig. 2.—SONOMA EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

Fic. 3.—STOCKTON EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS, 9

SONOMA EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

The Sonoma Experiment Vineyard was established in the spring of
1904, on the property of the Gundlach-Bundschu Wine Company,
about 2 miles south of Sonoma, Sonoma Co., Cal., about 110 feet
above sea level. (See Pl. IV, fig. 2.) The soil is of rather poor
quality, and to a depth of 8 or 10 inches is a gray loam more easily
tilled than its texture indicates. The subsoil to 6 feet or more in
depth is clay, changing at 4 feet, with an increase of sand, from a
light-brown to a yellowish brown color. The soil is found near where
weathered shales from the surrounding hills have been partially
broken down and transported into the valleys, where they decom-
pose. The soil usually occupies small, undulating ridges, or eleva-
tions, and is surrounded by the dark-brown, alluvial clay loam of the
valley floor. The surface drainage is good, and no injurious quan-
tity of alkali exists. This soil occupies extensive areas in the Sonoma
Valley and in the adjacent bay regions and produces superior white
wines of the Riesling, Chasselas, and Traminer types.

STOCKTON EXPERIMENT VINEYARD.

The Stockton Experiment Vineyard was established in the spring
of 1907, on the property of the San Joaquin Valley Realty Company,
a little over a mile southeast of Stockton, about 15 feet above sea
level, on Stockton clay-loam adobe. (See PI. IV, fig. 3.) This type,
locally known as black adobe, was laid down in aswamp or tidal marsh
in quiet water, the decomposing vegetation giving it a black color. It
is a clay loam in texture, adhesive and sticky when wet and very hard ©
when dry, cracking into large, cubical blocks full of small, cubical
fractures. Sufficient rain slacks the clods readily. Cultivated when
neither too wet nor too dry, the soil is friable and pulverizes well.
The subsoil is a light-yellow silt loam, usually separated from the
surface soil at a depth of 24 feet by a thin stratum, about one-half
inch thick, of rather soft marly or calcareous hardpan, which is not
always continuous and is often broken or disintegrated. Roots and
water readily penetrate the subsoil, often passmg through the hard-
pan. The depth to the water table varies from 34 to 6 feet for wet
seasons and from 6 to 10 feet for dry seasons. This variation is
influenced by a thin, marly hardpan which appears to hold the water
down under pressure. It is somewhat difficult to establish vineyards
on these soils. but when established they are very productive and last-
ing. Grapes for diverse purposes are grown on them. One of the
largest sweet-wine establishments in the world is located near Stock-
ton, and heavy shipments of table grapes grown on these soils are
made. Soils of this type have been mapped in California as follows:
Stockton, 53,312; Hanford, 5,470; and Fresno, 5,664 acres. It coy-
ers many thousand acres between the Marysville Buttes and about
North Durham in the Sacramento Valley.

10 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ACREAGE IN THE EXPERIMENT VINEYARDS IN CALIFORNIA.

The plantings and graftings in the California experiment vineyards
now comprise the areas shown in Table I.

TaBLe I.—Size of the twelve experiment vineyards in California of the Bureau of Plant
Industry and number of varieties planted in each.

Number of varieties. Number of varieties.
Resist- Vinifera. Resist-| Vinifera.
i é _ | ants aes Pe Vineyard. Area. | ants
Vineyard Area aid y' ped 5
direct | On irect n
pro- | their on ae pro- | their Cute
duc- | own Ee ee duc- | own eh se
ers roots. | SL0CxS- ers. | roots. |S¥0°
Acres. Acres
iBrawileyie-ececeescee Deli nas aoe DOOR |e cece Livermore....-.----- 1.4 SOS) | ees eae 2a se
Chi 1.8 308i[ 22h eee 1414) |LOG see re ze 3.3 TIDY See ee 80
Colfax SOE ee AR ee 74 || Mountain View 2 gO PO eal | pe eS
Fresno ; 9 iY | Bees 137 || Oakville... --- .-| 16.6 BING Neacseas 262
Geyserville.-......-- 1.2 94a eee | Hs SONOMA aepe epee Dy MDA Z 24 |r pceatnrcnee | ee
Gurasti 42 ec esl 37 83 Chi ees s Su Stockton.- 3332 4--- 1.4 Oly. See eee

GENERAL PLAN OF PLANTINGS IN THE EXPERIMENT VINEYARDS.

All the plantings for comparative tests and study are made in
regular checks of 10 vines of each variety, and all the larger plantings
of resistant varieties are grafted in regular checks, usually of 10 vines
each, and, where only preliminary readings are desired, the number of
grafts of each variety put in have been a divisor of 10 in a check of 10
vines.

PHENOLOGICAL RECORDS.

Hach vine or graft receives its block, row, and vine number. A
complete history and accurate records are kept of all varieties from
the time they are planted or grafted. Their behavior is closely noted,
detailed descriptions are made of the vines and their respective fruits,
and their value for specific uses and adaptability to different condi-
tions are recorded. Table Il summarizes the climatic observations
made at the different vineyards.

TaBLe I1.— Temperature and rainfall at the twelve experiment vineyards of the Bureau of
Plant Industry in California.

MAXIMUM TEMPERATURES (° F.).

Vineyard. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June.| July. | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. con
Brawleya ie. 22 —-e - 80 85 95 | 106 }* 118} 115} 115} 112) 111] 105 93 81 118
Chico ase eden 74 78 83 94 104 111 114 116 106 96 82 74 116
Colfaxcse a tee eee 73 88 89 86 98 | 110} 107} 108 99 91 82 78 110
ICSE ese e eee 73 77 84 101 110 107 115 113 108 98 84 74 115
Geyserville. seessseees 79 83 91 102 108 116 | 116 110 | 113 103 98 79 116
OTe Sines ao ae5 se s5= 83 87 88 98 101 105 108 106 105 98 89 80. 108
Livermore..........- 77 79 88 95} 108} 108} 113] 107] 108 99 | - 87 75 108
TOG ee ee ae ee 70 72 80 91 | 104} 104] 110] 104] 105 91 78 67 110
Mountain View......| 76 76 85 94} 104} 106 111 99 | 109 95 84 75 lil
Oakyillox F..-. et Le 75 86 95 106 109 110 105 110 98 84 74 110
HOUOMAR Ase es neee 77 76 82 91} 104] 109} 106] 101] 111 97 82 72 111
Stocktomss sayss5 - hae 67 70 80 89 | 102} 105} 110} 103} 104 90 84 66 110

1 Data for four years.

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. 0

Tasie I1.—Temperature and rainfall at the twelve experiment vineyards of the Bureau
of Plant Industry in California—Continued.

MINIMUM TEMPERATURES (° F.).

Vineyard. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. May. | June.| July. Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. in
|

Brawley !...--------- 24 29 35 38 50 52 57 60 55 40 26 20 20
Chico ete 2 a2. 18 20 25 30 33 40 46 48 40 34 21 22 18
Gobaxteas.s- 2h 22. 14 19 24 25 30 34 44 38 34 24 18 16 14
SHTOSNOS EE see so 5 24 25 30 34 40 | 42 51 52 42 36 31 24 24
Geyserville.....-..-- 21 21 29 30 33 37 40 39 35 30 26 23 20
(Gil Cie Sige a Beene 26 26 30 32 36 39 42 42 44 39 30 26 26
Livermore..--------- 23 24 30 30 | 34 39 41 41 40 34 25 23 23
Ift0 Ths. oes ee Ceeee 22 24 30 33 38 43 45 44 40 31 25 21 21
Mountain View..---- 25 23 29 29 34 36 40 39 37 30 27 24 23
Oskvilles- 2-32... 20 24 25 26 30 34 32 34 35 27 25 17 17
SOHOWIA Ss. 52-----+- - 23 27 29 27 32 34 41 34 35 32 26 23 23
Stockton 25 -55)-.-- 24 24 32 36 40 40 48 42 42 36 25 20 20

MEAN TEMPERATURES (° F.).

Brawley 1..........- 54.2 | 54.3 | 62.2 | 69.2 | 76.3 | 84.2 | 89.5 | 89.3 | 83.4 | 71.3 | 60.9 | 51.1] 70.4
nico! Sieh Lit 46.3 | 49.6 | 53.0 | 58.9 | 65.3 | 73.0 | 79.4 | 77.5 | 71.4 | 63.9 | 52.8 | 45.8] 61.4
(Cillto<. Se 42.6 | 44.1 | 46.3 | 52.9 | 59.4 | 68.6 | 75.1 | 73.6 | 65.7 | 59.0 | 51.6 | 43.5 56.9
HUTESNO Ie ee aoe ek. 47.6 | 50.9 | 55.4 | 60.8 | 66.4 | 74.5 | 81.8 | 80.2 | 73.1 | 64.4 | 54.3 | 45.7 | 62.9
Geyservillez..---.-=- 47.4 | 50.3 | 52.8 | 57.8 | 62.4 | 67.3 | 69.8 | 68.2 | 67.0 | 62.2 | 53.9 | 47.7 58.9
Gunstietee e ae 49.9 | 51.7 | 54.7 | 58.3 | 60.7 | 67.2 | 75.2 | 73.2 | 69.9 | 64.4 | 56.5 | 51.3 | 60.9
Livermore..........- 48.0 | 51.0 | 53.5 | 57.2 | 60.5 | 66.0 | 70.9 | 69.8 | 68.3 | 62.8 | 54.5 | 48.8 | 59.3
oda eee 46.5 | 49.4 | 53.1 | 57.6 | 63.0 | 68.8 | 72.9 | 70.6 | 67.0 | 60.0 | 51.5 | 45.0] 58.8
Mountain View.....- 49.1 | 51.2 | 53.3 | 56.1 | 59.0 | 62.7 | 66.0 | 65.1 | 64.3 | 60.2 | 54.0 | 48.1 57.4
Oak-villel eke ety 45.4 | 48.3 | 50.4 | 55.1 | 59.7 | 64.1 | 66.8 | 65.8 | 65.1 | 60.8 | 52.3 | 45.5 | 56.6
Benemaecets oc. ..5 47.3 | 50.1 | 51.7 | 55.5 | 59.4 | 63.8 | 66.2 | 64.5 | 64.2 | 60.6 | 52.9 | 46.3 56.8
Stockton. .........-- 45.7 | 48.8 | 52.5 | 56.9 | 62.1 | 68.3 | 73.2 | 71.1 | 67.8 | 61.1 | 51.6 | 44.2] 58.6
PRECIPITATION (INCHES 2).

3.77 | 5.46 | 1.14 | 0.96 | 0.29} T |0.01 | 1.03 | 0.79 | 2.03 | 3.50 | 25.39

7. 78 |11.02 | 3.00 | 2.59 95 Hy 002 | 1.14 | 2.39 | 4.98 | 6.39 | 53.36

1.30 | 2.24 | .77]| .58 03 | .001| T SOs | meso 72 | 1.26| 9.87

6.85 | 9.49 | 1.40 | 1.30 45 a dh 96 | 1.59 | 3.88 | 5.24 | 42.25

4.30 | 6.40 | 1.29} .93 12 | .02 01 44] .56 87 | 3.14 | 24.13

PAU | Seb AGil Ghyl 19| T 03 31] .48 90 | 2.47 | 15. 86

2.68 | 4.71 80 | 1.56 26 4 003 - 40 -55 | 1.14 | 2.94 | 20.06

2.46 | 4.45 80 | .54 18 7 04 -52 -ol 96 | 2.49 | 17.42

4.42 | 6.57 | 1.10 . 78 26 GE 01 78 -77 | 2.10 | 3.95 | 28. 81

4.91 | 6.02 | .74 - 87 25 | .34 AY 82 | .83 | 2.75 | 4.00 | 28.33

2.12, 3.62) | 272) .68 A401 48} .42}| .99 | 2.31 | 15.78

1 Data for four years. 2 T—Trace. 3 No data available.

In the care and maintenance of the California experiment vine-
yards and in prosecuting researches in them, Mr. George C. Husmann,
Pomologist in Charge of Viticultural Investigations, is assisted by
Mr. Fred L. Husmann, Viticultural Superintendent, and Mr. Richard
Schmidt, Assistant in Viticulture.

DESTRUCTION OF VINEYARDS.

In Bulletin 172 of the Bureau of Plant Industry the writer gives
an account of the havoc wrought by the phylloxera insect to the
vineyards of the Old World as weil as to those of the Vinifera regions
of this country. Since that bulletin was issued additional heavy
losses have occurred.

The destruction in California of once flourishing vineyards cover-
ing more than 200,000 acres, through the so-called California vine
disease and other agencies, but most largely through phylloxera, has
already occurred. All that has been suggested to combat and eradi-

1 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cate the phylloxera has been tried in this and other countries, but it
is conceded that, with the exception of vineyards which can be flooded
cheaply and sufficiently to kill the insect, the only way successfully to
reestablish Vinifera vineyards is by growing the vines on phylloxera-

resistant stocks.
FACTORS IN RESISTANCE.

The resistance of vines to phylloxera depends upon two factors:
(1) The inherent resistant character of the vine and (2) its adaptation
to soil, climatic, and other conditions.

The inherent or natural characteristics of the plant repel or invite
the attacks of the phytloxera. The number of swellings, nodosities,
and tuberosities from insect punctures and the rotting of the root
occasioned by them progress more or less rapidly and deeply in
accordance with the texture and character of the root attacked.
The weakening and ultimate death of the vine are determined by the
extent of the punctures and the progress of the rot upon the roots.

The nodosities rot more or less rapidly in the different grape species.
In the Vinifera they are larger and usually rot in a very short time.
In the American species the nodosities are smaller and do not rot so
quickly, various species differing in this respect. The number of
nodosities varies greatly on the different vine varieties, and when the
insects have multiplied sufficiently to cover the smaller rootlets with
them, eventually the larger roots are attacked, and if cancerous
patches of decomposition are found on the more developed roots
tuberosities occur.

Some varieties have nodosities on practically all rootlets, while
some of the American species are not injured by the phylloxera
except that a few nodosities form on their roots. In fact, the
resistant ratings of different species are based on a determination of
the relative number and size of the nodosities found on their roots.

In order to indicate with some degree of definiteness the resistance
to phylloxera (not the value of the stock), scientists have provision-
ally adopted an arbitrary scale ofratmgs. In this scale the maximum
of resistance or immunity is taken as 20, while absence of resistance
(or no resistance) is reckoned as zero.

The necessary degree of resistance for the production of good crops
varies with the character of the soil, stocks rating above 16 being
considered sufficient for all soils, 14 to 16 for fairly’ good soils, and 10
to 14 for rich, moist, sandy soils.

ADAPTATION TO SOIL, CLIMATIC, AND OTHER CONDITIONS.

The ability of a vine to withstand or resist the attacks of the
phylloxera without serious injury is greatly influenced by the
adaptability of the vine to the climatic and soil conditions under
which it is grown. These may increase or diminish the vigor of the
plant, retard or favor the reparation of the insect injuries, and affect

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. 13

the resistance of the plant by favoring or hindering the dissemination
or activity of the insect. For instance, climatic conditions affect the
multiplication of the insect and it can travel but little in sandy soils
of a certain fineness. Then again, a variety which in one locality has
splendid resistant qualities perishes in another locality having 4
similar soil but a different climate or in another locality having
a similar climate but a different soil.

This is due to the fact that some species are adapted to moist soils,
while others are variously adapted to dry soils, deep soils, or shallow
soils, and also to the fact that the root systems of different species
vary in habit of growth, some assuming a horizontal and others a
vertical position; some roots are thick and fleshy and others small
and wiry; some are soft, while others are firm. (See Pl. V.) Thus,a
moisture-loving variety or one having a horizontal root system would
not thrive in a dry, hot climate; neither would a variety with a deep
root system thrive in a shallow, hard soil, or one adapted to a dry loca-
tion thrive in a wet soil. For such reasons, a variety grown under
congenial soil and climatic conditions will often prove more resistant
than one of greater natural resistance grown under adverse soil and
climatic conditions.

Resistance to phylloxera is also influenced by the congeniality
existing between vine varieties when grafted on other vine varieties.
Causes like these, and there are many others, affect the resistant
qualities of vines, and it is with the study of the adaptation of
varieties to varying conditions and the congeniality existing between
vine varieties that the researches reported in this bulletin are par-
ticularly concerned.

The European work in the selection and breeding of resistant
stocks has been determined largely by the necessity that such stocks
be adapted to calcareous-soil conditions rarely encountered in the
present Vinifera regions of this country. This renders it necessary
for us to undertake our own researches and determinations. The
varying soil, climatic, and other conditions in California make the
selecting of the right grape species in the reestablishing of vineyards
on resistant stocks rather a complex matter.

Of the 23 species of grapes native to North America, the 14 shown
in Table III have been found sufficiently resistant to merit the
attention of the viticulturist, and they are under test in the experi-
ment vineyards of the United States Department of Agriculture.

Table III shows their natural habitat, the locations, sites, and the
character of soil they prefer, the habits of the vines, their relative
season of leafing (Pls. VI and VI1), their root systems (Pl. V), the
flowering and ripening of their fruit, the ease or difficulty of propagat-
ing them, their suitability for either bench or field grafting, and their
relative resistance to phylloxera, cold, dampness, heat, and drought.

BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

14

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I

THSTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

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16 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
HYBRIDS.

In the attempts to secure resistants suited to soil, climatic, and
other conditions which at the same time would prove congenial,
lasting, and productive stocks on which to graft the Vinifera varie-
ties, many difficulties were encountered. For instance, the stock
may be adapted to the soil, but 1t may be so hard to root as to make
its commercial use impracticable. Again, the stock may be suited
to the soil and it may root easily and be resistant, but not congenial
to or make a lasting junction with Vinifera varieties; or the congeni-
ality of the variety may be good, but the fruitfulness of the graft
may be impaired.

In many cases also no resistant species are exactly suited to the
soil and climatic conditions. To overcome such difficulties and
others of like nature, hybrids have been and are being produced, in
the breeding of which such of the native American species were
selected as possess the various qualities desired. (See Pls. VIII and
IX.) In+this work some remarkable successes have been achieved,
such, for instance, as Riparia <x Rupestris, No. 101; Riparia « Rupes-
tris, No. 3306; Riparia x Rupestris, No. 3309; Solonis x Othello,
No. 1616; Rupestris x Cordifolia, Nos. 107-11; Riparia x (Cordi-
folia x Rupestris), Nos. 106-8; Rupestris x Berlandieri, No. 301A;
Berlandieri x Riparia, No. 420A; and Monticola x Riparia, No.
18808.

Efforts have also been made to produce hybrids between the
Vinifera and American native-grape varieties which would be resist-
ant to phylloxera and at the same time give satisfactory crops of
fruit of desirable character and quality. (See Pl. X, fig. 2.) By
having such direct producers, the cost of grafting would not only be
avoided, but congeniality would not have to be reckoned with. Some
remarkable strides are being made along this line. A number of
these hybrids are under test in the experiment vineyards, but so far
it is not possible to say that any of them are better than or equal to
some of our finer varieties of native American grapes or that they
have as good phylloxera-resistant qualities.

GROWTH RATINGS OF RESISTANT VINES AND DIRECT PRODUCERS.

In Table IV the upper numbers after each name in the columns
headed ‘‘Experiment vineyard”’ show the years when the vines were
planted; the lower numbers show the growth ratings, which in all
cases were made in the autumn of 1913.

The growth or adaptability of each variety at each vineyard where
it is under test is expressed in the form of a percentage rating on a
scale in which the growth of the variety under conditions for which it
is well adapted is taken as the standard of excellence, 100 per cent.

Bul. 209, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

VARIOUS TYPES OF GRAPE ROOT SYSTEMS.

Fic. 1.—Roots of the fleshy type. Fic. 2.—Roots of the shallow or spreading type. Fic. 3.—Roots
of the deep-striking type. Fic. 4.—Roots of the oblique type.

Bul. 209, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.

LEAVES OF FOUR NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES OF GRAPES USED AS STOCKS ON WHICH
TO GRAFT VINIFERA VARIETIES.

Fie. 1.—Vitis champini, upper and lower side of leaf, one-fourth natural size. Fic. 2.—Vitis
doaniania, Hope and lower side of leaf, one-sixth natural size. Fic. 3.—Vitis candicans, upper
and lower side of leaf, one-fourth natural size. Fig. 4.—Vitis berlandieri, upper and lower side
of leaf, one-sixth natural size. -

Bul. 209, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE VII.

LEAVES OF Four NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES OF GRAPES EXTENSIVELY USED AS STOCKS
ON WHICH TO GRAFT VINIFERA VARIETIES.

Fic. 1.—Vitis rupestris, upper and lower side of leaf, one-fourth natural size. Fic. 2.—Vitis aestivalis,
upper and lower side of leaf, one-fourth natural size. Fic. 3.—Vitlis labrusca, upper and lower side
of iat one-seventh natural size. Fic. 4.—Vitis riparia, upper and lower side of leaf, two-fifths
natural size.

Bul. 209, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII.

LEAVES OF FOUR GRAPE HYBRIDS USED AS STOCKS ON WHICH TO GRAFT VINIFERA
VARIETIES.

Pic. 1.—Monticola x Riparia No. 18808, upper and lower side of leaf, one-sixthnaturalsize. Fic.2.—
Cordifolia X Riparia No. 125-1, upper and lower side of leaf, one-eighth naturalsize. F1G.3.—Ber-
landieri X Riparia No. 420A, upperand lower side of leaf, one-sixth natural size. Fic. 4.—Linse-
comii X (Labrusca X Vinifera), upper and lower side of leaf, one-eleventh natural size.

Bul. 209, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX

LEAVES OF FOUR GRAPE HYBRIDS ORIGINATED IN FRANCE AND EXTENSIVELY USED AS
STOCKS ON WHICH TO GRAFT VINIFERA VARIETIES.

Fig. 1—Riparia x Rupestris No. 3306, upper and lower side of leaf, one-eighth natural size.
Fig. 2.—Mourvedre X Rupestris No. 1202, upper and. lower side of leaf, five-sixteenths natural
size. Fig. 3.—Riparia X Rupestris No. 101, upper and lower side of leaf, five-fourteenths natural
size. Fic. 4.—Riparia X Rupestris No. 3309, upper and lower side of leaf, one-third natural size.

PLATE X.

Bul. 209, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

*(NIZNVS) ALNVOINY) SLOOY NMO SL] NO YaONGOUd LOauIq VW—'g “SI

*(a0dIY
S0q NO dalsvu’) VSINNH) HOOLS LNVISISSY NO VYSSINIA Y—"] “DI4

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. 17

These adaptability ratings therefore represent the behavior of each
variety under the conditions existing at the several vineyards ex-
pressed in terms that permit comparison with its behavior elsewhere.
They are not based on a comparison with other varieties in the same
vineyard. Each variety is therefore rated on a scale based on its
own standard of excellence rather than on any arbitrary scale for-
mulated for application to all varieties. It is believed that this
method renders possible a truer expression of the reaction of each
variety to different soil and climatic conditions than would be pos-
sible by using any arbitrary scale of measurement of growth. i
To illustrate, Aramon xX Rupestris Ganzin, No. 2, planted at each
of three experiment vineyards in 1904, at F resno was rated 97; at
Livermore, 83; and at Lodi, only 46. This shows that at ipeana
the growth was very satisfactory, and it was therefore rated at 97. At
‘Livermore the growth was good, but not nearly so good as at Fresno;
it was therefore rated at 83. At Lodi it made a very poor growth,
which as compared with the growth made at Fresno was as 46 to 97,
or when compared to perfect growth as 46 to 100, i. e., 46 per cent.
Meh IV.—Kkesistant and direct- -producing varieties of grapes in eleven experiment.

vineyards in California, showing the year of planting in each vineyard and the relative
growth rating. .

Experiment vineyard.

ae 2 3 5
ariety. 5 5 5
: Pleas tole = Elbe
5 o od 7 | i
eae) gal owe | ee ees
Ks| fo) i= 3) =) — ro) Ss I) aS
S) 1S) Ry io) io) | 4 =| ) oD) na
Adobe Giant: :
Year of planting............... UGS |) USOS )) TOE | TO eee oclbeaseeslbacocsllsesoue 1903 | 1907 | 1907
pGrowthingting?< (20) ye vst l an. 89 93 85 Soy ee eee eee ts [| Noricera|iawin ene 90 90 87
(Aestivalis X Monticola) x (Ripa-
ria X Rupestris, No. 554-5): :
Year of planting Gye ba oa fe 1906 | 1906 | 1904 | 1904 |......]...... 1904 }...... 1904 | 1904 | 1908
Growtibinating f2 2. Lee ae 96 87 93 92 Ree sede O2 eh ata: 95 89 89
(Aestivalis X Rupestris) X Ripa- d
ria, No. 227:
Year Of Lambie ee see acne ee BLS |e t| atei eSaN ML | T 1905 | 1905 | 1905 |.....
Growthiratings= 2.2.2. So 52) FA Na EINE igs pel Lua UN A FOOT SN a 81 95 CH) IloSaco
Aramon X Rupestris Ganzin, No.1:
Year of planting..............-. 1907 | 1906 | 1913 | 1904 |...... 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1908
Growth rating._............2.. 99 94. |S sees OS iisigeeae 96 98 93 98 90 85
Aramon X Rupestris Ganzin, No.2:
Year of planting............... 1907 | 1906 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1908
Growthinating ss: 2-525. 223... 93 93 97 97 87 83 46 93 98 92 83
Aramon X Rupesiris Ganzin, No.9:
Year of planting............... 1906 |_....- 1904 | 1904 |...... 1904 | 1905 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907
Growthiratmes: 2 228001. coffin uae 95 Talis ese 88 94 67 78 94 95
Aramon X Riparia, No. 143A;
Year of planting ce ay Se pat ER URE ees Sher FOG Atal ipso at |e se nh ee ri ees 1904 |...... 1907
(CROM UME AIM Seem nian amen A CGF RS ea UC [rca TTR reg RSA Tee ae 95
Arizonica Phoenix:
Year of planting............... SLAP Ree pea Ui aaaNe mH ete i (UT Q() Myla cele MILNE TS Lae hia Ua ae (I
AGrowuninawne sf 2 oe SE) al is Sy Mea ea bn ag ANP Nae ON Ah UO Al eo | aa
Australis:
Year of planting-.. 5.22 5.22 1906 | 1906 | 1903 | 1904 |.....- 1904 | 1904 | 1907 | 1903 | 1904 | 1908
Growth rating...........-...-. 91 90 97 OO renee 89 0) 60 89 92 89
Barnes:
Year of planting............... 1906 | 1906 | 1903 |....-- 1907 | 1907 |_.-.-- LOO 7s LGO3 eee 1907
Growth ting gon este esas 98 88 Gans 95 SSH aS des 51 GE) oobose 91
Berlandieri, No. 1:
Year of planting Le NS cared eae ne 1906 | 1906 | 1904 | 1904 |...-..- 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 |.....
Crowther pings eee aa eee 88 | _ 81 88 G5) lloccig te 60 72 78 83 Ce aa

85756°—Bull, 209—15——2

18 BULLETIN 209,

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste 1V.—Resistant and. direct-producing varieties of grapes in eleven experiment
vineyards in California, showing the year of planting in each vineyard and the relative

growth rating—Continued.

Experiment vineyard.

Variety.
§ | &
2 | <
‘S) 'S)
Berlandieri, No. 2:
Year of planting Ba ece OBO Bee 1905 | 1906
Growithiratmee eer eee 89 79
Berlandieri Lafont, No. 9:
Year of planting..-.-.-...--.-- aE SOG" See ere
Growlhenahing eee eerie ice SBN ike yee
Bolan xX Riparia, No. 33
E
Year of planting. ....--.....~.-. 1907 | 1806
Grow ihirabine hee Eee seee earns 92 83
Berlandicns x Riparia, No. 34
iene of plantmg.-.----..---.-- 1906 | 1906
Growbhiira pin peace eee eer 90 90
Berlandieri x Riparia, No. 157-11:
Year of planting. -2 32222452 eee 1907 | 1906 |
Growihinatinetees case ree 99! 86
Berlandieri X Riparia, No. 420A:
Wear of planting = 1s. ates eee 1907 | 1907
Growihina tings een aes 97 | 95
Berlandieri x Riparia, No. 420B:
Vearef planting). 772. 0u lu 1912 | 1907
Grow thirating 200. 10 90
(Bourisquou X Rupestris, No. 601)
x Calcicola, No. 13205:
Year of planting oT ee a 1906" | Seeaee
(Giron7uLy mai See eee oe Oise ame Ce
Cabernet X Berlandieri, No. 333:
Meanoiuplaminn eae sae ae eeee es oeeee eee
(GirowwiGler ayer ete ae ea 2 ad | eee
Caberet xX Rupestris Ganzin, No.
de
Niearion planting oe.) 1 1909s Ree eee
(GhOAHoL impose Loy eee bee Sai athens
Chasselas X Berlandieri, No. +1B:
Year of planting: .---_--_--2..- } MCS ones -
Growthnating 222-5 ee tase) 0) 1c ore
(Corea x Rupestris) X Riparia,
No. 229
Year of lAMbine eee aeee aes: 1906 }_...22
Growihiranin sen pa ane ie HS Se| pee
Columbaud X Riparia, No. 2502:
Year of planting RSs et ee 2 IGS Woe
Growbhirating eee oe Sees e ee GON Seek
Columbaud X Rupestris:
Neanolplantineere. et cenigee o| ec 4- 28 ane
Growithirating 3)... 222-2... - ee nae al epee
Constantia: i
YWearofplanting 22: ss -essss-- 5) 1907 | 1907
Growmbhiratme meses eee 79 94
Cordifolia x Riparia, No. 125-1:
Wear of planvinoseeses sa seas (el O0Gs | sees
Grow bbiraLine cesar seer ee eae OO eae ae
Cordifolia x Rupestris:
Year of planting..............- Halt SOG ese =
Growler oe seers= eee lea SOE ome
Dog Ridge:
Wearofplanting senses eee 1906 ; 1906
Grow.thiatine ease ene eae 97 96
Hotporup:
Year rt (BINNIE see sascodabdse Te ies bees
Growth rating ee sees eee ee oH Oa (ces ain
Judge:
canof planting ee se eee eee | 1906 | 1906
Guowiliranae en asee- eeeeer eae | 85 85
Lenoir:
Year of planting ..........2..-- 1906 | 1906
Growilhrapme as once se so eel 100; 93
Monticola X Riparia, No. 554: |
Year of planting-.............. LORZF Reet
40 ee

Growithiratime sess) seen oe

Lodi.

> °
Dee
Pest qs
S S 4
19068 eee
US \eac sos
19045 S22 522 1905
O38 ences 83
1904 }....-- 1907
Ci ee sons 85
190A a sels k S| see eae
SOI eemet| sees
1904 | 1905 | 1910
75 91 30
Beets ie anee 1907
Bese saccies 85
O07 Semce 1905
etd aie ners 91
1904 }.....- 1904
os Ases 77
1904 | 1507 | 1904
93 85 87
E058 Sears See
DAF | ce caiee oaooee
SoeeU Ae See 1967
Be ey ace es m0 79
Se) ees 1907
be eerellsacioici 94
wera EOS) We oeic ae
Li Sgeee USS eee
warheate eee 1906
eccrine Heese 81
viet) Boas 1905
ere etecaleeee ee 88
1904 | 1905 | 1904
97 97 94
ROOD A a eens a = 1904
Seok 84
1907 | 1907 | 1906
UE 84 66
1904 | 1905 | 1904
95 97 86
OOS |e tees 1904
BZ wie Ce ae 84

Mountain
View.

|

2i14|8
5 5 ay
4 | Ss
sS (s) yp
(o) n mM
TODO seater 98 ore
Somers ce esa
1904 | 1904 |.__..
5 |b Gert ie
TOL eee | 1907
(ey eva ie 74
1903 | 1907 | 1907
93 Ten So
1S 04 pee | 1907
BP) ise, sane 82
1903 | 1905 | 1907
98 | 92] 87
1OOAa eee S| ee
Sole ee Poe
IMD dligswaeallasuee
Aral eal apes
1OOB Noses. 1907
OH ane 84
1904 | 1905 |...--
Oi. pa bees
1906 | 1907 | 1997
87 | 84] SL
1905 |....-- 1908
ON) | Shey 82
1904 | 1907 | 1907
39} 89} 92
1903 | 1907 |...--
96i 90" 2...
ADR A see 1907
Ooh mee 96
1904 | 1907 !.....
Oi ee ieises
a jee wee we eee
1903 | 1904 1907
Sie emo 85
1903 | 1904 |:....
DHal eget £2
1903 | 1907 |.....
90 Ce Pus
1903 | 1904 | 1907
98 | 95) 90
1904 | 1904 | 1907
98! 87! 88

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. 19

Taste 1V.—Resistant and direct-producing varieties of grapes in eleven experiment
vineyards in California, showing the year of planting in each vineyard and the relative
growth rating—Continued.

Experiment vineyard.

‘ s 3 2
= i
Variety. i) = ALS ee | 22 I sh eli
g 4 g S S 2 » I Beh ee | ates
iS 8 a E a 2 3 o> | & S g
Sepia Marrete ) mencsi scare |icsi 4 en ae a (sos
) o = SG S 4 H |S fo) mn | D
Monticola X Riparia, No. 18804:
iiexnol planting. 2 !. 222202255 1906 } 1906 | 1904 }......}-----. | 1905 | 1904 | 1904 } 1904 ; 1904 | 1907
CiD arHnie 0014 ee ee eee 95 84 Cal eee oad Gecned $0: 91 81 89 Fie he 285
Monticola x Riparia, No. 18808:
Wear or planting... -.2-./2..- OOTP tS06/ 1908 tes Se 1905 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907
GrOwilileepine e822 bo! ook 97 90 Oe eer ese Neca 90 88 86 91 93 93
Monticola * Riparia, No. 18815:
Neonat. = Ss. ce 1906 | 1906 | 1904 |_....-}.--..- 1904 | 1905 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 } 1908
= ae TG B11 ae pee eee 96 92 ddl RE eis) eke 95 90 86 93 95 92
otley:
Wearonplamtime. 2252. 5.24.2. - 1906 | 1906 }..-... 1904 |......! 1906 | 1906 | 1904 | 1903 | 1906 |_....
Gromubvrrme sss 2220s ow fers 90 <2) | (eee Sire et | %6 96 90 86 SST
Mourvedre X Rupestris, No. 1202:
MEA OlDIAngine: ies P22 1906 | 1906 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 } 1903 | 1904 | 1907
Growthirating=. 530! 93{ 97] 100} 99] 94] 98] 97] 95} 100] 92]- 95
Mourvedre Rupesiris, No. 1203:
Wearorplamiine- 2-02 ..22222--- 1906 | 1907 | 1904 | 1906 |__-_-_- 1906 | 1906 |---.--- 1906 | 1906 }_....
SANE VA diy 9215 50 ea a ee 99 91 93 Sue seu 81 GI | cesee 98 Bele:
No name, No. 1:
“CESS (OY TORTI (5 eee eee ee ba er se ese I eee Ie tae et eae Pah oercel como BOOS P2s Sees
CCAR EA AE iy 26 Ae lee a erate (ete Ice eyed (Same (Sere Se eee Mercere lari Eerie Lal Mee eich ieeiae
No name, No. 2:
BYSE AIO MapyecatN Citgo ee A eae enna | ea des bes teisalonaenc|cie assfoee see ROOD eS Sea Nese
RS ECRMICMER EEEITS ee ce ee soe eee rces| eee mates ta spo alaeeb-tals capeeec sels -efonsace CHIN ec Mere
No name, No. 3:
TYECRTP? OLE YUASA Se Pe Fe |v Stee Ee Ag Pe ol ea RSOonpe ss sateen
CRIED De ea eee ee (Ae ne SOC cet lee See SESE Mee ee ieee) ic mere! terete SAH es TM Se
ce Bousehet X Riparia, No.
601:
Mean of plarttime sss sso 0l322 GOT poste 32 1OO4 sess abies QS ee ePree oe 1904 | 1907 | 1907
Growimraeng 555 2820 Sess Gti leash: Bik ets beers Obes Se Se ie hes Soo 90; 8&8 83
Pinot < Rupestris, No. 1305:
Meariotininririe:! 25) cee awe 1907 | 1907 | 1909 | 1904 | 1907 | 1904 | 1994 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907
GrowiMrgzemess 2255sh 2 joss 5s 99 93 99 93 89 96 93 94 98 95 94
~- Ramsey:
Wear on plating 20 ere ee) 1906 | 1907 | 1903 |...... 1907 | 1910 | 1907 | 1906 | 1903 |....-.-}-....
Crowdarracine! ° lst. sla ue 90 89 O45) oS 8 88 85 92 94 Co rer Eee
Riparia du Coloraco:
avearon planting. 29). 2225/22 PGOG HES 2222 1903 | 1904 | 1907 |. 1905 | 1904 | 1904 | 1903 | 1904 |.....
Growititratmng -. 5.52. 2 e-4222 SoM eee 72 83 82 51 91 66 66 Chi) eee
Riparia France: {
SCHEV DLALELATES =< - 1j 28 a Sy eo 1906 |.....- 104) hoe Le HOOT £904)! 1904 e222 2 3Pie eee | 1904 | 1907
Generale 322) oe eevee Obie ve Vitec ec 84 74 (SS) Bee Rabeae | 86 87
Riparia Gloire:
Wear ot planting =: o5< 222525222 1906 | 1906 | 1903 |...._-. 1905 | 1904 | 1907 |_...-- 1903 | 1904 | 1907
Grovethnratimg 2-22 02h ines. oe 87 86 Sorel serene 93 82 THE Seen 88 85 75
Riparia Grand Glabre:
Vearot planting: <0 3.057502. 2u POOSIES A 1902 a 1905 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1903 | 1904 } 1907
Gronmiblnnatinig seb ones ae Biege 334 oe O25 | ee pea 85 82 82 74 86 89 83
Riparia Martineau: }
Weamon plaicHes 225s eo 5. 1s TAS Se el DB Dae eA rk Ge ot 1 ey 2) 0 en a ee ee LGA Seer eers
CGrowihiratme yess c28 Ss See [Bis TOE 2c ee Saal aCe BATE oF coe Hees 3 Perec Hen ROOn tase stare Fae Ses
Riparia Ramond:
Meamolp lameness sac oo) 21 TMS S233) eee pan Sea EGOS donate ak a ak LOOGI IE os wep
Grovabaibatmo soos ek Soe) ee (Ped ees ol (Eve | Ea C0) Ye Be eee eter {Me SOn hase. cee bes es =
Riparia Selected:
BY ATION ND EREEEIERO Ror ois her) oe opie: Bale sf ae do Pee ER ARG Se MED poe FURR sabe ales bats WiDOOS: ESS a fjeversic
CCRC AH D TET Ne ey Sa V2 per a SS ee ee eee ter RERh 49 Sars Phe cos
Riparia < Berlandieri, No. 161-49:
Year of planting..........._... SG Hest H AM ee ea eee OE he Po LOOTZEPSEQOH RRs ike es
Growtmratine. 950) 88 fe 95 Crp | NRG Me Beg ape ea Lee net eae 87 1) eee] Eee
Riparia xX (Cordifolia x Rupes-
tris}, No. 106-8:
WGeie GIG Netaiats Nees eee 1906 } 1906 | 1910 | 1904 }...... 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1910 ; 1904 | 1907
CEO VOILE cE Rasa rey ne ne 88 86 93 Sh teoasas 76 85 72 92 90 91
Riparia Grand Glabre X Aramon
Rupestris, No. 4110:
Mearotjiplarintss: = -455. 8 =. LOG leeoese EGOS Ise ee eee 1904 | 1904 |---_-- 1904 | 1904 }.....
|, Growth rafting... 22 002.22-2..-5: TSalbpeeloas 5220 PA iS Ley OP esse [han Lit eae Oe eee
Riparia <X Rupestris, No. 101: | |
Year of planting...........-.--. 1906 | 1906 | 1904 | 1904 |..---- 1904 | 1904 | 1994 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907
Growth rating...!.. 2.22... 22: bev Baha eiil cTQStl Geul ko POLE 07 1. (G5 ileeseet eeeonie OF

20 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Taste 1V.—Resistant and direct-producing varieties of grapes in eleven experiment
vineyards in California, showing the year of planting in each vineyard and the relative
growth rating—Continued.

Experiment vineyard.

ve 2 3 15
LF i=]
Variety. k 5 ig g & fs 3s 3 d
S & A a a eI of as 5 I ay
aS) s mA = 3 2 ESI Se w4 Sg cS)
fs ° = o 3 a fo} o o 5 a}
| & ‘S) ey S & A 4 4 fo) an |
Riparia X Rupestris, No. 101-14:
Wearoh planitin geass. —sese see 1906 | 1906 | 1904 | 1904 | 1905 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907
Growibinaiin gases eee eee 92 92 93 90} .72 90 98 86 94 90 94
Riparia X Rupestris, No. 3306:
Year of planting...........---. 1906 | 1906 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907
Growithiratin cess s- hee eee 94 92 74 96 89 77 80 91 93 93 99
Riparia X Rupestris, No. 3309:
Wearion plantin sae eaeer esas 1906 | 1906 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1903 | 1904 | 1907
Growlhiratino ses eee eee 89 95 95 97 88 79 94 88 92 91 70
Riparia xX Rupestris, No. 108-103:
Mearof planitin seaess sae ee eee ee eee 19068|eeeee OO Gee to ap ae et 0s ee 1905 | 1906 | 1907
Groaythinatin sas eee ee nes seers 0 Seas OT ere chet cb aliascecalescers 93 91 82
Riparia X Rupestris de Jaeger:
SVieaol,plamibin genes ee 1909 | 1906 | 1904 !_-___. UO? | eSeacs S076 Rees 1904 | 1904 |..-.-
(Ghyondamayniaye wooo es 67 91 Qa ile .- ae 13) Sau Soe 7) Seisoed 91 Sila) |e
Riparia x (Rupestris X Aramon)
Jaeger, No. 201: ~ :
Yeariof plantifig. =~ ----e2es-ee" | 1906 | 1906 | 1904 | 1904.} 1907 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907
Growthiratin goes reese eee 99 94 85 95 82 95 93 67 96 89 95
Riparia < Rupestris Ramond:
SWearof plantines se peen teres AGO GAM eh coe UL eA toh ora [iveceteaial|C eee lect 19040) eee aeeee
Growabhira pin sas ee eee CCP A aces tesa PS TS Sut bye i as er Pe el ee aie WO Nites eee
Rupestris des Caussettes:
Weanrof plantings 99222) seee 1906 | 1906 | 1963 | 1904 | 1905 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1903 | 1904 | 1907
Growthinatinggee eee eee 95 94 91 90 92 85 90 78 91 89 90
Rupestris des Semis, No. 81-2:
Wearofplantinge= sores eaereee 1907 | 1906 | 1904 |-.....]-....- L907 |e eeee 1907 | 1904 |....-- 1907
Growth rating.-............... 100 90 OG) sera se cher 9671 SS sake 81 96a soe 88
Rupestris Ganzin: /
Meanlofiplantinos eee UDO Gi ee Ta To IR padi ae Ba NT alli ape TU RR Fe a UGOG Elec aioe | es era
Growthinatine seen SESSA ee |e See | eek = ts cp Dhl ere all spe O35 eeealees ee
Rupestris le Reux:
Year of planting............:.- T9OGH| EAE Cae e alea lee HOGS eee | eee al eke 1GOGH| ese leeaae
Growithiatin ain Seen ae ie I NOS eee seam L/S eee alas SSO ROE AA | oo ON ete aleeees
Rupestris Martin: |
Year of planting.............-- 1906 | 1907 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905 | 1904 | 1904 | 1903 | 1903 | 1904 | 1907
Growth rating._............... 92 83 77 95 79 92 92 75 92 90 89
Rupestris Metallica:
Wear ofiplanitine sss) one 1906 | 1906 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905 } 1904 } 1904 | 1904 | 1903 | 1906 |...--
Growathatin ce eee | 99 92 90 95 95 93 93 82 97 SOR eee
Rupestris Mission:
Wearlofiplantines ss. sere ae 1906 | 1906 | 1904 | 1904 |.._--- 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1903 | 1904 | 1907
(CHOWALN TIE one cokoseaoeues | 91 86 79 Sole ae 8&8 8&7 74 85 81 81
Rupestris Othello:
Wearlofplanting==95. = seeee eee | 1906 |....-- TCO | eset Sopa HOO TA eee see 10045 ee oee 1907
Growitatin cae Seen Re ees Sih ibe coe ee ae Git eae Hears Lee) ee 81
Rupestris Pillans:
SeaMo tpl antin cas eee ee 1906 | 1906 | 1905 | 1906 | 1905 | 1905 | 1905 | 1905 | 1905 | 1905 | 1907
Grow thinahins sess eens 99 92 96 8&3 95 92 93 80 87 82 87
Rupestris St. George:
Wearlofplantino===sse=ere er ere 1906 | 1906 | 1903 } 1904 | 1905 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1903 | 1904 | 1907
Growyblagrartin commen mee 94 99 96 97 95 98 98 87 | 100 87 97
Rupestris X Berlandieri, No. 219A:
Searlonplantingees elon ues 1907 | 1906 | 1902 | 1904 | 1905 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1903 | 1904 | 1907
Growithpneitun oe meee 75 90 82 85 85 88 91 73 83 86 90
Rupestris X Berlandieri, No.301A:
earolplantinve sees neers 1967 | 1906 | 1903 | 1904 |......| 1904 |----.- 1907 | 1903 | 1904 | 1907
Growthiratine a Seas 100 83 85 Opie leads S| emer 88 92 86 84
Rupestris X Berlandieri, No.301B:
Meanonplantin cae. e ee eee 1906 | 1907 |.._... USO4Me Syelee 2 be 1905119059 | paeees eeeese sea
Grow thiratin capene nee eee 92 Quy | Sawers (CYT | S| (i 97 Po as |e alse.
Rupestris X Berlandieri, No. 301-
37-152:
Meavol plantings ess sees 1906 | 1907 | 1904 |......]-....- 1906-|.....- 1907 | 1904 |-...--]---..
Groytlmatin ose ee eee nae 91 89 CYG)is| eee Se a UE pent 82 SSulteoeealecices
Hupestzls X Chasselas Rose, No.
NWeanof plantineyes seer es NGOG! | SOG see Se ee | crepe ee Rea eee OO) el eee netects| ee i
Groyithiicatnin eee eee 91 GG | seat Sed ea ee | Setar ee sae |e aaa ey Ser Oya aeeae| Sado :
Rupestris X Cinerea: ‘
eariof plantings. sear NOD |) WOW |] TOE | spon olagccclscccellsosese 1907 | 1904 |.-.--- 1907

Growihinapin ce eaeee een 60 89 Fey] Pie ea Vn cae pean | = 2 85 (ele ene 92

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. 21

Taste 1V.—Resistant and direct-producing varieties of grapes in eleven experiment
vineyards in California, showing the year of planting in each vineyard and the relative
growth rating—Continued.

Experiment vineyard.
eee & Pa s
Variety. = = 3. . i ;
: : S ke =~ g ee] Ss gS 8
ane) * q o a = : ae 1S g 4
oO 3S a 2) i (2) pel = K °
a= SS o Bb 3 = io} 5 > 4 ra S
ie} i) = o 5 oS ° 3 oO 45
i.e) (S) ee o ie) AR 4H = (e) top) MD
Rupestris X Cordifolia, No. 107-11:
Year of planting.....-.-....--- 1906 | 1907 | 1904 |_.....]..--_. 1905 | 1904 | 1905 | 1905 | 1905 -|_....
Growth mating S— 4. -5-252-2--- 71 89 SIONS deere | Oe 84 94 71 89 Sollee
Rupestris X (Cordifolia X Rupes-
tris), No. 202:
Year of planting.............-- IOV dea Creal tee eSte sels scarlbooosssoscee 1907 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907
Growthirating 2222222 2t 52. 68 91 COTO Ne ee Nyheter tla Ha I 82 85 87 Wal
Rupestris X (Cordifolia * Rupes-
tris), No. 202-5:
Year of planting.....-....---.-- 1906 |...... 1904 | 1906 |_..--- UGG |) WO ee eS ellecan = 1906 }.2:-:
Growihjratine 2-232. a GOs as 90 BO) Ets cae 50 CSS Paine es As a 90) |Beeae
Rupestris X Hyhrid Azemar, No. |
215:
Wearonplanting. 52°55! 522...) 1907 | 1907 | 1904 | 1905 |.....- 1904 | 1904 | 1905 | 1994 | 1904 |-_._.
Growahirabino 2: 5-2 52-35. 93 85 SOu 70 74 83 70. 91 gon | eee
Rupestris * Petit Bouschet, No. :
503:
Year of planting...........-.-. 19063 Reece lee oalbes oe E.)ade AGO A ee, Salis aeolian pelt
Growalhmalime = 9259-222. =- he. (2s | a Sch Se De pao eee COTES re | Ie GE a | | a el nel
Rupestris < Petit Bouschet Jae-
ger, No. 504: - ;
Meanofplanting +. -- 2222422222 Kile sen peleasee 1904 |...... LOO GH Bessie eee 1907 | 1907 |__...
Growitlenauinges 2232502 OG oleae nea 967 Naas OOP Ee |Eae es 94 92) ae
Rupestris X Riparia, No. 108-16:
Wearof planting. - 23232) 52.- GIDE See GOA eet) se SEs aera WE oe soe 1904 | 1904522525
Growithiratiness ss. mosses es. homes Site QU eee sale ccs eleercaee Ce eats 8 68 po La ee
Salt Creek: :
Mearofeplamtimo= - 25. 3 eee 1906 | 1906 | 1903 | 1904 |...--- 1905 | 1904 | 1904 ; 1903 | 1904 |._.-..
Growthimatine.: = 22 252- a25e5 91 87 86 Chi es, 77 92 68 90 84 Weteee
Solonis Robusta:
Meamonplamtin ees sass sees 1906 | 1906 | 1903 | 1904 | 1905 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1903 | 1905 | 1907
Growithimatin gs. 2-22. 5oss2-sie= 84 2 92 93 92 83 88 90 92 90 87
Solonis X (Cordifolia x Rupesiris), ;
No. 202>4:
Year of planting..........--..- NOOO PLIO MW ANGO4 soe =| see 1906 | 1906 |....-. SO GH Sees sees
Growihmatings 62222. ee 60 93 EYE ai ee ae 76 Sa alse aie Koy) Sh be et kee
Solonis X Othello:
Year of planting...--. REAR 5 1906 | 1907 |..-.-. 1904 |.._... 1904 | 1904 | 1904 |.----- 1904 |_..-..
SGVOR AGING. =. steele ee 99 CBs Seiwa OG eapee oes 7 88 Seances US |ecose
Solonis X Othello, No. 1613:
Weanotsplanting =: 2: 4555. seen - 1906 | 1906 | 1903 |-.--.- 1905 | 1906 | 1907 |.._... 903s eee 1907
Growiiwratin ges toe ee Jee 99 96 100 |------ 95 90 O08 anasa 1OOR| Rear 94
Solonis X Riparia, No. 1615:
ear ol plamtime- === ase TCLS |] ICO) |) GOS Neen ee allssconcllansece 1904 | 1907 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907
Growth rating.......---------- 93 90 OGTR Ee tyes oe 91 83 86° 89 89
Solonis X Riparia; No. 1616:
Mearol planting... 2.22545 5s- 1906 | 1906 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907 | 1904 | 1907 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907
Growiinatin ge 235 Sane) 90 91 94 91 86 80 86 80 98 88 94
Taylor Narbonne:
Wearoh plamtinges: eee see-= 1996 | 1907 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1904 | 1907
Crowbiyma tin es aes eee 70 82 89 95 78 70 51 71 91 85 86
Texas:
NCAT ZO MP LANL Meee oe ae ce ce a oe le ae TiCCY0 a5 RE || Pekeenpee| |E enema | ee iene ree
Grower tia ee Sees ee cke salou ae (etar Selene es = TO se ofall ee S| eee cee |e ices ees ee | eee
Tisserand:
Weare Oi jolGhooe eee sa Scacceess 1906 |.....- TOO Aa ee Secale e e s | 1904 |.._..- TOO 4 | Rees eee
oa none PALIN Gee wae sea et QB) | Se Rate CS (ee ane Se ae iste ieee ORE Em late
Fiala:
Year of planting......-----..--- TOS |) Tel) WSO ese sSilessees ICOM ossess|ees sss 1903 | 1907 | 1907
Growihimatin gee 262 oes aes 92 86 CON Sais allem Fil |e oe gk as 97 82 87
Viala X Riparia: 4
Beatson plantings saa eee ae eae Se Sees TOME eso cesles sen. 1904 | 1904 | 1905 1904 | 1905 |.---.
Chron sem atelier Sele ed ae Gena peat Tell eet Bias epee soe 70 77 78 69 S2i eras
Vitis candicans:
Year of planting 1904 |....-.]-----
Growgihuraitingee ac ssen oases! 89 [Mea ara

22 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A number ‘of the resistant-stock varieties have been growing a
sufficient length of time to show what may be expected of them
under similar conditions. In the following lst of stocks that are
worthy of special mention as having made excellent growth ratings
at each of eleven California experiment vineyards, the varieties are
given in the order of their ratings, i. e., the best growers first, and
so on:

Chico Varietal Vineyard.—Lenoir; Rupestris de Semis, No. 81-2; Rupestris « Ber-
landieri, No. 301A; Aramon X Rupestris Ganzin, No. 1; Berlandieri Riparia, No.
157-11; Columbaud X Riparia, No. 2502; Rupestris Metallica; Rupestris Pillans;
Solonis X Othello; Solonis X Othello, No. 1613; Aramon * Rupestris Ganzin, No. 9;
Rupestris Othello; Berlandieri Riparia, No. 420A; Dog Ridge; Hotporup; Monti-
cola < Riparia, No. 18808; (Aestivalis < Monticola) x (Riparia x Rupestris, No.
554-5); Barnes.

Colfax Experiment Vineyard.—Rupestris St. George; Mourvedre * Rupestris, No.
1202; Dog Ridge; Solonis < Othello, No. 1613; Berlandieri x Riparia, No. 420A;
Riparia X Rupestris, No. 3309; Aramon Rupestris Ganzin, No. 1; Constantia;
Rupestris des Caussettes; Rupestris X Berlandieri, No. 301B; Adobe Giant; Aramon
> Rupestris Ganzin, No. 2; Lenoir; Solonis < (Cordifolia Rupestris), No. 202-4;
Solonis < @thello; Monticola x Riparia, No. 18815; Motley; Riparia < Rupestris,
No. 101-14.

Fresno Experiment Vineyard.—Mourvedre Rupestris, No. 1202; Solonis X Othello,
No. 1613; Cordifolia X Riparia, No. 125-1; Aramon Rupestris Ganzin, No. 2; Aus-
tralis; Riparia France; Constantia; Rupestris des Semis, No. 81-2; Rupestris Pillans;
Rupestris St. George; Solonis x Riparia, No. 1615; Aramon Rupestris Ganzin,
No. 9; Monticola X Riparia, No. 18815; Riparia Rupestris, No. 101; Riparia
Rupestris, No. 3309; Barnes; Monticola x Riparia, No. 18804; Monticola « Riparia
No. 18808.

Geyserville Experiment Vineyard—Mourvedre X< Rupestris, No. 1202; Aramon
Rupestris Ganzin, No. 1; Aramon Rupestris Ganzin, No. 2; Dog Ridge; Riparia
> Rupestris, No. 3309; Rupestris St. George; Riparia & Rupestris, No. 101; Riparia
< Rupestris, No. 3306; Solonis & Othello; Lenoir; Rupestris Martin; Rupestris
Metallica; Taylor Narbonne; Rupestris Berlandieri, No. 301B; Berlandieri Lafont,
No. 9; Solonis Robusta; (Aestivalis X Monticola) X (Riparia * Rupestris, No. 554-5);
Australis.

Guasti Experiment Vineyard.—Constantia; Dog Ridge; Lenoir; Barnes; Rupestris
Metallica; Rupestris Pillans; Rupestris St. George; Solonis x Othello, No. 1613;
Arizonica Phoenix; Mourvedre < Rupestris, No. 1202; Riparia Gloire; Riparia Ra-
mond; Rupestris des Caussettes; Solonis Robusta; Berlandieri x Riparia, No. 420A;
Pinot < Rupestris, No. 1305; Riparia x Rupestris, No. 3306; Rupestris le Reux.

Livermore Experiment Vineyard.—Mourvedre < Rupestris, No. 1202; Rupestris St.
George; Aramon < Rupestris Ganzin, No. 1; Rupestris des Semis, No. 81-2; Monti-
cola X Riparia, No. 18815; Riparia x (Rupestris x Aramon) Jaeger, No. 201; Dog
Ridge; Rupestris Metallica; Rupestris Martin; Rupestris Pillans; Riparia x Rupestris,
No. 101; Monticola X Riparia, No. 18804; Monticola Riparia, No. 18808; Riparia x
Rupestris, No. 101-14; Solonis & Othello, No. 1613; Australis; Aramon xX Rupestris
Ganzin, No. 9; Cordifolia x Rupestris.

Lodi Experiment Vineyard.—Aramon Rupestris Ganzin, No. 1; Riparia & Rupes-
tris, No. 101-14; Mourvedre & Rupestris, No. 1202; Riparia x Rupestris, No. 101;
Lenoir; Motley; Aramon Rupestris Ganzin, No. 9; Dog Ridge; Riparia x Rupestris,

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. 23

No. 3309; Rupestris Cordifolia, No. 107-11; Berlandieri x Riparia, No. 420A; Riparia
x (Rupestris x Aramon) Jaeger, No. 201; Rupestris Metallica; Rupestris Pillans;
(Aestivalis X Monticola) x (Riparia x Rupestris, No. 554-5); Ramsey; Rupestris
Martin; Salt Creek.

Mountain View Experiment Vineyard.—Dog Ridge; Mourvedre Rupestris, No.
1202; Lenoir; Monticola Riparia, No. 18804; Aramon & Rupestris Ganzin, No. 1;
Aramon X Rupestris Ganzin, No. 2; Riparia * Rupestris, No. 3306; Motley; Solonis
Robusta; Berlandieri Riparia, No. 420A; Riparia x Rupestris, No. 3309; Rupestris
x Berlandieri, No. 3Q1A; Solonis X Othello; Riparia x Berlandieri, No. 161-49;
Rupestris St. George; Rupestris < Berlandieri, No. 301B; Monticola x Riparia, No.
18808; Monticola X Riparia, No. 18815.

Oakville Experiment Vineyard.—Mourvedre Rupesens No. 1202; Rupestris St.

George; Solonis X Othello, No. 1613; Barnes; Constantia; Aramon xX Press Ganzin,
No. 1; Aramon X Rupestris Gena No. 2; Banlemibent < Riparia, No. 420A; Lenoir;
Monticola Riparia, No. 554; Ramsey; Solonis X Riparia, No. 1616; Dog Ridge;
Rupestris Metallica; Viala; Rupestris des Semis, No. 81-2; (Aestivalis < Monticola)
< (Riparia X Rupestris, No. 554-5); (Aestivalis & Rupestris) & Riparia, No. 227.
_ Sonoma Experiment Vineyard—Dog Ridge; Lenoir; Monticola x Riparia, No.
18815; Solonis X Othello; Aramon < Rupestris Ganzin, No. 9; Monticola « Riparia,
No. 18808; Riparia < Rupesiris, No. 3306; Aramon & Rupestris Ganzin, No. 2; Aus-
tralis; Berlandieri X Riparia, No. 420A; Mourvedre x Rupestris, No. 1202; Monticola,
>< Riparia, No. 18804; Riparia < Rupestris, No. 3309; Riparia « Rupestris, No.
108-103; Adobe Giant; Aramon X Rupestris Ganzin, No. 1; Riparia < (Cordifolia x
Rupestris), No. 106-8; Riparia < Rupestris, No. 101-14.

Stockton Experiment Vineyard.—Rupestris St. George; Constantia; Aramon <
Rupestris Ganzin, No. 9; Mourvedre X Rupestris, No. 1202; Riparia x Rupestris, No.
101-14; Solonis < Othello, No. 1613; Solonis & Riparia, No. 1616; Monticola «
Riparia, No. 18808; Columbaud x Riparia, No. 2502; Monticola Riparia, No. 18815;
Rupestris X Cinerea; Barnes; Riparia x (Cordifolia Rupestris), No. 106-8; Riparia
x Rupestris, No. 101; Lenoir; Riparia * Rupestris, No. 3306; Rupestris des Caus-
settes; Rupestris < Berlandieri, No. 219A.

Table V gives the resistant varieties im each vineyard which are
estimated to have made the best and most creditable growth records
as compared to all the varieties under test. The numbers in line
with each name in the vineyard columns show the relative growth .
rating made by the variety in the respective vineyards where it is
under test. The highest rating is expressed by the figure 1, the
next by 2, and so on. The ratings therefore represent the behavior
of each variety under the conditions existing at the several vineyards,
expressed in terms that permit comparison with its behavior else-
where, and in comparison also with other varieties in the same
vineyard. ‘To illustrate: Of all the resistant varieties at Livermore
the best record was made by Mourvedre x Rupestris, No. 1202
(rated as 1), whereas at Stockton it was fourth best (expressed by
4), and at Sonoma eleventh best (expressed by 11).

24 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste V.—Resistant-stock varieties of grapes making the best growth records, showing
their relative merits in each of eleven experiment vineyards in California.

ee roo) q
5 . >) : ee (e}
She (CS Wes reB Jolene alee || Bais
Variety. SiS) elie al eis) se)! g |e
Sy Sel) ee 3) ae) |) a|/56/8
Oi eOa|} aie |S Sh sh Olnin
Adobe) Giant. 212 esse cee ee ec Bes eae etal eee 5 BCS eae ol ae A he fee I se el een ral Toyieese
Aramon X Rupestris Ganzin:
INO FDS fA Fe ee Re cee Se Be eee ce Neer asl | aoe Maal | Sy PGE BLO aE
IN ON 2 oS AOR ee te ak tiers oe Seals ci Uae eee ree eee eee 12 4 all Metals ole 6 7 Buse ee
INO NOH es Seay ye eis mies o ASTD el ais eres sce ee eee erate Lo Lp reer eal ah Pena La hi Cra cearars ed eee 5 3
Australis 3 2s Suis San eciee saat see sie ney Some eR ee eae eemel eee OL Se eee ELC: 54. seer es |e OE See
IBarmes 6 8828 Se ees Noches oni nee nies Eee Se See 18 |}. TN Gigi} = er A Sere es ee Ay seen leh
Berlandieri & Riparia
INO 34.20 PAU a oe eng aie) Stein Ben a pf CE a WB) By Wssce 5 Joe ol) TU He ate | LO eee
NOS 5 7aU Te Meet? ea See ae ea es Dee leeee| BO ead eae lis | eee ee
Columibards<ekiparia, Non250222 ese saee eee ee (0 eee |e Aa | ee eee locmete Siseeal ear)
ConstantiaS ject ee. See ae ee eee ee eee Salma 1 eee eye ee Shee esa 2
Cordifolia X Riparia, No. 125-1_-.---.-..--.-.-.-.-.-.|-- Rel peernel aot |eemeat eee Fal tee ee ees ee Bee nae asec
Oe RAMS Ree a baka eS er Ee a TEES TS aN ESM Te el Ty a Se
TOM OIn eo eis 2 Sais ese be ec eA BS ere ene ifr}. fe TO ANS esate Gl Sill Gh eezatens
Monticola * Riparia
IN(O2U8804 soe sets 4 ORs Se ete ee SE ence kcal tel eset) (hw 7 ea| (eevee 1 Neeoel| 4 |. Poe se2
INO LBSO82 tosis Sens He RN NE AMID Ee pate In erat rice Ian ne TCG). fee] NA Reh Non ve Se TSS ta als an 6 8
ING. yl SBIB «Sos sos ee i Spm Mg NA a ofp lin aay ece A calpgeylaik- dl? 28) eel ah aa
MOE Ee yie acoso eas Soc Soe GS PCRS Eee eeeee U7 ee SS jee e| Si, | ee | ee re
Mourvedre X Rupestris, No. 1202.................-.-- Dale | The} Wa) eae 3} 2) PR | Sta | 4
IRON A ESE eee era setae Saaubtas saccades Asuna se BSAA SO I SHBo Seo maale ate pa aan jaca Wale Sees
PRU AT 1a GOI aie ee res eo DEC ipsa al ed eee TEARS OR aT a |e RO ep men zs
Riparia X Rupesiris: |
INGO sail Dar oS Sa at nro ere ee | eta .-| 14 Ej Ce an ba La ey. Ra es) al le oe 14
INOS OTST ae eee eee eae ee tap td pe 8 | .--| 14 Pelee Ler § ecscesl bolts} 5
NOMS 3062 Soo Paki ah eae ligt gd Ree lle eee SN sli7al tae lie 7 eer
INORSS Oe oo eke. RE eee ee ae ROE eee PANG |bsl sl arco eee Re ee eet) Seema atl :
Rupestris|des|SemissiNon 812s sees eee 2 Suess lee st LA eel Rae IGE ce lPaee
TRU PeS Eris SM arb 5 ome aimee ree pene red ga ee ree | Seed cos ga Gy (eae SC eee a
RUpPeEStLIsi Metallica: > peewee ha taco aes eee ee eee (fe sere lhe ite ral, 1 Se| eli eee U4 ee aes
FRU UIPO CS ULLS PE TI cae S oem eee slg IR A A eg UR By eee AG al ea Gal cet ON 14 a lest | 8 |e Wis
RU PES LISS te Ge Or cease pee re pe eee eran | WO iO. i NE ie Ne Ma oe ort
Rupestris X Berlandieri: |
INOS OUHACS, oan c/s site Sel eae neg yee eae Ct MSN (see: pte a ore Th eer ee 3
INOHB0L Bah HR ROE TR ee ee ERE Ree Fle | 10 Lt eee AE Ea LG: bee Sar peri
HV UTES ETS) OAT eLearn ae ue ce nag EARN cp Hoa Weta Ng al [hed ne |
IRUPESERIS <<. COrdifoliay INO (7-1 alee see me mree eee ee | meee rere engeane! UE soups bani ICG} ses mi edad is Las
Solonist#Robustaso: 250. = es Ba ee ee ae ep ae '16 | i4 pad Dishes Al. 82 ve
Solomis iO tiellog ss ees ee en ee QU a5 pega LO eee jhe ce i grea Tish gs | ere el |e
Solonis < Othello Nos 1613t1) isk ae ee HD | A> eal) 8) stb) Ss eae 3 | ENG

Table VI gives an alphabetical list of improved American native
and Hranco-American grape varieties which are being tested on
their own roots in the Chico, Colfax, Fresno, Geyserville, Guasti,
Livermore, Lodi, Mountain View, Oakville, Sonoma, and Stockton
experiment vineyards. The plantings are too young to permit the
drawing of conclusions.

TaBLe VI.— Varieties of American native and Franco-American grapes under test on
their own roots at eleven experiment vineyards in California.

[The locations of the tests are indicated by plus (+) marks.]

a : RS ; . |

3S Os 5 a ay = 8 3

¢ “4 Dv as) = ~~

Varieties. it be oy) 28 lige pa eel ele Ne ell ets (| gre ila

gis Sr Suen Sey eel ro Siks alee qd 3

a fo) = 2 1) S Ss ie) =

o ‘o) te) SS) Ss) | = o) RD nD
UM paw aims). 15 c2 5. oe ah PI Sg reer (anaes il eel ee ll ia aie | NLR oe A
JANOME YS S25 3 SOT a mtn AS ies es Re LOR A as LR aS [LNA SIP aa LON eee | ag nee | i Ji apes pee ee
AoxandersWantere. so... shel eae Speen 2 aR cece endl CO Si | | AE eee | eee | Meee Se Peeer bacees
icantelGanzine: 3 202i so. + SS DE Ee | edad Sl [aan eae ems eae a ema RNa @ Lm

Alicante X Rupestris Terrace, No

WY ooa5222029ss29sa5caasqos0055> ar |eevesel|o2s2e He desease [Sat Seno eneaa Ss oases joasces ats
IMME 5 sa 6 ooh CHE CHe ee eee SE i, gh ai aca] RE el eee ee | pee | Re | Pa et eee el IS anes
Mmibers@ teense ssaa- sec eon Tae (Renae [reeregel oho Oe ose te ete (eA in| Dene Me reread Le = he See
SALT DROS 1a Siete ee nee ee es a festa Perea tn) tern rein eee |e a See ee eaSoaalleacacc
eATTIGT DOMLO Meee taco ue a re ee as Alem etre Ne SSeS et heer | A oan ae a er a ere os ec ict :

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

20

Taste VI.—Varieties of American native and Franco-American grapes under test on
their own roots at eleven experiment vineyards in California—Continued.

Varicties. Ss 8 8
@ Peo es
LATICO S Se eee eee ane Se eeesee sie at tee ee
JMR = So SSeS ee See e ee al eee Serene eee ae
J RIC TAGITIG) ARS epee eeer Ae eeeaee Eee eeesiagse (aR e
WAaaISAShee saccee sce Sol See Ss ra aes ats eee
JMPURPD 5 Seb GAR BRS t eR erm ne ese fc al ers Sree bela
IMIGUE SODA BSB oes SECO E See S| eee Panes ieaenete
[UTE (Cae ial pe a oe ree Spal ae ee esc ace
IBACGHTSHA eee ao cee cts eS 28s ee aaa eee
GUO cise oe Gee pe ease ee Seer eee eis irate
ISIE e 4 Ae oe .Unte ceBe bees coomeeieee Se eda s| brates
LEGIIG LC aaa C Sree eee re eee = ake | tae ie ese
IBCLGRIMANS =e = oo vee eee oe en + cee (ee
PROM tees) cicne osha cue = ies Sell eS eicras
ISS CA oe eS eee ee ee Mee eel cerns
HIOMELO PCs e 22 es ee esc s2 Boel base et4| Poses
Bourisquou X Rupesiris:
INOS GOL Re ae ces ast SEO ioe See ala
INOS DDS ee ee eee eres sour ne Am ee
ING, BE (Sea Scere cn eese see rneis a fell Pees eee
INOMAS0 bse Asie eel eT Bas) (Eee | (Be ee
INOR4S808See5 oe 6 cece en es te ca aid erasers [See
ISTE RIO 62 eR espera aon Sas + + +
Brilliante sos4225225222 262s 2 ee ene se steer
@amippelleer esas = tas eet eet she |Seces4| Sasso
Cama ae scien asa aa aeise ele set + = a eee
Carignane X Rupestris:
INO MAU areata == sa enees ee eecec (eee tae
INORG S EGE ae a ae eee cca Sete Paper
Castel:
ING, INS <b cea hocadeteaas aaa Sd ane ey eee
IN@S TRU RES Seka esse eee S| eae Geeta
@atawibae eee sees ses cneeeeesce tse so fe esalaeeas
CRY. cs eascentcooscossaccsesss pte Wanecis| Geen oe
Wentennialia: 2-27 222 2 2s- Sts: + SE eee
Chamipnillaate rss 22sec. 222 gal Pron iat Wee 5 te
@Hampeneie.c 222322242... eo ets | [Ee eee (ae a
RbaimpilOneer ec ccnaq- Sos se n= a a Wal oer chal NBcae
Chasselas X Rupestris, No. 901.--} + |......|...---
GiiirettarWore) Ganzinis< <2 57 oases fe
WIGVEHETA == ae sass ese esse tee seep eae ee
Wlinitonks Wa wes) s2.25 25 ks 2 Sa alee ep) Cy ee
IGE ras ee aise sc shee ee aed ee SAAS +
WOGRCER asso see ae 22 a4 fer ee Gb oe | ere eel ese
Woleraims Asso. Ssecee ee Lee en idee a |e =
WOllieG eae eee soo Tesh es eee ofl eae SIA ee RE
Columbauds< Rupesiris: 2 2...4|2-- 2 ee
CONCORDE eae nee ane Leh es Sein ee nce el SEE
Woninenibalby= tees 52 225258 Sete OR es
Wonmucopiass a5: . jose lssssttet see + See Sean
COICO OS ao See oe ee eee es ae oto al eats Sel Peters ae
Coudere:

ure AN sti. Laren emia ae Sei sats
OWES) oo socdcocnceaccdessosae|beoesellasonee eanae
Delawarel 2... Sees eee om Ssaeae eben
Digit Gre | 5S ie epee Ieee cl eae ees
IPI Chess oes see sare oe ees BE ty Beeisedl Sere
BPMGveVHCUOL,-. =) sc\4ctc once cc cioceess se le senhl etace

IMAG sete o,- sivas 2 s/avetere cisierate + maw [ESL
enmuMMnsone s<..- 5 2ti.sa2eeedassce SE |losccdc|Hecone
Govermor Ross... ..-2:-------.2--- o Ses eee eee
Plerbemonts.< sssseek 2st eee sense DO pes aes +
ETD ene men coe aaece a cas seu sose SS ae eee esas,
LElOxe inane oe Cee ee ee ee go ee ete Bae
RIGISIN ATTIC’ ere ey ek ea ee PSA Enemy (be eis 2
USGI Ee eee te See are eee a beast Sel | cae an
VOTRE BBO E A Sega ie Ce eae neal Peaepne! [ tell ante PIS
ra pASASers pes shee a Se ot US Te

aa | a fee
Sei | | SS
or Ss oi {S|
S S 4

pos aee +
Mee alae Hel Alesha
Grae Ane 1 a
aan ae eee
CORTE SS LS ae
pe ees es ae ak
athe (aie foe | A ae tae
ee el | eee ae
Bagh ie Sey eee
iets eee +
fede seo CP ae
ES ee aes
Beers ae” eS:
igbe Viessc fiat aes
a Vas eae te
Se Bos Galena

shcccs ap becdae
SE
setae esentall wel
Loess ap {bsesbe
Lee Mee Ne eons
aed haeeeell ater

d . : yd
@z] 314618
- 4 f= ~
ae | & 8 a
oF 3 °
S Sy Gia aps
=F =F ap ||-Seaas
Pe RRS |e Dn ae 7 5
Nia een Sie 3 ite eS
aM MRS E aioe
ep melhl| F2 aaNet Gta Nieoaaes
rahe Sys Sed ecard oae—
+ ae ibteee Wensens
SERS Aa ia Pep b eal ae
sececeleaceas + +
ees ere el he ae Ss +
+ = 2 jPeeraeeeyel | eatareate
SF flcsecos ae a=
Bis ystatell arerorevate | eens +
Seep ge sree ese
peeeice Sn eee lseoaao
Be eae emo cel Pteomees AR
SESE Hea el Beet sr
by Seysieia! lle sles 5 =
2 eal ake a SAR Se? 3
Seer ee Serie eee SF
pita sd ll ams aie ial eae
SP |lsszco- Ar +
ie Pea (Se Pa [ee a aI oe
wisjeterats af aN Inte ey ay Sete
SURO ERIE AGT |e
Co el Saat beere crcl ls see
BU eevee BO Bosoac|ioosoG
Bene Sedans leoceaus

adcoec SE. Wbocedeliozcosc
eecsos aE |bosedcllecooce

+*| + | + |------
peel Soe ou accel encene
BoeeA UES [Sc oae ee 3
Ag Lad |S ea as, |e
(Sd ea Mgr ee

26

BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste VI.—Varieties of American native and Franco-American grapes under test on
their owneroots at eleven experiment vineyards in California—Continued.

Varieties.

1
i=)

. . <>) .
¥ g | 23
is] a Bos
oo H >
= r5) or
S = -
1S) i S

Tiginestons ise Senger sakes
Long John

Martha

Maxatawney
IMericad elite ana 8 OER eae
MCEnIMI AG sya oh 5 2/2 ee ORME Naa
Missouri Riesling
MOnmtehorests-e2 msec eee ee aeeee

Plant de Gounay
Pockiington
Presley

ee went eee eee eee eee] eee] eee -|--e eee

'

=
ead oo
a =
nA >o 4
Gs}
s one eZ
‘iS 4 4
Seal Biaocee| Seonae

=I a
Se| 2
He 18
oF a
= fo)
amen ea Saat
Sm OR
Diet ie eee
oe ene ete
ee eee

: rs
Ss iS}
E |:
= 5
Baliye
io) a
seos-c =F
ap jissaces

sodessiisesesallac-esele sass Se |leeanns
PAS NG ht | on eee at sis 3 | pea

ae |leSoedcllbscsasiocossallbacsoollsseacs
sbenGaligecs cn ar |eeSncdilssesociessess
Be) ee tee ee | acetate
Se BF peered yo
ie en aha Ye eae ee re
He 1 Ue FS aa el eee fi a Ae
cond CalbaGiatalt Seb it Sante Setiaal aaa

To grow vines on resistant stocks successfully, it should be borne
in mind that the resistance of vines depends upon the inherent
characters of the vine and its adaptation to soil, climatic, and other
conditions, and that the resistant quality of the stock is very mate-
rially affected by the congeniality of the varieties grafted on it.

CONGENIALITY AND ADAPTABILITY OF VINES.

Two vine varieties are congenial to each other if both top and

root flourish when one is grafted on the other.

(See Pl. X, fig. 1.)

The congeniality would be called perfect when one variety grafted
on another behaves as if the stock were grafted with a scion of itself,
the union being perfect and the behavior of the vine the same as
that of an entire ungrafted plant

TESTING GRAPH VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. aay

The term ‘‘congeniality” as used in this discussion is limited to
the relation of vine varieties to the resistant stocks upon which they
are grafted. To discriminate properly between adaptability and
congeniality and then to determine the congeniality, it is necessary
to know the behavior of the resistant varieties as well as the Vinif-
era varieties on their own roots. If we have grafted vines of which
both the stock and the scion varieties are known to be suited to the
soil and climatic conditions and they do not respond, we know that
congeniality is lacking.

The adaptability of varieties can be closely forecasted, but their
congeniality must be determined by actual tests. Without knowl-
edee of its adaptability to existing conditions, the extent to which
differences in the behavior of a variety grafted on different stocks
are due to congeniality or to adaptability is impossible of determi-
nation. : g

Saccharine and acid determinations of the fruit from grafted vines
have been made for a number of years with a view to ascertain
whether the quality of the fruit is influenced by the stock upon which
the vine is grafted. (See Pl. X.) Such determinations contrasted
with the same season’s growth ratings of the same vines indicate a
close correspondence between these important chemical constituents
of the fruit and the congeniality of grafts and stocks as determined
by observations, and they afford a useful check on the congeniality —
ratings.

Similar growth ratings of a variety grafted on various stocks are
found to be accompanied by fairly definite percentages of sugar and
acid. Under like conditions of growth the sweetness and the acidity
of the fruit, as well as its time of ripening, are materially influenced
by the congeniality of the scion and stock. The saccharine and acid
contents are two of the leading considerations in the money value of
the fruit.

In determining the relative congeniality of vine varieties on diverse
resistant stocks, these and the relative quantity of fruit produced,
the difference in time of ripening, the relative healthfulness and com-
parative durability of varieties on different resistant stocks, and the
relative amount of wood produced are some of the considerations
that appear most important.

BEHAVIOR OF GRAPES GRAFTED AND ON THEIR OWN ROOTS.

In Table VII, column 1 gives (1) the variety name, and indented
under it (2) the name of the resistant stock on which it is grafted, or
if the variety is on its own roots the fact is so stated. Column 2
shows the experiment vineyard in which the growth was tested, use
being made of the following abbreviations: C for Chico, Cx for Col-
fax, F for Fresno, G for Geyserville, Gi for Guasti, L for Lodi, Li for
Livermore, M for Mountain View, O for Oakville, S for Sonoma, St
for Stockton. Column 3 shows the year in which the stock was

28 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

planted, thereby indicating its age, and column 4 gives the year of
grafting. Column 5 shows the congeniality, or the growth of each
variety on the different stocks, expressed in the form of a percentage
rating, on a scale in which the growth of the variety when not grafted
but growing as an entire plant on its own root under conditions to
which it is well adapted is taken as the standard of excellence, that
is, 100 per cent. ‘These ratings therefore represent the behavior of
each variety grafted on the several stocks under the conditions exist-
ing at the vineyard at which it was found, expressed in terms that
permit comparison with its behavior when growing as an entire
plant on its own roots under favorable conditions and not based on
a comparison with other Vinifera varieties grafted on the same stock
in the same vineyard. The rating in each case is the average
rating made in different seasons to and including the autumn of ©
1913. To illustrate: Alicante Bouschet, grafted in the Oakville
vineyard in 1906 on different resistant stocks, on Aramon < Rupes-
tris Ganzin, No. 1, was rated at 91; on Riparia x Rupestris, No. 3309,
at 88; on Mourvedre < Rupestris, No. 1202, at 72; and on Riparia
x Rupestris, No. 101, at 55. This shows that Alicante Bouschet,
which is well adapted to the conditions there, when grafted on these
different stocks at the same time, under the same conditions, in the
same vineyard, and with the same treatment, varied in growth and
behavior in comparison with the same variety on its own roots in
accordance with the above ratings. Column 6 gives the pruning
method, s being used for spurs and ¢ for canes. Column 7 gives the
weight of prunings per vine; 8, the nodes bearing fruit; 9 and 10,
the growth-starting dates in early and late seasons; 11 and 12, the
blossoming dates in early and late seasons; 13 and 14, the fruit-
setting dates in early and late seasons; 15 and 16, the fruit-ripening
dates in early and late seasons. Columns 17 to 21 give the fruit per
vine for the seasons from 1909 to 1913, inclusive; 22, the average per-
centage of sugar, Balling scale; 23, the average acid, as tartaric, per
100 c. ec. Column 24 shows the size of the clusters, m indicating
medium; m-—l, medium to large; 1, large; v, very; s, small. Column
25 shows the shape of the clusters, whether round (x), cylindrical (cy),
long (1), or tapering (t). Column 26 designates the density of the
clusters, whether compact (c), medium (m), or loose (1). Column
27 shows the size of the berry, whether large (1), medium (m), or
small (s). Column 28 gives the shape of the berry, whether round
(r), oval (0), or oblong (ob). Column 29 shows the color of the
berry, whether black (b), red (r), or white (w). Column 30 indicates
the purpose for which the fruit is used, whether for table (t), ship-
ping (s), Juice (J), wine (w), or storage (st). In this table the nomen-
clature of varieties has been brought into conformity with the code
of the American Pomological Society in so far as it has appeared
practicable.

29

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

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BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

30

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BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

32

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96 “TVW | GT “ABA | 9 04 €
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33

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

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Ves ANBEFS! || cay MaNCle |S} Pee Res ess ee Avw | 1% AvW | Gt ACW | oe “Ie | OL “ew | GT s 64 LO6T L061 Lie WE OTE acta es ae ac qUeIy eqopy
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4g deg | 22 3dog | ef ounr | T oung| g oun |\-"-~ ODES al ie epee 61 “TVW | $O1€ | 6'T s 98 OGL || OBIE. J @ Petes eeecoseeees 98100}) “49 Slajsodny
G "400 | 0¢ 3dog | Fr oung | og Av | ¢ oung | 9g Av | op-""| $e | 9% s 18 G06T £06T (0) ga era tern SRS OS UOC AP Iowo'T
ro “ydos | st ounr | #2 AvW) ¢ ounce] 6t Avi" 8ST “AVL | FOS | Fs s €8 2061 FO6T (Oy eases eis OS EON espIy sod
0¢ “3deg | 6g “sny |---- op--*| 26 Aw |---~ op-"*| 3@ ACW | OF “TeW | GE “Tey | St [ecg ste PONSA oO |e oye ae eee $]001 UMO
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ez 4deg'| 9z ‘sny | ¢ ounc | te Avw| oe Av | zz Aew)¢ “adv | st “wen | So ag [aerate Hele ias F061 1 asl ete arama ra ae eae a Oy $1001 IM Q
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¢ “400 | so 4dog | et oune | g ounc|] T oung | 92 Avy jo 0G “IVIL | ¢ 012 (6 s 68 9061 F061 OA See es oUnOqIBNY 10TAR I,
@ 4deg | cg ‘sny | ce Avw | ez AvWw | st AvW | eI AVI | 82 “AVI | OT “Ie | 90 € | 6T 8 18 906T FO6T a OTOL ‘On “erwedry &X srumojog
OT 490 | co -adeg | pr ounc | og Av | eo oun | Fo Avy | 61 “VW | 90S | 6'F SO | 6 G06T £061 (Op petra serene eee ear ““od
61 ‘Idog | po “Bny | 62 Av | 12 AvW | OT Av | et AVI | OF “IVI | Et “WW | 901 | 6% 8 cg CO6T £061 Re 931005 “1g stysedny
02 “3deg | zi ydeg | gz Avw | ze Avw | st Av i op---|}¢ cidy |g “ww |] 908 | 2% iS 68 9061 FO6T @ |°°777 77 60g ‘ON ‘stysednyy & eraedriyy
61 “4deg | ¢o -Bny | 92 Av | oc Av | ot Sew] or AeW | T “wdy | It “ww ] 9018 | 1% S 8 GO6T £061 Gil Gee awke dea ee aera OMLOTD BIIVdIYy
GI 400 | 92 4deg | zr oun | cz Avy | Tt oung | 6f AvwW i 6I “AWW | GOVE | 87% s 68 CO6T £061 (OMe cere acer es cee ee od
61 “Idog | pz “sny | 62 AeW | 02 AeW | 02 Av | ST AVI | 8 “Ie | 8ST “VW | 991 ¢ T 8 8 CO6T £061 TW Gl MER CR Sie aes a eee a ea qoue'T
¢ 400 | 42 4deg | T¢ ounr | og Aew | T oung | co AvW i 6L “IV | FOS | Gg s‘0 | 96 9061 F061 (CW ieee emer eee CRS od
a?) GT dog |= <->: Op = "| eg Avy |----" op--*| ¢t ABW |--"-"Op-**| I “ww | 907 E | 2% 8 18 906T POT i ar nee mee ence eR espIy Jog
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12 4deg | cz -Bny | 1e Avw | cz Avw | or Av | et Avy |----* op--"| 6 “Ae | GOVE | 6 T so | 28 9061 F06T ia She st anes cise r meee query eqopy
po adeg | e¢ ounce] og Avw i ze Aew| se AeW |) Tt “adv | pr “ae | Se0 Salter. sa oes CO6T 19 ye te RPE T AA RES PR ea ee ea nies $1001 UMO
sessoleqivegd
# 300 |-“""op""*| Gr ounce | Z ounr | ¢ ounce} 92 Aw |---------- To “Jew | $018 | &F s £6 906T F06T @) cis POR GSS cere sug IeN IopAvy,
1 “400 | @ “ydeg | sz ounr | sz Avw | OL ounc | Eg Av |----- 77 SI “AV | G Ole | Fe s 68 9061 F061 (Olmert S 9T9T “ON “ertedry X stwojog
GI “4deg | pe -sny | gz Avi | po Av | 22 ACW | LT ABW | OF “EW | El “Iw | ¢ 91g | 2'e s 06 GO6T. £061 i = |SES TERS RA Sama Sy as.10a4) “4g staqysodn yy
IL “390 | 06 “3dog | Fr OUNL | g oune |---~~ QP Gig Aieigy [Poe sees SI “AV | pOVE | G's sO | sg 906T F061 Om Sa tan 60ee ‘ON ‘sryjsedny X wrivdiy
6 “400 | €2 ydog | or oung | 2g Av | ¢ oun | 7 AvwW jo 0S “WIL | OLE | FP s 06 PO6T F061 Oyae| Seen es TOT ‘ON ‘Styjsodny X eraredryy
Te “ydog | ct oung | gz Avy | or oung | #2 Av |------ 7 61 “Ie | FOE |G S €8 806T. £061 (ON oes eee ae meno aaa IOue'T
OL “490 | gz dog | st ounc | og Avy |[---~ (Oya yes (ORES | PESR Seago soar OD ge clean € oT s G8 9061 F061 © ae a sae eee es eSPIY, 80
¥ “400 | 22 3dog | po ounf | g ounce] g ounr | 9¢ Avi |----- 77 0G “IVI | $01 | GE s 06 906T F061 O | "TON ‘urzueD srysodny X Uoure.Ly
Gz 4deg | or oun | 62 Avy | - oun | ce Av | 8% “TVW | PL “WWW | s Myer. eOser ago Ao |] (Hay fperPsees Sa poses ease $}001 UMO
3101 Be
OT “490 | 9% -4deg | oz oun | gz Avy | 8 oun | ee Avy |--"-°"--- "| - * -Opr- | GOS g s 06 9061 | 9061 (OS eo caer ees eum IVN LopAvy,
8 “400 | 8g ydeg | gt eung | 9g Av |-~-"op---| 0c Avi |--77 77 16 “IW | Goes | Fe s 46 oe || Use |) |) Peeos@enace’eces e109 “49 stxysedny
9 “400 | sz -4deg | oz oung | 6g Avy |"--"op---| ez Avy |---7---7 77 OpseslOle ls Exe iS 06 GO6T. £061 Oye PAP o RPE RA Coee Be aiean aye Wri ia TOWO'T
OT “490 | 92 4deg | 1g oung |, ounr|)¢ oung] oe AvW |----""-"-"| FS “IIT | FOS | Ee s 16 SOC a) HOGI GAOk a amieemnw eer ce osprey 30d
fo 4deg | 6z “sny|}g¢ ounce | 6c Aew| og Avw | re Avi | sz “Te | ST “Jew SORE | (POR e ROR eae FO6T INO) IPRS C2 oS prelacie Ape che S}O01 IMO
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OT 490 | 0g ‘adeg | ct ounr | og Avy | F ounce ‘Ieyy | Gove | S's s 88 LO6T F06T O= |ReSPeeees soe oe paisa eo Towo’T
BOER E abode ac Dacacue pesQoeoeTo}ao 20000 ot Bee Ti | ae escent ae sD | 08 1061 L061. TROD pee a peat ss Sees VTE) edo y.
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| | ‘Meysy

BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

34

9T “100 Fae eee | 8 AvW 06 “te | --7 "+ e's 98

8 ‘0 | Fe 3deg | FT ounc | 9g AvIy | T oune | Te Avw |" -~ "7 7) 8 “Av | €.02¢ g a6

OG ania. op--*| 0g Avy | ao AvW | oc ADIN | er ACW |---op--*| BT “ze | GORE | 2°86 18

02 3deg | Ge “sny | 2g Avw | ce Av | Of ADI | OT AVIV | Ge PIN | 2 “IVI | GOT | 8'T 18

0g ‘Idas | 93 Ydeg | er oung | gq AvIN | 1 oun | 7 Av | > fT “IV | G OLE | F's £6

6t qdag | oz -Bny | ce Avw | cz Av | Oe ADIN | OL AVN | 8% “EW | OL “PIT | Gore | L'6 63

pas kiana ate Salll getee nee sl: vega sc VG ACH NS Sees ot (UG: ee ihieercaces. fo oR

ie “ydag |-----op-*-| 23 Av | #% Avi | ops} 8 Av | T cady | 2 “ae | 9078 iy G6

OT “3eg | Gz “sny | so AvIN | Ge Avy | 0g AVIN | GT AVIT | so “teW | Op | GOT Ee | T's 06

1D eee XO yg aaa ae go Av | 2 Av | er Avy | op 7] cL “eI [|g £6

0g deg | ce -sny | T ounr | po Avw | 9¢ AvIN | of AvIy | T cady | 9 “ww | 9078 | oF 88

Ge adeg | og sung |g ounp | T oun | 9g Avy |---| SE ae | G ole | GF rai

er ydog | oa sny | $2 Av | te Avw | or Av | at ACW | Of eM | 2 “ICN | 9018 | eT 88

8 100 | 92 "3deg | st oun | 6% Avy | 8 outy | Fa Av fo] be ACW | OVE | ere 18

0 fe ‘any | 4 oun | og Avi | 62 ACW | ST Av | 2 “dy | FL “eM | Gorge | 1'¢ 06

02 “3dog |----op--"| T oun | pe Av | -- op"**| OT AVI | 96 “WeW |" "Op "=| HOLE | Gp {6

12 ‘9deg | o¢ “Shy | te Av | Oc AvW | Of AvIT | ST ACW | 8G “eM | eT “CW | Gol eg | eT 88
aes a eet ee [i Nae Ae fae ea Pd MepbsoeceS oe NS 16 ACW. Ese Niece peta | ae ae to ay

‘od =| 63 “Ydog | 11 oune | sz Avw |} T oun | eg Avy SI “VW | 01S | eT 8 gs

OL “390 | 9 4deg | OT ounf |----op"--] Te Avy |= ---ops |e o 7) OL IRI | GOS | 9% S €8

‘oq =| op] a ounr | 26 Av |----“Op"**| Go ACW |*77 7-77] GE “eW | FO1S | 87% 8 88

ST “190 | 83 ‘3deg } og ounr | Fe Av |g one | 0s ACW | PG AVM | FOG | 9'e 8 06
ge ydeg | ot ydeg | 2 oun | 6g Avi | os Aci | te AvI dibea LGINGS come cer alge cia ee ame eal Sees

8 400) |) Op |) Ops) Fount | ope | 8a ACW | ess 2 Gl eI | Sole | sth 8 ras)

OL “200 | Ge Adeg | Gt ounr¢ | gg Avy | T oun | 7g Avy | 7 77" “| 8G ey | OLS | GF 8 £6

FZ “4dog | 0 4dos | GE oung | Fe AVW | to AvIy | 6 ACW} °° | GL “RIN | £018 | Eg s‘o | 06

Z “200 | €@ 4dog | og oun] g ounr |g eunp | 2% Avy }---*---7- "| LE “EN | POLE | oF So} 26

06 ‘ydag 9G “ony OL sun | TE ACW G oune | 9% AVI (tA SUIT IP AGT Saal, OSS Se eS OS aS sO 98
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35

THH VINIFERA REGIONS.

GRAPE VARIETIES IN

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BULLETIN 209, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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OG COCR ess spree Nae siento apoio 1@ AewW |). ‘Ady | 9% “sew
eo"adag |g “ydag [o----777-" 6 ump jo" “)e eung |) dy | Tr veW
od (fe; UNGKEIS| [P29 op"-*| s@ Avy |g oung | ec Avy | -- “71 0G “1B
g “100 | Fo °9d09 | 0c ung | 22 Ae | 8 ounc | co Avy |---- 7 61 “Ie
T “300 | 82 3deg | 21 oung | Fo Avy |g oun | oc Avy | ----7 LU “Te
9¢ ‘ydeg | of oung |"-"*" op---| G oun | cz Avy |-------7-- 0% “ARI
#e gdog | gt deg | ef eung! og Ae) 9 oune! 02 Aew]T Ady | op*-"
Sige ots T ounce] Te Avy | og Avw | 9c Avy | sc “AVI | FL “EW
OL “00 | Sz deg |----~ op---] og Avm | tT oung | oz Aew |------ >” 0% “ley
9 300 | ro -4deq | gt cung | 92 Avw | og AvW | Ie Av | op---
ye -4deg | cy deg | ot eune |-“opr*"| — eunt) 9¢ AeW | 6 “Je
9 “40 | 86 °4deg | oT eunr | Og ABW | G ouNg |" OD Rae sir kes 66 “AW
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F 900 | Gt adeg | ct oung | og Av | G oun | Go Avy | 7 61 “Ie
Z 0/01 4de9 | F ounc | co Avw | re Avew | 6E ABW | op-*-
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37.

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TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REC

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BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

40

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2 WAGE ee ne danas | oa peerless alone | ea AE a oe 3 O80 3 OUYUTIOD
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ez “‘adeg | 21 ‘adeg |----------| 6 ounce] ¢ oun ki one: Lore tee : qoudy 2
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sIBYG JON nveqio()

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BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

H

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er “490 | ¢ 400) St eunr]) 8 oun] p oung | ge Avy [7 €% “IVW | FOL | Zh s £6 6061 | F06T (ONS | bacee “""-9T9T “ON “eraedryy X srmojoOs
OL “300 | 82 4dog | 12 oung | ge Avy | oun | ce Avi “IW | HOS | E'S S 68 CO6T | 8061 O} . ete ee ssetes 177981001) “49 srqsodny
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gz 4deg | 02 dog} 4 ounrg| te Av} T ounc| sg Avw | se ew | Sf “WeWl | eee cis FOGE: i sr): eee eee Sea alee Saaeles $}001 UMO
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144 dog Phe pete “12 ount] p eunL |) G OUNL} go “Te | po “AB | Fae [elem nag saa | eatin Sake FO6L 1519 visy isostatic bitacieas pel Fie $001 UMO
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45

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

FT “490
02 “390

9z 9dog

b 400

Of “PO

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0c adeg | It oung | Tg Avy} 2 oung | sz AV |} 6S “IV | ST “Wey rae ae s
cz ydeg | 12 oun | og Avy | 8 ouNe] Te Avy [7777 “| $6 “RW | $04% | SZ s 88
eT ‘adeg | 6t ounc | 2g Avw | ¢ oung | ge ACW I~" """" "| @@ “ARI | 907% | oe s 68
ABS kg €¢ oung | 62 Av | 8 ounc | po Avy | °-77 777-7 Op" | GOVE j s 88
1 deg | Te oung | OT oun | 9 oung | se Avy fo SHPO IH OMS | BAS S 18
Go des | og Sew | se Sew | ro Ae | T “dy | pe cae | Nae ll ey hs aimee
er “200 | Og oun | 6 CUNL | ET oune] fF oUNL |--"---"""") BT “WEN | 907g | 1% S 98
1z ydeg | gz oun | OT eung | Tf ounfe]} 9 oune |------""""| z “ae | G OFS | Ze s c6
or ydog | 6z Av} se Avw | oc Avy] cr AeW } Gz “ze | €r “ew | GOs | Ss S'0 | 98
er ydog | og Av |} 9c AVI | co ABW | GT ABW | OF “eI | 8 “WwW | $047 | OF s‘o | 26
of adeg | ¢ oung | ge Av | -- op} 21 Av | tT ady |} 9 “wep | G02% | ST $ cg
“-op--"| T oung | ce Av | oc ABW | St ABT | "Op "| aL “zeW | $07z g 8 £6
or dog | re Avy |----op""*) zo Avy | 0c ABW | Go “IU |S “UW | 9078 | ST S | @
mee op-*"| sq Avy | 9c Avyy | ee AVI | PE AVI | OF “IB | 8 AW | 904% | FE sO | 66
ct qdog | 62 Avy | to AVI | 12 Av | OL ABW | 8% “rey | ->" op--*} 907€ | €'E s 88
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7

TIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BULLE

46

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47

GIONS.

=

a

a

(cj

TESTING GRAPE VAR

oT
6
GG
8

9 “400

A) is | eee ase

‘dag | et deg

MD. On |e Des
00 | 2% ‘ydag

VO Sa pales where
400 | ¢z ‘adaa

9g “dag

490 | 83 “ydeg

400 | Og ‘adeg
“100 | 8G “4deg
"190 | 43 “1do8
ydas |} 9 dag

0% 4deg | 6L ‘}des

ao “4dog | 8g “sny

T

ii

G

86°

OO | a dog
‘oO | oe 4des

‘pO iz dog

lag | 2% ydog

06 ydog | cg ‘sny

¢z “4dag

96 “dog | 8 “4dog

9

WO | 6 “4dag

“ss-opr
ST ounr
0g sun
6T oune
0% oun

8 oune

8 oun
OT oune

¢

9

&%
0€
qT
PS
9

# 3deg |g oun | Fz
GT oune

IL oune | Fe

aG

Gianaog putas 4 | ae

68 “ydag |-""°

SEIIC(Cy 9

8

ts
8

eune

oune
eunr
oun
eune

ARN,

eune
feeoprt

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ACW,

oune
oune
aune

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sQpet

8

gel ON Oe fey
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g

eune

oun

Po ARI,

G

aun

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1s Av

8

pees Oa

g AD

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&

ka

aune

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g ACW

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|
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PG
Or
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oun
ADIN
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ACW,
ACW
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AQ
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AGW oe

ACW

ACW
ABIN
ACI
ACL

Avy | 8

serssgprec[esreeseee:

seee-opet-

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96

ARIE

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66 9061
08 6061
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98 9061
66 606T
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68 COBT
FL 6061
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QL 606T
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BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

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9 300 | 20 ‘4deg j-*--Op-"") g ounr) F oun, Eg AB [Opt | OTST | Tz 8 98 906T F06T
OL 300 | 0g 4deg | 02 ounr | os Av | Te Av | 0c ABI | ---+7 0% “RN | G OVS | 21°E 8 68 GO6T £061
‘og «=|-*--op-**| og Sew | ye Av | 0 AvW | tr SUN] T adv | er eM | ool | 21 8 88 GO6T 8061
61 ‘dog | #2 “Bny | 6 Av | e@ Av} st Sew | St AVI | OF “IEW | FT “eI | 7022 I s 08 GO6T €06T
‘og =| 22 4dog | #1 ounr | 2~ AeW] Ee ounce | ee AvP | -- SI I | 701s | 8's 8 06 GO6T G06
¢ “400 | sz 4dog | cr ounr | og Avw] Te Av | ce Ae |------ 7 LT “eW | 901g | GP s 06 906T F061
02 4dog | #2 “Sny | * oung |] 9% AvW | 0c Av | oF ABW |----op--*| er ae | 9 ¢ ¥ s 26 GO6T £06T
Fr ESO) 0) ac pe | cee a | at Se eae 9% AC pant O Sane lls (Gh nel CAT: | epareansensas | oa: ae Si cl haeapte mov ie came a L061
ge ides || eune | Te Sem | 6c Aer | St Se |----ops94| ep -aeyy [lore Ses siaseaes=| cosy
Gz “4deg | ct “deg |--- 77-7" ¢ ounce | og Aen | 92 Sew | T cady | op caepy [reveeec [eters] Sete teoneoee| p06T
OE Nea ae oes aa |p me al ce ng oe aa ag peace OS EOS I OGGE Keira 8 06 TI6I FO6T
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L “400 | 8% deg | oz oung | Gz Avy | of ounc | 0% Av |------- 7 0S “IV | 90718 fe 8 98 LO6T. PO6T
OT “400 | 62 “deg | Gr ounL wz ‘Ie | -o1z | 82 sg | 88 906T FOBT
6 00 |"~*-op*~-| 9g oune 6 WeW | $01Z% | LP s 06 GO6T S06T
9 “JO | GZ 4deg | st euns 0% “IV | $01zG 2 s‘o 16 CO6T €06T
GI “100 | 62 Ydog | 6 ouns PZ IRIN | POLS | ZF s‘o | 16 9061 F06T
% 300 | 02 Ydeg | 4 oung | T oun | Te Avw | so ABI | se Tew |--> Op |store SIS 2 eS oe [capes Gs eee F06T
0g 66 “ydeg | cf oung |----op--"| T oung | Gg Av |------- 7° ze wen | gore | 27 s 8 POGT F061
GT 400 | 0g ‘4deg | ze ounc | 0g AVW | OT ong | Fo Avy |-----7 7” 6r wewW | ¢o1z | 6T s 89 9061 061
Ga 10 Ol eee ices ae (0) Ora reasoner an iL @wgMyP ere 088 03 “IeW | eog | 6° s &8 6061 | 2061
TT ‘490 |} T “400 | 02 CUNL |g ouNf] T oung | GZ Sv |---7- 7-77" 12 wen |eoe | st s 28 6061 | 206T
OOO Mas eon (te May oF S588 ome NOT Ng |e teens a eee NS op 601% Zz s 06 C06T 8061
OL 300 | 62 4dog | cI ounfe | g ounf|] 7 oung | 9¢ Ae |---- 7” “---op--*| @o1g | PT s 6 GO6T £061
omic oon sl peace grees SOD pea Ga OUnl (Ml Ge MOUTD py lnemese aceasta lies etac |e a s 19 6061 | 2061
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49

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA -REGIONS.

12 ydog | og “Sny =") @ our

4 “400 | €@ 4deg

9z “ydeg

8r “490

02 “ydeg | 21 “ydog

61 ydog | 6 “ydog
‘od =| or 4deg

02 ydog | p ydog

61 “dog | OL “deg
02 “4dog | ¢ dag

et 4deg
9T “400

oz ydeg | 3 “adog

Oz oung | 2g Avy
ZI ounc | 0g Avy

wt oung | ¢z Avy

1% oung | 1% Avw

Stas ye exenae

Siero T oune
G¢ ounr | sz AvWw

g ounce | og Avi
p oun | gz Avi
py oune |] oune
€ oun | gz Avy
9g oun | OT oun
1 oun | 92 ABW

IT oung | 6z AVN
Br oun | 0€ AVW.

ce eunf | gf ouns
CU MOUIII (| gees OO eane

2% “ydeg | pr ydog | of oung | ge Aeyy

eee.
T@ “40g
tr “490 | 62 “dog

See a Gomalyp
Rea ee | @ ounr
OT ounr | 0g Av

66 Aviv

62 ACW

@ oun

ss sop7--

ACWW
AV,

AVW
ACW
AVW
AvW

oun
ACW
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ACW
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Av
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euny
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oun
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BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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61 -
06°

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Tao) fee pete:
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10 | gz “deg
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AUG eySt It 220} got
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cei GAGAYL |) GUAM | See URE JOS jos >| eeseee or LT ‘Ici
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4 ounp | 8¢ AvW | 42 Avy |°---op""*|¢ ‘ady | 8 “weMW
F oune | 2z Av ZG ACW, 02 AC IT wdy | 2 ‘avy
OL eunr | og Avy | Og Avy | ez Av | ¢ sdy | Fr cacw?
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ol

THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

TESTING GRAPH VARIETIES IN

It “290 | 02
IZ
‘0d Go
IT “200 | I@
G6
& ydeg | Gz
Ol 400 | 91
G "JO |
OL “400 | &
141 “00
Ta “3d9g | 92
ie "400 | &%
OL
9%
02
F 100 | 12
OL 400 | GZ
ez ydeg | 02
F 400 | &%
‘0d
06 “ydeg | ar
Io “200 | LT
61 “ydog | OT
Vi wthayoy a (h4
0d el

02 “4deg | ST
61 “‘adag | eT

0¢ “deg | FI
gz “ydeg | ar
6 200 | 92

02 4deg | 21
€ “400 | 92
Od

6T
‘od 9%
‘0d GG

6 “1deg | 02
Go “400g, | re

8Z
Go “deg | Fz
OL “90 | Z

‘qdag
‘qdag
“ydeg
“qdeg
ydag
‘Dny
“ydeg
“ydeg
“deg

St -opi

“Sy
“ydeg
‘WOO
‘sny
“qdeq
“qdag
“ydag

deg
“ydeg

topes

“ydag

dog
“ydeg

“~O

gf ounr | F oune
ae of Av
og oun | gz Avy
eo oun | Og Av
0% eunr |g oung
Serge” "| % oune
02 eunr | Gz Avy
6r ounr | §o Avy
oz eunr | Og AvP
Se pene @ oun
SHER SS I oun
GI oung | * oune
GT oung | 2 oun
poe eee 9g ABW
FL oun | 8 oun
0% oun | Gg Avy
PL ung | 6 oune

g oun | 2% Av
GT sung | 9% Avy

“-""op""*| gg ABI
06 AVN | 3 ABN
ame |G) OUN,
82 AVI | 2o ACW
et ounr | og Avy
@ oun |--"-op*--
8¢ Av | 92 Av
@ oun | eg Aww
Og Avy | 9% ART
Be ue OG gg oun
92 AvW | ee ABW
€T oune | Z oun
SRS Saas eons
Z oun | 9g Av
OL eune | 62 ABN,

16 AVI
92 ABW | 22 Avy
ge Av |" “ops -”
8 AVI | 16 ABIL
y oung | oz Avw
ST ounr | Fe AR
SECIS oye hniglly

gz oung | 62 Avy

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IE oung | Iz
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92 Av | ET
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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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53

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

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BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

54

[lit HBKEIS} |} (Of Ankles} FPP ees @ oune; oe Avy | 12 Avyy yo" op*| Tl “IeW
USNC GR SRI SS San op} eo Avi | oe Avy | 8 cady | st “sew
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59

THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN

22 “4deg | or “ydeg

sores = VOpss>

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sr ‘ydeg

‘od #o sny | oo Avw | st Avw | cr Ae | cL “ICL | G 046
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OT deg] ¢ “sny | oz Avw | 12 Av |°---"Op"- "| GT Go lew | 9 “eW | 9 01%
02 ydes | 92 “sny | 3c AvIN | Fo AVI | SL AVI | eI “IVA | L “Ae | L098
8 390 | Go 4deg | 91 eunr] sz Ae | Fr oun | go Av} 7-7 GS “AV | $ 01%
66 “sny ekegs es ey ag ae a he ES OOS ya entertain HG CopedoL TATE | eO) OsLac
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8 400 | 3c 4deg | er eunc | 62 Av | te Av | es ACW |-~--"--"-"] GS “Ie | F047
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‘od oo sny | Go Avy | 6t Av | OL Avi | OL “IeW | FL “Ae | $012
6r 3dag | 03 “Sny | 62 Avw | cz Av | St ABW | Cr “idy | OL “tw | ¢01¢
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60

BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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61

THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

TESTING GRAPE. VARIETIES IN

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BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

62

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sz ydeg | ez ydeg | oc oung| 92 Avy |G eung | 03 Avy jo 98 | Pe s 68 GO6L | e061 QO) [fo Fees oer SS case ees I0ud'T
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02 “3deg | or “3deg} ge Av | ee Av | ee AVIV | GT Av | OF ACW | OL “EW | 9018 | eT $ 18 CO6T 8061 LAM Sbamusnice se atone yee: HOOD IRS
61 3d09 | 8 “deg | og Av | ic AvW | 91 AVN | et Av | og “aeIy |” op’-"| 9017 1Z°8 So (86 C061 2061 dpe |Pisteeteeerees ss 9s100}) “49 Stajsodn yy
gt adeg | or 3dog | ce AvW | sz ABW | RT ABW | GT ABW | 9c “BIN | EL “IEW | G 01g | e'T Ss 8 G06 80ST isegl Poe ee eon SoS upey stajsednyy
0) Ey Candles) eer op} oe Avy | --- op’-*| IL ABW | GZ “Ae | It “WWW |} gore | 9'8 sf | 96 9061 FO6T Ge ees 6086 “ON ‘stsedny x sBraediyy
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‘od =| gr 3deg | Tt eunc} re ABW | 0% ABI | GT Av | oo “re |-----ops*"| gore | TT 8 GL GO6T | 061 eed aie See ae eee ae PUOULOC| LOT
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12 “yes | ct ydeg | 92 Av | Fo AVI] 02 ABW | ST AVI] 92 “ACIN | 2 “VW | F012 | 8° 8 PS 9061 F061 WL query eqopy
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TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

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peo ae ees KOS RACING | GamenLCo vin Oar: 1s | meammemies | AGED, 8 #6 60ST | FOL 6 “10T “ON ésaysodnyy X eratdryy
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ST eune T ounr i SAMER A ee 2 g° y SL 6061 ie wamecOcil “ON Gs 1ys0dnyy X Ipos Io Hy
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ZT vung ipoemena ©] esas | aurea 1 nea | ©) Jeers CAL | (eae 43 $ G6 606T ro) “*""SOGT “ON. ‘snsednyy x O1peAMOPL
ZI eune 8¢ Avy | -op"- | 8 “wey |” : s 98 6061 Dg | Rye eee a ee BERS IOS ESS S NG AKOTI
Bo ete algae ceca «| og Avy | Tt “ady | or ° : ‘T s cg 6061 Ona #3 ec eats CEN ONT
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‘od be ee PERSSON (OE Choaalfy cg Aer |n adhy 9) sen |s- see T Ss G8 6051 FOGT yy ala eesaeis £GG “ON “erred ry X Bloat uO/T
9 “300 | 9% 3deg | IT unc | EZ ALIN 6% Avy | z s 68 SO6T 8061 (Gyailit Reak sae Pk +) toue'T
AOC Gea Pie ee) 9 peel ee ae Sieeme cae aN ce” BEER Ih SMOLS I § : s OL 6061 | 2081 i sel hegaere cen see “-="-98pnp
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8 0 | 02 deg |--"-""""-"| ot oune | F oUNp | Og Av | OL “eI | ¢ 1 s £6 6061 | F06T Diep aioe pe net ee 7775" dn10dj0R
9 “300 | oz 4deg | 21 ounc | og Av |---"-op'-*| og Aw |---| LT % s 98 CO6T | g06T ON eee eeemmmmmmnn 1 OLetClePC) sl
Gt 100 | 44 3deg | cr eunr | ce Avy | ¢ oune | 6f Avw | "| 6L 6 8 88 CO6T | 061 Qes Paes iret one 2ee Se SLOG
8 “300 | 9% ydog jrsn so" pe Saas ie | T oune | 08 ‘sey,| 9 g S| 96 GOST Ny POGL | |i veires Sie see "7 respray sod
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‘od «=|-"-op"-"| ef ounr | g ounr| - oune}] { oung |----"""7-- 1 4eW | $048 | 1'T S 9! 6061 | 206T Ol pera en: eee CORES a 70g
02 “deg |----- MER eR ae LACES “1 gz sae | 9 pe s a 6061 | FO6T D | 77 V0ar “ON ‘erredry X Merpuepieg
Hayat PPS 2ey ge eee es 4 PASSO AIPOOS OES Tikes SHIA NG ST s 28 606T FOL H |°cTIALST ON “orrednyy X Lrorpuepieg
8 “100 | 0g “3dag |--"-" ; ee ig Na ge adele Ip £6 G'g 8 06 606T | FO06T D |) 7 INGE “ON “eraedry X [orpurpio g
SOC hil | tees sO Deak ase 2 PSOE (hel MCHA IE | ak {PPP ON Go $s 16 606T FOBT ie 3 eRESS omen Gis Nes WUOYe'T LOT PUvpLO eT
T “400 | 92 3deg T ounp | 24% “WeW | OL “Ny | CT Ss 98 606E | F06E | DH | TTT" ON “Merpuzyse g
L 300 | 9% deg |--""-"-"-"| g Atme | gt ounp| ¢ oung |---op "| 9 caeTy |e *| 9 'T Sane 6061 | FO6BL | YD Trt e""T ON “Tor pueyto gf
8 “10 Zz “\dag aa Si cae | Ad a Tne Wy Baa cae ARI T dy (OE TAM EA GN Ye ety Ss 16 606T FO6L ti P te id ae Gta eee sein ee STOLL OLAS
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AGT yf Asks Alabang) 8 Pg Ae SEARCH lee Nalin HG Cha Gy Sikehiay pee lf iS 6 6061 | F06T D | TON ‘uz sisedny X uoureIy
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syed 440d:

BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

64

§ 190 | 9% 1deg | 6T oUNr; Og Av | 8 ounc; ce AvW (~~~ €% “IRIN | $01 | 6 TE 8 8s 906T FO6T OMT ies. cc sey a Peale ae ae ges OGL
6 “FO | 02 “deg |--- Baek SiO Dare |S Cue CGINT | Genes LCA V an [iu TU nsSLUTAI late cee tee oS s €8 6061 FO6T rd “7 > -oumog.reyy 10;e J,
G 400 | 2 ydeg} ZT eung| T oune | OF oung | ce AvW | - LE ‘Tew | 901% | FT 8 €8 906T FO6T Oval are Sip henge tae 4 “od
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cz ydeg | St ounr| 2 ounr | ¢ ounc | og Avw i TG “ICN | 9S | 6° 8 MME 606T L061. COvm BIT ito ter S19T “ON ‘O1TEUIO X srmojog
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JE PAY) >= SOD > CUA TP eg NT PP EP MOE tage ANGIME | 2BS SSeS Sse ens So ¢OVS | GT s 88 CSO6T £061 O> ef oe SS aes eet Sa od
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65

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

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9 400 | 02 “deg | Pr oun | ce Av | Te Av | 02 Av |" >> *” ite s 88 GO6T £06T. (6) ey nigbae eee sea eo Se aare yarns "*"ILOU0'T

P 300 | oz 4dog | 0¢ oun | og Av | ¢ oung | pe AvW | ~~~ 9° s £6 9061 | P06T (0) au Soa Haiolsfoocleleleyaret “==> -98pryyp S0q

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ao “deg | OL oun | #¢ AvW | Tg Av | 6r Avy |->~- 0S s €8 CO6T £061 (0) eee uae seme wegen aay 70 = -*> TOU!

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ez jdog | 6g “sny |e oung}] zg ounce | gz Avw | 22 Avy | 62 “JeW | Zt “Ae | peta qer|(> Skeoliag aasete gr |] tay. Peeeseeses a ae ee -==="$9001 UMO,
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14z -4deg | gz deg} pr oung | pe Av | T oung | 6t ABW} -"*"-""*7| ST “we | GO1E | eZ s G8 206 POGT Oc BSR OL9T ‘ON “eraedr yy X sraojog

gz 3deg | 02 4deg | p SUN |----op--"| Tg Sew | OG SPW | ¢o1zg | 1's S 68 GO6T £06T Oi. Beet eee esas aa *yoorg 4eg

11 “4dog | Gt ydeg |----op-- "| 9g Av | Og AvW | ---Op * 7} -- "77" OT “Te | 01S P s 16 GO6T £06T O >>> "931005 “19 srajsodnyy

9 “400 | 2 “deg | OF oun | $e Avy : 0Z “WWW | GOS | T's 8 98 CO6T £061 (Oven ira ca laa gene UljIe Sisedny

p 00 |---7Op- "| 8 oung | cz Av 6L Le | GOS | Fe s 88 906T FO6T O |°°°> "6088 ‘ON ‘srysedny X erredry

02 ‘deg | 9% oun |--"~Op =" |---*op-* "|" = sop >> “77771 0% aVW | $ 01% | 8'T s p8 9061 PO6T. O |7 7“ TOL ON ‘staysodny X eraedry

bP “400 | #6 GUNL | Fe AVI SL VW | $ 01S | ZS sO | 6 906T bO6T O |°°°"Z0ZT “ON ‘styjsodny X o1poAmojy

cz “ydeg |e deg | p oung | 92 Av OT “WWW | $01S | TP 8 £6 CO6T 061 OE RES Sess oe oe eee a -- JLT

¢ 400 | 0¢ 4deg | er eunr | pe ACW 61 JeW | GO1% | &'% 8 P8 S06T 8061 6) “=> >> -a1TOUIOq JOEL

€ 400 | 8t 4dog | FL eunp |-~--op-~*) Te Avyy |----op---}--- "777"! 0% “VW | 7018 | O'S 8 6 GO6T S061 6) -=7> >" -98pry SOL

G ‘400 | 6L ounce | Gz Av) Gg ounce | 6r AvW i Io IV | POlS] | Pr s‘o 06 906T PO6T O |° TON ‘urzu’ey sryjsedny X wouely

92 4dog | st 4deg | 9 oun} te Avy | os Sem | 9% AvP | 8% “JeW | GT “eW | FS eiaekeee ee SCO) ener liek maa HOG Ter Wa). ulkees Soe eae a Joie sae al $1001 AO
:AvuuOpieYyD op Nveulg

Gz 4deg | 8g “sny | (eA TAIN lame OULD (3 |G Zep AVA fo, elem TAT |e Choos UTA ATI | em seinan | a amunamctnos | SS cc) en i ee [nso GC) To [TNS laconic SouC ROTC ----s]001 IMO
[{ROSN, VOUT T

02 “300 | 8% “4deg | ¢z oung |g oung | oF one | 2% Avy | --~ “"""| 9% “Ie | ¢ 07 b s 06 LO6L | ¥06T (OSs Gare TEREST Reo Co» Saree neeeeeeNTTOULOG
‘jug

$6 “Gdeg | 02 “deg |----"-"--"} 4 ome |--- og AW | 8% “IW | ST “ey | Pi base aia ee ara |e Po POG Teal bas es eons eo eg RSI UAN
:jnodorg

9 “400 Rhee FOROS 6 rea TP SOON Ms UNeHRE PPPoE eee 6L “IeW | $01S | FZ s 88 906T FO6T One" Saar aco >= -guTOqreN IOTARL,

(Of, NRO) |] (Ses AWOKE) T= SoS 2 Stave ESI (e] GyuHAlyP |= 9 S2@)oe so = Seis "1 6B ABW | GOS | F'E 8 88 GO6T £06T. OsalOGarae sg aines “--- 08.1001) “1g STajsodnyy

ST “400 | G2 4dog | 02 oun | gz AvwW |----op-"| eg ABW |--*"77*" "|" --op-*-| gong | €:% s G8 CO6T S06T Omilerea ies San aaa “TL0UO'T,

ZL “400 | 9% “Jdeg | 6f ounr | 62 Avy | 8 ounr | pz AvW | ------ AEP 2 coy Cot fe 2, 8 06 906 PO6T O ->--98pry 30d

02 “3deg | OF “ydeg |-- og Avw | 62 Avy | 9 AVN | 8% “WeP | OZ “AWW | Soy eile po6r | ID -*--S1001 UMO
1B[[O1OAVT

# "100 |°""7Op"""| OT ouNe |----op"-"| ¢ eunr | 12 AvW |°"""°°""""| ZT “WW | POLE | 8% 8 8 906T. PO6T OMCs soe Se) euUOqIVN IO[ARY,

OL “20 ae ante. 0Z ounr | 9g AvW | T oung | of ABW | ----7""" "| ST “eA | Gore | 19 8 6 CO6L | §06T (Owalagr seers "7°" = "981005 “Wg stuisedny

9 “100 | G2 -3deg |) GT oung |g oung |---"Op--*|-- "Op > *}-- >> "| GT “IV | POIs | P'S 8 6 G06 $06 Om epee cae -'s “= "> J1ouorT

OL 900 | #2 “dog | #1 ouNc| g ouNg | Te SvW | 1Z AVI |°*----"" |] ST VW | GOVE | OF s 6 9061 | F06T Onl Doras eae Oa DIAT OC

0¢ “deg | st ydog | 4 oung |"“~--op--*| 1 oung ; 92 Av | Tt cady | zt wew | - rile cae s Geral eraser oh pOBT ES) S| Fee eae Reba Fie a ee a8) OO TAULAATG)

‘JOPAVA IHOd

89756°— Bull. 209—15—-5

BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE,

66

od
cs “dag

Te “deg

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6 “4dag

02 “dog
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om

02 4deg

go “4deg

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6 “100
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oy Sri (21s), (PGR iae MORE Rica ACS nee ci 1 -Nalige Pererecoue 8% ‘ABIN [77777 Bago Go BIG 8
Cc Le) CO) |i ean eee | aN ene met] are er cS ACW Eph gee a ak ae Ge rel ail(Sasaeieapan eae emcee 8
CRETOO Wee oe recs | raise oneinal= [Selo sissies lz, Asie rset OS ACNE |ssaearmal ieee wae Ss
@ “ideg | Or eunr | 6z Aww} Te Aw | “"-"op™--|""- a ae GZ “IBN | FO1S | P'S Ss
6 ‘4deg | Fr eung | 9¢ Avy | Og ABW | oo Ae | SL “IVA | $09 | FZ iS
gt ydeg |------ PPSSH Eh -Ginayp Peon ooers 1¢ AeW | 8% “Ie | LT “Tew |---| reall eet
8 ades | se Avy | oz Av | re Av | St Av | Te “Ie | FL WeW | Gog | 2'8 8‘
or jdeg |g oung |} sc Avw | 6c Aew | oc Av |. “adv | bo weW | ¢g01e | 9°¢ 8‘
¢ ‘adeg |g oune | sz Avw ] ez ACI | Ie AVIV | Og “ze PL “dew | 9018 1¢°% Ss
ol des} 8 ounce | 2e Av} 8% AvW | "op '--| T “ady | GT “rem | G 04% | G'9 sO
gs 4ydeg | 12 Ave |} oe Avw | Ie Av | oT Av | OS “RW | OL “Ie | j s
“---op"**| og Aww |--trop"--| oz Av | FL Av | % “Ady | ef “weyy | GO1e | 16 $9
or‘adeg |¢ oung | 2% Avw | 6c Av | 0c AeW | 9 “Ady | 02 “We | GO1e | EEL SO)
8 ydey |e ounr | eg Av | 8c Av | st Av f-7 Op -"| FL “WWW | 904% | SZ Sia)
¢ ydeg |p oung |-"-"op--| 6g Av | FE Av | 1 ‘adv | 02 “wew | 9018 | 6% sO
OL adeg | 2c Av | oc Avr | 0% AVN | ct Av | Of “re | op -"| G 01% j s
6 3deg; 1 oun | og Avw } ce ABW | Op’; Ge “VIN | 9 “ae | G O48 | TT 8
gt ydeg | sz Avy | uz Avy | oe Av | cr Av {Og “WW | 8 “eH | G01% | I'L s
@tjdog | ¢ ounr | 9¢ Avy | 6 AvW | -op |} T “ady | cr “wen | £096 | 9°9 St)
““=op-=-| 4 oung | 4g Avy | 0g Av | 0c Ae} e “Ady | Go “Ie | ¢ 018 P s
(Ot PORE Rae eas G oun | — oung | 0g ABW | 8% “IB | OG “IEW | s ‘0
oz “Jdeg | of eunc| se Av) 9 ounce | ¢@ Avw | -------""| 06 “Ie | GF OLE | Z'E 8
eo ides | zi eunr| ¢ Aew] ig Av | to Av} °7°°7777 7] 2% ICI || 01S | 6 8
---"op-""] $% ounf) eg Avy | 8 ouns 6°% s
ez ‘ides | ct oun | pe Av | te ABW i 8
#o 4deg |] 6 ounre | Te Avw] so oun $
TI ia! SI rai II OL 6 8 L 9
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88 6067 L061 a |-°S'ON ‘urzuey srysodny X uourery
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96 9061 FO6T a ft Oto ‘ON “ertediy, X stuojog
98 CO6T €06T Wie 3422 PSE es Se eae eae yoorp 418g
66 GO6T | €06T Hire iine eeseen ness “**-951004) “4g stajsodny,
8 SO6L £061 Ue 5 |S as eee eee UIA, staysedny
c6 906T P06 UE Peo OS ONT ‘srrsodny x eedny
86 9061 PO6T UUs llstse a 101 ‘ON ‘stajsodny X eliedry
96 CO6T S061 Oi ee RES ele errr eta OMT Blredryy
18 9061 PO6T a (°° °Z0eT ‘ON ‘stasedny X o1paamoyq
16 CO6T S061. ESS a 2g phase ery Sep nee OLE 25 ILOuwe'T
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08 CO6T S061 Ae gel eee Ae Te Sr re *--9S pry s0q
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68 $06T POST ies |5 2 = iene mee = cea “"""quRely sqopy
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98 L061 FO6T Oya | oes SS ee ae oe SAE ROSOONOA EET |
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06 SO6T S061 (0) Fee eeepc Teta roar eeu e reac ye qouwaT
98 9061 FOBT (O)ii5 ARS ee Bigiissorte hes asply oq
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67

TESTING GRAPE VARINTIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

Or 300 [et ydog | FI eune | 2 oung |e oun é aa s | #8 ose ||, |Peereeese nortrte somo qse N| OpAB I,
Ello SIC Ie nee ue Tee BOGE | | oes eT ON, Gitear ex erncie
= aan eae Th Sar i aay eS ami cee 5. a eat 8 Rea 6088 “ON cee aie
a 3 a Ere Avia) C 36 u
IL “920 | 08 “3dog | 6 oun | se Ae] ¢ ounL | 2 8°T s | ¥8 SOG TS: |es Osea te ieee ee
: 181/81 1.D 9so
02 “390 | 62 “dag | ez eunr | og Av | 8 euUNL | cz One S | 16 HOBT. 2:8 POG TE S| Ome | aa as ae arenes Ow e
: :S84Ip0
ez ydeg | 02 “sny | z oune | te Sem | og Atw | 92 Avy | to TOW) 9 “we [Benn pO6E | HQ fs “2++-*s1007 TKO, e
=110 NY UIGO
6z “4deg | 2t oun | sz Av | se eunc | ce Avy [777 "77 7) €2 “WN | SO1e | 9 Bains cei | leit |} @- -||PSEeee eee oe “e3I004) “48 sunsoanyy S
8z adeg | FI euns | 9¢ Av | I ounr | ee Avy | ----"*-" 7) GT “We | GO7E | o's S| 6 COGT cl SOG |E* Ome lec cS cas yee eae “OUeT
SIOIGT?
‘Op--*} 0¢ eung |" Op’ -*) € sun | 26 AGING Neen cen eal GO) LOIN | hOUG. WiSuG ) 88 906T FOGT Oi | es ie ae ei cee OuUUOg IB Ny peu
ydeg | et eung | c ounc | ie Aew | oo Avy |---7*-777 7) GE WeW | Pole | 8'6 S | % NSE || <fRUlsiL = || (Gf See eee a81005 “49 slajsedny
‘deg | 21 oung | 62 Av |g eune | ~*--op =) “T/T “ew | Ole | oe 8 | 06 Calta AAV iia | Oye || tenet ares ORES qoue’y
‘qdeg | GT oune | 8% ACI. 8 oun | ACI ees omrecienl | a7 Copel GVA | LOL Gs P a) 16 906T FO6T @) --OSpry 30q
SO Drwelpeenee oer 9) CULTS TOS Aew | 6¢ Avy | OL “Idy | 06 “wey |” RES 8 Tecan | eee “| FO6T ae) ~**s}001 UMO
ERS Me: Sie, Aube Re -O0SOJOY
Deo” Nee leet eT cunt: a a 8. Sune & ee : “"*| Te “Tew | F072 Bu ae (ii al Se VIE || 0) | 9088 “ON Eeesetatat ATE!
; ‘ vee \ eee s. 2 eles pe Sl ee eee al Oe 68 CO6T S06T A “asl00f) “FS ST1jsean;
ez ydeg | st ydeg | 9 oung | 92 Avy | 9 oung | 9g Av | Ie “wey | 9G “wey | Se Roe ahs |e came ee (GIT 119) oad ee ARREARS Sees 8100.1 ca
-O[0Z IVzeVr
‘og =| 68 ‘ydeg | 11 oung | Gz Avy | *--“op"-"| eo Avy [77777777 7) GE “ww | POTS | 2% Ss | 68 DOSE.|) FUGI |) (OF |iesces Seeger se ouuoqaeyy 10rAe4, :
OL “300 |"""op*-| OL oun | 4% AeW | ¢ oung | 1% Av | -"--7--- "| 08 “eI | GO1E | 9% Ss | 16 Glofaye |) SNE =|} ) jp SBE “ed10ay) “49 Spysedny
8 400 | 8 3deg | et oun | 6% Aew | *-""op’""| e% Av | ---7-"-7|"-*"op =) gorge | Te S | 06 COBT: VE GUGTE |b O) || Gos aoe oes eee "7772 ajoue'T
9 400 | 62 ‘Jdeg | pr oUNL |Z eu |g ouUNE |" --Ope|-----=-)op | pols | eT Se chee CO | PUrOONe Wet OE |p crest rrr espry sod
GG 4ae8g | GT ddee It oung | og Av | 9 eung | 9g Avy | T “ady | GE “wey fe 8 eke eee eee BOGE TR) a aoa Sa KOTO A)
OURToBN
‘oq = [ttttops*| ae Ae | 92 Avr | 12 At | FE Sew | 92 “ICN | FI WWW | 901 | oF So) |i east ten aye I) ani fur |) Bese eee cones "= 77> -eumOgIe N 201A, :
oz “yclog | gr dog | 6% Aww | Io Av | Fe AVIV | OT ACW | 8% “CIN | CT “BW | G01 | 2% S | 28 O06] a) FOBT ft penne “OT9T ‘ON “eraedry X stuoyos
61 ‘deg | of 4deg |--"--op"**) Fo Av | 03 ABW | OT Av | os “WW | FT “We | g O18 | 89 s‘o | &6 COG a | tec UG) |r =| eur “9800+ “4g stqsodnyy
‘oq =| a1 ydeg | + oung | 9% Av | 82 AvW | oz Av} € “adv | cr “ww | 901% | 83°F Sey cde |; SORE |e VOGKE |p ite 1}peeeee 60eE “ON ‘sqaysod yf X wredry
oz ydeg | ¢ dog | 62 Avy | -op"--| #o ABW | 8 ACW | Of “WW | 8 “Wy | gore | 1’¢ S| 88 QOGEE: | eet0GhE Iie |peeenni TOL ON ‘spjsedny X wraedry
61 3deg | or ydeg |} 1 oeung | te Avy | Oc Av | ot AvW | Op | 2 “we [GOs | 1h s‘o | 68 CO6T £061 Cee | ee ciee OOT ORE NIC CENT
06 deg |s “ydeg | oun | so ABW | cz AvW | 0 AvTT | -""Op'""| ET “UW | gore | 8'g S‘o | 26 906E | FOB | a |*7"-ZOcT ‘ON ‘stjsedny X expearmoyy
zz dog | ot deg | og Av | es ABW | 0 Av | OL Av | T wdy | 2 “we } 9017 | 9% So | G6 COGIG ||: OGM || ga Une ||Recaoe tebe ete ae 757 aqoue'T
‘og |8 ‘dog }¢ eung | 9% Av | ee Av | LT Av | ¢ “Ady | €T “we | 901% | 872 sfo | G6 QUOD: |= FOGTE ||) is | isco Lie er ee 7727" eS Pre 80.
0 4dog | 11 3dog | 92 Av | os Avy | 02 Avy | It Av | 22 “Ie | Op "| G 07% | 6'G s‘o | 6 906t | FO6r | ad |771/ON ‘uyzuey spysodny x uoMEry
1% dog | 8 “adeg | og Aew | ee AVI | e% AVIV | OL ABW | "Op "| CL “WWW | GOLE | OT Se |)08 OG | PerOGiien | dt enetegars eS “oso 77 -guery) eqopy
Po “Gdog | OL 4deg |----------| Sf sung |] 9 suUne | Og ACW | SZ “II | 9S “IB | oe 30 |S Sho Se Bo sees 1/% COB 100) ieee ees OO OBES SE DELS SAHOO, WEN)
weet te seeks | eer alee ANE lh needs lise Ne Auli 22 neste. 2 &. eRe _.___ Snoseured ojding
Oy Oe Ae os Pod heiige i? alte ee ct Ud POD el far iage GG “we |” i> Boas a6 GOGM? |= 2OGTE ||) le \iesces sae: ur Une Sysodny
BOT ge eco ttco | ie eae sf ODI a ee ta EW | ROR Se: pe, : GOGHE |e AC0Ie |e Wie leas cecs 906s ‘ON ‘siysodny X BEdr ay
FOp Seay ee Sacer Se age hes “eae ODER |i tk pete leon, ltavge |e ie ti Be | peme eal COG |r 0G etl clecuae FI-101 ON ‘stysodny X wraedyy
op eo Ae | Cor tUNe eee le 8h 8 (Git YP ANG] EE GL, | Pa es "77" 5 (8-901 ‘ON
nn ee eee Res ea eee Wit : ae ‘srysodny X elfoyip10p) X Bpredry
08 eee Oe aoe qlee ae cartes Cet, ABE |i eee Sp be Ode TGINe| ss oath Se 106 GOGies |e Cie |e Ure ieee capes “7 *spysedny X Bloor uo
oe ae a Fe gee Pa aaa Sage eT cen LG ie an Suele ee aa S| 06 ou L061 | 4 |° 7777780881 (ON oped Seay
é ! EE aes: : CR SOURCE eae gems) Kamel mel SCO L061 lek hipaa “FOSST ON “eredry X BjooruoTy
OL ‘0 | 82 Ydeg | 0g oung ! og AvW!s oune! Ge AB I-77" a IW 1go1e | 8% s 16 THE SECS es RCO) SU ISS SEE SS pa ENOL AL

BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

68

S$ 4001 82 3deg ; oc eunc, og Ae), ¢ ounce) ce Avy" 61 “Ie | OTS | S'S s 16 906T |} #F06T Osha aia ee ea DRS OGn
[cast “2 BYO), HPRRRP SESS” POS OF SIS irae cess Ue GROOT BE idee ls tase age GOR |} ye s $6 606T F06T QO |-"T'ON ‘urzuey stajsodny x Uomely
cz 4deg | gt ydeg | 2 oune| gz Avy] c oung| po ABW | Te “eW | ot eW | Bagge iS | eg PO6T De) i seseiee © Petes \~ weenie ee aye eras $00.1 EMO
TOILVOC JUICY
‘od «| ez “Sny | oz Av | Ic Ae |" op"" 7} of ABW | GL “IRI | PL “ARI | can 8 0¢ 906T | #F06T Wao pei ees Segceyerey ss eUUOG IBN 10;AeL,
6 ‘3deg | 6z Avw | ez Av | 2T ABW | FL API | 08 “WON | 9 “Le | 909% | TT 8 CL 9061 | F061 i ieee os 9T9T “ON “ertediy, X STuojog
‘od «6|¢ ‘any | ce AvW i op--*} o@ AvW | Gt ABW | 22 “We |----"Op" "| 907% | ET s cL, cO6T | £061 Cie Aleeeee ere tie Se ce ee Yoo) Wes
‘i q T ‘sny | og Avw | tz Avw | zt AeW | er ABW! Te “WeW | ST “we | 907% | 7% sO | 16 GO6T £061 GR pacer ae “" "> "981004 49 Ssiusednyy
gs deg|/¢ “Ssny} 1g Avew] ce AvW | st AvW |" op--"| ¢ ‘Ady | po “MeN | GO9S | oT s 69 CO6T £06 RD eS sscer scares "OTe Stysednyy
p “ydag |----~ op--*| 6g Avw j----op-"*) 2T ABW | PL ACW | T “Ady | st “weW | ¢012 | ST s €8 9061 | F06T Te Nlasraee 6088 “ON ‘srysedny X ertedryy
or ydeg | 1 ‘any | 22 Av | eo Av |-7"" op--*| 2 AvW | OF “WW | FT “EW | G01 | 1% s 98 9061 | #F06T ie 3 Rees een TOT “ON ‘styjsedny vitedry
0 ¢ ‘any |9z AvW | az ABW | op-"*| 7t Avy | T “Ady | st “ew | 909% T 8 8 G06T £06T (eS eqeag's Vee “>> em0T) BIAed ry
8 ydeg|T “sny! Te AvW | ce Avy }-----op 7) ot Avy 7-7 op---| GT ‘ew | 9092 | e's sO | 68 9061 | 4061 WI 7 "Z0ZT ON “stysedny X e.1pea.moy
It ydeg | #2 “sny | 12 Avew | pz Av | oz AvwW | ci AVW | OF “VW | CL “PW | 907% | 8° 8 19 co6r | 06T i aerate ee qoue'T
OT deg |-----op-*"| 7 oeunp |} gz Avyy [7-7-7 0¢ Av |--""Op" "| FI “Ae | GOrg | L'e 8 PL G06 | 8061 Ee FSO rag eles se aaa Percy ae qUuOUIEd eH
9 ydeg}1 ‘sny| 1g ew] pz Aew| ee Ae | FT Av] 1 “dy | cL “wew | $012 197% 8 18 GO6T S06T Sie fier ee eee aS “-OSpIty 80d
orydes|¢ “sny| oe Avw | zo Av | 6r AVN | OF AcE | @ “Ady | FT “WW | 9040 | Le sO | 06 906T PO6T Wo | TON urzuey srysodny x UoWlELy
9 deg | or “sny] se Avw | ez Ae | st AVI | cr Avy |--""Op- "| Fo “WIN | G O78 | FS s 8 9061 | #06T 1s W eeeiee ome secre ete yueLy oqopy
¢z adeg | @z “sny|¢ oung| og Avy] og Av | oc Ae] 1 “Ady | 8~ “te jo et $ SE eee eS Ceiane TS): FDS SSE Sag ae Sree es S}OOLUMO
‘yuemMe’T JULES
‘od 12 ‘3sny|}9 oune] oz Avw \-"*-"op--"| og Av | 9% “FEW | GT “te jot s pgs 5 | ae tos) SCOGT TO) (alaseres es tease os ees $100.1 UMO
: syoosy [esoy
ez ydeg | Of oun | Fz Avy | 1 oung| et Avy | 1 “eW | 701% | ST s 08 9061 | F06T OM eer eiorr ee auUOqIeN L0pAR I,
PT OO g\she eto t| See “Ses 9g" es sf Ney Pee aesoe= 6L “te | CAC s ¥8 2061 | LO6T Ri | emesis QT9T “ON ‘ermedryy X STmOjOS
gz ‘gdeg | ct ydeg | zt eunr | 2g Ae] so ounce] of Avy} -7 77 OL “TVW | $077 | P'S s 06 c06T £061 Oi peer c ree aB1004) “49 stujsodny
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69

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

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£1 “300 | 82 “Ades | 02 eune| so Av | 8 oung "| ST “eA | 707% | o° Ses OSE OUTS eT ue (O)e al a ares Sano oS AOU]
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IL "300 |-""""0p"""| 12 eung |g oung | ¢ ouns ‘| LT “Vl | $016 : s‘o | 28 G06T LO6T ‘I9T ON ‘OT}OULO X simojos

“"-"op"*"| Og oun | OF oun |-~---op- ~~ St “ww | Poe] | 2° s 06 6061 | LO6I BISNGOY STUOTOS

a 06 SO6T £061

98 SO6T £061
s a 16 SO6T £061
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TI "400 EKO ee 6T vung} @ oeung |-~-""Op ~*| 9% 4 s‘o C6 S061 PobL Te HAWAIL “ON ‘SLIsodn yy xX O.IPOA TNO Jy

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RICULTURE.

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BULLETIN 209, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AG

70

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BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

72

Te “ydeg , et ydeg j---- 77 te Aew) 12 ABI) 02 Ae) T “dy | 6% “Ie |; Goole | Ge sO | &6 L06T | L061 Genige ees TOT ‘ON ‘SEsednyy X eriediy
4 “J00 | 8% Pune | ¢% oUuNf |-*"--op"-*| g oune | Fo ABW |--- GZ “TVW | $01e | FS s 68 L061 | FO06T Ola ainceceahr ee rein meine be nc ches Ioue’t
"gt Perea (9) So BCS 6¢ Avy |---"-op"- "| Gt Avi |---- op’"*| FL “VW | pore | T's s 16 206T | Z06T Tignes) creme cee aegtens en ORT epeue,)
Te “3dag | ot “ydeg j----"*° “| 0g Av] eo AeW | st Avy | O€ “eI |-"""op""") F018 | E'E Bee Ge UN 20h i ceOE aoa | eicee (oial hace odin quRE) EqOpy
1d1]SUOW 40119],
8 400/T 400] 8T sew] or Sew 7" OF Fah ANGIE Pee "10% “TeW | F 01% v so | 76 |777°7°""| PO6L Ores g0ge ‘ON ‘staysodny X Braedry
L “400 | 92 4deg | 0 OUNL] T oUNC| s oUNE | ce Av} % “IV | 9015 | 9°% s 68 LO6L | F06T (Om emeseegcr cri ase rou’,
#2 9deg | ep 4dog | 6 oun | zz AvW| > oOung] 7 ACW) 8z “ARI | PT “IV | s eicisialisincis Se “"! F06T (10 Yael pee enn ae woe ose hee OOO Sh00L UA) i
210108 J,
8 390 | #% ‘3deg | 02 cunr] 62 Ae) 9 oung| Fe Avy | Fo “ICN | 01S | ST s Pd, LO6T | ¥F06T (Ovi eee seemesaers oc Sc SUMOGIBN IO;ARL,
9 “400 | 22 4deg | cg eune |*----op---) OL une |----"ops|-- op’ | 9018 | LF iS 68 SO6T £061 O 98.1005 “49 stysednyy
b “300 | 02 “deg | oT oung | gz Av] G oung | ¢% 0% “eI | $01 | 1% s 68 SO6T £061 (Olt neues tS oe Ijoue’T
Z 400 | 8 4deg | cz oung | 62 Av} 2 ounE | GZ 9% “ICN | Go1Ee | og s £6 9061 F061 OM ies wager Sfecae cos ocr espry 30d
iA -ydog 6% “sny 6 eune | og Avy) Pp CUNg | 2z ACW) 6% “Ae | GL “rey yo ae Sch aie [SPP RRR OO OR 2S PO6L 1 eee | ie een e Weta niee cae ape ok y S}OOL UM QO
+JeuUue, Ty,
Ff “300 | 22 3deg | 91 ounr}) z oung]| Z@ ouny | 9g Av ‘reW | 901% | 9'T s 8 906T FOG6T Oy | eee ees eUTOGIVN 1OpAe f,
OT “}00 |***--op-**| ST ounr | Gz Av] § euUNL | FZ ACW IV | 701Z | 8% s 88 GO6T. 8061 O |00777 777777777 7708.1004 “49 srysedn yy
8 400 | 82 4deg | 61 eunr | og Av) Zs ung | 9¢ Av “Ie | 901% | 2% s 06 GO6T £061 (0) ol eugene nano mae ce enemas Ioue'T
6 “400 | 0g 4deg | ZT eunr | 62 Av) TI oUung] 2 ALW “Te | $018 | 6°T so | 38 906T F06T (Oi esse eke ec oe ue ee _ eR
10
eZ “490 | st “ydeg |--"- "> "16 ounr}]s oung | gg AvWw SUG WE |e Sopa ee ea sis inss s Peigme Os eyo Beas FOBT 1,9) ee lees 9 tas ea ee te $1001 UMO 6
TUeITIAG
9 “300 |*""op*""| $I ounf | eg Av | T SUNL | gt AvW “IeW | 017% | o's s 98 CO6T | S06T (0) 931005 “19 stajsedny
¢ “400 |"**""op--*| 6T euNe | sz Av | S Sun | ez AvW “Ie | 07% | T'S s‘o |} 98 GO6L | £06T Oy <a e aa as ule spaysedn yy
8 “420 | 02 ydeg | $2 CUuNL |--*-‘op--*| § OuNe |-----op-- |" “reW | F01% | 9'8 s‘o | 68 9061 | F06T On es 6088 “ON “styjsodny xX vivedry
6 “100 | 2 ydeg | Gf eunf j---"-ops-*|"""""0p* = *|-**--op >= -]7 7 eW | FO1L | 3% s‘o | 06 9061 P06T Oise TOL “ON ‘staysodny X eBlvedny
9 “00 | 12 4deg | OT ouNf] Fe Av | -"Op"*"| 6T ACW “IeW | $91S | 69 s‘o | 6 cO6L | S06T O
6 ‘300 | 02 *3deg | eT eunc | cz Avy) ouUNe |--"--op**-|-7 7 ew | 01% | op s 6 GO6T. £061 O
8 490 | 2 4deg | GI eunf |----‘op---} € oun | 0g Av T AWW | GOS | B'S s‘o | 16 GO6T €06T O
TT “490 | 02 “4deg | 0¢ CUNf |} Fe Av! 8 oUnL | 6, Av “IB | $016 | bY s‘o 6 9061 vO6E O
£2 -4deS | 9z “sny | tT ounce] Te Aew| sz APN | 92 Av | 9% “ACIN | ZT crew [7 FSi ta regen iee= © Gia became Cn PO6T Lid tal |Peaamaken ser ae ee ei aki an bey $}OOL UMQO
“SqT pd stoeuvalsg
91 er FI &1 ral TL OL 6 8 L 9 g F g 3 I
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B =i B 5S 5 =i 5 Bo © uodioy i i) 09 ce} g
Py Pe aa Pu ae ae “y a ro eo E e ; gu | Sa *(poyeqs
© % © © © © @ 6 © SiS ae Eg © = Set ee p
7 1 t 1 i 1 1 i BY size 5 Et = 28 as OS JI ‘S]OOI TAO UO) YOO}S pues AJorIV A
eas Dice ates ie Mem Maer se ie eta
‘oyep “o1ep -oyep "oye ey 5 < Sp
Suruedii-4in1y SUT}JOS-JIN.AT SUTULOSSOTg SUT}.1G1S-YI MOTD, & i= s B

“penunu0j9—niuJofin) wr spunhauia quaurwedxa uanaja wr
$1001 URO Lay, WO buino.th fig pun syoojs qunjsisar uo buryfoub hq pajse7 sayjavnd advub fo sasodund quasaffip sof anjor pun sovepyaq avyojay— TTA 214,

73

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

¥% ‘ydog 62 ‘sny OT cunt | 62 ACW g oun | 72 ACW (ahd SDAA oye Mada Ape SOG oS pes S$ AEA ates tet {OTe E 1S Fae) persed HE SR ORO) Same ae Sy
sexfor

ez 400°] #2 “4deg | 61 ounc |] 9 oung} zr oung | Te Avy} or “dy | og cre foe $ PRESSE ae {Tee £09 il Pe CO Pbtiag Te SOc On OOCKGy $1001 UMO
ST}OATLLL

CT 400 | 42 “3deg | st eung |-----op""*} g oune |-----op-~*|"- eee OT WwW | $e | 6% s 6 LO06T. LO6T COYNE eis abhi dg ae 8 mous’
soydurora,

OT “200 | 62 “3deg | 9 ounr | 62 Avy | of oun | ez Avw--""""-""*| Of “EW | 909% | 9% s 8 L061 bO6T ORS sas 1 coe a a eS **"IOUO'T
WOdve NP OL0fT1L

8 400 | #2 4deg | or eunc]| gg Avw| ze ounc | cz AevW ---"**-""*| 2% “Ie | FOOLS |: T'% sO | 06 SO6T £06T Op Sas teeesouewens 93.1004 “49 staysodnyy

T 200] 6 “3deg | 9r ounce] 7 oun} ¢ oung |--~- op--|---- Bp cgaalie an op---| ¢ore | ee s‘o | 16 C06 €06T. O Ipouo'T

(Nr4 TiGhs\a} Poe eperens @ oun] gz Avw|oc Avw| Tt cady | ct ‘rey joo” SEs oi a ayer pel bara lesa acy FO6T TAG) Pea lhe oe echo ee oe ta “*7*"S1001 UMO
SWC} WL J,

ez jdeg | zt eunr|¢ ounge|] oung Goze | Fe s 26 9061 | F06T Op ase aoe pee are eas UUOG IBN IOpARy,

¢ “100 | $% “4dag qq eunf; @ oun | OT vune FOLG 2% Ss 88 9061 PO6L O “OTOL BON “ered yy ~< STWO[OS

9 400 | 92 3deg | ZT ounc | 22 Avy} ¢ oune GOS | 6T s 88 GO6T. 806T Or | a Se SS YOaID 489

0g 4deg | ct ‘3deg | or eung | 62 Avy] 1 ounc pS | G'e sO | Z6 GO6T £06T (0) sgl ee eee gee "77081005 “49 srajsedn y

9 “400 | $2 -3deg | st ounr | gz AeW] Fy ounc OME | (6X6 s 98 CO6T 806T Ow eet ees a ere uljreyy St.ysedn yy

% “00 | G@ 4deg |-----op--*] 9g ABW] T ounce GOS | 2° so | 68 906T FO6T Ose leer 6088 “ON ‘staysodny & BEwdry

Oogd =| #¢ “Jdeg |-----op---| sz Avy | ze ounc 601% | eT s cg 9061 | ¥F06T Ope ee TOT "ON ‘siysodny X eraedryy

“od =| 9% “Ydeg j---* ODigees ean Dae nce OULle G01Z | ST s 8 906T FO6T O {77 S0¢T ‘ON ‘Stajsodny X ecpea mony

9 “400 | ¢¢ “3deg | 0% ounce} oz Ounce | g ouns GZ | Te s 06 GOBT G06T. (Ov eee ee ae arg en eraes Ren TLOUd'T

G “400 | 02 3dog | zt ounr | 92 Avy] 9 oune GOS | LT 8 8 GO6T £06T Oxx||Poea een et ane | JUOTIOG IFT

OT "390 |----" pe 1T ounr | gz Avy | es oung Ie £O1Z 197% s‘o | 68 GO6T £08T (Gye Keeceeee nce repr meee ~“ospry 30g

G 400 | 2 -3deG | ct oung | g oung] ¢ oun |----- (0) OR Fa eS 02 “IR | 09S | 1°% iS 88 9061 FOGL O | "T°ON “UIZUe srysedny X UOUlBIly

&@ “adoeg Sr Oa in| |e neat ed be aera ens eee tai] “Idy CF] Game’ ASR Ne | mares amend | ee are Sgro Mica: con] fs aegis L061 TS) a | pieatroe e taeatcre seas Giese feee ihc S001 UM QO
TLOULUIBI YT,

o% ‘ydeg | gt ydeg |) ¢ oung] re Avy) te Avy |----op"--} ga “xem | ot “we | Slee closet: BOGE Pot: oP ese caine eek perce $001 UMC
HIION 1YOY) YOIOT,

7 ydeg | 24 eunr|z oung]¢ oung | 9¢ Avy |-------*- Sl IeW | FZ z s 18 LO6T FO6T ORE Ga ete ae euUOqIVN «opAe

ez “ydeg | or ydog | or oun | 2z Avew! te AeW | 12 “ew | 0% “VW | F012 9 sO | 96 Go6L | g06T (OB lea cheearcnes ea 03.1005 “19 SLysodny

’ “4901 %¢ °3deS | ZT ounc |Z oung|] 9 oun] gg AvwW i ------**- SI “TVW | F91% | $'9 s 6 GO6T S06 (O)pal Sunee pues es eae oe gmt Ipoue’T

Z “200 | 6 “4deg | ct eunr | tT oun | 1 oung | oz Avy |-------- 6 “VW | FOS | 8'¢ SIOSo CO 20g Tea | PODK | 20a lraen nan chon weedeat osprey Jo

02 4dog 8% ‘ony 2, hon ooo oe op" -*| 0g ACW Z ACW (ty, HUET Lee SOE AL SS SS Sar LS) Sie | ata ea FO6T TG) PP ares pr ear eat tae co er $1001 UMO
LOILOPVI OP BIULT,

F “400 | 08 4deg | zt oune | 62 (She, A8ehiy JPR S28 61 “WW | FOL | 9'8 s 06 906T FO6T Oy ers ik Gee eee OUUOGIVN 1O[AR I,

9 400 | 92 4deg |-cT oung | Gz Av) 1 oung |--"-- ODee lee ase 02 “ey | $01? | T's 8 6 GO6T G06T (Oye lea ee Oat I es1004) “49 sttysodn yy

‘od =| ec 3deg | pe oun | Fz Gl AS Tiel oaeate meas LT “ICN | $01S | 6F 8 &6 COGT. £061 OP ae ak ee eae ee T[OU/T

te HOXO) PS OST jn oaiifp eos fag Ogee hs 0 ear 1% “WW | FOS | LL so | $6 906T POGT O "eS pIy 30d

% 4deg | 6g “sny | 1 oung | 6% po At |¢ “adv | ct -teW yo Pei Sip leg iltcomemen es FO6T | TD $1001 UMO
10VD BIULL

F “400 | GZ ounf } st oung | 0g GZd ENG Te Nema TZ “WWW | FS | e's s 88 906T FO6T Ons eee sarees OUUOG IBN LO[AR I,

“od =| 92 “ydeg 4} oung | 6% oun | po Avy | 777 LT “WW | $91 | LF s #6 SOGT £061 @ 75 e100) “49 stysodny

20 ire |i see Aue T oung | 92 Avy |---"-op-""| 0g Aw 7-0 op" **| #1% i S'0 | 06 CORT ecCOD EM Orelliners > wee cherie conus org ** afoul]

9 "300 | G2 4deg | oF oung | g SOE Mes. ANGE ee os "| 61 “WwW | $OFS | 9'9 s‘o | 46 906T FOBT (@) ~ospry, 30d

02 “4deg | st 4deg | 9 oung | z eunr | g¢ oung] gz Av) O€ “IB | ST “AVI | Same ae 2a | ie SS a FOGT Tk RS SNe wes eer sae ee $1001 UM O
{C[[e1VMLy ULL,

Boece op -|""*-""**""| 0g Avw | ce Sew | zt ew | oz wew | 21 “wiw| pole | sy S| 86 HOST iy AOG TS |" ee oes re a: Reema OO UZAY

LSID OV See ODES | aa cag ea 8a AGI leaps COOP SYS ay oF SY enya Asoo Cece Hn Le s‘o | 6 LOGT L061 Le Ue dee euemaee 9I9T ON “vraedry X spuojog

‘od OT Adog [sss 2° og Aeyei ez Avy! oT Av l-----op--"] 02 “ew | gore | 2p Sa | 1061 !} 206T a (bet | PE “"soqjossney sop sriysedn yy

BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

st
kX

87001 UNO Lay? UO Bu

u

It 200 ; 02 “Ydog , of ouNe , ge ABW ,T ounce, Et Avy "°°" *) 0% “We , 9016
‘od ez 1dos | or oun | 22 Avi} Te Av | o¢ AvW I-77 "| PZ caeIy | ¢ 01%
9 ‘100 | 9% 3dos | 0g eung | cg Av | ¢o sung] ot Aew |----------|--“-op---] Fog
SE RSS ST TL CLO AY ET CO Emap ie FO eae it a oune fas ane abel Wow ah 0) OF al a ‘ms
8 100 | #2 3deg | 9T sung | cz ACW fe yume JSP SSeS |e : 0% “ABI | 01%
6 “300 | ¢2 4dog | zt ounc | 92 Avy |g sung] og AvwW |----""""*| Fe “Ae | G 018
§ 300 | Fe 3dog | 9T eunr | 62 ABW | 1 oune] Fe Avy | ----*” “""] 0G “ABT | ¢ O1e
02 4deg | sz “sny]s ounce | 22 Avw | se AvW | co ABW | 82 “ACW | ST ‘aeI |
Or 400 | ¢2 Ades | ez aunc | se Avy |S sung) ce Avy |---| ee “AB | 07%
r WO | Pe adeg | cz aung |} 62 Avy | OT oung | eg Avy j--- SI “IW | 072
It 100 | 2 3dog | ot oun | xz Avw |g oun] ze Avw i” POO IEC oyay hE) COMN
8 0 | G2 adog | zT oun | cz Avy | te Av 01%
9 00 | Pz 3deg | st ounr | 9% Av} ¢ oune 11
© 400 | ¢¢,4deg |----op---| og Av | Ie Av 16
6 100 | Fo "4deg | oT ounr | 6c Av} % eu |----op-"*|--- 0% “AVL | G 01%
¢ MOOt sae ODbecl GT OUlLE iOS ACW Tie (OUT) PS OD ae" ae. aha ST IVIL | G 01%
8 "100 | GZ “adeg SOO Oy OYe Val h b STL | 1 ee | "7991 GT “BIT FOL]
De On eee O bas ey POUL | Sins sO Minss |ssnen OD Nes sin ODeenlnencomnesuliGcs cLGIAIl lp Oln
8 100 | 02 4dos | 0 ounr | 6s Av] Gg oun | Fe Avy |-- ~0p"5 "| 7 Ol T
Tr “200 | Fo ades | ct oun | ye Av | F suNE | 1% Avy |-- 0% “AVI | G 01%
8 “jdeg | 6¢ “shy |g ounce} og Avy | og AVI | 9% Av | T OT “ae |"
4 “YO | 83 3deg | FT ouNL] T oun |--*-op™ "| 2% Avy |o-*---77" "| ST “ae | F OVE
13 ‘qdog CT eunf}] Z oun | § oun | 9% ACW corer es= "| OL “IB | F 012
eo ‘ydeg | ct 4deg |----"-----|->--op---| og Av | sa As | 1g “zen | 0c “ey | ---"
eo ‘qdeg |----op"""| ¢ aune |g oune} 22 Avy |---| TS “we | FOOLS
eG “ides |----op---| Fr sun | Og Avy | ~-“op""") Fo Aw [77 | OL “eT | FOLT
gc ades | #g adeg | et euup}] {T eung| tT sung | 9g Avy l---------"] 0g “ae | F01Zg
§ 20 ]|¢6¢-3deg | et oung|] zg oune |g oun |--*-ops*"|-*-"*-"-"} ZBABI | GON T
03 ydeg | #Z-sny | 4 oune| Tg Avw | og ABIL} 9% ABW | 9% “IVI | 02 “ABN |
9T cL FL $I SL Ir OL 6 8
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eaten UF eee ad100 1G siaysednyy

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Puli ORE SCOR Chis Orn “>= 9 TTOTAG.a FT
“ospry 30g
“$1001 UMGO
+MOUTTIA
“ouMLOqIe Ny LO, ART,
Career ““““9L9T “ON “eraedry X stuojos
cpg ages "77" Yeon) 489
“a81004) “V9 staysodny
Bolt oats “> >" Ode stajsednyy
"6088 “ON ‘stjsodny X Brediyy
“--="""T0T ‘on ‘sraysedny X Briediy
--="Z0T ‘ON ‘Stajsedny X alpadmoyy
SUP OORO DUG Sore orate a Sores TOUR
PRECOCIOUS “=== =-1 TOU aq lo F]
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BALAI AG IBC HAI GABOR $1001 UMO
isvlodeplt A
BORAGE I eh OEIC “***110Ule'T
“asply 30d
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OP GP OCOD OP OIAIS IG IC, “"===S1001 UMO
roI(ULy Pp ayouv[_ oper
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SORREROA OO 4G e.50E yes “*""S1001 UMO
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“ponulyuoj—nruiofyyny we spanliaurd yuaunsad xa uanajya Ur
nob fig puv syoojs punjsisat Wo buryfouB hg paisa, sayjarwva adpib fo sasodind quasefp “of anjodu pup Lovipyaq arvojay— TTA “ATA,

75

oe:

ONS.

BT,

THE VINIFERA REG

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIBS IN

02 “3deg | 62 “sty (°"*""*"-""| € oun | 62 ABW {-“““*op-"| g¢ cady {| eT “Tem (--""- Se uilicas Boa Sues ete ce fii oe OTHE. If US) [ORSPE RRS OOOO SOOO HO ODOCKOR VOT MAG)
SOULI10 /
£% “deg 1% sny | @ oung |-""-"op-""| 0g Av | 9z ACW | I -idy PAT merc TATI | ese faeces noo S$‘ Petia se |e ee FO6L TS) De ics anare cterod eth caapameerLO OTNTDAN (6) ie
° SSUT[SOLLUOSTR AA
12 “ydeg | et ydeg |--""----- "| Te ABN | $e ABIN | Bt ABW |--°77°"-77 7] ST “ABI | HOLE | 9% SO | 86 157 720aK lysoduy X e1poa 10 py
L “400 | 0 “4deg | 1g eung | 9g AvIn | 8 oun} og Aw |---"-""""*| 12 “www | Gol? | Z'¢ 8 6 Ge ee eis cei ie cle ieee eT OMOGT
; SOyoLIa7 Op OUsLA
£S ‘ydag 66 “sny 8 oune |] 1g Av |. oung | og Avy | Te “ey | OT “wey | ae iS) poses Nae ates ale SPOBT TEE | ccc aah loli eel, eee amas 2 © OATS G)
SVpleg BLoovUld A
‘0 gt ‘idog | og Aew | 92 Avy | se Av | et Avy |----op "| 8 “ue | FOL] 8‘ | 06 9061 Uiperlicee ae 22 oS weeee ess 9UTLOG IC Nf LOTAG I,
ec 4dos | or dos | so Av | 12 Av | ee ABW | Fr ABW | 1 caddy | @r “wwiy | G o1e $O | 16 9061 a foot “ON “erweddiyy X sruojog
gt deg) ¢ ades} te Ae | ce Av | 2 Ati |----op---| gz “wey | OL “ARI | 016 8 ‘9 061 i’ allie en pores eee eg oad.) 4183
6I dog | 8 “ydogs |g oun) 1¢ Av | 6e ABW |----op'-"|Z “dy | PL “lew | G 01g g $9 COBT ti “49 sEsodnyy
‘od =|" Op") 0 ACT | 96 ABI | 12 AVIN | oF ABW | Og “Ae | > -Op "| FOV’ | LT 8 SO6T } a WWI SLAybod yy
“og Or ydes |G oun} 2¢ Av |----op "| gr Aww | 1 “adv | or ae | PO}T | LF sO | 66 9061 FO6L ie lene “6088 “ON “Stujsodtnyy X erredryy
02 Ades | 3 adeg |} e oaune | 12 Avw | sc AvW | sr Av | ¢ cady | $T * G OL] oT 8 98 9061 FOBT wl ysodny X ered
61 ides | or Ydag |). ounr|¢z Avw | ee AvW | or Av | 02 “WW | ---Op "| FOS | 1% $‘O | 08 CO6T | S06T a “adfoLy vpwed yy
02 4deq |e 4deg |e ounf } 96 ABW | oo AVIN | CL ABW | Gs “AV | 8 “ARI | FOS pte 8 i) 9061 FO6I 17° B06 “ON ‘staqsodnyy X alpaAmMoyy
61 “deg | of Gdos | ae Av | oc AvIN | es Se} Ee Av | 1 “Ady | or “eM |} GO1% | 6° 8 GS GO6I £061 Ga |e aS SS eee coe Seas *>*qyoue"|
‘od g ‘4dog | te Av | fe ACM | 0% AVIN | er ABW | ce “ww | 2 “ABI | FOS inal $ Is GO6T 8061 Ul UWOULA 1OTT
‘og «=| br dog | 2 ounr | ge Avw | og ABW | br Av | *--op7""| FT “av |G 015 | Fz sfo | 68 GO6T | S0BL | wl “ospry dod
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BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

124

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126 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Table VIII gives an alphabetical list of additional Vinifera varieties
grafted on resistant stocks which are under test at the Chico, Colfax,
Fresno, Geyserville, Lodi, and Oakville experiment vineyards. Arabic
figures are used to indicate the number of different stocks upon which
each is grafted and the location of the same. The tests are too young
to permit the drawing of conclusions.

Taste VIII.—Additional Vinifera varieties of grapes under test on resistant stocks at
six experiment vineyards in California.

[Arabic figures are used to indicate the number of different stocks upon which each variety is grafted and
the location of the same.]

& *)

Slee Ss eS 3

Varieties. «ford | O18 ~ | -a Varieties. ills as aie] eb | Ee =|

S/s/2)8ls) 4 s|/a|/e)2lale

al oe stall Oa S alo |h] 9

S/dla;olS16 S/Slalala}s
INGAAS bs | SSadosossellbsoslesosileces|bsss es e@ hil dtotelvallsss ssa Dae eesti] ical yee 5 4
Actoni Maceron.....--- aA Oe | ee Cinsauteee ey eee eereer ig | kag a ee
NCtomikeype eee eee ene Ul Ql B 4 4 || Clairette & Gros Grain... 1] 6 |-.-.|-.-- 6 9
IApathinvegs ss sae esc cee | eeae Lee Slee ee 1 || Coarna Neagra......--- PAE eae ete Alea ees 5 6
Nora SASH eyes seine Roe | ae Slee ee 2 || Corinthe Blanc. _.......|_.-- es mpsll 4Q De |eend
Ahmeur bon Ahmeur. Os eee OH Se are 4 5 || Corinthe& Gros Grain... 1| 5| 2/]|....] 6 7
TRUE Sa ID Ot ee emer alee be ..--| 1 || Corinthe Rose........_. Plot SIG Ne 4 7
Ajalsi-@ diasep eer one AL | Rees eee | Ee x Coristanos- 2 oee 23-4) In eal gese ees 6 8
TTR eee eee ey cee iUGau| Reon | eae | se i Bil aConnichon wee a) ee Dip ees eog 6 4
PALER Opp Avia a ee ae AN 8 RT eT wg 2) |pDamasvRosonee see eere pean Spe BW fal Near) aed Fs
Alpardienssssseeeeneene od) ES Ene Si ee eee ee eae | Danie worseees sen eee Ye eee a RS ee |
NYG Ey aN DSR BN ENE IO AG POE aoe at HO ee Pee BD attion devs ey rout lees pes | mene memen | merce eee 3
Alexandrian emanates poualll Zh |saus| mesa base PUREE Min ps5 ssoae bel faperscal epee os 1 6
Alicantese ee sen eee eee OE Ne Neel ass Pee eee |p Div Ansys) oe ey eee reer oe 1 ae et S| be |
sAMeriaA gsc Les eases aoe abe eee ean Wey Til eee | Dodrelablaeepeee tere oee FP ES | eee | es ee eee
J EO Sete sebas aera ese Bese Seuel mene ol || eDrie kusay ss Sees See DATs yl ees | Se ae ae 5
Anebiel\Cadiss 13 | A eae 4 bn pDronkanes sss sees sane f= |r 8 | ai eee BO) 6
Anpelinasi. eet sehen BN & 5 Gai (Waly cues} Aa ta5 cui-s2he ara ebeath oy | Lean paren [yd fe a PE 1
IAT ATMOMS ea M ease ek eee ie eyes Pa Nha JOOP Go seseeccoscs WAP BAU Bess 9
FATECTISSIA a a ee Seana | meee ee men [teres | ee 1 1} Erz Roumli....--....-. Tg fegereyes toneseeas) Weide 5
PASH Keita eee eases eae lee ea ee 2 |) Fajoumi Jaune........- TU Csi fa ae 6 2
Askaree cece occ oeee Te Ee (ees ae ra aphiliy. see ss eeemceme| eee Sil ees 901 16
PASI oe Se mene ssc eno | Soe alee eaieeiee | same ore 6 || Feher Som....--..----- 5 | (af) seal] bE 7 5
PAC CHE G aun ae 2 ieee a we ee ee .-| 2 || Feher Zagos....--------. 1 al ee) (ee (oes aS
IAS wa duiktaries oo ale aa eas ee Bae leabe oe] | PH) gn ee COS 1] RRS a ease a 6
PAV ChYKG Ge semen ee el ener cag Seal ee ea hin tend ores nese eee | SS I ae ae ed
TAT UT KAGE Ss a AR at 3 TE Se ee 2 || Flame Tokay........-- ‘LOY | eae es er 3
Anoilata se sae ee oka 1 W225 faod aed Loreen [ay 3 || Frankenthal Precoce...| 2 |....] 2 |.--.]--.-].-.-
Aqwasarehudeeca. se salasns loon. SN SRE [Ese 2 || Fredericton..._......-. GPSS etnies eG 5
BOKALOr=s ees ose esse slo es |e oe bas 3] eNeNeRt lara x al @iiulabise secs cee oe sce |= ae eee meee omer | Sees 2
Barducel. ...----------- DBS Ns OF eee 4 || Golden Champion......]....|-...]--.-|----]---- 6
Bermestia Bianca...... Thshieseas (Ole areal a 5 Golden) Hamiburgecace =. |peenteeeel soe ee ee eee 5
PBIGAN Ole eee eee We a esse 5 || Golden Queen....-.-.-- 1 Bese] Meee seas 3] il
Black Hamburg........ Ame ia|pexea | epee |e, On lEGoolabiotmmcee erate lel be ofa tp OX oa m|is 7 2
Black Monukka.....-.- socal) WS eSeelh al 8 || Green Hungarian...-.-- iba (eee Poe eas ae 5
Black Morocco.......-- De eines earl lvea| ce eeu | Ren achere bree Seeeemce Vie Piece Sad loses] Sosa seca
Ib AcisPrincesere ee eeeee AUS Seer tes coed Seep | crete ..-- || Gros Blanede Lausanne} 1{ 5] 1|-...} 7 5
Black Seedless.........|...-|.--- eae | Ske | ee 3 || Gros Guillaume........]-...|---- 240 Cees ee 5
Black Shahanee........ i (A Ae Dy || PEC DLON eee naan eee eee eee TR 3 eeeelesost 68d)
Blane d’Ambre......_- a esl lose re 2s tHe 5 Syl | PELUBSCON er eee ms ceee ess ess loser UO" bss bseells655
Blaney White.......... Ble St aaee aes 6 Oull@ehamisar ces ese neceecce TG | ea | eae eee 1
Blauer Portugieser ....- iy (eee ee ees ee es OF onl |Eby CALOS! Gatien amoe cee A ee ee eee Salil Gs
Bowood Muscat......-- Le) eae Fe Wo TH ---- || Inmsolia Bianca...-.....- PTA PACE SS lis (a) 5
BTUs liana eee eee Dib earom | eee | pete ay SitUEwyabl ys ose os eae Bre eee eee a ssloone 2
iBucclemshe ee sees itp Bs. Go Sata) 5 Sil balecen meee ectcmer aces ail eee Ee eee a if
Bucklande ee see eee ae: I si Resets (gees peter (eet Si ||lenesianaeepcmerecice. = Sele Beleced Bs ee Manse)
Calabrian ee eee AL oeageal eee 7 6) ||iJioannenes-- -- 22-5. =<. salecel cece Sa escihk 4
CalmetteS = see 15] eS PRE ear Dale DiTDOllUN eee ee see eee oe Pee eal Paes 16
Carionance anna sare Ue Pik geben] Beat 6 || Kabbajuk..-..-........ Selccenlneae Hace) Sel eee
Castiza ee seen en CIS ae al ae 4 Rullekeadankagcene. ce see sce 1b) ee = | Sa = eral Se eco
Chadeh Arabieh....__.. OE fs a Cul Ge ont Sree Her 63|(eKeandihan® s\ 22a lees eee eee eee esse 2
Chaouch Blanche...__.. TS Nee 2 6 By pikeana-sarmia Se 2 Sees ocees |e eee [aaa Beer eevee Fara
Chaouch Rose....-._... eH Ow we ee 8 S| lKeana-uziime cS eee eee sae an apes Fay | Se lea |
Chasselas Rose de Fal- Kiahorashani’.. She. ceo |b Soa ee ied mee hire!
LOU Seo Bea Peabeeal ai Wal Faas SP ae CEN GU leo Fe cork ee | PA Os Peel ter
Chasselas Rouge....._-- TL GaGa Pe Sai a ete Bul lAISeA SUPT Ul se: ye ee eee en | pe fie SR ST ey
Chasselas St. Bernard...| 1] 2] 5]|---..| 5 AGI ake tchitche tte yee ee cee aes a eee DN aS bec
Chavooschee........-.- UTS | AR ER el ea Kechmish-Aly-Blane...| 2] 5] 2|.---| 7 3
Chauche Gris..-........ PER Ss SAE Se Br 3 || Keropodia.........----- Ibe e7e aie tutes bal fa 7/ 8
Chaweesh.............- SEL UL ais UD aie) ball Rey aac icacs eceeacee ene UL eS D es Rus oe 2 6

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

127

Taste VIII.—Additional Vinifera varieties of grapes under test on resistant stocks at
six experiment vineyards in California—Continued.

Varieties.

Geyserville.

Marmora

~ Muscat Capusimes.....-
Muscat ene Noir Hatif.
Muscat Hamburg
Muscat Noir Precoce..

Olivette Chaptal...-..-.
Olivette Noir...........!
Olivette Rose

Panse de Roquevaire...

Paykanee Razuki
Pearl de Casaba
Pedro Ximines

Pis des Cheyre Rouge...
Pizzutella

Oakville.

Hs et et ED et et et bo 0

Prune de Cazouls.....--

Purple

Quagliano
Red Hanepoot.....-.---

Ribier.

Rodites
Ronde Weisse

Rose d’

Trifere du Japon
Triomphe
Trojka.

Ubeide

iva, de Castae 2.224.245 - <5

Uva de

Valandova
Waldepenas= ae saeas cms
Veltliner

erdal
Verdelino de Madere
Vigne de Zericho

West

White Hanepoot
White Kapadjulari
White Luglienga
White Tokay.....-..-.-
Zabalkanski....--------

Varieties.

cS | Fresno.

Damascus.....--

Sere | Chico.
it | Colfax.

Ttalie

eee es

Embarque

Prolite oes ao seae

| Geyserville.

| Oakville.
hoon

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or ool nonll moll)

er
OO bo!

128 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The following is an alphabetically arranged list of Vinifera varieties
in the Brawley Experiment Vineyard (PI. II, fig. 2), the plantings of
which are as yet too young to permit the drawing of conclusions
relative to their adaptability:

Ach-I-Soum, Actoni, Actoniky, Agadia, Ahmeur bon Ahmeur, Ajmi, Aleatico,
Alexandria, Almeria, Aneb-el-Cadi, Angelina, Augulata, Askari, Aspiran Noir, Atch
Kiek, Awasarghua.

Barducci, Beclan, Bermestia Bianca, Boal de Madera, Bowood Muscat, Black
Morocco, Black St. Peter, Black Shahanee, Black Zante, Blanc d’Ambre, Blaney
White, Blauer Portugieser, Buccleuch, Brustiana.

Carignane, Calabrian, Catarratto a la Porta, Castiza, Chadieh Arabieh, Chavooschee,
Chaouch, Chaouch Rose, Chasselas Bouches du Rhone, Chasselas Dore, Chasselas
Fontainebleau, Chasselas Florence, Chasselas Montauban, Chasselas Musque Vrai,
Chasselas Negrepont, Chasselas Rose, Chasselas Rose de Falloux, Chasselas Rouge,
Chasselas St. Bernard, Child of Hall, Cinsaut, Clairette 4 Gros Grain, Clairette
Blanche, Coarna Neagra, Commandeur, Corinthe Rose, Corinthe a Gros Grain, Corni-
chon, Coristana, Crujidero.

Damascus, Danugue, Dattier de Beyrouth, Dizmar, Dodrelabi, Downing, Drnekusa,
Dronkane, Duc de Magenta.

Emperor.

Fajaumi Jaune, Faphly, Feher Goher Noir, Feher Som, Feher Zagos, Ferrara,
Fintendo, Flame Tokay, Foster, Frankenthal Precoce, edison

Golden Champion, Golden Hamburg, Golden Queen Goolabie, Gradiska, Green
Hungarian, Grenache, Gros Blanc de Lausanne, Gros Maroc.

Hebron Hycales, Hunisa, Huasco, Hutab.

Insolia Bianca.

Jura Muscat.

Kadarka, Kahallillee, Kakour, Keropodia, Kishmish, Kuristi Mici, Kurtelaska.

Lahntraube, Lampasas, Leani Zolo, Luglienga.

Madeleine Angevine, Madeleine Blanche, Madeleine Rose, Madeleine Royale,
Mamelon, Malaga, Malvasia, Malvasia Rosario, Maraville de Malaga, Marascina,
Marzamina, Meslier, Millenium, Mission, Molinera Gordo, Mondeuse, Mourisco
Bianca, Muscateller, Muscatelle Fino, Muscat Albardiens, Muscat Bonod, Muscat —
Capusines, Muscat Gros Noir Hatif, Muscat Hamburg, Muscat Madera Rose, Muscat
Noir de Hongrie, Muscat Noir Precoce, Muscat Talabot.

Napoleon, Nasa Valentiana, Negrara di Gattinara, Neiretta di Costillo.

Ocru di Boe, Ohanez, Olivette Blanche, Olivette de Cadenet, Oliver de Serres,
Olivette Noir.

Pagadebito, Pare de Versailles, Palarusa, Panariti, Paykanee Razuki, Pearl de
Casaba, Perruno, Persian, No. 20; Persian, No. 21; Persian, No. 23; Persian, No. 25;
Persian, No. 26; Persian, No Number; Persian, No Tag; Philipi, Piment, Pince Muscat,
Prune de Cazouls.

Rose de Italie, Royal Ascot, Rozaki Zolo.

Schach-I-Soum, Schiradzouli Blanc, Schiradzouli Violet, Servan Blanc, Servan
Rose, Sgotoruk, Shiraz, Sicilian, Slankamenka, St. Laurient, Sultana, Sultanina,
Sultanina Rosea, Syrian.

Terret Monstre, Tinta Amerilla, Torok Goher Noir, Trentham Black, Trifere du
Japon, Triomphe, Trivoti, Trojka, Trousseau, Tsien Tsien.

Valdepenas, Veltliner, Verdal, Vernaccia Sarda, Vigne de Zericho.

Wilmot Hamburg, Wilmot No. 16, White Corinth, White Tokay.

Zante.

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. 129 -

Table IX shows additional tests of improved American native and
Franco-American grape varieties grafted on resistant stocks which
are being made at the Fresno and Oakville experiment vineyards.
(See PI. I, figs. i and 2.) Arabic figures are used to indicate the
number of different stocks upon which each is grafted and the location
of the same. The tests are too young to permit the drawing of
conclusions.

TABLE IX.— Varieties of American native and Franco-American grapes under test on
resistant stocks at the Fresno and Oakville experiment vineycrds, showing the number of
different stocks included in the test.

Varieties. Fresno. | Oakville. Varieties. Fresno. | Oakville.

Ncawallie cra: 3SS: 2. stocks. . 1 Asis Concord esas. see ee" stocks... 5 10
erapTek X Malaga ue ja Concord Improved. ..-- Corr soe Sea are 1
INDE eee esc c sae OCKS5.|- scecs cose 1 || Continental. ......-.-.- Ol RSEe Bees eeaese 1
ye: re =2pcbonce Coseoe =o Seats ccesmes 2 11
Be aeeeen 0 sags[occscce tes 1 6
een Seedling... aa Ee Wane Sees 1 il
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The explanation of columns already given for Table VII will apply
for the most part to Table X, showing the relative behavior and value
for different purposes of improved American native and Franco-
American grape varieties, except that the parentage of the varieties
displaces the designation of the stock, the column for the ‘‘Year
grafted” is omitted, and the congeniality column is changed to a
growth-rating column, because all the varieties are on their own roots.
The column for weight of pruning is also omitted. The abbreviations
used to designate the parent species are as follows: Aest. for Aesti-
valis, Bourg. for Bourquiniana, Champ. for Champini, Lab. for
Labrusca, Lins. for Linsecomi, Rip. for Riparia, Rup. for Rupestris,
Vin. for Vinifera. |

85756°—Bull. 209—15——9

BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

130

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Or 300} “0
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sg “ydeg

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131

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

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133

THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN

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THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

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139

THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN

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THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

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BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

142

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TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

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153

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS.

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154

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TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. 155
CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS.

Varying soil, climatic, and other conditions complicate the success-
ful establishment of vineyards on resistant stocks.

The adaptability of varieties to soil, climatic, and other conditions
can be closely forecasted, but congeniality has to be determined by
actual test.

The best results are obtained where the scion and stock are con-
genial and both are suited to all the conditions of the environment.

When both scion and stock varieties are suited to the conditions
but do not thrive, congeniality is probably lacking.

The ideal vine is one having a most resistant root which is congenial
to a top that produces the best fruit abundantly.

Different species used as stocks with the same variety grafted on
them (Table VII) may increase or diminish its vigor and productive-
ness; increase or diminish the quality, size, and appearance of the
fruit ; cause it to ripen earlier or later; and bring about results varying
from perfect success to almost complete failure.

Extensive saccharine and acid determinations made (Table VII) of
varieties grafted on resistant stocks and contrasted with the con-
geniality and growth ratings made of the same vines the same season
show a close correspondence between these important chemical
constituents of the fruit and the congeniality of graft and stock.
Similar growth ratings of a variety grafted on various stocks are
found to be accompanied by fairly definite percentages of sugar and
acid. The congeniality of the variety to the stock materially affects
the resistant qualities of the stock.

The quantity and quality of the fruit are usually in opposition on
the soils and vines producing most abundantly; the fruit is usually
not of as much value per given unit as it is on vines that are rela-
tively less productive.

Most vine varieties making perfect growth on resistant stocks
are found to yield heavier crops than the same variety when grown
on its own roots.

The best results can be obtained only when the varieties are placed
under soil, climatic, and other conditions to which they are adapted
and by using the methods of pruning, training, and culture best
suited to each one.

A number of the new grape introductions. of the Department of
Agriculture are proving to be superior to the varieties that are now
commercially grown for certain purposes.

The relative rooting qualities of resistant varieties are an important
consideration in the cost of establishing resistant vineyards.

Some stocks are suited for bench grafting, while others are especially
valuable for vineyard grafting.

156 BULLETIN 209, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Cuttings of many hybrids root easily, although the cuttings from
one of the parents may be hard to root.

Where conditions are not suited to a given species, they are often
well adapted to hybrids of that species with some other species.

As cuttings of Monticola, Berlandieri, Aestivalis, Linsecomii,
Bicolor, and Candicans (Pls. VI, VII, and VIII) are hard to root,
they should be rooted in the nursery and grafted there, or planted in
the vineyard and grafted afterwards.

Riparia cuttings root easily and are excellent stocks well suited
for vineyard and bench grafting, but they are adapted to but few
California soils. Soils in which Riparia varieties thrive usually
produce large crops of only fair quality.

Rupestris cuttings root and graft easily and are best adapted
to bench grafting. When so used the dormant eyes should be cut
out of the stock. Many varieties are not congenial to Rupestris,
and their fruit is usually somewhat later in ripening than when
grown on some other stock.

In most instances Riparia, Berlandieri, Champini, and. Aestivalis
stocks (Pl. VI, VII, and VIII) are congenial to Vinifera varieties.
Their fruitfulness is increased and the time of ripening hastened in
comparison with the same varieties grown on other stocks.

Some of the hybrid resistant-stock varieties are making enviable
records as stocks under California conditions.

Where all the qualities desired can not be found in a hybrid, a
complex hybrid—that is, a hybrid of hybrids—may yield the desired
results.

A grower of Vinifera grapes should decide before locating his
vineyard what varieties he desires to grow, and then choose soil and
other conditions suited to such varieties. He should know whether
stocks are to be established in the vineyard and grafted afterwards
or whether the plantings are to be of bench or nursery grafts. He
should then select the resistant varieties best suited to the purpose
and conditions and which at the same time are congenial to the
varieties he intends to grow. He should familiarize himself with
all the operations necessary in establishing a resistant vineyard.

The amount of money practically thrown away in the reestablish-
ment of Vinifera vineyards in this country since the first appearance
of phylloxera in them can not be even approximately estimated.

The direct causes of this waste of money have been due to lack
of information and the fact that there was no source from which
data could be obtained. This has resulted in the taking of chances
by the growers in planting nonresistants, or in using the wrong
resistants, or In using resistants which were not congenial to the
varieties they were growing. Other causes for this waste have
been the purchase of bench grafts on resistant stocks not true to

{

TESTING GRAPE VARIETIES IN THE VINIFERA REGIONS. 157

name and the lack of proper care and management of resistant
vineyards, such as allowing roots to grow from Vinifera tops grown
on resistant stocks. These mistakes have delayed the general use
of resistants. There should be no further delay of this kind. The
Department of Agriculture is now prepared and will be glad to give
information of value along all these lines.

O

BULLETIN OF THE

P USDEPARINENT OFAGRICULTURE &

No. 210

Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester.

April 17, 1915.
(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

SEED PRODUCTION OF WESTERN WHITE PINE:!

By RapHaeEt Zon, Chief of Forest Investigations.
PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN DETERMINING SEED PRODUCTION.

When, several years ago, an attempt was made by the Forest Serv-
ice to collect seed on a large scale for forestation purposes, it was
keenly realized for the first time how little knowledge exists in this
country regarding the seed production of our trees and the factors
which influence it. One should be able to foretell with a reasonable
degree of certainty the amount of seed which different species will
produce at definite intervals. Aside from the practical value of
such knowledge, it is of the greatest scientific interest. Our knowl-
edge of the life history of forest, trees will be incomplete until the
mysterious occurrence of seed years and the factors that influence
them are fully understood. Of all the forest problems, seed pro-
duction is the most difficult one to solve. This may be readily
inferred from the fact that although seed production excited great
interest on the part of European foresters even in the early days, and
several attempts were made to penetrate into the mystery of it,
little as yet is known regarding the factors which influence the seed
production of even the few European species.

The investigation of seed production of forest trees consists. of four
distinct problems: (1) The determination of the amount of the seed
crop, (2) the determination of the periodicity of seed production, (3)
the determination of the various external and internal factors which
affect the amount and the periodicity of seed production, and (4) the
solution of the biological problem of seed production. Each of these
‘problems must be solved in the order indicated, since the solution of
one furnishes the basis for the solution of those which follow.

The first and immediate problem is to determine the amount of
seed produced by each species. This may not be as simple an under-

1 Pinus monticola Doug}.
Note.—This bulletin contains a report upon an investigation of the seed production of western white
pine and a discussion of the method of measuring the seed crop.
85754°—Bull. 210—15

2 BULLETIN 210, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

taking as it seems. Should the seed crop be estimated ocularly or
actually measured on representative trees or sample plots? If it is
to be measured, what is to be taken as the unit of measure—the
number of cones produced by a few individual trees, the number of
cones produced per unit of area, or the quantity of germinable seed
produced by individual trees on a given area ?

When a method is agreed upon, the problem of the periodicity of
seed crops can be attacked. To solve this problem, repeated com-
parable investigations of the first problem carried on for years is
necessary.

In the solution of the third problem there enters the determination,
first, of the external factors such as climate, soil, exposure, light,
injury, and destruction of seed by animals and fungi, and, second, of
internal factors, such as composition, age, density, and health of the
stand. The solution of this complicated question, or rather of this
series of complicated questions, requires systematic, parallel, and
uninterrupted series of investigations, which can not be undertaken by
one individual, but must be carried on by permanently organized
forest experiment stations. |

The fourth problem, the solution of which is the final aim of the
whole investigation, is the most difficult of all, and requires, in addi-
tion to the other lines of work, a series of chemical, physiological, and
anatomical investigations.

In this paper an attempt will be made to discuss merely the method
of measuring seed crops.

METHOD EMPLOYED IN MEASURING THE SEED CROP.

The production of seed in forest trees is not a function of an indi-
vidual tree, but really of the whole stand, since the development of
the life processes of each tree is determined by the density, composi-
tion, and age of the stand, and by the position of the tree in the stand.
Therefore, in determining the amount of the seed crop, the quantity
of seed produced per unit of area, and not the amount produced by
individual trees, should be made the basis of measurement. Further,
the cone production can not alone serve as a basis for measuring the
seed crop. The seed production must be measured not by the quan-
tity of cones but by the amount of seed produced, because the
final aim in the study of seed crops is not the cones but the seed.
The quality of seed, therefore, viz, its viability, must be taken into
account. Two stands may produce different quantities of cones per
tree, yet the stand with the smaller average number of cones per tree
may furnish more germinable seea than the stand with the larger
number of cones. Barren seed are biologically nothing but impuri-
ties, and it would therefore be a mistake not to leave them out of con-

SEED PRODUCTION OF WESTERN WHITE PINE. 3

sideration in determining the amount of seed production. Thus,
in measuring the seed crop, three things must be determined: (1)
The seed production for the stand per unit of area (not for individual
trees), (2) the quantity of seed, and (3) viability of the seed. The
weight of germinable seed per unit of area must be accepted as the
standard for measuring seed crops. If a is the weight of clean air-
dried seed obtained from 1 acre, and p is their germination per cent,
then the seed crop, or z, may be expressed by the formula r=ap.

Since the aim is to determine the amount of seed produced per unit
of area, the best method of studying seed production is by means of
sample areas. These areas may be from one-quarter of an acre to
one-half of an acre in extent, in accordance with the density of the
stand. Each sample area, however, should include at least 100 trees
of the principal species composing the stand.

It would, of course, be more accurate to gather cones and obtain
the seed from all of the trees on the sample area. This, however,
would necessitate the cutting down of the trees, which is not always
practicable or possible. Moreover, this operation would require a
ereat deal of time, which would make such an investigation difficult.
For this reason it is preferable to collect the cones and extract the
seed only from sample trees.

It is a well-established fact that light is a necessary condition for
seed production, and observations show that the greater the amount
of light received by the tree the greater is its crown development and
the amount of seed produced. It may be already accepted a priori
that individual trees in a stand do not produce equal amounts of seed,
but vary in accordance with their crown development. In the
selection of the sample trees, therefore, one must be guided by the
form and development of the crown of the individual tree. In the
different species the different parts of the crown have varying im-
portance; thus in Douglas fir the upper part of the crown is of the
most importance, since it is there that the largest number of cones
are developed; in other species it may be the extremities of the
largest lower branches.

In order that the amount of seed obtained from the sample trees
should, when multiplied by the total number of trees on the sample
plot, actually represent the amount of seed produced on the plot,
the sample trees must include representatives of all groups of trees
which differ in any way in their crown development. With this end
in view, all the trees on the sample plot are divided into groups in
accordance with their crown development, and their diameters
tallied. From these groups the sample trees are selected. As a basis
for dividing the trees into groups in accordance with their crown de-
velopment, the ordinary classification into dominant (I), codominant

4 BULLETIN 210, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(II), intermediate (III), oppressed (IV), and suppressed (V) may
be followed. Since, however, the crown development of trees in the
codominant and intermediate classes may not be uniform, these two
classes may be subdivided and designated by the letters a, 6, c, and d,
In this way there may be from seven to ten classes or groups of trees.

At the time the trees are measured and divided into groups a note
is made for each tree as to whether or not it is bearing cones. These
data, which are very interesting in themselves, become absolutely
essential in case of partial seed production, when not all of the trees
bear cones.

In the work of dividing the trees into groups, the investigator must
carefully examine each crown from all sides, observing its habitus.
Experience has taught that im order to avoid errors of crown classifica-
tion the total number of trees on a sample plot must not exceed 100.
The size of the sample plot will depend, therefore, upon the age,
density, and composition of the stand.

The enumeration of the trees may be made by marking each tree
with white paper tags, and the record kept on a form similar to the
one given below:

Cones pres-

Number. Diameter. Class. ent (+) or
absent (—).
Inches.
ieee etese sista ts. ee 25 Illa a
V ae

When in a mixed stand a tree of secondary species occurs, its name
should be given in the first column, but columns 3 and 4 left blank.
After the number of trees in each class is computed, a certain number
of sample trees are selected from the various classes. For ordinary
investigations, 10 per cent of the total number of trees on the sample
plot may be sufficient. For more intensive investigations, however;
a larger percentage should be taken.

The more carefully the division into classes is done and the more
uniform the crowns of each class, the easier it is to select the sample
trees. It is advisable to select sample trees separately for each class—
that is, first select the trees of Class I, then take up the next class,
and so on.

When not all trees in the stand are bearing cones, the sample trees
should be selected from the cone-bearing ones, and, in determining
the amount of seed production, the percentage of seed-bearing trees
for each group must be taken into account.

The sample trees are felled, care being taken in falling that they
do not touch the crowns of other trees and thus knock off their own

SEED PRODUCTION OF WESTERN WHITE PINE. 5

cones or those of their neighbors. From the felled sample trees all
the cones are gathered very carefully, those which still hang on the
branches as well as those which were knocked off in felling the tree.
It is necessary to avoid collecting cones which were knocked off from
other trees. This can often be very readily accomplished, since the
cones of each tree differ from those of others in size and form, espe-
cially in the case of western white pine. The cones gathered from
each sample tree are put in separate sacks, properly labeled, and
after being slightly dried at ordinary room temperature are subjected
to further investigation.

The total height and age and health of each of the sample trees are
determined, the number of cones from each counted, their lengths
measured, and their volumes and green weights determined. The
cones are then dried and the seed extracted. Coniferous tree seeds
are separated from their wings, cleaned, and weighed. If there is
any foreign matter present its percentage is determined by weighing
several grams of the sample, then cleaning it of all foreign matter
and reweighing. After the seeds are cleaned, 200 are taken, their
weights determined to one one-hundredth of a gram, and these are
then germinated. After the germination percentage is determined,
the amount of seed per unit of area—for instance, an acre—can be
ascertained by means of the formula, =ap.

SEED PRODUCTION OF WESTERN WHITE PINE.

The method of investigation described was applied in 1911 to the
study of seed-bearing characteristics of the western white pine in
Idaho on the Kaniksu and Coeur d’ Alene National Forests, where this
pine reaches its optimum development. Im all there were located
four sample plots, three on the Kaniksu and one on the Coeur d’Alene
Forest. About 10 per cent of the white-pine trees of the different
crown classes which bore cones were felled, the cones carefully gath-
ered, and kept separately for each tree. The seed from each tree
was extracted by hand and its purity and germinability determined.
The results for each sample plot follow.

6 BULLETIN 210, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 1.—Classification of trees according to character of crown and presence or absence
of cones; number of cones and amount of seed produced by sample trees, and total seed
production on plot No. 1, Kaniksu National Forest (area, one-half acre).

CROWN CLASSIFICATION OF TREES AND NUMBER BEARING CONES.

Diameter breast high
(inches).

Percent ofeach
class with
Coneseeemere

Class
i

Number of trees, by crown class.

Trees with cones.

Trees without cones.

Class | Class | Class | Class
101 sae IV. Wa
F535 5.4 PREG) ae 4
Ore. .c ee aero ene 3
we eas 2 1
WS een 2 eo see
1 Dilikest apehlaeme sso
cass. |e Tele hens. : Albee: We:
5 Oy |e Se ee eT
Dilees- iss CER = ES Seon
Gre wena |Satyasc Ei Rea
Pp NERS Set 5 2 (5 oO ae 6 a eee
Ace. 11) Ray as Fas EY ie ae
21 9 8
30 12 11
83 18 0

Number. | Per cent. | Number. | Per cent.
BAA 2 Bc) eee aise Be 4 100
aoe Saar pea Mees 5 100
BAG BoB | Seaiso'oc 8 100
Been a mS tie oe 5 100
2 40 3 60
id ee Tile cece SOUS .: gel eres $650
6 75 2 25
7 87 1 13
6 86 1 14
8 89 1 11
4 LOO" Gee RSE oa
1 50 1 50
3 LOO ease RRS oe eee
Re ge cl arene ROO see cette (a2
38 154 33 146
LS Re = ae AGi 25 ered

NUMBER OF CONES AND AMOUNT OF SEED PRODUCED BY SAMPLE TREES.

Number of cones by inch lengths.
Tree No ow Diameter.| Age. Height. Sonpsepen
3 to 4 5 to 6 7 to 8 Total
inches. | inches. | inches
Inches Years. Feet.
hs aa bata 1 Reape 230 166 | Closed..... 9 139 77 225
et aes 1 eee 230 TB) |e dos 3 2 26 “4 52
Bo se Gated Reeaayacen 4 21
Sees see Wegees Se 223 147 als Segre Ta 4 37 41
eect 1D ered 215 154] C osed Ba 7a td oe 6 4
(oes 4 joes 55
7 Sara 5 1 ee 200+ 146 ena 1 yi laoat taba 5
Be hk cee igs eee es 200+ 152 | Closed..... 5 55 9 69
Ti Spb sesbegt ness 2 200 OLB)... LOU es 2. ews tees oe 7 Uf
Motal\(WAtbees) ea se -eee ees cl oe seces poe emcee se osc eeeiastios 21 251 177 449
|

Per cent

Average Total Total : Number of} Per cent ote
Tree No. length of | weight of | volume of pucightof clean seed | of germi- Sateen
cone. cones. cones ‘| per pound.| nation. days of test.

Inches. Pounds Bushels. Grams.
ea ane BB ACOSROe 5.8 23.3 1.215 330. 27 38, 069 22 19.0
Dee Seen eee 6.2 4.5 58. 58 30, 362 45 31.0
3 7.0 1.5 8. 79 31, 680 18 13.5
Pile eeepc 7.3 3.5 17. 10 29) S13: eee sect seeios | See cereee
1 yee eae a 6.1 ell AQ. 21 26, 880 52.5 33.5
2 4.4 a2) 82 35, 200 26 25.0
do Roe crap r ase ac 5.0 15 4.02 5619605 | esas ea | sesame
SAS ELE EGE Ae aoe 5.3 4.1 94. 32 33, 876 67.5 34.0
ifs MES Dae ee a2 aH 13.06 |_ 24,320 56 33.0
Total (7 trees). 15.8 40.1 2 BAT Oe soe eee fit nak eens de ee oe ee Beene
{
1 Per cent of total. 2 Rotten.

SEED PRODUCTION OF WESTERN WHITE PINE. © a

Tase 1.—Classification of trees according to character of crown and presence or absence
of cones; number of cones and amount of seed produced by sample trees, and total seed
production on plot No.1, Kaniksu National Forest (area, one-half acre)—Continued.

TOTAL SEED PRODUCTION.

Yield from sample trees.| Yield of germinable seed.
Crown class. Total trees. | Total sample : |
trees. Co Cleaned| && ner eee
mes. nable Per acre.
seed. | seed.t plot.
|
No. | Perct.| No. | Perct.| Bush. |Grams.| Grams.|Grams.| Grams. | No.

Lip Ss sai 21 30 3 14 2.22 | 414.75 | 103.68 | 725.78 | 1,451. 56 114, 408
PRE cccccw ceo 21 30 3 14 -09 | 139.38 86. 04 | 487. 54 975. 086 68, 680
(0) jae aes ae 9 12 1 11 -09 | 13.06 7.31 | 14.63 29. 26 1, 704
10/3 ee ee 12 17/0) SR ene ASE | PN (a rece A ee ie Rea SAS ne ye tere Ne
\ee ee 8 IDE ASCE <4 eee |. — Aare ella seat enaeeeee ieqeucdalachonedace - |-----22
otal C3. 2 71 100 7 10 POO | DOO TLOMeaieeccee 1,227.95 |2 2,455. 906 | 184, 792

1 Weight of pure seed multiplied by their percentage of germination. 2 Equivalent to 5.4 pounds.

TABLE 2.—Classification of trees according to character of crown and presence or absence
of cones; number of cones and amount of seed produced by sample trees, and total seed
production on plot No. 2, Kaniksu National Forest (area, one-half acre).

CROWN CLASSIFICATION OF TREES AND NUMBER BEARING CONES.

Number of trees, by crown class. Trees with cones. |Trees without cones.
Sa om high
inches).
Gless pe a Ces aes Number. | Per cent. | Number. | Per cent.
3 100
20 100
10 100
9 100
8 80
2 34
1 13
1 il
54 62
Per cent.....-.- 15 20 15 24 26 Boa leenaceceee Ye emery
Per cent of each
class with
cones.....--- 100 94 30 0 UO Heeseni-4allooeceeesds| Peccesodes baseesocct

NUMBER OF CONES AND AMOUNT OF SEED PRODUCED BY SAMPLE TREES.

Number of cones, by inch lengths.

Crown Diam- . Cones open
Tree No Age. | Height.
class. eter. 8 8 or closed. 3to4 | 5to6 | 7to8 |9to10 ies
inches. | inches. | inches. | inches.
Inches. | Years.

13S. cea eC see 20 144 i
aS ie eee Je scpnerae 22 145 60
1) As epee 10 ae 20 145 ue
2 SI ieee Ae 16 147 8
eee z TESA pss: 18 146 ss
[ee eeeey TS os 14 134 4
24 Se COREE IDR eee 16 145 2
Seca neaee SUE eee 17 144 13
Total (8 trees)..|.......-.- | fiers ans 196

8

BULLETIN 210, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 2.—Classification of trees according to character of crown and presence or absence
of cones; number of cones and amount of seed produced by sample trees, and total seed
production on plot No. 2, Kaniksu National Forest (area, one-half acre)—Continued.

NUMBER OF CONES AND AMOUNT OF SEED PRODUCED BY SAMPLE TREES—Contd:

Per cent
Average Total Total : Number of} Percent Sapege
Tree No. length weight volume pent oF clean seed | of germi- pares
of cone. of cones. of cones. per pound.}; nation. days of test.
Inches. Pounds. Bushels. Grams.
1 ee et soe aoe 6.6 1.0 0. 077 14.910 31, a0 63. 5 25.0
5.7 1.5 si izAl 12. 861 24,35
Oe ea 5.8 4.8 1410 63. 659 26, 458 56. 5 37.5
1 6.0 1.2 171 8. 670 27,520 37 6.0
Rte oes ee Ree 7.8 1e9 - 189 53. 421 26, 619 2
Dek eh bees k ss 5.9 as) - 080 . 550 a en (ah ees seeees
7.7 1.6 - 273 18. 283 1,4
Bo ge sine nnn 7.2 2.6 1973 25. 035 26, 187 =o 10.0
1s Se ei ee 7.1 52 . 060 2. 364 31,520 15.5 13.0
PAs is SOO SIE 5.5 at .015 1.196 38, 800 (CO) ees ea ee ee
Outer esews mbes s 6.0 1.0 070 33. 522 26, 920 34.5 24.5
Total (8 trees). 6.4 | 16.4 E780 My 9 DALAT | Rone Sal nee ae ire ear
TOTAL SEED PRODUCTION.
Yield from sample trees.| Yield of germinable seed.
Y; Total sample l
Crown class. Total irees. Fees) mie, (Comal ae
Cones. cael. | nable Tat Per acre.
- || seed.2 | POU
No. | Perct.| No. | Perct.| Bush. | Grams.| Grams.|Grams.| Grams No.
eSB Rea aes ae arose 13 15 2 15 0.66 | 91.43 | 52.702 |342. 563 685.126 | 40,352
UME eet cee 17 20 3 18 -99 | 105.96 | 40.523 |216.128 432. 256 | 26,016
{UL Seales i 5 eer 13 15 3 23 .14] 37.08 | 12.344 | 16. 460 32. 920 2, 032
TEVA Pree int So QL | DA. ee eet ee SA eR es eee oie Pepe Scie ere ermim Spe eres] eee eee
Viena eae iret cee : 26 |... Geer Ede ae cea |i ee geeee. ted eek ee 2 IER el aneeeae
Total... 87 100 8 il V9. 2234. Ad ale peace 575. 151 |21, 150. 302 | 68, 400
|

1 Not tested.

2 Weight of pure seed multiplied by their percentage of germination.
3 Equivalent to 2.5 pounds.

T SLE 3.—Classification of trees according to character of crown and presence or absence
of cones; number of cones and amount of seed produced by sample trees, and total seed
production on plot No. 8, Kaniksu National Forest (area, one-half acre).

CROWN CLASSIFICATION OF TREES AND NUMBER BEARING CONES.

Diameter breast high

(inches).

Number of trees, by crown class.

Trees with cones.

Class
EE

Class
Til.

Class

Per cent.

pes Number. |

Number.

Trees without cones.

Per cent.

Per cent of
each class
with cones...

SEED PRODUCTION OF WESTERN WHITE PINE.

9

TaBLe 3.—Classification of trees according to character of crown and presence or absence
of cones; number of cones and amount of seed produced by sample trees, and total seed
production on plot No. 3, Kaniksu National Forest (area, one-half acre)—Continued.

NUMBER OF CONES AND AMOUNT OF SEED PRODUCED BY SAMPLE TREES.

Number of cones, by inch lengths.
Crown F Cones,
Tree No. class Diameter.| Age. | Height. open or
z closed. _3to4 | 5to6 | 7to8 | 9to10 Total
inches. | inches. | inches. | inches.| +°%-
Inches. | Years.) Feet. ae

sed Sse -5 | sacesmes 3 3 1 7
Uo seeseses: De oeweces 18 150 151 = re i [ie Bae 3 8 3 1B
2 ERE De seuss 18 130 139 eed eee (ea 8 9! Beeeee 17
PEGOE oA slo aecr 11 3 16
1....-.-.-- TT....... 7 i 136 Opens 2 es Maes es en Ree 12 5 17
p., {I YSd emia 13 153 129 fi@tosedis- 325 aes 4 Di is aeaenaieees 6
Bc ate Re aD Se es 15 145 134:\Reedo: Se = |22. 2s: 5 Liye ieee! 10
(iescingdee {Ms cddlinéersogeed| |jsccoucec| ZGeeeBeboE |: -cageBoeees saonsen Saecdene seoneass| souenecd loseoos
ADL (Gime) ese beceepeecd Saeccee:| COBSeBeEse |- <onseedseed padeesee 25 50 il 86

Per cent

Average Total Total + Number of| Percent :
Tree No. length weight volume pUSient ot clean seed | of germi- eae
of cone. of cones. of cones. per pound.}| nation. days of test.
Tuchies. 5 Pours. age arene: S Be
I . 05 14, 44
Lees ee esse eee { 6.9 hil 1183 8. 106 32, 000 \ 19.5 13.5
Deets: Bes 25: 6.3 ra 2 ie ae 183 2; pa 36.5 22.5
7.4 : 2 . 280 3, 267
Bowe nw=oncenn eens { LT 1.7 i) 13, 855 25, 472 \ 46.5 42.0
Danae hanes Jose 5.5 -5 . 045 6. 130 34, 560 22 18.5
ees le lane see cisiaeale 6.5 1.0 - 073 14. 385 29, 312 35.5 23.0
TAB nro 5-5 Gea PN ge eae |e Se an 4 RR cri 6. 130 BA 560! sie eset ee | en eee
Total (5 trees) .. 6.9 8.1 1.159 PAPAYA [2k 6 cin GROSS Pecan aeeed 4 Soneccunenas
TOTAL SEED PRODUCTION.
Yield from sample trees. | Yield of germinable seed.
Total sample |
Crown class. Total trees. pte i c<. |Gleaned Germs. =e elim *
zu seed. | 424 | plot. ;
No. | Perct.| Bush. |Grams.| Grams.| Grams.| Grams. No.

2 20 0.49 | 32.47) 8.064 | 40.320 80. 640 5, 560
3 14 -66} 48.65 | 17.214 | 86.070 172.140 | 10,380
SESE eOSA SeaeES je eccionecs 6.13 1,349 | 4.047 8. 094 570
5 5 1.15 825203 |eo = eee 130. 437 | 3 260.874 |} 16,510

1 Results of tree No. 2, Crown Class II, used for this tree. hora!
2 Weight of pure seed multiplied by their percentage of germination.

3 Equivalent to 0.6 pound.

10 BULLETIN 210, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLe 4,—Classification of trees according to character of crown and presence or absence
of cones; number of cones and amount of seed produced by sample trees, and total seed
production on plot No. 4, Coeur d’ Alene National Forest (area, 0.9 acre).

CROWN CLASSIFICATION OF TREES AND NUMBER BEARING CONES.

= Trees with Trees without
Number of trees, by crown class. Aaya. a ayies,
Diameter breast high
(inches). ;
Class | Class | Class | Class | Class | Class | Class | Num- Per Num- Per
I. {OES AU, |) INANE eas, PID I) Ne ber. cent. ber. cent.
AL OIG cca teamaeiale le tin sroinve = NONE asa cll ober eteeell nee epee | eel = er 4 He epaars cies Neal Doh he 11 100
TORS Bae SAAR EA OS CABee Kcdesa bo sees sesass essere 6 7 Pal BS sissies ces See 15 100
DMO MOS Beye e Wee Ne faerie cel bet fare atl oe aes 4 10 1 A nA Reet ees een eee 15 100
LAT ica) Iie Pe a 1 eros [2 eat 1 2 110) Bes 34 eee eee 4 30 9 70
LSRGOM A ees seine eos Seen 4 3 Sh Rae AG osese te eee 5 50 5 50
U3) if0) Ga ee cars ics eee | Ieee 9 GE sea ly Re Rese 12 75 4 25
WATOsL se Me Ike see ee es 1 5 Bi | oceedees | = cr AUSIE eee 2 RR 8 89 1 11
DOM OSZO WEE Siete oe oe recess 1 Chi erecta Season een ee Mem Sao eneee 4 TOO )3 ss See Ne eces
DOH) Rea) aes Ret hae LO ate aae 2 1 ell ete ea | he ree eee coe ee ei | eae 3 LOO Geass |Beceee Se
PH HOY a, SHIEH 9 Saag OR ae ae TLS ape Weve icp | Me eet aT eae 3 100 sc: kl Mak ee
QO Oat aaee ee sakes Dae site| ase eva| are sees aie See | eee ae ee alee 2 LOO shee ae ees
Motaliosse eek ee 8 23 15 17 17 12 9 41 41 60 59
Pericentit ee eee 8 22 15 17 17 12 9 COUR ce See SOU cel aa
Per cent of each
class with cones...} 100 91 73 6 0 0 OU esas see sn lee lees

NUMBER.OF CONES AND AMOUNT OF SEED PRODUCED BY SAMPLE TREES.

Number of cones, by inch lengths.
Crown F . Cones open
Tree No. Diameter.| Age. | Height.
BESS. or closed 15 to 6) || Z.t0 8) | Oto 10)| to? |e,
inches. | inches. | inches. | inches. alle
Inches. | Years Feet.
Uscscoasauo Seca 19.8 107 OTe. serene ie 2 19 17 1 39
[ees Sa eel Tree 16.0 84 OSH Sos, 7 25 es | Recon ie 33
Sees Mae oie 14.5 92 1003/2. es. 1 3 6 1 il
ee i 38 Gis ass 12.2 72 UW EBG sda see can Seeceaee 1 lh] Ree ee PE eeee 1
TRUM IDO Saoc 8.5 80 TEU, | RE RIE ee i een ahold rage ASSESS ea S| anon
Hee rt TVs (ee 7.2 72 G7 ves. Seek [haat am [ke cea mR | a eee
Poe aes Wiecricne 6.0 83 AUT RES. SIRS ST SENAY LS sees ee pe TS aT aya Boe
Totali@7 trees) (alee sa-scesa|emer <i oe iacmety ec aM 10 48 24 2) 84
|
Per cent
Average Total Total F Number of} Per cent nati
Tree No. length of | weight of | volume of igient of clean seed | of germi- Bermaineune
cone. cones. cones. : per pound.| nation. days of test.
Inches. Pounds. Bushels Grams.
I oaSbbbodaaddogse 7.97 6.0 Q. 295 118. 901 23,840 61 39
eS Ree ae ee 6. 93 3.8 .215 62.773 29, 840 33 24
pe Seah ee oa 8.45 1.9 - 102 38. 667 21,771 37.5 19
ee eS BSN ae 8 el . 008 2. 805 21,920 90 50
Wesctescosucuocdoccllosconcdpaspellbopogoscecdc|lbosdoobobooa||> cnnsbuSS qo joaquaDo SO RdG lpaodoonpooca|eanscaaonecS
1 Reese eeeneacasd Suodeocosess) Hoscccasedcallscecembbace as coomsadracal ico obonsaCoo Se podsoeeptelloaacocaasaan
ee ree. Co PP a One oll... Woo ere naehie Dono oro acon aaa tesa pasl Moa aboeuascc
Total (7 trees). 7.6 11.8 . 620 DAW Bee eae hc ona baenecacaeced acaandsaccss

SEED PRODUCTION OF WESTERN WHITE PINE. Jil

TaBLE 4.—Classification of trees according to character of crown and presence or absence
of cones; number of cones and amount of seed produced by sample trees, and total seed
production on plot No. 4, Ceur d’ Alene National Forest (area, 0.9 acre)—Continued.

TOTAL SEED PRODUCTION.

Yield from sample trees.| Yield of germinable seed.
Total sample
Crown class. Total trees. aTEDE. Geel ermi- ba :
mes. nable er acre.
seed. | cced1 plot.

No. | Perct.| No. | Perct.| Bush. |Grams.|Grams.| Grams. Grams. No.
8 8 1 12 | 0.295 | 118.90 | 72.530 | 580. 240 644. 711 33,929
23 22 1 4 215 62.77 ; 20.715 | 435.015 483. 350 | 31,593
15 15 1 6 102 | 38.67 | 14.500 159. 500 177. 222 8,727
17 17 1 5 008 2.80 | 2.525 2. 525 2. 806 137
17 17 1 BE bs coca sl PERE SESE) cies eae (3 eens | [ep ave oes 2! 8 | OG
12 12 1 Hetil cs euenein ll a met a Kare AUS Me i Paces eet ei soa a ee
9 9 1 DA aR es fe SS Pt sh eS LAL ea aes als Se
101 100 7 7 . 620 | 223. 14 |110,270 |1,177. 280 | 21,308. 089) 74,386

1 Weight of pure seed multiplied by their percentage of germination.
2 Equivalent to 2.9 pounds.

CONCLUSIONS.

The material collected so far is not sufficient to allow of final con-
clusions. Those here presented are offered chiefly to point out the
still unknown factors into which the problem of seed production
resolves itself and of demonstrating the suitability of the proposed
method for solving them.

1. Perhaps the most striking fact brought out by this investiga-
tion is that the different crown classes do not participate equally in
the production of seed. Thus 98.8 per cent of all the seed in 1911
was produced by the first two crown classes, while the third contrib-
uted only 1.2 per cent. It is interesting to note that though 1911
was a year of a moderately good seed crop, the crown classes IV and V
did not bear any seed at all.

If we divide the average percentage of seed production of each
crown class by the average percentage of trees in each class, we
secure, roughly, the ratios in which the different crown classes of
western white pine bear seed.

12 BULLETIN 210, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 5.—Distribution of the seed crop of western white pine, by crown classes.

Ratios of seed production of crown classes.1

Class I. | Class II. |Class III.| Class IV.| Class V. | Total.

Plot No. 1.
Total yieldsseete: soe seee eee se per cent. - 59. 1 39.7 1.2 oO oO 100
Number of trees... 2-22-25 esse o- do..-- 30 30 12 17 ii 100
Plot No. 2.
Mo talayiel dys aa Nese oeeeele ieee do..-- 59.5 37.6 2.9 oO oO 100
INgmberiofmreesiie cn -j- ase eee eee do..-- 15 20 15 24 26 100
Plot No. 3.
Motaliyield {oe ys see Bk bee doze 30.9 66.0 3.1 0 oO 100
Number of trees.......-.--..-...--- do...- 10 23 18 35 14 100
Plot No. 4
TLotalkyield a ea: Bee ys See do.... 49.3 50. 5 0.2 0 oO 100
IN[DFTMOGIE Ot HBSS sc Gaasccossosnsaeced dozae- 8 37 _ 34 12 9 100
INS TENG Gas neem Eales oles 54. 3 44.5 12 oO oO 100
15 27 21 22 15 100

1 Expressed in percentage of seed produced in each crown class of the plot divided by percentage of trees
in the crown class.

The ratios of productivity of trees of different crown classes in
round figures are 3.5, 1.5, 0.05, 0.0. Thus a tree of crown Class I
bears 70 times and a tree of crown Class II 30 times more seed than
a tree of Class ILI. .

The participation of the different crown classes in the production
of seed may serve as an index of the seed crop. In exceptionally
good seed years not only the dominant classes bear seed, but even
the oppressed trees have occasional cones, while in poor seed years
cones are to be found only in the dominant class (I), and even then
not on all trees or parts of their crowns. Between these two ex-
tremes range seed crops of various abundance. The abundance
of the seed crop can, therefore, be prognosticated very early in the
summer by observing in the forest the kind of trees that bear cones.
In order to establish a regular yield for the seed production of western
white pine, it would be necessary accurately to measure the crop
by the method described over several seed years of various intensity.
After the seed production for the poorest, moderate, and excep-
tionally good seed years is ascertained, the determination of whether
the crop of a given year is good, fair, or poor can then be forecasted
easily and early by merely observa the different crown classes of
trees that are bearing cones.

An attempt to penetrate deeper into the causes that determine
the average amount of seed produced by an individual tree of each
crown class meets with difficulties because of the many counteracting
factors, some of which still remain unexplained. Aside from the

SEED PRODUCTION OF WESTERN WHITE PINE. 13

length and width of the crown, which has been accepted as a most
decisive influence in seed production, there are other factors that
affect the amount of viable seed produced by a tree, such as the size
of the cones, average number of seed in a cone, size of the seed, its
germinability, the age of the tree, and the still little understood
individual energy of each tree in producing seed.

2. The largest amount of germinable seed was invariably produced
by trees chiefly of the first and also of the second crown class. The
largest amount of germinable seed recorded (24 ounces) belonged
to two trees of crown Class I, and in only one case has this amount
been closely reached by a tree of crown Class II. Crown development
thus seems to be the most important factor in the seed production
of trees.

3. The age of the trees evidently has an effect upon the amount
and quality of seed produced. Thus the younger trees (in plot No.
4), ranging from 72 to a little over 100 years in age, have produced
practically in all three crown classes a larger quantity of germinable
seed than the older trees. Apparently the age has also something to
do with the average length of the cones, since the younger trees
possessed, on an average, longer cones which yielded a larger number

‘of pure seeds per cone than the older trees. The germination per-
centage was also greater in the younger trees than in the old ones;
the highest germination percentage reached (90) was found in a tree
- 72 years old, while the highest found in the older trees was 67.5.

4. The relation between the length of the cone and the size of the
seed (the number of seed per pound) is clearly shown. Thus the
longest cones, 8 inches and over, yielded about 22,000 seed to the
pound, while cones 5 inches long occasionally yielded as many as
57,000 seed to the pound.

5. The vigor of growth epparently influences favorably the amount
and quality of seed produced. Thus trees which grew at the rate of
0.19 of an inch in diameter and about 1.25 feet in height annually
produced a larger amount of germinable seed than trees which grew
at a slower rate. This, however, may be indirectly the effect of the
age of the tree, since the younger trees have not yet passed the period
of most rapid growth.

6. While a relation between the size of the seed and its germina-
tive vigor ‘is not clearly brought out, yet there seems to be a tendency
for the larger seeds to have the highest germinative vigor. This ten-
dency is shown in Table 6.

1 The germinative vigor is gauged by the percentage of seed which germinated within 144 days after
being sown.

14 BULLETIN 210, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 6.—Size of seed and period of rest.

Seed that Seed that
Number of seeds per | germinated || Number of seeds per |germinated
pound. within 144 pound. within 144
days. days.

Per cent. Per cent.

34.5 Sit) es aeeseeeeereas 17.5

36.5 YAU Dea ea aes sy eee se 13.4

42.0 Oe OOO Ee eee <aaeeeeaie = 26.3

23.8 S500 Me een: 25.0
21.6 S6\000 Se: asec 4 Gere ee
24.0 37 00GNNE {Let eee lee. erie

23.0 38000 EF ck eeet eke e es 19.0

22.8

The failure of such relationship to be clearly apparent is probably
due more to deficient field data than to the actual absence of any such
relationship.

The size of the seed and the germination percentage are closely
connected, as shown by Table 7.

TaBLE 7.—Relation of size of seed to germination.

: Average
Number of seeds per germina-
pound. tion.

Per cent.

25 O00 See se oc )- Aces 60
ONO ssob455 sceeeares 39
SoOOO sae os. came 31
CUO ei iieersee seers 22
OOO eee ae = 5 -ie 26

The percentage of germination decreases with the increase in the
number of seed per pound—with the decrease in size of the seed.

8. Similarly, the length of cone has a perceptible effect upon the
quality of the seed, as shown in Table 8.

TaBLE 8.—Relation between length of cones and germination.

Average
Length of cones. germina-
tion.
Per cent
4 to 5 inches.........-
5 to 6 inches.......... 41
6 to 7 inches........-- 40
7 to 8 inches.......... 43

Thus it is fairly evident that seed from shorter cones possess a
lower germination percentage than seed from longer cones.

9. Since the size of the cones goes hand in hand with the weight,
the following generalization may be made: The larger or heavier the
cones the larger is the seed, and the larger the seed the greater is the

SEED PRODUCTION OF WESTERN WHITE PINE. 15

~ germination percentage; therefore, the larger the cones the better is the
quality of the seed. This is of importance in seed collection.

10. An idea of the reproductive capacity of a smgle tree may be
gained from the record of the largest yield by an individual white-
pine tree, which was 24 ounces, or 6,000 germinable seed.

11. If from individual trees we turn to stands, we find that normally

stocked stands bear from 24 to 5 pounds of germinable seed per acre,
or, assuming an average of 30,000 seed to the pound, from 75,000 to
150,000 germinable seed. The apparently small yield of plot No. 3
(a little over one-half pound) is explained by the overcrowded condi-
tion of the stand. The average of 3 pounds, or 90,000 germinable
seed, per acre for a moderately good seed year may therefore be
accepted as the average seed crop for the white pine on the Kaniksu
and Coeur d’Alene National Forests. Applying this average figure
to the different forest types found on the Kaniksu and Cocur’d’ Alene
Forests, and assuming that there are 45,000 acres of white-pine land
of which plot No. 1 is representative, 20,000 acres of which plot No.2
is a sample, and 15,000 acres which may be represented by plot No. 3,
the total amount of germinable seed produced in 1911 on the Kaniksu
Forest would be in the neighborhood of 300,000 pounds.

This amount is for a moderately good seed year. In exceptionally
abundant seed years it would be much larger. These estimates, of
course, do not take into consideration any possible destruction of seed
by insects or disease, either in the cone or flower.

12. It is interesting to compare the total yield of germinable seed
with the amount of seed actually collected by the Forest Service. In
1911 the collection of seed was conducted on an extremely large scale,
6,700 pounds being gathered on 20,676 acres. The total amount cf
clean seed produced during this same year on that area, as ascertained
by the study, was 225,368 pounds. The amount collected by the
Forest Service constituted, therefore, about 3 per cent of the total
amount of seed produced that year. This conveys some idea of the
portion of seed which man is able to collect out of the total amount
produced by the forest. The remainder is either left on the ground
for future natural reproduction or is destroyed by squirrels and other
animals.

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1915

/

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 211

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. May 26, 1915

FACTORS
AFFECTING RANGE MANAGEMENT
IN NEW MEXICO

By

E. O. WOOTON, Agriculturist, Office of
Farm Management

CONTENTS

Undesirable Range Plants
Erosion
Range Management
Character of the Present Opposition to
Subdivisions of the Land Control
Relative Importance of Stock Raising
Legal Status of the Business
Nature of the Forage Crop and its Distri-

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE }
1915

‘ i

Be TN OR" THE
y

c) USDREOARIENTOPACRICLTIRE %

ZFS No. 211

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
May 26, 1915.

“FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE MANAGEMENT IN
NEW MEXICO.

By E. O. Wooton,
Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management.

CONTENTS.

Page Page
MairoductiOne~ aes. ss. 62.22 setae eos oo 1 | Nature of the forage crop and its distribution 20
The topography of New Mexico.....-..--.-.- 2 | Undesirable range plants. .-....--.-.-..-.--- 23
OfirttanovesseP ep rre jae) So se hac sebs S2k 37 | WRROSION:Z (At ste ere aeee em ecce ssa oh a. 25
DOU Sseneeee epee = cc ooo coc cciiesteees oem ce 7 | Range management. ..--.----.--.-----.--.-- 26
Subdivisions of the land.....-..-..-.-.--..-. 8 | Character of the present opposition to
Relative importance of stock raising..-.--..- 10 COT tT Ol ys Saat eras see sions aicineeee.e 3
Legal status of the business..-....-.-..-.-... Lon |S SUM Mary ee epee meee ace meinen is nee 37

INTRODUCTION.

Stock raising is more patently influenced by and dependent upon
its physical environment than most other industries appear to be.
_ The topographic and climatic conditions are fundamental, because
they determine the kind and quantity of feed the animals must eat, the
temperature and other extremes they must endure, and the various
dangers which they must avoid.

The laws and customs of the region determine the character of the
tenure and control of the land which produces the feed upon which
the animals subsist. They are but the expression of the public opinion
that warrants the existence of that industry in that place. And not
less important, but probably less often considered, is the relation
which the business bears to other industries in operation in the same
region. From this standpoint, the industry is to be considered as in
a certain stage of development toward a better and more complex
adjustment among all industries, and a statement of its present con-
dition must be taken as in the nature of a report of progress. It is
not what it once was, nor yet what it will be. Thus, while we are

Nore.—The various factors influencing the live-stock industry in New Mexico, especially as affecting
range management, ace presented and discussed in this bulletin.

84972°—Bull. 211—15——1

2 BULLETIN 211, U. \‘S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

here mainly concerned with the details of the purely physical basis
of the industry, the factors of control and relation to other industries
are so closely connected with any proper kind of management that
they must be considered somewhat at length; and a study of range
conditions is but preliminary to an understanding of methods of man-
agement and the requirements necessary for the further improvement
of thetindustry.

THE TOPOGRAPHY OF NEW MEXICO.

New Mexico is almost square in outline, being about 350 miles long
from north to south, nearly as wide at the southern end, and some-
what narrower along the northern boundary. Only the southern
boundary is a broken line. The State consists essentially of a high,
arched plateau, the axis of the arch being near the middle and running
north and south, the northern end being higher than the southern.
This plateau is about 7,000 feet above sea level at its highest point on
the northern boundary line and drops to about 3,500 feet at its south-
ern end.

Apparently resting upon this plateau, which is but a part of the
great Rocky Mountain uplift, are numerous mountain ranges that
seem to rise out of the sweeping plains as islands from the sea. These
mountains are of two fairly well-defined types—narrow, rocky ridges,
with but a scanty covering of low bushes and scattering trees, and
ereat mountain masses, consisting of numerous associated ridges more
or less densely covered with forests and woodland. Nearly all the
main ranges have a northerly and southerly trend. Some of the
mountains are composed of granites, rhyolites, gneisses, and other
igneous and metamorphic rocks, while many of them are great mono-
clinal piles of tilted, stratified rocks with sharp escarpment faces upon
one side. In actual altitude they range from less than 5,000 feet to
more than 14,000 feet, there being numerous peaks and ranges over
10,000 feet high.

Large lava flows have occurred in several places, resulting in sheets
of black, vesicular basalt, covering extensive areas. Associated with
these flows are several large, extinct voleanoes and numerous small
cones. The lava sheets have done much to modify the relief features,
since.the lava (or mal pais, as it is locally known) is harder than the
underlying rocks and protects them from erosion. This has resulted
in a number of high mesas and buttes that almost take on the dimen-
sions of mountains. (PI. I, fig. 1.)

The wide stretches of seemingly level plains that le between the
mountain ranges are nowhere really level. Many of them are typical
bolsons, or basins, into which drains all the water that falls in the
region. ‘These bolsons are independent of each other and may occur
at any altitude (Pl. I, fig. 2). The San Augustine Plains in central

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. 3

Socorro County and the Estancia Valley in Torrance County are
typical examples. These plains are everywhere dissected by dry
watercourses, or arroyos, which serve to collect the flood waters that
are sometimes temporarily very abundant, and sheet erosion of unpro-
tected soil surfaces is everywhere very rapid, largely because of the
steep gradient of even that part of the surface, which, by comparison
with the bolder relief features, seems to be level. Many of the striking
topographic features, both of sculpture and deposition, are due to
wind action. On the eastern side of the State the mountains and
mesas gradually subside into the wide expanse of the Staked Plains,
while to the west Arizona is but a repetition of the alternation of
plains and mountains so characteristic of New Mexico but at a slightly
lower general level.

The river valleys are narrow and not infrequently constricted to the
river channels alone or “boxed in”’ where they cut through moun-
tains or mesas. The two largest rivers, the Rio Grande and Rio
Pecos, run entirely or almost across the State from north to south.
The San Juan and the Gila flow out of the State westwardly in San
Juan and Grant Counties, respectively, while the northeastern part
of the State contains some of the tributaries of the Arkansas River
and the headwaters of the Canadian, all of which flow eastwardly.
The most conspicuous feature of all these streams is the small number
of permanent tributaries possessed by each when the size of its drain-
age area is considered. The valley bottoms throughout the State,
wherever there is a permanent flow of water, are always turned into
cultivated fields, and many acres of such lands produce alfalfa.
(eres fe. 2.)

CLIMATE.

Precipitation.—Precipitation is everywhere relatively small in
amount in New Mexico.. On the plains of the southern part of the
State and in all of the river valleys outside of the mountains it is
always scanty. In the mountains at altitudes of 5,500 feet or more
it is more abundant, but even in the more moist.regions the amount
of water that falls during the year is rarely equal to that which is com-
mon in the humid regions farther east.

To say that there is a summer rainy season does not mean what the
same expression tells in regard to a tropical country. It merely says
that most of the rain of the year comes during July, August, and Sep-
tember, and that this is the growing season on the plains and almost
everywhere in the mountains. In some of the higher mountains,
where there is considerable snow during the winter, the ground is left
wet enough by the melting of these snows to cause a certain spring
and early-summer growth; and some of the perennials of even the
drier plains put out their bloss*ms and grow some new leaves in May

4 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and June each year if there has been a normal rainfall the previous
summer. But it is true of practically all of the State that May and
June are the driest months of the year, and summer arrives without
any heralding by spring. It has been said that there are but two
seasons in the southern valleys, summer and late fall, and the longer
of these issummer. The summer rains usually occur as rather violent
local showers of short duration. The water falls from clouds that are
high above the earth, and the air next the ground may be relatively
dry; in fact, it is not infrequent to see small, high clouds that are evi-
dently producing some rain, but the water evaporates at a lower level
and never reaches the ground. Drizzling rains from low-hung, drift-
ing clouds that roll along only a few hundred feet above the earth are
only occasional anywhere except upon the cloud-capped peaks of the
high mountains; and heavy general storms moving steadily over large
areas are very rare. |

A study of the United States Weather Bureau reports indicates
that there are two factors fundamental in nature which determine
in a general way what the average precipitation of any point in
the State shall be. The first of these is the well-known relation
between precipitation and altitude, depending upon the effect of
forcing currents of moisture-laden warm air to higher atmospheric
levels through the upward deflection of such currents by the moun-
tains. It thus happens that, other things being equal, the precipita-
tion increases with altitudinal increase, though not always in a direct
ratio.

The average precipitation of any station in the State also seems
to be in some way dependent upon its distance from the southeast
corner. If localities having the same altitude be considered, it
appears that those in the southeastern corner have the greatest
average rainfall, and that this rainfall gradually diminishes as one
goes west and north. This fact would seem toe suggest that the
source of the moisture lies to the southeast, possibly the Gulf of
Mexico. Local factors enter into the case, sometimes decreasing,
sometimes augmenting the amount of precipitation for a particular
location. Some of the extreme records for the State follow and will
give an idea of the limits of variation. A normal rainfall chart for
New Mexico has been published by the State immigration bureau. _

The maximum precipitation in the State recorded for any single
calendar year is for Elk, 39.1 inches, in 1905. There is possibly
some inaccuracy in this record, or the station is subjected to local
conditions which tend to increase the normal expectancy for this
altitude, 7,400 feet. Cloudcroft (8,650 feet) received 32.32 inches
in 1905; Chama (7,851 feet) received 32.83 inches in. 1891; and the
highest record for Windsor (8,200 feet) is 27.92 inches in 1907. The
lowest records occur in the lower valleys. San Marcial (4,439 feet)

{

Bul. 211, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |.

Fic. 1.—VIEW IN THE NORTHEASTERN PART OF NEW Mexico, SHOWING THE TOPOG-
RAPHY AS AFFECTED BY LAVA SHEETS.

Fig. 2.—A TYPICAL BOLSON, OR BASINLIKE MESA, IN THE SOUTHERN PART OF NEW
Mexico, SHOWING THE SHRUBBY ASSOCIATION ON THE GRAVELLY PORTIONS OF
SUCH AN AREA.

Bul. 211, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE ll.

Fia. 1.—AN AREA IN NEW MExico HAVING A TYPICAL Compact GROWTH OF BLUE
GRAMA, COMMON ON THE NORTHERN PLAINS.

Fig. 2.—A SMALL VALLEY IN THE NORTHERN PART OF NEW MEXICO, SHOWING IBN
GATED LANDS PRODUCING ALFALFA.

The growth shown in the foreground is typical of the unirrigated land of the region when
the range is protected.

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. 5

received 3.44 inches in 1894; Mesilla Park (8,863 feet) received
3.49 inches in 1873; Deming (4,333 feet) received 3.42 inches in
1910, while the same year Carlsbad (3,120 feet) received only 3.95
inches.

The variation in the amount of precipitation from year to year
is also great. An extreme case 1s shown at Mesilla Park. In a
record for this region extending over 47 years, the average rainfall
is 8.62 inches. For five of those years the total amount was just
about half of the normal supply. Five other years show from one
and one-half to nearly two times the average. It will thus be seen
that there is a range from the lowest amount recorded, 3.49 inches,
to almost five times that amount, 17.09 inches, the highest record.
For one period of ten consecutive years the total annual precipita-
tion was each year below the average quoted above, and periods of
three to five years in which the annual rainfall is two-thirds of the
normal or less have occurred three times within the time for which
the observations have been made.

Snow occurs at some time every winter at all points in the State.
At the lower levels the occurrence is rare and the quantity that
falls is small, nor does it lie long. In the higher mountains of the
northern part of the State considerable of the precipitation comes
as snow, and in favorable locations it drifts and lies for most of the
winter. From such regions stock are excluded for at least part of
the year. i

Cloudy weather is the exception, and one bright sunshiny day
after another is the rule throughout the State.

Temperature—The most characteristic peculiarity of the tem-
perature and one which applies at all points in the State is the great
range which occurs yearly, monthly, and daily. A daily range
of 45° F. is not uncommon, and one of 30° or more may be said
to be almost the rule. This condition is, of course, due to the altitude
and the lack of moisture in the air.

The mean temperatures of different localities are exceedingly
misleading when one is considering climate in New Mexico, because
they are made up of high maximum and low minimum temperatures.
This statement applies to all the means, daily, monthly, and annual.
The highest recorded temperature for the State is 113° F. at San
Marcial. A summer maximum of over 100° F. is common for many
- of the stations at the lower altitudes. The higher elevations, of course,
have lower temperatures. The absolute minimum temperatures
recorded for the different stations range from 4° to —29° F., and —
there is always a winter season of three months or more anywhere
in the State during which one may expect it to freeze any night.
This condition would hardly be expected when one considers the
latitude alone and is another consequence of high altitude and aridity.

6 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

When it is remembered that the months of spring and early summer
are usually quite dry, as well as cold at night, the late starting of the
native plants is explained. At high elevations the growing season
is short, and above 8,500 feet frosts are recorded for almost every
month in the year.

Wind motion.—Wind motion is an important climatic factor
throughout the State. The air is nearly always dry and frequently
very dry, and the wind blows much of the time. The spring is
apt to be particularly windy, and the most violent sand storms are
usually accompanied by low humidity and consequent rapid evapora-
tion. Many young seedlings are dried out or cut off by the sand
during these windstorms, and much damage is done to cultivated
crops even in the irrigated fields.

Eaposure.—Diflerences in exposure to the sun’s rays, arising from
the direction of slope of all hills and mountain sides, cause striking
differences in the climate of stations at the same level and near
together, with the consequent differences in vegetation. This
effect is readily seen when traversing a mountain canyon that runs
east or west. The north-facing slope is always occupied by a plant
association entirely different from that of the south-facing slope at
similar altitudes above the bottom of the canyon.

Vegetation.—Notwithstanding the various unfavorable climatic
conditions that plants must be able to endure, there is a covering of
vegetation of some kind practically all over the State except locally in
spots where the soil is of drifting sand or so alkaline as to kill plants,
or on the flat playas that are subject to occasional inundation, or on
exposed rocky surfaces where there is little or no soil. This vegeta-
tion is frequently very scanty and scattered, often scrubby and spiny,
showing in many ways its adaptation to a scanty supply of water.
Many of the plants are valueless as forage, but many times more are
good for this purpose, and when examined in detail the wonder grows
that so many and not so few are usable by stock at one time or
another. z

‘“‘Winally, it is clear that man, whether by reforestation or deforest-
ation, by flooding a desert or by draining a swamp, can produce no
important or extended modifications of natural climate. This is goy-
erned by factors beyond human control.” ?

There seems to be no doubt of the correctness of this generaliza-
tion. But it is possible to materially improve or impair the living
conditions for humanity in a given region by the management of
those industries that man carries on which are dependent upon the
adaptation of these industries to the existing climate of that region.
The truth of this statement is recognized without question in a humid

1 Ward, R.deC. Climate... p. 363, New York, 1908.

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. id

region and accepted as the natural order of things; but it is of vastly
more importance in regions of scanty rainfall. Here any kind of
management that permits or assists in the waste of water in any
way tends in the long run to the desiccation. of the region. Hence,
any practice that increases the rapidity or amount of superficial run-
off or increases the evaporation of water (other than that which passes
through the bodies of growing plants) makes for the gradual drying
out and increased sterility of the region. These processes are cumu-
lative, and regions that are easily habitable under one kind of treat-
ment may be gradually changed to desert wastes by another pro-
cedure which, to the careless observer, does not seem materially
different from the first.
SOILS.

Speaking very generally, the soils of most localities in the State
have been formed almost in situ by the disintegration of the under-
lying or near-by rocks and necessarily have the chemical composi-
tion arising from the breaking up of these rocks, mechanical or chem-
ical, or both. The soils of the river valleys have been transported
considerable distances and the particles assorted to size by the action
of the water. They consist mostly of sand or adobe and are uniform
m character and depth only for very short distances, because of the
ereat variations in the volume and velocity of the waters of the
streams that have deposited them.

The soils of the larger and higher mountains, wherever they occur,
are mostly a rather rich loam, due to the nearly complete chemical
decomposition of the rocks, and contain considerable humus derived
from the vegetation of such regions. The foothills of the mountains
are mostly flanked by talus slopes and outwash plains composed of
partially disintegrated rock particles of various sizes, forming gray-
elly ridges and slopes in which proper soil particles constitute only a
small part of the volume.

The souls of the plains and bolsons are largely wind-blown sand or
loess. In the bottoms of the basins such soils are sometimes deep,
but mostly they form only a thin layer.

Wherever the water collects, evaporation goes on rapidly, with a
consequent accumulation of the soluble salts of sodium and calcium
known as alkali. Alkali often occurs in the river valleys in the soil
of terraces whose surfaces are but 2 or 3 feet above the water table,
as a result of the concentration of these salts at the surface by evapo-
ration.

The lava-covered areas are in places but bare black rock, with scat-
tered patches of loess or sand in depressions and behind projecting
angles. In other places, where the lava is older, the basalt has de-
composed to a rich reddish loam, a soil that is recognizedly one of
_ the best.

8 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Outside of the timber-covered mountains, the soils have little or
no humus, because the conditions are unfavorable for the production
or decomposition of any large amount of vegetable matter.

A characteristic feature of many of the plains is a layer of white,
calcareous material, a few to several inches in thickness, lying a foot
or so below the surface. This is known as caliche, or hardpan, and
is probably a concentration of this material leached from the lower
soil layers by an upward movement of the soil water due to pro-
longed surface evaporation.

SUBDIVISIONS OF THE LAND.

New Mexico contains a little less than 78,500,000 acres of land.
According to the Thirteenth Census (1909 data), 11,270,021 acres, or
14.4 per cent of the total area, were included in farms. This desig-
nation is quite misleading, as will be seen farther on; it certainly does
not mean that that much land is under cultivation.

Of the above-named area, 1,467,191 acres—only 1.9 per cent of the
total area ef the State and 13 per cent of the area reported as included
in farms—were improved land. The same authority states that 35.9
per cent of the farms were irrigated and that these irrigated farms con-
tained 31.5 per cent of the improved land. Irrigation plants then in
existence were able to water 644,970 acres, and irrigation projects
were then completed or under way that would irrigate 1,102,291 acres.

Newell! estimates the total water supply of the State as sufficient
to irrigate 4,000,000 acres. The governor’s report for 1909-10?
states that ‘‘thorough investigations which have been carried on
during the past four years by the engineering department show con-
clusively that we have no less than 3,000,000 acres which may be
reclaimed by practicable diversion, storage, and pumping projects.” —

The area of farming land has been markedly increased within the
past six or seven years by the introduction of the so-called dry-
farming methods in the eastern part of the State. Some of the best
land of northeastern Eddy and eastern Chaves Counties and con-
siderable of that in Roosevelt, Curry, Quay, Torrance, Guadalupe,
San Miguel, Mora, Union, and Colfax Counties has been patented, —
and some small part of it has been improved. Estimates made by
men well acquainted with the development going on in that region
place the area of this land under cultivation in 1911 at 417,000 acres,
and these estimates are believed to be conservative. The year 1912
saw more of it in cultivation than ever before, but in 1914 the greater
part of.it was not cultivated and many of the farms were deserted.

It is probable that this change in the method of using this land
will ultimately increase the total number of stock grown in the State,

1 Newell, F. H. Irrigation in the United States, p. 55. New York, 1902.
2Curry, George. Report of the Governor of New Mexico to the Secretary of the Interior. [1909}-10, p.
24. Washington, 1910.

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO, 9

after the people have become adjusted to the conditions of the region.
No exact data are available as to the total area that may be culti-
vated in this way, but an estimate by good authorities places it at
approximately 15,000,000 acres, which is doubtless large enough to
cover all possibilities.

The national forests of the State now contain 9,881,660 + acres of
more or less densely timber-covered lands, practically all of which is
used as grazing land for at least-a part of the year.

Large areas are included in the old Spanish land grants, but much
of this land is unfenced and is treated as open range. That portion
of it which is arable is included in the farming lands previously
referred to; the remainder is grazing land of greater or less value.

As an endowment for the public educational, penal, and charitable
institutions, several million acres of land have been given to the State
by the Federal Government, and these lands are managed by a State
commissioner of public lands. Much of this land is leased, and doubt-
less most of it will be in the not distant future.

Large areas of land (about 4,000,000 acres) were given to some of
the transcontinental railroads when they were first built, but con-
siderable of it has been surrendered for lieu-land scrip or sold outright.
About one-half of their present holdings of 2,500,000 acres is rented
for grazing purposes, but none of it is fenced.

About 5,000,000 acres of land are held in Indian, military, and other
Government reservations, not including the national forests. Stock
is run on most of this land, sometimes by the Indians themselves, or
the land is leased for grazing purposes by the agents in charge.

On July 1, 1913, there were 31,298,621 acres of Government land
open for entry in the State of New Mexico, almost all of which is
classified as broken or grazing land. It is probably safe to say that
40 per cent of the total area of the State is still Government land,
and therefore used without legal right and controlled only by custom. —
It is also true that many of the State lands and the Mexican grant
lands that might be placed under legal control for one reason or
another are not so controlled to-day, though this is a continually
decreasing area.

A careful analysis of these data shows that but a relatively small
part of the State is fitted for the growing of field crops, and it empha-
sizes the fact that by far the greater part of the total area, under
whatever form of tenure it may be held, is grazing land and is likely
to remain so, at least until some method of farming with a smaller
supply of water is developed.

1 Apr. 1, 1914. The gross area includes over 1,000,000 acres of alienated lands.

84972°—Bull. 211—15——2

10 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF STOCK RAISING.

Manufacturing in the Territory is still in its infancy. The mining of coal, copper,
gold, and silver are of considerable importance, but the principal pursuits are stock
raising and agriculture.?

It is somewhat difficult to get reliable statistics concerning the
relative economic importance of stock raismg in New Mexico, because
the summaries made in most reports do not have their component
factors combined in the same manner and are therefore not com-
parable. The Territorial and State auditors’ annual reports have
been compiled from the county assessors’ reports and show only the
property returned for taxation. This showing is confessedly inac-
curate, being always less than the actual facts, especially as to the
number of range animals, which are almost never counted, the
returns being based upon an estimate. And taxation values are
always based upon some percentage less than 100 of the current
selling price at the time of making up the returns.

The figures collected by the United States Census Bureau for the
Thirteenth Census are, in the opmion of the present State auditor,
probably slightly in excess of the actual facts. These figures, however,
are perhaps the most accurate of any available, and in so far as they
are usable for our present purpose they will constitute our most reliable
data. * Unfortunately, the system adopted in the grouping of some of
the items is not designed to bring out the comparisons we wish to make.
This report does not differentiate between the range lands and the
agricultural or cultivated lands. All patented lands are referred to as
‘“‘Land in farms,” and the subdivisions ‘‘Improved land in farms,”
‘Woodland in farms,” and “‘Other unimproved land in farms” do not
assist in separating the areas of land used as actual farming land from
the proper range lands.

There is evidently some difference in the classification of the lands
given in the census report and the Territorial auditor’s report for the
same year, 1909, since the latter shows a larger acreage under the
heads of grazing and agricultural lands together than all the ‘‘ Land
in farms’”’ as given in the former, and there can be no doubt that the
auditor’s report is not in excess of the actual taxable acreage, since
taxes were assessed on all the lands so listed. There can hardly be
any doubt, either, that the group ‘‘Land in farms” of the census
report is intended to include agricultural and grazing lands, though
some of the lands used for grazing may have been reported to the
census taker as mineral or timber lands, or part of the proper timber
or mineral lands may have been returned as grazing land in the
-auditor’s report in order to benefit by a lower rate of taxation.

Since practically all timber and mineral lands are used as grazing
lands and since there is very little opportunity to falsify the returns
of land acreage, the figures given in the auditors’ reports are probably
very close to the truth regarding the division of the patented lands
between the grazing and agricultural industries.

1 United States 18th Census, 1910, v. 9, Manufactures, Reports by States, p. 787. 1912.

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. 11

In Table I is shown a summary of the number of acres of land, both
grazing and agricultural, and the number of domestic animals (omit-
ting swine and fowls) that were returned for taxation in the years
1909, 1910, 1911, 1912, and 1913. In column 3 of this table is shown
the report of the Thirteenth Census upon the same subjects, while in
column 2 appears the factor by which the auditor’s number for 1909
must be multiplied in order to produce the census number for the
same item the same year. This column of figures is interesting as
showing the correctness of the auditor’s generalization that the valua-
tions returned for assessment have been for a number of years scarcely
50 per cent of the actual value of.the property.

From this table may be seen the area of patented land used in
stock raising! and that which is under cultivation in some kind of
farm crops. It should be kept in mind that about 5 per cent of the
cattle are dairy cows and are on the agricultural lands or in the towns,
that probably two-fifths to one-half of the horses are also on the
farms or in the-towns, as are practically all of the mules, and that
nearly all the sheep, goats, and burros are range animals, the number
of these animals that are kept on the farms or in the towns being so
small a percentage of the whole as to be negligible.

Taste 1.—Comparison of the reports of the Territorial and State auditors of New Mexico
for the last five years with the Thirteenth Census report.

Thirteenth
Land and animals. | Factor. Census 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913
(1909).
nd (acres):

mi Ge anes ES Fey aA 2) 11,180,159 | 11,218,856 | 11,572,790 | 12,654,535 | 13,686,833
Nemicnliirales cs ie Bae aes eens ete 12,164,952 | 1,785,776 | 1,774,049 | 2,443,875 2,696, 426
Farms 11,270,021 |213,345,111 [212,954,111 |213,346, 839 |215,098, 410 | 2 16,383,259

Live

(number):
Cattle (all
kinds) 1,081, 663 480, 558 390, 155 359, 308 386, 565 570,939
Horses 171,525 84, 847 79,711 74, 963 83, 936 104,253
ules. 14, 937 8,804 9,239 9,145 9,248 9,638
Burros 11, 853 4,207 4,722 5,146 5,555 5, 794
Sheep . seat 3,346,984 | 1,472,866 |. 1,368,460 | 1,280,467 | 1,463,691 1,693,970
Gots ents 322. : 412,050 183, 872 151, 639 133, 734 145,165 190, 658

1 To understand why more agricultural land was returned in 1909 than in 1910 and 1911, it is neces-
sary to remember that 1909 was a year of large influx of settlers into the dry-farming area. The next year
was dry and many claims were deserted, and much of the land was returned as grazing land after title
had been obtained by commuting.

= 2 This is the sum of the area of grazing and agricultural lands and is comparable with the Census report
gures.

Figures 1, 2, and 3 show the approximate density of distribution of
range animals by counties. These charts were prepared from the.
Thirteenth Census reports and are from enumerations made in 1909.

1 This takes no account of the large area of State lands leased for grazing, the national forests grazed under
a permit system, or the immense area of Government lands used without charge of any kind.

12 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

As will be seen by consulting Table I, these figures are greatly in ex-
cess of the latest available tax returns (1913), but if the tax returns
for 1913 are compared with those for 1909 it will be observed at once
that the numbers of different kinds of stock returned for the two
years are not very dissimilar. There are some fluctuations in the
returns for the different counties, but the general variations are small.

SAN JUAN”

RIO ARRIBA

). CoLrax

© SAN MIGUEL ae
e

VALENCIA

. = 1000 Head of Cattle
+ 2 1000 Dairy Cows

Tote! Number of Arias
Cattle, all kinds, 1,081,663 - Dairy Cows 51,4-5/

Fic. 1.—Outline map of New Mexico, showing the distribution (by counties) of cattle of all kinds and
dairy cows, according to the Thirteenth Census.

.The charts show the ordinary geographic distribution and relative
importance of each kind of stock as well as it could be presented with-
out assuming much smaller units of area requiring more detailed data.
From these diagrams we learn that the central, northern, and north-
eastern parts of the State are most heavily stocked with sheep, while
the southwestern, southeastern, and northeastern corners are more

{

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. ; 13

heavily stocked with cattle. Horses, mules, and burros are about
uniformly distributed over the State, and goats occur mainly in the
southwest corner and in the north-central part.

Table IL shows the percentage of the total valuation which each
large group of property represents in the assessment returns. It is

> GUADALUPE. *", 649
: Be ce sarc ate

°
° e
fee .
° .
eer te
e

© o CHAVE

eer @
eo
Oy?

-: 1000 Head .
Total Number of Arimals 3346 984

Fig. 2.—Outline map of New Mexico, showing the distribution (by counties) of sheep, according to the
Thirteenth Census.

recognized that the valuations ascribed are not correct, but the
general reduction in values is so nearly uniform as to make the per-
‘centages of valuation represented by each class of property quite
accurate. The relative importance of the different classes of property
is also indicated. ;

14 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLeE I1.—Percentage of the total assessed valuation in New Mexico contributed by each
different kind of property.

[Data taken from Territorial and State auditors’ reports.]

’ Classes of property. 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

Railrogds:tesc consent ates ee oon hee eee 24.218 25. 056 24.307 26. 460 32. 826
City property and improvements.............-..-..- 17. 621 18.512 18. 142 15.929 13.942
Agricultural lands and improvements............... 12.220 13.444 13.976 14. 929 14.275
Grazing lands and improvements.................-.- 13.383 13. 082 14.595 14. 238 11.009
Cattle (all kinds) oo aee eee ae soa ee ceaeesmeeee cee. 7. 042 5.917 5.392 5. 809 7.139
Merchandisess saa suas eceisettiaetn Seiwa ne sleseennee 4.683 4,637 4.438 3. 733 3.212
Sheep and goats (all’kinds) <1 1. 42222 1 ie 4.427 4.127 3. 847 3.079 2. 821
Stocks, bonds, money, public utilities, mills, etc..... 4.043 3.645 3. 729 3.448 3. 722

Household goods, musical instruments, watches,
clocks, sewing machines, vehicles of all kinds,

saddles, harness, farming implements, ete......... 3.532 3.460 3.370 3.123 2.115
Mineral and timber lands, with all improvements

and: products <5) s2 es ee cate ates eo eee cease 3. 434 3. 404 3. 844 5.090 4.808
Horses, mules, and burros s-1s 3.022 2.849 2.622 2.632 2.377
PAL OTHerI proper bynes eae ee eee oS 2.375 1. 867 1.738 1.919 1.614

Table III is a grouping of the percentages taken from Table IJ,
which shows approximately what part of the total tax valuation of
the property of the State is invested as capital in the business of
stock raismg. The data available do not permit of an accurate
distribution of land area and improvements, stock, and other property
so as to show the exact relation of stock raising to agriculture and
other forms of industry, but the estimates offered in Table III do
show the percentage values of grazing land, improvements, and
stock upon the ranges. If the proper percentage of the valuation
of vehicles, saddles, harness, farm implements, and household
property belonging to and being used in the stock-raising industry
be added to the totals given in this table, it will be seen that the
business utilizes about one-fourth of the taxable property in the
State, to say nothing of the value obtained from the use of public
lands.

TaBLe II1.—Approximation of the percentage of the assessed valuation of the property of
New Mexico that is invested as capital in the stock-raising industry.

\

Property. 1909 1910 it | 1912 1913

Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

Grazing land and improvements...........-..------- 13. 383 13. 082 14. 595 14. 238 11.009
Total cattle (less dairy cows =5 per cent) ...-..----- 6. 690 5. 621 5.122 5.519 6.782
Total sheep and goats (all kinds).................-.. 4.427 4,127 3.847 3.079 2, 821
One-half total horses, mules, and burros.....-...---- 1.511 1,424 1.311 1.316 1.188

TROCAL Gs Sse s Siem Sete ee oe eee Me ERE Oe Coen 26. 01L 24, 054 24. 875 24, 152 21.800

Judged as an industry by the capital invested in the business, stock
raising stands second in importance to the railroads only, and it has
reached this status but recently, partly by a marked increase in the
valuation of the railroad property for taxation by the assessor. It is
directly comparable on the same basis to farming as an industry,
which it surpasses slightly. It very noticeably exceeds in taxable

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO, 15

valuation all the city and town property of the State; and when we
take into consideration that it is a productive business, continually
bringing into existence new wealth and not merely shifting value
from one holder to another, the importance of the industry is still
more apparent and it becomes at once one of the most important
industries, if not the most important industry, of the State.

ROOSEVELT §

«= 1000 Head

Toto! Number of AriitmaQ/s 412,050

Fic. 3.—Outline map of New Mexico, showing the distribution (by counties) of goats, according to the
Thirteenth Census.

LEGAL STATUS OF THE BUSINESS.

Every business must have a proper standing before the law.

There is a steadily creasing demand for beef and mutton, hides
and wool, and the supplying of this demand is recognized as a legiti-
mate business.

The cheap production of these commodities calls for the use of
large bodies of low-priced lands.

16 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

New Mexico has large areas of cheap land upon which these prod-
ucts may be grown and which are not well suited to any other busi-
ness.

Naturally they have been occupied by stockmen, but the difficulty
of obtaining and maintaiming control of the land has materially
retarded the natural growth of the industry, and to-day this lack of
legalized control of the land is not only reducing the output and
rendering the business precarious, but is causing marked deteriora-
tion of the range itself, besides causing great and frequent losses of
valuable property, to say nothing of the suffering of thousands of
animals that die of starvation.

A careful examination into the conditions, laws, and customs now
controlling the business is here attempted.

Under another heading attention has been called to the relative
areas of land held under legal tenure of one kind or another. It is of
importance to know how possession of the Government lands is
maintained and to understand how this form of tenure affects the
stock-raising industry.

It must be kept in mind that only such land to which the saat
has title or right or is in process of obtaining such title by the method
prescribed by the land laws may be inclosed with a fence.'. To this °
group belong (1) the patented homesteads, desert claims, timber ©
claims, lieu-land selections, or all Government lands that have been
filed upon according to some existing land law; (2) all railroad land
grants which have not been exchanged for heu-land scrip; (3) all the
lands included in the old Mexican land grants that have been con-
firmed by the courts; (4) the State lands which have been given to
the State by the National Government as an endowment for its
educational, penal, and charitable institutions,? and (5) land held in
small areas under mineral claims, such areas being held from one
year to the next by performing the assessment work each year. It
goes without saying that all such lands may be fenced and con-
trolled according to the will of the claimants.

All other lands, not including various reservations like national
forests, Indian reservations, etc., are Government lands and accord-
ing to the rulings of the General Land Office may not be inclosed
with a fence. They are public property and in the sight of the law
may be used by everybody in general and nobody in particular.
This situation arises as the result of lack of legislation concerning the

1 Under certain conditions special permission to fence limited areas of Government land within the
national forests may be obtained. Recently the policy of building drift fences has been to some extent
adopted and is strongly recommended by the United States Forest Service. (See Graves, H. S., Report
of the Forester, United States Department of Agriculture, 1912, p. 69. ‘Washington, 1912.)

2 This area consists of four sections in each township for the grade schools and several hundred thousand
acres scattered over the State for the other institutions named.

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO, 17

disposal of such land. It was assumed when the existing land laws
were made that all land was about equally good and that 160 acres
of it was amply sufficient for the support of one man’s family; that
if he wanted any of it he might have that much and welcome; and
that all of it would ultimately be given by the Government to its
individual citizens.

It has since been learned that much of the land will not support a
family upon 160 acres, but that in certain places from 20 to 50 times
that area is necessary. Of course, the original lawmakers assumed
such land to be desert and therefore valueless. It has a certain value
as pasture land, however, and in order that its best use may be
secured it is necessary that it should be used to some degree in
severalty instead of in common. It being impossible to obtain legal
control of it in bodies of sufficient size to carry on stock raising with
profit, men were forced to control it some other way or not use it.

The need of stock water is as great as that of stock feed, and the
pioneers in the stock business at once perceived that the water could
be controlled. So to-day throughout the region the permanent
watering places are all held under some kind of legal right, and it is
through the control of the water that the range is controlled.

This set of conditions gave rise to the custom that men should use
and claim as their own the pasture lands surrounding their watering
places. Whenever a conflict of interests arose, the men concerned
had to settle it among themselves. Community of interests and the
desire for an amicable agreement have led to a set of customs that
have the force of unwritten laws. These differ to some extent in
different localities, mainly because of local conditions, but the basal
principles, being dependent upon the requirements of the business
itself, are quite uniform. ‘The worst differences arose between the
cattlemen and sheepmen, because the methods of caring for their
stock are of necessity different, and hence their interests are strongly
competitive instead of parallel. As long as there was plenty of unoc-
cupied land to which the more venturesome spirits might move,
severe competition was only local and sporadic, but as soon as the
available range was all occupied, competition became more and more
strenuous. Competition is generally not vigorous between those
subdivisions of the industry of the same kind and approximately
equal grade. ‘Thus a group of small cattlemen in a region get along
fairly well together, having only petty personal jealousies. Large
cattlemen recognize the rights of their equals in the business.

On an open range it is, of course, necessary to have all water open,
and cattle and horses go where they will to drink, though they are
generally ‘‘located’’ in some particular region. It is the common

84972°—Bull. 211—15—_3

18 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. |

custom to allow all stock of whatever ownership to water at any
watering place, and the man who would exclude any of his neighbors’
stock from his water troughs would be ostracized. But this necessity
of the business makes it possible for the stingy or thievish man to
‘‘edge im’ on every other owner in his district. He ‘‘develops’’
water at a certain place, but not in sufficient quantity to supply
the number of animals he puts upon the range. It follows that his
animals get some of their water from his neighbors, and water costs
money in the range country at any place. Thus, the small man isa
thorn in the side, especially of the large owner who has a first-class
equipment. The latter may retaliate by throwing large numbers of
his stock into the small man’s range long enough to eat it out in a
short time, or by instituting legal proceedings on trumped-up charges,
thereby causing the small man loss of time and unnecessary expendi-
ture of money. These are but a few of the more patent of the
competitive methods in use among cattlemen, and another similar set
is to be found among the large and small sheepmen.

The battles between the sheep and cattle industries have been told
time and again. The sheepman has the advantage in most respects.
His stock are herded all the time; they can be held on any spot as
long as he desires; if held long enough they will practically obliterate
the vegetation on such an area; they require much less water than
cattle, and with green succulent feed may go for long periods without
any water at all; they may be driven in almost any place where other
stock can go. He is thus able to drive over a cattleman’s range and
leave desolation in his wake if he wants to; and he may do this, too,
without overstepping his legal rights.

For convenience in handling the sheep at night, the herders build
brush corrals. These corrals burn readily after the brush is dry.
When not in a corral, sheep may easily be stampeded and scattered
at night. A herder’s camp fire at night is a conspicuous target, but
the immediate vicinity is very unsafe when rifle practice at such
target is going on, and a band of sheep without a herder is soon lost.
Such gentle hints as any of these may be taken to indicate to the
sheepman that it is time for him to move on.

The industry is now developed to such a state that if a man wishes
to enter it he must either buy a range and its rights or develop some of
the few remaining unoccupied areas, where water is hard to obtain
and where the supply of feed is scanty and uncertain. In either case,
he must be able to invest considerable capital in the business. This
means that the industry is upon a much more permanent basis and
is consequently more highly organized.

Perhaps no other demand of the business is so well recognized by
all those interested in it as the desirability of control of the range,

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO, 19

and nothing but the selfish interest of the few who are getting the
lion’s share under the present régime and the fear of the many that
the last state might be worse than the first have for years prevented
legislation.
Advantage has been taken of various methods to obtain control
and to divide up the range. Natural barriers, like mountains or

impassable lava flows, have always been used. Until recently, areas

without water have been natural barriers, but such areas are now
very rare. The railroad rights of way have been fenced and now
act as drift fences. Miles of drift fence have been constructed
since a ruling of the Commissioner of the General Land Office was
made, deciding that such fences might be allowed to stand, since
they do not inclose Government lands. The law allowing a county
road to be fenced has resulted in the establishment of some very
queer-looking county roads. All such fences and natural barriers
have resulted in cutting up the country into large, more or less
independent areas, and have given some individuals in favored locali-
ties practically complete—though not legal—control of their ranges.
Such individuals have little to obtain from any legalized system of
control except the necessity of paying for what they now get for
nothing.

Individuals or corporations who have had the money necessary
have bought lieu-land scrip and placed it on compact bodies of land
or have bought such of the Mexican land grants as they could obtain
title to. For years most of these grants have been treated as the
United States public lands; at first, because the grants had not been
confirmed in the land courts. Later, since the titles were confirmed,
it has been difficult to get the authority for the management of such
lands delegated to any representative of the owners, because too
many claimants had to be considered. Recently, some of these
grants have been sold and fenced, and others are leased in severalty
without fencing, much. as the national forests are treated.

Similarly, the lands given to the State and its institutions by
Congress may be leased in large bodies. The practice of leasing the
school section and fencing it for a pasture is a common one, and it is
a not uncommon habit in places to rent a given school section and
fence one or more sections that happen to be conveniently located,
with scant regard for the terms of the rental contract. Land
inspectors come around at very rare intervals, and even then they
do not know where the township and section corners are and can not
demonstrate without an expensive survey that the area fenced is
not the same as that leased. Hence, the fences stand and the fenced
areas increase in number and in size. Sometimes State lands have
been so located as to cover natural waters, like springs and streams

20 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in the mountains or places where wells might easily be dug. These
lands have then been leased, and by this means the water and range
have been controlled and possible settlers have been kept out.

A large part of the railroad lands was surrendered for leu-land
scrip. The remainder now in the possession of the railroads is rented
for grazing purposes so far as possible. Practically none of these lands
are fenced, because they are the alternate sections.

The grazing privilege on the national forests is controlled by a
permit system that guarantees the proper use of such ranges, render-
ing the business less hazardous and at the same time increasing the
carrying capacity.

It will thus be seen that the desire of all parties engaged in the
business is some sort of legalized control of the range lands; and
wherever this has been obtained and is at the same time associated
with the proper kind of management, the result has been beneficial
to the industry and to the range also, and consequently to the State

NATURE OF THE FORAGE CROP AND ITS DISTRIBUTION.!

Plains.—Much of the area of New Mexico consists of open, nearly
flat stretches that pass under such names as prairies, plains, or mesas.
They range in elevation from about 3,500 to nearly 7,000 feet above
sea level, a few, like Johnsons Mesa, reaching 8,000 feet. Such plains
are usually covered with a more or less dense covering of grasses,
which in the northern part of the State forms a tolerably thick sod.
(Pl. II, fig. 1.) In the southern part of the State the grass covering
is always less dense and rarely, if ever, forms a true sod (PI. III,
fig. 1), while in many places the ground is absolutely bare over areas
many acres in extent (Pl. III, fig. 2). Over large sections, often of
many thousands of acres of these plains, the soil consists of loose sand
and is covered with a more or less scattered growth of sand, bunch,
and sage grasses (Pl. IV, fig. 1) or a scrub oak known as shinry
(Pl. IV, fig. 2). Often the tight soils of the southern part of the
State carry a growth of shrubs which are valuable browse plants, of
which mesquite and shadscale (locally called sagebrush or coarse
sage) are the most important. (PI. V, fig. 1.)

Besides the grasses and shrubs already referred to, there is a long

list of herbaceous annuals and perennials that appear in the growing
season. The spring growth is fairly constant where some winter rain
or snow may be depended upon, but in the southern part of the State
these spring weeds only appear abundantly when three favorable
conditions occur in sequence. There must be enough rain in the fall
to germinate the seeds; the winter must be wet enough and warm
enough to produce good root growth; and the spring must not be so

1A detailed treatment of the forage plants of New Mexico will be found in New Mexico Experiment
Station Bulletins 66, 78, 81, and 87.

.

Bul. 211, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

Fic. 1.—VIEW IN THE SOUTH-CENTRAL PART OF NEW Mexico, SHOWING A TYPICAL
AREA OF OPEN OR SCATTERED GRASSES.

Fia. 2.—VIEW IN THE SOUTHERN PART OF NEW MExico, SHOWING AN AREA OF PER-
FECTLY BARE SOIL.

Bul. 211, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fic. 1.—VIEW IN THE SOUTHEASTERN PART OF NEW MEXICO, SHOWING GROWTH OF
SAGE OR SAND GRASSES ON SANDY LAND.

Fic. 2.—VIEW IN THE SOUTHEASTERN PART OF NEW MEXICO, SHOWING THE GROWTH
OF SHINRY ON SAND HILLS.

Bul. 211, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

Fia. 1.—VIEW IN THE SOUTH-CENTRAL PART OF NEW MEXICO, SHOWING THE SHAD-
SCALE AND MESQUITE ASSOCIATION OF PLANTS.

Fic. 2.—A BRUSH-COVERED AREA IN NEW MExIco, SHOWING A SMALL SPOT HAVING
AN ALMOST PURE STAND OF GRASS.

Bul. 211, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.

Fic. 1.—ViEWw IN New Mexico, SHOWING AN AREA ALMOST COMPLETELY COVERED BY
SNAKEWEED AS THE RESULT OF OVERSTOCKING.

Fig. 2.—VIEW IN NEW Mexico, SHOWING A CHARACTERISTIC GROWTH OF THE ROCKY $
( MOUNTAIN BEE PLANT DUE TO OVERSTOCKING.

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. 21

dry and windy as to dry up or cut off the young seedlings. In an
experience extending over about twenty years but three such springs
occurred at one point in the region mentioned. In the summer after
the rains there is commonly an abundant crop of such plants.

Many of these plains are really bolsons, or basins, without a drainage

outlet, and in all such low places where the water collects and evapo-

rates, as well as in many places in the river valleys where the water
table is near the surface, alkali occurs in greater or less abundance.
In such places may be found an association of alkali-loving plants,
many of which are usable as forage in default of something better.

Porous gravelly mesas.—In the southern part of the State are large
bodies of dry, porous, gravelly soil that usually lhe as bands of greater —
or less width paralleling the mountain chains. The dominant plants
of these areas are shrubs of no forage value, and there are few forage
plants of any kind in the association. The factor which in the last
analysis determines the distribution of this association is probably
one of soil aeration, though it may be dependent upon the amount of
available water.’

Where wind-transported sand or loess collects under the protection
of bushes, bluffs, or other obstructions, a spot of soil of an entirely
different texture is formed and other plants occur. It is not uncom-
mon to find in these bush-covered areas spots of this kind, from a
few square feet to several acres in extent, upon which occurs an almost
pure stand of grass. (PI. V, fig. 2.)

Sometimes there is a good crop of annuals upon these gravelly
mesas, but this crop is rarely used, since at such times there is an
abundance of better feed elsewhere. ‘These areas also are poorly
supplied with watering places, because the feed will not warrant the
expense. If some drought-resistant shrub having a value as forage
could be found that might replace the valueless shrubs of these areas,
much land now useless could be rendered productive, at least to some
degree. The amount of vegetation now produced upon these areas
is about the same as that upon the tight soils of the region, but it is
not usable because of its kind. Hence, there is hope that a valuable
plant may be found that will grow here.

Arroyos.—In most general terms, the plants that grow in the arroyos
or dry watercourses are the same that grow in the foothills of the
near-by mountains and have followed the drainage channel down-
ward, or those that have followed back up these channels from the

1 An investigation carried on at the New Mexico Agricultural College by a student assistant of the writer,
Mr. O. B. Metcalfe, demonstrated pretty completely that a pronounced tension line between almost pure
creosote-bush and shadscale associations was not due (as we had long believed) to a difference in alkalinity
of the soils. Careful examination, chemically and physically, of the soils to a depth of 6 feet at several —
places across the tension line showed no differences in soil except those arising from the size of the particles.
The soil upon which the creosote-bush association grew was very gravelly, and some of the bowlders con-
tained in it were so large that it was necessary several times to dig a pit instead of using the soil auger to
get the soilsamples. The soil supporting the shadscale association was much more finely grained, being
mostly a sandy loam at the surface and not gravelly below.

22 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

lower levels into which the arroyos debouch, with a few that have come
in from the adjacent mesas or ridges.

The physical factors that determine this distribution relate in some
way to local water and air drainage. While the upper courses of
such arroyos are likely to be deep and full of plants, the lower reaches
are usually dry, broad, flat, gravelly channels, at most but a few feet
lower than the surrounding land and practically bare of vegetation
or occasionally having a crop of range weeds.

Woodlands.—As used here, the term woodlands refers to those areas
that are covered with a more or less scattering growth of low trees,
a plant formation occupying a zone between the grass-covered plains
and the forest-covered areas of the higher mountains. Typical wood-
lands occur’ on the lower parts of the mountains, ranging upward
from 1,000 to 2,000 feet above the level of the surrounding plains.
Where these plains are relatively low, as they are in the southern part
of the State, the wooded areas begin at about 5,000 feet elevation,
while farther north, where the plains are much higher, the lower limit
of woodland-is sometimes as high as 7,000 feet. Throughout the
State the area is characterized by the presence in greater or less
abundance of low scrubby trees and numerous shrubs. Among these
_ occur various bunch grasses and numerous herbs during the growing
season. This plant formation often covers the lower drier ridges and
mountains to the summits, especially on the southern exposures
where the zone is nearly always broad, while on the higher mountains
and especially on steep northern slopes the zone is apt to be narrow
or sometimes almost absent.

Forests—Above the woodland zone in the mountains come the
forests. First, as one goes upward, are the open forests of western
yellow pine with interspersed parks (the transition zone), then the
denser forests of pine and Douglas spruce (mainly the Canadian zone),
and last the dense spruce forests (Hudsonian zone), reaching the
timber line. These forests exist only because of the rainfall that
occurs at these levels, and the growing conditions thus produced
result in an abundant and varied flora, most of which is readily eaten
by stock. As the elevation increases, the forests become denser,
darker, and wetter. The growing season also is shortened, as is the
grazing season, the area above the transition zone being mostly
summer pasture.

Above the timber line there are some ridges and peaks which have
a short-lived crop of grass, sedges, herbs, and a few low shrubs, but
this area is very rarely reached by stock even in the warmest of the
summer weather.

Practically all of the lands held by the Federal Government lying
in the woodland zone and those above it are now administered as
national forest.

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. 23
UNDESIRABLE RANGE PLANTS.

Besides the useless shrubs occurring on the gravelly mesas, two
other types of undesirable plants occur. These may be called for
convenience range weeds and poisonous plants. Range weeds are
of two kinds—native and introduced—and their presence upon the
range is due to two facts: First, and of much the greater importance,
because the animals will not eat these plants at all or only when
forced to do so by extreme hunger; and, second, because their natural
plant dominants (both biologic and economic) have been removed
by overstocking.

In the main, those native plants which have become the commonest
and apparently most important range weeds are not very aggressive
and would not occupy the large areas they do but for the effective

assistance in their struggle for existence which they receive from the

animals. Yet so important has this factor of animal interference
with the adjustment of plants in different associations become that
large areas are often occupied by almost pure stands of plants that
would normally form but an insignificant part of the vegetable
covering.

The best example of this kind of a range weed is found in the snake-
weed (Gutierrezia spp.), which also is called by its Mexican name
yerba del vibora (PI. VI, fig. 1). In many places it is called sheep weed
because of its abundance on overstocked sheep ranges. So infrequent
is this plant on a normal range which has not been overstocked that
the average observer rarely sees it, and it has often been sent to the
writer as an example of a recently introduced and very harmful weed.

In response to the oft-repeated question of how to get rid of the
snakeweed, there is but one method economically possible, and that
is to give the grama grass a chance and it will crowd out the snake-
weed. In the eastern counties of the State, where the influx of
settlers several years ago drove range stock out and gave much of
what had been range land a iong and much-needed rest, this very
thing happened. It usually happens inside the fences of the railroad
rights of way. There is little doubt also that the burning of the
dead grass, a custom of the Indian days, was very destructive to the
snakeweed, which is quite resinous, burns readily, and is easily killed
by fire, but it did little damage to the grass except to destroy the
standing dry crop. Advantage might be taken of this fact locally
to hasten the eradication of this weed. Rabbit brush (Chrysotham-
nus spp.) occasionally assumes this réle in certain localities.

Another common, though less important, weed of the open parks
in the forests is the Rocky Mountain bee plant, which in places
occupies large areas to the more or less complete exclusion of some
of the best of the forage plants. (Pl. VI, fig. 2.)

2.4. BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Of more importance is a group of introduced weeds, about the
probable effects of which we know less and whose spread within
recent years has been rather ominous. These are mostly tumble-
weeds, of which the Russian thistle (Salsola pestifer) is far and away
the worst. (Pl. VII, fig. 1.) Their seed-distribution habits are
admirably adapted to an open country with strong winds, and they
scatter their abundant crops of seed over wide areas. Most of the
species are able to endure extreme drought and great heat; their
seeds germinate readily and the seedlings endure very unfavorable
conditions and grow into plants that mature seed whether they be
but a few inches high or reach maximum size. They practically all
belong in the goosefoot or amaranth families and have to their credit
the fact that they are all to some extent valuable as forage when
young, and they are eaten when nothing better is available.

In regions haying a rainfall of over 15 inches the Russian thistle
is‘very much at home, and wherever the native grasses have been
killed out either by stock or by the plow it is a pestiferous weed.
For a short time, while it is young and tender, it is a fairly good
feed, and it has been used as hay and silage when other crops have
failed in the dry-farming regions; but these uses are always make-
shift attempts to utilize a product that is not desired. Ordinarily,
it does not seem to be able to crowd out the native grasses, but in
the dry-farming areas, where the sod has been broken and the land
deserted for any reason, it usually takes the ground completely. It
also takes badly overstocked places on the ranges, especially where
sheep have been held too long. Whether the native grasses will be
able to crowd their way back into such areas or not still remains to
be seen. If they are not, then the importance of this pest is in-
creased many times.

Certain poisonous plants are also of some considerable menace to
the ranges, especially where any overstocking is going on. Speaking
very generally, these plants form a very small and numerically unim-
portant part of the natural flora until the factor of overstocking
enters. Of course, the different species differ in importance merely
on the basis of the readiness with which they reproduce themselves
and their ability to compete with their plant associates. Under
normal conditions, unless pressed by hunger, grazing animals of all
kinds let them alone and hence do not in any way interfere with
their natural rate of reproduction and spread. Like other weeds
that are not eaten, they thus tend to spread much more rapidly
when relieved of their plant competitors by the animals. In fact,
under these circumstances there is nothing left but their animal and
plant parasites to hold them in check, unless man should interfere.1

1 A few species of loco weed have become so abundant on some of the sheep ranges of California that it
is now the custom in certain localities for the herder to carry a spud or a spade, dig these plants up, collect
them, and burn them. The practice evidently pays or it would not be followed.

{

Bul. 211, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

Fic. 1.—VIEW IN THE NORTHWESTERN PART OF NEW MEXICO, SHOWING A TYPICAL
GROWTH OF RUSSIAN THISTLE ON AN OVERGRAZED SHEEP RANGE.

Fia. 2.—A PUMPING PLANT AND RESERVOIR IN NEW MExiIco, THE WELL IN CONNEC-
TION THEREWITH BEING 330 FEET DEEP.

Bul, 211, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE VIII.

Fig. 1.—VIEW IN THE NORTHERN PART OF NEW MExICco, SHOWING THE BEGINNING
OF AN ARROYO ON AN OVERSTOCKED RANGE.

Fic. 2.—View IN NEW MExIco, SHOWING THE RESULT OF A SUMMER SHOWER
WHICH LASTED BUT A SHORT TIME AND ILLUSTRATING MOST CHARACTERISTICALLY
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE RUN-OFF.

- RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. 25

Whatever may be said of the undesirability of weeds on a range,
there is one thing to be said in their favor. Any vegetable covering
in an arid region is better than none, since such a covering prevents
to some degree the removal of the soil, and any plant association
occupying an area is to be looked upon as merely one stage in the
production of that ultimate assemblage of plants which is best
adapted to that place and its conditions.

EROSION.

To the observer from a humid climate, perhaps no one charac-
teristic of the arid regions of the Southwest is so startling as the evi-
dence on all sides of the forceful action of water as an erosive agent.
And this in a land where water is the one thing that is everywhere
lacking.

But the reason is patent after a summer in the region, and the
conditions are common to all arid countries of high relief. The ero-
sive effects that one sees so plainly are the resultant of several factors.
During the warm weather, the only season of the year in which large
volumes of moist air are brought into the region, the air next the
ground is always warm and therefore relatively dry. Hence, rain
occurs only when masses of humid air are forced into the cold upper
strata. Such conditions arise only locally and produce showers of
restricted size, but such showers are mostly torrential in character,
a large amount of water falling on a restricted area in a very short
time.

Let such a downpour occur on what seems to be a flat plain, and
in a few minutes the lower levels are flooded and the roadbed of any
obstructing railroad is apt to suffer severely. Thus, we are forever
hearing of railroad washouts in a region that is called a desert and
is wanting governmental irrigation systems established. (Pl. VIII,
fig. 2.)

The land is but sparsely covered with any kind of vegetation and
there is little to obstruct the run-off. The gradient is high at almost
any place. Add to this the fact that the soil has been loosened by
daily expansion and nightly contraction, due to large diurnal varia-
tions of temperature, and the conditions for maximum efficiency of
the erosive agent are supplied; and the consequences are not only
not singular but were to be expected instead of wondered at.

The factor which more than anything else tends to prevent the
same kind of results in a humid region on an even larger scale is the
protective cover of vegetation everywhere abundant, and no one fac-
tor is so efficacious -in producing rapid erosion on the arid grazing
lands as the more or less complete removal of their already scanty
cover of plants by overstocking.

26 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A common sight on an overstocked range is the arroyo made by
the run-off which has not been held back by the grass and bushes
until the water could soak into the ground. (PIL. VIII, fig. 1.) So
the removal of even the grass and low shrubbery results in the
partial loss of the soil and much of the ground water.

These effects, ike many others of the range country, are cumulative.
Once a cut is started it soon becomes a trench into which the water
drains, the soil is gradually all carried away and in the end nothing is
left but the gravel and bowlder-strewn channel where little or nothing
can grow. Many of the ranges in New Mexico that years ago were
gently rolling grass-covered plains are to-day cut and scarred by
arroyos that are almost impassable to a horseman, and all because
the region has been overstocked.

RANGE MANAGEMENT. !

As stated m another place, in New Mexico to-day the stockman
usually owns the land upon which he has “‘developed”’ water, and he is
warranted by the custom of the country in the use of the range half
way from his last watering place to the nearest water of his nearest
neighbor, on all sides. He must maintain at his watering place a
supply sufficient for the number of stock he may have watering at
that place. Such watering places must be open to all stock that come
to them of their own volition. Only animals which are driven
through the country are expected to have their water paid for, and
this recognizedly legitimate charge is often not exacted.

The stockmen’s wars, so common a number of years ago, are mostly
of the past, for everybody concerned has learned that such methods
do not pay. There is still more or less friction among individuals
in a small way, as they overreach or are overreached. But in general
there is a desire to play fair, or at least within what are recognized as
the “‘rules of the game.” What is needed for the improvement of
the business is a pronounced change in the rules.

The routine work of the ordinary cattle ranch of to-day consists
in maintaining the watering places, moving stock from one place to
another as the feed varies, looking after old cows or dogy calves,
riding bog, and going after strays, with the heavy work of the spring
and fall round-ups, and the incidental branding of calves that have
been missed. Owing to the fact that the cattle are in no way re-
stricted in their movements and that all distances which must be
traversed are large, such work requires much riding by a number of
men, depending upon the size of the ranch.

1 The word management as used in this bulletin in every case means the financially profitable regulation
of the individual enterprise considered as a productive business unit. The principles apply as well to the

man with a hundred or so cattle or horses or a single band of sheep as they do to the owner of thousands of.
animals and large equipment.

e

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO, Del

With sheep there is the continual round of driving to the feeding
grounds in the day and back to the bed grounds at night, with a trip
to water-every few days, depending upon the kind of feed and amount
of water available. The camping place must be changed at frequent
intervals, and there is the eternal hunt for good feed. There must
be persistent care to prevent the splitting of the herd or losing a
bunch of stragglers, and to keep predatory animals out of the flock;
and in the spring comes lambing, shearing, and dipping, though in
some places shearing is done twice and dipping may also have to be
repeated. Most of such work must be done on foot and always in the
open, whatever the weather.

When the dry seasons come there is work for all and a hard time
for the animals. Though all the stockmen know that the dry seasons
will surely come, there is at present. little chance of making any
preparation for ene

The ideal toward which the individual stockman must always
strive is to manage the factors under his control so as to produce
upon, his range the largest and most valuable crop of forage that it is
able to maintain season, after season under use, and the adjustment
of the proper number of animals to the ranch needs excellent judg-
ment in order to get the best returns. In the opinion of the writer,
considerable of the overstocking now done on controlled ranges is
due to a lack of accurate knowledge of their carrying capacity, which
results in poor judgment in making the adjustment mentioned.

Everybody knows in a general way that there are already too many
animals on the range under the present form of management. Many
of the more thoughtful stockmen know that it would pay them to
reduce the number of stock on their ranches and give the grass a
chance to grow, but there are always new men coming into any range
country who do not know the rate of feed production of the region.
Such men recognize the possibility of developing water in favorable
positions, and if they find grass in any quantity which is apparently
not being used, they think they have found the place they are looking
for. If Mr. A, who has been in possession of that region for maybe
_twenty years and who does know what the region will carry, com-
plains to the newcomer that the latter is crowding in where there is no
place for his stock, Mr. A has absolutely no means of convincing the
new arrival of either his knowledge or his sincerity.

The land is all open to entry. The new man can take up a claim
and develop the necessary water and turn his stock on the open
range, and no one can prevent him. Nor can anyone either protect
Mr. A in his claims or insist that only so much stock shall run on a
given area. If the seasons are good for a year or so, the range may
carry the additional stock, and the newcomer is sure he was right,
but when the dry years come both men are bound to lose heavily.

28 BULLETIN 211, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It does no good then for Mr. A to say ‘‘I told you so,” and his only
hope is that he can endure the losses longer than the new man and
that the latter will be forced to leave.

There are only two other things that Mr. A can do. He may
either buy the newcomer out and so get rid of him—a practice that
sometimes induces men to dig wells to sell to established stockmen
who have made money—or he may develop another watering place
near the newcomer, thus restricting the latter’s range to a minimum,
and wait for the dry years. Any way that the matter may now be
adjusted ultimately results in a direct loss for both men (accompanied
by great suffering by the stock), an indirect loss to the general business
interests of the region, and a serious depreciation in the value of the
range.

An experienced and successful cattleman in the southern part of
New Mexico, commenting to the writer on this state of affairs not
long ago, said:

I can better afford to take the $2,500 loss of stock which I know I will have when
the dry years come than to take my stock off my range and try to save the grass
which I know I will need in those dry years. I hold my range now only by having
my stock on it. If I take my stock off, someone else will take my range, and I can
afford to lose the stock better than lose the range.

Every stockman using Government range lands is forced into this
kind of action whether he be astute enough to have reasoned it out
or not. Yet these same lands under a better type of management
(possible only under legalized control) would carry safely all the time
more and better stock than they now carry with such uncertainty.

Now the crux of the situation is expressed in the phrase ‘‘ possible
only under legalized control.’”’ The mere fact that the stockman is
not able to protect his range against willful misuse by himself is the
best of evidence that the industry has reached the limit of its possible
development under the system of management now in operation.
The earlier growth of the industry occurred under a condition of
what was practically unlimited free range and was satisfactory in
most ways as long as this condition continued; but as soon as all
the range land was occupied a new system became necessary, and
this necessity has been seen by investigators and far-sighted stock-
men for a long time. Before the industry can develop further it
must become possible to determine how many animals may be put
on agiven area. But control of such animals as cattle, horses, mules,
and burros can be maintained only by fences. Under the present
system sheep and goats can be managed so as to prevent overstocking, -
but they rarely are. With a properly fenced range even they are
better off, and the range is also. Let us assume that the right to
fence the range lands in severalty has been obtained and consider
the changes in management rendered possible thereby.

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. — 29

The necessity of allowing feed to mature.—It is a well-known botan-
ical fact that in order for ordinary green plants to grow they must |
have leaves, since the food from which new growth is made is elabo-
rated mostly in the leaves. This point has been emphasized by
various writers, but no definite data as to the exact effect of pas-
turage upon the quantity of feed produced have been obtained till
recently. Studies carried on by Drs. Briggs and Shantz have given
some very definite data for alfalfa. From their work it appears
probable that whenever range land is closely pastured during the
growing season its total productivity is automatically reduced
approximately two-thirds, or possibly more. Or, stated generally,
close grazing during the growing season reduces the carrying capacity
about two-thirds.

One way to diminish this effect is to divide the range into a number
of relatively small pastures and give each pasture a rest in turn.
Each pasture must be given as long a time to grow its crop as is
possible, keeping in mind all the time the fact that the stock must
grow as rapidly as possible. It is probably better to put a large”
number of animals on a relatively small acreage for a short time,
thus giving the plants a long period of growth. This procedure makes
a larger number of watering places necessary.

The utilization of summer feed.—Subdividing the range is beneficial
in another way. In many places there are areas that produce forage
which is good feed only while it is green. On other near-by areas
forage which cures standing occurs. The latter is the natural winter
feed of the region, but these plants are usually preferred by animals
while they are green. ‘Thus, if the animals are allowed to range
freely and select their feed they eat the winter feed in the summer
time. From the standpomt of sustenance the summer feed is all
right in the summer, but poor in the winter. Hence, good manage-
ment requires that 1t be eaten while at its best. Similarly, the winter
feed should be saved till the winter time. Without fences such
management is impossible, and the selective action of the stock is
always operating to destroy the best feed on the range, for they
always graze it more closely, even when the range is properly stocked.

In the higher mountain country some of the range is available only
in the summer, because it is covered with snow in the winter. There
is some tendency for free-ranging stock to go to the higher levels in
the summer, which is advantageous to the stockman. While cattle
will climb the hills if they have to, they will congregate in the
open valleys and parks as long as the feed lasts, unless they are
fenced out. But the valleys and parks may be pastured earlier and
later than the mountain sides and should be fenced. Many such
treeless areas are capable of cultivation or may be turned into
meadows where a good crop of hay may be grown,

30 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Thus in a number of ways the ability to subdivide the range into
pastures makes a much more effective utilization of the forage crops
possible and so increases the carrying capacity.

The importance of reserve feed.—Attention has been called to the
variability of the climate of the region. It is as safe to prophesy lean
years in New Mexico as it was in Egypt in Joseph’s time, and they
usually come in cycles of two or more seasons in which the precipi-
tation is below the average. Only two ways of adjusting the stock
business to these years of scanty growth are possible. One must
either reduce the number of stock or be able to fall back on a reserve
supply of feed. The forced sale of the stock nearly always means
financial loss, largely because of the condition of the stock. They
have been held in expectation that the rain will occur at what is
generally referred to as the usual time. The stock at this time have
just passed the season of poor feed and are not in first-class condition
for sale, and the longer the rain is delayed the poorer and less valu-
able they become. If the owner sells at this time, he is bound to lose
heavily. Yet, if the rain does come even late in the summer, growth
is so rapid that there will be feed enough to carry over to what may
be a better year. So he hopes and holds on. But if rain does not
come at all, the weak stock and many of the young will die. Thus
a large percentage of the breeding stock is lost and the next year’s
crop much reduced. On much of the New Mexico range country two
or three such seasons in succession will put many of the stockmen
out of business and kill thousands of animals. Yet these cycles of
dry seasons come, and everyone knows they will come again, but no
one can get ready for them, because he can not fence his range.

Developing water.—Attention has already been called to the fact
that the control of the range is now maintained by the control of the
stock water. Of course, it must be understood that wherever there
is sufficient water for irrigation purposes it is always so used. In
New Mexico there is almost everywhere sufficient stock water to
supply all the animals which the range will carry, and in many places
quite a little more could be developed. This is one of the factors
which have made overstocking not only possible but unavoidable
under the present system of tenure.

Wherever there is underground water within 500 feet of the sur-
face, the earth tank and cased well, with its big windmill and gasoline
engine, furnish a supply that can be depended upon. (PI. VII, fig. 2.)
Such equipment is, however, the sign of the investment of considerable
money; the deeper the well, the larger the expense, and likewise the
greater the cost of use and maintenance.

Springs and small streams are always used, unless the supply is
large enough for irrigation purposes. Just in the edge of the foothills,
where the flood-water channels open out upon the flats, sites may

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. 31

be found where a small earth dam and a proper spillway will make
a tank that will catch and hold a large quantity of water. (Pl. IX,
fig. 1.) These tanks are usually not very expensive; and, notwith-
standing the high rate of evaporation, water is often maintained in
such tanks throughout the year. The deeper the tank im proportion
to its area the smaller the relative amount of loss by evaporation.
Even in the plains country there is always sufficient run-off to collect
large quantities of water in tanks properly located. (PIL. IX, fig. 2.)
A little judgment in the selection of a site and the use of some plows
and scrapers are all that is necessary to develop a valuable supply.

In the mountainous country it is frequently very easy to make
lakes of considerable size by deflecting the flow of the smaller streams
into natural basins, where a small dam will make a lake several acres
in extent. The construction of such lakes is one of the best things
that can be done upon a ranch, since all such bodies of water help to,
regulate the run-off. They always afford a supply of water for stock,
and they frequently change intermittent streams into permanent
ones, thus distributing the water so that the stock do not need to
congregate. They thus reduce the run-off and tend to remove the
main cause of trail making, both of which factors are very potent in
reducing erosion.

No other one factor is so important as the abundance of good, clean
water, well distributed over the ranch, and there are relatively few
ranches that now have the water so well distributed that the range
may be uniformly grazed. Stock mostly have to go too far for water,
with the result that much grass is trampled out around the watering
places, and the range is apt to be cut up by trails that ultimately
become arroyos. And it is equally true that much more water could
be developed upon most ranges, a procedure that would materially
help the business. But under the present uncertainty of tenure of
the range lands such expenditures are not warranted.

Reducing the effects of erosion.—There are two ways by which the
effects of erosion may be reduced. Attention has already been called
to the regulation of the run-off and the making of trails. What is
necessary on many ranches to-day is the repair of arroyos already
made. The aggregate area of land that now produces no forage as
the result of the erosive action of water is large. More or less intri-
cate systems of drainage channels have been established where for-
merly there was but gently rolling country with no definite channels.
The original condition existed because the plant cover of the soil pre-
vented the water from collecting into streams. The run-off occurred *
mostly as a thin sheet of water gently moving over all slopes, the
motion being so slow as to allow most of it to soak into the soil.
This is the best possible condition for the conservation of both the

32 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

moisture and the soil, as well as for the maximum production of
forage, and it should be brought about wherever possible.

All arroyos should be gradually filled. This can not be done
economically except very slowly and by letting the water do it.
The cutting occurs because of the velocity of the water, which de-
pends upon the quantity of water and the slope of the land. It is
necessary to begin work at the heads of such channels, deflect the
water from the main channels, and cause it to run over the more
gently sloping land asasheet. Large obstructions across deep ditches
or gullies are of little value unless they are so strong as to hold all the
water which can collect behind them, as in a tank or lake.

The same is, of course, true of the broader channels, where more
extensive dams would be necessary. If such dams were built and
should burst, much greater damage would be done, because of the
Jarge volume of water stored before the obstruction gave way. Small
obstructions which allow a small quantity of soil to collect behind
them upon which the grass may grow are of great advantage in chan-
nels, provided most of the flood waters can be kept out of the channel
by defection at the head.

All: permanent lakes or tanks become local levels below which cut-
ting can not occur in the drainage basin above them and are, of
course, desirable.

The general principle to be kept in mind is that the transporting
power of water varies as the sixth power of its velocity. In other
words, if the velocity of a stream be doubled, the weight of the largest
particles it will push along is 64 times as great as that of the stream
at the original velocity. But the velocity increases with the depth
and with the gradient. The importance of inducing the water to
flow slowly over the surface as a thin sheet is thus apparent. Anda
relatively small amount of work properly applied will produce im-
portant results in restoring to productivity land which is now only
used to carry away water that should go into the ground. But none
of this improvement work will be done until the worker knows he will
be allowed to reap the benefit of his labor.

Reseeding operations.—So far, experiments attempting to reseed
artificially the ranges of most of New Mexico have resulted negatively.
There are good reasons for this, to which we wish to call attention.
There are, however, large areas where artificial reseeding will prove
successful. Many high mountain valleys that receive considerable
water, but have a short, cool season, can be set in timothy or redtop.
Orchard grass, tall fescue, or brome-grass will grow in many localities
if properly treated. Oats, barley, and wheat are already grown in
many of the open parks of the higher mountain timbered lands, and
much of the plains country of the eastern side of the State will grow
kafir, milo, or some of the other.sorghums. Such lands are range lands

Bul. 211, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |X.

Fig. 1.—VIEW IN THE SOUTH-CENTRAL PART OF NEW MExiIco, SHOWING A SMALL
TANK IN THE FOOTHILLS.

Fig. 2.—VIEW IN THE SOUTHEASTERN PART OF NEW MEXICO, SHOWING A LARGE
TANK ON THE PLAINS.

¢

p

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. 33

only temporarily, until their owners learn that they can produce much
more feed per acre by cultivating them, when they become agricultural
lands, and it is no longer an experiment to try to cultivate such lands.

The commonly cultivated pasture grasses will not grow on much the
larger part of the lands of the State, because of insufficient moisture,
and these are the only pasture grasses whose seeds can be had in
quantity from dealers. There is little doubt that it would pay to sow
grama-grass seed over large areas of the range lands if good seed could
be had in quantity at a reasonable price, and this same statement is
true of several other valuable native grasses. But such seed can not
be bought in quantity at any price. Hence, the main reseeding
method is that of allowing the plants to reseed themselves. This
necessitates the protection of the seeding plants till the mature seeds
are distributed. The process is very slow at the start if the range is
badly eaten out, for relatively few viable seeds are then produced,
and germination conditions are rarely ever good even for the native
plants. But this method of improvement is, like all the others so far
mentioned, dependent upon the control of the land and the ability to
keep the stock off during the growing season.

The control of stock—Much of what has already been said in favor of
legalized range control has assumed the regulation of the number of
head of animals that may be allowed to graze on a given area. The
point of view, however, in each case has been that of advantage in the
production, preservation, or utilization of feed.

Of equal importance in the management of any range is the control
of stock, i. e., the possibility of knowing where any given animal may
be found at any time. It is much easier to maintain a watch over
cattle and horses by ‘‘riding fence’”’ than by “‘riding range.”’ It takes
fewer men and fewer horses, and the information obtained as to the
condition of the stock is much more accurate. If a hundred cows are
put into a given pasture * it is only necessary to ride around the fence
to know whether any animals have broken in or out. One merely
needs to ride to the watering place at the proper time of day to find a
particular animal. Very rarely, indeed, must strays be hunted, and
bog holes may generally be fenced in, the danger being thus removed.

Even though the pasture be many square miles in extent, it will take
only a few men to gather all the animals that are in it if the country is
open as is the case with most of New Mexico; and if the number of head
in the pasture is known, the number of head gathered shows the effi-
ciency of the men and makes it possible to ascertain the amount and
causes of all losses.

EE EEE ea oS SE SN Sn Sy
1I¢ must be remembered that this word is stretched from its ordinary usage so as to include areas that
may be many sections in extent instead of a few acres.

34 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

With a fenced range, the spring and fall round-ups become merely
the gathering of the stock in the separate pastures and can be done by
afew men. The operations on each ranch thus become independent
of each other and are not subject to a time schedule that may be in-
convenient. The need of extra help is not so pressing. The branding
can be done at the corral, where a ‘‘squeezer’’ obviates the necessity
of running, roping, and throwing the animals, with the consequent
losses that attend this method, losses that range all the way from the
effects of overheating the horses and cattle to the killing of an occa-
sional animal. Working at the corral often obviates the necessity of
the round-up wagon, with its attendant expenses. To summarize:
The fencing of a range and its division into separate pastures reduces
the operative force necessary to handle a given area and makes the
work itself easier for the men and not so hard on the stock.

The control of breeding operations.—Probably the most important
function of a fence on a cattle or horse ranch is the control that it
gives to the breeding operations. All stockmen recognize the impor-
tance of producing only well-bred animals, but this can be done on
an open range only by the enforcement of laws controlling the char-
acter of males that are allowed at large. Considerable has been done
in this respect in New Mexico as regards bulls, and the manner of
handling sheep gives control of the bucks. There is at present but
poor control of stallions and burros. Even with good laws there is
great difficulty in their enforcement, since opinions differ very much
as to what is a desirable animal for breeding purposes. Many of the
men, for pecuniary reasons, especially if their means are limited, do
not see how they can afford to buy well-bred animals for their small
ranches, so they allow grade bulls to run and all their neighbors must
put up with the consequences. One of the commonest complaints
of the progressive owner is that his neighbors do not buy good bulls
or enough of them. This is one of the exasperating losses which
the larger single owners and practically all of the big companies
have to endure under the present system. Yet all stockmen know
that the practice is economically a bad one.

It is probably desirable upon some of the ranches in the higher
mountains to restrict the breeding to certain months in the year, in
order to avoid the losses resulting from the birth of calves during the
cold weather. This plan has been tried in a few places; and while
the percentage of calves dropped is smaller, the losses are noticeably
less, and the total calf crop is about the same, with some advantage
in favor of the practice because of the strength of the calves. With
the proper precautions taken as to the number and distribution of
bulls, it is likely that the percentage of dry cows could be reduced
to the normal for the open range, even under this system.

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. 35

Fenced inclosures also make possible the classification of the stock.
The steers may be taken out of the cow herd, thereby increasing to
some degree the fecundity. Young animals may be kept in pastures
containing only their own kind. Uniformity in the grading of the
animals makes them more attractive and more easily salable when
the buyer is inspecting them. It makes possible the weaning of the

calves at the proper age, which allows their mothers to recover flesh
while carrying their young.

Quarantine and disease eradication.—The importance of a fence for

use in the control and eradication of various diseases that attack
range animals is excellently set forth in a petition ' recently presented
to the President of the United States by those residents of south-
eastern New Mexico who are either directly or indirectly interested
in stock raising. It reads as follows:
- In addition to what has been said herein as to the manifest advantages of the indi-
vidual control of the range, it should be remembered that the splendid work which
has for the past twelve years been carried on by the Bureau of Animal Industry would
be very greatly facilitated. The officials of this department have done excellent and
efficient work in clearing this part of New Mexico of various infectious diseases to
which cattle and sheep are subject; but they have been greatly hampered and their
work delayed and made infinitely more expensive and difficult by the fact that there
has been no method whatever of isolating such infected herds as graze on the public
domain. It is practically impossible to thoroughly eradicate even the least virulent
of these diseases, such as scabies, pleuro-pneumonia, and anthrax, as long as the
diseased animals can not be permanently isolated from the healthy ones, which, with
herds running at large, is impossible. If under the present conditions of the range
such an infection as foot-and-mouth disease, which has appeared twice in the United
States in the past twelve years, should become distributed, the cattle industry would
be practically annihilated. It has been fully demonstrated in this and other districts
that where animals were under control in privately owned pastures, the eradication
of disease has been entirely practicable, while at the same time in contiguous open
ranges vast herds have perished as a result of these diseases, and their owners have
been practically ruined.

Feeding range stock.—Very little feeding of range stock has been
done in New Mexico for any purpose whatever, and it is still a com-
mon practice to let animals die of starvation if there is not sufficient
feed on the range to maintain them. Aside from the humanitarian
argument, this is really very poor business, with meat at its present
price.

Within the past decade a considerable area of the State has come
into cultivation by the development of various irrigation enterprises
or by dry-farming methods. In consequence, a much greater area
of land, previously some of the best grazing land of the State, has
ceased temporarily to be used for this purpose; but in all the dry-
farming area (where at present less than half the land is occupied,

1 Written by ex-Governor Hagerman, of New Mexico.

36 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and a still smaller acreage is cultivated) the important cultivated
crops are forage crops, much of which will not admit of shipment,
‘on account of their bulk as compared with their value. They must,
therefore, be used near the place of production. Any concentrated
feeds produced may seek an outside market, and the production of
such feed within the State, where a large quantity of such feed should
be used to carry animals over the periods of scarcity, is advantageous
in many ways. The producers need a market; the stockmen need
cheap feed; the railroads need the haul; the State needs the indus-
tries; and the country needs the meat.

There is little doubt that the areas into which the homesteaders
have been coming for some time, and which thereby have produced
much less meat for a number of years, will in the end produce much
more than they originally did, unless some marked improvement is
made in agricultural operations with a limited supply of water.
Kafir, milo, or some other sorghum and the silo, with stock raising
or dairying, seem to be one solution of the problem of living in these
regions. “The experience of the stockmen in other States indicates
that cattlemen and sheepmen alike can very well afford to feed grain
to their stock during periods of shortage of range feed.

Sheepmen are accustomed to assume that all of these generaliza-
tions that apply so patently to cattle do not affect their business.
But this is not correct. It has been shown by experiment! that
even in the heart of the forest in the high mountains, where predatory
animals are most numerous and active, half of a band of sheep pro-
tected by a fence and a hunter with dogs produced more mutton
and more wool and left the pasture in better shape than the other
half of the band under the ordinary care given by herding. Nor is
this all.

Many of the flockmasters of southwestern Texas are building
fences that, with the aid of proper dogs, will protect their sheep
from coyotes and wolves. This is being done because the herders
of the region are becoming less reliable and at the same time more
expensive. When that region is once cut up by fences into pastures
of a few sections each, the coyotes and wolves can be exterminated.
The cost of construction and maintenance of the fence and of keeping
down the jack rabbits is the main expense which must be met in

lieu of the wages and subsistence of the herders and camp tenders

necessary when the sheep are handled on an open range; and the
increased carrying capacity of the range, the increased amount and
quality of the wool, and the increased quantity of mutton produced
must be taken into account when comparisons are made.

1 Jardine, J. T., and Coville, F. V. Preliminary report on grazing experiments in a coyote-proof pasture.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Forest Serv. Circ. 156, 32 p., 2 fig. 1908.

=

Oe ee

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. Bil

CHARACTER OF THE PRESENT OPPOSITION TO CONTROL.

What are the interests opposed to legalized control of the range
country? There are at least two that are more or less actively
opposed to the idea. They are those owners who, by the nature of
their stock and the region they are in, are able to get a lion’s share of
the benefits to be derived from the business, or they are those who,
by the particularly favorable location of the ranges they now occupy,
already have practical control and would only increase their expenses
by gaining a legalized control. There are only a few such owners in
New Mexico. But there are many who are afraid that any change
which might be made would result in loss to themselves. They want
control, but are passively obstructing any move tending toward
that end, because they fear that in any new adjustment they would
lose part or all of what they now claim.

There is nothing to criticize in any of these attitudes, since they
are those of all competitive business. Each stockman is merely
getting all he can out of his business under the conditions in which
he finds himself, and he is warranted in so doing so long as he breaks
no existing laws. But would it not be much better business to get
some sort of legalized control system established which would do
away with the present uncertainties and losses and make a better
type of management possible ?

The industry would be placed upon a much better footing. Its
returns would be much more certain and could be calculated in
advance with much greater accuracy. By virtue of this certainty
a more complex and more remunerative type of business could be
developed, which would result in an output both larger in quantity
and better in quality. Hence the business would be more remu-
nerative to those engaged in it and would improve the general business
status of the State. From the standpoint of the great majority of
the stockmen of New Mexico there is everything to gain and almost
nothing to lose by ‘the establishment of a system which will allow
them to fence their lands and hold them in severalty, while from the
standpoint of the business the promise of improvement is slight,
if any (due mainly to the increased prices of the meat produced),
with all the factors tending toward a diminution of productivity so
long as the present form of tenure is the only one possible.

SUMMARY.

(1) The present status of the stock-raising industry in New Mexico
is but one phase of the adjustment of the various industries of the
State among themselves and to the physical environment.

(2) The topographic, climatic, and soil characters of the State
restrict by far the greater part of its total area to the business of
stock raising so long as the present agricultural methods continue.

38 BULLETIN 211, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(3) While much of the land is held under one form of tenure or
another, over 31,000,000 acres, although in continuous use, now lack
legal control.

(4) From the best statistics available it is shown that the stock-
raising industry in New Mexico pays taxes on almost one-fourth of
the total assessed valuation of the property of the State and is prob-
ably the most productive industry in the State.

(5) The present method of controlling the Government lands de-
pends upon the legal control of the stock water and a custom which
has the force of an unwritten law. This condition has arisen from lack
of legislation which takes all the conditions into consideration. No
type of legislation is here recommended, because it would be out of
place; but that some type of legal control is not only desirable but
very necessary for the further development of the industry is forcibly
urged. :

(6) The nature of the forage crops and their distribution are indi-
cated in this bulletin in general terms, as are some of the undesirable
plants, and methods of eradicating the latter are suggested.

(7) The management of the controlled range is contrasted with
that now possible. It is shown that the present form of control can
result in nothing but overstocking. Closely cropped range plants
produce probably not more than one-third as much forage as when
they are allowed to mature before being grazed. Feed which is good
only in the summer, either by virtue of its kind or its position, can be
properly utilized only on a controlled range. The more or less regu-
lar recurrence of cycles of dry years makes the reservation of feed
necessary. ‘This is rarely, if ever, possible on an open range. The
distribution of stock water is to-day poor when considered from the
standpoint of the demands of the business. Much could be done to
improve this condition, but the necessary expenditure is not war-
ranted while the right of control is so uncertain. Much damage has
been done to the ranges by erosion. Efforts to correct this condition
and to stop the consequent losses to the range and industry are not
warranted so long as a man may not know that he is to profit by his
effort. Reseeding operations will pay in some places, but the effort
and expense are not warranted without the guaranty of returns.
Fencing gives more complete control of stock and reduces the expense
of operation in many ways. It allowsabetter organization of the busi-
ness and makes the reduction of losses and increase of output possible.
It also makes the improvement of the quality of the stock possible by
giving control of the breeding operations. It renders the classifica-
tion and grading of the animals feasible, thereby tending to increase
salability. Protection from and eradication of diseases and all types
of quarantine operations are much more easily applied to inclosed
areas, and some of the more desirable operations are impossible on an

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN NEW MEXICO. 39

open range. Feeding stock in times of scarcity of range feed is indi-
cated even under the present system of management, but this very
desirable improvement can hardly be expected to occur till a better
form of land tenure is guaranteed.

(8) The opposition to some legalized system of control is to-day
more a passive than an active one and is due mostly to a fear of quite
uncertain and indefinite possible, but not probable, consequences.
There is every reason to expect that, whatever the system, those in
possession of the range would be given legal control of the land they
occupied at the time the system went into effect, assuming that they
complied with the requirements.

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
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AT

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BO Partin OFF Tre fe

USDEPARINENT OFAARICULTURE © ee!

SU)

No. 212 EGER

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
May 26, 1915.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PATHOLOGY OF
THE JACK PINE.

By James R. WEIR,
Forest Pathologist, Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology.

INTRODUCTION.

A discussion of the fungous diseases of a particular forest tree is
incomplete unless the general habitat in which the tree grows and
which influences the occurrence and virulence of its diseases is con-
sidered. In general, a description of the characteristic home of the
jack pine (Pinus divaricata (Ait.) Du Mont. de Cours.) is essentially
that of the sandy plains in the region of the Great Lakes, where it
attains its greatest size. Here the sand deposits are usually of great
thickness and heavily mixed with glacial drift. The soil is composed
chiefly of the same materials. With the exception cf some of the
lower plains and old lake levels the humus soil is very thin. In most
regions within the range of the jack pine there is practically no humus.
Where humus does exist in any appreciable thickness it is so much a
part of the underlying sand and gravel that it dries out very rapidly,
affording no opportunity for a luxuriant and uniform forest cover.
Exceptions to this occur in parts of Minnesota and Canada. The
improvement in the quality of the soil is at once reflected by the larger
size of the jack pine and incidentally in the nature and virulence of
the diseases attacking it. Observations show that a continuous and
sustained growth in the case of the jack pine is not conducive to much
injury from wood-destroying fungi.

Owing to the rapidity with which the soil of the jack-pine ‘‘plains”’
dries out and to the inflammable nature of the slight ground cover,
favorable conditions are furnished for forest fires. This, in turn,
likewise greatly influences the presence of fungous diseases as a result
of injuries caused by the fires. Severe and rapid changes in temper-
ature and a fluctuation of the mean annual precipitation are other
factors characteristic of the jack-pine habitat. The susceptibility of
forest trees, and likewise of the fungi attacking them, to the influence
of soil and climate directly or indirectly produces conditions favor-

25752°—Bull. 212—15

2 BULLETIN 212, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

able or unfavorable to the best. development and spread of disease.
The fungi inhabiting the bark and leaves are probably influenced by
these factors in a far greater degree than are those attacking the
heartwood.

Pathologically, the jack pine may be divided, in most regions of its
range, into two forest types, which are determined largely by the
- amount of moisture in the soil.

The fungi at work in the moist or
swamp type may occur in the drier
and more arid type, but may show
considerable variation in the abun-
dance of anyonespecies. Another
factor of considerable importance
is the absence or presence of any
associate tree of the type which
may prove equally or even more
susceptible to cosmopolitan fungi
and thus increase the chances of
infection for all members of the
stand. In many parts of its range
the jack pine occurs in purestands.
In mixture with other species it is
usually attacked by a greater num-
ber of diseases than in pure stands.

DISEASES.

The fungus causing the greatest
immediate injury to the jack pine
of all age classes, as determined by
pathological surveys in Michigan
and Minnesota, is Peridermium
cerebrum Peck (Cronartium quercus
(Brondeau) Schrot.).1. The galls
(fig. 1) produced through the stimu-
lative effect of the fungus are in
May and June covered with glob-

Fig. 1.—An 18-year-old jack pine infected with
Peridermium cerebrum, showing the character- < /
istic swellings which extend around themain oid swellings somewhat after the

sre manner of the convolutions of the

1 Peridermium cerebrum is quite similar to P. harknessii Moore, which causes much damage to Pinus
contorta (lodgepole pine) in the West. Some recent observations by Hedgcock and Meinecke indicate the
possible identity of Peridermium cerebrum with P. harknessii on Pinus radiata (Phytopathology, vol. 3,
p. 16,1913). These two Peridermiums are held by Arthur and Kern to be identical (Mycologia, vol. 6,
no. 3, pp. 1383-137, 1914). Cultural experiments by Arthur and Kern (Mycologia, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 133-137,
1914) and also by Hedgecock and Long (Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 2, pp. 247-249, 1914) demon-
strate the identity of Peridermium fusiforme with P. cerebrum. Peridermium globosum Arthur and Kern
founded on a single specimen and supposed to occur on Pinus strobus has been acknowledged by the authors
to be P. cerebrum on Pinus divaricata. The error arose from a misidentification of the host (Mycologia,
vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 133-137, 1914).

PATHOLOGY OF THE JACK PINE. 3
Poop pest

brain—cerebroid. These blisterlike ‘swellings are orange-yellow at
first; after the rupture of the peridium and the dispersal of the
golden yellow xciospores they become whitish. ‘The gall formation
causes great injury to the trunk and branches (fig. 1). The infection
usually begins by means of some injury to the bark or cambial layer.’
The gall swellings gradually increase from year to year from the
growth of a perennial mycelium, so that they finally encompass the
entire branch, resulting eventually, if the galls are near the trunk, in
its death below and
above the hypertro-
phy. Whether or
not the entire branch
dies depends upon
the presence of lat-
eral, leafed branches
below the gall.

In dry sandy areas
Peridermmum cere-
brum confines itself
more generally to the
branches, occurring
rarely on the trunk
but frequently in the
axils of the branches.
This latter condition
usually results in a
combination trunk
and branch gall,
which in numerous
instances produces
greater damage than
either of the other
two types of galls.
The branch and

i Fig. 2.—Cross sections of the main trunk of a jack pine heavily in-
trunk are oirdled by fected with Peridermium cerebrum. Note the progressive girdling

by the resinous burl tissues in the upper figure and its effects on
abnorma woo d the increment of the trunk below, as shown in the lower figure.

tissue and are thus '
weakened (fig. 2). This results usually in either the branch or the
tree bemg blown down by the wind. Personal observations show
that borers and wood-rotting fungi entering at the burl often hasten
the decline of the tree.

From a careful examination of young twigs showing very recent
infections at leaf scales, leaf traces, and at the bases of young pistillate

1} Wounds made by sapsuckers, ovipositors of bark-stinging insects, rodents, and ice and snow breaks
are common means of entrance for Peridermiwm cerebrum.

4 BULLETIN 212, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

flowers, it is believed that Peridermium cerebrum can enter young
seedlings or the tender portions of more mature growth without first
having the bark broken. Entrance in this manner must, out of
necessity, be aided by sufficient moisture for germination and to per-
mit a rapid penetration by the young mycelium. On the sandy
plains of the Great Lakes region rain water disappears almost immedi-
ately and the sand becomes heated about the isolated tree groups,
causing a rapid evaporation from the surface of the trunk and
branches and leaving the moisture content of the outer bark at a
minimum. In whatever manner the fungus may enter its host,
directly or through wounds, the number of galls and imperfect
branches is usually much less on trees of the sandy barrens than in
more moist regions.

In swampy areas the jack pine grows in close stands. Here the
percentage of infected trees is much greater. The trunks of the 6 to
12 year old jack pines are often covered with swellings stunting the
growth of the trees very rapidly (Pl. I, fig. 1). Trees so infected
never reach maturity and may continue living for an indefinite
period in a stunted condition, to be finally blown over by the wind
or broken down by the snow. The 1 to 4 year old seedlings are quite
often attacked. With these, as is often the case with larger trees
which through mechanical injury may become infected at the ground,
the gall is formed directly at the base of the main stem. When a
seedling is infected there or higher up on the stem, it develops into a
deformed growth after the manner of a witches’-broom (PI. I, fig. 2)
and never attains a height of more than 2 or 3 feet. The perennial
mycelium of the fungus thrives in the cambial layer and in the living
parts of the sapwood. ‘Trees with a single infection on the trunk
occurring at the age of 4 to 6 years are known to support the living
mycelium of the fungus to the advanced age of 70 to 80 years. Usu-
ally, however, the excessive production of resin in the infected
tissues infiltrates the woody portion of the trunk, and the sap supply
is cut off so that death results in a comparatively short time (fig. 2).
This is especially true in young seedlings. Peridermium galls are
frequently observed a foot or more in diameter. Trees supporting
galls of this size had succumbed in every instance to the disease.

Some knowledge of the damage done by Peridermium cerebrum to
the jack pine may be obtained from notes of a pathological survey
by the writer in the national forests of Michigan. Out of 100 trees
of an average plat on dry sandy soil, not selected because of any
pronounced diseased condition, 50 per cent were heavily infected,
while only an occasional tree out of a second hundred on similar but
moister soil was absolutely free from the disease. Out of 100 trees
taken from the swamp type, practically all were infected. Not all
the trees were infected seriously. A tree bearing a single branch gall

Bul. 212, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Fig. 1.—A 6-YEAR-OLD JACK PINE IN-
FECTED WITH PERIDERMIUM CEREBRUM.
The complete girdling of the main stem by

two oppositely arranged galls is shown.
Note the wedge-shaped gall tissues.

PLATE I.

Fila. 2.—FOUR-YEAR-OLD SEEDLINGS
OF JACK PINE, SHOWING THE CHAR-
ACTERISTIC SWELLINGS OF PERIDER-
MIUM CEREBRUM.

The entire crown of the seedlings develops
into spherical brooms.

Fig. 3.—VARIOUS TYPES OF INFECTION OF YOUNG JACK PINE BY PERI-
DERMIUM COMPTONIAE.

Note that in the central figure the fungus has invaded the underground tissues
of the stem,

f

Pre
ee tLe

PATHOLOGY OF THE JACK PINE. 5

was marked ‘‘infected.’’ Four trees specifically studied yielded by
actual count an average of 220 burls on the branches and 13 on the
trunks. The cones produced by these trees, although of average
number, were small, with a higher percentage of abortive sporophylls
than is commonly the case with this species (fig. 3). Comparative
germination tests of seeds from heavily infected and vigorous non-
infected jack pine of the same age and type conditions showed for
the former a germination of 19 per cent below that of the latter. For
this experiment 10
samples, consisting
of a dozen or more
cones, were taken
from each of five
heavily infected and
five uninfected
pines. Fifty seeds
from each of these
samples were plant-
ed in sand, kept
moist with distilled
water, and allowed
to stand at labora-
tory temperature
(about 70° F.) for
90 days.

The prolific devel-
opment of Periderm-
dum cerebrum in
many parts of the
jack-pine forests of
the Great Lakes
region is a factor in
reforestation which

should be carefully

: Fic. 3.—Branch of jack pine with aborted cones, the result of a severe

considered. The attack of Peridermium cerebrum. Note that some of the cones did

fact that the funeus not open and that most of them are less than an inch in length.
2) Average normal cones measure from 14 to 2 inches.

occurs so commonly
on young seedlings in the natural forest and occasionally in the
nursery shows that it is a menace to the best development of the
species. The largest and best formed jack pine in all the regions
studied where the Peridermium was abundant was almost entirely
devoid of this injurious disease. However this may be interpreted
as to the original differences in vigor, the fact that heavily infected
trees were invariably scrubby and ill formed is, in the mind of
the writer, directly referable to the effects of the parasite. The
fact that P. cerebrum has its telial stage on the leaves of several

6 BULLETIN 212, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

species of Quercus ! should be of much significence in control work.
Quercus velutina and Q. coccinea are two scrub oaks frequently form-
ing a conspicuous part of the jack-pime type, particularly in Michigan.
Methods could be devised for the eradication of these worthless
species, thus removing the alternate host of the fungus. However
impracticable this may be on a large scale, in wood lots and small
holdings this would not be a very difficult
matter. The removal of nfected branches of
young growth could be done in the orchard-
like stands of jack pine on the more sandy
sous, thus saving many young trees from early
suppression.

In a few instances, in the region studied,
young jack pine was found to be diseased by
Peridermium comptoniae (Arthur) Orton and
Adams (Cronartwwm comptoniae Arthur).
(Fig. 4.) In the experience of the writer this
fungus was not common. The excial stage of
the fungus is chiefly characterized by a slight
fusiform swelling, seldom forming the spheri-
cal gallsso characteristic for P. cerebrum. The
peridia rupture with a sharply serrate or
spiny margin. The fungus is further dis-
tinguished from P. cerebrum by attacking
principally young seedlings (PI. I, fig. 3) and
causing excessive brooming of the branches.
It was not found on more mature growth.
P. cerebrum attacks both young and old trees.
P. comptoniae has its alternate stage on sweet
fern ? (Comptonia peregrina and Myrica gale).
Without the production of the teliospores on
these plants the fungus can not reproduce
itself on the jack pine.

As a precaution agains tthese Peridermiums
entering the forest nursery and the possibility
of their transportation to other regions, all

Fic. 4.—Young jack pine infected :
with Peridermium comptoniac. 2ternate hosts, such as species of oaks and

Note theruptured peridia with sweet ferns, should be removed from the

their serrate margins. oS io 09 .
vicinity of the nursery. This immunity zone

should be extended as far back from the nursery as time and means
will allow. Before new nurseries are established a pathological sur-
vey of the immediate region should be made as to the presence of
these hetercecious pine rusts. Much attention should also be given

1 Demonstrated by Dr. C. L. Shear, Jour. Myc., vol. 12, p. 89, 1906.
? Demonstrated by G. P. Clinton, Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept., 1907, pp. 380-383, 1908.

PATHOLOGY OF THE JACK PINE. a

the selection of nursery sites, with regard to the topography and
prevailing winds of the region.

With the exception of Peridermium cerebrum and P. comptoniae,
few fungi of economic importance attack the living jack pine in
the drier parts of its range. On the dry pine barrens of the Lake
States the jack pine reaches its normal age without much defect
in the wood arising from fungous diseases, although exceptionally
old trees of 90 years and more frequently show considerable decay.
In mixture with other species in the more moist regions of its range,
particularly in parts of northern Minnesota and of Canada, Trametes
pint (Brot.) Fr. causes considerable heart-rot in trees of 60 years and
older. In general, however, this fungus is in negligible quantities.
In close stands jack pine prunes readily during its most rapid growing
period, forming straight clear stems. The rapid occlusion of the
branch knots shortens the danger period for infection by wound
fungi. Itis principally due to this fact that some of the most serious
wood-destroying fungi do not effect an entrance until the tree has
reached its period of decline.

Polyporus schwewmtzw Fr., causing a butt rot, is usually in greater
abundance than Trametes pini, but the percentage of infected trees,
even on the more protected soils, is seldom more than 2 to 4 per cent
of the stand. The jack pine is a deep-rooted species and unless the
root system comes in contact with a hard stratum of clay and gravel,
root-destroying fungi are largely a negligible quantity. In this class
are Fomes annosus Fr. and Armillaria mellea (Vahl.) Quél., which
very rarely occur on the jack pine. Only a few isolated and unim-
portant infections have ever been recorded by the writer.

The jack pine does not suffer any material injury from needle
fungi. Those that do occur are mostly of a saprophytic nature.
Lophodermium pinastri Schrad. is found only occasionally.

On dry soils in open stands the jack pine frequently shows a
tendency to form witches’-brooms. The terminal shoot, which is
the part usually affected, develops into a thick-matted broom, pre-
cluding any further growth in that direction. Trees thus infected
usually show a rapid falling off in increment, probably dating from
the time when the influence of the parasite was first felt. Another
type of broom formation is confined to the lower and older branches
and has a similar effect on the growth of the host. These brooms are
probably caused by some perennial fungus. In the absence of any
fruiting structures the causal organism can not be determined.

The jack pine in its eastern range is not subject to mistletoe injury.
Macoun ' reports the occurrence of Razoumofskya americana (Nutt.)
Kuntze, the lodgepole-pine mistletoe, on the jack pine in Canada.

1Macoun, John. Catalogue of Canadian Plants, pt. 3, p. 422. Montreal, 1886.

8 BULLETIN 212, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The writer finds this mistletoe to be the cause of serious damage to
the jack pine at its most western extension or where it approaches the
zone of the lodgepole pine in the north.

SAPROPHYTIC FUNGI.

Aside from the previously mentioned wood-destroying species,
which in many cases continue alive after the death of the host,! the
usual strictly saprophytic fungi of coniferous woods are found on cut
or fire-killed jack pine. Ceratostomella pilifera Fr., the blue-stain
fungus, appears very rapidly after the death of the tree. In moist
situations, species of Auricularia and Dacryomyces are surprisingly
abundant, but can be of little importance, as the mycelium does not
penetrate the wood to any appreciable distance. The first fungus
of importance is Polystictus abietinus Dicks. This is a sap-rotting
species and is seldom absent from fire-killed trees after the second or
third year. Second in importance is Lenzites sepraria Fr., which
works both in the sap and in the heartwood and usuaily appears on
the fallen trunks after they have lain for three or four years, following
ap the first-mentioned fungus. The Lenzites appearing on jack pine
is invariably the true, small, thin-fruited form, with radiating gills.
Lenzites sepraria is as easily recognized by the orange-yellow color
of its growing margin as the young, growing Polystictus abietinus is
by its beautiful purple tinge. Homes -pinicola Fr. has very little to
do with the decay of fallen jack pme. This fungus has not been
found to be very common. Polyporus palustris Berk. and Curt.
occasionally appears, but is more common on dead Norway pine.
Fomes carneus ‘‘Nees”’ very rarely occurs on jack pine. Lentinus
lepideus Fr., Polyporus sulphureus Fr., and Trametes sepvum have
been collected by the writer on dead jack pine, but they are very
rare. Resupinate Thelephoracez occur only in the moist stands of
mixed species. Those which may be considered of importance in
the decay of fire-killed timber in the forest are Corticuwm byssinum
(Karst.) Burt., C. sulphureum Pers., C. galactinum (Fr.) Burt.,
Coniophora olivaceae (Fr.) Bres., and Peniophora globifera KE. and E.
A yellowish white Poria which goes under the name of P. subacida
Peck is occasionally found on fallen jack pine in Minnesota. This
fungus has been observed by the writer in a fruiting condition on old
boxes and barrel staves made from newly felled living trees. This
indicates its probable parasitism on jack pine in the living forest.

1 This is a fact that is not generally appreciated, and on it depends the solution of some very important
pathological problems in the forest. Vigorously growing sporophores of Trametes pini springing from
original infections in the living tree have been collected from a fallen western larch which had lain on the
ground for more than 100 years. This was determined by the age ofa western red cedar growing astride the
fallen trunk. Practically all the more serious wound and root fungi of the genera Trametes, Fomes, Poly-
porus, and Agaricus in moist situations continue alive indefinitely after the death of their hosts.

se ee a een

PATHOLOGY OF THE JACK PINE. 9

INJURIES DUE TO OTHER CAUSES.

In the absence of an adequate snow protection on the flat wind-
swept pine barrens of the Lake States, winter injury sometimes
results to young growth from long exposure to freezing temperatures.
Winter-injured seedlings of jack pine, however, recover more rapidly
than those of the more sensitive associate species and when in this
condition are not so apt to be attacked by secondary deteriorating
agents. It has already been stated that the deep root system of the
jack pine is unfavorable to some root-destroying fungi. In like
measure this is a safeguard against injury by wind. It is very
unusual to find jack pie blown down by the wind when the trees
are in a healthy condition. Very old trees sometimes succumb to
strong winds, but it is found that such trees are usually mechanically
weakened by wood-destroying fungi. The jack pime may be con-
sidered very windfirm. Porcupines and squirrels are known to do
considerable injury to jack pine during the winter months when food
is scarce. The latter animal is much addicted to gnawing the galls of
Peridermium cerebrum in the spring during the period of the exudation
from the diseased bark of a sweet yellow liquid which bears the conidi-
ospores of the fungus. Since squirrels also gnaw the galls when the
zeciospores are mature, they may be considered a factor in the dis-
tribution of this fungus. The bark of the galls is frequently com-
pletely gnawed away, killing the infection.

In general, the jack pine is very sensitive to fire, which usually
causes the greatest injury in the typical dry sandy jack-pine plains.
In many cases fire injury in jack pine results from repeated burn-
ings, the tree haying successfully withstood the first shght ground
fires. Fires in the more typical jack-pine forests pass through very
quickly, so that the thickened bark immediately at the base of the
tree affords sufficient protection until it is burned off by succeeding
fires, which frequently occur notwithstanding the meager ground
cover. The fact that the species frequently grows in orchardlike
stands or in isolated groups, more or less separated from one another
by free areas, greatly lessens the damage of the fire spreading from
one group to another. However, the low-spreading branches, which
often extend to the ground, increase the danger from crown fires.

CONCLUSIONS.

With reference to the prevalence and severity of its fungous ene-
mies, two distinct forest types for the jack pine may be recognized:
The pure dry sandy-plain type and the mixed type of moist protected
souls.

The most important fungous disease of the jack pine 1s Peridermium
cerebrum Peck, the control of which in many localities is quite a serious

10 BULLETIN 212, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

forest problem. The fungus attacks all age classes, causing the
death or early suppression of trees of tender years and seriously
interfering with the propagation and development of more mature
growth.

From the standpoint of merchantability, wood-destroying fungi in
the living tree are in almost ail regions a negligible quantity. The
two most important are Trametes pum (Brot.) Fr. and Polyporus
schwevmtzui Fr. These, however, do not produce any appreciable
decay till after the tree reaches its period of decline, which is attained
after a comparatively rapid early growth. This period may be
placed approximately at from 60 to 80 years.

The wood of dead jack pine rapidly deteriorates under the influence
of a number of saprophytic fungi and may not be expected to remain
sound in the forest for more than two or three years.

Jack pine is sensitive to heat, but suffers only occasionally from
winter injury.

Because jack pine in general is comparatively free from a number
of the diseases which are common on other conifers and‘is resistant
to drought, winter injury, and frost, it is admirably suited for refor-
esting many of the dry sandy regions of the North-Central States.

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OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
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WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1915

BULLETIN OF THE

USDEPARTNENT OFAGRICULTURE *

e (|
eg
GVA No. 213

Contribution from the Office of Experiment Stations, A. C. True, Director.
April 15, 1915.

THE USE OF LAND IN TEACHING AGRICULTURE
IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

By EvuGene Mernirt, Assistant in Agricultural Education, Office of Experiment

Stations.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
MTUTROCUGINOM Seles oops knee ee eases sen tees 1 | Source and distance from school of pupils
Schools reporting school farms and farm ani- studying agriculture...........-..-.-.----- 8
mals...... ian BARE ote SOURED EH ee aS a enE 2 | Relative proportion of boys and girls study-
Size and tenure of the farms ..-...........-. 2 ing agriculture in high schools..-.....--.--- 9
Wisemadeiofithefanms (2205522955202 cee 2.| The period between graduation and starting
Is a school farm necessary?.-...---.--------- 2 farming on own account......-.-..---.---.- i)
Advantages and disadvantages............-- 3 | Agricultural* schoo! and the shifting-tenant
Management of the school farm ............-- 4 problemi = cues. Meters ae Ae ee eee 10
Kinds of work pupils engage in...-.......... 4 | Efficiency in agricultural production.....-... 10
Use of land to teach general principles....... 5 | Theplace of personal efficiency in agricultural
ETOMIOIPEOIECLSE sec. sae e s/o 2d she soete meee 3 5 HITS GLA CEAOTA 4a yeh opt po) Se Cae ee il
Extension work of agricultural instructor. -- - (ae)| Situei inverse ReeeabarS Sane seen anemapapodesas 11
INTRODUCTION.

This bulletin is the result of an attempt to determine how land
is being used in the teaching of agriculture in secondary schools in
the United States. In gathering the material upon which the bulletin
is based two questionnaires were sent out, one in April, 1914, to all
high schools receiving State aid for agriculture, to special agricultural
schools, and to normal schools known to have courses in agriculture.
To this 400 replies were received. In September another ques-
tionnaire was sent to the same high schools and special agricultural
schools, but not to the normal schools, which were omitted because
a great part of their instruction relates to school gardens and not to
work tending toward farm practice. Out of the 385 schools replying
to the first questionnaire, 257 reported that some land was used in
connection with their agricultural instruction. The schools so
reporting were distributed as follows: Ten in the New England States,

Notre.—This bulletin describes how land is being used in the teaching of agriculture in secondary schools
and discusses some of the problems involved. It is written to aid all persons who are engaged or interested
in the teaching of agriculture.

85753°—Bull. 213—15

2 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

16 in the Middle Atlantic, 31 in the East North Central, 86 in the West
North Central, 15 in the South Atlantic, 36 in the East South Central,
50 in the West South Central, 6 in the Mountain, and 7 in the Pacific.

SCHOOLS REPORTING SCHOOL FARMS AND FARM ANIMALS.

Of the 27 special agricultural schools, 25 reported that they had
land and 2 that they had none. Of the 259 high schools, 166 reported
land, and of the 101 normal schools, 66. Of schools with land,
20 of the 25 special schools, 43 of the 166 high schools, and 19 of the
66 normal schools reported that they had farm animals. In other
words, of the 257 schools with land only 82 reported farm animals.
In many instances the farm animals consisted of a horse or team
which was used on the farm and for driving by the instructor in agri-
culture.

SIZE AND TENURE OF THE FARMS.

The reports indicated that 40 of the 257 school farms had 1 acre or
less; 23, 2 avres; 23, 3 acres; 10, 4 acres; 21, 5 acres; 16, 6 acres, and
the remainder had 6 acres or more. In other words, over one-half of
the 257 school farms had 6 acres or less. There were 58 farms with
over 20 acres. The records of the College of Agriculture of the Uni-
versity of Minnesota showed that one-half of the school farms in that
State were rented. There is no information to indicate whether this
is true in other States or not, but in several States the law requires
that the farms shall not be leased for less than five years, which would
indicate that the schools could use rented land.

USE MADE OF THE FARMS.

The reports show that of the 257 school farms, 150 were growing
corn; 129, garden crops; 84, potatoes; 75, oats; 61, alfalfa; 42, cotton;
3D, shen: 29, clover; and 20, sweet yOeree.

Out of the 3,900 acres roporicd by 84 schools, only 12 acres belong-
ing to 22 =e hovs were reported as being used for the raising of labora-
tory material. Twelve of the 84 schools reported a total of 10 acres
used for projects for individual pupils Fifty-two acres were reported
as used for school gardens. Some of the larger uses to which the
land was put were 827 acres for crop rotation, 593 acres for general
demonstrations, 382 acres for raising pure-bred seed for distribution
among the farmers and the pupils, 206 for dormitory supplies, 166
for fertilizer demonstration, and 166 for general experiments.

IS A SCHOOL FARM NECESSARY?

A question was asked as to whether the school could conduct its
agricultural instruction without a school farm. Of the 104 schools
which reported having land 39 replied ‘“‘yes” and 65 ‘‘no.” If the

THE USE OF LAND IN THACHING AGRICULTURE. 3

replies were used as they stand they would indicate a majority
opposed to the school farm. However, of the 29 having no land,
26 reported that they could get along without the school farm and 3
considered it essential. By taking both those with land and those
without land, 65 replied that they could get along without land, and
68 that they could not get along without it. In other words, there
is a majority of 3 in favor of school farms. But an analysis of these
replies indicated that the schools with the small farm seem to feel
that they could get along without the farm in their agricultural
instruction, and the schools with the large farms seemed to feel that
it was an advantage and that they could not carry on their work
without it. The small farms are mostly in the Northern and Eastern
States, and the large farms in the Southern States. Most of the
schools in the South are more or less of a boarding type, whereas
those in the North and East have a large proportion of the pupils
who are at home morning and night. Detailed data as to the replies
are given in the table below:

Analysis of replies to question ‘‘Could you conduct your agricultural instruction suc-
cessfully without school farm or plat?”

Having | Havin;

Having | Having no land | nolan

land and | land and
answer- | answer-
ing yes. | ing no.

Geographic divisions.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES.

In the first questionnaire the agricultural instructor was asked to
state the advantages and disadvantages of the school farm in his
work. All the advantages seemed to be educational, and all the dis-
advantages seemed to be in connection with the management of the
school farm. The principal advantages were that the school farm
made the instruction real, it gave the student some practical agricul-
tural work, it supplied laboratory material, and it gave the agricul-
tural instructor an opportunity to carry on demonstrations for the
benefit of the farmer and his pupils. The principal disadvantages
were that help was hard to get, the land poor, and the instructor’s
time was poorly spent.

From a farm-management point of view a more difficult problem
could not be presented to an agricultural instructor than is found in

4 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the school farm as it exists in the Northern and Eastern States. Most
of the farms have a small acreage. Sixty-one of the 84 schools in
Minnesota depend entirely upon day help, all the team work is hired,
and the land is expensive. In Minnesota the average value per acre
is $150. It generally takes two or three years to put this land in
shape to be used for agricultural purposes. Many farms are without
farm buildings. If they have buildings, the investment is high in
proportion to the acreage cultivated and to the crops obtained. The
majority of them have little or no machinery, so when they want to
cultivate or gather their crops they must borrow. The majority have
no live stock, so that they have to purchase their manure. It is only
in exceptional instances that the agricultural instructor lives on or
near the school farm.

MANAGEMENT OF THE SCHOOL FARM.

Considering these factors from a farm-management point of view,
it can be readily seen that the agricultural instructor has.a peculiar
problem on his hands. The majority of them have not been able to
solve it satisfactorily. The agricultural instructor who can not make
his farm pay has very little standing among the farmers, since as
long as the farm does not pay he has to admit that he can not pro-
duce crops with a profit. What farmer would have any confidence in
suchaman? ‘Those schools which succeed must practice an intensive
system of agriculture. The school farms which seem to have met
with the best success are those which are growing pure-bred corn,
pure-bred small grains, potatoes, alfalfa, cabbage, and the like.
This gives them a high-priced crop and enables the school to get good
seed to be distributed in the neighborhood. Thirty-three of the
eighty-four schools reporting on this point were using a part of their
land for raising pure-bred seed for distribution. Some had extended
this idea to the growing of fruit trees and berry vines to be dis-
tributed in a similar manner.

The school adds to its effectiveness if it becomes the distributing
center of high-class seed and trees. Indeed, where they have live
stock they should develop the same idea by extending the service of
the sires in the neighborhood and distributing their young among
the farmers. Several instances were found in the South where the
boys in the pig-club work were being furnished with pigs from the
school farm in the same way that boys in the corn clubs in the North
were being furnished with corn from school farms.

KINDS OF WORK PUPILS ENGAGE IN.

The kinds of crops grown and the types of farming carried on have
already been ascertained. The next point of interest is the kinds of
work that the student is engaged in on the school farm. The three

THE USE OF LAND IN TEACHING AGRICULTURE. 5

types that stand out most prominently are the preparation of the land,
the planting of the crops, and the harvesting of the same. In most
of the agricultural schools the pupil has little or no part in the culti-
vating of the crops. The different kinds of labor in which the pupils
engage are shown in the following table:

Kinds of labor in which students are engaged on the school farm or plat.

Improvement of school ground. ....- 2 WeMiulchime trees. aii.s secu sey. 2
SSAA STD eA tere la Oca 12 Wespraydne trees: 25 Wy Ge saaaoe eae 6
SMe OO he oo ols oe Boe!) 5 trent a¥ec Ae eee era steel ee ia 3
Dieommenpotatoes. 0. 6.535. 2ee2 288 3 We@arimne, tor stocks= sus. .5 esos einai 2
@omnpraistneen sss 2 a 4 Aietoulitiny. 43522) ee, ew er is yee 3
Selecting seed corn........-..-.- Seti SS AMID OR eis SoS a Leena ae alas Ht
loaner OTAIMAG Seo oe Sawin pe 2 Waereenhouses’. 2022 Soeur as 2
Plomanr potatoes... -.62...-- 2 ost AmGrading: land, S52 oe aati 1
iemaueniane alialtasssen 2.8. . fey Se VW rainage fo. 2 ce iat 2
anvesiiue, STains...-.-222.220- 2... 4 | Running survey lines-........---2-: 2
IEDR TTT os a eae en Ab, |) [DTS K C/o Wh aves atta rhe Mees Ue ol) 1
Pi@kaneeouton. 22. 022.425 Boe oe @erracing =. -. < . Su se genea Uap Siey 1
JETICISTD CS ctr a eee ee Tiispplyane fertilizers: 12). 054202 lle 2
Renovating orchards....--..------- 1 Weereparationvot land). 225.2225 244 10
COaREIG 5.2 Sa ee ey ste ees sft) > elviab clade eae eon yeas ie Gu, 2
enenenini pee ee ee) | 3 emyesting | 2. <2 2 ae ae 1
TE Gia (OETIC LT eee eee ee esi eee 2 HBR OMU CHINO a) SPE Fo SS cs tea ee Sou 4
Pebiamtimentreed’ 0. 22 Se ee Lk 2

USE OF LAND TO TEACH GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

A question was asked as to whether the agricultural instructor
used the land to teach technique or general principles. The invaria-
ble answer was general principles. When it is considered that most
schools have an average of 30 to 40 pupils to an agricultural instructor
and from 5 to 10 acres on which to give them instruction, it can be
realized that the student can get but little actual experience in the
ordinary farm operations and that the instructor can simply show
what has happened under certain conditions.

HOME PROJECTS.

In the second questionnaire several questions were asked in regard
to home projects. Seventy-four of the 156 schools reported that their
students were doing home-project work, 61 reporting corn, 37 garden,
26 poultry, 25 potatoes, 14 dairying, 12 orchards, 12 alfalfa, and 10
keeping herd records. There was but one report for cotton. That
there were few home projects in the South can be readily explained
when it is considered that the agricultural schools are of the boarding
type and that the districts served are generally congressional dis-
tricts or some larger area. ‘There seems to be but little supervision
by the agricultural instructor except in the New England and Middle

6 BULLETIN 218, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Atlantic States. Instructors in the West North Central States did
not visit their pupils on an average of more than three times during
the year. The replies indicate that a large number of the instructors
had more than 200 miles on their project circuit. Data for home
projects reported are given in the following table:

Home projects reported.

| OOS gas) Se A De Sc ERE Gi. (Berries sae Aaa se ey ees 3
SIMTLGICCH OTST pst 2 Bare te eae RE ty I Sip.) MOLODS.2 ti sei ae ee ane ee oe ae 3
PLO RDUU Hse es Ns a CE 5 26) |otation fo sere ee ee eee 3
PeROLALOCS rae e knee a ear See 2D Wats S Roe e.ce lec. nd eee eee 2
Dairying. .... 1150 A IRS apt a4 Mabbapeve ee sso 2,83 ee aae 2
One liana eee sate woken ee. ee 12) Barley eye sels fete Se eae,
MAN epi nee sonal 7s, nage te OSA 12 SP op corns sesso sa 4a et ees HEED
Plerd me cord yes cai cic eee Ele LO! PCOS EE Sarria) sk iy RO ER a 2
MET GUT eT eos aos ae cer EM LGN OOO Ott OTe = aere ese Snes a ee Seay ai 1
ENGEOIMEBG eis Melee. Bee eter Gj Sweet clovers..-----=- 255508: eee 1
ETNIES i 9 ea me aa gs Em Eee Meats yaa INV 0121 Cel 0 eect NAME OneCare ES 1
Elotbed sane eees egddaue ESN as Behn DD) MMe LOLES iin sees sews A oye ee 1
Beousieer Meth cn eeiee wk SU Al COVER CLOPS2. sees es Gee eae ee
Spor ayaMe ee Nie Se eee Se 4 | Cement SSIS ree PRE, dod Aare 1
Aomato CANN ee 2s ee eae vi Ae URVCVAT Oe acne ecr sae euice Sees il
PST UNMUIN OA separ Stet vtcesh cy pee 3: (RC OlC, PATS 22: ees cea ee eee 1

The returns of the agricultural instructor indicated that the number
of farms on the home-project list were higher in the West than in the
Hast, the average for the West North Central States being 33 per
agricultural instructor, 8 more than the maximum allowed under
the Massachusetts system. These returns indicated that not all of
the pupils in the agricultural instructor’s class in the North Central
States were on his home-project list. In some instances the agri-
cultural instructor had as many as 130 pupils in his classes. In the
following table are shown the number of schools reporting and not
reporting home projects and the average number of home projects
per school:

Number reporting home projects and average number of home-project pupils per school.

Average

Number Number number

Geographic divisions. 4 eporaine porting Sr

ome
projects. | projects. | PE)

ONG Wp nt 1 Ta ess eR le ie alate ea IC UAB A ia aS Se a 9 3 12
Middle Atlantic CO ANS HERS Ge ep a Se ated) SN GTS AU AN a Sd SSI ae nad a re 13 3 16
MLAS HN Ouse Cen eral skeet an ae arne epg mae pend cael am a Av tay Seay 5 3 2 15
RVV/EStENOnGHYCentralls ccc secon eee inte tyes, wt akpe nt canal iE Etat ey a 35 51 33
SOMATA TICE ae eR era Chor A EES NE | Bla lnars eag's ee arian 2 5 18
St South Cemtrale ee Gaetan yay aig ailelstg) Peale arrests WRN nin atest Hy | Nai le cee ibe Baeoeceane
Wiest SouthCentral. sou. yeh Poo yeh Upklas e aeeea e aae Rybey SOES e CBee ce 12 1 9

THE USE OF LAND IN TEACHING AGRICULTURE. ai

EXTENSION WORK OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTOR.

Over one-half of the agricultural instructors reported that they were
engaged in some kind of boys’ and girls’ club work, and in the majority
of instances they were acting as local leaders, although in some cases
they were merely cooperating. .Highty-one of the 157 agricultural
instructors indicated that they were doing other types of extension
work. The principal types were organizing farmers’ clubs, cow-
testing and live-stock work, seed selection, speaking at meetings—
generally in connection with their farmers’ clubs, and giving advice
to individual farmers. Details as to the kind of extension work
carried on by the agricultural instructor are shown in the following
table:

Principal kinds of extension work reported.

SHOE TCS ee el ie ee a eee Suipatlialia: plats: 2) viele ae ici 15
TP IRATE: NS UR Se ee eRe 2 Jenviced identifications :<26%.25 24.5502) fe?
PSA MetaONSs ncn. 2. Pek ONS GaRCOLN Clube 2s. |S sey ee ten inne 8
Grange worker foo es 22S e he. Sueseeds cones hs: Ue hae ee Mai ele 6
Organizing clubs..-...-.-. Th Gone 7 deWiheat-breeding..-22.5. 222. 2/852 23 8 5
Hamers ChUD == ..62a0s-2 ese eee: 16 WeDemonstration.20 5.82 oe ee 12
Speaking at meetings..............- 15 experiments: 2: iw. as eee ae 5
Womatestiiowe sce 222 ueee seee.. O MC onsultations: 6) VE oe ee aes 4
iMesinme minnesota Ae. 8 LO: barn WaAShtso.% 0 See cia yeek 9 Aes es aoe 3
Dairy improvement................ 4 bertelizine 26 ri eS Sees 3
Purchase of live stock.........-..-.-- 2 | Answering questions.........-.-..-- 4
Piligcweholera: 2425.5. SSS le ss Siimeolldraimage.. 30. e io eae ner 6
Assist in vaccinating hogs. ........- ZimSehool combests: 24-542 ose ae if
Steekommprovement-.-.-:...-.-...--. 2)\Advice.....-.... Ui) eee Sho anya 9
Maceraedbbles vo soos. Gos. 2 oe Zapluec ture: works: 2 eee snes Se OREO U 9
Introducing pure-bred seeds........- 3 imeowltry: club 272 sthy teen seeners 2
SEG! NSIS UST eR The ees ee Aq Blowing. 02 fk ae i at eee 3

Records of the College of Agriculture, University of Minnesota,
show that of the 117 agricultural mstructors in Minnesota reporting
in regard to extension work, 92 stated that they had organized 273
farmers’ clubs; 35, shipping associations; and 31, cow-testing associa-
tions, testing 42 herds containing 960 cows. In five instances the
boys in the agricultural classes were doing the testing. The instruc-
tors were also carrying on farm-demonstration work in corn, barley,
alfalfa, and small grains. Twenty-three of the schools had taken
part in the vaccination of hogs for cholera, 73 had helped in planning
and building silos, and 29 had helped to plan farmsteads.

A question was asked as to whether the agricultural instructors
were employed for nine months or for the entire year, to learn
whether they could carry on home-project work. Ninety-nine out of
the 157 were so employed. One hundred and thirty-one were gradu-
ates of agricultural colleges, and their average salaries were between

8 BULLETIN 213, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

$1,200 and $1,300. Thus far the land and the agricultural instructor
have been considered. The next and most important feature is the

pupil.

SOURCE AND DISTANCE FROM SCHOOL OF PUPILS STUDYING
AGRICULTURE.

The returns indicated that 40 per cent of the pupils studying agri-
culture were living at home on farms, 40 per cent were living at home
but not on farms, and 20 per cent were boarding during the school
year. In other words, 60 per cent of the pupils studying agriculture
were from farm homes, and one-third of them were not at home during
the school year. In the East North Central and West North Central
States 43 and 47 per cent, respectively, of the pupils were not from
farms. In the New England and Middle Atlantic States about 60 per
cent were living at home on farms. ‘The following table shows the
distribution by geographic divisions and by residence of the pupils
studying agriculture, as reported in the questionnaire:

Sources of pupils studying agriculture.

Average
Total | eumber | Numbor:|nve urine] mand
number | iiving at | living at | at home| tance
Geographic divisions. See home on |homenot| during from
ce farms. |onfarms.| school | which pu-
year pils are
drawn.
Miles
ING WEEN SlaANnd = ei cence aegs ates se oaascee ts seaseenaicls < 272 162 29 81 8. 41
Mid dlerAttiantice rea so-seeeceraeecererne ee eeerk = 391 224 132 35 7.36
HastyNontwiWentrale | sos: ee ace eerie ce ee oases 245 78 106 61 9. 40
Westie NontnkCenmtraley ete eins ence nectar eee 3, 233 1, 233 1,546 454 11.30
SoutheAtan tie yas o sce oS so wee eres oeeese cso 447 219 106 122 18.12
HashwoupniCentnalen ccs -see oo seseec ese eer emeris asic 801 259 187 355 21. 69
Wriestioouth Centrale sce e ene aoe ceeee seein: ae 481 181 266 34 8. 92

Since such a large percentage of the pupils are not living at home
the average area from which they are drawn was ascertained. The

returns, as the above table shows, indicated that in the New England _

and Middle Atlantic States the maximum distance is on the average
8 miles; in the Kast North Central and West North Central States
between 10 and 12 miles, and in the South, where the schools have a
boarding department, the areas are even larger. If the student lives
more than 4 miles from the school and goes and comes each day, it
would be practically impossible for him to take any part in the farm
operations unless he did it on Saturday.

—s

THE USE OF LAND IN TEACHING AGRICULTURE. 9

RELATIVE PROPORTION OF BOYS AND GIRLS STUDYING AGRICULTURE
IN HIGH SCHOOLS.

The returns to the Bureau of Education for 1913+ indicated that
one-third of the high-school students studying agriculture in the
United States were girls. In many of the agricultural classes visited
the number of girls exceeded the number of boys. When the instruc-
tor was asked why so many girls were in his classes, he replied that
if the girls were to teach in the rural districts they would be required
to pass an examination in agriculture, and so were attending his
classes for this purpose. It would seem that this fact would call for a
modification in the methods of teaching agriculture and in the use of
the school land and the home project. In the following table are
included all schools which have courses in agriculture, whether they
receive State aid or not. Of course, they comprise a much larger
pumber than were used in obtaining information in regard to the use
of land. This table shows the relative number of boys and girls
studying agriculture.

Number of public high schools reporting agricultural courses, and number of pupils in
attendance .*

Tn agricultural courses.

APS Bae h

Geographic divisions. Bae rahe eee

Boys. | Girls. | Total.

JESS SiS so se csakende nen sebedbsne set Ss osee SeeBBEDe -: CaSsBeCoSEnaSe 1,414 | 19,749 | 10,076 | 29,825
Rinneae Mul amepioMD) visions: 2. 9oe ences B23... c/s eee eer ewe ss 132 | 1,524 507 | _ 2,031
INR n Oni DINGO eso oe oo oo pee asec oo eee oe oe ee eee 742 | 8,730] 5,356] 14,086
SUH AMET DINAMO ING Se eee one oeeeorice Soseee ene 6 see pea es aqeeme 136 | 1,922 958 2,880
HOMEMC ca tralel) iviSION = es eee ics ces eee ae ales < -c dope matin else sie 267 | 5,024 | 2,729 1,108
WIS SECIATMUERASIOIE 5 o/s anon eens S eons el (oi ce Seas el 137 | 2,549 526 3,075

THE PERIOD BETWEEN GRADUATION AND STARTING FARMING ON
OWN ACCOUNT.

Tt can safely be assumed that the average boy leaves school at 18
years of age. From the best information available the average
farmer does not start farming on his own account until he is some-
where between 25 and 30 years of age. In other words, there is a
period of the farmer’s life, when he is between 18 and 30 years of
age, when he is not working on his own farm nor is he his own master.
It would seem that wherever the home-project method has been
introduced an effort should be made to follow up the boy and, if
possible, arrange in some way for him to continue his home-project
work and gradually becomes a partner with his father in the farm
business. This feature should be a part of the extension work of the
agricultural instructor.

1 Rpt. Comr. Education [U. S.], 1913, II, p. 489.

10 BULLETIN 213, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AND THE SHIFTING-TENANT PROBLEM.

Farmers are recruited from two sources, from the sons of farmers
and the sons of agricultural laborers. In going over the original
census schedules of 1910 for farmers of Iowa County, Wis., this
rather interesting fact developed, that where the tenant and land-
lord had the same name the tenant had been on the farm that he
was on the day the census was taken for a much longer period than
where their names were different. It was found that 31 per cent
of the cash tenants who were related to the owner had been tenants
on the farms which they were on, at the census date, for two years
or less, while the per cent for those where no relationship existed
was 65. For share tenants the figures were 50 and 80 per cent
respectively. In other words, where there is relationship there is
less of the shifting-tenant problem than where relationship does not
exist. From other records it was learned that of the total years
a man had been a tenant, he had been a tenant on the farm where
he was at the time the records were taken 76 per cent of the total time
when kinship existed and 50 per cent when there was no relationship.
The returns also indicated that where relationship existed 33 per
cent had attended high school, but where there was no relationship
only 18 per cent had attended high school. In other words, if
through the school the farmer could be made to take an interest in
the agricultural traming of the boy and they could be established in a
partnership relation, the shifting-tenant problem would be partially

solved.
EFFICIENCY IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION.

It should be remembered in all vocational training that the boy or
girl is always of greater importance than the subject taught. Much
is said in these days in regard to the superiority of European agricul-
ture compared with that of the United States. If Germany is
taken as an example and the yields per acre compared with those of
the United States, it would appear that Germany is 50 per cent more
efficient than the United States. But the average German agri-
cultural laborer cultivates but 775 acres, whereas the average agri-
cultural laborer in the United States cultivates over 27 acres and
produces two and one-half times as much as the German laborer,
measured by the crops obtained.

According to G. F. Warren the four principal factors in efficient
farming are the size of the business, diversity of crops, crop yields,
and production per animal. A large production per acre may not
indicate that the farm is being used to the greatest advantage. It
was important to determine whether the agricultural instructors were
considering this in marking their pupils. Consequently they were
asked what standard they had adopted in giving the boy a passing

THE USE OF LAND IN TEACHING AGRICULTURE. 11

mark in his farm work. The replies indicated that if the boy passed
his examination on work im the classroom and laboratory his effi-
ciency in performing the farm operations was of little importance.

THE PLACE OF PERSONAL EFFICIENCY IN AGRICULTURAL
INSTRUCTION.

Two other questions were asked to determine whether the agri-
cultural instructor had anything definite in mind in the practical
work that he gave the boy. Either the questions were not under-
stood, or the instructor had not considered this phase of the work.
The two questions were whether he had standardized any of the
principal farm operations in the community, and also to give stand-
ard movements or processes in the principal farm operations of his
community. None of the answers seemed to indicate that the agri-
cultural instructor had analyzed the farm operations in which the
pupils were engaged. Apparently most of the agricultural instructors
are requiring of the boy that he get a certain piece of farm work
done, and no effort is made to show the boy the most efficient method
of performing that operation. It would seem that in this respect
the agricultural instructor laid more emphasis on growing a crop than
on developing the boy. It would seem especially important that the
agricultural instructor should increase the efficiency of his pupils in
those phases of farm operations which limit the area cultivated or
the number of animals kept.

SUMMARY.

The principal facts developed by this investigation were that in
the New England States the majority of the pupils are living at home
and have easy access to the school, that the school farms are small,
and that the home project is more or less closely supervised, also
that the majority of the agricultural instructors are of the opinion
that they could easily get along without the school farm.

In the North Central States the school farms are small, the pupils
are drawn from greater distances than those in the New England
States, and they have not as good means of transportation. It is
also evident that there are a large number of boys from towns and
cities, and of girls desiring to become teachers, in the classes study-
ing agriculture.

In Minnesota the agricultural instructor has not only to teach but
to.do extension work, with the result that he has more than he can
properly care for. The part that he would like most to neglect is
the school farm. Wherever the home project has become a part of
his method of teaching agriculture he has not had the time properly
to supervise or to work out the details. For these two parts of the
country the reasons given for the desire to do away with the school

12 BULLETIN 213, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

farm are not educational but pertain to the management of a farm
of uneconomical size. Since the primary purpose of the school farm
is educational, this should not count in making a ‘decision. The
considerations that should decide are whether the school farm could
be used to make the agricultural workers of that community more
efficient, or whether some other method could be devised to take the
place of the school farm, as, for example, the home project.

In the South, the majority of the agricultural schools have a board-
ing department and a large farm, so that the agricultural pupils have
a better opportunity to participate in the farm operations, and home
projects have not been developed; but even in these schools, where the
pupils carry on the farm operations under the direct supervision of the
agricultural instructor, it would seem that not enough attention has
been paid to making the pupils efficient in the ordinary farm opera-
tions and too much attention has been given to getting the farm
work done. Thus, the use of land in agricultural teaching presents
three different and distinct problems which have no common ground
for working’ out their solution.

The returns indicated that some of the things that could be done
most extensively by all the schools having farms are the distribution
of pure-bred seed, the introduction of new varieties of plants, fruits,
and shrubs, and the extending of the services of pure-bred animals
in the community.

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT

5 CENTS PER COPY
V

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1915

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 214

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. Vv May 1, 1915

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT —
PLAINS AREA

RELATION OF CULTURAL METHODS
TO PRODUCTION

By

E. G. CHILCOTT, Agriculturist in Charge, and J. S. COLE
and W. W. BURR, Assistants, Office of
Dry-Land Agriculture

CONTENTS
; Page Page
PNET OCUCHONL). ‘oiis'0)) ois s Aater aliceu lenrek ne 1 | Results at the Several Stations . . .. ii
Climatic Conditions ..... D ahhenis 4 | General Discussion of Results .... 37
General Plan of the Investigations. . . 5) Conclusions!) < ') <<, «fe (a!) «2. 0 © 42
Comparison of Cultural Methods on the a
Basis Of COs... oe. eh ie sa wie Le 8

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915

eavedd) he ‘Austad y rr Wiis a
Cre, einglaiew A RUG ONO VE beth
i pasaehici aed be: Ags

< ‘ alle
tent ab vit! OST te ee lehetrhipeh teed aah

Fad tig atleast | ; LAIN ES RE pT OR Ue! CE
otha iy ava it (asian ts BO ec a Wa eo riss et
ei ae Hunviesstonnsg) ses , arablogiiea' rad dace Rs

sare ; 2 be Bish Hai shat un iW thi Rate nest

BULLETIN OF THE

2 USDEDARTNENT OF AGRICULTURE

No. 214

YC

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
May I, 1915.

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA:

RELATION OF CULTURAL METHODS TO PRODUCTION.

By E. C. Cumucort, Agriculturist in Charge, and J.8. Cote and W. W. Burr, Assist-
ants, Office of Dry-Land Agriculture.’

CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
prairodictigHeesnss..--s----. 1-2... 252525258 1 | Results at the several stations........--.-.-- li
Ghinatic COBMMIDDS:-- =. 5-2-.-.0.------)-228- 4 | General discussion of results......---.------- 37
General plan of the investigations.....-...-- Dip CONCIUSIONS oc erosictieee = see ere bees ose 42
Comparison of cultural methods on the basis
QHEDSL- - Se on a= 22 5 S22 eon ne somneietie 8
INTRODUCTION.

This bulletin contains a study of the yields of spring wheat
obtained under various methods of seed-bed preparation at 14 sta-
tions in the Great Plains region. The area considered in these

1 All of the members of the scientific staff of the Office of Dry-land Agriculture have contributed
more or less to this paper by having charge of field investigations and by assisting in the preparation of
data for records or for publication. The scientific staff as at present constituted consists of the following
members, named in the order of length of service: W. W. Burr, Denver, Colo.; E. F. Chilcott, Wood-
ward, Okla.; O. J. Grace, Akron, Colo.; J. S. Cole, Denver, Colo.; J. M. Stephens, Moccasin, Mont.;
A. L. Hallsted, Hays, Kans.; O. R. Mathews, Belle Fourche, S. Dak.; J. C. Thysell, Dickinson, N. Dak.;
M. Pfaender, Mandan, N. Dak.; H. C. McKinstry, Hettinger, N. Dak.; W.M. Osborn, North Platte, Nebr.;
W. D. Griggs, Dalhart, Tex.; C. A. Burmeister, Amarillo, Tex.; J. E. Mundell, Big Spring, Tex.; F. L.
Kelso, Ardmore, S. Dak.; W. A. Peterson, Mandan, N. Dak.; J. T. Sarvis, Ardmore, S. Dak.; G. W. Mor-
gan, Huntley, Mont.; J. H. Jacobson, Mitchell, Nebr.; H. G. Smith, Tucumcari, N. Mex.; L. N. Jensen,
Woodward, Okla.; J. G. Lill, Garden City, Kans.; R. S. Towle, Edgeley, N. Dak.; A. J. Ogaard, Willis-
ton, N. Dak.; C. B. Brown, Dalhart, Tex.; L. D. Willey, Archer, Wyo.; J. B. Kuska, Colby, Kans.; and
A. E. Seamans, Akron, Colo.

The following-named men have held positions on the scientific staff of the Office of Dry-land Agriculture
during the past nine years, but have resigned or have been transferred to other offices of the Department
of Agriculture: Sylvester Balz, F. L. Kennard, J. E. Payne, L. E. Hazen, C. A. Jensen, H. R. Reed, W.O.
Whitcomb, C. H. Plath, F. Knorr, and R. W. Edwards.

The data here reported from the stations in Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, and Montana have been
obtained in cooperation with the agricultural experiment stations of the respective States. In South
Dakota, Colorado, Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico the stations are operated by the United States
Department of Agriculture.

Field, office, and laboratory facilities, teams, and implements have been provided by the Office of West-
ern Irrigation Agriculture, at Huntley, Mont., Belle Fourche, S. Dak., and Mitchell, Nebr., and by the
Office of Cereal Investigations at Amarillo, Tex., and Archer, Wyo. The Biophysical Laboratory has
cooperated in obtaining the meteorological data reported.

Note.—This bulletin is intended for all who are interested in the agricultural possibilities of the Great
Plains area.

85751°—Bull, 214—15——1

2 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

investigations consists of about 400,000 square miles of territory
(fig. 1). It is bounded on the east by the nimety-eighth meridian
of longitude, on the west by the foothills of the Rocky Mountains
(indicated by the 5,000-foot contour), on the north by the Canadian
boundary, and on the south by the thirty-second parallel. The
area covers parts of 10 States, and includes all of the stations herein

es MANDA
' HEY nce DGELEK® \
p--/2—-_| hana + MIN
4
as raw ’

rales

=
war

ea
ape. ator

TUCUM of
Pee

hea ae
! @DALHA RY

Sieys,

5 | eee seme

malt
|
rab

Fic. 1.—Sketch map of the Great Plains area, which includes parts of
ten States and consists of about 400,000 square miles of territory.
Its western boundary is indicated by the 5,000-foot contour. The
location of each field station within the area is shown by a dot
within a circle (©).

the data from a total of 1,683 plat years.

considered except the
one at Archer, Wyo.

The study as here
presented deals only
with spring wheat and
is made in such a way
as to show the effect
of cropping and culti-
vation in only the year
preceding its growth.
Reference hereafter is:
made to the crop only
as wheat, but it should
be borne in mind that
spring wheat is meant.
The yields of winter
wheat and itsresponse
to cultural methods
are In many cases very
different from spring
wheat. There is also
given a study of the
comparative cost of
production of wheat
under each of the
methods studied and
the resulting profit or
loss.

The work here re-
ported from 14 sta-
tions covers an ag-
gregate of 73 station
years and embodies

By station year is meant

one year at one station; by plat year is meant one plat at one sta-
tion for one year. It is manifestly impossible in dealing with such a
mass of data to go into much detail; only some of the broader
phases of the evidence are here considered.

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 8

* Dealing as it does with only one crop, to which certain sections of
the Plains are obviously not adapted, this report does not afford a
measure of judging the agricultural value or possibilities for other
crops of any section of the country.

In 1906 the Office of Dry-land Agriculture of the United States
Department of Agriculture began field investigations of the problems
in methods of crop production in the Great Plains. The work begun
at that time has been constantly and steadily added to, until in 1914
work was conducted at 20 stations. The results here presented are
from 14 stations, records covering only one or two years having been
excluded.

The method of work adopted was that of raising the standard crops
of each section both in rotation and by different methods of prepara-
tion under systems of continuous cropping. Inno case have rotations
requiring more than 6 years been used. Those of even this length
have been tried only when sod of tame grass crops are included. More
of the work has been done with 3-year and 4-year rotations.

Figure 2 shows a diagram of the plats in the experimental field laid
out in 1908 at the Judith Basin Field Station. This station, being
a representative one, will serve to illustrate the general scheme and
plan of work. The plats here, as in all the work, are one-tenth acre in
size. Their dimensions are 2 by 8 rods. Along their larger dimen-
sion the plats are separated by bare alleys 4 feet in width. Along the
ends of the plats they are separated by roads 20 feet wide. At this
station six crops are represented in a series of continuously cropped
plats lettered from A to F or G. In this group, plats C and D are
alternately, cropped and summer tilled, so that each year a crop is
grown on land that was summer tilled the previous year and a plat is
summer tilled for cropping the next year.

The remainder of the field is in rotations in which each plat is known
by a rotation number and letter. On the field diagram the separa-
tion of rotations is indicated by heavy lines.

The movement of the crops in the rotation is in the direction from
Z to A and from A back to the letter that marks the other end of the
rotation.

In figure 2 the diagram is filled out to show the cropping in 1914.
The letters following the crop indicate the treatment given the ground
in preparation for it, S. P. standing for spring plowed, F. P. for fall
plowed, Fal., or S. F., for summer tilled, G. M. for green manured, and
D.C. for disked corn land. The addition of the letter M indicates the
use of manure. ‘To illustrate: In 1914 plat A of the 4-year rotation
No. 14 was in corn on spring-plowed land, plat B was in wheat on
disked corn ground, and plat C was in winter rye on fall-plowed land.
This would be plowed under for green manure. Plat D was in oats

4. BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

where winter rye had been turned under the year before. In 1915
A will be in wheat, B in winter rye, C in oats, and D in corn.

In the present stage of development of the work, the effect of the
immediately preceding crop and of the method of handling its stubble
in preparing the seed bed greatly overshadows the effects of the rota-
tions considered as units. Some of the rotations are calculated to
conserve or to accumulate fertility and organic matter in the soil, while
others may perhaps deplete it, but on the naturally fertile soils of the
Plains such results are not strongly evidenced in the first years of
treatment. The controllable factors that exert the greatest influence
on production are water supply, physical condition of the seed bed,
and a recognized if not understood effect of the immediately preceding
crop. ‘The crop of a single year brings the land back so near to uni-

| 8 WHEAT,

A CORN, S.P.

ER

BARLEY.

OATS, SF BARLEY,
SFL

FALLOWEOD FALLOWEO D FALLOWED

SUBSOILED

SUBSOILED | |E£ SUBS50/LED

A
a
c
v2)
=
L/STEO F LIsTeD
A E
a
(4
A
8
c

8 OATS,

2c M7

C PEAS, PR

@ LISTED G L/STED A CORN, FP FALLOWEO

A OATS A CORK, B BARLEY, WHEAT,
bc. 40 eP. #9 bc 6 Fat. | 5

B CORN 8 WHEAT C OATS, FR OATS, FP.
EP. : 2.¢.

A corn,
(ale =

B wHear D WHEAT, 6.M.
Dic S

A CORN, S.A

OATS,
SB

A OATS ‘|A FALLOWED CORN, F.P. CORN, S-P.
FR

8 CORN OATS, OATS, D.C.
naan 68 4

© WHEAT, 0.c 7 WHEAT, FER.

Boe le.

C FfALLOWED

D WHEAT, FAL..

A ALFALFA

7 || Se 9

BARLEY, C WHEAT,
PB S.P.

: S.
A CORN,FR OATS, FR ; A SROME
7

FALLOW, & B PATS.

305

WHEAT, / 5 Cc CoRN,
ON FALLOW P. S.P. SP

CORN, FP. D WHEAT
£ i 0.c. * Cte

D WHEAT, O.C.

ALFALFA,
fA
F ALFALFA.

Fia. 2.—Diagram of the dry-land rotation field at the Judith Basin Field Station. Thelettering shows the
cropping practiced in 1914. The explanation of abbreviations used is as follows: D. C. = disked (corn
land), Fal., or S..F.=summer tilled, F. P.=fall plowed, G. M.—green manured, M.=manured, S. P.=
spring plowed.

C OATS, SOD.

formity in these factors that their probable residual effect is not great
enough in the work in hand to introduce serious error into a study as
here made.

It seems advisable at the present time to prepare a series of bulletins
discussing in each the results secured with one crop, as determined by
the treatment of the land in only the one year preceding its growth.

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.

The annual precipitation at the various stations varies from about
15 to 21 inches. The average increases from north to south and from
west to east. An increase in the average daily evaporation from north
to south prevails. The rainfall is fluctuating in character. Years of
heavy rainfall may follow years when it is deficient, and vice versa.

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 5

Or a succession of years may be either comparatively wet or com-
paratively dry.

The seasons of light rainfall are usually accompanied by other un-
favorable conditions, such as higher wind velocity, higher tempera-
ture, and lower humidity. The distribution of the rainfall is also very
important in its influence on crop production. A crop may be pro-
duced on a relatively small seasonal rainfall if it is well distributed.
On the other hand, a season of higher rainfall, because of unfavorable
distribution, may result in crop failure.

Space in this bulletin will not permit the presentation of a com-
plete record of the climatic conditions at the various stations during
the time the work here reported was being done. It is, however,
available in publications of the United States Weather Bureau.
Table I gives the lowest, highest, and average annual and seasonal
precipitation for the time covered by the work. The seasonal evap-
oration is also shown. By seasonal is meant the precipitation or
evaporation for the period between the average time of seeding and
the average time of harvesting. No attempt is made to show other
climatic factors, all of which are important.

TasBLE I.—Annual and seasonal precipitation and seasonal evaporation at fourteen
stations in the Great Plains area.'

Precipitation? (inches).
Seasonal evaporation 3

Alti Annual Ss 1 Game
: i- nnual. easonal.
Station. tude 2
(feet)

Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi-| Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- | Aver-

mum.|mum.| age. |mum.|/mum.| age. | mum. | mum. | age.
Vadith Basines s-s 202 2k. 4,228 | 14.96 | 23.78 | 18.06 | 6.50 | 10.90 | 8.62 | 19.117 | 26.273 | 21.330
Huntley...-.- ap 5.00 7.35 6.18 | 19.820 | 20.594 | 20.207
Williston... - 5.62 | 12.00 8.31 | 21.104 | 28.269 | 24.705
Dickinson... .- 5.31 | 16.27 | 10.06 | 18.379 | 27.366 | 22.377
Edgeley..-..-.---. 5.08 | 15.73 | 9.60 | 17.664 | 25.362 | 20.657
Hettinger ss. ..2. c's 584 8.82 | 12.89 | 10.69 | 20.111 | 24.248 | 22.430
Belle Fourche 1.92 | 12.75 6.82 | 23.627 | 33.906 | 27.220
Seoptsbliiizse. -: $2228 25222. - 5. 56 8. 26 7.11 | 24.698 | 26.647 | 25.718
North Platte 4.38 | 11.25 7.77 | 25.954 | 35.255 | 30.253
PAUK RO Ty. Seer wee 5.32 9.52 7.82 | 25.917-| 32.691 | 28.781
Ligne oso eee ae 3.87 | 12.87 9.55 | 29.390 | 41.317 | 32.628
Garden City 5.01 | 8.16 | 6.85 | 33.315 | 38.926 | 35.332
Malihant: weesess yess eS 4.54 | 14.86 | 8.17 | 33.381 | 41.002 | 38.596
PAN AT:INO | See oes ok sips oh ey 5.03 | 11.49 7.05 | 32.305 | 40.704 | 36.709

1 The years covered are the same as for the data shown in the other tables for each station.

2 The altitude given is for the field where the work was done and is based in most cases on that of the
nearest town.

3 The record of annual precipitation for 1914 is not included. The records of seasonal precipitation and
evaporation for 1914 are included for all stations, the evaporation being figured from Apr. 1 to July 31.
The seasonal rainfall is the amount from Apr. 1 to July 31 for stations north of and including that at Belle
Fourche. Forstations south of Belle Fourche it is the amount between Mar. 1 and June 30. Evaporation
measurements are made from a free water surface in a tank sunk into the soil to almost its fulldepth. The
water surface is kept about level with the surface of the ground.

GENERAL PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATIONS.

Durum wheat has been used in these trials. The aim has been to
use at each station the best standard variety available for general use.
Changes are made only when necessitated by loss of seed or when

6 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

varietal tests, breeding, or seed selection makes available for general
use a better variety. The same seed is used on all plats at any one
station in any particular year.

All seeding is done with a drill. Drill rows are spaced from 6 to 8
inches. As compared with more humid sections, light seeding is
practiced. The rate varies from 2 to 4 pecks, depending upon the
location and the consequent average climatic conditions. At Edgeley,
N. Dak., where summer rains are more frequent and weeds more
troublesome, the seeding rate is 6 pecks per acre. Generally speaking,
the drier the condition the lighter the seeding. The seeding rate,
date, and manner of seeding are the same for all plats at the same
station in any one year.

For comparative study of the effect of environment and for securing
data on production certain of the work is made uniform at all stations.
This results in the attempted growth of sprmg wheat and other crops
in sections to which they are not adapted and in their growth at
certain stations by methods not adapted to the conditions obtaining
there. Such work, however, is limited, the most intensive studies at
each station being undertaken on the crops which are of greatest
promise in that locality.

In the present study a table is presented for each station. The
first part of such table shows the yields that have been obtained in
each year by each of the different methods under which wheat has
been grown, considering only the treatment during the one year imme-
diately preceding the crop. The reasons for not differentiating the

study further have already been stated.

' Where more than one plat has been grown under the same treatment
for the previous year, only the average yield of the whole number
of plats so grown is given. Column 2 of the table shows the number
of plats so averaged. In the presentation of yields, the column
headed ‘‘Treatment and previous crop”’ indicates the method of
preparation, whether fall plowed, spring plowed, listed, subsouled,
disked, green manured, or summer tilled. Some of these are again
subdivided to show the previous crop. ‘To illustrate: The table for
Judith Basin (Table V) shows that there were five plats of whea;
each year grown on fall-plowed land. On two of these the wheat
followed corn, on two it followed oats, and on one it followed wheat,
The average yield on fall plowing as given is the average of the five
plats, not the average of the given averages. To obtain these aver-
ages it is necessary to use the figures as many times as there were
plats averaged in obtaining them. The succeeding columns need
no explanation, as they are the yields for each year as indicated and
the average of each method for the whole period of years. In the
last column, where the average appears under the heading “‘ Average,”’

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 7

the calculation is from the left. For a rough comparison of seasons,
the bottom line of the first half of the table gives an average of all
plats for each year, the average of the yearly average yields appear-
ing in the last column to the right.

Throughout the tables, where wheat is shown as following corn
on either fall or spring plowing, it is m a 3-year rotation in which
the other crop is oats. Where wheat is shown as following oats
on fall or spring plowing, it is in a 3-year rotation where in the third
year the land is either cropped to corn or is summer tilled. Where
wheat follows wheat under any treatment it is in a system of con-
tinuous cropping to wheat by the method indicated.

The methods of operation have been similar at all stations. Fall
plowing is done early, except after crops like corn that are not
removed from the ground early. It is done to a good depth, the
standard being set at 8 inches. Ground may be either worked down
or left rough over winter. Spring-plowed land may be disked in the
fall or may be undisturbed until spring, when plowing is done just
before seeding. Plowing is done to a good depth, usually at about
8 inches. This applies to all wheat plats except one plat at each
station on which wheat follows wheat. The stubble of this plat is
undisturbed until spring, when it is plowed shallow (at about 4
inches) and is then given a minimum of cultivation, which usually
consists of one or two harrowings. In those cases where an addi-
tional plat appears under spring plowing after wheat, it is plowed
deep instead of shallow.

Under the subhead “Listed” there is shown at some stations the
yield from one plat continuously cropped to wheat. Instead of
plowing this plat, it is furrowed out with a lister at the time of fall
plowing. It is cultivated down level by seeding time.

Under the subhead ‘‘Subsoiled” there is shown at the stations
where it has been tried the results from a plat continuously cropped
to wheat. At the time of plowing, a subsoil plow is run in the bot-
tom of the furrow, usually loosening the soil to a total depth of about
14 inches. The variation from this depth is hardly more than 2
inches either way. In general, subsoiling has been done two years
in succession and then omitted for two years.

Under the subhead ‘‘Disked” is given the average of a consider-
able number of plats of wheat following corn. These occur in alter-
nate cropping to wheat and corn, in 3-year rotations in which the
other crop is oats, and in 4-year rotations in which the other crops
are summer tillage and oats or barley. In sod rotations, wheat on
disked corn ground is the third crop after breaking the sod. At
some stations are shown additional plats on disked ground following
potatoes and following sorghum. These are in 4-year rotations.

85751°—Bnll. 214—15——2

8 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Under the subhead ‘‘Green manured” are given the yields of wheat
following the plowing under of rye, peas, or sweet clover, as speci-
fied. This treatment is in 4-year rotations in which one of the other
crops is corn and the other is one of small grain.

At each station several plats of spring wheat are grown on sum-
mer-tilled land. One of these is from land alternately summer
tilled and cropped to wheat; one is from a 3-year rotation of summer
tillage, wheat, and oats; and others are from 4-year rotations in
which the other crops are corn or potatoes and oats or barley.

The method of summer tillage practiced has been of the intensive
type. The ground is fall plowed and clean cultivation is continued
through the next year and until the wheat is seeded in the second
spring. In some cases it is necessary in order to destroy weeds to
replow during the summer when the land is fallow. At other sta-
tions summer-tilled plats are plowed but once. Experiments not
here reported are under way to ascertain the best method of fallowing.
Indications are that equally good results can be obtained with a less
intensive method than has been practiced in the investigations here
reported.

The yields given in these tables begin with the second year of crop
production at each station. All crops are produced the first year on
land uniform in its treatment. In some cases an entire crop has
been lost by hail. These years are not considered in computing
averages, as the crops resulting from all methods alike were destroyed.

By the use of the basic data which follows in Tables II, III, and
IV there has been compiled a second part embodying a summarized
statement of the table of yields for each station. In this summary
are brought together in different form the yields in the first part of
such table. The value of the average yields thus obtained is shown
together with the cost of production (as computed from the avail-
able data). In the last line of the table is given the average profit
or loss resulting from the production of wheat by the method shown
at the head of the column. Loss is indicated by the minus sign.

COMPARISON OF CULTURAL METHODS ON THE BASIS OF COST.

In order to make a comparison of the relative profits or losses of
the several cultural methods, as shown in the second part of the
table for each station, it was necessary to establish the average cost
of production under each of these methods. The methods under
study vary a great deal in the labor involved and in the consequent
cost of preparation. Table IV has therefore been compiled in order
to show the average cost of the methods under study as determined
from the data of eight of the stations having the most trustworthy
records, An average of the records for 54 years at each station has

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 9

been used in compiling this table. This is equivalent to a record of
44 years at one station. An accurate record has been kept of all the
farm operations performed under the various methods under trial.
These have been averaged for the eight stations. The amount of
work required for some methods of treatment varies with the season
and with the soil, and the expense of some operations varies with
the soil. The amount of labor performed under each of the methods
was neither more nor less than that which the man in charge believed
to be necessary to bring about the results sought.

In computing the cost of the various operations a fixed wage of
$2 per day for a man and $1 a day for a horse was adopted. This
may be above or below the actual labor cost in any particular locality,
but it is believed to be a fair average and one that will afford a profit-
able market to the farmer for his labor. The time required for men
and teams to cover a given acreage in each of the several farm opera-
tions obviously varies with soils and other conditions. The average
shown in Table II has been determined from the actual experience
of a large number of men connected with these investigations, which
experience has extended over a wide range of conditions and many
years of time.

The factors included in the cost of production are calculated on
an acre basis for each of the separate operations performed, beginning
with the preparation of the land and ending with the harvesting and
shocking of the grain. To these items are added the cost of seed at
~ 85 cents per acre, interest and taxes on the land investment, calculated
at 8 per cent on a valuation of $20 per acre, and the deterioration
and repairs of the binder at 15 cents per acre. No allowance is
made for deterioration of other farm equipment, as it is believed
that the wages allowed for men and teams are sufficient to cover
this item for the remainder of the equipment. The above-mentioned
items are fixed charges per acre; that is, they do not vary greatly
with the yield per acre, except the item of twine, but this variation
is not sufficient to materially affect the relative total cost of produc-
tion under the several methods.

Table II shows the cost per acre based upon what is considered
an average day’s work for each of the farm operations involved at
the above-mentioned wage. As before stated, the type of soil and
seasonal conditions will determine to a certain extent the labor
required and the consequent cost per acre. The cost of production
as computed in Tables II and IV is not offered as being absolute
for any locality, either in the amount of labor required or its cost,
but is given as a working basis for the comparison of the results by
different methods of preparation,

10 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE II.—Average cost per acre} of the farm operations involved in growing spring
wheat in the Great Plains area.

[The wage scale assumed is $2 per day for each man and $1 per day for each horse.]

Force employed.
. Day’s Item | Cost per
Operation. work. cost. Bie
Men. Horses.
2 Acres
IPIOWAN Gey Saat toe eae Sea 8c tae 1 4 SE | Se seeesete $1. 71
MIS KAN Ase fe pce eye nee ins Se ere e Re eee cis Sie aS 1 4 Bia |e sea are 75
VAT rOWAN Ge SS. Ua. cea iiss eae a sae ee eee. Snenoeers 1 4 Bora aaeeteeee -17
Subsoilimed esse aoe a eee Se ee See ie 1 3 Shel Se cee sees 1.43
SD) ULM Ty i ay Gite een RR Bh ics a ayia iol ay as Aes 1 4 LE tetas ast 5 - 40
Cultivartine ses eee ae ae Be ore Ei SS a See 1 4 TG 3h Se chee ase . 38
AGUS Gi 67s ote wc nye ieee ate ABS ee OR ee 1 4 rea Sees aye sere - 60
Harvesting:
Cutting and binding..........-...-...-..--..---- 1 4 15 $0. 40
SH OC Kan B55 ee ae ee ea ae aa IDE NS SG aH Me 13 93
U Ba igo ee es fe Pe ee ae ate De atv ma Ri eu a bie ol Laas EOE DN Cees | er ea . 25 :
Binder weatand repair s-5-0- sess eee eee area wi as Wee a | 15
|

1 The cost of thrashing is not included in the cost per acre, but it is estimated at 10 cents per bushel and
deducted from the price of 80 cents in the granary, thus giving a value of 70 cents per bushel in the shock.

The costs of hauling, stacking, and thrashing are not included in
the per-acre cost of production because they can be calculated more
accurately on the basis of cost per bushel, as hereafter explained.

The average farm price of wheat used in these computations is
based on the data given in Table III, furnished by the Bureau of
Crop Estimates. The four States of Kansas, Nebraska, North Da-
kota, and South Dakota were selected because their extensive wheat
production has given them established market prices, which are not
ereatly influenced by local conditions.

TaBLe III.—Average price of spring wheat at the farm granary for 10 years in four States
of the Great Plains area.

[The quotations are given in cents per bushel. Those for the year 1914 are for the date of Nov. 1; in other
years Dec. 1 is taken as the date.]

|
North | South | Ne- Aver- r, North | South | Ne- Aver-
Year. [Dakota.|Dakota.| braska.|*2053- age. Year. | Dakota.|Dakota.| braska. | *2252s- age.

1905..... 69 67 66 71 684 || 1911..... 89 91 87 91 894
1906..... 63 61 57 58 592 |} 1912..... 69 69 69 74 704
1907....- 87 89 79 82 844 || 1913..... 73 71 71 79 734
1908..... 92 92 84 88 89 1914..... 97 90 92 94 944
1909..... 92 90 89 96 912
1910..... 90 89 80 84 852 || Average. 82 81 77 82 804

Table III shows that the average farm price of wheat on December
1 for the past 10 years has been, in round numbers, 80 cents per
bushel. It costs about 10 cents per bushel to take the grain from
the shock, thrash it, and put it in the granary on the farm. This
cost per bushel does not vary greatly with the yield and is therefore
a fixed price per bushel instead of a fixed price per acre, as is the case
with the other costs of production. It is therefore obvious that the
relative profits of producing wheat under the different methods can
best be determined by finding the difference between the fixed cost
per acre and the value per acre of the grain at the point where the

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 11

fixed cost per acre ends, which, as before stated, is when the
grain isin the shock. Knowing that the average farm value of wheat
in the granary is 80 cents per bushel, and that it costs 10 cents per
bushel to take it from the shock, thrash it, and put it in the granary,
it is obvious that it would be worth 70 cents per bushel in the shock.
This valuation of 70 cents per bushel has therefore been used as a
basis for calculating the relative crop values, costs, and profits per
acre of these various methods.

In conformity with the foregommg explanation, Table IV gives in
detail the cost of producing wheat in the shock, expressed in dollars
and cents, and in bushels per acre at 70 cents per bushel in the shock.

Taste 1V.—Cost per acre of producing wheat in the shock in the Great Plains area,
showing averages of data from eight stations.

Cost per acre. Total cost of

Number of operations. d ., | production.
5 %
gs s PH
Method of a S 3 o a8
preparation. 2 ab 2 a 8g Bins
ob | S| w | & soe | a | Bole |} 3 Teas
Be |) Sail) elie ek MME ll ea Nea g/8|#2] 68 ($84
Ea [= A 2 SS 2 ge} / | es Ie S = lease
eI MR aed eel) res hits Oe | Z| eae a a 8 [48a
4 an] A n 4 fa) Sy ie (a) 0] iS a 18
Disked corn land...|...-.. il) pRB a RS ese | oie (a $0. 97 |$0.85 |$0. 40 |$0.93 |$1.60 | $4.75 6.8
Shed es = 5 Sees ses bese 5. TGS.) oad se ee Mi] eee 1.77 | .85} .40] .93) 1.60) 5.55 7.9
Spring plowed...... 1 TE} as BGS Ae a A OE 2.31] .85} .40] .93] 1.60] 6.09] 8.7
Fall plowed-.--.-.. 1 2.3 Oisesees| beers Meese 2.78 85 | .40 93} 1.60] 6.56 9.4
Subsoiled..........- 1 it7/ 3 0S hid eee Feesss 3. 39 . 85 - 40 -93 | 1.605 7.17 10. 2
Summer tilled...... M5) hp OSQa eas Gules SS ssieae cs 1 Siar 6.12 85 | .40] .93}] 3.20] 11.50} 16.4
Green manured:
With ryel...... 2 (Stal het kel Bees See Ire} 85 - 40 93 | 3.20 | 13.11 18.7
With peas 2..... 2 ts) I Saha ooecd| HeSene 1 /10. 73 85 - 40 93 | 3.20 | 16.11 23.0
Average cost of green
ERLE IT] Pees rok Pete seater: cof Rh CI ce ee es A Se Sie lee SE 14.61 | 20.8

1 The cost of rye for seeding one acre is estimated at $1.
2 The cost of peas for seeding one acre is estimated at $4.

RESULTS AT THE SEVERAL STATIONS.

Accompanying the presentation of the results for each station is a
brief soil description, with particular reference to the depth of the
soil and its water-holding capacity. Only such information is given
as is necessary to understand fully the interpretation of the results.

JUDITH BASIN FIELD STATION.

The field station at Moccasin, Mont., in the Judith Basin, is located
on a heavy clay soil of limestone origin. The soil is apparently very
rich in available fertility. It is underlain, at a depth of approxi-
mately 3 feet, by a limestone gravel that is closely cemented with
lime materials. The gravel subsoil, which extends to a depth of
about 30 feet, is practically free from soil. While it is so closely
cemented that it does not unduly drain the soil, it is not of a character
that allows the storage of available water or the development of
roots within it. The presence of gravel in the surface soil does not

12

BULLETIN 214, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

permit the taking of satisfactory samples for the study of soil moisture.
Enough has been done, however, to make certain that only a limited
supply of water available to the crop can be stored in the soil. This
shallowness of the soil and the consequent limitation of the supply of
water that can be stored in it and recovered by a crop make the crop
dependent in large part upon the rains that fall while the crop is

growing.

TaBLE V.— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by different methods at the
Judith Basin Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Number Yield per acre (bushels).
Treatment and previous crop. ol pnts
aged. 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed:

DORM enced crs eae eu aus 2 31.3 13.2 21.4 | aH 24.9 18.1 21.8
Oe een d Ge sinsartental: 2 36. 8 11.5 24.7 H 23.5 19.1 23. 2
AWihieat eRe iol tee ee Se gee ee 1 33. 4 14.0 22.0 H 18.5 15.8 20.7

Total or average.........-- 5 33.9 12.7 PP \Isso anand 23.1 18.0 22.1
Spring plowed:
(Oyo gra AEs a Na ae Ne 1 33. 1 11.6 21.3 H 23.8 18.5 21.7
OE Hoag Os AS a a 2) 531.6 10.0 20.8 H 24.1 18.1 20.9
sWilteai tH NBtS Wee 2b. as SN 2 35. 6 9.2 24.1 H 25. 4 16.7 22. 2
Total or average........... 5 | ¢34.0 10.0 PPO Wor sosen 24.5 17.6 21.7,
Listed: Wheat....-.............- 1 33.3 8.3 26. 5 H 23.3 17.1 21.7
Subsoiled: Wheat...............- 1 36.3 15.0 23.5 H 22. 8 16.5 22.8
Diskeds (Corn was 34 sass Ae ke 8 35. 0 10.8 23.9 H 23.6 19. 4 22.5
Green manured:
T/C RoR aE GS Sees Gea Bae ae 1 34.0 9.0 19.0 H 28.0 1164 aL 21.0
OAS ayaa tie cis bemeatlee cies 1 28. 3 11.0 20.5 H 20.5 18.3 19.7
Total or average........... 2 31. 2 10.0 Ne el Bes abe e 24.3 16.7 20. 4
Summer tilled. --..--....-2...... 4 | 434.1 lee, 20.1 H 22.9 19.5 20.8
Average of all 26 plats............].......... 34.1 10.6 PA) saccsoce 23. 6 18.4 21.9
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop
Yields, values, ete. (average Fall’ | Sori Sum
pring | +; A Sub- | Green Small
BaP BOW) plowed| plowed Disked Listed soiled a- tilled rai grain
G G | plats.)| plat). | 4. [muzed@) “(4 | plats). | ©
plats). | plats). | P’?"s- "| plat). | plats). | pists) plats)
Yields of grain:
1909. ..........bushels- . 33.9 | ¢34.0 35.0 33.3 36.3 31.2 | d34.1 | ¢34.1 34.9
AOILO Meese sae do... 12.7} ¢10.0 10.8 8.3 15.0 10.0 d7.2) €11.3 Fll.1
a(S) a ae ae do.. 22.8 | ¢22.6 23.9 26.5 23.5 19.8 20.1 23.2} £23.8
ICG a cee es ea a do. H H H H H H H H H
LOTS sh aon oes do. PBi Il 24.5 23. 6 23. 3 22. 8 24. 3 22.9 23.8 23. 4
NOVAS Meee s a sae ee do.. 18.0 17.6 19.4 17.1 16.5 16.7 19.5 19.1 17.5
AVOCLALG oo Ulccices cece 22.1 21.7 22.5 21.7 22.8 20. 4 20.8 21.9 22.1
Crop value, cost of produc-
tion, ete.:
Wallen icacecercscee sie $15. 47 | $15.19 | $15.75 | $15.19 | $15.96 | $14.28 | $14.56 |...-....|-.--..--
Costi ar cece cctep ecko sae he 6. 56 6. 09 4.75 5.55 Weel opt 4cOl neal Leo |= ee see leer wand
Profit or loss......-..-- 8.91 9.10 | 11.00 9. 64 8.79 |— .33 SOG Ee. Soe. epee

a H= Destroyed by hail.
b Yield of 1 plat only.

c Average of 4 plats.
d Average of 3 plats.

e Average of 10 plats.
f Average of 8 plats.

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 13

_The most significant fact shown by Table V is the lack of material
differences in yield resulting either from different methods of handling
the soil in preparation for spring wheat or from the effect of the crop
immediately preceding. This indicates that the place given to spring
wheat in a rotation is comparatively unimportant. This is rather to
be expected when the factors that determine production are under-
stood in the light of recent information. There is not space here to
discuss the subject, but suffice it to say: (1) On this rich, virgin,
limestone soil, production is not immediately dependent upon in-
creased fertility or greatly influenced by additions to or removal of its
elements; (2) the shallowness of the soil where it is underlain by non-
functioning gravel, together with the usually heavy spring rains,
makes it impossible to realize the benefits that might be expected to
accrue from methods of cultivation calculated to add to the total
moisture supply by storage of moisture in the soil.

The problems appear to be those of good seed, good stand, freedom
from weeds, and getting work done in proper season rather than those
of certain methods of tillage. How soon results may become apparent
from rotations that either add to or take from the fertility of the soil,
it is impossible to predict.

The variations in yields have been so small up to the present time
that it is possible all may be within the limits of experimental error
or due to variations existing in the soil. It would therefore be
unprofitable to discuss in detail the small variations that appear.
The results are, however, of great importance in the evidence they
offer that no one of the methods tried is essential to success in the

,growth of spring wheat and in the consequent freedom allowed in
arranging a cropping system which need not necessarily include any
unduly expensive or laborious method as a requisite of production.

Since there are no essential differences in yields from different
methods at this station, it follows that the relative profit or loss has
been largely determined by the cost of production. The spring wheat
crop has been raised at a profit by all methods except that of green
manuring. The largest profit has been obtained from disked corn
ground. The value of it as a farm practice would depend upon the
profitable growth or utilization of the corn crop in a farming system.

The next highest profits have been obtained from listing instead of
plowing. This again is due to the low cost of preparation. While
the yield from summer tillage has been about the same as from other
methods, the increased cost of this method has been sufficient to
reduce the profit from $11 per acre on disked corn ground to $3.06
per acre on summer-tilled land.

The heavy cost of green manuring has caused it to be done at the
nominal loss of 33 cents per acre, when its whole cost is charged to
the first crop that follows it. From the standpoint of actual yields

14 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

in bushels per acre it appears that no particular method of prepara-
tion for spring wheat is essential at this station. From the stand-
point of profits per acre it would appear that the greatest profits are
derived from the least expensive methods.

HUNTLEY FIELD STATION.

The field station at Huntley, Mont., is located in the valley of the
Yellowstone River at the foot of the first bench. The soil is a heavy
gumbo to a depth of about 8feet. Underlying the soil is a considera-
ble depth of free-drained gravel. This soil carries a large proportion
of available water and allows deep feeding of the crop. It is conse-
quently possible to store in it a maximum quantity of water that
can be recovered by the crop.

TaBLE VI,— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by different methods at the
dluntley Field Station, 19138 and 1914.

Num- Yield per acre Num- Yield per acre
ber (bushels). ber . (bushels),
Treatment and pre-| of Treatment and pre- of
vious crop. plats in vious crop. plats
aver- ver- aver- Aver-
aged. | 1918 | 1914) “aoe. ea, |) oie WE a
Fall plowed: Listed: Wheat....... 1 | 16.5 | 19.5 18.0
ONE Sea wetssise 1} 19.3 | 21.5 20. 4 || Subsoiled: Wheat... 1} 14.5 | 17.5 16.0
Oatseeee sae se 2 | 15.8 | 27.8 21.8 || Disked: Corn........ 8} 18.2 | 26.5 22.4
Wiheabifocese cece 1 | 11.8} 20.2 16.0 ————
—— Green manured:
Total or aver- VOU ssa sees sare 1 | 15.0 | 26.0 20.5
ALOmcmanc nec. 4) 15.7 | 24.3 20.0 IPODSS son. boas 1 | 21.3 | 26.8 24.1
Spring plowed: Total or aver-
Cormeen aes ee 1 | 18.6 | 24.6 21.6 BPO neicacaclek'= 2 | 18.2 | 26.4 22.3
Oats ee eos eics 1] 14.3 | 24.8 19.6 ed
Wheat........... 1} 16.0 | 18.3 17.2 || Summer tilled....... 3 | 25.5 | 26.3 25.9
Total or aver- Average ofall 22 plats|........ 18.2 } 24.8 2e5ae
ageeesoresce 3 | 16.3 | 22.6 19.5

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.

Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc. (average . Green | Sum-
‘per acre). Bally Spring Disked | ; - Sub- ma- mer Corn Small
Eee P Ge (8 Coup soiled | nured | tilled | (10 aa
. é
plats). | plats). plats). (1 plat). (3 plats). plats).

(2
plats). | plats).

Yields of grain:
LOLS Se oI ee bushels..| 15.7 16.3 18.2 16.5 14.5 18.2 25.5 18.4 15.0
POL4e Ik SEE EE ee dos 24.3 22.6 26.5 19.5 17.5 26. 4 26.3 25.8 22.3
Averages!! i: ei. 66 5858 20.0 19.5 22.4 18.0 16.0 22.3 25.9 22.1 18.7
Crop value, cost of produc-
tion, etec.:
Valeo es Poe ite Sines $14.00 | $13.65 | $15.68 | $12.60 | $11.20 | $15.61 | $18.13 |.......-]..-.-.-.
Cost te ees csc. eee 6. 56 6.09 4.75 5. 55 ToC 14 Glee cov Rs - cal eer cians
Profibae ce leee eo sees 7. 44 7.56 | -10.93 7.05 4.03 1.00] 6.63 |.-.....-|..--....

.

1 Barley was used in place of rye in 1913.

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 15

The results of only two years are available for study from the
Huntley station. Both were years of good to heavy preduction, but
years when production was determined to a considerable degree by
the amount of water stored in the soil at seeding time. There was
consequently rather sharp response to those methods that start a
crop with more available soil water than others.

The highest average yield, 25.9 bushels per acre, has been obtained
from summer tillage. The next highest yield, 24.1 bushels, has been
from the use of peas as green manure. Disked corn ground with a
yield of 22.4 bushels has been better than corn ground plowed either
in fall or spring. The data on the effects of fall and spring plowing
of either corn ground, wheat, or oat stubble being rather contradic-
tory and inconsistent among themselves, are hardly sufficient to admit
the drawing of conclusions. Indications are that marked differences
are not to be expected. The same lack of significant difference
exists between the yields from listing and plowing. The yields from
subsoiled land have just equalled those from land similarly treated
in every way except subsoilmg. Green manure, on the average, was
productive of yields intermediate between those on summer-tilled
ground and those on cropped ground. ‘The crop raised in 1913 where
peas were plowed under was much superior to that raised where barley
was plowed under. In 1914 there was little difference between the
crop after peas and that after winter rye.

Wheat has been produced at a profit by all methods. The greatest
profit, $10.93 per acre, has come from disked corn land. This is due
both to high yield and low cost of preparation. Between fall plowing,
spring plowing, and listing there is little difference, the profits from
them exceeding $3 per acre less than from disked corn ground. Sub-
soiling, on account of its low yield and higher cost, has reduced the
profits to $4.03 per acre. The high cost of production on summer
fallow has overcome the high yield to the extent that the profit from
it has been somewhat less than that realized from land cropped every
year. The least profit, $1 per acre, has been from the use of green
manure.

WILLISTON FIELD STATION.

The experimental work at the Williston Field Station, in North
Dakota, is conducted on a silt soil that carries a considerable propor-
tion of available water and on which the depth of feeding is limited
only by the depth to which the character of the crop limits its devel-
opment of roots.

The results of five years are available for study from Williston
station. The production for two of these years was very heavy, the
average yield from all plats in 1912 being the highest yet recorded
in this work. The year 1913 was one of good but not excessive

85751°—Bull. 214153

16 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

yields, while in 1910 and 1911 nearly all yields were so low as to be
practical failures. With this wide diversity in seasons and yields,
the results from year to year have been fairly consistent, the most
serious departure being the low yield on disked corn ground in 1914.»
Minor differences, it is true, have been manifested, particularly as to
the relative merits of fall and spring plowing, but on the whole there
is a remarkable uniformity. ;

TasBLe VII.— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by different methods at the
Williston Field Station, 1910 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Number
Treatmentand previous crop-;|) 0! plats! | =, a | a
averaged.) j919 1911 1912 1913 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed:
OLN eee Sac kwets ete eewens 1 0.7 1.8 36.5 16.1 208 15.7
(ORES ee a a aes i epi ae 2 5!) 1.7 35.1 9.5 31.0 15.6
ANOS Ry See eee ete 1 1.3 2.3 33.8 11.7 22.5 14.3
Total or average.......--- 4 9 1.9 35.1 Wey 26.9 15.3
Spring plowed:
Gonneeee se oe ee 1 atl 5.5 38.2 14.4 26.8 17.1
OB tS ee ihr. js ek: © he 1 UES 4.0 32. 2 13.0 31.5 16.5
NW Oates er oe scene nee 1 Ta. 2.7 25.2 16.8 23.8 14.0
Total or average.......--- 3 1.4 4.1 31.9 14.7 me zias: 15.9
WMiskedet Conn tet eee 7 9 5.8 39.7 ie ONS 16.2
Green manured:
UY Omer eee a ee seein Cts 1 2.8 8 36.0 18.8 37.3 19.1
IEG ERE waa cae eee OBE eae 1 2.0 2.5 33.0 19.7 BPR 18.0
Total or average......-.-- 2 2.4 1.7 84.5 19.3 35.0 18.6
Summer tilled...........-.2---- 3 4.9 8.2 39.9 17.8 30.3 20.2
Average of all 19 plats. .......-.|..-..---.- 1.8 4.6 37.0 15.2 25.7 16.9
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc. (average
per acre). Fall Spring ce Green | Summer Small
plowed | plowed a aS manured| tilled (nies) grain
(4 plats). | (8 plats). P *| (2 plats). | (8 plats). P | (5 plats).
‘Yields of grain:
ON Oe eres eye ci bushels 0.9 1.4 0.9 2.4 4.9 0.9 1.3
aS) bes Ce eras ae Or ges do.. 1.9 4.1 5.8 WS 8.2 5.3 2.5
OS Bee eres ee do. 35.1 31.9 39.7 34.5 39.9 39. 2 32.3
RRO Se S Seve enema. do. its7/ 14.7 15.3 19.3 17.8 15.3 12.1
OAC eS oti Mere te do. 26.9 27.4 19.5 35.0 30.3 20.8 27.9
AVOFASOs ef ote i Anerseeeaias | 15.3 15.9 16. 2 18.6 20. 2 16.3 15.2
@rop value, cost of production,
ete.:
Valter te Sek enc tee: $10. 71 $11.13 $11.34 $13. 02 PLATA Re S29. cra| eee eae oe
COST a Soe 6.56 6. 09 4.75 14. 61 W250 Se ee = ee eee
Profit or loss. .........--- 4.15 5. 04 6.59 | — 1.59 DA GAM ete. meee sete fe

The highest average yield, 20.2 bushels per acre, has been obtained
from summer tillage. The plowing under of rye or peas for green
manure has resulted in the next highest average yield. Spring rye

i

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. Te

is used at this station and is plowed under at the same time as peas.
This is done in early summer, and the land is then handled as an
intensively cultivated bare fallow until seeding time. While results
have fluctuated between the two crops used for green manure from
year to year, the variations have probably been within the limits of
experimental error.

As to the relative merits of fall and spring plowing and disking as
a means of preparation for wheat, the yields show such lack of con-
sistency from year to year that it would be unwise to attempt to draw
general conclusions from the data at hand, unless it were that the
results attending these practices will vary with the season and that
no particular one is essential to success.

Wheat, on both spring and fall plowing after oats, appears on the
average to yield better than wheat after wheat.

When the cost of production is figured, it is found that the average
yields of the five years under study have been sufficient to allow a
profit from all methods except that of green manure. While the
yield from this method was next to the highest, it was not enough to
offset the heavy cost of production.

The greatest profit, $6.59 per acre, was obtained from ee corn
ground, and the least, $2.64 per acre, from summer tillage.

DICKINSON FIELD STATION.

The soil at the Dickinson Field Station, in North Dakota, is somewhat
lacking in uniformity. In general, however, it is characterized as a
sandy loam to a depth of approximately 5 feet. Below this depth
is a lighter soil, which in some cases becomes very sandy or pure sand.
The soil has the capacity to retain a large proportion of water and to
give up to the crop a large share of what is retained. This feature,
in connection with the depth to which a crop may feed, makes it
possible to store in this soil an exceptionally large quantity of water
that can be recovered by the crop.

While records for the Dickinson station are available for study
since and including 1908, the yields and averages are made up from
the results of six years, as the crop of 1912 was destroyed by hail
shortly after heading. As the fall plowing that year was done
exceptionally early, on account of the opportunity offered by the
early removal of the crop, it shows up relatively much better than
usual in 1913. On this account it approached summer tillage and
green manure both in opportunity and in results.

Four of the years studied have been years of heavy wheat produc-
- tion from all methods. The year 1911 was one of low general average,
but of exceptional differences between methods. It was a year of
drought during the late stages of growth, which made it possible to

18

BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

realize a maximum benefit from the water previously stored in the

soul by some methods.

per cent by hail shortly before harvest.

The crop of 1914 was damaged at least 25

TasBLE VIII.— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by different methods at the
Dickinson Field Station, 1908 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).
Treatment and Number
previous crop. on es AG
see! 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 | Average.

Fall plowed:

COrnmere en ere he ee 1 35.0 37.3 24.0 4.7| 1H 27.5 15.9 24.1

Manured corn.....-. 1 33.8 40.7 22.5 3.2 H 27.5 13.2 23.5

Oatskereee ones ee 2 19.7 34.7 19.2 7 H 26.8 11.3 18.7

WM avee ips ae Mee 1 17/5 25.2 18.2 1.4 H 20.5 8.9 15.3
e Total or average... 5 ON 9) | Be by 20.6 DA eee eke: 25.8 12,71 20.1
Spring plowed:

Wornise see ee s/c) oe 1 35.0 39.7 27.8 14.0 H 28.0 12.0 26.1

Oatsncen ts aw 128% 1 18.7 30.7 18.1 1.3 H 17.0 15.2 16.8

NWilreate vette meee 1 24.3 26.8 17.4 5.7 H 13.5 10.5 16.4

Total or average. -. 3 26.0 32.4 21.1 CEE eee ees 19.5 12.6 19.8

Disked: Corn. .. saenes- ns} 9 32.3 37.9 22.7 3.8 H 27.8 15.3 23.3
Green manured: j

1BAias BU o ORCS See 2 32.1 38.3 19.7 5.6 H 28.0 20.0 24.0

Pease panera 2 2 30.0 36.0 17.4 1.2 H 24.8 18.6 21.3

Sweet clover.......-. 1 31.0 32.3 19.0 1.3 H 24.5 13.7 20.3

Total or average. . . 5 31.0 36.1 18.6 3: Oasys 26.0 18.2 22.2

Summer tilled........... 3 33.6 36.9 26.0 22.1 H 27.2 19.2 27.5
Average of all 25 plats. _.|..-.--.--- 30.0 36.1 21.7 GES Be eoonee 25.9 15.4 22.5

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF COST.

Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc. (average _ z a « sna
per acre). a pring + Teen ummer ma.
plowed | plowed Gans manured| tilled |(y9 piats),| ,-2Fain
(5 plats). | (3 plats). | ‘” P!@"S)- | (5 plats). | (3 plats). | ~ P'"S?-| (5 plats).
Yields of grain:

QOS eSB aes etiie = usc bushels 25.2 26.0 32.3 31.0 33.6 33.0 20.0
TOU ee es ee ed do.. 34.5 32.4 37.9 36.1 36.9 38.3 30. 4
IGOR eH aeesasaaeeeE do.. 20.6 21.1 22.7 18.6 26.0 23.2 18.4
QTE Ney persis a lo 3 do. 2.1 7.0 3.8 3.0 22.1 4.9 2.6

LQU2E Sere ees ho do. H 18L H H H H H
MOUS Raat ees cae do. 25.8 19.5 27.8 26.0 27.2 27.8 20.9
AS ee eee do. 12.1 12.6 15.3 18.2 19.2 14.9 11.4
IN OTAG Oe oe e ajar 20.1 19.8 23.3 22.2 27.5 23.7 17.2

Crop value, cost of production,
ete.:
Valter neck 2) Seer $14. 07 $13.86 $16. 31 $15. 54 PUGH 25) | hrs 88 oe | eae aye
Costes ea en caren: <a 6.56 6.09 4.75 14.61 Ua Bis 02) is a |, eee
eae

PrOLGR eBai as oo cree 7.51 Wedd 11.56 .93 TTA EE ae Phe, oa, Ses

1 H= Destroyed by hail.

Some indications shown in Table VIII are rather striking. The
effect of the preceding crop and the preparation for spring wheat
divide rather sharply into two groups, as indicated by the results
obtained. When wheat followed summer tillage, corn, or green
manure it has given comparatively high yields.

{

When it followed

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS ARHA. 19

small grains, the yields have been comparatively low, regardless
of preparation.

As between oats and wheat, whether spring or fall plowed, or
between spring or fall plowing of either wheat or oat stubble, no
decision is apparently to be made from the data at hand. The
advantage, if any, seems to be in favor of fall-plowed oat stubble.

The highest average yield; and it is a very high average, 27.5
bushels per acre, has been obtained by summer tillage. But spring-
plowed corn ground has averaged 26.1 bushels; fall-plowed corn
ground, 24.1 bushels; and nine plats of disked corn ground, well
distributed over the field, have averaged 23.3 bushels per acre.
Considering the importance of corn in a general farming system
and the small advantage shown by summer tillage over corn land in
producing wheat, it would seem that even here where summer tillage
has been productive of such high yields, it can have no regular place
in a permanent farming system.

The use of manure on corn does not appear to have had as yet
any appreciable effect upon the wheat that followed the corn.

The use of winter rye plowed under as green manure has thus
far been productive of considerably better results than the similar
use of either peas or sweet clover. This difference in yield is probably
due to the fact that winter rye may be plowed under considerably
earler than either the peas or sweet clover.

Both high yield and low cost of production have combined to
give the greatest profit per acre, $11.56, from wheat on disked corn
ground. The high yield of wheat on summer tillage has been scarcely
sufficient to overcome the increased cost of this method. It shows
a profit of $7.75 per acre, while spring-plowed land that had been
cropped shows a profit of $7.77 per acre, and fall-plowed land shows
$7.51. While green manuring shows about the same production as
land from which a crop was removed, the high cost of the method has
reduced the profit from it to 93 cents per acre.

EDGELEY FIELD STATION.

The field station at Edgeley, N. Dak., is located on a soil that is
derived from the decomposition of shale. Shale in undecomposed
particles is found very near the surface. In the third foot the shale,
while broken and offering fairly free passage to water, is not as yet
broken down into soil. The depth of feeding of crops is practically
limited to the first 2 feet. The first foot carries an exceptionally
large proportion of water available to the crop. The limited depth of
soil that functions in the storage of water and in the development
of the crop, however, limits the supply of water that can be carried
in the soil to about half of that carried by soils of greater depths.
This makes the crop peculiarly dependent upon rains that fall while
it is growing.

20 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE IX.— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by different methods at the
_Edgeley Field Station, 1907 to 1914, inclusive.

Numb Yield per acre (bushels).
Treatment and previous orplats’
Bee: averaged.
1907 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed:
ORT ae Penarth TP 256) | 220583 B25) = 68S 1.5 | 36.7] 23.0 8 18.8
(OPW ey igs se eee 2 9.5 13.0} 27.6 4.7 1.0} 30.3 15.9} 17.1 14.9
Wheat bees... 3.238 1 TRAD 3583 23.3 5.2 5 | 27.0} 12.1 9.2 12.5
Total or average. - - 4 9.7 | 15.5 | 27.7 5.2 LAOS ESI a4 tind oye the wi kay a 15.3
Spring plowed:
Comiere see oases 2|213.2/a@15.8] 28.0 4.7 8] 35.5 22.7 | 16.7 V2
Oats saset. cuss Shes 1 4.2) 13.5 25.8 3.8 2) tole: |Pe2056) | Elie o 14.6
MV GCR aS eee eee 1 4.1 13.3 28.3 4.0 Te || pee ETSY T1583 14.1
Total or average -. 4 @.2| 24.2.) 27.5 4.3 6] 34.3 20.6 | 15.5 15.5
Disked Corns sss. 2.222: 12|613.4 |¢18.1] 27.8 ery) PA BBE | 2386 1) W760) Ee
Green manured: ,
UV O22 SLRs. aes 1 10.5 19.8} 30.5 2.6 3] 36.7 | 21.8] 12.8 16.9
IP GAS Me eee Sk die 1 1052) V852 2856 6.3 2M nde Zoe 20.3 17.9
Sweet clover....-..-- al eee UE 7/ 23-1 3.6 2| 34.2] 24.5 14.3 15.9
Total or average. -- 3/410.4| 16.6] 27.4 4.2 2) 36.1 | 22.8] 15.8 16.7
Summer tilled. .-..----. 5 |d10.9} 15.8] 27.5 8.0 3.2 || 135.4") 22651 16.0 17.9
Average of all 28 plats. ..|...--.--.- €10.6 |716.6| 27.6 5.7 1.9} 33.9] 22.5 16.2 16.9

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.

Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc. (average

per acre). Fall Spring | Disked Creen |Summer| Corn Small

plowed | plowed (12 manured| tilled (15 grain
(4 plats). | (4 plats).| plats). | (3 plats).| (5 plats).| plats). | (5 plats).

9.7 97.2 613.4 10. 4 10.9 213.2 6.

15.5 914.2 e18.1 16.6 15.8 18.2 13.

20-7 27.5 27.8 27.4 27.5 28.1 26.

5.2 4.3 5.7 4.2 8.0 5.6 4.

1.0 -6 2.6 2 3.2 7} ;

31.1 4.3 33.6 36.1 35. 4 734.0 30.

16.7 20.6 23.6 22.8 26.1 23.4 16.

15.1 15.5 17.0 15.8 16.0 17.0 14.

IAVENALO'S ico so 5 soem eeee 15.3 15.5 17.7 16.7 17.9 Ut 14.

Crop value, cost of production, |
ete.:
Wale eieenicscescs = eoseesee $10. 71 $10. 85 $12.39 $11. 69 pV PAGEY | oeocaases|iconcbenocs
Costes eee rks saeco bee 6. 56 6. 09 4.75 14. 61 IDO ee eesasked | aeSecccese
Profit, OG OSS =r ya= =e eee 4.15 4.76 7.64 | — 2.92 NAC 33a Eee naar five se
a Yield of 1 plat. d Average of 2 plats. g Average of 3 plats.
b Average of 5 plats. e Average of 18 plats. h Average of 7 plats.

ce Average of 9 plats. f Average of 22 plats. i Average of 11 plats.

This station presents for study the results of eight years. Five of
these have been years of good to heavy production. In one year the
production was light, in another it was very poor, while the remain-
ing year was one of practical failure of all methods under study.

The wide differences in yield resulting from different methods of
preparation that were obtained at some stations during some years

to He C0 SOV OI

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 21

are not exhibited at this station in either the good or the poor years.
The reason for this is to be found in the shallowness of the soil that
functions for the growth of the crop and for the storage of water that
can be recovered by the crop. This shallowness makes the crop
dependent for its growth upon seasonal rains that fall while the crop
is growing. It may be that this shallowness makes it possible to
realize quicker results from the cumulative effect of the use of manure
than would be realized on deeper soils.

The relative merits of fall or spring plowing of either wheat or oat
stubble seem to be a matter of season. In no case does it make
a great difference, and on the average the difference has been neg-
ligible. It should be noted that the result from the one plat of wheat
on spring-plowed wheat land deserves but little consideration. On
account of its location and of continual spring plowing, it has accu-
mulated blowing soil until it is now built up several inches above its
original level, or the present level of other plats.

Fall-plowed corn ground has apparently had an advantage over
corn ground, either spring plowed or disked, in preparation for wheat.
The results are determined from 1 plat of fall-plowed corn as against
12 plats of disked corn ground, which are distributed over the whole
field; the advantage, therefore, may be due to a particularly favor-
able location of the one plat.

With the exception of the high yield of wheat in 1914 on peas used
as green manure, there is little choice between them and rye similarly
used. Both have been better than sweet clover plowed under. The
average yield of wheat following peas as green manure is exactly
the same as the average on summer tillage.

Summer tillage has given an average yield of 17.9 bushels per acre
for the eight years. This is exceeded only by the yield on fall-plowed
corn ground. When this is compared with a similar average yield
of 17.7 bushels per acre from disked corn ground and 14.2 bushels
from wheat under all methods following small-grain crops, it is seen
that summer tillage is an unnecessary practice and one not to be
recommended for this section. This is brought out strongly by Table
IX, which shows the cost of production and the resultant profit or
loss from each method. Disked corn ground shows an average
8-year profit of $7.64 per acre, spring plowing $4.76, and fall plowing
$4.15, while the cost of summer tillage has reduced the profit to $1.03.
The average loss for the green manures has been $2.92 per acre.

HETTINGER FIELD STATION.

The soil at the Hettinger (N. Dak.) station is a heavy clay loam.
The seasons during which the work has been carried on have been
such that the results of soil-moisture study are not yet conclusive
in detefmining the proportion of water that can be stored in the soil

22 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and recovered by a crop. It is probable, however, that the depth
of feeding is not limited by any physical peculiarity of the soil and
that the quantity of water that can be stored islarge. It is reasonable
therefore to expect that on this soil the maximum effect will be realized
from methods of tillage calculated to store water.

TaBLE X.— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by different methods at the
Hettinger Field Station, 1912, 1913, and 1914.

Num-| Yield per acre (bushels). Num-| Yield per acre (bushels).
Treatment and ae Treatment and ae
previous crop. | 5 or Aware previous crop. | 3 vor. Acre
aged. 1912 | 1913 | 1914 age. aged. 1912 | 1913 | 1914 age.
Fall plowed: Disked:
Manured Connmeeeeeee 11 | 17.5 | 18.4 | 11.7 15.9
corm.....-- 1} 9.0] 18.0 } 11.7 12.9 Potatoes. ..- 1 | 11.7 | 16.7 | 11.7 13.4
Comaeeneere 1 |/ 13.8 | 17.8 | 12.0 14.5 —.
CANISs nbosee 2] 17.8 | 12.7 | 14.1 14.9 Total or
Wiheats22-2- 1 | 12.0 | 10.7 | 6.2 9.6 average . 12 | 17.0 | 18.3 | 11.7 15.7
Total or Green manured:
average. § | 14.1 | 14.4 | 11.6 13.4 Rye.sas2e2 22 2 | 16.0 |} 21,3 | 11.4 16.2
"| Pease tcscsse 1) 18.3 | 23.5] 9.0 16.9
Spring plowed: Sweet clover 1) TH 25)) 8.2 5) 788 9.1
Come 1} 13.0 | 26.3 | 10.3 16.5 ——
Oats ee.) 1} 8.3 | 16.5 | 10.8 11.9 Total or
Wheat...... 1] 14.3 | 13.8 | 10.0 12.7 average. 4} 15.4] 18.6] 9.9 14.6
Total or Summer tilled... 8 | 19.9 | 29.6 | 11.8 20.4
average. 3} 11.9 | 18.9 | 10.4 13.7 ee ==
Average of all 32
platss-e2 48/253 hone 16.6 | 20.6 | 11.4 16.2
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF COST.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.

Yields, values, etc. (average
per acre). Fall Spring | Disked |. Green |Summer| Corn Small Pota-

plowed | plowed (12 |manured] tilled (14 grain toes

(5 plats).|(3 plats).| plats). |(4 plats).|(8 plats).| plats). |(5 plats).| (1 plat).

Yields of grain:
OT cen eit Ue bushels. . 14.1 11.9 17.0 15.4 19.9 16.3 14.0 11.7
OSS ee ene eres donee 14.4 18.9 18.3 18.6° 29.6 18.6 IByS} 16.7
GOPas SS se se5b.. $24 doze 11.6 10.4 11.7 9.9 11.8 11.6 11.0 11.7
AVCTALO. 202 aos Lae 13. 4 13.7 15.7 14.6 20. 4 15.5 12.8 13.4
Crop value, cost of produc- =
tion, etc.: |
Wale ees au) sees $9. 38 $9.59 | $10.99 | $10.22 | $14.28 |..-.....2]222----2 abe. cee
CaS ae a ees ce = 2 a Pe ee 6. 56 6.09 4.75 14.61 EGU Ra Saaooeculosdacaoec|Sscssaoo0
Profit or loss........-.- 2. 82 3.50 6.24] —4.39 VA Ths tal ERS Coe AEE ol | So eee ss

The results of three years at this station are available for study.
The most striking things shown by the arrangement of yields for the
present study are the increased production of wheat on summer
tillage, on rye and peas as green manure, and on corn ground either
disked or plowed in the sprmg. When yields are studied in connec-
tion with cost of production, it is seen that, owing to good yield and
cheap cost of preparation, the greatest profit, $6.24 per acre, has
been obtained from wheat on disked ground. Of the disked plats,

ae

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. Za

11 were corn ground and 1 was potato ground. Spring plowing has
been productive of an average profit of $3.50 and fall plowing of
$2.82. Despite the increased yield on summer tillage, the high cost
of the method has reduced the profits from it to $2.78 per acre. The
still higher cost of preparation and the lower yields from green
manuring have contributed to make it show a loss of $4.39 per acre.

BELLE FOURCHE FIELD STATION.

The field-station farm near Newell, S. Dak., on the Belle Fourche
Reclamation Project, is located on a heavy gumbo clay soil, which
is derived from the decomposition of Pierre shale. From the soil at
the surface there is a rapid change to broken but undecomposed
shale. Near the bottom of the second foot is a comparatively im-
pervious layer of soil. The first foot and at least a part of the
second foot carry a large proportion of available water. It is prob-
able that little use is made of either water or soil below the first 2
feet. In spite of the heavy soil and the large quantity of water
that can be obtained by the plant from that portion of it near the
surface, the shallowness of feeding reduces the quantity of water
that can be carried in the soil to about one-half of that available on
deeper soils. The result of this is shown in the yields.

While the results of six years are available from this station, two
of them have been years of total failure of the wheat crop. These
failures were due to drought so extreme that no methods of culture
were able to overcome it. A third year produced some light yields,
but the crop was practically a failure for all methods. These three
dry years in succession afforded no opportunity to profit from
methods calculated to store moisture. The rainfall was so light and
its distribution so unfavorable as to make the accumulation of
water in the soil impossible. In two other years there was production
from all methods, but the yields were light. In only the first year of
the series under consideration was the general production heavy.

Neither in the average of the series nor in any of the years within
the series has there been evidenced sufficient difference in production
to warrant an extended discussion of the relative merits of the
methods under trial. The only partial exception to this statement
is to be found in the advantage of summer tillage over other methods
in resisting the dry seasons of 1913 and 1914. However, in 1913 it
was able to produce only 15.6 bushels per acre, as against an average
of 8.7 bushels on fall-plowed land that had been in crop the year
before. In 1914 it produced an average of 16.1 bushels per acre,
while the production on disked corn land was 10 bushels and on fall-
plowed ground only 5.8 bushels per acre. In 1912 all the available
water in the soil was used, but in no case was it sufficient to make a
crop.

24

BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

Taste XI.— Yields and cost of peodielieg of spring wheat by different methods at the

Belle Fourche

veld Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Treatment and previous crop.

Fall plowed:
Co

Total or average........--.

SpEne plowed:

Total or average

Listed: Wheat
Subsoiled: Wheat..:-..----------

Disked:

IPOtabOeSHese ee eee eee ae
SWielnigvans So ose nes se soos

Total or average......-..---

Green manured:

DRotaltoraverage-eos asses
Summer tilled

Average of all 30 plats

Number
of plats

averaged! i999 | 1910 | 1911
1 23.6 0 0
2 31.5 0 0
1 23.3 0 0
4 DA (ati yl meee a ein (rate A
1 23.9 3.0 0
1 26.1 2.4 0
1 23.8 2.8 0
3 24.6 PSTN EC SSG
1 28.7 0 0
1 28.5 0 0

10 29.8 3.8 0
1 21.9 US7/ 0
1 20.8 AG) 0
12 28.9 Coen Reseesor

1 30. 6 on 0
1 29.9 1483 0
2 24.5 0 0
4 27.4 Ro AR eeaGesc
5 327 4.3 0

at Sao 28.7 Og see ee

Yield per acre (bushels).

1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.
Oleg 6.3 6.2
o| 9.8 6.1 7.9
0 7.9 4.8 6.0
Chesed 8.7 5.8 7.0
0 5.6 4.5 6.2
0 7.9 6.0 7.1
0 6.2 4.0 6.1
ssa Pi 6.6 4.8 6.5
Oly. 29.5 es 7.5
0 6.8! 4.7 6.7
0| 10.3] 10.0 9.0
o| 123] 11.3 8.8
0 9.4 9.0 6.6
Cs ae 10.4/| 10.0 8.8
oil isa 3.8 10.6
O)h 1365) eas 9.3
0} 12.0] 13.9 8.4
Nase Ue 12.7| 13.2 9.2
o| 15.6] 16.1 1s
a ee ©, 10.8 | 10.1 8.7

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.

Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc | Green | Sum:
HERES NESS US |e aapstal Sl fShoratore | see ‘i
(average per acre). plowed plowed Disked Listed | soiled ey filled
ic i plats). |@ plat). ia (4 (5
plats). | plats). plat). plats).| plats).
Yields of grain:
1909...bushels.| 27.5 24.6 28.9 2857 |. 2855) 2he4 | 2.0
1910..--. do.... 0 2:7 3.3 0 0 1.8 4.3
Ty libs Gee, dozen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
LOIS ESE do.- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
LOVS ees do... 8.7 6.6 10.4 9.5 6.8} 12.7 | 15.6
1914..... do... 5.8 4.8 10.0 6.8 4.7 13.2 | 16.1
Average..... 7.0 6.5 8.8 7.5 6.7 9.2) 11.5
Crop value, cost of
production, etc.:
Waliescasseen- $4.90 | $4.55 | $6.16 | $5.25 | $4.69 | $6.44 | $8.05
Costaeee sees 6. 56 6.09 4.75 5.55 | 7.17 | 14.61 | 11.50
Profit or loss ....| —1.66 | —1.54 1.41 | — .30 |—2.48 |—7.17 |—3.45

a Average of 11 plats.

The only method that shows a profit here is disked corn ground.
This, on account of the low cost of preparation, shows an average

annual profit of $1.41 per acre.

All other methods indicate the

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. Oy

production of wheat at a loss ranging from 30 cents on listed land
to $7.17 an acre on green manure. Generally speaking, the more
expensive the method of preparation the greater the yield. But the
yields did not increase in the same ratio as the expense; it accord
ingly follows that the less the expense of preparation the less the loss
that attended the use of any method.

SCOTTSBLUFF FIELD STATION.

The work at Scottsbluff, Nebr., is conducted at a field station
located on the North Platte Reclamation Project. The soil is a com-
paratively light, sandy loam. At a depth varying from 5 to 8 feet
there is a sharp break from this soil to either sand or Brule clay.
Above this point the soil offers no unusual resistance to the downward
passage of water or the development of roots. Owing to its light
character, however, it is possible to store in it only a moderate pro-
portion of available water. While the evidence on this point is not
yet complete, the amount of water that can be stored in this soil is
known to be somewhat intermediate between the corresponding
amounts that can be stored in the Belle Fourche and North Platte
soils.

The results of three years are available for study at this station.
All have been years of comparatively light yields, but one of them
shows heavy production from one method.

Spring plowing has been generally better than fall, irrespective of
whether it were wheat, oat, or corn stubble that was plowed. Marked
benefit was apparently derived one year from the use of manure in
growing the corn that preceded one plat of wheat.

Furrowing with a lister and leaving the ground rough through the
winter instead of plowing was apparently beneficial one year, but of
neutral value in the others.

Disked corn ground was the second best method in one year, but it
seemed to be of little benefit in increasing production in the other
two years. Disked corn ground has each year given larger returns
of wheat than were obtained by plowing it either in spring or fall.

The results from green manure are not consistent either among
themselves or in comparison with other methods. In average pro-
duction it stands third on the list, bemg exceeded by summer tillage
and disked corn ground.

The highest yields each year have been obtained from summer
tillage. This method has an average yield of 19.9 bushels per acre
as against 14 bushels, the next highest average, from disked corn
ground.

26 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE XII.— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by different methods at the
Scottsbluff Field Station, 1912, 1913, and 1914.

! Num-| Yield per acre (bushels). || Num-| Yield per acre (bushels).
Treatment and ve Treatment and Oe
previous crop. | oor. Nore. previous crop. | 3 Vor. inser:
aged. 1912 | 1913 | 1914 age. aged. 1912 | 1913 | 1914 age.
Fall plowed: Listed:
OLB esses Seah IBEELS) 8.0] 9.5 9.7 Wheat.....- Pe ASTOR a2 620) 9.4
Manured Subsoiled:
corn...- 1 | 20.8] 9.8] 9.5 13.4 Wheat....-- lalla oul ose 9.4
Oats= see PAN OST 9.0 | 10.3 9.0 || Disked é
Wheat. .-.-- 1 6.3 7.8 6.7 6.9 Corn)... 42 11 | 19.1 | 11.8] 11.1 14.0
Total or Green manured:
average - 5} 10.8] 8.7} 9.3 9.6 WiOrecstse = 1 | 15.0 | 13.0 | 13.6 13,9
——— Beast ese: | LO ae 2 2) 12.6
Spring plowed: se aie
Connmleseeee- isi alias [ai bsey yh TE) 13.2 Total or
OPiSacsesda5 iN ey 9.5 | 12.0 11.1 average - 2 | 1324 VAS 6 | 1258 13.3
Sorghum. .-- DS 7 | Le 28 ee S80) 13.0
Wheat.....- Talk 70 1 PAO 2 8.8 || Summer tilled. -| 3 | 27.8 | 18.1 | 13.8 19.9
Total or | Average of all 27
average - A MCLs GROW CLC aig |)» poleisn ne so 4- Taller sOolealt= 6 Ol Te Neer
i 1 i }
< SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values,
ete. ee per} Fall Spring |Disked ered Sub- | Green au Corn | Small Sor-
3 plowed | plowed | (11 (1 plat) soiled jmanured tilled 14 grain | ghum
(5 plats).|(4 plats).| plats). pak (1 plat).|(2 plats). (3 plats) plats).|(7 plats).|(1 plat).
Yields of grain: |
1912. .bush..- 10.8 14.1 19.1 15.0 12.3 13.4 27.8 18.6 9.9 18.7
1913 ...do--.. 8.7 11.0] 11.8 1.2 6.3 13.6 18.1 11.4 8.3 11.2
19142 = dorse= 9.3 9.4 ileal 6.0 9.5 12.8 13.8 10.9 8.6 9.0
Average..-. 9.6 11.5 14.0 9.4 9.4 13.3 19.9} 13.6 8.9 13.0
Crop value, cost |
of production,
etc.:
Vales. ae sas* $6.72 $8.05 | $9.80 | $6.58 | $6.58 SONA s SIRS | Wes ace is Ae ee eae
Costeassencee 6.56 6. 09 4.75 5.55 Teale 14.61 110 bases 0) 54 ee BS Ss |e 22-2 a|on ne ne
Profit or loss... -16 / 1.96 | 5.05 1.03 | — .59 | — 5.30 ee allies walle lie cee ll» neha:

=

Having next to the highest yield and the lowest cost of preparation,
disked corn ground shows the greatest profit, $5.05 per acre. Other
methods that show profits are spring plowing, summer tillage, listing,
and fall plowmg. Subsoiling and green manure show losses.

NORTH PLATTE FIELD STATION.

The work here presented was conducted on the table-land of the
North Platte, Nebr., station. The soil is of the type generally known
as loess. With the exception of the humus accumulated near the
surface it is practically uniform to great depths. The storage and use
of water is not limited by the depth of soil or any peculiarities in it.
The development of roots is limited only by the’physiological character
of the crops grown and the available moisture. It is a soil on which
maximum results from tillage methods would be expected.

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS ARHA.

27

TABLE XIII.— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by different methods at the
North Platte Field Station, 1907 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Treatment and previous ARE
ENSibe averaged.
1907 | 1908 1909 | 1910 | 1911 1912 1913 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed:
Worn = Sree ese: ZAP 229 2s. (ay. 2Lao 7.6 0 6.4 4,1 5.5 12.0
WAL ese wantee 2) 26.3) 27.3 | 16.0 6.8 0 4.7 1.3 6.1 11.i
Wheat meee sete cccne Il) POO yy Pree! ibs 3} 6.7 0} 11.2 1.8 5.2 ih 7
Total or average... 5 | 24.7] 27.8] 18.0 eM. 222k 6.7 2.5 5.7 11.6
Spring plowed: &
Hist ae 1} 23.7 | 24.0] 17.2 5.2 0 5.3 1.5 5.0 10. 2
Oats seme eI 1!] 20.8} 17.5} 16.7 8.7 0 8.8 1.8 2.2 9.6
WinGAieeee oso 25 < <5 TE) GEES || PET || ZERO 6.8 0} 12.8 2.0 6.0 12%
Sorghum..........-- 1| 23.5) 20.3} 16.3 8.7 0 3.8 3.3 ae 10.1
Total or average... AN OROSe Ty |e 1S Mela Sei Meta ea| eee = TOMAR PS eG 10. 6
Disked: s
Corns ees 5. 3s 8} 24.5] 24.2] 14.5 7.3 0 4.6 3.0 5.1 10. 4
POtatOeS epee sees === 5 Da Seon | Seen |e ecace| cemiesion esis tere 5. 2 4.2 6.9 5.4
Total or average... 9 |a24.5 |a24.2 |a14.5 | 47.3 |_.....- a4.6 3.1 5.3 10. 5
Summer tilled........-- 3] 28.9| 41.4] 226] 15.3 o| 71| 68| 125 16.8
Average ofall 19 plats...|.....-...- 24.7) 26.3) 17.1 oh Uf |e Seee 6.4 | ¢3.2 6.3 11.6
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF CosT.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc. (average per
acre). el Spring Disked eaeaer Corn Small | « peainica
BeOWe Cy DOWEL ((Giplats) coy \(11 plats).| ,2°. | (1 plat)
(5 plats). | (4 plats). -| (8 plats). ‘| (5 plats). | Pi4-
Yields of grain:
OO (eee sci bushels. - 24.7 23.1 24.5 28.9 24.1 24.8 23.5
FLOODS os SE ey ose Lie do. 27.8 PHA 24.2 41.4 25. 0 24.4 20.3
1909 ee Soc do 18.0 18.3 14.5 22.6 16.0 17.4 16.3
(ON Ee 2. ae eee do 7.1 7.4 7.3 15.3 7.1 7.2 8.7
1 2 aS eeaeoee do.. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
OD Seeeeec cma =< 2! do. 6.7 Thee 4.6 Til 5.0 8.4 5.8
NOG Deer sae one miss do.. 2.5 2.2 3.0 6.8 3.0 1.6 3.3
a1 0 ee So do... On 4.6 yal 12.5 5.2 5.1 5%
Average............ do2==- 11.6 10.6 10. 4 16.8 10.7 11.1 10. 1
Crop value, cost of production,
etc.:
Welle 3 Se ae eeeCe ES eeerne $8. 12 $7. 42 $7. 28 SAR 7 Gs ects Saacaleee cose sere eee ee
COS ance siaiw oes icisi oe 6. 56 6. 09 4.75 LESHONS. Soe te Se | seit se ees ies eeeeee
IPTOM bare ne. a= 222-6 cine snes 1.56 1.33 74, 553 RZGN SEs Sonos sae eee see beese = a2 ce

a Average of 8 plats.

b Average of 22 plats.

c Average of 23 plats.

Some of the results of the work of eight years are exhibited in

Table XIII.

Three of these years have been productive of good to

heavy crops of wheat; in four years the average yields were light;
and in the remaining year under study the crop was a total failure
on account of drought, together with some damage from grass-

hoppers.

The general averages of spring-wheat yields for the eight

years range from 9.6 to 16.8 bushels per acre, according to the prepa-
ration and previous cropping of the land. A comparison of the

28 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

wheat crops raised on corn ground, oat stubble, and wheat stubble
with those on spring-plowed or fall-plowed ground after any crop, or
on disked-corn ground as a preparation for wheat, shows no wide
differences in yields. A small average difference in favor of fall
over spring plowing is shown. Fall plowing of corn ground in prepa-
ration for wheat appears from the returns of two plats so treated to
have been considerably better than either disking or spring plow-
ing it.

The one plat of wheat on spring plowing following wheat has given
an average yield of 12.2 bushels per acre. This plat is plowed shal-
low while the others are plowed deep, as heretofore explained. The
departure of this method from the others in yield appears to have
been dependent upon the seasons and is not consistent from year to
year.

Summer tillage for wheat at this station seems to stand by itself
as a means of increasing the yield. The largest increases in bushels
from this method have been obtained in the best years. After the
first year of a period of dry years, which began in 1910, summer tillage
has not been able, except in 1914, to increase yields or even, in some
cases, to maintain them at the standard set by less expensive methods.
While it is not shown in the present study, a much greater response
to summer tillage is obtained with winter wheat.t Consequently,
in spite of the fact that this method has been productive on the
average of more bushels per acre of sprmg wheat than any other, it
will not find favor in farm management as a general practice for the
erowth of spring wheat.

When the cost of production is considered, it is seen that the yield
obtained by summer tillage has been enough to pay for the cost of
the method. For the eight years under study it shows an average
profit of 26 cents per acre. Fall plowing and spring plowing show
profits of only $1.56 and $1.33 per acre for the same period. The low
cost of preparation is responsible for making disked corn ground show
an average annual profit of $2.53. |

While the sprmg wheat crop has been raised without much net
profit, it seems that it might afford a market for the Epos of men
and teams and pay for the use of the land.

AKRON FIELD STATION.

The soil at the field station at Akron, Colo., is of a clay-loam type,
locally known as “tight land.” It is characterized in the native
vegetation by a growth of short grass. As it carries in each unit sec-
tion a considerable proportion of water available to the crop and as
it offers no physical resistance to the development of roots, it 1s pos-
sible to store in it a large quantity of water available to a crop. It

1See Nebraska Experiment Station Bulletin 135.

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS ARBEA. 29

is a soil on which maximum results from methods of tillage calculated

to store water would be expected.

TaBLe XIV.— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by different methods at the
Akron Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Treatment and previous crop.

Fall plowing:
Cc

Total or average...-..------

Spring plowing:

Total or average.........---

iisted-NWneaL 8). onset ee
Subsoiled: Wheat...-.-----------
PISked =) COUN <5 54— 22 <)2-5 53.0 chee

Green manured:

Total or average......------
Summerifilled =. 2.2 3 2..jos2e qe 02
Average ofall 20 plats............ \iosesecuss

Yield per acre (bushels).

1912 1913 1914 | Average.

3.4| -30:3|- Lal 14.3 13.3
3.7| 18.8 te WAS 6 8.8

mila le eee 71 11.0 8.0

3.1| 20.6 8} 12.8 9.4

15.3 %.5| 6.8} 18.5 14.9
3 20.3] 10] 21.2 10.6
‘9 1.3| 4.8] 22.2 12.1
10.0 22.7| 4.2] 20.6 12.3
A 17.2 2.1| 14.2 8.6
iF 16.0 Fl ne 7.4
cy 19:0) S19\? 1687 11.2
199 |). 45 ele 15-5 11.0

20.3! 1.51 13.3 10.2

20.5) 391 11.2 8.5

20.0] 2.3] 13.3 9.9

20.5| 9.0] 22.5 14.6

rs ee eee 10.8

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF COST.

Yields, values, etc. (average

Tillage treatment.

Previous ¢rop.

Fall ae
plowed| plowed

5 4
plats). | plats).

Disked | Listed

Green | Sum-
ma- mer Corn Baa
muted eg : (6 a9
B 2 plats)
plats). | plats) plats)

per acre).
Yields of grain:
1909 (ees == bushels. -
1910 FeeeEA EELS. doze:
gees. 32 ee do...
ga) Dee = “So ee ee do
NOLS eee me a css do
1914 Sess e250 do
IAVEFAPC 0 2-28 23d
Crop value, cost of produc-
tion, etc.:
Waltietmeei. 2. i233 20.
Cost see 32s ceeecnscce

@ Only 1 plat up to 1911.

-2 12.3 18.4 17.0 11.2
a) 9.3 12.2 12.0 6.7
-5 2.4 4.8 1.9 2.3
0 20.0 20.5 22.1}, 18.5
a) 2.3 9.0 3.2 1.3
-8 13.3 22.5 16.6 14.5
4 9.9 14.6 12.1 Sit

b Only 1 plat after 1910.

The results of six years are available for study at this station.
Three years have been years of good yields, one of light yield, and the

other two of poor yields.

30 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The best average yield for the six years from any one method of
treatment is 14.9 bushels per acre from corn ground plowed in the
spring before seeding to wheat. This is closely approached by sum-
mer tillage, with an average yield of 14.6 bushels per acre. The next
highest eld) 13.3 bushels per acre, has been from corn pepund plowed
in the fall before seeding to wheat.

Disked corn ground has yielded an average of 11.2 bushels per acre.
This yield is exceeded by nine-tenths of a bushel per acre by wheat
following wheat on spring plowing.

Spring plowing has been productive of markedly heavier crops than
fall plowing, irrespective of whether it was corn, wheat, or oat stubble
that was plowed.

i urrowing with a lister and leaving the ground rough through the
winter has given results practically the same as fall plowing similar
stubble.

Subsoiling has been done at the expense of a decrease in the yields
every year except the first, when its increase over similar stubble
plowed at the same time was only 0.9 bushel per acre.

Green manuring has given about the same yields as land from
which a crop was harvested. Of the different crops used for green
manure rye has been the best and sweet clover the poorest, as judged
by the yields obtained immediately following them.

When the cost of production is considered in connection with the
yields obtained from different methods, the arrangement as presented
shows a profit of $3.09 per acre from disked corn ground and $2.52
from spring plowing. Fall plowing and listed land both show merely
nominal profits of a few cents per acre. Subsoiling and summer
tillage show losses of $1.99 and $1.28, respectively. The high cost
of green manure has increased the loss from it to $7.68 per acre. A
more detailed presentation would show that the greater part of the
profit from both spring and fall plowmg was from corn ground.

HAYS FIELD STATION.

The soil on which the experimental work has been conducted at
Hays, Kans., is a heavy silt loam. Penetration of water to the lower
depths is slow. The very compact zone in the third foot offers
marked resistance: both to the downward passage of water and to the
development of roots. While the evidence is not as complete as
might be desired, it appears that the proportion of water that can be
stored in the soil is comparatively high.

The results of five years are available from the Hays station, the
crop of 1909 having been lost through a hail storm that destroyed it
before maturity. Only two years have been productive of fair crops.
The year 1914 has not been considered in computing averages. In-
dications are that under ordinary farm conditions yields might have

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 31

been fair, but soil blowing on the experimental plats delayed seeding
until it was so late that the crop did not produce grain.

TaBLeE XV.— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by different methods at the
Hays Field Station, 1908 to 1914, inclusive.

Treatment and previous crops.

Fall plowed:

Total or average........--

Misted: Wiheate. = 6: - 22. 2s hen
Subsoiled: Wheat ............-- }
Disked: Corn..... pat Fat
Dinner ile. ssae0 >. 2.2. es

Average ofall 13 plats..........

rield 1 s).
Wide Yield per acre ! (bushels)
of plats ;
averaged.| i993 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.
1] coe ID) ea se | Te ea ao 8) Fo Dokag eset 2 = 6.5
Sli 47 |), Hpepesiony pod rae) einer (USL 6.9
1| 45] H 9.6| 0 15.2 tial eee 6.0
|| eB ea eG fo Tes. Wot eee 6.6
AGH PASS It CEO OFS FEO 4.4
RO see) | UBS ILO 5.7
de lee yt Qe ee 7.6| 0 4.3
3:1 Baesib ave O18 |imial 2 | 4.8
ith 28a Bde: 6 6.7
1} 1 5321) cone etn | 50 6.4
dels) 357 | Birr MOE: lor 0 7.0
Dine Dale eT LES ie oke 8.0
Reese tloAat S83 case 11.5 3 6.4

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF CosT.

Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc. (average — © A pee
per acre). a pring = = ub- uummer ma.
plowed | plowed Got eh soiled tilled ( Rea ) grain
(5 plats).|(3 plats).| * P'@¥)-| 4 Plat)-| (7 plat). |(2 plats).|'° P'2"S)-|(g plats).
Yields of grain:
TOPS: REE EE io?) bushels 4.5 1.6 37) Bee 5.2 4,2 3.0 4.0
109! eee. 5. 2 do-. H H H H H H H
es 6 ao oe do 11.9 9.8 10.6 15.0 12.6 11.3 10.9 11.8
QE eae ee ic ic c's do 0 0 0 0 0 2.2 0 0
U0 DAR ee do 15.2 10.9 16.2 11.8 12.7 15. 2 13.1 13.8
OT oS Seige = aici 5 = do 1.6 1.5 4.3 1.5 1.3 7.3 2.7 1.5
NOLES SES. Sh4i RVR 22) 0 2 oo Seed eee Se SY (ee ae S28 Os SE LS See | | Reel Lace be Sea [ata a ba
WAvrerappepe nts. 02 jah. 6.6 4.8 7.0 6.7 6.4 8.0 5.9 6.2
Crop value, cost of produc-
tion, etc.:
WWeallite SeeP ry. iets) ice, $4. 62 $3. 36 $4. 90 $4. 69 $4. 48 - SAE) i eee ae, ee ee
(CS 6. 56 6. 09 4.75 5. 55 7.17 1B SI) | | Nae Sane ele saan
Profit or loss..........- | —1.94] —2.73 15| —.86] —2.69:} — 5.90 }.....--.-|..-2.----

1 Danger of soil blowing on experimental plats in 1914 delayed seeding until it was too late to mature grain

2 H= Destroyed by hail.

The yields show very consistently an advantage of fall plowing over
_spring plowing, irrespective of the kind of stubble that is plowed.
They also show wheat doing better after oats than after wheat,
whether the stubble is plowed in the fall or in the spring.
Very small gains have attended both subsoiling and opening over

winter with a lister instead of plowing.

Disking corn ground has been better than plowing it.
The best average results have been obtained from summer tillage.
The gain of this method over disked corn ground, the next highest

32 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

yielding method, has been, however, only 1 bushel per acre. In one
year of fair production, summer tillage for wheat was done at the
expense of a distinct loss in yield as compared with nearly all other
methods.

While the differences noted are of value as indicators, the yields
are all so light and the average difference between the best and the
poorest method so small as to make them perhaps of little prac-
tical moment. Considering the apparent impossibility of materially
increasing yields by any method of tillage or management of the soil
and considering a thing not shown in this study—the greater adapta-
tion of winter wheat as shown by its higher and more certain yields
and its greater response to tillage operations—it would appear that
spring wheat has little or no place in the farm economy of this section.

The only method under trial that shows any profit is disked corn
ground. In spite of its low average yield the cheapness of this prepa-
ration leaves it with the nominal profit of 15 cents per acre. The
losses by other methods range from 86 cents for listing to $5.90 for
summer tillage. There being less differences in yield than in cost of
production, it follows that the least loss has been from the least ex-
pensive method.

GARDEN CITY FIELD STATION.

The work at the field station at Garden City, Kans., is on a high
upland. The soil is a light silt loam. With the exception of the ac-
cumulated humus near the surface it is practically uniform to a depth
of at least 15 feet. The development of roots is limited only by the
depth to which water is available and the physiological character of
the crop. The lighter character of the soil, however, makes it possible
to store in each unit of it but a comparatively small proportion of
water. This limited storage is not entirely overcome by the unlim-
ited depth of soul. The results in storing water have been deter-
mined largely by the limited quantity of water available for storage.
In no year, under any method practiced, has the soil been filled with
water to as great a depth as it is possible for the crop to develop roots
and to use available water.

The results of five years with spring shine are available from this
station, exclusive of 1913 when the crop was destroyed by hail on
July 4. In 1911, which is included in the averages, the crop was a
total Guile foe drought so extreme that it was not overcome ey ‘
any method under trial.

The yields so far from any of the methods under trial have not
been sufficient to indicate any possibility of the crop being a profit-
able one. Neither do the results attending any of the methods,
which cover a wide range, indicate the possibility of sufficiently
overcoming conditions by cultural methods to make it such. The
work, however, has been of great value in the information it has

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA.

33

supplied that may find application in the growth of other crops

better adapted to conditions.

The benefit of the stored moisture

accumulated in the soil by summer tillage or other methods is
usually seen in the increased growth of straw, but never has it
together with the rainfall been sufficient to mature the crop of grain
it has promised. This indicates the advisability of growing feed
crops which can be saved and utilized even though they do not

mature grain.

TasLE XV1.— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by different methods at the
Garden City Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Nee Yield per acre ashes).
Treatment and previous crop. orpiais si
ver-
aged. 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 aged.
Fall plowed:
Ot. sae ane SeGe eS tee 1 2.2 9.2 0 7.3 | @H Bil 4.9
OiSeraene Se ee Sade wie ais id dis 3 1.6 5. 1 0 7.9 H 8.0 4.4
\WWAIG) pi ooenne Se See eee ees 2 3.4 5.0 0 3.9 H on 3.2
Total or average............ 6 2.3 LSt Aen ey GHoaifeecaece 5.9 4.1
Spring plowed: |
Corn sees. a yin 1 | 4.0 3.5 0 8.2 H (0) 3.9
OBS aac oc BASSE aaa eee 1 2.5 PT 0 10.0 H 3.1 3.7
WWihedimemees se AL. e) 1 By i 2.5 0 ah) H 1.5 1.9
Total or average............ 3 2.9 2.9 ee (e078) Seep ae 2.3 ae i
MSted case seeeaeee tt Nb ih) 5 SEB eal Di - uLO | 12h 5.8 iil
Supsoiled terres ee ek Sd 1 2.9 5.2 0 Us H one 4.2
Wisked 7 Corns... 7-252 -52---22225- 2 1.2 5.2 0 10.0 H 6.7 4.6
Green manured:
12k Gasoc suce Sasa eeeeepe canes 1 1.4 5.8 0 8.8 H (0) c4.0
Pension hed 1 0.9 4.8 0 7.5| H (0) 63.3
Total or average..........-- 2 fee i Oulicsaeaes BED naar (>) c3.7
Summer tilled.................... a 7 5.6 | eee a aes 7.9 6.0
Average of all 18plats............|......----| 2.8 Oe aah eee UESa Bee eres 5.6 4,3
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF COST.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc. x
(average per acre). all Spring ee . Sub- Green |Summer Small
plowed | plowed RES) aces soiled /manured} tilled | Rae grain
(6 plats).|(3 plats).|“ P’4tS)-| C P'4t)-) (7 plat). |(2 plats).|(3 plats).|‘* P'*"5)-!(9 plats).
Yields of grain:
1909....- bus 2.3 2.9 iY 38 2.9 19 5.6 PsA 55)
HOIO: - = ES: do. 5.8 2a9 5.2 5.7 552 8) 7.6 5.8 4.6
iT ee do. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1919S do. 6.3 UH 10.0 11.0 (ot! 8.2 8.8 8.9 6.9
IOI Ronee do. H H H H H H H H H
NOI4. eee do. 5.9 2.3 6.7 5.8 Ror ares a 7.9 6.2 4.9
Average.....- 4,1 shi 4.6 5.1 4.2 3.7 6.0 4.6 3.8
Crop value, cost of
production, etc.:
Walle Feeees 82.2 $2. 87 $2.17 $3. 22 $3. 57 $2. 94 $2. 59 $4520) Se aacoelecmeeeeas
@ostiiecas2cs =e 6. 56 6.09 4.75 5. 55 (Kall 14, 61 TV 5O) |Pessccceslhctmecece
MOSS ee na —3. 69 —3. 92 —1.53 —1.98 —4,23 | —12.02 EGU) samesaesn lnocesdeers
a H= Destroyed by hail. b Crop blown out. e Average of 4 years only.

~

34 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DALHART FIELD STATION.

The soil at the field station at Dalhart, Tex.,

is a sandy loam.

In some respects it behaves like sand. In other respects it exhibits
the characteristics of heavy clay soil. Its water-holding capacity
is comparatively limited. The crops appear, however, to be able to
utilize its water to the depth of a normal development.

TaBLE X VII.— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by

different methods at the

Dalhart Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Number
Treatment and previous crop. of plats
averaged.) 1999 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912
Fall plowed:
OTM oso eee Bes ene 1 0 1H 0} 1H
Oats HN eee sea ieee nS 3 0 H 0 H
Wiheatocio. cok kn peace 1 4.0 H 0 H
Total or average........-..- 5 Beste eR SCAR OE Sees | ae!
Spring plowed: _
COT eee me os a ea ae 2 0 H 0 H
ORS eae one eee alae 1 0 H 0 H
SWihteatara ace 1S salu ey 1 0 H 0 H
Total or average...........- ZV sass ase lames sera eerie sa Paaier ars
Listed: Wheat........- ea 1 8.8 H 0 H
Disked:: Corm eso. eos ee 3 0 H 0 H
Green manured
IRA Oats t Ga ckeean wuiee “suo csses 1 0 H 0 H
IP OAS rei kee aay 2 ilar ie 1 0 H 0 H
Total or average... . Le ean PAS ets Secs Pies AU ed LSet a bg [as Oe
Summer tilled.................-.. 2 9.1 H 0 H
Average of all 16 plats...........-|.--.------ DQ) aera cea ae Ss Sui cee a

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF CosT.

Yield per acre (bushels).

1913 1914 | Average.

0 6.3 1.6
0 9.0 2.3
0 9.0 3.3
so ae 8.1 2.2
0 7.0 1.8

Ope eesaaede 0
0 7.8 2.0
ae 7.4 1.9
0 12.9 5.4
0 7.0 1.8
here a 3
iO) eee: 2 13
Dado 3
Te Aeiaeee 5.8
ON. 2.9

Tillage treatment.

Yields, values, etc. (average

Previous crop.

per acre). Fall Spring Disked | Listed Green |Summer Small

Gee Gann (3 plats).| (1 plat), (manured

tilled |.CO™

grain
(2 plats).|(2 plats). (6 plats). (6 plats).

Yields of grain:
LOO Meter eae bushels. - 0.8 0 0 8.8 0 9.1 0 2.1
GTO Lee ne as aes do.. H H H H H H H
MOUS e Seale ae SS do.. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
AGIOS ee ew oe do.. H H H H H H H H
MOUS eee ee is tee do... 0 0 0 0 1.1 7 0 0
OA oes Sea ces do. 8.1 7.4 7.0 12.9 (2) 13.5 6.8 9.7
AVOLAR@H sh ok eee 2.2 1.9 1.8 5.4 3 5.8 1.7 3.0
Crop value, cost of produc- a
tion, ete.:
Value edi ke rece $1.54 $1.33 $1. 26 $3.78 $0. 21 SA OG il ere oe Me Reco
Costznsetceclacs seca als 6.56 6.09 4.75 5.55 14.61 TES): (se aeeeae ee Ree aa
NEOSS Eee eae eae —5.02 | —4.76| —3.49 | —1.77 | —14.40 | — 7.44 |.-......-]---.--.--

1 H= Destroyed by hail. 2 Discontinued.

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 35

Methods covering a wide range have been under trial in attempts
to grow spring wheat each year since the station was started in 1908.
Practically no success has attended these efforts. The crops have
been lost by hail, drought, and soil blowing. In only three years of
the six have any yields at all been obtained. In 1909, 9.1 bushels
per acre were obtained from summer tillage and 8.8 bushels per acre
from ground furrowed with a lister in the fall. In 1913 green manures
and summer tillage produced yields not exceeding 1.1 bushels per
acre. In 1914 yields were obtained from all methods except on those
plats which were exposed to blowing from adjoining fields. The
highest yield of spring wheat yet obtained on the station was 13.5
bushels on fallow in 1914.

While feed crops and late-planted crops have been grown here
with success, the type of soil represented on the station farm is not
adapted to the growth of small grains under the climatic conditions
that exist.

AMARILLO FIELD STATION.

The soil at the field station at Amarillo, Tex., is a heavy clay silt.
It is of the type locally known as “tight land” or ‘‘short-grass land.”
While the evidence is not as complete as could be desired, it appears
that the storage of water and the development of the feeding roots of
the crop are interfered with by a comparatively impervious layer of
soul in the third foot. The soil above this, however, is competent to
care for all the water that it has been possible to store, even under a
system of alternate cropping and summer tillage.

The results of six years are available from this station. The year
1910 is not included; owing to a forced necessity for changing the®
location of the farm, the crops of that year were all grown on land
uniform in its preparation.

Following corn, where the fall plowing is necessarily late, spring
plowing has averaged better than fall and exactly the same as disked
corn ground. Following both wheat and oats, fall plowing is done
early, and has averaged better than spring plowing. Furrowing
with a lister has averaged better than plowing. Subsoiling has
resulted in exactly the same yields as plowing the same stubble at
the same time without subsoiling.

Green manuring has been productive of practically the same yields
as upon land from which a grain crop was harvested. Summer til-
lage has succeeded in raising the yields in a marked degree, but not
enough to furnish compensation for the use of the method necessary
to obtain them.

36

BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste XVIII.— Yields and cost of production of spring wheat by different methods at
the Amarillo Field Station, 1908 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Number
Treatment and previous crop. | of plats
averaged.) 199g | 1909 |a1910| 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed:

Co) io ar a eg nee 1 8.5 OP a eescees 5.7 1.3 0 11.7 4.5
OPH Ses Man art Alopecia ae 2] 13.5 O} 9 | Seeece 6.3 4.3 1.2 9.4 5.8
VWiheate ee eee 62] 14.0 DESO [erereeae 10.0 8.5 1.5] 11.9 8.1

Total or average...-...-.- 5 |) 1255 Hil Beets 7.1 4.6 1.1] 10.8 6.2

Spring plowed:
Cormeen. oscscke heel eeee ts 1 8.0 Qhsnys| 2 dere 11.6 9.3 -5| 10.2 6.6
Dei s Gi eiaaele 1 5.3 (ia eee 6.8 6.2 32 3.3 3.6
SWikleates ee soli UR See cas cl} 16.2 Oe see 9.4 6.3 0 11.0 UP
Total or average.........- 3] 114 (08 Praca 9.3 7.3 ne 8.2 6.1
Listed: Wheat........-.-:---:- 1} 14.3 Opie: 12.9 4.7 1.5| 11.0 7.4
Subsoiled: Wheat..........---- 1} 16.2 ANQ eee eee 11.3 4.2 af || 283 - 8.1
Disked: Corn.........---------- 1 8.3 OF Pesos 12.1 6.3 1.0] 11.8 6.6
Green manured:
DEA ene erste aie ays Ney heea cn 1) 1452 APS eee une 7.5 9.2 203 |) 1s 7 8.2
Peas\ises)-': ¢ Seesec0uebccase 1} 19.7 0 plete 11.4 8.7 2.5; 10.7 8.8
Total or average....-...-.- 2] 17.0 DAD) epee ie 9.5 9.0 2.4} 11.2 8.6
Summertilled....-.-.--.-:-..-- d6/ 16.3) 10.0 }..-..--. 18.7 9.8 8.1} 12.7 12.6
Average of all 19 plats. .........|...--.---- 13.3 PaaS Renee oe 10.5 1.2 3.3} 11,2 7.9
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST oF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
nee values, ae ue a ei a Strrare ee
average per acre). a ring : . Sub- Teen ma
plowed | plowed ary Goes soiled |manured filled (3 ) grain
(5 plats).|(3 plats).| * P°e-| C Pl@)-| (q plat). |(2 plats). (6 plats). plats)-|(g plats).
%
Yields of grain:
1908. . .bushels. - 12.5 11.4 8.3 14.3 16.2 17.0 16.3 8.3 13.7
1909 Sse doses of 0 0 0. 4.0 2.2 10.0 0 -9
SO Ka eA ava ao a ene De eee Oe a el eae eel Me Sa aay bene Re Lee Cae oh ie Sh RAL SS
1911__.... do. 7.1 9.3 12.1 12.9 11.3 9.5 18.7 9.8 9.0
1912._.... do. 4.6 73 6.3 4.7 4.2 9.0 9.8 5.6 5.5
IG osc do. 11 2) 1.0 1.5 8 2.4 8.1 5 1.0
1914...... do. 10.8 8.2 11.8 11.0 12.3 11.2 12.7 11.2 10.0
Average. ..... 6.2 6.1 6.6 7.4 8.1 8.6 12.6 5.9 6.7
Crop value, cost of
production, etc.:
WValuesrit e322: $4. 34 $4. 27 $4. 62 $5. 18 $5. 67 $6. 02 $8. B25 [Bes 2 eet hss See
Coste eases: 6. 56 6.09 4.75 5, 55 7.17 14. 61 1D EO ieee, tesla aeOMRo KS
Wosstmecey asc —2.22 | —1.82] — .13] — .37 — 150) || 2 8559 is —) 2568) | ee ee i ae ee sare

2 Location of station changed in 1910; records not used.

6 One plat only to 1912.

c Two plats averaged to 1911.
d Only two plats were averaged up to 1912.

None of the methods under trial show the production of spring

wheat at a profit.

of crops not treated in this publication—the grain sorghums.

More profitable crops are produced from a group

It

appears from the evidence at hand that the spring-sown small grains
are not destined to occupy a place of major importance in the agri-
culture of this section.

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 37

GENERAL DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.

In the preceding pages data have been presented and briefly dis-

cussed separately for each station without reference to results at
other stations. In the followimg pages some of the more important
bearings and indications are considered from a more general stand-
point.

To facilitate this study, Table XIX has been compiled, in which
are brought together for each station the average yields as grouped
for this study under different methods of preparation. The figures
here given are taken from the last column of the tables as given for
each station. The yield and cost of production data are also
assembled in such a way as to show the profit or loss in dollars and
cents per acre for the average crop for each Henao for which it has
been computed at each station.

TaBLE XIX.—Comparison of the average yields and profit or loss on the production of
spring wheat, by different methods of tillage at 14 stations in the Great Plains area.

Methods of tillage.
Number
Statement of data. | of years va an a u fe
averaged. a pring F ub- 3) au reen ummer
plowed. | plowed. | L#sted Disked. |manured.| tilled.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
aes per acre (bush-

S):4
Judith Basin. 5 Dali 22.5 20.4 20.8
Huntley 2 20.0 22.4 22.3 25.9
Williston. 5 15.3 16.2 18.6 20.2
Dickinsor 6 20.1 23.3 22.2 27.5
Edgeley 8 15.3 17.7 16.7 17.9
Hettinger 3 13.4 ibs 7/ 14.6 20.4
Belle Fourch 6 7.0 8.8 9.2 11.5
Scottsbluff ....... 3 9.6 14.0 13.3 19.9
North Platte..... 8 11.6 LO: AY hess Meyda s 16.8
PANT OT ett 25) seas 6 9.4 11.2 9.9 14.6
Ay SEs eate te. 6 6.6 CBU ae eae 8.0
en ity A=. 5 4.1 4.6 3.7 6.0
Dalhart........-. 4 2.2 1.8 He) 5.8
Amarillo.......-.. 6 6.2 6.6 8.6 12.6

JNK) (272) a a (a 11.6 13.0 13.3 16.2

Profit or loss (—) per
acre:

Judith Basin. .... 5 $8.91 $9.10 $9. 64 $8. 79 $11.00 —$0. 33 $3.06
euntleyer sae). 2 7.44 7.56 7.05 4.03 10. 93 1.00 6.63
Williston... 5 4.15 E530: Bal | ah | ea ein 6.59 — 1.59 2.64
Dickinson.......- 6 7.51 Tsihle\ 2Se 8 | gpeogal S. 2 11.56 .93 7.75
Hidgeley.. =... ..-- 8 4.15 TAA hin ape es Sich Hl hl ee i 7.64 — 2.92 1.03
Hettinger. _...... 3 2.82 BRU Eee ebousel Cabeeee met 6.24 | — 4.39 2.78
Belle Fourche. ... 6 —1.66 —1.54 — .30 —2.48 1.41 — 7.17 —3. 45
Scottsbluff......- 3 e .16 1.96 1.03 — .59 5.05 — 5.30 2.43
North Platte..... 8 1.56 P3330) eee cel acocitee ee QDS Epeimssclee 26
Aikronepeees . 5.0. 6 . 02 2.52 47 —1.99 3.09 — 7.68 —1.28
RELY Seep hoc 5 —1.94 —2.73 — .86 —2.69 pa HS 6) bs oh ee —5.90
Garden City..... 4 —3.69 —3.90 —1.98 —4.23 —1.53 | —12.02 —7.30
Wallan ieee aes as 6 —5. 02 —4.76 Seed ieee oe heste —3.49 | —14.40 —7.44
Amarillo._....... 6 —2.22 —1.82 — .37 —1.50 — .13 — 8.59 —2.68

1 The averages of columns 3, 4, 7, and 9 are strictly comparable with each other; columns 5 and 6 approxi-
mately so; column 8 is not comparable with any other,

38 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Table XIX shows a rather natural division of the stations into two
groups. At the 10 more northern stations spring wheat has been
crown at a profit by at least one method. At Belle Fourche the only
profit was $1.41, from disked corn ground. At the 4 more southern
stations the only profit realized from any method has been 15 cents
an acre from disked corn ground at Hays.

When tests on fall-plowed ground following corn, oats, and wheat
are averaged together and compared with spring plowing following
the same crops, the averages of the two methods at the 14 stations
are the same for the years averaged. At only 3 stations—Scotts-
bluff, Akron, and Hays—are the average differences greater than 1
bushel per acre. At Hays the advantage is with fall plowing and
at the other 2 stations with spring plowing. At most stations the
average difference is too low to receive much consideration. The
advantage of one over the other depends chiefly upon the season, as
is shown in the detailed tables. The data indicate the importance
of understanding the general principles that govern the observed
seasonal variations and the importance of adjusting this work to the
general economy of the farm organization. This subject is too broad
to be considered here, and a separate publication dealing with it in
detail is in preparation. The small difference in cost of the two
methods makes relative profits and losses from them follow closely
the differences in yields.

Disked corn ground has given consistently high yields. This,
together with the low cost of this preparation for wheat, has resulted
in its uniform showing of the greatest profit per acre at those stations
where it has been possible to raise wheat at a profit and the least loss
at those stations where wheat has been raised only at a loss. The
only exception to this is at Dalhart, Tex., where yields have been so
low as to be of little practical moment. The realization of these
profits depends, of course, upon the successful growth of corn as a
general farm crop in competition with other crops.

It should be borne in mind that at all stations disking corn ground
as a preparation for all small grain crops has been done upon corn
land kept free from weeds. If weeds were allowed to develop in the
corn similar results should not be expected. To the extent that
the weeds developed or were unhindered in their growth, the corn
ground would approach a grain stubble in the condition of the seed
bed. If the weeds matured seed, further damage might be done by
their growth in the succeeding crop. Where moisture is the limiting
factor, weed growth is decidedly detrimental.

Subsoiling, as compared with similar wheat stubble fall plowed
without subsoiling, has been of doubtful utility as a means of in-
creasing yields. As a means of overcoming drought it is without
value. Only at Judith Basin and Scottsbluff has it been able to

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GRHAT PLAINS AREA. 39

account for an increase of more than 1 bushel per acre. At Judith
Basin the increase has been 1.9 bushels and at Scottsbluff 2.5
bushels. This evidence from eight stations, some of which have
records for study covering eight years, together with the evidence
at hand but not here reported of other work on depth of plowing,
which includes deep tilling and dynamiting, would seem to be con-
clusive that the nature of the Plains and the trend of their agriculture
are not to be changed by the simple expedient of working them to a
greater depth than is reached by the ordinary plow and equipment.

Listing wheat stubble instead of plowing it in the fall has resulted
in a small increase of yield at seven of the eight stations where it has

been tried. At Amarillo it has increased the yields in the years of

heaviest wheat production, but it shows on the average a loss of 0.6
bushel per acre at this station. As it is a somewhat cheaper method
of preparation than fall plowing, it has consequently been a more
- profitable one.

Except at the Judith Basin and Akron stations, summer tillage
has given the highest average yields of any method under trial. At
en the S lds on summer tillage has been exceeded by that on
spring-plowed corn ground by 0.3 bushel per acre. The reason for
the departure at the Judith Basin station from the general rule is
discussed under that station. For the whole 14 stations under
study the average increase in yield over disked corn ground has been
3.1 bushels per acre. Summer tillage requires the use of the land
two years to produce a crop and requires an extra amount of culti-
vation to keep it free from weeds in the fallow year. It consequently
has the highest acre cost of any method under trial except that of
green manuring. A study of the relative profits and losses from
different methods, as given in Table XIX, shows that the increase in
cost of production by summer tillage has been relatively greater
than the increase in yields resulting from it. With one or two
exceptions the highest yields have been obtained by this method.
It has not at any station been the most profitable when a profit was
realized nor has it been the source of the least loss where wheat has
been raised at a loss. At eight stations it shows a profit, but a smaller
one than was realized from some other method or methods. At
three other stations it has resulted in a loss while some other methods
have resulted in profit. At the remaining three stations its practice
has increased the loss attending the use of less expensive methods.

Green manuring is the most expensive method under trial. It
resembles a fallow in that it requires the use of the land for two years
for the production of one harvested crop, with the added expense of
seed and seeding. ‘There is a saving in cultivation during the spring
while the crop is growing, but this is offset by the necessity of plowing
to turn the crop under and is not sufficient to make up for the cost

40 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of seed and seeding. Yields have not been commensurate with the
increased cost of producing them. At no station have the average
yields following any green manure exceeded those from summer
tillage. At Huntley and Dickinson, the two stations having the
highest average yields, small profits have been realized from this
method in spite of its high cost. At the 10 other stations at which
it has been under trial the result has been a monetary loss, both
actually and in comparison with other methods.

It is hardly fair to charge the whole expense of green manuring to
the one crop that immediately follows it, as is here done. It should
have a cumulative effect in building up the soil or remedying its
deficiency in organic matter. The available evidence is that on
normal soils in the Great Plains, at least in the first years of the
work, little effect is shown on other than the first crop. This effect
is that of a fallow to the extent that the green manure approaches a
fallow in the storage of water during the period after the crop is
plowed under.

At different times and in different sections certain methods have
been exploited as the solution of the problems of dry farming. Hach
of these systems may have merit, but any and all fall far short of a
panacea under all conditions. ‘The observations and investigations
that have developed these systems, or upon which the advocacy of
special methods have been founded, have been altogether too lim-
ited both in geographic extent and in range of time. There is
always, too, the temptation to magnify the importance of those
single years which may be exceptional, but whose results point
strongly in the desired direction, losing sight of the fact that it is the
average of a long series of years upon which the agricultural organi-
zation and practices of a section are and must be based.

The scope of the work in hand is broad enough, both in length of
time and in geographic distribution, to overcome these objections.
One fact conclusively shown is that cultivation is not an unfailing
solution of the problem of drought. It will doubtless alleviate it to
some extent, but can never fully overcome it. Some methods have
shown consistent merit under some soil conditions. The same sys-
tem when transplanted to some other environment may show little
or no merit. With the exception of one year at one station the
greatest difference in yield between the supposedly good and the sup-
posedly poor method has been in the good years rather than the bad
years. This shows that good systems have more efficacy in augment-
ing the results obtained in a good year than in overcoming the con-
ditions of a very unfavorable year.

A study of the data given in the tables will show that at some
stations no material difference has resulted from the various methods
of tillage used in preparing the soil for spring wheat.

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. witha 5

On shallow soil, where the development of roots and the recovery
of water is limited by underlying shale, or on shallow soils under-
lain by gravel impervious to plant roots, one can not expect to get
any material benefit from systems of tillage calculated to increase
the storage of water in the soil. The shallowness of the soil will of
itself limit the amount of water that can be stored init. It may be
that one heavy rain or rainy period will be sufficient to fill such a
soil completely. After it has been filled to its carrying capacity it is
obvious that no amount of cultivation will increase its water content.
Crops grown on such soils are dependent upon seasonal rainfall.

The soils upon which these investigations have been made are in
the main fertile. In most cases they have been but recently broken
from the native sod and in no case has the fertility been dissipated
by long-continued cropping. Unless some abnormal factor enters in,
such as hail or injurious insects, the yield obtained is largely deter-
mined by the available water. Since the water available to the
crop on shallow soils can not be materially increased by cultivation,
and since on these soils water is the chief limiting factor, it is
unreasonable to expect much increase in yield from one method of
tillage over another. :

On uniform soils of sufficient depth to allow the accumulation of a
surplus of water, wider variations in yields are to be expected from
the various methods, under climatic conditions favorable to the
storage of water. Such results have been obtained at several of
the stations. The differences in yields, however, from different
methods of tillage, have not been the same from year to year, even
on the most responsive soils, but have varied with the climatic con-
ditions. In some years comparatively wide differences are obtained.
In another year the climatic conditions may be unfavorable and
little or no differences in yield are shown. The rainfall might be so
distributed that it could not be accumulated in the soil by one
method more than by another. If only light showers came, or dry
weather prevailed during the practice of some system calculated
to accumulate water in the soil, it is obvious that little or no water
would be stored. If the rains came later in sufficient amount and
falling slowly enough to avoid run-off, the soils under all methods
would be filled with water, which would tend to equalize the result-
ing yields. If, on the other hand, little or no rain came and none
had been stored, the results would be equalized in failure. It must
be borne in mind that cultivation of itself does not accumulate the
water in the soul. There must first be rain. The cultivation can
assist only in getting the water into the soil and in preventing its
loss through weeds, by run-off, or by vaporization and loss through
shrinkage cracks.

49 BULLETIN 214, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

At some stations the yields have been so nearly practical failures
that it is evident that the growing of spring wheat is not a profitable
practice. At other stations one or two crops show a profit, while
the remaining ones are practical failures. They indicate that the
farmer may not find spring wheat profitable on the average even
though some years show a profit. That a certain locality is not
favorable to the growing of spring wheat does not mean that it is not
a farming section. It simply indicates that soil and climatic con-
ditions are not favorable to the production of this crop. Other
crops may find their most favorable environment at such a place.
Only one crop is herein discussed. At every station some crops have
been grown that have given good returns. At the southern stations,
for example, the grain sorghums have done well and should be con-
sidered the main crops.

Where work has been carried on for several years with no material
difference in yield obtained from the various methods, it indicates
that more freedom may be used by the farmer in planning his opera-
tions. If spring plowing, fall plowing, or disking after some inter-
tilled crop gives practically the same yields, the rational thing to
do is to take advantage of this fact. It is desirable to plow when
it can be done most economically for men and teams. If the crop-
ping system includes intertilled crops and disking is as effective
and can be done at less labor cost, it is advisable to disk the land to
prepare for wheat. Unless there is a gain from some certain method
of tillage or crop sequence, one should adjust the work from the
standpoint of economical operation. The farmer can then give his
thought to procuring better seed, keeping ahead with his work, and
preventing the growth of weeds.

CONCLUSIONS.

These conclusions apply only to the yields of spring wheat as
affected by the cropping and cultivation of the one year immediately
preceding their growth.

(1) Some seasons are so unfavorable as to result in failure of the
spring-wheat crop without regard to the cultural methods under
investigation. Extremely unfavorable climatic conditions can not
be overcome by cultural methods.

(2) It is only in those seasons when the rainfall deficit is so small
that it can be overcome by moisture stored in the soil that the
cultural methods under investigation have shown important effects
upon yields.

(3) When the differences in value of the yields are less than the
differences in cost of production, then cost becomes the determining
factor.

SPRING WHEAT IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 43

(4) Some soils, even in the regions of profitable spring-wheat pro-
duction, show little response to cultural methods.

(5) Reducing the cost of production has in most cases in these
investigations proved a more important factor in determining profits
than increasing yields by cultural methods.

(6) Northern Colorado and Kansas seem from these investigations
to be the southern limit of profitable spring-wheat production on
the Great Plains. This limitation does not apply to winter wheat
and other crops under investigation.

(7) Disked corn ground has given consistently high yields. This,
together with the low cost of preparation, has resulted in its showing
the highest average profit or lowest average loss of any of the methods
tried at all of the fourteen stations except one. These profits are based
on the assumption that the corn crop was so utilized as to pay for
the cost of its production. (If the corn crop was grown at a loss,
this loss should be deducted from the profits on the wheat crop
following it.) t

(8) Furrowing with a lister and leaving the surface ridged through
the winter has resulted in a small increase in yield over plowing at
seven of the eight stations where it has been tried. As it is a some-
what cheaper method of preparation than plowing, it has conse-
quently been more profitable.

(9) The average difference in the yields of spring wheat following
fall plowing and spring plowing are very small. At most stations
the advantage of one over the other depends upon the season.

(10) Subsoiling has been of doubtful utility as a means of increas-
ing yields. As a means of overcoming drought it is without value.

(11) Summer tillage without crop has given the highest average
yields of any method under trial at 12 of the 14 stations. However,
on account of its high cost, due to extra labor and alternate-year
cropping, it has not been the most profitable practice.

(12) The most expensive method under trial is green manuring.
It has produced less profit’or greater loss than any other method
under investigation.

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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 215

Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry
CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER May 21, 1915

COMPOSITION OF CORN (MAIZE) MEAL MANU-
FACTURED BY DIFFERENT PROCESSES AND
THE INFLUENCE OF COMPOSITION ON
THE KEEPING QUALITIES

By

A. L. WINTON, W. C. BURNET,
and J. H. BORNMANN

CONTENTS

Introduction Relation of Moisture Content to Keeping

Consumption of Corn Meal Quality of Degerminated Bolted Roller-

Manufacture of Corn Meal é ground Meal

Products of Corn Milling 5 | Comparative Keeping Quality of Whole-

Composition of the Products of Corn kernel Stone-ground Meal and Deger-
Milling minated Bolted Roller-ground Meal .

Spoilage of Meal 15 | Summary

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915

Sia i Oh as hay
=) USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE ‘

No. 215.

Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry, Carl L. sani Chief.
May 21, 1915.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER. )

COMPOSITION OF CORN. (MAIZE) MEAL MANUFACTURED BY
DIFFERENT PROCESSES AND THE INFLUENCE: OF OM
POSITION ON THE: KEEPING OUALIRIES:

By A. L. THETON. Wee Ct ‘BURNET, Chemist in Cheng ae ‘Food and, Drug
Inspection Laboratory, and J. al, BoRNMANN, Assistant Chemist.

I

CONTENTS.

eet: : Page.
Introduction. 422-88 oscetececes sss -eissei cryy 1 | Relation of moisture content to keeping qual-, -
Consumption of corn meal..-....-.,--------. UB ity of Cease ae bolted roller-ground
Manufacture of corn meal....... BOSE aCaEHECe 3.'|) Meme LE Le POLES TL Caan his Oe 16
Products of corn milling. .-:.--...,.-2...---. .’ 5 |-Comparative keeping quality, of whole-kernel
Composition of the products of corn mill- stone-ground mealand degerminated bolted,

ii Cae ERE mae Geen Tac oe e coc ene 6 roller- prong mealeess ss 282.8. 925 se Ae 22
Spoilage of meal...././.--+---+- sdootsoveies t- ) 15. |: Summary..j... .s<--:2- sdoddovedbeesoece dlescou 30
INTRODUCTION...

opt

The cause, detention, and prevention of the spoilage of Indian corn
have been given special attention by the investigators in the Bureau
of Plant Industry who have studied the subject from the chemical,
biological, and toxicological standpoints. In view of the fact that an
excess of moisture is conducive to spoilage as well as shrinkage,
Brown and Duvel? have introduced a rapid method for the deter-
mination of this constituent which has come into extensive use in
erain standardization laboratories as well as in elevators and mills.
The percentages of moisture obtained by this process are important
factors in determining the grade of market corn.

While moisture is doubtless the most important of the controllable
factors causing deterioration, the determination of acidity has come
to be recognized as the best chemical means of detecting actual

1 Dr. Winton was formerly chemist in charge, Food Investigation Laboratory.

2 Brown, Edgar,and Duvel,J.W.T. A Quick Method for the Determination of Moisturein Grain. U.S.
Dent. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bul. 99.

NorEe.—This bulletin is of interest to corn millers and dealers in corn and corn products and is suitable
for distribution in all parts of the country.

85755°—Bull. 215—15——1

2 BULLETIN 215, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

spoilage, or at least a tendency in that direction. Italian and
Austrian authorities have for some time placed dependence upon
this determination in conjunction with certain qualitative tests
which appear to have local significance. The Austrian chemist,
Schindler,! described a method for acidity, and Black and Alsberg?
in the United States have elaborated the details of the process in
order to make it applicable for the use of those unskilled in laboratory
manipulation. The process described by these authors has been
further popularized by Besley and Baston,*? and applied in their
investigations on the soundness of corn. A certain amount of acid-
reacting material, residing chiefly in the germ, is present in sound
corn although no sour taste or smell is evident. During spoilage
this acidity rapidly increases through the agency of molds or
bacteria, or both, until the limit of tolerance is exceeded.

Although the spoilage of corn, as such, has been the chief subject
of investigation by the authors named, Black and Alsberg have also
shown that the corn meal on the American market often contains an
amount of acidity in excess of 30, the arbitrary limit adopted by the
Austrian chemist Schindler. This figure, in chemical language,
represents the number of cubic centimeters of normal alkali required
to neutralize the acidity in the extract from 1,000 grams of the meal.

The main purpose of this paper is to show the general composition
of American table meal milled by different processes, and especially
the keeping qualities of the extreme types, dried to different degrees
and stored in different localities. Incidentally, the composition of
grits and the by-products are considered.

The writers desire to express their appreciation for the assistance
furnished by corn millers in various parts of the country who have
permitted the inspection of their plants and furnished samples of
corn and meal for analysis. Special thanks are due Mr. H. Bates, jr.,
president of the American Hominy Co., also Mr. F. C. Atkinson,
chemist, and Mr. Charles Highstreet, general superintendent of that
company, who threw open their mill at Terre Haute, Ind., for the
experiments. Acknowledgment should also be made for the coopera-
tion of Mr. W. J. McGee, former chief of the New Orleans Food and
Drug Inspection Laboratory, and for the analytical work carried out
by Mr. L. Patton, assistant chemist at the Savannah Food and Drug
Inspection Laboratory.

CONSUMPTION OF CORN MEAL.

The consumption of corn meal is greatest in the Southern States of
the Union, where in certain sections meal and grits are the principal

1 Schindler, Josef. Anleitung zur Beurteilung des Maises und seiner Mahlprodukte mit Riicksicht auf
ihre Eignung als Nahrungsmittel. Innsbruck, 1909.

2 Black, O. F., and Alsberg, C. L. The Determination of the Deterioration of Maize, with Incidental
Reference to Pellagra, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry Bul. 199.
' 3 Besley, H.J.,and Baston,G@.H. Acidity asa Factor in Determining the Degree of Soundness of Corn,
U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul, 102.

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. 3

cereal foods. Hon. E. J. Watson, commissioner of agriculture, com-
merce, and industries of the State of South Carolina, who has been
particularly active in repressing the sale of spoiled meal in his State,
is responsible for the statement that in South Carolina corn meal is
not only the principal cereal product, but the most important of all
articles of diet.1 The same statement applies to many other regions
in the South, particularly the rural districts, where wheat flour is of
secondary importance and in some cases even a rarity. In many
southern families, even in the cities, corn meal in some form or other
is eaten three times a day, and in most families at least once a day.

Among the common corn-meal dishes eaten in the South are hoe-
cake, a mixture of corn meal and water with or without salt, cooked
in a frying pan or griddle; corn bread or pone, made with the addition
of baking powder or its equivalent and baked in the oven; griddle
cakes, prepared from a thin batter with the addition of a leavening
agent; egg or spoon bread, differing from ordinary corn bread in that
eges are used; and corn dumplings, usually cooked with either meat
or vegetables. Corn meal is used in puddings, waffles, poultry dress-
ing, meat and fish dishes. There is also a large consumption of
mush made from hominy or grits and of lye hominy prepared from
the whole grain after removal of the hull with caustic soda.

The corn and grits used in the South are prepared almost exclu-
sively from white dent corn in both northern and southern mills.
In the North, where corn products are consumed to a less degree,
the preference is usually given to meal made from yellow corn,
although the so-called hominy (grits) made from white corn is a
common breakfast cereal. Hasty pudding (corn mush) and Johnny
cake (corresponding to the hoecake of the South) have been made
in New England households since colonial days. Indian pudding,
a popular dessert prepared from corn meal, milk, and eggs, has long
been regarded as one of the necessary adjuncts to the New England
Thanksgiving dinner.

The dent varieties, both white and yellow, are generally used in
the manufacture of meal and grits. A white variety known as
“hominy corn,’’ extensively grown in eastern Illinois and western
Indiana, is preferred by many millers. In Rhode Island white flint
corn has been milled for generations to produce a kind of meal much
esteemed by the residents of that State, and in some other regions
flint corn is milled to a limited extent.

MANUFACTURE OF CORN MEAL.

Although the consumption of meal is greatest in the South, the
production of corn is greatest in the States of the Middle West form-
ing the “corn belt.’’ In the South the acreage is given up largely
to the production of cotton, and the corn crop is not sufficient to

1 Personal communication.

4 BULLETIN 215, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

supply the local demand. While the southern corn is used as far as
it goes, and is usually preferred, the larger part of the meal is either
ground by southern mills from western corn or is milled in the
North, usually in or near the region where the corn is grown.

THE STONE PROCESS.

With few exceptions the southern mills grind the corn by stones.
The chief difference between the process of the small country mill
with a single “run of stone,” which grinds the grist that the farmer
brings in on his back, and that of the large mill, with several to 40
or 50 “run of stone,” is in the perfection of hp grain-cleaning and
the bolting systems. In many of the mills native stones, notably
the so-called Esopus stones from New York quarries, are pated to
French buhrs for the reason that they produce a soft, smooth meal,
which is highly esteemed by southern cooks.

The term “water meal”’ has been applied indiscriminately to old-
fashioned, stone-ground meal regardless of the fact that at the pres-
ent time steam or even electricity is often the motive power. Natu-
rally the nature of the milling machinery and not the power deter-
mines the character of the meal. Stone-ground meal is either milled
from corn without bolting, and consequently does not differ in com-
position from the whole grain, except for the removal of a small
amount of chaff by a simple fan device, or is bolted to remove the
coarse bran and germ. It is stated that when unbolted meal is
used the cook is accustomed to put it through a sifter, thus removing
the greater part of the coarse, branny tissues, so that the final result
attained is the same as if bolted meal had been used.. Stone-ground
meal, owing to the incomplete removal of the fatty matter of the
germ, is characterized by its rich oily flavor, the taste for which when
once acquired 1 is not satisfied by degeuminated meal in which the fat
content is reduced to the minimum.

In the small stone mills no attempt is made to dry either the corn
or the meal, although it is well known that the corn must be moder-
ately dry in order to prevent gumming in the mill and to insure
keeping for a reasonable length of time. The friction of grinding,
especially when the stones are set for producing a very fine, soft meal,
develops considerable heat, which serves to drive off much of the
moisture. In certain of the large mills drying apparatus is used to
some extent for removing the excess of moisture from either the
corn or the meal. In many of the mills, however, dependence is
placed on the heat developed during grinding as well as on the expo-
sure of the hot meal to the air in open conveyors.

THE ROLLER PROCESS.

In northern mills. rolls have largely replaced stones, the process
_being one of gradual reduction similar to that employed in wheat
milling. Preliminary to grinding, the corn is put through the

x

,

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. 5

“degerminator,’’ which loosens the germ, permitting its separation
for the manufacture of corn oil. In some mills corrugated rolls take
the place of the degerminator, but the product thus obtained may
be contaminated with a considerable amount of oil. Reels and sifters
similar to those employed in wheat milling are used in making the
separation. In addition to the ‘degerminator”’ special forms of
aspirators and driers, quite unknown in wheat milling, are peculiar
to this process. |

Corn, like wheat, is tempered by steam or water preliminary to the
milling process, but it is considered necessary to dry the products,
- except in the summer months after the corn has become dry through
long standing. ‘This drying is usually effected in revolving horizontal
cylinders containing steam pipes. The products and by-products are
subjected to this drying process either before or after separation.
The drying of the corn itself preliminary to milling is unusual.

PRODUCTS OF CORN MILLING.

Not only corn meal, but usually also grits and corn flour, as well
as germ and feed, are obtained as the products and by-products of
the roller process. In some mills two or more grades of meal are
separated. These are designated either for table or brewers’ use, or,
according to the size of the particles, as coarse or fine. Grits and
meal for brewers’ use are the main products of some of the largest
mills.

The grits are either used as such by the brewer or are rolled or
‘“flaked” in order to facilitate malting. Special machines turn out
continuous ribbons of rolled grits which are later broken up into thin
flakes a fraction of an inch in size. A similar product serves for the
manufacture of toasted corn flakes, a well-known, ready-for-use
breakfast cereal.

Brewers’ meal differs from table ane) ¢ in that it contains more of
the floury part of the kernel. The difference, however, is not marked
and either can be used for both purposes. The brewing industry
demands that both grits and meal contain not only the highest pos-
sible amount of starch, but also a low percentage of fat. A low
percentage of moisture is also desired, not merely to increase thereby
the percentage of starch but also to insure better keeping qualities.

Corn flour, the finely divided material separated by bolting, may
be regarded as a by-product of the gradual reduction process. — It
serves as an ingredient of Panense flour and ais as a filler or binder
for sausage.

The germ, detached from the grain in ie early stage of the process
by the degerminator, is pressed for the manufacture of corn oil. Corn
cake, the Residus froin the presses, is utilized for cattle food.

Corn bran corresponds to the bran obtained in the milling of wheat
im the modern flour mill, and corn feed is the cattle food consisting

6 BULLETIN 215, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

usually of a mixture of bran and the finely divided offal analogous to
red dog flour of the wheat mill. The ground corn cake is often an
ingredient of corn feed.

COMPOSITION OF THE PRODUCTS OF CORN MILLING.

The analyses reported under this head are of samples obtained from
corn mills in different sections of the country. With few exceptions
the samples of meal were taken at the mills by the authors, so far as
possible from the streams of corn going to the milling apparatus and
of finished products going to the packers. They represent the prod-
ucts of forty-one mills located in thirty-two towns and seventeen
States. The samples were shipped without delay to the Chicago
Food and Drug Inspection Laboratory for analysis, the determina-
tions bemg made as soon as the samples were received.

METHODS OF ANALYSIS.

The analyses were made by the methods of the Association of
Official Agricultural Chemists, with the exception of the acidity,
which was determined by the method employed by Schindler‘ and
described in detail by Black and Alsberg.?

The determination of moisture by drying for five hours at the
temperature of boiling water in a current of dry hydrogen was carried
out in the apparatus devised by Winton.’ The results obtained by
means of this apparatus were about 1 per cent higher than those
obtained by drying for the same length of time and at the same
temperature in an open dish. The reason for this difference is not
clear, but is probably, in part at least, physical. The fact that the
difference was well marked in the case of degerminated meal contain-
ing less than 1 per cent of fat precludes the assumption that the cause
lies in the prevention of oxidation by the hydrogen method.

Great annoyance and sometimes heated disputes have resulted from
discrepancies in the results of a moisture determination by different
methods and in different laboratories, particularly those of the buyer
and seller. As the process used in these experiments has given con-
cordant results in mill laboratories as well as in those of the depart-
ment, it is believed that the extra labor and expense involved as
compared with drying in an open dish will recommend it, at least for
use in standardizing such shorter processes as the official or trade
chemist may find convenient. In this connection attention is directed
to the modification of the Brown and Duvel apparatus adapted for
the determination of moisture in meal which has recently been
devised by Cox.‘ It is hoped that this method will be of great value

1 Loe. cit. p. 37.

2 Loc. cit. p. 10.

3 Winton, A. L. Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rept., 1889, p. 187; Leach, Albert E. Food Inspection and
Analysis, p. 62.

4Cox, John H. A Special Flask for the Rapid Determination of Water in Flour and Meal. U.S. Dept.
Agr. Bul. 56.

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. i

to the trade. So far there has not been opportunity to compare the
results obtained by this apparatus with those by the gravimetric
method employed in these investigations.

FULL SET OF PRODUCTS OF TWO ROLLER MILLS.

In Table 1 are given analyses of samples representing all the prod-
ucts and by-products obtained in two corn mills, one, grinding white
corn, located in the Middle West, the other, grinding yellow corn,
on the Pacific slope.

PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE.

A description of the process used in the white-corn mill, as furnished
by the chemist, follows:

Number three! white corn is carried from the elevator or bin through a magnetic
separator to remove nails, etc., then through a screen to remove large pieces of cobs
or other foreign matter and over a fine screen to remove sand and grit. It is then
aspirated with a strong air current to remove impurities of a light, fluffy nature.

The cleaned corn now goes through the tempering device and to the degerminator.
Tn the latter machine the kernels are broken open, the germs are partly broken loose
from the starchy portion of the grain, and the bran is partially removed. This broken
corn is dried and allowed to flow through the hominy separator. In this machine the
stock is led through a revolving sheet-iron cylinder, through the metal of which are
numerous narrow slots. Within this cylinder are beaters revolving in the opposite
direction from the cylinder. This removes some bran and most of the rotten grains,
which latter are shattered into very fine particles as they pass through the degermi-
nators.

From this cylinder the stock passes through a sizing reel which removes all the
material fine enough to pass a number seven screen (seven meshes to the linear inch).
At the same time it is aspirated to remove dust and bran. The coarse portion from this
machine, which is now quite well cleaned, is passed through the first, second, and third
break rolls, being screened after cach break, separating flour, meal, fine grits, coarse
grits, and hominy.

As the products attain the desired degree of fineness they are aspirated thoroughly
before bagging.

In the yellow-corn mill both dent and flint corn, either separately
or mixed, are milled, the process, as described by the head miller,
being as follows:

The corn first passes through a degerminator which removes the bran and germ.
It is then thoroughly dried and allowed to remain in the bin long enough to coel to
about its normal temperature. From thence it passes through a series of rolls, being
gradually reduced to the proper fineness. The chaffy material is removed by suction,
after which the meal is sterilized at a temperature of 218° F., the process requiring a
little over three minutes. When the meal has cooled off slightly it is packed in sacks
or other suitable containers. ;

ANALYSES OF THE PRODUCTS.
A study of the analyses in Table 1 shows that the percentages of

fat and ash in the white corn grits and in the coarse yellow corn meal
correspond very closely to the percentages of these constituents

1This is the old No. 3 grade used by the trade prior to the adoption of the Government corn grades
in July, 1914. Corn graded No. 4 on account of moisture is often used. No.2 corn is found compara-
tively rarely and then only in summer and early fall.

8 BULLETIN 215, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in patent wheat flour, showing that the gradual reduction process
eliminates quite completely the bran and impurities. The per-
centages of fat and ash'in both kinds of white corn meal and in the
fine yellow corn meal are about the same as those present in clear
wheat flour. The analogy ceases in the case of protein, as the corn
products with low fat and ash contents contain relatively high
amounts of protein, whereas the reverse is true of the different grades
of wheat flour.

TABLE 1.—Composition of the products and by-products of corn milling.

Analysis'as received. Analysis calculated to moisture-free

basis.
Sy o
‘Product. A fy WL os A oa ia
el i=) Oo ie) i+ Oo
5 3 : iva qe] 2. Syl fetlaee ag | 2
2 lee ax BE | 3 B | ay Sel ae
Rete OK ran tices AI SeCD ov &
S/S /2e\ 8 |e bela )s ee) 2 |2"1 2s
Oa . — — nm
i |) a sek pi sesn jl Oa | ay B |Z 5 |<
White corn, products, f !
pug by- products: P.ct. P.ct.| P.ct..|P.ct.| P.ct.|P.ct. P.ct.|P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.|P.ct.
Asses re SRE Le Crain eran 13.52) 27.5} 9.12) 3.62) 70.50)- 2.02) 1.22) 31.8) 10.55) 4.19! 81.51) 2.34) 1.41
Grits, Coarseeeeeee eee 13.07} 16.4] 8.78 - 48) 76. 78 - 53} .36} 18.9} 10.10 55} 88. 33 - 61 41
Gultsenine woe ae 12.12] 16.6} 8.66 - 64] 77. 68 - 48} .42) 18.9} 9.85 73) 88.39 arts) 48
Meal, cream,..,------- 11.97] 19.1) 7.85} 1.41)-77..65 56 56} 21.7) 8.92) 1.60) 88. 20 . 64 64
Meal, brewers’. ...-.--- 11.95] 18.1} 8.00} 1.23) 77.59 64} .59) 20.6] 9.08} 1.40) 88.12) .73) .67
Flour...--- eitodscesaus 11.19) 22.1] 6.78) 2.87] 77.61 80 75| 24.9] 7.63) 3.23)°87. 40 - 90 84
Germe=ss yeh) ees 6. 64) 59.3} 16.62) 23.79] 40.30} 6.04) 6.61! 63.5} 17.80} 25.48) 43.17] 6.47) 7.08
Germ cake........---!- 2.14] 68.6] 20.22) 7.26) 54.39) 7.90) 8.09| 70.1) 20.66} 7.42) 55.58) 8.07) 8.27
Feed (including Bea 11.00) 52.4} 11.69) 8.44] 60.99} 5.03) 2.85) 58.9] 13.13) 9.48) 68.54] 5.65) 3.20
IBTAM RSS eee eo eercusee 10.13} 49.2) 8.43] 6.71] 62.85] 9.72) 2.16] 54.7) 9.38! 7.47) 69.93) 10.82) 2.40
Yellow corn, products,
and by-products:
Cormeseieee Goes ees 13. 45] 35.4] 9.16} 5.10] 68.89) 2.06) 1.34] 40.9) 10.58) 5.89} 79.60) 2.38) 1.55
Meal, bolted, coarse. 12. 88] 18.0} 9.78 90| 75. 60 45) . .39] 20. 7), 11. 23) 1.03] 86.77 52| .46
Meal) bolted, fine.....-. 13.10} 21.1} 9.09) , 2.19) 74.48 53 61} 24.3] 10.46) 2.52) 85.71 61 70
Germs, esse 11. 29} 62. 5] 13.34} 18:07) 49. 25] » 3.98) 4.07) 70.5] 15.04} 20.37) 55.51] 4.49) 4.59
IB TAN SS wees Scie Sek 5 eat 10.37) 66.5} 9.06) 11.00) 57.19) 9.68) 2.70} 74.2) 10.11} 12.27) 63.81} 10.80) 3.01

It should be especially noted that the acidity of both the grits and
the meal is much less than that of the corn, the figures being well
within the limit 30, notwithstanding the ath amount in the corn
which was chemecianietie of the crop of 1913.

Corn flour is not comparable with any of the commercial grades of
wheat flour, although in respect to both process and composition it has
some resemblance to break flour. The acidity, fat, and ash contents
are higher in the flour than in the meal and grits, whereas the protein
content is lower.

The germ is characterized by its high content of acidity, protein,
fat, fiber, and ash, all of which constituents, except the fat, are ob-
viously further increased in percentage amount by pressing. The
high acidity at once shows the chief seat of the acid-reacting materials
and the advantage of degermination.

The samples of bran, while containing about the same amount of
protein as the corn, are characterized be their higher fat, fiber, and
ash content. The feed is still richer in fat and ash as well as in pro-

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. 9

tein. These results show the. value of this offal for feeding, but the
high acidity is significant proof of its unsuitability for human food.

WHOLE-KERNEL STONE-GROUND MEAL.

The samples without exception were from southern mills. Analy-
ses of both the meal and the corn from which it was milled appear in
Table 2. As the corn was ground without the removal of any. constit-
uent ie than some of the thin, papery chaff. or ‘bee wing,” the

meal when ground should not differ materiaily from the corn in com-

position, except for a possible change in moisture content. Whether
or not the moisture is less or greater than in the corn depends on the
dryness of the latter and on the climate.. Ordinarily there is a loss
in grinding.

TaBLE 2.—Composition of whole-kernel, stone-ground meal and of corn from which meal
was milled. -

Analysis as received. Analysis calculated to moisture-free

basis.
8 2
> = Oy:
SMS MS Saori aWeie | 2c esia lish eS eral ash bas bce
= 4] ') & 14 6) <q] et fa & IZ 6) <q
—— | ——__ | ———__ —SS : ——|
White corn and meal:

Mill No. 1, Alabama— | ?P.ct. IPE Ch PEe= Ch. « Chal) Peretti P22 1Che J H(Gie | Mesis|| 1205 he || 2). Ga 25 Gi
Corn, Middle W est- -} 13.05) 32.0} 8.47] 3.70) 71.49] 2.00) 1.29) 36.8] 9.7 4.26} 82.22) 2.30] 1.48
Meal, unbolted..---- 13. 28} 32.2} 8.38] 3.59) 71.34] 2.12) 1.29] 37.2) 9.66) 4.14) 82.26) 2.45) 1.49

Mill No. 2, Alabama— j
Corn, Tennessee Bree 12.41) 20.0| 8.25] 4.16 90} 2.00) 1.28) 22.8] 9.42) 4.75] 82.09) 2.28) 1.46
Meal, unbolted-..-..-- 12.30) 34.1) 8.00) 4.27] 72.00) 2.05) 1.38] 38.9] 9.12) 4.87) $2.10] 2.33] 1.58

Mill No. 3, Georgia—

Corn, Indiana ys Rae 13. 28) 25.2} 8.19) 3.75) 71.52) 2.07) 1.19] 29.0) 9.44) 4.32) 82.49) 2.38) 1.37
Meal, unbolted--..-.- 11.97} 26.0} 8.47| 3.65] 72.52) 2.15) 1.24) 29.5) 9.62! 4.18) 82.38! 2.44) 1.41

Mill No. 4, Georgia—

AW OMe ae Ae Sie 13.99] 25.4| 8.81] 3.78) 70.19} 1.95) 1.28) 29.5} 10.24) 4.40) 81.61] 2.26) 1.49
Meal, unbolted-.---- 12.38) 27.4) 8.66] 3.81) 71.83) 1.98) 1.34] 31.3] 9.88] 4.35] 81.98] 2.26] 1.53
Mill No. 5, Georgia—
Corn, Middle West. - 14.04] 22.0) 8.59] 3.55) 70.54) 2.04) 1.24) 26.8] 10.00} 4.13) 82.06) 2.37) 1.44
Meal, unbolted..-.-.--. 12.51} 28.0) 8.31] 3.75] 71.97) 2.19] 1.27] 32.0} 9.50) 4.29) 82.25) 2.51) 1.45
Mill No. 6, 6, South Caro-
ina—
Corn, South Carolina-_| 11.73) 18.0} 7.90} 4.45] 72.69} 2.05] 1.18) 20.4} 8.95] 5.04] 82.35] 2.32] 1.34
Meal, unbolted..-..-- 11.16} 20.7) 7.94] 4.39] 73.21} 2.10} 1.20} 23.3} 8.94) 4.94) 82..41)..:2.36] 1.35

Mill No. 7, Tennessee— ;

Corn, Tennessee. - 11.82) 18.0} 7.00} 4.29) 73.56) 2.07) 1.26) 20.4) 7.94) 4.87) 83.42) 2.34) 1.43
Meal, entire kernel. 13.09] 24.5) 7.25) 4.18) 72.25) 2.01) 1.22) 28.2) 8.34) 4:81) 83.13) 2.32) 1.40

Mill No. 8, Mississippi— "

Corn, Mississippi. - 12.13} 31.0} 9.09} 4.42) 71.06) 2.07} 1.23) 35.3] 10.35] 5.03} 80.87] ‘ 2.35] 1.40
Meal, unbolted..-.--- 13.18! 37.2) 8.47] 4.25] 70.60] 2.17] 1.33| 42.9] 9.7. 4.90) 81.32) » 2.50) 1.53

Mill No. 9, Mississippi— :

Corn, Kentucky Ls 12.54; 30:0) 9.22) 4.24) 70.73) 1.91) 1.36} 34.3} 10.54) 4.85) 80.87] 2.19] 1.55
Meal, unbolted.....- 12.31) 42.7| 9.41} 4.18] 70.74} 1.99) 1.37] 48.7] 10.73) 4.77) 80.67| 2.27] 1.56

Mill No.10 , Mississippi—

Corn, Mississippi. ---| 11.86] 24.7) 8.19) 4.63) 71.88} 2.09) 1.35] 28.1} 9.29) © 5.26) 81.55} 2.37) 1.53
Meal, unbolted.....- 11.58} 25.1) 7.97} 4.49) 73.09) 1.55) 1.32) 28.4) 9.01) 5.08) 82.66) »1. 76] 1.49

Mill No. 11, Missouri— ;

Corn, Middle West. - 15. 83) 21.3) 8.78) -3.67| 68.65) 1.84) 1.23] 25.3] 10.44) 4.36) 81.56) 2.18] 1.46
Meal, straight....--. 10.17} 21:3) 9.03) 3.56) 74.52) 1.36) 1.36} 23.7) 10.05) 3.96):82.96) °1.51) 1.52
Maximum. -} 13.28] 42.7/ 9.41] 4.49] 74.52! 2.19} 1.38] 48.7] 10.73]. 5.08] 83.13} §2.51] 1.58

a Meals Minimum...} 10.17} 20.7) 7.25) 3.56) 70.60} 1.36] 1.20] 23.3) 8.34) 3.96)°80.67|.°1.51) 1.35

Average....| 12.18} 29.0) 8.35) 4.01) 72.19) 1.97) 1.30) 33.1) 9.51) 4.57) 82.19) 2.25) 1.48

The remarkable agreement in the percentages other than moisture
and acidity is as would be expected, but the greater amount of
85755°—Bull. 215—15——2

10 BULLETIN 215, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

acidity in the meal requires explanation. That the acidity of both
corn and freshly ground meal would be the same is obvious, but the
increase in the meal is much more rapid than in the corn. In cases
where the acidity of the meal is in excess the cause is directly trace-
able to delay in delivery of the samples, which in some instances
was a week or more. Experience shows that corn will not materially
increase in acidity during that time.

The acidity given in Table 2 for the corn should in all cases be
taken as that of the corresponding meal at the time of grinding.

The excessive amount of acidity in some of the samples of meal
when analyzed merely illustrates the difficulty in keeping meal of
this type, which fact is further brought out by the results of the later
experiments. (See Tables 12 and 14.)

BOLTED UNDEGERMINATED MEAL.

Results obtained in the analysis of bolted, undegerminated meal,
as well as of the corn from which it was milled, appear in Table 3.
The mills in which the corn was ground are all located in the South
except No. 18, which is in lowa, and No. 35, which is in Rhode
Island. In most of the mills grinding was done by stones; in Nos.
18, 36, 37, and 38, however, rolls were used. The corn ground in
all the southern mills was white dent, in the Iowa mill it was yellow
dent, and in the Rhode Island mill it was white flint.

TABLE 3.—Composition of bolted, wndegerminated corn meal and of corn from which
meal was milled.

Analysis as received. Analysis caleulated to moisture-free
o Oo
Oo o
Product. aA a. a lee 4
Ya) > o uw i~ (3)
Sees: thee les ee tae
8 | 2 | 2x BS | oS # | ax ae
a2 |S ]e2/ 48 |B°| Bla] Ss [sa] 8 |6°] S14
a |ec 55 A oe B=} =
Ss | a 1a BH 14 Os 124 Oo | <
White corn and meal:

Mill No.1, Alabama— |P.ct. WP Cha | bEas| Chay| PEGE PECL | Ee CL P.ct.|P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.|P. ct.
Corn, Middle West. -} 13.05) 32.0! 8.47) 3.70! 71.49! 2.00) 1.29) 36.8) 9.74) 4.26! 82.22) 2.30) 1.48
Meal, bolted........- 14.94! 33.8) 7.75] 2.92) 72.53 - 83) 1.03) 29.8) 9.11) 3.43) 85.27 - 98] 1.21

Mill No. 4, Georgia—

(OFS es ot ee So eI a en a 13.99) 25.4} 8.81} 3.78) 70.19) 1.95} 1.28) 29.5) 10.24] 4.40) 81.61) 2.26] 1.49
Meal, bolted.......-. 12.60} 27.7} 9.09|) 3.72) 71.94) 1.48] 1.17] 31.7] 10.40] 4.26) 82.30) 1.70} 1.34

Mill No. 34, Georgia—

Gomis sssa Sasser 12.79) 23.5] 8.93} 4.30) 70.62) 2.06] 1.30) 26.9] 10.24] 4.93) 80.98) 2.36] 1.49
Meal, bolted........-. 11.32) 26.2) 9.22) 4.35) 72.12) 1.64] 1.35} 29.6) 10.39] 4.90) 81.34) 1.85] 1.52

Mill, No. 5, Georgia—

Corn, Middle West..} 14.04) 23.0) 8.59) 3.55! 70.54] 2.04) 1.24) 26.8) 10.00) 4.13} 82.06} 2.37] 1.44
Meal, bolted.......-- 11.60) 25.5) 8.87} 3.78) 72.77] 1.68) 1.30} 28.8) 10.04] 4.27} 82.32) 1.90) 1.47

Mill No. 21, Missouri—

Corn, Middle West. .| 14.87) 25.8) 8.75] 3.58) 69.47) 1.99) 1.34] 30.3] 10.28) 4.20) 81.62) 2.34] 1.56
Meal, bolted........- 12.78) 24.1) 8.97] 3.04] 72.92) 1.17} 1.12) 27.6) 10.28) 3.49) 83.61} 1.34) 1.28
Mill No. 9, Mississippi—
Corn, Kentucky ..... 12.54] 30.0] 9.22] 4.24] 70.73! 1.91] 1.36] 34.3] 10.54] 4.85] 80.87] 2.19] 1.55
Meal, bolted......... 12.45] 44.5) 9.06] 4.72) 70.88} 1.38) 1.51) 50.8} 10.35) 5.39} 80.96) 1.58) 1.72
Mill No. 35, Rhode
Island—
Corn, R. I. flint... -. 12.93] 22.5} 9.50} 4.47) 69.94) 1.83) 1.33) 25.8) 10.91) 5.13] 80.33) 2.10} 1.53
Meal, bolted......... 10.12) 21 8.971 4.83! 73.39) 1.31) 1.38] 24.21 9.98! 5.38! 81.64! 1.46] 1.54

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. sal

Taste 3.—Composition of bolted, undegerminated corn meal and of corn from which
meal was milled—Continued.

Analysis as received. Analysis culculeted to moisture-free
oO oOo

Product S & £ au £ =
3 S Someone Eh. eles te. |) iS
Bi B | ay os] a mB | gs ae | &
5 +S S=I>< 05 o ‘S ax oo oS
2 les |e | > | Sais .|3 | . | ez] 8 :
Smear ese |S amet he) iel eS see ee
= <4 | a Be |Z 6) a} a} He |G 6) <4

White corn and meal—
Continued. :

Mill No. 36, Tennessee—} P. ct. PE CENOP: Cf Pe Cha\PPa cial x Ce: SPACE | PACT PEACE Ct Exe CEs
Corn, Middle West- -| 13.14] 26.2) 8.28) 3.85) 71.45) 2.04) 1.24) 30.2) 9.54] 4.43) 82.25) 2.35) 1.43
Meal, plain.......--- 13.72) 46.0) 8.78) 4.83) 69.33} 1.73] 1.61} 53.3; 10.17) 5.59) 80.37) 2.01) 1.86
Meal} oltedetee et: 14.25) 45.5) 9.03) 5.14) 68.31) 1.62) 1.65) 53.1) 10.53] 6.00) 79.66; 1.89] 1.92

MillNo. 37, Tennessee—

Corn, uncleaned SARE 12.60) 24.7) 8.34! 3.73) 72.06] 2.00) 1.27) 28.3) 9.55) 4.27) 82.44) 2.29) 1.45
Meal, Greamiveee she 14.39] 31.0) 7.47) 2.75) 73.76) 1.77 86} 36.2) 8.72} 3.22) 86.15 - 90} 1.01

Mill No. 38, Tennessee—

Corn, Tennessee Urata 13.81] 19.2} 9.40} 4.63) 68.83} 1.94] 1.39) 22.3) 10.91) 5.38) 79.85) 2.25) 1.61
Meal, ipoliedesn= s--e 15.09) 27.5) 8.47) 3.58) 70.54) 1.15) 1.17; 32.3) 9.97] 4.22) 83.07] 1.36] 1.38

Mill No. 39, monnessee .

Corn, Tennessee 7| 9.09} 4.18) 69.46) 1.75) 1.33) 25.3] 10.59) 4.87) 80.96] 2.03) 1.55
Meal, bolted. - QO} 9.18) 4.11) 71.19 - 86) 1.35] 27.7) 10.59) 4.74) 82.13 -99) 1.55
Meal, pearl 7| 8.78} 2.98) 73.54 - 83) 1.00) 23.8) 10.07) 3.42) 84.41 - 96) 1.14

Mill No. 40, Virginia—

Corn, Middle West. - 14.69} 27.7) 8.72) 3.55) 69.67| 2.14) 1.23) 32.5) 10.23) 4.16] 81.66) 2.51) 1.44
Meal, ipoltedee2 —s2- 12.51! 28.5; 8.84! 3.90) 71.66! 1.77) 1.32) 32.6! 10.11) 4.45) 81.90} 2.03! 1.51
Maximum ..| 15.09] 46.0} 9.22) 5.14] 73.76] 1.77| 1.65] 53.3] 10.59] 6.00] 86.15] 2.03] 1.92
Meal 4Minimum...| 10.12) 20.7) 7.47) 2.75) 68.31 -77| .86) 23.8] 8:72) 3.22) 79.66 -90} 1.01
Average ____| 12.99} 30.5) 8.75) 3.90) 71.79) 1.30) 1.27) 35.1) 10.05) 4.48) 82.51) 1.50) 1.46

Yellow corn and meal:

Mill No. 18, lowa—

Corn, Middle West. - 16.95] 19.6) 8.59) 3.55) 67.58) 2.06) 1.27) 23.6) 10.35) 4.28) 81.37] 2.48) 1.52
Meal, Porto Rico
trade Beene oiecints 16. 82} 24.3] 7.16} 1.95) 72.79 -66) .62) 29.2) 8.61] 2.35) 87.52 -19) |. 73

The effect of bolting in all cases was a decrease in fiber, but further
than this no general rule can be deduced, as conditions such as fine-
ness of grinding and the size of the meshes of the bolts exert more
influence than the mere fact of bolting. The markedly high acidity
in the meal from mills 9 and 36 was doubtless due to the length of
time elapsmg between grinding and analysis, which for reasons
already stated was from 9 to 12 days.

DEGERMINATED BOLTED ROLLER-GROUND MEAL.

The general name ‘‘cream meal” is applied to degerminated, bolted,
roller-ground meal when made from white corn, but various terms
are used for the corresponding product from yellow corn. Analyses
of both white and yellow meal and of the corn from which the meal
was milled will be found in Table 4. The samples were from mills
located in the Northern States and in Tennessee. All the mills
were equipped with rolls and modern machinery for cleaning the
grain as well as for separating and drying the products. Most of the
mills employed degerminators, while others depended on corrugated
rolls for loosening the germ and bran from the endosperm.

12 BULLETIN 215, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 4.—Composition of degerminated, bolted, roller-ground meal and of corn from
which meal was milled.

Analysis as received. Analysis calculated to moisture-free

basis.
Ay igs eas ere
roduct. : S aos K S a B
© oy Ag 2 9 Ao! aS Q
| ie | Els Os a bm | ae os a
25). lifes, aN Be | @ ax be |
Sse SS, || eae OPS) est SE re eS sie es Ie ce
fo} (Ss) au tas} = n oO uy [as] = Ee nm
=| 41a Be |Z 6) 4/4/44 < ') <

White corn and meal:
Mill No. 12, Illinois— |P.ct. P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.|P. ct. IGN J 2S Gie)| 123 Gel| 12 Gi VER Ge

Corn, Middle West. -] 16.28] 19.0} 8.41) 3.39) 68.72) 2.00) 1.20) 22.7) 10.03} 4.04) 82.11) 2.39! 1.43

Meal, pearl.........- 13.08} 10.6] 6.56 - 99) 78.40 -62) .35| 12.2) 7.54) 1.14) 90.21 -71) .40
Mill No. 13, [linois—

Corn, Middle West. .] 13.92) 18.5} 8.63) 3.55) 70.49} 2.19) 1.22] 21.5) 10.02) 4.12) 81.91) 2.54) 1.41

Meal, cream....-...- 16.17) 13.2) 6.63 - 80) 75.36 -67| .37| 15.7) 7.90 - 94) 89.93; .80) .43
Mill No. 14, Ilinois—

Corn, Middle West. .} 17.11] 23.8! 8.16) 3.37) 68.12} 2.06) 1.18] 28.7] 9.84] 4.07) 82.19] 2.48) 1.42

Meal, brewers’. -..-.- 14.58) 15.6) 5.81} 1.15) 77.35 . 73] .38| 18.2) 6.80) 1.35) 90.55 -85| .45
Mill No. 15, Indiana—

Corn, Middle West. -} 17.38] 19.8] 8.25] 3.34) 67.86] 2.00] 1.17) 23.9} 9.96) 4.03) 82.18} 2.42) 1.41

Meal, cream..-..-.-- 14.44) 11.9/ 6.16] 1.28) 77.06) .67| .39; 18.9} 7.18) 1.49) 90.09; .78| .46
Mill No. 16, Indiana—

Corn, Middle West. | 17.32] 19.0) 8.50} 3.26) 67.75} 2.02] 1.15) 22.9] 10.25} 3.93} 82.00] 2.44) 1.38

Meal, creana.......-- 13.85} 13.5] 7.50) .87| 76.85] .58) .35) 15.6} 8.69) 1.00) 89.24) .67| .40
Mill No. 17, lowa—

Corn, Middle West. .| 16.24] 22.5) 8.81} 3.17] 68.54] 2.02] 1.22) 26.9] 10.52) 3.79) 81.82} 2.41) 1.46

Meal, cream.......-- 13.97] 15.7] 7.19 75| 77.07) .61) .41) 18.2} 8.36) .87| 89.59} .71| .47
Mill No. 18, lowa—

Corn, Middle West. .} 16.09] 27.8) 8.50) 3.77) 68.45} 1.98) 1.21] 33.1) 10.13) 4.49] 81.58] 2.36) 1.44

Meal, pearl: .-..--.-- 18.28} 20.8] 7.00) 1.22) 72.41 - 60} .49] 25.5) 8.57] 1.50) 88.60} .74| .59
Mill No. 19, Maryland— ;

Corn, Chicago. .......} 14.71] 21.2} 8.31) 3.68) 70.04] 2.09) 1.17] 24.9] 9.74] 4.31) 82.13] 2.45) 1.37

Meal, fancy cream...| 13.78] 23.0] 6.28} 1.43) 77.35) .68] .48] 26.7| 7.29} 1.66) 89.70} .79) .56
Mill No. 20, Michigan— ;

Corn, Middle West. .| 12.92] 23.1] 8.59) 3.70) 71.47} 2.07} 1.25] 26.5) 9.87} 4.25) 82.06} 2.38) 1.44

Meal retinue vent 12.83] 18.9] 7.97} 1.54] 76.39) .64] .63] 21.7} 9.14! 1.76] 87.64 Wy 72
Mill No. 21, Missouri—

Corn, Middle West. .| 14.87] 25.8} 8.75) 3.58} 69.47} 1.99] 1.34] 30.3] 10.28} 4.20) 81.62} 2.34) 1.56

Meal, cream........- 12.81) 21.6) 8.84} 2.08) 74.59 -87| .81) 24.7] 10.14] 2.39) 85.56 -99} .92
Mill No. 22, Missouri—

Corn 2. eee ane 15.19) 24.2] 8.81} 3.54] 69.20) 1.92} 1.34] 28.4] 10.39] 4.17) 81.59) 2.27) 1.58

« Meal, cream: -....22- 13.77) 14.5} 7.47) 1.80) 75.64 - 69] .63] 16.8] 8.66] 2.08) 87.73 -80} .73

Mill No. 23, Missouri—

Cormeen ete aes 16.19} 23.3] 8.00] 3.52/'69.10| 1.96] 1.23] 27.8] 9.54) 4.20) 82.45) 2.34) 1.47

Meal, cream......... 14.78} 19.1] 6.81] 1.60] 75.58 - 70) .53) 22.3) 7.99) 1.88] 88.69 - 82) .62
Mill No. 24, New

Y ork—

Corn, Middle West. .| 13.25] 21.1) 8.81) 3.77] 70.88] 2.06] 1.23] 24.4] 10.16] 4.35) 81.70) 2.37) 1.42

Meal, cream....._... 13.56] 14.7] 5.91] 1.45) 77.86] .72| .50] 17.1) 6.83] 1.68] 90.07) .84| .58
Mill No. 25, Pennsyl-

vania—

Corn, Middle West. .| 14.10] 27.0} 8.56] 3.56] 70.48] 2.11) 1.19] 31.4] 9.97] 4.14) 82.05] 2.45) 1.39

Meal, cream........- 14.08} 20.2} 6.65] 1.75] 76.12 .77| .63] 23.6] 7.75) 2.04) 88.58 -90} .73

Meal, Southern trade.} 13.59] 22.3] 6.66] 2.04] 76.25] .80| .66] 25.8] 7.70] 2.36] 88.24) .93) .77

Mill No. 26, Tennes-

see—
Corn, Illinois. ....... 13.87] 26.0] 7.97| 3.60] 71.26] 2.08] 1.22] 30.2] 9.25] 4.19] 82.73] 2.42] 1.41
Meal, cream__....._. 12. 41| 17.5] 6.84] 2.00] 77.48} .60| .67| 20.0} 7.81} 2.28) 88.45; .69) .77
Mill No. 27, Tennes- |
see—

4.2) 8.31) 3.67] 72.16] 2.06) 1.17] 27.7) 9.51) 4.20) 82.59) 2.36) 1.34
Meal, cream...._...- 12.54| 18.7] 7.72] 2.31) 75.74) .96] .73/ 21.4] 8.82] 2.64] 86.60/ 1.10} .84

see—
Corn, Middle West. .| 12.74] 21.0} 9.22} 4.72) 70.43) 1.72] 1.17] 24.1] 10.56) 5.41) 80.72) 1.97) 1.34
7.47

Meal, cream...-..... 11.97) 15.4 1.44] 77.87) .72| .53| 17.5] 8.48] 1.63] 88.47|/ .82) .60
Mill No. 29, Wiscon-
sin—
Corner saijaae te saned 17.83] 26.1) 8.50} 3.28] 67.24! 2.03] 1.12] 31.7] 10.34] 3.99] 81.84} 2.47] 1.36
Mealvcream =e. sss ane 15.18} 15.6] 6.56} .70} 76.46) .73) .37| 18. 376} 83] 90.14] .86] .44

7

4
Maximum. ..} 18.28] 23.0] 8.84] 2.31) 78.40] .96) .S1} 26.7] 10.14) 2.64] 90.55} 1.10] .92

Meal, Minimum...} 11.97] 10.6] 5.81] .70} 72.41) 58} .35} 12.2

Average _...| 13.98) 17.0} 6.95) 1.43] 76.42) .70) .52) 19.7

Yellow corn and meal:
Mill No. 30, lowa—

Corey ase az ceases 17.92} 20.8] 8.31] 3.77) 66.72} 2.09] 1.19) 25.2) 10.12) 4.58) 81.32) 2.54) 1.44
Meal fine sas see nener 16.18} 14.5) 6.63) .75| 75.63) .55) .26) 17.3) 7.91 89] 90.24) .65) .31
Meal, granular_...... 15.54! 14.0! 7.94! .33) 75.49! .461 .241 16.6) 9.40 39] 89.391 .55) .27

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. 13

Taste 4.—Composition of degerminated, bolted, roller-ground meal and of corn from
which meal was milled—Continued.

Analysis as received. Analysis calculated to moisture-

free basis.
‘ zZ z
Product. ~ a H ~ a ui
mle eres 23/4 sss 23 | 2
= 2 2x 5 CS) £ EX 5 ®
42 e6| 2 | So) 2 |e | s |eela le*| 2 la
ES = =
S| < | a & |2 Oo }4/4/4a Be |4 Sule
Yellow corn and meal—
Continued.

Mill No. 18, lowa— IP op IPS Che | PEs Ch. P. Cea\Pixa Chala. CE: P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.|\P. ct.
Corn, Middle West. -| 16.75} 19.7) 8.53) 3.68) 67.63) 2.14).27 1) 23.6) 10.25) 4.42) 81.24) 2.57) 1.52
Meal, cream......--- 17.85) 19.0) 7.37) 1.47) 71.98 .72| .61) 23.1) 8.98] 1.79) 87.62 -88| .73

Mill No. 31, Michigan—

Corn, Middle West. -| 12.73) 21.9] 8.97| 3.77) 71.16) 2.12) 1.25) 25.1) 10.27) 4.34) 81.53) 2.43) 1.43
Mealy cream.) =. <2 13.33] 19.2) 7.50) 1.81} 76.02 -69} .65) 22.2) 8.65} 2.09) 87.72 S08)| Aces
Mill No. 32, Michigan—
Corn, Middle West. | 14.87] 23.0} 8.34} 3.72) 69.53} 2.24] 1.30] 27.1) 9.80) 4.37) 81.67) 2.63) 1.53
Meal, granular ...-.-- 14.71) 17.9} 7.47| .78| 75.97| .59) .48) 21.0) 8.75) .92) 89.08) .69) .56
Mill No. 24, New
York—
Corn, Middle West...) 12.91) 25.5} 8.72} 3.88] 70.86] 2.29] 1.34] 29.3) 10.01) 4.45) 81.37) 2.63) °1.54
Meal, table......-..- 13.01) 19.7) 8.63) 1.40) 75.64 . 76) .56) 22.7) 9.92) 1.61) 86.96 -87| .64
Mill No. 33, Wiscon-
sin—
Corn, Dakota_......- 16.87) 31.0) 8.56} 3.69) 67.65) 2.10} 1.13] 37.3) 10.29) 4.44] 81.39) 2.52) 1.36
Meal, granular. .....-. 14.12) 16.2) 8.00 -59) 76.40 -99} .30) 18.8) 9.32 - 69) 88.95 -69) .35
Meal, bolted......... 14.88] 15.7) 6.63 - 82) 76.64 .69} .34) 18.4) 7.79 - 96} 90. 04 -81) .40
Maximum...| 17.85] 19.7} 8.63] 1.81) 76.64 . 76} .65| 23.1) 9.92} 2.09) 90.24 - 88] .75
Meal, Minimum. ...| 13.01] 14.0} 6.63 .33| 71.98] .46) .24] 16.6) 7.79 - 39] 86.96 «00, 20.
Average ....| 14.95) 17.0) 7.52) .99) 75.48) .63] .43) 20.0) 8.84) 1.17) 88.75) .74) .50

The analyses calculated to the moisture-free basis show that the
process invariably yielded a meal containing less acidity, protein,
fat, fiber, and ash, as well as more nitrogen-free extract than the corn.
The range in acidity of the white meal is from 10.6 to 23, and of the
yellow meal from 14 to 19.7, in all cases calculated to the material
as received.

The fact that the acidity and fat are much lower than in the corn
shows superior keeping qualities. The tendency to spoilage is
further diminished by drying, at least during the winter and spring
when the corn carries an excessive amount of moisture. Without
drying the meal may contain even more moisture than the corn,
due to the tempering with steam or water to facilitate separation of
the germ and bran. The keeping qualities of meal of this type are
further brought out in the experiments described on subsequent
pages (see Tables 8, 10, 12, and 14).

LOW GRADE OR “STANDARD” TABLE MEAL.

Analyses of low grade or ‘“‘standard” table meal and of the corn
from which the meal was milled appear in Table 5. This type of
meal is a by-product of mills producing a higher grade of meal or
grits or both and is intermediate between such products and the feed.
While it differs greatly in composition, the average amounts of

14 BULLETIN 215, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

acidity, protein, fat, fiber and ash are more and of nitrogen-free
extract less than in cream meal. As compared with the corn, it is
sometimes richer and sometimes poorer in fat. This ‘standard”
meal is consumed largely by the poorer classes in the South.

TaBLe 5.—Composition of low grade (‘‘standard’”’) table meal and of corn from which
the meal was milled with removal of grits or high grade meal and feed.

Analysis as received. Analysis calculated to moisture-free

basis.
(<>) oO
o (2)
Product. ~ de} Hi ~ get Hi
1D i~ o uw a) oO
See Ie wee ie lee) oleae ie
B | & | 4x mo | 3 & | ex BE | 9
Ales PSS We Oe eS SS eS eee ep
Hu 1 n Hu = 7)
P= ta mH 14 Od tk enh Oo |<
White corn and meal: 3
Mill No. 19, Maryland—| P. ct. P.ct.|P-ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.|P. ct. IPs Gis IP o Gin Le Gig | LP. Gin VPs Gin
Corn, Middle West. -| 14.71! 21.2) 8.31] 3.68) 70.04} 2.09) 1.17) 24.9} 9.74] 4.31) 82.13] 2.45) 1.37
Meal, standard... .-- 14. 65) 26.2) 7.06} 2.83) 73.81) .80| .85) 30.7] 8.27| 3.31) 86.48) .94) 1.00
Mill No. 11, Missouri— ;
Corns s)he tks 5 15. 83} 21.3) 8.78] 3.67) 68.65) 1.84) 1.23} 25.3) 10.44) 4.36] 81.56} 2.18) 1. 46
Meal, standard -...-- 10. 01) 24.1) 9.97) 4.34) 72.31) 1.80) 1.57) 26.7) 11.07) 4.82/‘80.37) 2.00) 1.74
Mill No. 22, Missouri—
’ Corn, Middle West. .| 15.19} 24.2} 8.81] 3.54] 69.20) 1.92) 1.34] 28.4) 10.39] 4.17] 81.59) 2.27) 1.58
Meal, standard... .-- 11.51) 21.8) 8.59) 3.36) 74.39) .99) 1.16} 24.6) 9.72) 3.80] 84.05) 1.12) 1.31
Mill No. 23, Missouri—
Conneeneeee eee 16.19) 23.3} 8.00} 3.52) 69.10) 1.96) 1.23] 27.8) 9.54) 4.20) 82.45} 2.34) 1.47
Meal, standard....-- 13. 42) 20.8] 8.15} 3.96) 72.05) 1.12) 1.30} 24.0) 9.42) 4.58} 83.20) 1.30! 1.50
Mill No. 37, Tennessee—
Corn, Illinois. ......- 12. 60) 24.7) 8.34} 3.73] 72.06} 2.00) 1.27] 28.3] 9.55) 4.27) 82.44] 2.29] 1.45
Meal, standard... ..- 14.03) 44.5, 9.15) 5.26) 68.26) 1.74) 1.56) 51.8) 10.65) 6.12] 79.40) 2.02) 1.81
Mill No. 26, Tennessee—
Corn, Illinois. ......- 13. 87| 26.0! 7.97) 3.60! 71.26) 2.08) 1.22) 30.2! 9.25) 4.19! 82.73) 2.42! 1.41
Meal, standard... --. 12.10) 19.7) 7.94] 3.48) 74.33) .98) 1.17) 22.5] 9.03} 3.96) 84.56) 1.12) 1.33
Mill No. 27, Tennessee— :
Connie ee: Be sees a} 12. 63) 24.2) 8.31} 3.67) 72.16) 2.06) 1.17] 27.7) 9.51) 4.20) 82.59) 2.36) 1.34
Meal, standard... ..- 12. 03) 23.2) 8.62} 3.61) 73.15) 1.44) 1.15) 26.4) 9.79} 4.10) 83.16) 1.64) 1.31
Mill No. 28, Tennessee— :
Corn eee se sone eae 12.74] 21.0) 9.22) 4.72) 70.43) 1.72) 1.17) 24.1) 10.56) 5.41] 80.72) 1.97] 1.34
Meal, standard...... 11.56] 21.5) 9.90) 4.32) 71.40) 1.29) 1.53) 24.3) 11.20) 4.88} 80.73) 1.46) 1.73
Maximum. ..| 14.65) 44.5} 9.97] 5.26) 74.39) 1.80] 1.57] 58.1) 11.20) 6.12] 86.48) 2.02] 1.81
Meal, Minimum....} 10.01) 19.7) 7.05] 2.83] 68.26) .80) .85} 22.5) 8.27] 3.31) 79.40} .94] 1.00
Average. ..-- 12.41) 25.2) 8.67) 3.89) 72.48) 1.27) 1.28) 28.9) 9.89) 4.15) 82.74) 1.45) 1.47
GRITS.

Table 6 shows the composition of five samples of table grits and six
samples of brewers’ grits taken from mills in the Middle West. The
difference in composition between the two classes lies chiefly in the
lower percentage of fat in the brewers’ grits.

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. 15

TABLE 6.—Composition of table and brewers’ corn grits.

Analysis of original material. Analysis calculated to moisture-

free basis.
3 S

Product. ‘e ARS |) 5 eS Secu

hl veces gs] a ales asl a

3 | 2 )48x ge | 3 = | Ex Be |

Beli Weel ce) Aen st) sie) eae) Sin ge le
=a | 4 /a & |Z Oo /a4/4 /e6 BH 14 S|
Table grits: PACE: P.ct.|P.ct.| P.ct.|P.ct.|P. ct. P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.|P. ct.
Mill No. 15, Indiana... ./14.12 |15.0 | 7.41 | 0.86 |76. 64 | 0.61 |0.36 /17.5 | 8.63 | 1.00 |89.24 | 0.71 | 0.42
Mill No. 16, Indiana..../14.12 |16.2 | 7.47 | .73 |76.70| .62 | .36 |18.9 | 8.69 85 |89. 32 72 42
Mill No. 17, lowa.-.--.-. 14.20 115.6 | 8.50] .85 |75.40! .58 | .47 |18.2 | 9.91 99 |87. 87 68 55
Mill No. 11, Missouri. - .}10.92 |18.3 | 9.28 | 2.32 |75.68 | .88 | .92 |20.5 |10. 40 | 2.61 |84. 97 99 | 1.03
Mill No. 23, Missouri. ./12.53 |14.3 | 8.13 | 1.68 |76.28 | .79 | .59 |16.3 | 9.29 | 1.92 |87.22] .90 67
Maximum......-.-. 14.20 |18.3 | 9.28 | 2.32 |76. 70 88 | .92 |20.5 |10.40 | 2.61 |89.32 99 | 1.03
Minimum. ..-..--. 10.92 |14.3 | 7.41 73 |75. 40 58 | .36 |16.3 | 8.63 85 |84. 97 68 42
Average ......-..-.- 13.18 |15.9 | 8.16 | 1.29 |76.13 70 | .54 |18.3 | 9.38 | 1.47 |87.73 80 62
Brewers’ grits:

Mill No. 12, Illinois... -. 13. 42 |13.1 | 7.78 43 177.60 } .54 | .23 |15.1 | 8.98 50 |89. 62 63 27
Mill No. 18, Illinois... ..]15.87 |23.9 | 7.75 72 174.63 | .67 | .36 |28.3 | 9.21 86 |88. 70 80 43
Mill No. 14, Illinois... .. 14,11 |14.8 | 7.12 75 |77.03 | .65 | .34 |17.2 | 8.29 87 |89. 69 75 40
Mill No. 41, Indiana... -_|15.63 ]15.7 | 7.56 69 |75.28 | .52 | .32 118.6 | 8.95 82 |89. 25 61 37
Mill No. 22, Missouri. - ./13. 80 |14.1 | 8.22 72 176.34 | .59 | .33 }16.3 | 9.54 83 |88. 56 68 39
Mill No. 29, Wisconsin ./15.12 |16.8 | 7.84 72 |\75.22 | .73 | .37 |19.8 | 9.23 85 |88. 62 86 44
Maximum......... 15.87 |23.9 | 8.22] .75 |77.60 | .%73 | .37 28.3 | 9.54] .87 |89.69 86 44
Minimum......-.- 13.42 13.1 | 7.12 | .43 |74.63 | .52] .23 |15.1 | 8.29 | .50 |88.56 61 27
Average \..2.:----: 14.66 |16.4 | 7.71 | .67 cee O01 | .62 | .33 |19.2 | 9.03 | .79 |89.08 72 38

As shown by the analyses in Table 1, grits contain less fat, fiber
and ash, but more protein than meal of the same mill run, although
the difference is not always well marked, especially as much of the
cream meal may be classed as a kind of fine grits.

SPOILAGE OF MEAL.

It is well recognized that spoiled corn should not be used for table
meal and that when good corn is used the corn or the product should
be dried to insure keeping. Spoilage is most common during the
spring which is designated by the trade as the ‘‘germinating season.”
At this season when the whole kernel is ready to germinate it is
reasoned that the germ tissues in the mea! also show a tendency
toward activity. The relation of season to spoilage is more probably
that of temperature. Meal should keep through the germinating
season if held in cold storage. On the other hand, it will spoil in the
winter months if it contains an excess of moisture and is kept in
warm storage. That the presence of the germ in the meal increases
the tendency to spoilage has heen known in a general way to the trade
and has been emphasized by Schindler, Black, and Alsberg and other
investigators.

Other things equal, grits keep better than meal, and meal made
from the horny part of the kernel better than that containing the
floury part. Evidently the mechanical condition as well as the
composition is an important factor in determining the keeping
qualities.

16 BULLETIN 215, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

RELATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT TO KEEPING QUALITY OF
DEGERMINATED BOLTED ROLLER-GROUND MEAL.

These experiments were carried on in two series, the first with ton
lots and the second with carload lots. The meal used in both series
was ground during the month of May, 1913, at the mill of the Ameri-
can Hominy Company, Terre Haute, Indiana. Each lot of meal was
divided into two parts, one of which was shipped to Savannah,
Georgia, the other to Chicago, Illmois. At both places the meal was
stored in pubtic warehouses designed for products of this nature,
sample bags being withdrawn from month to month for chemical
analysis and tests as to quality. The analyses of the meal as ground
were made at the Chicago Food and Drug Inspection Laboratory, as
were also the analyses at the end of each period of the meal stored at
that center. Analyses of the meal stored at Savannah were made at
the Government food laboratory located in that city. In addition to
the usual chemical determinations, the general appearance of the
meal and the taste and flavor of the mush prepared from the meal
were noted.

STORAGE EXPERIMENTS WITH TON LOTS OF MEAL MILLED MAY 7, 1913.

DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSES OF THE MEAL AS MILLED.

Five lots. of 1 ton each were milled to contain percentages of mois-
ture ranging from 11.41 to 16.86. Since the corn used, owing to the
good quality of the crop of 1912 and the lateness of the season, was
quite dry, the meal ground without any drying whatever (ot B)
contained only 15.04 per cent of moisture. In order to secure one lot
with a higher moisture content, such as would have been present in
undried meal milled earlier in the season, water in addition to the
amount usually employed for tempering was added to the corn. In.
this manner the percentage of moisture in lot A was raised to 16.86.
It was recognized that meal thus prepared was not strictly compara-
ble with that made without the addition of water from corn with a
higher moisture content, and due allowance was made in interpreting
the results.

TABLE 7. Composition of ton lots of degerminated, bolted, roller-ground corn meal,
containing different amounts of moisture, as milled May 7 1913, for use in storage
experiments. ‘

i ! 5 2 ARES. Nitrogen-
Mois- | Acid- | Protein Fat. aaa Crude en

Product. . +
. ture. | ity. |(NX6.25). aseinoie fiber.,

Bene Per Per | Per

Meal as milled: ; cent. Per cent. | cent. | Per cent. | cent. | cent.
Lot A, undried, water added............--- 16.86 | 14: 6.53 | 0.71 75.13} 0.49 | 0.28
Ho teB fun dried users Boome ene Bne crt: 15.04] 14 6.50 | .94 76. 65 . 52 .35
Woti@wmiediumid ried sss 25 25) nee seer 13.41] 14 6.69 | 1.05 77. 87 . 59 -39
onmDemedinmidniedessstae sp. see eee see 13.27 | 18 6. 66 - 80 78. 32 - 59 - 36
Joos Ba lnvisin Glinolasesscccs Sons seoocsosdones 11.41} 11 6.72 | 1.32'] © -79. 47 62 -46

Moisture-free meal:
Lot A, undried, water added. 2. - = 2-.2--- | 222-2
ot Bwindniedeee eee. hack use hae cee lol ee

17.

16. Moat 90. 22 -61 -41
Ibo Ch sine hina Glenelg sue 5 ynebboacbeossosGoollanoscos 16.

15.

13

7.65

7.73 | 1:21 89. 92 - 69 -A5
7.68 |. .92 90. 30 - 68 -42 .
7. 58 89. 71 - 70 - 52

ote mie di tim die disse ee ase eee eee |e
fe lotey) nighvdriedeesmessee ee eeen eee aneeee le acenes

7
0

1

4

9

7 71g5! | 2860 "90,361" «bon ri3 ae
5

3

5

4

=
&

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. 17

Lots C, D, and E were dried to different degrees, the meal contain-
ing 13.41, 13.27, and 11.41-per cent of moisture, respectively. It
should be noted that lots C and D contained spaeteally the same
amount of moisture and might be regarded as duplicates were it not
that lot C was somewhat richer in fat and therefore more susceptible
to spoilage. |

Part of each lot was packed in 100-pound and part in 25-pound cot-
ton bags, the weight in each case being accurately determined by
standard scales. It was believed thatthe gain or loss in moisture
during storage would furnish useful data in connection with the net
weight amendment of the Food and Drugs Act, as well as for the
special purposes of this investigation.

SHIPMENT AND STORAGE.

Shipment was made to Chicago and Savannah in ordinary freight
cars with the larger lots of meal of the next series of experiments.
The warehouse in Chicago was several stories high and of fireproof
construction. The windows admitted some air but little sunlight,
and the temperature responded slowly to outside changes. The
Savannah warehouse was three stories high with board floors, and
was exceptionally light and airy, the temperature of the air within
and without being practically the same. Each lot of bags was sep-
arately piled, care being taken not to allow those with an extreme
moisture content to come in contact with one another.

ANALYSES AND TESTS OF THE STORED MEAL.

The results of determinations of moisture, acidity, fat, and protein
contents made at the end of each four weeks’ period are given in

Table 8. This table also gives notes as to the physical condition and , —

permits comparison of the loss in weight and loss in moisture. The
same general results were obtained at both Savannah and Chicago,
and with both 100 and 25-pound bags.

Moisture.—Lots A and B show a steady loss of moisture and lot Ea
steady gain, while lots C and D remain practically constant. The
changes in weight in most cases follow closely the changes in moisture.

Acidity Lots D and E im no case reached the limit 30, and lot C
just barely reached that limit after several months’ storage. Lot B
slightly exceeded the limit after 16 weeks’ storage, and lot A ceoested
the limit in 12 weeks.

Fat—There was no marked change except in the’ case of lot A
where the percentage of fat diminished as the acidity increased.

Protevn.—No significant change took place. |

Taste and appearance.—Lot AN was found to be musty after 20 weeks’
storage. No deterioration was detected in any of the other saniples.

18 BULLETIN 215, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 8.—Analyses of degerminated, bolted, roller-ground corn meal containing different
amounts of moisture, showing changes during storage; ton lots, milled May 7, 1913.

Product.

Meal stored at Chicago:
' Lot A, undried, water added—
iWihenimilledises2 2s -sese2 se Asse

Stored 6 weeks. 228. 256-2 42)-2332244-

Stored 20; weeks*: -22--60b sesoee essen =

Storedi24 weeks2 2-62-3355 ses eters
Lot B, undried—

Wihenimilled sci. eee eee ne ee

Stored 16 weeks
Stored 20 weeks
Stored 24 weeks
Lot C, medium dried—
Wihennillods, «de tubes Peete.

Storedsl6weelkks 3-050 Sashes ee

Stored:20 weeksoo2 {ee tennessee ee sec

Stored 24 weeks. ....-.---------------
Lot D, medium dried—

Wihenwmilled s/o. ee ae es eee

Stored’ 24: weeksa. 203-3 Sa. estes =
Lot E, high dried—
Wihentmilled:- 2322S ss. See eee eae

Stored 8 weeks... -...-.----52--------
Storedtii2) weeksass 22 cecen ese a se eee
Stored 16 weeks...._..----------------
Stored 20 weeks. ....2-.--------------
Stored 24 weeks_...-..---------------
Meal stored at Savannah:
Lot A, undried, water added—
Wihenimilled: s2sse fame tees tat

Stored 8 weeks... .--.--.-.-2---22-----

Stored? weeksss. vase east eee eae

Stored.16 weeks. ....-..2..-----------

Stored! 20;weekse. < <=2 -Gass-ee-ee-ee oe

Storedi24 weeks: 28-4222 2-52-22 2e2 2:
Lot B, undried—

Wihentmilleds =: css 255) -2o4 Bees et

Stored 12 weeks... .-..---:-----------

Stored 16 weeks. ...-.-.---:--- Eset Res

Stored 20 weeks... .-----.2-----------

Stored 24 weeks... .-.----22f2--22----
Lot C, medium dried—

Wihentmilfed?/<._ ois Sa Taek

Stored 2iweeks <2 oon ac- cece ees

Stored 16 weeks= i :-ees-c5 ssc se ae

Stored 20 weeks... ...--..------------

Stored 24 weeksv. =. iS. Mile eee
Lot D, medium dried—

When milled ..-.-=---:2:-: eae. Se 2

Stonedti2-weeks: 22255252220 seacoast.
Stored“l6"weeks! Jo 2225 s-o 522 she ee
Stored 20 weeks. .-
Stored 24 weeks............2-..------

Mois-
ture.

Acid-
ity.

Stored in 100-pound bags.

no
B25 ae ates
WWNICSCHUD NORMOOP

23.5

i}
Poo he aes) hale SOS Ab=G ag (
OUSOH UNDOONSD OMrOoOOs

6. 53

Soan

PRAPAA AH BION MMIIO
10 2

lor Kor) _ INDO He OUST OD Or © He ©

Galen op tere) fexi elfen) Patina tien DISD D I Sr

PP ARIAR BIRAAAHH
Hw OD bo

Pe ee
FOSS Ca oe

COMPOSITION OF CORN, MEAL.

1

TaBLeE 8.—Analyses of degerminated, bolted, roller-ground corn meal containing different
amounts of moisture, etc.—Continued.

Stored in 100-pound bags.

Product. Change | Taste
Mois: | Acid- Protein res a ae lati | fan
ure ity. X6.25). F + mois- | appear-
weight. ture. ance
Meal stored at Savannah—Continued. Per Per Per Per
Lot E, high dried— cent. Per cent. | cent.| cent. cent.
Wihenbrmilled "2 3554022 Serer ain 11. 41 11.9 (a7 din ba RP apa asl WAL ere
Stored. 4 weeks. .22-45-2-5-2-s-2220-8- 11.89 | 19.0 6.55 | 1.25 | +1.13 | + .48
StORed! Si WeeKS = oss 22s see ae 2 ee 11.51 | 19.5 S88) jb eO lacsedess + .10
SHOTEO UA WeekSeicee eae riers ae sree te 11.55 | 20.5 6.75 | 1.37 | +1.38 | + .14
Stored Giweekss==.22--25-582-2 45-45) 12.66 | 25.9 6.79 | 1.29 | +1.34 | +1. 25
Stored 20 weeks. ....----------------- 12.78 | 19.5 6.79 | 1.25 | + .34 | +1.37
Stored 24:weeks: sa.c--)- 2 -<t-< 2 o2eee 12. 56 20.0 6.64 | 1.35 | +1.78 | +1.15
Stored in 25-pound bags.
Product. Change
Mois- | Acid- Protein ive BAEC A iitic
ure ity. 6.25). : A mois-
weight. ee
Meal stored at Chicago: Per Per Per Per
Lot A, undried, water added— cent. Per cent. | cent. | cent. cent.
Wihenpmnilledteteee scene. sae se terete nS b 14:7 GES NOs Ab Noceossos|lebbeaese
Stored 4 weeks I PAK) Sanoneccee .70 | —1.04 —0. 86
Stored 8 weeks PAA Bere meee .72 | —1.83 | —1.47
Stored 12 weeks..-..----- EE NE on ER ye 2 15.16 BAB ppcesoaenne -73 | —2.61 —1.70
StoredsliGiweekst oo. 2! Joh-5 22. s---ceticce: 14.37 Beh OW insoonoonm ae -59 | —3.26 | —-2.49
SLOLEOIZO; WeCKSsecme en iae ot ee eee ecee ees 14.30 31.7 6.88 | .60 | —3.59 | —2.56
Stored 24 weeks. .---.-.------ Peete) aren reer=nai a 13. 84 32.0 6.91 | .63 | —3.39 | —3.02
Lot B, undried—
Whrenumlledea sate saa Seteae cca nae 15. 04 14.0 GL 50s BNO4 [ER ets ee
TONE CIauWeCkSeeas (oo cee ee cee sean SUE 14,52 Ish il aoocecoades =97 | — .26 — .52
LORE Si WeekSes 2 sak. wate sel vee ees os sie 14. 52 Da By x teereerteioe -90 | — .39 — .52
SHiewaGl 1D WES a losdbooabesecdedeelaces sol ae 14. 55 DSUs leer eet ae -9L | — .65 | — .49
MLOLCGH OhwieekSeese. apes asces Soe eees ate 13. 78 CULO ssacwackoad -89 | —1.31 —1.26
SToneduZ0hwieekSea-ccae atta sone ores ee ae is 13. 89 29.6 6. 47 .94 | —1. 50 —1.15
Sioredw24iweeks se seni coc\sciodesyose nes eset 13. 64 30. 2 6.69 | .93 | —1.57 | —1.40
Lot C, medium dried—
Wabenbmiille dene eee ee oe i I 13. 41 14.1 YG 9's [Pale Ob inl eas eae | eis eae
Storedt4- weeks 42225265 me be peg PAL 13. 44 Ith 4y lenaasee sods 1.03-]| + .73 | + .03
Stored 8 wecks.-.---------- op qaamE Saabs AS eee 13. 67 DBE On Mace ce tek 1.06 | + .59 + .26
SUOKEMHUAIWECKSI Ete seh eet eee Skee 5 13. 88 SA OR ISAE ers eee 1.10 | + .65 + .47
NULOLCOMGIWeeEkKS sto 4 cc eee obese stele s sc 13. 51 QBasic aimee stats 1.02 | + .13] + .10
SLOTEG 20 weeks\-22) eee teee Boon ase eee oe ae) 13. 47 29.8 6.72 | 1.02 | — .06] + .06
Slorediz4weeksh-sss5 se sas S 5 Se jsiccese ces 13322) 30.0 6.75 | 1.01 | + .59 |} — .19
Lot D, medium dried— :
ANY Invern sonic OSA Se ee Geer ese ne aes epee 13.4 GH jel MeO Baeaseod ae soes ae
LOvedua weelkkss = cat SOLE Eh eee Pty ce 1G? OMe ae! At) |) SS oA SE. STL
SUOLEMIShWieCKSe ccs! see Nees ee een) ye PS(0)4| Pee aa eeac -75 | + .26] + .30
Stored 12 weeks 2850) || Se See eae -81|—.07] + .44
Stored 16 weeks DEO eee saa 3 .75 -00} — .04
Stored 20 weeks 23.3 6.66 | .81] — .20} + .15
; Stored 24 weeks 22.0 6.97 | .74 | + .20] — .05
Lot E, high dried—
Wihentmuilledee ots sea ss esse ees Sees cco S. 11. 41 11.9 B72 IRS 2 | eee ees reeves
MLOLCGRIWeekSemnsaaas se eases neces eee 12, 22 USO \isceeoedeees c 1.29 | +1.30] + .81
StorediSiweekseee spss ie rebate Mee bie 12.68 HONOR eaters cece 1.22 | +1.50 | +1.27
SLOLE CHUA Weeks ice ia ss Unies Bae ee eel Tp 13. 08 O38 Ope ease oe 1.36 | +1.37 | +1.67
SLOLCUMIGIWCEKSher te notte cao ee eee an 12. 66 PRT aeetoe Bese o) alge? oie Si sei +1. 25
HLoreds20 weeks wits sis 4. ye Se. ss 12.73 24.3 6.59 | 1.30 | — .46 |] +1.32
Stored 24weeks yosesns joes ae ee nee 2 a 12. 56 25.0 6.59 | 1.28 | +1.95 | +1.15
Meal stored at Savannah:
Lot A, undried, water added—

(hroie: SAIN bags 4 ee adele eke am il 16. 86 14.7 Gotu ly 6 Giunleaaeeed laecodeae
Storedi4rw ekg seesaw stance dee eee ek Se. 14. 96 29.5 7. 06 -62 | —2.47 —1.90
SLOvediseweeks te sss aa ease gee See BEB 28.5 6.92 | .65 | —3.78 | —3.53
Storedwlioweekss sess 3e as asc ateee PTE 13. 06 31.0 6.92] .60 | —4.29 | —3.78
SuoreddliGsweeksy. 528 eae ets SA ee 13. 46 34.7 6.73 -48 | —4.17 —3. 40
Storedi20 weeks ss 25 125s a a2 joe ee 14. 06 28.5 6. 66 48 | —3.90 —2.80
Sioredw24: wieelzs 4 saa see cis oes aaa eo See ees ee eo = BS SOAS SOS Ua Se Ba Soe ae

20 BULLETIN 215, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLe 8.—Analyses of degerminated, bolted, roller-ground corn meal containing different
amounts of moisture, etc.—Continued.

Stored in 25-pound bags.

Product. | Change
Mois- | Acid- Gniess | Fat ETE agit 2
ure. ity. 6.25). 2 F mois-
weight rT,
Meal stored at Savannah—Continued. Per Per | Per Per
Lot B, undried— cent. Per cent. | cent.| cent. cent.
Wihenimilledn octet ae se ces ses Stee sae 15. 04 14.0 62507 KORO4 Oe sees eee
Stored 4 weeks... 2 ..--5-.00-22----seee--eeeee 14.09 24.0 6.69 | .93 | —1.17] —0.95
Stored Siweeksy okie ack sae eee ee 12. 83 25. 0 6.66 | 1.03 | —1.76 | —2. 21
Stored 12iweeks'. 322 2--)-) 22 seciceeasen ie oases 12.39 26. 0 6.75 | 1.00 | —2.08] —2.65
Stored 16 weeks.-.-.....-----------2-------0- 13. 69 31.7 6.69 | .97 | —5.47] —1.35
Stored 20 weeks..:-.--2-s2s-5-s2-2+s-lee0ce ee 13. 88 23.5 6. 54 -95 | —1.89 —1.16
Stored Ba weekset sce 5.9 cian Ss eee sale Lola mc eld ecicue ee eles vsti ees tear res ae eet | ety acme
Lot C, medium dried—
IVT aYchal cnn DCCs eg ae 2008 Walia a Nd A 13.41] 14.1 669) | MeO | Peete ee eee
Stored 4sweeksejceis oe Hepatic be te 13. 27 23. 5 6.73 | 1.05 | — .52) —.14
StorediSiweekse esse ce ecco eeineeisc eats 12. 23 23. 2 6.70 | 1.00 | —1.79 | —1.18
toredalgiweeks welts: Ui ete ce oe ee ae 12. 02 25. 2 6.75 | 1.10 | — .37 | —1.39
StoreddlGweeksiss caus ess espe eee eae 12. 89 30. 0 6.71 | 1.10 | — .00 — .52
Stored:20 weeks 2s. 52-0 eee ecmceecce sac sacs 13. 73 26.5 6.83 | 1.05 | + .07}] + .32
Storeds24iweekkse ee sos jee A oa cane as Te cece ya era veep esl ele, 2 ha | pce ded ee
Lot D, medium dried—
When milled.....-.-..- 13. 27 13. 4 ia Hes Bee eee) Meeiseees
Stored 4 weeks... 13.13 20.0 6.81 | .82} —.65|} —.14
Stored 8 weeks... 12. 21 20.0 6.83 | .85 ;°— .65 | —1.06
Stored 12 weeks. .- 12. 26 20. 2 6.92 |] .85 | —.78|] —1.01
Stored 16 weeks. -- ---| 13.60 23.5 6. 53 81 | — .58 + .33
Stored: 20sweekso 2 sets iss acicisiedisarbeiclereietsione 13. 69 18.5 6. 66 8l | —.26| + .42
DLOred2Asweelesy Gein Ae cme pals lke lee geen Ns sy army Bich a cre Puree (Te Aa Cs ee | ean
Lot E, high dried—
WW herimniilled eer ocd ee etm ee ol oe he et 11. 41 11.9 627215 soa ye oes Beater
Storedisi weeksit ss-esecesiee same cme eee 12.18 18.5 6.50 | 1.31 | + .389] + .77
Stored 8 weeks......--- Se Eos nists dae 11.32 20. 2 6.44 | 1.33 |] + .91] — .09
Stored 12.weeks.........-.-..-.-- Syst (eene ines: ae 11. 62 20.0 6.56 | 1.33 | + .80} + .21
Stored 16:weeks. 5... 0006-02 =~ sece sts Be 12. 81 24.8 6.71 | 1.34 | +1.04] +1. 40
StOreds20hweekswsss-sceee eect ea sae 13.10 21.0 6.54 | 1.34 | +1.50] +1.69
Storeds24iweeks tae sea ee eee sete. cians EE lo ceteaee |e nsio nom al Siete os oer | BS De lece memeelleeeeceens

STORAGE EXPERIMENTS WITH CARLOAD LOTS OF MEAL MILLED MAY 23, 1913.

DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSES OF THE MEAL AS MILLED.

This experiment was carried out with carload lots (40 tons) of
undried and highly dried meal. The meal was packed in 100-pound
cotton sacks. As it was impracticable to mix thoroughly all of the
meal of each lot, one ton (20 bags) was taken out for subsequent
sampling, turned over on a floor with a shovel until uniform, and
rebagged. One of these bags furnished the sample at the end of each
period at each of the cities where the meal was stored. In both the
cars and storage warehouse these sample bags were kept in the middle
of the pile with bags of the same lot on all sides. Analyses of the
meal when milled appear in Table 9.

TaBLE 9.—Composition of carload lots of degerminated, bolted, roller-ground corn meal, as
milled with and without drying, May 23, 1913, for use in storage experiments.

Nitrogen- Grade

Mois- | Acid-| Protein
Product. fumes itys ||(CNX<bla5) se ate |g REE pore |
Meal as milled: P. ct. Per cent. | P.ct.| Per cent. | P. ct. | P. ct.
ota uMdniedy. co scce hae -ic ee eeeasteeas 15.73 16.2 7.12 | 1.02 75.19 | 0.51 0. 43
Wott alehid ried sane ene nemeaeeee er 9.86] 13.0 7.46 | 1.16 80. 37 - 67 -48
Moisture-free meal:
Bot A wumdried) 55250522 ce hee seeiee ae ee acces 19.2 8.45 | 1.21 89. 22 -61 o Bil

Iotep high dried! pete ses ceener een nasiase| eeret 14.4 8.28 | 1.29 89.16 -74 -53

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. aout

SHIPMENT AND STORAGE. 2
Each lot was divided into two parts and the two half lots shipped
in the same car with the meal of the preceding experiment to Savannah
and Chicago, where it was stored as already described.
ANALYSES AND TESTS OF THE STORED MEAL.

Determinations of moisture, acidity, fat, and protein were made
at intervals of four weeks. The changes in weight, taste, and ap-
pearance were also recorded (Table 10).

Moisture—Lot A showed a loss in moisture which was somewhat
ereater in Savannah than in Chicago, due either to the hotter climate
or to the nature of the warehouse, or both. Lot B gained about the
same amount at both places. The gain or loss of moisture was prac-
tically the same as the gain or loss in weight.

_ Acidity—Lot A reached the limit 30 in 12 weeks at Chicago, and
in8 weeks at Savannah. The acidity of lot B after 24 weeks was only
21.8 and 19.0, respectively, at the two cities.

Fat.—The percentage of fat in lot A slowly diminished in both cities,
but that of lot B did not change perceptibly. In all of the experi-
ments, whenever there was a great increase in acidity or spoilage,
there was a diminution of fat, due doubtless to the formation of ether-
insoluble oxidation products.

Protein.—The changes were insignificant.

Taste and appearance.—In no case was there evidence of spoilage,
even at the end of the experiment.

Taste 10.—Analyses of degerminated, bolted, roller-ground corn meal, milled with and
without drying, showing changes during storage; carload lots, milled May 23, 1913, stored

in 100-pound bags.

Change] Taste
Mois- | Acid-| 4 | Protein |Change jata lace

Product. ture ity (NX6.25) ue mois- | a
: . . . ppear-
weight. eae es
Meal stored at Chicago:

Lot A, undried— SEICUs P.ct.| Percent. | P.ct. | P. ct.
WWihentmilled : s-425 002 Locanccd cones 15.73 | 16.2 | 1.02 fa) | Beier Oe ee RN Good.
StorediaweeksSmen cee nt ae see eeee GSP) 22 ON) ok \lsseasosocoe —0.33 | —0.51} Do.
STOLE CR SRWEe KS Hin eee eee eee 15:68) cS eel es ola serene — .36| — .05] Do.
Stored 12 weeks..........-.--..------ IBSCEU NN SS) OD No Aas soe ae. — .48| — .29'| Do.
StoredelGuweeks et sres ee ses mee ooeee AS ZOU gO i ag letepeere ee te — .93 | —1.03 | ‘Do.
Stored 0nweeksiencneeeenet en teeeeneee 14.53 | 40.5] .81 7.19 | —1.39 | —1.20] Do.
Storedi24:weeks 522). 525: Sss2 525222 14,20 | 42.4] .74 7.22 | —1.64 | —1.53] Do.

Lot B, high dried— ;
Wihentmnilled sis redier set bee eek 9.86 | 13.0 | 1.16 7 AGA ese oe NM Uda Do
Storedta weeksita.sneton cee cuwecsoccee O50 |) TsO) Te lL eesecosose + .36] + .04} Do
Stored 8 weeks........--.--.--------- LO SSH Pav lderom |pelen li /ai | enero + .95] +1.02} Do
Stored 12 weeks-.....- TOE | UB tT i bee et eve +1.12]) +1.08] Do
Stored 16 weeks... BOVE) AOC |) EY osoeoceaone +1.48 | +1.21]} Do
Stored 20 weeks.......--------------- 11.20} 20.8} 1.16 7.43 | +1.39 | +1.34] Do
Storedi24 weeks. 0s. 2 oso ceccee. sect 10.96 | 21.8 | 1.18 7.53 | +1.37] +1.10| Do

Meal stored at Savannah:

Lot A, undried—
puyihcribmrtileclige sei 0k peep vay chy 15.73 | 16.2 | 1.02 712 Paes uel eDOs
Stored 4 weeks..........--.---------- 15.35 | 24.0] 1.06 6.87 | — .51] — .38] Do.
StOLrediSaweeks co ace oe os ccees neses ses 14.16} 32.5] .99 7.10 | —1.08 } —1.57 | Do
SLoredelaaweekseee nee ssecceeerconle 13. 53 SPH, 1 92 7.01 | —1.80 | —2.20 Do
Stored 16 weeks......-..--......----- 13.70 | 32.8 91 7.31 | —2.30 | —2.03 Do
Stored 20 weeks........-.---.-------- 13.50 | 29.0] .84 6.91 | —2.83 | —2. 23 Do,
Stored 24 weeks........-......-..---- 13.23 | 32.0] .90 7.00 | —3.55 | —2.50 |. Do

Lot B, high dried—

Wihenimilled’ ¢. cece eee bee 9.86 | 13.0] 1.16 Agu IMe Abas ee Do.
Stored 4cweeks = <.sssek otoassisek << soc 10. 25 15.0 | 1.33 7.51 | + .48 | + .39 Do.
LOFEMIS Weeks») acne comes eee 9.75 18.0 | 1.30 7.53 | +1.23 | — .11 Do.
Stored 12: weeks; . <i: 22 o.2-c-6- 225 10.30 | 19.0} 1.29 7.58 | +1.36] + .44] Do.
Stored 16 weeks......-...---.------.- 10. 74 19.3 | 1.21 7.56 | + .98 | + .88 Do.
Stored 20 weeks..........-..--------- 11, 22 16.5 | 1.27 7.26 | +1.86 | +1.36 Do.
Stored 24 weeks..............-------- 11.10} 19.0} 1.23 7.18 | +1.65 | +1.24| Do.

ae BULLETIN 215, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

COMPARATIVE KEEPING QUALITY OF WHOLE-KERNEL STONE-GROUND
MEAL AND DEGERMINATED BOLTED ROLLER-GROUND MEAL.

In this investigation a comparison in regard to fat content was
made of the keeping quality of meal of the extreme types, ground
from the same corn and containing practically the same amounts of
moisture. The experiments were carried out in two series, the first
with meal milled in December, in parallel lots, dried to different de-
grees so as to contain from less than 11 to over 19 per cent of mois-
ture, the second with meal ground in April without drying.

The whole-kernel meal was ground in an under-runner bevel
mortise-geared buhr mill which was set up for the purpose at the
Terre Haute plant of the American Hominy Company. The mill was
adjusted to yield a fine, soft meal, such as is preferred by the southern
trade, nothing being added to the corn and nothing taken away.
The degerminated meal was the usual somewhat granular product of
the mill known in the trade as “cream meal.’ The corn used was
No. 3 white dent of the crop of 1913. The quality was quite poor,
much inferior to that of the preceding year, which was exceptionally
good. It thus appears that in the experiments of the two years the
extremes in quality were encountered.

In all the experiments the stream of cleaned corn was divided, part
going to the roller system and part to the buhr stones. The bags that
received each kind of meal were numbered consecutively and the pro-
cess so regulated that the meal of the two kinds in bags bearing the
same number was from the same corn. As the capacity of the buhr
mill was much less than that of the roller system it was necessary to
draw the corn for the whole-kernel meal from the divided stream into
bags arranged in the proper order and continue the grinding, after
the cream meal was milled and sacked.

As in the experiments of the preceding year, it was impracticable
to mix all of the meal in each lot. Accordingly ton portions were
taken out, mixed, analyzed, and bagged in specially marked sacks,
one of which was used for the tests at the end of each storage period.
Care was taken that these sublots for sampling, representing the two
kinds of meal of the same moisture content, were from the bags bear-
ing the same numbers and therefore were comparable not only as to
moisture, but also as to corn.

STORAGE EXPERIMENTS WITH PARALLEL LOTS OF WHOLE-KERNEL AND DEGERMI-
NATED MEAL, OF DIFFERENT DEGREES OF DRYNESS, MILLED DECEMBER, 1913.

DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSES OF THE MEAL AS MILLED.

This experiment involved the serious difficulty of drying both
kinds of meal of each pair of the series so that they should be alike
as to corn and moisture. As the drying apparatus of the stone sys-
tem differed from that of the roller system in kind and capacity, it

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. i 23

was only after repeated trials that suitable lots were secured. A labo-
ratory was set up at the mill. Here tests for moisture and acidity
were made on the meal immediately after milling, the remainder of
the analyses being finished at the Chicago Food and Drug Inspection
Laboratory.

The analyses in Table 11 represent the six parallel lots finally se-
cured. It will be noted that the percentage of moisture in the two
kinds of meal of each pair are reasonably close together, thus permit-
ting satisfactory comparison of the results obtained after storage;
furthermore, that the range in moisture (less than 11 to over 19 per
cent) is sufficiently great to cover the trade conditions. As the corn
varied from day to day, it was found impossible to keep the composi-
tion of the meal of the different lots uniform. This, however, seemed
unnecessary so long as the two kinds of meal of each pair were from
the same corn and of practically the same moisture content.

Tasie 11.—Composition of carload lots of corn meal containing different amounts of
moisture, as milled December, 1913, and used in storage experiments.

Whole-kernel, stone-ground meal.

mee Moist- | Acid-| Protein | po; rea Crude | yop
ure. ity. | (NX6.25). a erect fiber. ‘

Meal as milled: ch iPr ct P.ct.| P.ct P.ct. | P.ct.
ILOyi JA, Win bee lO Shee Saas seeosecenepecoassee L PAA 8.56 | 3.26 | 66.06 1.75 | 1.10
Lot B, extra low dried!s:..254:- : fs 28. 5 8.76 | 3.45 | 67.71 1.73 1.10
Lot C, low dried...-.-.- : 19.9 9,00 | 3.47 | 68.95 1.79 | 1.08
Lot D, medium dried... . - 21.3 9.16 | 3.71 | 70.42 2.06 | 1.21
Mot bainiehidried® <2. 22222... be is 24.6 9.44 | 3.55 | 71.65 1.95 |. 1.16
Lot F, extra high dried wee 21.8 9.82 | 3.71 | 72.42 2.03 | 1.23

Moisture-free meal:
otpAemundrie disses 4h 22 jaqeass Seales 2s )ee 27.6 10.60 | 4.04 | 81.83 2.17 | 1.36
Mowmbrextra low dried ess. ocr a. ase in ||'\2 ys 34.4 10.59 | 4.17 | 81.82 2.09 | 1.33
HoUuCslowsanicdey lh. S522) eee ee ae hs Gl 23.6 10.68 | 4.12} 81.80 QQ e128,
MotDeanedium’ drie@s a 564-220. Sse sees a. |esaa- 2 = 24.6 10.58 | 4.29} 81.34 2.39 | 1.40
Wotemhnohdriedie sik PL A els elo 2. 28.0 10.76 | 4.05 | 81.65 DEI Mee
ot nextra bien Grieg: 2-5-5222 52 25222) oe - ae 24. 4- 11.01 | 4.16 | 81.17 2.28) 1.38

Degerminated, bolted, roller-ground meal.

Product.

: SFE tee enee Nitro-
Moist- | Acid- | Protein Crude
ure. | ity. | (Nx6.25).| Pat: jgemtree) sper, | Ash.
Meal as milled: P.ct. P.ct. JEsGe|| JERGis |) ARG || JZ0s
WoteNenn dried asses e eee e tase sasesese lee 19.20 | 16.0 7.38 | 0.67 | 71.94 0.46 | 0.32
Mot Brextrajlow dried--: 25:2. -55:22-----5- 17.73 | 17.6 7. 50 83 | 73.01 57 36
Mon lowsadniedts se. et ecee y= S2ase nsec 15.72 | 13.8 7.38 75 | 75,25 56 34
Hor Demediimi dried*---2------445--25-6- 5. 13.78 | 13.3 7.28 |1.05 | 76.81 64 44
Wowk hip dried 22:2 k=). <ccessceeeesce 12.91 | 13.0 7.41 92 | 77.73 60 43
Lot F, extra high dried........--.----.----- 11.26 | 13.9 7.25 1}1.06 | 79.31 - 10 42
Moisture-free meal:
oteAeindricd masse sens eh aceon ese sees sccee 19.8 9.14 83 | 89.06 57 40
Motbaextra low, Oried= 22.5 --)-2osseeee22e5-|o2-<-254 21.4 9.12] 1.01} 88.74 - 69 44
Moi@mlowsdricd tess bees -serac aan aeesocee|-s sce ee 16. 4 8. 76 89 | 89.29 66 40
MotDymediumidriedetees 2s) -sanessssces eles sos see 15.4 8.45 | 1.22 | 89.08 74 51
oth chidniediss mse peeene neces ee eel =s se see 14.9 8.51 | 1.06} 89.25 69 49
Wotshextrahighidried=eseersr esses serene ie. ets 15.7 8.17 | 1.19} 89.38 79 47

94 BULLETIN 215, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SHIPMENT AND STORAGE.

Half of each lot was shipped to Savannah and half to'New Orleans,
the analyses being made from month to month in the Government
laboratories located in these cities. Each of the three cars destined
for each city contained two parallel lots—that is to say, two half lots

‘of whole-kernel meal and two of cream meal, representing two de-
grees of dryness. Care was taken not to allow the two kinds of meal,
~ or meal of the same kind with extreme moisture content, to come in
- contact either in the car or the storage warehouse, also to so bury the
= bags for analysis in the piles that they should be surrounded by bags
of the same lot on all sides. The storage warehouse at Savannah was
similar to that used in the preceding experiment, while that at New
Orleans was a large, modern structure of several stories, dimly lighted
but quite well ventilated.

ANALYSES AND TESTS OF THE STORED MEAL.

The analyses shown in Table 12 are the most instructive of all those
given in this bulletin and show conclusively the superior keeping
qualities of degerminated meal.

‘ Moisture.—The lots with high moisture, i. e., A, B, and C, regard-
less of the kind of meal, lost weight during storage, while the drier
lots, D, E, and F, in most instances gained. In cases where the meal
heated the loss in weight was not only considerable but noticeably
greater than the loss in moisture, indicating that carbon dioxid was
given off in appreciable amount.

Acidity.—The whole-kernel meal, even when dried to less than 11
per cent of moisture, became sufficiently acid to exceed the limit of
30 in from four to eight weeks and finally reached from two to over
three times that limit. On the other hand, the degerminated meal
gained slowly in acidity, the limit being exceeded in sixteen weeks
only in lot B stored at New Orleans. The highest acidity that was
reached in the degerminated meal of lots C, D, E, and F, which con-
tained 15.72 to 11.26 per cent of moisture at the outset, was 30.1 and
that only after 28 weeks’ storage.

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. 25

TABLE 12.—Comparative analyses of whole-kernel, stone-ground corn meal and degermi-
nated, bolted, roller-ground corn meal, containing different amounts of moisture,
showing changes during storage; carload lots, milled December, 1913, and stored in
100-pound bags.

Whole-kernel, stone-ground meal.
Product. ; Change
Mois- | Acid- Ree Fat Chalge in ic Taste and appear-
ture. ity. NX6.25). 3 F mois ance.
weight. aieat
Meal stored at New Orleans: ;
Lot A, undried— Per ct. Perct. |Perct.| Per ct. | Per ct. :
When milled............- 19.27 | 23.1 55 gs OS Lae a) Mae f Good.
Stored 4 weeks....---.---- 14.73 | 83.6 9,28 | 2.61 | —6.81 | —4.54 | Hot, musty, caked.
Stored 8 weeks.....------ 14.56 | 81.2 9.06 | 2.39 | —7.50 | —4.71 eneld, eaked,
tk.
Stored 12 weeks......---- 13.75 | 81.0 9.22 | 2.39 | —8.00 | —5.52 Do.
Stored 16 weeks......---- 14.02 | 89.6 8.97 | 2.47 | —7.70 | —5.25 Do.
Stored 20 weeks...-.------ 13.80 | 92.7 9.16 | 2.16 | —8.22 | —5. 47 Do.
Stored 24 weeks......---- 13.50 | 93.0 8.94 | 2.41 | —7.94 | —5.77 Do
Stored 28 weeks....-.--.- 13.27 | 88.2 9.25 | 2.39} —8.67 | —6.00 Do
Lot B, extra low dried—
Wihen®milled .2.2.2-2.2.-2 17.25 | 28.5 SAIGN PON DM His. neal coke Good.
Stored 4 weeks......----- 17.17] 42.0 8.72 | 3.49 | — .34 | — .08} Musty.
Stored 8 weeks...-------- 13.70 | 95.8 9.09 | 2.85 | —5.22 | —3.55 | Hot, rancid, caked.
Stored 12 weeks......-.-- 13.60 | 97.7 9.16 | 2.85 | —5.27 | —3.65 | Rancid, caked..
Stored 16 weeks......--.- 13. 80 | 103.0 8.97 | 2.92 | —4.90 | —3.45 Do.
Stored 20 weeks....-..--- 13.68 | 107.2 9.09 | 2.62 | —5.06 | —3.57 Do
Stored 24 weeks........-- 13.45 | 107.6 9.12 | 2.96 | —5.31 | —3.80 Do
Stored 28 weeks........-- 13.19 | 107.6 9.13 | 2.86 | —5.39 | —4.06 Do
Lot C, low dried—
When milled...:...-...-- 15.71 | 19.9 STH BENE |e iene Good.
Stored 4 weeks.....-.---- 15.18 | 28.9 8.76 | 3.40 | — .27] — .53 Do.
Stored 8 weeks......----- 15.25 | 42.0 9.15. | 3.47] — .59 |] — .46 Do.
Stored 12 weeks........-- 14.75 | 49.7 9.06 | 3.43 | —1.09 | — .96 Do
Stored 16 weeks.......--.- 14.94 | 59.7 8.94 | 3.43 | — .73 | — .77 | Rancid
Stored 20 weeks......---- 13.86 | 86.7 9.09 | 3.26 | —2.31 | —1.85 |] Rancid, warm,
lumpy.
Stored 24 weeks.....--.-- 12.87 | 93.0 9.15 | 2.75 | —3.51 | —2.84 Do.
Stored 28 weeks......-.-- 12.34 | 104.1 9.19 | 2.50 | —4.01 | —3.37 Do
Lot D, medium dried—
When milled....-.-.--.-- 13.44 | 21.3 OM1Gs| Beal: Sacco 8 boos eee Good.
Stored 4 weeks.....-.---- 13561) 3155 9.12 | 3.55 |.+ .37| + .17 Do.
Stored 8 weeks.....--.--- 13.7. 39. 2 9.06 | 3.62] + .33] + .34] Do.
Stored 12 weeks.........- 13. 68 47.9 9.19 | 3.53 | + .22} + .24 Do
Stored 16 weeks.......--- 13.64 | 53.0 8.97 | 3.56] + .47 | + .20 | Rancid
Stored 20 weeks.......--- 13.56 | 69.5 9.00 | 3.60 | + .52| + .12 Do.
Stored 24 weeks........-- 13.26 | 76.9 9.15 | 3.58 | + .02| — .18 Do.
Stored 28 weeks.......-.- 12.60} &7.2 9.19 | 3.61] — .20| — .84 Do.
Lot E, high dried— :
When milled....-.-.-..-. 12.25 | 24.6 QAR ESO Ot nies cone eine ee Good.
Stored 4 weeks.....------ 12.43 | 39.0 9.25 | 3.55} + .11] + .18 Do.
Stored 8 weeks......----- 12.55 | 50.9 9.44 | 3.54-] + .14] + .30 Do.
Stored 12 weeks........-- 12.47 | 61.6 9.12 | 3.56] + .06] + .22 Do.
Stored 16 weeks........-- 12.48 | 71.0 9.22 | 3.66] + .34| + .23 | Rancid
Stored 20 weeks.......-. 12. 64 93.4 9.44 | 3.54 | + .45 | + .39 Do.
Stored 24 weeks........-- 12.38} 90.2 9.34 | 3.50] + .25} + .13 Do.
Stored 28 weeks EUR AS is. 12.21 + 105.5 9.50 | 3.55 | + .36| — .04 Do.
Lot F, extra high dried—
en milled ..22.2-....-- 10.79 | 21.8 SPAN b B37 I Tse eae | (ee ae Good.
Stored 4 weeks......-..-- 10.95 | 26.8 9.62 | 3.72] + .14| + .16 Do.
Stored 8 weeks........-.- 11.34] 37.4 9.59 | 3.68 | + .86 |] + .55 Do.
Stored 12 weeks........-- 11.13} 44.8 9.75 | 3.62] + .86] + .34 Do.
Stored 16 weeks......-.-- WEY |) GG 9.72 | 3.59 | +1.14] + .78 Do.
Stored 20 weeks........-- 155 |) 7225 9.81 | 3.51 | +1.44] + .76 | Rancid
Stored 24 weeks.......--- 11.47 | 86.5 9.69 | 3.69 | +1.28 | + .68 Do.
Stored 28 weeks.......--- 11.43] 86.7 9.63 | 3.55 | +1.20] + .64 Do.
Meal stored at Savannah:
Lot A, undried—
When milled.......-.---- 19.23] 23.1 GH) BEAD |desoesse| Beseesoc Good.
Stored 4 weeks......-.--- 14.10] 61.0 8.25 | 2.10 | —7.52 | —5.13 ee musty,
cake
Stored 8 weeks........--- 14.27] 69.3 8.79 | 2.40 | —7.27 | —4.96 | Musty, caked.
Stored 12 weeks......-.-- 13.77 64.0 8.55 | 2.31 | —7.46 | —5. 46 Do. _
Stored 16 weeks......-.-- 14.16] 64.0 9.06 | 2.17 | —7.77 | —5.07 Do
Stored 20 weeks......-.-- 13.60 | 77.0 8.66 | 2.33 | —8.27 | —5. 63 Do
Stored 24 weeks......._-- 13.90 | 77.0 8.66 | 1.95 | —8.58 | —5. 33 Do
Stored 28 weeks.........- 12.78} 84.0 8.84 | 2.11 | —9.29 | —6.45 Do.

26

BULLETIN 215, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 12.—Comparative analyses of whole-kernel, stone-ground corn meal and degermi-

nated, bolted, roller-ground corn meal, etc.—Continued.

Whole-kernel, stone-ground meal.

Product. Change
Mois- | Acid-| Protein | pa; euanee in | Taste and appear-
ture. ity. | (NX6.25). ~ lanai mois- ance.
: gnv-) ture
Meal stored at Savannah—Contd.
Lot B, extra low dried— Per ct. Perct. |Perct.| Per ct.| Per ct
When milled........... 17.25 | 28.5 8°76 | 045) Pee ees Good.
Stored 4 weeks......--- 16.51] 35.0 8.25 | 3.00 | — .71 | — .74] No record.
Stored 8 weeks....-- 14.44 | 74.0 8.51 | 2.38 | —4.08 | —2. 81 arm.
Stored 12 weeks..... Bale tel oll aie!) 8. 43.} 2.60 | —4.96 | —3.38 | Caked.
Stored 16 weeks......-. 14.24] 78.5 8.71 | 2.41 | —4.58 | —3.01 Do.
Stored 20 weeks.....-.. 13.63 } 90.5 9.11 | 2.22 | —5.48 | —3. 62 Do.
Stored 24 weeks........ 13. 43 91.0 8.75 | 2.18 | —6.02 | —3. 82 Do.
Stored 28 weeks......-- 12.78 | 94.5 8.75 | 2.15 | —6.27 | —4. 47 Do.
Lot C, low dried—
When milled........... 15.71 | 19.9 9:00) | Stale pee: | oe Good.
Stored 4 weeks........- 15.08 | 22.4 8.65 | 3.45 | — .46] — .63 Do.
Stored 8 weeks........- 14.88 | 34.0 8.60 | 3.40 | — .77} — .83 Do.
Stored 12 weeks........ 14.88} 43.5 8.60 | 3.47 | — .90| — .83 Do.
Stored 16 weeks......-- 14.48 | 46.0 8.78 | 3.32 | —1.15 | —1.23 Do.
Stored 20 weeks...--.--.- 13.47 | 74.0 9.11 | 3.38 | —2.27 | —2.24 | Warm, caked.
Stored 24 weeks......-- 12.48 | 81.2 8.75 | 3.23 | —3.40 | —3. 23 | Caked.
Stored 28 weeks......-- 12.41 | 88.3 8.39 | 2.55 | —4.08 | —3.30 Do.
Lot D, medium dried—
When milled.........-- 13.44 | 21.3 Quill nBaalalas seeee ee See Good.
Stored 4 weeks......--- 13.30 | 17.5 8.86 | 3.70} + .11] — .14 | No record.
Stored 8 weeks......-.-- 13.48 | 36.3 8.87 | 3.57 | + .11] + .04 Do.
Stored 12 weeks......-- 13.56 | 39.0 8.79 | 3.50] + .21) + .12 Do.
Stored 16 weeks.......- 13.45 | 44.0 8.97 | 3.69} + .34] + .01 Do.
Stored 20 weeks.......- 13.28 | 65.5 9.11 | 3.80 | — .21| — .16 Do.
Stored 24 weeks.......- 12.99 | 70.5 9.02 | 3.50] — .40 | — .45 Do.
Stored 28 weeks........ 12.54] 76.7 8.17 | 3.80} — .71 |] — .90 Do.
Lot E P high dried—
When milled.........-.- 12.25 24.6 Rl Se ati) | | Sees eee | aemee Good.
Stored 4 weeks.........-- 11.82) 24.3 9.04 | 3.60 |] + .05 | — .43 | No record.
Stored 8 weeks......-.-.- 12.67 | 45.5 8.87 | 3.58 | + .27] + .42 Do.
Stored 12 weeks.......-.. 12.60 | 53.0 8.87 | 3.72 | + .11] + .35 Do.
Stored 16 weeks........-. 12.46! 56.0 8.87 | 3.76; + .58 | + .21 Do.
Stored 20 weeks......-.-- 12.58 | 77.0 9.11 | 3.68) + .17] + .33 Do.
Stored 24 weeks.......... 12.35 | 88.5 9.11 | 3.79 | — .02] + .10 Do.
Stored 28 weeks.......--- 12.15 | 99.5 8.53 | 3.54 | + .02 | — .10 Do.
Lot F, extra high dried—
When milled............- 10.79 | 21.8 OU SDEVA RAI SS. Soren e Good.
Stored 4 weeks......-...- 10.39 } 17.5 9.63 | 3.63 | + .64 | — .40 | No record.
Stored 8 weeks........-.- 11.08 | 30.5 9.02 | 3.59} + .98 | + .29 Do.
Stored 12 weeks.......-.- 11.27} 39.0 9.50 | 3.78 | + .92] + .48 Do.
Stored 16 weeks.........- 11.32} 46.5 9.68 | 3.62 | +1.16| + .53 Do.
Stored 20 weeks.......-.- 11.51 | 70.5 9.64 | 3.76 | +1.23 | + .72 Do.
Stored 24 weeks.........- 11. 45 fone 9.56 | 3.55 | +1.05 | + .66 Do.
Stored 28 weeks.........- 11.54 | 83.0 9.56 | 3.58! +1.20 | + .75 Do.
|
Degerminated, bolted, roller-ground meal.
Product. Change
Mois- | Acid- Nycezs) Fat Charge in 2 Taste and appear-
ture ity. | (NX6.25). x F mois- ance.
weight. TCR.
Meal stored at New Orleans:
Lot A, undried— Perct. |Perct.| Per ct. | Per ct
When milled..........._. 16.0 £38) HONGSE| oe oo Ee ee Good.
Stored 4 weeks é 22.0 7.60] .60 | —0.33 | +0.01 | Warm, musty.
Stored 8 weeks 16.2 7.12 | .26 | —3.59 | —2.48 Musty lumpy,
Stored 12 weeks.......... 16.58 | 16.1 7.75 | .25 | —3.78 | —2.62 E Do.
Stored 16 weeks.......... 16. 68 17.3 Core .21 | —3.61 | —2. 52 Do.
Stored 20 weeks........-- 16. 20 Wee 7.62 .22 | —4.11 | —3.00 Do.
Stored 24 weeks.......... 15. 99 18.4 7.13 -16 | —3.87 | —3.21 Do.
Stored 28 weeks.........-. 15.77 | 18.8 7.81} .20 | —4.23 | —3. 43 Do.
Lot B, extra low dried—
When milled............. 17.73 | 17.6 750: | esate th 5| Cee Good.
Stored 4 weeks........-.-- 17.37 | 19.2 7.60 |. .85 | — .42 | — .36 Do.
Stored 8 weeks........-.- 16.89 | 25.1 7.56 77 | —1.00 | — .84 | Slighty musty.
Stored 12 weeks.......... 16.23 | 28.0 7.56 | .76 | —1.50 | —1.50 | Good.
Stored 16 weeks.........- 16.09 | 34.5 7.31 -63 | —1.40 | —1. 64 Do.
Stored 20 weeks.........- 15.58 | 41.7 7.66 | .36 | —2.42 | —2.15 | Stale, lumpy.
Stored 24 weeks........_- NEED | BxE@ 7.78 | .31 | —2.75 | —2.51 | Musty, lumpy.
Stored 28 weeks.........- 14.98 } 41.2 7.81 | .28 | —3.44 | —2.75 Do.

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. oF

TABLE 12.—Comparative analyses of whole-kernel, stone-ground corn meal and degermi-
nated, bolted, roller-ground corn meal, etc.—Continued.

Degerminated, bolted, roller-ground meal.

Product. Change
Mois- | Acid-| Protein Fat pusuge in Taste and appear-
ture. ity. | (NX6.25). weight. anos ance.
Mealstored at New Orleans—Con.
Lot C, low dried— Per ct. Perct. |Perct.| Per ct. | Per ct.
When milled...........-- 15.72 | 13.8 TSS ING) | eee ene ene Good.
Stored 4 weeks.....------ 15.57 | 16.1 7.35 70 | —0.14 | —0.15 Do.
Stored 8 weeks...-------- 15.51} 18.0 7.40 74] — .45] — .21 Do.
Stored 12 weeks.....----- 15.29 | 18.7 7.44 77 | — .80] — .43 Do.
Stored 16 weeks...-..---- 15.45] 19.6 7.28 74] — .30] — .27 Do.
Stored 20 weeks..-.------ 15.40 | 24.8 7.38 72 | — .53 | — .32]} Stale.
Stored 24 weeks...--.---- 15.23 | 25.9 7.44 76] — .44| — .49 Do.
Stored 28 weeks.....----- 14.82} 28.9 7.63 69 | —1.51 | — .90 Do.
Lot D, medium dried—
When milled.........--.- Ibe Ze) BRB) 23) | IR OD gee oUa ee ae oe oe Good.
Stored 4 weeks....-..-.--- 14.61 | 16.4 7.25 | 1.04 | — .14] + .83 Do.
Stored 8 weeks......----- 14, 39 iG S7/ 7.31 | 1.04 | + .56] + .61 Do.
Stored 12 weeks.....----- 14,46} 18.1 7.31 | 1.01 | + .66] + .68 Do.
Stored 16 weeks....-..---- 14.39 | 19.2 7.09 | 1.04] + .80] + .61 Do.
Stored 20 weeks....-.---- 14.43 | 25.7 7.28 | 1.03 | + .37] + .65 Do.
Stored 24 weeks........-- 14.54 24.7 7.19 | 1.02 | + .36|] + .76 Do.
Stored 28 weeks....-.----- 14.23 | 30.1 7.25} 1.00} + .65] + .45 Do.
Lot E, high dried—
When milled...........-. 12.91] 13.0 Tiel esa eects aie oe Do.
Stored 4 weeks......----- 13.20 | 14.5 7.32 | .95| + .23 | + .29 Do.
Stored 8 weeks.....------ 13.42 | 14.5 7.31} .93} + .70} + .51 Do.
Stored 12 weeks 13.39 | 14.9 7.38 | .96] + .61] + .48 Do.
Stored 16 weeks 13.62} 16.3 7.37 | .96) + .95] + .71 Do.
Stored 20 weeks 13.83 | 22.1 7.25 96 | +1.16] + .92 Do.
Stored 24 weeks.....----- 13.58 | 19.6 7.19 99 | +1.08 | + .67 Do.
Stored 28 weeks....-.-.-.--- 13.54 | 26.6 7.38 92 | +1.08 | + .63 Do.
Lot F, extra high dried—
When milled..........--- 11.26} 13.9 FoPAGs. \\n Tha aS seek | Wena ust Do.
Stored 4 weeks......----- LAO L228 6.94 | 1.13] + .45 | + .53 Do.
Stored 8 weeks.....------ 1oFSt | 1350 7.22 | 1.08 | +1.25 | +1.05 Do
Stored 12 weeks.......--- 12.08 | 12.6 7.31 | 1.10 | +1.48 | + .82 Do
Stored 16 weeks........-- 12. 68 14.7 7.41 | 1.10 | +1.50 | +1. 42 Do
Stored 20 weeks.....-.---- 12.69} 18.0 7.38 | 1.07 | +2.09 | +1.43 Do
Stored 24 weeks......-.-- BAR| Biles) 7.00 | 1.10} +2.12 | +1.46 Do
Stored 28 weeks......-.-- IPPEI) Oph7/ 7.25 | 1.03 | +2.30 | +1.55 Do
Meal stored at Savannah:
Lot A, undried—
When milled...........-- 19.20} 16.0 EON OOt eee a aceite sae E
Stored 4 weeks........--- 18.38} 17.5 7.30 | .73} — .65 | — .82 | Norecord.
Stored 8 weeks......----- 17.67 | 20.0 7.60} .70 | —1.83 | —1.53 to)
Stored 12 weeks......-.-- 16.87 | 17.5 7.26} .60}] —3.02 | —2.33 Do
Stored 16 weeks.....--.-- 16. 40 18.5 7.61 -48 | —3.52 | —2.80 Do
Stored 20 weeks........-- 16.19] 24.0 7.31} .36| —4.08 | —3.01 Do
Stored 24 w2eks.......--- 15. 70 25.0 7.50 .36'| —4.52 | —3.50 | Musty
Stored 28 weeks....-..--- 14.95 | 22.0 6.79 | .38 | —5.29 | —4.25 fo)
Lot B, extra low dried—
Wihenimilled..25. = .2)2-42 UG 783 1) UB To 90) |} tet al eee em ats Good.
Stored 4 weeks.....--..-- 17.05} 15.8 6. 90 88 | — .46] — .68 |] No record.
Stored 8 weeks......-.--- 16.70 | 22.0 6. 90 89 | — .83 | —1.03 (0)
Stored 12 weeks.......--- 16.66 | 24.0 7.18 95 | —1.46 | —1.07 Do
Stored 16 weeks.....-.--- 16.09 | 27.5 ees 84 | —1.65 | —1. 64 Do
Stored 20 weeks........-- Tey Za) BBE 7 7.59 49 | —2.40 | —1.98 Do
Stored 24 weeks.......--- 14.97 | 36.5 7.34 53 | —3.21 | —2.76 Do.
Stored 28 weeks........-- 14.50 | 33.2 7.41 EAI) fees 3 oe fo —3, 23 Do
Lot C, low dried—
When milled............. USB 1as)s3 LEON Peo Dn sees ce cece nee Good.
Stored 4 weeks.........-- 15.31 | 12.0 7.31] .65] — .21| —.41 Do.
Stored 8 weeks........--- 15.44] 15.8 7.09} .83 | — .46] — .28 Do.
Stored 12 weeks.......--- 15.49 | 16.5 6.82] .77| — .46] — .23 Do.
Stored 16 weeks.......--- 15 eZon ela 7.26) .79| — .46|] — .47 Do.
Stored 20 weeks.......-.- 15.02} 22.5 7.59] .72) —.77| — .70 Do.
Stored 24 weeks......._.- 15.00 | 25.5 7.24 72 | —1.15 | — .72 Do.
Stored 28 weeks.........- 14.22} 24.5 6. 97 87 | —1.65 | —1.50 Do.
Lot D, medium dried—
When milled 13.78 | 13.3 Ti 7S SU Be aaae Bete Do.
Stored 4 weeks 10.3 7.35 | 1.13 | + .36] + .20 Do.
Stored 8 weeks...-..-..- 15.8 7.09 | 1.07} + .73] + .38 Do.
Stored 12 weeks: . . 15.5 6.82 | 1.12] + .54] + .35 Do.
Stored 16 weeks... 17.0 7.26 | 1.09 | + .36] + .31 Do.
Stored 20 weeks 23.0 WANG |) TEP ae A8iy pe. SE) Do.
Stored 24 weeks QOD 7.23 | 1.05 | — .08 | + .29 Do.
Stored 28 weeks 25.7 eos | TA far ce ae — .10 Do

28 BULLETIN 215, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 12.—Comparative analyses of whole-kernel, stone-ground corn meal and degermi-
nated, bolted, roller-ground corn meal, etc.—Continued.

Degerminated, bolted, roller-ground meal.

Product. Change
Mois- | Acid-| Protein | p+ change in | Taste and appear-
F z a.
ture. | ity. |(NX6.25). weight. mis ance.
Meal stored at New Orleans—Con.
Lot E, high dried— Per ct. Perct. |Perct.| Per ct. | Per ct. ‘eRe

When milled.........--.-- 12.91] 13.0 Ts4W WORG2 alee oe 3 eee ce Good.

Stored 4 weeks. ....-.-.-- 12.16 9.5 7.00 -95 | +0.23 | —0.75 Do. RE
Stored 8 weeks. - soo JBL 88) 1. 16} 5 7.00} .98] + .61] + .48 Do.

Stored 12 weeks... ---| 18.35] 14.5 7.09 | 1.00} + .48 | + .44 Do.

Stored 16 weeks. . . 13. 45 15. 0 7.00 | 1.03 | + .67 | + .54 Do.

Stored 20 weeks... 13.58 | 19.0 7.15 | 1.09 | + .61) + .67 Do.

Stored 24 weeks........-.| 13.32] 20.5 7.24 | 1.00) + .39 | + .41 Do.

Stored 28 weeks. ......--- 13.27 | 22.5 7.10 | 1.04] + .52] + .36 Do.

Lot F, extra high dried—

When milled............-. 11. 26 13.9 elu LS OGUE aaeenes ce ee eee Do.

Stored 4 weeks..........- 11.17 9.3 7.09 | 1.14) + .73 | — .09 Do.

Stored 8 weeks. ......---- 11.49} 12.0 7.45 | 1.15}. 41.11 | + .23 Do.

Stored 12 weeks. ....--..-- 12.30} 13.0 Ce) |) Te 3 eee sees +1. 04 Do.

Stored 16 weeks. ........- 12.13 12.7 7.18 | 1.13 | +1.11] + .87 Do.

Stored 20 weeks. .....-.-. 12.30 17.5 7.16 | 1.10 | +1.48 | +1.04 Do.

Stored 24 weeks. ......--- 12.40} 16.5 7.05 | 1.13 | +1.42 | +1.14 Do

Stored 28 weeks). 2 2c 12.64| 18.8 7.01 | 1.16 |. +1.67 | +1.38 De

Special attention should be directed to the degerminated meal of
lot A, which heated during the first four weeks and also became musty
and lumpy. Notwithstanding the spoilage evident to the senses,
this meal did not increase appreciably in acidity—in fact, at the end
of 28 weeks it had less acidity than most of the dried meal. The pink
color, as well as the mycological examination by Dr. C. Thom, showed
that the flora of the sample was peculiar and evidently such as to
produce spoilage without development of acidity.

Fat.—A marked diminution in the percentage of fat accompanied
heating. This was evident in lots A, B, and C of the whole-kernel
meal and lots A and B of the degerminated meal. This diminution
was also noted in the experiments of the preceding year.

Protein.—The results show no significant change in total crude
protein.

Taste and appearance.—Both the whole-kernel and the degermi-
nated meal of lot A were hot, musty, and unfit for food four weeks
after milling, and the whole-kernel meal of lot B was musty at the same
period. The remainder of the whole-kernel meal became rancid in
from 20 to 24 weeks. The degerminated meal of lots B and C was
stale at the end of 20 weeks, but none of the lots with lower moisture
content suffered appreciably in quality, even up to the end of the
experiment.

CONCLUSIONS.

Whole-kernel meal prepared from corn of the quality of the crop
of 1913, even when thoroughly dried, develops excessive acidity in so

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. 29

short a time as to demand immediate consumption. If meal of this
types preferred because of its greater nutritive value or more oily
flaver, it should, as recommended by Commissioner Watson, be
milled locally in small quantities and consumed within a short period.

In regard to keeping qualities, whole-kernel meal may be com-
pared to cream in that it must be delivered and consumed without
delay, while degerminated meal may be compared to butter, which
within reasonable limits keeps until used.

STORAGE EXPERIMENTS WITH WHOLE-KERNEL AND DEGERMINATED MEAL, MILLED
. WITHOUT DRYING, APRIL 3, 1914.

The analyses of the meal as milled April 3, 1914, appear in Table 13,
and of the meal after storage at New Orleans in Table 14. The
percentages of moisture at the time of milling were 18.45 and 18.46,
and of fat 3.34 and 0.79, respectively, in the whole-kernel and the
degerminated meal.

TaBLE 13.—Composition of carload lots of whole-kernel, stone-ground corn meal: and
degerminated, bolted, roller-ground corn meal, as milled, without drying, Apr. 3, 1914,
for use in storage experiments.

4

F a A Nitrogen-
Mois- | Acid- | Protein Crude
Product. vex Fat. free Ash.
ture. | ity. | (NX6.25). oscnas aie fiber. |" *
Meal as milled: Per ct. Per cent. | P.ct.| Per cent. | Perct.| P. ct.
Whole-kernel stone-ground.............---- 18.45 | 30.0 8.94 | 3.34 66.23 | 1.78] 1.26
Degerminated bolted roller-ground .......-.| 18.46 | ,17.9 6.97 | .79 72.91 |. .46 AL
Moisture-free meal:
Whole-kernel stone-ground.................|------- 36.8 * 10.96 | 4.10 81.22} 2.18] 1.54
Degerminated bolted roller-ground ..-......|.-.---- 22.0 8.55 | .97 89. 42 06 -50

TasLe 14.—Comparative analyses of whole-kernel, stone-ground corn meal, and degermi-
nated, bolted, roller-ground corn meal, milled without drying, showing changes during
storage. '

' [Carload lots milled Apr. 17, 1914, and stored in 100-pound bags at New Orleans.]

Change “Change ;
in! in Taste and appearance,
weight.| moisture. :

Mois- | Acid- | Protein
Product. ture. | ity. |(NX6.25). Fat.

Whole-kernel, stone-ground fit ei ep

meal: Per ct. Per cent..| Perct.| Per ct. | Per cent. ;
When milled.............- 18.46 | 30.0 8. Gas ESR SAa lee Saal cats crses Good.
Stored 2 weeks............- 15.41 | 82.7 8.85 | 2.79 | —4.36 —3.04 | Hot, musty, caked.
Stored 4 weeks...........-. 14.47 | 90.0 9.25 | 2.76 | —5.7 —3. 98 Musty,’ caked:
Stored 6 weeks.......,---.- 14.48 | 98.1 9.44] 2.52 | —5.73 —3.97 | Rancid, caked.,
Stored 8 weeks............- 14.55 | 98.7 9.38 | 2.78 |} —5.66'}° —3.90 |- Do.
Stored 12 weeks...........- 13.85 | 94.8 9.38 | 2.71 | —6.00}] —4.60 Do.

Degerminated, bolted, roller-
ground meal: : :
BQeleeesraial acest aewe -| Good. '

Wihemamilledis. J0-2e- sss sce 18.46 | 17.9 6.97

Stored 2 weeks..........-.- 18.50 | 21.9 7.18 -73.);— .30 + .04 | Not good.

Stored 4 weeks............- 16.06 | 20.3 7.31 -31 | —3. 81 —2.40 Misty lumpy, ae
Stored 6 weeks_.-.....--.-- 15.53 | 21.0 7.53 ~27 | —4.67 —2.93 | Do.

Stored 8 weeks......2...... 15.67 | 22.2 7.25 34 | —4.51 | —2.79} ~ Do.

Stored 12 weeks......-.-.-- 15:19 | 22.1 6.75 | _.29,| —4.56 —3.27 |: _,Do.

Neither kind of meal was fit for food. at the end of two weeks’
storage, the deterioration being evident from the taste and appear-

30 BULLETIN 215, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ance, as well as in the case of the whole-kernel meal, from the acidity |
As in lot A of the preceding experiment, the degerminated meal
spoiled without developing excessive acidity.

SUMMARY.

1. The products of a white-corn mill may be arranged in the fol-
lowing order in regard to acidity, fat, fiber, and ash, beginning with
the lowest percentage: Grits, meal, flour, feed, and germ. They may
be arranged in the following order in regard to protein: Flour, meal,
grits, feed, and germ. The percentage of nitrogen-free extract is not
strikingly different in the grits and meal, but is lower in the feed and
lowest in the germ.

2. Samples of meal taken from 41 mills located in 32 towns and 17
States are classified under four heads: (1) Whole-kernel, stone-ground
meal; (2) bolted, undegerminated meal; (3) degerminated, bolted,
roller-ground meal (‘‘cream meal’’); and (4) low-grade or ‘‘standard”’
meal. : .

3. Whole-kernel meal at the time of grinding is the same in com-
position as the corn except in regard to moisture, but soon develops a
greater acidity.

4. Bolted, undegerminated meal contains less fiber than the corn,
but no other general rule can be formulated owing to the variable
conditions of manufacture.

5. Degerminated, bolted meal contains less protein, fat, fiber, and
ash, but more nitrogen-free extract than the corn.

_ 6. Low-grade (‘‘standard’’) meal contains sometimes more and
sometimes less of each constituent than the corn.
...7. Ton lots of degerminated, bolted meal, with a range in moisture
content, were stored at Savannah and Chicago. The lot containing
16.86 per cent of moisture showed an excess of acidity in 12 weeks, a
loss of fat in 16 weeks, and a musty taste in 20 weeks. The lot con-
taining 15.04 per cent of moisture only slightly exceeded the limit for
acidity (30) in 24 weeks, and did not suffer in taste or appearance,
while those with 13.41 per cent or less kept well in all respects up to
the end of the experiment (24 weeks).

8. Carload lots of degerminated, bolted meal, with 15.73 per cent
of moisture, showed an excess of acidity at Savannah in 8 weeks and
at Chicago in 12 weeks, but did not suffer appreciably in quality.
Highly dried meal with 9.86 per cent of moisture after 24 weeks
showed a maximum acidity of only 21.8.

9. Comparative tests with whole-kernel and degerminated, bolted
meal, undried and dried to different degrees and stored at Savannah
and New Orleans, showed the superior qualities of the latter. Even
when dried to 10.79 per cent of moisture, the whole-kernel meal
-developed excessive acidity im 8 weeks and became rancid in 20

COMPOSITION OF CORN MEAL. 81

weeks, while with 15.71 per cent of moisture or higher, in addition to
becoming acid, it sooner or later heated and caked. The loss in
weight accompanying heating exceeded the loss of moisture.

Degerminated, bolted meal containing 13.78 per cent or less of
moisture kept in all respects for 28 weeks, and that containing 15.72
per cent, although it became stale in 20 weeks, did not develop exces-
sive acidity. The undried meal containing 19.20 per cent of moisture,
although it heated within 4 weeks, unlike the whole-kernel meal,
did not increase markedly in acidity.

10. Meal of the two kinds milled April, 1914, without drying and
containing about 18.50 per cent of moisture, spoiled within 2 weeks
at New Orleans. Only the whole-kernel meal developed an excess of
acidity.

11. A study of all the results leads to the conclusion that deger-
minated, bolted meal containing not over 14 per cent of moisture and
1 per cent of fat, as determined by the method of the Association of
Official Agricultural Chemists, properly stored, should keep for 6
months; with a moisture content of 15 per cent it should keep 3
months. Schindler’s limit for moisture, namely 134 per cent, obtained
by drying in an open dish, corresponds to about 143 per cent by the
method of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.

12. Whole-kernel meal, like cream, should be produced locally and
consumed soon after grinding; properly dried, degerminated meal,
like butter, keeps well during transportation and long storage.

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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
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BULLETIN OF THE

USDEPARTMENT OFAQRICULTURE %,

No. 216

,
he

Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization,
Charles J. Brand, Chief.

April 26, 1915.

COTTON WAREHOUSES:
STORAGE FACILITIES NOW AVAILABLE IN THE SOUTH.!

By Rosert L. Nrxon, Assistant in Cotton Marketing.
INTRODUCTION.

This bulletin is the result of a survey made for the purpose of
determining the extent of storage facilities now available in the
cotton-producing States. An attempt has been made to determine
not only the storage capacity of the cotton warehouses now in use,
but to learn something of the conditions under which cotton is stored,
the charges for storage, theinsurancerates paid, and other factors affect-
ing cotton in storage. Particular attention was given to the different
types of buildings with reference to cost of construction, insurance
rates, and general economy in handling cotton, and also to the dis-
tribution of these storage houses with reference to the production of
cotton, and the availability of such warehouses to farmers who may
wish to store their cotton. Efforts also were made to determine
something of the importance of the warehouses in protecting cotton
from fire and damage by weather, in handling and marketing, and
in financing the cotton crop. The relation of the cotton warehouse
to other business and its importance to the farmer and to business
men generally has been kept in mind.

The warehouse survey of Georgia and North Carolina was made
during the early part of 1914, so the resulting figures, which are
given in tabular form in this bulletin, relate to the amount of storage
space that was available during the 1913-14 season, except in Table
VI, which is an estimate of the storage space now available. Letters

1 The figures in this bulletin relating to the storage facilities now available in the cotton belt were secured
from a comprehensive survey of Georgia and North Carolina, and also by means ofa letter of inquiry which
Was sent to all the county agents of the Farmers’ Cooperative Demonstration Work of the Southern States.
The work in North Carolina was done in cooperation with the Marketing Division of the Agricultural
Experiment Station. In Georgia the survey was conducted entirely by the Office of Markets and Rural
Organization. However, the State College of Agriculture furnished office space and extended other
courtesies to the writer while making the survey which greatly facilitated the work.

Note.—This bulletin deals with the cotton warehouse situation of the South, with special reference to
conditions in Georgia and North Carolina. An attempt has been made to determine what storage facilities
are now available, the importance of the warehouse in financing the cotton crop, and the general relation
ofa system of warehouses to other lines of business. It should be of special interest to farmers, warehouse-
men, and cotton factors, merchants, and bankers of the South.

86344°—Bull. 216—15——1

2 BULLETIN 216, U. S., DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

were sent to all ginners and cotton dealers in Georgia and North
Carolina asking for the names and addresses of all cotton-storage
companies, both public and private. A tentative warehouse list was
made up from the replies to this inquiry, and a letter and blank
asking for details as to cost of construction, storage capacity, insur-
ance rates, and charges for storage were sent to each individual or
company on the list. These were followed, in many cases, by other
inquiries and special correspondence. In addition to this, the writer
visited many of the warehouses and conferred with a large number
of warehousemen, cotton dealers, and others interested in the cotton
industry.

In August, 1914, when it became apparent that the price of cotton
would be seriously depressed on account of a limited demand, it was
obvious that there would be an unusual demand for storage space.
In order to get data concerning storage facilities in the cotton-

producing States, a letter of inquiry was sent to all the county agents

of the Farmers’ Cooperative Demonstration Work in the Southern
States. This letter asked for the names of all warehouse companies
in the sections where the various agents were located and the storage
capacity of the buildings operated by these companies. The agents
responded readily to this inquiry, and the results obtained enabled
us to form a good idea of the available storage facilities throughout
the South. In this connection it should be remembered that an
immediate report was requested from the county agents.. This made
it impossible for them to make a very thorough investigation which
would enable them to report all storage houses. Many of the cotton-
producing counties have no agents, so the number of warehouses
reported from this source is further limited. In addition, many of
the nonproducing counties in the cotton belt where no agents are
stationed have warehouses with a large aggregate storage capacity.
Taking all of these facts into consideration it is quite evident that
the reports from the county agents necessarily are far short of the
actual number of warehouses in the various States. But these
reports are especially valuable as a basis for comparison of conditions
between the States where surveys have been made and the States
where no such investigations have been conducted.

IMPORTANCE OF THE WAREHOUSE IN FINANCING THE COTTON CROP.

Financing the cotton crop is one of the most difficult, and at the
same time one of the most important problems confronting the south-
ern farmer and the southern business man. In the light of all the
facts, it seems reasonable to state that but little cotton would be
stored or insured if it were not necessary to do so in order to negotiate
loans with cotton as collateral. The banks are entirely willing to
advance money on cotton on liberal terms when it is properly stored

COTTON WAREHOUSES. 3

and insured, but they are not always able to advance these necessary
funds. Even in years when prices are satisfactory, and but little
cotton is held, it takes enormous sums of money to finance the mar-
keting of the crop, and when the market is unsatisfactory and many
persons wish to hold their cotton for better prices, it is almost im-
possible for the present banking institutions to supply the necessary
funds. The farmer frequently has no operating capital and that of
the bank is limited. Consequently, when a market for cotton prac-
tically disappears, it is impossible for the banks of the cotton-
producing section to meet their obligations. Success in developing
an adequate and efficient system of storage houses depends largely
upon obtaining sufficient capital to finance the cotton crop. Many
letters from bankers, warehousemen, and business men generally,
indicate an entire willmgness and even eagerness on their part to
erect storage houses of sufficient capacity, if only money could be
. obtained in order to enable farmers and others to hold cotton.

It would seem that the banks would increase their capital stock
to such an extent that they would be in position to advance all the
funds needed. But it must be remembered here, as stated in con-
nection with storing cotton, that it is only when the market is un-
satisfactory that the farmer needs to hold his cotton and therefore
needs an unusual amount of capital. The banks, of course, can not
keep on hand unlimited funds to meet this occasional demand. It
elso must be remembered that the farmer is not always reasonable
in his demand for funds at such a time. When cotton is bringing
13 or 14 cents per pound he often sells his crop as fast as it is ginned
without reference to the disastrous effect it may have on the market,
spends the proceeds, and devotes all his energies to raising a large
crop the following year. While the cotton is growing he spends for
his supplies on the basis of a full crop for which he expects to receive
the maximum price. When, because of overproduction or unusual
pressure on the market, the price falls appreciably, he finds that the
merchant’s equity in the cotton is greater than its cash value. He
then expects the banks to advance him money on the basis of the
prices that prevailed when conditions were favorable, or perhaps on
the cost of production. While cotton is recognized as the best col-
lateral it will not be accepted by business men on such conditions.

Bankers and other southern business men believe that cotton when
properly stored and insured is the very best collateral. The most
substantial bankers state definitely that they prefer it to real estate,
and will advance funds on it as readily as on Government bonds.
When making the survey of Georgia and North Carolina special
efforts were made to determine whether the bankers in general
regarded cotton as desirable collateral. They were practically unani-
mous in their opinion that it is the very best that can be offered.

4 BULLETIN 216, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

From careful observation it appears that in North Carolina most
of the loans on cotton are made by banks at a rate of from 6 to 8 per
cent. The average would doubtless be 7 per cent or less. These
same banks charge 8 per cent or more for ordinary loans on personal
security or real estate. In Georgia the rate on loans on cotton ranges
from 7 to 10 per cent. The average is probably about 8 per cent.
This refers to comparatively small loans made by banks to individuals
and small companies. Doubtless many of the Georgia cotton com-
panies obtain money at the rate of 6 per cent. The rate on personal
notes in Georgia ranges from 8 to 12 per cent, with an average of not
less than 9 per cent. In both States the interest charged on store
accounts (which is usually included in the selling price) ranges from
10 to 35 or 40 per cent. The average is not less than 20 per cent.
All these facts show that in both States loans can be obtained when
cotton is offered as collateral at a much lower rate than when per-
sonal security is given.

It can readily be seen that one of the greatest needs of. the cotton
farmer is to get away from the present credit system. Many, es-
pecially those of the tenant class, pay the supply merchant an ad-
vance of from 25 to 35 cents on a dollar’s worth of supplies, and these
supplies are actual necessities. These accounts ordinarily run from
six’ to eight months. Such exorbitant rates of interest would be
disastrous to any class of people. When the crop is harvested the
farmer disposes of his cotton and settles his accounts with the pro-
ceeds, provided, of course, that he receives sufficient funds for this
purpose. Then it is usually necessary for him to mortgage his next
year’s crop to the supply merchant in order to obtain credit, which is
necessary to enable him to live while the crop is being made. While
it is difficult to see how this situation can be remedied, owing to
the fact that these tenants have no means of living while the crop
is being made without trading with supply merchants, it does seem
that the situation would be improved greatly by establishing a
system of warehouses and encouraging the tenants to store such
cotton as is not absolutely necessary to settle their accounts. If
this plan should be pursued for two or three years, while economy
in living was exercised, many could eventually free themselves from
the present system.

The merchant is almost as helpless as the farmer. He advances
supplies while expecting cotton to bring a fairly good price. In
most cases he has bought his stock on time and can not meet his
own obligations until the farmers’ accounts are paid. Whenever
the price is so low that the farmer fails to meet his obligations, the
merchant is likely to be seriously embarrassed. Late in 1914. for
instance, many farmers refused positively to sell their cotton, and

{

COTTON WAREHOUSES. 5

many of them failed to meet their obligations, thus making it
especially hard on the merchant. When the price is unusually low,
as in the present emergency, the merchant can not afford to “close
out” the tenant. The cotton, if thrown on the market, would not
bring enough to settle the account. If the merchant insisted on
selling the cotton he necessarily would iose much of the money due
him.

It is equally true that the local banker is helpless in such a situa-
tion. His bank advances some money to local merchants and some
to the farmers. He has borrowed most of this money from some
larger institution which is usually located outside of the cotton-
producing section. He is supposed to pay this money back at the
time that cotton is picked. When the farmer fails to meet his obli-
gation the merchant naturally finds it difficult to pay his banker.
Then the local banker is dependent upon the mercy of the larger
institution.

A well-organized system of cotton warehouses would be of the
greatest assistance to the farmer, the supply merchant, and the local
banker in financing the cotton crop, especially in tiding over an
emergency. ‘There is a serious need for warehouses whose receipts
- would be accepted as an absolute guarantee that a certain amount
of cotton of a definite grade and in marketable condition had been
stored with the warehouse company. Under such conditions it
would be very easy for the farmer to store his cotton and offer the
receipts to his supply merchant as collateral for extending the time
in which his account must be paid. The merchant in turn could
surrender these receipts to the local banker and extend the time of
his loan. The local banker would then use these receipts in a similar
way to extend the time of his loan with the larger institution. In
practically every instance the large banker would be glad to extend
the time of payment when these receipts were offered as collateral.
In many instances the rate of interest would be greatly reduced.
This is one of the very important functions of an efficient system of
warehouses, and the need of such a system is extremely urgent.

GENERAL DISCUSSION OF STORAGE FACILITIES.

It will be shown (Table VII, p. 17) that the warehouses now in
use are entirely ample in total storage capacity when we consider the
South as a whole. The investigations indicate that if all storage
houses, including those belonging to cotton mills in the cotton-growing
States, were used, every bale of an average crop could be stored.
There is never a year when there is a demand for this amount of
storage space. Some cotton is always shipped direct from the gins
through the compresses to New England and to Europe. Some is

6 BULLETIN 216, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

kept on the farm for several months. When this is taken into con-
sideration, it appears that the storage capacity of the buildings now
in use is entirely adequate.

DISTRIBUTION OF WAREHOUSES.

This, however, does not mean that every person who has cotton is
able to get it stored on favorable terms. While the facilities in a
general way are ample in most of the States, in others they are
entirely inadequate. By referring to Table VII it will be seen that
the warehouses of Virginia, Florida, Tennessee, and Louisiana have
a storage capacity much greater than the production of cotton in
those States, but most of the warehouses are located in the shipping
centers, namely, Norfolk, Newport News, Jacksonville, Pensacola,
Memphis, and New Orleans. While from a glance at the table it
would seem that the facilities in these States are adequate, probably
it is true that the cotton-producing sections are very poorly supplied
with storage houses. A farmer who wishes to hold cotton in these
sections would have to keep it on the farm uninsured or ship it to a
cotton factor in one of the large towns.

GEORGIA.

In Table I (p. 7) an attempt is made to illustrate the distribu-
tion of warehouses in Georgia. The first half of the table shows the
10 counties having public and private cotton warehouses with the
greatest aggregate storage capacity, and the second section shows the
10 counties producing the most cotton in 1913. Thesame table shows
the total production of cotton in 1913 in running bales for all the
counties listed. The first section shows 103 public and private ware-
houses reported in the 10 counties, with a total storage capacity of
419,280 bales. The 47 cotton mills reporting can store 192,475.
This makes a total capacity for the 10 counties of 611,755 bales.
These figures are for uncompressed cotton. Many of these ware-
houses usually receive compressed cotton. There are also 37 ware-
houses located in these counties which have not reported. Taking
this into consideration it would be safe to say that, in all, the ware-
houses in these 10 counties could store almost 1,000,000 bales of
cotton. The table shows further that the production of these counties
for 1913 was only 170,375 bales, as reported by the United States -
Census Bureau.

The second section of this table shows the conditions in the 10
counties producing the most cotton in 1913. It will be seen that 112
warehouses in these counties have a storage capacity of only 118,255
bales. The 10 cotton mills reporting can store 15,400 bales, making
a total storage capacity for the 10 counties of only 133,655 bales,
while the 1913 production for these counties was 437,605 bales.

COTTON WAREHOUSES. i

TasBLe I.—Showing the production of cotton in certain counties in Georgia, in running
bales, and the distribution of warehouses, their number, character, and storage capacity,
in flat bales.

Mill warehouses. Other warehouses. Total
Production
County. in running wanghouss
bales, 1913. | Number | Capacity in} Number | Capacity in Ane he eee:
ireperting.| flat bales. |reporting.| flat bales. | *2" P2*€S-
hh ee 10, 690 | 3 19, 800 7 40, 500 60, 300
HAL AT Mporee ee ene See See eee 2)... eee Seba. 8 53, 000 53, 000
iarkeres se a ee Le ie 13, 291 i 7, 300 5 35, 500 42, 800
eM, onset ds eck 30, S65:|°0. > Saeeecae ie 18 22, 780 22) 780
LETTLERITD 28 2 S53 ESS eee ere eee eee 2, 544 8 32, 900 3 44,100 77, 000
NACKSOH er oe ae Sac so es. see t eee 44, 550 3 3, 800 16 19, 850 23, 650
WERSCOP CE er tees se ok Ss ates 7, 940 8 47, 875 4 37, 500 85, 375
Encodes a 10, 765 6 25,000 20| 1217 950 146, 950
pene TNO Lemme lcs Ur a iS). 16/173)... ee 15 22; 850 22) 850
SOULE. eo ei 25, 052 i2 55, 800 7 21) 250 77, 050
PRGEANE ee 5 ee! co tee 55 170, 375 47 192, 475 103 419, 280 611, 755
41, 667 2 4,000 4,000
53, 687 6 6, 800 6, 800
39, 878 17 10, 575 16, 075
39, 365 18 22” 780 22) 780
41) 298 10 9 850 9} 850
44, 550 16 19, 850 23, 650
53, 740 16 11) 550 12, 750
TRON oe eee as eae ee ee 39, 005 il 13, 000 13, 000
mI es 38, 614 10 10, 350 10, 350
WiahtOW sons s22 shoe oes eases 45, 801 6 9, 500 14, 400
Ropero ee aoe 437, 605 10 15, 400 | 112 118, 255 133, 655

It will be seen that the number of warehouses in the first group of
counties is less than the number in the second group. The average
storage capacity in the first group is approximately 4,000 bales, while
in the other it is approximately 1,000. It will be seen further that
only two counties appear in both of these groups. This table is pre-
sented to illustrate the fact that the warehouses are not distributed
with reference to production. It also shows that the larger and better
storage houses are located in the nonproducing counties. It is well
to note the fact that Georgia has a greater number of warehouses than
any other State, and that their distribution is probably better, but
even in this State the distribution is not such as to best serve the

farmer.
NORTH CAROLINA.

Table II (p. 8) gives the same information for certain counties in
North Carolina that Table I gives for Georgia. It is interesting to
note that some of the counties of this State which have warehouses
with large combined storage capacity have a very small production.
Tt will be noticed further that some of the counties which produce
large amounts of cotton have very few warehouses or frequently none
at all. When the survey of this State was being made, it was very
noticeable that the facilities available were entirely inadequate, and
that those storage houses which were in use were not so distributed as
to be of the greatest benefit to the cotton producer. It will be seen
that 10 counties have 39 warehouses, with a total capacity of 133,770

8 BULLETIN 216, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

bales. These are the 10 counties having the largest amount of
storage space, yet the production for the same counties in 1913 was
183,483 bales, or approximately 50,000 bales more than could be
stored in all the public and private warehouses. These counties also
have 90 cotton mills, whose warehouses have a total capacity of
107,525 bales, making a combined storage capacity for these counties
of 241,295 bales.

TaBLE II.—Showing the production of cotton im certain counties in North Carolina, in

running bales, and the distribution of warehouses, their number, character, and storage
capacity in flat bales.

Mill warehouses. Other warehouses.
Total

warehouse

in running Bee +4 = | capacity in
bales, 1913.| Number | Capacity in] Number | Capacity in flat bales.

reporting.| flat bales. |reporting.| flat bales.

Production

County.

Cleveland... 23, 482 17 13, 625 7 5, 570 19, 195
Cumberland . 19, 155 a 7, 600 3 11, 300 18, 900
Franklin. ... 15, 536 1 3, 500 5 ; 10, 300
Gaston....-. 13, 706 35 34, 150 6 9,600 43, 750
Guilford........ ESE See 435 7 , 000 it 15, 000 37, 500
Mecklenburg ies see eee eee eeace 31, 164 13 14, 750 5 32, 000 46, 750
Newer anOVvelieoser ceo bce oceree erieceeeete. 2 750 2 30, 000 30, 750
SaMMSONE Sen aee a Me eben 2A GND | Reondasapcllosstosaossec 4 9, 300 9, 300
NUNS) eae etl Ne AG eae PS aE eae 28, 530 6 8, 050 3 5, 100 13, 150
WAY Nete ass eee Seen oR Ea 29, 965 2 2, 600 3 9, 100 11, 700
Motale rss seca jue se see 183, 483 90 107, 525 39 133, 770 241, 295
Wdeecombens sees ven metieas seen act 29, 676 4 8, 100 4 1,800 9, 900
Holla aha ore eee ee 32, 110 5 11, 400 2 1, 700 13, 100
Johnston'ys22 ee ooo esse 38, 751 6 9, 900 2 1, 200 11, 100
Mecklenburessse sees eee ne 31, 164 13 14, 750 5 32, 000 46, 750
aS his eee eS ss VS see Ne ae DOLBGO eee Nee as PILI eel taera Ste Stree hes tra a
Robeson 54, 039 6 12, 400 3 3, 700 16, 100
Scotland 27, 649 6 1.0;'3008| Cae eee = ise siete 10, 300
Union. . 31, 409 4 5, 600 3 4, 200 9, 800
Wake... 28, 530 6 8, 050 3 5, 100 13,150
WAY NOH cece eenane isso sens ameee 29, 965 2 2, 600 3 9, 100 11, 700
NG) 12) LO a pa SOS SE 333, 153 52 83, 100 25 58, 800 141, 900
1

In the second part of this table it will be seen that the 10 counties
listed have only 25 warehouses and that these can store only 58,800
bales. On the other hand, the total production of cotton is 333,153
bales, or almost six times the amount of the total storage capacity of
all the public and private warehouses. More than one-half of this
space is located in one county, and this is used almost entirely by
cotton dealers. These counties have 52 cotton mills which can store
83,100 bales. Adding this to the capacity of public and private
warehouses, we have a maximum possible storage space for these
- counties of only 141,900 bales, which is less than one-half the annual
production for the same counties. When we take into consideration
the fact that very few of the cotton mills allow the farmer to use any
of their storage houses and that many of the other warehouses are
intended primarily for the private use of merchants and cotton fac-
tors, it will be seen that the farmers at best could store only a very
small proportion of their annual production.

{

COTTON WAREHOUSES. © 9

In many primary markets there are no storage houses at all.
Cotton frequently remains on the ground, in public yards, and about
supply stores for weeks, where it is damaged by weather and en-
dangered by fire. In North Carolina cotton is stored by the dealer
in order to aid in financing his transactions, but seldom by anyone
for protection from ‘‘country damage.”’

GEORGIA AND ALABAMA.

On further examination Table VII seems to indicate that Georgia
and Alabama are best served at present, especially when we take into
consideration the distribution of warehouses with reference to produc-
tion. These States have by far a greater number of warehouses than
any others. In Georgia 1,089 public and private warehouses and
the storage houses belonging to 151 cotton mills have a combined
capacity of 2,105,780 bales, which is not far short of the 1913 pro-
duction. Something of the distribution of these warehouses has been
shown in Table I. As previously noted, it appears that, with refer-
ence to distribution, Georgia is better supplied with cotton warehouses
than any other State. The available storage space in Alabama is
greater than the annual production, and the fact that there are 581
warehouses seems to denote that those now in use in that State are
fairly well distributed.

SOUTH CAROLINA, MISSISSIPPI, AND OKLAHOMA.

Reports indicate that the situation in South Carolina, Mississippi,
and Oklahoma is about the same. We see from Table VII that each
of these States has a storage capacity slightly in excess of the pro-
duction, but the number of warehouses in each of these States is
much less than in Georgia and Alabama. Owing to the fact that the
investigations in these States have been very limited, it is not possible
to state the situation definitely. But the comparatively small num-
ber of warehouses would seem to indicate that they are located in
the principal towns. This means that many of the small and even
medium-sized towns are not well supplied with storage houses. The
trouble in these States is not necessarily with the total storage
capacity of the cotton warehouses, but with the poor distribution of
those now in use.

ARKANSAS AND NORTH CAROLINA.

Tt will be seen (Table VII) that the warehouse space in Arkansas
is insufficient to shelter the annual production and that the number
of warehouses is small. It must be considered further that a number
of large warehouses are located in Pine Bluff and Fort Smith. This.
would seem to show that many of the small towns are not properly
supplied. The situation is very much the same in North Carolina.
Tt will be seen that the number of warehouses, not including those
belonging to the cotton mills, is very small. The combined storage

86344°—Bull. 216—15——2

10 BULLETIN 216, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

capacity of public and private warehouses and storage houses belong-
ing to cotton mills falls far short of the annual production. Itis known
that comparatively few of the mills permit farmers to use their ware-
houses. Many of the mills buy the cotton which they use from other
States. From a rather thorough investigation of conditions in this
State it has been found that very few of the small towns have any
warehouses. Most of the warehouses in the State are located in a
few of the central markets and are controlled and used primarily by
the dealers. North Carolina is probably in more serious need of
storage houses than any of the other cotton-producing States. It
would seem that many new warehouses could be constructed and
operated at a profit in this State. The warehouses at Norfolk, Va.,
are used largely, however, by North Carolina merchants, and this
tends to relieve the situation, especially in the northeastern part of
the State.
TEXAS.

Tt will be seen (Table VII) that the storage capacity (as offered) of
all the warehouses in Texas is more than a million bales short of the
annual production. Reports from this investigation show that more
than half of this space is located in Galveston and Houston. This
shows clearly that the warehouses in the producing sections are entirely
inadequate. As there are only 497 warehouses in the State, it can be
assumed that most of them are large and located in the more impor-
tant towns. This seems to be conclusive proof that only a compara-
tively small percentage of the farmers could store their cotton if they

wished to do so.
SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION.

In summarizing the storage situation it may be repeated that the
cotton warehouses now in use have an ample storage capacity, but
they are so located and the conditions under which they operate are
such that in many cases they do not serve their purposes. In North
Carolina, Arkansas, and Texas the total capacity of all of the ware-
houses is not equal to the annual production, and those that are in
use are not properly distributed. In Georgia and Alabama storage
facilities seem to be ample in volume and fairly well distributed, but
the service is not of the best. In the other States facilities are ample
in storage capacity, but the warehouses are not properly distributed
nor are they so operated as best to serve the producers. In all States |
a majority of the cotton warehouses do not appear to be rendering
efficient service to the industry as a whole.

SERVICE OF WAREHOUSES NOT SATISFACTORY.

SPACE NOT AVAILABLE.
While an attempt has been made to show that in storage capacity

the warehouses now in use are fully adequate, it is not meant to con-
vey the impression that those who produce cotton can get proper and

COTTON WAREHOUSES. LE

efficient warehouse service. This is far from the case. Most of the
best storage houses belong to the cotton mills and to cotton factors
or commission merchants. The mills have built their warehouses
for storing the cotton which they buy for spinning. They were
never intended as public storage houses, and they are available for
such use in very few instances. The factors have not built ware-
houses for the purpose of doing a storage business, but in order to
aid in their regular transactions. But few of these persons would
build warehouses for the storage fees they collect, but they are
forced to operate the warehouses in order to handle the cotton which
is consigned to them for sale. It will be seen, therefore, that but
few of the best storage houses now in use are available to the farmer
unless he is willing to ship his cotton to the factor and pay him a fee for
selling it, in addition to regular storage charges. Many farmers are
averse to shipping their cotton to another town and consigning it to
a factor or commission merchant. They usually expect to receive
the money at the time the cotton is delivered. Many farmers are
reluctant to pay any charges whatever. This attitude is unfortu-
nate, for it eliminates them from participation in the use of the best
storage facilities.

THE SMALL WAREHOUSE RENDERS POOR SERVICE.

The service rendered by the small warehouses in the primary
markets is almost universally unsatisfactory. The warehouse own-
ers are not to blame for this poor service. The cost of handling
is much greater than in the case of larger establishments, and
the insurance rate is usually four or five times as great as in the
standard warehouses in larger towns. One might at first be inclined
to think that they should erect costly buildings, but in most cases
this would not pay, for there is not a sufficient volume of business.
Very few farmers will store their cotton when the market price is
fairly satisfactory. A good storage building might be erected in a
small town and a fair profit be made for one year, but it might be
four years or even longer before it would again be well patronized.
The chances are that during this period the fees collected would not
pay the cost of operation. The investor would lose all of the money
made in one year in addition to the interest on the funds invested
in the building. The result is that most of the warehouses erected
in such towns are owned primarily by merchants or cotton buyers
for use in connection with their business. They are not intended
for the use of farmers, and when a year of very low prices comes they
are not in position to render the service that the farmer expects.

COOPERATION ON THE PART OF FARMERS.

From the foregoing it would seem that the most satisfactory solu-
tion of the situation would be for the farmers to form cooperative

12 BULLETIN 216, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

associations and build their own storage houses. They can not
expect others to invest thousands of dollars in storage houses that
will lie idle for several years and make a profit for only one year.
No business men will invest their money in such a way. Farmers
must build their own storage houses or remain dependent upon the
merchants and cotton factors. It would seem also that the mills
and trade in general should encourage the preservation of cotton by
storage by discriminating individually against ‘‘country damaged’’
cotton. This would put a premium on cotton in good condition and
would thus tend to encourage storage.

WAREHOUSES NOT WELL DISTRIBUTED.

It has been stated that in aggregate storage capacity present facil-
ities are ample but the warehouses are not properly distributed.
The investigation showed that in many places in every State,
including those with the greatest number of warehouses, thousands
of bales of cotton are ‘‘stored’’ on the streets and platforms, or left
about gins and farms, while all the warehouses in use are filled
to their greatest capacity. In other sections of the same State,
frequently in the same county, warehouses were found that are
used very little. This indicates that very poor judgment has been
exercised in the location of storage houses and that those who have
cotton to be protected can not get the service which might be
expected from the figures shown in Table VII. Doubtless many new
warehouses should be erected in sections that are not now served.
Many of the houses which have been improperly planned should be
reconstructed in order to obtain better insurance rates and render
better service. Some of the inferior houses should be destroyed or
used for hay barns or for other purposes. Wherever possible, the
farmer should be allowed the use of cotton mill and other private
warehouses, and he should be encouraged in every possible way to
store and protect his cotton. On the other hand, he should be will-
ing to change his present practice and his ideas in regard to the
storage business.

STORAGE FACILITIES NOW AVAILABLE.

GEORGIA AND NORTH CAROLINA.

Table III (p. 18) gives the results of the survey in Georgia and
North Carolina. It will be seen that the storage capacity of ware-
houses is given in flat or uncompressed bales, in cotton as offered,
and also in the compressed form. AI the figures relating to the
storage capacity of warehouses belonging to cotton mills refer to
uncompressed or flat cotton. In the investigation in these States
information as to the storage capacity of all warehouses in flat bales

-

COTTON WAREHOUSES. 13

was requested. From this list a careful estimate has been made of
the quantity im compressed cotton which these same warehouses
could store. A detailed study of the entire situation has been made
in order to ascertain which warehouses ordinarily receive flat cotton
and which receive compressed cotton. “Capacity as offered” in the
table represents the total number of bales which these warehouses
would hold, in the form in which it is usually offered, as thus esti-
mated. This table also shows the total number of warehouses in the
State, the number reporting, and the number not reporting. The
capacities entered in the table are for those warehouses which made
reports.

- Table III also shows the storage capacity of the warehouses
owned by cotton mills in Georgia and North Carolina. The data
upon which this table is based were secured directly from the mills.
A letter of inquiry was sent to all cotton mills in these States asking
for information regarding storage facilities, including the capacity of
their warehouses, and insurance rates. The table shows the number
of mills reporting, together with the total storage capacity of the
warehouses belonging to those of each State.

Tasie II1.—Nwmber and storage capacity of warehouses in Georgia and North Carolina
(beginning of 1913-14 season).

| Capacity in bales.?
Kind of ware- Total | Number | Number
State. = not re-
houses. number|reporting. porting Gone
; Flat. as offered. pressed.
Public and pri- {North ¢ te NS OS ei eee 990 668 322 | 1,038,445 | 1,281,745 | 1,746,060
vate. North Carolina. ....-.- 128 114 14 182, 705 229, 205 318, 855
Cotton mill... .- Georgiae see re) 3 pe algal 123 28 B97 S758 [te Rane bea ke ae
DOr. fee = North Carolina. .-..--- 326 274 52 368) 495 |Site bee e a cieltec scents

1 Data secured from warehouses.
2 The totals given here include only the warehouses reporting.

THE COTTON BELT IN GENERAL.

Table IV (p. 14) gives the result of a letter of inquirysent to the
county agents in the cotton-growing States. Written reports were
received from these agents which gave the names and storage capaci-
ties of the number of warehouses in each State entered in this table.
Some of these reports referred to cotton in the uncompressed form,
some to compressed bales, and still others did not indicate to which
form they referred. As a result of a careful estimate, there is shown
in one column the number of flat bales these warehouses could store,
and in another the number of compressed bales. The form in which
_ cotton is ordinarily offered for storage has also been determined as
nearly as possible, and the capacity as thus een) is given under
the column headed “ As offered.”

14 BULLETIN 216, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TasBLe 1V.—Number and storage capacity of warehouses in the cotton belt (August, 1914)
as reported by the county agents.

Storage capacity in bales.

Number
State. report- 5
ing. om-
Flat. As offered. pressed.

PANT NSAI ie cies hee opatarse ae ee ticle ela aie ae ae eae 264 740, 425 856, 525 1, 246, 150 ©
RABI ANS ASE OW A 5 ripe oe a Nena Ree 8 Oo NOSE Ba eee 106 365, 100 508, 400 631, 900
TER CGY ET Wye ay Psi SG I eS RN I 5 46 204, 600 325, 300 345, 700
GeonPiaes hea sha sosei este eee pee ania ase Soe SL Sek cs Sepeeet 214 605, 350 690, 500 1,009, 800
NU OUIST At a eee et priate ere te rec iae ek tere ames ee eral a eR os 91 519, 000 689, 900 774, 700
INEISSISSI pp pee He hepa ake Ey terns SU VY te Fa ee 76 405,700 693, 550 757, 200
INOREESO AROlM ar sate ees cea ec Sie ais ete cence cnet a 55 60, 550 60, 550 101, 700
(ONE ave ren y, Moe EGE SNe eee Lee Sa ae ioe 2 Que ae 47 244, 365 379, 665 419, 475
Ouchy C aro limasee eae en ee CU SE ieee a 153 597, 800 746, 800 1,006, 460
PRENNESS OO tes cise es eee cae nets cee ee niece cee oe eee ciceeses 28 529, 350 835, 850 850, 010
ANS: c\o fa 5 te lon Neri ea er 7 a A SU a 226 | 1,223,820 | 1,904,670 2, 221, 950
Wiinpinitia eee ches RE ee ae riya Ba ec ats ee 27 199, 900 287, 800 299, 150

Ota sae See ge sues Ales pawl sas 2 Laelia ae Bea as 1,333 | 5,695,960 | 7,979,510 9, 664, 185

Table V (p. 14), which is an estimate of the storage capacity of
the warehouses available at the end of the 1913-14 season, is made
up from a detailed comparison of Tables III and IV. By referring
to Table IL¥it will be seen that the complete list of Georgia contains
990 warehouses. Of these, 668 have reported, and as shown in
Table III they have a storage capacity of 1,038,445 flat bales,
1,281,745 bales as offered, or 1,746,060 compressed bales. This is an
average capacity for the warehouses reporting of 1,555 flat bales,
1,770 as offered, or 2,600 compressed. From a careful survey of the
State it has been ascertained that many warehouses not reporting |
have a large storage capacity, and it is believed that the average
capacity of those not reporting is as great, if not greater, than the
average for the 668 which reported. But in making these estimates,
in order to be very conservative, it is assumed that the average
capacity of those not reporting in flat bales is only 600, as offered 800,
and compressed 1,000. If these amounts are added to the amounts
actually reported, the total storage capacity for Georgia is: Flat,
1,231,645 bales; as offered, 1,539,345 bales; and compressed, 2,068,060
bales.

Taste V.—Estimated number and storage capacity of warehouses in the cotton belt
(beginning of the 1913-14 season).

Total Storage capacity in bales. :
State. See =
er. som-
Flat. As offered. pressed.
NI Fe) oe Han eerie ne GER a SP aCe Aen Ua, eae NIE SS 4 528 | 1,480,850 | 1,713,050 2, 492, 300
WAT KANSAS Sass c0 CME. CERO Ay RLS AOI Ie 0 GENES 212 649, 800 878, 000 925, 000
SPLOT ase eet alee ners Ra ee ee SU pa ae ees 46 204, 600 325, 300 - 345, 700
Georgia. ...- Be eR ee RE ee EE UNE TIM a Scie Siena 990 | 1,231,645 | 1,539,345 2, 068, 060
SU OUST ENT Bee weep aR UN a RO ag ey 182 736, 000 996, 300 1,145,900
MUSSISSID pies eee Sug Sele SEE Ee ee ee he oR ae ieee se 152 811,400 | 1,387,100 1,514, 400
ING Uk Canal ina sete, Sais atk tual Meal ani I Ale sea 128 191, 105 240, 405 332, 855
CHAE ni Tene at ea CEE an PU ROO AT ES ta wt ae 94 488, 730 759, 330 838, 950
Stevan an (Ceara rae Soe RU Me ROM aT ve At SRR” 1 Gis 306 | 1,051,600} 1,239,600} 1,715,800
PREMMESSEO sh Stee aU), Gots NN FEO Say dM E TC ae le A Se aS eee 28 529, 350 835, 850 850, 010
PORES eaten ts Sa OU te a eed SUR eta NL Aye Oar LL ae 2 452 | 1,769,540 | 2,284, 840 3, 210, 700
VA ELT Ten: yee oy set TL) NAD EE CBA Wye sitet ad 27 199, 900 287, 800 299, 150

CRN tea spect hg eet tea i oa one a 3,145 | 9,344,520 | 12,486,920 | 15, 738, 825

COTTON WAREHOUSES. 15

The same plan was followed in arriving at the storage capacity of
North Carolina warehouses. By referrmg again to Table ITI, it will
be seen that the average storage capacity for the 114 warehouses
reporting from this State is 1,602 flat bales, 2,015 bales as offered,
and 2,709 compressed bales. This is very close to the average in
Georgia, and the same figures have been used in determining the
probable storage capacity of the 14 warehouses not reporting;
namely, 600 flat, 800 as offered, and 1,000 compressed. This gives
the following total capacity for North Carolina: Flat bales, 191,105,
as offered 240,405, and compressed 332,855.

By referring further to Table III, it will be seen that the complete
list for Georgia comprises 990 warehouses. Table IV shows that the
county agents reported only 214 warehouses with the storage capac-
ity indicated. This is less than one-fourth of the number on the
complete list. In North Carolina the agents reported only 55 ware-
houses, which is less than one-half the number that are in use in that
State. In arriving at the number of warehouses for the different
States it would seem justifiable to estimate that the agents reported
about one-third or one-fourth of the actual number, inasmuch as they
reported less than one-fourth of the number actually existing in the
States of Georgia and North Carolina combined, where detailed sur-
veys had been made. But in order to be on the safe side, it has
been assumed that they reported approximately one-half of the
number in each cotton State, except Georgia and North Carolina, in
which States the number indicated by the survey has been used.
Doubling the number of warehouses reported by the county agents as
shown in Table IV, there results the number given in Table V. The
exact number reported in Virginia, Florida, and Tennessee is shown, as
the warehouses in these three States are located chiefly in large cities,
and it is believed that fairly complete figures have been obtained. *

The next problem is to arrive at the storage capacity in the different
States. It has been explained how this estimate was made for
Georgia and North Carolina, and, it will be remembered, this was
based on a comprehensive survey of these States. Comparing again
Tables IV and V, it will be seen that the reports of the county agents
for Georgia show a total storage capacity of less than one-half of that
actually developed by the comprehensive survey. In North Carolina
the same reports cover less than one-third of the storage space which
actually exists. This seems to be sufficient justification for multi-
plying the capacities shown in Table IV by two and one-half or even
by three. But instead of doing this, after eliminating the large
shipping centers, the capacities reported by the county agents have
been doubled, except in Georgia and North Carolina, where the
figures of the complete survey are used. The reported capacity of
warehouses for Virginia, Florida, and Tennessee has not been in-
creased. In addition, the storage space as reported for Charleston,

16 BULLETIN 216, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

New Orleans, Houston, Galveston, Memphis, and Pine Bluff (Ark.),
is given as reported. In these towns there are many large storage
houses, and the reports seem to indicate that they cover the complete
storage capacity.

Table VI (p. 16) is derived directly from Table V. The figures
given in Table V are believed to be a very safe estimate of the avail-
able storage facilities in the South in the early part of 1914 or during
the cotton season of 1913-14. It is impossible to state, of course,
just how many new warehouses have been erected and how much
the total storage capacity has been increased in this way. Many
storage houses have been constructed to help meet the present
emergency. ‘This increase has been estimated at 10 per cent, which
is a very conservative estimate. Table VI is the same as Table V
with a 10 per cent increase in the number of warehouses and a like
increase in the total storage capacity. In another column is shown
the 1913 production by States in running bales as reported by the
Census. In this way a comparison between the storage facilities now
available and the production can be made very readily.

Taste VI.—Estimated number and storage capacity of all warehouses in the cotton belt,

making allowance for a 10 per cent increase since August, 1914, compared with the
production in running bales, by States.

Storage capacity in bales. 1913 pro-
State ’ Num- duction in
‘ ber. running
Flat. As offered. |Compressed.| _ bales.

PATI IN Aisa eeay Acle fote Mes san Ms a Se ana eR 581 | 1,628,935 | 1,884,355 2,741, 530 1, 483, 669
NATE OST es Se SUD ELE oc CN BS Tae 233 714, 780 965,800 | 1,017,500 | 1,038, 293
TOUTSV TG Fe aioe SSP SS a he ai a 51 225, 060 357, 830 380, 270 66, 700
Geon ela ee FS SEER aa SREY EAN ae eR 1,089 | 1,354,810 | 1,693, 280 2, 274, 866 2, 346, 237
IL@WUSRIE. So oos ewes onoegosross0seaceendooase 200 809,600 | 1,095,930 1, 260, 490 436, 865
iNiscissip pin see tee aie umes AMEN een SRE GIS. th 167 892,540 | 1,525,810] 1,665,840 | 1,251,841
INOnth: Carolina seca, se saeco eee eee see 149 210, 216 264, 446 366, 141 842, 499
Onn OM aaa aee | Sac, Nae ahs ee eee 1120 540, 600 842, 330 927, 845 837,995
South Carolina : 337 | 1,156,760 | 1,363,560 | 1,887,380] 1,418,704
Tennessee 31 582, 285 919,435 | 935, O11 366, 786
Texas.....- 497 | 1,946,494 |, 2,513,324 | 3,581,770| 3,773,024
Virginia... 30 219, 890 316, 580 329, 065 24, 569
ANN GMOS S Sob Sbeso eco eb cet ooo aaqmEbos tis Aon saeorAcslt oy 4 eaes aeblaotaanseses loans aceeek sc 95, 629
No tales oats eats poe ec NRE SOA 3,485 | 10,281,970 | 13,742,680 | 17,317,708 | 13,982,811

1 The names of 26 companies reporting to us have beenadded. This is more than the 10 per cent added for
other States from which no reports were received of the number of new warehouses.

In connection with the estimate of the probable increase in storage
facilities, it may be well to state that the Marketing Division of the
North Carolina Experiment Station has published the results of an
investigation which indicate that the storage space provided since
the 1913-14 season in that State would be sufficient to store 134,915
bales. By referring to Table V it will be seen that this is an increase
of almost 100 per cent over the space available in 1913-14.

In Oklahoma 41 warehouse companies were chartered from the
first of September, 1914, to about the middle of October of the same

1 By the term “running bales” is meant the actual number of bales produced, which is not exactly the
same as the number of 600-pound bales ordinarily used for statistical purposes.

COTTON WAREHOUSES. aby;

year. Letters were sent to these companies to determine whether
they had actually constructed buildings, and if so, the storage capaci-
ties of these new warehouses. Replies were received which show
that 26 of the 41 companies have actually constructed buildings and
are doing a storage business. The reported capacity of these 26
warehouses is 53,250 bales. This is an increase of over 10 per cent in
the cotton storage space in the State, and 20 per cent in the number
of warehouses. It is certain that many other warehouses have been
constructed since that time, and, in all probability, a number of
persons who have not applied for charters are doing a storage busi-
ness. In view of the fact that these two investigations show such a
large increase in the apparent storage facilities in the autumn of 1914,
the estimate of 10 per cent as the average increase for the cotton belt
must appeal to everyone as being very conservative.

ESTIMATED STORAGE CAPACITY OF COTTON-MILL WAREHOUSES.
GEORGIA.

In Georgia there are 151 cotton mills (Table VII). Reports received
from 123 of these show that the total capacity of their warehouses is
398,875 bales of uncompressed cotton (see Table III). This is an
average of 3,317 bales per mill. Making the supposition that the
28 mills not reporting have warehouses of equal average capacity,
their total storage capacity is almost 100,000 bales. This, added to
the figures actually reported, would give a combined storage capacity
of almost 500,000 bales. In order to avoid any overestimation, it
has been assumed that only 15 of the 28 cotton mills have storage
houses and that the average capacity of these warehouses is 1,000
bales, or less than one-third the average capacity of those reporting.
This would give a total storage capacity of 15,000 bales. Adding this
to the 397,875 bales actually reported gives an estimated total
capacity for the mill warehouses of the State of 412,500 bales. Any
error that may exist in this estimate is on the conservative side.
TasLE VII.—Estimated number and storage capacity of warehouses and cotton-mill ware-

houses now in use compared with the production of each State, in running bales, for
1913.

Warehouses. Cotton mills. 1913
Combined 119
State. Capacity Capacity | storage | duction in
Number.| in balesas|Number.| in flat | capacity. pales
offered. bales. BAe

Lp ae 581 | 1,884,355 62 62,000] 1,946,355 | 1,483, 669
cfs SELES: ISP RS cSt as a 233 965, 800 6 6, 000 971, 800 1, 038, 293
Florida... 51 | 357,830 1 1000} 358,830 66, 700
Georgia... 1,089 | 1,693, 280 151| 412500 | 2,105,780 | 2,346,237
Louisiana . ere 200 1, 095, 930 6 , 00' 1,101, 930 436, 865
Muscipor OMICS 167 | 1/525,810 18 18,000 | 1,543,810 | 1,251,841
North Carolinas oes le\. cso. ee 149 264, 446 326 400, 995 665, 441 842, 499
ceiorint 8 ki: NTO 120| 8427330 7 0 849, 330 837, 995
MOUtHECATOlMMNAe seek vanes.) cere 337 1,363, 560 164 300, 000 1, 668, 560 1, 418, 704
erTERceaN RS Fe RG NS 31 | 7919, 435 27 27,000 | 946; 435 366, 786
rire 6 a a Sa 497 | 2,513,324 36 36,000 | 2,549,324 | 3,773,024
Mencnnat en CO mune ald 30 | ’316) 580 19 19,000 | 335, 580 4 569
JIN CHIGHS Ssobo daae dnentoseeod snes lbooca se bod) GO ASBeHaTS oa AonSeesane ABOEBeserce |S Mesa manmuae 95, 629
Cay a Re a 3, 485 | 13, 742, 680 823 | 1,295,495 | 15,038,175 | 13, 982, 811

18 BULLETIN 216, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

NORTH CAROLINA.

In North Carolina there are 326 cotton mills (Table VII). Re -
ports were received from 274 of these, showing the total storage
capacity of these mill warehouses to be 368,495 flat bales, or an aver-
age of 1,346 bales each. If it is assumed that the mills not report-
ing have an average capacity equal to those reporting, their com-
bined storage capacity would amount to about 70,000 bales. Adding
this to the amount actually reported, we have a total of about
440,000 bales, but, as in the case of Georgia, in order to avoid the
possibility of any overestimation it has been assumed that only 26
of the 52 mills have warehouses and that the average storage capacity
of these is only 1,250 bales. Their combined capacity at this rate
would be 32,500 bales, which, added to the amount actually reported,
gives the aggregate storage capacity of the cotton mills of the State
as 400,995 bales. There is every reason to believe that this is a very
low estimate. Some of the largest mills of the State are among those
which failed to make reports. The average storage capacity of the
warehouses belonging to the cotton mills thus failing to report is doubt-
less greater than that of those which have reported.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

In South Carolina there are 164 cotton mills. Reports from county
~ agents show that 62 of these mills have warehouse space for 234,900
bales, or an average of 3,600 bales each. If the average for all the
cotton mills of the State should equal the 62 included in these re-
ports, a total of 590,000 bales could be stored. From general obser-
vations and conferences with many of the cotton-mill men in South
Carolina it is believed that the storage space of the mills is on the
average very large. An estimate of 600,000 bales apparently would
be justified by the reports at hand. However, an estimate of only
300,000 bales for the State, or approximately one-half of the appar-
ent storage capacity, has been used.

OTHER STATES,

For all the remaining States it is assumed that each cotton mill has
a storage capacity of 1,000 bales. In no State which has been investi-
gated in detail is the average storage space of the mills so small as
this. Estimates of the capacity of mill warehouses in each of the
cotton-producing States, determined in the manner just explained,
will be found in Table VII, which shows the storage capacity of
warehouses for cotton as offered, as given in Table VI, with the
figures for the cotton mills added. This table shows the estimated
number of warehouses and their storage capacity in bales as offered,
and the number of cotton-mill warehouses with their estimated
capacity in flat bales. But many of the mills use compressed cotton,

COTTON WAREHOUSES. 19

so the estimate for the warehouses belonging to cotton mills might
be increased greatly without danger of making it too great. In the
column headed ‘‘Combined storage capacity for State” is shown the
total of both the public and private warehouses and cotton-mill

warehouses.
STORAGE CAPACITY COMPARED WITH PRODUCTION,

The next column (Table VII) shows the 1913 production of each
of the States. It will be seen that the storage capacity of all the |
warehouses is greater than the production. In addition to making
conservative estimates in every case, the list does not include ware-
houses in St. Louis, Evansville, and the storage houses belonging to
the cotton mills in Missouri. Cotton is moving to eastern ports con-
stantly and being exported, and extensive warehouses belonging to
the cotton mills in New England are used, all of which tends to
increase the availablestorage space. Further, efforts have been made
to exclude compress sheds and terminal sheds belonging to railroads
and other transportation companies, so in presenting this estimate it
is believed that it is too low throughout rather than too high in any
instance.

INSURANCE RATES AND COST OF BUILDINGS.

DISCUSSION OF TYPES.

Table VIII (p. 20) gives important data relating to the different
types of warehouses now in use. It is particularly interesting to
notice the difference in the cost of constructing the same type of
warehouse in different States. A comparison of cost and insurance
rates of different types in the same State is also interesting. For
example, the ordinary brick warehouse costs more than a standard
warehouse with board ends and fire walls, and at the same time pays
a much higher insurance rate. Further, it is shown that those ware-
houses that are equipped with automatic sprinklers (Table [X) have
cost very little more than the others; yet they have a very much
lower insurance rate. The automatic sprinkler is costly, but the
reduction of insurance rates helps to offset the additional cost of
installation. The data in the tables show clearly that it is best to
construct standard warehouses and equip them with automatic
sprinklers. This unquestionably will effect a great saving. In
Georgia and North Carolina the insurance rate is reduced about 80
per cent by the use of sprinklers. It is decidedly interesting to
notice the lower cost of construction and the lower insurance rate
on the warehouses belonging to the cotton mills in each of the States
(Table X). From this it may be concluded that a great saving
could be effected by the erection and proper equipment of modern
warehouses conforming to the standards promulgated and recom-
mended by the underwriters associations.

20 BULLETIN 216, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLe VIII.—Comparative cost, storage capacity, insurance rates, and other data con-
cerning public and private warehouses classified according to construction.

Total | Average Cost

s : er | Average
State. Type of warehouse | nymper. | C2P2city | capacity | otal cost. | bale | insurance
(construction). in flat in flat :
bales. bales. capaeiiy.| | Zale.

Georgiges: 52242022 SWi0OU = eh) Joe ee 26 14, 250 548 $48, 350 $3. 40 $3.30
Corrugated iron... 69 53, 935 782 125, 820 2.35 2. 70

IB TICK Ss a iet tera Sow 215 | 280,170 1,303 | 1,089,500 3. 89 1.95

Standardesss eae 5 10, 700 2,140 31, 750 2.97 1.52

Concrete or stone.. 22 20, 750 944 76, 500 3. 64 2.29

North Carolina. ..-- BIIGK seo tea ee 11 14, 000 1,273 40, 950 2. 925 1.96
Standard.......... 5 | 13,250 2, 650 30, 450 1.54 1.25

Oklahoma.....--.-- Corrugated iron... 22 27, 850 1, 266 27, 820 1.00 2.20

TasLe I1X.—Comparative cost, storage capacity, insurance rates, and other data con-
cerning public and private warehouses classified according to sprinkler equipment.

Total Average
State. Equipment of ware- | 17 mper, | CaPacity | capacity | Total Cost De AA wetaee
houses. in flat in flat cost. e * ESE
Hales: atest apacity. rate.
Georgia shee With sprinklers... .. 30 | 129,200 4,307 | $527,900 $4. 09 $0. 246
Without sprinklers. . 30 63, 200 2,107 | 248, 3.77 T6i
North Carolina. ...- With sprinklers. .--- 8 47,900 5,988 | 173,500 3. 62 . 238
Without sprinklers. . 8 8,600 1,075 22,950 2. 67 1.52

PLAN, EQUIPMENT, AND COST.

It is impossible to overestimate the importance of proper planning,
construction, and equipment of cotton warehouses. These have an
important bearing not only upon the cost of the structure itself and
the cost of handling cotton but also upon insurance rates. The
public warehouses now in use which are equipped with automatic
sprinklers have cost about $4 per bale storage capacity, and cotton
stored in these buildings is insured at an average of about 25 cents on
the $100 per annum. ‘These investigations show clearly that the
average cost of warehouses not so equipped is not very much less than
$4 per bale storage capacity, while the insurance rate is very much
higher, comparatively speaking. It is admitted that the automatic
“sprinkler equipment is expensive, but the warehouses now in use
which are equipped with sprinklers are comparatively large, most of
them have been built according to the underwriters’ standards, and
in a general way they have been planned and built on a business
basis, which accounts for the saving in cost of construction.

if the present crop of cotton is assumed to be 16,000,000 bales, new
warehouses to store all of it could be constructed and equipped with
automatic sprinklers for $64,000,000 or less. If all of this crop should
be stored for a period of six months the cost of insurance at $2 per
$100, which is lower than the average paid at present, would
amount to $8,000,000 if the cotton is valued at $50 per bale. In the
new warehouses costing $64,000,000 this cotton could be stored for

vt

COTTON WAREHOUSES. 21

the same length of time at $1,000,000, or 25 cents on the $100 per
annum. It seems a radical statement, but it will be seen that if
every warehouse now in existence were destroyed and new ones
constructed to protect the entire crop, the expenditure of the
$64,000,000 would effect an annual saving of $7,000,000, assuming
that all the cotton would be stored for a period of six months. This
saving of $7,000,000 would represent a fair income on twice the cost
of the warehouses.

This is a rather remarkable showing, but if we would profit by the
experience of the cotton mills and adopt their methods this saving
could be greatly increased. At the cost of constructing the present
- cotton-mill warehouses (Table X), it would be possible to erect build-
ings to store the 16,000,000 bales of cotton at a cost of $44,800,000.
This would represent a saving in cost of construction of $19,200,000
over the assumed cost. It will be seen further from Table X that
the mills in many instances pay an insurance rate of less than 124
cents on $100. On this basis the 16,000,000 bales of cotton valued
at $50 per bale could be stored for six months for $500,000. The
_ figures show that it would be possible to make a saving of $7,500,000
per annum by the investment of approximately $45,000,000 for
standard and properly equipped warehouses.

INSURANCE RATES.

A careful examination of the insurance records in the cotton-pro-
ducing States shows that the average insurance rate is about 3 per
cent per annum, including all cotton risks. These investigations
show clearly that the average rate on cotton in the present ware-
houses is not less than 2 per cent per annum, and if cotton in com-
press sheds, terminal yards, and various other hazardous places is
included, it would seem that an estimate of 3 per cent is not too
high. It is therefore safe to use 2 per cent as the basis of. the esti-
mates in the preceding paragraphs. Table VIII shows that a large
number of brick warehouses in Georgia and North Carolina pay
approximately 2 per cent and that the buildings constructed of
wood, corrugated iron, concrete, and stone pay a much higher rate,
and the cost of construction is also very high for most of these types.

TaBLe X.—Comparative cost, storage capacity, insurance rates, and other daia concerning
cotton-mill warehouses with automatic sprinklers.

Total | Average

= < Cost per | Average
capacity | capacity | Total :
State. Number. in flat in flat cost. be bale Sees
bales. bales. ACL Rea
GROPP IA season ascnt sean ment set ne ocmeae 64 | 164,700 2,573 | $461, 698 $2. 80 $0. 122
Nori Carolinasé 45 52527528 3285-0283 73 | 109,950 1,506 | 301,900 2.76 -13

22 BULLETIN 216, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In comparing the cost of the corrugated iron warehouses in
Georgia and Oklahoma, it is well to remember that most of the build-
ings in Georgia, have wooden floors with costl~ brick foundations,
while most of those in Oklahoma have dirt floors, which are very
much cheaper and carry a lower insurance rate. It is also true that
many of the houses in Oklahoma have been erected expressly for the
storage of cotton, while some of the houses in Georgia are used both
for cotton and other products, which general use is responsible for a
higher rate of insurance.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

BENEFITS TO BE DERIVED FROM A SYSTEM OF WAREHOUSES.

It would be impossible to enumerate all of the benefits, direct and
indirect, that might be derived from the inauguration of an ample
aod efficient system of storage houses, but it is evident that such a
system would be of great assistance in handling and financing the
cotton crop. It would benefit not only the farmer but the merchant,
the local banker, and other business men. A storage system prop-
erly operated and used would eventually free the cotton farmer from
the present destructive credit system. It would improve conditions
in the cotton market. Much ‘‘country damage”’ and loss from unnec-
essary sampling would be prevented, and much of the duplication in
handling and marketing cotton under the present complex system
would be eliminated. Such a system would enable the farmer to
distribute the sales of cotton throughout the year, and in this way
avoid depressed prices. Under present conditions the farmer rushes
his cotton to market as fast as it can be picked and ginned, and thus
‘‘bears” his own market.

DIFFICULTIES UNDER PRESENT CONDITIONS.

There are many disadvantages connected with the storage business
as conducted at present, and there are serious difficulties that must
be overcome before an adequate system can be inaugurated. The
present facilities are poorly distributed and frequently not available
to the farmer. The service rendered by many of the companies is
poor, and their charges, including insurance, are unusually high owing
to the small amount of cotton ordinarily stored by the farmer. His
business is undesirable, for it is much more trouble to handle cotton in ~
small lots. The cotton mills do not encourage the farmer to store his
cotton, as their usual practice is to make a general allowance for tare
and damage. This average is charged against all cotton, whether it
reaches the mill in good or bad condition, so there is little incentive
for the farmer and trade in general to go to any trouble or extra ex-
pense in protecting the staple. The farmer, therefore, receives prac-
tically no benefit from the system now in operation, and it is not at all

{

COTTON WAREHOUSES. 23.

certain that he would take kindly to any system which might be
devised. As a general proposition, he is averse to storing his cotton,
especially when he has to pay any direct charge for the service. The
majority of farmers have been accustomed to selling their own cotton
and receiving the money for it when it is delivered. It is not believed
that they would generally patronize any storage house, if to do so it
were necessary to ship their cotton to another town. It is equally
true that they will not cooperate readily with each other in building
storage houses near the place of production.

SELLING COTTON THROUGH FACTORS.

To anyone spending much time in the cotton markets it becomes evi-
dent that our cotton crop is supporting entirely too many men. This
is particularly true of buyers and merchants in the primary markets.
It is not uncommon, in those cities where from 10,000 to 15,000
bales are marketed in one season, to see four or five and frequently a
larger number of buyers on the street. Naturally these men must be
paid for their services, and it is quite evident that the cotton itself
is taxed to cover this expense. If such a town had one good ware-
house and one competent cotton man to represent the farmers, these
buyers could be eliminated, and the farmer would receive the benefit
in the form of better prices for his cotton. It is true that most farm-
ers prefer making their own sales, but in very few cases do they know
the grade of their cotton or the price it should bring. Consequently
they are not in a position to make an intelligent sale. It would be
much better for farmers to pay a nominal fee for the services of an
experienced man. This would save time and trouble and eventually
place the cotton trade on a business basis. It would not only elimi-
nate unnecessary persons connected with the markets, but it would
save the farmer much time now lost in going to town to make his sale
and would prevent the waste resulting from unnecessary sampling.

VALUE OF PLANS.

The importance of taking the necessary precautions in planning
warehouses and adhering to the standards of the underwriters’ asso-
ciations is forcibly illustrated by a comparison of five standard
warehouses with sprinkler equipment with five warehouses without
such equipment, all of which are located in the same Georgia city.
The five warehouses without sprinklers have a total storage capacity
of 21,000 flat bales, or an average of 4,200 bales for each warehouse.
These buildings cost a total of $82,500, or an average of $3.92 per
bale storage capacity. The other five buildings have a total storage
capacity of 46,000 bales, or an average capacity of 9,200 bales for
each warehouse. These buildings cost $161,000, or $3.50 per bale
capacity. The first group of buildings have no automatic sprinkler

24 BULLETIN 216, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

equipment, and the average insurance rate on cotton stored in these
buildings is $2.57 per $100 per annum. The second group of build-
ings are fully standard, and have approved automatic sprinkler equip-
ment, and the insurance rate on cotton stored in these buildings is
only 35 cents per $100 per annum. Those without the sprinklers
are small buildings and are not properly planned, and such poor busi-
ness methods were used in their construction that they cost more than
was necessary. On the other hand the five buildings with automatic .
sprinkler equipment were properly planned. They were erected at a
minimum cost, with the greatest efficiency, and have a low insurance
rate.
SIZE OF WAREHOUSE.

It is impossible to state definitely the best size for a public ware-
house. These investigations show conclusively that the large,
properly organized, advantageously located storage houses pay well,
while the small warehouses in most cases do not pay. Other things
being equal, it might be said that the larger the storage house the
better. Building a large house saves much in cost of construction
and reduces the cost of handling the cotton. On the other hand, it
is impossible to build only large houses and have them properly
distributed. These two points must be taken into consideration,
and the proper size for the house will be a compromise between the
two. Where towns are very small and shipping facilities to large
centers are ample it might be best to have no storage house. On
the other hand, many towns where a considerable amount of cotton
is marketed annually will do well to have a warehouse. It is fre-
quently the case that in very small towns two or three men each
build storage houses. None of them can give efficient service, and
they are forced to charge too much for storage, while at the same
time they lose money. It would certainly seem that there is a most
urgent need of cooperation in the small towns.

IDEAL WAREHOUSE SYSTEM.

It would probably be unwise to attempt to outline in detail a
theoretically ideal warehouse system, but it does seem proper to
indicate some essential features of such a system. It should be
organized intelhgently on a sound business basis, with the best
financial standing and connections. Both the company and custo-
dian should be bonded. Some provision should be made for State
or Federal inspection. This would give the receipts of the company
the greatest possible value, and the holder of such a receipt would
be able to borrow money on the very best terms. Each warehouse
should be intelligently managed. The man in charge should be well
posted on grades and market conditions. This would enable him to
render the most efficient service in marketing the farmers’ cotton,

COTTON WAREHOUSES. 25

and thereby avoid the unnecessary profits of the buyer and eliminate
various other losses. It is needless to say that the storage houses
operated by such a system should be standard in every respect.
Cotton should be fully protected by insurance, and convenient forms
should be provided for making and recording all transactions. This
system should aim eventually to store cotton in the compressed
form in order to increase the storage capacity of the building. All
warehouses should use uniform receipts, and so far as it is practicable
the business should be fully standardized.

SUMMARY.

1. Financing is one of the greatest problems in marketing cotton.
A sufficient number of warehouses would be erected if it were pos-
sible in the present emergency to borrow on cotton when stored.

2. Cotton is considered the very best collateral, but it is not
available unless safely stored and insured. The banks are always
willing to accept cotton as security, but during emergencies their
capital is insufficient to meet demands.

3. A system of warehouses would simplify our financial system
and eventually free the southern cotton farmer from the present
disastrous credit system. It would stabilize the price of cotton by
distributing sales throughout the year. The farmer would stop
depressing the price of his own products by selling his cotion as soon
as it is ginned.

4. In storage capacity the present cotton warehouses are ample,
but these warehouses are poorly distributed. The best warehouses
are not available to the farmer. The charges of the others are too
high because they must pay a high insurance rate and the cost of
handling is necessarily great. Some new standard buildings should
be erected, but many of those now in use should be remodeled.

5. Cotton keeps in storage better than any other farm product.
Protected from the weather it never deteriorates. It resists decay
even when exposed. Consequently, it is neglected more than any
other valuable product. The cotton mills should encourage storing
by paying a premium for cotton in good condition.

6. The dealers, or middlemen as they are frequently called, are in
much better position to hold cotton than the farmers. They not
only control the best storage houses, but have better financial con-
nections which enable them to get money more readily and on
better terms. The farmer sells his cotton when prices are depressed
and the dealer gets the full benefit of any advance after the rush
is over.

7. A large standard storage house pays ample dividends, while
most of the owners of small warehouses actually lose money on the

26 BULLETIN 216, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

investment. The fact that the best warehouses belong to the factors
and the cotton mills and are not available to the farmer makes it
desirable for the farmers to cooperate in building their own houses.
If they do not, they must remain dependent upon the factors.

8. All warehouses should conform fully to the standards recog-
nized by the underwriters’ associations. This will save cost in con-
struction, in handling cotton, and in insurance.

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Ne. 217

May 26, 1915.

MORTALITY AMONG WATERFOWL AROUND
GREAT SALT LAKE, UTAH.

(PRELIMINARY REPORT.)

By AtEx Wetmore, Assistant Biologist.
INTRODUCTION.

It is widely known that in recent years vast numbers of waterfowl
frequenting the marshes along the eastern shore of Great Salt Lake,
Utah, have died, apparently from disease. Untold thousands of wild
ducks, snipe, sandpipers, and other birds of less economic value have
perished. Nor is the effect of this mortality confined to the region
i question. While countless numbers of waterfowl have perished in
comparatively small areas, the effect upon the abundance of these
birds in other regions is widespread. In the marshes around Great
Salt Lake are bred annually great numbers of waterfowl, and hordes
from more northern regions migrate through in spring and fall.
These breeding and migrant birds form an important percentage of
those migrating or wintering farther south, and serious diminution
of their numbers in the affected localities will be felt heavily in other
regions. The question of the causes of this mortality and possible
measures for its prevention are therefore of widespread interest and
importance.

It is to be noted that a similar mortality occurs in other localities,
as Tulare and Owens Lakes, Cal., where for several years thousands of
birds have perished annually. Reports not yet fully investigated
have been received from other districts, and apparently the trouble
may occur anywhere in the West under similar conditions.

Early in the investigations a number of dead ducks sent to the
Biological Survey were turned over to the Bureau of Animal Industry
for examination, the results of which are discussed on another page.
Later, agents of that bureau made brief field inquiries into the mor-
tality in Utah. A preliminary examination of the conditions around

NotE.—This bulletin is a report of progress in investigating the causes of mortality among ducks and
other waterfowl] in marshes about Great Salt Lake, Utah. It is for the information of sportsmen and others
interested in game birds.

87711°—Bull. 217—15

2 BULLETIN 217, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Great Salt Lake was made in the latter part of August, 1913, by S. E.
Piper, of the Biological Survey. Following this, the writer began
investigations in July, 1914, continuing the work throughout the
summer and fall. The present paper discusses the results obtained
and may be considered a report of progress. It is planned to con-
tinue the investigations during the present year (1915).

HISTORY.

The fact that many ducks were dying around Great Salt Lake was
noted in the newspapers in Salt Lake City and Ogden in 1908 or 1909,
but the prevalence of a malady among waterfowl was known many
years earlier. Fred Hansen, who lives near the mouth of Bear River,
says that in October, 1896, two guides brought 400 mallards from
Klondike (at the mouth of Bear River), part of which were found dead
and the rest alive but helpless. Dr. M. R. Stewart, of Salt Lake City,
says that in 1902 or 1903 a few birds died on the New State Gun Club
grounds at the mouth of the Jordan River. At the mouth of the
Weber River birds were occasionally found helpless in the growths of
“bayonet grass’’ during the fall of 1904, and were the subject of much
speculation among the hunters. Early in the season of 1909 a few
sick birds were noticed at the mouth of the Jordan River, and in the
fall others, thought by some to be crippled birds from the fall shoot-
ing, were serparetedl

About July 15, 1910, sick birds appeared at the months of the Jordan
River, and shortly-after others were found on the Weber. Later,
birds were found dying on the great expanse of mud flats and marshes
built up in the delta of Bear River. Attention was now fully aroused,
and as the mortality among ducks and other waterfowl increased,
many theories as to its cause were advanced. The season was ex-
ceedingly dry, the water in the marshes was low, and the birds died
in enormous numbers, the trouble continumg on Bear River until
November. How many wild ducks and other waterfowl perished
during that year will never be known. Thousands died both on the
Jordan and the Weber, while on the Bear River marshes the mortality
was almost incredible. Y.T. Davis, in charge of the Bear River Club
grounds, estimated that 85 per cent of all ducks on the lake died, and
this statement was fully corroborated by others. Thestench in South
Bay arising from the dead bodies is said to have been unbearable.

Mortality among the birds began again in 1911, but was not so dis-
astrous as during the preceding year. In 1912 few birds died on the
New State Gun Club grounds, on the Jordan River, as the marshes
were drained and water was not admitted until September 20.
Elsewhere, however, conditions were more serious. At this time the
trouble was considered contagious, and it was decided to clear the
marshes of dead birds. On Bear River 44,462 wild ducks (from the

MORTALITY AMONG WATERFOWL. 3

records of V. T. Davis) were gathered and buried between August 22
and September 21, and about 30,000 birds are said to have been
picked up on the Weber River. From the nature of the country this
can not represent more than 20 per cent of the total number of birds
that died, and probably not more than 10 per cent. Conditions in
1913 were somewhat improved, but still great numbers died. Dur-
ing the past year fewer birds perished, though the mortality was
ereat enough to cause alarm.

In the southern San Joaquin Valley, Cal., many birds have died
on Soleta, Goose, Buena Vista, and Tulare Lakes since 1909. At
present the two lakes first named are dry and the third contains an
abundance of fresh water. On Tulare Lake, however, conditions
are unchanged. In November, 1914, it was estimated by Tipton
Matthews, deputy game warden of Kern County, and the writer that
at least 15,000 birds had perished there during the preceding summer.
Mr. Matthews stated that he has known of sick birds around Goose
‘Lake and at Browns Knolis (Widgeon Gun Club grounds) for at
least 20 years when the water was low in summer. Goose Lake is
now dry, and as the water at Browns Knolls is kept fresh by artesian
wells there is little trouble.

In June, 1891, Dr. A. K. Fisher, of the Biological Survey, noted
large numbers of eared grebes and spoonbills dead around the shore
of Owens Lake, Cal., and estimated the number of dead grebes at
35,000. From the 12th to the 14th of November, 1914, the writer
found many dead birds of these same species in this locality, and
he was informed that this was an annual occurrence.

TERRITORY COVERED IN INVESTIGATIONS.

On July 12, 1914, work was begun in the Salt Lake Basin and con-
tinued until October 30. Iracceiiteavtion were made at the mouths
of the Jordan, Weber, and Bear Rives the main areas affected (see
Pls. I and III). Boones of the large area involved, diversified condi-

tions, and convenience of access to the marshes, most of the experi-
mental work was carried on at the mouth of Bear River. In addi-
tion to the localities mentioned, conditions were studied at Willard
Spur, Promontory Point on Great Salt Lake, and Locomotive Springs
near Kelton.

From November 3 to 11 Tulare Lake. in California, was visited, in
order to investigate the mortality in ene region, cand com@uione at
Owens Lake in the same State were studied from November 12 to 14.

At the mouth of Bear River, in Utah, quarters were furnished at
the Duckville Gun Club, and thanks are due the officers and members
of the club for assistance and facilities extended. Much assistance
was rendered by A. P. Bigelow, of Ogden, and L. B. McCornick, of

1 North American Fauna No. 7, 1893, p. 12-13.

4. BULLETIN 217, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Salt Lake City, who were deeply interested in the work. Valuable
information was obtained also from V. T. Davis, in charge of the
grounds of the Bear River Club. At the mouth of the Weber River,
W. O. Belnap gave all possible assistance, as did other members of
the North Shore Gun Club. At the mouth of the Jordan River work
was done at the New State Gun Club. Permits for shooting such
birds as were necessary for purposes of investigation were granted
by the State fish and game commissioner, Fred W. Chambers. In
California the State fish and game commission furnished an assistant,
Tipton Matthews, deputy warden of Kern County, whose aid ren-
dered the work around Tulare Lake effective.

NATURE OF THE TROUBLE.

During the season’s work in Utah 27 species of birds of 11 families
were found to be affected. Among these were 9 species of ducks, 10
of shorebirds, and 8 miscellaneous forms ranging from grebes and
snowy herons (see Pl. III, fig. 1) to the pipit. Among ducks the pin-
tail and green-winged teal seemed to be most susceptible, while the
mallard, spoonbill, and cinnamon teal followed them closely. Avocets
and stilts suffered more heavily than any other shorebirds.

The birds affected first lose the power of flight and are unable to
rise in the air, though in some cases they can flutter across the water,
and in others can fly for a few rods before dropping back. The legs
next become affected and the power of diving is lost. As the birds
grow weaker, they crawl out on the mud bars, if able to do so, or hide
in growths of grass or rushes. In a later stage of the affection they
are unable to rise. Finally the neck relaxes and the head lies pros-
trate (see Pl. II, figs.1 and 2). Ifin the water, death comes by drown-
ing, but on land, birds may live for two days or more im this condition.

A large series of postmortem examinations revealed no patho-
logical lesions other than that the intestine was reddened and firm
and hard to the touch. When the gut was slit, washed, and examined
under a low magnification, the capillaries in the intestinal villi were
found to be distended, showing intense irritation. The reddening
of the canal appeared sometimes in spots, most severe at the bends
of the intestine, but at others it extended continuously from the
duodenal loop to the ceca.’ Clots of extravasated blood, partially
digested, were found in most cases, and not uncommonly the ceca
were distended with this matter. A severe dysentery occasioned by
the irritation of the intestine was the obvious external symptom.
The feces were greenish and stained the feathers about the anus and
sometimes well up on the abdomen. Large quantities of renal matter
were present, white and almost solid, and with an offensive odor. As
the food residue in the intestine worked off, this renal matter con-
stituted an increasing proportion of the feces, frequently solidifying

PLATE |.

Bul. 217, U. S. Dept. ef Agriculture.

‘PIGL ‘PL coquioydog ‘yey ‘IaATY ToqoA\ JO YNour 4v uoye] Ydvisojoyg “punoiso10}F oy} Ur Uses oq Avut spit ssordjoH
«AGVIVI HONd,, GS1TIVO-O§ SH Wous avaq syonqd

i ee

: paramere mo :
7 ere pA a ame aar es

Bul. 217, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II.

Fic. 1.—Two MALLARDS, ONE HELPLESS, THE OTHER DEAD.
Photograph taken at mouth of Bear River, Utah.

The head has fallen on the back; otherwise the bird would have drowned. This bird
recovered when given fresh water,

Bul. 217, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

Fic. 1.—SNOwY HERONS DEAD FROM THE SO-CALLED “ DucK MALADY.”
Photograph taken September 22, 1914, at mouth of Bear River, Utah.

Fic. 2.—Row OF EXPERIMENT PENS AT MOUTH OF BEAR RIVER, UTAH.

In these inclosures ducks were kept under experimental conditions. Similar pens were
stationed at other localities on the mud flats.

MORTALITY AMONG WATERFOWL. 5

into a chalky mass which closed the anal opening. In about one-
third of the birds kept under observation a secondary trouble de-
veloped in the course of two days or more after they lost the power of
flight. A watery exudate came from the eyes and nasal chamber,
and through the internal nares ran into the throat. This occasioned
trouble in breathing. At times the discharge thickened into a whit-
ish, cheesy mass and cemented the eyelids together.

THEORIES AS TO CAUSE.

Many theories have been advanced to account for the mortality.
It has been variously ascribed to bacterial infection, typhoid in-
fection from the presence of sewage, parasitic nematodes, poisoning
from the deposition of sulphur or arsenic from smelters, and waste
water from sugar factories. Other minor hypotheses need not be

noted.
BACTERIAL INFECTION.

The fact that so many species of birds are affected militates against
the theory of bacterial infection, and no bacillus apparently capable
of transmitting the trouble has been isolated. Dr. J. R. Mohier,
of the Bureau of Animal Industry, writes as follows concerning the
ducks examined in that bureau:

Relative to our investigations concerning the cause of death of large numbers of
ducks in Utah, the information at hand points to the probability that death is due to
an acute pcisoning, and not to a disease of bacterial origin. The suggestion has fre-
que=iy been made in the past that the water which the ducks drink is poisoned by
the discharge of sulphuric acid, arsenic, copper, and other materials from smelters.
A duck in captivity can be easily poisoned by administering any of these substances;
but it is very doubtful whether a large body of running water in which large numbers
of ducks in flight could obtain water could be poisoned even if a large chemical works
discharged its entire output into the stream. Dilute sulphuric acid in small amounts
is harmless, and it is doubtful whether ducks would drink a solution of sulphuric
acid of any appreciable strength because of the sour taste. Estimations were made of
the amounts of sulphates, sulphuric acid, arsenic, and copper in the stomach contents
and tissues of ducks from Utah. In no case did the results obtained point to any of
these substances as the probable cause of death. Small amounts of sulphates, arsenic,
and copper can be found in the tissues of any animal, and are no indication of abnormal
conditions.

Practically all the live ducks forwarded to Washington for study promptly recovered,
while the dead ducks received were autopsied, but failed to show lesions of diagnostic
value. Numerous inoculations were made from the different organs of the ducks, both
on culture media and into experimental animals, but up to the present no special
organism has been found which might be regarded as the causative agent of the disease.
The earlier incrimination of the coccidia found in the intestinal canal of a number of
ducks, as the exciting factors of the disease, has not been substantiated by later
investigations.

PARASITIC NEMATODES.

Microscopic examinations in the field of a large number of blood
smears failed to reveal the presence of nematodes, and a collection of
material from the feeding grounds of the ducks near the mouth of the

6 BULLETIN 217, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Weber River was forwarded to the department for study. This was
critically examined by Dr. N. A. Cobb, of the Bureau of Plant In-
dustry, a leading authority on nematodes, who reports as follows:

A preliminary examination of the nematodes collected from material from the
Weber River, Utah, does not disclose any reason for supposing any of the nematodes
found could be connected with the great mortality noticed among wild ducks feeding
in the locality whence I understand this material comes. A single specimen has
been seen which is of a doubtful character and may perhaps be connected with some
parasitic nematode form. This specimen, however, is of small importance, considering
the large number of specimens that have been so far looked over. I think it is quite
safe to assume that nothing in the way of an explanation of the mortality of the ducks
will come as a result of these examinations.

SMELTER AND FACTORY WASTE.

Sulphur poisoning has been held by many to be at the root of the
trouble, but the presence of ducks and other birds in California
apparently suffering from the same disorder, in localities where there
is no appreciable trade waste of sulphur, is sufficient to disprove
this theory: Birds kept under experimental conditions were given
various solutions of sulphuric acid, but they failed to show
symptoms similar to those exhibited in nature. None of the changes
incident to death from arsenical poison were found in the internal
organs of the large number of birds examined.

In regard to waste water from sugar factories on the Weber River,
high water in the fall of 1914 came down in mid-September, carrying
with it drainage from the settling ponds of the sugar factory, and
though the toxic matter present was sufficient to kill large numbers
of carp and chubs, conditions among the ducks improved immediately
with the rush of water to the flats.

AN ALKALINE POISON AS THE CAUSE.

While it is not yet possible to set aside all these theories as ground-
less, it 1s believed that further investigations will disclose a poison as
the real cause of the trouble. The work of the past summer leads to
the conclusion that the mortality results from an alkaline poison, the
exact nature of which is still to be determined. That this is the case
appears from several facts.

As formerly stated, no lesions were present in any of he organs of
the many birds examined, other than a severe irritation in the lumen
of the intestine. Practically all the birds affected are fat, even
though found helpless or dead; not until they begin to recover do
they get thin. In birds relatively strong the enna make a vigor-
ous effort to throw of the matter absorbed through the intestines,
and thus the excretion of renal matter is greatly increased and is given
off in almost solid form.

MORTALITY AMONG WATERFOWL. we

It is well known that a large percentage of the afflicted birds recover
if they are given fresh water. During the investigations at the mouth
of Bear River, 586 sick ducks of 6 species were taken from the flats
and placed in pens at the Duckville Gun Club, where there was running
water from Bear River. Of this number, 426 birds, or 73 per cent
(see p. 9), entirely recovered. Had the cause of the trouble been
bacterial infection, such a recovery would not have been possible.
The large assortment of species of birds affected, ranging from grebes,
ducks, gulls, shorebirds, and snowy herons to an occasional! land bird,
is in itself an argument against the disease theory and points unmis-
takably to the conclusion that a poison is the real cause. Diseases
which are fatal to even closely allied species are not common, and
one involving many species among birds belonging to several different
orders is unknown.

The fact that a similar mortality occurs in California also goes to
prove that the trouble is due to a salt or an alkali. In a careful study
of local conditions there, it was possible to establish this similarity
and to check doubtful points encountered in the Utah work. |

Around Great Salt Lake the birds undoubtedly sicken in the shallow
water bordering the mud flats. As these flats dry after high water,
salts and alkalis crystallize on the surface of the ground. When light
rains form pools on the flats, or when a steady wind blows the water
across the dry barrens, pintails, green-winged teal, and other water-
fowl follow, eager to feed on the newly flooded lands. As the highly
soluble salts are taken up by the water from the previously dry sur-
face, the birds feeding here sicken and die in large numbers. Every
unusual outbreak on Bear River during the past summer was found
to correspond with some such phenomenon. In other localities, as
the mouth of the Weber, the poorly drained pools contain a solution
concentrated by evaporation. As soon as irrigation ceases and there
is a great increase in the amount of water coming down the river the
constant flow steadily drains the flats, removing the stagnant water,
and the mortality ceases almost at once.

At Tulare Lake, Cal., it may be found that the mortality will
increase when the water is blown out by the wind to cover new ground.
During the summer of 1914 large areas along the south shore of the
lake were flooded before wheat planted there was ready to harvest,
and on these flats were found great numbers of ducks and other birds
dead.

Birds resident on Bear River undoubtedly establish a certain
degree of immunity from the mortality. In spring when migrants
first return from the south it is said that a few sick birds may be found
along the overflows. Later these disappear and few of the breeding
individuals are markedly affected until mid-July. It is certain,
however, that water harmless to these individuals is highly toxic to

8 BULLETIN 217, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

migrants gathering from near-by breeding grounds to feed, molt,.
and pass the early fall in the accustomed security of the great marshes.
Large numbers of the birds found dead in July and August un-
doubtedly have come to these marshes from other localities. In the
brief account given of the history of the trouble it was shown that
sick birds have occurred for a longer time than is commonly believed-
In fact there can be little doubt that for many years under certain
conditions a few sick birds have been present annually in alkaline
pools and on mud flats bordering the mouths of the rivers. Thesudden
increase in the mortality may be explained by the increased amount
of water used for irrigating purposes. Undoubtedly the quantity of
water reaching the lake through the rivers has been greatly reduced
within the past 15 years. Alkalis and salts are leached from the soil
by irrigation and carried off in the drainage to be deposited in the
deltas of the rivers and elsewhere. An instance of this leaching is
shown in the freshening of the ground water north of Bear River near
Corinne. Under these changing conditions disaster came with the
dry summer of 1910. .

SUGGESTED REMEDIES.

Fresh water is the only remedial agency yet discovered for dealing
with this mortality among waterfowl. In the marshes at the mouth
of the Jordan River the problem may be considered as settled.
Water from the Jordan is carried through the marsh in a series of
canals, and as long as it is abundant these are kept full. When the
supply fails, as it may in dry years, the marsh can readily be drained
and dried. Under normal conditions there are only two points in
these channels where stagnation and consequent mortality may occur
to any extent; namely, near the Mallard Holes and about the Duck:
Puddles on the west side. On the flats below the dams on the lake
front a small number of birds will undoubtedly die, even though the
marshes are drained, but under present conditions this can not be
remedied.

At the mouth of the Weber River the situation is more difficult.
Here the north channel at present marks the true course of the
stream, though in late summer there is little water, as the whole
supply is diverted near Ogden for irrigation purposes. Toward the
lake are level flats with shallow pools of water connected by a very
shght current, or cut off in places from the main body. The south
channel has higher banks and runs as a narrow stream supplied by
waste water from irrigation ditches. Few, if any, sick birds occur in ,
this channel, as it is deeper and well drained. However, the ducks
elect to use the shallow flats along the north channel, and probably
less than 10 per cent of the birds that gather there during the summer
are alive by the opening of the shooting season on October 1. If the

MORTALITY AMONG WATERFOWL. g

lower course of this north channel from the North Shore Gun Club»
eastward can be ditched and the water prevented from spreading

on the shallows, as it does now, conditions will undoubtedly improve.

This should cause the ducks to use the better drained south channel

and alleviate the trouble. When the irrigation dams are opened in

September and there is an abundance of water, the flats could again

be covered, attracting the birds for the fall shooting. Here it might

be possible also to establish ponds fed by artesian water which would

save many birds could they be induced to visit them to feed and

drink.

The extensive flats at the mouth of the Bear River present a still
more serious problem. So large an area is involved that drainage
under present conditions is impracticable, but even if it were possible
this course would deprive enormous numbers of water birds of a.
summer home. Apparently the only solution here is to crease by
some means the water supply during July, August, and the early part
of September. If an agreement could be made with the canal com-
panies controlling the irrigation project dams across Bear River
whereby more water could be allowed to pass their dams, reservoirs
might be established higher up, and a supply might be reserved for the
summer months. It might even be practicable to utilize for this
purpose some of the water from Bear Lake. The construction of a
low dam across South Bay and East Pass in order to raise the water
level has been considered. As such a dam would be cut out each
year by the ice, an endeavor to increase the water supply would be
more practicable. In damming up the bay there is danger of too
much stagnant water, and this might add to the trouble.

A measure which might be adopted in all three localities, and one
strongly recommended, is to station men on the marshes to gather
up the helpless birds and pen them on fresh water. Considering the
ereat number of birds that might be saved in this way the expense
will be slight, and in dry seasons this may prove the only feasible
means of relief. From August 11 to September 26 there were brought
in to the Duckville Gun Club 586 ducks, of 6 species. The following
table gives the percentage of recoveries and deaths:

Species. Number. | Recovered. Died.

Per cent. Per cent.
80 20

(CeeyOT ine So SS Ee ee Aa ad Ie ea angie) =f Vee 80 20
TETAS onym eee ea arr re a SEES (us LU a ede gS 233 77 23
(Gea gr begeyG | WSR Se aS ss he ss a ee eee een cle Oe Neen 258 69 31
(Cabra waayay Ree Lesa A ae Ee te ra i lg ge fl) Goon aa 16 63 37
PSD ET Od Wea eee cee tet cb rk ce = 15 60 40

AN ay ee as ee ADS 30s STS 2 2 586 73 27

When large and small ducks were inclosed together the stronger
pintails and mallards crowded the teal and spoonbills, and many were

10 BULLETIN 217, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

drowned. It also developed that very weak birds should be separated
from the others. Under more favorable conditions the percentage
of recoveries could be markedly increased. California sportsmen
will be interested to know that at present this appears to be the only
measure that will prove successful on Tulare Lake. It is even possi-
ble that birds once cured may become to a greater or less extent im-
mune, and will not readily be affected again. .

In order to obtain data on this possible immunity and on the sub-
sequent longevity of birds which have recovered from the poisoning,
aluminum bands were placed upon the legs of 270 of the birds released
during the past summer. Hach band bears a number on one side
and on the reverse the inscription ‘‘Notify U. S. Dept. Agr., Wash.,
D.C.” By this means the birds may be identified should any of
them be found or captured.t Already reports have been received
concerning more than 20 of these birds. Should more of these bands
be secured it is hoped they will be forwarded to the Department of
Agriculture with full information as to date taken and attending
circumstances.

1 Valuable information in another line of investigation will be forthcoming from these bands. At present
knowledge of the routes of migration followed by waterfowl is based upon observation as to the dates of
arrival or departure of the birds in various localities. These, properly tabulated, show the movement of
the species in question asa whole. The actual lines of flight pursued by individual birds are almost entirely
unknown. The importance of information on this point can not be overestimated.

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.

AT
5 CENTS PER COPY

V

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE; 1915

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 218

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. Vv May 28, 1915

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA

RELATION OF CULTURAL METHODS
TO PRODUCTION

By

E. C. CHILCOTT, Agriculturist in Charge, and J. S. COLE
and W. W. BURR, Assistants, Office of
Dry-Land Agriculture

CONTENTS

Introduction Comparison of Cultural Methods

Area Included in these Investigations . Results at the Several Stations . .

Climatic Conditions General Discussion of Results ... .~
Conclusions

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
* 1915

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Mo AUN
LOVE

BULLE TINGOR THE

;USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULIURE

No. 218

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Bd \S

©

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
May 28, 1915.

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA: RELATION OF CULTURAL
METHODS TO PRODUCTION.

By E. ©. Cattcorr, Agriculturist in Charge, and J. 8. Cote and W. W. Burr,
Assistants, Office of Dry-Land Agriculture.'

CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
POM We hOMee mee me se See ae wei cee 1 | Comparison of cultural methods....-.....--. 8
Area included in these investigations......-. 3 | Results at the several stations.........-..--- 11
Whine COMGMIONS |S 22-5 aac es geeee acie = 3 | General discussion of results....-...--------- 38
General plan of the investigations. .......... 4 | ConcGlsiouSsek <22-ee- aos cei esse caeeseeciee 41
INTRODUCTION.

This bulletin contains a study of the yields of oats from different
methods of cultivation and seed-bed preparation at fourteen field
stations on the Great Plains.

1 All of the members of the scientific stat of the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture have contributed
more or less to this paper by having charge of field investigations and by assisting in the preparation of
data for records or for publication. The scientific staf as at present constituted consists of the fol-
lowing members, named in the order of length of service: W. W. Burr, Denver, Colo.; E. F. Chilcott,
Woodward, Okla.; O. J. Grace, Akron, Colo.; J. S. Cole, Denver, Colo.; J. M. Stephens, Moccasin, Mont.;
A. L. Hallsted, Hays, Kans.; O. R. Mathews, Belle Fourche, S. Dak.; J. C. Thysell, Dickinson, N. Dak.;
M. Pfaender, Mandan, N. Dak.; H. C. McKinstry, Hettinger, N. Dak.; W. M. Osborn, North Platte,
Nebr.; W. D. Griggs, Dalhart, Tex.; C. A. Burmeister, Amarillo, Tex.; J. E. Mundell, Big Spring, Tex.;
F. L. Kelso, Ardmore, S. Dak.; W. A. Peterson, Mandan, N. Dak.; J. T. Sarvis, Ardmore, S. Dak.; G. W.
Morgan, Huntley, Mont.; J. H. Jacobson, Mitchell, Nebr.; H. G. Smith, Tucumeari, N. Mex.; L.N.
Jensen, Woodward, Okla.; J. G. Lill, Garden City, Kans.; R. S. Towle, Edgeley, N. Dak.; A. J. Ogaard,
Williston, N. Dak.; C. B. Brown, Dalhart, Tex.; L. D. Willey, Archer, Wyo.; J. B. Kuska, Colby, Kans.;
and A. E. Seamans, Akron, Colo.

The following-named men have held positions on the scientific staff of the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture
during the past nine years, but have resigned or have been transferred to other offices of the Department of
Agriculture: Sylvester Balz, F. L. Kennard, J. E. Payne, L. E. Hazen, C. A. Jensen, H. R. Reed, W. O.
Whitcomb, C. H. Plath, F. Knorr, and R. W. Edwards.

The data here reported from the stations in Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, and Montana have been
obtained in cooperation with the agricultural experiment stations of their respective Slates. In South
Dakota, Colorado, Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico the stations are operated by the United States
Department of Agriculture.

Field, office, and laboratory facilities, teams, and implemenis have been provided by the Office of Western
Trrigation Agriculture, at Huntley, Mont., Belle Fourche, S. Dak., and Mitchell, Nebr., and by the Office
of Cereal Investigations at Amarillo, Tex.,and Archer, Wyo. The Biophysical Laboratory has cooperated
in obtaining the meteorological data reported.

Note.—This bulletin is intended for all who are interested in the agricultural possibilities of the Great
Plains area. ;

87674°—Bull, 218—l5——_1

2 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The study as here made shows the effect of the cropping and cul-
tivation of the land in only the one year preceding the growth of the
oats. A study of the cost of production by each of the methods under

trial and the resulting profit or loss are also given.

Results are aed from an aggregate of 74 station years,
involving an aggregate of 2,115 plat years. By station year is meant
one year at one sta-
tion; by plat year is
meant one plat at one
station for one year.

Such a mass of ma-
terial furnishes an in-
finite amount of detail
for study, but it is the
purpose of this bul-
letin to consider only
the broader bearings
and more obvious and
important phases of
the work, rather than
a study of the details.

This bulletin, deal-
ing with only the one

crop, does not afford
at a measure for judging
—*! the agricultural possi-
bilities for other crops
of any section of the
region. The Office of
Dry-Land Agriculture
of the United States
Department of Agri-
culture began field
work in the investi-

gation of methods of
Fig. 1.—Sketch map of the Great Plains area, which includes parts of crop production in the
ten States and consists of about 400,000 square miles of territory. < 3
Tts western boundary is indicated by the 5,000-foot contour. The Great Plains in 1906.
location of each field station within the area is shown by a dot The work begun at
within a circle (©).

that time has been
constantly added to until 20 stations were in operation in 1914.
Data from only 14 of these stations are here presented; those that
have records of but one or two years are not included.

The method of work adopted was that of raising the different crops
both in different combinations or systems of rotation and under

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 8

different methods of cultivation in systems of continuous cropping.
In no case have rotations of over six years in length been used. Those
of even this length have been tried only with sod crops. More of
the work has been done with 3-year and 4-year rotations.

AREA INCLUDED IN THESE INVESTIGATIONS.

The area covered by these investigations is shown in figure 1 and
consists of about 400,000 square miles of territory. It includes the
western parts of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas,
Oklahoma, and Texas, and the eastern portions of Montana, Wyo-
ming, Colorado, and New Mexico. The fact that the determining
factor in crop production is the limited rainfall is responsible for a
general uniformity in conditions throughout the area. There is,
however, a wide range of soil, climatic conditions, and altitude. The
lowest station is Edgeley, N. Dak., with an altitude of 1,468 feet and
the highest is Archer, Wyo., with an altitude of 6,012 feet. The
length of the growing season for oats is naturally much the same
throughout the area, but there is a variation of approximately a
month to six weeks in the respective dates of seeding and harvesting
oats, the southern section using the earlier dates.

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.

The area is characterized by a varying amount of annual and
seasonal precipitation, with very uncertain distribution. Years of
relatively high precipitation with favorable distribution may be
. followed by years of relatively low precipitation with very unfavor-
able distribution. It may be said that the uncertainty of the dis-
tribution rather than the total amount of rainfall received is the factor
that. makes crop production hazardous. In connection with this
work, complete climatic data have been obtained. It is not practi-
cable, however, to give them in this publication. Table I shows the
minimum, maximum, and average annual and seasonal rainfall and
the seasonal evaporation at each station for the years for which the
yields are here reported. By seasonal is meant the precipitation or
evaporation for the period between the average time of seeding and
the average time of harvesting. No attempt is made here to show any
of the other climatic factors or the amount of water already in the
soil at seeding time, any one of which may have an important influence
on yields. The annual precipitation as here given is not the annual as
determined from the complete record, but is the average annual
precipitation of the years whose results are under study.

4. BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste I1.—Annual and seasonal precipitation and seasonal evaporation at fourteen
stations in the Great Plains area.}

Precipitation 3 (inches).
Seasonal evaporation 3

Alti- (inches).
infirm an a 7 Annual. Seasonal.
(feet)
Mini- | Maxi-| Aver-| Mini- | Maxi-| Aver-| Mini- | Maxi- | Aver-
mum.|mum.| age. |mum.|mum.| age. | mum. | mum.| age.
udithpBasinese serene esse 4,228 | 14.96 | 23.78 | 18.06 | 6.50] 10.90} 8.62) 19.117 | 26.273 | 21.330
Ja libhat Aten sare ecen ee eam ayente nla 8,000 | 11.92 | 11.92] 11.92] 5.00] 7.35] 6.18 | 19.820 | 20.594 | 20. 207
Wallaston nye sees eho a 1,875 | 10.28 | 18.99 | 14.84) 5.62) 12.00} 8.31 | 21.104 | 28.269 | 24.705
DICkANSO NE pene sel 2,543 | 11.93 | 21.22 | 16.69 | 5.31] 16.27 | 10.06 | 18.379 | 27.366 | 22.377
Hidgeleyper rere iis Aen Stes 1,468 | 11.94 | 21.95 | 16.71 | 5.08 | 15.73} 9.60) 17.664 | 25.362 | 20.657
lettin cere sas eee ee sas 2,203 | 12.72) 15.68) 14.20] 8.82] 12.89 | 10.69 | 20.111 | 24.248 | 22. 430
Belle Fourche.......-.--..-. 2,950) 6.64 | 17.73 | 13.11 1.92 | 12.75 | 6.82 | 23.627 | 33.906 | 27. 220
Scottsbluff... 222.022 222 3,950 | 13.77 | 18.51 | 16.14 5.56 | 8.26] 7.11 | 24.698 | 26.647 | 25.718
INorbheblatieseeeeeee acess 3,000 | 11.18 | 23.01 | 18.05 | 4.38] 11.25 | 7.77 | 25.954 | 35.255 | 30.253
AKLOM cie'cte ces tao ae neces 4,600 | 14.51 | 22.46 | 18.28] 5.32] 9.52] 7.82 | 25.917 | 32.691 | 28. 781
TIA Se fait Sas Met a 2,050 | 15.59 | 27.80 | 21.30] 3.87] 12.87] 9.55 | 29.390 | 41.317 | 32.628
Garden) City. 22 o42.55.25-2.4 2,900 | 11.82 | 23.58 | 18.54) 5.01] 8.16] 6.85 | 33.315 | 38.926 | 35.332
AD Feil eX Ne oe iets a ns ca ea A 4,000 | 13.69 | 16.35 | 15.11 4.54] 14.86 | 8.17} 33.381 | 41.002 | 38.596
pA arilO oe Pe ck sea werean 3,676 | 10.69 | 27.80 | 18.28 | 5.03} 11.49 | 7.05 | 32.305 | 40.704 | 36.709

1 The years covered are the same as for the data shown in the other tables for the several stations.

2 The altitude given is for the field where the work was done and is based in most cases on that of the
nearest town. °

3 The record of annual precipitation for 1914 is not included. The records of seasonal precipitation and
evaporation for 1914 are included for all stations, the evaporation being figured from Apr. 1 to July 31.
The seasonal rainfall is the measurement from Apr. 1 to July 31 for stations north of and including that at
Belle Fourche. Forstations south of Belle Fourcheit is the amount between Mar.1 and June30. Evapo-
ration measurements are made from a free water surface, in a tank sunk into the soil to almost its full depth.
The water surface is kept about level with the surface of the ground.

GENERAL PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATIONS.

The same variety of oats is used on all plats at a station during any
one year. The intention is to use the best variety that is available
for general use. Changes are made only when seed breeding, seiec- .
tion, or varietal testing makes available for general use a better
variety. No attempt is made to use the same variety at different
stations. The rate, time, and manner of seeding are the same for all
plats at a station in any one year. As compared with more humid
sections, the seeding is light, the usual rate being 6 pecks per acre. All
seeding is done with a drill, rows being spaced from 6 to 8 inches apart,
depending upon the locality. In different places different styles of
drills are used.

In the present study a table is presented for each station. The
first part of such table shows the yields that have been obtained in
each year by each of the different methods under which oats have been
grown, considering only the variations in the one year preceding the
crop. The previous crop whose stubble was treated as specified is also
shown. Where more than one plat has been under the same treat-
ment for the previous year, only the average yield of the whole number
of plats so grown is given. Column 2 of the table shows the number
of plats so averaged. The succeeding columns need no explanation,
as they show the yields for each year as indicated and the averages of
each method for the whole period of years. In the last column, where

{

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 5

the average appears under the heading ‘ Average,” the calculation
is from the left. The averages of the different methods of treatment
are the averages of the whole number of plats that entered into their
composition. For a rough comparison of seasons the bottom line of
the first half of the table gives the averages of all plats for each year,
the average of the yearly average yields appearing in the last column
to the right.

As here presented the treatment of the land is specified as fall
plowed, spring plowed, sod breaking, subsoiied, listed, disked, green
manured, and summer tilled. Under these headings are subdivisions
to show the preceding crop.

Where oats appear following wheat on either fall or spring plowed
land it has been in rotations of at least 3 years in length. Where oats
follow oats the system has been that of continuous cropping.

Fall plowing is done as early as practicable and to a good depth, the
standard being set at 8 inches. The ground after bemg plowed may
be worked down or left rough through the winter, as seems advisable.
Spring plowing is done as early as practicable in the spring, with the
exception of one plat at each station, on which oats follow oats. It
is done to a good depth, about 8 inches, and given sufficient cultiva-
tion with the harrow, or disk if necessary, to form a good seed bed.
On one plat which is continuously cropped to oats at each station,
spring plowing is shallow (only about 4 inches) and is given a mini-
mum of cultivation.

Sod is broken in the fall as early as hay production for the year is
over.

Subsoilmg is done on land continuously cropped to oats. The
treatment of the plat that appears at some stations under this heading
is the same as the treatment of the plat that appears under “Fall
plowed,” except that it is subsoiled. At the time of plowing a sub-
soiler is run in every other furrow to an additional depth of 6 or 8
imches, making a total depth of about 14 inches. This is usually done
two years in succession and then omitted for two years.

The plat that appears at some stations under the heading “ Listed,”
following oats, is a plat continuously cropped to oats. At the time of
fall plowing this plat is furrowed out with the lister instead of being
plowed. In the spring it is worked down level and the seed bed
prepared without the use of the plow.

The plats on disked corn ground are all in rotation with other crops.
Both 3-year and 4-year rotations comprise this series. The other crops
may be winter wheat, spring wheat, barley, green manure, or potatoes.
In some of the rotations summer tillage replaces one of the crops.

Where oats are grown after a green-manure crop the system is
that of a 4-year rotation in which one crop is corn and the other one
of the small grains.

6 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Summer tillage is of the intensive type. The land les fallow for
a year. Itis kept clear of weeds and as far as practicable a mulch _
is maintained on it during the time between the harvest of the pre-
ceding crop and the seeding of the oats. This involves a period in
some cases as long as 21 months. In some cases it is necessary to
plow the land more than once during this period, in order either to
maintain a surface receptive to water and that will resist blowing or
to prevent the growth of weeds. The long period of summer tillage,
together with the intensive methods practiced, have made this an
expensive system of production. Experiments are under way to
determine the most economical method of summer tillmg. Indica-
tions are that a less intensive method than that practiced in the work
here reported will give practically as good returns.

The yields given in these tables begin with the second year of crop
production at each station. The first year’s crop is produced on
land uniform in its treatment.

In cases where an entire crop has been lost by hail or other agency
that could not possibly be overcome by cultivation the years are not
considered in computing averages. Such failures must of course
enter into the final results of agricultural endeavor. They are, how-
ever, of such uncertain occurrence that the series of years here con-
sidered is too short to permit an attempt to establish their normal
frequency for any locality. This is in effect what would be done by
including them in averages. It is believed that less error is intro-
duced by recognizing their occurrence and excluding them from aver-
ages. When the loss of a crop is due to conditions that might pos-
sibly have been overcome by cultural practices a zero yield for that
year is included in the calculations.

Embodying the basic data given in Tables II, ITI, and IV, the
second part of the table for each station has been compiled. In this
are brought together in summary form the yields detailed in the first
part of such table. The value of the average yields thus obtained is
calculated and given, together with a computation of the cost of pro-
duction. The last line of the table gives the profit or loss resulting
from the production of oats by the method stated. Loss is indicated
by the minus sign. In this second part of each table there are two
general headings: ‘‘ Tillage treatment” and ‘Previous crop.”’ Under
the first general heading the plats are grouped entirely by treatment
without considering the previous crop. Under the second heading
treatment is not considered, and the grouping is entirely governed by
the crop immediately preceding the oats. This really makes two
tables combined in one, with subdivisions common to both.

Figure 2 shows a diagram of the dry-land rotation field at the
Belle Fourche Field Station. This station being a representative
one will serve to illustrate the general scheme and plan of work.

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. i

The plats here, as in all of the work, are one-tenth acre in size. Their
dimensions are 2 by 8 rods. Along their larger dimension the plats
are separated by bare alleys 4 feet in width. Along the ends of the
plats they are separated by roads 20 feet wide.

At this station five crops are represented in a series of continuously
cropped plats lettered from A to F. In this group, plats C and D
are alternately cropped and summer tilled, so that each year a crop
is grown on land that was summer tilled the previous year, and a plat
is summer tilled for cropping the next year.

The remainder of the field is in rotations in which each plat is
known by a rotation number and letter. On the field diagram the
separation of rotations is indicated by heavy lines.

The movement of the crops is in the direction from Z to A and
from A back to the letter that marks the other end of the rotation.

Fallow, I { corn, FP Carr, FA Carn, FR V| Corn, SP } Corn, FR

Vas j [Az A A AL a Ae
f , | | [ Oats, SP_V [Oars SA Wheat, dD. Wheat, FR

neat. FP ft , FP
[oo SP |

W ;
pe ‘heat, oat

Rye, FP

O 15, 0.
ae 2 EEE | EES Al
7M. ¥ eat, GM.
2

, < rs
Wheat, D. What, 2. Oats, 2.
ats 2 sal [a 2
‘ Ss CYover Fallow, Ai.
ie (a | (al

Oats, GM. Oats, Fal. Wheat, GM.
72) |b Le: 3 2 Z6

Fic. 2.—Diagram of the dry-land rotation field at the Belle Fourche Field Station. The lettering shows
the cropping practiced in 1914. The explanation of abbreviations used after the name of a crop is as
follows: D.=Disked, Fal.—summer tilled, 7. P.=fall plowed, G. M.=greenmanured, L.=listed, M.=
manured, S. P.=spring plowed, S. S.=subsoiled.

In figure 2 the diagram is filled out to show the cropping in 1914.
The letters following the crop indicate the treatment given the
ground in preparation for it, 8. P. standing for spring plowed, F. P.
for fall plowed, Fal. for summer tilled, G. M. for green manured,
and D. for disked. The addition of the letter M. indicates the use of
manure.

To illustrate: In 1914 plat A of the 4-year rotation No. 14 was in
corn on spring-plowed ground, plat B was in wheat on disked corn
ground, and plat C was in winter rye on fall-plowed land. This
would be plowed under for green manure. Plat D was in oats where
winter rye had been turned under the year before. In 1915 A will
be in wheat, B in winter rye, C in oats, and D in corn.

Some of the rotations are calculated to conserve or increase the
fertility of the soil, while others may perhaps deplete it. In the
present stage of the work the effects of rotations as units are greatly

87674°—Bull. 218—15—2

8 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

overshadowed by the effects of the cropping and cultivation of a_
single year. This is due to the fact that the controllable factors are
water supply, physical condition of the seed bed, and a certain
recognized, if not understood, effect of the crop immediately preceding.
Uniformity in these factors is largely restored by the cultivation or
cropping of a single season. After a careful study of the data, it
seems advisable at the present time to prepare a series of bulletins
discussing in each the results relating to but one crop as determined
by the treatment of the land in only the one year immediately pre-
ceding the growth of the crop.

COMPARISON OF CULTURAL METHODS.

The methods under study vary a great deal in the labor involved
and in the consequent cost of production by each method. Table
IV has therefore been compiled in order to show the average cost by
each of the methods under study. These data have been prepared
from the records of eight representative stations. An average of
the records for 54 years at each station has been used in preparing it.
This is equivalent to a record of 44 years at one station. An accu-
rate record has been kept of all the farm operations performed in
the various methods under trial. These have been averaged for the
eight stations. The amount of work required for some methods of
treatment varies with the season and with the soil, and the expense
of some operations varies with the soil. The amount of labor per-
formed under each of the methods was neither more nor less than
that which the man in charge believed to be necessary to bring about
the results sought.

In computing the cost of the various operations a fixed wage of $2
a day for a man and $1 a day for a horse was adopted. This may
be above or below the actual labor cost in any particular locality,
but it is believed to be a fair average and one that will afford a profit-
able market to the farmer for his labor. The time required of men
and teams to cover a given acreage in each of the several farm opera-
tions obviously varies with souls and other conditions. The average
shown in Table II has been determined from the actual experience
of a large number of men connected with these investigations, ex-
perience that has extended over a wide range of conditions and
many years of time.

The factors included in the cost of production are calculated on an
acre basis for each of the separate operations performed, beginning
with the preparation of the land and ending with the harvesting and
shocking of the grain. To these items are added the cost of seed
at 60 cents per acre, interest and taxes on the land investment
calculated at 8 per cent on a valuation of $20 per acre, and the
deterioration and repairs of the binder at 15 cents per acre. No

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS ARHA. 9

allowance is made for the deterioration of other farm equipment,
as it is believed that the wages allowed for men and teams are suffi-
cient to cover this item for the remainder of the equipment. The
above-mentioned items are fixed charges per acre; that is, they do not
vary greatly with the yield per acre except for the item of twine,
but this variation is not sufficient to affect materially the relative
total cost of production under the several methods.

Table II shows the cost per acre, based upon what is considered an
average day’s work for each of the farm operations involved, at the
above-mentioned wage. As before stated, the type of soil and
seasonal conditions will determine to a certain extent the labor
required and the consequent cost per acre.

Tasie I].—Average cost per acre! of the farm operations involved in growing oats in
the Great Plains area.

[The wage scale assumed is $2 per day for each man and $1 per day for each horse.]

foros oe
ployed. Cost
anc Day’s | Item
Operation. work. | cost. per
acre
Men. | Horses.
Acres.
TAGE 2 ae son cee bee Cee cnn e BSE Be oc ode Eee meneEE no cho7 1 4 Bo Sees $1.71
DISISTE 2 - seceecemecenesponspce seb Sr Core or COMCRORer Er ses Cone 1 4 Sie |aeemrarer 5 ii)
LET IGE Sc ao eccaanees hen ne ae nae seb occ mec anes CESoeEEErC ce. cods 1 4 Bis al oekerece alt
SiO LATE. - se sons sdase coecesen esse se sense caseeseass 22sc0ne 1 3 Soe SEB Orels 1. 43
TSM 550 2 eae ee ee ee eee SAN 1 4 5 lee eas . 40
(CULATIONS oes Codere he BR SoC Reso bbe de sae eee Sep aoseeERe ce So aBe, 1 4 1G ye eee: 38
BIS CETL CoO eR Sys tepiomaI ne © «laitlsiafe Me Gtajere baie ¥ a= oie 2 5 ~ «ERE 1 4 LO} Eas eae . 60
Harvesting: haat
Cima Aaa | ap nave bbakers SO ee Ae Sone Gop ScoeSooeeeene. ososccc 1 4 15 $0. 40
SUG GREE - 2 sce abet caraddss sons ssccsgss55seseuesescocc0 Ud beceeeed|boaeasoe 13 93
OWTHD®- 5-22 .he5dcec + Seersece soca see cnn sec os eeeeReeUsesc> ose boeecupalboubecos|boacoase 25 7
Bindenwy Cabal d LOpair ses ose. nh. — iby aio = 2 2 - Seer e aeoas| hens ane al omeee te 15

1 The cost of thrashing is not included in the cost per acre, but it is estimated at 5 cents per bushel and
deducted from the price of 35 cents in the granary, thus giving a value of 30 cents per bushel in the shock,
The average farm price of oats used in these computations is based
on the data given in Table III, furnished by the Bureau of Crop
Estimates. The four States of Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota,
and South Dakota were selected because their extensive oat produc-
‘tion has given them established market prices which are not greatly
influenced by local conditions. As given in Table III, the average
farm price of oats on December 1 for the past 10 years has been nearly
35 cents per bushel. It costs about 5 cents per bushel to take the
grain from the shock, thrash it, and put it in the granary on the farm.
This cost per bushel does not vary greatly with the yield and is
therefore a fixed price per bushel instead of a fixed price per acre,
as is the case with the other costs of production. The relative
profits of producing oats under the different methods can therefore
best be determined by finding the difference between the fixed cost
per acre and the value per acre of the grain at the point where the

10 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fixed cost per acre ends, which, as before stated, is when the grain is in
the shock. Knowing that the average farm value of oats in the
granary is 35 cents per bushel, and that it costs 5 cents per bushel to
take it from the shock, thrash it, and put it in the granary, it is
obvious that it would be worth 30 cents per bushel in the shock.
This valuation of 30 cents per bushel has therefore been used as a
basis for calculating the relative crop values, costs, and profits per
acre of the various methods under trial.

Taste Ill.—Average price of oats at the farm granary for 10 years in four States of the

Great Plains area.

[The quotations are given in cents per bushel. Those for the year 1914 are for the date of Nov. 1; in
other years Dec. 1 is taken as the date.]

North South Ne-

Year. Dakota. | Dakota. | braska. | “20sas. | Average.
MOQ Bisse oA ARS SE tes = a 2 So) 23 23 24 28 244
MUO tele pe emma a Nei menue ps TROON eae 27 25 26 31 74
OO jevarc ce artsatac ate clasts ce oae ee Hsia eas cree ae eeie © stsoeete eee 40 39 37 42 39%
CS) OS eae Sena ea Une ream Ly a aus = 6s D0 Pa Rd SIG 2 42 Al 41 45 424,
GOON Raat eee ey MHL eo nde 33 34 35 43 364

BOM Sears, Ue Hea OT BP aa eR Tay tray iG CT ce She oye ee 37 30 28 34 32
MUD es co rea aA fal Se ra 2 Bi cone ci ks fala ae 41 43 43 45 432

TUCO Ba oa Wa NA el a ea Pe 2 22 25 30 35 28
TI Ua Soa earner em PR cA tt a eR Ba 30 34 38 45 362

NE Ug ees See ec NTA I BI A RG UR Nt oS Me 36 38 39 43 39
EAVICL APO Sag ep etatctrsce seteei gages fine This ey elevo ler aad 33 33 34 39 343

In conformity with the foregoing explanation, Table IV gives in
detail the cost of producing oats in the shock, expressed in dollars
and cents and in bushels per acre at 30 cents per bushel. These
prices are used as a working basis and are not offered as being exact.
It is fully realized that the price of any or all factors used in obtaining
them may vary locally from the fixed price assumed.

TaBLE 1V.—Cost per acre of producing oats in the shock in the Great Plains area, showing
averages of data from eight stations.

iH g Total cost of
Number of operations. 3 Cost per acre. production.
i
ios) —
Method of prepara- ey of 5 so |S _ {as
tion. SAS wh =I e a a eh lect peelh a4 pl |ieseala
= a4 — Cs] sas
Ae | eee | allie H| 2 || 2 legs
ee Se Weculine: | Selmmbess heim tema eaa lee
ees | Aha es aye paw | ale Pe Bb
Disked corn land ..-]....--. ALl533)))| il steal srevayot | ele = ell Meera $0.97 $0.60 |$0. 40 |$0.93 |$1.60 | 4.50] 15.0
MP ISted eee aaa ee we 1.6 ay | een eee. WS - 60 - 40 -93 | 1.60 5.30 WT
Spring plowed....-.- 1 1.3 (3b Sees ages as! Soe 2.31 60 | .40 93 | 1.60] 5.84] 19.5
Fall plowed. -.....- 1 2.3 B) Jacsbenlossese||-csase 2.78 60} .40 93} 1.60 | 6.31] 21.0
Subsoiled........... 1 1.7 Oy ORG We aee elie caer 3.39 60 | .40 93 | 1.60 | 6.92) 23.1
Summer tilled...... IseyA let bes ths 2h lesa sonlentocallaatees 6.12 60} .40 93 | 8.20 | 11.25] 37.5
Green manured:
With rye}...... 2 Oral eee at aE orl ees 1| 7.73 | .60] .40} .93} 3.20] 12.86] 42.9
With peas 2....- 2 yOu peu line ciaite aatereees 1 |10.73:| .60)..40] .93 | 3.20 | 15.86 | 52.9
Average cost of
STECM MANUTIN GUE eka a Se ee BECP TL MMR eS: eee Re ee ee AC LEE 14.36 | 47.9

1 The cost of rye per acre for seed is estimated at $1.
2 The cost of peas per acre for seed is estimated at $4.

' OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, li

RESULTS AT THE SEVERAL STATIONS.

Accompanying the discussion of each station is a very brief descrip-
tion of the soil, with particular reference to its depth and its water-
holding capacity. Only such information is given as is necessary to
understand fully the interpretation of the results.

JUDITH BASIN FIELD STATION.

The field station at Moccasin, Mont., in the Judith Basin, is located
on a heavy clay soil of limestone origin. The soil is apparently very
rich in available fertility. It is underlain at a depth of approxi-
mately 3 feet by a limestone gravel that is closely cemented with lime
materials. The gravel subsoil, which extends to a depth of about 30
feet, is practically free from soil. While it is so closely cemented that
it does not unduly drain the soil, it is not of a character that allows
the storage of available water or the development of roots within it.
The presence of gravel in the surface soil does not permit the taking
of samples satisfactory for the study of soil moisture. Enough has
been done, however, to make it certain that the supply of water that
can be stored in this soil is limited. This shallowness of the soil and
consequent limitation of the quantity of water that can be stored
im it and recovered by the crop makes the crop dependent in large
part upon the rains that fall while it is growing.

While the oat crop is not at present the most important commercial
crop in the Judith Basin, good yields have been obtained at this field
station and a profit realized by all methods under trial. In 1912 the
crop was destroyed by a local hail storm. Yields have therefore
been calculated on the basis of five years. In the experiments in
crop rotation and cultivation methods, 33 plats of oats have been
erown each year. This number was increased by the addition of
new work in 1913, but only work started in 1908 is here reported.
As here presented, the results are arranged to study only the effect
of cropping and cultivation in the one year preceding the growth of
oats. No attempt is made to study rotations as units.

Table V shows that while there may be great seasonal variations
in yields the differences resulting from cultural conditions are gener-
ally small. With the exception of the comparatively high yield by
summer tillage and the low yield on both brome-erass and alfalfa
sods and following flax on brome-grass sod, the differences in yield
from different preparations are too small to have meaning.

The low yields on brome-grass and alfalfa sod and following flax
on brome-grass sod are due to the fact that at this station sod crops
recover after breaking to such an extent as to choke out the oats.
The profitableness of these crops in themselves, together with: the
- poor results which follow their breaking, indicates that the sod crops
should remain down for long periods rather than enter into short
rotations.

12

BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE V.— Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Judith Basin
Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Treatment and previous crop.

Fall plowed:
Wheat

See ney

Total or average.........-------

Spring plowed:
Wheat

See ee ni ny

Total or average.........-------

Sod breaking:
IVES eS RIERA OeR Ss eens
Brome-grass
Clover

et ete ee eee ccc ee ces oucaen+

Total or average.........-------

Summer tilled

Yield per acre (bushels.)

Num-
ber of
plats
aver-
aged. 1909 1910 1911 1912
6} 164.9] 120.5] 53.0] (2)
1/ 66.2] 20.9] 51.5] (2)
Lil ab 8 |) AOSalyevess7Ny 2)
AU Soe ee 53.1] (2)
1} 637] 195] 45.7] ©@)
10 63. 9 20.2 SZ F2ICEELE ae
1h GB Oe wi |) @)
1| 75.3] 24.3] 52.0] ()
2D FeAl Oi BER | 1G)
Ql FO.8 i PLO) BLM Kacesase
1 56. 8 14.3 33. 1 o
2 62.5 17.8 2205 C
1 72.5 22.8 37.8 @)
A oh tee) 2.0 looses
all |Peeeataa| Sr o5ee | nes Ol QO
1 (2ED, 22.8 58. 5 @
6| 357.3] 324.4] 55.6] (2)
ON OS OB GOS yO)
Qi A GO| RAO} @)
AW GLO RaW RL ieee.
3 70. 5 23.6 63.2 ()
ECS Gaby PRD > GRE ese

Aver-
1913 ae age.
62.8 53. 0 50. 8
65. 0 49.3 50.6
64. 4 54.0 49.8
70. 6 52.1 58. 6
33. 7 46.2 41.8
61.1 52.0 | 49.9
54.5 45.3 47.9
64,1 44.6 52.1
63. 1 49,2 52.5
61.2 47.1 51.2
30. 6 47.1 36.4
38. 6 21.5 32.6
50.3 50. 6 46.8
39.5 35. 2 37.1
65. 0 40. 6 49.5
63. 4 Slee 49.9
75.1 54.2 53.3
75.9 54.3 56.3
75.3 46.7 53.2
75. 6 50.5 54.8
76.2 58. 7 58. 4
64.3 49.4 50. 6
|

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.

Tillage treatment.

Previous crop.

i Lo} teY obra} Ne) a, mo 1 oxH HOD ~ ie.) q hen!
Yields, values, etc. 2a | ge Za ES a BIS | OS ae) A || =
(averageperacre). | 62 | Up S| =e oe | Ss |F sl aua| & | a@ | me | us
Aa | HSA] ge vs SS |\seel dee] 2 | +s | se] ek
Nes |g Ol aie ten eeich| Popa NCaG Sulake
ASW |Q (2) | oD) io) R wn | oO nm | &
Yields of grain:
1909. ..--- bushels..| 63.9 70.8 57.3 72.5 63.7 | 69.9 70.5 | 63.6 | 61.6 | 65.8 | 63.7
IMO soo eossdoWoscc 20. 2 24.0 24. 4 22.8 25.3 | 23.4 23.6 | 18.2 | 24.0 | 22.0] 19.5
OTe cere do... 52.2 52. 55. 6 53. 5 53. 0 54. 4 63.2 | 29.0 | 55.3 | 52.8] 45.7
HOT Me eee do. . @)_ (?) (7) () (?) () ©) ©) | ©) @) ()
TOTS REN ts do... 61.1 61.2 75.1 63. 4 65.0 | 75.6 76.2 | 39.5 | 72.1 | 638.4] 33.7
CN es eee ee do... 52.0 47.1 54.2 37.5 40.6} 50.5 58.7 | 35.2 | 53.0 | 49.3 | 46.2
Average....... 49.9 51. 2 53.3 49.9 49.5 | 54.8 58.4 | 37.1 | 53.2 | 50.7) 41.8
Crop value,cost, etc.:
Wallieuaaeeeeesise $14.97 | $15.36 | $15.99 | $14.97 | $14.85 |$16. 44 | $17.52 |......|....--|--.---|------
Cost seis eos. 6. 31 5. 84 4. 50 5. 30 ROC fale soy (eat a Saya eel Searels aseol me Se
IBrOntesee seen 8. 66 9.52} 11.49 9. 67 7.93 | 2.08 OH 27 Maes SeScorleeeso| Seeend
2 Destroyed by hail. 3Only 5 plats in 1909 and 1910.

1Only 4 plats in 1909 and 1910.

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. #3

When the cost of production is taken into consideration, as in the
last part of Table V, it is seen that the less expensive methods are
more profitable. This is a direct result of the lack of differences in
crop values as great as the differences in cost of production. Great
freedom is offered the farmer in the choice of the place he will give
oats in his cropping system and in the manner in which he will pre-
pare the land for the crop.

HUNTLEY FIELD STATION.

The field station at Huntley, Mont., is located in the valley of the
Yellowstone River, just below the first bench. The soil is a heavy
eumbo to a depth of about 8 feet. Underlying the soil is a consider-
able depth of freely drained gravel. This soil carries a large supply
of available water and allows deep feeding of the crop. Consequently,
it is possible to store in it a maximum quantity of water that can be
recovered by the crop.

Data of only two years are available from the Huntley station.
These both have been years of heavy production. The results of two
years are not sufficient evidence on which to draw conclusions, but
may be of value as indicators. The extreme range by different prepa-
rations in the average of the two years has been from 41.2 bushels
on fall-plowed oat ground to 62.1 bushels after peas as green manure.

In both years the yield by both spring and fall plowing has been
heavier on wheat stubble than on oat stubble. In both years the
yield has been heavier by spring plowing than by fall plowing of
either wheat or oat stubble.

As compared with similar oat stubble fall plowed, there has been a
small increase in yields each year as a result of subsoiling. The aver-
age of this increase has been 4.9 bushels per acre. But a still further
increase of 1.1 bushels per acre has resulted from furrowing with a
lister and leaving the ground rough through the winter instead of
plowing. The yields following corn have averaged heavier than those
following small grain, but not as heavy as those following either
summer tillage or green manure. Disking corn ground has been as
good a preparation as plowing it. The highest average yields have
been obtained by summer tillage and green manure.

A profit has been realized from the production of the crop by all
the methéds under trial. The smallest profit, $3.22 per acre, has
been by the most expensive method, green manuring. The largest
profit, $11.40 per acre, has been by the least expensive method, disking
corn ground. Spring plowing and listing are of about equal rank,
with profits of nearly $9 per acre. Fall plowing, subsoiling, and
summer tillage have each given an annual profit of about $7 per acre.

14

BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste VI.— Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Huntley
Field Station, 1913 and 1914.

2 Yield per acre (bushels).
Number
Treatment and previous crop. . of plats
ameraged:) 7 1913 1914 | Average.

Fall plowed:

: Wea tR Ease st eiac eee Saeco s eee Se eee. aE ciszeces 4 37.5 50. 4 44.0
Watsee cscs coc sere ene ee eee Go cee eee tices 1 34. 0 48.4 41.2
IBArley = hone oscane teen ceeaec cece Ease eae: ee tee OS 1 34.0 52.3 43.2

Totaliomaverage no oe ec ase ises =a aes ase ee sins cece 6 36.4 50. 4 43.4

Spring plowed: | |

Meats eee ae kN Co ee ee SNe! I oe ries 1 42.8 55. 6 49.2
Oats eae aoe ee eee aoe Se eae ae a Siete 1 35.3 | 50. 6 43.0
Comeeseiie at Sie a9 erie ey aa) RR hd Se 2 AAA | 60.3 52.4
Motal.oraverage. oor oae ok eles ea. Ee 4 41.7 | 56.7 49.2

Sod breaking: F
BAU Fa apse) sais ots nam noe ees Sees Sec ROE YEE 1 46.9 51.9 49.4
IBrome-prass! 2820" 955s 435552 3s. ek ek EE Pee 8 BES 1 51.9 43.7 47.8

Motalorsaverage cee eo sah eee oe ee eae Sly ak 2 49. 4 47.8 48. 6

Suhsotled?-Oatss2 34534350 se) eae, ees este 1 39.3 52.8 46.1

Sted: Oats acc seisc scenes seme Soe Sanne clseeeee eee Sees 1 45.6 48.7 47.2

Disked's<@ornds? satay. BW = Se SE See eee ees Shree 8 43.7 62.2 53.0

Green manured:

FR OMe Meee ae Re ee Mac ce eae SS AM oo oe 2 46. 2 63.9 55.1
Pease. 8 sei 24 bs ua. Fe See Sew SS ea Ro 2 64.5 59.7 62.1
otal: onaverage se: = sees. aes h SeS ee eee Se 4 55. 4 61.8 58.6
Sammentilledssio x7. 255 seks hose ies - Bees ee es eee 3 60. 8 57.6 59.2
Average of alls29) plats $3435) Pees ae ease be Pa ee | eee see = 45. 6 56.7 51.
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.

Yields, values, ete. alacant Green | Sum-

ae pring | p-., £ 2 Small :
(average per acre). plowed} plowed Disked Listed ue Be tilled oe grain | Sod (2
(6 (4 | plats). | Plat)-|q piat).| 4 (3. | plats). | (10, | Plats).

plats). | plats). plats). | plats) plats).

Yields of grain:

1913... bushels. - 36. 4 41.7 43.7 45.6 39.3 55. 4 60.8 43.83 38.1

191455 322-2 G0525¢ 50. 4 56.7 62.2 48.7 52.8 61.8 57.6 61.8 51.0 47.8
Average......- 43.4 49.2 53.0 47.2 46.1 58. 6 59. 2 52.8 44.6 48.6

Crop value, cost of
production, etc.:

Waltieues--aaaeeo $13.02 | $14.76 | $15.90 | $14.16 | $13.83 | $17.58 | $17.76 |......--|_..--..-)-...-...

Costs escseoeeee 6.31 5. 84 4.50 5.30 6. 92 14. 36 E25 Wi a7 dalek) 5 ab Seal Reson
Profits ose 6.71 8. 92 11. 40 8. 86 6.91 3.22 GU5Ls | oe eka | MESES eee

The experimental work at Williston, N. Dak.,

1 Barley was used as green manure in 1912.

WILLISTON FIELD STATION.

is conducted on a

silt soil that carries a considerable supply of available water and on
which the depth of feeding is limited only by the depth to which the

character of the crop limits the development of roots.

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA.

15

Tasie VII.— Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Williston
Field Station, 1910 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Number
Treatment and previous crop. | of plats
averaged.) 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed:
NMISG? Se aSe eco oS Eee eere 3 1.4 8.6 57.6 36.0 74.1 35.5
Oats eee aa cee as Stece 1 2.2 8.1 46.9 30.3 60. 6 29.6
Barley os oo Saaie= slow eee 1 2.2 8.8 61.2 28.9 87.5 37.7
IN G55 oe 5 aac ee Sone DOSaaae il 5.0 2.8 61.9 1252 52.8 26.9
Total or average......-... 6 2.3 7.6 57.1 29.9 70.5 33.5
Spring plowed:
HGibeeeicict= = ate cieinioisiis=isielere 1 2.0 22.5 60. 0 36. 2 70.3 38.2
ADS aL el oe eee 1 Sa 9:1 47.8 34.7 51.6 29.3
Corwen ee Sees Sos ee 2 Ges 10.0 69.7 | 46.8 65.1 38.7
Total or average.......--- 4 2.1 12.9 61.8 41.1 63.0 | 36.2
Sod breaking: |
Brome-grass......-------.-- 1 7.8 1.6 63.1 27.5 71.6 34.3
WIOVORSM Eons sao eteacecseceee 1 9.1 5.9 66.6 40.2 85.3 41.4
Total or average........-- 2 8.5 3.8 | 64.9 33.9 78.5 37.9
DASKEd AGOLE. = a= -\saimismnlnielo al='= 4 2.5 15.0 64.1 42.5 65.5 37.9
Green manure: |
PAG secces-esosccotienneraes 1 4.1 7.5 61.9 48.0 63.7 37.0
IZ Seo atedducaseEEconObnoden 1 3.8 9.1 57.5 45.3 89.4 41.0
Total or average........-- % 4.0 8.3 59.7 46.7 76.6 39.1
Summer tilled=:---222.--..--- ag 3 5.9 16.8 77.1 39.8 79.7 43.9
Average of all 21 plats....].--.....-. 3.5 11.0 63. 2 37.8 71.0 37.3
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
|
Yields, values, etc. (average aes | Green | Sum-
1 per acre). a Spring |Disked) ma- mer Sod Corn pial Flax
P (8 P (his ice nured | tilled 2 AG a7 1
: plats). (2 (3 plats). | plats) plat).
| plats). | plats). | plats). | plats) plats).
peeves jee Se TL ee a Ee cee eh) Pe
Yields of grain: |
TOLO ee asa. s225¢ bushels. - 2.3 2.1 2.5 4.0 5.9 8.5 2.2 2.0 5.0
LOU NI Foe 55) 00s 7.6 12.9 15.0 8.3 16.8 3.8 13.3 10.6 2.8
OTe bE Se .-do. 57.1 61.8 64.1 59.7 Ui 64.9 66. 0 55.5 61.9
AQTSELEL EES OE .-do. 29.9 |- 41.1 42.5 46.7 39.8 33.9 43.9 34.0 12.2
1 ee Sees Sere do. 70.5 63.0 65.5 76.6 79.7 78.5 65.3 70.3 52.8
MADCAP OSS = sec cas cinn 22 33.5 36. 2 | 37.9 | 39.1 43.9 37.9 38.1 34.5 26.9
Crop value, cost of produc- |
tion, etc.: | |
Watters 20-Y 022. S10: 05 (1510/86 | $1537 eit 73\ |) S1B-17 | 228. 2 -| oe e-efoe ee oe lace
OSlsoszzedsbeseesscceses| 6.31 SOE [hte 4: OOM am ae sO alts Ld ae den | Bere sere et ters eer tat He cue mtea
Profit or loss.........- Cert Aal emo NO20 | 10: Sie Pnoda | O25 Beemer o|Eee eee | ease eee

The record of five years from Williston includes three years of
heavy and two of very low production.
years the results do not show a wide variation in yields by different

tillage methods.

When averaged for the five

The yield of oats has been higher each year except

1910 by both spring and fall plowing when the crop followed wheat
87674°—Bull. 218—15——3 “

16 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

than when it followed oats. In every year except 1914 the yield has
been higher following either wheat or oats when the land was spring
plowed than when it was fall plowed.

The yields on disked corn ground have averaged higher than those
on the stubble of any small grain plowed in the fall and approximately
the same as on the stubble of wheat and corn plowed in the spring.
The highest average yields have been produced by summer tillage.
When cost of production is taken into consideration, it is seen in the
last part of Table VII that the higher yields from summer tillage and
green manure have been obtained at a cost proportionately greater
than the increase in yields.

The only method showing production at a loss is that of green
manuring. The smallest profit, $1.92 per acre, has been by summer
tillage, which has given the highest yield. Disked corn ground,
owing both to high yield and low cost, shows the greatest average
profit, $6.87 per acre. The average profit from spring plowing has
been $5.02 and from fall plowing $3.74.

DICKINSON FIELD STATION.

The soil at the field station at Dickinson, N. Dak., is somewhat
lacking in uniformity. It is characterized as a sandy clay loam to a
depth of approximately 5 feet. Below this depth is a lighter soil
which in some cases becomes very sandy or pure sand. The soil has
the capacity to retain a large supply of water and to give up a large
proportion of it to the crop. This, together with the depth to which
a crop may feed, makes it possible to store in this soil an exception-
ally large quantity of water that can be recovered by the crop.

The results of six years are available ‘for study from Dickinson
Station. The crop in 1912 was destroyed by hail shortly before
maturity and is not included in computing averages. The crop of
1914 was damaged at least 50 per cent by hail.

The average annual yields have ranged from 8.9 bushels in 1911
to 67.8 bushels in 1909. The averages for the six years by different
methods of cultivation and cropping range from 29.6 bushels on
fall-plowed oat ground to 49.9 bushels by summer tillage. While
this is a comparatively wide range in results from different methods,
it is apparent that the ability of a method to increase yields is de-
pendent upon the season. It will be noted that in 1909, a season of
heavy production, there were comparatively small differences in
yield from different methods. In 1911, when the seasonal rainfall
was very deficient, summer tillage and rye as green manure gave
fair yields, while other methods were nearly or quite failures. During
the years of average climatic conditions the differences in yields
have not been so extreme, but with few exceptions summer tillage,
green manuring, and disking corn ground have consistently given
the best yields. The highest average, 49.9 bushels, for the five years

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA.

has been by summer tillage.

iy;

This is closely approached by rye as
green manure with an average of 49 bushels and disked corn ground
with an average of 47.5 bushels.

TasLe VIII.— Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Dickinson
Field Station, 1908 to 1914, inclusive.

Treatment and previous
crop.

Fall plowed:
Wheat

Totai cr average... --

Sod breaking:
IMEC ASS a eee eee

Wlowersieet = 42s2. . a:
Total or average-..--
Disked: Corn

Green manure:

Total or average. --..

Summer tilled............-

Average of all 27 plats.|.........-

Yield per acre (bushels).

Yields, values, etc. (average

per acre).

eee Ese ASS bushels. .
I ee Se omens do.
AOLOE este 3 t do...
TIGL Sob Beer anes do
1G) ese Eo aye eee do
Cie See eeB ere. do
ORAS Se oa See. do.

Average......--.-----

Crop value, cost, etc.:
WANG 2s occas eset
WOStE ase se eee

1 Destroyed by hail,

Number
of plats
averaged.| 199g | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 eae
3 37.9 63.6 32.0 2.0 (@) 60.2 17.9 35.6
1 32.8 58. 4 26.0 1.6 (@) 44.4 14.4 29.6
1 44.7 61.9 27.8 4 (@) 61.0 19.5 36.1
if 30.0 61.9 26.8 2.2 (4) 62.2 19.2 33.7
6 36.9 62.2 29.4 TO ORS Sok ue = 58.1 17.8 34.4
4) 51.0] 65.4] 27.9 Sete le (2) 51.8 | 22.6 37.0
1 48.4 55.9 32.0 6.6 (@) 33.0 T5e3 31.9
2 55.8 70.8 36.7 6.0 @) 47.7 18.9 39.3
7 52.0 65.6 31.0 0 eee 48.0 20.5 36.9
1 65.6 75.3 33.7 neal (4) 45.3 22.8 40.6
1 61.6 65.0 44.6 2.8 () 51.9 212, 42.2
1 54. 7 63.8 29.0 2k @) 55.0 22.0 37.9
3 60.6 68.0 35.8 PASI eee tee 50.7 24.0 40.2
5 65.0 75.6 40.7 12.8 (@) 64. 2 26.7 47.5
1 59. 7 65.3 46.3 22.6 @) 59. 4 40.5 49.0
1 49.4 70.3 34.2 6.4 (1) 55.0 33.1 41.4
1 65.3 69.7 28.0 8.6 @) 57.8 22 41.8
3 58.1 68.4 36.2 IP EGS a eee 57.4 31.6 44.0
3 BYAT 70.1 47.2 29.8 (@) 57.1 37.4 49.9
53.3 67.8 35.4 BitO ir seas 55.6 24.5 40.9
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF CosT.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
- Sod (3
Fall | Spring | p;4- Green | Sum- Small
plowed | plowed Mie ma- _Imer plats) vee grain | Flax (1
(6 (7 lats) nured (3) tilled (3 plats) (10 plat).
plats). | plats). | P*#"S?: | plats). | plats). plats).
36.9 52.0 65.0 58.1 Blo 7/ 60.6 62.4 44,4 30.0
62.2 65.6 75.6 68.4 70.1 68.0 74.2 62.9 61.9
29.4 31.0 40.7 36.2 47.2 35.8 39.6 29.3 26.8
1.9 4.4 12.8 12.5 29.8 252, 10.8 2.8 Pp
() () () @) (1) () () @) @)
58.1 48.0 64.2 57.4 57.1 50. 7 59.5 52.6 62.2
17.8 20.5 26.7 31.6 37.4 24.8 24.5 19.3 19.2
iB 34.4 36.9 47.5 44.0 49.9 40.2 45.2 See 33.7
S| PIOso2 eel eO zal ol4-25: | Slae2Os| S14.97 |pbe eons ee ees Soe ee ee
J 6.31 5. 84 4550) | SELAESG seb 2 oul aes | Seca see | oes pac nee eee ae
-| 4.01 5.23 -9.75 | —1.16 OEE! |; - Sees | aes alae oss | Pees

18 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Spring plowing has averaged a little better than fall plowing, irre-
spective of the kind of stubble plowed. The relative merits of the
two vary from year to year, depending upon the season and the
condition of the ground at plowing time. Generally, when the
ground is wet at the time of fall plowing, the better results are ob-
tained from it. On the other hand, if fall plowing is done when the
ground is dry, it has not been as good as spring plowing.

When the cost of production is considered, as in the second part of
Table VIII, it is seen that the high cost of green manure has caused
the growth of oats by this method to be done at a loss of $1.16 per
acre. The high yields and low cost of preparation of disked corn
ground have combined to make it show the largest profit of any
method, $9.75 per acre. Intermediate between these are spring
plowing with $5.23, fall plowing with $4.01, and summer tillage with
$3.72 profit per acre, respectively.

EDGELEY FIELD STATION.

The field station at Edgeley, N. Dak., is located on a soil that is
derived from the decomposition of shale, which in undecomposed
particles is found very near the surface. In the third foot the shale,
while broken and offering fairly free passage to water, is not as yet
broken down into soil. The depth of feeding of crops is practically
limited to the first 2 feet. The first foot carries an unduly large sup-
ply of water available to the crop. The limited depth of soil that
functions in the storage of water and in the development of the crop,
however, limits the quantity of available water that can be carried
in the soil to about half that carried by soils of greater depth. This
makes the crop practically dependent upon rains that fall while it
iS growing.

Edgeley offers for study of oat production an unbroken record of
eight years. Five of the eight years have been productive of heavy
crops from practically all methods, while three have been years of
light production from practically all methods.

The range of yields from different methods of preparation and
cropping as exhibited in the average of the eight years is compara-
tively small. This is as might be expected from the soil on which
the station is located. Its shallowness makes the crop much more
dependent upon the seasonal precipitation than it is in deeper soils.
It is, consequently, impossible to realize much benefit from methods
of cultivation calculated to store water in the lower zone of normal
crop-feeding depth.

Oats on land which was summer tilled the previous year have
produced an average yield of 38.3 bushels per acre, but this is only
4.8 bushels more than the average on disked corn ground and 6.4
bushels more than the average of all crops following small grain.

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA.

19

Taste IX.— Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Edgeley }
Field Station, 1907 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Number
Treatment and previous crop. | of plats
: averaged.
1907 | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed:
NVhest na et ees cugoceaaee 4 | 28.0 | 25.5 | 59.3 | 10.7} 2.8) 61.1 | 34.3 | 51.3 34.1
OBISESORSS SRR Ee Aaa ees 1 | 21.4 | 15.3 | 46.8 | 10.3 -8 | 60.3 | 21.5 | 30.0 25.7
Raney ee ee ieene ea cme canes 1 | 32.5 | 15.9 | 60.3 | 14.3] 1.6] 57.8 | 27.5 | 48.5 32.3
TRY bebe o 5/5 Ses ea es ea 1 eee 22.5 | 538.1 | 15.6 -6 | 55.0 | 27.5 | 50.3 2a
Total or average.........-- 7 | 27.6 | 21.7 | 56.7 | 11.8} 1.9 | 59.6 | 30.5 | 47.7 32. 2
Spring plowed:
Wheat geere) | ei roee fua mee ¢ 2] 29.7 | 20.6 | 54.2) 9.7| 2.4] 56.2 | 46.4 | 44.0 32.9
ORT a aco hee a ae eee 1} 21.3 | 16.9 | 57.5 | 6.2 -5 | 53.8 | 28.4 | 36.9 PAB
COM eee LE sae Peres 2} 15.2 | 20.8 | 59.8) 7.8) 7.1] 73.6 | 40.6 | 33.3 32.3
Total or average........-- 5 | 20.4 | 19.8 | 57.1 | 82] 3.9 | 62.7 | 40.5 | 38.3 31.4
Sod breaking: |
PAfal Tapes se eee a GS SIS Pezys ee .7 | 48.7) 3.8 -2 | 45.3 | 8.7 | 42.2 22.7
Brome-grass.........-..---. 1 | 33.8 | 16.3 | 55.0] 8.1 -6 | 54.4 | 37.1 | 41.3 30.8
CLOVGE.t6u be Bee aes Uled | Resse. 11.3 | 50.3 | 3.1 5.0 | 49.1 | 51.5 | 47.8 31.2
Total or average.......... 3 | 33.8 | 12.4] 51.3; 5.0) 1.9 | 49.6 | 32.5 | 43.8 28. 8
ISked RC OMMss - keccsct ots ce sen 7 | 28.2 | 20.1| 554] 7.9| 3.7 | 60.5 | 43.6 | 48.2 33.5
Green manured: a
[Ry eres HE eee PE 1 | 37.5 | 24.7 | 61.8 | 9.3 | 10.9 | 75.0 | 40.0 | 48.5 38.5
IE Gas Bema ihe asic see nee oes cis 1 | 32.5 | 19.4 | 53.8) 6.5 1.7 | 64.4 | 53.7 | 46.9 34.9
mwmeehelover. 22th ste ees | ees 19.4 | 45.3 | 7.1 -3 | 61.2 | 35.9 | 50.9 31.4
Total or average.......... 3 | 35.0 | 21.2 | 53.6] 7.6] 4.3 | 66.9 | 48.2 | 48.8 35.1
Summer tilled..........-.. aa ses 5 | 33.8 | 19.9 | 59.0 | 11.0 | 9.3 |) 70.9 | 54.1 | 48.1 38.3
Average of all 30 plats.....|........-. 27.9 | 19.6 | 56.0 | 9.1 4.1 | 61.9 | 40.6 | 46.0 33. 2
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc. Small
(average per acre). Fali Spring ae Green |Summer A
: lowed plead ea a manured| tilled Bt See aon SSN
(7plats).|(5 plats).|‘/ P*"S):|(3 plats).|(5 plats).| P*4%?- | Plats). aie) Pp
Yields of grain:
1907: 2-6-4 bushels. - 27.6 20. 4 28. 2 35. 0 33. 8 33. 8 23.0 Wi) as bocee
HOSES eee asi dowee Pil 7 19.8 20. 1 21.2 19.9 12.4 20. 3 20. 8 2280)
1909: -2)5.42512 do. 56. 7 Biol 55. 4 53. 6 59. 0 51.3 56. 3 56. 7 33.1
DIOS ABee Saee do.. 11.8 8.2 7.9 7.6 11.0 5.0 7.9 10.3 15.6
HOTU. 2esins do. 1.9 3.9 3.7 4.3 9.3 1.9 4,4 2.0 -6
IP PR eae eae do. 59. 6 62.7 60. 5 66. 9 70.9 49.6 63. 4 58. 7 55. 0
TONS sates soe ee do. 30. 5 40. 5 43.6 43. 2 54. 1 82.5 42.9 34, 2 27.5
TOU Pe). do.. 47.7 38.3 48. 2 48.8 48.1 43.8 44.9 45. 4 50. 3
Average.......... 32. 2 31.4- 33.5 Boul 38.3 28. 8 32.9 31.9 32.1
Crop value, cost, ete.:
ENO)" ee ame ee $9. 66 GON 42 | S10::05))) j SLONSS lia PEL I49) ee <2 ale ee eee sass on] oem mene
WOST eee ee cnn oe 6. 31 5. 84 4.50 14. 36 1D Ra eee BS aesees lSeaAnacal locecaos
Profit or loss...... 3.35 3. 58 5.55 | —3. 83 i [Ae Ce Pas Strait Va cy ts aes | arenes

1 Additions were made to the work at this station in the spring of 1909. The number of plats shown in
the average is the number from 1909 to 1913, but it is not in all cases correct for 1907 and 1908.

The yields of oats following rye plowed under for green manure
have averaged practically the same as those on summer-tilled land.
The yields following peas as a green manure have not averaged

20 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

quite so high, while those following sweet clover have been still
lower.

The average yield on alfalfa sod has been the lowest in the series.
On both brome-grass and clover sods the average yields have been
practically the same as after small grains.

The yield of oats following wheat on both spring-plowed and fall- ~
plowed land appears to be better than when following oats on land
so prepared.

Little difference is to be observed in the average results following
either spring or fall plowing of small-grain stubble for oats. There
are differences that develop with differences in seasons, but on the
whole it would appear from the evidence at hand that the time for
plowing for oats at this station would be determined chiefly, if not
solely, by the matter of economy and convenience in doing the
work.

When the cost of preparation by the different methods under
study is taken into consideration, it is seen that this cost, rather
than differences in yield, is the determining factor. The createst
average profit, $5.55 per acre, has been realized from oats on disked
corn ground. Oats on spring-plowed and fall-plowed land have’
been productive of nearly equal profits of about $2 less. The
slightly increased yield by summer tillage has not been sufficient to
meet. the increased cost of the method and profits from it have
fallen to 24 cents per acre. Green manuring has been responsible
for an average loss of $3.83 per acre.

HETTINGER FIELD STATION.

The soil at the field station at Hettmger, N. Dak., is a heavy clay
loam. The seasons during which the work has been carried on have
been such that the results of soil-moisture study are not yet conclu-
sive in determining the proportion of water that can be stored in the
soil and recovered by a crop. It is probable, however, that the depth
of feeding is not limited by any physical peculiarity of the soil and
that the supply of available water that can be stored is large. It is
reasonable, therefore, to expect that on this soil the maximum effect
will be realized from methods of tillage calculated to store water.

The results of three years of fair production are available from the
Hettinger station. Records for this length of time are not so valu-
able an index to methods of production as the longer records at other
stations in the State. It appears evident, both from the records and
from field observations, that they are complicated somewhat by soil
differences. While seme of these differences are recognized in their
manifestations, their nature has not been satisfactorily determined.
In the study as here arranged, the most difficulty is offered by the
two unduplicated plats of oats following oats, one prepared by spring

{

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS ARBA, 21

plowing and the other by fall plowing. Both of these appear to have
a higher yielding power than is consistent with the results at other
stations in the State. That this is due in some measure to soil differ-
ences has been observed in the field.

TaBLE X.—Yvelds and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Hettinger
Field Station, 1912, 1918, and 1914.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Number
Treatment and previous crop. CAS —-———$, eee
avelaged.) 1915 1913 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed:
Whea 3 19.0 17.9 22.2 19.7
1 36. 3 28.1 29.4 31.3
1 34.4 20.0 27.5 27.3
1 dae 21.5 17.5 18.7
MOLalroriaveragess = Cale peg. ol 6 24.2 20.6 BBY fs 22.8
Spring plowed:
Wheat BT SE Re ORS mee ene ee | e s ak e e 4 14.6 34.5 41.5 30.2
Oats. HS OG AHA DEC SERS SITE SOS Cena La Soe te eas 1 32.8 377.6 44.4 38.3
(Oto) Tah MS YS Ae a a el a Deh eee eS | 2 25.3 40.2 31.8 32.4
MOA ORAV CLASS ease eens OS AN cee ae ares AE 7 20.3 36.5 39.1 32.0
Sod breaking:
BAe hea eee ear cssict ee Saati erin eye Se aia artistes Ss 1 ie) 24.7 17.2 19.7
NSRGIMC=OTASS ase Gee eel ieee tial oe eg 1 35. 3 13.5 25.0 24.6
OER SSG SR age Peery Co oe ete ey a a 1 10.0 13.8 26.9 16.9
MOUALLOLAVCTALC Weer ens cee me crisisiisecin se cei 3 20.8 17.3 23.0 20.4
Disked:
(Cloyera ys a8 AAI Oi Ge Wee a) aes An ae 6 26.0 41.8 38.8 35.5
JPYBY OSS RIS Aen INNS cae eg) Seen 1 23.1, 38. 2 36.0 32.6
MOTAMOMAVETAZC:.—-c<ts- = te an-- eee ees ele ele 7 25.6 41.3 38. 4 35.1
Green manured:
22.5 19.7 17.8 20.0
17.5 26.0 23.8 22.4
22.5 25.6 24.4 24.2
20.8 23.8 22.0 22.2
27.3 38.3 30.8 32.1
23.5 31.7 31.4 28.9
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc. * Green | Sum-
all | Spring | ,; if Small f
(average per acre). plowed | plowed nace, el tilled Sod (3 | Corn (8| grain | Flax (1 Ean
6 7 plats). 3 G plats). | plats). we plat). plat).
plats). | plats). plats). | plats). plats).
Yields of grain:
1912....bushels.-}| 24.2 20.3 25.6 20.8 27.3 20.8 25.8 21.9 17.2 23.7
IGS Reese donee 20. 6 36.5 41.3 23.8 38.3 17.3 41.4 27.7 21.5 38. 2
1914S dol sa: 23.5 39.1 38. 4 22.0 30.8 23.0 37.0 33. 4 17.5 36.0
Average.....-. 22.8 32.0 35.1 22.2 32.1 20. 4 34.7 27.7 18.7 32.6
ED EAUE, cost, ete.:
ULES Sister oe Oe CO SID GO) | SOR GSS TES. |) SHE GS3 See ce salle oe ea sadlososaosd|ooeconsc|leccecece
Goat ae te ei 6.31 5. 84 APSO 14 AGM emir een ey aie te12 | patetote de ates | eeereesto te rallletsstalcieinie, | eee Pebarat
Profit or loss. . 53 3. 76 G2O36 | — 7. GON RIG Dy | ee WANE eR Alo ena ee eA ro ator

22 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Spring plowing has given markedly better results than fall plowing
in two of the three years. Disked corn ground and disked potato
ground have been about equal to spring-plowed land in crop-producing
power. Summer tillage has failed at this station to be productive of
the increases in yields that have attended its use at the other stations
in the State. In 1914 this may have been due to the fact that the
fallows were allowed to become weedy in 1913.

The lowest yields have followed the breaking of sod and the use of
green manure.

When methods are considered in broad groups and production is
combined with cost, as in the second part of Table X, the data become
more instructive. This shows that green manuring, the most expen-
sive method, has been at the same time the least productive. Instead
of providing a profit it has been a source of the greatest loss, $7.70
per acre. The disking of potato or corn ground is the least expensive
preparation and has been the most productive of the general groups
in bushels per acre, as well as in dollars per acre. It shows an average
profit of $6.03. |

Spring plowing and fall plowing both show profit, the greater profit
being from the spring plowing.

Summer tillage, with its high production cost, gave only slightly
greater yields and has not been able to pay for the labor and the use
of the land. It is debited with an average loss of $1.62 per acre.

While the general trend of these results is reliable, it is very likely
that their detail will be subject to change by the extension of the
record.

BELLE FOURCHE FIELD STATION.

The field-station farm near Newell, S. Dak., on the Belle Fourche
Reclamation Project, is located on a heavy gumbo clay soil. The
soil is derived from decomposition of Pierre shale. From the soil at
the surface there is a rapid change to broken but undecomposed shale.
Near the bottom of the second foot is a comparatively impervious
layer of soil. The first foot and at least a part of the second foot
carry a large supply of available water. It is probable that but little
use is made of either water or soil below the first 2 feet. In spite of
the heavy soil and the large supply of water that can be obtained by
the plant from that portion of it near the surface, the shallowness of
feeding reduces the quantity of water that can be carried in the soil
to about one-half of that available in deeper soils. The result of
this is shown in the yields.

The results of six years are shown in Table XI. In one year pro-
duction was heavy, in two years it was fair, in one it was very poor,
and in 1911 the drought was so extreme that no method was able to
overcome it. The preceding year had been so dry that practically
no water was stored in the soil by any method.

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA.

; 23

TasLE XI.— Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Belle Fourche
Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Treatment and previous crop.

Fall plowed:

wee esc en eecncecescsosce

Total or average..........-

Sod breaking:
Alfalfa,
Brome-grass
Clover

Total or average

Supsoiled: Oais:--. 22 -i2.2.2-2=2

Listed: Oats

Sorghum

Total or average

Green manured:

Total or average

Summer tilled

Yields, values, ete.
(average per acre).

Yields of grain:
1909...... bushels. .
HOTOE Re doves
OD eee i= do...
1) ee do:
1!) Be eee do...
POU AR ee siz ,eid do...
Average........-

Crop value, cost, etc.:
anes orth sass.
( Colt a eae SO BESSGe c
Profit or loss....-

Yield per acre (bushels).

Number
of plats
averaged.| 1999 | i910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.
ana. 3 | eae o| 62] 168] 127 15.0
1] 46.9] oO 0| 6.6] 15.8| 247 15.7
1| 65.6| 0 o| i1.4| 93.1] 12:2 18.7
1| 647| %o 0| oO 16.3| 22.8 17.3
Gt 56.7 |e Meee oe 3 i é1| te] 163 16.1
i, 40:5 | peng 0) 4 :915)| tesoi| -15:0 isa
1/ 488] 92 o| i.7| 178| 13.0 16.8
21.60. 5.|\ sasie O.\ee 72.) ost) hs 9347 20.0
Alle 53.1 |: Pete 8.9| 18.7] 18.8 18.0
i] 65.0] © o| o 16.3] 13.0 15.7
i| 677] 0 o| 7.0] 25.9] 12:0 18.8
1} 63.8| a81 0] 11627} 13.1 | > 122 19.0
B | Migai 5. | Riera ay) i 7.9| 18.4| 12.4 17.8
Tlie cos |aane (1) ee ee ee 17.5
fil se 7 | Pe 1 SE ee aie 18.8
6| 58.9| 7.6 o| 10.9| 25.6] 30.6 22.3
415 '5733 | aegee 0} (10.3) 194] “oni |A). aBl7
i] 519/ 98 o| 106| 29.7| 35.9 23.0
Ser. 8 | puma lke 10.8| 25.2| 30.1 21.9
1} 69.4| 9.2 o| 48{ 31.3) 29.5 24.0
1 |, 76.6 | dies o| 4:7| 32:8] 28.1 25.6
2| 50.9| 0 Ov] aaizist| Somat li) 346 20.0
a |© 61. 9 | Rae Ree 6.0] 29.6] 31.7 22.4
RE oe 5 Oe ea 29.8
a: ECHES OX 60.9 | Meg gle) 2819/9) 2818 21.0

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.

Tillage treatment. Previous crop.

ei he) Be a ie rg rs SS Ses

Ee Ue al ease hac ye Leap A &

See | fen lie | Sede orl Sais Tele ES

Ba | AR | a ayaa apices || | 2) S| Sale | ESS

lee foes om | CSIs Leber ial coe dete | fois hae

Wa | ee] © | ge | 2%] as Ee 21S [ae S jee! 8

=| Hae iQ B 3 Digs ares Go) z Ss a ~~

e |@|a/ala |6 |€@ |élsija lela ja
56.7) 53.1) 57.8) 56.7; 60.8) 61.9) 74.2) 65.5) 59.3) 53.8) 64.7) 57.3) 51.9
0 SEO FEO! on ee 0 Dealt V4) 2.7) eS) 256). 0 5.2} 9.8

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6.1) 8.9) 10.8) 8.6 7.3 6.0 8.1, 7.9} 10.0} 8.2) O | 10.3] 10.6
17.6} 18.7; 25.2) 18.7| 16.3) 29.6 34. 8) 18.4] 24.2) 17. 7| 16.3] 18.1] 29.7
16.3] 18.8} 30.1) 21.4 20.3 31.7| 44.2) 12.4) 28.9) 16.1) 22.8) 21.1! 35.9
16.1) 18.0) 21.9) 18.8 17.5} 22.4) 29.8) 17.8] 21.7] 19.7| 17.3] 18.7] 23.0
$4. 83) $5. 40] $6.57) $5.64) $5.25] $6.72) $8.94).....).....]..-..]..--.|....-].--..
Gr Shea 784i = 4550) (5:30) G292ed4 636}. 125) 2 Nek Ss beee ele ae alesece [eee ar
—1.48)— .44) 2.07) .34) —1.67| —7.64| —2.31)_.-..).....}.....]...-_|.-..-].---.

a There was no stand of clover before oats.

24 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The highest yields have followed summer tillage, peas and rye as
ereen manure, and disking potato and corn ground.

Listing has given a little higher yields than plowing similar stubble.
Subsoiling is of doubtful advantage. Its average is slightly greater
than the average of similar stubble plowed either in the fall or in the
spring. There has been, however, no consistency in the results from
year to year.

In spite of the combination of bad seasons, disked ground shows
an average profit of $2.07. With the exception of one plat cropped
to potatoes and one plat cropped to sorghum, the disked land was
previously in corn. Listing shows a nominal profit and spring plow-
ing a nominal loss. Both fall plowing and subsoiling show losses of
about $1.50 per acre. Summer tillage has the highest yield, but the
practice of this method has resulted in an average loss of $2.31 per
acre. Green manure, with a yield only slightly above the average
and with the highest cost of production, is debited with a loss of $7.64
per acre.

: SCOTTSBLUFF FIELD STATION.

The work at Scottsbluff, Nebr., is conducted at a field station
located on the North Platte Irrigation Project. The soil is a com-
paratively light sandy loam. At a depth varying from 5 to 8 feet
there is a sharp break from sandy loam to either sand or Brulé clay.
Above this point the soil offers no unusual resistance to the downward
passage of water or to the development of roots. Owing to its light
character, however, it is possible to store in it only a moderate supply
of available water. While the evidence on this point is not yet com-
plete, the proportion of water that can be stored in this soil is known
to be somewhere intermediate between the corresponding capacities
of the Belle Fourche and the North Platte soils.

The results of three years are available from the Scottsbluff station.
In each of these years production was largely determined by the
supply of water available to the crop both from the rainfall and from
the water stored in the soil. Consequently, considerable differences
in production from differences in preparation were brought out.

The highest yields each year have been produced on land summer
tilled the previous year. The average yield, 38.2 bushels per acre,
from this method is over twice that from fall-plowed land that had
raised a crop of small grain.

The next highest yields have been those from the green-manured
plats. Between peas and rye for green manure the difference is small
and not consistent from year to year.

Disked corn ground stands third in average yield of oats, but it
owes this position to a very high yield in one year only.

Spring plowing has, on the whole, given better results than fall
plowing, although the one plat following oats on spring plowing has

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA,

25

been the poorest in the field. This plat is plowed shallow and given

little cultivation.

from it are entitled to little weight.

It also has a poor location in the field and results

TasLE XII.— Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Scottsbluff
Field Station, 1912, 1913, and 1914.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Number
Treatment and previous crop. of plats
averaged.| i919 1913 1914 | Average.
q
4 11.5 20.4 20.2 17.4
iT 21.6 16.9 14.7 17.7
1 9.0 22.2 15.9 NG 7/
1 38.4 25.0 10.0 24.5
7 16.4 20.8 17.3 18.2
2 25.5 25.8 14.4 21.9
1 19. 4 15.0 8.4 14.3
2 33.8 20.8 13.9 22.8
1 35.0 39.7 14.4 29.7
6 28.8 24.7 13.2 D252,
JASE VERE ER EB AR AS a Sarees aa a ae 1 41.9 13.4 5.6 20.3
IPNGNE ESS). = seseencieessecoses -oaapseeeoleasen- 2 Q@) 27.6 14.4 21.0
GIOMCES Sass s3 tosent: - S232 Bass. 288 28. ceil 1 () 20.0 17.8 18.9
ARGTAMOT/AVELAL CS ans eine iterat= = aeeiaaeccialore 4 41.9 22.1 13.0 25.7
STHEOI ECO OP IGE WSs EES Sea See Sener as a aaa aha | 27.8 17.5 15.9 20.4
WIStCCemOALSens ee ees ssiccs- caeaecs cease he. Ae 1 oes B+ 12.8 20. 4
IDS E:G/S, Cyan Ses aes ee eee ee ee ee 8 43.0 19.8 16.0 26.3
Green manured:
TRV = ne gS ESSE ACIS eis Se Sere aR 2 34.6 35.3 21.4 30.4
TEAS eee celaeacaiaianicicisio Se esias serclewisseentee sneak 3 29.6 29.4 23.4 QAO
MOPAMOT AVCLAS Oss a1--/ e-em oe nines lta ai= clei i 31.6 31.8 22.6 28.7
Siimmerftwledetep yas = ote sares ee eee deed kL. OLA Se 4 45.5 44.0 25.0 38.2
BLveracelonallesesplatses. 2. ae. sha. SS 32.3 25.4 17.3 25.0
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST oF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, G S
ete. (average | Fall | Spring]... 4 RGAE |} rsibliea Small
per acre). Bien plowed Disked | [ isted Sue eH tilled “G0 grain ee ed
( 6 (1 plat). (11
plats). (1plat).; (© (4 plats) plats).| plat).
plats). | plats). plats). | plats) plats).
Yields of grain:
1912....bush..| 16.4 28.8 43.0 25.3 27.8 31.6 45.5 | 41.1] 18.2] 41.9 38.4
19133) 4 d0-23- 20.8 24.7 19.8 23.1 eal 31.8 44.0 | 20.0} 20.7} 22.1 25.0
1914....do.... Neo 13.2 16.0 12.8 15.9 22.6 25.0 15.6 16.1 13.0 10.0
Average.... 18.2 22.2 26.3 20. 4 20. 4 28.7 38.2 | 25.6 18.3 25. 7 24.5
Crop value, cost,
etc.:
Walue.......] $5.46 | $6.66 | $7.89 | $6.12 | $6.12 | $8.61 | $11.46 |......-|.......]..-...-|--.-.2-
Costes esess 6.31 5. 84 4.50 5.30 6. 92 14.36 INRA be ase Seibbsesaalbascsesibocsosa
Profit or
loss...--] — .85 - 82 3.39 .82 | — .80 | —5.75 AA Rene et GMs oe esopiccicl acoseoc

1In 1911 brome-grass and clover did not come up, so these plats were summer tilled, and, therefore,
the yields are not figured in these tables.

26 BULLETIN 218, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Subsoiling and listing show small increases over similar stubble
fall plowed.

The shortness of the record and the inconsistency among the yields
make it unsafe to base conclusions on such small differences.

When cost of production is considered in connection with yields it
is seen that the only things that stand clearly by themselves are
disked corn ground, with an average profit of $3.39 per acre, and the
use of green manure, with a loss of $5.75. The other methods as
grouped here show either losses or gains so small as to be subject to
changes in their relative positions by a single crop.

NORTH PLATTE FIELD STATION.

The work here presented is conducted on the table-land of the
North Platte Field Station. The soil is of the type generally known
as loess. With the exception of the humus accumulated near the
surface, it is practically uniform to great depths. The storage and
use of water is unlimited by the depth of the soil or any peculiarities
init. The-development of roots is limited only by the physiological
character of the crops grown and the available moisture. It is a
soil on which a maximum of results from tillage methods would be
expected.

The North Platte Field Station presents for study the records of
eight years. In three of these years the production has been good,
in three it has been poor, and in two years the crop has been a
failure.

Spring-plowed wheat stubble has given better results than fall
plowing in five of the six years that have produced crops, but the
great difference in favor of fall plowing in 1908 reduces the average
gain from spring plowing to less than 2 bushels per acre.

On the plats continuously cropped to oats fall plowing has given
better results than spring plowing in four of the six years, the average
advantage in favor of it being more than 4 bushels per acre. The
spring-plowed plat following oats is the only one in the series that
is given shallow plowing.

Fall plowing oats after oats has been consistently better than after
wheat, while with spring plowing the reverse has been the case.
The poorest yields have been obtained following alfalfa and brome-
erass. These two crops exhaust the available soil moisture and leave
the following crop entirely dependent upon seasonal rainfall. Oats
following them have usually been the first to suffer from drought.

Disked corn ground shows about the same average yields of oats
as the crop raised after small grains.

Oats following green manure show a small increase in average
yields over all other methods except that of summer tillage. Little

{

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA,

27

difference is to be observed between the results following the use of

peas and of rye for

this purpose.

Taste XIII.— Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the North
Platte Field Station, 1907 to 1914, inclusive.

Number
Treatment and previous crop. of plats | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.
averaged.
Fall plowed:
WA Ca Sees eeins « torcs asic 4 | 30.9 | 61.0] 24.4 1.3 0} 9.7 0; 7.9 177)
OPIS 3.6 SEAS OS e ae ee 1 | 36.0 | 68.5 | 24.1] 11.9 0 | 10.6 0} 14.7 20.7
aloe essen ee csiniceinise 1 | 23.1 | 49.1] 20.0] 6.6 0} 14.7 0 | 10.0 15.4
Total or average......---- 6 | 30.5 | 60.2} 23.6 | 7.9 |...--- LON | pees 9.4 17.8
Spring plowed:
\LIGRiT osencedoceoooEeassadd 2| 34.5 | 47.7 | 32.8 | 12.5 0 | 18.6 0] 9.1 19.4
Maisie Sebel 1 | 30.0 | 34.4 | 31.3 | 11.3 0} 18.7 0| 5.0 16.3
BOTs sae sees e nica eaek's 2 | 34.6 | 54.3 | 31.3 | 12.2 0} 14.4 Oy} Os 19.6
OLEH Tele We ctsisfasie ain\eiclare 1} 30.0} 45.0] 28.8} 8.1 0 | 12.5 0) 7.8 16.5
Total or average......---- 6 | 33.0 | 47.2 | 31.4 | 11.5 }_...-- LOS 2 eee 8.4 18.5
Sod breaking:
JAN ENE a eae oer ae 1/ 24.0 | 36.8] 14.4] 2.5 0} 12.5 0| 7.2 12.2
IBTOMIE-ETASS 2 Nc) s'- 2 ces see - 1 | 22.2) 40.0} 16.6} 4.7 0} 7.2 OF 526 12.0
Total or average......---- 2231 Boe 4iowon|s> ot) ee sees BO ser eee 6.4 12.1
Disked=iCOrlsesin acess aes 1 | 40.6 | 53.4 | 22.5 | 11.9 0| 6.6 OF As 17.9
Green manured:
RyiC mem tiaras Seicisie icin sein ie 2 | 30.5 | 73.8 |@32.5 | 16.4 0} 10.3 0 | 10.0 Dilan
12GES 6 Coc ancor adesedooSUeaoT 2| 28.5 | 75.8 | 34.8 | 14.6 0 | 13.8 Ol. Os 22.2
Total or average........-- 4} 29.5 | 74.8 | 34.0 | 15.5 |....-. 1B) eeu Le 9.9 22.0
Summer tilled........2.--.2-2-- 4| 34.3 | 87.1 | 37.3|26.2| 0] 19.6] 0] 14.9 27.4
Average of all 36 plats.....)..-.--.--- 31.4 | 61.8 | 28.4 | 13.1 |....-- SSF Thi| see ass 9.8 19.8
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF COST.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, Es Fe lea « ee
(average per acre). a pring . reen |Summer ma Sor-
plowed | plowed a aa manured| tilled (2 a) iG OnE) grain ghum
(6 plats).}(6 plats). peal) (4 plats).|(4 plats). Pp -|Merdes *\(9 plats).| (1 plat).
Yields of grain:
1907. . bushels. - 30.5 33.0 40.6 29.5 34.3 23.1 36.6 31.3 30.0
1908....--. do.... 60. 2 47,2 53. 4 74.8 87.1 38. 4 54.0 54.6 45.0
1909....-- dome 23.6 31.4 22.5 34.0 37.3 15.5 28.3 26.5 28.8
LOOSE 25: do. 7.9 11.5 11.9 15.5 26.2 3.6 Peal 9.3 8.1
AONE ES. do. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
ONZE do. 10.7 16.2 6.6 12.0 19.6 9.9 11.8 13.3 LORD)
a Ke any ee do. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
19142 ss: do. 9.4 8.4 7.8 9.9 14.9 6.4 9.1 8.8 7.8
Average...... 17.8 18.5 17.9 22.0 27.4 12.1 19.0 18.0 16.5
Crop value, cost of
production, etc.:
Wialite2 ceraeeris: $5. 34 $5.55 $5.37 $6. 60 bys ea llsoncour cellancmeceacllocaueoceslocorscoos
Costiene. see 6. 31 5. 84 4.50 14. 36 US aye ee ee AR eal ber eee eee Shas
Profit orloss..|. — .97| — .29 297. |. —RTON Re? Bh03 WEED TE S| SS po a ek aE aera

The heaviest yields have been those following
exceeded only by disked corn ground in 1908.

@ Only 1 plat in 1909.

But when the

summer tillage,

cost of

28 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

production is taken into consideration, as in the last part of Table
XII, it is shown that the average increase in production due to sum-
mer tillage has not been sufficient to pay for its increased cost as
compared with several other methods. It shows a loss of $3.03 per
acre. Disked corn ground with its smaller yield shows an average
profit of 87 cents per acre. Spring and fall plowing with about the
same yields as disked corn ground have just about paid expenses.
The use of green manure, with a high production cost and an average
yield of only 22 bushels per acre, has resulted in an average loss of
$7.76 per acre. ;
AKRON FIELD STATION, COLO.

The soil of tne field-station farm at Akron, Colo., is of a clay-loam
type, locally known as “tight land.” It is characterized in the
native vegetation by a growth of short grass. As it carries in each
unit section a considerable supply of water, and as it offers no phys-
ical resistance to the development of roots, it is possible to store in
it a large quantity of water available to a crop. It is a soil on which
maximum results would be expected by practicing methods of tillage
calculated to store water.

Of the six years offered for study from this station, two years have
been productive of good crops of oats, two of light crops, and two
of poor. ‘They do not show in their average a very wide range
in yields as a result of different cultural or cropping practices. The
heaylest yields have followed summer tillage, which has given an
average for the six years of 28.7 bushels per acre. The next highest
yield, 25.3 bushels per acre, has been from spring-plowed corn
ground. This has been only 1 bushel per acre more in its yield than
spring-plowed wheat stubble.

Green manuring has barely maintained yields as high as those
from land on which a crop of grain was harvested.

Disked land shows a strong advantage in its yields of oats in favor
of corn as a preceding crop, as compared with the use of sorghum,
milo, and kafir as preceding crops.

The poorest yields of oats have been obtained following alfalfa
and brome-grass sods and on disked sorghum land.

Oats following wheat have been better by both spring and fall
plowing than oats following oats.

The relative merits of fall and spring plowing appear to be depend-
ent on the season, but the average of the seasons under study is
slightly in favor of spring plowing.

Subsoiling, when compared with plowing at the same time without
subsoiling, has been done at the expense of sharp reductions in yield.

Furrowing with a lister and leaving the ground rough through the
winter has produced slightly greater average yields than plowing
similar stubble either in the fall or spring.

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 29

Taste XIV.— Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Akron
Field Station, 1909 to 1914, incluswe.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Number
Mreahment,anGs previous ccop.||"Oupiats, |______ = OE ee
averaged.| i999 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed:
WH OAiieo S22 s-ceesceccostet 3 19.3 14,1 10.5 47.7 7.6 35.5 22.5
OATS ne 2 Re Se 1 14.1 8.0 15.9 46.9 -6 36.9 20. 4
i520 Gh/ 8 See Oe ee ee 1 20. 8 10.2 15.9 37.2 6 39.1 20.6
Total or average ...------.- 5 18.6 12.1 12.7 45. 4 4.8 36.5 PANS? /
Spring plowed:
Wier as mo - 28 oe 5 a - 1 18.3 14.8 Ie ¢/ 46.9 16.6 7.5 24.3
Oatsaee. ee nee osceese Lh ek 1 21.1 10.9 4.3 41.9 6.6 39. 4 20. 7
CG) rte Se ene 2 21.6 20.8 | 5.3 49.6 5.0 49.4 25.3
Total or average.........-- 4 20.6| 16.8 4,2 47.0 8.3 46.4 23.9
Sod breaking:
JS TE SE OAL a 1 8.8 227 0 29.4 1.9 30.6 12.2
IBTOMIG-PTASS....- = 22-22-2222. 1 20. 2 2.2 0 27.5 1.6 35. 0 14.4
Total or average..........-. 2 14.5 2.5 0 28.5 1.8 32.8 13.4
Sabpsaeds Oats: .- 22. - 5. =.=... 1 16.1 11.3 8.4 35.3 0 30.3 16.9
ISLC NOBUS a2 - hoo corse eee 1 15.6 11.1 5.3 54.7 3.6 40.9 21.9
Disked:
(CRS s SSan¢ Se eee a eee Uf 20.9 18.2 4 38.5 163: 48.5 22.3
SUG TST 5a nee oes 1 16.1 5.0 0 25.0 1.9 37.8 14.3
ME GP ee cote ota = as ee 2 15.7 12.2 0 41.9 7.2 40.7 19.6
LAST e Ss el a a 2 14.6 6.7 0 40.3 5.5 40.5 17.9
Total or average..........- 12 18.6 14.2 2 38. 2 6.5 45.0 20.5
Green manured:
IV Oeemmrceaicns oe eccerweccsee 1 21.0 20. 0 2.7 38. 4 5.0 44,4 21.9
IPR ASMe emesis lott eee fk 1 22.0 11.9 0 38. 4 12 38. 1 18.6
Sweet clover.........--.--..- 1 13.0 5. 2 3.9 45.8 5.0 41.6 1958
Total or average........--- 3 18.7 | 12.4 2.2 40.9 3.7 41.4 19.9
Summer tilled. .............22.-. 3} 239| i721] 71) 564| 165) 45.9 28.7
Average of all 31 plats......|....-....-. 19.4 13.3 4.0 42.3 6.6 42.2 21.3
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST oF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
io} Lo uo} 5 a qd z =>
mio eS oS) S| eee | ee le le | 2
ete. (average| 2 | SG ~|s er Be || 5 a eS | 1S: =
peracre). | G5 | ‘Sa | 52 | os | BS [donl ps |B | & | 3] &@ | Be] S
a | Ve | & |) 2 ra | or, | 2 eee ies |) S| iy | Se |) a jes
ees | as na | 2 2 OFS tas fH | 3a] o | tw a
Bie |e | ae a 3 aieli || eye bags Se isla itee |e vi
= mn A A n o n nD oO ln a |m =|
Yields of grain:
1909..bush.-| 18.6} 20.6} 18.6] 15.6] 16.1 TS7 j28-9 | 14.55) 201 |) 1852) 15271) 16.0 14.6
1910..do..-.} 12.1 16.8} 14.2] 111] 11.3] 12.4 17.1 Qed s | 18k, el2et 1225) 530 6.7
1911..do....| 12.7 4.2 72 5.3 8.4 2.2 ea) staal | hal pa 0 0
1912..do..-.| 45.4 | 47.0] 38.2) 54.7] 35.3| 40.9] 56.4 | 28.5 | 40.9 | 45.1 | 41.9 | 25.0] 40.3
1913..do.-.-| 4.8 8.3 6.5 3.6 0 SAM eOsan | ela 2Ono01) Ox) ll ideale eo 5.5
1914..do....} 36.5 | 46.4] 45.0] 40.9] 30.3] 41.4] 45.9 | 32.8 | 48.7 | 37.9 | 40.7 | 37.8] 40.5
Average..| 21.7} 23.9] 20.5] 21.9] 16.9] 19.9] 28.7] 18.4 | 23.0 | 21.4 | 19.6 |14.3| 17.9
Crop. value,
cost, etc.:
Value... ....| $6.51 | $7.17 | $6.15 | $6.57 | $5.07 | $5.97 | $8.61
(Gas[iaee nee 6.31 | 5.84] 4.50} 5.30] 6.92 | 14.36 | 11.25
Profit or

loss....- Bootie 33 eae asi || 0.95 | -suranieeoged cd ml ell a es SIL a ee

30 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

When the value of the average crop is studied in connection with
the cost of its production, as in the last part of Table XIV, less differ-
ence is perhaps found in the resulting profits or losses than in the
yields themselves. To this statement should be excepted green
manuring, which has not been productive of increases in yields at
all commensurate with their cost. The use of this method has been
responsible for an average loss of $8.39 per acre.

Profits and losses by all other methods come within a range of
about $2 per acre. These differences are not sufficient to warrant
strong recommendation of any particular method as essentially better
than others. The indications of the evidence at hand are that the
growth of oats will about pay for the use of land and for labor and
other expenses incurred in their growth.

HAYS FIELD STATION.

The soil on which the experimental work has been conducted at
the station at Hays, Kans., is a heavy silt loam. It carries a large
supply of water available to a crop. Penetration to the lower depth,
however, is slow. The very compact zone in the third foot offers
marked resistance both to the downward passage of water and to
the development of roots. While the evidence is not as complete
as might be desired, 1t appears that the proportion of water that can
be stored in this soil is somewhat above the average.

The work at Hays was started in 1906. The crop that year was
raised on land uniform for all plats. The crop of 1907 was largely
destroyed by the green bug (spring-grain aphis); hence, it is not
included in the table. The crop of 1909 was entirely destroyed by
hail and is not included in computing average yields. Its inclusion
would only serve to reduce the averages, and reduce the differences
obtained from cultural conditions in other years. The crop of 1911
is included in computing the averages as its failure was due to drought.
Oats after wheat on both fall-plowed and spring-plowed land have
been better than where oats followed oats.

Fall plowing of both wheat and oat stubble has been better for the
production of oats than spring plowing of similar stubble.

The yields given for oats following sod land, both breme-grass and
alfalfa, are comparatively high. They are, however, misleading and
should not be given weight as a measure of the producing value of sod
at this station, as there never has been in this work a heavy or well-
established sod to break up.

The plat subsoiled and the one listed have both been continuously
cropped to oats. They should be compared directly with the oats
following oats on fall-plowed land. While there is little difference
between the results of either subsoiling or listing, both have produced
higher yields than plowing in either the fall or spring.

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. bl

TaBLeE XV.— Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Hays Field
Station, 1908 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Number
Treatment and previous crop. of Bits
averaged.) 190g | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed:
LID SPE Se a sR 3 | 23.8 )) @ 25.3 | 0 44.3 | 9.8 | 29.2 22a
OBS. DS hee oot ase eas Saas ates 1 Be | () 16.6 | 0 37.7 | 10.6 | 27.0 15.9
BEconiat enya one ne eee aie, SEES 1 | 35.5] @) | 30:2} 0 25.6) |) 8. 1 | 2952 21.4
Total or average.-..------.--.--- 5 | 22: de eee AND) |Bizrares e 3952) 956 | 28:77 20.7
Spring plowed:
VV LIS RipS 2. Dek SSE ee eS e eeee 1G) 26: OnanG 36.6] 0 19501) +622 |§ 22.3 18. 4
OetiSeere ae eeme t becker te oe it 135 @) 11.3) (0 35.2 | 3.3 120.8 12.0
COiTr a SE ee ne ee 2) 17.2 1) | 32.0) 0 36.4.) 11731623; 2 20.0
Total or average-..-..-..- Reese 45) 15) 4a BS (igmaces 31.8] 8. 22. 4 17.6
Sod breaking:
BAUIT ONT eemee ra sia re scenes IPE (8) eve G) lt 30.5 | 4.5 | 25.9 20. 2
IBROMIORET ASS ese oe eee eam 1| 30.1) @) |364] 0 | 33.5] 5.1} 25.8 21.8
Rotalion averagcenss- 5.5.5 ssce2 - 3" 25265 3) eee B40) eesocc 32.0 | 4.8 | 25.9 21.0
Swpsonedte Oats 64: Sees eae 1 | 17.9 @) | 24.5 | 0 45.1 | 21.8 | 26.6 22.7
DIST COmm OCS ee So CEES a ala aace we Scie To 2850) es L720) |) 10 47.6 | 15.3 | 29. 7 22.9
Disked:
Clamals 55 See igs Bees eareeea seers 1) 16.3}; @) | 16.9] 0 39.0 | 13.0 | 30.6 19:3
SOGSMIIM pee eee Seite ie Eeyore eee 1} 22.1 | @) | 36.2) 0 27.2 | 17.6 | 29. 1 22.0
Total or average Cee 20s sey 2 19525 eee AD agen a So. Lt | 15.3 129.9 20. 7
Simmienshilledsien ss, c) cess eee 2) 16.29) @, 285") 3.7 4a i) 3083" 33! 0 24.8
Averace ovalll 7 platsen > sc. 252|5 asec 20.1 |-----.| 26.6 4 | 37.0 } 12.8 | 27.5 20. 7
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, ete. (ayer-| p47) Sori Sum-
z ; oF) pring «re ie _ | Small
age per acre). plowed| plowed aed Thais Sub BSE Sod (2 Corn | Sor erain
5 (4 2 (1 plat) soiled | tilled Jats) ( ghum 9
lats). | plats). | Plats)- Pit) plat).| (2 | P8"S?-| plats).| (1 Jats)
Pp > |p plats). plat). IES)
Yields of grain:
1908. . ....-bushels. . 22.1 15.4 19. 2 28. 0 17.9 16.2} 26.3 16.9 | 22.1 Oo. 4
USO) 2 cys ac G@--2-) ©) () (*) () () () (7) (t) (1) @)
INO) Senses do 4.5 28. 0 26.6 17 0 24.5 24°51 37.0!) 26:59) ) 36:52 3.6
HOU EY eek 4 do 0 0 0 0 0 3. 0 0 0 0
ICS eee do 39. 2 31.8 3. 1 47.6 45.1 41.1 32.0 | 37.3] 27.2 38. 1
TCI hea do 9.6 8.0 15.3 15.3 21.8 30.3 4.8 |) 11.9 17.6 10.5
OWA eu a do 28.7 22. 4 29.9 29.7 26.6 33-0) 25.95| 25.7 |) 2951 27.0
Average........... 20. 7 17.6 20. 7 22.9 22.7 24.8 | 21.0 19.8 | 22.0 19.9
Crop value, cost of pro-
duction, etc.:
Wiel Re een its SOR ZI ee Son28) GOs 20 || PONSMMal iM Os Sle li G44 Be reyes ares ee yaa ayer
Coste eee aie | 6.31 5. 84 4.50 5. 80 6. 92 N25: [ is Rees pee Ee Se he
Profit or loss... .-- — .10 | — .56 15 7Al LOM oll bel | Bi Bd eS Se ale cee esl ele see eae

1 Destroyed by hail. _

32 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Corn ground, either spring plowed or disked, has not produced as
good crops of oats as wheat stubble plowed in the fall. The yield
from disked sorghum ground has been slightly better than from disked
corn ground.

Summer tillage has a slightly higher average than any other method
of preparation for oats. The increase in yield, however, over other
methods is small.

Differences in average yields from different methods have been so
small that the cost of production is the determining factor in profits
or losses.

Disked land and listed land, owing to fair average yields and low
cost of production, have shown profits.

Fall plowing, spring plowing, and subsoiling have produced crops
just about sufficient to pay for their cost.

Summer tillage is debited with a loss of $3.81 per acre.

GARDEN CITY FIELD STATION.

The work at Garden City, Kans., is ona high upland. Thesoilis a
light silt loam. With the exception of the accumulated humus near
the surface, it is practically uniform to a depth of at least 15 feet.
The development of roots is hmited only to the depth te which water
is available and by the physiological character of the crop. The
light character of the soil, however, makes it possible to store in each
unit of it only a comparatively smali proportion of water. This is
not entirely overcome by the depth of soil. The results in storing
water have been determined largely by the limited quantity available
for storage. Inno year under any method practiced has the soil been
filled with water to as great a depth as it is possible for the crop to
develop roots and to use available water.

During the six years covered by the production of oats at this
station, two years have been total failures, one from drought and
one from hail. In 1912 and 1914 sufficient grain was produced to
offer some encouragement to the growing of this crop. The produc-
tion during the other two years was very light.

The chief value in presenting these records is to show that oats are
not weil enough adapted to prevailing conditions and yield too poorly
to justify their growth on any considerable area. Under such
circumstances, oats should give way to crops better adapted to this
region.

The highest average yields of oats have been obtained on summer-
tilled land and on listed land, which produced. an average of 12.8
bushels per acre. :

None of the yields have been large enough to pay for cost of produc-
tion and, in general, the more expensive the method the greater the
loss resulting from its practice.

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA.

338

Taste XVI.— Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Garden
City Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

: Number
Treatment and previous crop. of plats
averaged.) i999 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.
=
Fall plowed:
ee i] 23] BS] 8] B8p | Ra) ks
LSE Eee eau hice othe 2 0 c i 4
Baler ses ste. 545k ses 1 awit 10.6 0 29.7 @) 12.8 ilibal
Total or average..-.....-.--- 5 2.5 (1) | ae 2058 15: Se 1929 Be
Spring plowed: Fs t
WiC 2 eee ae eee 1 168} 7.2 0 21.9 Qe iease eee 7.6
Onis. pcceee Ease eee 1 1.0 5.3 0 8.8 (1) 2.2 3.5
SAUTE 2 ge ae ee ee 2 es. 1 | aes 0} 22.9 pecan 8.4
Total or average-.--.-.---.- 4 2.1 GE Sales en oe: OS 1 | eeteererret 2.2 6.0
Subsoiled: Oats.............-.--- 1] 26| 100 o} 15.9] () teh 9.2
NGS RO ALS seers meas a2 5S -joeke 1 2.2 11.6 0 27.8 (2) 22. 2 12.8
ii 9.3 0 21.8 ie Ee , 9.0
0 fps) 0 8.8 (Oy) elesacesce 4.1
-6 So, 0 28.0 (CO eal iesccoes 8.6
gy 5.5 0 27.1 Qiee le eee: 8.5
Total or average..-..------- 13 1.2 SHOW ee ata ce pes 3) || ease be 12. 2 8.8
Green manure:
LATE o eS eee eRe ae nen 1 1.5 12.8 0 20. 2 @) 10.5 9.0
CAS Meee iars See ae seeesiaee 3 1 9 12.8 0 22.5 (Cy eet eaiasene 9.1
Total or average.........--- 2 1.2 172.13), 5S See DARTAD Pear 10.5 9.2
Summer tilled..................-- 3| 46| 162 Oy 25.811) 7G} 17.2 12.8
Average of all 28 plats_--..- | BOSS ees 2.0 9.2 0 22400 seer 13.1 9.3
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
> g | g g >
2 a fh ah Z
: 3 a : ~ a s 2
Yields, values,ete.,| wy a i 3 =f & : a =
(average per acre). 19 a S a Zi ‘ % a a 3 é 8
or ro) rs =, A = 2 aS) S [or >S ZB
ong Meee oe ace an Nene || Eira lass on] eoted Bish Wl lererel Reena (oe
E iS a aa rs a = |e Ae =p lace lls
Se eee aa | es Sa ee 5 Se Sepa) eT CS
aS iz (3) Zo fo) q a = = a wv
Saleen bes || See Ee. ei ec ine
— = f=} HH =] m i
& A A 4 a) (S) a) s) n B =| a2)
Yields of grain:
1909... bushels. . 225 2k 152 22 2.6 ee) 4.6 1.8 PGA) (V) 0 1.2
Seen ic 8.0 6.8 8.0 11.6 10.0 12.8 16.2! 89) 8.2 ee 5.7 5.5
HOU eee Oz 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1!) Dae do. 20.8 19.1 | 22.5) 27.8 15.9 21.4 | 25.8 | 22.0} 19.8] 8.8} 28.0 27.1
1913...... O@sceq) (Y) @) @) @) () () () () () @ (1) ()
19i4......do....| 12.2] 2.2| 12.2] 22.2| 17.3] 10.5| 17.2|122)128| @) | @ | @
Average...... a7| 60| 88| 128| 92) 92] 128/ 90 [See AS Gs | BE
Crop value, cost, |
ete.: |
We See $2361 [S12 80) $2. 64} $3.84 | $2. 7Gclees2s.76 | $3:84 | S25 -2|b2 22-25-22 -|ooesacleecss-
COS eas. 25-52 6.31] 5.84) 4.50} 5.30] 6.92) 14.36 | 11.25 pee Cee ee eee eee
NGOS a2 23, S52 —8.70 |—4. 04 |—1.86 |-1.46 |—-4. 16 im. GOs = 7 Al |e 3 [Ease ee |e ae
|

1 Destroyed by hail.

2 Discontinued.

34

DALHART FIELD STATION.

BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The soil at Dalhart is a sandy loam. In some respects it behaves

like sand.

In other respects it exhibits the characteristics of a heavy

clay soil. Its water-holding capacity is comparatively limited.
The crops appear, however, to be able to utilize its water to the
depth of a normal development.

Taste XVII.—Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Dalhart
Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Treatment and previous crop.

Fall plowed:
Wilheat Seer os saree ates ee tenetee

CAT Si Seocosier teen

Total or average.......----

Sod breaking:
PARENT arse a obey erarclclc ereteia/ae take
Total or average.......----

isteds Oats a. es eens eae

Total or average..-....----

Green manured:

Total or average........---

Summer tilled.....-----------..-

Average of all 27 plats....-.-.|--.--

Number
of plats
averaged.

Yield per acre (bushels).

1 Destroyed by hail.

1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 | Average.
3 0 (1) 0 (4) 0 15.8 4.0
1 0 (1) 0 (2) 0 26. 4 6.6
1 0 1) 0 0 16. 2 4.1
i sSaberca booconda Ws senoas || Saban saclossnenae 18. 0 4.5
1 0 (1) 0 (4) 0 13.7 3.4
1 0 @) 0 () 0 14.3 3.6
2 0 @) 0 OQ btoscese Q
Aco caer te orm ela Claire ane over cecil ey a 14.0 3.5
1 5.9 (1) 0 (4) Oo Wsessoone 2.0
1 0 (@) 0 () Oo Wessesnse 0
2 S40) llosseecod losccasaclousbedscissocuceccllosocns se 1.0
1 0 (@) 0 (4) 0 23. 4 5.9
6 0 (1) 0 (>) 0 4.2
1 0 (1) 0 (@) 0 3.8
2 0 () 0 () 0 0
2 0 (1) 0 () 0 0
DD loro oaa cat eine ioill aac cteealesereetleeeeee se 15.9 | 4.0
1 0 (1) 0 (1) OQ |issnacuse 0
1 0 () 0 () 250 peer off
7) ao pemacac| odacwacd Epodaass lcaooceaul 150 [es c0555- .3
3 12. 1 Millet cirlees () 3.3 21.6 9.3
Btn ACRES} FS Bea | es Ue A el 4 18.0 5.0

Se

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 35

TasLe XVII.—Y elds and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Dalhart
Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive—Continued.

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST oF Cost.

Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
a Dilpxe
> 3 ics a Zz
B Cond Q Loon nm
Gs A . nN A . G
Yields, values, etc. roy Sy a Uo oO a a,
(average per acre). 19 J 43 zx iS = : 3 oS Y pst
= So en) E SN ae TG Ee aN sien hse
uo} = = =! s=) = te ~~ 3
o e} han! [7 q 3 S&S we q 3 8 —]
- 3 oS mo [or Ss =| Qy ay
5 a S g B be g eS a a
ec ee thee |” Sine wee ee a Seach
a) Bele) Soo] BME, Bol Ba lee les! lee Ie
eo nD a) 4 S n 1S) 7) n Rn P| ma
Yields of grain:
1909.....bushels..| 0 0 0 0 12.1] 0 0 0 3.0
----| () () @) ©) @) OY QO ey EG) Oe
eee 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(*) (1) () () C@) (®) Ol OY} yey wa ©
0 0 0 0 3.3) 0 0 0 0 0 0
WO | ASO |) a) |) PRR AEE co. 21.6) 16.7 | 15.0 | 17.7 |------|---22-|.--2--
Average...-..--- 4.5 3.5 4.0 5.9 3 9.3] 4.2] 3.8] 4.4] 1.0 0 0
Crop value, cost of
production, etc.: :
VWall0@.secescconee PLSD! | Sl Oon pl. 20) pl civ | GO: OOM R29 79) jz ete) braie metal ae wininl| eheiel= sales al| ale arate
(COS aS Ake aes Grale | ptos840'4 4250" 0-30 | T4536 mu 2d lee seal oe elon cialis see nine eee eenetee
WWOSS Pepe sisi —4.96 |—4.79 |—3.30.|—3. 53: |-14.27 |= 8246 |e. ssf 2 ole. soles soles. alee ee

1 Destroyed by hail.

Much the same work has been done with oats at Dalhart as at the
other field stations. Determined efforts have been made for six years
to grow this crop under a wide range of methods of preparation and
culture, but without success. It has been variously destroyed by hail,
drought, and soil blowing. The few crops that have been harvested
were grown on summer-tilled land, but the yields have been so low,
both actually and in comparison with other crops better adapted to
the region, as to furnish no indication of their profitable production.

The low yields and high percentage of failures of oats at this sta-
tion resulting from each and all of the various methods of tillage em-
ployed indicate little possibility of overcoming conditions by any
cultural practices. This indication is strengthened when the time
covered by these tests is considered. It can only be concluded that
the combination of soil and climatic conditions existing at this sta-
tion is not congenial to the production of oats.

The grain sorghums have produced good crops of feed every year
at this station and have made good average grain yields. As com-
pared with these crops oats has no place in the cropping system under
conditions similar to those at this station.

36 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

AMARILLO FIELD STATION.

The soil at Amarillo, Tex., is a heavy clay silt. It is of the type
locally known as “‘ tight land” or “short-grass land.” While the evi-
dence is not as complete as could be desired, it appears that the storage
of water and the development of the feeding roots of the crop are
interfered with by a comparatively impervious layer of soil in the
third foot. The soil above this, however, is competent to take care
of all the water that it has been possible to store, even under a system
of alternate cropping.

The results of six years are available from Amarillo. The year
1910 was lost by reason of an enforced change in the location of the
station. In three of the six years yields have been fair and in three
they have been very poor.

Only one method of preparation—summer tillage—has departed
very far in its results from the general average. The average yield
by this method has been 27.6 bushels per acre. The extreme range
in the average of all other methods is from 13.2 bushels on spring-
plowed wheat stubble to 18.4 bushels on peas as green manure and
on fall plowing after barley. There is little profit in discussing differ-
ences within so narrow a range of yields.

It may be noted that fall plowing of either wheat or oat stubble
has been better than spring plowing of either. Subsoiling has not
been productive of yields as high as those by fall plowing similar
stubble. Furrowing with a lister and leaving the ground rough
through the winter has been practically as good as plowing.

Disking corn ground has given about the same results as plowing
it. Disked milo and kafir ground have given markedly poorer results
than corn ground.

The yields following green manure have corresponded closely to
those following a harvested crop rather than to those following sum-
mer tillage. |

When the cost of production is considered in connection with the
value of the average crops produced by different methods, it is seen
that the more expensive methods—summer tillage, subsoiling, and
green manuring—have been the cause of losses ranging from $2.39
to $9.17. Fall plowing, spring plowing, and listing also show small
losses. The low cost of preparation of disked land has resulted in its
showing a profit of $0.24 per acre.

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 37

TasLe XVIII.— Yields and cost of production of oats by different methods at the Ama-
rillo Field Station, 1909 to 1914, incluswe.

Numb Yield per acre (bushels).
Treatment and previous onplats
crop.
; averaged.| 1999 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed:
hentiaans Sass. eee eeees2 3 26. 7 14.3 26. 4 9.7 6.8 19.0 17. 2
OAISe eee eo oceticc = se saiseor 1 32, 2 0 27.5 14,1 2.5 30. 9 17.9
Banleyeyssiee he sae eee ae 1 3lo3 0 35. 6 Geil 7.2 26. 9 18. 4
Total or average.:......--- 5 28. 7 8.6 28. 5 10. 5 6.0 23. 0 17.6
1 23. 4 0 35. 7 9.7 3. 1 7.5 13. 2
1 20. 0 0 28. 2 9.7 0 29, 4 14.6
2 21.9 0 36. 0 17.2 1.4 21.1 16.3
Total or average.........-- 4 QE iS: ||): eee 34. 0 13.5 1.5 19.8 15.1
Subsoiled: Oats...........-...--- |) Se © iD) ON oa 15.1
MASTOG LOSS erasicis si \= oini=i- soe ce 1 29. 7 0 26. 8 11.6 6.9 26. 9 17.0
Disked: p
Connmseterrecmacecsssecs scons 6 22. 7 0 28. 7 14.3 3. 4 33. 4 17.1
WIGS a AgpacoeborreCe nen osee ee 2 19.3 0 25.9 11.9 1.9 28. 8 14.6
NEAT ee ere cleistaeein cle Soca ice ea 2 16.5 0 26. 7 8.2 1.8 26.8 13.3
Total or average...------.- 10 2018) seeeeees 27.7 12.6 2.8 31.1 15. 8
Green manure:
TyOs ma reitis ste seisiniers aia eicieisie siere 1 31.9 5. 0 18. 0 13. 8 5. 6 22. 2 16.1
Wp Cd Srafeterae (cig ele jejsteiecicis sac sis cise 1 27.5 8.4 25.9 15. 0 6.5 26.9 18. 4
Total or average...-..---.- 2 29. 7 6.7 22. 0 14. 4 6.1 24. 6 17.3
Summer tilled......---.--------- 2 32.5 24. 4 36. 2 17.7 17. 4 37.1 27.6
Average of all 25 plats.....-|.-.-..-.-- 24,8 4,2 28. 7 12.7 4.9 27. 4 17.1
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF COST.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, G S
etc. (average | Fall | Spring],,. : Sub- eee Meee Small] .,: 2
per acre). meres p eyed Brie ee oe RG d tilled a grain Milo co
5 9
lats). lat). 2 2 lats). 1 .| pl ‘i
plats). | plats). isles). | solu) plat). a). ai) eee) plats).| P US) (BSUS)
Yields of grain:
1908 . bush. . 28. 7 21.8 20.8 29.7 28, 1 29. 7 32.5} 2255) 27.2) 1 1908 16.5
1909...do..- 8. 6 0 0 0 0 6. 7 24, 4 0 4.8 0 0
1911...do... 28.5 34.0 27.7 26. 8 19. 2 22.0 36.2] 30.5] 28.0] 25.9 26. 7
1912...do... 10.5 13.5 12.6 11.6 8.8 14, 4 TC} EO) |} 110), By) Ta ©) 8. 2
UIE E ACO ese 6.0 1.5 2.8 6.9 4.1 6.1 17.4 2.9 4.9 1.9 1.8
1914...do... 23. 0 19.8 31.1 26. 9 30. 6 24. 6 37.1 | 30.3] 23.2] 28.8 26.8
Average. . 17.6 15. 1 15. 8 17.0 15.1 17.3 27.6} 16.9 16. 4 14.6 13.3
Crop value, cost
of production,
eter:
Value...... Sos2 |) p4eosn|) 474 G5. 10) | Sa oSw so: 19) $828) |e ee eel sece ocllece see eeccese
Costaeseee oe 6. 31 5. 84 4, 50 5. 30 GRO 2 Ral 423 60 eal 258 | aes |e es eens reeset
Profit or
loss..--.-- —1.03 | —1.31 2AM = S20) | — 2S OME OUT 7h | DOA A ie |e seem alleintere cise er atecie

38 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

GENERAL DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.

In the preceding pages data have been presented and briefly dis-
cussed separately for each station without reference to results at
other stations. In the following pages the data are considered
from a more general standpoint. Table XIX will assist in this study.

In this table the average yields at the several stations are grouped
under different methods of preparation. The figures here given are
taken from the tables showing details for each station.

Data in regard to yields and cost of production are also assembled
in such a way as to show the profit or loss in dollars and cents per
acre for the average crop for each method for which it has been
computed at each station.

Taste XIX.—Comparison of the average yields and profit or loss in the production of
oats by different_methods at fourteen stations in the Great Plains area.

Methods of tillage.

Number
Statement of data. of years ;
= averaged.| Fall | Spring iDisiee! Sub- Diced Green Sum-
plowed.|plowed.| -“5"©°-| soiled. |--S<¢- a5 Bee
nured. | tilled.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Yields per acre (bushels): 1

Judith Basin 2. 3Kk £27 - kee 5 49.9 Sey 49.9 49.5 53.3 54.8 58.4
SELIG] y- A828) et ea ie 2 43.4 49.2 47.2 46.1 53.0 58. 6 59. 2
AVVSUTAS HOT ers ee ae te hee 5 33.5 3652) eeecaee oeeceree 37.9 39.1 43.9
DICKSON 51s Gee ee ee eee 6 34. 4 BOO a eae eee 8 ae 47.5 44.0 49.9
Wid ge leyneeeniah Seen eae Sl Vie SPC TTZIN INI os iene iL 33.5 | 35.1 38.3
Hettinger iecssrsstesstesiet ee 3 22.8 89) 0s Se See ees 8551 22.2 32.1
iBellesWourchesass- = 4 sscee soe * 6 16.1 18.0 18.8 17.5 21.9 22.4 29.8
SCOLUS DMI arae a Cee ea aer 3 18.2 22.2 20.4 20. 4 26.3 28. 7 38.2
Northwnlatiete ss eset sneeeeee 8 17.8 DRS Dis) esatey te csc antares 17.9 22.0 27.4
oNivar eyo bye een ee ee lS pe 6 PANS Tf 23.9 21.9 16.9 20.5 19.9 28.7
IayS a5 2 es foe a he 6 20. 7 17.6 22.9 22.1 DOT: |b 24.8
Gard em Citys eee cheb ee 6 8.7 6.0 12.8 9.2 8.8 9.2 12.8
Walhanbe = Fe eh. seh eee 4 4.5 335) PAO )el| Sete ae 4.0 43) 9.3
WANMIATIO SE a ase, hee eee ee 6 17.6 155, 1 17.0 15.1 15.8 17.3 27.6

SAV ErAGOl see Seuss ccsaeeee as 5 24.4 25.8 24.1 24.7 28.3 28.7 | 34.3

Profit or loss (—) per acre:

Afitalirav isa Sse eo 5 $8. 66 $9.52 $9. 67 $7.93 | $11.49 | $2.08 $6. 27
Eumtleyeaeeeee pS acoosaoret ores 2 6. 71 8.92 8. 86 6.91 11.40 Sa22 6.51
WTI SGOT ee SR ee 5 3.74 SAO2 Ee aoc. |banetece 6.87 |— 2.63 1.92
Dickingones eee aes ee eee 6 4.01 Res Reet pte Rae aeples 9.75 |— 1.16 3.72
Hidgeley 2) eskscs Os Soe. soe ose 8 3.30 SES sh ae eon Ee od 5.55 |— 3.83 24
Hettinger aye ee ese ee 3 .53 SIGE | san ee 2 Sa 6.03 |— 7.70 | —1.62
Bellewdtiourchesee oe pacts ses 6 | —1.48 | — .44 34 | —1.67 2.07 |— 7.64 | - —2.31
Scoptsplisise ee ease es 2 Se 3 | — .85 82 82} — .80 3.39 |— 5.75 el
iNonthYPlattesaes sens ae eee Sa] =) Oe be 20 in| Se Al bees .87 |— 7.76 —3. 03
INGO. So a es ae SECO Eee 6 20 1.33 1.27 | —1.85 1.65 |— 8.39 —2. 64
(Hay Sessa eet oe oe em 6} — .10} — .56 Oe elk A |e —3.81
Garden Cityeee teres ase ener 5 | —3.70 | —4.04 | —1.46 | —4.16 | —1.86 |—11.60 —7.41
1 PSS) 0 Ys Fey renatiee eee en ags Se RNID, YR, eA 6 | —4.96 | —4.79 | —3.53 |.....--- —3.30 |—14. 27 —S8. 46
AGM ATA Oa eee ete ce Se Re 6 | —1.03 | —1.31 ; — .20 | —2.39 .24 |— 9.17 —2.97

1 The averages of columns 3, 4, 7, and 9 only are comparable.

On the whole, seasonal conditions have produced much wider
variations in yields than have been produced by differences in cul-
tivation. Some seasons are so favorable that any and all methods
give good returns at stations where oats can be successfully grown.

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 39

Other seasons have been so unfavorable at some stations that no
method of cultivation has been able to produce a crop of oats. Less
common than either of these are the seasons when there is just the
combination of factors nearly or quite to prohibit production by
some methods while allowing others to produce good crops. When
the results of a series of years are averaged together, as must be
done in a continuous agriculture, the wide differences obtained in
exceptional years tend to be ooh reduced.

ene the first thing that impresses one in viewing the average
yields from all stations 5 the much better adaptation of oats to the
northern than to the southern section of the Great Plaims. There
is an almost constant decrease in yields from the northern stations
having cooler, shorter seasons to the southern stations having warmer,
longer seasons. This decrease is about the same for the heavier yield-
ing as it is for the lighter yielding methods. This proves that there
is a lack of adaptation of the crop to the combination of soil and
climatic conditions existing at the southern stations. The fact that
all methods fail to produce even fair average yields at these stations
shows that this lack of adaptation can not be overcome by cultural
practices.

General averages for all of the stations mean little, because differ-
ences in yield obtained at one station may be balanced by differences
im an opposite direction at another station.

The division into the two general groups of fall plowing and spring
plowing is a striking example of such compensation of differences

and the resulting lack of difference in the general average. With
the trifling exception of a fraction of a bushel at Edgeley, spring
plowing at all stations north of Hays has given higher averages than
fall plowing. At Hays and the stations south of it fall plowing has
been in about an equal degree better than spring plowing. The
ereater number of stations represented in the northern group makes
the general average of averages show a small margin in favor of
spring plowing. This, however, is of no binding force or value to
those stations whose results show fall plowing to be the better prac-
tice for them.

At all stations north of North Platte disking has been productive
of higher average yields than either fall plowing or spring plowing.
At North Platte, Dalhart, and Amarillo it is between the two. At
Hays it is the same as fall plowing and higher than spring plowing,
and at Garden City it is higher than either. In the general average
of all the stations reported it has a yield of 28.3 bushels per acre,

against 25.8 bushels for sprmg plowing and 24.4 bushels for fall
plowing. The great bulk of the land disked is corn ground, as is
_ shown in detail in the tables for each station.

40 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

With the exception of a sharp decrease from subsoiling at Akron
and a similar increase from listing at Garden City, the yields from
each of these practices have not departed far from the yields of
ordinary plowing. Some of the details of departure or lack of it
have been discussed in dealing with separate stations where closer
comparisons could be drawn with exactly similar stubble.

Green manuring averaged as a group. was productive of higher
yields than either fall or spring plowing or disking corn ground at
9 of the 13 stations for which results with this method are reported.
At Dickinson this method was exceeded by disking corn ground. At
Hettinger, Akron, and Dalhart green manuring gave poorer yields
than any of the three other methods mentioned. At Amarillo this
method gave yields exceeding those by fall plowing.

Of all the methods under trial, as grouped in Table XTX, summer
tillage produced the highest yields at every station except Hettinger,
where is was exceeded only by yields on disked corn ground. Aver-
aged for all the stations, its increase of yield over fall plowing lacked
one-tentli of a bushel of being 10 bushels per acre. The greatest
departure from this general average was at Scottsbluff, where the
increase was 20 bushels per acre.

Sod breaking as a preparation for oats has very generally stood
at or near the bottom of the list, as is discussed in some detail under
each station where it has been on trial.

As values and cost of production are here figured, it is seen in Table
XIX that oats have been produced at a profit by at least one method
at all stations except Garden City and Dalhart. At two stations,
Judith Basin and Huntley, a profit has been realized by all methods.

Generally speaking, good yields have combined with low cost of
production to make disked land which has been chiefly corn ground
show the greatest profit at all stations where a profit has been realized
from any method.

At all stations where it has been tried, listing either has been more
profitable or has resulted in less loss than fall plowing.

Subsoiling has yielded a profit at two stations and a loss at six.
It can not be said, however, that it was a profitable practice at any
station, as its profits were less and its losses greater than those of fall
plowing. It should be compared with fall plowing, as it is a modifi-
cation of that method.

At all the ten stations north of Hays, except Belle Fourche and
North Platte (where the losses were 44 cents and 29 cents, respec-
tively), spring plowing was productive of profitable crops. At Hays
the average loss from it was only 56 cents per acre. At Amarillo the
loss increased to $1.31. At Garden City and Dalhart spring plowing,
in common with all other methods, shows a loss.

OATS IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. Al

At Akron, Colo., and at all North Dakota and Montana stations fall
plowing showed a profit. At Scottsbluff the nominal profits from
spring plowing were converted to nominal losses by fall plowing. At
the other stations the losses by the two methods were about the same.

The cost of green manurig was so high that at only two stations,
Judith Basin and Huntley, did it show a profit. At these stations the
profits were smailer than those by any other method. At all other
stations it either converted the profit of other methods into a loss or
was productive of the greatest loss of any method. In probably only
two or three cases has the loss been small enough to make it possible
to change it to a profit by distributing a part of the cost to following
crops.

Summer tillage as here figured shows a profit at six stations and
a loss at eight. In two cases the profits are nominal, i. e., they are
so small that changes in the average yields by extension of the rec-
ord might change their position. In no case was the profit as here
figured as great as by some other method. Except at Dalhart and
Garden City, the average losses at those stations showing a loss have
ranged from $1.62 to $3.81. Considering the fact shown in the
details from the separate field stations, it seems that as summer
tillage sometimes produced a crop when other methods failed it
might have a place in the production of oats, even though some-
what greater net profits may be obtamed in the average of a series
of years by other methods. Sureness of production, especially of
feed crops, is as important as the amount of net profit per acre,
if not more important.

A reference to the companion publication on spring wheat (Bulle-
tin 214 of the Department series) will show that the relative response
of oats to summer tillage is somewhat greater than that of spring
wheat.

CONCLUSIONS.

(1) The relatively poor adaptation of oats to the southern section
of the Great Plains can not be overcome by cultivation.

(2) Seasonal conditions cause much wider variations in yields than
can. be caused by differences in cultivation.

(3) When the results of a series of years are averaged, as must be
done in a continuous agriculture, the great differences which are
obtained only in exceptional years tend to be much reduced.

(4) At stations north of Hays, spring plowing has been generally
more productive of oats than fall plowing. At Hays and the stations
south of it fall plowing has been in about an equal degree better than
spring plowing.

(5) At Garden City and all stations north of North Platte, disking
corn ground has been productive of higher average yields of oats

42 BULLETIN 218, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

than either fall or spring plowing. At North Platte, Hays, Dalhart,
and Amarillo it yielded either the same as one of them or its place
was intermediate between the two.

(6) With the exception of a sharp decrease at Akron, the yields
by subsoiling have not departed far from those by ordinary plowing.
Tt has not been a profitable practice, as the profits by it have been
less and the losses greater than by fall plowing, of which it is a modi-
fication and with which it should be compared.

(7) At all stations where it has been tried, listing for oats has been
either more profitable or has resulted in less loss than fall plowing.

(8) Green manuring has been productive of higher yields than
either fall or spring plowing, or disking corn ground, at nine of the
_ thirteen stations from which results by it are reported. The cost of
production by this method wasso high that it showed a profit at only
two stations.

(9) Oats following summer tillage produced the highest average
yields at all stations except Hettinger, where the yield was exceeded
only by that on disked corn ground. While the expense of the
method has prevented its being the most profitable, the degree of
insurance which it affords against failure of the feed crop might
justify its practice in oat production in at least some sections of the
Great Plains.

(10) Disking corn ground yielded the highest profits of any method
tested at all stations except Garden City and Dalhart. At these two
stations the crop was produced at a loss, but this loss was less than
by any other method.

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.

AT

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V

WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1915

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 219

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. ‘June 2, 1915.

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA

RELATION OF CULTURAL METHODS
TO PRODUCTION

By

E. C. CHILCOTT, Agriculturist in Charge, and J. S. COLE
and W. W. BURR, Assistants, Office of
Dry-Land Agriculture

CONTENTS

1 | Comparison of Cultural Methods . - .
Area Covered by these Studies . . . . 3 | Results at Individual Stations . .-

Climatic Conditions 4 | General Discussion of Results ... .
General Plan of the Investigations .. 6 | Conclusions
6

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915

BULLETIN OF THE

USDEPARTMENT OPAGRICULTURE

No. 219

Contribution from te #zzeau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
June 2, 1915.

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA: RELATION OF CULTURAL
METHODS TO PRODUCTION.

By E. C. Cuttcort, Agriculiurist in Charge, and J.8. Cote and W. W. Burr, Assistants,
Office of Dry-Land Agriculture.+

CONTENTS.
Page. Page
PA GROCUE OMe aics- shes as ce ace-icee ce scssce = 1 | Comparison of cultural methods.-...-..-...-- 10
Area covered by these studies........--.---- 3 | Results at individual stations. --.-.....-.--..-- 13
Chimaticiconditionss:.- 5222.2. ---4=05s-=--=< 4 | General discussion of results.........--.----- 26
General plan of the investigations.........-. 6: | \Conenisions sec sss sec co oe eee eee eae 31
INTRODUCTION.

In planning the experimental work of the Office of Dry-Land Ag-
riculture to study methods of crop production under dry-land con-
ditions in the Great Plains, corn was given rather a prominent place.
Experience had shown that in the production of fodder it was at
least as safe a crop, and perhaps as productive, as any that could be
erown in a large part of the area. Experience had also shown that

1 All of the members of the scientific staff of the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture have contributed
more or less to this paper by having charge of field investigations and by assisting in the preparation
of datafor records or for publication. The scientific staff as at present constituted consists of the fol-
lowing members, named in the order of length of service: W. W. Burr, Denver, Colo.; E. F. Chilcott,
Woodward, Okla.; O. J. Grace, Akron, Colo.; J. S. Cole, Denver, Colo.; J. M. Stephens, Moccasin, Mont.:;
A. L. Hallsted, Hays, Kans.; 0. R. Mathews, Belle Fourche, S. Dak.; J. C. Thysell, Dickinson, N. Dak.;
M. Pfaender, Mandan, N. Dak.; H.C. McKinstry, Hettinger, N. Dak.; W. M. Osborn, North Platte, Nebr.;
W. D. Griggs, Dalhart, Tex.; C. A. Burmeister, Amarillo, Tex.; J. E. Mundell, Big Springs, Tex.; F. L.
Kelso, Ardmore, S. Dak.; W. A. Peterson, Mandan, N. Dak.; J. T. Sarvis, Ardmore, S. Dak.; G. W. Mor-
gan, Huntley, Mont.; J. H. Jacobson, Mitchell, Nebr.; H. G. Smith, Tucumcari, N. Mex.; L. N. Jensen,
Woodward, Okla.; J. G. Lill, Garden City, Kans.; R. S. Towle, Edgeley, N. Dak.; A. J. Ogaard, Williston,
N. Dak.; C. B. Brown, Dalhart, Tex.; L. D. Willey, Archer, Wyo.; J. B. Kuska, Colby, Kans.; and A. E.
Seamans, Akron, Colo.

The following-named men have held positions on the scientific staff of the Office of Dry-Land Agricul-
ture during the past nine-years, but have resigned or have been transferred to other offices of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture: Sylvester Balz, F. L. Kennard, J. E. Payne, L. E. Hazen, C. A. Jensen, H. R.
Reed, W. O. Whitcomb, C. H. Plath, F. Knorr, and R. W. Edwards.

The data here reported from the stations in Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, and Montana have been
obtained in cooperation with the agricultural experiment stations of their respective States. In South
Dakota, Colorado, Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico the stations are operated by the United States
Department of Agriculture.

Field, office, and laboratory facilities, teams, and implements have been provided by the Office of West-
ern Irrigation Agriculture at Huntley, Mont., Belle Fourche, S. Dak., and Mitchell, Nebr., and by the
Office of Cereal Investigations at Amarillo, Tex., and Archer, Wyo. The Biophysical Laboratory has
cooperated in obtaining the meteorological data reported.

Note.—This bulletin is intended for all who are interested in the agricultural possibilities of the Great
Plains area.

87563°—Bull. 219—15——1

2 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

corn growing possessed merit as a preparation of the land for a crop
of small grain. When these two factors are combined in one crop
they make its growth of double importance. Corn is the only crop
at present available that offers this advantage which at the same
time lends itself to large acreage and a general farming system.

The grain sorghums fit equally well into a farming system that
includes the production of live stock, but they are not adapted to the
whole of the Great Plains, and furthermore have not in general
shown an effect so beneficial as corn on the following crop.

Potatoes have approximately the same effect as corn upon most
crops that may follow them, but the potato crop does not lend itself
so well to growth on a large acreage.

The effect of the growth and clean cultivation of corn as compared
with summer tillage and various other methods of preparation has
been shown in bulletins simultaneously written on the growth of
spring wheat, oats, and barley in the Great Plains area. In these
publications it has been shown that the crops following corn have
consistently given high yields as compared with other methods of
preparing a seed bed for these crops. In many cases the highest
yields of small grain have been obtained on disked corn ground. In
many other cases where disked corn ground has not been productive
of the highest yields, it has so nearly approached them that when the
cost of preparation is considered it is found to be productive of the
ereatest profit. This has attached so much importance to the corn
crop that it appears to be desirable to present the actual data on the
production of corn in the different years at the different stations and
under different methods of cultivation and preparation for the crop.

While corn in most cases has been grown in preparing for other
crops and in cropping systems primarily arranged for the growth
of other crops, the necessity for studying methods of producing
the crop itself has not been overlooked. In general terms, corn
has been grown by different methods under a system of continuous
cropping. It has been grown at some stations in 2-year rotations
of alternate corn and wheat and corn and oats. It has been grown
in 3-year rotations where the other two crops were wheat and oats
or barley and oats. It has been grown in 4-year rotations with
small grains and fallow or the use of green manure. It has also
been raised as the second crop from the sod in sod rotations. In
some of the rotations manure has been applied before plowing the
ground for corn.

Some of the rotations are calculated to conserve or increase the
fertility of the soil, while others may perhaps deplete it. In the
present stage of the work the effects of the rotations as units are
greatly overshadowed by the effects of the cropping and cultivation
for a single year. This is due to the fact that the controlling factors

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 3

are water supply, physical condition of the seed bed, and a certain
recognized, although not fully understood, effect of the crop immedi-
ately preceding. Uniformity i in these Picton i is largely restored by the
cultivation or crop-
ping of asingle season.

of corn as determined
by the cropping and
treatment of the land
in only the one year
immediately preced-
ing the growth of the
crop.

In the study that
is here made only the
more important and
obvious results will be
discussed. The tables
themselves when crit-
ically studied show
much more than is
here mentioned. No
attempt is made to
study rotations as a
whole. There are
cumulative effects of
rotations and farm-

After acarefulstudy of

the data, it seemed ad- Sagrs| | |

visable to present in

this bulletin the yields cate
a Lea

Tecan DA
Re tong

Rae. somis [|
: cota
= é = h:
4 > : Ske
agate oe Sy

prt

MEXI

ing systems that are

2 om Ss
not negligible, but

which are not dis- Fig. 1—Sketch map of the Great Plains area, which includes parts of
ten States and consists of about 400,000 square miles of territory.

cussed here. Other Its western boundary is indicated by the 5,000-foot contour. The

studies have shown location of each field station within the area is shown by a dot within
a circle (@).

that these effects are

of far less immediate importance than the effect of the preceding

crop, the preparation of the seed bed, and the seasonal conditions.

AREA COVERED BY THESE STUDIES.

The area (fig. 1) included in these investigations covers a part of
ten States: Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming,
Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico:
It extends from the ninety-eighth meridian of longitude to the foot-
hills of the Rocky Mountains and from the Canadian border to the
thirty-second parallel of latitude.

4 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The altitudes vary from approximately 1,400 feet in the north
to 6,000 feet at Cheyenne, Wyo. The southern portion of the terri-
tory has a higher average altitude, a higher average rainfall, and a
correspondingly higher rate of evaporation than the northern portion.

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.

The climate of the Great Plains has been classified as semiarid.
It may be better to say that it is changeable, varying from season
to season from almost humid conditions to almost arid, with a mean
annual precipitation relatively low. Years of relatively high pre-
cipitation may be followed by years of relatively low precipitation.
Other climatic factors usually correspond with the rainfall. A
year of relatively high rainfall will have a lower rate of evaporation,
higher humidity, and lower wind velocity than will be found in the
unfavorable years. .

Another climatic factor of much importance in crop production
in the Great Plains is the distribution of the rainfall. A relatively
low rainfall, properly distributed, may produce a crop where a
much higher rainfall, coming with unfavorable distribution, may
result in a crop failure.

No attempt will be made in this bulletin to give a full description
or record of the climatic conditions at the various stations during
the time covered by these investigations.

Table I gives the maximum, minimum, and average annual and
seasonal precipitation and seasonal evaporation at each station for
the years for which experimental work is here reported. By seasonal
is meant the period between the average time of seeding and the
average time of harvesting.

Taste I.—Annual and seasonal precipitation and seasonal evaporation at fourteen
stations in the Great Plains area.*

Precipitation (inches).3 :
B ‘ ) Seasonal evaporation

Station nae Annual. Seasonal. (inches).
i TL
SS eae TN eee | sacobau PG Rpeee ee Gee (eee | Ae
mum. mum, age. mum, mum, age. mum, | Mum. age.

Judith Basin........ 4,028 | 14.96] 23.78| 18.06| 7.04| 17.21] 9.34] 22.012 | 29.353] 24.491
Huntley oes ele 3/000 | 11.92| 11.92] 11.92| 5.92] 6.02| 5.97 | 23.754 | 24.214] 23.984
Williston............ 17875] 10.28| 18.99] 14.84] 4.75| 14.49] 9.66| 20.422 | 26.877| 24.216
Dickinson........... 2/543] 11.93| 21.22] 16.69) 6.85| 16.28| 9.79 | 20.673 | 25.745 | 23.919
Edgeley............. 1,468 | 11.94| 21.95] 16.71| 7.85| 14.98) 10.11 | 18.663 | 24.893 | 21.866
Hettinger........... 2953 | 12.72| 15.68| 14.20] 8.92) 12.47] 10.36 | 21.539 | 28.239 | 24.639
Belle Fourche........ 2/950| 6.64| 17.73| 1311| 4.08] 9.78] 6.90] 26.472 | 33.750| 28.794
13.77] 18.51] 16.14] 2.53| 852] 4.69 23.804| 29.381 | 26.081

11.18| 23.01] 18.05] 6.85| 12.66| 9.45 | 28.445 | 38.168 | 32.359

14.51] 22.46] 18.298] 6.42] 13.86| 9.02] 26.064 | 35.654| 31.420

15.59 | 27.80] 21.30] 8.18| 17.97| 11.17 | 30.625 | 44.373 | 35.790

11.82] 23.58] 18.54] 2.79) 14.43| 8.65 | 34.325 | 43.510| 38.185

13.69| 16.35] 15.11] 5.09| 9.85| 8.01 | 35.459 | 41.748 | 38.988

6.

1 The years covered are the same as for the data shown in the other tables for the several stations.

2 The altitude given is for the field where the work was done and is based in most cases on that of the
nearest town. eel Re

’ The records of annual precipitation for 1914 are not included. The records of seasonal precipitation
' and evaporation for 1914 are included for all stations, being figured from May 1 to Sept. 1. Evap-
oration measurements are made from a free water surface, in a tank sunk into the soil to almost its full
depth. The water surface is kept about level with the surface of the ground,

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 5

Tn these investigations seasonal variations in climatic factors have
been of more importance in crop production than differences in
methods of tillage. This is shown by the fact that at some stations
in some years climatic conditions have been such that all methods have
resulted in practical failures in yields. In other years all methods
have given fair returns.

Figure 2 shows the earliest and latest dates of the last killing frost
in the spring, the earliest and latest dates of the first killing frost in the
fall, and the average length of the frost-free period at each station.
The heavy hatched horizontal bars represent the periods between the
average dates of the last killing frost in the spring and the first killing
frost in the fall, or the average frost-free period, the actual number of
days being also shown. The solid-line curve at the left shows the
earliest date at which the frost-free period has begun. The broken-

== APR. — = a = x a a = = a
RERUO TRE REN Cee Soa 8 S Raees gs 8 8.8 2 8 888
Veen CLT, EARTH TIE
HUNTLEY COLL TIA Ig gTOA CL LETT, Ms WL
WILLISTOVV KZ. wai VL ll Li ZH WLLL BLL
OIGHINSON
EDGELEY
HETTINGER
GELLEFOURCHE
SCOTTSBELUFF ee
NORTH PLATTE CMLL ULL LLL LIA ULL aa,
AARON OLLI ZH Ul ee.
HAYS CLL LATA LTA TILIA AA LLL LL LLL
GARDEN C/T¥ COLL LL ‘amar oceacaa
BALHART YZ LLL
Ree 5
chee pap ctla lee fee ee =

Fig. 2.—Diagram showing the average frost-iree periods and the earliest and the latest dates at which
the last killing frost in the spring and the first killing frost in the fall has occurred at fourteen stations
in the Great Plains area.

line curve at the left represents the latest date at which the last killing
frost of the spring has occurred. ‘The solid-line curve at the right
represents the earliest date and the broken-line curve at the right the
latest date at which the first killing frost of the fall has occurred.
This diagram shows clearly the increase in the length of the frost-
free period from the north to the south. The shortest average frost-
free period is 100 days at Hettinger and the longest one 194 days at
Amarillo. The length of the period free from frost is more important
in the production of corn than in the production of the small grains.
Young corn being easily injured by frost, planting must be delayed
until there is little further danger from this source. Where the
season is short the crop may be caught by frost in the fall. This
necessitates the use of short-season varieties in a portion of the Great
Plains. As a season of average length can not be depended on, the

6

BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

production of mature corn has been so uncertain at some stations as
to make the crop unprofitable if grown for grain alone.

GENERAL PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATIONS.

The method of work adopted in these investigations involved the
raising of different crops in various combinations or systems of rota-

FALLOW

<s

Oe SES
<
S
RA)
x

CORN, FR
A

CORN, SP

WHEAT FA
8

WHEAT, 0, |

WHEAT, SP.

s)

CANE, FP

: OATS, 0

BROME

OATS, FR

tions and under differ-
ent methods of culti-
vation in systems of

OATS, FP RegeZa FP OATS, FR OATS, SP. WHEAT, FP CORN, SP 5 =
Se Exetel ieee ae “ continuous cropping.
y Gorn, A | | CORN, FA | eA CORN, S2.\ { WHEAT, O. M f

GARLEY, D| (OATS, SP_| | 047s, 52 | | BRomE ost of the work has
= SS : - been done with 3-yea

CORN S.WHEAT OATS BARLEY and 4-year rotations.

:

a

SP
4

|

EEREEEE

LATE, FA
A

ALFALFA
A

d
(|
|}

FP

pees |
FR |

& IR]

Norotations of greater

ee eae ze | (72 | (242) length than six years

-pDe \-

CORN, Fal. | WHEAGFal.| | OATS Fal | [aanienral | | wanea7, | | conn S2) hove been used. Those
FaLtow | | FALLOW | Faecow | | ZaLeow feo | | wHeaZO.| of this length have

SUBSOILED
=

L/STED
=

L/ISTEO
-

SUBSOUED
é

SUBSOMED
“=

SUBSOILED
=

ALFALFA
=

LISTED
J

CLE

ULE

LISTED
F

ALFALFA
F

EEEECERLEEEEL

EL

been tried with sod
crops only.

L/STED g ea [. pea FP | (aecew a
l se | OFS: O. Te [Ze a Le) PLAT AND ROTATION OUT=

KAFIR

M/LO

WWHEA7,
2 GM.
WHEAT

WHEAT

CaaRS OSS SS GSS SK Te onlaclmals
: N vil & §

SH98 é >|] % 8

Si a | 8

WWHEAT,

2 A.
FALLOW
id
FALLOW

FALLOW

WHEAT, Gi.
2

LINES.

serve to illustrate the
general scheme and

| \a
- FP paee Ow WRYE ie RYE
| | Gi ‘ ‘é
LISTED LST60 | Wwen, Ts a WERT, | Lit fal, fee fps . s
acTram O e ary-ian
KAFIR, FP M/L0,FP CORN, FP CORN, FP ‘ CORN, FP CORN, SP. = . y
— 4 [e | [é a a -} rotation field at the
S, . .
i TE, D. aaa zn Li: 2, eee LATS: cal Pees INE Fiel d S Jere ea
LAS PEAS WRYE PE, : re
ERO ae | eee irae aaae arene
WHEAT, Za OATS, Gm | | W.WHEAT, OATS, 6M. | E
CORN, SP SSS <== == ane est stations of the Of-
[cece | eee ee: 22 pee fice of Dry-Land Agri-
BARLEY, 0 Ce [ez i [22 oi OATS, D | OATS, Dd. | Sh =)
WRYE a = =" a= == : === culture, and Is a Lg ulo=
z EE | [é | sentative one that will
| Zz | WHEAT, Gi. | WWHEAT, WWHET,

WHEAT
Zz

Hilt

WHEAT

plan of work. The
plats involved in the

HITE
UU

FALLOW
o

= work at this station

and at all of the sta-
tions are one-tenth of
anacrein size. Their
dimensions are 2 by 8
Along their larger dimension the plats are separated by
alleys 4 feet wide. Along the ends of the plats they are separated
by roads 20 feet wide. At all of the stations five crops are repre-
sented in a series of continuously cropped plats, lettered on the dia-
gram from A to G. In this group C and D are alternately cropped

Fic. 3.—Diagram of the dry-land rotation field at the Akron Field
Station. The lettering shows the cropping practiced in 1914. The
explanation of abbreviations used is as follows: D.=Disked, Fal.—
summer tilled, FP.=fall plowed, GM.=—green manured, L.—listed,
M.=manured, S.=spring plowed, SS.—subsoiled.

rods.

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 7

and summer tilled so that each year a crop is grown after summer
tillage and a plat is summer tilled for cropping the next year. The
remainder of the field is in rotations in which each plat is known by
a rotation number and letter. On the field diagram the separation
of rotations is indicated by heavy lines. The movement of the crops
in the rotation is from Z to A, and from A back to the letter that
marks the other end of the rotation.

In figure 3 the diagram is filled out to show the cropping in 1914.
The letters following the crop indicate the treatment given the
ground in preparation for the crop: SP. stands for spring plowed,
FP. for fall plowed, Fal. for summer tilled, GM. for green manured,
D. for disked, etc.

As an illustration, rotation 14 may be used: In 1914, plat A of this
4-year rotation was planted to corn on spring-plowed ground, B was
in wheat on disked corn ground, and C was in winter rye after fall
plowing. Plat D was in oats where winter rye had been turned under
the preceding year. In 1915, A will be in wheat, B in winter rye, C
in oats, and D in corn.

VARIETIES.

In these investigations no attempt was made to grow the same
variety at different stations. The aim was to select a variety well
adapted to the conditions of the station where it was grown. The
same variety has not been grown at any station during the entire
period of the investigations. When a variety was obtained that was
thought to be better adapted to local conditions than the one pre-
viously grown, a change was made.

At most of the stations, early-maturing varieties have been used.
In the northern part of the area the growing season is so short that
only very early varieties are at all safe. Increasing altitude with its
correspondingly cooler nights, or decreasing water supply, has much
the same effect as increasing latitude. At Hays, North Platte, and
Amarillo varieties are grown that are somewhat larger and later
maturing than those grown at the other stations.

DETERMINATION OF YIELDS.

The corn is harvested either when mature or when growth is
stopped by frost. It is cut with a binder and shocked in the field.
The shocks stand until cured, usually about a month. They are then
weighed and the sound corn, if any, is husked and weighed. Where
sound corn is produced, the yield as tabulated is given in bushels in
the column headed ‘‘Grain.” The column headed ‘Stover’ ! shows
the total weight when no grain is produced and the difference be-

1Jn the tables of this bulletin only the term ‘‘stover” is used, because the corn was husked whenever

marketable or whenever it was produced in sufficient quantity to warrant husking. In cases where the
yield of grain was not sufficient to warrant husking the term ‘‘fodder” would be more exact.

8 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

tween the weight of the grain and the total weight when corn is
husked. The grain weights are converted into bushels on the basis
of 70 to 75 pounds per bushel, depending upon the dryness at the
time of husking.

In some cases when the crop did not dry out or cure well the
weights have been arbitrarily reduced by the percentage estimated
or determined to be necessary to bring them to normal air dryness.
Only occasionally is it necessary to do this in the Great Plains area.

SEEDING AND STAND.

The time of planting corn at the various stations is more uniform
than the time of seeding the small grains. Small grains are usually
seeded as early as the season will permit in the southern as well as in
the northern portion of the area. This is done because the small
erain will withstand the cooler weather of the early spring and may
be able to mature in advance of drought which so frequently occurs
at about harvest time. Corn, on the other hand, requires warm
weather and a warm soil. In the southern portion of the territory,
therefore, where the growing season is longer, the usual practice is
to wait for the soil to become warm, thus delaying the planting. In
the northern part of the territory the season is so short that the
planting can not be delayed, and the planting season is advanced to
the limit of safety. This delay in the southern part and advance-
ment in the northern part tends to equalize the time of planting
throughout the territory. In the southern part of the territory the
usual date of planting is May 10 to 15; in the northern part, May 25-
to June 1, a difference of about two weeks.

At North Platte all the corn included in these studies was planted
with a lister. At all of the other stations the corn is surface planted
in rows, with the exception of one or two listed plats at each station.
To insure a uniform stand, the corn is planted thicker than it is
intended to grow and then thinned to the desired stand. This may
in some cases interfere with differences in stand that might result
from differences in seed bed, but it appears to be the only practicable
way to handle the crop in experimental work where it is desired to
eliminate as many variable factors as possible.

The thickness of the stand of corn that is finally established at
the various stations depends upon the amount of water which past
experience has shown may be expected during the growing season
and upon the expectation of producing grain. At the Judith Basin
Field Station the corn is thinned to a distance of 9 inches between
the plants. At this station there is enough available water to main-
tain a thick stand, but the growing season is so short that grain is
not matured. At the stations where the amount of available water
is less and the growing season longer, the distance between the

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 9

plants is increased until in some cases it is as much as 24 inches. It
seems possible that this distance should be made still greater at
some of the stations. é

SEED-BED PREPARATION.’

The results from different methods have been tabulated and are
here presented in such a manner as to show the effect of the crop-
ping or cultivation and preparation of the land in the one year
prior to the corn planting. The tables show the effect of plowing
for corn both in the spring and in the fall and after both corn and
small grain, the effects of listing and of subsoiling where these have
been tried, and the effect of summer tillage.

In the tables as presented, the yields reported in the columns
headed ‘‘Spring plowed, after corn’”’ are from plat A, continuously
cropped to corn. This plat is shallow spring plowed and is given a
minimum of cultivation.

The yields reported in the columns headed ‘“‘Fall plowed, after
corn” are from plats continuously cropped to corn under a system
of fall plowing and cultivation for the conservation of water both in
the fall and in the spring. Fall plowing is done as early as prac-
ticable. It is done to a good depth, the standard being set at 8
inches. The ground after plowing may be worked down or left
rough through the winter, as seems advisable. This plat at each
station is generally known in this work as continuous-corn plat B.

The yields reported after summer tillage are from two plats alter-
nately summer tilled and cropped to corn. One of the pair is in
corn and the other is summer tilled each year. These are the plats
generally known as C and D in the continuous-corn series. Summer
tillage is of the intensive type. The land lies fallow one year and
until planting time the following year. In so far as it is practicable
to do so the plat is kept free from weeds and a mulch is maintained
on it during the period between the time of harvesting the preceding
crop and the time of planting the corn. This period in some cases is
as long as 18 months. In some cases it is necessary to plow the land
more than once during this period, either tc maintain a surface
receptive to water and that will resist blowing or to prevent the
growth of weeds. The long period of summer tillage, involving the
nonproduction of a crop for one year, together with the intensive
methods practiced, have made this an expensive system of treatment.

The subsoiled plat is continuously cropped to corn. It is handled
the same as plat B except that at the time of plowing it is subsoiled,
A depth of about 14 inches is usually reached. Where the history of
the station is sufficiently long for it to have been accomplished, it
has been subsoiled two years in succession. Subsoiling was then
suspended for two years and then resumed. The plat is known as
E in the continuous-corn series.

87563°—Bull. 219—15——2

10 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The yields reported in the column headed “Listed” are also from
land continuously cropped to corn. Where the yield reported is
from one plat only, it is from a plat that receives no cultivation
before planting with the lister. Where it is given as an average of
two plats, one is disked and cultivated during the spring before
planting. All the other yields are from corn in rotations with other
crops, as designated.

No attempt is made in this bulletin to discuss the various types
of soils at the different stations. The yields show that the soils at
some stations offer very little, if any, response to differences in til-
lage methods, while other soils do respond to tillage, the response
varying from year to year with the varying combinations of climatic
factors. A brief discussion of the soils at the different stations is
given in a bulletin simultaneously prepared (Bulletin 214 of the depart-
ment series) entitled ‘‘Spring wheat in the Great Plains area: Relation
of cultural methods to production.”

COMPARISON OF CULTURAL METHODS.

The methods under study vary a great deal in the labor involved
and in the consequent cost of production. An accurate record has
been kept of all farm operations performed in pursuance of the
various methods under trial. These records have been averaged
for eight representative stations having the longest period of trial.
It is recognized that this average does not exactly represent the
requirements of any station. The amount of work required for
some methods varies with the season and with the soil. While
recognizing this, it seems more practicable to use a fixed basis for
all the stations than to try to adjust the cost for each station sepa-
rately.

Table IV gives in the columns headed ‘‘Number of operations”’
the average number of times each of the separate operations have
been performed in growing the crop. The amount of labor performed
under each of the methods was neither more nor less than that which
the man in charge believed to be necessary.

In practice it is probable that much of the corn produced in the
dry-farming section will be either siloed or fed in the bundle rather
than shelled and sold on the market. The cost of production there-
fore has been computed for the corn in the shock.

In computing the costs of the various operations a fixed wage of
$2 a day for a man and $1 a day for a horse was adopted. This
may be above or below the actual labor cost in any particular locality,
but it is believed to be a fair average and one that will afford a
profitable market to the farmer for his labor. The time required
for men and teams to cover a given acreage in the several farm opera-

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, ial

tions obviously varies with soils and other conditions. The average
shown in Table II has been determined from the actual experience
of a large number of men connected with these investigations—
experience that has extended over a wide range of conditions and
many years of time.

The factors included in the cost of production are calculated on
an acre basis for each of the separate operations performed, begin-
ning with the preparation of the land and ending with the harvesting
and shocking of the crop. To these items are added the cost of
seed, at 22 cents per acre; interest and taxes on the land investment,
calculated at 8 per cent on a valuation of $20 per acre; and the
deterioration and repairs of the binder, at 15 cents per acre. No
allowance is made for the deterioration of other farm equipment, as
it is believed that the wages assigned for men and teams are sufficient
_ to cover this item of expense.

Tasie I1.—Average cost per acre of the farm operations involved in growing corn in the
Great Plains area.

[The wage scale assumed is $2 per day for each man and $1 per day for each horse.]

Hotce a
ployed. ? Cost
Operation. D Be tom per
work. | cost. | Jor,
Men. | Horses.
Acres
PUD WEE. 2 -soscchodoscseessssecdanesedscoussceseceeeeseos2-scee 1 4 BE Sesh 2- $1. 71
his kal Oyen oes os Nose See eee n= - sie see eee 1 A SEN Si [enact .75
TEAM OWMY = 2 coc ce ec coe one cecbeeeSee sac cbse seseueseeseesessnoss 1 4 BO) 2 |sae-ee ae elif
SiSISDINTE os. ceed aoe eee Bee obeecsac oepeaseepereneeege sees sisc6 1 3 Se [Ussher 1. 43
IDWS eo Sls soe Sua eGR eae BE SEO Een es ee Pee oe ae 1 4 LS eee . 40
Cra h ini 5502 seco ee anos aR see Sec Seno -ebe se SeseEEseeeeriass 1 4 aie es ee ee 38
LIME: cose =e Jone ae 5 Seco hc Seo een HD aaa eeeeee eae aoe 1 4 TO) eee - 60
Harvesting: 5
Squirt bindine. Shy 2 ee esse sak 25 22 See eee 1 B 8 | $0.62%
HOC Kast Ope esa eae ee ae oe ee eee oe = 2 Sa eee 7 eet ete eae reel =o 1.50
HED co: Js ade Sage es eas SaaS nee E Code ee En EReEee 5255 5 Se soces4 aeapeaad beePaass 22%
Ga Wier emg iri pease s oo sete ppbSer areas Sées| pseprese bessaaee| Hecaemes 5

Table II shows the cost per acre, based upon what is considered
an average day’s work for each of the farm operations involved, at
the above-mentioned wage. The cost of production as computed
in Tables II and IV is not offered as being absolute for any locality,
either in the amount of labor required or its cost. It is recognized
that the labor cost will vary with individuality and conditions. The
cost of twine to bind an acre of corn obviously varies with the char-
acter of the crop. The assumed land value would be too low for
many sections of the Plains. The estimated cost used in the table
would be low for even an average crop in sections where heavy
yields are obtained. Recognizing these and other possible variations,
the cost shown in the tables is used simply to give a working basis
for the comparison of the results by different methods.

12 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
VALUATION OF THE CROP.

The average farm price of corn on December 1 for 10 years is given
in Table III. These data were furnished by the Bureau of Crop Esti-
mates. The four States of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska,
and Kansas were selected as representative of the most stable market
conditions within the area included in these investigations. This
table shows that the average farm price of corn on December 1
in the four States has been 51 cents per bushel for the period con-
sidered.

TasLe III.—<Average price of corn at the farm bin for 10 years in four States of the Great
Plains area.

[The quotations are given in cents per bushel. Those for the year 1914 are for the date of Nov. 1; in other
years Dec. 1 is taken as the date.]

North | South | Ne- Aver- 7, North | South | Ne- Aver:
Year. [Hakota.|Dakota braska.|2"54S-| “age, Year. |Dakota.|Dakota.| braska.|*2053S-) “ag,

1905 Sees 36 31 32 33 33 One ee 60 53 55 63 572
1906. .--- 59 29 29 32 324 |} 1912_...- 43 37 37 40 394
190feeece 60 46 4] 44 47% || 1913_...- 52 56 65 73 623
1908. ...-. 60 50 51 55 54 1914..... 60 56 60 70 614
1909..... 55 50 50 54 52%

1910S= =. 58 40 36 45 44% || Average. 52 45 46 61 51

The value of corn fodder or stover is difficult to estimate. The
average farm price of hay in North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska,
and Kansas on December 1 for the 10 years ended 1913 has been
$6.22 per ton. Very few feeding experiments are available from
which to determine the relative values of corn fodder and hay. As
a matter of experience and observation and from the best evidence
obtainable, it is believed that corn stover of the quality produced in
the dry-farming sections is worth at least two-thirds as much as hay.
This is admittedly an estimate. The stover produced in the area
covered by this bulletin varies widely in quality. In some cases it is
either immature corn or corn that failed to produce ears. In those
localities where marketable corn has been produced it is that portion
of the crop remaining after the grain has been husked. Tor the sake
of uniformity in the tables the designation ‘‘Stover” is used in all
cases.

Under the heading ‘‘Total cost of production,” in Table IV, the
costs are computed as fixed charges per acre for the crop in the shock.
Values are computed on the basis of $4 per ton for the fodder or stover
and 40 cents per bushel for the corn in the shock. The average farm
price of corn for the past 10 years as shown in Table III has been 51
cents per bushel in the bin. The use of the price of 40 cents in the
shock allows 11 cents per bushel for husking, shelling, and putting
the corn in the bin. It is believed that this is a liberal allowance.

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 13

Taste 1V.—Comparative cost per acre of producing corn by different methods.1

[Averages of data from eight stations.]

. . Total cost of pro-
Number of operations. I Cost per acre. duction.
Ss
eae g
Lo} Ht PH
Method of prepara- 4 8 a. . q ce ss
tion. oo ob = g Co ae BN Se lee
Stites un teicet ley, » |s|81o¢| 2188 age
9 iS 8b = oy 3 aah ea 3 25 |\3an'o
eval eee) ea a] 2 | 2 |88| 2 |Se me
z a id wR 2 rd q = Evlae | SSeS s
Blo aS coal msemiame: |) S/he ue alae Saleh leer
A isa] A nD S) n Au 1S) jas] = i a S
MaStedbeeeccass seaess iach. 1 1 ens ae $0.92 |$0. 22 |$0.60 |$1.14 |$1.50 |$1.60 | 5.98 | 1.50] 15
oore plowed.....-. il 1.4 ahOH eeeesee 2.40} .22) .25 | 1.14] 1.50] 1.60] 7.11 | 1.78) 17.8
all plowed....--.-- 1 1.4 I Seo 2.78} .22}) .25 | 1.14) 1.50 | 1.60 | 7.49) 1.87 18.7
Subsoiled........-.-.- 1 1.4] 11] 0.5] 3.47] .22} .25] 1.14] 1.50] 1.60] 8.18] 2.05] 20.5
Summer tilled......- Ae BeSi || aroe glee eee 6.05 | .22}) .25 | 1.14} 1.50 | 3.20 |12.36 | 3.09 | 30.9

1 This cost does not include an estimate of the cost of husking and cribbing.
2 The cost of cultivation is based on three cultivations.

RESULTS AT INDIVIDUAL STATIONS.

Tables V to XVII, inclusive, present for each station the results of
different methods of seed-bed preparation for corn. Each table pre-
sents the results for a single station. Except at stations where no
grain was produced, the yields of both grain and stover by each of the
methods studied are given for each year. The average yield of both
grain and stover is also given for the entire period of years under
study. The value of each of these is computed separately and
shown. In the line designated ‘‘Total value” the combined value of
both grain and stover is given. In the line designated ‘‘Cost”’ is given
for each method of tillage the cost of production as determined in
accordance with the explanation already made. In the last line of
the table is given the profit or loss by each method as shown by the
foregoing determinations. This is not given as being absolute, but
is shown as a basis for the comparison of different methods of pro-
ducing the corn crop and for comparing the production of corn with
other crops.

JUDITH BASIN FIELD STATION.

During the five years covered by the records of the field station at
Moccasin, Mont., in the Judith Basin, good average yields of corn
fodder have been produced. No marketable grain has been obtained.
The season is so short, and at this altitude so much cool weather pre-
vails, that corn does not ordinarily reach maturity. The growing of
corn at this station is to be considered, therefore, from the standpoint
of the production of fodder rather than of grain. Its value lies in the
possibility of increasing the number of live stock kept on the farm
rather than in its production as a cash market crop. The corn at this
station does not grow tall and coarse. It is so short that it can be
harvested with a grain binder, and it has a large proportion of leaves
to the stalk, so that it makes excellent feed.

14 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A careful study of the yields in Table V shows that the seasonal
influence is much greater than the influence of tillage. This is brought
out by the wide variation in average yields in different years and the
much smaller variation in the yields from different methods within
the same year.

Good or heavy average yields of fodder are shown by all methods,
but little consistent advantage of one method over another. The
lack of consistent differences in yield by various methods of tillage
indicates that this soil offers little response to any particular method
of seed-bed preparation for corn. This lack of response is doubtless
due to the shallowness of the soil, and has been found true thus far for
the spring-sown small grains, as well as for corn. Perhaps the chief
thing to be noted in the yields is that corn has averaged somewhat
better after corn than after small grain. Summer tillage has been
productive of yields intermediate between the two.

TasLE V.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the Judith Basin
Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Fall plowed. | Spring plowed.
Sub- Listed,| Sum-
A A soiled, after : mer
Yields, values, etc. (average per acre). After fter After fter | after corn | tilled
small small | corn
corn rain | corm grain 1 Gl a
al 8 al plat). | plat)
Deal plats)eiln oeaee plats).
Yields of stover:
AE OY? ae eee ht A tea ete nea pounds. .} 11,120 | 10,011 | 10,100 | 8,603 | 11,420 | 11,700 | 11,530
TESTO See ae On CNR ED OME LE ee es do....| 2,900] 2,385 | 2,760] 2,626] 3,650] 3,260] 3,300
TOUT REE RN Titec ERP do....| 7,000] 6,174] 7,250] 5,895| 4,780] 6,700] 3,850
TIRE ID RRR STOR elation Ae iene Syn ahs tee al ge em ae tes 1 il 1 1 1 1 1
TOUR AY OE Uh GAC Ree pounds..| 4,000] 3,683] 5,000] 4,227] 5,800] 4,450| 6,100
LODABL Seat Tg a SV, hac ah yaaa do....| 3,700] 4,122] 4,900] 4,500] 5,000] 3,800] 3,500
aACvera gee Ml) ules nical yO aie Ns ed erry ky 5,744 | 5,275 | 6,002 | 5,193 | 6,130] 5,982| 5,656
AVAIL Hs eae IGE a ray ea te ak a ates Shae aie yee $11.49 | $10.55 | $12.00 | $10.39 | $12.26 | $11.96 | $11.31
COSTS eee ea eet tne bie ete Soe eens 7.49 7.49 Vail 7.11 8.18 5. 98 12.36
Profit Ociloss dss eee Geese 4.00] 3.06] 4.89] 3.28| 4.08] 5.98} —1.05

1 The crop in 1912 was partially destroyed by hail. Some corn was produced, but the lack of uni-
formity in the yields makes it inadvisable to use the results in this table.

All methods except summer tillage have been productive of profit-
able crops. The greatest profit, $5.98 per acre, has been by the least
expensive method—listing. The next largest profit, $4.89 per acre,
has been by spring plowing after corn. Excluding summer tillage,
the small difference in the net results by different methods indicates
that the problem is one of utilization of the feed rather than of the
method of its production.

HUNTLEY FIELD STATION.

The results of two years at Huntley, Mont., are shown in Table VI.
In both years good crops of grain were produced. With the excep-
tion of subsoiling, the relative performance of different methods is

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 15

quite consistent. In 1914 the subsoiled ground apparently lacked
water to mature its crop. Greater differences have been manifested
in the yields of grain than in those of stover.

Taste VI.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the Huntley
Field Station in 1913 and 1914.

Fall plowed. Spring plowed.
Subsoiled,} Listed, Rha
OR EE RO Miia are ater tilled
9 small : small Lol 1 ole (1 plat).
Yields, values, etc. com grain corn DSH (1 plat). | (1 plat).
(average per acre). | (1 plat). |g hlatsy. | ( Plat). | (6 plats).
Se ep ele |, Bal mMey ete he 1 et ellie
Es A See). So Sill Silas Se SS
SAS Ga Sey SPS era NS ea See
Yields: Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.
TIGUIS)., Soa aaa eas 14. 8/1. 400] 19. 6)1, 350] 24. 4/1, 250) 28.8/1,553) 25. 7/2,300} 30.1)1,300) 27. 2/1, 900
TEMAS 5 Se aN 13. 2/1, 360] 19. 211,643} 19.2/1,500/ 22.9|1,707] 13.9|1,590| 22.5/1,910] 25. 0/1, 490
Average........... 14.0/1,380) 19. 41,497! 21.8])1,375) 25.2)1,654| 19.8)/1,945) 26.3]1,605] 26. 1/1, 695
Wiel tomes Se eh Soe 2 $5. 601$2. 76|$7. 761$2. 99|/$8. 72}$2. 75/10. 08/$3. 31) $7. 92/$3. 89/$10. 52/83. 21\$10. 44)#3. 39
Total value............- $8. 36 $10. 75 $11. 47 $13.39 $11. 81 $13.73 $13. 83
(COS i= aia Gk ee eee 7.49 7.49 7.11 7.11 8.18 5.98 12.36
LUCA See OO ae
Prontes eek eS . 87 3.26 4.36 6. 28 3. 63 7.75 1.47

S

Particularly in the production of grain, spring plowing has been
markedly better than fall plowing. After both fall and spring plow-
ing the yield has been better following small grain than following corn.
Subsoiling for this crop has been done only on ground continuously
cropped to corn. The yield by this method in 1914 was the lowest
of any except by the fall plowing of similar ground.

Slightly higher yields than by any other method have been obtained
by listing on ground continuously cropped to corn. Corn following
summer tillage has been productive of crops practically equal to those
on listed corn ground. On the whole, there is little choice to be made

from so short a record between the yields on summer-tilled land, listed
corn ground, and spring-plowed grain stubble.

Profits ranging from 87 cents (by fall plowing after corn and $1.47
by summer tillage) to $6.28 (by spring plowing after small grains
and $7.75 by listing after corn) have been realized. All methods
except fall plowing after corn, subsoiling after corn, and summer
tillage have shown a profit from the grain crop alone.

WILLISTON FIELD STATION.

The results of five years at Williston, N. Dak., are available for
study and are shown in Table VII. In only two of these years has
mature corn been produced. In each of these years the yield has
been very good. The yields of stover in 1912 are exceptionally high—

16 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

much higher than the stand and height would indicate. It has been
impossible, however, to detect any error in the computations.

TaBLE VII.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the Williston
Field Station, 1910 to 1914, inclusive.

Fall plowed. Spring plowed.
ee Summer tilled
Yields, values, ete.| After corn After small After corn After small (plat).
(average per acre). (1 plat). grain (4 plats). (1 plat). grain(12 plats).
Grain. | Stover. | Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.
Yields: Bu. Lbs. Bu. Lbs. Bu. Lbs. Bu. Lbs. Bu. Lbs.
TOTO RESO aL eiec al eine THO) ae 70) | eee 9560), Re aes AG U7 lk ete 4,540
TIESTO erale a | 34040) sees oase WAKA |p ieee 38560) seen ADO |sescee 4, 660
OTD te Se ee a ea ioe 11,600) |See3- 222 TRS 74803), | ee ape 137500 Nee eeae LOXOLO S| Sees 9, 420
AGUS ete at 38.3 | 7,230 14.7 | 7,608 31.5 | 6,470 25.7 6, 322 45.2 7, 280
DRO ee io ae 38.4 | 4,400 49.1 | 4,698 43.9 3, 810 44.6 4 536 42.8 3, 720
Avyerage....... 15.3 | 5,542 | 12.8] 7,143] 15.1] 5,780] 14.1] 6,537| 17.6| 5,924
Waltieg 0s Ste $6.12 | $11.08 | $5.12 | $14.29 | $6.04 | $11.56 | $5.64 | $13.07 | $7.04 | $11.85
Total value......... $17. 20 $19.41 $17.60 $18.71 ; $18.89
Coste tees mi a as 7.49 7.49 7.11 7.11 12.36
RTO eee 9.71 11.92 10.49 11.60 6.53
1

There is a lack of consistent differences in the production by differ-
ent methods from year to year and of any wide variation in the aver-
age results for the whole period of years. Marked responses to
cultural conditions indicated in certain seasons are balanced by dif-
ferent reactions in other seasons. If no marked benefit attends the
use of any method, greater freedom is left in the choice of methods.

With the values of grain and fodder and the comparative cost of
production as here computed, the corn crop shows a profit by all
methods under which it has been grown. The least profit, $6.53 per
acre, has been from summer-tilled land. Greater profits have been
realized from corn after small grain than from corn after corn. Only
small differences are exhibited in the profits realized by fall pews
and spring plowing.

A study of other crops at this station has shown them to be more
responsive than corn to differences in cultural conditions. The place
of corn in the rotation should therefore be subordinated to the m-
terest of the other crops.

The comparatively small-growing varieties of corn which are
planted in this section produce a high percentage of leaves, which
give a high value to the fodder. When grain is produced it makes
the feed all the more valuable. The production of a large supply of
good feed per acre, together with the fact shown in other studies that
corn is one of the best crops to precede small grain, should give this
crop an important place in the farm economy of this section.

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS ARBA, 17

DICKINSON FIELD STATION.

Table VIII shows the results of a study of the production of corn
at Dickinson, N. Dak., for six years, exclusive of 1912, when the crop
was destroyed by hail. Four of these years were productive of
grain, but in the other two years fodder only was produced.

Taste VIII.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the Dickinson
Field Station, 1908 to 1914, wnclusive.

Fall plowed. Spring plowed.
Summer tilled
Yields, values, etc. | After corn After small After corn After small ( plat).

(average per acre). (i plat). grain (4 plats). (1 plat). grain (16 plats).

Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. |Stover.| Grain. | Stover.

Lbs. | Bush. Lbs.

2,408} 14.5] 1,822

Wralttoe=s ee Bhs $7.96 | $4.21 | $8.24] $4.29] $8.60! $4.72 | $7.92 1 $4.82] $5.80 $3. 64

Motalivalues<---=-- $12.17 $12. 53 $13.32 $12. 74 $9. 44

COSte eae eee 7.49 7.49 ollil (edlil 12.36
Profit or loss- - 4.68 5.04 6.21 5. 63 —2.92

1 Destroyed by hail.

The point most emphasized in a comparison of the yields by differ-
ent methods is the decreased production attending the growth of
corn on summer-tilled land. The only year when yields by summer
tillage have compared favorably with those by other methods was in
1911. This was the driest year in the series shown. Corn has not
generally suffered from a lack of water at this station. No signifi-
cance attaches to the small differences to be noted between the
yields of corn following corn and of corn following small grains.

By all methods except summer tillage the grain crop alone has been
sufficient to afford a small profit. On summer-tilled land the crop
has been grown at an average loss of $2.92 when the value of both
grain and stover is considered. In the average of the six years under
study, spring plowing has given somewhat better returns than fall
plowing. The difference is not great enough, however, to be of much
practical importance.

EDGELEY FIELD STATION.
The results of eight years at Edgeley, N. Dak., are presented in

Table IX. In three of these years mature grain has been produced.
In two other years there were prospects for a good crop of grain, but

18 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

it did not mature. In the other three years but few ears set and the
yield was chiefly stover.

TaBLe IX.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the Edgeley
Field Station, 1907 to 1914, inclusive.

Fall plowed. Spring plowed.
Summer tilled
Yields, values, ete. | Aftercorn |Aftersmallgrain| Aftercorn |Aftersmallgrain (1 plat).
(average per acre). (1 plat). (5 plats). (1 plat). (20 plats).
Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.| Grain. | Stover.) Grain. | Stover.) Grain. | Stover.
Yields: Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs.
OO (Aa eS ese 0 2, 850 0 3, 200 0 1,550 0 2,261 0 1,150
GOS eee Ne 2,300 0 2,150 0 2,250 0 1,973 0 1,500
1ODG es Mane 33.3 | 2,350 29.8] 2,750 37.4 | 2,650 29.7 | 3,025 36.5 2,050
TINO Ree nie Tale 0 2, 100 (0) 1, 251 0 1, 650 0 il, 0 850
1) es Sasa 0 4,750 0 4,730 0 4,400 0 4,572 0 5,500
1912....... 0 6,250 0 6,040 0 7, 300 0 6, 382 0 6,500
19135 Lee 19.4 | 2,100 19.6 | 2,486 16.0 | 2,850 21.8 | 2,965 14.1 1, 850
TOMA ee Weare oot 3.6 | 1,610 16.5 | 3,004 5.1 | 2,380 15.9 | 3,117 3.9 3,010
Average....... 7.0 | 3,039 8.2 | 3,201 7.3 | 3,129 8.4] 3,245 6.8] 2,926
Value.....-.-: LEAL, $2.80 | $6.07 | $3.28 | $6.40 $2.92 | $6.26 | $3.36 j $6.49 | $2.72 $5.85
Total value......-.. $8. 87 $9. 68 $9.18 $9. 85 $8. 57
Coste eee wee 7.49 7.49 Toll aplelt 12. 36
Profit or loss. . 1.38 2.19 2.07 2. 74 —3. 79

On the whole, only small differences are exhibited in the yields
from different methods of preparation for the corn crop. ‘There is a
slight advantage in favor of spring plowing over fall plowing on both
corn ground and small-grain stubble. The yields of both grain and
stover were somewhat better when the corn followed small grain
than when it followed corn. The relative response to these sequences
was the same on both fall and spring plowing.

The four preparations for corn—fall and spring plowing following
corn and fall and spring plowing following small grain—rank in order
of yield obtained as follows: (1) Spring plowing on small-grain
stubble, (2) fall plowing on small-erain stubble, (3) sprmg plowing on
corn ground, and (4) fall plowing on corn ground. Average profits
ranging from $1.38 to $2.74 per acre have been realized by these
methods. The difference exhibited in the results attending the use
of these methods is not great enough to be in itself a determining
factor in the choice of rotations or in the management of the farm and
its work. Summer tillage as a preparation for corn has given poorer
results than any other method. In only one year has it been pro-
ductive of the largest crop. The average yield of both grain and
stover by this method is less than by any other method under study.
The value of the average corn crop on summer-tilled land has been
$3.79 per acre less than the cost of its production as crop values and
comparative costs are here computed.

(

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 19
BELLE FOURCHE FIELD STATION.

Table X presents the results of the work of six years with corn in
rotations and under varying tillage methods at Belle Fourche, S.
Dak. In one year, 1911, extreme drought caused a failure of all
methods under trial. In three of the six years grain was produced by
all methods. In the other two years all methods produced fodder,
but grain was produced only upon land which was summer tilled the
previous year.

Taste X.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the Belle Fourche
Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Fall plowed. Spring plowed.
Sub- :
. Listed
Mter After After alten tee eilge ted
corn small corn aa (1 plat) (1 plat). | (1 Plat)

grain ; grai
Yields, values, etc. (average (1 plat). (4 plats). (1 plat). (17 plats).

per acre).

-| Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.
- 4/4, 560] 18. 3/2, 891} 20. 8/4, 000/24. 8 |4,575) 20. 814, 860
3,560] .1/3,014] 0 |3,140| 0 3,800} 14. 8|2,500
Oo} 0 0} 0 0) 0 0} O
. 4/2, 700) 20. 2/2, 515] 26. 3/3, 100; 27.5|2, 150] 28. 4/2, 750
900} 8.0} 995) 9.4)1,060} 9.7] 800) 23.6
k 1,150] 0 {1,035} 0 [1,450] 0 {1,450} 14. 2I2, 000
iverame. ...-- 22.4. 10. 0/2, 288] 8. 11,655} 9.8]2,145] 7.8/1, 742 9.42, 125] 10.3|2, 129) 17. 0j2, 178
NNT 5 Ske Beye saan eee a $4. 00)/$4. 58)/$3. 24/$3. 31/83. 92)$4. 29/$3. 12|$3. 48/83. 76\$4. 25|$4. 12/$4. 26/96. 80/94. 36
MotalevialWOn= sce ee sok $8. 58 $6.55 $8. 21 $6. 60 $8. 01 $8. 38 $11.16
COST eee Sees cbs eee 7.49 7.49 7.11 7.11 8.18 5.98 12. 36
Profit or loss. .-.-.--.-- 1.09 — .94 1.10 — 1 — 17 2.40 —1.20

Corn after corn produced more grain and more stover than corn
after small grain. Little difference is shown in the yields by spring
plowing and by fall plowing. Each of these methods has been tried
after both corn and small grain.

Subsoiling was practiced on land continuously cropped to corn. It
produced yields practically the same as similarly cropped land plowed
either in the spring or fall without subsoiling.

Planting with the lister on land continuously cropped to corn pro-
duced yields practically the same as those from corn ground plowed
and surface planted.

The highest average yield of grain has been from land summer
tilled the previous year. ‘The increase in the average comes chiefly
from the grain produced in 1910 and 1914, when other methods
failed, and to its increase of yield over other methods in 1913. The
yield of stover from this method does not show an increase over that
following the several methods by which corn is grown following corn.

20 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Neither the average grain crop nor the average stover crop alone
by any method under trial has been sufficient to pay the cost of
producing it. When both are considered together, the crop shows
for all methods variations ranging from a loss of $1.20 on summer-
tilled land to a profit of $2.40 on listed corn ground. Both spring
and fall plowing after corn show profits of more than a dollar an
acre. Fall and spring plowing following small grains and subsoiling
following corn all show losses of less than a dollar per acre. In gen-
eral terms, the corn crop at this place has just about paid the expense
of its production, including something for the use of the land. The
greatest crop assurance has been by summer tillage, but the cost of
the method has resulted in a small loss from its use.

SCOTTSBLUFF FIELD STATION.

Some of the results of the work for three years with corn at Scotts-
bluff, Nebr., are presented in Table XI. The production of both
erain and fodder was good each year. The value of the grain crop
alone was sufficient to realize a profit by all methods under trial.

Taste XI.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the Scottsbluff”
Field Station, in 1912, 1918, and 1914.

Fall plowed. Spring plowed.
Subsoiled, | Listed
2 » | Summer
after after a
After alte . After eet corn corn ed
corn : (1plat). | (1 plat). | (1 Plat).

Yields, values, etc. (av- al

0) corn =
grain grain
erage per acre). plat). (9 plats). (1 plat). | (20 plats).

Bele te |e le) es tei ie ila 2 lia |e

BS NS ES SE are) Se ee SS eS

Slnlseilnl oS ial) oe |)a lo las |a | 6 1S

Yields: Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.
TONE Sea eae 38. 0/2, 400] 36. 2/4, 406] 40. 8/3,300} 40.7/4,770] 40. 0/4,300] 21.6|2,900] 49. 7/5, 600
TION Ae HI 32. 211, 660| 26. 4|2, 148] 27.8|1,740| 31.4/2/550] 26.11, 700] 38. 6|1, 700] 35. 6/2, 600
LOLA Da DAs 20. 1/1, 200} 11.0} 994] 15.0} 700] 7.5/1,020] 14.2} 840] 14.6] 620] 31. 7/1, 400
Average......--- 30. 1]1, 753] 24.5|2,516] 27.9/1,913) 27.5|2,770| 26. 8|2, 280] 24.9|1,740] 39. 0/3, 200
Value..........-.------|$12. 04|$3. 51/$9. 80/$5. 03/$11. 16]$3. 83/$11. 00|$5. 54/$10. 72/$4. 56|$9. 96/$3. 481815. 60|$6. 40
Total value._....-.---- $15.55 $14. 88 $14.99 $16. 54 $15. 28 $13. 44 $22. 00
Coste eee GE pie: 7.49 7.49 7.11 7.11 8.18 5.98 12. 36
Prokt eons 8.06 7.34 7.88 9. 43 7.10 7.46 re 9. 64

The only method of preparation that in any year produced a yield
of either grain or stover greater than that from summer-tilled land
was that of listing corn ground in 1913. Methods other than summer
tillage do not exhibit sufficient consistent differences in yield to
warrant very definite conclusions as to their comparative merits.
The lack of consistency is shown in the comparative yields of both
erain and stover. Some of the methods producing the best yields of
grain have been among the lowest in yield of stover and vice versa.

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 21

No one of the six methods other than summer tillage maintained a
position as either the best or poorest throughout the three years.

The greatest profit, $9.64 per acre, was from corn on land that was
summer tilled the preceding year. A profit nearly as great, $9.43
per acre, was realized from corn by spring plowing following small
srain. An average profit of $8.06 per acre was realized from corn fol-
lowing corn by fall plowing. Subsoiling after corn, fall plowing after
small grain, listing after corn, and spring plowing after corn show
profits ranging from $7.10 to $7.88 per acre.

NORTH PLATTE FIELD STATION.

The results of eight years are available for study from the field sta-
tion at North Platte, Nebr. A study of Table XII shows that this
station has produced four good crops of corn. In two other years
the average yields were low, but good yields were produced by some
methods. In the remaining two years some corn was produced but
not enough to warrant husking. The average for eight years shows
that there is very little choice to be made between fall and spring
plowing, nor were wide differences manifested in the results by these
methods in any of the years comprising the series. :

Taste XII.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the North
Platte Field Station, 1907 to 1914, wmclusive.

Fall plowed. Spring plowed.
a La eummer, tilled
j After corn (1 After small After corn (1 After small (1 plat).
Yields, values, etc. plat). grain (9 plats). plat). grain (9 plats).
(average per acre). :
= ra H
g 2 q 3 g = q S q S
3 5 3 5 3 iS 3 5 S
Pal P=) be 2S al = il _ Lal s
S RQ (e) n o nD dS n S n

55 980 0 746 930
2,165} 34.1] 2,340] 26.0| 2,734] 35.1] 2,340

Total value......... $12. 05 $9. 61 $12, 28 $9. 89 $138. 74
Cosi ee ncbescensese 7.49 7. 49 7.11 7.11 12. 36
JEROW oo noabees 4.56 2.12 5.17 2.78 1.38

From differences in crop sequence marked results have been
obtained. Corn grown continuously on the same land has averaged
about 5 bushels per acre more by both fall and spring plowing than
when grown on small-grain stubble. The average increase in yield

22 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

where corn follows corn as compared with corn following small grain
is much greater in the grain than in the stover yields. Following
sorghum there was a sharp decrease in yield. In rotations where
corn followed oats on brome-grass and alfalfa sods the yield was
considerably less than that obtaimed on similarly prepared land that
had not been in sod.

Land that was summer tilled the previous year produced six good
crops of grain in the eight years under study. In the other two years
it did not produce sufficient grain to warrant husking. During the
six years the average yield of grain was about 2 bushels more and
the yield of fodder about 300 pounds more per acre by summer tillage
than that produced by spring plowing corn ground, the next highest
yielding method.

On spring-plowed corn ground the average value of the crop of
grain alone has been more than sufficient to pay the cost of producing
the crop. On fall-plowed corn ground the average value of the grain
for eight years has lacked only 20 cents of paying the cost of pro-
duction. All methods show a profit when a value is assigned to the
stover orfodder. The profits per acre from the different methods have
been as follows: Summer tillage, $1.38; fall plowing after small
grain, $2.12; spring plowing after small grain, $2.78; fall plowing
after corn, $4.56; and spring plowing after corn, $5.17.

AKRON FIELD STATION.

Table XIII presents the results of the work of six years in methods
of production of corn at Akron, Colo. All methods have produced
fodder every year. Summer-tilled land has produced a grain crop
every year, its average yield for the entire period being 20.9 bushels
of grain and 2,257 pounds of stover per acre. Other methods have
met from one to three more or less complete failures of the grain
crop. The average yield of corn after corn by both spring and fall
plowing, however, has been practically the same as on summer-tilled
land.

Corn after small grain was markedly poorer in yield of both grain
and stover than corn following corn by either fall or spring plowing.
Subsoiling the land where corn follows corn resulted in decreased
yields every year as compared with fall plowing similar land without
subsoiling it. Planting with the lister resulted in a still further
decrease in yields.

The difference in the results following fall and spring plowing are
negligible when the average of the whole series of years is considered.
Fall and spring plowing of land where corn follows corn are the only
methods that show a profit from the grain crop alone. When a value
is assigned to the stover, all methods show profits ranging from 51

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 23

cents per acre on land which was summer tilled the previous year to
$5.43 by spring plowing where corn followed corn.

Taste XIII.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the Akron
Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Fall plowed. Spring plowed.
4 Sue Listed, | Summer
After After Pare Cor aftercorn| tilled
Aftercorn| small |Aftercorn) small (1 plat) (2 plats). | (1 plat).
Yields, values, etc. (1 plat). grain (1 plat). grain :
(average per acre). (12 plats). (9 plats).
a nt i : H w : H
AS ce Ie |) Seat eS eh nO 2th AION) Pgh
SON Ser eels | Sane Sum egsan| Sauls ae le Oly TANS Aa uaN SES
Go oD) S top) S nD ©) wD ia) mn 1) n lo) iol
Yields: Bu.| Lbs.| Bu.| Lbs.| Bu.| Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu.| Lbs.| Bu.| Lbs.| Bu.| Lbs
LOO Dieta rat ots dl sis wraictoteiaias ste 27. 3/3, 890) 24. 6/2, 424) 30.0/4, 700} 23.5)2, 499] 32. 8/4, 300) 26. 1/4, 325) 25.0)/3, 190
IQIDLe |= Se aes Oe eee 18. 3)1,640) 7.7/1, 438) 21.6}1, 840) 10.8)1,590) 12. 7/1, 490} 15. 1/1, 000} 21. 4/1, 350
SE ices SIs cists’ QO {1,040} 5.4/1,378) 1.3)1,210 .4| 776) O {1,180} 1.4/1,105) 12.9)1,690
Rp eens arch i | 46.9/3, 040 30. 0/2, 393) 33. 9/2, 500) 31.0/2, 303) 37. 1/2, 440) 22.0)2, 060) 33. 6/2, 500
UG) be es eae ae 9.9/1,840) .5/1,010; 13.6/2,020) 4.3)1,476; 4.3)1,290) 9.0/1,530); 13. 7/2, 410
TOS ES Nee anne 17.3|2,309| 9.3|1,968) 15. 9|2,060] 12. 0/1, 833] 13.9|1,980| 9.5]1, 750) 18. 6/2, 400
INwerd geese ues aan 20. 0/2, 292] 12. 9]1, 769| 19. 4|2, 388] 13. 7/1, 746] 16. 8/2, 113] 13. 9/1, 962) 20. 9/2, 257
‘Sines Ae $8. 00|$4. 58/$5. 16/$3. 54/$7. 76184. 78185. 48183. 49186. 72184. 23195. 56/$3. 92 $8. 36/84. 51
Motalavalienesses ayo} $12.58 $8.70 $12. 54 $8.97 $10.95 $9.48 $12. 87
(OOS Eos US ase one eee 7.49 7.49 Ceail 7.11 8.18 5.98 12.36
120 hh as Cee 5.09 1gval 5.43 1. 86 2.00 3.50 stl

HAYS FIELD STATION.

Table XIV presents some of the results of different methods of
growing corn at Hays, Kans. The data are presented for only six
years. In 1911 and 1913, for which no figures are given in the table,
there would have been yields of forage, but the crop while suffering
from drought was destroyed by grasshoppers. The area of the plats
was so small that the damage from the insects was much worse than
it would have been on larger fields. The surrounding area is cropped
chiefly to small grains. When these are harvested, the grasshoppers
move from the stubble into the corn and sorghums.

Corn produced an average of a little over 14 tons of fodder and 5.5
to 9.9 bushels of grain per acre. Little difference is exhibited in the
yields by different methods. Such differences as are shown are not
consistent from year to year. While the crop is productive of a ‘good
amount of feed each year, it appears to offer little possibility as a
grain crop. With values as here assigned to the grain and forage
the crop shows a small profit from all methods except summer tillage,
which is charged with an average loss of 54 cents per acre. The
greatest profits were by listing after corn and by spring plowing after
corn. These show average annual profits of $2.69 and $2.67 per
acre, respectively.

24 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE XIV.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the Hays
Field Station, 1907 to 1914, inclusive.*

Fall plowed. Spring plowed.

Subsoiled,| Listed, | Summer
ae atte aa aes reesei oe tilled
« er corn| sma After corn} sma plat). 1 plat). 1 plat).
Yields, values, etc. (average | (1 plat). | grain | (1plat).| grain pial) A seo?
per acre). (4 plats). (10 plats).

nD
Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs

4. 4|5, 684] 13.6|6,660| 7.8/6, 790| 9.5|6, 850

6.4|5, 133] 8.8|5,065| 7. 4/4, 200] 14. 8/6, 965

18. 8]1,516] 8.0) 560} 5.9) 510} 15.3)1,190

6. 6|2,609] 7.4/3,205! 6.1)2,210! 8.4/2, 900

2.5/1, 912} 5.5)2,075| 6.5/1,890| 3.9/2, 220

2.4/2, 888) 6.4)/3,350} 3.6/2,960) 7.4/3, 450

6.9/3, 290} 8.3/3, 486} 6.2/3,093) 9.9]3, 929

NVI i ee ee a $2. 48|$6. 45|$2. 20|$7. 02/$2. 44/$7. 341$2. 76]$6. 58!$3. 32/36. 97/$2. 48/86. 19|$3. 96|$7. 86
$8.93 $9. 22 $9.78 $9. 34 $10. 29 $8. 67 $11. 82
7.49 7.49 7.11 (esl 8.18 5.98 12.36
1.44 1.73 2.67 2. 23 2.11 2.69 — .54

1 The crops of 1911 and 1913 were so nearly destroyed by drought and insects that no yields were weighed.
GARDEN CITY FIELD STATION.

Table XV presents data on the production of corn by different
methods at Garden City, Kans. Yields are presented for only four
years. In both 1908 and 1910 there was a fair crop of fodder but
weights were not obtained. In 1913 the crop was destroyed by a
hailstorm on July 4.

TaBLE XV.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the Garden
City Field Station in 1909 and 1911 to 1914, inclusive.

Fall plowed. Spring plowed.
oe Sub- .
Yields, values, etc. (average per After fter soiled, sted) Pees
acre). Aftercorn| small |Aftercorn| small fae (2 plats). | (1 plat).
(plat). | grain | (1plat).| grain IPE
(11 plats). (11 plats).
Yields of stover:
G09 Ss Tears OUNGS= ps seeeese PN PA aa arses DO NAAG Sl See ees 251803 | eeen sens
LOT ORS Sas eps (0) 1, 400 934 1,100 1, 269 750 695 4,000
LOT AON ee Dea ae do 4,620 4, 498 5,580 3, 935 4,500 5,570 5, 780
1O13 oe se ae do. () 1) 1) 1) @) 1 Ga
dG: ER eae s ae do 3, 040 2, 668 2, 460 2,100 4,840 2, 830 4,320
ASVOTAL Ole! Auemteecme «cle 3, 020 2, 768 3, 047 2, 688 3, 363 2, 819 4,700
Veale xe ofa ae eo er ea ee $6. 04 $5.54 $6. 09 $5.38 $6. 73 $5. 64 $9. 40
Gostett shia nies Gee Yee 7.49 7.49 7.11 7.11 8.18 5-98 12.36
DOSS RSE Eee 2 ees: (cee eu i —1.45 —1.95 —1.02 —1.73 —1.45 — .34 —2.96

1 Destroyed by hail. 4 i
2 The yield of grain was very small in 1914, and its weight was included with the stover.

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 95

No grain in sufficient quantity to husk was produced in any year
by any of the methods under trial. The only material difference
to be noted in the yields by different methods is the increased yield
attending the growth of corn on land which was summer tilled the
previous season. The method of summer tillage gave an average
yield of 4,700 pounds of fodder per acre for the three years that
weights were obtained. The crop produces a good amount of feed,
but with the valuation and costs as here assigned it has been grown
at small losses, ranging from 34 cents per acre by listing after corn to
$2.96 on summer-tilled land.

DALHART FIELD STATION.

Table XVI presents data obtained in the growth of corn by dif-
ferent methods at Dalhart, Tex. The results of the work of six years
are given. In three of the six years grain was produced by all
methods.

Taste XVI.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the Dalhart
Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Fall plowed. Spring plowed.
Listed, after yee
: After corn rane After corn See conaen era) (1 plat).
Yields, values, etc. (aver- (1 plat). 8 Jats) (1 plat). 8 Jats)
age per acre). P ; P =
|
. |
5 S 5 5 o S
Selec eels | eee eee ela [ee lg le
Seco OIG oy || otc Me ea |e rene | Se
Yields: Bu. | Lbs. | Bu. | Lbs. | Bu. | Lbs. | Bu. | Lbs. | Bu. | Lbs. | Bu. | Lbs.
OOO Re aisiseicescesccacees 0 1,000} O 946 | 0 700} O /1,014} O- |2,250) 0 3, 400
MOL Beaioeisctca-saec sc 8.6 |3,160 | 9.2 |2,947 | 15.1 |3,610 | 15.3 |2,914 | 25.6 3,340 | 25.6 | 4,110
UO) oe eo eee 0 {4,000} O {2,771} O {4,000} O {2,708 | 12.4 |2,350} 2.8 | 3,000
OUD ES ease So ee ote kee 7.4 |2,250 | 14.1 |2,779 | 10.5 |2,200 | 9.7 |2,751 | 21.0 |3,100 | 23.0 | 3,300
MOTORS siecicn oe oes ae 5 2,000 | 0 ,405} O {2,150} O {1,037} O 1,750); 0 6, 150
Te ee Boos GaSe ee eee 35.6 13,855 | 20.3 |3,566 | 31.5 |8,680 | 17.0 |3, 255 | 25.1 |2,740 | 30.8 | 3,440
PABVeTAReS 55255 i55 22... 8.6 |2,711 | 7.3 |2,569 | 9.5 |2,725 | 7.0 |2,280 | 14.0 |2,588 | 13.7 | 3,900
WiGiGe As oun ase see eres ee $3.44 |$5.42 |$2.92 |55.14 |$3.80 |$5.45 |$2.80 |$4.86 |$5.60 |$5.18 |$5.48 | 37.80
Motalovalueiss 2.22 —. sas245 $8. 86 $8. 06 $9. 25 $7. 36 $10. 78 $13.28
(CSE i Sl aig ele Po a 7.49 7.49 7.11 ee 5. 98 12. 36
ETO Meeps ae see eis Bei <Ot 2.14 25 4.80 92

The two heaviest yielding methods were summer tillage and
listing after corn. Between the grain yields by these two methods
there is little difference, but in the yield of fodder the summer tillage
shows a marked superiority. Between the other methods little
choice is to be made, although corn appears to yield slightly heavier
after corn than after small grains and slightly heavier by spring
plowing than by fall plowing. The crop was produced at a profit
by all methods under trial. The net profits realized range from 25
cents per acre by spring plowing after small grain to $2.14 by spring
plowing after corn and $4.80 by listing after corn.

26 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
AMARILLO FIELD STATION.

Table XVII presents the results in the growth of corn during
seven. years by different methods at Amarillo, Tex. No data are
presented for 1910, as the station was moved and only one method
was on trial that year. Fodder was produced each year by all
methods, but in only one year was there a creditable production of
grain.

TasLeE XVII.— Yields and cost of production of corn by different methods at the Amarillo
Field Station, 1907 to 1914, inclusive, except 1910.

Fall plowed. Spring plowed.

Subsoiled,| Listed, | Summer

After After |aftercorn|aftercorn| tilled

Aftercorn| small |Aftercorn| smal] | (1 plat). | (2 plats).| (1 plat).

Yields, values, etc. (average | (1 plat). grain (1 plat). grain
per acre). (11 plats). (3 plats).

5 a S 4 5 S 3 j S
P(ElSlEleISlSISIZISIBIEIZIE

Ney MO Aco al ann Meee ac AE en a] NN Wen A eI on | alias
Yields: Bu. | Lbs.| Bu.| Lbs.| Bu.| Lbs.| Bu.| Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs. Bu.| Tbs.
IO aa We Nee ee 1.43,270| 2.3/2,997] 3.1/3, 280] 2.1/3,010| 1.1/3,490] 2.2/2,935) 5.73, 710
1G0S See ES 22. 9/4, 580} 19. 8)3, 107] 20.3/3, 300] 14. 7/2, 863] 25. 7/3, 810! 24. 7/2,390| 27.6 3, 700
TIGL Say Geen 2.7/1,310| 0 {1,596} .6| 560| 0 |1,383| 1.7| 990| 5.4/1,043| 6.4!1,890
Tie I seen Oe ee ae ee 9. 2/2,075| 8.9/2,145} 8.1/1,945) 9.5/1,960} 7.1/1,720) 7.8/1,998) 9.3 2,050
LON 2 Ue ee ser aera . 71,680} 1.7/1,848} 2.6/2,160) 1.1/1,829) 1.0/2,080| 1.7)2,015) 3.3 2,840
LOTS Heer eee eee 0 | 380} 0 | 773| O | 700} O | 383} 0 | 430) O | 225} O [1,750
NOVAS ae ee See 3.6/4, 140} 5.1)3,641) 1.1)/1,500] 2.8)2,733] 5.1)4,850} 7.0.2,870 8.0 5,320
Average........--=:--- 5.8/2,491| 5.4]2,301) 5.1/1,921] 4.3/2,023] 6.0,2,481| 7.0,1,925 8.6 3,037
Valine 8s. kes Wee ets ee: ars $2. 32'$4. 93/$2. 16'84. 60|$2. 04!$3. 84/$1. 72'$4. 051$2. 40'$4. 96/$2. 80 $3. 85 $3. 4486.07

Motaloyalie. joes. see $7.30 | $6.76 | $5.88 | $5.77 | $7.36 | $6.65 | $9.51

COSt ase cere oe ee eee eee 7.49 7.49 7.11 7.11 8.18 5.98 12.36

Profit or loss........-. — .19 — .73 —1.23 —1.34 — .82 . 67 —2.85

The yields by different methods show comparatively small differ-
ences. Summer tillage shows a small increase in yield of both grain
and stover over all other methods of preparations. Fall plowing was
a somewhat better preparation than either spring plowing or listing.
Subsoiling failed to mcerease yields over fall plowing similar land
without subsoiling. Listing shows a small profit of 67 cents per acre.
All other methods show losses ranging from 19 cents per acre by fall
plowing after corn to $2.85 on summer-tilled land.

GENERAL DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.

In the foregoing pages the results of growing corn by different
methods of land preparation have been discussed in more or less
detail for each individual station. It yet remains to take a broader
view of the problem, and the relative merits of different methods will
be considered for the Great Plains area as a whole. Some compari-
sons of station with station as representatives of different sections of
country whose results are indicative of the comparative value of corn
to such sections will also be made. / in

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 27

For this study, Table XVIII has been compiled from the data
given in Tables V to XVII, inclusive. The average yields of corn by
each method and the profits or losses attending the use of each
method, as shown in the detail tables for the several stations, are
here assembled.

Taste XVIII.—Comparison of the average yields and profit or loss in the production
of corn by different methods at thirteen field stations in the Great Plains area.

Methods of tillage.
Fall plowed. Spring plowed.
Subsoiled,) Jisted,
After After after after Silled i
Statement of data. After Sansill After Sail corn. corn. ;
corn. grain. corn. grain,

: Hw = eH = : w H HH
A\/ElSlElS/Ela/ Ele ele eles
5S a} a Ss Bn g ay Ss Ey g gs i) S Ss
G MD o n GS ro) o co) id) n ie) oD) o mn

Yields per acre: Bu |\Lbs. | Bu.| Lbs.| Bu. |ZLbs. | Bu.| Lbs.| Bu.| Lbs.| Bu. | Lbs.| Bu.| Lbs.
udith Basina: 22... 5-2 seee 5, 744|..--- OneTOleeee 6, 002]...-. O93 pees 6, 180!...--|5, 982]... -- 5, 656
Mt eyes < esse ges ecin- = 14. 0/1, 380] 19. 4/1, 497] 21. 8/1, 375) 25. 2/1, 654) 19.8)1, 945] 26. 3/1, 605) 26. 1/1, 695
WWAINISTONEScn ee. oo canoe se 15. 3/5, 542) 12.8]7, 143} 15. 1/5, 780) 14. 1/6, 537)--.--]----.|.-..-|.-.-- 17. 65, 924
Miekmnsoneee ss 2k ee 19. 9/2, 105) 20. 6/2, 144) 21. 5)2, 362) 19. 8/2, 408)-....).....|.....].-.-- 14. 5}1, 822
WO PCLCy scene coe l ss seen 7.0/3, 039] 8.2/3,201) 7.3)/38,129] 8.4/3, 245)...-.).....|.....].-..- 6. 8]2, 926
Belle Fourche. .--..-..-- 10. 0/2, 288] 8.1)1,655] 9.8/2, 145] 7.8/1, 742) 9.4/2, 125) 10.3)/2, 129) 17. 0/2, 178
Seobispluinessae eee 30. 1/1, 753] 24. 5/2, 516) 27. 9/1, 913) 27. 5/2, 770} 26. 8/2, 280) 24.91, 740) 39. 0/3, 200
North Platte..........-- 18. 2/2, 383] 13.32, 143] 18. 5/2, 438] 13.2/2,307].....|.....|...-.]--.-- 20. 8/2, 711
PAUKROM ase ccm cee score 20. 0/2, 292] 12. 9/1, 769} 19. 4)2, 388) 13. 7/1, 746] 16. 8)2, 113) 13.9)1, 962} 20. 9/2, 257
IS Se asseee oP pee a aes ae 6.2/3, 226] 5.5/8, 512} 6.1/3, 668) 6.9/3, 290) 8.3/3, 486) 6.2/3,093] 9.9/3, 929
GardemCity- <= -2 2-2 | s 3, 020]---- - PA (tel bases 3, 047|-..-- 2, 688). ..-- Byes gaees 2, 819]... - -14, 700
Malhantere eres as 4.202). 8. 612,711] 7.3]2,569| 9.5}2, 755] 7.0/2, 280).....|..... 14. 0/2, 588] 13. 7/3, 200
mario ei ee nee 5,812,491] 5.4)2,301] 5. 1/1,921] 4.3/2,023/ 6.0/2,481) 7.0/1,925| 8.6/3, 037

IV Crag euen Gs week aoe 12. 9]2,922| 11. 5/2, 961) 13. 5]2,915] 12. 1]2,914].....].....|..---|----- 16. 2/3, 380

Profit or loss (—) per acre:
uGibheBasmye = sa. 4 2c: $4. 00 $3.06 $4. 89 $3. 28 $4.08 $5.98 $—1.05
Is hore eae eee .87 3.26 4.36 6.28 3.63 7.75 1.47
Wallis tomes soe ssc52 5328 9.71 11.92 10. 49 PEEGO seo A we etal Ce sree ee 6.53
DACKIMSOMeeee ese ee! 4.68 5.04 6. 21 SUG S ai | eiiigeet tes | oo aaa oa —2.92
Hd geleyges cee ssieee seek 1.38 2.19 2.07 De Ales ames rein | ans eee —3.79
Belle Fourche..._......- 1.09 — .94 1.10 — .51 — .17 2.40 —1.20
Scottsbluwt. 2225220 5.2 8.06 7.34 7.88 9.43 7.10 7.46 9.64
North Platte............ 4.56 2d, 1) 5.17 PA els al Seca seea Is bieceetd : 1.38
PAor OTe sea eee 5.09 1.21 5. 43 1.86 Daria 3.50 pail
MET ehyiSee sees ace oe hase. eie 1.44 1.73 2.67 2. 23 2.11 2.69 — .54
Garden City. ...-.-.---. —1.45 —1.95 —1.02 —1.73 —1.45 — .34 —2.96
Malant eases coc sce ones 1.37 .57 2.14 sf tall ate meee as 4.80 -92
AMATO Re A see ete S — .19 — .73 —1,23 —1.34 — .82 . 67 —2.85

Three series of graphs (figs. 4, 5, and 6) are also presented. Figure
4, prepared from a part of the data in Table XVII, shows in graphic
form the average yields of grain in bushels per acre at each station for
each of the five methods studied that have been under trial at all of
the stations. The Judith Basin Field Station is not shown in this
figure for the reason that grain was neither produced nor expected at
that station in this work. Garden City is also omitted because the
grain there produced was insufficient to warrant husking.

Figure 5 is a graphic presentation of the yields of stover as shown
in Table XVIII. Like figure 4, it includes only the five methods that
have been under trial at all stations.

28 BULLETIN 219, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Figure 6, prepared from Table VIII, shows graphically the average
relative profit or loss attending the use of each of the five methods at
each of the stations.

Table XVIII, illustrated in part in figure 4, shows that during the
years covered by this work creditable average yields of grain have
been obtained by all methods at Huntley, Williston, Dickinson,
Scottsbluff, North Platte, and Akron, and by one method at Belle
Fourche and Dalhart. No grain has been produced either at the
Judith Basin Field
Station or at Garden
City.

Little difference is
shown in the average
yields of grain by the
different cultural
methods in use at
Williston, Edgeley,
Hays, and Amarillo.
At Dickinson, Belle
Fourche, and Dalhart
the only method of
preparation giving
yields departing far
from the others has
been that of summer
tillage. At Dickinson
summer tillage has
been responsible for
a decrease in yields
and at Belle Fourche

and Dalhart for an

Fic. 4.—Graphs showing the average yields of corn in bushels per increase.
acre by different methods at eleven field stations in the Great B i :
Plains area. The methods of tillage are indicated by Arabic etween the yields
numerals at the top, as follows: 1, Fall plowing after corn; 2, fall following fall and
plowing after small grain; 3, spring plowing after corn; 4, spring : 5
plowing after small grain; 5, summer tillage. The field stations SPYING plowing little
of Judith Basin and Garden City do not appear, because the corn general difference is
grown at these stations produced no grain.

SGOTTSELUEG |

BUSHELS PER ACRE.

ME ONO) On we 8
& |
5 S
x R
> §

|
Q_| iN)
z =
feo

to be noted, except
that at Huntley fall plowing has been better than spring plowing, and
at Scottsbluff fall plowing after corn has been better and fall plowing
after small grains poorer than spring plowing after either. At some
stations more difference is to be noted as a result of crop sequence
than as a result of difference in time of plowmg. At Huntley corn
has been better after small grain than after corn. At both North
Platte and Akron corn after corn by both fall and spring plowing
has been markedly better than corn after small grain.

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 29

Figure 5 presents the average yields of fodder at each of the stations.
The results by each of the five methods that have been under trial at,
all stations are shown separately.

It appears that the yields reported from the Judith Basin Field
Station and from Williston are abnormally high. While the yields
have generally been good at these stations, it is doubtful if they have
been as much higher than those at some of the other stations, as these
figures indicate. It is probable that in the years showing excessively
high yields the crop ae) ee ie

PGE eae, oo EAE) 2
has not been well Molt BASIN | |_BELLEFOURCHE

Sch Puen Brae ea
dried at the time of 6008 ease aa
weighing. 4208 ena

Averystrikingfact 2000 ee
brought out by this (7° MCA TEE
. ° . HUNTLE: SGOTTSELUFF DALHART,
graphic showing is the go0e
uniformity in the — s200

4000
amount of stover or 300
fodder produced byall 4°02
methods at the sta- § 2000 NORTH PLATTE _| AMARILLO |,

tions in Montana and
North Dakota. So
far as the production
of rough feed is con-
cerned, there appears
very little difference
on which to base a
choice. South of
North Dakota there
is a general agree-
ment of heavier
yields of stover or
fodder after corn than
after small grain, ex-

HE

Fig. 5.—Graphs showing the average yields of corn stover in pounds

cept that at Scotts-
bluff the yields are
heavier after small
grain than after corn.

per acre by different methods at thirteen field stations in the
Great Plains area. The methods of tillage are indicated by Arabic
numerals at the top, as follows: 1, Fall plowing after corn; 2, fall
plowing after small grain; 3, spring plowing after corn; 4, spring
plowing after small grain; 5, summer tillage.

Small differences in stover yields are to be noted between the results ~
following spring and fall plowing. On the whole, the average yields
by the two methods are almost the same.

The most noticeable effect resulting from cultural practice is the
very marked increase in the yield of stover resulting from growing
corn on summer-tilled land at the more southern stations—Garden
City, Dalhart, and Amarillo. Only small increases in yields have
attended the use of this method at Scottsbluff, North Platte, and Hays.

30 BULLETIN 219, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Subsoiling has not markedly affected the yields, except that at

Akron it has decreased them.

Listing has materially increased the yields at Huntley and at

Dalhart. At the other stations the effect has not been marked.
The last half of Table XVIII, illustrated in part in figure 6, presents
yitepasils Gb =the, average relative

See Saas aa
E | Be

SCOTTSELUFF DALHART

Ni :
N y2
we —~\ ee
BE AMARILLO
Wy 6
& 4 OU AG
Xe
& oO
=a
K
=
i 7\%
ea
fa]

Fic. 6.—Graphs showing the average profit or loss in dollars per acre
by different methods at thirteen field stations in the Great Plains
area. The methods of tillage are indicated by Arabic numerals at
the top, as follows: 1, Fall plowing after corn; 2, fall plowing after
small grain; 3, spring plowing after corn; 4, spring plowing after
small grain; 5, summer tillage.

profits and losses at-
tending the growth
of corn by different
methods at each of
thestations. Itshows
corn to be relatively
much less profitable
at Belle Fourche, Gar-
den City, Dalhart,
and Amarillo than at
the other stations.
Scottsbluff is the
only station where
summer tillage as a
preparation for corn
has proved the most
profitable method.
At most of the sta-
tions this method has
been the least profit-
able. Its use has re-
sulted in actual loss
at the stations of Ju-

~dith Basin, Dickin-

son, Edgeley, Belle

| Fourche, Hays, Gar-

den City, and Ama-
rillo.

It is shown very
clearly in figure 6
that greater profit has .

been realized from corn after corn than from corn after small grain
at Akron and North Platte. At Huntley, corn after small grain has

been more profitable.

Listing has been tried at nine stations. Except at Scottsbluff and
Akron, it has been the most profitable method under trial. As has
been pointed out, the relative profitableness of this method has been

largely due to its low cost.

CORN IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 31

A careful reading of the data given in the table will show that corn
as a grain or cash crop can not be profitably grown in large portions
of the Great Plains. At only 5 of the 13 stations have the grain
yields been sufficiently large to indicate a possibility of the crop
being profitably produced for the grain only. At Huntley, Dickin-
son, Scottsbluff, North Platte, and Akron enough grain was pro-
duced by some methods to pay the cost of production and show
small profits. Taken as a whole, however, the data show that, in
order to realize the full profit, the corn should be considered as a feed
crop. To pay the cost of production in many sections, it is neces-
sary to utilize the roughage produced.

CONCLUSIONS.

(1) No one method of seed-bed preparation is essential to the pro-
duction of corn in the Great Plains.

(2) Differences in seed-bed preparation, other than summer till-
age, have not produced wide differences in grain yields, except at
Huntley, Mont.

-(3) Summer tillage has slightly increased the grain yield at all
except three stations and has materially increased the fodder yields
at the three southern stations. The increase in yields, however, has
not been sufficient to make it the most profitable method at any
station except Scottsbluff.

(4) At some of the stations, especially at North Platte and Akron,
crop sequence is more important than seed-bed preparation in the
production of corn.

_ (5) At 8 of the 13 stations corn as a grain crop has not been pro-
duced at a profit by any method.

(6) When a value of $4 per ton is assigned to the stover or fodder,
corn has been profitably grown by some method at all but one of
the stations.

(7) The response to differences in culture and crop sequence is
greater in the southern and central portion of the Great Plains than
it is in the northern portion.

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
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tele -
GRD ME hi

) UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 220 :

Contribution from the Office of Public Roads
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director

Washington, D. C. June 7, 1915.

ROAD MODELS

Prepared by the Office of Public Roads

CONTENTS

Page
Macadam Roads .....+ +...
Cement Concrete Roads ......- -
Bituminous Concrete Roads—‘ Topeka
Specification”’ 5

Paved Roads Other than Concrete. . .
Culverts and Bridges aie
Roadside Treatment .

Road Machinery

ia]
©
its)
oO

Introduction

Roman Roads

French Roads .....-++.-s
Macadam Method of Construction .
Telferd Method of Road Building . ..
Location and Alignment ...... .
Foundation, or Subgrade, and Shoulders
Earth and Sand-Clay Roads .

Gravel Roads .

foot
NontnNoawh =

=

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915

pat be PIN OR, | THE

USDEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Oo. 220

. y aE

Contribution from the Office of Public Roads, Logan Waller Page, Director.
June 7, 1915.

’
My
aA

ROAD MODELS.
Prepared by the Office of Public Roads.

CONTENTS.

Page. Page
AE CO CITC HONS sere eee MR SOR ee les aa cad aminoa Gs aa = sae aac eae ee Eee 13
TPyaerg an TOA Beak a ee Oe ne eee 2 | Cement concrete roads..........-.......-.--- 17
Iinene nod Speen ten ee s\n ene oee oes 3 | Bituminous concrete roads—‘‘ Topeka speci-
Macadam method of construction...-..------ 5 FICATION URE 3 vse eA se ec ee LES NLR 18
Telford method of road building.-.-....-..-- 6 | Paved roads other than concrete.__.........- 18
Location and alignment..........----------- ale Culvertsandypridgeseys-=)24444 see nee 20
Foundation, or subgrade, and shoulders. ...- (aeRoadsidennealmentses = eer seen a nel 21
Earth and sand-clay roads....-.--.---------- 10) jj. Roel mapeMbny SS do ascadmodseuctcessondsse 22
ravolronUse eee ss ae Jo acme se oe Sala cla =a 12

INTRODUCTION.

The Office of Public Roads of the United States Department of
Agriculture made an exhibit of road models for the first time in 1909
at the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition. The aim was to put on
view such striking examples in miniature of model roads that visitors
would not only appreciate the beneficent effects of improved roads
but would, at the same time, be able to understand the methods of
their construction.

Since the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition closed, the exhibit of
the Office of Public Roads has been displayed at Omaha, Nebr., dur-
ing the National Corn Exposition; at Knoxville, Tenn., during the
Southern Appalachian Exposition; at Chicago, Ill, during the
National Land and Irrigation Exposition; at New York City during
the Travel and Vacation Exposition and the Domestic Science Expo-
sition; at Atlantic City, N. J., during the American Road Congress;
at Lethbridge, Alberta, during the International Dry-Land Congress;
at Buenos Aires, Argentina, during the International Agricultural
Exposition; at Turin, Italy, during the International Exposition;

Note.—This bulletin contains illustrations and descriptions of the models in miniature of roads, bridges,
and culverts and of road machinery exhibited by the Office of Public Roads at expositions and fairs and
onrailroads. Methods of construction are discussed.

87538°—Bull. 220—15: 1

2, BULLETIN 220, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and at various other expositions and fairs. The models have also
been displayed on road trains at all important places along the route
of the Pennsylvania Railroad in the State of Pennsylvania and along
the entire system of the Southern Railroad, also along the St. Louis
& San Francisco Railroad, the Atlantic Coast Line, the Nashville,
Chattanooga & St. Louis Railroad, and the New York Central &
Hudson River Railroad. A comprehensive exhibit of these models,
illustrating all standard types of construction, has been installed at
the Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco, Cal.

The models, as a rule, are constructed on a scale of 1 inch to the
foot, so that each model is one-twelfth the size of the actual road
which it represents. Modifications of the methods of construction
may be necessary to meet local conditions. Advice and information
relating to road construction, maintenance, or improvement in any
section of the country may be obtaimed upon application to the
Director of the Office of Public Roads.

The descriptions of the models are so arranged in this bulletin as to
present the historic development of road building. The Roman road
is described first, and then descriptions are given successively of the
French roads, after the ideas of the Romans and of Trésaguet, the
roads of MacAdam and Telford, and finally the various types of
modern construction. Among the latter are models showing brick,
concrete, asphalt-block, macadam, sand-clay, gravel, and earth roads.
There are other models showing the processes of maintenance, resur-
facing, and bituminous macadam construction by the mixing and
penetration methods. One model shows the various spcilnots of
draining and strengthening unstable foundations, while another
shows a typical method of treating gravel or macadam roads to make
them dustless and to prevent their disintegration under automobile
traffic. Two models recently added to the series illustrate, respec-
tively, road location and roadside treatment.

ROMAN ROADS.

The Romans began building roads on a large scale more than 300
years before the Christian era. The Appian Way, one of the most
celebrated of their roads, was begun in 312 B. C., by Appius Claudius
Cecus. This road led from Rome to Capua, a distance of 142 Italian
miles. It was later continued to Brindisi, making the total distance
360 miles. Rome continued as a great road-building nation for
about 600 years, and fragments of some of its roads still remain. The
Appian Way is said to have been in good condition more than 800
years after its construction.

The Roman construction was not uniform, though always extremely
massive. The general form of construction employed during the

ROAD MODELS. 3

reign of Cesar Augustus, when Roman road building seems to have
reached its height, was a massive road from 16 to 30 feet wide, from
3 to 4 feet thick, and laid in 3 or 4 courses. The first course was
almost invariably of large, flat, field or quarry stones laid on the earth
subgrade, except in swamps, where poles, logs, brush, or even boards
were used beneath the stone course. The other courses varied
extremely with the available material and the period and importance
of the road. Either small stones, with and without mortar, or gravel,
broken brick, tiles, etc., were used for the second and third courses.
The surface or wearing course consisted of well-cut, irregular, close-
fitting polygonal blocks on a few of the more important roads, but
more often it consisted of uncut stones, not unlike our cobblestone
pavements, or of gravel, and in some cases of a mixture of sand and
clay or clay and gravel.

Some of the more important roads near Rome were practically
lined with temples, porticoes, and statues. On all roads inscribed
milestones were placed at regular intervals.

Plate II, figure 1, shows a model of the Appian Way. This is the
highest type of road constructed by the Romans.

Section A shows the contignatum pavimentum, composed of lime
and sand, straw, rushes, or reeds, and sometimes laid on sills or boards.

Section B shows the statumen, or foundation, composed of two
courses of flat stones laid dry or in lime mortar. The depth of this
course was from 16 to 18 inches.

Section C shows the rudus, or rubble, composed of broken stone
mixed with lime in the proportion of 1 part of lime to 3 parts of stone.
Sometimes the material was taken from old buildings. This course
was laid from 6 to 9 inches deep.

Section D represents the nucleus, composed of coarse gravel and
lime used hot, or bricks, potsherds, or broken tile mixed with lime
and covered with a thin layer of lime mortar.

Section E shows the summa crusta, or pavimentum, consisting of
polygonal blocks jomed with the greatest nicety. This course was
about 6 inches deep and about 16 feet wide.

Section F indicates the curbs, which were 2 feet wide and 18 inches
high, with mounting blocks as shown at G. These blocks also served
as seats for travelers.

Section H shows a side road, the surface of which was composed of
gravel fiushed with mortar. The width was from 6 to 8 feet.

FRENCH ROADS.

From the viewpoint of construction, road building in France may
be divided into three periods—the period of Roman influence, the
period of Trésaguet, and the modern period.

4 BULLETIN 220, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
FRENCH CONSTRUCTION PREVIOUS TO 1775 (ROMAN METHOD).

By the time that road building was revived in France, in the
seventeenth century, the Roman methods of road building had been
greatly modified, though the Roman form, especially in the founda-
tion, was still retamed. Under the ministry of Colbert (1660-1669)
as controller general of finances, about 15,000 miles of stone roads
were built, practically all with an undrained foundation consisting of
one or more layers of large flat stones placed in the bottom of a
trench-like excavation. These stones were then covered with a thick
layer of more or less finely broken stone. As no systematic main-
tenance was attempted, the roads rutted badly, and it was only rarely
that the broken stone consolidated properly. The total thickness of
the roads was from 14 to 24 feet.

Plate IT, figure 2, illustrates the type of road constructed in France
previously to 1775. This type was modeled on the Roman system.

Section A shows the earth foundation, which was flat.

Section B represents the first course. This course was composed of
flat stones laid by hand in two or more layers. The total width of
this course was 18 feet and the depth was from 9 to 10 inches.

Section C shows the second course, a layer of small stones, which
were broken in place with hand hammers.

Section D shows the finished surface. This course was composed
of stones broken by hand into sizes smaller than the underlying
material. It was left to be consolidated by traffic. The total thick-
ness of the road in the center was from 18 to 20 inches and at the sides
from 12 to 14 inches.

TRESAGUET METHOD.

About 1775 a form of construction, supplemented by continual
maintenance, came into prominence in France. It had long been
advocated by Pierre Marie Jéréme Trésaguet, a noted French engi-
neer. He held that good drainage and systematic maintenance were
absolutely necessary for good roads. By providing a_ properly
crowned and drained foundation, he reduced the required thickness
more than one-half and provided a better and more serviceable road.
The small stones were broken more uniformly and, by a little atten-
tion after placing, soon bonded under the traffic. The resulting roads
were smooth and afforded comfortable traveling.

Plate ILI, figure 1, illustrates the type of road constructed in France
by Trésaguet from 1775 to 1830.

Section A shows the earth foundation shaped parallel to the finished
surface.

Section B represents the first course, which was composed of flat.
stones laid on edge lengthwise across the road and beaten to an even
‘surface. The depth of this course was about 5 inches.

PLATE I.

Dept. of Agriculture.

S)

Bul. 220, U.

sss

VIEW OF A TRAIN EXHIBIT FROM THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS.

Bul. 220, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.

a
iw

1 te i
bog aa ee 2 os res ae

Fic. 1.—MODEL SHOWING THE APPIAN Way (300 B. C.).

Fia. 2.—MoDEL SHOWING A FRENCH ROAD BUILT BEFORE 1775 (ROMAN METHOD).

Bu). 220, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.

Fila. 1 —MODEL SHOWING A FRENCH ROAD OF TRESAGUET, BETWEEN 1775 AND 1830.

Fic. 2.—MopDEL SHOWING A MACADAM ROAD OF THE TYPE BUILT BY MACADaAM (1816).

Bul. 220, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

Fic. 1.—MODEL SHOWING A TELFORD ROAD OF THE TYPE BUILT BY TELFORD (1820).

Fic. 2.—MODEL SHOWING LOCATION AND ALIGNMENT; OLD AND NEW ROADS.

ROAD MODELS. 5

Section C shows the second course, which was of small stones laid
and beaten by hand hammers. The finished layer was composed of
broken stones about the size of walnuts and was spread with a shovel.

Section D represents the finished road as consolidated by travel.
The crown was made 6 inches, the width 18 feet, and the total thick-
ness about 10 inches.

E shows the curbs, which were composed of rough, flat stones, set
on edge. The upper edge was made flush with the road surface.

MACADAM METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION.

The macadam. method of construction was introduced in England
and Scotland by a Scotchman, John Loudon MacAdam (1756-1836). —
The chief features of MacAdam’s construction were a raised, thoroughly
drained, and crowned earth foundation, stone broken to a uniform
size not exceeding 14 inches, and no addition of binding material to
the broken stone. MacAdam also insisted that the finished road
should have a slight crown and that broken stone when spread on
the road should be kept raked smooth until thoroughly consolidated
by traffic. This form of construction continued practically unchanged
until the introduction of the road roller, about 1870.

During the past 40 years the methods of construction and mainte-
nance have been greatly modified, yet the term “macadam”’ is still
applied to broken-stone roads.

At the present time the macadam road is built in courses, with
the coarser stones at the bottom and the finer on top. Stone screen-
ings or sand are used for binding. In practically every case the
stone is broken by machinery.

Plate ILI, figure 2, illustrates a macadam road of the type con-
structed during the first period of macadam construction, which
began about 1816.

Section A shows the earth foundation, which was alwys made
higher than the surface of the adjacent jonad so as to facilitate
the escape of water from the foundation and the surface.

Section B shows the layer of hand-broken stone, with a depth of
10 inches. This stone was broken to sizes weighing about 6 ounces,
and no stone was used that exceeded 14 inches in its greatest dimen-
sion. The surface of the road was raked regularly during the process
of consolidation. No rollers were used, and the stone was compacted
by traffic.

Section C shows the finished road, from 16 to 18 feet wide. The
crown was raised from 4 to 6 inches. MacAdam contended that
the stones would lock or bond by virtue of their angularity and so
make a water-tight crust, and that it was neither necessary nor
desirable ‘‘to bond a road with earth, clay, chalk, or other material
that would imbibe water or be affected by frost.’’? The surface

6 BULLETIN 220, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the road was kept even and smooth by the addition of fresh mate-
- ylal where necessary. This material was placed on the road inthin
layers in damp weather in order that the new material might more
readily bond and incorporate with the old.

TELFORD METHOD OF ROAD BUILDING.

This form of construction takes its name from the celebrated
engineer, Thomas Telford (1757-1834), who, besides doing many
other notable things, constructed 920 miles of roads in the High-
lands of Scotland and also a large mileage in the mountainous sec-
tions of Wales and in the north of England. To-day the chief
characteristic of the telford road is a base of fairly regular stones,
about 3 by 5 by 7 inches in their smallest dimensions, placed by
hand on the wider of the long narrow faces and with the greatest
dimension perpendicular to the axis of the road. The blocks are
then ‘“‘keyed in” by filling the interstices with stone spalls, chips,
or small.gravel. Any projecting points are broken off. On this
base is placed a wearing surface of broken stone from 4 to 7 inches
deep. Originally the telford road was constructed with a flat
subgrade, and a slight crown was obtained by using larger stones
in the center. In present construction, however, the subgrade is
given the same crown as the finished road, and stones of uniform
size are used throughout. Formerly, too, the wearing surface
was placed and consolidated in the same manner as the wearing
surface of the old macadam road.

The telford base is used very generally in the construction of
important roads in Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, Switzer-
land, and the Scandinavian countries. Some of the roads of England
and Scotland which were formerly macadam are proving too weak
for the present heavy traffic and are being relaid with a telford base.

Plate IV, figure 1, illustrates a telford road as constructed during
the first period, which began about 1820.

Section A shows the earth foundation, from 16 to 20 feet wide,
and flat.

Section B represents the telford base, composed of stones about 7
inches in depth. No stone more than 3 inches wide was placed at
the top.

Section C shows the top course, about 7 inches thick at the crown.
It was composed of hand-broken stone, in pieces not heavier than
6 ounces, which would pass through a circular ring not larger than
24 inches in diameter.

Section D shows the finished road, bonded with 1 inch of gravel.
The crown was made 6 inches for the road, which was surfaced to
a width of 18 feet.

.

ROAD MODELS. qi

LOCATION AND ALIGNMENT.

When a new road is to be built, or an old road rebuilt, the profile
should be established and the curves piotted by a competent engineer.
The sharp curves and steep grades should be eliminated by a proper
alignment or by cuts and fills. When a grade exceeds 6 feet in 100
feet, it is considered excessive for heavy traffic. A curve with less
than a 200-foot radius is considered dangerous for fast traffic. Em-
bankments, trees, and shrubs which obscure the line of sight on
sharp curves should be cut back in order that rapidly moving vehi-
cles approaching each other may be able to pass without accident.

In selecting the location for a new road, low, swampy ground or
ground subject to overflow should be avoided. The road should be
located on solid ground. In mountainous or hilly sections it should
be located on the sidehill slopes, with southern or western exposure,
where the natural drainage is good, and not in creek or river bottoms.

The road should be as straight as possible, but a good grade is pre-
ferred to straightness. Generally a road should be located around
long steep inclines instead of over them. If this is impracticable
then the length of the road up the incline should be increased suffi-
ciently to obtain a good grade. Dangerous railroad grade crossings
should be avoided by relocation of the road or by overhead bridges
or underpasses.

Plate IV, figure 2, illustrates the relocation of an old road. To the
right is shown the old earth road, with such characteristic features
as steep grades, poor alignment, dangerous grade crossings, unsafe
wooden bridge, and inadequate drainage. The dilapidated farm
buildings and the old district schoolhouse featured on the model,
with their unsightly and insanitary surroundings, are the usual
accompaniment of such a road. ‘To the left is shown the new road,
located on higher ground, along sidehill slopes, with easy grades and
pleasing, practical alignment. The grade crossing has been elimi-
nated. <A bridge and permanent culverts have been built and good
drainage provided as well as a well constructed and maintained
macadam surface. The sightly farm buildings and attractive con-
solidated district schoolhouse are supplied with pure water by means
of windmill and reservoir.

FOUNDATION, OR SUBGRADE, AND SHOULDERS.

In the construction of all types of gravel or macadam roads it is
necessary, in order to obtain the most economical results, to prepare
the foundation, or subgrade, and shoulders of the road carefully.
After the subgrade has been properly shaped and before any broken
stone or other material is put on, it should be thoroughly rolled and
compacted. Water-puddling may be resorted to in case the soil

8 BULLETIN 220, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

requires it. All hollows and depressions which develop during the
rolling should be filled with good material. If soft or spongy places
develop during the rolling, the soft or spongy material should be
taken out and replaced with good material and the subgrade again
rolled. This process of filling and rolling is repeated until no depres--
sions develop and the subgrade has been brought to its proper ele-
vation, which is as much below the established grade as the thickness
of the surfacing course to be used. The shoulders ought also to be
rolled in the same manner, but in places where the character of the
material makes the use of a heavy roller impracticable, a lighter
roller may be used. The shoulders are built at the same time as the
subgrade and with it form a trench to hold the surfacmg material.
They may be built either by excavation or by piling up earth as the
work progresses. The shoulders also serve to widen the road for the
passing of vehicles. They are usually given a sharper slope than
the paved portion of the road.

Plate V, figure 1, shows a model illustrating several methods of
road drainage. It will be noted that the roadbed is located partly in
a cut and partly on a sidehill.

Section A shows a surface ditch (h) at the top of the slope, a side
drain (c) opening into a culvert (a) with a drop inlet (6), a telford
base, a section of guard rail (g), and a shoulder drain (d).

The surface water falling on a large area sloping toward the road is
often kept from the road and out of the road gutters, where it usually
does considerable damage, by a surface ditch such as (h). The side
ditch (e) is used to gather the water originating on or along a roadway
and to carry it to poimts of outlet. As a general rule the bottom of
the ditch is lower than the low point on the subgrade of the road.
The size of the ditch varies with the amount of water it is necessary to
accommodate. The shape of the ditch varies with climatic, soil, and
topographic conditions. The side drain (c) is constructed to carry off
the ground water which is often found in hilly sections. In the model
the trench is represented to be 2} feet deep, 12 inches wide at the
bottom, and 18 inches wide at the top. On the bottom of the trench
is placed tile pipe, usually 6 inches in diameter. The pipe is laid
without cement, and loose stone is carefully filled around the sides
and top of the pipe to the top of the trench. The side drain empties
in some suitable outlet. For example, the one in this model empties
in a drop inlet (6), which also serves as an outlet to the surface and
side ditches. The drop inlet empties into a culvert (a), which carries
the water under the road. This type of inlet prevents the bank from
sliding and closing the culvert, which sometimes happens in hilly
sections.

The purpose of the shoulder drain (d) is to permit water to escape
from the subgrade during or immediately after the construction of a

ROAD MODELS. 9

gravel, macadam, or other road of crushed stone. These drains are
generally a little deeper than the subgrade and slope toward the side
ditches, to which they carry the water. They are filled with crushed
stone to a depth of 6 or 8 inches and are covered over with earth. The
shoulder drains are required in clay soils and are placed at the low
points in the grade as well as at frequent intervals on flat grades.

The telford base is extensively used in locations on swampy or
marshy ground.

The guard rail shown in the model is desirable along steep slopes to
protect travelers. The fence is painted to prolong its life. The
white color enables the public to discern it at night. The posts are
about 6 inches in diameter and about 7 feet long, and are set in the
ground to a depth of 34 feet. About 18 inches from the ground a
plank, 2 by 6 inches, is notched into the posts. The top rail is then
placed about 18 inches above the top edge of this plank. It may be
either 4 by 4 ich timber, notched into the top of the post, or a plank,
2 by 6 inches, spiked to the top of the post, which has been sawed off
to a slope of 3 inches.

Section B shows a V drain base with a side outlet.

The V drain base, when used in through cuts, is cheaper than the
telford method with two side drains, especially in a section of country
where field stone abounds. It, like the telford, is often used in wet
and spongy ground. The water flows to and along the point of the
V drain (i) until a suitable outlet can be secured. The center is
usually excavated 2 feet and the sides about 16 inches below the
finished grade. The material excavated is thrown to the sides,
forming the shoulders. In swamp sections it is sometimes necessary
to haul material for the shoulders. The V drain is then filled with
stone to a depth of 18 inches at the center and 10 inches at the sides.
These stones grade from 8 inches in thickness down to a few inches.
The large-sized stones are placed at the bottom, while the small stones
are used at the top. The surface should then be rolled and the
surfacing material spread and rolled. V drains are sometimes built
of brickbats, slag, or even sand, or any material that will permit the
water to seep rapidly to the point of the V. This type of construction
permits the use of field stone of an inferior type and assists in clearing
many farm lands of an otherwise waste product.

Section C shows a center drain with laterals and cobble gutters.

The center drain with laterals, sometimes called a blind or French
drain, furnishes another mode of draining the foundation of a road.
As with the V drain, the water is brought to the center of the road
and conducted to some suitable outlet. The model shows these
drains about 2 feet deep, about 12 inches wide at the bottom, and
about 18 inches wide at the top. - A drain tile is placed at the bottom

87538°—Bull. 220—15 2

10 BULLETIN 220, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the trench, which is then filled with stones from a few inches up to
8 inches in thickness.

The cobble gutters (f) show an effective way of carrying away sur-
face water on steep grades. The stones vary in thickness from 8 to
12 inches and are laid on asand or gravel base. They are well rammed
and given a coat of sand, which is carefully swept in, and then the
stones are rammed again. These gutters are easily cleaned and
carry the water along rapidly without damage to the road by washing.

EARTH AND SAND-CLAY ROADS.

The mileage of roads in the United States is so great and the traffic
on many of the country roads so light that it will be impossible and
impracticable for years to come to improve more than a small per-
centage of the roads with a hard surface. This does not mean, how-
ever, that all other roads should be neglected. They should, as rap-
idly as possible, be improved to the extent warranted by their
importance. The common clay roads may be greatly improved by
a little judicious grading and systematic maintenance.

Frequently, especially in the South, many of the country roads
may be improved, for all practical purposes, by incorporating sand
or clay, as the case may require, with the surface soil of the road.
Thousands of miles of sand-clay roads have already been built in the
Southern States at an average cost of about $750 per mile. These
roads meet the present needs of many localities as well as would a
more expensive form of construction.

EARTH ROADS.

Plate V, figure 2, illustrates the construction and maintenance of
an earth road.

Section A shows the old and unimproved roadbed. The surface is
characteristic of altogether too many earth roads. The center is
lower than the sides, which makes it impossible for the water to run
toward the ditches; and even if this were possible there are no road-
side ditches to carry it away. In consequence, the road is usually
full of ruts and mudholes. |

Section B illustrates a section of earth road under improvement,
with a road machine or grader. The width of the section shown is
equivalent to about 33 feet of finished surface from ditch to ditch.
The use of a reversible road machine is shown in opening roadside
ditches and in shaping the road surface so that it will shed water.
The work of this machine is equivalent to the labor of many men,
and it is done far better than possible with picks and shovels. An
earth road should have a width of at least 20 feet, preferably 24 to
30 feet. If the road is narrow, wagons are likely to use the center of
it and make deep ruts. The surface drainage is provided for by
giving the road an average crown or slope from center to sides of 1 inch

oe

ROAD MODELS. 11

to the foot. Side ditches should be built, as shown in section B, on
all earth roads except sandy sections, which are best when damp.
Ditches can be made and maintained with a road machine, but care
should be taken that they have a fall sufficient to carry the water
along the side of the road. Through wet and swampy land it is often
necessary to raise the roadbed above the general level of the country
in order to secure drainage.

Section C illustrates an earth road which, though surfaced by a
road machine, has rutted under heavy traffic and is being maintained
by the split-log drag. In the road illustrated by sections,B and C
the crown or slope from the center to the sides is equivalent to 1 inch
to the foot.

For continuous maintenance the split-log drag shown on the
model has been devised. This miniature drag has been built to
the same scale as the road model, 1 inch to the foot. The full-sized
drag can be made best from a log 7 or 8 inches in diameter and from
6 to 8 feet long. The log should be carefully split, and the halves,
with the flat sides vertical and facing to the front, connected by
stakes. The halves, though of the same length, are joined so that
one end of the rear half is from 16 to 20 inches nearer the center of
the road than the corresponding end of the front half. An ordinary
trace chain and a set of doubletrees are then attached in such man-
ner that when the horses move forward the drag will be pulled along
the road at an angle of about 45 degrees, with the forward end
nearest the ditch in order to move the earth toward the road center.

The drag should be light enough to be lifted by one man. The
best material is dry red cedar, though red elm and walnut are excel-
lent, while box elder, soft maple, elm, or willow are superior to oak,
hickory, or ash. A platform is usually placed on the cross stakes to
strengthen the drag and furnish a place for the driver to stand. After
a little practice a man can learn how best to shift his weight so as to
make the drag cut, spread, and pack the earth properly.

Filling the ruts by dragging up one side of the road and down the
other is all that should be undertaken the first time, but this should
be repeated after each heavy rain. As a mile of road can be dragged
in a few hours, this method of maintenance is simple and inexpensive.
If the drag is used in conjunction with the road machine, fairly
good earth roads can be built at a small expense. Dragging is done
for 50 cents per mile in some parts of the country. At this rate a
mile of earth road can be dragged once a month for $6 annually.
Some remarkable results have been accomplished with the drag
without the aid of the road machine. Farmers’ Bulletin 597,*
“The Road Drag and How to Use It,” deals fully with this subject.

1 Copies of this publication will be sent free to persons applying to the Secretary of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D. C.

12 BULLETIN 220, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SAND-CLAY ROADS.

Plate VI, figure 1, illustrates the construction of a sand-clay road
16 feet wide and 8 inches thick when compacted. The crown, as
shown, is 1 inch to the foot.

Section A represents an unimproved sand road about 33 feet wide;
section B, the road slightly rounded to receive the clay; section C,
the road covered with clay to a depth of 6 inches; section D, the
harrowing or mixing process; and section E, the completed road.
The process is as follows:

The road is first shaped, then covered with from 4 to 6 inches of
clay and worked with a disk or tooth harrow until the sand and
clay are thoroughly mixed, first dry and finally wet. The final
mixing should be done, if possible, during rainy weather. When
the mixing has been done, the surface is brought to a crown of 1
inch to the foot with the road machine or spht-log drag and covered
with a thin layer of sand. After two or three raims it may be found
necessary to apply more sand. This method produces a smooth,
cheap, and satisfactory road suitable for light traffic.

Similar results can be secured by adding sand to a clay road and
providing good surface drainage. When building on a clay foun-
dation, it is advisable to plow the clay before adding the sand in
order to insure a thorough mixing.

The failure of a sand-clay road is generally due to one of two
causes, the use of an unsuitable material or the combination of the
sand and clay in wrong proportions. The clay should be of a quality
which, while sticky, yet will mix readily with the sand and form a
firm bond after the wet mixture has been shaped and dried out.
Some clays, such as the “‘joint”’ clays, have so little of the plastic
or sticky quality that after a ram they quickly separate from the
particles of sand:and make a dusty road. Where available, the
sand selected should be sharp and coarse. With regard to the pro-
portions of sand and clay, any excess of clay above the amount
necessary to fill the tiny spaces between the grains of sand will
result in a more or less muddy road. Farmers’ Bulletin 331,! ‘‘Sand-
clay and Burnt-clay Roads,” gives full information on the subject
of constructing these roads.

GRAVEL ROADS.

Plate VI, figure 2, illustrates the stages of construction for one
type of gravel road. The graded width is 33 feet and the surfaced
width is 16 feet. The crown is three-fourths inch per foot.

Section A represents the side ditches, shoulders, and the prepared
subgrade, with the center about 10 inches higher than the bottom of
the side ditch.

1 Copies of this publication will be sent free to persons applying to the Secretary of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D.C.

Bul. 220, U. S. Dept. cf Agriculture. PLATE V.

Fic. 1.—MODEL SHOWING VARIOUS METHODS OF ROAD DRAINAGE.

PLATE VI.

Bul. 220, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Fic. 1.—MODEL OF A SAND-CLAY ROAD.

Fic. 2.—MODEL OF A GRAVEL ROAD.

Bul. 220, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.

Es
rae
Uae

PLATE VIII.

Bul. 220, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

MIXING METHOD.

MODEL OF A BITUMINOUS MACADAM ROAD—

1.

Fia

Fia. 2.—MobDEL SHOWING A ROCK-ASPHALT MACADAM ROAD.

ROAD MODELS. 3

Section B shows the first course of gravel spread and rolled to a

thickness of about 4 inches at the center and 3 inches at the sides.

Section C represents the finished road after the second course of
gravel has been spread and compacted. The second course when
compacted is 2 inches in thickness at the center and 14 inches at the
sides.

Many gravels as found in nature are not suitable for use on the
road, unless modified by the addition or elimination of certain ma-
terials. The products of some pits are deficient in bonding materials,
such as sand or clay, and at: the same time may have an excess
oflarge pebbles. In general, the gravel should be screened and the
graded material laid in courses according to the manner of macadam
road construction. .

MACADAM ROADS.

WATER-BOUND MACADAM ROADS.

Plate VII, figure 1, illustrates the construction of a water-bound
macadam road 16 feet wide, 6 inches thick at the center, and 4 inches
thick at the sides when rolled. The crown cf the finished road as
shown is one-half inch to the foot. The road is graded for a width of
33 feet.

Section A represents the prepared subgrade properly crowned and
rolled; section B, the first course of broken stone, 4 inches thick
compacted; section C, the second course, 2 inches thick compacted;
and section D, the finished road.

In preparing for the construction of a road of this type, the pro-
cedure given on page 7, for foundation, or subgrade, and shoulders,
should be followed. After the subgrade has been prepared, a layer
of broken stone of approved size and quality for the first or bottom
course should be spread evenly over it to such depth that it shall
have, when rolled, the required thickness. The depth of the loose
stone may be gauged by laying upon the subgrade cubical blocks of
wood of the proper size, and spreading the stone evenly to conform
to them.

The roller should be run along the edge of the stone backward and
forward several times on each side of the road before rolling the
center. If a filler is desired for the bottom course it should be clean,
coarse sand, or stone screenings supplemented by the product of the
crusher not otherwise used in top or bottom courses. It should be
spread uniformly over the surface and then swept in and rolled dry,
This process must be continued until no more will go in dry, when
the surface should be sprinkled to more effectually fill the voids. Any
irregularities or depressions may be made good with broken stone of
the size used in the bottom course, and screenings or filler should not
be used for this purpose.

14 BULLETIN 220, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The second or top course should be spread on the bottom course to
such depth that it shall have, when completed, the required thickness.
Blocks of wood of proper size may be used to gauge the depth of the
loose stone. Care must be taken to preserve the grade and crown,
also to prevent a wavy surface, and all irregularities and depressions
ought to be made up with stone the size of the top-course stone.:
After the surface is true to line, grade, and cross-section, and rolled
until the stone ceases to wave in front of the roller, it should be
covered with a light coating of screenings, spread on dry, rolled, and
swept in. The filler for the top course must be of top-course stone
screenings in which the percentage of dust is not excessive. The
" spreading, sweeping, and rolling in of screenings should be continued
until no more will go in dry, after which it is best to sprinkle the road
until the top course is saturated. The sprinkler is then followed by
the roller. More screenings should be added if necessary, and the
sweeping, sprinkling, and rolling continued until a grout has been
formed of the screenings, stone dust, and water that shall fill all the
voids in the top course and shall form a wave before the wheels of
the roller.

When the wave of grout has been produced over the whole section
of the road this portion of the road should be left to dry, after which
it can be opened to travel. Enough screenings should be spread on
top of the macadam to leave a wearing surface about three-eighths
of an inch thick.

A miniature steam roller is shown in Plate I of this bulletin. For
further information on the subject of macadam roads, Farmers’ Bul-
letin 338,! ‘‘Macadam Roads,” may be of interest.

BITUMINOUS MACADAM ROADS.

Since the coming of the automobile, the resulting aggravation of
the dust nuisance, and the consequent raveling of the water-bound
macadam roads, numerous methods have been devised to secure a
lasting road surface reasonably free from dust and at the same time
within the financial means available for main-line country roads.

While the several methods differ greatly as to name and the details
of carrying out the work, the fundamental aim of each is the same.
This is to secure a smooth, waterproof, and durable surface composed
of mineral aggregate, usually broken stone, bonded not only by the
mechanical interlocking of the fragments, but by a bituminous mate-
rial which coats the fragments and fills the interstices. Refined tars,
oil asphalts, and fluxed natural asphalts are the binders more com-
monly employed.

1 Copies of this publication will be sent free to persons applying to the Secretary of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D.C.

ROAD MODELS. 115)

The usual methods of construction are known as the mixing method
and the penetration method. In the mixing method a more or less
closely graded aggregate is mixed either by hand or machinery with
the proper amount of bituminous material before placing it on the
road. In the penetration method the wearing or second course of
stone is laid and rolled as in ordinary macadam; but instead of
applying the screenings, hot bituminous material is poured or sprayed
over the stone in erent quantity to coat the fragments and pene-
trate the top course to a depth of 2 or 3 inches. In each of these forms
of construction it is customary to spread a second and light application
of hot bituminous material over the surface in order to fill the exposed
voids completely and make the surface waterproof. A sufficient
quantity of pea gravel or stone chips is then added to take up any
excess of bitumen, the surface is rolled thoroughly, and the road
thrown open to traffic.

._ PENETRATION METHOD.

Plate VII, figure 2, illustrates the construction of a bituminous
macadam road according to the penetration method.

Section A represents the prepared subgrade 16 feet wide, with the
crown one-half inch to the foot; section B, the first course of No.1 stone,
4 inches in thickness when compacted after rolling. This course is
partially filled with sand or stone chips when necessary to insure a
solid foundation. Section C shows the second course of No. 2 stone,
2 inches in thickness when compacted after rolling; section D, the
application of bitumimous material at the rate of about 14 saillans to
the square yard; section H, a coating of stone chips <ohhon has been
rolled; section F, seal coat of bituminous material applied at the rate
of about one-half gallon per square yard; and section G, the completed
surface, with clean stone chips lightly rolled.

The construction of this road, as far as the completion of the No.
1 and No. 2 courses, is the same as an ordinary macadam road.
From that point it varies from the method of construction of a
macadam road in that hot bituminous material is flushed into the
No. 2.course before the screenings are applied.

MIXING METHOD.

Plate VIII, figure 1, illustrates the construction of a bituminous
aiaeereiin noel secording to the mixing method.

Section A shows the prepared saihennils 16 feet wide, with the
crown three-eighths inch to the foot; section B, the foundation course
of No. 1 stone compacted to a depth of Thond 4 inches. ‘This course
is partially filled with sand or stone chips, as shown in model, when
necessary to insure a solid foundation. Section C shows the wearing
course before and after rolling, consisting of a properly proportioned

16 BULLETIN 220, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

mixture of stone and bituminous material. The stone may be the
product of the crusher ranging in size from that which will be retained
on a screen having circular openings one-half inch in diameter to that
which will pass a screen having circular openings 14 inches in diameter.
Stone of this size will require from 18 to 20 gallons of bituminous
material per cubic yard of stone.

The wearing course is laid to a depth of 34 inches loose, which will
compact to a thickness of about 2 inches by rollmg. Section D shows
the application of a seal coat of hot bituminous material and clean
stone chips, and section E shows the finished surface after final
rolling.

SURFACE TREATMENT.

The surface treatment of an old macadam road with bituminous
material is shown in Plate IX, figure 1.

Section A shows a disintegrated macadam surface; section B, the
surface after sweeping; section C, the application of bituminous ma-
terial at the Fate of about one-half gallon per square yard; and section
D, the application of pea gravel or stone chips to the treated surface,
completing the treatment.

Before any application of bitumimous material is made all loose
material should be removed and the road surface should be free from
dust, clean and dry. The bituminous material is applied either hot
or cold, depending upon the consistency of the material. It may be
poured by hand, or by means of a mechanical distributor, and. in the
former case should be thoroughly broomed into the surface, in order
to secure perfect adhesion. Enough stone chips or pea gravel
should then be applied to take up any excess bituminous material
that may be left on the surface.

RESURFACING MACADAM ROADS.

Plate IX, figure 2, illustrates the reconstruction of a macadam road
after it has become badly worn. The macadam width as shown is 16
feet, and the crown is one-half inch to the foot.

Section A represents the worn macadam surface; section B, the
surface after spiking; section C, the road after it has been recrowned;
section D, the application of new stone of No. 2 size, compacted to 3
inches after rolling; section E, the application of bituminous material
by the penetration method at the rate of about 14 gallons per square
yard; section F’, a coating of stone chips which has been rolled; sec-
tion G, a seal coat of bituminous material averaging about one-half
gallon. per square yard; and section H, the finished surface covered
with stone chips or pea gravel.

This model illustrates the usual custom of restoring a macadam
road which has become badly worn and rutted, owing to excessive
travel and lack of maintenance.

a

Bul. 220, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |X.

Fic. 1.—MODEL SHOWING REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE OF MACADAM
ROADS—SURFACE TREATMENT.

Fig. 2.—MODEL SHOWING REPAIR OF A MACADAM ROAD—RESURFAGCING ROAD,

Bul. 220, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X,

Fic. 1.—MODEL SHOWING CEMENT CONCRETE ROAD.

Fia. 2.—MoDEL OF A BITUMINOUS CONCRETE ROAD— TOPEKA”’ SPECIFICATION.

ROAD MODELS. 7,
ROCK-ASPHALT MACADAM ROADS.

Plate VIII, figure 2, represents a rock-asphalt macadam road sur-
faced to a width of 16 feet. The macadam is compacted to a total
depth of 84 inches and the crown is made one-half inch to the foot.
The rock asphalt is spread on the road at the rate of 80 pounds to
the square yard.

Section A represents the prepared subgrade; section B, the first
course of stone, ranging in size from 2 to 3 inches, with a depth of 3
inches when compacted; section C, the second course of stone,
ranging in size from 2 to 3 inches, filled with stone chips or sand, and
having a depth of 3 inches when compacted; section D, the third
course of stone, ranging in size from 14 to 24 inches, with a depth of
24 inches when compacted; section E, the rock asphalt, to the extent
of 40 pounds per square yard, or about three-fourths inch loose,
raked and rolled in to fill the voids; and section F shows the finished
surface, composed of rock asphalt, spread at the rate of 40 pounds per
square yard, which is equivalent to a course about three-fourths inch
thick before rolling.

CEMENT CONCRETE ROADS.

Concrete roads are a comparatively new development in the effort
to find a material which will successfully withstand both automobile
and horse-drawn traffic. Concrete pavements were laid first in 1869
in Grenoble, France, where many streets are still paved with this
material. In this country the first use of the concrete pavement was
probably in Bellefontaine, Ohio, where several sections were laid in
1893 and 1894.

A large mileage of concrete roads has been built in Wayne County,
Mich. These roads are built of a 1:14:3 mixture throughout, with a
minimum thickness of 7 inches. The width of the surfaced roadway
varies from 9 to 24 feet. The county road officials are very well
pleased with this form of construction, and are building many more
miles of it.

In other instances a leaner concrete is used, and the surface pro-
tected by a cushion coat of some bituminous binder with sand, fine
eravel, or screenings. This surface coating is renewed as often as
may be necessary.

Plate X, figure 1, illustrates the construction of a concrete road
eraded to a width of 33 feet and paved to a width of 16 feet. The
concrete is placed to a depth of 7 inches in the center and 4 inches at
the sides. The crown of the road is three-eighths inch to the foot.
Section A represents the prepared subgrade; section B the fresh con-
crete placed in position, mixed in the proportion of 1:12:3; section
C, a 2-inch earth blanket, placed to minimize evaporation while cur-

18 BULLETIN 220, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ing; section D shows various types of expansion joints, namely,
wood, felt, and bituminous filler; section E, the bituminous carpet
coat consisting of one-third to one-half gallon of bituminous material
per square yard and sufficient ‘‘torpedo”’ sand or stone chips to pro-

vide a satisfactory wearing surface.
BITUMINOUS CONCRETE ROADS—“‘TOPEKA SPECIFICATION.”

Plate X, figure 2, represents a type of bituminous concrete con-
struction. It is preferably laid over a concrete base to the depth
shown, but is frequently constructed over a well-consolidated mac-
adam or crushed-stone base.

Section A shows the subgrade; section. B, the concrete foundation
composed of broken stone or gravel concrete mixed in the propor-
tion 1:3:7 and having a finished thickness of 6 inches. Section C
demonstrates the manner of constructing the curbs. It also shows
the joint left at the end of each day’s work. Section D. shows the
layer of bituminous concrete before and after rolling. The compo-
sition of this concrete is commonly as follows:

Per cent.
Bitumen:solubleantcarbongbisul phd cos s== sess seen lee eee = 7-11
Mineral ageregate passing a) 2-meshi sieve: 245-22 5.55-- see. aa eee 100
Passing 2-mesh sieve and retained on 4-mesh sieve. .........---------------- 5-10
Passing 4-mesh sieve and retained on 10-mesh sieve. .........----- PB se rhea 8-22
Passing 10-mesh sieve and retained on 40-mesh sieve. ......--...-.---------- 25-55
Passing 40-mesh sieve and retained on 200-mesh sieve. .......-...----------- 18-30
PASSO 2 OOH IN OSHASTC Vem ape as oon ny oe eee nn Sate eae ee cree cere ees 5-11

Section E shows the application of a seal coat with stone chip
dressing. The amount of bitumimous material applied should not
exceed one-half gallon to the square yard, and the seal coat is fre-
quently omitted when the bituminous concrete is sufficiently dense to
warrant the omission.

Section F shows the finished surface.

PAVED ROADS OTHER THAN CONCRETE.

Paved roads are sometimes advisable where there is heavy traffic.
The materials which have been adapted to country roads during the
past years are brick, asphalt block, granite block, and a small stone
block extensively used in Germany and known as ‘‘kleinpflaster.”’

A good paving brick laid on a sand cushion with a substantial con-
crete foundation makes a road well adapted to both horse-drawn and
motor traffic. The first cost of such a road is generally high, but
this is largely offset by its durability and low maintenance cost.

Asphalt blocks are molded from sand, broken stone, and asphalt
under pressure into rectangular blocks, which are laid on a concrete
foundation somewhat in the same manner as brick. The asphalt
blocks are more resilient than the brick and consequently more free

ROAD MODELS. 19

from noise. They have as yet not been used to any great extent on
the country roads of the United States. The small sett, or ‘‘klein-
pflaster,’’ pavement of Germany is as yet almost unknown in this
country. <A hard, tough rock, preferably basalt or diabase, is broken
by machinery into cubes 3 to 4 inches in size. These are placed on
a light sand cushion, with a concrete or old macadam base as founda-
tion. In Germany they are generally laid in an oyster shell or mosaic
pattern, while in Hungary and Austria they are laid in rows at
45 degrees to the axis of the road. This pavement may be laid at a
fairly low first cost, is not expensive to maintain, is neither noisy nor
slippery, and is well adapted to mixed traffic.

ASPHALT-BLOCK ROADS.

Plate XI, figure 1, represents an asphalt-block road.

Section A shows the subgrade, and beginning with section B is
shown the concrete curb. Section B shows the concrete base 6 inches
thick, mixed in the proportion 1:3:7; section C, the cement mor-
tar bed, one-half inch thick, composed of 1 part of slow-setting
Portland cement and 4 parts of sand; section D, the asphalt block
surface. The asphalt blocks are 5 inches wide, 12 inches long, and
2 inches thick. In section E the surface has been covered with sand
which has been screened through a 4-inch mesh screen. This sand
carpet is used to fill the joints between the blocks, and should be
allowed to remain for 30 days. The surface should then be swept
clean.

BRICK ROADS.

Plate XI, figure 2, illustrates the construction of a 28-foot road-
way, 14 feet of which is a brick road with 6-inch concrete curbings.
There is a 3-foot earth shoulder along one edge of the brick roadway,
and the remaining 11 feet form an earth road on the opposite side.
The earth road has a slope toward its ditch of 1 inch to the foot.
The outer 11 feet of the brick roadway has a slope of three-eighths
inch to the foot, but the slope of the inner 3 feet is less, forming the
crown of the road. The earth road is preferred in dry weather by
many drivers of horses.

Section A illustrates the prepared subgrade for the brick roadway;
section B, the concrete curbing placed along the edges of the pave-
ment; section C, a stone base 6 inches deep, and section D, a con-
crete base 6 inches deep. Hither of these bases may be used, although
the concrete is generally preferable. This base course of the road
may vary in thickness from 4 to 8 inches, according to soil condi-
tions, but 6 inches is in most general use. Section E shows the sand
cushion, about 2 inches deep; section F, the brick laid and rolled but
not grouted; section G, the expansion joint between the brick and

20 BULLETIN 220, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the curb; and section H illustrates the grouted brick surface ready
for travel. In addition, a properly constructed mixing box is shown,
in which the grout is prepared.

CULVERTS AND BRIDGES.

The first highway bridges in this country were constructed of wood
and required much attention for repairs and renewals. Later,
wrought and cast iron were combined with wood in what became
known as combination bridges. The present general demand for
structures composed of more permanent materials is due largely to
the expense and inconvenience of maintaining those of wood or com-
bined wood and iron. In many sections there is also need for stronger
bridges because of the increase in weight of traffic. Steel possesses
the requisite strength, but it is subject to rust and rapid deterioration
if not protected with a durable covering. Portland cement concrete
is quite free from objectionable qualities, and by skillfully combining
steel and concrete in highway bridges it is possible to utilize the good
features of each material, and at the same time overcome their dis-
advantages. Reinforced concrete bridges may be made strong and
durable. The concrete can be cast in any shape, and the surface
finished i many different ways to secure a pleasing appearance.
Such bridges cost more in the beginning, but practically nothing to
maintain, while those of wood, or steel not incased in concrete,
require frequent painting and renewal of parts.

Culverts constructed of stone and concrete are generally superior
to those made of pipe and are less lable to injury by freezing. Hard-
burned bricks are suitable for culvert material in localities where
they are cheap and where stone or concrete materials are not easily
available. Brick culverts are not so durable as those made of stone
or concrete, especially in cold climates, where freezing is likely to
occur.

Plate XII, figure 1, represents a bridge of the incased I-beam type,
haying a span of 24 feet, height of 6 feet, and width of roadway of 20
feet. The steel I-beams are 18 inches in depth, weigh 55 pounds per
linear foot, and are spaced 3 feet 3 inches apart. The concrete is
held firmly to the bottoms of the beams by wires of No. 10 gauge in
the form of vertical loops spaced 8 inches apart. Lettered cards are
used to designate the parts, as follows:

A, 64-inch reinforced concrete floor slab; B, 4-inch twisted steel
bars, spaced 8 inches apart and resting on the I-beams; C, steel I-
beams; E, wooden forms (framing 3 by 6 inches, 3 feet on centers;
boards 14 by 8 inches); F, parapet and railing; G, wing walls (top
thickness, 12 inches, bottom thickness varies with height of wall,
generally not less than four-tenths of height); H, footing (course
obtaimed by adding 1 foot to thickness of abutment wall at base,

Bul. 220, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI.

Fic. 2.—MODEL OF A BRICK ROAD.

Bul. 220, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII.

Fic. 1.—MobDEL SHOWING REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGE—INCASED I-BEAM TYPE.

Culvert
jared ae j

poi

on
—
ee

Fia. 2.—MODEL SHOWING REINFORCED CONCRETE CULVERT—SLAB TYPE.

Bul. 220, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE XIII.

MopDEL SHOWING ROADSIDE TREATMENT.

ROAD MODELS. Dak

depth made such that footing will extend to rock, hardpan, or other
suitable foundation material; where rock is not found the depth is
governed by character of soil and topographical features).

The concrete is made of Portland cement, clean sand, and hard
broken stone or gravel, mixed in the following proportions:

Superstructure, 1:2:4 (size of stone, } to 1 inch).
Abutments above footings, 1:24:5 (size of stone, + to 24 inches).
Footings, 1:3:6 (size of stone, + to 24 inches).

Plate XII, figure 2, represents a reinforced concrete culvert having
a span of 8 feet and height of 4 feet, with 24-foot width of roadway.
Lettered cards are used to designate the parts, as follows:

A, reinforced concrete floor slab, 104 inches in thickness; B,
=-inch twisted steel bars, 14 inches from the underside of the floor
slab, spaced 6 inches center to center and parallel to the center line
of the roadway (there are also 4-inch twisted steel bars, 12 inches
center to center, extending the full width of the bridge perpendicu-
larly to the center line of the roadway); C, abutment wall (thickness ~
at top, 13 inches; thickness at base, 1 foot 10 inches); D, wing walls
(thickness at top, 10 inches; thickness at base, 1 foot 1 inch to 2 feet

4 inches); EH, forms (framing, 2 by 4 inches, 3 feet on centers;
boards, 1? by 8 inches); F, pipe railing (2-inch galvanized-iron pipe
protected by painting); G, concrete parapet (top thickness, 1 foot
6 inches) ; H, footing (2 feet 6 inches wide by 3 feet or more in depth,
depending on foundation material).

The concrete is made of Portland cement, clean sand, and hard
broken stone or gravel, mixed in the following proportions:

Superstructure, 1:2:4 (size of stone, + to 1 inch).

Abutments above footings, 1:24:5 (size of stone, 4 to 24 inches).
Footings, 1:3:6 (size of stone, } to 24 inches).

Any kind of surfacing or pavement may be used over these bridges.
ROADSIDE TREATMENT.

Plate XIII has been designed to emphasize various methods of
roadside treatment. Well-trimmed trees furnish shade along the
roads and aid in preventing the road surfaces from drying out and
raveling. Neat signposts stand at the crossroads, and in place of a
fence the house lawn is divided from the road by a sightly hedge.
The use of the guardrail is shown, with the concrete retaining wall
where the road follows the creek bank. A well-constructed con-
crete arch bridge is a feature of the model. The slopes of the fill
extending from the bridge to the crossroad are sodded to prevent
slides. Traffic on the fill is protected by double guardrails.

The schoolhouse represents a type of the modern consolidated
country school. Its concrete walk to the road furnishes a good

22 BULLETIN 220, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

example in the use of the small culvert where the walk leads over
the ditch before reaching the road. ‘This same use of the culvert is
made at the driveway entrance to the house. Architectural features
of Monticello, the former home of Thomas Jefferson, were followed
in the construction of this dwelling. The rustic summer house and
the spring house in its cool white furnish pleasing sights across the
fields, which have been cleared of undergrowth and left with only a
few well-placed trees and shrubs.

ROAD MACHINERY.

Many good roads were built before the invention of road-building
machinery, but modern machinery has done much to simplify the
process and reduce the cost of road construction. The power-driven
road roller has made possible the construction of a macadam road in
a few days or weeks, where formerly traffic was required to make its.
way laboriously over the loose stones for months before the surface
became even’ reasonably consolidated.

The steam road roller was invented by M. Louis Lemoine, of Bor-
deaux, France. The French Government granted him a patent in
1859. The first English patent was granted to Messrs. Clark and
Bathe in 1863. The first steam road roller used in the United States
was imported from England in 1868, and its first use was on the
United States arsenal grounds in Philadelphia.

The stone crusher has greatly reduced the labor of preparing broken
stone. It was the invention, in 1858, of Eli Whitney Blake, of New
Haven, Conn. He was a nephew of Eh Whitney, the inventor of the
cotton gin. Mr. Blake’s crusher was used first in Central Park, New
York City, m crushing rock for concrete. In 1859 the city of Hart-
ford, Conn., purchased one of these crushers for use in the improve-
ment of its streets androads. This was the first successful application
of mechanical power to breaking stone for road-building purposes.

CRUSHER PLANT.

Figure 1, represents a portable stone-crusher plant. A crusher
plant is indispensable in the construction of first-class broken-stone
roads, and if such work is to be done well and cheaply the plant must
be complete and conveniently arranged.

Sometimes the crusher can be located so near the quarry that the
rock may be sent down grade in tramears and delivered to the mouth
of the crusher by gravity, thus saving much hand labor. The crusher
should be provided with an elevator for delivering the broken stone
to the screen, which separates the material into proper sizes. The
screen should be in three sections. The first section usually contains
openings 1 inch in diameter. Through these openings the fragments
of stone known as “screenings” drop into a bin corresponding to

ROAD MODELS. ea

that marked A in the model. The openings of the second section of
screen are 2 inches in diameter. The stones which pass through these
openings into bin B are called No.2 stone. The third or last section of
sereen has 3-inch openings, passing No. 1 stone into bin C. The tail-
ings, or larger stones, will be forced through the opening at the end
of the screen, from which they will drop into the tailings conveyor,
to be crushed finally or eliminated from the work. The jaws of the
crusher should be set so as to make as few tailings as possible. The
sizes of these screen openings may vary, according to the quality of
the stone. For instance, in crushing a hard stone, the openings of
each section may be of slightly smaller diameter, since it is customary

Fia. 1.—Model of portable crushing plant in operation.

to crush a hard stone to somewhat smaller grades than a softer
material.

When soft stones are being crushed, a dust jacket having a }-inch
mesh may be placed over the first section to eliminate dust from the
screenings. The bins A, B, and C, for receiving the various sizes of
crushed rock, should be provided with slanting metal bottoms and
sliding doors, so that the material may be loaded into wagons by
eravity.

Two types of crusher are commonly used, one the jaw crusher,
shown in figure 1, and the other the gyratory crusher. The Jaw
crusher is generally used for portable plants. In this machine one of
the jaws moves backward and forward by means of a toggle jomt
and an eccentric, and the stone descends as the Jaw recedes. As the

24 BULLETIN 220, U. 5S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

jaw returns it grips the stone and crushes it. The maximum size of
the product is determined by the distance between the jaw plates at
the lower edge.

The essential feature of the gyratory crusher consists of a per-
pendicular iron shaft which revolves with an eccentric motion.
Around the top of the shaft, which is conically shaped, is a hollow
iron receptacle somewhat resembling an inverted bell. By the
eccentric motion of the shaft the conical portion crushes the rock
alternately against different sides of the inner surface of the bell.

Fig. 2.—Model of road grader.
ROAD GRADERS.

Figure 2 shows in miniature a road grader which is used in building
earth roads and in preparing the subgrade for hard-surfaced roads.
The frame supports an adjustable scraper blade, the front end of
which may be used to plow a furrow, while the rear end pushes the
earth along the surface of the blade toward the center of the road or
distributes it smoothly. The blade may be set at any angle or tilted
either backward or forward according to the work to be done.

It is advisable to use the grader when the ground is soft, preferably
in the early summer, in order to give the loose earth time to settle
and pack before the fall rains begin. If the work is done in the fall
not more than 3 or 4 inches of loose earth should be put on at one
working.

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C,

AT

( 15 CENTS PER COPY
V

BULLETIN OF THE

USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICUETURE ©

No. 221

=)

Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief.
June 16, 1915.
(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

THE SOUTHERN CORN LEAF-BEETLE.'

By E. O. G. Kztty,
Entomological Assistant, Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations.

CONTENTS.
Page Page
MMPLOCICHIOM ss = sees. a. eee Sole. sees Me MCropsidamacedaaces seers seen eee eee 8
(EMIS COMy eee tne tena cr os cetinnsseceeu ee, 2H | AMDASSOTUMT Ay 1O a enya sot ee aera Sen etree 9
Mash mblons says 42 66 Noort ace of be k acl. Sie RVC TIE CICS a ee yin creer Nei Shui iy tic ana rpaiae te 9
Description and life-history notes.......-.--- S} |} ILauCieNqbi® iol se oeeeseeocésococeoeacosoea 10
INTRODUCTION.

The southern corn leaf-beetle (Myochrous denticollis Say) has
become a pest of considerable importance during the last few years
and has commanded the attention of entomologists on several occa-
sions. Although the habits
of this beetle are not fully iG ee

known, it seems advisable
to publish the known facts
and suggest possible rem-
edies.

The writer’s attention
was first called to the de-
structive habits of these
beetles in the summer of
1905, while investigating Fig. 1.—Map showing distribution of the southern corn
insects injurious to corn in leaf-beetle (Myochrous denticollis) in the United States.
southern Illinois. At that ‘C™™”
time numbers of adults were found feeding on grains of roasting ears
in cornfields in the bottom lands of the Ohio River. Since being
located by the Bureau of Entomology in southern Kansas the writer
has watched this little beetle and as occasion offered made close
investigation of its habits and life history. The occurrence of

1 Myochrous denticollis Say; order Coleoptera, family Chrysomelide.
~NotE.—This bulletin is of especial interest to entomologists in the southern half of the United States.
87709°—Bull. 221—15

2 BULLETIN 221, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

numbers of beetles near Wellington, Kans., in 1910, and again in
1913, together with an outbreak in northern Texas in the spring of
1910, and in eastern Arkansas in 1913 and 1914, afforded material
and opportunity for further extensive investigations.

Numbers of the larvee have from time to time been found in the
soil, always in close proximity to corn roots which were more or
less eaten, but in no instance have they actually been observed feed-
ing on corn roots, although especial attention has been given their

feeding habits.
HISTORY.

In the Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1887, Prof.
¥. M. Webster (Webster, 1887), then a special agent of the Division
of Entomology, stated that beetles were observed in Louisiana
during April in considerable numbers in fields of young corn. They
were found in soil about the stems and attacking the young corn
plants by gnawing the outside of the stems, without doing serious
injury. His report on a later outbreak at Cheshire, Ohio, in 1900,
was the first record of their having done serious damage (Webster,
1900). Since that time, however, they have been reported as having
done serious injury at several points in Kansas, notably in the
vicinity of Douglas, in 1905, as reported by E. S. Tucker (Tucker,
1905). The writer observed that they did considerable damage to
young corn at Wellington, Kans., in 1910 and 1913, and severe dam-
age in the neighborhood of Paris, Ark., in 1913, where several hundred
acres of young corn were destroyed in early May, necessitating re-
planting—the second planting also suffering severely. Again, in 1914,
serious damage was done in western Arkansas, but none was recorded
in Kansas.

Mr. T. D. Urbahns reported slight injury to young corn in the
vicinity of Plano, Tex., in April, 1909. The adults were cutting the
edges of young corn leaves, leaving them quite ragged. The infested
field was one which had been planted to cotton the previous year
and was of the same type of soil as a heavy timbered stretch of black
land adjacent.

Mr. Vernon King reported that the beetles had ruined several acres
ef young corn on farms near Charleston, Mo., in May, 1913, stating
that the beetles were more numerous on black soil; in fact, none at
all was found on light sandy soil. From one to four adults were ob-
served on each plant and the plants were literally reduced to frag-
ments. (See Pl. I, figs. 1 and 2.) The infested fields were those of
recent clearing in bottom lands.

During April and early May, 1915, a second serious invasion of
this species took place in this same locality. Mr. King having re-
signed, the second investigation was carried out by Mr. E. H. Gibson,
who used the poisoned-bran bait with good success in destroying

THE SOUTHERN CORN LEAF-BEETLE. 3°

the beetles, applying it about the hills of corn where the beetles were
at work.

Observations in both Louisiana and Ohio by Prof. Webster (Web-
ster, 1901) and in Kansas, Texas, and Arkansas by the writer seem
to indicate that the insect occurs in destructive abundance on lands
that have previously been devoted to pasture or lands that have
been allowed to lapse into a semiwild condition, not having been cul-
tivated for several years.

DISTRIBUTION.

The species is widely distributed over the southern half of the
United States, extending from the extreme southeastern part of Ari-
zona to southern Texas, becoming more numerous directly north of
Brownsville, thence northward to southern Iowa, and eastward to
northern Illinois and central Ohio and to Washington, D. C., the most
southeastern point recorded being in northern Florida. This insect
has not been reported from Tennessee, North Carolina, South Caro-
lina, or Georgia, but evidently it may occur in these States. (See
map, fig. 1.)

Prof. F. M. Webster (Webster, 1901) remarks in regard to the
distribution of other species—

Myochrous squamosus ranges from northern Arizona and New Mexico to the Platte
River in Nebraska and northwest into Montana, probably through western South
Dakota and Wyoming. Myochrous longulus, the only remaining species to be men-
tioned, is known to range from southern California and Arizona northward into
Colorado, where it has been reported to Dr. Le Conte, without exact locality. It not
unlikely occurs also in Utah, although it has not yet been reported from there in the
literature, so far as I am able to learn, but in any case overlapping the territory in-
habited by Myochrous squamosus in northern Arizona and New Mexico, and also
probably in Colorado, while the latter species borders on and possibly mingles with
Myochrous denticollis in southwestern Arizona, eastern New Mexico, western Kansas,
and extreme southeastern Nebraska.

DESCRIPTION AND LIFE-HISTORY NOTES.

The insect was described by Dr. Thomas Say in 1824 (Say, 1824)
under the name of Colaspis denticollis, from specimens collected in
Missouri. Dr. Say did not mention any food plant in connection
with his description. It was first described as an insect pest to
growing corn by Prof. F. M. Webster (Webster, 1901).

THE EGG.

The ege (fig. 2) is small, oval, pale yellow, and about 0.036 of an
inch in length and 0.015 of an inch in diameter. The surface is
smooth and slightly glistening. The female deposits her eggs in
clusters of from 10 to 50 in the field, carefully placing them in small
pieces of weeds, hollow straws, in crevices, in clods of dirt, but alwys
near corn “isa.

Close searching in the neighborhood of plants other than corn has
failed to reveal them, although the beetles have been noted feeding

4 BULLETIN 221, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

on other plants at egg-laying time. In the laboratory, under arti-
ficial conditions, the eggs will hatch in from 6 to 10 days, rarely go-
ing as long as 15 days. Eggs have been observed from early April
in northern Texas till the middle of May in Kansas.

THE LARVA.

The newly-hatched larve are nearly cylindrical, about 1 mm.
long and 0.03 mm. in diameter, tapering slightly and becoming
somewhat flattened toward the posterior
extremity. They are pale yellow, except
the first thoracic segment and _ head,
which are creamy white. The head is a
little broader than the thorax, and the
body is covered with downy hairs.

Within five days after the hatching the
ee en (Orgal)_larve become a creamy white, which color
Me is retained until maturity.

The mature larvee (fig. 3) are 6 to 8 mm. in length and about 2 mm.
in diameter. The head is slightly smaller than the thorax, the body
becoming a little larger toward the anal extremity. The thoracic
segments bear stout legs, and beginning with the second abdominal
segment the next seven segments each bear a pair of ambulatory pro-
cesses (fig. 3, @) which terminate in a long hair, accompanied by four
shorter hairs. The anal plate (fig. 3, b) consists of five parts, which
are very characteristic of this species and form
a character which separates it from all other
larve of the Eumolpini group.

During the last six years the writer and
other members of the Bureau of Entomology
have been making efforts to rear the larve of
this species from egg to maturity, in order to
determine definitely its food plant and exact
life history. In the laboratory almost every
form of receptacle has been used that could
be devised, from a tiny -vial with several
kinds of food in it, fitted with blotting paper
to absorb undue moisture, Co tlowerporsyuried) | Ne oo: aaa
in the soil, which it was thought might simu- beetle: Larva. a, Ambulatory
Jate more natural conditions. age ape ee:

The list of growing plants involved in these experiments is as follows:
Cocklebur (Xanthium spinosum), smartweed (Persicaria hydropiper),
Japan clover (Lespedeza striata), crab grass (Syntherisma sanguinale),
sorghum (Sorghum vulgare), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), cotton (Gossy-
pum sp.), corn (Zea mays), wheat (Triticum vulgare), bluegrass (Poa
pratensis), pigweed (Chenopodium sp.), and barnyard grass (Echino-

THE SOUTHERN CORN LEAF-BEETLE. 5

chloa crus-galli). Kernels of wheat and corn which had been soaked
in water, pieces of decaying straws, corn pith, and toadstools were
also tried, with negative results.

A few larve, fed on a combination of decaying corn pith and
growing cornroots, failed to mature, probably for other reasons than
lack of proper food, but were sufficiently large for use in identifying
those collected in the field.

Numerous searches have been made in cornfields, wheat fields,
erass, and fields grown up with weeds, and the larve have not yet
been found feeding on plants other than corn. Larve have been
found in the soil in cornfields where cocklebur and corn plants were
erowing together, and where corn was growing alone, but in no other
situation.

The first larvee found in the field were observed by Mr. T. H.
Parks and the writer at Wellington, Kans., on July 20, 1910, in small
round earthen cells from 4 to 6 inches deep, with a tiny burrow
leading toward the cornroots, which had been more or less eaten.
The larve hastily retreated to safety and feigned death when dis-
turbed. By way of further determining this habit, a larva was
allowed to crawl on the surface of the soil, when on suddenly jarring
the soil several inches from it it hastily retreated and “folded up.”
Although a diligent search was made for feeding larve during the
following days of July and up until the middle of August, none was
found, though numbers of larve were unearthed.

The field in which the larve were first found is the dark waxy
second bottom land which becomes very gummy and sticky during
wet weather and very hard during dry weather. The outbreaks and
damage reported by Prof. Webster, Mr. Tucker, and Mr. King and
those observed by the writer in Kansas, Texas, and Arkansas have
all been on soil of this character. In sandy or light soils very few
larve or pupe have been found and correspondingly few injured
cornroots have been observed.

From the laboratory notes made at Brownsville, Tex., latitude
26°, by Mr. R. A. Vickery, it appears that the larval period probably
extends from about April 1 to about June 15, while the writer’s
observations at Plano, Tex., latitude 33°, and at Paris, Ark., latitude
35°, show that the larval period ranges from April 15 to July 1, and
at Wellington, Kans., latitude 37°, from May 1 to July 15.

In the bottom lands of the Arkansas River, near Paris, Ark., the
larve had pupated and practically all the adults had issued by July
22, 1914, indicating that they began pupating as early as July 1.
In the vicinity of Wellington, Kans., the larve began to pupate
about the middle of July, pupzx being found as early as July 20 and
as late as August 14. The period for maturing the pupa seems to
be about 15 days, although no exact data have been obtained.

6 BULLETIN 221, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE PUPA.

The first pupe (fig. 4) to be found were in earthen cells in the soil
near corn plants at depths of from 4 to 6 inches. The finding of
pup which were nearly mature at this time, some of which changed
to adults by the next morning, indicated that the larve had finished
feeding and were in their pupal cells.

The pupa is white until within one day of
maturity, when it begins to darken.

In dorsal view the head is bent ventrad;
the bristles on the head are prominent and
irregularly placed in a double row on the me-
dian dorsal line; there is a single row of setz
above the plural suture; the eighth abdom-
inal segment has a semicircular row of sete
and the anal segment is supplied with a stout,
curved spine; each abdominal segment bears
several stout sete on the dorsum. In lat-
Fic. 4.—The southern cornleaf- eral view the body is longer than wide, taper-

beetle: Pupa- (Original) ing from the fifth abdominal segment; the
antenne are directed dorsad around the femora of the two front
pairs of legs, thence backward with the tips lymg near the claws
of the middle legs and on top of them; the elytra and wings are
rather short, thick, tapering toward the tip, and folded over the
posterior legs, the tarsi of which reach the eighth segment. In
ventral view the head is as long as the thorax, directed forward,
with the front lymg between the tarsi of
the front pair of legs; the elytra and the
tarsi nearly meet ventrally, forming a deep
ventral groove. The pupa is 5 to 6 mm. long
and from 3 to 3.5 mm. wide.

THE ADULT.

To the average farmer the beetles (fig. 5)
can be recognized as small, dark brownish
beetles, more or less covered with bits of soil.
They are about three-sixteenths of an inch long ,
and about one-third as wide. They have the SRA Sergi daranec &
habit of dropping from their food plant to
the ground and hiding when disturbed, and owing to this habit they
are very rarely seen. Quite often farmers have noticed seriously
damaged young corn, the plants being literally in fragments, and
have been unable to locate the cause on account of this habit of the
beetles of dropping to the ground and hiding. It is sometimes diffi-
cult even for trained entomologists to locate them.

THE SOUTHERN CORN LEAF-BEETLE. i

Dr. Thomas Say (Say, 1824) described the adult as follows:

Body black, slightly bronzed, covered with dense, robust cinereous hairs; antennze
dull rufous at base; thorax with three equal, equidistant teeth on the lateral edge;
elytra, lateral edge minutely dentated; tip simple; anterior tibis and _ posterior
thighs one-toothed. Length, nearly one-fifth of an inch.

The beetle seems to prefer to feed early in the morning, late in the
evening, or at night, or on cloudy days; very rarely it feeds during
the heat of the day, and at this time of the day it is generally
found under clods of dirt or down beneath the leaves of the plants.

HIBERNATION.

The adult beetles issue from pupal cells about the middle of July in
central Arkansas and the Ist of August in southern Kansas, emergence
extending over a period of about one month. They do considerable
feeding on the kernels of unripe ears of corn and buds of cocklebur
before entermg hibernation, which begins early in the fall. They
have been observed by Mr. W. R. McConnell hibernating under piles
of corn husks, in fodder shocks, in cornfields, and also in clumps of
Andropogon scoparius, Andropogon virginicus, and Cyperus rotundus.
Mr. A. H. Rosenfeld (Rosenfeld, 1911) found one adult hibernating
in Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides).

Adults were found in hibernation in the fall of 1913 throughout
bottom-land cornfields near Paris, Ark., these being the same fields
that had been devastated the previous spring. In a large cotton
field adjacent to one of these cornfields beetles were found in large
numbers under piles of rubbish, in the open unpicked cotton bolls,
and a large number were found lying on the ground beneath a large
pile of recently picked cotton.

While investigating the hibernation of this insect in central Arkan-
sas the writer’s attention was called to a cotton gin from the dirt
spout of which the beetles were being shaken from cotton which was
then being brought in from the fields for ginning. A double handful
of living beetles were thus collected in a short time. The manager of
the cotton gin informed the writer that he had been noticing these
beetles since early fall and that they were more numerous in late No-
vember. This cotton gin was located in the Arkansas River bottoms
and only such cotton as was grown in the immediate vicinity was
ginned.

After leaving this locality, the writer visited a gin located near
the edge of the foothills, where both hill-land cotton and bottom-
land cotton were being ginned. The bottom-land cotton produced a
few beetles, but the upland cotton was apparently free from them.
In the town of Paris, two large cotton gins were visited and searched for
this beetle, but owing to the fact that most of the cotton they were
receiving at this time was from the hill land, none of the beetles could

8 BULLETIN 221, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

be found. However, in the pile of rubbish and dirt at the side of the
gin which had been thrown from the dirt auger several fragments of
dead beetles were found. The manager of this gin could not give
any information regarding the occurrence of the beetles. He had
noticed, however, some large brown cases which occurred rather
numerously early in the fall, probably the pupal cases of the cotton
leaf-worm (Alabama argillacea Hiibn.).

CROPS DAMAGED.

Corn is the only cultivated crop that has been known to be attacked
in sufficient numbers to cause serious damage. The beetles, upon
first emerging from hi-
bernation in the early
spring, attack very
young cocklebur and
early volunteer corn,
the crop not having been
planted at that time.
Besides corn, the
beetles have been ob-
served by the writer to
attack the young leaves
and growing shoots of
cocklebur, smartweed,
Japan clover, and crab
grass. Mr. Vickery has
observed them feeding
on sorghum and alfalfa
—on the latter plant,
however, only in rearing
cages in the laboratory.
Mr. W. R. McConnell
has found them feeding
on sorghum in the field
Fic. 6.— Young corn plant showing work of adult of the southen ond also on Alopecurus
corn leaf-beetle. (Original.) 0

geniculatus. Some of

the agents of the branch of Southern Field Crop Insect Investigations.
have observed them feeding on the cotton plant.

The ragged appearance of the corn plant (fig. 6) is indicative
of their presence, especially the notched edges of the leaves, and where
the beetles appear in sufficient numbers to devastate a field these
notches become so numerous that the plant dies. “(Plo 1)? fhe
early planting seems to be the one most seriously affected, although
the second planting on the farm of a Mr. Baskins and on other
farms near Paris, Ark., was about 50 per cent damaged in 1913, the

Bul. 221, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

svi SS wad tec TE aa is Si oS ii ad iis

Fia. 1.—CORNFIELD DEVASTATED BY ADULTS OF THE SOUTHERN CORN LEAF-BEETLE.
(FROM WEBSTER.)

Fic. 2.—CORNER OF SAME FIELD AFTER SECOND PLANTING. (FROM WEBSTER.)

WORK OF THE SOUTHERN CORN LEAF-BEETLE (MYOCHROUS
DENTICOLLIS).

Bul. 221, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.

Fig. 1.~YOUNG CORN PLANTS KILLED By ADULTS OF THE SOUTHERN CORN LEAF-
BEETLE. (ORIGINAL.)

Fig. 2.—CORN PLANT COMPLETELY DESTROYED BY THE SOUTHERN CORN LEAF-
BEETLE. (ORIGINAL.)

WORK OF THE SOUTHERN CORN LEAF-BEETLE.

THE SOUTHERN CORN LEAF-BEETLE. 9

first planting having been entirely destroyed. The devastation of
1914 was very severe but not so heavy as in 1913.

Considerable search on cotton and wheat growing in the vicinity
of infested cornfields near Paris, Ark., developed no damage to these
crops.

DISSEMINATION.

The beetles have powerful wings and have been observed in fields
long distances from where they originated. Especially was this true
in one instance, during the fall of 1910, where it was positively known
that they developed in certain bottom-land fields, later migrating 2
miles to a field of late upland corn, where great numbers of them were
found feeding upon the belated ears. In this last-mentioned field
the farmer planted wheat and in the operation the drill raked up
piles of the corn leaves, among which great numbers of the beetles
hibernated during the following winter. Counts made the follow-
ing spring, before they left hibernating quarters, indicated that about
80 per cent of these beetles survived the winter. A lot of the dead
beetles were kept for parasites, but no parasites developed. From
these hibernating quarters beetles emerged in this same field in late
March, after the weather had become warm. They were noticed
flying in a northerly direction, though just where they went could
not be determined.

It does not seem to the writer that an outbreak of this insect is
brought about by the growing of any particular crop on a certain
field, but it would appear that an outbreak is very likely to follow
where a field has been allowed to lie idle, especially so if allowed to grow
cocklebur and volunteer corn for a year or more and to become very
weedy and foul, thus affording hibernating quarters.

The fact that adults have been found hibernating in grasslands,
in which situation larve have never been found, indicates that they
do not necessarily hibernate in the field in which they breed, and
furthermore that they do fly away from their breeding grounds.

REMEDIES.

A great number of beetles have been taken at lights, which would
indicate that a powerful light trap situated in the vicinity of the
infested field might materially reduce them. In the early fall, when
they are flying in search of hibernating quarters, it is possible that
the light trap would catch large numbers.

Judging from the conditions of fields in which they have been ob-
served hibernating in large numbers, the cleaning up of all rubbish in
the cornfields early in the fall, especially in fields for very late corn,
would prove an effective remedy as a protection for the succeeding
crop. The fact that large numbers were observed in the vicinity of
cotton gins would suggest that the managers of cotton gins might use

10 BULLETIN 221, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

their rubbish and trash for boiler fuel and thus destroy a great number
of the beetles.

Ordinarily the beetles attack a field of corn when it is very young
and destroy it before the farmer becomes aware of their presence.

No remedy has been found that can be recommended in combating
them after they enter the cornfield. If the crop is so badly dam-
aged as to be worthless it can be replanted with safety from damage
by this imsect about one month after the regular planting time.
Within a few days after they have killed out the first planting they
will leave the field, thus making it safe to replant.

From all the writer has been able to observe or learn the beetles
leave their hibernating quarters in early spring, depositing their eggs
about young corn plants as soon as these are available for their pur-
pose. It would also appear that the season of oviposition 1s prolonged
and that it is these overwintering beetles that feed upon and destroy
the corn plants while thus engaged. This would lead to the some-
what anomalous assumption that the parent beetle under stress of
hunger destroys the food plant of the larve, which if true would
account for the very erratic occurrence of the outbreaks of this pest.

As an additional suggestion, the fact that the beetles appear and
disappear with considerable regularity from south to north, taken
together with the fact that corn planted three or four weeks after
the usual planting season has escaped attack of the beetle, would
indicate that something might be gained by delaying corn planting
in localities where beetles have been injurious the previous year.

Mr. E. H. Gibson, in his experimental work with this species in the
vicinity of Charleston, Mo., during late April and early May, 1915,
reports having found that, after repeated trials under varying con-
ditions, carried out with check experiments, the beetles can be readily
destroyed by a poisoned-bran bait, consisting of 25 pounds of wheat
bran, 1 pound of Paris green, 1 gallon of low-grade molasses, and
the juices of 3 oranges, with enough water to bring the mixture to a
stiff dough. The best success in the use of this poisoned bait was
obtained when applied in the late afternoon. It would seem that
this measure might be an extremely practical one if applied to the
restricted areas from which the beetles frequently spread, the bait
being scattered lightly on the ground among the plants where the
beetles are at work.

" THE SOUTHERN CORN LEAF-BEETLE. 11

LITERATURE CITED.

Porenoz, E. A. A list of Kansas Coleoptera. Jn Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., v. 5, p.
21-40, 1877. i

RosenFretD, A. H. Insects and spiders in Spanish moss. Jn Jour. Econ. Ent., v.
4, no. 4, p. 398-409, August, 1911.

Say, THomas. Descriptions of coleopterous insects collected in the late expedition
to the Rocky Mountains. Jn Jour. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., v. 3, p. 403-462, 1824.
(Say’s Complete Writings, v. 2, N. Y., 1859., p. 215.)

Colaspis denéicollis, p. 448.

Tucker, H.S. Some insect pests to be treated by fall plowing. The southern corn-
leaf beetle. (Myochrous denticollis, Say.) In Kans. Farmer, vy. 43, no. 44, p. 1112,
Nov. 2, 1905.

Tucker, E.S. Random notes on entomological field work. Jn Canad. Ent., v. 43,
no. 1, p. 22-32, January, 1911.

Myochrous denticollis, p. 27.

Wesster, F. M. Report on the season’s observations and especially upon corn

insects. In Rpt. U. 8. Comr. Agr. for 1887, p. 147-154.
Myochrous denticollis, p. 150.

Wesster, F.M. Insects of the yearin Ohio. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bul. 26,

new ser., p. 84-90, 1900.
Myochrous denticollis, p. 87.

Wesster, F. M. The southern corn-leaf beetle; a new insect pest of growing corn.

In Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., v. 9, no. 3, p. 127-132, pl. VII-IX, September, 1901.

ADDITIONAL COPIES

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V

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 222

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry }
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. Vv May 24, 1915

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA

RELATION OF CULTURAL METHODS
TO PRODUCTION

By

E. C. CHILCOTT, Agriculturist in Charge, and J. S. COLE
and W. W. BURR, Assistants, Office of
Dry-Land Agriculture

CONTENTS
Page : Page
MEROCUCHONI ob) oie o's) hie tes eli Va, Wewjel os 1 | Comparison of Cultural Methods on the
Importance of Barley as a Grain Crop 3 Basis of Cost . . . 2 © © © « © « 9
Area Included in These Investigations . 3 | Results at the Several Stations . . . . 12
Climatic Conditions ........ ; 4 | General Discussion of Results .... 28
General Plan of the Investigations . ; 5 | Conclusions . - .-- 22 ee es 31

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915

oS

No. 222

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
May 24, 1915.

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA: RELATION OF
CULTURAL METHODS TO PRODUCTION.

By E. C. Cuitcorr, Agriculturist in Charge, and J. S. Cote and W. W. Burr, Assist-
ants, Office of Dry-Land Agriculture.

CONTENTS.
WIPTOUUCLION “2 hc. ccccatcotinn Sones coeae. sono 1 | Comparison of cultural methods on the basis
Importance of barley as a grain crop..-.-.-.-- 3 Of COStHe ss eis. aoe So See aoe ee oe 9
Area included in these investigations. ....-.. 3 | Results at the several stations.....-...-.---- 12
Whinaticiconditions:+:-sos6. 25s asceeet lee 4 | General discussion of results.............---- 28
General plan of the investigations........._. oats Conclusions Sse .cse saser - Skene ae eee aaa 31
INTRODUCTION.

In this bulletin are given the data obtained from different methods
of seed-bed preparation for barley and a study of the cost of produc-
tion under each of the various methods. Investigations have been

1 All of the members of the scientific staff of the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture have contributed
more or less to this paper by having charge of field investigations and by assisting in the preparation of
cata for records or for publication. The scientific staff as at present constituted consists of the following
members, named in the order of length of service: W. W. Burr, Denver, Colo.; E. F. Chilcott, Woodward,
Okla.; O.J. Grace, Akron, Colo.; J.S. Cole, Denver, Colo.; J. M. Stephens, Moccasin, Mont.; A. L. Hall-
sted, Hays, Kans.; O. R. Mathews, Belle Fourche, S. Dak.; J. C. Thysell, Dickinson, N. Dak.; M. Pfaender,
Mandan, N. Dak.; H.C. McKinstry, Hettinger, N. Dak.; W. M. Osborn, North Platte, Nebr.; W. D.
Griggs, Dalhart, Tex.; C. A. Burmeister, Amarillo, Tex.; J. E. Mundell, Big Spring, Tex.; F. L. Kelso,
Ardmore, S. Dak.; W. A. Peterson, Mandan, N. Dak.; J. T. Sarvis, Ardmore, S. Dak.; G. W. Morgan,
Huntley, Mont.; J. H. Jacobson, Mitchell, Nebr.; H. G. Smith, Tucumcari, N. Mex.; L. N. Jensen, Wood-
ward, Okla.; J. G. Lill, Garden City, Kans.; R.S.Towle, Edgeley, N. Dak.; A. J. Ogaard, Williston, N.
Dak.; C. B. Brown, Dalhart, Tex.; L. D. Willey, Archer, Wyo.; J. B. Kuska, Colby, Kans.; and A. E.
Seamans, Akron, Colo.

The following-named men have held positions on the scientific staff of the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture
during the past nine years, but have resigned or have been transferred to other offices of the Department of
Agriculture: Sylvester Balz, F. L. Kennard, J. E. Payne, L. E. Hazen, C. A. Jensen, H. R. Reed, W. O.
Whitcomb, C. H. Plath, F. Knorr, and R. W. Edwards. .

The data here reported from the stations in Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, and Montana have been
obtained in cooperation with the agricultural experiment stations of their respective States. In South
Dakota, Colorado, Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico the stations are operated by the United States
Department of Agriculture.

Field, office, and laboratory facilities, teams, and implements have been provided by the Office of Western
Trrigation Agriculture, at Huntley, Mont., Belle Fourche, S. Dak., and Mitchell, Nebr., and by the Office
of Cereal Investigations at Amarillo, Tex.,and Archer, Wyo. The Biophysical Laboratory has cooperated
in obtaining the meteorological data reported.

Note.—This bulletin is intended for all who are interested in the agricultural possibilities of the Great
Plains area.
87710°—Bull. 222—15——1

oy BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

conducted at fourteen different stations in the Great Plains area.
Barley has been grown to a minor extent in the rotations at all sta-
tions, although it has not been considered as important a crop as
either wheat or oats.

At some of the stations the work has been continuous for eight
years; at other stations it has been but recently started. The
results of the first year’s work at any station are not used, as the land
is uniform in preparation for all plats. From the stations having the
longer records the results are the most valuable, since they include
a greater range of climatic conditions. Where a short record is given
it can show only the effect of the different tillage methods under the
particular combinations of climatic factors obtaining during that
time. The crop on any series of plats having the same methods of
tillage may behave quite differently under the combinations of
climatic factors that may occur in succeeding years. The relative
position assumed by the various methods in the first year’s results
may or may not be changed from that arrangement by subsequent
work. It is certain, however, that the range of difference between
the methods will vary with changing climatic factors. Wide differ-
ences in yields between methods that may be shown in a short record
will tend to be narrowed as the length of the record is increased.

The method of work adopted was that of raising the standard crops
of each station both in rotations and by different methods of prepara-
tion under systems of continuous cropping. Inno case have rotations
requiring more than six years been used. Those of even this length
have been tried only when sod of tame-grass crops is included.
More of the work has been done with 3-year and 4-year rotations.

In this bulletin are shown only the crop immediately preceding
and the tillage involved in preparing the seed bed for barley. In the
present stage of development of the work the effect of the imme-
diately preceding crop and of the method of handling its stubble
in preparing the seed bed greatly overshadows the effects of the ro-
tations considered as units. Some of the rotations are calculated to
conserve or to accumulate fertility and organic matter in the soil,
while others may perhaps deplete it, but on the naturally fertile
soils of the Plains such results are not strongly shown in the first
years of treatment. The controllable factors that exert the greatest
influence on production are the water supply, the physical condition
of the seed bed, and a recognized, if not understood, effect. of the
immediately preceding crop. The crop of a single year brings the
land back to so near uniformity in these factors that their probable
residual effect is not great enough with the work in hand to introduce
serious error into the study here made.

This bulletin, which deals with only one crop, does not afford any
criterion by which to judge the agricultural possibilities of any sec-

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 3

tion of the region for other crops. The fact that the combination
of soil and climatic conditions in certain sections is not favorable
to the production of barley does not signify that such conditions will
prove unfavorable to other crops.

IMPORTANCE OF BARLEY AS A GRAIN CROP.

In some sections of the region barley has not been considered
strictly as a market crop, but rather as a feed crop. In certain
parts of the Northwest it has been grown quite extensively as a
market crop. ‘The price is usually determined by the quality of the
barley from a brewing standpoint, the demand being for a product
that is uniform, well matured, and of good color. Certain sections
of the dry-land regions afford opportunity to grow barley of good
quality, especially in those years when conditions are favorable for
the production of a good, plump berry. The dry weather, with the
absence of dews, gives good conditions under which to harvest the
crop without injury to quality or color. In the main, however,
barley has been grown in the Great Plains as feed rather than as a
market crop.

Barley has the advantage of requiring on the average a shorter
growing season than either oats or wheat, and is, therefore, exposed
for a shorter length of time to the onibieaneile climatic conchione
likely to occur. When seeded at approximately the same time as
oats, it will ripen with or before the earliest oats. The variety of
barley which is grown determines somewhat the length of the growing
season, but the foregoing applies to the average barleys. Earliness
of maturity may be of considerable importance in enabling a crop to
escape drought.

AREA INCLUDED IN THESE INVESTIGATIONS.

The area included in these investigations covers a part of 10 States,
viz, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska,
Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico. It extends
from the ninety-eighth meridian of longitude to the foothills of the
Rocky Mountains and from the Canadian.border to the thirty-second
parallel.

The altitude varies from ay praaiaantal 1,400 feet in the northeast-
ern part of the area to 6,000 feet at Shorea. Wyo. These repre-
sent the highest and the lowest altitudes. The southern portion of
the territory has a higher average altitude and higher average rainfall
and a correspondingly higher rate of evaporation than the northern
portion. The average annual precipitation at the various stations
varies from about 15 to 21 inches.

Figure 1 shows the location of the various field stations within
the area which, as outlined, is bounded on the west by the 5,000-foot
contour and does not include Archer, -Wyo.

4 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.

The climate of the Great Plains has been classified as semiarid.
It may be better to say that it is changeable, varying from season
to season from almost humid to almost arid, with a relatively low
mean annual precipitation. Years of relatively high precipitation
may be followed by
years of relatively
low precipitation.
Other climatic factors
usually correspond to
the rainfall. A year
of relatively high rain-
fall will have a lower
rate of evaporation
and higher relative
humidity than will be
found in the unfavor-
able years.

Another climatic
factor of much im-
portance in crop pro-
duction on the Piains
is the distribution of
the rainfall, which
within certain limits
is more important
than the total
amount. Arelatively
low rainfall properly
distributed may pro-
duce a crop where a
much higher rainfall
coming with unfavor-

able distribution may
Fic. 1.—Sketch map of the Great Plains area, which includes parts result in a crop fail-
of ten States and consists of about 400,000 square miles of territory. : :
Its western boundary is indicated by the 5,000-foot contour. The UFe, each starting with
location of each field station within the area is shown by a dot the same amount of
within a circle (©).

available water in the
soil. A vast difference in crop yields usually results from a soil that
starts out in the spring with a small amount of stored moisture and
one that is well supplied with moisture. |

Space in this bulletin will not allow a full description or record of
the climatic conditions at the various stations during the time coy-
‘ered by these investigations. These records are published by the
United States Weather Bureau.

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 5

Seasonal variation in climatic factors is probably more important
than difference in methods of tillage. This is shown by the fact that
in some years climatic conditions at some stations are such that all
methods result in failures. In other years all methods may give
fair returns. At some stations the greatest actual increases in yield
as a result of tillage methods is usually obtained under the most
favorable climatic conditions. In Table I are given the maximum,
minimum, and average annual and seasonal precipitation and sea-
sonal evaporation. By seasonal is meant the time between the aver-_
age seeding and the average harvesting dates. No attempt is made
to show other climatic factors, though all are important.

TaBLe I.—Annual and seasonal precipitation and seasonal evaporation at fourteen sta-
tions in the Great Plains area.'

Precipitation (inches).3
Seasonal evaporation

Alti- (inches).3
Station. tude Annual. Seasonal.

mMum.|;mum.; age. |mum.;mumM.| age. mum, | mum. age.

JudithyBasinus. o£... 2 4,228 | 14.96 | 23.78 | 18.06 | 6.50 | 10.90] 8.62 | 19.117 | 26.273 | 21.330
ls lpnad G\y 6 oe oceBneeceeeceoe- 3,000 | 11.92 | 11.92 | 11.92] 5.00] 7.35] 6:18 | 19.820 | 20.594 | 20.207
NWaHIStoner tas --=-s-5-2-- 2° 1,875 | 10.28 | 18.99 | 14.84} 5.62 | 12.00} 8.31 | 21.104 | 28.269 | 24.705
DIGisINSOMssers oo. oe na -)aic = 2,543 | 11.93 | 21.22 | 16.69 | 5.31 | 16.27 | 10.06 | 18.379 | 27.366 | 22.377
Wadseleyese-sa-se eee SS 1,468 | 11.94 | 21.95 | 16.71 | 5.08 | 15.73} 9.60 | 17.664 | 25.362 | 20.657
LEIS yn | eee Goaaeopse 2,253 | 12.72 | 15.68 | 14.20} 8.82 | 12.89} 10.69 | 20.111 | 24.248 | 22. 430
Bellemourche:- 2-2-2 2.02 = 2,950} 6.64 | 17.73) 13.11} 1.92) 12.75] 6.82 | 23.627 | 33.906 | 27.220
peottsbluff.---------.------- 3,950 | 13.77 | 18.51 | 16.14 | 5.56} 8.26] 7.11 | 24.698 | 26.647 | 25.718
I Gniti ABS. coooseocceoes 3,000 | 11.18 | 23.01 | 18.05 | 4.38 | 11.2 7.77 | 25.954 | 36.255 | 30. 253
JNO 4 CBee Seer Ee eee eae 4,600 | 14.51 | 22.46 | 18.28 | 5.32] 9.52) 7.82 | 25.917 | 32.691 | 28. 781
[EEN Sce bbe bab oeeaeeaeeseese 2,050 | 15.59 | 27.80 | 21.30 | 3.87 | 12.87] 9.55 | 29.390 | 41.317 | 32.628
Garden! Citye = =< -- <<< 2,900 | 11.82 | 23.58 | 18.54 | 5.01 | 8.16) 6.85 | 33.315 | 38.926 | 35. 332
Woalhtantereasae eee seoee a =o 4,000 | 13.69 | 16.35 | 15.11 | 4.54 | 14.86] 8.17 | 33.381 | 41.002 | 38.596
ASTRO E 5 Woe tpesacoeessose 3,676 | 10.69 | 27.80 | 18.28 | 5.03 | 11.49] 7.05 | 32.305 | 40.704 | 36.709

1 The years covered are the same as for the data shown in the other tables for each station.

2 The altitude given is for the field where the work was done and is based in most cases on that of the
nearest town.

3 The record of annual precipitation for 1914 is not included. The records of seasonal j previpitabion and
evaporation for 1914 are included for all stations, the evaporation being figured from Apr. 1 to July 31.
The seasonal rainfall is the amount from Apr. 1 to July 31 for stations north of and including that at Belle
Fourche. For stations south of Belle Fourche it is the amount between Mar.1 and June30. Evaporation
measurements are made from a free water surface, in 2 tank sunk into the soil to almost its full depth.
The water surface is kept about level with the surface of the ground.

GENERAL PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATIONS.

In the work at the various stations barley has been grown under
a number of different tillage methods, but has not occupied as many
plats as the other crops.

The same variety of barley has been grown on all the plats seeded
to that crop at the same station during the same year. The aim has
been to grow a variety adapted to the local conditions at the station
where it has been grown. Different varieties have been grown at dif-
ferent stations. At some stations a 6-rowed barley has been used,
some stations have used a 2-rowed barley, and some have used a hull-
less variety. It is possible that in some cases the variety grown may

6 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

not have been the very best obtainable for that section, but by using
the same variety in all of the methods under study uniformity in this
factor has been obtained.

Uniformity in rate, time, and manner of seeding has been observed
on all plats at the same station. There is naturally some variation
between the different stations. Differences in climatic conditions
have been recognized in differences in the rate of seeding, but at the
same stations it has been uniform. The usual rate of seeding has
been 6 pecks of hulled barley and 3 pecks of hull-less. Both the 6-rowed
and the 2-rowed barleys are hulled varieties.

There is considerable variation in the time of seeding for the differ-
ent field stations throughout the area, it being about a month earlier
in the southern than in the northern portion. At some of the sta-
tions the time of seeding is about the same as that of wheat and
oats. At others it is a little later. All seeding has been done with
a drill. Some stations, on account of the type of soil, have used the
press drill in order to firm the soil around the seed. At other stations
a drill without a press attachment has been used.

For a comparative study of the effect of environment and for
securing data on production, certain parts of the work are made
uniform at all stations. This results in the attempted growth of bar-
ley and other crops in sections to which they are not adapted and in
their growth at certain stations by methods not adapted to the con-
ditions obtaining there.

Considering the fact that no two stations can have exactly the
same combination of soil and climatic factors and that the combi-
nation resulting from any two seasons is not the same, it is evident
that the consequent effects of the different tillage methods will not be
the same. Therefore, the results obtaimed from different methods
at each station are given separately.

In this bulletin a table divided into two parts is presented for each
station. The first part shows the yields that have been obtained
each year by each of the different methods under which barley has
been grown, considering only the treatment during the one year imme-
mediately preceding the crop. Where more than one plat has been
grown under the same treatment for the previous year, only the aver-
age yield of the whole number of plats so grown is given. Column 2
shows the number of plats so averaged. In the presentation of
yields, the column headed ‘‘Treatment and previous crop” indicates
the method of preparation, whether fall plowed, spring plowed, listed,
subsoiled, disked, green manured, or summer tilled. Some of these
are again subdivided, to show the previous crop. In the last column,
where the average appears under the heading ‘‘ Average,’’ the calcu-
lation is from the left. For a rough comparison of seasons, the bot-

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 7

tom line of the first half of the table gives the averages of all plats
for each year, the average of the yearly average yields appearing in
the last column to the right.

In the second part of the table for each station the yields are brought
together to show the average yields by years for each method and the
average yield for the entire period for each method. The computa-
tions of cost and profit are founded on the basic data shown in Tables
II, 111, and IV. The value of the average yields by each method is
calculated. The last line of the table gives the average profit or loss
resulting from the production of barley by the method stated at the
head of the column. Loss is indicated by the minus sign. This
study deals with only the one crop and does not take into considera-
tion the relative profitableness of other crops or of all crops, considered
as a whole, in the farming system.

Throughout the tables, where barley follows barley under any
treatment, it is in a system of continuous cropping to barley by the
method indicated.

The methods of operation have been similar at all stations. Fall
plowing is done as early as practicable after harvest. It is done to a
good depth, the standard being set at 8inches. Ground may be either
worked down or left rough over winter. Where barley follows barley
after spring plowing, the stubble is undisturbed until spring, when it
is plowed shallow, usually to a depth of 4 inches, and given a mini-
mum of cultivation, which usually consists of one or two harrowings.
In those cases where an additional plat appears under the heading
“Spring plowed,” it is plowed deep instead of shallow.

Under the subhead “Listed” there is shown at some stations the
yield from one plat contmuously cropped to barley. Instead of plow-
ing this plat, it is furrowed out with a lister at the time of fall plowing.
It is cultivated down level by seeding time.

Under the subhead ‘‘Subsoiled”’ there is shown at the stations
where it has been tried the results of a plat continuously cropped to
barley. At the time of plowing, a subsoil plow is run in the bottom
of the furrow, usually loosening the soil to a total depth of about 14
inches. The variation from this depth is hardly more than 2 inches
either way. In general, subsoiling has been done for two years in
succession and omitted for two years.

Under the subhead ‘‘Disked” are given the yields obtained on
corn stubble prepared by disking. The corn is harvested in the fall
with a corn binder and no tillage given the plat until spring. Then
it is disked to put it in condition for seeding.

Under the subhead “Green manured” are given the yields of
barley following the plowing under of rye or peas, as specified. This
treatment is m a 4-year rotation in which one of the other crops
consists of corn and one of small grain.

8 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

At each station at least one plat of barley is grown on summer-
tilled land. The method of summer tillage practiced has been of the
intensive type. The ground is fall plowed, and clean cultivation is
continued through the next year and until the barley is seeded in the
second spring. In some cases it is necessary to replow during the
summer, when the land is fallow. At other stations summer-tilled
plats are plowed but
once. Experiments not
here reported are under
way to ascertain the best
method of fallowing.
Indications are nae
equally good results can
be obtained with a less
intensive method than
has been practiced.

The yields given in
these tables begin with
ge ee the second year of crop

production at each sta-

tion. All crops are pro-
duced the first year on
Ger) \andunderuniform treat-
Fallon ment. In some ‘cases
(efnvel| an entire crop has been
Waa lost by hail. These
] years are not considered

in computing averages,
as the crops under all

|: Becky, SP) I

fallow. /
(2)
Wheot, SS

|=

"Oats, SP

pre |,

a
WHpcat Q
Oats, GU.
2 4
a :

Oots, D. \4

A. a
Oats, Q

Milo, 5.P
F

Corn, FP
A :

Le |

i
; iz
eee) pivenapmanuecn rose

stroyed.
Field Station. The lettering shows the cropping practiced in Figure 2 shows dia a-

Fic. 2.—Diagram of the dry-land rotation field at the Amarillo

1914. Theexplanation of the abbreviations used after the name
of acrop is as follows: D.=Disked, Fal.—summertilled, F.P.= a of the dry -land
fall plowed, G. M.=green manured, Z.—listed, M=manured, rotation field at the

S. P.=spring plowed, S. S.=subsoiled. eerie Fiel d S et Sesh.
This station, being a representative one, will serve to illustrate the
general scheme and plan of work. The plats here, as in all the
work, are one-tenth acre in size. Their dimensions are 2 by 8 rods.
Along their larger dimension the plats are separated by bare alleys 4
feet in width. Along the ends of the plats they are separated by
roads 20 feet wide. At this station five crops are represented in a
series of continuously cropped plats lettered from A to ForG. In
this group plats C and D are alternately cropped and summer tilled,
so that each year a crop is grown on land that was summer tilled the
previous year and a plat is summer tilled for cropping the next year.

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 9

The remainder of the field is in rotations in which each plat is
known by a rotation number and letter. On the field diagram the
separation of the rotations is indicated by heavy lines.

The movement of the crops in the rotation is in the direction from
Z to A and from A back to the letter that marks the other end of the
rotation.

In figure 2 the diagram is filled out to show the cropping in 1914.
The letters following the crop indicate the treatment given the ground
in preparation for it, S. P. standing for spring plowed, F. P. for fall
plowed, Fal. for summer tilled, G. M. for green manured, S. S. for
subsoiled, L. for listed, and D. for disked. To illustrate: In 1914
plat A of the 4-year rotation No. 91 was in corn on fall-plowed
ground, plat B was in oats on disked corn ground, and plat C was in
peas on fall-plowed land. This would be plowed under for green
manure. Plat D was in winter wheat where peas had been turned
under the year before. In 1915, A will be in oats, B in peas, C in
winter wheat, and D in corn.

COMPARISON OF CULTURAL METHODS ON THE BASIS OF COST.

The methods under study vary a great deal in the labor involved
and in the consequent cost of preparation. Table IV has therefore
been compiled in order to show the average cost by the methods under
study as determined from the data of eight of the stations having the
most trustworthy records. An average of the records for 54 years
at each station has been used in compiling this table. This is equiva-
lent to a record of 44 years at one station. An accurate record has
been kept of all the farm operations performed under the various
methods under trial. These have been averaged for the eight stations.
The amount of work required for some methods of treatment varies
with the season and with the soil, and the expense of some operations
varies with the soil. The amount of labor performed under each of
the methods was neither more nor less than that which the man in
charge believed to be necessary to bring about the results sought.

In computing the costs of the various operations a fixed wage of
$2 a day for a man and $1 a day for a horse was adopted. This
may be above or below the actual labor cost in any particular locality,
but it is believed to be a fair average and one that will afford a prof-
itable market to the farmer for his labor. The time required for
men and teams to cover a given acreage in each of the several farm
operations obviously varies with soils and other conditions. The
average shown in Table II has been determined from the actual ex-
perience of a large number of men connected with these investigations,
which experience has extended over a wide range of conditions and
many years of time.

87710°—Bull. 222—15——2

10 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The factors included in the cost of production are calculated on an
acre basis for each of the separate operations performed, beginning
with the preparation of the land and ending with the harvesting and
shocking of the grain. To these items are added the cost of seed at
75 cents per acre, interest and taxes on the land investment calculated
at 8 per cent on a valuation of $20 per acre, and the deterioration and
repair of the binder at 15 cents per acre. No allowance is made for
the deterioration of other farm equipment, as it is believed that the
wages allowed for men and teams are sufficient to cover this item
for the remainder of the equipment. The above-mentioned items are
fixed charges per acre; that is, they do not vary greatly with the
yield per acre except for the item of twine, but this variation is not
sufficient to materially affect the relative total cost of production
under the several methods.

Table II shows the cost per acre based upon what is considered an
average day’s work for each of the farm operations involved at the
above-mentioned wage. As before stated, the type of soil and
seasonal conditions will determine to a certain extent the labor re-
quired and the consequent cost per acre. The cost of production as
computed in Tables II and IV is not offered as being absolute for any
locality, either in the amount of labor required or its cost, but is given
as a working basis for the comparison of the results by different
methods of preparation.

TaBLE II.—Average cost per acre} of the farm operations involved in growing barley
in the Great Plains area.

[The wage scale assumed is $2 per day for each man and $1 per day for each horse. ]

Force employed.
Day’s Item | Cost per

Operation. work. cost. acre.
Men. Horses.
Acres.

RIG WANE iirc = Hoes ee ee ens re Si ars a ee 1 4 By el See ee $1. 71
DISK ge Ee Aes SALT Sie aati USE oa MRC SOREN ar gM 1 4 Oru tee saan ai
aTTO WING Eee eceee ed ke Se eats a 1 4 Se Ba aoe Aeese -17
Subsoilingte oases Ie eee Ua Na eeteesee eee oak 1 3 OF | eecees ani 1.43
MB) PILI pee es Rea os 2s ah a eI AE LO a 1 4 UGhie Begaaceose - 40
Cultivating y5e See SC ee ee Re en ee 1 4 Peed eoeseeoocd -38
MBAS TUT eee rere te ie sie aoe oe eee oie Senco eee 1 4 TOS eee meenens -60
Harvesting:

Cutting and binding.-.......-.....-......-..-.-- 1 4 15 $0. 40

STO C air SEO eer Ne Ti NATE OE PLT REA Ecos RC | eee eae ee 13 93

FR WING 2th eee one Eee ane oe be a a ka NR ea ie a -25 é

Binder Weananaire pales See ee NM Oe IE ore LE ae ae oe 15

1 The cost of thrashing is not included in the cost per acre, but it is estimated at 6 cents per bushel and
deducted from the price of 47 cents in the granary, thus giving a value of 41 cents per bushel in the shock.

The average farm price of barley used in these computations is
based on the data given in Table III, furnished by the Bureau of
Crop Estimates. The four States of North Dakota, South Dakota,
Nebraska, and Kansas were selected because their extensive grain
production has given them established market prices which are not
greatly influenced by local conditions.

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 11

Tas eE III.—Average price of barley at the farm granary for ten years in four States of the
Great Plains area.

[The quotations are given in cents per bushel. Those for the year 1914 are for the date of Nov. 1; in other
years Dec. 1 is taken as the date.]

|
North | South North | South Ne-

Year. Da- | Da- Year. Da- | Da-
kota. | kota, | Praska-| sas. age. kota. | kota, | Praska-| sas. | age.
O05 2a sa): 30 29 31 32 30% || 1911......... 85 88 60 60 73
1906222 33 32 31 33 32 LOL 2B aoe Sake 35 42 42 40 392
I9072 32-22. 58 61 50 54 552 || 1913...--2-.- 40 46 49 55 472
1908! Ose. 46 47 46 54 481 || 1914.....-.-. 42 49 42 44
MOOG Nero. 43 45 43 53 46 ———— ] | __ —_

IOIQ Set Eo. 55 57 45 45 504 Average. 47 50 44 47 | 47

Table III shows that the average farm price of barley on December
1 for the past 10 years has been 47 cents per bushel. It costs about
6 cents per bushel to take the grain from the shock, thrash it, and put
it in the granary on the farm. ‘This cost per bushel does not vary
greatly with the yield, and is therefore a fixed price per bushel instead of
a fixed price per acre, as is the case with the other costs of production.

The relative profits of producing barley under the different methods
can therefore be best determined by finding the difference between
the fixed cost per acre and the value per acre of the grain at the point
where the fixed cost per acre ends, which, as before stated, is when
the grain is in the shock. Knowing that the average farm value of
barley in the granary is 47 cents per bushel, and that it costs 6 cents
per bushel to take it from the shock, thrash it, and put it in the granary
it is obvious that it would be worth 41 cents per bushel in the shock.
This valuation of 41 cents per bushel has therefore been used as a
basis for calculating the relative crop values, costs, and profits per
acre by the various methods under trial.

Tasie [V.—Cost per acre of producing barley in the shock in the Great Plains area, showing
averages of data from eight stations.

Number of operations. Cost per acre. Hotalicostot

| production.
Cost of
Method of prepa- igs In
preparation. | aca ; . Ta- : _ | Inter- grain
Plow- ee Disk- pur List- | Drill-| tion. |gooq_| Drill- a ot A In | at4l
ing. | = ing. | = ing. | ing. : ‘| ing. | ; an ollars.| cents
es ts M8- |taxes. per
bushel.
Disked corn land.|....-- Use eal el ema Pema Meo $0.97 |$0. 75 |$0.40 |$0.93 |$1.60 | 4.65 11.3
Mpisted ees s er ee Esko Th fas P| Sa es DEN peer NET oD -40 | .93 | 1.60] 5.45 13.3
Spring plowed....| 1 1.3 AN BAOe ea besce el SentoS 2.31 | 40] .93 |] 1.60] 5.99 14.6
Fall plowed. ....- 1 2.3 Oe Sas eee seme Pasi) || va Ck 40 93 | 1.60 | 6.46 15.8
Subsoiled.....-..- 1 eel Oe ek enero eee 3.39 -75 40 93 | 1.60 | 7.07 17.2
Summer tilledi225|" WSs Qe2 i 2560 eee Sale es oe ee rsicine 6.12 | .75 40 93 | 3.20 | 11.40 27.8
Green manured: ie
Withryel....| 2 sta) fn el Beisel becadie 1 7.73 75 40 | .93 | 3.20 | 13.01 31.7
With peas2...| 2 Be Ba | Qe Tn [epee |leue ae 1 10. 73 75 40 | .93 | 3.20 | 16.01 39.0
Average cost of
green manur-
Faye Sic Eel Seales cannes aula ane 14.51 | 35.4

1The cost of rye per acre for seed is estimated at $1. 2 The cost of peas per acre for seed is estimated at $4.

12 BULLETIN 222, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In conformity with the foregoing explanation, Table IV gives in
detail the cost of producing barley in the shock, expressed in dollars
and cents and in bushels per acre at 41 cents per bushel in the shock.

RESULTS AT THE SEVERAL STATIONS.

No attempt will be made in this bulletin to discuss the various
types of soils found at the several stations.1_ It will be noted in the
tables that follow that the soils at some of the stations have given but
little response to differences in tillage methods under any climatic
conditions thus far obtaining. The soils at some other stations do
respond to tillage. Differences in yields are obtained from different
methods of tillage. The amount of variation in yields changes from
year to year with the changing combination of climatic conditions.

JUDITH BASIN FIELD STATION, MONT.

The results of five years are presented from the field station at
Moccasin, Mont., in the Judith Basi. The crop in the sixth year was
destroyed by hail before maturity and is not used in calculating the
averages. Four of the years have been productive of heavy yields,
but in the other year the yields were light.

Barley, like the other spring-sown grain crops at this station, does
not exhibit marked differences in yield as a result of different prepara-
tions for the crop. In 1913 both fall and spring plowed barley land
show a marked drop in yields. In 1914 the same thing is noted on the
spring-plowed barley plat. This was due to injury from gophers
rather than to the difference in seed-bed preparation. This damage
with the consequent shortage of yield, unduly augments the average
differences.

The uniformity of results obtained shows that the method of seed-
bed preparation is not an important factor in the production of spring-
sown crops at this place. The farmer should concern himself with the
problem of getting the work done at the most convenient time and in
the most economical manner.

The lack of wide variation in yield is explained by the shallowness
of the soul on the station farm. The water that falls either in rain or
snow between the time of harvest of one crop and the commencement
of rapid growth of the next, during the years under study, was suffi-
cient to supply the proportion of water that the soil can retain within
reach of the crop. Water accumulated in the soil by the special
methods of cultivation in excess of this proportion was lost by pene-
trating beyond recovery by the plant, and no increase in yield was
realized from it. .

1¥For a brief discussion of the different soil types, see U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bul. 214, entitled
“Spring wheat in the Great Plains area: Relation of cultural methods to production.’’

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA, 13

TasLe V.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Judith
Basin Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).
Number
Treatment and previous crop. of plats
averaged.| 1999 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 ae 7
Fall plowed: Barley .............-- 1 43.3 1255 24.1 @) 21.9 18.0 24.0
Spring plowed:
SAIN GY eee see ss jeessiscscc cece 1 45.2 10.0 (4) (@) 21.9 11.6 PBL Le
OALShee ie arse toosecsecwete owas 1 39.1 11.6 23.9 () 31.7 21.2 25.9
Total or average...........-.- 2 42.2 10.8 23.9 (4) 26. 8 16. 4 24.0
Listed: Barley............----+---- fa | ava7eo) et ons! msanay aN) 32.5| 21.8| 29.0
Subsoiled: Barley.................- 1 48.3 15.0 32.6 32.9 23.5 30. 5
LD TSIRGCIS (Osa yeia Ye See ee ere ener rey 1 42.7 16. 6 29.7 () 34.6 21.6 29.0
pummenoiled 20) ose se cesses aks 1 49. 4 15.8 27.5 (@) 3207, 25. 8 30. 2
Average of all 7 plats...-.-.--|..-.-.--.- 45.1 13. 4 28.0 (4) 29.7 20. 5 27.3
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DiGEsT oF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.

Yields, values, ete. (average :
re ee eee | |
(1 plat).| (2 plats). |(1 Plat).|@ plat).|(7 pjat).|(1 plat). |(5 plats).|(2 Plat).

Yields of grain:
DOUG eee ewe Salone cee bushels..| 43.3 42.2 42.7 47.9
GLO Meera hes se ais ciciasse Ghee sal ILS 10.8 16.6 12.5
OU eee acca teehee tee doe 24.1 23.9 29.7 30. 4
OR ee sc esth be cick doz=--|, 7 @) () (4) (4)
AGU a es eee iss bee: doses 2059 26. 8 34.6 S2aD
TSC ee ea eee ae dossealh 1850 16. 4 21.6 21.8
PATOL AS Oramck clninrcttee cleisingaiae 24.0 24.0 29.0 29. 0
Crop vaiue, costofproduction, etc.:
WT Ore ie nee 2 asco e eR RU $9. 84 $9.84 | $11.89 | $11. 89
WOStHo sen Seas aonccls's seem eraee 6. 46 5. 99 4.65 5. 45

IPromtmer jeeee esis e See 3. 38 3. 85 7.24 6. 44

1 Destroyed by hail. 2 The yield from this plat is omitted, owing to an error in time of seeding.

The cost of production and the value of the crop as here computed
show a profit by all methods under trial. The profits range from 98
cents by summer tillage to $7.24 on disked corn ground.

HUNTLEY FIELD STATION.

The records of only two years of yields under four different methods
of treatment are available for study from Huntley, Mont. In 1913
there was little difference between spring-plowed oat stubble and
disked corn ground as a preparation for barley. In 1914 disked corn
ground was markedly the better of the two. The heaviest yields
each year were obtained from land on which peas were plowed under
for green manure. In 1914 there was a marked increase in the yield
on ground on which rye was plowed under. In preparation for 1913,

14 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

barley was plowed under instead of rye, with the result that there
was a sharp decrease in yield.

A profit was realized from all the methods under trial. The largest
profit, $9.50 per acre, was on disked corn ground. Spring plowing
shows a profit of $6.15 per acre, while the average profit from green
manure was $3.45.

TABLE V1.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Huntley
Field Station, 1913 and 1914.

Yiel 1s).
NeaAbes ield per acre (bushels)
Treatment and previous crop. ikke ——————
‘ averaged.| 1913 1914 | Average.
Spring plowed: Oats.........-...-...-------------------------- 1 24. 5 34.6 29.6
ID YR els Coy) 3 ec do soa shacenbddoonccHceoucedoesebocoesEsacossas 4 23. 2 45. 7 34.5
Green manured: :
TRV Oe uD Se Res OER eee QUES tae cs estat 1 19.6 55. 6 37.6
IBGE Bs 4 puodandsdodaudas co onun ddan osodabbaoeousccSuseusondan 1 36. 3 63. 6 50.0
Motalomayjelar estes assae eee eee eee eee eee tree seer 2 28.0 59. 6 43.8
ING EE YACOIRE Ugh) Esau ee bance cenaHenoSenccaadesessenanalbasaereoas 24.7 48.1 36.4
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DiGEsT oF Cost.
Tillagetreatment. Previous crop. Tillage treatment.
Values, etc.
Yields (average per acre). Spring | Disked eae Smal Gon os Per | spring | Disked Green
plowed (Eo aaa (2 eG (4 : plowed| (4 mare
(1 plat),| plats). plats). | plat). plats). (1 plat).| plats). (2plats)
Yields of grain: Crop value,
1913 ........ bushels. - 24.5 Dou, 28.0 | 24.5 | 23.2 cost, etc.:
0 eas ee do.... 34. 6 45. 7 59.6 | 34.6 | 45.7 Value...| $12.14 | $14.15 | $17.96
Cost..... 5. 99 4, 65 14, 51
IMVORYEOS os dacsacsoase 29. 6 34, 5 43.8 | 29.6 | 34.5 7 |__|
Profit. 6.15 9. 50 3. 45

WILLISTON FIELD STATION.

The results of five years are available from Williston, N. Dak. In
two of these years the yields were heavy, one year they were fair, and
two years they were very poor.

Between the fall and spring plowing of barley stubble, there is
little difference to be noted, except in 1912, when fall plowing was
much the better. Between barley and oat stubble plowed in the
spring, the only year that showed a significant difference was 1914,
when the advantage was with the oat stubble. The crop on sum-
mer tillage was every year better than that following either oats
or barley. For three years summer tillage yielded heavier than
disked corn ground and for two years the reverse was the case. The
high yield together with low cost combined to make disked corn
ground show the greatest profit, $6.63 per acre. The higher cost of
summer tillage reduced the profit from it to 41 cents per acre. Both
fall and spring plowing show small profits.

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. . 15

Tape VII.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Williston
Field Station, 1910 to 1914, incluswe.

Number Yield per acre (bushels).

Treatment and previous crop. pints Db 2 ea PUG ORS IR A

averaged.| 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed: Barley-..-.....--.-.-------- 1 0.6 3.3 46.1 14.8 17.4 22.0
lowe die banleysasne ne. ssescceeiaaae 1 -8 5.8 31.7 14.4 21.4 14.8
aus Sane Se OS y yaar a ciara oy oxen ray etat 1 2 4.6 30.0 15.6 36.7 17.4
FROLANODAVELALC ne cece se ee seas ae 2 5 5.2 30.9 15.0 29.1 16.1
lDiisieadle (Cimie sep pesseeeonssnobodosacse 1 4 4.2 50.8 28.6 53.5 27.5
Summientilleds22.. 8 2205.22 a2 222 eee 1 5.2 12.7 54.4 21.9 49.7 28.8
Average ofall 5 plats........--.----|---------- Noe 6.1 42.6 19.1 36.7 21.2

nT EETTTTEITEIEEETTELENTTETITTEIEETTTIDEEISEIDEEGDENTEIEIE

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF COST.

i nnn ne EE En IEE un Unt IESISESnSSS SSS

Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc. (average per acre). Fall spring | piscea Summer Sal
5 iske

lowed | plowed grain in
dt plat). | @ plats). | (1 Plat). a ate: (3 plats), | (1 Plat).

melds of grain:
SE ee ace a ee bushels. . 0.6 0.5 0.4 5.2 0.5 0.4
i911 BR ye ae avers. senses do...- 3.3 5.2 4.2 12.7 4.6 4.2
A OT OMG ie ease ee do... 46.1 30.9 50.8 54.4 35.9 50.8
TG MI ra Le ea Le at OLE do.. 14.8 15.0 28.6 21.9 14.9 28.6
OTAbmem ees ST te ee do.. 22.0 29.1 i 53.5 49.7 26.7 53.5
PACT ETAL PO wee eee See emi ete gente 17.4 16.1 27.5 28.8 16.5 27.5

Crop value, cost of production, etc.:
alu

DICKINSON FIELD STATION.

The results of six years are available from Dickinson, N. Dak.
The crop of 1912 was destroyed by hail before maturity, and as failure
from this cause could not be overcome by cultural methods it is
not included in determining the average. Five of the years studied
produced good crops of barley. In the remaining year the average
yield was small, but the variation between the results from different
methods of preparation was wide.

The results attendant upon the fall and spring plowing of barley
stubble and of growing barley on either spring-plowed oat stubble or
barley stubble have been largely dependent upon the season. The
seasonal differences have equalized each other until, when the re-
sults of the five years are averaged, little choice is to be made between
them. Summer tillage increased the crop an average of about 7
bushels, bringing it up to 32.5 bushels per acre. Disked corn ground,
however, brought the average yield up to 37.4 bushels per acre and
gave a higher yield than summer tillage five years out of six.

16 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Having at the same time the highest yield and the lowest cost of
production, disked corn ground shows much the highest profit of any
method under trial. The average profit from it was $10.68 per acre.
Both spring and fall plowing show profits of about $4 per acre. The
cost of summer tillage reduced the profits from it to $1.93 per acre.

TaBuE VIII.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Dickinson
Freld Station, 1908 to 1914, inclusive.

Number Yield per acre (bushels).
Treatment and previous of
crop. plats
averaged.| 1908 1909 -1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 | Average.
Fallplowed: Barley-..... 1 24.0 39.0 31.1 1.2 (4) 34.8 20.2 25.1
Bpring plowed:
isthid ee ace sosesace 1 33.5 39.8 28.3 9.6 (4) 19.2 25.0 25.9
Oalsr eee eee 1 34.4 49.2 19.8 2.4 (@) 20.2 13.3 FALH,
Total or average... 2 34.0 44.5 24.1 Gh) lsseccose 19.7 19.2 24.6
Disked: Corn.......-.--- 1 45.6 53.8 28.6 12.3 (1) 44.8 39.1 37.4
Summer tilled........-.. 1 30.0 50.0 24.0 19.1 (@) 36.9 | ° 35.2 32.5
eee ay of all 5
platses2f.y-cersca| sooner ene 33.5 46.4 26.4 8.9 @) 31.2 26.6 28.8

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF CosT.

Tillage treatment. Previous crop.

Yields, values, etc. (average per acre). Fall Spring OR Simms || Sensill
plowed | plowed (1 plat)
plat). | @ plats). | © P

= Corn
eTain
(1 plat). | (3 plats).| ( Plat).

sees of grain:

Caria asd tsi etascare mevemesiomoets bushels 24.0 34.0 45.6 30.0 30.6 45.6
1900 Eta oie ciereeie eiatersceeate a do.. 39.0 44.5 53.8 50.0 42.7 53.8
MOTO ere oak Pesecsismse Sapeae Seis do. . 31.1 24.1 28.6 24.0 26.4 28.6
INS) Ey seen a si ee eR ea do. - 1.2 6.0 12.3 19.1 4.4 12.3

yA a Sa aod BOBS A SSaoEeoneuoae do- () @) (@) () @) @)
NOUS oes acinus es seca eesor ane do.. 34.8 19.7 44.8 36.9 24.7 44.8
OVA aes See e Sales eure aise see do.. 20. 2 19.2 39.1 35. 2 19.5 39.1
PAVE TAP OU eee eres sania bs) Snissee eee eee 25.1 24.6 37.4 32.5 24.7 37.4

roe. value, cost of production, etc.:
NEN RD eee ro ore Siege es ee A $10. 29 $10. 09 $15. 33 $13 533 |e sSeL ee Lees ae nee
Cost paisa ee eee ee mie esis = sie eee eae 6. 46 5.99 4.65 1, 40a) oc eS eekiee |e ese nae

Pron seo sal eosee tere ues eaaeeen 3. 83 4.10 10. 68 15GB) |jsccodososa|lods:sessse

1 Destroyed by hail.
EDGELEY FIELD STATION.

The results of eight years of uninterrupted work are presented from
Edgeley, N. Dak. In five of these years the yields were good, in one
year they were light, and in two years the crops were practically
failures from all methods under trial. No method showed any merit
in overcoming the drought of these extreme years at this station. In
five of the years under study the highest yield was obtained on disked
corn ground. The maximum yield by this method was 37.1 bushels
per acre, while the average for the eight years was 23.4 bushels per acre.

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 17

The next highest average yield, 20 bushels per acre, was by summer
tillage. The average from spring-plowed oat land was 19.7 bushels
per acre. The advantage of either fall or spring plowing barley stub-
ble varied within narrow limits, but in the average of the series of years
no choice is to be made between the two. This indication that the
time of plowing is not an important factor allows greater latitude
in planning the work of the farm. ‘The plan should be to get the
work done early and thus avoid as far as possible the augmentation of
work at seeding time. This is of especial importance in the northern
portion of the Great Plains, where the seeding season is necessarily
short.

The only method under trial that did not produce barley at a profit
is summer tillage. This shows an average loss of $3.20 per acre. ‘The
ereatest profit, $4.94, was realized from disked corn ground. Fall
and spring plowing both show small profits.

TaBLE 1X.— Yield and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Edgeley
Field Station, 1907 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Number
BEAM ALG PLEVAOIISICLOP oi | 1010 EDS eorecr eapcem rae TR | SGN | ISR | RSS
averaged.| 1997 | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 Average.
Fall plowed: Barley.-.....--.-- 1] 9.4 | 24.2 | 24.7] 1.6] 0.1 | 26.5 | 20.2 | 26.9 16.7

Spring plowed:

2 Batley = SEER ERE Sa eee TI MOsZaeZos00|s2eO) | Ledeen cee 24.2 | 17.9 | 32.3 17.2
LSM NAN ars re AY 1] 10.6 | 26.0 | 32.7] 1.4] .1]| 34.0] 18.9 | 33.6 19.7
Total or average ....------ 2110.4 | 25.5 | 29.9] 1.3 -1 | 29.1 | 18.4 | 33.0 18.5
DaSked sa COENs =) 5-55 sat eei = 1 | 18.3 | 31.9 | 33.1 |. 2.9 AL aOS 2h oieele Soon 92 4
Srammion tilled es 2240. S52 sb esee 1 | 16.0 | 24.2 | 28.3) 2.2 .8 | 32.3 | 26.8 | 29.4 90.0
Average ofall 5 plats......|...------- | 12.9 | 26.3 | 29.2] 1.9 -3 | 29.4 | 24.2 | 31.1 19, 4

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF COST.

Tillage treatment. Previous crop.

Yields, values, etc. (average per acre). Fall Spring oes Summer | Small
plowed | plowed | ( piaty, | _ tilled grain | ae
(1 plat). | (2 plats). | % P'#*)- | (2 plat). | (3 plats). | ( Plat).

Yields of grain: -
TET / Ze ROR Tease ieee bushels. - 9.4 10. 4 18.3 16.0 10.1 18.3
T3352 Gee ee Rea E aaeprEases do.... 24,2 25.5 31.9 24.2 25.1 31.9
1h 0) ieee Fe eis aiseeereee doze. 24.7 29.9 33. 1 28.3 28.1 33.1
OTS Sea Ae Ee eo do 1.6 1.3 2.9 2.2 1.4 2.9
BO er Dea ae ju ers cielo do. ail oil 4 8 Aa 4
OT Oe 8 Fo Se eee me Soe do. 26.5 29.1 30.2 32.3 28.2 30.2
Te a Ne ae Page aa cree esiesys do. 20. 2 18.4 37.1 26. 8 19.0 37.1
RENE Tees eae a me eRe ae do. 26.9 33. 0 33. 1 29. 4 30. 9 38% 1
AVOTASO ecw aon anise = ss cestinee ane cee 16.7 18.5 23. 4 20. 0 17.9 23.4
Crop value, cost of production, etc.:
WtlUG ee i ante acs a ues $6. 85 $7. 59 $9. 59 $8..208 |< so sc ochde|ecie eeee
COSTS ERAS a see ete OR aaa 6. 46 5. 99 4.65 LES 402 Yee see easecse

18 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

HETTINGER FIELD STATION.

Results for three years have been obtained at Hettinger, N. Dak.
All were years of good barley yields. The highest yields were
obtained each year by summer tillage and the lowest, with one excep-
tion, on disked corn ground. ‘The average yield from summer tillage
was more than twice that from the disked land. Followmg small
erain, a decided advantage attended spring-plowed barley stubble.
The crops in this group yielded better than on disked corn ground,
but not as good as by summer tillage.

TasLE X.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Hettinger
Field Station, 1912, 1918, and 1914.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Treatment and previous crop. Number
ans 1912 1913 1914 | Average.
averaged

Hall plowed: aBarley.i oso nace onoe ose eesewae see see 1 23.5 27.1 9.2 19.9

Spring plowed:
Barleyes ea oane acenmssen cas conser Senn ener eeee 1 26.3 39.6 16.3 27.4
Oats rsnsre re sean a shiae aaa eae nee i 22.9 28.0 20.0 23.6
Totallon average: 220 Sa. secee ae eeciscese 2 24.6 33.8 18.2 25.5
Disked 3Comm i 2G jen eos sees Sa eee eee eee eee 1 13.5 21.0 10.2 14.9
Sim meritille diet sas shes Nos tseene mee ee oe wee ee 1 37.8 38.8 18.7 31.8
Averapeofall/S plats sconcise)cissise see seca ese eae oe or 24.8 30.9 14.9 23.5

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, ete. (average per acre). Fall- Spring- oes Summer-| Small pee
plowed | plowed (1 plat) tilled grain (1 plat)
(1 plat). | (2 plats). (1 plat). | (8 plats). 9

Maelds, of grain:
Sa Ce are ree meaner Sees bushels. . 23.5 24.6 13.5 37.8 24.2 13.5
1913 SPR Menace echoes anee oars Os aee 27.1 33.8 21.0 38.8 31.6 21.0
DOTS as iets cee ak Sees do.... 9.2 18. 2 10.2 18.7 15.2 10.2
MASVOT AVON Cet = case ae ee fetes bp 19.9 25.5 14.9 31.8 se 14.9

Crop ele cost of production, ete.:

adticodadcosecoa ssonsesceobessaeue $8.16 $10. 46 $6.11 CHL Ee So oncbd|esseessncc
Costeeeeeeer cesar obanie cele tae 6.46 5.99 4.65 11540" |e ese eee
POL Gaetee Ga-mc eee aecn ee se eee 1.70 4.47 1.46 TA Weadertoned se2ccosoda

The relative position assumed by the various methods may be due
in part to the distribution of the rainfall for the two years, 1911 and
1912, and may be changed with subsequent work. In both 1911 and
1912 a heavy rainfall came in August and September.. The corn,
which was still growing, used this water, while a portion of it was
accumulated in the small-grain plats, whan the grain was already
harvested, and in the summer-tilled plats. The corn plats were

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 19

therefore short of available water when the barley was seeded and
consequently gave lower yields. Weeds were also a factor in decreas-
ing the yields on disked corn ground.

A profit was realized from all methods under trial. Between fall
plowing, disking, and summer tillage there was little difference.
Spring plowing shows a considerably larger average profit than any
of the other methods.

BELLE FOURCHE FIELD STATION.

The results of six years at Belle Fourche, S. Dak., are available for
study. In only one year was the yield heavy. Three of those years
gave light yields from most methods; in one year the crop was a
total failure from all methods, and in the other year only one method
gave any yield and that was light.

Taste XI.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Belle
Fourche Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).
Treatment and previous crop. Naber
of plats | 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 | Average.
averaged.
Fall plowed: Barley..........-.- 1 25.0 4.8 0 0 8.9 oi 7.6
Spring plowed
BS rley pee anannac scien Siccisss 1 23. 8 4.4 0 5. 2 17.0 5.2 9.3
Oats Ree iasia oe se elma waits nce 1 28. 1 3.6 0 0 6.8 5. 8 7.4
Total or average.........-- 2, 26.0 ANON Reset 2.6 11.9 a5 8.3
PSICOEMBANIC YS eee cons ce cae ce ems 1 30. 2 0 0 0 7.8 8.1 deal
Subsoiled: Barley.............-. 1 33. 8 0 0 0 7.8 6.3 8.0
WP ISKEGdCOMmMyaae cnc ces ce ose ase 1 (pal 5.0 0 0 8.9 12.2 12.2
Bummer tilled ss 2 ee. .8cssS. ee 1 37.3 3.0 0 0 13. 4 21.7 12.6
Average of all 7 plats.....--|..-.-.-.-- 32. 2 BU) Heaesare 7 10. 1 9.5 9.3
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF CosT.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, ae (average 4 '
per acre). Fa Spring | ,; : Sub- | Summer; Smal
plowed | plowed aes Gees soiled | tilled | grain |(4 slat)
(1 plat).|(2 plats)|\* P°2")-|4 P!")-|(7 pjat).| (1 plat). |(5plats)|\* P’?4)-
Yields of grain:
TT ieee are ae 25. 0 26. 0 47.1 30. 2 33.8 37.3 28. 2 47.1
GTO 4.8 4.0 5.0 0 0 3.0 2.6 5.0
HOU ea see 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
OTD Ee rele isiareil= 0 2.6 0 0 0 0 1.0 0
HOT it acces 2 = sae 8.9 11.9 8.9 7.8 7.8 13.4 9.7 8.9
Te Pe es gee ea ace 7.1 5.5 12.2 8.1 6.3 21.7 6.5 12.2
AVETALCES 52.02 heh oceans eect 7.6 8.3 12. 2 den, 8.0 12.6 8.0 12. 2
Crop value, cost of production, etc.:
ale se SARs Ie en ie een $3.12 | $3.40 | $5.00] $3.16 | $3.28 ee Wy ia Pee | een
COSb ae sane ae os er 6. 46 5. 99 4. 65 5. 45 7. 07 TH Lag UO Pe Rielle a
Profitiorloss sg esee ees eee —3.34 | —2.59 .30 | —2.29 | —3.79 | —6.23

20 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In the year of heavy yields and in the following year of very light
yields the best production was on disked corn ground. In 1912 the
only yield secured was from spring-plowed barley stubble. The same
plat also gave the highest yield in 1913. It is probable that in both
cases these results were due to the fact that the crop on this plat
made a poor start and had a thinner stand, which helped it in with-
standing the drought of the summer.

Subsoiling, as compared with fall-plowing done at the same time,
appears to have been effective in increasing the crop in the year of
good yield, but not in overcoming drought in other years. The same
observation applies to furrowmg with the lister instead of plowing.

In the average results from the whole period of years, summer tillage
and disking corn ground stand by themselves. On the basis of yield
there is little or no choice to be made between the two. But when the
cost of production is figured in connection with the value of the crop
it is seen that by all methods except the use of disked corn ground the
crop has been produced at a loss. The low cost of production by the
disking method enables it to show a nominal average profit of 35
cents per acre.

SCOTTSBLUFF FIELD STATION.

The results of only two years with barley are available for study
from Scottsbluff, Nebr. The crop of 1913 was lost through a fault
in the seed that made it necessary to reseed. The reseeded crop
erew and maintained the continuity of the work in the effect upon
the ground for the following crop, but was too late to mature before
growth was checked by the hot weather of midsummer. Production
in one year was good and in the other it was poor.

TaBLE XII.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Scotts-
bluff Field Station, 1912 and 1914.

Number Yield per acre (bushels).!

Treatment and previous crop. ollats Sa Sa Se

aged. 1912 1914 Average.

Hall plowed: Barley. sec ye cesses nese cies as eee eine oee eee see 1 23.5 4.4 14.0
Spring plowed:

SES AT] Olyies epee eee hal ats By aL Rp Ag 1 21.3 6.0 13.7

PEW RSIS es ep OS Op aA Ae Se oa UR Se 1 22.5 11.8 17.2

TPOUAMOE AVERAGO Ls: - aeyc sire ose ee a ciate oes ata Enicre ete Seige 2 21.9 15. 4

8.9

Disked Comme heey aU a hes a Pet ate LU eal, Se a 1 5.8

AAS TOG eB ATO, seek ere IE CIN Ee NB eR ON 1 5.0
FEAT OSSToYT Keo Wad BY bid CN Gea ree eae Re a le Te 1 24.8 5.2 15.0

Summer tilde dey Ase ey eM A Si NaC tee) Hs AS 1 5.6

iil

1 The crop of 1913 was a failure, due to poor seed.

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 21
TABLE XII.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Scotts-
bluff Field Station, 1912 and 1914—Continued.

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.

Tillage treatment. Previous crop.

Yields, values, a (average oa lass eae ee
per acre). a ring | Disked| Listed | SUP |Summer| Sma Sa
plowed Sead (1 plat).|(1 plat). soiled | tilled | grain (1 plat).
(1 plat).|(2 plats) (1 plat).| (1 plat). |(5 plats)

Yields of grain:
OM aap tare se ea cialis roses sie bushels. . 23.5 21.9 31.3 23.8 24.8 39.6 23. 2 31.3
OWS Wer ste aia rcts cto ctw dale craate 66 Coa es Sel Seas eet) [Sears Serie cc ei Sarre Sa] RIT aera Petes [ene ars
OT eee ts ats cis iasicicies siatsiavape' sis do 4,4 8.9 5.8 5.0 5. 2 15. 6 6.5 5.8
ENACT Be a ain A 14.0 15. 4 18.6 14. 4 15.0 27.6 14.9 18.6

a A Schott o) ae ape ep $5.74 | $6.31] $7.63 | $5.90 | $6.15 | $11.32 |........|........
(COST Ge Sa a ed aes Sa 6. 46 5. 99 4.65 5. 45 7. 07 TRA OG | Bayer aces | sneer

Profit omlossee; sacieeeeseete ee — .72 noe 2.98 PAB | OD se ORY [tes ewe oie ee a

1 The crop of 1913 was a failure, due to poor seed.

The highest yield in both years was from summer tillage. The
average yield from this method is 9 bushels per acre greater than the
average on disked corn ground, the next highest yielding method
under trial. Between other methods there is little difference in
yields, although in 1914 the spring-plowed oat ground appeared to
have a decided advantage. Spring plowing, disking, and listing all
show small profits, the greatest being from disking. Fall plowing,
subsoiling, and summer tillage all show small losses.

NORTH PLATTE FIELD STATION.

In the eight years under study at North Platte, Nebr., there have
been two heavy crops of barley, three light crops, two poor crops, and
one failure from drought and grasshoppers.

In the average of the whole series of years a small advantage
. appears in favor of fall plowing. There have been large differences
in individual years of the series. The greatest difference in any one
year has been in favor of fall plowing, but in the greater number of
years there has been a smaller difference in favor of spring plowing.
The greatest difference in favor of spring plowing over fall plowing
was in 1909. Germination was much slower on the spring-plowed
than on either fall-plowed or summer-tilled land, owing to the fact
that the seed bed was not in as good shape. A late freeze caught
the crop on the fall-plowed and summer-tilled land at a tender stage,
while the crop on the spring-plowed plats, being slower, escaped
almost entirely. The difference in yield between spring and fall
plowing in that year was therefore due to a difference in stand.

22 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The one plat on disked-corn ground has been low in yield, its
average being below that of barley following small grain. There is
some evidence to support the belief that the location of the rotation
containing this plat is such that it is normaly a little lower in yield
than the rest of the field.

The only method under trial that exhibits power to markedly
increase the yield over other methods is summer tillage. This power
has not been manifested every year, but in some years it has been very
marked. The average yield for eight years by this method has been
26.7 bushels per acre as against 16.3 bushels where the crop followed
small grain. This increase in yield has been just about equal to the
increased cost of growing the crop under this method. All methods
show either a profit or a loss of less than $1 per acre.

TaBLE XIII.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the North
Platte Freld Station, 1907 to 1914, inclusive.

‘el
Number Yield per acre (bushels),

Treatment and previous crop. | of plats

averaged.! 4997 | 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.

Fall plowed: Barley ..........-.. 1 | 40.0 | 43.3 | 10.4 | 12.5 0} 14.6] 5.0] 11.0 17.1
Spring plowed:

Barleys san Gene sia ae 1 | 39.0 | 19.6 | 21.5 | 13.8 0} 20.8] 6.5] 5.3 15.8

Matera yea wee. Nee a 1 | 40.2 | 22.3 | 18.6 | 16.0 0| 20.0} 6.3] 3.6 15.9

Total or average.........- 2 | 39.6 | 21.0 | 20.1 | 14.9 |.._... 20.4] 6.4] 4.5 15.9

Miskeds;\Cormio2 eases esse 1 | 30.6 | 24.9} 21.5 7.9 0) 12.3) 5.0} 5.2 , 13.4

Summer tilled. ....-..-..-....-- 1 | 39.0 | 67.7 | 23.8 | 26.0 0 | 20.0 | 16.5 | 20.8 26.7

Average of all 5 plats......|.........- 37.8 | 35.6 | 19.2 | 15.2 |...-.- 17.5] 7.9) 9.2 17.8

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.

Yields, values, etc. (average per acre). Fall- Spring- eee oe Straneaaye Small

lowed | plowed tilled
i plat). |@ plats). | (1 Plat). | plat). |(3¢plats).| (1 Plat).

ral of grain:

Aibere tae wey rca tsi eibiatgias Ae are bushels. . 40.0 39.6 30.6 39.0 39. 7 30.6
1908 SEO ete NA yh Eat arty Na do... 43.3 21.0 24.9 67.7 28. 4 24.9
QOD oP ee IN nore UO es do. . 10. 4 20.1 21.5 23.8 16.8 21.5
QO respira ce 055 2)a ays Sy SPR tay ak do... 12.5 14.9 7.9 26.0 14.1 7.9
ROUT spe se Saeeetiabe Giys AES les do... 0 0 0 0 0 0
TQ TOS ene TONNE Oi ate aieraiatere crete do 14.6 20. 4 12.3 20. 0 18.5 12.3
AL QU Hs SRN Ue NS ee RS Led. do 5.0 6.4 5.0 16.5 5.9 5.0
tI) Ke eee repent es A eer ata do 11.0 4.5 5.2 20.8 6.6 5.2

IAVOTALO a aiseeiis Sen cclseuie ee wees aeons 17.1 15.9 13.4 26. 7 16.3 13.4

Crop value, cost of production, etc.:
Wale tice sie syr pe CSTs re Ne ti ane $7. 01 $6. 52 $5. 49 SLOUOG yi Recios see | eects ersiereisyere
COST ee DL ee SN NS at INE es Madara 6. 46 5. 99 4.65 BLA ORS So Seeese mens eee eemnicinte

IPLOMOrMOSSe se eee ety te eee . 55 f03 84 ase Oy el Elva cete aye ese] Se ea teves eta:

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 23

AKRON FIELD STATION.

The results at Akron, Colo., secured by fall plowing barley stubble,
furrowing with a lister instead of plowing, spring plowing barley stub-
ble, spring plowing oat stubble, and disking corn ground in prepara-
tion for barley, have been dependent upon the season. Some seasons
have favored one method and other seasons other methods, but on
the whole little choice is to be made from the average of the six years
under study. Subsoiling as compared with fall plowing without sub-
soiling has been done at a distinct loss each year except the first.

Summer tillage has increased the average yield from 17.6 bushels
following a small-grain crop to 24.8 bushels per acre. Subsoiling and
summer tillage show small losses of $1.33 and $1.23 per acre. Other
methods show profits ranging from $1.17 on fall-plowed land to $2.89
on disked corn ground.

TaBLE XIV.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Akron
Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Number
Treatment and previous crop. of plats

raveraged.| 4999 | i910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.

Fall plowed: Barley-..-..-....---. 1 16.8 10.5 16.3 27.9 3.1 36. 7 18.6
Spring plowed:
Ban eye eee cet cas mas ne 1 19.7 13.1 8.7 28. 8 4.6 32.1 17.8
Oats ose sacks Sle 1 22.2 10. 2 2.5 35.2 7.9 40. 2 19.7
Total or average..........- 2 21.0 11.7 5.6 32.0 6.3 36. 2 18.8
MAsted: Barley. «1 ais cece secees 1 19.2 12.6 4.6 36. 0 4.4 30.8 17.9
Subsoiled: Barley = 1 19.8 6.9 5.2 22.5 1.5 27.9 14.0
Disked: Corn .....--..- sae : 3 18.7 12.9 1.7 28.9 6.4 42.0 18.4
Summer tilled.........-- 3 1|. 24.6 16.0 12.6 40. 2 16.3 46.2 24.8
Average of all 9 plats.......|-.--.----- 19.8 12.0 6.1 30.8 6.3 37.8 18.8
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF COST.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc. (average peracre).| Fall | Spring | 7; : Sub- Small
2 , plowed | plowed Disked | Listed mailed Summer grain Corn
3 tilled (5 (3

1
Nay Bo) plats). | plat). one (1 plat). plats). plats).

Yields of grain:

QOD ee reset cishe ena aie 8 bushels 16.8 21.0 18.7 19.2 19.8 24.6 19.5 18.7
TIO KC LAS ira aS RE a ate ent do.. 10.5 11.7 12.9 12.6 6.9 16.0 10.7 12.9
TGS ee BRE U a ssgeecaees do. 16.3 5.6 1.7 4.6 5.2 12.6 «5 1.7
12) A eis ae a ene ..do. 27.9 32.0 28.9 36. 0 22.5 40.2 30.1 28.9
MOUS teye as se Ces ..do. 3.1 6.3 6.4 4.4 1.5 16.3 4.3 6.4
Qe Masa See cssretetstere eee do 36.7 36. 2 42.0 30. 8 27.9 46.2 33.5 42.0

SA VOTAZ Oso) sieit ciete ee ar erate 18.6 18.8 18. 4 17.9 14:0 24.8 17.6 18.4

Cro wae cost of production, etc.:

24 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

HAYS FIELD STATION.

In the results for seven years presented for study from Hays,
Kans., one crop has been lost by hail. With the exception of 3.4
bushels per acre produced by summer tillage, one crop has been lost
by drought. In two years the average yield was heavy, in two
it was light, and in one it was fair. In the matter of productive
and nonproductive years, the record for barley at this station is
the same as that of oats. The year when the crop was destroyed
by hail is not included in computing the averages.

TaBLE XV.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Hays
Field Station, 1908 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Number
Treatment and previous crop. of plats
averaged.) 199g | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed: Barley.......-.-.-------- 1} 12.4} @) |19.7] 0 28.8] 4.0 | 16.7 13.6
Spring plowed: .
Barleyerccse = se see sea Eos ee ee 1} 5.8] @) | 12.5) 0 22.4) 2.6] 9.9 8.9
Oats ee seeeeiee cae eee eet 1] 9.2} @) | 15.0} 0 29.8 | 17.0) 9.4 13.4
Total or average. .---..--2------- ZN) Coa) |bSecc TS Sa Pee 26.1} 9.8] 9.7 11.2
Misteds Barloyeccse ssccee cena oceans 1) 10.1} @) |19.7) 0 31.8) 2.1 | 12.6 1227
Subsoiled: Barley.....--..--.--------- 1 | 14.8 G3 19.3} 0 33.8 | 4.6 | 15.2 14.6
DISkest Se sjeers Sasisees eee eee ests Sela es 6] 11.0} @ 28.3 | 0 25.1 | 3.5 | 16.4, 14.1
Green manured
Ws CEN OSEES EG AEE EERE eee 1| 21.5] (@) | 32.3] 0 | 16.9] 12.9] 15.3 16.5
IBGE CE ee atone GabaTuaooeaecsbon orcs 1} 5.0} (@) | 34.1] 0 17.7 | 14.0 | 16.2 14.5
Total or average.........----..-- P41) WS Bijesele oe dose leet 17.3 | 18.5 | 15.8 15.5
Summer tilled sseee sss secsee ences ry 1/189} @) | 18.4] 3.4] 36.2] 20.9 | 18.0 19.3
Average of all 14 plats...........|-.--.----- 1S fal See be 24.3 574 || AO folk) as}Al 14.1
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF COST.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.

Yields, values, etc.

Green Small
(average per acre). beoed Spans Distedaltsleietedi SU atid earner grain Cone ae

(1 plat). @ plats), |¢® Plats)./ (1 plat). | ¢ platy, | Plats).| (1 prat). ae plats). Liven.
Yields of grain:

re Ae eae bush. . 12.4 7.5 11.0 10.1 14.8 13.3 18.9} 10.5 | 11.3 | 10.4

1909 ..... CO-sec)| ©) () () @) @) @) @) (*) “yt @)
UKs see do 19.7 13.8 28.3 19.7 19.3 33.2 18.4 | 17.2 | 26.6 31.6

Ue ee se do 0 0 0 0 0 3.4] 0 0
AGIZRE ee do 28.8 26.1 25.1 31.8 33.8 17.3 Bue) | 29a | 20s 23.0
1913 eee do 4.0 9.8 3.5 2.1 4.6 13.5 20.9 6.1 ais Il 4.4
LOLA do 16.7 9.7 16. 4 12.6 15:2 15.8 18.0} 12.8 | 15.6 | 18.2
Average.....- 13.6 11.2 14.1 ee 14.6 15.5 LOS | 27 1358 14.6

Crop value, cost of
production, ete::

Valtio oe 50 i $5.58 | $4.59| $5.78] $5.21] $5.99| $6.36-| $7.91 |..2...|.-.--.]..----
Costhin see 6. 46 5.99 4.65 5.45 CAR yaell ee aL tant rman le (a Vege Oe CAVING oo
Profit or loss.| — .88 | —1.40 (aad = oat) Fos |S Sasha ee Sasa Sie ae ee

1 Destroyed by hail.

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 25

The results range from an average yield of 8.9 bushels per acre
on spring-plowed barley land to 19.3 bushels per acre on summer-
tilled land. Green manure is in second place, with average yields
of 15.5 bushels per acre. In all but the first year, peas plowed
under produced slightly larger crops than winter rye similarly
treated. There has been a gain of 1 bushel per acre from sub-
soiling over fall plowimg not subsoiled. Furrowing over winter
with a lister produced practically the same as fall plowing. Fall-
plowed barley stubble gave better results than spring-plowed bar-
ley stubble. Spring-plowed oat stubble produced practically the
same as fall-plowed barley stubble. Disked corn ground produced
slightly better yields than the average of the crops following small
grains on fall or spring plowing.

The main positive result shown in the table of yields is an increase
of about 6 bushels an acre as the result of summer tillage, or a some-
what lesser increase as a result of modifying the summer tillage by
plowing under a crop of green manure.

The only method that produced barley at a profit was that of
disking corn ground. This shows a profit of $1.13 per acre. All
other methods show losses which range from 24 cents on listed
eround to $3.49 on summer-tilled land and $8.15 on green-manured
land.

GARDEN CITY FIELD STATION.

During the work of six years with barley under study at Garden City,
Kans., one crop has been lost by drought and one by hail. In the
other four years, yields have been obtained.

The highest average yield, 11 bushels per acre, has been obtained
from summer tillage. Next to this in point of average yield is disked
corn ground. Subsoiling has given the same average yields as fall
plowing done at the same time without subsoiling. Marked advan-
tage in two years appears to have been derived from furrowing with
a lister and leaving the land rough through the winter instead of
plowing.

On the whole the average yields are so low and there are so many
mconsistencies in the behavior of the different methods from year to
year that the results are chiefly valuable as indicators rather than as
definite guides to practice. It appears that there is sound reason for
the consensus of opinion as evidenced by farm practice which gives
little place to spring-sown barley in the territory served by this
station.

The crop has been produced at a loss by all the methods under
trial. The losses range from $1 per acre on disked corn ground to
$6.89 on summer-tilled land.

26 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Taste XVI.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Garden
City Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).
Number

Treatment and previous crop. of plats Average.
averaged.| 1999 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914
Fall plowed: Barley.....-------- 1 4.8 5. 4 0 9.0 (4) 15.2 6.9
Spring plowed:
B Bares IRE te Sees Preted Eye vayaras Sie 1 2.4 1.0 6.9 (4) 3.9 2.8
Oatenieeee aa a ae pers 1 5.7 2.3 0] 17.0] @) 3.5 5.7
Total or average.....--.--- 2 4.1 hel Seer IDEON iss s5ce> Sh 4.3
Listed: Barley :22.24i0.ce2-20%2 iy een cee ratiant o| 145/ @ 1948 | lees
Subsoiled: Barley......----.----- 1 3.7 5.2 0 8.5 1 17.3 6.9
Disked -Cormeesseeee ee pee 3 4.8 5.4 0 15.8 1 18.5. 8.9
Summer tilled......------------- 1 10.0 13.5 0 13.1 (4) 18.5 11.0
Average of all 9 plats.......|......-.-.- 4.6 Ree Vel alee DDE) eee sees 15.7 en

SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DiGESt oF Cost.

Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, he (average al ; Gun lis Sesh
per acre). a pring ub- ummer a
plowed | plowed ( aa Guise soiled tilled (3 plats).
(1 plat).|(2 plats). (1 plat).| (1 plat). (Sp ETE
wields of grain:
1909 4.8 4,1 4.8 322 3.7 10.0 4.0 4.8
5.4 13% 5.4 5.0 5.2 13.5 3.8 5.4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9.0 12.0 15.8 14.5 8.5 13.1 11.2 15.8
() @) @) C) (*) ©) @) @)
15.2 324 18.5 18.8 17.3 18.5 11.7 18.5
AVOrage sig Us Ae 6.9 4.3 8.9 8.3 6.9 11.0 6.1 8.9
Crop value, cost of produc- iF
tion, etc.:
Value of CrOpeat eases $2. 83 $1. 76 $3. 65 $3. 40 $2. 83 Cy ag gl ee a re
Cost of production....... 6. 46 5. 99 4.65 5. 45 7.07 VT AO} | oe Se eee eae
MOSS oo See ee a —3. 63 —4. 23 —1.00 | —2.05 —4.24 r= G5 89)\'|2 ais Sata eenieicate

1 Destroyed by hail.
DALHART FIELD STATION.

Persistent attempts have been made for six years to grow barley
at the station at Dalhart, Tex. The crop has been lost in the different —
years by hail, drought, mi soil blowing.

In only two years have any yields been obtained. If this record
is indicative of average conditions, as it is believed to be, it would
show that spring-sown barley has no place in the farm practice of
this section.

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. Oe

TABLE X VII.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the Dathart.
Field Station, 1909 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).
Number
Treatment and previous crop. of plats Average.
averaged.| i999 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914
Fall plowed: Barley...........-- 1 0 (1) 0] @) o| 15.6 3.9
Spring plowed:
Bpanleyuecuesetscce eee eanaeae 1 0 (4) (2) 0 (ene 1.9
ORS Soa ce he ae Rae ae i 0 0| @) 05 ee Pea
Total or average.......---- Dales aaa Reese endear (os Fe cee eee Uo 1.9
Misted: Barley ..2.:..:--.2--+--4- HI 0 1) 0 (1) 17.6 4.4
Diskedi:iCorn!... z.--........0s-05¢ 3 0 1) 0 (1) 0 6. 4 1.6
Summer tilled. 224.25. 85. ose 2 1 7.5 1) 0 (1) 18.1 6. 4
Average of all 8 plats.......|....-..-.- 1,8} Acesonos|ecoocode|lsoocoso5|Gancosen 13.1 3.6
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, a (average ae eile i a |
er acre). ‘a pring : : ummer ma,
E plowed | plowed @ Se GED tilled grain (3 SiS)
(1 plat). | @ plats). | ° P\A%S)-) © Plal). | (q plat). | (4 plats). |? P'Ats)-
Yields of grain:
CCR: Bot ae bushels 0 0 0 0 7.5 0 0
HNO. = sasosedodsooese do. - () () () () (@) () ()
LOR AaP ere E Te do 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TOTOR MEN AEN CEN do (‘) () () () () () ()
TIGYI Eae SAN ae eae eee do 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
NO i eee ae do 15.6 Wet 6.4 17.6 18.1 13.6 6.4
PAW OLAS Os eeeret coca c nee 3.9 1.9 1.6 4.4 6. 4 3. 4 1.6
Crop value, cost of production, =
ete.:
Weilltouass Sessa ecaeanaeaes $1. 60 $0. 78 $0. 66 $1. 80 D2: O24 | Su oss acall neces eee
Coste herr abies 6. 46 5.99 4. 65 5. 45 age YO Si rae ree ea | pS SI
MOSSE meas cate cciccine coe —4. 86 —5,. 21 —3. 99 —3. 65 a Bev EON | oe ere ets relearn

1 Destroyed by hail.
AMARILLO FIELD STATION.

The results with barley at Amarillo, Tex., have been tabulated for
six years; 1910 is not included, owing to the necessity of changing the
location of the farm. The crop of that year was the first from
prairie sod and was raised on land uniform in its preparation for all
plats. While there was some growth of straw, a crop of grain did
not mature. Three of the six years under study were productive of
much better average yields than the other three. During two years
the crop was practically a failure by all methods. In the remaining
year one method, summer tillage, gave a yield of 17.5 bushels per
acre, while most of the other methods were failures. On the average,
there appears to have been no increase in yields from subsoiling, from
listing instead of plowing, or from raising the barley on disked corn
ground.

28 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The only method that has consistently shown increases sufficient to
attract attention is summer tillage. Under this method barley has
given an average yield for six years of 12.6 bushels per acre, with a
maximum yield in any one year of 19.6 bushels per acre. On the
whole, barley does not seem to offer more promise for this section
than any other of the spring-sown small grains.

A loss by all methods under trial has attended the growth of the
crop. These losses range from $1.94 on disked corn ground to $6.23
on summer-tilled land.

TasLe XVIII.— Yields and cost of production of barley by different methods at the
Amarillo! Field Station for 1908, 1909, and 1911 to 1914, inclusive.

Yield per acre (bushels).

Treatment and previous crop. aEBIee
averaged.| 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 | Average.
Fall plowed: Barley.........-.-- 1 13.2 5.8 11.7 1.7 0 ‘16.7 8.2
Spring plowed:
IBALIOY Bet vee toes ae eects aes 1 7.9 0 12.2 2.7 0 21.0 7.3
Oatsraee asses sa eee ee” 1 8.1 0 12.3 1.1 0 741) 4.0
AVOLADONSSreES Fs Jam Ser 2 8.0 0 12.3 1.9 0 11.9 5.7
Misted: eb anleyern-seeseeoeeeeeeee 1 10.8 0 11.4 1.5 0 13.1 6.1
Subsoiled: Barley ..............- 1 11.9 0 10.3 1.5 0 17.1 6.8
Disked:Comieessscesseemeccee een 1 Co 0 11.8 1.7 0 18. 8 6.6
Summer tilled................-..- 1 15. 2 17.5 15.0 4.2 4.2 19.6 12.6
Average of all 7 plats.......].......... 10.7 3.3 12.1 2:1 6 15.6 7.4
SUMMARY OF YIELDS AND DIGEST OF Cost.
Tillage treatment. Previous crop.
Yields, values, etc. (average per Fall- |§ Sum-
iS pring- “ Sub- x Small
acre). pl owe dl pl owe d Dieked pasted sole d Be grain Cie
1 +
ay plats). plat). plat). | pat). | 4, | plats. | Pav
plat).
Yields of grain:
1908.. 13.2 8.0 7.5 10.8 11.9 15.2 10. 4 7.5
5.8 0 0 0 0 17.5 1.2 0
11.7 12.3 11.8 11.4 10.3 15.0 11.6 11.8
1.7 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.5 4.2 3 7/ ia?
0 0 0 0 0 4.2 0 0
16.7 11.9 18.8 13.1 17.1 19.6 14.1 18.8
FAV OL ag Cosa Eki tatiana ae 8.2 5.7 6.6 6.1 6.8 12.6 6.5 6.6
Crop value, cost of production, etc..
IVAN Te eR te so aetna as $3.36 | $2.34 | $2.71 | $2.50) $2.79 cate Ue ein ete ir a Ses
Costes ie eee a a ie ae 6. 46 5.99 4.65 5. 45 7.07 Te 0 etal IA ROH SS
OSS ores ene oe Mee —3.10 | —3.65 | —1.94 | —2.95 | —4.28 | —6.23 |......../..-....-

1 The location of the station was changed in 1910, and the records for that year were not used.

GENERAL DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.

In the preceding pages the data have been presented and discussed
for each station separately. In the following pages some of the more
important phases are discussed from a more enmel standpoint.

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. 29

To facilitate this study, Table XIX has been prepared, bringing
together for each station the average yields as grouped for this study
under different methods of preparation, and also assembling the
data from the tables of yields and cost of production in such a way as
to show the profit or loss in dollars and cents per acre for the average
crop by each method for which it has been computed at each station.

Table XIX shows that the yields at Belle Fourche, Garden City,
Dalhart, and Amarillo have been markedly lower than at the 10
other stations. While some methods have increased the yields at
these stations, they have not brought them up to a point that offers
much encouragement for the growth of barley. The only profit
shown from any method under study at these stations is one of 35
cents per acre from disked corn ground at Belle Fourche. This
nominal profit has resulted from the low cost of production rather
than from the amount of yield. The indications are that the combi-
nation of soil and climatic conditions at these stations is not favorable
to the growth of barley, nor can the unfavorable conditions be over-
come by cultural practices.

TABLE XIX.—Comparison of the average yields and profit or loss in the production of
barley by different methods of tillage at fourteen stations in the Great Plains area.

Methods of tillage.
Number sett Baercaie ein ei Ne LCR OILS
Statement of data. of ees —_ oe Sate A g
averaged. a pring - ub- A reen ummer
plowed. | plowed. Listed. soiled. Disked. manured.| tilled.
Yields p
Judith 5 24.0 24.0 29.0 30.5 2O' Olle esas eeee 30. 2
Huntley Ph ere sac 2956) ents a se emecice 34.5 4308 Goon eeees
Williston 5 17.4 DG Ble eee =| ose ee PY \\ooatoocese 28. 8
Dickinson 6 25.1 PTA Oil ESR ae yam ee poretae BYGC eee sonasee 32.5
Edgeley 8 16.7 1h ® |e osceosa|ssdsacoce Pin GE |le me sacocas 20.0
Hettinger 3 19.9 DOLONE saacecess |p eaceiazas 14 9) eee sais 31.8
Belle Fourche 6 7.6 8.3 TAT 8.0 12s 2h eee 12.6
Scottsbl 2, 14.0 15.4 14.4 15.0 IEG | ee eae 27.6
North Platte 8 17.1 TSU Bs smocanel Beeecooes TRA ues 3 26.7
JAN G01 As See ee eee 6 18.6 18.8 17.9 14.0 18:45). eh eese 24.8
EDV Smee eee ie ieee 6 13.6 11.2 12.7 14.6 14.1 15. 5 19.3
Garden City 224352552. 5 6.9 4.3 8.3 6.9 SEO O2s Meecee 11.0
Dalharpaeepen sn 4 3.9 1.9 Ue eee 1h Beeroeeccc 6.4
PAmarillou es Se Ss eh 6 8.2 0 6.1 6.8 GH Gp aster 12.6
Profit or loss (—) per acre 3

Judith Basin........... 5 $3. 38 $3. 85 $6. 44 $5. 44 i245 aoe case $0. 98
Bhumtleye 22 Seek 222 3 es aaa es GHB BeSeaceus| eoscosacs 9. 50 $3.45 |....5-2--
Williston Se Seeeee aes 5 - 67 5G) to Maemo osonl te cacenes GSGR Ve ceosaseds 41
Dickinson! +22 s255 55552 6 3. 83 gO Peace ene | [ies a rs TOSS esenesone 1.93
Bidgeleyse. sto e se: 8 -39 F460) sob. esac ars Aaa 4.94 food: —3. 20
Hettinger....-. fi 3 1.70 BEAT ese yea ee eae (4 GA secs 1. 64
Belle Fourche 6 —3. 34 —2. 59 —2. 29 —3. 79 SoD Ie sess —6. 23
Scottsbluff - . 2 — .72 32 45 — .92 22980) Soe oss — .08
North Platte. . ae 8 3 5) RESP eae sal Sasateees N84 ee atacae — .55
INTO te Macien Se 6 1.17 1.72 1. 89 —1.33 7M Pater epaene —1. 23
Hays... aosesseccsgsen5 6 — .88 —1. 40 — .24 —1.08 1.13 —8.15 —3. 49
Garden’ City; 5-5-2. 2 5| —3.63 | —4.23 | —2.05| —4.24 |] —1.00 |.....-.... —6. 89
Dalhart eyes ete 4 —4, 86 —5. 21 =o. Golleesnee ace = O99) eee eae cee —8. 78
AMM ALIN esse cee nse 6 —3. 10 —3. 65 —2. 95 —4. 28 = 946 Ee ene —6. 23

Table XIX also shows that at 10 of the 14 stations under study
disked corn ground has been productive of higher yields of barley
than either the fall or spring plowing of stubble. At Hettinger and
North Platte it has been clearly exceeded by both. At Akron it

30 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

has been exceeded by both, but the differences among the three
are only fractions of a bushel. At Amarillo disked corn land
has been between fall-plowed and spring-plowed stubble in yield
Its low cost of production has made it the most profitable method
under trial at all stations except Hettinger. It has been productive
of a profit at all stations except Garden City, Dalhart, and Amarillo.
This study, dealing with but one crop, does not consider the relative
profitableness of other crops in the farming system.

It should be borne in mind that at all stations disking corn ground
as a. preparation for all small grain crops has been done upon corn
land kept free from weeds. If weeds were allowed to develop in the
corn, similar results should not be expected. To the extent that
the weeds developed or were unhindered in their growth, just so far
would the corn ground approach a grain stubble in the condition of
the seed bed. If the weeds matured seed, further damage by their
growth might be done to the succeeding crop.

Preparing the ground with a lister instead of a plow has been
practiced at eight stations. At only one station, Judith Basin, were
the yields very materially different from those on fall-plowed land.
But, as has been pointed out, the yields on fall-plowed land at that
station were lowered somewhat by damage done by gophers. At
the other stations, though it did not in all cases give higher yields
than plowing, it showed, owing to a lower cost of preparation, slightly
more profit where anette are shown and less loss where losses are
shown than plowing.

The difference between spring and fall plowing is largely one of
season. In the average of the 13 stations at which both were under
trial there is practically no difference. At only three stations is
there a difference of over 2 bushels per acre. At the four more
southern stations the advantage has been with fall plowing. This
is the only consistent territorial difference to be noted in the com-
parison of these two methods, but production at these four stations
and at Belle Fourche has resulted in a loss by both methods. Spring
plowing shows a profit at all other stations, and fall plowing shows
a profit at all others except Scottsbluff.

Subsoiling in preparation for the barley crop has been practiced at
seven stations. At only two of these has the consequent yield de-
parted far from that on fall-plowed land. At the Judith Basin
station there has been a marked gain and at Akron a marked de-
crease. In the average of the seven stations the yield from this
method has been only 0.4 of a bushel more than from fall plowing.
The cost of the method has been such that it has paid a profit at only
the Judith Basin station. |

The highest average yields at eleven of the fourteen stations have
been by summer tillage. At the Judith Basin station subsoiled land

BARLEY IN THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. Sai

has yielded a fraction of a bushel higher. At Dickinson and Edgeley
the yields on disked corn ground have been appreciably higher than
on summer tilled-land. While the averages of all the stations are
not strictly comparable, summer tillage has increased the yield over
the fall plowing and the spring plowing of cropped land nearly one-
half. The average increase over disked corn ground has not been
nearly so great.

These increases in yields have not been in proportion to the in-
creased cost of the method. In no case has summer tillage been the
most profitable method under trial. As values and costs are here
figured, this method shows a profit at only four stations, Judith
Basin, Williston, Dickinson, and Hettinger. At Scottsbluff, North
Platte, and Hays the losses have been small. At the other seven
stations they have been sufficiently great to discourage hope of
changing them to profits by the extension of the record or by an
adjustment of value or cost.

Green manuring for barley has been tried at only two stations,
Huntley and Hays. At Huntley, where it was in comparison with
only spring-plowed land and disked corn ground, it gave the highest
average yield. This average is the highest resulting from any.
method at any station. The record, however, is for only two years.
At Hays its yield has been greater than that on land from which a
crop was harvested, but not as high as that on summer-tilled ground.

On the whole, differences in climatic conditions of different seasons
- have produced much wider variations in yields than have resulted
from differences in cultivation. Some seasons have a combination
of climatic factors so adverse as to produce failures by all. methods
of tillage at some stations. Other seasons have conditions so favor-
able that any and all methods of tillage produce good crops. Still
other seasons prohibit production by some methods, but allow it
with others. The greater the number of years averaged the more
nearly will the final figure represent average seasonal conditions.
This longer ayerage will also tend to reduce the wide differences
that may result between methods durimg some seasons especially
favorable to some particular method. No method so far tried,
however, has been able to overcome the extremely unfavorable con-
ditions which sometimes exist.

CONCLUSIONS.

(1) Differences in the climatic conditions of different seasons have
caused much wider variations in yields than have resulted from dif-
ferences in cultivation.

(2) Yields at Belle Fourche, Garden City, Dalhart, and Amarillo
have been markedly lower than those obtained at the other field

32 BULLETIN 222, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

stations. The only profit shown at any of these stations is 35 cents
an acre on disked corn ground at Belle Fourche.

(3) The highest average yields at eleven of the fourteen stations
have been by summer tillage. On the average, it increased the
yields nearly one-half over those produced on land cropped in the
preceding year. On account of its cost it has not been the most
profitable method of production.

(4) At ten of the fourteen stations under study disked corn
ground produced higher yields than from either the fall plowing or
the spring plowing of barley stubble. It has been the most profitable
method under trial at all the stations except Hettinger.

(5) The relative advantage of either fall or spring plowing is
largely dependent upon the season. In the general average of the
thirteen stations at which each method has been tried there is prac-
tically no difference. At only three stations has there been an
average difference of over 2 bushels per acre between the two meth-
ods. “At the four more southern stations fall plowing has been bet-
ter than spring plowing.

(6) At the seven stations where subsoiling for barley has been
tried 1t has produced an average of only 0.4 of a bushel more than
fall plowing. At only two stations has there been a marked difference
in the results of the two methods. At one of these, subsoiling has
been responsible for an increase and at the other for a decrease in
yield.

(7) At eight stations listing instead of plowimg has been tried.
While the resulting yields have not been materially different from
those on fall-plowed land, the lower cost of listing has made it the
more profitable method.

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
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V

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
7 BULLETIN No. 223

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER June 23, 1915.

BOTANICAL CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF
THE DATE PALM USED IN DISTINGUISH-
ING CULTIVATED VARIETIES

By

SILAS C. MASON, Arboriculturist, Crop Physiology and
' Breeding Investigations

CONTENTS

Introduction i | Forms for the Observer's Use ... .
The Date Tree 3 | Application of the System to the Deglet
Leaf Characters of the Date Noor Variety and Its Seedlings . ..
Use of the Fieid Protraector

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915

No. 223

Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief.
June 23, 1915.

(PROFESSIONAL PAPER.)

BOTANICAL CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE
PALM USED IN DISTINGUISHING CULTIVATED VARIETIES.

By Smas C. Mason,
Arboriculturist, Crop Physiology and Breeding Investigations.

CONTENTS.
Page Page
MnbroanehiOnlc is oes sadesa asa weet eme 1 | Forms for the observer’s use.......-.-------- 13
PPHEIGALOWUCR Swe he Lee es siecissiisceione gence oe 3 | Application of the system to the Deglet Noor
Leaf characters of the date....-.....--.....- 3 variety and its seedlings......-.-.-....--.- 16
Use of the field protractor.....-....---....-- 13
INTRODUCTION.

At the present time most students of the date rely largely, if not
wholly, on the fruiting characters for means of distinguishing the
numerous varieties.

While it is recognized that in the Old World date-growing countries
the natives distinguish almost intuitively the different varieties of
dates by the tree habit and leaf characters, but little attention has
been given to these points by European and American students of the
date and no attempt has been made to systematize these characters.

The date trees certainly possess such characters, and the varietal
distinctions are as constant in the trunk and leaf as they are in the
fruits.

From the beginning of the study of the imported date trees in the
American gardens there has been felt the need of a method of com-
paring and describing the different trees in the absence of their fruit
and independently of their fruit characters.

This becomes of importance in assisting date work along two very
distinct lines—the identification and comparison of varieties, either
imported or originating in this country, and the study of seedlings
originating from the cross-pollination of different varieties.

NotE.—This bulletin is of interest to date growers, especially in the Southwestern States.
87664°—Bull. 223—15——1

2 BULLETIN 223, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

To enable the observer to make such foliage comparisons in a pre-
cise and systematic manner, capable of tabulation for future refer-
ence, is the most important use to which this study of date-foliage
characters can be put.

Most of the workers in the date gardens of the Department of Agri-
culture soon learn to recognize the more prominent varieties by such
obvious characters as a slender or a heavy trunk; leaves with broad
or narrow rib bases, erect and rigid in growth or more or less spread-
ing, feathery, and graceful. Less elementary characters are recog-
nized, but not formulated, which would distinguish two varieties which
might agree in the more fundamental points. There are differences
in the broad outlines of the leaf blade as a whole and differences in the
blade, as to whether it is smooth and nearly flat or whether from
varying angles of the pinne it appears on the defensive with bayonet-
like points thrust out in all directions, as if to resist assault.

Most persons who become familiar with date trees will distinguish
between trees of varieties which possess many characters in common
if they are side by side for comparison; fewer will be able to keep the
resemblances and differences in mind if the compared trees are on
opposite sides of the garden, and a still smaller number will be able to
keep varietal characters clearly in mind in going from one locality to
another.

The object of this study has been to determine just what varietal
characters in date trees consist in; then to apply names and formulate
these so that they may be used in classifying and determining varieties,
much as floral and foliage characters are used by the systematic
botanist.

Perhaps of all cultivated plants the date palm is the most mechan-
ical or geometrical in its external structure. The cylindrical, col-
umnar trunk has the overlapping leaf bases, like inverted tiles,
arranged in broad right or left spirals. The rachis, or rib, is long,
smooth, and rodlike, and its expansion toward the base is along
symmetrically molded surfaces.

The leaflets, or pinne, are in symmetrical ranks from either side of
the rib, and each individual has its polished sword-shaped blade folded
lengthwise with the precision of machine work. In the unopened leaf
the pinne are placed with the compactness of the ribs of a fan, and in
expanding each assumes within certain limits a definite angle with
the rachis peculiar to its class.

Having such features to deal with, the writer feels that no further
explanation is needed for the very mechanical way in which the sub-
ject of date-tree characters is treated. It is the only method by
which the subject can be approached. 7

oo

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM,

THE DATE TREE.

Date trees have no true branches, but during their earlier years,
and under some conditions up to a considerable age, buds are pushed
in the axils of the leaves and later develop into suckers or offshoots.
These, if left undisturbed, may form trunks and tops of their own
and grow to a size second only to the parent tree and identical with
it in leaf and fruit characters. When these offshoots are removed
at a proper size and planted by themselves they afford the only
means we have of propagating the parent variety true to type.
(See Pl. I.)

The flower stalks of the date are produced from the axils of the
leaves in similar positions to those in which the offshoots are pro-
duced.

While many genera of palms have either perfect or monecious
flowers, all species of the genus Phoenix are dicecious, the male and
female flowers being borne on separate trees. In rare instances both
pistillate and staminate flowers are produced on the same spike.'

In noticing a date tree closely, one finds only a central columnar
trunk, from the one bud at the top of which new leaves are pushing
out, while around its sides the older leaves clasp the stem with their
broad-sheathed bases. If the tree has reached some age and the
trunk has gained a few feet in height, the older lower leaves will
probably have been cut away, leaving a foot or more of their bases
arranged in orderly position around the trunk in the manner of
reversed tiles. Closely wedged in between these are dozens of sheets
of very tough, coarse-matted fiber, called ‘‘leef’” by the Arabs,
the remnants of the leaf sheaths. (Pl. II.) The real trunk of the
date tree is inside of these and is greatly strengthened and protected
by them. It is strengthened and supported by the wrapping of
their tough fibers against the leverage of the desert winds, which
exert a powerful pressure upon the broad top. It is protected from
bruismg and battering or the gnawing of grazing animals, and
insulated alike against the intense heat or the sudden freezing
weather of the winter months, which may descend upon even a
date-growing desert.?

LEAF CHARACTERS OF THE DATE.

Upon a casual examination of a date leaf the most obvious feature
is the long flexible blade, which may vary in length from 3 or 4 feet
in a young plant to 9, 12, or even 16 feet in a tree of mature age.

(PI. IIT.)

1 As the various species of this genus hybridize readily with one another, the so-called date palms grown
in many nurseries and sold for ornamental planting in California and Florida are often crossed to such
an extent that the true dactylifera characters, as found in the trees obtained from the Sahara, are difficult
to recognize, and the application of the rules laid down in this bulletin to such would lead to confusion.

2 Date trees in Arizona and California subject for a few hours to a temperature of 15° or 18° F. may have
the outer leaves killed, or at 12° F. all exposed leaves may be killed and the protected bud or growing
point of the tree remain uninjured, so that new leaves are pushed from the center when spring opens.

4 BULLETIN 223, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The axis of this blade is a stout polished rib, technically called
the rachis, which may be several inches broad where the leaf is
attached to the trunk, but tapers to a slender tip of less than a
quarter of an inch. (See Plate I.) As the leaves are placed on the
trunk the face of the leaf, which is inward or toward the center of
the tree, may be called the ventral surface. The reverse of this,
away from the tree, is the dorsal surface. The right and left sides
will be designated with the leaf in a vertical position and with the
observer facing the trunk.

If an entire old leaf is cut away at its attachment to the trunk it
will be found that the thick, wedge-shaped base shows torn and
ragged margins, or perhaps a bit of matted fiber still clinging to it,
where the fibrous sheath has been torn away. At the line of attach-
ment sheets of this fiber encircle the tree. If a date palm be dis-
sected, cutting away leaf after leaf till we get toward the bud, we find
leaves with their original structure entire and the margins of the wide
base of the rib thinning out to a continuous mat of brown fibers, which
forms a complete sheath encircling all the younger growth. As the
area of active growth is approached, near the center this sheath will
be yellowish white, soft, and succulent, not more than 2 or 3 inches
in diameter, and 8 inches or a foot in length. In a large tree the
sheath may be 20 inches or more in length. On the opposite side .
from the rachis the margin of the sheath has an upward expansion
into a broad lingua, or tongue, with coarsely incised margins and a
blunt-pointed or an acuminate apex, which sometimes protrudes
several inches against the inclosed leaves and which varies in a manner
somewhat characteristic of different varieties. The diagonal arrange-
ment of the fibers allows the sheath to expand a good deal, but the
continual pushing upward of new leaves from within and the expan-
sion of the trunk finally rupture it or tear it loose from the sides of the
rib. Its lower margin remains attached to the trunk, so that this
wrapping of old sheath fiber may persist for many years. In rare’
instances, the variety Lagoo, for example, the sheath has ear-shaped
or auriculate expansions at the upper margin of its attachment to
the rachis. Figure 1 shows a typical date leaf with the various parts.

An entire leaf comprises the upper expanded portion, properly
called the blade, which includes the length from the first spines to the
top, and the lower portion, representing the petiole, including the
broad, wedge-shaped base of the rachis and the sheath. The blade
is divided into the spine area and the pinne area, the exact separation
of which sometimes can be only approximated. Varieties differ
greatly in the proportion of the leaf blade occupied by the spines,
which may range from 18 or 20 per cent to 45 per cent of the entire
blade length.

Bul. 223, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.

A 9-YEAR-OLD DATE TREE IN THE COOPERATIVE DATE GARDEN, TEMPE, ARIZ.

A large number of offshoots, shown both at the base of the trunk and on its sides, are
trimmed up and ready for remoyal.

PLATE lI.

Bul. 223, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

A 20-YEAR-OLD MALE DATE PALM IN THE MECCA COOPERATIVE DATE GARDEN,

Mecca, CAL.

PLATE III.

, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Bul. 223

SuUNURT I0IyV siv9 OT UMOYS OLV S90I} OIL, “SULP[ING ooo oy} Jo Joor oY} wory ySOAL SULYOOT AOTA

‘ZIM ‘AdWAL LV N3quv5 3LVq SAlLVYado09

£

Bul. 223, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.

f
cle

f

A HAYANY DATE TREE, 10 YEARS OLD, AT THE TEMPE COOPERATIVE DATE GARDEN.

This tree shows a number of offshoots on the trunk, 3 or 4 feet from the ground; also graceful
foliage and long, flexible ‘‘ribbon”’ pinne. ;

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM. 5

The broad outlines of the blade vary considerably with different
varieties and are determined
by the length of the pinne
in different parts of the blade
and the angles which they
form with the rachis and
plane. To illustrate: If in a
given leaf the pinne at the
middle of the blade are 16
inches long and placed at
right angles, or 90°, with the
rachis and lie in the plane of
the blade; that is, so that
the leaf is flat, the leaf will
be 32 inches broad, not count-
ing the breadth of the rachis
fig. 2, A,6b). Let the same
length of pinne be placed in-
clined only 45° from the
rachis and still in the plane
of the blade, then the blade
will be but 223 inches broad
(fig. 2, A, cc). But let the
pinne, instead of lying flat
(fig. 2, B, b) diverge 45° from
the plane of the blade, as well
as 45° from the rachis (fig. 2,
B, c), then the leaf blade be-
comesa V-shaped trough only
16 inches broad, or half the
breadth of the blade with the
pinne flat and at right an-
gles.

HINNA AREA

THE RACHIS.

A close inspection of the
rachis of the date leaf shows’
that it is irregularly four-
sided; the inner or ventral
surface is usually strongly
arched or at the first spines
is made up of two ogee curves
turned together. The back
or dorsal surface is moder-
ately or often strongly
rounded at the base, slightly rounded or rarely flattened toward the

PETIOLE

Fig. 1.—A typical date leaf, showing its various parts.

6 BULLETIN 223, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

top. The sides or lateral faces are flat or somewhat concave, and
their inner margins, at first slightly converging, as they approach the
top are drawn so near together as to give a triangular cross section
to the rib.

The characteristic form or habit of tree tops of each date variety,
due to the curves of the leaf blades, is largely determined by the
flexibility of the
rachis. This is gov-
erned in part by the
degree of firmness and
elasticity of the fiber
of the rachis, but
more by the way in
which the diameter
diminishes along the
different faces.

The feathery grace
of the Areshti variety
is due to the leaves
maintaining consider-
able rigidity in the
lower portion, but
with the rachis di-
minishing to a deli-
cate and slender flexi-
bility at the apex.
The broad, open top
and loose, lazy curves
of the Rharsleaves are
due to a rather rapid
diminishing in the di-
Fig. 2.—Diagram showing how the size of the date leaf is affected by ameter of the rachis a

the angles which the pinne form with the rachis. A representsthe ghort distance above
leaf as lying flat, the dotted lines (6 b) showing the breadth the leaf :
would have with the pinne at 90° of axial divergence, the solid lines the base, yet main-
(cc) showing the breadth of the leaf with pinne diverging 45° from taining too much size
theaxis. B represents a cross-section view of theleaf,bshowingthe . a :

in the apical portion

pinne lying in the blade plane, or flat, but with an axial divergence =a
of 45°; c shows the same pinne also diverging 45° from the blade {09 give grace or alrl-

ret ness. In the Thoory
and other varieties of that class the thick, strong rachis holds its size
and rigidity well up in the blede, curving only when forced out by
the growth of the inner leaves. Such trees have a stiff and uncom-
promising aspect through the entire top.
The relative size and form of the rachis in different portions of the
blade are so characteristic in the different varieties and such impor-

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM, i

tant factors in determining the form assumed by the tree top that it
has been thought worth while to make outline tracings of the cross
sections of the rachis of leaves of the different varieties, four series of
which are reproduced with the descriptions of the respective varieties
as text figures in this bulletin. (See figs. 11, 13, 14, and 15.) The
first section is in all cases made just below the lowest spines; that is,
at the base of what has been defined as the blade of the leaf, the others
1 or 2 feet apart to the apex or near it.

THE PINNA.

The organs commonly called leaflets, or properly pmne, of the date
leaf, including those suppressed as spies, number from 50 or 60 to
130 on each side of the rachis. The two sides of the leaf are fairly
symmetrical as to the length of the pinne blades and the angles at
which they are placed with the rachis, but not quite symmetrical in
numbers, there sometimes being a difference of four or five pinne on
opposite sides of the leaf. While the occurrence of pinne in pairs
is not infrequent, it appears to be largely accidental, and with the
general irregularity of their positions they can not be regarded as
being paired and opposite in position in the sense in which the mem-
bers of many compound leaves are so recorded.

The pinne are borne on the lateral faces of the rachis, with normally
a single pinna at the apex. In Plates I and IV the terminal pinne
show very plainly on a number of leaves.

On the lower part of the blade the leaflike pinne are replaced by
stiff acute spines, from 1 inch to 7 or 8 inches in length. These are
really modified pinne, as is clearly shown by the channel in one side
corresponding to the fold of the pinne blade; also by their mode of
attachment and arrangement in groups. The larger spines pass by
gradations into stiff spimelike forms, which will be called spike pinne.
Above these there are in some varietics extra long, narrow forms,
so thin and weak as to be pendulous, which will be referred to in
descriptions as ribbon pinne. In Plate LV the long, pendulous ribbon
pinnee can be noticed on the lower portion of several leaves.

Each pinna consists of a green, leathery, sword-shaped or ensiform
blade, folded lengthwise, and a cushiony expansion or callus, called
the pulvinus, by which it is attached to the rachis.

In a few varieties the lower pinnz and some spines do not immedi-
ately broaden beyond the pulvinus into the thin blade, but have a
short, solid, necklike portion, elliptical in cross section, for which
the name collum (Latin for ‘“‘neck’’) is proposed.

Toward the upper end of the leaf in certain varieties the folds of
the pinne blade are somewhat unequal, the lower or proximal fold
being a little broader than the upper one. Instead of being inserted
directly into the rachis it is attached along the side, running down-

87664°—Bull. 223—15——2

8 BULLETIN 223, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ward (decurrent) along the lateral face for an inch ortwo. With the
fold of the blade slightly broader than the face of the rib, a free wing
results, and a series of these with corresponding wings from the oppo-
site side of the rachis may form a narrow channel along the middle
of the inner face of the leaf. When such wings and channels are
conspicuous they constitute good varietal characters and also are
of some importance in affording harbors for scale insects, particularly
Phoenrcococcus marlatti.

When the new leaves issue from the center of the crown, three,
making a complete circle of the stem, usually follow in close succession
and are crowded into the form of an irregular cylinder. ‘This gives to
each emerging leaf the form of a third of a cylinder with an acumi-
nate apex, the pinne being folded as compactly as the ribs of a fan
upward against the rachis. With
the expansion of the rachis the
pinne diverge and the cushiony
pulvinus at the base of each, at
first scarcely noticeable, rapidly
expands, pushing the pinna to its
characteristic angle and holding
it there securely. .

ANGLES OF PINN4 WITH THE RACHIS.

The difference in appearance of
: sei the leaves of varieties of dates is

Fig. 3.—Diagram showing the construction of imag- “¢
inary planes bisecting the date leaf longitudinally, largely due to the different angles
by means of which the angles of divergence ofthe at which the pinnee diverge from

i i : PT i -

ixis, which would divide the leat hato right ana the rachis. At first sight these
left halves; PB, plane of the blade, dividing the ore confusing and are best under-
leaf into dorsal and ventral halves. : :
stood by constructing two imag-
inary planes parallel with the leaf and vertical to each other. (See
fig. 3.) Note (1) the plane of the blade (PB), which would divide the
leaf into an inner or ventral half and an outer or dorsal half, and (2)
the plane of the rachis (PR) at a right angle to the first and dividing
the leaf into right and left halves.

If all pinne lay in the first plane there would be only two ranks, a
right and a left rank, and the blade would be broad and flat, its out-
lines determined by the length and axial angles of the pine. If the
pinnz were inserted vertically or at 90° to the second plane, they
would project from either side like the teeth of a double comb.

Actually but few pinne in Phoenix dactylifera lie in either position,
but the exact position of any pinna may be recorded with precision
by determining its angle with each of these two planes.

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM. 9

It is not to be supposed that date leaves are so perfectly laid off
along geometric lines that we have but to read a set of angles, refer
to a table, and say with confidence, ‘‘this is Thoory,” or ‘‘this is
Hayany.” But it is true that certain ranges of angles are found
only in certain varieties, and, along with other characters, are impor-
tant factors in identification.

PINN CLASSES.

A third character in the insertion of the pinne remains. In all
species of the genus Phoenix the folded pinne are attached to the
rachis, with the margins and channel inward, or toward the ventral
face of the leaf, and in some species, as Phoenix canariensis, they are
quite uniformly attached with the channel directly inward, or at
right angles with the blade plane.

In the date palm, while all the pinne face generally inward, or
ventrally, only a portion of them face directly inward or at right
angles to the blade plane. An important class of them are placed
facing obliquely forward or upward, and about an equal number
face obliquely backward or downward, thus giving three distinct
classes of pinne as to position.

Those with the fold facing directly inward, or attached at right
angles with the rib, will be called introrse,! using a botanical term
meaning ‘‘directed inward.”

A second class includes pinnz with the channel directed obliquely
upward, or toward the apex of the leaf, and for these the term
antrorse,? meaning ‘‘directed upward or higher,’’ will be used.

In a third class the pinne have the channel directed more or less
obliquely, downward, or toward the base of the leaf, and the term
retrorse,? meaning ‘‘directed back or downward,” will be applied

to these.
PINNZ GROUPS.

Studying the pinne along the side of a leaf, we soon notice that
these classes of pinne are not placed at random, but that there is a
regularity in their succession. In other words, the pinne along the
respective sides of the rachis are arranged in groups of two, three,
four, or, rarely, five, a group of two being the most common. These
groups fall into regular and irregular classes. The regular groups,
which constitute the normal or regular form of arrangement, consist
of a lower or proximal antrorse pinna and an upper or distal retrorse
pinna, between which may occur one, two, or, rarely, three introrse
pinne. Figure 4 shows the ventral surface and left side of a section
of a rachis with the pinne cut to about an inch long. There are

1 “Tntrorse, intror’sus (Mod. Lat.), turned inward, toward the axis.’’

2 << Antrorse, antror’sus (antero-, before, versus, turned toward), directed upward, opposed to retrorse.”’

3 “Retrorse, retror’swm (Lat.), directed backward or downward.” (Jackson, A Glossary of Botanical
Terms.)

10 BULLETIN 223, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

four paired groups in succession, each of an antrorse pinna (a) and a
retrorse pinna (7).

Figure 5, A, shows a ventral view of a section of a leaf, on the
left side (LZ) of which, from below upward, is a triple group (a, 1, r)
and a paired group (a,r). On the opposite side (/2) is a paired group
below and a triple group above.

In figure 5, B, the right-hand side of a section cut well toward the
top of the leaf shows a triple group below and a quadruple group
above. It should be noted that the antrorse and retrorse pinne are
not placed as obliquely as in those near the base of the blade.

In figure 5, C,. the left-hand side of a section in about the middle of
the blade shows a group of five pinne (a, 7, 7, i, 7). This group is
found in comparatively few varieties and only in small numbers.

Thus, there are four kinds of these regular groups. Noting them

Fig. 4.—Section of a date leaf, showing the rachis and the bases of four paired groups of pinne, each group
comprising an antrorse pinna (a) and a retrorse pinna (7).

simplest and most common paired group of an antrorse and a retrorse
pinna (expressed as a, r); the triple group, with one intermediate
introrse pinna (expressed a, 7, ); the quadruple group, including
two introrse pinne (a, 2,7, 7); and the quintuple (a, 2, 2, 2, r).

Of irregular groups of pinne there is a great variety—a, 71; a, 1, 1;
a, 4,7; 4,7, 7; 4,1, a, 7, etc. Often toward the apex of the blade the
groups become obscured and the classes not well defined, merging
into introrse pinne. In some varieties there is, especially toward .
the apex of the blade, a decided uniformity in leaflet insertion, the
antrorse and retrorse pinne nearly disappear, and the groups are
not well defined.

Figure 5, D, shows the left side of asection from a leaf of Areshti, cut
near the top. Here no definite grouping could be made. ~The first,
fourth, fifth, and seventh show a slightly oblique retrorse position,
but such an area would be recorded as ‘‘indefinite.”’

In these the blade has nearly a plane surface, the pinne falling
most nearly into two ranks. Where the grouping is most pro-
nounced, six distinct ranks of pinne can be discerned, three on either
side of the rachis. This is best noted by looking from the apex down

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM, 11

the trough, or valley, of the blade, the rib being on a level with the
eye. The 6-ranked leaves have a ragged and aggressive appearance,
and with their formidable thorns and acute pinna tips are most com-
pletely armed against predatory animals.

_ Examining the pinne of the three classes—antrorse, introrse, and
retrorse—we find that each has its well-defined relative position of

R —

A B D

Fic. 5.—Sections of date leaves. A, An Areshtileaf. On the L side of the rachis is shown a triple group
of pinne (a,i,7) and above it a paired group (a,7); on the R side, a paired group (a, r) below and a triple
group (a@,i,7) above. B, Section toward the top ofa Deglet Beida leaf, view of right side. Below isa
triple group of pinne (a,i, 7); above, a quadruple group (a,i,i,r). C, A Deglet Beida leaf, showing on
the left-hand side of the rachis a quintuple group of pinne (a,i,i,i,7). The pulvinus of the antrorse
pinna (a) is caudate, having a tail-like prolongation reaching nearly to the next lower pinna. D, Section
near the apex ofan Areshti leaf, in which the pinne are not distinguishable into groups, though Nos. 1,
4, and 7 are slightly retrorse in position. H, A Deglet Beida leaf, showing pulvini of antrorse pinne: a,
a, Caudate; a,i, 71, coalescent with the groups above and below by these prolonged pulvini.

divergence from the midrib, or rachis, measured by its angles of
divergence from the imaginary leaf planes. The antrorse pinne
diverge least from the plane of the rachis, pointing strongly forward,
and their two ranks most nearly approach each other, thus forming
the greatest angle with the plane of the blade. The introrse pinnze
are placed most nearly at right angles with the plane of the rachis,
or rib, and more nearly to the plane of the blade than the antrorse.
The retrorse pinne generally point far forward, their divergence
from the plane of the rachis being slightly greater than that of the

12 BULLETIN 223,:U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

antrorse pinne. ‘They may le nearly in the plane of the blade, but
they usually form angles back of that plane which must be measured
dorsally.

Toward the base of the blade the groups may irregularly coincide
on opposite sides of the rachis, giving the pinne a tufted appearance

‘
)

4
:

i i

nin

pee oe

SoC ASS 5 SIGNS
xcs

= eS
4
rs
= eter et eee soot eee: >

we Sew
Se re

; 52 S
5
Soes

Bees

BUN
i Diva}
‘iil

2

Fic. 6.—Micrometer, reading to 0.001 of an inch,
for determining the comparative thickness of
pinnee of date leaves of different varieties. Fig. 7.—Combination 2-foot rule and protractor with

vernier for determining the angles at which date-
: leaf pi diverge from the rachis.

and leayine naked spaces of sev- =» gees

eral inches between them. In other examples the groups may be

coalescent through the caudate pulvini, or they may be so crowded

that the pinne overlap like the slats in‘a window blind.
Figure 5, E, shows on the left side of a section a triple group in the
middle, but coalescent with the groups above and below by the

caudate pulvini of the antrorse pinne. —

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM. 13
THICKNESS OF THE PINN4 BLADE.

The pinne in different varieties vary considerably in texture as
well as in actual thickness of the blade. Some are decidedly harsh
to the touch, while those of the other extreme have a smooth, almost
silky feel. Relative differences in thickness of the blades would be
detected by the careful observer by comparison, but by the use of a
machinist’s micrometer this thickness can be made a matter of
record. These instruments are graduated to read to 0.001 of an
inch or to 0.01 of a millimeter and should have the improved locking
device and safety ratchet for regulating the pressure. (Fig. 6.)
For uniformity the measurement should be made at about the broad-
est part of the pinna blade and near the middle of one of the folds.
A number of the more familiar varieties have pinne that range from
0.012 of an inch (0.3048 mm.) to 0.020 of an inch (0.5080 mm.) in
thickness. Others are distinguished by the greater thickness of the
blade, as Thoory, with pinne from 0.023 of an inch (0.5842 mm.) to
0.026 of an inch (0.6604 mm.) or more in thickness.

USE OF THE FIELD PROTRACTOR.

For the measurement of the angles formed by the pinnz with the
rachis, or rib, a protractor with rather long arms is essential. As
one of the necessary capacity made with the fine graduations called
for in engineering is both cumbrous and expensive, a single-jointed,
2-foot metal rule, with 5-degree graduations on the hinge circle ? and
vernier reading to degrees and half degrees on the limb, has been
found to be a very convenient instrument, giving the angles with
sufficient precision and being instantly available for measurements
in feet and inches. (See fig. 7.)

FORMS FOR THE OBSERVER’S USE.

For the field recording of characters the writer has devised a ruled
and printed form, a reduced imprint of which is shown as form A.

1 These instruments are furnished by tool makers in this country for the use of mechanics engaged in fine
work, graduated in fractions ofan inch or decimal equivalents. They may also be obtained by special order
graduated in hundredths of a millimeter.

2 The hinge circle is graduated five-eighths of the way around into spaces of 5 degrees each and figured
15°, 30°, 45°, etc., from the zero point at the inner angle when therule is closed. Any anglea multiple of 5
degrees can accordingly be read with accuracy on this hinge circle, but for the degrees between these marks
the aid of the vernier on the movable arm is needed. As will be seen when this rule is closed, a 45-degree
space on the arm is graduated into 10 parts, so that one of them is equivalent to 44 degrees, or one-half degree
less than the 5-degree spaces on the circle. Every second space or the equivalent 1 degree of difference is
numbered 1 to 5 in order, the 5-line degree coinciding with the 45-degree line on the circle. Now, iftherule
beopened a very little, till the first vernier line marking 44 degrees coincides with the line of the first 5 degrees
on the circle, the arm has moved the difference between these, or one-half degree. Open till the second pair
of marks coincides, and twice 44, or 9, degrees of space have been moved to coincide with twice 5, or 10, degrees
on the other side,a movement gaining 1 degree. So we may open to 2°, 3°, 4°, etc. In the same way
starting on any even 5-degree mark, as 45°, we may open one-half degree, 1 degree, 2 degrees more. Hence,
to read any angle that has been taken, read first on the hinge circle to the last full 5-degree mark inside of
the angle, then add to this the degrees or half degrees to the coinciding line on the vernier. In figure 7 the
rule is opened to an angle of 123°, 10 degrees being read on the hinge circle and 24 degrees on the vernier.

14 BULLETIN 223, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The heading provides for entermg the tree to be studied, locality,
garden, row and tree numbers, and date, below which the sheet is
ruled in horizontal lines for noting the angles of the different classes
of pinne: A (antrorse), J (introrse), # (retrorse). Above the lines,
ax indicates that the axial divergences of the pinne—that is, the
angles by which they diverge to the right or left from the rachis—are
to be recorded.

Below the lines, p indicates the angles of divergence from the plane
that would be formed by a perfectly flat blade. Below these a line
provides for the record of the ‘ Length of pinnz”’ above the line and the
corresponding breadths below, the breadth being noted at the broad-
est part, the pmnez blade being unfolded and spread flat.

Form A.—Date variety, -.----..-- SES NOs hy OW e es EL Ona area garden.
[Notes taken ........, 191... Angles of pinnz with planes of rachis. Distance in feet from base of blade.]

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Antrorse, aX

P

Introrse, ax

ie

Retrorse, aX
P

Length of |
pinne

Breadth ”

The vertical ruling in form A provides spaces for entries for each
foot of blade length from below the first spines to the apex.

For some leaves exceeding a length of 12 feet, the record has to be
carried to the ruled spaces below.

The length of the spine area and the total blade length are indi-
cated at the same time. An average leaf being selected, it is thought
that one or two characteristic readings to each foot of length from base
to apex, usually along one side of the blade only, will record the
characters effectively, and that two or three leaves each from as
many trees will indicate the leaf characters of a given variety. For
varieties of paramount importance, such as Deglet Noor, Thoory,
Hayany, and a few more, of course a greater number of records are
desirable.

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM. 15

GROUP AND CLASS RECORD.

Following the above comes the record of the classes and groups of
pinnz, made continuously from base to apex along one side of the
blade. The lower thorns, usually crowded, when not distinguishable
as to class or groups are indicated by a corresponding number of

straight marks, then
the groups are re-
corded by the compo-
nent initial letters
written together; for
instance, ar, ar, ar
would indicate three
successive groups, each
composed of one an-
trorse and one re-
trorse pinna.

ANGLE RECORD OF THE
PINNE.

In order to accom-
plish the graphic rep-
resentation of the va-
rious angles formed by
the pinne with the
axis and plane of the
blade, a diagram has
been prepared (form
B)! representing a
semicircular protrac-
tor as it might be ap-
plied for the reading
of the angles recorded
on form A.

The first illustration
of the use of form B
(fig. 8) shows the pro-
tractor scale as though
laid flat upon the leaf,

tfc)

V= Lerfra/
Pe=Feachis

D=Dorsd face
P-8= Flare of blade

=

Fic. 8.—Diagrams showing the characteristic divergence of the pinnz
of a Deglet Noor date leaf, at 2 to 3 feet from the base of the leaf,
recorded on form B. The upper diagram shows the divergence
from the blade plane; the lower, the divergence from the apex:
A, Antrorse pinne; J, introrse; RF, retrorse.

the zero line AR drawn through its center beg parallel with the
axis of the blade and zero toward the apex, the divergence of the
right and left ranks of pinne would be indicated at 10°, 25°, 45°, ete.

In the second illustration of the use of form B (fig. 9) the protractor
is placed as though cross-sectioning the rachis, the zero line PB coin-
ciding with the plane of the blade and the line of 90° bisecting the

1 Form B, reduced in size, is shown in figures 8, 9, and 10.

16 BULLETIN 223, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

rachis into two equal parts, right and left. The ventral face of the
rib is shown at V, the dorsal at D.

It will be noticed that in the illustrations of the use of form B
(figs. 8-10), the protractor circle is carried 20 degrees beyond the
zero plane toward the dorsal face of the rachis. This i is for recording
the position of the retrorse class of pinnz, which, while sometimes
forming angles of a
few degrees toward
the inner or ventral
side, as a rule lie either
at zero or inclined 5°,
10°, or even 20° dor-
sally.

APPLICATION OF THE
SYSTEM TO THE
SSS = ae DEGLET NOOR VA-
“D
D=Dorsdl face Ve Lenrral Pe RIETY AND ITS
e F-B= Hone of blade =Feachis ° SEEDLINGS.

As the Deglet Noor
is the most prominent
variety of date yet in-
troduced, a more ex-
tensive study of its
foliage characters
has been made than
of any other variety.
The followimg are

some of the moststrik-
ing points brought
out:

The average of eight ex-
amples of Deglet Noor
leaves gives the spine area
as 35.5 per cent of the blade

Fig. 9.—Diagrams showing the characteristic divergence of the pinnz length.
of a Deglet Noor date leaf, at 5 to 6 feet from the base of the leaf, Forthesame trees theav-
recorded on form B. The upper diagram shows the divergence from fee
the blade plane; the lower, the divergence from the apex: A, An- eraBe pepe. ee puDe
trorse pinnz; J, introrse; RF, retrorse. of the different classes, in-

cluding spines where the
class is evident, to the total number on the blade, is as follows: Antrorse, 38.1 per
cent; introrse, 19.4 per cent; retrorse, 34.1 per cent; uncertain, 8.4 per cent. The
paired groups of pinne exceed all the others together.
A larger number of observations of this variety may establish a somewhat different
set of ratios, but these must serve for a working basis till such can be procured.

As showing the application of such study of the leaves of a given
variety and its value in selecting plants for breeding purposes, a com-

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM. lid

parison will be made of some of the Deglet Noor seedlings with the
average for that variety, or what may be called a standardized tree.
Two sets of readings were taken from the Deglet Noor fruiting
seedling raised by Mr. James Reed, at Thermal, Cal. In both of
these the data are well within the range of variation of the eight true
Deglet Noor records,
and the average of the
two is curiously near
to the average of the
Deglet Noor. The
pinne are more closely
crowded than in any of
the Deglet Noor rec-
ords, and the percent- =
age of introrse pinne is
above the average, but A ay aes
within the range. @ P-B= lone of blade
The proportion of
paired, triple, and
quadruple groups of
pinne is remarkably
near the average. The
fruit of this presum-
ably half-blood Deglet
Noor seedling has not
been distinguishable
from that of the stand-
ard imported Deglet
Noor varieties. No
other Deglet Noor
seedling has been found
so closely duplicating
the Deglet Noor in

fruit. Fig. 10.—Diagrams showing the characteristic divergence of the pinne
of a Deglet Noor date leaf, at 8 to 9 feet from the base of the leaf,

Of others that have jecordedonformB. The upper diagram shows the divergence from
fruited, showing de- the blade plane; the lower, the divergence from the apex: A, An-

cided Deglet Noor trorse pinne; J, introrse; R, retrorse.

characters in color, flavor, or texture of the fruit, none has been
found with the same close approximation to Deglet Noor foliage. Ina
slender-fruited seedling, for example, raised by the California Date Co.,
at Heber, Cal., the fruit has the Deglet Noor flavor and texture in
a high degree. The form of this fruit is long and slender, entirely
distinct from the Deglet Noor. Referring to Table I, showing the
point characters, this variety, as compared with the Deglet Noor,

VE Lénfra/

Pe=Frachis

18 BULLETIN 223, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

has the spine area shorter than any of the true Deglet Noor measure-
ments, while the pmna-are more crowded and have lower percentages
of antrorse and retrorse pinne and higher percentages of introrse
and undetermined pinne.

There are also a lower percentage of double groups of pinne and
higher percentages of triple and quadruple groups than have been
noted in any true Deglet Noor. On the whole it is considerably out-
side the recorded range of variation for the Deglet Noor variety,
though nearer the type than the average of supposed half bloods.

It seems to be a good working hypothesis that there is a close cor-
relation between the leaf and fruit characters of the date tree. If
this be true, we should look for male trees having the leaf characters
within the range of Deglet Noor variation to give us trees most capa-
ble of transmitting Deglet Noor qualities where used as pollinators.
Failing in this quest, we must use those coming the nearest to such
character.

So far, no male trees have been found among the Deglet Noor
seedlings which correspond to the best Reed seedling in being nearly
true to foliage type. Mr. Reed’s seedling male trees Nos. 1 and 2
are trees of a strong Deglet Noor character, but fall considerably
short of the type. However, they have been used as pollinators, and
many seeds of Deglet Noor fruit of such pollinations have been sown,
but none are old enough to have proved themselves.

TaBLE [.—Comparison of the average leaf characters of four important varieties of date

palms.
Deglet | |
Deglet Noor, nee a
Average leaf characters. Deglet Noor. Reed’s fruit 7 Hayany. Menakher. Thoory.
seedling. EG
seed-
ling.
Blade length......--- inches. - 126 116 110 122 144 126
pine area
Length............ Ooze 43 38 24 23 32 32
Percentage of blade length 35.5 33 22 18 22 25. 6
Total number of pinnz on
one side of rachis.-..--..--- 91 98 96 96 122 69
Distribution:
VAN GROLSO je cise cise teeisisinare 32 35 30 31 27 25
Percentage of total....-.- 35+ 36— 31+ 32+ 224 36+
Imtrorsess ses. 20Se ee 20 24 26 19 58 16
Percentage of total... -. 22— 244 27-4 20— 47— 23-++
IRCtRORS@ a2 Soo ec ciissncecs 30 32 29 33 35 21
Percentage of total..... 33— 33— 30+ 344 29— 31—
Undetermined .......---- 9 7 11 13 2 7
Percentage of total... .. 10— 7+ 12— 14— 2— 10+
Number of groups of pinne:
In groups of two...------ 20 22 11 27 12 15
Percentage of total... -. 61— 67— | 40.7+- 77+ 32+ 60
In groups of three...--.-. 9 8 8 7 19 8
Percentage of total. ..-. 27+ 244 | 29.6 20 52 32
In groups of four.......-- 4 3 8 1 6 2
Percentage of total... .. 12+ 9+ | 29.6 3 16+ 8
Thickness of pinnz:
Pn ches). sco cacao. Se 0.016-0.022 |0.016-0.018 |.......- 0.017-0.020 |0.017-0.022 |0.022-0.030

Millimeters......--.------ - 4064—. 5588 | .4064-. 4727 |....---- - 4318-. 5080 | .4318-. 5588 | . 5588. 7620

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM. 19

In the analysis of these characters (Table I) the Deglet Noor has
the highest percentage of spine area to total blade length and Hayany
the lowest. Menakher stands out from the group in having nearly
half of its pinnz of the introrse class, while Hayany has the lowest
percentage of any in that class. While Deglet Noor, Hayany, and
Thoory have a majority of their pinne groups of the paired class,
Hayany leads in that respect in having but a fraction short of four-
fifths of its pine groups in the paired class. Menakher, on the other
hand, has a majority of its groups of the triple class.

The descriptions of four date varieties which follow are given as
showing the application of this system of leaf study to the dates in
cultivation. Among the many varieties being tested in the gardens
of the Department of Agriculture these four take first rank in their
respective classes and present such a wide range in leaf characters
as to illustrate very clearly the principles involved.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DEGLET NOOR VARIETY.

The trees of the Deglet Noor variety have slender trunks and
make a rather rapid height growth, the leaves being 9 to 11 feet
long, erect spreading, forming a rather narrow vase-shaped top,
becoming broader with age. The leaf base 1s narrow, diminishing to
a firm, gradually tapering rib, which has a slight, graceful flexibility
at the apical portion. Itisstrongly rounded dorsally, well arched ven-
trally, with the lateral faces of more than average breadth (fig. 11).

The spine area averages about 35 per cent of the blade length, the
spines firm, with stout bases, rather long, acuminate, acutely pointed,
crowded below, more scattered in the upper portion of the area, and
decidedly appressed. They pass to narrow spikelike pinne, 12 to 18
inches in length, and the longest pinne, 24 to 27 inches, are reached
at about the middle of the blade while but 1 inch to 14 inches broad.
The greatest breadth of the pinne, 13 to 13 inches, is usually at
about 6 to 7 feet from the base, where the pinnz are 20 to 24 inches
long. They diminish steadily to 10 or 15, or rarely 18 inches, in
length and seven-eighths of an inch to 1 inch in breadth at the apex
of the leaf. The pinne throughout are acuminate in form and
acutely poimted, varying in thickness of the blade from 0.016 of an
inch (0.4064 mm.) to 0.022 of an inch (0.5588 mm.), from 0.017 of
an inch (0.1318 mm.) to 0.020 of an inch (0.5080 mm.) being the most
common, the texture being firm and rather harsh than soft. The
blades are closely folded, and toward the apex of the leaf the proxi-
mal fold is shghtly wider than the distal and decurrent along the
rachis. The pulvini toward the base of the blade are heavy, some-
times strongly caudate, but the groups are seldom coalescent.

The paired groups of pinne are in the majority, often comprising
60 to 70 per cent of the whole number, while there are about 22 to
30 per cent of the triple groups, and a few are quadruple.

20 BULLETIN 223, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The antrorse pinne comprise from 34 to 42 per cent of the whole
number, the retrorse class furnishing from 31 to 36 per cent, while of

Fig. 11.—Cross sections of the rachis of a Deglet Noor date leaf, showing outlines at different distances from
base to apex.

the introrse pinne there are but 15 to 25 per cent. Unclassified
basal spines make up the balance,

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM, 21

In divergence from the rachis, the antrorse spines are usually
rather closely appressed, a divergence of only 5° is noted in some,
and other spines may diverge 25° or 30° from the axis. In some
leaves the entire rank of antrorse pinne to the apex may not diverge
more than 25° to 28°, but usually there is a spread through the
middle of the blade of 35° to 42° interspersed with others of only
20° to 23°. In divergence from the plane of the blade, the antrorse
class among the spines shows a good deal of variety, some basal ones
diverging sharply, the majority only from 12° or 15° to 20° to 30°
or more. From the middle of the blade to the apex their divergence
is from 20° to 30° or rarely 40°, 45°, or more.

The introrse class, seldom found among the spines in this variety,
shows strong axial angles of 40° to 50° and up to 72°, while from the
blade plane their divergence ranges from zero to 15°, 20°, or 25°, a
few forming angles of 35°, 40°, or even more.

In the retrorse class a few spines may stand out strongly from the
rachis, but the majority are rather appressed. The retrorse pinne
as a rule spread more than do the antrorse class at the same distances
out on the blade, ranging from 24° to 40°, 45°, or 48°.

Measured from the blade plane this class has a distinct position,
some being placed at zero or at 5° ventrally, but the great number
incline backward from the plane, forming dorsal angles of 5° or 10°.

For a comparison of Deglet Noor seedlings of various grades with
the pure variety, the above percentages and records of angles will be
found to afford the means for making very close distinctions. This
is important, from the fact that thus far comparisons seem to show
a strong correlation between leaf and fruit characters, the seedlings
bearing the nearest typical Deglet Noor fruit showing Deglet Noor
leaf characters in greatest detail. By analogy, it is presumed that
there will be a similar correlation between the leaf characters of male
seedling trees of a given variety and their capacity for transmitting
the characters of that variety when used as pollinators.

Putting the above dry array of figures into concrete form shows
that the Deglet Noor has a suit of leaves thoroughly well armed at
all angles of approach, especially the lower portion of the blade, with
acute spines and sharply tipped pinne. The protection of the tender
emerging leaves, but especially of the emerging flower stalks, is well
provided for. In cultural practice the operator in our country is
accustomed to clip off with stout shears the most of the spines, in order
to give him access to the flower heads for pollination.

The fruiting stalks, or sobata, of the Deglet Noor are one of its
most characteristic features. (Fig. 12.) They are, with the strands,
or shamrokh, which bear the fruit, pale lemon colored in contrast with
the orange-yellow or orange stalks of most varieties. They are un-

22 BULLETIN 223, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

usually long, from 3 up to 4 or 5 feet, and 14 to 14 inches broad on
mature trees. The fruiting head, or portion bearing the strands, is
short, the strands numerous, often 18 to 24 inches, or occasionally
27 to 30 inches long, sometimes forked. The proximal naked
portion of the strand (one-third to one-half of the length) is sharply
and irregularly quadrangular in cross section, the fruiting por-
tion irregularly oval, with short zigzag angles. From 20 to 30
fruits are sometimes set on a single strand. With the growth of
the fruit in weight,
S%., the stalk curves
downward, till the
] ~——== entire load often
hangs suspended
nearly vertically.

LLhp f . DESCRIPTION OF THE
Seg SS HAYANY VARIETY.
Sie I\ Q 4s sia oi be
fr AA y N s (Birket el Hagei, Birket el
Saas Wr | x Hajji,| Birket el Hadji.)
nee gue
igatt d The trees of the
ON oa N 8 Hayany variety
(i i {f i g ..
aan ‘Oe. X g have rather slender
SO EOCOUSS Le | trunks and_aod.
RR HRaES LSP OES (8 9 erate outcurve of
AVENE ASSN YS 1
CSP RAGOSRY se e eaves, forming a
? a hy SJ M4 2 AN >) h 3
BS OASYS broadly vase
aK SIA shaped top.
The leaf bases are

rather coarse,

Fig. 12.—A bunch of dates of the Deglet Noor variety, showing the fruit
stalk, or sobata; the fruiting head, or portion on which the strands are broa dly we dg =
borne; and the strands, or shamrokh, comprising the clear area and the shaped ,» Narrowing

fruiting area. abruptly to a
wedge-shaped petiole. The rachis is of medium size, well rounded
dorsally, and the lateral faces rather broad, the size diminish-
ing gradually, but there is a decided grace and flexibility toward

1 Several trees of this variety were received by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction under
the name of ‘‘Birket el Haggi’”’ from Mr. Em. C. Zervudachi, of Alexandria, Egypt, in 1901, and listed
under S. P. I. No. 7635. Upon fruiting they proved to be identical with ‘‘Hayany,” S. P. I. No. 6438,
secured by Mr. Fairchild earlier in the same year. Hayany is the correct name of the variety, which is
the most numerous and most popular date of Lower Egypt. The name “Birket el Haggi’”’ is only men-
tioned among Egyptian dates by Delchevalerie, who erroneously mistook the locality designation for the
real name of the variety.

On the writer’s visit to the Birket el Hagg district in September, 1913, he found that the people knew of
no date named “ Birket el Haggi,’’ but that they had thousands of ‘‘Hayany”’ trees, the fruit of which was
among the earliest to reach the Cairo and Alexandria markets, and so took the locality name, as ‘“Chau-
tauqua grapes” or “Riverside oranges’? do in our country. Popenoe, ‘‘ Date Growing in the Old and New
World,” adopts the form “Birket el Hajji,” in conformity with classic Arabic pronunciation, though
“Birket el Hagg”’ is the correct transliteration of the name of the pool and village accepted by all Egyp-
tians and is on most of their maps.

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM, a3

the apex of the leaf (fig. 13).

The spine area is unusually short,

about 18 to 25 per cent of the blade length, and the spines are

rather long, slender and acute;
where considerably shaded
they are inclined to be weak
and soft. The spines merge
into narrow spike pinne, fol-
lowed by ribbon pinne 24 to
30 inches long and one-half to
five-eighths of an inch wide,
which are frequently pendu-
lous, but soon give place
through the middle of the
blade to those of normal form,
18 to 24 inches long and 1 inch
to 14 inches up to 1% or 2
inches wide with narrow at-
tenuate tips, gradually dimin-
ishing to about 10 or 12 inches
long at the apex. The pulvini
are but moderately developed
and creamy in color.

The lower 10 or 15 pinne on
either side have a solid neck,
which will be called the collum,
from one-half inch to 2 inches
in length, just above the pul-
vinus, from which the pinne
expand into the folded blade of
normal form. These are most
strongly developed on the re-
trorse class of pinne. This
character, while slightly devel-
eped in a few other Egyptian
varieties, is almost an identi-
fying character for this variety.
The pinne blades are smooth
and rather soft, notrigidly acute
at the apex, but inclined to split
up. The axial divergence of
the pinne is, for the antrorse
class, only about 20° to 35°

BASE : j

Fic. 13.—Cross sections of the rachis of a Hayany date
leaf, showing outlines at different distances from base
to apex.

near the base, becoming 45° or 50° toward the apex. The introrse
and retrorse classes diverge more strongly, in some leaves to 60° or
65°. In divergence from the plane of the blade the antrorse pinne

24 BULLETIN 223, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

form ranks which diverge 30° or 40° to 55° or 60°, while the introrse
and retrorse pinne lie within 10° of the planes or diverge a little
dorsally.

At Tempe, in a heavy adobe soil with an excess of subterranean
moisture, this variety has been prolific in offshoots and sets them well

up on the trunk, one
tree as early as 1909
() having six offshoots
(93 at a height of 4 to 44
feet.
cd The fruit stalks are
aE orange yellow, about
O) 24 or 3 feet long, 12
73 to 2 inches broad, the
fruit head compact
and heavy, and the
strands, or shamrokh,
alle 2 of medium length and
FE w rather coarse.
420

DESCRIPTION OF THE

MENAKHER VARIETY.

The trees of the
Menakher variety are
of beautiful and strik-

5) ing appearance. The

2g C erowth is vigorous,

though not as rank as

some other varieties,

and the height growth

of the trunk has been
rather slow.

The foliage is a dark
rich green, with abun-
dant glaucous bloom.
The leaves are 9 to 12
feet long, curving out-

BASLE ward rather stiffly
below, but with an in-
creasing flexibility to-

Fiq. 14.—Cross sections of the rachis of a Menakher date leaf, showing
outlines at different distances from base to apex.

ward the apex, which
gives a long and beau-
tifulsweep. The leaf bases are 7 to 9 inches broad, heavy, narrowing
gradually to a stout, strongly rounded rib, which tapers slowly to a
moderately slender apex (fig. 14). :

Bul. 223, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.

|
i
at

FOUR SECTIONS OF A MENAKHER DATE LEAF. (NEARLY NATURAL SIZE.)

Fic. 1.—A leaf section near the base, showing a paired group, a, 7, of very acute spines.
Fic. 2.—A section at 8 feet, showing a quadruple group, a, 7, 7, r, below and a triple group,
a,i,7r, above. Fies. 3and 4.—Sections at 10 and 12 feet, showing some well-defined retrorse
pinne, r,r. The others will class as introrse, and no regular groups can be determined.

eee
A re

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM. HS)

The spine area is from 20 to 25 per cent or more, rarely 33 to 36 per
cent of the bladelength. The closely set spines are short or of medium
length, strong, but acute, closely appressed, passing to narrow spike
pinne 20 to 24 inches long. The regular pinne at 5 to 6 feet from the
leaf base are 17 to 24 inches long, 14 to 1? inches broad, decreasing
in length rather gradually to about 9 to 12 inches long at the apex.
GEV.)

The pinne blades are 0.017 of an inch (0.4318 mm.) to 0.022 of an
inch (0.5588 mm.) thick, firm in texture but not harsh, broadest near
the base, tapering evenly to a rather acuminate acute apex. In the
upper portion of the leaf the proximal fold of the pinne blade is decid-
edly broader than the distal, decurrent along the rachis, but the prom-
inence of the ventral arch of the rachis leaves the channel formed by
opposite wing margins rather open until near the top of the blade.

The pulvini are moderately heavy, frequently slenderly caudate,
and there are many coalescent groups in the lower portion of the blade.
The paired groups of pinne are considerably outnumbered by the
triple and quadruple groups. The introrse pinne usually comprise
from 40 to 48 per cent of the entire number on the blade, but some-
times yield to a high number of the retrorse class.

The slight axial divergence of all classes of pinne and the rather
even and moderate divergence from the blade plane give to this
variety a smooth, even leaf, which, with its dark, rich color, is very
attractive.

The antrorse spines have but 10° to 15° of axial divergence, the
lower antrorse pinne 15° to 20°, spreading to 30° toward the tip of
the leaf.

The antrorse pinne diverge axially about 45° through the middle
of the blade and 30° at the apex. Both these classes form angles with
the blade plane of 20° to 30° or 36° in the outer 2 feet.

The axial angles of the retrorse pinne are a little greater than in the
first-named classes, the lower pinne 20° to 28° or 30°, the rest of the
blade 30°. These spines diverge about 15° dorsally, the pinne 5°
dorsally, or all the upper portion at zero. In a few instances the
retrorse spines and lower pinne have a dorsal divergence of 30° to 33°.

The fruit stalks are heavy, 3 to 4 feet long, the fruiting head 12 to
15 inches long, with numerous strong strands 12 to 18 inches in
length, making a heavy, compact bunch of fruit.

But two genuine trees of the Menakher variety were finally pre-
served of the importation made by Mr. T. H. Kearney in 1905. One
of these is at the Cooperative Date Garden at Tempe, Ariz. The
other is at Mecca, Cal. ‘The Tempe tree has made the slower growth,
though it is a healthy and vigorous-looking tree. In November, 1912,
its terminal bud was only 3 feet from the ground, while that of the
Mecca tree was 7 feet high, with a trunk diameter of 2 feet. Whether

26 BULLETIN 223, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the greater heat at Mecca or the difference in the soil is the cause of
this difference in growth is not easy to say. The Tempe garden is
located in a strip of land having a heavy adobe soil and so high a
percentage of alkali that ordinary grain and forage crops can not be
grown upon it. By the underflow of ground water from irrigated
districts above, the water table has not been below 4 feet for a number
of years and stands near the surface in the winter months.

The conditions at the Mecca garden are in strongest contrast with
these. The soil is a fine sand, the bed of the old Salton fresh-water
lake, having a considerable percentage of calcareous material in the
form of partially decayed small fresh-water shells, and underlain
with a few shallow strata of blue clay or silt. The only organic matter
has been supplied by cover crops and the liberal application of stable
manure around the roots of individual trees.

There is but a slight trace of alkali, and irrigation with very pure
water from an artesian well has been abundant. While too positive
conclusions should not be drawn from the behavior of a single tree in
each locality, a similar slowness of growth has been noted in several
trees of Thoory at Tempe, as contrasted with a very vigorous and
rapid growth of that variety at Mecca and Indio. At the same time a
number of varieties, such as Deglet Noor, Rhars, Itima, and Tadala,
under Tempe conditions have made a rather better growth than in the
sandy soil and greater heat of Mecca.

The presumption is strong that the Menakher variety finds both the
temperature and the sandy soil, with the absence of the alkali of the
Mecca garden, the more congenial. In fruiting, both trees have been
slow to develop fruit of normal quality, but have improved from year
to year. At Tempe, however, it hardly seems likely that this variety
has heat enough to perfect its fruit. While a good crop was set in
1912, it was found still immature on November 10. Some fruits were
coloring properly on one side and had ripened a portion of the flesh,
which was of excellent flavor, but the most of them were tough
and ‘‘cottony,’’ and a good sample box could not have been collected.
At Mecca a good deal of fruit developed sufficiently to be finished by
‘slow maturation”’ into a very excellent product. The rarity of this
variety in Tunis and the consequent scarcity of offshoots that may be
purchased will probably prevent its assuming commercial importance
in the Salton Basin for many years to come.

Yet, considering the past year’s performance of the Mecca tree,
the writer feels that the Menakher should be regarded as promising
to become one of the great commercial dates of the Salton Basin
when it can be propagated in sufficient numbers.

DESCRIPTIGN OF THE THOORY VARIETY.

The trees of the Thoory variety are of very robust growth, with
short heavy trunks. The long, heavy, rather yellowish green leaves

CHARACTERS OF THE LEAVES OF THE DATE PALM. ag

are stiffly erect or spreading in an angular manner by bending near
the base. The leaf bases are 5 to 8 inches broad, diminishing gradually

Fig. 15.—Cross sections of the rachis of a Thoory date leaf, showing outlines at different distances from base
to apex.

to a broad, heavy rib, which tapers but slowly to the apex, where
there is a slicht flexibilitv (fig. 15).

28 BULLETIN 223, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The spine area is short, 15 to 30 per cent of the blade length, the
sparsely set spines rather short, slender, acute, passing to a few stout
spike pinnz, 18 to 21 inches or, rarely, 25 inches long at 3 to 5 feet
from the base. These are followed by pinne 18 to 23 inches long;
diminishing slowly toward the apex, still 15 to 18 inches long at 8 or
9 feet, and the last apical ones dropping to 12 or 13 inches.

The pinnee blades are coarse, harsh, and acute, 14 to 2 inches broad
through the greater portion of the leaf and 1} to 14 inches at the apex.
They are 0.018 of an inch (0.4572 mm.) to 0.024 of an inch (0.6096
mm.), occasionally 0.030 of an inch (0.7620 mm.) in thickness. The
pulvini are heavy, often short caudate, and coalescent groups are
common. The average space for each pinna on the rachis is broad
(1.64 inches to 2.18 inches are recorded); the spines are close together
at the base, but wide apart above, while the pinne range from 2 inches
apart in the middle of the blade to 14 inches, or as close as 1 inch in
the apical portions, but from their unusual breadth and small angles
of divergence they appear crowded and overlapping. :

The paired groups of pinne are in a decided majority, the triple
groups average about half as many, and there are a few quadruple
groups. The antrorse pinne diverge from the rachis by rather
slight angles, the basal spines 25° or 30°, those above but 5° to 15°,
the pinne from 10° to 12°, 15°, or 19°, with a small number at 25° to
32°. They form blade-plane angles of 10° to 15° for some of the ©
spines and lower pinne to 22°, 25°, 32°, to 39° and 40° at 6 to 9 feet,
with 30° to 35° near the apex. ;

An examination of leaves with the stiff, acute, antrorse pinne placed
at these angles will convince one that their defensive efficiency is
about perfect.

The introrse pinne, relatively of minor importance in this variety,
have an axial divergence of 40° to 72°, some of them being at
zero with the blade plane, others diverging 10°, 20°, to 30°, or 63°.
The retrorse pinne diverge from the rachis from 25° or 30° through
35° and 48° to a few at 55° or 57°. These angles, combined with their
dorsal divergence of 5° to 10° from the blade plane, give these two
rather ragged ranks a very effective position for defense.

The fruit stalks are strong, 14 to 2 inches in diameter and 2 to 4
feet long; the strands are coarse, 12 to 24 inches long; the color a
bright orange.

The fruit of this variety, which affords one of the best examples of
the dry-date class,is produced in heavy crops, the few trees in bearing
showing a tendency to bear in alternate years.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE |
BULLETIN No. 224

Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry
CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief

Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 28, 1916

A STUDY OF THE PREPARATION OF
FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS IN
THE PRODUCING SECTION

By

M. E. PENNINGTON, Chief, Food Research Laboratory, M. K. JENKINS,
Assistant Bacteriologist, and W. A. STOCKING, formerly Bacteriological
Expert, assisted by S. H. ROSS, E. Q. ST. JOHN, NORMAN
HENDRICKSON, and W. B. HICKS, of the Food Research
Laboratory and the Omaha Food and Drug Inspection Laboratory

CONTENTS

Introduction . . Comparison of the Liquid Product from
Review of the Egg-breaking Houses as three Houses in 1912

Seen in 1911 General Summary of Laboratory Results
Plan for the Experimental Work of 1912 on Commercial Samples, 1912... .

General Statement of the Investigation Conclusions

and the Results Glossary
Classes of Eggs Presenting Special Prob- Appendix

lems Details of Experiments in Each Co-
Comparative Study in two Houses on Eggs operating House, 1911 and 1912

before and after Desiccation . .. . Tabulated Results

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1916

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

N; BULLETIN No. 224 Was

~

Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry
CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief

Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 28, 1916

A STUDY OF THE PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND
DRIED EGGS IN THE PRODUCING SECTION.

By M. E. Pennineton, Chief, Food Research Laboratory, M. K. JENKINS, Assistant
Bacteriologist, and W. A. Stocxine, formerly Bacterrological Expert, assisted by
S. H. Ross, E. Q. St. Joan, Norman HEnpricxkson, and W. B. Hicxs of the Food
Research Laboratory and the Omaha Food and Drug Inspection Laboratory.}

CONTENTS.

Page. Page.
TM iTOMMCHONe.)-ye canals sansa anes Sidesonba ae 1 | General summary of laboratory results on
Review of the egg-breaking houses as seen in commercial samples, 1912.................-

Ui ooeecoe dae pncae sacoperseseonseeosogs - 2 | Conelusions ...........- SOBA HAHBO BD OaGS Lace 20
Plan for the experimental work of 1912 ...... Sa GIOSSARY) «2 sr estisceee es sewese ee ee ee 21
General statement of the investigation and ADPONOEXES Sse ee ee Nol Neate Nee la we 22

the mesults een ees scat cee eee ee 4 Details of experiments in each cooperat-
Classes of eggs presenting special problems -- 9 ing house, 1911 and 1912 ................
Comparative study in two houses on eggs be- Mabulated results!) eee ssceses cece 64
fore and after desiccation ..............-.. 15
Comparison of the liquid product from three
HOUSES it LZR seas Sees oe seecinsee 16
INTRODUCTION.

The origin of the investigation of the preparation of frozen and dried eggs has been
set forth in Circular 98 ? of the Bureau of Chemistry. The need, from an economic
viewpoint as well as that of wholesomeness, for the conservation of certain eggs out
of their shells is also discussed in the circular cited. In the pursuance of the plan of
work therein outlined, a study has been made of the various types of eggs going to
the egg-breaking establishments in the egg-producing section. The results of this
part ot the investigation are given in Bulletin 51 of the Department of Agriculture.

The next step in logical sequence would be a study of the conditions prevailing
in egg-breaking houses and the quality of the product sent into commerce. In the
preliminary survey of the problem, as given in Circular 98, and the general observa-
tions made to determine methods of procedure and points of attack, a policy of co-
operative work with the industry was outlined. These tentative plans were ulti-
mately followed, and the information gained by uniting the observation and experi-
mentation in the packing house with the analytical data of the laboratory is collected
in the present publication.

The body of the bulletin gives a general statement of the work done and the find-
ings which should be of interest to the general egg industry, but more particularly
to manufacturers of frozen and dried products and bakers who use these products.
In the appendix are given details of the investigation of use to those whe have the
actual management of egg-breaking plants and to chemists and bacteriologists en-
gaged in food investigations.

1 The assistance of J. M. Johnson and H. W. Houghton in the making of the chemical analyses during
the active season of 1911 is hereby acknowledged. 4

2 Practical Suggestions for the Preparation of Frozen and Dried Eggs, M. E, Pennington, Food Research
Laboratory, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Pe ee EE at a 9 sD eae 34

9 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

A part of the problem facing the investigators was the conservation of eggs in the
form of a wholesome, good-quality foodstuff. Waste due to spoilage begins on the
farm and increases with every step on the complicated road to the consumer. The
sooner, therefore, eggs unsuited for marketing in the shell can be removed from the
shell and rendered stable the more of them can be saved and the better, as a rule,
will be the quality of the product. It is scarcely possible that a system of handling
and distributing eggs ever will reach such perfection that the consuming centers will
fail to receive some eggs not marketable in the shell. Large centers will receive so
many such that it is eminently desirable that those good for food purposes be saved.
But, from the economic point of view, the industry should be primarily a producing-
region industry, that the expense of deterioration, transportation, and handling in the
market be saved. Of first importance, therefore, is the study of breakage conditions
in the producing country. : :

This report is based on observations made in establishments scattered between
northwestern Iowa and central Kansas. The work began in the spring of 1911 and
was maintained during the egg-breaking season; that is, until early September. It
was continued, also, throughout the season of 1912 in the same territory.

Through the cooperation of the industry it was possible to visit and become inti-
mately acquainted with the routine methods of many establishments, although the
experimental work could be carried on with comparatively few, because of the distance
between the houses and the laboratory and the size of the force of investigators re-
quired. During the season of 1911 five separate plants were studied in detail, and in
1912 three were kept under observation. ‘

An effort was made to keep the various establishments cooperating in touch with
the results obtained that improvement in the quality of the product might follow
quickly upon the heels of knowledge gained. So promptly did the industry avail
itself of these suggestions that the houses were constantly changing the material used,
the apparatus, and the methods of work. There was, therefore, a continued tendency
toward better environment and product, and each visit brought to light new phases
to be studied rather than existing conditions to be confirmed by repeated observations.
This rapid application of information tended to mar the scientific continuity of labora-
tory results, but since the object of the work was better frozen and dried eggs for the
people the progressive spirit of the cooperators was encouraged, not hindered.

As the principles of cleanliness of apparatus, grading of eggs, discipline of breakers,
and other fundamentals of a product of standard quality were unfolded the scope ot
the work broadened to take in the new problems presented. The industry found it
desirable to plan the construction of breaking rooms, wash rooms, candling and re-
ceiving rooms, the application of mechanical refrigeration to the work in hand, etc.,
with the departmental investigators, that the principles of good handling might be
fulfilled. Such activities opened a field of work in the study of sanitary surround-
ings for the preparation of easily infected and readily perishable products. 'The con-
struction of suitable quarters for such work, therefore, forms an important part of this
report.

Itis highly desirable when investigating perishable commodities that they be traced
from the point of origin to the point of consumption. To do this for frozen and dried
eggs involves a study of the effect of long holding—since these products are almost
invariably kept to tide over the season of egg scarcity—and their routine usage by the
baker while in course of preparation for his products. It will be seen, therefore, that
a distinct and important link in the history of the frozen or dried eggs going to the
ultimate consumer must be sought outside of the packing house. Such a study in
cooperation with the bakers is under way, and will be reported in due time. This
report, however, deals with the industry in the packing houses of the West only.

REVIEW OF THE EGG-BREAKING HOUSES AS SEEN IN 1911.

The establishments discussed in the following pages were fair representatives of
the best types of egg-breaking plants in existence in the Middle West. The manage-
ment in every case was more than eager to prepare a good product and tried earnestly
to use to advantage all the information then available. A survey of the field of work
showed, however, that the principles of such cleanliness as is needed were not known
in the industry. The equipment was not adapted to the work to be done, making for
neither quality of product nor speed of operation. The rooms were so constructed
that more than housewifely cleanliness was impossible, and that was attained only by
an undue expenditure of time and labor. The grading by the breakers was in almost
all cases a hit-or-miss operation; where a system of grading had been installed it was
faulty because of a lack of knowledge of the character of the individual eggs. Sucha
state of affairs gave a product irregular in quality, which was not only a detriment to
the baker but often resulted in the waste of good eggs as well as a utilization of bad
eggs. Back of the faulty grading in the breaking room there was a universal lack of

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 3

care in the candling room. Many bad eggs that shouid have been thrown aside by
the candler were sent to the breaker, complicating her work, soiling the apparatus
and, ultimately, finding their way, to a certain extent, to the food product, because
her ideas of economy would not permit her to discard a large percentage of eggs, and
therefore, unconsciously, she lowered her standard for food eggs.

Grading eggs, either before the candle or out of the shell, requires close attention,
yet there was almost unrestricted talking, laughing, or whistling in both candling and
breaking rooms. It was not possible to check the work of the individual candlers or
breakers, since identities were promptly lost. Such a condition made for carelessness,
as a lack of responsibility always does.

The speed of candling or breaking is a factor which must be considered from two
viewpoints. If the workman soldiers or is unnecessarily slow, the cost of the work
performed is unnecessarily high; on the other hand, if he works too rapidly he is
sure to misgrade or do dirty work. It was, therefore, necessary to make a study of
speed that both the quality of the product and the cost of production might be put on
a more definite basis.

The investigation at the close of the season of 1911 had resolved itself into the fol-
lowing problems: (1) The construction of suitable rooms for the housing of the indus-
try and of suitable equipment to insure cleanliness; (2) the grading of the eggs by
candlers and breakers; (3) the keeping of the product after preparation and its be-
havior in the bakery; (4) the establishment of a system based on scientific observa-
tions by which an employee should do a full day’s work that will result in a product
of definite and uniform quality. The work of the season of 1912 endeavored to solve
these questions. The story of the work along the lines indicated follows.

PLAN FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL WORK OF 1912.

The experiments and observations made in the six houses during the season of
1911 showed that certain forms of construction and equipment and certain methods
of operation are necessary for the preparation of clean, wholesome frozen and desic-
cated eggs. In order to make practical application of this information, arrange-
ments were made to work cooperatively with the management of three of the houses
while remodeling their construction and equipment, making observations, and assist-
ing in the organization of methods of operation.

Since the laboratory studies during the season of 1911 represented the product
prepared under old conditions, bacteriological and chemical samples were taken in
D, E, and F houses which were under observation during 1912. The bacteriological
and chemical examinations of the samples were made, as in 1911, in the Omaha
Food and Drug Inspection Laboratory. The results of the laboratory studies were
applied practically, when possible, to improve the quality of the commercial product
and to learn which eggs should be conserved for food purposes and which should not.

REMODELING OF CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT.

The plans for remodeling the construction and the equipment of the three houses
were founded on the following general principles:

1. In order to prevent deterioration of eggs after receipt, the holding room, candling
room, and breaking room should be insulated and refrigerated. A temperature of 30°
F. to 32° F. should be maintained in the first, 50° F. to 55° F. in the second, and 60°
F. to 65° F. in the third. The chilling of the candling and breaking rooms is to pre-
vent the sweating of the eggs after they are removed from the chill room. Since the
candlers and breakers spend the entire working day in the candling and breaking
rooms, it is necessary that both be ventilated. The breaking room and wash room
should be built with nonabsorbent walls and floor and should have an abundant sup-
ply of natural light. The washroom should be separate from the breaking room and
should have a floor sloping toward a drain.

2. The most important piece of equipment in the candling room is the egg candle.
It should be supplied with a strong, white light and with openings from three-fourths
to one and one-fourth inches in diameter.

3. The apparatus in the breaking room should be of metal, or of a material permit-
ting of absolute cleanliness. The table should have metal legs and a nonabsorbent
top, such as monel metal, zinc, galvanized iron, or glass. The breaking trays should
be made of a metal which will not rust. The tray should be constructed with a
removable breaking knife, with a support for the cups, so that they will not set in
the drip collecting from the knife and so that they will not set directly under the
knife. The cups should be transparent, not opaque. The egg mixers, preferably,
should be surrounded with brine and so constructed that they will permit of steam
sterilization for 20 minutes.

4. The wash room should be supplied with hot and cold water and equipped with

ainka and sterlizers

4 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

ORGANIZATION OF METHODS OF OPERATION.

The reorganization of the methods of operation included the work of the candling
room, breaking room, and wash room.

1. A plan was made to elaborate a system of overinspection in the candling room,
to check the work of individual candlers, to recover good eggs thrown out in rejects,
and to keep bad eggs which can be detected by the candle from being passed as good.

2. The organization of the work in the breaking room included rules for the proper
manipulation of the egg during breaking, for methods of grading, for changing appa-
ratus after breaking a ed egg, for behavior of breaker, and for cleaning the room and
its equipment.

3. A routine was established in the wash room whereby the thorough washing and
sterilization of all apparatus coming in contact with food egg wasinsured. Particular
attention was given to the arrangement of the equipment of the room to save time and

labor.
COORDINATION OF FIELD AND LABORATORY WORK.

From 40 to 50 laboratory samples were taken each week of the various types of eggs
occurring throughout the egg-breaking season and of the commercial product during
the different stages of its preparation. In some cases large subsamples were taken
for later study in bakeries.

The routine bacteriological examination included the determination of the total
number of organisms present, the total number of organisms producing gas in lactose
bile, and, in some cases, the isolation and identification of members of the Bacillus
coli group; the routine chemical analyses involved the determination of moisture and
the amount of ammoniacal nitrogen by the Folin method. For further details of
technic see pages 74 to 77 in U. 8. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 51.

Regular visits of five to six days’ duration, beginning on April 22 and ending on
September 17, 1912, were made on successive weeks to D, E, and F houses. The
observations made in the packing house on the quality of the breaking stock, on the
efficiency of the grading in the candling and breaking rooms, and on the sanitary
precautions enforced in the breaking room and wash room were correlated from time
to time with the laboratory data. This information was then utilized as a basis for
new or continued work on succeeding visits to the three houses.

PUBLICATION OF RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATION.

The data obtained from the compilation of the descriptions and laboratory findings
of the samples prepared from the various types of eggs occurring throughout the egg-
breaking season have been published in Bulletin 51 of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture. Upon these data are based the principles of the grading of the eggs
used by the breakers and the determination of their fitness or unfitness for human
food.

The details of the practical application of the principles of construction and equip-
ment, the observations in the packing house, the organization of candling room,
breaking room, and wash room, and the laboratory findings in samples of the com-
merce product are correlated, discussed, and summarized in the following pages of
this report.

THe results of the study of samples taken in the field and followed through the
bakery, together with a detailed description of equipment, with illustrations, and a
discussion of scientific management as applied to the preparation of canned eggs
will be given in later publications.

GENERAL STATEMENT OF THE INVESTIGATION AND THE RESULTS.

The frozen-ege industry, hardly 15 years old, is permanent, because it has developed
as the direct result of an economic need. Many eggs, such as cracked, small, dirty,
shrunken, and slightly heated eggs, commercialiy termed seconds, reach the first
concentrating center in a wholesome condition, but if shipped in the shell to a distant
consuming center they would markedly decompose and be entirely unfit for food pur-
poses. The new industry believed that cracked eggs and seconds could be conserved
by freezing out of the shell, and the baker thereby supplied with wholesome eggs at a
reasonable price during the whole year.

As was to be expected, the new industry had to face many problems. The general
public had its usual prejudice against any food coming from cold storage. The indus-
try was ignorant of the general principles of bacterial cleanliness in the commercial
preparation of a perishable foodstuff. Unprincipled persons, thinking they could

‘conceal inferiority of low-grade eggs by freezing them en masse, brought the industry
into disrepute. ood officials were groping in the dark in their efforts to protect the

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 5

public against decomposed eggs. These contending forces were fast making the
investment of money in the preparation of frozen and dried eggs a hazardous business
proposition.

It was at this time that the Department of Agriculture began its study of the problem.
Science had not entered the door of the frozen-ege industry as it had done in allied
enterprises—for example, dairying. The investigators had before them the task of
laying the groundwork for the scientific preparation of an extremely perishable
product.

EVOLUTION IN CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, AND OPERATIONS.

When this investigation was begun the breaking room in D house was the most
modern, and that of E house the most old-fashioned. The former was the only one
of five houses under observation in 1911 to have refrigeration in this department. In
fact, to this house must be given the credit of being the first to build a model egg-
breaking room. It was built entirely of concrete, and the walls were white enameled.
The windows were insulated and always closed; therefore, they were fly and dust
proof, a condition not found in unchilled rooms. Persons entering the model room
were astonished at the whiteness and the abundance of light. In truth, the room had
been patterned after a hospital operating room. The practical success of this experi-
ment is shown by the fact that EK house built a similar room, but with a capacity
about five times as great, for the season of 1912. The ege-breaking room of E house
before and after remodeling is shown in Plates IV, V, and VI. The appearance of
the breaking room of D and F houses is shown in Plates VII and VIII, figure 2.
freezer with brine-pipe shelves to hold the eggs during freezing is illustrated in
Plate XIII, figure 1.

The equipment and the methods followed in the breaking room were for the most
part crude. I+ was in this quarter that a large part of the efforts of the investigators
was first centered.

The device used for cracking and holding the eggs during grading was one of the
first pieces of apparatus to be attacked. Laboratory studies showed that for the sake
of cleanliness the edge on which the eggs were broken should be adjustable and should
not be located directly over the cups into which the eggs were dropped; that these
containers should be supported by a wire screen or other device to prevent their
becoming so:led with drippings of egg; and, thirdly, that glass cups with a capacity
of two to three eggs should be used to prevent waste and to facilitate grading. A
discussion of these findings with the managements of D, E, and F houses resulted in
each perfecting an ege-breaking outfit conforming to the above specifications. F
house, however, used metal instead of glass cups. F house also developed a me-
chanical method for the separation of white and yolk. These changes were begun in
1911 and completed for the season of 1912. Illustrations of breaking outfits of the old
type are shown in figures 5 and 7 and also in Plate IX, figure 2. The newly devised
eae evans trays are shown in Plate IX, figure 3; Plate X, figures 1 and 2; and also

cure 6.

“The method of cleaning utensils was practically revolutionized as a result of the
experiments of the investigators. The washing departments, except in D house, were
generally located in a corner of the breaking room. The washing was done in a hit-
and-miss fashion. Bacteriological tests showed that even though the utensils were
apparently clean to the senses they were excellent seed beds for the bacterial con-
tamination of the product (see Plate I, figures 1 and 2; Plate II, figure 1; and Plate
III, figures 1, 2,and 3). That this was the case was shown also by the fact that the
bacteria in the product increased as it passed from one container to another in its
routine handling in the breaking and drying room. Experiments showed that the
only sure method of rendering the utensils bacterially clean was to steam them for
15 to 20 minutes at a temperature of 210° to 212° F. The efficiency of this operation
was proved by the fact that the product handled in sterilized utensils contained
markedly fewer organisms, other conditions being equal, than did that prepared
in containers cleansed by the usual commercial method.

Since these experiments showed that the thorough cleansing and sterilization of
utensils afforded a direct means of lowering the numbers of bacteria in the product,
and thereby enhancing its stability, the cooperating members of the industry did not
require a second bidding to build sanitary well-equipped wash rooms outside of the
breaking rooms. In fact, the new wash rooms of E and F houses in 1912 were models
of efficiency (see Plates XI and XII).

It was found, also, that the fingers of the breakers, especially after breaking
“‘sweaty,’’ dirty, or bad eggs, were a fertile source of contamination. Actual contact
of eggshell and fingers could not be eliminated, neither could a slight wetting of the
tips of the thumbs and forefingers with egg be avoided. But both these objectionable
practices could be reduced to a minimum by care and skill. Shell contamination was

6 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

lessened because the cool air of the chilled breaking rooms prevented the formation
of water by condensation. D house and E house in 1912, because of adequate refrig-
eration, were not troubled with wet-shelled eggs. As would be expected, dirty eggs
through contact with the girls’ fingers furnished more bacteria to the product, other
conditions being equal, than did clean eggs. It was also observed that the breaking
of eggs with hands constantly wet with egg not only made the skin tender and often-
times painfully sore, but also increased the number of bacteria in the product. This
condition parallels that obnoxious practice in the dairy industry of milking with wet
hands. The handling of the egg with the tips of the fingers, thereby preventing the
rest of the hand from becoming wet, and the frequent drying of the ends of the
fingers with tissue paper, not only made it possible for the girls to keep their hands
in good condition, but also presented a practical means of lessening contamination.
The bacteria furnished to the fingers by the outside of the egg were few compared
with those derived from the contents of an infected egg, such as a sour egg or egg
with a green white. Bacterial examination showed that the thorough washing and
drying of hands after breaking a bad egg was the only means of avoiding this con-
tamination. These findings are illustrated in Plate I, figure 4; Plate II, figures 2
and 3; and Plate III, figure 4.

A very common practice was the use of rags, always unsightly, interchangeably for
wiping utensils, hands, and the floor. The bacterial examination of water wrung from
such cloths revealed hundreds of millions of organisms. These agents, instead of
cleaning, spread the dirt. The improvement in the manipulation of the egg, the
devising of an outfit suitable for breaking eggs, and the introduction of tissue paper
and paper towels for drying hands, practically abolished the use of cloths except for
cleaning the tables. These few cloths could readily be laundered, or sterilized, after
each day’s work, so that they could be kept sweet and clean. These changes elimi-
nated a number of the sources of contamination of the product and did much to im-
prove the appearance of the breaking room as well.

The introduction of pails in place of shipping cases to convey the eggs from the
candling to the breaking rooms eliminated considerable dust and litter. The devising
of a tray for the holding of leaking eggs made it possible to carry them to the breaking
room in a clean condition (see Plate VIII, figure 1; Plate IX, figure 1; and Plate
XIII, figure 2.)

As can readily be seen from this discussion, the laboratory findings practicaily
revolutionized the apparatus used and the routine followed in the breaking room.
Instead of the haphazard collection of odd pieces of china, glass, and tin, there were
evolved machines accurately adapted to the work to be done; and the careless, incon-
sequent methods of cracking and emptying the shells were replaced by a standardized,
definite routine, making for both quality and efficiency.

GRADING THE BREAKING STOCK BY CANDLING.

The classes of eggs principally used for breaking were seconds, cracked, and dirty
eggs. It is to be expected that eggs sold for breaking stock would contain a higher
percentage of loss than would eggs sold as current receipts, and such, by actual obser-
vation, was found to be the case. Comparative data collected in D house showed, as
illustrated in Table 1, that from eggs purchased especially for breaking 6.6 per cent
of bad eggs were rejected in July and 10.6 per cent in August, whereas from its cur-
rent receipts only 3.5 per cent were discarded in July and only 3.1 per cent in August.

TaBLE 1.—Condensed candling reports of D house.
I. CURRENT RECEIPTS.

Total Firsts, seconds
Month. receipts. checks. Bad eggs.
Dozen. Dozen. | Percent.| Dozen. | Per cent.
A RETA Oe OR AMT Heer RL A LAAN AE aE PR 85,0833 | 83, 730x5 98.4 | 1,3534 1.6
SURF Rea 4eboas he aap tad y Ay Sg a carer Z Se RnR 53,109;8| 51, 2658 96.5| 1,843%5 3.5
TAT ESE hw scee Ue Bathe GhiNe Ste CARS OOGL Url 72,0402 | 69,7814 96.9 | 2,2593 31
A SEY ARUN A SM I ARN NG 210, 133% | 204, 7773 97.4 | 5, 456zy 2.6
Il. EGGS SHIPPED TO D HOUSE FOR BREAKING PURPOSES.
{
Total. | Seconds and checks,
Month. receipts. good eggs. Bad eggs.
Dozen. Dozen. | Percent.| Dozen. | Per cent.
Tuly LRA). ORME ASNT Re DS LOR 27,0244 | 25, 230 93.4] 1,794 6.6
ATiguist Zp Sieve his er ypu Es area aie Wks ee yi) Tikal 27,9484 | 24, 9533 89.3] 2,9943 10.6
PT hs a a) AU ta ae oneness | 54,972r4| 50, 1833 | 91.3 | 4,788% 8.7

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 7

In order to give farmers, hucksters, grocers, etc., an inducement to improve the
quality of the eggs they sell, and in order to put the buying of eggs on the same basis
as the buying of other commodities, all the cooperating houses aiter June 1 purchased
all of their eggs on a quality basis.

Instructions in the cooperating houses were to the effect that only eggs with whole
yolks, excluding ‘‘blood rings’’ and those having blood clots or mold, should be
graded by the candle as fit for food purposes. In the spring, but more especially later
in the season, it was observed that the grading of eggs by the candle as ordinarily
practiced was far from accurate. Bad eggs were passed as good eggs, and vice
versa. The correction of these errors to save food eggs and to prevent objectionable
eggs going to the breaking room and there contaminating and spoiling good eggs was
of sufficient importance to warrant careful consideration by both the industry and
the investigators. The detailed results of this investigation will be presented in
another publication. The practical application of the findings may be summarized
as follows:

The keynote of accurate grading is a knowledge of the quality of eggs and good
management. First, there must be a foreman in each candling room who is not only
an expert candler but also a good executive. Second, each case or pail of eggs should
be tagged with the number of the individual candler that he may have a sense of
responsibility and that the accuracy of his candling may be determined. Third,
the candlers should be instructed to place all eggs difficult to grade with the rejects
or in a container by themselves in order to reduce the number of bad eggs going to
the breaking room. Fourth, the foreman of the breaking room should be on the alert
to detect bad eggs which are present in breaking stock due to errors in candling and
to report the same to the candling room. Fifth, all doubtful eggs should be recandled
by an expert to recover those which are good. E and F houses operated their can-
dling room according to this system with excellent results.

GRADING IN THE BREAKING ROOM.

Tf good organization was important in the candling room, it was even more so in the
breaking room; here the product (good eggs being furnished) gained or lost in quality,
depending upon the mode of handling. Here, also, the cost of preparation increased
or decreased with the efficiency of the working force. First in importance was the
foreman, for upon him should rest the responsibility of the work of the breaking force
and the condition of the ultimate product. He should be able to command the respect
of his subordinates, be conversant with the fundamental principles of bacterial clean-
liness, and be familiar with the different types of eggs occurring in breaking stock.

Owing to the decided changes made in equipment and methods, the routine work in
the breaking room in 1912 was quite different from that of 1911. The duties of the
foreman the second season included the enforcement of the following: Clean manipu-
jation of the egg during breaking, the proper method of grading, the changing of
apparatus and the cleaning of hands after breaking a bad egg, the correct speed for
breaking, the thorough washing and sterilization of utensils, and the maintenance of
discipline in the breaking force.

Since the presence of one infected egg would contribute myriads of bacteria to the
liquid product, the study of the grading of eggs out of the shell became a very im-
portant part of the work. As has been stated, the candling of eggs is a very efficient
means of eliminating bad eggs from breaking stock, but it is by no means accurate.
Jt is also generally understood by those familiar with eggs before the candle and out
of the shell that there are some types of objectionable eggs, such as musty or sour eggs,
which can only be detected when broken. The laboratory findings on composite
samples of eggs graded to definite types and broken under clean commercial condi-
tions showed, as given in Bulletin 51 of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture, the
following facts:

The majority of the samples of white rots, eggs with yolk lightly adherent to the
shell, and all of the samples of sour eggs, black rots, eggs with green albumens, eggs
with yolk heavily adherent to the shell, and all other eggs with bad odors, were
infested with bacteria. B. coli were present in most of these eggs and constituted the
predominating organism in sour eggs.

The eggs with yolk lightly adherent to the shell were slightly lower in quality than
the regular breaking stock eggs, whereas the sour eggs, white rots, eggs with green
whites, and eggs with yolk heavily adherent to the shell showed considerably more
deterioration. Eggs with bloody whites, or eggs with blood rings, should not be used.
The cause of the musty egg, the odor of which increases on heating, thereby creating
disaster in the bakery, has not been determined.

The candler aimed to eliminate all of these types of egg from breaking stock
except sour and musty eggs and eggs with green whites. Asa matter of fact, blood

8 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

rings, white rots, and eggs with yolk lightly stuck to shell were frequently miscandled.
Cracked eggs with moldy shells were not always detected by the candlers.

This condition of affairs made it necessary that the breakers be able to recognize
all kinds of bad eggs, for upon them rested the final responsibility of eliminating bad
eggs from the finished product. It was, therefore, incumbent upon the foreman to
select well-qualified girls. Ifa breaker, for instance, did not have a delicate sense of
smel] she would not be able to detect incipient forms of musty eggs, sour eggs, etc.;
or, if she were not quick of perception, she would not recognize eggs with light green
whites, etc. The importance of accurate grading is emphasized by the fact that one
musty egg would spoil over 30 pounds of liquid egg, worth at least $5. If, on the other
hand, she threw away eggs fit for food purposes, she incurred a financial loss to the
company.

The plesravation of strict order among the breakers was a matter of importance.
Ii a girl, for instance, gossiped with her neighbor, she not only broke fewer eggs but
her grading suffered. If she chewed gum she blunted her sense of smell. In order
to encourage good steady work and at the same time give the girlsa rest from the con-
tinuous breaking of eggs, which involves constant attention and the repeated use of
the same muscles, they were given, in addition to the noon hour, a recess of about
15 minutes in the middle of each half day. They were allowed to go out of the room,
move about, and to converse freely. Such relaxation enabled the girls to do more
and better work.

SPEED OF BREAKING.

After the routine of 1912 had become well established observations were made of
the time required to take the necessary steps to break and grade an egg and also of
the average number of eggs broken per minute, and during longer intervals of time.
The results may be summarized as follows:

The speed of breaking depends upon the breaker, the quality of the eggs, and the
character and arrangement of the equipment. The split-second timer showed that
the successive motions made by the best breakers were asrythmic as those of a machine.
The number of eggs broken per minute averaged from 12 to 16, or from 12 to 16 cases
of 30 dozen eggs each per working-day of 10 hours. These figures refer to the breaking
of eggs without separating into white and yolk. The breakers at E house were the
swiftest, those of F house slightly slower, and those at D house the slowest.

6,000,000

PER GRASIT

2,000,000

NUAIEEF? OF ORGANIS1IFEF

° 50. 2D. 7ST. ATA. 2D. 7ST, 20.8390.
WEEK WEEK WEE = WEEK WEEK WEEK WEEP
APRIL MAY UUNE JUNE SULLY AUGUST AUGUST

Fig. 1.—Diagram showing the seasonal variation in the bacterial content of the commercial product
of E house in 1912.

In E house the pails of eggs, the breaking outfit, the chute for the shells, and the
container for the liquid product were so arranged that the motions required to break
an egg were minimized and were all in one direction. In F house half of the force
worked left-handedly because the egg supply was contained in egg cases. The case
would be right-handed for one girl and left-handed for the girl working opposite. It
took longer to remove eges from cases, particularly if they were in fillers, than it did
from pails. In D house the breakers dropped the shells into a container on the floor at
the side instead of into a hopper directly in front. The former was slower. These
small differences mean but afew tenths of a second for each egg broken, but aggre-
gate minutes and hours when the whole working-day is taken into consideration.
Other factors being eliminated, it was found that a girl working from left to right could
break over 40 dozen more eggs per day than if she worked in the opposite direction.

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 9

It was also observed that the arm could empty cups more quickly than the nose
could notify the brain of the odor of the contents. For example, a breaker may be
surprised to find that she has puta ‘“‘light must” or a ‘“‘beginning sour” into the con-
tainer for good eggs before her mind has apprised her of the character of the egg.
For this reason a limit should be set to the number of eggs broken in a given time.
Though the girls were not paid according to the quantity of work accomplished, there
was an inherent tendency for some to break very rapidly. The supervisor should
make it as much of a point to slacken the pace of these workers as to hurry those who
are slow. With the present equipment and methods a girl should not break more
than 16 eggs per minute, and if the breaking stock contains many bad eggs the limit
should be reduced to 12.

SEASONAL VARIATION IN QUALITY OF PRODUCT.

The practical man is familiar with the seasonal variation in the quality of the egg
supply. His knowledge is more often confined to the differences in the condition of
the eggs in the shell than to that of the frozen and dried products. Since the latter,
in the houses under observation, were prepared from eggs which were graded by the
senses as fit for food purposes, this is to be expected since small differences in quality
can only be detected by careful laboratory procedures.

In order to determine what part weather conditions played in the ultimate product,
samples were taken systematically in two houses during the season of 1912.

TABLE 2.—Seasonal variation in bacterial content of commercial samples of mixed egg.
(D house, 1912.)

Ammoniacal nitrogen | Aver:
(Folin method). Sea Rainfall
Average heric tem- A
Period : Number | number of Peratire during the
eriod of sampling. of ncaa, sarmantin 5 days
samples. | jor gram : _ | Pas davae |Drevious to
gram. | Wet basis. | Dry basis. YS | sampling.
before
sampling.
May 27 to 29 i rie Per cent. Per cent. SpE 4 Inches.
pends SULA data ; Gein es ed beads ae 9 0.
UTICHetO Mowe ee Rea ie 2 a 11 660, 000 0.0018 0. 0061 83 - 42
RUATVO SU CO) 2 (one sie yaa) Gs a 4 570, 000 0020 0067 74 2.78
Ae hy 110) PRS eaee a eeietts atch 5 650, 000 - 0022 - 0072 83 12
July 16'to 31.......... 2: eee eee 10 | 1,400,000 . 0022 - 0070 93 - 80
AGIOML ONL OMe ee ae ea aa 3 | 1,500,000 - 0020 - 0065 87 2.88
ANTTRES, TIO) oR apes Oe sete ea 7 | 1,700,000 - 0021 . 0068 87 3.97

These studies show that there is a tendency for the bacterial count and the amount
of ammoniacal nitrogen to increase as the ege-breaking season progresses (see Tables
2and E-IV, appendix, and figure 1).

CLASSES OF EGGS PRESENTING SPECIAL PROBLEMS.

LEAKING EGGS.

Eggs with shell and inner membranes broken are termed ‘‘leakers’’ by the trade.
There are all gradations, from the egg which has lost very little of its contents to the
egg which has practically nothing left in its shell but the yolk.

During periods of the year when receipts are low and the number of leakers conse-
quently few, they are commonly sold in the shell to near-by consumers and employees
of the packing house. In the season of heavy receipts, when there are more leakers
than can be used locally, they are either thrown out with the rots or broken out and
frozen. The second method of disposal is the one concerned in this investigation.

Formerly if the leakers were to be conserved for food purposes, the candlers sorted
these eggs from receipts as they worked and either broke them immediately into a
container near by or placed them in pans or pails to be opened in another room.
Neither method was satisiactory. Ii the eges were opened in a dark candling room
they could only be graded in the shell, which was insufficient. Then, too, it was
impossible to break eggs under sanitary conditions in a candling room. On the other
hand, if the leakers were placed in pails, the damage to the shell was increased, and

10 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

a large part of the contents ran over the shells and collected around the eggs in the
bottom of the pail, thereby making it impossible to prepare a clean product from
leakers handled in this manner.

TRAY METHOD OF HANDLING LEAKERS.

To avoid these difficulties a tray method of handling leakers was devised. The
tray was made of galvanized iron and consisted of a drip pan upon which was placed a
plate with perforations for holding the leaking eggs. (Pl. XIII, fig. 2.) The openings
were round and about 1? inches in diameter, or hexagonal with sides about six-tenths
of an inch in length. The plate was kept in position by means of solder in the corners
of the drip pan, or by projections soldered on the sides about 1 inch from the bottom.
The trays were 1 to 2 inches high, with perpendicular or beveled sides, and 1 foot
square or | foot wide by 2 feet long, the former having a capacity of 3 dozen eggs, the
latter 6 dozen. The smaller size was much more convenient because it took up less
space in the candling room.

After a leaking ege was candled it was placed, damaged end up, in one of the holes
of the tray. When filled the tray was carried to the breaking room, where the eggs
were broken and graded. The breaking and grading of these eggs was delegated to a
few expert girls, because it was impossible to grade leakers as closely by the candle
or to break them in as cleanly a manner as cracked or sound eggs. The leaking eggs
were opened with the thumb and the two first fingers of each hand, and in many
instances without using a breaking knife. Precaution was taken to keep the leaking
end of the egg down while the egg was being opened so that the contents would drop
into the cup instead of running over the shell and wetting the fingers of the breaker.
The same principles used in the grading of the regular breaking stock were used for
leakers, except that the grading of soft eggs was done much more closely.

During the first part of the season bacteriological and chemical tests were made of
six small samples of leaking eggs collected in the candling room and opened and
graded carefully in the breaking room. The results are given in Table 3. These
results compared favorably with those obtained from contemporaneous samples of
eggs broken from cracked and whole eggs, and warranted further investigation of
leaking eggs to determine whether they could safely be conserved for food purposes.

TaBLE 3.—LHxperimental samples of leaking eggs, opened in the breaking room (D house,
1912).

Bacteria per gram Ammoniacal
on plain agar in- Gee nitrogen (Folin
cubated at— ucins method).
Sample |4_,r¢e,| Date of collec- ae bacteria des Moisture Ruuieen
No. tion. al ea Den eram c ees
in lactose Wet Dry IQS
° ° 7
20° C. 37° C. bile. aes peices
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
4273 D-1 | May 8......... 2,100 1,300 10, 000 0.0015 0. 0053 71.91 13
4274 D-1 }...-. do... 16, 500 4, 200 0013 0045 70. 83 13
4275 D-1 |....- do. 45, 000 34, 500 TOPOOO Ne ets es cecienetees| saaeee seve 6
4284....| D-1 |..... COs seces| Be, 000) 5, 000 100 - 0019 . 0067 71.53 12
42862225) D=1)) see do......--.| 100,000 62, 000 10 . 0013 . 0046 71.85 12

Laboratory tests of three samples of leaking eggs broken in the candling room at F
house during May showed a variation of from 1,600,000 to 25,000,000 per gram in the
bacterial count, and of 10,000 to 100,000 per gram in the number of presumptive
B. coli. (Table 4.) Sample No. 4370, representing 150 pounds of leakers, broken in
the candling room of F house during the latter part of May, showed the high count
of 25,000,000 organisms per gram, but a low amount of ammoniacal nitrogen, namely,
0.0020 per cent on the fresh basis and of 0.0067 per cent on the dry basis. These
results indicate that most of the eggs in the product were sound, but that there
were some highly contaminated eggs in the mass. Their presence was probably due
to the impossibility of eliminating infected eggs when opening leakers in a candling
room. Results of samples taken about a month later, but handled by the tray
method, gave as shown in Table F—X (appendix) bacterial counts varying from 23,500
to 1,700,000 per gram and the number of presumptive B. coli between 10 and 10,000
per gram. ‘These results indicated, therefore, that the minimum count of the samples
of leaking eggs opened in the candling room was, approximately, the same as the
maximum count of those opened in the breaking room; and that the presumptive
number of B. coli was also, in most cases, higher in eggs handled by the old method.

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 11

TaBLE 4.—Commercial samples of leaking eggs broken in the candling room (F house,

LOLA Ne
Bacteria per gram Ammoniacal
on plain agar in- panera Liquefy nitepeet Gach
bated at— E i F method). i i
Sample | source mate of calatedsa bacteria | ing or- ) Mois- Nicten
No. OES ne - |_——________| per gram| ganisms |_| ture. 13
in lactose | per gram. Wet Dry ISP
° ° 7
20° C. 30°C: bile. Tasers, |) Trmetts.
Per ct. | Per ct.| Perct.| Lbs.
AO TALE F-1] May 1 | 4,300,000] 2,100,000} 10,000] 1,400,000} 0.0017] 0.0054} 69.74 420
4224......- F-1} May 2 | 3,800,000} 1,800, 000 100, 000 430, 000 - 0016 - 0054 ZOLSS| Meee
CEB daha F-1| May 3] 1,600,000] 950,000] 10,000] 650,000} .0017| .0062| 72.55)........
aan. ° F-2] May 23 |25,000,000| 6,300,000| 100,000/12,000,000/ 0020} .0067} 70.09 150

GRADING LEAKING EGGS.

An analysis of the kind and number of rejects found on breaking 350 dozen candled
leakers handled by the tray method, showed that 5.2 per cent consisted of deteriorated
eggs, which could have been detected by careful candling had the eggs been whole
or merely cracked, and 4.4 per cent of infected eggs which could have been eliminated
out of the shell. The percentage and kinds of eggs making up the 5.2 per cent of
deteriorated eggs ordinarily detected in candling were as follows:

Per cent. | Per cent.
White mots. eS.) cctheiae sei ees ees Sos Brits. | bse) yale] o) evel wha Oo ontohasobobeoodsed 6.9
Eggs with moldy shells....-...-. See AlZeits} | Eggs with yolk nearly mixed with white.... 5.9
Eggs with adherent yolk Me ON |ekVOULCT ORES venta cye ciate aie cie atte aay arn eee a ay ane 3.6

Following are the percentage and kinds of eggs making up the 4.4 per cent of infected
eggs which could only be detected out of the shell:

Per cent. Per cent.
SOUTO Se eee doc cece aaaaee eels 40.1 | Eggs with a moldy odor...................-. 3.7
BORER ES ee ee EO Bea sce eeee espe eee 30.4 | Eggs with an abnormal odor (not bad)...... oni
Eggs with a green white..../...-.-...--.--.- PE) |) 18S Walled eh love reloro agen decnooooneldesersos 2.6

From these results it is seen that of the badly deteriorated eggs occurring among
leakers, white and sour rots, eggs with moldy shells and soft eggs were the most
frequent.

one a portion of the contents of leaking eggs has been lost, it would be expected
that a smaller amount of liquid egg would be obtained from these eges as compared
with that from cracked or whole eggs. That this is the case is shown by the fact
that an average of 27.7 pounds of liquid egg were obtained from eight different lots of
30 dozen leaking eggs, as compared with an average of 34 pounds from a laree number of
cases of cracked and whole eggs.

LABORATORY RESULTS ON LEAKERS HANDLED COMMERCIALLY BY THE TRAY METHOD,

Fifty-three samples were taken of leaking eggs handled on trays and opened in
the breaking room; 17 were obtained at D house, 16 at E house, and 20 at F house.
The laboratory findings are given in detail in Tables D-IV, E-VII, and F-X,
respectively (appendix, pp. 99, 77, and 89), and are summarized in Table 5.

TaBLe 5.—Summary of laboratory results on leaking eggs, tray method of handling, 1912.

I. BACTERIOLOGICAL DATA.

Number of organisms per gram. | _@®S-Producing bacteria

Number per gram in lactose bile.
House. of
samples.
Minimum. | Maximum.| Average. | Minimum. | Maximum.
Dp hee ee Oa, Want, MN bi 17 500 | 3,700,000 470, 000 0 100, 000
1) pe SRSA SIT UE AIT YE 16 200,000 | 6,000,000 | 2,800,000 0 100, 000
1 scar sag Ne AN ea ce 20 23,500 | 4,500,000 910, 000 0 1,000, 000

12 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TaBLE 5.—Summary of laboratory results on leaking eggs, tray method of handling,
1912—Continued.

Tl. CHEMICAL DATA.

Percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen. Percentage of moisture.
Num- : 4 :
Teta. pen ee Wet basis. Dry basis.
ples. Mini- | Maxi- | Aver-
Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- | MUM- | Mum. | age
mum. | mum age. | mum. | mum.| age
aD ae eSBs Bic RS 13 | 0.0013 |} 0.0022 | 0.0017 | 0.0047 | 0.0076 | 0.0058 | 69.07} 72.83 71.18
1 ener pe ts Spe RTE acd 11} .0020} .0028} .0023 |} .0066| .0079| .0074{ 64.12] 70.60 68.16
eo ns Sear Na 13} .0015 | .0028} .0020] .0049| .0080} .0065 | 65.59] 71.42 69. 33

The bacterial counts and the percentages of ammoniacal nitrogen of samples of
good quality leaking eggs handled by the tray method, broken in a cleanly manner and
graded carefully, were no greater than those found in synchronous samples of seconds,
dirty, or cracked eggs.

Samples with high bacterial counts and, in some cases, with high percentages of
ammoniacal nitrogen are grouped in Table 6. In most instances these results could
be traced to poor grading during breaking or to low-grade receipts from which the
leaking eggs were sorted.

TABLE 6.—Commercial samples of low quality, leaking eggs, tray method, 1912.

Bacteria per gram Ammoniacal

on plain agar in- | Gas-pro- ; nitrogen (Folin } =
Seri: Date of | cubated at— ducing | Lique- | method). || Size) |e
Teil Source: | (collec: bacteria | fymg Moist- | of of
s Sl) setae | TRG ORR Can | ORAM TS eer omg EO. SITS
O. : in lactose|pergram.| w,; | pr LS |
20°C. | 37°C. bile. ees

basis. | basis.

Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Doz.
4503. .| F-3...| June 11 | 4,900,000} 3,300, 000 10,000) 1,800,000} 0.0022) 0.0074) 70.13 6 4
4526..| F-3...| June 12 /19, 000, 000/15, 000,000} 100,000) 800,000) .0021) .0068) 69.18 6

4737. .| E-5...| July 13 |36,000, 000] 3,000,000) 10,000].......... -0029] .0105| 72.43 24 53

4858. .| D-5...| July 29 14; 000, 000/19, 000,000) 10,000|.........- -0019] 0064] 70. 43 6| «16

4859. .| D-5___|... Ooo soe 20, 000, 000167, 000, 000 1O0A000|0 02 2 .0019] .0065| 70.58 6 9
|

The amount of moisture averaged 71.18 per cent in the 13 samples of leaking eggs
taken at D house, 68.16 per cent in the 11 samples taken at E house, and 69.33 per cent
in the 15 taken at F house. These figures were lower than those found when cracked
or whole eggs were examined, due to the fact that some of the white, which contains
considerably more water than the yolk, had been lost.

SOFT EGGS.

Eggs which are not separable into white and yolk are termed soft eggs in this
report. This egg is illustrated in Plate XIV. It may have a whole yolk before the
candle, but may be ruptured during the process of breaking.

Thirteen samples of soft eggs were taken, in which there was observed a consider-
able variation in both the bacterial content and the amount of ammoniacal nitrogen.
For example, 53.8 per cent of the samples contained less than 5,000,000 bacteria per
gram, and 46.2 per cent, between 6,100,000 and 80,000,000 per gram. (See Table
F-VIII, Appendix.)

The samples with counts under 5,000,000 contained an average of 0.0021 per cent
of ammoniacal nitrogen on the wet basis and 0.0074 per cent on the water-free basis;
those with counts over 5,000,000 showed an average of 0.0026 per cent on the wet
basis and of 0.0086 per cent on the water-free basis. The average amount of loosely-
bound nitrogen in the samples of soft egg, with counts under 5,000,000 per gram, is
practically the same as that found in samples of whole egg which could be separated
into white and yolk.

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 13

It is evident from these results that a large percentage of soft eges contain compar-
atively few organisms and a comparatively small amount of loosely bound nitrogen,
and also that others are markedly infected and deteriorated. It is quite probable
that infected soft eggs are incipient forms of sour eggs, white rots, etc., which have
not yet acquired their identifying characteristics.

SECOND-GRADE FROZEN EGGS.

The second-grade product was prepared from eggs showing incipient deterioration
by the senses and from drippings from the breaking knife. By far the greatest number
of the samples of these eggs showed, as given in Table F-V (Appendix, p. 84), decided
infection and marked deterioration. The average bacterial count was 35,000,000 per
gram; and the average amount of ammoniacal nitrogen, 0.108 per cent on the dry
basis. These results are considerably higher than those found in any of the first-
grade products (see Tables 11 and 12).

Samples were taken of some of the component eggs of the second-grade product.
The results are correlated in Table F—-XII (Appendix, p.92). Boththeincipient sour
eges and the eggs with white beginning to turn green contained millions of bacteria
and a comparatively large amount of ammoniacal nitrogen. These data show very
plainly that it is impossible to detect by the senses sour eggs or eggs with green
whites until the bacteria have developed in sufficient numbers to cause a partial
decomposition of the egg material. Cracked eggs with moldy shells, even though the
appearance and odor of their contents were normal, frequently contained many organ-
isms. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen was, however, not excessive.

The bacterial count of nine samples of drippings from breaking knives and trays
varied from 10,000 to 13,000,000. There were between 100 and 100,000 B. coli per
gram in the different samples. This drip contributed fewer organisms to the second-
grade product than did the eggs showing incipient deterioration by the senses.

The wide variation of 71.79 to 84.60 per cent of moisture was due to the difference
in the amount of drippings or white present.

These results show very conclusively that incipient forms of sour eggs, eggs with
green whites, etc., are not only heavily infected but are distinctly decomposed. The
laboratory studies of the second-grade product coincide with the decision of the senses
as applied to the eggs constituting it, namely, that it is unfit for food purposes.

TANNERY’ EGGS.

Tanners’ eggs are prepared from the discards from the candling and breaking
room minus the eggs with a bad odor, or, in other words, all eggs admittedly unfit for
food except those with a repugnant odor. The latter are not included because they
would bedisagreeable for the tannersto handle. The eggsregularly graded for tanners’
purposes are as follows:

Candling-room discards —White rots, eggs with moldy shells, eggs with adherent
yolks, eggs with blood rings, and eggs with yolk nearly mixed with white, etc.

Breaking-room discards.—Sour eggs, eggs with green whites, eggs with a moldy odor,
other eggs with abnormal odors, and good eggs, when bad eggs are broken in a cup
with them, etc.

Many of these eggs are illustrated in Bulletin 51 of the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture; others are shown in this report in Plates XV and XVI.

In Table 7 are given the laboratory findings in samples of tanners’ eggs, four of
which were prepared from eggs discarded in the candling room and six from eggs
rejected in the breaking room. It will be noted that every sample is heavily infected
with organisms and that with few exceptions those prepared in the breaking room
were about twice as heavily infected as those made from eggs discarded during can-
dling. This difference would have been still greater had no good eggs been present
in the former.

The number of bacteria in tanners’ eggs varied from 31,000,000 to 150,000,000, being
markedly greater than the average count found in the samples of first-grade eggs.
The minimum figure, however, is not far from the average bacterial content of the
second-grade product, i. e., 35,000,000.

The amount of chemical decomposition was also greater in the tanners’ grade pre-
pared from eggs rejected in the breaking room than in that made from the bad eggs
found on candling. The average amount of ammoniacal nitrogen found in the former
was 0.0099 per cent on the dry basis and in the latter 0.0160 per cent.

BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

14

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PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 15

COMPARATIVE STUDY IN TWO HOUSES ON EGGS BEFORE AND AFTER }
DESICCATION.

The belt system used in E and F houses differed in some respects. In E house the
hot air entered the ducts in which the belts circulated through several flues and was
expelled through two others. In F house there was one inlet and one outlet for the
hot air. By the arrangement of the air ducts in E house the supply of air coming in
contact with the drying egg was replenished before it had become saturated with
moisture. The temperature of the intake air in E house varied from 135° F. to 160° F.
for whole egg, and in F house it was 160° F. for yolk and 140° F. for mixed egg. The
temperature of the outgoing air was about 10° lower in EK house and about 30° lower
in F house than the incoming air. E house desiccated about 150 pounds of whole egg in
one hour and F house about 80 pounds.

The belts of E house were considerably longer than those of F house; consequently
they were supported on the lower side by rollers. The portion of the egg on the belt
coming in contact with these rollers did not dry as quickly as the films of eggs on
the exposed sections of the belt. As a result, sticky masses, commercially termed
“‘wet lumps,’’ were mixed with the flaky egg scraped from the belts. The imper-
fectly dried portions, however, represented but a small amount of the final product.
They were screened and subjected to further drying. The average moisture content
of the dried product immediately after being removed from the belts was at E house
8.82 for the whole egg. E house did not subject the dried egg to secondary drying.
F house, however, exposed the product to a temperature of 100° F. for about five
hours. The percentage of moisture then averaged 6.13 for the mixed egg and 5.04
for the yolks, as against 11.24 per cent for mixed egg and 11.21 per cent for yolk when
the dried egg was removed from the belts.

BACTERIAL CONTENT.

Eighteen comparative examinations were made of the product in E house before
and after desiccation. The results given in Table E-V (Appendix, p. 74) show in
practically every case (if the count of the dried product be divided by 3 to make it
comparable with the liquid egg) that there is a reduction in the number of bacteria
during the process of desiccation.

The lowest count found in samples of the flaky dried ege, as shown in Table E-III
(Appendix, p. 70), was 65,000 per gram and the highest 20,000,000. The average
count for the 48 samples was 3,600,000. The number of B. coli varied from 0 to
1,000,000 per gram. Only 6, or 12.5 per cent, contained 1,000,000. (Table E-VIIT,
Appendix, p. 78.)

The bacterial content of the samples of ‘‘ wet lumps’’ averaged 6,900,000 and varied
from 1,100,000 to 18,060,000 per gram. Corresponding samples of flaky egg contained
between 430,000 and 12,000,000 organisms per gram (Table E-I1). Comparative results,
given in Table E-II (Appendix, p. 68), indicate that in some instances there is a
multiplication of organisms in wet lumps during the process of desiccation. There
was practically no difference in the bacterial content of wet lumps before and after
secondary drying.

In the spring of the year there was practically no increase in the number of bac-
teria during drying. In thesummer, however, there was appreciable multiplication
during desiccation (see Table F-I, Appendix, p. 80). This is undoubtedly due to
the warmer weather and the greater amount of water in the air during the summer.

It is probable that an increase in the air supply to the belts and an increase and
rearrangement of the inlet and outlet ducts would facilitate desiccation and prevent
multiplication of bacteria without diminishing the solubility of the dried product.

AMMONIACAL NITROGEN.

The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen found in the desiccated products of E and F
houses is not comparable with the amount present in liquid egg before drying. For
example, the parallel tests given in Table E-V (Appendix, p. 74) showed that the
percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen calculated on the dry basis varied from 0.0073 to
0.0093 in the liquid egg and from 0.0009 to 0.0016 in the corresponding product after
desiccation. Similar varlations can be seen in Table F-VI (Appendix, p. 76). These
results indicate that a portion of the ammoniacal nitrogen was volatilized during
desiccation.

_ The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen volatilized from the product during desiccation
1s not constant, according to the above tables. For instance, samples 41079 and 41085
listed in Table E-V contained 0.0093 per cent of loosely bound nitrogen in the liquid
form, but after desiccation one contained 0.0009 per cent and the other 0.0015 per cent.
Since, therefore, the amount of loosely bound nitrogen lost from eggs during drying is

16 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

variable, it is not possible to judge the quality of the liquid egg from the quantity
found in dried egg, or vice versa.

A comparison of the amount of ammoniacal nitrogen and the bacterial content of
dried whole egg, dried mixed egg, and dried yolks shows, as can be observed in Tables
E-\V, F-II, and F-IV, a tendency to greater quantities of ammoniacal nitrogen when
the product is heavily infected with bacteria, but the relation between the two is
far from being as definite or as conclusive as when the tests are applied to liquid egg.

COMPARISON OF THE LIQUID PRODUCT FROM THREE HOUSES IN 1912.

There was but slight variation found in the amount of ammoniacal nitrogen in the
commercial liquid products prepared by the cooperating houses in which the mode
of preparation was the same. ‘The average bacterial contents of the liquid products
of D and F houses, which derived their breaking stock mostly from their current
receipts, were nearly the same. The number of bacteria in the liquid ege of E
house was greater than for the other two houses. The latter purchased its breaking
stock from other houses; consequently it was somewhat older at the time of break-
ing than that of the other two houses. The data summarizing the findings for the
three houses are given in Tables 8, 9, 10, E-VIII (Appendix), and F—XI (Appendix).

TaBLE 8.—Summary of laboratory results on commercial samples taken in D house
during 1912.

I. CHEMICAL RESULTS.

io Percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen.
Percentage of moisture.

Description of sam- | Num- Wet basis. Dry basis.
ple. ber.

Aver- | Mini- } Maxi- | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi-
age. | mum. |mum.| age. |mum.|mum.| age. | mum. | mum.

Wihitesi. So 405- sess 7 | 0.0004 | 0.0002 | 0.0006 | 0.0028 | 0.0016 | 0.0046 | 87.27] 86.96 87. 90
Wolksieeece ees Bae 13} .0029 | .0024} .0037 | .0070| .0054] .0083 | 57.79) 53.64 64. 06
Mixed egg.....----- 34 | ..0020] .0014] .0025; .0067 | .0046|) .0082} 69.46 | 68.33 71. 43

II. BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS.

Whites. Yolks. Mixed egg.
Organisms per gram.
Number Number Number
of Per cent. of Per cent. of Per cent.
samples. samples. samples.
0 to 10,000 inclusive................-.-.-.- 3 13.6 3 15.0 1 2.2
10,001 to 50,000 inclusive...............-.- 4 18. 2 3 TSOP Ewes Sees ce gee cree
50,001 to 100,000 inclusive.........- Pee ia 3 13.6 3 TRON ETA OS See
100,001 to 500,000 inclusive...............- 8 36.3 3 15.0 14 30. 4
500,001 to 1,000,000 inclusive..............- 3 13.6 5 25.0 15 32.6
1,000,001 to 5,000,000 inclusive............. 1 4.5 3 15.0 16 34.8
a) 2) I as mvs oh Gedes Pen ae ted Qos Aye tat ZO Be eee Ie 46) lees.
AV OLAS Oe ome ones Soe eae a it Jee Mem LL! 280, 000 480,000 1, 000, 000
WanlaoybhiN. 3 Awake ono dbSosoedoessdedaseons 100 200 5, 100
IME p ota opioyy We nea es ED TAN RN Se ea 1, 500, 000 2, 100, 000 3,300, 000
Whites. Yolks. Mixed egg.
Number of organisms per gram produc- N
+ . - umber Number Number
ing gas in lactose bile. of |Percent. of | Percent. of |Percent.
samples. samples. samples.
Mess than Oe ewer ener, Baws) eae 4 19.0 2 DUCE Nees Ue eal mre ete ict
SOA SRP arose uct Gn ae 8 Caen a UNS Pe 2 9.5 1 EL GH eoatoausal baaceadses
LO ee ea SCN NT LANAI re ecg sees. 1 STE NUE 3 14.3 4 22. 2 3 6.5
TEL eyed AMAA ge aR a CoG a A ROR A OURS le P 6 28. 6 5 27.7 il 23.9
TOOT DATA a LDCR, MASSON 4 19.0 2 11.1 15 32.6
TOOTOOO Bess N23 VEER CAE a ATA AE EY 2 9.5 2 11.1 15 32.6
PS OODLQOO PS od Jee as BUS TE ai gaia tae Batts Sih oh be 2 11.1 2 4.3
| MA Day 22Y I AR le RUIN need Dates Lei Gl STN PES Pangea 4 Mh ees sere 4G) 5 oeaoaseres

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 17

TaBLe 9.—Summary of laboratory results on commercial samples taken in E house
during 1912.
I. CHEMICAL RESULTS.

Percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen.

Num- : Percentage of moisture.
Description | Table | of Wet basis. Dry basis.
of sample. No. |sam-

ples.| Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi-

age. | mum. |mum.| age. | mum. |mum.| age. | mum. | mum.
Whites.....-. E-VI 3 | 0.0005 | 0.0005 | 0.0006 | 0.0044 | 0.0040 | 0.0049 | 87.84] 87.55 88. 31
WOKS: oS. 28? E-VI 4} .0035 | .0029) .0039 | .0083 .0072 | .0092 | 58.37 | 57.72 59. 56
Whole eggs...| E-IV 32 | .0021 .0016 | .0024 | .0075 | .0054} .0087 | 72.33 | 70. 23 74.17

Il. BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS.

Percent | Number of organisms per gram.

of
Number | S2™ples |
Description of sample. aebr of ae z
samples. Aaa Average. | Minimum, | Maximum.
5,000,000
per gram.
Liquid eggs:
Whites......-----------------+- E-vI 7 0} 730,000 1,000 | 1,800,000
Yolks ......--+---+++-+-+2--2---- E-VI 6 0| — 630,000 5,500 | 1,300,000
Whole eggs....----------------- E-IV 38 26.3 | 3,100,000 700,000 | 11,000,000
Desiccated whole eggs:
Flaky eggs-.------------------- E-I 48 20.8 | 3,600,000 65,000 | 20,000, 000
Wetlumps...---.-------------- ; H-Il 26 50.0 | 6,900,000 | 1,100,000 | 18,000, 000

TasLe 10.—Summary of laboratory results on commercial samples taken in F house
during 1912.
TI. CHEMICAL RESULTS.

Num- Percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen. Percentage of moisture.
Description | Table Der Wet basis. Dry basis.
of sample. No. | sam- Ae || eameal Aver- | Mini-’ |) Maxi-
ples. | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- | Aver- | Mini- | Maxi- | age. | mum. | mum.
age. | Mum. | mum.} age. | mum. | mum.
Whites. ...--- ah s0ee 3 | 0.0004 | 0.0002 | 0.0006 | 0.0031 | 0.0016 | 0.0046 | 87.13 | 87.01 87.36
Yolks. -.-----|\poyiT \ 6 | .0038 |) .0034 | .0045 | .0086 | .0075 | .0103 | 55.87} 53.74 57.25
Whole eggs.-.-| F-IX.. 5 | .0020} .0019| .0021 |} .0070| .0067) .0071 | 72.34 | 71.62 73.29
Sugared yolks F-Vit. 7} .0030} .0028) .0033 | .0062 | .0058 |} .0067 |) 51.12) 49.89 53. 07
Mixed eggs...|F-III..) 10] .0023) .0017 | .0027| .0071 | .0053 | .0082| 68.06 | 67.00 70. 81
Soft eges.....|F-VIII]| 11] .0023] .0018| .0031 | .0080| .0066 | .0098 |) 71.24) 67.04 72.99
Second-grade
enosnpeneee F-V...| 14] .0023 | .0008| .0040} .0108| .0052 | .0182} 78.20) 71.79 84.60

II. BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS.

a

Per cent | Number of organisms per gram.

of
samples
Ay) Table Number with
Description of sample. No f count Mini
i samples.| over Average. Seer Maximum,
5,000,000 ae
per
gram
Liquid eggs:
SWihtites eo kee te veu ad aC A Oi 10 10.0 | 1 220,000 1,000} 7,500,000
“i nea MM rivir. |} 28 | 10.71 | #550,000} 6,800 | 7, 500, 000
Whole eggs- -------------- g2ievees B-DXS .,: 9 0 1,300,000 | 340,000 3, 500, 000
Nice dee ose eee mne ene awl, 12 8.33 | 1,700,000} 470,000] 6,800,000
Soft eggs -.------------------------ F-VIII. 13 46.1 | 20,000,000 | 130,000} 80,000,000
Second-grade frozen eggs.......--- F-V.... 14 92.8 | 35,000,000 |4,200,000 | 92,000,000
Desiccated eggs:
Yolks.....----------+-+-----++---- F-II.... 15 66.6 | 41,000,000 71,000 | 110,000, 000
I BaEToN Gly geese a CN ea F-IV... 32 59.4 | 29,000,000 | 160,000 | 200, 000, 000

1 Two samples with exceptionally high counts not included in this average.
2 Three samples with exceptionally high counts not included in this average,

88374°—Bull, 224—16——2

18 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

GENERAL SUMMARY OF LABORATORY RESULTS ON COMMERCIAL
SAMPLES, 1912.

The bacteriological and chemical findings of the data obtained from commercial
samples of liquid egg taken in D, E, and F houses during 1912 are summarized in
Tables 11 and 12 and shown graphically in figures 2, 3, and 4.

The average number of bacteria per gram in the whites was 350,000, in the yolks
530,000, and in the whole and mixed eggs 1,800,000. The average amount of ammo-
niacal nitrogen on the dry basis was 0.0031 per cent in the whites, 0.0076 per cent in
the yolks, and 0.0074 per cent in the whole eggs.

A comparison of these results shows that the average count of the whites is about
half that of the yolks, and that the latter contained approximately one-third as many
bacteria as the whole and mixed eggs. The antiseptic action of the white may ex-
plain its lower bacterial content as compared with that of the yolks, whole eggs,
and mixed eges. It may be that the presence of soft eggs in the whole and mixed
eggs offers also an explanation of their higher bacterial content.

WHTES HW 350,000
YOLAS $30,000

LEAKING EGGS "fj 4.300,000

WHOLE ANDO
MIXED EGGS Bh 42c000

SOFT L6GS 20,000,000

SECOND GRADE
£GCS 35,000,000
TANNERS
FOCS 76,000,000

Fic. 2.—Diagram showing average number of organisms per gram in commercial samples taken
in D, E, and F houses in 1912.

It is interesting to note that the average count of the product prepared from leaking
eggs is not far different from that of the whole and mixed eggs. The average count of
the former was 1,300,000 and of the latter 1,800,000.1_ The amount of chemical de-
composition was no greater in the leaking eggs than in the whole and mixed egg.

The product prepared from soft eggs graded as fit for food purposes contained de-
cidedly more bacteria than the whole or mixed egg, but the amounts of ammoniacal
nitrogen in the two were not so very far apart. The average number of organisms
in the soft eggs numbered 20,000,000 per gram, as compared with 1,800,000 in the
whole and mixed egg, whereas the percentage of loosely bound nitrogen averaged
0.0080 on the dry basis in the former and 0.0074 in the latter. The bacteria in the
soft eggs were not present in sufficient numbers or for a sufficient length of time to
effect a decomposition of the egg material.

On the other hand, the second-grade frozen egg prepared from ‘‘beginning sours,”’
eges with light-green whites, etc., and the tanners’ egg were not only heavily in-

1 Weighted average of bacterial content of whole and mixed eggs given in Table 11.

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 19

fected but were decomposed. The average number of bacteria in the former was
35,000,000 per gram and in the latter 76,000,000. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen
was 0.0108 per cent on the dry basis in the second-grade ege and 0.0133 in the tanners’
egg. These comparative data, together with the practical observations of the eggs
used in the former product, show very conclusively that second-grade canned or dried
eggs are unfit for food purposes.

WHITES 2

YOLAS
LEAKING
£6685

WHOLE AND
MIXED EGGS
SOFT EGGS

SECOND GRADE |
EGGS

TANNERS VE
£6CS :

Fic. 3.—Diagram showing percentage of commercial samples with counts over 5,000,000 per gram
(samples taken in D, E, and F houses during 1912).

As the houses under observation during 1912 were three of the largest producers of
canned and dried eggs in the United States, it is instructive to compare the quality
of their output as indicated by its bacterial content with that offered for sale for food
during the two years previous to the investigation. Stiles and Bates found ina study
of 312 samples of frozen egg collected from different sources during the years of 1909 to
1911, inclusive, that 58.3 per cent contained over 10,000,000 bacteria per gram. Of
216 samples of liquid egg obtained from the cooperating “houses during this investi-
gation in 1912, only 1.4 per cent were found to contain over 10,000,000 per gram.

-OO04Y
wurres\ | 20O ae

-0020 Ye

LEAMING FEGS fale 0065 %

Snead ©

D DHOUSE -0067 Yo

“EYHOUSE .0O7/ Yo

rrote case | WELLE

(rer
ier
/UXED £GGS | pa 2226 0023 pemal.2023 76

|OO32 BARDS

YOLFCS .OOFE Yo

SOFT EGGS 0080 He

SECOND Age .0024 Ye
eee W08 %
TANNERS .004/ Vo
£GGS |.WB3 Yo

Fia. 4.—Diagram showing average percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen in commercial samples
taken in D, E, and F houses during 1912

loomaree
| moms 0023 meee

The maximum count in the three houses in 1912 was 11,000,000 per gram, while the
maximum found by Stiles and Bates was 1,180,000,000.

The difference in the bacterial contents of the samples of dried egg was equally as
marked. Stiles and Bates found that 83.3 per cent of the samples purchased on the
open market contained over 10,000,000 per gram. Only 6.3 per cent of 48 samples

1 poulles and Bates, Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 158,
p. 29,

20 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

taken in E house contained over this number, while in F house 55.3 per cent of the
samples were in excess of 10,000,000. ;

The maximum number per gram found in the samples of dried eggs taken in 1912
was 20,000,000 for E house and 200,000,000 for F house, and in the samples collected
between 1909 and 1911 by Stiles and Bates, 2,100,000,000. It is known in the case
of F house that the raw material was of good quality and that the bacteria increased
during desiccation. ;

The samples studied by Stiles and Bates represented not only frozen and dried egg
prepared from good eggs by the best methods known at the time, but also products
made from unfit raw material.

These comparative data speak well for the quality of the product prepared by the
new methods in the three houses under investigation.

TaBLE 11.—General summary of bacterial counts on commercial samples taken in D, E,
and F houses during 1912.

Per cent | Number of organisms per gram.

of sam-
Number | ples with
Description of sample. Table No. of counts

samples. over +s 2
5,000,000 Average. | Minimum. | Maximum,

per gram.
Liquid eggs:
AWiNitess 2 eee eS se aae Day 17, E- 39 2.6 1350, 000 100 7,500, 000
avs
IWOLKS 5 Ho eee eetesp aise = ai Pe sale 54 5.56 | 2 530,000 _ 200 7, 500, 000
> 21, F-VII.
Whole eggs......-.-------- E-IV, F-IX.. 47 21.28 | 2,700,000 340,000 | 11,000,000
Mixed egg from D house.-.} D-II.....-.--- 46 0 1, 000, 000 5, 100 3,300, 000
Mixed egg from F house....| F-III......-... 12 8.33 | 1,700,000 470, 000 6, 800, 000
Leaking eggs....---.------ Daag ee 53 5.88 | 1,300, 000 500 6, 000, 000
Soitiegess. Qsirgiily. Sethe PAVilisseae 13 46.14 | 20,000,000 130,000 | 80,000,000
Second-grade eggs.......-- Vase eho 14 92.8 | 35,000,000 | 4,200,000 | 92,000,000
Tammers’ egg ..-.-.-------- Lie ese Sees Ss 10 100.0 | 76,000,000 | 31,000,000 | 150, 000, 000

1 One sample with an exceptionally high count not included in this average.
2 Three samples with exceptionally high counts not included in this average.

TaBLe 12.—General summary of chemical results on commercial samples taken in D, E,
and F houses during 1912.

Percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen.

Num- Percentage of moist-
Descripti ber ol N= ARE cst ure.
escription of 5 5
sample. Table No. sam Wet basis. Dry basis.
ples.

Aver-| Mini- | Maxi-} Aver-| Mini- | Maxi-| Aver- | Mini- | Maxi-
age. |mum.|mum.| age. |mum.|mum.| age. |mum.| mum,

Whites.......- pa, 17, E- 13) 0.0004} 0.0002} 0. 0006) 0.0031} 0.0016] 0.0049} 87.37] 86.96] 88.31
PAIS
Wolksiso2ee. 22 D-IL, 17, E- 23) .0032) .0024) .0045} .0076) .0054) .0103} 57.88) 53.64] 64.06
21.
Sugared yolks. ToUNA Dali ine 7| .0030} .0028) .0033} .0062) .0058) .0067) 51.12) 49.89] 53.07
Whole eggs....| E-IV, F-IX .. 43) .0021) .0016} .0024) .0074) .0054) .0087| 72.33} 70.23) 74.17
Mined egg from} D-II.......... 34 .0020) .0014| .0025) .0067) .0046] .0082) 68.88] 68.33] 71.43
ouse.
Mee egg from| F-IIT......... 10} .0023) .0017) .0027) .0071} .0053) .0082] 68.06} 67.00) 70.81
ouse.
Leaking eggs... an E-VII, 37| .0020} .0013) .0028} .0065) .0047) .0080} 69.63) 64.12) 72.83
Soft eggs....... PAV ULL ee ie 11} .0023) .0018) .0031) .0080} .0066) .0098} 71.24) 67.04) 72.99
Second - grade | F-V........... 14) .0024) .0008} .0040) .0108] .0052} .0182) 78.20! 71.79} 84.60
eggs and
drippings.
Tanners? ege. i olweoMee nee ch oe. 9} .0041) .0021) .0069} .0133) .0074| .0219) 69.98) 65.06] 71.89
CONCLUSIONS.

1. Eggs commonly used for breaking stock by reputable firms are small and over-
sized eggs, dirty and cracked eggs, and shrunken eggs.

2. In order to check deterioration, the eggs should be held in chilled surroundings
before and during the process of candling, breaking, and mixing preparatory to freez-
ing or drying.

_ 3, All eggs, even during the spring months, should be candled previous to breaking.

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 21

4. In order to insure well-candled eggs going to the breaking room, the system of
candling should be such that the work of the individual candlers is checked.

5. In order to prevent waste, the eggs difficult to grade should be set aside by the
regular candlers to be recandled by an expert.

6. All eggs used in the preparation of frozen and dried eggs should be graded out
of the shell as well as by the candle, because certain heavily infected eggs, such as
sour eggs and eggs with green whites, can only be detected when broken.

7. In order to insure a good product, bacterial cleanliness and careful grading must
be obtained during the process of preparation.

8. The fingers of the breakers should be kept dry and clean.

9. In order to prevent waste and to insure good grading, not more than three eggs
should be broken into a cup before emptying.

Pe Good eggs should not be saved when a bad egg has been broken into a cup with
em.

11. White and yolk are contaminated less by the mechanical than the shell method
of separation. Only clean eggs should be separated by the iatter process.

12. The percentage of ‘‘rots’’ rejected on candling and the organisms in the liquid
egg saved increases as the season advances.

13. Canned eggs with the majority of samples having counts of less than 5,000,000
bacteria per gram, and with 100,000 B. coli or less can be prepared in the producing
section from regular breaking stock, provided strict cleanliness and careful grading have
been observed. The ammoniacal nitrogen will very seldom be over 0.0024 on the wet
basis or 0.6087 on the dry basis.

14. A second-grade frozen product prepared from eggs showing incipient decompo-
sition to the senses, such as “‘beginning sours” and eggs with green whites, are not
only heavily infected but chemically decomposed. These eggs are unfit for food

urposes.
i 15. Only two grades of canned eggs should be prepared when grading eggs out of
the shell, namely, food egg and tanners’ egg.

16. Leaking eggs handled on special trays between candling and breaking room and
graded carefully are as fit for breaking as regular breaking stock.

17. Tanners’ egg contains markedly larger numbers of bacteria and larger amounts
of ammoniacal nitrogen than does food egg.

18. The control of the supply of air to drying belts to prevent saturation from the
liquid egg is an important factor in preventing multiplication of bacteria in the
product during the process of desiccation.

19. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen in desiccated egg is not a reliable index
to the quality of the raw material from which it is prepared, because this substance is
volatilized unevenly during the process of desiccation.

20. The following eggs should be discarded during grading: Black, white, mixed
and sour rots, eggs with green whites, eggs with stuck yolks, musty eggs, moldy eggs,
‘*blood rings,’’ eggs containing diffuse blood, and eggs with abnormal odor.

GLOSSARY.

**Seconds” are small and oversized eggs, dirty eggs, and shrunken eggs.

‘“‘Teakers” are eggs with shell and inner membranes broken.

A “blood ring” is a fertile egg in which the embryo has developed sufficiently to
show blood.

A soit egg is an egg the yolk of which appears whole before the candle, but breaks
when opened.

A “‘strong-odor” egg is an ege which has an eggy odor.

An “‘ofi” egg is an egg which has a slightly abnormal odor.

A “beginning sour” is an egg showing the first signs of the odor characteristic of
sour eggs.

“Mrred egg” is a product prepared by adding yolks to whole egg.

“Drip” is the liquid egg, mostly white, which collects in the bottom of the break-
ing tray while eggs are being broken.

Second-grade egg is a product prepared from ‘‘drip” and incipient forms of deteri-
orated eggs, such as ““beginning sours,’’ eggs with light-green whites, etc.

‘Tanners’ egg” is a product made from the rejects of the candling and breaking
rooms, minus eggs with a bad odor. It is used, as the name implies, for tanning
leather.

“Flaky egg,’’ as opposed to ‘‘wet lumps,’’ is the more thoroughly dried portion of

coming from the drying belts.
ork *‘churn” is a device for breaking yolks and for mixing yolk and whole egs

APPENDIX.

DETAILS OF EXPERIMENTS IN EACH COOPERATING HOUSE, 1911 AND
1912.

CONDITIONS OBSERVED IN B HOUSE IN 1911.

THE BREAKING Room.

In B house a small room, about 12 by 12 feet, constructed entirely of concrete,
screened, and on the fourth floor of a modern creamery, was set aside for egg break-
ing. It was not refrigerated. It was clean.

The table used in this house is shown in figure 5. It was covered with zinc, had a
shelf at the side to support the egg case, and a hole in the middle of the table through
which the shells were thrown into a bucket below. At the back of the table, to the
left of the breaker, stood a pail of water. This was used to wash the saucer and the
hands of the_breaker after a bad egg. The saucer was not dried, consequently it
carried water to the shelf on which it rested, keeping the latter continually sloppy,
and occasionally drops fell into the containers below. One saucer only was pro-
vided, hence it was in constant use. This type of breaking outfit was seen in a
number of establishments.

eae!
—
Ci
qty
____ i mm I =
a LZ
Sern oo

Fig. 5.—Table and breaking outfit (B house, 1911).

The eggs in this house were separated by the shell method when whites and yolks
were desired; whole eggs went into the saucer. In the shell-separating method—
that is, the usual housewifely fashion of tipping the egg back and forth until the white
is drained off—the white ran into a saucer, the yolk was dumped into a small yolk
bucket, and the white from the saucer into its bucket. The whites were collected
in containers of various sizes, according to the wishes of the trade, and stored at one

22

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 23

side of the room from the beginning of the work in the morning until noontime, when
it was removed to the freezer; and again, from the beginning of the afternoon until
the close of the day, when a second trip was made to the freezer.

The yolks were put into a 40-quart milk can. This at noontime and again at night
was emptied into a large straight-sided can provided with an ordinary creamery fau-
cet. The yolk was poured into this churn through a large mesh wire sieve to remove
scraps of eggshell. It was then stirred with a paddle in the churn until the yolks
were thoroughly broken and mixed, or the whites and yolks of the whole eggs made
into a uniform liquid. The containers were then placed below the faucet of the
churn and the egg run into them. The churn was washéd at noontime after it was
used and again at night.

The eggs were chilled before breaking, but their long wait after removal from the
shell in this hot room effectually undid the good which previous chilling does to a
perishable product.

SOURCES OF BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION.

In order to determine the bacterial cleanliness of this method and equipment, each
obvious factor was tested by laboratory methods for the amount of contamination.

Plate I, figure 1, represents the number of colonies which developed on a 4-inch
petri plate from one drop of water taken from the saucer after throwing away a bad egg
and washing in running hot water. It is obvious, from the large number of colonies
developing, that this method of cleaning the receiver is not sufficient to remove the
organisms furnished by the undesirable egg. Plate I, figure 2, shows the number of
bacteria in one drop of water which had collected on the shelf holding the wet saucer.
Here, again, is a rich source of bacterial contamination of the final product. As one
would expect, there are many more organisms in this drop of drip than were obtained
from the saucer itself.

The picture of the breaking equipment shows a shallow metal tray that was placed
under the egg pails for the sake of cleanliness. This tray gradually collected drippings
of water from the saucer and its shelf and of egg which ran down the sides of the pails
when their contents were emptied into the milk can; consequently, there were even
more organisms in the liquid that accumulated in the tray than there were on either
the saucer or the shelf, and when the pails were emptied this liquid sometimes dropped
into the final receiver. One drop of it was examined with the result shown in Plate I,
figure 3. The organisms as they developed on a 4-inch petri plate were so numerous
that it was impossible to distinguish them as individual colonies. Each step of this
process added more and more bacteria to the product, though as carried out it was
even cleaner than the usual kitchen methods. The breaker had no means of detecting
either the source or the amount of the infection that his routine caused.

The bacteria on finger tips wet with egg are shown in Plate I, figure4. To obtain
this preparation, the breaker touched her five wet finger tips against the bottom of a
dry, sterile petri plate. Agar was then poured in, shaken to distribute the organisms
evenly, and incubation allowed to proceed. The results indicate that the hands of
the egg breaker are also a source of infection which, if possible, must be overcome.

COMPARISON OF THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCT WITH EXPERIMENTAL SAMPLES.

This house did not buy eggs especially for breaking, but used breaking stock sorted
from their current receipts. The supply of eggs going to the breaker while the house
was under observation was of exceptionally good quality. The bacterial count and
chemical analysis of eight samples, including whole egg, yolks and whites, are given
in Table 13, Part I. The odor and appearance of all the samples were excellent.
The amount of loosely bound nitrogen is low, indicating that, in the shell at least,
the eggs were of good quality. But the number of bacteria in the final product
shows a wide variation, which can not, apparently, be attributed to the eggs. The
minimum count for egg white is less than 1,000, and the maximum is 6,500,000 per
gram; the minimum for yolks is 2,000,000 and the maximum is 4,800,000 per gram.
The number of presumptive B. coli varied from 100 to 100,000 per gram.

An effort was made to eliminate the sources of contamination already described by
modifying the equipment and more effectually cleaning the apparatus soiled by eggs
that were discarded. Instead of the apparatus in use in this house, there was sub-
stituted the breaking outfit pictured and described on page 11 of Circular 98, Bureau
of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture. Trays holding pails for
liquid egg were discarded. Tissue paper was provided on which io dry finger tips.
Pails and cans, such as were commonly used, were retained; but all were washed in
water at 160° F. and held in that water for five minutes or steamed.

BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

24

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PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 25

There were a sufficient number of knives and sherbet cups to permit each soiled
piece to be sterilized for fifteen minutes before being again put into service. The
apparatus was considered soiled as soon as it had come into contact with an egg
that had to be discarded. Current breaking stock furnished the eggs. The results of
the laboratory examination of the experimentally prepared product are shown in
Part II of Table 13. In order to comprehend their true significance, the bacterial
findings obtained must be compared with those found in commercial sample No. 455.
The eggs used in these two series were not only from the same lot but from the same
cases, the experimental samples coming from one side and the commercial samples
being taken from the other, in the routine fashion of the house. Their similarity is
further confirmed by the chemical analyses, which are practically identical. The
number of bacteria in the experimental samples are uniformly less than 1,000 per
gram, and the organisms of the coli group are greatly reduced in number, not exceeding
100 per gram, while the corresponding figures for the commercial sample are 4,300,000
bacteria and 100,000 B. colt.

Part III of Table 13 gives the results obtained when the equipment was washed
and held in hot water at 160° F. before use. When contaminated by a bad egg it was
not used again until it had been washed and sterilized. The finger tips were kept dry
asbefore. The number of bacteria per gram is, practically speaking, reduced to a
negligible quantity, and the presumptive coli organisms are also practically excluded.
To emphasize what such cleanliness means the counts should be compared with the
commercial samples Nos. 459-461. Here again the bacteria per gram ran over 4,000,000
in the case of the yolks, and the B. coli ran as high as 100,000. These eggs, as before,
were from the opposite half of the cases furnishing the experimental samples. Such
a demonstration, confirmed by many others, showed that the best of eggs, if handled
in dirty utensils, would give a product containing many bacteria.

CONDITIONS OBSERVED IN C HOUSE IN 1911.

The equipment used in C house in the preparation of the egg for freezing was also
of interest, because it varied in character for almost every breaker. The fancies of
the individual girls were more apt to determine the kind of utensils used than any
pe perienced judgment concerning fitness for the work to be done. Sometimes 20
girls were employed, but there was no discipline. The forewoman was the social
associate of the girls, and many were the interruptions while town doings were dis-
cussed. The whole atmosphere of the breaking room was one of easy-going self
satisfaction.

THE BREAKING Room anD EQUIPMENT.

The egg-breaking room was long and narrow. Two windows on the outer side wall
were screened, as was also the door. The floor was of wood for rather more than half
its length, the balance being of concrete and slightly lower in level.

A long table made of wood and covered with zinc stretched from end to end of the
room. At this table, facing the light, the girls sat. About 18 inches above the table
and running along the wall and across the windows was a galvanized-iron gutter about
5 inches in diameter and about 2 inchesdeep. Over this were water faucets so placed
that they could be reached without the girls leaving their seats, and in this stream of
cold water the girls rinsed fingers and utensils. About half way down the room
breaking the table line, was a wooden trough supplied with hot and cold water and

-used for the general cleaning and washing.

At the two ends of the room were large galvanized-iron cans, supplied with stirrers
and creamery faucets and called churns. In these the eggs were mixed before being
put into their final carriers.

The girls were using heavy walled glass tumblers, tin cups, agateware cups, sherbet
glasses, and ordinary china teacups, depending entirely upon the preference of the
worker and the receptacle available. Each girl had a small tray—tin, agate, or
black japanned ware—on which she placed the egg receptacles. She also had a
group of agateware buckets, holding about 3 quarts each, into which she emptied
her smaller receivers. These buckets were dumped into the churns, or, in the case
of egg white, directly inte 30-pound pails, in which they were frozen. When the
study of C house was made it was putting out egg white, egg yolk (sugared and un-
sugared),and a first, second, and third grade of whole egg. The third grade was known
as ‘‘tanners’,’’ and was not for food purposes.

26 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Rovutiwe oF Eee BREAKING.

All the eggs coming to the breaking room were candled, but the candlers were apt
to put in doubtful eggs for the breakers to grade, rather than take the time and trouble
to decide in the candling room whether they were or were not fit for food. All the
eges were chilled, but the breaking room was not, hence there was a profuse sweating
of shells during much of the egg-breaking season.

The girls removed the fillers and flats, layer by layer, as they reached them, and
took several eggs at one time, holding them in the right hand, and pushing up one at
a time for shell cracking and emptying. Of course, dirty eggs, sweating also, imme-
diately resulted in badly soiled hands. The eggs were cracked on the edge of a
cup, glass, or whatever type of receptacle the breaker happened to have. Generally,
it was not suited to cracking an egg because it mashed and splintered the sheils
instead of making a clean cut. Having cracked the shell, the girl was supposed to
hold it over the glass and determine, by the appearance of the egg at the crack, whether
it could or could not be separated into white and yolk, or to which grade of egg it
belonged. If it could be separated, the white was drained off, housewife fashion,
into one receptacle, and the yolk dropped into another. If the egg was too ‘‘soft”
to separate, but odorless, it went into first-grade whole eggs. If it was a little ‘‘off,”
or ‘‘strong,’’ or a ‘‘beginning sour,’’ it went into second-grade whole eggs. The tan-
ners’ egg was composed of white rots, which were not too malodorous, musty eggs,
moldy eggs, eggs with a bloody white, and blood-ring eggs.

The forewoman gave some instructions regarding the grading of eggs by appearance,
odor, taste, etc. In practice, every girl graded according to her own sweet will.
Hence, the output of the different breakers was very uneven. In the long run,
judging by observation, about as many firsts went into seconds as there were seconds
put into firsts.

When some of the egg yolk, during the process of separation, ran into the tumbler
of ege white, it was fished out by means of a spoon, or, more commonly, by a piece of
egg shell. If an objectionable yolk got into the yolk cup, or some of a bad egg into
a food-egg grade, the entire contents of the receptacle was supposed to go into the
bucket indicated by the character of the egg last entering. In practice, however,
the breaker used a spoon or an egg shell to take out as much of the objectionable egg
as she could see and quite disregarded its presence when grading. The remnants left
were a fine source of contamination and foci for bacterial troubles later on. The girls
in C house used cups and tumblers large enough to hold from 6 to 10 eggs. Many
times it was the last ege required to fill the vessel that was off grade. The instinctive
desire on the part of the breaker to procure as much high-grade product for her
employer as possible, and her reluctance to swell the amount in her tanners’ bucket,
will override all instructions forbidding the removal of objectionable eggs as just
described. The only way to overcome the habit is to have the first receiver so small
that it cannot accommodate more than two or three eggs.

CLEANLINESS.

The problem of cleanliness assumed a different aspect in C house, because of the
running cold water to which every girl had easy access. Laboratory methods were
called in to determine the efficacy of frequent rinsing in cold water with the supple-
mentary cleaning in hot water twice a day in removing the bacteria of the objec-
tionable egg, or other dirt, from hands and utensils.

At noontime, after the usual cleaning in hot water, a number of the cups, tumblers,
etc., were tested for bacterial contamination. In every case, abundant evidence of
insufficient cleansing was observed. Plate II, figure 1, shows the growth resulting
ie the edge of a tumbler was just touched against a sterile agar film on a petri
plate.

To gain some idea of the number of organisms adhering to the vessels, a drop of
water from each of a number of tumblers was plated as is customary when colonies
are tobe counted. A glass which had received yolks gave an average of 630 organisms
to the drop; one that had been used for whites gave 570; the glass that had received
the tanners’ egg gave 5,900 per drop. That the pails into which the eggs were first
emptied were prolific carriers of organisms was also proved. Plating in this case gave
2,600,000 per cc, equivalent to 20 drops. That more bacteria would adhere to the
agateware pails than to china or glass cups was to be expected, because of the greater
roughness of the former. .

It was desirable, also, to determine to what extent the fingers of these girls passed
on the bacteria of rejected eggs to those that had but few. Plate II, figure 2, shows

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 27

the number of colonies which developed when a sterile petri plate was touched with
the tips of five fingers that had just been washed because they were wet with ege—
but not with objectionable egg. For comparison with this, Plate II, figure 3, is
given. Here we have the result of breaking a tanners’ egg. Even though the hands
were washed in running cold water, the mere touch of finger tips gave so many colo-
nies that they were innumerable.

The lessons here are quite plain. First, ordinary washing of either hands or utensils
is not sufficient to keep them, bacterially, fit for egg breaking; and, second, when bad
eggs, unfit for food, are broken the removal of the hordes of bacteria which they carry
becomes an extremely difficult task.

CoMPARISON OF THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCT WiTH EXPERIMENTAL SAMPLES.

A number of samples of the product of C house were taken during the months of
July and August, 1911. The bacterial content of the whites were, on the whole, the
lowest; yolk was considerably higher, and the whole egg the highest. The greater
number of the routine samples of whole egg were of the second grade. (See Table
C-I, Appendix, p. 64.) It will also be seen that some of the so-called second-grade
egg is of quite as good, if not better, quality than the first grade—a result which
was to be expected from the loose methods of grading.

The glass cups, adjustable knives, and wire-screened tray, described on page 11 of
Circular 98, were taken to C house in order to determine the character of the eggs used
as indicated by cleanly methods of handling. A supply of live steam in a near-by
creamery was utilized to sterilize the apparatus. Part I of Table 14 shows the results
obtained from eggs with cracked shells, when sterilized apparatus was used, and,
under ‘‘Commercial samples’’ are shown similar eggs broken in very cleanly fashion
in the apparatus belonging to the house. The second-grade, commercial, whole egg is
decidedly richer in organisms than is the first-grade whole egg (9,200,000 in one case
and 4,900,000 in the other), but because the number of samples is so small but little
stress can be laid on the findings. The higher bacterial count for the first-grade whole
egg of the experimental samples is probably due to the fact that soft eggs without
bad odor but which would not separate were used—an interesting side hight on the
results of errorsin grading. Considering the whites and yolks only, the count of the
commercial samples varied from 310,000 per gram in the white to 1,600,000 in the
yolk, as compared with 810,000 and 770,000 in the experimental series. When the
experiment was repeated, using seconds with sound shells instead of cracked eggs,
all the bacterial counts were decidedly lower.

?

BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

28

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PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 29
CONDITIONS OBSERVED IN E HOUSE DURING TWO CONSECUTIVE YEARS.

SEASON oF 1911.

This firm erected a building a few years ago especially to put up evaporated eggs.
Reirigeration was installed, but the business soon outgrew the supply. However, the
eggs were put into the chill room as soon as received, and usually they were candled 24
hours later.

THE BREAKING ROOM.

The room in which the eggs were broken was about 75 feet long, 27 feet wide, and
11 feet high, and was on the second floor. It opened at one end into a room where
the finished product was being put into packages and at the other into a small room
where the liquid egg was held in a creamery tank, cooled by a brine-chilled stirring
machine until it was needed to replenish the supply going to the drying belts. The
temperature in the drying room was often 110° F. or more. Wood partitions sepa-
sod the drying from the breaking room; hence it was impossible to keep the latter
cool.

The outer wall of the breaking room was brick; the partition walls were of wood.
A row of windows, high up, were always wide open for light and air. The ceiling was
high, and with open beams. The floors had calked seams, such as are used in meat-
packing houses. The breaking room is pictured in Plate LV.

At one end of the room was a long sink with hot and cold water, where all the utensils
were washed. Tables extended along each side of the room. These were covered
with zinc and supported the cases of eggs and individual breaking equipment. The
eggs were broken on an apparatus (Pl. IX, fig. 2) consisting of a wedge-shaped knife sup-
ported on a half-inch iron pipe which was screwed by a flange to the table top. A
funnel-shaped metal collar surrounded the knife and discharged the leakage from the
eges into the shell tubs. This collar was added late in the season and served to keep
tables and floors far cleaner than they had previously been. There was still, how-
ever, a great waste of egg from leakage.

The girls broke from 13 to 24 eggsa minute. As itis impossible to grade at this rate,
good eggs were sometimes discarded and bad eggs were sometimes used.

The number of bad eggs going to the breakers was unnecessarily increased because
the candling was not accurate. The candlers simply ‘‘flashed” eggs in front of the
light and threw them, pell-mell, into the cases, so that a large number of eggs with
sound shells were made into cracked eggs and those with cracked shells were wrecked.
The extra work and unnecessary loss that such poor candling entailed in the breaking
room was shown, for example, by one breaker ato found 9 bad eggsin one case. These
she threw away and with them 24 good ones. She also made nine trips the entire length
cf the room, to get clean pans, since instructions were to take a pan to be washed after
it had received a tanners’ egg.

The liquid egg was collected in buckets. Those, in turn, were emptied into a
large churn through a wire screen. Rubber hose led from the churn to the long
creamery tank before mentioned. This hose was dirty and could not be cleaned. It
was replaced by sanitary piping, which permitted of sterilization in every part, just as
soon as the actual condition of the rubber hose was made known to the management.

From the tanks the egg was led by a gate valve into buckets; the buckets were
carried to galvanized-iron tanks which supplied the feeding trough of drying machines
of the belt type. The belt was constructed in the usual way. The temperature was
about 160° F., and the time required was from one to one and one-half hours for one
run. Flaky egg was the result. It was put up generally in barrels, or in small tin
cans, for household use. Two grades were made—one for food purposes, the other for
tanning leather.

SOURCES OF BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION.

Observation would indicate that the method of cleaning utensils in use in E house
failed to cleanse, bacteriologically speaking. The facts that the laboratory revealed
are indicated in Plate III, figures 1, 2,and 3. The importance of the findings in rela-
tion to the bacterial content of the product is emphasized by the fact that the tests
were made at noontime, when an especially thorough washing was given to insure
cleanliness during the afternoon.

The breakers paid no attention to cleanliness of hands, so far as the egg itself was
concerned. Their hands were constantly wet with good egg, and bad and dirty shells
were handled regardlessly.

30 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Touching the tips of such fingers very lightly against a petri plate containing agar
showed that their hands were far from clean, as is seen in Plate III, figure 4. The
growth on the plate itself was shown the girls and was a revelation to them.

The lack of knowledge of the fundamentals of bacterial cleanliness is perfectly
pupae from the efforts of the management to conduct their business in a cleanl
fashion. The other appliances coming in contact with the liquid egg were just as i
suited, bacteriologically speaking, to the work they had to do, yet every effort was
being made, so far as the knowledge of those in charge went, to throw away bad eggs
and to put out only a high-class product.

COMPARISON OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCT WITH EXPERIMENTAL SAMPLES.

Table 15 gives the laboratory findings on the liquid egg prepared under the con-
ditions just described. The minimum number of organisms obtained was 3,300,000
per gram; the maximum was 23,000,000. The number of gas producers in lactose bile
medium ran from 100,000 to at least 1,000,000. In many cases these results are too low,
because dilutions were not made in sufficient number to estimate higher counts. The
loosely bound nitrogen, calculated on the fresh material, was from 0.0020 to 0.0030 per
cent.

All these samples were intended for human food. The tanners’ egg which was being
made is shown in samples Nos. 327 and 484. There is a noteworthy leap upward in
both bacterial content and loosely bound nitrogen.

This series of examinations in Table 15 does more than give the condition of the
final product in that it illustrates to a certain extent how the organisms increased as
the egg went from one container to another. The first of each of the paired exami-
nations represents egg which had been in contact with the hands of the breaker, the
knife blade, the little agateware pan, and the agateware bucket. The second sample
represents the same egg after it had been strained, thoroughly churned to mix white
and yolk, and allowed to pass through the rubber hose for storage in the large tank.

Part II of Table 15 traces the liquid egg from the storage tank to the drying belt
and gives the final outcome after all the manipulations. During the drying process
the water content of the liquid egg isreduced to one-third or less of its original amount.
Likewise the number of organisms is reduced, though not in such marked propor-
tion. It must be remembered that bakers dissolve this dried egg in water; hence,
on the liquid basis it would have only about one-third as many organisms per gram
as are shown on the dry basis. The lowest bacterial count for the dried egg was
found to be 3,700,000, the highest 17,000,000, with an average of 9,200,000 per gram.
The loosely bound nitrogen in the dried product is considerably less than in the
liquid egg. Undoubtedly some of this form of nitrogen is driven off by the heat and
aeration in the process of drying; therefore this substance can not be taken as an
index of quality on the same basis as in the liquid product.

In order to determine the effect of breaking the same eggs that were being used in
E house, in what might be termed an approximately bacterially clean fashion, the
experiments reported in Table 16 were made. The apparatus used for this purpose
was that described on page 27. It was cleaned by washing in running water, then
heated in a steam box for 20 minutes. The technique of breaking was as given on
page 23 for B house. The results are given as samples Nos. 485 and 486 in Table 16,
cracked and dirty eggs. Samples Nos. 489 and 503 were from the same lots of eggs,
but were broken by one of the women in the regular fashion. The difference in
bacterial content is astonishing (11,000,000 in the commercial product as compared
with less than 1,000 bacteria in the experimental samples in the case of dirty eggs),
but the loosely bound nitrogen is practically the same, indicating about the
same amount of aging in the shell.

Sample No. 488 (clean eggs) was broken by the same operator who prepared the
other experimental samples, but in this case the usual equipment of the house was
used and the work was done as nearly as possible as the regular breakers did it. It
may be compared with sample No. 487, which was taken from the same lot of eggs
and was the work of an egg breaker employed in E house. It will be seen that like
equipment and methods produced like results, whether the operator was an egg breaker
or a bacteriologist.

on

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS.

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BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

32

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PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 33

Season oF 1912, Arrer REMODELING.

This plant was practically rebuilt so far as the space used for candling, breaking,
and storage of eggs was concerned. All the rooms involved in handling the eggs
from their receipt until they went to the drying machine were refrigerated.

The increased supply of refrigeration was used to chill all incoming eggs at least 24
hours before candling; to keep the candling room at about 55° F.; to maintain a tem-
perature of 60° F. in the breaking room; to keep the liquid egg at a temperature below
40° F. while holding it to supply the drying machines; and, finally, to freeze the
liquid egg, if it was to go into commerce hard frozen.

CONSTRUCTION.

Breaking room.—The construction of the breaking room was materially changed.
It was insulated with 2 inches of cork and was of reinforced concrete construction
except the ceiling, which consisted of two layers of tongued-and-grooved 3-inch
boards. The windows were closed with four panes of glass for insulation, with a prism
glass on the outside to evenly distribute the light. The walls and ceiling were finished
with white waterproof enamel. The wash room was separate from the breaking room,
and a vestibule protected the latter from atmospheric temperatures. The creamery
tank was in the opposite end of the breaking room and was not partitioned off. Brine
pipes fastened to the ceiling and an incoming supply of chilled air furnished the
necessary refrigeration and ventilation. The general appearance of the room is
shown in Plates V and VI.

Wash room.—The room in which the cleansing and sterilizing of the egg-breaking
apparatus was performed was also of cement construction, well lighted and with floor
drains. (Pl. XI, fig. 1.)

Freezer. —The freezer was constructed with Drie ype racks on which the cans of
liquid egg were set. These racks, through which the brine circulated, greatly expe-
dited the freezing of the egg. (PI. XIII, fig. 1.)

Candling room.—The candles, which had two holes, were remodeled so that the
oval openings against which the eggs rested were of such a size and the edges so beveled
that the egg entirely closed the space. A tungsten electric bulb was placed behind
each hole. As the eggs were graded they were placed in galvanized-iron buckets
holding 12 dozen each. In the bottom of each bucket was a woven-wire screen
supported by a l-inch galvanized-iron rim. The eggs rested on this screen, which
served as a cushion, so lessening breakage and offering a protection from the leakage
which might collect in the bottom of the pail. The outfit of one candler is shown in
Plate IX, figure 1.

When filled, the buckets were transported to the breaking room on a mechanical
carrier, consisting of two endless belts connected by crossbars on which the buckets
hung by loose hooks, so that they were always upright. This arrangement obviated
the necessity of taking trucks into the breaking room.

EQUIPMENT.

Breaking room.—The tables used in the breaking room were covered with zinc and
were supported on legs of galvanized-iron pipe. (Pls. Vand VI and PI. IX, fig. 3.)
No wood was exposed. Four holes, about 5 inches in diameter, were placed at equal
distances along the middle of the table. Into these holes galvanized-iron funnels
were fitted, and served to conduct the shells into the galvanized-iron tubs which were
set below them on the floor. One such funnel was used by two breakers. On the
end of the table a frame, constructed of galvanized-iron pipe, was used to support the
trays which held the sterilized cups and breaking knives. Under this tray, on the
table itself, was a second tray used to collect the soiled apparatus. (Pl. V.)

The breaking outfit consisted of a rectangular cast-iron base into which were soldered
two uprights, one of which terminated in a ring to hold the cup, the other in a
flat plate with two buttons for holding the breaking knife. This Ges was about 4
inches long and about 1 inch wide. A white enameled pan rested on the base to catch
the liquid egg which dropped off the breaking knife. The cup used was of annealed
glass with a smooth surface inside and out and held four eggs. The construction, in
detail, of this breaking equipment is shown in figure 6. The eggs were emptied from
the shells into the cups, which were, in turn, emptied into a 12-quart enameled pail.

A galvanized-iron box for holding the tissue paper used for drying fingers is shown
in Plate IX, figure 3. These boxes were hung on the pails containing the shell eggs.

Wash room.—The wash room (Pl. XI, fig. 1) was equipped with metal throughout.
It contained two round-bottomed sinks, two sterilizers, and gas-pipe shelves to hold
pails, trays, etc., after sterilization. The sinks were supplied with an abundance of
hot and cold water.

88374°—Bull. 224—16——3

iP

34 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The sterilizers were built of galvanized iron in two compartments, and had shelves
formed of perforated pipes which supplied the steam. A flue from the top of the
box was connected with a damper and a fan in order to remove the steam quickly
after the sterilization was finished. A thermometer, especially constructed for such
work, was a necessary part of the apparatus. One sterilizer was used for cups exclu-
sively and was supplied with wire-bottomed trays which rested on the steam pipes
and were made to fit the space. The other sterilizer was used for buckets, shell tubs,
and other bulky equipment. An auxiliary wash room with a sink and a sterilizer
was a part of the drying-room equipment.

CONDITIONS PREVAILING EVERY THIRD WEEK FROM APRIL TO SEPTEMBER.
Visit No. 1 (April 22 to 27).

There were seven visits of one week each made to E house during the season of 1912.
At the time of the first visit the refrigerating machinery was not in operation, but the
temperature in the candling room and the breaking room was from 60° F. to 65° F.,

due to the cool weather.
Steam was plentiful and the
sterilizers and wash room
were in operation. The
breaking room had _ the
equipment already de-
scribed, with the exception
of the new breaking outfit.
A makeshift was used while
waiting until the new forms
of apparatus arrived. It was
sloppy; therefore, the girls
were forced to use cloths to
wipe tables, cups, hands,
and, sometimes, the floor.
These rags were always wet
and always unsightly. <A
bacterial examination of the
water squeezed from 12 of
them showed that they were
carrying germs to the num-
ber of 150,000,000 to each
cubic centimeter. Until the
improved apparatus was ob-
tained it was decided to
Fic. 6.—Egg-breaking outfit (E house, 1912). substitute clean pieces of
cheesecloth for the indis-
criminate rags and to wash and sterilize them twice daily. The breakers were
provided with clean white gowns and caps. Each girl was given a clean towel every
morning. :

All apparatus which came in contact with the egg was sterilized after washing, and
laboratory tests showed that it was free from bacteria, with the exception of the troughs
and brushes used to feed and spread the egg on the drying belt. This difficulty was
partially corrected by lengthening the period of steaming, and plans were made to
obtain a duplicate set of these devices to permit of sterilizing after each run.

The supply of eggs.—During this period the egg supply of this house consisted of
dirty and cracked eggs sorted by other firms from lots going into storage. It was
the custom in this house to candle all incoming stock, regardless of the season. The
candlers found a sufficiently large number of incubator rots to warrant this extra
grading before submitting the eggs to the breakers. At this season the eggs were
purchased on the ‘“‘case-count”’ basis. :

Breaking-room routine.—There were employed at this time 15 girls, with an average
output of 14 cases per girl per day of 10 hours. Very few of these girls had been egg
breakers. It was Hesmed best to instruct from the start rather than to remodel objec-
tionable fixed habits. A foreman accustomed to ruling girls, but ignorant of the
business of egg breaking, was in charge.

. The girls were drilled in the essentials of bacterial cleanliness as well as in the
grading of the eggs. They were instructed to wash their hands after a bad egg and
to dry them before returning to work. While working, fingers were to be kept dry
by means of tissue paper. The aim, however, was so to handle the eggs that the

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 35

fingers did not become wet. Inexperienced or inefficient breakers always have wet
hands. The instructions regarding clean, dry hands were illustrated by making
finger prints on agar plates. The bacterial growth resulting was especially useful in
showing the breakers the persistence of the organisms characterizing green white
eges, which were plentiful at this time. The routine of cracking, turning, opening,
and draining the shells was that described when discussing D house in 1912 (p. 58).

Eggs at this time cost 18 cents per dozen. It was necessary, therefore, to prevent
waste as far as possible. Constant supervision enforced the regulation to turn the
eggs upward quickly after cutting to prevent leakage, and to hold the two halves
of the shell long enough to drain thoroughly. Another form of waste was due to the
fact that 4 eggs were put into the cup before emptying; therefore 3 good eggs were
sometimes lost because of | bad one. The management feared that too much time
would be lost if the girls emptied the cups after each 3 eggs instead of 4. Obser-
vations made with a split second timer showed that it required 26 seconds longer to
open a dozen eggs when breaking 3 instead of 4 eggs to a cup before emptying. By
interpolation, this difference amounts, on a case basis, to only 1.3 minutes. This
extra time was considered negligible when compared with the number of good eggs
saved if the cup was emptied when it contained 3 eggs.

Other observations made amply confirm the foregoing statement. For example,
during one-half day, there came to the breaking room 195 bad eggs. These were
mixed by the breakers, when breaking 4 eggs to the cup, with 301 good eggs, which
were, of course, discarded. At 18 cents a dozen this loss, during one-half day,
amounted to $4.50. It would seem desirable, to prevent waste and contamination
as well as to insure good grading, to work toward means by which each egg shall be
handled separately.

TABLE 17.—Contamination of good eggs with green-white eggs (E-house, 1912). (Commer-
cially prepared in packing house by breaking 4 eggs per cup and endeavoring to ‘‘ pour
off” the bad egg.)

Bacteria per gram on Gas-pro-
pie agar incubated ducing ica erinis
pee Date of col- at— bacteria * Size of
Sample No. Visit. tection organisms
‘i per gram sample.
in lactose | Pet stam. y
020° C. 87° C. bile.
ALGGe a2 tee aie chaste IB) Sea] AOR APP sahsoe 26, 000, 000 750, 000 10,000 |.-......-... 2 quarts.
AD TA Cone eke ID ieee MIEN; oeocenoe 1, 200, 000 500, 000 10,000 | 0 in 10,000 | 4 eggs.
ASO Seis ciate sania ss 1D) ilasal| Wehy Bo sccscbe 4, 200, 000 39, 000 10 530, 000 Do.
ABODE seiserisel. tak yet E 2...) May 13....-.- 35,000,000 | 22,000,000 | 1,000,000 | 4,700,000 | 8 eggs.
ABIQU EU Sumavie Sle dius E 2...| May 14......- 14,000,000 | 15,000,000 10,000 | 15,000, 000
ZS LR Pa SE EK 2...) May 15...-...- 7, 800, 000 10, 000 100 | 5,500,000 | 5 eggs.
ABAVAL LE AE pas Leis ee te) 19) Me sell Wiehy Wiese ds se 9,700,000 | 1,300,000 | 0 in 10,000 | 6,100,000 | 7 eggs.

It is not possible to separate the undesirable from the desirable egg by pouring out
of the cup the visible undesirable egg. This fact is illustrated by experiments grouped
in Table 17. When an egg with a green white was received in a cup already holding
one or more good eggs, the green-white egg was poured off and the eggs remaining were
collected and examined. The bacterial findings, as given in Table 17, show that
the bacteria from the green eggs contaminated the good eggs, the extent of which is
brought out by comparing the counts of the commercial product of the house made at
the same time as the experiments under consideration. 1t was against the rules of the
breaking room to use any liquid egg out of the shell which had been in contact with a
bad egg. ‘The bacterial variation in the regular product was from 140,000 to 1,500,000
per gram; the lowest finding for the good eggs in contact with a green-white ege was
1,200,000, and the maximum was 35,000,000. This principle holds true for any highly
infected egg in contact with a good egg, and effectually disposes of the habit of pouring
out the visible portions of the bad egg and using the rest.

The product.—Two series of experiments were made on different days, tracing the
egg step by step from the first pail to the final dried product. The results of these
experiments, as listed in Table E-I (Appendix, p. 66), under visit No. 1, showed
that the sources of contamination existing in 1911 had been eliminated except in one
instance—namely, the brushes used to spread the egg on the drying belt. Even here
the total count did not rise, but there was an appreciable increase in the number of
B. coli. There is a discrepancy in the number of bacteria reported in this sequence
of samples. This is due, probably, to the fact that they were taken at the outset of
the work before the routine of taking and handling samples wasestablished. Toomuch

36 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

reliance can not, therefore, be placed on them, but they do serve to show a trend which
is later confirmed when the same criticisms of technic can not be made.

The eight samples of liquid whole egg to determine progressive contamination had
a variation in bacterial count ranging from 140,000 organisms per gram to 1,500,000
and in the number of B. coli from 0 to 10,000.

The final dried products of the two series of experiments had, as listed in Table E-I
(Appendix, p. 66), under samples Nos. 4177 and 4191, a count of 1,300,000 in the
first case and 430,000 per gram in the second. The number of B. coli in sample
No. 4177, before and after drying, was 1,000 per gram; in No. 4191, 10,000 per gram
before drying and none afterwards. They had probably been killed by heat during
desiccation. Three other samples of dried egg taken during this period had bacterial
contents similar to specimen No. 4177.

Immediately after the desiccated ege was scraped from the belt it was sifted to break
up the flakes and to separate out the wet lumps. (See p. 15.) To insure thorough
drying, the screened egg was placed in a bin at a temperature of 100° F. fora few
hours. Determination of moisture in the flaky egg before and after this secondary
drying showed practically no change in the water content.

The wet lumps were rubbed through a sieve with the hands or by means of a grooved
block of wood about 4 inches square and placed in a bin at about 100° F. for final dry-
ing. The wet lumps sifted from the same run as the dried egg described under No.
4191 had, as shown in Table E-II (Appendix, p. 68), 14,000,000 bacteria per gram and
a moisture content of 18 per cent, both of which are distinctly higher than the corre-
sponding flaky portion. Other samples of wet lumps taken before and after sifting,
and after secondary drying, had bacterial counts of 2,400,000, 2,100,000, and 3,300,000
per gram respectively. The moisture content was reduced from 17.40 to 6.94 per
cent by secondary drying.

Visit No. 2 (May 13 to 18).

The refrigerating had not been completed, and the new breaking outfits had not
arrived. Since the former visit an extra set of brushes had been made for each
drying belt, so that it was possible to have them changed between runs. They
were always steamed for an hour instead of 20 minutes. An extra set of feeding
troughs were in the process of making. Duplicate parts of the mixing device had
been purchased so that one set could be washed and sterilized while the other was
in operation. '

The breaking stock of this period consisted of about 235 cases of cracked eggs per
day. Grading the eggs before the candle was being done well. The work in the
breaking room was also good when the number of untrained girls and the makeshift
apparatus are taken into consideration.

It was customary for the girls to break enough eggs in the afternoon to cover the
belts during the first run in the morning. The weather was so warm that there was
bacterial multiplication in the liquid product while being held overnight without
refrigeration, as may be seen from the bacterial contents of the corresponding dried
products, given in Table 18.

TaBLE 18.—Effect of lack of refrigeration of liquid stock upon bacterial content of dried
product (E house, 1912).

COMMERCIAL SAMPLES OF DRIED EGG PREPARED FROM LIQUID EGG HELD AT
ROOM TEMPERATURE OVER NIGHT.

Bacteria per gram on Gas-pro-
Date of | Plain agar incubated at— | ducing bac-| Liquefying
Sample No. Visit.| collec- teria per | organisms
tion. gram in lac-} per gram.
20° C. 37°C. tose bile.
ADO ERTS MRS TELU EERE Fa OHO IS 2|May 1] 9,200,000} 5,000,000 100,000} —_ 300,000
ADT G WS SEND SS are MR ee IU 2| May 31] 15,000,000} 11,000,000 10,000 | 0 in 10,000
BAB UU Eee NS NR he Ale 3| May 21] 5,300,000} 1,300,000 10, 000 20, 000
A130 SMES RETIN NETS 3 | May’ 23 7,100,000/ 1,400,000 10,000 20, 000

COMMERCIAL SAMPLES OF DRIED EGG PREPARED FROM LIQUID EGG IMMEDIATELY
AFTER BREAKING.

May 6

1, 100, 000 900, 000 10, 000
May 8

900, 000 550, 000

LUA (ees SOE tate el ese| 9 351) ceo OE 2
429; 2

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS, ail

Six samples of desiccated egg taken on this visit showed from 65,000 to 13,000,000
organisms to the gram, as tabulated in Table E-III and E-V (Appendix, pp. 70
and 74), under visit No. 2. : r

A study of the dried product of four different runs showed, as expressed in Table
E-II (Appendix, p. 68), under visit No. 2, that the wet lumps in every case had a
higher bacterial content than the flaky egg. In some samples this difference was
negligible; inothers it was marked. The moisture content of the wet lumps varied
from 16.46 to 21.68 per cent.

Taste 19.—Commercial samples of liquid and dried tanners’ egg (E house, 1912).

Bacteria per gram puree
on plain agar in- Gas- Lique- nema
g cubated at— producing | “fins no }
fie | Description of | Date of | visit bacteria | ovsan- | Tetho ). | Mois-
Re sample. sampling. eee Ree VCE STAINS (re ture.
‘ in lactose ca |
20°C 37°C pile. sr " Wet Dry
: Take basis.| basis.
IPE ch Pacts peck:
4195 | Liquidegg..... Apr. 26 1 |100, 000, 000'17, 000, 000'1, 000, 000-+|......... 0. 0069/0. 0219) 68. 53
4323 | Dried egg.....- ay 14 2 | 20,000,000) 4; 700; 000} ” 160; 000-+/1, 200, 000| . 0024) .0025| 5. 54
ABA Tilers ota. Goes May 17 2 | 48,000,000) 4, 800, 000 10, 000+ |2, 600,000) .0020} .0021) 6.90
4348 | Liquid egg..--. a 2 UL re Tare sy - 0041) .0146) 71.89
}

During this visit two samples of liquid and two of dried tanners’ egg were taken.
The laboratory results given in Table 19 showed, as would be expected, an excessive
number of bacteria and large quantities of ammoniacal nitrogen.

Visit No. 3 (June 1 to 5).

The third trip to this house was made when most of the new equipment for the sea-
son was in operation. The extra set of supply troughs to the drying belts had been
made; two creamery tanks, with a capacity of 800 gallons each, were installed; the
new breaking outfits were in use; and, most important of all, there was a plentiful
supply of refrigeration, so that the eggs could be kept cold from time of receipt until
the liquid was spread on the drying belts.

Each tank had a continuously revolving brine coil, which served to keep the egg at
a temperature just above freezing until it was drawn off to be dried. These creamery
tanks were especially constructed in that the lids were perforated to permit of the
steam hose being inserted, and the joints were tight enough and strong enough to hold
the steam. A temperature of 210° F. was readily maintained for one-half hour. Of
course, the cold brine was emptied from the pipes before the steam was admitted.

With the accession of refrigeration the receipts had been doubled, so that the drying
room was in operation day and night. The force had been increased so that all the
eggs were candled and broken during the day. The egg supply consisted of ‘‘dirties”
and ‘‘checks,’’ about half and half.

The work of the candlers was fair; the work in the breaking room, however, was very
unsatisfactory because the forewoman was not enforcing the routine decided upon.
The girls, for instance, were only occasionally washing hands and changing knives
after bad eggs. Their manipulation of the new breaking outfit was an example of how
poorly a good piece of apparatus can be used. They gave the eggs too hard a blow on
the breaking knife and then did not turn the crack upward, consequently a large
amount of white leaked from the egg into the drip tray.

Because of the large number of eggs with incipient odors and because of the large
percentage of bad eggs in the breaking stock, the girls were continuously in need of
assistance in deciding on doubtiul eggs. On account of the unreliability of the girls
and the importance of careful grading, 1t was absolutely necessary that a well-qualified
person should have charge of the breaking room.

During this period 31 samples of the commercial product were obtained—five from
the large storage tanks in the breaking room and the balance in the drying room
before and after desiccation.

The five samples taken from these tanks had about double the number of bacteria
found in similar specimens .taken on visit No. 2. The number of bacteria in the
present samples is shown in Table E-IV (Appendix, p. 72). There was also a slight
increase in the amount of ammoniacal nitrogen.

The laboratory results showed no marked changes in the dried product when com-
pared with those obtained during the previous experimental period.

38 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Visit No. 4 (June 24 to 28).

The egg supply consisted of one half checks and the other half a mixture of seconds
and dirty eggs. 4 ine

The management had not succeeded in obtaining a forewoman to replace the one
who left during visit No. 3. An attempt was made to promote a conscientious girl
from the ranks, but the breakers absolutely refused to recognize one of their number
as their head. The position required a good disciplinarian as well as one who could
appreciate and enforce the principles of bacterial cleanliness as applied to the prepa-
ration of food on a large scale. ;

The supply of eggs was not sufficient to keep the girls at work the whole day. They
received the same daily wage whether they worked all or part of a day, consequently
there was a concerted effort to break the eggs in as short a time as possible. This
undue haste led to unclean work and to careless grading. d

The low quality of the work during this week, as well as the untidy appearance of
the breaking room, showed what can be expected when a number of irresponsible
girls are allowed to work without direct and strict supervision.

The work of the candlers was superior to that of the breakers. The foreman, shortly
before this visit, was directed to recandle daily the rejects from the different candlers.
The finding of only six edible eggs on breaking one-half case of rejects after secondary
candling indicated that the work was being done very efficiently. :

From a chemical and bacteriological viewpoint the quality of the liquid and dried
product was practically the same as found on the last visit. A few samples of desic-
cated egg, however, contained more organisms than had been noted heretofore. The
wet lumps showed no greater infection than the flaky egg.

Visit No. 5 (July 19 to 24).

The conditions in the breaking room were greatly improved because the superin-
tendent had been able to give some attention to the breakers. The egg supply had
not increased, consequently he was able to reduce the breaking force to a number suffi-
cient to complete the work by the regular closing time. He dismissed the more
inefficient girls and particularly those who had been promoters of disorderly work.
This culling resulted in an altogether different spirit in the breaking force, for each of
the remaining girls was not only anxious to do good work but was also desirous of
retaining her position.

With this change in the attitude of the breakers it was a comparatively simple mat-
ter to get them to manipulate the ege properly, to break at a sufficiently low speed to
permit careful grading, and to make the necessary changes in apparatus after opening
an infected egg.

As a consummation to the improved conditions, the superintendent succeeded on
July 16, 1913, in getting a forewoman whom the girls immediately and cheerfully
recognized as their superior. The young woman was trained along sanitary lines,
consequently she could appreciate the principles of bacterial cleanliness which were
being applied here to the preparation of frozen and dried eggs. By instruction and
observation she quickly learned to recognize the various kinds of eggs occurring in
breaking stock, and was soon competent to supervise grading as well as clean hand-
ling of eggs. Gum chewing was prohibited among the girls, since with such a
ee esyored substance in the mouth, eggs with incipient odors would not be

etected.

She also stopped conversation between breakers because it was necessary for best
results that a girl give her entire attention to her task. Asa compensation for steady
work the forewoman gave the girls a five-minute recess in the middle of each half day.
The increased efficiency of the breaking force under the new régime more than bal-
anced the time utilized by the intermission.

On one of the first days of the visit two of the breaking girls were given the position
of pages. Their duties were to transport the trays of clean apparatus from the wash
room to the breaking room, to carry the same back when dirty, and to look after the
general appearance of the breaking room. Formerly the breakers stopped their work
to do these errands. Inasmuch as this work kept the pages busy, this change in the
organization did not add to the operating expenses, but greatly facilitated the work of
the breakers.

A few changes in equipment had been made since the last visit. For instance, new
racks had been made to hold the breaking knives from the time they were washed
until they were used in the breaking room. Another change was the placing of a clock-
face with movable hands on each sterilizer door. After filling a sterilizer with appa-
ratus, the operator noted the time of day and placed the hands of the clockface at the

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 39

hour and minute when the supply of steam should be cut off. This mechanism ena-
bled the operator to know definitely that each portion of apparatus was sterilized for
25 minutes,

The egg supply consisted of current receipts as well as checks, dirties, and seconds.

The general candling of the receipts was fair, but the recandling of the discards was
not accurate. The latter duty had been assigned to one of the regular candlers
because the foreman was now checking the work of individuals candling to select
good eggs to go to the breaking room. He recandled pails of eggs selected at random,
and when he found an undue number of deteriorated eggs he notified the original
ender. Under this system of overinspection the girls developed more care in
grading.

Quantitative determinations given in Table E-IV (Appendix), under visit No. 5,
showed that samples of the regular breaking stock contained 46.9 per cent more bac-
teria and 10 per cent more ammoniacal nitrogen than did similar samples obtained
on the previous visit. Similarly, Table E-III shows that the desiccated product
contained more organisms than did the samples taken on the preceding visit. The
larger amount of bacteria in the liquid egg probably accounts for this increase. The
increase in the bacterial content was no doubt due to the hot weather which pre-
vailed during the first half of July.

The data on the commercial product, as recorded in Table E-IV (Appendix), pre-
pared from current receipts, showed the same amount of loosely bound nitrogen
as did the eggs discussed before, but the number of bacteria was about one-third less.
The latter difference may, perhaps, be explained by fewer infected eggs in current
receipts as compared with the seconds, dirty, and cracked eggs of the regular
breaking stock.

Visit No. 6 (August 5 to 9).

The egg supply consisted of the same classes of eggs as on the previous visit, but there
were fewer current receipts.

The general candling was good, and the recandling of the discards was .mproved.
The breakers were doing good work under the direction of the new forewoman. In
fact, the management of the breaking room was better than it had been at any time
during the season.

As the firm was putting up an order of dried yolk, about one-third of the breaking
force was separating eggsinto white and yolk. The separation was effected by a trough
separator of the gravity type. This device was effective for spring eggs, but was not
very efficient for the soft eggs which occurred at this period. The girls, conse-
quently, were continuously removing broken yolk from the apparatus, and with the
best of manipulation they could not prevent portions of yolk getting into the white.

Bacteriological and chemical examinations of whole egg before and after drying
proved the breaking stock to be of practically the same quality as on the preceding
visit. The weather was cooler during the latter half than it was during the first part
of July, consequently there was no greater deterioration in the egg supply.

Table E-VI (Appendix p. 76) gives the results of 13 samples of white and yolk sep-
arated by the device already described. The maximum number of bacteria found
was 1,800,000; the minimum 1,000. It is of interest in this connection to note that
the counts in every case are lower than those in synchronous samples of whole egg
taken from the large storage tanks. It is probable that the soft eggs which enter the
latter product offer an explanation of its higher bacterial content.

Samples were taken of the product broken each day during the interval between
visits No.5 and No. 6. During this interval the management purchased 1,153 cases
of firsts which had been deluged with water while a fire was being extinguished in
the building in which they were stored. A chemical examination of the eggs proved
them to be comparatively fresh and to contain no more water than is ordinarily
found in breaking stock. The eggs were broken in three days’ time, but the last
portion was not finished until four days after receipt because a Sunday intervened
between the last two days. The forewoman stated that the grading was simple on
the first and second days, but was very perplexing on the last day, because many of
the eggs had become musty. The mustiness of these eggs pervaded the atmosphere
of the breaking room to such an extent that it was almost impossible to detect any
other odor. The changes observed in these eggs indicate that the wetting of shells
plays a part in the production of musty eggs.

It is interesting to observe the increase in the number of bacteria in the product
broken each day. The count on the first day was 1,600,000; on the second, 2,400,000;
and on the fourth, 5,100,000 per gram. The B.-cola numbered 10,000 in the liquid
egg broken on Friday and Saturday and 100,000 in the product obtained on Monday.
The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen found in the eggs was practically the same on

40 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the fourth day as on the second. The bacteria, therefore, had not multiplied sufii-
ciently to break down the protein material of the egg.

The management held the regular receipts, including the checks, until all the wet
eggs were broken. Two samples taken of the liquid product made from cracked
eggs kept in a chill room four days had a count of 4,500,000 in one case and 5,400,000
in the other, as compared with 1,100,000 and 1,600,000 in eggs broken immediately
onreceipt. These results show the deleterious effect of holding warm-weather checks,
even if they are kept in cool surroundings.

Visit No. 7 (August 19 to 24).

The seventh and last trip to this house was made during the last week the plant
was in operation.

The breaking stock consisted of the same classes of eggs as are discussed under the
sixth visit, with the exception of some dirty eggs which had been in storage since
the middle of April. The low quality of the receipts was shown by the fact that
over 20 per cent was rejected by candling. Since it was impossible to purchase a
sufficient supply of eggs to fill the orders for the desiccated product, the firm was
melting frozen stock prepared earlier in the season and mixing it with the liquid
egg direct from the breakers.

With the decrease in receipts the candling, breaking, and drying forces were
reduced. It now required only eight girls to break the egg supply.

During the interval between this and the previous trip daily samples were taken
from the large storage tanks. These samples were obtained before the management
began mixing frozen and liquid egg, hence they are comparable with previous sam-
ples irom the large tanks. Table E-IV (Appendix), visit No. 7, shows that the
average count of samples taken on the sixth visit was 4,300,000 per gram; of the
specimens obtained on the present trip, 5,700,000. A similar increase in the amount
of loosely bound nitrogen was also observed. These results also show the low quality
of the receipts.

Five samples of the liquid mixture, composed of frozen and sheil eggs, gave, as
expressed in Table E-V (Appendix), under visit No. 7, counts varying from 6,400,000
to 19,000,000 per gram. ‘The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen determined was greater
than was ordinarily found in food egg. From a bacteriological and chemical view-
point these samples showed more deterioration than any previous series of specimens
taken from the food product prepared by this house. The deleterious effect of
rehandling the frozen eggs, together with the low quality of the shell-ege stock, is the
probable explanation of this low-quality product. Since the laboratory results of
these samples are not comparable with those of the general output, they will not be
included in the general averages.

CONDITIONS OBSERVED IN F HOUSE DURING TWO CONSECUTIVE YEARS.

SEASON oF 1911.
CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, AND ROUTINE.

The building in which this ege-breaking plant is established is built of brick and
is several stories in height. The room in which the eggs are broken was located in
a corner of the second floor and faced two streets. It had three windows on one side
and one on the other. In cool weather—which was but seldom—these windows were
kept closed. ‘They were screened against flies. A supply of air, which was washed
but not chilled, was fanned into this room, but it was not considered adequate for
ventilation. At one end of the room a raised concrete platform held a sink with hot
and cold water and a small steam table; along one side of the room was another con-
crete platform holding churns for the mixing of the egg. The remainder of the room,
which was occupied by the egg breakers, was floored with hard maple. The walls and
ceiling were plaster, white enameled. Two doors, one at each end of a side wall,
served for entrance and exit. The temperature of the room seldom rose above 80° F.

The 40 girls employed worked at five zinc-covered tables. One girl at each table
presided over the other seven and was responsible to the foreman. White caps and
half-sleeve gowns were worn, completely covering all garments.

Early in the season the eggs were emptied from the shells into white-enameled
cups, three of which were set in a white-enameled pie plate. The shells were cut
on asmall piece of steel clamped acrossone cup. This apparatus is pictured in figure
7. Yolks, whites, whole firsts, whole seconds, and tanners’ grades were made. ‘The
drippings from the eggs collected in the plates and were objectionable. A suggestion
to the manager Petia in the placing of metal racks in the pie plates, thus lifting
the bottom of the cups out of the drip.

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 41

The liquid egg was collected in agateware buckets holding 20 pounds. From these
it was transferred to the churns and then drawn by a gate valve into the 30-pound
cans, which served as the final containers.

It was the custom of the girls in this house to use rags of various sorts for wiping
fingers, cups, tables, and the floor indiscriminately. The utensils were washed in
hot water, but frequently the girls, in an excess of zeal, would wipe a comparatively
clean piece of apparatus on a wet bacteria-laden rag, thereby very largely undoing
the good done by washing. Fingers were constantly wet.

The supply of incoming eggs in the shell was chilled before candling. Frequently
there was an interval of several days between the candling and the breaking of the
eggs. Hven though the eggs were ent under refrigeration, it was found better to
break immediately after candling. (see p. 40). ‘

The work of the candlers was fair; but too many eggs that should have been stopped
in the candling room found their way to the breakers. This resulted, as it always
does, in lax grading and carelessness in changing apparatus after breaking a bad egg.

The general principles of bacterial cleanliness to be striven for in the egg breaking
were discussed with the management, and it was decided to try several breaking
outfits and systems of operation, using the table of eight girls as a unit. From these
experiments there evolved a new breaking outfit. This consisted of metal racks
supported on a traylike base and having an adjustable knife, which could readily
be removed after a bad egg had been cracked on it. Glass sherbet cups received
the eggs. A mechanical separator of white and yolk, which could be attached to
the knife, was also devised.
Until this invention the
shell method of separating
had been used.

The table was also modi-
fied in that four holes,
each about 5 inches in
diameter, were cut in a
row down the middle. Be-
low these were set the shell
cans and into them were
fitted galvanized-iron fun-
nels, that the shells might
be more accurately and
easily guided into the cans Fig. 7.—Outfit used for egg breaking before remodeling.
below.

Tissue paper was provided for drying fingers, and the rags were abolished. A little
steam sterilizer was also rigged up for experimental purposes only.

When the girls had become somewhat Aecustsined to the new forms of apparatus,
some laboratory examinations were made of the output prepared under the old and
the new conditions. The comparative results are given in Table 20.

EXPERIMENTAL AND COMMERCIAL SAMPLES.

A mixture of summer firsts and seconds when broken under the cleanly conditions
just described and when the apparatus and containers were steam sterilized gave the
results for white and yolk shown in Table 20, Part I, experiments Nos. 519 and 518.
The total number of bacteria is low and B. coli were not found in a 1 to 100 dilution.
A repetition of this test, using seconds only and the old type of breaking outfit, gave
equally as good results, as is shown in experiments Nos. 526 to 528, inclusive.

Cracked eggs, which had been candled the day before, were also broken on the
new tray and with sterilized apparatus. The findings on these eggs are recorded in
experiments Nos. 520 to 525, inclusive. It will be observed that grading became
necessary in this experiment. From the two cases broken, the routine grading prac-
tice of this house yielded 14 pounds of a second-grade liquid egg,and between 2 and
3 pounds of tanners’ egg. The latter included the drip which collected in the
breaking trays. The number of bacteria in white and yolk from these checked eggs
were not very numerous, though higher than in the sound eggs of similar grade,
The whole egg contained some that had soft yolks, and the second-grade whole ege
consisted almost exclusively of eggs of this variety, with some that were beginning
to sour. The very high bacterial content of the second-grade whole egg again indi-
cates that a study of grading was needed to supplement that of cleanliness. The bac-
teria in the tanners’ egg were reduced in number by the amount of drip which entered
it. The drip from clean trays and cups is very different, bacterially, from that col-
lecting on rough and unsterilized apparatus.

BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

42

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‘THI

44 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Clean seconds, after clean breaking and collecting, gave the products listed under
Nos. 538 to 540, inclusive, and again in experiment No. 543. Again the yolks and
whites showed less than 1,000 bacteria per gram. From lot 543 was obtained the
sample of tanners’ egg, given in experiment No. 544. A count of 81,000,000 bacteria
is accounted for by the fact that the egg was composed chiefly of green-white eges,
sour eggs, and the drip from the trays.

The foregoing findings are encouraging in that they correlate bacterial findings with
cleanliness and grading. To confirm this indication, similar eggs were broken with
the old apparatus cleaned by water alone and using the old methods of procedure.
Under such conditions, checked eggs from the same lot as those used in experi-
ments Nos. 520 to 525 were broken and prepared as white and yolk as well as whole
egg. The number of bacteria in these samples varied from 67,000,000 to 1,100,000, a
sharp contrast to the experimental product just discussed. The ammoniacal nitrogen
is practically identical with that obtained previously. These eggs were traced through
the operation of churning and drying, with the results shown in samples Nos. 530 to
532, inclusive, the counts running between 2,600,000 and 4,400,000 on the liquid egg
and reaching 27,000,000 for the dried product. The count on sample No. 532, how-
ever, the dried product, must be divided by 3 to make it comparable with the liquid
ege. It will be observed that every step in the process caused an increase in the
number of organisms. Checked eggs commonly run higher in bacteria than do
eges with sound shells of comparable grade. It was, therefore, decided to break some
sound, clean eggs by the old methods for comparative purposes. The findings are
given as samples Nos. 541 to 550, inclusive, and show a maximum bacterial content
of 33,000,000. ‘This series traces the whole egg from the first collecting pails to the
dried product. The initial count of the liquid egg, namely, 1,400,000, is comparable
with that given for No. 530.

Dirty eggs were also to be studied as checks and seconds had been. To this end
samples Nos. 545, 546, and 547 were prepared: The clean routine gave a count of
450,000 per gram, with 10,000 B. coli, whereas the old methods of breaking dirty
eggs gave 8,700,000 total count and 1,000,000 B. coli. These eggs had unusually
filthy shells and were a severe test of cleanliness of handling.

Such preliminary experiments serve to confirm and extend the findings for houses
B, ©, and E, as seen during 1911.

SEASON oF 1912.
CHANGES IN CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT.

The breaking room of F house was not reconstructed in strict accordance with the
experimental requirements of this investigation because the management was planning
to remodel the entire establishment in the near future. Some important changes,
however, were made in the breaking equipment, and a separate wash room was built
so that all utensils could be washed outside the breaking room. Plate VII and Plate
VIII, figure 1, picture the latter with the equipment in 1912.

The egg supply was conveyed to the breaking room in the usual shipping cases.
Fillers were omitted, if the eggs were not cracked. These containers, and particularly
the ones used for checks, carried more dirt into the room than was taken in by any
other means. The galvanized-iron buckets shown in two of the pictures were used
experimentally for cracked eggs.

The breaking outfit used during the latter part of 1911 had been improved. (PI.
VIII, fig. 1; Pl. X, fig. 1.) The tray was made of iron, heavily plated with tin. The
eggs were broken on a piece of spun brass inserted in one portion of a tool-steel breaking
knife. The whole was tinned. It was notched at each end to fit over set screws in
the two uprights. The breaking cups were made of spun brass plated with aluminum.
They were supported and held in place by small pieces of spun brass soldered to the
bottom of the pan. These, also, were tinned.

The pictures show the position of the cups in the tray. The one under the breaking
portion of the knife caught the drip from the eggs while they were bring cracked;
the second underneath the separator was used for whites and the one next for yolks.
The fourth, located at one side of the drip cup, was used for soft eggs. If the eggs
were not separated the fourth cup was not used. On the lower side of the tray at
each corner were soldered pieces of metal which served to anchor the outfit to the
breaking stand. The latter was made of spun brass plated with tin.

From a viewpoint of convenience of manipulation and ease of cleaning, the breaking
outfit was very efficient. One defect, however, was the substitution of metal for
glass cups. The former, on account of being opaque, interfered with grading in-

{

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 45

cipient forms of deteriorated eggs such as “beginning greens.’’ This difficulty was
minimized, however, when the eggs were separated into white and yolk, because a
very fair view of each egg was obtained during the process of mechanical separa-
tion. Inasmuch as by far the greater part of the commercial product of this house
was prepared from separated stock, this imperfection in the breaking apparatus was
not as much of a detriment to the product as a whole as would be the case if used
when whole egg constituted the principal output.

After the eggs were broken they were poured from the cups into new 30-pound cans,
which, after one-half day’s service, were cleaned and used for final containers of
frozen egg. The tables supporting the breaking outfit and the containers of the shell
eggs and liquid egg were the same, with a few modifications, as used during the
season of 1911. A fair idea of the construction of the tables and the arrangement, of
the apparatus on them can be ascertained from the pictures. The stools were of sani-
tary construction. Particular attention had been given to the height of breaking
anee tables, and stools, in order to make them comfortable and convenient for the

reakers.

Three new sanitary washbowls installed in the center of the room (Pl. VII) were
used mostly for rinsing yolk from separators; a fourth (Pl. XI, fig. 2), located under
the wash-room window, was used for washing hands.

Linen towels about six inches square were used both for wiping hands after washing
and for drying fingers during egg breaking. A towel was used only once, then laun-
dered. A supply was kept on racks suspended above each table and on a shelf over
the washbowl under the window.

For the assistance of persons contemplating the purchase of egg-breaking equipment
the following inventory is given of the number of pieces of small apparatus used by
the 52 girls of this breaking room during the season of 1912:

Breaking knivess. ...42.c2s ss.5-:'- T3At Hioe separatorssess epi 92 a ae are 97
Guise agi seta babi goetys bovis 379 |-Aluminum spoons......-..-.-.--.- 57
MANA Se ea ADE See Lider la ae Gili) Hinger towels: 222) 05. sea. ae ao 4, 320

From these data the number of utensils necessary for a room with a smaller or larger
working capacity can be calculated.

The wash room was 12 feet square; the walls were plastered and covered with
enamel, and the floor was made of cement. The latter sloped toward a drain located
at one side of the room. The washing equipment was unique; it consisted of a round-
bottomed sink, two revolving brushes, two rinsing devices, a steam jet, a dairy ster-
ilizer, a chute for transferring clean cans to the breaking room, and a sliding window
for passing apparatus back and forth between the wash room and breaking room.
(Pl. XI, fig. 2; Pl. XIT, figs. 1, 2.) The equipment was so arranged that it saved
time and labor. :

The sink was supplied with an abundance of hot and cold water and was furnished
with a perforated draining rack. A pan beneath the latter conveyed the drippings
back to the sink.

The two mechanical brushes were driven at a speed of about 300 revolutions per
minute by a one-quarter horsepower motor supplied with reducing belts. One of the
brushes originally designed for cleaning milk bottles was used to wash breaking cups;
the other was specially constructed by bolting ordinary scrubbing brushes to an
aluminum center and was used for scrubbing 30-pound cans that were smeared with egg.

The device pictured in the extreme right end of the sink consisted of a nozzle and
a percussion valve connected with a water pipe. When the nozzle was pressed down
the valve opened and water sprayed out. This mechanism was used for rinsing cups.

The conical-shaped fixture at the left of the can brush was supplied with both a
water and a steam jet and was used for rinsing and steaming large utensils,

Routine of Handling Product.

As soon as the preliminary container was full the eggs were transferred promptly
to cool surroundings. The whites were weighed into either 10 or 30 pound cans and
immediately conveyed to a freezer. The yolks and whole egg were poured into the
mixing churns and cooled to a temperature just above freezing. If the liquid was to
be frozen it was weighed into 30-pound cans and taken to a freezer; if the egg was to
be desiccated it was drawn off into 40-quart milk cans and taken to the drying room.
The product, however, was kept in a chill room if any time intervened between
cooling and desiccation. The desiccation of the liquid egg has already been dis-
cussed in detail on page 15.

46 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CONDITIONS PREVAILING EVERY THIRD WEEK FROM MAY UNTIL SEPTEMBER.
Visit No. 1 (first week in May).

Organization of wash room.—The new washing equipment having just been installed,
experiments were made to determine the quickest and most effective methods of
cleansing the various utensils used in the breaking room. As a result of these
experiments and observations working directions were prepared, which may be sum-
marized as follows:

1. Rinse new cans in running water and steam in the dairy sterilizer for at least
10 minutes. If the cans show visible signs of uncleanness, such as dust, scrub before
rinsing.

2. Wash all utensils coming in contact with food egg in clean, lukewarm water
containing soap powder. Use the revolving brushes for cleaning the breaking cups
and 30-pound cans. Rinse the cups on the mechanical rinser. Wash the other
apparatus with ordinary scrubbing brushes and rinse in running water from the
faucet. Sterilize all the apparatus for at least 20 minutes.

3. Keep the brushes sweet by frequent sterilization. f

4, Exercise particular care in scrubbing and rinsing the mixing churns. Run
steam through a steam hose into each churn for five minutes.

5. At noon wash spoons, knives, cups, and breaking trays; rinse and sterilize all
but the last. Wipe off tables. Put new sterilized cans on them in place of those
used to receive the broken eggs during the morning.

6. At night cleanse all apparatus, sterilize the pieces coming in contact with food
eee, and perform the other necessary cleaning, such as scrubbing floors, washing
walls, etc. - \

Bacteriological examinations showed that the churns, after being carefully washed
with warm water containing soda, rinsed thoroughly, and steamed for five minutes,
were practically sterile. The churns were so constructed that the brine could not
be drawn from the cooling coils. On account of the expansion of the cold liquid it
was impossible to steam the churn longer than five minutes atone time. Because
of the importance of the cleansing previous to steaming this work was delegated to a
picked crew of girls.

Experiments similar to those carried on in the new wash room were undertaken in
the workroom in which utensils from the egg-drying room were cleansed. The wash-
ing equipment for this work was located on a drained cement floor and consisted of a
steam jet and a sink supplied with hot and cold water. All apparatus was being
thoroughly washed, but not rinsed; the larger pieces were being heated for a few
seconds over the steam jet. The pieces of hose used to convey the liquid egg from
the supply tanks to the troughs feeding the belts were scrubbed on the inside with
a specially devised brush, rinsed and steamed.

Laboratory tests of condensation water from apparatus washed and steamed as
described showed about 200 bacteria per cubic centimeter. An examination of sterile
water passed a few times through a cleansed hose also disclosed several hundred
organisms to the cubic centimeter.

Inasmuch as the heating of apparatus over a steam jet was inconvenient, time con-
suming, and did not insure sterilization, a box sterilizer was planned, so that the small
utensils from the drying room and the milk cans used to transfer the liquid egg from
the breaking room could be sterilized for 20 minutes. The supply tanks to the belts
were too large to put in the sterilizer. Consequently, they were sterilized by passing
steam into them from a hose. A rinsing jet was also installed in the sink. These
additions to the washing equipment greatly simplified the work of this department.

The efficient operation of the two wash rooms insured thorough cleansing of all
utensils coming in contact with liquid food egg.

Breaking stock.—The breaking stock of this house consisted of small, dirty, and
cracked eggs sorted by inspection from the current receipts of this house, its several
branch houses, and a few neighboring packers who did not have facilities for egg
breaking. The firm did not pay for leakers and moldy eggs occurring in “checks”
from the latter source.

The breaking stock of this period consisted chiefly of cracked eggs, because a large
percentage of the small and dirty eggs vere being shipped in the shell. The firm
began candling checks on April 12, 1912, and current receipts on May 6, 1912.

Organization of breaking room.—The foreman of the breaking room was eminently
qualified for his position on account of his training and executive ability. He had
been in charge of this breaking room from the time of its establishment, and previous
to that time he had supervised a candling room. Consequently, he was familiar with
the various classes of eggs occurring throughout the season.

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. AT

At this time there were about six tables in use, each having a capacity of eight girls.
Inasmuch as the successful operation of this room required constant detailed super-
vision, one girl at each table was made responsible for the work of the other seven,
as in 1911. The foreman gave his orders to the table chief rather than to each
individual girl. With such an organization it was possible for the management to
SUS ae changes and to make rules for routine and be assured that they would be
enforced.

The product.—The management was preparing frozen whites, frozen tanners’ C88
dried yolks, and a dried mixture compounded from one part yolk and two parts whole
egg. The latter product was termed in this investigation ‘“‘mixed egg.’’

Two series of experiments showed, as illustrated in Table F-I (Appendix, p. 80),
that the liquid egg was not contaminated as it passed from the cans on the breaking
tables through various containers to the drying room.

The dized egg sampled for these observations was broken from cracked eggs. The
bacterial content varied from 800,000 to 1,300,000 per gram in the different samples.
The lowest number of B. coli observed was 1,000 and the highest 100,000 per gram.

The percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen found in two samples of mixed egg was
0.0017 on the wet basis. In five samples of whole egg used in the preparation of this
product, the amount of this constituent varied from 0.0014 to 0.0017 per cent. These
nitrogen determinations prove, therefore, that the classes of spring eggs used in the
preparation of mixed egg were, commercially speaking, fresh.

Two samples of desiccated product prepared from the two lots of mixed egg,
taken in connection with the study of outside contamination, contained 650,000
bacteria per gram in one case and 1,000,000 in the other. These counts, when
divided by 3 to make them comparable with liquid egg, indicate that bacteria were
killed during desiccation. The moisture content averaged 11.85 per cent in these two
samples taken directly from the-belts and 4.32 per cent after secondary drying. The
bacteria in the two products were not materially affected by the latter process.

Two samples of desiccated yolk, as given in Table F-II, visit 1 (Appendix, p. 81),
showed the widely divergent counts of 71,000 and 17,000,000 per gram. The latter
count was probably caused by multiplication of bacteria during desiccation because the
highest number discovered in 19 samples of liquid-food egg was not over 1,300,000 per
gram. Later samples also justify this supposition.

Samples of white, yolk and tanners’ egg obtained from cracked eggs by four girls
using the same receiving cans gave the results shown in Table 21, visit 1, which
indicate that the eggs were of good quality; that they were graded carefully and that
the technic of breaking was clean. Since the white and yolk were obtained
from only two cases of eggs, the counts can not be taken as an indication of the bac-
terial content of the general output. This statement is verified by the differences in
the number of bacteria in various lots of breaking-stock eggs opened under the same
conditions as the samples just discussed. For example, counts of 600, 500,000, and
600,000 were obtained from three different cases of checks, and 300 and 600,000 from
two lots of seconds.

Visit No. 2 (May 20 to 24).

The breaking stock consisted of one-half small and dirty eggs and the other half
checks. All receipts were now being candled, consequently the breaking stock was
practically free from deteriorated eggs with the exception of those which could be
detected only when out of the shell.

Aiter the new box sterilizer was installed for steaming utensils from the drying
room, there was practically no contamination of the product from improperly cleansed
utensils. The bacteria in the liquid-food eggs were, therefore, due to the organisms
occurring eeiuely in the shell eggs and to contamination during breaking. The
problem henceforth was to determine to what extent the bacteria from these two
sources could be eliminated.

Since the previous visit the management had changed the system of grading. Eggs
showing no signs of deterioration were used in a first-grade product in the form of
either whole eggs, whites, or yolks. Soft eggs, not separable into white and yolk
were used in the whole eggs and graded as firsts. A typical soft egg is also pictured
in Plate XIV. The commercial mixture was made from yolks and whole eggs. A
second-grade food article was prepared from drip and incipient forms of sour, moldy,
green-white eggs and all eggs ofa doubtful quality. The third grade, or tanners’ ege,
was made of the rejects from the candling and breaking room, minus eggs with a
strongly objectionable odor, such as musty eggs. Since good eggs have to be discarded
when a bad egg is broken in a cup with them, a large number of good eggs were also
present in the tanners’ stock.

BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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50 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Three consecutive samples of ‘‘mixed egg” taken from the hose, from the dryin
belts, and after secondary desiccation, contained 6,800,000, 10,000,000, and 21,000,000
bacteria per gram, respectively. The ammoniacal nitrogen in the liquid egg was
also high for spring eggs. These results were the exception, for a second sample,
liquid ‘‘mixed egg,’’ had a low percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen and showed 470,000
bacteria per gram. Additional specimens of the desiccated product contained not
more than 800,000 in four cases and 3,100,000 in a fifth. The results cited are charted
in Tables F-I, F-III, and F-IV under visit No. 2. (Appendix, pp. 80, 82, and 83.)

Four samples taken from cans on the breaking tables gave interesting results, as
shown in Table 21. The whites and yolks had a higher bacterial content than is ordi-
narily found in spring eggs. The counts of the soft and second-grade eggs were
35,000,000 and 27,000,000, respectively, whereas the amount of ammoniacal nitrogen,
as calculated on the dry basis, was 0.0084 and 0.0182 per cent, respectively. It will
be noticed that, although there were more bacteria in the soft eggs, they did not show
as much chemical change as the second-grade product. This can, perhaps, be
explained on the ground that even sterile eggs show an appreciable increase in loosely
bound nitrogen after long keeping, due, in all probability, to enzyme action.

Three other samples of the second-grade eggs proved to be heavily infected (27, 47,
and 58 million bacteria per gram), as illustrated in Table F-V (Appendix, p. 84) under
visit No. 2. Since the water content of this grade of eggs varies with the amount of
drip, or albumen contained in it, the chemical results must be calculated on the dry
basis before conclusions can be drawn. The percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen in
these three samples, thus figured, was practically identical with that found in tanners’
egg (0.0111 to 0.0182 per cent). Additional samples of this grade of egg were taken
on the next visit.

° Visit No. 3 (June 10 to 15).

The firm began purchasing its receipts on a quality basis on June 1, 1912, conse-
quently shrunken eggs were included in the breaking stock as well as small, cracked,
and dirty eggs. The checks constituted 40 per cent of the eggs broken.

The candlers were doing painstaking work as usual; the girls, as a whole, were
breaking the eggs in a remarkably clean manner. The breakers had been instructed
to change all apparatus after eggs put into the second-grade product. ‘This precaution
was necessary in order to prevent contamination of the No. 1 product, since samples of
the second grade taken on the last visit proved to be heavily infected.

Three series of samples taken at random from the different grades at one breaking
table proved, as illustrated in Table 21, that in all but one case whites, yolks, and
whole eggs graded as firsts had a low bacterial content. The one exception was
sample No. 4511, prepared from eggs not separable into white and yolk. Thisspecimen
showed 14,000,000 bacteria per gram and 0.0029 per cent ammoniacal nitrogen on the
wet basis. These results are higher than those ordinarily found in food egg and
indicate the presence of eggs a should have been put into the second-grade
product. The latter, as given in Table F-V (Appendix, p. 84) and Table 21, showed
deterioration, both bacteriologically and chemically, as would be expected from the
low quality of the eggs used. These results, with the exception of sample No. 4511,
indicate that the grading in the breaking room was being done fairly well.

Samples taken from component parts of the second-grade product gave the following
results: 47,000 and 1,900,000 bacteria per gram in two lots of drip; 210,000,000 in whites
and 26,000,000 in yolks of eggs with light-green albumens; and 440,000,000 in ‘“begin-
ning sour” eggs. The latter contained an amount of ammoniacal nitrogen comparable
with that found in tanners’ egg. These data amply explain the cause of the low
quality of the second-grade eggs.

Two samples representing 400 pounds of commercial liquid yolks had less than
500,000 organisms to the gram. An examination of similar yolks, before and after
secondary drying, showed the astoundingly high counts of 110,000,000 and 95,000,000,
respectively. A third sample had a similar bacterial content. A laboratory exam- |
ination of mixed egg from the churn disclosed 1,000,000 organisms to the gram; the
same test applied to nine samples of dried mixed egg proved that 44.4 per cent of the
counts were 39,000,000 or over. These results point conclusively to multiplication of
bacteria during the process of desiccation.

Visit No. 4 (July 1 to 6).

Owing to a shortage in receipts, the firm was breaking firsts in addition to the
regular breaking stock. The latter now consisted of 22.1 per cent firsts, 41.5 per cent
seconds, and 36.3 per cent checks.

The firm had elaborated the system of checking the work of individual workers so
that the errors of candling were reduced to a minimum, Not only were good eggs

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 51

saved, but bad eggs, detectable by the candle, were practically eliminated from the
shell eggs used for food purposes.

The girls were doing exemplary work. The fact that laboratory results proved
that portions of the No. | product contained eggs which properly belonged in the No. 2
liquid eggs, or perhaps tanners’ grade, was not to their discredit, because of the prac-
tical impossibility of making three grades of eggs.

A sixth series of samples taken from the grading tables showed irregular results.
The whites contained 29,000 bacteria, as compared with 5,300,000 in the yolks.
The soft eggs, however, had only 130,000, which number proved that these eggs were
being evaded carefully. The sample of second-grade eggs showed considerably less
infection and less decomposition than usual; the bacterial content was 10,000,000
‘per gram, and the percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen was 0.0052 on the dry basis.
The chemical analysis also proved that this product contained 84 per cent of drip, or
albumen. The latter always gives a low percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen and, in
many cases, low bacterial counts. Three samples of drip taken during this interval
gave the variable counts of 10,000, 240,000, and 13,000,000 per gram.

In order to determine the cause of the high counts observed in the dried product
prepared on the previous visit, seven samples of mixed egg before drying were taken.
The laboratory examination gave, as shown in Table F-III, a minimum number of
700,000 and a maximum of 3,700,000 per gram. In no case was the percentage of am-
moniacal nitrogen excessive. It would appear from these results that the bacterial
content of the liquid stock did not account for the large numbers found in the desic-
cated product. Six samples of dried yolks and 11 of desiccated mixed egg gave, as
shown in Tables F-II and F-IV (Appendix, pp. 81 and 83), in all but three cases,
counts varying from 14,000,000 to 200,000,000 per gram.

Three series of samples taken of the product before and after drying showed, in
two cases, as given in Table F-VI (Appendix, p. 85), under visit No. 4, a considerable
multiplication of bacteria in the eggs during desiccation, the counts increasing from
about 1,000,000 to 36,000,000 and 50,000,000 per gram. There was no apparent increase
while the egg was subjected to the process of secondary drying.

The foregoing data indicate that the high counts found in some of the samples of
the final dried product were due to the development of bacteria in the liquid egg
during desiccation. The preparation of dried eggs was discontinued shortly after
this visit, hence the study of the conditions leading to the increased number of organ-
isms during desiccation could not be continued in this plant.

Visit No. 5 (July 22 to 27).

The fifth visit to this house was made during the week beginning July 22, 1912.
The breaking stock was composed of about one-half firsts and one-half a mixture of
seconds and checks.

There was a large number of badly deteriorated eggs in receipts, due to the hot
July weather. The candlers, with few exceptions, were doing good work. The
breakers were handling the eggs in a clean manner and, to all appearances, were
grading the eggs properly.

Two series of samplesrepresenting egg as it left the breakers, as recorded in Table 21,
gave the usual variable results. The counts of the white and yolk in the first series
were higher than was found in any two similar samples taken during the season of 1912,
over 7,000,000 per gram. The fact that the laboratory found no B. coli in the whites
and only 10 in the yolks indicates that the technic of breaking was clean. The large
number of bacteria may, perhaps, be accounted for by the low quality of July receipts.
The soft eggs contained half as many and the second grade practically the same number
of organisms as were found in whites and yolks. The percentage of ammoniacal
nitrogen was slightly higher in the second-grade product than in the soft eggs. A
second series of samples gave results very different from those just described. The
whites and yolks contained comparatively few organisms, but the soft eggs and the
second-grade product, on the other hand, had 63,000,000 and 92,000,000, respec-
tively. The amount of protein decomposition in the two latter samples was large, as
would be expected from the high counts above. The two series of samples taken on
the same day, but from different tables, illustrate well the irregularity of the grading.
The girls were conscientious, experienced egg breakers. The results, therefore, show
very aeely the practical impossibility of commercially making two uniform grades
of food egg.

Table F—VII (Appendix, p. 86) gives the laboratory results of nine samples of
sugared yolks taken from the mixing churns. Some of the lots were broken from
firsts, others from seconds, and still others from a mixture of firsts, seconds, and cracked.
eggs. The lowest count was 34,000 from firsts and the highest 2,400,000 from checks.

52 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Intermediate numbers of bacteria were obtained from the yolks broken from a mix-
ture of the different classes of eggs. 'The chemical analysis in all cases indicated but
a small amount of protein decomposition.

Six samples of soft egg from the mixing churns and buckets contained, as shown in
Table F-VIII (Appendix, p. 87), large numbers of organisms in three cases and a com-
paratively low number in the others. The percentage of loosely bound nitrogen in
these samples varied with the bacterial count; two samples, for instance, containing
950,000 and 63,000,000 organisms per gram, had 0.0018 and 0.0031 per cent ammonia-
cal nitrogen, respectively, on the wet basis. The latter amount is not ordinarily
found in food eggs.

In order to study the various classes of eggs making up breaking stock, lots of
15 dozen each were broken in a clean manner by expert. graders. The counts were
less than 25,000 in two portions of firsts, under 110,000 in two lots of seconds, and
2,200,000 in one sample of checks. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen in all of
the samples was in accordance with that found in good food eggs. It would be ex-
pected that the counts would be low in the firsts, somewhat higher in the seconds,
and still greater in the hot-weather checks. Since all receipts become lower in
quality as the season advances, the July firsts are not comparable with April firsts.
For this reason the percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen is lower in April than in
July eggs.

Visit No. 6 (August 12 to 17).

The sixth trip to this plant was made during the week beginning August 12, 1912,
when, owing to the lateness of the season, the receipts had decreased considerably.
The management was now breaking 51.9 per cent firsts, 27.9 per cent seconds, and 20.2
per cent checks. On account of the extreme warm weather the egg supply contained
a large percentage of low-grade eggs, among which were many blood rings and eggs
with broken yolks.

The vitelline membranes were so weak that it was a difficult matter to separate the
eggs into white and yolk, consequently the larger proportion were canned in the form
of whole eggs.

The bacteriological and chemical results of four samples taken from the breaking
tables proved, as shown in Table 21, that the grading was doneaccurately. The counts
of whites, yolks, and soft eggs were reasonably low and that of the second-grade product
very high:

The bacterial content of four samples of sugared yolk was low except in one case
(Table F-VIT). Since a large percentage of the output now consisted of whole eggs,
several samples were taken of this product after it was mixed in the churns. Table
F-IX (Appendix, p. 88) shows that the count was not unusually high in any case and
that the percentage of ammoniacal nitrogen was in accordance with the amount found
in good breaking stock.

A laboratory study was made of nine samples of liquid egg broken from three different
classes of eggs making up the breaking stock. The eggs were broken in the packing
house in a clean manner and graded carefully. From a bacteriological and chemical
viewpoint the quality of the liquid product was very good, with the exception of two
samples of cracked eggs and seconds (Nos. 4804 and 4908). The data substantiating
this conclusion are correlated in Table 22.

TABLE 22.—Different classes of eggs used for breaking stock (F' house, 1912, visit No. 6).

Bacteria per gram Ammoniacal
on plain agar in- Cae ne, nitrogen (Folin
4 Date of cubated at— § method). :
Sample Description of sample. collec- ae (PSUs ae Aas ore,
sii ° ° in lactose Wet D
20° C. 387° C. bile. Bes, || TESS
Per. ct.| Per. ct.| Per. ci
4904 | Seconds, 30 dozen.......-..- Aug. 5 5,000,000 /5,100,C00 | 100,000 |.......-|-.-..--- 71. 41
4905 |...-. Loe PARR TE na EOS ebay saa G004 000! NGOOs O00 pm O00) Me meeens Geen ns 70. 98
4908 uth’ eggs, 30 dozen....-. dora 4,300,000 |4, 260,000 |1, 000,000 | 0.0021 | 0.0064 67. 33
CWE) sco sO Gogh ashe ssodseosmoeee Ses COreess| 5 S00; 000 SOOL000( ievertOn Sseeee ee | aeeear ce 1.60
4912 Greent receipts, 30 dozen...|...do..... 7, 000 6, 500 1,000 | 0016} .0060 73. 32
4915 | Current receipts, 12 dozen...| Aug. 6] 240,000] 240,000 1c0 | .0016| .0057 72.05
ASTON eeace Cae Sooe che caoeseanolsel sol does 17,500 | 0 at 1,000 HO) eae 63S ecopabbollsscuesse
BO AA Bie a ee een er aerate = seine Aug. 8 | 400,000 36, 500 HOO \eotsscseicostoucllzcccdacs
4936 bene e eee eee e ee eee eee ee eee ee Aug. 7 450, 000 } 420,000 10} .0015} .0053 71. 62
| }

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 58

CONDITIONS OBSERVED IN D HOUSE DURING TWO CONSECUTIVE YEARS.
SEASON OF 1911.
CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, AND ROUTINE.

D house installed during the winter of 1910-11 a breaking room, which at this time
was the only one of its kind in the country. (Pl. VIII, fig. 2.) The room was 22
by 28 feet. It was insulated with cork on the two outer walls and shavings on the
two inner walls. The five windows in the room were insulated with five glasses and
four air spaces, the outer pane being of prism glass. The entire room was of concrete
construction, the floor being covered with nonabsorbent paint, the walls and ceilings
with white enamel. The temperature varied from 60° F. to 65° F. The door of the
room opened into a passageway which was divided off at one end for a wash room.
The sink was equipped with steam table as well as hot and cold water, and wire
racks for draining apparatus.

The breaking tables (Pl. VIII, fig. 2) consisted of gas-pipe frames with slate tops.
Resting firmly on these were galvanized iron stands, also with slate tops, holding the
small breaking trays at a proper height for convenient work. (Pl. X, fig. 2.) The
breaking pans were tin, about 1 foot square and about 3 inches deep. A groove at
the top. of the pan held a tin-bound piece of one-half-inch mesh wire cloth. Across
this wire cloth, and separated by two tin uprights about 3 inches high, was stretched
tightly another piece of heavy tin, thereby dividing the top of the tray into two halves.
On this piece of tin, which was sharp, the eggs were broken. Sherbet cups were used
to receive the eggs. The whites and yolks were separated by the shell method.

The liquid egg was collected in cream pails holding 30 pounds. These, when filled,
were emptied into a galvanized churn with a capacity of 200 pounds and mixed by
hand with a perforated metal dasher. The mixture was drawn off by means of a
creamery faucet into 25-pound tin cans and immediately transferred to the freezer.
Only one grade of food egg, and no tanners’, was prepared.

At first all cans and utensils were washed and steamed for one minute or less on the
steam table whenever changed. Near the end of the season a creamery sterilizer was
provided, then all utensils were steamed for 15 minutes at 212° F. The girls wore
uniforms and caps. Paper towels were used for drying fingers. All the eggs were
chilled before candlingin arefrigerated room. The supply of eggs from the candling
to the breaking room was practically continuous, hence there was no time for dete-
rioration between candling and breaking. About 15 filled buckets stood overnight
to supply the breakers early in the morning. No egg cases were taken into this room,
but galvanized buckets holding 12 dozen eggs each were substituted, because they
were far more cleanly. The whites and yolks were separated by the shell method.

The force consisted of one foreman, five to ten breaking girls, one or two women to
wash apparatus, one messenger boy, and two candlers. Approximately 26,000
pounds of frozen eggs were prepared in a week.

COMPARISON OF COMMERCIAL AND EXPERIMENTAL SAMPLES.

Table D-I (Appendix, p. 94) gives the laboratory results on 38 samples of white,
yolk, and mixed egg prepared under the conditions just described. Twenty-four
of the number, or 63.2 per cent, had a bacterial count below 1,000,000 per gram and
the rest were under 5,000,000. The quantitative tests for B. coli never showed over
100,000 per gram, and in many cases the number was considerably lower. The small
amount of ammoniacal nitrogen found in the different samples showed that the eggs
entering the product were of good quality. The laboratory findings confirmed the
impressions gained by the observation of the routine in use, namely, that the man-
agement was handling the egg according to the best methods known at that time.

Table 23 gives five series of experiments showing the difference in bacterial con-
tamination of eggs broken commercially from clean seconds as compared with the
product obtained in the same manner from dirty eggs. All of the eggs used were of
about the same freshness as shown by the uniform quantity of loosely bound nitro-
gen in the different samples. Variation in quality, therefore, could have no influ-
ence in these tests on the bacterial counts. The results in four out of five cases
show that the organisms were present in much larger numbers in the product from
the dirty eggs, although all the counts were fairly low. The B. coli in the majority
of the tests were also more plentiful in the liquid irom the dirty eggs.

54 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE 23.—Clean eggs compared with dirty eggs \D House, 1911).

Bacteria per gram Z mm

on plain agarin- | Gas- Lique- saree

; Date of | cubated at— BEd eine fying "| trogen

=a ¢ Description of samples. collec- es aoe eee (Folin

O: tion. Dever = method

Breil Ao in ee per ah

20° C. Gs ile. gram. =

| basis).
Whole egg: 1911. Per cent.
243, Cleanishells eye ae oe ae ne July 12 29,500 | 160,000 HOR oe ao: ceyke 0.0017
244 Dirtyss Wellseee me eee eee ...do....| 19,000 67, 000 10 2,000 .0017
234 GCleanishellses- Ga ee July 11 4,900 3, 600 O00 Fie aeee aeeee - 0017
235 Dirtyshellssysasery: Ain see Mee do....| 190,000} 140,000 LOO Nee eee st - 0017
353 Cleamish'ellsa sees eae July 24 (1) 68, 000 TOO" ae epee - 0018
354 Dirty.shells ee ee ..-d0_...|1, 700,000 |2,100,000 | 100,000 }-......... - 0016
373 Clean shells.......----.-.-.-- July 25 10, 500 1 0 10, 000 - 0019
374 Dirty shells..........-.----- |_..do....| 960,000} 810,000} 10,000 | 210,000 . 0016
385 Glean'shells2j33) ee ee July 26 77, 000 240, 000 1,000 | Soi, 5a Mayes 20018
386 IDIAAPSAGIIS 4 cos kog bonoclme ..-do... .|4, 700,000 {3,000,000 1,000,000 .......... 0020

i

1 Sterile at 1,000.

The same differences in bacterial count were observed in the drip collecting in the
howe of the tray after breaking clean and dirty eggs. These results are given
in Table 24.

TaBLE 24.—Drip in breaking tray from clean and dirty eggs (D House, 1911).

Bacteria
a ea pe gram on Ges produce
she ate o plain agar acteria
Number. Description of samples. collection. incubated per gram in
at room lactose bile.
temperature.
I.
BToeeCleamegesvetee skeen cna nee ake me oo Man July 25,1911 24/500) 2 seen ae cae
S¥(B llbooee OE see Gate ie ae Way ete. Bes eye Gop. sue SZ OOO See nee eee
BS87E | eee GONE Se Re eM ad aa ete ee sh July 26,1911 95, 000 1,000
388 |..... Ose ee Mere Ue Sarees SR RtaR IM igo, Mae 2 cecil Deena doses 81,000 10, 000
die
SUG MUDARLY: OES BRS E NL. Sem U EN tea oS RY Eee July 25,1911 450) 0007 |e see see oce sees
BYES |Loose 6 Rays es Ae yea ae cub eae ancy ea sel bs te dolar 410; 000K Eee See eee
389) eee GO See Ae cE Se Res ENE ee July 26,1911 1, 600, 000 100, 000
390 |...-- (3 Ko epee aeaten ees eran cy Yate Petes aL are SES A Ge P| DRS dose eee 600, 000 1,000

A SPECIAL STUDY APPLYING INFORMATION OBTAINED DURING THE SUMMER OF 1911 TO
A WELL-EQUIPPED HOUSE.

The construction of the room in D house was excellent and the equipment good.
Cleanliness could be maintained and the work people were flexible. It seemed de-
sirable, therefore, to put into practical operation in this house the information on the
handling of frozen eggs that had been gathered during the course of investigations in
1911. The first week of September, 1911, was chosen for this series of experiments.
The weather in that section of the country had been very hot and humid, and the
deterioration of the egg supply had hastened accordingly. It was the season also for
the tall weeds to fall, hence many stolen nests were discovered and their contents sent
to market. These factors combined to give a supply of eggs that were very difficult
to grade, and the loss in both the candling and breaking rooms was heavy.

The candlers and breakers have an inherent tendency to keep the records of losses
as low as possible, thinking that they are benefiting their employer thereby, hence the
candler will pass eggs that should be discarded, and the breaker, after throwing away
a certain number, will begin to save eggs that she would not have used had their number
been fewer. This condition prevailed in D house at the time of the experiments and
was caused by the sudden influx of low-grade eggs. It was necessary, therefore, to

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED HGGS. Ay NS

supervise the work of the candlers and the grading of the breakers as well as to instill
the fundamentals of bacterial cleanliness into the people cleaning the apparatus.

A dairy sterilizer had been installed and it was found that 20 minutes at 210° F. was
sufficient to render cups, cans, and breaking knives sterile. All apparatus coming in
contact with the egg was, therefore, subjected to this treatment. The churn in which
the eggs were mixed and the pails in which the liquid eeu sw ae collected were steril-
ized at noon and again at night to be in readiness for the work of the next morning.

It was observed that many of the eggs had very weak yolks and some had cloudy
whites, but the greatest number of rejects were broken-down blood rings. These eggs
were difficult to grade and were in such large proportion that the breakers became lax
in grading, as stated before. Utensils were clean, but the hands of the breakers were
wet and their manipulation of the ege was not exact.

The samples in the first section of Table 25 were taken when the conditions just
described prevailed. The ammoniacal nitrogen was not high and the bacterial count
varied from 650,000 per gram in the white to 2,300,000 in the yolk. It seemed de-
sirable, however, to investigate the influence on the bacterial count of more careful
grading in the breaking room. Samples Nos. 652 to 654, inclusive, show that care in this
quarter alone is not enough if there is poor grading in the candling room, as the counts
still varied from 220,000 in the white to 1,800,000 in the mixed egg. Three girls
were then instructed to handle the eggs in the usual fashion, but to be exceedingly
careful to eliminate every doubtful egg and to replace soiled with clean apparatus
whenever an egg was discarded—a precaution which had sometimes been neglected
because of the number of discards. The work of each of these girls was tested sepa-
rately. The number of bacteria in the product prepared by them was low, as is
evidenced in samples Nos. 661 to 666, inclusive, the counts exceeding 1,000 per gram
in only two cases, and these not exceeding 310,000.

Later in the same day the supply of eggs coming from the candling room was plen-
tifully sprinkled with undesirable eggs—stuck spots, broken yolks, disintegrated
blood rings, etc. With such a supply two of the girls were instructed to handle the
eggs as accurately as possible, cracking sharply, turning quickly to prevent leakage,
emptying shells neatly, and keeping fingers clean and dry by means of tissue paper.
The results are given in samples Nos. 668 to 671, inclusive. The counts are high; in
fact, that of 18,000,000 in the white is far beyond any other count in the whole series
and can not be explained by any observed condition. With a better class of eggs,
though the work of the candlers was still unsatisfactory, samples of yolk, white, and
mixed ege, handled in as cleanly a manner as the girls were capable of, gave the
results shown by samples Nos. 672 to 674, inclusive, the mixed egg running up to
1,700,000 bacteria per gram.

Closer attention to grading in the breaking room resulted in the elimination from the
output of the house of many eggs that were considered ‘‘doubtful.’”’ They were col-
lected in a clean pail and examined. Sampies Nos. 656, 679, 680, and 681 show that
the number of bacteria was, in all but sample No. 680, decidedly above that usually
observed, varying from 1,600,000 to 19,000,000. The loosely bound nitrogen was not
high. The eggs going to make up these samples had soft yolks, disintegrated and
bleached blood rings, milky whites, yolks so heavily settled that they were almost
adherent, and almost all of them showed evidences of having had wet shells. The
hot, humid weather, and eggs from stolen nests would seem sufficient reasons to ac-
count for the presence of these deteriorated eggs and their number.

Improvement on the part of the candlers was now demanded. Their first efforts,
supplemented by careful grading and handling in the breaking room, were encour-
aging, as indicated by samples Nos. 675 to 678, inclusive, where the output of only
one breaker contained enough organisms to be worthy of consideration, that is, 2,200,-
000 per gram, the others varying from less than 1,000 to 64,000.

Still more exactness on the part of the candlers, as well as better receipts, and the
same care, with the better work that practice in the cleanly way of holding the egg
gave to the breakers, yielded the output samples in the series Nos. 682 to 690. The
total number of organisms was reduced to less than 1,000 per gram, except in two
specimens; the organisms of the coli group were almost eliminated. The breakers
worked steadily and rapidly. With the better grading in the candling room the loss
of time, due to changing soiled for clean apparatus, washing hands, etc., was saved,
and the judgment of the breaker when accepting an egg as satisfactory was more
trustworthy.

BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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58 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SEASON oF 1912.
CHANGES IN CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT.

The construction and equipment of D house needed but little further alteration to
bring it into accord with the information gained during the previous season. One of
the most important additions in equipment made during the season of 1912 was
the installation in the breaking room of a sanitary washbowl with running water.
This convenience saved considerable time, because formerly whenever a girl broke
an infected egg she had to go outside of the room to wash her hands.

In the season of 1912 the passageway outside the breaking room was converted into
an anteroom opening into the breaking room on one side and into a newly constructed
freezer on the other. The wash room, which formerly occupied this passage, was
transferred to a large storeroom into which the third door of the anteroom opened.
The fourth door of the anteroom led to a toilet room for the breakers.

The new freezer was well insulated, the walls and ceiling were enameled white,
and the floor was made of hard maple. Along two sides of the room were brine-pipe
racks on which the 30-pound cans of liquid egg were set while freezing. One side
of thisroomis pictured in Plate XIII, figure 1. The proximity of this freezer to the
breaking room greatly facilitated the disposal of the eggs after they were broken.

CONDITIONS PREVAILING EVERY THIRD WEEK FROM APRIL TO SEPTEMBER.
Visit No. 1 (May 6 to 11).

At this time the breaking stock consisted of small, cracked, and dirty eggs sorted
from the current receipts of this house and other houses within convenient shipping
distance.

On the first day of the visit the eggs were not being candled. It was observed that
the girls in the breaking room were annoyed by the frequency of the bad eggs which
could have been eliminated by candling. The management on the next day began
candling the eggs bought from other houses for breaking purposes. This change in
routine, however, only partially corrected the trouble in the breaking room, because
the work of the candlers was inefficient and because the current receipts of D house
were not graded before going to the breakers.

Most of the egg breakers had worked the previous season, consequently they had
received the benefit of the week’s training in September, 1911, when they were
taught the principles of bacterial cleanliness as applied to the handling of a food
product ane as far as possible the essential points to be observed in the grading of eggs
out of the shell. These instructions were codified and a written copy given each

girl to be followed by her in her work during the ensuing season. Their observance
had considerable influence on the cleanliness of the product. In substance the rules
were as follows:

1. Hands and uniform must be kept clean.

2. Do not use any apparatus coming in contact with food egg unless it has previ-
ously been both washed and sterilized.

3. Breaking the eggs.—Grasp the egg with the thumb, first and second fingers of the
right hand. Give the egg a quick blow on the sharp part of the knife with sufficient
force to make an even cut just through the shell and its membrane. Quickly turn
the crack upward so there will be no leakage from the egg while it is being trans-
ferred from the knife to the cup. With the first and second fingers on the ends of the
egg, use the tips of the thumbs to pull the two halves of the shell apart. To empty
the shell turn each half directly upside down so that they do not touch each ates
and drain for the length of time to count one, two, three. Do not let the cups
touch the knife.

4. When separating white from yolk, have three cups on the tray. Put two on the
side which gets the best light, far enough back to be able to crack the eggs on the
knife well beyond the cups. Put the other cup on the other side of the tray behind the
breaking place on the knife. Put the white into the first cup, the yolk into the
second. The other cup on the opposite side is for soft or doubtful eggs. Never sepa-
rate dirty eggs by the shell method.

5. Drying fingers.—Only the tips of the fingers should touch the eggs. They should
be dried frequently on tissue paper.

6. Use two cups and, unless bad eggs are prevalent, put two and no more into each
cup before emptying.

7. Smell and look at every cup of eggs carefully before emptying.

8. When emptying cups, pour out eggs, then touch edge of cup against inside of can
at least 2 inches below the rim. Do not, therefore, fill cans too full.

9. Eggs to be discarded.—Musty, moldy, and sour eggs, eggs with a bloody or green
white, mixed rots, eggs with a stuck yolk, white rots, and eggs with a bad odor.

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 59

10. Cleaning after a bad egg.—Remove all pieces of apparatus with which the egg
has come in contact and wash hands before getting clean equipment. For instance,
if the infected egg has reached the cup, a recently sterilized knife and cup will be
required, or, if the egg spattered on the tray, the entire outfit will have to be replaced.
When a bad egg is present in the cup with good ones, all must be thrownaway. Spoon-
ing or pouring out what can be seen of a bad egg is not allowed.

11. Have cups, knives, trays, churn, and collecting buckets washed and sterilized
at noon and again at night.

12. Never break eggs while the room is being swept or for one hour afterwards.

The girls, eight in number, were apt, intelligent, and desirous of learning the under-
lying principles involved in the preparation of clean, wholesome canned eggs. Their
work at this time was good except in one detail—they were not. washing hands after
every discarded egg, an excusable omission, because they had to go through two
doors to get to running water. This inconvenience was obviated when the sanitary
washbow] was installed.

A few minor pieces had been added to the list of breaking equipment. For ex-
ample, screens for the bottom of the egg pails; racks for the handling of the cups in
and out of the sterilizer, etc.; and two removable shelves under each breaking stand,
one for clean cups and knives and the other for the same when dirty.

The sanitary conditions in the breaking room were excellent. Laboratory tests
showed that all the utensils, after sterilizing according to the regular routine, were
sterile and that the gir was practically free from bacteria. The latter was controlled
by fumigating the room once a week with formaldehyde and potassium permanganate.

This house began to break eggs about April 10. On April 17 three samples from
checked eggs were taken. Their bacterial examination showed, as given in Tables
D-II and D-III (Appendix, pp. 96 and 98), under this date, the exceptionally low
count of 5,100, 100, and 200 organisms per gram for mixed ege, white, and yolk, respec-
tively; and no B. coli in the sample of white and only 100 in the other two samples.
The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen for the three specimens was identical with that
of fresh eggs. Onaccount of prompt handling and cool weather the cracked eggs had
not deteriorated previous to breaking.

Similar samples obtained for the most part from cracked eggs were procured during
the regular visit in the early part of May when the output per day was one-third
more than it was at the time of the preliminary visit. The laboratory results still
showed a comparatively low bacterial content, as indicated in Tables D-II and D-III
under visit No. 1, but there is observed an increase as compared with the count of the
previous samples. The white contained 13,500, the yolk 64,000, and the mixed egg
170,000 organisms per gram. The B. coli in each of these specimens numbered 1,000
uae There was also slightly more loosely bound nitrogen in the eggs at this

eriod.
i The differences in the number of bacteria and the ammoniacal nitrogen in the two
lots of samples are almost negligible from a practical viewpoint. They are, however,
readily detected by laboratory methods, and are probably due to an increased rate of
deterioration in the cracked eggs because of warmer weather.

Visit No. 2 (May 27 to 31).

The second series of observations in this house was made when practically all the
additions and changes in equipment had been installed. Thesanitary washbowl and
the remodeled breaking tray were in operation.

Plate X, figure 2, shows a girl at work with the remodeled apparatus. Onherricht
in a galvanized-iron pail is her egg supply; at her left on the table is the 25-pound
cream pail for the liquid egg, and on the floor the can for the shells; in front of her
on the breaking stand is the breaking tray. Underneath the stand can be observed
the shelves for holding the supply of apparatus. Over the girl’s head is suspended a
package of tissue paper (not shown in picture) for drying fingers.

The new breaking tray, about 1 foot square and 2 inches deep, consists of a copper
pan for the drip, a wire screen for supporting the cups, and a breaking knife of boiler
steel, the different parts being arranged as pictured in Plate X, figure 2. The pan is
tinned on the inside. The ends of the blade are so beveled that they fit into V-shaped
openings in the two uprights on the screen. One end of the upper side of the knife
is sharpened for about3 inches. An egg can be broken on this edge without splintering
the shell and with very little leakage from the crack while the egg is being transferred
from the knife to the cup.

This firm began buying its eggs on a “quality basis” on the Ist of June. The lots
coming in during the earlier part of the day were taken to the candling room, which
was now under refrigeration and immediately graded; those received late in the after-
noon were kept over night in a chill room at about 32° F. and candled the next day

60 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

All of the eggs, however, would have been chilled 24 hours before they were graded
but for the fact that many of the vendors insisted on payment on the date of the sale.

The present system of buying insured the grading of all eggs going to the breaking
room. The breaking stock now included shrunken eggs candled out of receipts as well
as small and cracked eges. On account of the dry weather there were not many dirty
egos at this time. There were but few badly deteriorated eggs in the supply, conse-
quently the work in the breaking room was not materially affected by the kind of
work done in the candling room.

The maximum daily output of canned eggs at this time was practically the same as
the first week in May. The weather had not yet become sufficiently warm to produce
many seconds; therefore, the supply of eggs for breaking purposes was chiefly small,
dirty, and cracked eggs.

In two experiments in which both the white and the yolk of the egg were exam-
ined, the bacterial count, as given in Table D-III, visit No. 2, (Appendix, p. 98),
was not higher than similar samples taken in April and early May. The third pair of
samples had in the white 1,500,000 and in the yolk 950,000, a considerably higher
count than has been observed heretofore. The B. coli also had increased decidedly.
The higher count in these samples may be due to the fact that clean and dirty eggs
were sent together to the breaking room. The girls who were separating by the
shell method were instructed not to break dirty eges, but they, of necessity, had to
handle them and, therefore, fingers were soiled. ‘The fact that there were more bac-
teria in the white than in the yolk lends color to thisinference. Previously, when the
dirty eggs were more plentiful, the candlers sorted them into lots by themselves and
they were broken for mixed ege.

Three samples of mixed egg from seconds, as recorded in Table D-II, under visit
No. 2, (Appendix, p. 96), had a minimum bacterial content of 320,000, a maximum of
950,000 organisms per gram, and a range in the number of B. coli from 1,000 to 10,000.
These counts are considerably higher than any found in previous samples; the amount
of loosely bound nitrogen had also slightly increased.

Twelve samples of mixed eggs taken each working day during the interval between
the second and third visit (see Table D-II, under dates May 29 to June 15, inclusive),
showed no material increase in the bacterial content and no change in the ammo-
niacal nitrogen. In fact, many of the counts were lower. Six of the samples con-
tained less than 400,000 bacteria per gram; the number in the other six was not over
2,200,000. The maximum count of this series of experiments was higher than has
been found in samples taken at an earlier date, but the average was about the same.

Visit No. 3 (June 17 to 22).

The third visit was made between the dates June 17 and 22, inclusive, when, owing
to prolonged cool weather and a shortage in the egg supply, there were few seconds to
be used for breaking. The number of girls in the breaking room had been reduced
from eight to four, and often they worked for only part of a day. The eggs were of
good quality, so the grading was comparatively simple. A tanners’ grade was being ,
made of the discards in the breaking room. The preparation of this grade, however,
was soon abandoned.

At this time there were obtained eight samples of food egg, of which five were whites
and three yolks. The laboratory examination showed that neither the bacterial count
nor the amount of ammoniacal nitrogen had increased when compared with the results
obtained irom similar samplestaken previously.

Three samples were also taken of the tanners’ eggs, which, as would be expected,
were heavily infected with bacteria, the number aggregating, in some cases, more than
100,000,000 per gram. ‘The high amount of ammoniacal nitrogen, about treble that
found in the food eggs at this time, indicated to what degree the material had deterio-
rated. These results are given in Table 26.

Tasie 26.—Commercial samples of tanners’ liquid egg—Dtscards from breaking room
(D house, 1912).

Bacteria per gram on Gas- Ammoniacal

plain agar incubated ducin 2 ‘ nitrogen i
Sam- Dateof | ati— — vroctoriae | Liquefying | (Folin method).| yfoig- | Size of

ple collec- per gram organisms mare sam-

y > e
No. a tion Baek rae in lactose per gram. | yw et | Dry ple.

S bile. basis. | basis.

Per ct. | Perct.| Perct.| Lbs.

4555 | 3 | June 17 {110,000,000 | 56,000,000 | 1,000,000 } 20,000,000 } 0.0047 | 0.0156 | 69. 82 30
4561 | 3 |..-do.- ..|150, 000,000 | 68,000,000 | 10,000,000 | 60,000,000 |} .0055 | .0157} 65.06 30

4569 | 3 | June 18 | 39,000,000 | 20,000,000 | 1,000,000 | 6,000,000 | .0039 | .0124 | 68.73 70

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 61

Some experiments were conducted during this week to check the cleanliness of the
routine of the breaking room. For this investigation four samples of eggs in the shell
were procured—one of clean seconds, one of cracked eggs, and two of dirty eggs. The
samples, consisting of 12 dozen eggs each, were divided equally into two portions.
One was broken commercially in the packing house, and the other was opened asepti-
cally in the laboratory. These comparative experiments, listed in Table 27, not only
indicate the superior quality of the breaking stock at this season, but also show how
closely the aseptic methods of the laboratory can be approximated under commercial
conditions.

TaBLE 27.—Comparative samples of eggs opened commercially and aseptically (D house,
1912).

[Samples collected June 19, 1912.]

Bacteria per a Ammoniacal
gram on plain} _Pro- nitrogen Num-
carincu- |ducing|,-; . Folin
3 Ay agar incu g 0 i
Sam Description and | pated at— _ |bacteria avelye ie rea Mois- bee Method of
Ko. | Size of sample. ELM cetera ture. | gis | opening.
: gramin| Pe stam. 4
20° CG. 137°C lactose Wet | Dry CEUCNS:
% “| pile. basis. | basis.
Visit No. 3. Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct.
4572| Cracked, 6 dozen |140, 000} 75, 000 0) BecoScenerEs 0.0019} 0.0071} 73,22 2| Commercial.
fea bY6) See OS Bae Ss 200 350 Ofase2k Bee ese - 0018} .0065) 72.09 1) Aseptic. _
4585| Leakers of No. 200 100, iedeagseodes -0019} .0068) 72.03 0} Commercial.
4573, 14 dozen. z
4578] Clean seconds, 6 600 300 0} =0im1,000) .0016; .0059) 73.00 0 Do.
dozen.

4579)...-- Go AEuy ees 0 0 0} 0im1,000) .0017} .0061) 72.13 2| Aseptic.
4576] Dirty, 6dozen... 400 400 10} Oin1,000) .0017) .0065] 73.85 0} Commercial.
dS Tl clei aks OAIS eae na 200 50 0in 1,000) .0017) .0061) 72.29 0} Aseptic.
4581|..... dow Roar: 13,000} 3,000) 1,000 2,000} .0017| 0063) 72.87 0} Commercial.
4582]...-. GOR yee: 1 0 0in 1,000) .0017} .0061] 72.02)...... Aseptic.

Visit No. 4 (July 9 to 12).

During the interval between the third and fourth visits the weather had been warm,
with the result that the percentage of seconds in receipts increased and many of the
fertile eggs contained hatch spots or blood rings. A typical heated egg is pictured in
Plate Il, U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 51. On account of ineffi-
cient candling many blood rings found their way to the breaking room, thereby increas-
ing the difficulties of grading as well as necessitating frequent changes of apparatus.

This poor work led one to suspect that the candlers might be just as careless in
throwing away edible eggs as they were in not eliminating the bad eggs. That this
suspicion was well founded is shown by the fact that when two cases of discards from
the candling room were broken one contained 9.7 per cent food eggs and the other
the astonishingly high percentage of 29.4 per cent. This was too great a loss to be
passed unnoticed, therefore the candling foreman was instructed to recandle daily
the eggs discarded by the different candlers. This work was a part of the candling
room routine for the remainder of the season.

Up to the present time the girls had worked practically without supervision and
according to the instructions given them at the beginning of the season. Now, in
order to train new girls and on account of the increased difficulty in grading, one
of the cleanest antl most experienced egg breakers was given charge of the room.
Her duties were as follows:

1. Enforce instructions, to breakers,

2. Supervise washing and sterilizing of apparatus and supply of same to breaking

om.

3. Ifa breaker is dirty, disobedient, unable to grade, or inefficient, consult with the
management regarding her discharge.

4. li candling is not satisfactory, report to the management.

5. Decide on doubtful eggs.

6. Supervise cleaning of breaking room, toilet room, hallway, and wash room.

Samples taken during this visit and also those taken by an employee of the plant
during the investigator’s absence showed practically no change in the bacterial count
or the amount of ammoniacal nitrogen of the commercial product. Previous work on
hatch-spot eggs proved them to be nearly sterile when opened aseptically and to con-
tain low quantities of ammoniacal nitrogen. « Therefore one would not expect that the
presence of a large percentage of these eggs in the breaking stock would materially
affect either its bacterial content or its chemical composition.

62 BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Visit No. 5 (July 29 to August 2).

The fifth series of observations was made when, owing to a prolonged period of hot
weather, there was an increased supply of eggs for breaking. Many of the eggs were
distinctly lower in quality than the breaking stock previously used. The regular
candling room was not large enough to handle all the eggs, therefore an auxiliary
candling room was established in one corner of a storeroom. Not being refrigerated,
it was very hot. To take care of the extra supply of eggs, new candlers were required.
From this fact, together with the increased difficulty in grading such low quality
eggs, it could be predicted that large numbers of bad eggs would not be detected and
would therefore gain access to the breaking room.

An observation made in the breaking room showed that 41 bad eggs, or 9.5 per cent,
were found in a total of 36 dozen. These should all have keen eliminated by the
candlers. An analysis of the 41 eggs showed that they consisted of 2 eggs containing
mold spots, 6 blood rings, 13 white rots, and 20 eggs with an adherent yolk.

The effect of so many bad eggs in the breaking-room stock is shown by the fact that
the product broken from the lot of 36 dozen eggs contained 20,000,000 organisms per
eram.
~ An investigation in the candling- room showed that the trouble was chiefly ignorance
on the part of the new candlers. By working with them for a short time and pointing
out which eggs should be saved and which discarded the number of bad eggs in the
breaking stock was promptly reduced.

In order to put a check on the work of individual candlers, each man was instructed
to place a tag bearing his name on every bucket of eggs candled by him. Under this
system the work of an individual candler could be traced into the breaking room.
Under this regulation the men worked more cautiously, and as long as this system was
in use the work in the candling room was greatly improved.

The girls in the breaking room, now 14 in number, were doing efficient work under
the supervision of the new forewoman. The organization previously described,
including a forewoman, had been in operation about two weeks. During this time the
increased efficiency in the breaking room was equivalent to the wages of the
forewoman.

Up to this time one-half of the girls had their egg supply on the left instead of on
the right side; observations with a split-second stop watch showed that 1.8 seconds
were lost for every four eggs broken when a girl reached for her eggs with her left
rather than with her right hand.

Estimating these results on the basis of a 10-hour day, a girl reaching to the right for
the eggs could break 1.4 more cases a day than she could when working toward the
leit. In accordance with these results, all the apparatus on the breaking table was
rearranged so that no extra motions were made from the time the egg was removed
from the pail until it reached its final container.

The majority of the commercial samples taken during the latter part of July con-
tained not only more bacteria but also more loosely bound nitrogen than did any pre-
vious series of samples. For instance, the five specimens of mixed eggs collected
during the investigator’s absence and the five collected during visit No. 5 had, as
given in Table D-II, visit No. 5 (Appendix), an average count of 1,400,000 organisms
per gram as compared with 650,000 in the samples taken during the first half of the
month. The white and yolk samples showed an even greater increase in bacteria.

During this visit there was received one shipment of 72 cases of checks which showed
a combined loss in the candling and breaking room of 14.6 per cent. The bacterial
findings given in Table 28 showed that the product from these eggs had a materially
higher bacterial content than the regular product. Many of the eggs were moldy.
They were obtained from a shipper who had: gradually sorted them out of his receipts
as unsuited for shipping and had therefore sold them to an egg-breaking establish-
ment.

TABLE 28.—Commercial samples of low quality, cracked eggs (D house, 1912.)

Bacteria per gram | Gas-pro- | Ammoniacal
on plain agar in- ducing nitrogen (Folin

Sample| Description and size of Dee of cubated at— bacteria method). Moist-
No. sample, ‘Sal Sl a ee | POE | EL
: 20°C 37°¢G, |i lactose} Wet Dry
2 bile. basis. | basis.
Visit No. 8.

Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.
4855 | Cracked eggs, 125 pounds....] July 29°] 6,000,000] 5,500,000) 100,000} 0.0023) 0.0075] 69.19
ASSGule. #3 (8 ope Paes Se Ne eng eee doses 4,800,000] 4,000,000) 100,000)..-.....|..-....-.]----...-
4886 | Cracked eggs, 100 pounds....| Aug. 1 | 5,400,000] 4,300,000] 100,000; .0017| .0062} 72.69

PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS. 63

A second shipment of checked eggs, which had been in commerce, as was the other
shipment cited, but obtained from a different shipper, gave similar results. The
product was of lower quality than the average output of this house; hence the pur-
chase of such eggs was promptly discontinued.

Visit No. 6 (August 19 to 24).

The sixth and last visit was made when, owing to the lateness of the egg-laying
season, the receipts were very light.

The candlers had become careless because the tag system of checking had been
abolished when the force was decreased. The work of the breakers, however, was
as good as during the last visit, because the organization and routine of the breaking
room was not changed even though the number of girls had been reduced.

The quality of the breaking stock had not improved, consequently the counts of
samples procured on the fifth and sixth visits were practically the same; the average
count of the 10 samples of mixed egg taken the latter half of July was 1,400,000 per
gram; of the same number of samples collected during the visit under discussion, it
was 1,700,000 organisms per gram (Table D-II, Appendix, p. 96).

During this visit a gravity type trough separator for whites and yolks was tried.
This device did not prove mechanically successful for separating warm-weather eggs.
Samples of white and yolk separated by the trough method, both during its experi-
mental stage and after its perfection, gave the counts listed in Table 29. Ii the results
under visits 2 and 5 be compared with the counts for similar periods in Table D-IIT
(Appendix, p. 98), which gives whites and yolks separated by the shell method, it will
be observed that in all cases there are fewer bacteria in the samples separated by the
trough method. This is particularly true of the number of B. colt.

TABLE 29.—Commercial samples of whites and yolks—Trough method of separation
(D house, 1912).

Bacteria per Ammoniacal
gram on plain | Gas-pro- nitrogen
Date of | #8" incubated duce (Folin
, t— i m - | Mois-
paupie Description and size of sample- collec- Ss eae eyhed) Mois
tion, in lactose ea ee
° ile. e Ty
20°'C._| 372.C. ‘inscite, || [DSGHe.
Visit No. 2.
, Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.
4403 | Whites, seconds, 15 pounds.........| May 27 |11,600 150 10 |0.0004 |0.0031 | 87.10
4404 | Yolks of No. 4403, 15 pounds....... sedorel 2 11,200 400 110 | .0033 | .0072 | 54.15
Visit No. 5.
4861 | Whites, seconds and cracked eggs,
ZO pOUNdsee seas hee veya Se oe /2820,000 |/190, 000 Cal OUD) Noscdodolbeaseactscosdos
4862 | Yolks of No. 4861, 20 pounds. sellbaaGl 2100,000 |150, 000 21,000 | .0030 | .0068 | 56.05

4868 | Whites, seconds, 13 pounds... 2360,000 |330, 000 ZT OOO tele ces|saeceeelssmenee

4869 | Yolks of No. 4868, 11 pounds.......|...d 2110,000 | 90,000 |20in 100 | .0037 | .0083 | 55. 42
Visit No. 6.

41005 | Whites, seconds, 25 pounds......... : 27,000 | 22,000 10s eeeine lorasieel | tieacc

41006 | Yolks of No. 41005, 15 pounds do..

41011 | Whites, seconds, 18 pounds.........|..- 600, 000 |650, 000
41012 | Yolks of No. 41011, 13 pounds 650, 000 |600, 000
41026 | Whites, seconds and cracked eggs,

BOPOUNAS ete ese eae ne eee ee ae Aug. 20 |490,000 |360, 000 CU daeeen erisemed soeeone
41027 | Yolks of No. 41026, 30 pounds......|-.. do 800, 000 |650, 000 10,000 | .0027 | .0075 | 64.06

i
300,000 |180, 000 1,000 -0029 | .0067 | 56.66
0].
0

1 Comparable figures obtained by the shell method of separation (Table D III, p. 98, Appendix) vary
from 13,00 to 950,000 bacteria in the yolks and from 60,000 to 1,500,000 in the whites, B. colt varying from
100 to 10,000.

2 Comparable figures from the same source show a maximum bacterial content of 650,000 for the whites,
ZO) for the yolks, and from 100 to 1,000,000 B. coli—a pronounced superiority of the trough-separated
product.

By the shell method the egg, during the shifting of the yolk from one half shell to
the other, is sure to come in contact with the fingers of the breaker and the outside
of the shells, both of which, as foregoing statements have proved, are serious sources
of contamination. By the trough method the egg, on the other hand, comes in con-
tact with practically nothing except the cup and separator, both of which can be kept
clean by frequent sterilizing.

BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

64

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68

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FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS.

OF

PREPARATION

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BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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79

PREPARATION

OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS.

*seydures Jo JOqUINN 1

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BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

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PREPARATION OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS.

81

TasLeE F-IT.—Commercial samples of dried yolk before and after secondary drying, 1912.

Sample ao
No. | visit.
42321...) 1
We || Pat
4372... | 2
ie ae (ee
4644....| 4
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
6

1 Previous run to Nos. 4225 to 4231.

BEFORE SECONDARY DRYING.

Bacteria per gram on

plain agar incubated
Date at—
of col-

lection.

20°C 37° C.
May 3 71,000 28, 500
May 41 17,000,000 | 18,000, 000
May 6 130, 000 51, 000
June 11 |110,000,000 |160, 000, 000
June 22 | 80,000,000 | 89,000, 000
May 29) 1,800,000} 2,000,000
June 10 | 77,000,000 | 78,000, 000
..-do....| 49,000,000 | 44,000, 000
June 12 | 95,000,000 | 68,000, 000
June 17} 3,200,000 | 3,000,000
June 19 | 33,000,000 | 36,000, 000
June 24} 2,100,000 | 1,900,000
June 26 | 39,000,000 | 33,000, 000
June 27 | 86,000,000 | 60,000, 000
Aug. 16 | 29,000,000 | 24,000, 000

88374°—Bull. 224—16——6

2 Same egg as No. 4518.

Gas-pro-
ducing
bacteria
per gram
in lactose
bile.

organisms
per gram.

100 |0in 100, 000

10, 000
10, 000
100, 000
1,000

10, 000 25, 000
100, 000 8,000
100, 000 10, 000

10,000 |Oin 10,000
100,000 |Oin 10,000
100,000 |0in 100, 000
100,000 |0in 100, 000

10,000 |0 in 100,000 |...

100, 000 200, 000

Liquefying

3 Same egg as No. 4515.

Ammoniacal
nitrogen (Folin

method).
Wet Dry
basis basis.
Per cent. | Per cent
0.0017 0.0018
ia 0083 | .0096 | ‘13. 40

4 Dried yolk.

BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

82

89°19 1100 ~ ¢200°
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BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

34

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BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

86

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BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

88

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BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

90

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91

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BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

92

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93

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BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

94

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BULLETIN 224, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

96

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OF FROZEN AND DRIED EGGS.

PREPARATION

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99

AND DRIED EGGS.

PREPARATION OF FROZEN

*pepreo

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€8 OL 600° 9T00°

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(‘tT ‘d ‘aorssnostq)

“6I6L ‘poyjow hvu ayy hq pajpunzyy—shba buryna) fo saydiups powuewumojg—' A I-C a1aV J,

ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
30 CENTS PER COPY

V

Bul. 224, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |.

Fic. 1.—ONeE DROP OF WATER FROM A Fic. 2.—ONE DROP OF WATER FROM SAUCER
SAUCER WASHED IN RUNNING WATER SHELF. (REPRINT FROM CIRCULAR 98,
AFTER RECEIVING A BAD_Ea@G. (REPRINT BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY.)

FROM CIRCULAR 98, BUREAU OF CHEM-
ISTRY.)

Fia. 4.—FINGER TIPS OF BREAKER
(B House).

Fia. 3.—ONE Drop oF “‘ DRIP”? FROM TRAY
(B House).

B HOUSE.

Bul. 224, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE li.

Fic. 1.—EDGE OF WASHED TUMBLER
(C House).

Fic. 2.—FINGER TIPS OF BREAKER
(C HOUSE).

FIG. 3.—WASHED FINGER TIPS AFTER
CRUSHING TANNERS’ EGG,

C HOUSE.

Bul. 224, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Ill

Fic. 1.—ONE DROP OF WATER FROM A Fic. 2.—ONE DROP OF WATER FROM A
WASHED PAIL (E House). CLEAN PAN (E House).

Fic. 3.—ONE DROP OF WATER FROM SINK Fic. 4.—FINGER TIPS OF BREAKER
(E House). (E HOUSE).

E HOUSE.

Bul. 224, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

“(LL6L “ASNOH 3) SNITSGOWSY 3YOsag WOOY ONINVAYG

D PEBBLE F 243

IAF? 7 maa
rors Oy faim,
ttn hen 4
LFS LEAP sar rermangg

PLATE V.

Bul. 224, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

“(SL6L

'SsnoH 3) ONIadowsay

Yaisv LNEWdINO*F

HIM WOOY ONINVSyR

PLATE VI.

Bul. 224, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

(S161 ‘SSNOH 3)

ONITAGOWSY YSLSV NOILVYSdO NI WOOY ONIMVAYg-D9F

PLATE VII.

Bul. 224, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.

“(SLEL

‘ASNOH 4) NOiLvY¥sadO NI

WOOY. ONINVaYUg

907

Bul. 224, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII.

Fig. 2.—VIEW OF EGG-BREAKING ROOM SHOWING TABLES AND CHURN (D House,
1911 AND 1912).

PLATE IX

Dept. of Agriculture.

S.

U

Bul. 224,

“(SLGL ‘SSNOH 3) SNITSGOWSY YaLsv
ONINVAYG OPA HOS GASf) Lia LNO—'§ “SI

“(LL6L ‘SSNOH 3) SNITSGOWSY 3uOsga

ONIMVaYNg DOF

YyO4S GAS, LISLNO—'?S “SI4

(GL6L “SSNOH 3)
YSTIGNVO SNO Ad GASf, LNAWdINOF—"| “dI4

PLATE X.

of Agriculture.

Dept.

S.

U

. 224,

Bu

“(SL6L ‘ASNOH Q)
$9094 ONINVSYG HOS Gasp) LISLNO—'?s ‘dls

“(ZSLEL 'ASNOH 4) S099 ONINVAYG HOS Gas) LI4LNO—'| “dI4

Bul. 224, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI

Fic. 2.—WINDOW FOR TRANSFERRING APPARATUS BETWEEN BREAKING ROOM AND
STERILIZING Room (F House, 1912).

Bul. 224, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII.

Fic. 1.—VIEW OF STERILIZING ROOM SHOWING STERILIZER, CAN CHUTE, AND WINDOW
FOR TRANSFERRING APPARATUS (F House, 1912).

Fia. 2.—VIEW OF STERILIZING ROOM SHOWING SINK, DRAIN RACK, AND MoTtor-DRIVEN
BRUSHES (F House, 1912).

Bul. 224, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII.

os

: Fia. 2.—TRAY FOR LEAKING EGGS.

Bul. 224, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Prate XIV

f 5
eyhees

i

Fa)

As Men isi

Bul. 224, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture re
PLATE

A FRESH EGG BEFORE THE CANDLE AND OUT OF THE SHELL

ch aa

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 225

Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization ‘
CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief 4 |

: Washington, D. C. Vv May 7, 1915

A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR
COOPERATIVE FRUIT ASSOCIATIONS

By

G. A. NAHSTOLL, Assistant in Cooperative
Organization Accounting
and W. H. KERR, Investigator in Market Business Practice

CONTENTS

Introduction
Object
Memorandum Records Express Shipments

Trial Balance
Books and Special Forms Binders
Opening the Books
What Accounts to Keep
Closing the Books

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915

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BUDE TIN OF THE

J USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE

No. 225

Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, _
Charles J. Brand, Chief. May 7, 1915.

A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE
FRUIT ASSOCIATIONS.

By G. A. NausTou., Assistant in Cooperative Organization Accounting, and
W. H. Kerr, Investigator in Market Business Practice.

CONTENTS.
Page. Page

minodietioni. 6 ke eo) tockeepine ote secelce = 1 «| Secondmethod- 2. 45/2 .).. 32 4-5-.- ee) 5-32 23
Opyectte e255 fse. A ROS ee Mite: yer 2 Cash disbursements............-.-.------- 24
Memorandum records. .......-..--...------- 2 | Express shipments.......-.-....--.--------- 24
hirshmethodes wees se Lee el 4 ria lb alancebn. Lease ALTE NC eae ee 24

Books and special forms...............-..- 5 pound Osha eysceea ea eee Shee pa pare aoa cede 25

Opening the books...................-.--- 15 AC ONCLUSION At Se heehee: LE ENC REE eeu 25

What accounts to keep...............-...- 17

Closinpithe books: 222 se, 20

INTRODUCTION.

There are already several hundred cooperative organizations in
the United States handling deciduous fruits and produce. New
associations or exchanges are formed from time to time as the farm-
ers in the various localities begin to realize the benefits to be derived
from the cooperative handling and marketing of their products.
Many of these organizations flourish for a short time, but each year
witnesses the dissolution of a number of them. These failures fre-
quently can be attributed either directly or indirectly to the lack of
a proper system of accounting and the subsequent verification of the
accounting record by means of a thorough audit.

The system outlined in this bulletin has been devised to meet the
requirements of the smaller organizations handling deciduous fruits
and produce on a commission basis, and it is hoped that the assistance
given will lead to the adoption of simple, concise, and comprehensive
methods of keeping records of sales and reporting the proceeds of
such sales to the growers. A special system has been prepared for
the requirements of the potato exchanges which buy outright from
the grower or pool on a basis of the day’s sales.

While the system here given is sufficiently flexible to admit of a
great deal of expansion, it will not cover the varied needs of the
larger associations of the West and Northwest, where the cooperative
handling and marketing of fruit has been much more highly developed.
In a later bulletin the department intends to publish a discussion of

Note.—This bulletin should be of interest to all cooperative fruit associations throughout the country.
88197°—Bull. 225—15——1

2 BULLETIN 225, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the many accounting problems of the larger organizations and to
submit forms to cover their needs.

Two methods of handling the records of settlements with the grow-
ers are shown in this bulletin. ‘The first method, which does not
provide for individual ledger accounts with the growers, has been
tried out in the offices of the Delaware Produce Exchange at Dover,
Del., and the second method, which provides for the use of such
accounts, has been used in the offices of the Virginia Fruit Growers
(Inc.), of Staunton, Va. The reasons for the change in this particu-
lar are set forth fully in the text.

OBJECT.

There are a number of different systems now in use in cooperative
organizations marketing deciduous fruits and produce, but while
these serve as records of the transactions, no provision is made for a
proper filing of the papers supporting the figures appearing in the
records. Inasmuch as the organization acts in the capacity of an
agent for the growers, the accounting system should be.so arranged
that the history of each lot of fruit or produce delivered can be
easily and quickly traced from the time it is turned over to the
organization for shipment until the returns are paid to each grower.

A system providing for the filing together of all papers pertaining
to the same shipment in a separate folder or envelope, where they
will be readily accessible for reference, will be found to be much more
satisfactory than one in which the necessary data supporting the
figures which appear on the books must be procured from a number
of different files. The best system of accounts for any business is
the one that secures the information desired with the least effort.
The aim has been, therefore, to devise the least involved system
which will secure the information essential to successful management
with absolute accuracy and promptness.

Wide divergence in accounting needs will be found among the
various cooperative marketing organizations. This is particularly
true of the various types of organizations handling deciduous fruits
and produce. It has been the aim in this bulletin to give a system
of accounts which will fill the needs of the smaller cooperative
organizations, acting primarily as sales agencies.

MEMORANDUM RECORDS.

In the marketing of perishable products it is often found necessary
to divert shipments in transit from one consignee to another in the
same market or from one market to another, or a car may be for-
warded as a “‘tramp;” that is, it may be billed out subject to the
shipper’s order and routed in such a manner that it can be diverted
easily to one of several markets, wherever it is most probable that a
sale will be made. Owing to the perishable nature of the product,

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 3

deterioration may set in, and an allowance may have to be made
before the consignee is willing to accept the shipment. Demurrage,
switching, and extra icing charges may accrue in transit, and these
must be deducted from the selling price. Fluctuations in market
conditions may change the selling price even after the shipment has
gone forward. Again, cars may be sent out to commission houses to
be handled on consignment, while others may be sent to the auctions
in the various cities. In these cases the net proceeds derived from
any particular shipment will not be known until the account of sales
has been received. To take care of all these contingencies, a system
of accounts devised for a cooperative organization which markets
deciduous fruits and produce must be very flexible, and the record
of sales must be kept in memorandum form until the transaction is
consummated.

Many of the systems now in use are built around a form generally
known, as the sales book. In this book each sale is journalized, a
column being provided for charges to customers’ accounts on one
side, and on the other side a column for credits to the growers’
accounts, for commission and for brokerage due, the journal entry

being:

Dr.’ Purchaser... ....- $700. 00
Cr. To Growers.......- $650.75
Commission...... 34. 25
Broken S2vues 15. 00

The charges to the accounts of the purchasers are posted in detail
during the month, but the growers’ accounts and the commission
account are not credited with the net proceeds until payment is
received for the shipments. In order to establish the equality of the
twe sides of the trial balance at the end of the month, the unpaid
items would have to be taken into consideration. Or the posting to
the ledger is carried out as follows:

Dr. Purchaser....... $700.00
Ce) op hrui tees aes - $700. 00

Drei raih = 3 2.) ae $700. 00
Cr. To Growers.......- 665. 00
Commission... ... 35. 00

These entries make a trial balance possible at the end of the first
month, but to obtain a balance at the end of the second month all
items recorded during the previous month but paid during the second
necessarily would have to be taken into account in order to obtain a
balance.

These systems are found, therefore, to bé entirely too rigid for use
in the handling of highly perishable products where provision must
be made for so many contingencies. The changes on the sales book
are made necessarily by interlineations, and in some instances these
entries are so confusing as to be impossible of translation. Since it
is difficult to obtain a trial balance at the end of each month, as a

4 BULLETIN 225, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

_ tule no balance is attempted until the close of the season, when very
often it is found to be out of the question to secure a balance. As
the difference between the two sides of a trial balance may be made
up of several compensating errors, this procedure necessarily must be
condemned.

To make this system flexible enough to take care of all such con-
tingencies, the sales book has been discarded and an envelope system
substituted therefor. The record up to the time of the receipt of the
remittance is held in the envelope in memorandum form. No ac-
counts receivable or customers’ accounts are kept, thus doing away
with the many adjusting and cross entries on account of allowances
and changes in consignees.

Objection may be raised to the omission of accounts receivable
from the ledger and the carrying of the charges in the form of memo-
randa. This method, however, would seem to be preferred on ac-
count of its simplicity. The time elapsing between the date of ship-
- ment and the date on which remittance is received is short and the
number of shipments unpaid at any time is relatively small, all of
which makes it an easy matter to locate any envelope in the unpaid
file when desired. By the use of the envelopes, the file of unpaid
cars is kept constantly before the office manager, whereas if ledger
accounts are kept, the old balances might be unnoticed until the end
of the month.

FIRST METHOD.

For organizations which do not handle growers’ supplies at all or
only in very limited quantities, the first method, under which no
ledger accounts with individual growers are kept, is recommended.
As explained under ‘‘ Account Sales” (p. 14), the duplicates of the
accounts sales rendered to the growers are filed in folders bearing the
names of the growers at the top, and from this file any information
in regard to payments made to growers can be obtained, thus elimi-
nating the necessity of posting all these items.

The plan of this method reduced to journal entries is as follows:

Cashe®. os sah eee Rete $700. 00
To-Mruitece cies. oo $700. 00

This entry is made when cash is entered on the Cash Receipts form
and extended in the Fruit column.

The next step is:

RUT ee Aa PAR he ae $68. 25
To Commission......-..--. $33. 25
broker -44-- eer: 3 a. bee 10. 00
Teing ete: : of -..--- — 1 420,00

This entry is made in the journal and credits the amount of com-
mission due the exchange, the amount of brokerage due the broker,
and the amount of initial icing due the ice company to the respective

accounts.

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 5

The final entry is:

Po Cash’... . eps $631.75

This is made when checks are drawn to the growers for the amount
of the net proceeds.

Should a balance exist in the ledger on account of supplies bought,
and should it be desired to deduct this amount from the account
sales, another journal entry is made to cover the transfer; viz:

for the amount of the debit balance shown on the particular growers’
account.
The plan of the second method is given on page 23.

BOOKS AND SPECIAL FORMS.

The following books and special forms are used in this system:
The receipt, manifest, bulletin, invoice, car envelope, account sales,
journal, cash receipts, cash disbursements, stub check book, and
ledger. Each of these is described at length under separate headings.

THE RECEIPT.

Upon delivery of fruit by the grower it is inspected and a receipt
(Form 1) is made out by the inspector or agent. This shows the
name of the shipping station, date, car initials and number, grower’s
name, quantity, grade and kind of fruit or produce, results of inspec-
tion, and inspector’s or agent’s name. It is made in duplicate; the
original is sent to the office and the duplicate is handed to the grower
for his record. At the office the receipts are checked against the
manifests to see that all the deliveries are accounted for properly.

FORM 1.

Tue RECEIPT.

Frankford Peal June 8, 1914
PRR car No. 105539
Received for shipment of
T. C. Iunford
20 cr. XXXX Gandys

THE EUREKA PrRopucE EXcHANGE, INC.,?

By A. L. SMITH, Agent.
No. 5. ie

1The crops handled by the exchange in which this system was tried out were strawberries, cantaloupes,
early pears, summer apples, and sweet potatoes in car lots. As these crops follow each other without over-
lapping, this simple form of receipt served the purpose better than a highly involved form.

2 This name is a fictitious one and used for illustrative purposes only.

6 BULLETIN 225, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

THE MANIFEST.

The manifest (Form 2) is written up by the agent as the car is
loaded, and shows the name of the station where loaded, date, car
initials and number, growers’ names and addresses, and contents,
segregated as to grades. It serves primarily as a manifest of the
contents of the car, but later the distribution of the returns received
for the shipment is made on this form, and the account sales are
written up from it. The total of the amounts to be distributed to
the growers, less the commission, must equal the ‘‘amount due
growers,” as shown on the car envelope (Form 5).

The receipts, manifest, and original and triplicate bills of lading
are sent to the office by the agent. When disposition has been made
of the car, the name and address of the consignee is placed on the
manifest and the shipment or envelope number is also inserted at

the top of the sheet.
FORM 2.

Tur MANIFEST.

THE EUREKA PRODUCE EXCHANGE, INC.

Aurora, Del.
Shipt. No, 49: _
Frankford Station, ene 8, 1914.
PRR Gar No,.108589 Consignee, H. C. Cannon & Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.
Gontenta: 250 cr. Strawberries.
Grade.
Shipper. P. Ovaddress:*? |= = Variety. Net.
XXXx| Xxx | xx
1 (Cy HART ORO oe on coonegsacopaeEeusos Frankford......... 20 Gandy........ 58.00
Wet EeEinckley. ese. tee soso ce oseeee Ontan ee. o Bees: 8 ae 21.60
B. Melto: Frankford......... 15 } Parson........ 22.50
J. Dagsboro.... 7 12. 60
F. Roxana........-.- ll « 18. 92
F. ‘“ 1 Gandy........ 2.70
L. Frankford......... 2 G 5. 40
M. 9 a 24. 30
R. Omar... 525 oes 43 J 124.70
nw 3 Rarsone-eeeeae 5.40
AMOS *BOlG See cite nS Gas anos ose Frankford........- 10 limax........ 18. 00
BY WASTONEER Se saeco cigc oe cas Scie tee nea se 16 Gandy........ 46. 40
Mrs. Helen Wise...................-..-- Oc 10 Helen Davis. 23. 00
Re a OAnOMer see e nace eee ete eae ae 81 andy=---coee 234.90
RiGs Cantonene couse Sasso skiem aie ce i 14 Parson......-- 4.08
Total........| 190 45 15 642.50

THE BULLETIN.

The bulletin (Form 3) is a record of orders received and sales made,
and is kept by the sales manager. As soon as acar is loaded, the sales
manager is advised by telephone and is given the car number, con-

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 7

tents, and whatever other information is desired. This advice is
placed on the bulletin, and, after the sale has been confirmed, for-
warding instructions are given. After a car has reached its detina-
tion and has been accepted by the consignee that portion of the
bulletin pertaining to the shipment is detached and filed in the car
envelope.

This form acts as a register of orders received and also as a con-
venient memorandum of shipments previous to the receipt of the
manifests, receipts, and bills of lading which are mailed to the office
by the agents and which consequently do not reach the office until
the following day.

FORM 3.

Tue BULLETIN.
Date, June 8, ’14.

Purchaser. Station. Package. Price. Remarks.
H. C. Cannon & Co. Frankford. 190 XX XX @ All bright red stock,
aS se pa al well packed.
Pitisburg, Pa. Car Number. EXXXK @
Route, Penna. P. R. R. 100659. | 15 xx @
Broker, Date Draft. @
Amount..... $
Purchaser. Station. ! Package. Price. Remarks.
Lawrence Com. Co. Dover. 179 XX XX @
Scranton, Pa. Car Number. 381 XXX @
Bente: L. V. 42689. |gxx @
Broker, Date Draft. @
Amount..... $
Purchaser. Station. Package. Price. Remarks.
Delmar. 102 XX XX @
Car Number. 85 XXX @
P. R. R. 102030. 53 XX @
Route,
Date Draft. @
Broker,
Amount..... $

THE INVOICE.

When the original receipts, manifest, and bills of lading reach the
office, an invoice (Form 4) is made out in duplicate, the original is
sent to the customer, and the duplicate retained for filmg. In case
a draft is made to cover the shipment the invoice is made in tripli-
cate and a copy is attached to the draft.

°88197—Bull. 225—15——2.

8 BULLETIN 225, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FORM 4.

Tue INVOICE.

THE EUREKA PRODUCE EXCHANGE, INC.,
PRODUCER’S AGENCY FOR
BERRIES, POTATOES, APPLES, PEARS, PEACHES, GRAPES, MELONS, CANTALOUPES, ETc.
Terms: Strictly cash. All goods sold f. o. b. our shipping points.

GENERAL OFFICES,
Aurora, Del., June 8, 1914.

Sold to H. C. Cannon & Co.,
Pittsburg, Pa.

180 Crates Strawberries (Gandy) @ $2.85...........-.-- $513. 00
70 me Ke (@ SISb eae eee ace 129. 50
Refrioeration: cea cep ers sost bs Sit wee ty: 25. 00

667. 50

Car, P. R. R. 105539.
Routed Penna.

THE CAR ENVELOPE.

All papers relating to the same shipment are filed in a car envelope
(Form 5). This includes the original growers’ receipts, duplicate
invoice, triplicate bill of lading, manifest, portion of bulletin, copies
of telegrams and correspondence, and all papers and data relating
to the shipment. On the envelope are shown the name of the ship-
ping station, date, shipment number, car initials and number, date
of invoice, name of consignee, destination, routing, diversion, second
destination, new routing, amount of refrigeration (initial icmg, where
charges do not follow the car) and date on which paid, contents,
broker’s name, date of draft, amount of draft, or amount of invoice
(if on open account), and remarks. It bears on its face a full record
of the shipment and contains all papers supporting these figures.

The envelope is placed in the “unpaid file” until remittance is
received, when it is taken from this file and the amount of the remit-
tance, date, and cash-book page is shown thereon under “ credits.” !
Entry is then made in the cash book showing the name of the remitter,
shipment and car number, and the amount of the remittance, which
is extended in the fruit column. The entry recording the receipt
of cash is the initial record of the shipment entering the books of
account, the envelope and papers contained serving as a memorandum
record up to this time.

After this the envelope is stamped “Paid,” and the amounts of
commission, brokerage, icing, etc., are entered thereon under
“debits.” The difference between the amount received and the
charges against the shipment is the “balance due growers,”’ which
is also shown under ‘ debits.”’ |

1 The use of the words “ debit”’ and “credit” in this connection is arbitrary. The returns received from

the shipments are called credits and the charges against these receipts are called debits, the balance repre-
senting the amount standing to the growers’ credit.

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 9

A journal entry is next passed as follows:

Dr. Fruit.
Cr. Commission.
Icing (credit party furnishing initial ice).
Brokerage (credit broker).

Letters of remittance, account sales from commission houses,
requests for allowances and correspondence relating thereto are all
filed in the envelope. This envelope is a very satisfactory record
to place before a grower in case he desires further information regard-
ing one of his shipments, and is also a complete and comprehensive
record for the auditor.

FORM 5.

THe Car ENVELOPE.

Station Frankford Date June 8, 1914

Shipment No. 49
Car Initial PRE No. 105539
Bill Sent 6/8/14
Consignee H. C. Cannon & Co.,
Destination Pitisburgh, Pa. al =
Routing Penna. iS a
Diverted to < R
Destination QO, B
Routing. =
etmieerarionmecses sale. (02900. cote i Paid
Contents 160 X XXX 2 XXX Gandys
10XXXK MXXX 15 KXX Parson
10 X XXX Climar 10 X XXX Helen Davis
Sold by. TNA Nh ene inetd a i ean an
Amt. Invoice
Date Draft. Amt. Draft 667.50
Remarks Excellent stock
Date Paid. C. B. | Credits. Jnl. Debits.
6/25 24 667.50 || Commission......-.-..-.------- 15 32.12
IBTOKCLAL CL esis ele een sele ae
Ter petce Tesla ceo lnpaeae se ay) 15 25
DWE; PTOWETS onic oe cae seieeetls S| ee cette 610.38
CONG) REN Cs i ss rg SSI 667.60 A OYoy re Meenas eee a Ne hs 667.60

10 BULLETIN 225, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
THE JOURNAL.

An eight-column journal (Form 6) has been provided with the
following captions:

DEBIT. CREDIT.
Sundries. Sundries.
Fruit. Merchandise.
Merchandise. : Commission.
Fruit P. & L. Fruit P. & L.

The debit and credit Sundries columns are for all items other than
those for which columns have been provided.

The Fruit column on the debit side and the Commission column
on the credit side of the journal were introduced to accommodate
the journal entries covering charges for commission, icing, and
brokerage as shown in the explanation of the car envelope. All
items chargeable to Fruit account are extended in the Fruit column;
items of commission to be credited to Commission account in the
Commission column and items of icing and brokerage in the credit
Sundriescolumn. The advantage of the method of collecting these
items in columns and posting the total to the ledger, over that of
posting them in detail direct from the car envelope, is obvious.

All transactions involving the purchase and sale of merchandise are
journalized, the debit Merchandise column being used for purchases
and the credit Merchandise column for sales.

The debit and credit columns, Fruit P. & L. (Fruit Profit and
Loss), were introduced for the eee purpose of taking care of the
profits or losses sustained on fruit which is bought outright by the
association.!

1 Owing to certain local conditions and customs, the Exchange in which this system was tried out buys
some of the crops outright from the growers, while the others are handled on a commission basis. It may
also happen that some cars will contain both fruit bought and fruit to be handled on commission. By
opening this account to hold all items of profit and loss, the Fruit account is kept clear of these elements,
and the equilibrium of the two sides of the Fruit account will show that returns have been made in full
to the growers for all proceeds received for their shipments. A credit balance appearing on Fruit account
at the end of a month would indicate money received but for which no payments as yet had been made to
the shippers. This method also shows the profit made or loss sustained on each shipment bought outright.
Except where such a condition exists—that is, where the exchange handles shipments on some other than
a regular commission basis and an BeEREe of profit or loss arises—these columns will be found
superfluous.

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 11

FORM 6.
Brie JOURNAL.
Dr. Cr.
. Mer- Mer- a
pivit | chan- | Fruit. | S02 |L.¥. June 25, 1914. Tw, |) SUE S| cians |, Cont | sere
e "| dise - | dise. 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
|
10.00 | 400.00 | 300.00 | 345.50 Amount brought 425.50 | 320.00 | 296.00 14.00
forward.
57. 12 Fruit car P.R.R. +4855
Commission. ..--- 32.12
Eastern Ice Co... . 25.00
24. 00 26
Fruit car L.V. A355
Commission... - - -- 24.00
27
10.00 Bills Rec.
1A. BE DICKS e=: 522 10.00
Note at 6% due in 60
davs for 1913 account.
19.00 Fruit car P.R.R. 353257
Commission..........-- 19.00
10.00 | 400.00 | 400.12 | 355. 50 Sundries: {2s ao ss3 3 460.50 | 320.00 | 371.12 14.60
| 400. 12 Fruit.
Commission. .........-. 371. 12
400. 00 Merchandise..........- 320. 00
10. 00 Brutte cc Wee oe 14.00
1,165.62 1,165.62

1. Fruit P. & L. Debit Fruit Profit and Loss account at the end of month with the total of this column.

2. Merchandise. Debit Merchandise Purchases account with the total of this column.

3. Fruit. Debit Fruit account with the total of this column. ;

4,5. Sundries. Items appearing in these columns are posted individually during the month to the debit
or credit of the respective accounts.

6. Merchandise. Credit Merchandise Sales account with the total of this column.

7. Commission. Credit Commission account with the total of this column.

8. Fruit P. & L. Credit Fruit Profit and Loss account with the total of this column.

THE RECORD OF CASH.

Separate forms have been provided for the recording of cash
receipts and cash disbursements, as the ruling of the two forms is
different and in some months more of one form may be used than of
the other. This would be the case particularly if the stub check
book should be discarded, the cash disbursement sheets used as a
check register, and all checks registered thereon, instead of being
written up on the check stubs and then entered in the cash book.
Owing to the comparatively small number of checks issued during the
slack season, the use of the stub check book seems preferable to the
other method. The method used in this system is further explained
under ‘‘Cash Disbursements,’’ page 12.

Since the functions of the cash book are to record in detail the
receipts and disbursements of cash and to show at any time the
balance of cash on hand, the forms have been so devised as to lessen
as far as possible the work of posting, at the same time analyzing the
receipts and expenditures and disclosing the balance of cash on hand.

12 BULLETIN 225, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

All receipts are deposited daily, and all disbursements are made by
check. When it is necessary to carry on hand a petty cash fund this
should be done on the Imprest System described in U. S. Department
of Agriculture Bulletin 178, ‘‘Cooperative Organization Business
Methods.”

Cash receipts —The form of cash receipts (Form 7) corresponds to
the left-hand side of the ordinary cash book. Columns have been
provided for Sundries, Fruit, and Merchandise. All remittances
received on account of shipments of fruit are extended in the Fruit
column. Merchandise cash sales are extended in the Merchandise
column.

A column for deposits has been provided in order to show the
amount of the daily deposits, so that they can be checked against the
entries appearing in the bank pass book.

FORM 7.

CASH RECEIPTS.

? Mer-
Sun- . Bank de-
: N 5 5 L. F. . Fruit. | chan- =
Date ame Items Ges. ree posits.
1 2 3 4
Amount brought 480.00 |3,005.35 | 60.00] 3,545.35
1914. forward.
June 25 | H.C. Cannon & Co...... Car 49 P. R. R. 105539... . 667. 50
AG IBE TOMES Eos saenen soe Onvaccount= 2 eosse- oe 60. 00
Cruxton Produce Co..... Car 53 LS&MS 40698. ... | 745. 00
Cash Sales.............-1 | 3.00} 1,475.50
26 | Bills Receivable......... AV iON Pa \.. seeeos sae | 41.00
30} Hi De JOnesteeesneeeeaene Invoice 4/10..........--. 20. 00 61.00
601.00 |4,417.85} 63.00} 5,081.85
rite eres eee ae 4,417. 85
Merchandise.......-.-.. 63.00
5, 081. 85 5,081. 85

1. Sundries. Items appearing in this column are posted in detail during the month to the credit of the
respective accounts.

2. Fruit. Credit Fruit account with total of this column.

3. Merchandise. Credit Merchandise Sales account with total of this column representing cash sales of
merchandise.

4. Deposits. The total of this column, less balance carried forward from preceding month, must equal the
total of the three columns, Sundries, Fruit, and Merchandise. This shows that all amounts received have
been deposited in the bank, and a comparison can easily be made between the amounts as shown to have
been deposited in the bank book and the amounts which should have been deposited according to the
cash book, thus providing another check on the cash.

Cash disbursements.—The cash disbursements form (Form 8) cor-
responds to the right-hand side of the ordinary cash book. Two sets
of checks are used. The first Check Number column and the Fruit
column are used for the recording of all checks issued to the growers
in payment of the net proceeds of fruit shipped. The second Check
Number column and the Sundries column are used for all other items.
Two more columns have been provided which may be used for other

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 13

accounts which may have a number of charges during the month,
such as Expense. The only difference in the two sets of checks lies
in numbering the growers’ checks beginning with ‘‘1”’ and the general
checks with, say, ‘‘20001,”’ but few of which will be required. The
checks (Form 10) are all bound in the usual commercial form of stub
check book with three checks to the sheet.

FORM 10.
Do not detach. THE EUREKA PRODUCE
No. 4007 For payment as memo. below. EXCHANGE, INC.
JUNE 25, 1914. No. 4007.

T. C. LUNFORD, AURORA, DELAWARE, June 26, 1914.

Statement, June 25. -.| $58.00

Car 49 PRR 105539 Pay to theorder of T.C. Lunford. $58.00
Tesseh mae se % Fifty-eight and no/100......-..... dollars
Chargeace’t of Fruit. THE EUREKA PRODUCE EXCHANGE, INC.
To the FARMERS NATIONAL BANK,
$58.00 58.00 |! Proper indorsement is receipt Aurora, Del.
for the above amount. A. K. MELTON, Treasurer.

As explained under ‘‘ Account Sales”’ (p. 14), the checks are written
up from the accounts sales and the entry is made on the cash book in
total instead of in detail, thus:

Growers Statements. CarFGE 129 2066

22240 | to 2078 | 405 00

All checks drawn in the second check book are entered in detaii
on the cash disbursement sheet.

The balance brought forward from the preceding month is entered
in the Deposit column.

The balance in bank at any time is the difference between the
Deposit column on the cash receipts side and the total of the Fruit and
the Sundries columns on the cash disbursements side.?

Reconciliation of the bank account should be made at the end of
each month, the list of outstanding checks being written on the cash
disbursement sheet, or an adding-machine list pasted thereon so that
it will not be lost.

1Jt is often desired by the Directorate and in many instances specified by the by-laws that certain distinc-
tions be made between checks covering payments to growers and those covering expenses and other items.
Two sets of checks were used by the Exchange in which this system was tried out, so that there would be
no interruption of the work should it be desired while drawing a large number of checks in favor of growers
to draw a check for some other purpose.

3 If it is desired to carry on the ledger an account with cash, showing the monthly receipts and disburse-
ments, this can be easily done. The total of the Sundries, Fruit, and Merchandise columns on the cash
receipt’s side will represent the total receipts, and the total of the Fruit and Sundries columns on the cash
disbursement’s side, the total disbursements.

14 BULLETIN 225, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

FORM 8.

CASH DISBURSEMENTS,

Check Check | Sun-
Date. Name. Items. L.F. N Fruit Note | ‘deus
1 2
1914. Brought forward. .|/s-5 ec lsec esses 2, 840. 58 326. 42
June 25 | Fruit Statements....... Car PRR y342e5-------- A rth 610. 38
0 401
26 | S. B. Larkin & Co...... Invoice 5/28.........---- 20043 76. 80
27 | A. B. Dickson.........-. Cc POee steer ane 3. 00
28 | Fruit Statements....... (CESE IVE Vg oe ae , he 416. 30
ta)
29 | Eastern Ice Co........- Teing PRR y,3455------- 5 25. 00
30 | Buston & Co........... O/c on car aie or-
Fruit P&L............ 6 5. 30
30 | Fruit Statements....... Car PRE. pas SS eee 4023 326. 40
to 4031
RVG S252 ey eee eee 4, 193. 66 436. 52
Sundries: ... 2.252625... 436. 52
4, 630. 18
Cash balance............ 451. 67
5, 081. 85

1. Fruit. DebitFruitaccount with the totalofthis column.
2. Sundries. Items appearing in this column are posted in detail to the debit of the respective accounts.

THE ACCOUNT SALES.

Each car lot is usually made up of the combined deliveries of several
growers. In order to keep a full and complete record of the distribu-
tion of the proceeds among the shippers, the extensions are made on
the manifest where a column has been provided for that purpose.
The amount received for the shipment less charges, such as brokerage,
icing, etc. (except commission), represents the proceeds received by
the association. In writing up the account sales, it is desirable to
show to the grower the amount received for the shipment and the
deduction made by the association for its commission. For conven-
ience in writing them up, therefore, the extensions are made on the
above basis instead of on a basis of actual net to be paid the grower.

The account sales (Form 9) are written up in duplicate from the
manifests after the extensions have been made. When these are
completed, the gross amounts, commission and net amounts are
totaled in order to prove the work and to establish the agreement of
the total of the net amounts due growers, as shown by the account
sales, with the balance due growers appearing on the envelope.
Checks are then written for the net amounts shown on the account
sales, and these are totaled in order to prove the accuracy of the work.
This total is also used for the entry on the cash book as explained
under ‘‘Cash Disbursements,’ page 13. The original account sales
are mailed out with the checks, and the duplicates are filed in a
vertical correspondence file containing a separate folder for each
grower. These folders are arranged in alphabetical order.

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 15

FORM 9.

ACCOUNT OF SALE,

THE EUREKA PRODUCE EXCHANGE, INC.
Avrora, DeEt., June 25, 1914.
Sold for account of

T. C. Lunrorp, Frankford, Del.

Frankford Station. Check No. 4007.
ee ae Grade. Description. Price. Amount.
6/8 IAs SNONOXENG i Gramdiy si seepage see ae $2.90 | $58.00
ob i ah Comision he lg eel 2.90
Net proceed st Sis eae Ete yey 55. 10
LEDGER.

No special ruling is required for the ledger leaves, but the usual
stock form is used. The advantages of loose-leaf ledgers over the
bound are obvious, and, judging from the manner in which they
have superseded the bound books in the business world, it seems
hardly necessary to enumerate these advantages here.

It seems fitting, however, to sound a note of warning regarding the
misuse of the loose-leaf ledger. Under the loose-leaf system a
separate leaf is required for each account. The cost of the leaf is so
small that there is no reason why an individual leaf should not be
given to each customer, no matter what the size of the account may be.
To try to economize by using each side of the sheet for a different
account or by placing several accounts on one sheet serves only to
defeat in a large measure the advantages to be gained by the use of
the loose-leaf ledger.

OPENING THE BOOKS.

In opening the books to be kept by the double-entry method for a
newly formed organization, the only asset invested is cash received
from stock subscription or membership fees, and there are generally
no liabilities. An entry in detail is made in the cash book showing
the names of the members and the amounts paid in. The total of
these amounts is credited to the Capital Stock account. The balance
of the Capital Stock account at all times should represent the par
value of shares fully paid up.

If payment for the stock is not made in full, but on the installment
plan, it becomes necessary to open two more accounts in the ledger:
Stock Subscription and Subscribed Stock. The Stock Subscription

16 BULLETIN 225, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

account is debited with the amount of subscriptions for capital stock
sold on the installment plan and is credited with all amounts received
as partial payment on such subscriptions. The debit balance appear-
ing on the account represents the amount due and unpaid on sub-
scriptions for stock sold in this way. In making the first entry, the
Stock Subscription account is debited for the amount of stock sub-
scribed to be paid on the installment plan, and the Subscribed Stock
account is credited for this amount. The credit balance appearing
on this account represents the total amount of stock subscribed but
not fully paid for. As fast as the subscriptions are fully paid up,
entries are made debiting the Subscribed Stock account and crediting
the Capital Stock account.

This information is here inserted merely to show the correct method
of recording the sale of stock to be paid for in installments, and not as
a plan of financing the organization. This method of procedure and
also that of charging the amount of the stock to the growers’ accounts
to be deducted from the net proceeds obtained for fruit shipped,
may work.well in some instances, but is usually productive of dis-
satisfaction on the part of those who have met their obligations faith-
fully because those who have contributed but a portion of the amount
subscribed claim and enjoy full rights and benefits.

All future entries are records of actual transactions, and the proper
accounts are opened in the ledger as required.

In changing from a set of single-entry books to a double-entry, or
reopening a set of double-entry books preparatory to installing this
system, the financial position of the exchange should be determined
by making up a statement of assets and liabilities, showing on one
side the assets and on the other side the liabilities and capital invested.
This statement should be made up in the following form:

ASSETS.

Cashvimebamke eo 0h ah CPN sree NR ar A Doe $1, 000. 00
Cash torial Me LUC Ny ORs BREE a Ay Ss aap 500. 00

$1, 500. 00
Billaime cetyalnles set aes Heh Canina eo Ma eae ta 500. 00
Accounts meceivalolerss 9220 Gia irs MNS IENE 8 So CURR ios Sara eee 500. 00
Merchandise inventory 22385) ate 2a oe a Ei es 1, 950. 00
Office'furniture/and fixtures:2. 22 42 ees SAS: 6 Sees 800. 00
UBB ch bayedste sti al We Was playa Se Hat aM ere rs as ci Rd: PRSRRAR gr al ar 5, 000. 00
A RAreCaH] ETCCLST IED ICS) ss eats AeA ae Cae et Sh SN Seger, Seer 2, 000. 00

LIABILITIES AND CAPITAL.

Mecounts payabler! 12 ieee hee Ge SOMES. ee TER ERR: Sere eae $1, 500. 06
Billsspayalblets 2155): Epes ie ee ea PAeae met. «la Wye Sa mnie ern, Bere 2, 000. 00
Carp itallisto chee nt eo as | eee RE A AR hae a A Raa a 8, 500. 00
Balance protig) ie Oaks Ses epi Wete rs ie acy OMe el. ee veel eta ee 250. 00

12, 250.00 12, 250. 00

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 17

The excess of assets over liabilities and capital will be shown in the
statement on the credit side under the caption ‘‘Surplus.’’ The
excess of liabilities and capital over the assets, however, indicates the
reverse of the above condition; namely, that a deficit exists. This
amount will be shown in the statement on the debit side under the
caption ‘‘ Deficit.’’!

The statement of assets and liabilities is transferred to the journal
and forms the opening entry displaying the financial position of the
business—that is, the assets, liabilities, and capital.

WHAT ACCOUNTS TO KEEP.

The following accounts are usually needed in an organization of this
kind. Further nominal accounts may be found necessary and can
be opened as desired, but in the main the list here given will be found
sufficiently comprehensive to cover all needs.

Capital stock.—The credit balance appearing on this account meas-
ures the amount of stock fully paid up, for which certificates of stock
are issued and outstanding.

Land.—The debit balance appearing on this account measures the
cost of the land owned by the organization.

Building.—The debit balance appearimg on this account measures
the cost of the building. If the organization owns more than one
building, it will be found preferable to carry a separate account with
each building.

Office equipment—The debit balance on this account measures the
cost of all office furniture and equipment on hand. This includes all
the heavier articles, but does not include the smaller, such as ink wells,
pencils, daters, etc., which have to be renewed frequently. These
should be charged to expense direct, under the distribution of office
supplies.

Fiztures.—The debit balance on this account measures the cost of
warehouse and platform fixtures on hand, such as shelving, counter
scales, and trucks.

Cash.—Many bookkeepers do not carry a cash account in the
ledger, but in taking a trial balance refer back to the cash book for
the balance of cash on hand. Others transfer the balance as per cash
book to the cash account in the ledger, ruling this account off arbi-
trarily at the end of the month. It is often desirable to show at a
glance the total receipts and total disbursements for each month in
order to make comparisons. The cash account in the ledger is there-

1 Deficit is not an asset and should it be necessary to display me fact on a statement for distribution among
the members, this item either should be shown in red ink on the credit side of the statement in the same
position as Surplus, or it should be deducted from Capital Stock in order to show the impairment of capital.

It would be shown in the above statement on the asset side, as this statement is the basis of the opening
entry made in the journal.

18 BULLETIN 225, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fore debited with the balance as shown by the cash book when the
account is being started, is debited with the total receipts at the end
of the month, and is credited with the total disbursements. The
balance of the account will therefore agree with the balance as shown
by the cash book at the end of the month.

Bills recewable-—The debit balance on this account represents the
face value of the notes received from others.

Bills payable.—The credit balance on this account represents the
total of notes due to others.

Accounts recewable-——As explained in ‘‘Memorandum Records’’
(p. 2), no accounts receivable are carried on the ledger with the_
parties to whom the shipments of fruit are made. The car envelopes,
like other financial records of the business, should be guarded care-
fully against loss by theft or fire and should be placed in the vault or
safe at night, at least until returns for the shipments have been made
to the growers, after which time they can be filed in document files.

It sometimes happens that a number of cars of fruit will be stored
with a wholesaler, to be sold as needed by the trade at prevailing
market prices. Payments for sales made in this manner are usually
made on the basis of the lots of fruit sold instead of individual cars,
in which case it might be found advisable to open an account on the
ledger in the name of the wholesaler and to charge up the invoices
covering the shipments. This is done by journal entry, debiting the
customer’s account and crediting the Fruit account. The part pay-
ments are then credited to the customer’s account as they are
received.

In the smaller exchanges growers’ supplies are sold in but limited
quantities, and usually on a basis of thirty days’ credit. Ledger
accounts, therefore, need be kept only with the growers purchasing
supplies on credit.

Information as to credits to a particular grower for fruit sold for
him can be taken from the account sales filed in the folder under his
name, as described under the heading ‘‘The Account Sales,’’ page 14.
The copies of the account sales also show the number of the check sent
to the grower in case it is desired to trace the payment further. Asa
rule, there will be but few instances where it will be found necessary
to deduct a debit balance appearing on a grower’s account from the
account sales to be rendered to him. Should this be necessary, a
journal entry is passed, charging fruit and crediting the grower’s
account for the amount, which is then subtracted from the account
sales and a check written for the balance.

Accounts payable.—Individual accounts should be kept with cred-
itors, the credit balance appearing on the account measuring the
amount due each creditor.

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 19

Inventory.—The debit balance appearing on this account measures
the cost of goods on hand at the beginning of the fiscal year.

Merchandise—The Merchandise account is divided into two
accounts: Merchandise Purchases and Merchandise Sales.

Merchandise purchases.—This account is debited with the cost of
the merchandise and freight on the same. It is credited with the
cost of goods returned by the organization. The debit balance appear-
ing on this account represents the cost of merchandise purchased.

Merchandise sales——This account is credited with the total sales
and is debited with the total amount of goods returned by customers.
The credit balance of the account measures the total net sales.

Trading account.—This account is a subdivision of the profit and
loss account and is used only when the books are being closed. It
shows how the gross profit on sales is arrived at. The use of this
account is more fully explained under the heading ‘Closing the
Books”’ (page 20).

Fruit.—An account is opened under the captions of “Fruit ’’ or
“Produce,” according to the product handled. This account is
credited with the remittances received for the shipments and charged
with the gross amounts paid to the growers—that is, the net plus
commission. The two sides of this account should balance at the
end of the season, showing that full returns have been made to the
growe!ls.

Fruat profit and loss—An account under the caption ‘Fruit Profit
and Loss,” or ‘Produce Profit and Loss” is carried only when a
portion of the products are bought outright from the growers instead
of all being handled on a strictly commission basis. This is explained
in detail under the description of the journal (page 10). This account
measures the profit made or loss sustained on products bought from
the growers.

Commission.—The credit balance appearing on this account will be
the amount of the commission earned.

Expense.'—To this account are debited all disbursements on account
of expense. The account can be further subdivided into salaries,
rent, insurance, etc., but in a small business it is perhaps just as
practical to have the one expense account showing the distribution
of the various items in the explanation column on the ledger. At the
end of the year, the account is analyzed and a statement made up
showing the distribution of the items under various subheadings.
If a large amount of office supplies and stamps is carried over at the
end of the year, it should be taken into consideration in order to
arrive at the true profit or loss.

1A method for segregating expense items by means of an expense distribution book is explained in U. S.

Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 178—“‘ Cooperative Organization Business Methods.” This will
be found a much shorter and preferable method for the larger organizations than the one here given.

20 BULLETIN 225, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Interest and discount.—This account is debited with interest paid
on notes payable and credited with interest received on notes receiv-
able. It is debited with cash discounts allowed and credited with
cash discounts received.

Reserve for depreciation.—Provision for setting up a reserve for
depreciation on buildings, office equipment, and fixtures is made
by charging the Profit and Loss account and crediting the proper
reserve accounts under the caption of ‘‘ Reserve for Depreciation of
Buildings,”’ etc. This is more fully explained in U. S. Department
of Agriculture Bulletin No. 178, “Cooperative Organization Business
Methods.” :

Reserve for bad debts.—At the close of the year, a certain amount
is set aside out of the profits to cover the estimated loss on bad
accounts. The balances of the accounts found to be uncollectible
are then charged to this account. The credit balance on this account
measures the available amount reserved from profits to offset losses
from bad accounts and should not be shown on the balance sheet on the
credit side as a lability but should appear on the asset side as a
deduction from the total amount due from customers.

Profit and loss.—This account is debited at the close of the year
with the balance of all expense accounts and other nominal accounts—
that is, accounts containing profit and loss elements—showing a
debit balance. It is credited with the gross profit from the trading
account and with the balances of any nominal accounts showing
credit balances. The credit balance resulting on this account rep-
resents the net profit from operations during the year and should be
transferred to the Surplus account. If a debit balance results, it is a
deficit and should be charged against the balance appearing on the
Surplus account. If no surplus has been created, the deficit should
be charged to Deficit account.

Surplus.—This account is credited at the close of the year with
the net profit as shown by the Profit and Loss account. It is debited
with the amount of dividend declared, at which time the Dividend
account is credited. The credit balance of the account then repre-
sents the undivided profits.

Dividend.—This account is credited when dividends are declared
by the board of directors and the Surplus account is debited. The
account is then debited with the total of the dividend paid.

CLOSING THE BOOKS.

An inventory of merchandise on hand is made at the end of the
year. This is a schedule or list of the goods on hand, with values
extended at cost prices. After all extensions have been made, these
are totaled. The extensions and additions should then be verified
so as to establish the accuracy of the work. If a Merchandise

{

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE. ASSOCIATIONS. 21

account has been kept, the amount of the inventory is carried into
the accounts by the following entry:
Inventory....---.-- $1, 000. 00
To Merchandise.-....-..- $1, 000. 00
The balance then appearing on the Merchandise account—that is,
the total of sales and inventory at the end of the year, less the total
of purchases and inventory at the beginning of the year—represents
the gross profit on merchandise, or if there is a debit balance on the
account, it represents the gross loss on merchandise. If a profit has
been made on the Merchandise account, the balance is transferred to
the Profit and Loss account by a journal entry as follows:
Merchandise...........- $500. 00
To Profit and Loss........- $500. 00

Tf a loss was sustained the entry is:

To Merchandise....-.-.-.-- $500. 00
After the entry is made which carries the balance on the Merchan-
dise account to the Profit and Loss account, the Merchandise account
will appear as follows:

MERCHANDISE ACCOUNT.

Pumelases 20. 22007202 028 228 $0; O00! OOM MSallegss 73/9. ae Pe: $5, 000. 00
Profit and Loss.....-.--------- O00. DOM bmventony be 4s) ceed ss Ss 1, 000. 00
. 6,000. 00 6, 000. 00

After the books are closed, another journal entry is made charging
the Merchandise account for the next year with the amount of the
inventory and crediting that account.

The above method is given for the reason that in some organiza-
tions the amount of merchandise handled is so small that, in the
opinion of the bookkeepers operating the books, the additional work
entailed in separating merchandise purchases and sales would hardly
be warranted.

Instead of keeping a Merchandise account it would be much better
to keep two accounts: Merchandise Purchases and Merchandise
Sales. The amount of the inventory is allowed to stand in the
Inventory account throughout the year and another account—the
Trading Account—is raised at the time of closing the books. By
the use of these accounts, the Inventory account would show the
amount of goods on hand at the beginning of the fiscal year; the
Purchases account, the cost of goods purchased; and the Sales
account, the sales for the year.

In closing the books, the Inventory account would be credited and
the Trading Account debited for the amount of the inventory carried
over from the previous period; the Purchases account credited and
the Trading Account debited for the total purchases; the Sales
account debited and the Trading Account credited for total sales,

22 BULLETIN 225, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

To bring the new inventory into the accounts the Inventory account
is debited and the Trading Account credited for goods on hand at
the close of the period. A credit balance appearing on the Trading
Account would then measure the gross profit from merchandise and a
debit balance would measure the gross loss. This balance is trans-
ferred to the Profit and Loss account by a journal entry. When
these entries have been made, the Trading Account will appear as

follows:
TRADING ACCOUNT.

Inventory as at beginning of ALO S es ciate alse Merge errs nee $15, 000. 00
VGA se hte Sa ae ei $3, 000. 00 | Inventory asat close of year.. 2,000. 00
IPubehases. secs ssc n ates 13, 000. 00
Profit and Loss....-..-..--.--- 1, 000. 90
17, 000. 00 17, 000. 00

While apparently there is little difference between the Trading
Account and the Merchandise account as previously shown, it will
be understood that the purchases and sales are shown in the copy of ~
the Merchandise account in total for illustrative purposes only, and
they do not appear in this form in actual operation. The Trading
Account, however, shows in total the component elements which
make up the gross profit on sales, so that it can be viewed as a whole.

To close the nominal accounts, that is, the accounts containing
profit and loss elements, into the Profit and Loss account, two
journal entries are made: The first for all expense accounts and
other nominal accounts showing debit balances, and the second for all
nominal accounts showing credit balances. The first of the entries
is as follows:

Profit and Loss...... $4, 300. 00
To Expense............- $4, 000. 00
Interests: js oec8 2 200. 00

Reserve for deprecia-
tion of building. ... 100. 00

The second entry is as follows:

Fruit Profit and Loss. $300. 00
Commission. ........ 5, 000. 00
To Profit and Loss....... $5, 300. 00

When all entries are posted to the Profit and Loss account this
account will appear as follows:

Prorit AND Loss AccouNT.

Expense..........-.-----.---- $4, 000.00 | Fruit Profit and Loss.........- - $300. 00
Tmterest isa. Geo sees oon) aoe a 200. 00 | Commission........-.-...---.-- 5, 000. 00
Reserve for depreciation of
pusldine soa eld: 100. 00
Balance, net profit.........-- 1, 000. 00
5, 300. 00 5, 300. 00

Balancese ee Secs i scene 1, 000. 00

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 23

The balance of $1,000 is then credited to the Surplus account. All
closing entries should be made through the journal and not arbi-
trarily on the face of the ledger. It will be found advisable to list
all items of profit and loss on the Profit and Loss account instead of
showing these in total according to the journal entry. This will
preclude the necessity of turning back to the journal each time it is
desired to know the details of the items appearing in the Profit and
Loss account.

After all closmg entries have been made, a post-closing trial balance
should be taken to test the accuracy of the work. This schedule
will be found valuable in preparing the balance sheet. A full expla-
nation of the preparation of the annual statement will be found in
U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 178, ‘Cooperative
Organization Business Methods.”

SECOND METHOD.

Tt will be seen that the method first given does not provide for any
growers’ accounts except for the sale of supplies. The second method
contemplates the opening of ledger accounts for all growers. These
present a complete record of the transactions with each individual
grower. This method should be used in organizations where the
supply business has been fully developed, and charges should be
made at frequent intervals throughout the year to the growers’
accounts.

After the remittance covering the shipment has been received and
credited on the cash book and it is desired to make payment to the
growers, the distribution of the proceeds is made on the manifest as
in the previous method shown. The account sales are written up,
and a journal entry is made as follows:

Bravia see 7th capes $600. 00
Tovorowers! eee ee thee $536. 75
commMission............ 28. 25
bro ker™ ge aay 10. 00
LOU OES. 5. (aaa Se ea 25. 00

If each car is made up of the combined shipments of but two or
three growers, the name of each grower should be shown in the above
entry with the amount of the credit opposite. If, however, the cars
are made up of the shipments of many growers, the total credited
to the growers’ accounts should be shown in the journal entry, and
the posting of the individual items should be made from the account
sales to the ledger accounts. Should it be necessary to look up the
details of this entry, the car number will give the reference to the
information desired. Duplicate copies of the account sales are filed
in folders under the growers’ names, as explained under the first
method.

24 BULLETIN 225, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
CASH DISBURSEMENTS.

Another form of cash disbursements sheet (Form 8a) is here given,
showing the ruling when but one set of checks is used. This form
can be used as a check register, all checks being entered direct
thereon without first being written up in the stub check book. The
checks are numbered and put up in pads instead of in the usual stub
check-book form, and, as the numbers follow consecutively on the
register, each numbered check must be accounted for.

FORM 8A.

CASH DISBURSEMENTS.

Grow-
& Check ee Sun-
Date. Name. Items. L. F. | ers’ ac- .
No. of check. aaTENS. dries.
Amount brought |......-.-- 3,540. 22 |....-. 3,200.22 | 340.00
1914. forward.
June 25 | T.C. Lunford....--.--.-. Fr. Sta’t. PRR i 28s5 4,007 58. 00
W.H. Hinckley..-...-- 5 GG 8 60. 00
B. D. Milton......-.-.. UG CY 9 43. 62
h;, AvBarmmetts. 2 20. 4... Go eryiae 10 243.80 . | 405. 42
26 | A. % Thomas........-- Expense—Cartage....-..- il 3.10 3.10
27 | Marion Seed Co...-...-- On Account.........-.- 12 100. 00 100. 00.
30 | N. K. Nelson.....--.--- Frt. Sta’t. LV 7485 13 36. 80
A.L. Watson......---- ot 14 1.50
Mrs. B. Oliver.......--- 6G GG 15 10. 62
TBA OSSiPE SRE esas ee CG et 16 3.56
Arthur Burton......--- Ge 04 17 80. 90 133.38
Pay ROUs ease he er for month—Salaries..... 18 to 21 375. 00 375. 00
4 557012 [oreo 3,739.02} 818.10
Cash balance.........-..-|---.------ 342. 00

4, 899. 12

EXPRESS SHIPMENTS.

Small shipments by express, consisting of goods sent out on con-
signment, are handled in the same manner as carload shipments, but
a separate file is provided for filing the envelopes. Instead of using
a different form of envelope for the consignments, the regular form
of car envelopes can be used and the words ‘‘express consignment”
stamped on the face of the envelope so that the two files may be
distinguished easily.

TRIAL BALANCE.

A trial balance should be taken off the books monthly. This
tests the correctness of the postings and demonstrates the agreement
of the two sides of the ledger. It also gives the manager and the
board of directors a view of the balances appearing on the ledger
accounts, which information will be found very valuable in the con-
duct of the business. To obtain the same information from the
ledger without the aid of such a schedule, the manager would be
obliged to page through the ledger, and this method would not
afford the comparisons with previous months that the monthly trial —

SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING FOR COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 25

balances would furnish. A further discussion of this subject and the
necessity therefor will be found in U. S. Department of Agriculture
Bulletin No. 178, ‘‘Cooperative Organization Business Methods.”

BINDERS.

Of the three forms—journal, cash receipts, and cash disburse-
ments—that of the journal is the largest, measuring 16 (binding side)
by 14 inches. The other two forms measure 16 by 13 inches and 16
by 13% inches, respectively. All of these forms therefore fit in a 16
by 14 inch stock form of binder. There are many different makes of
sectional post binders on the market, both end and top locking, the
price of these ranging from $3 to $9, according to the binding. © Sec-
tional post transfer binders in full canvas without the lock but with
knurled nuts to fasten the binder cost from $2 to $4. These binders
are made with three-eighths inch, also five-sixteenths inch posts,
which are 112 inches from center to center.

CONCLUSION.

Cooperative organizations desiring to install this system can pro-
cure printers’ copies of the accounting forms upon request to the
Chief of the Office of Markets and Rural Organization. The office
will be glad to.give whatever information is desired for the installa-
tion and operation of the system. In fact, it is desired to make this
branch of the work as specifically helpful as possible in solving the
many accounting problems of cooperative and farmers’ organiza-
tions marketing agricultural products, and to aid in introducing the
most modern methods of accounting, auditing, financing, and busi-
ness practices. In this way it is hoped that help will be given to
these organizations which will bring them to their highest efficiency
in the marketing and distribution of farm products.

All correspondence should be addressed to the Chief, Office of
Markets and Rural Organization, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

ADDITIONAL COPIES

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
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GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT

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